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'\r.. .■I % i Is ^/ J >^ \m A NEW AND COMPLETE SYSTEM G UNIVERSAL EOGRAPHY- OR, ■*■ 5 AN AUTHENTIC HBTORV AND INTEamiNG DESCHIPTION OF THE *«v»X'* AND ITS INHABITANTS. ComprehendiDK a coploiu sDd eotertalnin. i HMPXHES. KINOOOMS. STA^ KBP^bucTaND C0U,KXES OCEANS, CONTINENTS, ISLANDS, PROMONTOnipc padpc » LAKES, RIVERS, CK^^'sZ^O^^U^O^^^^^^^^l^^^^ Ad exact Account of the Population. Milirarv >nrf ri.ii n • "™'"" With hithrul Aceognb of til tba " iiu rutbrul Aceognb of til tba NEW DISCOYERIES, 'I'd Navigator, of varhu. Nation.. /l-,™r,..., . ' ^^'"""i>"">'aZ '"""' ^^*""'"'' Tabl«. and a new Set of accurate Maw, formiog u ^ ORNAMENTAL AND COMPLETE ATLAS. PRINTED FOR THOMAS KELLY, No. 63, PATERNOSTER.ROW, Bj/ Wbbo tmd RiMn,U UU Britam. 1818. J d h n g' P' al cs ta in hf he to on pe do an( bu su< the tan hin tio! bet its anc fori pro Ad{ exci ali \ ran] am[ PREFACE- 1 HE utility and importance of Geography Lave been frequently discussed, and satisfactorily demonstrated; and the flattering reception given to works of merit, on thi subject hasted highly creditable to the taste and discrimination of the British public. It is, however comT ratively, of recent date that this science has assumed a form sufficiently invi^'T^Z^ general attention, and to procure a ready admission into the ladv's liLrv Z / '""P*'"^*!^ parlour, and the peaceful retirement of thJsequestered cottage tr:^;^lTe:X:rZ: another blanches of literature, to the academic shade; and the method by wl.^^h1rwas incul cated rendered it dry and tedious: But, since men have made it their bus^nl to bW 1, tainmentwith study, and to gratify a laudable curiosity, whilst thev 0^X11 .^^'"'^/"*r instruction, it has burst forth with such effulgence JdmM vJ^T F" ""'"''''^'' beauties in itself, that whoever possesses the melnTn^^^^^ **"' '*^'"*^^' ^« "^^"^ he inhabits, and'the innume Xo; 1 '^^^^^^^^^^ f^ *»>« -rid which U>asubject comprising within itself a po^ron of unrr^J^^^^^^^^ once with a compendious library. -mversal literature, and presenting him at Interesting matter and variety of subject are almost insepamble from a modem system of Geo- dom, state, republic, and colony ^t^JZlZl I ^ "^"' """' ^"7 '"*'«■• ^ing- a„d .he island' of ri arLTn.tefXl J-T ^" «"> '';"°"«»-'» of the earft becomes acquainted with ihe persons habilTT/ r ■ T '""'' "' *'"' "°'''''- •■» its inhabilanU^-theirgovernZ? ,;*„!,'' T ' T"' '""'' ""■""""• ""O ™^'»"'». of andcoouneree, afforf L, Z^l^"^ m IS„"7;' """ TT 7""'"""^^ form no inconsiderable part of L intellectual X^ " "'"""'' '^''^'^ Adam is interested in if and Mr P-.^ l ^ '''■,^'"^> "■»' " »™'-J' «>n and daughter of excused for his i^no^^e in. histiet'"».tMr.ro„t „?-.-."" '"^"T T'^" '"' "^ ali *nnnbi«^." ■*' i. , " " ^ °^^ •^""'' ^""ics Under the canacitv of ^ n r^toriptr :r.r ■ ""f:' '"" ^''"'i>-°- <""'™"'*^. •>, p»p.eS2; ^^im uescription, from the pnnce to the peasant. Here the vounir and the ^L «,o « j a-ple store of amu.men.. „hils. .h. aged au'd .he studious .i/Z^rl^lZZiyt PREFACE. tracing circumstances and events which time had nearly obliterated from the tablet of their minds. In these illustrative pages, the naturalist and the philosopher will meet with objects peculiarly suited to their respective tastes;— the historian will become intimately acquainted with the extent and boundanes of the countries whose vicissitudes he is recording ;--the politician may acquire a complete knowledge of the various forms of government subsisting in the world {--military and naval officers will become familiar with the fields on which they may hereafter have an opportu- nity of gathering unfading laurels, and with the seas or rivers which, on some future occasion may add to the brilliant victories of British Seamen. The merchant and trader will also profit by the information which is here to be gained respecting the commerce, manufactures, and th6 natural productions and commodities of all nations ; and the moralist will learn " to look through nature up to nature's God," and to adore that beneficent Providence which hath cast his lot in a land of happy civilization and freedom. In prssenting the following Work before a judicious public, it may be necessary to observe^ that the editor and proprietor have no wish to depreciate the labours of tlieir predecessors in this department of literary compilation: but they are decidedly of opinion, that the pleasing study of Geography inay be rendered still more alluring, by such a selection of matter as will render exery chapter acceptable, and every page attractive. And, under this idea, they have deter- mmed to draw their intelligence from the most accurate and respectable sources; to avail them- selves of the most interesting works, however voluminous or expensive ; and, upon all occasions^ to enliven their narrative with the introduction of pertinent and pleasing anecdotes, illustrative of the respective subjects to which they relate. With respect to arrangement, it has been judged advisable to divide the work into four parts, corresponding with the grand divisiori of the terrestrial globe ; and to subdivide each of these int^ chapters, containing a description of the various empires, kingdoms, states, and islands, be- longing to each quarter; among which, Asia, for a variety of cogent reasons, claims pre-emi- nence; whilst Europe, as the reader's own country, must be leftto form the conclusion. It may be proper to add, that, in pursuance of this plan, all the New discoveries, which demand a considerable share of attention, will be regularly classed under the quarters of the world, instead of being thrown carelessly and promiscuously together, as has been the case in many preceding publications. The Index to this work will be executed on a plan entirely new; as it is designed to serve, by the copiousness of its contents, and the accuracy of its references, as a complete Gazetteer oi the Worid, which has been long reckoned among the desiderata of literature. To illustrate the geographical descriptions, and to exhibit the most accurate representation of the persons, costume* habits, and ceremonies, of different nations, a series of engravings will be given, which, it is confidently hoped, will be considered real embeUishments; while the neatness and accuracy of the maps, the quality of the paper, and the beautiful clParnP«« of th. type, will unitedly prove that every possible exertion has been made to render this n^w system ot Geography worthy of universal patronage and support. a. COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY; WITH REMARKS ON THE VSE OF TItE GLOBES. SECTION 1. made astronomical observations soon after the flooi Lfr / ?"* "'""" ' '''^ Chinese appear to have before the Christian era. has recordetev , t p'ses ^re ^2:'%""' ''' """''"'^ «"^ ^-oneyea" have also, from time immemorial, been arquainld wiih 1 ^ •^!' S"™''"' ""^ '''« 'nhabitanfa of India the Gauls, in general, were consequeu I^a^e " 1^ I 1?"^^^^ astronomy, and made use of interl,ar/da's to b "o- 1 e sXrTnd 'f "' ''' ""^"""^ ''"' acquainted'wJh ference .n regard to the method establisld V Jul :s"clVrt h^ '""? *." '" T^'^''^'' ''"' '^•"» '»"« d'^ a day every four years, but thirteen days every fifty twrvea^ 'he Koman calendar, that they did not interpose The Chaldeans and Egyptians were par iS^^t 2S^^^^^ '^ "'"' "-"'«"°» "^ "-« on account of the general clearness of the air. were hiXfe,rurab I !^ TV ""^^ '^'''" '=°""'"««. warm climates, where the sky is eenerallv serLn/ tL f i 7 . ***''°''«™'«a« observations. I„ those turally led to a contemplation of^the fi Im „!!' Ia '''''m ' ^T^'""^ '''«''' ««'=''« ^'X n-ght. would be na' stars observed the same course as the sun fl.it''" T" ^T'"' '''"' "'^ 'nnumerable multitude of from east to west, while it atTordel iS the":; dt t:X'; J t t"f "' ';^''^' ''''^"^'' ''^ -- along in parallel circuits, durinjr the cool refrrdnn!- „ J?^ ^'. ^ '""■'' "'""• »"«* ""e moon, glided as a centre of revolution to all tt otC Ll^ ^^ a'fd LrtheT;;" d' T^'l *" '^^^ '^ »"«-• -'^ '« « observations had been inado nn .h« «»i . ,,","** ' *"° ""« ">ey called the polar star or »o/e Wl.«n »" ■»'"<"". '1..^,^ «e»dh,.he.„.,.;-l::e3^^^^^^^^^^^ ii A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY Gemini, or tlie twins, from the goat's frequently bringing forth twin-kids ; these were afterwards changed into the twin-brothers, Castor and Pollux. The other signs of the zodiac were Cancer, or the Crab, denoting the re- trograde motion "C^be sun in midsummer; Leo, or the Lion, expressive of the intense heat of summer; Virgo, or the Virgin, witii ears of corn, denoting the harvest ; iiira, or the Balance, shewing the equality of day and night in autumn ; Scorpio, or the venomous Scorpion, representing the diseases at the fall of the leaf; Sagitta- rius, or the Archer, signified the hunting season; Capricorms, or the Goat, that climbs the craggy mountain, was meant to shew that the sun now mounted the zodiac; Jquarim, or the Water-bearer, represented the' setting-in of the rain ; and Pisces, or the Fishes, denoted the fishing season. In the summer, a short time preceding the annual inundation of the river Nile, a star of the first magnitude appeared in the east, a little before sun-rise. It seems probable that the Egyptians, for a while, kept with anxiety the watches of the night, for fear of too sudden an irruption of the waters; but this brilliant star annually making its appearance a little before the inundation took place, it afterwards sufficed to await the coming of the star. They gave it the names of Thattt, the dog; and Jnubis, the barker or monitor. It should seem to require an effort in the imagination to see figures of animals, &c. in the firmament ; but the ancients imagined that they discovered things of this sort in the arrangement of the stars : and accordingly, in the different houses in the zodiac, and in the stars surrounding their bright Anubis, they saw, by help of a fertile fancy, one bright star represent an eye, another the termination of a tail or horn, these a body, those a limb, &c., till all the signs were determinately fixed. The figures thus sketched out by the fancy of the shepherds were subsequently embellished with the fictions of mythology, till the heavens were neariy filled with ima- ginary creatures ; and these being increased in succeeding ages, served astronomere in their accounts of the starry heavens, as the present divisions of the earth assist geographers in the description of the globe. The number of constellations in the northern hemisphere is thirty-four; in the southern forty-sevin, and in the zodiac twelve. Those stars which are not included in the constellations, are called unformed stars ■ those clusters which are so distant as not to be distinctly seen, are, from their cloudy ai)|..arance, comprised under the name of nebulae; and that light-coloured irregular circle which encompasses the heavens, and isdis- tinguishable from the etherial blue by its brilliancy, that zone which owes its splendor to the innumerable stars of which It IS formed, and which passes through several of the constellations in its ample range, is called the Galaxy^ the via lactea, or the mil! y way. SECTION II. Of the Copernican or Solar System, The Copernican, or Solar System, consists of the sun, seven primary planets, fourteen secondary planets, four newly-discovered bodies, which Dr. Herschel has termed asteroids, and the comets. The SCN is situate near the centre of the orbits of all the planets, and revolves on his axis in twenty-five days fourteen hours and eight minutes. This revolution is determined from the motion of the spots on his surface, which first appear on the eastern extremity, and then gradually come forwards towards the middle, and pass on till they reach the western edge, and then disappear. When they have been absent for neariJ he same period of time which they were visible, they appear again as at first, finishing their entire circuit in twenty-seven days twelve hours and twenty mintites. The spots on this luminary may be viewed with an achromatic telescope of two or three feet focal length, or with a reflector of twelve or eighteen inches ; care being taken to guard the eye by the intervention of a dark glass, to take off the dazzling brightness of the sun. The sun is also affected by a small motion round the centre of gravity of the solar system, occasioned by the .anous attractions of the surrounding planets; but, as this centre of gravity is generally within the body of he sun and can never be at the distance of more than the length of the solar diameter from the centre revolve ^*™"°™"« generally consider the sun as the centre of the system, round which all the planets As the sun revolves on an axis, his figure is supposed not to be strictly globular, but a little flatted at the 11^ '' T I '" """' """^'I.'" '"^'' °^ "'""'* "'S''* ^'^'"''^ ^'"' « perpendicular to the plane of the earth's orbit. As the sun s apparent diameter is longer in the month of December than in June, the sun is consequently changed into noting the re« imer; Firgo, y of day and saf; Sagitta- >:y mountain, resented tlie St magnitude e, kept M'ilh brilliant star to await the r. uament; but accordingly, by help of a )6dy, those a lie shepherds cd with ima- :ounts ,of the )be. even, and in stars; those !, comprised i, and isdis- uerable stars is called the iary planets, latted at the f the earth's onsequently ,\ flu ,f,.,ib/r Br/f ,/itfitc' fii'/nirfron.i/ J/,„ '.'/.,■,/„./ ;/, ■■>/,,;/ ^i/„ /it'/M .\r,i,inv ■ /'»'// / y THOMAS Kl.M.Y ■ O'/"""'!' Mil,!!,.:'!.:/,- .;/>/^ 'v,7, «r .r, .,, /,i^,„ ra, J, Planet. 1 1 s c n i\ S tf hi in cc mi fr( th( el( ab on of an ba\ feci cen for, sun is, \ an < \ is ai lutic Shoi wbol eart[ is s!i Vf ever, A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY conds; hence, a. .he distance of .he sT 2 te e h i nVrfi'" "'"'u' '" 'r'"'^^^^^^^ e.>h. hundred and eigh.y.ix thousand o„"I„dred !„? fZ^Jj'^^ '«•-«' ♦'•-««er i. spherical bodies are as the cubes of their diametTrl the 1 T 7 % u ' ''"''• " "'" ™»ffni«udea of all and seventy-seven thousand six hundred and .Ceei .fmeXo"/:. T''^" T ™""°" ''''^^ •"-'^-d only seven thousand nine hundred and sixty-four ^e" Id Lteter fT ' '^" u"""''" "' '^' «""> ''«'»« times .he diameter of the earth. ' ""***' "'^ "'* *"" " «»'«''« «" ''""^^red ^nd eleven consequently the vicissitudes of iis seasons, a^d he lenl ofTJ", ^^''Y -T'"*" '"' '"' "*'•• "« ""•"'»''». When viewed through a powerful telescope Mercurf 1 ^ """^ "'«^'"' "* "'*^ ""'"'°''»- sometin.es a little morf or L th h hT, difk s s7en h "r?''''." '" '^' '°^™ "^ ^ ''«'f '»-». -d ns the moon, except that he never appear o^iterorndbecat "7" Tu"'^!, ""*' ^' '"«' *»•« •""»« ?»•««. towards us. unless when be is so near th^ sun L to be rlT A «»%btened side is never turned directly The enlightened side of this planet being always tolrL he Z ""T^ ' ""' ''''''"'°'" °^ '^'^ •«'" "y« proofs that he shines not by his own light f^ ifTeddl' ?"'""- ""f "PP^^'-'-ST round, are evident nervations of this planet are those made w 'en hL seen «; the^rn I dir'Tl '. l^''^" "''"''' ^''^ »»-» "»'- conjunction, he sometimes passes before the s„rike a l.'Sel^^^ called h,s ^.a„«V ,• for. in his lower may be seen with a good te escope The nodrfromU K M '^ ' P""? ^ """" P"' "^ ""« *•"»'« body ; a, the fifteenth degree of Tmu us and .In "'»'«['•«"' ^h'ch Mercury ascends northward above the ecliptic is b Scorpio. TheL:t;t!r;vt::lT^^^^^^^^ the 4.h of November; and when Mercury^omes toeXr of 1 5 u^'- ?'' '" »»•« fifteenth of Scorpio on te is between the earth and the sl.T hT ^ iT parover he'u'^rdt ath^.nferior conjunction, (that is.'when mentioned ; but, in all other parts of its o bi, Te Joese.tLr u ' ''^ '\''*PP«" «» «' »«" ">« dap above conjunctions are invisible. ' ^ '' *'"'" *''°^* '^'^ ^«'«'' »''« «"«. and consequently his f^^I^::::^ -nty..h.e hours^^een from the sun. thirty.six millions eight ir„redanTJrr.r„r'^"^ ^"^"T ^^"'^ "'""^^^ ' '«" ''"'«»«=« the eccentricity of hi, orbit is estimated at one fifS, „f I r*""* 'r'" ''""•'"*' ""*• ^^^^ntyone miles; eleven seconds; hence his real dimeter ^^^l^l^^^^^^^ about one-sixteenth that of the earth thousand one hundred and eight miles, and his magnitude on^;::^;;: ^rS/^rsr a:;s:::::;;'^'^ ir'^-' -' «^«^» « ""'« '»««'- •--; b«t. Venus is the brightest and a„Zl„!l !. T *** ^''^ ^" magnitude, he is seldom seen, of the other planets\;7ib;n1;a;7^^^^^^^^^^ an object to project a sensible shadow. When iewei .17^°^^ ?"' '" " •^"^''^ P'««=« -»•« ««"««» have all the phases of the moon, from the crescent to the Intl?^ .V^'^^'u"' ^^''"''P'' '^'' P'«»«» »PP«ars to fectly round. Her illuminated part is conZt^ turtr ^ r?''"''^''"*' ""'"^'' ^he seldom appears per- cent is turned towards the east when shei! T ^ "?' *''" '""' *'*"''« *»»« *=«»^e'* Part of her cres- for. when she is west of ^ Ir^^^^t frl tr'elttV";' '"'T'^I''' "^'^ ^''^" ^''^ '-» -«-" «"; «un. she rises before him in the morninT InTi li J ' "' '''"" ^'' '°"S'''"'« " '««« 'ban that of the is when her longitude is gre er ha„ f sunt lond 'ude' X? ^'"'- '"* ""«" ^''^ » -«' »^ *''« -» * a an evening star. ^ '"" * longitude, she sbmes m the evening after sun-set, and is called is - -Xrr::f :;;rrtr^^^^^^ '- '«-?««» -^ -^-ety day. and she Jution round the sun in two hundredTnd J.!, f ^°7'"'^ly "»« ««™« *"»«• 'hough she completes her revo- Should the reader enquire why Ve^l a" '!!" ^ °""" ^"^" ""'''" ''""" ''°''y-»'"« >»•»»»«« ««d »en seconds whole time of her entL revo^CTundTm .'t maTb ""^ *". *\' '"':"'* °^ ""^^"^ «^ '•"« -» *»>- the eartis^oing round him the same CthlXZ^'r^^^^^^^^^^ ^-^-"^ 'be sun. the IS slo^ver man Ler absolute motion ' ° " ' °* lucrciore the ; efaitve motion of Venus it A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. witli one of her nodes. The last transit of Venus waa in 1769, and another will not occur till the year 1874. The time which this planet takes (o revolve on its axis, and the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, have been given by different astronomers; but Dr. Herschel, from a long series of observations, published in the Philosophical Trannctions for 1793, concludes, that the time of its rotation on its axis is uncertain, and that the position of i^n^is is equally uncertain ; that ils atmosphere is very considerable ; that it has probably inequalities on its surface, but that it requires a better eye than his, or the assistance of bettor iustrumeuts than he is possessed of, to discover any mountains. The diameter of Venus is seven thousand four hundred and ninety-eight miles; her distance from the sun is sixty-eight millions seven hundred and ninety-one thousand seven hundred and fifty-two miles ; and her mag- nitude something less than that of the earth. This planet, like Mercury, is never seen at midnight, or in opposition to the sun ; being visible only for three or four hours in the morning or evening, ns she rises before, or sets after the sun. The Earth, which we inhabit, is placed between the orbits of Venus and Mars, and revolves round the sun, at the distance of ninety-five millions of miles, in|three hundred and sixty-five days five hours forty-eight minutes and forty seconds. Its diameter is seven thousand nine hundred and sixty-four miles; and it turns round its axis from west to east in twenty-four hours; which occasions the apparent diurnal motion of the sun, and of all the heavenly bodies round it, from east to west in the same time : it is, therefore, the cause of this apparent rising and setting, and of the alternation of day and night: for although the sun, moon, and stars, appear to rise in the east and to set in the west, that appearance is in reality occasioned by the earth turning the contrary way. Thus, children travelling in a carriage, or sailing on a river, are induced to.suppose that the trees, hedges, banks, or other objects, are running away in a direction exactly opposite to their route. And if it be urged, as an objection, that we are unable to perceive any rotation of the earth, notwithstanding the rapidity with which it is supposed to move, we reply — that as our globe is not impeded by any resisting obstacles, its motion cannot be communicated to the senses ; and, as an illustration of this remark, it may be added, that vessels on a smooth sea are sometimes turned completely round by the tide, without the knowledge of the passengers who happen to be employed in the cabin. But besides the diurnal rotation of the earth, which occasions the regular succession of day and night, and the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies, it has another, called its annual motion, on which depend the vicissitudes of the seasons — spring, summer, autumn, and winter. This annual progressive motion may be easily deduced from an attentive observation of the celestial bodies: for as the sun's apparent rotation round the earth, in the course of a day, from east to west, may be referred to the diurnal motion of the earth upon its axis, in a contrary direction ; so likewise bis seeming annual revolution in the heavens, and his rising and setting continually in diflferent parts of them, may be referred to that motion of the earth in its orbit which it completes in the space of a year. The pheenomena of the different seasons will appear plainly from the following observations of an intelligent astronomer : — " Suppose a line to be drawn from the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth, it is evident that the sun will be vertical to that part of the earth which is cut by this linV;. Now, when the earth is in Libra, the sun will nppear to be in Aries, the days and nights will be equal in both hemispheres, and the season a medium be- tween summer and winter; the line dividing the dark and light hemispheres, passes through the north and south poles, and consequently divides all the parallels of latitude into two equal parts: hence the inhabitants of the whole face of the earth have their days and nights equal, viz. twelve hours each. While the earth moves from Libra to Capricorn, the north pole will become more and more enlightened, and the south pole will be gra« duully involved in darkness, consequently the days in the northern hemisphere will continue to increase in length, and in the southern hemisphere they will decrease in the same proportion, all the parallels of latitude being unequally divided. When the earth has arrived at Capricorn, the sun Will appear to be in Cancer; it will be summer to the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere, and winter to those in the southern; the inha* bitaiits at the north pole, and within the arctic circle, will have constant day, and those at the south pole, and within the antarctic circle, will have constant night While the earth moves from Capricorn to Aries, the south pole will become more and more enlightened; consequently, the days in the southern hemisphere will in- crease ill length, and in the uorihcrn hemisphere they will decrease. When the earth has arrived at Aries, the sun will appear to be in Libra, and the days and nights will again be equal all over the surface of the earth. Again, as the earth moves from Aries towards Cancer, the light will gradually leave the north pole, A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. and proceed to the south : when the earth lias ' I r' * southern hun.isphere. and winter to those in .ho"nor7her"n • thTri 'f T'" ''"/"•"•"" "> tl»- inh„bi.ant« in the , continual day. tho«e at the north pole constant ni^hn ^^tl v " S !'