IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 11.25 l^ilM 12.5 !!f "^ la JlJ 13.6 m^m tli ■10 2.0 I 1 ^1^ <% P^ f. /: ^\bole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmte d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, 11 est fiimi A partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nicessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vol Itefbrt thrtiOx ftom Jtooi»imHI»iayif*'Strfml.and lotufmm nnd Hers J'atfnwster Mow, MODERN GEOGRAPHY. » A DESCRIPTION OF THE EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, AND COLONIES; WITH THE \ OCEANS, SEAS, AND ISLES j IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD: . INCLUDING THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES, AND POLITICAL ALTERATIONS. DIGESTED ON A NEW PLAN. BY JOHN PINKERTON. THE ASTRONOMICAL INTRODUCTION BY THE REV. S. VINCE, A.M. F.R.S. AND PLUMIAN PROFESSOR OF ASTRONOMY, AND EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHT, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. triTH NUMEROUS MAPS, SEFIIMD Br THM AUTHOR. To the vubole are added, a Catalogue of the heft Maps, and Booh of Travels and Voyages , ifl all Languages t And an ample Index, A NEW EDITION, GREATLY ENLARGED. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. I.— EUROPE. LONDON: PRINTED FOR T. CADELL AND W. DAVIKS, STRAND ; AND LONGMAN, H0RST, REE», AND ORME, PATERN08TER-R0\r. 1807. Ml 262458 m PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. rr^HE importance of geography as a fcience, and the exuberant ra- 1 riety of knowledge and amufement which It exhibits, are themes too trivial for argument or illuftration. Eagerly attached to this fludy from his early years, the author always cherifhed a hope that he might contribute his labours to its advancement. For much remained to be done ; and many literary men have long admitted, that great advan- tages might be derived from a new and improved fyilem of modern geography, the latefl: popular works of this liature not only abounding with numerous and grofs miftakes, but being fo imperfea: in their original plans, that the chief geographical topics have been facrificed to long details of hiftory, chronology, and commercial regulations, wholly extraneous to the very nature of fuch a deHgn. When to this it is added, that the mod recent and importari difcoveries are either omitted, imperfefl:ly illuftrated, or fo defediveiy arranged as to em* barrafs and baffle the refearch of the moft patient inquirer, there is no reafon to be furprifed at the general confeflion, that fuch compilations are only ufed becaufe there is no better extant. The fucceffive difcoveries in the Pacific Ocean, and other parts of the globe, have, within thefe few years, acquired fuch a certainty and confiftency, that they may now be admitted and arranged, in a regular A 2 and PREFACE. and precife diftributlon of the parts of the habitable world ; while the recent difcoverles of La Peroufc, Vancouver, and other navigators, nearly complete the exadl delineation of the continental fhores. No period of time could be more favourable to the appearance of a new fyftem of geography, than the beginning of a new century, after the elapfc of the eighteenth, which will be memorable in all ages, from the gigantic progrefs of every fcience, and in particular of geographical information ; nor lefs from the furprifing changes which have taken place in mod countries of Europe, and which of themfelves render a new defcription indifpenfable. "Whole kingdoms have been annihi- lated J grand provinces transferred : and fuch a general alteration has taken place in ftates and boundaries, that a geographical work pubii,ued five years ago may be pronounced to be already antiquated. 'After a general war' of the moft eventful defcription, after revolu- tions of the moft aftonifhing nature, Europe at .'ength repofes in uni- vcrfal peace. The new divifions and boundaries no longer fluQuate with every campaign, but are eftabliflied by folemn treaties, which pro- mife to be durable, as at no former period has war appeared more fanguinary or deftrudive, and at the fame time more fruitlefs even to the vidors. Thefe treaties not only influence the defcriptions of Eu- ropean countries, but. of many in Afia, Africa, and America. ' A new fyftem of geography is alfo fpecially authorized and authen- ticated, by the fingular advantage of fevcral important books of travels having appeared within thefe few years, which introduce far more light and precifion into our knowledge of many regions. The embaf- fies to China, Tibet, and Ava, for example, prefeni frefli and authentic materials, without which recourfe rauft have been had to more remote and doubtful information ; and the Birman empire is unknown to all fyftems of geography. The Refearches of the Afiatic Society, and other PREFACE, » other late works, difTufc a new radiance over Hindodan, and the ad- jacent countries. The labours of the African Society, the travels or Park, Browne, and Barrow, have given more prccifion to our imper- fect knowledge of Africa : and the journies of Hearne and Mackenzie liave contributed to difclofe the northern boundaries of America. In fliort, it may be fafely afliriiied, that more important books of travels and other fources or geographical information, have appeared within thefe few years, than at any period whatever of literary hillory. In this work the eflence of innumerable books of travels and voyages will be found to be extradled; and fucli produdtions have been the favourite amufements of the moft diftingui(hed minds, in all periods and countries, as combining the variety, novelty, and adventure, of poetical and romantic narration, with the ftudy of man, and the benefits of practical inftrudtion. It is unneceflary to repeat the names of Mon- taigne, Lqcke, Montefquieu, &c. or that of my late friend Gibbon, whofe colledtion of voyages and travels formed the mofl chofen part of his library. Why did he not write geography ! Why has a Strabo beea denied to modern times ! Nor muft the rapid advances of natural hlftory be forgotten, which now confer fuch fuperior precifion of the satural geography of moft countries. Not only have zoology and botany received the greateft improvements ; but geology and mineralogy have, within thefe twenty years, become entirely new and grand fciences j the fubftances being accurately arranged, and defcribcd wjth fuch clearnefs, that throughout the literary world they are exadlly known and difcriminated.* • The prefent fylletn of mineralojry was firft eftablidied by Bsrgmar.n, in lySz ; who was followed by Werner, 1 7?9. Mr. Kirwan publilhed an excellent work, 179 j, two volumes, gvo. and in genera!, within thele ten yearj, this impor.arjt fludy, fo e/Tentiai to national wealth and. profperity, h»5 on the new principles been cultivated with hnpi'iCmg ardour and ruccefs, 5 Yet VI PREFACE. Yet even with fuch advantages geography is far from being pcrfedl j and the familiar exclamation of D'Anville in his old age may ftill be •doptcd : " Ah ! my friends, there are many errors in geography."* Tliis fcicnce may indeed be regarded as imperfcft in its very nature, as no reafonable hope can be entertained that all the habitable lands (hall, at any period of time, pafs under a trigonometrical furvey, the only ftandard of complete exadnefs. The chief defcds are the interior parts of Africa, and many portions even of the (bores ; Tibet, and fome other central regions of Afia, nay even Perfia, Arabia, and Afiatic Turkey ; the weftern parts of North America; and the Spanifti fettle- ments in that part of the new continent; with the central and Couthern parts of South America. Of New Holland little is known, except the ihores : and many difcoveries remain to be made in the Pacific Ocean, particularly the extent and interior part of New Guinea, and other large lands in that quarter. Even in Europe the geography of Spain and Portugal is very imperfe^, though not fo defective as that of European Turkey ; nor can we loudly boaft while, as Major Rennell informs us, there is no exadt chart of the Britifh Channel ; and the tri- gonometrical furvey, fo far as it has extended, has detected grofs errors in the maps of the counties, t We have indeed been generally more attentive to remote regions, than to our native country ; and could a new fydem have been publiihed with more advantages, than in the kingdom which has given birth to the greateft modern difcoveries, and improve- ments in geography ? • " Jh ! ma omit, il j a bim da trreurs en geografhit." f It is a lamentable circumtlance that geography ii at tiaies retrogrefliTe in fome points, while it advances in others. Thus Preilon'i Airvey of the Shetland Iflande reprcfents them as one third part too large, both in length and breadth, and there are grofs errors in the pofitions. The mif. take was deteAed in the important voyage* ordered by the late king of France ; and remedied in the Danilh map, Copenhagen, 1787, bat fli^more in that of CapC. Donnelly. Thefe ifles nowap> pear nearly as in the maps preceding i7SO. Prefton's map of thefe remote Britilh poflieffions has even occafioned fliipwrecks : and the fcience and capacity necefltry for fuch a furvey ought to be the objeft of ftrifl previous invefiigation. Many fuch inftancei might be given. 4 The PREFACE. The rapid progtefs of fcience has alfo, within a like (hort period, greatly improved the maps and charts of mod countries, always to be ranked among the chief objeds of geography ; though unaccountably the compilers of modern fyftems feem to write without the infpeftion of any map whatever, or at leaft never make any reference of that na- ture. This is the more furprifing, as accurate maps and charts may be faid to form the very foundation of geographical knowledge. The au- thor of the prefent work has been fedulous to difcover the lated and beft maps of all countries, in which refeirch he has been liberally af- filed by our bed pradical geographers. The fmall maps which ac- company the work are drawn with great care, under the dire^ions and revifion of Mr. Arrowfmith, who is well known by the induftry and attention which he employs in feleding the mefl recent and accurate materials and improvements. The fmallnefs of the fize will of courfe prevent them from fupplying the place of a large and complete atlas ; but they will be found to conditute an ufeful introdudion to fuch a colle£tion, as they are reduced from the bed large maps, and the au- thorities added at the bottom, while they are illuftrated with many im- portant features of the countries, and interefting names, derived from works of natural and civil hiftory, for which a large and expenflve atlas may be confulted in vain.* The latter had beft be formed by the * A mod ingenious ariill, conflderably imbued with mathematical knowledge, having in* vented machine* which give more clearneft and preciTion to the engraving of Aiaight lines, the author, who had hitherto only feen this method employed in the reprefi-rtation of mathematical inftroments, and machinery, was imprcAcd with its peculiar fitnefs for the delineation of water. With this idea he applied to Mr. Lowr/, the inventor, and the tffeGi is now before the public in a feries of maps, which may fafely be pronounced to be not only unrivalled, but unexampled by any former efforts in this department. Not to mention fuperior richners and neatnefs, it is not only Angularly adapted to the inflruaion of youth, by the inftantaoeous reprefentation of the form an«l chief bearings of each country, but alfo facilitatet confultatioa by the marked diftinAion between land and water, which enable! the eye to pafs more quicicly to the other objeAs. The confulution of charts might be facilitated in a limilar manner, while, in the ufual contrail between maps and charts, the fea might be preferved white, and the lands didinguilhed by ftrokei, not horizontal, which would refemble water, but vertical. In mineralogical maps the heraldic mode of engraving aught be adopted. reader fU ■ i vui PREFACE. reader himfclf, for which purpofe a lift of the beft maps is given at the cnJsof the fecond vohime, affording materials for a feledion of the great, of the middle, or of the fmall kind. To the firft clafs, for ex- , ample, may be afligned Caffini's map of France in one hundred and elghiy-thri^e fliccts, Ferrari's map of the Netherlands, and others of a fiinilar extent, more appropriated to public libraries and princely col- Icdlion?. To the fecond clafs may be referred maps of kingdoms, from eight r I- fix to four (heets; while an atlas of the fmalleft fize may inclmle thofe from four to one fheet large folio ; under which a colledl- ed atlas can be of no utility. Yet even of the latter a wonderful de- fcd may be obfervcd in the beft private libraries, where, though a good atlas fliould form the firft objed of inquiry and expence, as being ufeful in reading alnioft every defcription of books, yet maps of the mcft an- tiquated and erroneous kind often appear ; and even the literary inves- tigator is fatisfied with finding the name without exploring the fidelity of the general outline, or the accuracy of the pofitions. '■■'.: With the advantages above enumerated, of new and important dif. coveries, of recent and authentic inteUigence, and of the particular pe- riod of publication, there cannot be any great claim of merit in pre- fentinj; a more complete fyftem of geography, than has yet appeared in any language ; for the Spaniards and Italians have been dormant in this fcience, the French works of La Croix and others are too brief, while the German compilations of Bufching, Fabri, Ebeling, &c. &c. are of a moft tremendous prolixity, arranged in tlie moft taftelefs manner and exceeding in dry names, and trifling details, even the minutenefs of our Gazetteers. * A defcription of Europe in' fourteen quarto • Thegeo^'raphical ephi'merls of Zach, {jUlsemeinc Geoyiaphi/che EfhsmeriJen,) a monthly jour, nal in ilie Cjciman l,ingua^:,e, embraced allroiiomy and geography, and has c mtributed to the advanceaiciitof both (cicnce?. Jt is now conduded b> Gil'pari and Bertuch, and more ltri(!tly contintd to geography; while Zich's new journal [Moiiatlit:hi Coyrefpndenz) re'ates chiefly, to dilrjncny. volumes P R E F A C E. volumes may well be contraftud with Straho's defcrlption of tlie vvoild in otie volume : and geography faems to be that branch of fcicncc in which the ancients have eftablifhed a more clafilcal reputation tlian the moderns. Every great literary monument may be iaid to be eredcd by compilation, from the time of Herodotus to that of Gibbon, and from the age of Homer to that of Shakfpere ; but in the ufe of the ma- terials there Is a wide difference between Strabo, Arrian, Ptolemy, Paufa- nias, i>Iela, Pliny, and other celebrated ancient names, and modern gene- ral' geographers ; all of whom, except d'Anville, feem under-graduates in literature, without the diftinguifhed talents, or reputation, which have accompanied almoft every other literary exertion. Yet it may fafely be affirmed that a production of real value in univerfal geography re- quires a wider extent of various knowledge than any other literary de- partment,, as embracing topics of the moft multifarious defcription. There is however one name, that of d'Anville, peculiarly and juftly eminent in tids fcience ; but his reputation is chiefly derived from his maps, diid from his illuftraticns of various parts of ancient geography. In fpecial departments Goffellin, and other foreigners, have alfo been recently diftinguifhed ; nor is it neceffary to remind the reader of the great merit of Rennell and Vincent in our own country. ' With fuch examples the author confeffes his ambitious defire that the prefent work may, at leaft, be regarded as more free from defeds than any preceding fyftcm of modern geography. By the liberality of the publiihers no expence has been fpared in colledting materials from all quarters ; and the affemblage of books and maps would amount to an ex- pence hardly credible. If there be any failure, the blame muft folely reft with the author ; who being however converfant with the fubje£t, from his early youth, when he was accuftomed to draw maps, while engaged in the ftudy of hiftory, and never having neglected his devo- tion to this important fcience, he hopes that the ample materials VOL. I. a will uc PR E F ACB. ^ill be found not to have been entnifted to inadequate hands. He may affirm that the moft fedulous attention has been exerted, in the fele^ion and arrangement of the moft interefting topics ; and he hopes that the novelty of the plan will not only be recommended by greater eafe and expedition, in ufing this work as a book of reference ; but by a more ftri^fc and claffical connedion, fo as to aflford more clear and fatisfadtory information on a general perufal. The nature and caufes of the plan ihall be explained in the preliminary obfervations, as being intimately connected with other topics there inveftigated. It may here fuffice 'to obferve, that the objects moft eflfentially allied with each other, inftead of being dlfperfed as fragments, are here gathered into diftindl heads or chapters, arranged in uniform progrefs, except where particular cir« cumftances commanded a deviation : and inftead of pretended hiftories, and prolix commercial documents, the chief attention is devoted to fub* jefts ftri£tly geographical, but which in preceding fyftems have often appeared in the form of a mere lift of names, the evanefcent ihades of knowledge. Meagre details of hiftory can be of no fervice even to youth, and are foreign to the name and nature of geography, which like chronology, only afpires to iiluftrate hiftory; and without en- croaching upon other provinces, has more than fufiicient difficulties to encounter. The States are arranged according to their comparative importance, as it is proper that the objects which deferve moft atten- tion {hould be treated at the greateft length, and claim the earlieft obfer- vation of the ftudent. -v ( In the Introduction Profeflbr Vince feems to have omitted nothing in aftronomy, or meteorology, that could in the leaft iiluftrate geography ; and has carefully availed himfelf of the lateft inventions and difcoveries. For the botany of the feveral countries this work is indebted to Mr* Arthur Aikin, a zealous and intelligent cultivator of natural hiftory. Ic .may be neceflary to remind the unlearned reader, that the Latin names in PREFACE. In this part are unavoidable, becaufe plants not known In England muft rarely admit of Englifli appellations. This work will, it is hoped, (hew the progrefs of geography, in every part of. the world, to the beginning of the nineteenth century ; and when compared with any fyftem, publifhed at the beginning, or even in the middle, of the eighteenth, the advances will be found to be prodigious. Many of the early fyftems were not a little injured in truth and perfpicuity, by the mixture of ancient and modern names^ even in the maps ; an abfurdity lately attempted to be revived by fome French Authors : while in this ftudy the modern (late ought always to claim the precedence, becaufe the genuine form of the countries, the windings of the (hores, the courfe of the rivers» the diredion of the mountains, and all thofe parts in which natural geography receives aflifl:- ance from natural hiftory, are only afcertained by recent obfervations ; and upon this immutable bafis ancient geography mud ultimately reft* The modern delineations of many parts of Greece and Afia Minor have thrown a light upon ancient hiftory, which could never have been derived from theoretic geography, always ufelefs, becaufe it cannot alter the face of nature; and often blameable, as by luppofitions of know- ledge, it impedes the progrefs of genuine obfervation, and patient dif- covery. In order to delineate the ancient ftate of a country, it is indif. penfable that the bed modern maps be previoufly inveftigated ; by which procefs alone can the (ites be accurately determined : and innu- merable conjectures of Cluverius, Cellarius, and even d'Anville, have been overturned by the precifion of recent knowledge. Yet the firft elements of ancient geography are often inftilled into the minds of youth from obfolete maps, in which the mofl: important pofitions of natural geography, and fometimes even the very points of the conpafs, are perverted; and from authors whofe moft radical opinions have been XI a a over- \ i xii PREFACE. oveiturned half a century ago ! The proper progrefs U therefore to heghi with the ftudy of modern geography, which may afterwards be followed, with the greateft advantage, by that of the ancient. The oppofite courfe feems almofl: as ridiculous as it would be to commence the ftudy of botany by the perufal of Piofcorides, and the Greek and Latin names of plants, without any acquaintance with their genuine charadeiiftics and qualities. In general, genius may be cultivated by the ftudy of ancieni_^author« ; but the ground? of any branch of fcience are to be fought in modern precifion. ■ , '- Amidft other advantages already indicated, the regular references ta the authorities, hers obferved for the firft time in any geographical fyftem, will be admitted to be a confiderable improvement, not only as imparting authenticity to the text, but as enabling the reader to recur to the beft original works, when he is defirous of more minute informa- tion*. Yet this improvement is fo fimple that the omifTion might feem matter of furprize, were it not that former works of this nature, will generally be found to be blindly copied from preceding fyftems„ with the fole claim of fuperibrity in error, as muft happen in fuch cafes, where miftakes multiply, ^nd an old hallucination becomes the father of a numerous progeny. The ftri£t quotation of authorities might alfo be rather dangerous in erroneous details j and the omiffion is as convenient, as it is to pafs in filence geographical doubts of great importance, which might prove perilous ordeals of fcience. Accuf- tomed to the labours and pleafures of learning merely for his own men- • It is alfo to be wifhed that writers Crt civil and nataral hiftory, &c. would on tlie mention of placet otherwife minute and obfcure, indicate the diHance and the qaarter of the coopaft from fome ■ well known city, or other olyefl, the hue mention of a name being often infuf&cient« even for con- fultation of the largeft atlas. This defeA often confumcs much of the reader's time, which might be faved by the addition of two or three words, with an improvement of the fenfe, and no injury to the nclodycfthe expreflion. ' 8 . tal PREFACE. • • • xin tal improvement, as the delighx of his eafe, the relief of care, the foiace of misfortune, the author never hefitates to avow his doubts, or his ignorance; nor fcruples to facrifice the little vanity of the individual to his grand obje£t, the advancement of.fcience. An emphatic Arabian proverb declares that the errors of the learned are learned ; and even thtf millakes of a patient and unbiafled inquirer may often excite dlfcuillon, and a confequent elucidation of the truth. Many blemifhes will no doubt, be found in a work of fuch an e:;teniive and multifarious nature ; but thofe who are chiefly enabled to detcdt them will be the firft to pardon. The author can folemnly declare, that in a few cenfures wliich may be here found of fome miftakes in other v^'orks, he has in no inftance been influenced by any motive, except the pure v^'ifliof prefcntiug exafft information ; fuch a detedion of preceding errors being indifpenfable in a work of inftrudion. But fuch paflages v/ill be found extrtmcly rare, as he has generally left it to the reader to deteift the miftakes of his predeceflibrs, many of which are grofs and radical even beyond con- ception, by a mere collation of their defcriptions with thofe contained in the prefent work. Should the public favour reward the author's en- deavours, he will mofl; feduloufly remove any blemifhes, and adopt fuch real improvements as may be fuggefted. In the ftyle he has chiefly aimed at concife perfpicuity ; and may have frequently facrificed ele_ gance of ornament, or magnificence of period, to the fevcre accuracy of the topic. Even the eloquence of Pliny feems opprelTed by the pro- lix minutenefs of geography, and flruggles in vain, like a grand ca- taradl, nearly arretted by the froft of an alpine winter. Nay the mod decorated and concife of the ancient geographers is conftrained to be- gin with an apology. " I attempt to defcribe the ftate of the world, a work " full of impediments and difficulties, and which can fcarcely be enlivened *• by one ray of elocution ; for a great part will confifl: of the names of " nations sdv P H £ ^ A c e« « nations and places, mth fome peiplexjiiy even in the order to be fol- « lowed ( and the materials ar^ rather prolix than alluriiie. The ob« ** jeA is neverthelefs grand, and important ; and afpirei to the utmoft ** dignity of fdence ; bemg, leven in unikilful hands, capable of invit- « ing attention, by the contemplation of its magnitude*.". * PomppQ. Mtla it 8itv OtbU, lib. (. init. Pro«mii. , i I ■ ■ A /toVER. i«f ' > !•.[ ;' ADVERTISEMENT TO THIS EDITION. AT length the author has been enabled to complete his favourite plan, of prefenting to the public a fyftcm of modern geography, duly proportioned in all its parts, and fuch as to offer harmony and uniformity in its various divifions and arrangements. For in the firft edition, reftrided to two volumes, a great portion of Afla, and the whole of America and Africa, had been necefTarily treated with fuch brevity, that there was no fpace even for the moft important and interefting geographical informa- tion. The ftriking brevity and deficiency of the latter half of the fecond volume were perceived abroad as well as at home ; and the tranflators laboured by long notes, to fupply what the author knew, from experience, repeated refledlion, and the moft fedulous examination of the fubjedl, could only be remedied by enlarging the arrangement. In a general fyftem of geography, intended for general information, it is indifpenfable that there be a harmony of the parts ; and the author muftbe an impartial cofmopollte, without prediledlion for particular portions. The account 4 of XVI ADVEHTISEMENT. of his own country ought, indeed to be rather diflufc, not from partial views, or national vanity, but to ferve as an introdudion to the re(l ; it being necefTary, in the firft place, that the reader fliould be intimately ac- quainted \\'ith his native foil. But in the others a flrid and imparrial diftribution ought to be obferved, not only in, imitation of the claffical models of antiquity, whofe examples are the flifeft to follow, as they have have flood the teft of fo many ages ; but from the very nature of the fubje£t, which requires that readers of all countries and purfuits, may find themfelves gratified by a due extent of information concerning any country which they may \vi{h to examine. 'i I At the fame time it needs not be difguifed that, when the author compof- cd the firft edition of this work, he fometimes laboured under a deficiency of materials, particularly recent Spanifh books, of the utmoft importance for the exad geography of their extenfive colonies, or rather empires, in America ; but which, after the moft careful refearches, could not be found in this country. Zealous to remedy this defcQ, and at the fame time to ftudy with more advantage the prefent ftate of geography in France, the only country which can rival England in this department, he went to Paris, where meeting with the moft flattering and cordial re- ception from the moft eminent men of fcience, for which he muft be permitted to retain lafting gratitude, he was enabled, not only to procure the SpaniHi authors wanted, but greatly to increafe his fund of materials; and though detained by the well known events of the war much longer than he expelled, he cannot deeply regret theoccafion, as fcarcely a day pafled without fome addition to his information. Hence this edition, which ought to have appeared more than a twelvemonth ago, will be found to have gained in perfedion what was loft in delay. '' The French tranflation of this work, which was begun before the au- thor went to Paris, and in which he took no concern whatever, not having ADVERTISEMENT. having feen one flieet till the whole waa printed, contributed by it^ great fuccefs to open additional iburces. For many diplomatic men, and men of fcience of all countries, communicated feveral articles which enrich numerous pages of the prefent edition. Nor can the French tranflation be pafled without the acknowledgment that, though there be many miftakes for which the author is in no fliape anfwerable, and which arofe from the impatience of the publilher, and rapidity of the execution to anfvver the public demand, yet the tranflator, M. Walckenaer, is a man of property and information, far fuperior to the ufual pretenfions of tranllators, and has enriched the text with many valuable notes. The work is at the fame time honoured by the excellent introdudion of -Lacroix; the refpedable teftimony of Fourcroy, the minifter of public inftrudion, recommending it as the moft complete and claflical work of modern geography ; by the reception of the abridgment in the academies of France, and the general fuccefs of this fyftem in that enlightened country, rendered more remarkable in the midft of war and national en- mity. From fuch enmities, men of fcience are always confidered as ex- emptetl and edranged ; and nationalities would be unpardonable in a general geographer, vvhofe firft duty it is to view all nations with, an equal and impartial eye ; and the author muft be permitted to exprefs his cordial acknowledgments for the liberal communications he has re- ceived from men of eminence in moft countries in Europe, fo that there now remain very few, of which the defcription has not been correded and improved by a fkilful and diftinguilhed native. xvu Among the other ftriking advantages of this edition, may firft be men- tioned, the ample account of New Spain, and of the Spanifh viceroyalties in South America, drawn from the moft recent Spanifli materials, and prefenting, it is believed, the greateft novelty of important information that ever, appeared in any geographical work. The difcovery of the . VOL. I, b precifc f XV III ii i ADVERTISEMENT. prccifc boundaries of the viceroyaltiea and governments has alfo enabled the author to infert maps of various divifions of South America, hitherto unattcmpted in any colleftion, though loudly demanded by the wide extent of that portion of the globe. Four other maps have been rejeded, and their places fuppHed by others more correal, and better adapted to the prtfent plan. The brief and defedlive accounts of the grand territory of the United States, and of the Weft Indies, have alfo been enlarged, as their importance demanded ; and the view of Africa more duly apportioned with the reft ; for, after long refledion and ex- perience, the author has found that an exa£l fyftem of geography, of whatever fize, ought to be divided into three parts j one for Europe j another for Afia, which teems with civilized empires and ftates, not to. mention its vaft extent, efpecially when Auftralafia and Polynefia are included, fo as to amount to one half of the globe. Of the remaining third part, in the harmony of proportions, importance, and materials, at leaft two thirds muft ever be allotted to America, and the remainder to Africa when fully explored. ! I The reader may hence perceive that it would be impoffible to add another volume to this fyftem of modern geography, without deftroying the harmony and regularity of the whole edifice. If the volumes were found too large, they might, in a fplendid edition, be divided into fix volumes in quarto, with an atlas in folio, but any other division would injure the unity of the arrangement. It may alfo be mentioned that an edition in fix odlavo volumes fliould retain all the marginal indications,, which form an efl*ential part of the plan, as (hewing that the work is not fplit into fragments, like preceding fyftems, but forms one uniform nar« ratlve. In this refpe£t the American editions are defective, as the plan is deranged, and often obfcured, by the introduction of thofe indications into the text. The author is obliged to Dr. Barton for the honour done r i ■fi , '«.? ■■3 I . ADVERTISEMENT. by his notes to the Philadelphia edition, but hopes and rcquefts that no future editor will alter his text, on fucli important topics as the origin of nations, which would be fometimes to make him refponfible for ideas long fince difmiflcd by men of fciencc, while a note on the palTage would enable thp reader to judge for hlmfelf, without i.nplicating the judgment and charadlcr of the author. In the large and juft portions ot this new edition, which arc dedicated to the vaft Spaaifli poncfllons in America, the mod rich and furprifing colonics known to hiftory, it became neceflary to give extenfive and in- dependent defcriptions, as the original works are not only very volumi- nous, and extremely dilFicult to be procured, but are wrapt in a language little ftudied, fo that a reference to them for more ample infor- mation, frequently admifTible in depiding other countries, would here have been nugatory. But even in thel'e lengthened defcriptions, any unneceflary prolixity has been carefully avoided ; and it is hoped that no reader will objeiSl to the length, which is only caufed by the variety and importance of the information, and which, from the confufion of the original materials, it has required the mod patient induftry to digefl: and arrange. In fome other parts of the work, the defcriptions given by voyagers and travellers have been repeated in their own words, not from any momentary relaxation of indolence, for it would have been very eafy to have thrown them into the hiftorical form, but becaufe the juft impreffions made by theobjeds themfelves cannot be better repre- fented than in the precife colours of the original painter ; not to mention that the uniformity of the geographical ftyle, lamented by Mela, and neceffarily occafioned by the recurrence of the fame topics, may be greatly relieved by fuch variations. Defcriptions of manners, in parti- cular, are always conveyed with more truth and nature in the words of the original obferver ; and as this work was charged with fome deficiency in that department, by thofe who did not enter into the fpirit of the b 2 geographical XIX 'li i ^"1 \ J' '! i ; I II > ' !i f! l-f «» ADVERTISEMENT. geographical dirqulfitions, thou}>;h more appropriated to the Tcience, feveral of the extrafted parts belong to this divifion. But however curious and intereAing the account of the favages of New Holland, and of tK' people of Otaliehe, the laft one of the moll remarkable tribes on the globe, while the defcription of their manners here repeated is, after the account of the Araucans by Molina, one of the mod minute and fingular, which has ever appeared in any lanj»ua,.'c, yet wlien more am- ple materials fliall arife, from important difcovciies in Auftralafia and Polynefia, a geographer would abbreviate thefc articles, and introduce other topics more ftrii^ly conneded with the fcience. Meanwhile the account of the manners of the Polynefians will not only gratify the moft minute enquirer, but will ferve to redify many errors of Montcfquieu, and other eminent writers, with regard to a fingular ftage of fociety. To offer an apology for the improvements of this new edition may well appear ridiculous ; but in the natural malignity of human nature, and the jealoufy of thofe who wifli to make geography a trade, it is not impoflible that feme may fuppofe that the author is influenced by the only motives of human adion with which they are acquainted. Few enemies are fo dangerous as thofe who entertain a complete and deferved contempt for their own charaders, but in the wife diftribu- tion of nature it generally happens that malignity bears an exad pro- portion to the weaknefs of the infed, who is confcious that he would totally efcape obfervation, were it not that he is venomous. Of fuch detradors the author has heard, and muft inform them to their fur- prife that he is greatly a lofer by this new edition, which is publifhed irf juftice to the public, and to his own reputation. For the expences of his refidence in France, the delay of long, fedulous, and painful refearches, and the purchafe of numerous books and maps, far exceed the reward, however liberal. To readers of a very different defcrip- tion, it may not be neceffary to explain that nothing can be more abfurd K ADVERTISEMENT. xxt abfurd In itfclf, and more inimical to the progrefs of all the fclcnccs, than to fuppofe that the firft fdition o( a work is to he the ftandard of all the others. Life is fljort, uitd th^ health of a literary man often precarious. He ftridly pcrfornu his duty to any fciencc, and to jhe public, when he gives hi. extent of information at the time ; hut if his life be prolonged, and frc(h materials of great importance f}»ould arife, efpecially at a period when the fcienccs are making daily progrefs, he would fail in that duty if lu* withheld the communication. Among a thouland example?, Mr.Kirwan's Mineralogy was at firO rcftrided to one volume, but fo rapid was the progrefs of the fciencc that he was obliged to extend it to two volumes ; and met with dcfervcd ap- plaufe for this additional attention to fciencc, and the fcrvicc of the public. It is difficult even to account for the origin of the idea, that the purchafer of a firft edition has a right to complain of any addi- tions made in a fecond. It has been long fincc obfcrved that no- thing is taken from him ; and as there can never be a certainty of an author fupcrintending another edition, he can never have any dcfign that his firft edition (hould be imperfe! U '0 '1 111 ■Ml « ^;i; XXIV ADVERTISEMENT. pathetic feelings of mankiiiJ, before he can peruHi the natural hiftory with due attention and fatisfadion. Some of the moft important fea- tures are befides fo much changed or influenced by human induftry, that to begin with the natural geography would not only occafion many unnccedary circumlocutions and anticipations, but would lead to fallacious views, as implying thatTuch was the ftate of the country before it was poffefled by at^y nation ; while, on the contrary, the materials for this department depend on the utmoft precifion of re- cent knowledge and difcovery, while we know litde or nothing con- cerning the original natural hiftpry of any country ; and of courfe to prefix this department to the hiftorical would be fomewhat prepof- terous. ' The author has carefully availed himfelf of any candid critical re- marks, which he fonnd in the literary journals, foreign and domeftic, and has correded fome miftakes indicated by them. Their eulogy of the ftyle does credit to their own judgment, as in the opinions of fo- reigners, eminently verfed In the Englilh language, fuch is the purity of the grammar and expreffion, that they were as feldom obliged to refer to a did^ionary, as in any other produdion whatever of the Englifli language ; and the voice of foreigners mull in this refped be regarded as an infallible tell. Of the works handed down to us by antiquity not above one quarter is written in a laudable (lyle. The others are preferved by the importance orcuriofity of thefubjed. Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford, who addrefled to the author, his elegant letter on Graceful Com- pofition, ufed to obferve that when other faults required fome fltill to difcover, it was the eafiefl: of all the offices of minor criticKm to rail againft the ftyle of an author, but that if the cenfors do not produce nu- Eierous examples of bad ftyle, they are no more to be regarded than village curs, who always bark after a carriage. The requifites of a good 7 ftyle 4 1 * ■| hillory tant fea- ' ■■! nduftry, '•"-'S cccalion uld lead "1 country ■ M ary, the n of re- ■ - -J} ng con- :ourfe to prepof- .f '1 Itlcal rc' Jomeftic, iulogy of M ns of fo- purity of Jl to refer 1 ; Eoglifli fl regarded ~^^^H juity not ^j^^^H ireferved « ;, Earl of fl ful Com- :S le ikiW to fl I to rail ;^^H dace nu- 'fl ded than ^^^B if a good W ftyle fl ADVERTISEMENT. flyle are now fo well known, and accurately defined, that fome hypcr- critics, who commonly ufe a moft miferable ftyle themfelves, remind us of the Scotch fchoolmafter in one of Smollett's novels, who came to London to teach the true pronunciation of the Englifli language. If they live in a provincial town it is fcarcely poflible that they can be judges of ftyle, of which the ftandard has always been referred to the capital city ; while, like owls in a barn, tlby can as little judge of the grandeur and dignity which a fcience, formerly dry and pedantic, may aflume by the nobility of a fuperior ftyle and arrangement. But the firft proof of talents is to difcern talents: and good judges are, as Pope has long ago obferved, as rare as good authors. At prefent, perhaps that artificial and precife ftyle, which, while it never finks into defeat never rifes to beauty, nor ever afpires to " thoughts that breathe and words that burn," is the moft prevalent. While there are few painters, there are many eminent cabinet makers. The chief attributes of ftyle are purity of grammar, an infinite fund of language, and nice difcriminatioa of fynonymous words, fo that the word is precifely made for its place, and could not be changed without injury to the fenfe, the beauty or the melo- dy; learned allufions, which Angularly delight the firft and moft enlighten- ed clafs of readers ; elegant and appropriated metaphors which fuqpride at once by their novelty and propriety ; fentences variegated with taft« and melody : and here and there a fingle expreftion, or even word, which, in the hands of a mafter, will irradiate a whole page. Above all, keeping is as necefiary in compofition as in painting. The dignified cxprcftloa of the text would become ridiculous in a note ; but in the equality of cabinet making, a lobfter is deicribed in the fame language as a hero. The ftyle ought alfo to be appropriated to the fubje£l, and even to the length at which it is intended to be confidered. Antiquities form a dry fubjefl^, of niere Inftrudlon, and the chief objed is ma- thematical concifenefs j while the ftyle of literary difcuffions on poetry VOL. I. . [ c ] and xxV XXTi ADVERTISEMENT. !» l!l. and ths belles lettres can fcarceljr be too much decorated. Such would be the leflbns of our Walpolcs, our Wartons, and our Gibbons, to man/ pupils who would afpire to be mafters, who blame without being able to ihew any caufe of blame, and who fuppofe that a carpenter mud be a fupreme judge of architecture. Under thofe great mafters, the author may boaft of his education— and he alfo has been at the feet of Gamaliel, || .>,..,.,. The novelty in the manner of engraving the maps, while it is allowed to confer great clearnefs and beauty, advant'^ges much to be valued as they expedite any refearch, has by fome ;:minent judges advanced in years, as Fleurieu and Bougainville at Paris, been regarded as objedion- able, becaufe they found it difBcult to read th words which are engraved on the -fea. This obje^ion appeared to me to arife from mifappre- henfion j for to read, for any fpace c time, many words engraved in that manner, would indeed fatigue and dazzle the eye; but a map is never read, being only confulted for one or two pofitions at a time, fo that no inconvenience can be experienced. It has alfo been faid that this manner is not new ; as if the author, who has feen fuch an infinite number of ancient maps, did not know that the fea has frequently been marked with black lines drawn acrofs. But as juftly might a Saxon coin be compared with a modern medal of Urbain or Hamerani ; and the npvelty does not confift in drawing coarfe black lines, but in producing a grey tint, of a tranfparent and brilliant appearance, and fo completely new that it cannot be executed, except by means of a machine, the in- vention of an ingenious living artift. There muft therefore be a ftrange confufion of ideas, when the black lines of fome old maps are compared with the grey tint here exhibited. Its originality further appears from «he difficulty of the imitation, though frequently attempted fince the pub- lication of this work ; the chief faults being that the lines are too wide, <>r too black, wiulc it is a delicate grey hue which otight to be exprefled. Conceiving >M ADVERTISEMENT. xxva eh would to many ig able to nud be a le author feet of i allowed iralued as raaced in ibjedion- engraved nifappre- graved in a map is time, fo faid that 1 infinite itly been ixon coin and the reducing tmpletely B, the in« a ftrange ompared firs from the pub- 30 wide, xprelTed. >nceiving # '&; M 711 Conceiving that the zoological part might admit of fome Improve* ments, in hand^ profoundly verfcd in that fcience, the author applied to Dr. Shaw of the Britifh Mufeum, whofe works have acquired a deferved reputation at home and abroad. He has kindly lent his aid, as the reader will perceive from the Zoological Remarks at the end of each volume; thofe on Auftralafia being of confiderable extent, but authorized by the novelty, variety, and curiofity, of the animals of that region. Mr. Aikia has alfo reformed the botany, which interne inftances was rather prolix and loaded with fcientific terms, more fit for a profefled treatife on the fubje^ than for a work of this nature.* It hasbeenufual to make acknowledgments for fervices received, but as fcarcely a country occurs in which the author has not been fupplied with original materials by learned natives, or travellers, a recapitulation of the names would be infinite, and he (hall content himfelf with exprefling his gratitude in general towards his literary inftru^ors and benefactors, whofe names are befides commonly indicated in the defcriptions oT the different countries. No work probably in the whole circle of literature «an boaft of fuch a number of refpedable affiftants, as the reader will judge on the perufal : and it is difmifled in the confcioufnefs that no la« bour has been ipared to gratify the public expedation. * Tbe Index, originally compiled by Mr. Ajfcough of the Britifli Mufeui, hu alfo been k» ^fcdt enlarged, and improved. le»] MEMOIR *5 A ■ tt ■■*■;. ■ .'■' t t' I.. 1 t'tHj. j^ < i/.M! ■f •V .' .i I J I i^jiLind !. I 'u n.i, r,( i '■■>' «v_ ■■i ■? :.- i'o-.i^' .J; ">.') >M-liiI> UJ^Ti ; ,;;t. >„A..! .. liT i -J ;'. ,^'^ t ' 'if\s\-- (' .1 Li;*- ,ijS3. 1 '■■■■J •1 -.:.,! ■..'.. :"i T . :■" ■' • \':% MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS, and PRESENT STATE, of GEOGRAPHY. ic nr.. : ■■ /. THE progrefs of geography has begun to intereft all ranks and pro- fefllons of mankind, and to be apparent even among fome nations who have hitherto rather negle£led the fciences. Not withflan ding the iplendour ofStrabo, Pliny, and other great claflical writers on this fub- je£t, the fcience had till lately rather alTumed the dry mathematical forms of Ptolemy ; and writers, without talents or feledion, had buried in dull pedantry topics capable of the moft fedudive amui'ement, and the moil profound inftru^ion. Juftly become an indifpenfable branch of education, it now attradls the attention of the fair pupil, as well as of the future ftatefman, warrior, or philofopher ; and its progrefs by open- ing new intercourfes, and abating national prejudices and animofities, may be laid to contribute in no fmall degree to the improvement and happinefs of the human race. But as this important fcience had been generally treated in modern times, as a mere auxiliary of hillory, in a pedantic and repuldve man- ner, without the dignity and infinite variety which fo grand a theme deferved, and ought to have invited, there is the lefs wonder that it has rather been neglcAed among thofe very claffes, where it might have been expe^ed to have been the moft difiufed. It could hardly have been fuppofud chat a learned geologid ihould imagine that New Holland ii near the northern pole ; yet this is no folitary inflance, for even re- cent writers on ailronomy, natural phllofophy, and natural hiftory, often betray an unexpeded unaciiuaintauce with this fcience, which ought in a great raeaiure to guide iheir refearches.* To inftance an- * It is faid that in fuccelfive editions ot the Nectjary Tables, Anv«ri was put under one latitude and iongitudci Md Antwerp ander aaother. Other ,1 ^' I 1,) , t N *' ■ i! lit I' ^! • i^- XXX MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS other daft, it J« fcarcely poflible to conceive that a minifter or ftatet man (hould be ignorant of Rcography, a fcience, without which, neither military operations can be dffefted or arranged, diftant pofleflions worth acquifitlon indicated, nor even pacific nej^ otiations conducted with fuch accuracy as to preclude future difputee. I'he treaty of Utrecht was the work of very able negotiators ; yet the feeds of war were laid from mere ignorance of geography, for, in defining the French and Portugeufe pofleflions in South America, the river Oyapok was confounded with that of Vincent Pinzon, though at the diftance of thirty leagues. The Duke of Newcaftle is faid to have eagerly inquired, *' in what part of Germany is the Ohio:" and in the difpute concerning the navigation of the Scheldt, a 'later miniver could not difcover that river in the map, , becaufe it was written L'Escaut. To render geography vvortliy of being pcrufed by ftatefmen and men of fcience, which could only be done by treating it in the views of a ilatefman and a man of fcience, was no fmall ObjeA of the prefent de- fign ; and if the author may trull many literary journals, and letters from diflinguifhed perfnns of various countries, he hds fucceeded. Emj* nent diplomatic charaflers have contributed with zeal to the advantages of this new edition ; and it is hoped that the {lati(\ic part will be found, like the others, to have received great improvement. But it would be laudable to attach archives or offices bf geography, conduded by able proficients, to the charges and refidencies of minifters, to fupply the niofl: recent and authentic intelligence, and prevent the poflibiiity of miflakes, which may prove of great and lafttng detriment. After thefe brief confiderations on the utility and importance of the fcience, regarded in rather a new point of view, it will be proper to chufe the epoch at which the prefent memoir (hall commence ; and a more proper cannot be feledled than that of the death of d'Anville, 1782. Otdy twentyjfour years have elapfed fince the death of that great geographer, but how pregnant with important voyages and difco« veries, and geographical improvements of every kind ! An able work on geography may be fafely .pronounced to require greater labour, and more various knowledge than any other hunaa production, as it is the only fcience which unites the mathematical de- partment with the political, ethical, hiftorical, phyfical, and defcripttve. JMo wonder then thst it (hould be rare to find mathematical knowledge, and the capacity of drawing faithful and elegant maps, united with ikill in-the learned and living languages, and the talent of writing a clear and precile difquifition. Hence the fuperlative and juft reputation of d'Anville, whom to have learned to venerate is abready to have made 8 fome AND PRESENT STATE OP GEOGRAPHY. XXXI r ftateC neither ts worth ith fuch was the ►m mere rtugeufe led with 8. The t part of ration of :hc map, and mea ;ws of a efent de- nd letters i. Emi-> 1 vantages Ik found, would be I by able ipply the ibility of ice of the >roper to and a Anville, of that nd difco- require huiiaa tical de> criptive. owledge, ■with ikill clear and tation of ,ve made fome S '' fome prrprcffl In the ftudy. Aflifted by the munificence and communi- cations of the great, and the correfpondence of the learned, he became mafter of all the materials to be found in his time; and ufcd them with fuch fedulous labour, and minute accuracy, that his works will ever form a memorable epoch in the hiftory of Geography. Even of the countries, where the greatcft improvements have fince been made, his maps may always be compared with pleafure and advantage, as they ferve to Ihew the limits of knowledge at the time when they were com- pofed.* But it were abfurd to unite the epithet of perfei^ with any produdlion of roan. In ancient geography, d'Anville was often mifled by vague ftmilarities between ancient and modern names, not being fufficienily converlant with the hiftory and literature of the middle ages, which often overturn fuch idle fpeculations, by marking the crediion ot the modern city, or commencement of the modern appellation. A ftriking inftance may be found in his confounding the Bergos of Pliny with Bergen in Norway, which was founded in 1069 ; and by fome unac- countable fatality, He has implicitly adopted the crude ideas of Cluverius and Cellarius, concerning the ancient knowledge in the north of Eun.pe, not to mention his afligning too great an extent to their difcoveries in Afaa and Africa. In modern geography d'Anville has often negleded the mountains, though a more prominent and greater feature of nature than the rivers, and more diftin^ivc of the hiftory and progrefs of nations. A ftranger at the fame time to a new fcience which began to dawn, that of orology or fcientific defcriptions of great chains of mountains, d'An- ville has often placed at random little detached mole-hills, which can never delineate the nature or breadth of chains of mountains ; fometimes, like the Andes, prefenting a vaft belt or table-land of four thoufand miles in length, and from one hundred to two hundred in breadth. It is fur- priHng that, as all accurate maps in general geography are reduced from larger furvcys, the far fuperior advantages of the recent plan, accuracy, peripicuity, and beauty, above all a true and juft reprefentation of na- ture, did not imprefs this great geographer. Of late however, his countrymen have made great progrefs m this new improvement, for in the map of the French empire, publiftied in 1 804, at the Lepot de la Guerre^ the projedkion of the mountains is carried to the utmolt perfec-* * D'Anville drew all hit own mapi with fingular neatncft. Hit executors prefented to ire a fpecimen, which I keep ai a precioui relic. He never had an elcve, and ofcourfe could leave sene. . ,. .'- , - ■ tion. V 1 ! I A -A a I: xxKH MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS ^ tion, attainable on a fmall fcale, being a complete miniature of a large topographical furvey.* A valuable catalogue of all the works of d'Anville was publlHied at I'aria in 1802, with an eulogy by M, Dacier, to which the reader may be referred. Suffice it here to obferve, that to his other talents was joined a Angular fagacity in fixing doubtful pofitions, fo that by the voy- agers in the Moluccas and in Egypt, his fkill was equally admired. He was born at Paris in 1697, and died there on the 28th of January 1782, at the advanced age of eighty-four years. It is faid that this able geo- grapher, whofe exaft eye pervaded the globe, had fcarcely or never paried the barriers of his native city. The purfuits of a geographer, though intimately conneded with thofe of the traveller, can be little for- warded by perfonal journics or voyages ; and the brevity of human life, will not permit geography to derive great advantage from fuch exertions ; for as a geographer cannot employ, with SaufTure, forty years in the ex- amination of the Alps, nor ten years in every country of the globe, he muft, with the bee fuck honey from every flower, inftead of fpin- iiing his own web like the fpider. His prerogative, like that of the archited, is to ereA a folid and elegant edifice from materials already prepared. On the continent, where venders of maps are not ftyled geographers, d*AnviIle had the title and penfion of geographer to the king, and en- joyed the advantages as well as the glory attached to his talents. His mofl important maps and memoirs appeared between 1740 and 1770. One of his chief works, his Ancient Geography, was publilhed in 1768 ; but as he has ftyled it an abridgment, he has treated the fubjed in a manner too dry and concife, and it might not be diificult at the prefent period to produce a fuperior treatife. Some of his firft maps were con- (Iruded for RoUin's Ancient Hiftory ; and he feems to have retained a prediledion for the erudition of ancient geography. It mud be under- llood, that the dates in d'Anville's maps do not imply that he made no later Improvements, for fome were retouched long after. Thus the coaft of Greece, publilhed in 1756, was retouched in 1779. In that of Afia 1751, there are improvements 1763, and even 1780. Africa 1749 was retouched 1770, and ^777. North America 1746 has various improvements, the lateit 1761. South America 174S has corrections a« late as 1779. AUthefe improvements are indicated in the catalogue of his works; where it is alio obferved that his map of Quito 1750, • Among the firit Imall maps of the •rologic kind, were thofe which 1 di/efted for my Enquifv inco ihe Hitiory of Scotland 1788. 7 four AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHT. xjtaiU four ftieets, is the rareft and moft curious of all his produflions, the copper and impreflions having been purchafed by the king of Spain, fo that it was believed that only one copy exifted in France, that in d'An- ville's own coHedlion of maps, now in the archives of the minifter of ' foreign affairs. But I was fo fortunate as to procure a copy or two at Paris, with its original accompaniment, unknown to the author of the catalogue, namely a memoir of Condamiue on the pyramids eredled by the mathematicians in Quito, to commemorate the admeafurement of a degree of latitude, but which being ofFenfiveto the king of Spain, were foon deftroyed; and as the memoir of Condamine is written with forae afperity, this was probably the real caufe, that all the impreflion was bought and fupprelTed by orders of his Catholic Majcfty.* It is not unworthy of obfervation that, about the prccife period of the death of d'Anville, Rennell firft began his celebrated career, and in- troduced the fcience of geography into England, in a form at once invit- ing, exad, and fcientihc, by his memoir and map of Hindodan. But as the works of d'Anville have been afTumed as forming the firll epoch in this little memoir, it will be more proper and conneded to purfue the progrefs of geography in France, before tracing its ftcps in England and other countries. In ancient geography d'Anville was ably fucceeded by Goflellin, whofe Analyfis of the Greek geography appeared in 1790. No preceding wri- ter had ever entered, with fuch fkill and patience, into the laborious and intricate paths of ancient mathematics and aAronomy, which are flridtly connected with ancient geography. The itinerary meafurcs, the men- furation of the earth, the ancient agronomical obfervations, the ideal zones, the climates as denoted by the length of the day, all prefented topics of fedulous inquiry, and anxious refearch. At the fame time drawing maps with a neatnefs equal to that of d'Anville, and conflruc- ting long numerical tables with vafl labour ; his indefatigable love of fcience .would appear incredible to thofe who do not ieel the fame paf- lion. His Audy of the ancient theory of climates and zones has, en- abled him to explain why Ptolemy has contracted the extent of Hindof- tan towards the fouth, as, if Ceylon had been placed in the torrid zone, it would have overturned the ancient theory, that the torrid zone was totally uninhabitable ; and why the fame geographer has bent Scotland towards the ead, as otherwil'e the mod northern cape would have pafTed the climate of Thule, where, the longefl day, being twenty hours, in* * The works of d'Anville are now fold by M. Demanne at the Imperial Library at Parif, and the colledlion cods about feven or eight guineas. If purchafed elfewbere, it (hould be obfeivcd if the map) have the latett improvcmenu. VOL. 1. [d] dicates hi .« 11^ I m. x«u» ' ' MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS dlcfttcs a latitude of nearly 63' ; the radical error arifinj; from hi« havinj* raifed the latitudes of England three degrees and a half too far to the north ; and as Ptolemy knew that Thule was to the north of Britain, he was obliged, in order to prcferve his theory, to fuppofe that Scotland bent towards the eaft *. It is needlefs to remind the learned reader, that this circum(\ance had embarraffed geographers and antiquaries for two centuries and a half; whence the utility of M. Goflellin's new views of ancient geography may be conceived. In his grand work the Analy- fis of Greek C>eography, M. GoITellin has, with great ability, demon- ftrated the fallacy of various opinions concerning the extent of ancient knowledge in the ead ; and has afcertained, that the extent of that know- ledge did not pafs the weftern parts of the kingdom of Siam, the Golden Cherlbnefe being Pegu, and not Malacca as d'Anville had fuppofed. "With fuch merits the name of Goflellin will pafs to the latcll poftertty, as a great and folid improver of ancient geography ; and his illullrations of the recent translation of Strabo will add to that reputation: and though, in his work on African Geography, and on fome other occa- fions, he have too much reftrided the knowledge of the ancients, yel his manner is fo profound and precifc, and his arrangement (c luminous and elaborate, that thofe who are able to controvert his opinions will be the firft to admit his fuperior merits ; and if he err, it is on the oppofite fide to erroneous doctrines, fo as to leave the truth in the middle, and to fupply many weapons for its cftablifliment. After this juft diftindion due to the firft living geographer in France, it will not be neceffary to enlarge concerning the others. Buache, geo- grapher of the marine, poflefles eminent Ikiil in modern geography, fo far as it extends to a wide acquaintance with maps and charts of all countries and feas, and communicates his knowledge with great libera- lity. But a love of theory, which feems inherent in his name and family, leads him to fpeculations in ancient and modern geography, which ra- ther imply a love of paradox than of truth ; and if one of his paper kites fall, he will foon let fly another, which, far from being armed with the eledricity of fcience, or of bringing the lightning of truth from heaven, is rent by the firft breeze of oppofition. M. Barbie du Bocage drew the beautiful maps for the Voyage d* Anacharfts under the eyes of Barthelemy, chiefly from drawings taken on the fpot by orders of the count de Choifeul ; but leveral parts and plans have been fupplied fronx imagination, and even that of Athens has been found to diflfer confider- * Lmrt dt M. Goffillia i M. Piniertcn^ in the appendix to the Rethtrthn/ur la Seythts, Paris i8o4> Svo. ably 1 AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY. aWy from the truth. M. Barbie has however a learned library, and Is not a little induftrious, to that his rcfcarchcn are cftcn iircful and inge- ious ; and poirefling the modefty of real fcionce, he is little obtrufive of his opinions When I left Paris he was ufcfiilly occupied in preparing; the maps for the fccond volume of the Count de Chcifcurs Pidurefquc Journey throu\;h Greece ; and had executed for the gnvernmciit a large and curious ' ap of the Peloponnefus, in which however, fomc of the topography, chough laid down with the apparent minutenefs of truth,' was only imaginary, a pradicc which muil be blamed, as it would be better to leave a blank.* When to thefe names is added that of Coquebcrt, who has hitherto been moce diftinguilhed for his geographical knowledge than for his publications, it would be difficult to add any rivals. Qiiacks abound, as ufual in all couatrles, but their natural reward is oblivion. f B t • In hii map of the pluin of Troy, publiflied in the ediiion of ih« Vovage d'Anach.irfu 1799, he coi foflVd to me that he had, by mere minake, placed the river Thyinbrij* on the wrong I'uc 0/ the Simois. t A» Laj^rtpge and Mtchnin, (the latter fince dead of the yellow fever in Spain,) arc allronomera of the hid merit, fo La Lande tvat rather cunfidered as an uleful compiler; but his reficittd tri- fling letters to the journals, and hia IcAurrs on the Pont Neuf, contributed, with other circunnl^n. cet, to luhjfd him to a charge cf charlataiurt. Yet more fubjcfl to the fame charge it Nivntellc, formerly, by intrigue, geographer to the count d'Aitois, and row, by intrigue, member of the Inftitute, and teacher of the new princes. Deflitute alike of talents and fciencc, the n'. of Mcr.> telle, like that bird that feeds on the excrements of other', is to copy and difguife th ' labours of d'Anvil'e, GoflVllin, and other able inquirers ; often with fuch a multiiade of millaki . and con> fufion ot ideas, that the very perverflun gives them, to the unflcilful eye, an air of n»v<..ty, Sotne- timcs afier ccpying a whole (yflem of Goflcllir, as being flridly his own, he will ilightly mention the I eal author at the end, and requelHndulgence for having combated his idea!> ! A'terd'An- ville had, with the ufual precifion of teal /kill, ieparated ancient and modern geography, which again to bjcnd tcgi-ther, would be to forget the hidory of thtf middle ages, and to contound the whole fcience, no writer but Mentelte would have fought to have diftin^'uilhed himfeif by revi- ving the anc»ent pedantry, as he has endeavoured tu do in hit Geografhie C.omparit. llsCewin. grefhii, a word which he alone wouid chufe to apply to geography, and his rdition of Vofgien's Dictionary, fwarm with fuch errors as would difgrace a fchool boy. In the MS, of the laiicr I counted four grofs errors in thne tines, in conjunction with Chanlaire, a lawyer who had amaflld fome money and only furnifhes the funds, Menteile has publilhed what he calls an Atln;, of which a judgment may be formed from the phyfical map of Germany, in which the fandy plains on iiic Baltic, where there is not even a hill, are thickly fet with chains of mountains, higher than the Alps ! When 1 afked him the reafon of this phenomenon, he anfwercd with tiie profound gravity of a piofefTor, that in geography.rio axiom could be more certain, than that high mountains always accom- pany great rivers. Piqued at his being unmentioned In the firft edition of this work, upon the :4p- pearancc of the French tranflation, he had the effrontery to fet hit name to a mifirahlc compilation of modern geography in fourteen vols. Svo, which one firun, a young Dane who had left his coun- try, and been glad to live as an amanuenfis at Paris, had compiled and tranflated from various German authors, in fo chaotic a manner, that it was jullly ftyled, a good deficiiption of the world before it was made. This compilation of a Danifh youth, baptized with the name of Mentclle, was oddly enough flyled the French Giografby, and loudly trumpeted in oppofition to this work, which was, at they thought invidioufly, but really honourably, denominated the Engliflt Gicgraphj. All the dependents antl lltttereri of the new government applauded thit French geography, and condemned the purchaferi of the EngliOi Strabo, as the friends of thii work chufe to call it, as X*' ' ] incurable zxxvi MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS But many of the moft beautiful and folid produftions of the French geographers have, during the laft and prefcnt century, been executed by orders of the government. Not to mention the grand map of Caf- fini, which was only completed In 1794, what are called the Cartes eUs ChaJJesy the maps of the royal hunts, or forefts, form the moft beautiful and Angular monument of the kind which has ever appeared in any country. It is faid that the engraving of each map coft four hundred louis d'or ; and they certainly deferve it, for the beauty, harmony, ex- a£t and minute delineation, and elaborate accuracy, far furpafs all de- fcription. For each department, wood, water, hills,^ fields, &c. &c. a feparate engraver, eminent in his particular line, was employed. Of the twelve defigned, only eight were finifhed before the fubverfion of the monarchy ; but the remaining four now proceed with all poflible expedition *• Speaking of thefe models of beautiful engraving, it is to be regretted that the prices of maps do not approach nearer to thofe of other engravings, as the publifher would then be enabled, by higher re- wards to the artifts, to obtain more neatnefs and elegance. From the Cartes des Chajfes the tranfition muft be violent to any other geographical engravings, but the laudable attention of the ancient govern- ment to this interefting branch of fcience, retains its beneficial efTeds, and important maps are frequently publiflied at the Depot de la Guerre^ and the Depot de la Marine. Many of them are exclufively referved for the ufe of the French generals and admirals ; the former in particular, by the exaflnefs of the topography, affording great advantages to mili- tary operations. The map of Suabia, the propofed map of Holland on the fcale of Caffini, and of Egypt in fifty fheets, are monuments which do honour to the fcience f. At the Depot de la Marine^ are the engra- vings for the remaining part of the Voyage of Entrecafteaux, ready for publication. He has accurately furveyed the S. W. coaft of New Cale- donia, which is wanting in our maps, and feems to confift of a range of incurable Anglomatut tnd enemiet \ii Prince. This railing ftill continues in the French journals, and M. Brun is ib kind as to help himfelf upon the occafion, loudly declaring [Journal d* PEmpirt 10 June 1806,) «qu'un Anglomane eft encore pire qu'un Anglois I" In like manner a far more refpeAable author; Cambri, chulini* to revive in favour of France, tie exploded dream* of the Celtic power and empire, hat ■ . ttedl^ infinuated that I was hired by the fingliih Government to write my DiHerution on the Coihs; in which the ancient power of the Celts, that is, as he er- roneoufly foppbfes, of France, has been reftriQed to its proper narrow bounds. * They were never fold, being only defigned for prefenu ; iind are very rarely to be met with> as if the king hunted during fr^w or rain, two or three copies might be deftroyed. f The MtuuhaJ Ttfi^rafbiquj it Militairi, publilhed by the Dipoi it As Gutrri, muft not be for- gotten. The firft three or four numbers 8vo. contain feveral exci ilent papers on the projedion of maps, and the progrcft of geogrtphy. The erand nap of the campaigns ef Bonaparte, by Bacler Italy and Sicily. The Hlher law Bany of the materials, and d'Aibe, is now finiihed, and includes can add hi« teftinony t« th« gt acral opinion of iu twnwf i/* w \ aountame* AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY. xxyvu I French ■xccuted ) of Caf- hrtes des beautiful d in any hundred Dny, ex- fs all de- :. &c. a red. Of erHon of 1 poflible ;, it is to t thofe of ligher rc- iny other t govera- il efTefts, I Guerre, 'erved for articular, i to mili- slland on Its which le engra- ready for ew Cale- range of nch jonrnals, / dV PEmpirt r a far more earn* of the Governinent it. ai he er- be met with> I not be for- projection of b^ Bacler lateruli, and ountaine* 'm mountains. Half the fouthern coaft of New Holland alfo appears, but the eaftern half remains hidden with the labours of Flinders and Baudin, the latter of whom was little adapted to fuch an expedition, his fole re- commendation having been his intereft with one of the directors of the then government. The ingenious mineralogift who accompanied Baudin informed me, that that part of the fouthern coaft of New Holland, which was unvifited by Entrecafteaux, and which approaches neareft to Die- men's Land, prefents two confiderable bays, that towards the eaft, if I remember right, having a confiderable ifland at its entrance, called the Ifland of Kanguroos, while towards the weft there is another bay with an ifle fo near the bottom, that though it may be circumnavigated, it appears united with the land. New Holland, or Notafia, for men of fcience have begun to adopt the latter term, does not appear to be inter- fered by any ftrait or ftraits, as was fuppofed ; but to form one conti- nent, or vaft extent of land, infulated like the other continents ; for Afia, Europe, and Africa, form in fadt an infulated continent, like North and South America. One of the lateft improvements, which begins to pafs gradually into geography in France, is not only to afcertain the height of mountains, but that of the vaft plains or expanfcs of country, which flope in various directions, chiefly towards the greit rivers, and prefent various afpedls and altitudes.. That excellent mineralogift DaubuiiTon, lent me in MS. his curious obfcrvations on thofe of France, but as he will probably pub- lifli them, I do not widi to anticipate his labours. This brief view of the prefent ftate of geography in France, cannot be doled without honourable mention of the able treatife on the fphere by La Croix, compofed as an introduction to the French trandation of this geography. From the judicious manner in which the author has treated the fuhjeCt, confidering aftronomy merely fo far as connected with geography, laying down clear rules for the projection of maps, and treating the other topics in the moft luminous and popular manner, it may fafely be pronounced the beft of the kind which has ever appear- ied, and a maft^erpiece in that department of fcience. The progrefs and prefent ftate of geography in England next claim con- fideration. It has already been oblerved that, about the time of the death of d'Anville, 1 782, Rennell was the firft who opened the fources of genuine and fcientific geography in England. Before his time this great com- mercial country, to which the ftudy was more eifential than to any other in Europe, had oddly applied the names of geographers and hydrogra- phets to compilers and venders of maps, moftly mere copies of the French, or commoh furveys of Englifh counties; while in France, from the :m ji 't \ ) I . 1 ',■ ' 1 ; * rxxvixi MEMOtR 6N THE RECENT PROGRESS the middle ofthe feventeenth century, the Saiifons, the Dellfles, d'An- ville, men capable of writing with great learning in the Memoirs ofthe Academies of Sciences and Belles Lettres, or ofpublifhing elaborate me- moirs, had alone been dignified with the titles of geographers and hy- drographers to the king. This confufion of ideas is wholly unaccountable, for as well might the printer of a poem be created poetlaureat.* Ifjuft and precife ideas of the dignity and importance of the fcience were at length to tlawn, we fliould fee R«.nnell appointed geographer to the king of Great- Britain, and Dalrymple hydrographer, with yearly falaries of at leaft five hundred pounds, far better beftowed than on worthlefs fyco- phants ; for the places would be fo far from being finecures, that from the labours of the pofleflbrs, no fmall glory and advantage would arife to the nation. The very names of our royal geographers and hydrogra- phers are totally unknown in the hiftory of the fcience ; and it would be idle to evocate their fhades, or rather fhadows of a dream, in order to demand their pretenfions. Servile copiers of French maps, and even thofe often antiquated, they only ferved to degrade the fcience and the national reputation. So confcious of this was Gibbon, a man deeply embued with many fciences, that he employed d'Anville to draw a map ■worthy of his hiftory j but which, owing to the commencement ofthe war 1778, was never completed. Before Rennell opened the gate of the temple, the porch had been filled with mere venders, who, with the ufual mercantile fpirit, fliewed great jealoufy of their little trade : and coafcious that it required neither talents nor induftry, wifhed to conceal the extreme eafe of the procefs, and thus threw myftery and obfcurity a? jnd a plain and perfpicuous fcience. Each was jealous of his little mou poly, and anxious to hide the fources of his information, nay would affedt to rail againft the labours i.i the very authors of it ; as we have fometimes feen our men of letters impeach Voltaire, though he was the firft and only caufe of diflufing the knowledge andglory of Englifti literature through France, and the continent of Europe. But when (hop- keepers had become geographers, how was it poffible to avoid thefe in- fallible confcquences, and procedures merely mercantile, inftead of the noble and liberal views of men of fcience, only anxious for their own reputation and that of their country ? To quit this difagreeable theme, and return to the real progrefs of geography in England, it muft not be forgotten that when, though rarely, the French maps of Dclifle and d'Anville were not copied, yet to * Or MeSicure Cadell and Divies, who publiftied the worki of Hume, Robutron, Gibbon, infcribe on tlieir door, Uijloriant to Hi$ MajeJJy, the AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHV, xxxu m sir own the difgrace of the country, Frenchmen were employed ; and our royal geographers never thought of exciting native talents, though it wou!d he very difficult, at any epoch, to trace the employment of a rinp,Ie Englifhman in any department whatever at Paris. Among the French employed in London fome diftindinn is due to La Rochctte Acquaint- ed with him for many years, 1 muft fay that he had a rtal tindure of the fcience. To a fele£t library of books of geography, voyages, and travels, he united a confider*.ble fpirit of refearch ; and fpared no time nor labour in order to obtain the praife of corrednefs. It was idly re- ported, that he had been an eleve of d'Anville, while that great geogra- pher never had an eleve, and La Rochette candidly informed me that h« could only fay that he had feen d*Anville. His life may be faid to have palled in labour, poverty, and domeftic calamity. His drawings were in general neat, elaborate, and corred, fo far as his judgment and ma- terials extended; yet he was refufed one hundred guineas, which he demanded, for a drawing of the world for a projeded globe, and the fum was reprobated as exorbitant ! He told me that all his demands were regulated, as, contented with a mere exiftence, a certain daily pit- tance, he compared this with the time to be employed, fo that his pay- ments were upon an uniform ftandard. Among his chief produdions are his map of Hindoftan, and that of the marches of Alexander the Great. But as his reading was far from being univerfal, or even ex- ttnfive, he would fometimes fupply the want of materials or information, by a pretty and pidurefque neatnefs, which at the lirft glance ftrikes as imaginary, and unlike the face of nature. Nor could i perfuade him to ado[)t the genuine geographic plan of delineating the chains of mountains ; but he continued the antiquated manner of detached mole- hills, while he might -s well have reprefented rivers by dotted lines*. He pleaded as an apology that his maps were crowded with names, and that he could not find room ; but did not refled that he was facrificing the grandeft features of nature to the names of miferable villages, un- known in hiftory civil or natural, and which, if unexpededly called into notice, might be eafily found in larger furveys. La Rochette however can nevei be clafTed among the learned geographers, as I re- colled no memoir which he has publilhed ; his learning was limited, and h judgment and fagacity far from laudable, nor was he free from * Lacroiv, lotrod. to tbii Geography p. clxvi, has juflly: obfervrd, th^c thii way of indicating mountains is wholly vague and inAgnificant, as inftead of (hewing the aireition and branches'of the chains it only fays ' here are mountains'. La Rochctte even confeflTed to me that he fometimes put in mountains when he bad nothing elfe to fill the map. I begged that he would in future prefer another old plan, that of infetting elephants and oftriches, t; that x\ MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS ) T 1 ! .1 that jealoufy which accompanies trade, not fcience : for as his materials conftituled his fole merits he was (hy of communication, while a man of fcience is commonly frank and open ; ^}r he knows that he can lend his materials, but cannot lend his talents. It would be ufelefs to retail the various truly fcieniific produftlons of Rennell, for his name alone will recal them to the memory of every reader. To indicate fmall faults, where there is fo much merit, would be invidious; and it is better to fay, as Bolingbroke did of Marlborough, " he is fb great a man that I have forgotten his faults." But the pub" lie voice has gently whifpered that the treatife on the geography of He- rodotus is too prolix by one half. Books {hould be appropriated, by a fcale of tafte and judgment, to the natural extent and importance of the fubject i otherwife, in the language of fcripture, * the world would not contain the books that might be written.* As it is not too late to amend this defeat, (in fad the only reafon why it is here mentioned), it is to be hoped that the excellent author will not thus evaporate hi^ future la* hours, which are anxioufly expected, but will fubmit them to the nu- merous erafures of fome learned friend. Nor in candid criticifm can Dr. Vincent's work on the voyage of Nearchus, and the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, be exempted from a fimilar charge ; and the work is be- fides more laudable in the attempt than in the execution, the author being more converfant in the clafTics, and their commentators, than in the progrefs and recent improv foments of the various fciences.* The various treatifes on the plain of Troy, lately publiflied in Eng- land,, deferve mention, as contributing many new improvements of ancient geography. This interefting topic will fpcedily be further illuftrated, by the appearance of the fecond volume of the Count de Choifeul's Pidurcfque Journey through Greece, Chevalier, who led the way to this inquiry, having only been employed by that noble- man. Of the new grand Survey of England and Wales, the part beginning with Eflex has appeared, and has fully anfwered the public expectation. It is executed at the Tower by feleft draftfmen and engravers. It it to be regretted, that the county of Kent was permitted to be taken off * I am much obliged to Dr. Aikin, for the abridgment which he has publilhed of thii work with fome variations, but which are in fail retrogrefltom, in the arrangement, under the title of Geographical Dtlineatkns ; 6ut I (hould have been more obliged to him if he had once nentioned ■ly name. He may however be aflbred, that fonamerous are the improvements, unknown before my iirft edition, that, no man moderately verfed in the fcience has ever tnii^aken, orcanmiftake, the fole fource of his information, there not being above fix pages of matter not to be found in. that £rft edition. He fliould have read the diffcruti*n of Delifle, " On the ffleans of dcteOing plagiarifm in geography." the AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY. xli the plates, as it ferved to diftraifl and foreftal the public opinion, and produce mifapprehenfions concerning the nature of this grand defign, which is not a feries of counties, but a general trigonometrical furvey of England. Caifini would never have permitted fuch an injudicious dif- turbance of the original arrangement. In fome fmall maps of the Englifh counties, fome large maps of En- gland, and in fome of thofe deftined for one of the Encyclopedias, a fmgular novelty has been introduced, which, if continued, threatens to overwhelm the art with barbarifm, and cannot be too feverely reprobated. This wonderful improvement confifts in engraving almod all the names of places in Roman charafters , fo that the eye, inftead of the harmony and repofe always efteemed indifpenfable in beautiful engravings, is dazzled and repelled with difguft, from the (harpnefs of thefe charadiers ; while, in the confufed uniformity, fcarcely can a name be found or dif- tinguifhcd from another. The next ftep, perhaps, may be to print maps with moveable types, which would be more ibft and agreeable to the eye than tJie fharpnefs of the Roman letter when engraved. That form of character has, on the contrary, been rarely admitted by mafters, who often prefer a line drawn under a remarkable name : for they knew well that in an engraving, the eye is plcafed with foftnefs and repofe, and hardnefs is regarded as the worft of all defedls. Befides the confufion, which is fuch that four minutes are required to find, what in another map would be caught in an inftant, there is alfo an air of meannefs and negligence ; for the beauty of a printed page confifts in the regula- rity of the lines, but to take detached words and fcatter them over a page, though prefenting an accurate refemblance of thefe maps, except its fuperior foftnefs to the eye, would have an effeft which may be eafily guefl'ed by the reader. It is hoped therefore that the foftnefs of the Italic charadler, which has been ufed by all the great mafters of the art, will continue to be preferred, only interfperfed with a few Roman names for the fake of variety ; and that this new improvement, alike dif- claimed by tafte and knowledge, will be totally difmifl!ed. It was alfo about the period of the death of d'Anville, that Mr. Ar- rowlmith began to afiert the prerogative of an Engli(h artift, and inftead of copying i-'rench maps, or employing French defigners, to make his own drawings from original materials. The fuccefs he has met with lias correfponded with the merit of the attempt, and it would be diihcult to name any of his maps which has not the praife of fome originality. Sometimes free in his communications, he has the ufual return of communications from ail quarters, while a narrow jealoufy only fcrves VOI,. I. [ e ] t« ''9il lit iii ■ ,( ♦ . ii xlii MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS to defeat its own purpofes ; and thus, though without the advantages «f education, an'', fo totally miverfed in the lanpiuages, that he cannot even write his own, he has liberally availed himfelf of the knowledge of others. More eminent as a hydrographer than as a geographer, Mr. Arrowfmith commonly lays down the fliorcs with fome accuracy, and from the moft recent difcoveries ; and he has great merit in being tlic firft who attempted to lay down the chains of mountains in large maps, on the real geographic plan, as defcHbing the nature and appearance of the earth. After this tribute of juft applaufe, it may be hinted that a confiderable'fhare of learning is required to delineate the interior geo- graphy of a country, and that many grofs errors of projeiflion and even of latitude have been detc6ted, which may in fome inftances proceed from want of reading, but on other occafions, from the multifarious oc- cupations of the author, the rapidity of his publications, and the care- leflhefs of the draftfmen employed, a great caufe of the exadlnefs of d'Anville, probably arifmg from his employing no draftfman whatever. Hence, though Mr. Arrowfmith was moft liberally paid for tj^e maps which accompany this work, yet fcarcely a drawing could pafs without many corre<5lions and improvements by the author j who, without being anfwerable for the defers, may however lay claim to the chief improve- ments. But while Mr. Arrowfmith is often not fufficiently careful of his own reputation, he is always ready toliften to any admonition, and to adopt any correQions or improvements, fo that the late imprelfions of his maps are always to be preferred. But in this memoir, which is not intended to be a vehicle of perfonal praife or difpraife, but merely to ferve the progress of the fcience, it may aUb be hinted that while Mr. Arrowfmith has greatly improved the appearance of the land, henegledls that of the fea, which is only marked by a tranfitory colour, fo as to give his maps the appearance of flcetchea rather than of finifhed pro- dudions.* It is indeed better that the fea be negledled than the land ; but in a perfed map attention to both is expelled, in a manner that will ftand the teft of ages. His new map of the Weft Indies, including New Spain, has his ufual merits and defeats ; there being many great im- provements totally unknown to d'Anville, whofe map had been gene- rally followed, but the latitude of Mexico is unfortunately laid down at* • To a rigid difciple of D'Anville, Mr. Arrowfmith's maps in general will appear rapid tkctcheii, ivitt) imponant difcoveries and improvements. Such is the opinion of the belt judges at honne and abroaJ. One is farced to refer to ttiein for recent difcoveries, becaufc there are no •thers ; by >io means as good, but at the bed of the bad. So much the author mull fay in his own fiiidication, as he ha* bttn ridiculed abicadfor bis praife yf " fuch ignorant, carelcfs, and haHy publisaiiwu." I '1 AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY. xliii itages ftf lot even ledge of ler, Mr. acy, and eing tlve ge maps, ranee of zi that a lor geo- md even proceed ious oc- the care- idtnefs of irhatever. t]ie maps J without )ut being improve- areful of ion, and elfions of cli is not lerely to hile Mr. J negledls fo as to hed pro- \e land ; that will en gene-^ down at ppe.ir rapid :Lt judges at there are no y in his own s, and hall/ s-.u ir)*5H, while by repeated and exaiT: obfcrvatlonsof Galiano, it is I9'^2f ; and this error of thirty three miles diftiirljs the gcogrnphy of the cir- cumjacent provinces. In another edition tliefe dcfe£ts will bo remedied, and the whole imjfrcvcd from the defcription here given of New Spain. At prefent his map of Scotland from the original great furvcy of general Roy excites the public expedation.* It is hoped that even in this rapid fketch, few objefls of confcquencc have been omitted, and any fuch omiflion will be wholly foreign to its intention. It is not a little remarkable that while our map^s were copied from thofe of the great French geographers, we in return furniihcd books of general geography, which were tranflated ipto French. Sal- mon's State of all Nations was tranflated into French and Italian ; and in the flow advancement of their literary knowledge, is to this day quoted by Spanifli authors. Gordon, a teacher of matliematics, had ap- plied the ftrange name of grammar to u fmall and dry trcatifc of geo- graphy, for the ufe of youth, not knowing that grammar in no language extends beyond the ufe of letters and words ; and is of all fciencts, per- haps, the mod remote from geography, which is built on drawings, maps, plans, and defcriptions. Yet this ftriking abfurdity was retained by Salmon and Guthrie ; and the tranflation of the work afcribed to the latter, is a further proof, that, while the French excelled in maps, they were deficient in elementary works, though their language abounds with excelfent geographical diflfertations. The diffufenefs and pedantry of Dii Frefnoy, and the dry, though commonly accurate coneifenefs of Nicolle Lacroix, f confpired to avert men verfed in the other fciences from this pleafing and important ftudy, which they feemed to regard as only adapted to education ; and when a qne(\ion arofe were contented to confult fome erroneous didionary. Nor did tho tranflation of Guthrie, extended to nine volumes, and accompanied with a load of matter alike dry and extraneous, contribute much to remove their averfion. The objed wanted was to treat geography in a more noble and elevated man- * His other chief maps are indicated in the catalogue at the end. Since the death of La Rochettc, Mk. Fsden has publ'.flied little remarkable. La Rochottc had began a map of South America, and it is faid that two French young men have been found qualified to continue his labours, as Mr, Faden does not pretend to knowledge of the languages, nor (kill in the fciencc. which hisjealoufy, as 1 have found and experienced, rather tenets to obftrudk; aud unfortunately has the ufual effetl of preventing the fiee comaunications of others. f The bed French abflraA of geography for the ufe of youth is that of M. Nicolle de ia Ctq'tf, in two thick volumes duodecimo. Jt was Atd publilhed iu 1753; and muft not be con- founded wi'h the geography of a M. de la Croix, publilhed about i6jo. For many other authors the reader may confult the catalogue of Oufrefnoy, wliich «ill (hew liovy diitictiU it is to wiite well on a fcience where, for one author who fur vives, a thoufand perilh. [ e a ] ner, Ill Ml xllv MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS ner, and with an arrangement truly fclentific; and by thus ralfinj^lt to the dignity of the other fclences, to prefent it in a form worthy of the claflical models of antiquity, capable of delighting and inftru£ling the reader, of informing alike the ftatefman and the man of fcience, and of diffiifing folid knowledge among all ages, ranks, and conditions. The gratitude of the author for the favourable reception of the pre- fent work will, it is hoped, be bcft evidenced in the fedulous labour which he has beftowed upon this new edition ; in which the extent, plan and arrangement, of a complete fyftem of modern geography, fuch as they appeared after long and mature confideration, have at length been efie£ted. He may venture to forefee that, by abridging or with- drawing fome particular parts, for example, in the accounts of Polynefia and the Weft Indies, and fometimes by additional annotation;:, it may not be neceflary, even for a century, to add more than one hundred pages. The dreams concerning the importance of difcoveries to be made in the centre of Africa will fade before thelight of authentic knowledge; a few favage tribes, a few towns built of mud, fandy defarts, and thorny forefts, will not authorife long defcriptions. The courfe and termina- tion of the Niger, when known, cannot warrant in a general fyftem, a detail approaching to the infinitely fuperior grandeur of the Maranon. When European nations (hall abandon their wars, which may be called civil and inteftine, and fliall, by the fubjugation of Africa, eflablifh in- duftry and civilization in that unhappy continent, fome centuries muft elapfe before the defcription, interrupted by vaft defarts, can correfpond to an equal extent of cultivable foil in South America. Chiefly by recent Englifti enterprife the globe has been at length com- pletely explored ; and there can remain no new difcoveries of fufficient importance, to embarrafs geographical arrangement. The Magellanic Lands have been finally difmiffed from geography; and of the Terra Auftralis only a fclentific reminifcence remains in the appellation of Auftralafia. To avoid an ambiguous and long circumlocution, the name Polynefia has been adopted for the numerous fcattered iflands in the Great or Pacific Ocean, which being the wideft expanfe, is fuificiently in- dicated by the fornier epithet. Far from making any apology for adopting thelie new divifions, the author wifhesthat men of fcience would at length exert their authority, (and their's is the only competent court,) to prevent the diffufion of barbarous and ablcrd appellations, which can fcarcely even be ufed with gravity in folemn compofition. Nor may it be un- necefiary to remind the unlearned reader, that thefe appellations are only new to him, having been ufed by the German writers on natural hiilory and J AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY. nIv and geography, for more than twenty years ; (o that without a know- le«lKC of them it would have been impofljble to have underftood many valuable authors. The routine and infallible obftinacy of ignorance have always been, found long to refift any improvements in thelciences ; and in this the difficulty is increafed,becaufe illiterate compilers and ven- ders of maps, often anxious to fell antiquated produ£tious, naturally withftand any improvements that might injure their traffic. Some have even been found fo totally unacquainted with the fubje£k, as to ridicule the idea of fix quarters of the globe, not knowing that there are eight great quarters of the compafs! Quarters of the globe formed a familiar and vulgar expreffion long before America was difcovered ; and every fchool boy knows when he is in his quarters, and confults Ainfworth's didlionary, that quarter is regio, a region.* But in fa£l the term quarter of the globe begins like that of zo//^, to be antiquated ; the proper term is region or divifton ; and in a complete furvey of the globe, as now difcovered, there are two grand continents infulatcd by the ocean, one of them being called America, while the other is arbitrarily divided into Afia, Europe, and Africa. A third con- tinent, for a continent, like a planet, may be large or fmall, is Notafia, abfurdly called New Holland, but as it approaches more to the received ideas of a large ifland, and has many great iflands adjacent, the novelty of the appearance excites new ideas, and demands a new appellation. Notafia therefore, with the adjacent large iflands, may, in exadt and fcientific defcription, be regarded, not only as a new quarter, region, or divifion of the globe j but, with the adjacent large fragments of land, as forming in precife language a grand Maritime divifion, under the name of Auftralafia, being to the fouth of that grand continent, and the only part which really exifts of the fuppofed Terra Aullralis. In like manner, as it would be a needlefs circumlocution, to fay * the numerous groups of iilands lately difcovered in the Pacitic Ocean' ; not to mention that even * Among the Hgnifications of quarter, indicated by Johnfon, are ' a region of the fkiei, as re« ferred to the feamen's card,' in which fenfe it is ufed by the cladical Addiion ; and even a particular region ot a town or a country. Among other fenfes, perhaps thefe critics will be glad to demind quarter. Even in French, though the French have ro riglu to legifl.te in maritime difcovtries, quartitr means any pan ; la 'vilk de Londre ejl divijh et 'vingt-fix qunrtitrs, • the city of London is divided into twenty>fix quarters or wards.' Yet a very ignorant noole emigrant has formally propol«d to the pubtic (o divide the globe into t<«iir regular quarters, lilie an ortnire ; and the firlt compriting Europe and Africa is forfootb to be called Cthica, in honour of the iileal Celts of Frai.ce, a great people unknown to hiftory, or by any mjnu.-nent whatever of civiliza- tion ; an idea as wife as that of M. Cambry. above mcatioaed, (hat I was hired to degrade the konour of France by writiag againft the Celts ! 12 the xlvl MEMOIR ON THE RFXENT PROOREfiS llic circumlocution would be ambipjuoos, ks it mlplitbe underftood to in- clude Auftralafia, and all the iflands alonf^the weflern coaft of America, the name of Polynefia becomes indifpenfable for another jjjrand Mari- time divifion. In this view, even the vulgar expreflion and acceptation of four quarters might be retained for the grand Terrene, or contitien- tal regions, to which the two Maritime divifions are fupplemental. In a general view of the globe, it muft not be forgotten that Delambre and Mtchain, charged to meafure the arc of the meridian between Dun- • kirk and Barcelona, have difcovered irregularities in the degrees, but not I fiifficient to intereft geography. The degree meafured by Maupertuis, in Bothnia, not in Lapland, as he imagined, belhg rather fufpefted ; upon a frefli menfuration, by tlielm, there was found an error of one hundred and ninety-fix toifes, fo that the oblatcnefs of the earth towards the poles is now computed at tit*. Having thus difcufled the progrefs of geography in the two moft en- lightened countries of the world, and thofe which have the mofl contri- buted to its advancement, little remains to be added ; and as the topics are brief, the arrangement becomes of little moment. As mere curiofities rnay be mentioned, the large Greek maps publiHied at Vienna, of which M. Barbie du Bocage was lb kiird as to favour me with a copy. There are a planifphere, and feparate maps each in four or more fheet8,of the four received divifions of the globe, and the fingular appearance of the modern names in Greek letters is not a little amufing. But the map of Greece, in nine fmall ftieets, though of little importance in exa£t geography, is more interefting ; and may ferve to indicate and rectify fome pofitious. Nor are the Greeks, who deferve a better fate, without recent elemen- tary works on geography. Having thus hailed the parent of European fcience, let us pafs to Italy, where Zannoni has publiflied at Naples in 1803, a profpedus of a new map of Italy, in fifteen (heets, a labour for which he is highly qualified. This geographer praifes the map of Bacler d'AIbe, which includes Italy and the fouthern part of Germany, par- ticularly the delineation of Corfica, the duchy of Mantua, and fome other parts, as quite new and fuperior to all other maps ; but blames the 'I'ufcany of d'AIbe, the Venetian States^ and kingdom of Naples. Pied- mont, and the coad of Genoa alfo prefenc many miflakes ; and the city of Genoa io moved ten minutes tod mtsch to the eaft. From Italy the paflage is not difficult to Spain, where unexpedlcdiy we * See Lacroix IntroduAion to this Geography, p.lxxiir, Ixxv. Fr. Ed. 1S04. I 4 find AND PRESENT STATE OF CEOGHArilY. xlvii oodto in- America, :\ Mari- :ceptation continen- lental. Dclambre ecn Dun- 3, "but not iupertuis, ed ; upon : hundred vards the moft en- >fl contri- :he topics ruriofities of which . There f the four e modern f Greece, raphy, is jofitious. elemen- iuropean Maples in ibour for ofBacter iny, par- me other ames the ». Pied- the city ■^1 find a confiderahle progrefs in geography. The aAronomical labours of Tofino and Malefpina, upon the coaftj of Spain and her colonies, arc well known. Antillon, profeflbr of geography in the Royal Seminary of nobles at Madrid, has publif^ied mops of difterent regions of the world, for the ufe of that academy, with analyfes or memoirs, which often pre- fent ufefuland recent information ; but the fize of each map being only a fmall fheet, it is to be regretted that they cannot render more cllcntial fervicc. That of North America is however very valuable, from the no- velty of the courfe of fome rivers, and the pofitions offome large lakes in the northern part of the Spanilh dominions. More important geo- graphical documents are derived from the new mifllons on the caft of the Andes ; and the travels of the mifllonaries, 1790 — iSoo, related atgreac length in the Mercurio Peruano, and repeated, with additional informa- tion, by Eftalla, difclofc at length the real and furpriiing courfe of tliofc prodigious rivers, the Maranon and the Beni, which would convey a frigate to Peru or La Plata. The minutcnefs of the obfervations, aud the feemingly exad indications of the latitudes and itinerary diftances warranted the new delineation, now firft given in the fmall maps which accompany this work ; but it is to be regretted that the map by Sobre- vlela, one of the mifllonaries, the publication of which is promiled in the Mercttrio PertumOy has not yet reached England. It is to be hoped however that Bauza, in his new map of South America, will not only infert thefe grand difcoverics, but redify many errors of La Cruz. Before 'eaving Spain, it is proper to mention a work which ought ere now to have been tranflated into Engliih, namely, the Spanifli Voyage to the Wcllern Coaft of North America, 1792, publilhed at Madrid, 1802, 4to. v;ith a large and curious introduilion concerning the hiftory of the Spanifti dilcoveries. On vifnlngthe North of Europe we fliall find anew trigonometrical furvey of Holland begun ; and that of Denmark by Bygge nearly com- pleted. That of Sweden by Hcrmelin, mufl now be linilhed. Ger- many rather publifhes criticil'ms than maps : La critique ell aifee, mais I'art eft diflicilc : And the maps there publiflicd have few pretenfions to beauty ; nor, what is furpriiing, is there yet one map of Germany with ajtilt deli- neation of the mountains. I'he pretenfions of the little obfervatory at Weimar to geographical improvements are truly ridiculous, and the maps the moil coarle and clumfy imaginable. Sotzmann, in Prulha, has however his merit, and has publilhed a map of Germany, lincc the partiiioa I If 1 i xlvlU MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS, &c. partition of indemnities, but a new one is already wanted. RelcharJ . has publiOied a very ufeful guide to travellers, in three volumes, 8vo. whicli prefents at one view tlie chief objeas of inftrudUon and curiofity, in every European country. The excellent atlas of Swiflerland, by Weifs, is well known. In the fccond edition of hia general map, the northern part of the lake of Conftancc has aiTumcd a new (hape, from recent obfervations. .-. ! <: 1 . -. . ( . '! ;fi !lt; ^ '■! '} ■'■ i' ^- ft'' H CON s' 1 . < .;{ o I T# ^T f [ xllx ] t r i: ■{ t ;; :: CONTE NTS •r TH« INTRODUCTION. v.". /, v.«\ J^IGVRIL and Dimin/wnt tiftlie £aH/t LtilituJt and I.ongUudt of Placa ufon the Earth't Sur/a:i Jllmofphtri of tht Earth « , , On Parallax . _ The ^/ironomUal ^adrant . , The Tran/it Telefctpe . ^ , Explanation of /IJlronomkal Termt Dottrine of the Spiiske '■ ' m Some Prollemt . " , . V'-i ''. yl/lrcnnmkal Term, arj/ir^frim different ^Ifuatton, if the SfeSaltr upon the Earth tofimlthetlghi Afcerfion and Deellnalhn of the Heavenly Bodies * Equation of Time . , Motiondfihe Moon and ils Phenomena - , Rotation of the Sun and Planet t " • ", notation oj the SatcHUet vot. I. r f 1 hg# "^ *; ix xiv Ifl xtU SIX xxiii xxn xxrit SateUku . -Aj\ ~' Th* Barometer » j • » » Thtrmometer •» » • . Page XXTIl - ib. zzvii'l ib. ib. sxxii xxxiii XXXtT ib. xnxr xzxvi ib. ib; ib. xxxTii! xxxix xl xlii xliii xli*^ xl» xIW xL'k I ^ ib. 1^ Im IWit Ux kiii iL A* •jl^i~. ■ Mm I N. CONTENTS OF INTRODUCTION. I' Page xxvii ib. xzvui ib. ib. xxxli xxxiii XXXIT ib. X^XT xxxvi ib. ib; ib. xxxTii! xxxix xl x]ii xliii xlv xlW xL'k 1 ib. ib. 1^ Ifii In'it Ux kiii iL A* On the Afimt ofVti^eitr$, tht Origin o/Sfringtt and Formation of Rain, Snow, and Hail TtMrstAntBoj SJntntParitoftbe Earth > JDivifions e/the Surfacto/tbeEarti • ; ■ ■ Tbf CouroHMHT Pmu of tie Emtm • • MtAtVtEt • . , • • TjMUto/LoiKtinMtandLdriraourftirtaintdlif Ohfirvatiuh tfc. Page Ixir ^ Ixvi Ixxiii ft. Udb Ixzxvij. 4%. iNxao B ,li»! 4\ ■! 1 "iWt'. ''r i.l. A^i M O I ']■ r> TJ f! L 5! T M '1 O 3 T '/: d T ^/I f ■■ D C.",t.'4 SvA'',P I'lVt.'*. '. .^irN^i.i ^1 *»•! i ; ii •. .' • ^\r.'\ •jV'i'',) --Av^v. .'' r . 1 -j^jc \: INTRODUCTION. I . G E G R A P H y, ai it relates to tlie figure and dimciilions of the earth, and tlie relative fituatioiis of places upon its furface, is founded upon the principles of Astronomy ; we (hall therefore give a full aud fa- miliar explanation of fuch parts of the latter friencc, as may be neceflary for underdanding the former ; to- gether with fuch other matter* ai may be confidercd a proper introdudion to the work. On the Figure and D'menfions of the Earth. 2. The earth is a fpherical body, and its ii^re is "T-f nearly that of a perfeft globe, not confideniig the 1i' ■ unevenncfles of its furface arifing from hills and ;: . they bear no more proportion to its magni- \i t .'<->. the fmallefl grain of land docs to a com- iTi- T ' 'je. The truth of this is manifeft from tlic following circumllancei : ill, When you llaud upon the (hore, the fpherical form of the fea is manifeft to the eye. 2dly, When a fliip leaves the (hore, aad goes out to fea, you firfl lofe fight of the hull, and then of the maft, gradually from the bottom to the top : And when a fhip approaches the (hore, you firft fee the top of the maft, and then the lower parts gradually appear, till at laft you fee the whole (hip. Now thefe appear- ances would not take place, if the fea were a plane ; for then every part of the (hip would difappear together, after leavmg the (hore, ana appear all at once when it approaches the (hore ; or rather, the hull would difap- pear laft, or appear firft, that being the moft con- fpicuous part of the (hip, which is contrary to matter of fad. But the appearances are exadly what they ought to be, upon fuppofition that the fea is fpherical, in which cafe the convexity of the water would produce the phxnomena which are obferved. 3dly, From the voyages of the navigators Magellan, Sir Fkancis Drake, Lord Anson, Cook, and many others who have failed round the earth, having fet off in one direc- tion, and continuing their courfe, have come home in the oppofite direftion ; that is, they have let off taft and come home weft, or fet off well and come home call : this could not have happened if the earth hud f OL. u not been of a globular (igiire. 4tl>ly, Another proof of the fplicrical form of the earth, arifes from the form of the boundary of its (hadow upon the moon in a lunar pclipfe, that boundary being always fnlierical ; and no- thing liut a fpherical body can, in all fituations, pro- duce a circular fhadow. 5th!y, If you travel towards the north, many new ftars will appear above the horizon in the northern parts, and thofe in the fouthcrn part* near the horizon will difappear. This can only arife from the fpherical form of tne earth. In fliort, all the ai>pearancc:t both upon the earth and in the heavens, are juil what they ought to be upon fuppofition that the earth is globular ; but they will none of them anfwer to that of a plane fuiface. 3. The globular figure of the earth being thus cfta- bliihed, we proceed nexi: to (how that the apparent diurnal rotation of all the heavenly bodies arife* from the rotation of the eart'a about one of its diameters, called its «*w. The apfiarcnt diurnal motion of all the heavenly bodies may aiife from the rotation of the earth about its axis ; or it may be accounted for by fuppofing the earth to be at reft, and all the bodies daily to perform their revolutions about it. Now, if we fuppofe the earth to be at reft, all the fixed ftar* muft make a complete revolution every- day in parallel circles. But aftroriomers have very falisfi'.ftorily proved, that the neareft of the fixed (lars it not liels than 4co,ocx> times further from us than the fun is, and that the fun's ditlance from us is not lefs thau 93 million* of miles. Alfo, from the difcoveries which are every day making by the vaft improvement of telefcopet, it ap* pears tnat the heavens -are filled with an almoft infinite num1)er of ftars, whofe diftances are, probably, incom- parably greater than what we have ftated above. But that au almuft infinite number of bodies, moft of them invifible except by the beft telefcones, at ahnoft infinite diftances from us aiul from each other, (liould have their mtitions fo exactly adjufted ;',3 to revolve in the fame time, and in parallel circles, and all this without their having any central body, wliich (as Sir I. Newtom has proved) is a pliyfical impoffibility, is an hypothcfi* not to be admitted, when we cinindcr that all the ph«- iioiuciia may be fojvcd fimply by the rotation of the b earth V ' I \ '.ill 'ill^hl I . I : ^W! •! 1:11 ^'1 u INTRODUCTION. eavlli about one of its Jlnmotcrs. If, therefore, we had no otiicr evid'.nce, wo mifflit rcll fatioiiod that the ap- parent diurnal motions of all the heavenly bodies are jivoduced by tho earth's rotation. But we have other rt:ifon3 for tliir. fuppofition. Experiments prove that all the parts of the earth have a gravitation towards each other. Such a body, therefore, the greater part of whofe furface is a fluid, mufl, from the eqiial gravi- tation of its parts only, form itfelf into a fphere. But it appears from mcnfiiration, that the earth is not a per- fect iphcre but a fpheroid, having its equatorial longer than its polar diameter. Now if v.-e fuppofe the earth to revolve, the parts moft dillant from its axis nuift, from their greater velocity, have a greater tendency to fly off from the axis, and therefore that diameter wiiich is p. of 1 ", the zenith diilaixe of tlie liar v would have; altered I ' . In this inar.n' r the len_'Tth of a degree of a great circle upon the ea th's furface has been determin'.d, and thence, ils circumference. Possidonius, who livL-d in the time of Pompf.y the great, attempted thus to m .nfure the circumference of the earth ; he knew that the Car calld Canipitt was in the horizon at Rhodes, and that al Alexmdnit its altitude on the meridian was 7i° ; and the diilance between the two places (they being nearly ' the fame meridian ) was 5000 Jladla ; whence he concluded the circumference of the earth to be 240,000 Jladla. But as the exaft value of the Jladiu is not now known, we cannot fay how accurate this conclufion is. Our countryman Mr. Norwood, in the year 1635, was the liril who determined the value of a degree to a conliderable accuracy. He took the liei;;ht of the pole liar at London and at Tork ; and by mealurinj,- their diilauce, he determined tiie length of a degree to bo 69' miles and 14 poles. After that timci the French academy meafurcd a degree. Cajfini rnca- I'urcd one in France ; and afterwards C/airaut, lHaiiper' tuis, and feveral other eminent mathematicians, mea- furcd a degree in Lapland. Tlie fame mca>furement» have been alfo frequently repeated in various parts of the earth, and the rcfult of the whole is this, tliat the length of a degree, as you go from the equator to the jioles, increafcs in length. Now the longer a degree is, tiic greater mull be the circle of which it is a part ; and the greater the circle is, the lefs is its curvature. It appears therefore from adlual menfuration, that the earth is flatter, or of lefs cunatuie, at the poles, than at the equator, agreeable to what we before (howcd muft neceffarily be the confeqaence of the earth's rota- tion. The length of a degree in latitude 45° is 69,2 Englifli miles, and this we may coniider as a mtan length; hence, 69,2 X 360 = '249:2 miles, the cir- cumference of the earth ; and as the circumference of every circle is to its radius as 6,28318 to i, we have, 6,28,^18: I :: 24912 : .5965 niiles, the radius of the earth. Dr. Long cftimated the proportion of land to water upon the furface of the earth, fo far as difcoveries had then been made, in the following manner. He took the paper off a tencilria! globe, and tlun cut out the land froiii the fea, and wciglad the two parts ; by this means he found the proportion of ihi.- laiid to the fea as 124: 349. 'riie c(;iieluii()n would be more accurate, if the land were cut from the fia be/ore the paper \::\i j)iit upon the globe. After uU the modi.rn difcoverii^s, ibis method would probably j(i.o the piojuntion of laiid 5. We have already obfervfd, that the earth is not a perfedl fph-re but a fpheroid, having the polar diameter ihorter tluui the equatorial ; and the ratio of thcfe dia- meters has bu"!! d.'termined by different methods. If tlie Icngtii of a dcf 'e at two places be found by menf'i- ration, that datum is fiifiicient to find the ratio ; but ihi: ratios thus determined, by taking different meafuirnieiits, differ conliderably. Mr. ViNCt, in his Complete SyJLm of yljlronoiny, vol. ii. page 99, has determined the ratio from a great many comj)arifons ; audit will be found that tjiey differ confiderably ; but the mean of tlie wh.ole gives the ratio of J77 : 178 for the proportion of the polar to the equatorial diameter of tlie earth. Sir I. Newton, from the principles of gravitation, makes the ratio 229 : 23» ; and fome authors have deduced a mean ratio from menfuration, which agrees very nearly with this. The length of a pendulum vibrating fccondi, iii- crcafes as yf-u carry it towards the poles ; and this ought to take place in confequence of the fpheroidical figure of the earth, as before determined, and affords another proof of that figure. And if the length of a pendulum vibrating fcconds in two latitudes could be accurately afcertained, we might find the ratio of the diameters of the earth, the denlity of the earth being fuppofed uni- form. But the ratios thus deduced from different obfer- vations, differ confiderably ; owing, probably, to the irregularity of the denfity of the interior parts of the earth. M. Clair Ai)T obferves, that the variations of the lengths of pendulums make the ratio of the diame- ters nearer that of equality than 229 ; 2.30, indicatijijr a greater denfity towards the center. It has been alli> propofed to find the ratio of the diameters of the earth, from folar eclipfes, as the computation of the parallax of the moon, and confequently the times of the begin- ning and end of fucli eclipfes, will varj', according an the ratio of the diameters of the earth vaiy. M. de lii Lande from hence makes the difference of the diame- ters to be j6„ of the whole. From a confideration of all the circumilances, it is probable that the difference of the polar and equatorial diameters is lefs than that which is determined by Sir I. Newton. If we take the ratio of the diameters as determined by him, the equatorial diameter will be found to exceed the polar, by about J4 miles. 6. It ajjpcars by calculation, that when the eye of a fpcdlator is 6 feet above the furface »i the fea, he can fee 3 miles ; and at any other altitude of the eye, the dlHance at whicii you can fee, varies as the fquare root of the altitude ; if lliLiifore a be the altitude of the eye in feet, and d the diilance in miles, which you cBii fee at that altitude, then ^"5" : .VflT:: 3 : ' 5> tl"" p'-odi:fl ia 6,1235 miles, the diilauce to v.li'cb the eye can i'tc. b 2 On I 'ilBl ^1 I k .1 «4,l ) '1 ' '": ! J i! t'l IV INTRODUCTION. On the LiUUitJe and T.ongitudc of P!>icts upon • the Earth* s Siirfua: f. Let Pj^pQ, reprefent the earth, PCp its axin, P the north pole, p the fouth pole ; and let ylEQ^R be n circle paffing through the center C, perpendicular to the axis Pp, then that circle is called the rqualor. Tliis crrclc dindes the earth into two enual parts, y^PQ called the norlbern, and ^pQ, called tlie fouthern htmifphtre. Let K, G, /, be the lituations of three places upon the fiirfacc, and through them draw the great circles PKp, PCp, Pip, called meridians, interfetbng the emiator n> n, a, m, a-fpedlively. Now as every circle is luppofed to be divided into 360 degrees, from he. pole to the equator muft be yo degrees. The lalituJe of a place, is an arc of its meridian inlerceptdl letiveen the plate and the equator, meafured in decrees. Hence, the latitude of A' is meafured by the degrees of the arc nK ', and the latitudes of G and J lire nioafurcd by the degrees of the arcs aG, ml, rclpcHivoly, and tliofc are called north latilndt'S, the places lying in tlie northern hcmifpht-re ; and the latit\ule of IV h meafured by tlio dcp;ree8 of the arc a IV, and is called/c*«//^ latitude, tlie place lying in the foutliern hemifphere. Let the fmall circle cCvJe be parallel to the equator, then this circle is called a pnr,il- iel nf latitude, becaufe every point of it has the fame la- tit iidc, all the arcs inv, aG, intercepted between it ai'.d tlie equator, being equal, on account of the circles being parallel. Tlie longitude of a place is meafured upon the equator, and is the arc intercepted between the point from which you begin to reckon, and the point wiiere the meridian of the place cuts tlie equator, ellimated in degrees. Hence, all places in the fame meiidian have the fame longitude ; tne longitude of G is tlie fame as the longitude of IV. Geographers of diiferent coun- tries begin to reckon from different points, each begin- ning from that point where the meridiau of its capital city cuts the equator { and if the city linvc a nntio'inl nhli Tvatoiv ill or vrry near to it, that nii'iidiiiii is tnk'vi wliirh pall.'i thn)ii;;li thi- ohfiTvatory. 'I'IiIh is ciilK il tlir Jir/t nii'riili.Mi. We n\:iy iheiv fiiii- define the laiini- tiide of a ])';ioe \o be an are of the fn;f. Lut. l>ijr. (,i 1,1)1, jr. 0' f)(),290O 65,8134 Jfi" 40,6751 1^" 2I,?''42 I 6y, 1 Ky('> ") 65,4300 J7 55.2^>'>9 55 39,69 1 7 71 :< ,Juo 3 f)';.";:** . ■10 65,1265 3« 54.5.1^^ 56 38,69:9 74 •v.i>743 1 6t;,iC52 Z 1 64,^0.37 .19 5i.7788 57 37,6891 75 I -,9 1 03 4 fi.J.O.lII J , 64,16^ 9 40 5 ',0100 ;8 .36,6707 -6 J '..-^09 5 68,03''M »? 63,6986 4' 52,2259 59 35,6408 77 K,5^'^'5 (, f)«,«208 24 fi.?.i"77 4» 5 '.42 5.3 60 34,6000 !>' M'li<74 1 r>«/i>l47 J? 62,7167 '43 50,6094 61 3^5489 79 13,2041 s C'^.sz'^; 2(. 62,1963 ! 44 4'>.77«3 62 S'fw"?; Hu 12,0166 ') r',;4lii 1 »7 61,6579 45 4«.93 ' 3 ('1, 31,4161 S'l l'-,H250 lo 68,14^9 , 28 61,1001 '46 48,0705 64 .30.3J52 «2 9,6 J06 II 67,92S8 1 *'' 60,5 ?,3 7 1 +7 47. '944 ^'5 29.245.J ^■3 ''.4?34 12 67/'H'7 66,1760 35 56,6832 5.) 4'/'45.J 7' 22,5294 89 1,2075 On the Almofphere of the Earth. II. Tlic cnrtli is fiu-rotinikd with a thin, invifiblr, elaftic fluid, calKd aiV, th.,- whoK; body of wiiich forma what is called the almdjphere. It being an chi/lic fluid, is capable of cumpreirioii ; on which account, the lower parts of the atmolphcrc arc dcnfcr tluv: the upper parts, and th? dcnfity gradually diminill s, tiie higher you po, from the continual diminution of conijjreifion ; fi,r tlie air bciiijj found to have weight, ar. you afccnd, th> wd^litof the incumbent air will hi- diminifhcd. The denfity of the air in nut always tiie ra;'ir, it being fub- jeft to be cxpai'.f'.ed by heat and con; rauted liy cold. In it.s mean ftate it is found to be about Mjo tir.ie.i liirhttr than water. But notwithllauding the air is lo exfieme- ly rare, it is capable of producinjj very contiili'ruhle ef- fe'fts upon the rays of light as they jjufs through it, both by refleftion and refnidion. By rofleiiion, the rays coming from the fun tailing on the particles of air, and upon the vapours and exhalations contained iu the atmofphere, are thro-.rn in all diredtions, and thus the whole heavens become illuminated ; by which our eyes are alTcfted fo llrongly, as to ren ; ill 1 i' 1 1' 1 ' till 1 jjm ' 1 INTRODUCTION. Vil iiimoter of the ilTeriMit places bctv. een tlicfe In like inan- n our fyllrm, , fuifacf, tlipy lupft. the fixed Liliud the iliiir- )W occalioit to fro'ii ll'.e fiiitace is A/jw tlie true pi, after au aUiuiJe is t^iken upon the furfat S tlie place of the circle ZT , and let HSR ■; n that plane is he vifiblc part ^ « .art irrR. If "^a .>r of the earth. ■y lorizon. Now « nds no fenfihlc ippofe the two a planet ; and i-om 5 appears nd nm is calh d t parts of tiic tildes, the arc n the !iori/(in i| iri/ontal paral- ini tlie horizon is notliinjT in ! to the earth. jf^ er P is to C, ^ hich is the pa- arc vt:i. Now '?« ) the center of '-^^ om thence, to t phijc III feea '■'i from ^i plnce n. Iloncf face of the earth, we mull m/rftlie parallax corrcfponding to that altitvide, in order to ohtain the trtif altitude, or the altitude fccn Iroin the center of the earth, above the rational horizon. [1 we know the parallax of a body, we know its dif- t.ince J for fuppofe we know the horizontal parallax Sl>C, then by plane trigonometry, fin. SpC : i-adius : : SC i Cp i thus we gel the dillance Cp in terms of the radius of the earth. 15. It follows therefore from what we have obfervcd, (art. 12. 14.) that after the ahitudc of an heavenly body is found by obfcrvation, it will want two correc- tions, one for refraftion, and the other for parallax ; the former to be fubtraftcd, and tlie latter to be added. Thu.i von reduce the ol/erveil to the true altitude. As the fixed liars have no parallax, the only coireftion there ncceflary is that for refraftion. 16. As the altitudes of the heavenly bodies are dc- tennined by an inftrument called a qtinHrunt, it may be lierc proper to give a general defcjiption ot it. On the AJlrommical S^adranU 17. Let C reprefcnt the center of the quadrant, C^, CB two radii perpendicular to each other, thereby inclu- ding an arc AB of 90 degrees ; TL is a Telefcope moveable about the center C ; in the principal focus / of the objeft glafs, there are fixed two fini» wires at ri,;Tht angles to each other, interfefting each other in the center ct the telefcope } (mc of thefe wires is adjuRcd parallel to the horizon, and confequenily the other will lie perpendicular to it ; the line joining tlie intfrfecfion iif theA? wires, and the center of the object glafs, is cal- l d the axis of the telefcope, and fometimcs the lim of c'lllinwlhti. The telefcope moves againit the limb of the quadrant, and carries with it a fmall graduated piece of bral's rv, called a venilrr, having a mark at pointing to tho divifions of the limb. This point is fo adjufted, that when it is fet to point to o on the limb, the axis of the telefcope is hoiizontal, and therefore an objert in the horizon will appear upon the horizontal wire. When therefore the telefcope is put into any other fituation, and an objeft brought upon the honzontal wire, the point of the vernier will be direfted to a point of the limb which fliows how many degrees high the obj.-tl is above the horizon. The limb is generally divided into degrees, and each degree into three equal parts, by which the whole limb is divided into every 20 miiiutci*.' The venii-r has alfo a certain number of divifions upoH it, fo that by obferving which two divifions of the vernier and limb coincide, you can tell to what minute of tlie limb tlie mark o of the vernier is direfted, and therefore know the altitude of the objedl above the horizon, in degrees and minutes. If no two divifionu fhould coincide, there is another apparatus prefixed to the telefcope at the limb of the quadrant, by which you can tell to a fecond, the point of the limb a^aind which on the vernier Hands : and thus you can afcer- tain the altitude of an objeft to a fecond. For a full explanation of thefe matters, we refer the reader to Mr. Vince's Treali/e on PraBical AJlronomy. This inftru- ment is fonietimes fixed to a perpendicular axi«, and can be placed in any fituation, fo that the altitude of any of the heavenly bodies can be determined by it. Some- times it is fixed agaiuH a very firm ftone wall, having its plane exactly in the meridian, fo that only men- dian altitudes can be taken by it. This is called a mural quadrant ; and all very large quadrants arc thus fixed up ; for the moll iiccurale obfervations which aftronomers want, are thofe upon the meridian, by which (as will be afterwards (hown) the declmai'ions of the heavenly bodies may be found. After an altitude is taken, it muft (art. 15) be correfted by fubtrafting the refraflto 1 and adding the parallax, by which wc get the true altitude of the objeft above the rational horizon coirefponding to the place of the obfcrver. ..,{ , 0% i I VIU INTRODUCTION. li >. t' 'II b' I 'ft': )'i i i' ■ Ofl //'^ Tranft Tc.\/copc, EspLmaticn of Terms, 19. Having mentioned llic decrinat'ien and right af-fn- Ji'iii of liic heavenly bodief*, we will, before wo proceed, exphiiii tliefc and fome otlier torjus, which we (hall havtf Di^catlon It) make u""" of. Wo have already cxplaiiioJ tho eqiiatnr cf the earth j and if the pl»ne of this circli? I)c cxtoiulrd as far as the fixpd ftars, it will there mark out a circle which is called tlu- i-elejlial equator ; and if theaxiaof the earth bo exleiuled to the heavens, the two points marked out by it are called the pales of thu fi/^.v// equator. Thus the hcavensi are divided into tijilhirn ViwAfjulljern heinifphcrcs, corrcfpondingto thofe oil the earth. Now in the courfe of a year, tli.- fun appears to defcribe a jrrcat circlr- in the fphere of the fixed ilars, called the cclipilc; this apparent motion of the fun arife-s from the real motion of the earth about the fun in the fpace of a year ; it is therefore, in fad, the earth that defcribe:. the cchptic. The equator and the ecliptic do not cc;.. :ide, but are inclined to each other at an angle of about 2^*. 28', cutting each other at two oppofite points, called the equinoxa \ and thi j angle is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. t!%. a tranfit Telefcopeis a telefcope moveable about an horizontal axis, and fo adjufted, that its axis may move exaftly in the plane of the meridian. The annex* ed figure reprefents thia inftrumcnt ; TL reprefents the telefcope, AB the axis about which it turns, each end of which is made cylindrical ; thefe ends are each laid in an angular notch cut in a piece of brafs ; and each of thefe pieces of brafs are moveable in a brafs frame fixed in firm ftone pillars s each piece is moved by a fcrew ; that at one end ads againft the under fide of one of the brafs pieces, and gives that end of the axis AB of the telefcope, a motion perpendicular to the horixon ; and the other fcrew afts agaill one of the fides of the «ther brafs piece, and gives the axis AB a motion para- lei to the horizon \ by means of thefe two fcrews there- forethc telefcope can be brought into any pofition. In the focus f of the obje£t glafs there are fixed two fine wires perpendicular to each other, and the line joining their intcrfeftion and the center of the objeft glafs, \t called the axis of the tube TL, sr the line ofcoUimalion of the telefcope. One of thefe wires is adjufted per- pendicidarly to the horizon, and of courfe the other will then be parallel to it. Aft(M- all the adjuftments of this inftnimcnt are made,iftho inftrumcnt be turned about the axis AB, the pei-pendiciJar wire moves exaftly in the plane of the meridian ; fo that when any objefl < omes to this wire, by means of a clock properly regu- lated, you get the time of its paflage over the meridian. Sometimes there are fixed one or two more perpendicti- lar wires, equidiftant from this middle perpendicular wire. For an exp'anation of the methods of making thefe adjuftments, we muft refer to the work before-mention- ed. This inftniment is ufed to find the right afcenjiont •f the heavenly bodies, as we fltall afterwards explain. Let jiELQ reprefent the celeftial equator, yiCLP the ecliptic, inclined to, and cutting each other in op- pofite points j1, L, for all great circles divide each other into two equal parts. The ecliptic is divided into 12 equal parts, called ^j^fi/; arirs y, taunts \i, gemitii H, cancer 08, leo S\^, virgo n[, lilra fir, fcorpio n{, fa- giflariys t , caprieomus yi,aqunrius XX,pifces K. Ihc order of thefe IS according to the app-irent motion of the fun. The firft point of aries coincides with one of the equinoxes, as A, and confequently the M\ point of libra coincides with the other equinox L. The nrft fix figns are called northern, lying on t)ie north (".de of the equator ; and the laft fiK arc cafltd foulhern. lying on ihc/oMth fide. Wacn tlie motion of the heavtnlv bodies is according to the order of the figns, it is called direB, and when the motion is in a contrary diivftion, ii is called retrograde. The real motion of all the planet s is according to the order of the fi^;iis, hut tlieir apparent motion Is (ometimei in a contrary direction, fur reaConR which li !' H INTRODUCTION. (1 right apfn. wc proceed, we (hall havv; idy cxpliiiiiol of this circk" ill there mark jiiator; and if '. heaveiH) th-r hf polfs of tin; i dividtd int(» mdingtothofe year, tlK- fun ; fpht-re of the vnt motion of \\\c earth abotit L-rcfore, in fad, he equator and icliiied to each ig each other at >*«} and thij .'quator, AC LP ;ach other in op- ;le» divide eacJi tic 13 divided into \taurus a , gem'wi t, fiorpio til, /a- \,pifc» X.. Ihc ]:ireiit motion or lincidea with one luently the firft •quinox L. The on thi- north fide ltd foul hern, lying of thi; heavtnlv fiii-nf, it is culUd Itrary diroftion, it. lof all the planet » Vut tlioir apparent [ion, for reafonn which wVich will af^crwirdt spprar. The equinoAial points A, L, are nut tixcd, but have ft retrograde motion of •bout 50" in a year ; thii ii called tiic prectjfmn of iLi tquhoxtt. The Todiac ii a fpacc extenaing 8 ' on each fide uf tiie ec'ij>tic, within which the motions of all the planets are performed. 20. If i be the place of a ftar, and /m be a great circle perpendicular to the equator, tlien Am is called the r{^// afcinfion of the (lar, and im is called its dtclinat'ion. If m be a great circle perpendicular to the ecliptic, then An is called the /oMgilude of the ftar, and in is called its latiluJt. If therefore we know the right afcenfion Am, and declination mt of an heavenly Kody, we know its place / ; or if we know its longitude Ah, and lati- tude nt, its place is known. If half the ecliptic ACP be bif>:£\ed in C, and the other half in F, then C and P are the beginnings of cancer and Capricorn, and thefe are called tropical points. Two fmall circles drawn through thefe two points, parallel to the equator, are called Iropicti that pafling through C is called the tropic of cancer, and that through P, the tropic of capricom. 21. A body is m ronjunSiom with the fun, when it has the fame longitude ; and in epftfition, when the dif- ference of their longitudes is 180°. 32. The elongatian of a bodv is its angular diftance from the fun, witen feen from tne earth. 23. The antipodes to a fpe£Utar upon the earth's fur- face, is that point upon the furface which is diametrically oppofite to him. 34. If a body in the heavens be referred to the hori- aon by a vertical circle, by drawing a vertical circle through it, the diftance of that point of the horizon from the north or fouth points, is called its azimuth ; and the diftance from the ealt or weft points, is called ixi amplUuJ*, Thefe four points are called the cardinal points. 25. The primary planets are thofe which revolve about the fun ; and the fecondary planets are thofe which rev«lve about the primary, and thefe are alfo called faleU litit, or mooni. 26. The nodet are the points where the vrbits of the primary planets cut the ecliptic ; and where the orbits of the fecondary planets cut the orbits of their prima, ries. That node is called afctnding, where the planet paflits from the fouth to the north fide of the ecliptic, and is marked thus, o ; the other node is callea from the time the fun leaves the meridian on any day, till it r'^turiistoit the next (lay, the clock will not continue to agree with the fun, that is, it will not continue to (how 1 1 when the fun comes to the meridian ; as will afterwards more fully appear. 31. Apparent noon is the time when the fun comes t» the meridian ; true, or mian noou is 12 o'<-lock, by a watch adjufted to go 24 hours in a mean folar day. And the difference between apparent and mean noon is tke equation of lime. _!j 3. A ftar is faid to rife or fet cofmically, when it rifes and fots at fun rifiiig ; and when it rifes or fett at fua fetting, it is faid to rife or fet achronically. 34. A ftar is faid to rife heliacally, when, after having been fo near to the fun as not to be vifible, it emerges out of th.r fun's rays, and iuft appears in the morning ; and it is li:id to fet heliacally, when the fun approaches fo near to it, that it is about to immerge into the fun't rays, and to become invifiblr in the evening. 35. A iRgit it a twelfth part of the diameter of the fun or moon. 36. A etnjiellation it a colledlion of ftars containei within fome afliuned figure, as a ram, a dragon, an Her- culei, kc. The whole neavuM is thvs divided into coa- llellations. 37. If an eye be in the plane of a circle, that circle appears a ftraigl t line ( therefore in the reprefentation of the circles of a fphere upon a plane furface, thofe circles, whofe planet paft througk the eye, are repre- fented by ilraigiit lines. J 8. CharaCtert ufed for the ftui» moon, and pla- nett. the Sun the Moon Mercury Venut ^ Mara % Jupiter h Saturn %f Georgian. 9 the Earth Chandlers ufed for the days of the week. G Sunday Monday Tuefday Wcdnefday % Thurfday $ Friday b Saturday . VOL. i. On the Do^rine sf the Sphere. 39. A (jpeflator upon the furface of the earth, eon* ceives himlclf to be placed in the centre of a coacavc fphere, in which all the heavenly bodi.-s are fituated ; and by conftantly obferving them, he perceives that far the greater number of them never change their relative iituatioa!>, each rifing and fetting at the fame interval c of INTRODUCTION. i m I ■■ I of timf , and at the fame pointi of the horizon, and arc tht-refore callod Jixtd llari | but hi< finds that a few oth«r«, called piunelt^ tof^othrr with the fun and moon, arc ronllantly chan^ng tiicir lituatiuns, rach couti> nually riliii^r and fctting at dift'orent poinli of the hori/on, and at different intrrvulH of lime. Now the determination uf the times uf tiic vifinp; and fetting of the iieavcnly bodies ; the finding of their pafition at any given time, or the time from their pofition | the caiifu of the different length of day* and nights ; the changes •f feafons { and tlie like, cunllitiitr wliat is called Uie doBrini of tbt ffhtr<. iO. Let *c/i7 reprcfent the earth, Hhe place of the fpedator, HZRN the fphcre of the fixed ilars ; and al- horizon of the heavens. , though the fixed ftars do not lie in the concave furfacc of a fphcre, of which the center of the earth is the cen- tcr, yet on account of the immcnfe diftance, even of the iirareft of them, their rcl:ttive fitualions are not at all aftctVed by the motion of tlie earth, and therefore the place of a body in our fyftem may b« referred to them, iji the fame manner as if ihcy were placed as is here luppofed. Now the circle ^^i'A'o is the meridian of the fpedtator at *, and let this circle be extended to the hea- vens and there mark out the circle PZEP'Q, and it will he the celeftial meridian of the place ; whenever fheitforc a body in the he.tvcns comes to this circle, it i-A in the meridian of the fpetlator A ; and thb circle di- vides the heavens into two hemifpheres, the e-Jern and tiie wejltm. Let nbo be a plane touching the earth at the place b of the fpcdator, then this plane will be his ftuftlle horizon, bccaufo it divides the vifible part o7.o of the heavens, from the invifible part otlo ; and if a plane HR be drawn through the center of the earth, jiarallel to alo, it is called the rational hoiizon j and as the arc Ro fubtcnds no fenfible angle at the earth, thefc planes, in nfpeft to tli'- fphere of the fixed ftari, mrf- be confidrred as coiiicidiiii; Now as the earth revolves daily aboot its axis, the heavenly bodies mull fucceflively rife and fa in thut time, and appear to defcribc circles whik.'li are THrpendiciilar to the earth's axin, and confe- oiiently parallel to ca:li other. Let pti be the axis of trie earth, p the north iiole, h' the foutli pole \ and let tvqt be tlie eijiiator ; then if the plane of the equator be extended up to tlu- hea%ens, it will then: mark out a circle ErfjS called the telrflial equator ; and if pp' \vi produced to the heavens to F, /*', thefe points are called the poles of the celellial equator ; and the ftar neareft to tnefe is called the pole liar. Now, although the earth in its orbit continually changes its place, yet as the axis always continues parallel to itfelf *, the point:) P, /", will not, from the irnmeiife diftance of the fixed liars, be fenfibly altered Let n be the antipo- des to b, then if the diameter bn be produced toZ and A^, Z is the senith of the fpedtator, and A'^ the nadir. Thni we may conceive the great circles, and any places upon the earth's furface, to be transferred to the heavens. Now tl« latitude of the place b upon the earth's fur- facc is meafurcd by the degrees of the arc be ; but the arc ZE contains the fame number of degrees as the arc be, therefore the arc ZE in tltc heavens meafuret the latitude of b tlie fpedtator ; and the degrees of the arc 6», which meafures the dtllance of the fpe£lator from the pole, contains the fame number of degi-ees as the arc ZP. Hence, as the equator, zenith, poles, and horizon in the heavens, may be confidered as correfponding to the equator, place of the fpcflator, poles, and horizon of the c.rth, and the angular diHances of the former are refpeftixely equal to thofe of the latter, we may, for our prefent purpofe, leave out the confideration of the earth, and only confider the equator, zenith, poles, and '^-^ 41. leilial Let therefore PZEHFNQR reprefent the cf. meridian to the place of a i'pedator upon the • 'XU\ 'n nut accurately truej the eartli'i axis varying a lii'le from its garalUlift* from the attra^iun of the moon. ib» nMtiutn uf tlie Siiitli'i axis, aud w»» dJfcDvered by Ui. B» auuv. This ii cillrri earth I! \ t I N r R O D IJ C T 1 O N. xl earlli wlioff zfiiitli ii Z, tlie fprftator bcinjj fuppoA'd in norlh Utitiulo j and Id the rtijiirc reprffont cither tlic eaftcrii or wcl^Tii hcmifphcre of ihe liiMvciia j we mull therefore conceive tliii lij(iirc to n'])refeni half a gli)be, and ull the hncs upon it to roprcfcnt circh-i; ajiJnt, if we concoivc the eye to be vi-rtical to tlie middle point O of the fifftire, all the circloj which pnfs thri)nii;h tint point will appear right lines i thi-ri.'forf thi; ri);!it liiu'S ZON, rOl^, EOO, HOR, tnull he confidend ;ii femiciriles liOR rcnitit-nting the hori/.oa, EOO the ci|u.itor, ZhK a vertical circle piifling throirjh, the zenith ai:d nadir, perpendicular to tin- hori/uii, and this is called the^nW verlical, cutting the horizon in tlic call or wed point of the horizon, according as the fio/!le fide of the equator to tl> • f.i.c- tator, rife at t, from the eaft point towards the fouth point //. When the bodies come to 0, J, 01 r, they ■re in the prime vertical, or in the eaft ( lienee, a body on the/amt fide of the equator wit»i the fpetUtor, comri tc) the eaft njier it is rifrn ) a body on the eontrtiry fide, ht/ore it rifes j and a body in the equator, when it rifrs. As this figure may renicfent the weftem hemirphere, the fame circles i«e the ■. ircle m//i rsl; when he is at iR, it it midnight t Vin he comes to /, he rifes ; and when he comes t( . 1 la noon ; and from noon to midnight he will defct^b thi- path tsrnfxn rn the weftern liemifphere. f': •<'.' 1 1«/ is greater than the fun will be longer below ■ •\". '• iizoii than above, ..■ ] there- fore the nights will be h jer than the diys ; and the fun rifes at 1 frotr- tiie rift towards rlie foutli, and fets as far from the weft towards the fo'.ith. When the fun is in the equator at 0, his diurnal nio'.ion is then QfjE ; and as Q,0^-=OE, he iu a' long below as above the hori- zon, and the days and nights are equal ; and he rifes in the call at 0, and fets in the weft. When the liin is nl any point q, on the 'i iule of the eijuator with the fpeclator, on that day he defcribes, by his diurnal mo- tion, the circle abcJnc, and as ab is lefs than h, he is longer above the horizon than below it, and the day* are longer than the iii;;hts ; and he liti-.s at L from tin: eaft O towards the north, and ffts fioni the will to- wards the north. It is nianifril thi'ivfore, that the length of the days inert afes fnnn tbo liiiie the fun loav s C, t'v ilrrt point of OK i'ictn'n, till he comes to /,, tlic firil ;, .1 : of cancer; and th-ii they gradually dctreufe aga. • .1 the time the fun Iruves /, till he comes to (]. If ae, lilt, be equidil'.iul from EQ_, thou will be=mi, and «ji=--// ; hence, wiiv.'ii the fun is at equal dillances from the equator, and on iijijjufite lides, the length :if the day at one time i.. (vjn;)! to the length of t!ir night at the other, and t'l.- lenii;lU of the night at the former is equal to lh>? 1-ngth of t lie day at the latter time. A.t every ulnce thcriluiv, the fun, in the courfe' of a year, h hall a y.ar aliove the hyriion and half a M t. Ii: ;1 't s i ii i It XII INTRODUCTION. 46 If the fpcAator be at the , /wtor, then F coin. cUlei with Z, bccaufc Z aiifwcrs to tlie place of tins fpv6.iatur uii the earth, and /'OQ coiiieidca with ZON, confcqucptly fOP cuiiicidci with HOR. Hence, as tlie equator EOO i» perpendicular to the horizon, tlic circle* act, mrt, parallel to £00, arc alfo peqieiKhcular to the horizon, and therefore tlie horizon bifedls them. To a fpeAator therefore at the equator, all the heaTcnlv bodies in their diurnal motion are at long above the hori- zon as below ; and tiiey rife and fet at right angles to it( on which account, this is called a right fpkerc. Hence, at the equator the days and nights arc each always 1 1 hours long. There will however be fome variety of feafons, as the fun will recede to L and C, zj". iB' oit each fide of the fpeAator. When the fun it in the equator, he will be vertical to the fpe^lator at noou ; for one half of the year he will come to the meridian t« the north of the zenith, and the other half of the year, to the fouth of the zenith. year below.* Hence, the different lengths of days and nijrhts, and the variety oi frafuiis, ariie from the fun being I'ometimes on one fide uf the equator, and fome* times on the other, or from the ecliptic CL being in- clined to the equMt(»r, or from the axis of the earth which coincides with PP', being inclined to the ecliptic CL, the path of the earth. 44. As the fun illuminates one half of the earth, or 90" all round about that place to which he is vertical, when he is in the equator, he will juft illuminate at far as each pole t when he is on the north fide of the equa- tor, the north pole will be within the illuminated part, and the Couth pole will be in the dark part ; and when the fun is on tne fouth fide of the equator, the fouth pole will be within the illuminated part, and the north pole in the dark part. When the fun is got to 2;^° 28', \his greateft diftance from the equator,) he then illumi- nates the earth to 2.^°. 28' on the other fide of the p«le ; and if two circles be defcribed about the poles »t that diftance, that about the norlb pole is called the areiie circle, and that about the fouth pole it called theantaie- lie circle. Thefe are alfo called polar circlet. If two circlet be defcribed upon the earth, parallel to the eoua- tor, at the diftance of 23*. 2 B' from it, they are called tropical circlet, or the tr»pitt. 4$. Let Hvf% Rv, my, be fmall circlet parallel to EOQ. Now it is manifell, that a body which defcribci the circle Rv, or any circle xy nearer to P, never fett; and fuch circlet are called circles of perpelual apparition ; and the ftart which defcribe them are called circumpolar ftart. The body which defcribet the circle ivH, juil becomes vifible at H, and then it inftantly defcendt below the horizon ; but the bodiet which are nearer to P* are sever vifible. Such are the phxnomeua of the diurnal 47. If the ^cAator be at the felt, then P coinciJet motiont cf the heavenly bodiet, when the fpe6lator it with Z, and PP^ coincidet with ZN ; confequently fituated any where between the equator and the polet ; ^^0 coincidet with HOR. Hence, the circlet ei, tm, and thit it called an ebUque fphere, becaufe all the bodiet parallel to the equator, are alfo parallel to the horizon ; rife and (ct oUkjiiely to the horizon. therefore as a body in its diurnal motion defcribes a circle parallel to the horizon, all the fixed ftart which are at any time above the horizon, muft continue above the horizon, and thofe which are below, muft continue be- low ; and the fpedator alwayt feet the fame face of the heavens, becaufe none of the bodies, by their diunial motion, can neither rife or fet. This is called a /ar tbc iiift ■|ioint of libra, ii abotti I ilayi lcn|cr thsn the win-cr half year. Korizon, INTRODUCTION. xBt- houton, ind you will fee that all thecircki parallel t<» the equator arc cut into two unequal parts { and the mor« you elevate the pole, or the nearer you bring the fpcdtiitor to the pole, the ereatcr will be th.* difference of thofe parti j that is, ai the fpcdlatsr appiOuchet the pole, the length of the day» will be increaled, and that of tlie nij»ht» docreafeil, when the fun is on the /ame fide of the equator as the fpeftator t and the lengtn of the davs will be decreafed and that of the night in- creafea, when the fun is on the ttiitrary fide. If you bring the poles down to the horizon, you will fee that all the parallels to the equator are cut into two equal parts, fo that there is always equal day and nitht to a fpedlator at the equator. If you brine the pole to the zenith, or if the fpedator be at the pofc, and you turn the globe about, one half of the ecliptic will cantinue ab»vc the horizoQ and the other half below, fo that th« fun will be half a year above the horizon, and half a year below. Thus it appears, that aa you travel from the equator to the Polc*i for oie half of the year the length of the day will increafe from 1 2 hours to half a year ; and for the other half of the year, the length of the night will increafe from 12 hours to half a year. 49. The greater degree of heat in fuiimer than in winter, arifes from three caufcs. 1. The fun is a lunger time above the hori/on in fummer than in winter. 2. The fun riling higher above the horizon in fummer than in winter, more rays will fall upon the earth in the former than in the latter fcafon. 3. The higher the Aim is above the horizon, the greater is the force of the rays. Moreover* the parts whtch are heated, retain their heat for fome time, which, with the additional heat ac> quired, make it continue to increafe after the middle of the fummer ; and this is the reafon why July is generally hotter than .Tune. And for the fame reafon, we fre- qiiently find it hotter at 2 o'clock in the afternoon than it is at noon. Likewife, bodies retain their cold far fome time, and thus it happens, tliat January is gene- rally colder than December. 50. Hie orbits of all the pknets, anr* -^f the moon, ^re inclined to the equator, and therefore their motions amongft the lixed ftars mull be in circles inclined to the equator : hence, fimilar phanomena to thofe of the fun will take place in the times of their refpeftive revolu- tions. All the different appearances mud therefore take place in the moon, in the courfe of a moiuh. It is evi- dent nlfo, that thefe variatiout muft be greater or Icfs, as the orbits arc more or lefs inclined to the equator ( hence, they mull be grratcr in the moon than in the fun, the moon's orbit being mure inclined to the equator than the fun's. 51. The altitude of the pole of the heavens above the horizon, is equal to the latitiule of the place. For the arc ZE (tig. 2d. page x) iii the meafure of the lati- tude of the place ; but J*E~ZR, each being (jo-' ; take away ZP which is common to both, and EZ-=PR. Hence, P7. is the complement of latitude. 52. If there were a liar exadlly in the point P, thea- by taking its altitude PR above the hori/on by a qua- drant, and correcting it for refradlion, you would get the latitude of the place ; but as there is not a ftar in that place, tlie latitude may be found by nbferving the greatelt and lead altitude of a circumpalar liar, apply* ing the corredlion for refraction, and half the fum will be the altitude of the pole. For if ytt be the cirele de- fcribed by a circumpolar ftar, then aa Px — Py, we have »R=PR + P»:=PR + Fy, »ndfR = PR—Py; add thefe equations together, and we have xR+yRzz 2 PP, therefore i (xR+yR)zzPR the latitude. 53. Tlie angle which the equator makes with the horizon, is equal to the complement * of the latitude of the place. For HE is the meafure of the angle HOE : and as HZ—^", HE is the complement of ZE, and. ZE is the latitude. 54. Hence, the latitude of a place may be found thus. Let tOe ( fig. page xiv j be the ecliptic, and then when the fun comes to e it is at its greatell north declination, at which time the days are longeft, and at / its fouth declin- ation is the greateft, at which time tlie. days arc (horteil ; alfo, tH is the meridian altitude of the fun on the longeft day, and iH is the meridian altitude on the Ihortcft day. Now as tE—Er, we have tH'=.EH-^Ei, and tH-=EH~-Et—EH—Et\ add thtfe equations toge. ther, and we get EH+iH^t EH, therefore \ (tH-^ tH)'=iEH \^e complement of the latitude. The com- plement of latitude is therefore equal to half the fum of the true meridian altitudes of the fun on the longeft and (horteft days. 55. Half the differencv of the meridian altitudes of the fun on the longeft and (horteft dkys, is equal to the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic. For the dif* firrence jetween eH and tH is rt, and the half of tt it Ee^. which meafures the angle EOe, the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic. * The nmfUmini of an arc, or angtr, ii what it winli of 90* ; and the [uffUmint it what ao arc, ur inglr, waoti of 180°. Alfv, ca-d* tuwle veiQi ilkC voin^ltnciit uf (he aUiludfi and ttit fami fut ulhci i^uantiiiti. 3«. Ltt. 'I h^ f !l ii I ' ■! t i t • ( xnr INTRODUCTION. c6. Let Ai be a circle parallel to the horizon HOR, and 1 8" below it ; and let aybcdxe be any circle parallel to the equator, defcribcd by an heavenly body in thr eaftem hemifphcre ; and draw the circles Py, Pb, Pd, Px, and Zy, Zb, Zc, Zx, Now (at hat been already explained) when the fun conies to ji, twilight begins ; when any body comes to b, it rifes ; when it comes to c, it is at the middle point between a and e ; when it comes to d, it is due eaft ; and let x be the place at any other time. Now let us fuppofe .this body to be the fun, and not to change its declination in its paflnge from a to e ; and let us fuppofe a clock to be adjiilted to go 24 hours in one apparent diurnal revolution of the fun, or from the time it leaves any meridian till it returns to it again ; then tlie iwa will always approach the ineri> dian at the rate of 15° in an hour, alfo, the angle which the fun defcribcs about the pole, varies at tl\e fame rate, becaufc aay arc xt, which the fun has to de- fcHbe before it comes to the meridian, meafurcs the angle x/-'f, called the hour ungle. If therefore we fup- pofe the cluck to (hew 1 2 when the fun is on the nicri- (lian at a and e, it will be 6 o'clock when lie is at c. And as t lie fun defcribes angles about the pole P at the rate of 15^ in an hour, the angle between any cirgk Px, pafling through the fun at x, and the meridian PR, con- vertodinto time at the rate of 15 for an hour, will give the time from aphirtnt noon, or when the fun comes to the meridian. Alfo, when the fun is at any point .v, the angle xZ^ is lii.! a/.imuth from the north; xZ is llic complement of his altitude ; and xP is the comple- ment of his deelinaticii Tills l)einp prcmifcd, we (liall proceed to give tlic lolutioii of a ti-w probkiiis whicii will be found very ufcful in practical adrononiy and na- vigation. 57. The declination of a body, is the difference be- tween its meridian altitude, and the complement of the latiturl<» For the declination Eerz.Ue—UE, where IIT. is the meridian altitude, and HE is the complement of latitude, by art. 53. Alio, the dcchnation El— HE — Hi, and Hi is the meridian altitude. 58. Given the liUUude of the place, and the diclin ilhn of thifun,lojindlhetmcofhis ri/wg, und hit azimuth al ihul time. Let CI be the parallel of declination defcribed by the fun on the given day ; then when the fnn comes to b, lie rifes. Now in the fpherical triangle bZP, iZ=9o' (the zenith being 90° from the hori/.on), bP—t\\t com- plement of the fun's declination, and PZ=. the comple- ment of latitude ; and by fpherical trigonometr>-, radius : cotan. hP : : cotan. ZP : cof. ZPb, or, radius s tan. decl. : ; tan. lat. : cof. ZPb. the hour angle from ap- parenl noon ; which converted into time at the rate of 15° for an hoar, and fubftrafted from 12 o'clock, gives the apparent time of rifmg, or the hour at which the fun nfes, fuppofing it be 12 o'clock when he comet to the meridian. Alfo, (in ZP : radius : : cof. bP: fin. PZi, or, cof. lat. : radius : : fin. decl. ; cof. of the uzimull from the north. Ex. Gi\ n the latitude of Cambridge 520. 12'. 35", to '&nd the time of the fun's rifing on the longelt day, and his azimuth at that time ; affuming the fun's greatell declination 23°. 28'. By logarithmt the operation will Hand thus : rad. - - I3,coooooo tan. 230.28'. o" . 9,6376106 1 tan. 52. 12. 35 • 10,1104699 ' cof. 134. 2. 47* 9,7480805 Convert this into time, and it gives 8h. 19'. 6", whirli fubftradcd from 12, there remains jh. 40'. 54", theJn 90", wt mu(t lake ili fu|ipltnu-nt. In the (uluiicm of fphcricjl iiijnglri, amhiguiiut calci will lirqiiriiily .iiilc, fur Oc iuiiiii< uf whici., tne riadcr i« rcfenrd lu Dr. M*sKH.VNi'» cxrcM«rit Inirudu/lion lo Ta vinR't Log^nlhiiii j ur lu Mr.. VlNCl'i VVcj.'./r in fU'it ant //iitur.ii Tilg'^ntmiliyf cjnf.ii'.ii'|[ .in c»lil.uiaiioil uf Vlit Itijlrullio'i .mj I'je tf Lo^.nitumi, By INTRODUCTION. XV clock, on the famt By logarithms the operation is thus : radius ... io>oooocoo fill. 52'. 'Z' 35" • 9.89- 769s fin. 23, 28. o - 9,6eoii8i fin. 18. 20. 3» 'iie turitude 9,4978876 60. To find iht time when the Sun comet due eajl, and ills Ml tide at that lime, on iIm fame day. The fun is due eaft when he comes to the prime ver- tical at d, and dZP is a right an^jlc ; hence, c»f. ZP : radius : : cof. dP : cof. Zd, or, fiii. lat. : radius : : fin. dec. : fill, cf the altitude- Alfo, radius : cotan. Pd : : tan. PZ i cof. ZPd, or, radius : t?n. dec. ■ ■ cotan. lat. : cof ZPd the hour angle, wiiich converted into time, gives the time from apparent noon. By logarithms, the operation is thus > fin. 52°. 12'. is" radius ... fin. 23. 28. - 0,1022305 ar. CO 10,0000000 9,6001181 fin. 30. 15. 31 the altitude 9,7023486 radius tan. 23°. a8'. 0" cot. 52. 12. 35 10,0000000 9,6376106 9,8895301 cof. 70. 19. 4^zzZPJ - 9,5271407 This angle 70°. 19'. 44" converted into time, givc» 4b. 4>'. 19" the time from apparent noon. 6r. Giwn the latitude of the place, the Sun't decrination emd hie altitude, to find the hour. Let K be the fun's place ; then in the triangle xZP, hT. is the- complement of the altitude, mI' is the com- plement of declination, and FZ is the complement of the latitude, all which are given : hence, by fphericul x/'xfin. ZP: rad.': : fin, \ ( P» trigonometry, fin. + l'Z + Zx) fin. (Pk-\-PZ—Zx) : eof. i ZPx, tlurefore the hour angle ZPk is known, which, convert- ed into time, gives the time from apparent noou. F..t. Given the latitude 340. 55' N, the fun's doclina- tion 22" 22'. 57" N. and his true altitude 36°. 59'. 39", to lind the apparent time. Here, ZP-SS"- 5', Zx^^i,". o'. 2i", Pxz=.6f. J7'. 3" } and the operation by logarithms is thus : J Px-ir- 37'- 3" ZP^<;S 5. o Z*=53. «. 21 Sum 175. 42. 24 i Sum 87. 51. 1-2 ;?.\-=:53. o. 21 Dif. 34. 50. 51 29. 47. 44=iZPx ■r. CO. fin. 0,034019 ar. CO. fin. 0,086193 fin. 9,999694 fm. 9,75*^93* 2)i9,K76838 oof. 9,9^8419 Hence, Z/'*— 59", ;?5'. 28", which converted into time, gives 3h. 58 . 22". the time from apparent noon. This problem is ufed in finding the longitude by the lunar method. 62 . Given the latitude of the place, and the Suift decrina- tion, to find the time when the twlight legint. Twilight begins when the fun comes to jr, l8' below the horizon ; hence, Zjf— loH ; alfo, Py is the comple- ment of decUnation, and ZP is thr complement of lati- tude ; hence, fin. ^Px fill. Z/': rad. ; ; fi n, j CP Z + Py\-\o%'>)-K^m. } (PZ-f/'j— 108 ): cof, f ^/%* therefore yPZ is known, whicli converted into time, gives the lime from apparent noon, when twilight begins. This rule being the fame as the latl, the method of calculation is the fume. 63. To find ivhere the longefi day it J4 hourt. » Let OR (fee fig 2d on page x)— aj^- »8', then the fun on the longell dav drfcribes the circle Rv, and this circle juft toucliiiig the horizon at R, it will wholly be above tiie hori/on, therefore the fun continues ahnve the horizon for its whole apparent diurnal motion, that is, for 24 hours. Now Q_R—EH—\.hii complement of lutitudi-, by article 53 : hence, the latitude is 66'. 32'' ; therefore the fpc£tator is at the ardic circle, as appears by art. 44. 64. To a fpe£lator at the fame place, on the fliortcft dny the fun is at the diftance EH on the other fide of the equator, and at that time he defciibes the circle V)H in his diurnal motion, and therefore he continues 24 hours below the hori2.on ; therefore the longell night is 24 hours. Now we have already obferved (art. 4''.), that as a fpe£lator moves from the equator to the uoK'ti, the length of the day increafes from 11 hours to half a year ; hence, the longell day is more than 24 hour.i within the polar circle, and lefs tiiau 24, ou every other part of the earth. 65. Ti find at what time of the year the fwilight hjit jufi all ni^ht. Let h \ i\i I x»i INTRODUCTION. Let Of b« the parallel dercribed by the fun at that timp, then Ka muft be 18", for at that diilance below the horizon, twilight befjini ; hence, i8°+dec. Dan /?Q = /■://■=: comp of latitude, by art. 53.} therefore, liy tranfpofition, fun's dec.zreomp. of lat.— 18". But if the fun be on the other fiJe of the equator at m, then /?m = iS% and 18'— dedin. Qm-=RQ:^EI/=: com p. of lat. therefore fun'a dec. = 18° — comp. uf btitiuh;. Look therefore into the Naulteal jUmanac, and fee on what day the fun hat this declination, and you •have the time required. Ex Let the latitude be jz". 12' N. then its com* plcnieiit is 37°. 4S' ; hence, the declination it \^°, 48' — 18 =19". 48' N. which anfwert to about May 19, nnd July 24, at which timet there it twilight juft w jiiifht. Therefore from May 19 to July 24 there will be t\vili(rht all night. 66. Tliu greateft yalue of Oa it 23". 18', therefore wlu-n a R'\i\ 18", the greateft »alue of OR it 41 ". 2K' \ if therefore ()/? l>e greater than 41° 28', then Ra muft always be gretter than 18°, and therefore there will be no twilight when the fun is at a ; hence, when the com- plement of latitude it greater than 41*. 28', or when the latitude is left than 48 '. 32', there never can be twilight -/i/* zones, have their fh;idows at noon always the fame way, audare therefore called Hcierofcii, that is, Iiaving only one kind of meri- dian fhaditw. (if They who live in the yr/jr/rf zonei, have, when the days are more than 24 hours lonij, the fun muvincr all r-juiid them, and therefore their ihadows are caft all raund them, and hence they are called Perifcii. "c Thit inhabitants of tl>o earth have alfo been dii- ti'.'.^uilhed iuto three kinds, in refpedt to their rehtive fituationa. They who lire at orponte points of the fame parallel to the equator, are called, in refpedl to each Other, Ptr'iaci. 1'hefe have the fame feafons »f the year ; but it is midnight to one when it is noon, or mid- day, to the other. 71. They who live under the fame meridian and in oppofite parallels, that is, in two parallels to the equa- tor, and equidillant from it, are called ytniitci. Thel'e have day and night at the fame time, but diflerenl fea- fons, it being iummer vith one when it it winter with the other. 72. They who live under oppofite meridians and op- pofite parallels, arc called jInlipoiUt. Thcfe have their dayt and nights, and alfo their feafons, oppullte, that is, it It day with one when it is night with the other, and fummer with one when it it wiuter with the other. To find the Right Afcenjlon and Declination of the Heavenly Bodies. 73 . The foundation of all aftroaomy it to determine the placet of the fixed ftari, in order to find, by a re- ference to them as fixed object, the places of the other bodies at any given times, by which means you can trace out their patht in the heavent. The pofitions of the fixed ftart are found from obfervation, by finding their right afcenfions and declinations, for it is manifeft, that if we know the right afcenfion y/m, and declination mt, we know the point / (fee fig. page viii). Now the declinalion it found thut. Find the latitude of the place by the 52d or C4th articles, and then we know EN the complement of latitude (ice the laft figure). By the aftronomical quadrant, defcribcd hi art. 17, find the true meridian altitude ffe of the body ; then the differ- ence between EH and He is Ke, the declination reuuired. 74. To find the right afcenfion of a body. As the earth revolves uniformly about its axis, the apparent daily motion of all the heavenly bodies, arifing from this motion of the earth, muft be uniform ; andas this motion it parallel to the equator, the interval of the times in which any two ftart pafs over the meridian, it in proportion to the correfponding arc of the equator which paffet over the meridian in the fame interval. Now let a clock be adjufted to go 24 hourt in the time tlie earth maket a rotation about itt axii, then it defcribet about itt avis an angle of ij" every hour, and every point of the equator, and all the circles which are parallel to it, defcribe i ^^ in an hour ; and all the ftars appear t« revolve at the fame rate ; fu that if two ftars ftiould dif- fer 15° in right afcenfion, one of them would pafs over the meridian an hour after the other. And, in generalf if you take the interval of the times in which any two ftart nafs the meridian, and convert that interval of time into degrees, at the rate of i? ° for an hour, you will have the difference of tin' i' afceaifiont of thofe two ftart; if therefore you k.j., .le right afcenfion of one of the ftars, you will know the right afcenfion of the other. Thus, by knowing the right afcenfion of one ftufi and comparing all toe other heavenly bodiet with 6 it. Si »i, i I I N r R O D IJ C T I O N. XVH- it, you will Ret tTieir riglit al'crnfiont. For the method of finding the ri|;ht afcenlion of fame ono liar, we refer the ReaJer to Mr. Vincl's Complete Sijhm of jifronomy. The time when any body comes to the meridian is known by it« parfagc over the middle perpendicular wire of the tranfit tclefcone, as defcribed in art. i8> Tlie rijjht afcenfion is reckoned lH)th by time and by decrees; thus, we fay a ftar has 15"^, .^o", 45", &c. riuht al'cenfion, or its right afcenlion is 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, tic. 75. Bui a more ready and praftical method of fimlini^ the ri|riit afcenlion of' a body, is thus : Let a clocic be adjufted to go 24 hours in the time in which the earth revolves about itu axis, in which time nil the fixed liars appear to liave maJC one revolution ; and a clock thus adjulleil is faid to be adiulled to fulercal time. Now let the clock be^n its motion from oil. o'. o". at the inllant the firft point of arie* is upon the meridian, from which point wc begin to reckon tiie right afcrnrion ; tiicn, when any ftar comes to the meridian, the clock would fliow the apparent right afcenlion of the llur, provided it was fubjedt to no error, becaufe it would then fliow, at any time, linw far the firll point of aries was from the meri> (iian, reckLoninjf 15" for every hour. Uiit as every clock U fubjedl to err, we mull be able at any time to find its error. To do this, we mull , when a liar, whofe apparent right afcenfion is known, pafles tiie meridian, compare its right afcerllon witli tlie right afcenlion fliown by the clock, and the diffei-ence will (how the error of the «l()ck. For inltaiice, let the apparent right afcenlion of Mebaran be 4h, 2j'. 5c''. when it paflVs over the meri- dian, and at tiiat time fuppofe the clock to (how 4!!. */>'• 56". then the clock is at that time 6" too fall ; and by thus continually comparing the clock with (lars whofe right afcenlions are known, you will always have the eiTor of the clock ; and you will alfo fee at what rate it gains or lofea, called the r "x-ards L ; if therefore m be the point where the fun is when he next comes to the meridian, or rather when tlie meridian ovettakes him, and you draw the meridian Prmf, then the earth, after it has made a revolution about its axis, has defcribed the angle vPr before the fpef^ator at / be brouf^ht again into the meridian Pmp •f the fun. Now the angle Tfr- is mcafured by the arc fe, which is the incrcafe of the fun's right afcenfwn in the tiir.e he moves from m to m, or in a tnu folar day | hence, the length of a true folar day is tqiul /« tlie lime 0/ tie earth' t rotation about its axit, together tuith the time of dejeribiug an angle equal to the itureaje of the fun* t rigot ajctnfion in a true folar day. Now if the fun moved uni'> tormly, and alfo in the equator TDLE, this increafe *p would be always the famt in the fame rime, and therefore the folar days would be all equal ; but the fun moves in the ecliptic TCL, and therefore if its motioa' were uniform, equal arcs {am) upon the ecliptic would not f;ive equal arcs {ef) upon the equator. But the motion «f the fun in the ecliptic is not unifomir and heoce alfo mm, defcribed in a given time, is fubjedl to a variation, and conieauently ep is fubjcd to a variation. Hence, the incfeale op of the fun's right afcenfion in a true Iblar day, varies from two caufes ; ift. Becaufe the ecliptic,. vr; which the fuii moves, is inclined to the equator ; 3d. Becaufe his motion in the ecliptic is not uniform ; therc> fore the length of a true fokir day is fubjeft to a conti- ■ual variation ; confequently a clock which is adjufted to go 24 hours for ai^y one true folar day, will not conti- nue to (how 12 when the fun comet to the meridian ; becaufe the intervals by the cluck will continue equvl (the clock being fuppofed neither to gain or lofe), but the intervals of the iua's paiTage over the meridian arc not equal. 80 As the fun movei through 360^ of right afcenfieu in 305 1 days, therefore 36;! days: i da^ . : t6o° : 59'. %", a the increafe of right afceniien m i day, if the increafe were uniform, or it would be the incrcafe ia a mean folar day, that it, if the folar days were all equal ;■ fur tht-y would 4e all equal, if ttie fun's right afcenfioa increafed uniformly, as appears by the laft article *. If therefore a clock be adjufted to go 24 hours in a meai$' folur day, it will not continue to coincide with the fun,, that is, to (how 1 2 when the fun cemes to the meridiaiv becaufe the true folar days differ in length from a moan fohir day, but the fun will pafs the meridian, fometimea liefore 11, and fomerimcs after 12, and this difference i^ called the equation of lime. A clock thus adjufted, W (aid to be adjufted to mean folar time. The time (hown by the clock is called iiue or mean time ; and that (howiii by the fun is ailed-apparent time ; thus, when the (vn. comes to the meridian, it is faid to be if o'clock, a/pO' rent time. Hence, the time fhown by a fun-dial is ap- parent time, and therefore a dial will t>out in »xll*j« mi « (xtd flif K1U the meridian till it re turni to it »gain. I ■m inthoductioit. XH( Bntlnne enu«f or lofc), but • meiidian tre right arcenfimt day., jeo": n in 1 day, if the incrcafe ia were all equal ;• right afcenfion I article *. If lour* in a mtM' e with the fun,. the rnvridtan*. th from a m*»» lian, fometimet hit difference i^ Mt adjufted, i# rhe time ihown and that fliowii< , when the fii» 1 o'clock, appa- \ fun-dial it «#- :r from a clock». is on that day. » dial, you miift n that day, andi [>n be 3 mioutet, then you muft me fcown by the tmpute tabwi of Ihe year, fet the !• at His apogee, fferencc between noon, and inferf. :lock i« before o» king thrfe calcu- Treatife before* itor to the edip- partly depend*, en the clock and' tovary,thecqu»- year, will every calculated every it in his apogee, when the cMck. •tnt timet are the > any calculation* given is apparent plied in order to- time the compu- ;s are conftniaed required to find of 56o» in tifiiltnal CI th* liait ftoni >h« l)te fun'i fkce «■ Mf daf at i ^p artm noon, the eqw. tion of time muft be applied to 1 1 o'clock^ and then the fun'* plac« muft be computed from the ublea for that time. All the articles in the Ntmt'ual AhnarnM, anAvcr* mg to noon, ue compntcd in tki* manner. On the Stiar Sj/iem. 8s. The fun i* placed in the center of th* fyften, •bout whidi the pfameU ferelve in the following order, leckoning from the fun: mertmry, «mk/, the turtA, iMT/, jtpiiir, /'/Mill, and the gttfiUH ; thefe are fome- time* called primary phneU. Some of thefe planett have bodies ie«olvin( about them ( the earth hat one i ' ipiter ha* four | (atum has feven ; and the norgian fint thefe ore alkd feeondary planets, faimtes, or u. There are alfo other bodies which revolve about 9hefu% caUndCeasM, wluek nawa in ocbiu veiy «Uip» z tiaJ, and attend to a very great diftance beyond t(.f> orbits of the primary planets. The fun, the primary- planets, the fecoadary planets, and the comet*, compoic what it called the Solar SJfifm. The two planet* which are nearer to the fun than the earth i*, are called in/iin'ar planet* { and the other Ave which are further from the fun than the earth i*, are caUtd /uptrior planet** All the other bodie* in the heaven* are fixed ftar*, and at fuch immenfe diftance* beyond the folar fyftetn, that their apparent relative fituation* are not at all altered bf the motion of the earth in it* orbit ; we may therefiwe confider them a* placed in the concave fervice of a fphere, having the earth for it* center ; and to thefe we refer the motion* of the bodie* in our fyftem. The orbits of the primary planet* are ellipfe*, having the fun in one of the foci ( but they are fu very nmrly circle*, that, for our prefent jiurpole, we may confider them a* drclea having the fua in the ceoter^ 9a. Let S be the funi E the earth, ahJef the ofbt't •f one of the inferUr phneti, veniu or mercury ; Jf J*the fphere of the fijced ftirt ; draw EtSeP, EiJp^, and let EeR, EfS be Ungentt to the orbit of the pLnet, and let », b, e, J, e, /, be fo many different fituationt of the planet ; then a* t>ie planet* are opaque bodie*, that half which i* next to the fun i* enlightened, and the other half it dark, a* reprefented in the figure. The fituation A i* called inferior ConjunAion, and ihe fituation e i* failed yi(^W»r conjunAion. Now it is manifefl, that at a, the dark part oiUy of the planet i* toward* the earth, and therefore the planet ia then inviftble i at ^, a part vf the cnlighteocd taca ii towafda the earth, and tl>ei«- flbre part of Ihe filanet wSl be vifibte, and wiD look lik* the moon before it come* to it* firft (quarter ; at et oc« half of the enlightened part of the pl'i.net Will be tuhied toward* the earth, and it wiU lock like the moon at iu firft {Quarter; at (A mo'ife thdn half tlu> enlightened part of the planet will be toward* the earth, and it' will look Fike the moon between its fecond quarter and full t at e, the whole enlightened part of the planet will be next the earth, knd the planet will appear to fhine With afnU face, like the moon at it* full ; and from e througby* to «, the appearance* will be the fame in the coOttary or- der. Tnefe are the pkin»meM which an infeHol' planet muft have | tad as, by viewing vuii and mirtnry with a ll a telcfcof^; . ■' sx rNTRODUCTION. . -f: 1. ■:jf . ^1 il felRi'fopC, tiiey are fouhU. to liave all tliefi- phznomrna, we concliidi' that they inuft be inffrifcr planptt. Now ihp anglf <^/i.V ia the grratell diilmce at which thefe planets appear ftom the lun, or tht- greatcft elongation { and an this angle ii found to be greater for venin than it is for merairy, we know that mercury is nearer to the fun than vfiiiit. X^. When tlie iilanet is at a, it appears in the heavens amoitrft the fixod liars at i' ; when it is at b, it appears a'. (> i when it is at e it appears at R ; when it is at d, it appears at (> ; when it is at e, it appears at P \ when it is at/, it appears at 5 ; and when it returns to (», it appears at P ; at whicli pUce alfo the fun appears. It is inanifcll therefore, that an inferior planet appears to ■move backwards and forwards in the heavens, IVono S to R, and from R \.o S ; and therefore there muft be two' points where the planet appears (lation- ury ; for if a planet- lirft appear to move one way and tlien back again in a contrary diredion, thc.inotion muft firft ceiife in one direttioii before it takes place in a con. trar)' dircftion. We have here fuppofed the earth to be at rcA. at E, but all the fame phenomena will take t lace if we fuppofe the earth to be in motion ; for an inferior planet moves fader about the fun than the earth does, and therefore when it comes into inferior conjunAion at a, it will immediately leave tke earth be-^ hind it, and have the fame relative fituations in refncft to the earth and fun, as we have defcribed above. If the earth wfre at reft, the two llationary points would be at R and .V, when the planet was on each fide at its greateft elongation from the fun (appearing at P) ; but as the earth is in motion, thefe will not be the ftationary points The true ftationary points (which call Pand S) Siie determined, by finding wnen a line joining the earth und planet continues parallel to itfelf for a very finall time. 85. The earth and all the planets revolve about the fun in tlie diredlion XT; that direi'^ion is therefore dircil, and the contrary direftion TX is retrn^raile (fee iirt. 1 .) Hence, an inferior planet appears to move dirciFt, from the ftationfiry point R before it comes to the fuperior conjunttion, till it comes to the ftationary point iS af;er ; and it appears to move retrograde, from the ftytionarj' point i' before it comes to the i.iferiorcon- junction, till it comes to the ftationary point R after ; therefore whilft an i.ifeiior planet is pauing throiij^h its .inferior tcnjundion, it is retrograde ; and whilil it is '' iperior palling I'upi conju diredt. As the arc « /" is greater than the arc fac, the planet is longer dilr fl tlian it is retrograde. It ajipears alio from hence, il at the two infuior planefa will con- ftantly attend the fii 1 recedi.ig to a certain ilillance 01 th fide iid tl I retuvniiijt a cni.i to him. As tin urbits of {!;:■ pi.iieti are not cn\los, but ellijjfes, the greateft elungatii ns ol isniis a;u! »,erciiry are not always .the fame ; tlie grea^ ft clor.gMions of vftius arc from 44°. 57' to a7°. 48'; and of mercury fron 17'. 36' to a8^ ao'. As ;. *rr«ry rc-i SI 8 but to n f.nall dillaiico from tlie fun, it is not oflc 1 t'lat it can Iv; fee.i, as it ull be iu the moll favjt.rjblc lituation ft»r that pi-r- m pofe, and the atmofphere muft alfp be very clear at thff fame time. 86. When venut isatthediftancoof ,39°.44' from the fun, between its inferior conjunction and its greateft elon- gation, (he then gives the greatcft ([uantity of light to the earth ; and at that time her hn ^hluef't is fo g'-c:it as to caule a ihadow. And if at that time fhe be ut her greateft north latitude, her hrightnefs is fo great that (he is feen by the naked eye at any time oF the day when (he is above the horizon 5 for when her north la- titude is the greateft, Ihe riles higheft above the hori- zon, and her rays coming through iefs of the atmof- phere, (he is more eafily teen Tiiis happens once in about 8 years, venus and the e^rth returning very nearly to the fame parts of their orbits after that interval of time. 87. ftniu it a morning ftar from inferior to fuperior conjunction, and an evening ftar from fuperior to infe- rior conjimdilion The earth turns about her axis ac- cordi g to the order of the letters mnvw ; when the fpediator is at n, it is then night to him ; and as, by the eartli's rotation, he is carried towards v, it is mani- feft that the part tice of the orbit of vcnui will come into view before the fun S does ; hence, if venus be any where in that part of her orbit, (lie will appear in the morning before fun-rife, and therefore (he it then a morning ftar. As the fpeftator paffcs through vwm, it is day, and at m the fim will fct ; but the part efa of the orbit of venus will ftill be above his horizon, and therefore if venus be in that part, (lie will he vifiblc after fun fct, and will then be :iri evening liar. 88. The orbits of venus and mercury arc inclined to the orbit of the earth, and cut it at two oppofite points, called the nodes, fo that if wc conceive the orbit of the earth to lie in the plane of the paper, the orbits of vcnns and mercury will lie, one half above the papsr, and the other half below. It is upon this account that venus and mercury, when they come into their inferioi' conjunftion, at a, do not always appear to pafs over the fun's difc, or makt a ti-nnftt over it. If the nodes hap- pen to lie in conj'.indtinn and oppofition, then, when the ])lanet comes into conjunftion at a, it is in a line joining the earth and fiui, and it will appcai to pafs over the difc of the fun, like a fmall, round, black fpot. But if the nodes be at a ueitain dillaKce from conjunftion and oppolition, when the planet comes into coi.junrtion, it may be I'o f,\r above or below the line joining the earth and fun, as nut to pafs over the fun. Tiie tranfits of vemis do not happen fo often as thole oi mercury. Tilt; laft tranl'it of venur. happened in i7f>(;, a\id the ncAt'will be in 1874. Tl'.e lall tranfit of mercury happened in 1799, and the next will be in 1802. 89. When Dr. Halley was at St. //<•/«(! pumol'e of making a catalogue of the foi!thcrn liars, he ohltr'-ed a tranfit of meicury over the fiin's difc, anil, this fdggeftcd to him a method oi' finding the (wn'f. jjarillax from fuch obfervjtions, from the dii- i' rer.ce <.f the limef of tranlit over the fun, at dilltrent pLiv ■IPO' I'le tilth';.- furrii.-e. But the dift'oronce of the '^ 'V^^Mk INTRODUCTION. xxi ry clear at th« )''.44' from the ts {rreatell elon» y onighttothe is fo ycrit a!i to • (he be at her II fo grtHl that ime oT the day n her north la- above the hori- 8 of the otmof- lapijeiia once ia ■ninir very nearly that interval of crior to fupcrior fuperior to infe- out Iier axil ac- iHviv ; when the him ; and a», by rds V, it is nnani- venu* will c«»me c, if venus be any ill appear in the re (he it then a through vwm, it It tlie part ej'a of \m hori/.on, and vill be vifible after jr. ry arc inclined to o oppolite point*, »e the orbit of the ler, the orbits of above the paper, this account that into their inferior ar to pafs over the If the nodes hap- in, then, when the is in a line joining 11' to pafs over the lack fpot. But if in coDJunftion and ito cor.junfttion, it joining the earth Tiie tranfit* of of mercury. Tl»« ), and the ni.'