IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // {•/ S' «?. . Act of ParHaim.nt of Canada, in the year ISSO, hi/ Major Douglas Jones, in the Office of the Mininter of Agriculture. INTRODUCTORY. Military Administration deals witli tiie general principles of raising, maintaining, moving, organizing and governing armies, the natural composition and functions of the military nuichinery, and the duties of staff officers in peace or war. As there are many years of peace to one of war the duties dur- ing war must be mastered and perfected in time of peace. The different departments of an army are sometimes, esi)eciariy in newly created and defectively organized forces, foand to work mostly for their own welfare regardless of the common weal and often in antagonism to other branches. To prevent this jarring and friction, all officers should be acquainted with the functions and i)owers of all the different departments, and tliis knowledge is best obtained by j)ractice after mastering theory. The English system of selecting officers for the staff is there- fore good. They remain on the staff a certain definite }>ori()d, or as long as their services are required, and tiien return to their reg- iments. Staff officers coming in contact with the different brunches of the service and with the various departments have opportunities oflearning the duties and requirements of each, which officers doing merel}' regimental duty are debarred from, and consequently, when the former return to their regiments, the knowledge obtained when on the staff proves of great advantage. Again, to comnumd all arms, whether on service or not, requires a proper acquaintance with each, and when an officer who has only done regimental (hity beeonjes a general, he finds himself in a difficult position, which a little staff experience would have obviated. )■ '3 CHAPTER I. ORGANIZATION. Tlio (Jilt'erGnce between an army and a mob is disci])llne, and discipline alone confers on bodies of men the power ot mano'nvrinfjj. Drill is a means to discipline, bnt drill is not discipline, which may be defined as unmurmuring obedience to the orders of superiors, in spirit and in letter. This alone can give reliance of all ranks one witli another, and coniidenco in unity of effort towards the attainment of one common object. Soldiers differ from civilians in being subject to a special law which applies to them alone, and in being under special obliga- tions. For instance, disobedience of the orders of a superior is, in the case of a soldier, an offence against the law and punishable accordingly. These special laws and regulations are necessary for the enforcement of discipline without which an armed body of men is a danger to itself and to society at large. The laws which special \y apply to British soldiers, were until 1879 the Mutiny Act passed annually by Parliament and the Articles of War, now the Army Discipline and Regulation Act, which is only brought into force by an annual act of Parliament. By this Act the Sovereign is empowerd to make Articles of War for the government of the army, but none are at present in ex- istence. This Act enumerates the military offences,defines the modes of dealing with offenders, lays down a scale of punishments, empow- ers Her Majesty to frame rules of procedure for courts martial, courts of enquiry, etc., etc. This "Military Law" has to be judicially recognized by all civil courts, but it is not allowed to delay, obstruct or override civil law, until the latter is declared by authority to be replaced by martial law. Offences against the civil law committed by soldiers are generally tried by military law; but there are some offences as treason, murder, manslaughter, treason-felony or rape, which, when commit- ted in Her Majesty's dominions, cannot be tried by military law except on active service,or unless there is no competent civil court within one hundred miles as measured in a straight line. — 6- Tlicre «arc also iMiblislicd for tlic i^ovcrnment of tho army : Jst, montlily Army Circulars^ whicli must l)e looked upon as a 8ni)i^lo- moiit to a hook called the "Revised Army Reenditure or issue), of arms, ammunition, cloth- ing and equipment. They regulate details connected with move- ments of troops by land and sea, mandiuvres, conditions under Avhich medals, honorary rewards and honorary distinctions are granted, excluding money awards. They are signed by the Adju- tant General of the Army, Besides these, there are, of course, orders issued by general officers in command of Districts, called District or Garrison Or- ders, also Regimental or Detachment Orders, and Troop, Battery or Company Orders. in{ / All aririy in time of pea(!0 sIkmiIcI he so (tr^uuized that wlicu iieceBttity iirisen, it may, in a sliort time, he phiced on a war I'odtin^ or be " mohiiized." It is perfectly elear that to estahhsh and main- tain (li8cii)line there must ho jurwnal coniant hetween the 8in>erii)r and the inferior, and as one man can intiuence only a hmiti'd num- ber of his fellow-men, it follows that the size of the first hudy or "unit" into wliich a mass of men is dividetl, must bear some relation to the number of interiors tliat can ])e iiithuinced l)y one supei-ior. Upon this basis must ultimately rest the division of armed bodies of men into companies, battalions, regiments, brigades, divisions, army- corps, armies. But not only must soldiers be disciplined and connnanded, they must also be paid, fed, armed and clothed. Hence the division of men into organized bodies should be such Jis will facilitate "ad- ministration.' Two distinct objects have therefore to be taken into account: Ist, Tactical efficiency, 2d, Facility of administration ; but the latter must contorm to the former. The organization of arm- ies consists in their sub-division into such fractions as can be etHeiently controlled by one man, and again grouped into higher units, — the object to be attained being to gain the greatest mol)ility, easiest su- pervision and control, and unity of command. If the fractions are too large, there is a want of mubility and ditKculty of supervision ; if too small, there is confusion in the multiplicity of parts, and waste of power in having so many suj)eriors. It is found that one man can control from four to eight men efliciently. Take for instance the German comj)any ; the captain controls his four lieutenants, the ensign and the com])any sergeant major; and these in turn control forty-two other N. C. officers, who control 209 soldiers. In the British service, in a battalion, a lieu- renant-coloncl has the assistance of one or two majors,one adjutant and one sergeant-major, with eight companies. From three to six corps d'armee are considered sufficient for one commander; if there are more the force is divided into two or more armies. It has ali'eady been observed that discipline can be best main- tained by personal contact of a superior with inferiors, and as the provision of food, arms and clothing for men, kee[)s the sn[)erior in contact with the inferior, find induces the latter to lean on, be governed and guided by the former, it follows that, if possible, the first tactical division should cori'es])ond with the fir^^t adminis- trative division, or, in other words, that the smallest i)idei)eiulent tactical command (the company in the infantr\ ), should also be the smallest administrative division. This is in effect the case, as the captain of a company commands, drills, ])Kys and looks after the men of his company. The size of the company, however,vai'ies mu(di in different armies. In the English army a company on a war foot- ing varies from 100 to 120 men, the captain being on foot. In Ger- many a company is 250 strong and thd captain is mounted. 'i! — 8— null In the Hritish cuvjilry a troop ot'about 00 troopors iHtlioju iHtrutivo unit undor u cai>tuiii, but a 8(iUHdr()n, Ibrnied by the union of two troojirt under tiio Bcnior caj)tain, is tliu tactical unit. Four BcjuadroiiB form a regiment.* In tlie artillery the battery of six guni* is the tactical and admin- istrative unit under a major. A brigade of artillery consists of two or more batteries; when there are more than two batteries, the Inig- ade is divided into brigade divisions of two batteries each. In the Engineers the company is the unit under a captain. Two or more battalions or regiments united compose a brig- ade. In England three battalions form an infantry brigade, and three regiments of cavaliy form a cavalry brigade. Two or three cavalry brigades are sometimes united to form a cavalry division. A Division of Infantry is the iirst body that is composed of all branches of the service, hence it conies more nearly to the defini- tion of a tactical unit of an army than any other body, and the divis- ion being com})osed of all arms is thus at the base of all army forma- tions. The English division is composed of two brigades of infantry and one riHe battalion (seven battalions), one regimoiit of cavalry, three batteries field artillery, (1-9 Pr., 2- 16 Pr.), one company engineers, etc., etc. Three divisions go to form an army corj^s with the addition of: One brigade of cavalry, three batteries horse artillery, two batteries field artillery (16 Pr.), one company engineers, etc., etc. Several army corps form an army. In organizing an army it is advisable to number divisions one, two, three, etc., right through the army ; thus the 2d army corps of an army would contain the fourth, fifth and sixth divisions. The brigades of cavalry should be similarly numbered. The brig- ades of infantry should be called right and left brigades of such and such a division. Cavalry. — The proportion of cavalry in a British army corps, is one sixth of the infantry, but taking each battalion at 1000 bay- onets, and each cavalry regiment at 500 sabres, the ])roportion would be one-seventh of cavalry. The nature of the service on which an army is sent, and the character of the country to be oper- ated in must al vvays greatly influence this proportion. In countries where forage is plentiful, especially in open countries, cavalry is most useful. A brigade of cavalry armed with good carbines might go anywhere, even in the closest country, by dismounting two- thirds of their numbers. They are invaluable for making rapid move- ments on an enemy's flanks, rear, etc., or in pursuit. V — 0— Ainir-LKRY. — The proportion of guns to sabres and bayonets in an army corps is, as nearly as possible, tbree i;uns to every lOOO men. At lOOo men per battalion, and odO sabres per cavalry regi- ment, tbe [)roj)(>rtion would be 3.75. This [)i-op()rtion must always depend upon the nature of the service which the army is to be employed upon, the topography of the theatre of war and the (puility of the tr()0i)s; the better they are, the smaller the number of guns re(|uired. An army occui>ying defensive positions ie([uires more guns than does one engaged in offensive o[)erations in the tleld. EN(fiNKKRs. — The proportion of engineers to sabres and l)ay- onets has usually been C(junted as one to thirty. Tiiis pro})ortion was laid down i>cfore the duties in connection with the mainte- nance of railways, the working of telegra])hs, torpedot^s, etc., were included in engineer duties. In the Franco-German war the engi- neers were about one to twenty-eight. The following tables give the complete war strengths of brig- ades, divisions, and army corps: / —10— BRIGADE OF CAVALRY AND INFANTRY (Without Tents.) 1 Offujeus AND Men. Horses. S ;5 Carkiaoes. COMPOSITION. i 3 93 7 1 1 3 5 50 '^ 11 1959 181 3 87 75 2 ?5 1 11 273 15 2 I 5 1572 168 [21 • • • a 11 1845 183 2 1 130 5 Carts or L'ujht Watjons. 2 3 1^ ■St2 BliKiADK OK lAVALIlV. Staft' 3 Ilegimenta 1 Battery Horse Artillery Veterinary Department Chaplain's Department Commissariat and Transport Medical Department* I'ostal Department b" 3 24 9 3 1 30 10 2 2 16 17 1 . . . . ■ 19 19 2177 6 7 66 5 Total 113 2.320 310 18G7 78 BRIGADE OF INFANTRY. Staff 3 Battalions Veterinary Department Chaplain's Department Commissariat and Transport Total 3 11 \y^ 3291 1 100 3352 11 33 2 1 o 49 135 '47" 182 11 168 2 1 49 231 12 24 ... . 8 "i 14 i.32 1 36 11 47 ♦Includes half a Bearer Comjiany, wMch receives horses and drivers from the Commissariat and Transport Department. NoiE.— An Infantry Brigade depends on the divisional organization for its Medical and I'ostal Service. —11— / A DIVISION (Without Tents.) Okkiorks andMun. 11 OHSKS. 6 12 CARKIA 257 46 65 2 1 340 103 16 as b -^^ ►^ '28* 4 1 '22' 1 Forges and Spare Gun Carriages. -2 General Stall' of Division 2 Urigados Infantry 1 l^jattalion Infantry 1 Uei^iinent Cavalry Field lUtteries 1 9 pr ^ 11 11 2 le-prs. . . \ 1 Infy. and Arty. Amnui. IJes. I Field Company Engineers. . 1 Troop Military Poliee Veterinary 1 )epartment Chaplains Department Commifisariat aud Trf.nsport. . Medical Department 1st ivine. 11 II *2nd Line. Postal Department 64 8 8 9 18 26 6 2 .... 1 2 3 "94 12 10 10 20 51 6 1 5 4 50 35 20 2 .53 40 24 9450 IK 65 944 Total 355 10154 397 9.]9.^ 11 ' .320 *The first line of the Medical Department includes Bearer Company. The second line consists of two Field Hospitals.for which horses and driv- ers ate furnished by the divisional Commissariat and Transport Department. I.'.t 'I i I —12— AN ARMY CORPS (Without Tents.) Officeks AND MkN. Horses. CO CAURIAOE.S. COMPOSITION. 1 24 1064 113 6 21 14 18 2 7 9 7 2 I 1 2 20 7 3 28 8 6 48 3 1414 e e 96 30459 2320 21 543 400 513 7 236 339 179 75 13 2 7 770 59 195 296 23 78 318 44 JO !■ 80 980 310 16 45 16 21 5 13 17 13 2 2 1 3 21 7 3 40 11 6 48 3 1663 1^ 6367 1867 504 300 492 .... 82 226 96 63 iiss 111186 SO 7348 2177 16 549 316 513 5 95 243 109 65 2 1 3 1209 7 3 40 11 6 48 3 12849 Carts or Light Wagons. 1 Forges and Spare Gun Carriages. -2 (ieneral Staff of Corps . . Three Divisions One Brigade of Cavalry. . >> ( IJeginiental Staff'* p,,ean conti- nent to train to arms the whole male population. Nearly the whole male ]>opulation may be employed in war, but war must then of necessity be of brief duration, as social economy exercises a wholesome check on the military element, for during war thei-e nnist be a complete cessation of all civil labour, which, if continued long, must exhaust the country. Modern struggles will then be brief but severer, and the time for preparation, after war is de- clared, will be very short and reckoned by days instead of by months, as heretofore, and the nation which is first ready for war has a great advantage over another not so pre])ared. It is, therefore, far more necessary, than in any previous era, to maintain the military ma- chinery in perfect working order, and to so organize it that it may be placed on a war footing in a very short time. Pre])arednes8 for war depends not only on internal mllita''y systems, but also on vigilant attention paid during peace time. All recent imj^rovc- ments in the organization of great European powers has aimed at mo- bilizing reserves as speedily as possible. —14— It will bo seen then tluit tlio inilitary ])()licy of a country must chieily doixjiul on its ij^ou<;r;i])l ileal position, its financial circuin- stanccs, and also on political causes; some nation.s re(|uijin^lar<^ei' numbers than others, and some, also, as has been pointed out, re([uir- in<^ their armies to be ready to take the Held at a moment's notice. To consider first the i^eogra])hi('al causes which <^ovcrn tlic question ot numbers: Countries ot" which the boundaries arc 8li<^htly niarketl and easily crossed arc naturally open to sudden invasions, and the power of invasion is limited by the nund»er that can cross the boundary in a <;iven time. For instance, all the nations on the European (!ontincnt are subject to this in more or less deut excluding garrisons in India and her colonies, about 1.25 per cent of the population ; but for offensive purposes, i. e., reg- ular troops capable of taking part in a foreign cx])edition, only .25 per cent. France maintains, if she mobilized all her forces, about 2.5 per cent; and the portion available for offensive purposes, is 1.40 per cent of the po])ulation. Germany, including Landwehr, but not the Landsturm, has I).07 per cent, and for ofl'ensive purposes 1.73. Russia, including militia, 1.53, and for offensive purposes 0.82 per cent ; but she has recently increased her army. Austro-IIungary 3 per cent, and for offensive })urposes, 1.94 per cent. Her failure in 1859 was due not so much to military causes as to her financial exhaustion. Tl are try anc of n -15— Tlio present military policy of Eriiijliind appears to be to main- tain a sii]»remacy at sea ajjjainst any ])ossil)lo comliination ; to kcjp enough men under arms in the United Kinijjdoni tor home det'enee, also to have enougrh to furnish an auxiliary expedition abroad, to fulfil, if necessary, her various ijjuarantecs, to hold India, to pro- tect her other colonial ])ossession8 from hostile ajj:;_n"res.sion, and to stand aloof as lon^jas ])ossible from the international ([uari-uls of other nations as loriii; as her natiotuil intei'ests are not ailected. No data can be formed as to her real requirements, but her j)ea(!e establish- ments amount to about 1(X),000 men in the United Kiiiij;(lom, in her colonial possessions to about 20,000 men, and in India, exclu- sive of native troops (123,000), to about 08,000 men, su])plie, they are only half- grown lads unable to endure the fatigues of a campaign, whereas conscripts abroad do not becon)e liable to military service till 20 and 21 years of age (E'rance, Prussia, Austria 20, Russia 21). and are seldom really required till a year or two later. Neither has desertion materially diminished, though many men are now only enlisted for 6 years' army service. The necessity for having self-supporting reserves is now, how- ever, beyond question. Experience has sh.wn that it is the only way of training large numbers and holding them ready for immediate service without enormous expense to the state. While in the reserve, each man earns his own living, and is at the same time subjected to periodical training, so that he may be fit to take his place in the ranks immediately on war breaking out. To each is assigned the duty for which he is best fitted, whether in the first or second line, in fortresses on the line of communications, or in garrisons at home ; the youngest being recalled first, the rest as they may be wanted. This system has l)een brought almost to perfection in Germany, where it has been in force since 1807, and when war is declared the men from the reserve rejoin at once the same regiments and even the same companies, in which they originally served. ,/ —21— Men who arc compelled to servo are naturally oa<;er to return to civil lite, but on the other hand men who voluntarily enlist mean probably to make the service a ])rote8sion, and to pass them into the reserves is almost a ])uni8hment. Besides, contimied liability to service (if the men are to be nuide to rejoin in case of war), [)re-sup- poses some sort of re<^istration and conseciucntly compulsion. Even in Germany, many men are driven to emigrate rather than remain in the country, with the chance of military service for over hanging over their heads, and consequently it cannot be surprising if in England, where registration is almost impossible, where the people are more migratory and inde])endent,and wliore anything approach- ing compulson is viewed with e8i)ecial disfavour, the reserves would, in time of danger, not be forthcoming, and the army found to consist nuxinly of men serving in the ranks. Since proper registration is almost impossible, though it is enforced .;s far as it can be, men have been offered a retaining fee of £9 as an inducement to reuuiin in tlie country, but it is hardly enough to compensate for loss of time taken uj) in occasional training, to say nothing of the liability to service in case of war. It appears also that in England many men in the reserves are refused civil employment, as the employers feel that the men nuiy be taken trom their work at any moment, perhaps even when their services are most required. It has been proposed, to obviate some of these dithculties, to increase the i-etaining fee considerably (up to j£20), as the importance of being able to get the men at any time is beginning to be fully recognized, and it is only reasonable to give compensation for loss of employment and wages. All that has been said in favour of voluntary enlistment in England applies with still more force to the United States, for the number of men re([uired for the army (25,000) being so small a pro- ])ortion of the population there is no necessity for resorting to com- pulsory service. —22— CHAPTKJi HI. RULES of ENLISTMENT for the ENGLISH ARMY. Eni^laml, as it has already been stated, adheres strictly to the system of voluntary eidistment. All the regulations, therefore, res- pecting enlistuicnt must depend on the same princii)le8 as obtain in in the ordinary relations of life, viz. : That there must be some immediate as well as pros])ective advantages to be gained by serving. The chief object consequently should be, to reconcile military with civil considerations, attaching equal importance to each, and to nud. Ke<(iments arc toniicd by collecting tVoiii 4 to 8 troops. Men are not enrolled for any definite pei-iod and they can withdraw at any time on giving 14 days' notice. They find their own horses, but government ]>rovides Jirms and allows £2 ])er annum for clothing. There is u stafi' of one adjutant per regiment and one drill-sergeant per troop. Their nominal strength is about 14,500, but only 10,500 were present at the annual training in 1878, the last time when they were called out. They are liable to be called out in case of war or iti aid of the civil power, but not to leave the United Kingdom. Training not to exceed 8 days annually, — recruits 12 drills. Allowances when out 7s a da}'. The permanent staff are at all times subject to military law. Officers and men when assembled tor exercise, on actual military service or when serving in aid of the civil j)ower. Volunteers. The volunteer force, as at present constituted, was raised in 1858 when a ])anic of apprehended invasion induced men to enrol themselves for the defence of the country. In 1804, long before the orgaiiization of the present force, about 450,000 volunteers were enrolled and volunteer acts were passed in 1802 and 1803. The present force consists of light horse, artiller}', engineers, mounted rifle and infantry corps. It is organized in local corps cor- responding to companies, and when there are enough of them they are formed into battalions. Like the^'comanry.men ai'c not enrolled for any fixed period, but can leave on giving 14 days' notice. Volunteers are under the Secretary of State for AVar and they I'cceive a yearly government grant of 20s to defray expenses. The men are classified as " efficients " and " non-efficients." The efficients are those who know their duties and have performed certain drills. The government grant is termed "capitation grant," and is nuide to corps at the rate of 206' a year, and lOs a year extra for each " effic- ient," whether officer or man. Officers and sergeants who have received special certificates obtain each an addititional grant of £2 10s for the benefit of their corps. Government provides arms and accoutrements ; volunteers find their own uniform. Total strength in 1880, 245,048, unt fol ed —33— Volunteers hccoinc subject to military law under the eanie cir- cutnstances as Yeomanry except tliat tliey are not liable to be called out in aid of the civil power. The whole available military force of Great Britain may there- fore be divided into three great classes, viz. : 1st, The rejrnlar forces. 