IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) Y ^ A < % % u.. 1.0 I.I 1.25 ^■28 |2.5 2.2 I4£ 1^ 1.4 IIIIII.6 % ^^ % > ^:^*' ■> y /^ ^^^ iV CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1980 Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques Tl to The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibiiographicaily unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. L'Institut a microfiimd le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la methods normale de filmage sont indiquis ci-dessous. Tl P< o1 fil □ Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur □ Covers damaged/ Couverture endommag6e □ Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurie et/ou peliicuide D Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque □ Coloured maps/ Cartes giographiques en couleur □ Coloured ink (i.e. '^ther than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) D D D Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Reli6 avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serrde peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le lonfj de la marge intdrieure Df Blank leaves added during restoration may ppear within the text. Whenever possible, these 'lave been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajoutdes lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 film6es. □ Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur □ Pages damaged/ Pages endommag^es □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaurdes et/ou pelliculdes □ Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages d6color6es, tachet6es ou piqu6es □ Pages detached/ Pages d6tach6es □ Showthrough/ Transparence □ Quality of print varies/ Quality in6gale de I'impression I — I Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du matdriel suppl6mentaire Only edition available/ Seuie Edition disponible D Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obbcurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 filmies A nouveau de fagon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. O bi th si 01 fil si 01 Tl si Tl w di 61 b< ri{ re D Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppldmantaires; 0This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est fllm« au taux de reduction indiquA ci-dessous. 10X 14X V 18X 22X 26X 30X 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X Ms lu lifier ne age The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Harriet Irving Library University of New Brunswick The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition 3nd legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. L'exemplaire filmi fut reproduit grAce A la g4n6rosit6 de: Harriet Irving Library University of New Brunswick Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de l'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimde sont film6s en commenpant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmds en commengant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol ^^ (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol y (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole -^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbols V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd A partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite. et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n^cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. ■rata o lelure, id □ 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 V ! OUE COLONIAL EMPIRE. By B. acton. SECOND EDITION. Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co. LONDON, PABtS i NEW TOttK. C^L RIGHTS BESEBVKD.] T f .;, 1 } ^PfV-Li'-H! ' !■ rTTw-^r-'—r ' P E E P A C E. ,L I The design of the following chapters is here to be briefly explained. Many books have been written on the colonies; that is to say, books treating separately of particular colonies. But a comprehensive view of all the colonial off-shoots of this nation, in every quarter of the globe, and of all the British depen- dencifc?^ abroad, excepting India, seems likely to be of service, and at the same time full of interest, to all classes of Englishmen. The author has endeavoured to study the most authentic reports of the actual condition of our colonies, of their material resources, their social economy, and their public administration. It is of necessity little more than an outline sketch of this extensive and diversified subject that is here pre- sented to the reader. The main interest of the subject, apart from any personal connection that one may chance to have with the settlers of a particular colony, lies in the wide spread of the English nationality. It will, perhaps, be more exactly appropriate to say, of English citizen- ship; for the present survey does not include the United States of America, while it does include, along with the English, Scotch, and Irish colonial subjects of Queen Victoria, their French, Dutch, and German fellow-citizens in Canada and at the Cape, The aggregate number of people of European race no^ inJiabiting the British colonies, all over the world, is fully seven and a half millions. The number will probably exceed twenty millions before the I -I IV PREFACE. lapse of the next twenty years, that is, at the beginning of the twentieth century. English patriotism, though its first concern must be the welfare of Britain, cannot regard with indifference the prospect of the propagation of British social and political institutions abroad that is here in sight. The principles, rules, and methods of our public life, amidst party and sectarian differences in this as in former ages, are tolerably well understood and esteemed in this country. If we have any public spirit, we must care for the tokens already visible, that this national inheritance will not be lost by transplanting large communities of Englishmen to distant shores. We hope the best for England, and we are bound to do our best for her ; but there is a true sense in which England may be said to exist wherever, to use Cowper's heartfelt expres- sion, " a nook is left where English minds and manners may be founa, ' and the practices of English citizen- ship tend to form the mind and manners. England should thus be found in Canada, in Australia, or in New Zealand, as well as here, and we are but half patriots if we care not to inquire about the civil and social welfare of these countries as part of England herself. The events of three or four years past, especially in South Africa, have provoked much feeling of vexation and anxiety with regard to British colonial policy and administration. This f eelmg was carried by some writers and speakers to the point of indis- criminate censure of British government in South Africa, as well in the Cape Colony, with its Par- liament and responsible Ministry, as in Natal, and in the administration of the Native Protectorates. The real merits and tolerable success, during a long period, of those colonial administrative functions, which had kept the peace of South Africa, for the ^i. • •*,» PREFACE. ▼ most part, till the outbreak of the Galeka war in 1877, were too little perceived. It is not, however, convenient to discuss here transactions of recent colonial history. The vice which really lay at the root of the errors of South African policy was inherent in the treatment of Foreign Office affairs, under the existing official system, by an agent of the Colonial Office. We have seldom had much cause of late years to find fault with Colonial Office action in its proper sphere. There are some other topics of discussion, which have lately been more or less brought under public notice, and upon which a few remarks will be offered in the conclucling chapters. The project of an Imperial Confederation, advocated for some years past by lecturers at the Royal Colonial Institute and others, is one of these topics; and that of an Imperial Customs' Union, or else of some restriction to be put on colonial tariff legislation, is another. The writer feels, indeed, that he ought not to dogmatise upon these questions ; but the views he has expressed are those of many intelligent British and colonial poli- l.oians. R. A. October^ 1*^81. •i CONTENTS. T .1 CHAPTER I. OUTWARD BOUND. The Steamship Orient at Gravesend, "Outward Bound" — Farewell to Emigrant Friends— Our Interest in the Future Home of Emigrants— Homeward Bound — Arrival of the Lusitania — Meeting an Old Acquaintanco CHAPTER II. FOREIGN PRECURSORS. Earliest Types of Modem Colonies — Trading Factories and Tropical Plantations— Portuguese and Spanish Conquests in the West Indies, the East Indies, and South America— The Negro Slave Trade — Origin of Sugar Cultivation — Dutch, English, and French Maritime Successes — English and French West Indies— Batavia and other Dutch Eastern Possessions — Foreign Colonial Empires reduced by British Conquests — Suppression of the Slave Trade — Abolition of Slavery— Free Trade, and Surrender of the Sugar Mono- poly — Threefold Emancipation ; of Labour, of Trade, and of Colonial Commonwealths — Plan of this Treatise on the Colonial Emjpire — Civil Equality, the Solvent of Race and Class Divisions — True Ends of Colonisation CHAPTER III. TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. Mercantile Factory Colonies, distinguished from Plantation Colonies — Geographical Distribution of British Colonies in Tropical Regions — British West Indies — Sugar Cultiva- tion by Slave Labour — Absentee Proprietors — Foreign Sugar Trade Competition — Emancipation of the Negroes — Jamaica — A Negro Peasant Proprietary — Importation of East Indian Coolie Laboui'ers — Three Prosperous Colonies — Barbadoes — British Guiana — Trinidad — The Lesser Antilles — Administrative Groups of Small Islands — Statistics of the Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands, and the Bahamas— Colonies in the Indian Ocean — Mauritius — Natal — Ceylon — Plantations in British India— Singapore and Labuan — Hong Kong — Northern Australia— The Fiji Islands— West Coast of Africa . PAGE 16 r •> 31 .1' r CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER IV. PAQi CANADA. Nearest of onr Great Colouies to Home— The Atlantic Passage — The Intercolonial Railway — Vast Length of Inland Navigation — The Dominion of Canada — Province of Ontario — Agricultuxe and Stock-rearing — Canals and Railways — Government of Ontario — Public School System — Province of Quebec, or Lower Canada — Consti- tution of the Provincial Government— Cities of Quebec and Montreal — The Maritime Provinces — Nova Scotia — Port of Halifax — New Brunswick — Forests and Fisheries — Agricultural Settlement — Prince Edward Island— New- foundland— The Great West— Manitoba— City of Winni- peg—The Western Lakes and Rivers — The North-West Territory — The Saskatchewan — The Canadian Pacific Railway — British Columbia and Vancouver Island— The Dominion Government ........ 53 CHAPTER V. AUSTRALIA. The Great Southern Island — Political Constitutions of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Queensland — Enormous Disproportion of the Capital Cities, Mel- bourne and Sydney, to the Colonial Population — Land Laws and Agricultural Occupation — Commercial Policy of New South Wales — Beneficial Results of the Free Trade System — Agricultural Progress of Victoria — The Gold Mines — Mistaken Protectionist Policy — Popular Education — ^t\. Federal Union of the Australian Colonies . . . 78 CHAPTER VI. NEW ZEALAND. The Two Islands — Physical Geography — The Maories — Colonial History — The New Zealand Company — The Otago and Canterbury Settlements — Provincial Governments — Fe- deral Constitution of 1852— General Government since 1876 — Parliamentary Constitution — Public Works — Assisted Immigration — Public Debt— Debts of Provincial Governments — Revenue and Financial Prospects — Indus- trial Resources — Principal Cities — Commercial Statistics — Land Sales — Land Leases— Religion and Education — General Progress — Australian and New Zealand Wool Supplies —Real Benefits of Colonisation . . . .104 CHAPTER VII. SOUTH AFRICA. The Cape Colony, its Territorial Limits, and its History — Western Districts — Eastern Districts — Kafiir Wars — Con- t.t ^\ VUl CONTENTS. PAOB stitutionftl Government at the Cape— Legislative Council and Assembly — Public Works— Progress of Eastv^.-n Dis- tricts — Port Elizabeth— Roads, Telegraphs, Submarine Cable, and Mail Steamers — Financial Position of Cape Colony— Further Railway Extension — Natural Resources — The Djamond Fields— Ostrich Feathers — Copper — Wool — Fruit and Wine— Natal — Native Reserves— Scanty In- dustrial Production— Stationary European Population — Objections to a South African Confederation . . . 132 CHAPTER VIII. NAVAL AND MILITARY STATIONS. Naval Establishments Abroad — Mediterranean Stations — Gib- raltar and Malta — North Atlantic Stations — Halifax, Ber- muda, and Antigua — South Atlantic— St. Helena — The Cape and Simon s Bay — Falkland Isles— Indian Ocean — Mauritiup, Aden, and Ceylon — Eastern Archipelago — Hong Kong — Australian Station — Cruisers in the Pacific Ocean — South American Coast — Esquimalt, Vancouver Island — Combined Naval Defences for the British Colonies 147 CHAPTER IX. POLITICAL RELATIONS. Constitutional Self-Government of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape Colony — Limits of necessary Obli- gations to the Crown — Command of Colonial Military Forces — Diplomatic Negotiations — The Zulu War— The Annexation of the Transvaal — Colonial Office Administra- tion — Crown Colonies — Colonies with Assisting Councils — Self -Governing Colonies, with Parliamentary Ministries — Appointment of Governors — Schemes of Inaperial Fede- ration — Reforms Desirable and Feasible — The Agents- General and the Government Departments — The Court and Royal Family — Titles — Peerages .... I « 167 CHAPTER X. COMMUNITY OF INTEEESTS. Mutual Defence of the Colonies and the United Kingdom — Economic Value of the Colonies to Great Britain — Com- plfidnts of their Restrictive Tariffs — Objections to Reci- procity Treaties of Commerce, and to an Imperial Customs' Union — Absolute Dependence of this Country on Forei^ or Colonial Supplies — A British and Colonial Free Trade Association — Colonial Ejcports to Great Britain — Prospects of Manufacturing Industry in the Colonies— Conclusion f fr 177 I -1\ OUR COLONIAL EMPIHR 'W ■«o«- K f CHAPTER I. OUTWARD BOUND. The Steamship Orient at Gravesend, " Outward Bound "—Farewell to Emigrant Friends — Our Interest in the future Home of Emigrants— Homeward Bound — Arrival of the Lusitania— Meeting an Old Acquaintance. It is noon of Thursday, June 9th, 1881. A cool north-west wind brings a fleeting rain-cloud to hover for half-an-hour over the broad stream of the Lower Thames. But presently sunshine lights up again the pleasant green hills and the pr( tty town of Gravesend, with the verdant Essex shore opposite at Tilbury, and the mile-long white streak of slowly rolling steam from the railway train approaching that station. In the middle of the river, below the Terrace Pier, lies one of the noblest ocean steamships that serve our rich and busy nation in the ways of peace. That vast and stately vessel, an iron-gi'ey hull with huge funnels and four masts barque-rigged, v/hich sits there in supreme dignity amidst a flock of mixed river craft, of steam-tugs, tenders, and pilot-boats, sailing yachts for this week's race, and rowing-boats that are now speeding to bring passengers aboard — that r \\ 10 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. is the Orient, which to-morrow departs for the other side of the glol>e. Thousands of us, home-staying peoi)le in England, have been called by family duties or friendships, perhaps more than once in our lives, to come down here to Gravesend, to b" ' farewell to those whom we love. There are so many people who have a son or a brother in our colonies. The present writer dined once at a party of twelve persons in London, four of whom, not at all related to each other, had brothers in distant New Zealand. It would seem that of middle-class far^ilies every third or fourth that one may visit has a share of private concern in somebody who is spending an active manhood on shores beyond the seas. Some of them may consider it worth while, on account of absent friends, to reckon up the social prospects of the different British Colonies. One might thus say to oneself, for instance, "The next generation of colonists, bom in that far Australasian region, will yet be my near kinsfolk. Those ten boys and girls of my brother's in New Zealand are the giandchildren of my own parents. I cannot feel indifferent to the future of their country, which I shall never see." It would be sheer brutality for us not to care what is likely to become of those young commonwealths ; and it would be arrogant selfishness to regard them merely as fields of investment for British capital, or markets for our manufactures, or tokens and pledges of British imperial supremacy. Meantime, let us get on board the Orient, to see the emigrants who are now ready to depart. The i ,*» / PfWI^W"? ^amssms^sm I OUTWARD BOUND. 11 decks of the great ship are in much bustle, tempered by the vigilant supervision of her officials in charge, very strict and firm, but civil in manner. The ] company's steam tender, the Duke of Teckj has brought down from London a large number of ■s steerage passengers. They are crowding and trooping along, up the ladder and over the gangway to ascend the , Orients lofty side : men, women, and children, old and \ young, as merrily as if they were bent on a day's ! pleasure trip to Margate. The young men "hump their swag," to use a colonial bushman's phrase they have already learnt ; each brisk fellow has shouldered his pack, made up of blankets and shirts, with a tin pot and a tin plate, and other fancied necessaries, \ which he bought two days ago at the outfitter's shop. "•« Some of the young women, laughing and talking in pleased excitement, carry nothing but a small basket ; while others nurse placid babies, and seem to think nothing else can possibly be of the slightest import- ance. The elders have frail wooden boxes, painted yellow, or papered with some blue pattern ; and oddly shaped bundles, not well tied, with a bird-cage, or it may be a sewing-machine, a favourite teapot, I or an infant's chair. Up they go, all in cheerful humour, readily joking or taking a joke ; they show their papers to pass on deck, stop at the purser's office to get billets for their numbered berths, and in half-an-hour will all be settled for the six weeks* voyage. The deck of the Orient is now thronged like the street of a sea-side village, which, on a holiday ■***» 7 \ , I 12 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. morning, is suddenly filled by the arrival of excursion trains. Alongside the other quarter lies the steam tender CatOj by which many second-class passengers have come from the Tilbury Railway Station, some of them perhaps accompanied by friends ; all rather too solicitous about the disposal of their trunks and bags. At a separate gangway, lowered to the water forward, the Gravesend Pier boats send up, in a more leisurely manner, the first-class saloon passengers, three or four at once, who are personally encumbered with little more than the ordinary tourist's neat leather bags and travelling rugs, or a bundle of plaids, shawls, and umbrellas. They have had all their bulky luggage safely deposited on board while the Orient lay in the Albert Dock, a day or two before their own embarka- tion. It is an agreeable sight to witness the ease and security with which all these people, several hundred passengers of different classes, are speedily settled in their new lodgings on the waters. The little children are the first to make themselves quite at home; but, soon afterwards, even the most nervous ladies and anxious husbands appear relieved of the morning's toil and care. If one peeps into an un- occupied cabin or state-room, wh^'le walking through the long corridors between decks, the convenience, the neatness, the abundance of air and light, give assu- rance of comfort in the sultry nights at sea. In the three large dining-saloons, that of the first class being elegantly furnished and decorated, the tables are laid already for the mid-day meal. Meat and fish will be i * * f 11 i i S OUTWARD BOUND. 13 kept fresh by refrigerators during the whole voyage. Before taking their seats at table a few of the passen- gers enjoy a stroll on the high promenade deck, over- looking that lively scene of anchored vessels and boats gliding on the water, and that fair landscape of the north and south river banks, brightly illumi- nated by the joyous sunshine. This is the position of the grand ocean steamship, and of the good people who have committed them- selves to her safe and punctual conveyance. Early to-morrow morning, at half ebb tide, she will move down to the Nore and the open sea. In a few hours she will pass the Kent and Sussex shores and the Isle of Wight j next morning she will be at Plymouth, stopping just to receive the mails and a number of additional passengers. She will then strike out into the Atlantic, touch at the Isle of St. Vincent for coal, and at Capetown, but within forty days she will have landed these our countrymen at the port of Adelaide, or, two or three days later, at Melbourne or Sydney. The questions naturally arise in one's mind, seeing thjm here about to go off, — has England lost these emigrant sons and daughters of hers % Will they have lost their share of what we hold to be the blessings of English citizenship % It is not merely the formal allegiance to the political sovereignty of this kingdom that is here in question. There is a social, a mental and moral allegiance to the traditional ideas, habits, and manners of English life, which binds together the members of a national community. We cannot establish an inquisition throughout the wide colonial 14 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. 1 l! world to cross-examine its adoptive citizens upon these subtle and delicate points. But here comes a whole cargo of living proofs that they still regard old England as the mother country, which, living so far away, they still call by the endearing word of "Home." We see yonder, below Gravesend, at this moment coming up the Thames, the steamship Lusitania^ one of the same "Orient" line, entering homeward-bound the port of London. She left Adelaide, South Australia, on the 28th of April. Her sides are tarnished and discoloured with the stains of ocean, for a toilsome journey of ten thousand miles must rub off a little paint. But she has sped well and smoothly homeward, by the wonted " Orient " course, across the Indian Ocean, up the Red Sea, through the Suez Canal eleven days ago, thence traversing the length of the Mediterranean, issuing from the Straits of Gibraltar, crossing the Bay of Biscay, and finally coming up the British Channel, to run in home. This is the " Orient " homeward route, which is much used by Australians coming to England, as most of the thriving and successful class of colonists are pretty sure to come after a few years' absence. They will come home now and then, with their wives and children, if they can spare the time and money, for social recreation, to refresh or renew the old bonds of affection and friendship, or to introduce the colonial youngsters to the renowned European world. The Lv^itania is now passing, with customary salutes, at half a cable's length, by her majestic sister -f i OUTWARD BOUND. 