.;t will rciuy happened in U-J the timet bi left for mercury than for veaut, the cunduliuDi .will be more accurate for venus than for mercury. The do^or thercfere propofed to determine the parallax of the fun from the traiifit of venus ; and as it was not probable that he himfclf (hnuld live to ob- ferve the two next tranfits, wiiich happened in 1761 and 17S9V he very earr.eftly recommended the attention of them to the ailronomeri who mijgrht then be alive. Af- tronomeri were therefore fent from England and France to the moil proper parts of the earth, to obferve both thefc tranfits : from which obfcrvations it appears, that the horiaontnl parallax ofr the fuii at his mean diftance, is 8^"} hence, by article i.t, fin. 8^": rad :: rad. of eaith: mean diftance of the fun from the eaith ; now fin. 8'": rad ;: I : 2J575 } therefore themean diftance of the fun from the earth is equal to 33^75 fcmidiame- ters uf the earth ; and as we have det-rmined (fee art. 4 the radius of the earth to be 396^ mWi, the mean diftance of the earth from the fun— : J',75 + T;6j= 9,34 .187, miles. For the method of fn^i'iR the hori- /.ontal parallax, we refer the reader to ihc Treatifa of Aftronomy which we'have before mentioned. 90. Having defcribed the phtenorecna attendincr the inferior planets, we proceed to defcribc thofc which at- tend the fuperior. 91. Let S be the fun, 7i the earth, F.vF'.v the orlVit of the earth, IxFy the orbit of a fuperior planet, AT the fphere of the fixed ftars ; draw F'/CSEIQ, CaF^ FbR, mb P ; then when the planet is at /, it is in el>p9' filhn to the fun, and at K, it is in coiijuiiHlon. Now the earth moves fafter than a fupcrior planet ; whild the earth therafore moves from C to E, and from E to F, let the planet dcfcribe the fmaller arcs al, lb. Then it is raanifeft, that when tiie eanh is at C, the planet at « appears in the heavens at P ; when the earth is at E, tnc planet at /appears at Q ; and when the earth is at F, the planet at b appears at R ; whilft iheivfurc the earth moves from C to F, tho planet appear.n to move from P to R, contrary to its real motion ; hence, a fu- perior planet is rtirograde whilll 't paffes throiigli o(>[io- Jit'tBn. Suppufe now that when the ^artli is at K tJie planet is at / in conjundliou with the fun, and let the earth move from K to m whilft tlic planet moves from / to b, then it will appear in the heavens to have moved from Q to P, or according to its real motion. Hence, a fuperior planet is direH when it pafll'S through torjunc- t'ton. As therefore a fupcrior planet appears to niove» fometimes diredt and fometimes retrograde, it mult ap- pear ftationary at the two points where the motion changes from one to the other. 9.! When the planet is in oppofition at /, or in cnu- jun£lion at K, the earth being at E, it is manifctt that the fame face of the planet which is towardx the fun, is alfo towards the earth, and therefore the planet appears full orbed ; but if nopq be the pofi- tion of tlie planet, then the fpcftator on the earth at E will have a little of the dark part of the planet beyond « turned towards him, and therefore it will not be full orbed to the earth, but will appear like the moon a little before or after its full. But if the planet be at a very great diftance from the fun, when compared with the earth's diftance, there will be fo little of the dark part turned towards the earth, that it will, as to fenfe, appear full orbed. Now this is the cafe with all the fupcrior planet' , except mitrs, which between conjunction and oppofition is obferved to appear not fu!l orbed ; but all tlie reft do, on account of their great diftances. • 9". It is found by obfervntion, that the places of li(e aphelia of the orbits of the planets, and the iilaci's of their nodes, have a motion, and that the inclinatio'ts of tlicir orbits to the ecliptic are fubjcct to a vr.riation. Thefe circumllanccs arife from the mutual attradtions of the planott. 94. It appears, from what we have al ready obfervcd, that mercury, viinit, and iii.irs are ujiaque bodies, as they do n't always (hiiie with full faccj, that part towards the eartli whicli in not towavils the fun, I>fiiig dark. Jupiur and futurn caft (liadows, ai, J eclipfe their fattl- litos, and there fiiiV they inuft Inr ypaiiui- bodies. The georijlan haa never beetlfecn to tclipl'e it.i fLitellites, an the falcilites htivc not, fiiice thr; difeovory of the pLinet, been in a liluation to be eclipl'i d bv the planet ; liut it being a body revolving aboitt the luii, like the «)tlier planctt, au'l having alfo i'atellites revi)lving abo*t ir, vvc may con- clude by analogy, that It is an opaque body. • 9J. KHPLfR made three very iniporluiit (iifcoverici rclpecUiif; % i 1 m\ XXII INTRODUCTION. refpe£ting the motion of the phneti, and wiiich are in- deed the foundation of all allrunomy. I ft. That the piimarv planets revolve about the fun in cllipffi, havin^r the tun in one of the foci. lily. Tbut the fquarea of the |>eriodic time* of all the planets, S»yt tlie fame proportion to each other ai the cubci cf their r«-f])cdiTc mean diftanccs. jdly. That if a line be drawn from the fun to a planet, and move ai the planet moves, it will defcribe about the fun, equal areas in equal timet. Thcfe principles which KurLKa deduced from ohftffvation. Sir I. Newton proved to be true from the common principles of motion, and hit theory of gravity. 96. The periodic time of the earth, or the tima in which the earth makes a complete revolution in her orbit, called zijltlereal revolution, is $6^d. 6h. 9'. 1 1",;. The time from the earth's leavini; the firll point of aries till flte returns to it, is 36 jd. 5h, 48'. 48", and this is called • frofiiciil revolution ; and this being lefs than her perio- dic time, it follows that the equinoctial points move back- wards i and this motion is called thu preeejjiou of the ei/MHoses. The time from the earth's Waving her apo- gee till Ate returns to it« it 36;d. 6h. 14'. z" ; and tliit bein); greater than her periodic time, it follows that her 4pogce muvet forward | tliis is called her anomaliJKe yc»r. 97. The following table contains the relative mfan 3h. 50. ?f."^* 98. A table of the places of the aphelia of the orbits for the beginning of 1750, with their motions in longi- tude in 100 years. Plantu. Place of Aphelia Mot. in roc years' Mercury Hi. ii«. ij'. 58" I. .^.H': 4>" Venus 10. 7. 46 43 1. 21. FaitJi J. 8. 37- '6 «• 43- IS !»!rr; 5. I. 28. 14 I. 51. 40 ^tipiter 6. 10. 21. 4 >• J4- .« •/)»turn H. »R. 9. 7 1. 50. 7 yGcprglap II. 16. 19. 30 .. .9. 2 99. A table of the placet of the a/tiniSng naiet ftf the orbits of the plaaeti for 175c, with iheir raotiont in longitude for 100 yean. Planttt Place of the No fign +, (howa e fign—, thst it orbittttofindth* jet PsBthe perio« >dic tine of an in- iiP:iday::36o*: r planet io i day ( aibedbytheinfe- iSc" it the daily "F Vsm the fuperior, the Utter, eterv in£iion, tliey will le inferior planet therefore «<' ■"— f , P rule therefore to / periiiSc I'imet lO' riiis will alfo giva brtween any t«q ijuni^n to COD- 0» On tht hfothn of the Moon^ ami ift Plidiiomrna. tci. The moon l.einjj the ncari-ft, aiul, next fo t'le fun, ilic moll remarkable Imdj iu our lyl'.in', and alii, nftlul for tlie divilionof time, it is 110 wdiKkr iliai tl«! ancient ;'.flri)ni)nu-iu were alicntivp to (iil'-over its mo- tion", iiiitl tlio orbit which it defcribes 'I'lie motioii of the n o.p'i .M itn orbit about the earth, is from well loci:ft, and it . o'Mt is lounU t«» In* inci'ned lo llic ccliptiv . The mo'loT oi the moon is alio obforvcd not to bi; iiiiiforir, and it' dillance from thi- earth is found to vary, wbicli (hows t'nit it dc':i nut revolrc in a circle about the earth in its i:ii.t..'r( but its motion is found lo be aii rllipfe, havinjf tlic earth in one of tin- foci. The pol'ilion of lltr cllii fc is nlifervcd to be conlinnilly changing, the major axil nut being fi.i'd, but moving lomi '.in. os direct ^-id foinetitnps retiofjrdd ; hu' , upon 'he \. •' •, the motion isiUrtd; and it nmkra ii ■ Miplcte rcvulun'ou in a little niorcthan 8i years. Thei;. tri-ity < f iLocnii-fc isalfo found lo chanp^, thac is, the I'llipfe is lo.ieliiiics nearrr to a circle than it i»at otlxr times. Tin- iiiJi.iatiun ofits orbit is loiind likewife fiibif^t to a variation f t.i 5" to 5", i8' All thife irre^i ! iJti-js aiife from the fun dif- turbing iIk- iroou's moltoi. by its aUi-ndion. \oi As the I'llipfe which liie moon d>-fcribei about the fur, is fnbjeA to a vati^itiun, the pcriudic liancofthc moon about the eartli will alle vaiy ; in winter, th\.- moon's orbit is dilated, and the peiioiiic lime is in- creafeJ : and in fummer, her orbit is contracted, and her periodic time i» diminilhed. The periodic time of the moon increaf's wliilll the fun is moving from his apo- pee to his jierigeo, and drcreafes whim he moves from his peiigre to his apogee ; and the grcated difference of the periodic times n found to be about xi[ minutes. 104. The memi penodic time of the moon is 271). 7h 43'. I \",^ \ this is called Iter fidcreal revolutfion, being Hie mean time from her lravin({ any fi.-;ed liar,, till her vetiim to it agam. Now it is found by ohfervation, that the mcim time from her leaving her apogee till (he retuNit Oo it, is 2';d. i,;h. 18'. 4"; hence, the moon is longer in returning to lirr apogie than (he is in making a revola tion in her orbit, and- therefore her apogee mnft; wove forward. The mtrn time from her leaving her node till (he returns to it again, ii 2'd. ;h. 5'. %^",6r and this keing lefs than her me(in periodic time, iv follows that fhe Ktums to lier node brfs its dill.mce. Ilenc, iis thi ai,;,,in.'nt d amcter ol tin* iiioim incrpiifes, (lie imlk appro.11 'I t 11- eurth } and wlv n it df-cirafrs, flie m.tt rctede from the larth. 'J'iils var'ation of her appar.Tt dianirtrr agrees cxadlly with what ought tti be the cafe, if tlif mo,>ii niovotl i;i an ellip'V .nbout tht rarth in one ofits foi-i ; we conclude tlitrfore thiil itie moon movij- in nn I'llijifc al>r)iit llie earth lituatcd i:i one of iLs fitci, ail i;) oti'.'.'r fi:ppo(iti Duchy cf Jircmcn, has onik-avoured to ellabliHi the exiilence of an atmofphcrc, from the following obfervations. 1 . He cbferved the niooii when 2 \ days old, in the evening f.)()n after fun fet, befure the dark part was vii'ible ; and continued to obferve it till it became vifible. '\\\ti cnips appiT.red tajjeriiig in a very (liarp, faint, jiroloni^aiiou, each exhibiting it< furtlicH extremity faintly illumiua.ed by the I'olar rays, before any part of the darii heruii'pli: . c Mas vifiLIi ; foon after, the whole dark limb appeared il- lun^inated. This prolongation of the c\ifps beyond ilie femi •irclc, he thinks muftarif.' from the fun's rays being refracted by the moon's atmolpliere. He conipulLii M > the he'glitof the atniofphcre, wiiich refracls liiflittnou.^h into the dark hemifplicre to produce a twilight, niore liuviuoiis tlian the light rcflefted from the eailh when •the moon is about 32"' from the new, to be 1356 Paris feet ; and that thf gnattcft h»ig)u c i;M* V u .. '.Kiinx the folar rays is jj;^ feet. 2illy. •,'}< •.-uUnfionof jupiier't fatrllites, the third difap'' •■'• ■ ■. lunn^ bten 1" or 2" of time indillinct ; tlu. i .i became in- difcerniblc near the limb ; this was not ubferveU of th'' other two. See thu- Phil.Tianf. 179a. Ill, Many allr.)nomeri have given mig>°aphical names of places upon the cai lit. The funner diflinctiun is now generally ufed. 1 1 1. Very nearly' the fame face of the moon is always turned towards the enrth, it being fulijeit to only a fmall chaiigi.' within certain limits, thole f|)ots which lie near the edge appearing and dilappearing by turns ; this is called its I.tlialion. The moon turas about its axis in the fame direction in which it revolves in its orbit. Now the angular velocity abuut its axis u uniform, and it turns about its axis in the fame time in wiiich it makes a complete revolution in its orbit ; if therolorc the angu- lar motion about the e.irih were alfo uniform, the fame face of the moon would always be turned lowaidl the earth. For if the moon had no rotation on her axis, when (hi- ii on oppofitc fides of the earth Ihe would (hnw difi'erent faces j Cut if, after (lie has made half a revolu- tion in her urbit, fhc has alfo turned half round iier axis, then the face, which would othorwifc have been (hown, will beturiK'd behind, aiiJ the fame face will ap- pear, And thus if tlii; moon's anguUr velocity about liri axis were al« ays equal to her ang'lar velocity in hf • m'j:! .'.bout the earth, tiie fame fide of tiic moon would be :tl'.. lys towards the earth. But as the moon's angu- kr velocity about her axis is uniform, and her angulai' veljcity in her orl.it is not unl.'orm, their angular veloci- ties cannot continiie al'vays equal, anl ttierefore the moon Will fumotiiiiej fliow a little more of her eall- erii parts, and foniiftimes a little more ( f her wcftern pa;-tb; this i'l called a libratii,ri in /lM^//h .'it, her ojipi.fite poles are turi'.-d to.vanlH tlu eartli : therefore hti ,j')L's R.ipear and d fuppear, by turns ; this is Cidled a liti ,j')los a.ipear anc librstion 'n lal'tlurle. 'I J. Huiice, i.e.irly one half of the moon is never vilible at th;; earth, and tlierefore nearly u.ie h.df of its inhal)ita'!ts (if it li..vo an.j never faw the Cirih, and nearly the other half never Kifc light of it, Al'.'u, the time oF its rotation about its a\i;t Iving a month, the L'ligrh of th? lunar days and nights will be ibout a foitiiighl e- -I.. 114. It is a very Cvtraordinary circmnance, that the tiin:" of the moon's revi.! tioi' .ibout 'i.r a .ii. fl.ii ild be equal to that in Ikt urbit. Sir I. NtwroN, froTi the INTRODUCTION. XK\' iSf ultituHeof «hciI< t»rt)i ,?iid moiiii, ia Kfs lliiii ilir din- inttcr ilirtiVd to llic n»rx\\ hy iHrt frtf. Ilcncf. fny* he, llir fiitir f.icr trull always Ir towariU flir earth, rx • ctpt ?. Im.'ll nfcilljti 111 ; |(ir if the loiijjill tliimitiT (hoiilil ^rt a little iiilt of lli.it ilirrClioii, it would \ic brought into It a;;alii liv the earth's attrac'lioii. The fiipnoruloii of D. 1)1! MAfKAN is, that tlic hs thought that the n.Kiii appeared hngell in the hori/ou, bccaiife, when, comparing iti dillaiiec with the iiittrmediate objects, it appeared then farthtl! cfF; and as »ve judge its dlHancc (T-.-ater in that litiiruiuii, we, of couife, think it larger, Uippoling tliat it fuhiends the lame aiigle. Dr. Bt efFid. 2'!ly, It null be fointthing which ij vaiiable'i becuufc the moon does not alwavi: appear of c the 1. III! 1*1 1 1 i k ™ t I 1 , i ) :• 1, XXVI INTRODUCTION. the fame magnitude in the horizon. 3dly« It cannot lie ill the intermediate obje^ln, they rcmuiiiiiig the lame ; alio, whoa thcfe objetts arc cxchidcd from fight, it makes no alteratiDii. 4thly, It cannot he the vililiie magnitude, hecHiilc that is Icafl in tlic horizon. The caiil'e therefore nnift li.- in tlu- vifib'c appearance, which piijcecdb from the greater paucity of rays cominfj to the eye, pr()dueinjry- lict, gives the fame rcafon. 'I'he f,ime circiimllaiiccj take pl.icc in the fun. Alfo, if we take two flars near cuih itbcr ill the hoii/oii, and two the lame in the horizon and the zeiiiili, fi.em> t^i be fully UilRcicnt to account lor the appirent vaiiation ol the moon's diame- ter in tliefe htnaiioiis, it may be doubilnl wlieihir the faininels ot tin oliJK't ciiter.s inlo any part of the eaiife. liO. Till inr.iii ililtance of the niooii fioni the caitli is ab:;ul 239 tii'liland mile^ . ,iiid liei Ivinidiainetei in mar- ly ', ol the radius (,1 tlu- eai 1 h, or about i^ ii inilci. And :>s the p 'i^nitiides ol Ij'heiieal boc'ies aie a:, the cuius of (lieir i.,.iii, the ma^'nitiide ol the moon: nia^- iiiUidc of the tarili : : 3 ' : 1 1 ' .: 1 : 49 nearly. On the Rofiition of the Sun and Phinets. 121. The times of rotation of the fii'i and planets are drterii iin d 'ly the fpo!-. which art obfervcd upon tlirlr furfaces; oilier by lindnig the aic winch u ucferibed i.i a giviii lime by a Ipot. 01 by obltrviiig how lung it in ill |>dlhiig over the wiiulc dilc. On the Rctu'.ion of the Sun. Ml. It is doubtful by whom the fpois on the fun were liril dltVovereii. tn iinNtu ol.icrved liiem in Way, 161 I, aid pi'bliihtd an an onnt ot ihun in 101 .'!. C> t- LiLl'i), Ml a piiblii dlioii in iti\\, I'ayx, that being at Riiim. Ill A|lh on tlie fun to fi-, who pub* lilhed an account uf them in 161 1. In the papers of Harriot, not yet publidied, i' is faid tUat fpott upon the fun were obferved '\n Dtdmber, 1610. l-'roiii obferving the motion of the fpots, le time of the fun'* rotation is determined to be 25d. 14I1. j 123. Uefidcs the dark fpots upon the fun, there are alfo parts of the fun called fucuU, liici/i, &c. which are brighter than the general fnrface ; thcfe abound moll in the neighbourhood of fpots, or where f|iots have lately been Moll of the fpots appear within 30' of the fun's eqnalor. On April 19, 1779, Dr. 1ii-:rsch!«- faw a fpul wliofe di.unetcr was l' It! ', which is eqnal in I'.ngih to more than ji ilioufaud mi'cs ; this was viliblc to the naked eye. On the Rotation of the Planets. 124. The georghin is at fo great a dillance, that aftrn- noraets have not been able to delerniine, whether it has any rotation about its axis. I 25. Siifurn wai fulprdlcd by Cassini and pATfi, in 1693, to have a revolution about its axis; for they one day faw a bright ftreak, which difappeared the next, when another came into view r.ear its difc. Thcfe ilreaks are called ^r//y In 719. when the ring difap- apeaied, Cassini taw its Ihadow upon the planet, and a belt on eacii tide parallel to the Ihadow. Dr. llkii- scili L tound that the arrangement of the belts always followed that of the ring. .And dining his obferva- tiiMU on June 19, 2', and ji, lyKc, he faw the fame Ijiot in three dilUitiit lidia'.ions ; from ;:ll which he coii- clu'ied th.il .limn revolved nboiit an axis viiieli ii per- pei.iiiiiilar to the plane of the n'ng. Anotlu r argument III fiippoit of its rotation, is, thai ihr planet is .111 oblate fphei'oid, liavii g the diatneter in the diitClion of the riiiLT, to the diameter perpendicular 10 it, as 1 1 to 10, aceoiding to the Doctor. The tiuili ol this conji-i'liirc he atlera.:rui verified, having deleruiined thai ialuril revolves alioiii its axis in loli 16'. l:ft. y„piier is obferved to have belts, and alfo fpots, by which lilt time ol its rotalion has heen determnicd. l''rnin .1 fpot which Cassini obferved in xddy, lit found till time of rotation to le ijh 56'. I'loni other fpots ill (.)i'.tober 1691, he found the time 9I1. ^ ' ; and tiom other fpots he determined the time to be i;li. 50' ; and, in griieral, he found that the nearer the Ipotn were to the equatin-, the (piieker tluy revolvtd ; tiom whence it is probable that tlic fpols are not upon the body of jiipiter, but ill ill almolplirre. Dr. Hikichel alfo tound the time ol lotation to vary, troin iliffcrent fpots; and that the lime of u volution of the fame fpot dinii- nilhol ( and olifeivcs, that fuch a circiimllancc is agree- able to the theory of eqniiioi!:tial winds, as it may be fome time before the fpot can acipiiie the vrloeily ot the wind. Dr. I'oUSD made the polar to the t>j.iatorial diariieter as 12; 13. Dr. Bradlhy made them as 12,5: 13,5. Sir Is.vAC Kkwiu.s made ihcni as lyj : ic; by INTRODUCTION. XXVU .RR fay*, they :iUii who pub* In the papers [did lUal i\H>ia If) 10. Irom nc of the fiiii'* fun, there are ill, &c. which cfc abound mod tr"; fpots have itliin 30' of tlie )r. llK.RSCHiL hich is equal in this wan viliblc ancts. jncc, that artto. , wlictlicr it has II and Fato, in is ; for tlicy tme icared the ntxt, 13 difc. Tlicfe I ihf ring difap- llie planet, and )\v. Dr. HKii- ihc btlts always lnj{ liij olifiTva. lit- faw tht fame II which he con- xis vhich ii per- iioth( r iirgiinicnt laiH-t is .in <)l)l;ilc diiittion of the il, lis I I to 10, \i\ this conji'i'tmc in<.d thai falurii , and alfo fprHs, Hill dflcrmnied. 1 if/)}, lit f'lUIiJ 11)11) olhi-r fpoti . ; ' ; and t)()in lie i;li. 50' ; and, c IpolB were to d i lioin wlii'iice ii|H)ii lilt body of ill KICK EL alfo n ililitriiit (pots } fame fpot dinii- uTitlanct is afjrce- ds, as it may he lit vflotity ol the to (lir «>! latori.il inatlc thi'in as ade ihcm an i)\ i \c\ by 10', hy theory. The belts of jupiter are jrenerally pa- rallel to his equator, and are fubjcft to great variations, both in rifpra to thtir number a ' figure ; from which it is probable that tliey exill in the atniofphcre. 1:7. CiAi.ii.K) difcovered the pliafes of man ; after whiih fome Italians faw a fpot in 1636. But in 1666, 1)k. Hook and M. Cassini difcovered fome well de- Jii.ed fpots, and the latter determined the time of rota- tion to be 24h, 40'. Maraldi made il z^h. 31/; and difciivercd a very bright pait near the foulhcin pole ; but the brii;hlnef» is fubjed to fome change. Some- iliiiig like this hiis been fi-.-n about the north pole. Dr. HKRScHfL makes the time of rotation- to be 2,jh y). 21 '/);. He alfo concludes, that mars lias a confidi-r- able Htmofphcic. 12S. GiLii.KO first difcovered the phafes of venus, in I fill. In 1666, Cassini, at the time when venus was dichoiomifed, difcovered a bright fpot upon it, at its iliaij^ht edge, and by obftrving its motion, he found the time of rotation to he zgh. 16'. M. SiiRoiitR has endeavoured to (how that venus has an atmofphere, from obferving that the illuminated limb, when horned, cxcced.< a femiciiclc, an in the cafe of the moon ; the cufps fometimts ran ij. 19' into the dark hemifphere. He makes the time of rotation 23h. 21' ; and concludes from his obfervations, that there are very high moun- tains upon the furface. 129. The phafes of mercury wt eafily diflinguiflied, but no fpots have yet been difcovered, by which it caa be afcertaiiied whether it has any rotation. On the Rotation of the Satellites. 130. Thtji/th fatellite of /alum was obferved by M. Cassini for Icveral years as it went through the ealt- crn part of hi orbit, to appear lefs and Icfs till it be- came invifible ; and in the weUern part, to increafe again. Thefe phxnomena can hardly be accounted fur, but by fuppofing fome parts of the futface to be inca- pable of reflcCliiig light, and iheitfore when inch parts arc turned towards the earth, ihcy ajip' ar to grow lef^, or to difapocar. And as the fame cireuinlhincts al- ways returiKtl again when ti.e fatellite leturncd 10 (he fame part of itu orbit, it afToida a Uroiig aigiinieiit that the time of the rotation about its axit, in t(|iiiil to ihc time of its revolution about its piiuiaiy, a lircninHaiiec liinilar to the cafe of the moon. 1)r Hi 'isuiiki, has difcovered that all the fatellltts ui ju[iter luve a rota- tion about llicir axis, of the fame diiradun ab ihcir re- fpeiStive pel iodic times about their primary. On the Satellites of Jupiter. 131. On January 8, 1610, Gai.ilko difcovered the four fatellites of jupiter, and called tlicm Mulirejiijlars. in honour of the family of the Medici, his patioiis. Thin was a difcovtry of great importance, as it fuiniflied a leady method of finding the longitude ol placci, upon the earth's furface, by iniaiis of their cclipfes. The eclipfes led M. Kofmir to the difcovcry of the pro- greflive motion of light ; and hence Da. 13r.\dlky was enabled to folve an apparent motion of the fucd liars, which could not oihcrwife have been accounted for. 132. The fatellites of jupiter in going from well tn call are eclipfed by the (hadow of jupiter, and as they go from eall to well, they are obferved 10 pafs over its difc. Hence, they revolve about jupiter. 'J'he three firll * fatellites are always eclipfed when they arc in op- pofition to the fun, and the length of their eclipfes is found to vary ; but fometimes the fourth fatellite palfes through oppoiition without being eclipfed. Hence it appears, that the planes of their orbits do not coincide with the plane of Jupiter's orbit ; for in that cafe, they would always pafs through the centre of hi.s (liadow, and be always equally eclipfed at every oppoiition. The periodic times are do^foUows : Firll Second Third Fourth id. i8h. 27'- 33" I 3 d . I3h. 13 '. 42" I 7d. 3h. 42'. 33" | i6d. 1611. 32' 8" 133. The diftances of the fatellites from jupiter, in terms of the fcmidiamcter of jupiter, are as follows 1 Fird Second 5-y^ I 9'494 Third |J,I41 Fowrtii 26,63 134. The periodic times and diftances of thefe fatel- of jupiter without entering into its fhadow ; and this Iites obfcrve the fame !aw as thofe of the primaries re- is called an occullalion. fpieting the fun J that is, the fqiiares of the periodic times have the fame proportion to each other, as the n a1 o ^ if. re . cubes of their refpeflive dillances. ^« '^-'^ Satellites of Saturn. 135. A fatellite is fometimes hidden behind ihe body 136. In the year 1C65, Huyqens difcovered the • The fiift ruellitc ii that aeartd to the plsnet, snd the others in their oi.ler from it. c a fourth I xxvifi INTRODUCTION. fourth fatcllite of f.itiirn. In 1^171, Cas ini difcovered of tlir otbif) of fhrm all, except the fifth m >rder from the fifth; in 1672, lie difcovercJ tin* ihlid ; ami in the planit, coinciiie very iitarly with ili. niinc tif the 1684, hr difi-nvevtd the tii !l jiul ficoid. Dr. hUR- rinj; t)l tlie pl.ii.el. Dr. Hai.i.ky found •! it llie orhit tCHSL h>i!< dilcover'd a IimIl bikI i'lvciuh lutillite, of the ft)urtli (at that time diiciivcrcd} vtak elliptical, which lie within the urhitt of ihc other live, 'i'l.- pl.inet The periodic timei are as fuUutvs : ■f: ■■ . I f 1 ;! Mil ti i ImViI 1 Sitoiid 1 Third 1 Fourth | 1 ifth | Sixth i I'venth ijli t?'- »•,' . 1 iJ »"■ u'. >i • 1 111 I ih t'. 1 ' 1 111 I li J 1' 1 ■ 1 ..1 1 h. n , la' . 1 i^d ih. 11 . I .|7 ■• •' i 137. Their diftances from Saturn, in terms of minutes and fecoiids of a degree, are at follows: Fi:tl 1 Second ' 'I'liird | F.u rth | Fifth | Sixth | Seventh :8',7 ( 36 -.;s 43,,- | 56' | i. 18" | 3' 0' ( ?•. 4«"J t : 13". Tlie periodic times and didances obferve the fame lavs' as thofc of jnpiier ; fei ait. 134. ■* On the Salcllities of the Georgian. J39. In 1787, Dr. Herschel, the difeoverer of the feorjjiiin, difeowied two ratillitcs belonging to it ; and Tie ditermincd the fynodic rev.ilitioM of one of them to he 8d. i7h. 1' 19.' 3. and of tlie othir 13d. lih 5'. i",5 ; alfo the dillaiicc of the former from the planet in minutes and fcconds of a degree, was found to be 33",09. and of the liHtcr 44", 23. And linte ihtfe difco- veries vrerc made, the Doctor has difcovired four more fatellites ; and found that tlic motions of tlu m all arc retrograde. 'I'luir orbits aie nearly perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. O/i the Ring of Saturn, 14.0. G.U.I Lr> was the I'lrll jitrfon who ohfervcd any thiiij', I slr.ionliiu'iy in Sat^in, That planet appeared to iiim like .1 i:ir:;>: gl ilie lnnvttn two fmall ones. In .6.0 he niiiiiMiiiccd tliis diliuviry; and cniiliiiued hi:i ubfervutioiiB till 161J, wlun lie was furprifrd to find otdy tlic middle globe, liut afterwards he again dif- covered the gluhcs "n each fide, which in procefs of time, appeared to change their form Upon this, Hl/YCFNS fit about improving the art of grinding ohjeft glulfes ; and made tclc(co;its which m.ignilicd, two or three times more than any which had been before made, with which he dife ivercd the riii»(of fatiirn ; and having obferved it for fame time, iie pii(>li(hed the difcovery in 1656. The ring is broad and flat, at a diilanct from the planet, and edge-ways towards it. In i6yy, Cas- siNi, obferved a dark line upt/n the ring, dividing it, as it were, into two linga, the inner of which appeared blighter than the outer,. He alio obferved a dark belt upon the planet, parallel to the major axis of the ring t for though the ring if circular, \ 't, befng fecii obliquely, it appears an ellipfe. Da. H aschel obferven, that the black mark on the ring, in not in the middle of its breadth. The ring is nu Icf* fultd than the planet, and it is generally brighter than the planet. He takes no. t ice of the extreme thinnef:, of the ring, as he fuw a fatellitc on edge, hanging over on each hde. 141. The ring is iiivild>lc when its plane palfes through the earth, the fun, or bctwcin ilii.ni. In the fird cafe, the fun Hiines only on its edge, which is too thin to refled light enough to render it vifible { in the fccond cafe, the edge only being expoftd to us, ir is in- vifible for the fame reafon ; in the third cafe, the dark fi£li'>n and oppofition ; but llie plane of ihe niouii's orbit being inclined to the plane of llie tcliptic, iln'ie can be no eclipfe at conjun6\!on or oppufition, un- lifd at that time the muuu be at, or near the node. Fur let S, S" reprefent the fim in two different fittia. tionfi, E the earth, and let the plane of the paper rcpre* ft'iit the plane in which the earth moves round tlic inn, or the ecjiptic ; and let A/im(/reprefeiit the moon's or- bit, inclined to the ecliptic, and cutting it in t^vn points M, m, in the line ^Ef^, then A/Em is the line of the noden, lying in conjuntliun and oppcjfition, the fun being at S ; and we mnd conceive huif the orbit Mem to lie above the paper, and the other half miiM to lie below it ; defcribe alfu the circle Afamb on ihe paper ( then thefe two circles Mcmd, Mamb. will be inclined to each other, like two hoops put one into the other, and inclinid one to the other. Now if the moon be at A/ in conjuntlion wiili llit fun S, the three bodies are theo in the fame plane, and in llie fame llraight line, and thtrefore the moon is inleipofed betwcrii the fun and earth, and caufes an eclipfe of the fun. Diit if the fua be at S' and the moon in cuiijun£tion at Rl', (lie is then cut of the plane of the eclipiic, the 'j't-rt M' lyintr ,i^ vrays oppofite to the fun, when the muon paffes by, or through the (liadow, (he mull be in uppolition. Hence, if the oppolition happen as in pofition 1, it is clear that th« moon will juft pafs by the fhadow of the earth without entering it, and there will be no eclipfe. In pofition II, part of the moon will pafs through the earth's fhadow, and there will be a ^ar/;'d/ eclipfe- In pofiticn III, the whole of the moon paffes through the earth's fhadow, and there is a total eclipfe. In pofition IV, the center nf the moon palfes through the center of the eartii'a fhadow, and there is a /o/o/ and r/n/xi/ eclipfe. It ii plain therefore, that whether there will, or will not be an eclipfe at the time of oppofition, depends upon the didanceof the moon ftom the node at that time, or the dillance of the earth's fhadow from the node. Now it appears by calculation, that if £iV be greater than 1 1°. 34' at :he time of oppofition, there can be no eclipfe ; and when EN is lefs than that quantity, there may be an eclipfe. The dillance UN ( rz r 1 ". 34'. ) in pofition I, is called the ecliptic limit of a lunar eclipfe. Or as (by the lall article) the place of the earth's fhadow is the fame as the place of the earth feen from the fun, it is manifed, that it at the time of oppolitipn we compute the place of the earth, and find it to be lefis than 1 1°. 34', from the node, we know that there may be an eclipfe i and then we may proceed to the calculation ; but for that, we mull refer the reader to the Trealife before mentioned, at wc can here only explain the gene* ral principlei. 14^. The pha;nomena of a fuiar eclipfe, may be thus explained. j •• :ii Let 5 be the fun, Af the moon, yiB, or /1'B', part of the furface of the earth, for at different limes, the earth is at different didances from the moon ; draw tangents fxvti qzvr, from the fun to iUt/amt fide of the moon, and if ^r* 1! 1 f ,f . L -1 II M ^'i INTRODUCTION. XXXI pfc, may be thui ard xvc will be the moon'i umbra, in wliich no part of the lull can be fccn ; and it lan^^enii pliJ, qtvac, be itiHwn Irom the fun tu the a/>/ the utnbra and prnnnibia, will fuffer a partial eclipfe ; but tu all the other parts of the earth there will be no eclipfe, nu part of the fun being there bidden by the moon. Now lot /^5' be tlir furface of the earth ; then the fpace ri will fuller an annular and ^orZ/'o/ eclipfe, the fun appealing all round the moon, in the form of a ring ; I lie parts cr, ili, will fndir a piiriiul eclipfe ; and the other paiti oi the earth will luliei no eclipfe. In thi« fituaiiun of the earth, there can theie- fore be no total eclipfe anywhere. I4f). U'he umbra itvx in a coiic, whofe vertex i» v\ and the penumbra «■«n idlple, or not, or whether it will be parr' d or total, depends upon the earth's dif- tance from ''le nide, at the time of conjiinftion. Nnw it appears I/) calenlation, that, if at coiijiin^Hon, EN be greater than 17 . 21', there can be no eclipfe, but if it be led, there may be i.iie. 'I he dillance KN { "z. 17", 21') in piilitiun 1, is called l\\c tcliji't limit of a folar eclipfe. 148. Theitliplic limits of the fun are to thofe of the moon aa 17 . 21' t-j 1 1 '. 34', or nearly as 3 to .•, and hencf iheie will be nmrc folar than lunar eclipfrs, in abi.iit '.l.nt ratio. But more hui.ir than fol: r eclipfeH are fieii at ai.y i;iven pi.iee, I eciuile .i liin.ir ecliiile i^ vifible tu u wliiile hcinifphcre uf the eatth at once} whereat a folar eclipfe is vllihicf to a part only, and tliereforc there is a greater probabiiily of fteiug a lunar than a folar eclipfe. Since the mo(,n i;; as long above the horizon as below, every fped.iior may exped to fee half the number of luiisr ctliplrs which happen. ii)y. If the earth had no alni(ifj)licre, when the moon was totally ctlijif. d (lie would lie iuviliblc ; but by tlic refr.iition of the atmofjiheie, fome r.ivs will be brought to fall on the moon's (urfa''e, on which account I'.s moon is rendered viiil)Ie, and ol R diilky red eol iiir. I JO. An ecliple of the moon aiiliig fiom ■■ real depri- vation of light, mull appear to begin at the fame in- flant of time 10 every place on th.it hemifphere i;f tlic earth whith is next the mnon Hence, it allndi a leady method of finding the longitudes of places upon t!ie eaith's furface, as will be aliirwarjii exphiiiied 151 The diameters ol tin- fun and 11 .mn ;ire fiip~ pofed to lie diviih d into 1 2 eijii^il p.iifs, called tli/iu, and an eclipfe ii> faid to be fo many digits, aeonding to the number of thofe parts which are involved at the gieatcll darkiiefs. 151. Thegreated number of eclipfes whleli can Imp- pen in a year i» feveii, and when tirs happens, live will be ol the fim anil two ol the moon. I'he h ill number which can lia| orhit, thefc feaf mo woiil.l he at the tlillaiicc ot" h:itt a year from each other, if the node-, were It.ilioiury ; h:\i at the nodei have a retrogradt- motion of ahout 19' ill a year, and the earth movft ah'>nt a dc- K'te in a d;iy, the feafoin of ecli()fcs will »v.Miirii at an interval of aliiitit 9 or 10 days lef» tiian halt a ytar fo that if there he culipfes about the middle of Janu.iry, the next eclipfcs may be expefted about ihc iirll week of July. On the Nature and Motion of Cmctt. IJ5. ConieM are foh'd bodies revolvliijr in v»ry cv- centric eilipft* a'.jmit tiie fun in oiv of the foci, and arc fnhjtft to iho fame laws at the planets are ; lui. they d^er in appiaraiices from them ; for they ,iie very faint bodici, and in foir.e of them, as they appronih tin- fun, a tail of l^ght begins to appear, which incre.il'cs till the comet conim 10 it 1 nerihelioii, and thin it dfire.ifes ajjiiii, anvi vai iiin .. 'I'lic aiieici.t | hili)fij)licra fnppufed tliem tohc phi >i.. Akistotli fays, ihst fonie //.i- HfUit cni'^>^ I' ■thigoreniis, (ay, that a ^ imct i* ono of tl^e vlanet . A' '.lomi'S aflirms, tliat iIr coniet:> wire, ) V ih*: <.'',:/ v,"i;, rctk(nied amoiigil the plmtts, and ;i;».iointrs to keep a catalogue of 'hem, in order to he aVile to ditermine "hethtr they returned at certain pcriodj. Notwiihllanding this, mod allrono- mer.H froi.i hi:i lime to Tvciio Bkaiii eontider.d them only as meteors, existing in our aunof|iliirc ; hut he, finding that they had no diurnal parallax, placed tin ni above the moon. At len(;th Sir I.Ni.wtiN l.jving proved that Keim.i^r'i law, by which the moticuii of the planets are rtgulated, was a nceetfaiy confnjnence of his theory of gravity, ii inMiud lately followed, that conictr were goveriud hy tin. finie law ; and the6hier- valions upon them agreed fo accurately with his theory, ai to leave no douht ot its linih Comt>t< therefort re- volve in very excciptric ellipi. ■. about the fun in one of the fvici. A IlioiuHiu IS, liowi VI , ^,lr "he tafc of calcn- laiiiin, Inppofc them to move in ;.irabolic orbits, tor that part which lies h ilhiu the reac'of ohfc vat inn, liy which they can, with gieit aceur.' -y, (ind the place ol the pciilicli. n ; its diltance dm the Inn; the iiu'linatioii of the plane of its 01 bit ' > the teh'ptic; and the plact of the nodi, but not the i, iioSTAN us dili'o'd in 15^1 ; and the Ginie a^tliii »hiili he obfiivid in i6S/ ; and li.iving compind the ifiedt ol jnpiier iipi h il at that time, be found that it woiiM imrtaie lis periodic time above a year ; in coufecjnenee of which he pre- dl^led it« return at the end of the year 17;!', or the beginning o' 17, •9. He informs uj that he did not nuke hiseoni|iiiMtions with the iitmodaceiitjcy-, but hii predi.-b'on was right, for it was fien on Dec 14, 175K, and palfed its peiihelion on March 13. i'',f). '1 bus he ha1ing its great thicknefs, which fliows that the matter of it is txtiemely rare, Aristotlb thought the tail to be a thin fiery vapour ariling from the coniit. Apian, C ROAN, Tvcmo, and others, fiippofed that the fun's rays being ,.iopagateJ through the traniparcnt head of the comet, wtrc refrafted, as by a lens. But the figure of the tail does not anfwir to this. Ki i>Li'a fuppofed that the fun'd rayi carried off fomc of the grofs parts of the comet, ''■-•.k. I. Ni w ros vhoiight that the tail was a very thin vapour which the head, or nu- cleus of the comet, feuds out by reafo.T of its beat Dr. Hallkv, in hii defcription of the /iiirurii Roiralit \n lyifi, fays, "ihc llreams of light fo miieh refemhhd the long tails of conieti, that at Iirll f^ht they might he well taken fo; ditli." And attirwards, " this light feems lo have a great affinity to that which the efflnvi.i of el'..lric bodies emit in the dark." D. nk Mairas cal!/ the tail of a comet, the Aurora liorcnlii of the c.met. This opinion Da. Hamilion fnpports by the following argnmiiits. The Aurcua IVncalis has no tilicl upon the llar» fceii through it, nor has the tail of a I'omet. The atmofphere is known to abo:ind >vlth elei'lric matter, and the appearance of the ekcliic matter in vacuo, is exadly like the appearance of the Aurora Rorealls, which, froni its great altitude, may be cou- fideretl to be in as perfeft a vacuum as we can make. The eleftric matter in vacuo fuffers the rays of light to pafs through, wiihout being affi(^led by them. The tail of a comet does not fpread ilfelf Cideways, nor does the tlidlric matter. Hence, he In; p fes the tailo of comets, the aurora borealis, and the elertiic fluid, to be matter of the fame kind. 5S. In refj 1 ft to the nature of comets. Sir I. Ni w- TON oblcrvi.:., that they mult be foli.l bodies, like the planets, I'or if thiy were noihing t ill \apoiir8, tliiv mull be difTip.ited when they come near the fiin. For the cinnet in 16S0, wlnn in It. pei ihelioii, was nearer to tile Inn that one (ixih of its dlamrU'i , therefore the hei.t .)f the comet at that time was to fiimmtr hi,il, as 28cco to I. Iiut llie liiat of lioihiig wnlir Is al.oiit 7, times greater tli.m the heat wliicli dty earth acqi^Iies f.im the laininer fiin ; an to vvhicli the I, and at \\i\ it v.i. iitrh the tail, nut- h fliDws that the TLB thdimht the From the emit. riip'jiofi'd lluit the I llif triimparcnt hy a Il-ii'. l^ut .1 this, KifLKa off fome of the roN vhoii^rht th.j fupjxirts hy the IVuL'iili-i hnn no kior his the tail of to abound >vith le clicbic mutter ce of the Aurora tide, may he ciui- 38 wf t.in m.ilte. e rays of light to I hy them. The lileways, nor does p .fis the tail., of leftric fluid, to be Tieto. Sir I. Ni w- d IxKlies, like the ui »apoins, ihtv •ar thf rill. For lion, was luarir !>• hcnforc ihc luit ur h< at, as iScco r is al.oiit 3 tiin. b?d obftrved « htriuFis to be a double (lar j and other aftronomers have dilVoveied many others to be double. Da. Hi-xchil has found about 700, of whicb, not above 42 had been before obfcrved. \Vc will here mention a few of them. a Iltnulii, a beautiful double ftar ; the two Aari very unequal J the largelt is ltd, and the fmallell blue, ipclining to green. y WnJromecU, double, very unequal ; the larger red- di(1) white, the fmaller a fine bright Iky blue, inclining to green. a Geminorum, double, a little unequal, both white. P I.yiit, quadruple, unequal, white, but three of them a little indined to red, I lioulu, double, very unequal, larger rtddifh, fmaller blue, or lather a faint lilac. I. Lyra, treble, very unequal, larger white, fmaller both dniky. a. Lyrs, double, very unequal, larger a fine brilliant ts'hite, fmalltr duiky. VOL. I. Thefe are a few of the principal double, treble, and quadruple liars mentioned by Dn. Htrschkl in the J'hil. Tranf. 1785. ii'i^. Several liars mentioned by the ancient allrono. mtrs are ii'it now to be fou'id ; and f'vtial are mnv oli- ferved, which do not appear in their catalogues. The moll an.:;- 'it ol'fervation of a new liar, !'■ that by IIippa^.h^s, about I ?o years before J. C. which occalioTied his mak- ing a catalogue of the lixid Ihir^, 'in onler that future allronomers might fee what alteratM'ii had taken place finec hiv time. Cchneli us Gt mm.\. on Nov. 8, 1572, obfene'l a new liar in the chiiir tf cajfiojea. It exceeded fir'tut ill lirii»litnel'., and was lecii at iniil-day. It lirll appeared biL'.^er that: Jnf/ilfr ; but it gradually decayed, and after 16 montlin ii entirely dil'appeared. It was ob- fervrd by Tycho, who found that it had no fenl'ible pa- rali.iK ; and he concluded that it wat a fu'ed liar. 164. M'liiy Ham appear aiid (!ila|)pcar at ceir'i:^ pirioits. On Aiignll 13. i $'jfi, David r.\nRicius obferved a new liar in the tied 0/ ilie •uih.iit. Ii dilap- Beared after OAober in the fame year. Phocyi.i.idis HoLvv.\RnA dil'cnvcred it again in 1637 j and alter it hid difappe:rrd for 9 inontbt, he fjw it again. 1ji;i.- Li ALDUS determined the periodic time of itn greated brightneft to be 331 days. Its grcatell brightncfH ik that of a liar of the iecond magnitude, and its leall, that of a ftar of the fixth. 165 Ih i()86, KiacHius obferved x '" '^e fmnn to be a changeable ftar, and found the pciiod to be 4 )^ days. 166. J. GoooaiCKR. Efq. has determined the piii- odic vaiiation of al^ol, or fi perfri, to be ab'int 21I. 2ih. Its grratcft brightiiefs is of the fecund, and leaft of die fourth magniiiide. It changes from the fecond to the fi.urtb, in about 3| hours, and back again in the fame time, and retains its full brightnefs for the remaining time. He alfu difcovered that ft lyra, and ) ttphei, are fubjeA to a periodic variation of brightnefs ; the former in lid. iph. and the latter in 5d. 8h. 3?!'. 167. E. PiooTT, Efo. difcovered « anitnoi to be a va- riable ftar, with a period of 7d. 4h 38'. 168. Dr. Hersthel in the t'hil. Trunf. 1783, hai given a large colletlion of llais w'bich were formerly fteu, but are now loll: alfo a catalogue of variable liars, and of new ftars. 160 There have been various eonjeftures to account for the variable appearances of the changeable ftars. M. Maupi Ritus fuppofes that they may have fo quick a motion about their axi», that their centrifugal forcea may redu-c thcin to fiat oblate fpheioids, not much un- like a rniilllone; and its plane may be inctiued to the plane of the orbits of its planets, by whof; atfraftion the pofition of the body may be altered, fo tlut when in plane palT.-s throu^;h the earth, it may be almoft or en- tiiely invilible, .ind become vifiblc again as its broadfide i< turned toward? us. Otherk fuppofe that conlidciable parts of their ftufaces are covered with dark fpots, which render the body invifihle when they are turned towards UI, Others copjc^lurc that their UiLippeaiancc may i aiile " , I ft! I ^ XXXIV INTRODUCTION. Biifc from dark bodies rcvolvinp about tlicm and inter- ixifiii^ between tlieni and at. The total dir.ippraraiice of a rtar may [iiobal 'y be the dc(lrin?.h'on of its fyfttm ; nnd the i'l ;' i: .uice ut a new Ilari the creation of a rxw fylli >n of planets. 170 T' lixfd dart are not all evenly fpread tbroiif»h tilt beuTtns, but tbc Rrrater part of them are cullcttcd into cliilb''- . which are difcovered by liigh nia>;nifyiin{ jiowern. With fmall powers lluy appear linall wliililh fpots, oallfd iiebuU. Sonie mlnilT liuwevcr do not re ceive lijjlit fiom liars Hiyc.ins difcovered one in tirion's fivord; it conlillH only of 7 liars, and the other part is a bright fpot. Dr. Halhy, in the foufhern iieipilplierc difcovered one in ihe centaur, which is not viCililc here. He alfo difcovered auntlicr in hercukt. Cass'ni difcovered one between the ureal do^ and the Jhip, which he dcfcribes as full of ilars. M. de la Cailli difcovered 4a nebultr. But Dr. Hbksciiei. has given us a catalofrue of 2000 nebulae and clullers of flats which he himfelf has difcovered. He has alfo dif- covered other phxnomena in the heavens, wiiich he calls nelulout flan, that is, liars furrounded with > faiut lumi- nous atmufpliere» of a conlldcrablc extent. On the Coiiftellatiotis. 171. The snclents divldiil the heavens into tonflella- lions, in* collections of lla'S, and reprcfenti-d tht-"i by animals and other figun'S, ai-cor>lin)r an their difp Tition fuf^^reded 'I'he number ol the ancient conltcllutions wan 48, but tiie prelcnt number upon a ^iobe Is 70. Thofc llarii which do not come into my of the conlli-lla. tions are called unformed Jlart, The liars vilihie to the naked eye, arc divulid into 6 dalles, according to their mainiitudca \ the lar){ell are called of the lirlt ma^> nitude, the next of the Oiond, and I'o on, '* hofc which cannot be feen by the naked ey, art chilled lelefcfir ilars. The llaisaic marked upon tlie ^KiIks with ^tcek Utters; the lirit letter of the greek alphabet being put for the largell i'ar of each conllcllation, and f>i on ; and when more U> crs are wanted, the italic are frenerally ufed ; thi» forves to point out the liar, and they were lirll thus dtfcribed by 1>a yer. The followinir catalogue contains the number of Ilars in each conftdlatioR, according to different ailroiiemen. ••■''i ■ IT'* The Ancient Conjlenations, H' \ ■ . ►« ^ **> 5 :^ i "C • T r 1. Urfa minor The little Bear .... 8 7 12 34 Urfa m.ijor The great Bear .... 35 »9 73 87 Draco The Dragon .... 3' 3» 40 80 Cxpheus Cxphcus «... '3 4 s> 35 Bootes Bootes .... »3 18 5» 5+ Corona borealia The northern Crown ... H 8 8 21 Hercules Hercules kneeling . - . »9 :8 45 "3 I.,yra The Harp ... - 10 ir >7 21 Cygnus The Swan . « . . >9 18 47 81 Calliopea The Lady in the Chair •3 26 37 55 Pel feus Perfeus . . - . 29 J9 46 59 Auriga The Waggoner .... •4 9 40 66 Serpentariuf Rerpentarius ... »9 '5 40 74 Serpens The Serpent .... 18 '3 23 64 Sagit:a The Arrow ... 5 5 5 18 Aquila The Eagle - . . \ Antlnous 12 23 Antinoua '5 3 '9 7' DelphinuB The Dolphin 10 JO '4 18 Equulus The Horfes's head 4 4 6 10 Pegafus The flying Horfe Andromeda • . . • 20 '9 38 89 Andromeda 33 *3 47 66 Tiiangulutn The Triangle 4 4 12 16 Aries The Ram - ... 18 31 27 66 Taurus The Bull 44 43 5' •4' Gemini The Twins .... »5 25 38 85 Cancer The Crab n '5 29 83 Leo INTRODUCTION. XXXV If. m into eon^fllit' .-feiiti-d ihf'i by their ilil'p (itiim .'nt coiitlclljtions I n ^idlic Is 70. f of the Ciinllrlla- I lUrs vilitilc to ft*, according to- of tl7 21 47 81 37 55 46 59 4a 66 40 74 23 64 5 18 «9 7' H 18 6 10 38 89 47 66 12 16 27 66 5' 141 3» «S ^9., «3 J,co Conui Berenices Lihi J ScorpiiH Sagittal iiii Caprii-iirnui Aijiiaiiui ril^te* Celii* Oriuil Eridainis l.cptiii Caiiiiiinajor Caiiis miiiur Argo Hydra Ciatir t'orviu Cintaurui Lupui Arn Cuiuna auflralit i'ifcis aiillrahs 'I'he Lion HiTtiilcc'* Hair The Virgin - The Scale. The Scorpion The Archer The Goat The Water bearer The Fifhca Tlie Whale Orion Eiidanus • The Hare The tfieat Dog 1'hc little Dog The Ship The Hydra The Cup The Crow 'I'he Centaur Tiie Wolf The Altar ''"he fouthern Crown . he fuuthrrn Filh . } The New Southern Con/iellations. Columba Noachi Robur Caiolinum Grus Phflcnix Indua Pa on Aput, ^-I'u Indica Apia, Mufca C'hamxlcon Triangulum auftrale Pifcis volanR, Pajftr Dorado, Xifhiai Toucan Hydros Noah's Dove The Royal Oak The Crane The Phtenix The Indian The Peacock The Bird ot Paradife The Bee. or Fly The Chameleon The fouth Triangle The flying Fi(h The fword Fi(h The American Goofe The water Snake fa sl 35 \^ »7 »4 S' 28 4? 38 22 3'* 34 12 29 2 45 »7 7 7 37 >9 7 '3 18 ^ •4 33 \o <4 a IS 4> 36 21 4» 10 «3 '3 2 3 '9 3 4 10 12 '3 '3 J2 •4 II 4 10 5 8 6 9 10 49 21 50 20 20 22 29 47 V) 45 62 »7 16 21 «3 4 3« 10 95 4« 1 10 5« 44 69 5« 108 "3 97 78 «4 •9 3' '4 6+ 60 3' 9 35 »4 9 12 »4 Hevelius's Ltco ' I xxxvi INTRODUCTION. Hevciji-s's Cenjlelbtions , made of the unforrieJ Starr, '^'i Fir' u , , . h: ill i I "1 Lynx Leo minor Aileron and Chara CerbcTu» Vulperiila and Aiifcr Scutum Sobieiki Laccrta CameloparJalit Monnccrot Sextans Tlir Lmx The liitlc Lion The Uu'yhuunU* Cirhcruii The Fox and Goufe .Subiclki't Shield The Li/.uid The Chamclopard Tlie Unicurii The Sextant '9 4+ S3 «3 »5 4 «7 3f 7 i(S 3» s othtr. This fceins to point out the common caufe, the m obferved ic foon after Cassini. In 1707, on April 3, a was ob- ferved by Mr Dekham in £jix. It appeared about a quartet of an hour iifier fun fet, and txUuded 15° or 20' above the liori/.on. It it generally fuppofed, that it it matter wbicli it thrown off from the fun, by its rotation about its axis. On the Tides. 175 The true caufe of the tides was difcovtrcd by Kt PL! K. He fays that gr.ivily is a power wliicli is mu- tual betwrrn two bodies ; a id that ihe eanh and moon would move towards each oti.-ir, and nurl at h point .is •iiiich nearer to the earth tliun the moun at tlic nuion is Kfi .lian (be earth, if their inotioiii i:i tlieir Dibits did iii't tiihdcr them. And he iurthtr Tiys, ihat the tide-t arirc iioin the gravity of the waters tovvarJi. the in on. Sill I Ni WTOM, from bis Tkory 0/ Gravity, ban ex- plained ihe general piinciples u;ioii which (lie phaeno. mena of the tides depend, from ttr: unequal giavitaiion of the different part* of the earth toward* the fun and moon. 176. If ■ff INTRODUCTION. zxxvn 4+ S3 '5 35 5r.ien< id of light which i evening, before e fun for iti bafii, 'tra borial'u. Its red, refembling a ' feen in OAober ; Ihorteft. It was before the vernal along the ecliptic been obftrved be> took puhlinieJ ii) on which was pro* LLiKP oljfcrvid ic pril 3, It \va> ob- appiired abmit a lUiided 15° or 20' ppufed, that it il nil, by its rutatiua was difcovtrcd by owcr wliicli It mu- le eanh aud moon iiurt at A point .19 jii a the ituioii i^i ia tiicir oihits ilid ya, iliHt tlic ti(l«;t (ivvard.i the in 11:1. Gravity, ha« vk- ivhich tlic phz:iu. nequal gidvitaiion 4rds the fun and i perfc£\ fphtre. one part be attradted by a diT* For let ABDE be the earth, fuppofed firft to be a peifc^ fpheir, and let Af be a diilant body attracting it ; then a* the force of attraction variei* inverfcly ai the f(|uari of tile didance, the nearer part* of the earth t> J/ will be iiioie attracted than thofc further diftant. The parti at W will therefore be more attracted towards M ihan thofe at the center C, and thofe at tlie center C more than thofe at 1) ; f» that A will be drawn from C, and C from D ; and the eHeft of drawing C fiom D is the fame as that of drawing D from C in the i>ppofite diicftioii. It il manifefl therefore, that the parti at yf and /> will recede fiom C ; and, in general, all the parts of E^iB which are nearer to Af than C is, will be drawn from C; and all the part< of EDB, which are further from M than C Is, will be left by C. or may l.c fuppofed to be drawn from C in the oppofite dircflion. Thub, the watrri will rife higher at ^ and D, and being drawn from F.CD both ways, they mnft fall at E and ^, and the earth will put on the elliptical form mnri, aid make high tide at m ;.nd r, on oppofite fidti, at the fame time ; and there will be low tide at n and / at the lame time, at two oppoliie poiiiti, which are <,o" fiom the high tides. A/ mav rrprefent either the fuTi or inocn ; hut the idea of the moon, frum its nearncfs to the eaiih, is much greater than that of the fun ; we confider therefore the moon aa principall) ruling the tidcj. As the earth turnn about iti axis once every day, cveiy part of the earth will come once to the moon in » day, iiiid once oppolite to the moon, and therefore there will hi two high tides every day. and the water will fall to Its Well, twice in a day. Or more .iccuratelv, the two tides happen in about 24h.5;'; (or on .ncc. uni ol the nuMii, s motion in her oihit, it U that interval from the tiiT'-; the moon leaves the meridian till (he returns to it the next tune, 177- When the fun and moon arc in conjunaiotj, or in oppciition to each other, they will both tend to raifc ll.c w-ie.s at the fame plares, and therefore the tides will then he the higheil, and ihefe ate called Ar,«, tides; but « hen the fu. and moon ate 90 from each other he fun will tend to depref. thofe part, which the moon ttucs to raife, and therefore ihe| cppufing each others effeCli, the tides will then be the loweft j and thefe are called n^n/ tides. Hence, (here will he the highell tidei at new and full moon, and luwell when lf,e moon is at her (iril and thiil quarters 17K The water will coiainue to rife fir dime time af'-r it has paifed the moon, its the elf ft of the moon continue though in a linallir digree, fo ihat the 1 will not be the highell at the time wIkii the moon il oil the meridian, but it will fomr>'mes li.ippen, one, two, or three hours after, according to the circuiii- (lances which may oppofc the motion of the * «.// '«?»>.'^ II I.I 11.25 Hills |2.S ■^ 1^ 12.2 •tuu m U 11.6 I Photographic Sciences CorpOTation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) t72-4S03 r^% X7CXV111 IKTRODUCTION. t , ,!■ I » 1 Iff ! 'I i ; !lil;Ui l)f tlis e:'rlli'« axis, E:!l\][f; I'qnato!-, /^n, /?i/i. two pa- r.illc'ls to ii,lhc tnoon ilcroiibiii;^ tlic y>M\i\\A An. Then Viv ihi: L'lirili's io\;itioi!, ili-; places .•/ ;'.iid J] arc car''!^.l IViini y/ to H, and from />' to m, Jind tlK>n Iroiii n to .'/, Hi'd fr()n\ (/; to 7?. IIciicc, tlie In'nh tide's to tliofL' two pliiL'C!! aio at y/ and />, and tlie low tides at n and m ; tlu-u'Ur'e the din'etxncc bctivecn tlie height r.f the high and low tiller will be the diiTcrence of 0,4 and On, and c'f 0/' ind Of.'i ; anil a'^ Om and O.v, are greater than OC, the difr.rencc of the tldcJ is Itfs here than wlien the moon was in the equator. Hence, the tides are highell wli.'ii the tniioii i) in the equator; ;>.nd as the moon re- ccdos fioni the equator, the tides dimitilili. iS. Iknce, the hiul.elL tid;3 are when the new or fidl moon hapfien^ at the time when the fnn is in the equator, i.gitiide liy '!ie moon. Upon this, a commifliDn was granfcf! to i. ord Vitcount Brounke", prefiderf of tl.i- k - \\ Smietv Mi. Flam- STF.ADi and feveral otlicrii, to rercivc his propoful , and give 'heir opinions refpeftiiig i' Mr. Flams ruAD gave Ilia opinion, tha' if we had the place? of the fix-'d flars, and tables of the moon's motion, we might tind the Ion. gitude, but not by the meihod of tlie Sieiir de St. PifRRE. Upon this, Mr FtAMSTEAn was appointed aftrononier royal, and an obfervaiory wa; built at Green- wich for iu'm ; and the inftrudlions to him and his sue- ceflbrs were, "that they fhould apply themfelvea with the utmoft care and diligence, toreciify the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the tixed ftars, in order to find out the fo much di^fired longitude at fea, for the perfedling of the Ait of Navigation." 1 88. In the year 1714, the Brlii/b parliament offered a reward for the difcovei y of the longitude ; the fum of icooo/. if the method dete'-nined I'w^ longitude to 1^ of a great circle, or to Os geographical miles; of 15OC0/. if it determined it to 4.0 miles; and of aooco/. if it determined it to 30 miles ; with this provifo, that if any fuch method extend no further than 30 miles ad- joining to the coall, the propofer fhould have no more than half the rewards. The nft alfo appi ints the firft Lord of the Admiralty, the Speaker of the Houfe of Commons, the firft Commiflionci of I rade, the Admi- rals of the Red, White, and Bhie Squadrons, the Mafter of Trinity Houfe, the Prefident of the Royal Society, the Royal Aftronomer at Greenwich, the two Savilian Profeffers at Oxford, and the Lucafian and Plumian ProlefTors at Cambridge, with feveral other perfons, as Commiflioners for the Longitude at Sea. The Lown. dian Profeflor at Cambridge was afterward* added. After this aft of pai liament, feveral other afts pafled in thereignsofGEORGP.il. and IIL for the encourage- ment of finding the longitude. At laft, in 1774, an a£l pafled, repealing all other afts, and <. Provided however, that if fuch perfon or perfons fliall afterwards make any fur. ther difeovery as to come within the above mentioned limits, fuch fum or fums as they may have received, fhall be confidered as part of fuch greater reward, and dedufted therefrom accordingly. 189. After the deceafe of M* Flamstpad, D.t. Halley, who was appointed to fiicceed him, made a feries of obfervations on the moon's tranik over the me- rididii, for a complete revolution of the moon's apogee, which obfervations being compared with the computa- tions from the tables tlien extant, he was enabled to correft, the tables of the moon's motions. And as Mr. HAnLfeY fiad then invented an inllrument by which the altitudes ;;nd dillances of the heavenly bodies could be takwi at Iti, Dr. Halley ftrongly recommended the lunar method of finding the longitude. To find the Longitude by a Time-keeper. 190. The fun appears to move round the earth from ead to weft, or to defcribe ^60", in 24 hours, and there- fore he appears to move 15° in an hour. If therefore the meridians of two places, make an angle of 15" with each other, or if the two places differ 15° in longitmle, the fun will come to the eaftcrn meridian 1 hour before he comes to the weftern meridian, and therefore when it is 1 2 o'clock at the former place, it is only eleven at the latter ; and in general, tlic difference between the times by the clock at any two places, will be the difference of their longitudes, converted into time at the rate of 15' for an hour, the time at the eaftern place being the forwardeft. If therefore we can tell what o'clock it is at any two places, at the fatje inftant of time, we can find the dif- ference of their longitudes, by allowiog ij for every hour that the clocks differ. • In iriny of the old mapt, the firft mftldian is maoe 10 tars through Fur* in the Canariei, which is 17". 45'. 50" weft of Greenwl-h To reduce iheiefore the longitude from Ftrro tr that from Greenwich, add I7°- 45'. 50" if the place be vtift of Ferro, and it gives the loni jltudc weft from Greenwich i if che place be <«/ of Ftre, and in longitude /«/i th*n 7°. 45'. 53". the difference of i(a longitude and n«* 4.5'. 50", (how» the longitude weit from iJreen ■■■ ich ; but if the longitude be grctir than 17°. ^j'. jo'', the diffei*o«« Oiow tall of Ccecowicll. Thus you may reduce the longitudi; from one place \.o tbat bom any other. Idngitude 191. I-et ■EM Kl INTRODUCTION. it'- i 'i ul ■'> ■ft ' ml 1 m. t nm 191. Let therefore the time keeper be well regulated and fet to the time at Grernwieh. that being the place from which we reckon our longitude ; then if the watch neither pnins nor lofes, it will always (how the time at Greenwich, wlicrevcr you may be. Now to fi.sd the time by tlic clock at any other place, take the fim'.-i aU titude, and thence find the time by article 6 •■ ; now the time ilnis fmind is apparent time, or that found by the fun, which differs from the time (hown by the clock by the eqiiatinn of lime, as we have ftiown in article 79 : we muR tlicrefoie apply the equation of time to the time found by the fu«, and we fliali get the time by the clock ; and the difference between the time by the clock f<> found, and the time br the time keeper, or the time at Greentv'ich, converted into degrees at the rate of 15" for an hour, gives the longitude of the place from Green- tfiih F(ir example, let the time by the time-keeper, wlun the fun's altitude was taken, be 6h. 19', and let the time deduced from the fun's altitude be 9h. 27', and fup; ufe at that time the equation of time to be 7', (bow- ing l:ow mueh the fun is that day behind the clock, then the time by the clock is, gh. 34.', the difference between which and fih. 19' is 3h. 15' , ; and this con- verted into degrees, at the rate of 15° for I hour, gives 48". 4J', the longitude of the place from Greenwich; and as the time is forwarder than that at Greenwich, the place lies to the eaff of Greenwich. Thus the longitude coidd be Ttry eafily determined, if you could depend upon the time-keeper. But as a watch will always gain or lofe, before the time keeper is ftnt out, its gaining or lofing every day for fome time, a month for inftance, is obfervtd ; this is called the rate of going of the watch, and from thence the mean rate of going is thus found. 192. Suppofe I examine the rate «)f a watch for 30 days ; on fome of thofe days 1 find it has gained, and on fome it has loll ; add together all the quantities it has gained, and fuppofe they amount to 1 7" ; add together all thequantities it has loll, and fuppofe they amount toi /'; then, upon the whole, it has gained 4'' in 3odays, and this is called the mean rate for that time, and this divided by 40, gives o",i33 for the mean daily rate of gaining ; fo that if the watch had gained regularly 0",I33 every day, at the end of the 30 days it would have gained juft as much as it really did gain, by fumeiimes gaining and (bmetimes loflng. Or you may get the mean daily rate thus. Take the tlijference between what the clock was too faft, or too flow, on the (irit and lad days of obfervation, if it be too fall, or too flow, on each day ; but take the fiim, if it be too faft on one day and too flow on the other, and divide by the number of days between theob- ftrvaiions, and you get the mean daily rate. Thus, if the watch was too fall on the firll day 18", and too faft onthe lalt day ^2", the dijerence 14'' divided by 30 gives o ', 466 the menn daily rate of gaining. But if the watch was too faft on the firft day 7", and too flow on the lall day o", the/um 17" divided by ^o gives o", 5^6 the mean daily rate ot lofing. After having thus got the mean daily rate of gaining or lofing, and knowing how much the watch was too faft or too flow at firft, you 6 can tell according to that rate of going, how much it it too fall or too flow, at any other time. In the firll cafe, for inftance, let the watch have been \. 17" too faft at firll, and I want to know how much it is too faft 50 days afier that time ; now it gain3 o", 133 evary day, if this be multiplied by 50 it gives 6", 65 for the whole gain in 50 days ; therefore at the pnd of that time th« watch would be 1'. 2^",6^ too faft. This would be the error, if the watch continued to gain at the above rate : and although, from the different temperatures of the air, and the imperfeflion of the workmanfliip, this cannot be expedled, yet the probable error will by this means be diminiflied, and It is the beft method we have to depend upon. In watches which are under trial at the Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich as candidates for the rewards, this allowance of a mean rate is admitted, although it is not mentioned in the d£l of parliament ; the commiflioners however are fo indulgent as to grant it, which is undoubtedly favourable to the watches. 193. As the rate of going of a watch is fubjeA to vary from fo many clrcumllances, the obfcrvtr when- ever he goes afliore, and has fuflicient time, fliould com- pare his watch for feveral days with the true time found by the fun, by which he will be able to find its rate of going. And when he comes to a place whofe longitude IS known, he may then fet his watch again to Greenwich time ; fur when the longitude of a place Is known, you know the difference between the time there and at Greenwich. For inftance, if he go to a place known to be 30^ eaft longitude from Greenwich, his watch fliould be 2 hours flower than the time at that place, i-iiid therefore the true time at that place, by the fun, and if the watch be 2 hours flower, it is right ; If not, coi redt it by the difference, and it again gives Greenwich time. 194. In long voyages, unlefs you have foraetlmes as opportunity of adjufting the watch to Greenwich time« its error will probably be confiderable, and the longitude deduced from it, will be fubjedl to a proportional enor. In fliort voyages, a watch is undoubtedly very ufeful ; and alfo in long ones, where you have the means of cor- reeling It from time to time. It ferves to carry on the longitude from one known place to another, fuppofing the interval of time not very long ; or to keep the longi- tude from that which Is deduced from a lunar obferva- tion, till you can get another. Thus the watch May be rendered of great fcrvice in navigation. To find the Longitude hy an Eclipfe of the Moon, and of Jupitet's Satellites » 195. By an ecIIpfe of the moon. This eclipfe begins when the umbra of the earth firft touches the moon, and ends when it leaves the moon. Having the times cal- culated when the eclipfe begins and ends at Greenwich, obferve the timet when it begins and ends at the place where you are ; and the difference of thefe times, con- verted into degrees, gives the difference of the longi- tudcs. For u the phafet of the moon in an eclipfe^ happen at the fame inftant at all places, the difference of the I N T R O D U C T I O N. xU (.he ttm<:» at diFcrent places when the fame phafeis oh. ferved, n\\k» frum the di.Tererce of tlit c'o.k; at thofe p!,ices, anJ that difr.rence (is before obfervcd) convert- ed into degrecB. gives the liiffjrence it iopjniu 'ci. If the beginning of an fdipfe happen at 6 o'clock at ore place, and at 8 oMoc'v at anoiher, tiielo places d llVr a houri, or -,o"', in loiij^itutle. J iii^ would he a very ready and accurate nie:iii;d, if the linies of tiic fiiC. and laftcontad of ihecarch's tmsra and tliJ iii'.un could be iccurattly obftrved; but the d.irkne(s ot ih« penumbra continues to incrcaie till it comt-s to ihe uiiib'a, (o th:it until the umbr» ailuaily gets np^.n the inoun, it is not difcovered. The umbra itfelf is al o bEtlly cclined. The beginning ai'.d end of a luiar echpit, cannor, in ge- neral, be de.er mined nearer than i' of tim?, ar.d often i;ot r.earer than 2' or ■>,'. Upon thefe accounts, the longitude, thus deduced, is fubje,;\ to a confidcrable de- gree of uncertainly. Allroncmers therefore deteriHiine the dilfercnce of longitudes ot two places, by corref- ponding obfervations of other phafcj, that is, when the umbra h'ltt&s any fpots upon the furface. Aid this can be detei mined to a greater degre»of accuracy, than the beginning and end ; for when the umbra is got upon the moon's furface, the obfeiver has leifurc to confider and iix upon the proper line of termination, in which he »ill be sflilled by running his eye along the circumference of the umbra. Thus the coinci- dence of the umbra with the Tpots, may be obferved to t conflderable degree of accuracy. The obferver theriu fore-fliould have a good map of the moon at hand, that he may not miftakr. The tejelcope to obferve a lunar edipfe, (h«uld have but a fmall magnifying power with a great quantity of light. The (hadow comes upon the moon on the eaft .fe with his at. tending fo lonj^. Btfore the oppoli'.iin of jupiter to the lun, the im-nerfions and emeriions happen on the luejl fide of jupiter ; ard after oppofilion, on th'-- cajl fide ; but if th? teiefcope invert, the appearance wi.l he the contrary. Be/ore oppofition, the immcrjions only of the hrft tntellite are vifible ; and afier oppofition, the emirfioni only. The fame is generally the cafe in refpeft to the fecond fatcllite ; but both immerfion and emer- fion are frequently obferved in the third and fourth. 197. When the obferver is waiting for anemerfion,ai foon as he fufpeds that he feet it, he fhould look at hit watch and note the fecond ; or begin to count the beati of the cl()ck, till he is fure it is the fatellite, and then look at the clock and fubtrafl the number of fecond« which he has counted, and he will have the time of cmerfion. If jupiter be 8" above the horizon, and the fun at much below> an edipfe will be vifible ; this may be determined near enough by a common globe. 198. The emerfion or immerfion being obferved ac- cording to apparent time, the longitude of the place from Gntniuicb is found, by taking the difference be. tween that time and the time fet down in the Nautical Jlmanac, which it calculated for apparent time. £x. Suppofe the tnr.rfion of a fatellite to have been obferved at the Cape of Good Hope, May 9, 1767, at loh, 4b'. 4;" apparent time ; now the time in the A^aii- tical Almanac is gh. jj'. ii" ; the difference of which timet it ih. 13'. 33" the longitude of the Cape '^ of Greenwich in time, or 18°. 23'. ij". 199. But to hnd the longitude of a place from an ob- fervation of an edipfe of a fatellite, it is better to com* pare it with an obfervation made under fome well known meridian, than with the calculations in the Ephimerh, becaufe of the imperfe£l!on of the theory ; but where a correfponding obfervation cannot be obtained, find what coireAion the calculations in the Ephemeris require, by the nesrell obfervaiiors to the given time that can be obtained ; and this cnrre£lion applied to the calculation of the edipfe in the Ephemeris, renders it almoll equiva. lent to an adual obicrv^tion. The obferver mull be careful to regulate his clock or watch to apparent time, or at lead to know the tliderence. 200. In order the better to know the difference of longitudes of two places, from corrcfponding obferva- tions, the obferver fhould be furnifhed with the famt kind of telefcopes. For at an immerfion, as the fatel- lite enters the (hadow, it grows fainter and fainter, till at laft the quantity of light is fo fm '-' '■^■ tEl ^«- ''f m i i9 H ■1 I' ' 1 li xn INTRODUCTION. invifibic, even before it is wholly immerfed in the fliadow ; the inftant therefore that it becomes invifibic ivill depend upon the quantity of light which the iclef. cope receives, and its magnifying power. The inftant therefore of its appearance will be later, the better the telcfcope is ; and the fnoner it will appear at its emcr- fion. Now ihe immerfiun is the inliant the faiellite is got into the (liadow, and the emerfion is the inftant bt> fore it begins to emerge from the fliadow ; if therefoce two telelcope* (how the difappcarance or appearincc of the fatellite at the fame diltance of time Irom the im- merfion or emerfion, the difference of the times will be the fame as the difference of the true times of immer- lion or emerfion, and therefore will (how the difference of longitudes accurately. But if the obferved time at one place and the computed time at another be com- pared, ive mull allow for the difference of the apparent and tr le times of immerfion imd emerfion, in order to get *Ke true time where the obfervation was made, to vompare with the true time from computation' at the other place. This difference may be found, by obferv- ing an edipfe at any place whofe longitude is known, and comparing it with the time by computation. Ob- fervers, therefore, fhould fettle the difference by the mean of a great number of obfervations thus compared with the computations, by which means the longitude will be more accurately afcertained. After all, however, the different ftates of the air, and of the eye, will caufe fome uncertainty ; but the latter may in a great mea- fure be obviated, if the obferver remove himfelf from all warmth and light, for a little time before he obferves. To find the Longitude by the Moon's Dl/iance from the Sun^ or a fixed Star. 201. The Aeps by which we find the longitude by this method* are thefe. 1 From the obferved altitudes of the moon and the fun, or a ilar, and their obfirvtd dillance, iind their true diflance. 2. From the Nautical Almauac find the apparent time at Griithvuich when the moon was at that diltance. 3. From the altitude of the fun or ftar, find the ap- parent time at the place of obfervation. 4. The difference of the times thus found, gives the difference of the longitudes, or the longitude from Grtennioich. Wc will here fully explain each of thefe. 8 Let Z be the aenith of the place of obfervation. If the apparent place of the moon, m its true place, S the apparent place of the fun or (lay, s the true place ; then as the parallax of the moon depreffes it more than re- fraAion raifes it, the apparent place M is below the true place m ; but the (lar is elevated by refraAion and has no parallax to deprefs it, and the fun it more elevated by refraAion than depreffed by parallax, therefore the true place t is below the apparent place S. Now the appa- rent altitudes being found by obfervation, we know the apparent zenith dillances ZM, ZS ; and knowing their apparent diflance MS, we know the three fides of the triangle ZSM ; hence, we can find the angle Z. Now find from the Tables the parallax and refraflion of the moon, and their difference is, Mm; do the fame for the fun, and we get Ss, or if it be a Aar, the refradlion gives St. From ZM fubtraA Mm, and we get Ztu ; and to ZS add St, and we get Zs ; hence, in the triangle Zsm, we know Zs, Zm, and the angle Z, to find sm the irut diflance of tlie moon from the fun or flar. Example. Suppofe on June 29, I793> the fan's appa- rent zenith diflance ZS was obferved to be 70°. 56', 24", the moon's apparent zenith diltance ZM to be 4B''. j3', ;b", and their apparent diflance MS to be 103°. 19'. 27". Then the true diflance tm being com- puted according to the above method, it is found to be 103°. 3'. 18". 202. The true diftance of the moon from the fun being found, the next thing is to find from thence, the tinte at Greewwich. No* in the Nautical Almanac the true diftance of the moon from the fun or certain fixed (iars, fuch as lie in or near the moon's path, is put down for every thr..e hours. The true diltance therefore being known, look into the Nautical Almanac, and take out two dillances, one greater and the other lefs than the known true dillance as found abpve, and the differ- ence D of thefe dillances fhows how much the moon approaches INTRODUCTION. xliii app'oacbes to or recedes from the fun or liar, in three hours ; and take the difference d between the moon's (iiltance at the beginning of that interval, and the dif. tance found from obfervition, and then fay, D; d: : 3 hours : the time the moon is acceding to or receding frum the fun or ftar through the fpace d, which added to tae time at the beginning of the interval, gives the ap. parent time at Cretniuich, correfponding to the«true dif- tance ol the moon, asdeduct:d from obfcrvation. Example. Taking the moon's true diftancc 103". 3'. i8" on June 29, 1793, as deduced in the laft example, to find the apparent time at Greenwich. True diftance of D from O - - True diftance on June 29, at 3h. by Nautical Almanac True diftance on June 29, at 6h. by Nautical Almanac D= 103', 3- 1 8" 103. 4- 58 101. z6. 42 I. 33. 16 0. 1 40 Hence, 1°. 38'. ■t Gritnwich, 16" : 0°. i'. 40" :: 3h : oh. 3'i 3", which added to 3 hours gives 3h. 3'. 3" the apparent time 303. The next thing to be done, is to find the time at the place of obfervation, knowing the fun's declini- tion, the latitude of the place, and the fun's altitude. Example. The fun's declination was 23°. 14'. 4" and its obfe ved altitude was 19". 3'. 36", and the lati- tude was 52°. 11'. 35". Now the refraAion was 2'. 44", and the parallax 8" ; hence, the true altitude was 19", 1' ; and by article 61, the apparent time is found to be June 28, i8h. z' , 20"-* Hpnce. Hence, Apparent time at Greenwich, June 29 Apparent time at place of obfervation, June 28 Longitude of place of obfervation in time 18. 3' 29 8- 57. 34 Which converted into degrees, gives 123°. 50'. i6"t t\ic Ungiiude of the f lace of oh/er-vation weft of Gritntvick. 204. Thus we have explained the regular fteps by which the longitude is found by obferving the noon's diftance from the fun, or a fixed flar ; but for a full ex- planation, we refer the reader to Mr. Vince's Complete Syfttm »f AJlroncmy, in which work he will find all the various calculations explained at large ; and where he will alfo fee three other methods of finding the longi- tude ; one, by a folar eclipfe ; another, by an occulta- tion of a fixed ftar by the moon ; and a third by the moon's tranfitover the meridian, compared with that of a fixed ftar. Thefe are of too difHcult a nature to ad> mit of a popular explanation. 205. The above method of finding the longitude by the moon, was brought into praflicc by Dr. Maske- LTNE, who proved the accuracy of it in two voyages one to St. Helena, and the other to Barbadois, by the fol- lowing irrefragable proofs: ift. On the near agree- ment of the longitude, inferred from obfervations made within a frw days or hours of making land, with the known longitude of fuch land, ad. From the near agreement of the longitude of the (hip from obferva- tions made on a great many different days near to one another, when Jonnefted by help of the common reckon- ing. 3d, From the near agreement of the longitude of the ihip, deduced from obfervations of ftars on different fides of the moon, taken on the fame night. For here all the moft probable kinds of errors operating different ways, their effedl, if any, muft have appeared in the re- fult. But in all the double longitudes thus found, their differences were fo fmall, as to warrant him to fay, that by good inftroments and careful obfervers the longitude may be thus found to a very great degree of accuracy. On the Ufe of the Globes. ac6. There are two globes one called the terriftrial, upon which the places of the earth are delineated, and the other called celeftial, upon which all the principal fixed ftars are put down, and the figures of the conftel- lations. The terrellrial globe is a perfift map of the earth, reprefenting the relative fituations of all the places upon its furface, with the true figures of ail the different countries, which cannot be properly reprefented upon a map ; and this renders a tcrreftrial globe very neceflary for the ftndy of geography. The celefHal globe fervtt to explain all the pbxnomena arifing from the diurnal • Th« aftronomlcal d»y begins at smd, fs that June »8, 18b. 5'. ij" ii according to the tommoa reck nine, Tune »o, 6h. t'. »q" ia the ffloraing. ° ■' ■" a » «» motioa i i i! t 1 i 1 ■ i : 1 1 ■ ! 1 i 1 Hi I I , i::ii «iiii slir INTRODUCTION. motion of the earth about its axii, and alfo the variation of feafons arifing from its motion about the fun, only iuppofing the fun to move in the ecliptic inltead of the earth, which will not alter any of the appearance To each globe there is a circular, flat piece of wood, the plane of which paflei through the center of the globe, on which are marked the days of ths month, and cor- refponding to them ths figns of the ecliptic, where the fiin is on thofc days ; the points of the conrpafsare alTo put upon the fame piece. This is called the horizon ; at right angles to which, there is a circular piece of brafs, on which the globe hang), called the irazen mt- ridiam ; it is fupported at the lowed point on a roller, on V/hich it turns in its own plane, and pafles through the horizon in two grooves cat for that purpofe ; on this circle the globe is fupported by the extremities of its axis ; and the axis paiTes through the brazen meridian, and carries an index round with it over a circular phte which is divided into hours, &c. On each globe there are two circles, one reprefenting the ecliptic, with the charaflers of the ft^ns upon it, and the other the- equa- tor. To each of thefe circles, on the celeilial globe, fe> condaries are drawn to every lO or 15 degreea ; but on the terreftrial globe, they are drawn only to the equator. There ii alfo a flat piece of brafs, called the quadrant of abiiudt, which is occafiooally fixed to the brazen meri- dian in its zenith, by a nut, and the lower end is put be- tween the globe and the horizon, and can be turned found to any point ; it is divided into degrees, &c. by "Which the altitudes of objeAs above the horizon may be found, and their azimuths determined. From one point of the brazen meridian correfponding to the equator, the degrees begin, and are continued both ways up to 90° at each pole ; but for the other femicircle of the brazen meridian, the degrees begin at the poles, and are conti- nued up to 90° at the equator. On the horizon, the degrees begin at theeaA and weft pointSrand arc conti- nued both ways to 90% or to the norih and fouth points. The ecliptic and equator bi-gin their degrees at one of their interfeftions, called aries, and they are con- tinued round the fame way to 360° ; alfo, the former is divided into, and marked with, ths twelve figns ; and the Istter is divided from the fame point, into 24 hours. Upon the foot of the globe there i- cfien put a com- pafs, by which the brazen meridian may be fet north and fuuth. On the Ufe of the Terrestrial Globe. 207. Ttjind the Latitude of a Place. Bring the place under that femicircle of the brazen meridian where the divifions begin at the equator, and ohferve what degree the place is under, and it is the la- titude required. 2C8. To reliify the Globe to the Latitude of a Place. P^levate the pole above the horizon till its altitude, ohfervcd on the brazen meridian, be equal to the lati- tude of the place, and it is then fi^id to be reAified to the latitude, and it fo far ftands right for the fofiit'oti- of all problems for that latitude. 209. Tajtndthi Longitude of a Place from Crecmuici. Bring the place to the graduated edge of the brazen meridian, and obferve the point of the eqjator which, lies under it, and the dillancc of that point from the point where the meridian of Greenwich cuts the equa- tor, is the longitude requited, J 10. Given- the Latitude an.i Longitude of a Place, t» . find 'where the Place is. Br ,ig the given degree of longitude 10 the brazen Oieridian, and then under the given degree of latitude upon that meridian you have the place required. 2 1 1 Ifhen it it Noon at any Place A, to find the Hour ut any other Place B. Bring A to the meridian, and fet the index to Xfl | then turn the globe till B comes under the meridian, and the index will fhow the hour at B. If it be not noon at A, fet the index to the hour, and proceed as be- fore, and you get the correfponding hour at fi. 2 1 Z. Tofnd the Difiance ef Afrom B. B>ing A to the meridian^ and fcrew the quadrant of altitude over it, and carry it to B, and-you get the num- ber of degrees between A and B, which multiply by 69,2, the miles in one degree, and you get the diilancc required. 813. To find the Bearing of B from A, Re£lify the globe for the latitude of i\, and bring A to the meridian, and fix the quadrant of altitude to A ; then dire£l the quadrant to B, and the point wher« it cuts the horizon Tiiows the bearing required. 214. At any Hour of the Day at B, to find the Place A to ixihich the Sun is -vertical. Find the fun's olace in the ecliptic, and bring it to the brazen meridian, and you find its declination on the meridian ; then bring B to the meridian, and fet the in« dex to the given hour, and turn the globe- till the index comes to XII at noon, and the place under the fun'i declination upon ihe meridian, is that required, 215. To find, at any Day and Hour, the Places . nterof the };!obe would refer every liar on its furface to the place of thp ftar in the heavens. By comparing therefore the ftirs in the heavens ttith thiir places on the globe, you will eafily get acquainted with the ftars. 27.1. To find the Time luhen any of the heavenly Bodies rije,/et, or come to the Meridian ; alfo, their Azimuth at ri- fittg or Jetting. Reftify the globe to the latitude of the place, and bring the fun's place in the ecliptic to the meridian, and fet tne index to XU.asin art. 2tg. Then turn theglnbe till the given body comes to tne ealcrn part of the hori- zon, and the index Ihows the time of its rifing ; and the arc of the liorizon between the body and the north or fouth points, will give its azimuth. Bring the body ta the meridian, and the index Ihows the time of its coming to it. Uring the body to the weAern horizon, and tho index fliows the time of its fetting ; and the arc of the horizon between the body and the north or fouth points, will ^ive its azimuth. Von rnay thus find the time of the fun's rifing and fetting. U you turn the globe about its axis, ail ihofe liars which do not dtfccnd below the horizon, never kt. at that place { and thofc which do not afcend above it, never rile. 221. To explain, in general, the Alteration of the Lengths cf the Da;s,and the Dfjferet.ce cf the Scnjini, Put patches upon the ecliptic from aries bcth wayi to the tropics, and let them repr.;fcpt lo many different fituations of the fun ; and then the globe b?ing reflified to the latitude of the place (by art. 208.), turn it about and you will fee, for north latitude, that as the pitches approach the tropic of cancer, the correfponding diurnal arcs will increafe; and as the patches approach the tropic of Capricorn, the diurnal arcs will decrcaTe ; aUo, tHe former arcs .ire greaier tl^in a fcmic'rcle, and the latter k-f- ; and the patcli in the rqu.jtor vvill dcfcribe a fimicircle above the horizon. Whu-n thcre.'ore the (an is in the equator, the days and nights are equal ; as he advances towards the tropic of cancer, the days increafe, and the nights decreafe, till he comes to the tropic, where the days are found to be longell, and the nights fliortell ; then as he approaches the equator, the length ofthedaysifdiminilhesand that of the nights increafes, and when the fun comes to the equator, the lengths of the days and night are equal. Then as he advances to. wards Capricorn, the days continue to diininifli and the nights increafe tilt he comes to that tropic, where the daya are fhorteft and the nights are longefl ; and then as he ap. proaches the equator, the days increafe and the nights di> minifh ; and when he comes to the equator, the days and nights are equal. And whatever be the latitude, when the fun is in the equator, days and nights arc equal. To an inhabitant at the pole, the fun will appear to be half a year above the horizon, and half a year below. To an inhabitant at the equator, the days and nights will np. pear to be nlways equal ; alio, all the heavenly bodin will be found to be as long above the horizon at below. At the arctic circle, the longed day will be found to be 24 hours, and the longell night 24 hours ; this ap< poars by re£Vifying the globe to that latitude, and ob> I'erving the patches at the tropics of cancer and of capri- corn. Lallly, it will be found that all places enjoy cqtially the fun in refpeA to time, and are equally de- prived of it, the length of the days at one rirac of tht year being found exadlly equal to the length of the n'ghts at the oppofite feafon. This appear; ,by putting patches upon the ecliptic at oppofite points of it, 223. To fijtd the Latitude and Longitude of a given Star; alfo, the Diftance of /we Stars. Bring the falditial colure to the meridian, and fix the quadrant of aUitude over the pole of the ecliptic ; then tufn the quadrant over the given ftar, and the arc Cdntaii^e4,, I ' ! |[ f H t r''' 11 ii: mf i! i xlvi INTRODUCTION. coni.iIiKil bi"f*pcn the flar anil the ecliptic will be the laiiiii.'e, and the il.'gice on the ecliptic cm by it will be the /uiij^iiiit.'i: 'J'hc dillaiicc of two ll.iri may be found, by layine the qnu^traiit of altitude over both, and count* ing the d -grtcii between. J 24. To lyjildin the Pbuiienitna of the HarveJ! Moon. Redlify the plobe for any rorihern latitude, for in- flaMCe, that of London ; and a:i the moon's orhit n>«kt» but a finall angle with iht! ecliptic, let ua fuppofe the ecliptic to repreient the moon's orbit. Now, in Sep. tembcv, when the fun is in the brginning o( libra, if the moon be then at its full, it mult be in tiie beginning of wits ; and as the mean motion of ihe moon is about 1 3" in a day, put a patcli on the (irit point ot arics, and an- other 13° beyond it on the ecliptic; bring the former patch to the horizon, and then turn the globe till the other comes to it, and the motion of the index will fliow about 17', which is the diflerence of tiniei of the maon's riling on tvVo fucccflive nights, becaufe the earth mud ni.iUe lb much more than a revolution in time, before it overtakes the moon the next night. This fmall difFsrence ■rifes from the fmall angle which the orbit of the moon makes with the horizon. 1 f you continue patches at every ly till you come to libra, ynu will find the difference of the limes of rifing will increafe irp to that point, and there the difference will be about ih. 17'; and this point of the ecliptic, when it rifes, makes tne greatell angle with the horizon. Hence, when the moon comes to the firll point of aries, there will be the lead difference of the times of her rifing, and this happens at the time of the full moon, when the full moon happens about the 2 1 11 September. That point of the ecliptic which rifes at the leall angle with the horizon, will be found to fet at the greatell, and therefore when there is the leafl difference in the timet of rifing, there v^ll be found to be the greatell in the times of fetting. On ihe Divlfion of Time, 22$. The revolution of ihe earth about the fun divides time into allronomical years ; the revolution of the moon about the earth divides it into allronomical months ; and the rotation of the earth about its axis di- vides it into allronomical days ; theft-, whicii are alfo called natural days, include a c mmon day and night. Thefe natural days arc lubdivid'::d by clocks into hutrs, minutes, and/ecoiitls. The firll obj d in tlie regul.itiun and divifion of time, is to keep the lame f'laP ns to the fame months, lb that the middle ot fummer may happen towards the end of June, and the midole of winter to- wards the tnd of December. But befor^; the fun's mo- tion was tolerably well known, it was not eafy to ac- complifh this. Some of the ancients formed a Junar ye-ir, ctjnfilling of 12 fynodic lunar months,, or 354 da)s, at the end of which they made their year begin again. But fiud'ng that this year would not agree with the feafoas, to c )rrrft it, (hey firll added a month every three years; alfrwaids, j months every eighth year; and laflly, 8 months every 19 years. Thefe were called Itiiit-jolur years, and were ufeJ by \\\tyevis and Rciiia':t. '1 he Egypiitin year conl'llcJ of 36^ dnys ; they had 12 montiis of \0 days eiieh, and then they added ; days more. The year which Numa introduced amonglt the Pimans was the luni-lo'ar year, adding to the lunar yiar of 3^4 days, i2 days every two yesra, infrrting them as an intercalary month, al'tcr February every other year. But through the ignorance or negligence of the Pricjh, who had the care of thefe matters, the correilion;, cal- led intercalation!!, necelTary for prelervinj; the agree- ment between the luni-folar year and thefesfons, were either omitted, or fo improperly applied, as to produce great dilorders in the Roman calendar. Therefore Julius CyiiSAR, to whom, when Pmiifex Maximiit,\\\e«r (houlJ be, as it cili;rwi(r would have been; a bijjixtile year. Hy this irejis, the difference between the iiiiil and iiopual accounts lor the (pace of 400 years, will not differ fo inucli as two hotirs, and will not amount to a whole day in jefsihan ;o8a years, at tl.cend of which time it will be necflfury to make a Cdrniti m (or this day. The civil year, thu« correfted, took place in moll parts of Eu- rife many years age, but it liid not take place in Eng. iv.nd till the year 1752, at which time a ccrretiion of 1 1 davi was made, that being then niceii'ary, and the th:rd ot September was called \,h>i /'out 1 tenth. This i:i called by Uii the nevj/lile, and that in ufe before, or the Julian account, is called th.- old llylt. As leap year happens every fourth year, and every hun.treJth year was a leap Vf.ir in the Julian account, therefore every year which is divifible by four, became a leap year. Nutv thele cen- tenary years, which, in the Grtgoriun account, are not to be leap yenrs.are 1700, 1800, lyco, xico, 2200, 2300, s;oo,&c. Therefore, as the year 1700 happened be> twcen the time of the curreflion by Gregory, and that made by us, the Grigorian account had left out one day in that year which the Jnlitin haii not; therefore the Gregcriau account having, at the time it took place, left out 10 day;, wc were obliged to leave out 11 days, to bring our account to agree with tnat.* 228. Amongll difi'erent nations, the biginning of the year varied as well as the Itngih, The Je\an it at fun- iettinni, '" ''" "'^ rnod.'rn liuilivis and Chine/e; and the ancient JiiibyUnians, Pirfiuns, Sjrinni, and modern Greeks, at lun riling, 'I'he Jeius, Chaldram, and Aia.. biuni, divide the hour into lobo equal parts, called Jcruplts, 231. The points of lime from which hiHorians begin to rvikon, are called epochs, cr aras, and generally aril'e from fome remarkable event. The firft ttra io the (.^c^- tion of the World. Hiftorians diftVr a little in their titi- mation of this time, making it from 39^0 to 4006 years before Christ. The tera of the Oiymiiails is the moll famous of the profane ones, which is placed 776 years before Christ, and this the Romans ufed. J he ivill lUn.l ag^inll the &\i\ bundav, tnears, is ihu» interrnpied every four yeatt, the wl.ole chanj»e will be con>p:eteJ in 7X4, or 2S years. But this will be fomeiiaies interrupted, be* ciul'tf fv-rry thie centenary years out of four, are not leap year.'. The year of our Saviour's birth was the 0th of this cycle ; thrrtforr, to find the year of this cycle, add nine to the f;ivcn year, and divide the fum by zS, and theauotient (hews the number of cycles elapfrd fince his birth, and the remainder is tl>« cycle for the yeir ; if nothir? retrains, the cycle is aS- x^]. The tycU of thi mocii, fornvtimes called the Mt- Ionic cyc/i from i4ie invcnior Mtto>i,\t a peiiod of 19 years, in which times the conjandlion<, oppiifitions, aiid all other afpe&s of the moon, return nn the fame days ef the month as they did 19 years before, but about if hour fuoner. The ancients formed this cycle thus: Taking any year for the cycle, they obferved all the days on which the new moon happened through the yeari and afraind each fuch daythey placed the num- ber I ; in the feconJ year of the cyile they did the . fame, placing the number 2 ; and proceeded in lil<.e manner through the cycle of 19 years. This being done for one cycle, the fame numbers were fitted to the cr.- lendar, to (hew the new mooni in every future cycle ; and on account of their great ufe. they were written vin golJ, aad thrncc called go/ae.i uumitrs. But the dift'er. cnce of about i-^ hour in iq years increafes to a whole day in about 312 years, fo that this cycle can only hold for that time : for as the new and full moons antici- pate a day in that time, the golden numbers ou^ht to be placed one day earlier in the calendar fur the next 3 12 years. It was thought proper, however, to make this correflion at the end of whole centuries { accoid- ingly they put ihe new moon, forward one day at the ei:d •f every 3CO years, for feven times fiiccelTively, which makes 2IC0 years; and to account for the (>dd i2| year.o, they deferred putting the moon forward to the end of 400 yearx, makirg the period of SXji2l~ 35CO years. The golden numbers were properly plated hy the council of ffiet, A. D. ^zj; the anticipation, which has been neglefied ever finer, is now become al- oiod 5 days, and therefore all the golden numbers ought -■ow to be placed 5 days higher in the calci)d,ir for the clil /life, than they were at tlif aliovi*. mention* J counciti Or A i1;iys luwer fnr ihe new //i//. Ujt bccauif me lunar cycle uf 19 yiats luttiiiinv-s iiic1ude< 4 anil Iciiietimrs^ le< the iiunrb-r of cyc!e« fince the time of Christ, and the ri- ■ irdir ia »he eycle for the given ye^r, or the gi.Ltn nu:nlv mtoii happen on Ja- nuary the il>, then the epa£t is nothing. Now, as is lunations are completed in ;;4 day?, it ii plain that the epafl, or moon's a^e, would be 11 aX the heginnin.T of the fecond year ; az at the beginning ol the thiid yt%t ; and 5) at the beginning of the fourth s but »• one luna. tion is never more than 29^ days, th« epadt mull always be lefs than 30 ; theiefore fubtratfting 30 from 33, there remains 3 for the cpad for the fouttli year. And by pro- ceeding thus for 19 years, the ep.iils will ilard thus : c, II, 22, 3, 14, 2;, 6, 17, 28, 9, 20, I, t2, 2], 4, 15, t6, 7,' 18, o; in the nineteenth year, the diA'erenie amounts to 29 days, and therefore the inon h which ii fubtraflcd mijl confill only of 29 days, in order that the epa^l may begin again, as it mull, the new moon falling on January ill. I'heferpafls being placed againll the days of the months in the calendar, on which the new moons fall in each year, anf.\er the fame purpufe ts the golden number;, liut it is liable to be interrupted evciy 340 years, for the fame reafon, the moon having then an- ticipated a whole day, and therefote on the lirll year of the cycle, the moon would be one day old on the ift of J.inunrv ; therefore the epac\ would be increafed by 1, and tland thus. 1, 12, 23,4, &c. But this arrange, ment would be interrupted by the omifGon of the leap year every three centuries out of 4 ; fnr thefe years being a day lefs than by the Julian account, the new moons would happen a day later, and therefore make the epaA 1 lefs. The moon's age here fuppofcd is the mian new moon, that is, the new moon that would hap. pen, if the moon moved unitormly with its 'mean velo- city ; but as the moon's motion is variable, the irui new aoon happens at a different ximi, and may fometimes d Stt a day, that i.*, one may fall in one day, and the other in the next day. According to the rule there- fore by which we find Eailer, that fellival is not always found to agree with the time deduced from the new moon, as put down in our almanacs, for there the time of the trill new moon ia put down ; whereas, in the rule, for finding Eafter, the mian new moon is ufed. Ia the correflion of the Britiih calendar, we ufe the golden numbers, omitting the epaAs; and have placed the golden numbers, not ag^nll the dajri of the aew noon, bix INTRODUCTION. kVk but of tlic full monn, and only »)j{alnft the full mooiM in till' pifchal muiith.), Mittch and Apiil, in order tu ihid tMtUf. j^j. The inJiiTton i» a rycli; of 15 yf.ir*, aid nni ufid liy thf Riimans for iii (.'oiifmrd to 1 ; yearn, or on wli<>t anticipate tipon ihi» circle, at in art, i; 3, Jui.UriJiiy would al- wayuhe the Sunday next aftei tlie tiiil fidl moon which follows March a i. Btit on account of that anticipation before the alteration of the (Vile, the F.tileJiitOical Ea^er happrnei), within thia century, a week diiieient from the trui Eajltr- But this i« norw remedied in the Commtm Prayer- aok, by makin); the tahlt;, which ulVd to tind i'.njhr for tvtr^ of no longer ufe than the lunar diflcrciice vill admit of. 737. The tyii/>/jir, whore the eye i* fui'i) 'fed to Ir- on ilie I'lface ot the ejriji, iinj liiiikinjt .11 the .>p. pnf.ie hemirpliore. 'I'lietc ii nllo ,k priiji.it on cilUil ^h.fiiilar, ill ulii^h nvri'liini, ri-'ii.liil uit iiiion the fu- Inceoftht i;u'li, ni'i r''|>u li u;'..! by ii|Mi.iill.uit ciicI'-Hin the mnp. Tlitrc ii hKo iiiii.'.li.T projc^li.iii, \ifeJ l.y \\^• vijTiitor.i, called M<' C(tl"t'*, in whieli, li-iili the inerfiiij'is and pjrallell of Ittiduk" are t(|>rcfeiittd hy lh.ii^;lu line*. 'I'liefe are r,illt,l j'/.i ch>vlt, «\\cv '11 me < xl i'lile 1 foiuc p.irt of the fen, with the ihore'i lint hound it ; the in- i.indH are jjenei.dly omitted, as Iii.ii';^ of iio nsi: to ilitf fjilor ; hut the parts near the fhore arc c.iu'fully l.iid diuvn, \\t h nuuks fi^nifxin); rucks, finds, 01 fitU, and fiL'ures txprtirin^ K\\r J'oiiniHn;!, or depili- of the vvHtei', '1 he accuiate method of (;ijnlh'ue\ijig .1II kiiidj nf iii:«pii, may be fccii in thcTieatife of .•il'.roiiomy bitiuc rcl'iirci to. c^i. When we arc to delineate a map of a/wii// p.irt of the earth, if it be near the e(j tutor the meridians and parallels of latitude may i)e repiefentcd by equidillaiit ilrai>;ht lines. I fat fome dillince frcun the equ.»'or, the iTiridiaiii mull then he made to converge a little, and the inoie fo, the further you rtcrile fiooi llii^ tquitor. 74;. VVliiii a map is ni;idc of a very fmall y equidi:lant parallel lines, 24). A line which >'uts all the meriJianit at the fame QMiile, is called a rhumb line ; as ling therefore ax a fllip fails upon the fame rhuinl'', it iaili upon the fame point of the compafi. When the projcclion of the merid'-int is by circles, then the rhumh line is a curve ; but whea the meridians are reprefinted by llraight and parallel lines, the rhumh hecomea a Uraight line, it being the property of a Uraight line to cut parallel Ibaight lines in the fame angle. 244 Hence the great ufe of Mercator's Chart, which is conllru£\cd upon this principle. Upon the earth's furface, the degrees of latitude aie all equal, but the degrees of longitude dccrcafe a^i you approach the poles, 39 we have explained in art. 10. Now in this projeclioii, the meridians being equidiRant Uraight lines, the de« grces of longitude muft be every where equal ; in order therefore to prtferve the proper proportion between the degrees of longitude and latitude, the degrees of lati- tude are increafed in a proper propoition ; the degrees of latitude th'-rtfore increale as you go from the equa« tor to the pole. Now in failing from one place tu an> other, the (hnrttll way is to fail upon a great circle, but that is a thing which is impracticable, there being nothing to dircdt you in fuch a courfe. Navigatora therefore, when they have to go from one place A to another B, find upon what rl:umb they mull fail, that is, upon what point of the compafs they mud go, fo as ta come to B, and by their ileering compafs they can tell when they fail on the fame point. Now an Mercator'% projedioni if you draw a Uraight line from A to B, it h gives I INTRODUCTION. i ' J r 11 ' ' |.' i'lii. si ; Q ; ' !i. mh Vr rl pivM you the rhumb required ; for I'li thefe maps, there is a point aflumcd, and from it tliere are drawn 3 : llraight lines to the 32 points of the compafs ; when therefore you draw the ftraigiit line from A to B, y m mud obferve to which of the 32 lines it is pn^all'.l. ur to which it is neareft fo, and you thus j;et tlii; rhuml>, or the point of the cumpafs you mull continue to fiiil up- on, in order to po from A to B. For inftance, if you find the line A B is parallel to the fouth-weft line of the compafs, then if you continue to fail on the fouth-weft point, you mud come to B. 245. In all traps, the upper part is northern, the lower part fouthern, the right hand fide is cailern, and the left hand fide is weftern. On the right and left fides, the degrees of lal'tiude are marked ; and on the top and bottom, the degrees of longUucte are marked. When the maps are very large, the di.'grees may be fubdivided into halves, quarters, &c. C46. When the meridians and parallels of latitude are flroight and parallel lines, the laUtude of a place is found by Uretching a thread over the place, fo that it may cut the fame degree of latitude on the right and left fide of the map, and that degree is the latitude of the place. And to find the longitude, (Iretch a tliread over the place, fo that it may cut \.hc fame degree of longitude on ihj top and bottom, and that degree is the longitude of the place. For inilance, if we take the chart of the Bail India iilands, and itretch a firing over Siam, we fiiall find that it will cut each fide at 14" N. lat. and the top and bottom at ico°. 10' E. long. Thcfe therefore are the latitude and longitude of that place. 247. On the contrary, if the latitude and longitude of a place be given tu find the place, (Iretch one thread over the given degree of latitude on each tide, and an- other thread over the given degree of longitude at the top and bottom ; and at tlie interfedlion of the threads is the place required. By this means you may put down in a map, any place wliofe latitude and loiigi. tude are known. 248. Now let the meridians and parallels of latitude be curve lines. Then to find the lat'tludt of a place, a parallel of latitude mull be drawn through it, by the fame rules as the other parallels are drawn, and it cuts the fides at the degree of latitude of the place. And to find the lon^iluJe of tlie place, draw a circle of longitude through it, by the fame rules as the other circles are drawn, and it cuts the top and bottom at the degree of longitude of the place. But as it is troubltfotr.e to draw thefe circ'es, the following method may generally be I'ufficieiitly accuruc. To find the latitude, find by a pair of compaifes and a fcale of equal parts, how far the place is from the two parallels bttween which it lies, and divide the dillancc of the parallels in that proportion, and you get very nearly the latitude. Suppofe, for in- ftance, the diftance between the parallels to bt j% and that one is a parallel of 45°, and the other of 50'; and fuppofe the place to be within 3 parts of the parallel of 4;", and 7 parts of the parallel of 5 °( then 5" muftbe divided into lu parts, and 3 of thufe parts mud be 7 added to 45", and it gives the latitude. This is done by proportion, thus, 3 + 7, or 10: 3:: J": 1!1I- — -2— =; I i' ; therefore the latitude is 46 J" nearly. In the very fame manner you may find the longitude nearly. 249. Ou the contrary, if the latitude and longitude of a place be given, to find the place, draw a circle of latitude through the given latitude on each fide, and a circle of longitude through the given longitude at the top and bottom, and their interfedlion denotes the place. Or as you know between what two parallels of latitude and of longitude the place is, you know by what four line* it is bounded ; and as you know the pro- portional diftance from each line, you may eafily, by trials find the point. 250. When we undertake a voyage, we ought to be acquainted with the ifiands, rocks, fands, ilraits, rivers, &c. near which we are to fail ; the windings and the runnings out of the (hores, &c. we fiiould alio know the figns of being near land, which are, frequently, by the appearing of birds ; the floating of weeds upon the fea ; the depth and colour of the water. Moreover, we fliould know the times when the winds fet in. particu. latly the trade winds or monfoons : the feafons when llorms and hurricanes are to be expelled, and the figns of their approach ; the motions of currents ; but mure efpecially of the tides. All thefe things are to be learned by good fea-charts, and journals oi voyages. On the Mariner's Compafs. 251. The earth pofleffes a ferruginous fubftance which has the property of attrafting iron and ftcel only, a.id this fubftance is called a natural magnet or load/lotte. The fame property may alfo be communicated to iron and Heel, and thefe are called artificial magnets . 252. If a piece of wire, ot a needle be rendered mag- netic, and be fufpended upon a fine point at its middle, fo that it can freely turn in an horizontal plane, one end will always be directed towards the northern part of the horizon, and the other towards the fouthern. The former end is called the north poU, and the latter end the fouth ;ole. Thefe poles are not dhetled to the north and fouth poles of the earth, but vary confiderably from tliem, and differently in difTerent places, and this is caU led the variation of the compafs ; and even in the fame place, they are fiibjtft to a very fmall gradual variation. The diredion in which the magnet ftands, is called the magnetic meridian, 253. The muriner't compafs, or, as it is called, the compifs, ilie. Jfceiing tompafs, or the needle, confilts of three paits, the box, the card or fly, and the needle. 1 he card is a circle pf ftiff paper reprefenting the horiaon, with the 3 2 points of the compafs marked upon it ; the magnetic needle is fixed to the under fide of this card ;. the centre of the needle is perforated, and a cap with a conical agate at its top is fixed in this, perforation ; this cap is hung on a ftcel pin, which is fixed to the bottom of INTRODUCTION. H of the box, (o, that the card, hanging on the pin, turiia freely round iti centre, and the needle lieg in the ditec- tion of the N. and S. points of the card, and therefore thefe point! will always he directed to the magnetic north and fouth points of the horizon, the needle tixinj^ itfelf in the magnetic nneridian. The box which contains the card and needle, is a circular brafs box, hung within an- other box by two concentric tings, called jimbals, fo fixed by crafs centres to the two boxes, that the inner one (hall retain a horizontal fituation in all the motions of the (hip. The top of the inner box haf a cover of giafs, to prevent the card from being didurbed by tlie wind. 254. In order to determine the true point of the compafs on which a (Hip fails it is neccifary to know the variation of the compafs at the place where you ai e, on which account, every means have been ufcd to determine, by obfervation, what the variation is ; and thefe obfer- vatiuns have been put down in good fea- charts, for the ufe of navigators. Thefe however can ferve but for a few years, on account of their being variable at the fame place ; nor has it been difcovered how much the varia« tion is fubjeA to vary. The following table from Mr. C&TALLO's Treatife on Magnetifm, contains the varia- tion at the places and times therein inferted, and upo> many occafions may be found very ufcful. Latitude N. Longitude W. Variation E. Years. 7o«. 17' 16}°. 24' , 30". 21' 1779 69. 38 164. 11 31. 1778 66. 39 24. 40 55' "* '35- 23. 29 53- 37 «j- 53 to. 32 50. 8 4. 40 Variation W. 48. 44 S- 20. 36 1776 40. 41 II. 10 22. 38 33. 45 14. 50 22. 27 31. 8 »5- 30 18. 7 28. 30 17. >7' 43 «3- 54 18. 20 14. ^ f '^; *. ao'. 30 20. 3' 14'. 35 19. 45 20. 39 13. II \ 16. 37 22. 50 »o. 33 15. 25 23- 36 9. .5 ■3. 32 23. 45 9. 25 ij. ai 23- 5 + 9. 4» ; 11. 51 24- 5 «• '2 8- SS 22. 50 8. 58 1 6. 29 20. 5 9. 44 4. aj,^ 21. 2 9. « 3- 45 22. 34 8. 27 2. 40 24. 10 7. 42 I. 14 26. • a 5- 35 0. 51 27. 10 4- 59 0. 7 27. - 4. 27 Latitude S. '• M 28. 58 3- '2 h » Latitude ti y: ■ > " u 1 l» INTRODUCTION. Latitude S« 3. J7 4. z* 6. o 6. 45 7« 10*. 12. «3- 14. •5« 16. 18. so. 31. 24. 36. 38. SO. 33- 35- 38. 40. 4«' 46. 48. JO 4S I 4' 40 '3 II 33 J3 'I 37 17 4' 19 »s 43 37 S» 3« 4 5* "5 4' Longitude W. I Variation W »*'- 37' 30. 14 SO. 3'' 33. 39 40 50 33' 30 34. 34- so 20 34. so 34. 49 34 34- 34- 34- 35- 35- 36. 3fi- 34- K' 20. 49 49 49 40 ao SO » 9 8 *7 30 38 16. 30 9- 30 33. 30 Longitude E> 17*- 34 167. 3» 155 47 144 JO 69 o 5^' '4 36 6 Variation E. o. 35 8*. t' ». I. O. Variation W. «. 7 e. IS Variation £ 0. 44 Variation W. 0. IS' Variation E. I. ta 1. I I. 9 I. 45 2. 4 3- 3 5- 36 3- 34 3- 24 3- 4-- I. 5« a. 37 Variation W. 4- 44 5f 5« 1^. 13 Varmtion C. '3- 47 >3' >7 Variation W. 9. 3* 14. 48 7' 39 Years 1776 Fsrialhn ,, 1 iii! i INTRODUCTION. liii Tartat'm ohfefved of London at different Times* Yearj. VariatiuD. 1576 11" 11 1.80 II. 1612 6. 10 ^Eail. 1^22 6. 1633 4- 5 '^34 4 S 1657 0. 1665 I. 22r 1666 I. is\ 1672 2. 30 •683 K 4. 30 1692 6. 1700 8. 1717 10. 4a 1724 172; II. II Ji Weft 1730 >3- '•35 14. 16 17.0 '^ 40 >745 16. Si 17^0 »7- 54 176? 19. 12 1765 20. 1770 20. 3^ '774 21. 3 I77t f • • "O !»;. The prtftnt variation at London ig about 24% and is increafii.g. The change of variation is not fuf- ficiently regular, fo as to be able to afcertain at any fu- ture time, what the variation will be. 256. The magnft is fubjtft tondal/y variation, which iseffeftedby beat and cold, as appears by the following obfervations, made by Mr. Canton. The Variation ebferved at different Hours of the fame Day, July 27, . 759. Morning \ Artemoon Hour. Min Variation W Thermo. 0. 18 iR". 2' 6-. 6. 4 18 58 6z 8. 30 • 8. 55 f5 9* 2 ]8. 54 67 10. 20 18. 57 69 II. 40 19. 4 6H 0. 50 19. 9 70 i> ^8 19. )» 70 3- 3- »3- 21 U- >4 12. «9 II. 4.1 10. ,6 8. 9 6. 5» The mean Variation for each Month in the Tear. January February March April M«y • June Jl"'y . ' Auguft September Oaober November December By this table it appears, that the variation of the needle is greateft in fummer, and leall' in winter. 257. Dr. HallBt firft publithed fome variation charts, from obfervations made at the beginning of the prefent century. Another chart was afterwards formed by MoVNTAiNF and Dodson* upon obfeivations made in i7$'>. Thefe charts are thua conllrud^ed. On a general map of the world, mark down with dots, all the places in which the variation is tka fame, and then draw a line through all thefe points: thus, mark down with' dots, every place which has 20*^ eail variation, and draw a line through all thefe dots, and you get the line of zo* eaft variation. Where the dots are- at a conliderable dillance, you muft fill the fpace up with a line which feems moll to accord with the tendency of the line oa- each fide. In Dr. Haldey's chart, the line of no va- riation orofles the meridian of LonJotit at about the ^5*^ of fouth latitude ; it then proceeds in an arched manner towards the weft of the fuid meridian, and incrc-aiing ita curvature as it advances into the nortliern hcmifpliere, terminates at Charla i own in North - merica. In the Indian fea, the lines of variation arc very irtejjiilar. 2^8. ' he method of (iiidtng by the compiifd, the di- redtioii in which a (hip fails, is this : the compafs is fuf. fpended in the cabin, and you look horizontally over the compafs in the diref^ion of the fliip's wake, by wliich you fee the point of the compafs denoting the dircflion of the wake, the oppofite point to which, is the point to. which you Art failing, according to the coinpcis ; and knowing how much the compafs varies, you can tell the true point of the horizon to which yriu are going. 25>; If a magnet he fuffiendid by an horizontal axis, fo that it can iretly move in a vriieal plane, it will noc ftand in an horizontal pofitioii,. alitiongli the two ends be accurately balanced, but the ntjr'b end of tlic magnet,. in this part of the world will ircline toward.- the hori- zon, 01 dip, 9s it is called and oi courfe ilie fouth pule will be elevated An inllrumin' thus conitrndt-d is CiWtiaiifpingnitdle As \uu a; prnach the fouthrrn parts of the earth, the dip will diniinifli, aiid at leii^ihi the magnet will become horizontal ) and pructeoing: more i ^i : ' liv INTRODUCTION. more foutherly, the-fouth cfld will dip. The following table fhows the dip at the places and times there noted. By the dip, we mean the angle which the magnet make* with the horizon. L i : i" I \ ''* \i l.'l'l :! •■.. ;f' Latitude N. Longitude E. North End Dips Years. 53°. Si' '93'- 39' 69°. 10 1778 49. 36 2-,v. "• 72. 29 Longitude W. 1776 44- 5 8. 10 7«- 34 3«- 53 12. 1 70. 30 34- S7 14. 8 65. 12 jg. 18 16, 7 62i 17 24. »4 18. II 59. 20. 47 19. 36 56. 15 IS. 8 «3- 38 SI. 12. I »3- 35 48. 26 10. 22. 52 44. 12 5- * 20. 10 37- »S Latitude S. o- 3 a?- 38 30- 3 4. 40 3°- 34 22. 15 7- 3 33- »• 17. 57 II. 2$ 34-. H 9. 15 Longitude £. South End Dips. 16. 45 208. 12 29. 28 19. 28^ 204. 1 1 41. 21. 8 185. 39. I i7?7 35- 55 18. 20 45- 37 •774 41. 5 174- '3 6v 49 1777 4?- 47 166. 18 70. 5 »773 ;5o. In the fame place, the dip is fubjeft to a varia- tion ; it is now about 7 1' at London, and from the mod accurate obfervations on the dipping needle belonging to the Royal -Society, it appears to diminifli about 15' in 4 years. In going from north to fouth, the dip does not alter regularly. As it is extremely dilHcult to ba- lance the needle accurately, the poles of the needle are generally reverfcd by a magnet, fo that its two ends may dip alternately, and the mean of the two dips is taken. 261. A bar of iron which ftands for fomc time in a vertical pofition, will acquire a degiee of magnetifra ; from which, and the plisenomena of the compaft and dipf'mg needle, there can be no doubt but that the caufe exifts in the earth. Dr. Halley fuppofed that the earth has within it a large magnetic globe (not fixed within to the external parts), having four magnetic poles, two fixed and two moveable, which will account Tor all the phxnomena. This would make the variation fubjefi to a conftant law ; whereas we find cafual changes which cannot be accounted for Upon this hy- pothclis. This the Dodlor fuppofes may arife from an unequal and irregular diftribution of the magnetic mat- ter. The didribution alfo of the ferruginous matter in ' the (hell, may caufe fome irregularities. The /lurora Borealit has been obferved to have an cfTcA upon the needle} and it is a remarkable circumftance, that the magnetic meridian is direfted to the centre of the aurora borcalis. Mr. Daltok, in his Meteorological Obferva- tions and EJ/ayt, has deduced the following conclufions from his obfervations. ift, When the aurora appears to rife only about 5", ic", or 15", above the horieon, the dillurbance of needle is very little, and often infen- fible. sd, When it rifes up to the zenith, and pafles it, there never fails to be a confiderable difturbaace. 3d, This diiiurbance confifts in an irregular ofcillation of the horizontal needle, to the eaftward and weftward of the* mean daily pofition ; and in this place (Kendal) the excurfions on each fide are about half a degree. 41I1, When the aurora ceafes, orfoon after, the needle returns to its former ftation. It appears from hence, that there is fomething magnetic in the higher parts of the atmo- fpherc. 262. Mr. Dalton has alfo given us the following obfervations refpefting the effcfts which the aurora lo- rea/it has on the weather. Since the fpring of 1-87, there have been 227 auror* obferved at Kendal and Ke/- vuici ; 88 of the next fucceeding days were wet, and '39 y^""' 3* K.ndal, now in the account of rain, the mean yearly number of '•< much greater than this j>i'iicral ratio of fair daya to tvet onei the inference therrfort is, that the appearance of the aurora borealu is a prugnolli- cation of fair weather. 26v It '"^y perhaps be here ohjc£lcd, that as the aurora can only be feen in a clear atinofphere, tliis cir cumftance alone would render it probnble that the next day would he fair ; but upon examinini^ the obfervations, it appears that the aurora not only favours the nc.vt day, but it alfo iiidicaics that a fcries of days to the number of 10 or 12 air likely to be fair. Of 22'' obfervations, 139 were followed by t or more fair days, 100 by 2 or more &c. as under : I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 139 100 69 52 3^1 7,0 z 16 10 6 2 ■ But accordin)^ to the laws of chance, the feiies ought to have been if the aurora had no influence, as under : ' » 3 4 5 6 92 f8 15 6 2 I From which it appears, that there ihonld not have been above 1 aurora out of 227 followed by 6 fair days ; and yrt, in fadl, there were ^o. The aurora is more frequently followed by fair weather in fummer than in ivinter. On fVinds. 264. Wind is a current of air, and its direftion is de- nominated from that point of the compafs /rom which it comes. The principal, if not the only caul'e of winds, is a partial rarefa6li>jn of the air by he9t. When the air ii htated, it becomes rarer, and therefore afceuds ; and tlie furrounding cold air rudiing in to fupply its place, forms a current in fome one direiSion. Winds may be divided into conilant, or ihofe which blo«' always In the fame direftion ; pericdieal, or thofe which blow half a yi'ar in one rliiedion, and half a year in a contrary di- rtiilion i tliLfe are c.i'.led monfoons ; and variuble, which arc fn^jfft to no rules. The two former are alfo called Iraile winds. We fhall here give the principal phjeno- nitiia of ibe winds, from Dr. Halliiv's account thereof Jn ilie PhU. Tra»f I ft, Iti ihe .itlarilic and Pae!/ic Ocean, under the equa- tor there in i conilant eaft wind. 2d, To about 28 on each fide of the equator, the wind on the norib fide declines towards the norl/j eail, and tile more fo, the further you recede from the equa- tor; arid on \.\\efouth fide it declines in lil»e manner to- wards \.\\<:fouih ealh The limits of thefe winds are great- er in the /illaniic Oce-n, on the American, than on the African fide, extending in the former cafe to about 32°, and in the latter to about .U'. And this is true liktwife to the fouthward of the equinoftial ; for near the Cafe *f Goad Hope, the limits of the trade winds are 3" or 4" nearer the line than ou the coaft of Brafil. id. Towards the Carillee I/l.tmls, the aforefaid north* eaft wind becomes more ealleily, io as fonttinie^ to be eal(, and fometitnt-s ealt by f.juth. but mud iiuithwards of the e'll, a puiiit or two. .ih. On the coaft of Africa, from the Can/iriet to about 10' N latitude, the wind f> ih in towards the noith eall ; then it becomes foii h weft, approaching ninre to the fouih, as you appioach the Cape But away from the coafts, the winds are perpeniaDy between the fouth and the eaft ; on the African fide they are more fouthcily : on K\\t Brafilian, muic eafterly, fo ai to become alimft due eaft, Ujion the coaft of Guinea, they arc fubjidl to frequent calms, and violent fudden gufts, called tormufoi, Irom all points of the compafs, 5th, In the Ini/iitn Ocean, the winds are partly con- ftant, and partly periudical Between Madugnfcar and Nem} Holland, from to" to 30' latitude, the wind blows f.>uth eaft by eaft. i.)nring the months of ^l/ay, ''7"'"»- July, Au^ufty . eptember, OSoler, the at'orcfaid fouth eall winds extend to within ■>" of the equator ; then for the other fix months, the contrai-y winds fct in, and bluv/ from 3" to 10'' IS. latitude. From 3' f.iuth latiiuda over ttie Arabian and Indian fcas and Bay of Bengal, from Sumatra to the coaft of Africa, tliere is another monfoon, kl>>wiiig from OHober to /ipril on the north cad point, and in the other half year from the oppofite direction. Between Madagafcar and Africa, a fouth fouth- weft wind blows from /ipriila OHober, which, as you go more northerly, becomes more wtfterly, till it falls in with the weft fuuth-weft winds ; but the Do^or could not obtain a fat isfaClory account, how the winds are in the oiher half year. To the eaftward of Sumatra and Malacca, on the north fide of the equator along the coaft of Cambodia and China, the monfount blovr, and change at the fame time as before mentioned ; but their diredlions are more northerly and I'outherly. Th rfc winds reach to tW Philippine iflands, and to Japtn, Between the fame meridians, on the fonth fide of the equator, from Sumatra to New Gmnea, the fame monfoons are obferved. The fhifiing uf thefe winds is attended witk great hurricanes. 265. The eaft wind about the equator is thris ex- plained. The fun moving from eaft to weft, the poirt of greatcft rarefadlfon of the air, by the heat of thi' fun, niuft move in the fame direction j and the point of great- eft rarefaftiiin following the fun, the air miift continual- ly riifli in from the eall, and make a conftant eaft wind. 266. The conftant noithcalt wind on the north fide of the equator, and fouth- eaft wind on the louth fide, may be thus accounted for. The air towards the pole- being den- fer than that at the equator, will continually ruftl toward* the equator ; but as the vtlocity of differrnt parts ot the earth's furface from its rotation, incrcafts as you ap- proach the equator, the air which is ruilimg from th: north towards the equator will not continue upon the fame meridian, but it will be left behind ; that is in re- fpcA to the earth's furface, it will have a motion from the eaft, and thefe two motious combined, produce a ngrtlo < m 1' 1 1 \ 1 h ! 1 " ■ * ! 1 // li Ml' a I f ' i"|'?ni. n i,; ! / Ivi INTRODUCTION. north-caft wind on tlic Dorlli fide of the cquatnr. And in like maimer, tliere mull he a fuulh-call wind on the (oiUh fide The air which is thus cuiuiinicilly moving from the polos towards the iqualor, being rarefied when it cuniM there, afceu low land, fueh as the Defarti of Libya are ufually reportrd to be, the heat occafioned by the rcfle£lion of the fui/i )>eams, and the retention thereof in the find, is incre- dible to thofe that have never felt it ; whereby the air being exceedingly rarefied, it is neceffary that the cooler and more-denfe air fliould run thitherward to reftore the equilibn'u Ti. This I take to be tlie catife, wliy near the coafl of Gmnea, the wind always fets in upon the laTid, blo\\>ing wefterly inftead of eallerly, there being fufficient reafon to beHcve, ibat the iidand parts o^ Africa are prodigiouQy hot, fince the northern borders thereof were fo intemperate, as to give the ancicnt.i caufe to coo- dude, that all beyond the tropic waa made uniahabitablc by cxceb of heat. From the fame caufe it happens, that there are fo conftant calms in that part ot the Ocean called the Raint. For this traA being placed in the middle, between the wefterly winds blowing on the coall of Cuittta, and the eaderly trade winds blowing to the weft wards therof, the tendency of the air here is in- different to cither, and fo Hands in equilibrio between both ; and the weight of the incumbent atmofphete being diminilhed by the continual contrary winds blow- ing from hence, is the reafon, that the air licre holds not the copious vapours which it receives, but lets them fall in fo frequent rains. 268. As the cold anddenfe air, by reafon of its great- tr gravity, preffes upon the hot and rarefied, 'tis demon- ftrative that this latter mutl afcend in a continual dream as fad as it is rarefied, and that being afcendcd, it mufl difperfe itfelf to preferve the equilibrium, that is, by a contrary current, the upper air mud move from thofe {)arts where the jgreated heat is ; fo by a kind of circu- Htion, the N. £. trade wind below, will be attended with a S. W above, and the S. £. below with a N. W. wind above. And that this is more than a bare conjec- ture, the almod indantaneoua change of the wind to the oppofite point, which is frequently found in pailing the limits of the trade windst fecmi to alTure us { but that which above all confirms this hypothefis, is this, that the phenomenon of the monfoons is, by this means, rood cafi'V fiilved, and without it, hardly explicable. Sup- pofing therefore fuch a circulation as above, '.is to be coofidcrcdi that to the northward of the Indian Ocean there is every whfrcland uithin the ufnal llmilaofthe latitude oi 30", viz. ^Italia, Perfia, Jiulia, &c. which for llie fame rcHUtn aa the medittrraneaii p-rts of f^frica, arc l'ubje£t to unfniTerable beats when the fun is to tlie north, pulling nearly vertical, hnt yet are temperate enough when the fun is removed towaidg the olh'.-r tro- pic, becuufe of 11 ridge of mountains at fi)ir>e dillaiice wiihin the land, faid tu be frvqiicnily in winter coveted with Cnow, over which the air, as it pafles, muU need) be much chilled. Hence it comra to pafs, that the air Cuming according to the general rule, out of the N- E* in the InJiun Seas, h fomeiimes hotter, fometinieii colder than that which by this circtdatinn, i« returned out of S. W. as is dear from the times wherein th, IV wiiidfi fet in, viz. in .'Iprilt when the fun begins to wjrm tliofe coimtrics to the north, the S. W, monfoon begins, and blows duriag the heats till Odobsr, when the fun being retired, and all things growing colder northward, and the heat incre-fing to thi fuuth, the N. £. winds enter and btow all the winter till /i^W/ again. 269. And it is undoubtedly from (he fame principle, that to the fouthward of the equator, in part of the /ni/iiiH Oirm, the N W. winds fuccred the S. £- when the fun draws near the tropic of Caftricorn. Uut I mud confefs, that 'm this latter occurs a difficulty not well to be accounted for, which i«, why this, change of the mon- foons fhould be any more in this Ocean, than ia the fame latitudes in the Ethiopic, where there is nothing more certain than a S. E wind all the year. 270. ' I'is likewife very hard to conceive, why the limits of the trade winds fhould be fixed about the jo" of latitude all round the globe, and that they fliould lo feldom tranfgrefs or fall Ihort erf thofe Ixmnds ; as atfo, that In the Indian Sea only the northern part fhould be fubjefl to the changeable monfoons, and in the fouthern there fliould be a condant S. £." 271. Tiiere may perhaps be fnme caufes of thefe pe- riodical winds, which we cannot fee altogether a fohition of; but if all the circumilances of fituation, heat, cold, &c. were known, there is no reafon to doubt but that they might be accounted for from the principles here delivered. 272. Winds over the fame place, at different altitudes, are found to blow in different directions ; for we fee clouds at different altitudes moving in different direc- tions ; and experimentu with air ballons prove the fame. 273. We may further obferve in refpeft to the direc- tion in which winds blow, that if a current fet off in a ly one dircdllon, aorth ead for indance, and move in a great circle, it will not continue to move on that point of the compafs, becaufe a great circle will not meet all the meridians at the fame angle. This circumdaocc there- fore fhould enter into our confideration, in edimating the direction of the wind. High mountains are alfo ot>{iErved to change its dire^ion. On the laKc of Geneva there are only two winds, that is, either up or down the valley. Ana the like ia known to happen at other fuch placet. 3 »74. The INTRODUCTION. IvH J74. The eonjlant and periodical winds blow only at fea ; at land, tiie wind is always variable. C75. Ucfidcs the winds already mentioned, (here are ctliers called land and fea breezet. The air over the land being hotter during the day than the air over the fea, u current of air will fet in from the fea to the land by day ; l)ut tlie air over the fea bring hotter than that over the land at night, the current at night will be from the land tot!ie fea. This is very remarkable in idands fitunteil between the tropics. Nlr. Clare exemplifies this, by the following experiment : In the middle of a vefftl of water, place a water-plate of warm water, the water in the vffl'cl reprcftuting the ocean, and the plate, the iduiid rarefy iiig the air over it. 1 hen hold a lighted candle over tha cold water, and blow it out, and the fmoke will move towards the plate. But if the plate be cold and the furrounding fluid warm, the fmoke will move In the contrary dirtdtion. The fea breezes in the Vefl. IndieH begin to appear about 9 in the morning, in a fine black curl upon the water, approaching the Ihore} it tncrcai'es gradually till noon, and dies away at 4 or 5 in the afternoon. About 6 in the evening it changes to a land breeze, which blows from the land to the lea, and lalls till K in the morning. 276. Dk. DkKtiAM, from repeated obfervations upon the motion of light downy feathers, found that the grcateil velocity of the wind was not above Co miles in an hour. But Mr Brice jullly obfcrves, that fuch experiments mull be fubjeft to great inaccuracy, as the feather scannot proceed in a llraight line ; he ihertfore elliinates the velocity by means of the (hadow of a cloud over the eaith by which he found that in a great llonn, the wind moves 63 miles in an hour ; when it blows a frclh gale, at the tare of 21 miles in an hour ; am! in a fmali bicczt, at the rate of about 10 miles in an hour : but thid method takes for granted that the clouds move as faft ati the wind. It i.s probable that thi- velocity is fome- tliiiig more llian is here llattd. Mr. Rouse makes the velocity of a hurricane which tears up tiics, &c. to be ICO miks in an hour. 277. There are certain lakes which at times, are ajri- taifd duriiijr a c:din fcafon, by fonie niikiiown caufc ; and the plmeimnicnon is called ixlotloiu nvind Mr. Dal- TON, in liij Aleleorvlogical Oljer-valiuns, infoiras u,<, th.it Mr CKOSTiiWAirE ha.s been piclty adidmus in pro- curing int£llij;ence rcfpi.fting thcfe phteiiomcna, and in obfuvin^- any circumlhiiccs which migiit Itnd to a d:f COV117 of tlie caufc; but noihinK lias yet oconrul to him, that pron^il'cb to throw any light upon the fubjcd. Obfcrvatijils made on Derzvait Luke. 17S9 April j,o. Trom 8 A. M. till noon, the lake pretty iiuich agitated. Augi.il g. At 8 A.M. the lake in very great aj^ita- tii^n ; white breakers on large wavis, &c. witluut wind. Aiigull 2y. At 9 A. M. a fmall bottom wind. VI..L. I. '790- June so. At 8 P. M a bottom wind on the lake. Odober 11. At « 1*. M a bottom wind on the lake. December i. At y P. M. a llrong bottom wind on the lake. 1792 Odoher 28. At i P. M. n bottom wind ; the water unich agitated. 278. In many parts o''the world, more paiticnl.irly In the H'e/i Iiulifs, they arc attacked by hurricanes; tlufc happen there in the rainy fcafon, principallj in tlic month of Augiiil ; dfllioying all the produce of the ground; tearing up trees; blowing down bllilding^; and inundating large traits of the countiy. Tiicy are fuddcn and very violent ftorras of wind, rain, thunder a'd lightning attended with a great fwelling of the fea, and fometimes with earthquakes. There arc figns by which the inhabitants aie warned of their approach. Tliey come on cither at the quarter, of at the full change of the moon. If they conic on at the full change, then at the preceding change, the flvy is troubled, the fun more red than ufual, there Is a dead calm below, and the top* of the mountains arc free from thofe mills which ufually hover about tliem. In the caverns of the earth, and in wells, you hear a hollow nmibling found, like the rufh- ing of a great wind. At night, the liars feem wuch larger than ufual, and are fiirrounded with a fort of burs ; the north well dty has a black and menacli g aiipcaiance; the fea emits a llrong fmcll, and rlfcs into vail waves, often without any wind. The wind itftlf now forfakeg its ufual eaftein fteady dream, and diitts about to the weft, from whence it fometimes, with Intermlflions, blows violently and irregularly for about 2 hours at a time. 279. The quality of air depends in a great ireafire upon the foil over which it padVs. The fandy defcrtu of //frka Am\ ,i'rabin, give a burning heat and blalWinr quality to iht air pafling over them. At Corre, in the tivcr Scnc^.if, there is an eadcarly wijid from t!>e inl.ind paits, wiili which thofc who arc fiuliienly met by it in the face arc fcorchct!, as by a llad tVoni a furnace. At Falkland Jjhiiuls an cxtraurJinary biaillnjT wiiij is felt, but Its dnraliou is leldom above 24 I.iair;3. It cuts' dawn the lierb.ige, as it fires had I'Cen made under them ; the leaves are parched up and cunnMc Into dull fowls art fcizcd wiih cramps, and never recover ; men are opprtded with a llopped ptriijlratlon, hciviiufi at tlic bread, and foie tliroat, !;ut tiicy recover uith pi\>per cart. lint tlic mod ditadfiil winiis are tliofe at the (le- f.irts near ji,i-^,',i,!, called theyl.T.'.r', or mr.rlijy'iir^ wind. The can.clii pcvctive their appioach, and aie i'aid tr> m.ike an unnfiml uoifc, and (over their notes In the .'"■ind.' To ticapc their tfletis, tr-ivelkrs tlirew llienil'elves as cK.fe as podible on the ground, and iv:-,it t!il it h.n pad'td over, which is c iiiiintoidy in a fciv inlmuos. Thus frtno efcape ; but thofe who die, have their liiubj nuMtiHed. if this wind meet with a (hower of rain, it is !aid to be deprived of ltd noxious quality Jt u aho I'a'd, tli.it it' 1 never Ivui INTRODUCTION. !«,r never pnfTe* the walls of the city. In Italy there is a wind called by ihe llaliaut, >'trr,ico. It bli)\#s for feve- ral days, and its mean heat u about 1 13 o( Fahrenheit'* thermometer. It is fatal to veirctaiion, and deftruclive to the iiiiiabitants ; dcpreiriiig tlieir fpirits, and I'lifpeiid ing the powers of digellion j fo that they who venture tu rat a heavy fupper whiill tlufc wind^ prtvail arc ire. quently found dead the next mdrninj h h feh with pe- culiar violence at Palermo, where the iiihabitatits flwt their doors and windows ; Hnd where there are no fliut- ters, they hang up wet blankets, and frrva:itr. are em> ployed to keep ttiim wet. No body ventures otit, if lie can poflibly avoid it. 380. Mr. fi,ut is nore properly that of a (peaking trumpet, the fmallcr end being downwards. Sometimes thefe water fpouts appear at land. When they appear at (ea, and arc ap- proaching a fhip, it is faid that the f.iilor^ Are at them and break them ; as it might be dangerous if they were to meet with a fhip and break over it. It is with good reafon fuppofed that this is an eledrical phznomenon ; fer they generally appear in months which are fubje£l to thunder (torms, and are commonly preceded, accompa- nied, or followed by lightning, rain, or hail. Flafhes of light have been feen about them. But the mod re- luarkable circumll'ince is, that they have been difperfed by prefenting to them (harp pointed knives or fwords. The analogy alfo between a water fpout and ele6tricity may be fhown, by hanghig a drop oi water on the under fide of a plate of brafs connected with the prime conduc- tor, and placing a veffel of water under, at a fmall dif- tance ; then upon working the machine, the water will dcfccnd from the drop iu a concial form, and the water in the veffel will rife up under it in the form of a cone ; lefembltng very accurately the water fpout, and the afcent of the water in the fea under. If we therefore Cuppofe the cloud to be ftrongly charged with the elec trie matter, we have caufe fufficient to folve the phicno. ■wooa. Thi* theory of water fpouts Is confiimed by 4t one wlvich/ Ma. FoaiTia gives an accotint of i» his vayage round the world. On the coaft of New Zealand, he faw the water in a fpace of j 1 or 60 furlongs, move towards its centre, and there rtfinf^ into v.iponr, by the fotce of the whirling motion which it hnd, afcended in a fiiiral form towords the clouds; diredily over which the cloud defcendcd in a gradualljT' tapered lo''g (lender tube, which foon united with the afcendiiig fpiral in a clylindrical fotni. The water was whiiled upwaids with great violence in a fpiral, and ap- peared to leave a hollow fpace in the middle 1 fo that it leemed to form a hollow tube; and thi:i was rendered probable, as it looked exr>(ftiy hke a hollow glafs tube. After fonie time, the column became incurvated, and then broke, with the appearance of a flidi of lightning. 282. A whlrlvuhul in a wind which rifes fuddenly ; ir extremely rapid and impetuous, taking up alt lifrht fub - (lances from the earth which it may meet wuli a-id carry, int; them up in a fpiral motion I'a. Franklii* fup- poies that a whirlwmd and a water fpout proceed trom t'lie fame caufe ; and this oriinion is (Irengihened by tlw following circumftances. They' have each a progrelTive and circular motion ; they ufually 1 ifc after calms and great heats, and moft frequently happen in warm lati- tudes, the wind blows every way both to the whirlwind and watei fpout ; and a water fpout hi>s moved from the fea to the land and produced all he tSiSti of a whirl- wind. They are b rious. 286 A fecond caufe is the uncertain exhalation and precipitation of the vapours lodging in the air, whereby it comes to be at one time more crowded than another, and conftqiiently heavier ; but this latter in a great meafurc depends upon the former. Now from thefe principles ' (hall endeavour to explicate the feveral phie- nomeua of the barometer, taking them in the fame order I laid them down. ift. The mercury being low inclines it to rain, be- caufe the air being light, tne vapours are no longer fup- puitcd thereby, being become Ipecifically luavicr than the medium wherein they floated ; fo that they defceud towards the earth, and in the fall meeting with other aqueous particles, they incorporate together and form little drops of rain. But the mercury's being at one time lower than at another, is the effeA of two con- trary Vinds blowing /r6in the place where the barome- ter ftands, whereby the air of that place is carried both ways from it, and confequcntiy the incumbent cylinder of air is Jiminithod, and accordingly the mcrcmy fijik-. As for inftance, if in the German Ocean it fliould blow a gale of weflerly wind, and at the fame time an eafterly wind in the Irifh Sea j or if in France it fiiould blow n northerly wind, and in ScutlmJ a foutherly, it mud be granted me that, that part of the atmofpherc impendant over £«^/(«m/ would thr ehy becxhanilrd andattenuated, and the mercury wouM fiibfide, and llie vapours which before floated irt thofc parts of the air of equal gravity witii tliemfelves, would link ti> the lartli, 2dly, The great heif^lit of tlie tiaromi'ter is occafioned by two contrary wind^ blowing toiuanls the place of ob- fervation, whereby the .nir of otlior places is brought thither and accumulated ; fo that the incumbent cylin- der of airhcing ircreaftd I'oth in bti^Iit and ^veicrht, the mercury prelftd therf by mud netdi rife and Hand high, as long as the winds continue fo to blow 5 iinH tlien the air being fpecifically heavier, the 'vapours arc better fnf- pcnded, fo that they have no Intlination to precipitate and fall down in drops ; which is tiie rearr>n of the fe- rene good weather, which attends the greater heights of the mercury. 3dly, The mercury finks the lowed of all by the very rapid motion of the air in tlorms of wind. For the traft, or region of the earth's furface, wherein thefe winds rape, not extending all round the globe, that ftagnant air which is left bthind, as likewife that on the fides, can- not come in fo fall as to fupply the evacuation made by fo fwift a current : fo that the air muft ncctfTarily be at- tenuated when and where the faid winds contmue to blow, and that more or lefj according to their violence ; add to which, that the horizonal motion of the air being fo quick as it is, may in all probability take olT fome part of the perpendicular prcffure thereof: and the great agitation of its particles is the reafun why the va- pours are diffipated and do not coudenfe into drops fo as to form rain, otherwife the natural confequence of the air's rarefaftion. 4thly, The mercury ftands the hinheft tipon an eafter- ly or north eafterly wind, becaufe in the great ylllanlic Ocean, on this fide the 35th degree of north latitude, the werttrly and fouth-wetterly winds lilow almoft always trade, folhat whenever here tiie wind comes up at call: and north-erift, It is fiirc to be ch-.-cked by a contrary gale as foon as it teaches the ocean ; wherefore a(.xording to what is made out in our fecond remark, the air miili needs be heaped over this ifland, and confequently thi; mercury muft ftand high, as often as thefe winds blow. This holds true in this counliy, but it is not a general rule for others where the winds are under different cir- ciimftanccs ; and I have rometlmes frt'ii tie mercury here as low as 29 inches, upon an calUrly wind ; but then it blew exceeding hard, and fo comes to he ac- counted for by what was oblcrved upon the third remark. jthly, In calm frofty weather the mercury generally ftands high, becaufe (as I conceive) it feldom freezes but when the wind comes out of the northern and norili- earftrrn quarters, or at leaft unkfs thefe winds blow nt i 2 na Ix INTRODUCTION. > .!■ ■il'H: i ' ■ ■: f']i ^ ti»> Rreat dillance off ; for the northern parts of Germany, Denm/jri, Siveiltn, Nortvny, and all that tradt from whtncc nortli ciilliTti wiiida come, ait fiibjciH to almoll c-diithuial fioll all tin; winter; and thcreliy the lower iiir is v«ry much conili '.Ld, and in that Hale i« hroii^ht I ilherivaii!* by thole winds, anil being aecumulaieJ by the oppolitioii of the welteily wind blowing in tiic Ocean, ihc mercury iiiull needs be prtllVd to a mnrethaii ordinary height; and as a contiirrinif cmife, the (lirii'k- ing of the lower parts of tht air into Ud'er room by cold, muit needs taufe a defciiit nf i1k- iipptr parts i-.f the at- inofphere to reduce the cavity made by thiii contraflion to an equilibrium. fithly, After great ftorms of wind, when the mercury has been very lo>v, it generally rifn again very fall, I once obfcrved it to rife r \ inch in lefs than (t lioiira, after a King continued lloriu (it foiiih weft wind. The rtafon is, bec.iufc the air bfi'ii; very much rarefied by the great evacuations wliicb fuih continued lloriiui make th';rcof. the iicij'hbouring air runs iu more fwiflly to bring it to an equilibrium ; as we fee water runs the failcr for liaviug a great declivity. 7thly, The variations are greater in the more north- erly places, as at Stockholm greater than at Parit (com- paied by Mr. Pasc haul), bccaufe the more northerly places have ufually greater llorms «)f wind than the more foutherly, whereby the mercury fliould fink lower in that extreme ; and then the iioitherly winds bringing the condenfed and ponderoin air from the neighbourhood of the pole, and that again being checked by a fouther- ly wind at no great diilance, and fo heaped, muft of ne- ceflity make the mercury in fuch cafe (land higher in the other extreme. 8thly, Lallly, this remark, that there is little or no variation near the cquiiioclial, aa at BarbaJott and St. Hfkna, docs above all things confirm the hypothefis of the variable winds being the caufe of thefe variations of the height of the mercury ; for In the places above- named, there is always an eafy gale of wind blowing nearly upon the fame point, vi/.. E N.E. at Barladots, and E, S. E. at iV." tIcUna, fo that there being no con- trary currents of the air to exhaull or accumulate it, the atmofphere continues much in the fame (late : how. ever, upon hurricanes (the moll violent of ftorms) the mercury has been obfcrved very low, but this is but once in two or three years, and it foon recovers its fettled ilatc of about :i;| inches 287 The principal obje£lion againd this doArine is, that I fiippofe the air lometimes to move from thofe parts where it is alrrady evacuated below 'h-; equilibri- um, and fometi.iies again towards thufe parts where it is condenfed and crowded above the mean llate, which may be thought coib and (low iifter the fmic manner ; but by reaf >n of the diveility of caiifoi w'licrtby tlu air may be ftt in moving, the times of thil'c fluxis and reflnxef therctore aie purely cafiiil, and not reducible to any rule, v.i are the uiotions of the fea, depending wholly upuu the regular cuurfe of the moon. Thus far Dr. 11 .'V 1. 1, '^ y 288 The following rules are given forjudging of the weather by Mr. Patiiicii, and are eltcemcd the belt which we have. I. The rifing of the mercury prcfages, in general fair weather ; and its falling, fuiil weather ; aa rain, fnow, high winds, and storms. 2 In very hot weather, the falling of the mercury in^ dicates thunder. 3 In winter, the rifing indicates froll : and in frofty weather, if the mercury fall 3 or 4 diviliuns, there will follow a thaw, but tn a continued froll, if the mer- cury rife, it will fnow. 4. When foul weather happens foon after the fal- ling of the mercury, cxpe£l but little of it ; and on the contrary, exped but little fair weather, when it proves- fair Ihortly after the mercury has rifcn. 5. In foul weather when the mercury rifes much and high, tti»ii, having the bulb and part of the tuho f;llid willi mercury, or fpltits of wine. 'I'he lube ia cl"ftd at the top, and ilie part not occuplid by the fluid is a vatnnm. Agai'll tlif tube there i'l a fcale to meafnre the expnnfion of the fluid under (lifil'rent tem- peratures , for fluids cxjiand by heat, and eontrafl by cold An inercafe of temperature will tlar<.fi)re make the fluid rife in the tube, nud a decreafe of tempciature will make it fall. J91 The ihirmometer now in life is that which is conllruAed by Fahrenwht. On this feale, the fluid Hands at 92 when it jiill begins to free/.e, and at ziz when pnt into boiling watei ; at temperate it ftandu at 5; ; at fummer heat, at 76 ; at bleod heat, at 98. If the fcale be continued to 600, it gives the heat of boil- ing murcury ; aid if it be continued downwards to 39 below o, it gives a degree of cold which will freeze mercury. 29'.. By means of the barometer and thermometer, the altitude of a mountain may be found to a great de. gree of accuracy. The following Is the rule given by Dr Maskelvne in his introdnftion to Taylor's Lo- garithms ; being the mean between thofe given by Ge- neral Kov and-Sir George ShuckiIURGh. J93. Given the altitudes of the barometer at two ilations, with the heights of Fahrenheit's thermometer attached to the barometer, and the heights of two de- lathed thermometers of the fame kind, expofed to the air but flidtered from the fun at the two llation, to And the perpendicular altitude of one (lation above the other. Rule. Put H for the obferved height of the barome- ter at the lower ftatioti and h for that at the upper Na- tion, I) for the diffe.ence of heights of Fahri.nheit's thermometer n//i7i-;6?(/ to the barometer at the two tia- tiuns, and m for the mean of the two hei^^hts of the two detached thermometers expnftd freely for a few nn'nutei 10 the open air in the flMdc, at the two Uationa ; then the altitude of the upper ll.it ion above the lower, in l''.nglifli fathoms, is thus txprefftd : (Log //- log./) +,.,45,/))>, ((+„i_,2 Xc,OT!44,.) ^\'llel•e the upper iign — in to be ufed, when the iher- monictir attached to the bnroni'tir is htu'lielt at the lower llation (which i.t mo!) uln.'il), and the lower figu -^, wlu-ii it is lowcil at the lower ll.ition. Dnt to reridir the rule more generally ufeful, wc fliall put it down in conimi>n language. Uui.i? Taki tlu diflVrente ot the common log:irithms of the obfirvcd heights ot" the barometers at the two llatiuns, toiiii.leiiiig the 111 II four figurrs, cxelulivc of the index, ait vrhok nninl-irs, and the rtmaiin'ng tiguret to the right as decimals, antifiiltrad or add o.^^^muU tijilied by the difference of altitudes of F.vH r eniiiit's theimometer attached to the barometer at the two i!a- tions, according as it w-.i'- hightll at the /o'zvrr or ufper llation ; and this is rearly the reijuired height. '1 hen midtiply the hei^^lit thus neatly found, by the dinVrencc between the mean of the two altitudes of the two dc /flfA«/ thermometers expofed to the air at the two lla- tions, and 3*", and again that pr>idu6\ by c, 00 ;4.|.. and the lad protlufl will be the correction of ihn altitude be- fore nearly found ; which added to or /ul/lratled (nun the fame according as the mean of the two alitnJis of the detalcheJ thervaomctura expofed to the air, vhh higher or iov.er than 32', will give the true height of the upper flation above the lowei-, in £nglifli fathoms ; and thi» multiplied by 6, gives the true altitude in Fnglilh feet. Ex. Let the Hate of the barometers and thermome- ters be as follows ; to find the altitude of one llatioa above the other. Barometers. Thern- imeters. Lower 30,16 Upper 24,1 9 attached, 54 ■ 47 I 2 dif. detached, 58 4i 50 mean concave, it is 30»i6 m INTRODUCTION. )d,i6 • • • 34,19 • • • Subtr>f\ Altitude nearly . Cor. idd Alt. »eu\j True Alt. in Log. ' 4794.3 "S '3836.159 957.<;54 5,448=0,454X13 951,506 18=50— ja 76>cKi48 951506 17145,108 0,00144 6858043a 685804) a 34)90116 41,83406358 95*»5o6 994,340 fathom 6 !'■. 5966,04 ie^ U| Ai' For hcighti which do not exceed 40CO or 50CO feet. Sir G SHucKnuROH gives the following rule : Let A=the mean height of the two barometers in inches ; a=the diiference of the two in tenths uf an inch ; b= the number of feet in the table corrcfponding to the mean height of the two thermome- tears I x=the height of the mountain in joab feet; then x= A Ex Suppofe the barometer at the bot- tom to be 9,72 inches, thermometer 64° ; the barom.'ter at the top to be 27, 6 tki.-i mttmeter 58 } to lind the altitude of the mountain Here •\=2f<,59 inches ; a=i!,6 j the mean heat of the two t( >.''mom£tei> — 61, the proportional number currel'poiiding to which found from the table is 92, 98 30x22,6 9-,i^8 = b; heuto x= ■ =2205 feet the 28,59 heigh- Inquired. £94. itie mean height of the barometer in London, riier Fmc 3»° H9.«J S 8 -.49 40 88.54 45 89,60 50 90,66 95 61,72 6« 9».77 6S 93.»»' 70 94.H8 75 9 J .93 96.99 from obrervations made at tlie Royal Society, is 29,88 inches ; and the mean temperature, according to Fah< rinheit's iheimometer, is 58^ The mean height at the furface of the fea is 30,04 inches, the heat of the barometer being 55", and that of the air 62°, according to Sir GtOKGK Shuckuuoh. 195. The heights of fomc of the m*ft remarkable mountains in Englifh feet. Snowden ... Mod Eilio Hchihallien, weft fummit of Kirk Yetton Cairn Siciddaw HelvcUyn Monte Rofa Montblanc Argentiere Buet Mole . . . Dole Saleor Mnnt Cenis, at the Poll Monte Velino Vcfuviui Feet 3555 »37' 3281 '544 3»40 3300 15084 »443» 12172 8K94 4>,8, 4-93 •«»84 503' «397 39j8 ,:V|. ^tna •: INTRODUCTION. Ixili .,■> ■ •'' icty. Is 30.88 ling to Fah* can height at c heat oi the z°, according remarkable Feet 3555 4371 3281 1544 3240 3 JOG 15084 «443» 12171 8H94 4»8i 4-9J 3284 503 « «397 3938 JEtn* M..ntc Vlfo HtcU, i>« /lelard Table Hill, *'f* Sigiul /'/( ■ l< uivu Cata. 'irou C«nif(uu Quitu • • Pichinca • £1 Curacon Coiufnn Cliimboraco 109J+ I IC2I 9')'n 4 01 1468 5'+' 7840 92.4 ^374 '57H3 •lJ'33 1^575 The hrighti of Snnwden and Mo«l Eili'o are nbove Carnarven Quay. The heiKlit of Schihalllen is above Weem. The height of Kirii Yetton is above Leith Pier-hrad. The nci(;lit of SI(i>le, Dole, Saleur, and M'int Ccnia. are above the Liihe of Geneva. The tiriffht* of the other mountains are above the Sea. The Lake of G>^neva ii 1228 feet above the Mediter- ranean Sea, and its greateft depth is 393 feet. On the Rain -gage, 296. The Rain gage is an inftrument to (how the quantity of lain whitli falls apon the earth at any place where you niiiy wi(h to make obfervations. It canfilb of a funnel communicating writh a cylindrieal lube at its bottom, into which the rain is conveyed by the funnel. The depth of the water in the cylinder is meafured by a rule fixed to a float, the rule palFiiig throueh the cen- ter of the funnel. The divifionii on the rule (bow the n .mbcr of cubic incites of water that have fallen on a furface equal to the area of the top of the funnel. The funnel ia fo contrived at to prevent the water from eva- porating. 29-. To ufe the rain gage, fo much water muft firft be put into the cylinder as will raiic ilic fl.>i.t, fo tii.it o on the rule may exat^ly coincide with tiie '>perture of the funnel. The gage fhould be firmly fixe.l m a place, where, whatever winds blow, the fall of the rain may not be intercepted by any obilaclos By this inftrument, the mean tuinual depths of rain in inches, at the places below, has been dcteroiincd. Inches London . 21,., Pai in . . . Pif.t in Italy . 43>i5 Ziif'ch, SwifTcrland . 3'>- J Liflc Flaiider* . 24-0 UpminilUr, l';fn'X . 19,11; Townley, Lancalhirc • 4*>5 Kuiiial . 64.S KrI'wick m 6 .55 Mr. l>ALTON informs ui, that the greatell quantity of rain at Kendnl'w 24 hours, in five years 17K8, 17^9, 1790, 1791, 1792, was «)n the 2 d of April, 1792, 4,5>^i inches ; at AV/toiVi, fomethnig lefa. In the level parts of thi« kingdom, and in the nrighbourocd of Lon- don, the mean annual depth of rain is about 19 or 20 incheii 298 It iippears that the mod rain falls in places near the fea conll, and Kfs and It-fs as the places become more inland. 'I'lie qnr^ntity which fulln on the . 1 ;■ n II "Ixlv INTRODUCTION. I Let A B reprefent the feftion of a cylinder moTeable about its axit, which is parallel to the horizon ; at the end there is an index / moveable gaind a graduated arc ab ; about this cylinder fome catgut iw is wound, one end of which ii< Hxed to the cylinder, and the otlier end to fomethiiig immoveable at Z. Now as the moillure of the air increafcs, the catgut contradls and turns the cylinder, and the motion of th(^ index ihowa the increafe of the moilUire ; and as tiie air decveafcs in moillure, the catgut will lengthen, and the weight of the index will cany the cylinder back, and the index will (how the correfponding decteafe of moillure. 300 In order to make a perfeil hyjrromcler, fuch fnbltance!) mull be nftd that will cmurad or expand in roportion to the quantity of ••.uii lure received. Mr. Oe Luc has made a great many e:,pfrimcnt.s in order to find out fiieh fubll.iiiccs ; and the rifiih is, that wh.-Mi'bone and box, cut aerol's the libres, increafe very nearly in proportion to the qnanliiy of iiii)illurc received He preferred the whalel)one, firll, on account of its lleadinefs, in aUvaya coming to the fame point at ex- trenie moiftuie ; fecondlv, on account of its greater ex. pantkni, ii ineresfiM};; in lcny;'!i above one eighth of it- it If, from extreme diyntfs to extreme moillure ; lallly, it is more eafily made thin ajul narrow 301. DkSaussuki- ami l)i Luc have proved by tlie hvgrometer, that the air increalcs in Jiynels as you afceud in the atuKifphere ; (o iliat in the u,)pi.r attain able rei^'ionB. it is conllantlv vtry dry except in ih^' clouds. The former gtntleman has alio fliown, lliat if the whole atmofphere palled fmm extreme dryncfs to e\lreme m^illurt, the quaiiiitv of water thus cvapora ted would not raile the haronieter bait au inch. Lallly, in cbemieal iiperati(ii\.s on the air, the jrrcalcll (pianiify of tviporated w.ter llmt nviy be Hippofed iutlicai a! ihe common !>-m ^laturt of the atnuilj'lu re, even if liny were at extreme mi i!;ufc is nut lo much Ai the one bundiedth part of ihcir aiai's. On the Afcsnt of ] .pours, the Origin of ^pfii'^s, tind Formation ofRiiiit, SnoWy and Hail. ;02. Vapours are raifed from the furface of the moill earth and n-aters ; the principal caufe of which is,, pro- bably, the hfst of the lun, the evaporation being always greatell when the heat is greatcll. The difficulty of folving the pxnomeuon arifes from hence, that we find a heavier fluid (water) fufpended in a lighter fluid (air), central y to liie common principles of hydrollatics. 30V I5r. Hall^y fuppofed, that by tiie aftlon of the fun upoii the furface of tlie water, the aqueous par- ticles become fomied Into hollow bubbles filled with w'arm and rarched air, fo as to make the whole bidk fpc- cifically ligiiter than air, in which cafe the particles will afcend. But there is great difficulty in conceiving how this can be cfFeCled. And if bubl)lt« could be at fril thus formed, when tliey afcend, the air within would foon be reduced to the /ame temperature of tjie air with- ht when ihc air is colder ; in wliich cafe, the water falls in dews and fo^s The vapour.., thus raifed by heat, afcend into the cold region of the atmofphere, and, not being there kept in a (late of petfeft folution, farm clouds. 304. Mariudtte fuppofcd 5'yi/7n(T/ to be owing to rain water and uieltid fnoiv. which penetrating the fur- faces of hills, and running by t' • "de of clay or rocks which it cannot penetr:ite, at lall comes to fonie place where it breaks out. This would account for the ph,Tc- iH)menon, provided the fupply from tliefe caufes was fuffici'--nt. Now Dr. Ha'llky has difcovertd a caufe fuffieiciit for a fupply ; for he has prnvt-d by experiment, that the vapourii which are raifed, ail'oid a much greater fupply than is nectllary. We will give the account in bis own words 305. " We took a pan. of water fdlted to tiie degree of the fdltnefrt of the lea, by a folution (,/ about a forli'. ih part of fnlt ) aliout 4 inches deep, and 7 ^o inches diameter, in which we placed a theroKmieter, and hy means qf a p.m of coals, we brought the water to the fame degree of heat wliieh is oblcrved to be that of the air in' our bottcll fi'iiimers ; the thermometer nicely fliowing it. 'i'his d.nie, we aflixed the ]).iu of water, wllb the thcrmomeier in it, to one end of the bean; ol the feales, and cx.iilly counterpoifed it with wcighl.s at the other end , and by the application or remi>val of the pan of co„ls, we found it very enfv to maintain the water in the lame degree of heat precilvlv. Doinir this, we tound the weight of the watei fejilihly to dccrtafc ; and at the end of two hours we obleivcd, that there wanted INTRODUCTION. Ixr Orient of )«aw, and r of the moid vhich is,, pro- being alwayn : difficulty nf . that we tiiul tt-r fluid (ail), rollatics. the aition oi ; aquuoiiB par- lea tilled with hole bulk fpc- i; particles will oiiceiving how >uld be ulfril wilhln would if the air with- lintely defcend. vapnnition i» a lowlhat itiftaU inicles difFufed r fpecific jrravi- Hiat promote* he heat caiifea a ke place in the :afe, the >»'atcr thus raifed by tmofphere, and, folutioii, futm ;o be owing to trating the fur- )f clay or rocks to I'onie place for the ptiJc- fe caufes was overtd a caufc by expirimcnt, much greater tiic aicount in I'd to the degree Ion (t about a iiiid 7 ro iu''h^'s mctri-, and hy ic water to the be that of the mometer nici-ly p.iu of water, I of the beam t with wcijjhis u or removal of to mainlaiu the V. Doiiij; tliis, ly to dLcrcafo ; vcd, that there wanted wanted half an nunct troy» nil but 7 grains, ori3^ grains ot w.iter, which in that time hud gone off in vapour ; thoiigli one could hardly perceive it fniokc, and the water was not feiifibly warm«' This quantity in fo ihort :«, gives J5344cco cubic yards of water to he evacuated every d.iy, that is, 20300000 tons fer diem ; and I doubt not but in the cxcefs of my meafnre of the channel of the river, I have made more than fufficient allowance for the waters of the Brent, the JVundel, the Lea, and the Derwait, wiiich are all worth notice, that fall into the Thames below Kingj'lon. 310. Now if each of the aforefiid nine rivers yield ten times as much water as the Tkatnes doth, it will fol- low, that each of them yields bnt 203 millons of tons per diem, and the whole nine but 18^7 millions of tons ill a day ; whitli is but li'.tle more than ', of what is raifed by vapours out of the AlediUrntiiean in twelve hours " ;ti. Thus the Doftor has shown that the waters, raifed by vapours are vallly more than fufficient for the fupply of all the rivers ; the overplus may fall, partly upon the fea, and partly upon the flat lands, and not contribute to fill the rivers. We may therefore admilf Mr. MARRioTTfc's fuiutton of the caufe of fpringa. 312. Delidrs the con/lanl fprings, there are others which ebb ani}Jloiu alternately, which may be thus ac- counted for. The water, before it breaks out, may meet with a large cavity on the fide of the hill, and upon the overflowing of this lefervoir, it may tind an apeituiCr an I make it-i efcaf:e ; in cafe of dry weather, therefore, th fup|>ly of water m.",y not be fufficient to keep it full, in whitli cafe, the fprit g \: II ceafe to flow and continue dry, till a fupply caufm it tu overflow, and prae'uue again the fpiiiig. 3 I 3. There is another theory to account for fpring* and rivers, which refers this caulo to a great alryl's of waici* occupying the central paits of our globe. It alferts, that all the phxu'ui'ena of fprings are chieHy derived from the vapours, veins, and iflnes, of this great abyfs, into which tliey art returned ; and that a perpe- tual circulatiuu and equality ii kept up ; the fprings., k. Qcvei Ixvi INTRODUCTION. i ■): ! tl •'• < j: t. It: s ;■ 'i^ i' r ! Ulv •- - ■ never failing, and the fea, by reafra of iti communtca* tion with the fubterraneous waten, .irvcr overflowing. In linking mines and welU from 8 to 8o3 feet deep, it it common to break in upon powerful fuurces ot wdter, and thefe fometimes at very great depths. Springs near the furface may have their fourcet from refervoirs which lie deeper, and they in their tutns are fed by larger an^^ deeper, till we come to the grand repoHtory of all, which ii fuppofed to keep up a communication with the fea, in confcquence of which, the water in the earth has always a tendency to rife to the level of the fea. Dr. Derham has (hown, that fprings occur in great plenty, and are conflart in (heir co.irfe, even in times of the (rreati-ll drought, where the country is in general very low, and there arc no mountain tops to condenfe the irapours. M. Gualteri fays, tiiat the waters dif- •harged by the riven in Italy into the fea, are to the rain which falls upon the land, as 55 to tf. The earth ii alfo moiflened to a greater depth than can be ac- counted for form the falling of the rain. From all thefe circumftances it is concluded, that there mud be fubterraneous refeivoirs of water. It is not unlikely but.that this, and the caufe of fprings and rivers ailigned hf Dr. Hallev, may both operate. 314. Clouds are formed by the water raifed by eva- poration, and arc of the fame nature as dews and fogs upon the earth. When the water in the air ceafes to be fufpended, it falls down, and the particles uniting in falling, form drops. Various, probably, are the caufes of the precipitation of the water. After the air is fatura- ted with vapour, a fudden diminution rf the denfity of the air will caufe it to part with fume of its vapours ; for as a certain quantity of air can hold but a certain quantity of water in folution, if that air become rare- fied, it will not hold all its water in folution, and a pre- cipitation will take place. ' As vapour is principally raifed by heat a variation of temperature will probably caufe a precipitation. Alfo, we know by an eledlrome* ter, that the air is always in a ftate of eledricity, fome- times pofitive, and fometimes negative. From M. be Saussure's obfcrvations, in winter the eleAricity was generally weakell in an evening, when the dew had fallen, until the fun's rifing ; it afterwaads increafed, and generally before noon it attained its maximum, and then diminifhed, till the fall of the dew, when it would be fometimes ilronger than it had been during the whole day ; after which, it would gradually diminiih the -whole night. In fummer, in general, if the ground have been dry foi fome days, and the air been dry alfo, the ele£lricity generally increafes from the rifing of the fun till ^ or 4 in the afternoon, when it is ftrongeft { it then diminilhes till the dew brgins to fall, and then it increafes ; but after this it declines, and is very fmall during the night. Now Beccari a reckons tain, hail, and niow amongft. the cfFedts of the cleftricity of the Stmofphere. Clouds which bring rain lie thinks, are produced in the fame manner as thunder-clouds are, only by a lefs degree of eleflricity. He reniaiRsfeveral drcumftacces attending rain without lightaiing, which i;i make it probable that it 19 produced by the fame caufe as when it is attended by thunder and lightning. Jji^ht has been feen amongil the clouds by night in rainy weather ; and even by day, rainy clouds are feen to have a brightnefs evidently independent of the fun. The intenfity of elc^ricity alfo in his apparatus, ufually correfpunded very well with the quantity of rain. The phsenomena alfo of thunder, lightning, and rain, are very frequently obferved to accompany each other, which (hows the cone^lion they have with a common caufe. He fuppofes that previous to rain, a quantity of electric matter efcapet out of the earth, and in its afccnt, col • le£^s a quantity of vapour, and thus the air becomes overcharged with vapours. Hence, the rain will be heavier the more vigorous the eledricity is ; and this is agreeable to obfervation. Mr. re Luc has ihuwn that water in a Hate of vapour combined with the air, pro. duces no moillnefs, and therefore concludes that rain does not arife from the moilture in the atmofphere prior to the rain. The decomporuian produces the muiUure and'then the raiii. If it be very cold in thefe regions where the rain begins to be formed, it then defcendt in fnow ; and when the drops of rain are formed, and are defcending, if in their defcent they pafs through a re> gion of the air cold enough to freeze them, they defcend in hail. On the Temperature of different Parts of the Earth. 315. The prefence of the fun is one of the principal fourres of heat, and its abfence the caufe of cold ; and were thefe the only fources of heat and cold, in the fame parallel of latitude there would be the fame degree of heat or cold at the fame feafon ; but this is found to be contrary to matter of fa£l ; the temperature of the eaft- em coaft of North jjmerica is much colder than the wellern coaft of Europe, under the fame latitude. Very hot days are frequently felt in the coldeft climates ; and very cold weather, even perpetual fnow is found in countries under the equator. We muft therefo : feek for other caufes of heat and cold, and thefe muft evi- dently be partly local, 316. One great fource of heat is from the earth; whetiier this arifes from any central fire, or from a mafs of heat diifufed through the earth, it is not perhaps eafy to fay : the latter caufe is perhaps the moft probable ; and in this cafe, the heat which is thus gradually loft is renewed again by the fun. This heat imparted from the earth to the atmofphere, tends greatly to moderate the feverity of the winter's cold. It is found by obfer- vation, that the fame degree of heat refides in all fub- terraneous places at the fame depth, varying a little at diiferent depths, but is never lefs than 36'' of Fahren- heit's thermometer. There is however an exception to this in mines, where there is probably fome chemical operations going forwards. Mr. Kikwan in his E/ii- male of the Temprrature of Afferent LatituJei, and tO whom we are principally indebted for what we flull here give upon INTRODUCTION. Ixvii vpon till* fubjcA, obrervcs, tliat at 80 or 90 feet (if thii depth have any communication with the open air, and perhaps, at a much left depth if there be no fuch communication) the temperature of the earth varies very little, and generally approaches to the meau annual heat. Thus the temperature of fpringa is nearly the fame a) the mean annual temperature, and varies very little in different feafons. The temperature of the cave at the obfervatory at Paris is about 53I degrees, and varies about half a depree in very cold years ; its depth is about 90 feet. The internal heat of the earth tn our climate is always above 40", and therefore the fiiow ge- nerally begi. , to melt (irft at the bottom. The next fource of heat is the condenfation of vapour. It is well known that vapour contains a great quantity of heat, which produces no other effect, but that of making it alTume an aerial, expanded (late, until the vapour i* con> denfed into a liquid ; during which condenfation a certain quantity of heat tfcapes, and warms the furrounding at. mofphere. This condenfation is frequently formed by the attradion of an ele£lrical cloud, and hence arifeb the great fultrinefs which we frequently experience before rain, and particularly before a thunder ftorm. 317. As the earth is one of the great fources of heat, warming the furrounding air, diftance from the earth mull be a fource of cold ; and thus we find that as yoii afcend in the atmofphere, the cold Increafes. lo the vicinity of Paris, the temperature of the earth being 47% at the eftimated height of 1 1084 feet it was found to be 2 1% or 1 1° below congelation, by M. Ch akles who afcended in i\ ballon. And Lord Mim.oravi, at the bottom n{ Hactlyt Hill, lat. 80", found tiie temperature of the air 50° ; but on the top, at the height of 1503 feet, only 42". Hence we find, that the higheft muun • tains, even under the equator, have their tops cmtinual- ]y covered with fnow. Mr. Bougukr found the cold of Pinchina, one of the CordeFurtt, immediately under the line, to extend from 7" to 9'' below the freezing point every morning before fun-rife ; and hence at a certain height, which varies iu aimoft every latitude, it conlUntly freezes at night all the year round, though in the warm climates it thaws t« fome degree the next day. This height he calls the lotoer Term q/f ctngelalion f be. tween the tropics he places it at the height of 15577 feet, Engli/b mcafure. The next great fource of cold h fvaporalioii> The fame caufe which makes thecou- denfation of vapour a fource of heat, makes evaporation the fource of cold } as it abforbs the fire in the latter inftance, which it rives out in the farmer : tlie heat thus abforbed is called Talent heat, it producing, in that ftate, no fenfation of warmth. At a certain height above the lower term of congelation in neverfreezes, not becaufc the cold decreafes, but becaufc the vapours do not afcend fo high ; this height Mr. Bouguer calls th« ufper term 0/ congelation, and under the equator he fixe* it at the height of 28000 feet. Mr. Kirwan hu given us the following mean height of the ojiper and Ictuer termi of congelation, for the latitude of every five degrcei, w feet. Alt. lemer Alt. upper 1 Ale. lower Alt. vpper Lat. Term. TeriT 28COO Lat. Term. Term. 0" '5577 45' 76,-8 13730 S '5457 27784 50 6260 11253 10 15067 27084 55 4912 8830 >5 14498 26061 60 ,684 6546 20 '37'9 24661 65 2516 4676 »5 > 30.^0 23423 70 '557 2809 30 1.592 20838 75 748 '346 35 IC664. 19169 «o 120 207 40 9016 16307 318. Sometimes the temperature of the upper air is higher than that of the lower air, particularly when a large mafsof vapours is condenfed by elcdrical agency s for no part of the heat given out by that caufe being loft by communication w;th air much colder, that which furrounds the vapours fo condenfed, muft be bcikted to a confiderable degree. The clouds, by abforbing the fun's rays, are more heacd than the clear air would be. Thefe, and other circumftances, render the true height of the terms of congclatiou at «ny time, fg^cA to con* fiderablc uncertainty. ka 319. The i i I M^' I m Ixviii INTRODUCTI ON. 519. Tlie clearing away of wooda leiTens tlie vapouri, and confequentl/ diminilhcs the quantity of rain, and increafes tlie temperati;re. Several parilhes in Jamaica which ufed to produce fine crops of fugar caneu, ure DOW dry for 9 montha in a year, and are turned into cattle-pens, tlirougli the clearing away of the woods. Pience, water is moft plentiful in thofe countries, wlitre woods abound, and the bc!\ fprings are there found. In jimerica, lince the woods in the neighhourhood of thtir towns have been cut down, many ftrcams have become dry ; and others have been reduced fo low, as to caufe great interruptions to the miller. 320. Of evaporation, the following fafts may be ob- ftrvcd. I. I'hat in our climates, evaporation is about four times as great from the 2iil of March to the 31 ft of September, as from the 2 1 11 of September to the 2 1 ft of March. 2. That, other circumftances being the fame it Is greater in proportion as the difference between the tern - pcrature of the air, and that of the evaporating; furface is greater ; and fo much the fmaller as the difference is fmallcr ; and therefore (mallell when the temperature of the air and evaporating liquor are equal. The former part of this propolition however requires foine reftric- tion ; for if air be more than 15 degrees colder than the cvapotating furface, there is fcarce any evaporation ; but on the contrary, it depofits its moifture on the fur- face o' the liquor. 3. The degree of cold produced by evaporation, is al- ways much greater when the air is warmer than the evaporating furface, than thnt which is produced when the furface is warmer than the air. Hence warm winds, as the Sirocco and Harmalun, are more drying than cold winds. 4. Evaporation is more copious when the air is lefs loaded with vapours, and is therefore greatly promoted by cold winds flowing into warmer coutitries. V Evaporation is greatly incrcaftd by a current of air or wind flowing over the evaporating furface, be- caiife unfaturated air is conftantly hroughi into conladl with it. Hence, calm days are hotteft, U3 \i,\i commonly been rematked. 6. 'I'rafts of land covered with trees or vegetables emit more vapour than the fame fpace coveted with water. Mr.WiLLiAiMs (PhiTmkfphia Tratifii3iotu) (ouni this quantity to amount to -} more Hence tlie air about a wood or foicft is made colder by evaporation from trees and flirubt, while the plants themselves are kept in a more moderate heat, and fecured from the burning heat of the fun by the vapours perfpirtd from the leaves. Thus, we find the fliade of vegetables more effedual to cool us, as well as more agreeable, than the fhade, from rocks and buildings. 321. The heat and cold of different countries are tranfmitted from one to the other, by the medium of winds. 322. From what has been obfervl^d it is manifeft, that fome fiiiiations are better fitted to receive or communi- cate heat, than others ; thus, high and mountainous fituations being nearer to the fource of cold than lower fituations ; and countries covered with woods, as they prevent the accefs of the fun's rays to the e.itth, or to the fiiow which they may conceal, and prcfent more numerous evaporating furfaces, muft be colder than open countries, tiiough fituated in the fame latitude. And fince all tradls of land prefent infinite varieties of fitu- at ion, uniform reful<.j cannot here be expefled. Mr. KiRWAN ohferves therefore, that it is on water only that we muft feek for a ftandard fituation with which to compare the temperature of other fituations. Now the globe contains, properly fpeaking, but two great trads of water, the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean ; which may each be divided into north and fonth, as they lie pn the northern or fouthern fide of the equator. In this tra£l of water, he chofe that fitua- tion for a ftandard which recommends itfelf moft by its fimpticity, and freedom from any but the moll permanent caufea of alteratiou of temperature ; via. that part of the Atbntic which lies between 80^ north and 45' fouth latitude, and extending fouthwards as far as the Gulph llream, and to within a few leagues of the Coaft of /Imerica \ and that part of the Pacific Ocean which lies between 45" north and 40** fouth latitude, and from 20" to 2']$'^ eaft longitude. Within this fpace, the mean annual temperature will be found as ex. piefFcd by the following cable. The temperarures be- yond 80' latitude are ?dded, tliough not ttrifUy within the ftandard. . ' •• ■ A Table • '. ,. . . ■ ■ INTRODUCTION. Wx A T«ble of the mean Annual Temperature of the ttandard fituation, in «vety degree of Lititude. 3 3 The rule by which this fable has been comput- ed, wds given by the famous allronomerToBiAS Mayer of Gollhigen, awA is as follows; it was conllrufted from knowing the mean annual temperatures of two latitudes. Ltt t be the fine of the latitude ; then the me.in annual temptrature will be 84 — 53 Xxi ; that is, frcn'. i\fub- traH 53 muUipUed into ihefquare ofthefmt of the iaiiluJcy and the remaimler it the mean annual temperature. 324. The temperatures of different years differ very little near the equator, but ttiey differ more and more as you approach the poles. 325. It fcarcc cvtr freezes in latitudes under 3?", except in high fituations y and it fcarce ever hails in la- titudes higher than fio'. 32O. In latitudes between 35° and 60", in places ad- JKcent to the fea, it generally thaws when the fun's alti- tude ia 40" or upwards ; and feldom begins to freeze, until the fun's meridian altitude is below 40°. 317. Tht greatelt cold in all Intitudes in our hemif- ,phere, is generally about half an hour before fun- rife. The greateft heat in all latitudes between 60° and 45" is about half pad 2 o'clock in the afternoon ; between latitudes 45 and 35 , about 2 o'clock ; between lati- tudes 35° and 25% and about half-pall i o'clock ; and be- tween latitude 25" and the equator, about i o'clock. On fea, the difference .between the heat of day and night, is not fo great as on land, particularly in low la- titudes. 32H. In all latitudes, January is the coldefl month. July is the warmed month in all latitudes above 48^ ;. but in lower latitudes, Augull is the warmeft. The temperature of April approaches more nearly to the mean annual temperature, than any other month. 329. In the highell latitudes, we often meet with an heat of 7j"or 80"; and in latitudes 59 and 60° that heat of July is frequently greater than in latitude 51 ' 3 o. AH countries lying to the windward of high mountains, or extenfive forelis, are warmer than thofe to the leeward in the fame latitude. 331. ihe vicinity to the fea is another circumftance which ii Ixx INTRODUCTION. ! .! i; ' Ii ■ ! '* which afTt'As the tcmp«riture of a cllmaU ; at it mode- rates the heat frnm the land, and brings the atmofphere down to a llanilatd bt(l fitted to the human conllitu. tlon. In our hemlfpliere, countries which lie to the fouth of any fea, are warmer than thofe that have the fca lie lo the fonth of them, becaufe the winds that (hoiild cool them in winter are mitigated by pafling over the fea ; whereas thufe which are northward of the fea, are cooler In fiiinmer by the breezes from it. A north- ern or foiithern bearing of the fea, renders a country warmer than an eallern or weAern bearing. 332. Ifl^nds participate more of temperature arifing from the fea, and are therefore warmer than continent)). 333. The foils of large tr-ifts of land have their (hare in influencing the temperature of the country : Thus, {tones and fand, heat and cool more readily, and to a greater degree, than mould ; hence, the violent heats in the fandy deferts of Jratia and j4friea ; and the interife cold of Ttrra del Fue^o, and other ftony countries in cold latitudes. 