2nd, The reserve forces. 3rd, The auxiliary forces. Their numbers for the present year (1880) are api)roximately as follows : The Regular Army lor Home Defence, . ; 108,859. Army Reserve Class 1 23,000. " " Class II 24,000. Militia and Militia Reserve 139,112. Yeomanry 14,511. " Volunteers 245,648. Total 555,130. Or, allowing for overestimates, for the Defence of the United Kingdom about 500,000. Regular Troops in the Colonies 20,000, " " in India 62,600. Native Troops in India 123,000. *Grand Total for the Defence of the Empire. . , .705,600. Karine Forces. Sailors, including 4,000 boys actually alien 37,000. Marines * 14,000. Naval Reserve 23,000. Total 74,000, In addition there is a small force of artillery and naval vol- unteers. "Excluding local colonial troops. lave of tind —34— CHAPTER V. ORGANIZATION of the REGULAR ARMY. Infantry. — The infantry is divided into regiments of one or more battalions, thus : The Foot Guards consist of 3 Regiments forming 7 Battalions. " Rifles " 2 " "8 " " Infantry of the Line "108 " " 133 " Total. . . .113Regimentsformingl48 Battalions. The first 25 regiments have each two battalions and are attached to one and the same Brigade Depot, — the other regiments are also linked together in pairs and are termed " linked battalions " which also belong to the same Brigade Depot. Each battalion consists of from 8 to 10 companies. The strength of each company on the peace establishment varies between 48 and 82 privates according as the battalions are required for home or colon- ial service. The war strength is fro in 100 to 120 men. Total force of infantry about 124,500 of all ranks, 45,795 being in India. Cavalry.— The cavalry are organized in regiments each of 4 squadrons, each squadron consisting of 2 troops, thus : Life Guards consist of 2 Regiments forming 8 Squadrons. Royal Horse Guards •' 1 4 X Dragoon Guards " 7 28 Dragoons " 3 12 Lancers " 5 20 Hussars " 13 62 Total. ...31 Regiments of 124 Squadrons Strength of Squadron — Peace Establishment, 50—60 files. —War " 80 files. ii u Total force of cavalry about 17,000 of all ranks and 11,600 horses, inclusive of 4,320 cavalry in India. Royal Artillery. — The Royal Artillery is organized in one regiment of 14 brigades, of which — 3 Brigades are Horse Artillery. 6 « " Field 6 " » Garrison " / —35— A Hiigado of llorao Artillery consists of 10 Batteries. " " Field " " U or 15 " " " Garrison " " 18 or 19 " The actual number of batteries being : Horse Artillery 30 Batteries with 180 Guns. Field " ■ 85 " " 510 " Total Mounted Batteries.. 115 with 090 Guns. Garrison Batteries. . . 91 Total number of Batteries 206 Add to each brigade 1 depot battery. Total about 220 bat- teries. Peace Strength (approx.) j>er battery Horse Art. 142 men,113 horses. " " " " Field " 140 " 85 " War " " ^* Horse " 185 " 200 " " « " « Field " 197 " 184 " A garrison battery numbers about 100 or 120 men. There is also the coast brigade numbering about 1000 men. The total strength of the artillery is 35,241 with 12,164 horses. The Indian establishment is 12,081. At Malta there is the Royal Malta Fencible Artillery consisting of 6 garrison batteries with a total of 371 of all ranks. Royal Enginkkrs. — This corps is divided into 43 companies and 3 troops, thus : Field Compatiies with a proportion of Wagons, 4 companies. Sub-marine Mining or Torpedo 4 " Surveying 4 " Postal Telegraph 2 " Garrison 23 " Depot (2 recruits, 4 field works) 6 " Total 43 companies. 1 Pontoon Troop — 120 yards of bridge ) 1 Telegraph Troop — 45 miles >• 3 Troops. 1 Depot Troop J Total strength about 5,651 of all ranks, of whom 428 arc in India. Non-Combatant Forces. The non-combatant branches of the army for purposes of Supply consist of the : 1st, Commissariat and Transport Department. 2nd, Ordnance Store Department. 3rd, Pay Department. I ■ r^ —36— The two former are under tlio Surveyor General of Ordnance. The ("onimifissanat and Transport Department remains cljarjjed with tlie same (hitics aa were j)revi()U8ly carried out by tlie Harrack,(Jom- inissariat and Purveyor's Departments as well as hy the Transport Service, formerly known as tlio Military Train, and is under the Director General of Supply. The i^arrack Department had, as its name implies, to do with the allotment of barracks and had charge of all barrack furniture and barracks in use by the troops. The duties of the Commissariat were to provide and issue all sup- plies connected with the provisioning of trooi)9 by contract or oth- erwise. The l*nrveyor's Department had to carry out the financial afiairs and ex})enditure of hospitals. The Military Train, formed after the Crimean war as a land transport corps to carry on all transport duties, was stric-tly a military forc'e with duties of a non-combative character, but as transport is so intimately connected with supply it was (considered that the transiMjrt service should be under the officer responsible for supj)ly. The transport service, now known as the Army Service Corps, is attached to the Commissariat. It consists ot 16 companies on the peace establishment capable of expansion to 32 companies on mobil- ization. Each company contains a personnel both for transport duties and duties of supply. A company on the war establishment ranges from 182 of all ranks with S3 carnages to 230 of all ranks with 127 carriage. Total' numbers Army Service Corps about 3,000. The Ordnance Store Department is under the Diiector Genenil of Artillery and Stores, and sup])lie8 all stores and munitions of war for all brandies of the army and auxiliary forces as well as for the navy, — except clothing and necessaries. Total numbers about GOO. Under the Surveyor General of Ordnance, besides the two great bi anclies of the '' Commissariat and Tra.isport " and the " Ord- nance Store," are two minor branches, one for contracts and the other for clothing. The Financial or Pay Department has to deal with all matters connected with the pay of officers and men and militaiy expenditure generally. It receives, disburses and accounts for all monies receiv- able oi- payable for military services under the orders of the Secre- tary of State for War. 1'ho Commissariat and Transport, and the Ordnance Store Departments are, as concerns officer8,both divided into two sections. The officers of the Superior Section are officers of the army who have volunteered and serve under their military commissions. After 10 —31— yearH' sorvico in one of tlicso (lopartiiioiits tliey tnay elect (if approved) to feinaiii penuaiiently ifi the department or they may revert to their regiments, or to half pay. Tiie army rank and stalt' j^rades of those officei's is as follows : ConinilHHiiriiit ikiid Oriliiiiiicr Storu TruiiHpurt Dupartniciit. I)c|iiirtnii!iit. TLir • i^ 1/1 • n 1 I Commisarv General of Mui. General. Commissary General. J .v s '' ' Ordnance. Colonel. i Deputy Commissary ) \ Deputy Commissary ( General. f ( General of Ordnance. Lieut-Colonel ] after Captain 'ter 5 years, I j Assistant Com- ) j Assistant Commissary Major on " ( missary General. | ( General of Ordnance. appointment. c T\ L \ • ^ t. \ i Deijuty Assistant Coin- Deputy Assistant ) ) ' . -^ , . , ,. W^ • ri If A missary (.Tcneral or Commissary General. ) r\ , ^ '' ' ( Ordnance. Otliceis of the Subordinate Section hold commissions from Her Majesty and are called Quarter masters, and will consist of warrant officers ])romoted. Officers of the Pay Department are also to be volunteers from the regular army and are called Paymasters. Army ICedioal Department. This department is under the Director General of the Army Medical Department. Till lately in the British service one or two medical otHcers belonged to every regiment and the hospital system was reuiniental. The arj'uments in favour of this regimental system are that the j^ersonal knowledge ot a doctor with patients tends to good feeling and confidence, soldiers' constitutions are better known, in:iling(;ring is more easily discovered, and that men remaining under the conimandiiig officer's supervision are better cared for. In war time the regimental svsteiu could not be maintained, as General Flospitals then become necessary ; so that there were for- merly two systems, one for peace and the other for war, which was objectionable. It was also found extravagant in personnel and materiel and it caused ineipiality in the distribution of work. Recently the general hos])ital system has been adopted, and all the medical officers belong to the Army Medical Department and wear the uniform of this department instead of being regimental officers wear- iiiLT the uniform of the regiment. At large military stations are established general hospitals and at smaller ones station hospitals all under the entire control of officers of the Medical Department. Under the orders of the medical officers is a force called the Army Hospital Corps, strength 1,942, who perforin all the subordi- nate hospital duties. I. I r: —So— Medical officers are commissioned officers and have the follow- ing ranks and relative ranks : TLT • r^ ^ } Director General. Major General J g^^^^^^^^ ,, Colonel Deputy Surgeon General. -r . ^ 1 , ) Brigade Surgeon. Lieut. Colonel . . . ^ Surgeon Major after 20 years' service. Major Surgeon Major of less than " " Captain Surgeon. Lieutenant Surgeon on probation. Entrance to this department is partly by competitive examina- tion and ])artly by appointment of the Secretary of State to candidates proposed by the governing bodies of public schools of medicine in the United Kingdom and Colonies, as being duly quali- lied according to a certain prescribed standard. Not less than half the number of vacancies are to be filled up by con:petition. Surgeons on probation have to undergo instruction in Ambu- lance and Hospital corps duties, and then go t' ugh a course in the Army Medical School. After passing the ncjessary examina- tion, they are, if approved by the Director General, commissioned as surgeons. Further Organization Required In War. 1st, Bearer companies to collect and rcuiove the wounded from the battle-Held to ambulances. 2nd, Their conveyance in ambulances to Field Hospitals. 3rd, The establishment and maintenance of Field Hospitals for the wounded until they can be removed to more permanent hos- pitals in rear. 4th, Permanent or General Hospitals on the line of communica- tions, — so that the Field Hospitals may be cleared out and enabled to accompany the army and be as free as possible. General Hospitals should not be larger tiian for 500 to 600 patients, and men should be cleared out oif these whenever possible to convalescent depots. A general hospital should be under a Military Governor, and for every 40 sick a medical officer and about 5 attendants are retpiired. As a general rule accommodation will be required in general hospitals at the rate of 1,400 beds for each army corps. Convalescent depots under a purely military staff are established on the line of communications to give men rest and enable them to rejoin the army when lit. These dej)ots have gener- ally been made to accommodate from 500 to 1,000 men. —39— Wlien near the sea or large lakes Hosjjital Ships are invaluable. A well organized ambulance establishment with an army is very important, as the moral effect on the men of a well organized system in which every man who falls is taken care of, is great. The idea of remaining all night, or longer, on the battle field has a depressing effect on the minds of the men, who fear this more than the actual wound or even death. The withdrawal of men from the fighting ranks to carry wounded to the rear has often had great influence on the success of the day by diminishing the fighting force, and yet this is an evil which no general has been able fully to check in spite of orders issued to the contrary, as besides the desire of some to get to the rear out of dan- ger there is a natural impulse to help a comrade. In the British service bandsmen used to be employed for this service, but it is generally admitted that those who have close intercourse with fight- ing men should see as little as possible of the havock among the wounded, and certainly that no fighting men should be employed for this service. The proportion of sick of an army in the field is estimated at 10 per cent, and 16 per cent, of wounded, total 2(j per cent, as a maxi- mum, diminishing to 15 per cent, as a minimum. The strength of ambulance detachments for the carriage ot wounded varies with the unit to which they are attached. An ambu- lance detachment attached to an infantry brigade consists of 4 sur- geons and 27 ambulances. An ambulance wagon carries 6 patients sitting and 2 lying on ambulance stretchers, and has an army hos- pital corps attendant and one driver. The wounded, when collected on the battlefield, are carried on stretchers to the ambulances to which they are then transferred and conveyed to a Field Hospital. A Field Hospital is the unit of organ- ization and has accommodation for 200 beds. Its staff consists of 7 medical offlcers, 1 captain of orderlies, 37 N. C. officers and men of the Army Hospital Corps, 17 drivers, 6 wagons and 24 horses, and each hospital establishment is capable of sub-division into two parts. Ambulance detachments follow the troops on the field of battle but are kept as far as possible out of fire, Field Hospitals follow about one day's march in rear. Of the 6 wagons belonging to a Field Hospital, 4 are hospital wagons, and each contains equipment for 50 sick, two are surgery wagons each for 100 wounded. The medical establishment belonging to the different units on a war footing is shown in the tables on pages 10-12. Vpterinary Department. There is a Principal Veterinary Surgeon over this department, and surgeons are posted to stations and also sometimes attached to I ;!i- ' —40— regiments of cavalry and batteries of artillery. A veterinary sur- geon is attached to each intantry and cavalry brigade, to each divis- ion and also to each army corps. It is considered that there should be a veterinary surgeon to every 400 horses, and under his orders a farrier and a shoeing smith for every 50 horses that he has charge of. —41— CHAPTEK VI. PAY and ALLOWANCES. The money required for the payment ot the army is voted annu- ally by Parliament in the army estimates brought forward by tlio Secretary of State for War, and is applied to the pur[)oses specified in the estimates under the direction of the Secretary of State. The total sum is divideil among;st corps and regiments, and is issued from the War Office on monthly requisitions through the Paymaster. Formerly there was a Paymaster to each regiment or battalion, but now Paymasters are appointed to stations. The Paymaster enters into no cash transactions with the men. Advantage is taken of the divisions of regiments and battalions into troop8,batteries and compatiies to make the officers commanding them responsible for the payment ot the men under their command. The money required for the payment of his men is estimated for in advance by the captain and received weekly from the paymaster. This sum, he, with the assistance of a pay-sergeaut, expends in pay- ing and discharging some of the liabilities of the men, and at the end of every month he furnishes the paymaster with a pay-list shi)W- ing how the money has been expended and how his account with the public stands. The captain has therefore to look to the correctness of his accounts with: — 1st, The men of his company. 2nd, The pay-sergeant. 3rd, The ^ lymaster. But if accounts go wrong between him and his pay-sergeant the captain is wholl}- responsible. The whole rate of daily pay of each man is credited to him, but the money spent for him for certain authorized charges has to be deducted from him in his monthly account. The daily pay of a private of infantry is 1^ and of a sergeant 2^ and ]d. Additional pay is granted as a reward for good conduct. A--- w —42— called good conduct pay, to soldiers under the rank of sergeant according to a given scale Id a dav after 2 years' service. 2d •' " " 6 " " Sd " "12 " " and so on. In case of entries being made against a soldier in the Regimen- tal Defaulter's Book he forfeits one good conduct badge for a speci- Hed time (one or two years) for each entry. Deferred Pay. — Men, whether in the army or reserve, are credited with deferred pay at the rate of 2 pence a day for all ranks during the first 12 years' service. No part of it is ever paid to them until their army service is completed and never before 6 years, even if the soldier is part of this tin'ie in the reserve. Allowances. — A ration of bread (1 lb.) and moat (f lb.) is issued daily, when possible, to every soldier, free of charge. When rations cannot be issued, men on duty or furloufj;h receive Gd a dav in lien. Service toward good conduct pay and deferred pay are forfeited on conviction of certain offences by Court Martial, or when awarded as a punishment by such a Court. AuthoriEed Stoppagres from Soldiers' Pay. Daily stoppages when at duty : For groceries, vegetables, etc., 5c?. Washing, ^d. The total daily charge for messing and washing is not to exceed 6^d. Ser- geants may spend what they like subject to control. There are also certain daily stoppages when in hospital, and a monthly one of 1^? for hair cutting. Some of the other authorized stoppages are : To replace necessaries, marking clothing and necessaries, armourers', tailors' and shoemakers' charges, barrack damages, fines for drunkenness and other stoppages from pay inflicted by Court Martial or by the Commanding Officer. Forfeiture of pay for absence, imprisonment, etc., is dealt with under ]\[ilitary Law. Rehcrve Pay. — Men of the reserve receive -iid a day which is paid at the end of each quarter. Pensions are sums of money allowed at daily rates to soldiers on leaving the service. Permanent pensions are only given for long service (21 years), good conduct, disciiarge for disability through wounds received in action, or injury in the service. Privates after 21 years' service receive from Sd a day to Is 3d when they have a certain number of good conduct badges, — N. C. officers get more, the maximum being 3s a day. —43- Teuiporary jiensioiis are granted for short periods (from 1 to 18 months when under 7 years' service, more tor h)nger service) when soldiers liave to be discharged before completing the whole term of service for which they enlisted on account of ill health or other causes. Soldiers of good character may obtain their discharge, if approved, before completion of their engagement on payment of certain sums of money acccording to a regular scale. Certain sums are voted annually for annuities and gratuities : Annuities not exceeding £20 with or without a medal are granted fur " Meritorious Service " or " Distinguished Conduct in the Field." Gratuities not exceeding £5 with medals are granted for long ser- vice and good conduct ; for these a soldier must have served with an irreproachable character for at least 18 years. Supply and Transport in Peace. [This Suliject in time of War will be treated separately]. All matters relating to the supply and transport of the army are the business of the " Commissariat and Transport Department." Supplies of troops during peace consist of: (1). Food. (2). Quarters, fuel and light. (3). Medical attendance. (4). Equipment. (5). Clothing. (6). Necessaries. (1). The rations of bread and meat are issued free and are usually obtained by local contracts. The supply is not sufhcicnt for three meals and is supplemented by the purchase of coffee, vegetables, etc., (known as groceries) within a specified amount, and paid for by the men who also do their own cooking. Forage for horses is supj)lied by contract. Daily allowance for each horse is hay 12 lbs,, oats 10 lbs., straw 8 lbs, (2). Quarters are provided either in barracks, huts, tents, or billets. Supplies of fuel and light are also granted free. The num- ber of men that can be accommodated in any one room or Init is determined by authority, according to size of room, climate, etc, 600 feet per man being the minimum. Billets are quarters for troops on the march, when soldiers are billeted in hotels, inns and public houses. (3), In the army a^l ranks are entitled to medical attendance free hospitals being provided at every station. Soldiers are alwavs sent to hospital when unfit for duty. i .1 i !t i li '! —44— (1). Equipment is the term used to denote the arms, appoint- ments, acconiiements, great coats, and leggings. Tliese are all the property of the government and if returned into the store will be re-issued if serviceable. (5). Clothing includes those articles, which, being issued free by government, are required to be kept in wear a certain time, and tlfien l)ecome (with the exception of the head-dress) the property of the soldier. If soldiers do not require the clothing they are entitled to, they receive its value in money. Infantry receive annually 1 serge frock, 1 pair of trousers, 2 pairs of boots, and biennially 1 tunic and 1 pair of summer trousers. (6). Necessaries. — This is the general name for the remaining articles of a soldier's kit. A certain complement has always to be kept iij). it is first issued free and then kept up at the soldier's expense. They can usually be obtained from government stores at prices lixed by regulation. The total value of an infantry soldier's kit is about £2 and consists of a forage cap, shirts, towels, socks, brushes, etc. Sujiplies on board ship are furnished entirely by the naval authorities. For long voyages men are provided with extra cloth- ing, called a sea kit, for which they pay for themselves. TuANSPOirrfor the army during peace is performed by the Army Service Corps, the wagons of which carry about 30 cwt. ! i it —45— CITAPTEK VII. r ' jlrl SKETCH of DIFFERENT MILITARY SYSTEMS. The Oerman Empire. The German army has been chosen first, for its organization is most complete, it Iris succeeded in war, and it now serves as the model for otlier nations to copy. The basis of the Prussian system has, since the beginning of this century, been universal comjnilsorv se4*vice and no substitution has been permitted. Tliis system arose not from choice but from necessity. After the Prussian overtlirow in 1800 at Jena, Napol- eon dictated terms at the treaty of Tilsit limiting the Prussian army to 43,000 men. This limitation necessitated a scheme for providing more m<3n, and consequently as soon as soldiers became efficient they were sent on furlough and replaced by others. This system succeeded, for when Prussia joined the allies in Belgium in 1815 she had about 264,000 men all more or less trained to arms, and when once trained men called from civil life were found reliable soldiers, the standing army was thenceforth used as a school for the reserves. The liabilities to service were altered from time to time. In 1867, when, as a result of the Austro-Prussian war the North Ger- man Confederation was formed with a population of 30 million, a new law was passed consolidating the old ones and fixing tiie strength of the army at one per cent, of the ])opulation. This law was in force throughout the Franco German war and until the law of 1874 came into operation for the whole German Empire. The annual contingent is not fixed by law, but regulated by the number of men required for the peace establishment which was fixed at about 401,000 for 7 years, for which an annual contingent of about 145,000 was required. The total population including Alsace and Lorraine is about 43 millions. For military purposes, both for recruiting and organization, tlie Empire is divided into provinces, to each of which is assigned one or more corps d'arme*^. 