16 the Orient^ so that we on board the latter can recognise the passengers from Australia standing on deck. Their appearance is surely that of respectable English- men and Englishwomen, with a rather remarkable air of social independence and consciousness of prosper- ing activity. It is interesting to see the father of a family, who has now returned to his native land after an absence of twenty or thirty years, intently scan- ning the landmarks of the Thames, and pointing out to his boy and girl that dark region on the horizon where mighty London awaits their wondering view. They know Melbourne, which is already the equal of our chief provincial cities ; and they were delighted, six months ago, with the glories of its great Exhibi- tion. But they have been taught, we cannot doubt, to claim an hereditary share in all that belongs to the external prosperity of this realm; its wealth and power, its rule over vast Asiatic and American domi- nions, and its just influence in the councils of foreign states upon all affairs of general concern. This sentiment, in the minds even of our children and of uneducated persons, is sustained by a notion, however vague and inexact, of the grand historical achievements of the English nation in the past. That such feelings may be abused and perverted into a false public pride, which is quite compatible with the neglect of civil duty, with selfish pursuit of venal ends in politics, and with the reckless strife of factions to the ruin of a country, we have learnt from the history of other nations. The empire of Rome, in the world of antiquity — the empire of Spain, at an 16 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. early stage of the world's modern political organisa- tion — did not bequeath to posterity a high standard of the virtues of citizenship. We will hope the best for Madrid and for Mexico in this nineteenth century, as well as for London and Melbourne ; but we trust that there is an essential difference between the colonial empire of Great Britain and the exaniples of large dominions in countries remote from Europe, which have played so prominent a part in the history of former ages. CHAPTER 11. FOREIGN PRECURSORS. Earliest Types of Modern Colonies— Trading Factories and Tropical Plantations — Portuguese and Spanish Conquests in the West Indies, the East Indies, and South America — The Negro Slave Trade— Origin of Sugar Cultivation— Dutch, English, and French Maritime Successes — English and French West Indies — Batavia and other Dutch Eastern Possessions — Foreign Colonial Empires reduced by British Conquests — Suppression of the Slave Trade — Abolition of Slavery — Free Trade, and Surrender of the Sugar Monopoly — Threefold Emancipation, of Labour, of Trade, and of Colonial Commonwealths — Plan of this Treatise on Our Colonial Empire — Civil Equality, the Solvent of Race and Class Divisions — True Ends of Colonisation. Four centuiies and a half ago, on that rocky promontory of south-western Europe, off which British fleets have fought more than one great battle with the Spanish and French, Prince Henry of Portugal sat, and looked forth over the Atlantic w ■1 i' FOREIGN PRECURSORS. 17 Ocean. Tt was not a void and blank prospect to the eye of scientific faith. In his mind lay ideas that were to become the germ of modern enterprise beyond the seas : of discovery, commerce, settlement and colonisation, to be carried all round the globe. He had in him a piece of the Englishman, for he was a grandson of John of Gaunt. The steamship passenger of our day, in going out to the West Indies, to Brazil, or the Plata, or by the Cape route to India, Australia, or China, passes some hundred leagues west of Prince Henry's abode, on the farthest verge of the Old World. At Sagres, on Cape St. Vincent, he dwelt and did his work till 1463, sending forth one ship after another to the Canaries and Madeira, to Cape Verde, to the Gambia, and to Sierra Leone. Those vessels were still feeling their way to the route of navigation round South Africa, to the famous Eastern realms of imagined riches, long celebrated among the Greeks, the Arabs, and the Venetians in Levantine ports. Without such efforts in that direction first, it might have been ages yet before mariners would have cared to sail to the West. Those Portuguese adventurers on the Atlantic coasts and the islands beyond the Moorish dominion were the beginners of European colonies destined to occupy the remotest shores of ocean. The earliest colonial type proceeding from modern Europe was unlike either the Roman military garri- sons or the Greek free civic commonwealths of mari- time emigrants, which had been multiplied in the B 18 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. ancient world. It was a trading " factory," or agency, conimissioned for the king's mercantile profit, or for that of persons to whom this royal privilege was granted. Such was tlie spirit of the fifteenth century, when the age of chivalry was past, and princes sought to make money like other people. The later Plan- tagenets and the first Tudor king of England were London merchants; and Ferdinand of Spain, when Columbus gave him the West Indies, valued them chiefly for their mines of ^ .ecious metal. But establishments formed abroad for purposes of trade, or the entrance upon a field of search for mineral riches, though accompanied with a claim of sovereignty, falls short of true colonisation. That work, as we under- stand it, is the raising up of a new people in a new country. It is to be accomplished by productive industrial culture of the soil "Plantations," as colonies in general were formerly called, may of course be associated with traffic in natural com- modities, the spoils of the chase or fishery, or riches dug from underground. But husbandry, the growing of crops and rearing of cattle for the subsistence of the community, seems indispensable to the vitality of colonial growth, when what we mean by a colony is an infant nation. There arc, indeed, two different orders of colonial plantations. The first to be noticed, according to the historical date of its appearance, is a territorial domain cultivated for the production of articles that require a tropical climate, and that are chiefly sold in the European market. The agricultural labour here { i FOREIGN PRECURSORS. 19 employed can scarcely be that of European settlers; they can only perform its direction and management. Hence they are and must remain but few in number. The country may become extremely valuable by the skill and capital they bring to develop its resources. It may be made to support thereby a greatly increased native population, but it has no capacity of attracting or supporting a large population of European race. The proprietors, agents, overseers, and merchants residing there can never become a nation. They do not much increase by natural propagation, and many of them will return to the old country, or will send their families home. All might easily be removed, if any commercial or political revolution took away the profit of their planting, without causing any great decrease in the population. Sooner or later, in some notable instances, this is likely to happen; in some cases, it has actually taken place. The ruling class of colonists, however, though it cannot subsist apart from a labouring non-European race, has some- times had power to change the labouring race in mass, in fact, to substitute one population for another. This was done by the Spaniards when they filled the Antilles with negroes from Africa. A new nation is thus created, but of other materials than the people who have established the colony. It will never be a home for that people, broadly speaking, but only for a special class who have gone abroad in hopes of private gain. The colony may stay during many generations, but only so long as is worth its while to stay. It 13 a provisional settlement with a view to a specific 20 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. commercial object. It cannot aspire to an abiding state of independence. Many such colonies have already depai-ted, and others now existing will pass away. The second order of colonies, according to the time when it becomes conspicuous in modern history, is very superior to the former in its influence upon civili- sation. It consists of the transplanting of European society, with an emigrant agricultural population to provide for its own sustenance by raising food — corn and meat — from new and ample lands in a temperate climate. To this primary occupation, which makes the colony self-supporting and independent of the aid of inferior races, some of its people may add a variety of other productive or mercantile employments. They may have large exports, for instance, of wool, or hides, or timber; they may procure gold from the gravel of streams, or from the rock ; but they make themselves at home in the new country. They live upon it, and of it; most of them are farmers, householders, and parents of families, to be reared and fed of its bounty through the labour of their own hands, like the home-staying husbandmen of the old country from which they came. Such a com- munity is already, by its habits of social economy, fit to be accounted a young nation. It is destined to grow up to adult strength and stature. It promises to become a self -managing and substantially independent State, whatever titular connection of political alle- giance elsewhere may still remain. The essential distinction between these two dif- ferent kinds of colonies should be kept in view, FOREIGN PRECURSORS. 21 throughout tho sketch of their historical beginnings in the present chapter. It will afterwards serve for the grouping and classification of those which now consti- tute the British Colonial Empire. The earlier Portuguese and Spanish colonisation, beginning with that of Madeira in Prince Henry's time, and proceeding to all the tropical parts of Asia and America, was of the order first described. So likewise was the Dutch, being necessarily imitative of the Portuguese, as it was brought about by the forcible acquisition, after two hundred years, of Portu- guese commercial factories and plantations in the East Indies. It was for the gold-dust and gems, the ivory, the costly gums of West and East Africa — for the silks and embroidery and fine muslins of India — for the cinnamon, mace, nutmeg, and other spices of the Moluccas, that those mariners crossed the seas. It was the gold and silver of Hispaniola, and Mexico, and Peru, that lured Spain, when Columbus had shown her the way, to send over the Atlantic her military and official agents of power. The French, too, so late as 1534, when they entered the St. Lawrence, were chiefly intent on the fur trade. This was not the planting and rearing of new nations. It was not yet real and effective colonisation. But a commencement was soon made by the Portuguese, in three quarters of the world, of the first kind of productive plantation. They early took to employing servile labour to grow sugar, first in Madeira and the Canaries, at a later period in Brazil. For this purpose they invented the negro slave trade. OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. The short sea-passage across from Gninoa to the most easterly Hliore of South America, with tlio favouring winds and currents, rendered it but too easy. Tlie natives of Brazil could not be made to work in the plantations for the Portuguese feudal lords, to whom vast estates were granted by the king. So likewise in Hispaniola, as the sordid avarice of the Spanish tyrant was soon apprised, the toil of the mines could not be endured by the native islanders. Negroes were, therefore, borrowed from the Portuguese slave- trade to supersede the perishing race. Despotic power may be as greedy and cruel as it will, but it cannot entirely alter the conditions of human nature. It finds that the extermination, indeed, of a simple and unwarlike people is not nearly so difficult as com- pelling them to work at an unaccustomed kind of labour. They cannot fight against it, but they die under it. The aborigines of a country are not the most convenient and profitable subjects of a new institution of slavery, though foreign conquerors may readily impose upon them the continuance of old forms of predial servitude. This is why it was found needful, after a very few years, to bring African labour to America, so that American soil might produce the tropical growths of Asia for luxurious purchasers in Europe. Such was the circle of trade and industry, not wholly beneficent or innocent, at first created by the rise of colonial and mercantile interests outside of Europe. Portugal, however, lost great part of her vast possessions of this kind, and all her vv 9H FOREICLV PRECURSOUa. 23 %v maritime ascondancy, throu^}i hor fatal temporary annexation to the misguided Spanish monarchy. And Spain could not long hold her own dominion, which she had never known how to use or cultivate. After the blow dealt to her naval power by the England of Elizabeth, the West Indies and the Spanish Main lay at the mercy of pirates. The Dutch, French, and English buccaneers then ravaged and plundered every shore. England and France took some of those fine islands, Jamaica, St. Domingo, and the Lesser Antilles, which Spain had first discovered. The history of colonisation is thenceforth concerned with the rivalry between the Dutch, English, and French, with their ex- clusive and domineering commercial pretensions. At last the ambitious maritime power of France, drawing with it first Spain, and finally Holland, into a decisive conflict with Great Britain, brought upon these two nations the loss of some of their remaining colonies, with those which France had possessed. The record of conquests by war is only noticed here as determining the ultimate distribution of colonial interests between the leading European nations. It would be arrogant presumption to deny that French, Dutch, and Spanish dominions in distant parts of the earth were as justly founded as the British ; or that the French and Dutch, at least, were very well able to make good use of them. What French rule might possibly have effected in India, or whether it might not even have become as beneficial as the dominion exercised by our own countrymen, is a question outside the present inquiry. 24 k OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. French management of the sugar-growing islands both in the East and in the West seems to have been really successful. The Isle of France and St. Domingo were efficiently cultivated. The Dutch government of Java and other insular East Indies has continued to pay its way, and has accomplished the industrial training of a large native population. The prosperity of Surinam has been likewise maintained. Had the Dutch retained Ceylon, and had the French not lost the Mauritius, there is no reason to doubt that they might have prospered in both those islands, with the advancing knowledge and skill of modern times. There are, however, two important considerations — not of an economical, but of a moral and political character — which for the general welfare of mankind seem to recoiimend the colonial predominance of Britain. It is in no spirit of national vain -glory or self-complacency that these views are put forward. We feel too profoundly a grave sense of national responsibility for serving the apparent designs of Providence in the advancement of humanity over the earth. These considerations bear reference to the internal progress of the two different orders of European Colonies already described. Modern enlightenment, since the middle of the last century, has shown the need of adapting social institutions to true ideas of morality; and it has demanded two conditions. The one had to be conceded by slave emancipation in the tropical plantation colonies, and by the changes of 'i^ 1 K FOREIGN PRECURSORS. 25 commercial policy that ensued. The other was to take place by the admission, in piinciple, of the right of every commonwealth of civilised men to virtual self-government, that is, to the management of its own internal affairs. This principle allows the complete social fusion of mixed nationalities by the influence of common and equal civic rights. The process has now been going on during h.'..f a century or more, in all colonies of the second order — namely, those created by agricultural and pastoral industry of free European immigrants, which are probably destined to form hereafter new independent nations. The British Empire has been peculiarly qualified, siiice the beginning of the present century, to preside over the carrying out of these changes, v/hich are pregnant with vaster results than we can yet foresee. The suppression of the slave trade, the abolition of slavery, and the overthrow of commercial monopoly, with regard to tropical produce raised by European direction, came first, and were the task of reformers during three quarters of a century. The political emancipation of the more substantially emigrant and self-sustaining colonies began with Spanish America, above fifty years ago. It may not necessarily imply, for the chief British Colonies, an entire severance from the British Empire. In any case, it will preserve the traditions of English public life. English political life, by its direct action, and by its indirect or transmitted influence, as through the example of America, has been the main source of these wide reforms. But it would be a mistake to claim 26 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. f for the English, upon this account, greater suscep- tibility to moral ideas in their public policy, than that with which the French and the Dutch are endowed. In point of fact, it was the French, at the outset of their Revolution, who precipitately and therefore disas- trously began in Hayti to proclaim the abolition of negro slavery. The republican liberties of colonial commonwealths owe not a little to the example of the Netherlands. But what3ver liberal sentiments might be entertained, there were, in France and in Holland, in the last century, great practical obstacles to the extension of freedom to their remote depen- dencies. In the one instance, there was the excessively powerful interest of the Court and State, or rather of the herd of courtiers and suitors for royal and official favours. This influence con- tinued just as strong after the Revolution, so that colonial interests were still jobbed away by the governments of the Republic and of the Empire. In Holland, there was the not less powerful monopoly of official as well as commercial privileges, enjoyed by strong old chartered companies, in the East Indies and Africa, and likewise in the West Indies, whose administration long withstood in the States-General all proposals of reform. It was only in England, thanks to the Whig party, that popular opinion and parliamentary discussion at length found means to deal with colonial abuses. The spirit was willing enough in other European nations, but it was un- furnished with a political instrument that could do the work. mm> 4 I FOREIGN PRECURSORS. 27 j Emancipation then — first, that of alien labour in the tropical plantations ; secondly, the freedom of trade and navigation ; thirdly, the concession of self-government to adult communities so as to make them socially independent, but saving the re- lations of foreign policy that belong to Imperial supremacy — has been the honourable task of British statesmanship. This is the way in which Great Britain has dealt, these hundred years past, with the numerous and diverse territorial dependencies entrusted to her care. Of her we may say, as truly as it was said of Rome : — *' Ilaec est, in gremio victos quae sola recepit, Humanumquc genus communi nomine fovit, Matris, non dominas ritu, civesque vocavit." And it is conceivable, it is even allowable to hope, that her immense provinces of India will not prove an eternal exception to this treatment. One chapter of this book will show the existing con- ditions of all those minor British possessions in the tropical regions, collectively of immense value to British commerce, which correspond with the old transmarine dominions of foreign European nations. In four succeeding chapters, we shall view the progress of several robust English communities of freemen carrying on industrial pursuits, under a temperate sky, and managing their own public affairs, with due loyalty to the Imperial Crown, but in an effectively Republican spirit. The creation of these prosperous self-governing colonies is a credit to the I 28 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. Englisli nation. But the merit of their well-doing is shared by large contingents of French, Dutcli, and Germans, who have helped to settle vast new countries, or have even shown the way. The rising composite nationality, in every such instance, cannot be a mere second-hand copy of Old England. It is the birth of new great civilised nations. Such has been the ultimate consequence of those troublous events which deprived France of Canada and of the Mississippi, but left a valuable French ingredient of American population, now equally at home in the British Dominion and in the United States. The same process has been going on with the Dutcli in the Cape Colony, and we confidently trust that its beneficial consummation will not be hindered there. We are of the cheerful faith that full political liberty, the active exercise of self-government, whether in the form of a single commonwealth or a federation, is an effectual solvent of the rivalries between fellow- citizens of differing national origin. In colonial society, with the absence of aristocratic traditions, and with the need of combination for material in- terests, this amalgamation takes place very rapidly. It affords the most hopeful prospects of domestic prosperity for the rising nations of the New World. Human progress is greatly concerned in this result. Such is the encouraging point of view from which it is here proposed to contemplate the British Colonial Empire. It is a magnificent fabric, not wholly of English construction, and one assuredly not designed for the mere selfish profit of England, or to gratify I FOREIGN PRECURSORS. 29 y to' the vain sentiment of Imperial pride. The fate of the great Spanish Empire is an impressive warning to those kingdoms which indulge in such iniquitous delusions. Possession of territory, dominion of subject millions, cannot be aught but a ;:;oxemn and sacred trust for the benefit of humanity. The objects for which this trust should be exercised are, first, the improvement of the land, rendering it useful to feed mankind and otherwise productive of wealth ; and secondly, the improvement of the people by all civilising rules and operations, by just laws and government, by diffusing knowledge and school education, but of course mainly by industrial em- ployment. Social life, with its laws and institutions securing property and civil liberty, supplies a political education by which the colonists of European race become fit for self-government ; and it is then the duty of the parent State frankly to let them enjoy such freedom in peace. Great Britain's highest office in the world, during the last century and a half, has. been to superintend and protect these salutary de- velopments of human energies abroad. So long as this grand task is faithfully performed, the great maritime and mercantile ascendancy of England will not be endangered. Anarchical, op- f pressed, malcontent colonies would soon pull much of it down, and not a little of our manufacturing prosperity with it. Incomparably less disastrous, though much to be deprecated and deplored, would be a peaceable secession of this or that fully ecjuipped commonwealth from the Empire, with free leave and ik 30 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. consent. There is not, in these times, the slightest sign of the faintest wish to anticipate that consumma- tion. But is our posterity, if ever it does come to pass, to be expected to suffer by its ultimate effects ? We confidently believe that they would suffer no more than we now do from our profitable intercourse with the fifty millions of people in the United States. Would we, if we could, reduce those people to five or two millions, and replace them in colonial subjec- tion 1 Assuredly not. The true ends of colonisation are far higher and better than Empire. They are, let us repeat, first, the productive cultivation of land that lies vacant, by employing, as the climate may require, native, coolie, or European labour; next, a nobler task, that of social improvement, perpetuating, propa- gating, and perfecting true civilisation in manners, ideas, and the useful and the liberal arts; thirdly, that of maturing public life to the development and exercise of a conscious national will by a free political constitution. All these ends cannot be attained in all the British colonies. In some, as will now be seen, they are only to be i ealised very partially ; or they may even, to a considerable degree, appear to have failed, where the abiding residence and personal activity of our countrymen has been prevented, as in the West Indies, by unfavourable natural con- ditions, or by peculiar defects in their economic administration. I i TROriCAL PRODUCE C0L0N1K8. 