. * " """"' ''"'" ^" ""y> '-" '"-« corn, the Hun will appear to n.ove from Capricorn to Cancer .'...^r" . "'" ' """"' '''""' ^^'"•"''•'- '" ^'"l"-" .ncrea.sin«:, while those in the southern will bo diminishir ., L. T '^'*. '" .'"." """'""■" '"'•"i^P''"'-« -iH be corn to Cancer, the sun will appear to move fro . Ca " "^o """'' ""'' "'"'" "'" "'"'' ""-- "•""' ^npri- will then be .lecreasin^, and those in the so Ul er^ lemis^.h J"""'' """ 'T '" "'" '"""'"" ''-'-P»'-^- the equator will be .livided into two equal pa c"„ enu ' I H "T"'"'""/ '" "" ""'"^'""« "' "- ««"h. equal. Thus the different seasons are clearlT ^ ou d'foT bv r T' '""'"^ "' "'*' '"'""'"^ «- »'->' plnne of its orbit, combined with the paralJl n.oZ^" U.at ' " '""""" "' "" '"" "' "'« •'^'^'' '" ''- Rtspecl.n^r t\u>. figure of the earth, the ancients held vnril • or in the form of a drum; but the general oLll/^rrr''"'''^ ""' T'''^' " '« ''« ♦^>''""'--'. zon wa« the utmost limit of the earth, and the ocean I \td'; -'st extended plane, and that the hori- ;n .he infancy of astronomy; and, in the early a^r aZ.:! 'T'T"' ^'""' 'f""""" ^^ '-'J pronounce it heretical for any person to declare that there wT^' !"'"'."' "" ''«'^'««i«-^''c« >vent so far as "Klustry of succeeding a,es. when astronon.y a. S 1 i' oVw ^f ' " ' "^ " "" ""•'>"''-• «"' ''y "- t.o„ and when it was observed that the moon was eoue ' ^ . 7" '" " '"^'''^'^' '^''^'^'^ "^ p'^f-c «uch shadow always appeared circular on .he dlk orlce if . ''' ' ""/'""^°" "' "'*' -^"'' »"'' "-' projected, .t was discovered that the earth, which ca t he si a 1""""'' 7 "''"I''"'" '"*'""" '"'^^ «''"J"- ^^as ^hen turned n every position with respect to a luml " bod ;«:" T "' ''. "'"*' "°^'""" ^'"^ " «P'-^ The rotundity of the earth has also been demoZ atej bv ir^' '" " '"■'"'"•■ ^'•^^•»^- at d.frerent times by Sir Francis Drake, Lord Tson Cal r'^rr""?";'' "'"'='' ''''^ '^-" P-^-"-J t.ons wdl establish the truth of the doc rine het l"i ^,ow„ .""'^'Mr "^"^ " "'""''^'^ °^ ^""^'^ «»««"- a vessel sad northwar.l, in north latitude, the people on board m» ^7 r^' "'^ '^^'''radiction. Thus, if •n altitude the farther they go : they may likeZpT ^ ""' "'" P"'""- ««»^ gTadually to increase which were before imperc^fible; ^. at heT^L r.hoTer ''I'T'' ^'"^^^'"^ ^'^^^'^^ "-•-" todiminishinaltitudetilltheybecomeinvisible Th 7 ;./rar^^^^^^^^ "''"'' Tr ^"""'""^"^ -" -"'"- ward ; hence the earth is evidently spherical from north to ouTb'! T"'7'" ''"''''' '' '^' '''''' ««" «"""'- Again, If we take a stand on the sea-shore, o7a clear dav and "' ''•«'» «a«no west, whatsoever; as they recede from us, we mai Ztrcrn. '"V"""''"''' '""''"»""' «=»««'' i" any direction quite out of sight, as if sunk in ujJ:::'^^:^^^::^^''^ '' ^ ^^^^^'«' ^'-' "-'-"« - - «e the setting sun, when it appears to those below o ha e sunk bf .7 ^••"'' "'' ^ '""' '"''>' '''«'-'="y foot, when It has set to him below, may, i„ some I^^t^ations hv7 "'« /'onzon; nay, a person swift of when rising, does it first tip the tops of the n.oults Jh?. ^ '"'"f "^ "'" ''*"' ••«^«'» »"« ^^^w. Thus, la.Hl, discover the high parts of the'coast, b „t I e ve^ 1 or.llT. ''" '" """^' «" '"^'^ «-» ■-•^'"^ Now. were the surface of the sea an extensive nl 7 7 ."^ ""■' P""'"^ '^°'' '" ^'''' *'• t rough defect of sight, thickness of atm Ip I^t .rL^iSr" '""" I'f ^'■-'" '"" ''"^ "''•'-•«' -"- ^' ""'^^^ ^ ' """^ '""''" ««"««' «"d then they would disappear all .;e. m more hinder .he ea„l, f™™ beinl etUedXril"' '°r°"'"' ""'' ""'^'•- '>'" """ ""^"'^'^ xte:r;;::r;rr.i:^^^^^^ moon „ ,„,„ ,l,„„„„d „„. |,„„j e^hiralZ »,wlT 7 ""'" "" '""■ ''''• ■«"">"« of -le ;:iS ' "'^'° ''"* »'^"tin;^t::r„v.r,ttr;" "- r °> "" "» ""■'""-«^ !•»" <"■ '■ l«™ed«„jf „„„,!,„, bei |„|f „.'b L"l„,' """'"'""<' P»" h '"rned from,,.; ,nd ili. fi A COMPENDIUM OP ASTRONOMY. •arth performs the iinine beneflcial purpoio ia return. Before and after the clinnjjo of the moon, when it is only visible a little while in the niorningr and evening, Hn whole body may be Nometimeii seen dintinctly; and at such times, one side of it resembles a bright slender crescent, but the greater part seems of a very dark hue. "The bright part," says Mr. Walker, « is as the day-light of the moon; the dark part as the nioon-sbine re- fleeted from our earth." It is asserted, that, in Italy, and some other countries, where the air is peculiarly clear, the moon at the change is visible when it rises or sets with the sun ;— a circumstance which must be occasioned by the light re- fleeted from our globe, which, at that period, is a full moon, and affords thirteen times as much light as we re- ceive from our satellite when at the full. Allowing this to be the case, it appears that the inhabitants of the moon, if such exist, have a full moon when we have change, and a waxing when we have a waning one, all the lunar seasons being the reverse of ours. It may also be remarked, that, as the moon turns only once round on her axis while she performs her orbit, one side, being always turned toward our earth, must consequently receive two weeks of moon-light from the earth, and two weeks of sun-shine successively; the other side re- maiiimg two weeks in darkness, and an equal space in constant day. The day and night, therefore, must be a month ia length; and, from the inclination of the moon's axis to the ecliptic, she can experience scorcely any diversity of seasons. As the moon's declination from the equator is not sufficient to occasion a change of seasons, it has been con- jectureil that her inhabitants may measure their year by observing when one of the poles of our earth begins to be illumined, and the other to recede from view, which always happens at our equinoxes. The year is sup- pos.d to be of the snme absolute length both to the earth and moon, though they differ very materially as to the number of days ; the lunarians having only twelve, while we have three hundred and sixty-five. The moon is sufficiently near our globe to enable us to observe, even with the naked eye, many inequalities on her surface; and, by the aid of telescopes, astronomers have distinctly discovered them to be mountains, valleys, &c., to which geographical names have been given, though without regard to figure or situation. Even the heights of some of the lunar mountains have been calculated by means of the shadows projected from them on the moon's surface ; and the great astronomer, Herschel, has discovered three volcanoes in" this planet. The principal one, at the time of observation, was in a part of the moon's disk not then enlightened; but it appeared to be about three miles in diameter, and illuminated the hills in its vicinity, whilst it ejected great quantities of smoke and burning lava. The other two seemed either to have been recently extinguished, or to threaten an immediate eruption. Various arguments have been adduced for and against the probability of the moon having an atmosphere; but the discoveries of Dr. Herschel, and the attentive observations of other astronomers, seem to determine that question in the affirmative ; as streaks of light have been seen to dart instantaneously from difl'erent places in the moon at the time of a solar eclipse, which have been taken for lightning, and which seem to evince not only the existence of a lunar atmosphere, but a striking similitude between the moon and our earth. In the motion of the moon we may perceive a slow continual change, which, though extremely minute, seems to evince that the present order of things must come to an end. It is a known fact, that the moon now completes her period in less time than formerly, approaching nearer to the earth, and going sooner round it. Hence eclipses which occurred several centuries ago, appear, from the accounts given by ancient historians, to have happened differently both in time and place from what the calculations founded upon our astronomical tables make them to have done. As the moon's motion on her axis is perfectly uniform, completing one revolution in the course of a lunation, our globe would be constantly over the same meridian of the moon, if the motion of that satellite in her jour- ney round the earth were also equable ; but she, like the other planets, is observed to move in her orbit with diflferent degrees of velocity, and this occasions wbat is termed the libration of the moon, and the successive exhibition and disappearance of her opposite limbs, or margins. When her motion is quickest, we see rather more of her western side ; when slowest, a little more of her eastern side is presented to view. And as the moon's axis is rather inclined to its orbit, and preserves its parallelism round the earth, we sometimes see one of her poles, and sometimes another, which causes her to have an apparegt wavering motion. We must now turn our attention to the phenomenon of the Harvest-Moon, which is narticularly worthy of consideration. It is generally supposed that the moon rises about fifty minutes later every day than on the preceding; but this idea is correct only with respect to those parts about the equator ; for in places of considerable latitude, as A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. fii nfcng and. there ma remarkable .lifferonceabouube lime of harvest when f„r , he full moon r,.e« very soon nf.nr sun.«et ; ,„d by thu. aoDeari . f L' ""•"'' '"•""»' •"We-'vely. . lonK. the light to the great benefit of the bu,b»!d,C whS^ *! 7" '^" '"""nation of twilight, .he pri and hence the full moon „t thi. .ea,on of the y ar .^'oUv dl? "^ f!. '." '^'"""""^ '" ""^ ''■•""• «f "• '-bour" The people who re.ido at the equator do n^^r J 'P^'y *•* '°'"'»«'«d "•« liarve.t-moon. "' ' their ,ea«ona varying but lutl!. anTl^ r : .rrT^^ :: e!] 7Vf'''' t '"^^ '•"'"' '" -' "^ ^^ t . m.ld ,ea,on i, of short duration, the autumn moo^Zl .'uu I't T« ^/ ""? "'''" ''"^'-' *'- at the pole., wh.ch are not vi.ited by the cheering rayVof tl Z fo/S *" ""'""'•'' ''"""«'•.• »««* moon. .h.ne without setting from the first to the third quarter " ^'" '"«*"""■' "»« '^""^r full- echptic is when Aries ri.es and Libra sets ; , il^ZuZ m d"o th i t" ' ""^'" '"'"'•' ''^ "'• '-'-"""d t..ude of London. „. ,....eh of the ecliptic rises abfu Trl a3 Pi-T;" I'T'" """^ ^"'^ """«• '" "•« '«- .n ..X days ; and. of course, while the n.oon is in these ."^.VeT/r'" T '""".' '"' '^' '"""" »««" "'^""Rh ourfy i«,s„.d .nd ,h. ..1,., i, „||.d ,H. *„,„„°.r,l„ " "»"«' "" *«"»•'•■»<»». foi- .Le r«...,, p„.i. ful moons of the above descrip ion in a year Ts no 3^?'! h T'^^"' "*"• "^^"'°" '''«' "'«- «re CMo Ah the ecliptic and horizon are l„o 7* / f'^'^*' ''^ "'^'"^ circumstances. ''"' eCptic. from L solstitiaTZtTo TnXt isritL':;" Tr'' "" '"^ '''" ^-'^' "^ "^'^ of the rises at once is twenfy-four hours in settin J „n 1 .k ... ^*'" ''^"^ "***' "* ^« «"""« moment: that wh .h pole., one half of the^cliptic To J^u ."'rotj'^hllt''' ""^ "l^- « t-nty-four hours in ris „g if J cessary to observe, that tl e «...rm»n» . ^ . ^""*'*"' ""*' "'« o^l^er half never rises h J 1 STc.lml prop„„i„„ of ligi, ,„„ ,^ " " " °" f '»'^-. *''•'« 'I" »i«btt are long .„d tedio„., rocoiv,, 2 JMARs, though sometimes apparently as lar^^ «. v vewed through a telescope. ap'Ls ZltLfred JbuT' T^ «'''"«« ^'^ - brilliant a ligbi, a„d, ..^e^ passed w.,h a thick cloudy atmosphere, through whTchl r!d"" '^'"/r^'"''^ "•"' ^'""^ P'«»^'« e'-m" other rays. This being the first planet without the „btt tl T f ''^^ P'"^'^^'« •"«-•« «««''y "'an X pearanoes from those of Mercury and VeZ 1-^ V^' ' "*^'^''' *" '^e spectator diftereTt an Venu.. but was never known to transkTe Lun". dtr?""'"" T""^'"" "'"" '^' «"•'• ''''e MerZ and he comes to the „»eridia„ at midnight orLLvbetthe T" ^ " ''"'^"^ "PP"«"« *« '"^^ «u„ tha « .e shmes with the greatest lustre, bei^; Je^r" to.hf eVrJh" "wh" "'' T'T ^'r"" ^^^^' «' '^'•-'' - appears sometunes full and round, at others Sbbou h.! . ^•^"'l*'"'""^!' a powerful telescope, he «Iiew. that Mars .n.oves in an orbit more diLnf.'.^ f ^'''"'^- ^''^ P^""'*'''^ appearances dearlv tl'is planet, like that of Mercury and Vp '" '*" '"" *''"" ""•' °^ "'« ^^''t''- The apparent ^. from west to east ; and soSrhe Ip el^rr f "' " T '''' " ^^^^ ' '' otbTrr; „^ ? .^ --.h.meand._.mthel:-;et=-^^^^^ ▼Hi A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. •and nix Imndml nn«l lliirJy inilpn ; lim dirnnpliT four ihoiiNnml two hundred nnd eiRhtocn niilen ; and liia mag. nitudn n little nion- lliiiii (iiii>-N«>venlli of tlint of tli« cnrlli. JiipiTKK m thfi InrnPNt of nil ilie pliinp»»i, find, notwitlmtandinflr Iijn iinmenNe dmtnnrc from tlip aun and tliA earth, he appears lo tho naked eye almost m fnrge a« Venn*, thoiii^h his lif^ht iN Um brillinnt. When in opposition to the nun, (that in, when he eomoH to the meridian at niit' the rolaiiun es. i second- ; the ukI the ^nn in uri \m iiieiiu ijnfDitude 1400 uier similar to ■ of telescopes, ^Ih'tes revolve nlipscd by his nil. To these rration of the f appears the etinies greaier r axes in the r the eclipses third page of Jupiter are degrees in a 1 observe the n the Nautical ites sooner at ful telescope, hat are visible uuuded by uii nes or belts, performs lijg distance from His diameter properly (.peaking, the /?«/ and i.m>M// . Im, i„ ,1 . , '' '-z'zz:::z:^t:B2r-^^^ - ~ I lie liim, .,/ S,„u,„, which w«h Hrst di.covered b» ll..„ Hccurary of thin opinion .»ppo..j „ i,.„. ,„„„ .li , ,,„,„ „,, ««». ""J .1,0 w„.,i™ ,,„„.„ „,„ ^^ „„; n™ ' «. I" nononr o» the discoverer. The Rn^ai a i '""""' ''<'n"«'»tv called Kv »V.r„;„. because .heolher ph.netsare named ( om^alf l7 I ""^ "'" ^'"'''"' ""J «"'"' others calle/i?//^" o' Saturn, Salun, the f.aher of I,, I ""'*"' ''"""''' «« '^♦'^e relatives • ,!„,« iT ^ ' ^'■'"""• a telescope of a sniRJI „.„ . ' "■■• •^"'"''''' "'« «"''«'•• «f Mars &. Tl ' '""" "''■ "'« '•"''«•• than eighty-three venrJ . P'"-'"''"^al revolution round the sun isT . "'»8"'«"'«e. motion, &c. We ,„„.. „.„ ,., b.,,„ ::';,";;!'»'■«' -"'"'y - .1- order or tk^ l^^:'' " " ' '""<'■'" ""•• o- ... or w. ,., , p, ' °' " "™^'°""' "' ••■""■-■• -■• -'"■ -«. - '"Je; i.. d»»„ce fro„, fc°Z';a ,L ,T '^°"«'' " "'"""Pe. " »PPe.r« like .7„„f f '^ 1"^ "^ " rewlulioi, near f„„. ' , ° .". ""■ '" I"" "^O". Iwo fow-lifil, lim™ ,h,, „,■ ,, 'f "'" "''"I' ""Sni- .»J .ix.y-.»o L L "" """ '«'■' "■»""- "■ "»■»..«'. -coordi^g: Dn H.^rheT" '•ab"'"', ''" "r™"'"' Oo .1,0 28,h of March, ,m Dr ni. r . °"' '"""'"'' Fotdi„,„,l„, porceivad a s ^of ^hl ', °' """"■'"• "'''''' '"".ioioff -omo of ,h. .,. -fits revolution, a r,;^^^ ^^^^ -'perfe t tTS" /V"^"'""''' '"'' "'^ '""^ «f rentote, ™ «»"' that it ,s not yet decided which of the three sL ' "''" "" '" On the 29,h of March, ,807 Dr Oil f """' " "" ""^' this no satisfb-!»r.' -,— , '^""^ ''""covered annthpr n!<,nrf ,vI,M t , newly-discoveredbobeTarh .7*^ "'"'"'" '"''" P"'''-bed : ant i \ c t ""j/""; r™"' ''^''«-- ''"* ''f the... asteroids. " "'* ''"'''"'^ " "'"'d'e rank between plar.ets L d ^L T "r'*'*"" "" "-« Though the planets already described d t, y of October, while receding from the sun and the earth: and it was clearly defnind with a common large aperture two-feet night-telescope, with three glasses, of a power of about cigiit times. Another comet appeared in England in the autumn of 1811. odies, called revolution of niid, ill fact, A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. them nearly partA of the ntmosplieres iposite to the resemble the t, if the coal life a vapour, ' hair. This, I as round as These bodies magnitude is ill equal the hich seemed pale and dim (' a yellowish cleus, almost and brighter, the rest, was id confused. Is, its round- ispersed, a^nd ig into view, I many burn- )erson stirs a of the same ind luminous broken into »s. Comets earer to, and e of the tail, it is called a sideways, it ;n that plane observed, at red with the t and bright, lit the end of comet itself, nni th : and it )f a power of Here let us pause, and acknowledge with the learned and eloouent Dr n I . science were even to stop here, we should have '' enough to ius^r L f '""■'' •''^* '"^ ""^ Ji«<=overies of man t at thou art mindful of him. or the son of man that Thou siou Ir ' I '"'''""!'°";''' ""^ P^^IrnisN ' ^^ hat is p.re ot creation far beyond the limits which were formed "^^^^^^ LV'^'* ^'"^^' T».ey widen the em- throned in the centre of his planetary system. ..ives li.^hnnr '^ , ^'"^ ^'"" "« *" «''« "'"' yon sun tent of surface, several I'undre.Is of .h .is gre t^ tl m t at of .r"" 'i' "T' "'^ "^''^^""''^ "''--"'-. o an ex a number of worlds rolling i.. Uieir respective drde r a i: A^ :''.'^" ^^ '"""•"•'• ^'^y '^y open to ^s we tread upon, with all its mighty burden of oceans and con „el '""""771"^ P^^e .hat the ball which others. IS among the least of them; and. from some o ti.e t e ' ''T'? "' '""^^ ''-•i-guished from the point. n the concave of their firmament. They kt us know ZVu ■''"'"• "'""'"' ""' occupy a visible of people, were to sink into annihilation, th'e rT som', t m "'f ""^ ""ST'''^ -^"'. -i.h nul myrtd unnoticed and unknown, and others where it wo d be „o 1. I " T '\''^"' ^" «'^''"' '« "« -ouM be which had ceased from its twinkling. We should f' I a senUmfn "T 7 '^' <'-PPearai.ce of a little sta presentation. We should learn not to look on our ear.hr l™ ; ivlr /'/^ 1 i"^ '"'"'"'"'"« ^"' i-' - nificant portion of it; that it is only one of the many mansions 7hZl «^'''' '"'''"' ""« P'^^^y «"d 'nsig. accommodat-ou of his worshippers, and only one of'^^he Zv wi V ''"''T "''"^ '"'^ "^■'>'-' ^^^ '^e sun pours around him to the outer limits of fhe planeta y s2, " ' '""'"^ '" "'^^ """^ "^ '*«'" -'iich the SECTION III. Of the FM Stars, the Doctrine of the Sphere, ^c ^ '-7^ ^^^^^ '.; i-. i« .man i„ eomparison stars; which, being of infinite use in the study of as," Z "m a "'7 .'" ""' ^""" '""^^'^ "'^^^'^ fixed stars are distinguished by the naked eye from the n a^ts " ^T't "?" '" ""'^ ''''''^^- The which we call Uoi„kn„,. This arises from their bei . o ext mdv'rar"^ V''''''"- "'"" •''''''''---« .ody, of which there are many constantly floatino- i„' he a r ^1 ^ " !"'rP°«'"°" "■ 'Le least nterposod body changes its place, we again see the star and'th,/ "' /''' ''"'" "'" '^''"'' ^^'^n the twinkhng But a more remarkable prop^.y o t fixe ,'s ar, d 17?'°" '.""f r^''''''' °"-'-« «'- name, IS their never changing the. situation with re." d .Ha „ ! T '"' "'^^'"'"^^ °'^'''"-^ "-> eem largest, and are therefore called those of the fir'st maliuidl t' 7 ,""■' "'"■^'' ''' "'''''' »« "« 'ess, being at a greater distance; and so proceed 1 on 7ofu^l]\ '" " "'" '"'"""^ ""''8"'""'« •''PPear stars that are visible without a telescope.' Tothernumtrtt ."?"'' ^' "''"'' '"'^'"'^^^ "" "^ ^'^^'^ -noon IS absent, they seem to be innumerable, ow .^ « r I ;o^^^^;^^^ 11 '^ ''''': "'"'-'« "'■^"''^ -'- the cont^ised manner; yet. when the whole firmamelrs di d dt^^ '^ ''".^' ""'^ '"' ^''^'"'^ «' "'em in a cnn be seen at one time, by the unassisted eye 7 not above . "T "l^ ''^'^^''^^^^'ons, the number that scope, indeed, tiie number of the fixed stars hlh , ""'''' ^'"'' "'« introduction of the tele- perfection we arrive at in our glass s. 1 le Irs'al -'"^"^ '^''"^"'-^^ ^ ''"•"«"-; because the .^ea e .oynl at Greenwich, has given' us a c ,oT e TC^Z:!'^ '" T' ''• '"'""^"'^^' ''^^^ '^^'--n stars, tiom their being invisible without theCishnce of »!. '"' ''r* "'"'''• ""'' ^""^'^ "^/--/"^ and ass.duily the astronomical world is so m . ii „d b7eS h s TT ^'^ """''^'' '" "'-^ ''^^eZy "nproveinents in the instruments of obserm.^ M 1 , r ,7" "'-"""' "" ""' '" ""'^ ''^ pnssn.g rapidly over the heavens with his ew feil ,t • '" ''''"''"'» °^ '"'^ 'I'scoveries, s,.ys, « !» thousand stars, seen in the space of a f v del '"' . "^T'' '"'''"'''^ ""•'^•- '""^ ''y^ ; forty-four i.. 