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PRACTICAL HINTS
TO THE
#
FARMERS OF NOVA-SCOTIA
ON THE
MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT
OF
LIVE STOCK,
AND ON
GENERAL HUSBANDRY;
pOMPIIiBD FROM TOUATT, JOHNSTON, FBTBR8, STEPHENS,
and- other late wiiten.
WITH NOTES AND EXPLANATORY REMARKS.
BY J. W, DAWSON,
AUTHiA OV "BOIEMTinO 00N1SUB1III0NB TOWABD TBI IMPKOTUMNT OF
A0KICT7LTDBB IN MOVA-OCOTIA i>' ho.
• ;
PUBLISHED UNDER ^ GRANT OF THE LEGIBLATURE.
HALIFAX, N. S. :
IpntiteO bs Hidjarb ^ngent,
Ihu. B9U> pv A1.1. BooHiLLna, ahb bt bmutuun or AaMOOLTinui. hooirik
nROcoaooT m raorninu
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Fig. 1. Aldebnet Bull. (Page 18.)
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JlttJL^ATiPllBBirJQffli..
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PRACTICAL HINTS
TO THB
FARMERS OP NOVA. SCOTIA
ON THB
MANAGEMENT AND MPROVEMENT
OF
LIVE STOCK,
V
AND ON
GENERAL HUSBANDRY;
friTH IfOTES AND EXfLANATdRT REMARKS.
AND
BY J. W. DAWSON.
•'^'l
PUBLISHED UNDER A GRANT OP THE LEGISLATURE.
HALIFAX, N. S. :
J"nt«^ bS Hicl)arb Mttgrnt ^^^^__^
1854.
•h'Sv'sirx^-itimmivS^A
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1q liis Excellency, Colonel Sir J. Gaspard Lb Marchant
A«*^A/, and Knight Commander of the Orders of
^i- J' crdinand, ^c, Lieutenant Governor, (^c.
MAT IT PLKA3K YOUR KXCEtpEXCY,- ,^,
. f -y t^'e execution of the work with which your Excellency hw been
pleased to entrust mo, I have endeavored, in accordance with iny instruc-
. tiOns, to select from the latest and best authorities, practical and useful
nints on the management and improvement of Live Stocle, and on those
(lepartmenta of Agriculture immediately connected with the maintenance
and improvement of domestic animals ; and to present these hints in the
words of the writers, with only so much-introductory and explanatory
matter as appeared necessary to render them intelligible and applicable
to the circumstiinces of this Province. ' ■
A work of this description must necessarily contain much that is
already known to fi.rmers who are well read in the modern, improve-
ments m their profession, and also much that is too far in advance of the
present condition of Agriculture here, to be readily accepted as practi-
cable or useful. On the one hand, to secure the most extensive utility.
. it 13 necessary to be very elementary ; on the other, justice to the sub'^
ject requires that m each department the practice in those couotriea in
* J .1 '^ u ', J^'' ™°'* thoroughly studied and most successfully con-
ducted should be stated in detail. I hav^ endeavored, however, to
Belect chiefly from works^not as yet very generally read in this Province,
and to conhno myself to facts and methods, either dii'ectly suited to the
exivstmg state of AgricuUure here, or capable of affording practical
suggestions to any intelligent reader. - . ^ '^
It is to be regretted that the agricultural literature of Nova Scoti*
does not afford more extensive collections of the best practice oCour own
tarmers. I trust that this deficiency may be remedied, by the method
suggested near the close of this work ; and that by requiring statements
trom all persons who may receive premiums at agricultural exfrti^tions,
the legislature may be enabled to ele^^he condition of Agriculture
and to make a knowledge of the pracf^Tlf the most successful cultiva-
tors tne common property of all.
Trusting ^hat your Excellency's enlightened efforts for the improye-
ment of Provincial Agriculture, may be crowned with complete succesg
and that this r»otnniIatmn moTT +/.r..i ;^ „« j x- xi_ ."^ -i '
r
.
•
I have the honor to be,
i
/
Yotfr Excellency's humble servant,
J. W. DAWSON.
,A-. , ( J
February
W,
1854.
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CONTENTS.
■ \ I. NEAT CATTLE.
1. Breeds of Cattle, -
Devonshire breed, ~ -
Sussex,
Ilerofoitl
Durham
Long-horned ,'.'
Galloway
,_ Highland
Ayrshire
" AldQrney
Comparativa merita of breeds,
2.. Choice and Purchase of Cattle,
■ Ada,p'tation to soil, &c..
Best points of cattle,
Age of cattle, , -
3. Breeding of Cattle, -
Description of bull,
Treatment of cow in calf,
4. Management of Calves,
Keai-ing,
Fattening,
5. Lhaught Oxen, - -
Training, - * .
Modes of yoking,
' Comparison with horses, -
ft. Feeding and Faitening of Cattle,
Pasturage,
Soiling, - - ,,
\ Stall and box feeding,
Driving to market, -
> n. THE DAIRY.
1. Qualities of Milch Cows,
2. Food of Milch Cmcs,
8. Buildings for the Dairy,
4. Composition and properties of MiUe,
6. Butter making^ - » - ,
Paob
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20
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87
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; Milking, .
Crcauaing,
Churning, .(
'- J Salting,
6. Cheese Making, ' .
'i(, Cheshire cheese,
"-- Double' Xiloucester,
, Dunlop,
SHim milk, '
'OOlTTBimiL
I-
^ UI. FAR]V$« hSrsES.
1. TrkiHing^fBoraes^ r . ! i -^
2. ^Feeding, - - ,^_ i ' ' .
IV'. SHEEP.
1. Breeds of Sheep,
\ Heath or black-faced, -
Exmoor, — Dishlej,
South-dowB, — Cheviot, - -• .
Merino, - _ .
^' fiSelection an4 Rearing of Sheep, % .
Practice in Bmsin awl America,
' Sorts and value of wool,
General remarJ^Sjo - - ^
1. Breeds of Smne,
of Swine
OKinese,
V. SWINE. '
• * Berkshire aiKi Essex,
2. Feeding, - '^ .
Young pigg, - _
' Fattening of pigs, -'
Weight of pigs,
Practice in the Western States,
3. Pig Sties and Troughs,
4. Cttring of Pork and Bacon,
Practice in Yorkshire, - - ^
■ Westmoreland,
~ Spain and Portugal,
t
VI. -POULTRY.
1. ^The Common or Domestic PtMl, -'
Barn-door fowl, ^-'
GaiB&t
%'
/ ' D«i-king,
.,*
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PAsa
- 45
46
- 47
49
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Bpanish,
Shanghai or €ochin China .
' Poland ^' .'
Poultry yard and sheds, - ' . '
Choice of poultrv,
Food of poultry ,' - ..
3: The Duck, ' - . " "
4. The Goose, - . ~ "
5. Hints on Poultry, by Mr 'hmcn^,
VII. GENERAL HINTS ON HUSBANDRY.
1- Ploughitig, . _
2. Root Crops, . . '
The Turnip, . ' ,. '"
Mangold Wurtzel, .
Carrot, . _ "
Parsnip,^ ' -
3. Management of Manures, - . '
Youatt.on Manures, - . " .
Peters on Manures, - . "
' Agricola on Manures,
4. Rotation of Crops,
5. Agricultural Reports, - " - »
6. Selectio7is from Johnston's R^arf on New Brunsu>iJk,
Paok
- 74
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77
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79
■ 82 ■
84
85
88
98
98
99
100
101
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107
112
126 .
180
182
;
NoTB. — We are indebted to Mr C M S«vf«», a^- w , .
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126 *
180
182
iltural pub-
ivork, which
f " Youatt
I—REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF NEAT CATTLE
. 1- ^^c^«fe of Domestic Cattle.
era to the rump, Ij.ng completely on a level with the pin or huckle«"
which he wide and open; the hindquarters seated hSrwithfli,^'
leaving a fine hair-ham taperino*from the hock tn tJ?fi.»T i , '
fj.ni rump to huckle, and fro'm th°e & of t^e sh u t to tt Ld^^^
inc med to curl whenever the animal is ill good condition and Zm\
coat, when it also becomes mottled with darker sbn,la« nf ;. ""
color which is a bright red without wStetrl't^^^^^^^^
t S>ttion^"'"^ "''^^ "^ ^^'"^^'^^^ P--^ ove?:b;t'Sot W[ti-
narform!Ts- ^'°^ ^'''^ "^ ^''"^^ ^"^ ^°^«^«^ ««>«« defects in e,ter-
"The sudden retiring of the vamp from behind the huckla to »
rrr^'TLSf '; *'^ «''^''* T^« ^*-«- the h^eWe and IhJ
kSS and navel!^'"^'^ "^^'^''^ ^'^'^ "^ '^^^^''^ «*% between the
•Ihh EditioQ, Londoo, 186B.
,,...*-• ^ ■•
— J;>*
•" The Nortli Devon cattle are highly esteemed both for feeding and
draught but are not so much valued for the dairy; yet their milk,
though deficient in quantity, is of such excellent quality, that as much
butter can be made from that yielded by a North Devon cow, as trom
that yielded by the breeds which are esteemed better milkers, tor all
the purposes of labour, whether for activity, docility, strength or hardi-
• ness, this breed cannot be excelled, and the quality of the meat is unri-
valled by that of any other breed."
The !Novth Devon breed merits the attention of farmers in this
country, whose object is to rear cattle for draught or for tattenning.
The Sussex BREED-differs from the Devonshire by being larger and
coarser. When pure, they are invariably of a dark red colour. Ihey
are thua described by an eminent breeder, ( Mr. EUman.) ' "eadthm ;
laws clean; horns long, pointing forward and upward ; eye tull throat
clear and no dewlap ; neck long and thin; shoulders wide and deep ;
barrel round and straight; space between hip bone and, first rib very
^'"* The true Sussex Cattle are large hardy animals. They are prized
for their labouring powrs, more than for anything else. Few of the
Cowa are good milkers, nor do the oxen fatten at an early age.
The Hereford Breed is a variety of the Devon and Sussex, but is
larger and weightier than either. The prevailing colour is reddish
brown, and the face white or mottled. The hair fine and inclined to
curl, and the skin soft and elastic.
" In the true bred Hereford cattle, there is no projecting bone m the
point of the shoulder, but it regularly tapers off. They have a con- .
Biderable breadth before, and are equally weighty in their hind quarters. -
There is a great distance from the point of the rump to the hip bone ;
the twist is^ full, broad and soft; the arm as far as the pastern joint,
tapering and full, but thin and tapering below the joint. The anima
handles remarkably well, and is especially mellow on the rump ribs and
hip. The quality of the meat is not hard, but fine as well as tat.
There is little coarse flesh about them, the offal and bone being small m
proportion to their weight ; while their disposition to fatten is equal it
not sffcerior to that of any other breed in the island ; they are not
however calculated for the dairy. They arrive early at maturity, and
there is a great disproportion in size between the cows and the oxen.
The Herefords are considered to be unrivalled for fatting stock, and
might be very profitable on the marsh lands and richer grazing farms ot
this Province It is very questionable if they would thrive on our ordi-
nary upland farms. . ,
The Short Horned Durham or Yorkshire Cattle- are a mixed
breed having several varieties, the best of which is that of the " improved
short horns" or proper Durhams. " This breed was introduced about
sixty years ago, by Messieurs CoUings of Darlington, and has rapidly
=^TTsen in public estimatiou. They are of good size, beautifully mottled
with red spots upon a wjiite ground ; their backs are level; the throat
>th for feeding and
y; yet their milk,
lality, that as much
Devon cow, as from
;r milkers. For all
T, Strength or hardi-
of the meat is unri-
of farmers in this
)r for fattenning.
by being larger and
k red colour. They
lan.) "Head thin;
ird ; eye full, throat
ders wide and deep ;
le and, first rib very
Is. They are prized
ig else. Few of the
an early age.
)n and Sussex, but is
g colour is reddish
fine and inclined to
)rojecting bone in the
r. They have a con-
a their hind quarters. .
ump to the hip bone ;
as the pastern joint,
e joint. The animal
on the rump, ribs and
; fine as well as fat.
id bone being small in
I to fatten is equal if
e island ; they are not
sarly at maturity, and
) cows and the oxen."
for fatting stock, and
•icher grazing farms of
uld thrive on our ordi-
Cattlb— are a mixed
1 that of the "improved
was introduced about
igton, and has rapidly
ze, beautifully mottl^
3 are level ; the throat
11
clear; the neck fine but not too thin, especially toward the shoulder-
the carcase full and round ; the quarters long and the hips and rln
even and wide. They must not stand too high on thefrlegg- ZJ
Imndlo very kindly, are light in their bone in proportion to tKiV It?
tonamong the London cow-keepers, as being capital milkers andTt
must be necessary ' ^"^ '^"'' ^'^"''''■' ^^^^^ ^'g^ "ng
Jior earlj, matunty and a speedy manufccturo of beef for tl,»
butcher, my own experience 1™ Iain chiefly among th" sLXm <^nd
I am inchned to recommend thii hree.1 At .t. ." , ' .
good cow will give from the same quantity of VeSfr fS^n,,,^
dS hi" taT-trf "r "• ^"'■°"=- °"'' - » ™»Su J
loOT lor ms iannly, the Ayrshire is the more sure- for the heef r.i,^,
I?i M^hr"" r'"'- "■' !'"'"-'"'"' '■» "« ".orrgeneral^^^S
"■ttf rL'°" '" ^^'T'' ■■ Milbumthus describesTfi^ldndf
i.r 'V™'" ?^»d white, the muzzle without black spots he
breast deep and prominent, but that and the shouldei^^in ^ikI'. u
somewhat narrow, but full 'below the shllders a„dt^^^^^^^^
2^ Xr^t^aYlt"^^ *'4 l-l^ -^ciouj.,thSi^^„
il to the h«ad. The pre-
y
Hm
ffl»
la
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-^nihng colour is roan or red and white, and sometimes white, with the
t.I«of the ears red. The thighs are thin; but the legs a;e straight
and rather short The udder is very large and muscukr, projeeting
forward, well filled up behind, and so broad as to give the c^w th?
appearance of a waddle in her walking."
Milburn states that these cows have^been known to give thirty quarts
of nnlk per day, and as much as fifteen pounds of butter per week
Ihese cows are much valued for the London dairies, and are there fed
in such a manner as to produce the largest quantity of milk without
plied by Yorkshire cows, retams no cow which does not yield two gal-
ZrtL^.^'^\P' '"'^ '^' "T"^' "^ ^'« ^'^'y ^' «« "'"^h as nine
quarts daily. ' These cows are also .aid to fatten well, and may there-
tore be considered as in all points a very profitable breed.
/i.^A; T 5««N«o CA'n'i'B--"The finest of these, known as the
DM,j ^rcedUve long and fine horns, small heads clean throats
ZT" aT^ backs, wide quarters and ire particularly' light in the ;
belly and offid They give less milk than some other breeds, and a e
ch,efly valuable from their aptitude to fatten early, on the mosi valuab e
points and t^e superior quality of their flesh. They are hardy and
^ capable of thriving on ordinary pastures ; and are said ^o keep n Vood
condition on less food than other cattle of equal weight. This breed is
gS?' ''^^ ^ ^"'"^ P^""' '° '^"^ short-horns, in every part of En? *
naH^.f^.t,t''7''^ ^""^^^ ^' ^°''''!'' ScoTS-are welf known in some
paits of this Province, ns are cross breeds between them and other vari-
eties. Mr. Mure thus describe^ the pure breed •—
hrno^^""? tf^^* '"*^ ^'^"'^ ^"'^ nearly level; barrel round; loins
broad ; hock bones not projecting:. In these resp;cts they will compare
favorably with any breed. Quarters and ribs long ; chest deep but n^
broad m the twist. The space between the hip bo^n; and he rTbs is le's
than in most other breeds-a consideration of much importance for the
adj^ntago of length of carcase consists in the animal b'^C^ell ribM
home, or as httle space as possible lost in the flank. Le| short a^
Sin 1 r "" ^""'F ""^ '""'•'"^" *b«^« 'he knee, with room
for a deep and capacious chest. The neck is thick almost lo a fauU.™
«n,l ,r ^"r^'^y^ .«;';e a hardy race, subsisting on the coarsest pasture
and increi^sing rapidly when removed to more favorable situSnl'
Theyfattenkmdly; their flesh is of the fi^t quality; and the S
being of moderate size are more suitable for^onsumption n p 'vate
families, than those of the larger breeds." These qualides well fit them
for many parte of this Province; but it must^be oS^ That cr^ssS
between the Galloway and other breeds, have rt^rely been found S
&'-V ^f ^'" n ''^''' '^' ^'"^ ^' "^'^^^^ i^ » necessary to 1
here to it alone One cross breed however, that Vith th« I>urhL bSl
feB beenvery advantageous; and the polled SufpC- a vSt^ Zli
of tbo Galloway, u celebrated for itg milking quali^i
timea white, with the
the legs are straight
muscular, projecting
to give the cow the
to give thirty quarts
1 of butter per week.
Js, and are there fed
itity of milk without
I dairy, which is sup-
8 not yield two gal-
y is 08 much as nine
well, and may there-
breed.
these, known as tlie
heads, clean throats,
ularly light in their
her breeds, and are
on the most valuable
They arc hardy and
laid to keep in c;ood
ight. This bree'd ia
I every part of En-
well known in some
them and other vari-
barrel round; loins
ts they will compare
; chest deep but not
6 and the ribs is less
importance, for the
al being well ribbed
k. Leg short and
S3 aYid disposition to
he knee, with room
almost tea fault."
he coarsest pasture,
iivorable situations.
;y; and the joints
umption in private
mlities well fit them
served that crosses
been found advan^
is necessary to ad-
hthe Durham buU,
K, a variety or cross
\
The characters of the pure breed are thus given by Mr A i ton - ^'
the head, with little losesK?ol- si d^^^^^^^^^^
The Alderney Breed— which is nprnlJnr t^ ♦t,„ t i i i. ,
be obtainpd frL^ K * *v! P'^oportionate quantity of butter that can
much fle^ Th^'hi? *^-7k''' ""' S^^ feeders and seldom make
«™»ey. ihey are certainly smaller '^nd more delicate; and go
/
J?
14
anx-ious are the inhabitants to preserv^ them in their native purity, that
there js an Act of their Legislature which prohibits the im^rtatiin of
all foreign neat cattle, even from the neighboring Islands, under severe
penalties of fine and confiscation, including the destruction of the animal
iteelf, which in such cases is slaughtered and distributed among the poor.
Wl^n exported, the same Act directs that they shall be accompanied by
a certificate of their being natives of the Island; but it is not easy to
rZT I l^ best quality. As fattening <kttle, the produce of these
Is ands have lew good points: but their fles^S finely grained, highly
coloured and of excellent quality. The cows rire rich milkers, md both
on that account and because of a certain neatness in fheir appearance,
they command high prices. There is a prevaleht notion that they will
thrive on any kind of land, and they are consequently kept on bare
paddocks with the assistance of hay in winter. Like all' hVht cattle,
tS '"; ^^ ^ .'^ "'''^ "^T^ *^^ ^'^'"^ «"PP°^' ^ ^"'•ger animals, bu
nwl T'l P,'^^"'"'' °" ^^ f'^"^"^ '■' °^ *be richest kind ; and it is p;irtly
owing to the less nutritive herbage, oii which they iire frequently fed Yn
^ngland, that the quantity of their milk becomes not equal to its quality.
the quantity and quality of the milk." -
Comparative Merits of Breeds.
tl,f!? *^;'t^"'^e<'t I may observe that experience in this Province and
LiS J"? fT'^ "•'^'^ '*'*"'' "' «^ f«^ ^ I ^"^ acquainted with it,
Dn h.™ ' i1^'" ^'"r°S ''"^^ "^ ^^^^^ «^ ^i-^b upland farms, the
Th. r. f T'^''" t^'«« precedence of the other imported breeds.
Ihe Herefords have also been tried, but not with the same success. The
VnifTnin*'* ? ;t'«S?""t'-y as in England, proved excellent for draught,
Avr htr„n? A ^'''^"" for early fattening. Fordairy purposes the
Ayishire and Alderney must take the highest place.
,f.i>nF ^r^ ""^^ Highland cattle are not now to be found here in a
state of purity, and there can be little doubt that the introduction of
good specimens of these cattle, aa fattening stock for upland farms
>vou Id be very useful As dairy catl^, the^ Yorkshire vaS ofThe
short-horns and the Suffolk polled, appear to deserve a trial. ^
.Ji7 ^"'J'vidlials of the mixed breeds which prevail in this Province,
and have long been naturalized in it; are of excellent quality ; and b^
attention to the pomtsand treatment mentioned under subsequent heads
and by judicious crossing with the imported breeds, herds may be se^
ZfnS. H, *^'' of^^ country, and well adapLni to our climat^.
Sen Zttinv '?*l.^''°^\'^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^«" y°""g' ^°d bad inter
«!£' ff* A^ ?^ ^}'^^ ^*'" P°^««8 ^o'"® of the most important cha-
on th^ nfrt T'\^''^ T" ^^°^ *^«"^ ""'i^r good treatment ; whiL
on the other hand, with careless management, the best foreign breeds
Will become unprofitable and degenerate. — ^^— ^''"'^^'g^^'^^^
1
native purity, that
he importation of
mds, under severo
ition of the animal
d among the poor.
>e accompanied by
it is not easy to
! produce of these
\y grained, highly
milkers, and both
fheir appearance,
aon that they will
itly kept on bare
3 air light cattle,
rger animals, but
; and it is partly
frequently fed ^n
ual to its quality,
bund to improve
\
his Province and
iquainted with it,
pland farms, the
mported breeds,
me success. The
lent for draught,
Jry purposes the
) found here in a .
} introduction of
• upland farms,
> variety of the
k trial.
n this Province,
juality; and by
ibsequent heads,
erds may be se-
l to our climate,
in selecting the
, and bad winter
: important cha-
reatment ; while
foreign breeda
luce
ison
Stone.
Lbs
165
12
11
12
10
2
15
The following facts relating to the comparaUve weights and prod
of different breeds m Great Britain, are given as date for coZaT
with the results obtained in this Province ^
Fattening Properties.
"TheDurhamOx (of the short-horned breed), a son of Charles Col
ling's Favorite, weighed 187 stone 2 lbs. The Lkshire Ox bred bv
Mr. Dunhill of .Newton, near Doncaster, weighed when killed 264
stones 13 lbs. These are weights of 14 lbs. to the stone, and shew the
^:tZ^^:^r^^^ ^-'^P--^ by this'extrtX
Ko"ff 1 no""J '^"'' ^r' '^'l' l^' ^"'■^""^ Bhort-horns often wei^h from
HO to 100 stones^ The celebrated ' Durham Ox" of Mr Col W
(already mentioned,) weighed when alive, at ten years old, 270 stones
Four quarters - _ _
Tallow - - -
Hide ....
• - - '
187 6
field iet 'Tt'r''™ °^ 'i°/"'' °f "■« P™"'l»' '"■"''» "' Smith-
SSeXeford, and > "'• *"■ >"' "™ " *"»• " ''»•= *« °^»'-
fine short-horns, [ ^^- ^^- ^^ ^3. do. do.
Coarse inferior beasts, 3s. 6d. do. do.
^o'iAn""."^^ ''Vo® ^^^^^^"''^V breed, well fattened will weiT'fiL
mor^than?oTsll'"'^^r 'V^°= '""^ ""^^ ^-« ^e- feS to
from 48'toTnto^f ^f '"" ""J!^ T^^' ^'*^ '^'""^'"g^J^ '^"'^ ^'^re
tZ^^VZ r . ' n°? '""^'^ ^^^"^ ^^"^ 8*^<^ to reach as high as 70
"(^'o&J^^^J^^^^^ theha^L^^Lh-^
fatZ^v^th mifditC"' Tb'"^'' *• '"S\'*' t'^'^y «***^' g55Jh«akers,
forty sll?loofnfinniKT 'J r^'^ ?"""^ *° ^^'^yor five and
(Sa/0 beheved to have sprung from the Galloway. »-T
^
f'l
16
The following are experiments made between Devons and West Hich-
landers and Galloways. . ' °
" Twenty Dcvofts and twenty Scots were bought in October 1822
and Wintered." . ' '
"Ten of each sort were fed in a warm stiaw-yard upon straw alone
but with hberty to run out upon the moor." '
Ch'ristm'L"^'^^ ^^ ^^ ^ meadow, having hay' twice every day until
" They afterwards lay in the farm-yard, and had oat straV and hav
cut together into chaQ; They were then grazed inxlifferent fiplds equal
proportions of each sort being put into the same field." v
" Those that lay in the warm straw-yard with straw only, were ready
aa soon as the others, although the others had an allowance of hav durine
the winter." ' »
1824,
before
" Sixteen of each were sold at different times; March 24th
being the best sale. The Scots were ready first and disposed of
the Devons. ^
The Scots cost £7 128. lOd. each, or £122 Ss 4d
They sold for ^£235 18s. 6d., gain by grazing.
The Devons cost £7 6s. Q.d. each, amounting to
X117 43., and sold for £250. Deducting £18
143:6d. for the longer time in feeding, there re-
-^"iS^£231 53. 6d.— gain, ^
£118 18 2
£114 1 6
8 4
tf
Balance in favor of the DevofR. " ■" v o ^
" The remaining four of each breed were kept and stall-fed. on tur-
mps and hay 1 he Scots sold kt £75, and the Devons at £84 ; the
account of which will be as follows :-^
4 Devons, cost £29 63. sold for £84— gain £54 14
4 Scots, cost £80 lis. 4d. sold for £75— gain £44 8 8
Balance in favor of Devons. IQ 6 4
)i^». r, ' {Youatt.)
„»,, J. Milking- Properties. ,
^he £,on^ Honied or Dishley stock are now chiefly valuable as
dairy cattle, and principally for cheese-making; and some cows will
^'''Hfu ^Ti^? ?. ^^^ ^^- '^ °^««^« «««^ '° t^; season." ( yLUa
,« « ; n '^"•^^^^ .?"'»* «''« ^'d in the London dairies to give as much
the seCn"" (76 ) ' "^' """ ''^'^°^' ^""^ "^ ^"""« ^S"*^* ^'' '^
"In the Epping district, where no particular attention is paid to
the selec^on of stock, and where there is an indiscriminate mixture of
Devons, Suftolks Leicesters, Holderness, and Scotch, the calculation S
a well managed dairy, amounts to 212 lbs. of butter, viz •--
6 lbs. per week during 26 weeks, 156 Ibg
4 " do during 14 do ^6 lbs.'
21211
J
S^^HrTW^^wHWW-?Wi""'W*itan* I
ts and West High-
in October, 1822,
upon straw alone,
I everj day until
at atraV and hay,
ferent fiplds, equal
ronly, were ready
mce of hay during
farch 24th.
disposed of
1824,
before
£118 18 2
jC114 1 6
"s ^
atdll-fed. on tur-
ns at £84; the
£54 14
£44 8 8
10 5 4
liefly valuable as
some cows will
m." ( Yonatl.^
to give as much
ig a great part of
mtion is paid to
linate mixture of
he calculation in
riz :—
156 lbs.
m lbs.
per
17
"Mr. Alton's calcnlation is as we have alreadv seen *>^0 lh«
annum, for the Ayrshire breed "—(76 ) ^ ' ^^^' -
J\l'^,]'\^^'^u""'^!^'r ''■'" °"* y'^^d "lore than a third part of tha
miik that ,s obtained from ti.e Ayi^hire ; but the mi k is exceedin'lv
rich, and the butter procured from it is excellent. "-(/A \ '^'*^'^'"S'J^
.nn .^'"''/'^"''"^ d^i'j for two or three months after calvincr mav b«
Ions da,ly wil be g.ven for the next threo months, and one -albn amfn
half dunng tlie succeeding four months. This ^ould al'unr^a « 10
25Tlbs.o/b.teror^5Tll^^^^^^^^
she fs dry ''-(76) '^"'°'"^' ^'^ ^°' *^°'°' *^^^^ ™°»^h»
"The following observations were made by Mr Calver of Prom-Tf^^
on the quantity of butter yielded by one of h^s Short horns The S
wa3 kept and churned separately from that of the o her stock and t^^«
ollowmg. the number of pounds of butter obtained i^e^rh ^^ k-^7
fuartl'of'^-lf '"r K^^'A of ^'2-^^ Th':rwlat"^"8
quarts of mdk per day, about Midsummer, and would averaize .fbout ^o
quarts per day for 20 weeks. She gave more milk Xn^ns ured !n
ho weX' X"'",""^'- " 4 ^''"^^ ^"^ ~quence'of h ale ;
ieci Sfqtantft^F milk"?'^^^^^^^ ^^^°^ ^^"^ ^^ '^^ '^'^ ^^^^^^ 1-
The produce of the Aldeniej/s is thus noticed by Milburh —
great and^mlvT/t?'' '"'f^''^-^? ^''^ i» ^i^ a^d butter is very
SnJ'nn^; ^ be taken m fair specimens at twenty quarts of milk
May^ Junrjr"fnd^^""n ^° ?' ^^^^' ^'^""^ theVonths of AM
my, J une Ju y, and August. Instances are recorded of cows civin^
26 quarts of nailk m twenty-four hours, and yielding as much as W^
SbfeTtlo""" P^^'TV. ^o-teenWis'ofTei £1^
r£nd Ld^ h^?f^ ? T"^ °^ ^T''l^ *« ^'^"^^ <i"''"tity would gi^
^E of la t °^ "^ff"' ?^ *^« '^^^y <>»• drainin^s of twenty ~
pounds of this cheese would produce feuf pun^f butter iomttwhlt ^
inferior for^toast, but quite adequate to the TakiV pwtJy. ' ^^
\
■t '!■
'(i!
18
2. Choice and Purchase of Cattle.
Tho alwve description of tbe several breeds will be useful in tbia
respect; but tliere are a number of subordinafe 'points well deserving of
attention, and wbicb can be reduced to tbc form of rules. Tbo follow-
ing are copied almost verbatim from Youatt.
The first object of attention is to consider tbc proportion between
bis stock and tbe quantity of" fo<^d tbat will be necessary to support it!
The nature, situation, and fertility of the soils tbat compose bis farm
are e(iually worthy .of notice, as well as the purpose for which he'desi<Tn3
more particularly to rear or feed bis cattle : and cbiefiy, whether lor
the dairy or with the view of supjjlying the markets. It will be expe-
dient to olworve tbe greatest exactness in these proppitions ; because, in
<asc be should overstock -bis land, bo will be compelled to re-sell before
the cattle are in a fit state for market, and, consequently at certain
loss; while op tbe other hand, be will incur a diminution of bis profit
it be sbould not stock bis laud witb as many cattle as it will Itear."
'■ lie should next endeavor to procure thoroughly good male animals ;
and extra ten or twenty pounds is always well bestowed thus ; and he
should decide on the bi'eed or breeds he intends to keep; by purcbasin"-
and breeding from various different breeds indiscrifninately, be will never
have a good animal, and eventually his herd will be mongrels. Neither
riuist be pursue tbe in and in system to any extent, or he will find his
stock deteriorate rapidly."
As points deserving of careful consideration in the purchase of cattle,
especiaUy those intended for fattening, the following are enuitierated :--
{\.y /:fra»/y or symmetry of shape.
(2 ) Utility of-Jorm.—'rhe head should be fine and small, taper-
ing toward the mouth. Few good milkers or feeders are without this
fineness of muzzle. ' The? neck should also be fine, but may thicken
rapidly toward the shoulder. Tbe chest should be deep and broad, and
the back broad and level, and tbe animal ribbed almost home. Tbc
loins should 1)0 wi.le at the hips but not prominent ; the thighs full
long and near together; and the legs 8ho\t. The bones of the legs
should be small, the bide mellow Ihit hot loose— everywhere covered
with hair soft and fine but not effeminately so.
(3.) 7 Vte Ffe*//.— of course varies with ago and food. It should
however be marbled or intermixed with fat and lean ; and when aiiVe
should feel firm and mellow or elastic, and not hard or flabby. *'
(4.) Cattle from richer or better ground should not be purchased
for pbor or medium farms. The farmer should select such animals ds
have been found to suit the soil. or keep he has for them. This last
BJiould however bo improved if possible. ^
(5.) Docility of disposition is an ob*ct of great moment. Inde-
pendently -of its other advantages, tame beasts require less food to rear
support and fat^ten them. Gentle, kindly, equable treatment will most
effectually conduce to thia endpand stock so treated are^more valuable
than those that have had their tempers spoiled by bad treatment.
■ jgpwrwitpK-^fev
«]|l;ll<HII«l—W WW
e useful in this,
well (Icscrving of
les. The follow-
oportion bctwcoii
ry to support it.
Jonipose liis fnrin
which hedesip;ii3
eHy, whetlier for
It will bo expo-
ions ; hecauao, in
to re-sell before
icfitly at certain
tion of his profit
it will Ivcar."
3(1 .male animals ;
d thus; and he
i; by pnrcliosing
(?ly, he .will never
igrels. Neither
he will find his
irchaae of cattle,
enurherated : —
nd small, taper-
ire without this
ut may thicken
) and broad, and
ost home. The
the thighs full,
»nes of the legs
ywhere covcretl
3od. It should
md when alJVe,
[labby.
ot be purchased
such animals ds
leni. This last
fioment. Inde-
)33 food to rear,
ipent will most
5 'more valuable
eatment.
' \ "19
(6.) Ilnr^incss of gonstititthn, is a matter of, some import.! nco.
(.attle with artfi.cd ribs and wide cHWj^nd backs, a/ro more likely to
prove hardy than tlioso that have theiFtire-quarters narrow.
(7.) Earli/mntiirUy is also valuable, but it can only bo maintaineil
by feeding youi^g cattle in such a manner as to keep lliem constiuulv
m a growing sta^o. A good breed well fed in winter, will thrive inori
m three years than m five with insufficient food in winter. It seems to
be a geiieriilly rdceived opinion that small cattle have a stron^rer disw-
sit.on to fatten ihan the larger brt:pds, and will proiluco" inore meat
per acre.
(8.) ThcA^e of Cattle may be estimated by the teeth and horns ■
JNeat cattle caslj no teeth until they are turned two years old, whui
they get two new teeth. At three they get two more ; and in ev/y
succeeding year two more, until five years old, when \h^} are called
tull-mouthed; though the twix-eemer teeth which are last in renewal
are not fully up until they are six." , '
••When two kars old, the horns arewithout wrinkle at the base l)ut
at thrco years old a, circle or wrinlcle appears, to which another is added
every year, so that by adding two to the number of nWs the ago may
be ascertained, unless the rings have been Scraped or filed away These
circles mu4 not be confounded with other ringlets sometimes found at
tne base ot the home, apd which are a tolerably sure indication that the
. animal has been ill-fed during its growth ; another frequent consequence
ot which 13 that the horns ai'e crooked and unsightlyf There is also a
tip at the extremity of the horn,' which falls "oflF ahout the third year."
3. Breeding of Cattle.
On this subject Youaft gives tho' following hints :~ -^
" T^*^^ ^w^^ generally attains the age of puberty at twelve or fouftfeen
months and may be uSbd moderately at that age without injury. Youn^
bulls that have been suckled on the cow in a pasture, will eentfrallv
serve cows more readily at an eaijy age than those reared in the house
It 13 not advisable to put old or heavy bulls on jourig heifers. Neither
18 It we 1 to allow the bull to, run in the pastures with the cows, and
especially IS this practice injurious to young bulls, often spoiling their
temMTs, besides doing them other harm. Wherever the situation can be
by aiiy means mide to admit of ita being avoided, this should never be"
permitted. As it is desirahJo at times for the bull to have exercise, ho
ahould be allowed to have a loose box whep young, and should be regu-
larly-rubbed down every day, and as he gets older led out occasionally
ibe temper of the animal much depends on the treatment he receives
nevertheless some bulls are naturally far more vicious than others,'^ '
' Although the Cow may be supposed to arrive at puberty at the
end of eighteen months or even earlier, it is not generally advisable to
^* J-f ^^ -^^^"^ ^^°^^ ^^ age oltwenty-two montha or two v«8ts=
5
TTf V f — ,~ ~ r — » — «=^»T«Mvj -•wu iuuuMja ui- two years. -
Aluch hQiyever depends on the breed, the treatment and the constitution
f
<.-.;
'/t:
!J
:'1
A
'"T"
20
•f rlia lieifttr. Some ureeders hold that oows may be sent to the bull as
•arjy as one year old, but this is <niuriou8 cither to the mother or off-
•pneiir *nd is generally considered .i'^udicious. Some cautious brccden
on.tiie iitlier hand defer it for three years or oven longer."
" The most judicious method of breeding is to emjdby m^iles of supe-
rior shape, but yet of suitable size, and to couple them with females
nearly as largo if nbt larger. The nearer the other qualities of both
approach to perfection, the better will it be for their progeny, but it is
iwitcrial that even in their Ltest points there should not be too great dis-
parity. Gradual iltiprovtments will always be followed hy certain ulti-
mate success, 'while violent attempts to ellect a sudden change, will
invariably disappoint expectation. "
'• The period of time during which cows arc allowed to run dry pre-
^viously to calving, is by no moans settled. By some graziers they are
Vecommcndcd to be laid dry when they are about five or six months gone
withtjalf ; but repeated and successful experiments prove that six wefika
or two months are sufficient for the purpose : indeed cows kept in good
condition, are sometimes milked until within a fortnight of calving.
this however, is a practice not to be recommended ; for if a cow springs
before she is dry, serious injury may. enauo.
'i ASj cows are very sabject to Mortiofi -when improperly- treated
during gestation, they ought to b^^^ched with- more than ordinary
care during the whole of that perijw; and particularly the latter portion
of it. The principal causes of abortion arc violence or accidents, too
good or too poor condition, here(lij;ary predisposition, some epidemic or
atmospheric influence, and lastly contagion or a tendency to slip tho
calf being propagated from one cow to another, from the irritable imagi-
nation of the beast. It is therefore a matter of prudence or almost of
necessity to separate the cow that his slipped her calf from the rest of
^the herd, and it should not be forgotten that cows that have once slip-
v^^d their Calves are more liable than others to a recurrence of miscar-
na-ge. .For about a month or six weeks, before the time of calvlna
wjU be advisable to turn th'e cow to grass, if in the sprinj
the winter, she should be fed witl|, the best hay and i'
potatoes, carrots, or other winter fo^i^, or a mixture of^
■ or bean raejil. Should. these pot be at hand, the mere be __^
tion of the hay, and giving it with the water, when, cool, wilT
to keep her body in a healthy state for calving, and also improve her
mi^ '.It is not desirable that she should be- fattened, because the fatter
~a;-«<i|||^,thfi less milk she gives ; and yet if she is too poor, thqre ia
da'J^^ H^H^fy ^ ahpttld drop in calving-"
fi|^BBffl|ci|^(iWtance«j5 the cow should in calving be left to iSature ;
hut ^^^HpMP^ ''*^PP^^^*^^ is likely, some experienced person or a
resuj^KMHrWould be omeAhx. " .
low has caf^, she should be left quietly with her little
one ;«it is cruel and dangerous to separate them. A warm mash should
be given, and her water slightly wanngd, In fin^ and dry weather she
found
^
'"^ap^*t^
;nt to the bull as
tie mother or ofT-
;autiou8 breeders
2r."
ij ingles of sope-
m with females
qualities of both
ogeny, but it is
be too great dis-
i by certain ulti-
?/t cha/if^e, will
to nm dry pre,-
^rtiziers they are
six months gone
ve that six wc^ks
tts kept in good
light of calving,
f acovfspringa
properly- treated
c than ordinary
he latter portion
or accidents, too
ome epidemie or
ncy to slip tho
! irritable imngi-
'nce or almost of
from the rest of
have oiu^e slip-
rence of ittiscar-
xie of civlving it
)rinKi^by4i ii^ iu
1
1, will be found
Iso improve her
ecause the fatter
io poor, there is
)e left to iSature ;
ced pereon or a
f ■with her little
irm mash should
dry weather she
21
should be watchwl attentively, in case she should require aid but i,«
artificial means used unless she evidently needs Msistance 'On the
oll,wmg day she may be turned out about noon, and re" uUrly taken
m dunng the n^ht.aiid this for t,hree or fo«rr successive (C ''
the natmillL^f " Produced,. it Avill sometimes be necessary to assist
Wrtk Mif fc'"" '^''' T"''^ '" i;^'""^'"e *^« secnndin/s or after
rjSKSffirn'n 1 "V "^"'•.^"■"g/l'e foetus, and which might
JrXliffvor Th. produce considerableJrritation in the womb, and
^^^SRliPZl rV ""^ ''r^''" ^'''''^'^' ^^""^ t»'i« '•'» immediately
&tSoL\Zy] ^vi pas^bcfore a%_ii.aterial inconvenient
Jiicnsue.^ jNo attempt should be made haslirv to remove it un1««
tlere is ejMdent inconvenience or danger from its retention Cow^t^
?uchLl to tK^^^^^^ ^"^''-^-'"^ '''f '^ -everknown toTe pr
''It may be necessary to niilk lj.Te cows three* or four times a dav
haul. J he calf should be suffered to suck as frequently if in Z
house ; or ,r. in the field to run with the mother ond^uck al 1 su «
f r if'tl Tf^""^ '^""^-^^ '^'''^' ^«^« "0^ prevent it fromtS'
for ,f the uMder or teats are sore she will probablv drive it awav 3
teato become hard, knotty or tender, the most easy and eftectual renLv
will bo to let the calf derive all its nourishment from siicE '' ' ^
4.
Management of Calves.
The selections under this head, relate chiefly to the rearing of vnnn„ "
calves, and to fattening them for the market. ^ ^ "^ '
K^'i'-^^*^"" ^^t''?^^ '^ produced, the cow should be allowed to" cleanse it
hy icking. It 19 a very bad practice to give the calf rrrupl «.? 1
its birth : i^^beestingi or fir'st milk draL from he c'ow ImTu^;
best. thing that can be admjnistered to it. It is sef n.mrrlv Jli \f i ,
tbcm rtcn « f„rt„ip;l,t oH, and l,,J„g ,hem up^W htd TholbS
method eventually prociaces .the hcst cattle, ail if aZw in ,LS^-
tnels ^here fcddcr is ahuntlant and cheap." ' '^^ ^'^^ '
The time of weauing and early treatment of calves varv mn^b in
r
A •
,. ■«
i'-
22
» /
*' In several counties of England the calves are left with the cow for
about ten days or a fortnight ; and being taken from her, are- taught to
drink first new milk for a week or two, then new and skimmed milk
mixed ; and if after a month or so the calf seems thriving, skimincd
milk only is given, with oat or barley-meal or crushed linseed, at fn>t
in small quantities and gradually increased in proportion to his ago and
growth. Small wisps of fine hay are then placed within their reach,
which they begin by sucking and gradually become inducfed to eat.
Turnips chopped small, or carrots and ^ood sweet hay may then be
given to them, and when they cat well, hnseed cake or oat cake are
added. They should be liberally kept for the first six or eight mouths,
and well housed and kept warm and clean.
" About three quarts of new milk daily are sufficient for the support
of a young calf. It should be given regularly at stated hours, and he
should be kept as quiet as possible, for rest will materially improve his
growth."
"In Ayrshire, calves intended to be reared for dairy cows, are fed
for four, five, or six weeks, and allowed four or five quarts of new milk
at each meal. Some farmers give no food but milk until they begin to
eat grass, &c., which is generally about the fifth week. The niilk is
wholly withdrawn about the end of the seventh or eighth week. If
reared in winter, the milk is continued longer. Others feed with meal
after the third or fourth Aveck^ or gradually introduce some new whey
with the meal, and afterwards withdraw the milk. Hay tea, linseed jelly,
oat and wheat meal porridge, treacle, &c., are sometimes used with ad-
vantage'', but milk when it can be spared is by far the best, as it is the
most natural food."
" Even young cows," says Aiton, in treating of the Ayrshire dairy
husbandry, "intended for the dairy, should be fed from the time they
are calves on food suitable for milcli cows, and treated nearly as their
dams. Such food and treatment have the greatest tendency to form the
milk vessels of the young cows, and rear them with dairy qualities. It
is by such treatment that a calf is formed into a dairy cow, and those
who wish to rear and keep a dairy breed in anything hke perfection,
must provide them with an abundance of such food as is suited to the
production of milk, Avhen they are young, when they arc full grown,
when they are in milk, aud when they are yelU'
There can be little doubt that the Ayrshire breed owes much of its
excellence to the practice of this rule, and it will be found impossible
to rear first-rate animals if they are starved when young.
"In Devonshire, the calves are permitted to suck as much as they
like, three times a day, during the first week or ten days ; after which
they are suckled by hand, and fed with^warm new milk for three weeks
longer. They arc then fed for two months, twice a-day, with as much
warm skim milk as they can drink, in which some feeders mix a small
=fwtion^of4nely powdered linseed-eakeorin«aI. Afteir this the raeate-
h
of milk are gradually abated, and at the eM of four months the calves
:; ,. | iil lilll HI. I U 1> fy >«M« w w >M— »«■ ..~— .-
23
"^js..:
are wholly weaned and fed on hay, chopped roots, oatmeal, &c., until
they go to pasture." , "-v. , umu
The following American methods are more economical, though pro-
bably not so well calculated for rearing superior animals.