31 CHAPTER III. TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. Mercantile Factory Colonies, distinjjiiished from Plantation Colo- nies — Geographical Distributior of British Colonies in Tropical Kegions — British West Indies— Sugar Cultivation by Slave Labour — Absentee Proprietors — Foreign Sugar Trade Competi- tion — Emancipation of the Negroes — Jamaica — A Negro Peasant Proprietary — Importation of East Indian Coolie Labourers — Three Prosperous Colonies — Barbadoes — British Guiana — Trinidad — The Lesser Antilles — Adminis trative Groups of small Islands — Statistics of the Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands, and the Bahamas — Colonies in the Indian Ocan — Mauritius —Natal — Ceylon — Plantations in British India — Singapore and Labuan — Hong Kong — Northern Australia — The Fiji Islands — West Coast of Africa. In our glance at the history of Portuguese, Dutch, and French colonisation, we have discussed the earlier kind of colonial establishments beyond the Old World. They were created for mercantile profit, either to cultivate the products of a tropical climate, or to procure them when already raised by the hands of a non- European labouring population. It is proposed here to treat of the existing British Colonies of this description ; of their social economy and administrative organisation. The tropical produce colonies, as we will call them generally, may be sub-divided into two difierent classes. The first to be noticed here are those which are essentially plantations, for the immediate cultivation 32 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. of sugar or other crops with the aid of a host of field labourers, such as negroes or coolies, in the service of European masters. The second class is that of commercial stations, formerly styled ** factories," at which mercantile residents purchase from the natives of neighbouring lands what these can bring for sale. It is obvious that the social conditions of these two kinds of colonial settlements will be dissimilar in many important respects. Historically, as we have seen, the last-named class was the first to come into existence. These are, however, of very secondary importance with regard to the process of real colonisation. The principal British plantation colonies of our own day are distributed in widely separate geo- graphical groups. These lie first in the West Indies including the north eastern shore of South America ; secondly, on some of the shores and islands of the Indian Ocean, and in some eastern frontier provinces of our Indian Empire ; further, in the Straits of Malacca, in the northern parts of Australia, and in the West Pacific Ocean. Of the other class, Singapore, Hong-Kong, and Labuan, bear the character of national establishments for the advancement of trade in articles of foreign produce ; and the chief business of our West African possessions is likewise of this nature. The British West Indies, as popularly understood, comprise two large islands, Jamaica and Trinidad j three groups of smaller islands, the Bahamas, the Leeward Islands, and the Windward Islands; a piece of the South TROPICAL PRODUCE COLON IKS. 33 r» American mainland, British Guiana ; and a piece oi Honduras, on the inner coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Jamaica was taken from the Spaniards in 1655, and Trinidad in 1797, but most of the lesser isles were original English settlements of an early date, though two or three were for a time in French })ossession. Guiana, after some vicissitudes, has been divided between the Dutch, the French, and the British. The aggregate population of the British West Indies may be estimated at one million and four hundred thousand, of whom less than thirty thousand are persons of European race. It is an undeniable fact that this division of the British Colonies has failed of its early promise ; that of furnishing new homes for the industrial settlement of English families. Two hundred years ago, there were in Jamaica, it is said, nearly seventy thousand of our countrymen, instead of fourteen thou- sand, the present number. In Barbadoes, likewise, there were English settlers, numbering several tens of thou- sands, working on their small freeholds, the thriving yeomanry of a tropical clime. They were emigrants who had left England disgusted with the Civil War, or with the politics of the Commonwealth and the Restoration, like those who went to New Jersey and Maryland and South Carolina. The upland districts of Jamaica have not been found unhealthy for people of our race. That island may be compared with Sicily for its capabilities of various culture, and it might well, by this time, have become the habitation, like some Australasian colonies, of a large English OUll COLONIAL EMPIllE. t)oj)ulation. In some of tlic othor islands, on the contrary, the climate is un.suitaljle for the out-cloor labour of white men. Sugar, with slave-labour for its production, being favourt?d with a trade monopoly by the victories of Great Britain in naval and military warfare, in the course of the eighteenth century, decided the fate of the West Indian interest. The frequent enormous rises in the price of that commodity, which ran up to eighty shillings the hundred-weight after the negro revolt in prosperous Hayti, tempted all British proprietors to devote their whole care to its exclusive cultivation. The importation of negroes from West Africa, as a necessary part of this business, very speedily over- whelmed the European industrial class. The small farms already created were merged in great sugar- plantations. These were usually managed by a few salaried " attorneys," or agents of planters ; while the owners of the estate enjoyed their newly -got riches in England. Hence the rapid decrease of European inhabitants, from thousands to hundreds, and, com- paring the present state of some islands with their former condition, in certain places even to scores. There was, for a time, immense commercial gain, but with it came a swift decay of the social fabric of the colony; for society does not live by material wealth alone. After the conclusion, in 1815, of the great Euro- pean war, Cuban and Brazilian sugar, and that of Java, competed in the Continental markets with that grown by British planters. This was done with fatal effect to the latter, even in spite of the formal I *' ; [ t ie I TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. 35 proliibition of the slave trade, which had most aided the Simniards and Dutch. It \u\s often been said that the British concerns of this sort were badly managed. But there was a physical disadvantage, at least in the Leeward Islands and Jamaica, compared with other lands of still greater fertility nearer to the Equator. The sugar-cane will grow in a wide range of semi-tropical latitude ; it was formerly cultivated on the shores of the Mediterra- nean. But its juice is more richly yielded beneath the hotter sun ; and thus it is far more profitable in Demerara or in Trinidad than it could ever be in Jamaica. The Spanish, Dutch, and Brazilian planters had also a more ample and constant supply of labour already at hand, from the large extent and population of their colonies ; and they were not slow to adopt improved processes for the conversion of juice into sugar. Then came a fundamental change of the system of labour. In 1838, by an Act of the British Imperial Parliament, all the slaves in our West Indies were emancipated, the period of ai)prenticeship enacted four years before at the prospective abolition of slavery being thus cut short. The masters had already begun to fall behind their foreign rivals in trade ; and the removal of the protective duties, in 1847, brought many estates to ruin. Those houses fell which vere built on the sand of absentee pro- prietorship and thriftless conduct. Trinidad, Bar- badoes, and British Guiana, have since more than recovered; they are making steady progress in wealth and social improvement. Of Jamaica, and some of 30 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. 1 k the lessor Antilles, wo cannot present an altogetLor satisfactory report. The size of Jamaica — a hundred and fifty miles in length and fifty in breadth, her population, 580,000, equalling all the other British West India islands put together, and her old standing as one of our most important colonies — might have been expected to ensure her supremacy in this region of the globe. As a matter of fact she has languished sadly during two past generations. Still we are most willing to put faith in some encouraging accounts very recently published. As the governor. Sir Anthony Musgrave, observed in March, 1879, she "had paid off nearly a quarter of a million of debt in ten years, and that she owed but two years' revenue, including loans for special services, irrigation and wp.terworks, and £150,000 for costs of coolie immigration." These administrative reforms have been effected since the establishment in 1866 of a more absolute form of Crown Government, superseding the old representative constitution, which had stood nearly two hundred years. The necessity for this rather ignominious surrender of political liberties resulted from the exposures following a hideous passage of colonial history in 1865, when the local negro insurrection of Morant Bay was avenged by the massacre of four or five hundred persons, some days after resistance had ceased. After the official inquiry, which revealed the thoroughly rotten condition of the island govern- ment, Jamaica felt herself obliged to give up her elective assembly. Her old garment of ample self- I I '4 TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIKS. 37 •n- er .If- 1 government no longer fitted the shrunk figure of a dwindling and decaying white population. She descended to the inferior position of a mere Crown Colony, like one of the lesser islands. Her Governor is assisted by a Legislative Council of twelve, half composed of the head olHcials, half consisting of nomi- nated members. It is not surprising that, whatever improvements have really been made in the adminis- tration, some resident planters should now and then be inclined to find fault with it. The coolie immigiation question claims particular remark. It appears that, since IS-iG, some twenty thousand East Indian labourers have been introduced into Jamaica, at an expense of j£56 a head on the average, of adults and children, this sum including the cost of return passage to India after ten years. Five years are served under indenture to contracting masters. The reason for this is that many of the planters declare that free negro labour cannot be depended upon. There are half a million of negroes ; but those who have small plots of ground to grow their yams, their fruit, or any vegetable food, will not hire themselves for many days' plantation work. Besides, the laws regulating labour contracts in Jamaica are not so favourable to the employer's interest as in other West Indian islands. There, in the absence of any particular stipulation beforehand, a labourer working for one day is bound to go on working four weeks, and to do any kind of field work. In Jamaica, on the con- trary, work is taken by the piece or task, and there is no implied contract to work for more than one day. 38 OUR COLONIAL EMPIKE. The estimates of one planter, Mr. W. B. Espeut, regarding the vast difference thus made in the cost of sugar cultivation, seem almost beyond belief. To dig an acre of land, he says, making holes five feet square for setting the canes, will cost X2 10s. in Jamaica, and in the Isle of St. Vincent only 16s. 8d. To make a hogshead of sugar, inclusive of the opera- tions of planting, weeding, and " trashing " the super- fluous leaves, of cutting and tying the canes, carting them to the mill, grinding or crushing, boiling and potting the sugar, and drying the " trash " for fuel, costs in Jamaica £2 10s. ; but in St. Vincent the whole series of operations can be done for .£1 5s. If this estimate be anything like the truth, it is no wonder that sugar occupies a declining place among the products of Jamaica. It constitutes there but five-ninths of the aggregate produce ; while in Trini- dad it is three-fourths, and in British Guiana seven- eighths. This calculation includes rum and molasses with sugar. While, however, the cultivation of sugar had been decreasing in Jamaica, the exports of coffee, pimento and ginger, and that of logwood, had much more than doubled within five years. The question of coolie labour pervades all discussion of the affairs of our tropical plantation colonies, almost in every region of the globe where they exist. It is apparently coxisidered of far greater importance than any question respecting the condition of the mass of the population bred and born in the colony. Sir Anthony Musgrave declares, though to little purpose as meeting the planters' complaint, that the i TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. 39 black people of Jamaica "have of late years made substantial advances in civilisation." He denies that they are generally thriftless, indolent, and addicted to petty larceny ; he points to the increased extent and improved productiveness of their provision grounds, and to the amount of their savings' bank deposits. They contribute much, from their small pieces of freehold land, to the production of some articles of export trade. It has been suggested that a peasant proprietary, each man holding ten or twenty acres, might well grow the sugar-cane, leaving to large capitalists the business of the sugar-mill and factory, for which costly machinery is required. This may possibly at last prove the orue solution of the economic and social difficulty which more or less embarrasses nearly every plantation colony in tropical regions. In Barbadoes, it is true, the labour question does not present itself as a hindrance to agricultural and commercial prosperity. That island, as big as the Isle of Wight, is more densely peopled than any country in Europe, having a thousand persons for every square mile, in all 176,000. They are obliged to work for hire, as not an acre of spare land is to be found ; all is owned and held for cultivation. Indeed, several thousand labourers now emigrate yearly from Barbadoes to British Guiana. The annual exports reach the value of one million and a quarter j while the quantity of sugar from Barbadoes is next to that from Trinidad. The coolie immigration system, formerly connected with China, but now chiefly with Madras and 40 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. Calcutta, has been more successfully carried on by Trinidad and British Guiana. These colonies rank highest of the British West Indies in commercial importance; the annual exports of British Guiana amount to three millions sterling, and those of Trinidad to nearly two millions in a favourable year. Besides sugar, Trinidad has takcni with good results to the cultivation of cocoa, which is extending also to Grenada and other Windward Islands. Coffee, too, and a variety of fruits are now grown in Trinidad to a considerable extent. Many of the Hindoo labourers in Trinidad as well as in British Guiana, when their term of bound residence in the colony has expired, choose to stay and settle on their own purcha,sed freeholds. They begin to form a valuable part of the permanent colonial population. The Chinese, not having brought their wives across the ocean, go back to China. Thus the island of Trinidad, not half the size of Jamaica and with a quarter of the population, now almost equals it in commercial products. The form of government is similar to that of Jamaica. It has not the same recollections of a dignified English antiquity ; its past history is that of Spanish rule, and many French i)lanters came here, when driven out of Ilayti by the negro insurrection, ninety years ago. Much of its land still remains an uncleared forest, but may be expected, in future years, to yield a large increase of wealth, and to support a considerable number of people. In Grenada, where the importation of coolies from I ^lw™«"l^" «j.,p ,i,iiw» injiiiiiii i^;pinii>i I Ji|iJllLiWiD,ii-i TKOPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. 41 India has been tried and failed, official complaints were made, in 1878, of the neglect to provide food, lodging, and medicine in sickness for hundreds of poor creatures brought to work on the estates. It appeared on further inquiry that these charges weie much exaggerated ; but there had been a sad amount of actual suffering, disease, and mortality ; and there was reason to think some of the managers and overseers were not competent to take care of the foreign labourers. Similar complaints were also made in British Guiana some years ago, and were then investigated by a Special Commission; but it is now believed that the faults in the former treatment of coolies have been completely amended. We are le^' owever, to agree with the Governor of Jamaica and with Lord Carnarvon, in hoping that the necessity for this cumbrous and costly system, which is always liable to abuses, will one day be superseded by the increasing readiness of the Creole or colonial negro to work for hire, if not by the success of peasant proprietors in cultivating the staples of colonial produce. The average cost of importing and maintaining the coolies, for five or ten years' service, is calculated to be equal to one shilling and sixpence a day for all their working days in that period. One and ninepence is an ordinary day's wages for a common field labourer in Jamaica, so that the colony does not get its coolie labour very much cheaper than negro labour ought to be. But the colony has to pay for it in a manner prejudicial to trade, by a special export duty upon its sugar, rum, and molasses. The West Indies, it is 42 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. to be hoped, will yet find some better expedient to carry on their work of cultivation; and they will, perhaps, hereafter apply this to some other crops not hitherto grown. The natural resources of British Guiana are vast ; and only a small portion of them has yet been utilised by cultivation. Its territory far exceeds in magnitude the whole of the islands, stretching two hundred miles inland, up the three rivers Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, with their numerous tributary streams. The total number of inhabitants, of many African, Asiatic, European, and native American races, is now considerably above three hundred thousand. The political constitution of British Guiana is very peculiar. The Governor is assisted by a " Court of Policy," which is composed of the five chief officials, and five members nominated by the district electors, or " Kiezers," an old Dutch institution, one for each district. The Kiezers, who hold this privilege for life, nominate two candidates for any vacancy in the Court of Policy, and one of the two is preferred by a vote of the Court itself. The Court of Policy is a Legislative Council, but may not deal alone with finance and taxation ; this department of public business is reserved for the " Combined Court," formed by joining certain finance delegates of the five districts to the Court of Policy. The revenue is about £400,000, and there is but a trifling amount of public debt. It is not requisite for our purpose to dwell much upon the condition of the three administrative groups I TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. 43 of the Lesser Antilles. Those little islands, mostly of volcanic formation, with all their picturesque beauty and romantic associations of maritime adventure, have seen their most flourishing days pass away. Except Barbadoes, which presents some essential differences, they seem destined to comparative insignificance, both from the colonial and from the commercial point of view. Those which have best maintained, though I with dubious result, a sturdy resistance to the process of decay, are the islaads originally settled, like Barba- does, by our own countrymen about two centuries ago ; namely, Antigua, St. Kitts, and Nevis in the Leeward group ; Tobago, Grenada, and the old English portion of St. Vincent in the Windward Isles. But the British industrial population has melted away to a mere remnant, while the mass of negroes has not been educated, socially and civilly, in spite of the new schools and chapels, to form a self-supporting people. The upper class, proprietors and planters, who might have preserved and improved colonial society, have too commonly been absentees. The Windward Islands, of which Barbadoes is the chief in political rank and in general importance, include also St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, and St. Lucia. Not one of these lesser islands has 40,000 inhabitants, or a revenue of .£40,000, and their aggregate exports may be worth half a million sterling. They are ruled by governors with small nominee councils, and have no public life. To the naturalist, or to the historical antiquary, they may still be interesting, but not to the political statistician. u OUR COLONIAL EMPikl!!. Some reluctance, on account of local interests or pre- tensions, has delayed hitherto the proposed regular administrative union of the Windward Islands. The Leeward Islands (those lying to the north- west) comprise Antigua, Montserrat, St. Kitts, Nevis, Dominica, and the Virgin Isles. They are associated in a kind of federal union which was revived, after long desuetude, ten years ago. They contain altogether 120,000 inhabitants, and their aggregate value of trade exports is above £600,000. Antigua is the seat of the general government, and has also its local island government ; which is constituted on more liberal principles than those of the other islands, having an elective or representative legislature. Dominica, indeed, has a mixed legislative assembly of seven nominated and seven elected members. Several of these islands have, within the last few years, voluntarily surrendered their separate repre- sentative constitutions. This may be due to the fewness of European residents and to the fact already noticed, that many owners of property are absentees, living in England or elsewhere. There is, however, a general legislative council, which consists of nine delegates from the councils, partly elective, of An- tigua, St. Christopher, and Dominica ; with nine others, four being the head officials, and five nominated by the governor from the different island councils. The Bahamas, about twenty inhabited islands, one of which. New Providence, contains the port and capital town of Nassau, lie near the coast of Florida. They include the first bit of the Western World : i.|ijtiiniii.ii. 11,111,/iinq TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONIES. 