334. Vegetables confiderably affeft the temperature of a climate. Wooded countries are much colder than thofe which are open and cultivated. 335. Every habitable latitude enjoys a heat of 60° at leall, for two months and this is ncoeffary f«r t' e growth and maturity of corn. The quicknefs of vege- tation in the higher latitudes'proceeds from the time the fun is above the horizon. Rain is but little wanted, as the earth is fufficientiv moiilened by the liqulfadion of the fnow that covers it during the winter. In this v/e cannot fufficiently admire the wife difpolition of Provi- dence. , 3^6. It is owing to the fame provident hand that the globe of the earth is interfered with feas, and nountains, in a manner, that feems, on its first appearance, altogc ther irregular and fortuitous ; prefenting to the eye of ignorance, the view of an iminenfe rain : but when the effects of thffe feeming irregularitie* on the earth are carefully infpe£ted, they are found moil beneficial, and even iieccflary to the welfare of its inhabitants; for to fay nothing of the advaatagcs of trade and commerce, which could not exift without feas, we have fcen that it is by their vicinity, that the cold of higher latitudes is moderated, and the heat of the lower. It is by the want of feas, that the interior parts of Jjia, as Siberia and GrtiU Tartary, as well as thofe of Africa, are ren • dered almoll uiiinhabiiahle ; a circumftance which fur- niflies a (Irong prejudice againft the opinion of thofe, who think thofe countries were the original habitations of man. In the fame manner, mountains are neceflary ; not only as the refcrvoirs of rivers, but as a defence againft the violence of heat in the warm latitudes ; with- out the Alps, Pyrenees, Apennine, the mountains of Dauphine, Auvcrgne, &c. Italy, Spain, and France .would be deprived of the mild temperature which they now enjoy. Without the Balgatc Hills, or Indian Apennine, India would have been a defert. Hence, Jamaica, St. Domingo, Sumatra, and inoft other iflands between the tropics, are furnifhed with mountains, from which the breezes proceed which refrtfli them. 337. The annual heat of London and Paris is nearly the fame ; but from the beginning of April to the end of Odlobcr, the heat is greater at Paris than at London. Hence, grapes arrive at greater pefedlion in the neigh- bourhood of Paris than about London. 53'<. The following table contains a comparifon of the temperature of London with feveral other places. The firll column contains the place ; the fecond, the annual temperature ; the thirds the temperature of Jan- uary, that being the coldeft month ; and the fourth, the teinperature of July ; that at London, as the ilandard, being elliroatea at 1000. The degree of cold is elli- mated in the third column; and the degree of heat in the fourth and iecond. "-%<■' M „ 'M Places. An. Temp. Temp. Jan. toco Temp.July. London • . ^ . loco 1000 Paris - ... 1028 1040 iO}7 Edinburgh 923 1040 914 Berliii . . . . 942 Stockholm 811 1583 964 ;Peterfi)urgh 746 359° 1008 ' Vienna .... 987 '305 io?7 Pckin . - . . 1067 1730 1283 Bourdeaux - • - 1090 925 "39 Montpelier - . . 1170 850 1196 Madeira .... >3 9 559 1128 Spanifti Town, in Jamaica - . •Madrafj - . . - >557 1505 49 • •349 '«9- At »» INTRODUCTION. Ixx! 339. At London, by t mean of ihe obfervatiom made at the Royal Society from 177a to 1780, it appear* tlut the mean annual temperature it 51% 9. or in whole numberi, 52"; and the monthly temperature it as fol- loiri: January February March April May June uly - Augult September Oftober November December 35^9 <«.3 46,4 49.q 56,61 63,»a 6r,,3 65.8 s 59.^3 52,81 44.44 41,04 The greatcft nfiial cold is 20", and happens in Janu- ary ; the greateft ufual heat is 8i° and happens general- ly in July. The limits of the annual variation are 2^5, that is, I" above, and i",5 bdow the mean. The greateft variations of the mean temperature of the fame month in different years, arc as follows : January Febrifary March April May June 6" 5 4 3 2.5 2 Auguft September OAober November December a"" 2 3.5 4 4 3 Hence it appears, that the temperatures of the fum- mers differ much Icfs than thofe of the winters. The moft ufual variations of temperature within the fpace of 24 hours in every month, are, January 6 February - 8 March 20 April . i3 May >4 June 12 July . 10 .'iuguft . 15 September - iS Oftober . H November - • 9 December _ 6 340. At Pelerjhurgh, latitude 59'. 56', longitude 30". 24' £. the mean annual tei;)perature is sB'iti, from the mean of 6 years the greateft cold obferved waa that at which mercury freezes, that is, 34° below 0° ; but the greateft mean degree of cold for feveral years was 25° below o". The greateft fummer heat, on a mean, is 79% yet once it amounted to 94". It fcarce ever hails at this place. 341. In latitude 79°. 50', Lord Mulgrave obferv. ed the greateft heat for two days to be 58°, and the Uaft 46'. Mr. Martin obfervet, that the weather in the polar regions is very unfteady : one hour it blows a violent ftorm, and in the next there it a dead calm ; nei« ther does it blow long in any one point, but fometimet from every point within 34 hours. .After a calm, the north wind fpiingt up firft ; the flcy ii feUom perfcAly 9 clear, and ftormt are much more frequent than in lower latitudes. 342. In Europe, unufual cold in fummer may arife, eitner from a long continuance of eaftcrly or northerly winds, or from frequent and heavy rains, which are ful ■ lowed by great evaporations, or from a long continuance of cloudy weather in June and July, which prevents the earth from receiving its proper degree of heat. 34}. The caufet of unufal cold in winter may be thefe. I It, Unufual cM in the preceiling fummer. For the heat in the winter being in a great meafure derived from the earth, if this be deprived of its ufual heat, the want of it muft be perceived in winter. The cold of January 17C9 was the feverrft, lung known in Europe'; and Mr. Dcrham remarked, that the preceding June wns fo cold, that his thermometer was near the freezing point on the 12th of that month, and the quantity of rain was murh greater than ufual. Mr. Wulf made the fame obfervatton in Germany. 2dly. Heavy raint folliweJ by ea'ierly or northerly winds. This circum- ftance produces great culd at any time, on account of the great evaporation whith then takes place by thefe dry winds. It took place in Od^ob^r 1708, as Mr. Wolf obferved; and an intenfe cold immediately fol- lowed. 3dly. Weflerly orfoulherly currents, In the upper regions of the atmofphere, whil't eajlerly or northerly tutnds prevail in the lower. For the warm currents aa- depri- ved of their moillure by the cold of the fuperior re- gions ; and this defcending in the form of fnow, cools the inferior ftrata below their ufual temperature : thia circumftance alfo took place in 17C9, when the cold was greateft, 4thly. The arrival of Siberian, or .American •winds. Siberia it 2800 mileft eaft of Lend; but ac- cording to Mr. Sm Eaton's computation, a common high wind movet at the rate of 35 miles in an hour, and therefore may pafs to us in 3 days from Siberia, and prefervc much of its original degree of cold. The winds from America may alfo arrive in a few days ; but their rigour will be abated by palTing over thefea; but if the fea have been prevloufly cooled by northerly winds, the wefterly winds may prove very cold. Mr. Derham, on comparing his journals with thofe of Mr. RoBiE in New England, found, that after a few days the American winds pafted into England. The wind in 1784 was equally fevere in America, as in Eu- rope, jthly. The fail of a fuperior flratum of the atmof- phere. This will happen when a cold wind in the upper regions of the atmofphere pafles over a country, the lower ftatra of whofe atmofpere are lighter; and hence a low ftate of the barometer generally precedes fuch ex- traordinary cold. Ii is probably for this reafon, that Holiand oftener experience* a greater degree of cold, than other countries under higher latitudes ; for being a moift country, its atmofphere abounds more in va> pours, which renders it fpecilically lighter ; thus, dur> ingthe great cold of January 178;, the barometer was lower than it had been known to be fur 50 years before, during thtt month; and Muschlnmock remarked^ that Ixxii INTRODUCTION. that in winter, when the mercury in the barometer ile- fcendi, tlie tolJ incrcafei. 3.14. Lni'.d is capable of receiving much vnovc tiilier heat or cold, than vvaier. In wintn when the fiirfaci; ol" water is much cooled by contadt wit'\ the coUiir air, tlie deeper and warmer water ut the bottom, bcliij; fpccili- cally lighter, rifes and tempers the top, ami as llie colder water conltantly dtfcendit during tlic winter, in the following fnmmer the furface ia eeneially warmer than at greater depths i whereas in wniltr it ii colder ; hence it hat been remarked, that the fea U always colder in fiimmcr and warmer in winttr, after a ftorm, the water at (^rcat depths being mixed with that at the fiir- face. 0( the 'ollDwiiijr obfcrvations, the ihree fiid were made by l.urd Mulcravi:, the tliite next by \VALti iind Bayley, and the other by Mr. Ui-adh. Tlie third cohiinn cxprefTiia the hsat of the lir over the fnrface ot thf fea ; the fourth rxpriffcs th.- Hepth of the fea iii/fc/ } the fifth exprelf'-i the heat of the ka at that depth, and the fixth expredeu llie heat of the fea attlic fmlace. i:i:ii; pil: ii Latitude. Time. Heat of Air. ; Depth. Heat of Sta 26 Ht. ofSuifiice 67° N. June 20 48.5 46!>o 78 N. 30 40.5 70 J .3' 69 N. Atiguft 31 5')>5 1 40,8 .^' Sept. 5 7;.') ; 5.0 66 74 =4 s. 16 72.5 i 480 70 70 34. 44' s. oa. n 60,5 6-0 57 59 57 N. Jan. 8 46 6 40 37, 10 43.'5 5=> 4.'«<> 43 <5 55. 40' N. JO 47 no 5'.5 40 39- 3^ N aS 53 no 59 59 2. 5: N. Feb, 7S 81 58 81 8i 2. 50 N. 26 [ no Si B4.5 ^M ''I i ,'i I nrnii ■,F I .s ' 34^. As the water in the high northern and fouth- ern latitudes, is, by cold, rendcied heavier than that in lower warm latitudes, hence arifea a perpetual current from the poles to the equator, which fometimea carries down large maffes of ice, which cool the air to a great extent. Inland fcas of great extent have been frozen in very fevere winters. In 166S, the Siillic was fo firmly frozen that Charles XI. oi Sweden, carried his whole army over it ; and the Jdr'tatic was fro/.en in 1709 The temperatures of land and water differ more in winter than in fummer ; for in winter, inland coun- tries, from lat. 49" to 70' are frequently cooled down to o", 50', and fome to 7^" below tlie freezing point ; whereas, the fea below lat. 76' is not colder tliun .y' btlow that point in the northern hemifphere, except fome narrow feas in the north Pacific Ocean ; but in fummer, no conliderable extent of land is heated to more than i 5" or 20' above the temperature of the fea, iony and fandy deferts excepted. 346. The temperatures ol the fmaller feas, in gene- Tal, if not furrounded with high niountaiiifl, are a few degrees warmer in fummer, and colder in winter, than the ftandard ocean ; in high latitudes they are frequent- ly frozen. •.47. The wljite fea is frozen in the winter. 348. The Gu'jih 0/ Bothnia is in a great mcafure frozen in winter; but in fummer it is fometimes heated to •] j". Its gentritl temperature in July is from 48 to 56 • 349. The German fea is about 3 ' colder in winter and 5" warmer in fummer, than the /itlanlk. 350. The Mediterranean fea is, for the greater part of it9 extent, warmer both fummer and winter, than the Miintic, which, for that reufon, flows into it. It is fometimes frozen in the neighbourhood of Venice. 751. The Black fea is colder than the Mediterranean, and flows into it. 352. The Cafpian fea is fituatcd in the vicinity of high mountains, and is in a great ineafure frozen in win- ter. Its level is faid, by Pallas, to be lower than the ocean. ;i53. Some idea may be formed what altitudes on the furface of the globe are accefiible to man, by confidcr- [hg the height above the fea of the inferior line of per- petual fnuw. In the middle of the torrid zone, it ap- pears from Mr. Bouguer's obfervations, to be eleva- ted 5:01 yards, and 4476 about the tropics. In mid- dle Utiiudes, there is conllant fnow at the height of 3305 yards In lat. tjo" north. Lord Mulckavk found the inferior line of fnow to beat the height uf 400 yards : whence we may conclude, that at the pulei, there is conilaut fuow upon the furface uf the earth. On INTRODUCTION. Ixxi iin On the Dlvtfiom of the Surface of the Earth. 354. Tlie furface of the earth contains land and ifthmus, it is called a prommlory, the end of which u called a cape. On the Component Parts of the Earth. 364. The two grand fllvillons of the earth are what are ufually called land and luater. The fuhdiviruini may be as follows: earlht v^ndjlones ; falts ; injlamxiable fubllanccs ; metalic fubftances. 365. Earths and Stones. Mineralogifts divide thcfc into calcareous, panderont, magn^Jian or muriatic, argilLiceout, Aaiijlliceous. All ftonci, and eirthn conlilt of thefe fuhllances, either finjjly or mixed, or chymieal- ly combined, together with faline, inflammable and me> talit fubftances, for they arc fcldom found p«re. They are nearly infolublc in water, and have their fp.-cillc gravities between i and 5, that of water being i. 366. Calcareous earth, when freed from the carbonic acid by means of heat, and rendered pure from all other fnbllauces, conllitutes lime. Its fpeciiic gravity is about 2,3 It combines with all acids, and is eafdy foluble in the nitrous or marine, and forms deliquefcent faltt<. There are a great many fpecimens of this earth ; as limellone, chalk, felenite, illand cryftah, almoft all kinds of fpars, whether tranfparent or opaque, and manr kinds of marble ; all thefe confift of this earth combined with fome acid. To thefe we may add, Kctton ftone, Portland ftone, Purbeck ftone. Vegetable and aiiimal earths are found to be calcareous; the latter, purely fo{ and the former for the moft part, with a mixture fome- times of the calces of iron and manganefe ; but the greater part of the fubftances of vegetables is water. Accordmg to fome late experiments, ^3 pounds of oak afforded only 3 drachms of adtcs. Hence we fee why clay is unfavourable to vegetation, and how calcareous earth is introduced into the bodies of animals. 3' 7. /'oW«"oux earth, or jary/;/, has its fpeciiic gra> viiy about 4. Its fpecimens are the ponderous fpar, or marmor metallicum, commonly known by the name of Cavvk. It combines with acids, and with the nitrons and marine it forms falts that do not deliquefce. This eaitli combined with the xrial fluid, has been found at Allien Moor, in Cumberland, and refcmbles alum. 368. Magnefum earth has its fpecific gravity about 2.33. It combines with acids; and the fpecimens ate (Iciitlces, foap rock, French chalk, afbeftos, and talk. Epfom fait is alfo a combination of this earth with vi- triolic acid. 1 389. Argilla. \l ill- Ixxlv INTRODUCTION. \i% {•i i ;i ;i ^1" 369. jlrgtllaeeous earth, or elay, has its fpeciflc gravity not above 2. It combines with acids, and witii the vitrioh'c it forms alum. It imbibcn water very llrongly, •nd, capable of being moulded into variant forms, it li of Ktcat life in the arts and manufadories, for the efTcntial ingredient in all kinds of pottery, is clay ; the Englifli ilonc ware is compofed of pipe clay and ground flints ; the yellow Queen's ware is made of the fame materials, but in different proportions. China is a femivitrilied earthen ware of an intermediate nature between common wares and glafii. Chinefc ware is compofed of two in- gredientH, one a hard itone called pelunlft, and the other called laol'tn. This earth contract!) very much by heat, and thence it has heen made ufe of as a mcafure of very great heat(>, by cuniidering the diiFerent degrees of con- trnftion. The natural fpecimens are, boles, clays, niark's, dates, mica, gems, &c, 370. SiHceous tartii has its fpccific gravity 2,65. It is called cryllalline, or vitriiinble earth, and combines with no acid, except the fparry. Extreme hardnefs is one of its properties, fo that Hones, in which it predo- minates, as flint, will (Irike Hre witli Heel. It may be diflblved by fixed alkalis, either in the dry or wet way. Its fpecimens arc, cryftal, which is one of the purelt, quartz, flints, onyx, jafper, wetllone, fand and gravel, &c. The precious (tones are principally compofed of argillaceous and liliceous earths. Bergman obtained from 100 parts of the following precious (lones : Clay Flint Lime Iron Emerald • Sapphire - Topaz Hyacinth - Ruby - - 5« 46 40 40 24 39 W 5 H 20 9 6 2 6 : ■* ..) 10 371. Mr. KiKWAN ohferves, that the diamond and plumbago, cannot properly be arranged under the claf- fes of minerals, earths, nor inflammables ; but diamond has been fince afligned to the latter ckfa. A diainond ij tranfparent, often coloiirltfs, ftrikes (ire with ttetl, cuts the hardcll cryilnis, and even rubiei', being the hardeft of all bodies : Its fpccific gravity is about 3,6. No acid but the vitriolic can aSe£t it. In a heat fome- what greater than that in which filver melts, a diamond is entirely volatilized and confumed. Plumbago has its fpecific gravity from 1,987 to 2,267. It is iniuluble in mineral acids. I'he fiibilance is black without, but blutifh white when firil cut. It is ufcd for pencils. 372. Salts are thofe fubHances which are fufible, volatile, foiii!)le in water, not inflammable, and fapid when applied to the tongue. In their mod fimple flate it is a wbite, brittle, and in fome meafure a tranfparent mafs. They are fimple and compound. Simple falts arc acids and alkalis ; and from thei;' union a compound fait is formed, called neutral. Earths and mctaU will alfo unite with them and form compound falta. 37 j. AciJf are generally fluid, and one mark by which they may be difcovered, is their property ofchaugin)( t<» a red, the infufion of violets. They are dlitinguifhed into mineral, vegetable, and animal. 374. Mineral acid* are the xrial, the vitriolic, the marine, the nitrous, the fpurry, the fiiccinous, the phof. phoric, the molybdenous, the arfenical, the tungllcnkf and the fedative. 375. Vegetable tic\A» are vinegar, the acids of tartar, of fugar, or furrel, of lemons, and of benjamin. 376. Animal acidn are, acids of milk, of fugar of milk, of ants, of tallow, of PiuQian blue, and the acidum perlati. 377. jUkaltt are of two forts, fixed and volatile; and the flxtd are cither vegetable or mineral. I'he mi- neral fixed alkali is met with in an impure Hate ia kelp, barilla, foda. '1 he vegetable (ixcd alkali is met with in an impure (late in fait of tartar, potalli, pearl-afli, &c. The volatile alkali is never met with but as compound- ed with other bodies. It is fold in (hups under the name of fmtUing falts. Alkaliii change the blue infu* fion of violets to green. 378. Invlammables. Under this head are includ- ed thofe fiMlunces which are inflammable, and which do not cove under the denomination of earths, falts, or metalic ores, and have general charafiers perfectly dif- tin£l from them. Of thefe, fome are fluid, and fome folid; the fpecilic gravity of the latter never exceeds 2,5, and the former are the lightclt of all bodies. 379. Thefe fubliances are, inflammable air, or fire damp, fuch aj is fictjuently found in coal-pits and mines, and this will burn when mixed with twice or thrice itj bulk ot common air; alfo, hepatic air, petrol, Bar- badoes tar, mineral tullovv, Scotch coal, Ncwcallle cuul, Caniiel coal, Kilkenny coal, amber, copal, fulphur, brim Hone, &c. 380. Cannel coal burns with a bright light, and is fo hard, that it is ufed to make fnufF boxes, buttons, &c. NewcalUc coal will cake and become cinders. Scotch coal burns to a white afh. Kilkenny coal burns with lefs flame nnd fmoak than Cannel coal, and more flowly, though intenftly. The earth in this coal does not ex- ceed 2 of its weight ; and its fpecific gravity is about 1,4. Wherever coals exill, dates are found near them ; and fait or mineral fprings in the neighbourhood. ^81. Metals. Thefe fubHances are opaqlie bodic!:, whofe fpecific gravities are above 5. They are all con» dudtorsof eledriciiy,andthebelt of anyfubltances. They are fohible in nitrous acid, or in aqua regia ; and all preci- pitable in fome degree by caultic alkali. Ihere are \ 7 me- talic fubHances ; gold, platina, filver, copper, iron, lead, tin, mercury, zinc, regulusof antimony, regulusof aifenic, hifmuth, cobalt, nickel, regulusof manganefc, and regu- lus of molybdena. By the aflion of fire and air, all me- tals, except gold, filver and platina, may be reduced to a fnbilancc called a calx, and they arc then faid to be cal- cined. The calx is heavier than the metal, owing to the pure air which is imbibed during the operation. Ceituin njietals eaiily combine together ; and hence they are INTRODUi TIOM. % rxxT tre ufed for yoA/ i( with fulphur, ai in pyrites. Steel it ufually made bycemetitatioii from the bell forged iron, with matters of the inflammable kind. Call iron is nut malleable, and fo hard that a file will not touch it. ^89. Lead has a fpecific gravity from 11,3 to 1 1 ,479. It IS more or lefs foluble in all acids ( foft, and eafy of fufibility. Native lead is faid to have been found in Monmoulhjhire in finall pieces, and in fume other places. The ores of lead arc moitly found amongll calcareous and ponderous earths. It ii alfo found mineralized. By heat and air, lead is converted into minium, or red lead. The calces of lead are ufed for painting. Lead is ufcd as a preparation of enamels, and of porcelain as a llux, and makes the bafis of the glazing of pottery wares. ^93. Tin has Its fpecific gravity from 7 to 7,45. It difiulves in fpirit of fait or aqua regia ; is not quite fo foft as lead ; and melts the mo!l readily of all metal;.. Native tin has been fonnd in Cornwall in the form of thin flexible laminx iffuing nut of a matrix of quartz, or re- gularly cryftali/ed. The ores of tin are generally calces of that metal in a cryltalized form, bedded moilly inn filiceoMs matrix. Ptwt.r is a mixture of tin and lead. 391. Regulus of antimony in its piitc ftaie has its fpe- cific gravity 6,86. Its colour is a filvtry white ; very brittle; and is foluble in a confiderabic degree by fevcral acids. The moll common ore of this metal is anti- mony. 391. Regulus of arfinic has its fpecific gravity 8,31, Its colour is bright yellowifli white, but grows black by expofurc to the air. It is very brittle ; is eafily folu- ble in the nitrous acid ; with more difliculty in the vi. triolic ; and fcarce at all in the marine. The ores are found principally in Saxony. It is a ftrong poifon, and is foluble in 80 times its weight of water. 393. i9//mu/;& hasits fpecific gr^jf»ty from Q,6 to 9,7. Its colour is reddifii, or yellowilh white, and it is very brittle. It is foluble in aqua regia ; fcarcely in the .vitriolic acid ; and ftill lefs in the marine. Its ores are generally found mixed with cobilt. 394. Co W/ has its fpecific gravity about 7,7. It is of a blueifii grey colour ; is very brittle ; and its fufibility is nearly as that of copper. Its calx melted with borax, pot-alh, and white filiceousfand, gives a blue glafs. It is never found native. 395. I^iciel has its fpecific gravity from 7,42 1 to 9. Its colour is reddifh white, and it is very hard ; and its fufibility is nearly as that of copper. It diflblvcs in ni- trous acid, and aqua regia. It is found native, and alfo with other metals. 396. Regulus of manganeft has its fpecific gravity 6,85. Its colour is dnfl' rt ' ji «! •. ■ .1 . I ■■! Ixxvi INTRODUCTION. %^-j. MiilfUtita lias iti fpfclfic giavity 5,<5c. It i« of u lead coliiiir, riffml)!!!)!; plumbago. No acids ad un it, but tbc aifcnicul nnd niiroui. y)9i Cbiumc, fylvaiiitc, titanium, and otiicr nrwl/ (lifi'Dvi'icd fvmi-inctalsi are ratber objids uf cuiiollty tbaii of utility. 399. Mr. KiRWAN divides inountaini into inlire, Jlialifitd, (onfufetl, and volcnnie. .ICO Inlire niountainn are fnrnned of (lone, witboiit any regular I'lfTure, and tnoftly homogcneoun. They coiifill of granite, flagllone, liincftone, gypfum, &c. and of iron urc. 401. Slraillled mountains are thufe which are regu- larly divided by joints or lllTures. 401. Confufed mountains, are tliofe of a confufed ilrudure« cunt'illing of all forts of Hones heaped toge- ther, with fand, clay and mica i but with fcarcely any ores. 403. The fliHta of which mountains confiA, are either htm'igtncout, or htleragent'iiit. 404. /.cmogrntouj coiMl chiefly of argillaceous (tones, nr filiceouii ; or of both, the one behind the other. Sometimes of llmeilone s and fometimes tlie argillaceous are covered with granite, and lava. Thefe mountains are alfa the chief feat of metalic ores, running in veins and not in ftrata. 405. Helirogtntout confill of alternate ftrata of ftones, earths, metalic ores, and fometimes lava, coal, bitumen and petrifaAions are here found. Alfo, falts, gold in fandy ftrata, iron and copper in ftrata, lead ore, &c. 406. Vokanit mountains appear to have fome connec- tion with the fra, for they are generally in its neigh- bourhood. On the top there is a hollow like an inverted cone, called the crater, through which the lava gene- rally pafTes i thoueh fometimes it burfts out on the fides, and runs a red hot liver of matter or lava. Thefe eruptions are frequently attended with thunder, light- ning, and earthquakes. In 1779 the lava of Mount '^ Veluvius almoft deftroyed the town of Torn del Greco, the inhabitants of which had fcarcely time to fave themfelves. From the immenfe quantity of matter thrown up at different times, without diminiftiing their apparent bulk, we may conclude the feat of thefe (ires to be many miles under ground. The explufion and eruption of the melted matter probably arifc from water setting down upon the (Ire, and then being converted into an elaftic vapour, the force of which is known to he feveral thonfand times greater than that of gunpow- der. If the fuperincumbcnt weight be too great for the force, it then may produce earthquakes without an eruption. The fubOances ejcAcd are, phlogifticated, fixed, and inflammable air, water, a(hes, pumice ftones, ftones that have undergone no fufion, and lava. Stones of 10 feet diameter are fometimes thrown to great dif- tances. 407. PetrifaBiont are of (hells found on or near the furiace of the earth ; of ii(h deeper, and of wood the deepeft. Thofe fubftances which refift putrefaction the mott, are ftc^ucntly found petrified ; and tbofc that are tnoft apt to putrify are feldum found petrifi.'d. PctrU fai^iioii:! are moll commonly found in Itrata of marl, chalk, or clay ( but they fometimes are found In gypfum, pyrites, otcH of iion, copper and (ilver. llicy are ioiined in climates where their originals could not have cxillcd. 40K. Wati^r, pcrfeAly pure, is tranfparcnt, without colour, tafte, or fmell. When expofed to a certain de- gree of cold, it becomes a fulid ; and when expufed tu a certain degree of heat, it is dilTipated in vapour. It u incompreftililc by any human force | but by heat and cold its bulk is increafed and dimioiflicd. In an open velTel, it is incapable of receiving above a certain degree of heat ; but in a confined vcflel, the heat may be in- creafed beyond that. Till lately, water was thought a limple fubftancc, but Mr. CAriNDisH has difcovered that it is a compound of two aim, inflammable and de- phlogifticatcd, nr vital air ; for if thefe airs be burned together, water is produced, which is faid to be equal in weight to that of the quantities of air made ufe uf t it is therefore fnppofed, that during combullion, the la< tent heat that maintained the serial form is given out. 40q. Rain ia the pureft natural water. But water has the capacity of holding in folution a variety of fubftances, as earths, falti, and metals ; and the water of fprings receives its name from the fubftancc it holds in folution. Thefe waters however may be obtained pure by diftillation. The fubftances held in folution by water, are ; 410. FUed air. This gives a brifknefs to waters, fimilar to that of fermenting liquors, which is chiefly obferved when the water it poured from one veflel to another. It is very volatile, and efcapes when the water is expofed to the air. 411. yUr'tolic, nitron*, and muriatic acid. One or other of thefe ex ift in almoft all mineral waters; but fometimes the vitriolic exifts in afeparate ftate, and gives the water an acidity. 412. /i/ialine/ait. This is found in many waters in Hungary, Tripoli, and other countries. It is ufually the foflil alkali which is combined with fixed air in the Seltzer waters { and with the mineral acids in others. The vegetable and volatile alkalis rarely are found in mineral waters. • 413. Neutral fa/tt. Thefe are not uncommon in fprings. Common falts, nitre, andvitriolnted magnelia, are moft ufnal ; the latter abounds in a fpring at Epfom, and is called Epfom fait. Sal amoniac is found In fprings in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, and burning coal mines. 414. Earthy fubflaneei. The calcareous earth ia commonly found united with the vitriolic acid. Cal- careous nitre and muriated calcareous earth are alfo found in fprings. Waters containing only earth, or fe- lenites, are called bard, and do not diifolve foap well. 415. Sulphur. Many waters by their fmell fecm to contain fulphur, though very few of them are found to aff'ord it. Thefe waters are generally impregnated witli a fulphureous gas. 416. Metalt, INTRODUCTION. Uxvii 416. Mttalt- Ortliefe, iron iimoft fTcqucnt, andformt vvliat if) c»llcd iht CbalybtnU wateM, niid ihcfv are vcrjr commuii. Some woicii cuntain ciip|)er, and inure rare- Iv '/inc. ScH water containi. brlklt;* tarthy and fclc* nitic matter*, a large qiiiuilily uf miiirral lalti. 417. Of Iprings containiiiff thrfe waters, fume arteo/il, nrul fcmr arc /lol, fometitnraalnuill loadr^rce of buiiintf. Mr. 'I'latiNOTON obfervei, that water* fluwinr tlirotign a Mill marl filled with py rite*, are warm; and Mr. Guv t- lAiu lin* remarked, that all the hot mineral fpriiigs in J'lanei flow through fhilliit. Hcnre, there i» no occafiun to derive their heat from any fuhtcrraocoui voU'aiio, a* tiic heat may be acquired by the water* wartiing the pyritct, and othetlike mineral*, in a ftale (if fponiane- 0119 drcompofition, during which they alway* acquire a cunfiderable heat. 411:1. Sea water ha* been obfervcd to contain more fait in hot than in ci Id climates. The quantity of common f.ilt ill fea water, i« to the qnantity o( water, a* ^ or 4 to ICO; the water is thercfurc far from being fatiirated, fur water is capable of diirulving nearly a fourth part of its weight of fait. Common fait i» obtained frt)m fea water by evaporation, the water thu* efcaping and leav- ing the fait behind. The water which el'capes i* freflt. Hcncr, fea water may be rendered fre(h, by adapting a tube to the lid of a common kettle, and condcnhng the ftoain in a hogflicad as a receiver. 1 hui fre(h water may be obtained at fea. 419. We will briefly note the compofition of the wa- ters in fome of the moil remarkable fprings. 410. ytix la Chafulle. The water* here are hot and ful| hureou*. Their talle i* faline, bitter, and uriiiou*. A gallon of this water contain* 1 fcruplcs of fea fait, the fame quantity of chalk, and i4 diam of fofTd alkali. They are generally cathartic and diuretic, and promote perfpiration. Their heat ib from J06' to ijo^of TaFi- rknheit's thermometer. 421. Bath. The waters here are hot; but have dif- ferent degrees of heat in the different baths, of which there ar' fix ; the nature of the water however is the fame in all. The princijnl baths are the King's balh, the ^ettt'o bath, and the Croft hath. The two former raife the thermometer to 116', and the latter to 112'. 'I lie wafer has a (light faiiiic, bitlerifli, and chalybeate talle, and fometimes a fmall degree of fiilphureous fmcll. One giilion of this water contains 23 giains of chalk, the lame (iiiantity of murlat of mngntfia, 38 grains of Ua fait, and 8,1 grains of a:ratcd iron The water ope- rates powerfully as a diuretic, and promoteK per!"pira. tiun. If drunk at once in laij;e quantities, it fometimes pnijes ; but in fmall quantities it has a contraty ifftft. i\i2, Brtjkl. The fprings are here called the Hot- vitlu The water at its origin ia warm, and fparkling. ]t has no fmell, and is plealant to the tafte. It railes the thermometer from 70' to Ko''. One gallon con- tains i2| grains of chalk, 5^ grains of munai of mag- Iielia, arid 64 grains of fea fait. 423. Buxton. The hot bath here itiifes the thermo- .-ncier to Si° or 82'. It has a pleafant tafte, and ton- ta.'u a lit'le calcareous caith, with a fmall quantity tf fea Ijilt, and a verv fmall poTtiM of cathartic fait. Thffff in alfo a cold chalybeate water. 4^4. Chektnbam. The water here i* a cathartic chalybeate, a gallon of which cuntainn H dram* of latlw artic fall, paiily vitriolated nutroii, partly vitrlolatrd magnefia ; J5 grains of ma^Mitl'iu, partly united witit marine, and partly with serial acid t and nearly 5 p;raiiia of iron combined with lerijl acid ; it yicliU alfo 24 ounce meafureiiof fixed air, and Sofaaoticand lupaticRii. 41 J. HarruwgaU. Here are foin fprinjr* nearly alike, except in the faline matter ; of the three old nncn, the higheil contains ^ ounce* of folid matter, the lowelt i\ ounce, and the middle one \ ounce | of the fourth) 140 grain* are earth. The water ia clear and fparkling, and ha* a llrong fmell of fulphur, with a lalt talle, as it contain* fea fait, a little marine fait of magnefia, and calcareous earth. When taken plentifully, the water ia cathartic. 426. Mai/oei Here are feveral fprings of warm water flightly i> Dregnated with iron. Its heat is about 69". 4:7. Scarborough. The water* here are chalybeate and cathartic. 'I'hcre are two wells. In one, one gal. lun of water contains 92 grains of calcareous eaith, 2 of ochre, and 266 of vitriolated magnella ; in the other, it contains 70 grains of calcareous earth, ipj of vitrio. lated magnella, and 1 1 of fait water. The water* have a brilk, iningcnt, chalybeate talle, at both the fountain* (' but at one, called the cathartic, the water talle* bit- terilh, which is not the cafe with the other, called the cluliybeate. 428. Pyrmenl. This is a l)ri(k chalybeate, abounding ii iixed air; and when taken from the fountain, ' parkles very much ; it has a fine, pleafant, vinous talle, and a little fulphureous fmell. A gallon contains 46' grains of chalk, 1 5,6 of magnefia, 30 of viiriulatcd mag. ntfia,' 10 of fea fait, and 2,6 of irrated iron. Thia water is diuretic, fudorilic, and in large quantity it is cathartic. 429. At Gtyftr, in IcetanJt there fpringa up a hot water, which, upon cooling, depofits filieeous earth ; the water is thrown to the height of 90 feet, and after its fall, its heat is 212'. 430. /^bout 60 yards from the (hore of the Hland of Ifcliia, at a place called St. jingtio, a column of boiling water bubbles on the fea, and communicates its heat to the water* about it. It boils in winter and fummer, and is of great ufe to the inhabitants in bending their planks for (hip building, 'i he fifhtimen alfo here hnil their filh. Near the (hore of this ifland. Sir W. Hamilton found, when b-ithing in the fea, many fpott where the fand was fo intenlely hot, a* to oblige him to retire quickly. 4;^!. Water heated to 212", when the barometer is at 29}, flies off in fleam, and becomes an elaPjc fluid, at leall 8co times rarer than air. This elaftic fluid ia the molt powerful agent that can be employed in work- ing machines. The fleam may be leduced back to water, by projeAing cold water amongfl it. Upon the principle of generating (learn and then def. troying it, the ftcam cogiue it founded. Whca the ' I /! M" Mil r I' !(■ ;!■' ti...' li . if '■' V i! ri •■ ;^^ K«:. Ixxvli! INJRODUCTI N. the fteam is admitted under the pifton, the pifton it forced up ; and when the fteam h deftroyed by pro- jecting water up into the tube in which the pifton works, the pifton defcends by the weight of the atmofphere prefling upon it. And fo alternately, as long as the engine works. 432. Air. Common atmofpherical air is an elaftic fluid, inviftble, infipid, inodorous, and fonorous. Ac- cording to the prefent do£lrine of chemiftry, it is prin- cipally compofed of two airs, dephlogiJHcattJ, or vital air, aad ph/ogifiicaled air. But befides thefe, the com- mon air muft be combined with other airs arifing from fermentation, putrefa£lion, &c. and various other fub- ftnnces. Dephlogifticated air was difcovcred by Dr. Priestly, and is the pure part "-f the atmolphere, or that patt which is fit for refpiration. Phlogifticated air is totally unfit for refpiration, as no animal can live in it. Dr. Priestly mo'ftened various earthy fubftances, as minium, chalk, clay, &c. with fpirits of nitre, and by diftillation he produced an air ; and he confidcrs this air, which he calls deplifogiflicutcd air, as one of the con- ftituent parts of the atmolphere ; and that the other con- ftituent parts arc earth and as mnc\\ phlog'tfion as is necef- faiy to its elafticity, and to render the air as pure as it is ufually found. M. Lavoisier found, that a mix- ture of 72 parts of phlogitlicated, and 28 parts of ^ephlogifticatcd air, made a fluid like to our atmof- pherical a(r ; and he concluded that the atmofphere was i^ mixture of thefe two airs ; for by applying fub- ftances which have an affinity to vital air, the portion of this fluid which is in the atmofpherical air, is abforbed, and the refiduum is phlogifticated air. Other chemifts fuppofe that it is not a mere mixture, but a chemical compound ; for as the vital air is of greater fpecific cravity than the phlogifticated, they ought to feparate, if it was only a mixture, the vital air remaining below, being of the greater fpecific gravity, and the other af- ccnding. But this is not found to take place. Tlie French chemifts confider dephIo}>ifticated air as confift- ing of a bafis called oxygene, or ihe acidifying principle, combineU plunge a lighted candle Into a veflel filled with this airi the flame becomes more ardent and bright, and the com- buftion is four times more rapid. Phlogifticated air is unfit for combuftion. That air therefore which is ne- ceflary for the fupport of life, is alfo necelTary for the fupport of fire ; and that air which is deftruSive of the former, is alfo unfit for the hitter. 434. Air is necelTary for vegetation, or the life of plants. For plants will not grow in vacuo. Dr. Priestly difcovered, that plants will not only grow in confined air, but alfo in air vitiated by burning and re- fpiration, and that fuch air was meliorated by vegeta- tion, and thence concluded, that vegetation was employ, ed by nature as one mean of purifying the air, which muft be continually corrupted by refpiration, putrefac- tion, and combuftion. M. Incenhousz has purfued this fubjcdt by a courfe of experiments, and eftablilhed the following fafts : 4^5. All plants poflefs a power of collefting foul air unfit for refpiration ; but this happens only in clear day light, or in the fun-ftiine. 436. All plants yield a certain quantity of dephlo- gifticated air in the daytime, when growing in the open air, and free from fhade. 437. Plants evaporate bad air by night, and fouls the common air which furrounds them ; but this is far over balanced by their beneficial operation in the day. 438. Hence he concludes, that the faculty which plants have of yielding dephlogifticated air, of correftinij foul air, and improving ordinary air, is not owing to vegetation, as fuch : for if it were, plants would exert this faculty at all times, and in all places, where vege> tation goes on ; which is not the cafe. A plant may tin ive v^-U in darknefs, and fpread round its deleterious exhala- tions, and have no power to correct the badnefs of the air. This operation of corre£ling bad air, he imputes to the influence of the light of the fun upon the plant. He ftiows, however, that the light of the fun by itfelf, without the afliftance of plants, does not improve air, but lather renders it worl'e. He found alfo, that plants haVe the faculty of abforbing air, then of elabora- ting it, and pouring out pure vital air ; but that this takes place only in the day. He alfo eftabliflied thcfc fa£ls: 459. That flowers ooze out an unwholefome air by day and by night, and fpoil a confiderable body of air about them. 440. That all fruits exhale a deleterious air by day and by night, and fpread a poifonous quality through the furrounding air. 441. That the roots of plants, when kept out of tlie ground, yield, in general, bad air, and fpoil common air at all times, fomefew excepted. 442. '1 hat dephlogifticated air fuim the leaves of plants, does not exift in that fiatc in the plant, but that the air within the leaves is purified, and the pure part efcapc'S. 443. It appears probable, that one of the great labo- ratories of n iture for purifying the air, is placed in the . . ,,- leaves .♦ -r^- huroductkn p CXXVUl. With this afr, and the com- illicated air it which is ne- ccfTary for the ftrudtiTC of the or the h'fe of vacuo. Dr. >t only grow in uriiing and re< ted by vegeta. >n was employ, 'le air, which tion, putrefac- z has purfued and cftablifhcd lefting foul air ily in clear day tity of dephlo- ing in the open ght, and foula but this is far ) in the day. faculty which r, of correftrr.ir is not owing Its would exert B, where vege- )Iant may tliiive ecerious exhala- hadnefs of the lir, he imputes ipon the plant. ic fun by itfeif, ot improve air, md alfu, that hen of elabora- ; but that this itablifhed thcfc olefome air by }le body of air oua air by day ualily thi'ougli ferves to plants as a kind of nuurifh- ment. 445. The air which we breathe is rendered unfit for refpiration, by receiving a portion of fixed air, whicii is generated in our body. We confume, by each iufpira- tion, about 30 cubic inches of air. 446. By the experiments of Dr. Hales, we know that all bodies contain a great quantity of air in a fixed, non-clalb'c flate ; and this air is rendered elaftic, and "^x- pcUed from the body, by heat. He found, uhat from a cubic inch of heart of oak, was generated 2 16 cubic inches of air, the weight of which was ^ of the weight of the oak. A cubic inch of Newcaftle coal gave out 360 cubic inches of air, which Is neatly ', of the weight of the Ciial. As air therefore conllitntes fo confiderable a part of fome bodies. It items that tiie ftate in which it exilis In the body, may be that of a folid, and may ferve as a cohcfion for the other parts. There feems to be notliing In this fnppolltlon Inconfiilent with other pro- ptrlies of air, as we know that the mixtures of two airs will produce water. That the air in the body mu(l have been In a non-elalllc ftate, is inanifcit from hence, tliat, In the lalt inltauce. If the air which was expanded into an claitic fluid of at lealt 360 times its original bulk, (hould be comprefTe I again into its original bulk, its eialliclty wouhl be increafed 360 times. In which flate, Irs force would be fuificicnt to rend a body, in which it might be confined, to atoms. With the ori- ginal denlity, therefore, it mufl have exifted in a flate of non elaltlcity. 447. The airs tlius produced from bodies by difl.Ill:i- tion, fermentation, &c. have different properties accord- ing to the different bodies. There is what is called the vinoui air, arifing from vegetables ; calcareous air, or air from calcareous earths ; this is c-rWeAJiiud air ; lUriolic acid air, arifing from a mixture of vitriolic acid and in- namniable fubllances ; injlammabie air, arifing from a mixture of water, vitriolic acid, and zinc, iron, &c. And airs are formed from various other combinations iii fubllances, from which the airj take their name. ^The InHaramable aiV is that with which balloi ns are filled. A mixture of this and common air will take fire. It is ten times lighter than the cominon air. Ail the airs thus generated, called fa8'uioui airs, arc noxi- ous J but moll of them being lighter than common air, they afcend in the atmofpherc as foon as they are formed. 443. Vegetation. Mr. Hales, In his vegetable Jial'us, has made a great number of experiments in order tp eflablidi the principles of vegetation ; we fhall therefore here give the refult of his inquiries ; with fome further obfetvations on plants, and the analogy between thcnt and the animal creation. 44Q. The fubdance of vegetables is compofed offul- phur, volatile fait, water, earth, and air. 450. Water and air enter by the roots and afcend In the refpetllve tubes, the water forming the fap ; and na- ture has taken care to cover the roots with a very fine thick llraluer, that nothing can be admitted into the'Ti but what can readily be carried off by perfplratlon, ve- getables having no other provifion for difcharging their recrement. 451. The^ladic aereal fluids dillend eachdudlile part, and by enlivening and invigorating the fap, and mixing with the other principles, they, by heat and motion, alFimilate into the nourifliment of th.- refpedlve parts. While in this nutritive ftate, by the gradual cnhcfion of the conllltuent particles, they are at length foimed into a firmly compatled body. 452. The fap rifes all winter, but In a fmaller degree than In the fummer. And the pcrfpiring matter of tries is rather adluated by warmth, and fo exhaled, than pro- truded by the fap upwards. 453. 1 he air enters into the vegetable, not only by the routs, but alfo by the trunk and leaves, efpecially at night, when they are changed from an expiring to au imbib ng tlate. Part of the nonri(hmcnt of vcgetablts arlfes alfo from the leaves plentifully imbibing dews a^id rain, which contain fait, fulphur, &o. the air being impregnated with thefe fubllances. 454. Leaves are alfo inllrumental in drawing nourlfh. ment from the roots, and furniftiing the young fhoota with nutriment. They alfo contain the main excretory duds, and feparate and carry ofF the redundant watery fluid, which by being long detained, would turn rancld« and be prejudicial to the plant ; thus leaving the more nutritive parts to coalefce. 455. The ufe of leaves, which are placed juft where the fruit joins to the tree, is to bring nourifliment to the fruit ; accordingly we find that the leaves next adjoin- ing to blufToms, are, in the fpring, very much expanded, when the other leaves on barren flioots are but begin* ning to flioot: So provident is nature in making time- ly provifion for nourilhing the embryo fruit. The pedals of leaf-llalks are alio placed where nourlfhment is wanted to produce leaves, fhoots, and fruit ; and fome fuch thin leafy expanfion is fo neceffary fur this purpofe, that nature provides fmall thin expanfions, whicli may be called primary leavcsj that fcive to protcft and draw tiourifhmeiit > W-. I ir I .1 ! 1 , ■M \i m i-^aiifi \l I V- I tiiiii! i 'f : i't tii Ixxx INTRODUCTION. no'irifhmcnt to the foiing (hoot and leaf-budu, before tlie Itaf hfelf is expanded. 456. A dilating fpongy fiibftance, by equally tx- paiidinj itfdf every way, would not produce a long (lender (hoot, but rather a globofe one ; to prevent which, nature lias provided feveral diaphragms, btfidej thofc at each knot, which are plactd at ftnall diilances acrofs the pith, theieby preventing its too great lateral dilatation. We may aifo obferve, by the bye, that na- ture makes nfe of the fame arti(ice in the growth of the feathers of birds. 457. The great quantity of moillure perfpired by the brnnchcs of trees, during the cold winter feafon, Ihows the reafon why a long ferics of cold norih-eallerly winds blails the blo(roms and tender fruit, the moillure exhaling falter than it can be fupplied by the trees. Hence the tife of fnow in covering the leafy ipirea of corn, in fiich weather. 458. The proof we have of the utility of leaves in drawing up the fap, and the care nature takes in fur> nidiing the twigs with plenty of them, principally near the fruit, may inilrudl us, on one hand, not to be too iHvifl) in pruning them o(F, and to be careful to le&ve i'ome on the branch beyond the fruit ; and on the other hand, to be careful to cut oiFall fuperfluous (hoots, as ( ,ey draw away a great quantity of nourilhment. Thus far Mr Hales. 459. When a feed is fown in a reverfed pofition, the young root turns downwards and enters the earth, and the (Icni bends upwardii-into the air. Confine a (lem to nn inclined poCition, and its extremity will foon adume a perpendicular pofiiion. Turn a branch fo that the under fide of the leaves may be upward, and the leaver will foon regain their natural pofitions. Many leaves follow the motion of the fun ; in the morning their fu- perior furfaces arc towards the eaft ; at noon, towards the fouth ; at evening, towards the welt ; and during the night, or in rainy weather, thefe leaves are horizon- tal, with their inferior furfaces towards the earth. What is called the flei'p of plants, a(rords another inllance of vegetable motion. The leaves of many plants fold up in the night, and open again in the day. And it is worthy of remark, that they all difpofe thcmfelves fo as to give the belt proteftion to the young (terns, flowers, buds, or fruit. Many flowers have alio the power of moving. During the night, many of them are cnclofed in titer caliyes. Some flowers, when afleep, hang their mouths towards the earth, to prevent the noxious effects of rain or dew. If a velFel of water be fet within fix inches of a growing cucumber, the direction of its ^tranches will foon tend towards the water. When a })ole h placed at a confiderable dillance from an unfup. ported vine, the branches will foon tend towards the pole, and twift about it. The fenfitive plant paifelFet the faculty of motion in a remarkable degree ; the (lighteft touch makes its leaves (uddenly (hrmk, and, together with the branch bend towards the earth. Thefe circnmftances tend to prove, that plants are en- dowed with irrllabUUy, 460. The ftrufturc of plants, like that of animals, conlilts of a feries of velTels difpofed in a regular order. The oeconomy and functions of vegetables, as well a> thofe of animals, are the refults of a vafcular texture. The ])ith, or medullary fubdance of plants, refemblc? the fplnal marrow of animals ; and when the texture of cither is dellroyed, the plant or animal dies. The round bones of animals confiit of concentric (trata, which are eafily to be feparated : and the wood of plants conlilh of concentric layers of hardened velTels, which feparaie when macerated in water. A tree acquires an addition- al ring every year, and thus its age may be pretty ac. curately obtained. Animals and vegetables gradually expand from an embryo (tale, and fooner or later arrive at perfedlion. Some parts of animal bodies partake of the nature of vegetables. Thus, the hair, the nails, the beak, and the horn, are a fpecies of vegetables, as ap- pears from their total infennbility. There is a (trikin<; analogy between the eggs of animals and the feeds of plants. When placed in f roper fituations, they both produce young, fimilar to their parents. There is alfo a great (imilarity in the itrufture and ufes of their re- fpedtive organs. Many animals have fcafons peculiar to their refpeltive kinds. Some animals produce tii the fpring ; others in aut*';nn ; and others in winter. And particular vegetables alfo have their refpe£tive fcafons. And thus nature has wifely ordained, that the earth fliould always be covered with plants. Hence, by tak- ing 3 general furvcy of the vegetable and animal king. doms, it appears, that nature in their formation ha: operated upon one and the fame great principle and model. On Meafures. 461. In fettling the meafures of different nations iu refpeft to their relative values, we have followed what we judged to be the beft authorities, and where we could procure different meafures to which we could at- tach equal credit for accuracy, we have taken the mean ; we truit therefore that the following tables will exhibit the values of ancient and foreign meafures with as much accuracy as the nature of the hibje£t will admit of. The Grecian long meafures were principally taken from the human body. '1 bus AxxlvXa; is a (inger's breadth ; UkUfoi a hand's breadth, or four fingers ; Ofdoiuim the length of the hand from the upper part to the extremity of the longe it finger; £iri3a|Kn the length of the hand between the thumb and little finger ; riuc the foot ; Tltixvi from the elbow to the extreiiiity of the finger* ; llvym from the elbow to the fecond joint of the fingi/rs ; TtvyiiD from the elbow with the fingers clafped ; Ofym* from the extremity of one middle hnger to the extremi- ty of the other, the arms being extended. In thefe meafures they weie followed by the Romans, who have digiittt, palmiptt, palmut, fes, pajfut, ulna, tubltut, &c. English that plants are en« e that of animals, ill a regular order, etables, as well ai I vafcular texture, f plants, refembk? vhen the texture of al dies. The round ■ic (Iratai which are d of plants conliih "els, which fifparaie :quires an addition- may be pretty ac- egetablea gradually Qoner or later arrive 1 bodies partake of e hair, the nails, the ■ vegetables, as ap. There is a ftriking s and the feeds of tuations, they buiU ents. There is alfo jnd ufes of their re- e fcafons peculiar ta lals produce in the :rs in winter. And r refpeftive feafons. aed, that the earth ts. Hence, by tak. )le and animal king- their formation has great principle and f different nations iu ha»e followed what iiies, and where we I which we could at- lave taken the mean ; g; tables will exhibit eafures with as much I will admit of. The jaliy taken from tli« a finger's breadth ; ingers ; OjiSoJaifov the part to the extremity length of the hand iger ; IIb; the foot ; riiiity of the finger* ; i joint of the fingers; igers clafped ; Op,ui» inger to the exiremi- extended. In thcfe e Romans, who have ulna, evbiliu, Sec. INTRODUCTION. English Meafures of Length. Ix^cx't Inchri. 3 Pom Germany ard the low countries. 464. An Engliih fathom is to a French toife, as 1000 to 1065,7$. The toife contains 6 feet ; the foot con- tairs 12 inches ; and the irch contains 12 lines. As the fathom and toife contain the fame number of feet, an Englifli foot is to a French foot, as toco to 1065,75. English Square Meafures* Inches. 144 Feet. 1296 9 25 Vards. 3600 jcj faces. 39«04 272} 10.89 Poles. 1568160 10890 43560 1210 435.6 40 160 Roods. 6272640 4840 1742,4 4 Acre. VOL. I, m 4S5. Land Ixxxil INTRODUCTION. ■ >{. ^(65. Land is mMfuied by a chain, ca^ed Cunter'j tliain, from the inventor; its lcn{nl\ is 4 polfs~2i yarrfs —.f/.i feer. It confiih of 100 equal links, tach of which is therefore 7,92 inches. Land is cllimuted in acres, roods and perches. An acre contains 10 fquare cii^iinj ; therefore 10 chiins in lergth.and 1 in breadth, HKike an acre, the form beinj fiippofed that of a rec- tangled paraiUIogram. A rood is one-fourth of an acre ; and a perch i;. the I'oriieih part of rood, or it it a fquare pole. Hence, an acre contains 10X1 = 10 ftjiiare chaio! = >oX4=i6o fquare poles=::2oX2J = 4840 fquare yar js^: locox icv"'^ locooo fqi .are links. Alio, 625 fquare links=:i Iqii.ie pole, or a perch: 40 perchesrrl rcod ; 4 rood,sr:i acre. A fquare mile contains 640 acres. .\ l.iae oi Und, nicntinned it) the eailier part of cur hillory, coiitained about ico acres. 466. In Scctlanrt, the meafure of liie land is regulated by the ell: 36 iquare ells=i fall ; 40 fdil! = i rood ; 4 roodsm acre. Tne Scotch acre is to the Lnijlil';, sh loooo to 7''6() The Ifngti of the chain ufed in bcotland for meafurine land, is 24 ellsziTZ feet. 467. In /a//'./ inealvire, 172:! inches— 1 (out; aiij 46656 inchesrizy fi-et — I yard. 468. In iviae mrafurf. iHf (olid inchest: 1 pint j and 231 inclies = S pinis=:i ta.lon. 469. In a/i mralure, 3^^ tolid inches=:i pint; and 283 inchests pint.'^:! gallon. 470. In rtVy mcrtfure, 3^; folid inches rzi pint; and 268^ inchcs:r:8 pint»=i gallo". 4 • I. In H'inchc/Ur corn meafure, 34/;- folid inche»sst pint; and 272 i lnchc^ = i^ pintb=i gaiion ; alfi<, 8 gal- loiis=:i hiiflit'l. 472. The !s 2. S»o639 1. 10,1278 2. S'97S 1. 11,8 fj, and conta'm* As I'Cft. bcrupUs. 1 b'ngl. Roods. I'oles. Feet. 28800 288 18 25f".oj Dcunx - 264.CO 264 2 10 iSi.Hj Dextiins - 2 ,OCO 240 2 2 II?.^ Oodrans - 2160.) 216 •34 51.4* |I)e. 1 SIJCO I9« »5 257 4''' !Se|»tunx - l6rCO Its 1 '7 191. «5 IScmis I4400 "14 9 125,03 jQuincunx • 12000 120 ~ 1 5b.82 iTriens t,6oo 96 32 26485 j JQuadraiis - 7200 ./* 24 i9».«'4 jSextrins - 4800 4« lis •3*. 43 Urtcia 2400 24 , u C6,zi The /VVa/ //injor was 1 4400 feet equal to ajemh. The CJima was 3600 feel equal to a /e/cuncia. The ^i^^i/i fiiiitimus wai 4i-;oo feet equal to n fextans, Aflui 's tht lenj;ih cf cne lurrciw, or fi) far as the plough goca before it turns, in itiigth I to feet. A Iciuple conlaina ico fijuare (cet. j 1 ' j I • '■ ' f j ■ ' ' ' .* The Grecian Moafures oi Lengths Engl. Yds. Ft, Inche«. • • - - - - - 0.0. 0,75581 D'git, 4 Doron, Dochme, • . • a 10 t\ Lichas, II »i •A Orthodoron, • ■ « 12 16 3 H »t't Spithame, • > . 4 •tc 't Foot, « • « 18 4l ■1 l\ n Cubit, • • 20 5 2 ■A n '1 , t Pygon, 2+ 6 " 5 2tV 2 1{ , I <; Cubit larger. 96 9600 »4 9\ 8rV 8 800 6 600 5' 4! 480 4 40c Pace, 2400 960 8/2tV 533t 100 800 Sta 76800 19200 7680 698 It'. 6400 4S00 4266I 3340 3aoc 8 o. o. 3,02324 o. 0. 7»SS8« o. o; S>3i39i o. o. 9,06973 o. I. 0,09297 o. t. 1,60459 o. I. 3,11621 c. I. 6,13545 2. O. 0,5578 2Cl. I. 7,78 161;. !• 2,24 475. The ftadium contained 175 geometrical pace?, 476. The Grecian y'ywfliv meafure was the fUt/jren, or or 625 Roman ftet, and anltvered to our furlong. There acre, containing, according to fome, 1444, or according were However (ladia of bifterrnt lengths, according to to Others, looco fquare feet ; and the or^Ari], which was diffcent times ard places. This has rendered many of half the flethrcn. The ^gyf/ian aroura was the fquare the recrrded Grecian meafures fubjeA to uncertainty, of ICO cubits. They had a Vadium of 10 to the mile, equ 0. Yards. 0. 243. 1216. 672. 256. 288. Feet. 1.824 0.6 2000 5 Sabbath Day's Journey, .. ■ 0. 0, 4000 10 30 2 Eaflern Mile, • • I. 0, 12000 6 3 Parafang, « • 4. 0, 96000 240 48 »4 8 A Day's Journey, - 33. 0, 477. The Eaft ufed another fpan equal to one third tainty. Arbuthnot maktstheracrcd ciibiisi,732j of a cubit. feet. He alfo obferves, that the Jews fomctioies made 478. The above are facred meafures, in the lengths of ufe of a profane cubit, the length of which he dcicf* which there muft necefiarily be fome degree of unccr> oiincd to be i<485 feet. mi Tie INTRObUCTION. Ixx.w T^e Length of Long Mei^ures of Various Countries^ in Terms ofEngliJIj Feet and Inches. ciibii=i,73i; bmczimei made which he deici* ft. Inches. Ft. Inches. Ancient Roman • Foot o. ii,6a6 Rynland, or Leyd( •n . • Ell 2. 3,120 Greek • • ■ • do. 1 . 0,090 Frankfort • do. 1. 9.912 Arabic • do. 0. io,s44 Hamburgh do. 1 • io,ti6o Alexandria • • do. 1. 3,iia Leiplic do. 1. 3.120 Parii do. 1. 0,789 Lubeck do. 1. 10.896 Rynland, or Leyden > ■ do. I. 0,361 Noremburg do. 2. 2.7*4 AoiAcrdain ... do. 0. 11,304 Bavaria do. 0. 11,448 An'.werp . « . do. 0. 11,351 Vienna do. 1. o,6j6 Dart . . . - do. 1. 3,208 Bononia • do. 2. 1.764 Bologne - - - do. '• ».974 Dantzic do. 1. 10,8 j6 Turin • • - do. 1. 8,221 Florence . Brace, or £11 1. 10,956 Venice do. J. 1,677 Spanilh • Pain. 0. 9,012 Padua ... do. I. 4,866 Genoa do. 0. 9,960 Vienna ... do. ■■ Oi444 Naplea do. 0. 10,316 Sweden ... do. 1. 2,701 Modern Roman do. 0. «.7S(« Lorrain ... do. 0. 11,496 Spanilh • . Vare 3- 0,040 Middleburg do. 0. 11,892 Lilbon • do. 3. 9,000 Stralburg ... do. 0. 11,040 Gibraltar do. 2. 9.120 Bremen ... do. 0. 11.568 Toledo do. 3. 8,220 Coloen . • • Frankfort ad Maenum do. 0. 11,448 Caltile do. 2. 8.949 do. 0. 11,376 Naples Brace 2. 1,200 Spanilh ... Toledo . • • ' do. i. 0,012 Naples Canna 6. 10,560 do. 0. 10,788 Milan • Calamu: 6. 6.528 Bononia ... do. I. 2,448 Florence Braccio da Panna 1 • 10.954 Mantua . • . do. I. 6,838 Ruflia Archint 2. 4.242 Dantzic ... do. 0. 11,328 Rome Patroodi Archtrtii 0. 8.784 Copenhagen do. 0. 11,580 Parma Cubit 1. 10,^92 Riga . do. I. 9,972 China do. 1. 0,192 Prague ... do. I. 0,312 Cairo do. I. 9.8b8 Lyons • ... £11 3^ 11,604 Old Babylonian do. 1. 6,240 Bologna ... do. 3. 0,912 Turkifll Pike larger 2. 2,400 Amllerdam ... do. 3. 3.228 Turkifli Pike (mailer 2. «-572 Antwerp - - do. 2. 3.276 Perfian Arift 3' 2. 364 The Length of Milesy Leagues, life. Jncient and Modem, in Englijh Tards. Ancient Roman mile . . . « . . Olympic ftadium=| of ancient Roman mile ... Stadium:: Vts of ancient Roman mile .... Stadiuni=co the iiooth part of a degree . . . . Jewilh rifin, of which 7|=:ancient Roman mile - - • ' Gallic leuca— I i ancient Roman mile .... German raft, or common league in France,=: 2 Gallic leuca • . Perfian parafang=2 Gallic leaguei ..... ^Egyptian fchxne:=4 ancient Roman miles ... German league, or that of Scandinavia,=:2 rails ... The mile or league of Germanycsioo Rheniih yards Great Arabian mile, ufed in Paleftine in the time of the Crufades, rated at i|l ancient Roman mile ... .J Modern Roman mile ..... Modern Greek mile of 7 Olympic fladia - - ■ Modern French league=:25oo toifcs - • • • Mile of 1 urkey, and the common werft of Ruflia, fuppofing it 7 Olympic ftadia League of Spam =4 ancient Roman milei ... Lar. e lra(>ac of Spain = 5 ditto • .... Yards. 1610,348 201,2935 161,0348 111,2 2H.71J 2415,512 4831.044 4a3 1,044 6441,392 96(^2,088 8239,846 24'S.7>3 1628,466 1409,0545 5328.75 1409,0545 6441,393 •■Oil, 74 The i .( li ;i .1 tt .M^ J 't plllii mm 1 1 tl f I- Ixxxv! INTRODUCTION. The mile titiploycd by tbr Romatu in OfCit Briuin, and rcftored byHtnry VII. \v«i our prtftnt lli^lifli mile. The nncifnt Romnn m Ic is here cftimatfd at 7^5 French fathom, 3 feet, upon the luthority of d'Anville. I'liii diilVrf a liitic trcni the oilc uleJ in the preceding tabic. T/k prc/iiU Vrciirh Mcafurcs. 479. The ncafi.tif ()♦ li njFid ij ihc m.irt', the mea- (iire of caparity is the ii,>r; ilir mndire of \vight is \.\\t f^riimrif ; and the AgraiiiM nwnCiirc ii the an ,;tto. A mate i» lie .\o mlii ' to pirt of a iiieridi«n of the ciirili, which, arrordinj; to (I.e UI' Frciich inc.i- luri'mert, is 391570: I'-iplifl; ircins; nrd thii is ihj unity o' lerv'th, A de in.nrc i» ,'^ of a mrire ; n ci"n- (imiircis -f' of a rrctir; a miilimetre is ^ 'r . '^f '^ niPirf, iS:i;. and a dic^.rric ro is 10 meirr* ; an hedlo- n'Ctre i« loonittr'^; akikui.ctre is loco mettef, fiC. Thu« !ill (he niultipl: I and lubnu! jples are taken in a tenfold proportion ; and tl e fame line; thi« is divided into equ*l fp^jes, called knot.«, each of uhich ought to bear the fa ' e proportion to a nautical mile, as 1 a minute bears to an hour. Th-y are cjlled knots, becriuff at the end of each of thrm there is fivcd n piece of t*ine w-itii knots in it i and thefc are fuodivi. ded into tenths. Now a nanticiil mile— ''' 1:0 feet, and the ,' parf=^l f< et ; rn>v \' ', 1 hour :: 51 feet; 6i2rileet, orami'e; therefore if 51 fc( t of the loi'- line run off in i', 1 mile ivili b- run ofl^ hnu heme, as mry knots as are run ofV in an hour, fo ni;iny miles the fti-p fails in .in hour. But as the (hii>% ran is found to be ra:h«r more than th^t given by the log, ovv ing to the log being dra.vn for*.Trd, they gener.il'y iillo.v only 50 feet for a knot; and fome commanders alloiv l.-fs. And to mealu-e the tim>^ 2 8 iS E M 3j E Aleppo Alia Turkey 35 II 25N 37 10 E 2 28 40 E Alexaiidietta Afia Syria 36 35 27 N 36 15 E 2 25 E Alexandria A frica Eijrpt 31 ) I :8N 30 10 22 E 2 41 E Algiers /•friea Algiers 36 49 30 N 2 12 4^ E 8 5! E An-.biiife Eur. Fiance 47 24 54N 59 7 w 3 36 W ' Ambrym (Ifle) 1 Amitns Afia Eur. Pacific Ocean France 16 9 30 S 49 53 43 '^' .6S! 12 y. E 2 17 56 E 4 5 . 30 E II 12 ;u E 9 12 E .y 2O E Amftcrdam Eur. Holland 52 zi 56N 3 Amfterdam (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean V 9 oS 174 46 W II 3y 4VV 8 30 , ..'iccna Eur. Italy 4< 37 54N .3 28 52 E 53 56 E A ngers Eur. Franco 47 28 9N 33 15 vV 2 M W A -,'oulime Eur. France 45 i^ 57 N 9 l^ F. 26 E Tb* % : 1 i li I i'j' I 1^ m ■I I i .■ i »! ., 1 r! Ixxxvili INTRODUCTION. TT/^? Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, Names of Places. Angra Annamocka St. Anthony's (Cape) Aiitibes Antigua (St. John's) Antwerp Anvtrs Apa; (ine) Arada Archangel .'^rica Ailcs Arras Afccnfion (Ide) Athtns Audi St. Aiiguftin Aurillac Aurora (Ifle) Autuu Auxerre Auxonne Avignon Avianthei Babelmondel Straiti Babylon (Ancient) Bagdad Balafoie Ballabea (Ifle) Banguey (Peak) Bantrey Bay Barb.tdoeii, BridgeTown Barhas (Cape) Baibuda (Ifle) Barcelona Barnevclt'i (Ifle) St. Uartholoinew'ii (llle) Bafil Bafla Tcrre Batavia Bath Baycux Bayoniie' Bcachey Head Cent. Sea or Country. Eur. Alia Amer. Eur. Amer. Eur. Eur. Afia Afla Eur. Amer. Eur. Eur. Africa Eur. Eur. Africa Eur. Aiia Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Africa Afia A«a Afia Afia Afia Eur. Amer. Africa Amer. Tercera Pacific Ocean Staten Land France Carib. Sea Flanders Netherlands Pacific Ocean Turkey Ruflia Peru France France S. Atl. Ocean Turkey France Mudagafcar France Pacific Ocean France France France France France Latitude. 38 39 20 16 54 46 43 34 •7 4 5' >3 51 M 16 46 36 I 64 33 oN 30 S 45 S 43 N 30 N 15 N 1$ N ij-S oN 36 N 18 26 38 S 43 40 28 N 50 17 30 N 7 57 o S 38 5 oN 43 38 39 N 23 35 '9 S 44 55 'oN 15 8 o S 46 56 48 N 47 47 57 N 47 II 24 N 43 56 5« N 48 41 21 N Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. 27 13 lyW 174 30 30 W 7 7 20 E 62 9 oW 4 21 4j E 4 24 15 E 168 27 30 E 38 50 o E 38 59 nE 2 46 «3 59 70 25 oW 4 37 «4E ' 12 E oW 23 52 30 E o 34 56 E 8 oE 27 o W 17 o E «7 44 E 43 2 168 4 6E 35 E 3 34 5 »3 .. 4 48 10 E I 21 51 W B. Eur. Amer. Afia Eur. Amer. Afia Eur. Eur. Lur. Eur. Abyflinia 12 50 N 43 50 E Melopotamia 33 oN 42 46 30 E Mefopotamia 33 '9 40 N 44 24 30 E India 21 20 N 86 g; N. Caledonia 7,0 7 S 164 22 E Malacca 7 18 N 117 17 30E Ireland 51 %6 a N 10 10 oW Atl. Ocean 13 c N 59 50 oW Sanhaga 22 15 5C N 16 40 oW Atl. Ocean 17 49 45 N 61 50 oW Spain 1 erra del Fuego 41 23 N 2 13 E 55 49 S 66 58 oW N. Hebrides 15 42 S 167 17 io E Switzerland 47 35 oN 7 29 30 E Gaudaloupe IS 59 30 N 61 59 -sW Java 6 12 S ic6 53 46 E England ,51 23 30 N a 21 30 W France 49 "6 34 N 4a 1 1 W France 43 29 15 N I 28 41 W England 50 44 30 N 19 4o£ I 48 49W u 38 2VV o 4 o o II 2 2 28 29 E 8 36 W 17 31 E 17 37 E 13 50 E 35 to E 35 57 E 4 41 40 W o 18 30 E oil s E j5 56 W 1 35 30 E o 2 18 E 52 32 E 9 48W • 3 8E 17 M E o 14 16 E 021 34 E o 19 13 E o 5 27 W H. Wat. 55 5' 20 E 6E 2 2 2 '57 38 E 5 44 oE 10 57 28 E 7 49 10 E 40 40 W 3 59 20 W 1 6 40 W 4 7 20W 8 52 E 27 52 W 9 10 E >9 s8 E 7 57 W 7 35 E 9 26W 2 49 W 5 55 W I 19 £ 6 o J 30 o o 7h, h ' INTRODUCTION. Tie Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. Ixxxix tttimatmmt Long tude. Names of Placet. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. In Degrees. In Time. H.Wat. Bear (Ifle) Amer. Hudfon's Bay 54 34 o N ■ 1 II 79 56 W h ' " 5 J9 H W h ' 12 Beauvois Eur. France 49 26 N 2 4 42 E 8 19 E Belle Iflc Eur. France 47 '7 '7 N 3 5 oW 12 20 W 2 30 Bembridge Poiat Eur. Ifle of Wight 50 40 15 N I 4 45 W 4 f9 W Bencoolen Afla Sumatra 3 49 16 S 102 10 30 E i «.2 E ; Berlin Eur. Germany 52 31 3* N 13 22 £ ; 28 E ■ Brrmiidat (Ifle) Amer. Atl Ocean 31 35 N 6) 28 W . i ?» w 7 Befanfon Eur. France 47 14 13 N 6 2 46 E 24 1 1 E Bcficrs Eur. France 43 20 23 N 3 12 24 E 12 50 E Blanco (Cape) Africa Negroland 20 55 30 N 17 10 W I 8 40 W 9 45 Blanco (Cape) Amer. Patagonia 47 20 S 64 42 W 4 18 48 W Bloia Eur. France 47 3J 20 N I 20 10 E 5 20 E Bojador (Cape) Africa Negroland 26 12 30 N 14 27 W 57 48 W Bolabola (Ifle) Afla Pacif. Ocean 16 32 30 S 151 52 oW 10 7 28 W Bolognc Eur. France 50 43 33 N 1 3^ 33 E 6 tG E 10 30 Bologna Eur. Italy 44 29 36 N II 21 15 £ 45 25 E Bolfchereflcoi Afla Siberia 52 5+ 30 N 156 37 30 E 10 26 30 E Bombay Bonavilla (Ifle) Afla India 18 56 40 N 72 38 £ 4 50 32 E 1 Africa Atl. Ocean 16 6 N 22 47 15 W I 3' 9W Bofton Amer. New Engl nd 42 22 II N 70 59 W 4 43 56 W Botany Bay Afla New HoUand 34 S 151 21 E 10 5 24 E Botany (Ifland) Aiia New Caledonia 22 26 40 8 167 16 45 E II 9 7 E Bourbon (Ifle) Africa Ind. Ocean 20 51 43 S 55 30 E 3 42 £ Bourdeaux Eur. France 44 50 14 N 034 "4 W 2 17 W 3 Bourges Eur. France 47 4 59 N a 23 45 E 9 35 E Breflaw Eur. Silefla ji 3 N 17 ii 45 E I 8 35 E Bred Eur. France 48 22 42 N 4 29 19 W 17 57 W 3 45 Bridge Town Amer. Barbadoei 13 5 N 58 35 W 3 54 20 W St. Brieux Eur. France 48 31 21 N 2 43 17 W 10 53 W Brighton Starting-houfe Eur. England 50 49 4t N 6 28 W 26 w Briftol (Cape) Amer. Sandwich Land 59 2 30 S 26 51 W I 47 24 W iJruflils Eur. Brabant 50 50 59 N 4 at 15 E 17 2J E Bueiioi Ayre» Amer. Brafll 34 35 »6 S 58 3' '5 W 3 54 5 W „ Bukaroft Eur. Walachia 4+ 26 45 N 26 8 £ ' 44 3» E Buller (Cape) Burgeo (Iflet) Burlings Amer. S. Georgia 53 5» 30 S 37 40 W 2 30 40 w ' Amer. Newfoundland 47 36 20 N 57 36 30 W 3 50 24 W Eur. Portugal 39 20 N C. 10 30 50 N 9 36 45 W 38 27 W Cabello (Port) Amer. Terra Kirma 67 32 W 4 30 8 W Cadix Eur. Spain 36 32 N 6 16 15 W 25 5 W 4 30 Caen Eur. France 49 II 12 N 021 53 W 1 28 w 9 Caliors Eur. France 44 26 49 N I 26 22 E 5 45 £ Cairo Africa Hgypt 30 3 la N 31 18 16 E 2 5 49 E Calais Eur. France 50 57 32 N 1 51 1 £ 7 24 E II 30 Callao Amer. Peru 12 1 53 S 76 5« W 5 7 52 W Calcutta (F.Will.) Afia India 22 34 45 N 88 29 30 £ 5 53 58 E ,^^^ VOL, I. Thi Ill zc !J I M :Jl'^' INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, •i i;j Names of Placet. Cent. Sea or Country. Latitude. Long In Degrees. itude. In Time. H. Wat. n t II 1 II h • " h ' Cahnar Eur. Sweden $6 40 30 N r6 21 45 E I 5 27 E Cambrar CambrMge Eur. France 50 10 37 N 3 13 3» E 12 ^4 E Eur. England N. England 5* " 35 N 4 15 E 17 £ Cambridge Canary (Ifle) N.B. Point Candia (Ifle Amer. 4s 23 28 N 71 4 W 4 44 .6 W Africa Canaries ad 13 N 15 38 45 W 1 a 3s W 3 Eur. Medit. vSea 35 >8 35 N 25 18 E 1 41 la E Candlemas Ifles Amer. Sandwich Lan. 57 10 S 27 13 W 1 48 5a W Canfo (Port) Canterbury Cathedral Amer. Nova Scotia 45 20 7 N 60 5j W 4 340W Eur. England 51 18 26 N I 4 53 E 4 19 E Canton Afla China 23 8 9 N 113 a 30 E 7 33 a 7 $• W Carlefcroon Eur. Sweden j6 6 57 N 15 26 15 E 1 145E iS Cartbagena Eur. Spain Terra FIrma 37 37 N I 8 30 W 434W Carthagena Amer. 10 25 19 N 75 42 54 W 5 a 52 W ! Cafan Afia Siberia 55 43 58 N 49 8 15 E 3 16 33 E Caflel Eur. Germany {I 19 ao N 9 35 3 E 38 ao E Cafttes Eur. France 43 36 II N a 14 16 E 8 57 E St. Catherine's (Ifle) Am. Atl. Ocean 27 35 S 49 17 W 3 17 30 W Cavan Eur. Ireland 54 5> 4« N 7 23 w 29 jt W Cayenne Amer. Ifle Cayenne 4 56 IS N St IS oW 3 29 W Ceylon, S. Point Afia India 5 47 N 81 a E S 24 8 E Cette Eur. France 43 »3 5' N 3 4» 7 E 14 48 E Challon Eur. France 46 46 54 N 4 5« »7 E ig 24 E Chalons Eur. France 48 57 28 N 4 21 29 E 17 26 E Ciiandernagor Afia India 22 51 26 N 88 29 15 E 5 53 27 E Q. Charlotte Sound Afia N. Zealand 41 s 58 s 174 13 32 E II 36 54 E 9 Q. Charl. Foreland Aiia N. Caledonia 22 15 S 167 12 45 E II 8 51 E Q. Charlotte's Cape Am. South Georgia ^4 32 s 36 1 1 30 W a 24 ,16 W Charlion Ifle Am. Hiidfon's Bay 52 3 N 79 5 W 5 16 JO W Chart res Eur. France 48 26 54 N 1 29 35 E 5 j6 E Cherbourg Eur. France 49 38 31 N 1 37 18 W 6J9W 7 30 Chriftmas Sound Am. Terra del Fuego 55 2' S7 S 70 a 50 W 4 40 II W 2 30 St. Chrittopher's (Ifle) Am. Carlb. Sea 17 15 N 62 43 W 4 10 52 W hChiiTcliill River Am. Hudfon's Bay 58 47 32 N 94 7 30 W 6 i« 30 W 7 20 Civita Vecchia Eur. Italy 42 s 24 N ij 46 15 E 47 5 E Clerke's I Acs Am. Atl. Ocean 55 5 30 S 34 42 W a 18 48 W Clermont Eur. France 45 46 44 N 3 J a E 12 20 E Cochin Afia India 9 33 N 75 3$ E ; 2 20 £' Tit INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, xd Name* of Places. Cent. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H. Wat. Colmar Eur. France « » " 48 444N 7 ia'ii E h • - 29 29 £ h • Cologne Eur. Germany 50 55 21 N 6 55 E 27 40 E Compiegne Eur. France 49 «4 59 N 2 49 41 E c u 10 E Conception Am. Chili .1<> 42 S3 S 72 40 W 4 50 40 W Conilantinople Eur. Turkey 41 1 27 N a8 55 E I 55 40 E Coopfr'» Kle Am. At!. Ocean 54 57 S 36 4 20 W 2 24 17 W ^ Copenhagen Eur. Denmark S5 4« 4N 12 35 IS E 50 21 £ Coqiiimbo Am. Chili 29 52 S 71 19 W 4 45 3W Cork Eur. Ireland 5« J3 54 N 8 28 15 W 05353W 6 30 Cor»o Eur. Aitorcs 39 42 N 31 6 oW 2 4»4W Countances Eur. France 49 3 50 N I 27 85 W 5 soW Cowcs Weft, Fort Eur. Illc of Wight 50 46 18 N I 17 17W 5 9W 10 30 Cracow Eur. Poland 49 59 20 N 19 50 E I 19 20 £ CremfmunAer Eur. Germany 48 3 «9 N 14 7 E s6 28 £ Croilic Eur. France 47 "7 40 N 2 31 42 W 10 7W Cummin (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 3 1 40 N 121 4 E 8 4 16 £ Cypru» Afia Syria 34 30 N D. 54 21 9N 33 «<» E « 13 4 E 1 Dantzic Eur. Poland 18 38 oE I 14 32 E Dardencis Straits Eur. Turkey 40 10 N 26 a6 £ 1 4s 44 £ Daflen Ifland Africa Caffers 33 25 S t8 2 E I 12 8 b Dax Eur. France 43 42 19 N I 3 16W 4 13W Deal Caftle Eur. England 5« «3 5N 1 23 59 E 5 36E St. Dennis Africa I. Bourbon 20 51 43 S 55 30 oE 3 4a oE Diego (Cape) Am. Terra del Fuego $4 33 S 65 14 oW 4 20 56 W Dieppe Eur. France 49 55 34 N I 4 a9E 4 i8£ 10 30 nijon Eur. France 47 '9 «5 N 5 I 50E 2o 7 £ Dillingen Eur. Germany 48 34 "N 10 14 30 E 40 {8 £ Difappoiiitin. (Cape) Am. So. Georgia 54 $8 S 36 15 oW 2 25 oW Difleada (Cape) Am. Terra del Fuego 5? 4 '5 S 74 18 oW 4 57 12 W Dol Euv. Fr.ince 48 33 « N I 45 18 W 7 aW Domingo, Mole, Afla All. Ocean 19 49 N 73 25 oW 4 53 40W Dominique (Hie) Am. Windward Ifles 15 18 2» N 6: 27 55 W 4 5 S2W Dorcliffter Church Eur. England 5a 42 sSN 2 25 40 W 943W Douay Eur, Fl.inders 50 22 12 N 3 4 47 E 12 19 E Dover Eur. England 5' -47N I 18 30 E 5 14 E II 30 Dreux Eur. Frauce 48 4+ 1 7 N I 21 24 E 5 26 £ Dronihiem Eur. Eur. Norway 63 26 2 N 10 22 E 41 28 £ Dublin Ireland 53 21 1 1 N 6 6 30W 24 26 W 9 IS Dungenefs Eur. England 50 s^ 20 N 59 6 E 3 56 E 9 45 Dunkirk Eur. France 51 2 II N 2 22 2) £ 9 30 £ Durham Eur. En^Liiid 54 4? 45 N 1 15 bW 5 oW Dulkey Bay Afia N. Zealand 45 47 27 S 166 18 9 £ II 5 13 E 10 57 Dunnofe Eur. England JO 33 30 N I 16 20W _?- s.jw -_9 45_ n 2 Tit adi Ml - , it ■;! :i'\ ■i ' \i I' 1. . . .ii; INTRODUCTION. Tie Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, maa^i^im MHMHHB * •' ' t E. 1 Names of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H. Wat. / 1/ t H h ' " h ' Eaoowe (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 21 24 S 174 30 oW II 38 oW 2 Eafter Ifland Am. Pacific Ocean 27 6 3c S 109 46 4j W 7 19 7W 4 30 Edinburgh Eur. Scotland 55 57 57 N 3 12 ijW 12 49 W 5 30 Edyftone Elfinore Eur. Eng. Channel 50 8 oN 4 24 w 17 24 w Eur. Denmark 56 oN 13 35 E J4 20 E Ennbden Eur. Germany 53 5 oN 7 26 E 29 44 E Embnin Eur. France 44 34 oN 6 29 £ 2J 56 E Enatum (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 20 10 S 170 4 E II 20 16 E Endeavour River Afia N. HoUand 15 27 11 S 214 JO oW 14 19 20 W Englifli Road Afia Eaoowe 21 20 JO S 17434 oW u 38 16W Erramanga (hie) Afia Pacific Ocean 18 46 30 S 169 18 30 E II 17 14 £ Erzerum Afia Armenia 39 5<5 35 N 48 3S 45 E 3 14 23 £ Euftachia (Town) Am. Carib. Sea 17 29 N 63 10 oW 4 12 40 W Evout's I Acs Am. Terra del Fucgo 55 34 30 S 66 59 oW 427 j.-^W Evereux Eur. France 49 » 30N I 8 54E 4 35 E Exeter Eur. England JO 44 oN 3 34 30 W 14 36W ! R 1 Falnnouth Eur. England Caffres 50 8 oN t .? 2 .?oW 20 TO W 5 30 Falfe (C«p«) Afric. J4 16 S 18 44 £ I 14 56 E Falfe Bay Afric. Caffres .H 10 S 18 33 oE I 14 12 £ FarewtU (Cape) Farewell (Cape) Am. Greenland 59 38 oN 42 42 oW 2 JO 48 W Afia N. Zealand 40 37 S 172 41 30 E II 30 46 E Fayal Town Eur. Azores 38 32 20 N 2841 jW 1 54 44 W 2 20 Ferdinand Noronha Am. Brazil 3 56 20 S 32 38 oW 2 10 32 W Ferrai-a Eur. Italy 44 49 56 N II i6 10 E 46 25 E Ferro Ifle (Town) Afric. Canaries 27 47 20 N 17 45 .50 W I II 3W Finifterre (Cape) Eur. Spain 42 ';4 oN 9 17 loW 37 9W Flamborough Head Eur. England 54 8 oN oil E 44 E Floitiice E-ir. Italy 4J 46 30 N II 3 30 E 44 14 £ Flores Eur. Azores 39 34 oN 31 oW 2 4 oW St. f !cir Eur. France 45 • 55 N 3 5 30E 12 22 £ FortavtnMire (W. Pt.) Afric. Canaries 28 4 oN 14 31 30 W j8 6W Foul Point Afric. Madagafcar 17 40 14 S 49 S3 E 3 19 32 E France (lOe of) Afric. Indian Ocean 20 9 45 S 57 28 E 3 49 52 E Fraiicfort ('in the Ma.) Eur. Germany 49 55 N 8 35 E 34 20 E Francois (Cape) Am. Hifpaniola ly 46 jo N 72 18 oVV 4 49 1 2 W Old Cape Franijois Am. Hifpaniola 19 40 30 N 70 ?. oW 4 40 8W Frawenburgh Eur. PrulTia 54 22 '5 N 20 7 30 E I 20 30 E F'liiis Eur. France 43 25 52 N 6 43 54 E 26 56 E Fakrl (Cape) Eur. France 484' 3N 6 oW 24 W iFticnaiid's Peak Am. Sandw. Land 59 2 S 26 JJ 30 W _i 47 42 W --■ X»| >1 .1 17 n. ■1 •; # INTRODUCTION. The Latitudet and Longitudes if "Placet, XCUl 1 Names of Places. Cent. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H. Wat. / II Of II h ' " h ' Fronfac (Strait) Am. Nova Scotia 45 36 57 N 6\ 19 30W 4 5 '8W Fuego f Ifle) Funchal Africa Cape Verd 14 56 45 N 24 28 oW , 37 52 W Africa Madeira 32 37 40 N 17 6 15W I 8 2j W 12 4 Furneaux Ifland Afia Pacif. Ocean 17 n S 143 6 40W 9 28 27 W 1 ' ' 1 i G. 1 Gap Eur. France 44 3.3 37 N 6 4 47 E 24 19 E Gabey Afia New Guinea 6 S 126 23 45 E 8 25 35 E Gen«s Eur. Italy 44 25 oN 8 35 45 E 34 23 E Geneva Eur. Savoy 46 12 oN 6 E 24 E Genoa Eur. Italy 44 21; oN 8 56 37 E 34 23 E St. George (Ifle) Eur. Azores 3839 oN 28 oW I 52 oW St. George Town) Amer. Bermudas 32 45 oN 63 3j oW 4 14 20W St. George Fort) Afia India 13 4J4N 80 28 45 E 5 21 55 E St. George Cape) Afia New Britain 4 53 30 S 153 8 45 E 10 12 35 E George (Cape) Amer. South Georgia 54 17 ° S 36 32 30 W 2 26 10 W Ghent Eur. Flanders 51 3 oN 3 43 45 E 14 55 E Gibraltar Eur. Spain Terra del Fuego j6 6 30N 5 22 oW 21 :8W Gilbert's Ide Amer. 55 13 S 71 6 4.^W 4 44 II W Glafgow Eur. Scotland 55 5' S-iN 4 I-; oW 17 oW Goa Afia India 15 31 oN 73 45 E 4 55 E Goat Ifle Afia Indian Ocean 13 5^ oN 120 2 E 8 8 E Gomera (Iflej Good Hope (Cape) Africa Canaries 28 5 40N 17 8 oW I 8 32 W Africa Caffres 34 39 S 18 23 ir;E I 13 .53 E ? Good Hope (Town) Gorte (idc) Africa Caffres 33 yj 42 s 18 2J IJ E I J3 33 E 2 30 Africa Atl. Octan 14 40 10 N 17 25 oW I y 40 W I 30 Gottenbiirgh Eur. Sweden 57 .p oN II 38 45 E 46 35 E Gottengen (Obfer.) Eur. Germany 5« 3' 54 N 9 53 E 39 .^2 E Granville Eur. France 48 50 irt N 1 35 15 W 6 2^- VV 7 GralTe Eur. France 43 y) J9N 6 y:, 9 E 27 41 E Gratiufa Eur. Azores ,39 i N 27 58 oW 1 51 .53W Gratz Eur. Germany 47 4 9N •5 -J 45 E 1 I 48 E GravtliiK'S Eur. Flanders 50 ■■;9 4 N 2 7 32 E 8 jO E Grtciuvicli (Obfcr.) Eur. England 51 2S 40 N 000 000 Grenoble Eur. France 4.'; 11 42N 5 4i 34 E 22 54 E " Gryphifwald Eur. Germany 54 4 ■•^5 N i,j 38 30 E 54 34 E G;\uJa]oupe Amer. Carib. Sea 15 59 30 N i 61 4H 15 W 4 7 ' .? W Giiiaquil Amer. Peru 2 11 21 S 1 81 II 30 w 5 24 40 W G'.irief Afia Siberia 47 7 7 N 5' 5*5 E 3 27 44 E Giiiriifey Eur. Brit. Channel 49 .JO N 2 47 W oil b W 'I/m- xcvr \-''* Iff I ',••: 'ili\ INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. f'^' ■■■■■i aaaa^ ^BBBI 1 Names of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H. Wat. t w / • h r » h ' Hague Eur. Netlicrlandg y2 4 10 N 4 >7 30E 17 10 E 8 15 Hamburgh Eur. Netherlands 53 .53 ,N 10 I II E ,39 20 £ 6 Hang-lip (Cape) Africa Caffres .?4 "5 S 18 44 E t 14 5*5 E Hanover Eur. Germany SZ 2 2 18N 9 4H 35 E 38 57 E HarbortHigh (Mark.) Eur. England Ncihcilands jj 28 ,30 N 057 25W 350W Harlem Eur. 52 22 14 N 4 ,^7 E 18 38 E Haftinijs Eur. England .50 5^ ioN 41 10 E 2 45W Havannah Am. Cuba 23 II ,2N 82 18 ,30 W •; 29 14 W Havre-de-grace Eur. France 49 *9 I4N 6 2} E 26 E 9 Heefe (La) Eur. Netherlands ,51 2} 2N 4 45 .?o E 10 2 E St. Helena (Ja. Town) Africa S. Atl. Ocean '5 S't S 5 49 oW 23 16 W Henlopen (Cape) Amer. Virginia .33 46 oN 75 '•! 30 W 5 50W Hernofand Eur. Sweden 62 ,38 oN 17 53 E I 11 J2 E Hervey's Ifle Afia Pacific Ocean ly 17 S 158 48 o\V 10 ,35 12 W Hinchinbroke Ifle Alia Pacific Ocean «7 2J S i63 38 E II 14 3iE Hoai Njfhan Afia China 33 .34 40 N 118 49 30 E 7 5r> >8 E Hogii« (Cape La) Eiir. France 49 44 40 N I 36 50 W 7 47 W Hulyliead Eur. Wales .53 23 oN 4 40 oW 18 40 W Hood'6 Ifle Afia Pacific Ocean 9 20 S 138 52 oW 9 IS 28W Hougdraeten Eur. Netherlands .5' 24 44 N 4 47 oE ly 8 E H(»rn Cape) Am. Terra del Fuego 55 .58 S 68 13 oW 4 29 44 W Hoiit Bay Africa Caffres 34 ,? S iS 19 £ I 1? 16 E Howe's Ifle Afia Pacific Ocean 16 4^ ^0 s 154 6 40 W 10 16 27 W Huahine(lfle) Afia Pacific Ocean 16 ^4 oS 151 6 oW 10 4 24 w Hull Eur. England .5,? .50 oN 28 oW 1 ^2W Hurll Caftle 1 : ' Eur. England I. Syria .50 42 J. V- 5 23 N 1 32 45 W 6 I'l W i fafTi Afia oN 35 JO E 2 20 40 E Jamaica (Port- royal ^ Am. Atl. Ocean 18 oN 76 44 30 w 5 6 ^SW akiitflioi Afia Siberia O2 I ^oN '■^9 47 45 E 8 39 n E an.iro (Riol Am, Brazil i- .54 JO S 42 43 45 VV 2 .50 55 W ally Eur. Mulcavia 47 « joN 27 Jy 4;, E I 49 59 E ava Head Afia Java 6 49 S 106 50 E 7 7 20 E Jcrufalem Afia Paltlline 31 46 74 N r,-, 20 E 21 20 E .St. IKkfonfo's Ifics Am. Terra del Fiicgo 5,5 51 S 61; 21 oW 4 37 52 W ln.n-.cr(I(le) Ada Pacific Ocean ly 16 S 169 4') E 1 1 19 4E Injollladt Eur. Germany 4» 45 45 N 11 22 30 E 45 30 E St. folin's Am. Antijriia n 4 30 N 62 9 oW 4 8 36 W St. John's Am. Newfoundland 47 .-ii oN 52 26 W 3 29 44 W 6 Joppa Afia Svria 33 45 oN S6 oW 2 24 oW St. Jofeph's Am. California 2,5 3 42 S 109 42 30 W 7 18 oW 1 Irrnnatne (\(\e'\ Afia 1 Pacil'ic Ocean '9 i' s fo 21 E ti 21 24 E J 3h n.- INTRODUCTION. xcv The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. Names of Places. Cont. Sea or Cour.try. Latitude. Long In Degrees. itudc. In Time. H. Wat. O / ir / « h ' " h ' Idamahad Afia India 2Z 20 oN 91 45 E 6 7 oE Ifle of Pine* Aiia Pacific Ocean 2 2 ,^S S 167 ,38 E n 10 32 E Ifpalian Afia Perfia 32 2'; oN 1^2 <^o E 3 3 r 20 E St. Juan (Cape) Am. Staten Land .?4 47 '° S 6; 47 oW 4 15 8W Judda Afia Arabia 21 29 oN ^i) -22 E 2 37 28 E St. Juliana (Port) Am. Patagonia 49 10 S 68 44 oW 4 34 5^ W 4 45 Jutliia Afia India 14 i8 oN too 50 E 6 43 30 E K. II Kedgeree A Ha India 21 4S oN R8 ■JO I ■; E 5 .K, 21 E Kiow Eur. Ukraine ^0 27 oN 30 27 ^0 E 2 I JO E Kola Eur. Lapland 68 52 joN L. 2Z 2 oN 33 .>o ^ 2 12 2 E Ladrone (Grand) Afia Pacific Ocean 113 56 E 7 ,;5 44 E Laguna Africa TenerifTe 23 28 57 N i6 18 15 W J 5 1.3 W Lancarota (E. Pt.) Africa Canaries 29 14 oN 13 26 oW 5.3 44 W Landau Eur. France 49 ij 38 N 8 7 30E 32 30 E Landfcroon Eur. Sweden 55 5* .3J N 12 50 46 E ji 23 E Lands-End Eur. England .5P 4 7N 5 4' 31 W 22 46 W Langres Eur. France 47 5i '/N 5 »9 2.3 E 021 18 E Laufanne Eur. Swit/.erland 46 31 5N 6 45 15 E 27 1 E Le£toure Eur. France 43 v6 2 N 315 53 E 2 28 E Leeds Eur. England 53 48 oN I 34 15 W 6 17W Leghorn Eur. Italy 43 33 oN 10 25 E 041 40 E Leicefter Eur. England 52 38 oN I 8 30W « 4 34W Leipfic Eur. Saxony 51 19 14 N 12 20 E 49 20 E Leper's Ifland. Afia Pacific Ocean '.? 23 30 S 167 j8 15 E II ti 53 E Leikeard Eur. England 50 26 55 N 4 41 4.5 W 18 47 W l| Lcfparre Eur. France 45 >8 33 N 57 J W 3 48W Leyden Eur. Holland 52 8 40 N 4 28 E 17 52 E Liege Eur. Netherlands 50 37 30 N 5 3.^ E 22 20 E Lima Am. Peru 12 I 15 S 76 49 joW 5 7 i«\V Limoges Eur. France 45 49 44 N 1 15 50 E 5 4 E Lintz ' Eur. Ger.Tiany 48 j6 oN 13 57 3°E 59 50 E Lilieux. Eur. France 49 8 50 N 13 32 E ';4 E Line Eur. Flanders 50 37 50 N 3 4 16E 12 17 E Lilbon Eur. Portiigal Atl. Ocean 38 42 25 N 9 4 40W 36 40 W 2 15 Lion's Bank Eur. 56 40 N 17 45 cW I II oW Lifburne (Cape) Afia N. Hebrides 15 40 4j S 166 57 E' n 7 48 E Liverpool Eur. England 53 22 oN 3 10 oW 12 40 W Lizard Flagftaff' Eur. England ■49 5.7 s6 N 5 It 18W 20 41; w 7 JO Lombes Eur. France 43 28 30 N 5.5 9 E 3 41 E London (St. Paul's) Eur. England 51 31 oN 5 37W 22^W 3 TJm : 11; M ]' "t '• ,,\'mm r|..Ui It ( IJll ■'I I J ♦■i (li^f 'ii ill: J ZCVl INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, Names of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. H. Wat. O / H 1 I) h ' " h ' Lorenzo (Cape) Am. Peru I 3 S 80 17 oW .5 21 8W St. Louis (Port) Am. Hifpaniola i8 i8 50 N 73 i6 oW 4 53 4W St. Louis (Port) Africa Mauritius 20 9 4J S 57 28 oE 3 49 5- E LouKboiirg Am. Cape Breton 45 53 40 N 59 55 W 3 59 40 W Louveau Afla India J 2 42 30 N 101 1 30 E 6 44 6 E Louvain Eur. Netherlands 50 53 3 N 4 44 15 E iS 57 E LoweilofFe Eur. England 51 29 oN I 44 9E 6 57 E St. Lucia (Ide) Am. Antilles 13 24 30 N 60 51 30 W 4 3 2*5 W Lunden Eur. Sweden 55 42 26 N 13 12 27 E 52 50 E Luneville Eur. France 48 35 33 N 6 30 6 E 26 E Litfun Eur. France 46 27 15N I 10 34W 4 4» W Luxembourg Eur. Netherlands 49 37 <5 N 6 1 1 45 E 24 47 E Lyme Steeple Eur. England 51 4 20N I I 22 E 4 5E Lynn Eur. England 52 45 16 N 23 45 E I 35E Lyons Eur. France 45 45 52 N 4 49 9E 19 17 E Macao Afla China 22 12 44 N 113 46 i; E 7 35 5 E t Macaflar AAa Celebes 5 9 S 119 48 45 E 7 59 15 E Madeira (Funchal) Africa Atl. Ocean 32 37 40 N 16 56 oW I 7 44W 12 4 Madrais Afla India ■3 4 54N 80 28 4 E 5 21 55 E Madre de Dios (Port) Afla Marquefas 9 55 30 S 139 8 40 W 9 1635 W 2 30 Madrid Eur. Spain 40 aj 18 N 3 12 oW 14 8W Magdalena (Ifle) Mahon (Port) Afla Pacific Ocean 10 25 30 S 138 49 oW 9 15 16W Eur. Mmorca 39 50 46 N 3 48 30 E ij 14E Maiorca (Ifle) Malacca Eur. Mediterr. Sea 39 35 N 2 29 45 £ 9 59E Afla India 2 12 oN loa 5 E 6 48 20 E Malines Eur. Netherlands 51 I 50 N 4 28 45 E 17 55 E Mallicola (Ifle) Afla Pacific Ocean 16 15 30 S 167 39 15 E II 10 37 £ St. Maloes Eur. France 48 38 .^9N 2 2 22 W 8 9W 6 Malta (Ifle) Africa Mediterr. Sea 35 53 47 N 14 28 30 E 57 54 E Manilla Afla Philippines 1436 8N 120 52 E 8 3 28 E St. Margaret's Steeple Eur. England Atf Ocean 51 9 14N I 22 7 E 5 2» E Marigalante (Ifle) Am. 15 55 •5N 61 11 oW 4 444W Marfeilles Eur. France 43 17 43 N 5 *' 43 E 21 27 E St, Martha Am. Terra Firma J I 26 40 N 74 4 30W 4 56 18 W St. Martin's (Ifle) Am. Carib. Sea 18 4 20N 63 2 oW 4 12 8W Martinico (Port-royal) Am. Atl. Ocean 1+ 35 55 N 61 9 oW 4 4 3<5W St. Mary's Ifle) St. Mary's Town) Eur. Scilly Ifles 49 57 30 N 6 43 oW 26 5a W 3 45 Eur. Azores 36 56 40 N 35 9 15W I 40 37 W Maflcelyne's Ifle Afia Pacific Ocean 16 32 S 167 59 15 E II II 57 E St. Matthew (Lights) Eur. France 48 19 52 N 4 47 ^5W 19 10 W Mauritius Africa Indian Ocean 20 9 45 s 57 29 '5 E 3 49 57 E Mauriia (Ifle) Afla Pacific Ocean 16 2j 40 S 152 32 40 W 10 10 II W Mayence Eur. Germany 49 54 N 8 20 oE 33 10 E ^^^^^_ 7hc INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. xcvti Namci of Places. Cent. Sea or Country. Latitude. Lonp In Degrees. itude. In Time. H. Wat. O / '/ / 11 h ' • \x ' Mayne (John's) Ifle Mavo(lfle) Enr. North Ocean 71 10 oN 9 49 30 ^V 39 i8W Africa Cape Vird 1 1; 10 N 23 .5 oW I 32 20 W Meaux Eur. France 48 57 40 N a .52 30 E II 30 E Mecca Afia Arabia 21 40 oN 41 E 2 44 • E Mende Eur. France 44 31 2N 3 29 35 E 13 53 E Mergui Afia Siam 12 12 oN 98 8 4.'; E 6 3^ 35 E Metz Eur. France 49 7 loN 6 lo 13 E 24 41 E Mew Stone Afu New Holland 43 48 S 146 27 E 9 4.^ 4« E Mexico Am. Mexico 19 25 50 S 100 5 45 ^V 6 40 25 W Mezieres Eur. France fl 4y 45 47 N 4 43 16 E iS 53 E Miatea (Ifle) AGa Pacif. Ocean 17 5i S 14S 6 oW 9 5^ 24 W St. Michael's (Ifle) Eur. Azores 37 47 oN 25 42 VV I 42 48 W Middleburgh (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 21 20 30 S 17434 oW II 38 16 W Milan Eur. Italy Mediterr. Sea 4? 27 57 N 9 r I 45 E 36 47 E Milo (Ifle) Minorca (fort, St. Philip) Eur. j6 41 oN 25 P' I 40 E Eur. Mediterr. Sea 39 51 oN 3 54 ^ 15 36 E Modena Eur. Italy 44 ,H N n 12 30 E 44 50 E Mons Eur. Net lerlands 50 27 loN 3 ^7 «5 E I j 49 E Montagu (Cape) Am. Sandwich Land 58 33 S 26 46 W I 47 4W Monugu (Ifle) AGa PaciGc Ocean 17 26 S 168 31 30 E II 14 6 E Montmirail Eur. France 48 52' 8 N 3 32 16 E 14 9 E Montpellier Eur. France 43 3<5 29 N 3 52 25 E ij 30 E Montreal Am. Canada 45 .50 oN 73 II oW 4 J2 44W Montferrat (Ifle) Monument (The) Am. Carib. Sea 16 47 30 N 62 17 oW 4 9 8W AGa PaciGc Ocean 17 14 f^ S 168 38 15 E II 14 3 E Mofcow Eur. Mofcovy 55 45 45 N 37 32 45 E 2 30 II E Moulins Eur. France 46 34 4N 3 »9 59 E 13 20 E Munich Eur. Bavaria 48 9 55 N II 30 £ 46 E Muflcetto Cove Am. Greenland 64 55 1,5 N 52 .0 45 W 3 31 47 W 10 15 MufweU HiU Eur. England 51 35 32 N 7 20 W %S9 29W ■ -i Namur Eur. Netherlands N. 50 28 32 N 4 44 45 E 18 59 E Nancy Eur. France 48 41 5j N 6 10 16 E 34 41 £ 1 Nangarachi AGa Japan 32 32 oN 128 46 15 E 8 35 5 E 1 Nankin AGa China 32 4 40 S u8 47 oE 7 55 8 E 1 Nantes Eur. France 47 13 6N I 32 59 W 6 12W 3 (Naples ' ' Eur. ItBly 40 50 ij N 14 17 30 E 57 10 E • Narbonne ' -■• Eur. France 4.^ 10 58N 2 59 59 E -012 E Nevers Eur. France 46 59 17 N 3 9 16E 12 37 E New Year's Harboii Am. Stater. Land 54 48 SS S 64 II oW 4 16 44W Niagara Am. Canada 43 4 25 N 79 7 51 W 5 16 31W Nice Eur. France 43 41 47 N 7 16 22 £ 29 5 E St. Nicholai Mole Am. Hifpaniola 19 49 30 N 73 29 45 W 4 5^ 59 W Nieuport Eur. Flanders 51 7 41N 2 45 E oil E 12 Ningpo AGa . China 29 57 45 N 120 J 8 E 8 I I2E• Nifmes Eur. France 43 50 12N 4 18 z^ E o 17 ij E wmmmm TOL. I. Tht r>\% r XCTiU r H n r- ■■■'i I'll . :* ! MU ij INTRODUCTION. The Latitude and Longitudes c/ Places. IH^H^M Namei of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Long In Degrees. iiude. In Time. 1 H. Wat. t H / 11 h ' " h ' Noir (Cape) Amer. Terra del Fuego .54 .5^ S'' ^ i:i .1 '5W 4 43 13 VV hJootka Amer. Pacific Ocean 49 36 <) N 126 41 30 w K i(, 50 \V Norfolk, inand Afla Pacific Ocean 29 I 4 j N ;68 10 E 11 li 40 E Noriton Amer. Penfylvania 40 9 /) N 75 2 J 30 W 5 • .hW North Cape Eur. Lapland 71 10 N 25 57 oE I 43 48 E J Cape North Amer. South Georgia S4 4 '.^N ?S IJ oW 2 33 oW Noyon Eur. France 4'J .H ,59 N J 5'y 4« E 1 1 i;9 V. Nuremberg Eur. Germany 49 26 5j N 0. 17 29 17 s II 4 E 44 "lO E Oaitipeha Day Afia Otaheite '49 3) 45 W 9. 5^5 57 W Oclioz Afla Tartary 59 20 10 N 14 j 12 joE 9 3i 50E Ohamaneno Harbour Afia Uliateah 16 45 30 s 151 38 jW 10 6 32 W II 20 Ohevahos (I fie) Afia Pacific Ocean 9 40 40 s 1 J9 1 40 W 9 16 7W Ohitaboo Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 9 5J .30 S JJ9 6 oW 9 16 24 W 2 30 Oleron (IHe) Eur. France 46 2 50 N I 25 J3W 5 41 W Olinde Amer. Brazil 8 IJ "0 S 35 5 .50 W 2 20 22W St. Omer's Eur. Flanders 50 44 46 N 2 14 57 E 9 E Onateayo (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 9 58 S 138 ji oW 9 15 24 W Oporto Eur. Portugal 41 10 N 8 22 oW 033 8 W Orenburg Afia Tartary jr 46 5N 5S 4 30 E 3 40 i3 E Orleans Eur. France 47 54 »oN I 54 27 E 7 38 E Orleans (New) Am. Louifiana 29 57 45 N 8-; 53 45 W 5 59 .55 ^ Oratava Africa TenerifFe 2S 2i 27 N 16 24 II W ' 5 37W Or(k Afia Tartary 51 12 30N 58 30 45 E 3 54 3 E Ortagal (Cape) Ofnaburg (Ifle) Eur. Spain 43 46 .50 N 7 39 oW 30 36 W Afia Pacific Ocean 17 49 ,^3 S 149 2(5 15 W 9 52 24 VV Ollend Eur. Netherlands s • u i:> N » 3!^ 45 E *i I 43 E 12 9 Owbarre Bay Afia Huahine 1(5 44 S 151 8 15 W 10 4 33W Oxford (Obfervatory) Eur. England 5' 45 3SN P. •45 2.3 40 N I 15 30 W 5 2 W Padua Eur. Italy II 52 30 E 47 30 E Paita Am. Peru 5 12 S Pallifer's (IHes) Afia Pacific Ocean 15 38 15 S 146 30 15 W 9 46 1 W Pallifer (Cape) Afia New Zealand 41 3« S 17.5 18 E II 44 30 E Palma (Ifle) Africa Canaries 28 36 45 N 17 "JO oW I 11 20 W Palmerrton'i (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 18 P S 162 57 oW 10 ^i 48 W Panama Am. Mexico 8 47 48 N 80 21 oW 5 '21 24 W / Paoom (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 16 30 8 168 »8 4.5 E " '3 55 E Paris (Obferv.) EMf. France 48 50 14 N 2 20 E 9 20 E Patrixficrd Eur. Iceland. 65 35 45 N 24 10 oW I 36 40 W Pail Eur. France 43 15 oN 9 oW 36W St. Paul's (Tfle) Africa Indian Osean 57 5« S 77 48 E 5 11 12 E St. Paul de Lion Eur. France 48 40 55 N 4 aiW 16 iW 4 1'^ r-^ INTRODUCTION. Tht Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, xcix Names of Places. Pekin Pcrigvicux PcrinaliU Pcr|)ihMi_ II St. Peter's Fort .St. Peter's (Illc) Pelerfbiirg Pttit Goiive I'etropawl()(lfania Minorca Atl. Ocean N. Zealand Azores N. Caledonia Italy Engla.id France Citrmauy England Ada Eur. Eur. Eur. Amer. Africa Am. Am. Eur. Eur. Eur. Afia Am. Africa Eur. Am. Am. Afia Afia Afia Af.a India Lapland France England Mexico Madeira Jamaica Martinico England England North Sea Pacific Ocean Hifpaniola St. Jago Dohcmia New Wales N. England N. Caledonia Indian Oceau Gulph Siam Pacific Ocean Latitude. 39 .H 45 •' 4.J SI 42 41 '4 44 46 4O 18 27 53 • mN bN 20 N 53 N oN 30 N oN 20 N 55 N 39 50 54 4i 45 47 3b 28 22 38 4.^ 43 50 31 46 34 47 48 JO 43 46 N JO S 27 S 40 N o S 7N 22 N 50 N 17N 50 N II •57 49 50 9 4' 4 3 52 5S 15 N 18 "o oN '4 35 SS N 50 47 27 N 50 4S 2 N 55 N ;oN ' 2N 22 N 5N 63 22 39 25 19 S3 53 5 47 41 50 2t> lU 8 40 22 23 O S oN o S oN 5JN 47 N 32 N 40 N o S oN oN Longitude. In Degrees. In Time. 116 27 o 41 7 4° 61 21 5*5 .7 jO 19 71 52 158 48 75 '.J 3^E yE oL 35 K K)W oW oE 30 W oE joW .? 4« JO E .36 38 o W 166 28 1^7 10 pE oW oE oE 24 W 48 E . 17 E ' 5« 55 W 4 II 79 5^ 45 E 3^5 2j ij E a 5 37 E 2 26 49 W 79 5>3 16 i'T 20 W 15 W 76 45 30 W 61 9 o W . 5 57W I 6 I W 18 178 14 ii')4 107 104 oW oE oW 72 W oE 30 W oW 14 E oE o E l> 7 o o o 4 5 3 45 2 I 4 5' 'o 35 5 o 45 50 E 2 53 E 30 40 h 1 1 ,^4 V. 5 2.^ W 45 «V/ I !'.> E 5' JoW i,jE 54 W o 15 14 £ 2 27 52 W 5 13 E 5.5 44 W !o 3J E 41 .31 E 16 30 W I 2.3 £ o 44 2g £ o 7 56W H. Wat, 19 31 E 25 0.5 E tt 9 22 E 47 W 19 21 W 5 4'W 2 W 36 W 24 W 24 W 1 15 36 w II J 2 48 K 4 48 8 W ' 33 57 W o 57 36 E 6 16 joW 4 45 44 W 10 58 4j E " 9 20 E 40 E '' Si '75 4" 30 ^V I n 4^ 46 W seoM 6 o II >5 6 30 o i ■"»> 7'** ti i I I if r ( i- i', N' If 1 ■<■■ 1 i< > 1 ' U : ■1 %p ■ i! ' ■! ' 'hi ;', ^ '1 ■ i''i ■ .'! t fjj'' 1:1 iS ; 1 i \ 1 •[■■\. I'U-- i INTRODUCTION. T/je Luiiitudtt and Longitudet of Places, k-< MM^^^H ^lAi^^B^VK Qt 1 * Naniet of Placet. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Longi In Drgreei. tudo. In Time. H. Wat. U 1 It ; II h ' " h ' (^lltllCC Am. Canady 4Ci 47 ■joN 71 10 oW 4 44 40 W 7 JO (^umipcr Eur. France 47 5** »9N 4 6 oW 16 24 W St. Q^uiTiton Eur. France 4<; 50 5 1 N 3. '7 2} E I ) 10 E (^iiinn'(Cape) Afia N. Hebrides 14 j6 » S 167 20 E II 9 20 E Qui II to Am. Peru ij 17 S 77 55 ° W 5 u 40 W - R. 1 Raknh (Ar.cient) Afia Mefopatamia 36 1 oN 33 50 E 2 35 20 E Ramhtad Eur. England i;o 18 40N 4 20 15 W 17 21 W Ramfpate Windmill Eur. England 51 19 49 N I 24 4E 5 3^5 E Re(Iflc) Eur. France 46 14 48 N 1 34 28 W 6 18W 3 Recif Am. Brazil 8 10 S 3a 35 ow a 22 20 W Reikiancft (Cape) Eur. Iceland rt3 55 oN 22 47 30 W I 31 loW Ren lies Eur. Framx 4« 6 45 N I 4. 53W 6 48W Refolution (Bay) Alia Oliitahoo 9 55 30 S .39 8 40 W 9 1635 w 2 30 Refolution (Ifle) Refolution (Port) Afia Pacific Ocean n 2.3 JO s J41 4V oW 9 27 oW Alia Taiina 19 ,32 2J S 169 41 5 E It 1 8 44 E Rlicims Eur. France 49 15 1 6 N 4 1 4S E 16 7 E ] Rhodci Eur. France 44 2o 59 N a 34 '7 1^ 10 17 E Rhodes Afia Aichipclago J5 27 oN 28 45 E I 5.5 E Rimini Eur. Italy 44 .3 4,5 N 12 34 15 E 50 17 E Rio Janeiro Am. Brafil i.2 54 10 S 42 43 45 W 2505JW Rochelle Eur. France 46 9 31 N J 9.55W 440W 3 45 Rochford Eur. France 45 5*5 >oN ° 57 49 W 3 51 W 4 15 Rock of Liflinn Eur. Portugal ,38 45 30 N 9 35 30 W 38 22 W Rodrigues (Ifle) Africa Indian Ocean 19 40 40 S 63 10 E 4 12 40 E Rome (St. Peter's) Eur. Italy 4' 53 54 N 12 29 15 E 49 57 E Rotterdam Eur. Holland 51 55 58 N 4 29 E 17 56 E 3 Rottirdam (Ifle) Afia Pacific Ocean 20 16 30 S 174 30 30W 11 ^8 2W Rouea Eur. France 49 26 27 N 17 39 30 N I I 32W 4 6W I '5 Saba (inc) Am. Carib. Sea 63 17 15W 4 13 9W Sable (Cape) Am. Nova Scotia • 43 23 45 N 65 39 '5 W 4 2237W Sagan Eur. SllcllA 5.1 42 1 2 N 15 22 15 E I I 29 E Saintes Eur. France 45 44 43 N 38 54 W 2 36W .Sainte-Croix Eur. France 48 35 N 7 23 55 E 29 36 E Sal'ftury Spirtf Eur. England 5« 3 49 N I 47 oW 7 8W •Sail (Ifle) Africa Atl. Ocean 16 38 15 N 22 56 15 W 1 31 45 W Saloniqiie Eur. Turkey 40 4] 10 M 23 8 oE I 32 32 E S.iIvagenCldes) Africa Atl. Ocean 30 oN 15 54 oW I 3 36W mSmam *-i 7h INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, Namei of Placci. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Long III Degrciri. itudi I • 1 Time. H. Wal. • 1 II 1 II h 1 II h ' jSamant Amer. Hifpnniula k; h oN 69 16 30 W 4 37 6W Samuii Alia Archipelago ^7 46 N 27 I) oE I 48 5 J E Sanfta Cruz Africa TiMi-riffe 28 27 ^oN 16 16 15 W 1 5 5W Sandwich (Bay) Amcr. South l/corgia J4 4» S .)6 12 oW 2 24 .,8 W Sandwicli (Cape) Alia Mailicola 16 jrt S 1^7 59 E II 1 1 'yfl E iSamlwii.li Haibour Afia Mrtllicola 16 25 20 S 167 53 E 1 I II 32 E Sandwich (f He) Alia Pacific Ocean 17 41 s iM ,1] E 1 I M 12 E S.mndei'a (Cape) Anicr. Sandw. Land .')4 6 JO S 36 ;,7 .30 W 2 27 50 W Saiiiider'a (Ifle) Amcr. South Georgia 58 S 26 s8 oW 1 47 5iW Sa\age (I He) Afia Pacific Ocean ly 2 ij S 169 30 .joW I I 18 2W Scnrboroujrh Head Eur. Rngla.d .H .!< oN I.J oW /;:\V Scliwc'/iiiRcn Eur. CJermany ¥) ^l 4N 8 40 45 E 34 U E Scilly men (LiRhta) Eur. En^. Channel 49 :,<' N 6 46 VV 27 4^V - Seballian St. (Cape) Afiica Madagr frar 12 ,jo S 46 2 5 E :i 5 40E Sedan Eur. France 4(; 42 29 N 4 57 3f^ E 19 5 a E See/. Eur. I ance 48 36 N . 10 44 E 43 E Sene((al Africa Ntgroland 15 5;^ N if) .51 30 W I 6 AW 10 .30 Scnlia Eur. France 49 12 . N 2 34 5*^ E 10 20 E Sens Eur. Fiance 4H -i 55 N 3 «7 »' E 13 6E Stnoncs Eur. France 4.-3 7N '57 E 27 48 E iSheenicfs Eur. England SI 25 oN ijO I'^ 3 20 E Shepherd's (Ille*) Afia Pacif. Oc -u 16 j8 S 168 42 E II 14 48 E Shirburn Callle Eur. Eni{land India .5' ,?9 25 N I W '■ 4 oW Siam Afia 14 20 40 N 100 50 E 43 -0 E # Si-nf;ham-fu Alia China ,34 16 joN loR 4! 45 E 7 •4 5) E Siftcron Eur. France 44 11 1; 1 N 5 16 18 E -3 45 E Sli){o Day Eur. Ireland 54 ij oN i; iS oW 37 12 W Smyrna Afu Natolia 18 28 7N 27 6 ^s E I 48 26 E SnafcU (.Mount) Eur. Iceland 64 52 20 N 2.J 54 oW 1 35 36 \V SiiifTiins Eur. France 49 2i 52 N 3 19 16 E 'J <7 E iSombavera (Idti) Am, Carib. Sea 18 38 oN 6,5 37 30 ^^' 4 14 joW Socio Afia India 5 57 oN 121 I 'J 30 1-. 8 .1 2E Southampton Spire Eur. England 5° 9.J 59 N I 2.5 56 W 5 3^'W Southern Thule Am. Sandw. Land 59 34 S 27 4; oVV I 51 oW Speaker Bank Afia Indian Ocean 4 45 S 72 57 E 4 51 48 E Stalbridge Er England 50 J 7 N 2 23 30 W 9 3 + W Start- Point E-- England 50 1,5 26 N 3 38 21 W «4 33 VV Stockholm Eu. Sweden .i;9 20 J I N «» 3 5'E I !• 16 E Stonehenge Eur. England Iceland ^! 10 44N I .19 8 W 7 lOW Straummis Eu:-. by .59 40 N 24 2y 15 W J 37 57 W Stratfljourgh Eur. France 48 .H 56 N 7 44 jrv !•: 30 5^ E Sncccfs bay Am. Terra del Fuego 54 49 45 S ^5 2 ■; W 4 2 I 40 \V Siitcefa dv Am. Terra del Fuego :,5 I s Ci; 27 o\V A 2 1 . 4.H \V Suez Africa Egypt 29 50 N ?3 27 E 2 13 48 V. iSuUz Eur. France 47 53 'oN 7 H 3^^^' ■-'« r,S W [Siirat 1 Afia India 21 10 N 72 -22 30 E 4 49 -0 i- .^ The I'll''' ! I I'lliiM- :^.i H-' \ ' r •' ' if.i ; ■ :i " h:n Ht (■; ' il' ■m ' i'l ( eK I N T R O L J C T I O N. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, T. Nameii of Places. \ Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Long In Degrees. lude. In Time. 1 H. Wat. 1 1 1 tl / If h ' " h ' Table I (land } Afia I N. Hebrides i:, ,j8 o s 167 7 E II 8 28 E Taiina Alia 1 Pacific Ocean i't ^2 25 S i6y 41 J E 11 18 44 E 3 Taoiikaa (IHc) Afia ■ Pacific Ociau 14 JO 30 S 14s y 30 W 9 40 j8 VV Piirafcnii Eiir. I'rance 43 48 10 N 4 jy .K> ^ 18 jS E Tavbrs r.i.r. ■ France 4.? 1.3 5iN ^ 3 59 ^ 16 E T.iflacorta Africa I lie Palma iS oN 17 r^S o\V 1 II 52 W Temoiiteiijji* Alia : tSoloo 5 57 oN 120 J3 ,soE 8 3 34 E 'l-e.ieriffe (Peak) Africa > Canaries a8 17 oN i6 40 oW I f) 40 W Tercera Eur. I Azores 38 4'; oN 37 6 oW I 4S 24 W Texcl Ifle Eur. Holland ij 10 oN 4 59 oE 19 y> E Thionville Eur. France 49 21 50 N 6 10 so E 24 42 E TluimajSt. (Iflc.) Amer. Virein Ides i8 21 ';'; N 64 51 joW 4 19 2G W Thulc (Southtiii) Amer. Sandwich Land 59 .54 S 27 45 W I 51 oW Thiiry Eur. France 49 21 28 N 2 18 JO E 9 14 E Timor (S. W. Point) Afia India 10 2 j S I2J 59 E 8 15 56 li Timor Land (S. Poi.) Afia India 8 15 S 151 54 E 8 47 36 E Tobolfki Afia Siberia 58 li 30 N 68 25 E 4 33 40 E Tolaga Bay Afia New Zealand 38 21 .50 S '78 3.5 45 E 11 j8 isE Toledo Eur. Spain VJ 50 oN 3 20 o\V 015 20W Tomlk Afia Siberia j6 ,50 oN 84 59 33 E 5 .>y 58 E Tonga Tabu (Iflc) Afia Pacific Ocean 21 9 iS 174 46 oW II 39 4W Tonnerre Eur. France 47 5' «N 3 5» 44 E 15 59 E Torbay Eur. England r,0 .54 oN 3 36 oW 14 24 W Tornea Eur. Sweden '(>:, ;,3 50 N 24 12 E I 36 48 E Toulon Eur. France 4.3 7 i^N 5 5.5 '(> E 33 42 E Toulotife Eur. France 4,J .i.'i 4^»N 1 20 21 E .■; 4.5 E Tournan Eur. France 4S 43 :>i N 2 45 '5 E 11 1 K Tours Eur. France 47 -3 46 N 41 32 E 3 46 E Traitor's Head Afia Erramanpra 1 3 43 JO S i6y 20 30 E II 17 22 E Triefte Eur. Adriatic Sia 4.1 5' oN 14 3 E 56 12 E 1 iTrinidad Am. Atl. Ocean 20 I 5 S 126 42 oW 8 26 4S W I'lVipali Africa Barbary 3- .53 40 N '5 5 '.5 E '•fi 31 E j Troves Eiir. France 48 18 5 N 4 4 .',4 E .6 18 E iTurin Eur. Italy 45 4 14N 7 40 E 30 40 E ''I'uniaffaiii (Cape) Afia N. Zealand 40 28 s 176 f,G E II 47 44 E j Turtle Ifland Afia Pacific Ocean ,19 48 45 s 177 j;7 oW II 51 48 W Tyrnaw t Eur. Hungary 48 S3 30 N '7 33 45 ^• i 10 15 £ 11 ~ 8 TU INTRODUCTION. The Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. • •• cui S H. Wat. ¥7 i 3 " E E \v E \V ji( W L E W \V 1 1 ^E 1 1 ) E 1 1 )E 1 i ?K 1 ;E 1 )W iE ;E ^W »E iE SI 5E zE zE 1 S\V I E 8 li oE 4E b W sE u. Names of Places. Cont. Sea or Country. Latitude. Long In Degrees. itude. In Time. Ulintcah Unfal U-aniberg Udiant Afia Eur. E'lr. Eur. Pacific Ocean LSweden Denmark France O • II i6 45 o vS 59 5 ' 50 N .vi rA 38 N 43 28 30 N 1 II 151 .? I oW 17 .S8 45 E >i 41 44 E J 4 33 W h ' " 10 6 4W I 10 35 E 50 11 E ao "iSW Valcncicnnei Valery St. Vailery St. Valparaifo Van Dieman'a Road Vanncs Vtnce Venice Venus (Point) Vera Cruz :V.T(1 (Cape) |V^iT(lim iVtrona jVt-rfailles I Vienna (Obfcrv.) ;vico .Vmccnt St. (Cape) iViiitirni •:. 1 Virgin Gorda (Fort) Viipin (Cape) Vurtzburg Wakefield Prince of Wales's Fort Wanllcad Wardiius Warfaw Wcftman (Ifics) Wexford Weymouth Whitehaven Whitfintide (Ifle) Eur. Eur. Eur. Am. Afia Eur. Eur. Eur. Afia Am. Afric. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Am. Am. Etu". Eur. Eui. Am. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Eur. Afia France France France Chili TonRa Tabu Fiance France Italy Otaheite Mexico Nejjroland France Italy France Hungary Spain Spain Italy Weft Indies Patagonia France Franconia England Ntw Walts Enprland I..apland Poland North Ocean Ireland England England Pacific Ocean V. 50 49 .^J 21 47 43 45 •7 J9 27 N 13 N 12 N 36 S 15 s 14 N 16N 7N 17 S .38 N I o 72 '74 2 7 12 149 96 .51 37 4' 19 46 7 22 .3.') o 40 E 6E 10 E 15 W =4 W 28 E 4.1 E 4,-. W o W 14 4.3 49 9 4.'; 2'5 48 48 48 12 42 M 43 18 '4 ■J 5? 18 •!.3 45 N 24 N 7N 21N 36 N 24 N oN 20 N oN o S •14 ^« j;N 4<; 4'> 6 N 8 28 « ■;'; •7 64 C)- 30 45 W 21 41 E 18 30 E 7 -E ^ 22 K o W V; .•■.6W 37 .30 E o o W U oW 4 40 S.'i E '^ '3 4j E w. Si 5» 5' 70 .'ii .U '5 oN •;oN loN 36N 28 N joN oN oN oN 20 S 94 o 3' 21 •20 6 2 .3 168 33 .I0W 7 .30 W 30 E 4.5 E oE 45 W oW oW oW i-iE o o o 4 i( o o o 9 6 i3E 28 E 45 E 17 W 46 w 17W 50 E 3'E 58 25 W 24 oW 14 6 2 49 .39 1 1 23 49 10 .3 W 21 31 E 45 '4 ^ 8 28 E 5 .50 E 33 5^ W !5 5fW o 18 44 F, o 43 ;,j E f, 14 \r C) I ft ioW 10 E 2 4 27 E 1 »4 2 E I 21 ,iW 26 oW 9 ;6W '3 oW li M 21 E H. Wat. 4 JO 10 38 7U m iMm. iW ■, ! ^ ii \}h '!'] ri:!'! ".fH::: !'t ' 1 1 ii >.' i ■ . 1 ■ ( 1 f . t r - 5 ; ' Ltt^' : rtf.-^"^' ■ If :;i!^ ii ^H rwm m ^■'iii 1 1 1 Hi chr Ylo York York (New) Yorkminftcr INTRODUCTION. T&e Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. Names of Places. Cent. Sea or Country. Latitude. Lcogitude. In Degrees. In Time. O 1 II 1 II h ' " WillJiaiti (Fort) Afia Benfral 22 34 4.S N 88 29 30 E 5 5.3 58 E Willis's (liles) Am. South Georgia 54 o o S 38 29 40 W « 33 59 W Wilna Eur. Poland .54 4 « oN 25 27 30 E 1 41 50 E Wittenburg Eur. Germany 51 53 oN 12 44 30 E jjd j;8 E Wologda Eur. Ruflia 59 '9 oN Worccfter Eur. England Ruilia 52 930N 2 ijW 8 iW Woflak Eur. 61 15 oN Wykc Church Eur. England 50 35 57 N a 28 loW 953W H.Wat. Y. Am. Peru 17 36 15 S 71 1.5 oW Eur. England Terfey Terra del Fuego 53 59 oN I 6 40 W Am. 40 40 N 74 11 oW Am. 55 26 20 S 70 8 oW 4 44 52 W o 4 27 W 4 56 54 W 4 40 32 W msam ^MMWirik-iMMM^ o . I'M ON THE ORIGIN OF ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY. THE chief difficulty in any elementary work of fcience is, to catch the ideas which lead from ignorance to knowledge ; but in moll works of this nature, the author feems to infer that the reader is in a confiderable degree acquainted with tlic fubjc^l ; and, while lie is in the (hip of fcience. expeds that the difciple can arrive without a boat. The mod profound authors are commonly the mod aware of this diiSculty ; and the following extra£l, tranflatedfrom Bailly's learned Hiftory of Ancient Allronomy,* will be found ufeful, as prefenting the original ideas which led to tlic fciences of AUrononiy and Geography. ^ I. Few people have not been impreffed with the bf auty of the no^urnal firmament. The fight, fatigued with the fplendour of day, wanders over the celeftial vault, and enjoys the complaifance of foft repofe ; a (l:ep azure fervcs as a foil to the enchafed diamonds ; the different ludru of the liars, fome fparkling, others refcmbling glittering particles, but compenfating in num- ber what tb>:y lufe in fize ; the gentiv luminous zone which furrouiids tlie fky, and divides it into two porti- ons; the large filver planet, which, varying in its appear- ance, foinctimes prefents a crefcent, fometimes a radi- ant and full globe, whole foft beams delight the eye, without fatiguing it, a globe, which in fize and fplendour can alone be compared to the fun, advancing with equal majeAy, while iiumerouD liars difappear in the fuperior effulgence. Such is the fpedacle prefentcd by night, till the dawn begin to glimmer in the call ; the Iky rtddeiu, and the fun fprings from the horizon. All the liars difappear, he fills the entire firmament which he traverfes, diifullng light and heat till he defccnd to- wards the horizon, where he terminates his courfe ; and the grand fceiies of night are repeated. Such regulari- ty, fuch fublimity, joined with fo much fimplicitv, excite the admiration of the coldeft and moll infcnfible minds. § 2. This phenomenon of the motion of the fun from eallto wed was the firll obferved, and was followed by that of the general motion of the ftars in the fame di- re£lion, Ali appear in the ead in the evening, and ad- vapce in regular order, traverfing the heavens like the fun, till concealed by the oppolitc horizon. Tlie firll idea was, to regard the firmament as a vaft pavilion fpread over a plane luperficies ; the next was that of a hemis- phere turning upon itfelf with the attached dars, while the fun himlelf was fubjedled to the movement. But a great quediun arofe, what became of the fun during the night, and of the liars during the day I A confiderable time was required to tcfolve this quedion ; and as all depends on ciicumilances and means, it was even an effort of genius ; nor was it completely explained till TOi., I. *PitH 17I1, 4ta. tiM 1 ] Mil I J' f i(:jr ! .1 ■1' >■;•. ; , if ■ ,. ' I .'ti ;■ |*;ui(hed in the mornitig, to be the moon was a round or fphcrical body, rekindled in the evening. It wus even faid, that at the $ 4- Attentive and iifliiliKins ubferircrs foon perceived moment when the fun fet, a ccitiiin noife wua heard as if that the fpcttacle of the llaiiy heavena was not always thefeahifled, whtii the fun was extingniflied in the de- the fame, 'it the end of fix monihs it is almoll abfo- fcent under the waves. It is to the ceLbrattd Grc. .', liitcly chan{;cd ; the liars wiiichrofeat a certain hour and to their academics, that we owe thtfc fond tales being then ready to ftt, while new liars appear in the which ihall n«a occupy oui- attention. eail I'-y means of daily attention it w;is obfervcd that all the Hats rife every day foimer than they did the day befori;, and that at the end of a month the difference aniouiitsto two hoars. 'I'hij anticipation in the riling of the liars, muft be the cffeft of fome luiknown motion : it was at lull doiihtlefs imagined that the firmament, the Harry heaven, btfidts the daily motion around the earth from call to well. Iiad another flower motion in the fame direiition, fo as to accelerate the riiing and fetti');^ oftlieflars. Cut what became of the liars that were invifit>Ic during many months, and whence proceeded the liars which began to appear on the horizon i 5omc rcniaiks, accumulated by time, lellisntd thefe difficulticn. It wasobferved that fonie of the liars, for example, thofe of the Great Bear, fometimes appeared in the eaft, fonie- times in the well, north or fouth, while other liars never appeared in the north. It was inferred that the firll made an entire revolution ; but why (hould the others liave a differeut march, or fo to fpeak, a particular privi. lege ? It was even perceived that there was one liar spy ^ 3. It was foon perceivi-d that the mnon had a par- ticular motion, (hie night flie had appeared Dear a liar, and un the following was at a diHance. It was not dif ficult to obf»;rve that the liars always prrferved the fame dillance, fo that the motion could only be afcribed to the moon herfelf. Thus the knowledge of a particular motion from well to eaft was juined to that of the gene ral motion from call to wdl : and this was the itrit dif- covery in aftronomy. The phafes of the moon formed at the fame time a phenomenon which attracted the attention of the firtt aftronomers, but which exercifed their fagacity more than the other. They began with following and Ihidy- ing her appearances, and the following mull have been the firll obfervations. When the moon begins to fliew lierfelf, it is in the evening after fun.fet. She prcfcnts the form of a crel'cent, or delicate thread of light in-a circular form, the convexity being towards the fun, while the points are turned towards the call. 'I his erefccnt foon enlajgcs, and the moon, at a greater which did not ftiifihly cha.ngc its lituation during the dillance from the fun, remains longer in the firmament, whale courfc of the night. It was as it were the centre By infenfibleaugrntntaiii.n the enlightened part alTumcs of motion, while the others feemed to turn around it; the appeaiaiice of halt a dllk ( and when the night arrives hence the point it occupied in thi? firmament was called ' (In: then occupies the middle of the heavens. At the theyV*, and this liar allumed the name of the Polar Star. end of about fou; teen days from her firft appearanc^;, (lie Around this immoveable liar, fome made an eniiie rcvo- is oppolite to tlie fun, rifing whin he fcts, and is full, lution, while others only feemed to arconiplifh a part, like a diik compkte'y enlightened, fo that, incapable of More profound I'peculators followed thefe lall beyond incrcafe, it m.ult decline. The light firft vaniflies from their apparition, and fupplied by imagination that por- that tide where it lirll appeared, and diininilhes gradually tion of their courfe which was inobfervable by the eye. as it had incrtai'ed. The moon becomes fucceflively like halfo diik, then a crefcent, more and rnorc narrow, but with the hums turned towards the weft, ih^; convex- ity regarding the fun, which the moon then precedes, only riCng a Ihort time before him. Soon alter (lie ceales to rife, Che h two or three days Invifiblc ; and then le-appears to undcrjjo the fame changes. In combining thefe difTererit phenomena, it was obferv. The lirmaincnt became a complete fphere, and as two iixcd points were nectlTary for its motion, they fuppofed, in imitation of the vifible pole, another fixed point diame- trically oppofite under the earth in the other part of the firniaiiicnt ; and the imaginary line which j ined thefe two points, and around which the diurnal motion was accomplilhed, was called the jIkU of ihe Sfrherc. It had been moreover remarked, that when a new ftar i?d, that when the mo'm was In her grcatellfplendor, fhe appeared, it was always in the moning, when it feemed was oppoff.e to ihe f.i.i ; and when (lie was near the fun, the enlightened part-was latneJ' towards that ftar. It was natural to conclude that her illumination depended on the fun, and that her light was borrowed from him. Ai to the body of the moon, It was impofllble to difpiv rotundity; and thiii body m'ift either be a flat diiie or a fphere, which, fecn at a diftance, has the' "".mc ap- pearance. But a flat dii1< would not be illuminateci like the moon, but entirely from the firft, and onl/ mure to precede the day, and to quit tiie fun in order to pafs before him. On the contrary, when it ceafed to fliew it- felf, when it began to efcape from the fight, it was al- ways at fun-fet, and it might be judged that it was about to rejoin that liar. It was. thereture, the prefence of the fnn which made it dilappcar ; and on their fepa- ration depended its new appearance. Thus all was ct. plained. The fun and the liars, when they difappeared in the wcfti palTod under the earth to re-appear in the 7 caft .OM THE ORIGIN OF AfJTRONOxVlY AND CEOGRAPHV-. c»i} fift. Etfides, the (lara iihl tlie fun were ohfervfd to have ■ motinn by «hich tlicy fcemird to quit each other, and iftcrtvarda to approach. It wa* enquired if ihit iiiotioii btlongcd to lUe fun or to the ftant, and it wai more fimple to conceive the motion of the fun, than that of a multitude of (lars, which mull make an equal pro- grcf*. Analogy alfo threw light on this topict and tlie inntion of the nioun llicwed that the latter, which bore a I'litt refemblance, belonged to the fun. i 5. He who difcovctcd tlie fphciical form of the firmament, and the mutiim uf the fun, made two giand llep^ in allionomy, for on thefc depend the bafes of the f phcre, and they difembarrafs ilie ftudy from many errors pnd abfurd ideas. When we confider the cpocht and the ciioumllancef, Copernicus and Kepler, when they changed the fyllem of the wurld, and the form of iho planetary orbits, did not render a greater fervice to the fcience. /\ll thcfeconfiderationson the ilarn, ferved to certify that the greater number was ./fa-'C'/ in the firmament j that ii tu fay, that in fpite of the general motion, they preferved the famedillancei and the fame configurationj. Neverthelels, among thofe which by their fplendour a'ltraded paiticular attention, and which were llyledof the firit magnididc, three were dillinguiftitd, which changed their dilUnccs with regard to the relt. 'I'hey liad, therefore, like the moon, a proper motion, each in the fame ilire£lion from well to eait ; but all three of differint fwiftnefs. A diilinClion was thuH eftablilhcd of two kinds of ftari, the lirll being regarded an fixed, btcaufe tliey feemvd only to move with the firmament, and the others were called Planett, implying wandering ilar'. The three Hrll known were douhtlefs Mars, Jupi> ter, and Saturn. A very brilliant liar, which fumetimeit appears in the evening, was alio daflcd with the pla- nets, having a motion with regard 10 the fixed liars. A fceond Ilar, which appeared in the morning before fun ' rife, pertedlly refcmbling the former in lullrc, and hav- ing like it a peculiar motiou, was at Kttl regarded as a dilferciit planet. The tveningllar wasdillinguiflied from the morin'ng ilar, Hefptr from Lucifer; neverthelefs they were of fueh equal fj)l<'ndour, and it was fo vitihle that the morning liar completed the rout begun by that of tlie evening, that a little time and attention evinced that thefe two llurs were the fame pbnet, now called Venus. Another itar of much finaller fi/.e, which alfu appeared in the morning and the evening, was placed in the rank of planets. 'I hus tlie anc'ents knew feven planets, the fun, the moon, .V am, Jupitir, S-.iturn, Venus, and Mercury, They had only been obfervcd fucceHively, an 1 |ierli:ips alter the elapfe of many ages, above all, Mucury, which is r.lm ,11 always merged in the folar r \s. 'I'he difcoveries are here united, l>ecaufe fome led to iitliers although they wete feparatcd by long inter- vals of time. 5 6 1 lie fjlierical form of the firmament being ac- kiiuwltdged, it was alio natural to think that the earth was round. It was c'ear that it was fufpended in tiic middle of fpacc, bccaufe the liars pnflcd under it. The firmament, whkh w»s beh'eved tabeftilij, feemed an envelope made for the «i>rt!) \ and In confrquenc« both (hould have the fame form. Uclides, the ancient?, .tlwrnys pre-occupied with th« advantages nf circular firois above all others, natiir.illy ipplitd them to the earth and to the liars; which lall iliey believed to he formed of a divine fubilance, or at leall dellined for tht: abodes of gods and fpii its. To this notion they were alfo roiidu''led by analogy, for the moon Stcaire an example and authority for thofe who taught he fphfti- cal form of the earth. It is commonly believed that this knnwle.t^e might aril'e in maritime countries, where it wis naiii-al tooh- icrve the fuccellive difappearjiicc of different p:irtsofa ihip failing out To fea. hut the dil'covery of the round form of the earth if. doubllcfs anterior to the invention of diips, at leaf) of thofe large enough to be perceived at a great dillauce. Dei'ides, for fncn an argument, and fiich rude times, the conclulion appears to us too fubtle. The obfctvation in quellion may ferve at prefent to prove the globular figure of the earth, witluiut havinir firlt ferved to render it obforvable. Ueiides, the progrrfs of the human mind is often devious, leaving for a long time a fimple idea which i^ on its way, to feize other* more Inbtle and remote. Anotherobfervationfliewed theroundnefsof the earth, that of the new ilars, which became vifible to thofe who changed their latitude, 11 proceeding from north to fouth, or the contrary. But w£ Infpe^t that voyage! have only confirmed this opinion, becaufe that men, attached to their homes, to their herds and the culture of their fields, mull have long exilled before thjy pro- ceeded to any great dillance. They only left their country to fight, and only fought with their neighbonrs.' It was neceflary that commerce ftiould opeivfome inter- courfe, that war fhould make a wider range, and above all that philofophers and obfervcrs llionld navigate, for merchants and warriors felJom conlider the ilnis. Phi* lofophers mull have obferved, that on proceeding tow- ards the fonth, the liars before unknown arofe on the horizon, while on their return they difjppcared. The fight of thefe (lars was therefore connetled with a cer- tain pofiti'on on the globe ; and the convexity and round- nefs of the earth could alone produce this effcil. § 7. AUronomy, by ponViring fonie juft notions of the fyllem of the world, began to become a fcience. An idea of the motions of the celellial bodies began to be (!lablilhcd. Before, it had only been a fubjeft of ciiriofity, but was foon tu be applied to ufeful obje^li | and the progrefs became more rapid as interell is more adtive than curiofity. One of the tiiil wants of nafccnt fociety, is a mcafure of ti -.^e. Men firll reckoned by days J and 'btne lavages of A mevicn dill count by funp.- We have proofs that th'; Chaldeam computed in thia manner, and that they preferved this praclice, even after the conqiiell by Alexander, that is long after the clla-. blilhment of years of three hundred and fixty-fivc days. The obfervations which they madu >verc engraved on bricks; and it miy be bcllev>;d that llV're was one for p 2 cacli ■ff^' '\i' I . I' l/i ,;■; i' (|!n ^r ;->:; > I it" .1 ll 1 ' \- 1 \f& ■ ■ f f I - jrl ^j^j fl; - -■^ f ii'-'l Hi "! 'i !J II ';' '1 ' tt (! 1' ■ t. .. . ' ' Bri j :, r ^^1' SHi i r B ^H H > , .^ i ' •VIII ON THE ORIGIN OF ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY. cich day, tnd that the time was calculated by the num- ber of the brickt. But thiA manner of reckoning was not found convenient in daily pra£^icc> becaufe the day* iu a (hort time became too numerous. A longer period was wiflied ; and the motion of the moon with regard to the itars offered one of about twei.ty-cijjht days, while the phafes of that planet indicated a fubdiviiion in four parts, or weeks of feven days. Goguet thinks that tliry were the (iril meafure of time, but tt is evident that they are only fubdivifions, and of an invention pufterior to the ob- fervance of the lunar revolutions Yet as tlje motion of the moon with rcgai d to the ftars, demanded obfervati- ons, in common practice tlie return of the phafes was preferred ; and upon .the motion of this planet with re- gard to the fun, months of thirty days were cftablilhcd. The Neomenia, or the feall which is celebrated among almoft all nations at the time of the new moon, is a proof that they are attentive to the return of that planet; and they have added feilivals from different motives, in order that the obfervations fliould not be neglefled. When the motion of the fun became known, it was feen that there was a far longer interval between the moment when a ftar difengages itfelf in the morning from the folar beams, till the moment when, after being again merged in them, it begins to re-appear. This interval wat called the revolution of the fun; and men began to xcckon by years.* Many nations have long preferved the praAice of be- ginning their year at the rifing or fetting of fome brilli- ant ftar, as Sirius or the Pleiades. But as the motion of the fun was not meafured as foonas it was perceived, an approximation only was demanded. This was ac- compliflied by the reunion of twelve lunations, which clapfed in a revolution of the fun to cumpofe a lunar year. Although the month* had been at firft of thirty days this year was only of three hundred and fifty- four days, becaufe they did not (?clay to rtdlify, by the ob- (ervationof the Neomenia, the too great length of the montki ; and they were akernately ellimated at twenty- nine and thirty days to complete the revolution of the moon, which employs about twenty.nine days and a half. Thi* year long exilled among nations, whofe mode of life did not permit the acquifition of more e\a& know- ledge ; and it is fufficient for the occafions of thufe who, like the ancient Arab* and Tatars, only live on the flefh and milk of animals ; nay the wandering Arabs and Tatar* ftill follow thi* ufagc. In fad thi* form of the year it very convenient for people in thait Hate of fo- ciety ; the obfervation of tlie moon, which is very vi- fible and eafy, difpcnCng tkem from any neceflity of a valendar. § 8. In the commencement of fociety there were only htuiten and Ihepherd*, but when the increafe in . * Wbea I (Hr tpptiti in tii* mornini towards th< eaft, an inflaat bofort the lifinf of the fun, or in the cvtniog co th« weft an inllant after fun-fet, it i« fiid to rife or fet btluieallj. Thefi htllaeal rifinft and Ccttinfi regulated tbt libouit of agiiculiure, and the inclenta were •f couife attentive to their obrervation. Thii phcnomcnta it in* lendtd wtaaa we fp«k of the iilio| and fetting vi tit* Itara. number rendered it difficult to procure food, recourfe was neccffarily had to .ngriculture. It then became in- difpenfable to know and forefce the return of the feafoni ; and agriculture enforced allronomical obfervation*. It was remarked that the vegetation of plants and trees, the maturity of fruits and grains, depended upon the ac- tion or upon the pre(ence, more or lefs prolonged, of the fun upon the horizon. At the time that the days became equal to the niglits, the verdure re-appearcd, and in confequence the culture of the foil ought tu pn:. cede that epoch. When the days are the longed it ii the feafon of harvefls, which arc performed fiiccefiivelr till the nights become equal to the days. This feafon is that of labour and fowing of feeds, till the lengthened nights bring back the time of inaction and repofe for man and nature. Thefe interval* were dillinguilhed and called fiafoni. At the fame time doubtlefs the year of three hundred and fixty day* was ellablilhed ; and a* it had been re- marked that during the courfe of the year and the fea- fon*, new ftar* daily emerged in the morning from the ray* of the fun, the mod brilliant were chofcn as being thflfe the moft eafily perceivable in the dawn, and they were regarded a* figna!*, which indicated the time and feafon proper for each agricultural labour. It only re. mained to connect the agronc 'cal obfervations with thofeofthe heavens; and tl the firft farmers were neceflarily aftronomert. When the moft proper ftars had been chofen for the diftierent indications, each watched on his fide to feize the moment of their appear- ance. It was not till a long time after, when indi- viduals in a more numeron* fociety, had divided their occupations, that there were men particularly charged with this office, who from a tower, as in Chaldca, ob- fervcd the ftar* which appeared on the horiaon, and, as in Egypt, announced them to the people by hicrogly- phical figns. § p. The year of three hundred and fixty days coulil not have been long ellabliflied, for in lef* than thirty, five years the order of the feafons would have been ab- folutely reverfed, and winter would have fallen into the months of the original fummer. The fit ft expedient mult have been intercalary months, but it was after- wards thought neccflaity to ftudy more minutely the re- volution of the fun, which might be done by different meani, by the return of the heliacal rifing of tlie fame ftar, or by the time when the fun return* to the fame meridian height, which ii marked by the gnomon ; or, rather, as Goguct conjeduret with much virifimilitude, by the points of the horizon where the fun rifes and fet*. " It appear* to me probable," fays he, •• that the length of the year may have been at firft determined by the obfervation of the rifing and fetting of the fun, at certain points of the vifible horizon. Men in an early flage of fociety pafs a great part of their life in the fields ; and about the time of the equinoxes may have remarked a particular tree, rock, or hill, behind which they faw the fun on fuch, a day of fuch a month. Oo the morrow they muft have feen Uiat ilar rife or fet pretty ON THE ORIGIN OF ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY. Cl& pretty far from the fame fpoti bccaufe, at tlie equinoc- tial fcafoni the declination of the fun fcnfibly changes from day to day. Six months afterwards they mud hav( fecn the fun return to the fame point, and, in like manner, at tlie end of twelve months. This manner of eftimating the year is pretty exa£^, and at the fame time very fimplf. Any perfon may make the fame obferva- tiun, hut, I cnnfefs, that I hnd no trace of it in hif- tory." Riidbcck informs us, that the ancient Swedes regulated in tiiis manner the length of their year : and Goguct appears not to have known a paflage of Sim* pliciu!!, who fays exprcf^ily that it was by obferving the different points of the horizon, where the fun fets in fummcr and in winter, that his motion u'as cllimated. Nor hns Gocuet perceived the fcitility of this idea, for it explains how men might have divided the year into four equal parts, without naving recourfe to the obfer- vation of folllice* and of* equinoxes, by the meridian heigl ' of the |fun, a method which muft for a long time have been beyond the extent of their knowledge ; and it alfo well explains why fome nations have had years of three and of fix months, of which it would otherwife have been difHcult to fix the term and the duration. From Cenlbrinus it even appears that the Carians and Acarnanians counted their year from one folllice to another; for alternately the days increafcd during one year, and during that following were on lite decreafe. § I o. In adopting the revolution of the fun for the ireafure of time, the necefTity of fubdivifions cccrffion- ed the prcfervation of the two other meafures, the months and the days, but thefe fubdivilions were not tuidi. The true length of the folaryear is about three hundred and fixty-tive days and a quarter ; and it in. eludes more than twelvv, and lefs than thirteen rcvolu* lions of the moon. Some one imagined Ite would fuid an inttrval of time, which would include a number of complete revolutions of both ; and this interval of time having expired, it mud happen that the revolutions be- gan togither, the «fpe6ls became the fame ; and fuc* ccffively in the fame order. This period was computed either by the tedious method of obfervations, or by cal- cidations of the motions of thefe liars, but the tail plan was fnbjcfl to errors. Hence arofe different periods^ fpmetimes defe£live, fomeiimes better calculated, 8c< cording to the more or lefs exadl knowledge of thefe motions. j II. As (bon as there were in a nation men devot- ed to allronomy, either by the motive of being ulVfuI to their fello ir citizens, in announcing the appearance of the Aars, or by laudable ciiriufity, tiien allronomy was introduced, and began to become an art ; while their meditations might produce fome fruit becaufe they were founded on fads. In examining with more atten- tion the daily^motion of all the liars, it was obferved that the point of their greateil elevations divided into two equal parts the interval between their rifing and fet- ting. It was difcovertd that the points of the greateil elevation of each of thefe liars were in a circle perpen- 1 diciilar to the horizon, pafllng* through the zenith and the pole of the world. The fun hinifelf was alfo tliere at the time of his greateil height, ht .g the middle ot hiscourfe and of the day. 'Ihis circle^ merely H£titi- 0U3, was called the ^ler'uiian. § li. The greateil altitude of the ftars is always the fame ; but this is not the cafe with the pl.inets, and above all, the fun, whnfc elevation being higher in fum- mer, and lower in winter, mull have been foon obferved. It was proper to Ilndy the variations of thefe altitudes of the fun, and In mark thu differences, bat allronomy had not as yet imagined the means. A man of talents found it by the limple obfervation of the fhadow, which the fun projefts behind the bodies which he enlightens. He obferved that this fhadow, becoming fhorter in pro- portion as the fun was elevated, was proper to mark the progrefs of that elevation ; and he produced a revolu- tion in the fcience by the invention of the mod fimple, and the fird of all adronomical inftruments, the gnomon. Tlie unknown inventor rendered two great fervicet to adrononvy, the fird by the invention of an indrument which anorded more exa£l obfervations ; the fecond by a method which required a feries of obfervations oa which is edablifhed their praAice. He doubtleft or* dered a column to be condruAed, or a high pillar ; that the fhadow might be larger, and the variations the more perceivable. He taught that every day the fhorteft fhade (hould be marked and meafured ; and that a feries of thefe obfervations would difdofe the motion of the fun from the horizon to the pole. This motion, from low to high, and from higli to low, was dopped and changed twice in the year, Thefe changes \itre aWeit converfions, tropics ; and the points where the fun dopped before altering his CQwkfolfiices. Thefe objefls were to become the dudy of fucceflive ages. $ 13. The fird idea which prefented itfelf, in expla- nation of this diverfity of the heights of the fun, was that this liar, befides a particular motion from wed to cad, had another which bore it from low to high, and from high to low, fometimes approaching, fometimet leaving the pule. A fimilar variation dill more fenfible had been perceived in the altitudes of the moon. Yet the adniiflion of thefe two motions prefented fome diffi4:ulty to the ancient philofophers, who had their prejudices as we have ours, and wiiO' by chance, as has alfo happened more than once amimg the moderns, drew very jull conclufions from a falfe fuppofition. The dai. ly motion from ead to wed is uniform, and vifibly in circles ; and it was thenoe concluded, that motion in a circular line, and uniformity, were fundamental laws of nature. Not that motions in a right line had not been obferved ; but they were far from the {uhlime idea of reducing both to the fame principles. The celeltial motions formed a feparate claf*, as liHving fomething divine in their circular and uniform march This pro. grefs appeared to the ancient-s worthy of the fimplicity of the fird caufe; for all lludious and enlighttned na- tions, whatever be their religious and metaphyfical ideas, or their opinions on a produdlive caufe, whether intel. ligeiit fi i * ,:;■ I H:i ii li r r iu OK ON THE ORIGIN OP ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY.' Ii^;f It or only tStive, have been led to believe that tht« C'liirr, iriiiiiu'ly wife, oi innnitcly powerful, did not *A tint by the moU uiiir.)rm and lead complicatrd mean*, Joining tu tlie magiiificence of the work the {'imph'city of the exfcutton. Now the motion with regard to the poles deranged all thefe idcai. In ihc^rjl place, the fuppofition of a \>oiiy obeying two motiuni at the fiiiiie time, wai not (iinpli; ; and how com-tivc that thrfe two motionii did not injure each other ? Secondly, the motion with te- ^Ard to the ])(ilea was not circular, or, at Laft, the fun lioppeil at a c(.rt:u'ii dtllancc from the pole ; to return lu Lis forinrr path, and thi.n march is not unirorm. The sncicr.lR, wi'liout knowinpr tlie lawB of motion, faw that motion could nut be Hopped and chn:ijrcd iuto a con- tr.iiy moti, n, withont a conllraining canlc. Thus the (ircck philufopheis, fyllcniatic to execfs, and always delirous of reafouin^ and of explaining what they did not cxnaly know, imagined that the air was trore thick And more dcnfe about the poles, and that the fun not being able to penetrate vras obUged to retnrn I In Chal- dca and in Egypt they were not fo eager to difcover caufra, but, in appcaiance, cfficAs were better iludied. Ill itue, genius or chance, and perhaps both together, difcovered the explanation fo long time defired. It was ubft'ived, that by inrlining the route of the fun with regard to the poles, all the appearances might be ex> plained, and that the fun would only have a circular Rfid uniform motion. The circle which he thui def> cribes in his oblique courfe was afterwards cslled the etRfUit. This fimplilication fatisficd the ancients, who had been embarrafl'ed-by the two motionn, lent at the fame time to the fun and to the moon. This difcovery was cclebiated an it deferved. In fpeaking of Anaxi. Tnander, to whom the Greeks, fo new in the 'vorld, dar- ed to afcribe this difcovery, Pliny fays that he had open- ed the career of allronomy. In efled^, this knowledge ii the foundation of all the rell, and the (irft neceflfary Hep in the fcience. Afterwards many objefts of rcfearch prefented them- felves to the mind. The diurnal circle was obfervrd which the fun defcribes at the two feafons of the year, when the days are equ»l to the nights. This circle was called the tquator, either on .ccount of that equality of the days and the nighta, or from the knowledge that all the ilsiis and planets placed in that circle remained on the horizon preoit>.ly the half of a diurnal revoluiitm, that is twelve huiirs. The poiiiti where the equator interfefis the route of the fun retained the name vS eqiiinoxei. The equator was therefore the fecond circle of the fphcre. The ancients thus fairiiiarized themfelves with irnagii.ing liclitious circles in the firmament ; but it was difficult that the eyes Ihould follow the imagination in tixiiig their pofitioii. This uhjtft was attained by a happy invention, titat of lar^e circles of copper, exa£ily arranged according to thofe iinajjined in the heavens. It Mas perceived iliat when thtle circles fliould be ex- actly direfttd and firmly tixed, it would be eafy to mark the liars which were upon the equator, or above, or foe* neath, and at every moment thofe that pafled the meri- dian. It is only necefiary to dircA the vifual ray along the fiirfnce of one of thefe circles, and to prulong it to the firmament. There was therefore raifed, perpendi- cular to the horizon, from fouth to north, a circle which was called the meridian, as it was in the diredttun of the celeftial meridian. Another was applied at right angtri, which v»as called the equator. The greatcA difficulty was to adapt this intlrument precifely, that is to fay, to place the verticle circle of copper in the exad direiSlion of the celellial merid'an. But as all the ancients had oh. ferved that this circle marked the fpot where the liar, attained their greateft altitude, it was eafy to follow fome beautiful liar, and to fix the inftriimcnt to the place and moment where it Hopped its rlevation. 1l\\U method is not very exaft ; but Inch as it U we belftva that It may have been fiifficient in the early Hate of at'- ironomy, and might ftill produc^' many difcovciii":. Yet we have reafoii to think that ufe may hdve have ben made of a bettei and fiirer method, th.it of equal alti- tudes before and after noon ; for the ancients certainly knew that, at eijual dillances from both fides of Mil- meridian, the altitudes of the fame (lar are equ;il. Hnv. ing fixed, fome time before noon, the length and direc- tion of tlie fhadow, they waittd till the fun pafled the meridian, and the (hadow had retumed to the fame length t then a line of direiflion was drawn of this (ha- dow, which forms an angle with the diriflion of the firft ; and the line which divides this angle 4nto two equal parts is in the prrcife diredlion of the meridian. It is the more likely that the ancients might ufc this method, as according to the teflimony of Gentil, who refided long in India, the Hindoos nave preferved it, and Hill make ufe of it in placing their temples and py- ramids. § 14. This inllrument enabled adronomers to make an infinite number of ohferv^itions. On the meridian was marked the point to which the fun afcends at the fiimmer follb'ce, and alfo that to which he defcends at the winter folflice; the interval bctwctn thefe two points nieafuring the motion of the fun with regard to the poles. This interval was found to conlill of eight parts of a circle, divided into fixty parts according to the pradlice oF the time ; and as the equator equally di- vides that interval, the obliquity of the route of the fun with regard to that circle was of four parts, or the lif- tcenth part of a ciicle, in (hoit, twenty-four of our de- grees. This inftriimtnt by its equator divi.itd the fir- mament into two hemifphcrts, and ferved to diflinguilh the liars into northern or fouthern with regard to the fixed circle to which they were referiod. Names haJ already been given to the moll beautiful liars j but when it was neceflfary to determine the portions of »lie firma- ment, and of the Itars, among which lay the path of the fun, there was as much embarrafTinent as for the meridian and equator. Kecourfe was had to the fame expedient, that of adding to the inftrument a new cir- cle placed in the diredion of the ecliptic ; but this circle could not be fixed, becaufe the diurnal motion was ac- compliihcil y ON THE ORIGIN OF ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY. rsk compliflici] aronnd the pokt of the equator, the eclip- tic changing its politi>>n every moment with regard to the horizon and the meridian. It wai therefore nccef' farr to make fome changes in the inftruracnt. The me- ridian wai left fixed i but there was added to the i-qua- tor a new circle, which formed with it the fame aiiftle at the ecliptic s and by the polet, and the points of the equinoxes and folllicet, t.wo other ^rcut cirrlcs were raif- cd, which were called the colurei of the equinoxes and fulftices. Thefe four circles, rc-united and fi^ed in the meridian, were rendered moveable around an axis di> icf^i'd through the two poles of the woild Sucii was the firft model of the nrnillary [fhert and of the armil- lot of 'Alexandria Whether thii fphere, executed on large ditinenfions, were made in imitation of a fmaller and portable fphere, fuch.as thofe of Atlis and Chiton; or, on the contrary, this portable fplicix wire c(in(lru£t- ed at'cr the other, which wa* confined to obfcrvatories, it in certain that one or other of thefe I'phcres is of the higliell antiquity. Sucli, if we believe the Chincfe nnnals, was the pro- grefs wliioh adronomy had made two thoufand'leven hundred years before the Chriftian epoch, and. in Egypt, more than three ihoufand years bt-fore that epoch, if we believe the conjcdluics and calculations which 1 have made in the preceding book. \ 15. In proportion as the inllrumentt were perfe'^l- cd, their ufes increafcd. This new fphere oifered a great number; but it was neceffary to elUblifh a cor> refpondcnce between the fphere of brafs and the celtf- tial fphere, and to affign the points of connexion. It was hrft ncccflaiy to fix tht iquiDo£liifct, the point of winter fuldice on the inltrumtnt was brought to the poir.t of the liori/on, where the fun fcl, and the ftars \M.re obfervcd which were at the dillancc of a hundrtd and eighty degrees, atid, in confrquence, corrcfpoi:iird with the fummer folllice. fWridcN, as the liars are not vifible to tlie naked eye till fome time after tlic iettii.jr of the sun, and as it wait not potiible to diredl the in* llruinent ti/wards an unfecn tlar, another expedient was dcvifcd, and the moon was ufcd fur an intermediate obfervation. ' Having diretUd this point of the winter foiftict to the fpot of the horizon where the fun let, they ir.uft have remarked to wliai point of the ecliptic tilt moon then anfwered ; thus immediately after fun-fet, when the liars h.id btgun to appear, the point thus marked would t)e anew diredUd to the moon, and at the fame inilant null have been ubferved to what llarit corri.lpoiid- cd the lummer folilice, and the fpring equinox, theo.npon the horizon. It was at the lame time determined ^o what puiiitn of the equator the molt beautiini liars an fwercd, to ferve us mdicatioiis when they wifhed to know 'ht ()olitiuns of the other Itars, and of the two points oi ;he winter foidice and autiimnal equinox. Thtfe points give' a natural divition ct the year into four parti or fcalong. Tbcic were alio joined the dif- ferent terms of the year indicated by the rifing and fel- ting of the flars ; 01, to fpeak with more exnj^nefii thefe different terms were connciatd with the points of the equinoxes, or of the folllices which were regarded as fixed. It wai faid, birius rifes four days after the fnmmer folllice ; the Pleiades rife on the very day of the equinox, &c. Ohfervations on the rifing and fetting of the liars were multiplied ; and takndari were coinpofed, which ferved to regulate the labours of agriculture. J 16 When the ecliptic or route of the fun became knrwn, it was perceived that the moon and the other planets followed nearly the fame courfe, only leaving it a few 'ifgrees above or beneath. In confctiuence, a znne of hxteen dega-es was imagined, of which the ecliptic occupied the m'iddle, and which was called the xodiac. The motion of the moon offered an eafy mean of dividing it into parts; and this divifion fcttns to h.tve been the mil, becaufe one miycalily follow theptogreU of the moon ; and, in marking every night the (liirs with Mhich this planet correfponds, the zodiac was found divided into twenty-feven parts and one-third, whence fome have formed twenty feven conflellatlons, others twenty-eight. I'hc fun cannot be thus followed in his courfe through the flars, nor can it be perceived thnt he hat changed his fituation, except from the fl.trs which emerge from his beams in the morning, or thofe which immerge into them in the evening. Thefe phenomena, whence the circumftancei of the courfe of the fun have been deduced, have demanded combinations and medi- tations ; while the naked eye, without the afTillance of any inilrument, was fiifiicient to obferve the motions of the moon, and the divifions of the zodiac ariOng from that motion. When the revohuion of the fun and the length of the year were known, the iwelv(; months of- fered a new divifion of the 70(li3c into twelve parts. It had already been divided into four by the folllices and the equinoxes, fo no more was necefhiry than to divide, by means of the inllrumentt, the i;Urrval8 into three parts, which were called ^/Ty"^- I his method of dividing the zodiac appe.irs far more natural, and it i:i fuiely mnrr precife than that which iSextus Empiriciin, and Nfacrobius have defcribcd. But it is not impullible that their method, by tiie full of water, (hould have be- longed to a more ancient ailronomy not poifeiredof more cxaA methods. A f'gure was drawn which comprehended all the liars in each iign. This Hgure aud the liars thus re.united, were called a eonjlellit.ion. Though thefe l^gnres were at firll only lines drawn from one liar to another, when names were to be impolVd, they were thofe of animals, whence the zore which cmrprifes theti derivid its name of %0/iiac, from a Greek word fignifying an animal It may be concluded from this etymology, that i.hci". tign«, wiiich are now dcligntd by figures of men or other ob. jects, are pdllerior chaiigcs noxesand fol dices gave room to remark that the fun did not perform an equal courfe during the four inter- vals. The flar which regulates the feafons, the father (if natnrt^ and the lovcreign of the firuiamcnt, was therefore uuc^ual iu his progtcfsl This circumfUace did not deprive him of his divinity, and he neverthelefs prefcrved tne intelligence which prefided over his courfe. The ancients, more curious in fafls than in explanations, do not feem to have enquired the caufe of this Inequa- lity, nor the manner of reconciling it with the unifor. mity of circular motions, which they regarded as a ge- neral conflant principle. Submiffive to evidence, though attached to the ideas of their anceftort, they prcferved prejudices becaufe they were old, but admired the truth when it was dcmonflrated. This difcoverv was con- filmed by a like ineouality in the return of the phafes of the moon. Particular attention had always been paid to thefe phafes, as well for the meafure of time and the celebration of the periodical fellivals, as in the fuperftiti* ous fear of ec/if/et, which had for a long time fixed the attention of mankind. We are here forced to return in order to refume the chain of ideas. Eclipfes, above all eclipfes of the fun, atfirllocca- fioned great terror. The lofs of ii^ht feemed to threat, en th^' extinction of nature; and if we be entitled to blam.' the nations, ftill tormented with thefe fears ai ignorant or Rupid, it would be unjull not to grant that the firll eclipfes mull have produced a terrible iinprelfion. The] mull nave been often repeated before men couU be nrinvinced that they had no dreadful, confequerwes ; and that they fhowcd in their retiirn an order, a fuccef* fion which raikcd them in the number of natural phe- nomena. The Chaldeans, who watched without ceaf- 'wB in the lludy of the heavens, and whofe aftronomert relieved each other fucceffively like centiiieh, mult hive permitted few eclipfes to pafa without obfervatiun. The firll objeA of enquiry was the caufe ; and that of the eclipfes of the fun mull have been the firA difcovered. Aifoon as this phenomenon was underlood to have a natural and regular caufe, it was eafy to comprehend that an opake body alone could thus intercept the rays of the fun. As it was' known that the moon was an opake body, having no light except what fhe received from the fun ; as the moon had htcn feen to approach that liar, and to lofe hei fcif in his beams a fhort time before the cch'pfe, and difengage herfclf from them foon after} it was natural to conclude that the moon was the obflacle which deprived us of the light of the fun in whole or in part. But what was the body which deprived the moon herfclf of her liglit, and eclipfed herwhen oppofite to the fun, fhe was inlier grcatell tplendour ? The effidl of the fame caufe was acknowledged, the paffage of an opake body, which, by degrees, precluded her light, rellored to her after a longer or fhorter interval. Some nations even imagined globes exprefsly made for the purpofe of eclipling tiic fun and the moon ; but a few refledlions upon an ctfed which may be dully perceived, difcovered the caufe. Every enlightened body throw- ing a fhade behind it, the fhadow of the earth ought, in con'fequence, to be directed oppofite to the fun ; and as the moon turns around the eaith, fhe mull be eclipf- ed in plunging into that fhadow, which deprives her of the light of the fun. - '1 hus the caufe of the eclipf^ both of the fuu aud moon became known. The obfer vatioa ON THE ORIGIN OF A'^^TRONCMY AND GEOCRArHY. CWII ».Uion of the cclipfen of tlie monii, and tlic kro'vlrdtje of llirli laiilVj, eotifirmct! a difcovny silready made. It \va< ohliivrd that tlie fhadow of tlic ertrlli, vilihle nn tl)(! iMi!i':(lilf' od diflc ft 'hr iiKHin, was luiind ; and thil I bfcrvation ihcwed ttjat tlicrc v'-ai no deceit in tlie fup- niililion tliat the e:ii(li was fplit-rical, Hut why (lioiilJ tfic moon, wtiich pafTea every mon'h lictwccn the liiii niid '' .■ >aith, in every month oppolitc to the fun nnd in till I" ij;hhourli<)od i..' .' >■ iliadow of the earlli, rot occalion every monlli an ccdlpfc of the fini, n;id liifTcr lierfclf an cch'pfe ( Tliit qii-llion was initiit;:!, nnd ihUll have pnfcntid itfelf at the full, hut ofTircl a di.- liculty, whitli, pcrhapi, ocfafioned fomc hifitiiiion c >n- iirrii'g t]ie rxplanation of tlie doflrinc of ec'i, ftn al- r.ady rrrntiort'd. '1 he foliitioii wan not obtained till the latiindc of the monn, or its diiUnce from tlic eciip. II. . hill! bfcn difcovcred. ^ 19. 'J'hi* planet defcribea a circle inclined to ih* f'liptii:, and (lie wanders fometimts a little more thin live di-grccR either to the north or to the foiu'i of that circle. As her conrfe is inclined, it follows that it mull iiiteifcci the ecliptic at two points, thefc two points of the oil-it of the moon were called xhe noifl, bo(/c/, or imls ; and it \«a8 ])crccive(' that the eclipfcs did not happen except when the monn was in thefe intcrfc^lions, or, at leatt, when (lie wns not far didant The coiirfe of the fun receivcl in cond qnenee the name of ecliptic. At this period feems to luve been demonftrated thr neceffity of the fixed and armillary fphcte, which we fuppofed to have been inveuteil before. For it may be alked, how could the ancitntr perceive that the moon waniltrcd from the fclipiio, if lli' y h :d not had a circle of ciij per always placed in the direi ■.inn of that celcf- ti..l ciiclc, and to which ihey m!{;lit refer the pofition of llie moon in the heavens? How otherwife" could thiy have difcove red that tclipfea did not hapj en, except near the interfcftions of the 01 bit of tlic moon and the eclip- tic, or in thefe intetfeflionj thcnifelvt? ? § 20. When it was knoun that eclipfes were natural j.hcn<)uu'iia, often rcvcdvinj; in the fame year, curiofity v>,ti difplayed in ihe ol-fci vation, and in perferving their memory in ordci to difcovcr the rule of their return. Nor was more minute attention wanting on the time of the day or night that they happened, and the part of the moon cclipied. Somctimcb when the eclipfe was lilt total, the extent of the part ecllpftd u'as compared vilh the whole. The new i.iid full rooou was feiliilouf- ly obftrved that no eclipfe might efcajjc notice; and it v,is by the obfcrvation of thefc phnfcs that the firll i.miv ledge was obtained of the revolulion of the moon V, iih regard to the fun. §21 '1 he ancients arrived at a more exatSl know- Ifdpre of that revolution, in mcafuring daily upon their ecliptic thedillancc of tl.e fun from the moon. I hefc tint deeifinns were no doubt infefled with great errors ; hilt as they accumulated, ibe errors wtre divided through a larger number, and the determination becan e more exidt. In continuing thefe obfervaiions, with a con- iliiiicy only to be found among oi-iuals, theypcrctiv- vot. I. ed th^t the revolutions of the moon ffcrc fiimiftimei more long, and fometimcs nu)ii- f!iort ; and t1nt.cveii the interval belvteii the toijuiiclion atidopporuioti wan fi.-,''.rr' ly ever equal to half a revoluti.)ii. Tlity dcteriiiiurd the period of ih'.n iiie(]tiality. What- ever was their method, it nodoubtenal.'eil tliem to deter, niiiie with more facility tliL- time win u ij iiittpir.lity w.u tlie greatell. lieuct the lime when tlu'.> grcaicll Incmia. lily returned a fccond ti; le indicated the ilnration of lli.it pcriorl. Tlicy aifo icin;irkid that iclipfci did not happen at the fame points of the ecliptic ; and it nccefrarily UA- lowed that thefc jjoints or the nodes had clumged ihiir ]U'ccs. Thefe noilei therefore had a morion, and in confeqiK'nce the period of the re-tiiiii of the moon 10 ore* of thefc nodes was nut the fame an that of the return of the moon to a given ptJiit ol the zodiac. The aiicieiitM knew this period which they called the revolution of l.ititiidc ; as they had known that of the inequality by their conftancy in the fludy of the heavens A long train of obfervations enabled them to find grand period..<, in which the moon made a number of entire revolutions relative to its inequality, the nudes, and the fun. Tliey proceeded even fo far as It ' -ing back the moon to the fame point of the zodiac, ^ r at lead to dcteriiiiue the number for a complete revolution, and how many de- giees were wanting that (he might attain, at the end of the period, the point of the zodiac when Hie (larted at iu beginning; an objefl which the ancient allronomert could noi have obtained, if they had not had the divided tclip- tical circle, of which we have already fuppofed them in pofleflion, and to which they might refer the daily niotiim of the moon. The wide interva. of thefe obfer- viit ions, und the length of thefe periods, gave with miicti cxadnefs the length of each revoluiion; and it follow* that the moon, was of all the planets, that of which they betl knew the motion, while in modern ages it was for a long time that of which the motion was the lealt known. Its theory was the moll eafy to Iketch, be* caiifc its motions are rapid, but it is more dillicult to examine profoundly, becaufc the variations and the int-qnalities aie more confiderable and more multi- plied. § 22. Among thefe periods fome were found which bore back the eclipfcs of ilie luoou, of the fame extent, to the fame points of the liimaiiieiit, and the fault: days of the year ; and I'uch peii(Kh were iifed to fcrtlel tlitfe eclipfes. As to the eclipfes of the fun, incgiilarltie* Were remaikcd wliich led to a defpair of legulritli'ij them by any conllant ruli-, nor vva.s a period oljlervnl which could reduce tlier.i to the fame daya. Tin's wa« the tffeC.1 of the parallax, w'lieh reiiwined unknown for along time after. It would even appear that the ob- fcrvation of thofe eclipfcs w ai aliaiidone-d ; for among tile eclipfe 1 obfervcd by thf Cli ildeans, which I'lolemy hnstranfmitted to us, tlicic h not one eellpfe of the fun, J his is a lols wliieh we would the more rcgiit, if a greater number of both had reaclieil us. The caiife of this lofs was the prejudice, lliat tlitfe phenomena did not fullow any ceitain rule, whei.ce it was concli-.dcd that h * 111 if' •»i« ON Tllfi ORIGIN OF ASTRONOMY ^ D CtOC'rRAI'IlY. ihf ohfcTfit'on wni •felrf? j «ii(t tliU ni«y convince ti«, that ill tFtc iliitly uf tliv lieavcim, rikI i>f nature iil )(Ciirr«), we nuglit not to rt]tti any t>bl\rvatii>ii nor miy rxprriVnrf, for the lime iii«y ariivc when tlicy will be fuuml uftful, and we flail have planted iur polUrity. f) J3 As to the olhcr p'ancts, their Uf* rfin;irIt;thlo Appearance and lcl\ ri'iirit:lc nuition nuill Icivr cxcitnl l.itrr atttMtiun. '!"! • niotl hrilliani, Jupiii-r ■oiwl Maru, »irc witliDiii do, bl 'ho C.rll oUftrvcU. 'I'licir coiirfc wai followed, iihd .t *in U on piraivtd that thcic wai a time of thf y-jr «hcn their motion flackencd, thtn entirely llopptd, and in tine licMine rtln)jj;riide t till, llackciiing and Itoppinj' a li-cond time, it i'^'.itin beeanu' dircA* Hy direct motion it here implied tiiut whieli i* performed from well to eaft, or in the fame diitdion of that of the fun and mooni while the retrogiade motion is the contrary. The ancients, feeing that thele (Irangc ippearancei were periodical and annual, employed them- felves in the obfervation, waiting till more intelligence (hould be able to explain them. Thejr carefnlly marked tlie moment at whicli thefe planets yearly became llati- onaryi and the period of their motion whether dire^ or retrograde. Thefe obfervationt, though inaccurate, were iifefuT in the end. The apparitiona of planets appeared to the ancient* equally worthy of obfervation. They underftood by the time of apparitiont, that in which the planet* difengaged themfclvea from the rays uf (he ftin, and became vinble in the morning a little before day- break. In fpcaking of the ftars, this it called the heliacal rifing. The afliduous obfervation of the rifing of the ftart ought naturally to have led to that of the appari- tion of the planet* ; and it wa« remarked that thefe ap- parition*, like the rifing* of the ftara, did not happen at the fame period* of the year, and that the phenomena of ftation* and retrogradation* did not happen in the fame lign, but fucceflively in the diflierent fign* of the zodiac. In h&, only a few months were required to evince that Mar* changed hi* place in the firmament, and did not correfpond with the fame fign of the zodiac. Jupiter alfo wa* every year in a new fign { while Saturn, whofe motion i* more flow, prevade* the fame fpace in two or three year*. Two motions, or two revolution*, were thererore recognized in each of the planet*, one with re- gard to the fuiT, the other with regard to the zodiac. The planet Jupiter, for example, performs hit revolution with regard to the fun in about thirteen months, that is to fay that thirteen month* elapfe between one appari- tion and another, while hit revolution with regard to the zodiac is not completed in left than eleven years and ten months. The ancient* in like manner perceived that Mart employed little more than two years, and Saturn fomewhat more than twenty-nine year*, in prevading the entire zodiac. ^ 24. Saturn it the lead brilliant of all the planeti. He move* the mod (lowly, and appear* ia confequence to have the greateil circle to run, whence he wa* judged more diftant than all the reft. Next were placed Jupi- UT, Marii the Too aod (he inoeD| each Mcoiding to tlie '•■t ihgi ■ I.:' '0. 1 'f'-,'*. efiv>n ihrfe planetu (iKfciihing circle* aiuu'i') in. . i»ik. Stich wat the f\'lUni of the nncienta, more ki'.., and dilTcieiit dr^rieesof the zodiac, and not re. turn '.o tlie fume pointt till ahoiit the end of a year. THil'e pluiicti were ihtrelore limilur tu the three olheri ) tiiid \\m\, like tlicm, two niotitnu : one with legard to the ■/odiue, will I1 vvai accomplillicd prccii'ely in the time of a revolution of the fun or of a year, the other wiili regard to the fun itfelf. They had their flatioiu and rctrogradations. But the r|oelli'in w.111, to aflij^n tu thele planets their proper pla>:e in the lyilein of the world, jir.d to know if they were neafti or further from the fun than iheeaiili. 'J'hc ri.le whiLh hud liern followed Iur the three others here fuiled, hecnide thefe two planets fecmed to have the fatnc fwiftneft with the fun in the zodiac, and it was only < ertuin that they were more dif- tant thin the moon. Thij qiicllion wat fo diihcuk to refolve that debates arofe. Some placed tliim above the fnn, othert beneath. Ntvertheleft it wat obfrrved that the folendour of Venus, fumctimet feen on the rii^ht of fun, iomdime* on the left, wat fuhjecl to fome vanationi, and there were timet, when, although vifibic, equally dif- tant from that ftar, and equally emerged from hit beami, flte wat much left brilliant. The example of Saturn, whefe light it more feeble and dull, bccaufe hit dillance ?s greater, led to think that Venut, perhapi^ was not al. wayt at the fame dillance from the earth. it wat imagined that (he might be fometimc* more dillant, fomctime* nearer than the fun. From thefe four circumllance* re-united, from feting Venn* and Mer- cury on the right and left, above and below the fun, the two firll baing fafls, and the two others very pro- bable conjeAure*, they dared to conclude that the orbit of thefe two planet* enveloped the fun, and that tlicy turned arouna him ; we fay that they dared to conclude, becaufc thi* afTertiun wa* very new and very bold fur the time. A man of genius alone could conceive it > and, after profound meditation, infer that he hadfoundatiuni to fupport it. But thi* idea wa* not general, being on the contrary peculiar to one people, the ancient Egyp- tian*. Thi* ju(l idea mull however at lead have ap- peared happy, for it explained in the fimplcft manner the ilation* and the retrogradation*. When the vifual ra; forms a tangent with the circle, which thefe planeii defcribe around the fun, their motion being no longer fcnilble, thev mud appear datkinary ; and this happen! twice in each revolution. In the fupertor part of their orbit they proceed in the fame way with the fun, and ap. pear dired ; while in the inferior part, their oppoliie courie mull appear retrograde. § aj. Some philofophera proceeded dill further, and Kkoowlcdging that thefe twopUacU turncd.around the fun, ON THE ORIGIN OF ASTRO^'OMV AND GEOGRAPHY. CK« fuBi they thought that he muft alfo be the centre of the world, and fuppofcd that all the planeta and the earth itfelf moved around that glorioui bodjr. Other* even imagined that the diurnal motion of the ftart and planeti wai only an appearance, caufed by a rotation of the earth around iti aii*. But thcfe bold and merely philo- fophical ideal were not fupported by fa£lt among the ancient nationi known to ui ; though perhapi we my be able to ihew that they arc th« ▼ctligci of higher aotu quity, and of a fcience brought to perfeAlon.* In pofterior aget, if fonie hinti of analogy occafiuncd them to be adopted for a moment, if fome pliilorophern caught them by a kind of inftinit in difcoveriug truth, they were too contrary to appearancci not to be fpeediiy rcjeacd. * A f j.»*V, "^ON THE PROJECTION OF MAPS. czvii i fame order. dians and parallelBi «nd Vfhich, by their junftions, de- termine ;'■' :lie geographical pofitions. Setting ;i(ide the ohiate form of our globe, at\A cnn- fiderinj; it as a fplierioal, it may be perceived lliat the wlifjle of llif vifual rays, exttnJed to all the points of any ciicle formed on the globe, conltitiite a cone, of wiiich the ftflion, in the plane of the pifture, can only be one of the cdrvea of llie fccond degree, and even in f( mecafcH a ftrail line. It would appeiir that tlic firll di'i'ifnins, in the choice of the point of view, were dit'tatid by the conrnkraliun of thr confequeiit facility in the conllruclion of the inap : and that, from the litre of PtoK-niy, it had hccn ohtuvcdthat In niak- inii thi plane or piclnre pufs by the -jfntrc of llie fjihcic, a;u! placing the point of view at llic cxtrcirity the tircumfcrenco, and that in a veiy emil'd. rahle tiegree. It is pci-eeived li'.rules tliat this enlarijctiKnt rcli lis from the obliquity of the v'fiial rays, when they depait from that which is perpein nhir to the piitu.e, and which m.iy he c;.!lcd the optii axis. Hence ii follows that the parts towards the borders of the lieniilphere have a far more conliderable extent, than thole towards the centre ; and that millakes will arife if they be referred to the latter t Maps of the world have the fiirt' er inronvenii;iice of fiparr.ting the adj icent parts of t!.c globe, and of only (JLring in an exaift manner the ref(>eftive lituation and tlie configuration of the cotuitries towards the middle of the map. This dcfcft is remedied ii\ Polar and Hori %()ilnl Projellioni,x\\\i It II, n preleiiling the hemifpheres fepatated by the equator, dilplay wiihiuliiclent cxadnef:* • I'tolimzi I'ljnKpS.Tiium, eic. AI.Iih Vtiieil!-, 1551!. t '"" «""' i' "^HvM Itom uie Urci'k, meaning ihc art ufd. aw- ing the > rm of (ulidt nn » plins. \ Soine|^(0£rafhci( ke|ia with the cancrS| ac4 woik towudi tli« cenirc. the regions around the poles ; while the fecon J prcfent the hemifpheres above and below the hoizon of the place to which they refer, and arc the mod proper for the knowledge of the furrouiidim; regions, or th:ir an- tipodes, whence they merit p''rtieular attention. 4 53. I fhall therefore give the dcmonftration of the fundairicntal properties of thefe projedions whence 1 ftiall deduce the procefs of their conftruftion. 'I he eye being fnppofed at O lig. 20, the plane AD '.JF., drawn through the centre C of the fphere, ptrjjcndicu'ar to \.\\: radius DC, is the plane of prpjection. Any cir- cle G I H, traced upon the furface of the fphere, de- tirntinc. the cunc O G I 11, of whicli the inttrrcOlion gih with the plane vDBli; is the projedtion of t!ie propoled circle. Now the pbne AI'UO, drawn by the line OF, a.'d by the centre K of the cir- cle Cilll, cuttiu;jat right angles the p'lnes GIH and .•>1)15E, prtfents the means of knowing tlie argies which thefe planes make with the tides of the cone OG and OH ; and it will be fcefi that the angle 0\.,H, of ',\hitli (lie fnmniit is at the circumference, having for mea. fiire the half of the arc OliH, is equal to the angle ()/'", which, being placed between the centre and the circum- ference, has for its meafure tlie half of the funi of the arcs Hli, and AO ; brfides the angle O being common to the two triangles OGH and Oi;^, it follows that the a'gels OHG and Ogh are equal, whence the cone O iIH is cut in an aniiparnllcl direi'lion by the plane ADliE, whence the fedion f^'ih is a circle. '! his lall, which is the pr»«jeftion of the circle GIH, will be (ietcrmined wluii we know its fize, and tlic pufi- tion of its diameter ; and to obtain them it is fullicieiit to conllrnfl \<\ ilie plane MOB • the triangle (i jH, in accoid with wl'i h the pl.oie meets the cone OGIH, the line .\B, which then rcpiHcnt;! t!ic plane of pro- jection, interfei'tin^ the triangle '^iGl)., in the diameter ^h of the piiijiCliiHi rec'i'iired. «( ;> '1 Ills bei.ig iit.iblilhid, in order to conftrurl a map of the v.-oild o,. tlie plmc of the full nMidian, th'- poiiii of view hei i;.; ;)liced hi the centre of the laniif- phere, oppofite to that whx-li is to lie repitlented, will be at the inicrredi.^n i.f the eijUHlor and meridian, wiiiei; divides thij lalt homisplicie iii'.o two eqiuil pans. Firll is conlidered tlit feetion of the globe 'nade by the plane of the etpiator A DBt',, fig 2'e. The li;ic 1 U, the common feftion of that plane a-m\ of tiie picl'ire o-i the piojeC,i:in, rtpreft'iKs the equator ; tlie poias M and N maiiv two piiints of the divilion made 011 thig ciicle by the iiK-lians j th,- <-ye is llie:i at I), niid the vifual rays MI) and NU, drawn to t!ie pyiuts of divi- fi in MaiulN.give upon Ali.at f,;.iiid n. the jiii Ipectivf a or nniJ.ctioiiR of tl I'e point;; the ilirec eqnal aK» "AM, MN, NF, lire ihe-.i repirtealid by the parts Aw, n tl, n- , vi;ibly uiitqual. 1.1 dr.Hviiig throu h the point M' dianutrically, op. poliu t.) the point M, a vil'ual lay .Vi'i^ we .nail (iiii,ij the angle MUM', formed by tiie two I'lipofite (ides of the cone, palliig by the cireunit'eience which cimpic- hcnds the nieiidiau drawn to the point ivl, .inJ its op. i3 p- l.te. CXVIII ON THE PROJECTION OP MA^S. h 1 .1] ir Vf] ^nt k ; pofite, and pn1on;;iiig t]je ftrait linen AB and M'D till Uiey niece iit nr', ilie interval mm will be the di:imeter (if tlie projtftion of the meridian pnfling rhioiigh the ])oiiit M. If it ■„ ' now conceived that the circle ADBE tnrn« inruiiiid tlie diana-tir A 13, it may be brought on the j)laiie of the firft meridian. The line DE will then be- CMinc the asi,, the puintg E and 1) will be the poles, ami ihe lints Ml'), M D, not having chanpred their fi. tiiat'ion with rf).rjij to r\l\, if ihcie be dcfcribed on film', a* dliiiiioici', an arc of a circle EmD, it will be I'.ic projfilioii of a iiK'jiJian dillant from the former by an avc cqiKil to AM. To CDiillri.a l!',c prc'tdions of the parallcli to the rqnator, we imifl roiilidir the fediim of the ^hiiie nude by the pl;i;ic of the meridian pafl'mif throiii»h the ("ijilit, .Hid perpend icidar lo the lirfl meridian. We may dill ufe t'tg. 3 I, and conceive that the plane of the fril meridian AUDh, has turned around the hx\a of the poles DE, to affume a fituation perpendicular to its t ill. The point B will then be the Ipot occupied by tlic eye, the axis ED will be the projeftion of the n^iddlc meridiiin, the points M* N, taken on this meri- di;in, will beloi'c; to tlie pnrallels, whofe latitudes are AM, A\ ; in fme, the vifual rays BM, BN, will give at r, and j, the projedlions of the points M and N. In alTiimiiig the arc EN' equal to EN, is determined on the parallel a point N', diametrically oppofitc to the point N ; and prolonging the vifual ray BN' and the line DE till they meet at j' the interval «' will be the dia- nuter of the projcdlion of this parallel. If, therefore, the circle ADBli be brought to the pofition of the Jiill meridian in ihij motion around the line DE, the ♦ ight lines UN, BN', will not change their refpedive lltuations ; and tlure may be dtfcrihed on tt', as a dia meter, tie arc NjN , 'which will be the projeflion of the ii:'.r;ii!cl pairing at liie latitude AN. ^ Co. Ail thij conflrndion, which may be elTefted o:i uiic fgwe, is only intended to Hnd the graduation of the di.imiter AB, which reprefents the equator, and that of the axis ED which is alfo the meridian of the middle of the map; for the points m and n combined with the poles, give three points of each meridian, and there are alfi< three for the parallels in combining the two eNtrtmiiies N and N' with the point t determined on the dian-cter DE. Th- lines C/i Cm are eafdy calculated in the rcftili- ntar triangles D. «, DCm, redtangnlar at C, whence we know ihe common fide CD, and the angles CDn, and CDfH, meafured by the halves of the arcs N' , and ME, which are the compleinents of the longitude of the meridians. The tiiangles BCr, and BC/, give in like manner the dillanees Cr and Cj which form the graduation of the mctidiau in the middle of the map. (J 6i. The coiillrud^ion of the^o/(ir^r«/>A;M confids in the determination of the degrees of •he meridian, and fg. 2 2. indicates the operation. The circle ADDE reprtftuts a meridian upon which the eye is at I) at one of the poles, and whofe projeAion is the diameter AB ; the aics AM, MN, NE, are projeded upon that line in Am, mn, nC, by the vifual rays DM, DN. It may be theo conceived that the plane AD BE, turning around An, may apply itfelf on the equator ; and from the centre C, with the radii Cm, Cm, circles are defcribed, which are the projcAions of the parallels to the equa- tor, pafhng by latitudes equal to the arcs AN, and AM. As to the meridians, as their planes intcrfe^. each other according to the axis of the poles, which is at the fame time the optical axis, their projettioni are the radii CM, CN, corrcfponding with the longi. tudes AM, AN. § 6j. In the horl%onlal prnjeilion, the circle ADDE, fig. 23, indicates the meridian of the place propofcd, which divides its horizon into two equal parts. The eye being always at D, the vifual rays DP, DN, DN', drawn to the fuperior pole P, and to the cxtremitici N and N' of whatever parallel, mark upon AB, which is the projedlion of the femicircle AEB, the projeAiua ft of the pole, and the diameter nn' of the parallel. The equator is obtained in the fame manner, FF' de- noting Its diameter, while ff is that of ita projedlion. This projedion, and that of the parallel, may be traced in conceiving that the circle ADBE u turned around the diameter AB, to fall on the horizon ; the equator being the ark E/D, and the parallel being the circle nn. To determine the projeflions of the meridians, firft is fouglit that of the inferior pole P', which the vifual ray DP'being prolonged, gives at^ .Conceiving then the circle ADBE to be applied anew on the horizon, there is defcribed on the diameter pp', a circle which repre- fents the proje£lion of the meridian perpendicular to that of the place. As they mud all pafs through the points^,/', the projedions of the meridians will have their cciitief. in the line de perpendicular upon the mid- dle of pp' ; and to fmilh their determination, it is fuf. ficient to find a third point, which may be done in man]r wayst That which I am about to give refts upon 1 conllrufiion which agrees with all fimilar determinationi, and whii-h c::nfi{lsin referring or projtdling the difTcreot points of the equator upon the horizon, by right linei perpendicuiar to the plane of the latter. For thid purpofe, 1 alTnme an arc BL, equal to the longitude of the propofed point of the equator, and lay down GL perpendicular to DE, tlien bring GL to CF from C to L", and drawing L"L' parallel to DL, the point 1/ of the interfeflion of the lines L'L" and GL is the projeftion recjuired, or the foot of the pe:- pendicidar let down from the point of the equator, of which the longitude is equal to BL on the horizontal plane*. • Thii r ocefi will b« «>. 'cnt by ill defcriptlon alone tatttitn who hiveiludied >he ijcanuiiy of planeiand rurlacei j ihry «lll p''- ceivr that thr angle FCFI it ihit which rotmi the plane of (he (pat- ter wiih lie h.iriaon | nnil, that in co Trqutn's vv<- have, in ncris conftiuft the pointi of (he riri), its cjirnnon fcitiun HE vtnh ihf fecond, it.i (lie angle which Iht) <«oprthca4, int dmflimiit M Slimtni it CitmitiU, Thil ON THE PROJECTION OF MAPS. MIX riptlon ilone fo rnd"» furlucci ; thpji «ill ft- the pline of ih« f qit- '« w.- h4»e, iniftrw fcaiiin DE «"•> I*' ftd. ittdmfllmiD'i' Tills btlnpf done, if *ve' obfervc that the plane, paf- fiii" tliroiipli the light and the propofed point of the foiwtor, bciiiv; diawn by the line CI), pcrpendicuhir to tlie plar. • of the hoii/.on, neceirarily contain* the pcr- pcnilicular let down from tliat point at L', it will be leoii that i>s interfcdtion svith the horizontal plane is the hue CL' drawn by the centre of the horizon. Thi$ riuht line vill dclcimiiie at / on iht ore of tlie circle E/ D. which is the llerei>j;inphic pvojtdion of the e- ciuatur, the projidliim of the point piopofed. In re- pcatinj; this cnnllriiftion, that of the tquator tnay be laf Iv )ri'ad(iatc(l, conformably to the lawt of the pro< jeilion. It will a'fo je remarked, that the line CO Is the pro- jcclinn of tiie circle of altitndes (§ ^ i ) drawn through the fpot wliich occupies the cciitic of the inap, and by the propofcd point ol the eqnatdr, finc'. the planes of the circleb of altitude pafling by the line DE neceffarily have for projections, linen drawn by the centre C of the map. ^ 63. Ihe inequalitv of the fpaccs of the gradua- tion of the ftereogiaphic proji.£lion does not, in gene- ral, permit the application of a trdlilincar fcale to com- pare the rcfpeflive diltanccs of places, dillances which are meafured according to an arc of the great circle which joina thefe places two and two ; but ve may a'- ways, by means of the graduation itfdf, maafure th\< diiiance between the centre of the map and any one ot its points ; and we may, in confequrnce, tind upon a horizontal projedion, referred to Paris, for e:;ample, the dillaoce from this city to all the other points of tiie globe. This property is the confequence of a projec- tion in which all the great circles which pafs by the centre of the map, interfering each other according to the optical axis, liave for their perfpedlivcs right lints drawn by that centre, and admif a graduation limilar to that which is marked upon the equator of maps of the world crnlhutted on the plane of the meridian. In placing the point of view at the centre of the fpliere, and alTuming for the pidure a plane tangent to its furface, there is obtained a pcrfpeciive of the f-lolie, in which all the great circles are reprefentid by right lines. It alters like the precedir^, and llill in a g. eater degree, the extent of the countries in proportion as they are diilant from the centre of the map ; nor can it even reprefent an entire hemifphere, becaul'e the vi- fusi! ravA, drawn by the circumference whiih terminates this hemifphere, are parallel to the plane of the pic- ture ; but it may be very ufeful for portions of ftnall extent, and admits a kind of fcale of which the con- fliuCtion is not difilcult. It is doubtlefs for this reafun that Prony propoftd its ufe in furveyiiig lands, Tiiia priijed^ion is furilirr remarkable, as it is employed in making fun dials. it will not be difEcult to modify in this cafe the pro> ccdnres which 1 have already given for the conllnidiun of meridional, polar, and horizontal projedions. There muit be drawn from the point C of the figure cited in tlicle artlclu, the vjfualrayi which determine the feAiou made in the cones, perpcndiciilarly to the circlea, whick are to be rcprcfented, and the plane muH be afTumed parallel to that which pafles by the centre and is tan. gent to the circle A D B E. It will then be feen that, in the projedion on the plane of the firil meridian, the meridians will be ftrait lines, perpendicular to the equator, which will alfo he a right line t and the pa- rallels to the equator will he hyperbolas. In the polar prnje£lion the meridians will be llrait lines, drawn from the centre of the map, and the parallels to the equator circles havin»', comprifed between the two peipendi- ciilars iVl m, M' m', led from the two o[, It is eafy to find the changea which that ot the twt) othtrs iiuill uinkr^o. A \cry fimplc fi:etch will Iiillantly difpiay iheortho- gr.ifhij proiriJiion ot any pl.ke on the plane of the nic- ridian, anil Ua diilar.ce perpeiiili..u!ar to that plane. Hi'ving drawn upon the plane .if the fii il ir.eridiaii A D b E, by the latitude i\ N of the plac<;propuled, the diameter |N N'ol its parallel, the circle is deferihtd, ar.d we take th; aic NL equal to the lon;;itude, th1.11 elrop upon N N' tilt pcrpen;■ !i ;\ ■.ft ' ^ ■■ ■> Mtr ON THE Pi^OJECnON OF MAPS! 1^, t\X' '5' fTi^l tn ''it tlifference of !onp;Itiide of t!\e jili.'cs |,i.)|)jiVi! ; ihc iwc* .\ M and li N aio arrn'iicd III cm|)are, for example, India with Novaya Zemh'a, or the Red Se.i with Hndfin's Bay. § 66. '1 he llercographic pu.jedion it little ufed in patticular maps, and the Germans alone have intro- duced it, particularly Hafius who compofrd the greitcr part ol I he maps in the Atlas of 1 'r.-iiunn, in much re- ijiicfl towards the middle of llie lall century. The four parts of the world, feparately leprefciitcd in thii projedion, .ire oilly portions of a planilpheie conftrudl* ed on the like dimenfion, on the plane of a meridian perpendicular to that which pafles thvongh the middle ol the map, the eye being placed in the plane of the latter. 1 he cxcefTive length of the radii of the cirelei renders them very diflicult to obferve ; and the altera, tion of the fpaceu and ditlances is not lefs than in other pii'Jvcl .iisof more eafy execution ; whence thele inapi arc litiit: K.iown in France. The iiieouality of the fpaces may, however, be dirtii- niihcd, as :.i the planifphere, by placing the point of view out of the globe, but the dillaiice to which it iiuiil be carried, depending on the extent of country contained in the map, will diminifli in proportion as thii extent becomes fnialler, and may be eal'ily caleulaicd by comparing the degree on the margins of the nuip with that which i» in tlw middle. It will be eafy to pcilons familiar *i'th geometry and trigonometry, to deduce from ^ 59 and > 62 the pro- cedures of the calciil.ition in order to conllrnd tlKti: maps, and to draw the arcs of the circles which tl'" mult contain by points, in leferiiiig them to llitir clmiils or to their tangents ; but thefe details would here paU the bounds which 1 have prefcribed to this difcourlt. § 67. The moll limple of the projedions by devr. lopement, is what is called tlic Coiiiial Projrtlon ; it be- ing, in fad, natural to compare a fpherical zone to 1 truncated cone, and 1 hence to conllrud its ilevilnpc- ment. The parallels become circles, deferibed fioma fummit of the cone taken as a centre; and tiie meri- dians are right lines fubjeded to pais through that point. It is vifihle that the refult will approach the neater, in proportion as the map (hall enibruce lefs e:.