1 . 1 ■I ■ ^ f .\ Prussia j 1 Guard ( 13 Corps. —46— Corp8(rocruitccl from the whole Kingdom) Saxony 1 Corps. Wurtemberg 1 Bavaria 2 u (( Total .... 18 Corps d'arme^. One Division is furnished from Ilesso in addition. Of these ] 8 corps,thc Guard corps is recruited all over Pru8sia,l)ut each of the other 17 corps has a separate recruiting division corres- ponding to the civil divisions. Each of tiiese corps districts is divided into 4 parts one to each brigade of infantry composing the c()r])s. Each of these is again sub-divided into 4 parts called Landwehr Battalion Districts whicth correspond to small civil divisions. There is also a Vith Landwehr l>att dion District to each corps for the juirpose ot tilling up gaps in any sparsely populated sub- division. A Landwehr regiment consists of 2 battalions and corresponds to the similar line regiment in number atid everything. A line reg- iment has 3 battalions and occupies the same recruiting area as the Landwehr regiment* The Landwehr regiuiental staff is not main- tained in peace time, but the battalion staflF is and it contitutes the chief recruiting agency. The Landwehr battalion is only called out twice in 5 years in peace time for a few days' training. Men, after serving with the colors, generally return to their (Mvil employment in the same locality they were recruited from dui'ing their reserve and Landwehr service as they pass into their corres))onding Landwehr regiment. Each Landwehr battalion dis- trict is divided into company districts corresponding to the lowest civil division with the Sergeant Major at the head. The Regiment is the German administrative unit, and the Bat- talion the tactical unit, but as Landwehr regiments do not exist in peace time, administration is carried on by Landwehr battalions. The military forces of the Empire may be divided into 3 great classes : The Standing Artny, the Reserves and the Landsturm. Of these, the army and reserves form 4 distinct classes, viz : Ist, The Standing Army, men actually in the ranks. 2nd, Reserves, men who have passed through the ranks. 3rd, Landwehr, men who have served 7 years in the army and reserve, and then form separate battalions. 4th, Ersatz recruiting reserve : Untrained men to be called into the depots in case of war. —47— Every man is liable to service at the iilace lots are drawn for the numbers required, after which a selection is made for the guard and other corps. Men not required belong to the Ersatz reserve, but they have to present themselves every year for 3 years when they are liable to have to serve, and it is at the end of this time only that they are per- manently classed in the reserve. The Ersatz Reskrve is divided into two classes. The 1st Class is composed of men fit for the ranks who would have been called into them if they had been required, they remain 5 years in this class. The 2nd Class is composed of men wluj have served 5 years in the 1st Class, and men unfit for combatant service but suitable for the non-combatant branches ; thev are liable ui) to 32 vears of atire. There are also voluntary modes of entering the army, viz : 3 year volunteers, 1 year volunteers and avantageurs or cadets. Three Year Volunteers. — Any young num of 17, medically approved, with a good (conduct cerlificate aiul his parents'* pci'mission may enlist voluntarily. The advantages he obtains by so doing are that he can select his own regiment, and finishes his military service early. Forty of these volunteers per battalion, is the limit allowed. After 3 years' service he joins the reserve and at the usual age of 27 the Landwehr. Cavalry volunteers usually serve 4 years. (■i; '. —48— One Year Volunteers. — Young men of good education and means to defray all expenses, may become one year volunteers. They must be between 17 and 20 when they ])re8ent themselves,have a good conduct certificate and their parents' permission, but they need not join till their 2iid year, and doctors not till their 27th year, but this })08tponement of service is limited to |»eace timf^ They are required tu pass an examination ; four ])er company is the limit in peace time but there is no limit in time of war. During their short service special facilities are offered them to qualify for conunissions in the Reserve and Landwehr. After 6 montlis' service in the ranks they become N. C. officers and at the end of the year pass an exam- ination to qualify for officers or N. C. officers. After their year's service they join the Reserve, and the Landwehr at 27. The system of one year volunteers has been adopted by most ])owers. The advantages to the individual are, that he nuiy choose the period to serve, which therefore interferes less with his private pro- fession, he uuiy also choose his own regiment, and may serve accord- ing to his profession as a doctor, veterinary surgeon, etc. The benefit to the State and the army are that soldiers are obtained without cost, an educated class is distributed in the ranks, and a large supply of officers is obtained in the event of mobilization. The Avantageur enters the service on pur})ose to become an officer without passing through one of the cadet colleges. lie is nominated by the colonel of a regiment and is required to pass an examination and afterwards a professional examination. lie serves six weeks as a private, messing with the company, etc. After 6 months he may, if approved by the colonel and other officers, enter their ranks as an ensign. Re-engagements are allowed in the army for N. 0. officers, use- ful men, etc., and they tlien receive a higher rate of pay. When a re-engaged man has served 7 years witli the colors he goes straight to the reserve. Subordinate civil posts are kept open for N. C. officers and re-ensraired men. 'h"»^ Reserve. — Soldiers in the reserve are liable to take ])art in two luanoBuvres not exceeding 8 weeks during their reserve service. Many men do not serve their full 3 years in the standing army. After they are efficient soldiers, sometimes in two years, they are sent home on furlough (being liable to recall) and their places are filled up from their own year's class. The chief object of this is to train more men without expense or observation. L'. ABILITIES ov THE Ersatz Reserve. — Mcii of the f st Class must keep the recruiting authorities acquainted with any change of residence. They may emigrate but must give full particulars and are bound to return to their country in (.-ase of mobilization, unless at that time specially exempt. Wtien called out most of them are incorporated in Landwehr battalions. It is intended in future, on —49— first iiiobili/utioii, to mobilize mixed battulioiis of Jjiuidwohr, each t(» consist of 800 trained Landwehr men and 400 untrained Ersatz reserve men. Wiien mobilization terminates the Ersatz reserve men, bein ^nns instead of 4 per battery as in peace. Total 17 batteries of 102 ^m\». Each regiment forms besides a depot of two batteries. Tl serve is only able to supply Bome 2,000 men, and the rest are t . from the Landwelir, anil loot artillery reserves are sent to tin their places. The Cavalry Reserve also supply men for duty with ammunition columns, etc. Supply of Horsks. — Horses in peace time are punthased in the open market at about 3^ years of age and sent to remount depots where they are trained until they are 5 years old. There are also government studs for breeding chargers. A charger when sent to a regiment is supposed to last 9 years. For mobilization a large number of additional horses are required, and every horse in the country is liable to be taken. A list of all the horses in a Landwehr battalion district is kept by its cotnmander and revised annually. The number required for each district is detailed by the coi'ps commander, and each owner is told where to bring his horse. A comini' '3 of reception sits to choose the horses, and a valuation comn value each horse and the owner is paid. A few horses sucn doctors', magistrates', etc., are exempt from this ballot. The active army numbers about 401,600, — the annual contin- gent being nearly 145,000. Omittlnaymasters, etc.,and 83,840 horses. The Oerman army will by then be composed of 190 infantry regiments, 93 cavalry regiments and 340 battcvio" of artillery. These additions will raise the war strength of the German army to about 1,405,000 men, and will materially improve the proportion of the three arms. Hitherto Germany luis been superior in point of —53— cavalry, but inferior in iiitUntry and artillery, and the new increase adds 11 infantry re<^lnients, 40 batteries of rield artillery, 1 regiment of garrison artillery and 1 battalion of pioneers to the army. This increase in the artillery shows that the Germans do not agree with those English military writers, who, basing their con- clusions on the rc8\ilts of the Russo-Turkisli war, think that tlie value of artillery has decreased owing to improvements in the infantry lire arm, and that this arm may conse(piently be reduced in strength. One very important feature in this now Bill is tliat it ])rovide8 for the training ot the p]rsutz lleserve. The 1st (Mass will be liable to 4 ])eii(>ds of training, — the lirst two o\' S weeks and tlie last two of 2 weeks each. Men thus exercised will renuiin in the 1st Class until the com])letion of their period of service, i.e., tor a total of 12 years. The number of men to be drafted annually into the Ersatz Reserve will be increased to about 50,000 oi" (10, 000. When this new Bill comes into full o])eration, men drafted from this reserve into the ranks of the regular army on mobilization will be to some extent ti'ained men. This is of the greatest importance, as in future the iighting value of the German army at the first outbreak of war will be greatly increased by drafting into the raidcs men lit to take their place instead of, as hitherto, perfectly untrained men. Tlie Empire will, by this measure, be in a position to place 20 army corps on the frontier in a week, the Landwehr can furnish at least 12 more army corps, and tlie Ersatz lleserve in J? years will furnish 150,000 men ])artially trained or the nuiking of (> more army corps, e([Ui;! in all to 88 corps complete, aiul this without counting the men of the 2:id Class Ersatz lleserve and the I^andsturm. The German military systeic has been entered into at some length as it has been the most complete and luis acted as a nu)del on wlii".h France. Austria, Russia and Italy have based their systems and these need therefore only receive a slight sketch. OreraniEation of the French Army. The country is divided into 18 military districts, to each of which is assigned a cori)8 d'armee. The troops in Algeria form a 19th corps. Recruiting is carried on in a similar manner to the German, liability to service commencing at the age of 20. As in the Ger- man army, volunteers may join at an earlier age (IS), and there are also one year volunteers. The forces are divided into : let, The active army with its reserve. 2nd, The territorial arp ' with its reserve. -54- I t Period of Service. — In the ranks, u (( reserve . 5 years. 4 u Total , 9 years. In the territorial army 5 " " " reserve 6 Total 11 years. Obligatory personal service thus extends for 20 years, and these twenty contingents are counted on in time to produce no less than 3,750,000 men. As this system was only introduced in 1872 it will take some years before it is fully developed. The number of men annually attaining the legal age is about 312,000, of which 267,000 aie retained on the lists. These are divided into two categories, one of 146,000 drafted for army service, and the other of 121,000 who are excused service with the colors, though 28,000 are posted to the auxiliary forces and the others remain liable to be called upon until they join the reserve after live years. Of the 146,000 drafted for army service, 92,000 serve with the colors, nominally for 5 years. though many are dismissed on furlough after 3 yeai's. The remainder, numbering 64,000, serve with the colors a minimum period of six months which may be prolonged to one year, after which they join the reserve. The reserve of the active army is liable to be called out for two trainings of 28 days each. While in the territorial army, men are subject to periodical embodiments for drill and to an annual muster. Every man joins the territorial army at tlio, age of 29. The peace establishment of the army is 469.310 men, and 95,043 horses excluding the Gendarmerie and the GardeRepublicaine. The war strength in 1879 was 1,809,000 men. An Infantry company on a peace footing musters only 75 rank and lile, its war strength being 250. There are four companies to a battalion. A regiment consists of 4 battalions, with 2 depot com- ])anies in addition. There are 185 regiments or 654 battalions. The companies on a peace footing are dangerously weak and on mobilization would be swamped by reservists. A Cavalry regiment consists of 5 squadrons each having about 140 troopers. There are 11 regiments exclusive of 7 in Algeria. One Cavalry Brigade of two regiments belongs to each of the 18 corps d'armees. the rest form brigades and divisions or independent cavalry. The Artillery consists of 19 brigades of two regiments each with a total of 432 batteries. One regiment of each brigade has 8 field —55— batteries, 2 depot field batteries, and 3 garrison batteries, the other regiment lias 8 field, 3 horse and 2 depot field batteries. Each battery has 6 guns. Each Army Corps comprises 2 Infantry Divisions each of two regiments, 1 battalion Chasseurs, 1 Cavalry Brigade, 1 Artillery Brigade, 1 battalion Engineers, 1 S(]uadrun military train, and 1 company volunteer scouts. A Division of Intantry consists of 2 brigades each of 2 regiments. Orgranization of the Austrian Army The forces of the Empire consist of: (1). Active Army. (2). Reserve. (3). Landwehr. (4). Ersatz Reserve. (5). Landstnrm. Pp^RiOD OF Skkviok. — In the ranks 3 years. " reserve 7 " "Landwehr 2 " Total .... 12 years. The war establishment of the army and its reserve is fixed at 788,000, and this basis controls everything. The peace establish- ment is 252,000. These are supplied by an annual contingent of about 95,000 men (334-,O00 becoming annually liable to serve) 54,000 being su])})lied by Austria and 41,000 by Hungary. Besides these, about 10,000 men are taken annually for the Ersatz reserve to keep it at a strength of 97,000 men. The Ersatz reserve receive no train- ing but may be called up for 2 years into army service and pass into the Landwehr after 10 years. Men not drawn for "he active army or Ersatz reserve pass at once into the Landwehr. There are also 3 year and 1 year volun- teers. The Landwehr is thus composed of 3 contingents of trained soldiers, 10 of Ersatz men and 12 of men who entered the Landwehr direct. The Landwehr men who have not served in the ranks receive 8 weeks' training on joining and subsecpiently 2 or 3 weeks annually. There are two Landweh" battalions per i-egiment of regular infatitry. The Landsturni is a purely voluntary force at the call of the Emperor, they elect their own officers, wear no uniform but only a distinctive badge. The Empire contains 10 military districts each containing from 1 to 4 divisions. There is no army corps oi'iranization but the mili- tary unit in time of j>eace is a Division, There are 3(5 Divisions which in time of war would form 13 corps d'armees. An Infantry Rkgimknt is composed of battalions, 3 being field battalions, 2 reserve battalions each of 4 com]>anies, ami 1 depot battalion which in peace time consists of only 21 persons. The field battalions change their station as I'Cijuired. In war time the depot battalion is expanded into a third reserve battalion. On mobiliza- » III 1' —56— tion a battalion is about 1,000 strong, and a regime :i 6,000. Tlic reserve battalions form a reserve regiment. There are altogether 95 regiments of infantry. A Cavalry Regiment consists of 6 S(|uadrons and 1 depot squadron, each of 150 horses always on a war footing. There are 44 regiments organized into cavalry brigades. AitTiLLERy, — There are 13 regiments of field artillery and 12 battalions of garrison artillery. A regiment of iield artillery has 12 batteries, — 3 horse, and 9 field, and in addition two depot batteries. Each battery has 8 guns in time of war and 4 in peace. On mobilization 13 corps d'armeds and 5 independent cavalry divisions would be formed. An army corps would consist of 3 divis- ions of infantry, 1 regiment artillery,l brigade of cavalry and 1 com- pany engineers, numbering approximately 50,000. A Division consists of 2 infantry brigades, 2 battalions rifles, 2 to 4 squadrons cavalry, 3 batteries artillery, 1 company engineers, etc.,total about 15,000 men. An Infantry Brigade is composed of 2 regiments. Orgranization of the Kussiau Army. The Empire is divided into 3 4 military districts and 250 recruit- ing districts, exclusive of the province of the Don Cossacks. The law of 1874 on which the Russian military system is based enforces universal liability to serve from the age of 20. The forces consist of: Ist, The regular army. 2nd, The reserve. 3rd, The Imperial militia. Period of Sekvice. — In the regular army years. res ba coi lis ba ii. a reserve 9 " Total. ... 15 years. All men not called into the ranks belong to the militia from 20 to 40 years of age. The militia is divided into two ]iarts, the first and second bands, and in 1878 nund)ered t) 70,000. The 1st Band consists of the 4 junior contingents and is liable to fill deficiencies in the army. Service in the ranks is shortened by sending men on furlough. Men of the reserve are called up by Imperial decrree and are lial)le to 2 manoMivres of not over 6 weeks each. In time of war the limit as to liability of service ceases so that a man could not then claim his discharge. There are the usual provisions for shortening the term of service for the educated classes. m, are —57— The regular troops are divided into the active army, local, and reserve troops. In the active army tliere are 192 regiments of infantry of 516 battalions and 32 rifle battalions. Each battalion of infantry has 4 companies and one rifle company. Peace strength 500, war estab- lishment 900. Tun Cavaluy contains 56 regiments of 4 squadrons each, each squadron having 128 troopers who would be employed on service as corps cavalry. In addition to these there is the Cossack cavalry who would form the divisional cavalry. Field Artillery.-- There are 173 batteries and 50 mitrailleuses batteries. Each batterv has 8 guns. The ordinary war establishment of the regular army including Cossack troops numbers about 1,111,000 divided into 843,600infantry, 88,400 cavalry,149,800 artillery, and 29,800 engineers. Of these the field force numbers about 724,000. The peace establishment of the active army is about 458,000. The local troops numbering about 250,000 comprise those only partially flt for the fleld, and are reserved for duty in fortresses, etc. The reserve troops are entirely employed in training recruits. In 15 years' time from 1874,Russia expects to have nearly 3 mil- lions of trained men available for active service,deducting casualties and exclusive of the militia. Taking the annual contingent at 220,- 000 men (in 1880 235,000 men were taken) the forces would be as follows : Six contingents active army. . 1,320,000. Permanent force of the army 140,000, N.C. officers, etc. Ninecontingents of the reserve 1,240,000. Cossack troops 200,000, cavalry and infantry. 2,900,000. At the present time this force consists of 708 infantry battalions and 520 batteries, — exclusive of the army of the Caucasus. The militia is estimated at another million and a half The population of the whole Empire (Turkestan, Siberia, etc.) is 82 millions. An Army Corps consists of two infantry divisions, 1 division of cavalry (of two brigades of two regiments), — besides artillery and engineers. Infantry Division.