45 discovered by Columbus in 1492, namely, the Isle of St. Salvador. Their collective population is 44,400, and the value of their exported produce was £142,000 in the best of late years, but they are not sugar- growing islands. The government is controlled by a representative assembly and a legislative council. British Honduras is a rather large piece of the Central American mainland, with 25,000 people, a few hundred of whom are English, and with products approaching the yearly value of £200,000, chiefly mahogany, cedar, and logwood. From the Gulf of Mexico we now pass to the Indian Ocean, alighting upon the island of Mauritius, which stands high in rank among the tropical produce colonies, and highest of all among the British sugar- growing colonies. The aggregate quantity of sugar, reckoned in hundredweights, produced in 1877 by all the British dominions, was nine million hundied- weights. Of these, Mauritius alone supplied 2,725,000 cwt. ; British Guiana, 1,915,891 cwt. ; Trinidad, 917,000 cwt. ; and Barbadoes, 803,000 cwt. The sugar contributions of other British West Indian plantations, and of Natal, Queensland, and Fiji, are comparatively quite inconsiderable. The uncommercial reader may be tired, we fear, of hearing about sugar ; but the fact is that this article, with its manufacturing and mercantile concomitants, rum and molasses, is the foundation of the whole wealth of nine out of ten British tropical plantation colonies. Mauritius, sometime the Isle of France, has a little history of its own. Discovered by the Portuguese, 46 OUR COLONIAL EM PI HE. occupied by the Dutch, it was really colonised ))y the French, and was taken from their dominion, in 1810, by British conquest. This has been the fate of many places in the Eastern seas. Mauritius became ours because, during our long war with France in the early years of this century, it became a point of absolute necessity for us to take possession both of the Cape and of this small island in the Indian Ocean, as the French cruisers and privateers would otherwise have been enabled to do enormous mischief to our Indian trade. The majority of the European inhabitants of Mauritius are still French. There is, in all, a population of about 360,000, one-third of which is European, and the remainder chiefly of the labouring class from Southern India. The exports amount to between three and four millions sterling, and the imports to nearly two millions and a half, so that this colony fully equals British Guiana in mercantile importance. The government, which has no representative constitution, disposes of a revenue of £750,000 ; it has the rule also of the Seychelles, Rodriguez, and other scattered islets in that region of the ocean. What sugar *s to the Mauritius, cofiee is, in a great degree, to the much larger and more imposing island of Ceylon, off the southern promontory of India. The coffee exports of Ceylon are to the value of two millions sterling ; but the total of her exports, including cocoa, cocoa-nut and fibre, rice, cinnamon, chinchona, tobacco, ebony, and pearls, with other sundries, amount to five millions, and sometimes more. Ceylon is about the size TROPICAL PRODUCK COLONIES. 47 of Scotland, and lias a population of two and-a-hulf millions ; native Cinglialcso and Tamils from Southern India form the two millions; then Moors and Malays ; a few Dutch called " Burghers," and British planters, make up ten thousand European residents. The modern history of Ceylon, an oft-repeated tale, is made up of successive Portuguese, Dutch, and British dominion, with the final overthrow of the native King of Kandy in the highlands of the interior. But its older renown, before the Arab Mussulman conquest, goes far back, through the middle ages of Venetian mercantile enterprise, to the Roman Empire, to the Greeks, and to the Phoenicians of remote antiquity. The present form of government has an Executive and Legislative Council appointed by the Queen's re- presentative, and voting only upon such measures as he thinks fit to propose, and is administered by the Government Agents in the seven provinces. The revenue is XI, 382,000, and the public debt is but one year's revenue. Railways have been constructed from Colombo to Kandy, and in several other directions through the coffee-growing districts. The roads, which do credit to the Public Works Department and to the local municipalities, are kept in repair by a law com- pelling every man to contribute six days' labour in the year, or its equivalent in money, to this service. (The same law exists in Canada). From the diversity of climates and soils, the hill stations in Ceylon being several thousand feet above the sea level, this island is capable of a great variety of culture. Tea has lately been planted with good success. Labour is 1 I 48 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. procured by fr(;e immigration from the neighbouring Indian mainland. The advantages possessed by Ceylon for tropical agriculture will be sufficiently apparent. We cannot fail to notice also the maritime importance of its situation, Point de Galle being the regular place of call for the mail steamers on their way to or from India, Australia, or China, although it may soon be superseded by Colombo. In the class of productive colonies, economically though not politically so regarded, we might include the Assam tea plantations and the Bengal indigo- growing districts of British India. These plantations are of great commercial importance. The Indian exports of tea now amounts to fifty million pounds avoirdupois in the season, which exceeds what the whole Chinese export on British account was less than half a century ago. On the shores of the Bay of Bengal there are some districts of British Burmah and of the Malay Pen- insula, which have been applied to growing tropical produce, just as a strip of the South African sea-coast at Natal has been devoted to the same purpose. Natal, however, even with the aid of coolies to supply the place of her Zulu Kaffirs, who refuse to work in sugai plantations, does not send much more sugar to market than one of the small West Indian islands, and may therefore be briefly dismissed. The Straits Settlements, comprising Penang and Malacca, with dependent native territories, as well as the great commercial dep6t of Singapore, are occu- pied, to a small extent, by European planters of . ' TROPICAL PRODUCE COLONlIiS. 49 coffeo, sugar, rice, tapioca, pop[)er, and si)ices; but their chief trade is that in the produce of njitive or Chinese industry. The tin mines of the country furnish a large proportion, in value, of its original exports, not taking into account the very large amount of traffic at Singapore in the commodities brought from all parts of the Eastern Archipelago. The mention of this town leads us away from the plantation colonies to the more properly mer- cantile British establishments, called "factories" in old times, founded for procuring the commodities furnished by foreign hands, or the spontaneous gifts of nature. The chief collecting centre for our East Asiatic commerce is the town and poi-t of Singjipore ; the trade of Penang and Malacca is of a local character. These three places are united under the rule of one Governor residing at Singapore, who has his Lieut. - Governor at Penang, and a Resident Councillor at Malacca. The usual Executive and Legislative Councils assist him in the administration, which is responsible only to the Crown. The revenue is not much below £400,000 a year, though the Straits ports are free from all Customs' duties ; their united imports and exports amount to not less than thirty- two millions sterling yearly. Singapore is a town of a hundred thousand inhabitants, with a harbour always full of shipping. One thousand Europeans, merchants with their families and assistants, manage its great business, while 60,000 Chinese, 20,000 Malays, and many thousand natives of India, do the meaner work of the place. V 50 OUR COLONIAL LMI'IKE. There is the same division of labour at the other Straits towns ; and pretty much the same at Hong- Kong, off the entrance to the Canton river of China. The little island there belonging to England, with Kowloon, on the other side of a narrow strait, pro- tects a magnificent harbour, which is furnished with wet and dry docks and appliances for the repairing of ships. The aggregate tonnage of British and foreign vessels yearly entering and leaving this port is about two millions, besides that of native vessels to the amount of one million and a half. The European and American inhabitants of Hong-Kong number eight or ten thousand, but its government is managed simply by Crown officials. Although more a " fac- tory '' than a colony, it is also an important naval station. In connection with Hong-Kong are the British mercantile communities, or factories, estab- lished at the several treaty ports on the coasts and rivers of the Chinese Empire, such as Canton, Swa- tow, Amoy, Foochow, and Shanghai ; and these too cannot be regarded as proi)er colonies. On the north coast of the large island of Borneo is Labuan, a little islet in British possession, with about five thousand people, chiefly Malays and Chinese, exporting sago flour of its own growth and manufacture, and a variety of raw products, but not to a large amount. Australasia presents more than one suitable field of tropical produce cultivation. The northern coast of Queensland is well adapted for growing sugar, and already contributes, like the coast of Natal, a small V TROPICAL PKODUCE COLONIES. 61 amount of the geiicnil supply of that article. There is little doubt that on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, at certain points on the north-west of Australia, near Port Darwin and on the Fitzroy lliver, this kind of industry could be practised with a fair return. It would be desirable here to make arrangements for the immigration of Indian coolio labour, and for the permanent settlement of the Indians, as a landowning peasantry, to be encouraged to grow sugar on their own account, when they have worked out the term of their indt^ntures. This does not apparently meet the present views of the planter capitalists in any of our colonies. But it may be the system which best secures the general prosperity, not of a class but of the whole population. It appears suitable to every country where sugar is the chief staple, and where labour must be imported from abroad to cultivate a large extent of territory. This is the case in North Australia, as well as in British Guiana. The recently annexed Fiji Islands, in the West Pacific, are nearly equal in extent, collectively, to the British West Indian Islands, and are similar to these in some qualities of climate, soil, and natural resources, bearing on their productive capability. Their aggre- gate population, however, native and European, is only about as large as that of the Leeward Islands, and their aggregate trade is much less than that of Antigua alone. It is very doubtful whether Polynesian labourers can long supply the needs of the plantations in this region, or in Queensland, >^» 52 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. while Chinese are socially objectionable to the majority of English colonists. We believe, there- fore, that the superabundant population of India will he found, in all such cases, the best source from which labour for tropical produce plantations can be obtained. It remains only to notice, but very briefly, the possessions of Great Britain on the west coast of Africa. These are mercantile stations, not plantations. They are. in a national point of view, certainly the least valuable of all here enumerated. Some of them, among the oldest of colonial settlements, played a part in the history of the extinct West African slave trade. In that trade, it is notorious, the English vied with the Dutch, the French, and Portuguese, or rather outdid them in their worst practices, during more than two centuries; but, at a later date, we atoned for this by our costly efforts to suppress the slave trade with our naval squadron. The Gambia and Sierra Leone, with their in- significant population and commerce, need not be noticed at length. These two settlements, nearly a thousand miles apart, have been joined together, since 1874, by an administrative union. The situation of the Gold Coast and Lagos, which are now united, by a similar arrangement, under a Governor-in- chief, with his official legislative council, is much better than that of those settlements. There is a very large negro population, half a million or so, under the British rule or protectorate, and there is a flourishing branch of British trade. The exports A, >•» CANADA. 53 of the Gold Coast, such as pahn oil, palm kernels, gold dust, and gum copal, are worth £400,000 a year, and those of Lagos amount to a yet larger sum. The revenues are quite sufficient for the ordinary expenses of government. y CHAPTER IV. CANADA. Nearest of our Great Colonies to Home— The Atlantic Passage — The Intercolonial Railway —Vast length of Inland Navigation — The Dominion of Canada — Province of Ontario— Agriculture and Stock-rearing — Canals and Railways — Government of Ontario — Public School System — Province of Quebec, or Lower Canada— Constitution of the Provincial Government — Cities of Quebec and Montreal — The Maritime Provinces — Nova Scotia — Port of Halifax — New Brunswick — Forests and Fisheries— Agricultural Settlement — Prijice Edward Island — Newfoundland — The Great West — Manitoba — City of Winni- peg — The Western Lakes and Rivers— The North-west Terri- tory — The Saskatchewan — The Canadian Pacific Railway — British Columbia and Vancouver Island — The Dominion Government. A SPAN of seventy degrees of longitude will embrace the greatest breadth of North America, with New- foundland and Vancouver Island, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. All this belongs to Great Britain, and its nearest continental shore is separated from her by an ocean passage of less than two thousand miles. The best steamships can run over to Belle Isle Strait from Moville, Lough Foyle, in just five summer days. A week by this route brings us to %>» 54 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. li Quebec. When the St. Lawrence is blocked with ice, we may land at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and travel by the Intercolonial Railway, making a circuit through New Brunswick to reach Montreal ; but if we dis- embark at Portland, in the United States, the land journey is a much sliorter distancv Canada, therefore, to begin with, is the most accessibie, as well as the most extensive, of all the British colonies. Having entered its eastern gates from the Atlantic, we are on the threshold of a continental interior, most remarkable on account of the facilities of inland navigation. The St. Lawrence Gulf and River, the great freshwater seas. Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior, open quite half the width of North America to maritime traflic. By the enlargement now in progress of the Rideau and Welland Canals, the former made to evade the rapids above Montreal, by the Ottawa, and the latter to escape the Falls of Niagara, vessels of fifteen hundred tons can pass from the head of Lake Superior to the ocean that washes our own island shores. Much bigger ships, of course, find a port in the river at the quays and wharves of Montreal, nearly six hundred miles from the sea. But the wonderful system of great waters farther west is yet more worthy of attention. A short way beyond Lake Superior, towards Manitoba, begins the manifold chain of lakes communicatiny: northward with Hudson's Bay, and receiving from the remote western region, from the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, those mighty rivers, the Sas- katchewan and its affluents, which fertilise prairies Iv .i. f-' CANADA. 55 to the extent of a million square miles. It is con- fidently expected that a maritime outlet for the traffic of this vast region may be found available at Port Nelson, in Hudson's Bay. Whether or not this scheme be a practicable one, the Saskatchewan and its tributaries, with the Assineboine, and the Red River, and Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba, will afford great facilities for collecting the agricultural produce of their immense arable plains. The Canadian Pacilic Railway, to be extended within four years to the Rocky Mountains, will furnish the North-western Territory with means of conveyance at all seasons ; and it will ultimately, by opening a line of communication between Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and Canada, shorten by one thousand miles the route of mail and passenger traffic between Europe and Japan or China. The name of Canada, in modern political geography, is now extended to all the countries between the Atlantic and Pacific shores which are included in the Canadian Dominion. But the past history of Canada is confined to Quebec and On- tario, together with Acadia, or Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the islands at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The history of these countries begins in the last years of the fifteenth century. In 1497, the same year when the Portuguese navigator rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Cabots, father and son, in the little English barque Matthew, belonging to our King Henry VII., sighted the isle of Newfoundland. Thirty years later, Thomas Thorne, of Bristol, landed on the shores of the Gulf of St «» 56 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. Lawrence. Then came, in 1534, the Breton manner, Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, who passed up the great Canadian river. At the Indian wigwam villages, Stadacona and Hochelaga, he pointed out the im- portance of the present sites of Quebec and of Montreal. But it was not till 1 G()8 that abiding French settlements were formed. And, during a century and a half of the Ancien Regime^ with its exiled feudal seigneurs and their dependent serfs, Canada made little progress. Its chief profit was from the fisheries, and from the peltry bought of the Indians ; while the missionaries, Franciscans and Jesuits, went up among those heathen, intent on their religious conversion. The population of Canada was but sixty- five thousand in 17o9, when General Wolfe captured Quebec. On the other hand, being founded on prin- ciples of freedom, the English North A merican colonies had, in the meantime, grown apace. New England Virginia, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsyl- vania, and the Carolinas, were strong enough, with moderate British assistance, to shut out France from the West. Then England, inspired by Lord Chatham, made another effort and deprived France of the North. All tliat vast continent, within temperate latitudes, had in 1763 been won to British citizenship. The result of this we now see, both in Canada and in the LTnited States. Canada had thus got the start of our colonies in the Southern Hemisphere. Her nearness to England was another great relative advantage. Her social development, again, was ne\'cr checked, like the CANADA. b(^ginnings of Australia, by the depressing conditions of a penal settlement. Nor liad she to struggle, in her economic development, with a squatters' land monopoly ; while her native troubles were never so formidable as the conflicts with Maorics and Kaffirs. Constitutional liberties began to be introduced in 1791, and ripened slowly but steadily, on the whole, in the separate provinces of British America. The brief revolt of 1837, provoked by the arbitrary de- meanour of our Government, was happily followed, in 1840, by the union of Upper and Lower Canada, with a parliament and responsible administration. These liberal measures of Lord Durham and Lord Sydenham proved successful in reconciling a very large French majority of Canadians to an energetic and determined minority of British settlers. Ic that historical experience, we find some encouragement for the hope of a conipletely satisfactory adjustment of South African affairs. A free and sincere exercise of popular self-government, equally maintained in the several parts of an extensive territory occupied by diverse European nationalities, whether they be English and French, or English and Dutch, is the best preparation for their harmonious political union. This process has already resulted in the great ?^">rth American provincial Confederation, established iix 1867, which is stvled the Canadian Dominion. It comprises the two elder Canadas, Lower and Upper, now termed the provinces of Quebec and Ontario ; Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, on the Atlantic coast ; Manitoba (the old Red 58 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. Ttiver settlement) with Keewatin, and the vast North-west Territory, on the Saskatchewan, and the shores of Hudson's Bay ; and British Columbia, with Vancouver Island, on the side of the Pacific Ocean. Newfoundland has not yet joined the Confederation. We will now enter upon a more particular notice of the social, economic, and administrative conditions of difllerent provinces, Ontario and Quebec being first discussed ; after which the general scheme of the Dominion Government will engage our attention. Ontario is entitled to our first consideration, because, though not the oldest province, yet it has the largest amount of population and of wealth hitherto realised, and the most complete social organisation. This province, moreover, is of purely British origin. The early settlers, a hundred years ago, were English loyalists from the revolted colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, who declined to accept the republican Revolution. Their descendants preserve to this day the warmest attachment to the old country ; a sentiment which is, of course, not lessened by the addition of an energetic Scottish element to the population. Upper Canada, through several generations, has manifested the characteristic British habits of thought and feeling and behaviour, in all its public life. Ontario is about as large as the United Kingdom, and has nearly two million inhabitants. As this province includes all the Canadian shores of the great lakes, the better part of its territory is bounded by water. This has a favourable influence on the CANADA. 59 climate, and the province extends considerably to the south towards Lake Erie. The mean temperature throughout the year is but four degrees below that of the British Islands ; although the moan of winter is seventeen lower, and that of summer is seven degrees higher than our own average during those seasons. Such heat is favourable for the ripening of grain and fruit, in which Ontario is surpassed by few countries in the temperate zone. Agriculture, with the breeding of stock and dairy management, and with the cultivation of orchards and market-gardens, can here be practised in perfection. The exports of such produce are large and increasing ; that of fat cattle and dead meat for consumption in England seems likely to be of the greatest importance. Public works, executed by the Ontario provincial government, have rendered more available the natural resources of this country. Besides the Rideau and Welland ship canals, which have been constructed and enlarged by the Province, Ontario has been furnished with four thousand miles of railroad, giving access to every district in the province. These lines, indeed, were made chiefly by joint stock companies, but with public aid to the amount of one-sixth of their cost, granted by the provincial legislature, and of one-third by the local municipalities. The administration of public affairs in Ontario seems to promise a secure contiimance of this sub- stantial prosperity. There is a Lieutenant-Governor of the Province, appointed by the Governor-General of Canada. The Provincial Assembly, which consists 60 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. i of eiglity-eight members, elected in every fourth year, is the sole legislative body. There is no Upper House ; but there is an Executive or Ministerial Council of six members, who are responsible to the Assembly. The administration is therefore one of effective provincial self-government. It may appear at first sight remarkable that this Province, which is not the most democratic in its political sentiments, should be without an Upper Chamber for its Legislature. But the effect has rather been to impress a stronger sense of responsibility upon the members of the Assembly, who have mostly been trained to deliberations of public business by the management of local affairs. The Province is divided into nearly fifty counties, each of which has its elected Council. Every township or village of seven hundred and fifty inhabitants may claim municipal incorporation in the primary degree. When the village has got two thousand inhabitants, it becomes a town, with higher franchises and powers of self- government ; and the town, when it contains fifteen thousand people, takes rank as a city. The property qualification for municipal offices is higher in the three successive grades of township, borough town, and city. But the elective franchise belongs to all householders, all owners of freehold property, and all persons having a regular and permanent income from trade or employment. In the rural districts it is extended to the adult sons of farmers living with their parents. Ontario has frankly adopted those features of the American institutions, the land laws and the common i CANADA. 