- A ■ ) . !i ON THE PROJECTION OF MAP3. CX« tffit in latitude. Tl»i» projcflion inoy vary in t the mnp, and, in coiile- qiirnce, pxtcrior ; or tliut it may he in part Inftrilxd in llvill not lie perfectly exaft, txctpt on the middle ptnaDd, which will prcferve in it8 develapmont the lenijlh whicli it really poiTcflies on the fphcre ; hut the (wiallela placed above and beneath will exceed t ho fe which on the fphere are correspondent. Murdoch, an Erglilh •jeometrician, has propofed to ftibllitiite to the lanjreiit cone, a cone partly infcribed, and determined l>y lhiot in ordir to pcrleit it, he thought of making the cnne enter into the fplieie in fuch a way that it fiiould intcrfeil it according to two par. '"la, each placed at an equal dillance fioin the mid- dle parallel, and from one of the extreme parallels. The map had, by this mean, on the two parallels Juli mentioned, the lame dimenlinns ai the cortefponatiit part of the fphere ; and its total extent differed liit'e from tlic country to be reprefenied, bccaufe the excefs at the two extremities of the map was at lead rompen- fated III part by the deficiency of the infcribed portion of the cone, with rtlpe^ to the fpherical zone. The map compriling fiom the fortieth digree of latitude to the fcveiitieth, the iniddic parallel .infwered to J5'| pnd the parallels common wilh the fpheres were thole ot" 47' 30 , and 61" no'. L'.uler occupied himfelf with this prcje^lion, but he fubllituttd to the determination of the parallels, which mull be coiiimon with the fphere, that of the point of concourfe of right lines which reprefen* tlie meridians, and of the angle which they make ahiong themfdves in the comprehended degree of longitude. His cal< culations are fnpportcd on the following grounds, r, Thai the errors are equal on the fouthtm and norihern extremities of the map. i. That lliey are alfo eqnal to the greateft of thofe which happen towards the mid. die parallel. He thence concludes that the piint of concourle of the meridian ought to be placed beyond the pole by a qn;i: illy equal to live degrees of latitude, and that the angle of two confccutive meriilians oughl to be of 48 44"*. He then enquires how much the arcs of the great circles wh.ich nieai'ure the dillanccs on the glolic ililier fiom the light lines wliiili arc fubditutcd to them on the map ; and he finds Jiat an arc of qo' will have ov» the map n Intgtli of 90 , 79, of the cxaanci's of lefi than a Inindreth part of ili. extent. () 6(>. I'li.re may be fubllitiited to the conical pro- jeflion made 011 the two parallels of the globe, a uiji) which ma/ K/iiicidc with three, by deli ibing ihe extreme par.illels and the middle paralleln cither at right liiKu, or as concentric circles of a given radius, tlu'u by ju • A(\» Aci^ctnl* PttrepoU »nT, turn. 1. jiiri i. viding , *■ I I X I'' CXXII ON THE PROJECTION OF MAP3. fc viding tlicfe parallels according to tin- i nv of i^.c ilc- creafc of degnrs of longitude, \vc fhnll procure tlirfC points for each meridian, wtiicli will be icprefcntcd by t lie circle drawn through tlufc three points I fliall not dwell on this projection, indicuteJ, 1 bel'Vvt, by Bion, in his Iioo ; on tlie ITl'c of the ( ilolie ; and which, like thai of Ptolemy, ia only the conical projc£^ion dif- ligiired. ^ 70. Some geographers have alfo entertained the idea of developing; in a ri(;!ii line all the parallch, and one of the imrliliars, that piifling tlirough the ttuddle of the map; thus the parallels, which are all perpen- dicular to this niiiidian, correfpoiid in fpaces with the t1<«!;c ; there a: c then aifniiK-d in each the degrees of longitude according to the law of their Jecreafe, that is 111 fay, pi'oporlionid to the co-tines of the latitude; in fine, there palTeit through each feriis of the corref- poiiJing points o' the divifion, a curve line which re- prefenta the nitridian. From this conlhn^tion, of which tig. 28, ofl'crs an example, it follows that, in ref- pefl to its parallels, the map prefents throughout di. inenfions equal to thofe of the fphere ; but the confi curation is confiderably altered on the fides by the ob- liquity of the tneridiano, fo that the fjihericul r-, .;au- pillar quadrilaterals, comprifcd between the iiicridians ■nd the parallels, arc reprcfented by mixtiline.'ir trape- ziums, of which the angles arc very unequal, bi.t the areas- are in truth equal. This projivlion h^s been em- ployed in the Atlas Celcflis of Flai:;(lead ; in the four parts of the world by J. B- I'iolin ; and by fevcral other geographers. § 71. Eafy to trace, and r.vefervlng the jcIation-J of fuperficial extent aiuoiig tlie dilFtrent countries, this })rojeftion mud have intiiei'ed geographers; and an eafy mean was foon difc( weird of ci>rriclinL' the defcd oc cafi.med by the obliquity of the meridians, by fubtli - tilting to the right I'lies reprefenting the parallels, con • centric ciicles defciibed from a point taken in the axis of the t.iap, and jjuffing by the divilions of ih;it meridian, the pofitiou of their common centre ia fixed according to tliecu.ve which it is proper to give them, that llic^ insy interliifl all the other meridians with as little c'-jliquitv a^ pufHoh'. Tim'* projiclimi, reprcfented at C . 7\j, is the moil uftd in France in gtner.il maps, fii.u dS ihofe of tlie four parts of thi world ; and a- niong otiii rs, Drlillc and il'A;,ville h:ive (.inpliycd it. The ijUiidriU'erals, comprilVd l;etwtcn tiie .janillelN and meridians of this projection, are, as In the preceding, equi- valent to tlmle on the fpliere. In hoih thtfe, dill uiCvS cannot be ix;i> !ly iiiealiitcd, exctpt on the meridians and parallel : -ii.l th- icnlcs of fuch maps only prcCcnt .'.jipiotimation', v-'.'ch ,ire, hwwevcr, lulficient for the common piir;i'>,ti of go^jraphy. k "J. M. l,i!«rjMia li.is propofcd a niw proj.ction, poii'iliing tlie jirop-ity of rtprcfentin^, by equal Ipnees, counttits of equal extent*. In order to conitruCt the * Prin:Ipi H C([|i'phii Atlronomicc-Gtomc^rlci, Veron>, 1789, 410. tnnp of a hemifphere , he conceives It to be divided In. to half-fpindles, or half gores, to nle the meehai.ieal term, by planeb drawn through its axis ; and upon the centre of the great circle perpendicular to that axis, (, • defcribei another, of which the area fhall be ecpiiv.i. lent to th.it of the hemifphere. It is ealy t'l perceive that ei.ch half fpindle will be reprcfented on the circle in qtiellion by a feClor, of which the angle will be equal to that formed by the two planes compreheiidej in the fpindle. This is demonllrated, tig 30, in which P reprcfenta the pole, A I) 1) the plane of the equator, A P B a half fphidle comprifed between two meridians and the equator, th'. circle A' B' D' is that of which the area i.^ equal to that of the hemifphere P ABDE, It will be difcoveied without difliculty, that the radius AC mui', in general, be equal to the chord A P of the arc of the meridian, comprilld brtwetn the pole and the plane, which terminates the fpherical cup to be repie- iente(? '. in the polar projection traced after this principle, flie r J n ./, and r the Mitiui of the equivalent circlr, we (hall have : 1 n R A r: IJ r >, from which »e draw r » rr » H i ; rii then the propoitionil middle bttwtcn the diameter of the fphere sad c«e fer- ment e (. parallc'li, n- ON THE PROJECTION OF MAPS. CXXIIt paralUli, have qiveii birth tr a very important kind of nnjciftioti, as it ii that :•;' ilit grand map ot I raiu:c l>y Callini, the nv>lt bcaiitifiil gco^'raphical work wliich haa been executed to the prefcnt day. When the adineafiirert\eiu of a doijrec of longitude M'ai iiiidcriaittn, the ditHciiity was fetiv that there in i'l drawiiiir cxadly on the iMrth a parallel to the equa- tor*. In fiift, if by an alirunliun, directed by the nicans of vertical rods, and perpendicular tu the i:ieri- (!iiin of a place, we may dcliuiiiiie a feries of pcjiiits, it is evident, that fuppnfing the earth fpheriLal, tlicy vould belouji to a grtiit circle d'.'te mined by the vcrticnl plane, drawn pcrpendiculaily to the meridian in qnel- tion, and which upvin the earth :inf\vcr8 to the celcltial circle, which is culled the Hrlt vertical. The purallcl fuuii leaves that circle, wiiicli it only touclies ut the point where it inter efts the meridian (!^ 4'(). In a ijihcroid, the curve perpen''icular to the mer'dian has a double 'jeiid, and the enquiry into itu qualiileu liM oc- cupied many geometricians (-, The meridian and it» perpcndiculari being lines which are the moll eiilily drawn by allronomical and geudelijc operations, it is to the meridian of the obfeivatory at I'ari^i, and tu its perpendiculars, that the points of the map of Frame are immediately referred, their lati- tuile^aiul loii^itudc'j having only been concluded a pof- tiriori ami by c:d.ulation ^. In order to form an idea of the mnnner in which llilj priijedion reprcfenls terrellrial fpaccs, it mhll be ob- lerved that the great circle* perpendicular to the meri- dian, fuppofing the earth fpberical, all intcrfrfl each oiiier at the poles of that meridian, and, in confequence. Converge one towards the other; (^4(;) wliile upon the map, Mhere the fame meridian is a llrait line, they become parallel to each other. It thence follows, that the portions determined by two circles perpendicular to the meridian, are rcpreicntcd by retitangle* of the fame length, but larger towards their extremities. Thus th.e dilUncts and the areas cannot be nieafured on the ^rejt map of I'lance, but, by ap|iroximati(in, and be- caule llie extent in longitude is not foconliderable, l)ut the convergence of the perpendiculjis tu the nieridiaa fhoulii pniduce an error of any coiiUquence in the com- mon occafionn ol geography. ' on the globe the form of fpiral lines, aie alio reprefented by eiiivrd lines of that kind in all the maps where the mc- ridiauk are not parallels. Marinert, who dired all their cunrfes by thefo lines, cainiot. therefore, conveniently rcler to that kind «t map the courfe whicli they have made, nor niid tlut which they mean to perlocn, bc- * Mem. de Cjilini, Acad, del SciencJ, 1715. tMcm. lie rA:4(i m < i'. ol the globe. The meridians which rel.ilt fiom fcciiuMa ol the cylinder bv planes ptdfiiij" throuj;l< its axlf, are re- prefented by iiglit lines parallel to that axii ; tlie planes of the par.illeh intcrfciit tiit cylinifer according to cir- cles p'.n'.dlel to it3 bale, and which bec.tiiic right IIjic., in the devehipaicnt. tSiich is the conltruclion of /?,i/ wiip!, of whicli the iuv.-ntiun is afciibed to Don Hen- ry Prince of Portugal. i heir defects are analcgous to thofe of the coniial ])nijeftion, and even more coufl- derubic ; for in this there may be given to two parallel' theii real length with leg.ird to the degiees of latiti.df, and to o:ie only on the ll.it maps, ii:itncly, to the infe« rior and fuperiur for the development of the circum- fcribed cylinder. We might alio employ the cylinder coiillructed on one of the intermediate parallels, ai canfe «)f the augmentation of the length of each de grtc (if hitilnde, in proporiion aslhty ap|iroach the pole, xnd I fliall indicate in another pl.ce the principles uf their fui mation It is evident that there muft not he fought on the re- duced maps neither the relations of the extnt of conn- tries, nor the eyacbirfs ot their coiiti.uriition, for this pr.>jt£\ion toiiruKiahly augments the regions which are placed near the polev, although it (hare with the ikrrio- grapliic priijedtion, the qnaliiy of preferving fjinilitude in veiy fmall parts ot ihe globe; but tlirfe d.lects arc not attended with liiconvenieiici- in charts, winch may he regardrd iis iiillroincrKa, defij,'i>i.d graphically to re- folvc the priiitij)al qiiillioiis ol pilo'age, which ihcy do with the grealeil exiid^nef^ :tii(l i.^iijity. ^ 76 It is 10 the fleveliip'T^ei'.ts of xhe globe that we rautt refer the conllrnttion of fpindlts or gores, wnich arc diaun upon paper in order to cover globes of n n. >■ derate (vie I he furface of the glebe i^i divided into ttvelve or eighteen psrt.i, according to the fi/e of its di.imritr, by drawing mcridiani from 'O to '..o , or from 10" to 20°. 'I 'he fpace compreht nded ha ween two of tliele meridians, having a vriy fmall curve in rt{;ard to briadth, may be coiijidertd as lorining part of a cylindrical fuinice, ciiciimfcribcd on the Iptu're, ac- ■ciirdiiig to the ititridiin which divides it ir.to two iquul purls This meridian being developed in htaiing ptr- pendicnlaily tni each 1 de, according to the law ot ordi- nales, the half-widths of ihe portions or parallels cum- yrehcndrd between the meridims, which terminate- the ij>indh, wc obtain the form of it» entire development, hoiii'tunis ii i> truncated at the two extremities, at hf- teeji or twenty de^itei from tlu: poles; and tlufe two zones are drawn apart n if they were fiat. Thlt prt^. ccdare, as may be feen, is only an approximation, anil can only fervc for the minufaflure of globes, as it ad. raits the advantages of engraving in multiplyi.ig tht number t for the drawing thence obtained, only prc- fenting disjoined portions, cannot ferve as a map. For this reafon I fliall not dwi II on the fuhjedl, which more properly belongi to the cunftruAion of geographical inllnimcnts. 1$ 77. I have now defcrtbed the different kinds of maps, and fli.'wn their properties and drfecl'' -, but it mull be obferved that the word defcdl only refeii, to the common way of confidering m:ip8 ; ft>r it we regard them with Euler and Lagrange* as a transfonnaiiun of co.ordinates, it is always mathematically p( ciproCHlly it irmy be aflted, whai oui;ht (o be the na- ture of ihe co-ordinates of the map, that is, of the liiiij whicli repiefent the meridians and the parallels, in order that the parts of that map may have fuch .nd fuch a relation wiih thofe uf the fpherc ? In refulvinj; x\\\i lalt qiiellion by the moll icfineel analyfis, Euler ami I,ai;rafge have determiucd « priori the cunitrudtion of diihrent kinds of m r choro^'iaphic ; ai:J, in line, lafografhic, whicii embrace only very (mall ex. tent, as the environs of a town for example, and pre- * MfiT.oire a'Eultr, /Ifla jieuiirm. Ptirtftl. torn. i. p. 1, Mc- inuite dc i.'gr>n|C. Aod dc Betlin, insce 1779. » « fCBt OV THE PROJECTION OF MAPS. CXtT frit in dettil *e 'llhgMi '»•"''«'•» ""d. by prftnrrfque niran* thoiit lo he meniinncd, tlic fealufei of the litiid ■( woods hilU, »»lley», riviilrt*, nivinis, &c. It it proper to remaik, that, in wliaftvcr prnjeAiotj, thr qiiiuirilalCTnld formed by the niiTidiiiii* and the pa- r.illcl ■ near the centre of the map, (ltfl"r fo mncli Th« Irfs Iriini rriH.m^riilar parallelo)rrHins,R(i thry ucuupy fniHll fnac on the inup or (mi the frhibe ; as the map in on a brpe Kale ; or M the meiidiiin? and patnllels are more relaieil to each other. Hciiie »\\ the pruJcCtions be- come hlendcd with a fjeomelrical fiirvey, when the cinvt of llie earth it. lit'Ac hurilile throimhniit their ex tent ; and the diitunces aie then nienfurid l>v redtih- rear ftairs wliich indicati. a certain nnml»er of itinerary iiiiai'ure« nfed iti the country reprilciittd, or in tliat wiirrr the map i» compofcd. When the effed^t ot jKijed^ion begin to be |>erpelv. aVi'.e, tlie Hue way <'r iiidicatinjf the fi/.e of the map, or its relation with the Ipacc reprcfented, In to hx tho fize of a dfgne of latltucle. It might he uifhed that tilt re were adopted, lor the different clafles of maps, fialc-s not oi'ly formintj aliqnot parts, hut accordii'if lo the (ictiiTi.il Older, an lias been appointed by the iJrfot iff III Gurrre lor the maps to Ic there executed. By tliis nuaii, general maps become ptrfe£)ly connedUd \sith p.'.rictiLir inaps, and ttipograpliical pluns, bceaute tlif dLt'iJIs incteufe from one claft tu another by relations tafy loKisie. Tilt digiee of latitude in the geographical maps be- i^\• alliined no an unit, that of the clioro^raphical Hiap < „ht t.i be reprefeiited l)y one of the iiuiphers 2, <;, or .:, wliirh ate cxad divifions in the dcclm il fyf- iiiii; ai d. in I'kc manner, for the degree refnhing from tlie (linH'i tiiMiH of the topographic plan, with regaid tu tlir dei'r-e of th< choicgiapliic map. r\ iiijlictioii '.f mtps, cither of the world or of a country, is ealu-d an this ; and the mull ciinvtnient aliovr all ihiilt whiVti fcrve t^i facilitate the reidiii ; iit a work, jiiJ not thoi" in the laiyell lorm, but iliofe 'wIiilIi lead lo the dttiii.i by a gradual fii'-c flii'li of iii;:ps m.rt and nine parlionlar. Tlie eye can rarely embiace viilioiit (liHicnlly the cm lidcr.ible fpace eomjirifej in a n ii iviull be »t,,n lied. .i;id rtitnerom names are fuijlil ; !>iit tli.rearc fon:i eulVsin wliiili the necillity of p'dlng mo ti{([iR,it!y troin oMt imipto another lieromc- an iiicoiivenieiici' to he IhiniiieiJ, and maps ot a large form arc liicn mure expe* be eo.ilkrtiet- «d ill the inveile or>!ir of tiiiir dtlaila ; namely, the trpi'^raphieal o.an itdnced trom pl.ii.;. taken tri^uiiome- tric:illy upon the land ; ch ing c.iiial triangles, in a limilar pcfition with regard to the leading line on the tupoiiia- phic plan, the t»vo plans may be united without diffi- culty. Unt if they mull bo reduced, as moll com. inonly huppcni, tiiaoKles mull be fornwd on the topo- graphic plan, like thole on itie (lieets of the fnrvey, fo that the fides of the liill may be to ihofc of the fecund in ihe relation exadted by the rediic'li m. A'.'lien the leaves of the liirvey are marked with the meridian, tiiher true or magnetic, and that this line is the fame in all the (heels to be reunited, then the pointa of each leaf are reteritd to the meiidian, and lo a per- pendicular drawn on that line, by a point common to two conligtions leaves. The dillances of all the points from cai'hof ihel'e right lines i* meal'iirrd parallel lo the oilier, and lliefe dillances are referred, cither fiich u« they are, or reductd to th'- mericiiaii ard perpendicular drawn in the topographic plan, to reprefmit tliofe which are cominim to the fheets about to be joined. This leads me to fpeak of the tranie divided into rqiiHres, cm- plojid in reducing all diavviiij,s and which is very con- vciiient lor the conllrudtion of the detai'.s of maps. The fheets which arc to be iinted, are divided into fqnares by parallel lines, piipcndiciilar to that which is common to the (hiets, and the more lliey are multi- plied there is the more facility in judging of the place to be ticciipieil in each fqnaie, by tlit jxiini.n and cir- ciiinftaiicen herein contaiucd, and iiiftribir,;.^ them with a Uriiit relcniLlance in the correfponding (qiiares ir.iccd on the reduced plan. '1 his opera! lor it rejirrfcnted in fig. ^l. The flieeti A nc I), E F'J H, having in commoji tin' rijihl lines C D and E F, are divid'.d into fquares, ot wnicli the fidei are paiallcl and perpendicular to tliefe ri^ht lines; the reduced jilaii a tj'e ii divided in the fame mainnr, in irgiiid to the line c J, r.prifenliiig llie common rliiht line, but the lido i,{ each fqnare arc the Ivdvei of ;li ,fe ot the duels A 15 C D, E !•' Ci H, fo th:it the dij^dta iriarked on tliele (hicis are reduced to half tlitir dimeu- fioiis, and to a ipacc forming only one qviartT i.f what they occupied .it tirll. To c<>py the dilij,Mi tiaci d on each of the original leaves, weeiiliu- imit.ite by llniyc in the foiiarcR of the plan ab/f, wh.il i.i conlaiiud in the coritfpondent f.piaies of the duels A U C 1), E F ■ 1 H, or rather, for more exuiltncU, we lace marks or nnin- bers on each of the tides. Whin we do not wifh to draw lines on the drawing to b*^ copied, a «ery level CXXvi ON THE PROJECTION OF MAPS. V " ." Vlh i\mi ■ I' ' lir;h'-,; ^hf« of very fi-jt;,il tiaufpaifncv, i» pl^ocd ahovi- it, upon riiii.h l(,ii.iir» nil- tira.vn wiili a yU/.wt't iliaituiiid, und l>io iicrprntiiciil.ir linn aic iiindc lo roiiit iilv on lliofe v'liicli *\\: to fcrve for ihc junction ui tlie Ihccti or llie j)ointi wlr, h cU-«crmii\c it. ^ J I'lo. Willi) a tiii)oi;iaplii'"il pl^'ii U thus formrd by tSr iiiiitin utitt.ta~.1icJ liirvtyt, in oiilii top.ifi to choro. P'lpliic tnapii, V. c niiill not only alTtinlilc llif plnni, hut liihicci them to the projection to he adopted. For this piirpofe \vc trace on thcfe plan* the n-iiidians and the pt' allfh in ilfjht h'lict, rtfpedlivcly paiiillol and pcrpen- «!i> ljr, a^ till !V circles arc when only cxieiidcd over a very fmall portion (jf icirclliial furtacc. 'I'hc corref- ponJrnt quadrilaterali- aic alfo traced on the map to he conllnictcd, hut ajriccahly to the Ijwh of projrdion ( and thtre only rcinninH to draw in thcfe qu^drilaleraU what in coiitaincd in the fipiarn compnhcndtd hetuccn tl.c nrtriih'anii and the parallrU of the topographic plan. Wlirn extreme pre cil'iiiir i piinlsof wlii>:h the rofpeftive pofitii'i) is ki'.uv.'i. ; a^ in juininjj thefe two points by a tight line, we (li.dl find the angle which thi. right line forms with the inir dian, and wc may in confeqiience place it ill its due relition to the ftirridian, or conitrtit;^ by n-cans of u given anfjlc the meridian of the plan. By the fame nntliod may alfo be determined the hide e jf a topographit.il plan, when it has been omillcd ; f( r if we know the 'llllance uf two points in that plan, we base ' nly to divide into p.-.-ts, proportiiintd lo iho itinerary meafiires chlth ioinu thcie two points ; whirh thus becomes the fcale of th.- map, and fhewb' the dilUlice of all the other points fruw lach other. ij 8i. The paffage from chnrographlcal maps to a general or geographical map is analogous to that from tOj)ii:^rapliical plans to the ehnrugraphi«: map, by tranf. po'lrj; into the quadiilateruU, formed by the meridiani and the parallels of the RCOf^raphical map, what is rnn. taincd in the currrfpondtnt qiiaihiUterals uf the chuiii. graphic maps, wliieli are afleniMi'd and reduced. It is above all in thii lall operation that we perceive the neceflity uf allronomical obfervations, in order to fix the polition of points at fome dillaiice from rath oth''! ; it inay in fai't happen, that in the topographical Tnnjs. wiiieh ferve for the eonllruttion of the el.oro. gr,'pi,.'., there may be errors common to all point! of the map, as dillances too fmall or too larga in the fame direct. on, and that thefe errors remain on the choru. graphic maps; and, in re-uniting the latter upon a ^t- iienil map, the large fpaces which 't reprefents will br found too much rellridcd or dilated without the eirnii bring perceived. But when there is placed directly na the chorographic maps, or, at leatt, on the geogranlnc, a ceitain number of points, of a latitude and h)iigitu.fine iip.ni I'l* map certain fpaces, in which thefe points and inlrrmi.-. (liate details may be laid down ; and if this do not h^p. pen, theexccfbui deficiency ii-rceivablr, anfing fiomtlit errors of many maps alfembied, is divided among .ill the points of each, and tlieiicc becomes almoll iiifeiifible, except there be fome reahin lo afcribe the innccuracr to particular points which mull be corrected by the if- trunomical obfervations upon others, To lend mure exa^.fnefs to the copies of their mapj, it is upon the copper itfill that the geographers of the J)fpol lie la Murine €Xtc»\e their graduation | and tluy even attend to the alteration of dimenfions occniioned hy the drying of the paper. 'J he procedure foliuwcil in thife operations may be found in the Voyage of tlie (hip Flora, drawn up by M. dc FIrurieu, and the article Carte of the Encyclofeilie Mt hodimie. § Hi. It is not difficult to perceive that we may, hf the means aiu^ve indicat.-d, transfer upon globes the de- tails marked in chorographic and geographic mapi. This opemtion, which [ have mentioned in ^ 4^1, con- fills ill dividing, by meridians and parallels, the furfaie of the globe into quadrilaterals fo fmall, that the curve of that Airface tnay lie little fenfible, and to draw in thefe qiiaJrilatcials what is cunlained in the coricf. puiident qiiadrilaleials of the maps of various pattaof the earth. Such would be the procedure in the conftrufllon of maps, if wo might in all countries begin wiih topn. graphic mips, and mateiiaU reduced to the lanw mca- line'-, equally accurate and perfcdlly accordant ; hut iiii. happily this is not the cafe, there being but a fmall num- ber uf countries, and Fr.inee alone completely, wliich have been trigononiclrically fiirveytd. As to the other parti., there arc only maps conllruded Sftcr dilVi'rent methods, and upon data which are little exac^l. It i. only in endeavouring to reconcile all thofe that repre- .'ent the fame country, that we know the degree of cim- fiil-nce that may be placed in each, aud that we may appi-oach the real delineation. After fonie obfervations ou itinerary meafurei, M. Lacroix thus proceeds : Wl.e» ON THE TROJECTION OF MAi'S. rixvii Wlieii wc liavf cnaLIiflicd tlic »i{rccmfnt of the mr». chraper M:ip», fxecuteil upon a flat fiirrate i ititfc, fur«, or of tilt iiiilm frnployi'l in HKVtrtnt map<« we fiiice the mt of ci>pper-p!«tf pTintlnjr hji been in iile, can cuiiltiii^t a );(raduatioii tu thi>l'e uhicli an dcllilutt hive ^rni'ially been niuli ii|ion piprr, of ill ai fuiiii as we know, eitlicr itnmcJlat(.ly, iir by the " It ii ubvioua. that liah a Map, wherein ii attempted dilUiico of given points, iht latJliiJcH iiiul longitude* to reprofcut iipin • pl.inc fiirfacc that which iireully of whatever point of ihcfe inapi, Wc ni ly in confc- fphcrt al, mi:ll depart conridernbly from tlie irnth ; oufiKT compart, by llie Ijtiliiilc.i and longitudes wliith efpn lally If it coniprehendt the wliole, or aainfi'ii.' tliev afli^'n lu the fame places, the inapt whicli c m pidiend the fame regiuni) and this manner ii the in<'liery, thefe towns from placea of leU conlVqueiice, the confi> (af which it i) not quite two tlilidsj it lulhnv» of gurtitiuns of the Inures, of the couifts of ihe livrrs, of courle, thit the cou'itries delineated upon, or near, thrle the chains of mountainr., of the I ' oads, the limits of territory ; ami to examine i it they agree and in what they diiTcr under each ot u.^le re1ition> 'I'he latitudeii, more lafy to be ol)fervcd than the longitude*, are f;rnerally better ellubliHud upon mnp^ drawn on the rcLitiiiiis ot travellers. The eoinnuiii delrft of the an- cient maps is cduflderably to .lugment all the diilances of the places in tlic direction of call iiid will ; and the frior becomes the (greater in proportion as the point* linen, mull be red:iced tn fomewhat ]•-(> than two thirds of the fr/.e of the countries of c({u.d otent, wiilch lie at the extremity of the circle ; and that the lines drawn tu meafure the latitude, vvliiciiate pnrallel to each otlur, or nearly fo, mull, in order to pu fcrve as iitarly as p^lTiiile their prupiirtioiial angles nt the points of inteilc.'kioii with the meridian!!, form fegmtnti> ot circles, ufwhicU no two are parallel or concentiic. " There may be as many different proj'ctions ai there are dillant from the principal meridian, which regulates arepoints of view,iii which a j'lobe can be ften, bin i;eo- thc longitudes of the I'lhers. 'I'liis fault is very remark- gripher* have generally choren thofe which riprdent able in the maps of Ptolemy with regard to the differ- eiices of longitude between Alexandria and the other towns upon the (liorcs of the Mtditerrantan. The maps of the Sanfoiis, of Jailht, and otiierc compiled towards the tiid of the fi.ventecnth century, alfo ex- ti'iid all the countries in the direi^tion of the longitude?. Such maps tlill furnilh ufefnl materials when the poA the poles, at the top and bottom nf the Map ; thefe, from the deiiiuation of th'. lines of latiludi- and Ioiii;iiinle are called the llcreographic, •rthographic, ui.d globular projeflions. •• I do not propofe to detain the rriuler u ith a del'- cription nf all the projections; foine of which aiv fo er- roneou.'t (for the purpofe of cimi iruotiiigof Maps) as to tiiii:s are corrcded in the dirtdioii of call and weft, bv defrrve being configned entirrly to oblivion l>iit a dividing, propuitiiinally to the didancc from the princi pal meridian, the diffeicncc between the longitudes af- ligncd ill thtfe maps, and thole which nfull fioin new di.tcriniiialions. In his Comf'niiion to a Map nf the World, (London I7i;4, 410.) Mr. Arrowimith otters the following prac* ticiil niiiarkson proje^ion.* " .\s I he Earth is of a form approaching very near to a Glube, or iSphcrc, it is evident that the only Map which can truly rtprcfent the iignrcot the various coun- tries, and their relative bearings and didances, mull be delineated on the furface of a Cilube. •' But aa Globes of a fize proper to exhibit a Map rufTiclLiitly accurate, and cinitainiiig all the infoimatioii that is necedary or deiirabU, mull be very bulky, and V'.ry expeidive, it is neceffary to have more portable and * Tlie sraniimiKal crroii lie (>4r(ly coticjlecl. proj'.ftiona of Maps form a pleafing and iiilliui^i\e ex- ertiff, nnd indeed indu'penfably iiicefnity to the right iiiiderllanding of Ge()j,'r,iphy,*by lliidenis, J fliall de- fcribe the manner of tonitrufliiig the Map that accnn- panies this work, hut lirll hint al the Steri.ogi'ajih'c Projixtion.* /\m()Bg the various pofili'ms a'u^'n.ihle fo the eye, there arc chiefly two that Invi tjecli .idrpttd. whcicin the eye ii placid, either in the poinli (D lig. I.) or removed to an inllnite diilaiu'i; ; -md hence this projection is liable to the great error of dlilin ting the toim of the coiiiilrie i, reprclenttd iipoii it, niii'li more than is neceifary. The only .id ..niaKc is, that the lines of latitude and lungitiuic imciicct cacii oiliei at right angles ••This being obferved by that excellent allionomer • "The great g«oi;rjplier, D'Anvillf, has cmfliuflcf lii^ .Mjji .("il.f World ufn iliij projcition,' «.i«|'tiri it to C»niui'j (jdtm »i \\r figure of (he eiith, whieh ia.ik J £lion : it is equal to the ;'>tereographtc in point of tkcility, and vallly fuperiortoit in point of truth. " Geometrical Conflrua'ton of the Globulak. Pro- JECTIOM. " From the center C (%• s ) with any radius, as C B, defcribe a circle ; draw the diameters /V B, and 90, 90, (be careful to draw them at perfeft right angles) and divide them into nine equal parts; likewife divide each quadrant into nine equal parts, each of which contains ten degrees ; if the fcaie admits of it, every one of thcfe divifions may be fultdivlded into degrees j next, to draw the meridians, fuppofe the meridian 80° W. of Greenwich, we have given the two poles 90, 90, and the point 80 in the equator, or diameter A U 1 defcribe a circle to pafs through the .three given points as fol- lows ; with the radius 90, fet one foot of the compafles on the point 90, and defcribe the femicircles X X and Z.Z, then remove the compafles to the point 80, on the equator, and defcribe the arcs 1,1, and 2,z ; where they inierfe£l the fcmicircle, make the point, as at i and 2, and draw linex from t through the point 1, till they IntetfeA the diameter B A, continued iu li, then will £ be the center from whence the meridian 90, tJO, QO, nuH be drawn, and will exprefs the meridian of Ho W . longitude from Greenwich. The fame radius will draw the meridf'aa exprefling 140° W, longitude, in like manner. Draw the neia meridian with the radius C B, fet one foot of the compailes in the pointd, and defcribe *Hift. AMd. Sdeni, 1701. the arcs a a and bb, then draw lines as before, uiil git; the point D, th? center of 90" W. longituJt;, and li, of all the reft. " The paiallels of latituJe are drawn fn tho fam^ manner, with this difference, that the feniicircles X X and Z Z muft' be drawn from the points A and B, ili; extremities of the equatot. " In the manner above defcrihed, with great labour and exafintfs, I drew all the meridians and parallclii of latitude to every degree on two hcmifpheres, which laid the foundation oftiie Map now before us. " We fliall nowdrop a few hints on the advantuge snd difadvantage of Mcrcator's ProjcAion. " A method hai been foundf to obviate fome of the difficulties attending all the circular projed^ions by one, which, from the perfon who firft ufed it, (though nut the inventor) is called Mercator's Projcftion. In this there are none but right lines ; all the meridians are equidiftant, and continue fo through the whole extent ; but, on the other hand, in order to obtain the true bearing, fo that the compafs may be applied to the Map (or Chart) for the pur'pofe of navigation, the fpaces between the parallels of latitude, (which in truth are equal, or nearly fo) are made to incrcafe as they recede from the equator in a proportion which, in the high latitudes, becomes prodigioufly great. •' The great advantages peculiar to this projedlion are, that every place drawn upon it, retains its true bear. ing, with refpt^ to all other places ; the dillances may be meafured with the niceft exaftnefs by proper fcales, and all the lines drawn upon it aie right lines. For thefc reafons, it is the only projed^ibn in drawing mapi or charts for the ufe o'' navigators. *' Its only difadvantage is, that the countries in high latitudes are of ncveflity increafed beyond their juft fizc to a monttrous degree. •• Thus it appears, from this fliort view of three cf the bed modes of proje6ling Maps of the World upon a plane furface, that each of thofe which have been more particularly defcrihed, is attended with advantagct and difadvantages peculiar to itfelf ; it is obvious, that the only means to acquire a juft idea of the variou* countries upon fuch a furfice. is by a comparifdn of two maps, one laid down on the Mercator's Projeftion, and the Other upon the beft of the Circular Pr«j«£iioni." I : CONTENTS. I'd!' • ««£•> . ■ ■»-,-.' -■ _. ;,.i '. [ CXXIX ] CONTENTS 09 e advantug^ and THE FIRST VOLUME, PPAG» REFACE - - - - m ADVERTISEMENT TO THIS EDITION - - xv MEMOIR ON THE RECENT PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STATE, OF GEOGRAPHY - - - xxix CONTENTS OF THE INTRODUCTION BY PR. V!NCE - xUx THE INTRODUCTION - - - i ON THE ORIGIN OF ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY, BY M. BAILLY cv GN THE PROJEgTIOK OF MAPS, BY M. L ACROIX - cin EURO p E. rRlLlMINARY'CBSEkVATIONS EUROPE «N GENERAL t ) N T E N T 8. PRINCIPAL STATES. UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. England ScOlLANO ■ • Ireland - • ■ VOL. I. , - » '7 •45 212 FRANCE i! vW m i'~'' m , '■•' iji: IVJ • n ., 5:<.'..{iJ I /.,'.. Jil'i il; = tfjl ^ <573 APPENDIX TO VOL. I. No. I. Treaties of Canipi Formio 1797, and LuneviUe iSoi n. Treaty of Amiefis, 2-]th March, lioi /-"^'-^ ■ -■. in. Treaty of Presburgy 26th Decemheriio^ IV. Confederation of the Rhine, July 1 8*6 V. Remarks on the Rufftan and Spanifh pronuneiatien VI. Valueof Coins ufed in common calculations. V5 719 732 735 736 738 Mj^rs [ cxxxl ] ' V-..>« MAPS LV FOL, I. . i i ^ >■ X *,n ' S«4 . 1 . 11^ '':v .584 ic ~ 605 i .-j f Aead ofcarelefs pofitions, anting from the blind imitation of antiquated maps, the greatell attention fhallbe bellowed that every pudiion be conformable to the lated adronomical obfervations ; and, in default of thcfe, to the refult of the bed itineraries, and other authentic documents. The «;xpcnce and labour of drawing and engraving fuch an Atlas mud neceflTarily be very great, and only capable of being repaid by a country in the (ird date ^f opulence. But .while the merely ornamental arts have met with a mod liberal encouragement, in the publication of literary monuments of great expencc, it may be hoped that.a work, uniting great and lading utility with beauty and magnificence, will not be negltdled bv a difceruing public. It is fuppofed that the whole e.v pence of this atias, executed in a more capital dyle than has ever bec^n befoteattempted, may be about twenty or twenty five guineas ; and it is propofed that it (hall be publiihed in numbers, each containing three or four maps. As the dylc of engraving will render firit impreifionsideiirable, they will be carefully delivered in the order of names, which may be trai\fmi(ted.to th^ Publi(hers, MeiTis.Cadell aud Davics, in the Strand, and MefFrhLongmaiii Hurd) Rec«| ai\d Orme^ Pdtemotter* MODERN MODERN GEOGRAPHY. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. THE word geography is derived from the Greek language, and Definitions, implies a defcription of the earth. It is fometimes contrafted with hydrography^ which fignifies a defcription of the water, that is of feas, lakes, rivers, &c., thus including mi.rine charts : but, in general* hydrography is rather regarded as a province of geography. Both were anciently confidered along with aftronomy, as parts of cofmography^ which afpired to delineaie the univerfe. Geography is more juftly contrafted with chorography^ which illuf- trates a country or province ; and ftill more with topography^ which defcribes a particular place, or fmall diftriifi. "What is called General Geography embraces a wide view of the fub* je£l, regarding the earth aftronomically as a planet, the grand divifions of land and water, the winds, tides, meteorology, &c. and may ex- tend to what is called the mechanical part of geography, in diredlions for the conftrudion of globes, maps, and charts. Among the other divifions of this fcience may be named Sacred Geography, folely employed in the illuftration of the Scriptures j Eccle- fiaftic Geography, which defcribes the government of the Church, as divided into patriarchates, archbilhopricks, bifhopricks, iirchdeanerics, &c. with their refpedive boundaries, often varying much from thole of the fecular provinces ; and Phyfical Geography, or Geology, which inveftigates the interior of the earth, fo far only as real difcoveries can be made; for what have been ftyled fyftems of the earth, which have confumed the labours of many ingenious men, have no connedion VOL. I. B with Hk ^ .^ / !■' » \ III 'li UL r» I ' 1' iU i I I ■ r k * I ' ,III« 6 Divifions of Geography. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. with the folic! fciencc of geolf^gy, but ought rather to be ftyled cofmo- gonies, or ideal creations of planets. But Geography, popularly confidcrecl, is occupied In the defcription of the various regions of this globe, chiefly as being divided among various nations, and improved by human art and induftry. If a fcien- tific term were indifpenfable for this popular acceptation, that of Hifto- rical Geography might be adopted, not only from its profeffed fub- fervience to hiftory, but becaufe it is in fadt a narrative fo nearly approaching the hiftorical, that Herodotus, and many other ancient hiftorians, have diverfified their works with large, portions of geography, and the celebrated defcription of Germany, by Tacitus, contains mod of the materials adopted in modern treatifes of geography. In this popular point of view, hiftorical geography admits of three dlvifions. I. The Ancient or Claflical, which defcribes the ftate of the earth, fo far as it was difcovered at different periods, but not extend> ing further than the year of Chrift 500. 2. That of the Middle Ages, which reaches to the fifteenth century, when the difcoveries of the Portuguefe began to lay wider foundations of the fciencc. 3. Modern Geography, the fole fubjedl of the prefent work, which, while it embraces the moft recent difcoveries, ftill remains capable of great acceflions, particularly in Africa; not to mention more minute deficiencies. The chief objeft of modern geography Is to prefent the moft recent and authentic information concerning the numerous nations and ftates who divide and diverfify the earth ; but on this fubje Atlantic, and Indian Oceans; while the Ardic Sea is partly embraced by continents, and receives many important rivers. Such are the mod profound concavities of the globe, while others are filled by more minute feas, as the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and others of yet fmaller extent, till we defcend to inland lakes of fre(h water. Oblonp concavities, fometimes of great length, mark the courfes of the Rivers, rivers; which, generally, at firft interfed the higher grounds, till the de- clivity become more gentle, on their approach towards their inferior receptacles. But as general views are feldom precife, it mud not be forgotten, as already in part obferved, that even large rivers fometimes fpring from lowland marlhes, and wind through vaft plains, unac- companied by any concavity, except that of their immediate courfe ; while, on the other hand, extenfive vales, and low hollow fpaces, fre- quently occur, deftitute of any dream. Rivers will alfo fometimes force a paflage, where nature has ereded mountains and rocks againd it; and where the boffin of the French would appear to be in another diredion, which the river might have gained with more eafe ; fo eftranged is nature from human theory. In like manner though the chief chains of mountains in Europe extend in a fouth eaderly and north wederly diredion, yet there are fo many exceptions, and fuch numerous and important variations in other parts of the globe, that theory in vain attempts to generalize. As mountains may be found in every diredion of the compafs, fo a river may rife from an inland lake or marfh, and force its way through rocky barriers of great elevation. In fhort the theory of the French geographers, though jud in general, mud not be too widely accepted : and the book of nature mud be regarded as the chief code of confultation. 4 From r-i f. ■•;,1 ) 'f nnv S PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Coutinemi Trom tlic vaft expanfe of oceanic waters, arifes in the ancient hemif- phcre, that wide continent, which contains Afia, Europe, and Africa; and in the modern hemifphere the continent of America, now difco- vcred to form, as it were, a feparatc ifland, divided by a ftreight of tlie fea from the ancient continent. In the latter many difcoveries, of the utmofl importance to geography, are of very modern date, and it is not above fixty years flnce we obtained an imperfe^ idea of the extent of Siberia, and the Ruflian empire : nor above twenty fince ample, real, and accurate knowledge of thefe wide regions began to be diffufed. So that in faft America may be faid to have been difcovered before Afia; and of Africa our knowledge continues imperfe£t, while the neweft obfervations, inftead of diminifliing, rather increafe our ideas of its extent. But the grandefl divifion of the ancient continent Is Afia, the parent of nations, and of civilization ; on the north ead and fouth, fur- rounded by the ocean; but on the weft divided by an ideal line from Africa ; and from Europe by boundaries not very ftrongly im- prefled by the hand of nature. The Ruflian and the Turkifli empires, extending over large portions of both continents, intimately connedt Afia with Europe. But for the fake of clearnefs and precifion, the chief merits of any work of fcience, geographers retain the ftridl divifion of the ancient continent into three great parts, facrificing a more minute to a more important diftindtion ; which, if not ftridlly natural, is ethical, as the manners of the Afiatie fubjeds of Ruflia, and even of Turkey, differ confideiably from thofe of the European inhabitants of thofe empires. As Europe is the feat of letters and arts, and the greatell exertions of human energy in every department ; and is befides the native region of the chief modern geographers, and that in which the readers are moft in- timately and deeply interefted, it is always the divifion firft treated j though the order be arbitrary, and Ptolemy, who has been ftyled the father of geography, begins indeed with Europe, but defcribes Africa before Afia*. Before proceeding more minutely to confider the feveral kingdoms and ftates, comprifed in this great divifion of the globe, it will be proper, in compliance with an ufual and unobjectionable form, to offer a brief and general defcription of this diftinguifhed portion of the earth. * The beil edition of his maps, Amft. 173O1 places Africa firS. EUROPE. This part of the globe is the fmallcft in extent, yielding confider- E:tteu:. ably even to Africa. From the Portugucfe Cape, ftyled by our mari- ners the Rock of Lifbon, in the wed, to the Uralian mountains in the eaft, the length may be about 3,300 Britiih miles ; and the breadth from Cape Nord, in Dani(h Lapland, to Cape Matapan, the fouthcrn extremity of Greece, may be about 2,350. The contents in fquare miles have been eftimated with fuch diverfity of opinion, fuch eftimates being, in truth, arbitrary and only comparative, that it is fuilicient to mention the medial number of about two millions and a half. The ancients had no jud ideas of the boundaries of Europe, the Limits* name itfelf having feemingly originated from a fmall diflri(^ near the Hellefpont, as the diflin^ive name of Afia alfo fpread from the oppo- fite fhore. More than a third part of Europe, towards the north aud caft, has only been known with precifion in modern times. On the fouth it is limited by the Mediterranean fea ; on the weft by the At- lantic, which contains the moft remote European iflands, the Azores and Iceland, Greenland being regarded as a part of North- America. On the north the boundary is the Ar£tic Ocean, embracing the remote ifles of Spitzbergen, and Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land. Toward the eaft the boundaries admit of fome difcuflion. The Uralian mountains, a grand natural limit, not extending to the Ar^lic Ocean, the river Cara> which flows into the fea of Karfkoye, is admitted as a boundary. The Uralian limit extends to about 56 degrees of north latitude: to th& fouth of which the grand confines of Europe and Alia have been fought in the petty diftindions of Ruflian governments. More natural limits might be obtained by tracing the river Oufa, from its fource, to its jundion with the Belaia. Thence along the Kama to the Volga, which would conftitute a (triking natural diviiion, to the town of Sarepta j whence a Ihort ideal line, the only one admitted in this delineation^ will lead due weft to the river Don, which would complete the unaf- 7 certained Iv-l li m m- ji-;* Mvii ■I ii 8 AnciVnt po- pulation. Progrtflive geography. EUROPE. certalned boundary; that on the north and wed of the Euxine behig clear and precife. The ancient population of Europe confided of the Celts in the weft and fouth ; the Fins in the north eaft ; and the Laps or Laplanders, a diminutive race like the Samoieds of Afia, in the furtheft north, and who ,feem to have enriched their original rude language by adopting, ia a great meafure, that of their more civilized neighbours the Fins. Thofe ancient inhabitants, who feeni to have been thinly fcattered, were driven towards the weft and north by the Scythians or Goths from Afia, whofe defcendants occupy the greater part of Europe ; by the Sarmatians, or Slavonic tribes, alfo from Afia, the anceftors of the Ruffians, Poles, &c. and who were accompanied by the Herull, ufing what is now caii id the Lettic fpeech, to be found in Pruflia, Lithuania, Samogitia, Courland, and Livonia, being a-kin to the Slavonic language', yet with many (hades of diftindion. From Africa the colony of Iberi, noithern Mauretani, pafled into Spain at a very early period. The latter .^rceffion of Hungarians and Turks, from Afia, may likewife be commemorated. • - The progreffive geography of Europe will be more aptly illuftrated in the defcriptions of each kingdom and ftate. Suffice it here to ob- ferve, that the ableft modern geographers, not excepting D'Anville himfelf, have greatly erred in their views of the ancient knowledge of Europe. Of Scandinavia the ancients only knew the fouthern part, as far as the large lakes of Weter and Wener. The Roman fhips explored the fouthern (hores of the Baltic as far as the river Rubo, or the weftern Dwina, and difcovered the names of feveral tribes along the fhores: but of the central parts of Germany it is evident, from the maps of Ptolemy, that they had no juft ideas ; fo that the tribes which he enumerates may be more juftly affigned to the northern parts along the Baltic, or to the fouthern on the left of the Danube. The Carpa- tjiian or Sarmatian mountains were well known, but the line of 50° or 52° of north latitude, muft confine the ancient knowledge in the north eaft. A fingularity in the ancient defcriptions has often milled ; for as the mountains, in the favage ftate of Europe, were crowned or accom- » Tcoke'i View of Ruffi«, i. 455. panied EUROPE. panied with foreft«, the fame term was ufed in feveral barbarous lan- guages to exprefs either ; fo that the ancients often place important mountains, where the hand of nature had only planted large forefts. This remark becomes effential in the comparifon of ancient and modern geography. The Riphaean mountains are vainly fuppofed to have been the Uralian chain, which were to the ancients hid in the pro- founded darknefs, inftead of a large foreft running from eaft to weft* The Sevo Mons of Pliny, which he pofitively affigno to the north of Germany, though geographers, in dired oppofition to his text, transfer It to Norway, a region almoil as unknown to the ancients as America, mud be regarded as a vail forefl:, extending to fome promontory : and the Venedici Montes of Ptolemy are in the like predicament, for modern knowledge evinces that no fuch mountains exift. Of all fciences, per- haps geography has made the mod flow and imperfect progrefs, and the firft reftorers of it place at random many grand features of nature, inftead of purfuing the recent and juil plan, of giving an exad delinea^ tion of the country, and afterwards exploring the real extent of ancicBl: knowledge. The chriftian religion prevuls throughout Europe, except in Turkey, Rdigioa. where however at lead one half of the inhabitants are attached to the Greek church. Wherever the chridian faith has penetrated, know- ledge, indudry, and civilization have followed : among the barbarous tribes in the north the progre& was unhappily flow, Scandinavia re- maining pagan till the eleventh century ; and fome Slavonic tribes on the fouth of the Baltic till the thhrteenth : nay it is not above a century ago, fince the Laplanders were converted by millions from Denmark. The two granddidindions are oatiholicsand protedants, the former in the fouth, where the paifllions are more warm, and the imagination more delighted with fplendour : the la^er in the north, where the fatisfac. tion of the judgment predominates. This univerfality of the chr«dian religion has been followed by an- other fuperlative advantage, that of condituting all Europe, as it were into one republic, fo that any ufefiil difcovery made in one date paflcs to the red with celerity. In this refped Europe has been cconpared to TOL. t. Q ancient •K!^" i;.«. xo EUROPE. ancient Greece ; and it is to be hoped that Ruffia will not prove an« other Macedon. Oimate. This fair portion of the globe is chiefly fituated in the temperate zone, if fuch diftindions have not vanifhed from geography, fince modera difcoveries have evinced that the climate often depends on local caufes; that the Alps is a fouthern latitude prcfent mountains of ice unknown in Lapland ; that the torrid zone abounds with water and habitations, and may perhaps contain mountains covered with fnow. Yet freedom from the exceffive heats of Afia and Africa has contributed to the vigour of the frame, and the energy of the mind. Inland feas. In a general view of Europe, one of the moft ftriking and interefting features is the number and extent of the inland Teas, juftly regarded as chief caufes of the extenfive induftry and civilization, and confe- quent fuperiority to the other grand divifions of the globe. Had Africa been interfered by a large inland fea from the weft, it is probable that the blefTings of induftry would have been widely fpread. Among in- land feas the Mediterranean is juftly pre-eminent, having been the center of civilization to ancient and modern Europe. The columns of Hercules marked its weftern boundary, being the mountain or rock of Abyla, now called Ceuta, and Kalpe in Spain, the Gibraltar of modern fame. The length of the Mediterranean is about 2000 miles to its fartheft ex- tremity in Syria ; but in ancient maps the length has been extended to about 2500 miles. On its northern Hde open two immenfe guiphs, that of Venice, and the Archipelago ; the former being the Adriatic, the latter the Egean fea, of the ancients. From this laft a ftreight, called the Hellefpont, conduits to the fea of Marmora the claffical Propontis : and another now ftyled the ftreight of Conftantinople, the ancient Thracian Bofphorus, leads to the Euxine, or Black Sea j which, to the north prefents the ftiallow Palus Mseotis, or fea of Azof, the utmoft maritime limit of Europe in that quarter. This wide expanfe of the Mediterranean is beautifully fprinkled with iflands, and environed with opulent coafts, abounding with the moft fublime and pidlurefque fea- tures of nature : tides are not perceivable, except in the narrowed ftreights ; but according to phyfiolo^ifts there is a current along the Italian fliore, from the weft to the eaft, and towards the African coaft 6 in i: u ROPE. II srove an^ in an oppofite dired'ion. In the Adriatic the current runs north-weft along Dalmatia, and returns by the oppofite fliore of Italy. The Me- diterranean abounds with fifli, many of v/hich are little known in more northern latitudes. The chief fisheries are thole of the tunny, of the fword filh, and of the fea dog, a fpecies of (hark, and of the diminu- tive anchovy. It is alfo the chief feminary of coral, now known to be the work of marine infefts. This fuppofcd plant is of three colours, the ted, the vermillion, and the white ; and its greateft height is about eleven inches. It is equally hard in the fea, -and in the air j and is generally brought up by a kind of net from the depth of 60 to 125 feet*. To enumerate and afcertain (h^als and rocks is the office of the hydrographer ; but fifhing banks are of general importance, and feme are found near Sicily. The Black fea is faid to derive its name from its black rocks, or dangerous navigation ; but it is difficult to account for fuch terms, often derived from the fertile and fuperftitious fancy of mariners. The fea of Azof is polluted with mud, whence it was (lyled Palus, or a marfh-, by the ancients : it is united to the Euxine by the ftreight of CafFa, the ancient Cimmerian Bofphorus. The fecond grand inland fea of Europe is the Baltic, by the Germans called the Eaftern Sea ; whence the EafterUngs of Englifh hiftory, people from the fhores of the Baltic. This extenfive inlet opens from the German fea, by a gulph pointing N. E. called the Skager Rack ; and afterwards pafles fouth, in what is called the Cattegat, to the S. E. of which is the Sound of Elfmore, a ftreight where veflels pay a tribute of courtefy to Denmark. The Baltic afterwards fpreads widely to the N. E. and is divided into two extenfive branches, called the gulphs of Bothnia and Finland, both covered or impeded with ice for four, or five months of the northern winter. Ancient hiftorians even report that wolves have paflcd on the ice from Norway to Jutland j and, if veracious, the rigour of the feafons muft have greatly abated. The greateft depth of this fea is faid not to exceed fifty fathoms. Swedifli phyfiologifts pronounce that it lofes about four feet in extent in the eourfe of a century j and that the water does not contain above one thirtieth part of fait, whereas other fea water often holds a tenth : this ^ Spallanzani's Trav. in the Two Sicilies, iv. 317. c 2 freflincfs Is EUROPE. 1 : . n ft?* Other feas. ArAic ocean. frelhnefs they impute to the quantity of ice ; and they alfo aflTert, that when the north wind blows, the waters become fo frefh, that they may even be employed for domeftic ufea. Tides are unknown, and the fifh are few. The third and lad inlaivd Tea of Europe is that called the White Sea, in the north of Ruflia, more known in Europe, and particdarly to Englifh enterprize, before the commerce of Archangel was fupplanted by that of Peterfburg. To 0f . . 1 *- f J?^...: ''iite^ Of OBEAT BBlTAlTf AWO . K^m IRKILAFB- g -.: .- '■ ' : v'&i - »■ ;ii 1'- ^ "^I.T"-^^— ^*^""'/' pr: ^'.^ _^m^inidt Wiift 8 ifhmt Srtmwuh. V*vm». A M co w dtfa* Map of dv Bntijik Utoa . TtAUjheA Mtrth x^xHot . by OuUU tmi .BantJ. Strand . and Zfiri^nkrt tndMMX.Atgmtffttr R^nr- towry j<»if. w» ENGLAND. C H A P T E R I. Historical or Progressive Geography. Names, — Extent. — Original Population.'-^ Romany Saxony and Norman Geograpby,'-~Htfiorical Epochs^ and Antiquities, »^* t npHE Phoenicians, the moft ancient enlightened navigators, are gene- name*. rally allowed to have been the firft difcoverers of the Britifh Iflands, and to have tranfmitted their fame on the page of recorded knowledge. Bochart even fuppofes that the name of Britain originates from a Phoenician word; and another learned writer juftly infers, that the name of Cajftterides^ afterwards reftriilcd to the ifles of Scllly, was at firft extended to Great Britain and Ireland '. This name implies In the Greek language the iflands of tin ; and was probably tranflated from fome correfpoading Phoenician term. However this be, the appella- tions of Albion and Britannia are afterwards commemorated in Grecian and Roman geography ; the firft being probably conferred by the Celtic or primeval inhabitants, the latter by the Belgic colonies. But etymo- logical difquifitions are foreign to the prefent purpofe. The fouthern, moft opulent, and moft important divifion of Britain, has, ever fince the days "of Bede, been diftinguiihed among the Euro- pean nations by the name of Angliay or England, well known to have ori- ' Huet. Hift. du Com. etde la Nav. des Anciens, p. 19+. Renncll, Gcog. of Herodotus, p. 4, VOL. I. D glnated J 8 i; N G L A N D. '■■; ti m ■f!'!' •■■' nr .!:H . Names. Extent. Boundaries. Ortginal Population. g'lnated from the Angles, a nation of the Cltnbric Cherfonefe, or modern Jutland, who conquered a confiderable portion of t!ie country. The Ifland of Great Britahi extends from fifty to fifty-eight and a half degrees of no th latitrde, being of courfe about 500 geographical miles in length. Its greateft breadth from the Land's End to the North Foreland in Kent 320 geographical miles. In British miles the length may be computed at 580, and the breadth at 370. England is bounded on the eaft by the German Ocean ; on the fouth by the English Channel j on the weft by St. George's Channel ; on the north by the Cheviot Hills, by the paftoral river Tweed, and an ideal line falling fouth weft down to the Firth of Solway. The extent of Eng- land and Wales in fquare miles is computed at 49,450 ; and the popu- lation being eftimated at 9,500,000, the number of inhabitants to a fquare mile will of courfe be 192*. The earlieft population of this fertile country, which can be traced, is that of the Gael or Southern Celts, called Gtiydels by the Welfh, who regard them as their predeceflbrs ; and who have juftly remarked, that the moft ancient names, even in Wales, are Guydelic, not Cumraig or Welfh '. Thofe Gael appear to have proceeded from the neareft fhores of France and I. landers. As in later times the Belgic fettlers in this country were fubdued by the Northern Saxons, fo the Celtic colony from the fouth was van- quifhed by the Cimbri of the North, the anceftors of the modern Welfhi who ftyle themfelves Cymri, and their language Cymraig, to this day. The original Gaelic inhabitants appear to have almoft entirely evacuated the country, and to have retired to Ireland, alfo originally peopled from Gaul. There, and in the Highlands of Scotland, to which a Gaelic colony paffed from Ireland, the Gaelic dialect of the Celtic language ftill exifts. To the Celtic population of England fucceeded the Gothic. The Scythians or Goths, advancing from Afia, 'drove the Cimbri or northern Celts before them ; and, at a period long preceding the Chrif- ' Knox computes Scotland with the Iflcs HY. SI the Merfey to the Solway '. In the Roman times about thirty eminent Names, ex- cities, or rather towns, are enumerated, about nine of which are de- ^ent, &c. nominated colonies, though none of them could be of much import- ance ; for while the Roman colonies in other countries iffiied abundance of coins, hardly one real coin even of Camulodunum, the moft import- ant colony, can he pointed out. Our antiquaries indeed have, with erroneous patriotifm, transferred many Gallic coins, as Britifh, and liave am ufed their readers with many fabricated pieces of antiquity; but real medallifts, Englifli as well as foreign, hefitate greatly on the fubjeft. A more detailed account of the Roman Geography of England does not fall within the prefent plan, and the curious reader muft be referred to Horfley and Roy, authors of deferved eftimation. The Saxon Geography of England has been partly above indicated ; but Saxon. the following table of the Heptarchy will prefent a more complete idea. I. Kent comprehended the county of Kent. ( SufTex. (Surrey. r Norfolk. j Suffolk. I Cambridgefliire, with the t IfleofEly. Cornwall. Devonfliire. Dorfet. 4. Weflex, or the Weft Saxons, i Somerfet. Wilts. Hants. .Berks. Lancafhire. Yorklhire. Durham. Cumberland. Weftmorcland. Northumberland, and the parts of Scotlrnd to the I'rith of Edinburgh. * Cough's Carodiui, cuix. Roy'n Map, &c. 6. Eflex, 2. SulTex, or the South Saxons. 3. Eaft Angles, 5. Northumberland, i* ) i .... j, ., li 3;. i 22 Names* ex TINT, &c. Shi'rei, ENGLAND. r Eflex. 6. Eflex, or the Eaft Saxons, < Middlefex. CHertfordfliire in part. Gloucefter. Hereford. Warwick. Worcefter. Leicefter. Rutland. Northampton. Lincoln. 7. Mercia, . -I Huntingdon. Bedford. Buckingham. Oxford. Stafford. Derby. Salop. Nottingham. LThe reft of Hertford ". Ancient authors affirm, that the great Alfred inftituted the firft divi- fion of England into shires, fo denominated from a Saxon word, fignifying parts cut off, or divifions. They are alfo denominated COUNTIES, as having been each governed by a diftindt Ealdorman^ correfpondlng with the Latin word Conies^ or Count ; and fometimes tranflated Conful^ and fometimes Conies^ by thofe Anglo-Saxon authors, who wrote in Latin. After the Danifh conqueft, this officer or grandee was known by another appellation, that of Earl^ from the Danifli larl ; which, like the word Baron, in its original acceptation, implied fimply, but by way of great eminence, A man. About the eleventh century thefe titles became hereditary dignities; and the government of the (hire devolved upon the Earl's deputy, the Vice Comes^ Shire-reeve^ Sheriff, or manager of the (hire. A remarkable fubdivifion prevails in the cxtenfive county of York, v,hich was divided into three parts, implied in the Saxon word Trylbings^ now corruptly called Ridings. England and Wales are divided into fifty-two (hires or counties. '° Gou|{h'i Camden, cxxxt. Six CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. «3 "Northumberland, Cumberland, Six northern Durhiim, counties, i Yorkfhirc, Weftmorland, iLancafhire, iChefhire, Shropftiire, Herefordfliire, - Monmouthfhire, 'Nottinghamlhire, Derbyfhire, Stafford (hire, - Lcicefterfhire, Rutlandshire, Northamptonfhire, Warwickfliire, - Worcefterftvire, Gloucefterlhire, Oxfordfhire, Buckinghamfhire, _ Bcdfordfhire, "Lincolnfhire, - Huntingdonfhire, Cambridgefhire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Effex, Hertfordftiire, - Middlefex*, i Surry, Kent, Suffex, Twelve midland, 53 130,081 16,356 '31.7 7 208,190 »39.333 250,809 109,620 107,444 63.393 208,557 37.568 89,346 273.371 210,431 226,437 97.577 535.329 269,043 307,624 159.31 > Chief Townt. Newcaftle.. Carlifle. Dutham. York. Appleby. Lancafter. Chefter. Shrewfljury^ Hereford. Monmouth. Nottingham. Derby. Stafford. Leicefter. Okeham. Northampton. Warwick. Worcefter. Gloucefter. Oxford. Aylefbury. Bedford. Lincoln. Huntingdon. Cambridge. Norwicli, Ipfwich. Chelmsford. Hertford. London. Guilford. Maidftone^^ Lewes. Names, ex- tent, &c. * Exclufive of the capital. Four !! Ml, li.v 14 Name TEMT, ENGLAND. &c. Four fouthern, Three fouth- wcftern, Six, North Wales, -^ ^.Berkfliire, UVihfhire, "i Hampfhire, ^Dorfetfhire, f Somerfeilhire, < Devonftiire, (Cornwall, fFlintflhire, Denbighfhire, - Caernarvonfhire, Anglefey, Merionethftiire, Six, South Wales,^ Number of inhab'tinti atcordini to the Ute enumeration. Chief Townt. 109,215 Reading. 185,107 Saliibury. 219,656 Winchefter. i*5»3i9 Dorchefter. 273'75o Taunton. 343.001 Exeter, 188,269 Launce{fon. 39,622 Flint. 60,352 Denbigh. 41.521 Caernarvon. 33^'^°^ Beaumaris. 29,506 Bala. 47.978 Montgomery. 19,050 Prefteign. 42,956 Cardigan. ' 56,280 Pembroke. 67.3 ' 7 Caermarthen. •33,633 Brecknock. 7».525 Caerdiff. 'Radnorfliire, Cardiganfhire, - Pembroke(hire, Caerraarthenfhire, Brecknockfhire, .Glamorganftiire, It is alfo generally believed that Alfred was the author of the fubdivi- fions of counties, called hundreds and tythings, ow feldom mentioned except in legal proceedings, and in topographical dcfcriptions. It is pro- bable that the hundred originally contained one hundred manors, or rather farms; while the tything was reftrided to ten. Such are the chief features of the Saxon geography of England. The capitals of the feveral Heptarchic kingdoms varied at the will of the Sovereign. Lon- don which belonged to the Eaft Saxons, maintained in fome degree its Roman fame and eminence ; but on the termination of thd Heptarchy, "Winchefter was regarded as the capital of England. Further illuftra- tions will arife under the head of Ecclefiaftical Geography. It muft not however be forgotten, that the kingdom of Northum- bria, comprizing the regions north of the Humbcr, exifted till the year 950, under its peculiar Sovereigns, the laft of whom was Eric : and that even Domcfday Book, which was com;nled in the time of William :. ■ •{ II the \ CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 25 the Conqueror, excludes the three counties of modern Northumberland, Names, ex- TEKT Sec Cumberland, and Weftmorland, then regarded as part of Scotland. Durham, the patrimony of St. Cuthbert, a province of ecclefiaftic, not fecular jurifdidlion, is alfo admitted ; and Lancafhire is arranged under the divifions of Yorkfliire and Chefli^re. The kingdom of Ber- nlcia at one period extended to the Frith of Forth ; but in the latter Saxon times the boundaries of England on the north fell confiderabl/ fhort of their prcfent extent. On the weft, OfFa king of Mercia re- ftrifted the Welfh by an extenfive barrier, the remains of which are ftill called Offa's dyke ". It extended from the river "Wye, along the counties of Hereford and Radnor into that of Montgomery, where it enters North Wales. It afterwards pafles by Chirk Caftle to the river Dee, and ends in the parifh of Mold. Few alterations of any confequence appear in the Geography of Eng- Norma*. land in the Norman period. The northern limits were however ex- tended to their prefent circuit. Cumberland and "Weftmorland were wrefted from the Scots, and the provinces north of the Humber were completely incorporated. On the weft, Henry I, about the year 11 20, having conquered a part of Wales, invited and eftablifhed a Flemidi colony '* in Pembrokeftiire, and one or two others of the moft fouthern counties, which afterwards became remarkable for induftry ; a Angular fadl in modern hiftory, though not unufual in ancient times, and for that period a remarkable ftretch of political wifdom. The fubfequent conqueft of Wales by Edward I, and its gradual aflimilation and aftb- ciation with England are fufficiently known. Geography has been ftyled one of the eyes of hiftory, a fubfervience Hiiloncal to which ftudy is undoubtedly one of its grand objeds j but it would, at «P"'^'^»- the fame time, be f( reign to its nature to render it a vehicle of hiftory. The proper and peculiar fubjefts of geographical fcience are fo ample, and often attended with fuch difficult refearch, that it becomes equally ra(h and unneceflary to wander out of its appropriated domain. In this work therefore it is only propofed briefly to mention the grand hiftorical epochs of nations ; and thofe events which have altered their boundaries and geographical relations. " Pennant's Wales, vol. i. p. 273. " W!U. MalmA. lib. t. VOL. I. E The tm liH 26 HiSTORtCAb £lOCHS. ENGLAND, The population of England by the Celts may be regarded as the firft hiftorical epoch. The fecond is formed by the Belgic colonies ; who, perhaps about three centuries before the Chriftian .t^ra, feized the fouthern and eaftern fhores, and advancing by degrees rcftri£ted the Celts to the weft. The Belgic colonization of England is important in many points of view, as eftablifhing the primitive germ of the prefent Englifh nation^ and.ai introducing agriculture, which, was not pradifeu by the hunting and paftoral tribes of the Celts ": nor is k improbable that fome of the fertile diftrids of England have known cultivation for the fpace of two thou- fand years. 3. Under Julius Caefar the Romans can only be faid to have explored this ifland ; and near a century elapfed before the real conqueft was commenced by Claudius ; between whofe reign and that of Domitian, the Roman Eagle had been difplayed as far as the Grampian mountains. The fertility of the foil, and the Roman aris of civilization, foftened the fpiril even of the Belgic Britons, and inured them to docile fervi- tude. Caraufius and other chiefs feized the Briti(h purple, and availed themfelves of the ftrong maritime barrier to bid defiance to the Csefarsj but their troops, and their mariners, had the name of Romans ; and thefe were merely fchifms of a vaft empire, not aflertions of native in- dependence. The Britons on the contrary were afterwards forced to implore the afliftance of the Romans againft their few, but ferocious invaders. 4. After a duration of four centuries, the Roman domination yielded to that of the Saxons and Angles, nations congenerous wuh the Belgx. This revolution has indelibly imprelTed the name, charadker, language, laws, manners, and cuftoms of the people. 5. After repeated ravages in the preceding centuries, the Danes 1ft the year 1.0 16, difperfed the armed force of England, and gave three Kings to the country,^ Canute, Harold, and llardicanute ; but the domi- nion returned to the Saxon line in the year 104',. 6. On the death of Edward the Confeflbr, what is called the con- queft of England took place in iq66, under William the Norman. As .'J Cssfar, lib. v. c. iq, the. CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GKOGHAPHY. ^ the Normans, or Norwegians, had been fettled in the north of France Historicai, for a long time, they introduced the French language among people of rank, and even into legal procedure ; a fervile badge not even hitherto abfoluteiy eradicated, though the motive muft be applauded, as the pro- perty and perfonal fccurity of fucceffive generations arc fo intimately conneded with the immutability of the national jurifprudence. 7. The great charter granred by John at Runnymede is defervedly efteemed a memorable epoch of Englifh freedom. 8. The civil wars between the houfcs of York and Lancafter may be regarded as the next remarkable epoch. Though deftru(flive of litera- ture and the arts, they proved the perdition of a ferocious ariftocracy; and thus eftabliflied by degrees the third balance of the Britifli conllitu- tion in the Houfe of Commons. 9. The reformation, by delivering the nation from the heavy yoke of fuperftition, increafed the national energies, and imparted freedont of thought, and a fpirit of independence, to the individual charad er. 10. The civil wars under Charles I, had the ufual effedt of impeding the courfe of literature and the arts ; but by the violent changes and con- fequences, and the excelTes committed on both fides, fuperinduced from experience, the only teacher of practical wifdom, a fpirit of mutual forbearance and toleration ; fo that the fubfequent revolutions have, to the eternal honour of the national charafter, been efFedled ai- med without blood (hed, and by the mere weight of national will and experience. 11. The revolution under William III, and the laws enadbed upon that occafion, by the unchangeable eftabliftiment of the proteftant religion, and many more minute emanations of freedom, ftill further contributed to national and individual independence ; of which the acceflion of the Houfe of Hanover conllituted an additional pledge and confirmation. 1 2. The war with the American colonies forms not only an epoch of fmgular novelty, but of the moft important confequences. It perhaps prcfented the fiift inftance, in modern hiftory, of a conflict between the parent ftate and its colonies. It was little difgraced with the atro- cities of a civil war ; and after a manly ftruggle was terminated with ^entlenefs and moderation. The Americans broke their colonial bonds, £ 2 but •li^it. t8 ENGLAND. . m -•m {.& liii HiiTOKicAL but could not overcome their commercial, which muft bind them to the ErocHs. parent ftate for fome generations, if they do not even deftroy thei^, vaunted independence. The confequences of this revolution to the whole human race are incalculable ; whatever they may be, an Englifh- man may well exult that his brethren have commenced a large empire in a new hemifphere, and may hope and wi(h that Afia and Africa may alfo be animated by the £ngU(h character, which even envy mud allow is inferior to none in the fpirit of intelligence and improvement, in benevolence and integrity, and in rational and pra£tical freedom. Antiquities. The ancient monuments of a country are intimately connected with the chief epochs of its hiftory, and particularly with the revolutions it has undergone by foreign conqueft, or new population. The Englifh anti- quities fall of courfe into fix divifions. i. Thofe belonging to the primitive Celtic inhabitants. 2. Thofe of the Belgic colonies. 3. Thofe of the Romans. 4. Thofe of the Saxons. 5. Relics of the Danes. 6. Norman monuments. Few of thofe remains, it muit b.? confeiTed, throw much light upon hiftory ; but many of them being ihterefting and curious in themfelves, they deferve the attention of the traveller and geographer. fielgic. A radical miftake in the (ludy of Englifh antiquities has arlfen from the confufion of the Celtic and Belgic languages and monuments. The Druids have defervedly attracted much cu iofity and refearch ; but it would be erroneous to impute to them, as is ufual, tlie whole of our earliefl remains. Csefar fpeaks of Druldifm as a recent inditution ; and fuch being the cafe, it is probable that it originated from the Phoenician fadorles, eftabliflied in wooden fortrefTes on the coaft, the ufual prac- tice of commercial nations, when trading with favage or barbarous races. The tenets correfpond with what little exifts of Phoenician mythology, and the mlffionaries of that refined people might be not a little zealous in their dlffufion. However this be, the ancient authors, from whom we derive our fole authentic Information concerning the Druids, minutely defcrlbe their religious rites, but are totalJy filcnt concerning any monuments of ftone being ufed among them. On the contrary, they mention gloomy groves, and fpreading oaks, as the only fcenes of the Druidic ceremonies. Yet our antiquaries will even infer, lES CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPilY. infer, that Stonehenge is a Druidic monument, though it be fituated in AN-rn^, an extenfive plain, where not a veftige of wood appears, and where '^^ the very foil is reputed adverfe to its vegetation. It might, perhaps, be a vain efTort of antiquarian inveftigation, to attempt to difcriminate the remains of the earliefl inhabitants from thofe of the Druidic period ; indeed, if we fet afide the authorities of modern antiquaries, commonly vifionary and difcordant, there is no foundation whatever for any found or real knowledge of the fubjeil. The fallow- ing have been eflcemed druid monuments by Burlafe : i, Single ftones eredt : 2. Rock idols and pierced Hones: 3. Rocking- (lones ul'ed as ordeals : 4. Sepulchres of two, three, or more ftones : 5. Circular temples, or rather circles of eredt ftones : 6. Barrows or tumuli : 7. Cromlechs, or heaps of ftones : 8. Rock-bafons, imagined to have been uied in Druidic expiations : 9. Caves, ufed as places of retreat in time of war '\ But as moft of thofe relics may alfo be found in Germany and Scandinavia, it becomes hazardous to pronounce whether they be Gothic or Celtic ; and, as we learn from ancient authors that the Germans had no Druids, to beftow the name of Druidic, upon fuch monuments, is the mere wantonnefs of conjecture. It is, however, moft probable, that the earlieft inhabitants, as is ever the pradice in the infancy of fociey, made ufe of wood, not ftone, in their religious as well as in their domeftic erections. If we furvey the various favagc regions of the globe, we fliall feldom or never perceive the ufe of ftone; and it is certainly juft to infer, that the favages of the Weft, were not more ikilful than thofe of the Eaft ; nor thofe of the old con- tinents and iflands, than thofe of the new. However this be, a learned ignorance upon fuch topics, is preferable to an ailumed and imaginary knowledge. But as many of thefe monuments are found in Germany, Scandina- via, and Iceland ; and as the Icelandic writers in particular, often in- dicate their origin and ufe, which are unknown in the Cehic records, there is every reafon to attribute them to a more advanced ftage of fociety, when the Belgic colonies introduced agriculture, and a little further progrefs in the rude arts of barbarifm. The nature of this 19 ^ See Enquiry into HifU of Scotl. vol. i. p. 409, work .■50 ENGLAND, TlUg. ill i-.-i^ work will not admit a formal iavedigatlon of fuch topics, but a fevr remarks may be offered on S^onebenge, a ftupendous monument of barbaric induftry. Inigo Jones in attempting to prove that it is Roman, only evinces that no talents can avail when fcience is wanting, and that antiquities require a fevere and peculiar train of ftudy. Dodlor Stukelcy, a vifionary writer, afligns Stonchenge to the Druids; while Dr. Charlton perceiving that fuch monuments are found in Denmark, afcribcd it to the Danes. If the latter bad coiifidered that the Hclgx were a gotbic nation of fimilar language and inditudons, be might with more juftice have extended its antiquity. From the Icelan- dic writers " we learn, that fuch circles were called Domb-r'ingr^ that is literally Doom-ring, or circle of judgment, being the folemn places where courts were held, of all kinds and dignities, from the national council down to the baronial court, or that of a common proprietor of land, foradjufting difputes between his vlllani and flaves. The mag- nificence of Stonehenge loudly pronounces that it was the fupreme court of the nation, equivalent to the Champs de Mars et de Mai of the Franks, where the king and chiefs affembled in the circle, and the men capable of arms in the open plain ; nor is it improbable that the chiefs afcended the tranfverfe (loncs, and declared their refolves to the furrounding crowd, who, in the defcription of Tacitus, diflfented by loud murmurs, or applauded by clalbing their fhields". This idea receives confirmation from the circumftance that the Belgx peculiarly fo called, as being the chief and ruling colony of that people, were fcated in the furrounding province, and Sorbiodunum, now Old Sarum, was their capital city. Similar circles of ftone, but far inferior in fize, are found in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland ; and feveral undoubtedly as late as the Danifli inroads and ufurpations, the pradice being continued by that people at lead till their converfion to chriftianity, in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Some of the fmallefl:, as we learn from the northern antiquaries, were merely places of family fepulture. At a later period the circles of judgment, which had been polluted with human facrifices, and other pagan rites, were abandoned; and the " Landnama Saga, &c. &c. "^ Germ.xi, Hift. v. 17, great CHAP. r. HISTO'RICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3» great courts were held on what were called Moot hills ^ or hills of Antiouu meeting:, many of which ftill cxift in the BritiHi dominions, and in the ^'"* Netherlands. They commonly confift of a central eminence, on which fat the judge and his aflillants ; heneath was an elevated platform for the parties their friends, and conpiirgatorsy who fometimes amounted to a hundred ir more ; and this platform was furrounded with a trench- to fecure it Irom the ac(»«i »Mir*) P.Onf^ A^' Irtfort 'y^ ' HcnMMfuA pNi ^« Jfantwuki rjfb#>y R 1 $ JP "•\| 8 H li"J^. -rf^' -'-'. xJiW. Lr e SoitvaiV ■Js- &At^. tfr/"MW' '. ' O M«» jH^^ fr^ ^B^^ } J ^^b b^5^ \ m naSS^jpS ^ 5^T ^y;f==\^jj5 rxTiaai*nir< ^ ~v!^v^llrtii)nl j/Ljt Ma^M^^J^ ?*-r «i j5S#fS™ S3?^!L'AS| mP^^^iP ^Sfe3^ S -■'« •'•«•/ /*"!!*"''■' ^^^ • !<>■<« >i i-olrlvn ^^a^o^tKiaJk sO ^^ )^^1lnjiB^ ,u^*«v« t^""J ^■>uf»>i*A- ITfyt 4 ff>'/ti *iretttwi(h ^Itmwjmitk duTtit . Iran dw miaua SarT«7BirfJhq|liBdu — ^^^^^^ /In' CHAP. n. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. r?.C 'rmiiwttui: Brtkf ^ ; liS J«;^ tf:^^ L-t-i'-ii H ."« Mi'..' i i m I II t*i : iff ''^^ I mm 111 >: .1 -^ ■■• if' 1.' ■: 3^ Cmvrch. Bi(hop8. E N G L A N O. Canterbury and York. The firft is ftyled Primate of all England, and precedes all perfons, except the Royal family. He has the power of probate of all teftaments within his province, and of granting feveral difpenfaiions concerning benefices : he has, alfo, four courts of judi- cature, that of Arches, of Audience, of Prerogative, and of Peculiars^ The Archbifliop of York is ftyled Primate of England, but in preroga- tive, and jurifdidiion yields greatly to the firft Metropolitan'. The Archbiftiopric of York extends over the counties of Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Weftmorland, Cheftiire, Lancafliire, and the Ifle of Man, befides its proper and peculiar diocefc, of the greateft part of Yorkfliire and Nottingham (hire. That of Canterbury comprifes the other counties ; and has its peculiar diocefe» being a great part of Kent. The archiepifcopal office is rather a dignity than a jurifdiftion, and the primates rarely interfere *in any diocefes except their own. They are appointed by the king, in the fame manner as the bifhopg,, by what is caMed a Cong^ J'Elirr. Upon any vacancy in an epifcopal fee, the dean and chapter app'.y to the king, who returns a Conge d^Elire^ naming the perfoQ to be ehofen*. A chapter of the prebendaries is then fummoned by the dean, and they are conftrained under the penalty of a prcsmunire to eledt the perfon nominated. The folemnity is completed by the royal aflent, under the great feal, and by the confirmation and confecration, performed by the metropolitan, or in his name. The prelate after- wards pays homage to the king for his temporalities, or the baronies connected with the fee ; and compounds for the firft fruits, that is the revenue of the firft year, which is paid to the corporation for increafing the benefices of the poor clergy. The omiffion of confecration is the only difference when a bilhop is tranflated to another fee ; and when an archbifliop is nominated, the king appoints foux or naore bifhops to officiate at the confirmation. The bifhop alone may ordain deacons and priefts, dedicate churches and burial grounds, and adminifter confirmation'. In former times 8vo. f Cbjunljerl. p. 65. Charoberlayne, p. 3. 38th edit. 1755, 2 toI. Chamberl. 14Q. Blackllone, b. i. c. 11. H epifcopal m CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3> eplfcopal junfdi£Hon extended to *^e llcenfing of phyficians, furgeons, Chwich, and fchoolmafters, and to the conjun£lion of fmall pariflies. At pre- fent it chiefly embraces queftions of births, marriages, deaths, and teftaments, and any delinquencies of the clergy; to which body, in- deed, their attention is now chiefly confined, and they rarely, except in parliament, interfere in fecular fubjedts. The BIfhop of Sodor and Man has no place in parliament. All the other bifhops are barons, and peers of the realm, by three different claims; in right of the baronies attached to their fees, as barons fmnmoned by writ, and as barons by patent, a form which accompanies their confecration*. Their privi- leges approach the regal ; they are the fole judges in their own courts, and iffue writs in their own names, not in the royal ftyle ufed by other courts. They can depute their authority, which no other judge can ; and their epifcopal power of conferring orders, &c. may be exerted in any chriftian country, while lay peers are only acknowledged in the country whence they derive their dignities'. To pafs other more minute privileges, the Biftiop of London, as prefiding over the capital, has the precedence of all the others. The fee of Durham conftitutes a county palatine, with great powers and prerogatives : the authority and patronage of the bifliop are of courfe very extenfive, and even the king's judges only fit in his diocefe by his permiflion. The Bifhop of Winchefter is the third iu dignity, but efteemed the firft in opulence^ as the large civil lift of Durham, while it adds power, dlminifhes reve- nue. Thefe three bifhops precede all the reft, who take place accord- ing to the feniority of confecration. To every cathedral in England belong feveral prebendaries as canons, Prebenda- and a dean, fo ftyled as is faid, {Decanus,) becaufe he anciently prefided "*^' *'^' over ten canons '. In the old quaint language he was called one of the biftiop's eyes, while the archdeacon, who had charge of the deacons, was reputed the other. The dean and the chapter of prebendaries affift the biftiop in ecclefiaftic affairs. The prebendaries are fo ftyled from the prebend, or pars prabenda^ portion of land or income allotted to them , and with the dean form a body, college, or corporation ; and < Chamber!. 67. Blackflone, b. i. c. 11. » Chamberl. 68. • Ibid. 69. they i.i r lii' m ! ■ W 1 38 Church. Archdea- con*. Clergy. Curat«. Vicar. Reaor. Churchwar- dens. ENGLAND. they have feveral privileges fuperior to the common or minor canons. At the reformation their falaries were moftly converted into hioney, but thofe of Durham preferred the antient portions of land, which having prodigioully increafed in value, they are now ftiled goldea prebends, being worth from Hoc/, to 1 200/. a year, while the bi(hof , out of 9000/. a year, has to fupport a great and unavoidable ex- penditure. The next order' is that of the Arch-deacons, amounting in all to about fixty ; theif office is to infpeA the moveables of the churches, to reform flight abufes, and to indu£t into benefices. Arch-priefts, who, on the Continent, (hare the labours of the arch-deacon, on a fmaller fcale, being fupcrintendents over a few pariflies, were in Eng- land alfo ftyled rural deans, but are now unknown. Subdivifions of government are fo much controuled by the very nature of human af- fairs, that the power of the arch-prieft almoft correfponded with the Scotti(h prelbytery, while the provincial fynods are fimilar to bifhopricks. • ' - <; • . Of the clergy in general, the loweft order is that of deacons, whofe office formerly was to fuperintend the poor ; the ancient donations to the church being always affigned in three divilions, one to the poor, another for repairs, and the laft for the clergy. At prefent the deacon's office is reftrided to baptifm, to reading in the church, and affifting the pried at the communion, by handing the cup only. Deacon*s orders cannot be canonically received before the age of twenty-three years, thofe of a prieft require twenty-four, and a bifhop muft be thirty. The curate is a clergyman appointed to officiate for another, and is fo named from his having the care of fouls ; hence the French rather ap- ply the term to the redlor. If the predial, or great tythes of the pa- rifli, be impropriated, or converted into fecular hands, the prieft it termed a vicar, a name originally implying that they were the vicarii, or deputies of the redor ; but if the tythes be entire the prieft is ftyled redor. The churchwardens fuperintend the repairs and decorations of the church, and the requifites for divine fervice, and colled the alms of the parifhioners ; they are annually eleded at Eafter, and have fome- fe;i.i CHAP. II; POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. fometimes fidefmen, a kind of aflidants. The facrlflain, corruptly Chvkch. called fexton, originally had the care of the furniture and plate of the church ; and by a ftill greater corruption, the appellation is now ap- plied to the grave-digger, when it ought to have been conferred on the pariih-clerk. The clergy in general enjoy fome peculiar privileges. Their goods are free from tolls in fairs and markets : they cannot be compelled to any office, civil or military : they are only amerced according to their temporal eftate : nor are they aflefled for a robbery committed in the hundred, or for watching, warding, high-ways, &c. &c. EcclefiafUcal courts ftill retain confiderable power : the convocation, Conroca- confifting of the archbifhops and bifhops, with a lower houfe of 150 members, only meets for the fake of form ; but have not been allowed to deliberate fmce the reign of Anne'. Next in dignity is the court of delegates, ading by a fpecial com- Courtn. mifllon under the great feal; and to whom an appeal lies from the high- eft metropolitan court. The court of arches is fo ftyled, biscaufe it was held in the arches of the church of St. Mary-Ie-bowe, London, but now in the great hall, Dodors Commons; only dodors of the civil law are allowed to plead '. The court of audience i& always preHded by the archbifhop himfelf, who decides any doubts concerning the ad- mifllon to benefices, and difpenfation of the bans of matrimony. The next court is that of Prerogative, which judges of eftates fallen by will, or inteftate ; the prerogative-office is likewife in Dodors Com- mon*. The court of Peculiars refers to feveral peculiar parifhes, ex- empt from the jurifdidion of the bifhops, but here amenabJe : the judges are fole and without jury.^ 39 ' Chamber!. 70, i. 76. Cough's Cam. 1, 147. Blackflone, p. 1 1 1. e. ▼. • The degrees are only taken at the Univerlitics, yet they chiefly praftife in London, a college being purchafed for their ufe, by Dr. Henry Hervey, where thty communed together in a col- legiate manner; whence the name of Dodtors Commons, more properly called the College of Civih'ans, near St. Paul's, which being confumed in the fire of London, was rebuilt in i'67?. The Procurators, or Proftors, of thcfc courts, are admitted by the Archbilhop's mandate, a, ling as the Solicitors in other courts. The )■;: i ,li .. m -I . i! ■;• r ! 40 ENGLAND. EccMJiAi. The ecclcfiaftical geography of England may be feen in the fol. TCAt Geo . ctAPHY. lowing table: Province of Canterbury. 1. Biflioprick of London, containing ElVcx, Middlefex, and part of Hertford. 2. Wincheller. — Surry, Hampfhire, Ifles of Wight, Jerfey, Guern- fey, and Alderney. 3. Litchfield and Coventry.— Stafford, Derby, and part of Warwick and Shropfhire. 4. Lincoln. — Lincoln, Leicefler, Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, and part of Hertford. 5. Ely. — Cambridgefhire. 6. Salifbury. — Wilts and Berkfliire. 7. Exeter. — Cornwal and Devon. 8. Bath and Wells. — -Somerfetfliire. 9. Chichefter.— Suffex. 10. Norwich.— Norfolk, Suffolk, and a fmall part of Cambridge, 11. Worcefler, — Worcefler, and part of Warwick. 12. Hereford. — Hereford, and part of Shropfhire. 13. Rochefter. — Part of Kent. ' ' 14. Oxford. — Oxfordfhire. 15. Peterborough. — Northampton and Rutland, 16. Gloucefler. — Glouceflcrfhire. , 1 7. BrifloU — ^The City of Briflol, part of Gloucefterfhire, and County of Dorfet. 18. Landaff. — Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecknock, and Radnor, 19. St. David's. — Pembroke, Cardigan, and Caermarthen. ao. St. Afaph. — The greateft part of Flint, Denbigh, and Montgo- mery, and Tome part of Shropfhire. 21. Bangor. — The counties of Angiefey, Caernarvon, Merioneth, and part of Denbigh and Montgomery. Province of York. 12. Durham. — Durham and Northumberland. 23. Carlifle. — Great part of Cumberland and Weflmorland. 24. Chefter, CHAP. It. KCCLESrASTICAL GEOGRAPHY. 41 24. Chefter. — Chefhire, Lancafliirc, Richmond(hlre (which is part Ciujkcm. of York) ; with part of Cuml)crland atul Wcftmorland. 25. Ifle of Man. The valuations in the kinj^'s books arc omitted, bccaufc even the com- parative valuation would lead to ideas wholly erroneous. Several changes have taken place i:i the number and fituations of the bifhop- ricks lince Chriftianity was firft eftablilhed In this country, but thefc rather belong to the province of the antiquary. Thofe who differ in tenets or forms from the eftablifhed church may, in general, be ftyled Diflenters, though the term bo more ftridlly applied to the Prefbyterians and Independents. The other principal claflTes of diffidents, are the Papifts^ Methodifts, Quakers, the Anabaptifts, the Swedenborgians, and the Unitarians; the laft clafs denying the Tri- nity, and believing only in one God, is now intermingled with the two firft, who have confiderably relaxed the ftridlnefs of their difci- - pline. The Independents aflcrt, that each congregation has a right to regulate itfelf, while the Prefbyterians unite churches under various divifions, provincial and national. The clerical ariftocracy of the Prefbyterians was obtruded with great haughtinefs upon the Englifh nation, during the civil war in the lafl: century, and was rendered the more odious, becaufe it admitted no, toleration : hence the Englifh found that they had only exchanged one yoke for another, or rather cafe for flavery, as ten prefbyters amounted to one bifliop, and fuper- added the petulance and morofenefs of individual inquifitors. Milton, and other friends of freedom, foon began to failrife the whole feft, and to fly for refuge to the Independents, whofe benevolence or ad- drefs granted univerfal toleration. To this body Cromwel lent an iron hand ; and, after annihilating the prefbyterian power in England, in a great meafure fubverted that of Scotland. The intolerant fpirit of the prefbyterians originated with their apoftle Calvin, whofe cruelty to Servetus was balanced by furprifing talents in clerical polity ; it rendered their power Angularly adverfe to letters and tafte, and no man of fcience who has ftudied the literary hiftory of this country, would wifh for the revival of fuch domination. But at prefent Calvin would not recognize his difciples, as they have abandoned their polemical thiflles, VOL. I. o awl . n) \>k t-iTi -\ I1-' M'f \iii'\i I! I' T ii •. I' ■ ^ ENGLAND. Chwuck. "''^d cultWate the moft elegant prodiuSkions of the literary field. The papifts ulcd chiefly to abound in Lancafliirc, Staftbrdihirc, and Suflcx ; they had potent chiefs, and were a formidable body ; but the paffagc from fuperftition to contempt is fo natural, that many have fled to the oppofite extreme. Thofe who retain their faith, generally difplay mo- deration, which has been naturally increafed by the late privileges ex- tended to them. V * The methodifts are extremely numerous and refpedtablc. They fcem to allow the propriety of the creed and government of the church of England ; but they require a more ftri£l life, more fervent devotion, and more frequent and ferious attendance upon divine worfhip, than is enforced by the eftablifliment. A philofopher may well envy the mild creed, and univerfal charity, or fraternal love of the quakers; while he mud allow with a figh, that a nation of quakers could not exift, except all nations were of the fame perfuafion. The anabaptifti difown infant baptifm and bathe the adult difciple. The learned Whifton admired their tenets, and their practice of anointing the fick with oil, which, as he believed, operated with miraculous power. The Swedenborgians derive their name from the Baron Swedenborg, a no- bleman who exchanged his native country of Sweden, for a refidence in England. After having puhliflied two folio volumes in the Latin language, upon the art of exploring mines, he was feized with a violent fever, and with great difficulty recovered. In his difordered imagi« nation he Teemed to maintain a frequent intercourfe with the fpiritual world ; and he has publiftied twenty or more vaft volumes in quarto, alfo in the Latin tongue, replete with curious metaphyfical ratiocination, interfperfed with vifions which are fometimes narrated with high poetical fpirit and elegance. His fyftem is fo much adapted to the flrongell propenfities of human nature, that his difciples increafed with great rapidity. His chief tenets are, that there is but one perfon of the Deity, namely, the Lord Jefus Chrift, that the day of judgment is already pafled, &c. &c. but his mofl alluring^ tenets partake of Mahome- tanifm, in reprefenting the connubial pleafures, and the other enjoy- ments of a future world, which be paints as fimilar to this ftate of 7 exiftence, CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 4J MIMT. exiftcncc, but far exceeding it in the gratifications of every fenfe, C!_o»««»'" whether mental or corporeal. The conftitution of England, the peculiar boad and glory of the country, and an objed of admiration to other ftates, though attempted to be defcribed by Montefquieu, has been little underftood by foreigners, for it prefents fuch an infinite number of practical ramifications, and is fo intimately connected with the fpirit and manners of the people, that a number of years would be required to feel and ftudy its real eflfedts ; and even after the longed preparation, the bed defcription mud be but ft portrait, devoid of life and of vital expredion. A faint {ketch alone can be here expedled, and the fidelity of the outline mud compenfate for the want of detail. The conditution of England is a limited monarchy, counterpoifcd by two fenates, one of hereditary peers, the other of reprcfentatives, who are, or ought to be chofen by the people. Such fenates were not unknown to the other European nations, and have rather funk into difufe from their own perverfion of their power, than from the def- potifm of the fovereigns. In France, long before the States General were difcontinued, their meetings had been execrated by the people; as indead of defending their privileges, the members only attended to their own private intereds, and impofed exorbitant taxes, which were confumed by the greedy courtiers, with very fmall profit to the royal treafury. Hence, far from incurring any blame, the kings of France acquired great popularity, and were idolized by the nation, for deli- vering them from the fcourge of a venal fenate, which only ferved to increafe oppreflion and expenditure. Many other indances might be adduced to prove, that the very exidence of fuch fenates depends upon their forming one body and foul with the nation at large ; but it will be fuiBcient to mention the fimilar fuicide which happened in Den- mark, in the lad century, when the people, difguded with the felfifh views of the fenate, requeded the monarch to annihilate it, and afiume the entire power : and the abfolute form of government has fince conti- nued, though modulated by feveral councils, which have the effect without the form of the fenate. The Englifli fenates, on the contrary, owe their dability to a general concurrence with the popular voice ; G 2 arifing •I j' I \^ n '■'■■J ! : I' ■■ 44 OOVHRN- • 1 INT. Kill S- ENGLAND. arifing partly from their form, and partly from a fympathetic and gradual connedlion which pervades all ranks. Our lawyers pronounce that the King of England unites in his peri'oa the dignity of chief magiftrate, with the fandlity of a prieft; and the title of Sacred Majefly, appears to have commenced when he aflumed the fundlion of Head of the church. So auguft is his perlbn, that even to mention or intend his death, is a capital offence, when in all other cafes the deed alone is punifhable. Fortefcue, in his old em- phatic language, has defcribed the office of the King of England to be " to fight the battles of his people, and to judge them with moft righteous judgment." At his coronation he folemnly fwears to go- vern his people according to parlimentary flatutes, and the law of the country ; to maintain the proteftant religion ; and to prefcrve the legal rights and privileges of the bifhops, clergy, and church '. The royal prerogatives have never been ftriftly defined; and, per. haps it is preferable in a government, which afpires not to ideal per- fe£tion, but to practical benefit, that they fhould be capable of great energy and extent ; as, in cafes of emergency, even republics have been forced to entruft: abfolute power to a dictator. The acknow- ledged prerogatives are chiefly to declare war and to make peace, a power upon which the whole of public profperity may be faid to de- pend ; to form alliances and treaties ; to grant commiffion for levying men and arms, and even for preffing mariners; for the power of im- preffing into the hind fervice, was abandoned in the reign of William and Mary; yet in cafes of great peril, there can be little doubt but the king, in concurrence with parliament, might order every man to af- iiime weapons of war. To the king ah'c belong all magazines, ammu- nition, caftles, forts, ports, havens, and fhips of war : he has alio the fpccial management of the coinage, and determines the alloy, weight, and value*. The prerogative alfo extends to the aflembling, adjournment, pro- rogation, and diflblutioii of parliament ; and to its removal to any place* The royal aflent is neceffary to impart validity to an adt of parliament, though it has never become neceffary to withhold it, fince the ma- ' Clwmberl 52. Ddolme, 90. .9 ' Cliambcrl. 4!^, Sec. Blackftune, B. !• c. iti. &c, nagement CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 45 nagement of the fenate has become the profcfled office of the minifter. Oovsrn- The king may not only increafe the Houfe of Peers, but that of Com- mons, by empowering any town to fend burgefles to parliament j yet the latter prerogative appears to have become obfolete, for in the reign of Charles II. the interference of the legiflature was efteemed nc- cefl'ary to enable the city of Durham to fend reprefentatives. The fovereign alfo enjoys the nomination of all officers on fea or land ; of all magiftrates, counfcllors, and officers of ftate ; of all bilhops, and other great ecclefiailical digDitaries ; and is not only the fountain of honour but of juftice, as he may pardon any offence, or rr'tigate the penalty. As Head of the church he may call a national or provincial lynod, and with its confent enaft canons, either relating to faith or pradice. The other prerogatives are more minute, and more adapted to jurifprudential enumeration. The more important exceptions are^ that he cannot enadl new laws, or impofc new taxes, without the • confent of both houfes of parliament. The parliament, or national council, claims the next confideratlon. Orl- Pailiament. ginally both the nobles and the commons met in one houfe; and as the greateft national events depend, not on defign, but on chance, or, more pro- perly, the will of heaven, it is not impoffible that the mere inconvenience of not finding halls large enough for our then ambulatory parliaments, might have occafioned the divifion into two houf'ts, unknown in any other country, and which in fadl may be regarded as the fole foundation, of Englifti liberty. The houfe of peers may be laid to have exided from ths earlieft period of our hiftory. Cnncerning the commons, authors, arc diflentient, the Whigs aflertlng that they formed a part of the JVe/- tena-Gc-Moty or the aflembly of fages, and it is not improbable that, commoners of diftin^uifhed ability, particularly in the laws, were ad- mitted to that great council, which chiefly confillcd ot the military, chieis. On the other hand it feems improhabir^^ that delegates from, towns Ihould have been then known, as the idea feems too abftraifl: and complex for a rude people. The Tory writeis aiTert that there is no api)caranc^ of the commons, nor any authority for thoir parliaau-ntary. cxi'lcnce, prior to the \i.)\\\ of Henry lU, when riic firft iihoi>]s ron- cerniag them arife. However this be, the prcfent conftitntimi > -lie parJiiuucnt Ill rf! Ill;: I Ji m ^^..m 1%'tj-H: 1; ■ ■ -f ; f 1 45 Govern- ment. Pt«i. ENGLAND. parliament of England, may certainly be traced to near the middle of the thirteenth century ; but it remains unknown at what precife time happened the important reparation of the commons from the peers. The peers of England only require the full age of twenty-one years, to become hereditary fenators in their feveral degrees of duke, marquis, earl, vifcount, and baron, formerly created by inveftiture, or fymbolic forms, but latterly by patent'. The Duke is fo ftyled from the Latin (fux^ a leader or general ; the title of Marquis fprings from the Gothic lan- guage, and implies the commander of a march or frontier : the Earl and Baron are alfo from the Gothic, and merely imply eminent men; the Vifcount is Latin, and fignifies the lieutenant of the count or earl. The various orders of nobility have been preferved more pure in Eng- land than in any other country ; owing partly to the laws of primo- geniture, partly to their fenatorial office, partly to the inftitution of the college of heralds. In Germany^ and fome other countries, the nobi- lity has fallen into comparative degradation, from the extenfion of the title to all the fons, and from the prefumption of adventurers. The peers are privileged from perfonal arreft, except for treafon, felony, and a few other high offences. They are not only exempt from ferving in juries, but muft be tried by a jury of peers, who return their ver- didt, not upon oath, but upon their honour. They are addreflled by the ceremonial form of My Lorc/y correfponding with the French Mon Seigneur ; and the law is fo watchful of their reputation, that the fta- tute oi fcandaltim magnatum was ensdled, to prevent any fcandal againft them, or difcord between them and the people. Every peer may ap- point a proxy to vote for him in the fenate, a privilege unknown to the commons. In the houfe of peers is placed the royal throne ; but the monarch rarely appears, except at the meeting or prorogation of parliament, when he proceeds trr the houfe in great ftate ; the attendance of the commons is commanded, who ftand below the bar, and the king pro- nounces jhis fpeech, generally the compofition of the minifter. The arrangement of the houfe of peers is well conceived, and produces a J Chamber!. iCS. Blackftune, B. I. c. it. grand CHAP. 11. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 47 grand efFe£t. The wool-facks upon which the chancellor, and the Govern- judges when called for their advice, are feated, conftitute a remarkable feature, efteemed fymbolic of the ftaple commodity of the country. The appearance is yet more magnificent, when the peers fit as judges in Weftminfter-hall j the greatnefs of the perfons, and the folemnity of the occafions, exciting impreffions of Angular fublimity. The houfe of commons confifts of knights, citizens, and burgefles, Comraoni, chofen by counties, cities and boroughs, in confequence of royal writs direfted to the fherifF. To reftrift the tumult of popular eledllon, it was enadled by Henry VI, that none fhould vote for a knight of the fhire, except freeholders worth forty (hillings a-year, which at the pre- fent value of money, may be computed at twenty or thirty pounds. It is fingular that copyholders were excluded. The eledions for the cities and boroughs, are regulated by their charters and cuftoms ; fomc- times only a few citizens have a right to poll, fometimes all the inha- bitants. The members, and their menial fervants, are exempted from arreft in civil caufes, on their journey to parliament, during their at- tcnii nee, and on their return ; nor can they be queftioned out of the h- V any fentiment there uttered. It has been difputed whether me ' : be not rather to be regarded as reprefenting the people at large, than as interefted in particular diftrids, and obliged to liftcn to the voice of their conftituents, whofe private interefl: might, perhaps, interfere with the general benefit. The commons form the grand in- queft of the realm, "and may impeach oraccufe the greateft peers; but their chief privilege, and upon which their whole power entirely de- pends, is the levying of money, in which they are defervedly fo jealous that they will not permit the fmallcft alteration in a money-bill. This amounts to an almoft abfolute t;f/o on any public nieafure, and efpe- cially on war. The houfe of commons confifts of 558 members*; but by ficknefs,' important offices, and indifpenfable avocations, the houfe rarely prefents above two thirds of the number. A fpeaker, or prefidcnt, is chofen at the meeting of every new parliament ; but is ufually continued from one to another, as the office requires a com- plete and ready knowledge of the forms, and confiderable abilities. • Since the union with Ireland 658. Ads In ■•f Tl.{ ' i-\ 4S HoVBRN- M K .< T. ENGLAND.. A£t3 of parliament, which conftitute the flatiite law of the kingdom, may originate in cither houfe, though they commonly make their firft ap- pearance in the houfe of commons. The procedure is in the following form. Any member may move for a bill, (the term a& is not .npplied till all the ftages be complete,) which being fcconded, the mover, and others who fupport him, are ordered to prepare it. When prefented, and leave given to bring it to the table, it is read by the clerk, the claufes are debated, and a day appointed for a fecond reading. . After it is again read and debated, it is committed ; that is, if important it is re- ferred to a committee of the whole houfe, during which the fpcaker leaves the chair, and another member fita at the clerk's table as chair- man : or, if little momentous, to a private committee, which meets in a feparate chamber. When every paragraph has been carefully exa- mined, every claufe put to the queftion, and the blanks and amend- ments completed, the chairman makes his report. The amendments and added claufes are then read, and the fpeaker puts the queilion, whether they (hall be read a fecond time ; and being read and debated, the bill is ordered to be ingroffed, that is, fairly written on parchment. After the third reading, the fpeaker, holding the bill in his hand, en< quires if it fhall pafs the houfe ; if agreed to, the clerk writes on the hill Soit bailie aux feigneurs , or if in the houfe of lords, there is written» Soit bailie aiix communes. If the bill be rejeded, it cannot be again moved during that feffion ; and it is an ufual mode to move that the bill be read in three months, when by exceeding the limits of the feffion, it amounts to a lefs invidious rejedion. An advantage of the committee of the whole houfe is, that the members may anfwer and reply ; whereas in the conilituted fenate no member can fpeak twice, except in explanation. A filcnt vote in the houfe of commons, is given by aye and «o; in the houfe of lords by content and not content. The proceedings in the houfe of lords are nearly fimilar; and if a difficulty arife, a conference is demanded, in an appropriated chamber, where it is debated ; and eitVer compromifed, or the bill abandoned. When a bill has pafled both houfes, the king, either in perfon or by commiffion, imparts his confent, the clerk repeating to public bills, U CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 49 The denial of Gotirh^ MBHT, Le Roy le veut; if private,^// fait comme il eft deftre, the royal concurrence ufed to be Le Roy / avifera. The attention of the nation is chiefly bent upon tlie parliament, when grand political queftions arife concerning war and peace, or af- fefting the conftitutional liberties of the land. On fuch occafions the utmofl: powers of eloquence are exerted ; and fpecimens produced wor- thy of Greece or Rome. Such trials of elocution may either arife in the ftages of a bill as before defcribed; or by the fpecial motion of a member for fome particular objeft, or addrefs to the throne. Adjournments may frequently happen in one feflion, and the buiinefs is continue!^ nd refumed ; but a prorogation terminates the feflion, and the bills not then paflfed mud recommence their whole progrefs» By a modern ftatute, the death of the king does not, as formerly, terminate the parliament ; which, on the contrary, had it been previoufly dif- folved, may, on that event, refume its fundlions. The forms of the houfe of commons are obferved with great punc-^ tuality, and it is the fpecial duty of the fpeaker to fuperlntend their en- forcement; a precaution indifpenflble in a popular aflTembly, as we may judge by having feen the fenate of a neighbouring nation occa- fionally degenerate into a bear- garden. The houfe of commons is dc- fervcdly efteemed the very palladium of Englifli liberty : they hold what is called the omnipotence of parliament, and If that power were not guided by principle, the ruin would be univerfal. Not the general execration of the human race, not the infamy eternized by the hiftoric page, could ever avenge the injury done to their country ; if inftead of protefting the lives, properties, and liberties of the nation, by whom they are chofen for that fole purpofe, they (hould, for the fake of pe- riftiable wealth or honours, become the betrayers of their brethren, and the fycophants of defpotifm, of whatever kind or defcription. Such are the three grand component parts of the Englifh conftitution ; but, perhaps, its moft beneficial and popular effedls, arife from the mode of adminiftering juftice, and other ramifications. For the fake of connedlion, however, it is proper firft tc confider the Privy Council, and the other divifions of the government. VOL. I. H Under "*! . , "1. til V] '■! mdwk 50 Got r RU- MEN T • Privy Ceun- Minlftry. ENGLAND. Under whatever form of monarchy, Privy Counrils are foand to be coeval with the ftate. It i» impoffible for one man, however tranfcendenti his abilities, to manage the various bufmefs of the government. In the moft barbarous periods, a few men of eminent birth or wifdom have beeiv feleded by the fovereign for his afliftants. While the national aflembly only met on folemn occafions, the advice of the privy council was ready on every emergency, and it hence became the chief engine of re- gular and continual authorky. In England the powers of the privy council continue to be very extenfive, even in modern times. At more ancient periods it a^ed in a high juridical capacity, was wont to be con- fulted, even by the judges, in decrees of great confequence, and the par- liament ufed to tranfmit feveral important topics to its fole confidera- tion\ At prefent it is chiefly employed in deliberations on affairs of fuddea emergence ; on peace and war ; and fpecial provinces of the royal prerogative. The members are chofen by the king ; and on changes of adminiAration ate feldom erafed, though the members in oppofition never attend. They ase ftyled Right Honourable, and are fworn toobferve fecrecy: the loweft at the board pronounces his opinion firft, and the king, if prefent, concludes with declaring his judgment. A privy council is feldom or never held, without the prefence of at lead one of the fecretaries of Aate ; who, till the reign of Elizabeth, ufed to ftand by the royal chair, but have fince fitten at the board as privy counfellors. Their office is of the higheft trud and importance, aixJ is at prefent divided into three departments. Dependent on the fecre- taries of ftate is the ftate-paper office at Whitehall, which has in charge the writings of flate and council, difpatches, negociations, and the Kke, from ancient times, thus prefenting moft important documents of hiftory. Even at an early period, when the monarch maintained in his own hands a great fhare of the adminiftration of juftice, and of the actual exer- cife of authority, there were intervals of abfence or recreation, in which he delegated the chief management of bufmefs to fbme feledt pcrfon, ufually an ecclefiaftic, whofe cultivated talents qualified him for fuch aa important truft. To lend more weight to this fubftitute, he was com- * Chamberl. 83, and BlackAoac, b. i. «. t. monly CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 5» monly appointed chancellor, or chief adminiftrator of civil jullice, Gotirh- was prefident of the houfe of peers, and fupportcd the royal influence »*^"'''- in that great aiTembiy. But in later tinges, when the management of the houfe of commons became the chief object of the crown, the chancellor of the court of exchequer, as fuperintendant of the public revenue, is the officer generally confidered as prime minider. The dillribution of fifty millions a-year, joined with the royal fupport, has recently carried his power to the higheft elevation. Next to him in authority are the fecretaries of ftate, who are followed by the chan- cellor, the treafurer of the navy, the prefident of the council, the pay- mafter of the forces, the commiffioners of the treafury, and other perfons of high truft. The judicature of England is worthy of the higheft applaufe, with Judicature, regard to precifion and purity. It is, indeed, to be regretted that the vaft number and confufion of the ftatutes, render the iludy of the laws peculiarly difficult, and that the number of officers and retainers on the courts of juftice, fwelU the expences of a fult to an enormous fum. 23ut hardly can a country be named on the face of the globe, in which juftice, civil or criminal, is adminiftered with more integrity : bribes, fo frequent in other countries, are totally unknown ; and the faving of this expence muft be candidly poifed againft other legal difburfe- ments. The trial by jury Is another glorious feature of Englifh jurlfprudence, handed down from the Saxon times, and is jufUy regarded as the very fafeguard o^ the lives, liberties, and properties of the nation. Its excellence has been refpeded by the Danilh and Norman conquerors ; and, it is hoped, will be venerated by the lateft pofterity. The laws of Engbnd in general, form a noble code of juftice and Lawi. equity, the precious legacy of remote aiKcftors. The ftream ilTued pure and falutary from the Saxon rock ; and neither foreign fources, nor ravaging floods, have been able to contaminate its beneficial qualities. Eogli(h jurifprudence regards the civil code as a relic of defpottfm ; and rarely liftens to the papal voice of the canon law. It would be idle and extraneous here to attempt, even a brief (ketch of the laws of England. The moft fmgular ufages are what was ternxed Borough H a Englijb^ 52 ENGLAND. i ' ■.\\ W\ if ■»>'■ ■i ■::■ GoVEKN MENT. Jur)', m Englt/hy by which the youngcft fon, or in defe£l: of iflue, the youngcfl brother was to enjoy the heritage ; as it was to be prefumed that his elder brethren had learned their father's bufinefs*. That oi Gavel-kind is fcarcely known, except in Kent, and has three branches ; the heirs male ihare all the land alike ; each heir may fell or alienate at the age of fifteen ; and though the father be attainted of treafon, the inheti- tance paffes to the progeny*. In no country are wills fo much vene- rated by law : that of Mr. TheluiTon furnifhes a recent example. All trials, upon common and flatute law, are determined by a jury of twelve, chofen as unobjedionable, from a larger number fummoned by the fheriif. They have their ilation in the court, near the judges; and when the examination of the witnefles, and the pleadings are ended, a judge recapitulates the whole evidence and arguments, and dates the law : after which the jury retire, for a fhorter or longer fpace, as doubts may arife. Upon their return, their foreman declares the verdid, which mud be unanimous. The neceflity of unanimity, has occa- fioned many difficulties ; and h feems preferable to decide by a certain majority, as is done in Scotland in criminal cafes. The foreft and by- laws may here be omitted ; but a more vigorous branch of Englilh Martial Law. judicature mufl not be forgotten. Martial law, or the Lex Cafirenjis Jfnglicanai may be clearly traced to the reign of Henry V, who ifli.ad a code of military flatutes, publifhed by Upton and Grpfe. The fta- tutes chiefly relate to facrilege, prifoners, robbery of merchants, &c. &c. and refer folely to the a£tual exercife of war : the pain of death rarely occurs, except in the cafe of any pcrfon who cries bavoe^ an expreflion feemingly equivalent to " no quarter." Martial law may be pro- claimed by the king, regent, or lieutenant general of the kingdom ; and even in time of peace, though the prerogative be rarely employed, except during war. It is in fa£t a dictatorial power, never exerted except on great emergencies. The trials are fummary and fevere, as the neceffity of the cafe authorifes. In a fhort view of our courts of law, the next in dignity to the houfe of lords is the court of king's bench, fo called becaufe the fove- reign was underllood to judge in perfon, and its jurifdi^ion of courfe I CbamberL v, i. 188. * Ibid. 17. extends Courti of Jufticci CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. extends to the whole kingdom. The prefiding judge is denominated Govsrh. Lord Chief Juftice of England. Here are chiefly determined what are called pleas of the crown } and appeals He from feveral other courts-. The court of chancery judges caufes in equity, to moderate the rigour of the law, and defend the helplefs from oppredion, and efpecially to extend relief in three cafes, fraud, accident, and breach of truft. The chancellor himfelf is the fupreme judge. The matter of the rolls, or keeper of the important papers enrolled in chancery, is an oilicer of great dignity, and confiderable patronage. The office of the rolls con- tains the charters, &c. granted by Richard III, and his fuccefTors j thofe of more remote antiquity being lodged in the Tower. The court of common pleas judges, as the name imports, of the common, fuits between fubjeA and fubjedl ; and tries all civil caufes, real, peribnal, or mingled, according to the precife precepts of the law. The court of exchequer, fo termed from the ancient mode of accounting upon a chequered board, decides all caufes relating to the royal trcafury or revenue. The lord treaforer, and the chancellor of the exchequer, may be regarded as honorary prefidents, while the firft adual judge is the lord chief baron. Three other judges, and many officers, belong to this high court. There is alfo a court for the duchy of Lancafter,. having recognizance of the revenues of that duchy, aivnexed to the crown by Henry IV '. For the more commodious and general diftribution of juftice, the circmu, kingdom is divided into fix circuits, which are vifited by the judges in the fpring and autumn, when they fit and determine all caufes of impor- tance, civil and criminal ; a method much to be preferred to the feden- tary parliaments of France, in which the judges were biafled by local attachments. In the meanwhile more minute cafes are determined by jufiiccs of the juftices of the peace, who may be traced to the fourth year of l^cace. Edward III. Their office is chiefly to commit criminals to prifon, and to infpedt the execution of fome particular laws relating to the poor, high-ways, and the like. They have a commiffion under the great feal, and the moft refpedtable are ftyled juftices of the quorum, from the words in the commiffion, S^orum A. B. unum ejfe volumus. The cujlos II I BlackAone, b. iH. c. 4. rotuhrtiniy m 5+ ENGLAND. « I ■if-' ^^«i U MliNT. SlieriiTi. rnttilonnrt^ or kocper of \\\c rolls, produces th.'n at tTie quarter fcflTiors, where the juftices meet once in three months : ilie grand inqueft, or jury of the county, is here fuinmoned, which enquires concerning crimes, atid orders the guilty to jail till the next circuit or aiTizes. The office of Iheriff, or prxfe4.H7 189,061 1.789.53' 33.811 4,6o6,s,;o »66v573 8.35>.4.;< 541.546 469.188 1.410 1 '.rs.9n 1,89^,713 1 57.476 4.713,711 4,617.86711,713,1891 ■■843.35.) 4,8'»3.io3 hi*^,l1i . The firft abftrail (printed July 1801) prefents the following ftatc- ment : Regular forces, fencibles, and militia, on March ictb, 1801, 186,733 Artillery, and engineer forces, - ditto - 11,618 Seamen, and marines in the Royal Navy, ditto - 106^128 Marines at head-quarters, - - ditto - 20,151 Seamen employed under the Boiird of Cuftoms, ditto ' 897 Seamen employed in regiftcrcd trading vefTels, ditto 143,661 469,188 Sufiicient materials do not yet arife for exad enumeration of the va- rious clafles of inhabitantSy a mod important baroinettr of the political ftatc *. To • Toward* the beginning of the taft century, Gregory King, an able poliiioal cilculator, Uicw np ttic following table of the ranks of pcrfons in Englan.i, It mud be premifeJ, that he has ful- towed an exceptionable mode, in including the domcftics in the families of each rank, whereas male and female fcrvants ought to have formed a clalis apart. 4 ' . . Rank;.. » ; UlH: M. ' j> )1 'r, ^ V. it:.''' ■ 1 >■" »i!t"fl! S6 PofULA* 7I()N. Culoniei. ENGLAND. To the enumeration of the inhabitants of Kngland, may be added many exterior colonies and fettlementB, the moll importuiit of which are now in Afia ; but as the climate of Hiiuloftan is rattier advcrfe to European conftitutions, it may be doubted whether our fcttlements there, though containing a conliderable population, can be coniiclcred Numli in all) 301)642. The Mpcnce ncai thiiteen roillioni ! ' Thia-coa^tutation^ ti'-Jii^b iaduding Ireland, fcemi exaggerated^ U ■ mm<& i * . f.T; m ) Umi^m mm\ VOL. f. I' Sfate^ ^:. »f :■{ ft i .« m. ^ 'i': £• N G T. A N D. . Ah3 PoPUI.A- 1 ION, &C. J«ii i8oi. Statement of tht Dijlribiitian of tht Briti/b Navul Force, exclitfive cf tkf hired armed Vijjily^ I [ which arc cliffy einp'oyrd in protecliiig the Coa/iitig Trade of Great Britain. In Poit and fitting . « . Giiiinl diip:'. - ... In the Knjjllfli nnil Iiifli CliiliiiiMs In tlic i')()wns and North 8cu3 At the \Vtll India Iflands, and on the pafT.igc At Jamaica - ... In .Anuiica, and.it Ni\vfinindl;ind C.ipc ot" Good Hojie.'E.ill Indicg, aitd on the paflage Coidl of Africa .... Co.ill of I'ortn^nl, Gihraltar, and Mcditcrianran - llufpitaland rrifo!) lliips ' ' • Total in'Commifiion Receivinp SUij>« Strvicealile, and repairing for fervicc III ordinary _ -. .p Uuildin^ - - - - - Total I. inc. 27 4 33 9 c 5 2 lO o i6 123 ■y 2 4+ «7 '95 liliiu I o I o S o 2 I 21 I o 3 2 Irigatts. Hlups, Iki, 46 98 1 j6 45 '7 36 21 »4 .21 li 4 5 20 '9 I 3 53 28 •' 212 7 «3 8 270 o o 44 o '7« 5 10; Cn V' 40 1 1 57 4 !>') dirt ■ >7 114 27 27 251 3'4 i 7ti7 To this may be i'ubjoined the hll of c;iptures from the feveral holhle powers, from the commencement of the war, to January, 1801, after prcmifing that many of them were already included in the abcve Pate of the navy : Line. Firtics. Fiigatcs. .SI iil>5, Sec. Total French 54 2 "37 "45 338 {jpamHi S '4 3' 53 JUutdi 17 a i' 92 89 79 10 183 803 4S0 Privatt:ew of all nations ■ Grand total • ma Tor this immenfe fleet, the number of feamen annually voted, Amounts from a hundred to a hundred and tyventy thouland,; a num- ber almofl incredible, and which no ether country, ancient or modern, could have fupplied. In China, indeed, half of the inhabitant« maybe faid to live on the water, but in (kill, fpirit, and enterprize, are far in- ferior to Britifti feamen *. The • In November, i8oi, the miiiider iidduced to the houfc ofcotDmons the following compniiitiii. Ilatement : N.VVY OF ORI-VI' BRITAIN. " " • In 1793, Ships of tht line - .fjy In i9oi, 202 Frigate* and fmaller veflVIs 133 . tty '.OS ^9 .N.k'. V i^'i ■incdTijJUi^ 7. &rr 1 t.,i. , 8 i-lf. o 5 . 4 lo; ■ 4^, i 40 ' S II '9 57 o 4 18 1 70 Cirt ■ «7 ■? 4+ 114 ' i '' 114 .1,7^.'- ;ral hollile 801, after ibove (late 1. illy voted, d,; a num- or modern, nt« maybe are far in- Thc ng compaialiu 201 At) CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. The naval power of Great Britain, conftitutcs Co ftrifcing and impor- ]sr,i, tant a feature In the national portrait, that it merits particular illuflra- ^'"^tn tion. Even in the Saxon times we find confiderable fleets mentioned' of the fmall veflfoU then in ufc. One of the Northumbrian monarchy aflembled a numerous fleet near Jarro, the monaftery of Beda, in a» extenfive haven of the time, now become a fait marih. About the year 882, we And that Alfred dire£ted a powerful fleet againft the Daniih invaders ' ; but it is to be regretted that the early writers havs not been more particular with regard to th« number and form of the velFels. The fleet of Edgar is alfo celebrated ; but the author of the Saxon Chronicle allures us, that the armament of Ethelred 11, in tho year 1009, e.Kceeded any which- England had ever before beheld ; and as William of Malincfbury computes that of Edgar at four hundred veil'eis, this may probably have amounted to five hundred of the fmall ihips then known. But the devaluations of tiie Danes and Normans occafioned fuch a decline in the naval power of England, that Richard I* was obliged to have reoourfe to foreign veflels for his crufade. In the reign of John we« for the flrft time, find commemorated a iignal vidory of the Englilh and Eleming!>) over the French fleet of Philip Auguftus, which was computed at feventeen hundred flrips, or rather boats*. The Englifli monarch John, infolent in profperity, mean in adverfity,. in the pride of hi» triumph, was^ the flrft who ordered the SALUTE to be paid by foreign vcfl*els to the national flag. The fleet of England thencefbrth I continued to be always^ refjpedlable, and gene->- rally vidoriuus. In th» reign of Edward III^ it had acquired fucht pre-eminence, that in his gold coin^ the firft flruck in England, he ap* SO In 1793* NAVY or PRANCI. Ships of tlic line fT.'.>;' ■• ..•* "O Frigates - - 64 '(•>! In 1801, '1* I irwL Jf 39*. 35 74 4?? .NA'. I The number of (hipt of the line in aAual fcrvicc is fuppofed never to have cxceetV'd one hundred am) twenty. ' See Affcr. Vita Alf. St. Croix, Hill, de la puifance navale de I'Angleterre, Paris 178C, 2 vols. 8vo. ' Ntar Dam, in FlandcrJ, A. D. 121 3. Damme, now inland, a league N. E. of Bruges, wa»- formerly a maritime town^aud the fca vvaflicd its walls.. Cuicc. Dcfcri^t, Bclg. I a pears V. wfrt ,^H i;* iBi'.i) f;'i ',."1 'I 60 Naval ■, I' J <; ■< ENGLAND. pears in a ihip, the fymbol of commerce and maritime power } W the preponderance of the £ngli(h armaments, over thofe of France, only became permanent and decifive, a little more than a century ago, after the battle of La Hogue. Spain had yielded the conteft fmce the deflrudion of her great armada ; and Holland had been greatly re> duced in the naval conflicts under Charles II, fo that no other rival re- mained, and Great Britain maintains a fixed fuperiority over the ocean. In the mechanifm of ihips, the French builders certainly excel ; but, in the foul of {hips, fpirited, alert, and ikilful feamen, no country can pretend to vie with Great Britain. The progrefs in number of vefTels has been more rapid in this reign, than at any former period, as may appear from the comparative ftatement in the note, which includes every military vefleL, from the firft rate to the frigate '. The fpecial fuperintendance of the navy, is committed to the board of admiralty, compofed of admirals of known (kill, and of peers, whofe impartiality generally regards merit alone in this important fervice. The recent conduct of maritime war, has been crowned with diftin- guiihed fuccefs ; and whilft the admirals muft be allowed to rival any names in naval hiftory, ancient or modem, the fame of Nelfon hai been confecratcd by Ills glorious death. ■ >>' ■< Before the revolution, the imprefling of men was legal, even for the land fervice ; and in more early times, many forms of requifition were ufual, workmen were imprefled to build royal caftles, artifts for their decoration, and even finging boys for the chapel. Amidft a wide dif* fufion of liberty, and that individual fecurity which is the moft home> felt blefling of our conftitution, it has been found impoflible to abandon the imprefling of Teamen. The army naturally fupports itfelf, for war, by producing a ftagnation of manufactures, raifes a fupply of foldiers ; T "itf T^Jnt''! • Under James II. William in. • m •73 «7J Arnie • m 2«+ George I, in 1721 George 1 1, in 1754 ' >•- 1746 • ^ 306 208 '75 J ' CcBi^t III, T76» 1801 m m m - »4« 34$ 787 but li ,' • ^n •^^.'i: '- Lit. CHAP. n. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1)01 the feamen muft be trained and inured to their peculiar element Katal and profeflion ; and the fervice being abfolutcly indifpenfable, it be- ^°*''** comes a raeafure ov" political necelTity to enforce it, if not offered vo- luntarily. This unavoidable additional hardihip upon a clafs of men, fubjed to fo many toils and deprivations, is deeply to be regretted ; and every endeavour fhould in juftice be exerted, to render their fitua- tion as comfortable as poflible, and to impart to them a fliare of the national opulence, which their vigour fo zealoufly proteds. In ancient times, the royal revenue chiefly arofe from the domains Revenue or lands appropriated to the crown ; from amerciaments civil and cri- minal, which palled to the fife, or treafury ; and from culloms on goods imported and exported. As in war each foldier was obliged to main- tain himfelf for a certain time, the expenditure was not much in- creafed. Upon extraordinary emergencies, it appears that a contri- bution was raifed by the confent of the national council. In later periods, fubfidies were granted to the amount of a fifteenth, or a tenth, 'on the landed income, and a proportionable rate on moveable goods. As fociety advanced, taxes began to be impofed on the materials them- felves i and from a fmall plant an enormous tree has arifen, with a labyrinth of roots, which, in the opinion of fome politicians, under- mine the ifland, while others believe that they only produce a more firm confolidation. The excife forms one of the moft produdive branches of the revenue, «mounting to between feven and eight millions. Next ftand the tuftoms, which produce about half that fum. The (lamps and inci- dental taxes, as they are termed, arife to near three millions. The land tax has been recently rendered perpettial, and fold to the proprie^ tors of eftates, and other individuals, a meafiire which has had a favour- able efTed in raifing the price of flocks. But inflead of the land tax» now appear thofe on fugar, tobacco, and malt, amounting to 2,750,000/. { other fupplies arife from the Eafl India Company, lotteries, &c. In addition to all thefe, the income tax is fuppofed to yield 7,500,ooo/.t and if rendered perpetual, might fwell the permanent revenue to 25 ot 26,000,000/. But, in the year 1799, it was fuppofed that the addi- S tional 61 i ^,t( mm i- •■iii ' s f'V'* It rt *? 'i .!• ,1 2U ;• (5a ENGLAND. ■) RpvENPts. tional luins raifed by loans, &c. fwelled the national expenditure to near 60,000,000/. fterling*. « r-'- ■ ■^.- f ' Of the permanent taxes, the greater part is employed in dlfcharging" the intereft of the nation?.! debt, which, after the American war» amounted to more than 239,000,000/. while the intereft e.xceeded 9,000,000/ f. At prefent the national debt is 12. out 480,000,000/. and the intereft about 19^000,000/. Te alleviate this growing burthen, » fmking fund was inftituted in 1786, by which between 20 and 30,000,000/. may be confidered as already redeemed.. .1 The national debt began in the reign of William,, and grew inta what have been called the funds, or ftocks,. only fynonymous terms for the public debt :]:. The taxes have not only increafed the expence of every article of life, but have of courfe fo enormoufly fwelled the dift}urrements of war, that perhaps in a fliort time iMnay become too dear a game, even for princes. During peace the national expences are greatly reduced. The civil lift, from which are defrayed the falaries of ofRcers of (late, judges, ambafladors, Sec. together with the expences of the royal fa- mily, amounts to about 1,000,000/. annually. With luch a prodigious command of national treafure, the poUticai importance and relations of Great Britain, may be faid to be diftufed over the world, for wherever money influences man, there may her power be perceived. The union of Scotland with England, delivered the latter country from the perpetual check, exercifed by politicians!, ancient and modern, that of exciting an enemy from behind, and there- by dividing the power of an antagonift. That with Ireland, if pre- ierved by wife and lenient meafures, muft alfo impart- additional energy. The moft important political confideration8> are thofe bcf * For iKtot, the mlnitler computed it at 42,363|COo/. { but the real amount was not capable of being furc teen. f Ic 1790, the naioaal debt wa» 247,981,927/. }■ the intered and charges of management, 9469,117/. .• . ». { See Mortimer on the ftocks, where the reader will find a cnr*oui account of ftock-jobbingf, or baying againft .time, a fpecies of gambling. In pubb'c loans, i, the engager commonly gains 10 per cent, while the hiws againd ufury are only prt in fuice ia private tranfaAions. HcDce Dcw loaag are greedily filled. twecn «5 Political Im« portance, jnd Rela- tions. ■\', CHAT. ir. POLITTCAL GEOGRAPIIV. 63 twcen Creat Britain and France , It feems hardly reconcileaWe to I'oliticm. humanity, or to any idea of divine benevolence, to ftyle any country a ck and the natural enemy of another : but human affairs, alas, are feldom l^^'-*^"^""'- conduced with pure benevolence and humanity, and cannot pol- fibly he, till all nations become benevolent and humane. If France muft not be ftylcd the natural enemy of Great Britain, (he has, for many centuries, been a conftant and jealous rival; eap;crly embracing every opportunity to leffen Britifli profperity and power ; an impulfe which will probably continue till all men Ihall become philofophors ; or, in other words, fhall be ruled by the maxims of univerfal reafon ; a perfedlion too vifionary to be expei^ed, as man, in all ages and climates, and under whatever forms of government, has ever been found to be chiefiy influenced by his habits and palfione. Such being the cafe, it has ever been regarded as the political interefl of England^ to balance and divide the enmity of France, by a ftridt alliance with feme Umitaneous ftate. In this point of view even Savoy has been found ufeful, though its power be only adequate to a flight diverfion. Nor are the German ftaies bordering on France, Swabia, and the two Circles of the Rhine, nor even Switzerland itfclf, capable of much exertion. Hence it might fcem that found policy would diftate as complete a confolidation of German power, as could be effedled, in order to give a decided and vigorous check to that of France from behind* The pofleflion of the Netherlands by the powerful Houfe of Auftra, was certainly of great moment to the fafety of Great Britain, efpecially fince Spain and Holland have fallen into decline. The latter country prcfents, however, a connedion of fuperlative importance to England, being her grand mart of trade with the Continent. Rufliia, a mod power- ful monarchy, though once drawn into the vortex of the prcfent grand commotion, is too remote to afford lading aflliflance ; but her amity is valuable in a commercial view, and as flic might, by no great ftretch of oriental power, detach an army into Hindoftan, and overturn our opu- lent pofleflions. An alliance with PrufTia has ever been regarded as defirable, though not of fuch confequence againft France as that with Auftria. The connedion with Portugal hae been enforced by mutual advantages 64 ENGLAND. PotiTicAL advantages of commercial intercourfe*; and by the famity compad be> ANcrAND tween France and Spain. As to Damnark and Sweden, their friendfhip. jiiLATioKi. Qf enmity is little momentous; but as Sweden has long maintained^ ftriA conned^ion with France, it is moft natural that Britain (hould ba- lance it, by cultivating that of Denmark. Such feem to have been the leading ideas of political writers^ con- cerning the chief relations to be maintained by the Britilh empire. , * Firmly eftab1i(hed by the Methven treaty, 170J. Thefe confiderationi were writtesbfforr. tl>chU€QBncAignior &.»(&», Sweden,. Pcnraarkt and Pruffia^ with Emacc ti |!' U'' CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAIMIY 61 ^. ,■.«-, T-f *« m-rH irS^ ' -/. > r -' "• ."'i. ' ,,,}.. ,...{1 ^«,. "t -"r >i ■•^' -:• ^' • ■• ' ■ -t.' - , • ' ' ' ' ' CHAPTER IIL ' ' ,'1- " I '"'*'• Civil Geooraphy. Mannert and Cujloms. — Language.-— Literature.— 'The /Iris.— Education. — Uiii- verfttks. — Citie.1 and Towns. — Edifices. — Roads. — Inland Navigation.—' Manufa^ures and Commerce. n^HE fingularity of mariMcrs in England, has often excited the fur- prife of foreigners, and the attention of our own ethic writers, who have attempted to deduce the fources from moral and phyfical caufes ; cftimating as the firft, the freedom diflufed over the country, which permits the inckdgence of individual inclination ; and recurring for the latter, to the perpetual variations of the climate, producing ef- fedls of eledric fympathy on the animal fpirits. The confideration of national manners may be conveniently referred to four divifions: i. Birth, marriage, death; 2. diet; 3. houfes and drefs ; 4. amufements. The ceremonies of baptifm, marriage, and burial, admitting of few variations in mod Chriftian countries, it becomes unnecefTary to con- fider that divifion. The Englifh are generally efteemed to exceed in the ufe of animal food ; but, after the recent importations of French emigrants of all clafles, this pofition begins to be doubted. If (lomachic difeafes be really more frequent than in other countries, they may more juftly be afcribed to our potations of heavy malt liquor, which defervedly ftrike foreigners as a Angularity in Englifh diet. Even our lighted liquors of that fort have not efcaped their remark ; for a late French traveller has obferved, that the Englifh commonly drink at their meals a fort of medical ptifan, which they call fmoll beer. Our anceftors prided themfelves >n the variety and richnefs of their ales, and old writers enumerate mauy forts, as Cock, Stepney, Stitchback, Hull, Derby, Northdown, Nottingham, Sandbach, Betony, Scurvy-grafs, VOL. I. K Sage- MAMNf H* AND Cl'*- roMS. ^:1 06 ENGLAND. Iji I. ^^z \'i ?:i-i^ Mamniks ANo Cvs- TuMS, Sage-ale, College-ale, China-ale, Butler's^ale, &c. ', nor even at prefcnt do we refiW'e praife to the various qualities of our Burton, Dorchefter, Taunton, Scottifli, and other ales. But the moft peculiar malt beverage is porter, which ought to be folely compofed of brown or high dried malt, hops, liquorice, and fugar, but is fometimes debafed by other ingredients : that of London is particularly famous, and is an article of exportation, being edeemcd a luxury on the banks of the Delaware and the Ganges. Punch was another national liquor, compofed of ipirits, water, acids, and iugar, but its ufe is now in the decline, though the late Dr. Cullcn eftcemed it a falutary potation, in a tnoift and variable climate. The prodigious confumptlon of tea is another peculiar feature, the ufe of that plant being rare in other European countries ; to phlegmatic conltitutions it may be beneficial, but among the common claflTes, its enervating powers are often attempted to be correded by the ufe of fpirituous liquors. The latter bane has been long known in Ruflia, and other northern kingdoms, but in the milder climes of Great Britain and Ireland, is deflrudive of the health and morals of the people. The legiflature has been often forced to intcr- pofe to prevent the growth of drunkennefs, wretchcdncfs, and vice ; and it is to be wilhed, that a late committee of the houfo of commoni had fandioned a motion that was made to reflri^l fpirituous liquors to their ancient boundaries, the (hops of the chemifts. It was objedteJ, that by private didillation and fmuggling, the evil would continue, withouc yielding any revenue ; but the prohibition mud have made a deep and falutary imprefllon, and the contagion mud have been re> ilrided to far narrower bounds. In all events, it is the moral duty of the legiflature to increafe the price of fpirits almod to prohibition, and to withdraw taxation from malt liquor^ which ought to remain a ftout and cordial beverage for the poor. The fimplicity of the Englifli cookery, drikes foreigners as much as that of the drefs, which, even among the great, is very plain, except on the days of court gala. A Frenchman drinks his wine during dinner, but the late Mr. Gibbon has remarked *, that the luxury of a daily table f Chamherl. 191 ' Pofth. Worki. m CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 67 in Englan.^ permits a gentleman to tafte half a dozen Ibrts of wine Mahmkri during dinner, and to drink his bottle of claret afterwards. The red toms. wine of Portugal is, however, a greater favourite than that of France, as its aftringent and antifeptic qualities, are found highly faiutary in a moid climate. A late French traveller ' has remarked, that the EngliHi know not the proper ufe of coffee ; but will fwallow fcveral cups of a brown water, inflead of one cup of the real ftrong coflee, drank in other countries. The houfes in England are peculiarly commodious, neat, &:\d cleanly; and doraeftic architedlure feems here arrived at its greateft perfedlion. The drefs, as has been before obferved, is rather plain and neat, than fplendid, a praife which alfo applies to that of the ladies, who have now abandoned the tight form fo prejudicial to health, and have affumed much of the Grecian eafe and elegance. The amufements of the theatre and of the field, and various games of fkill or chance, are common to mofl nations. The baiting of bulls and bears is, it is believed, nearly difcontinued ; one of the mofl pe- culiar amufements of the common people, is the ringing of long peals, with many changes, which deafen thofe who are fo unhappy as to live in the neighbourhood of the church. Prior to the middle of the flxteenth century, the Englifh and French were regarded as barbarous nations by the more polifhed Italians. The reign, and female blandifhments of the court of Elizabeth, feem to have had a wonderful effedk in civilizing the manners. The tranfition has been well pourtrayed by an ancient writer, whofe fimple language, given in modern orthography, may perhaps amufe the reader. " There are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain, " who have noted three things that arc marveloufly altered in Eng- " land within their found remembrance. One is the multitude of chimnies lately ercfted ; whereas in their young days there were not above two or three, if fo many, in many uplandiJh towns of the realm, (the religious houfes, and manor places of their lords, always excepted, and peradventure fome great perfonages,) but each 0110 made his fire a^ainft a rerc dojfe in the hall, where he dined and St. Fond. Pufliin. K i « drcfTcd <( (i « <( V .. 68 ENGLAND. '1 ii ) t f\ * ' ! ; «r M A N K E H J AND <.'Ui- T0M5. Ct ic tn ** drelTed his meat. The fecond is the great amendment of lodginp ; " for, faid they, our fathers, and tve ourfelves, have Iain full oft upon ** ftraw pallets, covered only vith a flicet, under coverlets made of " dagfwa'in or bopbarlots^ (I ufe their own terms,) and a good round *• log under their heads, inilead of a bolder. If it were fo that our " fathers, or the good man of the houfe, had a mattrafs or flock bed, *• and thereto a fack of chaff to reft his head upon, he thought himfelf *' to be as well lodged as the lord of the town, fo well were they con- ** tented. Pillows, faid they, were thought meet only for women in *' child-bed. As for fcrvants, if they had any (heet above thcin, it was well, for feldom had they any under their bodies, to keep tlicm from the pricking ftraws that ran through the canvas, and raifed ** their hardened hides. *' The third thing they tell of, is the exchange of wooden platters *' into pewter, and wooden fpoons into filver or tin. For fo common were all forts of wooden veiTels, in old time, thit a man (hoiild hardly find four pieces of pewter, (of which one was peradventure *• a f£.!t-feller,) in a good farmer's l)Oufe ; and yet, for all this frugality, if it may fo be juftly called, they were fcarce able to live and pay " their rents at their days, without felling of a cow, or a horfe, or moic, " although they paid but four pounds at the uttermoft, by the year. " Such alfo was their poverty, that if a farmer, or hufbandman, had " been at the alehoufe, a thing greatly ufed in thofe days, amongit fix " or fcven of his neighbours, and there, in a bravery, to Ihew what " ftore he had, did caft down his purfe, and therein a noble, or fix Ihillings in filver, unto them, it is very likely that all the reft wouid not lay down fo much againft it ; whereas, in my time, although " peradventure four pounds of old rent be improved to forty or fifty " pounds, yet will the farmer think his gains very fmall, toward the midft of his term, if he have not fix or feven years rent lying by him *' therewith to purchafe a new leafe ; befides a fair garnifh of pewter ** on his cupboard, three or four feather-beds, as many coverlids, and *• carpets of tapeftry, a filver falt-feller, a bowl for wine, if not a whole " neft, and a dozen of fpoons to furnifh up the fuit. This alfo he " takcth to be his own clear ; for what ftock of money foever he ga- " theretb f( *( (( it it t( CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 69 " thereth in all his years, it is often fecn that the landlord will take fiich Mamnhis ** order with him for the fame, when he rcneweth his Icafc (which is tomi. " commonly eight or ten years before it be expired, fince it is now *' i;rown almoft a ctidoin, that if he come not to his lord fo long be- *' tore, another (hall ftep in f(jr a revcrfion, and fo defeat him outright,) " that it (hall never trouble him more than the hair of his beard, when *' the barber hath wafhed and Ihaven it from his chin *." This remarkable chanpe in the reign of Elizabeth, was carriecl, as ufual, to the oppofite extreme ; and the fame author loudly execrates the contemporary luxury of attire. " I have met/' fays he, " with " Tome in London fo difguifed, that it hath puHed my (kill to difcern, " whether they were men or women." He adds, " neither was It ever " merrier with England, than when an Englilhman was known by his "own cloth; and contented himfelf with his line car/ie hofe^ and a " mean flop (tiowfers) ; his coat, gown, and cloak, of brown, blue, *' or puce, with fomc pretty furniture of velvet, or fur, and a doublet ** of fad-tawney or black velvet, or comely filk ; without fuch gariili " colours as are worn in thefc d.iya, and never brought in but by the '* confcnt of the French, who think thcmfclves the gayeft men, when " they have mod divcrfity and change of cf lours about them." Under this divifion of geography have been generally arrani'cd what arc called national chara6lers, but which, in fad, are commonly monu- ments of prejudice and injuflice, and particularly noxious to the minds of youth. It (hall, thcrelore, only be remarked, that the cold rcftraint which fome foreigners have afcribed to the Englifh, has been candidly judged by a recent voyager ', to exift only in appearance. A more ge- nuine attribute of the Knglilh is integrity, which has carried their credit and commerce to an extent before unknown in the hiftory of nations. Moft European languages are derived from the Gothic or the Latin. To the Latin origin belong Italian, French, andSpaniih; to the Gothic, Language. the German, Dutch, Flemi(h, Dani(h, Swedifli, and Norwegian. From the fituation of the country, and other caufes, the Engli(h participates of ». * Dcfcription of Dritaioi in Holinfliccl'i Chronicle, vol. i. ful. 85. * St. Fond, torn. i. p. 61, botl), Ml >■ 'fi,''-'''' ■ in;' >'■ I. ' li'. f" ;:/ '•■l. • II. ■'i :■ r 70 ENGLAND. LANouAai. both thofe grauJ iburccs ; and unites in fome dcgrc: Gothic with the melody of the Latin dialedts. Ti- t>. :. iwice of the and native expreflton, originate from the Gothic dividor.a of the Del;;;ic, Saxun and Danilh; but particularly from the Belgic, as will bppeur from comparifon with the Dutch and Frific. The languages of Latin origin, have, however, fupplied a va(\ wealth of words, fometimcs necclFary, fomctimes mly adopted bccaufe they are more fonorous, though not fu emphatic ab the original Gothic. There is no evidence of the exidencc of Celtic words in our language, whatever fome anti- quaries have imagined, for the words they indicate may aUo be found in Iceland, a country never peopled by the Celts. Numerous manufcripts exi(l, written in the Anglo-Saxon, or Old £ngli(h language, and one of its mod clalTic authors, is the great Alfred himielf It appears from many works, written long after the conqucli, that the French language, though colloquial among the great, fcarctly imparted any tinge to the national tongue. The conquefts of Edward III, in France, and other circumftaacei not proper to be here dif- cuflfed, effe^ed in the fourteenth century, a change in vain attempted by the Norman conqueror. Chaucer, who wrote at that period, pre- fents almoft the firft rude dawn of what may be termed the Englifli language. In the fame century, that enterprifing traveller. Sir John Mandeville, fupplies one of the fird fpecimens of Englifh profe : as he was a man of fome fcience for that time, has interfperCed feveral words of Latin origin ; and hi ill '!'' yil ENGLAND.* Litehaturi writers of alinoft every other European kingdom, fubdued by that great nation, of 1>' ranee, Sjiain, and even of Africa; no author of thofe pe- riods claims a liritifh origin. The country was feized by the Saxons before Britilh literature faintly dawned in Gildas, A. D. 560. Iri(h literature commences about the fame period, and continued for i'omc centuries, to fispply numerous writers in the Latin lang.'ap-e, while England remained almoft deftitute. But Bcda, in the eighth century, redeemed this defcd, in himfelf a hoft, and, like Chaucer, the wonder of his time. The Danifli invafions were ruinous to literature, both in Great Britain and Ireland, and the great Alfred was obliged to exert his utmoft endeavours, in order to rellore fome degree of learning, even among the clergy. That admirable prince did not afpire to Latin compo- fition, but tranllated fome works of merit and utility, as the hiftories of Orofius and Beda, into the Anglo-Saxon. Alferius is perhaps the only La- tin writer, who can be named between the age of Bede and the year 1 100, if we except a few lives of faints: but the Saxon Chronicle is a noble and negleded monument of this interval, which being the only civil Hiftory of England, for a fpace of 400 years, ought to be carefully collated with all the manufcripts, and publiftied with all the fplendour of typography. About the year iioo, Englifh literature commences a firm and fteady pace. A numerous ♦rain of hidorians, poets, and other writers, fills the pages of biography. In the fourteenth century Roger Bacon afpires even to the praife of eminent genius. In the fol- lowing century, the civil wars between the houfes of York and Lan- cafter, were deftrudtive of literature and the arts ; nor will it be eafy to name an illuftrious author of that period, but the introduction of printing in the reign of Edward IV, forms a memorable epoch. The writers of the fixteenth, and following centuries, are numerous and well known. On a comparative view of European literature, it may be obfcrvcd that the Italians, its firft rcftorers, excel in poetry, hiftory, and other departments of the Belles Lettres ; but about the year 1600, their tarte began to decline, and a mental efleminacy arofe, which is confpicnous in the fantaftic focieties and academies, and in the extravagant Hat- teries which every writer thought due in politencfa to another ; the 1 1 • term CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. term illujlrious becoming as familiar as that of Sign'tor and Madama^ a wafte of literary fame, wi.ich rendered it of no value. The French even originally excelled in romance and light poetry, and that plcafing and minute fpecics of biography, called memoirs ; they have produced few works of original genius, but yield to no nation in fcientific pro- duclions, and in literary difquifitions, written with good fenfe, preci- fton, and accuracy. Spanilh literature forms a va(l treafure, little known to other nations ; and fcarcely any department can be named, in which excellent writers do not appear. The native German, Danllh, and Swedifla literature, is but of recent celebrity. To com- plete the fole intention of this parallel, the grand feature of Englifh literature, is original genius, tranfmitted even from Roger Bacon, to our Shakefpeares, Miltons, Newtons, and Lockes, not to dwell here on claims more minute, but equally firm. In the fcientific departments, England mud yield to France, except in the various branches of ma- thematical knowledge, the inftitution of the Royal Society, and the genius of Newton, having attracted the greatcft talents within their iphere, to the negledl of other departments of curious invedigation. The Englifh clergy, who far exceed in learning any other body of that defcription in Europe, have always cultivated clafiical literature, with diflinguiihed zeal and prediledion. An old writer obferves, that during the civil war under Charles T, there were " more good, and more bad books, printed and publiflied in " the Englidi tongue» than in all the vulgar languages of Europe '." Perhaps Germany may now exceed our literary efforts ; yet more novels are fuppofed to be publiflied in England in one month, than in all the reft of Europe in a year. Our 1. -rary journals, in which we may alfo claim a great degree of excellence, may indicate to foreigners, the vaft extent of modern Englifli literature. ^ The prefent Hate of the arts in England, is worthy of fo opulent and reHned a country, and the progrcfs has beui rapid beyond example. The late Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford, has delineated from the papers of th@ induftrious Venue, ;\ pleafing and animated pi^ure of the hiilory of the arts in this country. Some faint traces of paintitn^ 73 LlTTRA- TURl. VOL. I. * Cliambrrl. 19I. X occur f I ' t.: 1) . ,l,'(> '' ■ <*' « ■.Mil >• .if, ■■ '•■'4 *. I' I III ^H; 1' U mmi ^^Elts! 1 1 iHftiijfe hL 'w m itU fj .J t '. . I li ( » M' ^1 '•! i • 74 1,1T««A- ENGLAND. occur in the thirteenth century ; but the name* and country of the artifts tlo not appear, except that of William of Florence, where the «rt had faintly begun to revive. In the reign of Edvrard I, the mag. nificctit caftlcs bunt in Wales, atteft the genius and (kill of the archi- te(^s, while their individual fame is lod in obfcurity ; and towards the end of the fourteenth century, rich monuments of architedlure and fciilpture, are interfperfed with fome few remains of painting. The MifTals in particular, and other manufcripts, begin to be illuminated or adorned with miniature paintings of great luftre ; and as the Gothic architecture is by fome conceived to have originated from the fhrines for relics, fo the larger paintings feem mere amplifications of the ma. nnfcript miniatures. But while the neighbouring Flanders began to difplay many native names, England continued, till the laft century, to import her chief painters from abroad, as Holbein, Antonio More, Zucchero, Janfen, Mytens, Rubens, Vandyke, Lely, Kneller, &c, &c. Yet in miniature and engraving, there were excellent native artifls in ,*lhe fevcnteenth century ; and in the beginning of that century, an eminent native architcd, Inigo Jones. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, even the noble architedlure of St. Paul's, did not redeem the other arts from great decline, till Hogarth inftituted exam- ples of ethic and charadlerillic painting, which have defervedly excited the admiration of Europe. His fame as an artift has been eclipfied by • his inventive genius, but his pidlures of Marriage 4-Ia-Mode, and many others, are finilhcd with a care, minutenel's, and harmony, worthy of an eminent Dutch maftcr. The prefent reign has not only been diftinguilhcd by patronage of the arts, but been fortunate in exube- ranee of artifts of deferved reputation. To enumerate the living might | be invidious, or occafion fufpicions of partiality, but among the de- ceafcd may be named Sir Jolhua Reynolds, eminent in hiftory and portrait, and by his fcientific difquifitions on the art ; Gainft)orouj;h and Wilfon in landfcape, &c. &c. Though in the feventeenth century, Faithorne, and one or two others, ihewed great (kill and fpirit in en- graving on copper, yet our chief artifts, even in the eighteenth cen- tury, were French, till thj national fame was raifed by Strai i,e, WooUet, Worldige, and others, who have been fucceeded by fuch a number CHAP. m. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 75 number of excellent artids in this department, that England excels Literal every country, and the prints executed in London attract univerfal ad- miration and imitation. Architecture and Sculpture now alfo boail of many diftingui(hed native names ; but in mufic we ftili revere the fuperior (kill of the Germans and Italians, though our mailers far excel thofe of any other country, and France in particular, where, however the hor- liblc difcords fa(hionabIe for aoo years, begin at length to yield to the Gcrnun and Italian tafte. Ittaview of any country, education forms one of the mofl Important Education. topics, as its confequenctn extend to the elTence and well-being of the community. The etlucation of the lower ciaiTes in England, had h*'- come extremely neglcAed, before the benevolent inditutlon of the Sunday f'chools. There can be no doubt that where the common people are the beft inftruded, there they will be found the mod quiet, contented and virtuous ; as they feel a confcious felf refpeft, are ac- cuftomed to be treated with regard by each other, and will cheerfully extend the fame reverential condudl towards tiieir fiiperiors in the favours of fortune. Political theories, beinj; founded merely on ana- logical reafoning, and no two cafes, climes, nor countries, being pre- cifcly fimilar, they become very hazardous in experiment; but a prac* tical eftimate of the advantages of general education, may be formed by comparing the negleded peafantry of Ireland, with the peaceable Highlaiulers of Scotland, when-; public fchools exift in every pari(h. The middle anr' higher ranks of Englifli, fpare no expence in the edu- cation of their fons, by private tutors at home, or at what are called day- fchools and boarding fchools. The former kind in which the mailer only attends to mental culture, feems preferable to the latter, which re- quires additional carrs of the child's health, diverfions, and condud. Our moft eminent public fchools, are thofe of St. Paul's, Wcftminllcr, Eton and Winchefter j and from them have arifen feme of the mort di(\ingui(hed ornaments of their country. The fcholars in due time proceed to the univerfities of Oxford and C'lmbridgc, foundations of an Univcuitrti. extent and grandeur that trhprcfs veneration. The number and asra of the colleges will appear from the following lift. ^ L 2 In'ivcrfitY I " i 2$ ENGLAND. Edwcatiok. ' ■ Univcrfity of Oxford. 1163. Daliol College.— Founder, John Daliol* (failier of John, King of Scotiand,) and h.a wife, bcrvorgilla, Couutefs of Galloxtay. 1176. Mertoii College. — Walter Merton, Bifliop of Ilochefter. 1191. Univerfity College. — William, Archdeacon of Durham '. 1316. Exeter College.— Walter Stapleton, Bi(hop of Exeter. 1323. Auriell College— Adam de Brome, Almonrr 10 Edwrard II. 1340. Queen'* College. -Robert Egleifield, Chaplain to Queen Philippa. 1379 New College. -William of Wickham. 14.38. All Souli. — Archbifliop Chicheley. j^* 1458. Magdalen College. William of Wainflct. ^, 1613 Brazen Nofe.— William Smith, Bilhop of Lincoln. 1516. CorpuiChrifti.- Richard Fox, Bifliop of Winchefter* '* 1539, Chrift'a (. hurch — Wolfiey and Henry VIIL 1556. Trinity College. - Sir Thomai Pope. 1557. St. John's — Sir Thomas White. 1571. Jcfui College.— 'Dr. Price. 16 ' 3. Wadham. — Nicholas Wadham, Efqv- 1614. Pembroke.— Thomas Tefdale, Efq *. There are befides feveral halls, or fmaller colleges, and fome recent foundations. The i.i'jdable favour of the Oxonians, adores Alfred as the founder of what is called the univerfity college, and even affigns the date of 886 ; but candid antiquaries aifert, that the paffage in one or two old ChronicIes,^ alledged in fupport of this idea, is a manifed interpolation, not to be fouad in the bed manufcripts: and though great fchools of divinity may haVe previoufly exifted at Oxford, fuch wcrs alfo known at other places, which lay no claim to the title of univerfity. Univerfity of Cambridge. 1184. Peter-houfe. — Hugh Balfham, Bilhop of Ely. 1340. Clare hall. -Elizabeth de Burg, Counteft uf Ulfter. 1347. Pembroke-hall— Mary deValentia, Count efi of Pembroke; 1348. and 15^1.7. Gonvilli: and Caiuo. — The DodUirs fo named. 13,3. Trinity-hall — William Bauman, Bilhopof Norwich. 13 6. Bennet, or Corpus ChriAi. — Henry Duke of Lancailcr. 1443. King'* College. — Henry VI. 1446. Queen'fc College. Marfraret of Anjou. 1474. Catherine-hall.— Dr. Woodlark. 1497. Jefus College.— John Alcock, iJfhop of Ely. icii St "ichn't I Margaret, Counlefi of Richmond, Mother of Henry VII. 1510. Mapdulcn College, — Thoma*, Lord Audley. 1546 TiinifyConepfe.- Henry Vlll. 15 '9 Emanutl. — Sir Walter Mild'iiay. 15HS Sydney College. Frances Sydney, Countefs of Suffex '. ' Goti)(U'a Cam. I. p. 302, Jtc. ^ Ibid. * Ibid. II. 124. 131. Gray's Fueros, Notej. Ot' CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 77 Of the two univerfitics many minute defcrlptions have appeared. Eowcatiok. Oxford is the more majeftic, from the grandeur of the colleges, and other public buildings, and the fuperior regularity and neatnefs of the ftrects; hut the chapel of King's college, at Cambridge, is fuppofed to excel any fingle edifice of the other univerfity. Both of thofe magni- iicent feminarics imprefs every feeling mind with reverential awe, not only by their architeQural dignity, but by a thoul'and collateral ideas of ancient greatnefs and fcience. To attain the degree of bachelor of arts, a refidcnce of twelve terms, or three years, is neceflary at Cambridge, four at Oxford. In both univerfities, three years more muft elapfe, before the (Indent can conv- mence mailer of arts ; after whieh feven years are required before he can become bachelor of divinity; and four more for the doctor's degree. That of dodor of laws may be acqjuired in feven year« after he is declared mafter of arts» Female education is conducted in England with great elegance and expence. Even in the middle ranks of life, young women are gene- rally taught mufic and drawing, a plan which fui prifes forcip;ners, who iieldom teach thefe arts, except in cafes of decided propcnfity. They are, indeed, of little or no ul'e in future life ; but they enlarge and cul- tivate the mind, and fcrve to prevent the dangers of idlenefs. In giving a brief account of the chief cities and towns in England, a cities. few of the mod important (hall he arranged according to dignity, opu- lence, and population ; and the others fhall be llated without preference, ia a kind of progress from the fouth- wed to the north. London, the metropolis of England, and perhaps the mod populous London, and rich city on the face of the globe, is fituared in an extenfive plain, or valley, watered by the Thames, and only confmed on the north by a few ftLJl elevations ; being a p'ace of great antiquity, and fird men- tioned by Tacitus. It was in former times of far lefs extent, and fur- rounded with walls, bur now includes Southwark, in itfelf a city, on the other fide of the Thames, and Wedmiader, another city on the weft ; fo that like fome places of ancient geography, it might be na'ned Tr'folht or three cities. The noble river Thames is here about 440 yaids in breadth, and is crowned with three bridges, the mod ancient of liil. 'ti^A •'•1 } ■ I I -1 ■^i- .m .' ii 1:',.* ;, y \ "J.'.i ' I' M 1 'i^^i . h I ^.^r ♦ i !!•'! % '1 lli'?!!^' I ; 78 Cities anb Town I. ENGLAND. of which was formerly covered witli houfes and fhop«, now removed; but the inconveniences it prefents to navigation, cannot be fo cafily remedied. The Thames is crowded with a foreft of mails, and con- veys into London the wealtli of the globe, forming an excellent {jort, withoxit the danger of expofure to maritime enmity. It is, liowevcr, a great defed, tliai inftead of open quays and (Ireets, on the banks ot the ftream, the view is ob{lru(Qed, on both fides, by irregular malTes of building, which do not even admit of a path. London prefents almoil every variety which diverfiiies human exigence ; upon the eaft i: is a fea-port replete with mariners, and with the trades connected with tiut profefTion. In the centre it is the feat of numerous manufadures, an' prodigious commerce ; while the weftem, or fafhionahle extremity, prefents royal and noble fplendour, amidfl fcenes of the highell luxury, and mod ruinous diflipation. Few cities can boafl; a more falubrious fituation, the fubjacent foil being pure gravel, by which advantage, united with extcniive fewers, the houfes are generally dry, cleanly, ar<.d healthy. Provlfions and fuel are poured Into the capital, even from diftant parts of the kingdom, the latter article being coals, from the counties of Northum- berland and Durham, transferred by fea, and thence denominated fea- coal *. The fmoke is eftcemed to purify the dampnefs of the air, but injures the beauty of the edifices ; the fublime architedure of Sr. Paul's for indance, being obfcured by fable weeds. London requires in one year 101,075 beeves, 707,456* ftieep, with calves and pigs in propor- tion • the vegetables and fruits annually confumed in the year, are valued at a milUoa ftcrling '. The pop'iiation of London has by fome been exaggerated to a mil- lion of frals ; but by the moft recent and authentic accounts, it contains about vight hundred and fixty thouLnd *. Its length from Hyde-park ' 'kit. Middlcton, in his View of MMdIefex, 1789, fupjMifcn that half a milb'oii of chaldrcr,) arr yetriy confumed in that county. Stewart on Coal, p. 191, lays 866,167. ' ^^' 4"- ' Ihid. 267. Mr. Peniau, Bit. Zool. iv. 9. fayi, 60,000 !obtUr» arc annually brought to LoQ'lua, from near Monti oft. » Including tlicparifhes not within the bills ot mortality ; that it Mary-Iebcne, Paddington, St. Pancra», Kenfington, anil CUelfu, aniourting to 117,80:. Iflington and Newtngton Butts are tvithia the bilh. Corner m CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 79 Corner on the vrcft, to Poplar on the eaft, is about fix miles ; the breadth C'^,'" *"•* unequal, from three miles to one and lefs r, the circumference may be about fixtcen miles. Tiie tiCufcR are almoin univerfally of brick, and difpofed with infipid limilarity ; but in recompcnce, moft of the ftrcet& arc excellently pared, and have convenient paths for foot-palTengcrs, a mark of refpedl to the common people, almoll unknown to the capi- tals on the Continent. Another national feature, is the abundance of charitable foundations, for almoll every infirmity and diftrels incident to human nature. The multitude and rich difplay of the (hops im- prefs ftrangers with alloni(hment, nor arc they lefa furpri^ed at the conflant torrent of population rolling through the principal ftreetsj, nor at the fwarm of carriages at all times crowding all ihe roads to the capital, and the nofturnal illuminations which extend even to four or five miles of the environs. Though the imprcifion of the tide be felt as far as Staines, the Thames at London, and a confiderable way below, is untainted with (alt. Its waters are railed by machinery, and conduilcd in innumerable pipes for domeftic ufes, while the parts more remote are fupplied with water from fome fmall ponds near Hampdead, and from that laudable work of Middleton, the New River, which conveys a copious addition from the north. The water of the Thames is faid to impart peculiar (jnaHtics to the liquor called poiter j but this idea |)erhaps only tends to itrengihen the monopoly of the London brewers. The environs of London prefent a rpe<^acle almoft as grand and in- terelVmg as that of the metropolis itlclf. Extenfivc ftrects of villas and houfc?, arc continued in ahnoll every direction, within feven or eight miles. Yet few of the public edifices in London can pretend to much mcgnificcnce. The cathedral of St. Paul's forms one of the chief ex- ceptions ; the exterior architedurc of this principal cathedral of the proteftant faith, being majcftic to a degree of fublimity, hut tlie Inte- rior is defedtive in decoration. The tombs recently ordered, in imitation of thofe at Weftminfter, will contribute to obviate this remark. In the colonnade, fountains, &c. it yields to St. Peter's at Rome ; and, ia general, the public edifices of London arc in diladvantagcous pofitions, without proper avenues or points of profped. It is furprlfmg that fountains, oc 1 jc» iji i■|.i•'••:t1!■ !l'!;r l! .1 ,i Cniii A TuWNI |. », ( ■]■ J. 1 i ■■; :: ENGLAND. •"» jets d'eau, which fo much diverfify the ornaments of a city, though in a garden they be puerile, fhould be almoll unknown in London, cx> ccpt a diminutive fpecimen in one of the courts of the Temple. Weft- niinfter-abbcy may claim the next rank to St. Paul's cathedral, being not only in itfelf a grand impreflive edifice, of the Gothic clafs, but as being the fa£tuary of the illuftrious dead, of all ranks, periods, and profeflions, from the vidorious monarch down to the humble peda- gogue. It was founded by Sebert, King of the £a(l Saxons ; was Afterwards ruined by the Danes, and re-founded by Edward the Con- feflbr, whofe tomb is the mod ancient now remainin[<;. The prefeni edifice was the work of Henry III ; and Henry VII added an elegant chapel, and his tomb, the work of Torrlgiano ; in the vaults under this chapel the late monarchs and their offspring have been depofited. The body of the edifice is crowded with illuflrious tombs, decreed by the nation, or ereded at the expence of individuals ; this part is open to general InfpeQion ; and others more retired, are difplayed by the attendants for a trifling remuneration. Adjacent are the two houfcs of parliament, and Weftminfler-hall, a vaft room, 230 feet long, and 70 wide, with a curious cteling of Irifh oak, and apartments on the fide, in which are held the principal courts of juflice. The churches and chapels exceed 200 in number, and a few are of beautiful architecture. Some arc the produdions of Inigo Jones ; as is alfo the noble banqueting-houle at Whitehall, with a maflerly cieliog painted by Rubens, reprefenting the apotheofis of James I. Near London-bridge, a pillar of 193 feet elevates bis bold front above mod of the fpires, and is called the Monument, being deflined Co commemorate the conflagration of London, in the reign of Charles II. The Tower is only venerable from ancient fame ; and remarkable for the curiofities which it contains. The new edifice ereded by the Company trading to the Eaft Indies, has a confiderablc degree of ele. gance, and Tome of the halls of the companies have a refpeAable appear- ance. The Bank is a flrudure of the Ionic order, more remarkable for intrinfic wealth than exterior magnificence. The archite^re of the prifon called Newgate is fingularly appropriate. Somerfet Houfe ^ & prefenu ;. it CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. tr prefcnts an elegant fpeciinen of recent archltedlurc, but may, pcrliaps, Cinn aki in future times be found as deficient in folidity as it is at prcfcnt incon- venient in the height and fteepncfs of the flairs, and in fomc other refpeds. The terrace of tl\e Adelphi is a plcallnj; piece of architctHur^', and prcfcnts an interefting profpedl of the river. The lanf' con is un elegant edifice, refembling that at Rome, but dedicated I'olcly to jniblic amufcments. The royal palace of St. James's is an irrcj.^ular building, of very modell afpeft. The queen's palace, formerly Bucklngliain houfe, only afpircs to elegant convenience, but contains fome valuable paintings, and an excellent library, formed folelybythetallc of the reigning monarch. The palace of Kcnfington prefcnts an exuberanceof valuable pidurcs, little known, and rarely vifited. The houfes in the Weft end of the town, of themfelves fliew the gentle gradations of rank in England, thofc of the chief nobility being rarely diftingulftiable from the others ; the more remarkable are, Folcy-houfe, the Duke of Manchefter's ; the late Mrs. Montague's, in Portman fquare ; Ghefterneld-houfe ; Lord Spencer's, in the Green-park ; Marquis of Lanfdowne's, Berkeley-fquare ; Duke of Northumberland's at Charing-crofs ; Burlington-houfe, with a fine colonnade behind the fr^nt wall, and thofe of the Duke of Devonlhire and the Earl of Bath, all in Piccadilly } nor muft Cumberland-houfe and Carleton-houfe, in Pall-Mall, be forgotten. Next to the capital in dignity, though not in extent nor opulence, York. is York, which is not only the chief city of a large and fertile province, •; but may be regarded as the metropolis of the North of England. The name has been gradually corrupted from the ancient Eboracum, by which denomination it was remarkable even in the Roman times, for the temporary refidencc and death of the Roman Emperor, Sevenis. This venerable city is divided by the River Oufe ; and the Gothic cathedral is of celebrated beauty, the weftern front being peculiarly rich, the chief fpirc very I. fty, and the windows of tlic finefl: painted glafs. York divides with Edinburgli the winter vifits of the Northern gentry. But Liverpool, in Lancafiiire, is now generally allowed to approach Liverpool, the neareft to London in wealth if not in population, being the feat of a vaft commerce, which has been continually on the increafe, fince the beginning of this century, whea it was merely a villags. It is firft mcn- VOL. I. M tioncd r:. -:• h 9a ENGLAND. 1 ■ '1 h:^ M ' .I'll !' fir'i H.I ' ' ,» i" CiTiii A¥» tioned In the reign of William ilie Conqueror : yet in Leland'b time, Town*. y^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^ parilh, but had only a chapel, tlie panlh-i,li jrch being that of Walton. Ill iCnji) Liverpool was admitted to the Iiij^h honour of being eoailiiutcd a pavifli. In 1710 the dock was conflruded ; and the cliicf merchants came originally from hcland, a circiimrtancc which has given a diliind tiii^^f to the manners of the to«r Thencefojth the progrcis was rapid, and in 1760 the population was computed at 25,787 foil >'. In 177.; they amounted to 34,4.07, in 17U7 to 36,070 ; at prefent they may be computed at between 70 and 80,000. By the parliamenuiry enumeration tlicy arc 77,653. The number of (hips which paid duty at Liverpool, in 1757, was 1371 ; in 1794 they amounted to 4,265. In the African trade, a di(lini;uifliing feature of Liverpool, there was only one Ihip employed in 1709; in 1792 ihcy amounted to 132. It was computed, that be- tween the end of Auguft 1778, and that of April 1779, Liverpool font out no lefs than 170 privateers'*. In the recent adl for the contribu- tion of feamen to the royal navy, according to the fhips regifttred in each, the edimate is as follows : London, 5715 Hull, 731 Briftol, M6 Liverpool, 1711 \Vhiiliav 4 % ^j' ^ ^' 7 ^ Hiotographic Sdences Corporaliori 23 WEST MAIN STREIT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 172-4503 u ENGLAND. US tm llli Birming- ham. Gths and under Charles I. Manchefter remained in the hands of the Parliament. Towns. > In 1708, the inhabitants were only computed at 8000. In 1757, they fell fliort of 20,000, at prefent they amount to 84,020 this being the next city after London in population. The cotton manufa^ures of Mancheller are fufficiently known over Europe ; and the machinery, greatly indebted to the genius of an Arkwrighr, excites aftomfhrnent at the progrefs of human art and induftry". Birmingham, in Warwickfliire, was originally a village, belonging to a family of the fame name, whofe monuments remain in the old church. Leland mentions it as a town inhabited by fmiths and cutlers, in the time of Henry VIII. ; and by lorimers, now called bit-makers. The extenfion and improvement of Birmingham originated in a great degree from Mr. John Taylor, who introduced the manufadlure of gilt buttons, and japanned and enamelled works ; but the toy manufa^ure was known in the reign of Charles II. The great fabric, called Soho, belonging to MeflTrs. Boulton and Watts, is fituated about two miles from Birmingham, but in StafTordfliire. Between the year 1741 and 1790, Birmingham had received an augmentation of feventy-two ftreets, 4172 houfes, and 23,320 inhabitants " ; the prefent poptilation is com> puted at 73,670. Sheffield, in the moft fouthern part of Yorkfhire, is ftyled by Le- land the chief market- town in Haliamfhire (for in the North, many particular diftridts ufurp the name of (hires). The company of cut- lers of Haliamfhire, was eftabli(hed by a£t of parliament in 1625 ; but Sheffield had been diftinguiflied for a kind of knives, called whittles, and other articles of cutlery, as early as the thirteenth century ; yet, till within the laft half century, the manufactures of Sheffield were con- veyed weekly to the metropolis, on pack-horfes. In 1751, the river Don was rendered navigable to within two miles of the town, which facilitated the export. The plated goods commenced about 1758. In the year 16 15, the population only amounted to 2152; in 1755 to 12,983; in 1789 about 30,000. At prefent the population maybe abfiuf 45,000 ••. ' ♦ • ' - ; '« Aikin'6 Manchefter, 149. 