— Two brigades, and a brigade of artillery of from 4 to 6 batteries. An Infantry Brigade consists of two regiments with 6 or 8 bat- talions jvccording to the organization of the regiments. :\ vM —58— Organization of the Italian Army. By a law passed in 1875 it is intended to provide a force of over two millions of men. Obligation to military service coiinnences at the a the ranks of the Active and Reserve Militia ; but this has not yet been resorted to. Men balloted may become exempt on providing a substitute and paying |30 to the Captain of the Company Division, which sum is paid to the substitute. Should the substitute become liable to serve his place must be supplied by the person in whose stead he is serving. The conunand of the whole force is vested in the Queen and through her in the Governor General. He is advised in all matters relating to the militia by the Minister of Militia and Defence, who is charged with, and is responsible for, the Civil Administration of Militia affairs, includ- ing all matters involving military expenditure such as pay, fortifica- tions, armaments, gunboats, e(piipment, clothing, etc. The whole force is commanded by a General Officer of the Army assisted by the Adjutant General of Militia who has the rank of Colonel. The Dominion is divided into 12 Military Districts, viz : 4 in Ontario, 3 in Quebec, 1 in New Brunswick, 1 in Nova Scotia, 1 in Prince Edward Island, 1 in Manitoba and 1 in British Columbia ; each is commanded by a Deputy Adjutant General who has the rank ot a Lieutenant Colonel and is in most districts assisted by a Brigade Major. P]aoh Military District is divided into several Regimental Divis- ions which are again sub-divided into Company Divisions. For each Regimental Division one Lieutenant Colonel and two Majors of Reserve Militia are appointed, generally from the residents in that Division ; similarly, for each Company District are appointed one Captain and two Subalterns of Reserve Militia. The enrolment of the militia is made in each Company Division by the Captain (assisted hy liis junior ofHccM's iiiul N, C ofticers), wlio is liable to lijivo to furnish a roll of the names of all the men in the diiferent chisses resident in his division speeifyin«i those who are Volunteer ]\rilitia, those wlm have completed their service in the Militia, and those who belong to the Marine Militia. When a man is enrolled the oarh of alle<2;iance to Iler Majesty is aduiinistered by the eonuiiandiny; otlicer of the eorps, he havinj; previously taken the oath before a Justice of the Peace. Persons exempt from enrolment are : Judges, clergy, professors of collej^es, officials of the peniten" tiaries and asylums, men disabled b}' bodily iuHrmity, and the only son of a widow being her only support. The following;, althou or 1 jss than 8 days. In 187t> only 19,780 men of the Volunteer Militia were trained for 12 days. The following is the strength of the actual militia : Cavalry 1,803 P'ield Artillery 1,326 Garrison Artillery 3,048 Engineers 232 Infantry 27,320 Total 33,729 There are 18 field batteries armed as follows : 15 with 9 Pr. M.L.K. Guns. 1 with 6 Pr. B.L.R. 2 with bronze smooth bores. There are in addition two schools of Ljunnery, the men beiiiir permanently enlisted, at Quebec and Kingston respectively, armed each with four 9 Pr. M.L.R. Guns. The infantry of the militia is armed with the Snider rifle. For purposes of instruction of officers scliools of military instruc- tion are established. In addition Cadet (M)nipanies are formed in the universities,high schools, and colleges of thoDominion, who are instruc- ■'^\ —(54— ted ill drill, but arc not to i)o employed on active Korvicc. Siiidcr rifles lire is8neossible employed on special duties, or the junior officer is ])romoted into some other corps, etc. Except for the promotion of artillery and engineer officers to the rink of captain officers have to pass no examination for promotion. For the ranks of 1st lieutenant and captain, promotion goes in each corps, except in the engineers where it goes in the whole arm. For the rank of major in the infantry ])romotion goes in the regiment (with exceptions), in the other arms it goes in the whole arm. Promotion goes in tlie arm for the ranks of lieutenant-colonel and colonel, and in all the arms combined for the rardvs of general officers. Officers in Germany have no legal status and promotion is entirely at tlie discretion of the head of the army though ])romotion by seniority is the rule. The Enj])eror favours officers by passing them into corps where promotion is rapid, by antedating their com- I j _^0_ missions, or by making:; tliem su])ernnincraries, — a system, which may be good when used, as it doubtless lias been in Germany, for the p;ood of the service, but one, w'ich in some countries, would lead to favouritism of the worst kind and would tend to sap the spirit of discipline among the whole body of officers. Appointments to the staff are given to those officers wlio have graduated at the War Academy at Berlin, admission to which is by competitive examination, and the course of study lasts 3 years. High connnands in the army are also given almost exclusively to those who have passed with success through the War Academy. Staff officers, before each ])romotion, are re<]uir(;d to return to regi- mental duty to keej) them in sympathy with the troops,and the seniors have to hold for a year a command corresponding to their rank. France. — In France there are two great military schools, as in England, entrance to which is by competitive examination : — St.Cyr being for infantry, cavalry and marines, and the Polytechnique for artillery and engineers, military and naval. The course of study in both is for two years. At the conclusion of the course at the Polytech- nique those graduates who arc assigned to the artillery and engineers are commissioned second-lieutenants and sent to the School of Appli- cation for a further term of two years. Until quite recently officers after passing through the Staff School were appointed permanently to the staff, — now, however, an Academy of War similar to that at Berlin has been established and appointments to the staff' are for limited periods (4 years). Promotion is partly by seniority and partly by selection. AusTRo- Hungary. — Officers in the Austrian army are supplied either by students passing out of the War schools, or by Cadets who have served at least one year, and who have, besides a practical knowledge of the service, the (jualilications and social education necessary for the rank of officer. There are two Military Acadcmies,one for the artillery and engi- neers and one for the other branches,in all of which the course of study- lasts 4 years. Each has attached to it a preparatory school which fur- nish the majority of their pupils. There are also Schools of Appli- cir'on for artillery and engineer officers after they have been at least two years in the service. The title of Cadet is conferred by the War Minister on all N.C. officers and men who pass a prescribed examination. All who obtain it are qualified to become officers, — but they have to be selected by the corps of officers. Promotion is by seniority, thongh the Emperor reserves to him- self the right to advance by selection those who have performed dis- tinguished service in ])eace time as well as in war,and officers whohave not the necessary (|ualitications are debarred from further promotion. —71— For certain steps examinations have to be pa6sed,except for the artil- lery and engineers who have passed witli success through the Schools of Application and for those ofticers who have passed through the War School. Up to the rank of colonel promotion mostly runs in the arm ; superior ofhcers are placed on one list for promotion. Otticers who have served at least 3 years and are recommended may compete for admission to the War School to qualify themselves for high command and also for staff employment. At this school the course of study lasts 2 years. Russia.— The largest portion of officers is composed of N. C. officers, promoted after pursuing a special coarse of education at what is called a Junker's School for two years. There are 12 of these schools for the infantry, two for cavalry and two for Cossacks. There are besides the usual Military Schools for Cadets, three infantry and one cavalry school in which the course is for two years, also one artillery and one engineers' school where the course is for 3 years. There is also a school of the Emperor's pages, for children of parents who have rendered distinguished service to the State, length of course 7 years ; the pupils on leaving usually pass into the guard. Promotion for subaltern officers runs regimentally, — to the rank of major it generally runs in the Division for Infantry and Cavalry. Promotion above the rank of nuijor goes in each arm, and that for general officers goes in the whole army. Promotion to the rank of captain is, with rare exceptions, by seniority in the Division ; that to the rank of major is by seniority or selection, though the latter predominates, promotion above the rank of uuijoi" is entirely by selection. To qualify for the staff*, officers pa 5 through a War Academy. They must have had 4 years' service and the course lasts two years. Up to the rank of captain officers of the staff' receive promotion every two years. A captain after 3 years in hiri rank is ])romoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, missing that of nuijor. Promotion in the staff' is thus exceptionally rapid, the object being to enable highly educated officers to arrive at the grade of general while still in full mental and bodily vigour. Italy. — The ffrst rank of officer is fflled either by Cadets from Military Schools or from among N. C. officers })romoted. There is one Military Academy for artillery and engineers, and a Military School for cavalry and infantry, — entrance to which is by competition and the course lasts 3 years, there is also a preparatory military college to train those who wish to enter the Military Schools. There is a School ofApplication for artillery and engineers,the course lasting two years, and also a school for N. C. otHcers, admit- tance to whicli is by competition and the course lasts two years. —•72— On leaving this school their names are put on a roister for promo- tion to the rank ofsub-licutenant. There are also to be two similar schools for N. C. officers of the artillery and engineers. One-third of the vacancies are allotted to N. C. officers and two-tliirds to tlie schools. Promotion up to the rank of general officer runs in the arm and then in the whole army. Tromotion is partly by seniority and partly by selection according to a prescribed scale for each rank, the proportion being ditt'erent in time of peace, when there are fewer promotions by selection than in war time. For instance,in peace time the promotion of captains to the rank of major is half by seniority and half by selection, in war time it is entirely by selection. Above the rank of major promotion is always by selection. There is a War School to train officers for the staff, admission being by competitive examination for the cavalry and infantry and without examination for artillery and engineers who have tinished their prescribed courses. —•73- CHAPTERVIII. ORGANIZATION and DISTRIBUTION of the STAFF. The British Army. To commence from the fountain liead, the Sovereign is the head of tlie British army,and controls it through his Ministers of State and is advised Ijy the responsible Minister. This has been the constitu- tional doctrine, develojDed at tiie time of the Revolution, and applied to the whole administration of the country as well as to the ariny. After the abdication of James II in 1688 it was found necessary to fix a constitutional basis on which the army should stand with reference to the Crown and Parliament. This was eflPected by three separate measures : 1st, By laying down certain fundamental principles as to the status of the army by the Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement. 2nd, By placing the pay of the army under the control of Par- liament. 3rd, By granting to the Crown Statutory^ in contradistinction to Prerogative^ powers for the government and discipline of the army, — which power was granted by the passing of the first Mutiny Act in 1689. These three measures fixed a constitutional basis on which the army should stand, and formed the starting point of the present status of the army. At the present day the Army Disciplin Act contains the preamble of the Bill of Rights to the effect that, — the raising or keei)ing of a standing army,unless it be by sanction of Par- liament, is unlawful, — and the passing of this act annually by Par- liament therefore sanctions the maintenance of the army, the num- bers of which are also clearly laid down in the act ; and further, Parliament by its annual vote in supply sanctions the expenditure necessary for the uuiintenance of the army. Thus the Sovereign be- yond all doubt commands the army, the maintenance and number of which is provided by Parliament. Prior to the year 1854 the administration of the army was con- ducted by a number of departments all independent of, and more •' ,^t iiyii£iiliiili —U— or less clashing with each other, viz : The Commissariat, Barrack, Military Store, Purveyor's, and Transport Departments. Tlie heads of all these departments were : ]8t. The Secretar}^ at War, a Parliamentary representative for the purpose of financial matters only, and his functions did not em- brace any aflfairs connected with the Ordnance Corps (artillery and engineers). 2nd, The Commander-in-Chief who was responsible direct to the Crown alone for all matters connected ^\itli tlic discipline,command, patronage, etc., of the army. His authority did not, however, extend to the Ordnance Corps. 3rd, The Master General of Ordnance, an officer of higli stand- ing and a Cabinet Minister, who was responsible to Parliament and independent of the Secretary at War and Commander-in-Chief lie held the connnand, discipline,and patronage of the Ordnance Corps and also controlled the following branches : custody and manufac- ture of all stores, contracts for supplies, fortifications, barracks, etc. 4th, The Commissariat was under the Treasury. 5th, The Militia was under the Home Secretary. Thus there were five heads of departments independent of one another. Out of this state of chaos arose the present system. In the year 1854 great changes were made. The office of t' e Secretary of State for AVar was created. He was made responsil)lo to Parliament for the advice he gave to the Crown and for his other acts, and placed on the same footins; as anv other So(;retarv of Stite. The office of Secretary at War was merged into that of the Secretary of State for War, and the Commissariat Department was transferred from the Treasury and placed under his control. In 1855 he received a ])atent investing in him the administration of the Army and Ordnance Department and therefore of all the departments con- trolled by the latter except in so far as referred to the discipline and military command of the army. These combined departments are known as the War Department. At the same time the command, discipliiiC, and patronage of the Ordnance Cor|)s were ti'aiisferred to the Commander-in-Chief — Hence, for administration, the Secretary of State for War was head over all the departments of the ai-my, and for command the Commander-in-Chief. In 18()8 the Control Depart- ment was instituted under a Controller-in-Chief to su])ervise a!id direct the five departments already named, viz : the Commissariat, Barrack, Military Store, Purveyor's and Transport De))artments. In the same year an Inspector General ot Reserve Forces was appointed to supervise the militia, yeomanry, volunteers, pensioners and army reserve. —75— The War OtKco Act of 1870 and the orclors in Council issued in accoi'dunce with tliut act define positively the duties of the differ- ent functionaries connected with the army. The Secretary of State for "War assisted by a Parb'anientary, and a Permanent, Under Secretary of State has immediate control of every branch of army administration. The actual administration under him is divided into three prin- cipal offices : 1. The Military Branch under the Commander-in-Chief. 2. The Ordnance Branch under the Surveyor General of the Ordnance. 3. The Financial Branch under the Financial Secretary. Their several duties are as follows : 1. The Commander-in-Chief is charged with the recruiting, training, discipline, distribution, and command of the personnel of the entire army both combatant and non-combatant. 2. The Surveyor General of theOrdnance is charged with the sup- ply of all kinds of warlike as well as other military stores and sup- plies, also with transport and quarters. 3. The Financial Secretary is charged with pay and the audit of accounts. In addition "to the above three great departments there are some minor departments at the War Office which do not quite belong to either. For instance, there is the great Central Depai'tment which sorts and takes care of all correspondence, etc. Also the Works Division under the Inspector General of F^ortification, which deals with the construction, repair, etc., of fortifications and barracks. The Medical Division which is a separate offshoot, also the Chaplain's Division, etc. The above three great departments are sub-divided into minor ones as follows : 1st, The office of the Commander-in-Chief is sub-divided into the following divisions : a. Adjutant-General'sDivision,6ub-divided into infantry,cavalry, artillery, and engineer departments. h. Quarter Master General's Division, which includes the Intelli- gence Department. c. Military Secretary's Division. d. Auxiliary Services. e. Military Education. lij^^iiiiiiati i^^ —16— The Adjutant-General's and Quarter Master General's Divisions are nouiinally ani.algamated, but tliis is more nominal than real, the work of each being kei)t distinct although ai)pointmcnt8 to these offices contain the double designation. 2nd, The branch of the Surveyor General of the Ordnance has two principal divisions : — a. Director of Supplies and Transport. h. Director of Artillery and Stores. Also minor divisions: (i)for contracts, and (ii) for clothing. 3rd, The Financial Department. This branch manages the cash expenditure generally. This same division of duties is found adhered to throughout the service and descends through all parts of the ariny. Every garrison, district, army, army corps, division, etc., has functionaries represent- ing all these various branches, though of course on a minor scale. Often one representative of the staff has to perform the functions of several de})artments. For instance, the Surveyor General of the Ordnance is repre- sented by commissaries of the Commissariat and Transport De})art- ment and of the Ordnance Store Department. In some cases the Commissariat Officer also acts for the Financial Secretary. The Staff of an army is generally classed into three heads : 1. Personal Staff', comprising military secretaries and aides-de- camp. 2. General Staff, comprising officers of the Adjutant-General's and Quarter Master General's Branches, including brigade majors who belong to the Adjutant-General's Branch. 3. Civil and Non-Combatant Staff. At the first outset in organizing the staff of an army, a ques- tion of importance arises, whether there is to be a Chief of the Staff, and if so, what is to be the limit of his functions. In England, where there is no recognized permanent office of Chief of the Staff, different views are held as to his duties. The most common view is that the Chief of the Staff should transact all business under the authority direct or implied of the Com- mander-in-Chief, and that he is to be the channel of communi- cation between the Commander-in-Chief and all the military services, but excluding all civil and non-combatant services, such as medical, pay, chaplain's, etc. The Chief of the Staff" then would be the head of the Adjutant-General's and QuarterMasterGeneral's Departments, and probably also of the Military Secretary's Department, though this is not clearly established. .,,■• —77— Orsranization of the Staff of Different Unita. Rkoimkntal Stakf. — Eiurli l)fittulion of iiitiintry juul regiment ot'cuvrtlry has an adjutant and (|uarterniastcr. The adjutant is one ot'tiie lieutenants hut nut attached to any company. The atljutant is the staff otHcer of tlie regiment. I)Ri(j\i)K Stafk. — A hrigade, wlietlier of cavalry or infantry, is commanded by h brigadier general or major general, who is allowed one A.D.O. Each brigade has a brigade nuijor as its staff otticer ; he must be a regimental captain but ranks as senior to all other captains in the garrison. The brigade major performs the same duties for the brigade as the adjutant does for the battalion. lie issues and signs all orders, kee})s a roster for all duties, all letters from the ofKcers in the brig- ade to the general go through him, and he is responsible for the dis- cipline and efHciency of the brigade. He has certain duties to ])er- form at drill, and on the line of marcli his place is at the head of the brigade. The artillery in each district is commanded by a colonel on the staff who has a brigade nuijor as staff otticer. The head-(piarter8 of each brigade of artillery are commanded by a Lieut. -Colonel, and the staff consists of an adjutant and quarter- master, the adjutant being a captain. The engineer corps in each district is commanded by a colonel on the staff with an executive officer to assist him. . There is also a Garrison Instructor to each district ranking with a brigade major. Divisional Staff. — The staff of a division consists generally of: 1 Lieutenant General commanding. 2 Aides-de-Camp. 2 Officers designated Assistant Adj\itant and Quarter Master Generals, though in reality their duties are distinct. 1 D.A.A.G. I Subordinate to both their seniors and liable to 1 D.A.Q.M.G. \ work in either branch. 1 Lieut. -Colonel R.A. ) r^ i -^1 a i- 4. *. ^ jj P F I ^'^^'1 "^'th an Adjutant. 1 Assistant Commissary General of Commissariat. 1 " " " of Ordnance, or some officer of that department of subordinate rank. 1 Assistant Provost Marshal. 1 Principal Medical Officer. 1 Staff Veterinary Surgeon. 1 Senior Chaplain. throo grades of tuoso lupartiuonts. —78— Those comprise tlie jictuiil staff wliicli would imircli and eiicatiij) with the hoaa-(piartei'H of the division and tbnii the light liand of tlie «;cnenil. TI»o staff of an Eri;j;li8]i district nearly corresponds to that of a division. A district is, however, usually commanded by a major general who has one A.D.C. Army Corps Staff : — 1 General or Lieut. -General commanding, with 4 A.D.C. 2 OfKcors as I)ei)Uty A.(t. and Q.M.G, ) ••o-. Womuerain 2 Officers as Assistaf.t A.G. and Q.M.G. 2 Otficers as Dei)Uty Assistant A.G. and Q M*G 1 Brigadier General R.A. with 1 Brigade Major and 1 A.D.C. 1 Colonel R.E. " " *' « 1 Commandant at Ilead-Quarters. 1 Provost Marshal. 1 Deputy Commissary General of Commissariat. 1 " " " of Ordnance. 1 Principal Medical Officer. 1 Chief Staff Veterinary Surgeon. 1 Principal Chaplain. The (commandant at hcad-cjuartcrs ranks generally with an Assistant Quarter Master General. His duties are to regulate every- thing cunnected with nuirching, en(;am])lng, ([uartering (billeting), baggage, police duties, and the general cleanliness and arrangements of the head-({uarter cauip. Everything within the radius of the head-quarter cami> comes under his control. He commands all j)ers()ns attached to the head-(juarter camp, has a nomimil roll of eacli person in that camp and all are attached to him for disci- pline and pay, — such as orderlies, escorts, officers' servants, etc., — and every one coming to the head-(|uarter camp, even for a few hours must report themselves to him. The Personal Staff' comprises the Military Secretary and A.D.C. As a rule, Military Secretaries,or Assistant Military Secretaries, are only allowed to general otficers having independent commands. As a Military Secretary comes in contact with the civil branch of the staff' he ought by his superior rank to have weight with these departments, — officers of the rank of colonel should, it is considered, be appointed as a rule. A Military Secretary transacts for the General a class of corres- pondence which does not fall under the functions of the Adjutant- General's, Quarter Master General's, or Civil Branches, besides the corrcspondonce which relates to his hranch, viz: Appointmontu, prouiotioiiR, retirements, etc. lie is also the Oeneral'B eoiitideiitial udvirtcr. At Btations where tliere is no Military Secretary his correppon- den(!e generally passes through the Adjiitant-Cienerars hranch. AidoR-de-cainp are purely personal officials, they have no duties assigned to them by regulation, and the general is at liberty to employ them as lie likes best. The Prussian General Staff. At Berlin there is a War Academy, the object of which is to educate officers for the stafi'and to hold high commands. The course lasts three years and one hundred officers pass out annually. Great stress is laid uj)on their proticicncy in pi'ot'cssional subjiscts such as tactics and strategy, also the general duties of the statt in reference to plans of campaigns, the movements of troops, the draughting of ordei'S, etc. Militaiy geography, relating to the lines of coiMiuunica- tion, strategic j)(»iiits, and lines of defence of various countries, is also carefully studied. The most proficient officers who have ])as!^ed through the Academy are in time posted to the general stall' at the War Office. The general duties of tlic General Staif are to collect informa- tion regarding the organization, tactics, and armament of foreign armies, the present and projected lines of railway and other lines of communication in foreign countries, to prejiare plans of cam- ]iaign, and to arrange all the details for the mobilization, move- ments and concentration of troops in diiferent theatres of war, either within the empire or abroad. The duties are transacted in bureaux and sections as follows : 1. The Central Bureau,which is charged with all nuitters relating to the personnel of the stafi", the survey, War Academy and the Kail- way Regiment. 