'i.e heavens!" Even these however, e t^,o,V"'T" '" '"'"'^'i*-' '"'"' ^'"" ^'^^ --">-«- ' ^1 o the boundless fields of Ether. ' "°"""= "■''^" '^"'"P"'"-^'' '« "'"se that fill the whole cxpans^!! " And shall we say," enquires Tir ru^i^ „ , . called into existenco'for no'otl. ^ n o 'Z' t ' ,!; '''Vr '^'"'T'' ''''' "''''' '" -'"^ ^^-e they mensity ? Our sun is onl, one of .lies „ • ie; ZZe^i H "m '",' ""''''17' ''''' ""^ '^'''"^^^ ^f iZ ^ve str.p the rest of this princely attendance ^W ly ^ "ot ad. n,'" 'f ".""" '" '"'^ ""'-•"•• ^''J' ^''-'<» vny may not each of them be the centre of his own system, and XII A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. give light to his own worlds? It is true that we see them not; but could the eye of man take its flight into those distant regions, it should lose sight of our little world, before it reached the outer limits of our system the greater planets should disappear in their turn— before it had described a small portion of that abyss which separates us from the fixed stars, the sun should decline into a little spot, and all its splendid retinue of worlds be lost in the obscurity of distance— he should, at last, shrink into a small indivisible atom, and all that could be seen of this magnificent system, should be reduced to the glimmering of a little star. Why resist any longer the grand and interesting conclusion ? Each of these stars may be the token of a system as vast and as splendid as the one which we inhabit. Worlds roll in these distant regions; and these worlds must be the mansions of life and of intelligence. In yon gilded canopy of heaven, we see the broad aspect of the universe, where each shining point presents us with a sun, and each sun with a system of worlds where the Uivinity reigns in all the grandeur of his high attributes — where he peoples immensity with his wonders; and travels in the greatness of his strength through the dominions of one vast and unlimited monarchy." We now proceed to the doctrine of the Sphere; and, in speaking upon this subject, we shall consider the earth as at rest, and the celestial bodies ns performing their revolutions around it. This method cannot lead the reader into any error, since we have previously explained the true system of the universe from which it appears, that it is the real motion of the earth which occasions the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies. It is also attended with this advantage, that it agrees with the information of our senses. "The ancients," says a respectable geographer, "observed, that all the stars apparently turned round the earth, from east to west, in twenty-four hours; that the circles which they described in those revolutions were parallel to each other, but not of the same magnitude; those passing over the middle of the earth being the largest, while the others diminished in proportion to their distance from it. They also perceived that there were two points in the heavens, which always preserved the same situation. These points they termed celestial poles, because the heavens seemed to turn round them. In order to imitate these motions, they in- vented what is called the Artificial or Arvtillary Sphere, through the centre of which they drew a wire, called an ^xis, the extremities of which are fixed to the immoveable points called Poles. They farther observed, that on the 20th of March, and 23d of September, the circle described by the sun was at an equal distance from both the poles. This circle, therefore, must divide the earth into two equal parts, and on this account was called the Equator. It was also called the Equinoctial Line, because the sun, when moving in it, makes the days and nights of equal length all over the world. Having also observed, that from the 21st of June to the 22d December, the sun advanced every day towards a certain point, and having arrived there, returned towards that from whence it set out, from the 22d of December to the 2Ist of June; they fixed these points, which they called Solstices, because the direct motion of the sun was stopped at them; and represented the bounds of the sun's motion by two circles, which they named Tropics, because the sun no sooner arrived there than he turned back. Astronomers, observing the motion of the sun, found its quantity, at a mean rate, to be nearly a degree, or the three hundred and sixtieth part of a great circle in the heavens, every twenty- four hours. This great circle is called the Ecliptic; and it passes through certain constellations, distinguished by the names of animals, in a z^ne called the Zodiac. It touches the tropic of Cancer on one side, a'nd that of Capricorn on the other, and cuts the equator obliquely, at an angle of 23 deg. 29 min., the sun's greatest declination. To express this motion, they supposed two points in the heavens, equally distant from, and parallel to, this circle, which they call the Poles of the zodiac, which, turning with the heavens by means of their axis, describe the two polar circles. In the armiHary sphere, the equinoctial, the two tropics, and two polar circles, are intersected at right angles by two other circles, called Colures, which serve to mark the points of the solstices, equinoxes, and poles of the zodiac. The ancients also observed, that when the sun was in any point of his course, all the people inhabiting directly north and south, as far as the poles, have noon at the same time. This gave occasion to imagine a circle passing through the poles of the world, which they call a Meridian, and which is immoveable in the artificial sphere, as well as the horizon ; which is another drcle representing the bounds betwixt the two hemispheres, or half-spheres, viz. that which is above it, and that which is below it." 1^ its flight into uur system— : abyss which lue of worlds ill that could ly resist any I as vast and must be the the universe, the Divinity ; and travels consider the I cannot lead Vom which it t'enly bodies. d round the 3 revolutions J earth being rceived, that they termed jns, they in- J wire, called bserved, that listance from this account I' in it, makes St of June to ;re, returned these points, iresented the oner arrived a mean rate, very twenty- distinguished ide, and that un's greatest nt from, and by means of )ic8, and two to mark the I the sun was have noon at , which they :h is another above it, and iiKiM \s i\i 1 1,^ A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. XIII SECTION IV. Description and Use of the Terrestrial Globe. known world i, divide.l, together with their pnndpa dt e" leZ ' f."™^ ""'' '"^'^«' '"»» ^^^<^^ t^e The axis of the earth (represented on an a tiS J 2 IT' "'"""' ''''''' ^^• north to south) is an imaginary line. «p„„ which it is suppL'^ei toTun" f P««-V''™"«^'' '' ""'^« '"-'» bodies seem to revolve in twenty-four hours. The »re/ic andlZ r' 1"^ """"^ *'"'*='• «" "»« celestial extremities of this axis. '"" ""'* a«/»rchc ;,ofe, are the northern and southern The equator is a great circle of the earth, drawn ronnd J# o» nnd dividing it into two equal parts, called thr„orLr: and U Jr^^^^^^^^ ^'^ -" o^ '•'e poles. The ec/,;,/,c ,s a great circle, in which the sun makes hi annl^? ''«'»'«Pheres. 1.0ns, or it is the real path of the earth round the Tn „d cXT ""? • P™^""^'' »™°"^ ^^' ^""«»«"«* the points of intersection are styled the equinoctial pltJ^ '^"'"'"' '" "" ^"-^'« "^ 23 deg. 28 min. : ^P^^^^^^:^Z^Z:'^:^^:^^^^ ^^^^^^. and. when termmates our view: the latter is an imagiUrJ ^ ptsll brut^T"*^.?' 5T" ''^ ^''»' ^^'^ -»'-'» sensible horizon. ^ ^ P''**'"8^ "'™"gh ">e middle of the earth, parallel to the The horizon, on the artificial globe, is a ciVcular flat n,PP» nf 1 to represent the rational horizon' It is divided no 1:1^1,17;;;"""^'^^''^ ^'"''^' «"'' '"'-^^^ The./?,.., circle is marked amplitude, and is numbered from O^f oil c west, towards the north and south.-Tbe second ^wtui \V '^''''' '^''"" *''« «««* and from the degrees, from the north and south poilts ofTe ho i" towa:ds'the"'T'''/"' '' ""'"''*"''' ''^^ « '» ^ the thirty two points of the compass, divided in o half andt^^^^^^^^^^ i'f -f'-The ,A,Vrf circle contain, comprised in the azimuth circIe.-The fourth circle conains the twl ^ ' ')' ^'^^'^'^ "' -«ch point are and astronomical character of each sign.-Thr/^rtVSe J„., I T" "'^ '^^ ^'^''''''' ^''^h •!•« %«re pm.ng 30 degrees.-The si.th circle fs occup^ed^y tTe day If the m„ 7'" "' "" -"■^"^' ^^^'^ «''S" -"" of the sun's place in the ecliptic-The «A cirJe shewTth/. 7»" V°""''P°"^'"" ""''^ each degree •he equate,; ,„d ihey .„ „sed for a.cer.ZIl ,1' laJitS T . ™ ' T'"''''''''' '■'°"' '''' H*. loward. Erery place „po„ ,he earlh is sanoo»n„7 j of place., ,i,d for the elevating of ,he „„|e, place o„ .be in^, i.t pp» t wT .S omT^" ''''^" "' """* P^"" '° "» -."»'«r. Ever, circles are drawn o„ th'LtiBeill X ' ""'°''"' ^'°' ""^'' ''' "■»"«!■ »nly .?x.eea of ,hes^ ne.:r::;rrrLt:iTC^Vt;rrrt;r'':?-^'Tt''^^ ea;jr;cor«. P"" V <'««<'^'^' and that on the south side is termed the tropic of The polar circles HTP Uyn omoii »:-.i.- -- n , - ''r:!r»Lt''-eiir:jr - n '- ''""=-^^^ *""""" " "'* """"• "- "• Oc.,„ a„d ex,e„„i„, fromthe tr reXoVr'tTtiror """ °' '!,' "'"'' "■'"" '""^•"' '^ f™"' ^.nded, „ eorreajond .i.h the sj; decSo„ Lt^erJ ZyZ!:, tel™""" ■"■ '"'' """"■' "" " ""■ d xiv A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. The hour-nrcle, on the artificial ^lobe, is a smnll circle of brass, which turns on tlie north pole, and is divided into twenty.four equal parts, corresponding with the hours of the day; and these are subdivided into halves and quarters. On the New British globes, there is also an hour circle at the south pole, numbered with two rows of figures, and furnished with an index or pointer. The mariner's compass, which is usually fixed beneath the artificial globe, is designed to represent the horizon, and is used by seamen to ascertain the situation or course of their vessels. It consists of a circular box, which contains a paper card, divided into 32 points, or equal parts, each point comprising 11 deg. 16min. or the thirty-second part of 360 degrees. The raagneticai needle fixed on this card alwavs points meard, the north, but is subject to a variation toward the east or the west. At present, in England, the magnetic needle points about 24 degrees to the tveslward of the north. In rectifying either of the artificial globes therefore, allowance must be made for this variation. * The quadrant of altitude is a necessary appendage to the artificial globe. It is a thin slip of brass divided into ninety degrees, and may be screwed on any part of the brass meridian. On the terrestrial globe it is principally used in measuring the distances of places. Having now described all the parts of the terrestrial globe, we proceed to lay down such instructions for using It, as may enable our readers, even tcithout a mastery to work the subjoined problems. The first thing to be done is to rectify the globe; which, however simple in itself, always puzzles the learner, and renders h.m unable to proceed a single step without a master. To this, therefore, the reader is requested to pay particular attention. Place the globe in such a position that the magnetic needle in the mariner's compass may point 24 degrees to the westward of the north; then the brazen meridian will stand due north and south; and all the points of the horizon will be correct. Having done this, loosen the screw at the bottom of the globe, so that the brass meridian may turn freely, and elevate the pole according to the P-iven latitude; that is, bring the degree marked on the brass meridian to the wooden horizon. For example — Suppose the globe to be placed with the hour-circle at the top, and the equator coinciding with the wooden horizon ; if m this case, you are reqtiired to rectify the globe for the meridian of London, you must move the globe downwards towards the north point of the wooden horizon till Slj degrees, as marked on the brass meridian, come exactly level with the horizon; because London is situate in 51 deg. 31 min. north latitude; and oil degrees will be sufiiciently near for instrumental illustration. Or, should you be required to rectify the globe for the meridian of Buenos Ayres in Brazil, you must turn the globe till rather more than 34* de- grees on the opposite side of the brass meridian, and below the equalor, coincide with the wooden horizon- because Buenos Ayres is situate in 34 deg. 35 min. of south latitude. By the elevation of the north or south pole, theretoro, we merely mean, that the degrees on the brass-meridian, on the north or south side of the equator, must be brought to the north or south side of the wooden horizon, according as the given latitude IS north or south. o a «• When the reader has commitled these remarks to memory, and has made himself familiar with the lines, circles, &c„ already described, he may proceed to work the following problems. Problem I. To find the latitude and longitude of any place.-Bving the given place to the brazen meri, dian, and the degree which stands directly over it will be (he latitude; and' the degree marked upon the equator wuich stands directly under the brass-meridian will be the east or west longitude, accordingly as it is numbered toward the east or west upon the equator. Here it is of considerable importance to remark, that the situation of cities, &c. is usually pointed out on the terrestrial globe by a small mark, thus, o. This marJi therefore, and not merely the name of the place, should be brought to the brass-meridian, or otherwise the longitude may be incorrect. Problem 11. The longitude and latitude of any place being given, to find that place on the qlobe.-Wmr. the degree of longitude to the brass-meridian, and under the degree of latitude upon the same meridian you will find the p ace, on the north or south of the equator, as the latitude is north or south. Thus, if it be asked. What place is situate in 113 deg. 2 min. of east longitude, and in 23 deg. 8 min. of north latitude? you will find that Canton in China is intended. ^ Problem III. To find all those places which have the same longitude or lalitude.-U respect of the lonai- tude, bring the given place to the brass-meridian, and observe all the plar^-s ,,„dcr the ed"e of thai nieri dian, boll, on the north and the south side of the equator; for all these will have the same longitude. And in regard of the latitude, Wmg the given place to the brass-meridian, and, having marked its latitude, tura the globe gently round, and observe all those places which pass under the same degree, for these will have the same latitude. Dstructions for A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY the od..r place to the a^eridil -nd'the nuX o/T^l::":::::^ .Z)^ 1 ! 1'''' *'"","'• •"^" '""^ be the difference of latitude. To find the difference Xlii^H T 7^* prev.o.mly marked will dian, and note if longitude; then bring the oZp ace ofhe 'e^ "". 1 "*' """" '" "" ''"'«""-"■ its longitude and that of the former place, counted on the al^!/ f ' ""'^ "" ""•"''•^'" '^ •^•^^'^^^ »>«'-— the answer. "^ " ""^ "'I'"""''' "'« "e^est *ay round the globe, wilj give PnoBLEM V. To find the shorten diatmce between tu,n «.^ t quadrant of altitude over the given places^To VhaTTe Zi • '''rf ""^"^ '''* ^rraduated edge of the then the degrees on the quadrant col " 1 betw e^^^^^^ -'/"one of U.e pinces: and these will be reduced to geographical or EnS lile hv wT ^'? ^°" "'^ '^'''"''' "' •''^K'-^««; phical, or 69i English, miles^fke'^a deLee T , p-^ 1^^^ ' "^ T '^ ""*' " '"^ '^^"S^" between the given places with a pair of'^rmpasses^d a"pH '. "» / answered by ..k.ng ,be distance shew the number of degrees it contains ^^^ ^ ""' ''""""'=« '° "'^ ^'I""'"''. >vhich will Jhen tnrn the globe til. the other place comes to the W^S^rl J^ .l^ •;:^^ J^/tl^X'^:;: be in north latitude, observe how many Lgrees t isTo Z„^^^^^^^ Y ^T"-•' "''"' '^ "'^ ^i^^" P'«ce the same number of degrees to the southward of he as orwrn"! f '"' """' °' '''^ •"-'-»' under the same meridian, but on different sides of the .rlr . . ^" *""*"'' °'" '''"^^ '^>'o "i'^e of degrees, reckoned from the ^r.^'po nt of it ll^ ' "!? equ.-d.stant from it. An equal number those who live under opposite merl 1 o the Ze ^^^^^^^^^^^^ "T"' ""'i ''''' '"^ ''--'• - 't. And the same number of degrees, counted lowardrr ./ J j '^""'°''' '"^ '' ^1"^' ^'«'«"««» ^om or .hose who live under opposite IS iZtf, 7 ^^ ^ ^ 1,1 '''^B^f Th ' ''^'''' ""Z '"^ -'^^''-' /«/»/««/., the same rule will serve, reading Bou.h for north L ^"'" P'^'^' '^^ '» *"«'* circr^f irrtetl::1j;t:;::J^ '".he given day i„ ,. are the sign or degree in which the sun is for that day Halinl f A u " "'^ ^'^'''' °'" »'•« ^'S-^. ecliptic, on the snrn.ce of the globe, bring it to the b a ^terfd a 7a dT. ZZTf '"" ." ''''''' '"^''^ oned on the meridian, will be the sun's declination. Or if voa LnT .1 i " '*" "I""*"'*' --"k- .l.e .««•. place ,„ ,he ,»«r„ poin, of the l,„ri.ol! ,„dT h„„; cTi M \ "'"L""'" '° "^- Tl.«n bring .{_e ...er of ..,„o. ,.«„..„ .„e .„„, „L .„a JhoZn-l'^S- LrnroT^Tlt Si" .l|e son-, place ,„J ,I,o „L or s'olp, ofTr. „ fl 'ri"""™ "'■"' ^'°'"' "" "" ''»'»"" ^"•»«" ... c».„,., rc,„,:f:f i;x:{rr;. r,!::..:r e^^^^^^^^^^^ o-«... hc.» places. Bring that place to the brass-meridiin • .TJ"';^' f f \ ^^^ ^^'""''^ "'^ ""e of the given .nove the quadrant till i,s graduated ec^^e to ch'es r^tVo": e"" 1 1"'"'^ "/"" ^''^ "^^^^^^ °-- '^ ^ bonzon between the brass-meridiun and the grad ed edle^ of ,L "T^'^ "^'^^^"^^ "" "^ -"«''- pole) will give the angle of position requir d " ' '^"''''■'"* (reckoning towards the elevated XVI A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. PnontEM XIII. To find that part of the. equation of time, which depends on the obliquity of the ecliptic. Hnvinjy found the sun's place in the ecliptic, and brought it to the brass-meridian, count the number of dejrrees between that meridian and the sign Aries, on the equator and on the ecliptic : then the diiTerence, allowing four minutes of time to a degree, will shew the equation of time. It may be proper to add, that, if the number of degrees on the ecliptic exceed those on the equator, the sun is faster than the clock • but if the number of degrees on the equator exceed those on the ecliptic, the sun is slower than the clock. SECTION V. Description and Use of the Celestial Globe. The celestial globe is an artificial representation of the heavens, on which the fixed stars are laid down in their natural situations. In using this globe, the student is supposed to be situated in the centre of it, and viewing the stars in the concave surface ; and, when it is turned on its axis from east to west, it exhibiU the apparent diurnal motion of tJhe heavenly bodies. In order to avoid needless repetitions in our description of this instrument, it will be necessary to remind the reader, that several things which have already been explained, as belonging to the terrestrial globe, are also common to the celestial; viz. the axis — the brazen meridian — the hour-circle — the horizon, with its eight circles—the mariner's compass— the quadrant of altitude— the ecliptic, &c. The equator on the terrestrial globe is called the equinoctial on the celestial. The Zodiac is a space which extends about eight degrees on each side of the ecliptic, like a belt or girdle, within which the motions of all the planets are performed. The zodiac, like the ecliptic, is divided into twelve equal parts, called signs, each containing 30 degrees. The sun makes his apparent annual progress through the ecliptic at the rate of nearly a degree in a day. The names of the signs, and the days on which the sun enters them, are as follow : Spring Signs. •V Aries, the Ram, Ski of March. U Taurus, the Bull, 19th of April, n Gemini, the Twins, 20th of May. Summer Signs. 25 Cancer, the Crab, 2l8t of June. Si Leo, the Lion, 22d of July. m Virgo, the Virgin, 22d of August. These six sighs are called northern signs, being north of the equinoctial ; when the sun is in any of these signs, his declination is north. Winter Signs. y Capricomus, the Goat, 21st of December. Autumnal Signs. £^ Libra, the Balance, 23d of September. v\ Scorpio, the Scorpion, 23d of October. 4t Sagittarius, the Archer, 22d of November. Aquarius, the Water-bearer, 20th of January, X Pisces, the Fishes, 19th of February. These six signs are called southern signs : when the sun is in any of these signs, his declination is south. The spring and autumnal signs are called ascending signs ; because, when the sun is in any of these, his declination is increasing. The summer and winter signs are called descending signs; because, when the' sun is in any of these signs, his declination is increasing. The cardinal points in the heavens are the zenith, the nadir, and the points where the sun rises and sets. The zenith is a point in the heavens exactly over our heads, and is the elevated pole of our horizon. The nadir is a point in the heavens exactly under our feet, being the depressed pole of our horizon, and the zenith of the horizon of our antipodes. ^ The celestial meridians are lines diawn from pole to pole directly across the equinoctial ; they are also called circles of declination. The parallels of declination are less circles drawn parallel to the equinoctial. Thr pnh.^ >f thp rclipfic, or those points on which the celestial meridians meet, on each side of the globe, are 90 degrees distant from every part of the ecliptic. The cobires are two great circles ; one of which passes through the equinoctial points Aries and Libra, and the other through the solstitial points, Cancer and Capricorn; for which reason they are called the equinoctial and solstitial coluros. They divide the ecliptic into four equal parts, and mark the four seasons of the year. A COMPENDIUM OF ASTRONOMY. The cofutellatiom occupy the whole surface of the celestial globe; and are A[.\A.A • ♦ , '''^ «.uthern. and tho.e .n the zodiac, and with all the.e the leHrnex.hodd Ike ht ,f '" '? ''''''^''''^ '^' The nght ascennon of the sun, .noon, or stars, is that decree of the rnni, ' '.'";«'f .«« f«'».liar as possible. Uhhque ascenmon is that dee-rec of tUf pmniw.