15C. * Aikin'* Mao. 539. et fcq. .. J I , ., > , The Shcflkld. •-r»v. 1 Hutton'i Hift. of Birmingham. A'i ^i^ CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 85 The other chief towns in England, not afpiring to fuch pre-eminence, Cities and Towns* though feveral be of far more importance than others, (hall be clafled, as before mentioned, in a kind of geographical order, beginning at the South-weft, and proceeding to the North. Falmouth, in Cornwall, the moft weftcrly port in England, is chiefly Falmouth, remarkable for the arrival and difpatch of packet boats j but Exeter, in the adjacent county of Devon, is an ancient and rcfpedable city. It is Exeter. . the feat of an cxtenfive commerce in coarfe woollen goods, manufadlured in a part of Somerfetlhire, and in Devon and Cornwall". They are exported to Italy, and other parts of the Continent, to the annnal value, as is fuppofed, of 600,000/., and the Eaft India Company purchafe yearly to a confiderable amount. Befides the native wool of the above- mentioned counties, Exeter imports from Kent about 4000 bags a- year. Some fhips are alfo occupied in the cod-fifhcry of Newfound- land, and in the Greenland capture of whales. The Imports are from Spain, Italy, Hamburgh, and the .Baltic j and coals from the North of England and Wales. It is, moreover, the refidence of many genteel families; and the frequent refort of others from the neighbouring . counties. Plymouth is a celebrated port with a population of 43,194. . Plymouth. Dorchefter, the chief town of the county of Dorfet, is a place of con- Doieheiltr. fiderable antiquity, fituated on the river Frome } bi^ has no manufac- tures, and is only celebrated for its malt liquor. Salllbury, the principal town of Wiltshire, is chiefly remarkable for Salifbury. extreme neatnefs, and for its cathedral, a beautiful piece of Gothic architedure, with the loftieft fpire in England, the height being 400 feet. There is a manufacture of flannels, and another of cutlery goods and hardware, the fuperiority of the fcifliirs being particularly noted. Wilton, in the fame county, is famed for the manufacture of beautiful carpets. ;-?^^ Ti&'S' ■"■i.: Winchefter, the chief city of Hampfliire, was for many centuries, Winchefter the metropolis of England, a pre-eminence which it did not wholly lofe till the thirteenth century**. The port was Southampton, but the fupe- ;* Aikiu't Engl, delineated, p. 335* Milner'i Wincheft. lior u^ E N G L A N^ D. uji CiTiM AH» rior fafety and convenience of that of London, graddalljr reftored the latter to that metropolitan dignity which it held in the Roman period. Winchefter remains a venerable city, with many veftiges of ancient fame and fplendour. It is fuuated in a bottom, amid open chalky downs, upon the fmall river Itchyn. The cathedral rather imprefles the idea of majeftic gravity, than of magnificence ; and has no fpire, having been erefted before that mode of architedure was ufed. The a(h es of feveral Saxon monarchs are here preferved with reverence. Not far from the cathedral (lands the celebrated college, founded bjr William of Wickham, and which has fent forth many illuftrious cha- racters. The regulations of this fchool are, in fome inftances, peculiar and fevere ; but in this, and the other grand Englifh feminaries, the equality of the pupils, except in refpedt of age and abilities, and even the fubferviency in which the younger are held by the elder, tend to ileel and fortify the mind againft the fubfequent cares and emulations of life. In the center of the city is a fmall, but mod elegant Gothic crofs ; and at the weftern extremity is the (hell of a palace, built under the direction of Sir Chriftopher Wren, yet heavy and inelegant ; it was begun by Charles II, but left un(im(hed at his death. It has fmce been ufed for French prifoners, and in 1796 was the refidence of about 640 emigrant priefts from France. Portfmoutb.J In the fame county is fituated Portfmouth, the grand naval arfenal of England. The harbour is noble and capacious, narrow at the en- trance, but fpreading out into an inland bay, (ive or fix miles in length, and from two to four in breadth* The advantages derived from nature have been improved by the art and induftry of fucceflive generations; and to a patriot, Portfmouth prefents one of the moft interefting fceues to be found in the Britilh dominions. The regular fortifications to- wards the land, in themfelves happily a novelty to the Britifh eye ; the magnitude and variety of the maritime objefts and manufadlures, and the profpeCl of Splthead, the grand focus of naval armament, confpire, with a thoufand relative ideas concerning the power of England, fu- preme in every fea, to excite our aftoniihment and exuhation. Lewcj. Lewes is efteemed the chief town of SufTex ; the fituation is lofty and pidurcfque^ efpecially the fite of the ancient caftle, belonging to the CHAP. ni. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 9f the powerful Earls of Warren and Suflex.- Beneath, in a pleafant Cixm and plain, watered by the River Oufe, ftand the ruins of an ancient nunnery. Chichefter retains feme little traffic. Brlghthelmftone is a fafliionable Brighthelm- refort for the fea air and bathing ; an extenfive beach extends four °"'* miles under lofty cliffs, and* on the other fide are wide open downs» compofed of numerous verdant hills, diverfified with winding cavities t towards Shoreham are fome pits of a kind of bitumen, which might, perhaps, be ufed in fome manufacture. When dried and rolled by the waves, it forms balls of various fizes, frequent on the beach, and for' merly ufed as fuel by the poor, though fince forbidden, on account of the noxious fmell. Brighthelmflone not only prefents the neareft open fhore to the capital, but is diftinguiihed for the peculiar mildnefs and falubrity of the air. i .,\. Canterbury, the chief town of Kent, and the metropolis of the Canterbury. Engliih church, is chiefly remarkable for ecclefiaftical antiquities; and the county town is Maidftone, noted for hops and thread. Kent pre- fents many other important towns, as Deptford, Greenwich, Woolwich, Gravefend, Chatham, Roche fter, and the fafliionable reforts of Margate, Ramfgate, and Tunbridge. Dover and Deal are remarkable havens. Having completed this brief furvey of the chief towns to the fouth of the Severn and the Thames, thofe of the middle and northern counties may be again commenced from the weft. Hereford, the capital of a county bordering on Wales, was known in Hereford, the Saxon times as an epifcopal fee. The caftle fuppofed to have been founded in the reign of the Confeflbr, is on the left bank of the river Wye. The cathedral is large, but the town prefents little remark- able, having gone into great decay; the only manufaAure is that Ofgloves". ^ -^,51". T:a-s-»', 3; ;?;> . _,■• > '■.< ,■ ;.;.., Gloucefter, the capital of the county fo called, is admired for the Glouccller. regularity of the four principal ftreets, joining in the center of the town, h avails hfelf of the traffic of the Severn, which, among other fifh, affords a luxurious fupply of lampreys. This town has beon -recently- celebrated for its neatnefs, and the cheapnefs of provifions. '(Jough'i Camdea, li. 450.; :a Worceflcr 8S ENGLAND. .If.'^ CiTiii An*> Towns. Woicefter. Cofcntry, M*rwich. Yarmouth, Lincoln. Worccfter is alfo fituated on the noble river Severn, over wliich there is a beautiful bridge. The manufactures are chiefly gloves and woollen ftuiTs ; and tlie porcelain maintains a high reputation. On the Eaft, the firft town of note is Coventry, efteemed the mod inland and centrical of the Englifh towns, whence, perhaps, the mili- tary phrafe of fending a man to Coventry, 'where he would be the mod remote from fervice. The manufactures are chiefly ribbons, with a few gauzes and camlets. The beautiful crofs, ereCted in 1541, after being much damaged by the lapfe of years, has been taken down ". The next memorable town is Norwich, the capital of Norfolk, from its fize and confequence juftly ftyled a city *. It is, however, not mcn- iioned till the year 1004, when it was ruined by the Danes. The worded manufadtory is fuppofed to have been introduced here by the Flemings, in the i ath century, and was followed by that of fayes arras, bombazeens, &c. Of late the damafks, camlets, crapes, nuiTs, &c. here wrought, have been computed at the yearly value of 700,000/.; but the falhionable ufe of cottons, and the interruption of commerce by war, have confiderably leflTened the confumption. The wool is chiefly from the counties of Lincoln, Leicefter, and Northampton ; the chief exports to Holland, Germany, and the Mediterranean ". Norwich is of courfe opulent and extenfive ; but the flreets are confined and devious. Yarmouth is a noted fea-port, with a beautiful quay, and remarkable for its fifheries of mackarel in May and June, and herrings in Odober and November : the latter cured by fait, and dried in the fmoke of wood, are called red-herrings, and, befides home confumption, form a confiderable article of export to Spain and Italy. In proceeding northwards, Lincoln muft arreft attention, though now much fallen from its former fame. The interior of the cathedral is admired for its lightnefs and magnificence. The (heep of the county form a celebrated breed, but the wool goes chiefly to Norwich. Lin. cola trades in coals, imported on the Trent. os f : ' r ■ " Gough't Camden, vol. ii. p. 345. " Aikin, s 16. , * A Bifliop'a fee conftitutct a c^j. In CHAP. IIL CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 89 In a chorograpliy of England, Leicefter and Shrewfbury might deftrve Cinrs am> (lefcripiion, but its geography can only embrace the moft im|^-ortant """''** topics. The city of Chefter muft claim the next confideration. It is of Chefter. Roman origin, and the chief ftreets are fingular in their conftrudlion, being excavated beneath the level of the ground, while a covered portico, in the front of the houfes, affords an elevated and flieltered foot-path ; beneath are the (hops and wurehoufes, on the level of the ftreet, to which the paflenger defcends by occalional ftairs. The trade of Chefter is not confiderable, but it carries on a Ihare of the traffic with North Wales; and its two annual fairs are famous for the fale of Irilh linens. It is the favourite refidence of many gecntel families from Wales '*. Near an extenfive bay of the Irilh Sea, which might now be termed Lancaftcr. the bay of Lancafter, while antiquaries affedl to retain the Roman name of Moricambe^ ftands Lancafter, an ancient and populous town, ^^he name is in the North pronounced Loncafter, the proper etymology, as it ftands upon the River Lon. When the counties of Cumberland and Weftmoreland belonr,ed to the Scots, this was regarded as a kind of frontier place, and was defended by a ftrong caftle, fituated on a com- manding eminence. Lancafter afterwards gave the title of Duke to princes of the royal blood ; and the contentions of the houfes of York " and Lancafter are well known. There is a bridge of five arches over the Lon, which opens into a confiderable haven ; the feat of a moderate commerce, cfpecially with the Weft Indies. On the Eaft, the extenfive province of Yorkfhire contains many Hull, flourifhing towns, befides the capital, York, and Sheffield, already (lefcribed. On the Humber, the wide receptacle of many rivers, ftands the greac fea-port of Hull, or Kingfton-upoii-Hull ; the latter name being only that of the rivulet. The town was founded by Edward I. Several privileges were obtained from Richard II; and the firft ftaple of trade was ftock-fi(h imported from Iceland. In the civil wars of laft century, Hull difplayed the firft flag of defiance againft the Monarch. The harbour is artificial, and is fuppolcd to preftnt the largefl: dock in the kingdom. Tlie trade is important VOL. T. ' Pennant's Tours. Aikin, 90. N with 90 ENGLAND. .,{ /'. Lrrdi. Cnits AMD with America, and the fouth of Europe, but chiefly with the Baltic iowNs. ^j^j feveral fhlps are employed in the northern whale-fifliery. The coafting traffic is extenfive in coal8, corn, wool, and manufadories; and Hull fupplies the commerce of many northern counties, havini' not only communication with the Trent, and other branches of the Humber, but with the rivers and canals of Yorkfliire *'. Leeds, Bradfield, Halifax, and Wakefield, are the chief centres of the great manufaftures of woollen cloths and ftuft's. Leeds is the principal mart for broad-cloths, or what foreigners term fine Englilh cloth. It is fituated on the river Eyre, in an extenfive vale ; and the population is computed at 53,162 ; being the fifth city on this fcale : the cloths are woven in the neighbouring villages, but are dyed, prepared, and fold, at Leeds. The cloth-hall appropriated to the fale is a vail edifice ; and the whole bufinefs is tranfa£ted within the fpace of an hour on the market days. Halifax is in an elevated fituation, and very populous. It is the chief market for the thinner woollen cloths, fuch as Auffs, calimancos, &c. Scarborough, on the eaftern coaft, is a place of celebrated refort for fea>bathing, and the mineral water ; the fite is romantic, but the port is fmall, and chiefly frequented by fifhing veflels. Durham is a pleafant and venerable city, extending partly over an eminence ; the river Were, winding around in the form of a horfe-fhoe, renders it peninfular. Near the neck of land is placed the caftle, of which little more than the keep remains ; which is furrounded by the pleafant garden of the Bifhop's adjacent palace. Towards the point of the peninfula flands the cathedral, a moft auguft edifice, in a mod augud fituation, with deep declivities on the fouth and wefl, down to the river ; the banks of which are finely wooded, and rich in the wild beauties of nature, which have been improved, not injured, by the tafte and opulence of the clergy. The bridge on the eaft is narrow and meanly executed ; but on the fouth there is an elegant modern bridge ; and on the weft that of Bilhop Flambard is admired for the lightncfs and beauty of the arches. About a mile from the town, on this fide, ftands Nevil's Crofs, where Durliai ' Aikii), Eli>g1. dcliB. 5,^. David M CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 91 David II King of Scotland was taken prilbner after a bloody conflift. ^'.J.'^"^*"* The cathedral was built about the year 1004, at Icaft the lower part, which belongs to what is called the Saxon form of architcdlure ; and is now repairing at the expence of the Biihop and Chapter. Some branches of the woollen manufi ^ure are carried on at Durham, and a few elegant carpets have been lately made there in a kind of Mofaic form. . Stockton on the river Tees, Sunderland at the mouth of the Were, and South Shields on that of the Tyne, are fea-port towns in the bilhopric, (for fo the county of Durham is commonly ftyled in the north,) of confiderable fize, trade and population. Hart-le- rool is only a bathing place. On the river Tyne (lands Ncwcaftle, fo termed from a fortrefs Newcaille. eredted by Edward I. This is a large and populous town, or rather city, placed in the centre of the grand coal-mines in the counties of Durham and Northumberland, which have for centuries fupplied London and moft of the eaft and fouth of England with that fuel ; which has perhaps contributed more to the manufadures and com- merce, and coufequent wealth and power of this kingdom, than any other material or circumftance. The coal fleets fometimes amount to five hundred fail ; their ftation is at Shields, and the quays of Jarrow and Willington. Even as a nurfery of feamen the trade is invaluable **. In all parts of the neighbourhood are feen large carts, loaden with coals, and proceeding towards the port, on inclined planes, without the help of horfes or men, to the great furprize of the ftranger ". Near Newcaftle arc alfo found quarries of grind-ftone ; and many glafs-houfes fmoke arouad, the pro( '. '' 'm mm '. .'.i'l CiTivi AND town in England is Carlifle, the capital of tlie county of Cumber* land, placed at the confluence of the rivers Pettril and Caldew with tlie Eden". The old fortifications remain nearly entire. It is fuppofcd to have been the ancient Luguballia ; but neither the caHIc nor cathedral are remarkable. The chief manufactures are linens, printed and checked, whips and fifh-hooks. The town is little populous ; and is chiefly memorable for tranfatStions in the ancient wara between Scotland and England. ret <- Caermar- then. Pembroke. Catrnarvon. Edifices. Wales, a country abounding in the fublime and beautiful features of nature, contains many towns of note ; and the defcription of a few has been referved to this place, for the greater clearnefs of arrangement. -, „.y.^.,,, Caermarthen, the capital of a county, is .. j regarded as the principal town in South Wales : it ftands upon the river Towy, and was anciently defended by a caftle now demolKhed. The haven is fliallow, and the trade of courfe not very confiderable ". Pembroke, on a creek of Milford Haven, is a fmall town of little commerce. - w.. .. . .,..., Caernarvon is efteemed the chief town of North Wales, for tlie beauty of the fituation, regularity of the ftreets, and above all for the grandeur of the caftle, one of the moft magnificent in Europe, founded by Edward I in 1282. Here was born Edward II furnamed of Caernarvon, who was immediately created the firft Englilh Prince of Wales, his father having equivocally promifed to the van- quished Welfh a Prince born in their own country, and who could not fpeak one word of Englifli. The town has a confiderable trade with London, Briftol, Liverpool, and Ireland ; and has a beautiful quay along the fide of the Menai, a ftreight beteen North Wales and Anglefea *'. In a brief enumeration of the principal edifices in England, the royal palaces demand of courfe the firft attention. Windfor caftle, fiiuated »* Cough's Camden, ii!. 175. For the rivers, Houfman 30 •ii^ttiu :ri Cornwall. — Mouiit-Edgecombe, Lord Edgecombe. " ' Devonfhire. — Powderham-caftle. ' '' '^''^ '«• > A ,- -. . :; .»,. Wilt(hire.— Wilton, Earl of Pembroke's ; Fonthill, Mr. Beckford's j Longleate, Lord Wcy. mouth ; Wardour caftle ; Stourton, Mr. HoSrc's. Hampfliirc— The Grange, Mr. Henley ; the Vine, Mr. Chute. ''"" *' ' ■■'; m'i ,»()5,a* 4j»,jV>.(i , i»,>-i 1 » isA* i .* tvnidl. Surry,— 1-JJI,^.,4 Bifliop of Winclicfter ) Oatliaili, of RlchmoaJ ; a famoui fest of tie Duke 94. ENGLAND. EDtriCKi. Surry.— Earl Spencer'* at Wimbleton j Farnham caftle, Claremont, Elhrr ( Dululch, Lord Tliurlow, Suflex.—Anmilcl caftle, Duke of Noifolk) Goodwood, Cowdray. Kent.— Knowle, Duke of Dorfet { Penlhurft, near Tunbridgc, Sydneyi) Sec. &c. EfTex.— Wanllead, Earl of Tilney } Audley-end ; Haverlnpf, Diikeof Ancafter. Middlcftx.— Sioii-houfe, Duke uf Northumberland ( 0(lerly-park, Mr. Child ; Hullaml. hnufe, Lord Holland, Jcc. &c. Bucks.— Clifdon I Stoive; Bulftrode, Duke of Portland, Sic. Sec, Oxfordlhire. — Blenheim, Duke of Marlborough ; Ditchley, Earl of Litchfield | Newnhim, Earl of Harcnurt, Sec. Gloucefterlhire.— Badminton, Duke of Beaufort; Berkley-caftle, Earl of Berkley} King'i Wcllon, Lord de Cliftuid. Herefordlhire. — Aconbury, Duke of Chandot( Brampton Bryan, Earl of Oxford} Clifford- calUe, Lord Clifford. Worcefterfliire.— Crome.court, Earl of Coventry ( Hartlebury, the Bifliop | Hagley Lord Lyttleton. The Lcafowe* of Shenftonc is in Shropftiire. Warwickihire. — Tamworth-callle, Earl Fcrreri } Warwick-caftle. Northampton.— Althorp, Earl Spencer} Eafton, Eail of Pomfret } Burleigh, Earl of Stamford ; and Apthorp, Earl of Wellmoreland. Bedfordniire.— Wooburn-abbey, Duke of Bedford } Luton, Marquis of Bute. Hertfordlhire.— Hatfield, Earl of Saliftury } Moore Park, Lord Dundas. Huutingdoiifliirc. — Kimbolton Caftle, Duke sf Manchcftert Bugden, Bifliop of * Lincoln. Cambridgelhire.— Tliorney.'abbey, Duke of Beaufort} Maddingly, Sir John Cotton} Milton, Mr. Knight. Suft'olk. — Ctifton-hall, Duke of Grafton ; Broome-hall, Lord Cornwallis. Noifolk.— Houghton, Lord Cholmondley } Raynbami Lord Townfliend} Holkhami Earl of Leicefter. • Lincoln. — Grimfthorpe, Duke of Ancafter. Rmlandfliite.— Okehamand Burley, Earl of Winchelfea } Afhton, Earl of Cardigan. Leicefterfliire. — BelvoircaAle, Duke of Rutland } Croby, Earl of Stamford. Nottinghamdiire.— Nottingfaam-caftle, Duke of Newcaftle { Wclbcck, Duke of Portland} Workfop. Duke of Norfolk. Derbylhire. — Chatfworth, Duke of Devonlhire ; Keddlefton, Lord Scarfdair, Staffordftire.— Beau Defert, Earl of Uxbridge i Dudlry-caftle, Lord Dudley, &c. Shropfhire.— Okcler park, LordCIivc; Atcham, Lord Berwick, &c. Chefliirr. - Cholmondley hall. Earl of Cholmondley ; Eaton-hall, Earl of Grofvcnor. Lancaftiire. — Stonyhurft, Duke of Norfolk ; Knowfley, Earl of Derby. Yorklhire.-- Sheffield manor, Duke of Norfolk ; Wcntworth caftle, Earl of Strafford; Wrerd- ' caftle ; Caftle Howard, Earl of Carlifle ; Whalton-caftle, Earl of Aylcibury } Hornby- calUe, Earl of HolderncCi ; Kivcton, Duke of Leeds, Stc, ttt. jyeftmoreland. — Pcndragon-caftle, Lonthcr hall, Lord Lonfdale; Appleby, Earl of Tbanet. Cumberland — Gieyftock caftle, Duke of NorfoUt ; Naworth, Earl of Carlifle. Durham. — Raby- caftle, F.arlof Darliagtoa; Bitbopi Aukland, Bifliop of Durham; Lumlejr- eJftIc, Hilton caftle, &c. &c. Northumberbad.— Alnwick, Dnke «f North^nbcrlud i Morpctb caftlcy Earl of Car- li/le, he. Waki CHAP. m. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 95 Walei tboundi in cIcgtBt cdificct, ai Winllty, the feat of Sir William Walkini Wfiinc t Lord Coiricts. Bulklry't near Bcaumareit i Duke of Beaufort'i, in Breclinuckfhire ; Chirk caftic in Denbigh, ihirrt Hawardeo-caitlc, in Flintfliire ; Swanfcy and Cardiff Calllci, iii Glamotganfhire ; Powij< ciftic in Muotgumeiy ; PiAoncalUe, in Pembrokrftiirc *, &c. &c. Among public buildings mud not be omitted tbc noble hofpitals for feamen and foUliers, at Greenwich, and Cheifea. Many of the county- halls have no inconfiderable claims to elegant archite^ure. The bridges are worthy the fuperiority of the Englifh roads : and » furprifing exertion in this department, is the recent conftru^ion of bridges in cafl-iron, an invention unknown to all other nations. The fird example was that of Colebrook-dale, in Shropfhire, erected over the Severn, in 1779. This bridge refts on abutments of ftone-work, jj^jj j, the main rib confifting of two pieces, each 70 feet long, connedled by a dove-tail joint, faftened with fcrews j the fhorter ribs, crofs-ftays, braces, &c. &c. would be little intelligible without a delineation. The road over the bridge is made of clay and iron flag, 24 feet wide, and one deep ; the fpan of the arch 100 feet 6 inches ; height from the bafe line to the centre 40 feet: the weight of iron employed 378 tons 10 hundred weight**. Another iron- bridge has fince been ereded in the vicinty. A ftupendous iron-bridge was thrown over the harbour at Sunderland, about five years ago; the height of which is 100 feet, and the fpan of the arch 236. The chief defeft of the bridge at Colebrook vras underdood to be, that it formed one entire whole, incapable of partial repairs ; but that at Sunderland is compofcd of detached pieces ofcaft-iron, which if damaged in any of the p'arts, may be withdrawn and replaced by others. It is fupported between two ftrong and ele- vated ftone piers ; and the arch is furmountcd at either end by vaft hoops, fupporiing the platform, or paflage of the bridge, which is thus rendered almoft level. When viewed from beneath, the elegance •This lift may perhaps appear to rorcrgners fomcwhat extraneous in a work of Geography ; but they will refleA that it is charaAendit: of the country in which the nobility and gentry pafs a great part of the year in rural life, infteadofa perpetual refidence in cities, as in Spain. The late J.onL Orford has more than once obferved to the Author, that if pi£lures and (latues thus difperfed; throughout the country, were collefttd in a city or two, as in other countries, w« fliouid be fur.^ prifed at our own opulence. ''Cough's Camden, u. 417. ,, s> fight- it: ■k.^.n^ ; t m -d '■•"tfj * . i t y 'S ■■-: ' ' 9G Bk dobi. Inland Na- vlgalioi). •^ i» ENGLAND. lightncfs, and farprifing height, excite admiration j and the carriagea appear as if paffing among the clouds. Several other bridges have been conftruded on this new and Angular plan, but not of fufficient importance to demand defcrlption, after fuch great examples. It is faid to be in agitation to throw fimilar fabrics over the Thames, at Staines and Datchet. Many projedlors have .eagerly contended for the rebuilding of London bridge; if cad-iron were employed, it would be more commodious for navigation, and would imprefs the beholder with aftonifhment, at the unrivalled pomp and grandeur of Englifli manufadlures. This article is important to the beft interefts of the country, and de- mands particular attention. It is believed that what is called the Caerdyke, extending from the river Nyne, a little below Peterborough, into the river Witham, three miles below Lincoln, was intended for inland navigation : this canal is about forty miles in length, and muft have been originally very deep, though now almoft filled up '°. It is fuppofed to have been a work of the Romans. No trace of further ex- ertion in this department appears, till the year 1608, when the canal or rather aquedufV, called the New River, was projected and begun by Sir Hugh Middleton ; it was finifhed in five years, and winds through a long courfe from Ware in Hertfordfliire, to the grand ciftern of Iflington. But, in fadi, the earlicft inland navigation that can be au- thenticated, is the Sankey canal, leading from the coal-pits at St. Helen's in LancaOilrc, to the River Merfey, and conftrudled in order to convey coals to Liverpool ". The length of the canal is twelve miles, with a tall of ninety feet. The ad: of parliament pafled in ly^j ; th^ original intention was only to render the rivulet called Sankey Brook, navigable ; but it was found more advantageous to form a canal along its courfe. The futveyor was Mr. John Eyes. But the Duke of Bridgewater is juftly venerated as the grand founder of inland navigation : his fpirit and opulence were happily fecondedby Brindley, than whom a greater natural genius in mechanics never exified. It was in the year 1738 that the firft a£l was obtained for ••■r*v('\ 7 Philips, Hill- of Inland NaTlgatlon, 1795, 410, p. 72. 6 " Ibid. Addenda 29. thefe CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 97 VIGATION. thefe great defigns. The firft canal extends from Worfley mill, about Inland N,i feven computed miles, a circuit of two miles being neGeiTary for the fake of the level. In this (hort fpace almoft every difficulty occurred that can arife in fimilar fchemes ; but mountains and rivers yielded to the genius of Brindley. There are fubterraneous paflages to the coal in the mountain of near a mile in length, fometimes cut through the folid rock, and occafionally arched over with brick; with air-funnels to the top of the hill, fome of them thirty feven yards perpen4icular. This beautiful canal is thrown over the river Irwell, by an arch of thirty- nine feet in height, and under which barges pafs without lowering their mafts. Yet the expence of this noble canal, in the then comparatively cheap ftate of labour and provifions, was only computed at looo gui- neas a mile. The variou:? macl.ines and inventions of Brindley, for its conflrudtioa and prefervation, vdcfervedly excite wonder, but a de- tail cannot be here expeded. The duke of Bridgewatcr foon after- wards extended a canal of twenty-nine miles in length, from Longford bridge, in Lancafliire, to Hempftones in Chefhire. After this deferred tribute to the fathers of inland navigation in England, it will be eligible to review the other canals in geographical manner, proceeding from the north to the fouth. In the county of Durham, a canal was projeded by Brindley, from the romantic village of Winfton, on the river Tees, to Staindrop, and thence by Darlington to Stockton : but this defign, and others not yet carried into execution will be paffed over, and only the moft important of thofe which have been executed fhall he commemorated. Firft in order is the Lancafter canal, extending from Kendal, in Weft- raoreland, by Lancader, to Weft Houghton, in Lancafliire, a fpace of about feventy-fcur miles. The canal from Leeds to Liverpool, direded in a northerly courfe bySkipton, winds through an extent of 117 miles; and from this canal a branch alfo extends to Manchefter, begun in 1771. From Halifax to Manchefter is another confiderable canal, commonly called that of Rochdale ; length thirty-one miles and a half, begun in 1794. VOL.1. — -; ""^ •'' o ' Another ':fi- 'i Bi 98 vrf;ATio Na. • • , ' E N G L A N D. Another canal extends from Mancheller towards Wakefield ; and another called the Peak Foreft canal, ftretches from the former, fouth- eaft, about fifteen miles. Another joins the River Dun, feveral miles above Doncafter, to the River Calder, near Wakefield. To pafs feveral cf fmaller note, the Chefterfield canal extends from Chefterfield, in the county of Derby, to the Trent, at Stockwith, a courfc of forty-four jniles and three quarters, begun in 1770. *!; ■- In Lincolnfhire, one canal extends from Lincoln to the Trent, and another from Horncaftle to Sleaford. Grantham canal reaches from that town to the River Trent, a courfe of thirty miles. The grand defign of Brindley v/as to join, by inland navigation, the four great ports of the kingdom, Briftol, London, Liverpool, and Hull. Liverpool is accordingly connected with Hull by a canal from that long navigable river the Trent, and proceeding north to the Merfcy. The canal which joins thefe two rivers is ftyled the Grand Trunk ; and was begun in 1766, under the direction of that great engineer ; but was not completed till 1777; the length is 99 miles. It was attended with great difficulties, particularly in paffing the river Dove, in Derbyfliire, where there is an aqueduft of twenty-three arches, the tunnel through the hill of Hare-caftle in StafFordfliirc, is in length 2880 yards, and more than 70 yards below the furface of the ground, and was executed with great labour and expence '*. But the utility correfponds with the grandeur of the defign : fait from Chefhire, coals and pottery from Staf- fordfhire, and manufadures from various places, are tranfported on this From the Grand Trunk five or fix branches extend in various direc- tions : among which mud not be omitted that to the river Severn, near BeNvdley, which conneds the port of Briftol with thofe of Liverpool and Hull j the length is 46 miles ; completed in 1772. From the city of Chefter one canal extends to the Merfey, and ano- ther to Nemptwich ; another proceeds fouth to Shrcwfbury, uniting the 3' Cary'i Plans, p. 26, 27, 28. The account of the Grand Trunk in Phih'ps, is verydt- fcflive, he may here be referred to in general for the others. Sec alfo Houfman, 122. 1 Merfey CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 99 VIOATION. Merfey anil the Severn ; with north-weft, and fouth-eaft brandies of idtANo Na- confidcrable length. From Coventry, in the centre of the kingdom, canals extend to the Grand Trunk; to A(hby-de-la-Zouch, and to the Braunfton, or Grand [undlion Canal. What is called the StafFordfhire canal, extends from the Grand Trunk to the River Severn ; and is met by the Kington canal, which reaches to Kington, in Herefordfhire, fo as almoft to join the Rivers Trent and Wye. It may be here obferved, that in this defcription the grand courfes of navigation are attended to, rather than the minute names and dlvifions of the canals. Several inland navigations pafs 'uy Birmingham. The Union canal completes a courfe of forty-three miles and three quarters, from Leiceder to Northampton, whence the river Nen is navigable to thelea. • '■■■ i '.4.:;i >; ». . . ... .> - . ] > Another canal extends from Gloucefter to Hereford : and the fouth of Wales prefents feveral navigations of confiderable length, particu- larly that from Brecon, in Brecknocklhire, to Newport in Mon- raouthfliire. The Severn is not only joined with the Trent and the Humber, by various courfes of navigation, but is united with the Thames, by a canal extending by Stroud to Lechlade, a courfe of n^ar forty miles. Other canals branch out from the Thames in various diredtions : that of Oxford extends to the Grand Trunk, or rather joins the Coventry canal, after a courfe of ninety-two miles. The Braunfton or Grand Junction canal, reaches from Brentford, on the Thames, and joins the Oxford canal at Braunfton, in Northamp. tonlhire, after a courfe of ninety miles. It is ftyled the Grand Jundion, becaufe it may be faid to unite the numerous courfes that pervade the central counties, with the capital of the kingdom. On the fouth of the Thames, a canal proceeds from Reading to Bath ; and another from Weybridge to Bafmgftoke ; and a third from Weybridge to Godalming. ' . o a ^ A fmall si? % la 1C9 ENGLAND. Manufaflurea and Com- merce. Inland Na- A fmall canal or two have been executed in Devonfhire. The vicAT.oN. Andover canal, in Hampfhire, extends from Andover to Southampton water. Suffex prefents two canals, that of Arundel, and that of Lewes. When we refleft that all thefe laudable efforts of improvement and civilization, have been executed within thefe forty years, there is room for well-grounded hopes, that in the courfc of centuries the kingdom may be interfered, like another China, with innumerable canals, to the inconceivable advancement of agriculture, commerce, and the national induftry and profperity. The fum already expended in thefe noble works, has been computed at five millions and a half; but how much more ufefully employed, than in fruitlefs wars, which con- fume fifty millions in one year ! The Manufactures and commerce of England, form fo extenfive a theme, that only a brief and fugitive idea of them, can be here at- tempted. The earlieft ftaple commodity of England was tin, a metal rarely found in other countries. The Phoenicians firft introduced it into commerce, at leaft five or fix hundred years before the Chriftian asra J and their extenfive trade foon difTufed it among the Oriental nations. The Romans, upon their conqueft of thefe regions, did not neglcdt this fource of wealth ; but as Cornwall was not conquered by the Anglo-Saxons till the reign of Athelftan, we know not whether the Cornifh Britons carried on any confiderable traffic in this com- modity, though it be probable that it was at leaft exchanged for the wines of France. Yet even in the reign of John, the produd was fo inconfidcrable, that the mines were farmed to Jews for loo marks; but in that of Henry III., they began again to yield a large profit, which has gradually incrcafed". Cornwall, like moil countries that abound with minerals, prefents an external afpedl of defolation : a feries of barren hills, and bleak heaths, pervades its whole length ; and the violent winds from the fea check the vegetation of trees and flirubs. The tin mines are numerous, and " BorUfe't Corawallt 8 of CHAP. m. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 101 cf various defcriptions. This metal is either found in the mafs, in Manvfac- what are called lodes andjioo/s j or in grains, or bunches, in the rocks ; Commfrce. or detached in feparate ftones, call *d Jhodes or Jirings ; or in a courfe of fuch ftones called \\iq benbeyl ox Uvhig Jlring \ or in the pulverized fhape of fand. After having been pounded in a mill, it is melted into blocks of 320 pounds weight. In the ore it is ftyled black tin; but is fometimes, though very rarely, found in a metallic ftate. The Angularity and importance of this firft national ftaple, may apologize for this difcuffion ; but the abundance of the other topics will require more brevity. Wool had been regarded as a grand ftaple of England, as early as the twelfth century, but was chiefly exported in a crude ftate, till Edward III. encouraged fettlements of Flemifh ma- nufadlurers. Wool foon became the ftandard of private property, and the prime article of commerce. Taxes and foreign fubfidies were eftimated by facks of this commodity *. Great quantities of raw wool continued to be exported to the Netherlands and Hanfe Towns ; but in the reign of Elizabeth it began to be chiefly manufadtured at home, and the exportation of woollen ^^ths was then valued at a million and a half annually. The exportation of raw wool was at length pro- hibited ; and the woollen manufadlures preferve great importance, though they no longer attraA fuch particular regard, amid ft the exube- rance of Englidi manufadlures. In recent times, the manufactures of iron and copper, native mine- rals, have become great fources of national wealth ; nor muft the new and extenfive exportation of elegant earthen-ware be forgotten. The cotton manufadlure is difTufed far and wide, forming a grand fource of induftry and profperity. That of linen is not much cultivated in En"-- land, though nature would ratlier demand that flax fhoukl be cultivated in this fertile country, while ftieep and wool were reftridcd to the hilly paftures of Scotland. The manufactures of glafs and fine fteel. • Campbell's Political Survey, vol. Ji. p. 151, 152. trJious and uncouth execution. A work opuleut in material*, but of moll clock?, Jil^i:. i ill 1 02 1 » KKS AND CaMMiRct. ^ - : ENGLAND. , clocks, watches, &c. are dc'"f=:rvedly eminent and extenfive. As the nation is indebted to Wedgewood for converting clay into gold, fo to Koydell tor another elegant branch of exportation, that of beautiful prints. Uefides manufa8 3 2,249,043 13 II 360,976 o II 654,842 19 3 12,001 13 10 Carried forward 9,907,031 16 2 3>345>55S ^ * " Mr. Grellier, in the Monthly Mag. January 1801. Foreign Merchandize, £■ '■ i- 914,352 4 4 579.453 <5 110,817 iS 251,551 6 i 21,616 16 S ')877.79' >' » Gibraltar CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. Kunes of tlic Countries. Value of Inports into Lontlun, Value of Exports from the Port of London, to Foreign Parts. ^^'i-^-.-TV 'Sff Vf-^'V-"'"' - '■ ' liritiflj Foreign ManufdOures. Mcrcliandize. L '. ''. L '. A I. ,. a. Brought forward 9,907,031 16 a 3.345.55 » 6 a 1.877.791 I' * Gibraltar 12,947 16 8 83.473 14 " 69,315 2 8 Honduras Bay 1 4,69$ 4 2 2,029 '8 II 2,550 16 2 •South Fifhery 197,680 8 6 21 6 8 — — — . Aliai including Eaft Indies 8,916,950 2 10 3,598,680 I 4 185,190 16 6 Africa 66,013 8 4 93.593 »2 9, 188,74} 16 Turkey 641,860 19 3 32,065 12 123,776 7 2 Slreights 8,399 '4 _ • ■ ■• Venice H2,io7 16 6,203 17 II 16,305 7 3 Italy -'":* ■'■''■' - 1,215,012 15 80,980 18 9 340,786 8 Spain 1,070,697 18 205,096 4 4 265,169 3 4 Portugal 644,610 3 8 182,780 6 2 119,813 12 6 Madeira 7,479 16 8 27.998 6 10 6,886 18 2 Canaries - 6,763 19 10 30.116 18 4 377 5 a France 130 6 8 3.2'C 5 3 63,625 10 6 Aullrian Flanders »37.»49 5 "9.413 9 7 887,642 18 10 Holland 1,203,515 3 6 114,458 3 7 1,968,687 3 4 Ger.-nany ' «^ " •- I, ©99,307 19 4 1,044,634 18 6,176,100 14 8 Pruffia 196,657 3 a 54,380 14 272,719 17 4 Poland 104,978 10 4 7,023 II 10 57.067 2 4 Sweden 262,727 3 4 33.845 5 6 111,457 14 4 Ruffia 1,269,688 9 6 95.519 8 8 49 f, 244 9 2 Denmark and Norway 166,366 1 H7.340 5 II 545,509 19 8 Greenland 26,753 II 2 — , _ __ United Sates of America 811,511 18 8 2,251,280 12 I 429,248 7 8 Florida 16,239 '^ ° 38.067 3 8,8j5 Foreign Weft Indie* 56,240 2 1,767 13 10 60 Prize Goods 1,572,868 8 8 Included in the account of each country. 103 *u 29,706,476 17 4 ii,39'5>539 "3 8 RECAPITULATION. The aggregate value of goods imported into London in one year Britifli Manufactures exported j^> ii>39'^>539 13 8 Foreign Merchandize, do. 14,208,9:5 14 6 Value of goods imported 111 upwards "j of 9000 coafting veflels, averaged ?■ 4,500,000 O O at 500/. each. 3 Value of goods exported coaftwaysn in about 7000 veifels, at icooA > each. J 14,208,925 14 6 29,706,476 17 4 21.^05,465 fi 3 7,000,000 o ii)500,ccc o o Total amount of property fliipped and unfhipped in the River Thamei, in \ fr c. theeourfeoftlieyear,eftimatedat - - . J ' '^ 5 6 If &.. i Jli if' Mr i^HJ i| II IC4 COMMIUCR. ^ i -ENGLAND. (D If to this eftlmate be added thofc of the ports of Liverpool, Bnllol, &c. how enormous muft be the amount '*. From the States of North America, are chiefly imported tobacco rice, indigo, timber, hemp, flax, iron, pitch, tar, and hunber. From the Weft Indies, fugar, rum, cotton, coffee, ginger, pepper, guaiacum, farfaparill.i, manchineal, mahogany, gums, &c. From Africa, gold dul}, ivory, gums, &c. From the Eaft Indies and Criina, tea, rice, fpiccs, drugs, colours, filk, cotton, falt-petre, fliawls, and other produds of the loom. From our remaining fettlements in North America, are imported furs, timber, pot-afli, iron ; and from the various States of Europe, numerous articles of utility, and luxury. On introducing the Income Tax, Mr. Pitt gave the following eftiraate of the annual income of Great-Britain". The land rental, after deducing one-fifth - - - ;f. 20000 oco The tcnnant's rental of land, dedufting two-thirds of the rack-rent . - 6,ood,coo The amount of tythes, dedutling one fifth - - 4,000,000 The produce of mines, canal navigation, &c. dedu£ling one fifth • 3,ooo,oco The rental of houfes, dedufting one fifth - ... 5,000,000 The profits of profeflions ... . 2,ooo,oco The rental of Scotland, taking it at one eighth of that of England - 5,000,000 The income of perfons refident in Great Britain, drawn from pofleflions beyond the fcas 5,000,000 The amount of annuities from the public funds, after dedudiing one-fifth for I exemptions and modincations ... t The profits on the capital employed in our foreign commerce • 12,000,000 The profits employed on the capital in domellic trade, and the profits of fkill ) „ \- A a i 28,coo,oco anamduilry ... . j In all £. 102,000,000 By others, the landed property of Great-Britain has been com- puted at the rental of 33,000,000/. which, at thirty years purchafe, would yield 990,000,000/. ; the rental of houfes in England and Wales", at 7,436,000/. and eftimaiing that of Scotland at about a fixth, the value at fifteen years purchafe, might be about 130,000,000/. The cattle and farming-ftock, about 100,000,000/. the furniture, apparel, &c. 26,000,000/. The navy and merchant-fhips have been valued at 16,000,000/.; the goods in the hands of merchants and " Colquhoun (or Cohoun) on the Police. '" Grellier, Moiuh. Mag. Sept. #800. " New Annual RegiAer, for 1799, p. 114. wholefale '«"■ .#; CHAP. ni. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. »o5 wholefale dealers, more than 13,000,000/. and thofe In the hands ofCoMMiKci. manufacturers and retail traders, more than 22,000,000/. Including the money, of which the ellimate is far from certain, the whole capital of Great-Britain may be calculated at more than one thoufand two hundred millions *. In the year 1797, the amount of the exports, according to Cuftom- houfe accounts, was 28,917,000/. and of the imports, 21,013,000/. f yielding, as is fuppofed, clear profits on foreign trade, to the amount of at leaft 10,000,000/. The number of merchant veflcls is fuppofed to amount to 16,000; and it is fuppofed that 140,000 men and boys arc employed in the navigation. .^ .;,-.); f»r;,.;i ? , ;: tjrv^ * lo the beginning of the eighteenth centuiy, Gregory King Tuppofed the value of England andWalei to be 650,0001000/. MS. Harl. No. 1,898. The natimal debt now approachet 50o,ooO|00o/. fMr. Pitt in 1799, computed the import* at 25, and the exports at more than 33,000)000/. In Feb, 1801, the Fordgn exporti at 17, the domeftic ao,ooo,oo«/. ia all, 37iOOOi00o/. '" " C. 102,000,000 ■1 ■f/^f-; . 1 ■,■- -f >. ■•■■■i"r ' l:'i\^ ii'lA J^'>' '.■: "^f <;'-■) ^'fet |rr"' -fff^t^: :r- 't 'ft- .f".--.V.j;',i^"<,* >' tOL. I. CHAP. ( «o6 ) 'I t ; . CHAPTER IV. > t. Natural GEocRAPiir. ffs;;.. Climate AND &lASONa> Climate and Seafons.-^Face of tl>e Country. — Soil and Agrievltttre.-^Rivm,^ Lakes. — Mountains. — Torejis. — Botany. — S^ology. — Mineralogy. — Mi?ieral Waters. — Natural Curiofities. 'T^HE climate of Great-Britain is perhaps more variable than that of any other country on the globe, as the vapours of the Atlantic Ocean, are oppofed to the drying winds from the Eaftern Continent. The weftern coafts in particular, are fubje£l to frequent rains ; and the eaftern patt of Scotland is of a clearer and dryer temperature than that of England. The humidity of the climate, indeed, clothes the delicious vales and meadows with a verdure unknown to any other region ; but is injurious to the health of the inhabitants, by caufmg colds and catarrhs, the frequent fources of more deadly diforders, particularly cf confumptions, which are fatal to many in the prime of youth. The moift and foggy climate confpires with the great ufe of grofs animal food, to produce that melancholy, which is efteemed by foreigners a national charadieriftic. As trees particularly attract the moifture of the atmofphere ; it may be queftioned whether the noted abundance of them in England, contribute to the general falubrity. In confequence of the mutability of the climate, the feafons them- felves are of uncertain tenour. Aged people have always been given to magnify the advantages of their youth, but many obfervers, endowed with philofophical fkill, and candid judgment, have agreed, that fince the year 1 775, a confiderable change has taken place in the tempera- ture of the year, both in Great Britain and Ireland '. The winters in general have been more moift and mild, and the fummers more humid and more cold, than will be found on an average of preceding li Set: Memoirs of the Inih Academy, vol. ii. yeati» CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 107 Tcari. The year might more properly be divided into clglit months of Cmm.vti; winter, and four of fummer ; than into any theoretic arrangcmetit, origi- Scajon*. nating in the fouthern latitudes. What \s called the Spring, dawns in April, commonly, indeed, a mild month ; but the eaftern winds prevalent in May, fecm commiflioned to ruin the efforts of reviving nature, and dcftroy the promife of the year. June, July, Auguft and September, are ufually warm fummer months j but a night of froft is not unknown, even in Auguft, and fometimes a cold Eaft wind will blow for three days together ; nor of late years are fummars unknown of almoft con- ftantrain*. What the gardeners call b/i^bt, feems alfo more common in England than in any other region ; and whatever be the caufe, is frequently very deftrudlive, efpecially to the hop-plants and the fruit trees. The winter may be faid to commence with the beginning of Odtobcr, at which time domeftic fires become neccflary; but there is feldom any fevere froft till Chriftmas, and January is the moft ftern month of the year. Yet as our fummers often produce fpecimens of winter, fo now and then gleams of warm funftiine illuminate the darker months, though rarely amounting to what the French call utt etc de St Martian or Martinmas fummer. March is generally the moft unfettled month of the year, interfperfed with dry froft, cold rains, and ftrong winds, with ftorms of hail and fleet. A chief ftep to the ftudy of Geography, confifts in the knowledge of Face of the what may be termed the phyfiognomy of the country, yet has no province ^'"'"''y* in this fcience been fo completely neglefted. We have even maps of Scotland and Switzerland, without mountains, and maps of China without canals. The chief features of any country are its hills, vales, and rivers ; and of a maritime ftate, the fea-coaft. Mr. Pennant, in his Arflic Zoology, has given an admirable defcription of part of the Englifti fliores, which ihall here be abbreviated, with an alteration in t\)e arrangement, as he choofes to begin with the Strcights of Dover. ' From the mouth of the Tweed to 13amborough, extends a landy fliore ; and the moft remarkable objedl is Lindesfarn, or Holy Ifland, divided from Northumberland by a level, which is dry at low water, • The fummer of i8co was remarkable for drynefs and warmth, fcarcely any rain falling from the 6th of June to the 10th of Auguft, when a thunder ftorm fucceeded. P 2 but io8 ENGLAND. Face or TMI Country. but out of which the flowing tide oozes fuddenly, to the terror and peril of the unwary traveller. From Bamborough Caftle, to Flambo- rough-head, are moftly low cliffs, of lime-ftone, and other materials; and at Sunderland of a peculiar (lone ufcd in building, and which feems the work of marine infects. Scarborough (lands on a vaft rock, projecting into the waves ; but Flamborough-head is a far more magnill< cent objeft, being formed of lime-done, of a fnowy whitcnefs, and Aupendous height, vifible far off at fea. Grand caverns open on the north fide, " giving wide and folcmn admi(rion, through mod exalted " arches, into the body of the mountain ; together with the gradual decline of light ; the deep filence of the place, unlefs inteirupted by the ftriking of the oar, the collidoii of a fwelling wave againft the fides, or the loud flutter of the pigeons, affrighted from their nefts in the diftant roof, afford pleafures of fcenery, which fuch formations as this alone can yield. Thefe alfo are wonderfully dlverfifled. Iq fome parts the caverns penetrate far, and end In darknefs ; in others are pervious, and give a romantic paffage by another opening, equally fuperb. Many of the rocks are infulated, of a pyramidal form, and foar to a great height. The bafes of moft are folld, but in fome pierced through and arched. All are covered with the dung of the Innumerable flocks of migratory birds, which rcfort here annually to breed, and fill every little projedlon, every hole, which will give " them leave to reft*." Hence to the Humber are commonly clay cliffs ; and near Spurn. head amber is fometimes found. The extenfive coaft of Llncolnfhire Is flat, and, according to Mr. Pennant's opinion, has been gained from the fea; though, in fome parts, the fea has in Its turn Invaded the land, and the remains of a foreft are vifible under the waves. The county of Lincoln, and part of fix others, are the low countries of Britain ; and the coaft is dlftinguKhable by churches, not by hills. The (hores of Norfolk and Suffolk prefent fometimes loamy or clayey precipices, fometimes hillocks of fand, and fometimes low and flat fpaces. Hun< ftanton- cliff rifes to the height of about eighty feet, compofed of chalk It « «< (t (t •t (t (C (t il <{ (t ' Pennant's ArAic Zoology, vol. i p. xt. and «i CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 109 FArv or THI COUHTKV. and friable ftonc, reftinp; on a bafc of what is called iron coloured pudiling-ftonc *, projc('">ing into the Tea. The coaft of Eflex is gene- rally low; but to the louth of the Thames, arife continued cliffs of chalk, with layers of flint, refuinhli' g mafonrjr. The North Foreland is a lofty chalky piomontory ; and ilte Cliffs of Dover arc known to every reader of Sliake: peare. It is to be regretted that Mr. Pennant did not extend his animated (lefcription to the fouthern and wclU'rn coafts : difl's of chalk and cliy arc interfperfed with flat gravel, till the ifland of Portland prefents its bold rocky front. The weflern fhores abound with granite, and other fillceous rocks, flate, and lime-ftone. The foil and agriculture of England, are topics which have recently Sofl and been illuftrated in fuch a multiplicity of meritorious works, that the Agriculture, fubjed labours under the abundance of the materials. A few very ge- neral remarks mud here fuffice. The foil is greatly diverfiBed, but in general fertile ; and in no country is agriculture more thoroughly tin- d':rilood, or purfued in a grander ftyle, except, perhaps, in Flanders and Lombardy. The nobility and gentry, mcftly refiding upon their edates in fummer, often retain confiderable farms in their own hands, and pra^ice and encourage every agricultural improvement. The writings of Mr. Young, the inftitutions in the weft, and the Board of Agriculture, recently ere£led, have contributed to diffufe a wide and lading knowledge of this interefting branch. The intermixture of th» green crops with thofe of grain, the ufe of turnips, the irrigation of meadows, the regular fubftitution of crops appropriated to the ftate of the land, the art of draining conduced on fcientific principles, may be mentioned among the recent advances of knowledge ; nor muft the im- provements in the breed of (heep and cattle, introduced by Bakewell and others, be forgotten. Amidft fuch topics of juft exultation, it is mortifying to refle£l upon two circumftances, the deficiency of a proper fupply of grain, and the immenfe extent of the wafte lands in this induftrious country. The cultivated acres in England and Wales are computed at upwards of 39,000,000, while thofe uncultivated are 7,888,777. Of thefe it is- ^131 i.: h • 'thtfarcirttto! K7rwan from the Latin': better from tlie Greek, haV'tfite. fupppfedi no ENGLAND. Soil anj» fuppofcd that not above half a millioa is wholljr unimprovable, and ^t'vIu!'^ perhaps a million is only fit for plantations, while of the remainder one quarter is fit * v tillage, and three fourths for meadow and upland pafture '. Mr. Middleton * computes the arable land in South Britain at only 14,000,000 of acres, upon a general view of the confumption of the country, as we import corn proportionate to the produce of 378,000 acres. He fuppofes the ftate of crops on each 10,000,000 of acres to be as follows : Wheat Oats and bcant Barley and Rye Root! Clover Fallow ' i, 7 50,000 Acre*. 3,500,000 750,000 I|C00|000 i,ooo,oco 3,000,C00 Total iO)Ooo,coo The utility of fallow is a dubious topic ; and the million in clover may be arranged as pafturage which otherwife occupies not lefs than 21,000,000 of acres, while 2,000,000 are afligned to woods, copfes, and hedge-rows' J and more than 1,500,000 are unavoidably confumed in roads, rivers, and waters, &c. The fubjedt can only be well dlf- cufTed by the ' confequenily of manure, fo that the arable ground was ftarved ; fo in England there may, perhaps, be an excefs of pafturage. Whatever be the caufes a growing population, certainly increafing luxury and wafte, the negled): of the wafte lands, or other fources, the confumption of grain in this couiftry, has, it is believed, fince the middle of the lall century, particularly fince 1767, generally exceeded the produce; and the evil has gradually increafed to an alarming extent. On an average of eleven years, clofing with 1793, the annual deficiency amounted to 587,163 quarters of grain*; nay, in 17Q5, the fcarcity demanded a fliil further fupply of 1,177,000 quarters; which alfo, divided by 11, will ' Firft Report of the Committee of the Houfeof Commons, p. 22. 4 View of Middkfn, p. 484. > lb. 4I6. * lb. ^9 u produce '4 CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 1 1 1 TURE. produce the whole annual defed of 694,163 quarters. Computing Son, and produce at three quarters an acre, the land required, exclufive of the ^°'""^"''' feed, would be 231,388 acres cropped with corn; while about half as much muft be added for fallow and the rotation of crops. For an abundant fupply 500,000 of acres might be requifite, which might feemingly be aflumed with little difliculty from at lead 1,500,000 wafte acres in fouth Britain, which are fit for tillage. Yet this calcu- lation would infer that the deficiency does not exceed the twenty- eighth part of the whole, which feems too fmall, as the bread has been doubled in price ; and, indeed, thefe > hcoretic views can never pretend to much exadnefs. If South Britain annually produce 11,500,000 quarters of wheat, the deficiency can hardly be fuppofed lefs than a tenth pait. Scarcity, indeed, multiplies the confumption, as the poor are reduced to the ufe of bread only ; but flill the rife in the price of that article, appears to exceed any fair calculation. Horticulture, or the art of gardening, is alfo purfued in England with great affiduity and fuccefs. The large fupply of the capital in vegetables and fruits, and the high prices given for early produce, occa- fion fuch a fpirit of cultivation, that each acre thus employed, is fup- pofed to yield about 120/. annually, the confumption in the metropolis being computed at more than 1,000,000/. annually. While Mr. Mid- dleton computes the hop-grounds in South Britain at 44,000 acres, he allows 10,000 for nurfery grounds, 50,000 for fruit and kitchen gar- dens, and 20,000 for pleafure-grounds, that is the unprofitable parts of the latter, the reft being paftured for cattle, or mown for hay. OF ornamental gardens, laid out with a juft attention to the beauties of nature, and free from the uncouth affeftations of art, England is de- fervedly regarded as the parent country ^ The firft idea has been referred to Milton's defcrlption of Eden j and a paper in the Guardian is fuppofed to have induced Bridgman, a fafhionable defigner of gar- dens, to begin this reform, which was fuccefsfully followed by Kent* while the Duke of Argyle introduced the various foliage of exotic trees. One of Kent's heft works was the garden at Roufham, while Claremonr, £fher, and other places, alfo proclaim the extent of hi» powers. The ■•'t; '.i ; ■ ::iti * Lord Orford on Modern Gaidening. new •i'\^r. ... Uki , ■(,: $^OII. AND AORICL L- 1 I- R t. llivcrs. tDSvern. Thames. Humber. ENGLAND. new defigns were feconded by feveral gentlemen of tafte j and Kent was followed by Brown, who has been fucceeded by Repton, and other mafters of great abilities. In the courfe of little more than half a century, this tafte has not only been difFufed in Great Britain, but hat been imitated in feveral favourite fpots on the Continent, even as far as the rude climate of Ruffia. ; j v .-(.. ,i,~ :ju v , : . .' But the rivers and mountains of a country conftitute its moft im- portant features ; and without juft delineations of them, the geogra- phical portrait cannot boaft much truth or relemblance. England is interfedled by four important rivers, the Severn, the Thames, the Hum- ber, and the Mcrfey. The Severn rifes from the mountain Plenlimmon, and after an eafterly courfe to Shrewfbury, bends its progrefs alraoft fouth to Gloucefter, whence it flows fouth-weft into the Briftol Chan- nel, a progrefs of about 150 miles, navigable as far as Welch-pool. Its chief tributary ftreams are the Northern and Southern Avons, the Teme and the Wye *. The Thames originates in Cotfwold-hills, Glouceftcrlhire j and main- tains a fouth-eafterly dire^ion, to its egrefs into the German Ocean, after receiving the Cherwel, the Teme, the Kennett, another Wye, the Mole, and Lee. The Medway flows into the eftuary of the Thames, as the Wye into that of the Severn. The courfe is computed at 140 miles, navigable to Cricklade °. The Humber is a name almoft confined to a large eftuary, which receives many confiderable rivers that fertilize the central parts of England. Of thefe the Trent is the moft important, which rifes at New-pool, in StaflTordfliire, and proceeding North-eaft, enters the number, after a dired courfe of about 100 miles, being navigable to Burton in Staffbrdfliire. The other principal rivers that iflfue into the Humber, are the Dun, a navigable ftream which runs by Don* cafter; the Aire navigable to Leeds, and the Calder navigable lo Halifax, both fmgularly ufeful in tranfporting the woollen manu- fadures ; the Warf, navigable to Tadcafter ; and the noble river Ure, or Oufe, which runs by York, and forms another grand branch of the • Campbell, I. 146. * Ibid. 1. 139. Humber, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHy. nj Humber, navigable to Rippon : nor muft the Derwent be omitted, RrvER». which is navigable to New Malton ; nor, tliough laft and lead, the Hull. The Humber may be regarded as the Hem of a venerable oak, which, as ufual with that tree, f'preads its chief branches in a horizontal diredion. Though the Merfey prefent a grand eftuary, its courfc is not of Mcrfey. great extent. It arifes in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, and runs to the fouth-weft ; but the eftuary bends towards the north. The direct courfe is not above ^o miles ; and is navigable to Stockport : as f lie Irwell to near Manchefter, and the Weever to near Northwich, and the mines of rock-falt. In briefly defcribing the other nc»vigable rivers of this kingdom, it may be proper to return to the Severn, and proceeding fouth-weft, purfue the outline of the coaft. The Avon is navigable to Bath, the Perrot to Ilchefter, the Tone to Taunton, the Taw to Barnftaple, and another branch to Biddeford ; the Camil of Cornwall, to Wedbridge, while the Plym, Dart, and Ex, can alfo be pervaded to a confiderable height. Another Avon is navigable to near Salifbury, the Itchyn to Winchefter, the Arun to Arundel, the Oufe to Lewes : the Rother, which forms the haven of Rye, is yet navigable, though fallen in fame. The Stour admits boats even to Canterbury ; but the Medway prefents a navigable ftream as far as Tunbridge. On the North of the Thames, the Lee is navigable to Bifhop's Stortford and Hertford : the Crouch conveys boats from the fea to Hull-bridge in Eflex ; the Black-water to Chelmsford, and another branch to Colchefter. The Stour is navi-. gable to Sudbury ; the Orwell to Stow, the Deben to Woodbridge : the Yare and Waveney prefent accefs to Foulfliam and Bungay. Next is the eftuary called the Wafti, which receives the Oufe, the Nen, the Welland, the Witham, all ftreams of confiderable navigation. On the North of the Humber, the Tees admits veflels to Stockton ; the Tyne to Newcaftle. On the Weft, the Eden is navigable to Car- lifle ; the Lon to Lancafter and Hornby j the Dee to Ghefter ; the Conway to within two miles of Llanrwft ; the Tivey to Llanpitcr. Milford Haven prefents branches navigable to Haverford-weft, and to VOL. I. Q^ . ^ near 1^1^ 1 • 'BB^M^BMttjHfrltEl^^Bl ill ^' mnpi^i 1 ' ^ '•Er^mnM'Sil^ mm IH ENGLAND. RiVERti Mount ains. near Wiflon : and laftly, the Wye may be purfued as far as Hay in BrecknockHiIre. In general it may be obferved of the Britlfh rivers, that the length of their courfe is inconfiderable, when compared with that of the Conti- nental ftreams. The length of the Thames compared with that of the Danube, is only as i to 7, and with that of the Nile, as i to 12. The Kian Ku of China, and the river of Amazons in South America, ex- tend through a progrefs of more than fifteen times the length of that of the Thames. The rivers of the Southern and middle parts of England, prefent a ftriking contrail to thofe of the North ; the former purfuing a flow and inert courfe over mud, between level banks, amid rich and extenfive meadows ; while the latter roll their clear torrents over beds of gravel, between elevated banks, and rocky precipices ; and even when verdant levels occur, the flream ilill retains its banks and beds of gravel. ■ ' --. . i" ,' .. > '-^.V ■n .-.: >'» >■'" .. ^^ . The mountains form another grand feature of geography. They feldom appear fingle, but are either difpofed in lines or ridges, called chains, or in anomalous clufters. When they can be arranged under the firft form or denomination, as the Alps for example, or the Pyrenees, they afford great clearnefs to geographical limits and defcriptions. It is not, however, to be conceived, that a chain of mountains forms one feries, as delineated in fmall maps, for the leading fummits diverge on both fides into extenfive ribs, gradually melting into the champaign country. And the cluflers, if accurately furveyed, will, generally be found to prefent central elevations, whence fmaller branches irradiate. While Bennevis,' the higheft mountain in Scotland, is not much above one quarter of the height of Mont Blanc, the fovereign of the Alps, the Englifh and Welfh fummits afpire to heights flill lefs confi- derable ; Snowden being only 3568 Englifh feet above the fea, while Bennevis is 4387, or by other accounts, 4350. ButWharn, orWharn- fide, in Yorkfhire, was eflimated at 4050 *. ■ .,'^vv-i'^ .;f ;■..■^5.•^d^ f ^pi^wTiVf J*«si,-'•1r^iai^^ Even * In the map of the Weft Riding, in Cary'i Englifh Atlai, Wharn is faid to be 1780 yards, or 5340 feet; while Ingleborough is 1760 yards, or 5280 feet; and Pennigant 1740 yards, or 5220 feet. This meafurement is from the map of Yorkfhire, by Jeffries. Mr< CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. if5 Even at the prefent day, the geography of fome parts of New Mouhtmhj. Holland, is better underftood than that of fome parts of Great Britain. There is not even a feparate map of the EngliHi rivers, though France fet an example of this kind, a century and a half ago ; nor has there Mr. Houfman, in his Defcription of Cumberland, &c. (Carlifle, iBoo, 8vo.) is the moft recent authority for the height of the Britifh mountains, which he exhibits in the following table; '^ Heigbn ef ibt MouHlains abovt ibt Livil of iht Sta. Feet. Snowden, in Wales, by Waddiiigton ^ . ■ *. . . » . 3456 Whemfide :^^'y PendlehiU '"*/ ' > ^^ ,; Pennygent Ingleborougb, *' ■* Hclwcllyn, by Donald } 'I'V Skiddaw, Do. ,,..;,, Crofs fell. Do. ["' Saddleback, Do. Benlomoud Benevifh Ben-y board higher Laghin y gair Benwewiih, Do. Do. 1 By Pennant. 4050 3411 3930 3987 33H 3«7« 3390 3048 3240 43JO Perpetual fnow. " '*'■ Skiddaw, by the experiments of Mr. Walker, from the plane 1 of the fea, at Whitehaven - - J ^" Crofs fell, by Pennant ... 3839" ' But great (kill and precifion are required in meafuriug the heights of mountains. A late ex- cellent mathematician, Mr. Ewart, of Lancafter, meafured the height of Ingleborough, with k\t& and high-priced inttruments, and great care. Hcie is the refult, as communicated to me by Dr. Gamett : Height of Ingleborough above the level of the Sea, in feet and decimals. fv By barometrical admeafurement ... 2377.12 * By trigonometrical /.^ «c,.'J;.' <.;i. •- , ^" - 2380.7 ■)•«(>■ Difference only . 3*<>7 Wham cannot be above 100 feet higher, while Pendle and Penoigant are lower. The meafure- ments by Donald are probably near the truth ; CrofsfcU being, in Dr. Garnett's opinion, the higheft mountain in England. Mr. Houfman has, however, given a good general View of the Englilh mountains. On coming from the fouth (p. 5 . ) they begin in Derbyfhire, ftretching a little into Chefhire. The tops of the ridgeis are commonly wet and boggy, and prpduce heath, bent-grafs, and rufhes. They are almofl univerfally calcareous. Near Penrith (p. 8.) they almoft wholly difappcar. The fiimmit of Crofafell (p. 18.) is fcarcely looo yards above the fea, tnd prefents a large heap of loofe whitilh frce-ftone, or, more probably, argiUaceoui grit. 0^2 been mm i m I'ViW. ««' ii6 ENGLAND. }! Cheviot. Central Cliaiu. Mountains, been any attempt to delineate the chains of mountains in England. The imperfeftion of the materials mud therefore apologize for any errors or defedks in the fubfequent flight (ketch. The mountains of Cheviot may be faid to form a regular ridge, running from the fouth- weft, where they join thofe of Galloway to the north-eaft. But there is a central ridge which pervades England from north to fouth, beginning at Geltfdale foreft, 14 miles S. E. of Carlifle *, and paffing on the weft of Durham and Yorkfliire, where it contains mines of coal and lead, but is fplit into infignificant appellations oi fells and laws. Kelton-fell, Stan- more, Widehill-fell,Wildboar-fell, Bow-fell, Home-fell, Bun-hill, &c. &c. arife on the weftern limits of Yorkfliire. Cumberland and Weftmoreland prefent many detached mountains, Skiddaw, &c. which can hardly be reduced to any diftindt arrangement ; but thofe of Craven, in the Weft Riding of Yorkfliire, as Wham, or as commonly called by the country people, Wharnfide, Ingleborough, and Pennigant ; and Pendle on the eaft of Lancafter f j belong to the Central Chain, which proceeds fouth, through Derbyfliire, ftill abounding with minerals and natural curiofities; but here it feems to terminate, fpreading a little into Chefliire. Still, however, a central chain of fmaller elevation, may be traced, in a zig-zag line, to near Salifljury, with two diverging and irregular branches on the eaft, one towards Norfolk, another into Kent, while a third runs fouth-weft into Con ,al. To the firft belong the hills of Gogmagog, in Cambridgeftiire, &c. to the fecond the hills of Hampfliire, Surrey and Kent. Malvern hills, in Worcefterfliire, de- •viate from the central ridge, while thofe of Cotfwold, in Gloucefter- fliirc may be regarded as a continuation of it. The hills of Mendip, Polden, Sedgemoor, Blackdown, in Somerfetfliire ; the Tores and Wilds of Dartmore, in Devon; and the hills and upland downs of • The heatliy traft extends to Bewcaftle and Nichol Foreft, but is level. Houfm. 437. •j- Tliat Ingleborow-hill, Pendle, and Pennigent, Should nanned be the highcfl betwixt our Tweed and Trent. DrajiQH'i Poly-Olbhn, Smgii, Jt 15 remarkable that Wliarn, the higheft, Is omit^tcd.. , ^,.. ,,, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 117 Cornwal, extend this chain to the Land's End : and after pafling this Mountains laft rocky province, it expires in the Iflands of Scilly *. Wales is a country abundant in mountains, efpecially the northern provinces ; but their orology remains indeterminate, and it would re- quire the adlual furvey of an experienced engineer, to reduce them to chains and groupes. To begin with the North, Snowdon commands the Snowdoi. firft attention, a mountain of eminent height and fame. The top is called Y Widdfa, or the confpicuous, forming almoft a point, and pre- fendng a view of the county of Chefter, the mountains of Yorkftiire, part of Scotland and Ireland, and the Ifles of Man and Anglefey ". Mr. Pennant does not fpecify the ftone that compol'cs it (probably a granite) i but he obferves that " large coarfe cryftals are often found " in the fiflTures, and very frequently cubic pyritae, the ufual attend- *' ants on Alpine trafts." Mr. Aikin in his laft tour brought fpecimens from the fummit, confifting of fchiftofe petrofilex mixed with a little ftea- tite which fupporrs argillaceous fchiftus. The petrofilex is in ftrata nearly vertical : the argillaceous fchiftus in beds nearly horizontal. From Snowdon, a line of mountains extends by the fea to Plenlim- raon, a boundary of North Wales, whence ifTue the noble rivers Severn and Wye. Of thefe hills, Urrou Seth, Caer Idris, and Moyle Vadiau, are the mod memorable. The hills on the Eaft of North Wales, are far from attaining fuch confiderable elevation, and gradually decline to the hills of Shropftiire, of which the Wrekin is one of the moft: noted t« ... •Among the fmaller elevations may be named the C'liltern-hills, (whence tlie vague office of Steward of the Chilterii Hundreds) reaching from Tring in Herlfordftiire, to Henley, in Ox- fordlhire. In the latter county are Ncttlebed and Shotover-hill». " Pennant'sjourney to London, p. 170. f Mr. Aikin, in his Tour in Wales, has confiderably illuflratcd this fuhjeft. He obferves (p. 19.) that the Ferwyn mountains occupy ihe Eaft fide of Merioneth, branching into Dewbigh and Montgomery; length about fixteen miles, breadth from five to ten. Cader Idris is the fecond in height of the Welch mountains (about 3000 feet) and from it extends a primitive chain, rnnning N. N. E. in the Arrans and Arranigs, confifting of porphyry and granitell. The fecond grand ridge, that of Snowdon, alfo runs N. N. E. and confifts of fchiftofe hornblende, micaceous fchiftus, granite, and porphyry, with fome large blocks of ferpentine : this chain ex- tends from Penmaenmawr. towards Traethmawr ; and after forming conic peaks at intervals, it ends in the northern horn of Cardigan-bay, that Is the fouthern promontory of Caernar* Tonfliiic. 9 A chain 3.' ikS ENGLAND. Mov:jtaih«. a chain proceeds due fouth to near Cardiff, in South Wales ; it is of far inferior height, and a finall branch diverges to the weft, confifting of Own Cothy, Mynydd, Carreg, Brifley, and Cwm Kerriin-hills. On the eaft of South Wales, art the hills of Herefordfliire, tha Black Moun- tain, Cufcp hill, Hargeft, Stockley-hill, &c. _ , In the Northern and Weflcrn mountains and hills, chalk is un- known, while it forms a chief material of thnfe of the South and Eaft, An eminent naturalifl obferves, that a line drawn from Dorcheftcr, in the county of Dorfet, to the county of Norfolk, would form a boundary of the great chalky ftraium which interfedls the kingdom, none being found in any quantity to the north or weft of that line". The north- ern mountains are moftly compofed of lime ftone, free-ftone, flate or fchiftus, with mines of lead or coal ; thofe of Derbyfliire prefent vaft maftes of lime-ftone, interfeded with thick veins of toad-rtone, by fome aflferted to be the produce of fire, while otiiers uflign an aqueous origin*, and numerous foflils and minerals, the confideration of which is re- ferved for a future article. The fummit of Skiddaw prefents white fhivery flate, or argillaceous fchiftus ; but lome of the Wcftmoreland mountains contain filiceous fchiftus fj and it is probable that granite may exift in thofe of Cheviot. The vaft bafe of Ing! thorough, near 30 miles in circuit, confifts of lime-ftone ; on the eaft fide full of (hells to near the fummit, which is of grit and fand-ftone flag; the foflils, black and brown marble, thin Hate near Ingleton, rotten-ftone or tripoli, and fome lead-ore ". And fuch is this chain to its termination j while M:iy not the mountains of Wellmordanil and Cumberland be confidrred as elongations of tliefe two chains, that of SnowJon pafllng from the promontory on the weft of the bay of Lancafter, by Helvellyii, and ending in Saddleback and Skiddaw ; while the other pafles from near tlie river Ken, by Sliap Fell, &c. ? " Pennant's Journey from Cheftcr to London, p. 2 14. • This toad ftone is by the miners called eat dirt, but they unluckily apply the fame name to a very diffi rent fubllance (a grceiiiih lime-ftunc); a circumftance which has deceived St. Fond, Hhen he afferts that lead ore is found in the toad-ftone, which is never the cafe. f Called by Houfman (p. 49.; hard grey flint. Fine blue flate abounds in Borrowdale. lb. He fays, (p 229) that near the fummit of Wham, there is a thin fcam of coal, aod another it faid to coriefpond wiih it on a hill on the oppofite fide of Dentdale. ^ , " Guide to the Lakes, 2^. 267. " "" " * 7 further -x:i CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 119 further to the fouth, the eafterly elevations are of chalk; and thofe on Mowmtaims, the weft, as Mendip hills, in Somerfetftiire, are wholly calcareous. The granite begins at Dartmoor, in Devonshire, and continues through Cornwal, where it occurs of various colours, the grey granite, or moor- ftone ; the red, or Oriental ; the white, the yellow, and the bluifli, or pigeon-coloured". Near the Lizard and Mullion, are rocks of ferpen- tine and fteatites, the latter being alfo found in a fingular variolite, at Thorverton, between Exeter and Upton Pyne. The china-ftone, or petunfi, ufed in making fine porcelain, is here a decompofed granite, the felfpar having become foft like lithomarga. The Welch mountains abound in various granites, with large mafTes of quartz and ferpentine: a French traveller'*, obferves a fimilarity between the fubftances of the Welch mountains, and thofe of Wicklow in Ireland, whence he infers a primitive jundlion. While on the eaft of England the limc-ftone fucceeds the chalk (of which change the noble promontory of Flamborough-head, already dcfcribed, affords a ftriking inftance) on the coaft towards Wales, are found granite, and * ther pri- mitive rocks. The Wrekin, about ten miles eaft of Shrewfbury, is chiefly compofed of reddifh chert, or petrofilex, with filiceous fand-ftone, bafalt, and a kind of granite ". The great coal diftrift of Colebrook- dale, refts on indurated clay, while that near Briftol is accompanied by black freeftone, and even the calcareous freeftone near Bath, is inter- fperfed with numerous veins of coal. The Malvern-hills on the S. W. of Worcefterftiire, run N. and S. about ten miles, and afford many gra- nitic rocks with chert and hornblende flate '*. Thefe few notices muft fuffice on the compofition of the Englifh mountains, a fubjedt ■which only begins to attradt the attention which its curiofity deferves. To the reader of poetry, the word/ore/l conveys the idea of a region Forcft*. replete with thick and tall woods, interfperfed with romantic lawns " Pryce's Mineralogy of Cornwal. Maton's Weftern Tour, &c. ^ Coqucbert Jouro. dcsMinei. ^^ Townfon's Tradst p. 163. .'♦Ibid. 216. '^1' -'/'li ;t ( , .M. I'll* s. „ r I - '■.■^•i. and if; « i" S 110 ENGLAND. -n "> FoREiTi. and murmuring rivulets. But in England a foreft is fometimes bare of trees, or not unfrequently only prefents a few withered oaks ; and the term is even applied to upland downs and heaths. Many of the fore(U were, even in the Anglo-Saxon times, efteemed Royal demefnes ; hut the Norman monarchs were fo much addicted to the chace, that up- wards of fixty forefts at one time, appertained to the crown ; of which the chief now remaining are the forefts of Dean, in Glouceftcrfhtre, Sherwood, in Nottinghamfliire; Windfor, in Berkshire; and the N.w Foreft in Hampfliire. The royal forefts conftituting fo large a part of the kingdom, of a diftindt nature, and regulations different from other regions, many grievances arofe, till the Barons exadted from Henry III. the foreft: charter ; in which feveral defpotic laws were revoked, and more equity extended to the neighbouring proprietors and tenants. Befides the principal forcfls above-mentioned, other diftrids ftill re- tain the name, as Dartmoor-foreft, in Devonfhirt , Enfield-chafe, in Middlefex ; Witham, and Epping-foreft, and that of Henault, in EfTcx; Sacy and Wiitleborough-forefl, and Rockingham-foreft, in Northamptonfhire ; Peak-foreft, in Derbyfhire ; Malvern-chafe and Wyre-forefl, in Worcefterfhire ; Cannock-chafe, and Neidwood-foreft in StafTordfhire ; Mogg-foreft, and Clun-foreft, and that of Hays and Mocktree, in Shropfhire ; Macclesfield-foreft, in Chefliire ; Netherdale- forefl, and Langfter-chafe, in the VVe>^ Riding of Yorkfliire ; the foreft of Galtres, and Arkengarth and Stairimore, and Leyne, in the North Riding; Teefdale and Weredale-forefts, in the county of Durham; Rofendale-foreft, in Lancaftiire; Sleddell and Martindale-forefts, &c, in Weftmoreland ; Geltfdale and Inglewood-forefts, in Cumberland. General Among the numerous fpecies of vegetables vvhlch are natives of Utiiiih Beta. Britain, fcarcely any are adequate to the fuflienance and clothing of "T* man. Our frequent rains, our^ blafting winds, and the fcanty portion to which we are Ainted, of the light and heat of the fun, deprive us en- tirely of thofe vegetable treafures, which, in the tropical climates, ofTer themfelves in overflowing exuberance, to fatisfy the wants and lux- urious defires of their human inhabitants. The never-failing verdure of CHAP. IV. NATURAL CEOGR PUY. of our plains and hills, covered with a rich carpet of grafles uni, papU lionaceous plants, flicws how admirably our country is qualified for t!ie fupport of graminivorous quadrupeds ; and we find accordingly that our ancient forefts abounded in ftags and roe-deer, as our cleared and cultivated lands do now with fheep and cattle. This feeming partiality of nature, in thus fcanting to man the fupply of vegetable food, while it is profufely offered to the grazing herds of every kind, by obliging the early fettlers in this ifland to depend for their fupport, principally on the flefh of animals, gave them ftronger motives to perfonal exertion, than an equal (late of civilization in a warmer climate, could have af- forded. \Vhile the native of the tropical regions was receiving from the unpurchafed bounty of nature, his regular and plentiful fupply of cocoa-nuts, bananas, and bread-fruit, the Briton was obliged to earn his daily food, by the hard labour of each day, to chafe the flying deer through the woods, or to difpute his prey with the boar or the wolf. Thus, by the feverity of the climate, and the want of vegetable food, was the firft germ of exertion ripened into an adlivity, which, by the com- bined influence of luxury and neccfTity, has at length laid all the vege- table riches of the globe- at our feet. In the general progreflion of fcience, botany Has advanced with rapid fteps, and has been cherifhed with peculiar fondnefs in our native ifland. The Flora of Britain, though it cannot boafl: the moft fplendid and ex- quifite of vegetable produdions, yet contains as great a variety of genera and fpecies, as any other country of equal extent. The inveftigation of indigenous, as well as exotic plants, is continually carrying on here with increafing ardour, and every year brings new accefllons to our crowded ranks of native vegetables. It cannot be expeded, therefore, tliat we ftiould give a particular account of each fpecies, and it would be but little agreeable or ufe/ul, to offer to our readers a barren lift of Linnaan nomenclature : we fliall, therefore, chufe a middle courfe, by giving a general view of the natural families under which the plants of England arrange tliemfelves, and particularize by name only, fuch VOL I. R . fpet;ie8> Ul T4MV. \i:fhJ- t-j ■u's \n 1 J: ■ .'■<;. 'f- m^ m ENGLAND. ^"^ Botany. fpecics, as from their utility or rarity, or other circumftancea, maybe worthy of individual notice *. Graffei. The firft for importance and variety is the family of grasses, A! mod every part of the country that is not under tillage, is princi. pally covered with grafs. Under almoft all the differences of i'uil and fituation, we find the chief covering of the richeft, as well as of the mod barren trads, made up for the mod part of thefe plants ; to thefe we are indebted for the luxuriant verdure of our pallures, for the ciofc velvet carpeting of our downs and (heep-walks, and the more fcantv clothing of our mountainous diftrids. Twenty-feven genera, and a hundred and ten fpecies of grafs are natives of our ifland, moft of ihem of common occurrence in fuuations where they are found at all. None of them have been proved to be poifonous, either to man or bead, on the contrary, whether frefli or dried, they furnifh a grateful food to all our domedic cattle. Thofe which are found in meadows and padures are edeemed the fweeted and mod nutritious ; but thofe that are natives of mardies and wet places are generally the larged and mod luxuriant, and if in quality they be fomewhat inferior to the preceding, yet the defeat is probably more than compenfated by the quantity of herbage that they iupply. Light fandy foils, efpecially the flat parts of the eadern and fouthern coads, abound in grafles that arc hardly to be met with in the interior of the ifland ; the herbage of thefe affords a coarfe and fcanty padure, and they are eminently didinguiflied from their kindred fpecies, by the length and drength of their creeping- roots. The inhabitants of Skey, and the other wedern iflands of Scot- land, manufacture them into durable ropes: and while growing, they ferve the very important purpofe of binding together the loofe fand, which otherwife would be drifted far up the country. Upon the fides and fummits of our mountains, are found a few grafl!*es that do not appear elfewhere, mixed with fome' others of more general oc- currence; as however, in thefe bleak and elevated fituations, covered Vf'ith (aovr for fome months in the year, and fhrowded in clouds for the * Smith'i Flora Sritannisa. principal CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. ',i'ti Iff ¥■4 'h-x ■•ii i}'''-'H WMl ^m V u i»4 ENGLAND. BoTAMY. moft of our domeftlc quadrupeds. The moft actively deleterious are the following : Coniutn maculatum (hemlock) ; Oenanthe crocati (hemlock di op-wort) ; Cicuta virofa, (water hemlock). A few fpecies by dint of cultivation, have been rendered ferviceable to man, either as food, or on account of their aromatic qualities, and fome as Caucalis daucoides, and Anethum foenlculum, are certain proofs of a calcareous foil. Lablatcd. The ringent, galeated, hooded, or labiated plants, hold a conrpi- cuous place in the Englilh Flora : of thefe, none, except perhaps the Digitalis (fox-glove), deferve to be ranked among the poifonous plants ; a confiderable number, however, exhibit a ftrong aromatic fmell, ap- proaching, in fome cafes, to the foetid, and poflefs other adtive fenfible properties. Such are fpear-mint, pepper-mint, penny-royal and hore- hound. Our moft efteemed pot-herbs belong to this natural clafs, and are many of them natives of England. Thefe are (befides the mints mentioned above) marjoram, common and lemon thyme, and bafil thyme, all of them abundant in chalky and calcareous foils. There are not many very Ihowy plantvS in this clafs ; but the bee nettle ; two or three if ecies of Antirrhinum (fnap-dragon) ; and the fox-glove, both purple and white^ are eminently beautiful. Some of the vegetables in this clafs have cer. tain peculiarities of ftrudure, which render thenj worthy of notice. The genus Utricularia, an aquatic, may be diftinguifhed from all the reft, by the numerous fmall membranous bags, attached to its finely divided leaves that ferve to fupport It on the furface of the water j the genera,. Lathrsea (tooth-wort) ; and Orobanche (broom-rape), are parafitical, that is, they fix themfelves in the roots of other vegetables, from which they derive their nutriment,, being incapable of fubfifting if planted in the open ground ; they are alfo deftitute of leaves, confifting merely of a flefliy ftem, terminated by purplifh brown flowers. Liliaceou*. Perhaps the moft fplendld of all the herbaceous plants, are thofe with bulbous roots, which, from their general rcfemblance to the lily, have obtained the name of Liliaceous; moft of thefe, however, are natives of warmer climates ; the fandy defarts about the Ciape of Good Hope, and the (hores of the Indian Ocean, produce the moft beautiful fpecies ; CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 1*5 fpccles; of thofe which are found wild in England, there are only Botany. eleven genera, and twenty-eight fpecies ; and the greater number of thefe are of rare occurrence in a truly native (late ; the fpring and autumnal crocus, the fnow-drop, the Inow-flake, the three khids of NWiffus (including the daffodil), the fritillary, tulip, and lily of the valley, as well as three fpecies of ornithogalum, or ftur of I5ethlchein, are more familiar to us as garden plants, than as natives of our woods and paftures. The Britifh Rofaceous plants comprifing the clafs Icofandria of Lin- Rofaceou*. nacus, include twelve genera, and forty-one fpecies. Some of thefe are herbaceous, and others are deciduous trees and flirubs. In the firft divifion, the moft worthy of notice are, Spirsca ulmaria (meadow-fweet) ; growing plentifully by the fide of brooks and ditches, and fcenting thfr air about Midfummer, with its powerful cloying fweets ; Fragaria vefca- (wood-ftraw berry), perhaps the moft valuable of our native fruits. Tcrnentilla officinalis (common tormentil), one of the ftrongeft vege- table aftringencs. To the fecond divifion belong the moft beautiful and" ulet'ul of our hedge-ftirubs, the bullace and bl.ick-thorn, hawthorn, crab, and mountain afli ; feveral fpecies of wild rofe and bramble. The cherry, tbe medlar, the fervice, and pear-trees, whole fruit, when wild, is of fo little account, and of fuch value when improved by cultivation, belong alfo to this clafs. The burnet-rofe, and white beam tree, are certain indi- cations of calcareous foil ; and, indeed, almoft the whole clafs thrive bell on limeftone. The Tetradynamious, or cruciform plants, compofe a large natural Cruciform. clafs, entirely diftindt from any other, the individual fpecies, however, of which, have fo many common features of refemblance, as to render it, in feveral cafes, by no means eafy to afcertain their fpecific differ- ences. The tafte of all thefe is more or lefs acrid, but none are poi- fonous: they are found to be peculiarly grateful to failors who have been long at fea, and thereby have contraded the fcurvy ; on this ac- count thefe vegetables have obtained the name of antifccrbutics ; their hot biting flavour is the moft intenfe in wet feafons, and in a fwampy foil,, and is remarkably mitigated by cultivation in light Hindy ground* ■ - - V .. , . Twenty* mmm 126 ENGLAND. 111 m H ' ''^r ./MtffciP' III Botany, Twcnty-threc genera, and fixty-two fpecies, are natives of Britain. The moft worthy of notice are the feveral kinds of Lepidium, or pepper- wort; of Cochlearia, including the fcurvy-grafs and horfe-radifh ; of Braffica, containing the colewort, field-cabbage, colefeed, and turnip, of Sinapis, including the white and common muftard ; fea-kale, and water crefs ; al! "hefe are wholefome and agreeable vegetables, either in fallads or boiled. Woad is worthy of mention, as a dyeing drug, anciently ufed by the Britons for the purpofe of ftaining their Ikins, and in fome eftimation even at prefent, as a fubftitute for indigo. The only native cruciform plant adopted into our gardens, is Cheiranthus cheiri (wall-flower) ; if, indeed, it be not rather to be confidered as of foreign origin. Radiated. One of the largcft of the natural clafles of Englifli vegetables, is that of the radiated or compound flowered plants. Forty genera, and 120 fpecies, belong to this clafs. It is rather remarkable, that out of fo large a number of plants, many of which are very abundant, and of great fize, only a fingle one, the Tragopogon porrifolius (falfafy), fhould be applied to the fuftenance of man, and not even a fingle one fhould be cultivated for the ufe of cattle ; more efpecially as the Laftuca virofo (ftrong-fcented lettuce), is the only fpecies poflefl'ed of deleterious properties. Moft of them have an ungrateful bitter tafte, and the fuc- culent ones contain a white milky juice, of an acrid flavour. Of all our native vegetables, thev are the commoneft, thriving by neglecl and multiplying under periecution ; the farmer and gardener are uncea- fingly employed in their deftrudion, for they contribute little or nothing to the fupport of man, and the larger quadrupeds ; nor is the beauty of their appearance fuch, as to obtain for them a place in the flower- garden. The annual kinds, however, producing vaft multitudes of feeds, and the perennial ones being furniflied with long and deeply Ariking roots, there is no fear of their extermination ; they occupy road iides, ditch banks, and all wafte places that are incapable of cultivation, and fecm peculiarly devoted to the fuftenance of the granivorous birds, Iir their feeds, and of numerous tribes of infefts, by their foliage. Tiie fow-thiftlc,. hawkweed, burdock, thiftle, coltsfoot, groundfel, dandelion) 7 and CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 137 and daify, are the moft commonly occurring genera; a few, as the Botany. chamomile, worm-wood, and elecampane, are employed in ^medicine. The daify, and butter-bur (Tuflilago petafites), are generally the firft bloffoms of the fpring, and on that account are beheld with greater latisfadion than more fhowy plants. The Erltifli genera of the Orchis tribe are five in number, and com- Orchis, prehend between thirty and forty fpecies. They are all either fingular or beautiful plants, and would no doubt be more frequently introduced into our gardens, if they were of eafier cultivation. They are of but lltde account as food for cattle, but the roots of the bulbous kinds abound in a mild farina, which might be ufed for human nutriment; the faloop of the (hops is the powdered root of a fpecies of orchis that is found in Turkey. The Ophrys anthropophora (man orchis) ; Ophrys myodes (fly orchis) ; Ophrys apifera (bee orchis) ; Ophrys aranifera (fpider orchis), are the moft fingular for the form of their bloflbm, the gene- ral appearance of which is expreflfed by their trivial names. A few are remarkably fragrant, efpecially in the cool of evening ; thefe are Orcliis bifolia (butterfly orchis) ; Orchis conopfea ; Ophrys monorchia (muflc orchis). Several grow in wet boggy places, but by far the greater part are inhabitants of calcareous diftrids ; the county of Kent in par- ticular, is remarkably rich in them. Such of our trees and flirubs as have not been already mentioned, Trees, may be confidered as forming a peculiar clafs, and one of great impor- tance ; it is naturally fubdivided into the evergreen and deciduous. The moft valuable of our native evergreens, are the box, the pine, Evergreens, the yew, and the holly; thofe of fecondary confequence, are the juni- per, the ivy, the cranberry, and thofe extremely ornamental plants, the Vaccinium vitis idaea (red whortle berries) j and Arbutus uva urfi (bear-berry). The deciduous timber-trees that are either aboriginal, or at leaft have DjcMuous. :en long naturalized to our foil, are the oak, the chefnut, and beech, all of which are niaft-bearing trees^ or produce farinaceous oily nuts, the favourite food of hogs, and of many graminivorous quadrupeds ; the birch, the alder, the hornbeam, the abele, the black poplar, and the jfpen, bearing catkins; the fycamore, the maple, and the afli ; the lime. ':^n ti!' ('■ rgm ^ it ^';i,i.:3(i mu 'ii il ; m !• ir^^'i. 128 ENGLAND. I3oT..\v. lime, the elm, and wych hazle. A middle, ftatlon between the timber- trees, and fhrubs, is occupied by the hazle, and the numerous fpecies of willow. The pulpy fruit-bearing fhrubs are, the currant and goofc- berry, the elder, the barberry, the cornel, or dogwood, the buckthorn, the gucldcr-rofe, and mealy-tree, and the Mezereon ; the four firft are •wholefome and grateful to the palate, the reft are either infipid or noxi- ous. The four kinds of heath are low, flirubby plants, thai form the moft fplendid ornaments of our bogs or moors. p^i-r,,, The ferns comprize a number of elegant plants that grow in mo'ift, {hady, and uncultivated places, the ufes of which have been but little enquired into ; eleveti genera, and about forty-four fpecies, are natives of Britain ; the roots of moft rhound in a mild fweetifh mucilage, which in times of fcarcity has been reforted to for nutriment; the larger and commoneft kinds, fuch as common fern or brakes, are olledled and burnt for the potafh, which is yielded from their afties ; the ftem of the Equifetum hyemale (fhave-grafs), is much ufed by turners and cabinet- makers, as a fine file to fmooth their work with. Moircs. The fmalleft of vegetables, the moffes, are at the fame time the moft numerous ; ten genera, and neai-ly 200 fpecies are found in the Britifli iflands. To man and the larger animals, they appear to be of little or no ufe ; low and fhady places are in general over-run with them, and on walls, and hard dry banks, where other plants are unable to vegetate, thefe readily gain a fettlement ; by the decay of fucceffive generations, a fufficient depth of foil is at length formed for the nutriment of other vegetables, and this is, perhaps, the principal advantage derived, at leaft by man, from the exiftence of thefe plants. Liahens. Thofe cruftaceous, and leather-like plants, which cover the fides of walls and rocks, and abound on dry heaths, form the clafs of lichens, nearly as numerous as the preceding one; their general ufe in the oeconomy of nature, feems to be nearly the fame as that of the raoffes; the ingenuity of man has, however, applied them to feveral other pur- pofes. The Iceland lichen, when boiled in water or milk, produces a kind of gruel of little account in this country, but in Iceland forms an . important part of the food of the inhabitants ; the Lichen prunaftri, fervesas the bafe of feveral fcented powders j that beautiful but fugitive 3 crimfon CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. la^ cr'imron dye, the archil. Is prepared in England from the Lichen pare!- Botany. Ins and L. calcareus (Dyer's lichen). Several others are employed by tliepeafants of Wales, DcrhyHiire., and the North of England, in dye- inir their home-made woollen cloths. The clafs of Eungi includes fevcntcen genera, and feveral hundred FungL fpccies of native vegetables, ahnoft all of which are abandoned to iiegleft ; in France and Italy feveral kinds are coUcded for the table, and are reckoned fome of its principal delicacies; in this country they He for the mofl: part under the obloquy of being poifonous, fo that only the four following are ufcd, viz. Chanterelle and common mulhroom, Morell and Truffle. The laft clafs of Englirti vegetables, is that of the marine Algap, or Sea-weed.. fca-weeds. Four genera, and between two and three hundred fpecies are found upon our own (bores ; the more tender and gelatinous kinds are eaten either raw or boiled, and the reft on thofe rocky parts of the coaft, where they can be colleded in great quantities, are burnt into kelp for the ufe of the foap- boilers and glafs-makers. Mr. Pennant, in his Britifli Zoology, has treated this fubjed at due Zoology, extent, and with his ufual ability. The nature of this work will only admit of a few imperfcft notices. Of animals, that celebrated author enumerates twenty genera, from the horfe down to the feal and bat. The birds extend to forty-eight, the reptiles to four, and the fi(h to forty genera, befides the cruftaceous and fhell fifli. That noble and ufeful animal, the Horfe, is found in England of many mingled breeds, while moft other kingdoms produce only one kind" Our race-horfes defcend from Arabian ftallions, and the ge- nealogy faintly extends to our hunters. The great ftrength and fize of the Englifh draught-horfes, are derived from thofe of Germany, Flan- ders, and Holftein ; and other breeds have been fo intermingled, that native horfes may be found adapted to every purpofe of pomp, pleafure, or utility. Thofe of Yorkfhire are particularly celebrated for their fpirit and beauty ; and the grooms of that county are equally noted for their {kill in the management of this valuable animal. It is fome- TOL. I. " Pennant't Zoology, toI. i. p. i. S what U i t 1. ■ I 1 t •( I ,1 ' 1 '? 4i(l ' ' P ' •; < r Iff i .4 f-rFiff-'": tp''"' t *^ 111' ; i J. » ,t ■; '..' 1 3' mm ,, lli 130. ZooLocif, ENGLAND. U'hat remaikablff, that while England excels all the European countries in various breeds of horfes, yet veterinary fchools are of recent infti- tution. The fpeed of Childers was computed at a mile in a minute ; and fuch is the ftrength of a Yorkfliire paclc-horfe, that he will ufually carry 420 pounds ; nay, a mill-horfe will fupport for a (hort diftance, a weight of 910 pounds. Mr. Pennant obferves, that though the Britilli cavalry was remarkable, even in the time of Julius Caefar, yet we know not what was the primitive breed. The indigenous breed of horned cattle, is now only known to exill: in Neidwood-foreft, in StafFordfhire, and at Chillingham-caftle, ia Northumberland. They are long-legged and wild like deer, of a pure w hitecolour, with black muzzles, ears, and tails, and a ftripe of the fame hue along the back. The breeds of our cattle are almoft as va- rious as thofe of our horfes y thofe of Wales and Cornwall are fmall, while the Lincolnfliire kind derive their great fize from thofe of Hol- ftein. In the North of England we find kylies, fo called from the dift 10: of Kyle, in Scotland ; in the South we find tlie elegant breed of Guernfey, generally of a light brown colour, and fmall lize, but re- markable for the richnefs of their milk. Of late years Mr. Bakewell> and others, have brought the breeding of cattle and flieep to a regular fyftem. ■ ' '- The number and value of (heep in England, may be judged from the ancient ftaple commodity of wool. Of this moft ufeful animal feveral breeds appear, generally denominated from their particular counties or diftridsj thofe of Herefordftiire, Devonfhire, and Cotfwold downs, are noted for fine fleeces, while the Lincolnfliire and Warwickfhire kind, are remarkable for the quantity. The Teefdale breed of the county of Durham, though lately negleded, continue to deferve their fame. The wool is beautiful, but the length of their legs leflens their value in the eyes of the butcher. The mutton of Wales, on the contrary, is efteemed, while the wool is coarfe, yet employed in many ufeful and falutary manufactures. The Norfolk breed is remarkable for black faces and legs. Thofe of Leicefterfliire are very large, and with- out horns, A ■ . The if-' CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. »3» The mod laudable exertions have lately been made by the Board of Zoology. Agriculture, and by individuals, for the improvement of the Englidi fleece. The goat, an inhabitant of the rocks, has, even in Wales, begun to yield to the more ufeful iheep ; that country being, like Scotland, more adapted to the woollen manufacture. It is to be regretted that fome means are not difcovered of preventing the goat, an ufeful animal to the poor, from being fb deflirudive to plantations and agriculture. The breeds of fwine are various and ufeful. England alfo abounds in breeds of dogs, fome of which were cele- brated even in Roman times. In the reign of Elizabeth, Dr. Caius or Kay enumerates fixteen denominations of Englifti dogs. Some feem to be now extinft ; and the blood-hound only occurs in StafFordlhire. The terrier, as the name implies, was ufed to force the burrowing animak from their holes; the harrier, a-kin to the fox-hound, for hunting the hare. The grey-hound was fo called, as Caius informs us, becaufe he was the firft in degree among dogs. The tumbler of that author feems to be cur lurcher. The fpaniels from Spain, as the name imports, were trained as ftarters, fetters, and pointers, but the latter defcription is modern ; the water-fpaniel was ufed to recover the flaughtered game j the fpaniel gentle, or comforter of Dr. Caius, is our lap-dog; the fliep- hcrd's dog is BufFon's fanciful father of the whole canine progeny, and always difplayed its docile qualities. The maftifF, or ama%e thief ^ was employed in defending the houfe: to this fpecies Mr. Pennant afcribes the bull-dog, an animal of furprifing fpirit and 6ercenefs. The , curs and mongrels are numerous ; but the turnfpit is now exploded. Of late the Newfoundland-dog, of more ufeful and generous qualities, has, in fome degree fupplanted the maftiff : and the fpotted Dalmatian forms an additional attendant on an equipage. \.v .'*,,, The cat is one of the moft univerfal, and moft identic of animals, thofe of Angola excepted, with their white fleeces, and thofe of Ruflia with a bluifh fleece, and eyes of topaz. Of our favage animals the moft fierce and deflrudlive is the wild cat, s 3 which \M I If If, \^^'\m \ ji, f' m I'H 11 W rll.i.i,; ■(■-,.. i !■!■(; -I* IP 13a Zoo i-OGy, r T.- r E I^ G L A N D. m » -> which 'u three or four times as large as the domeftic, with a flat broad face, colour yellowilh white, mixed with deep grey, in ftrcaks runnin' from a black lift on the back ; hips always black, tail alternate bars of black and white ; only found in the moft mountainous and woody parts. The wolf has been long extindl, but the fok abounds. It is fufficient to name the badger, the fitchet, the martin, the ftoat, or ermin, the otter, fquirrel, dormoufe, rat (the native, or iron grey, has lately almoft vaniihed before the brown kind of India, falfcly called tlie Norway rat), and various kinds of mice. The mole, urchin, and bat feem to become more rare j, the feal is chiefly found on the coaft of Wales. In the parks of the great, the roe is how .cxtlnft, but fallow deer abound, of great beauty, and the red deer; the latter are known by the terms, ftag, hind, young, or calf; while the former are ftyled buck, doe, and fawn ; the red kind are more vicious than the other, and becoming more uncommon. ;» ,.«,tv.,;/ k^^ m>iv wn., r--vt:" The chief of our birds of prey, are tbe goTden eagle, fometimcs found on Snowdon ; the black eagle has appeared in Derbyfhire ; the ofprey, or fea eagle, feems extind; in England. The peregrine falcon breeds in Wales ; and many kinds of hawks in £ngland. An enume- ration of the other birds would be fuperfluous. The nightingale, one of the raoft celebrated, is not found in North Wales, nor any where to the North, except about Doncafter, where it abounds ; nor does it travel fo far weft as Devonfliire and Cornwall '*. This limitation is . • remarkable, as thefe birds are found in the fevere climate of Sweden. Our poultry feem to originate from Afia ; our peacocks are from India; our pheafants from Colchis , the guinea>fowl (the Meleagrides, or Nu- midian hens of the ancients) are from Africa. Our fmalleft bird is the golden-crefted wren, which fports on the higlieft pine-trees^ and our largeft the btiftatd, fome of which weigh twenty-ftve pounds, and are found 11} the open countries of the fouth and eaft. But thie bird fei- dom appears; and our turkeys, OFijginally from America, richly fupply •♦Peccant's B. Z. I. 360. • ft*. ' ■r" !C. |p.» »♦>!» the —1- . 1!., M t CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. ^3i the ciefeft ; the largefl: are reared in Norfolk and Suffolk. One of the Zooiooy. inoft fingular of our water fowl is the long-legged plover: the mofl ufeful the mallard or wild duck, which is chiefly caught in the fens of Lincoliiihirc ; the numbers fent to the capital, almoft exceed cre- dibility- ^ '— '- ■ ■ ' -. The reptiles are the coriaceous tortoife, frogs, toads, feveral kinds of lizards: of our ferpents the viper alone is venomous ; other kinds are tlie ringed fnake, fometimes found four feet in length ; and the blind worm, feldom exceeding eleven inches. Of fifli, the whale feldom appears near the Englifh coafts, nor the dolphin; the porpefs, and others of the fame genus are not uncommon. The bafking fhark appears off the Chores of Wales. Numerous are our cdible-fea-fifh. Some of the moft celebrated are the turbot, doree, foal, cod, plaice, fmelt *, mullet, &c. &c. The confumption of herringo and mackarel extends to moft parts of the kingdom ; but pilchards are confined to the Cornilh coafts. Our chief river fifli are the falmon and the trout, which are brought from the nortliern parts in prodigious numbers, generally packed in ice ; but fometimes the trout are brought alive, in veffels provided with a well or bafon for that purpofe. It is faid that not lefs than 30,000 falmon are brought from one river, the Tweed, to London, in the courfe of a feafon. The lamprey, though a fca-fifl\, is chiefly found in the Severn ; it refembles the eel, but has a line of feven apertures near the head. The charr is chiefly found in the lakes of Weftmoreland, the fides fprinkled with red fpots. The umber, or greyling, fomewhat refembles the trout. The famlet is the fmalleft of the trout kind, and has erroneoufly been fuppofed the young of the falmon ; in Scotland it is called the par. Our carps are from Poland, and the inferior fort from Pruffia : the tench and perch are efteemed by fome as dainties of the table. i '■':.:' -c.:' .■'. .'^. /3 ,t.^- The lobfter is found on moft of the rocky coafts, particularly off Scarborough. This cruftaceous fiftx has fingular habits ; with its blunt claw it maintains its fituation, while that with fernted pincers divides its * Mr. Pennant, iii. 371. fuppofes white bait tc be the young of the bleak. food * Ti-L- 1 '. .t,.\. M-.-ij ■1^^ iL M '■I^J^! M 1 34 ill a 1 :3,-i '^t; 134 \ t • ' ■£ N G L A N D. ■•' if • ZooLccv. food : the claws arc reproduced, though not fo larc;e as the fird; tTier change their fliells every year. The craw-fifh is a Imall kind of lobftcr wliich dwells in tlie clayey banks of ri-vers. Of fl)ell fifli, the pearl mya, a large kind of mufl'cl, was found in the Conway, in Wales, and the Irt, in Cumberland ; but it feems now confined to Ireland and Scotland. Pearls arife from the perforation of a kind of worm, and may be produced artificially, by boring the fhcll, and replacing the mya in the water". The Englifli oyfters maintain their Roman repu- tation ; but they feem to yield in flavour to thofe of more northern countries. The green from Colchefter, in EiTex, and the juicy white from Milton, in Kent, have the chief reputation. Mineralogy. ^' feldom or never happens th7t countries, abundant in the pro. du£tions of agriculture (hould, at the fame time, prefent an opulent mineralogy. Yet England is far from being deficient in thig refpeft. The tin mines in Cornwall have been already mentioned ; and they are not only venerable from their antiquity, but are, it is fuppofed, the richeft of the kind in the world. Tin is alfo found in Bohemia, Sax- ony, and Hungary, and in the Oriental regions of Malacca, Banca, and Siam, but not in fuch lading exuberance as in the Corniftx mines. That kind of filver, termed by mineralogifts horn-ore, is alfo found in that diftrift ; but the profound fecrecy obferved in working it, forbids any inveftigation of the amount. The Huel rock boads of what is called bell metal ore ; and of wolfram *. .. Cornwall alfo produces copper at Redruth, Alftone, and the Land's End. The fame metal is found in Yorkftiire, and Stafl[brd(hire ; but no where in fuch abundance as in the Parrys mountain, in the north- " Pennant, B. Z. iv. 8o. St Fond. II, 190. But this circumftance is doubtful, as may be ob* ferred in the account of Ceylon, in the fecond volume of this work. * Mr. Maton informs us, that Hue! (pronounced Whele) meant a miaei that the tin pebblu fbrm iWata, in blueifh marl, mixed with fand and marine fpoilt ; and the richeft mine is at Pol- gooth, tvo miles S. W. of St. Auftle. (Wcft«rn Tour.) Opal is found in yellow c«pper ore at Roflceir, Ibid. ■ ■ ■ ' ■' ■ ' weft Pl'f f CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. ^35 treft of Anglefea". Inftead of defcendlng in veins through various Minirali. rocky ftrata, the ufual form of metallic ores, it here forms a prodigious heap, and is worked in the manner of a quarry. The mountain is alinoft bare of fhrubs or grafs ; and is covtred with aluminous (late, ander which, in grey chert, is the ore, being chiefly the yellow ful- pburate, which yields a quarter of copper, and a quarter of fulphur, the remaining half being refufe. This valuable mine was difcovered about thirty years ago. , r ' r- Lead is found in tiie Mendip-hills, Somerfetfhire ; which alfo pro- duce calamine and manganefe. The lead- mines in Derby (hire are well known, not only for that metal, but for the beautiful veins of fluor, which accompany it, and which is manufadured into feveral ornamental articles. In general the northern central ridge of mountains, abounds with lead-ore. The lead-mines of Aldfton, on the caftern verge of Cumberland, employ about iioo men. No metal is fo widely difTufed through the globe as iron, and Eng- land not only contains excellent mines, but excels all nations in the variety of fabrication. The moft remarkable mines of iron, are thofc of Colebrook-dale in Shropfhire, Dean-foreft in Gloucefterftiire, with 'hme in the north of England, particularly near Ulvcrfton, in Lan- cafhire. Among the minor metals, zinc, in the form of lapis calaminarls, and blend, is found in Derbyfhire, Cornwall, and other regions. Nicke and arfenic fometimes appear in Cornwall ; and recently, what is called menachanite. But one of the moft important of this kind is plumbago, or black lead, which' is found in the ridge of Borrodale, near Kefwick, in Cumberland : the mine is only opened at certain intervals of time. Gold has been difcovered in various quarters of England, particularly near Silfoe, Bedfordfhire ; but the metal has never recompenfed the labour and expence ". The real gold mines of England are thofe of coal, found hi the central, northern, and weftern parts, but particularly in the northern, around Newcaftle. This fubftance is a mixture of car- "_ Aikin's Wales, 133^ " Cough's Camden, I. 330. w ■iff •4, V 'tii^i^ if < ♦■'lyp' r.**' ■ •"■■vl % if*:;!'-/ ■ '!) bon ')• I 'III MM \T,r, ENGLAND. MiNtR*Li. bon with bitumen, which laft abounds In the NcwcaHIc coal, ami is tie caufe of its coalcfcing- when inlLiined ". An \l^37 produce of rock fait at Northwlch, has been cfllmatcd at 65,000 tons; Minhaii. of which about two thirds ufcd to be exported to Flanders aiul the Baltic". • Marbles, and free-done, 01 calcareous fand-ftone, of various colours and textures, alfo occur ; the mod celebrated of the latter are thol'o of Pordand, Purbeck, &c. Fins alabafler appears in Derbylhirc j fullcrs- eirth in Berklhire, and fome other counties. Nor is England lefs produ£live of mineral waters, of various pro- Mineral w«. pcrliesand defcriptions. Thofe of Bath have been celebrated fince the '"•• Roman times. Next to that place of fafliionable refort, may be men- tioned the hot-wells of Briftol, thofe of Tunbridge in Kent, and of Buxton and Scarborough in the North. Thofe of Cheltenham in Gioucefterfhire, have been edecmcd beneficial in fcorbuiic cafes; but to enumerate the fprings of inferior note, would be infinite, as chaly- beat wells at leafl: mud occur in almoft every county, and new waters are daily ftarting into celebrity. Among the natural curiofities, thofe of Derbyfliire have always been Nat""! Cu- cfteemed the moft memorable. Hobbes and others have long fince celebrated the wonders of the Peak, a mountain not equal in height to thofe of Wales, or the more northern part of England, but perforated with fuch vertical chafms, and fuch furprifing caverns as have dc- fervedly excited admiration. Thefe caves are often inierfeifled by fub- terraneous waters ; and mineralogifts feem to afcribe their formation to this caufe, the rock being of calcareous ftone. Thefe fubje£ls have now become too trite and familiar to allow further defcription ; and it fhall only be obferved, that the cavern at Caftleton, now decently called Peak's hole, is of a vafl extent, and prefents fmgular afpeds, while Poole's hole, near Buxton, is celebrated for its lofty roof, and curious ilaladites. Near Eyam is Bamforth-hole, a ftaladitic cavern of confi- derable extent *'. "Pennant's Journey from Chefter to London, p, 26. (He dlimatea the duty at 20,000]. \ Cough's Camden, ii. 436. Aikin's Mancheller, 427. '■Aikin'sMancheiler, p. 76. St. Fond, tonu ii. VOL.1. T Other J38 ENGLAND. Naturai. C t'RIOSI- Tin. Other remarkable caverns are found In the northern ridge of EngH(}» mountains. In the vale of Kingfdale, on the weftern extremity of Yoilifhire, is Yordas cave, which prefents a fubterraneous cafcade ; this cave is about fifty yards in length. But the mod noted is Wethercot cave, not far from Ingleton. It is furrounded with trees and ftirubs, in form like a lozenge, divided by an arch of lime-ftone, pafiing under which you behold a large cafcade, falling from a height of more than twenty yards ; the length of this cave is about fixty yards, the breadth thirty. The vaft limeftone bafe of Ingleborough is perforated in all direflions like a honeycomb. It is the River Weafe, or Greta, which pervades the cave at Wethercot, and another at Gatekirk, and runs not lefs than two miles under ground. This ftream muft not be confounded with the Greta, which falls into the Tees near Barnard-caftle, and rifes near Brough, in Stanmore ; two rivers, the Oufe and the Swale, running betwixt them. Among other curiofities in this neighbourhood, muft not be omitted Hurtlepot, a round deep cavity, near forty yards in diameter, almod furrounded with rocks, about thirty feet perpendicular, above its black waters, while the oveiljranching trees increafe the horrors of the fcene**. Not far to the fouih-eaft, is a lake called Malhara Tarn, of clear and very cold water, abounding in trout. This is the fource of the river Aire, which runs, about a mile under ground ; and near it is Malham cove, a kind of amphitheatre, of fmooth perpendi- cular limeftone, about a8o feet high in the centre. The river Ribble, near its origin in thefe parts, alfo fmks into a deep cavern; and filently pervades the mountains for about three miles. Near Settle, at the bot- torn of fome calcareous rocks, is one of the moft remarkable ebbing and flowing wells in the kingdom *'. This diftridl alfo abounds with rare and curious plants : and in the grand features of nature, exceeds any other region in England or Wales '% "'^ " " "'•'■■•• "" '; • The " We(l'» Guide to the Laken ; and a curious pamphlet on the caves of Yorkfliire, 178I) fevo. By Houfman's Map, thiii Greta paflciby Ingleton to the Lon and Lancafter. " Ailtin's Mancheller, p. 91. • Mr. Houfman alfo giviB a good account of thefe curiofiries, he obfervw, p. 26, fhatrofb irc in Cuntbetlaud called Linnt (whence Uie nimc is in Scotland applied to acatam^l) ; and Sour CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. »39 The lakes of Cumberland form another grand fcene of attradllon, but it would be idle to attempt to depid, in a few words, beauties which have been defcribed by fo many authors, and particularly by the glowing pencil of a Gray. Suffice it to obferve, that the three moft celebrated lakes are thofe of Conifton, Windermere, and Derwent. The beauties of the firft have been compared to the delicate touches of Claude ; the noble fcenes of the fecond, to thofe of Pouflin ; while Derwent has much of the fublime mildnefs of Salvator Rofa: but moft travellers elleem Ulfwater the moft truly fublime. The mountainous regions of Wales may well be fuppofed to prefent many natural curiofities; and the Parry's mine in An^cfea is in itfelf a furprifing obje£t. The catarafts in Cumberland arc rivalled by a re- markable fall of the Tees, on the weft of the county of Durham, over which is a bridge fufpended by chains, feldom pafled but by the ad- venturous miners j nor muft Afgarth force, in Yorkftiire, be palTeJ in filence. Near Darlington, in the county of Durham, are three pools of great depth, about thirty yards, called Hell Kettles, concerning which many fables have been current, as is ufual with all nations, concerning any natural phoenomena. The cliffs near Sunderland confift of a flngular Hone, refembling coralinc produdions ; and fo firm as to be generally ufed there in building *. The fub- marine relics of a foreft, on the coaft of Lincolnfhire, may be defervedly clafTed among the moft remarkable natural curiofities. Nor are the lofty chalk cliffs of Dover without their claim. The ca- vern near Ryegate, in Surrey, defcending through a hill of the fineft and moft fplendid fand, muft rather claim an artificial origin. At Brofely, in Shroplhire, was a well fo impregnated with bitumen, that, on the Sour Milk Force, near the bottom of Buttermere lake, is fuppofed to fall upwards of 300 yard*. A curious cave was lately difcovrrcd, p, 8^, by miners near Crofifcll, faid to be two miles in tength. and full of fplendid fpars. Gordale Scarr, p. 199, near Malliam cove, is a dreadful rent through high rocks, worthy of the attention of a curious traveller. • The like (lone occurs in Ingria, and the palace of Peterhoff is conftrud^ed with it. The A-imoiiitic ftone of Broad Marfton, Somerfeiniire, is another fingiilar produdion. T a applica- Natwral. Curiosi- ties. 1 ; J dilf^i I40 Natorai Ckriosi* T 1 1 S , 7 i . ENGLAND. VJ J%JkmO application of a candle, the ftream took fire, and would boll a tea kettle in nine minutes'*; but, by opening other coal-pits in the vicinity, this phoenomenon difappearcd; a fimilar appearance and event alfo o€« curred in Lanca{hire*\ But Shropfhire ftill contains a remarkable well of bitumen, at a place thence ftyled Pitchford, Cheddar cliffs, in Somerfet(hire, may alfo be mentioned among the natural curiofities; and the Mendip-hills are not without their caverns, particularly Wookey-hole, near Wells, a ftala£titic cavern of about 600 feet in length, divided by low paflages into various apartments ; one of which, called the hall, fomewhat refembles a Gothic chapel, and is faid to be eighty feet in height ; while the furlheft, ftyled the parlour> it of moderate height, but extenfive diameter. On the N. W. fide of the Mendip- hills, is a yet more remarkable curiofity, a confiderable cavern, at the bottom of a deep ravine, near the little village of Berrington, or Bur- rington. Here are a number of human bones, graduaHy incorporating with the lime-ftone rock ; there being a continual dripping from the roof and fides, which depofits a ftaladitic fediment on the bones. Se- veral nodules contain perfect human fkulls. At the further end, where the height is about fifteen feet, there is a large conic ftaladlite, which nearly meets a pillar rifing from the floor. This cave was only difcovered about two years ago j; and as the matter increafes fo faft, it is conjedtured that it would foon have been clofed up **. Hence it is probable that thefe bones are of no remote antiquity, and may, per- haps be the remains of fome wretch .s who had here taken ihelter from the cruelty of Jeffries, after the infurreftion of Monmouth *; ■?■ *,\f '* PhiL Trmr. No. 334. and 482. '' Cough's Camden, II. 397. 4IS. '" Tianfaft. of the Linnxan Society, vol. v. Fh!lofoph. Mag. vii. 146. * There it a remarkable cave, or rather pit, fuppofed to have been an ancient mine, caHed Pcnpark-hole, abobt five miles to the north of Briftol. A pamphlet, publiflied by Mr. Caicntt contains the dimenfions of this horrible chafm, and an affecting account of the fate of Mr. Newnam^ who fell into the gulph. while be wu meafuring its depth. % ■liii i. T i mH 1 ■ '.i^ifU'f ^ 2 ^.; .il.fej.i J 1 4 1 1 r ■■;■■ '■'•'- ' if i'olj.futf/f t4' * tfi .Inwu.rmiih iHmnt . l.lVim DniivHy ttnd t*thm . ? . IVfltn vwHouc rkarta. :i. IVoin Dvbkfp, hiNiffini .%b rrli jfi/li*r,hy thiMltJTut Dttvifj. .Orymit.irruf Lon/tm,m .».•«/ ff/w, P>ttrmitj1rrlttm. CHAP. IV. NATURAL. GE.OGRAPHY. t ■ VPi< ENGLISHISLES, In the Southern, or Englifli Channel, firft appears the Ifle of Wight, me of by the Romans called Veait^ by the Saxons Vibtlond^ of an oval form, ^'S''^ about twenty miles in length, and twelve in breadth. This ifle is fertile and beautiful, [and docorated with many pidurefque villas j the , principal haven is that of Newport. The chief mineral produds are pipe clay, and fine white fand, for the fabrication of pure gTafs ; and at .«..^,; > AluiP''""y» on the north fide of the Needles, are found confidcrable quantities of native alum '. It is faid that more corn was once raifed in the Ifle of Wight in one year, than the inhabitants could confiime in . t;^: i eight. One of the mod remarkable buildings is Carifbrook-cafile, where Charles I was impifoned ; it was buift foon after the conquefl, at> appears from the Book of Doomfday. The lofty white rocks, ftyled the Needles^ feem to have been disjointed from the wefiern extremity of the ifle, by the violence of the waves. There were formerly three ; *" but about the year 1782, the talleft, which rofe about 120 feet above the low-water mark^ was overthrown, and totally difappeared *. j^:^ At the diftance of about feventy miles from Wight, to the S. W. arifcs the little ifle of Alderney, off the Cape la Hogue j wliich is after- wards followed by the more important iflcs of Guernfey, and Jerfey ; Sark being a fmall ifle interpofed between the two latter. Guernfey, Guernfey, die largeft of ibefe ifles, is twelve miles long, nine broad, and aboiu thirty-fix in circuit. It is a verdant ifle, though the foil be hilly, and barren of wood. The only town is that of Port St. Pierre *. Jeri'ey Jerfey, it about twelve miles in length, and fix in breadth, a well watered and fertile ifland, producing excellent butter and honey. The winters are milder, but more windy, than thofe of England. The breed of flieep^ ■ Cough '1 Camden, i. 14^. ' Worfley'i Ifle of Wight, p. 374. * Guernfey it chiefly remarkable for iti fmall breed of cattle. ^> vvith ^ ir r.»r*.-'rH- '■"•' ^.^ t - -v u ■ ..1 ' v-.« ' »4« Britiim i Aldcrncy. Eddlftone. 6=niy. Mllfi •.>■ ENGLAND. ■f. with four or fix horns, fcems now unknown. The northern fide of the ifland is high, but the fouthern fubfides into pleafant vales, covered with orchards. It is faid that this illc has fometimes produced in one year 24,000 hogfheads of cyder. The rciiiarkable places are the two towns of St. Helier and St. Aubin, both Handing on a bay, opening to the fouth J and the caftle of Mont Orgueil. The inhabitants of Jerfey are computed at 20,000, of which 3000 are capable of arms. In January 1781, St. Helier was furprifed by 800 French under Rulli- court, who was killed, while Major Pierfon fell on the fide of the Englifli, his valour being commemorated by paintings and prints, and by a handfome monument in the church of St. Helier. Alderncy is a fmall ide, with a town, and ^bout a 1000 inhabitants in all. Sark has about 300 inhabants '. Returning to the Englifli fliore, we firft defcry Eddiftone Ught-houfe, beat by all the fury of the weftern waves. This edifice has repeatedly been overthrown, but the prefent erection by Mr. Smeaton, compofed of vaft mafles of ftone, grooved into the rock, and joined with iron, promifes alike to defy accidental fire, and the violence of the ocean, though the wave* fometimes wafli over the very fummit in one flieet of foam. A'>out thirty miles to the weft of the Land's End, appear the Illes of Scilly, which have been idly deemed the Caffiterides of the anclentf, though thefe rocks be too minute to have attracted their notice. Thi$ clufter pretends to the name of 145 ifles, covered with grafs or mofs, befides innumerable dreary rocks. The largeft ifle is that of St. Mary, which is about five miles in circuit, and has a caftle and garrifon ; in- habitants about 600. That of St. Agnes is rather fertile, inhabitants about ,}00. The whole inhabitants of the Scilly Ifles are computed at about 1000. The cattle and horfes fmall ; but fheep and rabbits thrive well. Conffderable quantities of kelp are prepared amid thefe rocks *. I » •r *»* Hr E^v «^wO'l|» 4teaJ ( iji^mia * Gough's Camden, lii, 753. * Ibid. ;. 'f 1/ On ->*IMt|' .J CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHT. »4J On turning to the North, firft appears the little ifle of Lundy, fituated Brituh io the Briftol Channel, about three miles long, but not a mile in *"J' breadth, with about 500 acres of good land, fome rivulets, and a caftle. It was formerly a noted retreat for pirates. Some fmall ifles lye off the Welch coart of Pembrokefliire and Caer- Anglefet* narvon, fuch as Caldy, Skomar, BardfeVf and others*: but the ifle of Anglefea deferves more attention, being the Mona of Tacitus, while the Ifle of Man is more properly the Monaeda of the ancients. Anglefea is about twenty-five miles in length, ariid eighteen in breadth. The chief towns are Newburgh, Beaumaris, and, on the weftern extremity, fronting Ireland, Holyhead This ifle is fo remarkably fertile, that the Welch have emphatically ftyled it the mother of Wales ; and of late- has been alio produdive of rich copper, founl in the Parrys moun- tain, in the N. E. part of the ifland, near Aialuch, of which an account has been given in treating of the Englilh minerals. This ifle alfo pro- duces green Terpentine, with albeftos. Beaumaris is a large town, witha^ caftle built by Edward I. Newburgh is a corporation of fmaller moment. Holyhead, originally a filhing town, has becoine of confeqnence, by the Iri(h packets which pafs daily, the average time being twelve hours. The laft tnglilh ille worth mention, is that of Man ; it is about Man*, thirty iriles in length, and fifteen in its greatell breadth. In the midft is a high mountain, called Snafcl. The chief mineral produdions are black marble, flate, lime-ftone, lead, copper, and iron. Man is alfa well ftored with black cattle, and (beep : and the population has of late years greatly increafed. This ifle was feized by the Norwegians, along^ with the Weftern Ifles of Scotland, in the ninth century ; and remained under thefe lords an independent kingdom, till the thirteenth century, when it fell with thdfe iflands to Alexander III of Scotland. The Scots were expelled in the reign of Edward II, but the title continued dubious, for in the 15th and 16th centuries, Alexander and John, Dukes ofi Albany, fVyled themfelves Lords of Man, and interwove the arms iiv ■^ m ■■.I'M'- 4 ■'•• ' wmm U'uMim • Barry, a ftnall iffe, S. W. of Car»JifF, 13 lately n'^tcd for fulphate of ftrotttlan, alfo found at^ OldFallage, fourteen miles N. W. of Briftol, and near Mendip liLlh. theic 144 BtlTltH IsLkl. Tbaaet m A >; ENGLAND. ^i *i a h their heraldry. In the reign of Henry IV, the kingdom of Man wai conferred on the Stanleys, afterwards Earls of Derby, and latterly paffed to the family of Athol by marriage. This petty fovereignty has been fmce purchafed and annexed to the Euglilh crown. The chief places are Douglas and Caftletown, and there are Tome condderablc villages. There are alfo fome fmall iflands off the eaftern coaft, as Lindisfarn and Coquette ifland, near the mouth of the river of that name, in Nor. thumberland4 The ifle of Thanet is now joined to the land of Kent ■ but Sheppey remains a pleafant and interefting iHe. '> . '■ •f.l'i'rr t, ^5 ^•r h ■M, U*;iv»i. -; ]% fT }-■ f. . yii'^Ti..: V ^\'4i ,j/. At ■ H\*r:'. ■V '■:■•. .^-i,.^ ■'■ ■ Kvjj';:' a ». i--^A:ii^>( ■j*;-- •■-i j^'« rff^ '■^. «;•■ > rTn ■i ^«, fA,' ' "*'V '>'.') .1 •/■ •:/••**- ^t. • n (, i * i/i, SCOTLAND. t:„.'-\.vu^t^.,/i- ..I . J: 1 "J :. iu«» * / - • - r . • ... . , > CHAPTER I. ..■V..',,' .■ liamt.'^£}etent,-^riginai PopuJation.-^Progrfffive Geography. '^Uijhric^ Efocht.^'Antiqmtiest QCOTLAND was firft difcovered to the Romans by Agricola ; and the Nami s. ^'luminous pages of Tacitus difclofed the (Ituation and manners of the country. It is not improbable that the Thule of the Phoenicians may have been the main land of Shetland ; or, perhaps, as fome think, even the north of Scodand, which the Phoenicians, (landing out to Tea, and afterwards bending their courfe towards the Idnd, may have miilaken for anotber ifland, a circumftance not unufual in the annals of naviga- tion. However this be, not even a hint that can be pofitively applied to Scotland, can be found in the ancient writers, till the Flavian family heM the Roman fceptre. j,;^, ^,.,, ,i .e- . ..•'^^ .^„^..' ,. .• ' Tacitus difcriminates the northern part of Britain froni the foiithern, b]rthe fpccial and repeated appellation of Caledonia, a name faidto be derived from a Cumraig word, fignifylng woodlands, foreds, or, per- haps, rather a mountainous country, for the ancients often blended Wxi ideas of foreft and mountain ; the Riphaean mountains, for inftance, being, in fa£t, only a vafl: foreft, as no mountains are to be found in that fituation and dire£iion, ^ " ', ; ' . > VOL. I. '0 . • The ■' f •'.•■''M'ri'lii i " i. ■ • [ . I.' ,i '"'■;■ y&i^ *ii t4« SCOTLAND. J y Nam II. The names Caledonia^ and Caledonians ^ continued to be ufcd till the Roman power expired. Bede, the father of Englifli hiftory, calls the inhahitants of the country, by the name of PiSf'ty which had alfobeen ufcd by the later Roman writers, as fynonymous with that of Calcdonii, The country he denominates, in the lax barbaric Latin of that age, Provincia Pi^orumy the province, or region of the Pid\i. This new name fecms to have been native (Piks, or Pehts) ; and to have originated from a country fo ftyled, in the fouth of Norway, whence this colony had arrived. The Saxon writers, and among them King Alfred, call the people Peohts, and the country Peohtlond. Thefe diftindiions continued till the eleventh century, when the new name of Scotia was taken from Ireland, its former objed, and applied to modern Scotland. This confufion feems to have originated from the vanity or affedlation of the Irilh clergy, who were edablilhed in Scot- ■ land, ^n^ were the fole inftrudors of the people ; no native Caledonian faint being mentioned in the eccleHaftic annals, till the twelfth centmy, the Pi£ti retaining much of the ignorance and ferocity of their Scandi- navian progenitors. Nor can the new term Scotland^ be properly de- rived from any pretended conqueft of the Pidli, by the Attacotti, > colony of Scots or Irifh, who had fettled in Argylefliire, as the Saxon and Irifh authors continued to ufc the former appellations for three centuries after that event is faid to have happened. Extent. That part of Great Britain, called Scotland, is about 260 miles in length, by about 160 at its greateft breadth ; it extends from the 55th degree of latitude, to more than 58^. The fuperficial contents have been computed at 27,793 fquare miles, a little exceeding that of Ir^ land, and confiderably more than half that of England. The popula- tion being ellimated at 1,600,000, there will of courfe be only fifty- feven inhabitants, for every fquare mile, a proportion of about one third to that of Ireland. This defed of population arifes folely from che mountainous nature of the country, amounting, perhaps, to one balf, little fufceptible of cultivation. < ./ ,(>- u The Northern Divifion. Midland Divifion. CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 147 The Scotifh counties are as follow, the number of inhabitants being N*»«". *c. edimated from the enumeration of 1801 : Counties. Inliabitmti. Orkney - - - - 46,844 Caithncfs . - - - 22,609 Sutherland - - - 23,117 Rofs _ - _ - 52,291 Cromarty - - - 3.05 a Invernefs - - - - 741*92 -Argyle ... - 71,859 Bute - - - - 11,791 Nairn . - - - 8,252 Murray, or Elgin - - 20,705 Banff - - - - 3^,807 Aberdeen - - , 123,082 Mearns, or Kincardine - 26,349 Angus, or Forfar - 99^"? Perth - - - - 126, S6 Fife - - - - 9it/43 Kinrofs - - - - 6,725 Clackmannan . - - 10,858 Stirling - - - - 50,825 Dunbarton - - - 20,710 I* Weft Lothian, or Linlithgow 17.844 I Mid Lothian, or Edinburgh 122,954 Eaft Lothian, or Haddingtoii 29,986 Berwick _ - - . 30,621 Renfrew - - - - 7^y°5^ Ayr ----- 84,306 Southern Divifion. iWigton - - - - 22,918' Lanark - . - - 146,699 Peebles - - - - 8,735 Selkirk - - - - 5,070 Roxburgh - - - - 33,682 Dumfri,. - - - - 54,597 ,Kirkudbrigh"t - - - 29,211 u 2 So .*■< .,•* rL%:- ■IJ^ ■ in 11 P 1 § i ^^K iflEl 148 Names, 4cc. S C O T L A !). So far as hiftorlcal rcfearches can difcover, the original population of HaTion. ^" Scotland confiftcd of Cimbri, from the Cimbric Cherfonefe. About two centuries before the Ghriftian sera, the Cimbri feeiii to have been driven to the fouth of Scotland by the Caledonians or Pidli, a Gothic colony* from Norway. The Cimbri, a congenerous people with the Welch, continued to hold the country fouth of the two firths of Forth and Clyde ; but from the former region they were foon expelled by the Piai, who, in this corner, became fubjeft for a time to the Anglo-Saxon kings of Bernicia. On the weft, the Cumraig kingdom of Strath Clyde continued till the tenth century, when it became fuhjeft to the kings of North Britain ; who at the fame time extended their authority, by the permiffion of the Englifli monarchs, over the counties of Cumber- land and Weftmoreland, which abounding with hills and fortrelTes on the fouth and eaft, were little accefTible to the Englifh power ; and while the Danes poflcfled the country to the north of the Humber, could yield little revenue or fupport to the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. From the Pifli originates the population of the Lowlands of Scotland, the Lowlanders having been in all ages a diftin^t people from thofe of the weftern High. lands, though the Irifh clergy endeavoured to render their language, which was the moft fmooth and cultivated of the two, the polite dialogue of the court and fuperior claiTes. About the year of Chrift 258, the Dalriads of Bede, the Attacotti of the Roman writers, pafled from Ire< land to Argylefhire, and became the germ of the Scotifh Highlanders, who fpeak the Irifh or Celtic language, while the Lowlanders have always ufed the Scandinavian, or Gothic. The progrelfive geography of Scotland, is little opulent in materials. In the fecond century we find a map of North Britain, by Ptolemy; but by fome fingular error, it is as inaccurate as his map of Hindoltan ; for he reprefents the Mull of Galloway as the moft northern promon- tory of Scotland, and thence bends the country due eaft, fo that all bis longitudes and latitudes are fiditious.* This ftriking inftance evidences that he often accommodated his longitudes and latitudes, from mathe- matical conJe<^ure, to carelefs (ketches which had been taken by the Roman engineers, or by navigators. But his diftribution of the tribes * See the letter of M. Coflcllin to Mr. Finkcrton,. in the Rtdtrthu/ur let Scyikct, Paris 1 804, Sto. ' Mihich Progrelfive Oiograpliy CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. M9 which then inhabited Scotland, may be regarded as tolerably exaA. Names, iz* In the centre of the country he places a vaft foreft, which he calls the ^^'*^* Sylva Caledonia, chiefly extending over modern Perthfhtre, an indica- tion that the colonies had fettled on the (hares, and that the interior part of the country was little known. The Otadeni were the people of modern Northumberland and Lothian ; the Selgovx extended over Dumfriefhire, and Kirkudbright, to the bay of Wigton, while the No- vanta: filled modern Wigtonfhire, and extended upwards to Ayre-bay. The fourth fouthern tribe w.ns that of the Damnii, who pofTeiTed the central region, from near the fource of the Clyde, to that of the Erne- On the norih-eaft of the Damnii were the Venicontes, from the Frith of Forth to the river Dee, while the Texali held the modern fliires of Aberdeen and Bamf. To the weft of them were the Vacomagi, ex- tending from Fort William to the Caftra Alata or Invernefs. The other tribes fcarcely deferve enumeration : the Cornabii polTefled the mod northern parts of Scotland, from Dunfby-head to Strathnaver. Four tribes extend along the north-weft, down to Loch Linny j to the fouth of which are placed the Epidii, in Argyleftiire, who were divided by Loch Fyn from the Gadeni, who held that part to the eaft of Argylc- fliire, called Co wal, in the county of Dumbarton. After the time of Ptolemy little information arifes concerning the geography of Scotland, till, after the lapfe of feven or eight centuries* we find the dawn of the prcfent names and divifions. In the latter Roman period, the province of Valentia embraced that part which was fouth of the Clyde and Forth ; as for a fhort fpace, from about AD. 140 to 170, the name of Vefpafiana had been imparted to the region extending from the Forth to Loch Nefs. The remains of Roman roads form the chief evidence of the firm poffefTion of the latter province. In the middle ages, the name of Alliany had been applied to that part of Scotland which lies on the north of the Firths ; and about the year 1200, was written the Dffcriptio Albania. In the fourteenth century^ Fordun produced a larger and more precife idea of Scottifh geography, Harding, who wrote his rhyming Chronicle in the reign of Edward IV, gives a tolerably exa£l defcriplion of Scotland, which he had vifited ; and (bme manufcripts of bis work contain a rude map of the country. ^ :'r™ '■;*■"•*■'" •■tilii mi P iBwKm^ ^HB iU^UM i^B 'BH^Mvi '^S^B :I^B^B^9.bI 'tHv^n I^^K^^^^HH^^H 'ii^Bu^H' '^^^^S^I^h^mHv ti^B^^^H I^^^HH' |nRj illwliilwH i ^SilHi iMinvSll^HrH^K 'ill Kfl ^^Bn JiBliBi WSL '4inii BtMi ' -R '^Bfft^^Mi ' ' H W m Wmm ' • m I'lii i'^iiPiiflii ' ■ JIHIWbH' i^K « Bh rxMH iPtit^Hfl ^H m''M 11 Ii^Hh^ 'll'l^wl' 1 'US liw^'iSM IliimBi V' m i fI^MP M. ffl Ifw'^llM'i Ml ^ii.lt '^ lilMl^'JHS' w Hi«n^ I^HHi J JlH^ffi! If in 1 lllli^H 1 ll 'M I 'HI *•{ t ft 'n^ k '' ■WBKjjM ^b1 ffiu' f ^M'' ■^^^^P^flii F' n ;a ! . ^ Ih '1 I ^ HI 'i • '' ^ Hifl H '« 1 ''' ' ^Hl 'H Wit' • v^hB B u m^^H H 'fil ' i^^^B 1 IH fl 1 HH9 III HH ■iH mi >5o SCOTLAND. f 4 Iliftoiical Epotlis. Names, ejc- It muft be obferved, that the mifapprehenfions of Ptolemy concerning TfcNT, c. ^^^ j^^ pofition of North Britain, are redlified, even in old Anglo- Saxon drawings. The firft engraved map is that publifhed by Bifhop Lelley, with his Hiftory ; but it abounds with portentous errors, which have been flowly removed. The Atlas publidied in the laft century does honour to the induftry and abilities of Pont, and tlie munificence of Sir John Scott; and the recent exertions of Dorret, Roy, Mackenzie Huddard, Ainflie, and others, have contributed to eftablifli fome exaft. nefs in the geographical and hydrographical delineation of the country. The original population of Scotland by the Cimbri, and by the Pifti forms, as ufual, the firft hiftorical epoch. 2. The entrance of Agricola into Scotland, and the fubfequent coa< Aids with the Romans, till the latter abandoned Britain. 3. The fettlement of the Dalriads, or Attacotti, in Argylelhire, about the year 258, and their repulfion to Ireland about the middle of the fifth century. • ». " -»vi >»•> 4. The commencement of what may be called a regular hiftory of Scotland, from the reign of Druft, A. D. 414. 5. The return of the Dalriads, A. D. 503. and the fubfequent events of Dalriadic ftory. 6. The introdudion of Ghriftiamty among the Caledonians, in the reign of Brudi II, A. D. 565. - . i;, Krf ',ns»ifnH ♦ffv' v^- 7. The union of thePidiand Attacotti, under Kenneth, A. D. 843. 8. The reign of Malcolm III, A. D. 1056; from which period greater civilization began to take place, and the hiftory becomes more aAithentic. 9. The extimSlion of the ancient line of kings, in the perfon of Mar- garet of Norway, grand-daughter of Alexander III, A. D. 1290. This event occafioned the arbitrary interpofition of Edward I, king of Eng- land, which was the fole fource of the enmity which afterwards unhap- pily prevailed between the kingdoms. 4\ ^•1l Tj'j' /(•,> 10. The acceffion of the Houfe of Stuart to the Scoti(h throne; a family \ Mch produced moft ingenious and intelligent, but moit unfor- tunate princes. 11. The eftablifliment of the Proteftant religion, A. D. 1560. 12. The CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. »5» 12. The union of the two crowns, by the accefllon of James VI, to HisreRicAt „r, r \ T\ /: Epochs. the Englifh fceptre, A. D. 1603. 13. The civil wars, and the fubfequent difputes between the Prefby- terians and Indc pendants; caufes that extinguifhed all found literature in Scotland, for ihe fpace of twenty years, A. D. 1640 — 1660. 14. The revolution of 1688, and the firm eftablilhmcnt of the Pref- byterian fyftem. 1 5. The union of the two kingdoms, in 1 707. 16. The abolition of the hereditary jurifdidions, 1755, which laid the firil foundation of the fubfequent profperity in Scotland. The monuments of antiquity belonging to the more early epochs, Amiquitics, may be confidered in the following order. Of the firft epoch, no mo- numents can exift, except thofe of the tumular kind ; and it is impof- fible to afcertain the period of their formation. The remains of the Roman period in North Britain, chiefly appear in the celebrated wall, built in the reign of Antoninus Pius, between the firths of Forth and Clyde, in the ruins of which many curious infcriptions have been found. Another ftriking obje£): of this epoch, was a fmall edifice, vul> garly called Arthur's Oven, which feems rightly to have been regarded by ibme antiquaries, as a fmall temple, dedicated to the God Terminus, probably after the eredion of the wall of Antoninus, for we are not to conceive that thefe walls were the abfolute lines, beyond which the Romans poffeffed no territory ; while, on the contrary, in the pacific intervals, the garrifons along the wall may have claimed the forage of the exterior fields; and the ftream of Carron, beyond which this chapel ftood, may have been confidered as a neceffary fupply of water. The remains of the wall and forts, and other Roman antiquities in Scotland, particularly their camps and (Nations, many of which are re- markably entire, are ably illuftrated in a late publication of General Roy, to which this reference mud fuffice, with this fole remark, that the ingenious author has too implicitly followed a common antiquarian error, in afcribing all thefe camps, ftations, &c. to Agricola, while they maybe more juftly afligned to LoUius Urbicus, A. D. 140, or to the Emperor Sever us, A. D. 207; efpecially, indeed, to the latter, for the Emperor's appearance in perfon to conduil two campaigns, probably ia m. m iL luff': ■■'1' ■ 4l| lit ^:'': >S5 SCOTLAND. Amtiqui* TIES. as far as Invernefs, muft have occaHoned the eredlion of works more eminent and durrble than ufual, the foldiers being excited by the anl. mating controul of a military monarch. Confliantius Ghlorus alfo A. D. 306, made a long progrefs into Scotland, if we trud the Pane- gyrics. Nay, in the rsign of Domitian, Bolanus, as we learn from Statins the poet, ereded feveral r'orks in Britain, probably in the north i To that it is idle to impute thefe remains to any one author: but to a judicious eye, the claims of Lollius Urbicus, and of Severus, feem preferable. The moft northerly Roman camp yet difcovered, is that near the fource of the river Ythan, Aberdeenfliire ; periphery about two £ngli(h miles. A fmaller ftation has alfo been obferved at Old Meldrum, a few miles to the S. £. Roman roads have been traced a conHderable way in the eaft of Scotland, as far as the county of Angus, affording fome evidence of the exigence of the province Vefpafiana; but th6 chief remains are within the wall. A hypocauft was alfo difcovered near Perth, and another near Muffelburgh, fo that there was, probably, fome Roman ilation near the Scotifli capital, but the name of Alaterva is a ridiculous error, arifmg from an infcription, by fome foreign cohort, to obfcurc goddefles of their own country, (lyled Matres Alaterva, The fmaller remains of Roman antiquity found in Scotland, as coins, utenfilt, &c, are numerous. With the fourth epoch may be faid to commence the Pikilh monu< ments of antiquity. The tombs it would be difficult to difcriminate from thofe of the firft epoch ; but as the Caledonian kings, when converted to Chridianity, held their chief refidence at Invernefs, the Angular hill In its vicinity, prefenting the form of a boat reverfed, may, perhaps, be a monument of regal fepulture. The places of judgment among the Gothic nations, or what are now ftyled Druidic temples, are numerous; and there is a remarkable one in the Ifle of Leuis, where, probably, the monarcbs refided in the moft early times; but this, perhaps, rathvi' be- longs to the Norwegian fettlement in the ninth century. Some of thelt monuments are of fMall circuit, and fuch are fometimes found at no great diftance from each other ; as t*- ; ere not only fometimes erefted merely as temples to Odin, Thor, Freyga, and other gothic deities, but 1 1 every CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. every chief, or lord of a manor, having jurlfdiftion over many fervants Hutoh and flaves, fuch fmall courts became places of neceflary awe. Erocti The houfes feem to have been entirely of wood or turf; but in fome fpots fingular excavations are found rudely lined with ftone : thefe are called Wcms^ and it is likely that they were always adjacent to the wooden refidence of fome chief, and were intended as depofitories of ftores &c. the roofs being too low for comfortable places of refuge. The ftations and camps of the natives, are diftinguilhed by their round fomi, while thofe of the Romans belong to the fquare. ' - ' Under the next epoch it would be difficult to difcover any genuine remains of the Dalriads. The houfes, and even churches, were con- ftruded in wattle-work ; and the funeral monuments were cairns, or heaps of ftones. It is probable that Chriftianity did not immediately dlffolvc ancient prejudices, and that even the Attacottic kings were buried in this rude manner, for the genuine chronicles do not afHrm that they were conveyed to Hyona, or Icolmkill; and the fe^ul- chres there fliewn of Irifli and Norwegian kings, mud be equally fabulous. To the fixth epoch may probably belong a chapel or two, dill remain- ing in Scotland, for Bede informs us, that Nethan HI, A. D. 715, ob- tained architects from Ceolfrid, abbot of Jarrow and Weremouth, to build a church in his dominions, probably at Abernethy ; but the round tower there remaining, feems of more recent origin. About the year 830, Unguft II founded the church of St. Andrews ; and the chapel called that of St. Regulus, (who feems unknown in the Roman ca- lendar,) may, perhaps, claim even this antiquity. It is probable that thefe facred edifices in flone were foon followed by the eredion of thofe rude, round piles, without any cement, called Piks houfes : yet they may more properly belong to The feventh epoch, when the Danes may, if they choofe, (hare in the honour of the eredlion, for fuch edifices have been traced in Scan- dinavia. They feem to have confided of a vafl hall, open to the Iky in the centre, while the cavities in the wall prcfent incommodious rc- cefles for beds, &c. Thefe buildings are remarkable, as difplaying the firft elements of the Gothic caftle ; and the caftle of Coningfburg, in VOL. I. X Yorkfhirc, 'Si CAb s. • ihd Hi ''(i h'f ■'' ■'"fM IE. '1', '■ ** i"' ->r I'^'fr - I I. m m I I'' '11' »S4 SCOTLAND. HiiTOkicAL Yorkfhire, forms an eafy tranfition. The engraved obeliiks, found at ErocHi, jorrcs, and in other parts of Scotland, have been afcribed to the Danifli ravagers, vrho had not time for fuch erections. They are, probably, monuments of fignal events, raifed by the king or chiefs, and as fome are found in Scandinavia, as recent as the fifteenth century, it is probable that many of the Scotifli obeliiks, are far more modern than is generally imagined.* To enumerate the churches and caftles, ereded fmce the reign of Malcolm III, would be infinite. Some of the mod fplendid churches derive their foundation from David I, in the twelfth century. * The noted vitrified forti feem to belong to the thirteenth centiuy. See £nqui7 into tk Hiftory of Scotland, t voli. 8vo. 4 ' I ^ '■■■-■■ • .v . »';^' •„ 4>i .' \ L-.-V .fi. •■ • \ '■ .? ►• ' . * >_' I I , » .1"'* " •' .'.'O '111. ■. -.■, C 155 ) 1 - CHAPTER II. Reliiion. — Ecckftajiical Geography. — Government. — La-u;:. — Po/m/ation.— Colonies. SINCE the revolution, 1688, the Ecclefiaftlcal Government of Scot- Re land is of the Preibyterian form ; an eftablifhment attempted in the fixteenth century, but uniformly oppofed by the monarchs, as unfavour- able to the royal influence. Experience has (hewn that the prejudice was unfounded ; but violent commotions happened before the Prefby- tcrian triumph became firm. The number of parilhes in Scotland is 941'; contiguous parifhes unite in what is called a Prefbytery, of which denomination there are fixty-nine. The provincial fynods amounting to fifteen, are compofed of feveral adjacent prefbytaries : but the grand ecclefiaftical court is the General Aflembly, which meets every year, in the fpring, the king appointing a commiffioner to reprefent his perfon, while the members nominate their moderator or prefident. To this ec- clcfiaftic council laymen are alfo admitted, under the name of Ruling Elders, and conftitute about one-third of this venerable body. This Court difcufles and judges all clerical affairs, and admits of no appeal, except to the Parliament of Great Britain. In general the Scotifli clergy deferve the higheft praife, as men of enlightened minds and moderate condua ; and a fingular proof of the diffufion of talents among them, has recently appeared in the Statiftical Account of Scotland, publiflied by Sir John Sinclair, in twenty-one volumes ; for there are few parifhes of which the account is not ably delineated by the clergyman himfelf ; aphocnomenon in the literary world, which will hardly be rivalled by 900 philofophers, or rather theorifts of the modern fchool. As whatever eftablifhment is effedted in a free country, oppofition will always arife, the eftablifhment of the Prefbyterian fyftem, was, in the fpacc of one generation, followed by the fcccflion. In 1732, about b I O I o 1^ . ' iStatiil. Account. X 2 forty I; w. .H: -'.it-. ' ..> ' hy ' . ..:„■• e ■ '■■'', .-^•. l).;r^r;i ■• . . „ . »}.;•■:/ »' -ji -J,. .;• :,■ >T I. ,r uti , . , • • • ■ ■'. ■■• ■. ' ' ' rrii -,. • ■ • .. U 'r: ;• ,. • ' • ... ■ J . 'Ti ' ■ ^.r^l v.i; :-:f>:, ' • ■»' • ' . . 1 ■' '^' ^ ■ 't'' .'-'-H iijUi -■i:.''.% '■' ^'•■'' ' ". '^- ')- ■ ■ ■' ' ,i. .,.-1 ;>*;; ■^jJ-inb" <..'. ;);,«;..■ .Mh.. U.'^ ,- . " .» '-■i (." 1: I. .f ( *59 } ^V". , , - 1 1 . fc » C H A t T E R Ifl. Mtnnert and Ct^hmt. — Language.— Literatun.-— Edueathn.-^Univer/hks.'-^ Citiet and Towns. "^Edifiax.-^htand Navigation, — ManufaHuret and Commerce. THE Manners and Cudoms of the Scots, begin to be much aflimi- MANNCxr lated with thofe of the Englifli. In their religious ceremonies, at- c«»tom«. tending baptifm and marriage, there are variations, arifing from the Preibyterian form, which does not admit of godfathers or godmothers, but renders the parents alone anfwerabic for the education of the child. The clergyman does not attend at funerals, nor is there any religtout fervice ; but p'cnerally great decency. The hearfe feems a more appro- priated machine than the clofe waggon fo called in England, being a light and lofty carriage of trellice work, painted with black, and fpotted with the refemblance of falling tears, an idea derived from the ancient Frenciv ceremonies, as may be obferved in the colIeAion by Montfaucon, Among the lower clafles, the funerals are generally far more numerouHy attended than in England } nor is black an indifpenfable colour of drefs on fuch occafions. In the luxuries of the table, the fuperior clafles rival the Englifli, and the gentlemen arc, perhaps, rather more fond of wine. The abundance and beauty of the table-linen are defervedly praifed by ftrangers : feveral national dlflies, formerly fcrved up at the bed tables, and originating from the French cooking, in the reign of Mary, are now common or neglefted, fuch as the haggis or bacbis ; cock-a-!eekie, or a capon boiled down with leeks ; crapped heads, or haddocks ftewed, the heads being ftuffed with a kind of forced-meat balls, &c. &c. The diet of the lower clafles paHes in a gradual tranfltion from the north of England. The chief food is paricb, or thick pottage, formed with oatmeal and water, and eaten with milk, ale, or butter ; in a hard lumpy form it is called brofe. With this the labourer is generally contented twice or thrice l m 'tH f >' I 160 Mann rut Cl'tTOMt. SCOTLAND. in the day, with a little bit of meat for Sur-'.- ; rivor does he repine at the bacon of the Englilh poor, as it i'. >od which he commonly loathes, there being an ancient aniipatl >• .vi -e, as impure animals into which the d ciiions paQcd, as mentioned in the Ncvv 'reflamcnt. A fnnilar antipathy prevails agalnft eels, as they refcmbic a ferpent, and the old ferpent. The lower claflls of Scotland were little given to cbricty, till a fucceffjon of improvidciit laws and regulations, reduced the wholcfome malt liquors to mere water, when they were driven to the deftrudive beverage of whiflcy; but in general their fobriety Is exemplary ; and the Scotifh manufadurer or labourer, indead of waftin™ his weekly gains at an alehoufc, is ambitious to appear with his familv in decent clothes, on Sundays and other holidays. TI)i« may be re- garded as a ftrilcing charadleriftic of the Scoti(h pcafantry, who always prefer the lafting decencies of life, to momentary gratifications. To this praife of fobriety, may be added that of intelligence, arifing from the difTufion of education, which is fuch, that even the miners in thcfouth poflfefs a circulating library. The houfes of the opulent have been long erefled upon the Engllili plan, which can hardly be excecucd for interior elegance and convenience. Even the habitations of the poor have been greatly improved within thefe few years, and indcad of the mud hovel, with ftraw, there often appears the neat cottage of (lone, covered with tile or flate. Whence the ancient cudom arofe, of placing the dunghill in the front of the houfe, cantK)t well be imagined ; perhaps it was intended in defence, and if fo, is ufelefs In pacific times ; perhaps it is meant as a difplay of opu- lence, in which cafe it is hoped that good fenfe will extingulih fucb fuperfluous vanity. ■**¥•••-■'' \ The drcfs of the fuperior clafTes Is the fame with that of the Englilh, and only waits the arrival of the fafhions from London, which are con- veyed by the mail coaches with great fpeed. The gentlemen in the Highlands, efpecially in time of war, ufe the peculiar drefs of that country. Among the other clafTes, the Scotlfh bonet is now rarely perceived, except in the Highlands ; it was the ufual covering for the head all over Europe, till towards the end of the 16th century, when the hat» formerly only worn in riding or bunting, came into general ufe. 1 The CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 161 TheScotirti pcafantry arc now generally cloathed in good L»road clolh, Mannkrj worfteil ftockings, and ftrong (hoes, inftead of the homc-fpun habilU cuitomi. mcnt and nudity of the lower extremities. This lad fingularity, com- mon in Wales, and even in England about two centuries ago, is moflly abandoned even by the Scoti(h laflcs, who may now afpire to the order of the garter. In the Highlands, it is to be regretted, that a diftinftion of drefs ftill prevails, as any variation in drcfs or language only foflers prejudices, and proves the moft fatal impediment to the progrefs of ci- vilization. Even in thefe enlightened times, if any nation were to return to the ftate of nudity, a philofopher could hardly avoid the idea, that they were favages ; and the mafs of mankind would certainly confider them as fuch, for trifles often lead to the mofl ferious evils. The amufements of the rich are on a parallel with thofe of the Englifli ; but thofe of the peafantry have feveral diverfities, which the reader may, perhaps, bed learn from the poems of Burns. That of airling confifts in rolling large ftones, with iron handles, upon the ice, towards a fixed mark, a favourite and healthy diverfion in the winter. The Engli(h quoits are fupplied \iy penny-Jianes^ round flat ftones, which aretoITed in the fame manner. Two exquifite poems of Mr. Burns, his IMowcen^ and his Cotter'i Saturday Nighty will convey more informa- tion concerning the amufements, fuperftitions, and manners, of the Scoti(h peafantry, than the mofl long and animated detail. The Scotifli language falls under two divifions, that of the Lowlands, Language. confiding of the ancient Scandinavian dialect, blended with the Anglo- Saxon ; and that of the Highlands, which is Irifh. A ftrid examination of the former, by an unprejudiced enquirer, would evince that it docs not originate folcly from the Anglo-Saxon, as fome conceive, the mode of fpelling and pronouncing numerous words, being unknown to the fouthern idiom : Of this, among other inflances, may be mentioned the qu of the Caledonians, an old Gothic combination, for which Ulphilas invented a letter, and for which the Anglo-Saxons ufeJ the toj as (jubat ior what, &c. But this is not the place for fuch difcufTions ; and it will be fufficient to produce the ufual fpecimcn, which, in the mod ancient language of the Lowlands, would be as follows : VOL. I. UCK , i f : . ^ 'I < * i'; .III ■» t v4l ' - '■■ '11*1 ■W- !V' '■ ' • i • I, I « Ml SCOTLAND. Lanuvaoz> l^or f<>(lcr quiiillc beeft i Hevin. 2. Hullowit weird thyne nam. 3. Cum thyne kingrik, 4. Be dune thyni: wull aa is i hevin fva po yerd. 3. Uur d«ilii- breid gif us tliilk day. 6. Aii^l forlcit us uur tkailis, aa we forlc't tliain qulia Hulh m. 7. And Iced us na iiitil tcmtatiau, 5. Butan fre us fia evil. Aincn. The iflantis of Orkney were fclzcd by die Norwegians, in the ninth century, and the inhabitants retained the Norfe language, till recent times, when they began to fpeak remarkably pure E.iglilh. Chathber- laync has given the Lord's Prayer in their ancient dialedt : Favor ir i cliinire. 2, Hellcur ir i nam tliite. 3. Gilla cofdiim ttiite cumma. 4. Vcya tliin: tnota vara gurt e yurii finna gurt i chimric. 5. Ga vus da on da dalighc bru.r vera. 6. I''irgi«{ VU8 fiiina vura fin vcc firgive fmdara mutha vu(. 7. Lyve ut ye i tunution. tt. Min ddivera lui fro ult ilt. Amen ; or. On fa mcteth vera. In the Erfe, or Irifli, of the Highlands, the fame fupplication run» thus: A n'Athair aU air Neamh. i. Gu nnamhaichear t Tinm. s. Tigeadit do Rioghachd' 3. Deantbar do Thoil air an Talamh mar a niihcar air Neamh. 4. Tabhair dhiiinn an diu ara Aran laithcii. 5. Agus maitt; dhuinn ar Fiacha amhuil mar mhaithmid d'ar luehd -fla clujbh. 6. Agus na Irig am bualreadh finn. 7. Ach faor finn o Die. Amen. Literature. The Literature of Scotland recompences for its recent origin, by its rapid progrefs, and extenfive fame. The country that produced Bu- chanan in the 16th century, could not, in the twelfth, boad of one native writer ; and only national vanity, or affeded ignorance, wouiJ claim authors which really belong to other countries. In the 13th cert- lury, the native literature firft begins to dawn ; when Scotland, filled with a barbarous Scandinavian colony, mud not in this refpedl be com- pared with the fouthern countries of Ireland and England, but with Scan- dinavia itfelf, with Holland, and the North of Germany, Poland, Pruffia, Rullia, and Hungary ; in all which countries Chriftianity and literature are comparatively recent. Yet, it muft not be forgotten, that in the facred ground of Ilyona, llouri(hed feveral refpedtable Irifh writers, who are alfo clafTed ainoii,' the apoftles of religion and learning in England : Such were Columba, wlio converted the northern Caledonians, and his biographers, Cuiiii- nius and Adomnan, the latter the friend of Bede. Among the Strati;- clyde Welch, may be named Patrick, iu his turn the apodle i.i Jrel.ind. 6 Independently CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. •«3 lOK*. Independently of thefc, the mofl: ancient fragment remaining of I-'nm- Scotifli literature, io ihe. Cbronicou Piclonim, written by fome Irifti cler- gyman, probably a dignitary of the church of Abernethy, in the be- ginning of the eleventh century. Of the twelfth century there arc fome fragments, in the Regifter of St. Andrew's ; and fome (hort Chro- nicles publifhcd by Innes : the Chronicle of Melrofe, and that of Holyrood. One of the carlieft native writers, is Thomas of .Erceldon, called the Rimer, who flouriflicd about the year 1270, and wrote a metri- cal romance, called Sir Triftram, lately publiflied. The next author of note is John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, who wrote his poem on the adions of Robert I, in the year 1375, no mean monu- ment of induftry and talents for that period. At the fame time flou- rifhed John Fordun, the father of Scotifh hiftory. James I, of Scotland, wrote fome excellent poems, early in the fifteenth century ; and he was followed by Holland, and Henry the Rimer, In the end of that century arofe Dunbar, thechief of the ancient Scotifli poets; and, in the begin- ning of the next, Gawin Douglas, and David Lindfay. The Scotifli mufe continued to warble till the middle of the feventeenth century, when religious fanaticifm extinguiflied all the arts and fciences, but not before Drummond had woven his web of Doric delicacy. In more mo- dern times, the names of Ramfay, Thomfon, Blair, Armllrong, Beattic, ** Burns, &c. are univerfally known. Rude dironiclcrs continued the chain of events ; but Hiftory wan mute till Buchanan founded his clafTical trumpet. Bilhops Leflcy and Durnet are not without thcV merit; but why repeat to tlie echoes of fame, the illuftrioiis names oi Hume and Robertfon ? The other departments of fcience arc of yet more recent cultivation in Scotland; even theology fcems unknown till the beginning of the fixtceiuh tcnfiry; and of medicim there is no trace till the feven- teenth: while we can now hoiift of iilair; and Edinburgh ranks amonj; i!)e liri> medical fchools of Europe. Natural philofophy and hillory were totally^ncglcded till after the Rclloration, yet Scotland can now produce able writers in ahnoft every brancli, and cijual piogrefs has been made in moral philofophy. Among tht; lew dcpaitinenis or' literature, Y 2 in t; ■ 7. ■''' I -J •♦■-''■J ''■..- 'J >? it •Vi'ir ( rl.^^ V 13 t-:f: fid W •I' >■ !*. iv.k 1 54 LlTIKA- TUKU. Education. Vnivcrfitit*. S C O r L A N D. in which the Scotifh authors Iiave been unluccclbful, may be named epic poetry, comedy, and the critical illuftration of the clafTics. The mode of education purfued in Scothind is highly laudable; and is, perhaps, the heft pradical fyftem purfued in any country in Europe. The plan which is followed in the cities, is nearly fimllar to that ot England, either by private teachers, or at large public fchools, of which that of Edinburgh is the mod eminent, and may be traced from tlie fixtee th century. But the fuperior advantage of the Scotifli educatioa confifts in every country parifh, poflcfling a fchoolmafler, as uniformly as a clergyman : at leaft, the rule is general, and the exceptions rare. The fchoolmafter has a fmall falary, or rather pittance, which enables him to educate the children, at a rate eafy and convenient, even to in. digent parents. It may, indeed, be computed, that a fliilling will go as far in this parochial education, as a guinea in an Englilh fchool. In the Highlands, the poor children will attend to the flocks in the fummer, and the fchool in the winter. It is to be widied that the falary of that moft ufeful body of men, the parochial fchoolmafters, were moderately augmented, fo as not to elevate them above their duty, but to fecure thera from want, or from the neccfTity of intermingling other labour with their important and falutary oHkc* The unlverfities of Scotland, or rather colleges (for an Englifli uni- verfity includes many colleges and foundations^ amount to no lefsthan four ; three on the caflern coaft, St. Andrew's, Aberdeen, and Edin- burgh ; and one on the weftern, that of Glafgow. It would have been far preferable to have founded one on the we^ern coaft of Rofsfliirc, in the centre of the Higlilands and Iflcs, that the light of fcience might have been diA'afcd over thefe ncglcfted regions. The univcrfity of St. Andrew's was founded by Bifhop Wardlaw, in the year 1412 ; but as it is now of fiuall importance in the proximity of that of Edinburgh, it would be a pitiiotic meafure to transfer it to the lli>:;hland8 as above mentioned. That of Glalgow was fouwdai bv Billiop Turnbull, in the year 1453, and it has prviduced many illudrinis frofeflTors and able ftudcnts. The late Mr. Anderfon, prof iTor of na- tural philolbphy, founded an i- flitutlon to promote the kiiowledgeof natural philofophy and hiftory ; and more efpcoially the application ot' • After Uiis rcconiraciidation it Lis '>ecn augmented. tlicfe CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 165 ihefs fciences, to the ufeful purpofes of commerce and manufadures'. Univirci. It is, indeed to he wifhed, that pradical utility, and the bufinefs of real ^""* lite, were the chief intentions of a collegiate education. The third univerfity, that of Aberdeen, was founded by Bifhop El- l^liinllcne, in the year 1500, and it has always fupported its high character and intentions. In the year 1593, George Keith, fifth Earl Marflial, founded a college at Aberdeen, being the only Scotifli noble- man who can claim that high honour. The laft, not leafl, is that of Edinburgh, founded by James VI, in 1580; and the bare enumeration of its iiluftrious profeflbrs and writers, would occupy too much fpa..e for the prelent plan. The buildings being mean and confined, the founda- tion of a new edifice was laid in 1789, and, it is hoped, will ibon be completed on the magnificent plans adjufted by Adams. The chief cities and towns in Scotland muft now be confidcred. cincs and Edinburgh, the capital, is comparatively of modern name and note- I'j"?,''',,,] Maitland, and other antiquaries, have fallen into mifcrable miflakes and milquotations, concerning the origins of thi" city • a paflage of an old writer has been adduced for its exidence in S54, while the original is completely filent. Whatever may be the epoch of its exlRence, the cariied hint that can be applied to it, occurs in the Chronicoti PiaoniiUy about the year 955, where mention is made of a town called Eden, as rcfigned by the Englifli to the Scots, then ruled by Indulf. In the next ctntury, Malcolm III, and Margaret of England, his celebrated qiiccn, a;c faidto have refided in the caftle; but her life by Turgot, omits this cirruinltance, and Holyrood houfe wa3 the foundation of tlie fird David. 13u; Scotilh antiquities have been treated with Inch inaccuri. y, tluit crude notions arc perpetually fiibftitutcd, inficad of that exacl kianv- kge which is to be found in thofe ot other countries. The populi'tlon of Edinburgh, including the port of Lciih, was, In 1678, computed at 3 ,-,500; in 1755, at 70,430; and in 1791, at 84,886*. It is probable the prefent population falls little Hiort of t)0,oco. The arrivals and clearances at Lcith Harbour, exccetl the number of 1700 vtflelsof various defciiiitions, Ihips, brig', and Hoops. * Garnett'* Tuur, ii. ipj. * Stalill. Account, vi. 564. Of 4 ,1 'T H :K .■•' ■ i! !.:;i 'r'l I r<| • I i lit ■■ ■■• mi t66 SCOTLAND. CiTiis Avn Of thefe 165 belong to the town: the commerce has been flateJ at half "*'*'■ a million annually. The houfes in the old town of Edinburgh, are fomctimcs of remark, able height, not lefs than thirteen or fourteen floors, a lingularitv afcribed to the wifti of the ancient inhabitants, of b^ing under the pro tcdion of the caftle. This part of the city (lands on the ridge of a hill, gradually defcending from the lofty precipice on which the callleis fituatcd, to a bottom, in which (lands the palace of Holyrood-houfL*. Adjacent to this edilice, is a park of confiderable extent, replete with mountainous fcenery ; for the bafaltic heights of Arthur's fear, and Sa- lifbury crags, are within its precindls. The new town of Edinhurga is dcicrvedly celebrated for regularity and elegance, the houfes being all of free-flone, and fome of them ornamented with pillars and pilallers. Ikick is, indeed, almod unknown in Scotland ; and is apt to imprefi the Scotilh traveller with the ideas of fllghtnefs, and want of duration. There are feveral publ'c edilices in Edinburgh, which would do honour to any capital ; .xmong fuch may be named the cadle, the palace, the principal church, Ilcriot's hofpital, the regider-oflice, the new college, and feveral buildings in the new city'. There is an elegant bridge, reaclilng from the hill on which the ancient city ftands, to the elevated fite of the new town. Another bridge palfcs in a line with the former, towards the fouili, over a (Ireet called the Cowgate: and an artificial mound extends from the wedern part of the ridge, to' the oppofite hill. The environs of Edinburgh are fingularly pleafingand piiflurcfquc. On the north is an elevated path, leading to the harbour of Leith: on the call are Mufsleburgh and Dalkeith, rural villages, watered by a beautiful flrcatn. On the fouth, Fentland-hills; and towards the weft, the rivulet Lcitli, with banks of romantic variety. Olaigow. The fccond city In Scotland is Glafgow, of ancient note, and ccclc- fialVic (lory, but of fmall account in the annals of commerce, til! tne time of Cromwell's ufurpation*. The population of Glafgow, in 1755, was computed at 21,546, Including the fubnrbs : the number In 1791, wai cflimaled 61,945. The ancient city was rather venerable than beautiful, » Aniot's Ediiiburyjh. KincaiJ'j Do. ' Deiiholn;c'» Glafgow. but CiTltS AKO Town I. CHAP. UK CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 167 but recent improvements have rendered it one of the neateft cities in the empire. Its weftern fituation expofes it to frequent rains, a difadvan- tage recornpenfcd by its favourable pofition for commerce with America and the Weft Indies. Its commerce has arifen to great extent fince the year 1718, when the firft (hip that belonged to Glafgow crofled the Atlantic'. The number of (hips belonging to the Clyde, in 1790, was 476, the tonnage 46,581 ; but, before the American war, it was fup- pofed to have amounted to 60,000 tons. Though the manufadurcs fcarccly exceed half a century in antiquity, they are now numerous and important'. That of cotton, in 1791, was computed to employ 15,000 looms ; and the goods produced, were fuppoicd to amount to the yearly value of 1,500,000/. the manufactures of linens, woollens, &c. arc far from being of fimilar confequcnce. The ancient cathedral of Glafgow furvived the reformation, when the other Scotifli edifices of that denomination funk into ruins. Two convenient bridges are thrown over the Clyde. The environs of Glafgow prcfent little re- markable. Next in eminence are the cities of Perth and Aberdeen, and the town Pmh. of Dundee. Perth is an ancient town, fuppofed to have been the Vic- toria of the Romans, but the fables concerning Bertha arc beneath nctice'. It is plcafantly fituated on tlie weftern bank of the river Tay ; and has been known in commerce fince the thirteenth century, but at prefenl the trade is chiefly of the coafting kind, Dundee pofleflring a more advantageous fituation for f leign intercourfe. Linen forms the ftaplc manufadurc, to the annual amount of about 160,000/. There are aire maaufiidures of leather and paper. Perth difplays few public edifices wortii notice. Inhabitants about 28,000. There is a noble bridge, of recent date, over the Tay, and the environs arc intciofting, particularly the hill of I/innoul, which prefents Angular fcencs, and many curious mineral produdions ". About eighteen miles nearer the mouth of the Tay, ftands Dundee, DuuJcc in the county of Angus, a neat modern town. The firth of Tay is here ' Staiill. Account, r. 498. ' lb. J02. '■ Aadcrfou'g Mufcj Thienwdic. f lb. xviil. 489, &c. between ■1 • ■■' r ;■ W ,'i-;i iu \ •'■;, n •!t: 'i ;:f ;f ■ 4 : A ■ ' Kwf 1 jjiSfl^KH '^vVI^IBt^f Vflf ^! i T 7, l{\ if Sm mi %»9 ClTII!4 ANI Towns. Aberdeen. Sciwkk. Jedburgh Dumfi')': /. Ayr. SCOTLAND. between two and three miles broad; and there is a good road for finp. ping to the eaft of the to\;ii, as far as Brouglity-caftle. On the ift of September 1651, Dundee was taken by ftorm ^by General Monk; and Lumifden, the governor, periflied amidR a torrent of bloodfhed. The population is, however, now computed at 24,000 ; the public edifices are neat and commodious. In 1792, the veflels belonging to the pnn amounted to 116, tonnage 8550. The ftaple nian:\fadure is linen, to the annual value of about 80,000/. canvafs, &c. about 40,000/. Co. loured thread alfo forms a confiderable article, computed at 33,000/. aad the leather t.inned at 14,000/.". Aberdeen fir ft rifcs to notice in the eleventh century, and continued to be chiefly memorable in ecclefiaftic ftory. la the fourteenth century it was dcftroyed by Edward III, of England. The population in 1795 was computed 24,493. Though the hrvrbour be not remarkably com- modious, it can boaft a r.onfidcrable trade, the chief exports being ialmon and woollen goods. In 179J, the Britilh ihip^, entered at the port, were fixty-one, the foreign five j and the Britifli ihips cleared outwards, amounted to twenty-eight. The chief manufactures are woollen goods, particularly ftockings, tlie annual export of which is computed at 1 23,000/. The coarf:; linen manufadurcs arc not of much account j but the thread is of cfteemcd quality. The other chief towns of Scotland fliall only be briefly mentioned, beginning with the fouih-eaft part of the kingdotn. Berwick is a for- tified town of fonie note, and carries on a coniulerahic trade in lahnon, The veflels built at this port, are conftruded on excellent principles. Jedburgh, en the river Jed, which defccnds from the Cheviot-hills, is chiefly remarkable for the beautiful ruins of an abbey, founded by Datfid I. In the year 1523, it was burnt by the Earl of Surrey, who iays that it then contained twice as many houfes as Berwick, many of them elegantly built ; and it was defended by fix (Irong towers. Dumfries ftands on a rifing ground, on the eaftern banks of the Kith, and contaiMS about 6000 inhabitants. Ayr, thv" chief town in the S. W. of Scotland, is fituated on a Tandy plain, or. a river of the Lmc name. The chief trade is in grain .ind il Stalid. Account, viii. p. 204, &c. 3 coals; » t^%»:aAI&i. CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 1^9 coal«5 and a few vcfllls are built. Inhabitants about 7000. Irwin has Cinn an» about 4000. " . ' . ""' Lanark ftands'^in'a mod pi£lurefque country, near the celebrated falls Lanark of the {'lyde. IP was only noted for its academy, under the manage- ment of Mr. Thomfon, brother-in-law of Thompfon the poet, till the recent cotton manufailurc, and other eredions by the patriotic Mr. Dale, rendered this town lUll more worthy of attention. Greenock and Port Glafgow, are confiderable towns, which have Greenock, arifen to celebrity, by flia'ring in the trade of Glafgow. Greenock is luppofed to contain 15,000 inhabitants ; Port Glafgow about 4000. Paiiley, in the fame county, is celebrated by its manufadlures of muflin, r.;/lcy. lawns, and gau/.cfi, to the annual amount, it is faid, of 660,000/. The population amounts to about 20,000. Kilmarnoc has alfo become a confuleiablc town. Dunbarton, on the northern Ihore of the Clyde, tontatns above 2000 fouls, and is alfo fubfervient in the manufadures ofGlafgovv. Stirling is rather remarkable for its commanding, and truly royal fitu- Stiilint. ation, than for its induftry. The inhabitants arc computed at 5000. Between Stirling and Edinburgh (lands Boncfs, formerly called Borrow- ftownef", in the midft of colleries aiid falt-works : the harbour is good, and there arc about 2600 inhabitants. The county of Fife contains many towns, fome of which were in a more flourilhing fituaiion, when Scotland carried on a confiderable in- tcrcourfe with France. Dunfermline is a pleafant town, containing Dunferm. about jooo inhabitants, and carries on a valuable manufadure of ""^" diapers. There are ruins of a palace, the royal relidencc in the time of Malcolm III. St. Andrew's has about 2,500 ; it is chiefly remarkable for its ruined cathedral. Forfar, in Angus, contains about 3400 fouls, and the linen manufac- tures dcferve mention. Dunkeld is of venerable and pi£lurefque fame, but its linen manufac- DimkcU. tures arc inconfiderable. Brechin contains about 5000 people: its pro- dufts arc linen, cotton, and tanned leather. Montrofc has an equal population, and a few manufadlures ; the buildings arc moftly modem and neat, VOL. u 2 . The .< I i ' M i H' r ,i^: ■• a 170 Ciiirii AND Pcitfoy. EIj; in. Inverncf*. Xnierarj. SCOTLAND. The county of Mcarns prcfents no town worth mention. Peterhead in Aberdeen (liirc, contains about 2000 Ibuls. It has a mineral Ipiing and carries on Ionic trade with the UaUic. Trazerburgh, near tlic pro- uiontory of Kinnaird Head, has alfo a tolerable harbour. I'ortfoy is a fca-port town, peopled with about 2000 fouls. In the neighbourhood, arc the rocks well known to mineralogills, containing elegant granites, of different kinds, ferpentines, and fteaiites, with their uAial concomitants, afbcHos and amianthus. Elgin, the capital of the county of Moray, boaQs of the remains of an elegant cathedral, and is fuppofcd to contain 4000 inhabitants. Invernefs is an ancient and flourifhing town, the capital of the northern Highlands. The population is computed at 10,000, The chief manufactures are ropes and candles. An academy has lately been founded here on an excellent plan. The few townc further to the north are of little account. Port Rofe has only 800 fouls; but Cromarty has about -^ 000, a fniall manufadlure of coarfe cloth, and fome coafting trade in corn, thread, yarn, nails, fifli, and fkins. Dingwall contains 700 fouls, and a fmall linen manu- facture. Tain has about 1000 inhabitants. Dornoch was once the re- fidencc of the bifliops of Caiihnefs : population only 500. After a dreary interval Wick occurs, the laft town on theeaftern coaft ; the inhabitants, about 1000, chiefly deal in cod and herrings. Thurfo, on the northern fhore, fronting the Orkneys, has manufac- tures of woollen and linen. Population about 1600. Hence there is a lamentable void along the weftern half of Scotland, till we arrive at Inverary, in Argylelhire, the foundation of the noble houfe of Argyle, after paffing a fpacc of about 160 miles, where only a few fcattered hamlets can be found *. Inverary is a neat and pleafant town of about 1000 fouls ; there are manufactures of linen and woollen, and a confiderable iron-work. The ore is brought from the weft of England, and is fmelted with charcoal from the woods of Argyleflurc. Mi *- The fifhing ftttiont of Tobcrmoiy and Stcen have declined, becaufe land wai given to tht fcttlert. Lord Selkirk on the Higlilaiida, p. 99. — It is much to be regretted that a ciiy ii not ftunded, fur the want of a market i( a radical obftack. ScuUia migblbc aUiU«d bj cataiptioa kota ma, freedom from aricft fur debts, &c. a. la I. CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. •n In the fame county is Campbeltown, a royal borough, in the loutlicrii Cinrs *m> part of the pcninfula of Cantirc. The traile is couliderabic, as it is the (.,,„r|*KV "cncnl rcl'ort of the fiQiing velFels ; ami the inhabitants arc computed ''^*"' at about 5000. The harbour is excellent, in the form of a crclcetit. openinp; to the eaft, infrontofthcill.ind of Arrau. About fifty weavers arc employed in the cotton manufadlurc '". Scotland abounds with remarkable edifices, ancient and modern. Laiik*--. Thofe of the capital have been already nicntioncd. In its vicinity is Hopcton-hoiifc, the fplcndid relidence of the carl of Hopcton ; Dalkeith palace, a feat of the duke of Bucclcugh ; Ncwboitel, the feat of the Marquis of Lothian ; Melville caftle, the elegant villa of the Right Hon, Henry Dundas; and the fplendid manfion of the Marquis of Abcrcorn. Nor muft Pennicuik, the feat of the family of Clerk, be omitted ; but the traveller of tafte would be more interefted in Ilawthornden, the ancient feat of Drummond the poet. It would be vain to attempt a liniilar enumeration for the other counties, and only a few of the moll remarkable Ihall be mentioned ; fuch as in the fouth, the Duke of Rox- Inirgh's, near Kelfo ; Mount Teviot, a feat of the Manjuis of Lothian » Minto tower, LordMinto's; Lauder caftle, Marchinonr, near Polwarth, both in the Merf' ; the Duke of Queenfberry's at Drumlanrig; Lord Douglas's villa at 13othwell ; and Hamilton palace, near Hamilton. The county of Ayr contains many beautiful edifices belonging to the nobility and gentry, among which may be mentioned Loudon houfe, the feat of the Earls of Loudon ; Dundonald that of the Cochrans, Earls of Dun- (lonald, and Colaine caftle, the feat of the Earl of Cafljlis, defigned by Adams, in 1789. Wigtonfhirc has Culhorn, the feat of the Earls of Stair, and Caftle Kennedy ; Galloway houfe, Merton, &c. In the vi- cinity of the flouriflung city of Glafgow, it may be imagined that the villaJ muft be numerous and elegant ; and, even the fmall ifland of Bute can boaft of Mount Stuart. The caftle of Dunbarton is another remark- able edifice in this region. On pafling the Forth, the rich county of Fife preft- nts many Interefting edifices, fuch as Leflie caftle, the feat of the carls of Rothes ; Wemyfs, Kelly, and Balcarras, the feat of the earls of thofe titles ; the houfe of " Statilt. Account, x. 552. V. z Kinrofs, W'^f • » t m Pi ; - ' . ii 1^1 tif ' i m i ':■. :}•< Ir ';''-■ tl ■ I i i ' ■; ' Hi' 'hA .'