Mr, Budd of Boston, pursues the following mode :- take the calves
when lireo days old, from the cows, and put them into a stable by
themselves; feed them with gruel, composed of .one-third barley, two
thirds oats, ground together very fine and sifted, i Each calf is to re-
cerve a quart of gruel morning and evening, whicli is to be made in the
ol owmg manner :-to one quart of the flour add twelve of water, boil
half an hour and let ,t stand till milk warm. In ten days tie up a bundle
of soft hay m the middle of the stable, which they will *at by degrees
A little of the flour put into a small trough for them to lick occasiolally,
IS of service Feed them thus till they are two or three months old
sSvef -•' '^"''''"*^' ^^^''^ ^"'^''^' ^^ *^^ *^°'^ ^'^^*F« ^'» raise
rlj'^n ^Y^?! New York, takes the calf from the cow at two or threo
days old; he then milks her, and while the milk is warm teaches the
ammul to drink by holding its head into the pail. If the calf will not
drink, he puts us hand into the milk and a finger into the mouth, until
the young one learns to drink wuthout the finger. After feedin.. with
new milk for a fortnight, the cream i^ tsrken from the milk, and wfth the
hitter an equal or larger portion of thiji flax-seed jelly is mixed, and the
whole given milk-warm. Thus, as the spring is the most advantageous '
season for making butter, he is enabled during the six or seven weeks ^
that the animals are kept previously to weaning, to make as much butter
as they are worth. ' This is a good method, as the oil of the linseed
serves instead of the cream of tlie milk.
"The successful rearing of calves," says Youatt, "very much de-
pends on the regulariiy md frequency of feeding them. Thecommon
practice is to supply them with food twice in the day, viz ■ in the
morning and at evening, when they generally receive as large a quan-
tity as will satisfy their craving appetite. Hence the digestive organs
are necessarily impaired, and too many animals either become tainted
with disease or perish from the inattention of their Ifcepers; whereas
by feeding them tlifice or eyen four times in the day, at equidistant
m tervals, and allowing them suflicient space for exercise they will not
only he preserved m health, but greatly improved in condition."
Whatever food is allowed to calves, care should be taken not to
change ,t suddenly. A calf should have attained a certain degree of
strength, before it can dispense with the food most natural to its tse or
thrive without the aid of milk ; this fluid should therefore be allowed as '
long a3 possible. Even when that has been withdrawn, and the animal
tt ^^"V" ^*' ^'' Y^ ?' *'*'^''"^ ^^' *h« "^'^^ «r tl>« substitutes
that ^ve been employed m heu of it,„should^e partly continual nnhl
he^prefers the pasture. It w a common notion, that provided young "
stock acquire sue, their condition is immaterial j and after the first
24
1 1
L
winter they are often t^ned into tlie roughest pasture, and kept during
the following winter on chopped straw, with perhaps a little indifferent
hay. This, when they are intended to be sold to the fattening grazier,
may be the most profitable mode; and in some situations it may be the
only one that can be adopted ; but when they are to be roared for the
breed, it is absolutely necessary as the only means of bringing them to
perfect maturity, and improving every good quality, that they should be
kept on good pasture during the summer, and allowed roots with some
sound hay in the winter, and green food in the spring. A contrary
mode, however apparently economical, is decidedly disadvantageous; for
the worst breed will ultimately be improved by good feeding, while tha
best will degenerate under a system of starvation."
Judge Peters, of Prince Edward Island, gives the following as the
result of his experience : —
" Calves should be well fed for three months, and put on good grass:
and well fed during the next Avinter, using every day an allowance of
turnips. It is by no means necessary to let. them suck, or to give them
new milk. The Complete Farmer gives the following directions :
'The method pursued by Mr. Crook, as mentioned in the letters and
papers of the Bath and West of England Society, is as follows : — He
purchased three sacks of linseed, value two pounds two shillings, which
lasted him three years. One quart of seed wa« boiled in six quarts of
water, for ten minutes, to a jelly, which was given to the calves three
times a day, mixed with* Jittle hay tea. And he states that his calves
thrive much better than those of his neighbors, which were fed with
r- milk. Thus it seems that less than eighteen cents worth of flax seed,
with a trifle of hay, is sufiicient for one calf '
'If skim milk is given to calves, it should be boiled, and suffered to
Btand till it cools to the temperature of that first given by the cow. It
is better boiled than when warmed only. If the milk be given too cold,
it will cause the calf to purge ; if this is the case, put two or three
spoon-fulls of rennet into tile milk, and it will stop the looseness. If
the calf is bound, pork broth is said to be a good and safe thing to put
into the milk,'
"I have reared several calves with flaxseed jelly, and find it an
excellent plan. To save the trouble of making hay tea, I caused a small
quantity of boiled skim milk to bo mixed with the jelly ; and when the
calf is about six weeks old, add aiiand-full of oat or Indian meal By
this means, the dairy turns outlis much butter as if no calves were
rearing. I purchased one bushel of flax seed, and after rearing two
calves, had more than a peck left."
The Fattening of Calves for the butcher, is a subject of careful
attention in Great Britain. Here the chief care seems to be to produce
the lowest marketable condjtion at a cheap rate, only a very low price
being oalculated on for the veal. The following hints may be useful in
«nhftnoiDg the quality of the artidcr ^^^ ^^^ ~ ^^^
Youatt sums up the best conditions for fattening calves as follows : —
4-9
"'LW?** ""*■
and kept during
little indifferent
'attening grazier,
ifts it may be the
be roared for the
)ringing them to
it they should he
roots with some
ng. A contrary
ivantageoua; for
leding, while the
following as the
it on good grass ;
' an allowance of
. or to "ivo them
directions :
n the letters and
as follows : — He
I shillings, which
in six quarts of
the calves three
2S that his calves
a were fed with
th of flax seed,
and suffered to
by the cow. It
e given too cold,
put two or three
le looseness. If
jafe thing to put
, and find it an
I caused a small
; and when the
idian meal By
' no calves were
fter rearing two
ibject of careful
to be to produce
1 very low price
nay be useful in
M as follows : —
41
iand.
25
''The best way is to keep them in somewhat dark places, in pens lest
they should fatigue themselves by sporting too much in the light-' m
to feed them on milk, with tlie addition of bean, pea, or barley mea
during the last few weeks. Cleanliness should be p^rticular?^ aLnded
to. tot this purpos,. the pens should be elevated to such a hei-ht that
the ur.no may pass freely, and litter should be supplied every day h^ ^
^tti^z:^7'' '7 Tf'"''^- . ^^ j-s-hffk-stone s;:spea
^ii^are :;>;■ trstsi'ri i^;:ett ■' ''' '''''' ^^ ^'^^^^' '--'^'-'^^
To produce the very finest veal, it seetns established by experience
ha ho calves should bo fed on milk alone ; and this in such quantity nd
^ '' Se'di h";'^VJr ^ ^'' the butcher, in from six to .'even ZZ
JoF if 1 "^^^''-^''^r^" •« ^<^otl^"d, is celebrated for the cxcel-
ce of Its vo:d. li.o calves are fed on milk alone, and are fed by
At lour weeks old the calves receive the entire milk of one cow
- ^\7 7 ""T ''''^' '''^ '^^^ '''''''^ the milk of two cows. The
flesh .^''^ff ,J';^J'J?'-«^'« '^^" ^^r.f/"'J '"eal, which they say darken the
cu i that t£^" ' PT"'f ^'\?'' ''''^ "^ ^««t^^"^' the farmers cal-
nZrt TI t ^ '■' ^"' *'^f,""'^ "^^'^' ''' the rate of about 2d. per .
/
/
r>. Dravrr]u Oxen. /
Under this head, will be found some remarks on the training of work-
ng cattle; and facts bearing on two questions much agitated in this
Z^JZ^ "'^^^ '' '^''^ ^^-' -^ ^^^ --P-tive merits of
t,,-!'?- *'''i"'"^' ^\?' ^'" ^"'^ "'^^''"^ by which success can be at-
tained IS patience, mildness, and even caresses :,, Compulsion and ill- treat-
men will irntato and d.sgust him. Hence, ^reat assistance wi he de-
nved from gently stroking the animal along the back, and paUing hir^-
and encouragmg h,m with the voice, and occasionally feediU him wS
uch ahments as are most grateful to his palate. When he h^s thus be-
come ianuhar, h>s horns should be frequently tied, and after a few days
a yoke pu upon his neck. After thU, he should be fastened to th;
wS l7'* "7^^ T''r "^ ^^"«* «'^«' «"^ ^'^^P'^y^d in light wo k!
wh cl he may be suftered to perform easily and slowly The youngster
wdl thus be gra<lu.illy inured to labor ^fter workfng in thfs maC
fo a certain period, the steer should be yoked withtn ox of gfea"er
bv ;L'"f "^'^''^\ '" r^"'.' *''".' ^' '""^ ^««"» to quicken his pace ; and
till in tl.:T'"''^'^""°'"1 ^'' companions as occasion may allo^, he
li°'S^''u *""!!.*"'' of essential importance in breakingin youmj
rfrT^ T^' -^hen first pat tcTTf^rk, whether at pTougli or in teams f^^
araught, they s^hould not be fatigued or over-heated; until they a^
:.mi
26
r I
.t .
thoroughly trained ; therefore it ■wjll be advisable to employ them in
labour only at short intervals, to indulge {Jjem with rest during the
noon>-day heats, and to feed them with good hay, which in the present
case, will be preferable to grass. In fact, while oxen are worked, they
must be kept in good condition and spirit."
'• The general character of the ox is patience and tractability If
young sleers sometimes prove refractory and vicious, it is in most instances
the result of defective management, or of bad treatment when first broken
for the yoke. When an ox is unruly or stubborn, it will be advisable to
keep him until he is hungry ; and, when he lias fasted long enough, he
should be made to feed out of the hand. On his returning to labour he
should be tied with a rope. If he at any time becomes refrnctory,
gentle measures .should always be attempted, in order to bring him to
w:)rk readily and quietly."
In working oxen to advantage much depends on the mode of harne.''s-
ing them, and the question — " whether it is most advantageous to yoke
oxen by the head or collar," has occasioned much discussion, and is even
yet undetermined. In Britain, they are yoked by the collar, and this
mode prevails in our Province. In Spain and Portugal, as well as
various other parts of Europe, they are yoked by the head, and draw
by a cross beam of wood, which lies across the back of the neck, imme-
diately behind the horns, and is secured by strong straps or ropes pass-
ing over the forehead. In the county of Lunenburg, this method is
in general use, having been introduced by the German settlei-s. Com-
parative trials, which it is not necessary to occupy space by detailing,
liave been made in England and elsewhere, and the results seem to show
tliat oxen may be trained to do their work about equally well in either
mode. My own observation inclines me to believe, that while for heavy
loads and slow work, neck draught may bo preferable, the head har-
ness is better in other circumstances. It seems natural to the ox,tp
use his power by the head and neck, by lowering and raising his head
he can suit himself to the inclination of the ground, and he appears to
move with much greater freedom and ease than when hailipercd by a
neck-yoke. It would appear however that in Britain, the use of pro-
per harness for oxen, as for horses, is now preferred to the ruder method
formerly in general use. They are also very commonly shod, which is
efiected by aid of the frciris or by casting them, or by accustoming the
animal from his youth to have his feet handled and hammered.
The comparative merits of draught oxen and horses, are very vari-
ously estimated in different parts of the Province. The advantages of tho
ox are its smaller cost, its'greater steadiness, and its value for tattening,
These advantages must always recommend it to new settlers, and for
breaking up new land. On the other hand, horses are quicker, an ines-
timable advantage in our climate ; they can be used to advantage for
a considerable term of years without changing, or the trouble of break-
ing iif n ew animabttbiByaait a greater variety of work; and eau per-
form extra labour in proportion to the extra expense of their keep. . For
^
) employ them in
rest duiing the
;h in the present
are Avorked, they
1 tractahihty If
3 in most instances
when first broken
ill be advisable to
d long enough, he
•ning to labour he
joraes refractory,
to bring him to
I
I mode of harness-
mtageous to yoke
issioiv, and is even
le collar, and this
rtugal, as well as
i head, and draw
f the neck, imme-
aps or ropes pass-
•g, this method is
n settlers. Corn-
pace by detailing,
suits seem to show
dly well in either
at while for heavy
le, the head har-
tural to the ox,to
raising his head
ind he appears to
;n hampered by a
n, the use of pro-
> the ruder method
ily shod, which is
■/ accustoming the
uraraered.
368, are very vari-
a advantages of the
aluc for fattening,
V settlers, and for
3 quicker, an ines-
[ to advantcge for
trouble of break-
erki aod eaii per-^
f their keep. For
but the farmer who owns an extent of cleared nnd «t„m^^i i i .'
attends only to his farming business^Wrnl iVtlet reU"
seasons of Now Brunswick to wait on he laggard footsteDsS «nl!r
as I have seen at work in the^rovince. I hfvXet SdTthrf^^^^^^^
New York that oxen are to be had with a 8tepnearly^nlk L thatof "
ordinary farm horses, and which will do nearly as^rudx woA Eul
such cattle, to do the work, require to be fed nearly^ well „« ?>.; l.
so that the alleged economy in^eeding oxen, Tnt'm'aSLrt ^^^^^^^^
this case disappears; and the advantage of feeding^hem into bad beef
at the end of e.ght or nine years, and selling them for sS or eii^ht
pounds to th6 butcher is nearly all that remains to cLLrte for !«
S «f ^'«^«J,fa'«h, with the best of them, the farmer mS always ex
perienco. Where wages are complained of as being high a veT7sma1i
amount of th.s time will exceed in'value the price obtoS, Seent
01 years, for the worn out dk." "<^, a"er a series
6. Feeding and Fattening of Cattle.
JntrSSJ^g*"''^'"'"*" *'»^ep.rt™„U of gracing.
(1.) Grazing.— ThQfQ can be no doubt that the imoortant siih,-«P^
of pasturage merits more attention than it receives frl^mSffa^i*
Early spring pasturage, and good green food for the dry months of "
Autumn, are especially worthy of contideration, as much 7f The stock
suffers seriously from being turned out early on insufficen DMtu^«
iind being allowed to subsist in Summer on scanty coaraeanrS
SLTo^'"" X H^^ Wed that kcreasediTrtoi^W
tion of crops, and the proper condition ef hay land will enable L^
to lay out hay land, after Z second and thii crSp! t^^l '^"^"^^
28
4
1
1 ■ t
heart; and that land will be sown with grass and white clover for per-
manent pasture on a.larger scale thJTn at present. Eonssingault main-
, tains that permanent pasture affords more nutriment thun grass land of
any other kind. Stephens on the contrary, wliiic admitting the suc-
cessful use' of permanent pasture in Kngland. states that iScottish prac-
tice is in favor of having no permanent grass land, on farms which the
plough can make aral;ile. These differences probably depend on soil
and climate, and it is certain that only dry gr ,well drained soil^ in good
heart, are fitted for this use, excepting of course the pasturage-obtained
on marshes or natural meadows. Youatt remarks :
" lu stocking lands, as the proportion of beasts must depend upon
the fertility of the soil, it will generally be found that local custom
will afford the surest guide. In the counties of Somerset and Devon,
• one acre. or ono acre and a half of tlie better kindi^ of land are allotted
to ono ox, to which a .sheepMS sometimes adtled. 'I'he best grazing land
in Lincolnshire, we are told will, under fiivourable circumstances, sup-
port one ox arid a sheep on an acre during the whole summer ; and tbe
former will gain 20 stones or 280 lbs, and the latter 10 lbs a (juarter,
or 40 lbs." ■ ' - • •
'•In order to grazb cattle to advantage, it is profitable to change
them from ono pasture to another, beginning with the iufei ior ones and
gradually removing them to the tDOSt. TJ^r this expedient, as cattle de-
light in variety, they will cull the lippermost- or choicest part of the
grass ; and by filling themselves (quickly, aad lying down freijuently,
will rapidly advance toward a proper state of fatness, while tli^'grass that
is left may bo fed off with labouring cattle, and lastly with sheep.
Hence it is advisable to have severa] enclosures, and abundantly sup-
plied with wholesome water. When cattle- are turned into fields of
clover or rich grasses, they are liable, by two great eagerness in feedhjg
to become blown or hoven. This may be prevented by feeding
them well before they are turned in, to diminish the cravings of appe-
tite."
In this province, large fields are often allowed to run ouhnto natural
grass, after being cropped or cut for hay for a series of years. By
this wasteful practice, a large surface of poor pasture scarcely worth
fencing, is produced if laud is worth crop^)ing, it should pay lor seed-
ing down to pasture with gras^and witl»'clover : and if so sown, it
would not only furnish better pasture, but would far more rapidly re-
gain some degree of fertility. As a general rule, land should be
Woken up for cropping only when it can be sown" down to hay in good
heart ; and after cutting for hay for a few years, it should be allowed to
remain" in pasture till required again in the regular rotation, Kit
should bo necessary to break ^xp land for cropping, without putting it
through a regular course withmanure, it should at least' receive seed
^ to fitit for pasture. Wiiore trocts-of hiud in this iieglcc ted and unprofit-
able statd already exist, they may b^ much improved by top-dressing
with amy kind of animal or vegetable refuse, ditch cleanings, swamp
29
ite clover for per-
Bonssingault main-
than grass land of
iidmittinr; the sue-
that Scottish prac-
111 faims Avhich the
)]y depend on soil
rained soil^ in good
pasturage-obtained
must depend upon
that local eustom
iierset and Devon,
F land are allotted
le best grazing land
lircuuistances, sup-
! summer ; and the
r 10 lbs a (piarter,
)rofitable to change
le inferior ones and
;dient, as cattle de-
lioicest part of the
» down freijuently,
while tli^grass that
lastly with sheep,
id abundantly sup-
rned into fields of
jagerpesa in feeding
ivented by feeding
le cravings of appe-
run outinto natural
sries jof years. By
;ure scarcely worth
ihould pay for seed-
and if so sown, it
ar more rapidly re-
ile, land should be
lown to hay in good
should be allowed to
lar rotation. If it
;, without putting it
t least" receive seed
glcc ted and unprofit-
ved by top-dressing
ch cleanings, swamp
muck, marsh and creek mud, lime, gypsum, ashes, &c. Even scatter-
ing over the surface the manure that cattle leave on it, and cutting the
ranker weeds, and leaving them to rot on the surface, will be found
useful.
Every pasture should have some shelter, to which cattle may resort
for protection from cold winds and the burning sun. In England sheds
are often erected for this purpose; but hedges, trees, or clumps of bushes
preserved or planted for the purpose are better and cheaper. They may
be in such positions as to improve the appearance of the farm, and not
„ to interfere with cultivation. •
(2.) SoUin^ of Cattle— or feeding by means of green food cut and
conveyed to them, has many advantages, especially on small and rich
farms ; and in part at least it may always be advantageously followed.
Its advocates recommend it on the following grounds :— the saving of
kuil, one acre of good grass being equal to two or three used as pas-
ture—the saving in quantity of food consumed— the improvement in
the health and comiort of the cattle, by being constantly sheltered— the
increase of manure obtained, the summer manure being saved. Youatt
thus sums its advantages and defects : —
" The facts and inferences above stated, fully prove the advantages of
soiling. It ought not, however, to be concealed that there are some dis-
advantages attendant on the soiling and stall feeding of cattle, such as
the additional labour and expense of cutting and carting the green vege-
tables home to the sheds, both in winter and summer ; but they are
more than counterbalanced by the saving in food that is eflfected— by
the increased productiveness of the land and the diminished waste,— by
the thriving of the cattle— the making of the dung under cover, and •
having reservoirs in which to preserve the urine. It has also been ob-
jected, that where large quantities of food are accumulated for » con-
Sderable time, they are liable to fermentation, and of course to waste.
Such is the ease with cabbages, turnips, and other roots, but,' it may
,to a very considerable degree be obviated by paying due regard to the
storing of the various vegetable crops, and their economical consump-
tion "
"It has likewise been objected by the opponents of soiling and stall-
feeding, that the cattle are heated by being confined during the summer
months, and that their health is injured ; but this will not be the c&e where
stalls are so constructed as to admit a regular circulation of air, and at
the same time afford shelter from the attacks of flies. The cattle may
also be allowed the freedom of an open yard, indeed in that season fold
yards, with open sheds are by many preferred to stalls. This is the
practice in Yorkshiiie, where the management of stock is well understood
indeed there is no scientific grazier who is not a strong advocate for per-
fect ventilation, even during the inclemency of winter. % Plenty of good
^nd wholesome air jsindispensahly necessary to the presBrvation^f the
Tiealth, and the fattening of animals." >
(3. ) SlaU and Box Feeding. In fattening cattle, stall feeding should
\
30
PS" 'f.
\>i
■Hfe
M
commence when; the animals are half or three parts fut, a condition to
which thej can attain on good pasture. Of course, however, the remarks
under this head, apply to the method of soiling already mentioned, as well
as to the winter feeding which forms so important a part of the farmers'
cares in this country. " Of all vegetable pro<luction3, good hay is un-
doubtedly the ^est for fattening cattle; in ordinary circumstances how-
ever, it is neccessary to have recourse to other things in combination
with it, as cabbages, carrots, turnips, parsnips, beets and other succulent
plants. Barley, rye, oat or pea meal, if mixed together, with the occa-
sional addition of a small quantity of bean meal, may likewise be given
to advantage, in the proportion of a quarter, or at most half a peck to
each beast, along with hay. Of hay it may be observed, that that which
is salted, even if of somewhat inferior quality, is preferable to that which
is unsalted." The comparative value of the different roots, &c., will be
mentioned under another head.
Various kinds oi prepared food are in use for cattle, the principal of
which are the following : —
Flax seed when crushed and boiled to a jelly. There is probably no-
thing equal to this for rapidly fattening cattle.
Three parts bean ; pea, oat, or barley meal, with one part of linseed
meal made into a jelly, form an excellent food.
Turnips, carrots, mangel wurtzel, cabbage &c , Avhcn boiled and mixed
with flaxseed meal, form another useful variety.
The following is stated to be a daily allowance of one of these com-
pounds : —
3^ gallons water.
2 lbs. linseed meal,
5 lbs. barley meal,
10 lbs. chaff.
The following admirable hints are well worthy the careful study of
every farmer.
" A most important object in the feeding or fattening of cattle is that
such arrangements should be made, and such a supply of food provided
for winter consumption, that the grazier may be enabled to keep them
throughout that trying season, and sell them when meat brings the
highest prices, viz., from the beginning of February to the end of May.
Thus he will not only obtain more for them than the Autumnal markets
will produce, but his stock will go off freely, and every market be in his
favour. He will also obtain a considerable quantity of manure, and
consequently be'^nabled to conduct his business to the greatest profit.
" Whatever articles of food maybe given, they should be apportioned
•with as much regard to reatdarity of time and quantity as is practic-
able ; and if a portion of itia^at any time left unconsumed, it should "bo
reinoved before the next meal^ otherwise the beast will possibly refuse
or loathe his food.
" In stall feeding it is too common a practice to ^ve a certain allow-
*ance every day, without regard to any circumstance ; but it is well
fiii
a condition to
T, the remarks
itioued, as well
of the fanners'
wd hay is uu-
mstanccs how-
in coiubiuation
jther succulent
with the occa-
:cwi8e be given
half u peck to
hat that which
to that which
ts, &c., will be
he principal of
la probably no-
part of linseed
)iled and mixed
of these com-
ireful study of
)f cattle is that
■ food provided
I to keep them
eat brings the
he end of May.
:umnal markets
larket be in bis
[■ manure, and
eatest profit,
be apportioned
y as is practic-
d, it should 1)0
possibly refuse
k certain alloK^
but it is well
'31
known that a fattening beast will eat with a keener appetite on a cold
day than m warm damp weather; and his food should be proportioned
be cloyed. Ilis appetite wdl become iraiiaired, the food will be wasted
and several days w.ll pa«s before he feeds heartily again. Thre' Zol
of fhe day nnd as nearly equidistant as possible, should be seleled a!
the feeding hours, when only such an allowance should be g!vc'n to each
aiurnal as ho can eat with good appetite. As he fattens, his apnet to w
probably become mo, e delicate, and he will require more frequ t1 odin^
and m smaller quantities; thus the beast will improve progressively ami
uniformly while only a trifling quantity of the fi>d will be'=lost (It w"
be nseful if convenient to ,m o-/. the animal occasionally, to ascerta n how
t thnves on the kind of fbcd given.) Of equal importance with ogu-
lar ty in ieeding is r/eauhness, a regard to which is admitted by allln-
telligent breeders to he essential to the health and thriving ot" ca t "e
ihe mangers and stalls should be -kept as clean as possible- and he
former, ,t they cannot often be waahed Should be cleaned eve'; morn n'
from dust and filth, which may easii; be effected by aco2n brS
hiyers's trowel, or similar instrument. They, otherwise aarre a sonr
whaT ir:ld f ' 7'i°^"""^^ '^' ^^"^ ' '^"^ p--tT,r a;^
What 13 called f>ox-feedmnr, consists in enclosing the cattle in close
stalls or boxes, 8 or 10 feet square and 12 feet higl# The kwer p.' t is
sunk m he ground, so as to form a sort of tank fn which the manure '
. Kuftered to accumulate, and is said to be more effectually saved than bv
any other mode, fresh straw is scattered over the surLe every day^
i he cattle are not tied m these boxes. . This appears a filthy moile ami
at best IS only suited for the latter part of the process of fattS ca t «
lor the butcher. Cattle are said to thrive sufficiently well in th^boxe
and the manure when thus trodden into a mass a, J then m xed S
urine is more valuable. " Under all circumstances, however, a JZ
and sufficient bed of litter is indispensable" to the health IndcomTrt
ot ^feeding cattle. The surface at least of their bed shouMbedean
Under this head I place the following extracts from Prof. Johnston
part of which were published in my ''Contributions toward the Im!
"^eZT- "^Snculture," but which cannot be too frequently rt
. "A proper degree of warmth, however, good housing, and good feed-
ing, are necessary to the health and improvement of^ the cattle rd
upon these pomta much alteration may be made for the better, in the
ordinary practice of the Colony. It is acknowledged, at pre ent. by
d^emical physioligists, that warmth is equivalent to a certain portion ^^•
lood -that an animal which is exposal to more cold, will eat more-and
that one which is better housed, -and warmer kept, will eat less To
oSt*? T"*^ co'^fortable, therefore, is to save food; and this'alone
^ipilned ot^ "*' ' "^'"^''^ wheroaK^roity of winter food it=
^ 82
u In „,y tour through the Province I h.ve ^eq^^^J^jy .«^S'^Vic^o
chunks between the boa da^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ ,^ ,ft,, .dmit currents of
are bu.lt, o^.'^'^^ ^Pf^^^^^^ The most 6f the.-prevaihng ^vuuls, a so, ^
cold air m the ^>"^*"^,^^^^**'"- ,/ „„,i A,^ comfort of the cattle ja thus
>vhat arises from their own want ot care. ^ inserted^ «.
above, makes it a ^^^^ .^\, ^.^..^ig ;„ condition while -the wintqj.t'^
experience are required to keep cattle in ^^^^j^„^ „,.^ ^^^e*. ,^
lasts. This IS, no doubt,^true . but ^^e ««™e q .^ .^^^,
sary to success in any other branch «f ^^^^^^^^^yj/^^^incss in which '
willing to bestow all he possesses of ^^^^ "P J" Z^"^^,;;^^^^^^ to prosper.
he is engaged, may happen to thrive y^ «^;7;\y °^^ ;, ^he same
" Again, the wmter ieeding in the Colony '^J^rj ™ ^5^^ ears
condition iA which it was over a ^^^f, ^ f J^fSt ofof he Scot-
ago.. To keep his stock alive, ^"^^J^^'^^'J^, f ;;ig"^^^^^ nourishing
tish farmer during the ^^^^er °ionths, and he tri^^ed ^^ ^^ ^^o
grass of spring and b^'^'^^J^^^ ^^^^^ "Pj^^^^^^^^^ Lv in many
colder pan of die yea. S-h .. ery - h ^^^^^^^^ ^^^. . ^^,
parts of New JJninswieK , uui i. a ^f-nnnrnv The working ox,
Ln in a money point of v.e^.3 » «« '^ lo5o all the work which ■
when spring arrives, has not »»!««"' »«"8* .^taal which i. sold for
the orgency of the season '^^''^^'j *' ^ *' ™"„a „i that of ila
!rnL'^n?tC«;'rthfn;:rni's:tt^^r^^
addition of «« »«f ,fi."™S#™",:,^ /^^^^^^^ woaM hav^
"ert ft at the s»e 'i™ 'tnTlSSu e tZw Brunswick, I^o
rrS 1 1 ^9^ of f^.^g oU^^J., tr J^l^f
" 88 .
, which in Jho winter season the members of his household may cmpjoy
their leiauire hours, will furnish them with a quantity of seed jyhich will
greatly bfejiffit.his stofijj, andi which will enable him t9a^opt with p/ofit
the mare^rtifiL'ial's/stem of feeding to which I am now referring. To
give kn idea of this method, and of the practical results obtained from
the aiipptum of it, I make the following extracts from my published
Lectuiips on Agricultural Chemistry : —
^ "Tlic method adopted is, to crush the linseed, to boil it by a steam
heat for three hours, with two gallons of water to each pound of the
. seed, and then to mix ihe hot liquid with the chopped straw, and tail
corn, in the following proportions :
Linseed, ------ 2 lbs
Xut Straw, - - . i 10 lbs!
Ground Corn, - ... 5 ijjg
This quantity is^iven t^each full grown beast per dav, in twomesses.
ihe liquid 13 poured upon the mixed coin and straw on the floor of
the boiling house, is- turned over three times at 'intervals, and at the end
of two hours 13 given to the cattle. They have two hot messes a day
and are IM punctually at the same' hour.
" The limes of fefeding are, turnips at six in the morning, prepared
food at ten, turnips at one, and prepared food again at four in the after-
noon. Tho allowance of turnips is sixt/ pounds of Swedes per day or
T^j^^^f'^® ^^^- <^f ^^3'brids, or one hundred and twelve pounds 4)f Globes
Under this system, the cattle thrive remarkably, are still and quiet lie
down the greater part of the day, and though they cause a large outlay
at tirst, in th^purcbase of linseed, they amply repay it in the value of
the dung, and in the higher price they return for the^ turnips and for
the tail corn than could be obtained in any other manner.
"It is n-ot necessary, in adopting this method, that the precise detajla
above given should be Ibllowed out— that the same quantity, or propor-
tions ot the several kinds of food should be employed- or that the
crush^ Imseed should be boiled by a steam heat. Tbe principle of
ajjrffiig mmips to tho hay usually given to the cattle and sheep, and to
^oth a certain quantity of linseed, boiled long enough to form a jelly
when It cools, mixed up with chopped straw, and brought to the stock
either cold or hot— this is what the farmer may, in nearly all circum-
stances, profitably adopt." ' '
Judge Peters thus states his experience : —
" I have tried flax seed in fattening two or three cattle, but havinsr
no iveans of crushing it, I boiled it for two hours, and mixed the ielly
and seeds with crushed barley, oats', or indian corn. I gave one pint of
seed and two quarts of meal, thus prepared, every day to each beast •
its ellects were soon visible in the silky appearance of the hair, and the
more thriving condition of the animal." Respecting shelter, he says-
_ I here is another point connected with cattle, which requires atten-
tion. 1 here are generally no yards to your barns; there should be
ingu close fences, or sheds, iwlmog a space for a yard to shelter the ^
5
>'*/».'
..i
84
Hi>. M however cannot^ord to make them, but all can fe«ce*in a
cattle: all. however, tan ^^^ prevent
(hoppmgs JS lost ft'j ' . J ,„,^nialt>e^ '
..11 day, exposed t^ the «"\\"8;^^^^^^^^^^^ ^"^J „,d, but on Bevcre
,Uy8 »»'^y/i."^"^'.;;' iVm The Btabl63 can easily bo nmde ^^ar.no^,
very p>od shelev ^^ ^cm. i ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ g,^;^,^ ^j^^
by '-'»"'o "P ^;« ;"^;;' 12 ;,, ,„„ b,..,., .;il stuffed down."
^^'ThJ^ic^^^nllS'f^tsand hints on English ibeding are fron.
^"""B'rdTNx-r'a crains arc sonu'tinies giveii to cattle in an aci.l 8tate ; but
,,„e»ny.n,.«.l»^ ly..a .^dermM^^^^ u» preparatory to 0,c,
^"'' Ono oahcjnost Buccessful instances of this mode of fattemng cattle
season !» ^hc d t l^e»^^^^^^ ^^^ ,j„, ,^^d 100 in an adjom.ng
:,bout f -^Om the house tc 1 .^^^^^^ ^,^^^ ^^.^ ^^.^ ,ff. From ten
orchard, ^vh.ch aic ^'^l^^ " ['J^^^^^^J ,. j-^^tt^nii,., ,,ud the cattle are found
to -teen weeks IS tu 1 U^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^.^ ^^ ^,^^^^
to gam upon the '^^?"be^^;^->;\,,^b, gn.ins and hay-sometimes mea-
fnS' at otters clo • hay -Ind ^cisionally altivnnted with oat or
f 1 V iruv w ich ^s son.eLes, though not regularly, cut mto chaff,
n L. 2;w ' re^iven to them twice a-day, in order that they may
Hay and 8tr.vw -^ -« ^^^ ^ ;„, ,,,a wash as they can eat In
rummato ; and t ey Im e .s u « ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ j.^^^. ^^ ^^,^
f "t ^;?^h V i^o ti a.e^k>n to it. According to their .quality,
^^i:^^^^ to pay trom ten to twenty shdlings per week.
ce JnJ vti"; Lonling to the size of the ammals. and the n«-
r^
35 .; .
trimcnt afforded by tho respective vegetables. It has however been
found thitt an wc will eat nearly one-sixth pn- diem of his own weight
of cabbages. Fattening beasts rc(|uiro half a hundredweight of turnips
dady, besides an adequate allowance of dry meat to coun'teract the su-
perabundant nioisturo of these roots. , .For middle-sized ajiinials, a
bushel or, a bushel anda-haU'of distiller's or brewer's grains wilfbo
suflicient, if combined with nn ample portion of dry moat, given in the
mtervals of the distribution of the .grains. BuUocks^nrying from forty-
fivo to sixty stones, consume about eight or ten stones of carrots or par-
snips iKjr d:iy; bovsidcs nn additional quantity of dry proverjdor, that is in
tho proportion of one-sixth part of their own weight ;- and as an afire of
good carrots will yield 400 busiiols or 22,400 lbs., it would support
such an anmial IGO days, a period sufficiently long for beasts to be kejtt
that have had the sunrnTfer's grass. If they arc half^fat when put to
carrots, an acre would prob.ibly be sufficient to fatten twosuch beasts.
Of potatoes, small cattle-such as \\\om of Wales and Scotland— eft*
every day about a bushel a-head in a raw state, with the allowance of a
truss of hay divided beUvecn four beasts. To an animal of 80 or 100
stones, about 10 to 15 lbs. of pulverized oil-cako are given daily, with
at least a stone of cut hay during seven or eight Aveeks : the allotment
6f cake 13 then u.sually increased to IS or 20 lbs., until Uie animal is suf-
ficiently fat for sale. Whenever it can be conveniently arranged, the
animals should not be confined to one sort of food. To mingle the food
judiciously, benefits the beasts and saves the/armer money ; for an ani-
mal -w^ill thrive better and costless if fed on hav, turnips and oil-cake,
given in the proportion of one part cake, four parts hay a'nd seven parts
turnips, than he would if suffered to eat.^e whole amount in one only
ot these matters.
" It has been found that forty-five oxen, well littered while fattening
with twenty wagon loads of stubble, have made two hundred loads, each
of three tons, of manure ; the greatest and most valuable part of which
would have been lost, had it not been mixed with and absorbed by the
straw. Every load of hay and litter given to beasts fattening on oil-
cake, yields at least ten tons of dung; and on comparing the dung ob-
tained by feeding on oil-cake with that of the common farm-yard, it has
been found that the effects produced by spreading one loadof the former
on an acre considerably exceeded those of two loads of the latter. The
value of the manure will invariably be found to be in~proportion to the
nutriment contained in the aliment. It is an old and true proverb, • No
food no cattle ; no cattle, no dung; no dung, no corn ; or indeed any
other good crops.' " j
Oil-cake cannot ordinarily be obtained in this country ; but flax-seed
13 of course more fattening, and may often be easily procured. It should
be either bruised in a machine for the purpose, or well boiled, It is
the oil contained in the flax-seed or oil-cake that gives them their fat-
tening property. Heacfr it has been proposed to mix cbfeap oite, for in-^
Stance cod-fish oil, with the food of cattle, in small quantities ; and
4
36
jure the flavour and quality of the beet. \
^ h.t TlipfollowiiKT tests areNgi'i en
by Youatt a3 showing the fitness o/^^e a^mmi^ appearance
^pabiUty of standing the Jou-ey ^\™jt^ ^ isl)vered ..th^flcsh
ofVhe anitnal show, h.gh ^^"^ ^'^^^^^^^^ perfect synimetry as can be at-
in tlii) manner required to <^.«" f^^^,^^^^ijf,,,a huckle-bones are round,
taine.l by a perfectly fat '^"^™^] '/^' Ss well filled up, ond his scro-
and the ribs, flanks and rump ^f ^^^^J;;^^^ The ends of the fingers
turn or purse largely developed and roum^^ ^^^^^^^^^ hips rump and
should be pressed upon ^?^J^ ^.^^'^^^f^f^f these parts, and they sprmg
purse. If thin-e is an evident ^^"^j^'fyj^'^^^ied firmness and softness
Lvck when the fingers are ^^^ ' Is ex ists \"'l this is a sufficient
,vell described by the term l^f^J^'Xu X d quality/' ^ , •
assurance that the flesh is ^^J^^^""^^^^^^ journey to market, when
t^uchbcingthecomiicmoftb^a^^^^^^ ,,,„M be per-
there are not such taciUties as uu» j
formed in the iol^^^'i^S ™^«"^J; ; ^^ ^^ae for the journey, >vhen the
" Some preparation b^«"J; HSfr food should undergo some change,
animals have to be driven far f^^'"^ '''"". .Ug ary food increased, in
Tlirgreen food should be diminished, '^nd the^ dry ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^
order to prevent looseness «^^^e road^ y ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^
their stalls a short time twice u ^1^^ J^^^^^^^ , nuie to exercise, and
to their setting out, in ^^^'^^^^^r'.'^f ^^^uld probably be attacked aiter
^ prevent that giddiness ^J -h-\they vouU ^p .^^^ Uie'dangerous pranks
^ bemT so long confined, and also to prevt > ^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^^^^ ,,^
which tliey maybe ^-^i^f^^^tirh^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ of ^ong jour-
>vise who put them in the trevis a^d nac ^^^^ ^ ,^.
nevsseveial of every large herd arc usually J , ^^^^^^ ^
pensive, or are sold *« disadvantag , on a^^c^^^^^^
l,rn through by the ro"S^^Xechv8 should not be driven more than
and during the first two "^ f » f^ '^ > ;;;hey should be put into a eomt
seven or eight miles per '^'^y- J^ ™a into a 1)asture; gradual y the
or sl,ed at night, and m «"'«;jj", X ^r founeen miles ; but it will
.kvs ioarney may be increased to twelve ui ^^^^^^^
& Serous' to extend it beyond thadisUn^^^^ ^„ ,,,, ^^^,
be allowed for its eomplet'on ; for t the e-^tUe ^^^^^ „^,„,i,„ed, they
even if they do not «f ^^^, ^^S ,n(l he ^ ^"^^Z" ^t ^l
^iU be distressed, and ^^ ^^^ credible how diff-erent will often be he
Bcrious diseiiso. It la . scarcely «7/^^^ J'' • ^^.^ey in the same number
tate of droves that have Pf ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ of each beast,
andXble the value of ^^.^V^hl^ cS have "been overdriven, andte
Bible to estimate the «;>««^f^^^ifi Cvery cautious how he purchases
^ho is acquainted with them, will d» v« jr
gnimals bavinj; that app«wano«.
37
II. THE DAIRY.
Under this head will be noticed the food and management of MilcL
Cows, and the making of butter and cheese.
1. " Cows of the same and of the best breeds will not always yield
the same quantity of milk ; and the milk of those that yield tli? most
.s not unfrequcntly different in richness. These points, ilow \i whic
are of great importance to the dairy, may be easily determined by
keeping the cows on the same food, weighing the quanUty consume 1 by
siueTv""Sl'"^^ and then kee^ping'and Lrnll, it a fe.da,^
f~rP. ^,''™P=^'-'1«"3 ot t''>s kind are not frequently made. Ibr
farmer us«a ly purchase whatever stock they can most convenien ly
most cheaply obtain and are then content tokeep them as Ion -^
they turn out tolerably well. This, neveitbelesi, is exccedin>Ty"bxd
conomy, for an indifferent cow will eat as much and requin, 7muc
attendance as the best, and occasion a daily loss that will soon excee
any saving m th6 original price. The maJ who takes the pains to ac
ftrXllif ;"]?'* ' '"^ ^"' '^'' ''"'' '' ^^'P ''' ^""^^ ' ^"^^ f«""^^»ti-^
In illustration of the truth of the above remarks, I quote the follow-
ing fn)m a late volume of the Massachusetts Agricultural Transactions •
Ipncn? ^'"^ y'^^"" ''"<^«' «.»« Of the committee had a farm, which was
kTot Xcf '''' ""^^'T'''^ '' ^="7 P"''P«^^«' °" ^^ '"'^'^ 2'/i cows .'i-o
^ept, A> li.ch yy ere owned in common by himself and the tenant. A cci-
dental circumstances induced a comparison between a cow which wa.
cnsidered the most valuable in the herd, because she yielded a large
supply of milk, and a cow which had been purchased at a small pr cf
ream of onlvV?nf''^-^'K •''''? -^^^ '" ^''«^' ^^^'""-^^«" '^^^'^^'^^
he milk of if «f ''^V"<^h in thickness ; an<l the same quantity of
the milk of the low-priced cow gave cream of the thickness of 1 and
4-10 of an inch, and of a much yellower color than that of the other
i he cheap cow was in reality the most valuable animal The cow
which had been so highly esteemed had been in the dairy two yeara o^
finll^"' .'^"'^^'''^"' *^« ^listinguishetl Sc'otch writer on the dairy, men-
^ons an instance of one cow, from whose milk no butter could be made
She was purchased of a farmer who kept a largo dairy by a nerson
who had no other cow, and thus the discovery wfs S 'Ln^/n nto
ho general mass, her milk had been useless, and l^r keepinrrckad
^ ?n a'?™?- ^^'T '\ ^T' J"*^'^'°"«'y recomrrfcnds the set-
ter ? ^""'"^ P""' ^^^l?''*" °^ ^^^^y ««^' to ascertain its quality,
t^ho^*'f T^'^'^T''^'"*^ ^ fattened andwnttrffie ilaS"-
oSwu K ?;. ""5 '"'r''^ "'■§'' '^ "P^"^ ^^^^y f«'-«'«'' to test all his
cows, both as regards the quality and quantity of milk they severally
•YowiM.