61 I school system, which have appeared suitable to the wants of a newly-settled country. The provision made for popular education is highly commend- able. There are five thousand public schools, attended by half a million children, out of the population of two millions. They have seven thousand teachers, of regularly examined and certified proficiency. These common schools, which are entirely non-sectarian, are maintained at a public yearly cost of three million dollars — above X600,000. The instruction is given free of charge to the parents. There are, besides, nearly a hundred superior schools, like the grammar-schools of England, at which Latin and Greek, the modern languages, mathematics, and some of the natural sciences are taught. A good supply of trained teachers for the elementary schools is en- sured by the Normal Schools of the Province. The Ontario contributions, in 1877, to the educational department of the Great Exhibition at Philadelphia, won the highest approbation. The University of Toronto, with the several Colleges existing there and in the towns of Hamilton and I ^don, has gained a fair reputation for scholarship. The Province of Quebec includes both the banks of the river St. Lawrence and the shores of the gulf, and extends from south-west to north-east for eight or nine hundred miles, with a mean breadth of three hundred. It is divided from Ontario by the liver Ottawa, upon which stands the city of that name, the political capital of the whole Canadian Dominion. On the left bank of the St. Lawrence 62 OLR COLONIAL EMPIRE. , , and on the shore of its noble estuary, the large towns and commercial ports of Montreal and Quel>cc, with tlie long-settled French districts of Ottawa, St. Maurice, and Saguenay, exhil)it the results of the older colonisation. They carry on an immense trade in the foT-est timber and other products of that region. On the right b.mk of the estuary, which terminates at Cape Gaspe, and with Chaleur Bay creates a penin- sula of the marine coast, adjoining New Brunswick, are the eastern townships, presenting a beautiful and inviting tract of country, which like Ontario was settled by English loyalists at the American Bevolu- tion. Those districts are now traversed by the Inter- colonial Eailway, which forms its junction with the Grand Trunk at Biviere du Loup, opposite Quebec. They appear well suited, in all respects, to be chosen as a home for English middle-class emigrant families having the means and skill to engage in rural in- dustry, and unwilling to be, as in the western plains, too much separated by vast distance from their native land. The total population of the Quebec Province, which was nearly 1,200,000 in 1871, has increased to 1,358,000 in the last ten years. The French, who count for one million, are as loyal as any other subjects of the Dominion of Canada. Sir George Cartier, a descendant of the ancient French discoverer, is said to have once replied to Queen Victoria when she asked him, "What is a French Canadian?" " Your IMajiisty, he is a Canadian Englishman who S])eaks French." The ancestors of these people were CANADA. 63 llO ler ge 31% lO re chiefly the Bretons and Normans of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who retained in tliat age much of their original race-character, having more affinity than other Frenchmen with the people of our southern and western shores. They have never, in Lower Canada, shown any inclination oo re-unite with modern France. Their sentiments and habits are decidedly conservative ; and it is but thirty years since many antique feudal privileges were abolished by the government of Lord Elgin. The Roman Catholic religion prevails, of course, in this section of Canada, and the Irish immigrants, at Quebec and Montreal, are more numerous than the English or Scotch. The constitution of the Quebec Provincial Govern- ment is not altou'ether similar to that of Ontario. The Province, like every other in the Canadian Dominion, has its Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Dominion Government, in accordance with the Constitution of 1867. It may be questioned whether this is a wise provision ; at any rate, in Quebec, three or four years ago, its working in a ministerial crisis was attended with an injurious strain of the relations subsisting between the Legis- lative and the Executive authority. The appointment of Provincial Lieutenant-Governors, though nominally vested in the Governor-General, as representative of the Crown, is really disposed of by the Dominion Ministry, that is to say, by the chiefs of the party which happens to have got a majority in the Dominion Parliament at Ottawa. The Lieutentint-Governors 64 OUR COLONIAL EM PI UK. ! I ^ ! i are likely, theroforo, to be already known as political partisans; and this would seem rather io unfit them, upon some occasions, for impartially presiding over Provincial Governments which have minor Parliaments of tlujir own. They have to deal with Ministers of the Provinces who are properly responsible to the local Parliaments. It may too easily happen, as it did recently in QiKsbec, that the Provincial parlia- mentary majority, anur southern colonies, are more immediately lucrative than grow- ing corn, or rearing and fattening cattle. Australian pastors and masters of flocks counted by the hundred thousand are very wealthy men. Australian Govern- ments, putting their financial budgets together, lay out yearly revenues amounting to fifteen millions, and have contracted sixty millions of debt. The natural resources of Canada, though far greater, are of a kind to be more slowly developed than those of Australia. But in the long run, as we believe, the prosperity of the former^ with her vast capabilities of agriculture, with the fertile soil of her prairie anu forest lands, and with her unequalled position among the inland waters of North America, will far excel that of the latter, supposing both to be wisely and prudently governed. Australia has, indeed, a splendid immediate future now before her, and has positively no external cause, ever so remote, of any political anxiety. She has no long frontier conterminous to a powerful foreign State. There can never be any question of . possi- bility of her annexation or adhesion to pny other AUSTRALIA. 81 lUire jause, has )reign possi- other sovereignty or political union than that of the British Empire. She sits apart from Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, secure from being much disturbed by their affairs, beyond the reach of wars and revolutions and imperial ideas of conquest. Australia, if she please, may "manage her own affairs," without the embarrass- ment of even declining an offer of assistance. This happy opportunity of political freedom, which does not, under present circumstances, tend to loosen her tie of allegiance to the British Crown, should give Australia no slight advantage in her work of internal improvement. She is not likely to require a standing army or burdensome militia service. In case of war between Great Britain and a Naval Power, it would probably be sutlicient for Australia to fortify her three or four commercial ports, to fit out a squadron of gun-boats, lay down torpedoes here and there, and send her volunteer corps to guard the coast. The remoteness of Australia is her best defence, so long as she abides the dependency and passive ally of a Power which is supreme on the ocean. She has no^j even, as New Zealand and South Africa have had, to subdue any formidable native races. It is a great saving of ex- pense to colonial governments, if no Maorics, no Basutos or Kaffirs, invite the crusades of a so-called equitable and benevolent civilisation. The public revenues, and the energetic manhood of the community need not be devoted to iniilorious wnrfaro aijjainst naked skirmishers in the bush. Two millions sterling, as we have just seen, can be spent that way in sis; If 82 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. inontlis by the Cape Colony, and more expenditure is inevitable. Australia, on the other hand, some- how quietly gets rid of her aborigines without any fighting. In Victoria there are but seven hundred left ; but in the northern parts of Queensland, and thence westward, many thousands of the poor creatures, m small wandering tribes, averse to each other^ are scattered over a million square miles. It is manifest that Australia wants no great military establishment. So much the better should l)e the financial position and credit of her governments. They have, moreover, been set up early in life with the magnificent dowry of vast public domains, which they have been selling quickly, to the amount of sixty millions sterling already, and applying the money to railway construction, or to ease the burden of ordinary taxation. It is to be hoped tliat Australian domestic policy will not have been over-petted or spoilt by all this wonderful good fortune. If any considerable errors have been committed, their effect has been local or provincial. A wider range and higher style of statesmanship may hei'eafter be introduced in the conduct of an Australian Federation. Many blunders of the several Governments now existing will then, perhaps, be corrected by the more enlightened policy of an important Dominion. The four leading colonies or provinces of Australia, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Queensland, enjoy the full powers of a parlia- mentary constitution. The government of each State, as we may almost call it, is carried on by a Ministry, T AUSTRALIA. 83 :i'aUa, bralia, State, listry, directly and effectually responsible to the popular representative assembly which corresponds with our House of Commons. There are certain peculiarities in the constitution of the upper chamber, the Legislative Council. But the more popular branch of the legislature, namely, the Assembly or Lower House, alike in Victoria, in New South Wales, in South Australia, and in Queens- land, is framed upon a perfectly democratic basis, with manhood suffrage and triennial parliaments, and, in Victoria, with payment of the members. The New South Wales House of Assembly consists of seventy- two members; that of Victoria has eighty-six, each with a salary of £300 a year ; in South Australia the Assembly is of forty-six members ; and in Queensland of f ^ty-five. These Houses of Representatives cannot yet be enlarged, considering the limited numbers of the people from whom they are chosen, and the comparative fewness of educated men with leisure to attend to public affairs in a new country. The collective constituency of Victoria, for instance, being 176,000, there is, for 2,000 electors, one member of Parliament, which is enough. But we incline to think that many of the personal scandals, the brawls, the insults, and the accusations of dishonesty, which have defaced the debates of colonial parliaments, would have been avoided in an assembly of several hundred members. Impersonated popular authority would seem to need a certain mass and bulk of collective presence to impose a check upon indi vidua 1 eccen- tricities. A deliberative assembly from two luuidred to i^' 84 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. \. I I 'it I four hundred in number may be observed to work better than one of forty or fifty. It is desirable also that each constituency should have two or more repre- sentatives to keep one another in order. The small colonial parliaments, in their aspect, their manners, and the tone and style of their debates, are not unlike the town councils of some populous boroughs or cities in the manufacturing districts of our country. They have a municipal rather than a national air about them, resembling the civic senators of Liverpool or Glasgow, of Dublin or of Belfast, while the upper chamber, the Legislative Council, is a Court of Aldermen, only sitting apart. It is, however, the position of the Legislative Council which seems now to afibrd, not only in the politics of Victoria, but in those of other colonies, the chief obstacle to a progressive democratic tendency. It is very likely that all remaining checks and balances to the instant and peremptory fulfilment of popular impulses in the government of the largest Australian communities will soon be entirely swept away. This may appear to moderate English Liberals a dan- gerous or even disastrous prospect. Some of us here, who do not love the spirit of fanatical democracy, may yet hold it to be just and right that the decided inclination of the majority of the people, when fairly consulted and expressed, should prevail in the conduct of public affairs, though liable to be misled ; that they should learn to bear the consequences of their own mistakes, rather than look to aristocratic rule. Many believers in the rightfulness of popular government AUSTRALIA. 85 I ve he he It es liar an his an- re, ay ded irly uci hey own any ent would still maintain a constitution furnished with breaks and buffers, operating like our House of Lords, to save the train from a collision, or from running off the rails. It was impossible, however, that the ancient European forms of social and political authority could have been reproduced in a now country at the Antipodes. Their salutary moderating influence might still be appreciated by a superior class of British emigrants, who had been educated in the home of their forefathers, and who had left England in early manhood. But the sons and grandsons of those colonists would fail to understand its practical value. No amount of historical study or political philosopliy could ever make the active spirits among the rising generation of born Australians capable of accepting our British institutions. Their Legislative Councils may be retained, in some shape, because they have proved useful in the work of framing the laws. The Council serves as a sort of ^rand Committee, relieving the Assembly, in a great degree, of the perplexing task which our House of Commons has to deal with in committee upon the details of a bill. The demo- cratic spirit, however, will insist, as it has recently done in Victoria, upon divesting those Upper Cham- bers, whether elective or nominee, of the character of any special representation of privileged classes. The principle of absolute political equality has struck root as deeply, in all the self-governing English colonies, as in the French or in the American Republic. We are not disposed, on the whole, to lament or dread tlie development of this princii)le, in those ',) !;i 86 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. ; iH new countries, with a robust and intelligent popula- tion, and with ample space and material resources to admit of repairing the damages that may be caused by legislative errors. There will be, doubt- less there has already been, an enormous amount of waste in them, from hasty laws if not from corrupt administration. But all this is nothing, compared to the waste of national resources in European wars, or to the burdens of huge war debts and mili- tary conscription, which Imperial rulers have laid upon their subjects. Colonial repul)licanism — if that phrase may be used without implying the least doubt of colonial fidelity to Queen Victoria — will find means hereafter, taught Ijy costly experience, to correct every serious political mistake that it may have committed. In any case, it will be able more easily to recover from political disasters tlian monarchy has been able to do in certain splendid empires and kingdoms of Europe. Australian politics have been often reproached with a certain lack of steadiness. But it can be shown, we think, and we shall presently try to explain, how this may be due to social causes, rather than to an incurable vice of colonial self-rule. It is a fact that New South Wales, in twenty-four years of responsible government, has had nineteen changes of Ministry, while Victoria has had twenty, in the same period of time. It is alleged, and there are disagreeable passages extracted from their parliamentary reports to prove it, that the strife of parties, or rather of factions and personal cliques, has too often been 0.:^ AUSTRALIA. 87 ble iod He orts of been rudely and rancorously vented in contests of mutual slander. After perusing some of the debates at Sydney and Melbourne, we prefer to belie v^e, not that the administration of their government ollicials is at all dishonest ; but that each successive set of office-holders must, by the custom of the country, stand the fire of a prescribed ordeal of imagi- native calumnies from their parliauicntary rivals. At this distance, there are no means of examining, hardly any of comprehending precisely, the imputations of administrative jobbery and venality to which these unsparing combatants refer; but one would fain in charity hope that they seldom mean above half what they say of each other's public crimes. The most influential circumstance, as it appears, that is likely to have contributed to this excessive petulance and restless inconstancy among the active politicians of Victoria and of New South Wales is the enormous, the unparalleled disproportion of their chief cities to the general population of the country. This is a very singular feature in the social growth of those communities. Nothing to approach this degree of disproportion was ever before seen in any nation of the Old or the New World, having a definite social and political organisation with a fixed metropolitan centre. Paris and London have often been cited as examples of centralisation, but the four million inhabitants of London are only the ninth part of those in the United Kingdom. Now, the population of New South Wales, by the census of 1881, is only 750,000, while the capital, Sydney, with i& 88 OUR COLONIAL EM P IRK. w k\ \ its siilmrlns, has 223,500 inlial)itants — that is, between one-fourth and one-tliird of the whole. Tlie population of Victoria is 858,000, of which Melbourne and the suburbs own 281,000, or nearly an equal proportion. And the increase of the metropolitan city populations, during the ten years since 1871, has been at the rate of So or 3G per cent, while that of the country districts increased only nine per cent, showing that this process of social consjestion L'oes on with auc-inented force. In the suburbs of Sydney the population has nearly doubled within ten years. The connnercial activity of those great seaports, dividing betwejrn them, and in some instances disputing, the export and import trade of all south-eastern Australia, might partly account for their positive increase of town popula- tions. Melbourne, for example, exj^orted goods last year to the value of £14,211,000, and imported to the value of £10,793,000, drawing off, it is said, much of the trade of the Kiverina districts of New South Wales, by the route crossing the navigable river Murray at Echuca. But we have still to account for the slow and scanty increase of the country populations. Adding the other townsfolk to those of Melbourne, we find that nearly half the people of Victoria are dwellers in towns. We do not find anything like this in Canada, or in New Zealand, or in other British colonies. It is worth while to inquire the cause, and to consider the probable effects, of such an anomalous distribution of the settle- ments, We can ofl'er a probable conjecture upon the question. It is that perhaps, in New South AVaies 'T^' AUSTRALIA. 89 lit Dry se )le nd ud, to cts, .tle- tlie aios and yictoi'i:i, tlioro woro poculiar circumstancos which attended the first gold discoveries, and the sudden production of riches from tlie gold-fields, twenty or thirty years ago, stimulating an extraordinary resort to the bustle and entertainments of town. The successful gold-digger is able more quickly to turn his acquisitions into money than the agriculturist, the sheep-owner or stock-owner. He spends more readily and more largely ; and he soon transfers his mining rights, or his shares in a joint-stock mining com})any, to some fresh adventurer. There is, pro- bably, under these circumstances, a continual passing of busy and eager people in and out of the chief town of a gold-field colony. In Victoria, again, while agriculture and the breed- ing of stock are practised with great skill and success, some of the town trades are especially pampered by the system of fiscal protection, in a way prejudicial to the rural part of the community, and this prevents the immigrant population from spreading uniforndy over the country. An artificial show of manufacturing prosperity is thus produced or maintained in the city, while a large part of the industrial classes fail to learn those robust habits of life and labour in the open air, which should fit them for getting an in- dependent livelihood out of the produce of the soil. They do not, therefore, realise the proper benefits of colonial ways aiid means of living ; nor are they observed to" become more self-reliant and self-helpful than the artisans of European towns. They are rash and unthrifty when lugh wages are paid. And 90 OUR COLONIAL EJiriRK. in bad seasons, wh(;nevcr tliore is a fall of wages or scarcity of work, the doinagogucs of Mell)ourne and Sydney find it but too easy to make use of these peopk3 for the ends of political agitation. We f(!ar that this may be one cause of tlie want of steadfast- ness and consistency in those colonial governments, since Parliamentary Constitutions were bestowed on Australia. The other provinces, indeed, Queensland and ►South Australia, have not been affected with this excessive gravitation of the mass of people to one centre of activity. There has been in Queensland a rapid diflusion of various kinds of enterprise along the sea-coast northward, to such places as Cooktown and Rockhampton, and towards the great plains and elevated downs of the inland country. Brisbane, the political metropolis, is far from exercising an inordinate degree of influence over those more remote parts of the colony, which exhibit greater local enter- prise than some other Australian counties and town- ships. There are several distinct commercial sea- ports, which is always a favourable circumstance in the social development of a country, and in which respect Victoria seems to be at a disadvantage, from her maritime dependence solely on Melbourne or Port Phillip. The danger to the prosperity of Queensland, if her affairs were not prudently managed, would rather arise from the opposite fault. We mean that of straining the limited financial powers of the colony to force the settlement of distant parts, in several different directions at once, by means of costly T AUSTRALIA. 