* r 1.1.' ! 4,^ ■ I'm' 4 ^i^ llitlpll *l H V. hi m 9: Hi 47a SCOTLAND.-- EBincir. Klnrofs, built by Sir William Bruce, &c. &c. Pcrthfliirc contalnj TuUibardin and Blair, tbe feats of the Dukeof Athol; Dupplin, that cf the carl of Kinnoul ; Drummond, the rcfidence of Lord Perth ; Tay- mouth, the fplendid manfion of the Earl of Braidalban ; Scone, a roya! palace, &c. &c. In Angus we find Pannonrc, the ancient refidence of the Earls of Panmure ; Athie, that of the K.i-!h of Northefk ; and Kin- iiaird, of the Earls of Southefk ; Glammis, the venerable feat of the l.arls of Strathmore. The (hire of Mearns, or Kincardine, contains Dunotter caftlc, the elevated manfion of the Earls Marlhall, &c. Aber- deenfhire prefcnts Caftle Forbes, Philorth, and Haddo : in Bamfshirc •we find Cullen houfe, the interefting feat of the Earl of Finlater ; DufF houfe, that of the Earl of Fife j Gordon caftle, a beautiful manlion of the Duke of Gordon ; in the county of Moray, Tarnaway caftlc, the feat of the Earl of Moray ; Invernefs prefents Fort Geofge, a military erection of fome note, about twelve miles to the eaft of Invernefs. The line of forts is continued through the centre of the county, by lor. Anguftus, at the further end of Loch Nefs, and Fort William, at th^ northern extremity of Loch Linny, at the bottom of the lofty Bennevi;. In the county of Rofs, on the north of Dingwall, is Caftle Leod, a feat of the Earls of Cromarty : New Tarbet, and Balnagowan, command the Firth of Cromarty. At Dornock and Dunrobin, are feats of the Earls of Sutherland. The (hore of Caithnefs difplays many ancient caftles, but the modern edifices are few : the patriotic i>lr John Sinclair has a pleafing refidence near Thurfo ; and in the N. W. extremity of Scotland, Lord Reay has two manfions, one near Tong, and another at Durnefs, with an extenfive wild of rocks, interfperfed with moraflcs, called Lord Rcay's foreft. The wcftern coafts of Scotland prefent an enormous void, till Invcrary, the fplendid manfion of the Dukes of Argyle, riles like fome oriental vifion in the wildernefs. Inland Navl- The mcft remarkable inland navigation in Scotland, is the excellent S*"'**"' and extenfive canal from the Forth tc the Clyde. Mr. Smeaton's fin^ furvey was prefen*:ei] in 1764; but lour years elapfed before the ad of parliament was pafled for its execution, and the canal was begun in the fame year with the ad ". " Phillips, 376. "The CHAP. IIL CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. '73 VIOATIOM. •^ The dimenfions of this canal, though greatly contraAed from the I«iandNa. original defign, are much fuperior to any work of the fame nature in South Britain ". The Engl i(h canals ;ire generally from three to five feetdeepj and from twenty to forty feet wide, and the lock gates fro n> fen to twelve feet ; but they anfwer the purpofe of inland carriage from one town to another, for which alone they were defiptied. The depth of the canal between the Forth and Clyde, is fevcn feet ; its breadth at fhe furfacc ftfty-fix feet; the locks are feventy-fivc feci long, and their gates twenty feet wide. It is raifed from the Carron by twenty locks, in a trad of ten miles, to the amazing height of 155 feet above the medium full fea-mark. At the twentieth lock begins the canal of par- tition on the (iimmit, between the Eaft and Weft Seas ; which canal of partition continues eighteen miles, on a level, terminating at Hamilton- hill, a mile N. W. of the Clyde, at ' \fgow. In fomc places the canal is carried through mody ground, ai. . in others through folid rock. In the fourth mile of the canal there are tcry locks, and a fine aqueduil bridge, which crofles the great road leading from Edinburgh to Glafgow. The cxpcnceof this mile amounted to 18,000/. At Kirkintulloch, the canal is carried over the water of Logic, on an aquedud bridge, the arch of which is ninety feet broad, and was built at three diflerent operations, of thirty feet each, having only one centre of thirty feet broad, which was fliifted on fmall rollers, from one ftretch to another. Though this was a new thing, and never attempted before with an arch of this fi^e, yet the joinings are as fairly equal as any other part of the arch. The whole is thought to be a capital piece of mafonry. There are in the whole eighteen draw bridges, and fifteen aquedud bridges, of confidcr- ablefize, befides fmall ones and tunnels." The fupplyirg the canal with water, wasof itfelfa very great woik. One refervoir is above twenty-four feet deep, and covers a furfacc of fifty acres, near Kilfyth. Another, abotit i'c\'^:n. miles north of GlaC gow, confifts of feventy acres, and is banked up at the fluice, twenty- two feet. The diftance between the firths of Clyde and Forth, by the neareft IwHagc, that of the Pentland Frith, is 600 miles, by this canal fcarcely ." Phillipi,3i6. IOC. .> '■^■1.'. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (ViT-3) 1.0 I.I ■^ 122 12.2 US Ki L° 12.0 iilil 1.25 1 1.4 1 1.6 ^ 6" ► Photographic Sciences CorpQration '4^^^S %" j». "%'■ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4S03 '4fS «74 ImlandNa vication' SCOTLAND. V. u ■♦ Manufadlurcs and Com- merce. 100. On the 28th of July, 1790, the cafliaf wai completely open from fea to fea, when a hogfliead of the water of Foi th was poured into the Clyde, as a fymboi of their jundlion. The length of the canal is pre- cifely thirty-five miles, and no work of the kind can be more ably finilhed. '•^^*^' '^-^^^ ' Another laudable plan was to condud a canal from Fort William to Invernefs, than which nothing could contribute more to improve the Highlands. The fpace to be cut would not be confiderable, but the times are unfavourable to fuch a defign *. The canal of Crinan, which will fave a troublefome navigation around Gantire, is actually begun and is hoped will fpeedily be completed, when veflTels could pafs at once from the Clyde to the north of Jura. Could a canal be opened from the Firth of Dornoch, and Loch Shin, into the bay of Calval, in Aflynt, perhaps every thing of this kind would be accompiiflied, that can be executed in the Highlands. -vts* ^.^^ j y^*s*«r>* . v." The general commerce of Scotland, though on a fmaller fcale, and with fmaller capitals, is in moft refpeAs fimilar to that of England, and fhares in the national profperity. That of the capital, through Leiih, its port, has been ellimated, as we have feen, at half a million yearly f. The chief exports are linen, grain, iron, glafs, lead, woollen fluffs, foap, &c. &c. The imports are wines, brandy ; and from the Weft Indies and America, rum, fugar, rice, indigo. Glafgow exports cot- tons of all kinds, muflins, lawns, gauzes, &c. glafs, (lockings, earthen- ware, cordage, &c. candles, foap, iron, leather, &c. &c. The chief imports are tobacco, fugar, rum, and cotton from the Weft Indies; Irifli beef, butter, and linen ; wines from Portugal, and other countries. The fiflieries of Scotland, if carried to a proper extent, would furnifli a very confiderable ftore of merchandize. The chief manufadures of Scotland are linen of various kinds, to the amount, it is faid, of about 750,000/. annually. Of woollens, the * This canal has afVuaUy been begun, and upon a plan which does honour to the fpirit of the ti-nes, being fuch as to bear frigate* of twenty cannons, or (hips of thirteen hundred tonit. The Houfe of Commons has voted fifty thodfand pounds, but it is fuppofed that the eipence will be four hundred thoufand. f In 1793, the Scotifti exports were computed at i,024>742/, Chalmera's Eftimate, p. Ixxv, vdit. 1794. The fliipt employed were 2,234. lb. Scotilh CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. '75 TUKES AND, MURCB. Scotlfli carpets feem to form the chief branch. The iron manufac- Manotac- tures, particularly that at Carron, deferve alfo to be enumerated among com the chief national advantages* As the neceflary progrefs of manufadures and commerce, is from the fouth to the north, owing, among other caufes, to this, that the price* of food and labour are fmaller in the north than in the fouth, it is to be expeAed, and indeed wilhed, for the general benefit of the Britilh em- pire, that the trade which has paffed from Briftol to Liverpool and Glaf^ gow, may gradually enliven and invigorate, even the Weftern High- lands and iflands of Scotland. Some few of the gentlemen in the High- lands, feem to objefl: to the propagation of induftry, as tending to de- prive them of their ancient refpeft, and the reminifcence of feudal power j but this infatuation cannot continue, as it mud foon be perceived, that: to diffufe a fpirit of induftry among their tenants, is the only iofallibler mode of increafmg their own revenues* 1- >':■„' ^- «'' ■» o^ r-iiY. -'-''■' .ius-ift! b-'i'i. ;'■ m 'fir\ ; 'f/i - J .■ ■■ ■V i .. mI ,"'•"' ' M' - r(... . }■ ..', m l! mri^j^i nA\ iK^'Pra:' r ifttCTSM Mp«*r ■&ma jtn|gf |r (5-i 1,9 1 it bBBt « I C ^1^ ) CHAPTER IV, u Climate 'and: Seq/hns.-^Face of the Country. — Soil and Agriculture. '-Rivers,— : .JIsiirkesi-:T ^i^r0ins]^^ — Fore/is. — Botany. — Zoology. — Mineralogy.— -Mineral Waters. — NaturUl Curioftties, i , . ;, Climate AND Seasons. Face of the Country. 'T^HE climate of Scotland is fuch as might be expected in a latitude '*■ {o rernote, and a country fo mountainous. In the eaftern parts, there is not fo much humidity as in England, as the mountains on the weft arreft the vapours from the Atlantic. On the other hand, the weftern countries are deluged with rain, an additional obftacle to the progrefs of agriculture ; indeed, the chief obftacle, for the example of the Swifs evinces, that induftry can overcome even mountains; but the climate of Swiflerland is dry and pleafant, and no toil can guard againft the excefs of falling raoifture. Even the winter is more dif- tinguiftiable by the abundance of fnow, than by the intenfity of the froft ; but in fummer the heat of the fun is reflefted with great power in the narrow vales between the mountains, fo as fometimes to occafion a phxnomenon o^ glittering particles, that feem to fwim before the eye. Thefe obfervations chiefly apply to the north and weft. In the eaft and fouth the climate differs but little from that of Yorkflilre; and corn fometimes ripens in the vales of Moray, as early as la Lothian. The face of the country is in general mountainous, to the extent, perhaps, of two thirds ; whence the population is of neceffity flender, in comparifon with the admeafurement. But the name of Highlands is more ftriftly confined to Argyleftiire, the weft of Perthfliire, and of Invernefs ; and the entire counties of Rofs, Sutherland, and Caithnefs. In proceeding from the fouth eaft, the entrance info the Highlands near Dunkeld, is very impreflive, there being a confiderable trad of plain, juft before what may be termed the gates of the mountains. Even the eaftern parts have little of uniform flatnefs, but are fweetly diverfiHed with hill and dale. What in England is called a hill, would often in 3 "• Scotland CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 177 Scotland be regarded as a mere flight rife in the road. The rivers in Face of general are remarkably pure and tranfparent, and their courfe rapid, country. The rich roughnefs of an Englifli profpetSt, divcrfified with an abun- dance of wood, even in the hedge-rows, is in Scotland rarely vlfible ; whence the nudity of the country makes a flrong impreffion on the flrarger. But the laudable exertions of many of the nobility and gentry, who plant trees by millions, will foon remove this reproach. The mari- time gales are noxious to fuch plantations, but it has been recently dif- covered in France, that there is a common tree (the name is unfortu- nately forgotten) which will remain unhurt, even on the beach ; and if a thick Ikreen be firft formed of this tree, and fufFered to attain forne maturity, other denominations will profper under its protedion'. For a minute account of the various foils that prevail in Scotland, Soil and and the different modes of agriculture, the reader muft be referred to Agriculture, the Statiftical Accounts, publifhed by Sir John Sinclair. The excel- lence of the Englifh agriculture, has juftly entitled it to an imitation, almoft univerfal. But this advantage is of recent date ; and, for a long period of time, Scotland was remarkable for producing the heft gar- deners, and the word farmers in Europe. The fuperior advantages of great, or of fmall farms, have been recently difcufled with much care, as the importance of the fubjcft demands. It would feem, that for the lirft great improvement of a country, the farms fliould be large, that the farmer may have a fufficient capital to make experiments, and difcover the moft produdlive crops, or thofe moft fuited to fhe nature of the foil. When lading examples have thus been indituted, it is certainly more advantageous for the community, that the farm fliould be re- drifted to a fmall or moderate fize. The three chief rivers of Scotland, are the Forth, the Clyde, and the R^ers. Tay. The chief fource of the Forth is from Ben Lomond, or rather Ponh. from the two lakes. Con and Ard : the dream of Goudie foon joins it from the lake of Mentieth ; and the river Teith, fed by the lakes Ket- terin, Lubnaig, and others, fwells the Forth to a noble dream, about four miles above Stirling. ' Another ufeful plan is to fow or plant the feeds and trees very thick, or to few them with heath, as in Mecklenburg. The fycamore will bear the fca-fpiay. VOL. I. A A The m ■x-m "■■']! A, V ■'?''■, 'If: iiii'i iBlii ■ 'II^BI^HH^wi 'I^HwIviiM i^^Kfl^^sSiBl > BbmBW y .(Ih^^HII 1 , niHU j iH^^hBI 1 |^HVn8VnN nJ^RH^H^SJ 1 Bfflffl wIIh; it^H> ■» ' iiiffi 11 1 Rlffi' ? Mi 'ifyBlSnHK :' bI^uI^H m •WSmKi '' "'nJuH r BK' > usRkII ^H §9hi Ii ■ '''I IHh Sniij'' Ii- iitiill-llHi ml '^^HH' V I'iili: > 'T^ilridBIl rr- t B ^l^'i • . Ml ihIhIkI ' 1 SH|:^ffilei ' i fH{|''i|gMl ' i waJ,^HHIH«.' ;| '|U|M i l^B mRlllfMR ' KHHH Swi hH l^^flflCJIn ii EUK^HV ^I^H^K 1 uSm flHwKr'a ^ mHflH^^K p I j 1 ^^n ^MwM K'-S "> IHHrlV^BvS^ ' MB ''mil vm If roliWpi' 'H iK' iwl^Ki^^ ' < 'H HIHii^H^WH' 1 n| a^Hiffi Hi' KM iHIl ItkIiiI' i^B ^^B Wt'^ Unl WMi H|!w| 14 In ]|Ih H ll|Hm ffl ■■ ^^'h^^^ 9 99 bH flmw'n'j 1 TO'M 1^1^^ iH w ^'W- IH B;'i| H.V 9h :|Bfi|i ^}l f.^ ' n ^ 'im' ' li^ ^^H^^^B ' M ii mi hI in m m H.'l 1 ' wM m^ ' ^91 '^nt ' ' 'IB^i^H^ ■ ;■■ |W 9^1 11 1 mm jinHj II Ih ■ .78 RiA'FRS. Tay, Tweed. Anaan. Nilh. SCOTLAND. The Clyde Is faid to Ifliie from a hill in the S. E. corner of Twecddale, called Arrlk Stanc, which is undoubtedly the chief fource of tlie Tweed, and one fource of the Annan : but the Clyde has a more remote fource in Kirfliop, or Dair water, rifing about fix miles further to the fouth, in the very extremity of Lanarkfliire ; and the true fource of the Annan feems to be Loch Skeen, in the county of Selkirk. How- ever this be, the Clyde pafles through Crauford Moor, leaving the range of Leadhills on the left, and winding under the lofty hill of Tinto, near Symington, purfues a northerly courfe, till about two miles to the ^"nuth of Carnwath, when it allumes its chief wefterK' direction. The |>r':.cipal fource of the Tay, is the lake of the fame name, or the river may be traced to the more wefterly fources of the AttrlcL and the Dochart, and the fmaller ftream of Lochy ; which fall into the weftern extremity of Loch Tay. Soon after this noble river iflues from the lake, it is joined by the river Lyon ; and, at no great interval by the united ftreams of the Tarf, the Garry, and the Tumel, the laft a rapid and romantic river. The ftreams of Ericht and Hay, fwell the Tay, about nine miles to the north of Perth ; after pafTmg which city, it receives the venerable ftream of the Ern, and fpreads into a wideeftuary. '• '- ' -' -' -1 . . Next in confequence and in fame, is the Tweed, a beautiful and paf- toral ftream, which, receiving the Teviot from the fouth, near Kelfo falls into the fea at Berwick. The Scotifh Tyne is an inconfiderable river, which runs by Had- dington. In the fouth weft, the Annan contributes largely to the Frith of Sol- way, but no town worth mentioning adorns its banks. Dumfries ftands upon the Nith, a river of longer courfe than the Annan, and markcdat its eftuary by the ruins of Carlaveroc caftle, an important fortrefs in ancient times. The river Ore, and that recently ftyled Kirkudbrighr, anciently and properly calied the Ken, (whence is derived the title of Kenmurc,) and the Fleet, are iurpafled by the river Crce, or Grief; which formerly fplit Galloway into two divifions, and. which opens into the noted bay of Wigton. . / '■'/,■■• CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 179 The rivers of Ayrfhire, flowing into the grand eftuary of the Clyde, R'v«r». areof inconfiderable fize. To the north of the eftuary of Forth, occurs the Eden, which, after EJ^n. watering the royal park of Falkland, and Coupar, the county town, meets the ocean, about two miles to the north of St. Andrews. To the north of Tay are the South Elk, which pafles by Brechin and Montrofe ; and the North Efk, a lefs confiderable llream, but both im- part titles to Earls. In the county of Kincardine there is no river of confequence. But Dec. the Dee is a confiderable and placid ftream, ifluing from the mountains of Scairfoch, and purfuing a due eafterly courfe to Aberdeen. The Don runs almoft parallel, a few miles to the north, joining the fea about two miles from Aberdeen, after pafling Old Aberdeen, or rather, in the old orthography, Aberdon. A few miles to the north of the Don, the river Ythan falls into the German ocean, a ftream formerly celebrated for its pearl fiftieries, of which fome relics remain, The Uggie is the laft ftream of any confe- quence in Aberdeen ftiire. The following rivers dire£b their courfe to the north. The Devon joins the fea at Banf. The Spey is a grand and impetuous river, rifing Spey. from a fmall lake, called Loch Spey, in the vicinity of the high moun- tain ofCorriarok, near Fort Auguftus, whence it rolls to the fouth-eaft, amid mountainous wilds, till it fuddenly turns to its fixed diredion, the north-eaft, being, perhaps, upon the whole, the moft confiderable Al- pine river in Scotland. The water of LoflTie is only remarkable, as it waflies the venerable remains of Elgin ; but Findorn, which runs by the Forres of Macbeth and Shakefpeare, is a confiderable torrent, -tso-.r.!^ .'! i ■ ?+ ..>^ r... s. The Nefs, iflfuing from the lake fo called, and the Beuly, confpire to Nefs. form the large eftuary, called Murray Firth ; while that of Cromarty is formed by the Grady, the Conon, and other ftreams. The eftuary of Dornoch is formed by a river which iflues from Loch Shin, by the Caran, and by the intermediate ftream, called Okel. The other ftreams in the furtheft north of Scotland, are unhappily of fmall confequence. The water of Thurib, and that of Naver, are the *wu..u A A 2 chief! 1 r I , ' 1 >f M t-H' «*^ it 'SI'S ^i^A « .r. ■^ -.h I I I 180 RiVbts. SCOTLAND. Weftern In. kti. chief. In the north-weft extremity are the Strath more, the Strathbce and the Durnefs, wliich enters the fea to the eaft of the ftupendous pro- montory of Cape Wharf, now modernized Wrath. On the weft of Scotland there is no river of any moment ; but the defe£t is compenfated by numerous lakes, or rather creeks, of which the moft confiderable are Laxford, Calva, Ennard, and that of Broome which forms a noble bay, ftudded with iflands, nearly parallel with the bay of Dornoch. On its ihore is the projedled fettlement of Ullapool, to which every patriot muft wilh fuccefs *. Next are the En and theGare, the Torridon, theKefilirn, and others of fmaller note. Argylefliire exhibits the Sunart, a long inlet, which terminates at Strontian ; and the Linny, extending to Fort William. The Etif is impeded by a fingular cataract, at its entrance into the fea. The fmall inlet of Crinan attrads obfervation, by the promifed canal j and the lift is clofed by Loch Fyne, and Loch Long, forming vaft inlets from the eftuary of Clyde. Among the lakes of Scotland, the chief in extent and beauty is that of Lomond, ftudded with romantic iflands, and adorned with flicresof the greateft diverfity. The ifles are fuppofed to form part of the Grampian chain, which here terminates on the weft. The depth of this lake in the fouth, is not above twenty fathoms ; but the northern creek, near the bottom of Ben Lomond, is from fixty to eighty fathoms At the time of the earthquake in Lifbon, 1755, the waters were agitated in a lingular manner. Kcttcriii,&c. On the eaft of Lomond is an alTemblage of curious lakes, the Ket- terin, or Cathein, the Con, or Chroin, the Ard, the Achray, or Achvary, the Vanachor, the Lubnaig ; exhibiting Angular and pidurefque fcenes, called by the Highlanders the Trofacbs^ a word fignifying rough, or uneven grounds *. This denomination is ftridlly applicable to the fur- rounding hills, and rocks, of diftorted forms, as if fome convulfion had taken place ; but often covered with heath, and ornamented, even to the fummits, with the weeping birch. The hills are of argillaceous • Loch Broom extends about twelve miles into the country, and is furrounded with mouttains •f marble and lime done. Knox, ii. 46;. ,. » Caruett's Tour, ii. 173. '^ ' ' ''''' '' - ' ^ /*3n:r;''. -■-"' i'^'-' a fchiftug} Lakes. Lomond. CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. iSf with mouthins fchiftus ; in other words, in ftrata of coarfe flate, moftljr vertical, and Lakh, interfperfed with veins of quartz. Ketterin, or Cathein, is a lake of confiderable extent and beauty, with fome rocky ifles, and crowned by the mountain of Ben Veney : the fi(h are trout and char. Vanachor hasfalmon and trout ; but Achra;- only pike, tyrants without fubjedts. The Con, the Ard, and Lubnaig. have not been celebrated by tourifts. In the vicinity is the lake of Menteith, a beautiful fmall lake, about Mcnticth. five miles in circumference, with two woody ifles, one prefenting the ruins of a monaftery, the other thofe of a caftle of the old Earls of Menteith. - Having thus briefly defcribed the principal lake, and fome others in its vicinity, it may be proper to obferve, before proceeding toothers in a more northerly fituation, that the S. W. region of Scotland, anciently called Galloway, contains feveral pidturefque lakes, (which, in Great Uritain and Ireland, feem always to accompany groupes of mountain*,) though not of equal extent and celebrity with thofe of the north. The moft confiderable is the lake of Ken, in the county of Kirkudbright, on which ftands a village, called New Galloway. This lake is deco- rated with three fmall ifles. Next is that of Grey, on the borders of Wigtonfliire. In the county of Ayr there is a fmall lake, called Loch Dolen. Returning towards the north. Loch Leven, in Fifefliire, attracts ob- fervation froiji its hiftorical fame. The lakes in the fouth of Perthfhire, hare been already mentioned, and to the eaft muft be added Loch Ern, Loch Tay, and thofe of Rannoch, Lydoch, and Ericht. That of Tay, in particular, is a grand and beautiful expanfe of water, of fuch lengthy as rather to refemble a noble river ; and at its eaftern extremity, are placed the capital manfion ana plantations of the Earl of "i ridalbin. Thofe more to the north of this county, may prefent many y? unfeea and unknown beauties. Loch Nefs rivals Loch Tay in extent and reputation. This lake was Loch Ncfe. alfo affedcd at the time of the earthquake at Lifbon» The depth is from fixty to 135 fathoms: the fifli, excellent trout'. Its great depth is the caufe why it never freezes. It is remarkable that the bed of this i I * Pennant's Tour.. .IM I^e, il i ■ - Ml M ;■■■ ill ^Ik !1 3 il i8a SCOTLAND./'' a . Lakis. lake, and in general of the watery chain which extends to Locli Linney, is filled with farcilite, or pudding-ftone, hills of which occur near Dunolla and and DunftafTnage, on the weftern fliores of Argyle, The counties of Sutherland and Caithnefs, contain many fmall lakes. LodiLoil. The chief are Loch Loil, which fends a ftream into the bay of Far' and Loch Shin, a confiderable lake, in a country little known or vlfited. According to the defcription of Mr. Cordiner*, it is a charming piece of water, of great extent, winding among the hills, with woods, often ftretching down to the Ihores. It is faid to be twenty miles in length, but the eye can only command a few miles at a time. From its foutii- eaft extremity iflues the river Shin, in two broad cafcades, from the fides of a fmall ifland. Mr. Cordiner adds, that by a fmgular error in Dorrct's map, the diftance from Larg church, on the '\ E. of Loch Shin, to Moafdale, fouth of Loch Naver, meafures oi../ five miles, while by computation in travelling, there are at lead eighteen. But Dorret's map, though valuable for the time, is ftained with numerous and grofs errors ; and Loch Naver lies almoft: due north of Shin, indead of due eaiV. Many of the lakes in the weftern divifion of Scotland, have been already mentioned under their proper defcription, as creeks or bays. Among a few others which deferve notice, may be named Loch Fainlfli, a confiderable lake in Rofsfliire ; the lakes Lochy and Laggen, in the county of Invernefs. Loch Awe, in Argylefhire, is the moft confider- able lake in the weft of the Highlands ; it is about thirty miles in length, and from one to two in breadth ; and is ftudded with many fmall, woody ifles, one of which bears the ruins of a monaftery, and another thofc of an ancient fortrefs, the refidence of the Campbells of Lochawe, after- wards Dukes of Argyle. This lake empties itfelf, by a confiderable flream, near its northern end, into the creek, called Loch Etif. Mountains. But the chief diftindive feature of Scotland, cenfifts in its numerous mountains, which interfedt the country in various diredions. In the fouth-weft, the ancient province of Galloway prefents an extenfive aflemblage of hills, which feldom defcribe any uniform chain, from the bay of Glenluce, which extends towards Loch Ryan, and thence, in a Letters to Mr. Pennant, London, 1780, Quarto, p. 117. N.E. CHAP. IV. NATURA' GEOGRAPHY. t8| N. E. (liredion to Loch Doon, the fourcc of the river Doon, which joins Mouhtawi. the lea near Ayr. Other ridges run in various diredions, generally north and fouth, according to the courfe of the rivers, till we arrive at the Nith, near which is CrufFel, a detached fummit, of confitierable height. According to General Roy, than whom there cannot he a better autho- rity, the mountains of Galloway form a conncded chain with thofe of Cheviot, on the N. E. But the chief elevation of this part of Scotland, is that metalliferous ridge in its very centre, called the Lead Hills, &c. whence many rivers defcend in all diredions to the fea. The fmall ftream of Elvan conveys particles of gold to the Clyde, and German miners are faid to have dif- covered confiderable quantities of that precious metal. The chief fum- mit of that ridge 18 Hartfell, which, according to fome accounts, is 3300 feet above the fevel of the fea; but by others 2582. Cruftel is only 2044. Not far to the north is Tinto, a remarkable folitary mountain ; and Quenlberry-hill is about the fame elevation. liOudon-hill, in Ayr- fhire is little memorable ; but on returning to the eaft, we find the uni- form ridge of Lamermoor, terminating in St. Abb's-bead. The hills of Pentland, on the fouth of Edinburgh, are rather pidurefque than im- portant. Berwick Law, and the romantic fumraits in the vicinity of Edinburgh, clofe the lift of the fouthern hills. The Lead hills chiefly confift of argillaceous fchiftus j but the grey granite abounds in the mountains of Galloway. In all, however, the chief portion feems to be calcareous ; the fummits are round, fome verdant, others covered with heath. The red granite, and other grand Alpine rocks fcem here unknown *. In the Lothians, the calcareous ftrata fupport vaft mafles of whin, trap, and bafalt, which extend to the northern fhore of the firth of Forth. On the eafl: and weft of Inverkeithing, are whin and columnar bafalt'; the latter alio occurring at Dichmont-hill, near Ru- therglen, in Lanarkfliire, and at Dunbarton. On pafling the Forth, appears the ran}^e of Ochill-hills, more re- Ochill. markable for their Angular agates and calcedonies, than for their height j * Cruffel is however red granite^ a9 is the inclofure wall of llie adjacent abbey of Sweet Heart., Mr. CadcUN MS. Notes. ' Mr. Aikin's MS. Notes. and- i.M' ^w% ' I ; III m 184 SCOTLAND. MouKTAiKi. and to finifti the account of tlie Lowland hilU, mufl: be added thofc of Kinnoul and Dunfinnan, in the eaft of Perthlhire, and a fmall range in Angus. In the county of Kincardin, the great chain of the Grampians terminates. On ilie north-eaft of Aberdeenfliire, is Mormoml, a re- markable folitary fuminit } from whence no mountains of note occur till Invernefs, on the wed, opens the path to the Highlands. Yet, it mud not be forgotten, that from the lofty promontory of Trouphead to Portfoy, extend vaft mafles of beautiful red granite, interfperfcd with fchorl ; and of ferpentine with fleatitcs, and other valuable ftoncs. The cape called Kinnaird-head, near Frazerburgh, piefents curious mica- ceous fchidus; but the eaftern ihore offers nothing worthy of remark. Before leaving the Lowland hills, it may be obferved that the fmall ridge in Fifeihire, between the Eden and Leven, called Loman-hiJIs, confifts moflly of hard free-ftone, with fuperincumbent (Irata of whin and bafalt : while that feparating the plain of Kinrofs from Strathern is on the fouth fide whin, and on the north toad ilone, with calcareous fpar, and fleatites. Soon after occur the Alpine rocks of filiceous and micaceous fchiftus*. In general, the obfervation of Sauffure is appll- cable, that mountains gradually rife from the calcareous to the mica- ceous, and thence to the granite. The Grampian hills may be confidered as a grand frontier chain, extending from Loch Lomond to Stonehaven, and forming the fouthern boundary of the Highlands, though four or five counties on the north- eaft of that chain, have, in their eaftern and northern parts, the name and advantage of Lowlands. The tranfition to the Grampians is gra> dual, the firft chain, according to General Roy, confifting of the Sad< ley-hills on the eaft, the Ochllls in the middle, and Campfy- hills on the weft. To the Grampian chain belongs Ben Lomond (3262) ; Ben Ledy (3009); Ben More (3903); Ben Lawres, the chief fummit (4015); Shihallion (3564); Ben Verlich (3300); and other lefs important ele- vations on the eaft. Mount Battock in Kincardinfhire, is 3465 feet. Ben Cruachan, in Argyleihire, is a folitary mountain, of 3300 feet above the fea. Grampian HiUi. Alkin's Notes. Ben CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. «»5 Ben Nevis is the higheft mountain in Great Britain, being cftimatcJ Mowmtaini. at 4350 feet above the level of the fca, not much above a quarter of the "'" ^'"•• height of Mont Blanc. This mountain has not hitherto been explored by any mineralogift. On the N. E. fule it prefents a precipice, nearly perpendicular, and of prodigious height, by fome accounts 1500 feet. The view from the fummit is grand \ exhibiting raoft of the vvedern Highlands, from the paps of Jura, to the hills of CuUen in Skey ; on the eaft it extends to Ben Lawres, in Perthfliire, and the river Nefs ; extent of view about eighty miles. The fuperior half of the mountain is almod deftitute of vegetation. The fummit is flat, with a gentle ac- clivity, and forms an cafy pavement, probably of granite. Snow re- mains in the crevices throughout the year; but here arc no glaciers, nor other magnificent alpine features *. It would be difficult to divide the remaining mountains of the High- lands into diftinft lines or groupes: they (hall, therefore, be brieflf mentioned in the order of proximity. To the N. W. of Ben Nevis it the long mountain of Corriarok, near Fort Augudus, over which a mi- Corriarok. litary road has been direfted, in a zig-zag diredlion. From the foot of this mountain arifes the rapid river Spey; and other dreams run to the weft, circumftances which indicate great elevation. About thirty miles to the eaft, rifes the mountain Cairngorm (4060 feet), or the blue Cairnfom. mountain, clothed with almoft perpetual fnow, and remarkable for quartz of different colours, chiefly the fmoaky kind, vrell known to lapi- daries. The other chief mountains in this region, are thofe of Braemar, or Scairfoch, at the fource of the Dee ; Ben Awn, and many of fmaller height, fuch as Benibourd f, Benachie, &c. '«" .ft *''% i' ■• '^Jxi fi:< In the fecond divifion of the Highlands, which lies beyond Loch Linny and Loch Nefs, the mountains are yet more numerous, but not fo memorable. The weftern fhore, in particular, is crowded with hills, from the ifland of Skey to cape "Wrath, while a branch, fpreading eaft- ' Statiil. Ace. v!ii. 414. .' '-Wlfi, '>-j * Drumalbnii, tlie Dorfiim Britcinniic of tlie old writers, fecm» to be Ben Nevis, with the high dtfcrt Moor of Raimochi extending twenty miles to the ead of that mountain. \ Always covered with fnow, and, perhaps, as Mr. Aikin conceives, higher than Cairngorni. About the height of 4^00 feet, fnow remains all the year in Scotland. VOL. I. B B war4 m'j ■t'l i<'''j m ■\'.>-^^hm /I tr' i.'f". Oi :||fe|11:lf:ili| m (lift I }\ )86 SCOTLAND. MovNTAiHi. ward towards Ord-head (1250 feet) forms, what are termed by feamen the Paps of Caithnefs (1929 feet). The chief mountains on the weft of Rofsfhire, are Ben Chat, Ben Chalker, Ben Golich, on the fouih of Loch Broom ; Ben Nore, on the north of that commodious haven ; and the hills of Cuinak, on the fouth of Calva bay, or in the native Ian. guage Kylis-Cuin. More inland, are Ben Fofleaig ; and the chief moun- tain in this diftria, Ben Wevis (3720 feet). On proceeding to the moil northern parts of Scotland, the counties of Sutherland and Caithnefs, firil occurs Ben Ormoid ; then Ben Cliberg, on the weft of Loch Naver ; and Ben Grim, to the north of which extends the chain, called the Paps, confifting of the mountains Morben Scuraben, &c. from which run in a northerly dire£lion, according to the courfe of the rivers, inferior chains, as that of Ben Maddy, on the eaft of the river Naver, &c. The N. W. extremity of Scotland prefents fome pleafant vales toward the fea, and inland that of Dornadilla, and an elevated plain on the weft of Loch Loil, called Dirrymore foreft': that diftria called Rae's Foreft, confifts of a bed of rock, interfperfed with patches of morafs. The chief mouiitains are Ben Hop, and Ben Lugal : further to the weft no names occur, except that of Cape Wrath, and the region is defcribed by an intelligent traveller in the following v.. . terms*: .v^^..^ *,. » ■\ .; \ "^ .-■>_■■. Cape Wrath. " But a wide extent of defart country lay before us, and exhibited a moft auguft pi£ture of forlorn nature. The profped was altogether immenfe, but wild and defolate beyond conception. The mountains prefented nothing to view but heath and rock ; between them form- lefs lakes and pools, dark with the (hades thrown from prodigious pre- cipices, gave grandeur to the wildernefs in its moft gloomy forms," Curiofity has been appalled, and no traveller has penetrated into the wilds of Aftiir, for fuch is the name of this diftridl, which is by our feamen corrupted into Old Shores ; but from the vaft caverns in the vicinity of Cape Wrathj it is probable that the environs are chiefly calcareous'". • Cordiner'g Letti-toPennant, p. III. * Ibid. 104. •• Statid. Account, vi. 279. (Parifli of Edrachills.) The acconnt of the s.itereAIng parlll) of Durntfs. in which Gape Wrath (land*, yoI. iii. 576. is very lannc and defedlive ; if we trull the Author, p. S79» the whole i .'". • ■ ', and Cape Wrath affordi' excellcDt pafturage fcrflicep. * Having CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 187 Having thus explained at fome length, the diredions and poritIoa& Mmw tai .«. of Scotilh mountains, becaufe they conftitute the moft remarkable feature of the country, and yet have never received due illuftration, their conftituent parts remain to be briefly examined ". On entering the Highlands, near Dunkeld, the firft ridges are alluvial hills of gravel, containing pebbles of micaceous fchiftus, quartz, and granite, fometimes furmouDted by flate, and argillaceous fchiftus. The rocks immediately to the north of DunV jJ, are compofed of micaceous fchiftus, pene- trated in every diredlion by veins of quartz. From the jundlion of the Tay and Tumel, weftward to Loch Tay, the northern bound of the vile is of the fame fubftances, fometimes interfperfed with garnets. The whole fummit of the higher chain is covered with large rounded maifes of granite. The fouthern (hores of Loch Tay, confid of micaceous fchiftus, with a few garnets, interrupted about th« middle with banks of compaft bluifh grey lime-ftone. The northern (hores fimilar, but the lime-ftone is micaceous. The mountains in Gienlochy are moftly of micaceous fchiftus, interfperfed with garnet: Glen Lyon prefentt fmall veins of lead. The vale of Tumel, between Loch Tumel and Loch Rannoch, is overfpread with rounded fragments of granite and micaceous fchiftus, but contains granitoid, and fome granite. The lower part of Glen Tilt chiefly exhibits micaceous fchiftus ; the upper principally granite and lime-ftone. Such are the more fouthern parts of the Highlands. In the weft, to- wards Ben Lomond, micaceous fchiftus alfo abounds ; but that mountain is chiefly of gneifs, and the like features are found in the peninfula ofCantire. In the north of Argyleftiire *, appears the beautiful red granite, which chiefly conftitutes the central chain, already indicated ; to the north of which firft appears micaceous fchiftus, and after- wards a remarkable courfe of pudding-ftone, extending from Loch Nefs " Mr. Aikin's Notes. According to Mr. Plajfair, in his llluftrationg of the Huttonian Theory of the Eirth, Edin. i8o», p. 346, etftq. there are only two large infulated trad* of granite in the fouih of Scotland, one in Kirkcudbrightfliire, another in the Lammermuir, near Pricftlaugh. But thii author is fo fond of theory, that hi« fafls are received with hefiution. * Cruachan, according to Mr. Jamefon, confifts, at the bottom, of flate and micaeeoui fchiftu.t, which is followed by granhe to the top. Near Strontian are red granite and gneifi. Glen Ca rr^'fenti curious porphyries. - B B 2 to i P5I& '"■ i^i 1 38 SCOTLAND. d Mov NTAiNi. to Oban*. The mountains in the north have been little explored, but Mr. Jamefon tells us, that the coaft is chiefly a coarfe argillaceous fand- fione, often appearing in the form of flags, while in fome places are mafl'es of breccia, being pebbles of red granite, micaceous fchiftus and quartz, in arenaceous bafes. Mount Scuraben is at the bottom fand- ftone, and fand-ftone flag, then the breccia, fucceeded bjr a rock of ■white quartz to the fummit, and probably forming the root and centre of the whole. Morben, and other mountains in this diftridl, from their white colour, feem to be of the fame compofition. About the Ord of Caithnefs appear granite and micaceous fchiftus, and that mountaia confifts of mingled quartz and felfpar. Near Dornoch, the rivers roll pebbles of micaceous fchiftus and granite, evincing the materials of the mountains, but their lower ttrata confift of argillaceous fand-ftone, till near Tain, where are granite, micaceous fchiftus, and hornblende. The fand-ftone and breccia re-appear at Cromarty, and at Murray Firth, but at Fort George the primitive rocks begh). About two or three miles S. of Aberdeen, the red-coloured argillaceous fand-ftone and breccia again occur j and the cafth; of Dunotter ftands pn.a rock of the latter fubftance. ;-.-—,.: ; -t^..^^ ^. „_ r .^ The central and weftern parts of Sutherland and Rofsfhire, have not been explored ; but it would feem that the weft of Sutherland is chiefly primitive lime-ftone, which is well known to form a great part of Affynt, and fometimes contains mafles of white marble. The mountains feem to be of granite and micaceous fchiftus, but often prefent the Angular feature of vaft fummits formed of white quartz. According to Wil- liam9, this quartz is ftratifled, and tinged with blue, or bluilhgrey; and bears no vegetation, fo that at a diftance it refembles fnow. Near Loch Broom is found that fort of granite which is beft adapted for mill* ftones. t rf'r-r -!"fi'^<'»s. * -*i^/iin .n^ilHifv.j >- ■^-f^ri'v • di;f-'.r- • , ,'■ . Upon the whole it would appear, that the chief or granitic chain of the Scotifh mountains, extends in a S. W. and N. E. diredlion from * According to WiUiamt, II. 159. a like range extend* through Perthniirr, into Montcith and Dttnbartonftiire, croffing the Cljde, n^r Dunbarton, and reaching the weft fide of Ayrlhirc, where it enters the Firth of Clyde ; it hence feem* to follow, ia the fame direAion, the grand graDitlc chain ef Scotiih mountaini. * ,: Ben CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 189 Bea Nevis to Portfoy. In many parts it has funk or Aibfided, as not Mountaihs. unufual, but the line is marked by the gradual tranfitions from limc- ilone and fand-ftone, to micaceous fchiftus, and thence to granite. Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, and other lofty fummits, mark this primitive chain. The Grampians, which form the outer (kirt of this chain, confift, ac- cording to a German mineralogift '*, of micaceous lime-ftone, gneifs, porphyry, flate, and granite, alternating with each other ; and another German fays, that the fundamental rock of the country confifts of gra- nitic aggregates. The mountains in the S. W. are chiefly fchiftofe, and the granite is grey, and of an inferior kind ; but Mr. Williams informs us that Ben Nevis, and other mountains in that quarter, are compofed of elegant red granite, in which the pale rofe, the blufh, and the yel- iowilh colours, are finely mixed and ihaded''. The like granite i« found at Portfoy and Trouphead, and is probably continued through the whole chain, the fuperior height of the region being marked by the ex- treme rapidity of the river Spey. This tendency of the leading chain, is not only marked out by the Grampians, but by that of the iflands, and of the grand chain in Norway, which, indeed, feems a continuation oftheScotifli chain, and thelaft, probably contains filver as well as the Scandinavian. The mountains on the N. W. of the lakes Nefs and Linny, are probably only exterior Ikirts of the fame chain, and prefent the ufual declenfion of micaceous fchiftus, terminating in limeftone and fand-ftone, in the northern parts of Sutherland and Caithnefs. The iflands of Shetland chiefly prefent micaceous fchiftus, interfperfed with a few mafles of granite ; and the Orkneys, &c. confift moftly of fand- ftone. The weftern iflands may be fuppofed to be chiefly calcareous. It is remarkable that the fpace from Invernefs to Dunolla, on the weft, abounds with farcilite (pudding-ftone) compofed of pebbles of quartz, probably waftied down from the granitic chain, and afterwards cemented by fome unknown procefs of nature, either by iron or filiceous earth. General Roy mentions two remarkable features of the Highlands, firft the moor of Rannoch, a high defert of twenty miles fquare, on the 'J Kirwan's Geol. Eflay«, 481. ^ Miaeral. King. II. 13. mm mm •■■^ ■•-! ' ■ I ■'I '» ,'fe'<1l W^"«' *I • -"'.8' fe> '.Vitfl S. E. 10O SCOTLAND. Foiefts. T!3 Mountains S. K. of Ben Ncvis, being a flat uninhabited tnorafs. The fecond is pan ■of the N. W. coaft, extending from Loch Inchard, twenty-four miles to the fouth, breadth about ten miles, which prefcnts a moft fmgular ap. pcarance, as if mountains had been broken into fragments, interfperfed with pools of water. The northern extremities of Caithnefs, are low and morafly, and feem calcareous, as well as thofe of Sutherland. The foreds of Scotland are very rare in the proper acceptation of the term ; and the Sylva Caledonia has long fince vaniflied. The whole county of Selkirk was formerly denominated Ettric foreft. There was alfo a confiderable foreft, that of Mar, in the weft of Aberdeenfliire where now remains the foreft of Abernethy '*, extending to Cairngorm. In the county of Sutherland was the foreft of Sletadale, on the north of Dunrobin, the feat of the earls of Sutherland ; and in the north of the fame county, are marked Parff-foreft, between Aftiir and Dunan (pro. bably originally Wharf foreft, by the fame name as the cape) ; to the fouth of which were Reay foreft, or that of Dirrymone ; with thofe of Dirrymore, and Dirrymena, on the north and fouth of Loch Shin. No other foreft occurs till we reach the county of Argyle, which contains Boachlltive foreft on the north. Mention is made by late travellers of a royal foreft near Loch Ketterin, called Finglas ; but for this there feems no authority. The foreft of Athol, in the fame county, does not appear liable to the fame objection. Having given a general account of the indigenous plants of England, it will fuffice for the botany of Scotland, to point out the particu- lars in which the two floras differ, together with the caufes of the difference.* • ' •' -' •• tv t The northern part of Britain differs from the fouthern as to climate, in being colder and more rainy ; and as to foil, in confifting chiefly of mountainous granitic, or micaceous diftrids, thehigheft peaks of which are buried in perpetual fnow. There are no chalk-hills in Scotland; nor any of that foil which charadlerifes the fouth -eaftern part of the ifland, and is compofed, for the moft part, of fand and calcareous marl. We might, therefore, a priori^ exped to meet with more alpine plants "♦ Prov. of Moray, Aber. fj'ji- 8»o. p. 267. * Smith's Flora Britannica.—Lightfoot'8 Flora Scotica. 12 ia Botany. CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 191 in Scotland, than of thofe which flourifli heft in a light chalky foil, and Botany. in a mild climate ; this is found to be in fa£l the cafe. The greater number of vegetable fpecies is the fame in both countries ; but the warm, moift region of Cornwall, Devonfliire, and Dorfet i the range of chalk- hills, on each fide of the valley of the Thames ; the dry, fandy trafts of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, and the fens of Lincolnfliire, con- tain many plants that are unknown to Scotland ; as, on the other hand* the fnowy fummits of the Grampians, the extenfive forefts of Badenoch and Braemar, and the bleak, fhelterlefs rocks of the Hebudes, pofTefs many hardy vegetables, which are not to be found in England. South Britain contains a greater number of fpecies peculiar to itfelf ; but thofe that are fimilarly circumftanced in the northern part of the ifland, are of more frequent occurrence, and therefore more chara£teri(lic : to the Englilh botanift, Scotland will have more the air of a foreign country, than England will to a Scotifh naturalift. Amidd the grand romantic fcencry of the Highlands, the fearch of the Englifli botanift is conti- nually folicited and repaid, by the appearance of plants, either altogether new to him, or which he has been accuftomed to confider as the rare reward of minute inveftigation. In traverfing the vaft natural forefts of birch and pine, although his notice will be firft attracted by the trees themfelvcs, in every ftage of growth, from the limber fapling, to the bare and weather beaten trunks, that have endured the ftorms of five or fix hundred winierf, yet the new forms of the humbler vegetables will foon divide his attention ; the red and white bloflbms of the trailing Untiaa^ the Fyrolafecunda^ and unifiora^ Satyrium repens^ Ophrys coral- lorbiza, and Couvallaria vertidllata, will each attract their lliare of re- gard. If he be winding along the rocky margin of Loch Tay, or Locli Nefs, the Eriocaulon decangulare^ the alpine Circaa^ the minute Subu- laria aquatlca^ will reward his labour ; the moift and fliady recefles of the flate mountains, are carpeted by the three Veronicas^ the alpina^ the faxatllls^ and fruticulofa \ by the Saxifraga umbrofoy the TbaliSlrum al- pinuniy and Erigeron alp'mum. In the thin peat moors that overfpread the rocks, are found the Scboenus rufus, Scirpus muUicaulis^ Jucus trtfi- dusy h'lglumis^ &nCi fpicatus, all of them belonging to the natural clafs of ruflies ; with the Alpine cotton-grafs, and fome of the dwarf fpecies of willow. ^vMim •■f.U! I;' !'■'''. <'>'*i Mm r Mi- > .,h' 192 Botany. Zoology. SCOTLAND. fjoillow. The moantainous diftrifls of granite are peculiarly rich in alpine plants ; .the ledges and crevices of the rocks are adorned by tufts of the golden cinquefoil {Potcntilla aiirea) ; and luxuriant feftoons ot the Arbutus alpina^ and Arbutus uva urft^ glowing with their fcarletand deep blue berries, among their glofly leaves ; the lefs precipitous pans and the borders of the torrents, are ovcrfpread with alpine graffes, with the viviparous Polygonum^ the Azalea^ and Sibbaldla procumhens^ the yellow faMlfragty the Dryas oSlopetala^ Rhodiola rofea^ Rubus ardlkus and the alpine Alchemilla. The cloudberry {Rubus cbamamorus)^ and fome of the lichens flourifh amid (I the fnow and folitude of the moft elevated fummits ; and afford at the fame time fhelter and food for the Ptarmigan, almoft the only one of our native birds that can inhabit fo cold a fituation. The Lowlands of Scotland feem to contain no plants which are not found in fimilar foils in England ; the fea-coaft, however exhibits two umbelliferous vegetables, the Ligujiicum Scoticum^ and h- peratoria OJirutbium^ which have not been met with on the fouthern ihore. The Zoology of Scotland prefents little remarkable, as diftinft from that of England. The fmall horfes of Galloway feem to have been a primitive breed, and, in diminutive fize, are exceeded by thofe of Shet- land. The cattle in Galloway are often without horns, a defedt which is fuppofed to be recompenfed by the fuperior quantity and quality of the milk. The kylies, as already mentioned, are a middle-fizcd breed from the province of Kyle, and other diftrids of Ayrfliire and Gallo- way. On the eaft are found large cattle, of various breeds. The (heep are fmaller aud fhorter than thofe of England, but are now croflfed in ■various directions j thofe of Shetland are remarkable for the finenefs of the wool, which is, however, interfperfed with coarfer piles. Goats are not fo numerous in the Highlands and Ifles, as might be expefted: this animal not only enlivens the Alpine landfcape, but yields ul'eful leather and milk, and might occafionally fupply the want of other pro- vifion. Of dogs, no breed is remembered peculiar to Scotland ; but the fliepherd-dogs in the province of Galloway, are endowed with re- markable fagacity, fo as to underftand and execute even complicated commands. •'■^*^ -tJ' ^> '>«»u} ua*. ^li^v j ;i.>:ju.> 3iitj<^i/- -r-^-i ,*}j , ...... ♦ Qf CHAP. IV; NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 193 Of wild animals, the wolf has been extirpated in Scotland, only fince Zootoav. the year 1680. The wild cat is ftill occafionally found; the other clafles correfpond with thofe of England, except that the Roe is ftill not unfrequent. Among the birds, eagles are not unknown, nor elegant falcons. The ftiores and iflands prefent numerous kinds of fea-fowl. In the progrcfs of cultivation, fome new birds have appeared from England ; for inftance, the golden-crefted wren, which even vifits Shet- land, after a flight of fixty miles, which is furprifing for fo diminutive a bird": but the nightingale, who would be a moft welcome gueft, ftill refufes the journey. Scotland abounds with fifli of all kinds, and contributes great fup- plies to the Englifli market, particularly in lobftcrs and falmon. By ibme fingular chance, the holibut, a coarfe dry fifli, is in Scotland ftyled the Turbot, which in Scotland io called Rodden-fleuk^ the laft word being a general denomination for flounders, and other flat fi(h. The tranfpa- rent lakes, rivers, and rivulets of Scotland, prefent a beautiful variety offifli: on the northern and weftern coafls are nu»^erous feals; and it appears from the life of St. Columba, that the ancients had a mode of rendering them tame, and obedient to the call. The whale fometlmes appear?, and the baiking fhark frequently plays in the weftern inlets. Pearls are found in the rivers Teith and Ythan, in a large kind of mya, or mufcle. Some large ones are in the ftiape of a pear, others are pink on one fide. Many beautiful zoophites, on the northern ftiores, have been found and introduced to public notice, by Mr, Cordiner. In confidering the mineralogy of Scotland, it may be premifed, that Mineralogy. a country fo mountainous mu ft be naturally expeded to abound with metals, and fome fortunate accident may, perhaps, difcover in fome of the fkirts of the granitic chain, filver mines, equal to thofe of Norway ; forfuch difcoveries arife Hot from afedulous orfkilful inquiry, but from the trifling accidents of a fliower of rain, of a flaepherd running after a goat, or the like. Mr. Kirwan has given an excellent account of the various fubftances in which metals are generally found ". In granitic mountains, tin, lead, iron, zinc, bifmuth, cobalt; and in gneifs, or fchiftofe granite, filver, copper, lead, tin, and zinc. In micaceous ■» Pennant's A. Z. vol. i. 39. " Geol. Eff. 428. VOL. I. c c fchiftus ■fa,'. 'f;.'M '\'\Vi ;>:**? !■;■ 4- i-^''M.i"'-i«5{J 'm •-■■■■.IJ' V\ t -Am h' ' ''Bi' V f' / « i '• .'■■>■ itf !■ I: ,> !■!;■* LiiSii '•iffilifjl !,■!■;;' h ylMWl '■■•'■ -'"iiV ■•i4V'*J »94 MlMFRA- LOCV. SCOTLAND. ' 51 : fchiflus are found copper, tin/ lead, antimony ; in hornblende flate, copper ore; under argillite, or common flate, filver, copper, lead, zinc. In Reatlte, fuiphureous pyrites, and magnet. In primitive lime-ftone, appear copper, lead, zinc ; and even in ftrata of coal, have been found native filver, galena, and manganefe. The fmall quantity of gold found in Scotland, has been procured from the Lead-hills, which are mollly compofed of coarfe flate. This precious metal firft appeared, as already mentioned, in the fands of Elvan, a rivulet which joins the Clyde, near Its fource ; and a place ftill exifts, called Gold-fcour, where the Germans ufcd to wa(h the fand. None worth mentioning has been found recently. The filver generally accompanies lead ; and in the rich mines of Saxony, the bafer metals were found near the furface, but the richer at a great depth. The filver found in Scotland, has hitherto been of little account ; the chief mine was that at Alva, which has fince only afforded cobalt. Nor can Scotland boafl of copper, though a fmall quantity was found in the Ochills, near Alva, with filver and cobalt ; and it is faid that the iflands of Shetland offer fome indications of that metal. Copper has alfo been found at Colvend in Galloway, at Curry in Lothian, at Oldwickia Caithnefs, and Kiffern in Rofsfhire. The chief minerals of Scotland are lead, iron, and coal. The lead mines in the fouth of Lanarkfhire, where the gold was alfo found, have been long known. Thofe of Wanlock-head, are in the immediate neighbourhood, but in the county of Dumfries, and belong to another proprietor. Thefe two mines yield yearly above 2000 tons. The Sufannah vein. Lead-hills, has been worked for fixty years, and produced vaft wealth *. Some flight veins of lead have alfo been found in the weflern Highlands, particularly Arran. Iron is found in various pans of Scotland ; the Carron ore is the moft known, which Mr. Kirwan de- fcribes as being an argillaceous iron-flone, of a blueifh grey, internally of a dark ochre yellow '^ It is found in flaty mafTes, and in nodules, in an adjacent coal mine, of which it fometimcs forms the roof. At the Carron-works, this ore is often fmelted with the red greafy iron ore from • Sec Jars Voy. Mit. who regards thefe as the ticheft minei of Ettfope. Th«t of Arklngdalt, In Yorklhire, is now the firft In England. ^ " Min, vol. il. 174. .... Ulverflon, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. Ulverfton, in Lancafliire, which imparts eafier fufion, and fuperior value. Mikera. Calamine, or zinc, is alfo found at Wanlock-head ; and it is faid, that ''"°*' plumbago and antimony may be traced in Scotland *. But the chief mineral is coal, which has been worked for a fucceflion of ages. Pope Pius II, in his defcription of Europe, written about 1450, mentions that he beheld with wonder, black ftoncs given as alms to the poor of Scotland. But this mineral may be traced to the twelfth century. The earlieft account given of the Scoti(h coal mines is con- tained in a book, publiflied by one George Sinclair, who calls himfelf Profeffor of Philofophy at Glafgow, but I cannot trace him in the uni- verfity lift ". He explains, with Tome exadnefs, the manner of work- ing coal ; and mentions the fubterraneous walls of whin which interfed the ftrata, particularly a remarkable one, vifible from the river Tync, where it forms a catarad, and pafling by Prefton-pans, to the (hore of Fife. Mr. Williams has recently given his obfervations on this fubjed, with much pradical fkill. The Lothians, and Fifefliire, particularly abound with this ufeful mineral, which alfo extends into Ayrfliire j and near Irwin* is found a curious variety, called ribbon coal. A fingular coal, in veins of mineral, has been found at Caftle Leod, in the eaft of Rofsftiiret^ In pafling to the lefs important minerals of Scotland, the new earth found at Strontian, in the diftriA of Sunart, and pariih of Ardna- ♦ Plumbago !s found in confiderable quantities near Cumnock, in Ayrfhirc. It is faid to be a continuation of a bed of coal, which, being intercepted by a vein of gninftein, changes to plum- bago, which becomes the purer as it approaches nearer to the grunftein. This lad fubftance and trap, or bafalt, are in Scotland called Whin, a word which, being merely provincial and unknovrn to the minera'-jgifts of Europe, ought to be difmifled from exaft nomenclature. Manganefe is found in Aberdeenfhire. It is alfo faid that corindon has alfo been difcovered in the fame county. " Nat. Phil, improven by new Exp. Edinb. 1683. Quarto, p. 25S — 302. f It is fuppofed that the largell untouched field of coal in Europe exitls in Scotland, in that Angular barren track of country in Carluke and Cambufnethan pariihes, Lanerkfhire^ continuing with intervals to Douglas parifh, to Glenbuck and Muirkirk, in Ayrfhire, and thence to tlie town of Ayr. The Cleugh or Wilfon-town, in Lanerkfhire, is the S. E. of this coal field, which is ex. eluded by the Shot hills, but extends on the weft aloag the bafon of Clyde. This iiifply of coal would be of great importance, as my correfpondent fuppofcs that all tliat exills between the Forth and the E(k will be exhaufted in forty years. From a letter of Gilbert Laing, Efq. Oc>. 1805. See alfo two fpirltcd and fatisfadlory pamphlets, by Stewart of Allanton, Edin. 1800, Svo. whence it appears that this great coal trail extends like an ifofceles triangle, the veiles being near Glafgow. a»d the bafe towards Carluke, the length being about twenty-two miles. c c 2 murchan, ^9S m ■■'i',1. Si liPf; 111 iliii .'i'K ,m .if; ir)6 r . SCOTLAND. •i >i/ If tUUY. murchan, Argylcfhire, is now confccrated in numerous fyftems of mi- ncralogy and chymiftry. Ben Nevis affords beautiful granite. Fine flatuary marble is found in Affynt, and at Blair Gowrie, in Perthfliire. A black marble, fretted with white like lace-work, occurs near Fort William ; dark brown with white atCambuflang, Clydefdale. Jafperis found in various parts ; Arthur's feat offers a curious variety ; and oa tlie weftcrn fhore of Icolmkill, are many curious pebbles, of various defcriptions ". Fuller's earth is found near Campbeltown, in Cantire- and, it is fuppofed, that there muft be a vaft mafs of talc, equal to that of Mufcovy, in the mountains which give rife to the river Findorn, as large pebbles of it are fometimes found in that dream. The pearls have been already mentioned : but that any of the gems are found in Scotland feems dubious. Quartz and fluor affume various hues; and what are called falfe fapphires, rubies, emeralds, &c. fall under one or other of thefe defcriptions, while the real gems belong to the argillaceous clals and when examined with a microfcope, are found to confill of minute layers, a form common to the argillaceous defcription *. luai ^t'tHin, The '^ Garneti'sTour. ,\'J ?ji;j! tiULiUiOi to i-n'- • The autlior lias fince been favoured with fome notes upon this interefting fnbjefl hv W. A, CaJell, Efq. who is not a h'ltle converfant in tiiis branch of fcience. The mamelated ore of ji is is among the produAs of the Lead-hills. Hartfel! is of primitive argillaceous frhilUis ; its mintril water is vitriolated, that of Moffat fulphurated. On the hill near Langholm are found maiTcs of calcedony Near Broxmouth is black raaibh, with large n.adrepores Slates are worked near ihc Cairns Inn, Loch Ryan. At Frifky, twelve miles below Glafgow, there is an old wall compufcd of trap from the neighbouring hilU, containing maifes of beautiful prehnite. The rock of Dunbarton caille is trap. Near Killicrankie is hornblend fchiftus. At Balmerino are found eyed agates on the fhore in con. Cdcrable quantities ; the neighbouring rocks feem to contain thofe flones, as do thofe of Scot's craig, oppofite to Dundee. Beautiful agates are alfo found in the river May, but the lapidaries of Edinburgh are chiefly fupplied from the fouth bank of the river Elk, oppofite Montrofe. Near Aberdeen the granite is grey, but at Peterhead red. At Strontian were found zeolite and ftaurolite, but the lafl not in croffes. Loch Awe abounds in lapis ollaris, of which Kilchurn caflle in built, and feveral ornamental tombs of this ftone occur in the church yard of Glenorchy, and in an iQe in the lake. The weftern fumniit of Cruachan is red granite, and the upper part of the mountain is compofed of large blocks of the fame ftone heaped together, a not unufual circumftance, granitt being often in large rhomboidal di^ifions, and dividing eafily by thofe natural feams. The only place in Scotland where flint feems to be found, is on the weflern fide of the iflc of Mull. Ulva prefents columnar bafalt. In Icolm Kil there is a ftratum of white marble, of a fchiftofe texture, containing fteatite, which traverfes the illand from N. W. to S. E. the croffes are of gneifs, the caufy of granite. Gypfum is rare in Scotland, but a fmall vein of the red kind is obfervable in Campfey hills, near Dunbarton. StitL'og CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 197 The mineral waters of Scotland arc numerous, but none of equal fame ^tl^KR*I, with thofe of England. The chief are MofTat wells in the fouth, and thofc of Peterhead in the north. Scotland, like other mountainous countries, abounds with fingular Natiiral fcenc8, and natural curiofities. The caves on the Ihore near Colvend, ^'"^'^''""' in Dumfrieslhire, are worth notice ; and the beautiful falls of the Clyde, near Lanark, have defcrvedly excited much attention. In proceeding up the river from Lanark, firft occurs a fmall catarad, called DundafF Linn, then that of Corra, the moft pidurefque ; and little more than half a mile further, that of Bonnington appears, a fingle cafcade, of about twenty-feven feet. To the well of Lanark is found the cataraiSt ofStone Byres, beyond which falmon cannot pafs up the ftream. On the eaft of this part of Scotland, are the paftoral vales of the Tweed and Teviot, celebrated in fong; the deep pafs of the Peaths; and the ro- mantic rock of Bafs, the haunt of the folan goofc ; and a well near Edin- burgh abounds with petrol. The bafaltic columns of Arthur's feat de- ferve infpedion. On the northern fhore of the Forth, near Dyfart, a coal mine has for ages been on fire, probably from decompofed pyrites, and has fupplied Buchanan with a curious defcription. The beauties of Loch Lomond have been fo often defcribed, that it is unneceflary to repeat fo trivial a theme ; but the Trofacs^ or fingular hills around Lake Kctterin, &c. form a new acquifition to the traveller. The hill of Kin- noul near Perth, is a great curiofity, prefenting a mafs of uncommon minerals. The numerous lakes and mountains need not be again men- Stirling caftle (lands on grunfteia, which has fomcihing of a columnar form, and decompofes in fpheroiilal flrata. At Airthy is a copper mine wotkcii at prefcnt. One of filver exiiled at Binny. craig, on the fouthern (hore of the Forth. Pentland hills feem to be trap ; that neareft Edinburgh, on the Linton road, is agate rock. Braid-hill and Blackford-hill are likewife trap, in the latter veing ofjafp-agate and jafper. Craig Lockhart and Corftorphin hills are grunllcin. The Caftle hill of Edinburgh black bafalt with prehnitt:. Salilbury Craigs trap, grunllein of led felspar and black horn- blend, jafper with fpots of iron, &c. Calton-hill partly porphyry, light red fpots upon a purplifh ground; chryllals are found of twenty-four fides, refembling Iciicite, but of a redilh colour. Incli- colm preftnts thin veins of fibrous green ferpentine in a decompofed trap. Bafs is of rcdifh trap } at the harbour of Dunbar is a caufy formed by the extremities of hexagonal columns of a red ftone (tnp or jafper?) traverfed by veiri^ of a fine white hornttein. (See Poeocke, Ph. Tr. lii.) Coal is only wrought in Scotland in the two bafous of the Forth and the Clyde, including that of the Ayr. - ' . , ' -4 • Tl - ■- ^ ,. ,.. '*• tioned. mm -mi A'kk 4- '. j: ti'j KjS SCOTLAND. Natuhal tloned. The rocks off the coaft of Aberdeenfliire, often affumc fmgular tu.MojMni fQf^jj Qf arches and pillars, &c. and the fpace from Trouphead to Port- Iby, abounds in uncommon rocks, and fmgular marine produ^ions, The caves of Nigg, in Rofslhire, may be worth vifiting ; and the more northern fliores prefent innumerable wild fcenes of favage nature. Near Lathron, in Caithnefs, is a large cave, into which the inhabitants fail to kill feals. NoCs-hcad prcfcnts a fingular quarry of flate, marked with various metallic figures, 'i he ifles Stroma, near the northern (here, pre- ferve dead bodies for a long time without corruption ". It may, per- haps, be eftcemed a natural curiofity, that the river of Thurfo was lo abundant in falmon, that 2500 have been caught in one morning. Near Tong is the cave Frafgill, about fifty feet high, and twenty wide, va- riegated with a thoufand colours, which are loft in each other with a delicacy and foftnefs that no art can imitate *'. On the eaft of Durnefs, is the carve of Smo, within which is the refemblance of a gate, fucceeded by a fmall lake of frefli water, containing trout ; the extent of this fub. terraneous lake, has never been explored : and near Sandwit is faid to be a fmall grove of hazels, about four inches high, bearing nuts. The fingularity of the coaft of Edrachills, fouth of Loch Inchard, has already been mentioned. But the verdant paftures of Farouthead and Cape Wratli, may well be efteemed a natural curiofity in that diftant region, where tlie want of roads and bridges remains a difgrace to the country. The weftern coaft of Rofsftiire does not feem to contain any objedl worth mentioning, and that diftrid remains to be explored by the curious tra- veller. We only know the grand cataradl of Kirkag river, and the cave of Gandeman, near Affynt point. The cafcade of Glamma, in the heights of Glen Elchaig, is truly fublime, amidft the conftant darknefs of hills and woods. Ben Nevis will, of courfe, attradl notice from Its fingular form and elevation. According to Mr. Williams ", it confifts of one folid mafs of red granite, which he traced at the bafc for four miles along the courfe of a rivulet on the eaft ; the height of this mafs he computes at 3600 feet, and a^Jove it are flratified rocks, the nature of which he does not explain ; but, he fays, that thofe on the fummit are " Bryce's Map, dir«£led by Mac Laurln. " S. A. III. 519. » Vol. ii. 63. • . . . 8 io CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. «M fo bard and touglii that wrought iron falls (hort of them. The (lupendous Natural precipice, oa the north-eall fide, exli bits almoft an entire fe£lion of ""'o"^'" the mountain. In Argyleftiire, the marine cataraA of Loch £tif, the beautiful lake of Awe, and environs ot Inveraiy, [ refent the chief ob- jcAs of curiofity. . . ., , S C O T I S H ISLES. The Iflands that belong to Scotland are numerous and important, and Scotilh lilei. fall naturally into three grand divifions ; the Hebudes *, or WeHern lOands ; the Orkneys ; and the iflands of Shetland. On pafling the conic rock, called Ailfa, towards the north, two beautiful iflands adorn the Firth of Clyde, thofe of Arran and Bute '. Amu. The firft is about 'wenty- three miles in length, by nine in breadth, and has 7000 inhabitants. The chief place is the village of Ranza } and Brodic cattle is memorable in hiftory. The exports are black cattle and barley *. Mr. Jamefon has recently publiflied an account of this illand, particularly its mineralogy, from which it appears that it is a mountainous region : and Goatfell is near 3000 feet in height. The fouthern parts of the ifland prefent low and cultivated grounds ; the bafe is chiefly fand-ftone and granite, the former traverfed by veins of bafalt. Near Lamlafli, is an extcnfive vein of pitch-ftone, of a greenifh colour, and the black alfo occurs. There is alfo granitine, compofed of quartz, felfpar, and hornblende ; micaceous fchiftus likewife abounds } there is little coal. • ' ■ Bute is about twelve miles in length, by four in breadth ; inhabitants Bute, about 4000 ; the chief town is Rothfay, and in the vicinity is Mount Stuart, the ornamented refidence of the Marquis of Bute, and worthy of the diftinguiflied tattc of the noble proprietor. To the weft of the Cherfonefe of Cantire, begin the Hebudes, or Htbudei. * ThU name wis corrupted by HcAor Boyce, into Hebridei, a name ftill retained by thofe who prefer the old mumpfimus, to the new fumpfimut. Boyce wat nnifled by an edition of Soliniii, Venice, 1491, 410. in which, among many errors of the prtf»i Ebrldet ii put for Ebudei. ' Pcnntnt'i Voyage, 168. * Stat. Account, toK if. p. 169. "Weftern fi.if •ii '• ■■ > ,•.,'1; kk m ii •If Ml I! NjI SCOTISH Isles. Hay. Jura. Mull. SCOTLAND. ^{ /: i Wcftcrn Iflands, properly fo called. Thefe iflands fall naturally under two divifions, which may be termed Interior and Exterior Hebudes. • J ri'r?n: Inthrior Hebudes m' ■tMj: The firft is Hay, about the fame length as Arran, but nearly eighteen miles in breadth. Hay i»roduces many black cattle, which are exported and fometimes pafs as far as England'. But the Iheep are rare ; fmall horfes are much ufed, as the country is not very mountainous. This ifle belongs to Mr. Campbell of Shawfield. Inhabitants about 7000. Lead mines were here difcovered in the fandftone, 1763; this lead h as ufual, mingled with filver. Copper has alfo been found, and there are appearances of emery, and even of plumbago. At Saneg-mor is an intricate cave. ' ""' - -^ '^ 'k-^-i^h* ■ Jura is divided from the laft by a narrow found : it is about twenty miles in length, but the breadth feldom more than five. It is one of the mcft rugged of the Hebudes, which, in general, are mountainous regions. The paps of Jura, a line of conic hills, prefent a fmgularap. pearance : they are on the weftern fide of the ifland, and almoft bare of vegetation *. The beft crops are potatoes and barley ; and the ifle con- tains abundance of peat. The cattle are fmall, but the fheep excellent. Minerals, iron-ore and manganefe ; and there is a quarry of flate. The noted gulph or whirlpool of Brecan, or Corry vrekan, is on the northern extremity of Jura '. To the weft of Jura are the ifles of Oranfa and Colonfa ; and the ftrait between them being dry at low water, they may be confidered as one ifland, about ten miles in length. Soil generally light and arable, producing barley and potatoes. The venerable ruins of the ancient mo- naftery of Canons regular, in Colonfa now exift no longer j but thofe of a curious priory in Oranfa ftill remain *. » >' '-jrs ■ * • The next ifle of any confequence is that of Mull, one of the largeft of the Hebudes, and furroundcd with fmaller interefting iflands. Mull is about twenty-eight miles in length, by a medial breadth of about eighteen. An intelligent traveller informs us, that the population is about 7000 ^ The climate cloudy and rainy. Chief diet of the people, ' S. A. xi. 278. •» S. A.xii. 318. I St. Fond, tomeii. p. 89. * Knox's View, li. 451, .' Stat. Ace. xii, 327. potatoes CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. aot potatoes or barley-meal, with a little fifh ; drink pure water, fomctimes Sc^tish a little whiflcy. Hovels conftriifted of whin ; and the thatch guarded ^'''"' againft the wind with large ftones, the fmoke afcending hy a hole in the roof. The ingenious author obferves, that the Efquimaux, and Lap- landers, prepare better refidences. On the N. E. is the new village of Tobermory, which it is hoped will be "profperous. According to St. Fond, thisifland contains a large portion of bafaltesj and the mountain of Ben More prefents to his eye appearances of lava. On the north of Aflinacregs he difcovered a curious wall of bafalt, forming a kind of ancient circus. It is, indeed, not a little remarkable, that while the oppofite Ihores of Argyle prefent the fame red granite which here per- vades Scotland, in a line from the N. W. to the S. E. as already men- tioned, yet Mull, which is diredtly in that line, feems to difplay no appearance of it, a circumftance which adds to the credibility, that in this neighbourhood may have been an ancient volcano, which deranged r'aC courfe of nature. For though the volcanic fyftem have been pufhed by fome French writers to a ludicrous excefs, yet, when we confider the numerous volcanoes cxifting in Kamfchatka, and particularly along the Andes, in South America, by many believed to have been a conti- nent of later formation than thofe of the other hemifphere, it may feem mere prejudice, not to allow the exiftence of volcanoes, in certain in- ftances ; though fire be in general too potent an agent for the mild pro- gri '"•"if nature, and, indeed, nearly accidental, while water is her grand and univerfal engine: but, on the other hand, when we refledl that bafalt is ftrongly impregnated with iron, and that the bafaltic columns are alfo found at Edinburgh, at Dichraont, Clydefdale, and in Skey, -. and extend over great part of the county of Antrim, we muft allow a circle of about 600 miles for this eruption, far too vafl for any volcano or volcanoes, and probably arifing from the fermentation of iron in the interior of the globe. Mull flands in the centre of feveral fmall but interefting ifles. On the eaft is Lifmore, fertile in oats, bigge, or beer, often called by the vague name of barley, though it be a very diftin(!]t fpecies from the Englilh barley. This ille wat anciently the chief feat ofthebifhops of Argyle, who were thence denominated Eifhops of Lif- more, and fome ruins of their refidehce remain: it was in confequence VOL. I. D D well laky ■■» col SCOTISH Li.KS.. .IcoIiii.kill. Staffa. SCOTLAND. • well repleniftied with deer, and febles have arifen that it was once i forcft. To the fouth of Lifmore occurs Kerrara, remarkable for the death of Alexander II, in 1 249 '. To the vnlcanift St. Fond ', Kerrara feems partly volcanic, as it produces bafalt ; but it has alfo flatc, and a fibrous micaceous fchiftus, compofed of quartz, fteatite, and mica. But the mod curious objedts in the vicinity of Mull, are Icohn-kill andSlafFa. Hyona, or Icolm-kill, is- about three miles long, by one broad, and is venerable as the primitive feat of Scotifli literature and religion, founded by St. Columba in the fixth century. Its hiilory and ruins have been often defcribed j but, it may be added, from a recent traveller, that the ifle produced beautiful white marble, and large blocks of jafper, or rather indurated fteatites '°. The facred edifices are partly conftrufted of red granite, refembling the Egyptian, which forms Icolm. kill, and the ifle of Nuns adjacent, fragments of the great granidc chain formerly mentioned. Some parts of the ifle are faid to prefent green and red jafper, elegantly veined, and fome fpecimens of zeolite j in the bay of Martyrs, on the E. fide, is found hornblende ; and in the fmall haven, on the oppofite part of the ifle, are immenfe numbers of beautiful pebbles, chiefly ferpentine, jafper, granite, marble, lapis nephrjticus, nephritic afbeftos, violet coloured quartz, and porphyry. Thefe pebbles are rounded, and finely poliflied by the tide, which rolls immenfe quan- tities of them backwards and forwards, with anoife like thunder". Iq botany this ifle produces the beautiful fea buglofs, and the fea holly; the Lapland wiUow, a fcarce flirub, grows not far from the marble quarry : navel wort, marfli trefoil, and dwarf juniper, are alfo found. Staflfa, about fix miles to the N, of Hyona, was firft introduced to public notice by Sir Jofeph Banks. Buchanan has mentioned the ide, but not its grand fingularities, its beautiful bafaltic columns, and one of the moft furprifing objedis of nature, the vaft bafaltic cavern, called Au-ua-vine, or the harmonious grotto, a namenow connected, as eve^ thing is, with Fingal ; but which may arife, cither from a melodious found, produced by the percuflion of the waves at the furtheft extre- • Pennant, 357. » Tome li. 170. " Garnett, I. 366, correfted by Jamcfoo, in bi» Mineralogy, and by the ocular obfemtioaiof a friend^ :; Garaett, ib. J mity, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. •05 mitf, or from the exaft order in which the columns are difpofed". Scons « Height of the entrance fifty-fix feet, breadth thirty-five, thicknefs of ^^^"' the exterior vault twenty. The depth, or length of the cavern is no lefs than 140 feet; and when St. Fond has reprefented the exterior light as penetrating the whole, he has committed a great error in perfpeftivc. To the N, W. of Mull, are the ifles of Tircy and Col, the former Tirey. producin}^ a mofl: beautiful marble, of a rofe colour, penetrated with fmall irregular cryftals of green hornblende, and which the French natu- ralifts have from the name of the ifle called Tirite, no fimilar marble being any where found. Tirey is generally plain and fertile. Col, on the contrary, is rocky, but has feveral fmail lakes, replenifhed with fifh. Dr. Johnfon has paid a defervcd tribute to irs lord ''. Another group confifts of Skey, in the Scandinavian ftyled Skua, and Skey. the furrounding ifles. Skey is the largeft of the Hebudes, being about forty-five Englifli miles in length, and about twenty-two in breadth. Inhabitants about 15,000; chief exports black cattle and fmall horfes : the land, as ufual in the Hebudes, rough and hilly. Muggaftot is the refidence of the Lord Macdonald, Dunvegan that of Mr. Macleod. At Struan is a Danifli fort, fixly feet diameter, and eighteen high '*. A high hill, near Talyfkir, prefents a feries of bafaltic columns, the molt northern of this clafs : pillars pentagonal, and about twenty feet high*. Dr. Johnfon, and his attendant Mr. Bofwell, have well defcribed the ftate of life and manners in Skey. The houfes are chiefly turf, co- vered with grafs. The face of the country wild, heathy, and deluged with continual rains. To the fouth of Skey are the ifles Rhum and Eig: the firft ftill produces red deer, an animal now rare in the ifles; and in Eig is a curious cave, with forty flceletons, remains of the people here flain by a Macleod. To the N. E. of Skey are Raza and Scalpaj the harbour of Portree is proteded by the former ifle, and has a village of the fame name, the only one in the country. The other ifles in this groupe offer little memorable. Canna and Eig contain bafaltic " St, Fond, tome ii. p. 59. " Journey, p, 29;. '■' Pennant, pi. 3S. * On the oppofite fide of the ifle, near Portree, is another bafaltic rock, of great height. Stat. Ace. xvi. 140. In Portree parifti is a large cave, full of curious ftftlaftites. lb. 147. D D 2 pillars^ SV''^. ■ 204 SCOTLAND. SCOTISH Isles. pillars, and in the former is Compafs Hill, which ftrongly affcds the needle. Rona, Hirta. Leuit. Exterior Hebudes. It now remains to give fome idea of the exterior chain of the Weftern Ifles, forming, as it were, a barrier againll the Atlantic. Two fmall and remote ifles have attradted confiderable notice. The firft U that of Rona, about twelve leagues to the N. W. of Cape "Wrath, and about thirty leagues \V. from the Orkneys* Tliis little ifle, with its companion Sulilka, or Bara, has almoft efcaped from the Scotilh maps being little known and rarely vifited. In the lafl: century Sir George M'Kenzie, of Tarbat, afterwards Earl of Cromarty, drew up a (hort account of Rona, from the oral information of inhabitants, at that time confiding only of five families". As the ifle could only fupport thirty inhabitants, any fupernumeraries were fent to Leuis, to their lord, the Earl of Seaforth, to whom they paid yearly a fmall tribute of meal and feathers. Drift timber fupplied their only fuel : he adds, thit the wool of their fheep was bluifli, and afcribes the fame colour to thofe of Hirta, or St. Kilda. The fmall ifle of Hirta, or St, Kilda, muft have attracted much notice, even in Lefley's time, for in his map he hjas reprefented it as about fix times the fize of Skey, while in truth it is only two miles and a half long, by one mile in breadth. St. Kilda is about twelve leagues to the wefl: of North Vift; and has been repeatedly defcribed, the Angular manners of its inhabitants having excited confiderable attention, and for a minute account, the reader muft be referred to Martin and Macaulev. Sheep abound here, and in the little ifles adjacent, probably of the fame kind with thofe of Shetland ; but the late accounts fay nothing of the colour, and only fpeak of the fecundity. Having thus briefly mentioned thefe remote and little vifited ifles, the plan here followed muft be refumed by fome account of Leuis, the principal ifland of the Weftern chain. It is about fifty miles in length, " Monro's Defcript. of the W. Ifles, in 1549 Edin. 1774. Duodecir Ace. xix. 171, adds nothing. 0, p, 63. Tlie Stat. by CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 205 |)y twenty ill breadth. The face of the country confifts of a heathy Scotish elevared ridge full of morafles S. W. to N. E.; but near the (hores are feveral verdant vales capable of cultivation. The Harris, or fouth end of thisifle, is ftill more mountainous, and prefents what is called a forcfl, becaufe ibme deer are there found. James VI attempted to introduce induflry into the Hebudes by planting a Dutch colony at Stornaway in Leuis ; but it was foon extirpated by the inhabitants *. Stornaway is however now a confiderable and flourllhing town, with an excellent harbour; the view from which^ far to the eaft, prefents the rugged mountains of Sutherland and Rofs ; and near it is the feat of the Earh ofSeaforth, formerly proprietors of the ifland." Befides cottages, there are about fcventy houfes covered with flate. The feafons in Leuis are opprelTed with rain, as ufual in the Weftern highlands and ifles; but there is a confiderable fifhery. The crops are oats, bigge, and potatoes ; no trees will thrive except alder, and mountain afh j and hardly a (hrub appears : but there are many black cattle and fheep ; nor is there any want of fmall horfes. But the chief refource of Leuis muft be the fifhery, till induftry; (hall have found the means of draining the upland mjirfhes, and fpreading an exuberance of lime as manure. At Claflernes is a re- markable judicial circle, confiding of an avenue of thirty-nine ftones about feven feet high, clofing in a circle of twelve ftones with one in the centre thirteen feet in height. To the fouth of Leuis is North Vift, about twenty-two miles in Noith Vift. length from E. to W. and about feventeen in breadth N. to S for recent difcsveries have reftored this ifle to its proper form, among many other improvements which have taken place within thefe few years in Scotiih geography. The face of the country correfponds in general with that of Leuis ; and trees are equally unknown. Potatoes are generally cul- tivated. Weflerly winds, with rain or fog, ufurp two thirds of the year. Lord Macdonald is the proprietor."' » Mr. Marlhall, in his Travels in Holland, &c. vol. i. p. 175, obferves that, in the opinion of the Dutch, the only mean of eftablifhing a fifliery in the weft of Scotland, would be t« build a city, and make it the feat of the whole undertaking, as he there explains at length. But fuch a city would be far better lituatcd on the weftern coaft of Scotland, as the example of Stornaway proves. Tiiere is no town between Campbletown and 1 hurfo, a fpace of 300 miles, though there fecms to have been one on Loch Tong. Knox, ii. 4/3. " Stat. Ace. xix. 241. '' Stat. Ace. xiii. 300. The^ 'J ■Mm ■ i'l'v -'^'ii l^f'^Mi WM'Vm (! ■it*'!:' > 1 1 Ifl I ,;i: i4: ->■ % t(S6 ScOTISH IsLfcS. South VJft. Orkney I. 5? I • ^ SCOTLAND. The fmall Me of Benbecula, and fome others, lie betwixt North and South Vift } the latter is about twenty-three miles in length N. to S. hy about ten in breadth W. to E. The morafly central chain extends alfo through this ifle; but to the eaft are dry hills covered with heath and verdure. The productions alfo refemble thofe of Lcuis ; and there are many fmall lakes full of excellent trout. Chief exports black cattle and kelp. This ifle is alfo naked of wood. ^Orkneys and Shetland Isles. The iflands of Orkney and Shetland remain to be defcrlbcd. The ■Orkneys form a numerous group, around the Main Land, or what by fome new and fabulous term, is called Pomona." The Main Land is about twenty five miles in length E. to W. by about thirteen in breadth N. to S. Kirkwall, the chief town of the Orkneys, contains about three hundred houfes ; and has a ftately cathedral dedicated to St. Magnus, length 226 feet, height of the roof 71, of the fteq>le 133. It is built of freeftone, and by the good fenfe and tafte of the Orcadians is preferred more entire than even the Cathedral at Glafgow.'* Oppofite ftands the biihop*s palace, now called a caftle. The chief exports of Kirkwall are beef, pork, butter, tallow, hides, calf (kins, rabbit fkins, falted fi(h, oil, feathers, linen yarn, and coarfe linen cloth, kelp,* and in fruitful years corn. The chief imports are wood, lax, coal, fugar, fpirits, wines, tobacco, and fnuff, flour and bifcuit, foap, leather, hard- wares, broad cloth, printed linens and cottons. In 1790 the exports were valued at 26,598/. ; and the imports at 20,803/. Manufadures are linen yarn, and coarfe linens, and kelp : this lafl: was introduced about fixty years ago, and has been fince diffufed over the Highlands and ifles. In moft parts of the Jvlain Land the foil is good, though fhallow, with a calcareous bottom. The horfes are fmall but fpirited ; and the cows, though alfo fmall, yield excellent milk. The flieep in ■' The old accounts are Wallace's i6i;!?, and Brand's 1701; the modern, the Statiftic Survey. jBee alfo an able account of the Orkneys by Dr. Barry, Edin. 1805, 4to. ■' Stat. Ace. vii. 531. • Sauba produces great quantities of kelp ; wlien tlie Orkneys in general may yield 2,500 toni, 500 and 600 are drawn from that iCe only. S. A. vii, 455. 3 the CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. tof the iflands of Orkney are computed at 50,000. Swine alfo abound of a Scotish dirty white colour, and diminutive fize. The numbers of fea fowl may beeafily imagined. The Norfe language has yieltled to the Englifh, and the manners of the people are fingularly civilized for fo remote a region. The Main land contains fevcral of thofe edifices called Piks houfes, and on its weftern fide at Yeftnaby, near the houfe of Skeii is a fingular natural pavement^ confifting of ftones figured in various forms, refting on a bed of red clay reclining on a high rock : the length of this fingular pavement is about a quarter of a mile, breadth about twenty feet." The Ward Hill of Hoy, the higheft in this region, (1620 feet,) (lands in the ifland of the fame name, the S. £. promontory of which is erroneoufly called Walls in the Englilh maps, inftead of the native name Waes : near its bottom is the noted dwarfy ftone, about 34 feet long by 17 broad, and 8 high, hollowed out by art, probably for the refidence of fome hermit. The inhabited Iflands of Orkney are computed at twenty-fix, and the people at 23,053;" the bafes are chiefly fendftone, and fandflone breccia, as appears from Mr. Jamefon's recent Mineralogy of the Scotiflv Ifles. Iron is found, and perhaps fome lead ; but the mention of filver and tin Teems fabulous. Hazles are feen, and fometimea willow, and fome afli trees; thorn buflies, and plumb trees, iHll exiil iathe Bifhop's garden. But in the morafles, trunks of ancient trees are found, fome- times thirty feet in length. It is furprifing that in the prefent progrefs 9f every art, numerous experiments have not been made to difcover fome tall tree, which can endure the fpray of the ocean ; for if a fence of fuch were firft reared, many other kinds might flourifli under its^ protection.. The mountain afli^ or the birch, which in Lapland is t1ie lafl: oflfspring of expiring vegetation, may perhaps be found to anfwer this defcription. The iflands of Shetland prefent another group fimilar to thofe of Shetland.^ Orkney ; with a Main Land or chief ifland in its centre. The Main Land is much interfered by the fea : and is about fifty-feven miles in length, by about tenor twelve miles of . medial breadth..* The other* ■> ifleg " Wallace, p. 24. Brand, p. 43. " S. A; xx. 6ij. *' We have better charts of the coafts of New HollaRd', than of the ifles of Orkney and Shetland. C>ptain DoneUy't chart of the Shetland iflei, feemi the moll accurate, in which the MaiaLand . '-' correfpenda mrM:>l rM^'-^^-ji^f'^^mm ' I ■ (^ a '^J-rt mfW W 9dS SCOTLAND. SCOTISU Isles. ifles are generally fmall, yet twenty-fix are faid to be inhabited. «' On viewing thefe iflands in general, a wonderful fcene of rugged, bleak and barren rocks prefents itfelf to our view. No tree or flirub is to be feen, to relieve the eye in wandering o 'er thefe dreary fcenes. Some- times however a few fcanty portions of cultivated ground catch the eye of the traveller, exciting emotions of pleafure, and forming a ftrikinj; contrafl: to the barren heath-covered mountains, which flcirt them. The weftern part prefents many fcenes as wild and flerile as can well be conceived ; grey rocks rifing from the midft of marfhes or pools, and fhores bounded by awful fea-beat precipices, do not fail to raife in the inind ideas of defolation and danger. " The coafts are in general rugged and precipitous, prcfenting in many places fcenes truly grand and magnificent ; vaft rocks of various heights, dreadfully rugged and broken, oppofing their rude fronts to all the fury of a tempeftuous ocean ; which in fome places has formed great detached pillars, in others has excavated grand natural arches and caverns that mock all human magnificence ; and flrike the beholder with that awe and wonder, which muft aflfeA every one on viewing thefe amazing wrecks of nature." " ^^^ aisi.Wiifffrvt Such is the animated defcription of a late writer ; who adds that the €aft fide of the Main Land, and other ifles, is comparatively low, but the weft lofty and rugged. This is well known to be the cafe whh mod mountains and iflands, becaufe the winds and tempefis from the weft have more power than thofe from the oppofite quarter. The hills in the Main Land run in three ridges from N. to S. ; they are generally round and of little height. R.cnas, the highefl:, (lands detached in the N. W. corner of the Main Land ; and is about 1500 feet above the level of the fea. When the fame writer attempts to eftabli^i that all chains of mountains run according to the length of the country, he efpoufes corrcfponds In length with Leuis, while Aipfley's would give a length of almod ninety milts. Yell and Unft, fcem alfo more properly difpofed in Captain Donnelly's map. The Danifh Captain Von Lowcnora (Zach's Geographical Journal, May, 1799) found that the Shetland iflcswtre about one third (horter than rcprefented in the Englifti map (Prtfton's) j which al.'o puts thi: northern extremity half a d«gree further north, than it was found by minute obfervationj. Love. norn publiftieda map of thefe illcs, in 1787. " Jameioo's Min. p. 2, 3. 8vo. 6 -•>» j.-ti 10 .,}■!. jj titu-hi JV-, i!i:-\-'i\t: I \:,::i)ii' a.i, J3..i a mere C II AT. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. ' 205 a nitre tlicory in oppofitlon to ftubborn fafla. The mountains of North Scrifsa America, the Uralian and (bine other chains in Siberia ; the tranfverfe chain through the centre of Africa E. to W. all eilablifh tlie contrary pofition. In Kutnpe the mountains of Spain, the Alps, the Carpathian mountains; anil, not to crowd examples, thofe of Ireland, Scotland, aiui even of England, have no connedion with the length of the crnintry, nf'r can a ftronger proof he produced of the boldnefs of theory tlian tliii'i to remove even mountains from their feats ; which proceed in every diretflion, bend and terminate without any vifil)le canfc, and hive felilom any connexion witli the forin of a country, as the dcftrui;- tive powers of nature external and internal alTail mountains even more than plains. The hills in Shethmd are chiefly compofed of fand-ftone breccia, &c. The bafis fecms gneifs, and micaceous fchiftus, which are iometimcs cxpofed to the air. Limeflorie is alio found and fome granite ; hut on the whole the mafs is arenaceous. A kind of brown w.icken is found in Papa Stour ; where may alfa be traced lleatlte, calcedony, red jafper, and fluate of lime. In Unit, the mofl nortliern of thefe ifles, appear hills of ferpentine, containing adinote, la!;rador hornblende, trcmolite, and talc ; and the Shaw, the nu-fl nonhcrn point of this ifle, and of the Ihlcilh dominions, confifts chiefly of gneifs. Unfl alfo produces iron-ftone, jivfper or rather fcrpenliae, pure rock cryilals, and garnet;> of an elegant form. This reuio'e ille fupplies black oats, bigg, pota- toes, cabbages, and various garden roots and plants, particularly de- licate artichokes." In g< iieral the granite, and micaceous i'chiihis, appear furtlieft to the north and weft. Sappare is found in the S. W, - diffs of the Main Land ; and it is fiid there are appearances of copper in the fame quarter. It was^ in the form of pyrites, and was worked for fome time, till the vein gradually decreafed and was abandoned.*'' What is called the bog ore of iron fcesus to abotmd in Ectlar, and of excel- lent quality.'' The " Stat. Ace. V. 181;, '* Jnmpf'^n, p. 21. "S. A. xiii. 283. From Mr. Jamefon's MincralOj/.y of the Sco*.ti(h ifle? (:. vols, ^to.) it appr.irs that Ailfa conffts chiefly of mingled hornblende and felfpar: Arran of reddifli land-llone, liki Sheddnd, with veir.i of bafalt and pitch-Cone; hut Go^ilfell prcfcnts micaceous fciiitus and ■"Oi-. ii IB granite. r'lj ,■■'1 t« 210 iCOTISIl JtLES. SCOTLAND. The climate of the Shetland ifles is variable, anJ dLTurhed with rains and thick fogs. The frorts are feldotn fevere, and {nnv rarely continues lonp; on the ground. The inhahitants are indeed AifUcienfly wretched, without additional evils; and a b.^nevolent govc-iimnit ought to pay a particular attention to thofe dlrtaru prifoners. The cor- rufcations of the Aurora Borealis illuminate the long gloom of winter and delight the inhabitants, who call them marry dancers. The arable land is moftly near the coafl, and produces a conrfe kind of o.Us and bigg. Potatoes have lately formed an addition of fitigular advantit^e- but turnips, parfnips, ami carrots, are cnnfined to the gardens of gen- tlcmen. The chief food of the inhahitants confifts of fifli, and various kinds of fea fowl, which cover the rocks : the captors of the la(t Ihew Angular (kill and intrepidity, and often meet with a violent fate am'idft the ftupendous precipices. The cattle rather larger than thofe of Ork- ney, and the butter excellent if poperly prepared. Sheep are not un- common, and have been recently praifed for the finenefs of their fleece. The horfes have mettle and beauty, and on account of the fingular mi- nutenefs of their fize have become objefts of luxury and curinfiry in England. The fwine are fmall, and little propagated becaufe they injure the paftures ; an evil eafy obviated by the fimple praftice of put- ting a ring through the nofe. granite, with yellow cryft.il», or rrock topaze', commonly fold ^? Cairngorm flonfs. Bu;t, fimilar. Hay, limeilone, with granular quartz. Jura, granular qjariz, wi«h veins of bafalt : ihis granular quartz is by Kir»van called arenaceom quartz, or primitive filiceots land-Hone. Siil, flate ; Lifmore, iinDeftnne, with baialt. Mull h»s much bafalt, with fan-)-ltonp, limeftone, &:. in the S. W. beiatiful grauita. Icoim-kill, modly granite, and hiroS'end? roc<, wiih o.i; quarry of marhlc. Coll, gneifs, with granite. Tirey, hornblende rock, ciei''s, and bafalt, wisii a quarry of beautiful marbU. Eijj, bafalt, with li neilon?, &-. Rhum, 'ci find- (I ne, with veirsof bafalt; mountains, hornblende, and frlfpar. Canna bi(al;ic ; that ,it Co-npafs hill iffifts the needl:- Skey, bafalt, with horr.blenJe, limellone, &c. Rif<, (and-llonj, and beautiful porphyry, with a blue balis. The exterior chain of the Wedern Illss, wai not viilt^d by Mr. Ja.iiefon; but Leu:! feetrs to abound in iime-llone, while Bernera is faid to cnrll.l of a.nianthiis. The Orkneys co'-fits alimft emircly of fand llone, inalTy, and fchiHofe : at Ske'l, on ihe W, of the Main Land, the fanlilone, which looks ru.'ly, is if (lightly impregnated wiih iron, is worn (as already mentioned) into many finguUr fcxm;, by the aftinn cf the weather, a ciicuiillanc: which has greatly imprefled the old dcfcribers of the Ork leys. A frw m'les around Stromntfi are granite, gaeifs, micaceous fchillus, and lurnbUnle. Gram e/ abodnJs in (lite. Uirryn- Lerwick, Leuii fecuisto C H AP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. Lerwick, the chief town or rather village, ftands on an excellent hir- l bour called BralFa Sound, formed by the little ifle of UralHi on the cad of the Main land, and formerly greatly frequented by the Dutch fiflicrs. Lerwick is an irregular village, perched on rocks ; and contains about 150 families. Near it is one of thofc rude edifices called Piks houfes ; and fcveral others appear in the ifles of Shetland, particularly in Fetiar : there is alio a rock abounding with iron ore which aD'efts the compafs. The herringb appear off Shetland in vaft columns, in the month of June, altering the very appearance of the ocean, which ripples like a current. Thefe columns have been computed to extend tive or fix miles in length by three or four in breadth, and in bright weather re- fied a variety of fplendid colours. They afterwards divide to the K. and W. of Great Britiin, furnifhing a providential fupply of food to r.'.any barren diUridls. The chief exports of Shetland are fidi of various kinds, chiefly herrings, cod, ling, and torfk, or tufk. The inhabitants of the Shetland iflands in 1798 were computed at 20,1^6,** more than the country can well fupport, efpecially in the prefent deficiency of in- tercourfe with the Dutch. They have of late become addided to the ufe of tea and fpirituous liquors, which will infallibly contribute to lefTen the population. In this diftant region there are neither roads nor bridges, which may be pronounced the firfl fteps in any country towards the progrefs of induftry. The fame deficiency occurs in the Orkneys, and even in the northern extremity of Scotland; where however a road has been recently opened between Ullapool and Dor- noch. The Swifs form roads even in the Alps; and certainly'^the Scoiifh Highlands do not oflfer more infuperable barriers to this men: elTential of all improvementd. " Stat. Ace. XX. 61s. %ri ERWlttC m '■* '( ■- 'iV: 'i».C f'lrj £ E 2 1 .in ' lit K I R E L A N D. CHAPTER I. ■«4 Nil tfies." Extent. — Original Population. — Pro^rejfnc Geography. — Hijlorical Epochs, — Antlquitiet, Names. r'r^HE large and fertile ifland of IrehnJ, being fituitcd to tlic weft of -* Great Britain, was probably difcovered by the I'lioenicians as early as the filler ifland.* On the firil dawn of liiftory, and when the North- wcfl: of Europe was as obfciire to the Greeks, as the iflands on the North Eaft of Siberia were recently to us, it would feem that IrelinJ conflitutcd one of the Caffiterides. The poems afcribed to Orpheus de- fervc no credit, but it appears that the ifland was known to the Greeks by the name of Juverna, about two centuries before the birth of Chrill. When Cicfar made his expedition into Britain, he defcribes Hibernii as being about half the fize of the ifland which he had explored ; and while the Romans maintained their conquefts in the latter region, IrelanJ continued of courfe to be well known to them, and Ptolemy has given a map of tlie ifland which is fuperior in accuracy to that which repre- fents Scothind. Towards the decline of the Weflern empire, as the country had become more and more known, and had been peopled with various tribes, the Romans difcovered that the ruling people \\\ Ireland were the Scoti : and thenceforth the c 'untry began to be termed Scotia, an appellation retained by the monadic writers till the • For much recent information concerning Ircliind, the author is indihtcd to Mr Hincks of Cork, a coadjutor in the Ne* Cyclopedia ; and it is generally given ii> bii o^n wcids. The want of re cent materials was regretted in the firfl edition. ' ' ■ eleventh .% ricalEpods. 'le u-efl of »s as early the North- ds on tl]c I'U Irci.inJ rpheus de- he Greeks of Chrilt. Hibernii nrecl; and 'n, Ireland has given ich repre- I'e, as the 1 peopled people ia ' an to be rs till the cksof Cole, e want of re. eleventh , ; .' Y I r.'< '4 •iiiffli 1 1 UHJ i flS '' '..f li'M-k- Mt-i~r -'•■'.*!' H R 1 .: 1l !). ij CllAl'TEK (. 7/"f\;.— r'l-'F >. i. ril.— i- •t {: ueo'cr.'t. O I •• J ->/'; /^v/}^^^ DCIH' runt'-'*! ro ^' ,\ ♦..■■ -..k) ViX:\x. •r ■• Ui(r',;^'iro',i bv thi: I'ioc Hi ii 11 illnn ;■) U;' w . i U.uvn D fiiiil oi v, jiiul w'hv, '.■>. •Vi il <)(' I'Miopf.' vas us oijf.ar'c to t!;o Ciio-ks rl ie u:ii Jon r 1 ui ( ! ,,r s;t-. i ;- '. J i . ' :i.i were re .r-.tly lo ,r. it would rcnn •?'-\-l I OTj CrWlil cnc. poems a'ci.i;i:(i to O, "Vi; :!0 cr.".'.;!! !•■ ji ;'- aiipearr t'vjt tli,". Mland was .knon'ri n^ iu: £.1 !■' 'fi W!.. a J >'. ta, abaut -.-o ce .-.nics belorr the b'r.?; t:f iLoiii liu ; che ijit oi ihc ii Li a; ■; ueic eft ,■],■•! K oirans nuiintjinei! ihi coviti.iMCil ol ecu:'"? to he \^_:\; .i;>t wiurii },e i,ad e- on;:u -tlf; in tlic i,irterrf.'...»; :\\v,-v\ 10 t! tern, and i'lolen rr.ar of the ilLiiuI v-- jpcr T in ao.curac; to rhii lonri t .(^1 •ari.:'i t: t.'tt of :Iu' \\d :n '"r ■ .;•••(:'. had Vv ii.fi re aiiu r. ■ t' c 1 i.' I tcni -■ . re 1 ■> :o' 'O-.vn, .100 ^had !•, •:- iljat th • luiiij .'vl. i - . v'.'.i 1 1 . 1 , a ■ J^C;;.U. >^ !C..l '^U • .; ,, .1 til i-.'h-r . • v.ntry ! ■. I '., ?■' . ■• r; i'r;VU'f;Vi' U't :. ;■ c.Iii.or ■^^ ^^' 1 1 •■ ■ •A/.?; ' ■■.< Iv. -■■•, .t";'- ■ i f.._y .» . . ■'4 '•■9 (. . •■.'■; . 4 ...._ . . .J * » _' v - .■ '^-I ^-* ■•* .^''^o .it* •» ■ ( •# i»«/i*« tfrffitt'itjifift r-^tif 'ly~^' ^Pff /lS>N U Ol" " K » " ■'f \\ '\ 1.,*' ($ N E ^/ir'-f ISUJil/r />-r/>I>uiiga!ni«ii^ .vr ■ ■-■■>■ Knniskilljrti^ ^ >j '" ~" AK MAO H 1 ^ tM V Imiil":' Kv. » ■t L.^ntH'l ' '\ ^ V*>'''^'"' niinl-f,rnfi .Umh\iI> * •^ "" ■ ■ . / »'■ " '■}? VhilipBoini ■ _ x-viwrivni.'>f""""''^ f^ ^ ^p(7..(» (■■»(!.. (■ ■ ^ 'g f> f X^,^. ^ t- \ / -,.1" Galwnvk. ■ Athi*«rj /~ .lanm -^^^1^ -it ^ i,(-hrr * , A,r.«vV't"^ i\\ > -,- I»." lAryboro (, C I. V. R^ *= .'hVtnurrv ... ,fc^ \n Q ,ii(vlrfif'li^rA rS-T c,~^K\. SPMVitr f'trnf0llorp ' y^~ ►•Jmlrc ■ [ XfWiifnrM Ilonerjule*" ; ' A\ATEHromll| ^- / , ^ , ^i** . ^i O R ClonilirUr - ■v l.,fwmJf U'r,t lo thin rJ^mm^l^tr FrruB Vmrions Htvrrrrm of Irrlmd . PnhNshed Mitnit t^tdon by CtuleO ami Ditrie-y. Strand : and 7'■ •.,'!.i r '^-f ■■;:*: ■ ( ■ f' ,'. ' 'i '1 ■ UB'h* ;liw^>te• k iiii ,»'l ' la,.rlLt'll5liJ* 4M'ii ■■!}.-< \ W:;!. Hi 1 I 1 1 is '1 CHAP. I. niSTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 213 el'-vent1i century, when the name Scoti.i having pafTed to modern Scot- n'ami;". Ex- bml, the ancient name of Hilxrnia l^egan to reafTiriie its hononrs. It '^'''*^' '■•'■ is liippoltd that this name, and the G- thic denomination Ireland, are rnie modifications of the native term Erin, implying the country of the wc'lh Ireland lies hetwcen 51" 19' and 55" 2-;' north latitude; and hctween Extent. ;' kV ?,nd 10" 28' well longirnde. Ifs greatell length, meafured on a meiiiiian, is from the Stags of Cork harhour, to Bloody Farland point in the county of Donegal, which may be reckoned 235 miles ; and the jriedteft breadth, mcafurcd nearly on a parallel of latitude, is from the wedern point of Mayo, to the mouth of Sirangford Lough, 182 miles. The breadth, however, is very unecjual in confcqucnce of the deep indentations on the weftern coall, fo that Galway and Dublin bays are not 120 miles diftant from each other; and there is not a fpot in the ifland more than about fixty miles from the fea,* The fuperficial contents may be computed at 30,370 fquare miles, or 19,436,000 acres; and the population being about four millions, there will be about 130 inhabitants to each fquare mile. It 4s probable that the original population of Ireland palTed from OMg^nM Gaul, and was afterwards increafed by their brethren the Guydll from °P''*"°"' England. About the time that the Belgre feized on the fouth of England, it appears that kindred Gothic tribes pafled to the fouth of Ireland. Thefe are the Firbolg of the Irifl\ traditions ; and appear to have been the lame people whom the Romans denominated S;;otI, after they had emerged to their notice by not only extending their conquefls to the rorth and eaft in Ireland, but had begun to make maritime excurfions againft the Roman provinces in Britain. But Ireland had been fo much crowded with Celtic tribes, expelled from the continent and Britain, by the progrefs of the German Goths, that the Belgrc almoH: loft their native (pecoh and diiHn£t charader ; and from intermarriages, o:c. be- came li'tle diftinguifhahle from the original population except by fu- perior ferocity, for which the Scoti, or tlioie who affected a dcfccnt t'roiii the Gothic colonies were remarkal>le ; while the original Gael feein to have been an innocuous people. • lk;ii'l(iii's Mfm. ot a NUp, iv-i.. p. i^. "I'lic i\ica(urcf are g'lcn in F.nglifh miles, which are Itfs thin Ir.m uiita J ticven ol ihe laitu ban^ iicaily cijj.il 10 louiutii oi liie lorintT, The -m m .' ' y'lt ";•■■, '■■■ , 1, ■' ij ^■,h^:'! :^ ,ti ^'' ■^■'Bwi 214 IRELAND. I'RrtOnfS- si\ f. Geo- CRAl'HY. Tl'.e maj) of Ireland by Ptolumy, ai)ove mentioned, is the firft fjeo. graphical document of the IHand. The general fhape, rivers, and pro- montories, are delineated witli as much accuracy as could have been expedcd. Nay as we advance into the middle ages, the geography oi Ireland becomes more obfcure. The chief tribes mentioned by Ptolemy are the Darni upon the North eaft, the Venicni and Robogdii on thj North weft. Beneath them are the Nagnati, Auteri, and Gangani, on the Weft ; the Erdini in tlie centre ; and the Voluntii, Eblani, and Cauci, on the Eaft ; fucceeded by the Southern tribes of the Menapii, Brigantes, Vodii, Ivelni, Velabri, and Luceni. Ptolemy alfo mentions ten towns ; of which the chief is Eblana now Dublin. In the uuddle ages we find the Dalriadi on the norih-eaft j and the Cruthcni on the north- weft. The large tribe of Nelli occupy much of the centre. The Voluntii feem transformed into the people of Ullagh ; the Erdini of Ptolemy yield the name to Argialla ; and the Nagnati to Maigh Nais. The Gangani of Ptolemy feem the Galeng of the middle ages; the Menapii, &c. muft be fought in Muman, or prefent Munfter. The towns mentioned by Ptolemy might alfo be traced with fome degree of accuracy. The ravages of the Danes^ in the ninth and following centuries, cannot be fuppofed to throw much light on the progrefllve geography of Ireland ; but the fettlemcnfs of the Englifh under Henry II certainly contributed to that end, for Giraldus Cambrenfis at that period compofed his defcription of Ireland, which amidft numerous fables contains fome curious fa^s : and the geography of Ireland was little better known till the reign of Elizabeth, when Stanihurft publifhed his defcription, which forms a part of Holinihed's hiftory, and was followed by that of Cam- den. The moft remarkable diftin£tion introduced by the new invaders into Ireland was that of the Englifh Pale, or circuit of a few counties around Dublin, within which the Englifti language was chiefly fpoken. So inconfiderable indeed were the Englifh pofleffions in Ireland, that the monarchs only afTumed the ftyle of Lords of Ireland, till the reign of Henry VIII, when king of Ireland became a part of the fovereign's ftyle. Nor was Ireland completely fubjugated till the reign of the tirft James, who adds this merit to that of founding the American colonies ; 2 but CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. but mankind will ever he infatuated by the triumphs of war, and prefer a meteor to the pure light of a pacific reign. In this, and the fuccecd- m reign of ('harles I, the prefent divifion into counties was completely eftaWiihed ; and Sir William Petty's furvey of the ifland, the refult of which was contained in his maps of the feveral counties, publifhed in 1685, not only confiderably added to the knowledge of the country, but has even been the ground-work of all the maps fmce publifhed. The prefent divifion of Ireland is as follows : 215 Prccr ss- sivE Geo. GRAPH Y. frovince. Ulfter Connaught Leinfter. County. Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, Londonderry, Donegal, Fermanagh, Cavan, ^Monaghan, 'Leitrim, Sligo, Rofcommon, Mayo, ^Galway, 'Louth, Meath, Dublin, VVicklow, Wexford, Kilkenny, Carlow, Kildare, Queen's County, King's County, Weft meath, Longford, ^ Aflize Town. Carrickfergus. Downpatrick. Armagh. Omagh. Londonderry. LifFord. Ennilkillen. Cavan. Monaghan. Carrick on Shannon. Sligo. Rofcommon. Caftlebar, Galway. Dundalk. Trim. Dublin. Wicklow. Wexford. Kilkenny. Carlow. Naas. Maryborough. I'hilipftown. MuUingar. Longford. ''■ill ■ 1 1 \ y ■ , .',1*; ,'j'-';Ml"!ii ■ ^W y:y\ l;||iu^:S'■■1■kp ...fill ItOTif •!'«>. 5;/' ' 'Jr-'l.i Mia Munfter l:u\ < m 2;C IRELAND. if I Pbockes- sivt; Giio- CRAPHlf. Province. Cjunty. 'Clare, Liineilck, Aflize Town. Limerick. Munftcr Kerry, Cork, Tralce. Cork. Water ford, Waterford. Tipperary, Clonmell. Hlrtoriciil iii The firfl: hiftorical epoch of Ireland is its original population by the Celtic Gauls, and the fubfequcnt colonization by the Beigye. 2. The maritime excurfions of the Scoti againft the Roman provinces in Britain. 3. The converfion of Ireland to Chriftianity in the fifth centiirv, which was followed by a finguiar efted ; for while the mafs of the people retained all the ferocity of iavdgc manners, the monaftcries pro- duced many men of fuch pietv, and learning, that Scotia or Ireland became celebrated all over Chriflendom. 4. This luftre was diminilhed by the ravages of the Scandinavians, which began with the ninth century, and can hardly be faid to have ccafed when the EngliiTi fettlement commenced. The ifland had been fplit into numerous principalities', or kingdoms as tlicy were (lyled; and though a Chief Monarch was acknowledged, yet his power was fcldom efficient, and t!ie conftant difl'entions of fo many Iniall tribes rendered the ifland an eafy prey. 5. In the year 1170, Henry II permitted Richard Strongbow Earl of Pembroke to efiTecS a fettlement in Ireland, which laid the foundation of the Englifli pofleflions in that country. There are however coins of Canute king of England, ilruck at D.ublin, perhaps in acknowledg- ment of his power by the DaniOa fcttlers. 6. Ireland began to produce fome manufadures about the four- teenth century, and her fayes or thin woollen cloths were exported to Italy. It is probable that thefe were produced by the Brillolian colony, which had pafled to Dublin, as mentioned in the defcription of E.ngland. 7. Richard II king of England attempted in perfon the conquefl: of Ireland, but being imprudent and ill fervcd, nothing of moment was eiiCwuu. X loment was CHAP. I. HISTOyCAL GEOGRAPHY. «»7 calEpcchs. effeftcd. The fubfequcnt attempts of the Englifli monarchs to ac- compli^ this purpofe need not be enumerated. Jj. In the reign of James I, Ireland became entirely fubjugated ; and colonies of Englifli and Scots were eftablifhed in the north. 0. The chief mean of the aflimilation of the countries haring been completely neglected, namely, the univerfal inftitution of parochial fchools, for the education of children in the proteftant religion and £ngli(h language, the Irifh continued a di(lin£t people ; and being in- i\igated by their fanatic priefts executed their dreadful maiTacre of the Englifti fettlers in 1641. This infurre£tion was not totally crushed till Cromwell led his veterans into Ireland. 10. The appearance of James II in Ireland to reclaim his crown, may alfo deferve a place. 11. The amazing progrefs of Ireland in manufactures and com- merce, within thefe twenty years, may be clafled as the mod illuftrious of its hiftorical epochs. . , .,, 12. The deplorable events which have recently happened in Ire- land, have led the way to its union with Great Britain, a meafure which it is eagerly to be hoped will be productive of great reciprocal advantages. Upon a review of the more ancient of thefe hiftorical epochs, and of Antiqaltiu the monuments which may be confidered as belonging to each, it muft be confidered that the edifices having been conftruCted of wood till the eleventh or twelfth century, it cannot be expeC^ed that any remains of them fhould exift. Stone was chiefly employed in the conftrudion of funeral eredions of various kinds ; nor are barrows wanting in Ireland, being hillocks of earth, thrown up in commemoration of the illuftrious dead. Other monuments commonly ftyled Druidic may alfo be found in Ireland ; fuch as lingle ftones ere£t, circular temples of rather places of judgment, and the like, which may more properly be afcribed to the Belgic colony.* ^i ' • .?"^ ^ i . * See Ledwich'i introdu^on to Grore'i Antiquitiei of Ireluid, for Craaledu in the connty ofCarlow.andacave'nMettb. - VOL. I. t F The ^mr'^ , * ■■ ■«. V '' p--.f^;i y^^^ ■]:':.■■ i mm.,.. VIT' if^W'^'ii i'Mlfi i-^'i^ila-V ■(^■i|• liiklltlii a'>;\^'. ' ,'ri I: --«rr 2l3 TIES. I R E L A^N D. y T t » f -^ •"-r The converfion of Ireland to Chriftianity was followed by the cre£tion of a vafl: number of churches and monafteries, the latter bcin-^ computed to exceed one thoufand in number j but all thefe edifices were originally fmall, and condruded of interwoven withes, or hewn wood ; for St. Bernard, in the twelfth century, mentions a ftone church as a fingular novelty in Ireland. ,, . i- • - -r ,^«.«xf««« ,.-;. But the Scandinavian chiefs muft before this period have introduced the ufe of ftone into the caftles, necelTary for their own defence againft a nation vtrhom they oppiefled ; and fometimes even fubterraneous re- treats were deemed expedient, of which Ware and others have engraved fpecimens. To the Scandinavian period alfo belong what are called the Dane« Ratlis, or circular intrenchments j and fome chapels, fuch as thofe of Glendaloch, Portaferry, Killaloe, Saul Abbey, St. Doulach, and Calhel, if we may judge from the Angularity of the ornaments, which however only afford vague conjedure. But of the round caftles, called Dans in Scotland, and of the obeliflcs engraven with figures or ornaments, few or none exift in Ireland. Under the Scandinavians the Irifli coinage firft dawns. r; ri.u'dw fcn'r/o «";M. lokijL - ' Of the eleventh and twelfth centuries many monuments, caftellated or religious, may probably exift in Ireland. Brian Boro, king of Munfter, having been declared fovereign of Ireland in the year 1002, he '.'iftinguilhed himfelf by his virtues and courage ; andDermidlll A. D. 1 041 — 1073 was alfo an excellent and powerful prince. Un- der thefe monarchs and their fucceffors, Tirdelvac and Moriertac, the power of the Oftmen or Scandinavians was confiderably weakened. The native chiefs had been taught the neceflity of fortrefles, and were generally devoutly attached .to religion ; it is therefore to be inferred that many caftles, churches, and monafteries now began to be partly conftruded in ftone by architeds invited from France and England i ,but perhaps, the round towera were ereded, by native builders. ' ■vv-.r D-r-j;:- v.- ff-nH-- /;:':' , '• bt' .t:: The caftles, churches, and monafteries, ere£led fince the period of the Englifli fettlement might be counted by hundreds ; and for them one general reference may be made to the works of Ledwich and Grolc: '.■it ■•1 1 CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 219 Grofe : yet it Is to be rcpretted that In colledions of that kind the ^^rmyi. fdifices are not arranged in the chronological order, as nearly as can be judged, of their eredlion. Among fmaller rcllques of antiquity, the poldcn trinkets found in a bog near Cullen, in the fouth, deferve ii.ciuion : as gold was found in Gaul, they are perhaps ornaments of the ancient chiefs brought from that region. J .i'.'".) 'fJt: tM jfiB / ■>iluidfiii-i TjnijJ ht a'i '\o au'r ' rr .1 'i:'jf<^r -H' ■»!»..; .-Mi: >o '.. .>!l '/qjTi':;-' .< 7^1 ij( .{■'^t r»^.',>i f:i):i.-v;Ll Ui/i'U'Hi -i' '->••- •.'».' -i. ia iU; j.,lt.r s.ij 'U; .;iiia(.ai''i."..' '.■! ,«'»oit3'j jiisf*!!*'^ Tr. ,.yur' j-.-.-.t .'- u , iJjvwr^i) > .J. .-i .rv.:'j-i'\ 'J ;: ,>.-j:v: ^. ; tjifc. .-ulJ i • ••;::•■. • i-^ii-^J jbill" .auortl,-^ .u; ^au.iij '.i>?i:i,j :^;H-i:j cyii ■.'it;:!^:^i ,."i.t>. .»s<« ,; liyiwi viism ,cji>;)->nod ooi? 3jiu|» aiio'l Ku? 4jI.> j>,. iiaj ,j '.■•■,>^M.."S *i^''/!i 'j/r> vKiu at L^iij ,.'■ k : .v>.-»(j -.'livtri ^baji.:.. '?'!». ■•]f.-.''"j ' ". ■ F r 2 ; ( I'M.--, '. ; fe' ;,:.M;iM;,:,.;|^i.}r jy^^r ■■ '.'J i ., (. . ''^ Sjt ,j;:;|| ;;i!';;f HiiSI ;| a2o Religion. n; J IRELAND. CHAPTER II. Political Geography. ReltgiorU'^EcekJiaJiieal Ceography.-^ovemment.— Population.'^Attny, —•Navy.'-- Revenues,— Poiitieal Importance and Relations. THE legal r«ligion of Ireland is the fame a$ that of England ; the fame articles of belief being elUbliflied, and the fame orders of bifliops, priefts, and deacons compofing the body of th& Clergy, all of whom acknowledge the king as fupreme head of the church. There are alfo fimilar ecclefiaftical courts, but a convocation is never held even for the fuke of form. *' The firft preachers of Chriftianity in Ireland," obferves Dr. Beau- fort, *' eftabliihed a great [number of bifhoprics, which gradually cc- alefced into the thirty-two diocefes that have for feveral centuries conftituted the eccleHadical divifion of the kingdom. But when the country became impoveriflied and depopulated, by the perpetual feuds, and frequent civil wars v^ith which it was defolated for ages ; it was found neceflary, at difierent periods, to unite fome of the poorefl of " thefe fees, in order that the bilhops might have a competence to fup- ** port the dignity and hofpitality incumbent on their ilation : and hence " it comes that there are only twenty two prelates in the church of " Ireland, twenty fees being united under ten bifhops. Thefe caufes having had the fame operation with refpedt to parifhes, the 2438 paridies do not form quite 1200 benefices, many having been ** coniolidated by the privy council, from time to time, under the (* authority of an a£t 01 parliament; and many others, though but epifcopally united, having been confidered as only one living time out "of tf (( cc n cc (C (( «( CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. «ii « of mind."* The confequence of this has been, that fince the return R"no««»"» of peaceful times, and the great improvement of agriculture, the value of Iriih bi(hoprick6 and livings has become confidcrable, a few of the latter even exceeding 2000/. per annum. The large tracts of country, which many of thefe benefices contain, is fuch, that (hould the number of Proteflants increafe, a divifion of them will become necelTary, as it is, in fotne inftances, defirable at prefeni. The bilhops are lords of par- liament ; and four of them, in rotation, are members of the imperial legiflature. Ireland is divided ecdefiaftically, as well as civilly, into four provinces ; Rcdefiaftioii but the civil and ecclefiaftical boundaries are far from coinciding. An ^'°sr>pny archbifhop prefides over each, who has alfo his peculiar diocefe. The feven bifhops of the northern province are fuiffragans to the archbifhop of Armagh, who is primate and metropolitan of all Ireland. The archbifhop of Dublin is primate of Ireland, and has three fuffragan biihops in the eaftern province. The fouthern province, with its five fuffragans, is under the jurifdidion of the archbifhop of Cafhel, primate of Munder. And the archbifliop of Tuam, primate of Connaught, prefides over the three bifhops of the weftern province. Thefe bifhops are not even in form eleAed by the refpe£tive chapters, but are nomi- nated by the king, and appointed under the great feal. The towns, from which many of the fees take their names, have not even a veftigc of foriner confequence. The number of deaneries in Ireland is '^3, and of archdeaconries 34. The archdeacons have not a vifitatorial jurifdidlion as in England, but the bifhops hold a vilitation annually, and the arch- bifliops vifit their fufTragans every third year. The province of Armagh includes, befides the peculiar diocefe of the archbifhop, the fees of Meath, Kilmore, Dromore, Clogher, Raphoe, Down and Connor, Derry, and Ardagh. The lafl of thefe is now always joined to the archbiftiopric of Tuam. The province of Dublin, befides the arch- bifhopric, contains the fees of Kildare, Leighlin and Ferns, and OiTory. The archbifhop of Cafhel unites in his own perfon the fee of Emly, and has under him the bifhops of Waterford and Lifmore, Umcrick and Ardfert, Killaloe and Kilfenora, Cork and Rofs, and * Beaufoii's M«a. p. lo^ Cloyne. 'L^'hMi Hi Fd'ctl'TAi. THAI, Gio» U K A I' M Y. u UK T R r. L A N D. ■ Cloync, Uiuler the arcliMfliop of Tuam are the fees of Clnnfert and Killmacdiiagh, Killalla aiul Achnnry, and Elphin.* In Ireland the members of the crtablifhed church arc far from being the moll numerous clafs of the inhabitants. The Roman Catholics were fuppofed by fir \V. Petty, in the reign of Charles II, to be as eleven to two. Since that time the number of Proteftants has confulcrably increafcd, efpccially in Ulfter ; and the Roman Catholics have, by many writers, been eftimated at only about two-thirds of the whole popula- tion. In a late work, however, Mr. Newenham has given fome reafons for fuppofing they amount to four-fifths of the whole f. The penal laws eftablifhed in the reigns of Queen Anne and George I againft this body were very intolerant ; but it has been the wife and liberal policy of the prefent reign to remove fuch grounds of complaint, and the Roman Catholics enjoy the fulleft toleration in their religious worlhip, being under no reftridions, except exclufion from parliament, and fron; the higher offices of the ftate. The hierarchy of this body is nearly fimilar to the Proteftant hierarchy ; but the metropolitans and bifhops are confidered by the Proteftants as merely titular. They have been appointed hitherto by the Pope, generally on the recommendation of the leading men at home ; but it is probable, from late circumftances, that fome change will take place in this refped. The metropolitans are ftiled moft reverend, and the bifhops right reverend, and they are ufually treated with refpedl both at court and by all clafles of their fellow-fub- jeda. The Catholic clergy were in former times educated abroad, and a confiderable difference might be obferved in their manners and information according to the foreign colleges at which they had refidcd. At prefent the liberality of government has provided them with all requifite advantages at home. They are chiefly taken from the middle clafs of fociety, and are indefatigable in their exertions as clergymen. Their influence over the members of their church is however thought to be on the decline. Their falaries are in general very fmall ; and * Beaufort Mem. loj, io6. The bifliop of Meaih has precedence of all other b rtiops ard next to him is the bilhop of Kildare. Young elliinates the primacy at Uooo'. a year, Derry ai 70C0; the other biihopiici from .)oco to 2000, bat great changes have taken place fince lie wrote. Young, vol. ii. 189. + Newenham'a Inquiry into the Population of Ireland, p. 297, &c. 8 • ■ thefc CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. •*3 lent, and from I other bdiopj, ard i'. a year, Der;y at tken place £nce lis ilicfc obtained with great difficulty, l)ut their wants arc co;nparati\'cly Itw from the ftatc of celibacy in which thcyhvc; and it is to ihcir lionoiir that they are very attentive to tlic diilrcllcs of their poor parifliioners. liefides the parocliial clergy, there arc fcvcral l-riars of difl'ercnt orders in the large towns, who arc I'upported by voluntary contributions. The nunneries not only receive fueh ladies as chul'e to fpcnd their lives in them; but alfo fcrvc for the education of young lemales of the Roman Catholic perfualion. Of theproteftantdillcntcrs the j-ireAjytcrians arc far the mofl numerous} and though diflenters, they partake in fome degree of the nature and pri- vileges of an eftablifliment. They are chiefly defecnded from the ScotiHi prelbyterians, and Englifh puritans whom James I encouraged to Icttle in Ulfter. At firft their mlnifters were induded into the churches and had the tithes, and, notwithftanding fome interruption from Lord Straflbrd, they retained thefe till Cromwell, irritated by their attachment to the king, and their refufal to comply with his orders, deprived them of the tithes, and gave them fmall falaries inftead of them. After the reftoration, Charles II, in confideration of their fufferings and of their loyalty, granted them a falary of Ceo/, a year to be divided amongft them. In the reigns of William III and George I the loyal bounty was augmented, and it has been repeatedly increafed in the pre- fent reign. The minifters are now divided into three clafles, of which the firft receive from government loo/., the fecond jsl.y and the third 50/. a year each, in addition to the falaries given by their refpedlive congregations. No miniftcr can, however, receive the above fum, unlefs regularly admitted into a prefbytery, and approved by the lord lieutenant. The prefbyterian form of church government is in fome degree retained, and the minifters of nearly all the preltyteries meet together annually in the fynod of Ulfter, in which all the general con- cerns of the body are difcufled. The number of the prcfbyterians is eftimated at half a million by thofe who are bcft acquainted with the part of the kingdom where they chiefly refide. Since the repeal of the teft afl, they are free from all thofe reftriiSlions to which tlie dilTenters in England are fubjedt, and have no obje£l to purfuc diftiniD: from the general welfare pf the community. The quakers arc a numerous and refpcdablu F.i'ci.8»i As- ia '\ I. Geo* c.a viMir. ••. ' • fei:'!f:H^'''!N'f •■';,: ;: f •;•> ■: '■ ,1!,''! ^. ' ; .■ ■ ' if i A.- y? ii ■-! 224 IRELAND. i 11 !*l EccLEMAs- refpeflable body, but are generally deferted by tboft who become CRAPHY. wealthy, from an unwillingnefs to comply with their ftridl regulations. The other clafles of proteftant diffenters are few in number, unlefs we include the methodiUs. Thefe confider themfelves as members of the eftabliflied church, and their clergy do not attempt to adminiftcr bap. tifm or the Lord's fupper. They have, however, feparate places of worfliip, and they appear to increafe rapidly in all parts of Ireland. As the principal caufes of difcontent have been removed, and as all thefe fedls pofl'efs in common, many valuable privileges, it is their in- tereft, as well as duty, to live in harmony with each other ; and to pro- mote this harmony will be the endeavour of every man who fincerely deiires the profperity of the united kingdom. That this opinion gains ground more and. more, affords a happy omen of future tranquillity. t}o»erninent. The Government of Ireland was conftrufted upon the plan of that of England, being veiled in a houfe of commons, and another of peers, while the king was reprefented by a lord lieutenant or viceroy. But no a£t of importance was confidered as valid, till it received the fandion of the king and council of Great Britain. This continued till the year 1782, when the independence of Ireland was acknowledged, and the interference of the £ngli(h council no longer allowed. At pre- fent, in confequence of the union, the form of government is identi- cally the fame in both countries. Ireland is reprefented in the imperial parliament by twenty- eight temporal and four fpiritual peers, the former of whom are elected for life ; and by a hundred commoners, who are chofen by the counties and principal towns. A vice-regal court is dill maintained in Dublin, and there is a feparate board of treafury for Ire- land, as well as boards for the colle£tion and management of different branches of the revenue. There is alfo a privy council to aflift the lord lieutenant, the members of which have the fame privileges as in England. The judges and courts of law have the fame names; but there are fome minute variations between the ftatute and common law of Ireland and thofe of England. Befides the aflizes, which are held twice a year, there is in every county of Ireland, except that of Dublin, an inferior judge called an ailiftant barrifter, whofe bufinefs it it to fit, at lead twice every year, in t^e mod convenient parts 7 of CHAP. n. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 225 of the country, to try civil bills, for the more fpeedy ajminiftration Govbrm- MBNT. ofjufticc. The population of Ireland has been varioufly ftated. Many contend Population, that it does not exceed three millions, whilft others ftate it to be above five millions. As the number of houfes, according to the official retura in 179 1, was above 700,000, allowing fix inhabitants to each houfe, it would exceed four millions, which is probably much below the real number. When it is confidered that, in 1695, the population was little more than a million, this increafe appears prodigious, and almoft in- credible. It may, however, be ealily accounted for from the progreffive iraprovement in agriculture and manufadlures, from the mildnefs o'i the climate, from the abundance and convenience of fuel, and from the habits of the people, who, content with fimple food, are plentifully fupplied with a wholefome and cheap fuftenance in that invaluable root the potatoe, and who are not deterred from early marriages by the fear of want. The abolition of the penal laws has alfo increafed the popu- lation, by keeping at home the vaft numbers who formerly engaged in the iervice of the continental powers.* Numerous emigrations have taken place from Ireland to America, and the various Britith fettlements } but no feparate colony of Irilh has been founded. Befides large contributions to the Britifti army, Ireland in 1780 Arm^t. raifed upwards of 40,000 volunteers, and has recently equipped a con- fiderable militia and yeomanry. If we fuppofe every eighth perfon capable of arms, Ireland might raife a force of about 500,000 men. Of mariners, Ireland contributes a refpedable proportion, and many Na»jf naval officers from this part of the united kingdom Ixave diftlngmftied themfelves by their fkill and courage. ■ . . - - . (. The public revenues of Ireland were computed by an intelligent Revrnotk traveller* at about one million fterling ; or 6s. 8d. a head, when thofe of England ftood at il. 98. This was in the year 1778^ and great changes have fmce taken place. In 1784 the national expenditure, according to Lord ShePield, was 1,098,184!., and the whole debt funded * Bcaufort'j Mem. p. »42. Buflie in TranftAions Irilh Acad, vol. ii:. Newcnban.'i Inquiry: into Population of Irelaiul paffim. The iaft writer enters much into detai), and prodiicei man/ isipcrtant dacumcntf. * Young's Tour in Iieland. ' . VOL. I. 6 a ' and -Ml' •-'rtl .1 »■./.;•■».■ '.■> i..' .A ; .i . -I; i .:<;vf'i r ,ij-r. i''.L 'IT' ■ ' 'i "' '"I ;.'i' U4 wsk '^H mfm .H mfM i@ m H sa6 RSVENWE?. >l : i Political Im- portance and delations. ■I U1 .h >] IRELAND. f • and unfunded 2,179,208!.* In the year ending 5th January 180- according to an account laid before the houfe of commons, the fum railed for Ireland exceeded ten millions, of which 4,729,406 1, was the net produce of the ordinary revenue, and the reft was procured by a loan, The national debt of Ireland was at that time 53,296,356!. 158. By the terms of the union, Ireland pays ry of the general expences of ilie empire, and this fum in the fame year amounted to 5,08 1,474 l.f As a great proportion of the inhabitants of Ireland are unable to pay aifeffed taxes, and as numbers of thofe having large eftates refide entirely in England, it can no longer be faid, that the taxes are not materially felt. With regard to the political importance and relations of Ireland, they would undoubtedly be great ; but ilicir weight has fortunately never been felt apart from thole of England. Tlie confufed fyftera of the old native government almoft prevented Ireland from being confulerd in the fcaie of European ftates ; and fince the introduction of a more civilized fcheme, fhe has been indiifolubly attached to Eni'land. Ajon- tefquieu has juftly regarded it as a radical error in the politics nf Louis XIV, that when he fent troops to Ireland to reftore Janes II, he did not feize the opportunity of eftablifhing a firm conqut it ot tlie ifland, which would eventually have proved of more iolid advantage to France than all their idle plans of ambition, if they had even been realzed. The great mafs of the people of Ireland being catholics, one of the llrideft bonds which can unite nations was already formed ; and the numerous ports of Ireland might, under the conduct and ingenuity of the French, have fent forth numerous fleets, and have aflifted their ally to balance the naval power of England. But happily for Great Britain that opportunity was for ever loft. After the great preponderancy which the Britifh have now held at fea, for more than a century, it is incon- ceivable that Ireland, an adjacent ifland, could have remained a feparate ftate, without the fpccial and previous con fent of England. Her com- merce would have been totally at the command of her rival, and any rifmg fleet of war would have beea cruQied ia the very bud. .U the • Sheffield on the State of Ireland, p. 34J, tec. f Official returns to the houfe of conmoni in May and June 1E05. .♦. ♦» ( ,1 Eoglifh Englilh armie reftnaedtoh muft have be ferver would i this impoftble it muft, at le pendence ; ar learned theor that this pret fubjugation England, wh which would creafed by th« ufurpations. therefore intii pofition of t with America .iJP^ fMf A*1 --K .-■■f? "''* Ti- i -r;« + '-.% tij. CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. isf Endifli armies could have been wiihftood, ftill Ireland muft have been Politioai. reftrided to her native produce, and the moll innocent foreign luxuries anci, &c. inuil have been totally interdidted ; nor to a candid and impartial ob- ferver would it appear that Ireland could attain any folid advantages by this impojjlble independence. Suppofe an alliance formed with France, it muft, at lead for a long time, have continued an alliance of de- pendence ; and to thofe who confult the real bufinefs of fta^^es, and not learned theories, which are very foreign from bufinefs, it muft occur that this pretended alliance muft foon have terminated either in the fubjugation of Ireland by France, or a return to the connedion with England, which would have been faciliated by an Englifh party which would naturally exift in great force, and be continually in- creafed by thofe who were malcontent at the French interpofitions and ufurpations. The political importance and relations of Ireland are therefore intimately blended with thofe of England j while the weftern pofition of the former imparts lingular advantages in the commerce with America and the Weft Indies. ■ - ' • ' -•'.>: ■■>:. « .v»j ■ ■. > . *;;rV'»;?i r; V' i' rrKVJ'jfj' "'■.''- ■-■ -i^; , .. ; ■;•„;■>'' t .: ' ■.. . ■ ./H''-'»»u h*»ri *v** "j'Nt -■•.■■ I' ' •{If}.' •,••,. I \. , .., ': :' . ;,;• 'yr>v ;*. ." *{*«■*> c:; ;ffi' ■.?-■* li ^(k V\h ,v M^riC'rii*'" 'i •>•!' *:mTOf^ . qi, •.'•^!; ;'liv'j*r* 'i^-^ (W t^h&r* ■^^ '•«ii»iy,' •Ji'i* ».;«;•-« >a;.fo 'jfi::'.t ..,x. i. . .' . ). ., 1 -. -■.. >i. - ' --^ ' " ': ' [. •., ♦' * 2 '■'tji *■ ■■ if J f«' t- I- ,..-1 '1- -'f ■?■■''!? .1 1 ■• .9 j,« -j,'- II,-,,, -ii) ■mkmm 228 Mankbrs AND CwtTUMfl. iri IRELAND. :•. ,!,..;■ <7 ,."i <-• , n.' II I). ■. . ' CHAPTER III. 11 Civil Geography. Manners and Cufioms. — Language. — Literature. — Education. — Univetftties.^ Cities and Towns. — Edifices. — Inland Navigation, — Manufactures and Commerce. SPENSER the poet, in his view of the ftatc of Ireland, has prefcrved feveral curious particulars concerning the national manners in the reign of Elizabeth. As that work, though fan^ioned by an illuftrlous name is little read, two fpecimens iliall be tranicribed, one concern* ing what were then termed the Irifli horfe-boys ; and the other giving fome account of the bards. After defcribing the favage manners of the Gallow-glaffes or infantry, and the Kernes or predatory cavalry, that venerable writer thus proceeds : " And now next after the Irilh kerns, methinks the Irifli horfe-boys would come well in order : the ufc of which though neceffity (as times now be) do enforce, yet in the thorough reformation of that realm they {hould be cut off. For the caufe why they are now to be per- mitted, is want of convenient inns for lodging of travellers on horfe- back, of and oftlers to tend their horfes by the way. But when things fhall be reduced to a better pafs, this needeth fpecially to be reformed. For out of the frie of thefe rake-hell horfe-boys, growing up in knavery and villany, are their kern continually fupplied and main- tained. For having been once brought up an idle horfe-boy, he \?ill never after fall to labour, but is only made fit for the halter. And thefe alfo (the which is one foul overfight) are for the mod part bred up amongft the Ei^gliflimen j of whom learning to {hoot in a piece, and being made acquainted with all the trades of the Englifh, they are afterwards, when they become kern, made more fit to cut their throats. Next to this there is another much like, but much more lewd and difhoneft, and that is o^ their Carrows, which is a kind of people CHAP. m. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 229 people that wander up and down to gentlemen's houfes, living only Mannhs upon cards and dice ; the which, though they have little or nothing of customi. their own, yet will thiey play for much money ; which if they win, they wafte moft lightly ; and if they lofe, they pay as flenderly, but make recompence with one ilealth or another : whofe only hurt is not that they themfelves are idle loflels, but that through gaming they draw others to like lewdnefs and idlenefs. And to thefe may be added another fort of like loofe fellows, which do pafs up and down amongft gentlemen, by the name of jefters, but are (indeed) notable rogues, and partakers, not only of many ftealths, by fetting forth other men's goods to be ftolen,,but alfo privy to many traitorus pradlices, and common carriers of :ws." After delineating the diflblute life of an Irlfh chieftain, Spenfer thus Introduces the Bards : " In which if he (hall find any to praife him, and to give him en- couragement, as thofe Bardes and Rithmers do, for little reward or a fliare of a (loien cow ; then waxeth he moft infolent, and half mad with the love of himfelf, and his own lewd deeds. And as for words to fet forth fuch lewdnefs it is not hard for them to give a goodly and painted fhew thereunto, borrowed even from the praifes which are proper to virtue itfelf. As of a moft notorious thief and wicked outlaw, which had lived s\\ his life time of fpoils and robberies, one of their Bardes in his praife will fay, that he was none of the idle milk- fops that was brought up by the fire fide, but that moft of his days he I'pent in arms and valiant enterprifes ; that he did never eat his meat before he had won it with his fword ; that he lay not all night fliis^ging ina cabbin^under his mantle, but ufed commonly to keep others waking, to defend their lives, and did light his candle at the flames-of their lioufes to lead him in the darknefs ; that the day was his night, am! the night his day ; that he loved not to be long wooing of wenches to yield to him, but where he came he took per force the fpoil of other men's love, and left i ^t lamentation to their lovers ; that his mufic was not the harps, nor lays of love, but the cries of people, and clafliing of armour ; and finally that he died not bewailed of many, but made many wail when he died that dearly bought his death." Spcnfcr, !«'• I, ::■:;:■ m': '" " * !• m: m-m Mi] mmm ^''^•■:i.'V'i;i .•,/JMilJ «3» Manmirs AND CviTQUi. . J IRELAND. Spenfer, an excellent judge, then obferves that he had caufed feveral compolitions of the bards to be tranflated, " and furcly they favourej of fweet wit, and good invention, but (killed not of the goodly orna- ment of poetry j yet were they fprinkled with fomc pretty flowers of their natural device, which gave good grace and comelinefs unto them ; the which it is great pity to fee fo abufed to the graceing of wickednefs and vice, which with good ufage would fervc to adom and beautify virtue." The manners of the fuperior claflles of people in Ireland now nearly approach to the Englifh Aandard, except that excefs in wine, un- falhionable in England, coiuinues to prevail too much in the filler ifland. The Irifh gentry are alfo feldom addifted to literature or the arts ; but amufe themfelvea with hunting and other robuft ex- ercifes. Hence an overflow of health and fpirits ; and the obfervatioa of an able writer, that Ireland produces the ftouteft men, and the fineft women in Europe, muft not be confined to the inferior clafles. The manners of the middle clafs are however very different from thofe of the Englifh, and they have been well defcribed by Dr. Crumpe in his EJay on the beji means of providing employment for the people, " This clafs," fays he, " is principally compofed ot men of fmall eftates, " who generally live beyond their income j and thofe landholders, known ** by the name of middle men^ who take large diftrids of the country from " thofe poflelfed of extenfive eftates, and either cover them with black *' cattle and flieep, or re let them at extravagant rents to wretched and " indigent cottagers. The general charaderift ics of this clafs are difTipa- ** tion, idlenefs, and vanity. Every man, with a few acres of land, and •' a moderate revenue, is dignified, as a matter of courfe, with the title of Efquire j and be his family ever fo numerous, the encumbrances on his little property ever fo confiderabie, he muft fupport a pack of hounds, entertain with claret, or if not able, with whifkey, keep a poft-chaife and livery fervants, and ape, in ihort, his fuperiors in " every refped.* Meanwhile his debts are increafing, his creditors • Since this was written in 1 7<) 3. the (axes on carriages, male Tervants, and dog;, the increafed price of foreign wines, and the encouragement given to agriculture have all contributed to Itircs cIm evil here defcribed. " growing ^. :. < *■ .';.1 m 'W r.i.i (■ m Mil ;'--!M:i' "Hi hi ^1 K* M/'KNERS AND tuiTOMI. 1 «l ii it It IRELAND. " moft trivial occurrence, efpecially in the fporting line, will hurry " them, unlefs reftrained, from their occupations. A tendency to pilfering and theft is very predominant among them, and connedted with this is the prevalence of low cunning and lying ; and, as their accompaniment, may he mentioned a fawning flattery. The blunt honefty, the bold independence of the Englifh yeomen are waiitinp' " and in their place, too generally fubftituted the petty dilhoncfty of " the vaflal, the ferviliiy and artifice of the flave. Drunkenncfs is aa *' evil of confiderable magnitude in the catalogue of national vices. It " is one to which the lower Irifli are peculiarly addided, and that *' from which the moft ferious obftru£tions arife to their induftry and " employment. That vile beverage, wbi/key^ fo cheaply purchafed and fo generally diflPufed, affords them an eafy opportunity of grati- fying this deftrudlive paflion. As one confequence of the general ** prevalence of cbriety, the lower Irifli are remarkably riotous. Their " fairs are frequently the fcenes of confufion, difturbance, and blood- •* fhed. Combinations, rifings, and outrage among tradefmen are far " from unufual, and on pretexts that are truly ridiculous.* They are alfo, to a remarkable degree, lawlefsly inclined, Inftead of being anxious to apprehend offenders, or to affift the' execution of the law, they are, in general, ready to give the former every afliftance to efcape; and to refift the latter, unlefs awed by fuperior force.'" The motive for thus mentioning the defefts of the national charader of the Irifli, is to excite attention to the mode of remedying them. Sir John Davies and Mr. Young, both intelligent Engliftimen, who had means of inveftigating the fubje£t, have traced them to opprefllon. This originated with the native chieftains, and was continued by the Englifli colonifts ; and to it many of the leading traits in the preceding charader may eafily be traced. " Extortion and oppreflion," as Sir John Davies fays, " have been the true caufe of the idlenefs of this Irifli nation*" Oppreffion is univerfally the parent of idlenefs, especially * Many valuable branchei of trade have been completely de(lroye(j, or at lead conftdfnbly in. jared by the combinationi of the tradefmen, to raife their wages whenever there is a Jemandfor their fervicei ; and neither the rigour of the law, nor the fu/Feringi they have brought upon tbem- felves, have yet removed this evil. * Crumpe. whea «( ern. ' .'iTiongrt cbcfe wc find the :,anrtrs of Swift, ParncII, Corgreve, Sterne, GfWmhh , l.'r v ■ and Bul«:l •'(? r n H 2 of ''^:'M.::^ '' mn • ■Uf . ■ 1 II MM "' i ■M . "I' If -"■•;( II'' ', fa }■ 4 m i^e IRELAND. LiTIRA- TURI. Edacation. of a Burke and of a Sheridan. The late lamented Earl of Charlcmont fct a diftinguiflicd example of the union of rank and literary fame which it is hoped will he followed by other dignified perfons, to the txcluOon of low or boiftcrous relaxation. In I'ome departments ot fcience Ireland begins to relume her ancient prerogative of refleding light to Britain ; and the name of Kirwan ftauda almoll alone in mine- ralogy, a branch highly important to the profpcrily of nations, but unaccountably negleded in the land of tin. In no quarter of the Briti(h dominions, has education been condudled upon a more folid and rational plan than in Scotland : and no where has it been till of late, more negledled than in Ireland. It is to be hoped that one confequence, and not the leaft important, of the Union, will be the introdudion of parochial education into Ireland, a fure mean of pre- venting the ebullitions of ignorant difcontent, arifing often fome erro- neous views of human life and happinels, and from the we..knefs of uninformed fanaticilm. Thofe who may juftly diftrull theory in any political ([ueftion, may here find the evidence of fadts ; and may com- pare the turbulence of the Irilh with the peaceable demeanour of tl.e Scotilh Highlanders, a congenerous people. But though a fyftem of education is wanting in Ireland which (hall extend to all the poor, and though the fchools now exifting have many defefts, which require cor- redion, yet it is not to be fuppofed that there are few or no Ichools for the poor in Ireland. On the contrary, the charter fchoole, Krafmus Smith's fehools, the foundling hofpitais at Dublin and Cork, and others, receive above 7000 children, who arc clothed, fed. and inftrudcd in the proteftant religion. There are many other proteftant fchools in which the children are merely educated, and in fome ot them great at- tention is paid to form habits of induftry. Befidcs thefe, fchools have been indituted in which proteftant and Roman catholic children mix together without any attempt to influence their religious taith. The Roman catholics alfo have charity ichools at which numbers of poor children are inftruded j and fiich is the defire of information, that there is not a village, efpecially through the fouth, where there is not a fchoolmafter, who, in a fmall cabin, or under a hedge by the road fide, teaches the children of it, the parents gladly paying him out of iheir 6* little CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. «i: litile earnings. The proRrcfs that many of thefe poor fcholars often Edu"atkh. make in /Arithmetic and Geometry is fuch as fcems icarccly crccllMo to thole who have not witncflVil it ; and mathematical works of hitrli price are cftccmed and purchafcd by thofe who live on potatoes and milk, aid are clothed in rags. The attention of many eminent c!ia- radltrs "las becr> diredUd to the improvement of education, and if more progrel has not been made it has been in confeqiience of (he difiiculty arilinc; f'^oin the different fcdls of which the population is compofed. Willi f )ur Archbiflioprics Ireland only poflefll-s one proteftant uni- Unlverfitiu. verOty, that of Dublin.' This inftitution was firft projcded by Arcfi- bilhnp L'eih, about the year 131 1; but death having interrupted his (ielign, it was revived and executed by Bicknor his fuccellbr, and enjov- ed moderate prolperity for about forty years, when the '•^venues lailed. In the reign of Elizabeth iha Uiuverfity was rcfoundei' by ' oluntary coiitrilnitlon, under the auTpiccs of Sydney the Lord Deputy. In- ijji it was removed from the precindls of St. Patrick's church tc the lite of ap Au{.'ufline mcn.-'ftcry j and received a charter from tliibcth 1. \der the ftvlc of Trinity collej^e. The firll James and Charles wero liberal benefaiftors. It confills of a chancellor, vice-chancel. or, provoft, vice- provoft, twenty-two fellows, and thirteen profcflors of various ffl-Ti-es The number of ftudents is commonly about fix hundred, ii cait''ng leventy fcholars on the foundation and 30 fcrvitors or fizTS. To ni.ike advancement the reward of exertion is the prevailing principle in this univerfity. Admiflion into it is only allowed to thofe who on e.\ami- naiion appear to have improved thcmfelves at fchonl. Scholarlliips are piven to the bed claffical fcholars who Iiavc arrived at their thiid year, and entitle the polTcflbrs to a finall annual Income, and to a place in the corporate bodv. The more lucrative, and ho- ourable fitmtirn of a fellow is only obiained by many vtars of hard labour, and by being fiiperior to other candidates on a h ng and very difFicult examination, Qu.irttrly examinations nre alio he m^'^ If •■■■ l:.'.!.'t; ': ;M ■]:• fa ■i''l ' ■ - ■> ' :' '1l i^ f ,u-.i '>;-^^>:J:1I r '» -:•:::»■ .r i^- l--,*'.ii;'' "-'lift/ m\^: i lii ■tri ^■■■ ^' 1: ■ *. 240 CiTIt- i !i II ■11 Cj.k. -IRELAND. l.ourc, a fupcvb buj'J'ing, ereded at confidcrable expenfe has been pur. cliafcd for a national bank. The church of Sr. Patrick is the cathedral, a ventTdblc building, which was begun in the end of the twelfth century ; but the (Iceple, the higheft in the city, was not ere«!ted till the year 13; o, The ether churches are twenty in number, feveral of wliich are elegant modern eredions. The Royal Exchange was compleatcl in 1779; and among other beautiful edifices mull not be omitted tliat whirlpool of expenditu-re the Cuftom Houfe ; the new four courts and the houfes of the Duke of Leinller, the Earl of Charlemont, am! others. ^ Dublin has an ample fupply of native provlfions; but coals are impor- ted from Scotland and Cumberland. The environs of Dublin prefent many pleafant views, and rcmarkalile obje(f\s. St Stephen's Green is an Englifh mile in circumference, laid tut in walks, and planted with trees, in 1670, with an equeftrian fiatuc of George II by Van Nod in the centre. The Phoenix park is the Hyde park of Dublin, and contains the country refidence of the Viceroy. Many feats of the nobility and'gentry decorate the vicinity of Dublin. The hill of Howth is a peninfular promontory, which forms the north-eaft fide of the bay of Dublin ; and about three quarters of a mile to the north is Ireland's eye, a fmall rocky ifle. Lambay is a lar- ger ifland near the fhore, full of rabbits, and fan£lified by a holy well. Dalkey is a romantic village at the northern bafe of a mountain, fix mi!c8 and a half from Dublin : but amongft the moft pleafant places in the vicinity, are Lucan where there is a fulphureous fpring, much vifited in the fummcr feafon, and Lcixlip, a noted falmon-leap, fo called from tbife fi(h darting up the cataraft. Swords, fix miles to the north, prefents a very complete round tower, feventy-three feet in height ; and about a mile beyond Kilternen is a remarkable chafm, called the Scalp; in the- ridge of a mountain, appearing as if that part had been under- mined, and had fallen in. In proceeding to p.ive a brief account of the principal towns and cities of IrchiAd, Cork and Limerick attract the firft attention. Cork is a city of confulerable i,.iportancc, fitu.ited on the fouth eaft fide of the illand, and fuppofed to contain about 8o,coo inhabitants. The haven ranks CHAP. ril. CIVIL GEOORAPIir. 341 ranks among the moft capacious and fafs In Europe; and the paflage Ciths. from it to the city is remarkable for the variety, and beauty of the ^'"''' *^' fcenery. The exportation, the largcft in the fifter ifland, confifts chief- ly of beef, pork, hides, t?.HL"'', and butter. It is the grand market of Irifh provifions ; and it v/.^s computed that no lefs than an hundred thoufand cattle were here annually killed and falted, between the months of Auguft and January." The provifion trade is however on the decline ; and the export of corn has become confiderable. The brew- eries and diftilleries of "Cork are numerous and extenfive. One portsev brewery alone delivers above 100,000 tierces annually, and the liquor is held in fuch high eftimation that it is preferred to any other, in the Weft Indies. This city lies chiefly in a marlhy ifland, furrounded by the river Lee ; but the marlhes on the oppofite fide of the river having been drained, ample fpace has been given to the recent improve- ments.* Limerick unites the fortunate fituation of being almoft central to the L?raerick. fouth of Ireland, with an excellent haven, formed by the longeftuary of the river Shannon. The city is accounted the third in Ireland, and was formerly fortified with great care. The epifcopal fee is faid to have been founded in the year 652. The Danes held the city from the ninth cen- tury to the eleventh. There are three bridges over the river, one of which confifts of fourteen arches. The number of inhabitants has been computed at 50,000. This is a very improving city in every refpeft in confequence of the extenfive communication it has by the Shannon, and the grand canal, with the interior parts of the country. It has an (loni(hiiient it the popaloufntfi of Cork* Tht duties of the harbour were, in 1751, 62,000]. : in 1779, 140,000!. " Cough's Camden, iii. 517. VOL. I. I ) diftant m rW Iff 'I ;'-iiii' 9. » •■ f I ' . ■7, in' ■r.t,; I h .i I;-. » I' -i-fl vr ' , \v. '■ MMmI S43 IRELAND. Cities. Cialway. Weflpori. Sligo. Lordon- dtrry. fielfaft-. Newry. I>undalk. Wexford. diftant from the city, which can only be reached by veflels of fmall bur- den : the number of inhabitants is computed at 12,000. Greater trade is now carried on in the bay of Sligo than at Gal way.'' On Klew bay, in the centre of the weft of Ireland, ftands Weftport xvhich has been incrcaling under the aufpices of the Marquis of Sligo ; but by fomc fatality the advantages of the county of Mayo, have not been improved, nor are there any tovi-ns of much cnfequence upon the whole weftern coaft. Sligo is, however, increafing in trade, and the inhabitants are computed at 8000: and Caftlebar is alfo a profperous town.'* Londonderry is more remarkable for its ancient and military fame than for its prefent commerce, though not unimportant. It ftands on the river Foyle, over which a wooden bridge of fingular con- ftrudion,onethoufandand fixty-eightfeet in length, was thrown in 1791. Belfaft on the North-eaft is in the centre of the linen manufactures, and may almoft be regarded as a ScotiQi colony. The inhabitants arc computed at 20,000. The chief manuf:i£lures, cotton, cambric, fail- clcth, linen, with glafs, fugar, and earthenware. It maintains con- fiderable intercourfe with the commercial city of Glafgow ; ai:cl tie grand exports arc to the V/eft Indies. Newry on a fmall ftream which flows into tlie bay of Carlingford is the fecond of the northern towns. lis butter trade amounts to above *^oo,oool. annually ; and the linens exported from it from January 1802 to 1803 amounted to 200,000). The average of the weekly fales in the linen market is eftimated at 4500I. A canal extends from Lough Neagh, by Newry, to the fea. Carling bay is remarkable for oyfters. Diindalk has alfo its manufa-^ures of linen and muflin. Drogheda imports fea-coal and goods from England, and exports confiderable quantities of grain. It is a well built town on the Boyne ; the in- habitants on enumeration in 1798 were found to exceed 15,000. Towards the South-ead, Wexford claims the firft notice, being re- markable for its woollen mamtfadures ; but the haven, though fpa- cious, is not fufficiently deep for large veffels. The inhabitants are 9000. 'J Bouf. g. '* Beatif. 72. Young. 391. New CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. ^43 New Rofs, fituatcd on the river Barrow, exports a great deal of beef Cities. aiiJ butter, the river bringing up large Ihips to the quay, with many articles for the coiifumption of the fiirrounding country. Watcri'ord is a city of confider.ible importance, fituated on the river Waterford. Suir,* and is fuppoi'ed to have been "bunded by the Danes. A noble quay extends the whole length of the town to which large veiTeis can come ; and a fine wooden bridge has been lately thrown over theSuire. The population is about 35,000. The c'.iief exports are beef, pork, grain and linen. Packet-boats fail regularly betwixt Waterford and Milford Haven. The fea-ports of Dungarvon and Youghall are loft in the fuperior con- fequence of Cork ; but Kinfale is a maritime arfenal, and is fuppofed to contain 8000 fouls Of the interior towns of Ireland the principal are Kilkenny, a hand- '^["'""f; .11. 1 i-,1 1 o ■ Clonmcll. fome city with above 16,000 inhabitants, and Glonmell on the Suir, a populous and flourilhing town. There are many others of refpedtable fize; but Armagh, Caftiel, Tuam, &c. are rather venerable from their ecclefiaftic antiquity than important in thcmfelves. Many of the chief edifices of Ireland have been already ment'oned in EJiii«s. the dcfcription of Dublin. The cathedrals feldom afpire to great praifc of archite£lure ; and the villas of the nobility generally yield in fplen- dour to thofe of England, and even of Scotland. Among the principal villas may be mentioned Caftletown, not far from Dublin on the South, efteemed one of the moft elegant houfes in Ireland ; Slane caftle 0:1 the Boyne, the feat of Lord Conyngham ; Mount Juliet on the rivor Nore, and Woodftock in the fame vicinity ; Mount Kennedy the feat of the late Lord RofTmore, Shane's caftle on Lough Neagh ; Caflle Ciild- wall on Lough Earn, and Belleifle on the fame lake ; Florence' Court, the feat of Lord Enniflcillen ; Weftport, Marquis of Sli^o's; Woodluwii in Galway, Lord Alhtown's; Caftle Martyr, a feat of the Earl of Shannon ; Roftellan near Cork; Dundrum, the feat of Lord Haw.-irdcn; • That gentle Siviro, tli.t making way By r»vtet Clonme!, adorn? lich Wa;erford. I I 2 Spenscr, Curraghmocr mi ; i»';--' ■■4'- ' 'i .' ■■ ' ■'' I' " iir^ iiiiii 244 IRELAND. 1 Edifices. Inland MtnufaAurei and L'oBi- tnerce. Curraghmoer no^far from Waterford j with many others too numerous to be here inferted.* Thouj^h the turnpike roads ifi Ireland be rather negleded, yet the crofs roads are admirable ; and Mr. Yoimg has explained at length the principles upon which they are conduced." The advantages derived by England from inland navigation foon at- tradtcd the attention of Ireland : and not many years after the example fet by the Duke of Bridgewater, a grand canal was begun from the city of Dublin to the river Shannon, and was adually carried on to the bog cf Allen, at the expencc of 77,0001.'* But the engineer's want of ability occafioned great errors in the original plan and furvey; and the work was interrupted in 1770. It has fmce been completed to the Shannon near Banagher, and to the Barrow at Athy, fo as to join Dublin by inland navigation with Limerick and Waterford. Another called the Royal canal is carrying on from Dublin to the Sbannoa through the counties of Wedmealh and Longford. A canal is completed froni the fea near Newry to Lough Neagh, and thence to the collieries of Drumglafs and Dungannon j but the original intention of fupplying Dublin with Irilh coals has not fuc- ceeded. The parliament of Ireland alfo granted confiderable fums for the canals of Lagan, Dromreagh, Blackwater, and for Improving the na> vigation of the rivers Shannon, Barrow,- and Lee.'' Though in the firil place, the avaricious and jobbing fpirit of the perfons employed • and latterly, the diftraded Hate of the country have impeded thefe noble intentions ; yet fome of the objedls have been completed, and works of this kind are now carried on with more exertion and public fpirit. Though we find, as has been already mentioned, that Ireland was diftinguifhed at an early period for her manufadure of woollen ilulTs,! * Mr. Young, ii. 349> obfcrvei that |he buildingt in Ireland have been almoft wholly rerewed fince 1760, in citiea, towns, and country -feats; and the improvements were proceeding with great rapidity till the late untortunate commotions. Vol, ii. ;5i. Phillips, 33c. * See 8 dilTcrtanon by the fail of Charlemontj " Young. T. P. A. vol. i. ytt CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHT. 94^* «erthe fpirit of induftry made little progrefs, and the chief Irifh ma- Manvfac- nufaclurcs are of recent in(litution< But the linen manufa£ture was Commerce. not unknown in Ireland in more early times, as appears from a£ts of parliament in the reigns of Henry VIII, and EJizabeth. In that of Willian™ HI it became an objeft of coiifequence j and in 1699 fuch high d' I: 3 were impol'ed upon Iri(h woollens, thac the manufacture trasne ; ' abandoned, and the efforts of induftry dire>Ii^ed to the linen trade. be annual produce of the linen manufacture was computed at about . ,ooa,oool. ftcrling, 1780" In the year ending January 1799 the va' Li J of Irilh linen exported to Great Britain exceeded 2,500,0001* exdulive of that fent to America and confumed at home ; and it has fince confiderably increafed." But a grand portion of the commerce of Ireland arifes from her abundant ilores of black cattle, the moifture of the climate rendering the padurage remarkably luxuriant. la 1780 Mr. Young computed the average imports of Ireland at '740,677; and the exports at 2,01 2,20 al. Yet he afterwards cal- ,lates the exports at about three millions and a half; and the balance of trade in her favour at above 1,000,000.* From the annual average taken of the three years preceding the 5th January 1799, it appear- ed that the total value of exports from Ireland to Great Britain alone 17335,612,6891.; whilft the value of imports from Great Britain was only 3,55J^845l. leaving a balance in favour of Ireland of 2,056,844!. This balance is however turned againft Ireland by upwards of two millions remitted to abfentees ; and by the intereft of loans raifed in . England." " Youg. ii. aS). 3C1. '* Appendix to Lord Auckland's fpeech on the Union. * Tour in Ireland, ii. 33}. 353. Dr. Beaufort in liis Memoir, p. 145, fayt that on KCt^ Htrage of feven years, to 1791, Ireland exported to the amount of 4i3S7,ocoI. f Appendix to Lord Auckland'i fperclu i > ' - I'M''' I" 'iSFfti; I'lii L- ?-■■•*'■' * III ^4^ IRELAND. Climate. AND Seasons. Face of the Couotry* CHAPTER IV. Natural Geography. Climtitc and Sca/ons. — Fiire of the Cjiintry, — Soil and Agriculture. — Rivcn.-^ Lakes. — Mountains. — Fare/Is. -—Botan-i. — Zoology. — Mineralogy. — Mineral Waters. — Natural Curiofitics, IRELAND lying nearly in the fame parallel with England, the dif- ference of climate cannot be fuppofed to be very important. The mean temperature of the North is about 48 ; of the middle 50; of the South 52 of Farenheit,' In the fixth volume of the tranfadtions of the Royal Irifti Academy may be feen a curious Memoir on the climate of Ireland, by the Rev. William Hamilton, in which the ingenious author attempts to account for a confiderable change in the feafons, which has happened almoft within the memory of the prcfcnt genera- tion, particularly the mildnefs of the winters, while the fnmmcrs are lefs warm and genial. He fuppofes that the weftern winds are more violent, whence many kinds of trees cannot profper, and even the adi threatens a fpeedy annihilation. He obferves the progrefs which the fands have made, particularly at the entrance of the river Bannow, in the county of Wexford, where the town of Bannow, formerly fo confiderable as to fend members to Parliament, has been overwhelmed ; as has a gentleman's refulence in the country of Donnegal. The tides have alfo aflumed more power and violence. From all thefe circum- ftances, Mr. Hamilton (hews the fuperior power of the weftern gak«, and the confequent produdion of a humid and ungenial climate. He fuppofes that the prevalence of the Weftern winds is chiefly owing to the eradication of forefts in Europe, Afia, and America. In confidering the face of the country it muft be remembered that Ireland forms a ftriking contraft to Scotland, being moftly level, fertile, I Tranf. R. I. A. vol. ii. and CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. Mf and abundant in paiLurage. The chains of hills, for they can hardly Facp or alnire to the name of mountains, are few and unimportant. Ccustry. The Toil and agriculture of Ireland are topics which have been ably So=l and illuftrated by an intelligent writer.* He obfervcs that the quantity of Agriculture, the cultivated land exceeds in proportion that of England. The mod ftriking feature is the rocky nature of the foil, ftones generally ap- pealing on the furface, yet without any injury to the fertility ; whence the foil may be defined a ftony clay, a ftony loam, a gravelly fund, &c. The ftones are generally calcareous, and appear at no great depth, even in the mod flat and fertile parts, as Limerick, Tipperary, and Mcath. The climate being more moift than that of England, the verdure never appears parched with heat.* Tillage is little underftood, even in the heft corn counties, as Lowth, Kildare, Carlow, and Kilkenny, turnips and clover being almoft unknown : the wheat fown upon fallow, and followed by feveral crops of fpring corn. The farmers are opprefled by the fhocking fyftem of middle men, who rent farms from the land- lords, and let them to the real occupiers; who, as well as the propri- etors, fuSer greatly by this ftrange pradice. Even under thefe abufes Ireland is a mod fertile country; and fmce encouragement has been given to agriculture, has become a treafury of grain. Even the bngi among which that of Allen extends eighty miles, and is computed to contain 300,000 acres, might generally be drained, and converted into fertile meadows. Lime- (lone gravel is a manure peculiar to Ireland ; having on uncultivated land the fame wonderful effcil as lime, and on all foils it is l^neficial. ' Among the chief rivers of Ireland muft firft be mentioned the Rlva:. Shannon, which rifes from the lake of Allen, and paffing through two shannon. other large lakes. Lough Ree, and Lough Derg, afterwards extends below Limerick into a vart: eftuary or firth, about fixty miles in length, and from three to ten in breadth.* This noble river is, almoft through ' Young's Tour, ii. 72. • The Curragli of Kildare !s a moft beautif«l l.iwn, of above 4000 Er.gli.Ti acres, a (heep walk' of the fofielt turf, and tnoll delicious verdure. Youngs ii. 7. 'lb, 171. Since Mr. Young wrote there Irs been jjtcai improvcxert lo agriculture, and fiom the exertion ot the Farming Societies more progref* may be expefted. ♦ Boate, p. 36. ' if-' |'-:4h ^r^1i■ iiiiHi .■■^ itf* '0-'m ■■■ I * , I y '■ ■■■''' ■ ■ bJ ■ '.. , .' ■'■■■ '" Tfl '1 I ■ '. ; t .-. ! ' mm : -'>' \^ - ,■ -■.. ■•H'L '5 -M. -I' ■.;!;': 'fV a4t RiVKI. IRELAND. its whole courfe, To wide and deep as to aiTuid eafy navigation. Boate informs us that the celebrated Earl of StrafTurd defigned to remove a rock, fix miles above Limerick, which forming a cataraifl: impedes th« intercourlc between the upper and lower parts. It has Hnce been deemed preferable to conne£b the navigable parts of the river above and below the cataradt by a canal. The whole courfe of the Shannon mar be computed at 1 70 miles. The other rivers of Ireland have little of this majeftic charafter. Sarrow. The river Barrow rifes about forty miles to the weft of Dublin, near the fource of the Boyne ; and after a courfe of about one hundred miles enters the fea on the South-caft, having received the rivers Nore and Suir, and formed the harbour of Waterford. It has been rendered navigable to Athy, where the grand canal joins it. ^lackwster. The Blackwater, another confiderable dream in the South, enters the fea at Youghall Bay, being navigable from Cappoquin. The Slaney forms the harbour of Wexford. The LifTy is an inconfiderable ftream, ennobled by the capital. The Boyne, after a courfe of about tifty miles, alfo enters the eaftern fea : the other rivers on the eaft are fmall and unimportant. Bann. In the north the Banu is a confiderable ftream, which pervades Lough Neagh, and enters the fea after a courfe of about feventy miles. By the canal of Newry it communicates with Carlingford bay; and thus infulates the North-eaft projection of Ireland. Foyle. The river Foyle paiTes by Londonderry, and has a confiderable eftuary called Lough Foyle. The Swillcy is of inconfiderable length, but forms a long cftuary. On the N. W. Lough Erne iflues into Donegal bay by a confiderable ftream ; but no other river of confequence occurs till we reach the eftuary of the Shannon ; nor are the rivers on the S. W. of much note. The lakes of Ireland are numerous, and fome of them extenfive. The term Lougby correfponding with the Scotifli Locb^ is fometimes applied to an eftuary, or to an inlet of the fea, fuch as the Swilley, the Foyle, that of Strangford in Down, &c. The chief lake of frelh water is that of Erne, which exceeds thirty Britifti miles in length, and 4-* * twche hiV tu > b •«» CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 449 tvrelve in its f;ieatc(\ breadth ; it is divided by a narrow outlet, from Lakis. the fcMithern part into the northern, of about four miles in length, on an iilancl in which is fituated the town of Ennilicillcn. Next in magnitude is Neagh, about twenty-two miles in length, and Neag»i. twelve in breadth. Lough Erne is Audded with iflands which form a number of rich and interefting profpefts ; but Lough Neagh is one vaft Ihect of water. The waters of the latter, or the adjoining foil poflefs a petrifying qu ility ; but though the fad is well eftabliftied, the procefs requires the inveftigation of fomc able naturalift.' The lake of Corrib, in the county of Galway, is about twenty miles Cor.-ib in length, and from two to five wide. Thofe of Rce and Derg are lefs confiderable in fize ; and there is a fmaller lake, alfo named Derg, in the N W , which was remarkable in fuperftitious times for a little ifland containing what was called the purgatory of St. Patrick.* Among the lakes of the fecond magnitude, mud be firft named the beautiful and intereding Lake of Killarney in the S. W., abounding Lake of with romantic views, and fringed with the arbutus, no where elfc a '^'"•"'«r native of the Britifh dominions. This is almoft the only lake in the fouth of Irelatid ; and the obfervation may be extended to the eaft. On theN. W are the lakes of Eafk, Trierty, Melvin, Macncan, and Gill. That of Allen, as already mentioned, is a chief fource of the Shannon, into which the Gara and Key alfo pour their waters. Further to the weft are two confiderable lakes, the Conn and the Mafk j nor muft thofe of Corrafin be forgotten. The mountainous chains in Ireland are neither numerous nor Im- Mountainj, portant; hut an upland ridge divides the country from the N. E. to the S. W., giving birth to fcveral of the rivers. The Irilh hills generally form fhort lines, or detaclied groups. One group of confiderable height appears on the weft and fouth of Lough Lane, or what is called the lake .u,V^M i-' .'<■ I <■ i.. n i •' >"■ ,^ '■ '■!. *'-,r'\li , I 'Smyth in Boate, p. 121. Coote's Armagh, p. 102. Many fpecimers of petrified wood, found iJjoinini; to or in Lough Ncngh, may be feen in ihe collcAion of the Dublin Socici), and in pri- »ate colletlions. 'Ware, p. Z19, ed, i6j3. VOL. I. K K of 150 IRELAND. '•Ull MouNTAiHi. of Klllarncy : of thefc Mangerton is 2500 feet above the f.... ' A line of liill.s extends on the north-well of Bantiy Day, anj pafl*cs to the call under the name of the Sheby mountains/ To tl'C noiih of this is the line of Sliebh-loghcr and Nagles : followed by the Galtec mountains ; and towards the eafl arc thofe of- Knockmcle- down, which bend ibuthward towards the bay of Dungarvon, A Imall chain alio appears to the fouth of Tralcc, in which the lofty Brandon is conlpicuous above the rcll ; and this, with a group to the N. E., may be laid to complete the enumeration of thv mountains of Munfler. In Leinfter is a mountain fo called, the line of Sliebh-bloom on the S. W., and a confiderablc group to the fouth of Dublin, ftylcd the Kippure mountains, or thole of Wicklow. The extent of this group is about thirty Englifli miles in length, by about twelve in breadth. In Ulfter is a fmall group, called the mountains of Mourne, in the S. E. corner of the province : one of them, Donard, is faid to be about the height of Mangerton. The hills of Sliebh-croobe (in the Iriih language /?/V^i& fignifies a mountain,) form the centre of the coun- ty of Down ; and fevcral hills are fprinkled over the eadcrn half of Antrim. On the north weft of Lough Neagh are thofe of Sliebh-gallan, and Carn-togher. Sliebh-fnaght is a confiderable mountain N. W. of Lough Foyle, whence other lines and groups extend down to Lough Erne. The eaftern part of Connaught prefents numerous marfhes ; but few mountains, except thofe of Baughta on the fouth. The extreme wellcrn * Mr. Young, i. 458, hyt Mangerton ii 835 yards (15OJ feet) above the level of the hi. A fcientific gentleman in Ireland, who has paid atttncion to the fubjeA, has communicated the following heights of the chief IriOi mountains. Sliebb Donard, Co. Down. 2803 feet. Mangerton, Co. Kerry. 2;ii feet above the fea. ■■ it 2} feet above the lake of Kiilarney, meafured geometrically by the late Col. Herbert. M' Gillicuddy's reeks, by eftimation 2800 feet, certainly liigher than Mangerton. Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo. affia feet i thele were meafured baromt trical!/ r> Nephin, Co. Mayo. 2634 feet ) Mr. Kirwan. I Beaufort's Memoir of a map of Ireland. 8 peninfiila CHAP. IV. NATURAL OrOGRAIMIY. •I» Tfninfiila is one of the mnft mnuntainoiis rcLMoiis in Ireland. Amonp; Wow "''*"'»' other names may be nKntioncd mount Ncphin in the county of Mayo, a lolitary hill of 26.^6 feet, and one of the mod coniideniblc in tlie ifland. That of Croagh Patrick on the S. E. of Clewbay, a cone of :666 feet J the Fcrnamorc mountains to the weft of Lough Mafic ; anJ the Twelve Pins, a line of fo many fmall peaks in J3allinahinch j witli others to the fouth of Lough Corrib. Scarcely the femblancc of a foreft remains in Ireland ; and Boate has Fjrclli. long fincc obferved, that the wooda have been greatly diminilhcd fmcc the entrance of the F.nglifli, partly from the extcnfion of tillage, and partly from the ncceflity of opening up the rccelVes of banditti.' Ano- ther great caufe was the confumption in domcftic fuel, and in tlie iron inanufadures, the coal mines not having been explored. Yet lioate informs us that confiderable woods cxifted in his time in Wicklow, Wexford, and Carlow, Kerry, Tipperary, and Cork. The province of Ulfter alfo boafted of extenfive forefts, in the counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Fermanagh, and Antrim. The wcftern province of Con- naught, being the moft remote from the new colony, was in his time ftored with trees; but the moft noted fr)refts were in the counties of Mayo and Sligo. The place of the forefts was unhappily ufurped by the moors or Moonor bogs, which form a remarkable feature of the country. Boate divides '^^^ them intd feveral genera and fpecies, forming an elaborate fcalc of fterility. The dry heaths are chiefly confined to the mountains. The bogs he fubdivides into four defcriptions : i. The grally, in which the water being concealed by herbage, they become extremely perilous to travellers: fome of thefe ate dry in the fummer. 2. The pools of water and mire. 3. What he terms haflbcky bogs, or (hallow lakes ftudded with tufts of rufties, which arc chiefly found in the province of Lcinftcr, cfpccially in King's and Qiieen's counties. 4. The peat moors. In the Tranfa£lions of the Royal Irifli Academy,' there is a curious account of the formation of a bog, by the motion of a peat moor after a heavy rain : the peat moor at the fame time, by ob- ftrufling the courfe of a ftream, formed a confiderable lake, in the • Boatc, p. 67. » Vol. ii. p. 3. r ,v ■■''':V^ , .ri, , . ■- K K 2 fpace 85* IRELAND. Moors or Boos. hatiiny. fpace of half a day, But this event was rather of a local nature; and the formation of bogs fgems to be owing, in many inftanccs, to the moifturc retained in thofe parts of forefts which chance to form hollow receptacles, the fall of the leaves forming a vegetable earth, fuperfatarated with moillure, fo that the trees themfelves in time fell a prey. Ornaments of gold and other relics of antiquity, have from time to time heeen difcovered in the bogs at great depths ; and there arc other indications that they are of comparatively recent formation, h is hoped that the hand of induftry, will in time remove many of thefe blemifhes ; and ono of the greateft improvements of modern agricuU ture is that of reclaiming peat moors, by means of calcareous manure. Mr. Young only divides the bogs into two forts, the black and the red; the former being folid almoft to the furface, and generally improvcable, though at great expence. The red is fo called from a reddiih fub- llance, five or fix feet deep, which holds water like a fponge, yields no aflies in burning, and is fuppofed to be utterly irreclaimable. Trees are found in both, and they are fuppofed to originate from fallen forefts. Both differ from the Englifii moraifes ; the Irifli being rarely level, but rifing into hills ; and there is a bog in Donegal, that is a perfeft fcenery of hill and dale. The plants are heath, with fome bog myrtle, and a little fedgy grafs.'" Thefe bo^^j furnifh an abun- dant fupply of good fuel ; and though fome have fuppofed them to be unwholefome, experience do«8 not warrant fuch a conclufion. The bog waters, far from emitting putrid exhalations like ftagnant pools and marfhes, are of an antifeptic and ftrongly aftringent quality, as appears from their preferving for ages, and even adding to the dura- bility of the timber, which is found univerfally buried beneath their furfaces ; and from the converting to a fort of leather the fkins of men and animals; who have had the misfortune of being loft, and remain. ing in them for any length of time.