2. The three sections and the Intelligence Bureau. The first section collects all information in reference to the organization, tac- tics, armament, and mobilization of the armies of Norway and Sweden, liussia, Austria, Denmark, Greece and Turkey. it likewise collects geographical information, and notes any changes in the fortifications and lines of conununication in any of the al)ove countries. The second section collects the same information in ref- erence to Germany, Italy and Switzerland. The third scetion does the same in reference to France, England, Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal and America. The information collected by these sections is procured from military attaches at foreign courts, and also by individual officers sent incognito to travel in the difierent countries. ^Sjiit^ia^giMM —80— The Intelligence Bureau collects and di<;est8 information pre- pared by these three sections and keeps always in readiness the most recent information rehitive to foreign armies, and probable theatres of war. 3. The Kailway Section is charged with everything pertaining to the transi)ort of troops and military stores by rail The otHcers of this section work out all the details of moving troops by rail, the time required to transi)ort them and the lines to be used in concen- trating armies for war. To this end they are required to know the capacity of the dift'erent lines of railway both at liome and abroad, and their strategic value. The duties of this section are considered so important, in view of their influence in effecting the speedy concentration of armies, that all officers of the general staff arc required to serve in it. There is besides an accessory branch of the general staff charged mostly with scientific duties, the officers of which are not necessarily graduates of the War Academy. This branch is divided into five sections as follows : 1 The Section of Military History wliich collects and arranges all information bearing t s military history, and prepares descrip- tions of present and past campaigns. 2. The Geographical Statistical Section, collects all geographi- cal and statistical knowledge relating to foreign countries, prepares reports showing their resources and corrects all ni'Mtarj' maps up to date. 3. The Trigonometrical Section wliich is charged with the tri- angulation of Prussia. 4. The Topographical Section, charged with the topographical survey of Prussia. 5. The Cartographical Section which prepares and corrects maps to date, and supplies maps to the army. In order to preserve the habit of command, and keep staff officers in sympathy with the troops, they have in Germany, at stated times, to return and do duty with regiments. This ]iriiiciple is also con- sidered advantageous in England where most staff ai)pointments are for five years only. The branch of the Quarter Master Geiierars Department at the War Office in Jjondoii know n as the '' Intelligence Branch " is char. All paragraphs to be numbered so that in reply certain para- graphs may be quoted. Enclosures, if any, are to be described in the margin when few, when there are many a separate schedule must be attached. Letters are to be headed : — From Rank and name, To Rank and name, Pkce and date. IM —84— Correspondence can be conducted in two different ways : — 1, By formal letters. 2. By memoranda. 1st, Formal letters are used in openinpr a correspondence or in revivinjij a subject which has lain dormant for some time, and always from an inferior to a superior. It is also advisable to use the formal type between equals little known to each other, — also when a super- ior wishes to call an inferior to account the formal letter gives it a more important and serious aspect. 2nd, Memoranda are of two kinds : — original, such as emanate from a staff officer by order of the general as a substitute for a let- ter, — and those which arc like a docket or minute remarking or correspondence in hand. The first kind is the usual method for communicating orders of a passing character or of obtaining information. The same paper is often passed on to the different officials concerned, in which case the several addresses are written on the front sheet at the top of the mar- gin with the word Pass above and " To be returned " below. The officers initial and date it, and pass it on. Ex : Pass O. C. R. A. O. C. 20th Eegt. "To be returned." A large pro]>ortion of correspondence-, requires an opinio?! from some one or more officers, — in that case the Staff Officer writes on it "Forwarded for information and guidance," or for " Perusal and remarks," it is then returned initialed, dated, and with the remarks called for. If the remarks are lengthy they are written on a separ- ate sheet of paper, if brief, they are written on the document itself. A sheet of foolscap folded in four gives four columns for remarks at the l)ack. The original margin should be left for ultimate superior decision. Mode of Sig-niner and Addressing: Correspondence. Formal letters are always signed: — I have the honour to be, Sir, (or My Lord, etc.), Your obedient servant, Name and rank. In correspondence between independent equals the officer always signs himself though the letter is not necessarily written by him. If the officer who opens the correspondence wishes to employ his staff he will address the staff of the other. ^rf : ...' —85— Memoranda are generally headed by the official position of the recipient, and signed and dated by the writer. As : — Place and date. C. R. E. (Signed), Name and rank. A subordinate officer always signs the correspondence himself and addresses the staff, — as the commanding officer of a regiment addresses the brigade major or other stati' officer. If a superior writes to an inferior, as a rule the staff' officer signs. If it is a memorandum he writes " By order " above his sig- nature, in a letter this is not necessary as the prcaml)le embodies it. If the officer addressed is not under the orders of tlie Staff ( )fficer's Cliief, he would write to the staff of the other in a semi-official man- ner as — " the major general would be glad, etc.," and signed bv the Staff Officer. If a staff officer has to act upon a document in the absence of liis chief, when it is obvious tluit tlie opinion of his chief is not really necessary, lie signs such a document " for" his chief instead of " by order." The more regular routine, and one that should be done in im- portant matters, would be for him to find the next senior officer and take his orders. Documents received in a staff' office belong to that office, but if they pass to a superior office they remain there for reference. Access to official documents is not allowed for private purposes or for publication unless permission is given from proper authority. Reoistry of Documents. — The object to be attained in all offices is to keep a sufficient record of all transactions that take place with the least amount of labour. The old practice was to copy every document, — now a General Register Book is kept, and fVeciuently two or three words in the col- umn of remarks are sufficient for a record. Every document (not return) enuinating from, or passing through, the office is noted in this register, — and every document receives an office numl)er. As other offices also number their documents it is necessary to have a particular stamp or mark, — as, two red lines under the number, etc. An office, where correspondence is voluminous and varied, re- (piires a practiced and intelligent person to kee]> a register properly, so as to give a concise history of each subje(;t by brief explanatory and exjjressive abstracts of correspondence ; this saves much time in the end and reference to correspondence itself. The register should be a blank book with blue lines and ruled across as required into the necessary number of columns. There should be sufficient columns to contain the following information : •■II ^■^„n ;( t I — 8C_ 1st, Office Tinmher. 2ncl, From whom received and date of receipt. 3rd, (Tcneral subject. 4th, To whom sent and date ofdes- patcli, and also date wlien returned to office. If the document lias to go to several places there must be several colunms similar to the 4th. The last column is the column of remarks stating briefly the result of the corresptjpdeTice and where the document is finally lodged. If the subject is of a confidential nature insert in 3rd column only so much as will recall its purport, — the correspondence itselt being copied in a confidential book ke]^t under lock and key. If the docu .'lit first emanates from the office write the word " Office " in the SnW column. For the sake of clearness the office nundjer, and dates on wjiich the documents are returned to the office are generally entered in red ink. In addition to thi^ General Register, letter books are kept for copying documents of importance which are not ke})t in the office. If the correspondence with one branch is voluminous, as say with the Quarter Master General, a special Q.M.G. letter book should be kept. A General Letter Book is always kept for miscellaneous cor- respondence. Every office orderly should have a little book of his own for letters entrusted to him to oleliver. The number of the document, date ,and address are enterf;d, — and there is a column for the recipient to initial and date. If posted, the word " Post " is written against it. When an office, such as a Brigade Major's office, lias to be opened for active service or manceuvres, it should be done with as as little office paraphernalia as possilde. The following books are essential and need not as a rule be exceeded : 1 General Register, 1 General Letter Book, 2 or 3 Guard Books, foolscap size, for pasting in loose documents and important returns, 2 or 3 orderlies' memorandum books, — and, if on service, several nieinorandum books for writinij orders. The following are the details of correspondence which belong to the AJ'-^*"'uit-Generars Department: All complaints and reports as to arms, accoutrements and ammu- nition obtained from the Ordnance Si:ore Department go to the Adjutant-General. The General in command assembles boards,aud the reports ultimately reach the Surveyor General of Ordnance through the Director of Artillery and Stores. So also complaints, etc., unent clothing go to the Adjutant-General, ultimate reference being the Surveyor General through the Director General of Army Clothing. Routine matters are carried on uirect between the regi- ment and the Ordnance Store Officer or Director General of Army Clothing, etc. To the Adjutant-General's Department also belong all matters 55 ks. to ny era —87— relating to discipline, Courts Martial, records of officers' and soldiers' services, garrison rosters, guard8,tatigiie8, military police,hoiirs of gun fire, closing gates,passes to civi]ians,fiirloughs,leave of absence ; — also musketry instruction, transfers, discharges, etc. Applications for medals with or without gratuity and war med- als, go to the Adjutant-General in London, — wliereas application for medals with annuity, V.C. medals, and Distinguished Coiuluct med- als go to the Military Secretary. To the Quarter Mp.:.cer GeneraFs Department belong : — All movements of troops by sea or land, — quartering, camping, hutting and cantoning of troops, — regimental canteens and recrea- tion rooms,— the order of march, reconnaissances,occupation of ground by troops, military surveys, etc. Topographical and strategic subjects give but little correspon- dence in peace time except to the Intelligence Department, but in war time such correspondence is immensely increased. Movements of troops in England, whether in large or small bod- ies,arc performed under the authority of a ''Route" which conveys Her Majesty's authority, signed by t!ie Secretary of State for War, for such movements. This Route is necessary to legalize the drawing of billets, requisitioning of carriages, the privilege of passing tolls, etc., and are issued by the Quarter Master General's Department. When a movement has to be undertaken suddenly,the Commanding Officer gives the officer commanding the party to be moved a certifi- cate stating that a Route has been applied for, and on the authority of this certificate constables have to furnish billets, etc. The actual payment to the railway or steamboat company is made by a warrant, a sort of che(]ue drawn on the District Fa}^- master, who recovers the sum from the public. In England,the Transport Branch of the Admiralty provides sea transport on requisition of the Quarter Master General's Depart- ment ; abroad, the senior naval officer has to furnish these. For small detachments at home, if the Admiralty have no ships availa- ble, or abroad, if there are no naval officer^?, the Commissariat Department may have to provide water transport. The Commissariat and Transport Department always provides all transport by land, and inland water trans[)ort as boats, ferries, etc., but not railway transj)ort. All arrangements for embarking und disembarking troops come under the Quarter Master General acting in concert with the naval authorities or other ])ersons who])rovide the shipping. Quartering of Troops. — All the military side of the question, as the distribution of troops, what stations are to be occupied by ])articular corps, what barracks each regiment is to occupy, etc., are il _88_ tnatters for tlie Quarter Master General. Tlio Commissariat Depart- ment deals with the actual handing over, distribution, appropriation, and charge of all occupied barracks. Camping and hutting on service are Quarter Master General's questions. This department regulates the selection and allotment of site, also sanitary arrangements in conjunction with tiie Principal Medical Officer, — and in case of huts in conjunction with the Com- manding Koyal Engineer. -89- CHAPTER X. Conditions and Principles of Supply in time of War. Tlie value of an army depends upon its eflicicncy as mnch as on its ninnbei's. Tu be thoroufijhly efficient the men must be healtliy, well fed, clothed, and armed, besides being well drilled and disci- plined. It i8,therefore,most important that there should be an ample supply of all necessaries, — especially reserve ammunition. The want of the latter was one of the causes why General Meade was unable to follow up his success after repulsing the attack of the opposing army at the battle of Gettysburgh, — and the want of ])roper stan and transport arrangen.euts frecpiently prevented offensive upei'a- tions both on the part of Federal and Confederate generals in the late civil war. In the recent war in Afghanistan, when Candahar, whiili was garrisoned by a comparatively small force, was in danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, it was expected that General Phayre would hasten to its relief, as he had a sufficient force under him about Chaman only 79 miles, or 4 forced marches, distant. That General was, however, unable to move for want of proper transport, and it was left to General Sir F. Roberts to relieve Candahar by hastening from Cabul, 314 miles distant, at the head of a properly equipped flying column. This is another proof, if one were needed, of how impossible it is for an army, however good its moral and dis- cipline, to take the field if left unsupplied with the requisite trans- port and stores. The subject of the supply of an army in the Held may be divided into the following heads,some of which have been already considered : I. Necessities for an army in the field. Provisions for men and horses. Camp equipage. Intrenching and other tools. Har- ness and saddlery. Clothing and boots. Arms, ammunition and accoutrements. Care of, and stores for, the sick and wounded. A^et- erinary attendance for horses, etc. II. Departments for providing these necessaries'. Commissariat and Transport, and Ordnance Store Departments, Medical Depart- ment, Veterinary Department. III. Estimate of the amount of supplies required per day : — —90— Tftke as an instance an army of 30,000 men and 5,000 liorscs, each man's daily ration bcin^ 1 lb. of biscuit, 1 lb. meat, 3 oz. gro- ceries, — and foi-an;c for each horse, 12 lbs. oats and 12 lbs. hay. The total weij^ht will amount to 185,625 lbs. == 'J2\f^ tons. If live cattle are taken with the army the nnnjber to be killed per day can be roughly calculated from their average weight, viz.: 3f)0 lbs. IV. Sources from which stores are obtained : — (a). From home or base of operations. (b). From the country in which operations are being carried on. V. Methods of obtaining stores from the country operated in. VI. Methods by which stores are transported. Transport train, canals, rivers, railways. VII. Magazine;!. Necessity for forming them. VIII. Security of the line of communications. The Supply of Ammunition in the Field. In all armies every soldier of infantry and cavalry carries with him a certain supply of ammunition for his tire arm, in addition to which a further supply is carried with the regiment and called the Regimental Reserve. In the artillery every gun lias with it a supjily of ammunition in its limber and axle-tree boxes, and a further supply in the ammu- nition wagon which is attached to it and which may be looked upon as the Regimental Reserve. In the "Jjritish army every battalion of infimtry has 3 small arm ammunition carts to carry its regimental reserve. Each cart has two horses and one driver, the latter being furnished by the battalion. Every man carries 70 rounds of ammunition, 40 in liis })ouch, 10 in the expense bag and 20 in the pocket of his valise, and 30 more per man are carrieu in the Regimental Reserve. The Staff Sergeants carry pistols. Each regiment of cavalry has one Small Arm Ammunition Cart. Every man carries 30 rounds per carbine and pistol and an additional supply is carried by the Regimerital Reserve. Artillery. — Every 9 Pr. gun carries -i Case shot on the gun car- riage, 30 rounds in the i;un limber, and 108 in the ammunition wagon with its limber. Each box carries 1-1 Shrapnel and 4 com- mon shell. The 16 Pr. gun carries 4 Case shot on the gun carriage. — and 24 rounds in the limber and 72 in the wagon. Each box carries 9 Shrapnel and 3 common shell. In addition to the regiuiental reserve there are three further reserves of ammunition : — i —91— 0, ) . > III e rve, ) elmrge of the Artillery. 1. The DiviHional Reserve, 2. The Army Corps Rcser' 3 The Third Reserve in charge of the Ordnance Store Depart- ment. The Adjutant-General of an army in the field is responsible to the General OtKccr commanding for the supply of ammunition for that army, and the General OtKcers commanding divisions are res- ponsible for nuiintaining their reserves of ammunition. IST UESEnVB, OR DIVISIONAL RESERVE. Each Division of the army has a reserve of ammunition carried by the Artillery. This reserve cotisists of one major, 2 lieutenants, one quarter- master, one surgeon and one veterinary surgeon, 20S N.C. officers and men, 253 liorses and 55 carriages. The carriages are — 29 S.A.A. Carts for infantry ammunition, 7 Artillery Aminu!iition Wagons, and 13 General Service Wagons for forge wagon, 2 artillery ammunition, 2 8i)are gun carriages, wagons for stores and one rocket wagon. A regiment recpiiring ammunition sends an empty cart to the rear and obtains a fresh one without unloading but by changing the teams, — so also an artillery battery obtains a fresh ammunition wagon. The corps artillery is supplied by the divisional wagons, each of the 3 divisions therefore carries its share. The ammunition carried is 40 rounds per rifle (20 per cavalry carbine), 72 per 16 Pr. gun, 108 per 9 Pr., and 30 per pistol. 2nd reserve, or armt corps reserve. Each Army Corps has also an ammunition reserve divided into 3 divisions. A division has the same officers as a divisional reserve except that it is commanded by a captain. This column has 18 officers, 516 N. C. officers and mei 509 horses and 105 wagons. All the ammunition is carried in 87 General Service Wagons? of which 36 are for infantry, 9 for 9 Pr. guns and 42 for 16 Fr. guns. Each wagon carries about 230 boxes of S.A. ammunition or 136,000 rounds of Martini-Henry, — the remaining wagons are, 6 spare gun carriages, 9 wagons for stores and 3 forge wagons. This reserve carries 40 rounds per rifle, 108 per 16 Pr. gun and 44 per 9 Pr. gun. THE 3rd RESERVB. This reserve is in charge of the Ordnance Store Department and is Icept at the Grand Depot at the base of operations or at interme- diate depots, which are generally necessary at every two days' march ^^ v«> ^-^- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I IriM m ^ Ui ill 2.0 L25 mil 1.4 1.8 1.6 7 /. '<^tp. W A#^, ^ €'^» w- Q, V <^ /^ V^/ e. W °% :,>' &? iV -92— • ) from the base ot o})erations. It consists generally of 300 rounds per rifle, 300 per 16 Pr, gun and 200 per 9 Pr. gun. In a great war this supply would have to be increased, especially the infantry ammu- nition. GENERAL RUI.B9 FOR THE GUIDANCE OF AMMUNITION RESERVES. Regimental Reserves. — The 3 carts belong to the regimental establishment, but on the march in brigade column of route, or manoeuvre, or in action, only one is to be with the battalion, the rest being massed in brigade columns unless otherwise ordered by the Gen'^ral of the Division. The same rule applies to this reserve if carried ori pack animals. Officers commanding corps are responsible to maintain their supplies of ammunition, and they obtain fresh supplies direct from the officer commanding the Artillery Reserves. Divisional Reserve. — Each divisional reserve column is to be in two subdivisions which may be separated. Theflrst consists of 13 G.S.Wagoi^s of gun ammunitioji,10 S. A. A. Carts and a rocket wagon, the renuiining carriages go to the 2nd siib-division. Empty carts and wagons are always to be filled up from the 2d sub-division, — the 1st sub-division being kept intact ready to be sent to the front on an emei'gency. When the Division is engaged, this first reserve must, under all circumstances, be at hand, and not more than one or two miles in rear under the orders and charge of the officer commanding the divisional artillery. The brigades and bat- teries must be informed of the position ot this reserve. The officer commanding the divisional reserve is responsible to keep his column filled up from the army corps reserve, o'npty carts or wagons being sent to the rear when they reipiire replenishing. Akmy CoRi's Reserve.