^i:..! i ■ i . K'u»e. «tar. re'ckonin, eastward from'the7r t oi "a I 'o^^^^^^^ '" ''^ "'^"t» ^'"' *"« -"' -on. or a which comes to the horizon with the gi'^^en st r &c A?d 1 ""'"7" " "'"' ''^&-« "f the equinoctial the right and oblique ascensions. ^'"^ «*'^'"'««««' dlff'^rence is the rfZ/TemKe between iifijrA/ rfc.,ccnsto«, oft/i^we rfescc««o«, and descensional difference havP th« «„ c the sun, the .noon, or a star, as the preceding .ern.s have iolTrilina """" *° '^' "'''"^ "'^ The latitude of a star, or planet, is its distance north or south fmC .1. i- • of the ecliptic on the quadrant of altitude. The sun beinjr always 7n .hi ""'f \ '=°"»'"' <«'vard the pole ffituda of any celestial body is its distance, counted eastward oifthp Tr'^T' "° '"'""''^- ^he Ion- The longitude of the sun on the celestial globe is til s m as th'sunVn Ic T ' •' ''"' P"'"' "^ ^-- The rising of any celestial body is when its centre appear! l the as '" " fl^'" ''" "" '^"««'''«'- r::';:3rt:::ir^^ ^^ '^^ •'— ^'»- -^ ■'- -^«. ^^ ^:r:t;'cr:d:^:rr ;;; Amplitude is the distance (either north or south) "If a„7cr^ro'b 1 . t " .?""' "'' """''''"' «'"'«''- horizon at tl.e time of rising or setting. Azimuth is the'd^stn e of 1 ve Zl T' " ""' """' "' '''« heavenly body, from the north or south point of the horizon and is ei.h! ? " ^"""'"^ *'''""g'» ^"y As the planets are moving bodies thev cannnt K ? ''^^ ^^''^''^ "'' ^-esterly. ' the .odiac^may easily be rolT^y Z^^^ ^l^^^^^^^^ ''' TT ^'""^^ "" '"'^ P'«- ■" learner stick a small piece of paper on the piLs tls fo „d'he Ta Zlu "'"' ^''"""^^' '"''' '^ »''« as that of the fixed stars. '^' "* "''^ «"^ "'^" "•'«'"§:. setting, &c. as easily These definitions, if committed to memorv. will pn<.l.l« ♦!,».« j . Problem I. Tojtnd the right ascensioTZd lecliZ^onff'a IT " ""i.^' '""""'"^ P'"'*'^'"^- the longitude and latitude of a place on thTtrres rXlfe " f^^^ '« exactly the same as finding ridian, the degree of the equinoctial will herthe If te^sTon aTd htT" ''" ''\ '""^'" '» ""^ ™- star will give its declination. ^ ascension, and the degree on the meWdian over the g.ven star successively to the eastern point of the borizoT ttbr .^"'"-«'« « «' 12- Then bring the horizon ; and, by looking each time at the hlr circl yo^ wdl seeT/[ "' /"' "" ""'^^" P"'"' ^^ *'- setting. '="*''*' y" '^'" ««e the t.me of .ts rismg, culminating, and tude Insert a piece^'of quill or otlferTubt;; tw rrtl^ ' "'^ ?" ^'^'^"^ "^ «''^ steady, and move the quadrant till it come exactlylo "he cen^ e nf ^h^ '.^' "^"!^'«°' '« ^^^^P ^^e former . the quadrant cut by the star will be the latitude and hp d.l fl f ''" °*'*''*-' *'''" »"'« ^'S^ee of the longitude required. ' ""^ '''^ "^"S^^^ °^ "'^ ««=''?"<= cut by the quadrant will be Problbm \^ To find on ttihat day of the year anv .tnr ««»» .1 star to the brass-meridian, and set the hour- cTe Zh . vfn 1 TTen t"' .t' " fT ^-'"-Bring the to 12 at noon, and the dnv of th- n,o-.th ^^ ^ ' , " '""■" '''^ S'obe till the inde* nni-t meridian will be the day required '-^■'-P""^'"^ -.th the degree of the ecliptic, then under^'the place, bring the sun s longitude to the meridian, and set the hour-circle to xviii LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. 13 o'clock: then turn the globe till the index point to the t^iven hour; and the itara in tb« lieavein will appear in the same situation an upon the ^iohe. IC the ^;lol)e, in thia cuHe, be tnken into the open air, and a pencil be placed erect on either of the atura drawn on its surface, it will point out that particular alar in the heavens. Problkm VU. The latilude, daif of the month, and hour, beinff yiveri, to jind the altitude and azimuth of' antf star.— Recufy the globe for the g^iven latitude, bring the aun'a place to the meridian, aet the hour-circle at 1'?, and turn the n;lube till the index point to the g^iven hour. Then fix the quadrant of altitude on the zenith, and bring it over the star. The degree upon the quadrant cut by the star will be its altitude, and the distance between the foot of the quadrant and the north or Roulh point of the horizon, will be the azimuth. Prorlem VllL The latitude, day of the month, and hour, being given, to Jind lehat planett will hevisible. Rectify the globe for the latitude of the place, bring the sun'a place to the meridian, and net the hour-circle to 12. Then, if the given time be before noon, turn the globe eastward till the index has pasaed over as many hours as the time wants of noon ; but, if the given time be past noon, turn the globe westward, till the index has passed over as many hours as the time is past noon. Steady the globe in this position, and look in an ephcmeris for the longitudes of the planeU; and if any of them be in the signs of (he zodiac which are above the wooilon horizon, such planets will be visible. Problem IX. To Jind the distanrp of two stars from each other in rfejrrec*.— Lay the quadrant of altitude over the given stars, so that the division marked o may rest on one of them, and the degrees between tliem, counted on the quadrant, will give their distance. Problem X. To Jind the time of the moon's rising, southing, and setting for any latitude and day of the year.— Look in an ephemeris for the moon's longitude and latitude for the given day, and mark its place in the zodiac with a small paper patch ; then its rising, southing, and setting, may b« found as easily as those of the stars. The term southing implies the same as the culminating of the stars, viz. coining to the meridian. TABLE OF THE LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES OF THE Principal Places on the Surface of the Earth. NamM of Places. Abbeville Aberdeen Abo Acapuico Aiheii Adriaiiople Ai^ra Aix la Chapellc , Alderney (Isle) . . , Aiep)iu Alexiuulria Algiers Amiens Amsterdam Anguilla (IiUe) .. Aiiiiapulis Aiitibes Cont. Europe K 11 rope Europe Aincr. Asia Europe Asia Europe l';uix>pe Asia Afriea Africa Europe Europe Aincr. Amer. Europe Counlry or Sea France Scotland .... Finland Mexico ..... .Sumatra. . . . Turkey India f iermany . . . En^. Cbau. . Turkey Earypt Aljiiers France Holland .... Carib. Sea . . United Statep France . . . Latitude. Loni^itudc. 7N. 9 N. 10 N. 10 N. 22 N. 10 N. 43 N. 47 N. 42 N. 45 N. 11 N. 49 N. b3 N. 21 N. N. .')2 N. 34 N, o / 1 49 E. 1 28 W. 22 13 E. 101 45W. i).5 34 E. 26 30 £. 70 44 E. r> 4 E. 2 17W. 37 20 E. 30 39 E. 2 13 E. 2 18 E. 4 51 E. 02 57 W. 64 5 W. 7 7 E. Names of Places. Antigua (St. John's) Antwerp Aracan Archangel Arran (Isle) Ascension (Isle) Astracun Athens Augsburg A va Babelmandel Straits Baghdad Bantry Bay Barbadoes, B.Town. Barbuda (Isle) Basil Cuut. Amer. Europe Asia Europe Europe Afriea Asia Europe Europe Asia Africa Asia F.t! ropr Amer. Amer. Europe Country or Sen latitude. I/inf!itudc. o 1 02 9W. k Carib. Sea . . o 17 1 4 N. Belgium. . 51 13 N. 4 23 E. India 20 .'{ N. 93 30 E. Russia 01 33 N. 38 ,5!) E. Scothmd n.-i 39 N. 5 12 W. S.Atl. Ocean 7 frf) S. 13 59 W. Unssia 40 21 N. 48 8 E. Turkey 38 5N. 23 .52 E. \ Germany. . . . 48 16 N. 10 52 E. \ India 21 30 N !!6 E. Abyssinia.. . 12 !)0 N. 43 .50 E. Chaldea 33 19 N. 44 24 E. !r« land 51 20 N. iO low. Atl. Ocean.. 13 ON. 59 .50 W. Atl. Ocean. 18 ON. 61 35 W. .Switzerland, 47 35 N 7 29 E. **f^^**^****-t **^ ^**i**** ^■^^■*^^^0^^.* LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. I-ongituUe. J o / 5 02 9W. 5 4 23 E. J 03 30 E. » 38 f)9 E. 5 5 12 w. 5 13 .-iiiw. ; 48 8 K. 5 '2-i .■>2 K. J 10 52 E. } !lfi E. 5 43 50 E. ; 44 24 E. 5 10 10 AV. J M SOW. 1 61 35 W. 5 7 2!) E. J xu Num nr IMu'M. fun*. Country 01 ««. Ulituda. Lougilu.lt BaueTnrc Buitiu Uatuvia Bath Btlfaul Bi'iicoulcn Merlin [\ U<'rniuriiro(lNle) .... BuKtllll Bulii|;iie Bum bun (i«lc) ..,, Bciunlraiix .... Bietia [ Brtdlau Bifjt ] BridKC Towa Bri^^hlon BrittuI .' .' _ Bruffu '// Brussels .... Bud« .■;;;■ Biienua Ayres Burgoi '. Cachao Cadiz ',[[['/ Capfliari '.'..'.'. Cairo Calcutta, (F." will.")". Calmiir I Camlirldj^c '.'.'.., Canary(l8lc), N.E.i>V Candia(lsle) Cautlf) Miiillitt Mmituit Mmarillt'N Miu'tiiiicii (I'orl Kiiyftl) iMauritiu Mew* Mt-chlln MeUina Mntlim IWrli Mrxio Miildkbiirg MilHIl MiM'ha Mtiiw Moni|K'lllrr Muiilniiic , Miiiitn'rrat (Ilk) , Morocco , MoiMHIW , Munich Niuuir N«X«iiaki Nankin , Nanin Naplm , Ncwcaitks , New York Niagara , Nianim Noolku Northampton Noinirh , Nuttinghuin , Oporto Orenburg Orli-ans Osloud Oxfonl (Observatory) Padiia Pulcrnio Palmyra I'anama Paris (Obtervatory) . . Pegu Pekin Pembrolif Perth PetersburRli Philadelphia Pisa Plymouth Porto Bello Port Royal Portsmouth Piitosi Prague Prcsbur-; rmil. r-uroiH- I'^urope Kurope Kurupr Europe Asia Europe Europe Europe Europe Kurope Europe Amer. EHnuM" Asia Asia Europe Europe Europe Amer. Europe EurojH? Amer. Amer. Eui'ope S. Ame. Europe Europe Quebec ,, , .Amer Quito i Amer. Europe Euru|H' Europe Alia Aaia Africa Alia Europr Auro|M- Amer. Africa Euri>|H' Europe Europe .■\aia Ania Euro|te ICurope Europe Amer. Amer. Couiilry i>r Hm. Italy Helgium,.. . I'rancr China t'rIrlM'B Allan. Ocean India , . , Mpain .... India .... Mrf lliifa. linmiigate Khciini KIiimIcii Kio Janriru Itwk of l.iidMin Rome (,St Peter'*) ... Rotterdam Runen .Saint Andrew'a St. Cathrrlne'ii (Me) . . .St. ChrlKtupher'a (I«le) SI. EiiKlatIa (lale) St. Helena (Jainei'l'iiwii' .St. l.ucia(l>le) St. Salvador Sl.ThonuM (l»le) Sallahury Sanuirciuul Sainon Suntu Ciui! Santa I'e Sainlwich (lule) Scarborough Head Sut. Zurich r.urope Enni|H' A»la Amer. Europr Europe Europe lairope Europr Amer. Amer Amer. A frica Amer, N.Anie. Amer Europe Asia Alia Africa Amer. Asia Europe I'iurope Euro|H' Europe Asia Europe Euru|K' ICurope ICurope Asia Africa Europe Asia Asia Europe Alia Alia Europe Euro|H' An r. Ai.ii'a Africa Europr Europe Europe Amer. Europe Anicr. Africa Europe Europe Euro|H? Europe Europe Amer. Europe Europe Europe Europr Europe Europe Europe Asia Europe Europe ******»**»»»***»**»»*»»*»» ^***»t»^ ('iiuulry or Hn Englanit .... Francit .... Airhiprlagu llrailf Portugal . . . Ilalv Holland .... I 'riince S<-ollHnd..., Allan, m'enii CarllM'an ,Sea Cariliran Hen Allan. Ocean West Indies Hnuil Weil. Indies England .... Tartary .... AiThi|i«lago TencriH'e New Mexico Paci/lc Ocean I'.iigland .... Eng.Chaunel England... England . , , Nalolia . . . England . . . Sweden . . . England . . . I'-ngland . , (■eorgia . . . Canaries . . . Ilidland .. India SilN'ria ... Sjiaiii cdM'ria .... PaciBc Ocean England . , I'rauce . . Allan. Ocean Barbary . . . Barhary . . . Swe N 1 r 24 v. ■S N -1 1 Iv 7 N. •iH 46 i; 1 H 4'i 43 W * h N II 3ft W, \ 1 N. lU 20 V. \ % N. i 21) Iv \ 1 N. 1 1 W, \ I N •i 41) W \ % s. 41) 12 W % N. fli 3HW. \ \ \ • N. (13 14 W, 't H, ^ 40 W i IS. (10 4(1 W H H. UN OW. \ t N. tl4 2(1 W, s 1 N. 1 47 W \ » N. III) K. \ \ 1 M. a? 13 V. \ 1 N. Id low \ » N. 105 ow 1 ,S. ION 33 v.. \ * N. 13 W i N. (i 40 \V } i N. fiO E. J N. a 40 vv. t t ^ N. 27 (1 e. 1 1 ^. 1 23 W k > N. IH 3 E. 2 1 N. 1 40 W. \ \ i N. • low. \ ) N. 47 E. \ 1 N. If. 40 W. \ ) N. 4 fil) E, \ 1 s. l'^4 4W. I N, OH 2I> E. \ ) N. :i 20 W. \ ) N. H4 .')0 E, ) s, 174 40 W. \ 1 N. 3 30 W. 1 N. A 56 E. \ ) s. l!2(i 42W.I \ \ ) N. 13 5 E. \ ! N. 10 E. \ 1 N. 17 38 E. \ \ \ r N. 5 E. \ N. 3 31 E. \ \ s ! H. 72 low. \ i N. Vl 22 E. \ s ) N. DO ow. \ 1 N. 17 30 W. \ s t N. 11 IH E. s t N. 2 7 E. \ \ ! N. 16 16 E. \ N. 31 E. \ \ N. 1 32 W. \ N. 77 43 W. \ N. 6 30 W. s N. 2 34-W. \ N. 3 15 W. \ N. 25 27 E. N. 1 16 W. \ \ N. 2 OW. ^. 10 13 E. \ \ X N. 129 62 E. N. 1 48 E. * « N. 1 (iW. 4 N. 9 21 E. 1 \ r*****^»^**»**** i A NEW AND COMPLETE SYSTEM OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. ^^*^^^^^0^S^*^^^^^0^^ PART I. •■*♦*# *^i*##» ASIA. A HIS division of the terraqueous^ globe demands the first attention of the geographer and the historian; as 'it was in this quarter that those grand and interesting events took place, which are recorded in tlieHoly Scriptures of truth, and whicli we are commanded to inculcate upon the nunds of our children, and of our children's children. It was here that the eternal Jehovah first smiled propitiously on the works of his own creation, and emphatically pro- nounced them "very good;" whilst "the morning-stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy." Here our first progenitors were placed in the garden of Eden, which breathed ambrosial sweets around them, and presented to their hands the most delicious fruits and flowers; whilst the lion and the lamb, equally harmless, bounded over the enamelled carpet of the earth, and the heavens resounded with the songs of innumerable birds, warblmg amidst the unfading fohage of the trees. Here, subsequently to the introduction of im, and man's expul- sion from the lovely bowers of Paradise, an ark was pre- pared, by the Divine command, for the preservation of one family from the universal deluge, and, by the migration of different branches of that family, the whole world was pro- gressively peopled. In Asia, the descendants of Abraham were led safely to, and planted in, tlie land of promise. Here the law of ten commandments was given from hea- ven, with a degree of pomp and solemnity which may be more easily conceived than described; and a series of mi- racles evinced and illustrated the power, wisdom, and love, of that adorable Being, who hcd « chosen Israel as his own inheritance." On riiis continent the holy prophets uttered their predictions; and here the stupendous work of nian^s redemption was accomplished by the co-equal Son of God, "who died for our sins, and rose again for our .li.stihcation." Here also the truths of Christianity were hrst promulgated ;-tIie first Qiristian churches were 1- VOL.1. planted;— the blood of the martyrs was first shed;— and from hence the brightest rays of the gospel of peace gra- dually beamed forth upon a dai k and barren world. Finally, in Asia languages were first spoken, arts and manufactures were practised, edifices were reared, and empires were founded, whilst all the other divisions of the globe were uninhabited and unexplored. And whether we advert to the serenity of its climate, the natural fertility of its soil, the fragrancy and salubrity of its plants, gums, and spices,' the deliciousness of its fruits, or tlie richness of its various productions, which sparkle in tl)(> mines, embroider the meads, and mingle with its streams, its right of pre-emi- nence in a geographical description of the earth will be sufficiently and unanswerably established. This extensive continent is situated betAveeu25 and 190 degrees of east, or 17O of west, longitude; and between the equator and 78 degrees of north latitude. It is about six thousand miles in length, from the Dardanelles on the west, to the eastern shore of Tartary; and about five thousand five hundred miles in breadth, from the most southern part of Malacca to the northernmost cape of Asiatic Russia, It is bounded by the Frozen Ocean on the north. On the west it is separated from Africa by the Red Sea; and from Europe, by the Levant or Mediterranean, the Archipelago, the Hellespont, the Sea of Marmora, the Bosphorus, tfie Black Sea, the River Don, and a line drawn from it to the River Tobol, and thence to tlie River Oby, which falls into the Frozen Ocean. On the east, it is bounded by the Pacific Ocean, which separates it from America- and on the south by the Indian Ocean: so that it is almost surrounded by the sea. The following table will convey an accurate idea of the different countries into which it is divided, with their comparative extent of territory, their respective bearings from London, and the religion's pro- fessed by their inhabitants. B ..S niNitim !(,■ Ihonni ^W^v.»r,« /\*„^ttn- /I.h r!*' ,•;»"• TC ■ n h>M»uy/^ c i: A -iV y>,*..irt«A*.< y»/A'*r/«/^'7»fOT«/^/','i,,|7-,«^«kTr(nr*rA.«'./rt»*w. UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. [Paiii 1. DIVISIONS OF ASIA. e u 3 Naliooi. r Palestine Syria Natolia DiARBECK, or 2 M.SSOPOTAMIA $ ' Irac, or Chaldea. TURCOMANIA, or Armenia Georgia .... CuRDisTAN, or > Assyria ^ China......... HiNDOOSTAN .. India beyond > theGANGEs 5 "■■ Persia... Arabia Asiatic Russia .... Chinese Tibet , fNDEPENDENT TaET Length. 210 270 750 240 420 360 240 210 1350 1890 2000 1300 1400 5300 3000 1500 1500 Breadth. 90 ICO 390 210 240 300 180 205 1060 1550 1000 1050 1260 1900 1080 500 850 *'*»^* ****** *^*^>»*^* Square Miles. 7,600 29,000 195,000 27,000 50,400 55,000 25,600 23,900 1,298,000 870,910 741,500 800,000 700,000 3,050,000 944,000 385,000 500,000 Chief Cities. Jerusalem Aleppo S Bursa, or \ Smyrna Diarbeck Bagdad Erzerum Teflis Mousul Pekin Delhi ( Siam, or ,iPgu Ispalian Mecca Tobolsk Chynjan Lassa . Samarcand Distance andBcar ingfrum London. 1920 S.E. 1860 S.E. 1440 S.E. 2060 S.E. 2240 S.E. 1860 S.E. 1920 E. 2220 E. 4320 S.E. 3720 S.E. 5040 S.E. 2460 S.E. 2640 N.E. 2160 S.E. 4480 N.E. 3780 E. 2800 E. Differ, of Time from London 24 bef. 30 bef. 1 48 bef. 56 bef. 04 bef. 44 bef. 10 bef. — bef. 24 bef. 16 bef. 6 44 bef. 20 bef. 52 bef. 10 bef. 4 bef. 40 bef. 4 36 bef. Religion. Ch. and Mah. Ch. and Mah. Mahom. Maho- . metans, with ^some few Christians *************^*********** Mahom. Pagans Mah. and Pas. Pag. and Mah. Mahom. Miihom. oil. and Pag. Pagans Pagans Pagans [ \ •*^*j ASIATIC ISLANDS. ********** Islands, Australasia ............... Polynesia The Japanese Isles __ The Kurile Isles, and those in the vered by the Russians The Ladrones .............. Formosa .................. Anian ^ . The Philippines The Molucca, or Clove Isles . , , The Banda, or Nutmeg Isles Amboyna, '\ surrounding C Celebes, V the Molucca \ Gilolo, &c. J and Banda Isles ( ( Borneo .... The Sunda Isles •? Sumatra (Java, 8tc The Andaman and Nicobar Isles Ceylon The Maldives .............. Bor™'''"' Towns. Jeddo, Meaco .... Sea of Kamtschatka, lately disco- Guam ............ Tai-ouan-fou ....... Kiontcheow ........ Manilla , Victoria Fort, Ternate Lantor. ............ Amboyna. .......... Macassa Gilolo , Borneo, Caytongee. . . Achen, Bencoolen . . . . Batavia, Bantam ...... Andaman, Nicobar. . . Candy ............. Caridon ............ S. Miles. 138,000 17,000 11,900 133,700 400 68,400 10,400 228,000 129,000 33,250 27,730 Trade with or belong to. English English Dutch \ Russia Spain ^ China Spain Dutch Dutch Dutch Dutch Dutch All Nations English and Dutch Dutch All Nations Dutch All Nations JUingiish »»»»'»<»#»'^»»»y^# »^i»i#i»#i» # ^^^^ «^rf>^^«^^ Though inland seas are less numerous in Asia than in Europe, yet, in addition to a portion of the Mediterranean this quarter of the globe includes the Red Sea and the Gulf of Persia, the buys of Bengal and Nankin, and other gulfs, which render the coasts much more diversified than those of Africa or America. The Red Sea, or the ancient Arabian Gulf, is the grand line of division drawn by nature between Asia and Africa • but Its advantages have been principally experienced by the' latter, which IS completely destitute of any other inland sea. This celebrated gulf extends aliout fourteen hundred and seventy British mUes, from the Straits of Babelmandel to Suez, and terminates, not in two equal branches, asde- scnbed in old maps, but in an extensive western branch whilst the eastern runs but a short distance beyond the pa- rallel of Mount Sinai. The Gulf of Persia is another in- land sea, about half the length of the former, into which the nvers Tigris and Euphrates pour their tributary streams. The other Asiatic gulfs do not exhibit such characteri». tic features of what are stricUy tem.ed inland seas; but this extensive tract of country contains seas which are totally detached, and entirely different from any that occur in the other quarters of the world. Such are the Euxine and the Caspian seas, the latter of which extends about seven hun- dred miles in length, and from one hundred to tvyo hundred m breadth This sea receives several important rivers; and though the nortliem shores are low and swainpy. i„ other parts tl.e coasts are sw.p, and the water i« of such considerable depth, that a line of four hundred and f.fty fathoms will not reach the bottom. The lake of Aral, situated about a hundred miles on Uie east of the Caspian, has been but little explored, from the circumstance of its being skirted with sandy deserts; but it IS about two hundred miles in length, and seventy in breadth. Its water .s salt, like that of the Caspian; and th. rivers , Sirr and GAon (the Jaxartes and the Oxus of antiquity) disembogue themselves into it. ^ J^ \ .u '^^l '^ i ®'''"''' '" ^''"^^ ^^''^' ^''tends about Aree hundred and fifty miles in length, but its greatest breadth does not exceed thirty-five. The water, though tinged «uh green, is fresli and transparent, and contains abundance of fish. The principal rivers of Asia are the Kianku and Hoan Ho, the Lena, theOby, and the Yenisey. which, in the length of their course, rival any others in the world Next m miportance are the Amur and theMaykaung of Laos, the Burrampooter, and the Ganges; to which the Euphrates and the Indus are very inferior. The mountains of Asia do not equal these of Europe in e!evo„on, .„e .