91 public works, ospocially thoso of railway construction. But tlio samo fault has been laid to tlio charge of New Zealand ; and it is there already manifest that only a teTni)orary check, or financial inconvenience for a very few years, was occasioned by too rai)id an execution of works so usiiful in their design, and so sure to be reproductive of public wealth. The evils of a vicious land system, or of giving a false protec- tion to sj^ecial trades, may not so easily find their natural remedy. Over-legislation, the restless inven- tiveness of professional politicians, combined witli the disposition to look to Government for everytliiiig in default of local and voluntary efforts, has probably done less mischief in Queensland than in the southern colonies. She has, moreover, a greater extent of unoccupied land available for cultivation. And while much of the central interior, traversed by the South Australian overland telegraph to Port Darwin on the north coast, is hopelessly arid and sterile, the numerous rivers and hill-ranges of Queensland cause a large amount of soil in her plains towards the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria to be tolerably fertile. The land laws of Queensland have been devised with a view to facilitate the settlement of small freeholders devoting themselves to agriculture ; and a vast extent of land is thrown open to free selection upon the easiest terms. The price is ten shillings an acre, but the settler may pay it by one shilling yearly for ten years. The existing j)astoral lessees, or squatters, have been guaranteed half the land that each of them holds for a further term of eleven years. It is hoped ''^Pl ir IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) / /. O f/- 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ |2.8 |2.5 ■ 50 *^™ H^H IS'- 2.0 U ill 1.6 <^ V] V 7 # V \\ ^.^> -iP^:^ ^^^ Liy collectively but individually, by all British subjects in the Colonies, equally with those dwelling in the United Kingdom, to the " person. Crown, and dignity of her Majesty Queen Victoria," stands above tlio questions here discussed. It signifies, on the whok., that they are not to be aiding or abetting the Queen's enemies, and that they are not to infringe the Crown prerogatives of declaring peace or war, and of making treaties or conducting negotiations with Foreign States. It does not bind any portion of the Queen's subjects, whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland, or in Canada or Australia, to levy armies and equip navies for the assistance of Her Majesty's Government. They may do so, if they choose, by the resolutions of their constitutional representatives in Parliament. It seems likely, in many instances that are within the range of probability, that some of the most powerful British Colonial States will sometimes prefer to remain neutral ; nor should we be able to resent such a policy. It would be treason, indeed, if they should lend any positive assistance to the enemy ; nor is a Colony entitled to claim neutral immunities for its territory, or for the persons and property of its citizens abroad. With these reservations, it will be competent, we suppose, for any community of British colonists enjoying self-government, to decline to take an active part in British naviil and military opera- tions, and so perhaps to avoid direct molestation fo-om the enemy. The wisdom, equity, and generosity of such conduct would chiefly depend upon the cause of war. If it were really a question of patriotism 160 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. 1 M si! i there can be no doubt that the colonists would be ready enough to fight. It should, however, be dis- tinctly understood that they have a general right to be permitted to decide whether they shall fight or not ; and that they can legislate, in some particulars, with a view to avoid occasions for drawing them into active hostilities. The Governor appointed by the Crown to preside over such a colony, for instance, as that of the Cape, is instructed by the Colonial Office that '* he is not to declare or make w^.r against any foreign State, or against the subjects of any foreign State." This is a prohibition virtually laid upon the Colonial Govern- ment, its Ministers, and its Parliament ; since the declaring or making war is an act of the Executive that cannot be constitutionally performed but by the Governor's own hand. The Colonial Government of the Cape could make war on the Basutos, by treating them as rebels, without the consent of the Imperial Government. But Sir Bartle Frere, in 1879, held a twofold authority, not only as Governor of the Cape, but also as High Commissioner for South Africa; and it was in the latter capacity that, without waiting for the sanction of the Imperial Government, he declared and made war against the Zulu Kingdom, which was undoubtedly a foreign State. It was not in the capacity of Governor of the Cape Colony that he acted thus ; and the Govern- ment at Capetown was not responsible for what he did. In general, therefore. Colonial Governments are precluded from engaging in foreign wars upon POLITICAL RELATIONS. 161 of :ial leld the )uth that, jrial the ^eign of rem- it he lentB ipon their own account ; and it is well for them that they are so. They may repel aggression, subdue rebellion, or suppress piracy and brigandage ; the Governor is expressly commanded to do so of his own authority. Happy are the States which need undertake no greater martial feats than these! The command of any of Her Majesty's regular forces that may be stationed in the colony belongs either to the Governor, as the Queen's representative, or to the military officer who is appointed to this command by the Queen's Government. Local forces are disposed of by the Colonial Government ; but the orders of any colonial officer must not conflict with the military arrangements of the Commander-in-Chief of the Queen's troops. It is rather as federal auxiliaries than as portions of a single military administration, that the colonial forces act with those of the regular army. These relations, however, became the occasion of a serious dispute, in the Kaffir war of 1878, between Sir Bartle Frere, as Governor, and the Ministry of Mr. Molteno, resulting in the dismissal of the latter. As a question of con- stitutional law, the point has not been formally determined. There can be no doubt that the colonies are pre- cluded also from diplomatic negotiations with foreign States, with a view to commercial treaties and other business not involving the issue of peace or war. It may fairly be admitted to be an open question for statesmen to consider whether this restriction might not be modified, with proper safeguards for the sovereign prerogative, by authorising a Governor to 162 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. I act as plenipotentiary for such business, under the direction of the Foreign Office. Why should not the Governor of New South Wales or of Queensland, for example, be empowered to treat directly with China, if it were desin^d by the Australian Government, concerning the regulations for the introduction of Chinese immigrants, or i)erhaps to negotiate for the adoption of any tariff reforms that might be sought for the furtherance of Australian trade with China 1 The ratification of such treaties or conventions would of course be referred to the Queen's Government in Great Britain. On the other hand, there have been some occasions, notably in South Africa, where the Colonial Office agency has committed mistakes which Foreign Office agency would not have committed. The action of the High Commissioner and of the Secretary of State in 1876 and 1877, with regard to the independent Dutch Republic in the Trans- vaal, was utterly inconsistent with the ordinary procedure of Her Majesty's Government towards the feeblest and most helpless of foreign States. It was begun, moreover, with considerable lack of proper official information j since there was no British consul at any time residing in the Transvaal, and little knowledge of the actual state of that country was to be gained at Capetown. Another fatal example of the want of Foreign Office control, and of the misleading reports which British consuls furnish to that department, was shown in the bewildering confusion of official purposes that preceded the POLITICAL RELATIONS. 163 Zulu war. The presence of a Foreign Office agent with King Cetewayo would assuredly have preserved peace; and one at Pretoria would not less certainly have excluded any conceivable pretext for the annexation of the Transvaal. Many millions of English money, and many hundreds of brave English lives, would have been saved by using in South Africa the same instruments and methods of international dealing which our Government uses in other parts of the world. The Colonial Office, indeed, has some defects of organisation, which not the most conscientious and laborious administrators can prevent from being injurious, sometimes to the colonies themselves, in many instances to the relations between them and the Imperial Government, and still more frequently to their position with regard to their uncivilised neigh- bours. It has too great a diversity of affairs to look after, with nearly forty colonial governments on its list, ruling above ten millions of mankind. Its work in detail is well performed ; and in dealing with about half this amount of colonial populations, namely those inhabiting what are classed under the title of Crown Colonies, its rule is wise and beneficent. The administration of these colonies is officially entrusted to some of the ablest and most diligent public servants of Great Britain. It is conducted by them, in general, with remarkable discretion as well as fidelitv, and with a praiseworthy regard to equity and humanity in the treatment of inferior races. It is, moreover, financially, not very burthensome to this country, I 164 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. which is really put to little or no expense for civil services performed in the majority of the British Colonies. The functions of the Colonial Office, however, in superintending the government of all the hetero- geneous dominions of the Empire, some of them, indeed, joined in federal unions, are of very mixed character. This office has to deal with three different classes of colonies. There are, in the first place, those styled Crown Colonies, as above mentioned, in which the Governor, with a Council of his own nomination, responsible only to the Crown, has both administrative and legislative powers, and has the sole appointment of all public officials. The second class of colonial governments is that in which the laws are made by an elected Representative Assembly or by a Council partly elective, but in which the Executive or Ministry is not responsible to this representative body. Here the Governor, so long as he enjoys the confidence of his official superiors in England, may retain, if he chooses. Ministers and other public servants whose conduct is formally disapproved by the colonists, and may put his veto upon the acts of their legislature. It is with the perplexities and disputes of this f^lass of colonies, that our statesmen are too often troubled. On the other hand, an able and concilia Governor, fully competent to despatch all executive business, may be glad in some cases of the assistance of an elective assembly. He may be strengthened in his authority by seeking from the colonial repre- sentatives, especially in matters of finance, a vote POLITICAL RELATIONS. 165 t e 3 ■n e expressly confirming his measures. Many such discreet and efficient Governors have earned the esteem of all concerned in their administration. This form of government is perhaps the most suitable to such colonies as Natal, British Guiana, and the West Indian Islands, where the mass of the population is of native or Creole negro race, but where the revenue is derived from taxation of property or trade belonging to Europeans. The third class of colonies are those which enjoy full practical self-government, with a Parliament of their own, and with the Executive wholly dependent upon parliamentary support, as in our own country. The Crown has the appointment of the Governor, but not that of any other public officer employed in tffe civil administra- tion. Officers commanding the Queen's military forces are appointed by the Crown, but not those of the colonial militia. The Colonial House of Assembly, if so minded, could stop the supplies, and could perhaps even deprive the Governor of his salary, except in cases where this had been secured by an express stipulation. The Governor, on the other hand, may withhold his assent to acts of the Legisla- ture which he deems an infringement of the royal prerogative, and he must then refer them to the Crown for decision. This complex and extensive frame of administra- tive organisation has of late years undergone many partial reforms, with a view to greater consistency and regularity of action. The Department in White- hall has been relieved of much serious responsibility 166 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. by granting constitutional self-government to the Canadian Dominion, to the provinces of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, and to the Cape Colony. In the West Indies, where the British or European residents have decreased, a reverse political change has meanwhile taken effect. Self-government has become impossible in Jamaica, and the smaller islands, with their reduced white population, have had to be gathered up by Crown officials into new collective areas over which direct rule is exercised. It is beyond question that the administration of the British Crown Colonies, as it has been conducted since the era of slave emancipation, though really despotic, is charac- terised by a spirits of enlightened beneficence which contrasts favourably with every instance of the rule of a small community of European planters over a large negro or native population. No such community is fit to be entrusted with full powers of legislative self- government, which have therefore been very properly refused to the British colonists of Natal. If any reform of the Department should hereafter be contemplated, a statesman of great administrative experience alone will be able to devise some adequate provision for claims and interests of extreme com- plexity in so many different mixed communities all round the globe. The internal distribution of the business in the Colonial Office seems rather arbitrary. There is an Eastern division, a West Indian division, one comprehending all the North American and Australian colonies, and one for the " African m\d ^Fediterranean.'' The only suggestion that can here POLITICAL RELATIONS. 167 be offered relates to the four great examples of political emancipation, namely, those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape Colony ; where the govern- ment has been definitively confided to legislative bodies representing the colonists themselves, and to the Executive Ministers of their own choice. It might possibly be thought, after a time, that these colonial constitutional governments, which are those of free English populations rapidly growing to the stature of young nations, would gain in dignity through being taken from under the supervision of the Colonial Office. Their practical independence of the Imperial Administration would then be more conspicuously displayed ; while the power of appointing their Governors, which might perhaps be vested in the Lord President of the Council, would be exercised without reference to merely personal claims acquired in the service of minor departmental offices. " Imperial Federation " is an idea which has frequently employed the speculative ingenuity of speakers and writers interested in colonial politics. It has been proposed, among a variety of other schemes, that the Agents-General in London should constitute a permanent Council for the Colonies, to be consulted by the S* cretary of State, or by the head of the Government, upon questions of policy affecting the whole Empire. Another project has been that of the admission of elected representatives of the Colonies into the British Parliament. A third mode of solving the problem has been contrived, by the erection of "a distinct Imperial Parliament of the i 168 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. J whole Empire, not the Parliament of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland." The existing Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland would be allowed to con- tinue; but the newly-constituted Federal Legislature, as we are told, "would take over all the questions of common concern to the Empire, and would leave to the present insular Parliament full and exclusive control of the affairs of the United Kingdom." But we doubt the benefit or utility of any form of Imperial Confederation whatever, invoVing legislative or con- sultative deliberations with le Colonies relating to British imperial policy. We oelieve, indeed, that there is need of more thorough and authoritative mediums of political consultation between the British Govern- ment and each of the greater colonies, upon its own particular business, so far as this can be aided by measures of the British Government; but Federal union is a different matter. The different groups of colonies in British America, in Australasia, and in South Africa, have really few interests in common, except their common liability to the risks of a state of war, and to the other effects of our foreign policy, consequent upon the international relations in which Great Britain stands to the rest of the world. These are not subjects upon which they could ever be jointly asked to express a common resolution, even though it should be deemed worth while, as their means of furnishing naval and military contingents or pecuniary contributions increase, to solicit the active co-operation of this or that colony upon a particular occasion. They might, in such an POLITICAL RELATIONS. 169 1 1 emergency, be separately and specially appealed to; but it would compromise the independence and integrity of British policy if our foreign transactions were to be made ordinarily dependent upon the approval of colonial delegates. Imperial Confederation means this or nothing; and such a scheme would be intolerable if it were not wholly impracticable. Nor would a Confederation serve, even if we could put up with it, either to enhance the security for our maintaining peaceable relations with foreign States, or to augment our available power in time of war. It would rather tempt an unfriendly and insidious foreign Government to sow dissension in time of peace in the minds of the colonists, in order that the measures jointly agreed upon should become abortive. Such a practice could be attempted by unofficial and irre- sponsible agents, whose proceedings would easily be disavowed by the Government which employed them. In case of war, the security for continued and active co-operation on the part of the Colonial Governments would be no greater if they were bound to us in a formal confederation, than if they were united with the British Government, as they might be in a special league. Habitual allies they should be, without such a formal bond, from theii* appreciation of the value of British protection; and they should always feel that it much concerns their own welfare, upon that score, to prevent any vital injury to the United Kingdom. To maintain British naval supremacy is quite as much their interest as But we know that the degree to which British ours. 170 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. interests are really concerned in European quarrels, such as the Eastern Question, and in all Continental affairs both of Europe and of Asia, is a subject of great difference of opinion in this country. There would be, we may well suppose, no less difference of opinion among colonial politicians ; and if they did not consider the particular war undertaken by Great Britain a necessary war for the security of her own dominion, they might very well decline to take an active part in it. Military preparations in the colonies would have to be voted by the Parliaments there, at Sydney and Melbourne, Brisbane and Wellington, and at Ottawa in the Canadian Dominion. Is it likely that upon a quarrel with Russia, for instance, about the Black Sea or Bulgaria, or about Afghanistan, all those Colonial Legislatures would adopt the same view as that of the British Government at Westminster ? But the expressed dissent of any one of them would cast a slur upon the war policy, and would be an encouragement to hostile intrigues. It would not close the colonial ports to our men-of-war, but our army would find no recruiting ground there. There might be other cases of war, arising in the neighbourhood of a particular colony, but not immediately or ostensibly undertaken for the colonial interest, in which the colonists would feel no disposition to fight. If the late war of the Transvaal had been prolonged several months, and if it had been driven towards the frontier of the Cape Colony, it is tolerably certain that the Dutch majority of the Cape Colonies would have refused to employ theii* burgher militia, and their POLITICAL RELATIONS. 171 other local forces, against the Boers. Any clause binding them to do so, in an Act of Imperial Con- federation, would have been treated, in that instance, with indignant contempt. To insist upon the fulfilment of such obligations by unwilling colonists would soon provoke them, and with some grounds of justification, to secede from the British Empire. Too much significance has been attributed to one or two examples of colonial readiness to volunteer for personal military service. It is said that, of late, there was a company of Volunteer Rifles at Adelaide, in South Australia, who announced their disposition to go to South Africa and to storm the Boer strong- hold at Laing's Nek. This only means that young men are as fond of fighting in Australia as they are all over the world. The English youngsters who formed a Volunteer Legion, in 1860, to fight under Garibaldi in the Two Sicilies, by no means implied an enduring confederation between Italy and Great Britain. The Spanish Legion we raised in 1834 is another example. A Canadian regiment was indeed placed at the disposal of the British Commander-in- Chief during the Crimean War; but that is an act far short of committing the whole colonial community to a proportionate share of the risks, exertions and burthens of warfare. It has been shown that the Governments of Colonies are inadmissible partners in the ordinary councils of the British Government with ref .* '<^'^ "^ :% w w.. 186 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRE. Australia, and New Zealand ; and South Africa may supply cattle and fruit, as well as wool, like the Australian provinces. The different experiments that have been made, by the freezing process and others, in the art of preserving animal flesh and vegetables for conveyance on a long voyage, have attained perfect scientific success; and their economic and commercial success is probably assured for Australian not less than for Canadian traffic. British householders, who now find their weekly butcher's bill four times the sum of their baker's bill, may thus hope for a considerable amount of relief. It is by no means impossible, that a cheap and abundant supply of wool from our colonies may eventually reduce the cost of our ordinary clothing, so as to allow more frequent changes of wear, contributing much to health and j)ersonal comfort. The effect of lessening the price of broadcloth, flannel, and worsted, by cheapening the material, would be quickly seen in a largely increased home consumption. We look to Australia and other southern colonies for this great social benefit, as we have already received from America the inestimable gift of cheap cotton for our shirts and bedding. It is no small advantage of modern life in Europe to be clothed and fed by these contributions from the New World and from the Antipodes ; and it seems to us that Great Britain, with this opportunity of getting the necessaries of life at moderate cost, ought to thrive better than any other thickly-peopled country in the world. We decline, therefore, to join in the com- plaints of our advocates of "reciprocity" and "fair , COMMUNITY OP INTERESTS. 