38
.inirv com are quoted irom the Amcuca i,nponai^co than
"^"^^'^.lualils of a d.u7 «^;V;7;^l'! .Neatly cahancc the value ,
not break over ^^^f'^,^' ^'^^^^.^ ti^em docile, they ought .0 ^^ ^ (
tt^iwajs h=U RO"-'. '^"' '■■'■ f L, flrilieir earliest ,!«y», «> f<"f
they came mo imlk D ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ better m t^^^^ y .^^
rearing a dairy stock, aim ^ ^^^^^ ^^f ^iie aairy »
thev did in former times, VV ben y o ^^^^^^^ fodder n«/^^P^
re Jed on moors or bad pastu c ''»'; g^^?' /,,r^ed ' « ro„gh beast
Tm alive, they grow up .^at ^^^^ bones and other J.uk»
39
£. »t p";eS 7my7 ^'™ " ■""* "°"° seed »,ilk „,• o„„
On the same subject Youatt says •—
' It will generally be found that, supposiuo- the food to bn ih. '
hoiii i^rnto." °°°" ""'"""S "'«''• '" «■■ condition and comforlablj,
nil\f''ss^i;tdT:i?rrttn,:!' -"if ^°' •» »'f"'> «■« *-
10 the watery part of the S lltfj^ " ^ ?"^' "'"^ """» »''''
and curd. (Jrai„ and lod Inv ""'■bMf hugely to its butter
Flax seed and Man co,?,!;!?:,!!'."* f- "'.? '^""'^ ""^'i""""'
making ingredients. P-'U'.nMj nch in the erean, or butter-
* riafs ah-^'ifd t't^Xf „Trh T '^'^ "^ *' »«»' ■"»'-
following extrac, give the St.° , ° '""^"'"S "^ <^»"'« ''''»
British Authorities muhe subj^el "" ^""""^ "^ '»'™ °f 'k" b*
of;h^r,ratisiiy;;?er^;-;^i:;-^^-i;.»^
one pasture to another It ic nmr^.^uV^ , , '^ '^ distance from
ti.e''shonld no. ^' .^o disin. LTt T^^S:' '"'1^'^ f"'"''
tial miporuinco that the pastures shnnld l,!^ i ', °'™ "' «='«"-
lorod, fcr when eonfined'T, S „ „m "I i l'' f*''^' ™*''^'' "'"' '"'«'>-
Itisurely, and are better rr!eeed.Zr.,7r"''"',' """' "'" ^"^'* "">">
and ,,/e. are greatly Zltwe'tSl'^tj^it"^ ■"*'^'° "™"-
high^Sh r;u;oir„di«or V^thr -"'""r'; "' ••"" '-« ■"
'lurincr winter- it «m1i7» ^T "'^^ """^ ""'^'^'"'^d to fair in flesh
iH'on well fed du in" fe ' in er lL7n^^ ^'^'' ^"'""'^^^^^ ^'^'^ ♦''^Z
'^ffonl high foe,lin.; ?o unprScM-vo.t !l "''^•^' P''^"''''^ ^^''"'^'•^ *«
=«rc dry "but the co mS n a" ' r^ ' ""' ".'* ''t'!'' ^'' '"''' ^^at
on the^poorost fodder rver^obeouLib^^^ ^''"* I''^^'«<i
4«^ui:f the xw, wilhS^SIfelvMl^^f^^fH^^--
^'^0 ^vinter.therefor;, somSSS3 i^e ^;rd^rfo? =
,;.^
40
fn; tbev will tlirive more
and eat less ^vhen l^^P^J^^"^ ^lone, until tov^^^^^^ ^„a v^iU
When fed on f -^^ j^rSe mii become iner^oj^^^^^i^ ,ntil
ing, the vessels ««;f ^^J^ ,^^eh uatriment or of goo^ q .J ^^
not afterwards y'^^^^'^'t^o pasture- ^l'f.°^'^^.,laSefere important
the beasts ate tarned^out^^^^^^ ''I'tly in A <^«"-
poor .and as deficien " f^^„^^ined at all tm^es no^ only . ^
?hat milk Vme f f^.^^\^^ermed a rnHlcin^ ''"^f ^/f^^^a sufficient,,
dition, but >n;;^-^\^^^y "e^- the succulent joots^U be ^ ^^^,^ ^,
a small quantUy of any ^.^^^ ^ ^'\-? hound and the drying
u Good 8»eet W '» '^'L^J in fc««"8 '"^'"3 rfl «*^ "'">
• 1 .-l. Rill
.eal, and oil ^f^^'^^";,^'^ and parsnips may
. , , Bat carrots, mangel ^vurt.el, P^\^\«^^Unent, the mau-
"^■'^" '^^''t: th ily eqaal protit. ln<leed',r,r cattle, and many ac-
b?S^^'^."!;troieU to other
,Uk richest. ii^V^^;3 -(it. Indeed, o",^*^^^";"^ many ac-
' given with nearly eq«al p o- ^^^ ^.^^^ '""\ 's One bushel
^^ Ivsr "t ^^trnift:^r a Sw to yidd as
'^^''^' ""'^ 3L .mod meadow hay, i3 sa.a ^
gd wurtzel is preterr^u . powers of the po-..=. ^^^^ ^
u steamed food is general y • -^^ ,to the )iigb-
est rr °"t1 rLSf Hgh -« t.1»** ttS of *ch
, V^SltStnTs. II -!l ^:. °'ln^ l~"land pe. —
■v
^y' T'? ttL* ";Tn»oni;« »r^t;re«r:b„*rot chaff
parboiled chaff « "'J ^ ,^ ^..j, „nd a »"»'"'!,°l.iie,l together, a
hay in the ^^^f'"^^;^,.,^;, mixed with the cream^ ^^ ^^ ^
the milk, a little f ^P/ ^^'^ ,,,« been given to cows m »c ^^^^^^
u Sea wncd baa of Ute y ^ ^^^y V^'^ tLled and after-
' substitate for t-JJ^ 'given in the first ^^^'^^^roU\^.^-^^
- rfperson can r,rl^ ^ Province, b^ ^W^^^
ref^Urr.rt..e. of scarcity.
41
five more
mih. cold,
e of calv- "
, and will
lity, uiitil
, is alwixya
important
good con-
lia purpose
Isuffifiient,,
ips wiU bo
, tlie drying
sent healtli
alitution in
ment to bo
• the acce3-
a'ttle. Swed-
U render tbo
parsnips may
mt, the mau-
md many ac-
Ono busbel
^ to yield a3 '.
[nd better milk
jd to the Jiigb-
,1863, and kept
dairy etock. is
itures of wbich
md attention to
,w chopped and
knd 'steamed or
)tland pea/««*i -
abnshelofchaff
oiled together, 13
tnd evening, witli
ah ttftnips from
in Scotland as a
19 The common
, boiled, and after-
much of the Ajeed
,i3 hands." I am
Sail is highly recommended as an addition to the food of milch cowa.
It improves the digestion, rcndera inferior food palatable, increases tlio
quantity of milk, and is said. to remove the disagreable flavor occasioneii
by turnips.
The following bill of. fare of thecdNvs kept in the County of Middli--
sex, for the supply of milk to London, wilTjastonish many persons in
this country, but it may be useful as showing how much food may be
profitably given to large and fine breeds of miloh kine. ..
" 8 o'clock, A. M. — Each cow a half-bushel basket . of brewer's
gi'ains.
7 to 8 o'clock. — Two half-bushel baskets of Swedish turnips and one
/ tenth of a truss of good hay. (The cows arc then
turned out into the air, and are tied up again at 12 )
12 o'clock — Ilalf-hushel basket of grains.
8 o'clock. — Feed of turnips and hay, same as in the morning."
'rhe following plan of feeding adopted by Mr. Balaton, of Finevicw,
Scotland, one of the largest dairy farmers in that country, is more appli-
cable here : — . ,
" Until the grass rises, and affords a full bite, the cows are kept in
their houses, but are then'sent to pasture. In hot weather they aie
fed on cut grass in the houses, from 6 in the morning to 6 in the even-
ing, and are out at pasture all night, aa, the soil is dry and sandy. When
rainy weather comes, house-feeding is discontinued. In harvest when
the pastures begin to fail, t^ie cows are fed partly on second clover, and
partly on turnips scattered over their pasture As the weather becomes
colder in October, they are housed at night, and in severe weather dur-
ing the day, also receiving at night cut straw and turnips. These roots
are partly stored, and the supplies of them managed so as to protract the
feeding. When they fail, Swedish turnips and potatoes (to which in
this- country mangel wurtzel and carrots may well be added) follow with
dry fodder. Chaif, oats and potatoes are boiled for the cows after calv-
ing; and the calves get rye-grass and clover hay, in the latter part of
spring. The cows employed are of the Ayrshire breed."
Sleamsd Chaff may be given to cows Avith great advantage. *Mr.
Curman used a steam-boiler containing 100 gallons, on each sidis of
which were fixed three boxes containing each tl stones of chaff (cut hay
and straw with' the husks of grain), and this by being steamed gained
more than one-third of its original weight. The stciim was conveyed by
various- stop-cocka into the lower parts of the boxes, which were mounted
on wheels to be drawn to the place where it was intended to be used ;
but the chaflf required to stand for twelve hours before it could be eaten.
Mr. Curman estimates the daily cost of food for each cow as follows : —
Ohiiff, 2 stones, in 2 meals, and steaming, Id.
Oil-cake, 4 lbs., - - - - 4
Turnips, 1 cwt, / "4
Wlieat straw, _ . . . . i
6 . ' lOd.
a
f
■svinc qu;uca i«.^ ./ , ,.,, produce is siai,eu "jr — ---
iVo:u i2 to iia ^^hen retted J.hc j^ro ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^i,, ^
,0 1« ne:uly h.li clear F^' ■, ;;X"° .. and to prevent the.rbeco^v
cdvcs. The cows jvcre nevci t"»^^^^J^^ '^ tbey stood >i;ith tbeir fove
. lame, taciv hoofs ^veve property p^^r 1 J^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^,,,i^ ,,,, that
."t ou c:.y. One gret^ ^iJ^:^ £ i;^t^^ndition that ^vith a ew
-f ,^^i^:^n;;\i^:rt:y ::: a:^: is^c, became ^t t.r ti. ^^e,
..ondrcut b-Av; Svbich f-^Xt:^ttnefit tbe health and
i-,.,1, and s,c:atly au^.ncnt ,^,^^™^'^;'/J^ jj^.i^ question that this .s «n-
conditiou of the annua 9 ihere can J. ^^. ^^ ^^^ ,0
porior tostruv; for straw, <'\^^'^" "'\ad but little to the product ot,
^contain mu,o natrimcnt ti^'^^«^^7^ V^" "trvin'', but it will never m-
:.iik. It n.ay keep «'-« -^^ oTev d as a^n axiom, in feed.n. a I
^rtovo their tlosh; f^VN^^SsTn proportion to the nu^tivenia-
Lin^uls. that the value of ^^^«^9^^ ^'';g,a^'i3 necessary to sustain the
ter ccnuained in US component F^^^ -
aclicm of the stomach; ^'^ViS fvom October to June-tiearly eigh
..Mr. Cnrr.umgave <=«"}f ^^ ^Xn ' f ^^^^^ was a^op^^d by several
,„onths ov;t of twelve-and f f •^^J,;;^'^^^^^^^^ the iBOSt complete sue,
f,nncrs in d.lTcrent parts of the k gdom w
'ce,s. It is ivartiT^Uy practise^ '"^^,.^14 water on the chaff with
root^, bc-in- aivon to milch cows^ ^^ ^ | om it
. 2:vV, .;/../ is given by some «f J^^^^^^'^^.^ pfofit The following
iH said that no food is ^^-J^*^ ^dtS chaff and' urnips, as customary
: ems t.; merit particular ^Uention:-- ^^^ ^^^ or Swedish
-Take a bushel of chaff and «'Sf^\°[ '^^^^^ toge-
turnips, having the tops ^-l^;- ^r^^^^^^^^ Vadd
,h,;r four or five hourft. Add as «^"^ ^ the' turnips and add
■ n^ovc freely through the mn.s ^I^J f ^J° ,^ ^^e morning, and the
tbvee pounds of pea meak ^ ^•;« ^f^^!'^,, ^ay as she will cat up clean
A^^— S ^« i a.«j.."
3.
^
z'
sarly thirteen
live? brought
Mr. Curmau
equal to the ,
; their bccojTi-
(ith their fove
liod, was that
It with a lew
the shamhlea,
Mr. C. recom- _■
nuch supeviof "
:he health and
that this is 8U-
hkh is said 4o^
the product of-
i will never im-
, in feedinr'^ all
e nutritive niat-
y to sustain tho
le— ftearly eight
[op^ed by several
3t complete s'JC,-
ive M cottagers
)n the cliaff with
adopted in gome
md scientific men
and particularly •
aeh. by whom it
t The following
lips, as customary
ecent publication,
Tallow or Swedish
nidhoilthera toge- "
, ause the hand to
B^ turnips and add
} rooming, and the
le will cat up clean
jttet will be as rich
Sli#ld the peculiar
a small quatitity ot
43
posed to effluvia from tho cow-house or farm-yard; and it should !io
maintained, as. far as possible, at an equal temperature. A pump or
spring of water within, is a piost valuable addition to it. In Biit,iiii,
such buildings are constructed of stone and brick, with walls of rrjcat
tliickncss : a.nd great care is taken to secure cleanjiness, and to exclude
excessive beat or cold. .In this country.' in Cases where convenient ami
cleanly underground cellars cannot be employed, buildings of wood,
filled in with saw-dust,- eel-grass, or dry ta.n bark, will answer the pur-
, pose well. Where possible, the combination of a dairy with an ice-
house, is very desirable. The following extracts are given, not as
being especially a<iapted to this country, but iis shewing the care em-
ployed in the construction of these buildings in Britain, whore tho
extcemes of temperature ar.e so much less than with us : —
" If it carl be managed, it should be well sheltered by trees, or tho
situation of the_ ground. Tlio grand principle of Construction should be
to peserve an equable temperature in winter and summer. A pump
should alvyays open into the dairy. The walls should be thick, so as to
preserve, if possible, -the proper temperature, or from 50 =" to 55 ® of
Fahrenheit's thermometer.x gorao have recommended double walls
with a space of one or two feet or more between the wall and the lath
and plaister. Mr. Marshall^ advises walls six feet thick, one foot on the
mside to be brick or stone - the outside of earth and sod. The roof
should be of thatch, and three feet thick, and should project over the
walls. The floor may bo sunk a few feet below the surface, but must
be quite free from damp. The dairy should be paved with stone, brick
or tiles, with the joinings well cemented together. It should be washed
dafly in summer, but great care should be takoi) to dry it immediately,
as danrip rapidly promotes the putrefaction or turning of milk. A but-
ter dairy should have three compartments, one for receiving the milk,
one for churning, and the tliird for cleaning the vessels. A checso
dairy requires a fourth for storing the cl eese."
When an equable temperature cannot othertvise be obtained, stoves
and other fneans of artificial heating are employed ; and in large dairies
the churning or cheese-making room is supplied with boilers for warm-
ing water, milk or whey. There has been much difference of opinion
respecting the most 8uital5le material for creaming- dishes. Eartliun-
ware answers ^vell ; but in Scotland cast irpn dishes, tinned inside, are
affirmed to throw up one-third more cream than any others ; and in the
United States tin dishes are very generally , preferred. It seems," in
general that metal rebels, by more rapidly cooling the milk, give more
cream than others.
4. Composition and Properties of '■MilL— The milk of fne cow
coi«!i8ts, according to Henry and CheValier, as quoted by. Professor
Johnston, of-^ - ^
iveiiiewt.'butnotw-
„iill ^
44
Casein, (?"'« curd,)_
Butter, - ' _
Milk sugar,
Saline matter,
\Yatcr, -
, however, in *en,nkot.V*rcntc„«-"^
i^) ^^/^'r 11 milkwas merely n»e«^''^°'rSrTnixturc >viih tl>o
^hicU i" ,^'« ^f ^;S,^ still iiv*«tat^ of ^^"^V^oVs udder, tl>^.
flo«t. to tl- ««f ^- State cream. Even « f J^^^^ ^,ortio..s '.
other iugredieu%_;ta)n|^ j-^ce ; hence the ^f V^'^^it^tedin n-nw
,renm tends to i^e to the su ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ «^!"«\Vi deeper the
,.,i,U -are th« vjchos^^"^ JJaily does the cre^ ^''^^.i^trenm rise. 'lntl^« ,
-S«^-"*''^Vti i 'kept il»e more slo^^y^;^^^^^^^^ ,,ith the
,V,shcs in ^vl>>f ;\.^;i7 ' vticles are move tl^^^Wy^i.^ through.
,«!, oilier «™l fr°« *" '™'"' '^ ' , . , .„ ^^^ U kept i"
matter, oh'e Ij S'^Lther by the eta'S" »« f'S or <
known\causeS; tne i -^ ^f ^jiik :-- ^,^ ^fter their
"Ti)'^/ ?5d-tW* "«^ '° " "^*''
third or f^'-t'^^^" ' twelve years of age. .^.^^crate climates arc
^ U W.II.C production of n^chmdk. In^o ^^^^^,, the pro-
favoraWe^ to^ ¥*^ ,5^X»7Mi.virtv «rrhpr that of cream.
KxpOSUVQ to
quality.
■1^1
nt C0W3; anu
jiety of c\ie-
fatty matter,
separates and
turc wiib tlie
^'8 udder, tli(|
n portio^^ •
itfttediriiii"^--
ho deeper the
.irlse. ^Intbo
ixed with the
through.
,y the action ol
separated from
J collected in a
^vate^, is kepUu
a little ttlkalu»e
icy. ^hcn the
iito lactic acid,
)r of rennet, tho
be apt)lication ol
the-wh^
line matter of the
,\\y small residual
g, and other wcU
^umstancca A^•hlch
jt milk after their
c3 to be excellent,
aerate climates »vc
fnd drv climates the
;er favours tho pvo-
^ertSP of cream.
and deteriorates the
45
^
(3.) Time op Millcini^. — A cow milked only onco a day will yield
a little more butter than if milked more freijuently. When milked
three times a day, the (juantity of milk is much increased. Tho
morning's miHn is of better (juality than that of the evening.
(4.) Trc^imenf and Temper of the u\nin%al. — The best milking
condition Is otio _of quiet and repose. Evjery thing that frets, annoys,
or disturbs tho^ animal, or excites, her to great muscillar exertion, inter-
feres with the- secretion of the milk.
(5.) Th&Race or Breed of the Animal. — This is of much import-
ance, but has been already noticed,
(6.) Tlie Kind of Food. — Many inpportant facts will be fouiid -
under the head " Food of Milch Cows,'' but the experiinents hitherto
made have failed to shew those marked differences which we should
have anticipated from great changes of food. The reason is that tho
secretion of milk on a particular day is not dependant solely on the
food of that day ; and that many causes arc in operation simultaneously.
(7.) The Form and Conslilnlion of the Indi,)fidual Animal. —
Much information on this subject will be found under other heads.
Youattsays: — "A inilch cow should have a long thin, head, with a
brisk but placid eye ; should be thin and hollow in the neck, narrow in
the breast and point of the shoulder, and altogether light in tho foro
(juarter — but wide in the loins with little dew-lap, and neither too full
fleshed along the chine, nor showing in any part an inclination to put
on much fat. The udder should especially be large, round and full,
witli the milch- veins protruding, yet thin-skinned, but not hanging
lo(pe or tending far behind. The teats should also stand square, all
pointing out at equal distances and of the same size, and although
neither very large nor thick towards the udder, yet long and tapering
tOAvard a point. A cow with a largo head, a high back-bone, a small
udder and teats, and drawn up in the belly, will, beyond all doubt, be
found a bad milker."
It is qu^ite certain that cows of the same breed arid age often differ
materially in their produce of milk ; and though the form is a good
guide, this also often fails to be a certain indication. It is therefore
useful for the dairy farmer to test by experiment the actual quantity
and quality of the produce of each cow when in different conditions, and
thus to ascertain the real value of the different individuals of his stock.
This is the more necessary as it appears that certain breeds and kinds
of animals, may thrive better or worse on certain farms or kinds of
feeding than on others.
5, The Making of Butter — being a very impoirtant past of dairy
husbandry, and the qualities produced by different makers being very
different, I give hero an abstract of some of the best, methods in use in
Britain and America, with some preliminary hints on milking and
^ prcaming;^ . - — ^ . - ^
" In milking, if q, cow iS roughly handled, it is not only painful tq
46
e- v^v tYil\k whereas if it
•U ..use her to ^^•ithhold a P^/^^^^.^^i.^'of Tn'p^rtanco that it
her but wiW caube her .^ ^^^^^y ^^'^";;c the richest; and
^« ^^r;Y ';r.\ tthet' drop, for the ^^l ^^^ ^te and injure, the
, into good tc^jj^- ^^^'T^d^ug. for ^h le eaUrtg they fi ..^
ian they >v>U under the ^^^^ ^^^ ^^. ^^
and evening. .,^, airections should he g^ven that t ^^ ^^ ^^.^^
'• Very particular aireu ^^^.^ hurriea lu „„_f-ctU take
. sU' J.l vi-« f :;'Sv.ik .ill "»'.=» «tll :;,El Sut or
^„„,.d .0 cool i" *^';•■' redthrousl. th« '"'"'yrmnk-p.U sbooM
L., i^-PP^^^^'i!?',ttnr luti^n of saltpetre. ' if „ot
:S unnecessary aE;ta^J^;Jbe^^^^ ^ ^T
know the .'iff'^f";,J,t extra fi«e quality, the nulk of tho^ ^^^^
"To nmke bu ter of ej.t ^ ^ ^^^ ,^,, the
yield a poor quahty , sUou t,venty-two hours,
from each cow." . - ^^^,^..^^A in about twenty or twemy
may he removeu oy . ^^^ ^ ttirred every time a fresh
• out a plug m the bolto ^^^^^^^ ^°V Sin '^^^ ^'"^ ^'^'
should be placed m a dee ^^^^^ ,^ ^.Ikm 1 ^^^.^^^
quantity « added^ ^* ^^^ ,, f^^^'-^'lVith tha? which is sour,
fit
X it
and
ibo
imes
y no
cr 13
cntly
)Ugbt
) feed
, their
e day,
uality,
orning
driven
flight a
■ly take
bout or
^]j.pan3,
1 should
may he
' turnips,
Lhe uiilli,
m if no*
earn than
>an3 sepa-
By thes^
lossible to
cows that
first drawn
-two hours,
t by taking
the cream
time a fresh
I been kept
ather before
Lich is sour,
beyond three
,ng, but it is
liUdng apaftr
47
''In some countries tho separation of the oroim is not thought to bo
sufficien ly complete by this mcoimnical process, but after tho milk has
remained from twelve to twenty-four hours in the pan; it is put over »
trJ''!^' nT '' ™"f ""'*' the first hubMo^aiJcB the surface of
hecrearii. lhe pan is then taken off, and put away.for oi.htoen or
twenty-iouf hours t(. cool. At the end of this ti,i:e, if the quantity of
m.lkiscons.derabo,thecroam will bo au inch .r'mord in^hicEss
It 8 cut With a knife into squares, removed by a skimmer and called
dolled or chnted cream. It has a peculiarly sweet and pleasant faiste
churns readily, and gives a butter retaining the same agreeable flavour'
' u !^^™'"'"S "I'll^ however is nearly wortlilesa."
'' T/te churning requireaconsiderablc art. It must not be too ranid
or violent, nor must it be'too slow and c.,ntle. In the first case and
especially m summer, it would become ill-tasted and ferment,-in tho
latter It would not form at all. The temperature should be carefully
regarded. In summer it will be necessary to immerse the nump churn
about a foot in cold water, or to pour water over the rotatory churn
In winter, a little \Arm water should be added.-'
In washing the biifter, which may be done on a board, the -rreat ob-
ject 13 to squeeze out and wash away every particle of buttern^lk, with-
out beating or handling the butter too much. Abundance of water mav
be used, as this will remove nothing that is useful to the butter, and it
13 of great importance to keep the hands as cool as possible durin<r the
operation. , ^ o '■^^
^ In Holland and some part^ of Ireland and Scotland, the whole milk
13 churned without any creaming. In Holland the proce.'s is as fol- ^
low.'' : — •
^« The milk i.=i put into^f^p jars in a cool place, each portion milked '
a. one time being kept sc^-u-ate. As soon as there is the least apwgi--
anco of aciduy tho whole js placed in an upright churn. WhenThe
butter forms ,n kernels the whole is poured on a sieve which retains
tne hutter and allows the milk to pass through."
In Scotland the process is somewhat different •—
. " The new milk is placed for six or twelve hours in coolers. It ii
then emptied into a large vat or tub. If .the vat is sufficiently krcro
and a second meal of milk has become cold before the first shows any
acidity, the two are mixed together. A lid or cover is then put on the
vat, and It remains undisturbed, till the milk has soured and has
formed a lapper or curdled. When in this state it is fit to be churned
but may remain m this state two or three days, if the lapper is not
broken ; if broken however, it must be churned immediately, else the
whole will bo spoiled. When put into the churn, the cmted riiilk is
agitated for a few minutes, and as touch hot water added us will raise
the temperature to about 70°. Tho churning will then occupy from
two hours to two hours and a half, and, the butter will be sweet and
goon. _
^
It would seem that the quantity of bii$tet does' not vaiy much,
48
1 n(\ the preference
"On tlio average yicW 01 i.^^^ ^.^.,^,1,3 •.__ ^^ ^,^^^.
° u Four gallons of milK ^ b ^"'^^'^"fJLrvcar • beside tl>i^,
tor, and a go<>< cow,^n oulc, ^ . ^ ^^^^ ^°TnUk an/o" Uer mill."
f.rn.er, should y^eW -m) ^^^^ sViinmcd indk ^ml ^ ^^„,i,i the
there >. the value "t '^^^.i^, to this co^^'try, je h^ .^ j.„gi ,,a
In applying ^"f ,^ '"S higher price ot ^^^bo^^^'^'^^.^ich the Engh^^U
wer price ot Gutter an I ng ^ ^^^^^^ *"*^ ^w-L; of thia kind, that
and on the other ^1^ 'i^^^e ob^served in calcuku^^^^^^^^
Uev payB. l^tbove that -quired for sustu^mn^^^^^^^ ^^ ^.^^
it i3 the ^.i/'« /'"'' ^, Jhe vhole profit. A c«w J ^ . i^ttle or no
the largest amount ana h
profit is greatest. g^^t^ of Maine,
nt of butter-making »» ""
anie folloNving ^"f.f^'^;;^^^^ for 1852 :- ^^^.^ been 125
i, frotn tbe Patent Office U^P^^^^ P^^^^^^ r/not A««^ ^ ^'^^^ "'T'
a For the past ye^r 1 .^ probably not t ^ ^^^tc nu^y be
munds of butter per cow - drought, this c ^^ ^^^^_
S^though, on account of he ^^^^^ considered as baU t
^ ?o bw. Tbe cost of cheee. ^^^^ ^^ '^^S^^l't .e quantities as
Ter, though tbo -abng^^^^^^^^^ .^^^ ,,, Tt:a^p^rtLg^so\ell as the
ble, as butter )S ««^ ^ handling a"^ .transport fe ^^.^^^^.^ ^,
cheese, as it does not oear making butter it ^^^^,^
aS; in the t-atu-nt,^^^^^^^^^ ^.,.^,, ^?dS S-^^ttng the pans
j,ursue a co"^^« ^°™'^^^^^^^^ for 12 hours, ^^fj^^ «tove, and, after
Ihe milk in ««^«^^^ Sg^'ater, on a oo«;"^«,? ^^.tmeut the butter does
on iron vessels of boi^ng ' ^.^ j^^^^e of treatroo ^^^^^^
c^hng, skim the cream 0^ ^ f y^.^^,, ^^"^'^I'^locees ^ ^burning is
Zi become bitter, **^^^^\f ^^ this couwe, tbe P^^^^^ •, pursued by
Z summer butter- »«^'^^^^^^ ^.ocess before TnentioneU i ^^^ ^^^^.^^^
!*ery much accelerated 1 Ue P ^^^^^ ^^^ ,?, ' und of butter,
S in making summer «« ^^ ^^ ^««H'^' 1'^^^^ ^^ashing in
Ser is, 1 ounce « fi^^^y^ing all the butter-milk, oy^ .^ ^ ^^^^^
^^Vedaft«r ^^^0^^^ conimon rolling P^"; ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^,
coldvyat^randrolhng^^tha and complexly c^;^^^^^^^^
barrel, either ^^^^Se- then add a bag of ^^^^ Butter mad^' and
strong as it can be raade^^ salt ^^ .^;.J^,;eet the ^hole year.
• 49
The Salting of Butter is performed in England aa follows :
nir i K ^'■''•"^/''^ «f «o"e<^ ^y ^'roquent washing, and exposure to the
a.r, or by scrubbrng the firkin with salt and water boiled It is then
dru,d and salt strewed on the surface, before the butter ia put in In
^e onl.nary process of salting, after separating the buttermilk Z com-
the mlfs for'^U-^l'" thoroughly so as to become incorporated with
ouirrtiv^ ly '"^r"^ "'^'^ '" '^^'•■'^ ?'*'•*' tb« butter will ac-
rillKfu''"''' *''.''"'«'"'' 'P^«tJ^' O'- 'Pinsowed.'. The salt
W Id be of the purest kind, wefl dried and broken down, but not com
pletely pulvenscd. Bad salt will soon cause it to become rancid. The
toJlowing preparation is recommended as bettor than salt alone •"
1 wo parts best salt, and one part each sugar and saltpetre
well mixed: one ounce to each pound of butter, fncor-
" Tf ^n K^""'^'' '' thoroughly with the mass, and close up for use "
weeks aftiriM^T'S'T *? ^eep butter thus prepared for two or three
ZtTf I ' '^"'■*^' *'^^'''"*' ""'"S 5 «« otherwise it will not taste well •
^nU nK'.5 ^ '"fr-r^"^^ ^ '^' ''^'" prescription, irwill con^
tinue portectly sweet for three years or more "
''After strewing salt on the bottom of the firkin, the butter may be
packed m, thoroughly moulding each layer into that 'beneath t Then
the caak 13 full, more salt should bo strewed on the surface and th«
head put on. If the butter has been well freed from mlk; and Ssalt
mulded mtoU quite dry, it will not shrink ^.om the cik This L
ahwys regarded as one criterion of tlw goodness of the butter."
h„l. ^^''''T!'''''^ '' '""''^ ™°'^« <^'<^«°^t t^a° the manufacture oF
• thch'wSr ^^«V'''Tl""^Pr'^^^ '"^ N°^* S^'^tia, no part of
Trt ct' Tf,! . Pf " '^ Annapolis, is celebrated for making a good
cuS if of i«™f .'•^t'^'-e «t which the milk is kept, and at which it is
cuidled, IS of great importance; and want of knowledge in this noint k
a frequent cause of failure The milk should be kep^t beforehand at a
temperature not under 50^ nor over 55°. It should be cunilS at a
tempera^re -h-h ac,,,ai to different authorities, mayTa^ f^^m
00 to Jo If the temperature be too high, the curd will be touffh
if too low It will be soft and difficult to seplr^te from the wL &
fut'h'fhT« 7^ ^"^ ""' thoroughly learned by experience to distil
guish the exact temperature, should have a thermometer, which can he
P«[f hased for a few shillings, for thf purpose.
' The greatest care should be taken to extract every particle of whev
fn>m the curd ; for the cheese is apt to heave when a?y whey remliW
Savour'^PT^T"^'' '°"'''i?« i^^ -'^'^^ ^ dfsa^^able
n.w; f'""'^*^ ^H"^. *'f P'"*^'''^ ^y the use of an immoderate
VS7JTT- -i r''? *P.* *° fi" *^« '^^' ^ith small hoTes^
^?on.T ^^'5 will likewise be produced if it is allowed tarem^n
f^ n°>!,^T"'^^:_ _ ?^ °'•^'^^°6 °f tfa« cheese usually arises from
toofcstrandis caoaedby the air of th© cheew roraj
J
*' ;/.
50
,.„, .00 ary « .a™. An «^in„'*aeSo1f°r*«' 't^^
from nine to t^ttlve months are requisite to r p .^ ^^^^^^^ .^^ ^ ^^^^
f om ? urt.cn to twenty VO--^J^ff^;,X >vill bo, and the cooler
.at the hotter it is put t^°^«j;J^%e also recommend, the use o
the richer and the more qtpt to decay .^^ ,,j^g it is
I mall quantity of ^W^f ,^^,^0^ or fine hay on the shelves on
^ iSod practice to strew a httlc ^^oss r-om adhering and con-
Cheshire Cheese.— ihe ^^^'^'''t. ^ off. it is then poured into
cadin, night ^eing thusj)^par ^ JJ^^^^ ^^ ^ had been
'Avith Th» cream. Into this is P^^^^'; ,? P evenin.^ m^ in which a 1 ttle ..
ken in ^varm water since '^'%^''''^ZI\sZl^^^ov a cheese of sixty
Spanish Arnatto (a quai;ter «f ^Vifnow sStogethcf, and covered
XkIs) iB ^i^solved The whole 1 now Brn^,^.^^^^^^^ .^-^^
Cwarm for\boUt half an bou-, o;^" ^^^^^^ After standing a little
' turned over with a bowl ^-^^^^^^'!XS\oon as the curd becomes
^vhile, the whey is drawn ^J \^; t,, ,^d turned over repeatedly,
aomewhat more solid, it is cut mow
the better to press out the ^vhey- /V^ ^ ^^.^.^ by hand into ■
u-jhe curd is agam '^^"^^^Xt whire it is strongly pressed by ^
small pieces and put into a ^Ij^^^f-^^^: ™^ remaining whey. .Af^r
l^nd and ^vith weights, m order tojxtract ^he ^^ .^ ^^ ^
Xs, it is transferred to aijQ^her vat o^ ^^^ ^ of breaking and
«|^t^i.ne been ^vell f f f;,f ^;^,\e;Tf^r?ed from it. /J^^e cheese
Svnressin^' is repeated, till all the '''^^'^yf ^ ^n\^ a cloth beneiith
U now a^d i«to a third vat, P'^^^'^^^'j r™'^;^ edge of the cheese,
a'll^u ll^P o^,^;"'^-7^\;rtmer b^^g previously encb^^^
aml%ithin the sides cf the vat; ^ «^™f; ^^t. These various pro-
tn clean cloth and its edges put ^vlth n the J a ^^^ ^^^^^^
^sefoccupy about si. ^--. - ;TS'cw ThV cLse during that
tbe cheese under a weight «f /* «^ ^ There are several holes bored
t ine should be twice turned '"the vat ^ ne ^^ .^^ ^^
n th vat which contain* the el^ese and alsm^.^ ^^^
vhich long .hewers are passed ^^ ^^ y ^^^,.,,t every drop of >vhoy.
•'51
and pressed; and also on the third day, about the middle of which it
should be removed to the salting chamber, where the outside should bo
well rubbed wjth salt, and a cloth binder passed round it, which serves
as a lining to the vat, but is not turned over the upper surface The
cheese is then placed in brine extending halfway up it in a saltin<- tub ■
and the upper surface is thickly covered with salt. Here it remains
lor nearly a week, being turned twice in the day. It is then left to
dry for two or three days, during which it is turned once, bein-r well
salted at each turning, and cleaned every day. When taken from the
brine, it is put on the salting, benches, with a wooden girth round it of
nearly the thickness of the cheese, where it stands about ei<rht days
during which time it is again salted and turned every day. ' It is next
washed and dried, and after remaining on the drying-benches about seven
(lays, It 13 once more washed in warm water with a brush, and wiped
dry. In a couple of hours after this, it is scoured all over with sweet
whey batter ; .which operation is afterwards frequently repeated • and
lastly. It la deposited in the cheese or store room, which should be
moderately warm, and sheltered from the access of air, lest the cheese
should crack, and turned every day until it has become sufficiently hard
and farin. These cheeses require to be kept a long time ; and if not
loroed by artificial means, will, scarcely be sufficiently ripe under two or
three years. "
Much of what is called DouMe Gloucester and Cheddar Cheese is
made by the following simple process : —
*' When the milk is brought home, it is immediately strained into a
tub and the rennet added, in the proportion of about three table-spoon-
tuls to a quantity sufficient for j^/;heese of twenty-eight pounds- after
which It remains undisturbed about two hours, when it becomes curdled
and 13 then broken to pieces. That being done, three parts of the whev
are warmed, and afterwards put into the tub for about twenty minutes
i he whole whey is then again placed over the fire. maSfe nearly scald-
ing hot and returned into the tub, in order to scald the curd for about
halt an hour longer, after which part of the whey ia again taken out
and the remainder left with the curd till it ia nearly cold. The whev
IS then taken out or poured off, the curd broken very small, put into
the vat and pressed ; it remains there nearly an hour, and is then taken
out, turned and put under the press AgJiin until the evening ; when it
IS turned again and left until the next morning. It then finally leaves
the press and is salted once a day for twelve days."
''r)unlop Cheese is made in the counties of Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark
and (jallaway, of sizes from twenty to sixty pounds. After the milk
IS brought to a proper degree of heat it is mixed with the cream, which
had been previously skimmed and kept cool. The milk is then poured
into a large vessel, where the rennet is added to it, and the whole is
closely covered up for ten or twelve minutes. If the rennet is good it
r.^". have curdled the milk which ia genUy stirred. The wWthea -
,e again turned "T begins immediately to separate, and is taken off as it gathers, until the
■ . S2 , .
vessel or dish, where it is cut ^'^^^^^V^'^J, .y„rv ten or fifteen minuter,
cheese knife. It is thus turned up and «"t ev«ry le ^,^^
fnHso pressed .ith the ^an^J^^^Vs^^^t^^^^ salted, care being
furd is now once more cut as smaii uo i ^^^^ ^ ^/jp^.
Sl^ uii.it minutely^bjber^^s^^^^^^^^^ ,,,
,e/ or otoar^ a stout ^^J^'^^^^^Jeen the curd and the vessel
exactly into it-a «f ^^^^J^ J^»^;«^^^^^^^ cheese press, whence t
In this state it "submitted to the act ^^^.^ .^ ^^ supposed to
I occasionally taken and ?;j*Plf J^^^'^^ {, ;, then laid aside for one or
have completely parted ^^^^^^^^^^^^ if there is any appearance o
two days, when it is ^f^^^i^f of cloths are repeated, As soon as
whey, the Pressure and application oi ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ .^ ,,
I is^'ascermined that ^be ^ W « ^''^^^^^^^^^ g it before it is placed
few days in the farmer's kitchen m ordei o ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^
fn the store, where a snial^^^egree jj he^^ .^ ^^ ^^^^ ,, the
it is turned three or ^^"'^ *^"^^\J,Se and turned twice m the week
outside, when it is removed to he store ^^^^^ ar*H«lopted to
•tfterwards. When the cheese .s ^'^''^^'•^^, ^^^^, beneficial, nothing
;Snt for sale, but theseje-^^^^^^^^^^^ , onally
and cheese should be put ^^S® ^f ^^'itiJ^g for making skimmed milk
hard and flinty. Very 11?^ Xel^/^^^^^^^ in Steven's Farmer's
cheese, and also ^^^t^r-milk cheese, wm ^^,^^,,^^^ till the curd
bag. ,.,
It is generaUyadmitt^ 'tX:^'Z^^^ S
fitablethan the dairy when weU manned .^ oductive 1
and more close and "f^™;"^"" t\«'^^^^^^^^^^^^^ of every process s^ild
deserves therefore, and ^«5!^!'^«;^,7;VaI& in the whole of its practical
be carefully «tff riKl^H departments more especial y ^
rt "Ts wie^nKught:«, w^ shUd pride themselves in its
tnirtSt^f^pi-* -^ scientific management.
y
\.
53
III. FARM HORSES.
On this subject I shaH confine myself to extracts, principally from
, Youatt, on the training and feeding of hWs. The latter topic is espe-
cially worthy of attention, as our methods of feeding differ materially
from those lu Britain, and may very possibly admit of improvement.
■^■•j '' ^^'^fZ^'^^^^l^if f'-ai'iin^ ^^orses for the saddle often requires
considerable skill ,n the teacher. For those intended for the plough it
13 very simple ; but for both, the best means are gentleiisaiand pa.
tience. Iho horse, is an animal possessed of great intelligence. He is
. capable of strong attachment, and of equally strong resentment. If
treated.^ with kindness, he befomcs docile ; but severity generally fails
of Its objo^t, and ren d^HUfci mtractable. There is certainly much dif-
terence m the natu||H|^r of colts, some requiring more care and
time to reduce them fl^ffi^ice than others ; but even the most restive
may be rendered manageable by kind and gentle usu're."
"Froto^he moment of its beiijg weaned, the foa! should be accus-
tomed to»he halter, and wisppd over and occasionally tied up ; but this
should be done by the person who feeds it, and never entrusted to lads,
who wi 1 probably worry the animal and teach it dangerous tricks • nor
to any hasty, ill-tempered man. who would be likely to ill-treat it The
colt will thus early become accustomed to be handled, and will conse-
quently occasion much less trouble than if it had been previously neg-
•' After the colt has been a day or two in the stable, a bridle should
be put on, but with a small bit at first, instead of the large one usually
employed Iby horse-breakers, and which, by the horse's champing on it
with impatience, sometmies occasions the mouth to become callous,
lie shoujd then be led about, and accustomed to obey the rein in turn-
ing and-^Sitopping, which he will very soon learn to do."
"After a few days he should be completely harnessed, and put into
a team^mth some steady horses. At first he should neither be whipped
^ nor torcmXo draw, but left quietly to walk with the other horses. In
.^ -5?i very short time he will imitate them, and begin to pull. It may then
be proper to let some one mount him, even if he should not be intended
to bo^conimonly ridden, as ifc will render him the more docile This
will be best done when he is in the team, as the other horses will pre-
vent hira from plunging. No violence should be used, for while he
will readily learn everything that he is taught, he will also recollect
many things that it might be wished he should forget ; thus if he is
beaten for starting at any object, he will only start the more on meet-
ing it again, for he will remember the chastisement it occasioned • and
^jU'y"^ ^'^ AhwiDg or an^^^ occasion, he will not sooa forg e t tb fr^
pam it occasioned^ nor suffer a repetition of it without impatience."
i
54 ^
• -
" The Drooer rienod of castration depends on the breed of horse and
ihe P'^'^P®'^X."r', jA.,,._:„tjej On the colt destined for oomroon
°T Tt sLoU £ bo performoa L .I*edily «i possible lest l.c
ration."
o f ' J «r l^nrm Horscs:—'' To feed economically and yet effi-
:cientlv¥fhel^S"esiS^^ It is a ^ell kno.n fact, that two
?el Itbd ho^^^^^^^ do the Avork of three, if not four, that are badly .
kept tenco it m be evident that to keep a -?^ ^-^^e a hrl^
^kI to keep them well, is more advantageous than to have a lar er
1 . ,n,1 fpr.^ them 30 that they are never up to par, or capable of
'iZ! a a dS's work There Jre no doubt many persons who keep
Steams ex/ensrvely for the mere vanity of having- them m good
conditCwbde' there ie others who obtain contmHous service from
Uor^s '--iv the following analysis of the compoaent parts ot differ-
"nt ubstanccsused as food for horses. He classifies them under the
» tXoUzotised or flesh-fomers, and non-azoUscd or fat-formei-s :-
Oi'Biinic matter.
80
80
lOO lbs. of Oats contain
" Peas,
- " Hay,
" Potatoes,
" . Barley Meal,
Turnips,
Beans,
u
T6
25
82
10
83
Azotiiied.
11
30
" 8
2
14
- 1
31
Non-Axotised.
69:
50
08
23
08
9
52
" He also cives the following formulae as guides for winter feeding.
No. ? i8 for a moderate sized horse, and No. 2 for a larger ammal, per
week ; —
No. 1.
7 pecks oats, (70 lbs.,)
8 " chaff,
2 " bran,
120 lbs. hay,
7 " beans,
*.
3
1
3
d.
6
6
8 6
No. 2.
7 pecks oats, (70 lbs.,)
1 " beans, cr^ished,
8 " cWlff,
2 " bran,
140 lbs. hay,
».
3
1
1
8
d.
6
10 IT
)rsc and
oommon
is wean-
peration
;heu too
■ speedy
year or
iy devel-
lest he
I May
tlu^ ope-
yet effi-
that two
iro badly
if horses,
a larger
capable of
who keep
J in good
vice from
, of Farm
( of differ-
under the
armers : —
i-Axotised.
ea
60
G8
23
68
9
52
ter feeding,
animal, per
led,
». ii.
3 6
1 G
1
G
8 6
r)5
In order to reduce
rious trialsliave been ma~de"onh^n' J^-^'^P^'^^^ «f horse-ieeping, va-
■ . turnipsrearroti anToXr esa em ro"tTarr, of potatoes, s4di«h
' sufficient for the support of thTlTtir^- • ^?'"'^ ^'''^ been found
given with plenty of Zv Thev ht ^"""S "moderate ^y«k, and when
^rpose whL gii:'.i2strat?n ly Itln £ ^^ *"T '''
'necessary. TnTa t baTbous fnl^rf'^^^^^^ ^"^" «^^" '« ^'^««l»tely
with bruid CO for baZ ""e^r^^^^^^^^
intended for sale"nto condki>n th'nn f f-^'^^'^ ^'' ^""g^'^g ^^^'^^
onlor. The quant"^ of aS.ff i'' naAmta.n.ng them in working
aid of rootird'X Cbc Ss'Sed'ff \' ''T''''^ ^J the
instancethequahtyofthe W IS k' • ^ ^^^ ' ^""^^ '"^ ^^^'7
exertion, or the h'orse will hp ,^^1 1 . '" Proportion to the required
effected in hi keep wHl no rLritn •'. %'' ''^''^ '^'' «^^^"S
contrary, but every nacSlfW, ,^^'°°^''^t^ *« "^stances to the
tained ch ly bylod Kn^ 'mJtr'" '^'''' ^^'^ ^^''^ ''"^ ^e sus-
• and altho4l/tS:L^:i, ge m^^^^^^^^^^^ f T^\^
ot corn, yet the allowance of hay is oLn frton L/ ^^r ^"^^'^'^
a common practice to crim tl,!;.,! m too profuse. It is indeed
fodder, the'co^^ ;^^^ ^-^^ ""l^"^ited quantity of this
the night, n.to27l%^£^\:i^^^^ '^'^ '«"
C'>nZ,l^.-W::'^llTuttTT "^ T* »'« "-OS. most
they form a tolerably substantial foci ■ buTlW frl.^1 J " "'
steaming them „> ^reat objecior..; g"!" tim h te'r""" 1
when raw, carrots arc nreferablp Pnr«^o ^ r , . ^ ^"^' '^"^
have a visibly good eLru" tir cc^rth": tit f ^"^'^^^^
to the wind ; and they corr^t the bina „ ' e£ of tvt^ If^"""' '
many given raw are kpt to produce 2 of otW V? ,^i"* ^^"^
which have" been fed on thpmfnr a i,/.- r ^'°^ »»^ horsfis
them as to refuse oTher &> ' ' '^°'* *'"^' °^'^" ^^^^'"^ «« f«"d of
/*^
^ftfS^fe»--S-CT7«„«^
rt T-
a
- ^ .- 56
.es. after it has beco^e^ool^j^ ^^ %t^ 'l
each horse once a ^^S^.^'^tZtl Is vcrSiJt cornis often swallovred
judicious and economical Hjf^'^^' ^^ g tent partly upon straw, it is
whole .vhen given dry ^h^J^.^'^^ ^oTels in-order; but when put to
TarranT?^ t '^:^ r.nXetition would perhaps he too
relaxing. *^ . , . .^.f -r.„„^ ^^ ^]^q " Management of Farm
" Mr. Spooner, m his Prize Essay on toe ° estimates of
ber to March, when work is light, they receive . ,
Oats, Ih hushel.