— Each of the 3 divisions of this reserve has a full supply for one divisional reserve column, thus each division can foPow the divisional reserve to keep it filled up, or the three divisions may be massed together. This reserve should, as a rule, not be more than one day's march (fur infantry) in roar of the front line. If possible no portion of it should 1)0 brought under firo since it is a connecting link be- tween the divisional reserve and the depot at the field arsenal in the rear. The officer commanding the divisional reserve should be kept informed of its position or of that of any of its advanced detachments. On an emergency, the filled carts or wagons may be sent to the front instead of filling up the divisional reserve carts. The officer commanding this reserve must keep in communica- tion with Ilead-Quarters. The Divisional and Army Corps Reserves are to be completed from the 3rd Reserve in charge of the Ordnance Store Department upon ro(piisitions of the commanding officer R.A., supported l)y re- il —93— ceipts for tlie issues made to tlie troops. On emergency, however, the store officers are to make issues on recpiisition from the officer commanding the artillery reserves. As a general rule the proportion of gun ammunition required for an army in the field is calculated at 500 rounds per gun, and of ammunition for email arms at 480 rounds per man. The followin;e of clothes mav be stuffed. The weight comes on the shoulder and can easily be transferred from shoulder to shoulder. REQUisrrKS or a Gof)D MfLiTARY Rifle. — A. military rifle should have, with its bayonet fixed, sufficient length to afford protection against cavalry, about feet is considered necessary for this, — and of sufficient length, without the bayonet, to allow the rear rank to fire without injuring the front rank ; it should be of sufficient strength to bear rough usage on service and of the minimum weight consistent with absorbing enough recoil so as to prevent, when properly liandled, excessive "kick" resulting in injury to theslioulder,leadingto involun- tary shrinking from firing and unsteadiness in taking aim. The size of the bore should be large enough to give a sufficiently heavy bullet for a crushing stroke combined with a long flight, without, however, increasing the weiut on this matter history is too often silent of necessity. For it is (generally politic;, if not imperative, to collect and dei)08it the su])plies in secresy, otherwise they would in- dicate the direction of an intended operation. The Duke of Wellington's correspondence after the battle of Talavera sets in the strongest possible light the essential importance of magazines and the consequences of operating without them. The Englisli army, leaving its depots in Portugal, had moved into the valley of the Tagus to co-operate with the Spanish forces which were o])posing the French corps in front of Madrid. The junction of the allies effected, they had engaged and beaten the enemy at Talavera. As the commander of an auxiliary force, acting in conjunction with a native army, in a country which, though sterile in ]mrts, yet afforded ample su))plies, Wellington could not have anticipated any difficulty in ])rocuring provisions, for which full value would have been readily paid ; and he had accordingly entered Spain relying on the promises of the Spanish government to provide ample subsistence and means of transport for his army. Yet, victorious as he was, he speedily found that army crippled for want of food and forage ; and, after numerous remonstrances, he was driven to execute wluit he had frequently threatened, and marched his troops back to Portugal. " A starving army," lie says, in narrating the privations of his troops, " is actually worse than none. The soldiers lose their disci- ?line and spirit. They plunder even in the presence of their ofKcers. 'he officers are discontented, and are almost as bad as the men, and with the army which a fortnight ago beat double their numbers, I should now hesitate to meet a French corps of half their strength." " To carry on the contest with France to any good purpose, the labour and services of every man and every beast in the country should be employed in support of the armies ; and these should be so classed and arranged as not only to secure obedience to tlie orders of the government, but regularity and efficiency in the performance of the services required of them. Magazines might then with ease be formed and transported wherever circumstances might require that armies should be stationed. But as we are now situated, 50,000 men are collected upon a spot which cannot afford subsistence for 10,- 000 men, and there are no means of sending to a distance to make good the deficiency." —103— Again ho says, " if wo had lia — Ill— sometimes orders tliem to carry some forage in lieu of some of the full 4 days' rations. These columns may or may not be distributed to the divisions, this is determined by the General and depends on whe- ther the divisions are tofij^ether or not. When so distributed the army corps troops are attached for purposes of suj^ply to one of the two divi sions. When a battle takes place provision columns are always kept out of the tactical jijround so as not to block roads, etc. On the three days' consecutive fighting which the Germans had before they drove theJFrench back on Metz, their troops were closely concentrated and they had to bivouac on the fields of battle, tliey were consecjuently dependent on their three days' reserve rations, the provision colunnis not coming up till the 4th day (lOtli Aug.). 2nd, Five columns of " Fuhr Park Colonnen," each consisting of 80 wagons, generally drawn by 2 horses, hired, bought, or pro- cured by requisition. These generally follow in rear of army corps or maintain connection with the magazines. They do not approach to the front nor distribute to the troops but keep the provision col- umns supplied, and they travel only on the best roads. Each wagon carries about 1 ton or 800 rations, and consequently the whole carry forage for 7 days or partly forage and partly provisions, as the com- mander may direct. These columns are much used for carrying forage ; they never carry perishable articles, such as bread, but they do carry biscuit, bacon, etc. In the war of 1870 civilian drivers were employed in these hired transport columns. In futrre military drivers are to be used, thus saving the cavalry escort which used to accompany each column to keep it under control. Now a 0th "Fuhr Park Colonne" has been added. A bakery column is attached to each corps, and consists of from two to five wagons ; it has charge of live cattle. Further, in addition to these regularly organized means of transport, all local resources are made use of, as may be found necessary to maintain the line of stages when the distance of maga- zines becomes considerable, — every driver and vehicle being num- bered. it A question arises with reference to the loading of the wagons of the military provision columns : — should each wagon be loaded with one kind of article or with so many complete rations ? Experi- ments have been made with both systems, and it has been found that with one article only loading is easier and each wagon carries more ; but in the issuing of provisions it has numifest disadvantages, as each wagon has to be drawn on to make up one ration ; hence the latter method aftbrds greater facility of issue and is, therefore, re- commended for columns which have actually to distribute rations to the troops, while the other method of packing each wagon with only one article is recommended for all other transport. \ —112— Supply of Cati'le. — It is commonly tbund tliat cattle are more easily obtained and supplied than corn ; they re(|uire no j^rinding nor baking and carry themselves, so that they can be brought in from a distance more readily, whereas transport is re({uired for corn, and corn lias often been plentiful at a distance but for want of transport it could not be brought up, and when obtained there have frequently been no means of grinding it. The 8up])ly of meat has therefore given commanders less anxiety than that of bread. In onr wars cattle are generally bought by contract and shipped to our base in transport ships, — as in the Crimea, Turkish cattle were bought by contract and shipped at Varna. The Germans, after exhausting the supply by the system of requisitioning, draw their supplies of cattle by contract from their own country, contractors delivering to the Etapen Head-quarters. The responsibility of supply for an army in the field lies with the general commanding, as he is responsible for the efficiency of his force in all its parts, and therefore also for supply. The Board which sat at Chelsea, London, England, to enquire into the cause of failure of supply in the Crimea, expressed the opinion that the Gen- eral and not the Commissariat Department was responsible. The duty of the Commissariat Department lies in providing supplies, as to quantity and at the place of issue, according to the best of its ability and power, and according to the orders from the General commanding ; but it is of course the duty of the Commissary-Gen- eral to keep the General informed as to what supplies are in his possession, and to call his attention from time to time to expedien- cies and methods of obtaining further supplies. The Commissary- General is held responsible for the advice he gives the General, but the General, whether he acts on that advice or not, is wholly responsible to the ountry. —US- CHAPTER XI. ■ar. MILITARY TRANSPORT.* Among civilized nations in modern times, one of the principal difficulties which military commanders in the Held have to encoun- ter is the adequate supply of their armies with food and war mate- rial. In most instances it is not that supplies of either kind cannot be provided by the State, but that their conveyance to the spot at which they are to be consumed constitutes the real difficulty. Mili- tary History is full of examples of failure of every kind due to failure in transport. The Duke of Wellington said that anyone could command a body of troops in a great battle, but there were very few who could feed them when it was over. Both in Al yssinia and Ashantee abundance of supplies could be Drought to the base of operations, but the provision and main- tenance of the means of transport inland caused serious anxieties and delays. Again, on a larger scale, England's maritime resources enabled her to convey to Balaclava almost all that was necessary for the Army before Sebastopol, yet the troops, only six miles distant, en- dured great privations for many months from want of adequate means for distributing supplies. The general subject of military transport, omitting altogether transport by sea, which is a distinct subject, may conveniently be divided into : 1st. Inland water transport, that is, by means of navigable rivers, lakes, or canals. 2nd. Railway transport. 3rd. Transport by means of wheeled vehicles on ordinary roads. 4th. Transport by means of pack animals or human carriers. ♦Compiled chiefly from a lecture delivered at the Royal United Service Institution by Lient.- Colonel Clifford Parsons, Professor of Military Administration and Law, Staff College, England. ■ \ —114— Of these, water transport is the easiest to provide and maintain under all ordinary circiunstances where suitable inland water exists; it is also the most economical, and most suitable tor heavy weights such as are involved when sie. of Milieu. llaltiri«^ cvory iii^Iit at tlio julvaiutod depot, D 415 At C tnoro will bo the tbllowing munberB every ni^ht : Returned from D, arid ready to go forward again on the morrow 415 Arrived from B with supply for D 415 Arrived from B with corn and rations for the station C itself 63 Total halting every night at C 893 At B there will be the following : Returned from C and to start again on the morrow, 41 5 + 63 478 Arrived from A with supplies for D, and also for sta- tion C 478 Arrived from A with corn and rations for the station B itself 72 Total halting every night at B 1,028 At A there will be the number returned from B and ready for the morrow's journey 550 Total, without any allowance for casualties 2,886 A, B and C would be the headquarters of each stage, and the allotment of animals would be,— to A (550 x 2) 1,100 ; to B (478 x 2) 956; to C (415x2) 830, Considerable numbers would have to be added as a reserve to meet emergencies, and ^'o allow for the proper percentage of sick at least 25 per cent, of which as many as pos- sible should be retained at the base of supply until required in order to save the transport of their forage, etc. Now to compare this with the same operation performed by four horse wagons, each carrying, say, the moderate load of 25 cwt., or some 910 rations. Suppose all other arrangements to be the same, and the details calculated in a manner analogous to the last case, it will be found that 144 wagons with 576 horses, 50 wagons being allotted to A, 48 to B, and 46 to C, will perform the same work as the 2,886 mules, omitting all mention of trie diminution in the number of attendants, the care of sick animals, and the difficulty of supervision. In addition to the foregoing considerations, pack animals undergo a great deal more fatigue than draught animals in performing their quota of work ; each time a short halt takes place the drauglit animal experiences relief, whereas the other still bears his burden ; and in cases where the baggage trains must be held in immediate readiness to move, pending the result of some tactical operation, the pack animal must remain loaded for hours as the loadino; cannot be hastily performed, for on the careful adjustment of the load dej)ends the preservation of the animal's back and his general condition for work. The average percentage of sick among ^ \ —US- animals performing transj^ort work in a campaign, is estimated at 10 per cent for draught, and 15 per cent for pack transport, as the hit- ter are so liable to sore backs. Moreover pack animals as a rule occupy a far greater space on the line of march, and require good training before they are useful as pack animals. There is, on the other hand, a good deal to be said in favour of pack transport. In the first place, armies have very often to operate in countries impassable by wheeled carriages. This argument is, of course, conclusive for such instances, and, even where good roads exist, troops often get separated from them, and if the country is rugged, they can be reached only by pack animals. This must often be the case with individual battalions which may thus be deprived of access to their regimental reserves of ammunition and intrenching tools at critical moments. Again, it is urged in favour of pack ani- mals that roads have freqiiently become blocked by carriages and the only method of bringing uj) supplies has been by pack transport. It is. however, worthy of note, as applicable at least to opera- tions in Central Europe, and therefore to other countries where the roads are good and country open, that the Germans do not admit that there is any necessity for ])roviding pack animals, all their transport being by means of wheeled carriages. A most important feature in pack transport is the pack saddle. A bad pack saddle will inevitably give the animals sore backs, when they become useless for considerable periods, during which, however, they necessarily require atteiulance, and other animals must in many instances be employed in bringing them their food. It is often found advisable to adhere to the saddle to which the animal is accustomed, and which has doubtless been found suitable to the country in which he has been obtained. This, however, cannot apply to the thousands of horses and mules purchased for an expe- dition from widely different sources, and arriving without any equipment at all at the base of operations. In the British Service there is an excellent pack saddle known as the Otago pattern ; there are two sizes, one for large or medium, the other for smaller ani- mals, weighing respectively 44^ and 381- lbs. The saddle has a com- fortable seat, upon which, when no other load is carried, a man can be mounted. For purposes of calculation, pack loads, including the trappings which weigh about 40 lbs. say, may be estimated as follows: — horse, mule, or bullock, 200 lbs.; camel 400 to 450 lbs.; donkey 140 lbs.; elephant 15 cwt. to 1 ton. The horse, mule, pony, donkey, camel, and elephant are all good i)ack animals ; the mule is better for pack transport than the horse, being more sure footed, more hardy, endur- ing, less liable to sore backs, and more easily fed as he will eat almost anything. The bullock is inferior in this respect and often breaks down, but then he may be eaten ; as a draught animal, too, he is very —no- slow, from 2-2^ miles an hour, but whenever there is any sort of road, or track even, bullocks should be used in draught. Elopiiants have been found extremely useful in places where no roads exist for car- rying heavy weights, such as guns and mortars, but tliey will not stand fire, consecpiently a train of bullocks to bring the guns into action must be provided in addition. The pace of an elephant is from 3 to 3^ miles an hour. The camel, though slow (2 miles an hour), forms a very good pack animal, but those used on the plains are unsuitable for hilly country, for which special animals should be obtained. The camel is easily managed and fed when in health, but delicate and difficult to cure when once on the sick list. It has this one great advantage over other pack animals, that when a short halt takes place it can lie down under its load and obtain rest. When transport has to be performed by human carriers, as was the case entirely in the Ashantee expedition, and partially in Chiiui in 1860, and expeditions in India, there are many points to be con- sidered which do not enter into the question when animals are em- ployed. The weaknesses, prejudices, and inclinations ot human nature come prominently forward ; four-footed animals may break down or even stray, if not properly looked after, but they cannot lay systematic plans to desert in order to avoid distasteful labour, or for tear of their employment leading them into danger. In Ashantee very large numbers were lost to the service by this means, and ex- perience has shown that the indiscriminate mixing up of men of different tribes in the same companies or gangs does not answer. It has been found that the overseers of gangs must be selected, as far as possible, from the same tribe as the bulk of the carriers in order to 3e able to control thom ; and that the carriers showed less incli- nation to desert when they were worked on the stage sj^stem, so that they could, in many instances, return each night to their station which was frequently not far from their own villages. The load for a carrier, both in China and Ashantee, was 50 lbs, but it did not always quite amount to that ; in other expeditions it has been 40 lbs. As it is evident that a fixed weight must be determined upon, so that arrangements nuiy be made for having the stores packed in corresponding quantities, there is irmch to be said in favour of the smaller load. In the first place, it is not excessive when a larger or more difficult march than usual has to be made, or when women or weakly men have to be employed ; and in the next, the load is more capable of being adjusted to the rccpiirements of the case. On short nuirches, easy roads, or in great emergencies, four loads may be given to three carriers, or even three loads to two carriers, the extra load being carried alternately, — or by any other arrangement suitable to the particular method of carrying adopted by the men. U '• ' i I' —120— It is found in practice that human transport is about as good, as far as forwarding supplies is concerned, as pack animals, — a man's food being less bulky than that of a mule. In the recent Zulu war in South Africa a Zulu carrier corps was raised at the latter end of the campaign. Tiiis corps consisted of about 4 British officers, 3 interpreters, 20 indunas (headmen), and some 2,000 Zulus who had surrendered to the British as they ad- vanced into the country. The regular transport, which had consisted of bullock wagons, had become so attenuated as to be utterly in- capable of fulfilling the demands made upon it for the conveyance of food for the troops to the various stations on their return from Ulundi, — and this carrier corps made up for its deficiency. During the period this corps was embodied it carried 604,000 lbs. a total distance of 127 miles. The next point for consideration is the description of wheeled carriages most suitable for general military transport. The qualities essential for a good military carriage are : — Interior capacity to re- ceive, and strength sufficient to convey its load under difficult cir- cumstances ; stability that it may not easily overturn o i rugged roads; lightness of draught ; facility of turning within a moderate compass; durability; simplicity of construction, so as to be easily repaired and easily packed for shipment ; and lastly, lightness of construction, as fa^ as is consistent with the requirements just enumerated. There have been endless controversies as to the relative merits of four-wheeled and two- wheeled vehicles. The princi- pal merits ascribed to the two- wheeled cart with two horses are, that the horse draws to more advantage being closer to his load ; that it is easier driven and can be turned more readily than the wagon ; that it can go over worse ground and is more easily extri- cated from a difficulty ; that it carries at least as much in pro])or- tion to the horses employed ; that it is more simple in construction, and therefore more easily repaired ; and that it is more easily stow- ed on board ship. The chief advantages claimed for the four- wheeled wagon with four horses are, — that the animals suffer less wear and tear in doing their work, and that a less number of them are liable to sore backs ; that the wagon is easier to load, as less accuracy in distributing and balancing the weight is requisite ; that it takes up less room on the line of march with reference to the quantity carried ; that the loss or breakdown of one of its horses is of less importance, as it could proceed with three, while the cart with half its draught-power gone might be lost ; that they admit of a more mixed description of animals ; and lastly, that a less number of drivers are requisite. The vehicles in general use in the country where an army is operating must always constitute a very considerable part \ —121— of its transport. It is utterly impossible to supply from the country more than that required as regular military transport accompanying the troops, and for the Divisional and iVrmy Corps establishments of various kinds. The immense amount of transport to maintain the supplies along the line of communications must al- ways consist of such vehicles and animals as can most easily be obtained by purchase, by hire, or by requisition, and must often be of a very miscellaneous kind. Sometimes, indeed, local transport is found superior in its own country to any other that can be supplied from a distance. This was the case in the Red River expedition, where the two-horsed wagons commonly in use throughout Western Canada were employed and stood the work over the extremely rough roads very well, while the two-wheeled carts provided for the occasion from England were found unsuitable. The dift'erent descriptions of transport vehicles required for military purposes are very numerous, as almost every special ser- vice necessitates a specially-constructed wagon ; thus in the Engi- neer service alone there are no less thati nine descriptions of car- riages employed — the pontoon wagon, the photographic wagon, the