* The ftudy of Botany has been lefs cultivated here than in any other part of the united Empire ; and the neighbourhood of Dublin, which has been beft explored, aftbrds no rare, and few charaderiftic plants. '" TranfaAioo* of the Royal Irilh Academy, vol. ii. 17;. * Beaufort's Mem. la. From CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. From tlie general m'lldnefs of tli** climate, the extenfive tracts of bog, Botanv. and the mountainous ranges that interfed the country, and afford capa- cious bafons for its numerous lakes, it is obvious that the Flora of heland, when complete, will probably contain feveral fpccies that are ftrangers to the reft of the Britiih iflands. There will Ihll however be fuch a refemblance between the two Floras as to render it unnecefTary to coufider them as diftind. The grafles efteemed moft valuable by the farmer are natives, fo that Ireland has ever been celebrated for the ex- cellence of its paftures. Amoiigll the rare grafles are the Panicum fan- guinalc, Bromus racemofus, and Fcftuca calamaria. The Fcftuca vivi- para and Phlcum Alpinum are found on high mountains. The fpecies of Eriophorum Carex, and other natives of bogs and pools, are very abundant. Amongft the leguminous plants are feme beautiful varieties of Polygala vulgaris (Milkwort), Viola Sylvatica (wood vetch), Orobus Sylvaticus (bitter vetch \ Trifolium Arvenfe, Scabrum and Maritimum. Pimpinella dioica (rock parfley), and Corrigiola littoralis (fand ftrap- wort) are amongft the umbelliferous tribe.* A new fpecies of rofe, called Rofa Hibernica, has been lately difcovered by Mr. Templeman,t and the Euphorbia Hibcrna (Irifti Spurge) is efteemed different from the fpecies fo called by fome Englifh writers. Saxifraga umbrofa, (known in our gardens by the name of London- pride,) is very abundant in the neighbourhood of Killarney in the county of Kerry, atul on many weftern mountains ; and Saxifraga pa'mata has been found on Galty- more in the county of Tipperary. The romantic fcenery of Killarney is the moft northern i&fl3//fl/ of the Arbutus Unedo, which is now un- equivocally afcertained to be indigene ns there ; the heaths abound with the ftately Erica Dnboeci, and the byas odlopetala. Arbutus uva- urfi, with other alpine plants already noticed in the botany of Scotland, expand their neglefted bloflbms, and trail their glowing feftoons of clurtered berries, unnoticed amidft the wide folitude cf their rocky faftneires. Mr. Turner in his Mufcologia hibernica Spicilegirm has fhown I'lat Ireland abounds in this divifion of Cryptogamia. liuxbau- mia aphylla found near Killarney uy Dr. Wade; Grimmia maritima and Dicranum Scottianum lirft defcribed by Dr. Scott, are nioffcs peculiar * Wadc'i PUntK Rariorei Hibcrn. f Tranfaa. Dublin Society. to 25.^ l^: !; ^n" m «!'•*■• ■'■■■>•< I is' (:,-i'! urA modern, enriched and improved the countries where they were found, and the exception, if fuch, of Spanifli America is to be afllgned to caufes of a (liflcrcnt nature. Gold is alfo reported to have been anciently found in the province of Ulfter, in the fand of a rivulet called Miola, which falls into the north- weft corner of the lake called Neagh." As ni'nute particles of gold are fprinkled through moft regions of the world, fo in fome innanccs a few may find opportunities to combine, by the law of aggregate attradlion, and thus excite notice without any chyn/ical procedure. But to infer from fuch a difcovery that confidcrable quantities of this precious metal muft be found in the mountains, whence the ftreams have chanced to convey golden fand, or even fmall fragments, might only lead to rafli and fpeculativc adventure ; for even in the favourite regions of nativg gold, it has Ibmetimes been found that a river or rivulet had adually carried down what little gold originally cxiftcd in the mountain. Another confidcration remains, well known in Peru and Hungary, namely, whether more gold may not be expended than procured, in wovkiiig a mine, if virtually difcovc;cd. The filver found in the Iriflt mines defcrves more attention. Boate Silver. mentions a mine of this metal, intermingled with lead, which w\i- wrought in the county of Antrim, and yielded a pound of pure filver from thirty pounds of lead. Another, lefs produdive of filver, was found at Ballyfadarc, near the harbour of Sligo in Connaught ; and a third in the county of Tippcrary, thirty miles from Limerick, The ores of this laft were of two kinds, mod generally of a rcddilh colour, hard and glittering; the ether, which was the richeil in filver, rcfcmblcd " I'hilof. Tran(. 1797. ' Bo;\fc, \\(,^. a blue I' .« •'M i W'f^'A, ( . ,11 I if "'J iM: U\rM lhr,:f( 856 IRELAND. MiNEkALo- a blue marl. The works were deftroyed in the \r\(k infurredions under Charles I. The mine, however, is now wrought on accouni of the lead it contains. Coppfr. Copper ore is found in various parts of Ireland, and many of the mines contain evident marks of their having been wrought at a former period. That at Cronehane and B«llymurtaj;h, in the county of Wick- low, is of pyrites in ar^'illite ftrata. It contains from 7 to 10 per cent, of copper; and when broken is fent to Swanfea or Neath to be Imelted. The fcparation of copper from its iul[)hate by means of iron is pradifed here to a great extent.* The Ballymurtaplj mine was opened in 1755, by Mr. "Whaley, who acquired a large property from it. In Rols iliand in the lake of Killarncy, a copper mine is now working, where rich grey copper ore is procured in a matrix of quartz, having about 30 per cent, of the metal. At the fame place are foiiUd native copper, ruby copper ore, malachite, and copper pyrites in great variety. The chief difficulty in procuring the ore arifes ficr::? the water of the lake, which requires much labour to keep it out. There is alfo a copper mine on the oppofite peninfulu of Mucrufs, which is not wrought at prefent. Near Newport, in the county of Tipperary, there is a rich mine of yellow pyrites, lately opened, which promifes to be very profitable to thofe concerned in it. Jron. One of the chief mineral produ(Slions of Ireland is iron, the mines of which were little known till the time of Elizabeth. Boate divides the iron mines of Ireland into three defcriptions : i. What he (tyles the bog mine, or what is now termed Icwland ore, found in moors and bogs : the ore refembling a yellow clay, but mouldering into a blackifli fand. 2. The rock mine, a bad fort, the ore intimately combined with ftone. 3. That found in various mountains, the ore fpheric, and of a whitifh grey colour : balls of the heft ore contained kernels full of fmall holes, whence the name honey-comb ore. BoaK praifes this iron as frequently rivalling that of Spain ; and his work may be confulted for the manner of conduding the founderies. LeaJ, Ac. Lead is found in great abundance at Donally, near filver mines, ia the county of Tipperary, before mentioned ; at Rofs Ifland ; near * Frazer': Suttll. Account of Wickow. Cloghuakiity 1 ,■ ■ ) : CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. Cloghnakllty in the county of Cork ; and in the county of Wexford. That at Rofs Ifland is fteel-grained galena, and lias often veins of copper pyrites running tlirough it. At Donalty, befides galena, there is very rich white lead-ore. Grey cobalt-ore is found at Mucrufs in Kerry ; and when the late Mr. Rafpe was in Ireland he found it ufed for repair- ing a road in the neighbourhood. There is alio manganefe and blende, both brown and black, in great abundance, in various parts of the country. The beds of coal to be feen in various regions of Ireland have not yet been explored to their proper extent. That of Kilkenny, found at Cafticcomcr, is defcrvedly celebrated among mincralogirts, as the pureft which has yet been traced in any quarter of the globe. Even as early as the time of Boate, coal was accidentally difcovered in an iron mine, in the county of Carlow. One of the moft beautiful marbles of Ireland is found near Kilkenny; and others have been difcovered in various parts of the ifland. Boate hrands the frceftone of Ireland as being liable to imbibe the moiflure of the atmofphere ; to prevent which ciJ'ed: it was nccedary to incruft the walls with brick, or to line them with wainfcot. Slate of various kinds is alio abundant. In the bafaltic region of the county of Antrim, is a white limcftone, which refembles chalk in many refpeds, efpecially in containing nodules of flint; but is much harder than chalk, from having a greater quantity of water of cryftallizatiori *. In the county of Clare has been found fluor refembling that of Dcrbyfhire. Near Belfall is a large flratum of fine gypfiim ; and fullers earth has been found in fcveral counties of Ireland. For mineral waters Ireland has never been fc-mous. There is a fpring, as already meiuioned, at Lucan, more celebrated from falhion than from potency. As Ireland contains abundance of iron, ic is alinoft unnecelTary to add that there are many chalybeate waters in feveral parts of the country. The moft remarkable are that of Ballynahinch in the diocefe of Dromore ; Ballyfpellan, npt far from Kilkenny ; and Caftlcconncl in •5f Natov AI. 1 IKS. Coal. If' 'I Mineral W.iurs. : ,;i '(. 1 ■' ; i- & \:r VOL, r. • Muflict, in Philof. Mag. L I tnc If li m asS i «.' W' iiii "•to 1*3 m Natural CUKIOSI- Till. Natural Cu- riofuics. IRELAND. the county of Limerick. Swalingbar, m the county of Cavan, near Lough Erne, is much frequented on account of its fulphureous waters • and Mallow, in tlie county of Cork, on account of a loft and tepij fpring, of the fame nature as the Hot wells of Brillol *. Among the natural curiolities of Ireland would, in ancient timc feven in breadth : it is divided into three parts, called the upper, lower, and Muckrufs lake; and is furrounded by an aiLjihi- theatrc of mountains, clothed with trees, whole verdure is contralled with intervening rocks. The Arbutus, with its fcarlct fruit and f.jowy blolVoiiis, here vegetates in great luxuriance. Nor are cafcades, and other features of rural beauty, wanting to complete the fceue'*. The '\'lf: of Innisfallen is not only romantic, but of venerable fain?^ for the imials there written. The petrifying power of Lough-neagh has been found, as already tnci.'tioned, rather to refide in the circumjacent foil ". The petrifica- t'.atw fcem to be chiefly of oak and i)olly ; and the Hump of a tree with the roots has been found wholly p';(riried ; but from the account given by Mr. Smith the petrification fcems to be flight. What is called the Giant's CauO:way mufl be diftinguiOied amonj; the moft remarkable of the curiofities of Ireland. When we recoiled that a fimilar production, the celebrated ifland of StaflTa, remained unnoticed till within thefe thirty years, we flull be the lefs inclined to wonder that the Gianrs Caufeway is an objedl of recent obiervation, and has efcaped the notice of Giraldus Cambrenfis, Stanyhurft, and even of the ar^urate and ingenious Ware: the firft account is that given by Si' R. Buckley in a letter to Podor Lifter 169^ This furprizinp colledion of baialtic pillars is about eight miles N. E. from Colerair.' '*. The adjacent coaft is verdant bm precipitous; and from it the Caufeway pvojeft* into the fea, to an unknown extent. • Brauforr, Men. .'' Boaie, p. iij. '* Young, i. 444, &c. .•• Ibid. I no. Tbc CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. «59 TUI. The part explored is about 600 feet in length ; the breadth from 240 Natural to 120; the height from 16 to 36 feet above the level of the ftrand. It conlifts of many thoufand pillars, moftly in a vertical pofition, (ome of them high; others broken, and, for a confidcrablc fpace, of an equal height, fo as to form a pavement. They are clofely compaded to- gether; though the form be various, trigonal, tetragonal, pentagonal, hexagonal, and heptagonal ; the moft numerous are the pentagonal. The pillars are rarely compofed of one entire piece, but moftly con- fift of Ihort or long joints, either plane, or concave correfpondiiig with convex. The pillars are from 15 to 24 inches, or more, in diameter. The adjacent (hore is moftly the common crag ; but there are a few irregular pillars on the eaft; and towards the N. E. what is called the organ, in the fide of a hill, confiding of fifty pillars; that in the middle 40 feet high, the others gradually diminiihing. Similar pillars are alfo found a mile and a half inland, four miles to the weft of the Giant\ Cauleway. The learned Dr. Pocoke examined this remarkable obje£l with great care, and gave an account of it in the Philolbphical Tranfadions. Mr. Hamilton has recently inveftigated the northern coaft of Antrim with fcientilic {kill ; and fomc particulars ftiall be extradled from his account. The grand features of this cdaft are the capes of Bengore and Fairhead, precipitous promoniories diftant about 8 miles. Bengore is compofed of fevcral finaller capes and bays ; and contains a vaft qtiantily of colum- nar bafalt. The cape called nefltln prefcnts a magnificent gallery, or colonailc, about 60 feet high, with a lower gallery about 50. The lower ranges contain the moft fliarp and exadl columns. The promon- tory of Fairhead oiievs pillars of gieater length, and coarfer texture: and fimilar ftones are found in the mountain of Dunnel, between Cole- raine and the river Bufti ; in the fmall iflc of Raghry, two miles N. of Fairhead ; and in various other circumjacent quarters, along a coaft of fifty miles in length, by two in breadth. Nay imperfect appearances of the fame kind may be traced even to the lake of Neagh, and moun- tains of Derry ; fo that the effcds have operated to a fpace of more than 40 miles in length, and 20 in breadth, that-is above 800 fquarc miles. Mr. Mamilton miglit have added that even the ifland of Siaffa, at the L L 2 diftance i6o IRELAND. ^^ N^TUII AL CUK lOM. Tit?. diftance of loo miles, fcems to form part of the fame feries, which may be carried to an unknown extent, through the bed of the intervening fea. The bafalt of the Giant's Caufeway is of a very com pad texture and the angles of the pillars have preferved their (harpnefs, thouHi expofcd to the fea, for perhaps two or three thoufand yeaii ". The origin of this fubftance is matter of intenfe difpute between the Vul- canilis and Neptunifts ; but fuch geological difculFions are foreign to the nature of this work. Suffice it to obferve that bafalt contains a mixture of filicious and argillaceous earth, together with iron to the amount of one quarter ; a proportion of that univerfal pervading mineral, which may well arrange bafalts under the clafs of iron ; and it is remarkable xh?x fome hematites when broken prefent the fame columnar appear- ance. Mr. Hamilton infers that the pillars of the Giant's Caufeway are magnetic ; and fays, that in the femi-circular bays about Bengore the compafs is much deranged. The fame (Iiore alio prefents horizontal and bending pillars, like thofe of Stafla ; the attendant minerals are zeolite in the irregular bafalt, Aeatite, and bits of agate, red ochre, and iron ore. Mr. Hamilton, purfuing the Vulcanic theory, even adds pumice and pipcrino; but thefe fubftances are rejected by Mr. Kirwan, who infers that the detedion of clay, fteatite, or zeolite, in bafalt, is a proof that it is not a volcanic fubftance. Among the natural curiofitics of Ireland muft not be forgotten the Dargle, about 12 miles to the S. of Dublin, an enchanting glen, finely wooded with oak, and near a mile in length, with high precipices, and a pidurcfque river, which Mr. Young defcribes as a fingular place, and diflcrent from any which he had fccn in England ". In the neighbour- hood of Mitchelftown, at the foot of the Galtce mountains, is a cave in a limcftone rock, the entrance of which is narrow ; but from a vault, of about 100 feet long and 50 or 60 in height, there extends a winding courfe of not lefs than an Irilh half mile, exhibiting great variety of appearances, fometimes that of a vaulted cathedral, fupported by mafly columns with incruftations of fpar, nearly as brilliant as the Briftd cryftals. Mr. Young prefers this cave to that of the peak in Derbyfhirci and has alfo efteemed it fuperior to the Grau d'Aucel ". .*' Kirwan Min. i. 232. '* Tour in Ireland i. 111. " lb, ii. 61. IRISH IM •> CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 961 IRISH ISLES. The few, and fmall ifles around Ireland are unimportant, but muO U julnt; not be wliolly omitted. To the N. E. of Dublin is Lambcy, a fmall ifl nd already mentioned ; and at the S. E. extremity of Ireland appear the rocks called Tuflcard and the Saltee ifles. At the fouihern extremity is the ifle of Clare, about three miles and a half in length, and more remarkable for its fouthern promontory called Cape Clear, than for any other objedt. Turning to the N W. are the ifle of Durfcy, the Hog idands, and the Skelligs; to the north of the latter is Valenti.i ofT the coall of Kerry, which is followed by the Blaflcets or Ferritcr iflands. The fouih Arran iflands lie at the mouth of the noble bay of Galway, and are remarkable for a fmall kind of oats without any huflc, and for large calves: the chief is near feven miles in length. A number of fmall iflands encircle the coaft which projects furtlicll into the Atlantic, fuch as Garomna, Littermore, Minifli, Inifnec, and further to the N. W. Dunloghan, Omey, Crua, &c. Boflin was famous in the days of mo- naftic fundlity, and has rctainf -' its ancient appellation. To the north is Achill, the largeft of the Ir.fh ifles, being about 12 miles long by 10 broad. It is feparated from the coalt of Mayo, by a narrow channel ; but no minute defcription of it has appeared. Inifmurry is a fmall ifle at the mouth of the bay of Donegal : and no other ifles worth mention appear, till we arrive at the northern iflands of Arran, off the coaft of Donegal. The N. W. extremity of Ireland is marked by Tory ifle : and returning towards the eaft we meet with Iniftrahull ; and alter an equal diftance Rachlin, the Ricina of Ptolemy, and memorable as the retreat of Robert I of Scotland. I Ih' i . FRANCE, aSi • •■« i^ / H ftA : .ys Jj/v H ; .: f J ' •. I • ! i i -^». > i ig • •■ 1 ■' . • *1, FRANCE. ^ 1 _ ' >| ; f , l\ CHAPTER I. Historical Geoorapiiy. Names. — Extent, — Boundaries. — Original Population.— ProgrrJ/ive Gcograph-j.'- Hijlorical Epochs and Antiquities, Namii. P'RANCE, defervedly celebrated amongft the mod eminent European Aates, was probably known to the Phoenicians, though the fupe- rior fame of the metallic riches of Spain have almofl eclipfed their dif- covery of Gaul. In the year 6oo before the birth of Chrift, accord- ing to the chronology of Uflier, the Phocxans failing from Ionia, founded MafTilia, or Marreilles ; yet Herodotus, who flouriflied a century and a half after r^ac period, /hows fo little knowledge of Gaul as to fuppofc that the Danube arofe in the Pyrenees. The ancient inhabi^ar's were the Celts, of whom oven Ariftotle feems only to have learned that they inhabited the region above; Iberia or Spain. The fouthern parts of Gaul became known at an early period to the Romans, who entered that region about 120 years before the chridian epoch, and foon aftcr- wan^s founded the province termed Gallia Bracata : but the remainder of this large and fertile country was refcrved for the difcovery and con- queft of Julius Cxfar. The ancients (bmetimes ftyled it the country of the Celta, but the only general name feems to have b<'en Gallia, which, after the fall of the Roman empire, was fupplanted b/ that of I'rancia or France, becaufe it was fubdued and pofleOfed by the Frunks, an alTcm- '. * blage of tribes from lower Germany. J ( 'i { ^' ■ • The 7 -.. «- '-' ■ "a- ■ ^H 9 t f^m ^n ! fP^ fr^ yi^HHa m 'Hm f -ijJ' ;-V <1' )f'HKi T i 3l,-'' i ■ "^ i.f y i! L Mivy jjt Infif] iM Ifi' HI ^tW || 1' t , UJ •V ji.5; H^ II #t^ sir IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGfcT (MT-3) 1.0 l«5 I.I 2.8 |25 12.2 1 i 2.0 1.8 r-25 ||l.4 ,,.6 ^ 6" ► % 'A 7i '/ Hiotographic Sciences Cdrporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) •72-4503 I i.iii.i ♦V'q ml jll'l"! ^'. 'i.!,i.i>!k ^fi^ IT l*\ 'I, |1 5 i i i ■ \ ,v-.,,»«Jlfc«-f'jf- .^— -^.. ,=■'• • ■'* ^ ■- mmm^w i,-"-, V.I ■ ■• -i. 1 ... r •■'■^ I # ■ ■•.■'■■ ■■ >.• Mi''"' ■Hi 'Ui^dM HP " "m ■ I '' '■'IP ft64 TRANCE. ff A r*.-^ DiviiioMs. the Roman potver new names and divifions fucceeded as Flandria Lotharingia, Neuftria, Burgundia, Vafconia, &c. *: while Aquitania and Provincia remained ancient names, though not within ancient boundaries. Thefe were fucceeded by divifions yet more modern which in recent times have been fupplanted by more minute depan- mcnts. ' ' ^r;.: Ancient Provincbi. Flandre Franfoife. Artois. Picardie. - - " Nornandie. •v ..^.'^ Ifle de France. Chtunpagne. Lorraine. Alface. ' ■ ■ * Bretagne. -■m%'-' Maine and Perche. Anjou. Tooraine. Orleanois. Berri. Nivernois. BoDfgogne. "K Franche-Compte. '^ * 't^ DsrARTMBNTS. Nord. Pas.dcCalaif. . • Somme. f Seine Inferieure. Calvados. Mancbe, ' -.1 Orne. Eure. Seine. Seine and Oife. Oife. -•' Aifne. Seine and Marne. tMarne. Ardennes. Aabe. Haute Marne. ' iMeufe. Mofelle.- s ' Mearthe. Vofges. f Haut-Rhin. |Bas-Rhin. r lile and Vilaine^ I C6tes du-Nord. I Finifterre. I Morbihan. '' -y L Loire Inferieure. r Sarthe. . \ Majrenne. Mayenne and Loire. Indre and Loire. Loiret. Bare and Loire. Loire and Cher. Indre. Cher. Nievre. SYonne. C6te d'Or. Sadne and Loire. Ain. r Haate Sadne. J Doubt. :tfi r: -'- Chief Towns. Lille. Arras. Amiesis. Rouen. Caen. Coutances. Alcngon. Evreux. Paris. Verfailles. Beauvais. Laon. Melun. Chilons-fur-Marne. MjKieres. , Troyes. Chaomont. Bar-fur- Ornain. Metz. Nancy. Epinal. Colmar. ;^ ji, Strafbourg. '^ Rennes. St. Brieux. Quimper. Vannes. Nantes. .^..^:.^, Le Mana. '^'' Laval. Angers. Tours. Orleans Chartres. Blois. Chaceauroux. Bonrges. Nevers. Auxerre. Dijon. Macon, Boiirg. Vefon). Befanfon. Lona-le- Stonier. ' D'Anville. Ecati formes en Europe. POFVLATIOK. 774-450 J 66,06 1 465,031 642.775 480,317 528,911 397.93' 4'Si577 619,763 4*9.5*3 369,086 430.628 29ii,8i{ 3 '0.493 zj4,coo 240,661 iss,350 277,898 353.788 34*.'07 308,0;: ; 382,185 444,858 488,60; 499.9'7 474.349 4»5.485 368,506 387,166 3«8.397 528,912 278,758 289,718 259,967 211,152 209,$! I 218,297 251,158 239,278 347.84* 447.565 «84.43S 287,464 2*7,000 289,865 Ancient as Flandria, Aqultania J^in ancient re modern, lute depart- - -, J i POPWLATIOK. 7741450 566,061 465.03^ 642,773 480,317 528,911 397.93' 4'jM77 6*9,763 4«9.5«3 369,086 430.628 29«.8iJ 3 '0,493 254,coa 240,661 «»s.3;o 27^,898 353.788 34«.'07 308,052 382,185 444.858 488,605 499.9*7 474.349 4»5.485 368,506 387,166 3»8.397 528,91: 278.7J8 289,728 259,967 211,152 209,911 218,297 251,158 239,278 347.84* 447.565 «84.43J 287,464 217,000 289,865 ANCtENT i^^ CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. Ancient Piiovijtcg». Poitoa. Mirck*. Limofin. Boarbonnoii. Saintonge, comFrifing Aunit. Angoumois comprifing pare of Saintonge. Auircrgne. Lyon noil. Fotec and Beaujolois. Dauphine. Cayenne, comprehending Gifcogne. Barn. Con)t£ de-FoiX. Roufliiloi; LiDguedoc. Provence. Corfica. t-i ■ !.: I ■ >-; Ancient Namei. Territory of Avignon, county of Venuffin, Principal! t«. Diftria o« Apt. "' Savoy. t'isi.'y.' County of Nice. Anftrian Hunaut. TOl. I. ( Departmbnti. f Vendee. ^ DruX'Sevres. J Vienne. iHautci-Vienne, comprizing part of Limofin. Creuze. r Correze, J comprifing part of (, Upper Vienne. Allier. Charente-Inferieiire. Charente. J>uy de Ddme. Cantal. Rhone. Loire. I ^ Iidre. ' Hautes.Alpes. 1 Diome. ' Dordogne. Gironde. Lot and Garonne. , Lot. } Aveyrcn. I Gers. I Landes. i. Hautes Pyrenees. C Baflet Pyr^neea. I Arricge. Pyrenees-Orientalet. f Haute Garonne. Aude. Tarn, i Gard. J Lozere. I Ardecbe. I Haute Loire. i Heraut. r Bouches-du-Rhone. J Baffes-Alpei. iVar. ,. _, , . ,, ,, {Golo. Liamone. . >•• ' Chiif Towns. Fontenay-le-Peuple Niort. Poitieri. Limoge. , II Gueret. Tulle. Moulina. Saiate). Angouleme. Clermont. St. Flour. . , Lyon. Montbriron. Grenoble. Gap. Valence. Perieaeux. Bordeaux. Agen. Cahori. Rhodez: Auch. Mont-de.Marfao. Tarbe. Pan. Tarafeon. Perpignan. Touloufe. CarcaflbnnCt Caftres. Nimes. Mende. Privai. Le Pa/. Montpelller. Aix. Digne. Toulon. Baftia. Ajaccio. Population. 270,271 242,658 250,807 ', «59.79$ 816,255 «43«654 272,616 402, lOJ 3 ".477 508,444 246,016 3'li.<»44 292,58^ 441. zo9 118,32s S31.188 4io.?50 $19,685 352,908 383.683 328,195 291.845 288,889 206,680 385,708 191,693 117,764 4J«.«6j 226,198 a7*»'63 309,052 155.936 267,525 237,901 291.957 320,072 140,121 269,142 103,466 63.347 DBFARTMEMTa Rb-1;NITED. ChIEF T0WN8. . f Vaudufe, with the i Bouches da Rhone. ? Mont Blanc. (The Maritime Alpt. Jemmapet. Avignon. Chamber/. Nice. Mom, M M 190,180 283,106 87,071 412,129 ANCiBKT *^s mm:^^ '*■»■;,•'■■ ,.„'::»('•'■ ■.i,Ml'<. ^yi'iU'jii^s. 'i«>^>,=HtJ5 livl «66 FRANCE. Anciint Namii. Wcftera Part of AnflrUa Planers. Btfttrn part of Flanderi. B»fterD pan of Brabant. Sottthero part of Brabant. Part of the wantry of Liege, and of Gelderland. Part of the countriei of Liege, and of Limbourg, with the •rincipalitica of Stavclo, and Malmirai. County of Namur. Duchy of Lnxenbourg. Part of the Arcbbifliopric of Trive*. Part of the Archlnihoprie flf Trcvei* and of the Duchy of Deux Ponts. Part of the ancient Arcb- bifliopric of Mayence, and of the Duchy of DenxPonii* Part of the Archbifliopric of Cologne, of the duchy of JulieiStOf PruflknGelderlandk ( of Cleves, Menra, &c. T Of the territory of Geneva, 1 of the diftriAa of Gez, La« > Lcmaa ionge» Thonon, ltc» \ DirARTMlNTI Ri-VNiTaoi } Ly*' Efcaut. Deux Ncthe*. Dyle. JMeufe infetieure. Ourthe. Sambre aod Mcufe. Foritt. Rhine and Mofelle. Satre. > Mont-TonnerMt. Principal TOWNI. Brogei. Gand. Anveri. Bruxellea. Idaellricht. X-icge. Namur. Luxembourg, Coblentz. Tijvea. Mayence. i Roor.. Po»Vt*Tl»f. ♦7<'r7C7 S95.»J« •49.174 363,956 >]i.66t 3U.8/6 165,191 »»S443 303,290 a 1 9.049 343,316 Aixpla-ChapeUe.. pfi.tS; Geneve. aij,884* Hjjjj»c*fc The chief hiftoncat epoch* of France may be arranged in the follow- ing order : 1. The primitive population, of the Celts, and the conquefts of the Aquitani, and Belgae. 2. The faint notices of the ancients concerning Gaul, from the eftabliihment of the Phoceaa colony at Marfeilles, to> the conqueft bjr Cefar. ' ' ■ '■■ ' "' ^ 3. The complete difclofure of the country to the learned world by that great general ; and the various revolutions and events of vi^hich it wa& the theatre under the domination of the Romans. .^ , . * The Lignrian Republic« from ancient jealouiy of the Mllanefe, foag&t to become a pro. vmce of the French empire* to w^ich Neufchatel and Vallengin have been ceded by Pruffii. They have been affigned aa an ia^ .fm rmU^iuui '4.1 { 'Ui y.'ir'o.'Of'? rJiit giii^tA ^li tMi fihnori-t' bl>;.b"!...i *i f- • ; ihrii-^fit o;->'. .♦i^>f};WK4f;Us-l ;<^>*-.;0tv'i* si':?;!? L'Jiwt !K ■( -'na-jGrq* >-i fit • ijov nv. ?(U '♦)!HA'''V)*;*rfhh< .»f "Ia I'; 'f.Pi' h^n. T f\uhl\i iiitt''\A:t 'J 4i .53S^in>y!0>J W3Jt ;»/■'?' K» iji; •)' iCt.-io iit -ft f?-!?.? 8rv?u>;lJ«.>'.,- u iin ntJii;iifc • • f.u. '^•1 i hnji 3T',^t tja ^*0»«i •^,'i:i t>» . /ji;-;t."utT; n* i?.l' aij.': ;c ,'.; -f: jJ.i JO «n£ifpf.£ii H?-V: H ■) n;< y-i ^ ■/!,.; ym ^ r-: !?: ii ;v»>:; «'!lliii «;• TRANCE. 1 ' . CHAPTER n. I'll, 1 , ■. J , ; :, . . : ' Political Ceooraphy. jtrmy»'—Nayf.-'Revenwt,^Politi(ai Imfortance and Relations, miiioioM. 'np HE religion of France was the Roman Catholic, till the recent revo. lution eilabliihed freedom of confcience, or rather gave an undue afcendancy to concealed atheifm, which any fup ^ ition remarkably ab« furd has a tendency to produce. But the ftrongell minds as ufual re< mained deiftical, inftead of flying from one extreme to another, the ac. cullomed courfe of men of volatile reflexion and confined knowledge. Of late the catholic fyftem has been re-eftabli(hed, bw the popular creed has been fo much (haken that little religion remains, and the churches are chiefly frequented by women. There is no doubt that the catholic icheme is more adapted to the French habits, than the ferious monotony of the proteftant religion. A tingle calviniftic funday would reduce all France to defpair ; nor is it indeed reconcileable to reafon that a day of feft, or feftival, ihould be fuppofed facred to melancholy. If this apparently fmall contideration could have been done away, the pro< teftant fyftem would certainly have been found more advantageous to the national induftry, and the marriage of the priefts would have ren- dered them citizens and ufeful fubjeds of the new government. When Bonaparte afliimed the reins T)f authority the catholics were fo cota> pleatly humiliated, that they would have accepted any terms ; and it it to be regretted that the moment was not feized of introducing a mode< rate plan of chriftianity, combining the advantages of the proteftant faith with fuch parts of the catholic fyftem as are more congenial to the habits of the people. It mull however be obferved, that no toleration nor exclufive laws are known in France ; but the public oflices are alike open to every man, whatever be his religious perfuation. The CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 371 f.'H ' EccxisN AITICAL GeooRAa FHY. The ecclefiaftic geography of France comprlfed 20 archbifliopricks, including Avignon ; and 130 epifcopal fees '. The number of the clergy has been vaguely computed from 80,000 to 400,000, but the juft num- ber feems to have been 1 50,000 : and in this total, many, no doubt, have been claflfed who were merely fmgers in cathedrals, or lay^ofHcers, and fervants of the church. The Government of France has aflumed more Aability fmcc the firft Gorernmenu publication of this work, every effort having been ufed to introduce a new dynafty in the family of Bonaparte. The author was at Paris during this important crifis, and afliduoufly obferved its caufcs, and the ftate of the public mind. Before this event, one of the mod Angular in modern hiftory, impartial Frenchmen, enlightened lovers of their country, frequently obferved with regret, that the national tranquillity and profperity abfolutely depended upon the life of one man. The im- prudent conduct of the houfe of Bourbon, unfortunately guided by the advice of ecclefiaftics, unfkilled in human affairs, in menacing a conv- plete refumption of the ancient feudal fyffem, and the punifhment of all perfons who had accepted offices under the new government, excited iinilesof contempt mingled with deep indignation. For France had feen enough of blood flied ; and neither wifhed for the decapitation of eighty thoufand perfons, nor for the return of anarchy and civil war. Had a complete amneffy been offered, artd the prefent order of things permitted to exift, fo far as was compatible with a moderate monarchy, it is probable that a refforation might have fucceeded. After having attained the confulate for life, the modefty even of vafll ambition might have been fatisfied, and the reward was certainly fupe- rior to the ferviccs. But power is ever encircled with a cloud of flattery,, and the comparifons that began to be inftituted with Charlemagne, as if there were the fmalleft fimilarity between one of the darkeff of the middle ages and the illumination of the nineteenth century,, began to ihew how far thofe vile flatterers had feduced a vigorous mind. The people were however ready to make any fubmiflion rather than rifk the return of anarchy : the national vanity was excited by the new dignity I YooDg, i. 670. of .:■, If'.i m 'M ■MM .'' .1 it,' ''.'t', T ■ )T M t. K r. li ' > :. F R A N C E. ^ ^ of empire : the hopes of the Bourbons were annulled by a hnU\ l,m cruel ftroke of policy. The fenate had only the choice of either namin;; the new emperor itfelf, or of immediately fubmitiing to the propofd alternative of a nomination by the army, which, in that cafe, would have marched to Paris and defied all refiftancc. The ftatue of Model\y was veiled, and the new dynafty proclaimed. , i Should this new order of things continue, France may be regarded as a miniature of the Roman empire, in which the hereditary claims were often violated, and a fuccefsful General founded a new dynady : but the evils are incalculable, for the prevalence of military power in Trance will, as ufual, fuper-induce barbarifm, with a contempt of the arts and letters, which may unhappily fpread throughout Europe ; other ftates being obliged to maintain a conllant military force, which will become necelTary until France fliall have reduced her army to a peace e(labli(h> ment. At the fame time there is a ftriklng difference between a Roman emperor and an emperor of France, arifing from the fupreme artifice and popular modeAy of the former ; for an emperor of France is neither Sovereign PonliiF, nor Tribune of the people. The prefent ftatg of the government of France may be moft impar- tially derived from the mouth of a French author, a man of talent and obfervatlon *. , " The executive power of the government is lodged with complete plenitude In the will of the emperor, who has the power of adopting a fucceflbr. " The new laws are firft propofed by the government to an affembly of fifty members, called the Tribunate, which dlfcufles them. They are afterwards deba'ed by the orators of government, dnd of the Tribu- nate, before the Legiflatlve Body, which fandlons them or rejedts them, without any difcuflion, by fecret fcrutiny. " The government may retrad a project of a law, in whatever ftatc of difcuflion It may be. * M. Walckenacr in his tranilatiun of this Geography, Paris, 1804, 6 foli. 8vo. i. ^3, or in another edition of the fame year, i. 5 1 , Some alterations have been adopted, in confequence of the recent change. " The CHAP. n. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. « The Lcgiflative Body, and the Tribunate, are renewed in part each year, and the new members are chofcn by the Confcrvative Senate, upon lifts formed- by the cleftoral colleges of the departments, of which the members are for life. Thefe eledloral colleges of the departments are chofen by the ele^ftoral colleges of the arond'iJlcmnis^ or diftrids themfclvcs, elerted by allemblies cf each Canton, or what mij^ht be called in old Englifh ty thing, compofed of houfehoUlcrs. The cmpL-ror names the Prefident of each aflcmbly of the Canton ; and the prciiJcnt chufes the fcrutators and the fecretary. Thefe aflemblics, as well as thofe of the eleftoral colleges, are convoked and diiTolvcd by order of the emperor \ who can alfo add to each college of the didridt ten mem- bers named by himfelf, and twenty to each cledloral college of the de- partment. • '■•y- , .v<» tiU'ti 'iv» »i .* ■. in;.? ^'.tw ..i.vJ «ni>,ii " The members of the Confervative Senate are for life. The nomi- nation belongs to the emperor, who prefents three, of whom the choice belongs to the Senate itfelf ; or, according to another difpofition, the emperor may prefent one, the Tribunate one, and the Legiflativr Body one. Thefe members muft be taken from a lift, formed by the electoral colleges of the departments ; but the emperor may, without the parti- cipation of the Senate, and without any attention to the electoral colleges, name any perfon member of the Confervative Senate, provided that he have attained the age prefcribed by the law, and that the number do not exceed one hundred and twenty. It mud be obferved, that the Senators may be Minifters, Ambafladors extraordinary, and occupy other em- ployments of great confequence, which are at the difpofal of the go- vernment, .'ittshi? Hi' i jl/w'' n»ui ,U.ji»;»5|. i ^itJtriWi. v.u tXU " The Senate cannot proceed to any bufmefs, except it be pro- pofed by the emperor, fave only in cafes of its own arrangements. But by its fenatm-confultes^ which cannot proceed except upon the propofition of the emperor, it exercifes fupreme power even upon the conftitutional laws, in adding, explaining, or fufpending the execution ; in diflblving the Legiflative Body, and the Tribunate ; and even in an- nulling the judgments of the civil and criminal tribunals, when it fup- pofes them obnoxious to "the fafety of the ftaie. ./•••■ VOL. I. N N i( !<>4'' '* -* Excepting •^n Ml K II N • N'l . m li I 'I :<■ m \- y. fm^\m % • ,1 ', :l X' twMm III ^,..^^il- •'iiff? 1=1 11 i L "Tx •74 a I *j -I FRANCE. Govs KM* VIMT. Ct Excepting the fupremacy of the Senate, and right of pardon, wliich belongs to the emperor, the Tribunal of Caifation exercifes the fuprcmc judiciary power, with a right of cenfure and difcipline over the Tribu. nals of Appeal, and the Criminal Tribunals, annulling their judgments in cafes of contradidkion to the law, or want of form, and even with the power of fufpending the judges. There is a Grand Judge or minifter of juftice, who, on folemn occafions, prefides in the Tribunal of CalTa- tion, and the Tribunals of Appeals. There are alfo, unhappily, for certain crimes Special Tribunals ; of which the judgments are not lub> jeA to appeal, being exempt from the ordinary forms. All the Judges, except the Juftices of Peace, are for life, and named by the emperor, neverthelefs for thofe of the Tribunal of Caflation he prefents three per- fons to the Senate, whofe choice is definitive. ".-■■■ t •■ : inrj.- . *' A longer detail concerning the French conltitution, ftill fo new, and of which the mod interelling portion for the future happinefs of France ftill refis perhaps in the thought of the Legiflature, would be ufelefs. Thole who refled know how difficult it is to fpeak whh any degree of propriety of a government which has accomplilhed fuch great objects, and fucceeded to fuch oppofite fadtions, and towards which are neceflarily directed all the enmities of fruftrated ambition, and all the hopes of thofe who ftill afpire." * i i^ .winf^^ni .; n^. The Senate is regarded as the chief authority in the flate, after the Emperor ; and perhaps as reprefenting the entire nation. But the Council of State, which meets in the Imperial palace of the Tuileries, and confifls of about thirty members, is of more real folid authority; and the members, in general, men feledted for talents and experience, ' i.-^rff IrK-t <\X fi*:"! I *;>.-. * M. Donnant ob'*rves, that the prefent conftitatidn of Prance prefents four deptrltnents. I. The I'.mperor, furrounded by a Council of State, whicli direfls the forms of iawi, and refoivts any difficulties which may occur in the adminiflration. There are frven minifters, namely, the grand judge mintller of juftice, the minifters of the exterior and interior, of the finances and of the trufury, of war and the marine, to which may be added, the minifter of the police. 2. The Con- fervative Senate, confiding of eighty members, and fo called becaufc it ought to preferve thecoty Hitution, being the higbefl deliberative aflembly. 3. The Legiduive Body, of three hundred members, admit* or rejeils new laws by fecret fcrutiny. 4. The Tribunate, of one hundred mem- bers, deliberates on the projefls of laws. The chief tribunal of Calfation is the laft court of reibrt: there are befides tribunals of the iirll inftance, of appeal, criminal, fpccial, ttz, 7 form \ \ CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. VS form perhaps the moft refpeftable fociety of Paris. Of thefe councillors Go»t»«- of ftate four, with the minifter of the police, fuperintend the general police of. the empire ; which vibrates like a fpider*s web from the extre- mities to the centre, and maintains a vigilance unknown even to the Bourbons, r > nit^n. .(-. • r' ■.-•.;■. :w , ■ -- ""=.^/- '^V-,'* In the whole of this conP'.ation an Englifliman is imprefled with the moft radical defeat, the total want of all oppofitioti. In France an opponent is an enemy, and mufl: be guillotined : the paflions being fo vehement, that contradiction leads to aiTafTination. It has been ob- ferved, that if the oppofition were to be annihilated in England, the monarch would hire one, it being his intereft that his minifters ihould not fall into grofs miftakes. But in France abfolute power has been the author of its own ruin, and ever will be, till the French chara^er can tolerate an oppofition. •> • ■■^.'>\t,'ui,-> The civil laws of France have been recently digefted into one fmall volume. It is divided into three books, the firft concerning perfons* the fecond, property, and its different modifications, and the third the manner in which it may be acquired. This code is remarkable for elegance and perfpicuity *. The population of France was formerly computed, as already ftated. Population. at 26,000,000, but the recent acquifitions, if durable, would fwell it to the formidable extent of 32,000,000. At all events France is a country teeming with population, and quickly refumes her vigour after ftupen- dous lofles, as Europe has repeatedly experienced. The French colonies are at prefent unimportant, notwithftanding the Colonie*. addition of the Spanifh part of St. Domingo. The heft of them have been convulfed and ruined for a feafon by intedine commotions, arifmg from the wild theory of the rights of man being extended to the negroes, who feci that they have a right to ruin and deftroy, but none to build and improve. Perhaps the right of herfes may next be difcuifed ; and our race-horfes be faftened to the plough, while our coach-horfes ftart for the prize at Newmarket. The intercourfe with the remaining colonies is fo much obftru(2ed by the Englifh dominion of the feai ■m -' f * Paris, 1804, 4to. 8vo. iimo. N N 2 that v'.l: ■:• 1* ' JiV>> i, f ■' 0\. I'ht Sit' 'ir"^ '■ ■.If I'i' ;'Mi|.i'i;r HI I'M n I*-' p'iii .1-! if ::f ;li.''^'i],.f-.'.l,l.ji; 476 \W1 '.-fl •» FRANCE. *T .'- COLOKIEJ. Army. Navy. Revenues. that tliey, can hardly be admitted into an eftimate of the prefent fituatlon of France. .t^su ^r^'finrr? ^ra vt-rf ,"!r!cr'.i >j The political convulfions which have agitated this unhappy country, the cnthufialm, and yet more the defpotifm, of freedom, have occa- fionally within rbefe fev7 years fwelled the French armies to the ama- zing computation of upwards of a million. But it may fafely be doubled whether the real amount at any time exceeded 600,000 ef- fedXive men, the French having fwelled the number to intimidate their enemies, and the latter to apologize for their defeats. Under the royal government the army of France was eftimated at 225,000, of which were ininfantry 170,000, cavalry 44,000, artillery 11,000*. The maritime power of France was formidable even to England, till the battle of La Hogue, fince which the Britifh flag has reigned triumphant on the ocean, and the ftruggles of France, though often energetic, have erK:ountered the fixed delliny of inevitable defeat. So frequent, fatal, and decifive, have been the recent humiliations of the French navy, that hardly the femblance of a warlike fleet could be prefented, except by the conftrained aflUfliance of Spain. About twenty fhips of the line conftitute the maritime power of France, being not above one quarter of its former extent. Nor can the lofs be eafily redeemed, for though (hips may be bought or con{lrud\ed, it mud be the labour of many years to form a numerous body of experienced ieamen* ntv -ui^i'^''^ "i'*;;' ;»')f?*f/n'** vj>iTit;<"* Kj;:^%i^'fc-'i*^*F^^ The revenue of France was formerly computed at about 30,000,000!. fterling j from which, after dedudUng the expence of colledlion, and the payment of the iotereft on the national debt, there remained clear about 18,000,000. The national debt may be regarded as greatly reduced; * Sy the Etat Militaire, a calendar revived, for tha eighth year of ihe republic, it spptari that the French armies con f] fled of no demi-brigadei, each cf three batallions, and when com- plete of 3,200 men : of 30 light demi- brigades of a like number : 8 regiments of foot artillery, each of ao companies; 8 of horfe-artilfery, each of 466 men : 26 regiments of cavalry, and >o regiments of dragoons, each ef 800 men: 25 regiments of chafleurs, and 12 regiments of huflars of the like number. The whole, without including the engineers, miners, &c. &c. forming a force of 413,728. It is fuppofed that the confcription, the prefent oppreflive mode of raiiing foldiers in Francr, might, if carried into full cffefl, prefent a mafs of about a million of foldiers. IValcktnatr, , . ' but ■ ■* CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAHPY. »n but any attempt to calculate the prefent ftate of the revenue muft be vague Revenues. andinconclufive. According to the moft recent accounts it amounted to about 600,000,000 livres, or about 25,000,000!. ilerling*. •• «<*.♦.»* »■- The common current money of France has been computed at no,ooo,oool. flerling, while that of Great Britain has been eftimated at 40,000,000. The late conquefts have enriched France, and efpecially I'aris, with the rapine of many provinces ; and the generals vie with the Romans in wealth and luxury. The political importance and relations of France continue to be vaft J Political Tm- nor was the prodigious power of this ftate ever fo completely felt and pi^r'ance and . . , r 1 . t 1.1.,, Relation), acknowledged, as alter a revolution and a war which threatened her very exiftence. When expeded to fall an eafy. prey, (he fuddenly arofe the aggreflbr, and has aftonifhed Europe by the rapidity and extent of her victories. The rivalry of many centuries between France and England funk into a petty difpute, when compared with this mighty conteft, which, will be felt and deploreU by diftant pofterity. * M. Walckenaer fays, that the revenue 1804. was feven hundred milHons of francs; and the intcrell of the pablic debt is about eighty-four millions. Sw-e his long and curious note upon tbis hh]c8, vol. i. p. 6o> of the French tranflation. M. Donnant, who is well verfed in ftstiAics, communicated to me the manufcript of an important work upon this fubjeA, in which he ellimates the revenue at more than eight hundred millions during war, and about feven hundred in peace. The taxes arc doubtlefi heavy, but there being no privileged dafles, the lands are more fully cul- tivated, and the wealth more equally divided. The conftituent aflembly had adopted the fyllein of the oeconomilis, that of direifl impoll ; but it was found alike grievous and inefficient. At prefent the contributions are /■«, Mobiliaire, itti Pcr/cintlU, >vith llamps, cuRom?, patents, or permit- fions to (hopkeepers, (a kind of fhop-tax,) loteries, oiirois, and doits tie paj/i, and taxes on car- riages and fnuff. The national domains alfo form a refource ; but the Com^m&Hut NcavelU is arranged. The national debt feems about fifty millions fterling. The Comptts Gineraux dnTrtfor Public, Paris, at the Imperial prefs, 1805, 410. are no»v before me. They were prefented to the emperor by Barbi Martois, a miniller of knoivn exa^nefs and probity; but the various years are fo confounded, tliat it becomes a matter of calculation to d'fco- ver the receipt and expence of 1804. From the prefatory addrefs to the emperor, p. 13, it app-.ars, that feven millions have been afligned for repairing the highways, two millions for the noble road by MantSimplon, a like fum for the great bridges ; fix millions for canahand drying mar/lies, two millions and a half for internal navigation, and three for the relloration of the fea-ports. In p.-ige 12B, 129, the annuities are Itated at I9,!8S, 5^0 francs, and the penfions at 24,89t,i77. .Itap> peiti from p. 111, that the total receipt of the twelfth year wis 764 millions, and the expence 7OS luilliont, or about thirty-two millions Ilerling. ■ '• : - -■ ' ■ ♦'•'■'' Yet ,i . PH: , ti,- 278 ■^^'■i;l*ifi>0' FRANCE. '^ '^ '' ANCS PonTicAL Yet by the proteftion of all-ruling Providence the Britlfli empire , Sec. rofe fuperior to the rtruggles, and remained free from thofe fcenes of carnage and devaftation, which attended the French progrcfs into other countries : and the French navy being reduced to fo infignificant a force, Great Britain has lefs to apprehend from France, than at any former period. Yet this invaluable advantage is fomewhat diminiihed by the decided preponderance of French power on the continent* particularly in Holland, which formed the grand chain of our com- mercial intercourfe. After all the continental powers have failed, it would be vain to fuppofe that any one of them, fingle and detached can be really formidable to France. And though fome thoufands of miferable peafants may be at any time induced by foreign gold to form an infurredion in any country, and defperadoes as eafily found to condud them, yet there is little caufe to fuppofe that France would be divided^ againll itfelf; for the love and admiration of his country may be pronounced eflential paflions of a Frenchman, who defplfes a foreigner while he is under the neceffity of requcfting his affiftance. The diftance of Ruflia, the fecond, if not the firfl power on the con- tinent, renders her favour or enmity of fmall importance to France; but betweeti this laO; country and the Auftrian power lading jealoufy and enmity have fubfifted, fince the reign of the Emperor Charles V; and a collifion of interefls in Germany, Swifferland, and Italy have contributed to maintain this rivalry. The envied acquifition of Silelia, and other caufes, having likewife excited a rooted hatred between Auftria and Pruffia, it is natural that the latter country fhould either confpire with France againft the Auftrian greatnefs, or connive at its fall. Yet to a calm and unprejudiced fpedator it might appear the moft found policy for thefe three great powers to abandon inimical views, and to regard with a general eye of defence and jealoufy the growing and already exorbitant power of Ruilia; which may in time confider them as provinces, and overflow Europe with another tor- rent of barbarifm *. * If the Prefident of (he French Senate, PranjoisDe Neufchatcao, had perufed with candoor this view of the political relations of his country, he ought to hive refrained from publifliing his long ind t'.-r CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ltd vio'ent attack upon all the political parti of this work, under the title of Taihau dis Fuei queji tfMJi Lm Pol'tiji* -^'i^^'A* Jaiu tiHtit Ui Parlin du Monde. The author of thii geography waa thcndetained it Pari*, aod could not venture to reply, ai « publication from a man of fuch weight II (he Prelidcnt of the Senate, and fach talenu aa Pranf on De Neufchaieau, menaced him with no lefi thin the Temple. At prefent, he may aver, that thia long attack confifta merely of mifrepre* fcnted fragments; that no man can be moreaverfe to kindle wara between nations, though he fome- limci mail argue upon the fuppofition that fuch wara may happen : that, in fine, the author wrote IS a geographer and cofmopolite ; and though he admire the maxim of Fenelon, <■ Inafmuch as I •• lore my country better than myfclf, fo I love the human race better than my country;" yet is ke to be blamed for having written with the feelings of an Englilhman ? a^y irtMf- f)V4.. iUf^n^- ■ -f.'V. !)/ .? fi'. ViiX tj:. i'ii} I i ' •h ''i v.. -.5 (Til- t!i M,.:.j; ill':.;; ?i I * ' u fh'W ^'-i^ jf.l :.¥i'*%i^tiO^ ^n!4 «'--■» .fit. ,(«•■ Upfff .*.. , 3-' iff. >0 fl- \^^'...c 11 >..,;. i '.'. " '' ' *';, rif >-''■ '';i,Pj \i . ,.''1 :•»■;,!■■; •) r-i.'!f. .''5S1 •'ill 43 J Vj:^-:.<^j,) FRANCE. "J .'• U t^ ,-i-. : ••|!, • ..'.to . ,J ^ir ■): I *».;« i.'T .*^vV>VV./ Wf '.t*-; ■• I ^Vik*^ '♦■iV ,4itiV|»^.^f-^;v' •, ^^ -,. •i,; ,'.. ." .(, ' ;.■ Ji- , .. ^ .*>»"- ■ ■'■'* ' -^ •'•''' ^ "■' ^ ■. ,>;,i;A7>f ju'. 'i.. , „. .., j' 5, ..,•. .r ^, .sW ,.-,.• ,y-.';v; CHAPTER III. "'"■'' -:••■—, ..•,.■•-■" r ), -• -,;.;. , '> r> ■ .f -l ' '' ■ ' • . Civil Geography. ••:''< •-*..! .:.;:'!' ' :»e"' •*' i ; ,fl . l/'f ^ i ^i ' . ; Manners and Cujloms. — Language. — Literature. — Education. — Univerftties.— Cities and Towns.-^EdiJices. — Inland Navigation. — Manttfailurss and Commerce, AND Customs MAfiNFRs npHE manners and cuftoms of the French have been fo often delineated, that the theme has become trivial and familiar. The mod pleafing parts of the portrait are vivacity, gaiety, politenefs, a fingular dipofition towards focial enjoyments, and that favoir vivre which enables the adept to difpofe of his occupations and pleafures in an agreeable fuccelfion, free from liftleflhefs or fatigue. In general Frenchmen regard care as a mortal poifon, and ftudy, if poffible, to avoid its moft diftant approach. On the other hand ancient and recent events confpire to affix a fanguinary ftain on the national charafter, which one would little expe£t amid fo much gaiety, and feeming benevolence. The caufes of this incongruity might afford an ample fubje£t for philofophical enquiry. Even the violent changes which Lave taken place feem to have little affefted their chara£terifl:ic gaiety, and Paris continues to be one of the happiefl cities in the world : while the fcreams of maflacre refounded in fome parts of the city, in others the theatres were crowded, and nothing was heard but founds of pleafure. The ancient and rooted enmity between France and England nourifhed many prejudices againft the French character, which have fince difappeared in the reports of more candid authors. Yet, with travellers accuftomed to the elegance of Englifli life, many of the French manners and cuftoms cannot be reconciled to ideas of phyfical purity ; and the example of the perfonal and domeftic cleanlinefs of the Engliih muft ftill be recommended to imitation. The laws and decency of marriage are alfo frequently facriBced ; and the loofenefs of the French morals, in regard to the fex, has become proverbial. A re- publican \ CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. Hi RS AND Customs. publican form of government has not fuper-induced republican manners, Mannb nor has the libcj-ty of divorce proved any bond of chaftity. As every thing continues to be ruled by fafliion, it is not unreafonable to hope that even virtue may become fafliionable. While ibme phyficlans have attempted to account for Englifh melan- choly from the quantities confumed of animal food, it appears on th6 contrary that a Frenchman will devour as muth as two Englillimcn- difguifed, indeed, and modified, fo as to beguile and ftimulate the ap- petite to larger indulgence. In the difference of climate therefore, and in the ufe of light wines, mull be fought the chief phyfical caufes of this difcrcpancy. The houfes of the French often difplay a ftrangc mixture of magnificence and naftinefs ; and while even a cottage irt England will (hew attention to the comforts, conveniences, feelings, and infirmities of human nature, in France the nofe may be aflfailed, while the eyes are enraptured. France has long afforded models of drefs to all Europe, nor have the fafliions of Paris yet totally loft theif fantaftic authority. In the frequent and ridiculous allufions to the ancient republics, none of which bore the moft diftant refemblance cyf modern France, it was natural that the Grecian and Roman drefs fhould afford models of imitation, and an infallible Confequence that the drefs would become more elegant. In a country where life itfelf is an arnufement it is to be cxpe£ted that the diverfions fhould be infinitely varied. In the capital theatrical reprefentation.^ bear the chief fway, and every evening about twenty theatres are open and full. Yet thefe republicans do not rival their favourite Greeks and Romans, in opening theatres and amphi- theatres at the expence of the government, an inftitution worthy of mo-^ dera imitation, as to afford amufements to the people may frequently fave them from finding their own amufements in drunkennefs and other lowvices*. ""K t«^"'> ' i^ 7;'i:\-JTv> Vf.: i, •':■ :rm* ^?-v il^l;:^' -•:••-■.•• The French iafnguage is the moft univeffally diffufed <^ any in Europe* Language. In variety, clearnefs, and precifion, and idioms adapted to life, bufinefs, and pleafure, it yields to no modern fpeech ; but it wants force and * M. Walckenter obrervet, that there ii a diftingniihed difFerepce between (the inhabitan'»of France en the north of the Loire, and thofc on the fouth, in features, temperameotj manners, and chaiadler. The lalt are not the beft. VOL, I, . O O , dignity. \* ¥m aaHBi* ■■■■'fan ■ t- . ■ ■» *«■■■ * Mr ■■■■ '' ■ '■ "fl' i '■']}■ i8.s 'T T R A N C 'E. i LAKooAat. dignity, and yet more, fublimlty, fo far as a ftranger may ventare to judge. The critics and academicians of the feventeenth century en. adled fuch fevere laws of purity, that, like gold reduced to the utmod finenefs, it has become foft and incapable of deep impreiTions. The French language is a well known corruption of the Roman, mingled with Celtic and Gothic words and idioms. Even in the tenth century it continued to be called Romance ; a name which afterwards pafTed to the poems and tales of chivalry, as being compofed in this dialed. One of the earlieft fpecimens of French profe is the hiftory by Vijlehar. douin, .which was followed by Joinville's Jife of St. Louis, and the copious and fmgular chronicle of Froiflart. But while the Italian re- mains the fame from the days of Dante and Petrarca, the epoch of claflical purity of the French language commences with the reign of Louis XIV. The recent revolution has introduced fuch exuberance of new words, and phrafes, that litical bufmefs, which have furprifed the fpedators of the French revolution. When the civil commotions in England deftroyed ail power, except that of knowledge, the number of men of talents, who arofe in every department,, infinitely exceed* that which the recent events of France have difplayed* Nor, as ignorance naturally leads ta aime, and the want of education at once darkens and hardens the mind, can thia defedl be excepted from the caufes cf ;he fanguinary' events which have appalled Europe. National education has juftly^ attraded the attention or the new rulers, with what fucceffr time' muftr' difcover; for there is. a- wide difference between forming a^ plaufible^ fcheme, and the putting of it in lading execution, with regulations and funds that fupport themfelves. Under whatever form of governmenCr the ignorant will be found the moft uQmanageabIe~; and thofe jacobines. who attempted to extinguifli what they- termed the ariftocracy of know- ledge, united, as ufual, every vice to confummate igporaocew France formerly boaftied of twenty-one univerfitics;: in the north Univcifiue*. Dcuay, €laen, Paris, Rheims-, Nanci, Straibourg; in the middle pro- vinces Nantesj Angers, Poiiiersj Orleans,, Bourgesj Dijon^ Befan9on, and in the fouth Bourdeaux, Pau,. Perpignan, Touloufe,. Montpellicr,- Aix, Orange, Valence. ' Of thefe the borbonne of Paris was the moft celebrated; but it (hewed* an irremediable tendency to prolong the niga of fcholaftic theology> The: academies andlUerasyfocieties were- ; L« Cniai Grographie, Tomt i. 379.. 00 2 computed m m '■•!■ ' }(i .'■ 1 In '?*t : Iw 11 p ?-!:,l< m m 'Ji Ijpf Wwm at4 :tH. a FRANCE. Citie* ind Towni. Parii. Univirsi. computed at thirty-nine. Thofc of Paris in particular have been lone known to the learned world, by elegant and profound volumes of dif. fertations on the Sciences, and on the Belles Lettres. Nor have public inftitutions of this kind been foreign to the confidcration of the new government*. < »w'' ; Ti :u. ir,i.^j DiiT jtV' ' "W*,v' ^v lo • i- The ample extent of this country difplays a correfponding number of important cities and towns. Paris, the capital, rifes on both fides the river Seine, in a pleafant and healthy fituation, with delightful en. virons. It is divided into three parts ; the town, vil/e, on the north, the city in the middle, that part called the univerfity on the fouth. It is mentioned by Caefar* as being reftrided in his time to an ifland in the midft of the Seine. An intelligent traveller fuppofes Paris to be one third fmaller than London :' and if fo the inhabitants can fcarcely exceed 400,000 ; yet fome compute them at more than 600,000. f The houfes are chiefly built with free fione, from quarries like catacombs which run in various directions under the ftreets ; fo that an earthquake would be peculiariy deftrudive, and might bury part of the city. The banks of the Seine prefent noble quays ; and the public buildings are not <»nly elegant in themfelves, but are placed in open and com< xnanding lltuations. Ttie Louvre is arranged among the bed fpeclmeas of modern architedure; and the church of St. Genevieve, now the Pantheon, is alfo defervedly admired; nor muft the Tuileries, the Palais Royal, and the Hofpital of Invalids be forgotten. Paris no doubt exceeds London in magnificence, but yields greatly in cleanlinefg and conveni«nce ; and the ftf eets, generally without accommodatioa for foot paflengers, loudly befpeak the inattention of the government t!. a ».i.-.L' 'Anna aii ni :r«vin!^>vi:;u. qKlovj.-sw/j tj b»JU.!i>'} yfrim.-i) y, * The prefepl mode of edaeaiioa ti by twa.feti of fchooli, ihe'firft called prinvy, for tht earlier rudimmti of inftfaftion ; the other called fecondary, for Latin, &c. The deiiominacions ire not unobjeAionabte, a primary fchool rather denoting one of the firft or higheft order. Thefetre followed by Lytiu, or Lyceoma, which fupply the place of the ancient collegct. There are alfo fpecial fcbopls ; atitbe college of- France which ftill exifii> fcbools of medicine at Pari*, Montpe. lier, and Strafburg, fchools of mines, tie. The public inllraAion is fuperintervded by a miniAer named for that pdrpofe ; at prefent the office is defervedly filled by Fourcroy, who, when the author left Francet w^a employed in vifitiirg all the Lyeen of the empire. , * Comm. lib. vii. 54. > Young's France, i. 76, ^ By an enumeration in 1803, the nunriwa was S^7>7i^- Walckenaer. i-it CHAP. III. Civil geography.' to the middle and lower clafTcs of men. The environs of the Bois de ^'J,'"' *"» Boulogne, Mont Martre, Paflfy, St. Dennis, &c. are pleafingly diver- fified. The recent revolution has little impaired the beauty of Pari* ; on the contrary the rapine of fcvcral provinces has enlarged and adorned the public collections; and by enriching numerous individuals, has enabled them to inereafe their favourite city with new and beautiful ftreeis and fquares. Next to Paris in extent and population was the noble city of Lyons, Lyont. which was fuppofed to contain about 1 00,000 fouls. As the chief ma- nufactures were articles of luxury, filk, cloths of gold, and filver, &c. it was natural that this venerable town fliould be firmly attached to the ancient ariftocracy, though with confequences incalculably fatal to its profperity. Durirtg the infatuated reign of the jacobins it was befieged, captured, and after the wildefl: and bafeft maflacres, was doomed to final demolition. But as there are bounds even to rage and folly, this decree was only executed in part ; though Lyons will probably never recover its ancient extent and opulence, for commerce when once ex- pelled feldom returns. * ^"^-'^ *'•■'" ' •• • *':' '^ -'"^' -'■ a^'J • The thirtl and fourth cities of France are Marfeilles, and Bourdeaux ; Mwroillet. each peopled by about 80,000 fouls. The foundation of Marfeilles has been already mentioned, and the city remains worthy of its ancient fame, the port being at the fame time one of the beft and moll fre- quented in the whole Mediterranean. The exchange is a noble building, and the new parts of the city are beautiful. Bourdeaux was a profperous city, but the trade mud have fuffered Bourdeavx. great injury. The port is ample and commodious, with extenfive quays. The chief exports are wine and brandy, particularly the vin de Bourdeaux, which we term claret, becaufe it is of a clear and tratif- pareni red, while tent and feme other wines are opake. The theatre is the moft magnificent in France, and the aCtors ufed to receive extra- vagant falaries; and as much as London exceeds Paris, fo much did Bourdeaux, before the revolution, tranfcend Liverpool*. In giving a brief idea of the other chief cities and towns of France, it may be premifed that ihofe of the NethcrlandiJ formerly belonging to i\.>i-.- e-*i * Young, i. 60. Auftria, " 1 m tit I I! Amieni. m$ • . PRANCl. CiT'iiANo Auftria, are referved for fcparate defcription. Bat among thofe wVirV TowKt. formerly belonged to what was ftyled French. Elanderi, may be n*mci Liflc. Lifle and Valenciennes; the former more memorable for its (\rengtlK than for its manufadures of camlets and Auffs, The population ii Valtndrantr. computed at 6o,ooo. Valenciennes is alfo remarkable for the ftrength of its fortifications ;. yet on the 26th July, i793t >t Airrendered to the Engliih and Auftrian army, under the Duke of York ; but was retakea by the French army in the following year. The chief manufadlures, lace, camlets, and cambrics. Amiens is a confiderablc town^, with a^ population of about 40,000} but Rouen, former-ly the capital of Normandy, contains 72,000 fouli, and carries on. a confidcrable trade. Breft is more remarkable as being the chief maritime arfenal. of France in the North,, than for its extent oc population, which does not exceed 30,000. Nantes,, with a population of 56,000,, is a beautiful commercial city, with a fplendid theatre, and many new ftreets, but the environs are barren and uninterefting'. Orleans, a city of about 40,000 fouls^ is celebrated by two ftegea which it fuftained, one againft' Attila, king of the Huns,, in the fiftli century, the other againll the Engli(h in the fifteenth. The duchy of Orleans has long been the appanage of a branch of the royal line, the revenue having been computed at the enormousfiim of about 300,000!. fterling. Nancy in Lorrain is not equal to Metz in extent, but is ona of the moft beautiful cities in France. Straibourg is a. venerable city, with a population of about 40,000, feized by Louis XIV in i68i,.and confirmed to him by the peace of Refwick in 1697. The fortifications are firong ; and the gpthic cathedral prefents the wellrknown fpire of 574, feet in. height. Few of the other inland towns deferve mention, except Tbuloufe, a city of 50,000 fouls ; and the parliament of which was efteemed, under the old government, next in rank to that of Pariff : the extent is great,, but the manufadures are trifling, though here be the.termination of the great cana}, opened by Louis XIV, from the Mediterranean to the. Garonne, a work truly magnificent, and Mrhich alone would preferve ■-.(.1 .'t Touloubt I yoong'i P/ance, i. 104. 1U9 CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. it7 bM memory to future ages. Alontpellier, on the Mediterrftnean, wtth Citih and delicious and highly ornamented environs, and a noble aquedu£t, is of ^owmi confiderable extent, but particularly ttii'br ted by the falubrity of the air, and an ancient fchoo) of medicine. The profpeit is Hngularly ex- tenfive, and intereding, eml> ' ing the I'yrenees on the one fide, and on ihc other, the yet grander fuminitp nf the Alps \ Several of the mod noble edifices of France are in Paris, and its Edififci vicinity. To thofe already mentioned mud be added the palace of Verfailles, rather remarkable however for the profufion of expence, than for the ikill of the architect ; the parts being fmali and unhar^ monious, and the general eiTeft rather idle pomp than true grandeur *-, The bridge of Neuilly is edeemed the mod beautiful in Europe, confid- ifig of five wide arches of equal fize, indead of our fmall fide arches which degrade the- dignity of fuch fabrics. That of St. Maxence is by the fame celebrated artid. The ancient cathedrals and cadles are fo nu- merous that it would be idle to attempt to enumerate them ; and the French nobility were not contented, like thofe of Spain, with large houfes ia the cities, but had grand chateaux fcattered over the kingdom, to which, however, they feldom retired, except when compelled by formal baniihment from the court. The inland navigation of France has been promoted by feveral inlMdNa* capital exertions. The canal of Briare, otherwife ftyled that of Bur- ^'' gundy, was begun by Henry IV, and completed by Louis XIII, opening a communication between the Loire and the Seine, or in othec words between Paris and the wedern provinces. Faffing by Montar- gis it joins the canal of Orleans, and falls into the Seine near Fontain- bleau. This navigation of forty-two locks, is of great utility in inland comnverce '« * Young't France, i. 48. For a more ample account of the French ciiiici* the reader Bay coa- hit a long note of M. Walckenaer, in the French tranflition of thii work* vol. i. p. S8. * The anthor hai iince viewed thii celebrated ediice whh an «ye of complete ioipartiilily. To- Kudi the garden 'it ii truly noble ; but the other front ii d«(r«dfd by the old little chateaa of Lonii XIII, built in a bad ftyle, and diifigured with minute omamenti ; which wai preTerved in the centre of the building, at a capricioui objcfl of comparifoo, in ceatradiAien to ch« advice of iho irchited. ! Philipi, 51. The ''■km :'l ' 'H^}^:m 3M '«*;•? I'll ago FRANCE. Mamufac- various kinds, gloves, fkins, loap, oxen, fheep, mules, and above all Comm'skce". wines and brandies. By the account for 1 784, which did not include the provinces of Lorrain and AUace, nor the Weft Indian trade, the ftatement was Total exports, 307,151,700 livres. - " imports, 271,365,000 Balance, 35.786,700, or^^ 1,565,668 fterling. The trade with the Weft Indies gave a large balance againft France, which in 1786 exported to the amount of more than 64,000,000 livres but the imports exceeded 174,000,000. The average imports of France in 1788 were about twelve millions and a half fterling, the exports near- ly 15,000,000. The imports of Great Britain in the fame year were about 18,000,000, the exports feventeen and a half^ Since the French revolution the commerce of England has been conftant- ly on the increafe} while that of our rival has been almoft anni- hilated *. » Yoang, I, sao. * Ample and authentic information upon tliefe toptci nay be derived fron the ilatillic ac- count! of the feveral departments of France, now nearly complete. They will form one hundred and eight oflavo pamphlets, moftly written by the prefeAt themfelves, and certainly reflet credit on the government. A minute account of the produdions and manufa£luret of France ta alfo given by M. Walckenaer, in a long and inftru£live note to his tranflation of this work, vol. i. p. 126 — 150. At Lyons is celebrated for filks, Louvieres and Sedan for woollen clotbi, fo Strafburg for madder snd tobacco. See Laumond Stat, du Bas-Rhin. M. Donnant obferves, that the filk manufaAure was introduced by Louis XI. about the year 1470. The filk mills in France are about fifteen hundred, the looms about twenty-eight thou- fand ; befides twelve thoufand for ribbons, lace and galloons, and forty thoufand for Hock. ings ; the whole filk manafaClure occupying about two millions of people. The looms for woollens are about thirty.five thoufand ; for cottons twenty-four thoufand. Abbeville fabri> cates fails and broad cloths; Elbeuf, Lottvieres^ Sedan, broad cloths; Rouen linens; Bretagne linen, cordage, fails; Berri linen; Auvergne laces, papers, (that of Annonay is ceVbrated;) Montpelier liqueurs ; Langres cutlery ; St. Quintin iatifte* or cambrics ; Paris glafs ; Sevres porcelain. The beft carpets are made at the Savonnerie in the village of Pafly, near Pari.'. Joiiy, near Verfailles, excels in printing linens ; the manufaAure is the property of a Swif), aod is {iiid to occupy about twelve hundrec^ men, women, and children. CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. hgi , CHAPTER IV. ■ ■ _ -..^ ■,'' . • 1^ ' ■ Natural Geography. Climate and Seafons. — Face of the Country. — So/7 and Agriculture.— Riven.— ^ Lakes - Mountains — Forejis. — Botany. — Zoology. — Mineralogy. — Mineral Wa- ters, — Natural Curlofities. nrHE climate of fo extenfive a kingdom as France, may be expeded Climatb ■* to be various. In general it is far more clear and ferene than *"" f *** '-' IONS. that of England ; but the northern provinces are expofed to heavy rains, which however produce beautiful verdure and rich paftures'. The author quoted has obferved, that rain is feldom fo incefiant in Eng- land, as not to prefeni interruptions in the courfe of every day ; while on the continent it flows unabated. He divides France into three climates, the northern, the central, and the fouthern. The firft yields no wines; the fecond no maiz ; the third produces wines, maiz, and olives. Theie diviHons proceed in an oblique line from the S. W. to the N. £., fo as to demonftrate " that the ealtern part of the kingdom is two and a half degrees of latitude hotter than the wefiern, or if not hotter more favourable to vegetation." The central diviflon, Mr. Young conliders as one of the fined provinces in the world, containing among others the diftrift of Touraine, which the French particularly celebrate, yet it is expofed to violent Ihowers of hail. The chief difadvantage of the third climate is the flies. " They are the firft of torments in Spain, Italy, and the olive diftrid of France : it is not that they bite, fling, or hurt, but they buz, teaze, and worry: your mouth, eyes, ears, and nofe, are full of them : they fwarm on every eatable, fruit, iugar, milk, every thing is attacked by them in fuch myriads, that, if they are not driven away inceflantly by a perfon who has nothing elfe to do, to eat a meal is impoflible." One great advantage of the climate of France 5i ■!' t LlP'' :|;i;!;.i#p^l:->;:4.:ji i.. * Young'* Fr.ince, i, 309, P P 2 arifes t^i FRANCE. Climate AK» StA- tONi. Pace of the Country. Soil and Agriculture arifes from its being adapted to the culture of the vine, which flourlfhes in fpots that would otherwife be wafte. The face of the country is generally plain ; and the only moun- tains deferving of the name are found in the South, in Auvergne and Languedoc, Dauphin^ and Provence. Brittany correfponds greatly Iq appearance with CornwaH, and abounds in extenfive heaths *. In Lorrain are found the Mountains of Voiges, far inferior to the fouthera elevations. For beauty Mr. Young prefers the Limofm to any other province of France j yet much of the kingdom is finely diverfiBed with hill and dale, and the rivers, particularly the iseine, are often grand and pidlurefque. The variations of the foil have been ably illuftrated by the fame ftil- ful farmer *. The N. E. part from Flanders to Orleans is a rich loarak Further to the W. the land is poor and ftoney ; Brittany being generally gravel, or gravelly fand, with low ridges of granite. The chalk runs through the centre of the kingdom, from Germany by Champagne to Saintonge ; and on the N. of the mountainous trad is a large extent of gravel, probably walhed down in primeval times ; but even the moun- tainous regionof the fouth is generally fertile, though the large province formerly called Gafcony prefent many landes^ or level heaths* The fame writer has ably illuftrated the defeds of French agriculturej which cannot be more efFedually expofed than in his own words; " In order the better to underftand how the great difference of pro- dud between the French and Englifli crops may afied the agriculture^ of the two kingdoms, it will be proper to obferve that the farmer in England will reap as much from his courfe of crops, in which wheat and rye occur but feldom,. as the Frenchman can from^ his, in which they return often*. .... * The. marfliei of-La Vendee form a Angular and rare feature in Prance, and coatributed a na* tnral refuge to the prolongation of the civil war.. For an aiunated-defcriptioa» the reader iu| confuU Walckenaer, i. 137. ; Young's France,. i. 29S. Aq CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. «^3 An Englilh courfe. 1, Turnips 2, Barley 3, Lllover 4, Wheat 2S 5 Turnips 6, Barley 7, Clover .' : 8, Wheal 25 9, Tares or beans 10, Wheat 25 11, Turnips 75 A French courfe. 1, Fallow 2, Wheat 3, Barley, or oats . 4, Fallow 5, Wheat 6, Barley, or oats 7, Fallow 8, Wheat 9, Barley, or oats 10, Fallow 11, Wheat 18 18 18 18- 72 Soil AoKi TV ANB CVL. " The Engllfliman in eleven years gets three bufliels more of wheat than the Frenchman. He gets three crops of barley, tares, or beans, which produce nearly twice as many buihels per acre, as what the three French crops of fpring corn produce. And he fur- ther gets at the fame time three crops of turnips, and two of clo* ver, the turnips worth 4.0s. the acre, and the clover 60s. ; that is 12I. for both. What an enormous fuperiority !. More wheat; almoft double of the fpring corn ; and above 20s. per acre, per annum, in turnips and clover. But further, the £ngU(hman's land, by means of the manure ariHng from the confumption of the turnips and clo- ver, is in a conftant (late of improvement ; while the Frenchman's* farm is ftationary. Throw the whole into a caflv account, and it willl (land thus:—— Englilh SyDern. Whest 75 buihels at 5s. Sprine cum three crops at 32 oolhels, 96 bulheb at 21, 6d. Clover, two crops. Turnipi, three crept \i 15 o 1200 600 6 c o 42 15 £cr«cre, perunum 3 17 8 French Syftem. Wheat 73 buihels at 5 s. Spring corn, three crops at zo buihels, 60 bulhfU.- at 21. 6s. Per 3cre« per annual £. *• 18 « T. 'o or aj 10 ^> 2 6 4r « In* mlii (Mi ■■■.,'« 'J mmnm PI* Xt^'--yi^M •"S '394 SaiL AMD AOKICVL- TVHS. Wnes. . '1.^ • .'■ FRANCE.' .' ' I ' V " In allowing the French fyftem to produce twenty bufliels of fpring corn, while I aflign thirty-two only to the Englilh, I am con- fident that I favour the former confiderably ; for I believe the Engliih produce is double of that of France : but liating it as above, here are the proportions of forty-two on an improving farm, to twenty-five on a ftationary one ; that is to lay, a country containing 100,000,000 acres produces as much as another whofe area contains 168,000,000, which are in the fame ratio as thirty-fix and twenty-five V* For ample and numerous illuftrations of the defeds of the French fyftem, the reader is referred to the fame ufeful publication. In feme of the provinces however, the plans of agricaltur€ correfpond with the natural fertility of the foil ; and others difplay a moft laudable induftry. A (hiking inftance of the latter is the artificial fertility conferred on fome of the barren mountains of the Cevennes*. As the waters which run dowa the fides carry confiderable quantities of earth into the ravines, walls of loofe ftones are ereded, which permit the waters to pafs when they are clear ; but when turbid their load of earth is gradually depofited againft the wall, and affords a fpace of fertile foil. Succeflive ramparts are thus' ereded to the very top of the mountain j and the water, having no longer a violent fall, only ferves to nourifh the crops, which are moreover protefted by planting fruit trees at certain intervals, fo as to lend fecurity and confiftehce to the new acquifition. By another procefs calcareous mountains, which generally rife in (helves, are ren- dered produdive by cutting away the rock behind the Ihelf, which fupplies materials for a low wall aroUnd the edge. The interval is afterwards filled with earth, and the barren mountain is crowned with luxuriant terraces. One of the moft precious produdls of France is its wines, which are, in general, fuperior to thofe of any other country, and reputed among the luxuries even of thofe countries, which abound in valuable vineyards. The fouth-weftern diftrids produce what we call claret, which is by the French phyficians ranked among the cold wines. Tiie beft vineyards are thofe of La Fitte and Chateau Margot. The wines ' young's Fiance^ i. 357. Nichclfon't Journal, iii. 39;. of .*-.-- .V'v <■' CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. z^^ of Champagne, the rofe-coloured and the white, are rendered frothy and Wines. fparkling by art. Thofe of Burgundy, Clos-Vaugeot, Volnay, Pomard, Beaiine, Macon, &c. are the moft healthy ordinary wines, of a warm, generous, and invigorating quality. But an Englifhman, accodomed to the fuppofcd grape of Oporto, will find the elegant and healthy wines from the banks of the Rhone, more agreeable to his habits and conftitution ; that of Donzere being nearly equal in ftrength, and far fuperior in flavour to port, while that of Savafle is milder ; but the beft, perhaps, is that of Rochemaure. The Tavel is of a beautiful tranfparent red, and is laid to relemble that of Shiraz in Perfia, the tafte is peculiar and fingularly pleafing. Thofe of Hermitage * and Cote Rotie are well known. Among the white wines of this part of France that of Frontignan, which we call Frontiniac, is well known: for its rich and peculiar flavour, while the St. Pairet deferves mention for its fingularity, being of an agreeable relifh and tolerable ftrength, though in colour not dillinguifhable from water. The rivers of Vrance form the next obje^ of eonfideration ; and Rivenfr ,. among thefe four are eminent, the Seine, the Loire, the Rhone, and the Garonne. The firfl is one of the mod beautiful dreams of Ftante, Seincir rifing near Saint Seine, in the modern department of Cdte D'Or, a portion of ancient Burgundy, it purfues its courle to the N. W. till it enter the Englilh channel at Havre de Grace, after a courfe of about 250 Englilh miles. It may here be remarked that the length aflligned to rivers is not calculated with exadnefs, a work of infinite and uncer- tain labour, but merely affords a comparative fcale, to judge of the relation, which the courfe of one river bears to another. The Loire derives its fource from Mont Gerbier in the N. of ancient Loire. Languedoc; and after a northern courfe turns to the wed, entering the ocean a confiderablc way beyond Nantes, after a courfe of about 500 miles. The Rhone fprings from the Glacier of Furca, near the mountain Rhoue; of Giimfel in Swiflferland ; and after paflfing the beautiful vales of the * Near Taia on the Ifcre. *■: mm ■S. ■ j "' . 1 '%■ •■•{ . I t. *.- ! t.! |i^ ' (J II' I !> ■! ■ .' .. A iff ■ . ijfc' I'^Xr \i fl\:\\yyyMM ;■■- !■ f- ' ■ "*Ki'v,|^aj \i'K;^.«:l^ IP Vall^s. >-■«>■ 89^ RlVERI. Garonne. Lakei. Moantaini. / «• n : FRANCE. Vallaie;, and the lake of Geneva, bends its courfe towards the foutli, and eaters the Mediterranean. The comparative courfe 400 miles. The Garonne rifes in the va;; of Arau in the Pyrenees. The courfe .0 i . >;-. . ' Before proceeding to the grand chain of mountains in the S. of France, it may he proper briefly to mention a few mountainous trails in the north. Thofe of Brittany are granitic and primitive, but like thofe of Cornwall of fmall elevation. They divide into branches towards Breil and Aleo^on. The Vofges f, in the department of that * Young's France, i. ^05. * Some fmall but piAurrfque lakei occur among the Vnfges, ts the Lac Blanc near Poo. troye. anrl thofe of Gerardmer and Longeraer. Sivry, Obf. Min. fur lei Voi'ges, Nancy, ijii, 8vo. p. 6z. 203. The river La Vulcgne yields pearl*, lb. 109. f The mountainj of Vofges and the diftrift to the e»ft, are by the Germans called the Hund. fruck. If the French e^iiend their boundaries to the Rhine, this intcrclting portion of Germany will form a valuable accefBon, including not only a great part of the Palatinate, with the cvtietof Mcntz, WurmF, ard Spire, but the countries of Simmern, Sponheim, Obtrfiein, Birkenfeld, and Zwy'^ruelien, conllituiing the importai.t duchy of that name, more generally called Deu Pcnii, iuppofed tu coniam i3o,ooo inhabirants, and yieldirg a revenue of $oo,oeo florins. ConfK'erable chains of mountains appear on tue W. and E. of Deux Punts, remarkable for nineral produdiuni, cfpccialty mercury, aod beautilul agates. name, ' \ CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPIIV. 897 ' vcnnci. name, in the S. of ancient Lorrain, are fuppolcd to he be conncdcd with Mountainj. the mountains of Swiflerland *. Mont Jura, a vanguard of the Alps, forms a boundary between France Mjnt Jur». and Swifferland. If Mont Blanc he admitted among the French moun- tains, the other Alps cannot rival its fupreme elevation. The ancient province of Dauphint difplays feveral alpine branches, which alfo extend through great part of Provence. To the weft of the Rhone arifes the grand chain of the Cevennes, c,, which have been defcribed by a recent author'. He obferves that the Cevennes feem the principal centre of the primitive mountains of France, extending into feveral branches. The principal branch runs along the river Ardcche towards Ales. 2, Another traverfes the Rhone on the fide of Tournon and Vienne, tovvards the plains of Dauphine'. 3. That forming the mountains of Beaujolois, pafTing by Tarare, Autun, &c. till it be loft at Avalon. This branch is about 70 leagues in length, but in breadth fometimes not more than a league: it contains the copper mines of Chefi and St. Bel, and fome lead mines. Coal is alfo found in the declivities. 4. The branch which, feparating the bafon of the Loire from that of the Allier, forms the mountains of Forez. It paflTes Roanne on the one fide, and Thiers on the other, and is loft towards St. Pierre le Moutier. The plain of Montbriflbn is bounded by thefe third and fourth granitic branches. 5. That which, feparating the bafon of the Allier from that of the Cher, paiTes bj Clermont to Montlu^on. 6. That ftretching towards Limoges, 7. That from the Dordogne towards the Charente. 8. That dividing the Dor- dogne from the Garonne. This account is not a little confufed, as here are abundant branches without one trunk. The grand chain of the Cevennes runs Trom N. to 8., and fends out branches towards the E. and W. In the modern departments of the upper Loire and Cantal, are appearances .1 'J,' !• .*' r ' ■ i I,.,, f' ■-'','■ f ill. '•■i^'u^-' ■'■■'■'i 'f'~'f ■ m * Lameth. Theo. de la Ter. iv. 38 j.. In the valley of Plancher les Mines is fbcii:l green gn- nite, a rare fubllance, of which tables and other ornamental articles are made at Paris. The bigii- ell mountain is about four thuufand three hundred feet above the leval of the fea. ' Ibid. VOL. I. Q>Q. which. 29I FRANCE. MouNTAiHs. which, in the opinion of eminent naturalifts, indicate ancient volcanoes- but as thefe fuppofed appearances confift chiefly of bafaltic columns and elevations, feme confider them as having no claim to a volcanic origin. This fubjedl remains dubious: as pretended lavas may be particular ftones in a ftate of dccompofition *. Yet the numerous exifting volcanos in South America, fuppofed by many to have been a more recent continent, will compel the impartial inquirer, who will fhun any exclufive fyftem, to allow that many extindt volcanoes mav exift ; but he never will grant that bafaltic columns afford the fmalldl: prefumption of a volcano, as they rarely appear in the neighbourhood of exifting volcanoes, and are fometimes found refting on coal, which in cafe of fire muft have been totally confumed. The rocks of Puv Axpailli, and Polignac, rife in fudden and grotefque forms ; but thefe appearances are fometimes aiTumed even by granite, as may be obferved in Cornwall. The bafaltic mountains of the ancient province of Auvergne arc likewife too extenfive to be proiIj>.:ed by a fingle volcano, and a chain of volcanos would be toe bold even for conjecture. The northern part of the chain is ftyled the Puy de Dome, while the fouthern is called that of Cantal '. The Monts D'Or form the centre, and are the higheft mountains in France. The chief elevation is that of the Puy de Sanfi, which rifes about 6,300 feet above the level of the fea, while th*? Puy de Dome is about 5000, and the Plomb du Cantal, the higheft of that part, is about 6,200 feet. Near the Puy de Sanfi is I'Ango, that gigantic mountain, and Ecor- chade a (battered and wrecked elevation. The Plomb du Cantal Is alfo accompanied by bold rivals, as the Puy de Griou, le Col-de-Cabre, le Puy Mari, and the Violent. This enormous aflemblage of rocks covers an extent of about 120 miles, and according to the French authors is • The authcr has fmce received a confiderable colleflion of fpecimens from this part of France, and entertairs no doubt that they are volcanic. M. DaubuifTon, a difciple of Werner, and a con' firmed Neptunilt, was equally convinced, in fpite of alibis fcepticifm, after an afiual vifit to the country. M. de Buch, a Pruflian naturalill, was equally convinced by a vilii to the fpot, and fays the Puy de Dome is a granite, elevated and changed^ by fubterranean vapours. See J. d, M, No. 76. Nor can aflent be eafily rcfufed to the chief of orogolills, Saufliire, who hat publiflieJ, in the Journal Je Ph^iqui, an account of an extinA volcano in the Brifg^u. * Voy. dans let Depart. Cantal. p. 5. 3 1 chiefly '^ ^mm CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOORAPTIY »99 chieily bafahic. The Puy de Sanfi is capped with altnod perpetual Moumth^ fnow, followed in the defcent by naked rocks and ancient pines : from its fide iflues from two fources, the river Dordogne, and many pic- tiircfque cafcades devolve amidd bafaltic columns '. On the 23d of June, 1727, Fradines, a village on the flope of one of thefe mountains, was totally overwhelmed by its fall, the whole mountain, with its bafaltic columns, rolling into the valley. The inhabitants were fortunately en- gaged in the celebration of midfummer eve, around a bonfire at fome diftance '". Thefe mountains are in winter expofed to dreadful fnowy hurricanes, called acirs^ which in a few hours obliterate the ravines, and even the precipices, and defcending to the paths and (Ireets, confine the inhabitants to their dwellings, till a communication can be opened with their neighbours, fometimes in the form of an arch under the vaft mafs of fnow. Wretched the traveller who is thus overtaken. His path dlfappears, the precipice cannot be di(lingui(hed from the level ; if he Hand he is chilled, and buried if he proceed ; his eye-fight fails amidft the fnowy darknefs ; his refpiration is impeded ; his head becomes giddy, he falls and periflies. In fummer, thunder ftorms are frequent and terrible, and accompanied with torrents of large hail, which deftroj the fruits and flocks, which for fix months pafture on the mountains, guarded by fhepherds, who have temporary cabins of turf and reedi llylcd burons. The Pyrenees remain to be defcribed. This vail chain, known and Pyrenees, celebrated fince the days of Herodotus, may be confidered with equal juQlce as belonging either to France or to Spain ; but as the mod pro- duQive and intereding parts are on the fide of France, and her literati have exerted themfelves in the defcription, while thofe of Spain have been filent, it feems at lead equally proper to introduce the delineation here, which fhall be chiefly derived from the recent accounts of Ra- mond and Lapeyroufe ". To the furprize of naturalids, the Pyrenees * Vo)r. dans let Depart. Cantal, p. 13. " Voy. dan* les Depart. Cantal, p. 24. One vail block of Hone, 90 feet long and 26 tli:ck, l)(ing too heavy to roll, funk vertically, and the (hock feemed an earthquake even at the diftance of a league. Another mounuin is faid to have recently (iink and difappeared in the S. of France. " Journal des Minej, No. 37, p. 35. Q.Q-2 havi 30O FRANCE. PruNEE^. have hcen found to prefcnt calcareous appearances, and even Hiclls near or upon their highell fummits, which are in the centre of the chain. Mont Perdu is conlidcred as the higheft elevation of the Py- renees, afcending above the fca 1751 French toil'cs, or about 11,000 feet Englifli. • The Canigou formerly iifurped that honour though it exceed not 1440 toifes. Other noted heights arc Tuccarroy, Mar- bore, the pic dc Midi, the pic d'Arni, the Nicgc Vcillc, the Vigno Male, La Brcchc dc Roland, Sec. * The Pyrcncan chain appears at a didaace like a flmggy ridge, prefcnting the fegment of a circle fronting France, and defcending at each extremity till it difappear in the ocean and Mediterranean ". Thus at St. Jean de Luz only high hills appear, and in like manner on the eaft, beyond the fummit Canigou, the ele- vations gradually diminilli. I'he higheft fummits are crowned with perpetual fnow. Blocks of granite are interfperfed with vertical bands, argillaceous and calcareous, the latter primitive or fecondary, and fupply- mg the marbles of Campan and Antin, of beautiful red fpotted with white, though the general mountain mafs be grey. To the S. and W* the Pyrenees prefent nothing but dreadful fterility, but on the N. and E. the defccnt is more gradual, and affords frequent woods and paftures. Befides the dreadful fall of rocks, undermined by the waters, they arc expofed to Lavanges, or the impetuous defcent of vaft maffes of fnow, called Avalanches in Swiffcrland, and have their glaciers and other ter- rific features of the Alps. M«nt Perdu. According to Ramond " the very fummit of mount Perdu abounds with marine fpoils, and muft have been covered by the fca*; an obfer- vation confirmed by Lapeyroufe. This mountain is of very difficult accefs, as the calcareous rock often affumes the form of perpendicular walls, from 100 to 6co feet in height j and the fnows, ice, and gla- ciers, increafe the difficulty ; nor did thefe naturalifts attain the fum- mit, though they could obferve that the rock correfponded in form and nature with thofc which they afcended. A fmgular feature of the Py- renees confifis of what are called hotdes^ or walls difpofed in a circular * Ses in the fame Journal, No. 46, p. 757, an eflimate of other Pyrenean elevations. " Voy. dana ks Dep. No- 67, p, 4. '^ Journ, des Min. at fupra. it. . form. CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. form. Near the fummit of Mont Perdu is a confidcraMc lake, more than 9000 feet above the level of the fci, which throws its waters to the ea(\ into the Spanifh valley of IJeoiinii; aiui whicli the travcilcrB coiifidcr as a procif that Mont Perdu really belongs to Spain, and that Tuccarroy forms the boundary. The bcft maps of the Psrcnci'H are erroneous, as ais lake has no connexion with the noted calculcii of Marborc', which flow from another lake to the weft ; ami Lapeyioufe lias pointed out other grofs miftakes in the topograpliy of this inte- rerting diftridt. He adds that it is probable that the foie accefs to the liimmit of Mont Perdu will be found on the fide of Spain, tl.crc being three fummits called by the Spaniards Las Tres Sorrdla: or the Three wSifters ; the highcft being to the north, and the lovveft on the foutli, but feparated, as would appear, by large glaciers. From this view of the Pyrenees, Lapeyroufe concludes that there cxift chains S mountains, in which bands of granite, porphyry, trap, hornblende, and pctrofilex, alternate vertically with primitive limeftone, and are fo intermingled as to prove a common origin. But in the Pyrenees thefe bands are furmounted by fecondary limeftone, replete with mavine fpoils, and containing even fkeletons of animals, fo that he concludes that the higheft mountains of the chain muft have yielded to the fury of the ocean, and that the fecondary parts alone n jw cxift. Mr. Townfend '* obfcrves, that the limeftone and fchiftus feed the tegetation on the N. of the Pyrenees, while the fouth is barren and confifts of granite ; while, in fadl, mountains are generally barren and precipitous on the S. and vV. becaufe the moft violent rains and tempeft^ con^e from thofe regions. Yet this brief account of the Pyrenees muft he clofed with the obfervation, that while Sauflure has explained with fedulous (kill the fubftances which compofe the Alps, there is no work voncerning the Pyrenees of great refearch, or patient inveftigatlon *. '* Spain, i. 89. • M. K«mand has firce vifited the fummit of Mont Perdu, and found it to conGft of a black fciid limtllone or marble, in which fand may forretimes beobferved. The height is 1763 faihoms, ir, 10,578 fccr. Journal des Mines, No. 83, He (hewed to the author at Paiis a noble col!eilion of botany of the Pyrenees, which he is about to publilh. The central line of the Pyrenees it gra- riiie; but the far fuperlor elevation of the limellone forms a fingular feature. The granite is white, at in the Alps, and moll of the grand chains of mountaini. The 301 Mo!« r 1' K K L) U . ^^■W r »i;f :: p ,. ; .- 1;;. ^'i,*' i ^' . -■ ^i'-- Mi - ^ I nil a. '* -Nil K ^1 m f ;' U ' '-'i:iiM::n:ll [■ • Lamarck, Flore Frar9oife. Toumefort, Hift. des Plants, &c. Villat's, Hill, del Plants de Dauphine. Durande, Flure de Bourgogne, LinJern, Horius Al.'aticus. The hs:r- 304 FRANC E. ^ ") Botany. The nearer in general any country is (ituated to the tropics, the greater is the abundance and beauty of the bulbiferoiis or liliaceous plants that inhabit it : the South of France is particularly rich in thefe fplcndid and fra;^rant vegetables, fevrral of which liavc been naturalized in our gar- dens, and conditute ♦heir principal ornament. Of the genus Allium ^•ir/if, no Icfs than 36 Ipecies arc natives of France, feveral of which have 1 ccn admitted for their beauty into Englifli flower gardens, of thefe the A. Monf|iefl"tiIannm, MnnlpclUcr garltCy is perhaps the chief. The !a'\f;c I :\uichc(l Jfplwdcl^ Alphodelus ramofus, a flower of great beauty and poetic fame, is by no means uncommon in Provence. Hemcrocallis lulva, ta-iViiy (Iny-lilly ; Hyacinthus botryoidcs, clt/Jlcrcd hyac'wtb ; Ornitho- galum py rami dale, //I'/'/rc/yZ^/r of Bclblchcm, are all found in the Mediterra- nean provinces of I' ranee, as are alfothc ora//^c, pompadore^ and ^w^jz/^i-j,,-/ /////V.f ; ivhtlc hellebore ; Nnreippis and Jovqn'd. The fliore of Hiercs is adorned by the Pancratium maritimum, y2-<3 ddJ/vdU^ growing luxuriantly on the very beach ; and on the lower cliffs oftheNicencand Gcnocfe Alps, the gip;antic Agave, American aloe, now naturalized to the foil and cli- mate, raifcs her ftatcly flower flem to the height of 20 or 30 feet, and looks down on every herbaceous plant of European origin. Allied to the. bulbiferous are the tuberous rooted plants with fword- nped leaves, feveral fpceics of which are found in. France; the mod '-ifcautiful and worthy of notice arc conijlag; abundant in the cultivated lands of the middle and foutliern provinces ; the Iris Germanica, in Alface and on the German frontier ; and Iris pumila and maritima, two elegant little plants that ate occafionally met with in Provence and Languedoc. Of the papilionaceous plants that are natives of this country, feveral deferve notice for their ufe or ornament. Lathyrus tuberofus, a vege- table of the pea kind, grows wild in Alface, and is cultivated in many parts of France for its large efculent tuberous roots ; the great Itipln^ varying with blue, white, or flefli coloured blofl!bms, and the cb'ick fcp^ are met with in the fouthern provinces growing fpontaneoufly, but are more frequently cultivated in large fields as food both for cattle and man ; in England the former is confidered merely as an ornamental plant, and is found CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 3«5 fcunJ in every flower-garden: fenugreek, edeemed for its medicinal vir- Botaky. tues, and Allragalus tragacantha, tragacanth vetcb, fo named from the gum that it yields, are both natives of Provence and the vicinity of Montpellier. Many of our moft ornamental {hrubs belong to this clafs, fuch as Cytifus Laburnum, great Laburnum ; Collutea arborcfcens, blad-' derfcnna; and Spartium junceum, Span't/h broo7n, } .-.^ -.v^^a viifv- Several fucculent plants of the fame natural clafs with the Sedum, are found on the dry rocks on the Spanlfh and Swifs frontiers ; of which a few have been introduced into our gardens, viz. Sedum anacampferos m^ "i'lWoimxi^ ever-green orpine, 3inA hairy fedum ; Sempervivum, globi- ferum, and arachnoideum, ben and chicken fedum, and cobweb fe- dnm. The clafs Pentandria of Linnxus contains feveral well-known plants that occur native in France, fome of which have been introduced into our gardens and fhrubberies ; fuch are the hairy primrofe and auricula^ found wild on the mountains of Provence; blue berried boney-fuckle i rofebay oleander ; great flowered campanula and Venus^s looking-glajs ; the alulernus, and tamari/k. Others of this clafs deferve notice for their ufe in various arts, and in medicine, as Pifl:achia terebinthus, Chio turpctt- thie-trec, P. lentifcus, maflich-tree ; Rhamnus infedorius, the berries of which are ufed in dyeing by the name o( French berries or graines d'Awg' non; alkanet, another tlyeing drug; common and Venetian fumacb, the mod powerful vegetable aftringents, and largely applied to leather dref- fing and dyeing ; Salibla foda, glqfs wort, a plant growing on the fliore of the Mediterranean, from which the Barilla of commerce is prepared. Some efculent plants alfo belong to this clafs, which, if not ftridlly na- tives of France, have at lead been long naturalized to the foil and Ipur, and which fmells I'ke gar!t;k. Wahkenatr, " Yourg's France, ii. 55. . ,^ '' • numerous CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 307 numerous herds of rattle, yet an able judge" aflerts, that there is not Zoouoov. In the kingdom one tenth part of what there ought to be ; a radical error of French agriculture being the negledl of grafs, and the confe- quent want of manure. The cattle of Limoges, and feme other pro- vinces, are of a beautiful cream colour. The beef at Paris, Mr. Young prefers to that of London. The (heep are ill managed, having in winter only ftraw, inftead of green food as in England ". The con- fequences are poor fleeces, rarity of (heep, fo that the poor are forced to eat bread only, and large quantities of wool are imported. Of ferocious animals the mod remarkable are the wild boar and the wolf ; the ibex, rock goat, or bouquetin, is found on the Pyrenees and the Alps, being a large goat with very long and ftrong horns. The chamois belongs to the clafs of antelopes, having fmall ftrait horns. Among the animals ahnoft peculiar to France, may be mentioned the Vef- pertilio ferotina, P Mftrilla, Baibaftella, the Otis tetrax, the Chadrius lutreus, &c. * Gold mines anciently exifted in the S. of France, and fome of the Mineralogy, rivulets ftill roll down particles of that metal. The ancient Gallic coins are however of a bafe gold mingled with filver, being the metal ftyled by the ancients eledrum. And fuch it is probable are the particles of gold which are found in the fands of the Rhone, between Tournon and Valance, and in thofe of the Ardeche '*. France can, however, boaft of the filver mines at St. Marie-aux-Mincs in Alface, and at Giromagny SiWer. in the department of the Upper Rhine, near the mountains of Vofges, alfo a part of ancient Alface. The fame diftrift contains mines of copper, a metal not unfrequent in the departments of the Alps, and Copper. li>■■y:*^'■'l"^ c*.-i ; ■ "Young, ii. 52. ■*' " " >« Young, 5. 430. • The caftor, or beaver, !$ found in the ifles of the Rhone, but is very different from that of America, being four times as large, and not conllrufling a hut, but digging a hole. The bear it found in Dauphine and the Pyrenees ; the latter alfo prefent the lynx, but rarely. Vipers abound in La Vendee ; and, in the fummer 1804, a new and pernicious fort was faid to have killed Tome people in the forett of Fontainbieaa. The bed mutton is that of the Ardennes. In Languedoc there are travelling flocks of (heep like the Mefta of Spain, See ffalcieitatrfi. 190. j*^<, " Journ. des Mines, An. vi. p. 662. Mary other rive.* of France roll gold, as appears from a memoir of Reaumur. The gold mine of Gardette, in Dauphine, is of hitle confc^uence. There ii alfo a filver mine at Chalancbes, near Allemont in the fame vicinity. R R 2 • thofe :-M im ■5 '' ■'■' '•■■'!* ' ■m I'y^^U:, 3o8 • 1 . J:> FRANCE. f\ ( ' I J )[■ m-'i I . MiNBRALo. thofe of the Loire, the Lozere, and the Arde'che *. Some appearances °^" indicate tin in Bretagne, and even in the centre of France, 'i'wo tliirds of the lead of France are from Bretagne, particularly the mines of Lead. Poullaovcn and Huelgoet ; mines of lead alfo occur in the r^iaritime Alps, and in the mountains of Vofges, in the Departments of Lozere, Ardeche, &c. &c. Antimony occurs in the Ardcche, and in the de- partment of the Allicr, at Allemont in former Dauphinc, and ia that of Mont Blanc, if that acquifition fubfift. There are noted mines of calamine near Aix la Chapelle, if this may be confidered as French territory. Manganefe occurs in the department of the Loire, and in that of the Vofges ; and at Romaneche, in the department of the Saone. and Loire; it is alfo found near Perigou, whence it is ufed to be called pierre dePerigord : Cobalt is another produdt of Alface. The new ac. quifitions in Savoy prefent fome mercury ; and there is a mine at Menildot f . •. > ^fir .'.lii icjimii ,sJSa?f"^4>'i ^t^uS^iyfii '.'.k-h-. tron. Iron, that mod important and univerfal of metals, is found in abun- dance, particularly in fome of the northern departments. Tht iron • The chief copper mines arc thofe of Chefy and St. Bel. See Walcit. i. 195. ; hut the pofuioa which he afTigns, is one of the numerous inaccuracies which are fo much to be regretted in hit ^ woric. f The duchy of Deux Fonts, a valuable acquifition of France on the weft of the Rhine, hai long been celebrated for mines of quickfilver. The mountains of Vofges are chiefly hnti^ontal rtrata of red fand.ftone. Near Gelheim, to the weft of Wurms, the th.iin is interrupted! but afterwards riling fpreads in two branchef, that to the W. being called Weflrich, that to the E. Donnerfberg. (Journal des Mines, No. 6. p. 70.) The mountains which contain the mercury embrace a didrid rf ten or twelve leagues in length, S. to N. from Wolfllein toCruznach, and feven or eight leagues in breadth, being of a reddifti brown or grey fand-ftone. In this territory, among numerous mines of quickfilver, are thofe of Stahlberg, and Donnerfberg, which have bren explored for many centuries. The gangart is fteatite, barytes, argillaceous rocl;. Sic. The ad. jacent part of the Palatinate alfo contains fimilar mines, particularly in the mountain of Potzberg near the river Glan, compoft-d of a kind of fubftance like kaolin, of minute particles of quartzi mica, and clay, The pits in Pot/.berg are about forty. At Wolfftein are other mines of the fame rare mineral. The annual produfl of thefe mines may be cftimated at 67,200 pounds of mercury; and the revenue, after dedufting expences, at 127,917 lives. Nsar Trarbach, at the extremity of the wcftern branch of the Vofges, there are mines of copper and lead, with fome filver. (lb. xi. 43, &c.) About fix miles to the fouth of Trarbach, the mountain Eckeilbergdif- plays fingular piAurefque walls of quart?., running from E. to W., the intermediate fchiflus being dtcayed. Many parts of the Hunzroclt, or region between the Mozelle and the Nahe, are covered with blocks of quartz. ', at, 4 i" mines I 1 > *1 a CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. mines of Framont, which afford beautiful fpeclmens, are at the foot of Min Donon the highefl of the Vofges. In 1798 it was computed that there were 2000 furnaces, forges, &c. for the working of iron and The coal mines of France were, at the fame time,»eftimated at 400, Coal. conrtantly wrought ; and 200 more capable of being wrought. Of thefc coal mines many occur in the provinces which formerly belonged to Flanders, and in the departments of Boulogne, and Lamanche. Coal isalfonot unfrequent irv the centre and fouth of France. Nearly allied to coal is jet, an article formerly of great confumption, chiefly in Spain, where it was made into rofaries, croflfes, buttons for black dreflfes, &c." France was from time immemorial in pofleflTion of this branch, which was centered in three villages in the department of the Aude, in the S. W. of ancient Languedoc. In 1786 it employed more tlian 1200 workmen ; and the annual fupply of the mineral was computed at a thoufand quintals, or hundred weight. Befides exports to Germany, . Italy, and the Levant, Spain imported thefe jet manufactures to the annual amount of 180,000 livres. Latterly jet was,' in return, imported from the mines of Arragon in Spain, to fupply this manufa£lure. That in the S. of France is in beds like coal, but not continuous, and was fometimes rendered impure by a mixture of pyrites : it is com- monly found in a kind of rufty earth, of an afh colour ; and fometimes occurs in mafles of the weight of J.olbs, about five or fix fathom under the fiirface. T ' '. • Befides excellent freeftone, the environs of Paris contain abundance of gypfum, which at Mont Martre is found cuiioufly cryftallized. Alum is found in confiderable quantities at Aveyron. The Pyrenees in particu- lar fupply beautiful marbles ; and the extenfive and various territories of France afford fe'veral precious flones, as the aqua marina, the jacinth^ the chfyfolite, and even the fapphire. The chief mineral waters of France are thofe of Barreges and Bagncres, Minsrai in the Pyrenees^ both refembling thofe of Bath, Forges, in Normandy^ ^^'a""- 309 OY, Journ. des Minesi Ann. vH. p. 171. fUtv hi.tiy' " Ibid. Ann. iii. No. 4. p> 41. 'ti ferru- sfci ' ( 'X \ •-'' ■ ' ' ,■ "I- Ji ■ f f- li- ' P vT Mil- » • . ;■ -:■■. ; ' ■ ^--.-inji:! 310 ^'llNEIlAL Wavlrs. Na'urM Cu- riofities. '«'•)• I. FRANCE. ferr-.j'j;inniis, Vichl, Bourbonne, Balaruc, Plombieres *. The warm batlis of Birrcges, in particular, at the foot of the Pyrenees, have iieen \om celebrated, and there the Queen of Navarre lays the fcene of her talcs. The baths of Bagneres are in the faine neighbourhood. Among the natural curiofities of France, or thofe objeds which, in an enligluened age, aitraft particular obfervaiion, may be named the fin- gular mountains of Auvergne already mentione'd, and which ftruckevcn Mr. Young as volcanic. The fcenery here is however richly deferving of attention ; and has efcaped moft travellers, who have purfued the dull route to Dijon, indead of this variegated road which may conduft them by Nifmes, and Aix, into Italy. The fountain of Vauclufe, cele- brated by Petrarca, is a river fpringing fuddenly from a cavern at the bottom of a perpendicular rock. Nor muft the noted plain of La Crau be forgotten, which lies in Provence, not far from the mouth of the Rhone. This is the moft fingular ftony defert that is to be found in France, or perhaps in Europe ". The diameter is about five leagues, and the contents from 20 to 25 leagues fquare, or about 150,000 Englilh acres. It is entirely compofed of fhingle, or round gravel, fome of the (lones as large as the head of a man, and the (hingle of the fea- fhore is not more barren of foil. Beneath is a fmall mixture of loam with fragments of (lone. In the winter there are fcattered piles of gi;af5, which, from the vaft extent of the fpace, pafture a confiderable multi- tude of Iheep. Mont St. Michael in Normandy is another natural curio- fity, being a folitary hill rifing near the fea, like St. Michael's mount in Cornwall. In general however France, being moftly a plain country, does not prefent much fingularity of feature ; and the fcenes of the Ce- vennes and Pyrenees have been little explored by travellers, who paffing to the chief cities generally fee only the moft uninterefting parts of the country. Even Bretagne, it is probable, may prefent many fingulari- ties, which may have efcaped the attention of the French themlelves, who do not appear to be much imprefled with fuch objeds. They * The deobftruent waters of Plombieres sre cilled Sa-vonniu/ts or foapjr, bjr the French. Thrjr are impregnated with Aeatitc or magnefia. There are alfo mineral waieri at Mont D'Or to •* Young, i. 379. have, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAHPY. have, however, commemorated with fome attention various natural cave8, which in France, as in other countries, prefent themfelves in cal- careous rocks. One near the village of Beaume, about fix leagues from Befan9on, is remarkable from its containing a glacier ; and it was fa- buloufly reported that the ice increafed during the funimer, and dimi* nilhed in the winter, till recent ohfcrvations evinced, as was to be ex- nefted, the contrary pofition ". This cave is at the bottom of a fmall valley in the midft of a thick foreft. The mouth, which is level with the vale, is forty-five feet broad ; and after a long and fteep dcfcent ap- pears a hall of I GO high, whence there is a paflage to the chamber con. taining the glacier, the defcent to which is by a ladder of forty feet. In this triangular cavern are vaft ftaladlites of folid ice, which are fome- times nearly joined by pillars of the fame material, rifing from a magni- ficent pedeftal on the floor. While the thermometer of Reaumur, placed without, was at 20 degrees and a half, it here fell to one and three quarters. This phaenomenon may be partly owing to the diredion of the aperture of the cave, which fronts the north. The noted wonders of Dauphine comprife many Alpine fcenes. In the department of Ardeche, on the other fide of the Rhone, are fcveral natural curiofities, fuch as the bridge of rock, under which the river Ardeche pafles, near the village of Chames, the grottoes of Vallon, the gulph of Goule, with many fingular hafaltic columns, caufies, &c. and what the French authors ftyle craters of volcanoes ". The cataraft of Gavarniein the Pyrenees is faid to fall 1266 feet, being the higheft ia iurope. / - - ■■ -• ^' -i " |ourn. des Minf«, xx'i. 65. ** Ibid. Ann. vi. p. 626. To the fe may be added the caves of Arc y, near Verminton, in the former province of Burgundy, and ciher curious grcttos on the river Cher, three leagues on the fouih wf (I of Tours Jn the county of Foix, tnejjnftion of two mountains, form' a cavern, ca.<- able of containing two thoufand men ; nor among (he natur«) curiofities ftiould be forgotten the kioksofOitllt in entire prefervatiun found in Burgundy, and at Grignon, rot far from Vt^rlaillis. \tt?M\)n Ef at dt giologit, vol. i. Paris, 1:03, 8vo. The ftones which have rrcently fallen fioin the aimofphert, i;ear Aiglr.in Nornurdy, may alfo be ranged in this clafs. L k; thofe of the fame lielciiptiun, which have fallen in England, Itdly, Grrm-niy, and hindoflan, they contain iron, £l(x, rragnefia, and nickel, a coinpufiticn before unknown on the globe. See Izarn's \vork, and the Italian publuation dedicated to the £arl ot Brilbl. See alfo Cardan, tli Var. Rer. who nuniions a (Lower of 1 200 ftoaes which fell in Lombardy in t ; 1 o. \\ The 3«« Natural Cu KIOSI- Tll!«. \\' . •' I I' \ 3'2 French Corfica. FRANCE. 't s.y. The ifles- around France are fo fmall, and unimportant, that they would fcarcely be deferving of notice, were it not for events that have taken place during this war. The ifle of Corfica muft however be ex- cepted, if it continue to be regarded as a part of the French territory. From the dominion of Carthage, this iHe paflfed under that of Rome and was for fome time fubjeA to the Saracens of Africa. In the time of the crufades it was affigned to the republic of Pifa, and was after- wards conquered by the Genoefe, In 1736 the malcontents rejefted the Genoefe yoke, and chofe a German adventurer for their king. After many ineffedlual druggies Corfica was ceded to the French, who continue to maintain a dubious authority. The Romans did not cer- tainly highly efteem this ifland, when they feledled it as a place of exile ; and according to a modern French geographer, " the air of Corfica is thick and unwholefome, the territory full of mountains, of little fertility, and ill cultivated : the vallies neverthelefs produce corn, and the hills wine, fruits, and almonds "." This plain account feems preferable to the exaggerations of party writers in England, who fwell the advantages of this ifland ; but it is probable that, as they aflert, fmall veins of filver may be found, and that the mountains may afford granite, porphyry, jafper, &c. which however abound in the Highlands ofScotland*. ih; .o.'i. ;J ..- 5.v.,J;t-.uff --...^fr . V .: < The ifles called Hyeres, near Toulon, have been equally magnified by a female traveller. Mr. Young informs us, that they have a barren and naked appearance, and only prefent fome melancholy pines ". They however contain fome botanic riches, and may claim the fame of being Homer's ifle of Calypfo. On the weftern coaft firft occurs the ifle of Oleron, about fourteen miles long by two broad, celebrated for a code of maritime laws ilTucd K». c. »f, ■\'^ '■;> •» Ll Croix, i. 528. • Volney, in his View of the American States, informs us that, duiing the three months he re- Cded in Corfica, there were one hundred and eleven afTifllnation;, arifing from private rcT:nge. He alfu indicates the chie; caufe of the want«f civilizition to be, that the land is mollly public prnptrtv, and the fewnefs of private poflefllons. The iirA ftep ought to be, to divide the countr/ into bcreJi. tary eftates of a moderate fize. '• France, i. 155. .^ .. o ^ :..:* ,...i;*^ • -'* M.^>.->v, . ■ ' ;* i^y CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 313 by Richard I, king of England, of whofe French territory this Iflc con- French ftituted a portion. To the N. is the ifle of Re, oppofite Rochelle, '''"* t\otcd for an expedition of the Englifli in the feventeenth century, de- l.iibed by Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Yeu is a fmall and infignificant i(le," followed by Noirmoutler, which became remarkable in the war of La Vendee, being about eight miles long and two in breadth. Bellifle has been repeatedly attacked by the Engliih : it is about nine miles long and three broad, furrounded by fteep rocks, which, with the fortifica- tions, render the conqueft difficult. The ifle of Ufhant, or Oueflant, is remarkable as the furtheft headland of France, towards the weft, being about twelve miles from the continent, and about nine in circumference, with feveral hamlets, and about 600 inhabitants. Several other fmall ifles inay be pafled in filence, but thofe of St. Marcou, about feven miles S. E. of La Hogue, may be mentioned as having be.en in our pofTeffioTi : they received their name, it is believed, from a Norman Saint, Marcoii],^ abbot of Naniouille, who died 10558. " \ " •" :- !>■ -■ fi,». bout fourteen le laws iflued ■A > . ! ' i ■ 'mw&i •'.:•.-:;■> 'Ki .J iree monthi here- ■ivate rcTinge. He lly public prnptftv, luntry into hereili- .'ijii « / ;;- i. VOL. I. S S ' >■ vr /i ■ ♦ •■ .'■•>*. ' V fiit'. 't •■'.:':' : : I. r'f* I ^• ,'i NETHERLANDS. Nam I*. Name:. — Extent. ^'Original Population.— Hljlorical Epochs. — Antiquities, —Rdi. ^ion.— Government, — Laws. —Population. —Revenue.— Political Importance and Relations.— Manners and Cu/lonu.— Language.— Literature.— Education.'^Uni- verjities.— Cities and Towns . — Edifices. -^Inland Navigation. — Manufaflura and Commeree.— Climate and Seofons, — Face cf the Country.— Soil and Agriculture- Rivers.- Mountains. — Forejls.— Botany, — Zoology, — Mineralogy. —Mineral Waters. — Natural Curlofitles. npHOSE provinces of the Netherlands which were formerly fubjeiS to the houfe of Auftria, have been recently annexed to the French dominions. As this fertile territory may probably continue to be united to France, it became necefTary to ufe as much brevity as pofTible in the defcription, that it might not, in that cafe, be difproportionatc to the account of that country. The Netherlands in general were anciently known by the name of Belgic Gaul, the chief inhabitants of this part being the Menapii, the Tungri, the Nervii, and the Morini. After the irruption of the Franks, this country formed part of Neuftria, or the new kingdom, (the ancient kingdom of the Franks being on the £. of the Rhine,) partly belonging to the province of Flandria, and partly to that of Lotharingia, or Lower Lorrain '. In the middle of the ninth century arofe the power- ful houfe of the earls of Flanders ; and the counts of Hainaut con> mence about the fame epoch. The dukes of lower Lorrain and Brabant are little known till the end of the tenth century. Thefe and other \ D'AnvIIlr, Etats fermei en Europe, 70. ? principal towns, Mons is computed at 25,000 inhabitants ; Bruges, and Citie?ani» Namur, each at 20,000 j Luxembourg at 12,000 j Roermond at 10,000 ; Lirabourg at 8,000. The fea-coaft of Flanders, the maritime province, confifts chiefly of Sea ports, fandy hills, and downs, and has few inlets, as moft of the rivers flow iato the Scheld. There are however two ports which deferve parti- cular notice. The Sluys *, called.by the French L'Eclufe, derives its name from the fluices, by which the circumjacent country may be laid under water. And a fimilar circumftance gives name to Helvoet Sluys, a fea-port of Holland, fituated in the ifland of Vorn, about forty milef ^ore to the north. Guicciardini fays that the haven of Sluys was capable of containing 500 fhips. The port and population now yield greatly to thofe of Odend. This only other haven on the Oftcnd^ Flemifh Ihore has been confiderably frequented lince the Scheld was abandoned. The town is ftill computed to contain 14,000 fouls, though it fuffered greatly by the famous fiege which terminated in 1604, when it was gallantly defended by Sir Francis Vere, at the head of a few En^lifti troops. Many Engliflj families were fettled here before Oftend fell a prey to the French. In general it may be obferved that, even at the prefent day, every traveller is imprtfled with furprize, not only at the number, but the great extent of the Flemifh cities, towns, and even villages; in v/hich refpeft the Netherlands exceed every country in Europe, only except- ing the United Provinces. The chief edifices are the cathedrals, churches, EdifiKj. and monafteries ; though a few caftles belonging to ancient families, or rich merchants, ufed to attract fome notice : the tafte of the latter buildings being faithfully copied in the Flemifh landfcapes, and more remarkable for little prettinefs, peaked roofs, fantaftic ornaments, the muddy moat, and drawbridge, than for grandeur of defign, or amenity of fituatinn. Idle would be the attempt even to enumerate the canals which interfed thefe provinces in all diredions. Some of them date even • Stuys 'oelonged to the United Provinces, but is here mentioned, confidering the Netherlands to the Rhine it an appendage of France. Nieuport, a little liihing town, fcarccly dclervct notice. Q fxonv Inland Ma- vigiation. K , ' - . I . »..« if. !>■ ■ 1,1,. ■;■ . i-'fH?;!.}? 330 NETHERLANDS. Inland from the tenth century, and the canal from Bruffels to the Scheld is of TioN."* the fixteenth. Other important canals extend from Ghent, Antwerp, Oftend, and other chics, and towns, efpecially in the wellcrn diftridls; but, under the Auftrian domination, thefe important means of iiitcr- courfe were (hamefuUy neglefted, and it will require much time and labour to reftore them to their former utility *. Manufaftures The manufa£lures and commerce of the Netherlands, for a long Bicrce. ' period fuperior to any in the weft of Europe, have fuffereil a radical and total decline, owing partly to the other powers entering into competition, and partly to the eftablilhment of freedom in the United Provinces, whence Amfterdam arofe upon the ruins of Antwerp*. What little commerce remains is chiefly inland to Germany, the ex- ternal employing very few native vefTels. The Eaft India Company eftablifhed at Ollend was fuppreffed by the jealoufy of England, and other powers; and the chief commerce was afterwards carried on by the Englifli eftablifhed in that city. Yet of the manufactures a few fragments remain : Cambray, long fubjeft to the French, is ftill re- nowned for the cambrics which thence derived their name ; as Toiir- ' Philips, 48. * The 1 ithor has been favoured by M. Vernimmen of Antwerp with a M S. memcir on the com- merce of this city. In confequence of the treaty of Munder in 1648, it had become almoll nu'l, but began to revive when the Netherlands became a part of France. Jn the year 1800 fixty^one velTels ariived from Emden, Altona, and Hamburg. In igo4 there were one hundred and fori/- fevea' from the fame ports, with fome Americans. In i3o2 there were one hundred ani Torty- nine ; and the commercial connexions began to be mure extchfive, for fome were from the Baltic, the Mediterranean, and even from the Weft Indies; the chief imports being coifee, fugar, cotton, and cotton cloths, hides, dying woods, tea, indigo. Sec, Next year the arrivals were une hundred and eighty-one ; fome from Spain. In 1804 there were one hundred and (ixty-two, amoni; which were many Americans. In 180;, previous to the eighteenth of July, there had arrived nt kfs than three hundred and fifty-four, two being from Canton, and one from Batavia; the number of thofe under the Pruflian flag was the greateil, and followed by the Americans. A re) ore haJ been fpread that the navigation of the Scheld was impeded, but wis found 10 be fabulous; and a capital chart has recently been publilhed by the French government, with noraerous and exad foundings. A canal has been ordered which will join the Rhine, the Meufe, and the Scheld : new docks are conftru£ling, together with a magnificent quay. On the north of the city is a grand dock yard, belonging to Meflrs. Danet and Company. When the author pafFed through Antwerp, in July 1805, nine (liips of the line, from feventy-four to one hundred and ten guns, were upon the Rocks, and e.xpefied to be finifhed in two year^; the foicfls of Flanders a/F^rdlng a great and prompt fupply of timber. nay, HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3-* nar, or Dornkk was anciently famous for the fined linens. Al Bruges Manuf \c. there arc ftill fonjc manufafturcs of broad fays, baize, and other coMMERcii, woollens; confiderable fabrics of broad-cloth, druggets, flialloons, and (lockings, were condudled at St. Omers, chiefly with wool fmuggled from England. But the chief manufadures are of tapeftry, fine linen, and laces, at Mechlin, Bruffels*, Ghent, Antwerp, Louvain, which ftill enrich the country around, and induce the farmers to cultivate flax, even on the pooreft foils. The Netherlands produce, for home confump- tion, abundance of corn, and vegetables ; and the coal mines would become important, if the operations were ikilfully condudted. There is befides abundance of turf for fuel; with iron, porcelain, clay, and other commodities. The climate of the Netherlands confiderably refembles that of the ciimat? and fouth of England, and is more remarkable for moifture than for ^eafons. warmth; yet the duchy of Luxembourg produces fome wine, which probably has the aufterity of the Rhenilh, without its fpirit. The face Face of the of the country is in general level, and the femblance of hills can fcarcely °""'^''' be difcovered, except towards the Eaft, where a few elevations relieve the eye from the general flatnefs of the other regions. The foil is in general rich fandy loam, fometimes interfperfed with fields of clay, but more often with large fpaces of fand. Such has been, even in diftant ages, the ftate of agriculture that the Netherlands were long efteemed the very garden of Europe, a praife which they ftill fliare with Lombardy and England. No ftronger proof can be adduced of the advantages, which commerce confers on agriculture, than this country, which evinces that the latter advantage chiefly arifcs from commercfal opulence employed in its moft ufeful direction. The mere farmer can never become opulent, except from the prc-exiftent benefits of trade ; but while he is (baring in the national wealth thus acquired, it is natural that he ftiould impute his fuccefs folcly to his own labours. It muft readily occur that Lombardy, alio celebrated for its agriculture, was the country of the ancient bankers of Europe, who returned there to enjoy the fortunes which they had acquired ; and that England is pre-eminent * We fpeak of Brufleli carpett, but there never was a manufaflory of that forc. Some carpets ire made at Tournay. VOL. I. T T in Soil (nd Agriculture^ ■'. - -I'M ,; : •'^I'i ami , ^ ,.1511 t>-,v, } ■■ , It. ;.• ' ip.t: ••' ': .III 323 NETHERLANDS. So If- A NO Ao R 1 1; iJi.. T u » i: . Rivers. in mercantile wealth : fo that the plain fa£ls are worth a thoufand theo- ries. Accurate ohfcrvers repeatedly praile the Uate of ar^riculture in the Netherlands, and pc/int out many advautaccs wliich it m:iintaincd over that of lingland. The repeated crops of o.cellent clover, the cole, tlio turnijiS, the clean crops of ilax, barley, and oats, dtfervedly attracted dieir attention. The agriculture has been celebrated for thele 600 years, ever fince their coinnnerce and manufadures became eminent ; and they {\\\\ poflcfs the eflentials of good hufbandry in the deftrudion of weeds, and perpetual crops. They commonly ufcd four horfes without a driver, the plowman holding the reins, and being equipped with a long whip ihicl; into a fockei. The plough had wheels, and the furrows were (hallow, as they did not wilh to turn up the (harp and urxmanured fand : on fome low fpots, between little eminences, was feen abundance of hops, a native and peculiar product adopted in England in the reign of Henry VIU. They never allow the land to lie fallow, regarding the deftrudion of weeds as the fole advantage of fuch a praftice, which may be equally accomplished by crops of turnips, rape, beans, and clover, which not only deftroy the weeds but enrich the foil. The Netherlands are watered by fo many rivers and canals, tliat is will be fufficient to mention only a few of the chief dreams. The Rhine belongs to Germany, palling at a conliderable diftance to the E, of the frontier; and but a fmall extent of the Meufe, or Maas, per- vades the county of Namur, in thefe Netherlands. The chief river is the Scheld, which receives two other ftreams, the Lys, and the Scalpe, the latter near Mortagne, the former near Ghent. All thefe rivers arife in the county of Artois, from no confiderable elevation; and the whole courfe of the Scheld, or French Efcaur, cannot be compa- ratively eftimated at above i ao miles *. The Dyle rifes not far to the N. W. of Namur, and joins the Scheld above Niel, after receiving from the E. the Dermer, the Nette, or Nethe from the N. and the Senne from the S. Moft of the other rivers yield in importance to the canals, and it would indeed be difficult in many inftances to determine whether their courfe be the work of nature or art. Thdre is no lake worthy of commemoration. * The Scheld properly rifea about eight ml^es N. of St. Quintin, in the modern department der population, as will appear in the divifion of this work appropriated to Afia. The prefent article mud be rei\ri£lcd to an account of Ruflia in Europe. By the final partition of Poland, this divifion now extends from the river Dniefter to the Uralian mountains, that grand chain which natu- rally divides Europe from Afia, a length of about 1600 miK s ; and in breadth above 1000 EngliOi miles. The extent is computed at about 1,200,000 fquare miles. Even the European part of the Ruffian empire embraces many anci- ent kingdoms and flates ; but the chief name, that of Ruffia, fhail only be here confidered. Amidil the grand conflux of nations towards the wefl, which attended the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, the Slavonic tribe of Roffi efcaped the obfervation of hiftory till the ninth century ; and it is uncertain whether the term were native, or imiiortcd Tooke's View of the Ruff, Emp. 3 voli. 8vo. i. p. 6. »t fi- .' . , ;■ {;, ^ii " ^l" 'H nil :rMl II ■!■:*: |i.»(:i ■' 'r &»?■. \i r.i I, From AirmrBiaiths Map trf^Bnt^i* iii Ktiriipr II • r!,»kty vvliJcn Ipih! '11.4 --'ivintJ it< /rt" ' ni, -s'lj Jun n.>t . .1.^ •■-•■ • 'I .:ir *>-■ I. •' iU 'i ■ i(. t m til ii 1 ' ; "yl.MWn. , -fff, 'u V-. f fipul-ulon c<( ♦he t'.uropi'vn pirt '^•' ♦Jf RmTIi^" m ifi. i« i .-i-'i' s>. o bs Slavninf The y^-^.' i-> torn .-.h-m- -e '^ n '> ' s rlt, :i, raJii-aliy »i' Unci: frorn t!ic notli.- ")n ^l:" .'i-c imdiJ, v'm, ;.' , |^t■ cnMn'iics iivir'c to ;!i.- v,u\. m-i't li.-* pr ..f.lcl ?!>.• . v.ij ,aifagc frtiii AlVt inio.l .•:>; •-■ ; av' f.n .t'l- 'Mtin-i' l)i- i,,'h. Tilt) au'ii.eS>r. ',t oi" ir«c .■'■'. ■.^^. ^ •.- >i- pcrfon.*ii '.'legait^f. .va<: * J ' •!'• ♦",vh !n"t;) th<: ptT:-;icn ' • ^'•«j|/,raphv n|"fu« \ ■;, r: <:ls^J 0, i*ilic ;» liilkrry "f its 1 on.rious. 'Jil! th(. fiMccn':!, crt- . i-.. 'f LOiirinuftii iilmo'l uv\ • C'^ni vo ^hc reft- M' jlurfjpi , ii* I - » ' " 'tutt U falnt'v li'accvl in the iiy/un^'. f .•.on.ii , p!i!r.'i'>r- i '• .-• •^/•iit nf CoiiUj uinc ^'orphy ■orr::' J r-^ ,-.• »<*, • ", i^H.-n.-^^v •• i' • V Even at •':•.:( pcrivd the Iv.iiiUj' ' .' u, . '^' ^'i-i .;-n ■• • .: ^* cow ; arm thnug.x < i-ft' 'wd tK. uc v •', li .anO •d tutr •Viiiic, and th<^ .!ci;Kry v' »'r>*«''a Towards 'V ?i '' c •v v^ (v-vfc« ccadiiOed i!:c;a «.> ' K-, :v« 1«t T;*" , u IV i: 4nd Kiov , the i »rm,N ■■'■■■ '*'..:-\i **«•♦.. ,«• |;s al , f <■ . l-lanfeatid ic'i^ue } i >> reifarfc- .*,-, 4/ul iipulencr i)> tie eleventh c- o .v, U.- ig thf .rarr. o^ i J iir-=fn.^n the Siavoi^i. raj^f. unci iJttu ■ -'^srn rtj.npji' <.! Eg X' 2 Ef pC I UJ.pugc 3* ' r \ Wf «,-«■¥* tr .^ s s I-; \ K I.: r T>*>'- ^j it >" ,i»''^ V* Vfr^ .».rfA ,/... . I. 1^** '-1^ v. ; /.f'^'b m K ..iU*>i :* 1 \ ,■3 -IT' .-»•- ,MM.. . ^ •A^', V «,- . j ^r*- \ i o^l. ,. > V- >»«»_.. /{I; i rnm a -Jto "' ./ ■f 1 , !i«v«'i" T\, 'r-s. \ ' ..V % i...^'" t^..- ^. ^' ^;*- % s / -'-l* ■-/' i. *-*(' \: .» ■. T R '} H .* y y ^._. ^V- /-' ■\. I 1 .'a ' I A >" > t •« r ^i \- V^i. '^■- k • \> V' Ki 1> V ■ ' f T * M I' *- ' A*'--* ^^/^ ^ 1 ■, 1 . ^ " <» K| i >• «*. H S iW -X "-"» ,i V t' '^ ii» '-.-fS-f ■W, •■^Ir^ r - Vrvm AiTtnraui'fha Map •rf'Bitl^ln tii Ktii'fi|ir R U S S I A I N E U R O P E. 325 bv the Scandinavian chiefs who founded the Ruffian monarchy -. In Names. the fixteenth century, when Ruffia lirft attraiScd the obfcrvatiou of en- liehtened Europe, wc find that the new appellation of Mufcovla liaJ unaccountably palfcd among foreigners from tlic capital to the king- dom an impr'ipriety whicli lonj^ maintained its ground, and has not even yet finally expired. It probably arofe from the name of RufTia havin"' been imparted, with the epithets White, Red, &c. to diftant provinces, one or two of which were fubjedl to Poland; whence the vacuenefs cf the appellation induced ftrangers to indicate the kingdom by the metropolis, a pradice not unufual in the obfcurlty of the middle age?. The grand population of the European part of the Ruffian empire is Original Po» ^ve^ known to be Slavonic. The Slavons form an extenfive original ^'^ *"°''" r.i:e of mankind, radically di(lin• I .If tuiiii 0' '( 326 RUSSIA IN EUROPr. Proc r r.<- C;< .1!" I, Y. Hiibrical Epjcbs. vopc ; hut that capital belonged to the wcfteni Sbvons nnd v .u liif^j,,, iVom the ftoutiers of Ruflia. The vidorics of the Tatars conilraint'l the Ruliiaa princes to abandon Kiow about the middle of the t-.w-lfth century, and that city having been ruined by the Tatars in the thir- teentli, Moi'cow became the feat of empire. The geography cf Rnfn,, in the middle ages, becomes not a little embarralTcd from its repeat;] lubdivifion into fmall monarchies, which remained in a ftate of valFa!- age to the Tatars till the year 1462, when Ruflia emerged from this eclipfe, and gradually acquired its prefent extent and power. Kot t,i detail the fucceflivc addition of province to province, and kingdom to kingdom, it mud, however, be remembered that a great founder of tho Ruffian power was Ivan IV, who reigned from the year 1534 to 1,-81, and fubdued the Tatar kingdom of Aftracan, and fome provinces on the N. W. His fucceflbr Feodor I, turned his arms towards Siberia, a country which has been however moft flowly inveftigated, and indeed fcarcely known till the year 1730. In modern times, Ruffia has gra- dually extended her limits at the expence of the Turks ; and the addi- tion of an ample third of Poland, has afforded her a fource ftill more flable and fertile of men and power. The following appear to be the chief hiftorlcal epochs of this mighty - empire. I. The foundation of the kingdom by Ruric, a Scandinavian chief, A. D. 862. His defcendants held the fceptre above 700 years. II. The naval expeditions of the Ruffians againll Conftantinople, in the tenth century. III. In the fame century the baptifm of Olga the queen, and the fub- fequent converfion of the Ruffians to Chriftianity. IV. The invafion of the Tatars under Batu Khan in 1236, and the fuhfequent vafTalage of Ruffia. V. The abolition of the power of the Tatars by Ivan III, who died in 1505. VI. The reign of Ivan IV, furnamed Bafilowitz, known to vixftern hiftofians by the flyle of the tyrant John Bafilides. VII. The death of the Czar Feodor in 1598, with whom expired the long progeny of Ruric. Several impoftors afterwards appeared, under CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 337 under the name of Demetrius, the murdered brother of this fo- Historic At Epochs. VIII. The acccflTIon cf the dynafty of Romanow 161 3, in theperfon of M i;hael Fcodornwit/., Iprung in the female line from Ivan IV. He was foliowed i)y his Ion Alexis, father of Peter the Great. IX. 1 he reiy;n of Peter I has been juftly confidered as a moft impor- tant epoch in Ruflian hiftory ; but on reading the annals of the preced- ini? reigns from that of Ivan IV, it will be perceived that a part of our admiration for Peter arifes from our inattention to his predeceffors ; and that the light which he diffufcd was far from being fo fudden and grand as is commonly imagined. X. The late reign of Catherine II deferves to be commemorated among the moft brilliant epochs in the Ruffian annals ; nor mud her perfonal crimes exclude her from the lift of great and able fovereigns. Of ancient monuments Ruflia cannot be fuppofed to afford great va- Antiquicies, riety. Sometimes the tombs of their pagan anceftors are difcovered, containing weapons and ornaments. We learn from Herodotus that the Scythians regarded the tombs of their princes with fingular venera- tion; and the Sar.aatians or Slavons feem to have imbibed the fame ideas. The catacombs at Kiow were perhaps formed in the Pagan pe- riod, though they be now replete with marks of Chriftianity. They are lihyrinths of confiderable extent, dug, as would appear, through a mafs pf hardened clay, but they do not feem to contain the bodies of the mo- iiarchs '. The idols of Pagan RufTia are fometlmes found caft in bronze ; and Dr. Guthrie of Peterfburg has given an ingenious account of the Sla- vonic mythology •». The chief God, Peroun, was fuppofed the author of thunder; Volofs refemblcd Pan; Swctovid was the Sun or Apollo ; Silnoy Bog, or the ftrong god, was Hercules ; Leda refembles Mars, &c. Many divinities prefidcd over love, i'uch as Lada or Venus ; Lelio or Cu- pid, and his brother Dido, who, like the Anteros of the Greeks counter- .idcd the power of Cupid. Radagaft was the god who protedled towns. The Ruflians had alfo goddeffes correfponding with Ceres, Diana, and Pomona ; and their Rouffalki were nymphs of the woods and waters. - Hcrbin. Cryptx Kijorienfes. * DifTeitations fur Us Antiquues de Rufllci 179J. 8vo The I if ■;>• !■.» 11' 1'! ■ r .1 M ' I'' I ■ I ^ >: I ■ Ir i' w ; t| 3«8 AtlTIQUI« TtEI. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. The Pagan Ruflians alfo worfhipped Znitch or Vefta, in the form of fire. and venerated waters, the -fiog or Hypanis being as highly regarded as the Ganges among the Indians : the Don and the Danube were alfo holy Hreams ; and there was a facred lake, environed with a thick foreft, in the ifle of Rugcn, which was adored by the Slavonic tribes. The converfion of the Ruffians muft or courfe have been followed by the erection of many churches ; but as Byzantine or Italian architefts were employed, thofe edifices have but few peculiarities. Perhaps no country of confiderable extent can afford fewer monuments of ancient art than RufTia. CHAP. 11. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 329 ■hi. CHAPTER 11. Political Geography, Religion. — Ecckftajliciil Geography. — Government. — Laws. —Population. — Colonics, ■ —Army. — Kavy. — Revenues. — Political Importance and Relations. ITHE religion of Ruffia is that of the Grdek church,, of which, fince Ret ir ion-. the fall of the Byzantine empire, this ftate may be confidered as tlie chief fource and power. The creed and ceremonies of the Greek church vary confiderably from the Roman, and often in fuch tninutc circumftances that a detail would become tedious: the Greeks believe in the proceflion of the Holy Ghoft from the Faiher alone, while the Roman orthodoxy includes the Son in the myPtery. In pomp the (irccian ceremonies do not yield to the Ro!uan catholic ; but wh.ile the Greeks admit pidtures into their churches, they rejedl images with abhorrence. The chief patriarch of the Ruffian church had ufurpcd extraordinary Ecdefiaftx powers, to the great injury of the imperial prerogative ; hut the fpirit G'''S''P''> of Fcter I broke thefe ignominious bonds, and the patriarchs, have fince hecome complaifant inftruments of the court. The clergy arc very numerous, and have feveral privileges, pjrticularly exemption from taxes. They have been computed at 67,000, fccular and regular. The Greek religion permits the marriage of the fccular clergy. The cathe- drals and parifli churches in the empire are computed at 18,350; the monafteries at 480; nunneries 74: monks furpofcd to be 7300, nun» •;ooo. The monafteries have not been fuch favourite rcforts fince Peter I and Catherine II opened the fources of induftry. The biflioprics amount to about 30. The government of Rufi!ia appears to have been always dcfpotic, Govcrnmsor there being no legillutive power didiniil from that of the fovcrclgn. What is called the fcnatc Is only the fupremc court of judicature. In VOL. I. V IT i6c6 •■'1. !' ■I fir. Ul: 330 RUSSIA IN EUROPE, GoVFtN. M£NT. Laws. Population. 1606 the Czar Bafil pretended to a free eleftion by the fenate or peo- ple ; but his coronation was produced by intrigues among the chiefs ; and there appears no veftige in Ruffian hiftory of any national council or parliament, or eftaics of the empire, far lefs of a free eledive diet, like that of Poland, anotHcr Slavonic nation, which a falfe fcinblance of li- bcrty k'd to dcftruition, while the flavery of RufTia produped gradual aggrandizement. Nothing indeed can be more oppofite to any theo- ries of government, influence of climate, national charadler, tkc. than the contraft between Ruffia and Poland. In Ruflla there is an unifor- mity of fubjedlion, which at Icafl, blends the nation in one united mafs, while in Poland the nobles alone were free, and the king and the ; eo- pic alike flaves ; but the Polifli nobles were ftrangers to the grand maxim that the flavery or deftru(£lion of the nobility muft focn follow- that of the people. Tliis vaft empire is divided into about 40 govern- ments, or vice-royalties, of which 34 may be afllgned to the European part. The whole frame of the government may be pronounced to be military ; and nobility itfelf is only virtually eftimated by rank in t! army. Immediately on the fall of the Roman empire, we find the Gothic tribes feduloufly colleding and publiflaing their peculiar codes of laws; but it would be difficult to difcover any Slavonic code till the lixteenth century ; when they emanated, not from the national council, but from the arbitrary will of the monarch. Even in Poland, a country more early civilized than Ruffia, the firft appearance of laws is in a few edids of Cafimir the Great in the fifteenth century ; nor is there any femblance of a code more ancient than the middle of the fixteentb. This Angular defe£l may perhaps contribute to account for the fates of the Slavonic nations; and even the pretended Polifh liberty of eledling the monarch had not exifled above three hundred yearo. The firft Ruffian code dates from the reign of Ivan IV j and the late Emprefs had the merit of drawing up a new code with her own hands. The population of Ruffia is fo diflufe, and fpread over fo wide an ex- tent of territory, that very oppofite opinions have been entertained con- cerning it. By mofl; writers it was only efliimated as equal to that of France, or about 25,000,000 : and it was at the fame time fuppofcd that the recent acquifitions in Poland might add 5,000,000 to the amount. 3 f> Bai TIOS. CHAP. ir. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. But In a late publication,' Mr. William Tooke, who has long refilled in Pop u la. Ruflia, and appears to be intimately acquainted with the original docu- ments concerning that empire, has given new elucidations of this im- portant fubje793 Odnodvortzi, and free countrymen - - 773*656 Exempt from taxes _ - - 310,830 Crown boors - - - - 4,674,603 Private boors - - • « 6,678,239 12,838,529 The number of females being fuppofed to equal that of the males, a population would arife of 25,677,000. The moft important acceffion to the Ruffian population arifes from the partitions of Poland, which with fmall acquifitions from the Porte have been thus dated :* 33 » At the firft partition of Poland in 1 773 From the Porte in the years 1774 and 1783 - From the Porte in the year 1 79 1 At the fecond partition of Poland 1 793 By the fubjedion of Courland At the third partition of Poland 1 795 1,226,966 171,610 42,70}? 3745.663 387,922 1,40 7,402 6,982,271 ' View of the Ruff. Emp. ii. 124. . * Even male babet are included in the capitation tax* under Xhe denomination of their parents. 1 Tooke i. 327. U U 2 Mr. ! • '.m ii:l .1: 1' ill If w i'.i- r,-jj, am =,'.fi I 33* PoPULA. TION. i II: i'^1, , 1': / m ''ft' RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Mr. Tonke afterwards proceeds to give the following account, drawn up as he alRires us, with the greatelt nicety of examination, and pre- fcnting the whole population of the empire in 1799: " liy the rcvifion of 1783 there were in the faid 41 governments, computing the female fcx as equal to the male, of regiftered perfons - - - - . The amount of the Kozaks of the Don and the Eux- inc, according to the moft authentic private accounts at Icaa For the unnumbered tribes and claflTes, at the time of the fourth rcvilion, vvc cannot without the hlgheft improba- bility alluvv lefs than _ _ - - _ _ Confeqiienily the Ruffian empire in the year 1783, might have inhabitants amounting altogether to - - According to the refults deduced from experiments and obfervationii on the fruitfulnefs and mortality in Ruflia, this mafs mnft of itfelf have increafed annually more than half a million. If, in order to keep as far as poffible from all exaggeration we deduft the half of this furplus of births, to allow for the diminution it may have fufiered by an extraordinary mortality, as by war ; there remains by every year an increafe of 25,000 new citizens, which, exclufively of all afcending proportion, in 12 years makes a fum total of- - - --_- The new acquifuions fince the year 1783, or the pre- fent nine vice-royalties of Taurida, Minfk, Bratzlau, Vofnefenfk, Podo/ia, Vclhynia, Courland, Vilna, and Slonim, contain according to a legitimated ftatement al- ready mentioned - ----_« Confequently we may admit, by the moft moderate eftimate, the population of the Ruffian empire at prefent to be---- ---_. Or in a round fum thirty-A.^ millions of perfons." 25)^77.000 220,000 1,500,000 27*397.000 3,000,000 5.755.000 36,152,000 Of CHAP. 11. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 5^3 Of tliis population Mr. Tooke aflipns only ahout three millions and Popula. a half to Siberia, or Afiatic Rufria, wliich contains the five governments ■^"^'"'' of Perm, Ufa, Kolhyvan, Toholfk, and Irkutfk ; but Perm is itfclf fituated on the European fide of the Uralian mountains, fo that we mij^ht perhaps allow even 33,020,000 for the population of Kuropean Rulfia. Rulli I being a Hate new in maritime affairs, cannot boall of any colo- Colonics. nics, nor can this name be applied to a fmall eftablilhment or two in the cjliern parts of Siberia. But on the Rulfian armies a great part of the Army, fate of Europe and Afia muft depend, and the fubjcd of courl'c dcfcrves particular attention. Mr. Tooke eftimatcs the whole amount of the Ruflian troops at Coo,ooo ; of which 500,000 may be cftcemed eft'ec- tive. But it is fuppofcd that not lefs than 150,000 are neccflary in the garrifons, leattered over this vaft and heterogeneous empire, fo that if RufTia fcnt forth her whole military force, it would hardly exceed 350,000, of which about 30,000 might be Cozaks. The Ruffian troops are remarkahle for a kind of ftcady fanaticifin, which renders their retreat almoft impoflible ; but they are more accuftomed to open and direft combat, than to the grand manoeuvres of war. In weight and confiflence they fomewhat refemble the Spartan phalanx, which was forced to yield to the fuperior agility and rapidity of the Romaa legion. The Ruffian navy confifls of feven detached fleets, employed in the Navy, remote feas on which the Empire borders at diffijrent extremities. The chief fleet is of courfe that of the Baltic, which confifls of about thirty- fix fhij.o of the line. That in the Euxine, or Black fea, at tlic harbours of Sevaf^opol, and Kherfon, was computed at 12 fliips of the line, but not of a high rate, as the Euxine affords no great depth of water; but there are many frigates, gallies, chebecks, and gun-boats. The flcei of gallies in the Baltic, in 1789, was ef^imated at no. The Ruffians are rather averfe to a fea-faring life j and there is fcarcely any profpeQ of this Empire ever becoming a great maritime power. The revenues of RuflBa arc fuppofed to amount to about 50,000,000 Revcr.ues. of rubles; which, valuing the ruble at four (hillings, will be equal to lOjOoOjOool. f\crHng. The national debt is fuppofed to aoiount to little or nothing. With !•• 1 ti ■' ^ 11'' ' ' - ■J ' ' ?■ j.l4'H'}i Hi' II il* P'M.ITICAI JUPORT* RUSSIA IN EUROPE. With all thcfc advantages it is no wonder that the political importance and relations of Ruflia are fo preponderant in EuDpe, and Ai'ia. In Europe her recent acquifitions liave contributed to 'i nder her more and more formidable. It is fortunate that the pr vvcrful dominions, of IVullia and Aullria, are intcrpofed between Ruflia and the German Empire, clfe the liberties of Europe would be endantreied, and perhaps totally cruflicd, by a new flood of barbarians inning from the fame lources with thofc which formerly deluged the civi.izcd world. If the Rulllaii empire be not divided, there is room to predi£l that another Maccdoa will fubd'ie another CJreece. Poland has been devoured ; Denmark and Sweden may be confulcred as fidijei^-allics ; and ii the whole force of Ruiha wore bent aiiainft either Auftria or Pruflia, it is hardly to be con- ceived that the fliock could be withftood. It would certainly be for the intereil of Europe thar the Ruffian force fliould be diverted towards Afia, that by extendinj;^ her dominions in that quarter her flrcngth may be fllll more difperfcd, when probably a divifion of the empire woulJ commence, to the lafling advantage of the other continental powers. As the Greek religion prevails among the Chriflians of Greece, and Afia, RufTia would in them find more faithful fubjeds, than among the catholics jiad proteflants of Europe, '1 !4 II 'f1 CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. ""portance, nd Afia. Jn IlitT more and |"s. f>i iVuilia, "•111 Empire, rhaps totally 'aine lources 'f the RulFiaii 'ler Maccdon cnmark and liole force of 'y to be con. >'y be for the :rteil towards ^rcngth may mpirc would powers. As :e, and Alia, the catholics 33S CHAPTER in. Civil Geooraimiv. Manners find Cujloms, — Language. — Literature. — Education. --^Univcrfitics— Cities and Tuiuns. — Edificcs.^Roads.-^lnUmd Naii^utiaii. — Manufaclures and Commeree. AS the Ruffian etnplrc comprizes fo many dlftind races of men, the MAvwaiij manners of courfc muft he very various. But in the European di- t;u'^>roM;. vifion, to which this brief account is rcftrided, the grand diftindlions src, a few Laplanders on the cart of the mountains of Olonetz, which divide Ruflia from Sweden j the Samoieds beyond the river Mezcn ; the Fins of the White fca, and the Baltic, with fome remains of the fame pco|jlc towards the Uralian mountains ; the grand Slavonic mafs in the centre, including the Cozaks of the South who are alfo Slavons ; and a kvi Tatars in Taurida, a beautiful region, which forms the fouth-eafl extremity of Europe. The Laplanders are well known to be a diminu- tive race, who would be amiabl*; from the paftoral fimplicity of their manners, were not their pe:fons ugly, and disfigured with phyfical im- purity. The Fins are alfo rather Ihort in ftature, with flat faces, deep cheeks, dark grey i-yes, a thin beard, tawncy hair, and a fallow com- plexion ; but the ioiithern Fins, though they retain the national features» are of fuperior appearance. There is a fmall diftri£t in the northern extremity of Scandinavia, idly called Finmark ; but the chief region of the Fins is around the gulph of Finland, and rhcncc on the fouth of the White fea, where wa? in ancienr times the celebrated region of Permia, by the Scandinavian writers called Biarmia, which fome fuppofe ex- tended from the White fea to the mountains of Ural. Permia is men- tioned in the account drawn up by Ohter for the ufc of Alfred the Great: and a.fabulous deuii ib given of its wealth, particularly the rich tcmplcr VI'; I' • \ "r * ■ •1 '' ■ r "',' I' i < 1 1 ''i I, f" - - • -lU I. 3?>^ M«NMkRt AN D CvtroMs. RUSSIA IN EUROPr. temple of Yummala, the chief god of the Fins, Uc';oi .'j,' ukU a profu. fion of gold and jewels. Mr. Tookc ' .ndurcs '^o that the i jini ol ancient towns remain to evidence the civilization and profpenty of tirh people; and he fuppofos tli.it the Permians traded with PciTu, and India, by the Cafpian fea, the rivers Volga and Kama, and that the mart was TfcherdjTn, an old commercial town on the river Kolva. The repeated inciirfiousof the Scandinavian pirates drove the Fins further to the fouih ; and modern Perm is about 700 miles from the fca. The Fins ufed to excel in filhing and the chace ; but they are now muc'i Mended with the Slavon% and liavc generally adopted their manners and cuftoms. The manners of the Slavonic Ruffians, wlio conflitutc the chief mafs and foul of this empire, have been well defcribed by Dr. Guthrie, and Mr. Tookc. They are generally middle-fizcd and vigorous: the tjllnefs, and grace of the Polifh Slavons fecm to aril'e from fuperlor climate, and foil. The general phyfiognomy confifts of a fmall mouth, thin lips, white teeth, fmall eyes, a low forehead, the nofe commonly fmall, and turned upwards, beard very burtiy, hair generally rcddiih.' The exprefllon of the countenance is gravity, with good nature, or fagacity ; the gait and gefturcs lively and impaifioned. The women de- ftroy their naturally fine complexion with paint, and their perfonal charms expire at an early age. The Ruffian is extremely patient oi hunger and thirf\ ; and his cure for all dileafcs Is the warm bath, or rather vapour bath, in which the heat is above 32° of Reaumur, which contributes greatly to health, and is f'uppofed to be the only caufe why that fl^ocking difeafe, the Plica Polonica, has never appeared in Ruflia, Dr. Guthrie has fhewn that the Ruffians retain many manners and cuftoms derived from their Pagan anceflors, and has given fome curious fpecimens of their fongs and mufic, which feem to be very pleafing. He has alfo compared their dances with thofe of the Greeks ; and finds in one of them a confiderable refemblance of the wanton Ionic, while «inother refembles the Pyrrhic. He ouferves that the country girls drefs in the farapban^ refembling the ancient Jlola^ and bind up their i;air with the lenta a ribbon like the ancient intta. They tinge their * Toolce, i. 538. ' Tookc, ii. 253. I cheeks CHAP. Iir. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 357 chcch wUh t!ic juice of the ecbliim ItaUcum. When a marriage is pro- M^nkhi jx)it(!, tlif lover, accotnpanicil by a Iricnd, pocs to the houlc ol the CutroMi. bride, and fays to her inotlicr, " (hew us your merchandilc ; we have got money j" an exprcHicHi which is thougl\t to refer to the ancient ciilloni ol" buying a wife. The other ceremonies are e(|ually curious* l)ut cannot be detailed in this abftradl. The Rufllans ll.cw great atten- tion to their nurfcs, and arc fo liofpitable that they oftcr to every llrangcr tlie Kbhb dufol^ or bread and lalt, the fymbol of food, lodging, ;,nJ profcdlion. At a rcpaft, fomc fait fifli, or ham, and a glafs ot' brandy, arc prefcnted in the 'iw^ place ; and after dinner cakes made with lioncy arc ufually fcrved j the common drink is kvaf', an acid, tliin, malt liquor: the lioufcs are ornamented with lloves, and, among the lich, by flues condmflcd into every room, which is at the fame time guarded with double windows. Fires are alfo employed with pro- lulion to obviate the fcvi rity of winter in the northern provinces ; but at Pctcrfburg the air is {o pure that there is no occalion to paint the iron chains in the ftreets, as they are not attacked by rud. Jn I'cvcral iiulances the Rulllans form a curious junction of European, and Afiatic manners ; many of their ccrtmonics partake of Aliatic fplcndour : the great are fond of dwarfs ; and fome opulent ladies maintain female tellers of tales, whofe occupation is to lull their millrcH'es aflcep, hj flories rcfembling thofe of the Arabian nights.* The Rufllan language is extremely diflicult to pronounce, and not Langunge. lefs dilFicult to acquire, as it abounds with extraordinary founds, and anomalies of every kind. The charadlcrs amount to no lefs than thirty- fix; and the common founds are fcMuetimes cxprefl'ed in the Greek cha- radler, fonetimes in charadlers tjuite urlike thofc of any other lan- guage. The tones peculiar to the Rufllan arc often exprelTed by letters, which wear a very ill chofcn femblancc to the Greek or Roman. In fome refpeds the founds feem to approach the Pcrfian and Arabic ; a cir- cumftance which can hardly arife from the Mahometan domination of the Tatars, as after Neftor, who wrote his annals about the year looo, there is a fuccefllon of Rufllan authors. Among other finguUrities * For in account sf ihe Samoieds, who firft appear about 300 miles E. of Archangel, the reader ii referred to the Hift. Gen. dcs Voy. Tome xviii. Fr. edit, orxxiv. ed. Holl. 410. VOL. I. XX there 1 i 1 , } Ml » '■ r \.i I ill i? ilfelt! I ' % t P ' i'h 111!] 3^8 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Lamgvaci. there is one letter to exprefs \.ht fcb^ and another the Jib, the latter a found hardly pronounceable by any human mouth. Liteuure. The Ruffian literature fucceeded, as ufual, the converfion of the Empire to Chrillianity. As there is no inducement for ftrangers to learn the language, for the purpofe of perufing works of genius, it is unneceflfary to enlarge upon it in a work of this general nature. The elder authors are either writers of annals, or compilers of martyrologies, and lives of faints. Neftor, the eldeft hiftorian, alfo fet an example of the latter kind. In recent times the bed authors refi.lent ir. Ruflia, fuch as Pallas, and many others, have ha.' recourfe to the Germaa language : and little can be expedled from the native literature, till the language (hall have been reduced to the more precife alphabet, and poliflied form of other European dialeds. EJacttion. Education is little known or diffuled in Ruflia, though the court have inflituted academies for the inftrudion of officers and artills. The Univerfiiwi. univerfity of Pcterfburg, founded by the late Emprefs Catharine II. is a noble inftance of munificence, and it is hoped will elcape the fate of the colleges, founded at Mofcow by Peter the Great, which do not feem to have met with the deferved fuccefs. In confidering the chief cities and towns of Ruffia, Mofcow the ancient capital attracts the firfl attention. This city dates from the year 1300, and is of very confiderable extent, and population, though injured by a peftilence in 1771. Prior to this mortality the houfes in Nlofcow were computed at 12,538, and the population at not lefs thaa 200,000.* Mofcow is built in the Afiatic manner, in which cities FeterAurg. cover a vaft fpace of ground. Peterfburg, the imperial refidence, is faid to contain 170,000 inhabitants; and is the well-kno-^n, but lur« prifing eredion of the laft century. This city has been fo repeatedly dcfcribed that the theme is trivial. Suffice it to obferve that it (lands in a marfhy fituation on the river Neva, the houfes being chiefly of wood, though there he fome of brick ornamented with white llucco. The (lone buildings are few ; and Peterfburg is more diftinguilhed by its fame, than by its a| pearance or opulence. The nobleft pulilic works are the quays, built of perpetual granite, while we employ perifhable freeltone. * Coxe, It, in PoluMi, >• 35'' ^'O* cfttfflMCl, from good evidence, the popalatiun at :;o,oao, Croiidadt CitifS Mi T- WIS. MuKutv. ■f» CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. Cronftadt in the governnnent of Peterfljurg, and Kollonna in tliat of Mofcow, are fuppofcd each to contain about 60,000 inhabitants. Cher- fon in the government of Ecatharinflav, and Caffa in Taurida, are laid each to contain 20,000 ; while 30,000 are afcribed to Tula, and 27,000 to Riga, a city of confiderable trade and confeqncnce. In general the Ruflian towns are built of wood, and prefcnt few remarkable edifices. A cathedral or two, and the royal palaces and fortrefles, may defcrve a defcription, better adapted to a book of travels, than to a work of this nature. The inland navigations of Ruflla deferve more attention. Among other laudable improvements, Peter the Great formed the defijijn of e(la!)!iihing an intercourfe by water between Peterlburgh and Perlia, by the Cafpian fea, the Volga, the Mefta, and the lake of Novgorod, &c. but this fcheme failed by the ignorance of the engineers, and the em- peror afterwards employed Captain Perry, who rather taught the proper manner than completed any great work. During the long reign of the late emprefs many canals were accompliflied, or at leaft received fuch improvtnients that the chief honour muft be afcribed to her adminiftra- tioii. The celebrated canal of Vi(hnei Voloftiok was in fomc fliape completed by Peter, fo as to form a communication between Aftracan and Peterfburg, the courfe being chiefly afforded by rivers, and it was only necelTary to unite the Twertza running towards the Cafpian, with the Shlina, which commi'.nicates with the Baltic. The navigation is performed according to the feafon of the year, from a fortnight to a month; and it is fuppofed that near 4000 vcflcls pafs annually.' The canal of Ladoga, fo calk !, not becaufc it enters that lake, but as winding along its margin, cxionds from tlic river Volkof to the Neva, a fpace of 67 i miles, and communicates with the former canal. By thefe two impottant canals conflant intercourfe is maintained between the northern and fcuthcrn extremities of the em^)ire. Another cana' leads from Mofcow to the river Don, forming a communication with the Eiixine ; and the canal of Cronftadt forms a fourth. Peter the Great alfodefigned to have united the Don with the Volga, and thus have opened an intercourfe between the Cafpian, and Kuxine fcas and the ' Phillipi, 20, iQ. X X 2 Baltic : 3S9 CiTiei AND ToWNb. Edifcei. Tn'anH Njvigation. Volofhok. Ladogj ■'ril ■ I'll :ip ^.: ti :1 . ■ >'. :■ 'r? 340 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Mariufic- liir> !. ami Coiiimi rce< Inland N*. Bultic : and the whole empire abouiuls lb much with rivers that many advantageous canals remain to he opened. Sonic progrd's wa-, made in a c:nal from the river Volkot* towards the White lea, wliidi would confidcrabiy improve the commerce of Archangel. 13y thefc means the inland trade of Ruflia has attainct' confKlcrahlo profpcrity ; and the value of her exports and imjiorts have bci.ii Ion "■ upon the increafe. Scverul nianufadurcs arc condudtcd v/ith cuniulcr- ablc fplrit.* Tliat of ifmglals, which is a preparation of the loiiiul^, or air bladder of the (lurgcon, flourilhcs on the Vol », the ciiic; K it alfo of that of kaviar, conlilling of the filtcd rocs of large hih llij manuladtniies of oil and foap arc alio conlidcrabic ; and iVicibiiri; exports great quantities of candles, l)clides tallow, which abomuli, in an empire fo well replcnilhcd with pafturage: nor mud tbe breweries and dlllillciics be forgotten. Saltpetre is an imperial traffic, ami fome fugar is refined at Pcterfburg. There are feveral manufa(fturcs ot paper, and of tobacco, which grows abundantly in the fouthcrn pro- vinces. Linen is manufadurcd in abundance, the bed comes from the government of Archangel. Cotton is little wrought, but the lil'i ma- nufadtories are numerous : coarfe cloths, carpets, and hats ar: alio made in RufTia, and leather lias long been a ftaple commodity. The mode of making Ruffian leather is defcribed with great minutcmrs by Mr. Tooke.' Shagreen is made of chofen portions of the hides of the horfc and afs, impreffed with the hard feeds of certain plants, v.liic'i are trodden in to mark the leather. Ruflia produces vail qiiaiititits m wax, which is however generally exported unbleached ; nor are there wanting fabrics of earthen ware and porcelain. Jron fouiulerits abound ; and in the northern government of Olonetz is a grand foundery of cannon. The commerce of RuiTia was known in the middle ages, by the connexion between the Ilanf'e towns, in the north of Germany, an] Novgorod, eftahlillied about I 276. So wide is now this empire that it maintains a commerce of ihe moll remote delcripiions, on the Baltic, and the White fca, the Kiixine and the Cafpian, wuh Ptrfia, ar'd with China. The Englilh having, fo to fpcak, difcovcrcd Ruffia in the ' Tcokc, iii. 463, Sec, ' Vol. iii. p. 513, SiC. ' fixtccntli m^ W.tl ., CHAP, III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. fixtecnth century, the C/ar Ivan Bjl'ilowitr., delighted with this new intcrcnurfe, caufed a harbour to he conilrudted on the White fen, where the Knglilli arrived, which was calkd the harbour of the Arcli- an^el Michael, and altcrwards, for brevity, Archangel. This commercs continued till PttcriLiirg was founded: yet Archangel Hill allbrds a moderate trade, and exports pot afhes, kaviar, t.dlow, wax, hides, licnip, &c. with corn, linfecd, coarfc linens, and o.her articles. Tiie commerce of Peterfburg is much of the fame defc-iption : that of Rllja is very confulerahle, and to other articles are added marts from tiie Ilnicper. Riga was the capital of Livonia, a province which i'unnerly O'calioiied many dii'putes between Ruflia, Sweden, and Pola.id ; bu'. in J -10 was hnally fubdued by Peter the Great. In general tlie exports of Rufli.i, by the Baltic, exceed the imports by one third part. Tlie impoits of Peterlbiirg in 1797 were computed it about 20,000,000 of rullcs or about 4,000,000!. fterling. Ruflia is fuppofed to export grain annually to the value of 170,0001. and hemp, and flax, raw, and manuiadurcd, to the amount of a million and a naif fterling. T le commerce of the Euxine, or Black fea, is of inferior moment, chit'f cxp(jrt8, furs, fait beef, butter, cordage, fail cloth, kaviar, corn ; with iron, linen, and foine cotton ftuft's. Imports, wine, fruit, coftec, filks, rice, and feveral Turkifli commodities.* The commerce of the Ci!"|)ianwas known to the Genoefe, who, by permiHion of the Byzan- tine cinperors, had formed a feitlcment in Grim. The chief Ru/naii harbours art Allra'an, the chief feat of the Cafpian commerce, GurieF, and Killiar. Perlian liavens are Derbent, Nifabad, and Baku ; with Medlheiizar, and Farabat on the fouthern fliore of the Cari)ian. Allrahat opens the trade with Kandahar. From Aftracan are exported many European manufaifiurcs j and the chief imports are raw f'!l;, rice, dried fruits, fpiccs, fafl'ron, fulplujr, and naphtha. The Hindoo mer- chants occafionally bring gold, and precious ftones. The annual trade is computed at 1,000,000 of rubles, or 200,oool. That of the Euxine is not above one thiid of this value. Ruflia likewifc maiiuains fomc commerce by land with Pruflla. That with Perfia is of little moment ; chief imports filk. There is a 341 1 URti, ica. :l '■ UI' I' >■ ♦ Toike, iii. 571. 6 coufidcrablc 34» RUSSIA IN EUROPE. MANurAC- TU«tES, &Cf confiderable trade by land with the Kirgufcs, who fend horfcs, cattle and flieep, in return for woollen cloths, iron, and European aniclcs. That with China is nearly on a par ; each country tranfmittinp; to the amount of about 2,ooo,coo of rubles (400,0001.). Ri'^fja exchangcj her precious Siberian furs for tea, filk, and nankeen. The internal commerce of Ruflia is very confiderable; and Siberia is faid to afford in gold, filvcr, copper, iron, fall, gems, &c. to the amount of 12,000,000 of rubles (2,400,000!.), that between the fouthcrn and northern provinces is alfo of great extent and value. The coin current in the empire is fuppofed to amount to about 30,000,0001. fterling, (he paper money to about 20,000, oool. The Siberian gold, and iilvcr fupply an important addition to the national currency. ■ * M-.j; CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 343 CHAPTER. IV, Natural G e ;' c r a p h v. Climale and Scafons. — Face of the Country. — Soil and Agriculture. — Riicrs. — lakes. — Mouniaivs. — Forejls. — Jiotany.—Zoolo^'. — Mineralogy,—' Mineral Waters.— Natural Curiofttiesm i II THE climate of Ruflia in Europe, as may be expeded In fuch a dl- veiriiy of latitudes, prcfents alinoft every variety from tliat of LapIaTul, to that of Italy: for the newly acquired province of Taurida may i)e compared with Italy in climate and foil. But winter maintains the chief fway at Peterfb'irg, the capital, and the Neva is annually frozen from November to March, or April. Euler has even obfervecl* that at Feterfburg only two months in the year may be expeded to be fr;e from fnow : and the climate around the frozen ocean, and the laft European ifle upon the N. E. that of Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land, is of noted feverity, the northern lide being encompaffed with mountains of ice, and the fun not vifible from the middle of 0£tober^ till February ; while it never fets during June and July. Taurida pre- fents, on the contrary, all the luxuriance of the fouthern year, while the middle regions arc blcft with the nvid feafons of Germany and' England. In (0 wide an empire the face of the country muft alfo be extremely Taricu"*; but the chief feature of Eui-opean Ruflia conlifts in plains of api^ 'igious extenr, rivalling in that reipedl the vaft dcfarts of Afia and Alrica. In the foutl) are iome extL-nfive SttppeSy or dry and elevated plains, fuch as that above the fea of Azi f, in length about 400 Englifli miles. The numerous and majeflic rivers alfo conftitute a di(linguifl\ing feature of this euipire. The foil is of courfe alfo extremely diverfe, from the chilling marfhes *'hich border the "While aud frozen feas, to the rich and fertile plains 3 oa Cl. I M ATS AND 6 k A* SONS. Face of tlit Cjuntty. Soil !ini| AgticuJcure> m m i (.,' i-'^ ^■'t; 3<4 K Ml. A NB /\<. R lit L- T U K E . RUSSIA IN EUROPE. on the Volga. The mod: fertile is that between the Don and the Ynh^ from Voronctz to Sitnlnrfk, contillln^ of a bhuk mould, ftrongly im. prognatcd with falipetre ; that is a foil formed from fucccflivc layers of vegetable remains.' The great extent of arable land mi^ht be much cncrcafcd if induftry were more diffufcd. In Livonia, and Mllhonia the medial returns of harvcit are eight or ten fold ; aiul the latter is generally the produce of the rich plains near the Don, \vlicre the fields are never manured, but on the contrary are apt to IwcU the corn into too mucli luxuriance. I'afturage is fo abundant that the meadows are little regarded, and the artiiicial produdlion of gralles is fcarcely known. Some of the meadows are watered, and produce large crops of hay, the dry paftures ^fomctimis opened for grain) yitld a Hunt, but nutritious produce; in a few of t'lC fteppes the grafs will attain the height of a man, and is fcldo!.\ Mown. In the fylva i age the annual burning of this grafs, as pradn'cd by favages, may have produced the rich black mould fo abundant in fomc large regions of the empire. Agriculture is hardly known in the northern parts of the govern- ments of Olonctz, and Areaangcl ; but in the central parts of the empire has hccn puriucd from Vine immemorial. The Rulfian plough is light and fimple, and fcarcely pierces the ground to the depth of two inches; but in the fouthern provinces a heavier kind is ufed, refcni!)ling the German. In what is called the fummer field the corn is fown ami reaped in the fame year ; while in the winter field the corn is town in autumn, and the produce reaped in the enfuing fnmmcr. Tliu former yields what is called fummer wheat, and rye, barky, millet, buck-w!ieat, flax, hemp, pcafe, &c. the latter only wheat, or rye: and the winter lield is commonly left fallow till the following fpring. In general agriculture is treated with great negligence, yet the harvells are c'.bundant: even in the neighbourhood of Pcterfburg there are large marfhes which might be cafily drained, and converted into fertile laiul. In the north rye is moft generally cultivated ; but in the middle and the fouthern regions wheat ; in the government of Ekatarinoflaf tin Arnautan wheat is beautiful, the flour yellowilh, the return commonly ! Tooke, i. 67. fifteen 4» CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 34S tlfrcen fold; nor Is Turkifli wheat, or maiz unknown in Taurida. Soiu amo Harley is a general produce, and is converted into meal, as well as rvm. oat?, of which a kind of porridge is compofed. Millet is alio widely iliffufcd ; but fpelt, or bigg, little cultivated. Rice fuccccda well in the vicinity of Killear. I'otatocs are unaccountably neglected, except in the nnrtii. This invaluable root bears the cold of Archangel, and viclcis from thirty to fifty fold. Hemp and flax form great obje£ls ( t' agriculture. Madder, woad, and faflfron grow wild iu the fouth. The hop is alfo cultivated, and i:; found wild near the Uralian chain, and in Taurida. Tobacco has been produced fince the year 176.^, chiefly froni Turkilh and Perfian feed. I'he olive has been tried in vaia at Afiracan; but profpers in the fouthern mountains of 'I'aurida along the Euxine. In the gardens are cultivated c.ibbages^ of which a great number is confumed in the form of four-kraur, and other plants common in Europe. The government of Mofcow produces abundance of excellent afparagus ; and fugar melons abound near the Don, and the Volga. Large orchards are fcen in the middle an;l louthein parts of Ruflia, yet quantities of fruit arc imported. While apples, and pears arc found as far north as the 49', plumbs and cherries extend to the ss"' ^Vhat is called the Kirellkoi apple often weighs four pounds, is of an agreeable flavour, and will keep a long time. A tranfparent fort from China is alio cultivated, called the Nalivui, melting and full of juice.* The culture of the vine has been attempted in the fouth, and will certainly, with proper management, fucceed in Taurida. Bees are not known in Siberia, but form an ob- ject of attention in the Uralian forclls, where the proprietors carve their hives to a confiderable height in large trees, and they are fecured from the bears by ingenious contrivances dcfcribed by Mr. Tooke. Mulberry trees and filk are not unknown in the fouth of European Ruflia. In enumerating the chief rivers of European RufTia the firft attention Rivers, is due to t)ie majcuic Volga, which forms, through along fpace, the ^"'s-*- boundary between Afia and Europe, belonging properly to the latter continent, in which it arifes, and from which it derives its fupplies, till 11 m ' r: VOL. I. ■ Tookr, iii. 3 p. \ y at ■. i'!^:.; ■1 I 346 RUSSIA IN EUR OPK. FiTtm. jjj Tzarltzin, about 250 miles from its mouth, it turn S F,. into Afi.i. 'lliis IbviTcigii of European rivers derives its fourccs from feveral la! 'I CHAP. IV. NATURAL CFOCRAPIIY. 347 The river Petfliora rifcs in the Ural mountains, anJ joins the Frozen Ri««m. Ocean, after a courfo i)f about 450 miles. Next, on the weft, is the Mc/cn, whicli falls Ifitothc White Sea after a course of al)0Ut ,350 miles. The Dwina falls into the Rulph of Archangel, after a cnnfichTahlo n*it«, cniirl'e of about 500 miles. 'I'he Onega cinios tiic lilt of the iliicf rivcra that How into the Ardic Ocean J for iholc of ()!onct/,, and of KullLm Lapland, are of little confcquence. The Svir joins the lake of Onega with that of Ladoga, \vlii>li by the Neva, a more important llrean), fails into the gulidi oi' I'inland. ■^'■^» This river, pervading the city of I'cccrlhurg, is about iorty miles iu length, but of confiderablc breadth and depth, and fubjcct to violent floods, which have been recently guarded againll by deepening the bed, ' and by erefting ftrong quays of granite. The Narva alfo runs a fl»ort courfc from the Tchudfkoi, or Pcypns lake, into the Finnifli gulph. The Pcrnof rifcs fonic miles to the welt of the Peypus lake, and falls into the gulph of Riga. But the moft confiderablc llrcam in this quarter is the Duna, whofe Oant, fourcc has been alrcadv mentioned. It has fome confiderablc and dan- gerous falls; and foi letimes greatly injures the city of Riga, at the breaking up of the ice. Its courfe is about 500 miles. The Nimcii Nimcn. now forms a part of the boundary between Ruffia and Pruflia, and is joined by a canal to the river Pripaz, which falls into the Neiper ; but the cataracts in the latter river, about 250 miles above its eftuary, greatly impede the intercourfe that might thus be eftablithed with the Euxine. The chief lakes of European RufTia are fituated in the N. W. divifion L.kei. of the empire. There is a confiderablc lake in Ruffian Lapland, that of Imandra ; to the fouth of which the government of Olonctz prefents many extenfive pieces of water, particularly the large lake of Onega, Onegi. which is about 150 miles in length, by a medial breadth of about 30. The iflands and Ihores of the Onega are chiefly calcareous, and contain fome valuable marbles. To the weft is the Ladoga, about 1 30 mili;* in length, by 70 in breadth, being one of the largcft lakes in Europe. As it has many fhoals, and is liable to fudden and violent tempefts, Y y a Peter ' a. n^ f i : , I i< m !' "I t f, ■"'■A: mi I 3,8 RUSSIA IN F. IT ROPE. I.Aiu. Peter \hp Crcit opcnt-d :i canal alouj; its iljorc, from Uie Volknf to the Neva. I'hc lillK-ry of tliis laki- Ifcnts ol little ronfi-cjiii'ijcc ; but il,c northern ihorcs proiliicc the bcauiitui I'inniih marble, wliicli is much uleil at iVteiiliiirj;. rr)pi»i. Oil the S. W. wc liiul the lake of Piypus, ahoiit 60 miles in li-nj^tli by 30 in breadth : the northern part of this l.ikc is llykil that of rihud the font I that of Pl'cove. I'Vom the Peypiis illues ihe river Narova, or Narva, anil there is .111 illand, with three villaj^es, calleil Uolka. Filli abounil, partlenlarly a kind whieh refembles the herrinp;; barbel, pike pcrih, carp, and others. To the eall is the the lake Ihnen, on whidi llands the ancient city of Novo^!;orod. The Hielo, or White like, is lo called friMU its bottom of white clay. The lake of Coubenlkoi, and a few others to the N. E. arc of inferior note. IJut the lakes that give rife to the famous Volga muft not be omitted. The chief of thcfe is the lake Seligcr, in the government of I'vver, which, thougli narrow, extends about 30 mileu in length ; and a finalltr lake, not far lo the well, emits another fourcc of that augull river. MotiDUiD5. It has already been mentioned that Kuropcan RufTia is rather a plain country, though fomc parts of it be greatly elevated, fuch as that which fends forth the three rivers of Duna, Volga, and Nieper. This region, which is palled in travelling from Peteifburgh to Mofcow, is by iovnc called tlw mountains of Valday, from the town and lake of Va'day, litiuucd on the ridge ; but by the natives it is dyled i^lii/oiaya riojlchiuk . vx elevated ground ; and no mountains are here delineated in the common m?ps. In this tpiarter the ground is ftrewn with malTes of granite, but the hills are chiefly marl, fand, and clay ; and what are called the mountains of Valday feem to be a high table land, fur- Vatday> mounted with large fand hills, and interfperfed with mafles of red and grey pranite, with hornblende, ihorl, and i^itatites : near Valday is the highcll part of the ridcre, which feems to be in a N, E., and S. W. direction. The hills, lakes, and groves are beautiful ; and there is an ifland with a noble monadery. To the foutli of Valday the malfes of granite become fmaller, and more rare ; and calcareous petrifadtions appear, which are followed by the clay near Mofcow. Some fuppofe the rilAr. IV. NATURAL CF.OCRAIMir. 