Straw, li cwt^., at Ss.,-
Swedes, 42 lbs.,
4 6
3 6
4
8 4
Oats, 2 bushels.
Beans, 1^ peck.
Hay (not clover), 1 cwt..
f. d.
(]
2 3
4
*12 3
abundant, the corn is reduced to- . ^^ .
.-30
1 bushel, costing, - " .50 *
With green food, worth, say. - -
..As the autumn work approaches, the spring feeding is again
^Tihe summer Wng of horse. jUr^ -^Hods^-— ^^
tised in England-" l^^^^J.^tesaherCor grazed ^Brdly to
them on the field ^ artificial gr« ei ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^
soil them on green food ^"{l^f;?^^^ L temporary fences to a small
the horses must bo tethered, or cjnfi"^^j>f ^^^ ^ J^ constantly kept •
portion of the ground. In the third ^eU>oa y^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^
fn the sUble and farm-ya d- JJe^ J^^ ^,,, ^al here, as arable
■ vious advai>tages, and will «« '^o^^t ^^^^^^^^^ horse power becomes more
farming extends, and summer tillage oy no ^
constant dnd general. ^^^q ^nder proper
"Cooked food IS now much "^ed oy mr 'j^^iiea potatoes, tur-
xnanagement, with groat advantage^ jtean^'^^^^^^a ?ally turnips,
nips or carrots, are given ; and ^'^//^^J,;'' ""g^;^ About 40 lbs.
^i^th great success. Boding is P;:f «^^*^^„^\'^ .'^^^ this should be
li turnips is the average -"^^.^^J^Ji^^^^^^^ chaff or ground
/Sr^'aSltJuuJ^r l^f^
UOHtsj^, «i*«^ ~ V .::::.„ .K„...,V. a-iffereirt Worn pnce.
. The pri-. •"•r""^ ["^SJr rderor/^^T '
hti*. they form an •Umeni in ihe writer
^ 01
Ranted, for if %t any time it becomes acid and ferments, an din this
state 18 exceedingly injurious."
i^ Experience hqa also demonstrated the advantage of crushinu and
brmsing gram, and even grinding it, and cutting of choppTng feeder
of the^7^''''^*"^'^'",'^'^f*^'''' ^3^ bringing fhe nutriSLs^S
.LSfni^ ""T ''"^f^'^^^y ^" «ont«ct ^ith the stomach, and thus
enabhng, them to pass with greater ease into the system, ar.d afford the
ammal more sustenance, >vhile to th^ farmer they L a means of effect-
ing considerable saving-considerable, if .ve only regaTthe actua
amount of hay, straw, ^^c., which is wasted when thesTmatU 1
given m their natural state ; considerable, if we look at theZntL of
undigested gram voided in the excrements of the horse • and sSl more
considerable when we mark the 'difference i« the condirn of tho e
tSIuhei-r:!! w '" ""f'^'' '""V. ^^ '^"^^ f^od^nd hoL'
wnicft get their allowance in its natural and crude state "
^ 'IV. SHEfel^
io L Itrdfn'Jl'^rf//^''^ T ""°'«'^"«' ^^^ ^Jiffer ^om each other
m tollowing table from touatt gives a general view of their qua-
/
^ ■
J
69
> oooo
i r-1 r-t
5 C^ rH CO
?i N '^a"^!/"'®*'®^' *^® fo^owing merit a more particular notice •
CI.) i^c- Heath or Black-faced are distinguished by their black
faces, with in the pure breed, a lock of white wool in the forehead
Ibey are hardy, with short and firm carcass, and " long, open coarso
and shaggy wool " Extensively reared in the northern counties of
iinglami and in Scotland, and would suit well here in exposed situations
^ and where long coarse wool ia desired. '
(2 ) The Exmoor—aro shorter wooled and yield finely flavoured
mutton. They are especially noted for their power of resistini- the in-
jurious efft-cts of danii). , ° "
(3^) The Dishlcy or Neio Leicester— ia a large breed, with excel-
lent flesh and fattening readily. The wOol is. both long and fine I am
informed that attempts to introduce this fine breed into the eastern part
of this Province have not been very successful, as it has proved too deli-
cate m winter.
(4.) The South-Doim.—ThQ^Q sheep belojig originally to the
• chalky short pastures of the South Downs, in Sussex, and arc a
valuable and hardy breed. They have been successfully introduced into
this Province. They are short- wooled and have more meat in propor-
tion to offltl than any of the other varieties.
(5.) 7%eC/(ei-7o/— belong to the hilly districts on the borders of
Jingland and Scotland, but have been extensively spread over the wholo
ot those countries. They have short wool of fair quality, produce ex-
cellent mutton, and are hardy. I am informed by a good authority
that they have succeeded admirably in this Province, and are one of
the best breeds that have been introduced. Crosses with the South-
Down are said not to have been successful, but those with the Leicester
have done well, diminishing however the fineness of the wool and the
hardiness of the breed, but increasing its weight and tendency to fatteju
(0.) Ihe Menno—is a Spanish breed, with very fine and valuable
wool but a slender carcass with little tendency to fatten. Chiefly on
this latter account, this breed has fallen into disrepute in England but
13 still much esteemed and cultivated, especially in some of itd crosses
m the United States. '
2. . Selection ayid Bearing of Sheep.— Under this head, I shall
give some extracts from Youatt and from the American Patent Office
Keports.
"In selecting sheep, the' breeder or grazier should carefully examine
the nature of his land, and having attentively weighed its relative decree
of fert.lity, and his various sources for supplying food, he may proceed '
to purchase that breed which, after mature consideration, he has reason
to believe is best calculated for him.
In the first place therefore, though ho Should never suffer himself to
be led into needless expense by purchasing fashionable breeds, he should
m'y T'^tP^^ % H09ttgDg the beat blood of thiyt parties '
weed On which he may fix,
[i
h
-•Wo^ltra t'?%«f '•;« «^"-- Ota g«»l«.,,uot»a
bv Youatt from Colley on Live btocK and expanded ;
'^u^His head should be m^ean^smdlhsno^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.
his eyeg prominent, and '^ther ')oM aM a^^^
cl.'fuuVom his bre-t ^«rhS ^ fho'uld be 'fine and
^ay to the junction ot t^e neckjnd , ^^^^i,,, y,,„ging down
. graceful, being P^f :i^>\f'''. ^fu^ vhich must at the same time^
W shoulders should ^e broadband fuU^ v h,^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ,, j «
^oih so closely to the collar fonvarda^^^^^ ^.^ ^^^ f
• he least hollow m e.thcr place. ^^"^^^ \^ ^jth a clear fi-e ,
thic^h must come quite to the knee , his leg «PJ'° ^^ ^^^y from tho
b no equally free from ^^Pf X S ast b^^^^^^^^^^^^ .veli forward, wluch
knee aAd hough downwards Theb'rea tt,r ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^
^\\\ keep his fore-legs at a P'-0P«r J^^"!' ■ ^^^^ of a hollow behind
gi^ h or chest should be full '^™^^'1;J^X Sd flank, should be qu te
^be shoulders, that part, ^y ««™« J^"f J'^St from which the ribs
fall; the back and ^'^-^^^f ' jf"' Se b iT^^^^^
„.us't rise with '^ ^J^, "^^^^ ^tton ^^^^^ to the hough, whjch
quarters long and full, ^'^^ the mut q ^^^ ^ th^
should neither stand m nor «^;' J^J/'^'^.k, ,.ith the broad breast
. i„.ide of the thighs) dgp, wide and fu 1, whicn, ^^^
vill keep his fore-leg»^en/^VP"f7 \ „.f^ ^qoI." The above des-
, : tL pelt ; and that -th Sne br^J ^f^ LeiclTer breed. It is less
cription applies more particularly to
feet cool." . . .- „,UptPd frin Smith's Prize Ilssay on the
>*^e following hints ^^^^ f ^^^^^^^^^^^ of male animals no plan
« Management of Sheep : * or Unf When using rams of the same
is equal to that of breeding in a hne^ Zether nearer than the third
flock, they should by "« --«^^a"* ?Sers will improve larger
remove in the same ^'^lll.^'JZ^^
breeds, but if we attempt to enlarge ou^^J^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ „or
States: —
01
an item in the general account ; my flock being a small one, varying
from 100 to 200, and rarely exceeding thd latter number. It congisted.
originally of grade Merinos, averaging, perhaps, about half blood
From this original flock my present is descended, there having been
no change, except such as hag been effected l)y \yhat I deemed a judi-
ciouB course of breeding, with a view to the improvement of the general
character of the flock. By keeping this object constantly in view, I
flatter myself I have succeeded in making material, though perhaps not
rapid, advances. The flock now consists wholly of medium-sized sheep
compact and symmetrical in form, perfectly healthy in every respect'
and yielding per head an average of about four pounds of fine Merino
wool, of good length of staple, uniform in quality, not Overcharged with
yolk, and showing in opening a good crimp and luatre.
During the first years of my experience in sheep-breeding, I made
use of Saxony bucks in my flock, mostly of pure blood ; but, after
thorough trial, became fully convinced that, although I was producing
a more valuable article of wool, I was not in fact increasing the real
value of the flock ; the improvement in the quality of the Jeece beintr
attended with a proportionate diminution of the quantiUj, so that, while
I was enabled to obtain an advanced price per pounifor a given num-
ber of fleeces, the aggregate value had in reality decreased, in conse-
quence of 4hc decrease in weight ; I also found the animals to be less
hardy— less able to withstand the great changes of our variable climate,
and, consequently, much more subject to disease. A change, tbere-
fore, seemed to bo necessary. This was sought to be effected by the
introduction of the pure Merino blood, as distinguished from the Saxony,
and for the last ten years I have used bucks of that description, to the
exclusion qf all others, and have reason to bo well satisfied with the
change.
With the Saxony sheep, the average annual loss from disease and
other causes amounted to nearly ten per cent. Since the change made
in the course of breeding, the average annual loss does not exceed (wo
per cent., and that arising mostly from accidental causesr I have thus *
become convinced that, in this locality, (it being on a ra!nge of land in
latitude 43°,) the Spanish or French Merino sheep is to be preferred to
the Saxony, if wool-growing is expected to b© made profitable. The
principal benefits I have found to result from the change are the fol-
lowing :
X- An increase of the average weight of fleece from about 2| to
nearly 4 pounds.
2. Getting a close and compact fleece, epmparatively impervious to
the weather, and thus furnishing a more perfect pix)tectionjlo the body
of the sheep from wet and cold.
3. Consequently a more firm and vigorous constitution.
4. And in consequence of the preceding, bettpr breeders, and greater
The only oifset to these advantages that I Lave yet perceived is a
slight sacrifice in the quality of the wool.
62
/'
!;!\
Much discussion has been ha4 to ^^^g^^f tS;CC
.£r S^ny, a cro. of ^^ :^tl'::^^^^^^M. for n.uUo.
framed, coarse- wooled «^'«J; ,7^7,"^^,^ of each kind appears to Im o
The ^-^T^^'^tSo^^X^^^-' ^^ ^^- Svower, and the la.l-
'"Those hiding near c.t.es or ^^ J ^^^^^^^^ coarse-cooled sheep,
for reaching these places, may f "J J^^f j^ ^.^ ^hc fact in regard to tho ..
to a limited extent profitable ; but sucU is n ^
g.:at mass of .bol g-wers 'u t^^e ^^^for fr^^ the 'sale of sheep
from their flocks must rfs,f /^'e'der for their superior fleeco
Tade valuable, by the f^^'^ « .^^^^^.^^^^^^^^^^ that the intrinsic value
Where the facilities f«^««"'"6^'ave bee ^^^^^^- toojnuch by
of the fleece could be obtained, 1 think i am ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ „
saying that the profits arising from the gowtn ^^^.^.^.^^ ^^^^
Seate than on the W'er grades But ^v Qre ^^ ^^^^ ^j
Le not been enjoyed, the prf t« bave been ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ j^.^
Ldium and low 4-bties As a PJ^oo o ^.^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^
to the fine wool gro^mMnth(^ie sections j^^^,,„,ents were held
of their superior chps ""^^^^Xi^ther^Vo^ the purpose of b^
out to fine wool purchasers ^/'^ .*^^'^iulted in fLir prices ; whrlo lu
thus a competition was created, winch res > ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ,„ ^^,^
oher sections, -'^^^ .^^^f^ XSium and bigh grades were grown pro-
quantities, or where the low, nedm^ a b_^^b^^^^^ ^^,a,, ue
iiscuously, those pi^ducing ^^e °n^o^or 8. or at most 5 cents only,
necessity of selling their. fine ^vool at -, °,\, „,adcs, and tlmt, too, when
above the price paid for the ^^^^^Jl^'lZ Sep ndent of its quality
thTsuperior condition of the fine flee^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ,^,, ,,,ir skdl^
:::^^t^TS^^ Z instead of common or medium
^ "t"' The Mowing extracts wm be of ser^em
^ ^^^il condition ^ the anin^ouhUe^i^f^^^
one shearing until the ««\ ,]fX ,heep is luttening the wool will be
^ool will be injurious ; for ^^^ -ly^J ' ^^^ ,,hen it has become pool,
If a grosser growth and the fibre to^^^ ^^1^ ,,,1 you have
the Irowth will be less ;S;^;^,:ltered by a practical eye in ex- ,
tViU vpsult, (which will reaaiiy ^*= -» , in the same fibre, i h'''\e
It ning Ae fleece)-two •J-'^'^Jijits after *=ari»g,a,,d.he"
68
of the year but poorly kept nnd run down in winter, the middle of the
. fibre Hhowed the anmo difference/' <- ^
''This not only reduces the quality of the wool in the stapler's scnle
to the lowest and coarsest grade in the fibre, but nlao mnke ho fibre
weak and tender ,n the fine part grown when the animal was poo The
. reau t of bad kecpm., also, often injures the health of the sheep^'hich
m add.fon to the evil ; spoken of, gives the wool a knottr™ranco
and they continue v.gorous and hculthy during the whole year thoS
the fleece heavier
langing from a
t/io7tl({ be pro-
'i/cecpino;^'
should be well
that would be
V - - -n -" —v. •iv.uiiiiiy UUIII
ot the lleeco wdl be free and unifornj "in quali^i
• and wore valuable, than when they are alt
high to a low state of flesh. T/ic fineness ^
dticed hj/ (he hi^li hloocl of the sheep, and
" Before turning out to pasture in the .sprijn
tagged, care being taken to remove all the locKp»Rrw)i mat would be
espoaally s tins true in regard to fino-wooled sheep. It should be de-
nruntlTr " T^r^'"'* ^'T ^»"y ^^•"^enced, which is usualfy
not until June when the water becomes sufficiently warm to facilitate
he removal of the filth from the wool. Too early washing and shear!
ing often expose the sheep to cold storms and the chilly effects of cold
S ; ^'^7V''^-"''''""'^''°''''""S provided by nature for them •
while too late shearing exposes them to the rays of the hot burnin-. sun
t^^^^S^ '' ''''' '" ^""^-^ ^ -fficienf length to ^hfelS
eallZilS "f^^'-'f "S s'j^^P ™"«t necessarily vary, for all have not
equal facilities Pools ot stagnant water should be avoided. Better
not wash at all than have your flocks poorly washed : for if not washed
you arrive at the va ue of the fleece, compared with clean wool bTa
well known and established rule of discount Thq best mode is to
a running stream, or vat with a stream of water, having a fall of a
feet, running into it. 'fa "" "* »
Just previous to washing, the sheep should be thoroughly wet without
squeezing he wool, and suffered to stand crowded tofether for a few
hours, until the soapy substance and oil or gum which the wool con-
?u^^'L '7 ? "^f'" ^''^^'' ''°^° t^e water and the wool squeezed
with the hands, the whole of the filth readily separates from thTwool
and passes off with the running stream. In the common mode of wash-
ng the soapy substance first passes out of the wool, only partially
uniting with the oil and gum, alter which it is impossible to remove the
gum, no matter how much time may be spent in washing. Care should
be taken to wash the fleece thoroughly in all its part!. I have seen
frauds at empted to be perpetrated by washing the back and sides, and
paving the belly and skirts unwashed, which in rolling up the fleece
were carefully concealed. After wa8hing,.the sheep should be suffered
torunma clean ^ee^^^^^^^ of time for ih^
▼001 » get dry, which is uaually in four or five day., and then ghearing
/
, • 64
should commence. Very large flocks shoukl be divided, and the Avaah-
ng done at different times, or they >vill run too long before bemg shorn ,
The place assigned to the flock when collected for shearing, should be
well littered with straw and kept clean, so as to prevent the filth, con-
luentupon their being close together, from gettmg upon ^the wool
In shearing, great care should be taken to keep the fleece whole. Each
clip of the shears should sever a part of the wool from the sheep and a
second clip either on that part of the animal, or on the part of the fleece
just severed, should be avoided ; for clippings thus made are useless,
*" Aftershearing, the fleece should b§ removed to a table, or clean
smooth place on the floor, with the inner part down ; then gathered up
To as c^ompact a condition as it occupied when on the sheep ; the sides
of the fleece should be then folded over so as to meet on the back of the
fleece, the head and neck thrown back.so as to make the fold upon the
shoulder ; it is next folded oc rolled from the butt of the fleece and con-
tinued until you reach the sloulder. The fleece should then be snug^
tied with a small, smooth twine, passing around two, or at most three
times. You thus have a compact fleece, easlto.ppen, and the shoul-
der which is the finest part, on the outside. iJuyers always expect to
see 'the best side out, and wool-growers sometimes do themselves injus-
tice by not thus exhibiting their fleeces. I do not believe that the
manufacturers, as a whole, in this country, are yet prepared to pay a
sufficient advance beyond the present prices, to justify the grows of
wool in removing all of the fribs, belly locks and skirts from the fleece,
as is done with the fine wools of Germany. I w'ould therefore at pre-
sent put inside of the fleece all the well washed and clean wool shorn
from the sheep, carefully excluding all such locks as are filthy, or be-
low the residue of the fleece in condition. . , . . „
The various sorts are known by the following designations : Super,
Extras Prime, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, De Laine No. 3, No. 4, De Lame
No. 4, No. 5, and long combing. ^ -' ^. , .,, ^ * _
There are few flocks, however careffUy bred, which will not embrace
three or four of the above-mention^ classes— many six or even eight ot
them Hence the wool grower unSer the old system, when disposigg ot
his wool to a manufacturer using the lower grades, must expect that
such a prifee only will be offered for his whole clip as the lower grades
are worth • and tha#ne wool manufacturer will not become a purchlser
unless a large prop^tion of the clip is of a quality suited to his purpose.
It will readdy be seen that these diflSculties may be obviated by a judi-
cious cla3sificatioQft»f the fleeces. The following statement will show
the usual relative value of the different sorts, and the uses, in part, to
which they are applied. The prices here mentioned for the finer qua-
litiea are taken from the Hfehest range of the present year.^For the
lower qualiils there has bee^an unusual demand, and prices have
^r^edligher. , No. 5, whichfthecoar^gr^and ^
— ing coarse eatinetfl, bawes, and^tte amtwr kam^t-M»Yj {fpoa^
65
25 cents ; No. 4, used for low flannels, satinets, and | cloths, 28 cents ;
No. 4 De Laine, used for a medium kind of worsted goods, 29 cents :
No. ^, used for flannels, medium cassimeres and satinets, and low-
price<l broadcloths, 31 cents; Np. 3 De Laine, used for Mousselin
De Lainos. and other combing purposes, 32 cents ; No. 2, adapted to
fine fancy cassimeres and medium broadcloths, 35 cents ; No. 1, used
for similar purposes, 39 cents ; Prime, 44 cents ; Extra, 50 cents ;
Super, 00 cents ; another quality njay be selected from tlie Super, cal-'
led Super-super, worth 75 cents. These high grades are used for the
finer qualities of cassimeres and broadcloths. TJie difference between
Nos. 3 and 4, and the De Laines or combing qualities of the same Nos ,
consists in length and strength of staples, and not in the fineness of the
fibre." -
Th^ general management of sheep, in relation to food, shelter, atten-
dance, sliearing, &c., is a subject so complicated, and depends so much
on climate, the breed of sheep, and the purposes for which the. flocks
are reared, that it would be hopeless to attempt giving a connected
summary of it. I may remark, however, that the position and physical
character of our province lead to two very distinct kinds of sheep hus-
bandry.
Along the southern or Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, and in the nu-
merous small islands in its vicinity, sheep may be kept with very little
expense and trouble. In Briar Island, for instance, at the southern,
entrance of the Bay of Fundy, which is inhabited chiefly by fishermen,
and has scarcely an acre of ploughed land bn its surface, though it can
boast of the neat and thriving little towfl of Westport, large flocks of
sheep are kept. They run wild all the yeai-, and in summer find plen-
tiful pasture on the uninclosed surface of the Island. In winter they
derive much of their subsistence from sea weed ; and even in summer
may often be seen scrambling along the rocky shores in search of it.
They receive scarcely any attention, except at shearing time, or when
required for killing. They are of course small and hardy animals, but
their mutton is said to be excellent. Large portions of |he southern
coast of our province would support sheep in the same manner ; and I
have no doubt that ultimately almost the whole of these rocky coast dis-
tricts will be turned into sheep farms, and that the bogs and swamps
will be made to yield hay for their winter keep. There can be no doubt
that in the comparatively mild climate of these districts, a fine and valu-
able quality of wool might be produced, suitable for exportation or for
the domestic manufacture of the better class of cloths.
In the inland or more properly agricultural districts of the province,
fine and large breeds of sheep may be raised, but their winter keep will
be more expensive than in the shore districts, and more difficulty will bo
experienced i^ providing them with extensive aud unobstructed ranges
of pastura ge. In t hese distri cta, as yet, sheep h usband ry is ge nerally
ihBft^ lo comj^rala vely smail docks, pro9u6itig mutton and wool for ^
^ . \ 66 ^ •
(lomestic use only ; and the lat^et in sufficient quantity to furnish the
greater part of the outer clothing of the agricultural districts, of better
and more durable material than the imported cloths. It should^ how-
over, now form a subject of consideration with farmers, Avhcther the
production of fine wool for thie manufacture of the finer fabrics in this
I'ountry, or for exportation to the United States or Great Britain, might
not be deserving of their' attefition.
V. SWINE.
!''
Perhaps nokind of live stock is more profitablb, in proportion to its
cost iind the labour r('quired, than swine ; and it is c(iually import-mt
in this as in other kinds of domestic animals, to have ^od breeds to
operate on. The following are, said to be' the characteristics of a good
hog :
"Small muzzle; narrow forehead; large cheeks; eye quick and
bright; ears short and thin ; neck almost as broadx as chine, and that
of '(:qHal breadth nearly to the tail ; belly almost touching the grotiftd
, fiojH- the hind legs to tlie fore ; thighs large both inward and ontWartl,
iwid division between them large; legs small and short; fejct firm and
sound ; bones small ; Joints fine ; hair long and thin ; fe\v bristles ;
skin loose and niellovf." "\
1. There are numerous varieties of the' Hog, which are oontimially
increasinn- by crossing. Probably the most important breeds are the
Chinese and lierkshire, which are thus described : —
" The Clibicsti Breed is smaR, fine limbed, round in the carcass,
thiiily bristled and thin skinned. There are two varieties, the whiti;
and black ; the former being better shaped than the latter, but more
tender und less prolific. Both breeds are tender, susceptible of cold,
and (iifticult to rear; yet, from their early aptitude to fatten they are
in great esteem with those who rear only young porkers. If fed on
fiiririaccous lood their flesh ii very delicate, but it becomes coarse and
oily when ofli^l and animal substances are given : it is n6t adapted for
bacon, and is deficient in lean meat: and their hind quarters being
small in proportion to the body, they cut up to disadvantage when
intended lor hams."
'I'lic great iherits of this breed, are its compact form and the readiness
\vith which it fattens o^n a comparatively small quantity of food. On
these accounts the Chinese breed is ver^ useful for crossing with our
li.rger and ruoro slender native breeds, to which it communicates in a
grciter oi^ less degree its round form'and tendency to fatten ; though it
also gives a more delicate constitution and a diminution of nun4)er in
the furrows.
TAe ntfikxhi re Breed is esteemed the best English variety of the
hog, the only other sort which equals it in the ojunion. of the best
iQi of tb« best
authorities, being the improved Essex brted, wljidi appears itself to be
descended Jiom the Berkshire, and resembles it in many of its qualities.
The JJerkuhire hog is thus described by Youatt :
•'Sandy or white colour, \vith brown or black spots ; sides broad ;
body thick, close and well formed ; legs short ; head well placed ; ears
large and sometimes pendant over the eyes. Another distinctive mark
of this breed is that the best of them are without bristles, and tlife hair
long and -curly, and curiously feathered a%ut the ears. The skin is
thin, the iiesh well flavoured and the bacon superior. Hogs of this
breed have been known to reach the weight ^113 stones of^S lbs."
" Lord Western's Essex Breed are apparently descepded from the
Berkshire stock, and may be reckoned among the finest breeds in the
country. They are black and white, short haired, fine skinn^, with
smaller heads and eiy-s than the Berkshire; broad and deep in the
belly, full in the hind quarters, and light in the bone and ofl'ul. The
sows are good breeders, and have litter^ofifrom 8 to 12, but4jiey have
the chairacter of being bad nurses. Lord Western describes them as
ieeding remarkably quick, growing fust, and being of an excellent qua-
lity of meat." , *..
Youatt thus sums up the comparative values otjtho best breeds : —
'• Each of the breeds we have mentioned has its advocates; but n^
their respective value does not depend on soil or situation, these differ-
ences of opinion can only be ascribed to want of .sufficient comparative
experiments or to prejudice. A very competent, and apparently a very
candid judge of the merits of the principal kinds, gives it aa his decided
opinion, that the Berkshire rough-hairedj feather-eared, curled pigs, are
superior in form and flesh to all others."
" His opinion of the relative merits of Chinese and Berkshire pigs must
have been based on fair experiments, and due considertftion of tiieir re-
spective values ; for he mentions having fattened a Chinese gpw to the
weight of forty stones of 14 lbs , at three and a half years oljt^ and the
quality of the bacon of each kind fatted and cured, was decided by a
party of gentlemen at Lord Conyngham's table, in, favor of the Beik-
shire. In this we unhesitatingly coincide » but we are inclined toijthink
that the improved Essex breed may fairly compete wjth either, for it
can be brought earlier to maturity by three or four months— it makes
finer and more delicate pork, especially fer pickling— good bacM and
hams, and the sows are good breeders."
2. The Feeding of Hogs necessarily varies in different countries.
The following account of the most approved English practice cannot
liowever fail to afford useful hints.
'' With regard to sows in pig, it is obvious that they 'should be well
fed, that they may be enabled to supply their young ones with the
ngcessary quantity of milk ; but while .care is thus taken to keep them
in good condition, equal caution is necess ary t hat they do not become
"toaiar. :for tlia»e' tliat TittS: in spring, tares and cabbages; witB the
>%
^
i i
n
■ ■»*,3»3 "
• ; 68 , . ." ■
butter-milk and Vash fef the house and dairy, may be emp%ed with
adviintago; or if the supply from the dairy is not adetpate to the dc-
tnuud a wash may be prepared with oat, barley or pea meal. For
those 'that litter jK the autumn Jettuces have been found wholesome and^
nutritive, in adcStion to the wash ; and in the winter season potatoes,
Swedish turnips, parsnips and other roots, previously prepared by boil-
inrr, should be added." , i- i • ii.
The ^oviii; Pig^s, after being weaned, may be fed m the same
manner as the'sows ; but the addition of pea soup, made by bodmg a ■
bushel and a half of peas in about sixty gaUons of water, until they are
thoroughly broken and dissolved, either'given alone or mixed with
butter "milk or whey, will very materially impi'ove their condition.
JSo species of food has been found more fattening than barley meal,
especially when mixed with skimmed milk.' It is also an excellent
addition "to steamed potatoes. Whatever may /be the food, young pigs
should be kept warm, for they will never grow .xai thrive well when
exposed to cold. Mring the weaning, especial caje should be tlriceft *»-.<
supply them with plenty of clean straw, and to Keep the pigs as clean
as possible. The want of this cannot be compensated by tfae most plen-
tiful allowance of food." , .
In summer the Store Pigs may be allowed to pasture m a well
enclosed field, or may be fed with green food brought to them. The
latter is better AvKere the labour can be spared. In the former case
" it will be propel to have theta tcell ritiged, in order to prevent them
from breakin<^ into grain fields ; and that operation should be performed
as early as possible. Mr. Tubb recommends, inster.d of ringing, the
parin<» off with a razor or sharp knife the gristles on the tips of the
Tioses'of the young pigs. The wound soon heals over, and they are thus
rendered incapable of rooting in the fields "
^QT Pork, pigs are usually fattened from six to nine months old ;
for Bacon from nine months to a year and a half; and store swine at
the same period or rarely beyond two years ; the latter however is the
preferable ago for subsumtial bacon for farmer's use, and for which
iiurpose the bacon should be made perfectly fat. for porkers, butter-
millv, whey and barley-meal are preferable ; for bacon hogs, equal parts
of fresh pollard and pea meal have been recommended. Generally
speaking, a hog in good condition, when put up and intended to be
fattened to twenty score, will consume six or seven Winchester bushels
of peas. They are generally given raw ; but some experiments tend to
show that they might be more advantageously used when boiled to the
consistence of thick soup."
" Indian corn ground, barley, oat and pea meal, swedes, parsnips,
nian'^el wurtzel, carrots, flax seed, green clover and green corn and
(•abbacies, are some of the best and most nutritive matters that can be
used i°i fiittcning swine " Koots and vegetables are more useful when
==e«5oked 4haa^-aw^,4ut piga-canuot-be fully fiittened on theie ijlonc^ The
^
/i'
-*»**:
best an<l firmest Ijacou can be made only by the use of gram and pulse
c.r ..f IPM^it a cnnsidovable Dart of the food." '• '
for at least a considcmble part of the food.
69
" Swine Tvhen fattening should be kept warm and«lean, especially
in cold and damp weathef, and they should also' be supjled with plenty
of htteri the cost of wh,ch will be amply repaid by the increased pro-
portion of exce lent dung thereby obtained. -They should also be sup-
plied with abuudawcft of water." ;
"Not oTnly should these animals be kept warm and dry when fjtten'-
ing, but they should also be confined if possible by themselves; or at
all events there should bejw small a, number in the same sty and as
rable°"* ""^ ''^' *^^ *""^ °' S'"""* ^"^ ""^^^^ ^'^""^ P''^^-
" A practice has been introduced in the county of Essex, though not
yet generally followed, of fattening pigs in separate stalls. These are
so constructed as to admit of only one pig eath, and just allowing Jiim
room for hmi to lie down, but ^ot to turn. They are built with the
floor m a sloping direction, to carry off-the fijth. The food given is :
usually barley and pea meal, and water or whey, and they are said to
fatten far better in these etycs than in the common ones ; this is attri-
buted to their being more quiet and having only to eat and sleep.
Instances have been kfiown in which a hog half fat when put into one
, ot these cages, has gained fifteen pounds ^ week in flesh."
" Kcgularity in feeding should likewise be especially regarded, as it
has great in uonce in facilitating or ,4-etarding the fatteninrr of swine •
Jence it will be proper to giye them a full allowance of food three or
tour times, or at certain other stated intervals in the day, as convenience
or other circumstances may allow. If any animal should have surfeited
itselfby eating too large a proportion of food, it will be advisable to
administer half En ounce of sulphur in some wash, once or twice in the
course ot the day, and on two or three successive days "
"In buyivff and selling swine, both in a fat and lean state, it has
been calc^ated that every twenty pounds of live weight will, when
kil ed, produce from twelve -to fourteen, the advantage being in favour
^lil"'*il ^^ll' r '^Vi"" f^>^«l^r °r breecH^eighs the animals when
alive, he will be enabled to calculate theV profitable wei-^ht when
dead By weighing the hogs every week, he max,,also judge of the
best time for selling them to advantage ; for as soon*asan animal ceases
to acquire that daily increase which makes it beneficia^eed him the
best step that can be taken is to sell Or slaugAer him Without farther
It may be interesting to farmers to know something of the methods
by which Uie immense quantities of pork annually exported from the
Western States are produced. I therefore give the following extracts
from the last Washington Patent Office Eeport. The two first extracts
refer to the State of New York; Uie others to Ohio and Indiana, the
head-quarters of cheap Wektern pork.
^lieM Md^lhe Eerkshires a& th e l e st ; I h c ^eapest are those-
produced from the dair^ refuse, finished off with the soft corn."
;\
^
Q
<r V,
.^'
70
u With us along L Hudson Ifer, ^fe^J^t Zf 'it"^^^^^^
in r^!^inghea?ir pork, ^^^'^If ^'^1, ^^aSis^ So^ «^
Z^, br^cd ofliogs that ^^^^^ y^'t„i,^^'oot l^n, et^yovk
nuvking.^o,-k is bf ftoding ««;:;r^^^ ^^.^t^' '""%|L .1\
made |Aeeding,gram .s i««^ P'^j^'^^'^,^ ^S as ch^can bet
ahnoifcAWf vmere, -i at fci , ^^lAa of crodufiifeg |pK i|, «»
>f
i*?r
age,
grai
dciv_„._, ,
two nionlha ',
for marVist.
suMily.'®!' W'
a bdbr .Pi"OT
kit hri
nfrfl The crazer, irora^Hiw M'»t'"°'""" Y 75 y^i-
I!' j£<fflto»Sm thSi p-ut them on rj^e sixleel
then p-ut them on r^e six
' require bjxt-httle feeing
k'S^m^
», ptit ,into heavy" market ;^t A..
,; m. iw required also a plentilyl
ihogB thriye better, and yi.^W
b^^iied in summer " %
""-^'t :^msttJ^,.t«!-<Jh£']iEld, Russia, and Sussex ;aUja^^ ■
pis the rim of *'»■: ™*.*'"i,* Tf ^^^^ etc.. Until lie has ii%
attained hi?,gtdm, then p\i^ u ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^,oiM
Seal. .KcooUirfermenU.d .^^ coarse sal t^
Well'rubbfed M over with salt, anu pa , . ^
.m^^ P°^*'«" ^[ "ff ''''Sbed Ssalfand repacUel|.
,Si8ht>uld be overhauled, '^S^^^^'^^f^^^^^^
^expiration ot- five je^^^^^^^ ,, ^J,. dry, '
Z lar{,»fe, ^•a.h «^f^?,^\"°,M^^e Jair in the smok^-bouse witn
fe£jr«;C - «e ^Vith »u,a hi, .oca. Let
your baco.1 hang m long as you Pl"«- j „f „„„, om hundrea
,.Ift.«g.td «. "!e<luc"K>n--ho« S«°I tested that twenty-fi™
lhc'follo«mg 18 heheved to he *« "■"?„,,, „„„), the season -M
is generally adopted --P'?'- *.f ""a S *<> A'" "' '
through the winter on -" » '^J^^'l^^.'^aheoi they,
tumcd on clover, it yJ^|S|™. , ,)„ j„„gh 9lat?.iJi
•r " '■'" "; ttr irii®n to ri c enon|h,-.he?. ,
^;rS3 trh?g.%TSd%» be M jn a c|
BK:' -.
"P
fcorn
iH)w, w
«.' or
inents-
allow
enterec
l^y -
trough
Hne
less thi
W'
'a]|0 ha
1.
• ■ '
{or corn next year, and the manure and clover tm^ngd under
T^m!? ^ h made to Teproduee itseJf the next yoar on another
rhfs M,eheved to be the cheaRest mode of raising pork. It reqdS
J 39 labo«,.and 18 esg exhausting to the soil; nothing bein. taken ?rom
It but th^lfv^ weight of the hogs driven to market. ' ° !
illowingjs quite a curiosity in its way, as an illustration of the
^ha(ul wasteful Ixodes of feeding practised in the West -
1^ this county, tvhere land and corn are cheap, and labor hi^h as
^^U^ tr^"^^^^^ ^-^"^ be pursued, would be as fol-
Let the sows have
mg^^me m April, or as soon thereafter as possible
the rSKge of the clover field, and corn enough to keer
the. in condition while su^ckling. S tre'^^Z^dTg^rf ome S
• k^^p them growing ; young pigs do not thrive well on clover alone
hey must be wintered, too, on corn. The next season, if Ihey have "
been kept-thriving through the winter, they will continue' to do solu-
nng spring on elover alone. Take them off before it goes to seed else
^Jn'' I'^'^^r.v, ^^T ' ^'^ '^ "P« "^''^ °^ 'y^ f«^ them to run in
vhcn called off the clover; it should keep them a month, by w ic^
me corn will be m roasting-ear; cut up and feed them wha they wHl
ea : hey will eat the ear and much of tie stalk, and the balancfthev
vill chew, so as to extract its juice; as much i^ reaIi«Miom corn a^
-a fipfdtn r^'".'''"'^"'"' T; ^^^"^''^" ^' ^^^'^ >« September Imu
a field to turn them on In dry weather the wastfe will not pay for the
gathering, and of thls^our stock hogs, turned in afterward^ will save
much In wet weather the plan cannot be followed; that wh chls
nunpled m the ground will spoil. -The corn must, therefor^be ga-
thered and ted while the ground remains soft. This, however is not
generally done; once turned on,,the3^.are suffered to ro ma in. ' When
tli'fnd'YH^f r^'''\^''^,'^^^^ ^^""''^ >« P«»"^d near runnin"
Mater, and fed what corn th^ will eat. They will cou^e into an carlv
market, weighing 250 pounds and upwards." ' ^
The secret of the immense production of western pork, seems to be the
heapness of Indian corn, occasioned by its easy cultivation ^d the
•Imtance from markets. If, as sUe of these writers seem to say green
corn, in the roasting state, is as valuable *&f&o<rs an ivVior. Jj^
Fra of this province »h A ripening iB>top(S&tain
0. The following %t8 on pi<r s^ei^nd irmghs^kre &# Stephens •
Prggeries or pig sties are of three kinds : 1. Thos^or a hrodd.
St;'t:i"th ^^^°"^S P'^-^ T* kind should h\\lTwo„lS"
ments-one Jl- the sow and litter to sleep in. covered With a roofSfcnd
enteral hy an openiug; the other an opeLourt, irfc^h theZw
trough 13 placed. For a breeding-sty, each\ apartment shouldTot bf
' alio hay« two apartHosnts—
/.
flitter lor ileeping in, ^vfr^ |ith ^,
/■
'in--
'*
<
\
-
f
each have ^'."fjL^^gX more convenient fom. for cleaning out and
common. {^^^J^^^^J^j.^^ ^f the Bties and the state of the pjgH.
TTt'l S l^TnToW^^^^^^^ accommodation of yonng p,gs^ ^hen
Stephens descrioes a ^eijr luis*. „ , , Tt mnv eumlv le imita-
Stephens' FarmeJ
± The curin\ of P^rk is not in this country usually managed by
""t; iTYSd^^thrfoilowmg i3 tW pr«ace adopted : After Ae pig
., l^„ Sm ?t i» huM up fot four and tuenty hours^ « » *=" »"
has been killed, it is """8 "P '" , , -j „( Baltpclte and tiA>
T ^r..fen out S bung »p in tie kitehen to dry, a process which
~~^ nuick lime to preserve the inettt from being lajwea sy ww ^^^f* """ » i
we .tor*i up for uw in i^ dry, cool chamber.
^-^tlS^'^'^u
\ court, witU
partment will
se sties may
lave a roof in
ailing out nm\
e of the pigf-
ng pigs, when
Ider ones. It
re."
to push opou
y door, sliding
ilude the inge-
xle of escape."
ughj-manufftc-
jasily Ic imita-
vmal construo-
c^ a trough of
e sty, and divi-
) be fed. Over
;ed at top, and
'; and when the
winging door is
rh, where it can
I and replenish
ben finished, by
Is at once hav<5
fill be found i||f ^
illy managed by
bases and cures
r more carefully
on, merits, how-
[. For this rea-
ed English pnw-
l : After the pig
rsi* it is then cut
saltpetre and twV)
. hams, -which a\e«
)rtnight, and are
ubbed'in. Thdy
jn of which time
', a process which
washed over with
the fly, and they
73
" Westmoreland hams are prepared in the following way : First thev
were thoroughly rubbed, usually with bay salt alone ; after which they
were, by some curers, covered closely up,, while others left them on a
stone bench for the purpose of draining off the brine. At the expira-
tion ot three or four days this rubbing was repeated, but the salt was
mixed with about an ounce of saltpetre to each ham. They were next
suffered to lie for about a week either in hogsheads amon<T the brine or
on stone benches, after which they were hung up in the cfiimney to dry
In this last part of the process there is a difference in practice. By
sorrie they are suspended so that they will bo dried solely by the heat
arising from the fire, and without being exposed to the smoke, wbetlier
this arises irom coals or peat. If not previously.£old, they are suffered
to continue there until the weather becomes wa^m, when they are pack-
ed in straw orWt chaff, and sent to their respective places of sale."
" In Spain and Portugal, where the haras are remarkably fine-
flavored a largo quantity of sugar is used with the saltpetre in curini;
them. ihi8 materially assists in the preservation of the flesh, and ren-
ders it'jpeculiarly mellow."
VI. POULTRY.
'' 1- The Domestic Fowl.
The most important and useful kinds of domestic fowls are the fol-
lowinc; : —
(1.) The Common or Barn-door Fowl, which is too well known
to require description. " When fowls of the common kind are while
they are said to be iess healthy than the others, and the hens are sel-
dom good layers. White chickens should therefore be fattened for the
table, particularly as the colour of their skin is much better than that
ot the darkervkinds, and their flesh more delicate. The le<'s of the
common fowls should be short, white and shining, and their bodies
round and- plump." A vawy fine variety of the common fowl is the
Bolton grey," Jcnown in some parts of the United States as the
Creole fowl." They are " small sized, short in the leg, and plump
m the make. The^colour is pure white in the cappel of the neck ; the
body white thiclflf spotted witkjtoght black, sometimes running into a
grizzle, with one or more blac^rafflT^t the extremity of the tail • they
are chiefly esteemed as very -Mfnt layers, though their colour would
mark them m good table food.y I have seen specimens of this fowl in
the possesaioFof Mr. A. Downfes, Halifax, who confirms the above state-
ment as to their great excellence as layers.
X24 Tha Gam& Fowl-^
beautiful, particularly thp rpii
10 '^
^ The plumage of ^ame
land though their size fs so
'*r
;
If
■5^
than th.t of the common fo#t l^l&Sy and dehcacy of ^e.r 1 ™b8
Ty be cou.pared ^.ith thJ^l^f the race hor^e «^^/l;;^^. ,^^ J °^^^^^ '
leautifully ^hit^, and. superior to that of "\ «^^J'^.^'"^\tfJg e4^
richness and llavour; but their propensity ^"Jg^'.^^^J^Ser Ind
.vhen chickens, that they often injure ^ -r||ij^ |^
Ipnce it is difficult to raise them in nuinber|fi|lii«!gP "?« W^^' V,
^" ?!^ W «,?^he8t treated by alloAvingthe chickeils to take
' •"''"? "m^ WWerpatt^Z o »;t^ »; rf fom., »ad probably
iieaiei i"*'^' o . t i . ,„, '• ^p „U4. yrgg from 5 to o lbs.
„,.b„ ,.^«ved va™ up ^^^^^ •, i„^ fl.„ ^,
v^-) // wlu^f TVipJr flpsh is extremely white, succulent
ing 10 .i vc jr f, , J J spatted, speeklefl and bluish-
vanety is wh te, ^"^ *^S^^^^^ ^ s^bj^cf to di^ase of the
t^ey
good m
are largeiflWre^juus very ^SJ .™™;,;-;;S;a&aJ« tK egg,_«
.profltibte of all tl,e breeds, for reartag ta^tl^^PBTe-*. It attains to ^
■ ^ «;Bh'»»tj»,;<',}|j,^;>,,„,,b ..Wo rea|l,^long Vg, and large
•riiC! ±rt So'«Si ^.S^XUar is Hack or dark
talW^n" Stronger v"'i"' > ^ ^^ sitters, but
. S ™?af™JrS r^- T^uri^rit aV >„ be ,», tender
for this «';"»'«„./ p„,,,^- ,; t^e blaek plumage, will, a greenish
Jail lit^o* Lgebut not t""»'rii,rtsS_
M\
A.
1^
N
75
excellent for the table, and lay a great number of eggs, i^liicii are
remarkable for their size and flavour. They are bad sitters, smd scMom
wish to sit ; but if well fed and kept warm, will lav, every <lay f-.r the
greater part of the year. They are easily injured by cold, and the
chickens are a long time before they attain their complete pl;..ui.ige.
Some varielies of these fowls have double combs, and top knots oi tufts
of feathers under their chins. Others have the plumage grey, .^ps ckltd
or white^ or black with a white spot on the breast.
Some Sfiecimens of the most improved breed of the Spani.-^'i mjv.L^,
Igil recently been imported^ by His Excellency from Great Ih'mnn,
and are superior in size and symmetry of form, to the indivii^u..!, o^"
this variety previously introduced into.ihis Proflnce from the LWittd
States.
' Mr. Downite has some fowls whieh he names iho A/srcrine, Slid nhith
appear to be allied to the Spanish. ■ They are remarkaWe for li.oir o-\-
cellence as layers^ but are, of small size. They very eariy siiivs at
maturity. ' _ - . . -
• The Spi),nish fowls are said, to attain to the weight of from 8 to 1 f: ]hs.