-riiaian chain, however, may be ranked among the most extensive on the surface of the globe- as It extends about five thousand miles, which is a greater distance than that occupied by the Andes of South Ame- ASIA; rica. To the south of this ridge extends the elevated de- sert of Shame, in a parallel direction from east to west- and ,„ this central prominence of Asia the lofty region of Thibet may he included. The other principal raiLs of mountains -an-. Bogdo, Changai, Belur, the Ghauts of Hindoostan, and the Caucasian range between the Caspian and the. c^uxine seas. The prevaUing form of government in Asia is absolute monarchy; and the blessings of freedom are entirely un- known to its .inhabitants, with the exception of the wan- dering tnbes of Tartars and Arabs. Many of tne Asiatic nauons when the Dutch first came among them, seemed to consider ,t impossible that any other form of govenmient could subsist than that of regal despotism. With regard to religion, Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, Persia, part of India, and part ofTartary, acknowledge Mahomel for their prophet and legislator. Other parts of Tartary. India, Clnna, and the Asiatic Islands, are principally inha. bited by heathens and idolaters, among whom are the wor- shippers of Bmma and Foe, the devotees of Confucius, and those who profess to adore the supreme Ruler of the mii- verse, under the symbol of fire. Jews are to be met with in every part of Asia; and these people inhabited the remoter regions of India some cen tunes before the discovery '.y the Portuguese. Christia- nity, though planted here by the aposUes and primitive fathers, suffered an almost total eclipse by the conquests ot the Saracens, and afterwards of the larks. Incredi- ble, indeed, have been the hazards and sufferings of the" missionanes, to propagate their doctrines in the most dis- tant regions, and amongst the grossest idolaters; but their labours have hitherto faUed of success, owing in a great measure to the avarice, cruelty, and injustice oIf the Euro- peans, who resort thither in search of power or opulence. Ihe languages principally spoken in this division of tiie globe are the Turkish, the modem Greek, the Chinese the Japanese, the Russian, the Persian, the Malayan, the Arabic, and the Tartarian. The European languages arc also spoken upon the coasts of China and India. The inhabitants of the soutiiem parts of Asia are extremely mdolent, that they never stir but with reluctance. But the northern tribes, who occupy the extensive regions of Tartary, are robust and active, hate idleness, and are continually roving about. The first are the most inge- r^ious, the latter the most courageous: the former have brought several arts to great perfection, the latter deem courage the greatest virtue, and athletic exercises the most essenual marks of genius. This disparity of disposition - occasions them to desnisp «>nrJi ntlior «„ ^rr^ss-^ -'• -t-' contrast which marks their characters r each is satisfied with the nature of his own country; and each imagines, that his peculiar mode of life leads by the most diiect road to earthly felicity. UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY [Part I CHAPTER L TURKEY IN ASIA. T Situation, Extent, and Boundaries. HIS vast region is situated between twenty-eight and forty-four degrees of north latitude, and between twenty- six and forty-five degrees of east longitude. It extends about eleven hundred and twenty miles in length, and up- wards of a thousand in breaddi; and is computed to con- tain four hundred and seventy thousand and four hundred square miles. Its boundaries are, the Black Sea and part of Circassia on the north; Persia on the east; Arabia and the Levant on the south ; and the Archipelago, the Helles- pont, and Propontis, on the west. Division^.] Asiatic Turkey is divided into three parts, viz. Syria, including Palestine, on the east of the Levant Sea ; — t/ie eastern provinces of Irac Arabia, or Chaldea ; Diarbeck, or Mesopotamia; Curdistan or Assyria; Turco- mania, or Armenia; and Georgia; including Mingrelia, Imaretta, and part of Circassia ; —and Natolia, or Asia Minor, comprising Natolia Proper, Amasia, Aladulia, and Caramania. Climate, Soil, ^c] The climate of Turkey in Asia has always been considered excellent; as there are a softness and serenity in the air, which are not found on the Euro- pean side 6f the Archipelago; and the heat of summer is considerably moderated by those ranges of mountains which are capped with perpetual snow. The soil is extremely va- rious; but in general it is tolerably fertile. Palestine, in particular, was, in former times, luxuriantly productive; and modem travellers assure us, that, notwithstanding its present desolate and neglected state, it still exhibits visi- ble signs of its natural fertility. Even Volney gives his evidence to this fact; and Dr. Shaw remarks, that " if the Holy Land were as well peopled, and as well cultivated, as in ancient times, it would be still more fruitful tlian the best provinces of Syria and Phoenicia." Wherever wheat is sown, if it be not destroyed by rajn, it grows to the height of a man, and yields ar exuberant harvest; and the cotton that is gathered in the plains of Ramah and Zebulon is of greater \alue than that which grows in the ricinity of Sidon and Tripoli. In its happier days, this country abounded with pomegranates, dates, figs, citrons, orangef., hemp, flax, cedars, cypresses, and many other stately and fragrant trees ; oil, honey, gums, and drugs ; together with tt profusion of cattle, fowls, tish, &c. ; so that Moses had the strictest regard to veracity, when he described the Land of Promise as " a land flowing with milk and honey; a laud of wheat and barley; of vines, figs, and pomegranates; of oil, olives, and honey ; a land where there is no lack ot any tiling." For the following remarks on the present aspect of this part of the country, and the interest excited by it, we are indebted to M. Chateaubriand, who travelled through Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary, during the years 1806 and 1807. " Witen you travel in Judea, the heart is at first filled with profound disgust; but when, passing from desert to desert, boundless space opens before you, this disgust gradually wears off, and you experience a secret awe, which, far from sinking the sj)irils, invigorates the mind, and elevates the genius. Extraordinary appearances every where proclaim a country teeming with prodigies. The scorching sun, the towering eagle, the barren fig-tree, all the poetry, all the pictures of scripture, are found here. Every name revives the recollection o^ something signifi- cant — every grotto indicates something symbolical— every hill suggests the voice of a prophet. In these regions the Almighty himsel** hath spoken. Rivers tliat are now dried up, rocks that are rent in sunder, sepulchres half opened, attest the miracle. The desert still appears mute through terror, and you would imagine, that it had never presumed to interrupt the awfulness of silence since it heard the voice of the Eternal." Lakes, Rivers, ^c] The Lake Asphaltites, or Dead Sea, is called in the Jewish writings the Sea of Sodom, die Salt Sea, and the Sea of the Desert. The name of Asphaltites was given to it on account of the great quan- tity of Asphaltus, or Bitumen, found on its borders. It was called the Dead Sea, because it was supposed diat no creature could exist in it, on account of its excessive saltness. It has been Generally understood that this lake was formed by the overthrow of the cities of Sodoineand Gomorrah, which, for their detestable crimes, perished in an extraordinary conflagration. And it is worthy of re- mark that, even at present, clouds of smoke are often seen to issue from it, and new crevices to be formed on its banks. " According to the tradition of the inhabi- tants," says Strabo, " the valley of the lake was formerly peopled by thirteen flourishing cities, which were swal- lowed up by a volcano." This account is furtiier con- firmed by the rums which travellers have discovered on the western border. The eruptions have long since [Part I id pomegranates ; lere is no lack ot nt aspect of this ited by it, vre are 'avelled througli during the years t is at tirst filled g from desert to oil, this disgust e a secret awe, ;orate$ tlie mind, ppeaiances every prodigies. The irrcn lig-trce, all are found here, iniethin;; s'i<;niti- mbolical— every [ii these regions ei's tliat are now sepulchres half till appears mute hat it had never silence since it PHALTITES, or le Sea of Sodom, The name of the great quaii- its borders. It i supposed that of its excessive od that this lake I of Sodoin«and nes, perished in s worthy of re- moke are often > be formed on I of the inliabi- ke was formerly iiich were swaU is further con- e discovered on ave long since TliUKKY,] ^ g re:»«cd; but caitliquakcs, which ugually succeed them, still continue to be felt at intervals in that country. The excewive saltneNs of the water, which infinitely ex - ceecis that of the sea, is the cause that deprives it of ve- getable and animal productions, and occasions that deadUy aspect which reigns on the borders of the lake. The ori- gin of th.3 mineral by which it is impregnated is easily dis- covered, for on the south-west shore are mines of fossil salt, situated in the side of the mountains, which from time immemorial have supplied the neighbouring Arabs. " The valley, which encloses the Dead Sea," says M . Chateaubriand, " displays a soil resembling the bottom of a sea that has long retired from its bed ; a beach covered with salt, dry nuid, and moving sands, furrowed a» it were by the waves. Here and tlicfe, stunted shrubs with diffi- culty vegetate upon this inanimate tract; their leaves are covered with salt, which has nourished them, and their bark has a smoky smell and taste. Instead of villages, you perceive the ruins of a few towers. Through the' middle of this valley flows a discoloured river, winch re- hictantly creeps towards the pestilential lake by wliidi it IS engulphed. Its course amidst the sands can be distin- guished only by the willows and the reeds that border it; and the Arab lies in ambush among these reeds, to attack the traveller, and to plundcT the pilgrim, " Such is the scene once famous for the benedictions and the curses of heaven. This river is the Jordan; this lake IS the Dead Sea; it appears brilliant, but the guilty cities entombed in its bo«om seem to have poisoned its waters. Its solitary abysses cannot afford nourishment to any living creature; never did vessel cut its waves- its shores are without birds, without trees, without verdure- and its waters are excessively bitter, and so heavy, that die most impetuous winds can scarcely ruffle their surface " " We descended from the ridge of the mountains, to pass the night on the banks of the Dead Sea, and after- wards proceed along the Jordan. In this manner we marched for two hours, following the fissures formed between the sand-hills, in mud baked by the rays of the iiun A crust of salt covered the surface, and resembled a plam of snow, from which a few stunted trees reared their heads. We arrived suddenly at the lake: no mur- mur, no cooling breeze, announced the approach to its margin The strand, bestrewed with stones, was hot; the w-a^er of the lake was motionless, and absolutely e. along the shore. It was q„ite dark. The first tlnng I did on alighting, was to walk into the lake up to my knees, and to taste the water. I found it impus^ble 'o keep u m my mouth; it far exceeds i„ saltne,. that of the sea, and produces upon the lips the effect of a ^rong solution of alum. Before my boots were com- P etely ,hy, they were covered wid. salt; our clothes, our "at«, our hands, were, in less than, three hours, impreg- 1 VOL. I. •^ 8 1 A. nated with this mineral. Galen, as early as hi» time, re- nwrked these effects, and Potwcke coiilimis their reality. "* The moon, rising at two in the morning, brouwer- iphcrds tending by crows and V, which, during On tlie side of it precipice, the lice, as if sniut- scs of rock arc 'I'he Olympus liest mountauis les to tlie wcst- lich Mas styled nces extend to I famous city «if jaiHis, or Leba- if the Mediter- letached range, lid near Jerusa- lliat interesting an extract; and straw, to accus- lie. Tlie hyasna lia Minor; and Mount Ararat, nmensely large ;n weigh ten or ixtrcmely beau , nnd Rs fine a.'! F eight or nine i. Tills liairls Lngora. These T1MIKI'.Y.J goats lire only to be seen wiUiin a few iiiilei. of the city as llic breed degenerates, if they are ro. vinces to .he court of Naples, in reciting his travels Ihrongh Analolia, says, " hi the country are great n.nnlM.r. ..f storks, winch allord the inhabitants an o.ld kind of di version Tluy place hen-eggs u. the slo.k's nrst; and. when the young are hal.:he,l, the male, on seeing then, of ad.lUreut .,.,,. from its own sp.eics, make, u ndeons noise which calls together a crow,! of othrr storks hover- ing about the .M.st, and who, t<. revuige the .li.gr«ee that he A-nmle has in appearance brought on her nest, destroy l'„ ' ^-1—1 — .ii'iri 3t,enct:s. '.isaSthafh'""' '"'''' P'^'"-f J-cho, which roni Ui.s fruit the natives extract an oil, which is an excel- A S i A. It l.nt remedy for bruwc, when .mernuiiy «pp|.e,|, and ,<„ wounds .hen nse.l externally, hs repu.ation is so grel, «l'« .t.spre»eMedeyen.o,h,.balmofU,|..u,| "^ ' I wo more na.ural curiosities abound in the plain, of Je. ncho, v... the wood-idive, the outwar.l ,:oat of which i. green, Ike the common olive, but, being taken „l\, a nut of a woody substance appears: it is of about the thickne.. of u" alingn.i-sheil, an.i ribbed lengthways. And the karoub or locust-tree, which bears a fr.it like a bean, containing -me small seeds: the shell, when .Iried. i, eaten, and ha! a very agreeable taste. Thes- are thought to be the locust. on which John the Hap.isl fed, and not the anima; of that name, as many have supposed. Cities, i^c.J Jkuusalkm, the ancient capital of Judea o..ce renowned for the splen.lor of i„ monarchs, the sump-' tuous magmhcence of its temple, and the pomp of its woV^ ;f the ancient Jerusalem, is now ' "early deluded; whilst Mount Calvary, which is ;xpres.Jy aid o have been « without the gate," is almost in .lie cen- tre o the c.y. With respect to its pre.ent state, it is but about three miles in circumference, and thinly inhabited. I he walls are weak, and without bastions; and the ditch in considerable. The gates are six in number, vi^. Damascus, bt. Stephen ., Herod's, Sterquelina, Bethlehem, and Mount Sion Gate; bes.de the Golden Gate, which is shut up on account of a prophecy which the Turks have among them that by this gate the Christians are to take Jerusalem ' I'or the following interesting particulars relative to this city we. 8 indebted to our countryman Dr. Clarke, whoso travels have been recently laid before the public. "At three o'clock we mounted our horses, and pro- rm ed on our route. No sensation of fatigue or hea- Mlli tlu: IIU|>- >ii ill J^rimulvm, ; uppi'Uiud con- uiiHiiig us much em vitwiiig this uur uiulf r!)tuM(J- it'bich no degree here lit much tu lid inunaiiterieit ; lesiciiption from lie l'uti»;ue uiid suiiic time, to , antiquities re iiore mortifying i.stukeu piety ot irve, eillier coi»- oured to perpe- ide, it niuy now r ii'st:ued from Mjua than their rocks of Judea : face of nature by way of com- fe and deatli, U ot escaped tlie ble for their in- hoiise, who rc- protection, and ispitality, in the ncense, coffee, rofusely sprink- :r water. Being i his interpreter St. Salvador, a of which were ade. Here we ses and camelii, i a party of the im the warmeiit round us, and B conducted by lie monks, who erior, who was >mpanioiis In cy arc ijoi few as the Franciii- H'RKKV.] " After being regaled with coffee, and some deliciou. Ifmoniide, w,< w^re shewn to our apartments, to repose ourselves until supper. The room allotted to our English p.nrty we fi.uml to be the same which many travellers have air..n THE nss.RE! Tlien, if the traveller has not already heard and seen enough to make him regret his waste of There they will shew hmi the same crack again, and i.„. mediately in front of it a modem altar, 'm, they vene- rate as Mount Calvary, the place of crucifixion ; exhibiting upon this contracted piece of masonry the marks or holes ot the three crosses, without the smallest regard to the space necessary to erect them. After this, he may be conducted tlirough such a farrago of absurdities, that it s Vonderftil the learned men who have described Jerusa- Iniifm '' ^^'^ ^^' ^"^'" '""' '"^ ^™"* ^'^'''^ " But, quitting these degrading fallacies, let us break from our monkish instructors; and, instead of viewing Je- rusalem as pilgrims, examine it by the light of history with the Bible in our hands : we shall tnus find many interesting objects of contemplation. Jf Mount Cal- ary has sunk beneath the overuihpl'ni"" infl-irn '^ ■ ^■ ously endeavouring to modify and disfigure it, through so many ages; if the situation of Mount Sion yet remains to be ascertamed; the Mount of Olives, unn.sguised by fana- tied labours, exhibits the appearance it presented in aU the fM U UNIVERSAL periods of its liistory. From its elevated summit, almost all the principal features of the city may be discerned ; and the chaiLges that eighteen centuries have wrought in its topography may perhaps be asceitained. The features of nature continue the same, though works of art have been done away; the beautiful gate of the temple is no more; but Siloa's fountain happily flows, and Kedron sometimes murmurs in the valley of Jehosaphat. " The hill which now bears the name of Sion is situated upon the south side of Jerusalem, part of it being excluded by the wall of the present city, M-hich passes over the top of the mount. If this be indeed Mount Sion, the prophecy of Micah, that the plough should pass over it, has been fulfilled to the letter, for such labours were actually going on when we arrived. Here the Turks have a mosque over what they call the tomb of David. No Christian can gain admittance ; and, as we did not choose to loiter among the other legendary sanctities of the mount, having quitted the city by what is called ' Sion Gate,' we descended into a dingle or trench, called Tophet or Gehinnon by Sandys. As we reached the bottom of this narrow dale, sloping towards the valley of Jehosaphat, we observed upon the sides of the opposite mountain, facing Mount Sion, a num- ber of excavatiojis in the rock. We rode towards them, their situation t jmg very little elevated above the bottom of the dingle, upon its southern side. When we arrived, we instantly recognised a peculiar sort of sepulchres, and, alighting from our horses, found that we should have ample employment in examining them. They were ail of the same kind of workmansh'n, exhibiting a series of subterra- neous chambers, hewn with wonderful art, each containing one or more repositories for the dead, like cisterns carved in the rock, upon the sides of those chambers. The doors were so low, that, to look into any one of them, it was neces- sai7 to stoop, and, in some instances, to creep upon our hands and knees : these doors were also grooved, for the re- ception of immense stones, once squared and fitted to the grooves, by way of closing the entrances. Of such a nature were, indisputably, the tombs of the sons of Heth, of the kings of Israel, of Lazarus, and of Christ. The burying-places of the ancients were universally excluded from the precincts of their cities. In order, therefore, to account for the .seeming contradiction miplied by the situation of the place now shewn as the tomb of the Messiah, it is pretended? that it was originally on the outside of the walls of Jeru- salem ; although a doubt must necessarily arise, as to the want of sufficient space for the population of the city between a boundary so situated and the hill which is now railed Mount Sion. Tlie seniilchres we are now describ- ing carry m their very nature satisfactory evidence of their being situated out of the ancient city, as they are now out of the modern. Tliey are not to be confounded with those tombs, commonly called ' sepulchres of the kings,' GEOGRAPHY. I part i. to the north of Jerusalem. What, therefore, are iheyf Some of them, from their magnificence and the immense labour necessary to form the numerous repositories they contain, might lay claim to regal honours ; and there is one, which appears to have been constructed for the pur- pose of burying a single individual. Are we not authorised to seek here for the sepulchre of Joseph of Arimathea, who, as a pious Jew, necessarily had his burying-place in the cemetery of his countrymen, among the graves of his forefathers? The Jews were remarkable for their rigid adherence to this custom : they adorned their burial-places with trees and gardens; and the tomb of this Jew is ac- cordingly described as being in a garden ; and it was * in the place where our Saviour was crucified.' " Leaving the mountain where all these sepulchres are hewn, and regaining the road which conducts towards the east into the valley of Jehosaphat, we passed ihe fountain of Siloa ; from hence we ascended to the sunmiit of the Mount ofOliVES, passing in our way a number of Hebrew tombs. Here indeed we stood upon holy ground ; and it is a question, which might reasonably be proposed to Jew, to Christian, or Mahometan, whether, in reference to the history of their respective nations, it be possible to attain a more interesting place of observation. So com- manding is the view of Jerusalem afforded in this situation, that the eye roams over all the streets and around the walls, as if in the survey of a plan or model of the city. The most conspicuous object is the mosque, erected upon the site of the Temple of Solomon. This edifice may per- haps be regarded as the finest specimen of the architecture among the Saracens which exists in the worid. A specta- tor, standing upon the Mount oi' Olives, and looking down upon the space enclosed by the walls of Jerusalem, in its present state, as they have remained since their restoration in the sixteenth century, must be convinced, that, instead of covering two conspicuous hills, Jerusalem now occupies only one eminence, nami'ly, that of Mount Moriah, , where of old the temple stood, and where the famous mosque of Omar is now situated. It is probable, that the whole of Mount Sion has been excluded, and that the mountain covered by ruined edifices, whose base is perforated by ancient sepulchres, and separated from Mount Moriah by a deep trench, extending as far as the fountain of Siloa to- wards the easteiTJ valley, is in fact that eminence, which was once surrounded by the ' bulwarks, towers, and regal buildings of the house of David.' There seems to be no other way of reconciling the accounts which ancient au- thors give of the space occupied by the former city. That the summit of this mountain was formerly included within the walls of the ancient city, seems forcibly demonstrated by the remains, which to this hour are upon it, both of walls and sumptuous edifices. In this view of the subject, the topography of the city seems more reconcileable witli [part 1. efore, are theyf nd the immense epositories they rs ; and there is ted for the pur- e not authorised of Arimathea, 3uryiug-place in le graves of his for their rigid eir burial-places this Jew is ac- and it was 'in ; sepulchres are lets towards the ed the fountain summit of the ly a number of 3n holy ground ; )ly be proposed ler, in reference t be possible to tion. So com- n this situation, md around the lei of the city, e, erected upon ;difice may per- the architecture rid. A specta- >d looking down erusalem, in its :heir restoration d, that, instead n now occupies t Moriah, where nous mosque of it the whole of ; the mountain s perforated by 9unt Moriah by tain of Siloa to- ninence, which iwers, and regal seems to be no ich ancient au- mer city. That included within ly demonstrated pon it, both of V of the subject, :oncileabIe witli III! iw. TURKEY.] ancient documents. The present church of the holy se puldire,an(l all the trumpery attached to it, will it is iru,- b. 1 1. ...wu n.to the back ground ; but the sepulchres of thc^ king., of Judah. so long a„ object of research, do then becon>e a pronnnent object in the plu,... ,he possible site of our Saviours lomb may be denoted; and ■ Siloa'i brook, cbol flow'd Fwtby IbeOrudeofCiiid, will continue in the situation assigned for it by Christian wnters o eyery sect and dcnon.ination, since the age of the apostles and earliest fathers of the church "As we descended from 'ho mountain, we visited an ohve-gro.md, a ways tnent.oned a. the Garden of Gethse- mane. llus p|„ce ts, „ot without reason, shewn « the .c«ne o our Savour's agony, the night before his crud! fixuH.; both fron. the circumstance of U.e name it stSrl tan,s, and ,ts situation with regard to the city. We found a ^ove of aged olive-trees, of most in.mense^ize; cotd VIA fruit almost npe it is„ .urious and interes i„g ^ yeais Hebrews, Assyrians, ao,„ans, Mahometans ad Christians, have been successively in possession oMK l^cky mountains of Palestine; yet Uie olS' .cH a^^: Its pateiinal soil, and is found at (l,i. A '' ""''^<»tcs y. .1...