187 trade," and of those retrograde politicians wlio would have the Crown put a veto on colonial tariffs. Let us boldly face the prospect before us. Some of the colonies as well as some provinces of our Indian Empire will set up a variety of manufactures, as fast as they get the capital to spare, and will soon be able to supply their own markets. And why should they not? They have been endowed by the bounty of Nature with the same materials, coal, iron, and other useful ingredients or appliances, that have made England and Scotland wealthy. If we esteem our own country as obviously favoured by the Creator's Provi- dence, with the means of manufacturing prosperity, why not think so of New South Wales, of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and possibly of New Zealand"? Their own people, at least in the next generation, will assuredly think so; and will utterly disregard the claim of our manufacturing districts to furnish their textile fabrics, their hardware, their steel rails, machines, or whatever they can make for themselves. And, further, it is to be expected that wherever they can push this kind of trade upon their own account, they will do so without any scruple about competing with our foreign commerce. The Canadian exports will soon find their way to Brazil and the River Plate; while those from Sydney, Melbourne, and Auckland will arrive at the Chinese and Japanese ports, at Valparaiso and San Francisco. And why should they not 1 Fair play, free action, clear ways opened to enterprise in every direction, are demanded alike for all. That each country and people should produce 188 OUR COLONIAL EMPIRR. the best it can, and should offer it to any who want the like at the most rea.sonable price, is a dictate of natural justice, superior to all traditions of an exclusive national policy. It is due to the common interest of mankind that this principle of commercial liberty should be acknowledged. Great Britain and her colonies will remain a happy family upon such an understanding, if the junior common- wealths rely upon being allowed to do the best they can for themselves in the world's markets of trade, and to regulate their own markets by notions of their domestic convenience. We feel sure that misapprehensions regarding these topics have an injurious tendency, in the present state of public opinion, as they preclude the frank and fair recognition of the internal autonomy of these rising English commonwealths — happily and honourably associated with the United Kingdom under a glorious monarchy. England has never possessed or desired, and she never will desire or could possess, any dominion resembling that which oppressed the Spanish Colonies. Her ambition is satisfied as the mother and the n'lrse of free nations. " Her children shall rise up and call her blessed," through the ages of a remote future, admiring in her the author of their peace and freedom. INDEX. -•^»' ABSOLUTB rOLITXCAI, EQUALITT, 85 Not to be llcgrettt'din Austnilia, 86 Aden. Ceylon, and Mauritius, 1&5 African Lat)our, why brought to Anio- rica, a Agrricultural Colonial Settlements, 31 Antigua a Military Station. 154 Ascension, Naval Garrison at, 154 Assam Tea Plantations and Exports, 50 Auckland and Wellington, 114 tProgreso of, hindered by Maori War, 114 Australasia, a Field for Tropical Pro- duce, 50 Australia and New Zealand compared, 118 Compared with Canada, 79 — , Early Colonisation and Progress of 78 70 1 dold and Wool the Staple Riches of, 80 — , Her Remoteness her Best Do- fence, 81 1 its Position, Extent, &c., 78 , its Six Provinces, 79 , Leading Colonics or Provinces of, 82 Native Races not Formidable, 81 , Resources and National Debt of. ho —, Splendid immediate Future of, m — , Political Detachment of. 81 , Protection of, in case of War, 81 Australian Colonics divided on Ques- tion of Federal Union, 103 • — Politics lack Steadiness, 86 Explanation of this, 86,87 Apologies and Excuses for, 87 B;VHAMAS, THR, 44 Barbadoes, s Military Station, '54 , how Colonised, 93 Basuto War, Cost of, 135 Bengal Indigo Distnctii, 00 Bermudas, the. Dockyards and For- tresses of, 153 , Government of, 153 .their Importance to Great Bri- tain, 152 Brisbane, its Influence in Greenlaud.90 British Colonial Emuire, 28 , how to be Regarded, 28 — Colonists our best Customers, 183 Columbia and Yaacouvcr Island, 74.75 , Great Natural Wealth of, Ac. 74 — Guiaua, Resources of, 40 , Peculiar Constitution of. 40 Honduras, and its Products, 45 — Institutions impossible in Aus- tralia, 85 — Mercantile ConuuuniticB in China, British North Anicrion, 1)3 , Distance of, from Great Bri- tain, 53 Sciuadron in Pacific, 158 West Indies, 33 Buccaneers, The, 33 Canada and Protection. 180 Conquered by the British. 56 , Constitutional Liberties intro- duced in, 57 , Dominion of, Established, 57 . Early History of. 55 , Inland Navigation of. 54 , most Acressible and most Exten- sive of British Colonics. 54 , Social Development of, un- checked, 57 , Territories comprehended in. 55 , Union of Upper and Lower, 67 Canadian Pacific Railway. 55 People. The. their Loyalty. 77 Canterbury and Otagq, Provincial. 113 Ciiiie Colony. Acts of Provincial Coun- cils of. 113 , Character of Population of, 134 , Communication ^y ith England. IS9 , Constitutional Government in, 136 , Districts of, 134 , Eastern Districts of. 135 , Financial Position of, 139 , Fonn of Government in, 137 , Government High Roads in, 138 , how Obtained, 136 , its Present Extent, 133 .Material Wealth of . 140 , Public Works in. 1.H8 . System of Railways in, 138 . Wheat. Wool, and Wines of, 141 Cape Promontory, 133 — , as Imi)ortant as Gibraltar or Malta, 134 " Cape," The : its moaning, 133 Ci'yion, Advantages of for Tropical Agriculture, 48 . its Extent and History. 46, 47 , Products and Exports of, 48, 47 Cheap Food Essential, 185 Colonial Frecdonj not Severance from the British Empire, 25 Life Peerages suggested. 176 Offlce. Defects of, 163, 164 Parliaments, Scandals, &c., of, S3 llcadiniss to Volunteer, 171 Colonies concerned in Protection of Commerce, 178 must Supply Europe with Food and Raw Material, 127 possess few interests in Common, 168 will ultimately Manufacture their own Goods. 187 Colonixation of America and New Zca- laud*Comparud, 111 r 190 INDEX. CoIonlBtB not Bound to Aid Mother Country in time of War, 150 "Combined Court" in British Guiana, 41 Commercial Liberty, 188 Policy, Chansres in, 25 Stations, or " Factorie»,"82 C>irap08ite Nationality, 28 Conquest of Spanish Colonies by the English, Dutch, and French, 23 Constitutional Self-government In British Colonies, 1£° Coolie Iramigratioi {Ju n, 87 Coolies vn British Guiana, 42 , Cost of Importing, 43 "Court of Policy "in British Guiana, 40 Crown Colonics, Constitution of, 164 Cyprus : its Size, Population, &c., 151 — , not Definitely a British Colony, 152 — , Position and Political Value, 162 Demerara, Suiwrior to Wrst India Islands for Sugar Culture, 35 Development of Mutual Support be- tween England and Colonies, 178 Diplomatic >egotiation by Colouits, 161 Distribution of British Plantation Colonies, 32 Dockyards, &c.. Abroad, 148 , Composition of, 67 Dominion of Canada, Establishment of, 67 — , Government, Senate, and House of Commons of, 7« — , Governors of, and what they have done, 76 — .Population, Revenues, National Debt of, &c., 76 , Reflections on, 76 Duke of Edinburgh at the Cape, 138 Dutch Colonisation in Early Times, 21 KouoATiON IK New South Wales, 101 Emancipation of the Colonies, 25 — of various kinds effected by Bri- tish Statesmen, 27 Empire, a Solemn and Sacred Trust, 29 England and the " Spanish Main," 23 , Dependent on Colonies or Fo- reigners, 184 English Communities, Imperial but yet Republican, 27 — Political Life, the Source of Wide Reforms, 26 , Progress of, exhibited, 27 Race in the Great South, 131 Earl Grey on Colonial Tariffs, 181 Espeut on Cost of SuKar-growing, 38 Esciuimalt a Naval Port, 156 European Colonisation unlike that of Greece and Rome, 17 Falkland Isr.ANns, 155 Fanatical Democracy in Australia, 84 Federal Union of Australian Colonies only a Question of Time, 109 Federation in Australia, 8:1 Federation of New Zealand Provinces, 115 , Form of Government adopted in, 115 Fiji Islands : their Resources, &c., 51 First Order of Colonial Plantations. 18 , A Provisional Settlement for Specific Commercial Objects, 19 , Labour therein not Performed by Euroi)ean Settlers, 19 Free Ncgi'o Labour, how regarded, 37 " Selectors" in New South Wales, OS Trade in Colonies, 179 Trade only Natural Justice, 188 French Colonisation in Early Times, 21 Rule in India, 23 Fn>re, Sir Y -tie, 160 Galkka A.>n GaikaWar, 135 Gninbia and Sierra Leone, 52 Gibraltar, its I'tilily, &c., 151 Gold Coast and Liigos, 52 Discoveries, Influence of, on New South Wales and Victoria. 89 Gordon, Sir Arthur, at Fiji, 131 Government Life Assurance in New Zealand, 122 of New Zealand, Centralisation of, 115 Governors of Colonies, their Powers, Difficulties, &c., 164 Grant and Foster on New Zealand, 119 Gravesend, 9, 10, 12 Great Britain's Highest Office, 29 Growtli of English North American Colonies, to what due, 56 Halifax, a Militabt and Naval Station, 164 Harbours of New Zealand, 181 Hayti, Abolition of Slavery in, 26 Hector ou New Zealand, 129 Hokitika, Gold Fields of, 125 Homeward Orient course, 14 Hong-Kong, Position, &c.. of, 49, 60 Hottentots at the Cai>e, 134 Hugest Island on the Globe, 78 Imperial Alleoiaxoe, Meaning of, 159 Customs' Union, 188 Fedei-ation, 167 , Evils likely to arise from, 16» , No Security for Co-operation of Colonies in War, 169 , Various Projects for effecting, 167 Inii'iovement of Connectiim between Mother Country and Colonies, 178 , I'olilieal Grouping a means to, 174 , Royal Visits as a means to, 174 , by Personal Honours, Ac, 175 iiuliii, 27, 52 Indian Ocean, Garrisons on, 155 Jamaica, Failure of Colomsatios IN, SR , her Present Condition, 96 . Surrender of Political Liberties in. .16 — becomes a mere Crown Colony, 87 1 ^m^i INDEX. 191 n Jeffray : on Colonial InterestB in Vic- toria, W KAFFIB8 IN GAPR C0L05T, 186 Kocwatin, District of, 70 Kiduappiug iu Melanesia, 131 I.ABUAN AND ITS P HO DUCTS, 50 Laud Laws in NewZi'nIand. 121 QucBtiun in New South Wulcs, 93 ,Mi8cbievou8Legi8lationoi),U5 , LosBeB arising froni, UO Leeward Islands, The, 44 Grouped in Federal Union, 44 Lesser Antilles, Tne, 41 , Social Condition of, 43 Life Peerages in House of Lords, 176 Lusitaniu, Arrival of, 14 Malta and Gozo, 151 Manitoba and North-west Territory, 70 • — , Conditions of Land in, 73 , Extent and Government of, 73 , Future Condition and Advantages of, 71 , Price of Agricultural Land in, 73 , Provisions for Settlement of, 73 , Rapid Progress of, 70 Maories. The, 107 likely to Die out in time, 108 Maritime Provinces, 65 , Invaluable to British Ame- rica,65 TrafBc likely to reach a high pitch in New Zealand, isi Mauritius, or Isle of France, 45 — , its History, Exports, Govern- ment, &C..46 Meat, Price of, in Australia, 128 of Australia required by European Populations, 128 Melbourne Chamber of Conunerce, 99 , Exports of, 88 Mennonites in Manitoba, 72 Mercantile Colonial Settlements, S3 Factory Colonies, 31 Mill on "Federation." 173 Monopoly of Colonial Trade, 180 Morant Bay, Massacre of, 36 Natal, Condition and Prospects OP, 143 — , Coolie Labour necessary m, 143 , Exceptional as a Colony, 144 Oflfers no Suitable OiHJning for Emigration, 143 , Slow Progress of, 143 , Sugar-growing in, 48 , when a British Possession, 142 , why so called, 143 , why unlikely to be successful, 144 , Zulu Population in, 143 Naval Establishments abroad, 147 .Annual Cost of Maintenance of, 148 Necessai'y f or Protection of Trade, 149 , Safety of, how Secured, 149 , Stations enumerated, 147 Negro Slave Trade, why Invented, 21 , why a Necessity, 'Ji New Bmnswick, 65, 67 - and Princ« Edward Island, 68 Law regarding Execution for Debt, 68 , Liberality of, to Settlers, 67 New Zealand, a "Geographical Expres- sion," 113 , Best Land in, 114 , Agricultural Capacity of, 126 Antipodes of Great Britain, 104 Association, 108 — , Commercial Disadvantages of, 127 , Distance of, from England, 104 , Karly Condition of, 106 , Kinancinl Policy of, 91 — , First (tovemor of, loe , History of, for Forty Years, 108 , Islands of, 104 , Large Public Debt of, 117 Legislative Council and House of Representatives, 116 , Museums, &c., in, 134 , No Established Church in, 123 , Not a Britain of the South, 107 , Present (Government of, 116 , Public Education in, 123 — , Public Works carried out in, 116 , Revenues of. 118 , Settlements in, 108 , Social Condition of, lai , Soil and Aspect of, 106 . in what Differing from United Kingdom, 106 , South Island of, 110 , Statistics of Trade in. 124 , Unequalled for Cattle Farming, 127 , University of, 123 Ni w South Wales, 78, 79, 83 , Form of Government in, 83 Newfoundland, Fisheries and Trade of, 69 , Government of, 70 , Island of, 69 Nova Scotia, 65, 66 , its Maritime Importance, 66 , Natural Wealth and Products of ,67 Ontario, Administration of, 59 , City of, how Constituted, 60 , Early History of, 58 , Kiective Franchise in, 60 , Extent, Temperature, Produce, &c., 59 , Land Laws in, 60 , Municipal Incor_poration In, 60 , Popular Education in, 61 Oraiiflre State and Transvaal, 146 , Dutch Colonisation in, 146 Orient at (Jravescnd, 9, 10 Ota^'o, Dunedin, and Canterbury, Founding of, 110 , (Jold-ttelds in, 114, 125 , Public Works in, 113 , University of Uunediu in, 1 13 Outward Bound— the Route, 13 Peasant Proprirtary in Jamaica, 39 Peerages, out of place in Colonies, 176 Plantations, with wiia'; Asauciatcd, 18 i 192 INDEX. Popular Education in Canterbury, 113 Population in Australian Colonics, 87 Portugal, Loss of its Maritirae Ascen- dency, 23 Portugut'8«« Adventurers, 17 in Madeira, the Canary Islanda, and Brazil, 21 Pi*ei)aration» for Departure, 12 Prince Edward Island, «5, 09 Henry of Portugal, 16 f liis work at Sanres, 17 Protection in Colonies, 179, 182 , Impossibility of, 184 QUEBKC, CONSTITUTION OF, 63 , LarffR Towns and Trade of, 62 , LcKislati ve Council and Assembly of, 64 , Municipal AiTangemcnts in, 64 , Popular Education in, 65 , Population of, their Loyalty, 63 , Province of, 61 , Religion Prevailing in, 63 taken by Wolfe, .58 Oueen of the Wist Paciflc, 131 Queensland, 79,82 , Adapted for Sugar, 60 , Coolie Labour aeslrablc in, 51 , Danger to Prosperity of, 90 , Diffusion of Enterprise in, 90 , Form of Government in, 83 , Land Laws of, 91 Railways in Cantkbbury, 113 r ""ognition of Old Friends, 15 Re. -ms in Colonial Administration, 165 Registration and Transfer of Land in New Zealand and South Australia, 122 Regular and Colonial Forces, 161 Relations between Great Britain and her Colonies, 168 St. Helena, a SHipriJfo Station, 154 Secession of the Colonies, 29 Second Class of Colonies, 164 Order of Colonial Plantations, 20 , a Transplanting of European Society, 20 , Each a Young Nation, 20 Self-government, 28 — , the Right of every Common- jfealth 25 8bip-build{ng in New Zealand, 131 Shop-keeping View of Colonies, 179 Simon's Bay a Naval Station, 154 Singapore the Centre of British East Asiatic Commerce, 49 , Revenues, Imports, Exports, &c., of, 49 Slave Emanciiiatiou, 24 , Kffoct of, 85 Small Freeholds in New Zealand, 119 Social Prospects of the Colonicg, 10 South African Dominion, 146 , No Solid Arguments for, 140 South Australia, 79, «2 South Australia, Form of Govemmont in, 83 , Land Laws of, Favourable to Agricultural Enterprise, 92 , Land Question in, 93 , Explanation of Controversy recpcctiuK, 94 , Overland Telegraph-line in, 92 , Progress of, in Domestic Im- provement, 92 South Eastern Africa, 145 — , why Unsuitable for Colonisation, 146 South Seas, Maritime Traffic of. 130 " Squatters" in New South Wales, 83 F'tarting for New Zealand, 10 Straits Settlements and Singapore, 48 Sugar Plantations, liow Managed, 34 Sydney a Naval Station, 155 Tahanaki, ob New Plymouth, 114 Tasman and "New Holland," 106 Terrace Pier, Gravesend. 9 Third Class of Colonies, 165 Enjoy Practical Self-government, 165 Tilbury, in Essex, 9 Trading " Factory," or Agency, 18 , for whose Benefit establfsued, 18 Transvaal and Zulu Wars attributed to want of Foreign Office control, 163 Trinidad'and British Ouiatia,40 — , Coolie Immigration in, 40 , Produce and Exports of, 40 Tropical Produce Colonies, 31 — , their Different Classes, 31 Vancouver Island, 74, 75 , its Coal, Harbours, &&, 76 Victoria, 79, 82 , Defences at, 156 , Education in, 101 , Form of Government in, 83 , Gold and Wool in, 97 , Increase of Population in, 98 , Industrial Classes in. Unthrifty, 89 — , Influence of Gold Discoveries on, 89 — , Laud Act in, and Regulations respecting Sale, &c., of Land, 96 , LetrislHtive Couucil in, 84 , Social Prosperity of, 97 , State of Agriculture in, 97 , Town Trades in, how Hampered,89 Vogel, Sir Julius, 126 wkllinoton. Capital of Nhw Zka- LANn, 113 , Nelson and Taranaki,l08 West Coast of Africa, .52 West Griqualand, Diamond Mines of, HO West Indian Interest, how Injured, 34 Whiff Party and Colonial Abusea, 26 Wiuuward Islands, The, 43 Winiiii)cg, Capital of Manitoba, 70 Wool £-om Australia, &c., 130 CASSXLL, PETTES, aALPIlT & CO., BELLE SAUVAQB WORKS, LONOOIT, K.C. 10,1082. V C'f, Selections from Cassell .,ph.ix "'XllS-r'si' . consisting o(/f.«'<^,rM°I.$,' Deserted VW.p 8«;.e,f s',h„'^ JUhors. "'-"*fo„^"or,„„o». Diary of aw" DO J:""hc " V .»-.-, J«--fv. "s!.*-v,, B.A. WUh ,8 Colon..* ''°VrsnJ^Hi^'S.\«s.;ha.f..o,^^^^^^^^ ^^^ .,. „„„«,„,a. ''-c5lJ^r6r""^'^„„,„„„.„,n«n.«.b,Gu^.veDo^^^^ n'ur?'«or - ,,,,^ WUH «o .n-..lons ., ^"SufTil'i'SoKl Vo-J^.. ^;,HFull-pag. Drawings by GUST.V. Edinburgh, O^**^^"^ Energy in Mature. By « jUustratioDi. 'P'TcaSeU's Illustrated History of. W«h ^"^"S-Vofs.":"", 9»- -^ ,,. Cloth. «s. •, Roxburgh, a,.. English History. ^"^ "'^^''.f.^By Prof. Henkv Mokl^. Bn««^r -rf H^J-- »'KBl1i.o». ns. M. • "^:;lrshjn£ife^>^:« ^nirreaay. "if a T 1 I I I y >y »•■ O. :h, iitf Tols. Uoi- kont* ^EBSK [ ready I Selections from Cassell ^ Company's Publications, English Literature, Dictionary of. By W. Davenport Adams. Cheap Edition, ^s. 6d. ; Roxburgh, los. 6d. English Poetesses. By Eric S. Robertson, M.A. 5s. iCsop's Fables. With about 150 Illustrations by £. Griset. Cloth, 7s. 6d.; gilt edges, ids. 6d. Etiquette of Good Society, is. ; cloth, is. 6d. Family Physician, The. By Eminent Physicians and SuRGSONt. Cloth, 21S. ; half-morocco, 358. Far, Far West, Life and Labour in the. By W. Henry Barnbby. With Map of Rpute. Cloth, i6s. Fenn, G. Manville, Works by. Fopular Editions. Cloth boardsi 38. each. Sweet Mace. Dutch, the Diver ; or, a Man's Mistake. My Patients. Being the Notes of a Navy Surgeon. Ferns, European. By James Britten, F.L.S. Coloured Plates by D. Blair, F.L.S. 21s. Festival Tales. By J. F. Waller. 3s. 6d. Field Naturalist's Handbook, The. By the Rev. J. G. Wooo and Theodore Wood. 5s. Figuier's Popular Scientific Works. With Several Hundred Illustra* tions in each. 3s. 6d. each. ; half -calf, 68. each. The Vicar's People. Cobweb's F\ther, and other • Stories. The Parson o' Dumford. Poverty Corner. With 30 Fac-simile The Human Race. World Before the Deluge. Reptiles and Birds. The Ocean World. The Vegetable World. "The Insect World. Mammalia. Fine-Art Library, The. Edited by John Sparkes, Principal of the South Kensington Art Schools. Each Book contains about xoo Illustrations. 5s. each. Greek ARCHiCioLOGY. By Maxime Collignon. Translated by Dr. J. H. Wright, Associate Pro- fessor of Greek in Dartmouth Coll., U.S. A. Artistic Anatomy. By Prof. Duval. Translated by F. £. Fenton. Tapestry. By Eugene Milntz. Translated by Miss L. J. Davis. Engraving. By Le Vicomte Henri Delaborde. Translated by R. A. M. Stevenson. The English School of Paint- ing. By E. Chesneau. Translated by L. N. Etherington. With an Introduction by Prof. Ruskin. The Flemish School of Painting. The Dutch School of Painting. By A. J. Wauters. Translated By Henry Havard. Translated by Mrs. Henry Rossel. by G. PowelL Fisheries of the World, The. Illustrated. 4to. gs. Five Pound Note, The, and other Stories. By G. S. Jealous. !•. Forging of the Anchor, The. A Poem. By Sir Samuel Ferguson, LL.D. With 30 Original Illustrations. Gilt edges, 5s. Fossil Reptiles, A History of British. By Sir Richard Owbm, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c. With 268 Plates. In Four Vols., £ia las. Four Years of Irish History (1845-49). By Sir Gavan Duffy, K.C.M.G. SIS. Franco-German War, CasselPs History of the. Two Vols. With 500 Illustrations, gs. each. ' w n wi II V Seltctions from Cassell ^ Company's Publications. Garden Flowers, Familiar. First, Second, Third, and Foi^rth Srkies. My Shiklky Hiuherd. With Original Paintings by V. E. HuLME, F.L.S. With 40 Full-page Coloir ed Plates in each. Cloth gilt, in cardboard box (or in morocco, cloth &>des), I2S. 6d. each. Gardening, Cassell's Popular. Illustrated. Vols. I., II., and III., 5s. each. Gladstone, Life of W. E. By Barnett Smith. With Portrait, 3s. 6d. Jubilee Eiiit:on, is. Gleanings from Popular Authors. Two Vols. With Oiiginal Illus* tratioiis. 4to, gs. each. Two Vols, in One, 15s. Great Industries of Great Britain. Three Vols. With about 400 Illustrations. 410., cloth, 7s. 6d. each. Great Painters of Christendom, The, from Cimabue to Wilkie* By John Forbes-Robertson. Illnstrated thioughout. 12s. 6d. Great Western Railway, Tho Official Illustrated Guide to the. With Illustrations, is. ; cloth, as. Gulliver's Travels. With 88 Engravings by Morten. Cheap Edition^ 59. Guide to Employment in the Civil Service. 38. 6d. Guide to Female Employment in Government Offices, is. Gun and its Development, The. By W. W. Greener. With 500 Illustrations. los. 6d. Health, The Book of. By Eminent Physicians and Surgeons. Cloth, ais. Half-morocco, 25s. Heavens, The Story of the. By Robert Stawell Ball, LL.'^,, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Royal Astronomer of Ireland. With 16 Separate Plates printed by Chromo-Lithography, and 90 Wood Engravings. Demy 8vo, 544 pages, cloth. 31s. 6d. Heroes of Britain in Peace and War. In Two Vols., with 300 Original Illustration;. Cloth, 5s. each. Horse, The Book of the. By Samuel Sidney. With 25 facsimile Coloured Plates. Demy 410, 31s. 6d. ; half-morocco, £a as. Horses, The Simple Ailments of. By W. F. Illustrated. 5s. Household Guide, Cassell's. With Illustrations and Coloured Plates. Two Double Vols., half-calf, 31s. 6d.; Library Edition, Two Vols., 343. How to Get on. With 1,000 Precepts for Practice. 3s. 6d. How Women may Earn a Living. By Mercy Grogan. is. i India, The Coming Struggle for. By Prof. Arminius VambAry. With Map in Colours. 5s. India, Cassell's History of. By James Grant. With about 400 Illustrations. Two Vols., gs. each. India: the Land and the People. By Sir James Caird, K.C.B. los. 6d. In-door Amusements, Card Games, and Fireside Fun, Cassell's Book of. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. International Portrait Gallery, The. Two Vols., each containing 20 Portraits in Colours. las. 6(1. each. Invisible Life, Vignettes from. By John Badcock, F.R.M.S. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. Italy. By. J. W. Probyn. 7s. 6d. Kennel Guide, Practical. By Dr. Gordon Stables. Illustrated, as. 6d. Khiva, A Ride to. By the late Col. Fsed Burnaby. is. 6d. Ladies' Physician, The. By a London Physician. 6s. J, Selections from Cassell ^ Company's Publications, t 2s. 6d< F. Two Vols. With about containing about I2S. 6d. aoo Draw- Land Question, The. By. Prof. J. Elliot, M.R.A.C. los. 6d. Landscape Painting in Oils, A Course of Lessons in. By A. Grace. With Nine Reproductions in Colour. C/tea/> Edition, 253. Law, About Going to. By A. J. Williams, as. 6d. London & North- Western Railway Official Illustrated Guide. IS. ; cloth, as. • ' London, Greater. By Edward Walkord. 