(6) ^^ Shanghai or C^chbi China Fowls.— 'SHiG first L* ^ila
proper nam^ these birds, the true Cochiit China being a smaller ; i,d
more elegan^fchaped fowl. The Shanghai fowls are very large, some-
times weighin^fteen pounds, and clumsy in their form. Their colour
is ginger brcJwnJfcnetiraes with a blackish mark on the breast, fccmo
varieties howevw^ii white or black, and a white variety with feathci ed
legs is tnuch esteemed, yfce flesh of these fowls is very delicate, and the
eggs, which are not larjBre of a pale chocolate colour, ^nd of excel-
lent flavour. Fine spmn^ns^of the white Shanghai or Brahma pouti a
have recently been imported by Mr. Downes.
The Shanghai hen sometimes Aveighs 10 lbs., and the cock as much
as 12 to 14 lbs. The heaps have been known to lay five eggs in two
days. — Dickson.
(7.) The Poland Fomls are elegantly formed birds, with a tufted
,„pre8t, whilejhe^^ m small and in front. There are many varieties
in co^ltiurrsomeofwhich are much esteemed by the curious. The Poland
fowls are remarkably good for the table, and produce very largo finely
flavoured eggs, but they are bad sitters.*
The above are the principal varieties of useful fowls, deserving of
attention on account of their value for the table or as layers. There
are however many other, sorts, as the Lark-crested, the Hamburgh, the
Bantam, the Dwarf, the Runikm, the Frizzled, the Silky, the Negro,
the Russian, and the Barbary, as well as innumerable intermediate
kinds produced by crossing, affbfding abundant scope to the tastes of
fowl-fanciers, and many of them no doubt capable of being profitably
reared.
Pereona who rear pou l try for profi t, will not fin d it d oa ir aK W tn nnn
* Dickton and Moubray, on Poultry.
^JsfS^
' 76
fine themselves to one breed. Crosses betTveen the best imported breeds
and t erst specimens of the ordina.y fowls as well as ^--S tl^« -
no.ie breeds themselves, will often be found more profitable. It .s
Tt Incra lly desirable to attempt crosses between breeds that are very
s^imHar in form and qualifes ; but on the other hand, contnma
b e ' in -nd in ter.ds to degeneracy. Crosses between the bhangha.
unTl)orki»g, and Shanghai and Game, are reputed to have been very
successful.
Ponlin, Yard and Sheds.-'lh^ following facts on this subject are
''V;\Vt.lTcoIsiderable number of fowls are kept, a poultry house,
howeve n 1 and simple it may be, should be devoted to the.r use^
In a firm establishment this is particularly necessary, otherw.se the
vner will, suifer materially, as they will often --^^^^^ ^^l^^^^:
killHl and the c<^cr3 will be laid in all kinds of places. Ihis builUmg,
u hon-^1 w 1 ve^Ulated. should be warm and comlortabl., and so con-
edT^ e oive the sun's rays, during the greater part of the day
Few \niumls suffer more from cold than our domestic fowls. Ihc
Jo It^n" 1 should be easy of access to the poultry, but sufficiently
hi hto'l e out of the reach of vermin, and they should consist of one or
n^^e To ' h'vel ranges. The boxes for laying and sitting should bo
Tnvori^ ami warm apart from each other, and sufficiently numerous,
f/ :.vl CTiTK-ient a yard should bo fenced in, communicating
'ittt^el^T h usfSid - which the whole stock may occasionally
be confined It should contain a stream or pond or troughs oi watejv
Luldtidc. into compartments, so that the dif.erent .orts shoucl
not become iatern>in.^led. At all events if the poultry wander about
I y' dor the bar^n-door or other parts of the pvemises during the
d v^thc r roosting and laying and sitting place should be ««^^'«>^ f >«
and'c d at night, and there Ihey should always bo led. Ihc po It y
vard louldbe dr} ; there should be sheds for refuge in wet weather ;
andsnV chalk and lime rubbish should be strewed m it, m which they
2tytiAi themselves, and f.om which they may obuinjiffl* for the
''tnll'tun'tf a good hen-house may be made by board in. and
«l>inVin the outlide, ceiling the inside with rough boards, and filling
tt pa e w' th eel^grass or tan-bark. It should be in a sunny shei-
terod place with the door and a window on the south side, lo keep
The f-e of the fowls warm in winter, some persons wrap pieces of
carit round the roosting poles. The now breeds of fowls are more
tSr Zn the native ones ; and near towns it might pay to warm
ouses f them by stoves. ' Some persons who do not go to this ex-
nense carry in every morning in frosty weather a box of warm ashes,
fo warm ie ah- of (he hen-house, and enable the fow^^s to dust them-
lfl,:S^r=^^=e laying in winter ; but smokT
77
and all noxious vapours and odours, whether arising from fires or
animala, should bo carefully avoided.
Choice nf Ponltnj. —YonaXi says : —
"As soon as it is determined to have a poultry yard, tho breed or
breeds should be determined on- for some must bo chosen as sitters
and others in order to supply the nests and the table with epfis : great
care shoukl be taken lu the selection of the fowls, for on their heahhi-
ness success will chiefly depend. The signs of health are as evident
and as certain m the feathered biped as in the quadruped. The closs-
uess and smoothness of the feathers^ the brightness of the cve~t"he
cleanness of the nostrils- tho floiidredness of the comb- the soLndness
of the egs-and the shortness of the claws- will be sufficient pledges
of health. The male should bo large of his kind, and bold and active.
Ihe hen should bo gentle and tame, and by no means above tlie middle
8IZ0. A small comb on the hen may bo pardoned, but should not be
chosen. A large comb is a frequent pledge of her unquiotnefis, and
rarely belongs to a good sitter or a careful nurse. Yellow legs are to be
avoiued, for there is a prejudice against them, and not altogether with-
out cause, ihey are often connected with a delicate constitution and
^ with coarse and tasteless flesh. The fowls should be of a middle
age, oetween eighteen months and two years. Lefore that period the
eggs will not have attained their full size, and the youn-r birda will bo
propoitionably small. The first inhabitants of the fowFyard who will
give to It Its future character, should not be bought from a 8lian<rer
but there should l>e a certainty that the hens are good and early layers'
and that they begin to lay again as soon as their brood is disposed of!
Itie bast period for commencing the business of the poultry yard, is the
latter part of winter or beginning of sprin"." ' '
Food of Pou/fnj.— ^ Ucns when laying require access to lime, in
the fornis ot chalk, burned oyster shells, marl, broken plaster, or crushed
eo;g-shell3. ihey also at all times need small stones or sand to aid
the process of digestion."
"Poultry," aiys Dickson, " are fond of all
also eat most sorts of green vegetables, sue
cabbages, both raw and boiled, but this S(wt
' as an adjunct to grain. Most sorts of "aM
of, both raw and cooked. Insects also, a.«i^o,Li.» auu snaiis, mev
search for with avidity ; and some will eat slugs, Vut of these they are
not usually fond, and many fowls will not touch them. It is recom-
mended by some works to teed fowls on refuse corn, but this is quite a
mistake; as though young fowls may be fed on offal, it Ts tho best
economy both for fattening and laying, to give fowls the finest kind of
gram. :bowl3;may be fattened either (1) by having the run of the
J?^^'^'*'J:^ 't/^ oecMiQMLfeeds ; and-in this way the finest aad most.
sorts of grain. They
IS lettuce, spinach and
' 1 should be used only
id they are also fond
orrns and snails, they
dehcate flesh is produced, or (2) by taking them up and confining them
in COOPS for a few weeks before killing : this seldom succeeds well with
fiXaccustomed to liberty, or (3) by accustoming them to confine- ^
ll S T e.rly a<^e, and providing them with a roomy and clean
S ng hTus" ^i"; Vonty of fJod. water and gravel, aud perches for -
those that cioose to%erch, as well as straw for those that prefer lymg
1/ '" i' Wh^erSkSns are put up for fattening, it should be as soon as " '
they havrc.uitfed the fiens, as they are then usually m fine condition
ar^^full of flesh, which they lose as their bones ^evelope and become
- Zn-^er particularly in those fowls which stand high on the leg. In
he cho c^f full siid fowls for feeding, the short-legged and early- ^
' latched always deserve a preference ; tlie best mode of keeping poultry
• isto 1 them have constlnt high keep from the begmning, when to
il „ on y be always ready for thd table with very ittle extra .Uten-
; n, but their flesh will be superior in ju.ciness and ^a^o- to^^ - -
^vhich are fattened from a low and emaciated state. 1 ullcts which
ave been hatched in March, if constantly high fed, wilT lay plentifully .^
■' tCgh the following autumn, and may b^ened for table m- Fe-
^^'"' Ynstead of t^iving ordinary or tail 1:^4^ fattening andbreeding ,^
- ■ ... poultry '' says flowl^ny, '• I have foumH;^ most advantageous-to allow
The heaviest and the best ; thus putting t^e^onfined fowls on a level
• vi h J se fed at the bam yard, where they are sure to pt their share
of the wei-Thtiest and finest grain. This high feedrngshows itself not
only in tht- size and tle.h of the fowls, but in the size, weight and sul^,^
Si a .^idness 0^ their eggs, which in these ya uable particulars w.ll
• ' be ^ound'^far superior to those df fowls fed upon ordinary grain or washy
notatoes- two L-s of the former going farther in domeatic use than
^ fherStl LSr. The water given to fo\vls .l^uld often "be renewed
• ^ ami lept f^sb nnVciean, indeed fowls tiiat have been tljl kept, will
•I' turn with dis!iuslf|imu ordinary food or dirty water.
■ ^ The following B-lmary of the value and. effects of food of different^
Sorts, is selectedmm Dicksou and Moubray;—
Grain of all kinds occupies the first place. Nearly the same mea-
' ^ure of oats, buckwheat or barley, will be found su^cient for a fowl per
day A foui-th part less of wheat will suffice, and still less of Indian,
corn or rye The tastes of fowls, however, difll'r 6omewh<(t, and they,
will ordinarily consume more and thriye better where theyjiaye a chqice
. • ' ' of food. Most fowlg prefer 6oy7«/oTflm to that which V'dry;and^^^
, the case oT Indian corn and barley, there is a^ considerable saymgl^y
* . boiling/th^ foo'd, but this does not ^pear to be the case with othef
'^ . ' ^T;wi (M Pollahl mixetl into a paste with wiker, are godf-food ;
hut fowls require about twice .as much )ig they do of dry gram... ^.-
. Peas and Beans^vG gog d food, and as nutritious as graiy , J^y
_ V areTietter boiM tten raw.
•e Deiier OOUeu mau lan. ' 1 ij 1 „ u
Potatoes are useful, along with grain, but should always b
and given to the fowls warm. ^ y m
'^■.:-^- 79 ,' ■. ■ "
•»- ^ ■ .■
«v ^Wo/^, Turnips, Pm-snips, ^r., when boiled may be given as' an
evening meal ikhen grain has been giren in the morniL i\\ "^
be cut into small pierces and mixed ^ilh b'n or 02™^' '^'^ ""'^
irreen food and kitchen scrap may form a considerable nart of H,n
.'. subsistence of fowls; cmmbs of bread/fragments of pudd L 1 1 '
course about equal to grain : paring und portions^ of green veger
Wes are useful as, a variety, but not %d as a staple arlTe of dtt
Every scrap of meat or fish, and bones ^h pickir.is on tE tilt
much :T\'fl ? r^-*^^' '^"^ ^^" P-^*« their iTyi^V''^^^^
rnt;fS;''' '' g>ven in.la^e quantity render^ ttm Wo^faUo'
: Laying ami Hatching.-- There seem to ^ naturally tTto periods '
,- of the year f hen fowls lay- early in spring, Tnd after;,^n]s in sTm-
„ ^.^r; indicatmg that fowls, if left to themselves, would, kVseverd
wdd b.n^ produce two broods in a year, in yarmer climates youn'
fhe nl?"'-' ^ n "'T"^ ^'S''^ *^ ^^y '" *'^^"-T, but cue ' Ta |s
he process m colder climates, and the knowledge ot' his fact has been
aken advantage of to ^anticipate the natural p^ripd. ?ouie he s w H
r'%Ttdf o? '"^'^ ^-^y^-some every oth?r.iV/and othe!" vl y
A .1 ^ ''K^'^.'' '^""''^"^ varieties, as well as of t^.e Cochin Chin^
, ;;t|',1,T^r '-"^^^^ ^^^ *^^y ^-- ^^- l<"Own to ^ay thi"e e^g:
':f i'e #^s^,oug|;f to U| taken from the nest every aftfeloon when no
more can^e^pectecTtoi^ laid; for ifleftin the nest, tKeat Jthe
"S^hiT *^"^ "'^* *^='y>' ^'"^ ^^"'^ to%orrnpt them '' ^
of srt.«flS&S^ of hens contiuHes, with few interruptions, till the end '
f fL - J5!ft%nfl«nt nfftrimont is require*! for the .^rowth ol' n.^w
feah^rs and «ie cold weather which succeeds prolongs" Wspeld of
rest iach successive yerfr the period of moulting islat r a ^ ote
quently the ,^lder the hen is th6 FuW in .pring does she b^ to lay ''*
. Ihepeijod of commencing to lay," says Youatt. '• maTbe hastened
hy aport.oa.oLt«.kwheat;hemp^eed or 'barley given Jhl the tsual
{Tt2l 1^'f ^'T''^ ^r^ accon,p]ished^ ^11 stimulating food i
to be reyiovcd ; fo. a laying hen must not be too jibeirdiy- fed Too
pWul as well as 00 little food will almost ■,qudly lesson "[hoLmb^r
'."fte»(^(^fncacioiS way "according b Dickson, '' of nroiHotincr
S'nlvs^r^-^^^^^^^ ^^ ^"^^ that a'severeZTttl^
suddenly std^ the la3y^g of even tke most prolific he^s.- .AuOtker mode
•^^as pullets commoncejayingj)eforo older hens, and do, J. ri^ult the
1^ ^^. begin to layabout Chri.Hma.; in fact, by attending tS(*
'^
^t:
■ ♦!,..* ' • Tk -^i. .fe . '" '"J "" I"" yw- ^VMiiend in-
Lihaljv ji ci gh bou r a t l ^ sin t 4 »> ti-w Hy4itttf ir^Pp a of ^ffc| |nq »
'^'^ ,
r m
*?
'^ .
1.
I
-i^fc
4 ■. -»i
^^J
'^
r
r
^4
80 H
the ensuing winter . ,• .jong in reference to sitting hens :--
Youatt gives tne f^^^'^^^^'^S^f Jf'T^ ^f the hens will show a dis-
': ^'^^^^^^'V'S'eS^lS Sf Spared, coniposea internally
position to sit. iresU nets sno I ^.^ ^^ .^,^^ level with the
li short and so t ."^^^^"f "^^ Jjee or four inches "ft-om the ground, '
ground, or, which is better, about three or lo .^^^^^_
Ind the ascent to them very gradual ^^e ^«" ^^'^^^^^^ ,, ^e placed
ded to sit .hould be fj',«f-l'^,l^^.«^ f ,f their be ng laid nvarked'upon
under the hens ^^'-^ have tl^ da f t^-- ^^^ ^ « ^^^^ ^
them: and, varying with the size «^ "^ "*^ . , • ^ oj. ^^-o of each
sence of .he hou to see whether '^"^.f ^^^^^^^^^^^ ,i,ould he remo- -
they may not bo too long absent liom their cuar^e.
indune them to leave it ^^y 'Y"^"^^^';; : . , .-..„ t|,e whole of the incu-
.. rvo intcvlevenco f ^^^^ .^^ ^^^^ J^^t^^^'^^ou^^^^ be able to free
bation, unless at the close ^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ inside of the egg;
himself from the S^f '"«"\^"^^t"'',Sn a Nnv as they are hatched, for
nor should any of the f "f^^^^J^^jf ^e^ Sh slLld be left ciuite
., ntTp^prietor may n. wi^ - ^^ ^ ^^^^f ^To^ '
running about at t^^ie same ime^ 1 tl e » -^ ^^^.^^^^^^^ j,^^. ^^.^^,
two diirerencc in their age, ^»« ^*^7°'f Vf^.fmother and give her the
Tl"^^;':H;t^^reStUn^^ at^ distance
They^'ai '"- o-^chucWing in the course of a day or two, and begin
and ptl.er food. Every one who has muuh to ^« ^^ J|^i,f,kens to
have a brooa:basket, m which he can ^"^y^^^J^J'^.'^^jHriU allow the
different parts of the yard or ^'^I'^J^l^^^''^^^ the larv^,
chickens to go out, ahd they ^^-^^ P^»\"^«^^^^^^ S crT ^Vheil o.g
insects, and other r;^^;^;^^^^ IZe ^reL.r partofthe
, space- IS cleared, the basktit may ^^ «'«J« ' ^ J--^^ g^ffevcd to run
fiVld is gone over. A^^^, "^'rAfv^^l-uSl.l'l^d^^ ^he will
Md -'-IS^i^l!!!^^.^",'. . ."..UnUh w ill be improNT (Uy - ^=
y
^
/
*..
cold and
early in
hens : —
)\v a dis-
iternally
with the
) ground,
re inten-
be placed
icd upon
a proper
of each
will cover
fourteen.
sional ab-
If there
be remo- - ^
hens, that
alone will
fthc incu-
ile to free
: the egg ;
atclied, for
B left quite
little ones
Df chickena -
n*a day or
1 her ohick-
^ive her the
a distance,
>, and begin
ts boiled for
ilod egg or
ty of insects
ultry should
!• chickens to
/ill allow the
i tlio larvje,
^Vheli o'lQ
sr part of the
iffeved to run
ia. _She^,y'iU
)it of scratch^
ost/'
81
" For chickens that are intended to be fattened, the grain, during the
first week or perhaps longer, should be 's'teeped in water or boiled for a
few minutes. The hot liquor may be' thickened with oat or barley
meal to a firm or almost solid state. Pea meal or boiUd potatoes, given
warm, and light corn, or alu ost any focd of this kind which is most
convenient to the owner, and which does not excite purging, may be
substituted. In the courfo of ten or twelve weeks the chickens will
have become sufficiently grown to send to market."
The following practical directions for breeding fowls, are extracted
from Bennett's poultry book : —
"When the object in view is to perpetuate distinct varieties of uncon- '
taminated blood, the fiist requisite is to procure fowls kjwvh to be of
pure blood, and posjessiiii/ all the ncceS&ary characteristics of their
kind. Labour is lost unless the fowl selected is a perfect specimen of
his variel^ for whatever imperfection exists is likely to be perpetuated
m the progeny. Eeg.ird should be had to plumage, to size, and to form,
in making a selection eitlier of a co(;k or of a pullet, and those are pre-
ferable which are hatched earliest in the year. The age of the fowls ia
a matter of considerable importance : and though it is tiue that a fowl
will lay the grea'est number of eggs in her first year, yet it is believed
that the chickens wliich are hatched from the second year's eg^s are
more vigorous and healthy. • Old hens are preferred to pullets°g ne-
rally as sitters, on account of their more sedate and msitronly chariio-
ter. .A young cock, though more active in his earliest days." and 'likely
to bestow Ids attentions on the hens with less reserve, is not, however,
best for use in keeping a breed. The eggs impregnated by lym after ■
his first year are likely to produce the strongest chickens. It is an
error tq^suppose t^at his fro-creatJA-e power is decayed or vitiated, as ig
often represented, after three or four years. On the cpn^rary, a
healthy, vigorous cock, if not allowed to walk with too n\any liens, may
be valuable and useful in the poultry yard for a longer time. " ¥
An error is often committed by giving too man^ hens to onp cock,
and the result is a weak and otherwise deteriorated piogeny. Not more
ihanjrrtr^is should ever be "nllowed to associate with a single cock
wher^ the Aaality of a breed is a matter of interest. Three would be
the better lihiit of rcstrictidn, but five is the fuithest limit which can be
safely assigned."
" Mo6t° persons in obtaining a single vigorous crtck and hen of a tftsi-
rable variety, find their anticipations more than realised in the produc-
tion of.a fine-progeny. The plumage is brilliant, and the chicken»,are
of increased size and remarkably strong andNieoltby. This happy state
of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small nuipfeer
of hens, go soon, however, as his harem is enlarged, difiereut efRjcta
arc manifested, and a deterioiation in the stock is clearly observable.
This isjio^ to be attr ibuted to close breeding, but to the increased dial
nproportioh offeinales to the 'KaTe." f^:^-^^^^—--^^--^^^
- 11' .
\
If
M
V ■
V82
u 2/ The Turkey.
/ I
"There are various Weeds of turkeys, the best and« most hardy of
which is the black Jforfolk. The varieties of copper colours never
attain to the size of the Norfolks. The Avhitc turkeys have the charac-
ter, and truly so, of not being sufficiently hwrdy."
" As soon a^s the laying season commences, the males may, with ad-
vantage, J;»e separated frun tlie females. The hen ^vill perhaps endea-
r vonr t,t>'>iuild her nest in some inconvenient place, and with improper
^ '' materials ; it will therefore be proper to watch her, and to remedy this.
Sh/wiH generally lay more eges than she can' cover. About a dozen
is/proper number for her. Kach turkey heri ought to rear at lea^t
^ at the first hatching and about half a dozen at £vcry subsequent
/time The period of incubation is twenty-eight days, or sometimes one
or two more. Until she has hatched her young ones, she is a gccK
mother, and will half starve herself on her nest, therefore she should
always luivc food, water and saud, within her reach."
" The young birds are very tender, and should be left under the caje
of the mother until the whole hatching is completed. During the first
month thev recjuiie much nursing, and should be protected from the 111-
cleroencv of the weather. Their food should be nutritious and varied :
oat anffbarley meal, moistened and beaten into a mass, bread sopped 111
water, well-boiled eggs, malt, meal, & c. These articles should be alter-
nated or mi.xed togeUier ; the principle is, thiit there should be ^ fre-
quent chanjie of food. After the first three weeks the food may be a
little more "stimulating, and bruised pepper.c6rhs ^should be added, or
caraway seeds. The first should be given in preference, and the two
will, for general purposes, supersede every .other kind of spicy iood.
'('he state of the brood should be often inspected, and if any of 'the
youn>' ones are drooping, or refuse to feed, or .are pen-feathered, a few
. additfonal peppercorns may be added, ^ith pills composed of garhc.and
rice, which must be forced upon them. ;-^ft;all bits of lean meat may ako
' be thrown to ili(?ni. Tliey may have free-access to water, but the food
thut is given to itiem should be beaten together into as solid a forjn as
possible " ■, • 1 ■ ' u -L
When two or three weelw are passed, if the brood. is doing well, the
' food f- which they wili '-e afterwards kept may be given in small quan-
" title J3 buckwheat and other kinds of grain and vegetables, etc, the
mixed meals being still continued The^ may now wander farther fron)
th-*ir ooopsf by degrees extending their range until they have become
mdepenrfent of ilio hen. They wii-. *en ^rhaps be rarely 8«en at
houi«, oA<*'pi poihapg to receive theiy ifeat*« fe^ »* urorMifig ftbd
everiiiifii *' '
' " " When the bivd is nearly full grown, there will then be little trouble
in .^ettin'T him into goo'd condition, by the use of plain and wholesome
"j lliL lluuh \vill thcr phisonn th o bnst fi ^ tVQur , If, <hgre. i ' < .«
iuw ; uS f.
^
- noceaaity for greater baste, (f if it is wished to aowu^ulate mort fat, '
.. vr.
-" s- ..
.^'■■^^-\ H
■«&'.nj '?\; .*
88
\
. the spices already referred to may be given in the food, witli the occa-
sional addition of an onion, of which the bird seems to be naturally fond.
If there is a decided objection to anything as a frequent or common food
it is to milk, which has a strange tendency to become quickly sour in
. the pouch of the turkey/'
" Marrow-fat j^as, and most sorts of pulse, are also said to be inju-
rious to the turkey.',' , ,
'• Tlic turkey 'prefers dry soils, and high and airy roosting places."
" The eggs ought to be taken from the nest every morning as soon
as, laid, and kept in a basket in a cool, dry place, till the hen leaves off
laying, when none of them will be too old to set fur hatching. When
turkey hens have been left to themselves during laying, and have chosen
a nest at a small distance fiom the house, there is hardly anything to
be done, forthby will leave it with difficulty, and they generally haA
their brood safely, and the young ones are the stronger for it." ■
" 'KJie timitlity of turkey hens when .sitting, makes it indispensable
that no one approach them, except the person who usually gives them
meat dnd drink, Nothing thwarts and disturbs the hens more 'than to
meddle with their lialf-hatched eggs."
" The hot sum yind the rain are equally injurious to young turkey
chiclts. They may however be exposed to the moderate warmtlwof the -
sunlfor a short time each day. They should not be handled and hand-
fed when v«ry- young, but are better left to the care of their mother
until they naturally begin to peck."
« " IviO food makes the flesh of young turkeys more white and delicate
than kitchen stuft'." *-
*-
=^ .^
' > • - 3. The Duck.
. There are several varieties of the tame Puck. The dark coloured
.-'RouertDuck is mosfinreqireat. The EnghsK or Aylesbury white is
. large, butinferior in flavour. It is usual to have one male to every
four or five females, ^ey should, be cafefullj;; selected',, with regard to
their bein^ prolific, attemt^ato their yoiing little addicted to wandering,
hittening kindly, and their flestl being-of good flavour. Different breeds,
should not bj. mixed together. , "
" Some littetition should be paid to their nest8,-for they are apt to bo
careless in the beginning "of theii- laying. The eggs should be regularly
collected and marked with the- day on which tho^wko dropped. When
there is more than one_duck anxious to sit, the eggs should be ^elected
according to the time' when they were produced. ' A brood duck will
generally manage crbout a dozen eggs.. TJiey should always have'.food
and water near them, that they may not be taken away too far, 6r ls«pt
too Jong' from their nests."
' " Xhs ducklings should remain with the mother a few days «r a wepk,
bqing kept on neady the same fo6d as the voubg chicken^, within plenty
N
* Extraded prinolpHlly Irom Yountt and Diokioo,
k
J^, -'
1(1
84
of wffier in shallow mns ^e troughs. In a few days the coop under
which the mother is coufiomi, may be moved to a sheltered suhny spot,
wner? there is plenty or g-aas ; and shifted every day. In the course
of a ajnnij^ht tte dnekiinirs may be permitted to go with the mother to
.Jk |)0iMi^ but the dai^ should be fine and the weather warm, and they
8honJ*1)e-8affer«l m remain out only a little while at first, lest thoy
"'— ■ • be craraned w scoured."'.
e practic. of raising aucks undeNliens, is a cruel and unprofit-
.e. It rai-ely wmes w trood." h
six weeks or two tHemths the owner may think of thrning some
iuckliti^? to profitaoie account. He increases the morning and ,
-r meal jves them more grair or some kind of culinary vegeta-^^f
3 var.-f^ the fo'od continually Thje? is a golden rule, that shouW *
n§|gr be forgotten. He rai.xes up zne meal or grain with aay waste
ftWKiai iluid. The ducklings are thus kept in astate of unnat'ural fat-
ness. Tlii.s is dangerous, but it is necessary, for'otherwise they would
not attnm the condition that is indispensable'to their sale, or the peculiar
flavour in which the epicure delights '
'■ The fattening Of the full-grow::: duck is another business. He is
taken from the corn-field and the po-jd. He i.s confined in a somewhat
darkened place. His food is placed immediately before him, and under
the combiu^g influence of these processes he rapidly gets fat."
4. The Goose.
" A mixture of different breeds k far from unusual or "improper in
the rearing of geese. The large white gander and dark grey goose will
bu it best An important object with the brooder of geese, is to have if
possi'ulo two broods in one season. In order to eflcct thisi, he feeds his
breeding stock well towards the close of the winter months, and par-
ticularly as the laying season approaches, lie will know when that is
at hand, by tlie goose beginning to carry straw in her mouth. He
must jtmnediatoly provide her with a ne.st in the hatcbiiig house or some
other convenient place, and she will then begin to lav her eggs. Ten
or twelvo cg^js will be as much as she can manage to cover%nd the
rest f^hould bi: removed. Her time of incubation is thirty days, during
which she should be fed chiefly on oats, and a little boiled potato rubbed
fine given to her every three or four days."
" The goslings should remain with the goose, the entrance of vermin
of every kind being prevented, and-should be supplied with the kind of
food rdcommended for the duckling.-} and other young fowls. Fresh
water, sand and a clod of grass, or turf, are among the indispensable
things. Having become a littlo strong and not'so liable to be attacked
with ommp. etc., whicii will be the case in a week or less ; they may
bo turned with the goose into a plot of short grass. This may be conv
tinued until they are atrong enough to he turned out with the other
^ geese."
e coop under
1 siiftny spot,
1 the course
bo mother to
rm, and they
•st, lest thoy
md unprofit-
iirning some
morning and _
nary vegeta- '
;. tliatshOuW
[h any waste
[inat'tiral fat-
! they would
the peculiar
less. He is
a somewhat
1, and under
t,"
improper m
y goose will
is to have if
be feeds his
bs, and par-
vhen that is
nouth. He
use or some
eggs. Ten
ier, and the
ays, during
)tato rubbett
3 of vermin
the kind of
tIs. Fresh
^dispensable
bo attacked
; they may
nay ht con-
ik tile Other :^
t-
. 85 .
qwed, apd li,e same week or fortnt' So^^ r T"'" '^^ ^"^^ is re-
^ sent to ,narket. L>o,led jn.tZ'^^^V'''^'''^ ^'^''' '^'^ «re
fatten geese into fair condition '' ' ^"'" V^™, will tend to
4 hke to swim in water." ^ • ^^''*'^' "'^ hoVever much they may
harass .to 1„..,„ ,,„,J turkcvsT "^f V^lin-'^o.om, and will vcrjr much
"Grass, tl;e refuse nf vorrat- m "
grain, with tberangoors::Cb;jtS:rir!.n^ff '^, ^^^^ -^
of keepnig geese m this Wr- lu^T ' ^"''""^^ ''^'^'M^ "^eans
regular and abundant food hM^i^ f.:-^^^^^nu>n to fatteiiing them by
quality and enable them toloS-- (t' '^f '-'^'^'^ T'^^ '^P'-vo their N
ho«-ever that gee.^ of goonSli ' .^"'' ^''f ^' T^' ^^ a<I'mUed
m the markets and ^Vgricult u-alExhi 'i "," '^'•^\^'"S' '"^^^- '^^^"^^"^
eupenor specimens ofti^ other k^dsoS "''"'^' ^^"'^ ^^«
Jl^-nial. I have seen it in a' ^ . ^ttTTn /r''"" ^^"'^'^^^^^■^■^^'^^l
Downes, of Halin.x, and other persons ntl. ? ?"''''''"" "^■^^^''•- ^^•
between it and the common ..^e ' t^fr^'^ = "'"^ 'tlso crosses
elegance of form and in the mr,!>. ^i v , V'"'"'""'' S'^"^^'^ l>'^ti' in
the comnion and wild gooJteS^, l?n '^''' ^^"^ !^-«- ^^^-eerv
^t will not answer for h,xodm/n om ""'"'^^ ' ''"* ^''^'"o a muie
Nothing has
5oen said i
"^^"xr f;>^^s, with the ve^^'ZS:^^"^' ''^'^' '^'•'^•^''«« «^«-'»-
n>ent of the liver, etc. u' leS^tS;"' "r"'"!"''' ^'^'"^^^' ^^''-'•'^e-
do more harm than go(jd; and m, V,^! f"^ conducte , this practice may
. the table, as well ai'mot whole on'I T '•^' •" '^'' '^^'^' '''^'^'^^ou for
and fatness, produced by abumhn ^i.^^i" V '" S'^^'^ ^^^'^Ithy i;««h
derate air and exercise.-^ In Is Pr^^^^^^^^^^ 'eed'ng accompanied t^ ,no-
below this condition. ™''"'® P*^"^'^/ ^s too frequently far'
APPENDIX TO POULTIIY.
=f^
warm as possible m winter. It should
/
./"
fv
#
fr
vu It is better to have no ,
floor, as tbis barbou s r^ts b ^^.^^ ^,^^ g^^^^^^Soy ^ee or ticks
streW with so^"<^^;\\«^' ^^^ out ; thi. tends ;« f^^f ,pose should
.veil ^vhitewashc im^^^^^^^ ^^ "^^^ ^ ^I'^lv'^ boird oSrer them to
Hens prefer » d.^ j''7or agamst the ^.^ ^^^^
be traced m the.b^ ^ ^^^^ ^ ^. ^^ ^^,ge a
nreveiit the fowls ^rom u» j o ^ theVemiscs, „iv^ ^^ o^d
l^'^aethefowl^bave-^^^^^^^^
yard as you can. /\f y s ,^^ ^^^^.id ha e access J^^^j^^^^^
Le, gravel and dean^ ^^-^^^^ c«-^.';\;;^ Slenty of worms
k insects. Confine the t> • .,,iev and oats, with ?ras8
U the kitchen Joor, ™<' * , ,iek out *; b^-^- ,„ b„ed-
" Cltiivx »/&(«*, J J" ^t'tenJeJ to,1 o" ""' '^ , ^at have
fowls .0 ^"'.f'Si JSat le«t ^ » ^ZVlg he v,mter
sr C£" - eY.rt£ri-» »..« »o. ot .
donotlaysowell. ^ B^. ^j^i^te^^ ^. „„rf
the eg^B to hatch st^on j ^^ t'. fTSere you wish to keep
«' KJrtt^s »/>^"'"" '{,,;,„ best kind of ^owl, ^vnere y ^ ^^^
but one tod^Wey ^ M.grom, tl-o P»J'™ ^ \„e tege W
leared, ^";«"';„ iJ ,„ 12 to. ' , ,:ttot in utility or beauty by
'"'?*;;: tf"4««" ■' t '"r 'otb anVwattle.; however «
-*^-^ xc'rn\£'«™-rtbey*o^t^;!«,t%"vS;3,
■.^ 'V-
have no /
reek and * '
bo\il(i be
or ticks,
se sljiould
r them to
as large a
,ell8 or old
•yatth to
sufficiently
of worms.
\ broad of
y freeing it
:en3 to run
1, -with gt-ass
in addition,
rts, vfitU oc- \
at ba3 been
rdS^nd meal
ifine* the hen
. I?
id healthiest
ik that bveed-
)xvl9 that bave
ig the winter,
e best to breed
ra old, k tbey
•nsure most ot
""he Grey and
ou wish to keep
cellent stock for
gh five pounds
y have large and
ridge; the pure
oung are easily
Capons of this
ility or beauty by
lies, however, are
)e kept in in very
. they never want
other Uena for that
87
tevtnted2v WIl'^ ' ^'^^^ '"^^ ' '^''^ ^^^1"^*'^ ^'«h ^ sit, but
s?irlinthC ^'''"'"'"'''"^^"S; they do.not appear to grov.
n?nf„f A ^^V^™'^^^ as in more southern latitudes, though thev are
qu.te hardy; the flesh is coarse, and %ey.want depth of breast ^^the^
make, however, a good cross with aln.ost any othe? kind of fowl IZ
'' r/r^^^^^^^^^^ '^"^"'^'^^P^' [--S- ^gSS, and finer flesh.' '"'
ed^ed iithhtl f ?>. 'aV' ^'^'^' ^^''' ''^''''y^ ^vithwings and tail
thf'oflhl S i^h )""f '^u'"""*^ short tails ; the form\esembIes
' deceived fo-^JivV S'-V^'^ '^ ^'^'^^y ^ ^^"^^- I l^ve jus
ZZ IZ ? ''r^<^d,'and do rot know much about their qualities
^ yet , they are at present the top of the fowl fancy in En-^land Xre
their eggs have been sold for four guineas a dozen.'' " ' '
with h\Zv t'\ '^/•^:'/^«^'"'ddle sized fowl, with white body spotted
, with black, which give, them a very pretty appearance • thev are Jood
iS' ""trt' ^'Ti '' ''' = ^^^-y ^^'^^ ^^' ^^■'""te we'll T Lad stme
L. ^ nrf n 'f'^T^ 'u'' ^'•"•^ ^••-''T early in t>.fa]l. Tl e BoUon Ue^s
' tn hS??;, ' ^r^' where eggs are tie object in view; bi^t if you wii
" '" ^'^ them they must he hatched urde^ other hens." ^
r/ic Lroldm Hambnrirh h a very hai.dsome variety the cocks of
a bright yellowish red and the^hens yellow with black ma ks fhey are
" p;^^' ii^'"''T '^ "" ^'\^^ ^'""^''^ I ^^^i^'^d from the captain of a
Plbss an ship^ylio obtamed them from Algeirs. They are WacL ev
bmaller , they have large drooping combs, and gills 1 have foundfes
tTtT^^lf'"'''^' J'^^" ^"y^^^^'-; they =ue h,rdy, grrSidt'
lay welUnd the eggs ^re large for |t^. size of the birds Theva^e "
^ vBl^ end^^ac ,ve, and seldom wish to L I was informed that when on
StaliS''"'""' '' '-' ^^°^^""^.'^' ^ ^-^ evidencHf i^:,
t
se bruedg are small
n^r dorpn ^Tr\ vv ^'^^\^i^d (^hmese iSilk. Eantam, at 25s;
Si T 'i -^'^ I'heasant, at, 12s. 6d. per dozen. The egi will be
.ell packed inWs, suitable for conveyance to any.part SI pro! /'
ffS ^l'^ ^^?^^^'"«/ V applying to. Messrs. /]nV ^*^-P'° ^
UaJifax. J his will afford^ good opportunity to persons ^
tioducingany of these breeda ipto Peaces wbferatbV y- are^notl
\
V
^
7^.
iH
«WP^
88
VH GENERAL HINTS ON HUSBANDRY,
^
1. Ploughing.
•al fertility of a soil, ami the
bestowed by the farmer, js
action
the
manuring
most ii:
^•hich it
tunt ele-
The thorough stitrinj
■ of the
Next to the ^atuv
receives, the tril|ge b ,.vorjiv. The morougu n^.-i.-o - ;—
ment in the l'ffl'^^^^/"^{.jS., deserves far more attent.on
ground by ''^4 1>1-'S -f^^^f, f, f''"Ke following remarks on these
than it has received in tins ^'«^ ^ j j ^^^^.^ ; _
subjects are extracted'from Sei^^i^^art.^^^^ should .attend to m
Avhen all the Py^^^," J ;; ^ ! ,Ch irons in a proper state ot„
executing their -"vk, in uvm^ L^J. .^^ ^^.^^ ^^ ploughing t^ be
repair, in temp:;rrng ^'f ■"/,','':" °„„,^ ;,, ploughing the land in a
exUted, in gu.hng ^'''y^'^^^^^rirJor^ that so few
methodical way, are ^"^^Vg^,,^^;^' Good ploughing requires
ploughmen become I'mmtV^^^^ ^^.t young ploughmen po.se'i»3.
greater powers -ot <^JW| \ ^^^^.^ ^.^^^^ ^^ txercise, more patiend^
greater judgment *WKj J familiarised with all these particukij
than mo^t ^^dW H---t31^W^^^S ^,^p„^ ^11 to the best ai
antl greater .kill than f^2.TT^\^ 'r..i ^^'^^ to young men becom-
vantage lUU w.nt o. ^^ / ' •"' ^ m)t"Ioquire the it ^^hen eompara-
i„g good Plo"? '™^"-,,^^ ;.VaoC n an advanced period of life It >s
lively young, tliey J^I^^'-^-^^.i^.l^some ploughmen bunglers all t^^^
^vant of attention at hrst. f "^ ^4'^'^"^- J^^e .Attainments. The latter
days, and the great ^Vl''- 7 -J^ ' .^™;;^,,,,^ the ir.jurious eftects
class no doubt is P'-^f^'^ , .^^ '"'Jt^i'e eflbcts of mediocre compared
of bad ploughing are "^^^^/..^'^^J/j^easily ascertained, must, also be
with first rate ploughing, though ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ . ^,^„, tbe
considerable. ' U is ^^^ ; ^«^^\; ^^^^ ^^^^ ^j,, ,,,,i, than those m-
horses of a good plov.gm la u ter e , s _ ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^.^^^ ^j^j^^,.
trusted to an av.kwrad and ''■^'";' ^ ^^^^'^^^ ^ijied by a bad workman,
etice will be ^^-^/^ ^'^ ^ J^^ t S^ho^; this ^peratio. has been
^hen con,pnrcd witn an^ Ctruth is ho young man desi.ous of bemg
judiciously performed. {'^^Jj"^^,:^ 'j^ i. "a.y by an experienced
^ «^^^"f^o:d,ou,im^^U.m^r^^ .
tendency in the plough to go ^^.^ '3 .^^i.e , ^r cftuse K'ss or more
. ormak/toowido or ^oo nan^v^ r - ^^^
draught to the ho,-£e., o .s or ^^'^ ^^ ^^.^^ also temper
reciuires to^*^ l'^^™.^l^'Jff ^^ m himselLl-ve plenty of lej-
-" them so as .^^^^^^ Jf^f'^^t.^-^ '^'^^ ^^^'^ ^" '' '"'^'"^^^^
sure to guide the bcjrscs an^nt,
iti
89,
«&' fk 'T f " '"°"' »P"8l" position than they shouHb^
*ap yield foMiderably to the praau™ „7the fn„^^ Tl ^S °""'
Bbce s^iould be un form with those of the rest of tfe ridge "
f.tn ^^^^^^^f ™«^« of ploughing the land is subjected to vou should
take care,, when ploughed W winter furrow that the furrow^-sLe is of
the requisite depth, whethcir of^five inches on the oldest S or sev.n
inches m the former and ten m Vhe latter ; but as plou^^hmen incline to
hold a shdlow and broad furrow, to make the labW Tal er to Ee '
SirtfonafrrV'^ ground quicker, there is no likeSV he"
rti Zr r^'"^- .^ ^"rrow-slice in red land should never
be less than nine inches m breadth aiid six inches in depth in the
lighter SOI 3 On clay soil that has lain long in grass, nine inches in
ate^ buIVnt?." '?^'/^ '' large>°furr'ow-siice" maj :
Obtained , but on lighter soil with younger grass one of ten inches bv
SIX and even seven is easily turned oveiT" Departure from the ruL of
ty?£? ;"^ "^sadmissableonly.in those lands where a naturally
with ox destf il' '"t "'• f '^ff' ^"^^^^' ''^y P°«^ '-^ impregnated
the rS nf 1- . lo plough deep at once in such soils might run
BnJtt^ K?*!'^ *^A' l°^»t7 A^'^ntitj of soil naturally J.-.tiJ
Bat ,fr,g to be observed of soils of this kind, that the subsoil has ahra^^
a tendency to;,a«; and if .uch does exiat/deep ploughLg Se' n ?he
I
h
ill
^ /
, r
.^
Y
^
i^.
IMAGE EVALUATION
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Corporation
23 WIST MAIN STRIIT
WIBSTIR,N.Y. 14SM
(716)S72-4S03 9
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90
form of subsoU ploughing, will destroy the pan the ^equont^^^;; f^
sterility in soils, by breaking it up and exposing it to the air, a way
matches, in which, here as in Britain, neat and uniform, rather than
Anon and thorough ploushin";, are often preferred.
•^'.^The primary object^ of The institution of^l^loughing matches must
have been to ^oduce the best examples of ploughmanship and by th«
LTmus^eu^iderstoodnotonly thatwhichshall..^^^^^^^ ,
but that which is thoroughly and properly done. To Jj f/^^' ;7^
.wMra should be <-iven to the plough that produces not only a proper sur
foc^tSbut ex^^^^^ alonglith'that the power to cut and turn ver Ae
\rrpnte^t miantitv of soil in the most approved manner. Let u coae
STuSrinsLted to guide the >f ^..^^^fffi r t^^^^^^
delivering their awards. Let these rules direct the land ? j>« "^« •
rouX plou.^hed to the bottom of the furrow, as well as satisfactorily
Tthe sight ° When such rules shall be promulgated w. m*y hope to
ee ploTghing-matches exceed their pristine integrity domg good to
everyone concerned in them, and restoring the confidence m them
which is at present on the wane." „v;nV, ia «<» much
Judge Peters strongly insists on deep ploughing, which is as much
neglected in Prince Edward Island as in Nova Scotia, and from a similar
3e^a; desire or necessity to go over a large -f J ^ ^^u're't
with little labour, which is so injuroua to every branch of agriculture in
"'^' TrSper. the soil is the nearer together can plants be made to
erow and th? greater number of them will obtain perfection, and con-
gquentW Z larger will be the crop. A deep soil also suffers less from
drought Ld from moisture than when it is sha,llow ; when a great deal
oS falls the water sinks into a soil loosened by ^eep ploughing such
a 80^1 absorbs a quantity of moisture proportionate to its depth before it
suff 9 any to r^eturn to the surface. This is the reason why garden
™nd which is well tilled with spade labor, never suffers from excess
oThumidity, even when the surface of shallow sods would be drenched
with moi ture. So long as the water does not stand on the surface it
to S: or^o harm to fhe plants. Deep lands retain the "moisture which
tC have absorbed for a considerable time, and commumcato it to the
surface, when that becomes parched and dried up.
Nor is this all, crops of grain grown on deep soil suffer much less
from sudden changes S tem^tu'-e or from drought or from heat ; ^
becaurtheir roots^being ablTto penetrate further, -J «^-g- ^ -f^^
weather less. During very hot weather it is evident that the plants are
much fresher in deep than in shallow soils.