miners' wagon, the store wagon, the forge wagon, the tip-cart, etc. For the medical department there are — the ambulance wagon, the pharmacy wagon, the water cart, etc. The wagon in most common use in the British service is that known as the General Service wagon, designed, as its name implies, for the conveyance of every description of stores and supplies for which special vehicles are not necessary. It gives a total interior space up to the bale hoops or cover, of about 120 or 130 cubic feet, and its full load is about 30 cwt. The weight of this wagon is nearly 18 cwt., and it can be easily iitted as a forge wagon. Thus the load drawn by each horse is about 12 cwt., and on average roads they can draw this at the rate of 23 or 24 miles a day. On service, and when fully loaded, this wagon is drawn by four horses on the shaft principle, each of the near horses being ridden by a driver, as in almost all English military carriages. A set of reins is, however, provided for driving from the box, for use when this method is considered expedient. In the o|)inion of many, this mode of driving should be resorted to wher travelling on good roads, as a saving to tiie horses and a prevention to sore backs, but it is gener- ally admitted that for transport that must necessarily accompany troops, be the roads good or bad, the postillion fashion should be maintained, as by it difficulties are surmounted which would be in- superable to wagons driven from the box. The small arm ammunition cart weighs empty 8i^ cwt. It has 8 compartments, taking two boxes of ammunition each. As each box holds 600 rounds of Martini Henry, it carries 9,600 rounds, — weight full 19 cwt. 1^"^ \ ii 11 ■ il —122— With reference to draught power for transport purposes, the time has come when the traction-engine must be reckoned as one of the auxiliaries. In Italy traction-engines form part of the military transport, the long level roads of northern Italy being favourable for the purpose. It appears that the latest patterns are engines of about six horse-power, able to draw about ten four-horse wagons on a moderate road at an average speed of three miles an hour. The engine is fitted underneath with a windlass and coils of strong chain or wire-rope, from 80 to 100 metres long, by meatjs of which it is able to extricate wagons or heavy guns out of difficulties, and even, by making fast the end of the chain, to surmoimt steep and rugged pieces of road by the simple process of winding itself up b3' succes- sive stages. Traction engines must of necessity be confined to the best roads, as they would very speedily destroy any road with a light foundation ; there is, moreover, considerable difficulty and delay in causing m engine with its train of wagons to turn sharp angles where one road joins another, so that their utility is much restricted. The organization of military transport must now be considered. It is a well recognized principle, founded on past experiences, that the transport service with an army, to be efficient, must have a military organization. The adoption of this principle has gradually brought about the division of transport into three classes, viz., regi- mental^ departmental^ and general transport. In all transport organizations two main requirements have to be considered, — first, that which has to accompany the troops such as regimental and departmental transport, which must be military transport ; and second, general transport for the maintenance of supplies along the trunk line connecting an army with its base. The regimental transport is that which is placed entirely under the management and control of the commander of the battalion, or other unit, for the purpose of meeting its immediate wants ; subject to the contingency that, when this transport is not actually required for marching purposes, it may be made available for services of a general kind, either wholly or in part, as may be deemed expedient by the commander of the brigade, division, or army corps. A British battalion on its war footing has twelve transport carriages, as follows : — 1 wagon for staff baggage, office books, etc. 1 wagon for Quarter-master's stores. 2 wagons for provisions carrying at least one day's rations. 4 company wagons, one for every two companies, carrying officers' baggage, cooking utensils, blankets, etc. 3 small arm ammunition carts carrying 30 rounds per rifle. —123— 1 cart for intrencliing tools carrying 300 picks and shovels. Thus there are 8 wagons and 4 carts with 40 horses. If tents are carried 3 wagons will be required in addition in second line. ^ A cavalry regiment has 10 carriages, as follows : 1 wagon for staflf baggage, books, etc. 1 wagon for Quarter-master's stores. 4 squadron wagons. 1 forge wagon. 2 provision wagons. 1 small arm ammunition cart. If tents are carried 4 additional wagons are required which can also carry horse blankets. A Battery of Artillery has 4 carriages in addition to its guns and their ammunition wagons, viz.: 2 wagons for baggage, books and stores. 1 forge wagon. 1 provision wagon. The battalion furnishes out of its own ranks, the officer, ser- geant, and 22 drivers required for its regimental transport, the men receiving some previous training. The horses are supplied by the Commissariat and Transport Department, the wagons^ and other material by the Ordnance Store Department. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 has shown clearly that in rugged countries with but few bad roads, wheeled regimental trans- port is not suitable for ammunition and intrenching tools, as these desiderata cannot under such conditions be supplied to troops in action. It is therefore advocated that a first regimental reserve of ammunition on pack animals should follow the troops into action ; — and, should intrenching tools not be carried by the troops them- selves, a few additional pack animals with a proportion of these stores. In European armies, however, a proportion of the men carry their own intrenching tools, a system which many desire to see adopted in the British service. Departmental Transport includes all transport, other than regi- mental, that forms part of the establishment of the brigade, division, or army corps in the field, and that marches, encamps and works in connection with the unit to which it belongs. In the British service transport is under the "Commissariat and Transport" Department. Many officers, however, advocate the establishment of a separate department for transport, chiefly on the m Hi; ■!;ii Hi \ il —124— grounds that in peace time commissariat officers receive little train- ing in duties relating to transport, and tiuit during a war the Com- missariat have enough to do to feed the army. On the other hand many are unfavourable to the principle of separation, especially since by the recent reorganization of this Department combatant officers are fo be posted to it. One of the greatest difficulties to be overcome in war is the supply of an army with provisions and forage during a continuous march in an enemy's country, and to form an idea of the work re- quired from Commissariat officers under these conditions, Sir F. lioberts' march from Cabul to Candahar may be taken as an illus- tration. This force consisted approximately of 2,800 Europeans, 7,000 native troops, 8,000 followers, 2,000 horses, 750 artillery mules and some 1,500 transport animals, so that marching on one road the length of column must have been about 7 miles. Now allowing the usual field ration to the British troops, and also to the native troops and followers whose rations weigh nearly as much, this force, if on full rations, required a daily supply in round numbers of 2,900 lbs. of meat, say, 70 country sheep, 900 four pound loaves or 25 cwt. of biscuit, 710 lbs. rice, 530 lbs. sugar, 133 lbs. of tea, 750 lbs. !: alt, 1,800 lbs. of vegetables, 90 gallons of rum, 14 tons of wheaton flour. If tons dhall (a kind of pea), 1,400 lbs. ghee (fat) 12 tons of corn, and 18 tons of grass. It will be seen from these figures that feeding an army every day is a work of considerable magnitude. The usual load for a mule or pony is 160 lbs. To carry, therefore, the above European supplies of tea, sugar, salt and rum, alone, for 30 days would require 430 mules or ponies. To obtain the tons of flour, corn, grass etc., required for each day's consumption takes no little time even when there is nothing to do but draw the articles from a commissariat depot in which there is an abundance ready stored, but when they have to be ob- tained from a transport train which follows an army, and which is itself sni)plied from the base of operations, or the country in rear, the labour is very much increased. In the case under consideration, however, the country in rear of the army was no longer open, and this fact increased the difficulties of supply enormously, as the above supplies had to be obtained by a system of foraging. In England, that portion of the Army Service Corps which belongs to the commissariat and transport department is organized in 16 companies on the peace establishment. Each company has a sufficient cadre to admit of its division into two parts, each part by augmentation to become a complete company, so that on mobiliza- tion 32 companies in all can be produced, and each company is fur- ther subdivided into four sections. The departmental transport of an Army Corps absorbs 8 Army Service Corps companies, each company being divided into 4 sections of about 11 wagons each. ** -125— 3acli For the first line of transport 4 companies are required, one for eacli Division, and one for the Corps Staff and all details not belong- ing to Divisions such as Cavalry Brigade, Corps Artillery, &c. The Company allotted to each Division is distributed by sec- tions, — one section to each Brigade, one for the divisional staff and divisional troops (cavalry, rifle battalion, artillery, engineer8,&c.), and the remaining section furnishes transport for the divisional bearer company. Besides carrying the baggage of the butchery imple- ments, staff", commissa'iat and transport detachment, military police, etc., these companies also carry one day's rations with corn. Tl>e second line, like the first, is also distributed separately, viz., that required for each division, and that for the army-corps de- tails not belonging to divisions. It provides transport for the divi- sional field hospitals (two i)er division), and for three out of the six movable field hospitals on the corps establishment, it being consid- ered that tliis number is the greatest that can need removal at any one time. It carries an additional day's rations and corn, both for the divisions and corps details, and furnishes transport for the field bakery and butchery column as well as for the ordnance store de- partment of the corps. In this manner three more companies are absorbed ; the eighth company being held in reserve for such purposes as circumstances may dictate. It could carry, if necessary, tent equipment for about three-fourths of the army corps, or, a far more probable use in a great campaign when a line of communications is established, it might be withdrawn from the departmental transport of the Army Corps, and be employed in connection with the ad- vanced depot. On the war establishment, neither the companies nor the sec- tions have a uniform strength ; it being wisely determined that, within reasonable limits, the strength of the company or section shall correspond to the work that is required of it, and work together as a whole ; any other plan would necessitate the breaking up of companies into fractions working apart from each other, a radical defect in any military organization. The companies range from 182 of all ranks with 83 carriages, to 230 of all ranks, with 127 carriages. The usual data upon which calculations as to the length of road occupied on the march by regimental or departmental transport are based, are as follows : — Including an interval of 4 yards from the tail board of one carriage to the horse's head of the succeeding one, each vehicle with two horses abreast may be estimated as occupying a length of 12 yards, — to which 4 yards must be added for every additional pair of horses abreast. A pack horse or mule is allowed a minimum of 4 yards in length, the breadth must depend upon the mode of loading, but it could hardly be less than 8 or 9 feet, so as to avoid collision. For strings of camels 5 yards per camel should be allowed. Thus, taking the division as practically the marching unit, its troops, accompanied only by such portions of its transport [■ft^'^ \ iii i! as must he at hand for an action, inchiding half its reserve ammuni- tion cohimn and its bearer company, and allowing one-third for lengthening out, would occupy 4 miles of road, while the rest of its transport, following as might be found expedient, would occupy 2^ miles more, making the whole about 6^ miles. For an Army Corps the total wheeled transport, except actual guns, occupies 17fd miles allowing one-third for lengthening out, — its total length being about 25^ miles. The length of road occupied is very considerably increased when pack-transport has to be substituted for wheeled carriages, and de- pends so materially on the number of animals that can march abreast upon the road, that it is useless to attempt to frame an esti- mate for general application. It is, moreover, found that both pack animals and human carriers open out very much on the march, and are much more difficult to contine within anything like reasonable limits as to road space, than are wheeled vehicles. The General Transport of an Army. The British regulations for the organization of the line of com- munications of an army in the field, divide, for purposes of com- mand and administration, the area existing between tiie rear of the fighting force and the base of operations into three sections, viz.: the base itself; the road or roads; the advanced depot; each under a commandant aided by a staff representing all the depart- ments of the army whose functions connect them with these sec- tions respectively. Over the whole of this system is placed a gen- eral officer called " The Inspector General of the line of communi- cations," whose authority is paramount over all troops and others employed in, or passing through, this area, and over all the mili- tary departments working therein, and who is responsible for every transaction connected with the service of the army in front which takes place between the base and the advanced depot, both inclu- sive. The general transport of the army is the transport, whether military, hired, requisitioned, or purchased, which is brought into military use within this area, not, however, including the railway service, the control of which, though under the direct authority of the Inspector-General of the line of communications, is specially l)rovided for. It is this general transport which, either in the ab- sence of railways or as supplementary to them, pushes forward sup- plies to the advanced depot within tangible reach of the army departmental transport ; and it is this transport, almost always composed of heterogeneous elements, brought together often from different parts of the world and with a personnel speaking various languages, that commonly presents the greatest difficulty in orga- nizing for the effective service of the line. New organizations are always necessary and the material obtainable must be utilized. Vehicles, harness, workshops, and other appliances have to be pro- vided on a large scale, as also depots both for spare animals and for the reception of those sick or disabled. —127— In India this general transport is, as a rule, composed of bullock carts and pack transport by mules, camels, or bullocks. In South Africa it generally consists of the heavy wagon of the country car- rying a load of aboiit 5 tons and drawn by 16 oxen. With reference to the organization necessary for the general transport, the following data may be acted upon : — first in the case of wheeled transport. Every driver, whether military or civilian, can take charge of one pair of horses or mules as a minimum and of two pair as a maximum, both on the road and in camp, the maximum to be only for emergencies of short duration. Draught bullocks do not require so much attendance, as in Soutii Africa two men are in charge of tlie 10 bullocks belonging to a wagon. A supervisor can look after from 5 to 10 wagons or carts, according to the number of men and animals belonging to them, and to the material available. Thus a sergeant or a corporal can supervise five 4 horse wagons of the strictly military type, while a supervisor has been found sufficient for every ten 2-horse carts witii civilian drivers. In the Afghan war transport consisted to a great extent of carts drawn by a pair of bullocks, the load for each cart was about 800 lbs. Each cart had one attendant, and for every 100 carts there was one first-class inspector, two second-class inspectors and 6 overseers. In this war camels were also largely used. They were told off in strings of four under the charge ot one attendant. The four ani- mals in string cover a distance of about 15 yards. When camels are properly looked after and fed they are the cheapest of all pack animlils. Four good camels, with one attendant, will carry as much as 9 mules with three attenda its, and will eat considerably less. Wheeled transport for the general transport services should be divided I::to units the strength of which should be determined by the number of animals rather than by the number and description of vehicles, as the carrying power must necessarily be fairly pro- portionate to the draught, the effective load for such transport on fair roads probably averaging about 10 or 13 cwt. per horse or mule. Every 1,000 animals might be divided into 4 companies of 250 each, having a field officer in charge of the whole, with an adjutant, quarter-master and veterinary surgeon, a farrier major, a wheeler major and a saddler major. Each com]>any would re(|uire two com- missioned officers and two warrant officers (conductors), 22 N.C. officers and 142 drivers including a proportion of saddlers, harness- makers, wheelers, farriers, etc. For pack transport a similar establishment would be provided for each company of 250 animals without the proportion of wheel- ers. It is considered prudent at the outset to provide one muleteer to every two mules, as the number of muleteers would probably soon be diminished by casualties, Avhile the number of animals must be maintained from the reserves, otherwise the work allotted to ! (■ '|i| \ —128— each company could not be performed, — but under ordinary circum- stances one attendant is sufficient for every three i)ack mules or horses. It is a fatal mistake to over-estimate the powers of transport, and thus afford inducements to subordinates to overload their ani- mals, in order to fulfil the expectations of their superiors. Assu?n- ing, therefore, that three-fourths of its strength can bo relied ui)on for actual work every day, a fair and moderate a8sumj)tion, the data for calculations would be that a company of pack-transpoit of the foregoing type could carry an effective load of about 13 tons, and a company of draught-transport about 70 tons. For the organization of human carriers, a supervisor for every 25 carriers is sufficient, four such sections making a company of 100, which may be commanded by a selected N.C. officer. The combi- nation of companies into larger units must greatly depend upon the conditions under which they are to work. In any organization, however, whatever its character, required to work along an extended length of road, there must be arrange- ments to provide for a strict supervision, exercised by Inspectors of superior rank allotted to definite sections of road, and constantly on the move thereon, so that they may actually witness the working ot every part of their charge at frequent and uncertain periods. In organizing a system of transport one of the first points to be determined must necessarily be the system upon which it is intend- ed to work the transport,-that is, whether the wagons, pack anfmals or carriers are to be worked by stages, returning to their own sta- tions after performing a stage ; or whether convoys are to be carried through several marches, only returning after an interval perhaps of many days. The experiences of all recent expeditions are in favour of the stage system which was employed in Abyssinia, Ashantee, and Afghanistan. In working transport on the stage system there are several obvious advantages ; at least each alternate day every man, animal, and article of equipment comes under the eye of the officer in charge of the station to which they belong, and can, therefore, be more easily kept in a state of efficiency. Ihe unremunerative weights are less, as only a very small portion of the kits of the drivers and others need be taken with them, and the responsibility for the condition of the component parts of the system, as well as for the work actually done on each stage, is easily fixed. When through two or more contiguous stages vehicles of nearly the same type are used, so that the mode of attaching the draught animals does not materially differ, the vehicles themselves may advantageously be sent through that part of the line instead of being nnloaded at each stage, the drivers with the animals and harness returning to their station with the empty vehicles. \ —129— Whether or not it may bo advisable to make arran«j;eiMeiit8 by which each convoy sliould bo able to return to its station tlie sanio ni^'iit, must depend upon tlie particular circumstances of each case. Tins might, of course, be effected either by increasing the number of stations and making the day's progress of the stores cover two stages, or by causing intermediate stations to send half their carriages forwards laden, and half backwards unladen, meeting those of the adjacent stations midway. The advantages of returning home each night are considerable ; the average daily stages, when the transport returns the next day unladen, can hardly exceed 20 miles, prubabl^y 18 would be a safer estimate ; whereas by equalizing each day 8 work, half being performed laden and half unladen, probably 11 to • 12 miles each way might be accomplished with the same wear upon the animals ; there would thus be a gain in the day's progress, m addition to the immense advantage of every man and animal sleep- ing each night at his own station. On the other hand, this j^lan has^ the serious disadvantage, either oflargely increasing the number ot stations, and entailing the inconveniences of numerous separate establishments, or of involving complex arrangements for meeting^ and transferring stores midway ; and it is probably on account ot these drawbacks that the single stage system is more often adopted. :ii \ y —ISO- CHAPTER XII. RAILWAYS. In war railways have two most important uses, viz.: — Mobiliz- ation and concentration at the opening of a campaign, and supj)ly during a campaign. They have, however, many further uses, as for instance trans- ferring fractions of an army from a distant point, bringing up rein- forcements rapidly at critical times, eidarging the area from which 8upi)lie8 nuiy be drawn, removing sick, wounded