* J, „„„, ^x^'it-^rr'yz: Olivet,' and the 'Mount of OIiv..«' „l i , J^efore the Christian era ' '''''" ''""^'^^ >-" .0 the north of Z'oZ Jl • Z tir "' 'l "'«'"' '' M:^of.:;-C:----rtheVi,m Moriah,.::^;,^^^^^^^^^^^^ Christ is said to have nasL n 1 ""' =""««« ^^l^^-'' Gethsemane, we ca^ : . t e l^'T; '" '': ^"'^" °^ archs,' facin. that T/ r *''P"''^'"-«« of the Patri- Temiletnrerly ooT '1 '^'"'l"'- -''«- Solomon's '••"■lybear this name "t f '"'"^"""'' "'"''' ^'''''^^ order ;„ w ' I r ""■ '" """'''•^••= »^^«>-'ling ^" tlie -4:;i;:VXrhrr:f ;r ", ^°"">' '^^^ -^• «»«« cave of St lamer ^, '^'^ •^*'''°'^''P''at, of Absalom, cliHicuIty of conveying any able artists to Jcru- ASIA. :« salem, and the utter impossibility of finding any of the profession there, these monuments have never been faith- MIy .iel.neated. 'A, form the .sepulchres of Absalom apd ^ | maelites coming frlrr/"^-*;'' "« company of IsH- «picei.,and2,trm;il^?; Jf^^^^^^ T^'^ ^-™^ another Joseph of his ZZl "'''°7°"^^ gJadly purchase tosome Potipha bXpf U^^^^^^ ^^ - aslave flocks and herds are 2? f. 7 *' "rcmnjacent hills, simple garb of thT s^ / . f e'' °^ °'^5 »°'- « the 'here I l^, ^^^t tte T"'' '' *" ^"^' '« tain of the apDearfni f , "°^'°"' """ "''y «nter. Jacob. 'PP^^'*"'=« formerly presented by the sons of -ia; and ■nrZ^^ntT:!;::'^''^! "' '- "merely from the country whlh V ^ Samantans, not sect atvariance with the Jet *^V""'-1 '"* " ' •'e^^'- ^ he principal object of I A. ■ch r^namongthemis^.,.;:;^rrSl. visited by 2j,fAr ^^Jen-^alem, and has been Christian e^ as th/ I "^"'V''"' P"''^"^«^'y "'"<=« the an era as the place where the Messiah revealed himself to the woman of Samaria. The spot i, so dis mcly marked by the evangelist John, and is so littt ble to uncertamty from the circumstance of the Tu Itself, and the features of the country, that, if no trJd t-on existed to identify it, the site of h could scarce be rnistaken " Perhaps," says Dr. Clarke, " nr Christian tend^ ^^^'r'l!'' '""^' •^•'''P'^^ °f ^«hn's gosp" at rusal W,tLr ' « ''°^'' "P°" ^^ ™i"d in its pe- tere t C^ T 7"^ """'■"» ^^ 'eflection and of in- ^e.™, •■„ TV """ '""' '■""■" •'"■'" ■»- Galilee^ - a>^mg water, the disciples sent mto the city for food hv -hich Its situationout of the town is so obvio'u J, it^d' Uie question of the woman, referring to existing p ejuoi es' of h "Tf *^: *'"" '"" »''« Samaritans"; the depth of the well; the oriental allusion contained in the exprCs^ ion 'n.„g r^ater;' the history of the well, and the"!^ oms thereby illustrated; the worship upon kount Gent e»n,-a ! these occur within the space of twenty yerses- and. If to these be added that remarkable circumsrnej him, his whole route from Cana being ^ cmtinual descent towards Capeniaum, we shall perhaps consider it as 1 re- cord, which, in die words of him who sent it, 'we may hftup our eyes, and look upon; for it i, white already to Nazareth is a small town in the province of Galilee and about seventy miles distant from Jerusalem. It i, si' ^ated on the side of a barren rocky elevation, facing L east, and commanding the view of a long valley. A hand some church has been erected over the cave in whichlt Virgin Maiy ,s said to have resided; and there is also i convent of Franciscan friars; but both the church and the convent, i„ their present state, exhibit p^^ofs of havin" been recently repaired, or entirely re-buUt. The monU exhibit to travellers several objects of veneration in Nazal reth; such as the workshop of Joseph, which is situated near the convent, and was fonnerly included within its walls; the synagogue where Christ is said to have read the .cnptures to the Jews, and which at present i, a church ; 18 UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY and u precipice \^itliout the town, where they afiurm the Messiah leaped down, to escape the rage of tlie Jews, aftor the offence his doctrine in the synagogue had occa- sioned. From Luke's description of the place, the monks suppose, that Nazareth formerly stood eastward of its pre- sent situation, upon a more elevated spot. But the latest English traveller who has visited this place asserts, that the present town occupies exactly the same spot as the place anciently did. " Induced by the words of the evan- gelist," says he, " to examine the place more attentively than we should otherwise have done, we went, as is writ- ten, * out of the city, unto the brow of the hill, whereon the city is built,' and came to a precipice corresponding with the words of the gospel. It is above the Maronite church, and probably the precise spot alluded to by the text of St. Luke's gospel." Bethlehem, situated about six miles to the south-east of Jerusalem, has been rendered for ever memorable as the birth-place of that adorable personage, who is styled " The Author and the finisher of our faith." Here the first Christians built an oratory over the supposed spot, on which tlie incarnate God was discovered in a manger. The Emperor Adrian ordered it to be demolished, and a statue of Adonis to be erected in its stead ; but the em- press Helena destroyed the idol, and built a church on the same spot. Tnis edifice is in the form of a cross, and the long riave or foot of the cross is adorned with forty-eight columns of tlie Corinthian order, in four rows. These columns are two fc et six inches in diameter at the base, and eighteen feet high, including the base and capi- tal. The altar is dedicated to the wise men of the east; and >>n tlie pavement, at the foot of the altar, is a marble star, Slid to correspond with the point of the heavens where tlie miraculous star that conducted those visitants became stationary. Two spiral staircases, each composed of fifteen steps, open on the sides of the outer church, and conduct to a subterraneous church beneath, which is said to be the place of the Saviour's nativity. As it is supposed to occupy the original site of the stable, it is irregular ; the length of it being thirty-seven feet six iuches, the breadth eleven feet three inches, and tlie height nine feet. It is hewn out of the rock ; and the sides and the floor are co- vered with beautiful marble. The church receives no light from without, but is illuminated by thirty-two lamps sent by different Christian princes. At the farther end, on the other side, there is a spot marked by a white marble, in- crusted with jasper, and surrounded by a circlt of silver rays, resembling those with which the sun is represented, and which is intended to mark the spot where the child Jesus was born. I1ie pictures which adorn this church are of the Italian and Spanish schools, representing the Virgin and child, the annunciation, the adoration of the wise men, the yisit [part I. of the shepherds, and all the mysteries of the place. The ornaments of the manger are of blue satin, embroidered with silver. Incense is continually smoking before the cradle of the Saviour; and, during the time of performing mass, a fine organ plays the sweetest and most tender tunes of the best Italian composers. At a short distance to the southward of Bethlehem, the famous fountains, pools, and gardens, of Solomon are shewn. The pools are three in number, lying in a row, and so disposed that the waters of the uppermost fall into the second, and those of the second into the third. They are of a quadrangular figure, equal in breadth, but differing in length, the breadth of each being four hundred and fifty feet ; but the length of the first is eight hundred feet, of the second one thousand feet, and of the third one thousand one hundred feet. They are very deep, and lined with plaster; and at about the distance of seven hundred feet is a fountain, from which they receive their waters. On the eastwaod of the city the well of David is shewn, for the waters of which that mo- narch so passionately longed. And about two furlongs from Uiis well are the remains of an aqueduct, which an- ciently conveyed the waters of Solomon's pools to Jeru- salem. Aleppo, the finest and most opulent place in Syria, is superior in its ols are three in at the waters of se of the second ar figure, equal breadth of each le length of the 1 one thousand dred feet. They id at about the in, from which d of the city the which that mo- lt two furlongs luct, which anr pools to Jeru- place in Syria, ices to most of ; to the oriental ead wall toward round it, paved he same in the I miles in com- liighest of which all, and a broad -dens, surround 1 Dr. Russel to 00 were Chris- cording to Mr. 0, which depo- . Whole streets It furnished excepting good supplied by an to have been ets are narrow, d are kept very re, and transact [uare buildings, and compting- losques, public ich are formed le shops, as in TURKEY.] • . p Romans, it was called the " ornament of Asia." In 1034 a Turkish rebel, named Tzachtis, assumed the regal title' and, having seized upon Smyrna, made it his capital. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, it all lay in niins except the fortress. In the wars between the Turks and ■ "-■= "ciwcLii me turns and Greeks, ,t greatly declmed, and was taken with immense slaughter by Tamerlane, in 1402; but in a subsequent period It revived; and its commodious harbour and advan- tageous situation have rendered it the emporium of all the traffic of Asia Minor. The public edifices have been chiefly erected by the 1 urks, with the materials of the ancient city. The bezes- tan, or market, and the tizir-khan, were both raised with the white marble of the theatre. The haven is defended by a strong castle, and sheltered from all winds, except the westerly, by high mountains. ^ Tlie mosques, baths, market, and khans, are the prin- cpal buildings, and some of them are very noble The brthe mf^T' "' ".r"' '"'"^"^*' ""'^ -conveniem; but the most disagreeable circumstance to those M-ho live nmes till September During this season the ground is X veTt't", r'"'^ '"^^ '=''^'""^' ^'''^ " » ^-g^-d gue vent to bituininous vapours, that, if confined, would tw Z; ^""'•l"''''f\ ^- y-" P=- without a hockt tive. They usually happen when the weather is calm in ^pnng and autumn; at which time the sea wi hdraws a eoii^derable way from the beach, and the water tvL, ab^nt;;eirdwei^:ri;!:r:;^.rz^p-'« HuenXfou': tH™"""' «'""'" "»J«I' l»™ been *:_r„ .he i2„ i":"™;'' :', -t,? °"""- I on broke out in « W t"re, a;pered"thtT Constantinople at this critical junc- ' ^^"^'^ *^ '""'"'^^ having condemned eighteen 19 I A Turks to be put to death. The first Creeks found i„ he streets were compelled to be the executioner. ; a,^ niong these was an old respectable merchant, who pe^ forming h.s new oflice with much timidity and awk;^ ness, occasioned some unnecessary pai„'.o the pl^^ w*om he was appointed to kill. A Turki.h nffi ^ T reproaching the venerable Greek, slckL^', ^ w'cin? upon whi^h the aga exclaimed, "m.^lZ^^^^ and towards a man already unhappy by the meannll, of hisnewoftce! Off with tl.e head of'that dog"' '^' Turkish officer was immediately seized and beh.'ded S:ji:;-fer:-i-ss=rS name, however, of Constantine is visible, and friend! repeated, which gives occasion to surmi e, tha he S was either originally built, c. greatly repaired arLp'ove? by that emperor. T,. Tigris forms a'half-moorabout '' J^ap^rL=r=S^ particularly a spacious mosque, which was formerly a «-hrisUan church. On the sidp« nf tu^ ■ '-'"'*"/ " caravanseras or inns; afd nei:!^ h/tl Tl Xr^' wbch the Turks affirm is the place of J b^ . S " The neighbouring country is pleasant and fertile H.lfuf"n "'■ ^^^ P""''P'*' *="y o*" I^ac, or c'haldea is dM. fully situated in a fine plain, on the ea.,tern ba k o the Iigris. It was founded by the Calinh A I™ the I45th year of the Hegira, l^l ^^^ Z he ancient Seleucia. It was the seat of most of th ca •phs of the race of AJ-Abbas; but, at present, it retaS, few marks of Us ancient grandeur. In form i LTZ irregular square, aiKl rudely fortified; but the convenL"; of Its situation renders it one of the seats of the Turk h government and it has still a considerable trade; bein« ammaly visual by tho caravans from Smyrna, Alep'pS the west. The houses are generally large, built of brick and ce„,e„t, and arched over, to admitWree circulat"o„ glass and th"' t' ''' "if*'"'' "' °' «'«^"^ V-^^'" glass, and the ceilings richly ornamented. Most of the house, have also a court-yard before them, in the middle birln " ' *'^"'^'''"" of orange-trees. The num. ber of houses ,s computed at 80,000. The bazars, or marke -places, are tolerably handsome and extensive, filed with shops of all kinds of merchandise, to the number of twelve thousand. Here, also, are five mosques, Tc de 20 UNIVERSAL r I of white stone coininandtag the river, and a palace occu- pied by the Turkish governor. Erzerum, the capital of Turcomania, is situated on (tie northern extremity of the province, about ten days' journey from the frontiers of Persia, and five from the Euxine Sea. It Is tho residence.of a Turkish bashaw, is defended by a good ca&tle, and has a strong garrison of janissaries. Erzerum is a place of great trade, which principally consists of copper and briss wares, the ore of which is found in the neighbouring mountains, printed calicoes, red and yellow leather, silk, madder, gall-nuts, caviare, and beautiful furs. It is likewise a repository for vast quanti- ties of merchandise, which come from the East-Indies. All who go from hence to Persia, except Turks, pay a capi- tation-tax of five crowns, and five per cent, for all specie which they carry with them. Every stranger who enters the town is obliged to pay five crowns, and all merchan- dise is taxed at nine per cent. Fuel is so scarce in this city, that the inhabitants are under the necessity of substituting cow-dung, made into turfs; the perpetual burning of which occasions a scent throughout the place which is very offensive to strangers. Every thing you eat or drink, even the very cream, is tainted with this vapour; yet travellers assert, that there are coals in the neighbouring hills; but the inliabitants neither understand their nature, nor how to dig for them. The water is excellent, rivulets of which run through most of the streets; but the wine and brandy are difficult to be got at, though they are extremely bad, when procured, for the gale of then is strictly prohibited. The Greeks are obliged to inhabit the suburbs, because, being tinkers, they make such a perpetual clattering with their hammers, that it would disturb the tranquillity of the Turks, who cannot bear the thoughts of a noisy trade. Teflis, the principal city in Georgia, is handsomely built, and makes a fine appearance: the houses are of stone, with flat roofs, and are remark^ly clean ; but the streets are narrow and dirty. It is situated on the side of the river Kur, at the foot of a mountain, and is surrounded by strong walls, except on the side next the river. Here are thirteen Greek churches, besides one for the Arme- nians, and one for Roman catholics : and the environs are prettily ornamented with pleasant houses and fine gardens. MousuL, the capital of Curdistan, or Assyria, stands on tlie banks of the Tigris, opposite to the ruins of Uie ancient city of Nineveh. The people heie have great commercial connections with the inhabitants of Bagdad, and the merchants of Curdistan. Caravans likewise pass through it to and from Persia. It is singular thrt the soil on the city side of the river is barren, but on the op- posite side very fertile. The heat is so excessive in sum- none go out of doors from two hours after nier, that GEOGRAPHY. [fAui i. sun-rise till au hour after lun-set. I'here is, likewise, a malignant and dangerous wind, called the samiel, which often blows from hence to Surat, and is supposed to be the same mentioned in tho book of Job. It is impreg- nated with Iktle streaks of fire, as small as hairs, which immediately kill those who inhale them, and turn them as black as a coal. When the people perceive them coming, they fall flat on their faces, and sometimes escape. This wind is felt chiefly on the banks of the river, and is supposed to proceed from sulphureous vapours. Independent »f this wind, the hot air is often dangerous, and injures the lungs, inflames the blood, and parches the skin, or raises it into blisters, and occasions it to peel off. On this ac- count travellers wear a kind of mask, made of soft crape, to preserve their eyes ; but, after all their precaution, they often become inflamed. jintiquities.'] The countries comprised in Asiatic Tur- key once contained all that was rich and magnificent in architecture and sculpture, and even the remains of their splendid monuments are so numerous, that they have af- forded materials for many voluminous publications. The most remarkable of these, however, are the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra; which have been justly said to form tne pride of all antiquity. Balbec, the ancient Heliopolis of Coelo-Syria, is plea- santly situated upoo a rising plain, between Tripoli, in Syria, and Damascus, at the foot of Mount Libanus. " In taking a view of this city, from the south," says a traveller, who visited it a few years ago, " we see the present town encompassed with its wall ; and, at the east end, the most considerable ruins of the ancient Heliopo- lis, particularly the remains of its magnificent temple, which are mostly surrounded by a Turkish fortification. "The portico, which formed the grand front of the temple, is so noble, that no ornaments seem wanting to render it complete; but it is disfigured by two Turkish towers, built on its ruins. Behind it an hexagonal court, into which the portico leads, is adorned with the most magnificent buildings, now in ruins; but enough is still left to give an idea of their ancient grandeur. , The walls are adorned with pilasters of the Corinthian order, with statues for niches; the doors are finely ornamented, and the entablature, whicn surrounds the building above the pilasters, is richly adorned with festoons: but the colo- nade which surrounded these edifices is destroyed, scarce- ly any thing remaining but the pedestals ; and the whole court is covered with broken columns, capitals, and other parts of the building. " This leads into a quadrangular court, in which are likewise remains of magniricent edifices, much in the same taste. The portico was crowned with an attic course, which was also carried through the two courts, and seems to have been ornamented with statues. [rAKT I. e \», likewise, a e samiel, which supposed to be . It is impreg- 88 hairs, which nd turn them as fe them coming, s escape. This and is supposed Independent ttf and injures the e skin, or raises T. On this ac- le of soft crape, precaution, they in Asiatic Tur- magnificent in remains of their lat they have af- tlications. The e the ruins of stly said to form )-Syria, is plea- een Tripoli, in mt Libanus. he south," says o, " we see the and, at the east ncient Heliopo- fiificent temple, I fortification, nd front of the eem wantiitg to by two Turkish lexagonal court, with the most enough is still ;ur. , The walls liian order, with rnamented, and Iding above the : but the colo- stroyed, scarce- and the whole )itals, and other rt, in which are (, much in the 1 with an attic the two courts, statues. ■* TURKEY.] " We now come to the great temple, the approach to , which was through the anterior portico a„d courts Lit ' tie more of |l,» editice remains than „i„e lofty cohmms" .upportmg the.r entablature. It is ren.arkable; that Z .haiU. of these columns consist of three pieces, most ex uctly jomcd together widiout cement, being only strength- ened wuh .ron pms, received into a socket, worked , each stone. Most of the buses have two such sot ,s o'Z'Tth ""''r """'"' '^"-"P-^l'-'g with two' others ot the same shape and dimensions, in the under part of the shaft. On measuring some of' the large t^ tho.e that were circular, it was foun.i that the iron 2 .vhich they received must have been a foot loug^ Z above a toot m diameter. By the sockets in all the fallo prXrb T "'"'':''■' 'V""'" '''»' each stone had probably been fastened in this manner. How much this met od contributed to the strength of the building Z markably seen in the most entire temple, where u lolumn has fidlen against the wall of the cell with such viir tn r";f' r""'-" '•=" "«''"'^*' -^^ break ;;;; the shaft while the joinings of the same shaft have no been in the least opened by the shock. wiZsnlat'tr'' r'' " ""' """''''' " '"^8"'-'y P'-ed with respect to the former, and is also built upon a much ower horizontal ph.n. It ... a peristyl.. of eiri.Tcci -tis in front, and fifteen in flank, whilh still co i, u" o support their entablature, notwithstanding several un ."ccesstul attempts of the Turks to destroy them,l "r pa meL bv the . ' T'"" " '^'^'^^'^ '"'° -- ,.o.. "^ compartments are in an ahfr and sometimes enUre C Zl Zl /""" '"^>"*«' t'-Iogy ; as Leda ad th'e sw' ^ "' ^« j''^ ---nt my. .