Las ly it !»»« «ve?y where been remarked that grain grown on deep
soils is much less liable to be laid, even when very rank '° gfowth, this
^St^dess owing ^^^^^0^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
rrr^::»isr;^^ »t-^^
H.
91
cause of
, way of
loughing
her tlian
;hes must
d by the
(rell done,
3ular, the
roper sur-
n dver the
jet a code
latchcs in
be tho-
isfactoiily
*y hope to
g good to
e in them
i as much
a a similar
uickly and
iculture in
be made to
1, and con-
ra less from
great deal
[fhing. such
th before it
jvhy garden
rom excess
« drenched
J surface it
isture which
te it to the
T much less
from heat ; (^
inges in the
10 plants'are
wn on deep
growth, this
the depth of
which grsin
growing on shallow soils can never attain, because then the fresh shoots
put forth by plants growing closely together cannot find sufficient nutri-
ment to enable them to retain their full vigor.
But if wa would have a soil attain all these advantages, and perma-
nently possess them, it is requisite that from time to time it should be
ploughed to the very bottom of its vegetable layer, turned over, loosened
and every part submitted to the beneficial action of the atmosphere-
InlL^A '' ^"° 'V'h i^ "T^^ P'*^"S^«»i «^^*1J«^' g^^^rally lose
all those advantages of which we have been speaking. From repeated
treading of the horses' feet while ploughing, a hard cmst, or pan, will be
SrnffT ''^i^u'^'''"^?' ^^ 'P^«'-« «f t^« Plo»gl^'8 action which
tuts off the earth beneath it from all communication with the atmos-
phere, and no root can penetrate it. Thaer says : **
'Experience has convinced mo that it is not necessary that this deep
ploughing should take place every year, but that it should be repeated
once every six or seven years, especially if, during the interval, the
depth ot the ploughings given to it are varied, for nothing contributes
80 materially to form the crust spoken of as repeated ploughings of
equal depth. Land ought, therefore, to be ploughed every seven years
to the bottom of its-layer of vegetable soil, and the intervening plough-
ings may be. more or less superficial and varied in their depth, tccordTng
m, P"''I^3^8 ^or which they are bestowed.' •
There can be no doubt that the shallow ploughing generally adopted
in this island is a most erroneous practice. There may be some cases
where the vegetable soil is very shallow and rests on gravel or sand ■
where the farmer cannot plough deep without injury, but most of the
soils of this island may be ploughed eight or nine inches deep with the
greatest advantage. Take most of the worn out lands of the island and
plough them with a furrow of six honest inches deep, and they will at
once yield a better crop than they have given for the last ten or fift«^'
years, because the soil which would then be brought to the surfaceSaa
not been exhausted. Some will try this experiment and find what I
say correct; but do not imagine because you see this worn out land all
at once give a good crop, that it will continue to do so : its fertihty is
caused by a little fresh earth, from which certain substances necessary
to the growth of plants have not been taken, and it will soon be ex-
hausted If you crop it without manuring, therefore sow it with buck-
wheat and plough It in, and treat the land aa recomtoended in the chap-
ter on green manuring. ^
Two years ago I had an opportunity of testing the advantages of
deep ploughing Afield of about four acres, which had been very
much exhausted, was intended for turnips and carrots ; in cross-plough-
ing 1 directed my ploughman to go nine inches deep, which, as it had
ohly received the ordinary kind of shallow ploughing before, was very
hard work for the horses, and when half the field wka done I found it
necessary togo three inches L'ghter, as the hor ses could not stand it.
-ihe eross-pkragbmgifas east asS wesJ, the driUs^f turnips and carrots
%:■«■ t-'
92
«« nnrtl, and Bouth ■ the pwt ploughed shallow and that ploughed
fLK^l manu ed exacUy Jlike, and the seed sown at the same t.me,
but aS onr^r-alking o4r the'field, could see the great supenonty
of the crop on the deeply ploughed land ; on pulling ^ve estimated the
•oS nf tn?niDS on the deep ploughed land to be about one hundred and
CbusSs K^^^^^^^^^^ eighty bushels per atre over that on
ihe sha low The subsequent wheat crop on the deep ploughed land
Sso mainta ned the superiority. I mention this as an instance of the
^loughi;,g, until you get eight or n>ne inches turned up. Thaer re^.
" aTtle 2'eater number of cases in which it is desirable to plough
the Lnd to^7eater depth than has before been attempted, it is best
^t to add above two inches in depth of virgin earth a a time to he
^^^.eUble soil more than this quantity cannot be properly ameliorated
done if nos2 ^n the summer or early in the autumn, so that the
SV uH eSth may be exposed to the air for the longest p-^
-SrTe The air acts on certain substances m this new earth and fits it
^sustain plants, which in many eases it wou d not do when first turned
un an example of this may be often seen in earth dug from cellars ;
7h;n first t!ken up plants would not grow ^ it, but by l||g spread .
ontho gr»«B lands it absorbs the ga.es f^om the atmos^aid ^
SneraAubstances are prepared by the action of the ^^^ JIP P^^^^^;
and thus the spots on which it is spread become more.jfert le. In the
Bame manner new earth turned up by the plough ^ntf^B mto contact
wTh the atmosphere, and every .particle of it h«°«™^« ^^.f .^ f^..^'*
rtmospheric substances, aod the new earth t\^^^3 mcreasesthe fertdity of
*^ Make' it a rule to plough your lea land fi^e or six inches deep, but
let the deepest ploughing be giVen when the land is intended for turnips
carroror othe?roo&. I would not recommend new earth to be brought
no m Plouc^hing land which has been in turnips or other roots and
^^.iJh is intended for wheat or barley, because the manure which has
bpon aoDlied with the roots will then be turned too deep. I thmk that
by Z turning up new soil when ploughing turnip land for wheat my
yfheat crop has be4n injured, which is easily accounted for. Land from
S turnips or other roots has been removed must be ploughed late
• Tn he fallTd sown with wheat very early in the spring; and the new
i^rth no havin.. been long enough exposed to the air to absorb the
/ases and have° its mineral subsSnces fitted for the plants, checks
Inotftad of assists the growth of the wheat. „ , i
T have no doubt mfnv will say the horses here could not oarrf so
J
plougbed
me time,
iperiority
nated the
idred and
sr that on
;hed land
ce of the
ly one to
should be
jr at each
Thaer re-.
to plough
. it is best
ime to the
meliorated
ught to bfe
so that the
it period of
and fits it
6rst turned
am cellars ;
spread ^
and its
plants.
[e. In the
ato contact
arated with
) fertility of
»3 deep, but
for turnips,
be brought
r roots, and
e which has
I think that
r wheat, my
Land from
loughed late
and the new
;o absorb the
lants, checks
not carry so
y cannot, but
98
'•
" ^'-i/^Kr w ^"JP ^7'' """J ^^'^ ^^'"^ ^'"' *°^ ''"y of 0"r Island nags
will be able for the gradual deepening recommended; and when once
the ground ,s v^ell stirred to eight or nine inches deep it is easy to
plough to that depth afterwards," f j i>j
2. Root Crops.
• The long and severe winters of this province render attention to the
cultivation of turnips, and other roots, imperatively necessary to the
support and fattening, of stock. Without these, except where the far-
mer possesses tracts of productive marsh, he is a mere slave to his
stock, without deriving from it the profit which he ought to receive
With a proper degree of attention to their cultivation on the other
hand hay is economised -working cattle are more easily kept in good
condition-cattle can be fattened in winter, and milch kine can be lent
m a productive state throughout the season ; at the same time attention
to manures is encouraged, and a proper rotation is rendered necessary
by which means the gram and hay crops are also improved. Even in
. Jiritain with its milder winters, we are informed that before the exten-
, swe cultivation' of the turnip was introduced, " it was impossible to-
cultivate light soils successfully, or to devise suitable rotations- for
cropping them with advantage.. It was also a difficult task to support'
live stock through the winter ajpd 9i>ring months; and as for feeding
and fattening cattle and sheep for market during these inclement sea-
y^ sons, the practice was hardly thought of, unless when a full stock of
hay was provided, which only happened iii a very few instances. The
henefits derived from the turnip husbandry arc therefore of great mag- :
nitude. Light soils are now cultivated with profit and facility; abun-
dance of food IS provided for ma^ and beast, and by the soil being clean,
ed with this croj), a bed is prepared for grass seeds, wherein they flou-
rish with gre»ter vigor than after any bther preparation ' '
Our best colonial authority on the turnip, is Judge Peters whose
account of Its culture is therefore ir^erted entire in this placg, though
much of It has already been given in the " Contributions'' :—
_ Culture of the Turnip.
" Buel says : —
'Assuming the average product of hay at a ton to a ton and a half
(which IS much more than is generally obtained in this Island,^ and of
i""^ .Vif"'? Q*"^ T ^^ol'^^x ^""J^"'' P''" '^^^O' ^°^ «"«^^i°P « bushel
and a half of Swedes (901bs.) to be equivalent for farm stock to SOlbs.
of hay, an aero of Swedes wiU^o as far in the economy of feeding as
nearly three acres of meadow. The three acres of grass are found to
f !v!, S onmi?'^^^^ r • *° '^' ^""^ ^""'^^ ^'^•'« '^' «°« »«^« «f Swede^
gives 86,0001bs., or four times as much as the three acres of grass
94
aa the principal foc^/or .inuring theu-^
Ve shall find Agricultural 'XTStld in autuln with beef at two-
shall continue to see our mrkete glutted m aut ^^^^ ^.^
pence a pound, because for ^^nt ^^t^^^P^'J^^J condition ; and we
beast then instead of keeping it ^^^^^^^^^^ deteriorating in cha-
shall find the progeny of our fine ^flu Vro^rties of their ancestors,
racter, instead of maintaining the X^Jj^'^^^^^ ^vhich closes
Turnips are generaUy ««^^^jj^.^^^^^^^ it will in gene-
one counie and commences anotJ>er , ^J^J^ J°'; „„ w. Qn new-
ral be found convenient to sow ^^^^^^^f ^^^XHops may be raised
burntlands there arc few ^««^ '^f ,?f Sand hoeing it in ; but
with little labour, by merely 8cattJ""S t^e seed an ^ ^^.^^^
with this exception, they shou d ;Jj'»y^^ ^^^^^^ Z^ ^^, acre broad ^
eyatem three ^cres can be cultivated w.tU^^^ ^^U and deeply ploughed
cLt. The land intended f ;^^\«^°^"^Ji„^ Tun harrowed and rolled
in autum, and cross V^^ngM^n he jrmg iU ^^^, .^
to break the lumps. I^.J^^^'l^^^^^^^^^^
ed, or the tumip crop will be a fgure or c^t^m^^^ ^^P^ ^^^
would have cleaned, the Jj^^ P!*?!^^^ ^^^^^^^^ for ordinary culture, as
drills : thirty inches apart is ^^^ be^V,^^'*" ^ work freely between the
it gives room for the plough and hor^ejioe to worR ^ y^^^
drills without Jnjuring tho_plants. it * P"^^^; K,^ y,„t ^w will be
twenty-seven inches will g^^ /i^^c^nv S^^^ g'--"^'
more troublesome W clean ; and fj" S«^;'^^'^,„i,„t distance When
will find thirty ^ches between the mos^ c«je ^^^^^^ ^, ^^ ,^
the drills are opened then ^^'^^ J^ J^^' ™*\e ^^^ spread in the
and make it in small piles, so that * «^; f « ^^^^^ -J ^he three drills
drills ; by making the piles so that they ** J^ JF .^^ ^^^^^ -^
in which'the horse waks ^^^*«. ^f f^l'X^^^ m which
more evenly, and ^^^ V'^a ^.^ t L Znure is spread in the drills,
I often see it deposited As f^^^^ "f J^^,^^^^^^^^^^ plough, which
and before the sun c^ dry >*' f f ^le o'eT then run a light
will cover the manure and make a udgelet «;«y^' ^ ^^ ^„ ^he top,
roller length ways along the ^nUs, so as ^ flaU^^ t ^ .^ ^^^^^^ ^^
and drill in the seed at «««« 5 . M^ ^^^ P°S is then fresh and
done as soon as the drills are msed for the g^ouna ^^^ ^^^
damp : whereas, if Jfoa leave it '^''Zsl Sow more slowly. I fre-
Beed'is longer commg up, ai^d the p^an s g^ow ^^ ^^^ ^^^ .^
quently see persons waiting f«^, f/f^'J^'^'^t^^ because, not
' prepared, before they sow. This « a very na p ^^^^^ ^^^
14 do the drills become dry^^butl^eje^B^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.
. seei is sown ; and when the pl"^* «°^«\"P'^ \^^^^ j^ore difficult to
fore it, and is consequently ^'"^^^^jf ; ^^^^^^^ is to give it fair
-=-fore, make it a rw* , ^ntiffed aM covered dumg the<Ji^
man«
r.ri malrr it a rule to sow in the evening, or, awu^v^v^.,^^^^^
t^lCevery "Su that has been dunged aM covered dumg tbe^^
■ t'^-.
95
A
ir cattle,
eps : we
f at two-
itera his
; and we
g in cha-
incestora.
ich closes
in gene-
Op new-
be raised
t in ; but
ier which
icre broad
ploughed
and rolled
veil clean-
clean than
, open the
culture, as
etween the
id, perhaps
hey will be
, generally,
36. When
Id be short,
ead in the
three drills
11 spread it
58, in which
n the drills,
jugh, which
run a light
on the top,
t should be
sn fresh and
dry, and the
wly. I fre-
the land is
because, not
lOt before the
veeds up he-
re difficult to
o give it fwr
; and, therfr*
aest, the next
iring the dj^
Some spread the manure broad cast, and plough it in with the second
ploughing; and mise fair crops; but by potting it in the drills the
whole strength of the manure is given to the roots of t^e turnt'and
therefore, must promote ,ts e^rly growth more than when spread over
a large space of ground. When the manure is plourrhed in Lad cast
Jtt'^ '^'"^' V'""' 'Vt''^' ' ^ "^^^^-^^ which seems r;?o5";
nr^^L *° It ^^"^ ^T ^<'''«T°g Swedes, there is much difference of
opmion ; they may be sown from the 20th of May to the end of June •
they continue to mcrease m weight until the frost compels us to pull
irn?' m ^^'''^''%^^ '^'t' ^^y *^« ««^°' *h« h««iier will be the
crop. When sown ii{ May, I have always found them escape the fly •
but the best protection against this insect, is thick sowing-^never sow
IZlT. r. ^"*?'^' ?[''? *^*^' '^''' ^""^ y^"^ ^"1 s«Wom be without
sufficient plants after the fly has done its work. Aberdeen Yellows
may be sown from the first to the end of July xeiiows
c.h^rlU'''^ C/mm^.-This is the most important part of turnip
culture for manure as h^vily as you please, if this is neglected, ov
carelessly or imnerfectly done, you will not ha^e a good crop; a few
days delay carelessness, or inattention now, will make a difference of
,ffL . i ^«'«y^^t t' '^"' ^ y'^"'' *"™P^- ^"^ unless you can
affoid to throw away the labour you have expended, and to fo4o the
benefit of a good supply of turnips for your stock, do this trAm it
should be done and do d well. If you are short handed, let every
man, woman, and child who can lift a hoe, or pull a weed, go to work
in earnest, and the job will soon be accomplished ; and, what is more,
your children will becorne expert at turnip culture, on which all suc-
cessful farming m this Island will, before long, depend : and remember
that a good turnip hoer never takes his eye from the ground until called
todmner; recollect this yourself and impress it on the children and
there will be no stopping to talk, nor ceasing work to gaze at every
passer by, by which so much time is often lost The ttiethod I have
found best m hoeing, is this : as soon as the leaves are between two and
three inches long, run a plough between the drills, taking away the earth
on each side to withm about two inches of the plants, this will make a
Jittle ndgelet between each dnlJ, and cover up all the weeds ; and if the
horse hoe is run about a week afterwards, they will be found quite
ro ten and form a good manure for the land ; (some use the horse hoe
only, but if there is much yar and weeds, the plough makes the best
work.) Then set to work with the hand hoes, and thin the plants five
inches apart : do not be afraid of stripping the roots of the plants, as the
more they are exposed the Better ; wlien the plants are a ^ size, and
the leaves begin to touch each other, a second hoeing must be eiven -.
cu tting out e ver yother plan t; this will leave them ten inches asmider' ■^
takmg^ifay 8t^ sanjc tiiB6 any weeds that are between them. This '~'
%
.« ,
\ ■'
96
cklv done: If tbe land is very wwdy, the
cky aone: - the second
l;«
r''^^™ lald'"I TuT'lit;:;; the dnlls once before
-horse hoe shouia uo f" comolete the work. . . .
hoeing, and once after, "^"^^^^ '^, ^^^Jfhe plough/small quantities of ^
Besides the ""'^^"'^^ ^°!f '^^ '^ Y^ ^Ue Jed are of great benefiUo
stimulating manures., p aced clo ^^^^\^^ ^and'abng the tops
the crop ; a small quan .ty «f /^^»^^ j J^^ -^ ^.m cause the young plant
of the drills just before the seed. sd^^^^^^^ fromthefly:
to erow more quickly, and g^' T"^L" J „„-e more than twenty is
TJue or fifteen bushels IS -ffij^.^l ^truuTuum, if you have.a
^kste. When the manure is pl^Jf ^^^ ,, ^^ to your turnip
compost of mud and >"»^' °%T;" :. ;, after the ground is ploughed
land^n addition, the best way of doing it s, a^te S .^ ^J, ^f the
in the spring, cart on ami jead^ twenty ^^^ ^J^^ .^^^ ^.^^^^
compost, then harrow and roll, a«^ J"^" ^. .^^^^ t^g greater part of
. plying them has been already pointed out^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^j.
^VK//m.-.-Few f «r"wfbe cufoff ctr^^^ the turnips, or they
-;• « ^H^ S'^' '"^ f tme ptoBB advi^^ the tops tb be hauled off
^%? not ke^so. yf • ^XrSr I have tried this, and am con,
and fed to the, ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the first place, as food they are
vinced it IS a very bad Factice. ^ju keep cattle alive, but
scarcely worth the ^^^^or of hailing ofit^^^^^^^ ^J^.^^ ^^^^ ,^e
if they happen to be ^jj^^y ^^ ''J^^^^ unfit for market. But the
milch cows get them, the bu"er/m ^^^
great objection to removing t^^jM^^^^^^^^ heavy crop of turnips
I be left to feed;he^",^:f^^^^^^^^ turnips is consumed on the
is exhausting. In Bntam ^ f ™^' ' j^ ihis; therefore, as we ,^,
land, by sheep. Our chmate J^Jl"'^^^ Cleave the tops. If J^
have, to remove the turn P^' ^« f^°^"'f/d, so before ploughing, let theb^ .
\ done 80. ^ , . ^f t„rn5na being difficult to keep ; those
, ■ Stonng.-^ome ^''^f^^.^^C^y^rvrov^r management, there
\ who find them so, keep them *^^f %', J;"gtLd be put in piles in the
is no difficulty in any J^^^^^^; J^gi t^a or sJraw, and a little
\ field when first pulled, and covered witn ^ ^ ^^^^^
earth. Here they wiH sweat a little ^^l^l ^^^ ^et deep, and
cart them to the root hou««^ tt^artl. a^d coverfd with sea weed and
variety,
below g
small, t
not 80 j I
white, a
to 32 to
Then
It must
•Thit r
Jumer Uiai
efldy, the
ae second
mtitiea of <■
benefit to
g the tops
)UDg plant
n the fly :
, twenty ia
^ou have a
oar turnip
3 ploughed
)ad8 of the
) ridgeleta,
iter part of
a reach of
the seeda.
Lode of ap-
of the bjisi-
lipg, or they
»e hauled off
and am con-
ood they are
tie alive, but
; and if the
2t. But the
f whai; ought
)p of turnips
mmed on the
Tefore, as we ^
ling, let theto ,
i, decaying in
!m ia not only
)u for having
keep ; those
igement, there
in piles in the
V, and a little
d be chosen to
feet deep, and
b sea weed and
longers, raised
jr^ItwiUewi-
uid I generally
/.... 97
fill it full an'l have never lost any turnips. In the ton there i« « r)i?m
ney, which is never shut niyht or day durin 'the «■ nfpr U ™"
below. „n*the pHrtitions. allow all .ife c^nfe;, i^ ^r „^^^^^^^^^^^^^
IS constantly esc.-., ng through the chimney, no frost comeTdown Tnv
one who will .ve\,t.late his root house in ili U way will find .>? »„ ^
as sound in June as when first put in. Tl e t^u'uk^ o .e oo I u' n
» a njjtter of .tnportance ; ,t sllld be attached to the H , an in c*,
from the barn ; th.s w.II save a d,al of labor in ^arryin. them to ho
cat le dunng the wmter 5?om« store them in thei/cellas which is
„ th^ Tv^rst place that can be selectedri.g they are genera ly too o and
dose to preserve the=turnips, too far from the barn for conven^en e and
' somf.'' "^ ''''^'' ^''"^ '^'"^ ^^"^^'^ '^' '^' °f ^he house unwhol^
phe^s':-""'''"" '^^^''°'"^ ^'"^ ''' '^' *"^°'P "« ««J«cted from Sto.
r.Jr!^/'Z''{'f' '^"'•^ip-^o fewer than 46 varieties are enumo-
mted, of which, however, only a few deserve the attention of theTar^
The Swedish Turnip takes the fir^t place for' weight, value of cron
pLZTt^ ^ wmter storing; and of 18 varieties°of th^wede the
Purple Top has long obtained the preference. It is of an oblon . f^rm
sk.n under ground and flesh orange yellow, skin aboveZun.l ^11
purple -^^the 8km is rough -the rind thick, and the flesh haTd and
a eL ?V'T' ^"'^•^'^ "^'°^ ^^«™ « '' ^0 pounds, fnd the lest
a e the most rich and nutritive, which is not the ease with other tur.
ifte yv/u(e Olobe iarnip is the best for early maturity sweetnesq
and gross weight of crop ; but it does not keep so well s thrSe'
If of a good vunety its skin will be smooth and white, the nTck of th«
op and tap root small, the leaves long and uprigljt, and wil not emi?
a hollow sounc when struck, as the Tankard tu°np (wh ch sTnferTor
* 30 3?."' ^''^*^ '^""i ^ g°°^ «™P '^' ^Vhite'^Glo w . "s fri
the Swpdr/ PrrP'"'^ ""'''■ '^^^' ^Vhite Globe is quite oq't^
the bwede for feeding m autumn and early winter and shouhl h«
largely cultivated for that purpose. ' '"^ ^^
The Aberdeen Yelloio or Yellorv Bullock Turnip, when of a moA
vanety ,s round and wider than deep, with smooth skin oran/e yeHow
«^rn ^r'f' '"^ Y^\ S""''" '^^"^^^ '^^ t«P root and cfown ar^
small, the leaves soft and spreading, the flesh deep orange cHsp and
not so juicy as that of the Globe. The Aberdeen keeps bet'er than the
:t to^^r i^p^llr:^' '^^^^- ^ ^-^ -p '^^ ^- 3^
It must be observed, however, that with culture and manuring Jy
..i I
'"%
OS.
vaiioty of turnip will be more nutritive in proportion to its weight, than
with inferior treatment. . .
'■ Hour dust is the most important manure for turnips in addition to
that r)ro(hiced on ihc farm. I have tried to raise turnips with different
.mantitics of hone (lust, varyin- from 12 to 24 bushels per acre, and
found fie crop improved up to 10 bushels, but the (piantities beyond
that produced no greater effect. As good crops have been,raised with
8 bushels of bone dust mixed with a quantity of coal ashes, as with lb
bushels A better method than using bone dust alone, is to apply it
\u conjunction with farm-yard dung, say ten or twelve tons of farm
yard dun-^, with eight bushels bone dust. The dung, which should Ke
well rotted, is covered in with the drills, and the bone dust sowtt after-
wards along with the seed." . , , r, 1
"The distance hciwccii the 7-ows of turnips has been faxed, conven-
tionally no doubt, at twenty-seven inches, which is a very convenient
distance for drilling up the land in the first place, with the common or
double mould board plough, for dunging it with the ordinary tilt cart,
and for Working the implements employed in turnip culture, such as
the sowing drills, and the succeeding scufflers and drill harrows. . The
distances between the plants should be about twelve inches for Swedes,
and nine inches for yellow turnips and globes, and to insure regular and
proper distances, the sin:(liiiii- of the crop with the hoe should be re-
.'aided as one of the most important operations which claims your
attention. For example, 5 lb. turnips at.ft-inches asunder give a crop
of [>1 tons 12 cwt. : whereas the same weight of turnip at eleven inches
apart gives only a little more than forty-seven tops. Now how easy is
it for careless people to thin out the plants to eleven instead of nine
inches, and yet by po doing no less than 10^ tons of turnips are
sacrificed."
r/ic Mangold Wurtzel
Is cultivated in much the same manner with the turnip, but may be
thinned to fourteen inches asunder in good ground, and may be trans-
planted with greater certainty tlian any variety of turnip, and is much
loss exposed to tlie attacks of .insects. Its large proportion of sugar
and freedom from offensive flavour, adapt it admirably for feeding milch
cows, though if fed exclusively on these roots their milk is said to fall
off The mangold wurtzel keeps even better , than Swedes. I have
known them to°be kept in a cool cellar until the autumn following that
in which they were taken in, and they are said to .improve in quality by
keeping. Rich clay loams suit t^e mangold wurtzel better than Ught
sandy soils. It thrives well howe^ i" drained peat bog. " There are
several varieties of mangold wurtze\; the long red, the long yellow,
and the globe orange or yellow globe ; which names truly indicate their
respective characters. The globe oran^ thrives best pn light soils,
and the long yellow is in a better state for use. in the early part of
09
winter than tho loni? ml tk-.^- -.. '~^
root to give to cattif UH it hS^ '""'**'v'' °^ ^'^ ««* ^'^^^^ a safe
only obfection tolhe^^" L ,^t^^ of tl.o groun'l is the
rci and yellow dobe variofvl i . ••" ^'^^'^ '^'^o"" tlio Ion-
The formir does well on] v on r 7'l ^''" T'"^'''' extc^nsiveiy trio.l
on any soil that lltiZuot^^^^
niangold wurtzel resembles tSo Ah. K t '? ^r^.'^'"" '^^'« «*'"I of
;^riety. It shonld bo sown by hL an,T Lt'h^ ^^"^"'^ ^*'" ^^^'^?' ''^ "
than turnip seed. It may b7 sown nr.'^''' '"'■'' ^'^'^'^'-^ ^•^^■^•'•^^'
turnip, or earlier if possiWe S n!J i ''""^ ^'""^ '^''^*' ^»«'ii«l'
mangold wurtzel in sCmer for Ll f ^'"T T^ ''« ^''-'^P^' ''«■
roots. No farmer who values th/rr/" Tt' ^''' ^'"^ '"•1"^"'' tho
be without mangold wu^^f St^'^or trllid if ^' ^:'"'^^'"'"^'.^'
7%e Carrot. ' '
but^fts'fdiw^eirr !r"f^ P""^'^ - a small scale only,
as well af the C cC h t it"^^^^^^^ ^T] ''^^P'"^ P-I-4
tended culture whelvef Ware /wn tv i.* ^"T""" ^*' ""^''e «*'
deepened by ploughing or subsoilinr tf °?i '"'',' ''' ^'^''^ «^» ''^
varieUes are the long omnr In^ ^V/^if T^^^^ ?'"** '"^.t Productive
the carrot, Judge V^^^^Z^^--'"' ^^'«^""- ^" ^^^ -'^ure of
fine andTeep' "St^m'^o^^"' *^ S\" ^^■^^' ^"^ "^^^^^ very
because the ^ound if then li^ht ITf ^^^ '''^'Z P^^«*^« ' P'^^Wy
ploughed. hSowed Li^Si^l^}! iU^^^^\ i'% ?« '^ '^ -^
ndgelets, makii^g them aa hirrh L Sl^ ^' '* ^^"""'^ ^« thrown into ..
gi^at a depd, ofthe sXlwlrpos'sV^^^ Z I ^'' 't ^''''' ^
enough between the drills buT unWlE?i' «>^^^««°'nche3 is widfh;
inches will be found the mo^t convenW^ ""^ \'V "^'^*°' ^^^''r
drill the seed, while thl Zl T^frT /^"''- ■ ^^" *^« '^""s. and .
turnips. IfiousowFnoJfi '» ^^^b and mojst, in the same way as
to thllre and then ^ottsn^nr '''" 'T't ^^"^ '' ^''l^^LZ
used, one aiid a half n^„n^ ^ * ■TJ' ' ^"' ^^ American sid* is
seJ'grows at itt rhave^unTh^l"^^"®.^^^^ ^ «^°^««* -^
sowing, I mix theieed wftl fin J '°- .5'^^' °'' *«n days before
or lum% are left to ^hoke th^ driU ' ZT^ f *^- ^^ '^'' ^' «^-^«
in a. ^m room, stiS it 1 ever^i ^ >t moistened with water
spread it in the sun foTaf h ur V'wo t^iJl^^ '^"* '' «°^' ^
It too much, which would ii^We the se^ l^L ./"^ ""' °°' *? ^'y ^
treated i^;gene^ly^-^;V^^r^^^^
I.
/^
■%^ ^
^S"
.1. ■ ■ •
.
. • *' , 100.. , '
Btffrt with the 0eHa. They ahoultl be sown in Mnj, br.cSarly fn June.
Jn clciiniii,^ u^^c iho,ploti;^h nntl horso li<)f,' llie siirne iia wiih tuini|8.
'J'liey sliould be ib'iniiul li'ioul two and ft hiiJf iiK hc-tajjiirt. In August,
wbtii tlia cMiTdta me about the size of a inuiis lliuinb^ tbicy'sliould bo
li^bilyjnoulded witii cii\ib, like potatoes As to tlic yield per acre,
tlio smallest 1 liave hud n three Imndred and yiiiit}? -eight busticU;^ but
then the lind being very foul, the diilU 'veie fliree feijl apuil. to admit
of frequent pluu^^liiiig between them. 'J his hist year I had an acre,
and Olio- foiivih in carrots, on ground Vhich had been in potatoes the
year before: -ic \va3 dressed in the spring witlwforty loads- of- dung per
aere; the drills were thiity inches apart -the yiehl on the acre and a
quarter waj seven hundred thirty five bushels ; th'ey vfere thinned
about one and a half to two ttiches apart, but the carrots split the drills-
end made rooirt for themselves, and grew largo. Work the 8(*n well, '
AnH give it an ordinary dressing, and you will bo sure of from four to
five'" hundre(V bushels per acre. The'Long Orange and White. Belgian
are the most productive THc haulm, or top, of the carrot, js excellent
food-: cows (ed on ic give very rich milk : all animals are very fond of
it. As ihpy do not appear to be so severe on the land aq turnips, the
tops may be hauled off ami fed on the pasture fields; 'and an acre of
Wbite iJelgians will, in this way, furnish a very large ;^uantity .of rich
food in autumn. I have tried carrots on land manured with sea weed,
and also with river mud ; but they wpuld not grow to, any size, although
turnips in the next drill, on the sartie manure, grew as well as those on
dung Old well-rotted dung, and ashes, seems the best manure for
them. For fattening p^jgs I have found this FOOt more valuable than
tarnips, and working hdrses while fed oa them will not require oata."
\ The Parsnip -^^
Deserves culture on. account of its nutritive properties, and because it
is the only root that we can leave in the ground during winter, for use ^
in early spring. \
"it will grow in a strWger soil«than the carrot, anifyet may be
raised on even peat'if sufficient manure be applied. Its culture should
be prec sely tt^t of the turn\p and the cdrrot, bejng a green crop and
requiring a deep soil for the growth of its fusiform r.oots. Parsnips
should receive twenty- five toi^s of farm yard manure in the drill, and
four hundred of guano sown Qver the drill, as described in the case of
the turnip ; and the land then drilled up in the double form or with the
setting up doilble mould-board plough. ParsiTips should be singled
whenever the plant can be seen; to a distance of eight incbes apart in
the drill— thfe stems. and leaves spreading more than those of the carrot,
require more room The after-hoeing and cleaning of the land of weeds
with the drill Rubber, are conducted in the same manner as those for ^
turnip and carrot. Thd drill should be set up with the double
m^iboard plougbt w Uaf \tn iirth M nweU aboiifc th> wot ii pM*
f
r-
101
Bjble.'ns in the case of tlie carrot Tn ^
■that moistening, ,!,« seed «fth vet eJnd o7.'nT° V' '?" ^o obsorvo'
ioybe sown in the frrst raoi.t Zlh ..T^' ""'^ stirring it daily
-^i^ The parsnip ^X :^^::^^;l ["--^.-ts ,rA , fi
in^^r^.y, parst.ips are sown h.o-J! f "^ "^^ P'actJCuble." •
about twenVVn. 'of nranure^ J^X °"d "^'^i '^\'-'^.the sod and
rench plough, the plants are wee e!i tkinn 7^^ C'""^''^'^^ '" ^''^'^ a^
h'3 way the crop yields twWr«ln "^'""^^ ^'^'^^ ^^ ''''"^ In
•'nearly sufficient for ten coTduSL?' """^ "P^^rd per^cre," or ''
tows auM^he SIX Winter months."*' - '
sr
Manageme^of Animal Manure',.
on the all in^portant subjectVf Te n et^^^^^ t''' ""."^ "P''"°"^ ''^"^'"g
■ : Z . ""H"rianc suniect of thn nr«o««., »• , "f'""""^ oearinflr
8P>I Of the manure affordtd by the anfmTJ "^'^ '■^^''^•■""■«" '« thf
Ri3 point has ruined multitudes of £ ^''"^^ T" ''• ^«g'«ct on
to n a tK.. . • '"luuea ot lurmers : and nn ;.,kf„^-.i .?. . "
^ .point has ruined multituis of £''"^^^^^^ Neglect on
to n ,s the most iaH)ortant agency in Si.'n'V^'i'^^'^^^'^ «^'^"t'°«
gradual improvement. The ex^mct/fr^f v ^ ^'"''''^ ""'^ ««curing
new to most agriculturists n th P^^tn "? .'*'^ ^''''' ^^''1 b^
though they have been exterL ely read "A T '''''' ^''"^ ^^'^^'^'^^
known to the younger race of Sme" L TT ^'"'"'' «••« ''ttle
about as much required 6y some of tlZ .l?<°^' ^ '" ««'•'•/ *« ^ay,
possesses more fertilizing properties thTlv^F'l ^? ^"*""'"g cattle,
dung of those fed on laTpe Kd '^ " ?' ^^^^^^^^'^^ C8»Te. The
nchest; that of animals suplTwitLfr^"'^^^^^^^^ » the
• the Oily matter has been exKsed L „;*^ '^ "' -°'' ''"^' ""^ "'^'°'^
the dung of cattle fed^ithS ^ ,"!:; o7'"^{'"° ^'^^^''^ ^ ^^en
with hay .varying according fri t'^f ' } °^ ^"°^ «» are supplied
straw- fed cattle, fspSlHeai hL«» goodness of their keep; that of .
J' With regard to7he ^I fv" p^Tr'of an' T^' ^^ "" "
ved that horse dunff when not^r «"'"''! ^""g" '* '"''y be obser-
cold, sterile, and poof ground the fudlts'rP 'Vl'^''"'^'^'^ calculated or
of neat cattle is better^adapL to ta ' er I !"'' 1 ''-T''^^ ^^^' that-
bmed together, or with earth o^mu^ar^v'}"* ^^f'-' ^ben com- '
effect, however, is but transient exZL ^ T .' '" "^^^^ ^'J^'' ^^he
even there it produces no perlCt aSlS.^'*' ^r'*'"^ ^•'^' «»d
used by itself on moist, clayeTsoils T!tuT ^■^''' ^""S '« thus
as soon as its "first stag^ of ferrn/. Ln J '^ ^ Pf'^^^ "^"d tSrned in
intended to be used olwarm ^ 1,? ittm '^h'^^f ' ^"^ ^«" ^^ is •
'"?h 'd' ^«g«;?'>'c -bstances Srr^J'or t jf'^' ^'* '^ '"'^ ^* ^^th
Jrtt^^^ i:;L,:iT L"' HcVerLure^iian that of .y '
"" — — ' •^« <taiitiri ' — ".
-^
#.1 ^-
.jy ■
102
to undergo decomposition-developes, in its putrefactyn, little, if ^ny,
heat, and yields scarcely any ammonia. Esculent ,:c(ote manured with
mJ dung, acquire a disagreeable flavour, arising probably from a pe-
culiar volatile substance emitted by the dung, or rather the urine, ot
°' There can be no doubt that, without preparation, it is not well to
apnlv' it to land. Incorporated with the manure heap, mixed with that
of cattle, and there allowed to decompose and ferment, it becomes valu-
able. Mr. Pococke, of Thilnstone, states that, knowing the excellenc^e
of pig manures, he has erected a large, dry shed, in which, first of all,
he puts a layer of dry coal ashes, abont a foot deep and four feet wide,
to which he has all the deposits of the pigs, both fluid and solid car-
ried • as soon as it be^ns to ooze out, he adds more ashe^, until the
heap is about four feet high. A fresh layer is then commenced, and
treated in the same way. After lying some time, jf is turned twice or
thrice, and is then fit for drilling. He tried it for turmps, and found
the results far superior to those of guano, and eqyal to bone dust. 1 he
droppings of three pigs, if carefully thus presdrveft, he considers are
ample dressing for three acres of land." .,.,.. .1,
''The common mode of applying s/ieeps' dung is hy folding ; the
benefit thus obtained is said to be derived from the consolidation of the
land effected by their treading, and from their urine t» which may
perhaps be added the perspiraSlff matter exuded from their fleeces while
Wing upon the ground ; but we question whether the volatile principles
of tie manure are not evolved under this system, and given off into
the air To secure real benefit from folding, it has been recommended
- that as the fold is shifted, the land it- has occupied should be imme-
diately breast-ploughed, in ordeiOo cover in the manure and condense
its ammoniacal gases within the soil." « .1 j j
" In too many farms the unne is allowed to run from the yard and
stables into the horse-poni This is an extravagant and reprehensible
practice without any assignable reason to recommend it; still, where it
is persevered in, it may be turned to some account by employing such
pond water as a sprinkling or top-dressing for meadows. Mr ^Jf .
in a paper sent to the Highland Society of Scotland, calculates that for
every 10 000 lbs of the urine of the horse that is allowed to go to
waste, the fiumer loses 600 lbs. of dry matter of a highly fertilising
nature ; »nd that for the same quantity of the urine of the cow, tjie
loss is 700 lbs. of dry matter. In Flanders the urine of each cow is
valued at £2 per annum. These things have been too little thought of.
•* Ma^ interesting accounts of economical modes of collecting and
* applying the urine (Jf cattle as a manure to land have been communi-
cS^ we select .one whiph appeared in the '' Farmer's M^zme,
given by an intelligent fanner in the vicimty of Peebles. Ihe ferm-
buildinra were soSsposed that the urine of all the stalls was convened
by Su^ to 'a IKSr pit, and the dung Iwd in a place appropnated to
that purpose, instewl of being thrown into the middle of the yard.
vegeta
leaves
slaked
ditch
beginn
humov
the lin
liquid
layers,
the flu]
the jui
straw 1
liquid 1
"In
c haptet
« 103
about two hundred and eiahfv .Llhf i .1 j^; ^^'^ P'^ produced
sufficient for an acre ThTox^ni f J r^^"*^?' ^''^^ "^ ""^^'^ ^'^
wS X?;t^ "' ^ "™ ""' p^"'^' ""^ "» ■»•—
" 'TeS;,:'"'" ""^ «"°°^ '™ Jresaed wit), old herbage or gn,=» „,■ ,
7 times, with cow/fluQg. ^«N
9 times, with pigeon's dung. ^
12 times, with human urine.
12 times, with sheep's urine.
14 times, with human dung or bullock's blood."
wasted ZTi *°'5''" ''^'^^'^' ^^""^ •» °« ^^y are manures more "
first laid down, inclining towaXS'rit 11,^1,^'"°"' Ti"" ,~^ "^
humous layers until the hein iq fi.,,,. ^ c r!^. , ® vegetable an^
Q
DteM. w s^mW^Z.J^^SfJ'''^ enumerated in ihe precedina
pte«, w«wouldx,bwmtImf»re tfie winter or fodder seEo^
104
mences, the sufTace of the cattle-yard may be raised by spreading
thereon fern, leaves, refuse straw, peat and similar vcgetuble matters.
Every previous arrangement being thus made, the cattle should be kept
within their yards throughout the winter season ; but the greatest cure
must be taken to keep them dry, which will be difficult if the manure
be allowed to accumulate ; therefore where they are numerous, the sur-
face litter of the yards may be removed to the dung-meers, and fresh
laid down as alreidy mentioned. A common metiiud is to have ^he
centre of the yard conciivo, so as to receive the drainage from the sur-
rounding shids and stables, which being covered with litter, and ^fVod-
den by the cattle, soon becomes fit for the dung heap. 'J'his, so ffir as
the manure is concerned, is an excellent method ; but as the health of
the cattle is also an important consideration, whenever the litter has
become completely saturated, it should either be covered with dry straw
or removed."
"" Agriculturists are by no means agreed as to the point of allowing
their beasts litter to lie on, and thus consuming their whole stock of
hay and straw; or arranging the floors in such a direction that they
may be kept clean by sweeping only, and litter rendered unnecessary.
The latter practice was at one time adopted by the late eminent breeder,
Mr. iJakewell, and sanctioned by many agriculturists. It would at
first eight appear obvious that the largest quantity of dung must be
produced from the straw and coarse food being consumed by lean beasts,
while the richer and more succulent is eaten by the fatting beasts,
whether neat cattle, sheep or lambs. Mr. Bakewell, however, seems
to have found that such was not the result, for he afterwaids mclified
his system, and used a portion of the straw as litter, in which state it
absorbs the urine and does not permit any part to be lost. Urine is
gerterally admitted to be of far more value than straw that has been
merely masticated and digested, without being combined with richer
food. Leihig says : ' With every pound of urine wasted, we lose ti
pound of wheat' "
"The augmentation of manure necessarily depends on the nature and
application of the food given to animals. .We have already pointed out
the variou^articles of the vegetable kingdom, as well as the artificial
foods that are beet calculated for feeding and fattening cattle ; and have
endeavoured to evince the superiority of soilhig, both as respects the
economical consumption of food, and also the pi eduction of manure.
The quantity of manure produced by a farm, may also be increased by
having standing sheep folds. For this purpose, in Flanders the
ground is marked out, and spread with dry sand four or five inches
thick; on this are erected slight sheds, in which the sheep are housed
at night, a small quantity of dry sand, (for which dry peat, etc., may
be substituted,) being laid in every evening. This is cleared out once
a week and carried to a dunghill, or spread upon the soil. Q'be manure
thus. produced is well calculated for fertilising almost every kind of
grottod, and makes an ezoellsnt dressiog^ ftnr c(M and itiff loils. ^Tf
A '■>.
■ ' 105
' Stlgel^^^^ ^- ^- ^^aken oat, .3, also bo
l^hey should be guarded S- hi- f'"''' °^'"^'"^ «'"«^1« "» the waj.
i"g of poultry ?r bt swm" a'JSr?' '^T' "'^"^ '"^ ^^« '^'^
jard, should be^urroidTV fi es If\L ? ^" V''''' '^' ^^'^-
the process may be accelerated w??^- f 1 v ^'''^P' ''^ "«^ ^'^^'^'ent,
yard drainage/or withTsXt; ^ fCef d^? ''fT ^"^' ^^^
and then coverin<r them cIospIv wJtK . O'ssoJved m sulphuric ac d,
gas water have afso been teo^^^^^^^^ ^^ "' ^-'"'^"''^ ^^' ^'^'^
can either be cheaply or eSvobtS V n^.^'P"'"''^"^ ^'^«^« they
happen^ however that fpS . ' '^?"''* ^^ "«*-'^*- ^^ fmiuently
poaeof'therrre;, nd?h;«^^^^^^^ -^d'^ ^r ti!e pur?
manure are lost, and thrZn"? ' ^Ll ? ''* '''^"'''^" P^'^P^'-t^e^ ^^ the
such case the Leans sLikhy-^^^^ ^^^^^ ^<^»<^«'l- -I"
n.ould,and this opTat rll'r^^t/r^^ "'^^ ^'-^^ ^^'th
the f..menting proS'^f ^ if p.teXt-tf '^^ '' P^^^^^
sary for the destruction of the 8oo,k of ? j'"''/''*" '^'^^^^ ^'^"eces-
the fibre of the verable It ^1^^ ^' ''^
dung is used, it will generalirbe found th.'*^ I'' '\'''- ^^'^^«^« stable
«o far rotted as to adS of beW cut t S 1 • u" ''""'' ^"^ ^«^«"^«
be carried upon the la^d and fllol '"^^ "'"\'^ ^P'-^^^' '^ ^^ St to
its substance and value wi 1 da v , rmnl T*'"" ^?S«'' "' '^' ^^««P.
call 'rotten dung 'all the fifif« ^^'^ ^'^"^ some farmer
drained away, tha^t it of litl^r^ PT''''^"''« «« completely
retain moisture." "'^ °*^'' "'" ^^^'^ "^ ^«osen the soil and
sex'; Lt'5tL":f ttltTenS of""^''"', ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^ ^^™-
ings of rois, mud"f Pitches and nonf "«T"'^""«'«- ^" the scrap-
are spread in conveLTsnots IsTol /'^ f °"l^ of gravel pits,
layers is carted allTe LT pr^^^^edT '^''^
obtained from London etc • an^[^ Th ^'*''"' °^ '^^^^'^ ««n be
«.hes, soap-boiler's ?ubbilh,'e c ' L 'S TatrST"^ ^''^' ^'^^^-
withm a month of the timp nf ,,, • . , *"® ^^"P continues till
turned, the clo^s b okera^l X "^"^^ - ''^''" ^ ^'' '''°''"«^''^
''Mk Thomson of Kir^^^^^^^^^ tlZ P"^'*^, thrown into the centre."
the earth, into which tf £w "1: "''^'""f »?' ' to hav* a pit dug in
tight and'has a sSfo^^a d thTcent?' t ^^'^^'^ ^^ ^he pit is waL
receivethed.ainin.rof tre mannrr vf-' ua''^ ^ ^""^ '' ^^"^^ «« ^ to
over the manure sfaf to k^ouo' ±'f ^l^T^ '' ^^«^"^°*'3^ P^"""^
tion.' He has all Se vSabrjf^ A".' ""f "^''"^^'^^ ^^'•"^^ta-
t h i c kly oo y« M wife^r u? ItTM S J^:J^^^ togeO^, aod—
^ t h i o kly o^ y« M wither : irBM S H-^'"^ together, aod
14 P®^'' ^^J"°«»t entirely to exclude air."
106
" The most proper situations for dunghills are contiguous to stables,
etc., to which may be added others near the house and piggery. The
dima: mecr or pit adjacent to the house, may be coropogcd ot various
ingredients bcsitles dung. Scrapings of the yard, earth, straw, weeds,
duncr of fowls, soot, ashes, shells, lime and bone-s kitchen sweepings,
dirty water, suds, brine, urine, etc., etc , all contribute to its richness.