34'> thf uplaiuls ot' Val'lav to lie an cxtciifion of the mountains of Olonctz, Moom. paflinn Si't ecu tlir lakes Onij^a iuid Lu(lo)i;a, and afterwards lictwccn '^*'"*" thofc of lliiH-n and iSdij'tT ; where is the thief ridj»e, and wliiih fcerns tonrcfiiit the rninH of what was once a granitic chain. Mr. Tooke ' compute* tlic hi^iliid point of tlw Vahiay at only 200 fathonia above the livcl of IVterfbnrf!;, ahont i aoo feet aI)ovc the fea : the hcii^lit ih in- ((inficltrahle, and (^ives a llriking inipicOion of the gentle and plain fcvel, lhroii|;h wluch fui h cxtenlive rivers mud purine their tourfc. The woods on the VaUlay are chiefly pine, hr, l»irch, linden, afpen, ami alder : foil in the vales fertile, inolHy eluy and marl. from the Valiliy towards the S. fcarcc a mountain occurs; hut after n,illin}; the He|Tj)e of the Nieper, an arid plain with lalt lakes, which in- dicate the extent of the I'.nxine at retn' " periods, we arrive at the mountains of Taurida, which arc rathei .laniic than of remarkable T»iriJt heijlit, being calcareous and alluvial. To the S. of this chain, alon^ the lltorcs of the Euxinc, are the beautiful vales, fo well defcribed by hllas, produdlive of the laurel, the olive, the fig, and the pomegranate* while the Arbutus adorns the (Icepcll cliHs with its red bark, and fo- liage of perpetual green. The caper and the vine alfo abound in this natural orchard : and the Hocks of llieep and goats feeding on the hills, or bounding from the rocks, unite with the iimple and good hu- moured manners of the Tatar inhabitants, to render the fccnc truly paAoral. But the mo(\ important chains of mountains In European RufTia re- main to be defcribed, thofc of Olonetz in the furthed N., and thofe of oioneti, Ural which feparatc Europe from Afia. The chain of Olonctz runs in adircftion almoft due N., for the fpace of ij* or about 900 G. miles* The moil ardic part is laid to confid chiefly of granite, gncifs, petro- ftlcx, and fchiftofc limeflone ; and is not of great height, but retains perpetual fnow from the altitude of the climate. More to the S., branches ftretch on the E. towards the gulph of Kandaiak ; the granite is intermixed with large flieets of talc, and patches of trap are found, particularly near the gold mines of Voytz, on the wcdern fide of the river Vyg,. Various other ores occur in this region, and veins of cop- ' Vol. i. 130. I per ■v,i 1 ' 1 ^ 1 1 » 'n "fr M: ' ' k. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 m m |25 12.2 1.8 U III 1.6 III Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 550 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Mous- •Ural. Forefts. per pyrites appear In the trap. Towards the lakes of Oneji and Lado- ga, the calcareous rather preponderate?, as already mencloned. In the centre, between the mountains of Olonetz and thofe of Ural there feems to he a confiderable chain extending from the E. of Mczca to the Canin Nor., a bold promontory which rufhes into the frozen ocean • hut this chain appears to have efcaped the fcarches of curiofity or ava- rice, by the perpetual fnows with which it is enveloped. The immenfe Uralian chain extends from about the 50th to near the 67th dej^ree of N. latitude, or about loco G. miles in length, and has by the Rufllans been called Semeiici Foias, or the girdle of tlie world,* an extravagant an- pellation, when we conhder that the chain of the Andes extends near 5000 miles. Some modern authors have imagined that this chain is the fame with the Riphzean mountains of antiquity; which, on the contrary, as appears from Ptolemy and others, ran from E. to W. near the head of the Tanais or Don, and muft of courfe have been only a foreft running through the centre of Ruflia, as the aftcients often con- founded mountain? and forefts under the fame appellation. Pauda, one of the higheft mountains of the Uralian chain, is reportevi by Mr. Gme- lin to be about 4512 feet above the level of the fea, an inconfiderable height, when compared with M. Blanc or M. Rofa. The central part of this chain abounds in metals, from Orenburg on the S. to the neigh- bourhood of Perm, where on the Afiatic fide are Venchoutury on the N., Ekatarinenburg on the S., places remarkable for opulent mines. The higheft ridges are chieHy granite, gneifs, and micaceous fchiilus, while the exterior hills of the chain on the W. are as ufual calcareous. Serpentine, jafper, and trap, are alfo found, with ar^Uaceous fchiftus, and other varieties, to be expected in fo long a chain. The woods are chiefly pine, fir, birch, cedar, larch, afpin, alder, and on the S. W. fides are a few oaks, elms, and lindens. European RufTia is fo abundant in forefts that it would be in vain to attempt to enumerate them. There are prodigious forefts between * Pennapt, A. Z. i. 158. Pallai in his travel), Paris 1793. 8 vols. 8vo. gives an account of thefe mourtains. In his third volume he fays, that the name Oural Taeu fignifies moontains of the belt ; bnC( according to others, Vral meant an eagle. Pallas fays, that the eaftern fide prefenti petrofilex, jafper, flate, and argillaceous fchiftus rich in minerals. There is one mountain of mica, and another of albellus, called the Silken Mountain. .6 Peterlburg CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 351 Petcrlburg and Mofcow, and others between Vladimir and Arzomas. Foaists. Further to the S. there feems to have been a foreft of ftill greater ex- tent, probably as already mentioned the Riphaean foreft of antiquity, in the direction of the rich black foil fo remarkable for its fertility.* When we confider the vaft extent of territory comprehended under Bocany. the European fovereignty of Ruflia, from the frozen fhore of Archangel to the delicious climate of the Crimea, and that the whole of this great empire has fcarcely produced a fmgle naturalift of any eminence, all that is known of its vegetables, animals, and minerals, being colledled for the moft part within the laft forty years by a few foreigners, under the munificent patronage of Catharine II., it will be evident that the rudi- ments alone of the Ruflian flora can as yet be extant. The provinces bordering upon the Baltic, and the newly acquired government of Taurida, have been examined with fome attention, and a few ftriking features of the botany of the interior of the country have been defcrib- edby travellers : but many years of patient refearch muft elapfe before the natural hiftory of Rufllia is advanced to an equal degree of accuracy with that of the weftern parts of Europe, f The Ruflian provinces N. of the Baltic, contain the fame plants aa thofe of Swedifli and Norwegian Lapland, which will be hereafter de- fcribed. Such a« extend between the 50th and 60th deg. lat. abound principally in the common vegetables of the N. of France and Germa- ny, fome of which, however, are wanting, on account of the greater feverity of the Ruflian winters from their proximity to the vaft plains of Tatary and the forefts of Siberia. The trees of moft ufe and in greateft abundance are the Jir -, the Scotch pine; iht yewleavedjir ; and the larch :. all of which mingled together, form the vaft impenetrable forefts, whence the reft of Europe is principally fupplied with mafts, deals, pitch, and tar. The other foreft trees are the elm; the lime, of the inner bark of which the Ruffian mats are made, and from whofe blof? • Mr. Coxe, Traveli in Poland, &c. vol. i. 3*3. j+i, defcribes the vaft foreft of Volkonfki, as beginning near Viafma, and continuing almoft to the gates of Mofcow, as he travelled through it- wiiliDot interruption for 150 miles. He fays that the Volga, Duna, and Dnieper arife in thi* immenfe foreft, which confiils of oaks, beech, roountain-afli, poplar, pines, and &ti, mingled to-* geihcr in endlefs variety. t Pallas, Flora Rulfica. Gilibert, Flora Llthuaolca. Gorur, Flora Icgrica. foms '■■V ' " i' ' ■'. ,' > ;' V 'mki Mm ','■• '-1: ; fi ■ I ..... $n ' 1 1; 'I ■■ ^f »^ ,:/■ '!•. V'''. 'I L^/' I'ii ■a' 'Jl. ^ "I'M •'-**'■ 35* Botany. Zoology. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. foms the immcnfe fwarras of wild bees collet the chief part of their honey i the' birch; the aUer; the q/pen; the greater mapU; and fycamore : of the flirubs and humbler plants, thofe of mod imporu-,cQ are mountain- ajh^ from whofe berries by fermentation and diftillation ai. ardent fpirit is obtained ; \\\t cloudberry ; the cranberry ; the bearberry ; and the jfione bramble ; the fruit of all which, for want of better, is highly cfteemed, and is either eaten frefli or is prelerved in fnow during the winter: the ^ngelica^ whofe fucculent ftalks when candied form a favourite conferve with moft of the northern nations j as well as the following vegetables, moft of which are either found only in our flower gardens, or are of rare occurrence in a truly wild ftate in Britain, pyra- tnidal bell-jftowsri the holly-hock \ Moldavian balm; evening primrofc; Vie'zercon ; and bepatica. (fitting the pine forefts of the N. and middle of RuiTia, if we turn our attention to the few vegetable praduQions that have as yet been noticed amidft the myriads that adorn and enrich the broad vales of the Don and the Dneiper, that glow upon the warm fliores of the Black Sea, or luxuriate in the delicious receffes of Taurida, we (hall fee what a rich harveft is referved for future naturalifts, and with what eafe the inhabitants, when once become civilized, may avail themfelves of the un- common bounties of their foil. Here rifes in ftately majefty for future navies the oak, both the common kind and the fpecies with prickly cups ; the black and the white poplar^ of unufual fize, (kirt along the margins of the ilreams : the q/h ; the horn-beam ; the nettle tree^ occupy the upland paftures, and the elegant beech^ crowns the i'ummits of the limeftone ridges. Of the fruitbearing ihrubs and trees, befides the^oo/?. berry^ the red^ the ivhite^ and the black currant^ which are difperfed in abundance through the woods, there are the almond and peach \ the apricot and crab-cherry, the medlar \ the walnut; the mulberry, the olivt\ thej^ ; the vine ; and the pomegranate. Of the ornamental (hrubs and plants the following are the moft diftinguifhed, the dwarf almond; the laurel; the pyracantba ; the bay-4ree ; the common andjhrubby jafmine \ and the tamari/k. The zoology of Ruffia is vaft and various, and only a very flight fketch caa here be attempted. The more peculiar animals are the fea bear CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 553 beat of Novaia Zemlla, and the fouflik of the S. In the more north- Zoology. ern parts are found the wolf, the lynx, the elk ; nor is the camel un- known in the lower latitudes. The animals in the centre feein common to the reft of Europe. Among the more ufeful animals the horfe has met with deferved attention, and the breed in many parts of the empire is large, ftrong, and beautiful. Near Archangel are found poneys, or fmall horfes, as in the northern latitudes of the Britifli do- minions ; but Lithuania produces fteeds of great ftrength, while thofe of Livonia excel in fpeed ; the fpirit and beauty of the Tatarian horfes have been long celebrated, and have been improved in Taurida by the introduction of Turkifti and Arabian ftallions. Yet numbers of horfes are annually imported at Peterfburg. Even the country near Archangel is remarkable for excellent paftu- rage and fine cattle, which may be faid in general to abound in the em- pire. The fheep in the northern provinces are of a middle fize, (hort- tailed, and the wool coarfe ; nor is proper attention paid towards im- proving the breed. Thofe in the S. are long-tailed, and yield a fuperior wool; but the beft is from the ancient kingdom of Kazan, and other re- gions in the eaft of European Ruffia. The iflands of Oefel and Dago have an excellent breed, with wool equal to the Englifli. In Taurida it is faid that common Tatars may poflefs about looo fheep, while an opulent flock is computed at 50,000 : thofe of the whole peninfula were fuppofed to amount to 7,000,000. The matron excellent, but the wool coarfe, though the lambs' fsins be valued for their fur. Goats and fwine alfo abound throughout European Ruflia ; nor is the rein- deer unknown in the furtheft N. ; fo that the empire may be faid to extend from the latitude of the rein-deer to that of the camel. The chief mines belonging to Ruflia are in the Afiatic part of the Mineralogy, empire, but a few are fituated in the European, in the mountains of Olonetz ; and there was formerly a gold mine in that region near the river Vyg. In the reign of Ivan Bafilowitz, the Englifh in 1569, ob- tained the privilege of working mines of iron, on condition that they ihould teach the Ruffians this metallurgy. During the reign of Alexis, the fiift regular mines were eftabliflied in Ruflia, about 60 miles from Mofcow, and they are ftill continued : but Peter the Great was the VOL. I. X z ' founder -r, [' ; 1*1' '!'>;■ >.!- . ; -4 ■ ;■ ■.].>. .1 V ■' v.. ¥1 ^■|j|: I mm 35^ RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Puis I AM people of Mczeti. To the fouth of Novaya Zemlia is the fea of Cara **"*'' (Karfkoye) in which the tide flows about two feet nine inches.* Splwbcrgen. The remote and dreary iflands of Spitzbergen having been taken pof- feflion of by the Rulfians, they may be here briefly dcl'cribed. This country has by fome been ftyled New Greenland, a name which ac- curately belongs to the weftern fide of Greenland proper, in North America, while the eaftern fide is called Old Greenland, as having been anciently planted by the Danes, though fince blocked up by ice. The main land of .Sj)itzbergcn extends about 300 miles, from the Ibutli cape, lat. 76" 30', to Vcrlegan-Hook, lat. 80° 7'. In an adjacuit fmall ifle are fuid to be bafaltic columns, from 18 to 20 inches in diameter, and moftly hexagonal.' Driftwood is frequent in thefe northern la- titudes, partly perhaps from the banks of the Ob, and partly from America, there being a ftrong current from the Weft-Indies to the N. E. Spitzbergen is fuppofed to have been firfl: difcovered by the Dutch navigator Barentz in 1596. The mountains are of granite and grit, the higheft not exceeding 4000 feet j for mountains in genera! decline in height towards the poles. The icebergs, or glaciers, in the N. E. of Spitzbergen, prefent a fingular appearance, being high cliiTs of an emerald colour, impendent over the lea, with cataradls of melted fnow, and a back ground of black conic hills fl:reaked with white. The fea itfelf contains mountains of ice, formed by aggregation; a large field forcing a fmaller out of the water till it lodge upon the fuperior furface, and the height is afterwards increafed by the fnow, till it ibme- times rife to 1500 feet. The fnow in thefe high latitudes often falls as hard, and minute as fine fand. About the firft of November the kn fets, and appears no more till the beginning of February ; and after the beginning of May it never fets till Auguft. Coals are found in Spltz- * In the firft volume of the Foyaget pour V EtabliJJimtnt de la Compagnle des Indes, Amft. 1716, 8vo. there is a curious account of the voyage of the Dutch to Novaya Zeoilia, ijc^O, whrrc thiy wintered. This fingular and interefting narrative is unaccountably omitted in the yo^agcs an AW, where there are feveral that rather belong to this colIeAion. Both are mifcrable compiktiors of Bernard a French bookfeller in Holland. But as we are there informed, I. 194, it was Burroughs, an Englifbman, who difcoveied Noviyi Zemlia in 1556, according to Pontanusin his DifTertation here printed. In 1553, WilloughbvH:) frczen to death at the mouth of the river Petfora, in the north of Ruflia, not in Lapland. * Pennant, Ar£l, Zool. oxxii. a.f bergen, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. biT'^en, bvit even the vales are covered with eternal ice or fnow. The only tree is the dwarf willow, which rifes to the height of two inches, towering with great pride above the mofles, and lichens, and a few other cumbent plants. Here are found polar bears, foxes, and rein- deer, with walrufes, and feals. There are a few kinds of water fowl ; but the whale is the lord of thefe ar£tic feas. The Rufllans from Archangel maintain a kind of colony ; and that northern region feems indeed to have a natural right to Spitzbergen. To the N. E. of this dreary group are the fmall ifles, called the Seven Sifters, the moft: ardic land yet difcovered ; and the dangers which Mr. Phipps, after- wards Lord Mulgrave-, fuffered near the Seven Sifters are well defcribed In the account of his voyage. 357 Russian hLEJ. fpm HmB;-' J";'- ;:' 4'i. (*;: ' I'S I/ii/is, Am ft. 1716, 1596, where they he yo)agc! (Ill Ncr.i, ibic compiluiior.j of AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. CHAPTER I. Historical Geoorap h y. Names. -^Extent, — Boundaries. '-^Original Population. — Progrejftve Geography'.--* Prefent Boundaries'— Hijlorical Epochs and Antiquities, THE dominions fubjcdt to the houfc of Auftria embrace many ancient kingdoms and dates, which, for the fake of perfpicuity, are here brought under one point of view j it having been urged as a reproach to modern geography, that by the obltinaie retention of an- tiquated divifions, and the confufed minutenefs of feparate defcriptions, it has not made an uniform progrefs with modern hiftory, and politics, which it ought to illullrate. Hence, to ufe the prefent inftance, many are led to imagine that the power of the houfe of Auftria is chiefly founded on its bearing the imperial title, whereas, if reduced to the regal ftyle of Hungary, its hereditary domains entitle it to rank among the chief European powers, being of wide extent, and great import- ance, and boafting a population of not lefs than 20,000,000, more concentrated than the diffufe population of Ruflia, and perhaps the next power to France, not in arms only, but on the broad and deep- rooted bafis of compa£t numbers of inhabitants. In defcribing a fovereignty, thus compofed of many ancient dates, it may feem proper to pay the firft and chief attention to that part which gradually fpread its domination over the reft, or in other words, if that s. ufH] ■■t>Ti in. ti.i 'ki!i'; !i;'! brace many perfpiculty, I urged as a ntion of an- defcriptions, and politics, lance, many ia is chiefly luced to the rank among reat import- 3,000, more perhaps the id and deep- icient ftates, to that part nher words, that "1*1 1^ 'i~^ 'y '■'; ■■ ■! I it;:'^! ;i- 'it '■■: m. n i ■:h .'■)h' fi\l\i m mi ; *! CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. ^S'J fliat which was the carlicft important inheritance of the ruling family. The remaining provinces will of courfc be conlulcrcil in propcution to their real and lading importance; while the more minute dillridb may be abaiuloned to the fedulous care and microfcopic labour of the topo- -raphcr. On this plan the provinces that will here rc(juirc particular obfervation are the archduchy of Auflria; the kingdoms ofHungary> and Bohemia ; the grand-duchy of Tranfylvania, which, with the buckovina, may be regarded as belonging to Hungary j^'and laftly that nart of Poland which has fallen under the Auftrian fccptrc. The archduchy of Auftria may be confidered as belonging, in part, Namci. tn ancient Pannonia, the Vindobona of the Romans being the modern Vienna. But that half of Auftria, which lies north of the Danube, was occupied by the Qyadi, a barbaric nation, who anciently infelUd the adjoining provinces of Pannonia and Noricum ; for the weftern part of Auftria, on the S. of the Danube, falls under the latter ancient ap- ]ellation. The German name and divifion of Ofterich,'' or the caftcrn kingdom, foftened into Auftria by the Italian and French enunciation, arofe after Charlemagne had cftabliflied the weftcrn empire, being a remnant of the fovcrcignty of vrhat was called Eaftern France, efta- bliflied by that conqueror. It was alfo ftyled Marcbia Oricntalis^ the eaftern march, or boundary : and after the failure of the Francic line became a marquifate feudatory to the dukes of Bavaria, till the emperor Frederic Barbarofla, in iij6, conftituted it a duchy held immediately of the empire.' Hungary, a part of which belonged tb ancient Dacia, . derives its modern appellation from the Ugurs, a Finnifh nation, who, after fpreading devaftation through a great part of Germany, fixed their refidence here in the tenth century ; the writers of the middle ages, confounding their real appellative with that of the Huns, a diflerent and here extinguiftied nation, who had formerly pofTefled this province. In the time Charlemagne it was poflefled by the Avars, a Slavonic peo- ple.* The Hungarians ftyle themfelves Magiar ; and their language • Sevfral of the, German ramci of Auflran provinces differ confiderably from our appella. iii/nj : Cari. thid ii CartiUn (Brown, 125); Carniola, Krain; Stiria, Stcycrmark; Croatia, i'duni; Echrir.ia, Roihmin; Moravia, Mal.rtn. Galitz, cr Galitzia is wiongly ftyled Gilci.j. ' !>'.inville, Etats fsraescn Euicpc, p, 51. .' Gibbon, x. 204. approaches ^•^f.^j.j:i.: ■■I U. ■; :; !^' \w % .!: Pli 36o AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Name. Extent. approaches to the Finnic dialed. Bohemia, or the hahltation of ili^ I3dii, was a central province of Barbaric Germany, afterwards feizcd by a Slavonic tribe, whofe chiefs were originally ftyled dukes of Bohemia. Tranfylvania, and the Buckovina* are parts of the province of D.icia founded by Trajan. The former is by the Hungarians called Erdeli: by the Germans Sieben-burgen, or the Seven towns, from a colony there eftahliflicd : the more common name feems derived from the woody pafll'S of the Carpathian mountains, and was impoled by the monkilh writers. The origin of the other names becomes difficult, in exa publiihed at Vienna 1796. and / i: CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. ^i al terms of the Gdlitz. ln!ubltan;i n, with part if the aiitl Berchtolsgaden are incorporated with the empire ofAuftria. By ExxtNT. this remarkable treaty the AMftrian emperor, " Cedes and abandons to his majefty the king of Bavaria the Mar- graviate of Biirgau, and its dependencies ; the principality of Eichftadt ; the part of the territory of Paflau, belonging to the eledor of Salzburg, and fituated between Bohemia, Auftria, the Danube, and the Inn ; the country of Tyrol, comprehending therein the principalities of Brixen and Botzen, the feven lordrtiips of the Voralberg, with their detached {lep>;ndencics ; the county of Hohenems, the county of Konigfegg, Rot- tenl'els, the lordlhips of Tetnany and Argen, and the town and territory of Lindau. " To his innjefty the king of Wirtemberg, the five cities of the Danube, to wit, Cliingen, Munderkengen, Ruillingen, Menzen, and Salgaw, with their dependencies, the city of Conftance excepted ; that part of the Brifgaw which extends in the pofleffion of Wirtemberg, and fituated to the eafl^ of a line drawn from Schlegelburg to Molbach, and the towns and territories of Willengen and Brentengen. To his moll ferene highnefs the elector of Baden, the Brifgaw (with the exceptioix of the branch and feparate portions above defcribed), the Ortenfaw and their dependencies, the city of Conftance, and the commandery of Meinau." It has been aflerted that Auftria was to be partly Indemnified for thcfe important ceflions by the acquifition of Bofnia and Servia from the Turks; but as the French have feized on Cattiiro, and the Dalmatian territories of the former republic of Venice, it may be doubted whether her policy would permit the increafe of the power of Auflria in that quarter. The original population of thcfe extenfivc regions is various, but Original chiefly Gothic and Slavonic. The native ancient Germans, a Gothic ''»^PJ'">'°'^ race, form the ruling, moft induftrious, and moft important part of the inhabitants. Bohemia and Moravia were originally Slavonic king- doms ; and the people of Poland and Hungary may be generally re- ferred to the fame origin ; for in the latter kingdom the Magiars, or Ugurs,* who ufe a dialed approaching the Finnifli, did not fupplanr • Whence perhaps the terrible Ogits, and Ogrejis of heraldry, whicU commenced foon after the cruel incurfionj of thele people. VOL. I. 3 A the 'J^.^■.v?' •'?V: :'•■';• I ii m 362 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS; Oricihal Popula- tion. Progrtflive Geography. Hiftorical Epochs. the Slavons, whom they found in the country ; and who, on the fall of the Roman empire, had fucceeded the Dacians, a Gothic race. The progreflive geography of the fouthern part of the Auftrian do- minions commences at an early period. Yet the Adriatic was not a favourite fea of the Greeks j and the Roman writers throw the flrft fteady light upon thefe regions. Faffing from Gifalpine Gaul, in de- fiance of the barriers of the Rhaetian, and Carnic, or Julian Alps, now the mountains of Tyrol, Garinthia, and Garniola, the Roman generals fubdued many- barbarous tribe«; and founded the provinces of Noricum and Pannonia, their moft northern acquifitions in this quarter, till Trajan added Dacia. The Rhaelians were fubdued by Drufus, in the reign of Auguftus,. under whofe fway, or rather in the thne of bis fuc- ceffor Tiberius, Pannonia and Noricum alfo became provmces of the Roman emjMre. Concerning thofe regions much information may he derived from the luminous page of Tacitus ; and foon after, the geo- graphy of Ptolemy opens additional illuftrations. The common re- fources of ancient geography are continued by the Byzantine writers; and, after the- age of Charlemagne, by many hiftorians of the weft. Since the invention of printing to the prefent period, the geography of thefe extenfive provinces has been gradually improved, though not with the rapidity which might have been expe£ted, as they unfortir- nately have not produced many men of acute genius, extenfive learning, or exad fcience j and the beft accounts are derived from writers in the N. of Germany, or from foreign travellers.* The hiftorical epochs of various kingdoms and ' ftates, recently united under one fovereignty, muft of coiwfe be fubdivided into their original d>{lin£t portions, beginning in the order above-mentioned, with the firft important ilate, around which,' as a nucleus, the others are conglomerated; but proceeding thence to the other provinces, ac- cording to their modern extent, and importance. I. The houfe of Auftria, which, by fucceffive fortunate marriages £nce the fifteenth century, has arifeo^ to fuch a fummit of power, i& ,5' * Even one of the tail maps of Hungary, that by the Artarian fociety, Vienna, 17911!'' neanly executed, and very defcAive in difplaying the chaina and altitude of mountaini, which ut laid down at they might have bee* a ceotury ago. 4 well CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. S^i Wi?ll known to have fprung from the humble counts of Hapfburg. Historicaj, Thofe lords poflefled a fmall territory in Swiflerland, in the northern '^''°'^"^" corner of the canton of Bern, near the river Aar, about three miles S. of the town of Bruck, and the fame diftance to the N. of Mellingen.* On a lofty eminence, crowned with beech, ftands an ancient tower, the firft feat of the houfe of Auftria. In the twelfth century Otho is dcfigned count of Hapfburg, and even heraldry can fcarcely afcend be- yond his grandfire Radebot, brother of Werner, biihop of Strafburg. In 1273 Rodolph of Hapfburg was called to the imperial throne, after an inter- reign, during which the German potentates had increafed, and jecured their own power ; and wifely preferred a nominal fovereign, whofe humble extraft, and fmall pofleflions, could afford no check to flieir ambition. Yet Rodolph was at this time lord of the greater part of Swiflerland ; after the extinction of the powerful houfe of Zaeringen, and that of the counts of Kyburg, whofe joint inheritance devolving to Rodolph, became the bafis of his power, and that of his fucceflbrs.* 2. Another emperor of the houfe of Auftria appeared in Albert, A.D. 1298; from whom the Swifs made their fignal revolt in 1307. His fon Frederic was obliged to yield the empire to Louis of Bavaria. 3. Albert II duke of Auftria, A. D. 1438, fucceeded to three crowns, on the death of his father-in-law the emperor Sigifmond, thofe of Hungary, and Bohemia, and that of the empire by unanimous eledlion. This was the epoch of the lafting grandeur of the houfe of Auftria. Yet his fucceflbrs Frederic III, and Maximilian I, were feeble princes j and Charles V firft aftoniftied Europe with a real dif- play of Auftrian power. 4. Maximilian having married the heirefs of Burgundy, the Nether- lands became fubjedt to the houfe of Auftria in 1477 ;. and his fon Philip, in 1496, marrying the heirefs of Arragon and Caftile, the ample dominions of Spain fell afterwards under the Auftrian fceptrc Charles V inherited all thefe domains ; but on his refignation Spain and the Netherlands pafled to his fon Philip II, and the former crown con- tinued in the Auftrian line till the clofe of the fevcnteenth century. f Coxc's SwiiTerland, i. 13$. * Planta'* SwUT. i. 170, 3 A 2 Auftria, c '^•H' ill ' ■'■ ■ -I ''I ■ '4'; '■ ^'BiJ'fil ' -.■■.■ •' ^ '-■';•■■'■"■■ 'i ■ ' m ''m^'i ■;-#f--?|' '1 t*'l t'^ ^ rJ ," ■ ■ ■: r/ ■'It;-, ,, i^ ':■:: if, '^^' ;!!■'. 'i-f ■I '• ••'■' It % ■ %l li'' ,«..l,i.J.. 3^4 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Historical Auftrla, Bohemia, and Hungary, pafTed to Ferdinand the brother of Epochs. (;]ijarles V, who was alfo chofen emperor of Germany. 5. The noted bigotry of the houfe of Auftria was not confined to the Spanifh branch, for though Maximilian II, about 1570, had granted Uberty of confcience even to the proteftants of Auftria, yet thofe of Bohemia, and other parts, were afterwards fo much ojjprcITd, that the proteftant princes of Germany called in Guftaf Adolf, the cele- brated Swedifli monarch, to their afliftance, who fhook the empire to its very foundations. Even France fupported the proteftants, in the view of weakening the Auftrian pov/er ; and the war continued till 1648, \vhen the famous treaty of Weftphalia was figned, v/hich has ferved as a bafis for other diplomatic tranfadions. 6. The war with France was often rekindled during the long reiga of Leopold I, 1658, to 1705 ; and in 1683 the Turks were fo fucccfsful as to lay fiega to Vienna. 7. His fon Jofeph I joined the allies againft France, and fhared in their fuccefs. He married the daughter of John Frederic duke of Hanover. 8. By the death of the emperor Charles VI, on the 20th Odober, 1740, without male iflue, the houfe of Auftria became extind. The eledor of Bavaria feized the kingdom of Bohemia, and wa» ekdial emperor in I74'2, but died in 1745. 9. Francis of Lorrain, fon of Leopold duke of Lorrain, havini^ married Maria Therefa, daughter of the emperor Charles VI, fucceeded to the Auftrian dominions, which continue to be held by his defcend- ants. In 1745 he was eleded emperor, and his lucccfibrs have enjoyed the imperial crown, as if herediiary. The powerful houfe of Lorrain is of great antiquity, defcending from Gerard count of Alface, in the eleventh century, whofe origin is-retcrreJ to a collateral branch of the houfe of Auftria. 10. The reign of the emperor Ji»fej >h II, a beneficent but impetuous prince, whofe grand defigns of reformation were fruftrated by his ig- norance of 'he inveteracy of habits and prajudices, which muft ever be confidered in a due eiltmate of. human afi'airs. II, Tlie CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 36s II. The obdurate and fanguinary conteft with France, the events Historical of wliich are known to all. Having thus briefly marked the chief epochs of the Auftrian power, the events of the fubjed kingdoms and ftates muft be as much com- prelTed as pofllble. The next in importance arc thofe of the kingdom of Hungary. 1. Tlie Roman province of Dacia. The conqueft by the Huns; and afterwards by the Avars, and other Slavonic tribes. 2. The conqueft by the Ogurs, or the Magiars, who continued under dukes from their firft fettlement in 1584. 3. St. Stephen firft king of Hungary, A. D. icoo. The crown is partly eledive, and partly hereditary ; and among the chief hiftorical events are the wars in Dalmatia, againft the Venetians. 4. Louis I, furnamed the Great, A. D. 1342, fubdues a great part of Dalmatia, and carries his arms into Italy. He was fucceeded by his daughter Mary, who was ftyled Kt»g of Hungary; but dying in 1392, the fucceffion became controverted, and at leaft terminated in the election of Sigifmond, marquis of Brandenburg, who had wedded Mary the heirefs. In 14x1 he was chofen emperor of Germany. 5. Albert of Auftria having wedded Elizabeth the heirefs of Sigif- mond, was, with her, crowned king and queen of Hungary, 1438: an event which forms the earlieft bafis of the Auftrian claim to the Hungarian monarchy. Upon the death of Albert, Ladiflas, king of Poland, is alfo chofen king of Hungary,, but periflies in the battle of Werna againft the Turks. The famous John Hunniades is appointed regent of the kingdom. 6. On the death of another Ladiflas, the pofthumous fon of Albert of Auftria, in 1457, the celebrated Mathias Corvinus, fon of Hunniades, is proclaimed king of Hungary by the ftates, aflembled in the plain of Rakos, near Peft. In 1485 he feized Vienna, and the other Auftrian ftates, and retained them till his death in 1490. Mathias was the greateft prince who had ever held the Hungarian fceptre, brave, prudent, gene- rous, the friend of "arts and letters, and a man of letters himfelfl Jie. founded a magnificent library at Buda, and furniftied it with the beft Greek and Latin books, and many valuable manufcripts. 7. After ■'■<■■' d 'A '. ■■■■,'■ J '^'J? '■ ■ iJ hr- .... ,,,, -(r:- ;«( 1*!' ' mi- .J ■: ■ 1" •;/>Mf's fl m m MWMa •M.N' #& :,\y 366 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Historical y. After repeated contcRs, the houfe of Auftria again fills the throne of Hungary, in the perfon of Ferdinand, 1527, but towards the end of •Iiis reign the Turks feized on the greater part of this kingdom. On his being chofen emperor of Germany, Ferdinand retained the crown of Hungary till 1563, when he refigned it to his fon Maximilian ; and it has finee continued a conftant appanage of the houfe of Auftria. The grand-duchy of Tranfylvania was confidered as a part of Hungary till 1540, when, in confequence of a treaty between the Vaivcd, and Ferdinand of Auftria, Tranfylvania began to be regarded as a diftindl ftate. Stephen Battori having been elected prince of Tranfylvania in 1571, that family - continued to hold this petty fo- 'Vereignty till i6o3, after which it continued fubje£l to feveral eleftive princes, of whom the moft diftinguilhed was Bethlem Gabor, or Ga. brlel Betlem, a noble Hungarian, and a Calvinift, who conquered a ^reat part of Hungary in 1619, and died in 1629. The laft prince cf Tranfylvania was Michael Abaffi, the fecond ef that name, who yielded the fovereignty to the emperor in 1694, fince which period this •country has formed a part of the Auftrian dominions. The hiftorical epochs of the kingdom of Bohemia Jcferve more at' •tention. 1. In the feventh century the Slavons feizing on Bohemia were ruled by chiefs, or dukes, feemingly hereditary, at leaft after Borzivoi, •who embraced Chriftianity in the year 894. In the eleventh century Bretiflas fubdued the little adjacent kingdom of Moravia. 2. Vratiflas duke of Bohemia is honoured with the regal title by the emperor Henry IV in 1086 ; who at the fame time invefted him with the domains of Lufatia, Moravia, and Silefia. But this dignity was perfonal ; and thexonftant title of king only dates from Premiflas II in 1 199. He and his immediate fucceflbrs, are ftyled Ottocari, from their •7e,al in the caufe of the empeior Otto. 3. One of the mofl: ri^nowned monarchs was another Premiflas Oltocar, who afcended the throne in 1253, feized Auftria, and Stiria, and other provinces to the fouth, and carried his arms into Pruflia. Id i^yi he refufed the imperial crown, which was afterwards given to ilodolpb couot of Haplburg, who infifting oa the reftituiion of the Auftrian CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 2,(^7 •ve more at' Auflrlati flates, Ottocar faid that he had paid Rodolph his wages, and Historical owed him nothing : for that count had been his marechal, or mader of the horfe. A reconciliation was eifeded by matrimonial alliances, and by Ottocar's receiving the inveftiture of Bohemia, and Moravia, on re- nouncing Auftria, Stiria, and Carinthia. His fon Wenceflas was eleded king of Poland ; but refufed the fceptre of Hungary in favour of his fon. 4. The ancient lineage having failed, John count of Luxembourg, who had married a daughter of Bohemia, became king in 1310, and was flain at the battle ofCreci, fighting, againft the Englilh in I346r His fon and fucoeflbr, Charles, was alfo emperor of Germany. 5. In the reign of Wenceflas VI king of Bohemia, and emperor, John Hufs having read the books of Wickliffe the Englifh reformer,, introduced his- doctrines into Bohemia. He< was condemned to the-- fiames in I4i5< The Bohemians and Moravians have fmce become remarkable for various fefts of religion, and confequent inteftine com-- motions. The Huflites under Ziflca, repeatedly defeated the troops of their king Sigifmond, brother of Wenceflas, and alfo emperor of: Gernnany. 6. Albert of Auftria, having wedded the daughter of Sigifmond, re-- ceived the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. But the fuceefllon was afterwards controverted and infringed by George Podiebrad, (a Huflite chief, who obtained from the weaknefs of the emperor Frederic III of thehoufe of Auftria, the crown of Bohemia in 1459,) by Vladiflas fon of the Polifh monarch, and by Mathias king of Hungary. 7. Louis, fon of Vladiflas, fucceeded his father in the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary; but being flain at the battle of Mohatz,, 1526, the crown finally pafled to the houfe of Auftria. The ancient monuments of the more northern kingdoms and pro- ^^jj^^^, vinces belonging to Auftria, cannot be expected to be very numerous, or important. Vindobona, and the adjacent parts of Noricum and Fannonia, occafionally difplay Roman remains ; but the ruins of the celebrated bridge of Trajan, over the Danube, belong to Turkey in Europe, being fituated not far from Wildin, in Bulgaria : it is fuppofed to have confifted of twenty arches, or rather vaft piers of ftone, ori-» ginally fuppprting a wooden fabric of the length of more than 3,300 En^lUh . '.ill m r 'I ■1",^ ("It: •i'y- '!*; I If 368 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Englifli feet. In Hungary, and other parts of the ancient province of Dacia, appear many relics of Roman power, as military roads, ruins &c, and an elegant hlftorian remarks " that if we except Bohemia, Moravia the northern fkirta of Auftria, and a part of Hungary between the Tcyfs and the Danube, all the other dominiono of the houfe of Auftria were fituatc within tlic limits of the Roman empire.'" Hungary, and the other provinces of the Aulirian dominions, having been frequently expofed to the ravages of war, many ancient monuments . have perilhed ; yet feveral caftles, churclies, and monafteries ftill attefl: the magnificence of the founders* ' The catiiedral church of St. Stephen, in Vienna, is a Gothic fabric of fingular pomp, and minute dccorition, » Gibbon, vol.i, p. zt. ■* Dr, Brown's Trav. p. ii. p. 3o. CHAr JT. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3^9 CHAPTER II. -i'^'-' ^''r ■^ mm ■ 1, ; '■■,■'■ Hi, v.; Political Geography. Rdigkn.'-'EcclcftflJlical Geography.—-Govert}n!ent,~-Laws,—Populaiion.-^Coloni'es, '—Army.-^Navy, — Revenues. — Political Importance and Relations. 'T'HE preponderant religion of the Auftrian dominions is the Roman Reliciow. Catholic, but attended with a confiderable degree of toleration. Proteftants of various feds are found in Bohemia, and Moravia ; nor are Lutherans unknown at Vienna, though they chiefly abound in Tran- fyjvania,' nay in Hungary it is believed that the proteftants are equal in number to the catholics,' Vienna did not become a metropolitan fee till the year 1722 : the archbiftiop is a prince of the holy Roman em- pire. The prefent ftate of the ecclefiaftic geography, the number ?.r\'i boundaries of the bilhoprics, &c. would require fome inveftigation not interefting to the general reader.* The form of government is an hereditary monarchy, and approaching Government, to abfolute power. For though Hungary retain its ancient ftates, or rather an ariftocratical fenate, yet the dominions being fo various and extenfive, and the military force wholly in the hands of the fovereign, no diftindl kingdom or ftate can withftand his will ; and except moft oppreflive meafrres were purfued, there can be no general intereft to league againft him. Even Auftria has its ftates, confifting of four or- ders, clergy, peers, knights, burgefles ; the aflembly for lower Auftria being held at Vienna, and that of the upper at Linz.' But thofe local conftitutions can little avail againft the will of a powerful monarch, fup- ported by a numerous army. ' Bufching, vi. 540. ' Townfon, 181. * Hungary, the principal province, contains two arrhbi(hoprics and fifteen bifhoprics, includ- ing Bofnia and Croatia. The archbiOiop of Gran has about 36,0001. « year, the others do not exceed 8,oool —Townfon, i. 137. ' Bufching, vi. 536. laft French edition. VOL, I. 3 B The •■;#' ■mmmh 37* AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Laws. The law8 Vary according to the different provinces, alnioft every (late having its peculiar code. The Hungarians in. particular have vigoroufly defended their ancient laws, though in many inflances illaudable, the pcafantry being in a (late of villanage till 1785.* Yet what is called the Urbarium, publifhed by the Emprefs Therela in 1764, attempted with fome fuccefs to define the rights of the landlords, and of the peafants, and was received for law. In 1786 Jofeph II after fupprefling villan- age in Bohemia and Moravia, extended the like freedom to Hungary j and this decree remains uncancelled, though many of the laws of that well-meaning, but injudicious monarch, expired with their author. Yet the boafted freedom of Hungary is rather that of a powerful ariltocracy, than of the people at large. In general the laws may be regarded as mild and falutary ; and the Auflrlans in particular are a well regulated and contented people, while the Hungarians are often diHatisfied, and retain much of their ancient animofity againfl: the Germans. As Hun- gary is the mod important province of the monarchy, it might perhaps have been more prudent to have there eftabliihed the royal refidence and feat of power, had not the repeated fubjugation of a great part of that kingdom by the Turks rendered fuch a defign precarious. Population. The general population of the Aullrian dominions is computed at more than 20,000,000 ; that of Hungary, Tranfylvania, and the Bucko- vina, being eRimated at four millions and a half. Yet fome authors compute the population of Hungary alone at 7,000,000 ; and a late Ger- man author has in confequence fwelled the general population of the Auflrian dominions to 25,000,000.' Hence, upon the whole, it will be reafonable to allow 23,000,000 as a medial computation of the num- bers fubjedt to the Aullrian fceptre. Of the other chief provinces, Bohemia Is fuppofed to hold two millions and a half; and Moravia one million and a half. The whole acquili- tions in Poland may contain more than three millions j* while the arch* duchy of Auftriais computed at 1,685,000. ♦ Townfon, loi. 107. > Sec Townfon, chap. v. ' * Iloeck computes EaAern Galitz and Lodoniim ac 2,797,119; 'and Wc(!ern Galiiz at 1,106,178. Bat the lofs of Venice, Tyrol, and the Bxirgaw, will not be eafily rep.urcd. 6 Auflria CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 371 Auftrla may be regarded as an inland power, the fmall harbour of CoLemii. Triefle being little known in commerce. Hence no foreign colonics have been planted by the Auftrians. The army is computed by Boctticher at 365,455 men, in 136 regl- Army. mcnts, of which 46 are German, and only 11 Hungarian. This nu- merous army has been greatly diminifhed in the fanguinary contefl: with France ; and perhaps could not, at prefent, equal that of Pruflia, com- puted at 200,000 ; and far lefs that of the great military power of Ruf- lia, doubling that number. An Auftrian (hip of the line would be regarded as a novelty on the N«vy. c:eaii. The revenue is computed at more than io,ooo,oool. fterling; to Revenue. which Auftria contributes about 3,000,000!., and Hungary a little more than a million and a half. This revenue ufed to exceed the expences ; but the public debt now, probably, furpafles 40,000,000!. fterling, and the recent wars liave occafioned great defalcations. Vaft are the political importance and extent of the relations of the Political Im- Auftrian fovereignty. Setting afide the confideration of his influence, Reijt"^^,'"'* as emperor, over the German ftates, the monarch may be regarded as an equal rival of France, and only inferior to the preponderance of Ruflia. Since the Aufl:rian dominions and power have been fwelled to their modern confequence, a determined rivalry has exiftcd between them and France, which lias, with reafon, been jealous of the Auftrian ambition. Alliances, even cemented by intermarriage, hava not been able to overcome the oppofition of interefts ; and England be- ing alfo the rival of France, it has frequently become an unavoidable policy to maintain this diflTenfion. There are alfo caufes of confirmed jealoufy between Auftria and Pruflia ; and it is doubtful if even an in- vafion from Ruflia would compel them to unite in a defenfive alliance. The inveterate wars with Turkey, and the radical difference of religion and manners, more impreflive from vicinity, have alfo fown irrecon- cilable hatred between the Auflrians and Turks; and the ambition of Auftria eagerly confpires with Ruflia againft European Turkey. Amidft: fo many enmities, and the neceflary jealoufy of Rufllan power, it would be difiicult to point out any ftate on the continent with which Auftria 3 B 2 could !i 'U V- . '•' m^ m 37a POLITlCAb Impoh r- ANC£, SiC. AUSTRIAN DOMINION'S. could enter into a Arift and lading alliance. Tlie mod natural and cnn« ftant may be that with England, whofe maritime power might infli,ft deep wounds upon any enemy ; but againfl Ruffia an alliance with IVuf. fia would be indii'penl'able.* • Since thii chapter wai at the preA, an important woric hu comr to hand, intitui' < /t!,:rfu ^i^, iijiiqui dii Et»tt dt I'Adtmagnt ; /out U rafftrt dl Itur Etmdui, di Itur Population, dt Uuri P, iue.iwi, ii Itur Induflrit, dt Itur Cimmtra, it dt Ituri Finantti ; par Hitci. Con/titltr dt Ju/lia an Roi i/r /'..„ ,, tec. Paris, An ix ',1801), large f>liu. This woric ii certai ly the molt compi t- vie>v, wio, has appeared, of the numerous and important German Aatci. But it is a great dthti ihat tli i^. n no general fum of the entire population, &c. &c. of each fovereignty. Buhemiais eftimated at a,8o6t49) : Monvia i,2;6,24o: duchy of Auftrian Silefia 250,000; Auihia i,8io>00o: Stitia.&c. 1,64;, 000: Tyrol6i0.aco: Hungary 6, li'z, &c. 3,747.119: Weftem Galitz itio(i,i78 : Uulctivm 30,000. That is, in all| little more than 20 millions. In like manner the Commerce, Army, Square Miles, Finances, are only particularized undir each fubdivifion, without general rftimates, a plan which leads lo perplexity and additional libour, Ihough the work be highly valuable in other rei|wAs, CHAP. IIT. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. m CHAPTER III. Civil GE0CR\pny, hhnners and Ciiftoms. — Language. — Literature. — F iii m i 374 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Manners AND CUSIOMS. Language. known and uncultivated ; nor have the Auftrians yet claimed any fliarc in its progrefs in Germany. Yet the emperor having long been confi- dered as the higheft power in Eurone, the Auftrians afFedl to confider themlelves as luperior to other nations. It is to be regretted that a more rational mode of education is not followed, which would open their minds to the numerous aclight? and advantages arifing from fcientific purfuits, and deliver them from many vain fup^rftitions, as they believe in ghofts and familiar fpirits, and in the idle dreams of alchymy. la conlequencc of this ignorance the language remains unpoIi(hed ; and tUc Auftrlan fpeech is one of the meaneft: dialedts of the German, fo that polite people are conftrained to ufe French. The lower orders are, however, little addidled to crimes or vices, and punlftiments are rare; robberies are feldom committed, and murder little known. When ca- pital punilhment becomes unavoidable, it is adminiftered with great fo- lemnity, and accompanied with public prayers, an example worthy of unlverfal imitation. The next people in eftlmation, and the firft in numbers, is the Hun- garians. Their manners are now confiderably tinftured by thofe of the ruling Germans, but they remain a fpirited people, and affeft to defplfe their mafters. Their drefs is well known to be peculiar, and is copied by our huflars.* This drefs, conrift:ing of a tight veft, mantle, and furred cap, is graceful ; and the whifkers add a military ferocity to the appearance. In other refpedts recent travellers do not feem to have been imprefled with much diftindlion between the Auftrian and Hun- garian manners. The languages fpoken In thefe aggregated dominions are numerous and difcrepant. They belong chitfly to three grand divifions, the Gothic or German of the rulinc, ition, which will gradually exclude the others : the Slavonic of the Poles,* part of the Hungarians, the Dal- matians, Sec. and alfo the ancient fpeech ufed in Bohemia and Moravia: and lallly the Hungarian proper, which has been confidered as abrancli ' In the Hungarian, flu/zar implies the twentieth, becaure twenty peafants are obliged to furnilh one horfrman to the cavalry. Bufch. iii. 56. * Nor is it difufed in Bohemia, which may be regarded as the extreme wettern limit of the Sla- vonic Uftgue ; for the ftoflt extend to the mouth of the Elbe. of e, and afFed to CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 375 of the Finnic. Among people of rank at Vienna the French was for- Languack. merly prevalent, as already mentioned ; hut this faftiion is perhaps im- paired by recent events, and the ufe of the polifhed German of Saxony would not only be more appropriate, but might tend to diffufe a national tafte and native literature. Riefbeck obferves that in Swabia, Bavaria, and Auftria, the German is very impure. The literary hiftory ofthe Auftrian dominions cannot afcend to a re- Literature, mote period. That of Auftria proper, in particular, is little interefting, and even the chronicles and lives of faints are comparatively recent. If the emperor Maximilian, grandfather of Charles V, be the author of an eccentric poem alluding to the events of his own life, and ufually af- cribed to him, though many aflign it to Iiis chaplain, he may be confi- dered as the father of Auftrian literature, as well as of Auftrian great- nefs. ^ut the fucceffion of authors is interrupted ; and many of thofe who flouriflied at Vienna were aliens. Wolfgangus Lazius is but a dreaming antiquary : and in the fame century Cufpinian has ridiculed Hafelbach, the profeflbr of divinity, who having begun a courfe of ledures on Ifaiah, had not in twenty-one years finiihed the firft chap- ter. The like pervcrfity of tafte continues to modern times ; and Reif* beck has dcpided in warm colours the metaphyfical abf'urdities of the Auftrian profeflbrs, and the abjed tone of flavery and flattery which per- vades even the little folid literature that is known.^ For at Vienna the emperor is ^.ifidere 1 as the fucceflbr of Auguftus, as abfolute monarch of Germany; while in the other provinces of that wide region, he is more juftly regarded as a nominal head, though highly refpcdable as king of Hungary and Bohemia. In the medical branch, Van Swieten, Storck, and others have acquired deferved celebrity : but though Vienna fwarm with pretended literati, or men who can talk and write nonfenfe in Latin, there are a few who have acquired a fhadow of reputation, fuch as Hell, Martini, Denis, and Sonnerfels ; yet the firft was a Silefian, and Denis from Bavaria. In antiquities occur the names of Froclich, and one or two other numifmatic writers, who compofe vaft volumes upon fmall fubjeds. I Travels vol. i. 283. Bohemia i ■ Ml! ill ;'r!^k|{^m I K; f i ■> .\T- i ■11 mm • ( * 1. ' '■ .. a '^hm. I !) n 3-7S AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Liter A« TURB. Bohctnia aiul Hungary have no ancient claims to literature. CofinM of rraguo, a venerahlc hlftorian, flourinied iibout the year 1 130; and Hungary has a cotemporary father of hiftory in the anonymous no- tary of king Bela/ Yet the encouragement given to writers by the cck'bratcd Mathias Corvinus little ftimulated native literature, for Bon- finius was an Italian. Nor is there any Hungarian writer particularly celebrated among the modern Latin claflics ; nor the native langujce yet known by any work commanding celebrity. Baron de Born, a native of Tranfylvania, has written many able works in natural hiftory; but he ufed the Latin and French languages. An enquiry into the caufes which have retarded the progrefs of letters and philofophy in the Auftrian dominions, would be more ufeful than the bare enumeration of a few names : they would be found to arife partly from the coarfe- nefs of the German dialed!, and the abfence of the Slavonic and Hun- garian from the learned languages ot Europe ; partly from numerous wars of ambition, which fometimes endanger the very exiftcnce of the ftute ; in yet greater meafure from the military education of the no- bility, or rather indeed from their ignorance, for many confummate officers have been men of letters : but above all, this deled rcuft be ^fcribed to that metaphyfical bigotry, which perverts their rational powers, and blights every bud of genius and folid knowledge. The books prohibited at Vienna probably exceed in number thofe of the Roman Index Expurgatorius ; and though the government have no doubt a right to watch over thofe of a political tendency, yet this jea- Joufy needs not be extended to works of mere fcience, written by here- tics. On the other hand, fome blame mull doubtlefs extend to authors who introduce into fcientific produdtions their political dogmata, and vifionary views of focial perfe£tion, with attacks upon eftablifhed forms of worlhip and government, totally unlike the procedure of the ancient philofophers, who were teachers of content and moderation. Yet a government fhould feledl the happy mean between that fanatic bigotry, which alike freezes literature and every branch of induftry; and that licentioufnefs of the prefs, which by wantonly fapping perfonal re- < Katonaj Hift. Crit. Hung. Proleg. putation, CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 377 LlTERA> TURK. Education. putatlon, and the laws, tends to deftroy every habit of virtue, and can only lead to anarchy. The emprefs Therefa inftituted fchools for the education of children, but none for the education of teachers. Hence the children are taught nietaphyfics before they know Latin ; and a blind veneration for the monks forms one of the firft exertions of nafcent reafon. Yet the ex- ample is highly laudable, and with all its difadvantages may lead to im- portant conlequences. The univerfitics, like thofe in other catholic countries, little pro- Uiiiverfities. mote the progrefs of folid knowledge. The fciencies taught with tlie greateft care, are precifely thofe which are of the fmalleft uti- lity. The univerfity of Vienna has, fince the year 1752, been fome- what improved. It was founded in 1237, and that of Prague in 1347; that of Infpruck only dates from 1677, and Gratz from IJ85.' Hungary chiefly boafts of Buda, though the Jefuits inftituted academies at Raab and Cafchau.* A late traveller' informs us that the univerfity of Buda, by the Germans called Offen, poflefTes an Income of about 2o,oool. fterling, only 4000 of which are applied to pay the falaries of the profeftbrs. " Befides the ufual chairs which exift in every univerfity, there are thofe of natural hiftory, botany, and oeoonomy. The colledtion of inftruments for natural philofophy, and the models of machines, are good ; and the mufeum of natural hif- tory, which contains the collection of the late profeflbr Filler, be- fides that of the univerfity, may be ranked among the fine colledions of Europe." There is a Calvinift college or univerfity at Debretzin : and the bifliop of Erlau has recently eftablilhed a fplendid univerfity at that cify.' Vienna, the chief city of the Auftrlan dominions, lies on the S. or rather W. fide of the Danube, in a fertile plain watered by a branch of that river, (beyond which ftands the fuburb of Leopold-ftadt,) and by ' Dufrefroy, Methode Geog. iii. 271. * The univerfity of Tyrnau has been recently transferred to PcHh. Tovvnfon, p. 439. " Tovvnfon, p. 79. ' lb. 225. 238. VOL. I. 3^ Ciricf. Vienna. the .h: t. ■-' 'm :';'>.l! ^•.*' '' '^' U/^' .11: 37'8 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Cities AND the little r'lvcr Wien. The Danube is here very wide, and contains lowNs. fgyeral woody ifles : the country towards the N. and E. level, but on tlie S. and W. hilly, and variegated with trees. It is founded on the lite of the ancient Vindobona ; but was of little note till the twelfth century, when it became the refidence of the dukes of Auftria, and was fortified in the manner of that age. The manufadures are not incon- fiderable ; fome inland commerce is tranfa£ted on the noble ftream of the Danube.* The number of inhabitants is computed at 254,000. The fuburbs are far more extenfive than the city, ftanding at a con- fiderable diftance from the walls. The houfes are generally of brick covered with ftucco, in a more durable manner than commonly prac- tifed in England ; the fineft fand being chofen, and the lime, after having been flacked, remaining for a twelvemonth, covered with fand and boards, before it be applied to the intended ufe. The chief edi- fices are the metropolitan church of St. Stephen, the imperial palace, library, and arfenal, the houfe of alTembly for the ftates of Lower Auftria, the council-houfe, the univerfity, and fome monafteries. The prater, or imperial park, is an ifland in the Danube well planted with wood ; and to the S. is the chapel of Herenhartz, which during Lent is much frequented for the fake of amufement, as well as of de- votion. Provifions of all kinds abound in ,Vienna, particularly wild boars, venifon, and game ; many fmall birds, reje£led by us, being included among the latter. Livers of geefe are efteemcd a peculiar delicacy ; nor are tortoifes, frogs, and fnails rejeded. f- The people de- light in the combats of wild beafts, and of bulls. In one of the fuburbs is the palace of Belvidere, which formerly belonged to prince Eugene; and at the difliance of a few miles ftands Schonbrun, another imperial palace. Though Vienna be much expofed to the northern and eaftern « The manufaflures are on the increafe, particularly thofc of cotton. See Hoeck, who faj", there are 140.000 woilctnen at Vienna, and fome towns in Lower Auflria. f Riefbeek, himfelf a German, blame* the Auftrians, i. 237, for gluttony, and a certain in. defcribable coarfe pride. Yet he highly praifes the Tchools, p. 280, The richcft fubjett by hii account was Prince LichtenAein, who had about 90,000!. llerling a year, while EAerhazy only cr. joyed 6o,ooc. winds, !! •T'ltp CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 379 winds, yet the fouthern hills ferve as a fence againft the rain, and Citiei anb the traveller rather complains of duft than ofmoifture. The pleafant- ^o*""* nefsofthe environs in general is improved by the happy afpedt of the Auftrian peafantry. The honour of the fecond city in the Auftrian dominions muft Prague, be claimed by Prague, the population being eftimated at 80,000. This metropolis of Bohemia ftands on both fides of the river Mul- da, over which there is a noble bridge of ftone, founded in 1357, The fortifications are of fmall moment ; but the houfes are of ftone, and commonly three ftories in height. This city has had the fatality of being expofed to frequent fieges, commonly for- tunate to the aggreflbrs. About a fixth part of the population confifts of Jews. Next, though at a great diftance, ftands Gratz, the capital of Stiria, GratE; fuppofed to hold 35,000 fouls. This city ftands on the W. fide of the river Muehr, joined by a bridge to an extenfive fuburb on the oppofite bank. There are regular fortifications ; and on a bold rock near the river is placed a ftrong citadel. Prefburg, the capital of Hungary, only contains about 27,000 in- Prefturg. habitants, its precedence being of modern date, after Buda, the an- cient capital had been repeatedly taken by the Turks.* Prefburg is beautifully fituated on the Danube, towards the weftern extremity of Hungary, being only about ^^ Britifh miles to the E. of Vienna j but the pofition is ftill more uncentrical than that of Buda. The Da- nube is here very rapid, and about 25« yards in breadth. About one quarter of the inhabitants are Lutherans, who are fo opulent as to pay about one half the taxes. A good theatre, and convenient cofFee-houfes, contribute to the pleafure of the inhabitants. Jews alfo abound in this city. Buda, by the Germans called Offen, the ancient metropolis of Bj 'a, or Hungary, is now reduced to little more ihan 20,000 inhabitants ; but if the city of Pefth be included, which ftands on the oppofite • Townfon, 440. jflla Regalis, formerly celebrated, is now Stuel WeifTenburg, 34 Br. miles S. W. of Buda. Alia Gratca, or Griechs Weiflfenburg, is Belgradi. 3 C 2 fide Offen. M n y V ■'fi'l* '■i •ill J i. , ':! :{i.:; .5 li "li t.V 38o AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. C. TIES AND fide of the Danube, over which there is a bridge of boats, the po- 'lowNs. pulation may be computed at 34»ooo« Dr. Townfon even allows 38,000. The chief public and private buildings are in Pedh, and within the fortrefs : the royal palace in particular, is a large and ftately edifice. At Buda there are hot fprings ; and the people, like thofe of Vienna, delight in bull feafts and exhibitions of wild beaft^ In 1784 the feat of the provincial government, and tiie public of- fices being reflored from Prefburg to Buda, the latter joined with Pefth may ftill be regarded as the capital of Hungary.'' The min- ing cities of Schemnitz and Cremnitz do not exceed 8000 inhabitants Hermanfladt. each : * but Hermanftadt, the capital of Tranfylvania, in Latin Citi' niim, from the river Cibin, is fuppofed to contain 17,000. It is the chief feat of the Saxon colony ; but the air is unhealthy. The Buc- kovina, annexed to the Auftrian territory in 1777, contains no town of confequence. That part of Poland which was acquired in 1772, and divided into two provinces, called Galitzia and Lodomiria, prefents Lemberg, or Leopold, of 20,000 inhabitants, and fome other confiderable towns. Cracow. Among the Polifh acquifitions mufl: alfo be named Cracov^ anciently the capital of that kingdom, and eftimated to contain 24,000 people. This city ftands on the Viftula and has a caftle, but is poorly fortified. Brunn, in Moravia, is computed at 18,000; and Olmutz, in the fame country, at 12,000; and the latter number is alfo afligned to Troppau, in the Auftrian part of Silefia. In the fouthern provinces, Infpruck and Trent are fuppofed each to contain 10,000 fouls. Triefte, which is reckoned at 18,000, deferves more particular attention, hav- ing been for a long time the only fea-port belonging to Auftria. It is fituated on a gulph of the Adriatic and rifes on an afcent which is crowned by a caftle. The fliipping is fecured by a wall, extending from the Lazaretto to the ifle of Zuka; and the harbour was de- clared free by the emprefs Therefa. The neighbourhood produces ex- cellent wines. Trie He. ' Townfon, p. go. Hoeck puts Cremnitz at 4000. T' I CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 381 The chief public edifices arc at Vienna, Buda, and Peflh, but there Eoip;ces. are many iplendid churches and monafleries in the feveral regions of the Auftrian dominauon. Many of tlie Hungarian nobility, who have vail eftates, poffefs caflles of correfponding miignificence. Among thefe the chief are the Palefy, Schaki, Erdoby, Sichy, Forgatfli, Kohari, Ka- roly; but above all ERerhazy, whofe calllc, about a day's journey from Prcfburg, is faid to rival Vcrfailles in por\ip ; and fecms alfo to rival that palace in the furrounding defolation, being in a morafly coun- try near the Neufidler lake."' The utility of inland navigation feems to be little perceived in the tniand Auftrian dominions ; and even the noble canals in the Auflrian Flanders Navigation, have fuffered by ftrange ncgledt. The long navigable courfe of the Da- nube may, in fome meafure, apologize for this deficiency ; but there is no doubt that the greateft advantages might be derived by opening canals in fome of the provinces, particularly towards the Adriatic, and in Hungary. Nor do manufactures feem to be cultivated to a great extent in any Manufaflures part of the Auftrian dominions. Vienna perhaps equals any other of ^"^ ^"'"' the cities in manufadures, which are chiefly of filk, gold and filver lace, cloths, ftufts, ftockings, Hnen, mirrors, porcelain ; with filver plate, and feveral articles in brafs." Bohemia is celebrated for beau- tiful glafs and paper. But the commerce of the Auftrian dominions chiefly depends upon their native opulence ; Aultria Proper and the fouthern provinces producing abundance of horfes and cattle, corn, flax, faffron, and various wines, with feveral metals, particularly quick- filver from the mines of Idria. Bohemia and Moravia are alfo rich in oxen and ftieep,/ oorn, flax, and hemp ; in which they are rivalled by the difmembered provinces of Poland. The wide and marfliy plains of Hungary often prefent excellent pafturage for numerous herdj of caide ; and the more favoured parts of that country produce corn, rice, the rich wines of Tokay, and tobacco of an exquifite flavour, with great and celebrated mines of various metals and minerals. The Auftrian mercc. ■1 1 m Mi ;. ■- ' , "'' t:Vi 'yt- ' ' I ' '" ' 41k H, ! '.■' 'W ^ ' • '-^i; v;. ,: ' ;'^Ni; *' Riefbeck, ii. 49. 66. " Bufching, vi. 549. See Hocck, territories 38a AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. TURES / ND CuMMERCBi Mavupac territories In general are fo abundant in the various neceffaries and lux. urics of life, to be found either in the N. or S. of Europe, that the im- ports would feem to be few and inconfiderable. The chief exports are from the port of Triefte, confifting of quickfilvt c and other metals, with wines and other native produ£ts. Dr. Townfon" gives a table of the ex- ports of Hungary for one year, from which it appears that they con- fifted chiefly of cattle, hogs, ftieep, flour, wheat, rye, wool, and wine, carried to other Auftrian provinces j and only about one feventh part fent to foreign countries. " P. igS. Hoeck fays, that in the archduchy of Audria there are feven great manufaflures of cotton cloth, which occupy 140,000 individuals ; and at Lintz a woollen nianufa£lory employs 30.000. The iron manufaflures are numerous in Stiria. Bohemia has linen manufaftures to the annual amount of i6,oco,ooo of florins, with fome in wool, and cotton. For the others that author may be confulted. CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY, 3^3 CHAPTER IV, Natural Geography, Climate and Seafons.—Face of the Country. — Soil and Agriculture. —R'mers.—' Lakes. — Mountains. — Forcjls. — Botany. — Zoology. — Mineralogy, — Mineral Wa- Urs'— Natural Curiofities, npHE climate of Auftria Proper is commonly mild and falubriousj Cumatb though fometimes cxpofed to violent winds, and the fouthern pro- Seasons. vlnces in general enjoy a delightfo! temperature, if the mountainous parts be excepted, expofed to the feverities of Alpine winter. The more northern regions of Bohemia and Moravia, with the late acquifitions in Poland, can likewife boaft the maturity of the grape, and of gentle and favourable weather. The numerous lakes and morafles of Hungary, and the prodigious plains refembling deferts, are fuppofed to render the air damp and unwholefome, the cold of the night rivalling the heat of the day ; but the keen blafts from the Carpathian mountains feem in fome meafure to remedy thefc evils, the inhabitants being rather remark" able for health and vigour. The appearance of the various regions fubjeft to Auftria is rather Face of th; mountainous than level, prefenting a ftriking contraft In this refpedl to ^°'""'^>- thofe of Ruflia and Pruilla. Commencing at Bregentz on the lake of Conilance, we find chains of mountains, and the Rhcetian alps, and glaciers of '1 yrol, branching out on the S. and N. of Carinthia and Carniola. Another chain pervades Dalmatia, and on afcending towards the N. Stiria difplays chains of confiderable elevation. The fouthern limit of Auftria Proper is marked by other heights ; and Bohemia and Moravia are almoft encircled by various mountains, which on the E. joia the vaft Carpathian chain, which winds along the N. and E. of , Hungary and Tranfylvania, divided from each other by another elevated ridge ■. 3^4 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Facbof riJge: the difinemberecl provinces of Poland, though they partake in T»y.''°^''" ^^^ S. of the Carpathian heights, muft yet afford the widcft plains to be found within the limits of Auftrian power. This ample extent of country is alfo divcrfified by many noble rivers particularly the majellic Danube, and its tributary ftream the Tiefs which flows through the centre of Hungary ; and fcarcely is there adif- tridl which is not liuly irrigated. The general face of the Auftrian do- minions mp.y therefore be pronounced to be highly variegated and inte- rcfting ; and the vegetable produds of both the N. and S, of Europe unite to pleafe the eye of the traveller. Soil and 1 he foil is upon the whole extremely fertile and produdllvc, in fpite Agticuicure, ^f jjjg negle£t of induftry, which has permitted many parts of Hungary, and of the Polilh provinces, to pafs into wide forefts and marlhes. Were fkill and labour to affumc the axe and fpadc, thofe very parts might difplay the greaieft exuberance of fertility. Travellers feldom attend to the important topic of national agriculture ; and therefore intelli- gence fomewhat antiquated muft be adopted. About the year 1770 an obfervcr' found that Bohemia had fuffered confiderably by the ra- vages of war; the wheat was however tolerable, but the barley full of weeds, and expofed by negligence to the inroads of the cattle, who are fed in winter with the cabbage-turnip, and red cabbage, both cultivated in large quantities. The flax feemed particularly to flcjrifh ; but the induftry of the citizens, farmers, and peafants, was cruftieJ by the over- weening pride of the nobility, and the ftate of the peafantry was little fuperior to that of Poland. In the warm fpots of Bohemia hops were cultivated, which with the barley formed excellent beer, a chief export of the country. In Moravia the agriculture feemed rather fuperior, being improved by Flemilh farmers. That of Auftria was laud- able, except that enclofures were wanting. The greater part of Hun- gary he regarded as a fertile pafturage for fheep ; and Flemifli manu- fadturers were employed to i^iprove the wool. Oats were little culti- vated in Auftria Proper ; the other produds as ufual in England, par- ' Marfhall's Travelf, iii. 304. Thefe Travels are faid to have been written by Sir John Hill. 1 know not it the knight of the pclar (lar travelled in the north or eaft, but he mull have ufed good materials. •i-4 ticularly CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 5^5 ticiilnrly abundance of cabbages and potatoes; but the cultivation was S ,.am> not neat, fmall wa(lc fpots being loft !)y the plough, which harboured ruRs. wccus, to the great detriment of the liel;!. The vineyards and fields of I'ufiron were numerous, cattle appcare/. in abundance ; and large herds cf i'wine, tlie latter feeding all the fummer in the woods. At a more recent period, Mr. Coxe * gives a deplorable pidure of the want of culti- vation in the fouthern provinces of Poland, now fubjedl to AuRria, the country being generally overfpread with vail tr;i6ts of thick gloomy t'orelb, and even from Cracow to Wariaw, a courfe of about 258 i''.:ig- lilh miles, he only met with two carriages, and about a dozen cait'J. The country was generally fandy or marlhy, and quite devoid of m>\ik3 ofinduftry: the peafantry were the mofl: miferable and abjed that he had ever feen, and would aflcmble in crowds to implore charity. Such heing the cafe, Auftria cannot have made any great acquifition in her Poliih provinces j and Pruflia has in fadl the chief reafon to boaft of the partition. In enumerating the chief rivers which pervade the Auftrian domi- riv ivers. inons, the Danube commands the firft attention. This magnificent Danube, flream rifes in Swabia.; and count Marfigli has delineated and explained its humble fountains, in his large and curious work on this river. Though the courfe be occafionally impeded by fmall falls and whirl- pools, yet it is navigable through a prodigious extent, and after water- ing Swabia, Bavaria, Auftria Proper, Hungary, and Turkey in Europe, it joins the Euxine, or Black Sea. after a comparative circuit of about 1300 Britifli miles, about one half of its progrefs being through the ter- ritories of Auftria. Next in confequence is the Tiefs, which arifing from the Carpathian Tiefj. mountains, towards Buckovina, and bending towards the weft, receives many tributary ftreams from that Alpine chain ; and afterwards turning to the S. falls into the Danube not far to the W. of Belgrade, after a courfe of about 420 miles. At Belgrade the Danube receives the Sau, or Save, which forms a boundary between Auftria and Turkey, rifing not far from Idria in the mountains of Carniola, and purfuing a courfe nearly equal in length to that of the Tiefs. That of the Drau or Drave f Vol. i. 162, and p. 202. VOL. I. 3D extends 3S« AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. RlVCRS, MulJii. EILe. Morau^ Lakes. extends lo about .350 miles, from its fource in the eaflern mountains ct" Tyrol, till it join the Danube 'iclow Eircg. Tiie Inn lifcs in ilie E. of SwiircrlanJ, from the mountain of M,i, loggia in the Grilbiis, bcin.; a point of juriition dividinj; the waters vvhicli run towards the IJlack fca, from thofe which flow ihto lie Adriatic' This powerful river is more gentle near its loiircc, tl'an the otiicr Alpine ltrcan;.s, but fooa becomes more precipitous ; and joun the Danube at I'aniiu with a weight of water nearly equal to that llrcam, Jtf'er a ecurfe of about 2^o miks, being nearly ecpial to tliat of the Danube itielf at their jim^lUon. I'ht Raab, and the Leytha, intermediate ftreams between the Dravc and tlie inn, only delcrve a brief mention. The Muhia is a eoutiJcr. able river which riles in the fouthern mountains of Bohemia, and atkr running about 50 miles S. E. bends due N. and joins the Elbe near Mclnick, after palfin;^ through Prague. Tlie Elbe itfelf ariles in the Sudetic moun'ains between Bohemia and Silefia, and waters a great part of the former kingdom before it enters Saxony, bending its coiirfe N. W. towards the German ocean. The Morau, whence Moravia derives its name, alfo aiifes in the Sudetic mountains; and paffing by Olmutz joins the Danube not fnr to the \V. of Prelljurg. The lakes in the Auflrian dominions are numerous, and feme of them of confiderable fizc. Bohemia prefents a few fmall pieces of water, towards its fouthern boundary ; but on entering Aultria Proper, the lake of Traun, the Ebernfee, and others, are of greater extent. Carinthia contains a large central lake not far from Clagenfurt j and Carniola another, the Cirknitz See. Tyrol, though an Alpine country, difplays no lake of any confequence, except a part of the Lago di Garda ; but the glaciers are numerous. Hungary contains many morafles and lakes ; the moft important of the latter being that of Platte, or the Platten See extending about forty-five Britifli miles in length, by eight in breadth, and abounding with fifh. The Neufidler lake, about thirty miles S. £. of Vienna, is about thirteen miles in length by four in breadth. It is almoft furrounded by fens j and is chiefly remarkable for being in the vicinity of Eifeniladt, the princely 3 Coxe's Swia; iii. t9. refidence CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 387 rclJcncc of the family of Eflcrlia/y. On the 1''.. of tlic Tiefs U the Lakhi, lake of I'alltzcr, about ci^ht inilca in length. In Tr.inlylvatru is the Trcj;c To ; and many finall Like8 arc fjtuatcd amidll the Carpatliian mountniiis. Ill coiifulcrlnj.'; tlic vartova tlcvateil chains wliich (livciTify the Moontalm. Auftiinn territories, tlie defcri])tion (hall begin with the vvclkrn ex- tremities, and terminate wit! the caiicrn. In this point of view the Rhx'tian or Tyrolefe AIoh will claim tlie lirft attention. Thefe chiefly Ph«;ian l>ioceed in a diredion froni the S. W. to the N. W., or from the Val- ^ '''" tcline to the archbiflioprick of Sal/bnrp;. This Saulfme has ohlcrvcd is the general courfc of the Alpine chains.* The Brenner mountains, for fiich is the modern name of the Rhx'tian Ai|vs, rival the grand Alps of Swilllrland in numerous glaciers ; and like other grand chains pre- Icnt exterior barriers, that on the N. being dldinguilhtd hy the name of Spitz, while that on the S. is termed Vedretta.' On leaving Italy there is almoft a gradual afcent, from Trent to the higliell Aimmit. The primitive or greateft elevations arife to the N. of Ster/ing, whence Dreams proceed towards the river Inn on the N. and the Adigc on the S., and the Eifac defcends, a precipitous torrent, amidil maOcs of granite, petrofdex, and marble, while the avalanches become dangerous to travellers. " The naked and rugged peaks of the mounts Lorenzen» Fartfchel, and Tfchafntfeh, raife their towering heads towards the N. W., and on the S. E. are thofe of dander, tschlofs, Pragls, and Pallanfer. Their fummits are entirely bare ; and f.:em to be compofod of granite." The glacier mod eafy of aceefs is that of Stuben, the centre of which prefents many Alpine plants ; r.nd the granite and porphyry are frequently covered with calcareous ftone. The glacier of Stuben is 4,692 feet above the level of the fea, and prefents the.nltial phenomena of fuch feenes, with bcamiful pyramids of a/.iire, which in funlhine refiedt a blaze of light. The mountain fpecially called Brenner is, according to Deaumont, only 5,109 feet above the fea. The town of Steinach is placed nearly in the centre of the Tyrolefe chain : towards the E. from the midfl of a long courfc of glaciers running N. E. and S. W. rifes the grand mountain Gefrorn, a mafs of granite ♦ Vol. viil. 241. ' Benumont's Rhst. Alps, London, 179?! fo'. p. 37. &'c. 3 D 2 covered m .1 \K ""• i!;. f. 388 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Moun- tains. h: Italian. Caroic. covered with eternal fnow, and one of the higheft peaks of the Rhatun Alps: on the weft is Habiclilpi/, of finaller height ; but to the S. \V. is Tributaan, anotlicr (lupcnclous peak of the great Brenner chain. The Bock-kogo is another vaft. peat:, riling little inferior to Gel'rorn, and in the fame latitude, but towards t'e weft.' Towards the W. and N. of Infiiruck are feveral detached mountains, covered with conflant fnow; among vvliich thoie of Verner* are the moft remarkable. Near the glaciers are found rock cryftals of vaiious colours, vulgarly called rubies, cnicralds, &c. and the inferior ranges of the Tyrolefe mountains contain mines of filver, copper, lead, mer- cury, iron, alum, and ful[ihur. In the vale of Zill is a mine of gold, which barely defrays the ex[ience and labour. Towards the S. the mountains are rich in wood and paflurage; but the northern hills are bleak and barren. The inferior mountains are, as ufual, calcareous, or argillaceous ; but thofe of Verner are granitic. The Tyrolefe Alpi being feldom vilited by travellers, it was judged proper to give rather an ample defcription. The provinces of Carinthia and Carniola prefent many confiderable chains of mountains ; as that of Lobel which feparates thefe countries; and the Julian, or Carnic Alps, (now called Birnbaumer Wald,) which divide Carinthia from Italy. Carniola is chiefly mountainous, and many of the fummits are covered with lafting fnow ; the moft memorable are the Kalenberg near the river Save, and the Runberg, and the Karft to the S. of Idria. Here alfo terminates the vaft chain, which proceeds by the N. of Dalmatia towards the Hsemus, and is known by many local ap- pellations, as Mount Promina near Gnin, Mount Prologh, Mount Clobu, &c. 6cc. but better diftinguiftied by the title of the Dalmatian chain. The latter mountains are chiefly calcareous.' Returninii- towards the N. firft occurs the chain of Bacher, in the S. of Stiria ; mount Grafan on the E. of Judenburg ; and the chief mountains in this province, thofe of Grimin, in its weftern extremity ' Beaumont's Rhaet. Alps, 59. TIvc Brennt r, or burning hill, is fo called on ^account of tlie frequent thunder llorms. lb. 65. The Glockner and Ortel are computed at 11,500 feet. In the archbiOtopric of Salzburg the Hoch-.Sorn at 10,(163. Monthly Mag. ix. 539. * Bufching, vii. 84. fayi ferntr is merely a Tyralcfe term for a glacier. I Fortii's Dalmatia. ^ towards •r ■ >^, CHAP. IV. NATURAL. GEOGRAPHY. 38j> Mouv- TAINS. tov ards Salzburg. On the E. towards Hungary this country Is more plain and fertile. On the S. of Auftria is a chain of inconfiderable elevation. Bufching Auftrian fiippofes tiiat the ancient Cetius is a ridge extending from near the foiircc of the river Save, towards the Danube, about nine Britifli mllea on the \V. of Vienna, where it is called Leopoldlberg.* The general niine is the Kalenberg ; but parts of it go under particular denomina- tions, as Caumherg, Annaberg, Sauruflel, Teufelftalg, Golach, Schnee- hcrg, Semmering, &cc. and it is certain that the Cetian chain of Ptolemy runs in that diredion.* However this be. Upper Auftria, or the wtflern part of this province, contains many confiderable mountains, the higheft of which is in the maps called Priel, but the proper name is Greflcnberg. Towards the N. Auftria is divided from Bohemia by a ridge of confiderable elevation, which pafles to the N. E. of Bavaria. On the N. W. Bohemia is parted from Saxony by a chain of metallic mountains, cnM d die Erzgel)erg, a word that implies hills containing mines. On the W. of the river Eger, near its jundlion with the Elbe, (lands the mountainous group of Mileflbu fuppofed to be the higheft in tlieprovince.f On the N. E. the Sudetic chain, which branches from the Carpathian, divides Bohemia and Moravia from Silefia and the. PrufTian dominions. The Carpathian mountains^ that grand and extenfive chain which bunds Hungary on the N. and E., have been celebrated from all an- tiquity. By the Germans they are ftyled the mountains of Krapak, probably the original name, which was foftened by the Roman enun- ciation r the Hungarians, a modern people, call them Tatra. This enormous ridge extends in a femicircular form from the mountain of ' Bufching, vl. 527-8. The ridge of Kalenberg was the weftern boundary of Germany till about A.D. 10.^0, when it wis rcniovod E. to the river Leitha. Putter, i. 155, CalTmi in his Voyage en Allemagne, p. xxiii. obfcrvcs, that the mountains of Kalemberg, en the well of Vienna, are kvell known by the route of the Bavarians who marched to defend that capital againll the Turks. • The Semmering heights divide Aullria from Stiria j and a noble road was formed over them in 1728. The Lobe!, between Carinthia and Carniola, is paflcd by a Angular excavation through a fammit. Brown, 127. t Bufching, vi. 126. The Donnerberg, near MilefTou, is regarded as the higheft mountain in fiohemia. The fummit of the Kicfengeberg is free fiom fnow in fummer, and probably not abuve 6coo feet high. See Riclbeck, ii. 149. Javornik Cnrpath'.nn Mountiniis. r^>«' .^;''-'.ii'i >'-.:.f:r ■^Ifti;; ,', t- 1 f ( (I,.': II ■■•I- m 390 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. MOUN- TAiNS. Javornlk S. of Silefia towards the N. W. But at the mountain of Trojafka, the moft northern fummit, it bends to the S. E. to the confines of the Buckovina, where it fends forth two branches, one to the E. another to the \V. of Tranfylvania ; which is alfo divided from Walachia by a branch running S. W, and N. E. The whole circuit may be about 500 miles. Dr. Townfon vifited thefe Hungarian Alps from the vicinity of Kcfmark, Hrfl ..roceeding to the Green See, a lake amidft the mountains, puffing through forefts of firs, which were fac- ceedcd by rocks of limeftonc and granite; The Krumholz, a kind of tree rcieinbling tlie pine, but feathered with thick branches to the very ground, fomev>'hat impeded the pregrefs. He computes that the Kef- mark peak, wliich towards Hungary is a perpendicular rock, may be about 8jc8 feet above the level of the fea. He afterwards proceeded to the Lomnitz peak, which he fays is the higheft of tho whole Car- pathian chain, and placed towards its centre : yet he afterwards ex- prefles fome doubt whether it be not rivalled, if not exceeded, by the Krivan, fituated more towards the \V. 20° 45' of E. longitude from London.' The fummit of Lomnitz he attained with fome difficulty, and computed it 10 be 8640 feet above the level of the fea, not much above half the height of M. Blanc, or M. Rofa. He found it com- pofed of grey granite like the rocks at the bottom ; but with a fmall mixture of a greenifli black, earthy fubftance ; yet the vegetation con- fifted of little -xcept a f ";hens. Thofe peaks are feldom vifited except by the I u. iters of the chamois, and fome idle adventurers, who fearch for gold and precious ftones. The marmot alfo appeared ; but our intelligent author denies that the ibex, or rock goat of the Swifj Alps, is found in the Carpathian heights. The Krivan he afterwards afcended with more eafe, but found it inferior in height to the Lom- nitz, being 8343 feet above the fea. It is probable that fummits of greater elevation arife in the eaftern part of the chain ; but there are no glaciers nor other tokens of the eternal winter of great altitude. The Carpathian ridge occafionally branches towards the N. and S. ; in the former direction the moft remarkable are the hills on the W. of ' Townfon, 358. 363. Silefia, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 391 S'!c(ia, thofe which ac'ioln to tlie fait mines of WicHczka a few miles Mirs- S. r. fi'i^'"'"' Cracow in Polaiit!, ar.d thole which extend tlirough part of '^'^'^'• the Biickovina Towards the S. a hranch (Iretches from the centre of the chain towards Tokay; and thtre are other branches not accurately defined, which dcfcend in the fame direction fiom the eaftcrn circuit. Amon<^ tlie detached mountains of Mungary may he named thofe of Matra in the centre of tlie kincjdom, about 50 miles N. \l. of Buda : tj-.ole of Fatra N. E. of Cremnitz : (f Avas in the difi rid of Mai marcs:: Farkas to the S. of Nemethi. Tlie mountains of Tranfylvania are numerous, bcfidcs the two branches of the Carpathian chain, which may be regarded as cnclofing the country. The Bannat of Tcmcfwar alio prefents many ridges of conliderablc height. To enumerate the forefls in the Auftrian dominions would be a talk Forcfls. at once laborious and fruitlefs. Suffice it to obferve that numerous and extenfive forefts arife in every diredion, particularly along the Carpathian mountains, and in the provinces acquired from Poland. Even Bohemia was formerly remarkable for a forefl of great extent, a remain of the Hercynia Sylva of antiquity, which extended from the Rhine to Sannatia, from Cologne to Poland. The Gabreta Sylva was on the S. W. of the fame country, where a chain of hills now divides it from Eavaria. The ftates w-hich compofe the powerful and extenfive empire of Bo'any. Auftria have been furveyed with very different degrees of accuracy as to their natural produdions. While the botany of Auftria Proper has been carefully illuftrated by Jaquin ;* and that of Carniola by Scopoli f and Hacquet ;| the flora of Hungary is ftill very imperfed j and the late acquifitions in Poland by the laft and former partitions are as yet in a manner unknown to natural hiftory. Tlie general mild tem- perature of the Auftrian ftates, their variety of foU and fituation, from the lakes and rich levels of Hungary, to the fnowy fummits of Iftria and Carinthia, are a fufficient evidence of the richncfs of their flora ; each year it is augmented by the difcovery of new fpecics, and will doubtlefs long continue to be increafed by the inveftigations of future botanifts. We fliall follow the plan to which we have hitherto ad- * fJcra Auftriaca. f Flora Csrniolica. X Plant* AlpiriK Carniolice. hcred ;-;^*" ■■uf-; W- :l.Vl' una SI »!- \U li: 39* AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. BoTAKY. Iiered of enumerating, as far as our narrow limits wi!I allow, tlje piln. cipal vegetables, natives of Auftria, which for their beauty or ufe nitri; particular notice ; of thcfe it will be found that a large proportion have been admitted into our gardens, and many more, from the elegance ci their form, or glow of colour, have an equal claim to domeftication. Of the natural order of the Enfata:^ dirtinguifhed by their coinpieOeJ fiuirp fword-fliaped leaves, fcveral fpecies are found wild in the Aurtrian dominions, among which may be diftinguifhed five fpecies of iris, the r&;7/-/?'^^ ; and branched fpider wort ; all of which have been ' naturalized in our gardens. The bulbous-rooted plants of the order Hexandria of Linnaeus re- markablc, for the moil part, for the beauty of their flowers, and abounding mod in the warmer climates, occupy a confpicuous rank in the flora of Auftria : a long lift of thefe might be produced, but we fliall fcle£l only the principal : thefe are the tufted nx\i\ chiflered hyacinth \ the fprhig^fummer, and atitimvi fnowflake ; allium vidloriale, one of tlie moft ftately and ornamental fpecies of the large genus ^W/V; orange lii\< \ martagon lily ; tnrncap lily ; dogs tooth violet^ one of the earlieft beauties of the Ipring ; chequered daffodil', branched afphodel ; yellow and tawny day-lily ; and laftly, though perhaps fuperior in beauty to any of the preceding, zvhite and black hellebore. For the clafs fyngenefia, or the compound flowered, though it con- tain many fpecies that are natives of Auftria, yet as thefe are for the moft part plants of little ufe, and as little remarkable for their beauty, a fliort notice will fuflSce : the moft interefting of thefe to the general reader are arnica montana, ufed in medicine ; carduus mollis and canus, foft and hoary thijlle ; purple fcorzonera ; fenecio abrotanifolius, foiithcni- wcod-leaved ragwort^ with fomewhat hoary finely divided leaves anj large bright yellow bloflbms ; artemifia Auftriaca, Aujlrian foutbcrnwooi; and xeranthemum annuum, a pretty plant, an inmate of our gardens whofe radiated purple and white flowers, if gathered when fully blown and kept in a dry place, will retain their beauty the whole winter . through. Of the fedums and their kindred genera it will be fufficient to mention two fpecies of Angular beauty, the fempervivum hirtum, CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 393 Ihvry orph:e\ .and f. morltanum j of thefe the latter is by far the mod Botany. elegant plant of its tribe. To the clafs decandria belong feveral interefting plants, of which the following are moft worthy of mention ; alpine and viaidai pink ; fraxi- nclla; and three fpecles of rhododendron, the hirfutum, chamsEciftus and ferrugineum, all of which merit diftindion in a genus, every fpecies of which is more than commonly beautiful. The umbelliferous plants of Auftria, as well as thofe of every other European country, are very numerous ; the following are the larger fpecies and the moft charaderiftic, Selinum Auftriacum ; Heracleum Auftriacum ; Peucedanum Alfaticum j Ligufticum Auftriacum ; and L. Peloponnefiacum. The Linnzean clafs pentandria contains the moft beautiful of the indigenous plants of the Auftrian dominions, feveral of which have found their way into our gardens. The moift and fpungy fides of the mountains from the Carpathian chain to the heights of Irtria are adorned by the foldanclla alpina and aretia alpina, two minute but ex- quifitely beautiful plants, the former with purple, the latter with white and flefli coloured bloflbms. Among the numerous fpecies of flax, the following very elegant ones are natives of Auftria : hairy fax ; yellow flowered f.; Aiijlrianf.^ with large deep-blue blolfoms. The reft of this clafs that require notice are, cerinthe major, greater boneywort ; verbafcum phoeniceum, purple mullein ; gentiana acs.u\\s,fcmle/s gentian^ diftinguifhed by its large ered: blue bell-ftiaped bloflbm, rifing imme- diately from the centre of the leaves ; geniiana Pannonica, the moft fpiendid of the whole genus, growing to a confiderable height, and bearing its large purple-dotted bloflbms in tufts on the top and fides of the ftem : the Auftrian flora is alfo graced by feveral fpecies of primula ; b) the cyclamen europasum ; campanula thyrfoidea, remarkable for its pale yellow bloflbms ; phyfalis alkekengi, winter cherry; and afclepias ymtiOKxcvLm^fwalloW'Wort. Of the papilionaceous plants may be enumerated the greater laburnum^ a tree of lome magnitude, adorning the banks of the Danube with its long clutters of golden bloflbms ; and coronilla coronata, diftinguifhcd by its glaucous leaves, and its bright yellow bloflbms. VOL. I. 3 E Several 1 : , 1 t;ii'51 ' \\ •■■f ! !'' ,M i". i'^ b-'. ll-Hi ^!ll 394 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. I BoTANy. Several remarkable plants, inhabitants of the Auflrian dominion; arrange tliemfel"es luuier the Linna^an clals polyandria ; among the!";; may be diilinguiflied two fpecies of Adonis or pheafnnt^s eye, the a. mj. niata and flammea, adorning the fallows with their fcarlet petals; alpke poppy^ remarkable by its fnow-white flowers ; mountain and unrcijfus. leaved anemone ; bears-foot hellebore ', Cbnjlmas rofc ) and winter aco/iite- white Jiowered mountain ranunculus ; potentilla nitida, confpicuous for its beautiful flefli-coloured petals, and its glaucous leaves : atragene alpina, adopted into our flower-gardens ; and four fpecies of aconite or monki- hood, of which the A. cammarum is the largeft and mod (howy of the whole genus ; the facred lotus of Egypt and India, has alfo of late beea found in iome lakes in Hungary. The perennial fhrubby plants may be divided into the flowering flirubs, the fruit-bearing, and the foreft trees. Of the former clal's feme, as the laburnum, have been already mentioned, the reft with the exception of erica carnca, Jlejh- coloured heath ; fyringa vulgaris, lilac; and tamarix German'ca, German tamarijk^ are fcarcely interefting, ex- cept to botanirts. The common fruit-trees of Europe are largely cuj. tivated in the provinces of Auftria, but their lift of native fruits is very fcanty. The foreft trees, befides thofe which are common to all Eu- rope, are loranthus europaeus ; quercus c^xxxiy prickly-cupped oak ifumacb; walnut ; chejlnut ; hornbeam^ and carpinus oftrya. Zoology, The domeftic animals in the Auftrian dominions are commonly ex- cellent, particularly the cattle. According to a late traveller "* the Hun- garian horfes have been erroneoufly eftimated from the fpirited cavalry fupplied by other regions, while the native breed is very fmall, and the ftallions and brood mares are foreign. Many of the native horfes run wild, and are fold in great numbers at the fairs, before they have fuf- fcred any fubjeftion. The breed of cattle is moftly of a Angular colour, a flaty blue ; and the Hungarian (heep refemble the Walachian in their long tttOi fpiral horns, and pendent hairy fleece. In the weftern parts of the Auftrian fovereignty, the animals do not feem to be diftinguiihed firom thofe of other parts of Germany. i! Townfon, 230. Tlie i 'I. CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 395 The large breed of wild cattle, called Urus or Bifon, is faid robe Zoologit. found in the Carpathian f'orefts, as well as in thr>''j of Lithuania and Caiicafus. Among the ferocious or wild quadrupeds, may alfo be named the bear, the boar, the wolf, the chamois, the marmot, and the beaver. Among the larger birds, the buflard and pelican are fome of the nioft uncommon; and Carniola produces the flrix lylvcftris, the tetrao nemelianus, the (lurnus collaris, the embcriza barbata anti hru- malls, the motacilla of three uncommon kinds, the hlrundo iupedris, the aidea alba, the mergus a-thiops, throe kinds of the larus, and the anas lubterranca." Even Aultria claims fome birds rather peculiar, as four uncommon kinds of the falcon, the ftrix fabaurita, the motacilla (iumetorum, the parus pendulinus, the pratincola krameria, and per- haps others. The Danube alfo boafts cf fome fifties feldom found in other rivers, among which is a finall and delicate fort of falmon. To enumerate uncommon infeds would be too minute a labour for the articularly famousj as well as thofe near the fources of the Lyfer. In the neighbourhood ofVillach, at Bleyberg, are found rich lead mines; and the fame place fupplies what is called fire-marble or lumachelli. Carniola, or Krain, abounds with immenfe caves, and other natural curiofities : but except a few iron wptka, the mineralogy is little re- markable. On the weft, towards the 'county of Gorz, which produces excellent wines, lies the Ban of Idria, a diftridt immediately fubjedl to the chamber of Inner Auftria at Gratz. Thequickfilver mines of Idria are celebrated in natural hiftory, poetry, and romance. They were difcovcred in the year 1499; and the hill ofVogelberg has annually yielded more than 300,000 pounds weight of mercury. The common ore is cinnabar J but fometimes the pure quickfilver runs through thg crevices. Idria is furrounded with woody hills; and the Vogelberg on the E. produces oaks and broom, while the interior confifts of red clay, calcareous rock, and a black foft flate, which covers the metallic vein in a fouthern direction. The deep defcent is by ladders, and flairs of ftone ; and the length of the galleries is computed at 3 1 6 paces, or 1580 feet." The operations in thefe vaft mercurial caverns being pernicious to the health, are fometimes allotted as a punifhment to criminals. " Ferber's Italy, p. 5. " M. Jars, in hi* Veyagu Mttallurgiquet, Paris 1774-1781, three volames 410. fuppofes I. 32, that \\itJlosftm of Stiria originates from the limeRone, of which all the mountains around the mice ^ are compofed. '' Scopoli Tentamen de Miners Hydrargyri, Journal det Mines, No. xxxvi. Sargent'i Mine, ftc. On 39; 1 i 1 ■ 4^ m 1 " 1 ■ 1 . ' . ■i ; ]- „■ ! 1 V- '■ vv 1 ! 'is !?i 4 ! 398 MlNER\< Loor. AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. On pafTing Into Tyrol feveral mines occur of ancient reputation, fudi as that of filver and lead near Lermos ; and in the fame quarter tliofeof Nafereit in the Verner mountains, about 30 miles N. W. of Infpruck which are opulent in filver, copper, lead, and iron." Nor is the fouthcrn region of Trent wholly dellitute of mines. It may be proper to remark that fome curious produdions liave been afcribcd to Tyrol, which really belong to the archbifliopric of Salzburg, Zillcrthal, in par- ticular, being in the latter province. But the principal mines in the AuRrian dominions are fituatcd in tlie eaftern provinces of Hungary and Tranfylvania. About 40 miles to the S. of the Carpathian hills are the gold mines of Crcmuitz; and 20 Englilh miles further to the S. the filver mines of Shemnitz ; cities which have arifen folely from thefc labours, and thence called miuiiv; towns. Shemnitz is ellcemed the principal ; and the ores are found in what Baron de Born ftylcs metallic rock.* The academy here in- ftituted for the lludy of mineralogy is highly refpedable, and only ri- vailed by that of Freyberg in Saxony. The mines of Cremnitz alio produce fome filver, Hungary contains mines of copper at Schmtl- nitz and Herrengrund, of antimony very rich at Rofenau ; and in dif- " Beaumont, 77. Ferber, 329. Tyrol is mentioned for the fake of cunneQion, being now fub. jetft to Bavaria. '* I'hc Saxum metalliferum is, according to the account of Lefevre, wiio vifitcd tiiefe mines in 1788, (J. des Min. No. xii. p. 39—50) a porphyry, of white felfpar and black mica in rofe co- loured jt pe.', tco foft to be polifhed. Mr, Efmark, a difciple of Werner, who vifited them in 1796, (lb. No, xlvii) , fays the balls is fclfpar polling to hard clay, containing cryflals of hornblende, black mica, and futne'.imes of quartz. Mr. Kirwan defcribet ii as dark green, rarely reddiih- but Dr. Townfon's account indicates grey with white fpots, and he fays that Baron de Boin might have re- cognifed it in that yellowilh grey fubfiance the ufual adjunfl of opal. The Baron de Born has himfelf fettled the queilion in hig Travels in Hungary, or, according to the Englilh tranflatior, in the Bannat. He fays, p. 54, that ihe/axum melalliftrum is by the miners called fand-ftone ; and, p. 113, be feys that " grey argillaceous rock, mixed with mica, fchorl.or quartz grains, which I have ptefumed to t.a\\ /axum meialli/erum." Jn p. 153. a white argillaceom compadt (lone is fiid to refemble,/Av;/»> metalliferum : and p. 189. an argillaceous grey rock is pro- nnunced to differ from this only by having fpots of white lithomarga inftead of mica. In his Liihofhjlacium he is equally explicit, {IiiJ. Fojfil. 154, 155) : and Gmelin in his edition ofLinnsus (Lyons, 1796, iii, 230), has thence juftly dtfcribed this curious rock, " tx argilla quartm cr\fiallii, tt aliis . . . albus, albijus, cittertM, caruli/erus." It is the common gangart of Hungarian gold. Rielbeck alTerts that thcfe mines would be far more prodnftive if they were farmed out by the crown. ferent CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 39f LOOY. fi'renr parts of coal, fait, and aluin. Saltpetre is alfo proiluccd in can- M"*=»*" lidcrab'c <|uantitic3 : and natron or ioda is fouml in a lake near Kif- iiiaria, towards the frontier of Tranfylvania." Such lakes arc com- n'.only white frrrn the foda floating on the furface. But a mineral peculi.ir to Hungary, and as yet difcovercd in no other region of the globe, is the opal, a gem preferred to all others hy the oriental nationa. The opd mines are fituated at C/erweniza, a (hort day's journey to the N. of Kafchaw, and nearly under the fame latitude with Cremnitz, The hill ii^ which they are found coniills of decompofed porphyry ; and they only occur at the dirtance of a few fathoms from the furface, of various qualities, from the opake white, or femi-opal, which is alfo (lifcovercd in Cornwall, to that utmoll effulgence of iridefcent colours which diftinguiflics this noble gem.* The mines of Tranfylvania and the Bannat are alfo numerous and yaluable. Thofe of Najiag, twelve Britifh miles to the N. E. of Deva, were pretended to be difcovercd by a peafant, who faid that he had obferved a light fhining in the evening over the fpot. They produce the grey gold ore, being that precious metal mingled with antimony, arfenic, lead, and iron, and fometimes with manganefe and zinc." They are the richeft in all Tranfylvania, and conduced with the great- eft care and exadlnefs At Ofenbanya, about 25 Britifh miles to the N. of Karlfburg is found the white gold ore, which alfo occurs in the hills of Fatzebay, in the fame quarter. The country towards the W. of Karlfburg prefents numerous gold mines near Zalathna : and in the N. of this province are thofe of Kapnick, Rodna, Felfobanya, and others. Mr. Efraark alfo mentions thofe of Verofpatak, Kirnik, and Boitza, but fome are exhaufted. At Ohiapian, not far from Zalathna, is found the fineft gold ia Tranfylvania, mingled with gravel and fand. ^.■.\: M.: :■ M'-- " Journ. des Min. No. ii. * It would appear that the opal of the ancienti came from India, or rather Ceylon, and wai of an olive colour with a red reflcAion. Launay Mineralogii da Ancitn^t BrufTels 1803, two volt. 8vo. i. 130. A carbonated fubllance, like black lead, pafles through the vein of opal in Hungary. See Lia- Bsusby Gnelin, the Lyons edition 1796, p. a8;. Hence, probably the black opals, which are however extremely rare. » J. des Min. No. xlvii. Efmark. The 403 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Ml NEVA" If. v. 1 :i^''4 ■Mineral Waters. The cliicf muilnp town of the Dontut is Orawha, on the W. of a cliVui of mountains, confiltini^ of micaccoin fchillus, granite, and mctallio rock ; l)etween which and Hiula are cliicfly plains of fand. Towardi the S. of Orawiza are found mines of coj^pcr : and gold and filver at Do<',nafka to the N. TIic fait mines acquired from Poland alone remain to be defcribed. They arc fituatcd, as already mentioned, at Wiclitfka, eight mils to the S. of Cracow, being excavated at the northern extremity of a branch of tlic Carpathian mountains. The defccnt is by pits of great depth; and tl:e galleries and chambers are of immenfe fizi?, commonly lup. ported by timber, or by vaft pillars of fait, out of which material even fubtcrraneous chapels are formed ; but travellers have idly exaggerated the fpletuloui and extent of the faline apartments." The miners work by inrervals of eight hours ; after which they are drawn up, and their places fiipplied by others. The revenue ariling from thefe mines was computed at near ioo,oool. fterhng yearly: but it has confiderably de- clined fince they became fubje£l to Auftria. The fait is of an iron grey colour, fometi.nes intermingled with white cubes ; and foine- times large blocks of fait appear imbeded in marl." The pureft fort is found at the bottom of the mine, and is fparry. The mines extend about 3600 feet from E. to W , and about 200 from S to N. The Hilt is of the fame identic kind with that found in Marmaros, on the other fide of the Carpathian chain, or indeed throughout Tranfylvania, which contains a great number of fait mines, though not of confiderable extent. The mineral waters in the Auftrian dominions are very numerous, as is to be expeded in a country fo mountainous, with the exception of the great plain in the W. of Hungary, extending upwards of 250 miles in every diredion. To inftance a few; Tyrol prefents thofe of Sellrain, Meran, Sexten, Prax, Agums, Brutz in the upper valley of the Inn, Trafp, Rabi, Pc-i, and others. In Stiria there are feveral ; nor arc CarintVia and Carniola deftitute of this advantage. Auftria Proper prefents th( fe of Baden ; and Bohemia thofe at Carlfljad, Toeplitz, Agra, and Defny. Mineral Iprings abound in Hungary, as at GraD, " Ccxtt't Pol. i. 200. f Townfon, 388. Bucia, ^^' CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 401 BiiJa, Grofwart^ln, where the hot baths are frequented by the nci,;hbour- MimKAt. ing Walachians. In the N. are thofc of Rank, IJertfcId, and others. WAn.K<. Among the natural curiofities may be named the grand Alpine fccnea Natural of Tyrol, the glaciers and peaks of the I^rcnner. At Gannowitz in <-'»>"<'"""• Silria is a fountain whofe waters are faid to be warm in winter and cold in fummer: a common error, the deception confifting in their preferving the fame ' temperature. The calcareous hills of Carii.ihia afford many fingular fccnes; which arc however exceeded by tliofc of the Carnian Alps, or Birnbaumer mountains, of Carniola. In the lat- ter country, near AdKberg, is faid to be a grotto of prodigious extent, difplayinp fpaccs fufficient for the erctflion of villages, and containing natural amphitheatres, bridges, &cc." Near the entrance the river Poig, which rifes at about a mile diftant, throws iifelf into the hollow of the rock, and paflTes under the grotto, which was perhaps the ancient courfe of the river. The grotto of St. Mary Magdalen, in the fume di(lrid» is remarkable for beautiful pillars ; and that of Lueg for extent and the variety of ftalaftitic figures. Nor is that near St. Serf unworthy of notice. But the chief natural curiofity of Carniola is the lake of Cirknitz, called by Dr. Brown the Zirchnitzer See. That traveller informs us that it is about two German, or more than eight Englifli miles in length, by four of the latter in breadth. In the month of June the water defcends under ground, through many apertures at the bottom ; and in September it reafcends with confiderable force; thus yielding rich pafturage in fummer, while in winter it abounds with fifli. The calcareous hills and illands of Dalmatia con- tain fimilar curiofities ; as the lake Jefero in the ifle of Cherfo, which only difTufes its waters every fifth year j*' feveral curious caverns ; and prodigious quantities of foflil bones, of horfes, oxen, flieep, &c. but doubtful if any be human ; nor have any decidedly fuch been dil- covered in any region of the globe. Auftria, Bohemia,* and Moravia, •♦ Bufching, vii. 6o. " Fortis, 429. * Near Traotenau is a moil Angular aflemblage of natural towers of ftonr, from 60 to 1 50 feet in height. Tiiis ftony forcll is of great extent, and is by foine fuppofcd to be the (keleton of a hill. Rielbeck, ii, 148. VOL. I. 3 ' difplay -^im >' -n.v 403 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Natural CuRiosi> Tits. difplay few natural curiofities ; but thofe of Hungary are numerous befides the Alpine fcenes of the Carpathian mountaiuB. There is a ca- vern of prodigious extent near Szadello, about thirty Britifh miles N. W. of Kafhau/" It is, like ail the other large caverns, in a hill of limeftone ; and is fo crowded with large pendent ftaladites as to be- come a dangerous labyrinth. Near Szalitze, in the fame quarter, Is another renowned cavern, which, like that mentioned in the account of France, contains a fmall glacier. At Demanovo, about fixteen Britifli miles to the E. of Rofenberg, is another remarkable cave, containing many bones of wild animals which have taken (belter there, as not un- ufual in the caves of Germany. '• Townfon, jij. 'Ut • > i A- *•- .|^ 1 ■' ■'' 1'., 'il'ili ' ^■■. ^r' ■■' '•-'. ' "' ? '- '■(' > ' - : i ' ' • r ■■. 'M . ,.r .■ V ;■:.'.'•.. '-■i:.- PRUSSIA. '!.'. CHAPTER I. .'■ ' > ';iJ i. J 3 . « t N- «"i;- ./••v. 't' « ■■ '-i^ i " •« ' < ; Historical Geography. " • ,_ :- ' /■' - , •- ■ - - - -• ■ • ■ '.- ^j.:.'-. Names.— -EKtent.-^Boundaries. — Original Population. — Prt^ejfive Geography. — Hijlorical Epochs and Antiquities. T^HIS kingdom, which only commenced with the eighteenth century, has by gradual accefllons become fo extenfive, as defervedly to rank among tli? ' ** powers of Europe. The dominions of Pruflia were fmall and '.c^ a, t:, till the acquiHtion of Silefia, and afterwards of a third part of loiand, gave a wide and ftable bails to the new mo- narchy. This region was faintly known to the ancients, who mention various tribes that poflefled it : and the amber, which here only was found in iuch quantities as to form a regular article of commerce, greatly con- tributed to its celebrity. But antiquarian difquifitions are foreign to the prefent purpofe ; and it will be fufficient to obferve that the name of the country originates, according to feme, from the Pruzzi a Sla- vonic tribe ; but more probably, according to others from the name of Rnjfuiy and the Slavonic word Po, which lignifies near, or adjacent. Thus the Polaba: were confe(rcdly fo called, becaufe they were lituated upon the Elbe, which is called Labe in the Slavonic dialedt. Helmol- dus," who wrote in the twelfth century, and is the molt ancient 1 ■ i, •, ) r. « ,'d *nitf , 4 Lib. i, cap. iv. . ■<" ;.•• • 3 *' i chronicler Name? m \\ \ 4 K ; J' ' 4«4 PRUSSIA. Names. Extrnt. Origimt ?Q- clironicler of thefe regions, mentions the Pruzzi, or Prnfllans, among the chief Slavonic tribes : nor is tlie name unknown to Adam of Bremen a writer of the preceding century. Exclufive of fmall detach^rd territories, the kingdom of Pruflia now extends from Hornburg and the river Oker in the country of Halberftadt, the furtheft weftern connedted diftrift, to the river Memel, or about 6co miles. The breadth, from the fouthern limit of Silefia to Dantzick, exceeds 300 miles. On the eaft and fouth, Pruflia now borders on the dominions of Ruflia and Auftria, and the weftern limits adjoin to the t>i(heprie of Hildefheim if ambition have not extended them ftill farther. Before the recent acquilitions in Poland the number of Pruflian fubjedls wa« onty computed at 5^621,500, in a total e::tent of 56,414 fquare miles, that is about 99 to the fquare mile. At prefcnt they probably amount to about eight millions : including the margraviate of Anfpach and Bareuth, computed at 400,000 ',, and the laft acquifitions in Poland eftimated at 2,100,000 inhabitants.* The original population of Pruffia appears, from Tacitus and Pliny, to have confifted of the Peucini and ^ftii, Gothic tribes bordering on the Venedi who were Slavons. The amber of the iEftii,, who feem to have been merely a tribe of the Peucini, continued to be celebrated in the time of Theodoric } but at what precife period thefe original inhabitants were expelled, or fubdued, by the Slavonic tribes on the eaft, remains uncertain. Suffice it in general to obferve, that the Slavonic tribes e.^ ' Gafpari Allgem. Jahrbocb, tSoo. Weimar. Pruflia hai recently ceded the counttiei of Anfpach and Bareuth to the French arrangemeot! in Germany ; and has thus loft the popnistion of about four hundred tboufand. It was, however, un- derftood, that Ae wai to be amply recompenfed by the acquifition of Hanover. It is certainly the trot intereft of Great Britain that Ptuffia flionld not only remain in pofiellion of Hanover, but fliould alfo obtain the whole dominioni formerly belonging to Poland, and all the north of Germany, with Holland as far as the Rhine. Thefe dominioni, with Denmark and Sweden in Md alliance, can alone enable Pruffia to aA as an independent power againft the preponderance of France. It would \it truly Angular to fuppofe that Pruflia, witii a population of between (even and eight millions, couldwith- ftaad the French empire with thtrty-foor millions , nor can the ever aft with cordiality towards allies, who, inftead of ftrengthening her power, and enlarging her dominions, vainly exped sfllft. an:e by the diminution of her influence I Pruflia has alfo ceded Ncafehatel and Vallengin, whirV have been afligned, as an independent pincipality, to Marlhal Berthier. tended m Jiva phv CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 405 tended widely over theN. of Germany, after the old Gothic inhabitants Okicinai had crowded to the more fertile regions of the fouth, in confequence of j°J^^^'^ the decline and fall of the Roman empire. But the readlion of the knights of the Teutonic order, in the twelfth and following centuries, dellroyed great numbers of the Slavons, and in fome meafure reftored the original Gothic population. Yet one half of the Pruflian popula- tion mufl: ftill be confidered as Slavonic ; as to the former Pomeranians muft now be added a numerous acceiTion of Poles. In general the Sla- vons are far more enflaved by their chiefs than any of the Gothic na- tions ; and it is believed that the Polifli people, however they may exe- crate the iron rod of Ruflia, will have no caufe 10 regret that they have palTed under the Audrian ai . PruflHan fceptrcs. The progrefllve geography of thofe provinces which now conftltute the Piuffian territory would form an embroiled and multifarious topic. Ptolemy's eighth map of Europe preients a very confufcd idea, and im- perfedl information. The voyage of Ohter, in the reign of Alfred, af- fords a faint dawn of modern knowledge ; which is incrcafed by the de- fcriptlons of Adam of Bremen, and Helmoldus. One of the mofl: lin- gular features in the geography of theie regions, during the middle ages^ is the exiftence of Julin, a city of great extent and commerce, on the right bank of the Oder in Pomerania, which was dcftroyed by Walde- mar I king of Denmark, fo that even the name hardly now exifts in a place called Wollin. Purther to the eaft the Slavonic tribes on the Baltic continued Pagans to a late period ; and the country was little known, or vifited, except by a fpecies of crufaders, who went to aflill the Teutonic knights in fubduing thofe Saracens, as they were rtyled in the ignorance of the times. As this kingdom is recent, and compofed of feveral ancient ftatcs, riif;o,K..ji its hiftorical epochs, and antiquities are of courl'c complex. Not to '^P-^^'-- mention the fmaller provinces, among which was the diftant principality ef Neufchatel, on the frontiers of France, and Swifl'eiland, Pruflia may be regarded as confifting of four great divifions, the ele<^orate of Bran- denburg; the kingdom of Pruflia Proper ; the large province of Silcfia ; and a third part of the ancient kingdom of Poland. As the family whith now rules thofe extcnfive domains w*s originally the elcdoral houic ■'V!.i|: ■ 1 11 L;'^' <'-r 4o6 PRUSSIA. Historical houfe of Brandenburg, It will be proper firft to trace the progrefsof its ' Epochs. power. 1. The German genealog'ifts derive the houfe of Brandenburg from Thaffilo count of Hohenzollern, who lived about the nin^h century. Sigefred, a Saxon count, having married a daughter of Henry king of ^taly, was appointed Margrave of Brandenburg A. D. 927; but many inturies elapfed before this dignity fell to the anceftor of the prefent fa- mily. The province had been for fome centuries chiefly poffelTed by Slavonic nations, but the Margrave foon raifed it to conhderablc didinc- tion. The fucceffion of thefe potentates, of various families, and their petty wars would little intereft the reader. o 2. The emperor Charles IV, in 1373, affigned Brandenburg to his fecond fon Sigifmund, who in 1415, being then emperor of Germany, fold this Margravate and Eiedlorate to Frederic burgrave of Nuremburg, for 400,000 ducats. Frederic, the ancedor of the prefent reigning race, difplayed confiderable abilities. 3. Joachim II, elector of Brandenburg, embraced the Lutheran reli. gion in 1539, which has fince been the ruling fyllem of the ftate. 4. John Sigifmond becomes duke of Pruflia in 1618. This fuc- ceflion will be explained under the next divifion of the hiftorical epochs. 5. Frederic William, furnamed the great eledor, fuccecded his father in 1640; and in 1656 compelled the king of Poland to declare Friilliaan independent flate, it having formerly been held of the I'olifh fbvereigns. This prince is highly praifed by his royal defcendant, the author of Me- moirs of the houfe of Brandenburg, as the chief founder of the power of that family. He was fucceeded in 16S8 by his fon, 6. Frederic II F, who fupporting the emperor in the conteft for the Spanifh fucctflion, was I;/ him declared king of Pruiiia ; under which title he was proclaimed at Konigfl)erg, on the i8t!i day of January, 1701, he himielf placing the crown upon his head. 7. FreciL'ric William II afceiulcd the throne in lyi'^; r;nd in 17:1 fcundtd the city of Potfdarn Hut lie was chiefly rei;iarkab!c as the la- ther of that great prince Frederic II,* who alcended the throne in 174c, liir.dl from that o( i'"'- • III the rc^^l gaifiil gy ilic na:iic of Ited.ric a'l'ne is conliJercd as dciic-'A iihiiiu. anJ CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. and died in 1786, after a long and glorious reign ; the moft memorable His and lat^inS pvenl of which was the acquifition of Siielia from the houfe of Auftria in 1742. 8. The ftiort reign of his nephew is known to every reader. The failure of the I^ruffian tadics in France and Poland convinced Europe that the great Frederic had been the ff)ul of the machine. But thefe checks were recompenfed by the complttion of the PrulFian acquifitions in Poland. The reign of his fon, the prefent monarch, has hitherto beea (liftinguiflied rather by prudence than enterprize. The hiftorical epochs of Prullla Proper are not deferving of much elu- cidation. The knowledge of the ancients concerning this country has already been explained, A faint dawn of hiftory, in the middle ages, dif- clofesat the mouth of the Viftula the Pruzzi, a Slavonic nation, who were afterwards fubdued by the knights of the Teutonic order. > 1. This order originated A. D. 11 90, in the camp of the Crufaders before Acca, or Acre, from fom.e citizens of Lubec, and Bremen, who united to relieve the wants of their German brethren. Next year a bull of inftitution was obtained from tae Pope, ordering them to wear a black crof$on a white mantle, and to follow the rule of St. Auguftin, with all the privilges granted to the knights templars. The crufades to Paleftine having failed, the knights direfted their enterprize againft the pagans of the N. of Germany, A. D. 1227 ; and in a few years conquered Pruflia^ and founded feveral cities. 2. The knights thus eftablilhed in Prullla direded their effort* againft the Lithuanians, and otiier pagans in the eaft. But repeated wars with Poland were lefs fortunate ; and about 1446 the four chief cities of PrulHa, Elbing, Thorn, Koniglberg, and Dantzick, withdrew their allegiance from the Teutonic order, and claimed the protedion of Poland. 3. In 1466 Cafimir king of Poland forced the Teutonic order to abandon to him the eaftern part of Pruffia, and to pay homage for the weftern part. 4. Albert of Brandenburg, grand-mafter of the order, obtained from his maternal uncle, Sigifmund king of Poland, the hereditary invefli^ f 9 tore 407 roiucAL ■■l;t i s,' j' .t| { ■ iii , i <■■ n,. I ,.■1 r' Ut i io\ PRUSSIA. ^il^TJRIC..^; trocns. tare of all that the order poflefled in Pruflla, and embraced the Lutheran religion. IJiit particular grand-mafters continue to be appointed by the emperor of Germany. 5. la 1 569 Joachim II eledor of Brandenburg had obtained from the Polifli monarch the iucceiTion to the duchy of Pruflia, in cafe the poircd'or died without heirs : but this addition of power and territory did not take place till 1618, when John Sigifmund cledlor of Branden. burg acquired this duchy ; and in 163 1, his fucceflbr received the folemn inveRlture from the king of Poland. Nor was it, as already mentioned an independent fovereignty till 1656, after which period the chief event* may be traced under ihofe of Brandenburg. iSiltlia aiFords few materials for Hiftory. This country was formerly a blavonic province of the Polifh dominion ; but in the fourteenth cen- tury \va3 fcized by John of Luxemburg king of Bohemia, (Febrn. ary 1339,) and palled with that fovereignty to the houfe of Auftria. The houfe of Brandenburg certainly had fome ancient claims to this province, which were finally afcertained by tlie fword in 1742, as al. ready mentioned. As not only the recent acquifitlons in Poland are of far more compa- rattve confequence to Pruflia, than either to Auftria, or Ruflia ; and as in fa£t this fovereignty is in poiTeiTion of the metropolis, and all the chief cities, and ports of Poland, and may be faid toexift only on thebafisof that ancient kingdom, which it reprefents in tli« modern balance of power, it will be proper liere to repeat, in a.fcw words, the chief epochs of the Polifli hiftory. 1. Even in the Roman times Polaad was chiefly poflefled by theSar- matse, or Slavons ; and the Poles pretend to trace their dukes from the (ixth century. But the authentic hiAory only begins with Piaft, A. D. 842. In 992 the chriftian religion was introduced. 2. UladOas, duke of Poland, aflumed the title of king A. D. 1320; and was fucceeded by his fon Caftmir furnamed the great. 3. The houfe of Jagellon dukes of Lithuania afcended the Polifli throne 1384, and ruled till 1^:72, ia hereditary fucceflloa, though with pre* tended €le<^op. 4. The ■,■"'1 CHAP. I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. 409 A, The throne of Poland becomes merely eledive in the perfon of H'»toricai. Henry de Valois 1574 ; but It was afterwards chieriy contefted by native princes, and by the eleftors of Saxony. j. John Sobiefki, king of Poland, in 1683 forced the Turks to raife the fiege of Vienna, which was the lad valiant adion achieved by the Poles. 6. The recent annihilation of the monarchy. From this general view of the component parts of the Pruflian Antiquities, hidory it will appear that few ancient monuments can be expected in regions, where even a rude knowledge of the arts is comparatively fo recent. Some Slavonic idols, cad in bronze, conftitute almod the only pagan antiquities : and the caftles, and churches, eredted after the introdudion of the Chriftian religion, have few fingularities to attradt particular attention. The Polifli coinage begins about the twelfth century, and is upon the German model. ( ■ "TTHSF^ F! .»;>:' 'H . \' ■ t -f; tf ■ '. J. \ . , 1' VOL, I. o I I ii '• *"> PRUSSIA. CHAPTER II. Political Geography. Religion,'— Ecckfiajiical Geography.— Government.-— -Laws. — Population. — Colonic, •—Army. — Navy.— Rtvenuct.~— Political Importance and Relations, KftLioioN. fTpHE ruling religion of Pruflia is the Proteftant, under its two c'uef X divifions ,of Lutheran and Galviniftic. But after the recent ac- quifitions in Poland it would feem that the greater number of the in> habitants muft be Roman Catholic. The univerfal toleration which has been wifely embraced by the Prufllan monarchs, has had its ulaal effedt of abating theological enmity, and the different fe^s feem to live in perfeft concord. Ecdefiaflic The ecclefiaftical geography of Pruffia would be at once little inte- Geography, refting, and of difficult detail. The bifhoprics in Poland and Silefia feem to retain their ancient limits, while the power of the prelates is confiderably abridged. Government. As no veftige of any fenate or delegates from the people is known in this kingdom, it muft be pronounced an abfolute government, but the fpirit and good fenfe of the nation unite with the wifdom and milii- nefs of fuccelFive monarchs, (who have uniformly wifhed to invite foreign fettlers by views of eafe and freedom, inftead of expelling their own people by rigour,) to render the fovereignty as conciliatory, and perhaps more beneficent, than if joined with a venal fenate. The late laws. great monarch reformed many abufes in the laws; but it cannot be difguilcd that the tenor of his government was too military, a fault inherent in the Pruffian fyftem. In fome refpe^s it is doubtlefs un* avoidable, as mui\ ever be the cafe, in eftabliihing a new power. And when we behold every petty prince in Germany lurrounded by the idle parade of a little army, which far from being neceflfary at home is often CHAP. ir. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 41 » Jtcn fold to other ftates, wc Cvinnoi wonder that the acquilitions In '^**' Silefia, and in Poland, muft be maintained by armed force, inftcad of ancient attachment and habits of fubje»5lion ; cf[iecially when we con- fiiler that Pruflia is environed by the great military powers of Riiflla and Auftria. All political plans mull be weighed by the circumrtances ; and this dire neceflity muft exift till the benignity of the govern- ment (hall have gradually fecured the firm attachment of its new fub- Before the acquifitions in Poland, this kingdom w^s fuppofed to Population. contain only about five millions and a half of inhabitants, including one million and a half in Silefia. But the late great acquifition in Poland has greatly enlarged the number of inhabitants, which may be about eighty to the fquare mile.* Nc foreign colonies have emigrated from Pruflia ; and it has been Colonics, indeed a chief objedt with the monarchs to colonize the country itfclf. The army is fuppofed to amount to about 200,000, including about Arxy. 40,000 cavalry. The taftics of the late able fovereign conferred dif- t!ngui(hed reputation on the PrulTian battalions, but they are now fup- pofed not to exceed the Auftrian ; and military men confider both as inferior to ihofc of RufTia, who feem to be juftly regarded as the beft troops in Europe. The acquifition of Dantzlck, and fome other ports in the Baltic, may Navy. in time place Pruflia among the maritime powers ; but as little is to be gained or apprehended at fea, it is natural that almoft the folc attention (hould be paid to the land fervice, which can alone fecure the country againft the exorbitant power of Ruffia; for Auftria has been fo much enfeebled by the recent conteft with France, that many years muft elapfe before Pruflia can have any apprehenfions from that quarter. Before the additions of Polifti territory the revenue was eftlmated at Revenues. 3,88o,oool. fterling ; and the expence of the army at 2,275,000.' Fre- deric II laudably expended about half a million fterling yearly, In the improvement of his dominions. The entire revenue of Poland was not computed to exceed 439,5461. fterling. If we even fuppofe half of this added to the Pruflian revenue, the refult would not be important ; * See the note at the end of this chapter. * Boetticheri p. jo. 3 G 2 but f.i mm 4«« PRUSSIA. FsviMvii. l>iu as tlic PoliHi ariftocracy carefully guardr:d agalnft taxes lo be Jo. frayed by them III vcs, it is to be prcluincd that a new and more IcgltU mate form of government will compel them to contribute largely to the cNpences ot the (late ; which, confidering the bondage in whicli they have held the peafantry, there will be no caufe to regret. And it may be expetf^cd, from the fpirit of the PrufTian goverment, that tlie fujns thus juftly exadled from the rich will be in a great meafurc ex- pciuicd in the improvement of the acquired country, which may tlius yield a fair revenue proportioned to its extent. The late great mo- narch, clearly forefceing the dertrudivc confequences of the funding fyflem, which lias been embraced by fomc other European powers, with his ufual ability purfucd the oppofite plan of laying up a treafure to fcrve in times of neccllity, inftead of adding the oppreflion of tax- ation to the horrors of war. This treafure is faid to have been ex- pended by his immediate fuccelTor ; but ftill Pruflia has the fupremc advantage of freedom from national debt, whence the fmallnefs of the revenue has never been regarded as detradling from its pofition amonj the chief European powers. The political importance and relations of this kingdom have im- prefled the European hiftory of this century with new and diftindl fea- tures. ^Vhat Poland would have been, if blefled with a happier government, and executive energy, may be conceived from the prefenl appearance of Pruffia, exclufive only of one circumftance, that of con- tiguity with the Ottoman dominions. An alliance with PrufTia would be indeed of fupreme importance to the Turkifli empire ; nor can it be the intered of Pruflia to permit RuflTia to extend her aggrandizements. Yet the Porte has few advantages to offer, while Ruflia might fecure the alliance of Pruflia, by conceding a further part of Poland to balance any great accefllon of Turkilh territory. In regard to the other chief powers of Europe, England, France, Ruflia, and Auflria, an alliance of the fird with Pruflia has repeatedly been enforced by circumflances ; biit it cannot be difguifed that there is a more neceflary and important connexion between Pruflia and France, as both have caufe to be jealous of the Auflrian power, which France can eflfentially injure, while England is by nature debarred from, 4 >"y Political Irr. portince and Ktlations, \^ CHAP. 11. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 413 ji,y preponderating interference. But a chief province of I'rufTian Pomticai. rolitics niuft be the defence of the country aguinft the arms and in- '^"^c'j^^'c. t'ueiice of RuHia, for which purpofe a mod important Ocp would be a firm alliance, cemented by every political tic and intcicil, between IViiflia, Denmark, and Sweden ; whicli, if the Rufllan empire remain uiidivitlal, will be the fole barrier of continental independence.* • The tolljMtng eJlimaie of Pruflian papulation ii compiled (si:, t8oi : ftom the fub-dikifioni of IL'Cclcj Lillern Pruflia . m ■ 940,000 Wedern Pruflia • . * 5»i.6js Suuthero Pruflia . . • 1 , 1 OOfOOO New Eil\etn Prufli a - . 700,000 A part of Poland i Bcorporated with Silefia 74.000 Pomerania 472.^57 Brandenburg 7?5.S77 New March 279<5«4 Magdeburg 275,261 Halberftadt 111.875 Mindea 67,952 Ravenlbarg 8i.8i2 EalV Frifcland 101,594 Clevei 1 00,000 Mxra i7,co» Mark iji,9S4 Gelder 48,000 Tecklenburg «7.234 Lingen »3'43* Silefla >. 747.06.'; Anfpach Ji5.=S'' Baireuth acj,440 Meafcha.cl and Valengin - 4».50o 8,021,149 The revenaei he computci fcmetimea In dollars, romctimci in florins, and in fuch minute fub> divifioni that the calculation would be very laborious. ThePruflian army, according to a particular table, amount! to 178,897 infantry, and 39.867 cavalry; forming with artillery, ice. a total of 237,081;. The intelligent author of La PruJ/i, tt/a luutralite, 1800, 8vo, ellimates. p. - --. the popula« tionat more than nine million.*, but he ii a panegyrift. The revenue he pntr, ;•. ' >. at above fve millions flerling ; and juftly obferves that thii fum inuft be eQimatsd, not in afclf, but as compared with the cheapnefs of proviflons, &«. fo that it equals a far higher nominal revenue: and there is no national debt. The army, he fays, p, 35, contains 224,1^4 men- th;re u na nirioe, the army recinirii g undivided attenpon. fif w 1 1 i i 1 ;.:' i • ». ■ 4'4 PRUSSIA. CHAPTER III. Civil Geooraphv. Manners and Cujioms. — Language. — Literature. — Education. — Univerftties-. Cities and Towns. — Edifices. — Roads. — Inland Navigatioiu— Manufactures and Commerce. Manmers AND Customs. THE manners and cuftoms of a country compofed of fuch various inhabitants, recently united under one fovereignty, mud of courfc be difcordant. Sllefia, Poland, and other Slavonic regions, may be fup. pofed to contain many peculiarities, which diftinguifli them from the Germans. The reign of the great Frederic, who entertained a pre- diledlion for the French language and manners, contributed to impart a fimilar tinge to his fubjeds; yet travellers appear not to have been much imprefled with any ftriking dilfimilitude between the manners of the Pruflians and thofe common to the other Germans. They have indeed remarked that, in comparifon with the Saxons, who are a lively and contented people, the Pruflians appear dull and gloomy ; a cha- rader which they impute partly to the military government, and pardy to the general anxiety which mud have been excited by the repeated dangers to which their country was expofed, when contending with the powers of Ruflia and Auftria. As to the Poles, they feem full of life and adion, but their features and general appearance are rather Afiatic than European. *' Men of all ranks generally wear whiflcers, and fliave their heads, leaving only a circle of hair upon the crown. The fummer drefs of the peafants confifts of nothing but a fliirt and drawers, of coarfe linen, without fhoes or (lockings, with round caps or hats. The women of the lower clafs wear upon their heads a wrapper of white linen, under which their hair is braided, and hangs down in two plaits. I obferved feveral of them with a long piece of white linen hanging round the fide of their faces, and covering their bodies below 7 their CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 415 their knees: this fingular kind of veil makes them look as if they were Mannas doing I'enance. Cu»toms " The dreis of the higher orders, both men and women, is uncom- monly elegant. That of the gentlemen is a waifkoat -vith flceves, over which they wear an upper robe of a difl'erent colour, wliich reaches down below the knee, and is failened round the waift with a fafli or girdle j the fleeves of this upper garment are, in warm weather, tied behind the (houlders; a fabre is a neceflary part of their drefs, as a mark of nobility. In fumraer the robe, &c. is of filk, in winter of cloth, ■velvet, or ftufT, edged with fur. They wear fur caj^s or bonnets, and bulkins of yellow leather, the heels of which are plated with iron orfteel. The drefs of the ladies is a fimple polonaife or long robe, edged with fur."' The fame author obferves that the Polifh peafants differ widely in their drefs from the Ruffian ; the former in particular (having their heads, and leaving only a circle of hair in the middle, while the Ruffians wear their hair down to their eyebrows, and over the ears, and cut it Ihort around the neck. The manners and cuftoms of the people of Silefia feem to refemblc thofe of their neighbours the Bohemians ; but both races have been fo much melted down into that of the Germans, that the peculiar features are minute and unimportant. The ruling language of Pruffia is the German, which it is probable Iwanguage. may in time (upplant the Polifla, in thofe parts which are fubjedl to PrufFia and Auilria. The literature of Pruffia may well be conceived to be of recent orl- Literature, gin; nor even after the rclloration ot letters did any remarkable author arile in the eledorate of Brandenbur;,^. But Dantzick was the native country of Cluverius, an eminent geographer ; and Copernicus, a great name in aftronomy, was born at Thorn, as his predecelibr Rcgio- montanus was at Konigfberg, his name being a Latin tranflation of that of his birth place. Silefia has llkewifc few pretenlions to literary fame, nor are thole of Poland highly illultriius. Kadlubko, the moll ancient Polifli hiftorian, wrote in 1223; and fince his tine there has been a iucctffion of Latin chroniclers. But as the exertions of German W> ' Coxc's Trav. into Pol. &c. i. 194. geniud 4iC PRUSSIA. L I T I R A • ■.du;7 Bieflaw, the capital of Silefia, has been long celebrated as one of ihe Cities am> moft beautiful cities in Germany. It is of uncertain antiquity, but was Breflaw. ddlroyed by the Tatars in the thirteenth century. The population is at 'eaft equal to that of Konigfberp; , and it has fcvcral manulaftures, the linens of Silefia being particularly cc'cbrated. The ruling religion is that of Luther. Among the chief cities of Pruflla muft not now be forgotten Warfaw, \\ arfaw. the former capital of Poland ; and Dant/ick, an independent city of an- cient fame. Warfaw (lands partly in a plain, partly on a gentle afctnt rifing from the Viftula, but the appearance is melancholy from the gene- ral poverty of Poland •nder its former unhappy government.' The po- pulation was computed at 73, ooo, including the unfortunate fuburb of IVaga; but it muft have been much thinned by the dellrudlive fword of Suwarrof. Yet Hoeck ftates it at 66,572. Dantzick contains about 36,000 inhabitants, and was known as a com- Oant^ J:, mercial town even from the tenth century. It was confidered as the chief city of the Hanfeatic league, and was enlarged and adorned by the knights of the Teutonic order. It muft ftill be confidered as the grand ftaple for the exportation of the corn and the other produds of Poland ; but its commerce has been for fome time n the decline. In the countries removed from the fouthern limits of ancient civili/.:\- tion, any formal enumeration of cities becomes lefs important, becaulc thofc places which make an appearance on maps often derive tiieir folc importance from their fituation atnidft furrounding deferts ; and the ex- pccled city becomes, upon examination, an infignificant town. Yet a few other cities of the Pruflian dominions dcfcrvc geographical enumeration, in a progrefs from the more ancient territories in tlie weft, to the recent acquifuions in the eaft. In the eledorate of Brandenburg, and in the adjoining duchy of Mag- deburg on the weft, may be named Brandenburg, 1 fmall city of 6,000 iuliabitants ; and Frankfort on the Oder, which contains about 16,000. I'oUilam, a recent city, is fituated on an illand, amidft lakes and canals, and no cxpence has been fpared in its decoration. The royal caftlc Oihcr Towns. rolfd.tm. i \ ^i ■>• . U VOL. I. ' Coxe'i Pol. i. :c6, % II was '.', n 4»8 PRUSSIA. CiTiBj AMD was built 111 iC6 J, and it has fincc been a favourite rciulencc of fcveral Towns. Prufl^an monarchs. The inhabitants are computed at 26,000, T'ns other cities, or rather towns in Brandenburg, feldom contain 5000 in. Migdfbirg. habitants ; but the duchy of Magdeburg prefents the capital fo called, which is fuppofed to hold about 26,000 fouls, and is ftrongly foni- fied with a citadel on an ifle in the Elbe. This city dates its origin from the time of Charlemagne ; and can boaft of clega.'t ftreets and flouridung manufadures. The imperialifts taking it by ftorm in 1631, a dreadful flaughter enfued, the inhabitants who periflied being com- puted at about 10,000. In the fame duchy, but disjoined by part of Upper Saxony, (lands alfo Halle on the Saal, more than fifty miles to the S. of Magdeburg: the inhabitants of Halle are computed at 21,000, Nor muft Halberftadt, the capital of an ailjolning principality, be omitted, as it contains about 12,500 fouls ; in which number it is ri- valled l)y Quedlinburg in the fame province. It may be remarked, in pafling, that the Weftphalian dominions of Pruflia prefent no city of much account, and the remote town of Neufchatcl contains only about 6000 fouls. On proceeding to Pomerania on the N. firft occurs Stettin, a city on ihe Oder of fome trade, and about 18,000 inhabitants. Thofe of Star* g:ird, in further Por.erania, are not eftimated at above 6000. in Pruifia, properly fo called, may be named Elbing, which is fijp- poied to hold 14,000 fouls. The other fecomlary towns rarely exceeded 3000 inhabitants, till acquifitions of adjacent territory gave to Pruflia Thorn, with a population of 10,000. Excepting Breflaw, the capital, already mentioned, there are only three towns in Silefia, which contain more than (000 inhabitants; namely Glogau, Hirfchberg, and Sclmeid- nity. Nor if we exclude Warfaw and its fuburbs, do any of the towns recently acquired in Poland even equal this population. Edificet. Some cf the moft fplendid edifices of this country adorn Berlin the capital, fuch as the palace and the theatre. But the other grand build- ings fcem not to have impreficd travellers with veneration, being bat- racks for foKliers and the like." And the city itfclf is almoft entirely built with brick, thonrh the fronts of the houfes arc d'"'^' "-^d with ' Wraxall's Mem. i. 10 1. ftucco. CHAP. III. CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 419 Inland NavU gatiaii. MinuTiC" turfs and Iliicco. The palace at Potfdam defcrves fupcrior applaufc ; and on an Emf icts. eminence near that city ftands the royal villa of Sans Souci, which how- ever can claim no grandeur of external architedurc. Koniglberg, and Dantzick, alfo ofTer to view refpedlable public buildings ; but in gencm this kingdom yields even to RufTu in this rcl'pedl. The advantages of inland navigation fecm little known or cultivated inthe Pruflian dominions ; and though fcveral I'mall canals might be mentioned, yet they rather belong to the ofKce of the topographer than to a general fyftem of geograpliy. If we except the linens of Silefia, the manufadures of the Pruffian do- minions are of fmall importance. Yet they afibrd for home confump- lion, glafs, iron, brafs, paper, and woollen cloth; and Frederick II intro- (iuced a fmall manufadure of filk. Even the exports of Dantzick confill :j!:noit entirely of timber, corn, tallow, and fimilar articles. Nor if we except the ancient ftaplc of grain fo abundant in the level plains of Poland, can the commerce of Pruflia appear in an important light. Amber is by nature condituted a monopoly of the country, but fafliion has rendered this branch of commerce infignificant. Yet among the confiderable exports may be named excellent timber of all kinds, Ikins, leather, flax, and hemp ; nor muft the linens of Silefia be pafFed in lilence, many of which are fcnt into Holland, and fold under the name of Dutch nanufadure. In return PrufTia receives wine, and other products of more fouthern and favoured countries.* • For more minute pirtkulars Hoeck may ht Confu'ted. The amber amounts to near 200 tors annually. In 1777 there wt-rc in Further Pomerania 219,(^91 muiberry tic( 1 ; ytt il>e pure filk is nolycomputed ai 680 pounds weiglit. liranJcnburg export* timber, from Mamhurg, 10 Che atn junt cfof)« million of dollars. Ir bilefia (i;9'>) there were 40,60) pi-rloiis rmployed in iho liucii nuniK (iSnK i ani! 1 j,$40 lo the »oollea. Min-.c! exports much timber to Er^glai.d. i'i: 3 " 420 PRUSSIA. CHAPTER IV. Natural Geography. Climate AND SlA- tONS. Face of the Country. S'jil «n(l Agiicultore. Climate and Sea/ons.-~Facc of the Country.— Soil and Agriculture.—Rkcrs.-. Lakes.-— Mountains, — Forejls.— -Botany.— Mineralogy.— Mineral Waters A'j. tural Curiofities. T^HE climate of the PruiTian dominions is, upon the whole, cold and moift. That of Brandenburg, which is an extenfive level of fand, and that of Pomerania, may be regarded as more free from humidity than that of Pruflia Proper, which, as Bufching informs us,' has about eight months of winter, the autumns being often deluged with rain. The northern part of Poland, which has fallen under the PrufTian fceptre, abounds with forefts and marlhes, which cannot be fuppofed to render the air falubrious. The lower parts of Silefia are regarded as the moft healthy and fertile provinces of the monarchy ; but the fouthern, and weftern parts of that duchy, bordering on elevated moun- tains, long covered with fnow, are expofed even in fummer to ievere freezing gales. In confidering the general appearance of thefe extenfive regions, Brandenburg is a fandy, and barren country, but Pruflia Proper for- merly abounded in woods, and difplays fuperior fertility, a charadler which may alfo be extended to Pruflian Poland, an immenfe plain. Silefia, on the contrary, difplays a pleafing diverfity, being level and open towards Poland, but feparated from Hungary on the S. by the Carpathian moun- tains, a branch of which proceeding N. \V. divides this country fiom Moravia, and Bohemia. It is every where watered by the Oder, and its tributary ftrcams : nor is there any deficiency of rivers in the other parts of the IVuflHan fovereignty. The foil of Brandenburg is meagre, and even the fpace between Berlin and Potfdam rcfeinbles a wildernefs ; but that of Pruflian Poland IS CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. AZ1 is loamy and fertile. The northern extremity of Silefia fharcs the Tandy loil of Brandenburg, yet this province is in general extremely produc- tive, and abounds in fruits and culinary vegetables. Agricultural improvements arc little known, and Brandenburg chiefly produces fcanty crops of rye ; but Pruflia Proper, and the Polilh provinces difplay every kind of grain and tfculent plant, that can flourifh under fucli a latitude ; and among the produQions of Sile- fia muft be clafled maiz, and even vines, but the wine '3 of inferior quality. Such arc the general ideas to be derived from Bufching, and other Ger- man geographers ; but an intelligent traveller, or rather obfcrvcr, of our own country has thrown a ftrong light on this important topic, and a few of his obfervations fliall here be tranfcribcu.' The foil of Pruflia Proper hereprefcnts as fandy and ill-cultivated, yet the peafants, though op- prefled by heavy taxation, being free from the wanton extortions, and capricious perfonal fervices, exaded by the Polifli ariftocracy, difplayed l!gns of nnparative eafe and profperity. The foil being light, two oxen, or Ibmetimes even a fmall horfc and a cow, are fufficient to draw the plough. The chief crop was buck-wheat, which they found more profitable than barley ; and this grain was generally cultivated, along with a few Swedifli turnips, except in the neighbourhood of Dantzick, where the abundance of manure aflured plentiful crops of wheat. In different parts of Silefia the land is let in farms, as in England, and the peafants hired as day-labc-urers ; while under the detcftable govern- ment of Poland they were m;re flaves, and every avenue to induftry was barred. In fpeaking of the continuous fandy foil of Brandenburg, he obferves, " that they find that the only very profitable crop upon thefe fands is buck wheat, which tlicy fow in large quantities, and they get a product which equals the befl foils applied to that grain : when a piece of land has been more carefully managed than ordinary, \i will yield a good crop of rye ; hut as to wheat or barley it is hardly to be feen." Between Berlin, and Saxony he finds a continuation of the fame crop, with turnips and rye, which he fuppofes to be the fole agricultural Soil a n'(> Agri'- i: 1.- TURE. ;;> ' Marfhall'i Traveh, iii. 240, tee. faid 10 have been wriucn by Sir John Milt. produds 422 PRUSSIA. Ill Soil a so T U H 1. . Hivers. Elbe. OJer. ^i.'.u'a. Likes. Hall. produ(^3 In thefe regions. In Saxony the foil becomes a good loam yielding tolerable crops of wheat.' Among the chief rivers of the PrufTian dominions may be fiift men- tioned the Elbe, which rifes in the S. of Bolnimia, and pervailes the duchy of Magdeburg. The Spree, which palTes by Berlin, falls iiuo the Havel, a river tributary of the Elbe. The Oder, the Viadrus of the ancients, may be regarded as a river entirely IVuflian : it rifes ii the movmtaiiis of Moravia, and after watering Silefia, Brandenhun'. .nnd Pomerania, joins the Baltic, after a courfe of about 350 mile . Next appears another noble flream the Viflula, which rlfmg ia the Carpathian mountains, palfcs Warfaw, and joins the fea near Dantzick, after a circuit of about 450 n"»ilcs. The Prcgcl pafiing by KoiiigiLur^'. fprin^^s from fomc lakes and marflics in I'runian Poland ; and the Mcnicl, a fuperior river, now forms, in part, the Prulfian boundary on the cart. The lakes in the PrulTun dominions are numerous, efi)ecially in the caflcrn part, where among others may be mentioned the SpcUliiig See, which, with its creeks, extends more than twenty Britifh miles in evcrv dlrct^lion. That region contains many other lakes, which fupply the fources of the river Prcgcl. At their cfluaries the rivers Oder, Villula, .'»nd Memcl, prcfcnt fingular inland (hcets of water, in the German language called Hoff's ; that of the Oder being ftyled Grafs Half; that of the Viftula, Trilch HafF (with another inland creek called the Lke of Draufcn) ; and that of the Memel, Curifch II iff. The Prilch Haff is about feventy miles in longtli, and from three to ten miles broad, being feparated from the Baltic by a long llip of land, faid to hive been thrown up by the tempefts and waves about the year 1 150. Tiili lake or bay is of fmall depth, and will not admit veflcls of much burthen.* The Curifch Iliiff', fo called from its fituation in the ancient duchy of Courland, is about 60 Britiih miles in hngth, and about 30 in its grcateft breadth. A fimilar ri'. it is conneded with the Sudetic chain, but on ail other parts is furiounded by a vail plain, and r^t ia,'poii:d to derive its name froii , the neighbouring village of Zobten. This mountain confilti en- lire!)' of fcrpeniine with fome huniblcnde. Kirwan, Gcol. Efl*. ao). Fibii computes the higheft peak of the Ricftn at 4930 Rhenilh feet above the fea, and the 2'rr- trnbcrg at 1700. The Silefun nicuntains, he adds, yield fome filver, tin, copper, and ci.balr, wiiti comiJcrabie quantitxs of calamine, lead, and iron ; and tliere are quarries of marble, freeilone, a!j- ^hUr, ih;e, aave liitlicrto been viewed in only a very ciirfory manner. Among thcfc thcic tlonct rccm to be any which Ijavc not already been luflicicntly noticed in the preceding accounts ot Britain, and Auilrta. The mountainous rijgcs of PruHia bciiig few, and of little importance, there is in conlcqucncc a great deficiency of alpine plants, the prevailing vegetables being thole that inhabit level and landy diftrids : the few following ones arc all that it fecms ncceU'ary to notice confiltcntly with our general plan. Callapa- luftris; afarum europxuin, afarabacca ; iris Sibirica, Siher'uvi irh \ \\. lium bulbifcrum and martagon, orange and viartagon lilies ; lafcrintium latifoliutn, lajerwort ; and nicotiania tabacum, tobacco^ this plant, ori- ginally a native of America, and probably alfo of the catt, having oeen long cultivated in PrufTia, has at length edabliOied itfelf in the foil, and i^ found in the ploughed fields, and hedges as a common weed.* Zoology. The breeds of horfes, and cattle feem not to have imprefle 1 travelleri with any didindion from thofc of the adjacent countries, and few parts are calculated for excellent breeds of fheep. The urus, or large and fe- rocious wild cattle of Lithuania, have alfo appeared in Pruffia Proper, but the race leems nearly extind. One of its chief haunts was the fo- reft of Mafovia not far from Warfaw. The marmot, and a Ipecies of caftor, may alfo be clalfed among the wild animals ; and among the more ferocious the lynx, an animal of the colder climates, about the fize of a fox, but the face and motions ratiier reiembling thofc of the cat. Nor are thefe regions unviHtcd by the bear and the elk. The Oder fome- times affords fturgeon of a lari^e (ize. Mincralogv. The mineralogy of the Pniflian dominions will not afford an ex- tenfive theme. Sand and plains rartiy contain minerals, and even the mountains of Silefia boaO of fewr hidden treafurcs. Yet in the foi'hern diftrids of that province there were formerly mines of gold and filver, but the produce did not defray the expence, though in the time of Bufehing two or three of the latter metal continued to employ fome labourers. Mines of copper and lead however ftill exifl, and there are confidcrablc founderies of iron. In the mines of Silclia is Wulff", Flora Boruflica. found CHAP. IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. 415 found abundance of cliryfoprafc, which has been dctefted in various MiNm*. ftagcs of tr.inlitioii, and appears to be a fcmi-opal deriving iis grccii '■""^' tindiMc from nickel. Agates, jafpers, and clear cryHals of rpiart/., vulgarly called diamonds, arc alfo found in the Sii"fian mountains. Coal, a more ufeful mineral, occurs in various parts of Silcfia, and the level cllilrids i'ometimes oflcr good peat moors. But the moft dlftinguiflied and peculiar mineral produflion of PruHl.t Ambrr. is amber, which is chiefly found on the Samland fliorc of tlic lialtie, near Pillau, on a neck of land formed by the Frifch IlafF, which feems to have been the chief fti»t of this mineral from the earliefl; ages. Amber is allowed by tlic heft mineralogifts to be decidedly of vegetable origin, but mineralized by fome operation of nature, fimilar to that by which animal fledi is converted into a fubftancc refembliiig fpcrmaceti.* Itislrund at the depth of about 100 feet repofing on wood coal, in lumps of various fi/es, foine five pounds in weight, and is often walhed on fliore by tcmpcfls. V>y friction it becomes eledlrie, and has imparted its Greek name to the modern philofophy and du£trincs of elciflricity. It adds about 5000I. yearly to the royal revenue.* Silefia prefcnts one fpring of hot water at Warmbrun, near Hirfehberg, Miner«l which is, as is believed, the only mineral water worth notice in the ^•"'** 1'riifli.m dominions. The Sudetie chain of mountains has been little explored, and the Natuni level parts of the Prufliian dominions can, of eourfe, afford few objcds i^ufio'*"**' of natural curiofity, if wc except the mines of amber above-mentioned. ' Kirw. ii. 66. • In thf Journal ilts Mints, No. 79, p. ;j7. may be Tound an intertfling account of thf minei of PiulTun Silefiii. 'I'licy were bcj>un about 1 : ^'4, uniltr the il'reftian of the Count de Redrn j and for iion are the molt confi'lcrable in Cjcrminy. In \^e Journal Jt rh\flquc, vol. 39. 1791, we aie told, p. 36;, of an amber mine in t'rullia ninety-fight l> et in depth, where the amber is found between tw« lalbancs of carbonated wood« and foinctimi.'S adiiercnt. I " 1 ' VOL. I. 31 ■ 1 ■ 4 1 ■,-• I. . •. 1' 1 P'f ffi 1'r> SPAIN. CHAPTER I. Historical Geography. Names.-— Extent, — Boundaries. — Original Populatien.'—Progrejive Geographj.^ Hi/iorical Epochs and Antiquities. Naubi. fT^HOUGH Spain appear to have been known to the Phoenicians, A near i coo years before the birth of Chrift, and their Tarfilh to have been the little ifle of Tarteffus, near Gades, yet it feems hardly to have been difclofed to the Greeks in the time of Herodotus. It it probable that the whole country was the Tarfilh of the Phoenicians and Hebrews, though the learned Huet rather reftridt it to Betica, or the fouthern part of Spain ; which region was, as is well known, the Mexico of the Phoenicians, who from it imported large quantities of fiiver. When the Greeks edablifhed a colony at Marfeilles, they mud not long after have difcovered the northern part of this fertile region; which from the noble river Iberus, or Ebro, they called Iberia; and from its extreme fituation in the weft it was alfo (lyled Hefperia. The Romans, probably from a native term, have fixed and handed down Hifpania \ which has been varioufly adapted to the idiom of modern languages. Ixteot. Spain lies between the 36th and 44th degrees of north latitude ; and its weftern extremity is about 9°. in longitude W. from London. The greateft length W. to E. is about 600 miles ; the breadth N. to S. more than 500} thus forming almoll a compa^ fquare, (if we include Portugal f Geograpbj,-^ s Phoenicians, eir Tarfilh to fcems hardly >dotus. It it iocnicians and ktica, or the known, the quantities of :8, they muft jrtilc region; Iberia; and ifperia. The landed down n of modern atitude ; and andon. The ^i. to S. more we include Portugal C 11 A p. I. II I S T O R IX: A L G E O G R A P II Y. 4«7 Portugal in this general view of the country,) and furroundccl on all Extbrt. fides by the fea, except where the PyrencaM chain forms a grarul natural barrier againft France.* But as the prefcnt cftiinatc mull exclude Portugal, which is rcferved for another article, it may he ohfcrvcd that the boimdaries betwixt thefe two kingdoms depend on artificial con- ventions, and not on rivers or mountains, or other remarkahic features of feparation. Spain is fuppofcii to contain about 148,000 Ajuarc miles; which, eftimating the population at 1 1,000,000, yield 74 perfons •0 the mile fquare. Bourgoing has obferved,f that the dlvifioiis of Spain received in maps and books of geography are little known in pradice. The three provinces of Bifcay^ Navarre^ under the title of a kingdom, and the /IJuria:, as a principality, form ftates apart, which neither admit cuftom-houfes nor intendants, nor fcarcely any appearance of fifcal government. In this refpcdl all the reft of the monarchy is divided into twenty-two provinces for the crown of Caftile ; and four for the crown of Arragon. Thefe provinces are of very unequal extent, thofe of Caftile being the kingdom of Gallkia^ the provinces of Burgosy Lcon^ Zamoroj Salamanca^ Eftremaduray Palencta, Valladolid, Segovia^ Avila^ Toro^ Toledo^ Mancba^ Murciuy GtiadalaxarOy Cuenca^ Soriny and Madrid; and in fine Andalufia, which comprifes four provinces, decorated with the title of kingdoms which they bore under the Moors, namely, the kingdoms of Seville^ Cordova^ Jaen^ and Granada. The four provinces of the crown of Arragon are, the kingdom oi Arragon ^ the kingdom of Valenci:jy the principality of Catalonia^ and the kingdom of Majorca. Spain is alfo divided into thirteen governments, of which twelve ara ruled by captains general, while the governor of Navarre is ftyled viceroy. The provinces of Calliln and thofe of Arragon differ con- fiderably in the interior adminiftration, and the form of levying the taxes. The original population of Spain feems to have confifted of Celts Oni>inai from Gaul, and if Moors, Mauretani, from Africa ; but the latter, a ^''^P"''"°''' li '■ * The river Bidafoa forms th: W. boundary, and near in mouth is the ifle uf Phcafantr. Irum, near the Bidafua. is the iaft town in Sp^in. Dilluu, 1 3 j. t '. i«i. \ I 2 more \ •vL- ;,il|i:, ! K,i ■■ ■.• 1 fla ^<1heI 428 OmClAAL Popula- tion. SPAIN. more warlike race, expelled the former, and even pafled into Aqultalu in France. After tlie German Gauls had colonized the fouth of modem France, wlicie they were the Galli 13raccati of antiquity, they began to make expeditions into Spain, where they feized the region to the N. v., and became the Celtiberi of claflical geography. Hence the names of rivers and mountains in Spain rarely difplay a Celtic origin, being often African, and unlike thofe to be found in other parts of Europe, though recorded many centuries before the arrival of the Maho- metans ; and often Gothic, though mentioned before the Gothic invafion in the fifth century. It is probable that the African fettlers were not a little aflifted in the expulfion of the primeval Celts by the Phoenicians, and afterwards by the Carthaginians, whence the latter maintained fuch fway in diftant parts of this country. Bui tlie records of I'unic hiftory being loft, we muft be contented to begin with the African colony ;* which was fucceeded, probably about 150 years before the Chriftian era, by the incurfions and fettlement of the Celtiberi, and other Gaulic colonies, who were only ftyled Celts, as having pafled from Celtic Gaul ; for the names of places, und other ftrong indica- tions, denote their Gothic origin. Tow^ards the eaft muft be added large colonies of Carthaginians, and afterwards of Romans ; for this country, which rivalled Italy in foil and climate, invited an unufual number of the latter, and produced many cl.dficul authors. From its natural fituation Spain has derived a greater mixture of inhabitants than perhaps any other European country. In the fifth century it was conquered by the Vandals ; but, being af- terwards weakened by their fettlements in Africa, they were fubdued by the Vifigoths, who founded the modern kingdom of Spain, and from whom the more ancient families ftill pretend to derive their ori>;in. Tlie Mahometan Moors having been expelled, they muft not be confidered in the edimate, though a few families may be of Arabian extract : ami the modern Spaniards may be confidered as defcendcd from the African Iberians, the Ccltibcrian or German Gauls, thv Romans, and the Vifigoths. * The language of the Iberi or African colony remains in ike Bafque or Bifcayan. 5 The *l' CHAP, I. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. The progrefTive geography of Spain is alfo very various. Little is known till the Roman conqueft, when Spain was divided into three provinces, Tarraconenfis, or the N. E. half of Spain ; Bx-iica, or Iktica in the S. ; and Lufitania on the weft, extending from the river Uouro in modern Portugal on the north, to the prefent boundary ol liiat kingdom on the fouth. After the fubjedtion by the Viligoths ilicle divilions fcem to have pafftd into oblivion : but the conqucit by the Moers elLil)lilhed a new and important diftindlion in Spanilh geography, that of Chriftian and Mahometan Spain ; and which is in fonic meafurc blended with the topic next to be confidercd. The chief hiftorical epochs of Spain arc : 1. The original population by the Africans, and German Gauls. 2. The Carthaginian acquifitions in Spain. 3. The conqueft by the Romans, who maintained ponVfTion for more than five centuries. 4. The fubjedion of Spain to the Vandals, about the year 415. 5. The conqueft of Spain by the Viiigoths under Kuric, excepting Galicia, held by the Sucvi, who had entered with t!ie Vandals. The Galicians have to this day a diftindl cha /adcr of fupcrior induftry. In Euric, A. D. 472, commences the moc'ern kingdom, and hiftory of Spain. The Vifigoths were Arians. 6. The conqueft by the Arabs, or Moors, whicli began A. D. 709, and foon extended over all Spain, except the mountains of Afturias, where king Pclagius maintained a confined domination over that diftriift, and liil'c.iy. His defcendants fixed the royal relidence at Ovicdo, buill in 761, and not only defended their finall territory, which waa naturally fortiiicd with chains of mountains, but loon regained Galicia, and part of Leon and Caftile. In 914, as tlie territory extended to- wards the I'outh, the kings began to refide at Leon, and thence derived tluir title ; to which, in the eleventh century, was added that of (Jaftllo, but the Moors muft I)c regarded as the chief poircflbrs of Spain, till' the middle of the thirteenth century. 7. The Moorith domination in Spain, which was condudid by g crnors appointed by the Chalifs till A D. 756, when Abdoulrahm.in kizcd the fccptre of Spain, and became the moorifti king of Cordova, and 429 Proor bs- siVE Geo- l. R /, I' II Y . HlHorical Epocl:^. >■• :* 43° SPAIN. HuTomcAL and firfl: chalif in the weft. Hi3 fucccflbrs continued to difplay rrcat '"'"■"'■ wealth and power; and under their fway the commerce of Spain become very extenfive.' This dynafty continued till A. D. 1058, when the Spaniih Chalifate expired, and the Moorifli governors of feveral provinces ufurped the royal ftyle, in Cordova, Seville, Valemia and Granada ; who ncverthelefs rivalled the fmall Chriflian kingdonn till the middle of the thirteenth century, when, as already mentioned the latter became preponderant, and Spain refumcd her fituation among the ftates of Chriftendom. 8. The kingdoms of Caftilc and Leon fometimes fell to diflind heirs; and the hiftorical confufion is increafed by the fmall kliigiloin of Navarre, the capital of which was Pampclonn, a royalty whi-h com- menced A. D. 857: by that of Arragon, A. D. 1035 : and oth(;r fub- divifions. 9. The reign of Alphonfo the wife, which began A. D, 1252; and which rivalled thofe of the Spanifh Chalifs in the protcdion afforded to the arts and fciences. 10. The conqueft of the kingdom of Granada, the laft of the Moorifli royalties ; and the junction of the important crowns of Caftile and Arragon, in the perfons of Ferdinand and Ifabella. 1 1 . The reign of Charles V, fon of Philip of Auftria, who married the heircfs of Arragon and Caftile, and eftabliflied the Spanifli mo- narchy on its prefent bafis. The wealth of America, dlfcovcrcd in the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, now began to impart exuberant fup- plies, and the power of Spain arrived at its zenith. 12. Acquifition of Portugal by Philip II, A. D. 1580. 13. The revolt of Portugal under Philip IV, A. D. 1640; which has fmce exifted as a feparate kingdom, after having been fuhjedt to the Spaniards for fixty years. 14. The termination of the Auftrian Dynafty, by the death of Charles II, Nov. i, 1700: and the acceffion of the houfe of Bourbon, fince which no epoch of fmgular confequence has arifen. Ant . tl Ii 43« Antiqui- TI£I. 9 '•1>% SPAIN. afford an ample revenue. Yet on the death of 'h\s magnificent prince a paper was found in his hand-writing, declaring that, during a prof. perous reign of fifty years, he had only enjoyed fourteen days tli.u were uniformly pleafant and agreeable. The mofque at Cordova ilill furprizes travellers with the multitude of columns, which are computed at 800 ; but the palace of Zehra appears to have been annihilated in the barbarous and fanatic wars of the middle ages : and Granada, the lall Moorifti kingdom, having been fubdued after the arts and fcienccs began to revive, it is natural there to exped the beft preferved rcmaitu of Morefque antiquity. Nor will their Alhambra difappoint this cx- pe£tation, as the reader may judge from Mr. Swinburne's elt^m drawings ; but for the fake of brevity Mr. Townfend's defcription (liall be pvefer. tec!. " You enter firft into an oblong court of i^^o feet by 90, with a bafon of water in the midO, of 100 feet in length, cucompuHtd by a rtower border. At each end is a colonade. From rieuce you pals rMCi fhe r.ourt of the lions, fo called bccaufe the fountain in the mlJuic is /ui>pc 'ted by thirteen lions. It is adorned with a colonade of 140 rn5*h'< pillars. The royal bedchamber has two akoves, adorned with co'utnns, and a fountain between them, in the middle of the room. Adjuiiung to this are two hot baths. The: great hall is about 40 feet fquirc, and 60 in height, with eight windows and two doors, all in deep receflcs. Between this and the oblong court is a gallery of yo feet by 16. All thefe lower apartments have fountains, and are paved either with tiles or marble, in checkers. The idea of the ceilings is evidently taken from Jlala&itcs^ or drop-ftones, found in the roofs of natural caverns. The ornaments of the friezes are arabefque, and pcrfcdly accord with the Arabic infcriptions, which arc here luitcd to the pur- pofe for which each apartment was deligned." Above is a hiii of elegant apartments fjr the winter. This edifice was finilhcd A. D. 1336. The Chriftia'- antiquities of the middle ages confift of numerous churches, caft'/.-s, and raonafteries, as afual in other European countries. CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 4JJ CHAPTER II. Political GEocRAniY. i - 1 ; 1 :• \l 'iH Rclf;ion.-'Ecclc/iq/?icaI Geography. — Government.— Laws.— PopuIatlon.»^Colontes, —Army. -'Navy. — Revenues.— Political Importance and Relations, 'T'HF. religion nf Spain Is tlic Roman Catholic, which in this country Riliciow. and Portugal has been carried lo a pitch of fanaticifin unknown to tlie Italian ftates, or even in the papal territory. The inquifiiion luip, in tljefe unhappy kingdoms, been invefted with exorbitant power, and has produced the moft ruinous efTeds, having been formerly con- diiifled with a fpirii totally the reverfe of the mildnefs and charity of chriftianity. This evil has been recently fuhdued in a confiderable degree ; but one fanatic rcij^n would luffice to revive it. A yet greater evil, which has fprung from fanaticifin, is the dcftrudion of morals ; for the monks being extremely numerous, and human pafllons ever the film?, thofe afcetics fometimes atone for the want of marriage by the praftice of adultery ; and the hufbands from mere piety arc conftraincd to connive at this enormous abufc. The ccnfticnce is feared by the pradice of abfolution ; and the mind becomes reconciled to the ftrangcft of all phenomenons, theoretic piety and pradical vice, united in bonds almoft indidbluble. According to the returns made to the government, the Spanifti clergy Fcdcfiaiiic Hand as follow:' Cicograrliy. Parochial clergy, called curas Afliftants, called tenientcs curas Sacrlftans or fextons ' - Acolitos, to aflift at the altar 16,689 5.77 » 10.873 5.50J VOL. I. ' Townfrnd, ii. t\\. 3" tJ Ordinadus if 434 ECCI R(IAt> TIC (jEO< CKArtlY. SPAIN. Ordlnados dc patrimonio, having patrimony of three reals a day Orduiados dc mcnorcj, with inferior ccdefiaf- 7 tieal orders - - - J Beneficiados, or canons of cathedrals, and 7 other bcnclkiarics - - J Monks . • • Nuns ■ • • Ikatas - - - Syndics, to collcdl for the mendicants Inquifitors - - - 23,692 6 r ,6 1 7 4.«27 2,70 J 188,625* The archbifhops are eight ; bifhoprics forty-fix. The moft opulent fee is that of Toledo, which is fuppofcd to yield annually about 90,000!.' The Mozarabic Millal, compofcd by St. Ifidore for the Gothic church, after the convcrfion from Arianifm to the Catholic faith, continued lo be ufed in Spain till the Moors were fubdued, when the Roman form was introduced, but the Mozarabic Is ftill ufed In a chapel at Toledo. Covirnment. The government of Spain is well known to be dtfpotic, the ftatcs or Cortes having hardly been affembled finee the time of Charles V.)' Dr. Robertfon's hiftory of that reign may be confulted for an able view of ancient SpaniHi liberty. If the late monarchs had been as much ad- dicted to mafs as to the chace, It Is probable that the Inquifuion would have become the chief power in Spain. The defpotifm of the monarchy, which might in the hands of an abia and intelligent prince be attended with great benefit to the nation, by the inllantaneous cxtindion of abufcs, is here balanced by the power of the church, to which even the * Others compute the clergy at 400,000. MS. notct. ' Townfem), i. 311. \ Tliere never were, however, general C Tte^ of Spain. C.tdlle and Arragon had each thcii Cortes, but they nfver met tog»ihc-. Mi. notes. See alfn the Tahleau dc t' Ejfn^iii MtiUrni, par y. F. Bourgoing. Paris, lUoj, three vols. 8vo. wh'rh, a.*. I havr been aHured i<>' iicrToni long refidcrit in the country, is the belt account yet pub. lifhi'd 'I'he jnurney ol Fifclier, Lomlon, 180?, Hvo. may be regarded ai an iiUcrclliiig (ujipie. mcoi. Bour^uing iiad rcfidcU at diltcrcnt times ten or twelve ycari in tipain. noblci r.' CHAP. II. POLITICAL CEOCRAniY. 425 >n had each thcii nobles arc fuhmilTive devotees.* It 13 tempered, as iifii il even under CJovim. oriental dcfpotifm, by many councils, wlio are rciiionfihle lor any un- ''"'"• wile or unfuccefsful mcafures ; for power is intimately conncd^ed with capacity, and when defpotil'm is arraigned, there is often more ciiule to lament tlie mere indolence of the defpot, who, inftead of cxertiiij; Ina power for the general benefit, commits it to others for their peculiar ad- vantage. The chief councils in Spain are : i. That of difpatchcs, called alio the junto or cabinet council, beinj; compofcd of the king and his miniftcrs of ftate. 2. The council of Aate, in which the king prelules, and of which the archbifliop of Toledo is always a member. 3. The royal council of finances, called the Hazienda. 4. The fuprcmc council of war. 5. The fupreme council of Caftile. 6. The fupreme council otArragon. 7. The fupreme council of tlic inquifition. 8. Ihe royal council of the orders of knighthood. 9. The royal council of the In- dies. 10. That of the Crufada, ccmpofed of a commiffary general, a member of the council of Caftile, and another of that of Arragon, who arrange the fale of little papal bulls, granting certain indulgences to the purclialcrs. The grandees of the kingdom, who were formerly ftyled the Rich Men, have feveral privileges; among which an important one in their eyes U that of wearing their 1 vts in the royal prefenec, which is however never done except at the nod of the fovereign. The laws of Spain arc contained in feveral ancient codes; and rccourfe I.i«> is alfo had to the civil and canon law. The Efcrivaiios^ or attorneys, are numerous, and inRead of explaining the codes, often impede the ad ni- niftration of jullice. Miftakcn mercy frecpiently retains criminals in long durance, fo that when they are executed their cfl'ence is forgotten, and the example of punifliment becomes inefficacious. The population of this kingdom is computed at 1 1,000,000, or 74 to a Population, fquaie mile; while Francs yields 174, and England 169 : nay the king- dom of Naples is computed at 201. This ftriking defeat of population has defervedly excited attention ; and a late intelligent traveller ' has at- tempted to affign the reafons, among which may be numbered the cxpul- pulfion of the Jews after the conqucft of Granada : that of the Moor; by Philip III ; the contagious fevers frequent in the fouthern provinces ; the • The power of the church againft the crown is not greater than in England. MS. totts. ' Townfend, ii. aiti. 2 K 2 inceifant ! *■> Si i . 1 ' %'■ ^ 4:6 SPAIN. PoFUI A. T.ON. Coloniti. inccflant Inteftine wars, for leven centuries carried on agalnft tlie Moors; the cml^»rations to America; and the vail numhcrs of unmarried cicrpy and monks. Several other caufes arc enumerated, among which umil not be forgotten the want of detached farms;* the ftrugglcs with tim Moors having inlliiuted a rooted prejudice which induces the yc.;:ii.(rrv to crowd in towns and villages, as if for mutual defence, inftcad of Iprcad- ing over and enriching the whole face of the country. In the year 1787 the population "f Spain was thus arranged :' Males unmarried Females ditto Married men Married women Widowers Widows 2,926,229 2.753.224 >.947.'65 1.943.496 235.778 462,258 10,268,150 Exclufive of the clergy, who are above enumerated, the numbers of ^ach rank were thus calculated ;' Men fervants — Criados - Day labourers — Jomalcros Peafants — Labradores Artifans _ - • ManufaAurers Merchants - - - Knights — Hidalgos •* Of thcfe laft four hundred and one thoufand and forty are in the pro* vinces of the Afturias, Biftay, Burgos, Galicia, and Leon." In the moft uncivilized regions gentlemen, or rather idle men, are always the moft abundant ; where the civilization advances they are fupplamcd by a much more ufeful and refpedlable race, the men of induftry : but the bidalgas are otten induftrious farmers and la- bourers. After the immortal difcoveries of Criftoval Colon, called by writers in Latin Chriftopher Columbuti, the Spanilh colonies foon became 280,092 964.57* 9»7.«97 270,989 39.750 34.339 480,389 • The effedl of the Mefla, or wandering flocirt, mud not be rorgottcn. * Townfend, vol. ii. 113. » Ibid. »oI. ii. 214. numerous -i n CHAP. II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 47 lUiflcroiis and extcnfivc, in tl\c Wt". iidics, South Amcrlcn, aiu! wirloiis Colokih, ill.'s in the Pacific Occin. No nation, cxjopt the luij^Iilli, can in tljis rdjicit rival Spain. Hut the fiiporior a;lvant;i^cs ot" l.n;;i.iiiil, in reli- gious and political tVectlom, have loon rc^Jaccd the population tlu.b with- dravn ; while to Spain the wound has been incur, hi!.*, as the caufes of i!qiopulation have always incrcafcd : and forcigMcrs will never Icck an alylum where they are dclpiled, and loadcn with tlic rhains of the in- quifition, or the yet heavier bonds ol i^ nnrant pride and prejudice. The Spanilh armies, inllead of ciirying icrrur even into the braved Army, countries of Eurojio, as they did two centuries ago, are now neither dif- tinguiflied by number, nor by difciplinc ; the royal trcafury being ih much iinpovcriflied.that a large force cannot be maintained. In peace it is computed at about 60,000 : but in war the number miglu be fwelled to a great amount, by a popular monarch, and an ample r* le. Of late Spain has paiil conliderable attention to her navy, which has however N«vy. been crippled in the recent warfare with England. The flilps of the line can Icarcely now be eofuputed at more than fifty. The revenue of Spain may he calculated, as is believed, at five mil- Reveruf*. linns and a half rterling money ; fo that each perfon pays ten llullings to government for protcdlion. In France, under the old government, each perfon paid near twenty Ihillings ; in Kngland at preftnt fixty ihillings. For the nature of the taxes the tables pubKihed by Mr. Townfcnd may beconfultcd. The expenditure now ctjuals, or exceeds the income ; and ti.e national debt gradually enlarges. The beft judges of the lubji-d in- fer that the colonies do not yield above one million llerling, exclufive of the lUuicM, a ^reat part being confunied in the cxpcnces of the govern- ment of thofe dil\ant regions.* The political importance and relations of Spain were formerly deeply Political rm- iinprcffed on moll regions of the globe. But exhaulled by idle wars of Reiitulns*"'^ • It is i(rt9 ibe txpences exceed the receipts ; and tlie uebt. which ii alutys auf.xnriuii'g, it computed SI (evcit hundred millions of liYres. MS. notes. The debt may be lifiy millioni lU-rling. Eiiurg(.in{t compuir« the revenues of Spam at 6i6,;:i;;,6;7 rials, ii. ^o. He fuppofes the money iiK'rculkiion to be 80,000,000 of dollars, ii. 64. Tlie common rial he eftimiict at five iaus of Fiance, (Le dtiLar being computed n'. twenty rials. ambition' .?<'? : 1 1^ li. . -.1' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ / -^w « Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) •72-4503 438 poiitical Import- ance, &c. S P A 1 N. ambition or avarice, this fertile kingdom has become ahncfta cypher In European poUcy. Setting afide Portugal, which prcmifes to be fpeedily united, the pofition of Spain fecures her from any invafion, except on the fide of France ; and it becomes therefore the infuperable intereft of this exhaufted ftate to cultivate amity with her powerful neighbour, which muft maintain an unavoidable and fupreme afcendant, from geographic pofition and relative force. On the other hand the diflance and import- ance of the Spanifli colonies render a war with England the greateft ca- lamity that can befal, as that power, enjoying the unlimited dominion of the ocean, can infii£t dreadful wounds on the commerce and colonies of Spain. Such feem to be the fole hinges of Spanifh polity, though anci- ent fame, and connexions with the royal families of more potent ftate«, iecure fome degree of deference to her councils and mediation. I- X CHAF. III. CIV It GEOGRAPHY 439' CHAPTER Iir. Civil Geography. m ;stom: Manners and Cujiotm. — Langnagc. — Literature. — Education.- Univerjities.-- Cifies and Towns.— Edi^ccs, — Roads. — Inland Navigation. — Manufadurcs and Commerce,- iN fpeaking of the religion of Spain one of the moft ftriking of the na* Manner* tional cuftoms and manners has been already mentioned, namely the Cus^"" common pradice of adultery under the maflc of religion. This .'ifgrace, which is confir.ed to the Catholic fyftem, isfaid to have been transplanted from Italy, where love and devotion are as warm as in Spain. But the Italian cici/bei are more commonly gentlemen ; while in Spain the cor- tejos, though commonly military officers, are fometimes monks and ecclefiaftics ; and the vice becomes flagrant btyond conception, as it is praftifed by thofe very men who ought to exhibit examples of pure morality. It may perhaps be aflierted that the Roman Catholic lyftem iu the fouth of Europe is the only fuperftition in the univerfe which has, at any period, neceffitated the practice of vice; thus confirming the maNim that the corruption of the pureft and beft fyftem is always the worft. Were thefather of their faith, St. James the apottle, again to vifit Spain, he would certainly begin with preaching the chriftian pradice, as if the very idea of chriftianiiy had perilhed j and his firft duty would be to convert the ecclefiaftics. Exclufive of this vice, the Spaniih charader is highly refpedable, for integrity and a long train of virtues. Confcious of an upright and noble mind, the refped which a Spaniard would pay to thofe qualities in others, is often centered in himfelf, as he is intimately fenfiblc that he poflefles them; This felf-refped is nearly allied to pride ; but it is the pride of virtue, which certainly ought not to humble itfelf before 3, vice. i ■ ''fi:>-\ ; 'i-* ;,! ' ' ' ^\m If '!?'■ ''frr- -ill pi i'lii ■i''i 440 SPAIN. Manners AND CuftTOMS.