•'acj of an eagle, a 1151:; ' o^ Xn^r' V T Wature. JietwTen e c , ';"'' "^"' • "PP'?'''"^ ^ -'> -ta- inted, and tbove each 17" " ' "'•'"' '"^'^ ^™^- it, supported by slllti:: ^ ^^s f^T ^^ and out of the ruins of tl . . 1 1 ^"•^" ''°"'n> this structure without i, r„ ■ .^- '^ "^ °'*^'"" »' •"g ik' Xrch T7 T '^"'^ ^'^-^ ^« conve;tedint" -ern addons, erectedagist^l^tt!^-;;^ I fil 'On the south.west part of tlie city, where the wall, enclose a smal pa., ..f the foot of Anti-Libanus, is ' Jge Doric column, of considerable height; but nothing n lU, 1, proportions or workmanship, is so remarkable a» u little basil, on ti.e top ol it, capital, which has a commumcation with a semicircular channe , cut longitu .% o.n the side of the shaft, and five'or six iSl ep It , ,„,d, „.at water was formerly conveyed from i; basin by this channel; but how the basin was Z Phed cannot now be ascertained. ^ "The city-walls, like those oJ most of the other aa •«.t cities of Asia, ,eem the co„fuse"'S "''^ "" -i" ''ad "ister justice which i,T"" ^"""PJamts, and admi- I .\. 1 he |,rice« of commodities are fixed br an officer who proclam., tlH „,, and takes care that the we^hu „,„,' me.. -re, are honest. Delinquent, are , on.lenu^c, to the b^^ •"udo, or «,me severe punishment. Hakers so«.e,ime, -.ve an ear nailed to their shop, or are hanged, „c .Xg " tl.e caprice of the judge; and one instan. e is recorded of a ba er .ho. havm, l,een proved guihy of rnakm^ read dehcientm weigh,, a. «dl as .,..,' concerned w'^ "thers m raising the pi'e ./ ^hat ue.e. ury article wa/ h order of the (iran** 8.g ..,|,ed ah . i„ h !' ' „ven. '" '"' own sactd"'''' T''"'^' '" "'" '""""7' "• ^•*'"^ particularly "f the Ottoman prmces having d.K.rmined ., build « mosque upon a particular spot, found no difficulty .„ ™.k! "f ''; "^-^r"> J*"-'-^ "f .he houses on the p e Jst t.ll a Jew who possessed a house of .small vah^ i^ the centre, refused to part with it at any price. I.rge offlrl were made, but the Jew remained inflexible, his Z^"" prevailing over his avarice. The courtiers 'pleased them- •'"I'-shed, and himself dragged to punishment; but, con- rary to general example, the prince descended from the throne to consult the law, and wrote thus to the mufti; A man desires to build a temple: all the Mussulnien proprietors of the ground on which it is to be erected, are '" haste to participate of so good a work. One man only I"'"' he a Jew, refuses all offers. What punishment does he deserve r" "None:" replied the mufti) "property is -cred without distinction of individuals, and a temple may not be erected in violation of so holy a law. I it appears to be the desire of the Jew to transmit his prc^ pcrty to his children, and it is the right of the sovt reign to insist on hiring any ground he may choose, a con- tract for the hire of the ground na.t be made out to thL Jew and his descendams : then the house mav be pulled down, an,l the temple built, without fear that the prayers ot tlie Mnssulmen offered therein .hould be rejected." Tl,. decree of the mufti was executed. Jievaiue,.] The revenues of this empire arise from the customs, and a variety of taxes, which fall chiefly on the Christians, and other subjects, .ho are not of the Maho n.e an persuasion. The rich pay a capitation-tax of thirty hillings a year, tradesmen fifteen shillings, and commol labourers s. shillings and ten-pence halfje'nnv. IZCr branch of the revenue arises from the tribl.te annually pa d by the Tartars and other nations bordering upon T urS y but governed by their own princes and laws All 'liee' however are tnfling, when compared wuii the vast sum^ verted from the governors of provinces, and officers of Uite, under the name of presents. These persons, to Z demnify themseves, exercise every species 'of oppression 'h.t avarice itself can suggest, till, becoming opulent from 24 UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY i Uik 1 I the vitals of the people whom they jre sent to gc vern, their riches give rise to a pretended suspicion of disloyalty or miiconduct, and the whole fortune of the offender de- olves to the crown The devoted victim is seldom ac- quainted with the nature of the offence, or the name of ois accuser ; but, without giving him the least opportunity of making a defence, an officer is dispatched with the im- perial decree, to take off his head. The unhappy pacha receives it with the highest respect; and, after he has read it, he exclaims : " The uill of God and the emperor be done." Then he takes the silken cord, which the officer has ready in his bosom, and, having tied it round his own neck, and offered a short prayer, the officer's servants thiow him on the floor, and, drawing the cord tight, soon dispatch him ; after which his head is cut ofl^, and carried to court. The following remarks of M. Cnateaubriand, on the government and police of Jerusalem, will fully illustrate those oppressions to which we have alluded, and which sometimes le3. The people are shops. A scarcity secret negociation number of pii.ses, price llicy please. recover the sums ,• raise the price of , and the people, liged to part with starving. ictise a still more ■hat he sent his ca- eyoiid the Jordan, usual tax, and who i surprised in the They w ere robbed I goats, ninety-four cs of the purest ; followed a shieck faitliiul children of sters in the nionn- nasters were bereft vhat the pacha did ice as high a price ng each goat ami F at eighty. The utchers and diff'er- hiefs of the ncigli- ike jheni, and pay 1 of death. I must less of this double olufely incredible, le the property of TUUKEY.] ^ g jm the soldiers; for, according to a' singular convention be- m tween these robbers, all the beasts with a cloven hoof taken in such expeditions belong to the pacha, and all other animals fall to the share of the troops. " Having exhausted Jerusalem, the pacha departs ; but in order to save the pay of the city-guards, and to strengthen the escort of the caravan of Mecca, he takes the sofdiers along with hnn. The governor is left behind with about a dozen men, who are insufficient for the police of the city much less for that of the adjacent country. The year before my visit, he was obliged to conceal himself in his house to escape the pursuit of a band of robbers, who entered Jerusalem, and were on the point of plunderino- the city "I^o sooner is the pacha gone, than another evil, the consequence of his oppression, begins to be felt. Insur- rections take place in the plundered villages; they attack each other, mutually intent on wreaking hereditary ven- geance. Ail communication is interrupted; agriculture perishes; and the peasant sallies forth at'night to pi,:: his enemy's vine, and to cut down his olive-tree The pacha returns the following year; bo demands the sam tribute from a country whose populauon is diminished t order to raise it, he is obliged to redouble his o^p ^ ions and to exterminate whole tribe.! T\ a ^t"'^^''^°^^^' ions in ruins, and near them cemeteries, which k en co^ atstruction of a house, the extinction of a family and soon nothing is left but a cemetery to mark the sTot vll once stood a villacre " P°' ''''*'''^ ^st geographers been able to ascertain it "because of iL uncertainty of its limit* 1, ^ , • , ' "'^^'^^^^'^ ^' tne was before the C lisian e ' " ""' '° »""* '' " iiie ^^nristian era, or even umUr il.» i? ion Th V ""^""''^•^'"y unfavourable to popula- 'IWk ^ u"'"^"" "^ i"''"bitants, however, in As^ tic tlln^' '^^J? ''T'' ^'^"''^"'^^ "' ^-' millio s " loss of herT^ ; , "' ^'''''T\ '" '""-n'-"- of the -lc^\v't- id, or ;""""• •^""'^""' ^^^"^■^""^' be- In Alenno o P'°^"*^^'/«"' »>", cloths, shalloons, &r. "o" price in liurone • -mrl r».,.,. '«.^ for U,., eel f„,. „„'|il; 'X"™'""'" " "'""""'" '»• VOL. 1. I A. 25 Lavguages and Literature.-] The radical lan^ua^cs of this extensive tract of country are the Sclavonic, vrhkli wa, pi^bably the mother-tongue of the ancient Turks ^ tu),, of the Turks seldom extends farther than readin.^ the Koran, and writing a common letter. Some few of riiem understand astronomy so far as to calculate the t n e ^ an eclipse; but these are considered ^ men of ver extra ordinary attainments. ^ Manners Customs, ^c] The Turks, who form the -ajor part of the inhabitants of this couiitry, are, in le neral of the middle stature, and well made, with a tofer- tu es. Mos of the women are deemed handsome durin.. t .eir youth, but begin to look old at the age of thirty. In l.e.r dispositions the Turks are grave, sedate, and pa sive but, when agitated by passion, furious, raging, ZZl able jealous, suspicious, and vindictive, bey^'nd .CZl The morals of the Asiatic Turks, however, are far prefer- able to those of the European. They ar; hospitab e to range., and the vices of avarice and inhu.nanity a c chiefly found among their great men. They are likewise punctual m their dealings with each other; and their cha! nty and public spirit are conspicuous in their bu'lldinrr ca Ztr'V '7'"''" "' ^"'^^'^'--"^ - roads that are" d titute of^ other accommodations. With the same laud- able view they search out the !,est springs, and dig wdls for the refreshment of poor pilgrims and trluellers I he men shave their heads, leaving a lock on the crown and wear their beards long. They cover their heads "uh a tuiban, and never remove it but when they sleep. Their shirts are open, without collar or wri.tbaiul : and over these they throw a long vest, tied with a snsh, in which they fre! quently have a dagger, and carry their money and thir to- bacco-pouch. Over the vest they w.ar a loose Jow„ somewhat sliorter. Their breeches, or drawers, are of ".' P-ece with their stockings; and, instead of shoes, hey w a^ sbppers, which they put of}' wIku they enter a mosque or a private habitation. ^ The first part of the women's dress is a na^r of di-,„-.. Mth wide sleeves hangmg halfway down the arm, ... closed at the neck with a button. They have a loi^' coat made close to the shape, with Lg s.ee!:^ , J a k, and varying i„ materials and ornaments, according t^ thei respective ranks They have also a robe exact^t ; :, : " ^''^'^^. ;""' •■'i^^-^'-'g 'o "- f-t, with very L. ..'Il.ng sleeve. : tms is girt with a gi,dle about four "inches «d Th '"T^-"' r''-^='b-'''>'-e richly orna- mented. The c«;yfe is a loose robe lined with ermine or s^le,^which they throw ofior put on, according to tl^ m 1.1 1 4« Ml! ' Ms ! :■; i m «8 UNIVERSAL The head-dress is composed of a cap called talpoc, which is in winter of fine velvet, and in summer of a Uaht stiift. This is fixed on one side of the head, ht.iiging a little way down, with a tassel bound witli a circle of dia- monds, or a rich embroidered handkerchief. On the otiicr side of the head the hair is laid flat, and tastefully ornamented with flowers, featlicrs, or a large bouquet of jewels, representing natural flowers. The liair hangs at its full length behind, divided into tresses, braided with pearls or ribbons. No woman, let her rank be what it will, is permitted to walk in the streets without two murlins; one that hides the whole head-dress, and hangs half-way down the back, and another that covers all the face except the eyes. The shape is also entirely concealed by a ferigee, which has long sleeves reaching to the finger-ends, and which is w rapped round like a riding-hood. By this means they are so dis- guised, that a woman of the first rank cannot be distin- guished from her slave ; and it is impossible for the most jealous husband to know his wife when he meets her. Such of the Turkish ladies as are virtuous make no use of paint to heighten their beauty, or to disguise their com- jilexion ; but they often tinge their hands and feet a deep yellow w itli henna : and tliey universally blacken the inside of their eye-lids with a powder called ismid. This opera- tion is performed with a cylindrical piece of silver, steel, or ivory, about two inches long, of the size of a common probe. This instrument they wet with water, that the powder may adhere to it, and, applying the middle part horizontally t»' the eye, shut the eye-lid upon it, and draw it through. When the overtures of a man mean nothing more than an insult, the Turkish women are inexorable; but it is impos- sible to consider without horror the dismal consequences of the blind passions to which they are sometimes a prey. Vt e do not here allude to those women who so frequently sell their charms, and whose mutilated dead bodies are so often seen in the environs of cities, a circumstjnce that may be accounted for on the principles of avarice or fear in the men; but to those women of a more exalted rank, whom an irresistible fury overpowers, and who escape privately from their harems. These unfortunate beings always carry off with them their jewels, and think nothing too good for their lovers. Overcome by their un- happy passion, they do not perceive that this very wealth becomes the cause of their destruction. The seducers to whom they fly seldom fail, in a short time, to punish their temerity, and insure the possession of their effects, by a crime which, however monstrous, the government is least ready to visit with punishment. The bodies of these wo- men, stripped and mangled, are frequently seen floating in the ports, under the very windows of their assassins ; but these dreadful examples, so likely to intimidate tlie rest, seldom excite terror, or produce reformation. GEOGRAPHY. fpA„ I. The common salutation of the Turks is. by an incli- nation of the head, and laying their right hand on their breast. Few or none of the considerable inhabitants of this extensive empire have any inclination to walk or ride, either for health or diversion. In fact, laziness is so con- genial to their dispositions, that they laugh at the Euro- peans for taking a walk, deeming it ridiculous to walk merely for the sake of amusement. A European ambas- sador, once giving an entertainment to all the fo'clgn mi- nisters and Europeans, excited the r-.losity of some Turk* of distinction, who expressed the greatest astoiiishmrnt at seeing some of the first characters among the Europeans sland up to take a part in the dances on the occasicMi. To ■walk or to ride to their gardens, where they are situated at a small distance, once or twice a week, at the proper sea* sons, is as much as most of tliem care to do. Their active diversions consist in shooting at a mark, or tilting with darts, at wliich they are very expert. Some few of their great men are fond of liunting, and take the field with nu- merous equipages, which are joined by their inferiors ; but this is often done for political purposes, that they may know the strength of their dependents. The most religious among them find sufiicient exercise in conforming to the frequent ablutions, prayers, and rites, prescribed by the Arabian impostor: At their meals they use a round table, placed upon a stool about foiuteeu inches high, beneath which a piece of red clotli is spread. There is no table-cloth ; but their knees are covered with long silk napkins. The dishes are placed in the middle of the table, being brought in one by one, and changed as soon as every one has tasted a little. The leban m basins, bread, salads, pickles, spoons, &c. are disposed in order round the edges. They use neither knives nor forks. The first dish is broth, and the last pillaw. The intermediate dishes are mutton roasted and .stewed with herbs, and cut to pieces ; stewed pigeons, fowls, &c. stuffed with rice and spices; but the most favourite dish is a whole lamb stuffed with rice, almondat, raisins, and pistachios. It is observable, that the Turks and Jews seldom or never eat beef, their favourite food being mutton. The common bread is made of wheat, badly fermented, and badly baked : people of fashion have, however, a better sort. Beside these, they have biscuits and rusks stewed with fennel-flour. They have a desert of sweet starch, and a thin syrup with currants, raisins, dried apricots, slices of pears, pistachios, and apples swimming in it; of which eacu eats a spoonful, and then the repast is concluded. They usually breakfast on honey, fried eggs, &c. and rfme about eleven o'clock : but the principal meal is sup per, which is served up at six in the summer, and five ni , the winter. They drink water at meals, and coffiee after dinner. The licentious drink wine and spirits publicly [pAnT I. ( is. by an incli- it hand on their Ic inhabitants of to walk or ride, aziness is so con- igh at the Euro- iiculous to walk European amb^s- l the fo'-cign mi- y of some Turk* astonishment at ; the Europeans i to evaporate the comm'unicat n"wi h a 7" ' '"""°"' ^''^ '"^-^ -ithin the brfckTwork "7?"-'. ^ "''""^^ '^""'-"ed v^ater, by mean« of corl . T^ "'^ '"^'^'*^ -"'> ^old yield 'the' warm: r£r'' ^' ^^'^ «^ ^'-e which n>ade to sit on- and dr. "" "^ '">°*'"' ^^'"l are off..vvater:i,r^^^^^^^^^^^ These private baths, thus heatid twenty-f,.r hottrs I A. «7 I before they are used, by beinj thus constructed, have s« great a degree o heat, that, after being entirely ^Ld in the exterior chamber, and having put on v^ higi? an dais of wood to keep the feet from being burnt LZ .na'b e-floor, it is impossible to enter the first roolwi^ out stopping a moment bewteen the two doors ioCT lungs dilate; after which it is impossibler^ .J ' -ve,..„der which the heat is ^::r:::^:^^^ he same precautions; and, it is probable, that th S of us room ears the same proportion to th^t of he l" L this does to the external air. A sudden «. • ™.hi„g ,I,„„,K .1, ,„e p„„,, i. 4 o elrXt; violence of ll.i. I,,., d„, „„, ,|, ' *'' I ° -^ in fcse bath. ... o.lZr.ogo.hr" "°- *;::e* ;7:^rr '"' r r- ^*'" «-^ r P'^^P'^^^o, and contrived in such a mo„ carry with them their provisions. Their ,,!«!' ^ siwy procure. P.thing women, called telleks, with their hands wrapped m little bags of serge, rub the s'kin 1. 1 it dry. They likewise make use of a verv fine rl»v ] ^nth rose-leaves and after^vards dried^tLrn 'sa'"^ of soap with which they rub the head, pouring on tVa™ ater from large metal basins. The iomon^s ha Z c caused and perfumed, is afterwards tied up in ', number of small tresses. These public baths are 1 kev le stc: f ? t""^' '" ^'.^^'^--^-s from r: »ei apart tor tiie women : as it is de-ifh f^. i enter the bath when femalLs are present ' ""''' '' ,. ,T ■'"T"'*" '''""^^•"^"t^. the Turks generally enter tarn themselves within doors with chess or draughts bul -, .e f^x fi^^^rr r;:—:^ The first, which is performed before the great Sa.^ oftcers, and also used in the garrisons, consi s ofl^S of liT f '""''''^^' ''"^ ^^^»^ ^^^^' »he upper Lrj of which IS beaten with a heavy drum-stick a.ulT I chamber-music consists of a guitar, an Arab fiddle a du mer, the dervises' flute, a couple of small drurn 'and the" I w';::;CnT.;f •' t-^ ^.^ '-^ '-^ - ^ "-it: of them bellow «o. ^ "T "' "" '''"'" '""«'^' ^or many .isel hato^u "'Ts1;e;^'r ^' ^'" ^^ ^'''^- m«(i,^ 1 c ■ y ^^^ unacquainted wth the iXlT^Hot' ""r ""^" " '»'" - 1 J me ear. However, «hen several persons pla. i im «8 UNIVERSAL together, they keep exact time. The Tuikisli ballets are very pleasant and entertaining, both for their ligures, and the variety of their steps; and tlic dresses of the dancers are light and elegant. The burials of tiie Turks are very decent. The corpse is attended by the relatives, chaunting passages from the Koran, and, after being deposited in a mosque, it is com- mitted to the earth by an iman, or priest, who pronounces a fimeral-oration at the time of interment. To these remarks on the Asiatic Turks, it may be proper to add some information relative to the other inhabitants of this extensive region. The Curds, who, in the summer, pass from Mousul to the sources of the Euphrates, are a pastoral people, con- ducting their herds from one country to another ; and, in the time of Tournofort, they extended as far west as Toxat, where othe- horj()in some farther particulars of the Circas- sians from the splendid work of M. Pallas, who travelled amongst these people, at the request of the empress Ca- therine, part of them, on the southern line of the Cauca- sus, being subjects of Russia. " The Circassians arc a handsome race. Tlie men are generally of a tall stature, and of a thin form ; they are very slender about the loins, have a small foot, and great strength in the arms. 'Dicy have mostly a martial apjjear- ance ; yet there are some traces left, from which it may be inferred, that they are descended from parents belonging to the tribe of the Nagais. Although their females are not all Circassian beauties, yet they are generally well shaped, have a fair compl >xion, dark-brown or black hair, and are justly proportioned. 