'•The dun-^ heap contiguous to the barn iind outhouses, may bo
augmented by°soil, mud, weeds, etc. In every case however it will be
proper that those ingredients should predominate which are best calcu-
lated for the land in which it is to be laid, and wluch will ferment and
decompose as nearly as possible at the same time ; for otherwise, one
portion may be losing its most valuable qualities, while another is only
slowly proceeding towards decomposition, or the whole process may be
improperly checked. The process of fermentation however, yi'}\\ not
take place so evenly and so rapidly as' it ought, unless the heaps are
shovelled over once or twice in the course of the summer, in order that
the various ingredients may become more intimately mixed and mel-
lowed."' ... ,
" In the management of farm-yard manure, it is important to guard
against its bein>f' exposed to the weather. Tlie heap should be kept
closely together, and the daily additions placed regularly upon it.
Should no"farther addition be made to the heap before applying it, tho
whole may be covered with earth."
" But although exposure to the atmosphere is injurious, tho access
of water from the roofs of the buildings, etc., is still morc'so, as directly
carrying away the most important ingredients of the heap,'
" Wiien a mass of manure, however rich it may be, has remained for
a length of time saturated with moisture, it undergoes such a change
that no management can induce fermentation, without the addition of
fresh manure. " On the other hand, want ,of moisture often induces
an imperfect and destructive fermentation, highly injurious to the
manure. Hence, if the manure heap is liable to become too wet, it
may a have drain leading off to a tank or heap of muck, etc., at a lower
level ; and heaps of manure in dry situations may be much improved
by havinf liquid matters poured over them.
" Fermentation being farther regulated by the facility of access to
^-the mass, this may pasily be regulated by compressing the materials, or
placing them loosely together. Heaps formed in autumn or early win-
ter, and not intended for application till spring, may be compressed by
discharging the loads from the carts on the heap itself. This is effected
by keeping one end low and sloping, and the compression by this means
prevents the horses' feet and the cart wheels from sinking in the heap,
the unloading on it being attended with much less difficulty than could
be imagined by persons unaccustomed to the work. The degree of
compression should be regulated by the quantity of manure and the
length of time it is to remain. When it is not intended to remain long
— m the ii^,Tro o o mp r e asioft ghouJd be applied^ hat the mass placed-
I ^
together as loosely as circumstances will permit "
"107
should be w«^w-,h«,"hrS,£>'l';°r'vT''*' °'- "■'"«■•»"
M ranch concentrated and Sil '?,' 'ir' °f "" ""»"""<' '"'""M W
be »o ,„,de th,t it raay be prccrVZll ' '°~'''"'.*'' """"« *onld
(2.) y«r%-e Pe^e,., ^^ Afaw^^re^. ^
ti.e5.it\Z;t"'™ ™J„t« ^ of ra»n„.,, , to ^„„
-ore l,ea,« „rc exposed to tL™5 bVwb kT '" ""' '''»"<' ""= »«-
are whed oat, and freonen L t^' 7 *'"u* "" ""i" fertilising parts
■iar> rich jnioes, instY^tP'^lS'tlb" °''' '""' " ""' '''*
nearest brook. This ia o L ^ ^ for the crop run off to thfl
;vla>re the manure irthownrt'houlTbTd ^° ^"'^"^ '^' ^^^ V-
two, three, or routtTeetdeep accordTnin i?^ ?"' •'" "^ ^'^ ''^'"'^'^ P''^
wd not hold water it should be nu.ldpf u f'"'^'''' ^ ^^ ^he bottom
or in the fall, as most cZJj '^^^^«^«J; during thesummer
^« got, or earth from ^ oaTide'":„V.7 '^''^f "^"^'' "' '^""n
P't, the manure, when thrown n„t ' 'n ^® ^""^ ^" ^ITe bottom of tlie
which will abso b triiice^'r' """ '^'" ^''^ °" ^^'^•"'"d or earth
as the dung itself ^^^t fed ^^'r^b'^^^^^
reman^m the pit saturating the 101^ parts otthr?'' f'^^ "P "'"
vdl be found, on trial, an improvement on thJ ^""S'^^^ap. This
there is a further iuiprovemenf vi, 1 • P''^'®"' ^jstcmc But '
-fe of the stable or cattHo" 'e o e the'^r'^" f ' ^^^eiagainst the •
when thrown out; this wirpreve. . t ;' '^ ' •'' '^^^^^
W'«ter, or washed bv rain in snrinl if • T^ '"'^"'^ ^''^ «"»>^ in
managementof ba.h:jardmanre fhat a 1,// great, importance in the
should be constantly going on rihrL«ff!^t™'°^^^°° or heating
tent of decomposrtion is^/ece "arv .„ ?;nJ'''\ * ''''^^^ ^^'
tood for plants; secondly S '7 bv b If *^' ''"^^ it contains fit
weeds are destroyed. If the HI i/ • !, ^^?"S' «««d« ^^ noxious
decomposition goes on L winter^andThT^ "'f T^' '""^ ^^^^^^ ^o
grew on the farm are preserved «nS. i''^' °^ '^«'':J' ^^ed which
are fhus re-sown in the sS LT'"^ '".* ""''^ '^^roanure, and
a shed this evil will be avoTded „« i?,n T^ *^' "'*""'*" covered with
top of heap thus covered may S f ol Z '' *^'^'^ '°«^^« ^^ ^he
interior of the heap will mainti i ° ', ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ mid-winter the
f the seeds, and ^'adu^^^^^^ ^^7^ the vit^hf; .
hand manure whilh has not been coS bl ? li'l'u\ ^^' °" ^^« «ther
the heat of the weather soon causes it t^hd ^ ^'l/'*" ^'^ *^^ «P"°g,
^QQ hot; a stpfl»» =™Jj -» ^f-^ ^0 heat 8o,rapidly, that k h«4«n^!— —
call«H „ ' 1!?^. ^^l win ^eTound coming frn,^' ?:.!,? ^er™
called ammoniuTThich, though Jnvlible isT^ ^''V' '^'' ^' * ^'
gu mvisiDie, 13 the very best part of the
108 . -
manure and if preserved, would produce the farmer bushel* of turnips,
wheat and oats. -On ope'nmg a heap whicK has undergone thjs exces-
S fermentation a great pa^t of it will often be found ^'f^f this
that is haviiic a dry mouldy appearance. Manure reduced to this
state ; of itile value ; but where dung, by being Hpder a shed, has
undergone a gradual d'ecomposition during the winter, this excessive
ZSl and consequent loss, will be avoided. Bouss.ngault, page 260,
''^ '^:"lS:^b/ -Sm^^ia IVom dung-heaps in the course of res^n^
fermentation must not be estimated too highly ; when the decomP^'t.on
3 «nSt//y conducted the los. is really very small, the gfintle fermen-
atr-then Wd, has characters which d.fter -sen j^^^ ^
that accompany the rapid putrefaction, which never fails to ^^ke pkcj
when matters are not well managed. As an example of the rapid and
Tniurior fermentation of which I.. peak, I may cite that which ire-
uuenly takes place in piles of horse dung. Every one must have seen
ZTlnr hills left to fhemselves acquiring a very intense heat in the
course of°x few days, and even heard of their taking fire. I have seen
X of thi kind mluced to their mere earthy constituents ; such are
nev r the i-iults of the moderate and gradual decomposition which farm-
ya d dunVougHt never to exceed. When the pit or stance is emptied
fn wl^cH a slow and equal fermentation has taken p ace, the upper aye
s seen to be very nearly in the same state in which it was when it was
piSthe laylr i^mmediately beneath this one is changed m a greater
de'ree and sometimes exhales a slight ammoniacal odor ; in the lower
sS 'the modification is yet greater; the straw ba« lo^t >ts con^^^^^^^^^
it is fibrous and breaks into pieces with the greatest ease : the m^s is
al proportionally darker in colour as we go deeper, and on the ground
Lblack There is no doubt but that the state m which the properly
manaSd dun-^-heap is found in the end, is due to the c.rcum«tunces in
XKhas been placed and kept during the -»-«;-««/. ^yTf:
ration • its constituent elements would have gone through a totally dit-
krZ course in the progress of their modification, had they been left
"rCuS;TcaUle,' horses, pigs, etc., is a most powerful manure.
"The nnne Led from a single cow is considered worth ten do lars
J annum in Flandera, where agricultural practice has reached a high
Ee of advancement The urine of a cow for a year wdl manure one
STquarter acres of land, and is more -1-ble f an i^/^J ^^^^^^
ratio by bulk of seven to six, and in real value as two to one. ilow
mlunt then, that every particle of it be caretally husbanded for the
' 'X '^i//.;, '^ Farm Book, ;>. G4. And yet this most valuable
mTure is ve y generally wasted in this Island. There are several
mSofL'ngIt, On'e generally practised - to excava^ he ean^^
under or near the stables or stalls, and place in it a tank, either made
^-^- J^ rhJiU ^brick, and grouted ^ aa ta hold watej-,.aodJr(^
) a puncheon placed m a cart or on
which the liquid is pumped
r
S :^:?::iit^^^^^-t^can is driven ^^^
ground. A sirnpl? ZlZte Z'^^^t '\' ^'^"l'^ «^«"'^ «^«»- ^^e
the cart, with notches cut ttheund-ol ^''? ' -^^^^^ ^" ^^'« *="! ^^
from thepuncheons into the cart rwilh°''-''-r,^1'^"« '^^ ^'^"''^ '"»
of the cart body as it is driveTln. p'f^"'^ '^'^^''''^"f^J the ^vidth
requires an ouflay «f moneTSrnnn /' ^'^^ «««^truction of tanks
expensive r^ethod seemrSr ^^^^^^^^ f'""!'^ °^°"«^ ^««rd. '^ J^^»-
been already stated that a n t shoulfl t; T *^,'''^"!»«tance3. It has
to receive Ld or ear h oa Sch tt ?^ ^ ,^^'',';'l^ of the stables,
urine is irenerallv w-i.toH K? • ^^ *^""S ^^^"^'i ^e thrown. The
stables ofstS^ IT^^LITZ^ h^^'' .'^' ^^'' ^^^ ^^ 'he
■ the pit, all the farmer' Syto do^. I' ^"1^'^' '^'''' ^^' ^^^^^d
the stable three or four kTt Is far a tf '^'' '^ '^''■^^^'^ ^™'" ""'^e^'
■ liquid falling through wilTr'un into 1 > ^T^ f"*^^"^'^' ^^ ^hat any
double row, or tail ^o tail then undp^/'*' . ]^ "^^'^"^« ^^=^^1 '" ^
must be dug le,«Jin. to the ^i^l f ''^t ''^ ^^^ ^'^^P "^ J'-«i" '
narrow at the bottom^, L pudt Jh !] '' '^'' !v^ V^'' °'^"P' ^"^'
through will graduallj^ flow over the eSh^J'J^*^''* *^/. ^^^^'^^ ^'^"i^S
this means the urine in.tP«7nJ ' ''f "^"'^ P^^^^^^ i" the pif b?
will be soaked upLle id o;?'';? ""^f *^« ^^^" ^^^ ^ein^g os(
be adopted even w^heTe the Zr,!, 7'' '""I^^l^' ^'^'^ "-^thod ma^
affoni t'o have tight pi nkCr^inTnl^'' ^'^" ^'"^ ^'^^ «-
It empty into the nit from JZZ: a ^ '^ ^^'^ convenient to let
liquid'siuld flowCo it ove'r t too o'f'S^h''" f """' ''^"'^"- - the
then hold a sufficient quantTtv w.thm^t 1 ' '"".^ "' ?"^' t^^« ^P^^ will
require to be where th^qu J fi t ru^^^^^^^^^ «« ''* would
similar to the above, the writer hftT ?^^ l^'.^'^'"- % "'^^na
fn)m the urine of hi stocr even coC kd .t^"'^, ^^^ ^''^' ^^ "^^«»r«
of the manure made from heh dunJ tV/u '''''' '"'^^P^^d^ntly
Farmer's Treasure, pa.el75 botlfnnlf T"° ^^'^^^^ from the
unne and .rikingly i^^^^^^^^^^ of saving th«
dress^ t^Iirl^S^':^^^^^^^^^^ Scotland, ad-
mation on this subject.- TSatelhWr '"u T^^' ^'''^^^^^'^^ ^"^or-
with the .reat impitance o tK fe f^TX ^''^ ''"^^'^'^ '™P'-^«^«d
about to discover, by a lonrr and well mil /' « '"""ure, and he set
the best mode of 'coictin^and apptiS^ «T" ^^.^'^Pf^'^^^-^^ts, '
P^t contiguous to the feeding st^flbuf Lt ! ^f^^" ^^ '^''^'^''^ '•^
wh>ch was appropriated for tTe receptLn of K '^''^^t'J''"^ ^hat
the pit were thirty-six feet souarr an^ I *'''/""/ ^^« dimensions
all sides by a wall, and thS d conte„if I?' ^"'' t'^i «»rrounded on
two yards. Plavine selected tb« T . ^'^ ,""^ ^"^^^'•eJ and ninety-
earth'--and thiXS^to k Cr^^^^^^^ f "' ^ °°"'^^ «"d ^^-^J
cultivation- he proceSMfm. the surface of some field nnd
Jtwo horses wloS ^S^^c^r^ ^'^f -^.*^* ^^^h thjee men^
When the ^or^t^SX^S^S^f^S ""'''' ^^ '^ ^
i^l
*
heap
in a
110
line with the sewer -which conducted the urine fionrthe interior of the,
building, on purpose that it might be distributed with regularity, and
might saturate the whole from top to bottom. The urine was supplied
by fourtkn cattle, kept there for five months on fodder and turnips.
The contents of the pit produced two hundred and eighty-eight loads,
allowing two cubic yards to be taken out in three carts, and he spread
forty of these on each acre,. so that this urine, in five months, produced
a compost sufficient for the fertilisation of seven acres of land."
He states, further, that he had tried this experiment for ten years,
and had indiscriminately used, on the same field, eitiier the cow dung-'
or the saturated earth, and, in all stagelof the crop, he had never been
able to find any perceptible difference. But what is still more wonder-
ful, he found his compost lasted in its effects as many years as his best
manure. , ,. , . \ ■ ■,
It appears, then, that in five months each cow discharges urine, wlucli
when absorbed by iSm, furnishes manure of the richest quality and
most durable effects, for half an acre of ground. The pit which eou-
tained all the dung of the fourteen cattle, as well as the litter employed
in bedding them, and which was kept separate for the purpose of the
experiment, only furnished, during the same period, two hundred and
forty loads, and these, at the same rate, could oniy manure six acres.
From these facts it is evident that the urine which the farmers in
this Island waste is actually wJ)i-th mo* than the dung which they-save,
a conclusion which should certainly lead to an alteration in their pre-
sent practice. ' ,,,!»•, j '
The dung is often drawn out tothe fields in March and April, and
formed into heaps, where it remains until it is ^wanted. This is neces-
sary to forward the spring's work, but it is genei^Uy'left uncovered,
and heats before it is carted oU for 8preading,-and thu^ great portion
of the ammonia— the best of i.ie manure— is lost. AgriCola observes :
" A skilful agriculturist wo ild no more think of allowing a violent
fermentation to be going on in his dunghill, i^nmixed with earth or
matter to fix and secure the {^as, than the distiller would suffer his
apparatus to be set to work ^^ thout surmounting his still with the
worm to cool and condense the .-( refied spirit which ascends in evapora-
tion ; in both the most precious luatter is that which escapes in a gase-
' ous state ; and to behold it escaj irg with unconcerned indifference, is a
demonstration of the most profoum ignorance."
■ The Farmer's Treasure, page 73, gives the following directions:—
'« When it is found necessary to '-art the manure away in order to for-
ward the business of the season, pr(vious to the commencement of the
work a quantity of peat or soil sh.u'd be collected on the spot intended
to receive the dung. The foundat oa of the heap should be laid with
4uch material, about six or nine ii> :i es thick, according to the nature
of the dung to be laid upon it, and it should be rather inclined to the
_ centre, so as to retain as much as p <s ible of the soakage of the heap,
tl-e Bides should be ^ept upright atd the top tevet. At the eonelusion
poor an(
in the n
from tw(
farm as
'culturist
vegetabl
plied; n
remedy j
. acid qua!
will be o;
to it ; ye
dent, and
But to
mixed wii
wajg^ Ji
I '1
ir> *
/'-
IS a
111
" ean"h '^^t;J^Z^^^^^J^^^rc, and part of ApH,.
he can n^ake a heap of nmd ofeakh dni T' ''^'"'''^ ^''^ ''^'^~
cover Lis manure ^vith in tL sprTnt t. if '^^^^"'T''• ^^ «"^''"n to
lee of a bush or fence, where tfesrfo^ «1 ''^ '^'""^'^ ^« P'^^^^'^ ' t^e
Me^v bushes or hurdles to catch theTno^T '''''' T, '^""^""^'"^^ ^ '^^
«f bog mud in this way to cover n.vn, f "''''^ ^ ^''^P^--^ » ' - ^P
find it tlieu easily ..ot at as thl f 7 ,,""''*' T'^P" ^'^ ^he sprint • I
than fiveoraix inchls This^d , ^^^^^^ the hLpL\'
thick over the sides and top ofX c 1!?1,?. ''^ T''^' ^i^t^en%cl 3a
becomes as good as the dune i self n5 ^' T^^'"' ^^« ^"'"^onia, ai d
of manure. ""^ '^'''^' '^"^ greatly in^^reases tire quantity
because, by exposure to the Tun Vl ? ^''''^^' A'' ^' ^^^P^e^d.
J""g is left parched and dry ^nd do^ f ^^^M«ted, aid the
• f\ as when it is ploughed 7dkS conL f?* f ^T^^^y i" the
long time without^eceiving benefit^ I oT?t'1'^/''' '^^^^^ «
spread two or three days before it i, V i \- ^ ^i:eq«entlyx8ce dun-
rotted dung, it might not mSer o^ rSl '?' •?[* ''''' ''''^' ^^«"- ^
made only the winter beforH-t is . , ^ ' "*/,"^* half rotted dung,
speaking, the plough stuld follow ^^f' ^'''f^ P^^tice; con-ectf;
ruust be adapted to our circum tance /n7f ''' v"^"* °"^ P'"'^^^^''^
command sufficient hands to do thfs £ ' ^S ?^.'^ '"'' ^^'"^''^ ««"
^my ^VksV«„/ U lies erjJosedTo he 'J- if /^'"'^ r'""''"^^''^ " '^^^
one need spread more in the forenoon h.n I '^'' "* T^'<' '^"^^ »«
5.^^M./, of which there srundanctiSthTrrr!!" ^'^''' '''^^'■
able manure, but very cenerallv np."w ? this Island, is a most valu-
poor and worn out, its^oS tllS h ' rT ^^"'"'"'^ ^^^« ^ '>'•'"
m the midst of hi* worn out fiS 11^ cannot get manure, and yet
from two to five feet deen cLt^S; "''®' °' ^'^^^^"^'^ '^cro of mid
.farm as rich^as a gLS' ThTZ^dT^ '"^'^'^'^^ '' "^'^^^^ the whole
'culturist, speaking of b^c^ and kwI "'" ''• ^"^ ^^^^^^^ ^gri-
vegetable nStrition^re Zes of wealt^to th^V~~" ^'^^ ^^^^rvoirs^f
Phed; nor can he justify LlTell"^^
remedy is within his reacL" S S Jf J^,Tf ^'' ^1^ ^^^^^ t4 .
acid quality, and then if spread «ml^?. iT^ frequently contains an
will be of little or no serviS to the fi«??^^ '""I''^^ ^'^"^ '^' H, it
to it ; yet, even then, in a yea^ or two L ff ' "i^^ Tl ^'^'^ ^^no^
dent, and will be found durabll ' ^"^^^''^^ effects will be evi-
r^^^^^^'i^ti^r^^^^^^^^ effect, it shouFd be
112 '
by Fegsenden'a Cbraplete Farmer-iS this : I first form a bottom of
ufud fifteen feet wide and eight or -ten inches deep ; then lay «"« layer
of manure about six inches deep; then eight «r ten "jche^ «f l""f '
then six inches of manure, and so on, alternate layers ot mud and ma-
nure, Si the heap is about four and a I'-^^t^'''^. '>\gl' ' .^^V'^^f.V"!'
and lop arc then coated ^^•ith mud ten or twelve niches thick ; the ma-
iu e a^.d mud should be thjown, on from each side, and no one a h>wed
to tread on the heap, because, if it is packed too- closely, ,t av>11 not
herso-well. The di'yer the mud the less manure wdl be required U.
cause the whole tt, heal I generally make the compost m A.gust or
September, and use about one load of manure to three of mud , it not
made up till October, I use a larger proportion of "manure as more s
then remiired to produce heat than when the weather is hotter. Jiariy
n tiling the heap -is turned; it then heats slight yag>un, and ,8
ready for tufnips or Jther crop, and a cart load of it w.U be tound equal
to a cart load of farm yard manure.
In mixing it with lime, I have found twenty barrels of roach . mo
«ufficirnt fo"r one hundred cart-loads of mud. The lime shouW be
sSed beside the mud, and mixed with it while it ,s hot; ,t should
remain a year in compost, awVbe two or three times turned.
A hcs Lve the same purpose, and in nianr parts of the Mand are
more easily obtained than lime. Dr. Dana, of Massachusetts, r^com-
' mends eight bushels of unleached wood ashes to be mixed with one cord
of mud, which, he says, is equivalent to pure cow dung in valua 1
have found the following method of preparing this mud cheap and i^c-
Sve— I draw out the mud and dump the loads near he bog; making
the heap about thirty feet wide, leaving it just as it falls ^om the car ,
without leveUing; then haul the roots thrown out. in d.ggmg the mud,
rdSthem on the heap; then haul out the moss which has been
nulled off the bog in getting at the mud, and pile it on the heap over
fhe root, in this way it toon dries. I then burn it, and he a«hes
cover the mud ; I then throw in about five feet from each side of the
heap, and put ^n a fresh layer ot.mu4; then pile on more roots and
mZ and burn again, and so on ti» pile is as high as I wish t ;
E turn the whole, and let it^ lay ovV the winter. I have treated
about five hundred loads of mud in this manner, which seems to me as
good as that prepared with lime, while the cost of the lime is saved.
Spreading this mud in the barn yard^ or cattle pen, where it ^pce.ves
the droppings, and is trodden by the cattle, i^also a good mode oi pr^
paring FtTbut then it is advisable to make it up in a heap for a monttx
or two before it is used, that it may heat.
(3.)
Agricola
r
Manures.
If
"When a country advances, in the progress of improvement, from pas-
turage to .tillage,, the various sources of manure are investigated and
%ugl after W ot avidity wmimensurat* to thefeiiventspirit of enter-
113
J'ttle or no exertions mSLlL T,' ?** ''^'''''' we discover
means the aggregate heap bevMd thLrS' ^T''^''^ ^^ "^^ificial
;3 reqaisito of thf state of d7b«tl^^^^^ ? ^"'^^^«'' P^<^f
the other hand, when a viJariT^rl^.- T''"^^"'"^ ^^'^
alort; *hen numerous exSte arH T'°« 'l^^^'^J' '" «^«r on the
well as to improve ZaSvJ^^ ^"^^ \ ""'"'g« the quantity as
both in the^ngr^ir^nd^lrtr^ ;:i^^^
and expefimcnt; these are the W^"^^'?'' ^^'^^ *>f' cariosity
vigour, and ,„«; be haS as the nrS'™' f '"^'^""''"S >'''« "'"^
auspicious prospecte, Th7 ardour ofZ7'7. ^^ ""''' ^"^"^''^g '"'^
was ushered in by these ZJnT '^'cultural pursuit in EnSland
nosuhjoctctf U'S tTni^^^^^^^^ t P"""^' ^'^^^Z''-^'
dunghiU. Every kingdom of nafnr! I \ ^ '^'^'nentatilb of the
• substances endowed wSK«,ILS! f r^'r ™»^«l^«i. to find out
to the assistance of arf^Shf h«f ^'''^Jl ^^'^"«« ^«« ^^^^^ ^
joined in d.e general research A», l^'^P^^'fro'D her dignity, and
«Wl wlih^he vty ri^ i*^^^^^^^^ instead of ifa'ving
. -quiry, has only be/n.^dT;" etSte'd'^r has attended th^
Ihe COMPOST MIDDENS of Lonl M^LXf l^ adventurous efforts,
^lecojnposable matter, tl^ SmuZ^r^ the mixture of soil with
mtr^uction of burnt clay%rnSinThr°^ ^™''"^°^ *^>« J«t«
aa If stimulated by one common imn.?l ^''** ""T' ^" ^bich all men,
deed, unless oihJr^l^^ZTesZt^'ro^' ^''^ ^"^^g^'^' ^'»-
of vegetation, than the simpIeTntents ; "th"^^ to replemsk the waste
could not sustain the half of heir r^nnl.^L ^'T"^' ^reat Britain
, territorial domains that exhirl ?' "°' 1.'*^ ^'-^^ ber own
mis for her commerce and S^s ^^^ ^''^ P'""^'^^^ °^'^*«-
luxuries of life. This exube»anr« n? necessibes, comforts, and
improved a^d skilful me^Ss Tot of cTA "'^ '^^^ ^ ^^^^S^^^ the
plying the efficacy of putrSbLl/ *'"^*'^'^ Jf' »« "^uch a«^multi-
ll^Btory when, like this^PrS sh« ''' ^^''^ ^^^jod in her
country." and when buteSISaf boZr''. ? ^T'^^ *^^» « ^o^
wheat and other gfain. Whe^ wl r! !^^ °^ '«^''*'"^ '« Price to
a^e struck with ?he palpabl blunde^'^^r^ ^o
between them and our own a strifeinT a ^°««.Pr""''^'^°d trace,
manures then i^ use ww^ th« iS,^ ^°^ remarkable analogy. The
vcattle on the farm, unaidS bv Jh^'' ' «^°^T'^«ti<,u8 ^^,,% ,f ;J«
be^ since introducriXLhr-TP^«°d>gredient^ which have
raw m.aterial8 from wS S mSl^r'''^'''"'^ '" '^' %bt of the ^
.truth, without great TtSdn to th« .'«* T ""'^ "'«°"fectured. In
article, our agrLlturcaf Jlver Jise^^ «f this necessarj "
be rain to ur^ the extended 0^^ of ST'^'^'V '^^"^ ^°«'^
the means of repairing the exh^»!fiZ c^ '''^^' "''^^^s we possess
acted oir in PhinSrs, a^ is nDw r.„t« ^ *^', "^ V^* ^^^ been long
5
X
T5
TObjecSed^toacon-
I' *
IJ4
"iiS.
A
:'it
tmued course of -cropping, without any extraneous dung, other th^
wliat ia made on thf* promiBP» trom the consumption of gveen crops,
'^r-iw, and fodder. Jho catii- which are fed on turnips, the horsea
»!iu t'oyel in labour, the piga and poultj-y, are prfectly sufficient to sup-
ply luch a quantity, under the direction of a scientific manager, as wdl
annually restore (o the "land that richness of which it ia deprived ; and
at the same time admit the grain to be carried to market, to meet the
wants of the xiomniunity. Every spot, in both countries, con be made
to repair its own /waste: and' the luxuriance of one is neVer employed
to correct the poiiforty of another. Here our rich marshes afid intervales
arc taxed, an<l jjis it wore, laid under contribution, for the benefit and^
support of our ijiplands. .
In tiie further prosecution of this subject, I shall point out soiiie
capital errors in the management of manure, which' prevail, with few
exct'[)tions, throughout the whole province, and which have a most per-
nicious iiifliicnoe on our agujciritural progression ; and I shall prescribe
■,.tho remedies which the case suggests, and which are practicable under
existing oircunKsUnices. „ • .
1 observe ii\ the first place, that we have almost no pits dug upon a
regular plan for the collection and preservation of the dung, which from
time to time is wheeled Out df the barn. Sometimes it is spread otft
on the gieen sward; somotiii|e§«iMt carelessly jn a court, or adjoining
yard ; but seldom, in an excbKatfon matlo purposely for retaining the
■juices whiclrrun from it. Tpese are sufiered either to stream along
■ the surface, or si.nk into the earth-; and in both cases their utility is
sacrificed to inattention and Jgnorance. This is no more, however
than the.half of the evil. The exhalations, which arise from the ardent
influence of a summer's sun, and from the natural activity of fermenta-
tion, are permitted to escape freely, and to carry along with them all
the strength and substance of the putrescible matter, ^'o means are
■ taken to fix the gases i/phich are generated, and which couslatute the
elements of vegetable food. I do not-knpw if there be onZ solitary
instance throughout the rwide range of the province, of :^e application
of soil on the surface of a dunghilj, to prevent this uq|iHa|pLlM^astc
and dissipation ; and I am t6p*^i>fident, there is Doijflj ffli ^ro the
lottoni with a regular coat or lay^r, to imbibe the |S^n||ra[^ure.
The diing, too, is suffered to roj, without any attentioff^^lifcvePto the
(fegree of heat; and I should star tle\ my read^, were I to tell them
fi.that tlie fermentation should n^yer he urged beyond 100° of Fahren-
kii*|t'a thermometer. At a much lower heat, carboniO acid, carburetted
-sj^a^^H'^ ^^® °^^*'' g^8*8 °^ ^^»t family, ascend as elastic fluids,
^^lH^i?^^iMlP^ ^%^ '" ^''^ atmosphere. The dunghill becomes
"^fRE-FANaED, and the principles of fertility are expelled
"of thos*Jri|g!5iical laws whiph regulate and pervade th$
j8ul>tle paniHes of matter.
^ Jf^theSmg be injudiciously treated, the urine discharged by the cattle
is squandered, and indeed al tog ethe r lost. T his is owing to the coiu^
8
t
/
^15
l^^ caljle. except what ifi M yift '"'^^ ''^'^^^hoK- ^rine f
J»gbi»olaoa,e pool of steudt wTtJ; "' Th?' ^"''"^^^ '''« ''-" -
m !$?'*¥'"*"«'• Wirh which it is S^XrL' •''"'"'"'' ^'^•^^ntS of
X i#/«'-'^' «nd either qjount uo ttoSy «' '"'""^ ''"''^''Jj^ ^^^^ «««e-
«^> Y the building. At all e Jt« tSertSi ■■ ''" r"P^ ^^ '»'« ^'"Jes
«o actount, and the loss, f^m th^ S •''"« ^"'''«^'''« '^-e tu„.ed to
jond calculation. It may bTnectsr/ in °"'"''''"^'*'''« '""'«"« be-
. ihe amount of this mischief ?hat u'"^' " ««'"'' ^^eaeure, to aacemin
of such formidable maSde wS. I ^^ "'' "^"' ^^^^''^^t'^g an ev
should be afraid to haz^^d m^ chlri °"-?r ?"'^ '''''^^^ enc^y. I
round and unqualified JgZe t^ „ .T'^r* r ^^ in ^
literally wasted, and throWli ^^Lv \Z 1 ^V%"?-^' ,^"'"« ^h'^J^ W
cauuon, and give a det^HrllLZt^'''^"''' ^'^'^M Proceed wi^h
jubstontiated by the best author^ Sv''" '" tJ^«^> b««rings-and
fi-om Charles Alexander, l^ear Pe/bles fn^r/!?'''^^ '" '^ J«"^^*
h^Ji:/^:^-'--. - >812, Cpubli^^^^^ ^d'i-sed
u^ ^^^-!!.-p--d -h'«t i:S^Zta^^;?^^^
tie as a manure : and he slf ,.h^, .^. ?• '"PO^-'a^iceof the ijine of cat-
.ducted seriea of ^xp^eimtnt, tTLltTJ^r-' S ^""« «"^' -» "-
't- He began, by diggin^^ L Ik Vnl? ^ °^ co lecting and applyinir
d.8t.nct altogether^roTJh^at wEh wal^r^^^^^ /^^ ^''"8 «^^" bu?
of dung The dimensions of C T ^T'*'"*^ ^^ *^« ^<^<=^Ption
were 36 feet square and 4 feet .IpL^ ' ^<'*^°'^'"g ^ his own account
and the solid L ten" Ver^l 9^1^^^^^^ «° f Bides by aVa?/:
«pot where he could find loamy ^.S and 111!^ 'f''''^ '^'' "^^--^s
surface of some field under ^cuTttaiion t ' *'TT '*^^ ^^^^ the
found that, with three men a^d two hlj, K ^"^'.f''^ "" ^" ", and
28 cubic yards per day • and th« ^f '' ^® '^''"^^ ^'^^Ij accomplish
e^thdid'notex?eedT4'l63 WhrnlV'^r^ of tranfportin?the
'Wthe surface of the hp«n in r ^® J*"""^ ^*8 complete, heTeveL-
which conducted Re unne from th« "'. ^"^ *^. '''^'^'^ the b wer
that it might be dlSted'^/,^;"^^^^^^ on pu^TS ;
whc^e from top to bottom. The quSI .2' '"''i '"'^^' saturate the
at about 800 gallons- but as ThiH i ^ °°''^^^** ^« it, he estimates
conjecture, fo? he meas^S^no^;!, r"'*''°? ^'^^ ^«"»^ded partly on
-tructive to furnish a^dTro.^^ t daHi. 'I "'" '' ^^"^ «^^ -o'^ .
trov^rtible. The urine wi sSieS bv 14 n ..f '^'?'" ""*^ i"<=on-
stone each, and kept there for KonS.«i^S' ^«'«j"»S about 84
*Parmer'i Mansina. »ni. ib _i_- » . '^^
•Pwiner'i Mug^m, rol. J8, pi^ „,
>^\
S: ■ ••
5^'
'-*
,i^ *
"'V
i,!
116
8uffi<^^nt for the fertilijsation of seven acres of land. He states further,
that he had tried this experiment for ten years, and had indiscriminately
used; m the same field either the rotted cow dung, or the satutatcd
earijh; and m all the stages of the crop, he had never been able to dis-
cover any perceptible difference. But what is still more wonderful, ho
tound that his compost lasted in its effects as many years as his best
pirtrescent manure ; and he therefore boldly avers, that a load of each
13 of equivalent value. Conclusions of vast importance are deduciblo
from this statement, and I cannot resist the feeling of placing them in
a strong and advantageous light. They speak a volume of instruction •
^nd if wo are willing to learn, they must lead to a v<}ry material alte-
iration m the construction of our bams It appears, then, that in five
months each cow discharges urine which, when absorbed by loatn, fur-
nishes manure of the richest quality, and most durable effects, for half
ari acre of ground. The dung pit, which contained all the ' excremen-
titious matter of the 14 cattle, as well as the litter employed in- bedding
them, and which was kept separate for the purpose of the experiment
only furmshed during the same period 240 loads, and these, at the
same rate, could only manure six acres. The aggregate value of the
urine therefore, when compared with that of the, dung, was in the ratio
ot 7 to 6 ; 80 thdt we are borne out by these premises in this extraor-
dinary inference, that the putrescible liquor which in this province, and
under the management of our farmers, is wasted and annihilated m far
as regards any useful purpose, is intrinsically worth more than the
dtiijg as an efficacious and permanent dressing ; and if we take into
consideration, that this latter manure is not treated with any skrll and
.judgment; it will not seem surprising that the cultu*e of white crops
has never hecn carried here to any extent since we have despised and
neglected the only means of creating them.
These defects call aloud for amendment. No country is entitled to
be styled agricultural, where the fundamental maxims of the science are
80 outrageously violated, and where the prevailing practice sets at nought
the simplest rules of the art. Grazing draws forth no energies of the
inmd ; it -is compatible with indolence, stupidity, and a gross ignorance
of al principle; the Arab in the desert can tend his flocks and herds
and leave their multiplication to the instinctive appetites of nature- it
IS only the first step from the savage life, and in place of hunting 'for
the prey which he devours, man tames and domesticates the lower
animals, but leaves their increase, their subsistence, their diseases to
the unguided agency of natural causes. 'Tis the plough, which awakes
his dormant faculties, and stimulates to industry. Like the Soverei-rn
of the creation, he commands, and is obeyed ; ho speaks, and it is doife
1 he weeds, which are the natural inJhates of the soil, disappear at his
bidding ; the grasses spring .up, and form a carpet for his feet • the
corns are subjected to his power, and wave their loaded ear around his
■ dw e lli n g t the forest gives up its fruit t|gefi, to load hts ta^le with their
luscious products ; and the features of a rugged and forbidding territory
117
?*
^^^^JZX^:^^'^^ .often .U. .H,
and unsubdued state; and its hrbanrJrJ .^'"^'T '' '^^'^ * rude
ter For this, it is not d^cult to ^ccTunT F ' '^"' general ^harac-
of all habits, and of all ranks of LTpflf ^^^igranta of all trades,
quest of subsistence mZp?.. ^' T^ °" ^^'' ^'^'^k^ strand in
andoftheaccuniuinofTeS Tn^'*^' f^P""g «f civiliz' ti
an old country, abounding ^jf^rulrr^ ^"^ ^^''^ ^^^ ^"^^ '-"«
have none, and cannot have hem Z "! P^P^'^^^o^^- ]iere wo
stranger driven from the only sL on Jvl"?' J^' ""^ortunato
refuge from despair by plunS SZf. ^^^ ^J' ^?P° "-^^^d, seeks
to answer the cravinrrs of SJf .*"'*'''' ""^'^ ^^^tivating the soil
capital, without the beUVoftr et^ 1 .^'^^'^"^ ^^ilf wro:;
farmer, ready to run into every bSr S' 5 • °"'' * self-taught
^ and to which the vicious cuE of thl L f 'p'^T'' '^^^ ^"vented,
authority. His hut, his ba n his ill.r '^ ^'^^ ^^"' '^' ^''^"^t'on of
hi8 stock, are all chosen withon? L ^ i"'°^' ^^ liusbandry, his seed
out the least exerci^oTtt unSS;"' TT'' ^" "^ -^''-
exact a rent, no government t^ hvyt^efj-l if ^''- "" ^^^^^^^''^ *«
Hft.3oon rises above want • the Znf 1 ' 7*' ^"^ ''"'^^^e industry,
iim a scanty subsistence;' the CriL 7??"^""^'""^ ^^*'*« ««'> J'«l^
and mdjstinct distance ■ and. 1, « f!^^.- f"" "^^ '^^" ^^ly at a dim
rounding circumstances; M into aX^^'" '^'^'^^P ^^ ^^^
he stirred up, aroused, and forc^d1ntll'°''PS-^^^.'^^''F- ^« «»«^
superior and exalted characters who frlh ^^'' ''. ^^' P^-^^'^ce of
preside over his destiny. To tL^ . • ? their devated rank in society
and their memory shalfdescend to *^^^^^ is dull
of a present generation. We areSnS' '"^'^^''^ ^^ *^« ^'o^^'^g^
pubhc attention is excited; wLre pE^h"^' "'^ r"^ «P°^-i'; the .
of our past errors ; we are vmtiLZJ^t to counVovcr the catalogue
full of promise and pregLrS ml "^^'^"^ '• V^ '^ "«^^ age-
desolate and forlorn pVosJecte ^'"P'^<>^«"«'^t-is Vising on our
out^ro^ tatr tt^dtis t' '-'^ ^^'-^-^ ^« PO-d
without correction. The rereffar 'notTnr' ''T'J'k ''^^-^^
to every farmer of moderate cap Si an?l i ^ T^^'' ^"* %o,sMe
provoment will bo compensated by the tZ "^' y^'' ''^^^^- '
years saving. ^ " ''•'' *"o first, or at most, the se^nd
-eld .hafitC'S'ilt ntr?; "' ° ?!;«r'' I «-M 'ei
*ree feet deep, and of . .i«?^ .■ '"'"' *'"* "'""U bo du^ »bo„,
w^uipieie, but, if open an<l porous,
118
it ehould be coated with clay, and lined with large and coarse flags.
Into this pit, earth from some neighbouring field, should be first brought
and strewed over the bottom and sloping sides, to the thickness of from
9 to 12 inches. Thus a safe depository will be prepared, for the clean-
ings of the barn, for waste straw and weeds, for the sweepings of the
kitchen, for the stems of ^us, beans, cabbages, potatoes, and in short
all vegetable matter of wo(wy fibre, as well as for the dung of the feed-
ing cattle. After a complete layer of putrescible matter has been spread
all over, and when the symptoms of an active fermentation have become
A'isible, the earth, which was thrown out of the excavation, may be
slowly returned and scattered on the surface of the heap, to catch the
exhalations which arc ascending. Hither, too, the urine should either
be conducted by a drain, or carried by buckets; for it is ari unpardon-
able waste to lose the benefit of this rich invigorating manure. The
earth which lies at the bottom will greedily drink up the urine and the
vegetable juices, and thus gain a large accession of nutriment and value.
So soon as the pit is filled up in the manner herein described, it should
be emptied of all its contents ; and these should be carted to the field
where they are meant to be afterwards applied, and there laid down in
some convenient corner, to be mixed up and sorted into a profitable
compost. The pit, adjoining the barn, may be again lined with mould,
and the former operations repeated in procuring and augmenting its
contents.
According to this plan every farmer, at the first opening of next
spring, should cart out his dung, and form it at once into a composite
pile, which, if skilfuHy managed, will gather heat, and undergo the pro-
cess of fermentation before it will be needed in seed time. He should
then instantly set about the digging of his pit, and the other alterations
on the barn which are indispensable to the successful collection and pre-
servation of his future manure. During summer this pit should be
emptied twice or thrice according to circumstandes ; and its fermentable
and earthy materials traosported to the ground which they are dfestmcd
to fertilize, and there subjected to a new process. Towards the fall,
which by its length and mildness makes amends for the advantages of
more favoured regions, all those compost heaps as well as the dung
about the barnyard, should be spread on the land, which is meant to be
immediately ploughed. In the mean while, an additional stratum of
mould should be distributed along the bottom and sides of the pit before
the approach of winter, andj^hring that rigid season the dung may be
accumulated without any extraordinary care, as the intensity
is unfavorable to putrefaction, and little loss will " '*^
dissipation of the gaseous matter. Such farme:
the trouble, and have suitable convenience
up beforehand a quantity of dtj earth, whic!
dunghill in the depth of winter, on such placi
mentiitiou.
2nd, ^^kesfr leaaMka aad g e n e ra l ^ eaflmai BffiMwHkav» prepured idy
* V*
V the
te a strong fer-
T(
01
«^s
of
ra
ab
th
Ii
pa:
me
to
of
wili
whi
the
sibh
ing
belo
As t
joist)
sides
who!
the s
Bytl
and 1
Thee
floor,
pletelj
whole'
from e
Aft(
arrang
design(
shai-e (
ground
declivit
liquid r
that all
'ng, wh
stream.
laid witl
interstic
pressed]
verse bei
*o preser
decidedly
119
ot bjtter and deep bewailing as tlJ In^L ^""^ ""^ ^^'« country and
rapid advancement. ReforrThJr! "1 P'^^^^^'' o*" our future and
a^^e cost; and IanticS::^"^^,t;jrtrP "''•^''^^^^'^ -ithout considTr^
the soundness of the conclusions Stt!'''"^'""'"^^' "^^withstand^^.