400 Illustrations, gs. each. London, Old and New. Six Vols., ea Illustrations and Maps. Cloth, gs. e.ich. London's Roll of Fame. With Portraits and Illustrations. Longfellow's Poetical Works. H" trated. £3 3s. Love's Extremes, At. By Maurice Thompson. 5s. Mechanics, The Practical Dictionary of. Containing 15,000 ings. Four Vols. 21s. each. Medicine, Manuals for Students of. A List Jorwarded post fret K«rf i« Cassell & Company's COMPLETE CAT \LOGUE, j^»/ Post free on application. Catalogues of Cassell & Company's Publications which may be had nt all Booksellers', or will be sent post free on application to the publishers : — Cassell's Complete Catalogue, containing particulars of One Thousand Volumes. Cassell's Classified Catalogue, in which their Works are arranged according to price, from Sixpence to Twenty-fiz'e Guineas. Cassell's Educational Catalogue, containing particulars of Cassell & Company's Educational Works and Students' Manuals* CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, Ludgate Hill, London. Selections from Cassell ^ Company's Publications. )ad the are of gtblca anir ^IcU^toxta Mlorha. ,. .* Bible, The Crown Illustrated. With about 1,000 Original Illustrations. With References, &c. 1,248 pages, crown 410, cloth, 7s. 6d. Bible, CasscU's Illustrated Family. With 900 Illustrations. Leather, gilt edges, £a ids. Bible Dictionary, Cassell's. With nearly 600 Illustrations. 7s. 6d. Bible Educator, The. Edited by the Very Rev. Dean PLUiMPTRE, D.D., Wells. With Illustrations, Maps, &c. Four Vols., cloth, 6s. each. Banyan's Pilgrim's Progress (Cassell's Illustrated). Demy 4tOt Illustrated throughout. 7s. 6d. Banyan's Pilgrim's Progress. With Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d. Bunyan's Holy War. With 100 Illustrations. Cloth, 7s. 6d. Child's Life of Christ, The. Complete in One Handsome Volume, with about 200 Original Illustrations. Demy 4to, gilt edges, 21s. Child's Bible, The. With 200 Illustrations. Demy 4to, 830 pp. iM^d Thousand. Cheap Edition, 7s. 6d. Church at Home, The. A Series of Short Sermons. By the Rt. Rev. Rowley Hill, D.D., Bishop of Sodor and Man. 5s. Day-Da^vn in Dark Places ; or VS^anderings and Work in Bech. wanaland, South Africa. By the Rev. John Mackenzie. Illus- trated throughout. Cloth, 3s. 6a. • DifRculties of Belief, Some. By the Rev. T. Teignmouth Shork M.A. New and Cheap Edition, as. 6d. Dore Bible. With 230 Illustrations by Gustave Dor*. Cloth, £a ZOS. ; Persian morocco, £3 los. Early Days of Christianity, The. By the Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, l5.D.. F.R.S. Library Edition. Two Vols., 24s. ; morocco, £2 2s. Popular Edition. Complete in One Volume, cloth, 6s. ; cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d. ; Persian morocco, los. 6d. ; tree-calf, 15s. Family Prayer- Book, The. Edited by Rev. Canon Garbett, M.A., and Rev. S. Martin. Extra crown 4to, cloth, 5s. ; morocco, z8s. Geikie, Cunningham, D.D., Works by : — Hours with the Bible. Six Vols., 6s. each. - ; Entering on Life. 3s. 6d. The Precious Promises, as. 6d. The English Reformation. 5s. Old Testament Characters. 6s. The Life and Words of Christ. Two Vols,, cloth, 30s. Student}^ Edition. Two Vols., i6s. Glories of the Man of Sorrows, The. Sermons preached at St. James's, Piccadilly. By the Rev. H. G. Bonavia Hunt. as. 6d. Gospel of Grace, The. By A. Lindesie. Cloth, 3s. 6d. •• Heart Chords." A Series of Works by Eminent Divines. Bound in cloth, red edges. One Shilling each. My Father. My Bible. My Work for God. My Object in Liff. My Aspirations. My Emotional Lifb. My Body. My Soul. My Growth in Divine Life. My Hereafter. My Walk with Goe, My Aids to the Divine Lifb. My Sources of Strength. 2 B. 8.85 St lections from Cassell ^ Company s Publications, Life of Christ, The. By the Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, D.D., F.R.S., Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the Qiict... Illustrated Edition, with about 300 Original Illustrations. Extra crown 4to, cloth, gilt edges, 21s. ; morocco antique, 423. Library Edition. Two Vols. Cloth, 24s. ; morocco, 42s. Bijou Edition. Five Volumes, in box, los. 6d. the set. Popular Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, cloth, 6s. ; cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d. ; Persian morocco, gilt edges, los. 6d. ; tree-calf, 15s. Marriage Ring, The. By William Landels, D.D. Bound in white leatherette, gilt edges, in box, 6s. ; morocco, 8s. 6d. Martyrs, Foxe's Book of. With about 200 Illustrations. Imperial 8vo, 733 pages, cloth, I2S. ; cloth gilt, gilt edges, 1,5s. Mosefl and Geology ; ur, The Harmony of the Bible with Science. By Samuel Kinns, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. Cheap Edit, on, t^. Music of the Bible, The. By J. Stainer, M.A., Mus. Doc. 2s. 6d. Near and the Heavenly Horizons, The. By the Countess Ds Gasparin. is. ; cloth, 2s. New Testament Commentary for English Readers, The. Edited by the Rt. Rev. C. J. Ellicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. In Three Volumes, 21s. each. Vol. I. — The Four Gospels. Vol. II.— The Acts, Romans, Corinthians, Galatians. Vol. III. — The remaining Books of the New Testament. Old Testament Commentary for English Readers, The. Edited by the Right Rev. C. J. Ellicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. Complete in 5 Vols., 2is. each. Vol. I. — Genesis to Numbers. Vol. III. — Kings I. to Esther. Vol. II. — Deuteronomy to Vol. IV. — Job to Isaiah. Samuel II. Vol. V. —Jeremiah to Malachi. Patriarchs, The. By the late Rev. W. Hanna, D.D., and the Ven. Archdeacon Norris, B.D. 2s. 6d. Protestantism, The History of. By the Rev. J. A. Wvlie, LL.D Containing upwards of 600 Original Illustrations. Three Vols., 27s. Quiver Yearly Volume, The. 250 high-class Illustrations. 7s. 6d. Revised Version— Commentary on the Revised Version of the New Testament. By the Rev. W. G. Humphry, B.D. 7s. 6d. Sacred Poems, The Book of. Edited by the Rev. Canon Baynes, M.A. With Illustrations. Cloth, gilt edges, 5s. St. George for England ; and other Sermons preached to Children. By the Rev. T. Teignmouth Shore, M.A. 5s. St* Paul, The Life and Work of. By the Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, D.D., F.R.S., Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. Library Edition. Two Vols., cloth, 24s. ; morocco, 42s. Illustrated Edition, complete in One Volume, with about 300 Illustrations, £l is. ; morocco, 3(^2 2S. Popular Edition. One Volume, 8vo, cloth, 6s. ; cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d. ; Persian morocco, los. 6d. ; tree-calf, 15s. Secular Life, The Gospel of the. Sermons preached at Oxford. By the Hon. W. H. Fremantle, Canon of Canterbury. 5s. Sermons Preached at Westminster Abbey. By Alfred Barry, D.D., D.C.L., Primate of Australia. 5s. Snail We Know One Another ? By the Rt. Rev. J. C. Ryle, D.D., Bishop of Liverpool. New and Enlarged Edition. Cloth limp, is. Simon Peter: His Life, Times, and Friends. By E. Hodder. 5a* Voice of Time, The. By John Stroud. Cloth gilt» is. ew A. «y RAR, 300 ges, By RRY, .D.. ■5S. Selections from Cassell ^ Company's Publicationi. (Birucattcnal Works antr ^ht^cnta' Manuals. Algebra, The Elements of. By Prof. Wallace, M.A., is. Arithmetics, The Modern School. By George Ricks, B.Sc. Lend. With Test Cards. {^List on amplication.) Book-Keeping : — Book-Keeping for Schools. By Theodore Jones, as. ; cloth, 38. Book-Keeping for the Million. By T. Jones, as. ; cloth, 3s. Books for Jones's System. Ruled Sets of, as. Commentary, The New Testament. Edited by the Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. Handy Volume Edition. St. Matthew, 3s. 6d. St. Mark, 3s. St. Luke, 3s. 6d. Sl John, ?8. 6d. The Acts of the Apostles, 3s. 6d. Romans, as. 6d. Corinthians . and n.,3s. Galatians, Ephesians, and Philippians, 3s. Colossians, Thessalonians, and Timothy, 3s. Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, and James, 3s. Peter, Tude, and John, 3s. The Revelation, 3s. An Introducticn to the New Testament, 3s. 6d. Commentary, Old Testament. Edited by Bishop Ellicott. Handy Volume Edition. In Vols, suitable _ for School and general use. Genesis, 3s. 6d. Exodus, 3s. Leviticus, 3s. Numbers, as. 6d. Deuteronomy, as. 6d. Copy-Books, Cassell's Graduated. Eighteen Books, ad. each. Copy-Books, The Modern School. In Twelve Books, of 24 pages each, price ad. each. Drav^ing Books for Young Artists. 4 Books. 6d. each. Drawing Books, Superior. 4 Books. Printed in Fac-simile by Litho- graphy, price 5s. each. Drawing Copies, Cassell's Modern School Freehand. First Grade, IS. ; Second Grade, as. Energy and Motion : A Text-Book of Elementary Mechanics. By William Paice, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d. English Literature, A First Sketch of, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time. By Prof. Henry Morley. 7s. 6d. Euclid, Cassell's. Edited by Prof. Wallace, A.M. is. Euclid, The First Four Books of. In paper, 6d. ; cloth, gd. French, Cassell's Lessons in. New and Revised Edition, Parts I. and II., each as^ 6d. ; complete, 4s. 6d. Key, is. 6d. French- linglish and English-French Dictionary. Entirely New and Enlarged Edition. 1,150 pages, 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. Qalbraith and Haughton's Scientific Manuals. By the Rev. Prof. Galbraith, M.A., and the Rev. Prof. Haughton, M.D., D.C.L. Arithmetic, 3s. 6d. — Plane Trigonometry, as. 6d.— Euclid, Books I., II., III., as. 6d.— Books IV., v., VI. as. 6d — Mathematical Tables, 38. 6d. — Mechanics, 3s. 6d.— Optics, as. 6d.— Hydrostatics, 3s. 6d. — Astronomy, 5s.— Steam Engine, 3s. 6d. — Algebra, Part I., cloth, as. 6d. ; Complete, 7s. 6d. — Tides and Tidal Currents, with Tidal Cards, 3s. German-English and English-German Dictionary. 3s. 6d. German Reading, First Lessons in. By A. Jagst. Illustrated, zs. Handbook of New Code of Regulations. By John F. Moss. is. Historical Course for Schools, Cassell's. Illustrated throughout. I.— Stories from English History, is. II. — The Simple Outline of English History, is. 3d. III.— The Class History of England, as. 6d. Selections ft t)m Cassell ^ Company* s Publications, Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary. By J. R. Beard, D.D., and C. Beard, B.A. Crown 8vo, 914 pp., 38. 6d. Little Folks* History of England. By Isa Craig-Knox, With 30 Illustrations, is. 6d. Making of the Home, The : A Book of Domestic Economy for School and Home Use. By Mrs. Samuel A. Barnett. is. 6d. Marlborough Books : — Arithmetic Examples, 3s. Arithmetic Rules, IS. 6d. French lixercises, 3s. 6d. French Grammar, 23. Cd. German Grammar, 3s. 6d. Music, An Elementary Manual of. By Henry Leslie, is. Natural Philosophy. By Rev. Prof. HAUGHTON,*F.It.S. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. Painting, Guides to. With Coloured Plates and full iristructions :— Animal Painting," 5s. — China Painting, 5s. —Figure Painting, 7s. 6d.— Flower Painting, 3 Books, 5s. each. — Tree Painting, 5s. — Sepia Painting, 5s. — Water Colour Painting, 5s. — Neutral Tint, 5s, Popular Educator, CasselTs. Ne^v and Thoroughly Revised Edition, Illustrated throughout. Complete in Six Vols., 5s. each. Physical Science, Intermediate Text-Book of. By F. H. Bowman, D.Sc. F.R.A.S., F.L.S. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. Readers, Cassell's Readable. Carefully graduated, extremely in- teresting, and illustrated throughout. {List on application.) Readers, Cassell's Historical. Ulusf-ated throughout, printed on superior paper, and strongly bound in cloth. {List on a'^plication.) Readers, The Modern Geographical, illustrated throughout, and strongly bound in cloth. {List on application.) Readers, The Modern School. Illustrated. {List on application,) Reading and Spelling Book, Cassell's Illustrated, is. Right Lines ; or. Form and Colour. With Illustrations, is. School Manager's Manual. By F. C. Mills, M.A. is. Shakspere's Plays for School Use. 5 Books. Illustrated, 6d. each. Shakspere Reading Book, The. By H. Courthope Bowen, M.A. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. Also issued in Three Books, is. each. Spelling, A Complete Manual of. By J. D. Morell, LL.D. is. Technical Manuals, Cassell's. Illustrated throughout : — Handrailing and Staircasing, 3s. 6d. — Bricklayers, Drawing for, 3s.— Building Construction, 2S.— Cabinet-Makers, Drawing for, 3s. — Car- penters and Joiners, Drawing for, 3s. 6d.— Gothic Stonework, 3s. — Linear Drawing and Practical Geometry, 2S. — Linear Drawing and Projection. The Two Vols, in One, 3s. 6d. — Machinists and Engineers, Drawing for, 4s. 6d. — Metal-Plate Workers, Drawing for, 3s. — Model Drawing, 3s. — Orthographical and Isometrical Projectionj 2S. — Practical Perspective, 3s.— Stonemasons, Drawing for, 3s. — Applied Mechanics, by Prof. R. S. Ball, LL.D., as. — Systematic Drawing and Shading, by Charles Ryan, 2S. Technical Educator, Cassell's. Four Vols., 6s. each. Popular Edition, in Four Vols., 5s. each. Technology, Manuals of. Edited by Prof. Avrton, F.R.S.. and Richard Wormell, D.Sc, M.A. Illustrated throughout :— The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics, by Prof. Hummel, 5s. — Watch and Clock Making, by D. Glasgow, 4s. 6d.— Steel and Iron, by W. H. Greenwood, F.C.S., Assoc. M. I.C.E., &c., 5s. — Spinning Woollen and Worsted, by W. S. Bright McLaren, 4s. 6d. — Design in Textile Fabrics, by T. R. Ashenhurst, 4s. 6d. — Practical Mechanics, by Prof. Perry, M.E., 3s. 6d.— Cutting Tools Worked by Hard and Machine, by Prof. Smith, 3s. 6d. Other Volumes in preparation. A Prospectus sent post free on application. Selections from Cassell ^ Company^ s Publications. ind goohc for ^oun0 Jlcoplc, •* Little Folks" Half- Yearly Volume. With 200 Illustrations, 3s. 6d. ; or cloth gilt, 5s. Bo-Peep. A Book lor the Little Ones. With Original Stories and Verses, Illustrated throughout. Boards, 2a. 6d. ; cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. The World's Lumber Room. By Selina Gave. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. The "Proverbs" Series. Consisting of a New nnd Original Series of Stories by Popular Authors, founded on and illustrating well known Proverbs. With Four Illustrations in each Book, printed on a tint. Crown 8vo, 160 pages, cloth, is. 6d. each. Fritters ; or, " It's a Long Lane that has no turning." by Sarah Pitt. Trixy; or, "Those who Live in Glass Houses shouldn't throw Stones." By Maggie Symington. The Two Hardcastles; or, "A Friend in Nf.ed is a Friend Indeed." By Madeline Bonavia Hunt. Major M o n k's Motto; or, "Look Before you Leap." By the Rev. F. Langbridge. Tim Thomson's Trial ; or, " All IS NOT Gold tuat Glitters." By George Weatherly. Ursula's Stumbling-Block ; or, " Pride comes before a Fall." By Julia Goddard. Ruth's Life- Work ; or, " No Pains, no Gains." By the Rev. Joseph Johnson. The "Cross and Crown" Series. Consisting of Stories founded on incidents which occurred during Religious Persecutions of Past Days. With Four Illustrations in each Book, printed on a tint. Crown 8vo, 256 pages, 2s. 6d. each. By Fire and Sword : a Story of THE Huguenots. By Thomas Archer. Adam Hepburn's Vow: a Tale OF Kirk and Covenant. By Annie S. Swan. No. XIII.; OR, The Story of thb Lost Vestal. A Tale o^ Early Christian Days. By Emma Marshall. The World's Workers. A Series of New and Original Volumes. With Portraits printed on a tint as Frontispiece, is. each. Charles Dickens. By his Eldest Daughter. Sir Titus Salt and George Moore. By J. Burnley. Florence Nightingale, Cather- ine Marsh, Frances Ridley Havergal, Mrs. Ranyakd (;'L.N.R."). By Lizzie Ald- ridge. Dr. Guthrie, Father Mathew, Elihu Burritt, Joseph Live- sey. By the Rev. J. W. Kirton. Sir Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde. By E. C. Phillips. Abraham Lincoln. By Ernest Foster. David Livingstone. By Robert Smiles. George Miller and Andrew Reed. By E. R. Pitman. Richard Coijden. By R. Gowing. Benjamin Franklin. By E. M. Tomkinson. Handel. By Eliza Clarke. Turner, the Artist. By the Rev. S. A. Swaine. George and Robert Stephenson. By C. L. Mateaux. The "Chimes" Series. Each containing 64 pages, with Illustrations on every page, and handsomely bound in cloth, is. 7«. Bible Chimes. Contains Bible Verses for Every Day in the Month. Daily Chimes. Verses from the Poets for Every Day in the Month. Holy Chimes. Verses for Every Sunday in the Year. Old World Chimes. Verses from old writers for Every Day in the Month. ' Selections from Cassell ^ Company s Publications, New Books for Boys. With Original Illustrations, produced in a tint. Cloth gilt, 58. each. •' Follow my Leader ; *' or, the PoYS OF Templeton. By I'albot Baines Reed. For Fortune and Glory : a Story of the Soudan War. By Lewis Hough. The Champion of Odin , or, Viking Life tn the Days of Old. By J. Fred. Hodgetts. Bound by a Spell ; or thb Hunted Witch OF the Forest. By the Hon. Mrs. Greene. Price 38. 6d. each. On Board the "Esmeralda;" OR, Martin Leigh's Log. By John C. Hutcheson. In Quest of Gold ; or, Under the Whanga Falls. By Alfred St. Johnston. For Queen and King ; or, the Loyal 'Prentice. By Henry Frith. The '♦ Boy Pioneer" Series. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four Full- page Illustrations in each Book. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. each. Ned in the Woods. A Tale of I Ned on the River. A Tale of Early Days in the West. | Indian River Warfare. Ned in the Block House. A Story of Pioneer Life in Kentucky. The •• Log Cabin " Serie page Illustrations in eac).. The Lost Trail. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four Full- Crown 8vo, cloth, as. 6d. each. I Camp-Fire and Wigwam. Sixpenny Story Books. All Illustrated, aud containing Interesting Stories by well-known Writers. Little Content. The Smuggler's Cavb. Little Lizzie. Little Bird. The Boot on the Wrong Foot. Luke Barnicott. Little Pickles. The Boat Club. By Oliver Optic. Helpful Nellie; and other Stories. The Elchester College Boys. My First Cruise. Lottie's White Frock. Only Just Once. The Little Peacemaker. The Delft Jug. By Silverpen. The "Baby's Album" Series. Four Books, each containing about 50 Illustrations. Price 6d. each ; or cloth gilt, zs. each. Baby's Album. I Fairy's Album. Dolly's Album. | Pussy's Album. Illustrated Books for the Little Ones. All Illustrated, zs. each. Indoors and Out. Some Farm Friends. Those Golden Sands. Little Mothers and their Children. Containing interesting Stories. Our Pretty Pets. Our Schoolday Hours. Creatures Tame. Creatures Wild. Shilling Story Books. Thorns and Tangles. The Cuckoo in the Robin's Nest. John's Mistake. Pearl's Fairy Flower. The History of Five Littlb Pitchers. Diamonds in the Sand. Surly Bob. , , The Giant's Cradlb. All Illustrated, and containing Interesting Stories. Shag and Doll. Aunt Lucia's Locket. , . The Magic Mirror. The Cost of Revenge. Clever Frank. Among the Redskins. The Ferryman of Brill. ■ Harry Maxwell. ^ A Banished Monarch. Selections from Cassell # Company's Publications, •• Little Folks '* Paintin^f Books. With Text, and Outline Illustrationi for Water-Colour Painting, is. each. Fruits and Blossoms for " Little Folks " to Paint. The "Little Folks" Proverb Painting Book. The "LittlI; Folks" Illumi- nating Book. Eighteenpenny Story Books. All Three Wee Ulster Lassies. Little Queen Mab. Up the Ladder. Dick's Hero ; and other Stories. The Chip Boy. Haggles, Baggles, and the Em- peror. Roses from Thorns. Faith's Father. Pictures to Paint. "Little Folks" Painting Book. "Little Folks" Nature Paimt* ing Book. Another " Lhtle Folks" Paints ing Book. , Illustrated throughouL By Land and Sea. The Young Berringtons. Jeff and Leff. Tom Morris's Error. Worth more than Gold. *' Through Flood — Through Fire;" and other Stories. The Girl with the Golden Locks. Stories of the Olden Time. The '• Cosy Corner " Series. Story Books for Children, taining nearly One Hundred Pictures, is. 6d. each. Each con* See-Saw Stories. Little Chimes for All Times. Wee Willie Winkie. Bright Sundays. Pet's Posy ok Pictures and Stories. DoT*s Story Book. Story Flowers for Rainy Hours. Little Talks with Little Peoplb. Bright Rays for Dull Days. Chats for Small Chatterers. Pictures for Happy Hours. Up^ and Downs of a Donkey's Life. The ''World in Pictures." A Ramble Round France. All the Russias. Chats about Germany. The Land of the Pyramids (Egypt). Peeps into China. Illustrated throughout. 2s. 6d. each. The Eastern Wonderland (Japan). Glimpses of South America. Round Africa. The Land of Temples (India). The Isles of the Pacific. Two-Shilling Story Books. All Stories of the Tower. Mr. Burke's Nieces. May Cunningham's Trial. The Top of the Ladder : How to Reach it. Little Flotsam. Madge and her Friends. The Children of the Court. A Moonbeam Tangle. Maid Marjory. Half-Crown Story Books. M^argaret's Enemy. Pen's Perplexities. Notable Shipwrecks. Golden Days. Wonders of Common Things. Little Empress Joan. Trttth will Oitt. Illustrated. The Four Cats of the Tippbk* tons. Marion's Two Homes. Little Folks' Sunday Book. Two Fourprnny Bits. Poor Nelly. Tom Heriot. Through Peril to Fortukb. Aunt Tabitha's Waifs. In Mischief Again. Soldier and Patriot (George Washington). Pictures of School Life and Boyhood. The Young Man irj the Batti.b OF Life. By the Rev Dr. Landels. The True Glory of Woman. By the Rev. Dr. Landels. Select io Hi jrom Cassell ^ Company's Publications. Library of Wonders. Illustrated Gift-books for Boys. as. 6d. each. wondf.uful auventurf.s. Wonders of Animal Instinct. Wonders of Architecture. Wonders of Acoustics. Wonders of Water. Wonderful Escapes. Bodily Strength and Skill. Wonderful Balloon Ascents. Gift Books for Children. With Coloured Illustrations; »as. 6d. each. The Story of Robin Hood. Off to Sea. Sandford and Mkrton, True Robinson Crusoes. Reynard THE Fox. The Pilgrim's Progress. Three and Sixpenny Library of Standard Tales, &c. trated and bound in cloth gilt Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. each. All Illus* Jane Austen and her Works Better than Good. Heroines of the Mission Field. Mission Life in Greece and Palestine. The Dingy House at Kensing- ton. At the South Pole. The Story of Captain Cook. The Roman'ck of Trade. The Three Homes. Mv Guardian. School Girls. Deepdalb Vicaragb. In Duty Bound. . The Half Sisters. Peggy Oglivie's Inheritancb. The Family Honour. Esther West. , ' Working to Win. Krilof and .his Fables. By W. R S. Ralston, M.A. Fairy Tales. By Prof. Morley. The Home Chat Series. All Illustrated throughout. Fcap. 4to. Boards, 3s. 6d. each. Cloth, gilt edges, 5s. each. Half -Hours with Early Ex- Sunday Chats with Our Young plorers. Stories about Animals. Stories about Birds. Paws and Claws. Home Chat. Books for the Little Ones. The Little Doings of some Little Folks. By Chatty Cheerful. Illustrated. 5s The Sunday Scrap Book. With One Thousand Scripture Pic- tures. Boards, 5s. ; cloth, 7s. 6d. Daisy Dimple's Scrap Book. Containing about 1,000 Pictures. Boards, 5s. ; cloth gilt, 7s. 6d. Leslie's Songs for Little Folks. Illustrated, is. 6d. Books for Boys. King Solomon's Mines. By H. Rider Haggard. 5s. The Sea Fathers. By Clements Markham. Illustrated, as. 6d. Treasure Island. By R. L. Stevenson. With Full-page Illustrations. 5s. Half-Hours with Early Ex- plorers. By T. Frost. Illus- trated. Cloth gilt, 58. Folks. Peeps Abroad for Folks at Home. Around and About Old Eng- land. Little Folks' Picture Album With 168 Large Pictures. 5s. Little Folks' Picture Gallery. With 150 Illustrations. 5s. The Old Fairy Tales. With Original Illustrations. Boards, IS. ; cloth, IS. dd. My Diary. With 12 Coloured Plates and 365 Woodcuts, is. Three Wise Old Couples. With 16 Coloured Plates. 5s. Modern Explorers. By Thomas Frost. Illustrated. 5s. Cruise in Chinese Waters. By Capt. Lindley. Illustrated. 5s. Wild Adventures in Wild Places. By Dr. Gordon Sta- bles, M.D., R.N. Illustrated. 5s. Jungle, Peak, and Plain. By Dr. Gordon Stables, R.N. lUusw trated. 5s. CASSELL i COMPANY, Limited, London, Paris, New York and Melbourne, ' By >>,