1 have, however, met with a greater number of beauties among the Circassian women, than in any other unpolished race. " Over the shift, the girls wear a laced jacket, because the petticoat, which reaches to the ancles, is open along the front, and resembles part of the men's dress ; but mar- ried women wear wide breeches. Besides the belt abovs mentioned, there is another point which contributes to preserve the elc^jnut shn^ie of the girls : they live abste- miously, their whole allowance consisting of milk and pas- try. In comi)!ianee with the ideas which the Circassians, as well as the Tvrks, entertam of beauty, a w oman must [part I. :comc propoN tie attended to. dagger by the fatal accidents, ige-prescnt, or I; but he must greatest injs- A Circassian s wife, but lie vcs the britle a e greatest part th of her first visit, receives I is clothed by distinction of lie dress of the pting that the lur never worn >coloured. e general cha- he courage of when defeated, the nun. Wi- 5 with scars, in neriy the same iquil under the of the Circas- 'vho travelled e empress Ca- of the Cauca- Tlie men are nrm; they are bot, and great nartial appear- hich it may be ts belonging to smales are not y well shaped, k hair, and are with a greater omen, than in icket, because is open along ress; but uiar- thc belt above contributes to I'.ev live abste- " milk and pas- le Circassians, I woman must TUHKBY.] . - hare a very narrow wairt. When fcmalej go abroad, they wear wooden clogs, to keep their feet clean, aiid at tiie aanie time make use of mittens on their delicate hands Pamting the face is considered hero as a proof of the loss of virtue; but girls dye the nails of their fingers with the flowers of the balsamina, which in U.e Circassian lanRuase » caUed kna. Their head.Jress consists of a cap resem- bhng that worn by the other sex: under this the hair is turned up .„ a thick queue, which is covered with linen, ihe Cnjassians compress the waist of both sexes from early infancy, by means of straps, on which the sabre is suspended : hence they are, i„ general, uncommonly thin between the loms and the breast. Their feet are uniformly of an extraordmao. small size, because they also compress them m the tightest manner within their morocco slippers which gives them the appearance of dancers. ' " The dress of the men is light and becoming. The upper garment is furnished with a small embroidered pocket, on each side of the breast, for holding cartridges. On the head, which is .horn, the more opulent wear a rap, quilted with cotton, in the form of a melon, and adorned with gold and silver laces: the whisker ."e kew.se suffered to g.x,w. Over the lower dress, which u composed of light stuff, the higher orders generally wear a short rich waistcoat, to supply the place of'armour! either with or w.th.^t a «.rtout coat. The upper dres »n,ade shorter than .^e under; the sleeve, are sometimes open, and bordered with furs. The breeches have knee- straps and the seams are bound with lace or embroidery oj e«ld and silver threads, manufactured by the women. When a great man makes a visit in form, he puts on all lTr„r*?r"''' "'"■ ^^^''^ ^^ '°"^''™^» ^««- -coat oMnail. These coats of mail are fabricated of polished Steel nngs, and imported, some from Persia, and some lt"!:i Tl I . '"'• "'" arm-plates are made of po- Iished steel. I„ the girdle they carr^ their dagger and p.stols, and the bow and quiver are tiTd round thir h^a In common visits, the coat of mail is worn below the lin- per dress, and they arm themselves only with a sabrl •nd cover their heads with an ordina^^ cap. ' walkL* ITTu 'T ^''•'^»««i«"« «f the lower class ."d tWs the f ' t""' '" ''"'^ «'"Sgy felt cloaks; and this they do in the wan days of summer. When hey go without a sabre an,^ other arms, they prov I'^e themselves v..th a strong staff, on the top of'wh ch t fixed an iron head, and the lower end is furbished wth harp iron pike about eighteen inches long, which L 'r i:r lett^; v^- f -' -• wS cartndges.^U.e.r clergy, and the literati, let the beard , I A. grow; the clergy ge««^lly wear a deep red turban, and scaHet breeches, somewhat longer tlun Uiosc of the latter » rhese people reside, from time to time, in villago; which, from various causes, are frequenUy deserted On nugratmg, they destroy their habitations, carry off the tmiber with Uie.r utensils, and burn what «hey cannot remove. If they afterward, happen to settle 'at. ome distance from water, they form a canal, which they coTi! duct, by means of small banks, from the nearest rivulet Ihey sometimes erect, in the fields, round huts of wicker- worl, ,n Mhich is a pit, used as a place of retreat. In the v.em.ty of the village aie placed stacks of hay and com, secured by a fence; they sometimes manufacture ^argeuskets which are fixed on die ground, and secj^d with covers, to preserve their threshed corn. fheir habitations coiuist, in general, of a large room for he mistress of the house, and a small apartment for tl^ the ri ht r:^ "' '" " ''''" '"Se room has a door on h! S?'. "™T '"''"^ *° ""'' ''''''' ^ another on he left, leading to the inner yard. In the interior, against the front wall, is a chimney, made of plastered wfck^- r^r °^'^'' ™°™ «'"ch leads to the yard, we remarked," says M. Pallas, speaking of the houses o^ tl upper classes, " a broad couch, with caived balusters : in a collateral Ime waa a window facing the street, which was sometimes used a, an entrance to the room. Around the whole wall, and above the sofa, were hung, on pegs ana poles, various arUcle, of female dress, such as needle-work apparel, and furs: below the roof, and in a transverse di-' rection was placed their store of Turkey wheat in ear,, which they occasionally roast in hot ashes, and collect the gmnis separated f^>m tiiem by heat, for immediate use, and likewise to preserve tb«m fpr warlike expeditions ; as Uim gr^ns together with a species of cheesp made of millet afford on such occasions, thdr principal subsistence. anLn TT""'^ '''^^' '" " ^'^P'^^'^ «P"tn.e„t, com an ™ "" "" '*^P*"'*"'^ ^'^"" ^ "if« receive, Tlie principal pursuits of the higher oiders are war, p."age. and the exercise of huntbg : they live a wander! ng life, assemble m drinking parties, and i.^ertakc mili- tary excursions. The lower orders are kept in due sub- ordination; and though the prince exacts «o 'imposts, they are compelled to serve in the field. Vasiai/^ or boors are coaside.^ as hereditary property; as they implicitly' obey the .vill of their lo.xls, and their lives and LsJ. sions are entirely .t their disposal: yet there is not al instance of their iiavin^ hwn «r.U f^, ai. «r tk sals, and tl;e slaves subjected during thti, wars, form the majority of the lower order: they till the land, attend U.e flocks, carry Umber and fuel from the forest, get in the harvest, make hay, and are occuoifid in Uic several dc 30 UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY portments of agriculture. Tlidi wives and adult girli also assist nt the harvest. When the Circassians remove to some diKtanco from the villages, they raise temporary huts, by joining poles, which they cover with branches of trees and long grass, so that they appeor in the form of hay- stacks, llteir great men tahc up their abode in huts of the same construction, when, in theii' excursions, they are obliged to be stationary for a length of time. Every mnio peasant is obliged to labour for a stated time, at hay>making, for his lord ; also to cut wood in the forest, to carry both the hay and wood to his habitation, and to deliver for every bullock a cart-load, or seven sacks, of millet. When a peasant marries, he is obliged to pre- sent to tlie lord of tlie mandr two cows and two oxen, for obtaining his consent : but tlie inlmbHtants of the moun- tains, tributary to the Circassian nobles, present, in gene- ral, for each family, only one sheep, or its value in felts, felt cloaks, cloth, copper vessels, and other articles. Every peasant, who possesses sheep, is obliged to contribute one to the prince's household, during the summer-encamp- ment. The laws of hospitality and revenge, diough opposite in their nature, are strictly observed among the Circassians, llie law of hospitality is iVimded on certain principles, and every person conforminf^ to it is protected fix>m all in- juries. Hu who undertakes the cause of a stranger, de- fends him, if occasion require, not only at the hazard of his own life, but also that of his relatives; nor does he suffer him to depart without a proper guard, and consigns him over to the ruler of the next district, under condition that an hojury oiiered to the guest shall be avenged with the same rigour as one offered to a relation. Revenge is taken with equal impartiality. Tlie murder of a relative must be avenged by the next heir, though an infant at the time when the act was committed: and tlid vengearce is exercised, sooner or later, either publicly or privately, on the life of the murderer. This desire of revenge ex- tends to the whole tribe, insomuch tliat the hostile chiefs of two, different tribes, when tliey accidently meet each other, are under a necessity of fighting for their lives, unless they have mutually engt^ed to pursue a different route. Such is the spirit of resentment, that all the re- latives of a murderer are implicated in the guilt; and this desire of revenge occasions much bloodshed among all tlie nations of the Caucasus ; for, unless pardon be obtained, the principle operates during succeeding gene- rations. '^ The youdi of both sexes maintain a free intercourse with each other, as the Circassian women in general are not reserved. In their courtshij)", respect is paid to the Tjuik of die parties. A iiianie<^ p::ir do not appear before their parents diuing the first twelve months, or till the liirth of a child. ■ [paut I.. Polygamy is allowed among tlie Circassians, the first wife having many more privileges than the second or third ; few, however, have more than one wife, and she regards her husband's intrigues witli indifference, or per- haps with complacency. The education of the children of tlie higher order tends to suppress every feeling of affection. They are, soon after birtli, committed to the care of a man of rank, frequently not very opulent; and the parties have no desire to see a son till he is an adult, and capable of bearing arms, nor is any notice taken of the giris till after mar- riage. The tutor of a male takes upon him the whole care of his education: he instructs the youth in dl the practices of i-obbery; he provides him with arms as soon as he is able to wield them; and, when fully ac- coutred, he presents him to his father; and the grateful pupil rewards liis tutor with a considerable port of the spoil he is able to acquire, for instructing him in tlie pre- datory arts. The female children of the great are trained to all kinds of ornamental work, such as embroidery, Weaving of fringe, making of dresses, and platting of baskets and straw-mats. I1ie person entrusted with dieir education must procure for his ward a husband of equal rank, on pain of losing his head. The following singular customs^ peculiar to the Circas- sians, are related by a Russian traveller of distinction :— " Some of these people are so expert in stealing cattle, and carrying off wOmen, that they make a trade of it. Their principal endeavours are directed towards carrying off beautiful virgins, or handsome women. Such as they take, they keep as concubines, or sell them to the Arme- nians, who supply the Turkish harems, making them pass for Christians, in order to enhance their value. They also carry their children to Kaffa market, with t1 eir cattle, where they obtain seven thousand Turkish piasters for a young and handsome girl." Kluraan, of Viemia, one of the latest travellers of credit, in his voyage to the Crimea, asserts the same thing. " These female slaves," says he, " when brought to market, are locked up in a small pri- vate apartment. When there, I was desirous of seeing some, and spoke to the salesman for that purpose. One of them was, consequently, brought to me, into a room where I was waiting. She was well dressed, but her face was veiled ; she kissed my hand, agreeably to the oriental custom, and her master ordered her to walk to and fro. She was elegant in the extreme ; when she unveiled her face, she al> ;o1utely enchanted me, so inexpressible was her beauty. Ilr^r hair was light, her eyes full and blue, her nose u 'ittle long, her lips lovely, her features regu- tiiptcaiOii \i'ziitc ariu sOtt, uQu her checks iingtu carmine ; she had a long neck, and a fine bo- \?ted the charms of her person. She was de- lar, ii-.T ' [fast I.. tssiiins, the first tlw iccund or G wife, and she ference, or per- 10 higher ord«r on. ITiey are, a man of rank, s liave no desire able of bearing I till after tnar- him the whole outh ill dl the with amis as when fulljr bc> nd the grateful ble part of the him in the pre- iicd to all kinds saving of fringe, and straw-mats. n must procure pain of losing r to the Circas- distinction :— stealing cattle, I ft tnule. of it. >Wards carrying Such as they n to the Arme- king them pass ue. They also ith tl tiir cattle, piasters for a Vienna, one of to the Crimea, aves," says he, in a small pri- irous of seeing purpose. One e, into a room id, but her face to the oriental dk to and fro. e unveiled her ixpressible was I full and blue, features regu- f checks iiagcu and a fine bo- S^« was de- 1 t ' CHINA.] ^ g sired to wipe her face with a white handkerchief, to shew me her beauty was not owing to paint. She then .hewed her teeth, which were white ami regular. I was allowed to feel her pulse, m order to be convinced of her health. After this she was ordered to withdraw. Her price was four thousand piasters, or about one hundred and twenty- five pounds English; which, he said, was the value of such a slave. With respect to their funerals, they wrap up the dead in large winding-sheets, and bury them without a coffin. In different places, about Mount Caucasus, epitaphs, crosses. 1 A. SI and inscriptions, are seen, which indicate them to have been made by Christians. Probably, these are the remain, of the Greek empire, when the t ^t of it was at Byaan. tium; or else of the coloii, of Moravians, who quitted their country about tbe end of the fifteenth ceuiury, in wliich they were exposed, and sought an asylum here, though they are now entirely degenerated, and mixed with otheni preserving only their name and language. For the history of the Turks, we must refer the reader to the article of Turkey in Europe, to which it properly belongs. *^ ^ CHAPTER IL CHINA. PwrKT A "''""' ^''^^'<<'nd Boundaries: VVHINA, properly so called, is situated between twenty and forty-two degrees of north latitude, and between nmety-eight and a hundred and twenty-three degrees of east longitude ; extending thirteen hundred and fif^ miles n length, and one thousand and sixty in breadth, and cor - taming a surface of one million two hundred and ninety- eight thousand square miles. Its boundaries are, the ce- lebrated waU of China on the north; the Pacific Ocea; I which separates it from North America, on the east; the Chinese Sea on the south; and the mountains and rivers of iVsiatic Kussia and Tibet on the west. DivisiomandPopulation.-] Thft following statement of the division, population, and extent of China, was de. Iivered to Lord Macartney, at his request, by a Chinese mandann, named Chow-ta-Zhm, and appears to have been founded on authentic documents, taken from one of the public offices in Pekin. P©-che-lee Kiaiig-nan 2 Provinces Kiang-see ... ...... Tche-kiang i ...... . ,','." £o-chen ........,.."" Hou-San} Hou-qung J Ho-nan ............ Shang-tung .-....."1' Shan-see ...,,.., Shen-see ....»....*""' Kan-sore.....,.,.. Se-chueen .........,"" Canton .."^1 Quan-see ......... .".'." ' Yu-nan ........,..","" Koei-cheou ..... S8,000,000 32,000,000 19,000,000 21,000,000 15,000,000 14,000,000 > 13,000,000^ 25,000,000 24,000,000 27,000,000 18,000,000 > 12,000,000 \ 27,000,000 21,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 9.000,000 58,949 92,961 72,176 S9,150| 53,480 144,770 65,104 65,104 55,268 154,008 166,800 79,456 78,250 107,969 ■fid '{.KA. — ,»*;-« 37,727,360 59,495,040 46,192,640 25,056,000 34,227,200 92,652,800 41,666,500 41,665,560 35,371,520 98,565,120 106,752,000 50,851,840 50,080,000 69,100,160 »« UNIVERSAL With rMpect to thii ttatement, it hu be«i observed, ttet " the extent of the provinces is aBcertuiiied by astro- vomical obaervations, as well as by admeasurement. The •mnbcr of individual* i« ragtilarly taken, in each division of « district, by • tytbing-man, or every tenth master of a ia- unily. These Htnmn are collected by officers resident so near as to be capable of correcting any gross mistake ; and all tlie returns areeatered inthe rej^ihi- v' T 'kin. Though the general statement is strictly ''lo roM-liot Jlniwe retiu-ns add^d tp each other, which , r i.. litil»» ; '..to error, yet the amount of the whole is so prodigious, as to appear in- credible. It must, however, L e recollected, that population in China is not subject to be materially diminished by war. Celibacy is rare, even in tlje military professions. The number of manufacturers, whose occupations are not al- ways favourable to health, whose constant confii'^ i^t.i lu particular spots, and sometimes in a close or impure at- mosphere, must be injurious, and whose residence in towns exposes them to irregularities, bears but a very small pro- portion to that of husbandmen in China. In general, there seem to be no other bounds to Chinese populousness tiian (liose which the uectiisity of subniatence may put to it. From 4 cQtisidoration of die influence of all these causes, therefore, the great population of China, asserted in this statomept, ^Ul not, perhaps, seem surprising, though it appears from it, tliat every squ^kre mile in this vast empire vootains, upon to average, about one-third more inhabi- tants, being upwards of three buudrcd, than are found upoQ aq equal quantity of land, upoo an average, in the most populous country in Europe." Climate, Soil, ^c] The air of this country differs ac- cording to the situation of the respective parts. Towards the north It is sharp, in tlie middle temperate, and in the •outh hot. As the low lands are rendered fertile by innu- inerable caiials, the higher grounds are cultivated by the bboiir of the people, who have levelled some of the hills, and increased the surface of others, by flattening them at the summit. They have also divided a great number into separate ridges, regularly secured with stone walls; and the surfaces of Utese terraces are sown with numerous kinds of grain, and watered by machines curiously adapted to the purpo90. Spme of the hills are cut in the most fanciful shapes, so at to resemble, at a distance, a variety of animal figures, as elephants, came!, leopards, boars, tigers, &c. Those, which, by way of eminence, are called " The Hills of Five Horses' Heads," have a great affinity to their appellation, and may be deemed a stupendous production, both a.i to Wture and art: nor are they only expert at levellii^ natu- ral hiili, but equally adroit in raising artificial mounts ; so iaat every cultivatcU partis effeciually secured uom colds, heats, blasts, and droughts. From this concise vit of the natural fertility of the GEOCRAPIIY. [vAKTf. I soil, and the ingenuity, tm mt^ as in«tu»try, bitanti, the reapfdou!tness, and pleasantness, of a region thus situated and ciiltivuted. And, with respect to the general aspect of the country, such is the variegated prospect of its verdant lawns, delightful groves, Ncquestercd bowers, wonderful canals, winding streams, verdant trees, glittering cascades, and lofty tur- rets, that the jye cannot behold it without entertaining the idea of a perfect elysium. Agriculture.'] It is remarked by the Abbe Raynal, in his Philosophical and Political History, that, to do honour to the profession of agriculture, the emperors of China become husbandmen officially. It is one of their public •ail' tions to break up the ground jn the spring; and the parade of magnificence that accompanies this ceremony draws together all the farmers in the vicinity of the capital. The example of the prince is followed in all the pro- vinces, and, at the same season, the viceroy repeats the same ceremonies, in the presence of a numerous concourse of husbandmen. Where the face of a hill or mountain is not nearly per- pendicular to the level surface of the earth, the slope is converted into a number of terraces, one above another, each of which is supported by mounds of stone. By this management it is not uncommon to see the whole face of a nio\intain completely cultivated to the summit. These stages are not eonfin:-! to the culture of aay particular vegetable : pulse, grain, yams, aweet potatoes, onions, car- rots, turnips, and a variety of other culinary plants, are produced upon them. A reservoir is sunk in the top qf the mountain ; and the rain-water collected in it is con- veyed, by canals, to die diffierent terraces. "; - - ' ~ ■ The collection ofmanitreisan object of soiinich atten- tion with the Chinese, tliat a prodigious number of old m^'n, women, and children, are constantly employed about ■■AC fc eets, and puhUc roada, with baskeU tied before " cm, and holding in tlieir hands small wooden rakes, to piik up the dung of animajs, and any thmg that may an- swer the purpose of manure; but, above all others, ex- cept the dung of fowls, ilie Chinese farniera prefer the soil collected by nigbtnien. Thl' anure is mixed spa- ringly with a portion of stiff lo »ray earth, and formed into cakes, whirU are afterwards dried in the s in. They arc then thrown into a large cistern, containing all other >it$ of dung, together with the leave.- uots, and stems, of plants, mud from the canals,, offals