1 must, however clina t^ ^uT' ^ ^"® Gamiest utility of ,i rl ^
partial obedient'; t^ffr^ueJtt/ T'^>" '' ^e-Lli^-^fej
«e m ^ eourse/and borne^rn LyiS'^''^'''"' ^'''« ^^^'^^ -'n-'ed
to listen to tho call arid s^f tK / ^ "^ ^" ^^'^ mi(Jst of diffipnlf.I
7hTL!^ T^ '"^^ ^« effectually obS , . ''^""^^ ''"^ P^^n by
the materials to be employed s, rhT t ' ^"^ ^' ^^^^-^ 's a choice in
fi;Jth^"'^p-^"'°'^'"'-S.'"AfS^^^^ - -e most ::ce "
Zf *^«, f«»"dation round and round Hn?" "^ *^^^ P^^"'^'^' «"d build-
below the flooring should tLrb^finT ^ ^''« siJJ«, the void "pace
As there will be a necessitv 7. . ^^^ '''"^ Packed firm with p/hK
JJts which, besides su'p^/Se^r^^^ P-seuTsl ^Tor
81 les of the frame niecei of '5 • P/'*°^'^' ^md and unite thf^ tZ
whole breadth.„daraZte'Tnd"^^ be stretch^acfoL
the s lis, enher by a mortise or bv 7 'f "'"^ ^^ ^^e bottom of
By t . n,eans the^trength o^^he Lt^^^^ a round iron Tolt
and the operations may nroc J^ S T ^,^ Preserved unimpaired •
The earth should then be fi^fn tUl ir' ^"'^^"r'ng the strS'
floor ancf it should be bea en din K l' *' ^^« '«^«1 of the present
Pletely consolidated. A stttum of / * ^'^-^ ™^J'«'- till it fscom
. 'ng, which I have describ^ L th« ^* °" ' outsidJof the bu"£
120
f
the floor with them, although perhaps a little more expensive in the
first instance, will in the qnd much better answer his expectations.
The stalls should be laid with thera e^fctly in the manner in which
Water-street here has bden lately improved ; and the gutter may be
formed either of similar materials, or preferably of smooth flag-stones,
like those forming our foot pavements.
The adoption of these improvements in the disposition of our barns
will give a mighty impulse to agriculture ; the urine and vegetable
juices, which are now lost and dissipated, would multiply the powers of
fertility ; and the extended cultivation of white crops from the wonder-
ful increase of putrescent manure, would be propelled with a celerity
proportioned to the ardent hopes of the country.-'
Young, in his letters of Agricola, was the first writer who directed
the attention of farmers in this province to the use of peat or swamp
muck in the preservation of composts. His method, which has been
successfully practised by many farmers, well deserves to be re-
published.
" It would be unjust to deprive.Lord Meadowbank of Uie well-earned
honour of having been the first who investigated and ascertained, on
scientific principles, the immense value of this species of manure.
That learned judge, perceiving that peat was entirely composed of vege-
table substances endowed with an antiseptic virtue, or •' a capacity of
resisting putrefaction," instituted a philosophical inquiry into the
nature of this singular quality, and the manner in which it nught be
overcome. From his extensive chemical knowledge, and his diligent
and painful researches, he found that this antiseptic power owed its
origin to the acitls, and the astringent principle of tan : and as these
"were reduced, in succulent and fresh vegetables, by the hot fermenta-
tion to which they were exposed in the full career of putrefaction, he
wisely concluded that the same cause would produce in peat the same
efiects. After varying his experiments in the course of six years, he
published the results in a pamphlet, which ho distributed gratis, and
thus acquired to himself an immortal name in the records of Scotch
Agriculture. The compost middens of Lord Meadowbank will be known
and recollected by the latest posterity, when the decisions which he
passed on the Bench, of which he was the prop and ornament, shall
liave worn away by the corrosive touch of oblivion. The peat to be
used, according to his lordship's directions, may be taken, either from
the top or bottom of the bog ; but the turfy parts ought to be laid aside,
as most unsuitablQ for the operation. After being thrown out of the
pit, it should lie for some weeks till drained of its moisture, and then be
transported to the field' where the compost midden is to be formed.
The proportion of the ingredients should be one ton of dung to th^ of
moas ; but although these were the proper quantities with the materials
which his lordship employed, it has been found from experience that
other proportions may be safely and judiciously adopted. In fact, the
mixture should depend on the nature both of &e dung and jeat which
ton
it 8
exp
it k
puti
be c
six i
ceed
till t
be Sf
inatei
state,
w lat
nent j
operat
post ;
and tu
tion ol
whole
with tl
perfect
formed
of the f;
ted, wh:
fered to
the long
perfeotlj
'Q
121
«re to be compounded w-, ^
^m also be taken "nf "^ ^"^ ^«"«"' The nan i.'"^ ''^P''^ ««d
''P^'re vegetable bX/''""."' '"^ ^«^«"4 the wf ^''^ P^^*- too,
«n an elevated «,h{: '''' of extraneous mmTr ^ ^'^^'^"'s- ^'ome i>
«;ig>-natedina patch om'"'^^^^^ «"d putte cible "'"' "^ ''''^'
liable to be occaln.n ^"^ ^^"^' ^^ « the 6orn^; ■/^'^"*"^'« ^'^ has
place of exhibif^,' ^ *'"'^"' ^'a'^rs, with wb?.f ?• ^^ '''« Primitive
Matter may SoL'^'^ '' '"^''^ *» fluid than a Si L?''"^^"^ ^^e con-
without aYv L?n ^.' '^'^'^ *" the -arable fi^u^^'^^J^- ^uch peaty
needed by ten ^^cL^ f ?"'" '^' ^'^^ stra um^ tJ^ ''?« ^^e bottom
t'" the latter ieib^ V^''^' ^^'"^ «'^' of moss fon^^?/''""'^ ^ «"«-
be spread to raise f.'' '^^'' '^'' whole ' a L/^'' "'^ ^'^ «°'
Material. fronTZ? "['^'^"" *« the heSof fn^ /^ '°"^« ^^ould
«r later, accori ," m '"T^°^ ^Tmentation which ? "" '^° ^'^^^^^t
^ith the ?pade j? f^ f ^ "P. ^^rnmeSgTtL o';^« '">^'t*^' 'h« '
perfect manner A ^^ "materials, and m^int ,i ' '^J^' "'^^PP'ng
formed on the Lm. °'^- ?'"' ^^"otlj resemS°^,^^^f ^" *^« *««
of thefermema fon .''^""''P'^' «d*^'°/either mcTn?? ^'^^*' ^^^"Id be
K which in a few f ^'"''n' ""^'^^erasecoThr.l""^."' ^^« «tet«
tbe lonxriTj; "!'* ^'' be mstantlv reX ^ «»- - ? '^°"''' ''^ snf-
„ t'**-\,' ztr v;
122
freely disengaged. In summer, the whole preparation may be fiilTshed
in eight or ten weeks'; hut in wiij^er, no injury will be sustained by
keeping the materiasls in compost till the opening of the spring. Three
tona of moss to one of dung would in this country, I fear, loim an un-
fermentable compound, from the auperabundance of cow-excrement,
which is of a cooling nature, and less liable to violent heat : and on that
account I would depart a little from the, ordinary rule, and recommend
two loads of dung to five of moss, which I do with some diffidence, as I
am not in possession of any experiment of the kind that has been tried
in tl^ia province, ulthough it is clearly deducible from the- principles laid
down. It cannot* however, be a ditiiciilt task to discover the just pro-
portions of the ingredients, s« the process itself will soon teaCh an atten-
tive observer, and lead h m infallibly to the proper mixture. He has,
on the ontf'hand, to guard against excessive heat, which can always be
■ checked. by adding peat; and on the other, to bring on an active fer-
mentation, Avhich can be hccomplishcd by enlarging the quantity of
dung. A slight experience will very soon instruct our farmers in the
due medium ; and as I have been at pains to set forth the governimr
principles of the art, the plaii\est dictates of the. understanding will be
a sufficient guide fu all cases of composting. '
It will not, I believe, be unacceptable to my readers to insert here
an extract from the small treatise of thejearnrd judge, which Avas prin-
ted and distributed very extensively for l^oof of the Scottish peasant-
ry; and I do this the rather, because the subject, on account of its
novelty and repugnance to common ideas, may bo received with some
distrust,"uulesi conveyed in the very words of the author.
' Let the peatmoss, of which compost is to be formed, be thrown out
of the pit for some weeks or months, in order to lose* its redundant
moisture. By this means, it is rendered the lighter to carry, and less
compact and weighty, when made up with frcih dung, for fermentation ;
and accordingly, less dufig is required for the purpose, than if the pre-
paration is made with peat taken recently from the pit. The peat
taken from near the surface, or at a considerable depth, ansjjers equally
well ; and the more compact the peat, and the fitter to prove o-ood fuol,
so much the more promising it is to be prepared for manure.
' Take the peat-moss to a dry spot, convenient for constructing a
dunghill, to serve the fi«ld to be manured. Lay the cart-loads of it in
two rows, and of the dung in a iw betwix^hcm. The dung thus lies
on the area of the compost dung'lnll, and the rows of peat should, be
near enough each other, that workmen in making up the compost may
Ijc Hble to throw them together by the spade. In making up, let the
workmen begin at one end ; and, at the extremity of the row of dung,
(which should not extend quite so far at that end as the rows of peat on
each side of it do',) let them lay^a bottom of peat, six inches deep, and
fifteen feet wide. Then throw forward, and lay about ten inches of
dung above the bottom of peat ; then four or five of dung ; and then
cover jt ov«r with peat at the end wbew it was begun, at the two siae^
and aI)ove.
123
uad check tlip f..r,n. ? • P ^ P'*t->88 too heavilir « '^^'^ ^^-t and a
-f J'.^ht. and%tn atS^" "°^"^. ^'^^ Pea^fc^^^^^ P-ts,
't be much lower nM ^reatphaght isdesimhl "^k^ • /^''^ P"fly
and soou also Tf ,1 '"'*' '^ ^vilr prove wmnr u"^''^^^^ should
^he i"''red el L- ''\.T'^*^'^ ^'^ very drv^ !f ^" *^« ««n»pactne6s,
^Vhen^rt " nn?n "'^^''l '' ^^"«'"«'« to «;/" *^'« ""^f »ro required fo
^"okwards 3 S- '' '^"^ ^"'^^^ the: worlmenT^ '^ '" ^"^^ other.
'l?»g. a.,1 rather "hieCZ n'"""" '""«™ 'he t»» ™ !', ■" '^''J
"ineer, if „roi,,i,l J-,i .'"° »'"'-'"• Wat iriih r».„f r. ■ '^P "^ 'Ve™ "f
'ho P"r„.f ™ I'l-Z'^'-f-ca. be S:.„ J '■,? 1° PT' »
little occasion to l^T' ^^ ^^^ ^^'^fihilfis th^ f '^^"^ ^^^^ i"
■», '•-«.*M^B-V->.-«**MK>4 Jif ^
■ 124
by adding the peat piece-meal, that is, first making it up in the usual
proportion of three to one of dung, and then, after a time, addiuff an
equal quantity, more or les*. of peat. The dung of this character of
greatest quantity, is shamhle-dung, with which, under the above pre-
cautions, SIX times the quantity of peat, or more, may be prepared.
Ihe same holds as to pigeon-dung and other fowl-dung; and to a cer-
tain extent also, as to tliat which is collected from towns, and made by
animals that foed on grains, refuse of distilleries, etc. *
' The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat sooner or
later, according to the weather, and the condition of the diur' • m
summer, m ten days or sooner ; in winter, not perhaps for many weeks
it the cold IS severe. It always, however, has been found to come on
at last, and m summer it sometimes rises so high as to be mischievous
by consuming the materials, (fire-fanging). In that season, a stick
should be kept m it m different parts, to pull out and feel now and then •
for if It approaches to blood-heat, it should ei'ther be watered or turned
over; and on such an occasion, advantage may be taken to mix it with
a little fresh peat* The heat subsides alter a time, and with great
variety, according to the weather, the dung, and the perfection of the
making up of the compost ; which then may bo allowed to remain
untouched, until within three or four weeks of using, when it should be
turned over, upside down, and outside in, and all lumps broken • then
It comes into a second heat, but soon cools and is fit to be taken out for
use. In tins state the whole, except bits of the old decayed wood
appears a black free mass, and spreads lik« garden-mould Use it
weight for weight, as farm-yard dung, and it will be found, in a course
of cropping, iully to stand the comparison.'
Hitherto I have treated the sol'ject as if excrcmentitious matter alone
possessed the power of effecting and accelerating the putrefaction of
moss ; and it was this view which Lord Meadowbank chiefly impressed
at first on the public attention; but many other substances, he after-
wards discovered, are endowed with this same capacity. Here mv
general theory of putrescent manures receives a collateral and happV
confirmation ; for it is now found, from a thousand repeated tiials that
all animal and vegetable substances which are capable of beinT converted
by decompcsition into the food of plants, are also capable of operating
on peat earth, of dissolving the charm of its incorruptibilty, of expelling
lis poisonous and antiseptic qualities, and of transmuting it into a most
efficient manure. Hence putrid water, the juices of the dunghill the
oxpressionawt the cheese-press, the washings of milk vessels, soap s'uds
the oils and juices of green flax, urine of all descriptions, succulent
vegetables and weeils, dead animal bodies, refuse of fish, nidit soil sea
weed are all invested^ the property of generating heatrand assist-
ing the fermentation of>at; and composts maybe formed with all
• In Jiin.-. 1730. a o..n,,,«t wc. formed only 2} penl to 1 dunir ; ii heiited in July l-evond.
Ibe mn.,...re „f « ,her...-.„,e.er gn.di.a.ed at 110 = . Hurt wa, «l|,„ved to .u.nd.mrt mr^d
a«r « illi a. Jm f .nom am«. TWweek* after, <18tb *»,»»,>, he hwf^ tteMrW
deicendeJ to S4 » , while Miat of the latter had got up to above 1 10 = . *" "" """I""^ ™",
in
125
P'^on'iees a new em n .' '"""f .^^^^ee of agSur^^^^^
-i'^e fertiJizinJ vTtup t' f "^^'P^'catiofi anSd"? '°'P?'-*'""'ce; and
;f this inerf J: e, and ?"^^ t '"«^««^d qCdrunl? h^ T^"^ ''V
f"l experience, deSs that th' ^^^^^^'^ank; after ^a1,,^J '^'f '^'"S ^^^
conipost, in evei-v di!! . ^''.^ P^^^'^ra and durafinn I ? ''"^ ^'^^ch-
^ the best bar^Irddan' -^ "f- '^'^' ^^^e given retr.'^ ""'■ 'P'''"^' ^^
P'-essIj that it is^eattl ?? 'P^'^'''^ ^'^ ^^^ same ouam.?' ""^^ "^^«™r
followed 1)7 resaft?" ™ P"" of foLZiSrrV*'' ">""•"«
•'"'led to „„SX. ,t ' T ' ""''ring aod nTm M • "^^ '""•« I'ecn
«l>e tasbaDdmlK,^ Production, of tEeTartH ,''''' "'""«• The?
Hew tte; wSr.'"™'? «r » »" i^P" e' to V """ ""> ''"P^' of
"ould arrest 1. „ "'•>' '"' Pn»luot,Ve of . n X ' "^*' labours
an acquaintance with 4„ ' ""'' ""V "onld i,ur2 = "'"" "> »
eMenualtotl.r.v, I f'^^^'sfulmodernf . * °"'' f"™ers to
• . 2. Ac ofe°tt °f ?"™ »f "S L^"""'"^"""™ =0
«ne acre in ten wh^ °> '"^'^''"^^ bore V^JhtTt '"^ ^"S^''"'^ ; "nd
«'>en due at^enttt Z f^"^ ""^^ ^^^ ^It ^^ "^^^ ^^-« -
«o violent and cxtr JL .^"^'^""^ <^etaik thig ""ntl. • ""'^ "« have
deuce; and i^q^t^L'^l^ ''''^^^^^^^^^^^
have been built bo k ''^?''°'^hle, without denviL^C °'* ""^'P^^ cvi- '
•aH: that duL 1p ^ *^''"ed ^(^^1 exf^^^
•~-«r:da-2^:TS«Sl|
126
i^
.
superior, at all events equal, to the principal original compound. Four
tons of manure, then, may be produced from one of dung, and four tons *
also may be formed from the urine discharged by the cattle in the same
given time. In a course of experiments by James Arbuthnot, Peter-
heud, he found ' that 300 cart loads of moss could be decomposed by
drenching it with -140 gallons of cattle urin€. The foundation of the
dunghill was laid one foot deep with moss, and 150 gallons of the liquor
thrown upon it. The fermentation came on instantaneously, attended-
Avith a hissing noise ; the other two layers were then put 'On, the one
after the oUier, sprinkled each with the urine, and the same effect ^vaa #♦
produced. Eight days after the midden was turned, and to all appear-
ance super-alkalized.'* It would seem then that both the urine ajnSF ,
dung, discharged in any given time, are of equivalent value ; that e;^^
of them, if separately applie(J to peat, or moss, as it is expresff^'l|^
Scotch writers, would piepare a quadruple amount of rich and valu^Ue ;
manure, and consequently, as the one here is lost from the construction ■■
of our barns, a load of dung is all we have for eight of compost, which
could be produced from the combined efficacy of urine and excremen- ,
titious matter.
If we take further into account the putrefactive qualities of sea-weed,
of dead bodies, either horses, cows, or sheep, of common weeds, and of
many other substances ; I say,- if we take into accolQ|^ the power of
these in decomposing peat-earth, my general statement wilLnot appear
exaggerated, that in this Province we have not above one load in ten,
which might be procured to replenish the exhausted energies of vege-
tation. But taking it for granted that, with a view to strengthen my
argument, I have magnified the amount of our loss, and that we could "
only increase our manures six times above the present quantity, this „
concession calls loudly for reform, and explains, to ^ satisfaction of
every common understanding, the mjstery of our a^j^ltural poverty.
We-ftrng away contemptuously the blessings of NlMffe'nifd of Provi*
dence, and instead of blaming our own ignorance and neglect, we curse
the climate aYid the soil, sit down contented with our present dependent
situation, and despair of elevating that country on which we tread, and
which imparts toi us the pleasures of existence, to its proper rank in the
scale of national importaftce."
[For additional facts on manures, and especially on those which are
not strictly of animal origin, I may refer the reader to my " Contribu-
tions toward the Improvement of Agriculture," where the subject is
somewhat fully trec^ted. — Ed.]
r
r
4. Rotalion of Crops. '-"'
t
The following is extracted from Peters' Hints to the Fartners of
Prinoe Edward Island i —
« liQUkUon of qrapi ii to grow iHhtVM kinds of orepi i& itMOfniofi,
n=!L|w«»'t MufiHiaif 4»}r !l* }Ji <M i — — .
127
on the same field— <...„». •
eommon error in ou? prL " *"'' ^'^'''« '' *« S' onf "«^ *^««^<«'-
't necessary anri fh P^'se^t syatcia, yet «« A "' ^^^ great nn,7
7 his rota^iotstfrr^-Z^ich^ai^^ -^ich JLTcr
adverted to It h^u ° ""derstood by alJ » ^ ^^'"^^^i" in select,
the soil certain ' 'l'®" ^^covered th.f J ' ^'^ "^'':' ^e here St
. t'0U8 Matters [n^tW« *^'' ""^ ^^^« ^^ff^rcro '/?'"' ^^idf th^r^ .
"r-J'^^m the^oir! V P^^P^^'ons; F^. Sn ''r* these uut!
«► \
"W^om the^oi ! 1 ^ P^^Ponions; F
wheaU Jarge ouan/^f l"'f quantity of one kind" J"''' '•'"' *"'•"'> takes
quantity •of^„u^,"f°t^t^ <*f a different nutrition ^ ""tritious n,dtter
Ijaent which is princiS *^ ^'^'^'^ ^ sufficiency If W ^?' "^"^ wJ.eat-
^ajnekind'immeSfi'^"";^^ hy one cS'v, ^^^^ ^'"\ «f nut. .'
"^ a different croDsunS T'^'^' there, wilj be Z' '« '^ ^"^^her of tiie
"on follows, whiVI, y • ' *°" ^hen a third ^..* >-; ^' ^ne materials
' i"" preceded ttelT T ''=''"™' ^^eS l™°"'f ''"C
"e Mt al8o. But 1 i"''^ '» " « condition to ti?^." """"^ *•■*
"' vuuivation.' Ji„* .. — >* "'n^n they will.,. n..!"^ "'"^'^ in this
« J--- .0 ^Tofer r ^' -i* sin ■■ kV '"Siwe
,:'••' .^llj- to recSmS i *>"" « do ?« b 7 ^f*!^ "■ '»» ™n
'V will not Dermi. S '/"em which tht. ni.™ ''^ ° '"e^ our attie 1
"•'"OM sjjten S, • ^*A''«e™iMd to^ff "" "»J>ressioa win.
''"™ °»^*^ ^-i""' i^Sli'
y
128
perhaps loss — be entirely changed at once; it would not be^ prudent to
attempt it, and I do not advise yoa to do so. There is no harm, you
must admit, in-ehowing what other countries,' with soils similar to our
own, have found best ; nor is the drfficully of at once adopting it any
reason why wo should not make grddual approaches towards it. i'^nd
■ let us see whether the diflBcultfes are really so insurmountable as they
may art first appeiar. ^ « ^
First, as to where you are to get manure, I would refar you to the
first chaptor, and aak you if you are guilty of the neglect, or permit
«py of the waste there pointed out ; if so, correct it before complaining
on that head. Secondly, I would urge yo(i t6 recollect that one acre
in good heart will yield as much hay as thre^ in bad ; the labor, there-
fore, of" giving a light dressing (.say twenty to twenty five loads) of
mud and ashes, or mud and lime, or mud and urine, or dung compost;
would not bo so great, whpn you have to go over only one acre instead
of three. Thirdly, consider whether you really require so large a
quantity of hay.. If you cultivate a large breadth of turnips, yoif will
have a large quantity of straw from the succeeding grain crops ; straw
and turtiips will keep cattle as well as hay," and niueh better than the
red top and natural grass which forms a (arge part of the hay cut on
worn out lands. It will also suggest itself to you, that by turning the
field to pasture befor? it is exhausted, the herbage will be greater in
quantity and richer in quality, the cows give more milk, the dairy yield
iQ^e and better butter and cheese, the young cattle grow more vigor-
oully, attain their full size earlier, and make more beef, the mutton be
fatter, and both dra\^ more money from the butcher ; and, though last,
nojt least, your land wifl be improving, instead of getting worse. These
advantages should be fairly placed to the credit of the new system,
before you resolve to c'ontinue the old.
A The remarks of Professor Johnston in his report on the Agriculture
of New Brunswick, are so applicable to this subject, that I cannot do
better than transcribe them here. He says : — f
' Afl regards his crops, the New Brunswick Farmer follows a system,
which, even where regular manuring is practised, would injure the land,
and which is therefore condemned and avoided by all good farmers ; but
which, combined with the waste of manures and neglect of manuring, is
certain to entail an early exhaustion. I mention particularly the
repeated swcessive crops of hay which are taken year after year from
the fields.*^
' This custom, which is characteristic of these North American Pro-
vinces, and has been naturally fallen into in consequence of the neces-
sity of providing a large supply of winter food for the stock, is very
injurious to the land. This, I believe, is generally acknowledged ; but
the plea of necessity is urged as an excuse. It is not necessary to cut
hay off the same, land year after year, without returning to it any
manure ; neither is it necessary to feed stock altogether up(^ hay. i
inf er that the lan d of thi^ Province, when fairly t reated, naust be prone
ken u
toes, (
grass
vious (
seventl
comrne
ofteA t!
than th
sod toe
practice
under t
general
adopted
follow tl;
vated, ajs
nish the
Grass
sown wit]
deficient,
of white,
will do no
tfeeatooB]
V
129 ■ ■
'" P™'""" abondantlv from .l i
' ^'>eat, and 3/;r ^""^ '"^"^^ «"« crop of n^tlil '^ '""'^' ""^ «'••
l>een thankff 1T "^'^ *^ application, aU fl /" "'"'«• J^^r the
" • t-Sr -" '■" ^ - "■^"" "^-■' °^- 1
„ ■ '«' s«'»A^',.s*«i^,«™'' a^/e^; Sorter "f
toes, o'r -iXZn "t^ T "^ ^-. ^u™" i f r^jf S"" '^ '^^°-
grass seeds • foZh ^'anare^ third year «}.?„? P'":«"'P8, pota-
-usspring'ofa" r^^^^ '-7i3t;Ve;e^^^^^^^^^ ^'''
seventh, and eighth years Tf- t''''''' ^^^ Jear hay aL -^T
comfnence ap%m Vu '" ^^•^"^^ed, pasture • /n^Vk A ''^' «'^th,
oftert taken tliTr.','' '*'^' ^^^^ the "7": ^ ? ^^^^ »>reafc up and
than the first owTn?*^ ^T'.^^'^' '^^ theTeco„d cr";^- '*'? ««t« «re
vated,aS irS,^rn.?'~~'^.''''°P^^i«t8houdr ''^ ^^^^^ *<>
,t)>
ii£
0^
f
rr^
130
improve the ioil ; and without white clover, pasture will not be what
it ought."'
A very interesting account of the experience of a Canadian farmer
in following out a scientific rotation, will be found in the Appendix to
the " Contributions." It is matter of gratulation, thafythe principles
of the rotation, of crops are so much more generally understood and
practised in this province than formerly ; ' but there i^ still much to bo
learned;
-r^
o. Agncvlivml Reports for Nova Scot in.
It may be asked, why has not a collection of the methods of the beat
Agriculturists in Nova Scotia been incorporated with the matter con-
tained in tlii.^ pamphlet. To form such a c llection would at present
be veiy, (liilicnlt ; but the writer is fully convinced of its utility, and
would respectfully suggest the following simple method, by which the
best agricultural experience of our country might be treasured ui) for
the general benefit : — " ,,
At all cattle shows and agricultural exhibitions, let it be annqunced
that every exhibitor must hand in to the judges a written statement of
the processes employed in the production of the article or animal exhi-
bited by him ; and let the practicability of the method, us a profitable
means of production, be taken into consideration in awarding the pre-
mium Let the statements of the successful competitors be forwarded
to the Central Board of Agriculture, and published and circulated in
their Annual Report. This practice is extensively adopted in the Uni-
ted fctates ; and 1 find in the preface to the last volume of the A-^ri- .
cultural Transactions of Massachusetts,, that its still more general
adoption is strongly recommended. " It is clear," says the Secretary
()t,that State, " that from these reports and statements the agricultural
community derive no inconsiderable benefit ; and that from them ar£ to
be drawn such general principles and deductions as will aid the pro-
gress of agriculture. It is only by thus recording and publiahirxr facts
and experiments that they become available to all. The advanfTges of
such a practice would seem to be so obvious, and the obligation to ob-
serve It so imperative on the societies receiving the State bounty, that
It 13 a matter of regret that any society should fail to adopt it. *' * *
But we could go, even further than this; such returns should be made
compulsory, under penalty of a forfeiture of the annual gratuity civen
by the coramonw6alth."
As specimens of the statements furnished in Massachusetts, I give
the following, which have been selected principally on account of their
shortness. Many of them are much longer and more elaborate.
Rkhard P. Waters' 3 ^taictmnt.
" I offfl'^ for prem iiim a crop of c a rrot B » ra ise d efr o n o h un d re d »ad^
twenty square poles of land. )ij careful measurement, the product
"'■*■■
; facts
131
- liie present season we rnimnW T '^l^'^'^'S of manure ^
Interest on land ^'^'^'^nses of cultivation.
Three cords of manure, ' ' " ^ - +,r, oo
|-ad.,..„,re,p,ou,hin,J.;^^^^^^^^^^^ . -,3" ^0
Hoeing, weeding, and harvesting" " " - iS
■ - 26 50
*'''""^™*™.&veri^,N„v„,851.
S5(i 75
. I(
'ow seven veai-a nU r" i w, "'^'^"leni.
'"O'-ning, September m ^ S^^Pt^'^be. 13th. From Wedn««^
"rained „„lf of S ^1™ "'' ^"P'T'-'-'-SO, Tgavo m T"'"
"«"ing, October 7, shTZ.nrr' "" "W "<^'l Snl tS '
182
eight and one-fourth quarts, or one week's milk, would make sixteen
pounds and eleven and one- fourth ounces.
Z<'m/.- Pasturing, two quarts raeal^ and two pumpkins, per day."
6; Rccomnmidalmis selected from Professor JohmlotCs Report
on the Aifricidture of Neio Brunswick.
" After what has been said in the preceding chapters on the subject
of individual pr.'Jotice, it will be unnecessary for uie now to touch npon
many tilings which would otherwise have naturally found a place in the
present chapter.
By an improvement in practical agriculture, I understand a change
m practice, which will enable the farmer to raise larger and more valu-
ably crops from the same extent 'of land as before, or to produce equal
Ciop.s at a cheaper rate, without permanent injury to the land. To the
piactical man, therefore, I wish to recommeml nothing which, if rightly
performed, will not, in my opinion, be the means of putting more m°ouev
in his pocket. i- o j
What I have said in my suggestions to Agricultural Societies, in
regard to draining ; deep and subsoil ploughing ; green manuring ;
the use of bones ; the saving of waste materials for the manufacture of
manure ; the covering of manure from the action of the rains and snows
in the fold yard, and from tlie washing of -the rains when laid upon the
field; of the use of lime; of an earher cutting of the grain crops ; of
improving the breeds of stock; of a bettor housing of the cattle; of the
growth and use of green crops, linseed, and prepared food during the
winter months: of more diligent and more extended fall ploughin.^; of
the value of agricultural journals and books ; all this is intended as
special advice also to the individual farmer. Each man can exercise a
hr moie direct and beneficial influence ; beneficial to himself and to the
Province; over his own practice, than Societies, however zealous they
may be, can .be expected to do over that of the district in which they
are placed. The improving farmer, indeed, does good in two ways.
He not only puts more money immediately into his own pocket ; but
by the influence of his prudent and successful example, he induces
others around him to follow in his steps, and to put more money in
theirs also. Thus the agricultural improver, the judicious, not the
hasty and imprudent one, is a most valuable member of society, and it
is for the best interests of every country to support, encourage, and
honour him.
'J'here are only a very few additional topics on which I think it neces-
sary to address a few observations to the practical farmers of New
Brunswick.
Ist. I would recoamend the abandonment of the system of crop-
-pifig 4¥ith^grAJ%^r cutting for b ay ,-ttl} the laad i n e x h ansted—a system
m
. "^S
133
^" spring to the early "'^3' r" , "u '^V*"^ 'W^'«d «8 a top Sn/
grain and root crones Ce h-- 'V^''^"">P« ^reaJreadVuTS
custom of cutting fofht 'L aJr'r^ "^-'^u *^« ^^"<^' ^^e iZr^
f«r ever abandoned, sich land wh '•'''*^'"* '""°"'-«' «"gl't ^^
bought desirable, for t£ or fo^lai L^''" "'^T ^ P-*"^^
n permanent pasture, with an occasS L J ^T ^ '*"°^<^J ^ be
than one year's hay ought I bo cut n ^ '^•■''^'°«' ^""^ "^^ more
apphcatjon of some fcrtilinglbstan"' S it, ^'T"^ '"t' ^^'^'''^^^ the
already been exhausted by such tre^tml? .? '"''^*'''^- ^^^^^ land has
of a careful trial. ^ '"'^ treatment, the use of bones is deserving
-ndly. The custom of leaving thn ^ a . °
natural grass, after the gran c"? ha^ ^ ' ', ''^''* '"^^^^ ^^'th Poor
abandoned. It ought alCs T„^K?f ^T ^^^'"^ ««". should also be
a naked fallow is no°t intenS I ha '.7''. ""''^ ^'''' «««d«. wire
practical man. It is a Cr^'f ^•"''^* P''^"^ ^ ^^uld urge unon th«
enter. There is a Cad nte/venS^^'^! "^^^^^
of New Brunswick agricuCre "nd^thJ^ ^?'''" the actual condiC
brought by the judicfous apnlL*"on of «v"^ '"", *' ""^''^ '^ ^'ght be
knowledge cannot be diffused a^n. cannot bT^ ^°'^ l^^" ^^^^ ^h^
of the Provmce all at once. What'thev do 1 ' """^T'^ ^^' *^« ^^rmera
rally doubt, until they have seen t^"^. 1 "' ?''^' ^''"^ ^^'H "atu-
causmg more profitable crops to grow utn'^ ^'^^^^^'^ l''^''^ '^^tually
by a system of trials that genei^f confijC \Yu^- . ^' '«' *berefore,
that method of improvement. ThrdltinSn« J'f '^*'^"^'^' '" ^bis «;
desires to improve, to advance, whicht^l, f^'^'T- *^« '"*" ^bo
matenal things in North AmerT^at tbV "^ '''"^'*'"° "^^^ting all
who ,s content to sit still, is, that^heVrSf ^7'"' "'""' ^^^^ the man
•nation, *nd having obtainWl' an nklL^ofl''^ ^.^/'^^^'^^ '''^fi^r-
ZrJr*' .''^T " '^'■^P^^^'tion to Ike L of -r ^^^ ^^ge. perfect or
methods of advancement in his om. Ill \\^ J^^^^ trials of the
gf ts. The maker of ag^fcnltu^rPrnJ ' ""^''^ ^^' ^r^o^y\edge sug-
who .s acquiring knowledf ' i 1* kir^wT' '^'''^'''' '« *^« «««
fully to himself, and is t^st ng tl e Zion! " T "PP^^ '' "><«' »««-
may have heard or read bv tL 1 ? , ' *"'' recommendations li^
-^ bis hand. It is rfa;or^b ^si^onL'^dT-^^'^'^ ^'' ^™ p"- -
Gently and ccon^icariy:-^ ^^ ^:L^^'^^
A
-/,
134
The use of lime is recommended by many in the Province of New
Jirunswick, and aa I think, with reason. The advancin.' man mill
therefore, try lime in a small piece of his land, i^^eTToubts its efficacy'
and his means are small ; he will try it in various ways, applied at dif-
ferent times, to different crops, and in different soils; and the results
will determine hnn as to whether it would be more profitable to use it
on a larger scale.
_ . * * ■* ^ * * *
With bones, likewise, in various forms, small beginnings may he
made by way of experiment. And so with all the improved practices
1 have dnecily recommended, or indirectly alluded to, the really good
and zealous farmer, the man who loves his art, and wishes to advance
It, it only for his own benefit, and on his own fartn, will, from time to
time, try them, honestly, fairly, and prudently, yet fully, and will thus '
keep constantly advancing in experience, and in the profitable culture
ot his land. There 19, indeed, now scarcely any field so wide as that
ot the experimental farmer, none so full of endless novelties, which the
active mind may investigate e.'sperimentally, and always with a view to
profit. Lnljke the old stagnant art of farming, of which the principles
were not understood, the art of this present time Is guided by clear
principles; is full of ever new interest ; is in a constant state of pro-
gression ; and affords full employment for highly intellectual and active
minds.
4thly. In the preceding chapters I have recommended the growth
ot flax, to a certain extent, for the purpose of procuring linseed as a
h h Id ^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^"^^ *^^ winter's employment of the farmer's
* * * * * * ' *
5thly. To one other topic I advert, because of its great practiciil
importance, though already frequently noticed in this Reiwrt The
improvement of the breed of stock is, in one point of view, the basis of
the entire agricultural improvement of i district. Good stock neces-
sitates good feeding. Much stock, and gdod feeding, produces much
and rich manure. Ample manuring enriches the soil, and causes it to
produce good crops ; and these large crops again, whether of corn hay ^
OF roots, afford the materials for abundant feeding, and for fold-yards
lull of manure. " ■^
But in some parts of the Province there is a prejudice against im-
proved breeds of stock. Thus, Mr. Hubbard, of Burton, writes to me •
Ihe stock of the country will do better on what we farmers call stock
hay and no shelter, than the English breed will on merchantable hay
with shelter ; and horses the same.' I infer from these words of Mr
Hubbard, however, that he looks for life profit of his farming, not to
the stock he can keep, but to the hay he can sell off his farm If so
he may continue to rear the hardy animals, which, after all, aio only
old country stocky degenerated under the treatment they have received
m the Provinces, and to make a profit by his goo d h ay ; but bis land,
''*0^
'A'i^it.s^.^Tht.\-^:-ygii^]i^}i:^^^;!>^
13")
\
the Saint JolnVe^Tl '''''^^^^" ^^« per^ 4]]??"' fi^^^''^^
they yield frr^u""^ '"'"''^ ^^ey attain aiifj^^' ^ ''''"''^^S' °ot only
■»-'.., writo „,e "fouZ't *'" '^'" fi-. »'- oilw, TAS-"
I-™ undo, ^h?;* ^'-^ fc^ -. came; „„;:de':rpa;, ^
I oonr, * L '^^!?PcIent means for ventila-
■A(|
%
» m .
2n(l. Better clearing and deeper ploughmg the soil.
o/tLtsirasn^sfxLi^^^^^^^
5th. .An abandonment also of the custom of takin-r reneate'd succes-
8.ve crops of corn off the same land, .vithout aLnaS with other
other crops, and without manure.
• before it'luni^tS '^"" ^' ''' ''"'^ '''"'' '' '^ ^""^ "P«' ^^ ^-
7th. Tutting down Indian corn with a knife,, as is done in New Yoi-k
and use of the stalks in 'feeding milch Cows and other stock. ' '
8th. Jsowmg buckwheat or rye t6 plough in green, and use of bone-
dust to renovate exhausted or worn out lands ■
hnt^pL?^'!?^^'"it'P/'' ? "" '''''"'' *^"" ^'-^^ hitherto beett usual,
but especial jr such land -as has ceased to be productive as formerly.
10th. faking advantage of every open day in the falUo plough and
prepare the land for the spring sowing piouo" anu
throlgh thfSr."'"' '*"' '' ""'^; P'^^' ^"^ ^^'«^f' ^- Wng
1 I'k" ^'■«J!'hng^>varm but well ventilated Ijousing for them. .
whent!;:^:ri>:s'^^^^^ ''''' '''' ^^^ ^ -'^-^ -"^''-
14th. Grbwing turnips and linseed, with the view" of adding to >the
lOtn Collectmg carefully, and preserving under cover, all the ma-
nure made by his stock during the winter, that he may have it ubun-
t^olr"^:!^ir^''''^''''''''' ^'' ^'''' ^"*i green^^rops.when he
time ot planting «r ■sowing comes. «
16th Manuring annually,.by top dressing, his worn out hay lands
when the llnd is not stumped and therefore^annot be ploughed up '
17th. Colectmg carefully all waste bones, breaking them, and apply-
2n Cltv Vr*^ i ''^'''^^^ '^' "«« «^ ^^«« « ^0 be recommeS
upon land which haa been worn out by over-cropping with corn.
ISth. bowing down always with artificial grasses, when land, after a
corn crop ,8 to be left with a view of its producing hay.
.t(^k.»' ^ ' '^*"'' ^^ ^'"''' "^ plantations, for his fields ami "
/
-/■
i-» '»
/
137
^^yoN Cow.'
18
U
\^
-1
^
IBw
— ^> — .. . > « .ii3r._
V
^
•"-ijw**-,...
J-^
141
%7. Ga
>(>:('
I'l-o^VAy Bull, (Page 12.)
*^«"*'^
■^'g- 8. -Galloway Cow.
X
,^'
>< «. 'is^
\ b
'J
f
jtr
'tSsb »■
14;!
r'-'^
«i^.^iS- ^ t- Vi^^
ft
It^
UMMIlr««>MW«.
r-
fr^.-^'-ffVt^fl^T^S^:*?-?
vr,vV^
'it.
^■
/
y
.M vfc.
!,/■
/'
f
. ^
^
145
% n. 1
Avi^sHiBE Bau. (p,;;^
3)
\
%-32. Ai
'j--<5a£©^
BSfllHB Cow.
19
4^
\
y
Che
Ch)*!
1 '! ,
i
1
- GENERAL INDEX
^o Scientific Contribvtious tmoard th. r
ArticIesintheOo.tWbutionsare:nariced«c»
y
\
■V-:;
Anim.lrc.f.,,ea.,ftlanuro,
A»l>u8 as M«„uie,
AlhalMHn Al«„ure,
Ayrehire GuiMi
BogSoil, improvemenl of.
BuckwhMi, cdli.ire of
BfMn», ciiliuro oi;
Bron„,C„r„,rHl,u,.eof.
Bog Alud H« Manure.
Hone Waniiip,
Breeds of Ciiiile,
Sheep,
_" Swine,
- — — I'uulir>-,
Brceling ol Calil,..
"Hller, HHkinjf of,
"-- Siillin,' of,
"u", l>f«t po,„[g „f
Box !i;cdiiig.
Bacon, lo cnie,
:"';'"'«- "" "lie Dai,...
Bl«ik.l;,c,d Sheep, ^'
Beiki.hire Hog,
Cli„,are of NoTa Scotia,
l^o'fi, culture of,
C'liirot. culture of,
' «:^''Ver, culture of,
Oilerpi|lur..&„., ,„d
J,, Currant, cul.ure .,f ^'
Cranl,erry,^„l„„„ „f
C««l A»hee a. flJanuie.
Caule, Urend* of,
~— Choico of,
- Breedinji o(,
- Pmicning,
•" ?'''.';'"« •<> market.
~ '"«««ll feerfiug,
— Soiling,
«^*<lve», inunageruent sf.
<^hee«e, nmkiug of.
Chinese Hog,
Be»on Caiilp,
I'tirhsui do.
Oirtlljpy Jo_
D-»i'y. irmHagcmeiit of,
nuckn. reitring of, &c
l>ii«iloj) Cheece. '
JJishlej Slieop,
Ersot in Wbeit,
fcjtmoo: Sheep,
Ply on Turnips, »
Flax, culture of,
Fiuit t rees, culture of,
Z, '. I'iseahes of.
Fattening of Cattle,
Ooof eberry, culture of
J^ypsuin as Manure. '
(■Hlloiiay Calile,
Ooose, rearinar <>»,
Uloitces,er Chee.e, to make.
Hessian Klv,
Hemp, culture of,
»'"'•. &c.. as Manure,
Her.-ford Cattle,
HiKlil:.nd an lie,
H"««e«, training and food of.
Intervale Soiln,
J"hns,o„. P.of., .election, from.
Lime as .Miinhrc,
Long-horned Cattle,
IWnrsh Soils,
Slangold Wurliel.
iManure,
Marl as AInntire
M:.n.,ge,ne.., .,f „ Karm,
Milch Cow., ,,„„ii,ie, of,
"'"'• P?'"l">«iMon and quali.ie,.
Man t gemniiL u f^ / ! _-
FAOK
66
9
10
12
87
8S
6»
tZl
6»
C46
c6S
c«T
27 '^
c«2
c76
12
8o
61
rS6
r56
c69
c81
10
18
S3
W^fMnking,
*• Meriuu Sbec|i,
' c26
c90 182
c7l
12
c24
c« 98
c68 lut
c:72
c93
48
S t
•»
i';,
ili!. ).
./■ T - —
«i1limiiCag-g||gj^»'^^ ":.;.,- ■
*siai^*»*''-
I*-
•/
,,■■
Oat, culture of,
Orchard Culture,
Uxen (or dcHUjjht,
TrHiiiiii|i( o/, '
Yuking of,
Gumparieun with HorsCF,
Peaa, <"u!»ilre of,-
PutiilM, culture of.
Pork, c'uriii;; ot,
Poultry, breeds of,
Yard Hiid Sheds (or,
Choice o(,
— ^— Food of,
' Laying and (Inlching of,
I IlinUoi),by Mr. Duwoes,
- Plough ifif!, ^
U|lf»iiip, culture of,
l^lurage,
i*e(era on Manure;,
lluBt in Wheat,
Kyp, culture ot, .
K«i( in the Potato,
iSoiU, texture and composition of,
— — Kinds of, in Nova Scotia,
148
PAGE
(36
cd7
25
>b.
26
27
c4l
c47
73
73
76
77
, lA.
79
83
88
100
27
107
c30
c38
c47
cl4
c20
Soils, Clawificalion of.
Smut ill Wheal,
Slrawborry, tuliure of,
Susoex Call le,
Slal|. (ceding,
S iliiig,
"Shecji, breeds of,
yeli'clioii and rearing of,
tylitfarins aiid Wool,
Swine, breeds of,
T Feeding,-
Do. in United Blaten,
Slies for,
FAGS
c28
eSU
c62
. 10
£9
i6.
67
59
62
66
67
69
71
4»
Salting of Butter,
Skim Cheese,
Turnip, culiiue of, c42 9&
Turkey, rearing and treatment of, 82.
Wheal, culture ol, ' . c28
Wee»il in Wheal, •S2
Weather Table, . ^^
Wool, sons and value of, . 62
Weight ol Swine, 69
-J Cattle, ; 14
11
L Yorkshire Caille,
.
I--
I . .V
i ^
• •
.^'A'lio -.i.c .flu \,Jm-t
• ^ w
ngof,
PASR
i;28
c3(>
c62
, 10
i»
it.
67
&9
62
66
67
1 Stales, 69
71
4»
U
c42 9»
uent of, 82 ,
cJ8
•S2
fSl
«2
-'
I. ,V
. ^K
* ,
■X"
.^'
^.'v
HI.
.'A
r
^ .f
■^ ''
J.
^ »
• 7^
J .^_---- "ST*";, *_
- -.t-.s
^*-'
•# • '_ » **-'v ^
-•I"
Pf.s?!;
€♦
:f
r
7-
• || T '» J <; <
if
:t
i)
(
;>.:?
" • • ■ ... • I •
..w • *• • •
t.
■■:w.
bmimu.
u
\
■e-^ .'V -T /
, • • •
JM-'^::i,tfc.
•<*
vj.
WW