and prisoners. The true value of railways lies in economy — economy of time and physical labour in concentration of armies, and accumulation and transport of stores; economy of life in disencumbering armies of sick and wounded, and distributing them. Railways facilitate the first operations of the assailant enabling him to make more sudden concentrations, and the defender is still kept in doubt as to whetlier it is a real attack or a feint. But if the defender be forced to retreat he can use his railways destroying the lines as he quits them and the assailant has either to repair them or use ordinary roads. Other things being equal, an invader should direct his attack on a part of the theatre of war where railways ex- ercise small influence since their eft'ect is on the whole favourable to the defender. They do not supersede marches along the regular roads after mobilization and concentration have once been eftected, as, for one thing, an army advancing can never trust to railways within the sphere of the enemy's operations. It is only in an inconsiderable degree, and for partial movements, that railways can with confl- dence be resorted to when the opposing forces are so near that col- lision becomes imminent. In July 1870, some Prussian Hussars blew up a railway viaduct which connected different parts of the French army (Bitsch-Reichshofen), and it was partly due to this cause that MacMahon did not receive at Worth the support on which he relied. —131— Tlio inoveincnta of troojjs aro now luiicli accelerated by the use of railways which enable armies in the field to be properly and regu- larly Bupplied, and their movements aro not, as of yore, or in coun- tries [where no railways exist (Zululund), so frequently delayed for want of supplies. In the wars of 1850, 1860 and 1870, after the first concentra- tions were effected all extensive moveirients of troops were perform- ed by marches on roads. As long marches fatigue Infantry most, and they are most easily entrained, it is often advantageous to send the Infantry by train only— while the Cavalry, Artillery and Trains march. Illustrations of the Use of Railways for Concentration. French Conckntkation in 1859. — In 10 days 75,000 men and 5,000 horses were conveyed from Paris to Marseilles. — Estimated march time 50 to 60 days. In 1866, the 8th Prussian Corps (31,500 men, 8,500 horses), was conveyed from the Rhino to Saxony, 250 miles, in 7 days. The same year the Austrians brought up men from Italy at the average rate of 12,000 men and 1,000 horses per day, — 120,000 men being brought up in 10 days a distance of 350 miles. After 1866 the Prussians revised their railway organization. Schemes of concentration were kept constantly prepared, time tables were ready and corrected up to the latest extension of lines, — so that when the war with France broke out in 1870 they were en- abled to concentrate their enormous army in an incredibly short space of time by tlie use of 9 distinct lines of railway leading from tlie interior of Germany to the Rhine. Their Army Corps were completely mobilized on the 16th day after mobilization began, and concentrated on the frontier 10 days after that. Influence on Supply. — The enormo\is transport trains which formerly passed between an army and its base may now to a great extent be dispensed with, and the connection will be maintained with greater speed and certainty, the loss and damage of supplies much reduced, the number of reserve and intermediate de])ots less- ened, the transport and number of men so employed enormously diminished. An immensely increased area will generally be avail- able for supplies, and particular districts need not be exhausted. Great magazines at the junction of important lines will be estab- lished with ease, and army transport in the form of horses and vehicles will be confined to the space between the depots on rail- ways and the front of the army. The sick and wounded removed with ease and regularity will no lorv^er encumber the movements of an army. All employing railways as a means of supply method and regu- larity in loading and unloading trains is principally requisite. There \ —132— is a danorer of supply trains not being immediately unloaded at the terminal station, and so accumulating and causing a block ; this is to be specially guarded against. One railway running 12 to 14 trains a day fed the German armies numbering about 200,000 men round Paris, brought up Artillery and siege material, and reinforcements averaging from 2,000 to 3,000 men a day, at a time when the resources of the coun- try had ceased to contribute to their support in any material degree. It was then estimated that a train load of 246 tons will carry two days' rations and corn for one German Army Corps, incKiding its Cavalry Divibion, a total of about 37,000 men and 10,000 horses. The gain afforded by railways in the actual movement of troops increases in proportion as numbers are great and distances small. Thus a battalion or brigade might cover two months' march in one day ; but a large force moving over a short distance would take longer by rail than march. The Prussians calculate that to gain time the proportion of troops to distance must not exceed 400 men to a mile. The li.iiiience of railways is well exemplified in Sherman's campaign in Georgia in 1864, as the aid he derived from his rail- way was very important. He was operating in a country where the obstacles were numerous and the roads bad ; and he was linked to his base by a single line of railway, conquered bit by bit from the enemy, who frequently broke it in retreating. " This main road," he says in his report, "has been admirably managed, and has sup- plied this vast army (100,000 men) so that not a man, horse, or mule, licth been for a day without food, and with abundant supplies of clothing and ammunition." Not only was the daily supply kept up, but provisions for several weeks were stored at important points of the communications ; and throughout the campaign the cavalry on both sides were extensively employed in enterprises against this railway, as the most effectual means of damaging the enem}?. Railway OrgraniEation. The work on a railway may be divided into two classes: — 1. Administrative, corresponding to the duties of Traffic Man- ager, comprising — general administration of the line or system of lines, distribution of rolling stock, combination of movements on different lines, choice of sites for ma^'n stations, temporary plat- forms, etc. 2. Executive, corresponding to the duties of Station Master, comprising — superintendence of station, loading and unloading of trains, forwarding men and goods, etc. A good system of Military Railway Organization is of immense importance to continental powers, as the success of any war depends largely upon the power of rapid concentration. In 1878 Regulations —133— for the Orj^anization of the Line of Communications of an Army in the Field were issued by the English War Office, — but no staff exists nor are any officers or men trained to the duties they would have to fulfil in war. It is true in England there is an " Engineer and Railway Yol- unteer Staff Corps" formed of Chief Engineers and Traffic Managers of great lines, who meet occasionally in peace time to discuss ques- tions connected with the military use of railways. In time of war they would form a committee acting directly under the military author- ities, and would receive from them the general plan of concentration, number of troops to be moved, points of departure and arrival, etc. The committee would then work out the necessary railway arrange- ments, amount of rolling stock required, distribution, number and succession of trains, etc. Thus lines would remain under their own experienced staff, who in turn act directly under the military autho- rities. It may be remarked that in England, as elsewhere, the Govern- ment is at liberty to take from a railway company, either the whole or any portion of its lines for military purposes. If this were done, the regular railway staff as it exists would also have to be taken over, as it would be impossible for military officers to set up on a sudden proper working arrangements. A great concentration, such as the Prussian in 1870, is the most complex of all railway operations, but it can generally be prepared beforehand. Points to be considered in preparing a scheme : — 1. Rolling stock — amount required, necessary arrangements for its collection — its capabilities, how far different lines can meet demands, etc. 2. Distribution of operations, so as to employ all lines equally as hr as possible, and leave none idle. 3. Extent to which ordinary traffic is to be suspended. 4. Rate of travelling and stoppages, times occupied in loading and unloading and intervals between trains. 5. Selection of halting places and stations for entraining and detraining and also the provision of suitable accommodation. This is especially important at termini, — trains crowd in and a block ensues unless unloaded at once. Difficulties to be considered : Break of gauge — junctions where trains cannot run through — different systems of signalling. With reference to the number of trains that can be sent in one day the Prussian official instructions put 12 trains on a single and 18 on a double line as the maximum to be sent in the 24 hours — this was exci vied in the war of 1870. The French then ran from j^ i'l :11 1' , .|K -134— 20 to 25 trains in the same time. It would be absurd to apply this to England, where it is estimated that trains could be run every 5 minutes, or 8 trains an hour could be counted on. To run trains at this rate, troops would have to be entrained at maTiy different stations, — and in England the considerations which would limit the numberot* trains would be the power of the military to entrain troops and tiie quantity of rolling stock available. In- fantry can be entrained anywhere, but horses, wagons, stores, etc., require a great deal of preparation, suitable platforms, etc. However, the rapidity with which a corps can be entrained is chiefly a question of amount of station accommodation and facilities, and also of the number of approaches to the station. At a large station, where space is considerable and preparations could be made beforehand and at least one day's notice given to collect the rolling stock, the maximum that can be s^nt off is 4 trains per hour, and if kept up at that rate it would be vary satisfactory, provided equal facilities for detraining are provided at the terminal station, ^.e., troops must be detrained as quickly as they are entrained or the line will be blocked. Some, however, maintain that a time distance of at least 20 minutes should be allowed between the trains- this would give only 3 trains an hour. Moreover, it is seldom possible to completely stop all ordinary traffic even under pressure of war, as postal ser- vices must be attended to, and large cities are so completel}' depend- ent on the provinces for food, that to entirely stop the ordinary traffic would be virtually to starve their inhabitants, — so that a cer- tain number of trains a day must be allotted for these purposes, and further, as the pressure of running so many trains is great on the railway officials, it has been found necessary to give a railway ter- minus a rest of two days after two weeks continuous work. This is also necessary for repairs. It is on no account recommended to use both lines of rail, on a double line, in one direction at the same time. It is not desirable, because rarely can sufficient rolling stock be collected at a time for large bodies, and consequently the second line must be used for return empties. Also it is not necessary, as trains can be used on one line as quickly a^ Infantry can be packed into them, and quicker than Cavalry or Artillery. On the American continent most railways have but a single line, and the rapidity with which troops can be conveyed is greatly affected thereby. The fewer the places where trains can pass one another on such single lines, the fewer will necessarily be tlie num- ber of trains that can be at work at the same time upon every 100 miles of road. The number of trains actually running in each direc- tion at the same time upon any line will be equal to the number of intermediate crossing places not counting the termini at each end, and the intervals between the departure of trains cannot be less than the time a train will take in running between the two crossing lade —135— places that are farthest apart on the line. Wlien, therefore, a rail- way with a single line is to be used for the transport of a large body of troops, and subsequently as a line of supply, additional crossing places should if possible be constructed. It is estimated that : — An Infantry Battalion on a war footing with its Regimental Transport can be entrained in 40 minutes and detrained in 20 minutes. A Regiment of Cavalry or Battery of Artillery can be entrained in one hour and detrained in 30 minutes. A heavy train carrying stores and provisions can be loaded in 1 hour and 20 minutes and unloaded in about the same time. Rate of Travelling : — The Prussian rate is from 15-18 miles an hour " French " 16-20 " TTnfifKcl, " 20-25 " English including minor halts. Generally a short halt of about 15 minutes is allowed after 2 or 3 hours, and a long one of 1 or 2 hours after every eight (8) hours, for refreshment. In long operations an occasional break of a da}' is required to reorganize. It is often desirable that one or more days' rations should ac- company the troops, — it is generally recommended that forage for horses should be taken ; but when practicable meals should be pro- vided ready at halting places. In any case water for the men and horses must be provided at difterent stations along the line. Requirements of Bailvray Stations. A station to be adapted to military operations on a consider- able scale, requires : — (1.) Abundant platform accommodation, as regularity and expe- dition depends very largely on platform acconimodation. If there be only one platform, the rate of despatch of trains is regulated by the time taken in loading, and if the platform is not long enough to take the whole train the time in loading or unloading is doubled. Sufficient accommodation is seldom to be found on the spot and temporary platforms have therefore to be erected. For the move- ment of any considerable force there should be sufficient to load three military trains simultaneously, besides commissariat trains. As stations will seldom be provided with sufficient, it is desirable that there sliould be a suitable place near for the erection of tempo- rary ones, and consequently a station on an embankment or in a deep cutting is unsuitable. There should also be free communica- tion to the platforms. (2.) Abundant sidings, as a considerable quantity of rolling stock may have to be collected, and commissariat trains take nearly 1^ hours to load, and traffic is liable to become blocked. ?li Vi; iilr I i|i —136— (3.) Available ground for forraing-up troops outside, and suit able sites near for encamping and packing carts and wagons. (4.) Sheds and stores for supplies, etc., as large stations neces- sarily become depots. (5.) Sheds for refreshment of troops with sufficient cooking, arrangements. (6.) A hospital is desirable. (7.) Suthcient water supply, both for passing horses and troops, and for engine. An engine drawing a heavy train consumes about 100 cubic feet, or 660 gallons of water per hour. (8.) Fuel. — An engine consumes about 8 cwt. of pit coal per hour. The method of entraining horses, guns and wagons has to be considered. In Prussia, the Government compels railway companies to construct a certain number of trucks with their ends made to let down, so that they make a continuous platform. A ramp is laid against the last one up which horses can walk, guns are drawn up and wheeled from truck to truck, so that the whole train can be easily loaded. With trucks in which the ends do not let down side load- ing must be resorted to. A good kind of moveable platform was adopted in Canada when a long frontier had to be guarded by a small force from Fenian raids, and for this purpose it was necessary to send the troops quickly to any point in trains. For horses, a skid 3 feet 6 inches broad and 14 feet long with moveable rails was used, pieces being nailed across to prevent horses slipping. To take a gun, 3 planks of oak each 14 feet long, 3 inches thick and 11 or 12 inches broad, were provided. One took the trail the other two the wheels. At one ot the ends a little iron hook was tixed to hook on to the side of a truck to keep it in place. With this plan a gun was detrained, limbered up, run up an embankment by hand, loaded and Hred in 4 minutes. Station platforms should be about 20 feet wide and have ramps at both ends. With regard to their length — platforms where horses or wagons have to be embarked should be as long as the train so that each car can be loaded simultaneously. If for Infantry, the platform need only be of the length necessary to embark horses and regimental transport. In computing the number of soldiers, armed and equipped, that can be conveyed in a railway carriage the usual allowance is 8 soldiers to 10 ordinary passengers. On the American continent a first-class car carries 60 passen- gers, the other passenger cars generally 40, — so that these could carry 48 and 32 soldiers respectively. A box car carries 9 tons of freight, or 10 horses with harness on, — or 9 Cavalry horses saddled with equipment on the saddle. — 13'r— A cattle car will carry the same number ^^ ^^«^«^,«-, ,^ P|f ^^r^JJ car or flat (29 feet long by 9 feet wide) will carry a held g n with its limber, together with an ammunition wagon with itb UmDer, or 5 one-horse carts, or 3 ordinary farmer s wagons. A train consists of from 10 to 15 passenger cars f a^^llmg at the rate of from 16 to 22 miles an hour, or trom 16 to 22 tre.ght cars travelling at the rate of from 12 to 15 miles an hour. ^li and i''.' .^1 . Hi- i ■ft \ —IBS- CHAPTER XIII. ARRANGEMEMENTS FOR PROTECTINC AND MAINTAINING THE LINE OF COMMUNIGATIONS OF AN ARMY IN THE FIELD. It is absolutely essential that the line of communications between an army and its base should be secure and well organized, and very desirable that the Commander-in-Chief should not be troubled about it nor have to deduct a portion of his active force for its defence, hence in 1878 the War Office in England published elabora':e, clear and sound " Regulations for tlie Organisation of the Line of Communicatic»ns of an Army in the Field," based on the Prussian Etapen system. In the introduction to these Regulations it is laid down that "when an army operates in the field it is of paramount importance that the troops in front should not have to furnish detachments to guard and nuiintain the lines of communication." Consequent!}' it has been decided, "that a separate and distinct organisation for the line of communications shall exist in the Held." At the head of this organisation is to be placed a general officer who will be styled "The Inspector General of the Line of Communications." He is to be responsible for everything in rear of and including the Advanced Depot, As it would be impossible for one officer to do more than exercise a general supervision over a zone of country, perhaps 150 miles long by 30 miles broad, sometimes even of greater area, and containing in many instances two or three roads and several rail- ways, as well as a larg9»body of troops and numerous establishments of different descriptions, he is given, not only a large staff, but like- wise three lieutenants of the rank of Colonel or Brigadier-General in charge respectively of the Base of Operations, the Communica- tions and the Advanced Depot. Each of these lieutenants will also be assisted by a numerous staff comprising representatives of all arms and departments. The officer commanding the base of operations has for his func- tions : 1. The general superintendence and police of all the troops at the base of operations. 2. stores. —139— The embarkation and disembarkation of all men, horses and front. 3. The maintenance of all wharves, piers, storehouses, etc. 4. Arrangements for receiving all sick and wounded from the 6. Communicating with the naval authorities. The defence and security of the base of operations. It being assumed that the base is a seaport, as of course it must be with a British force, it becomes necessary to define tlie duties of such portion of the navy as may be stationed tliere, especially as in the Crimea a certain conflict and confusion of authority arose between the Navy and the Quarter-Master-General's Department. It is now laid down that the navy unload and disembark all men, horses and stores, provide the requisite boats, tugs, etc. The loads are delivered into the hands of the army at high-water mark, or at the appointed wharves or piers, and the army there unloads the boats, etc. The army loads all boats or barges under the super- vision of a naval oflicer. Once loaded, the boats and barges come under the responsibility of the naval authorities. Though tlie above is the rule, the Army and Navy are to afford each other mutual assistance when needed. The Road Commandant assisted by 12 staff officers and a Provost Marshal will have to improve and keep in repair existing* roads, bridges, etc., and make any additional ones that may be necessary. He will also guard and preserve order along the com- munications, will transport to the front or rear all men, horses, stores, etc., confided to his charge, and will obtain means of trans- port, food and forage, employing requisitions if necessary. If the native civil authorities do not quit the district he will communicate with them. If they quit their posts, he will attend to the civil organisation and administration of the district until new ones are installed. The officer commanding the Advanced Depot will be responsible that all requisitions from the front are promptly met, will fill up and forward to the front without delay all departmental transport, and supply the commissariat and store officers with such working and fatigue parties as may be needed for loading and unloading stores. To guard against raids by small bodies of the enemy on the Hue of communications, or by bands of peasants, the Inspector- General of Communications and his subordinate the Rojivd Com- mandant, have a certain force placed under their orders. As a long line may have to be guarded and detachments may at any moment be attacked by a force numerically superior atid possessing local knowledge, the Etapen troops should be of the best quality and not militia or volunteers. —140— The Commander-in-Chief of the Army in the Field can of course alone provide for resisting a systematic attack by a large force of the enemy aimed at cutting him off from his base. An example is given of the force required. It is assumed that the army in the field consists of one army corps (37,000 men), that the base is a seaport, population not actually hostile, length of line 150 miles, and that the marches are 12 miles in length. Force required : 1st. For General Service as required : — 1 Regiment of Cavalry, 2 Batteries Field Artillery, 3 Companies Koyal Engineers. 2nd. At Base of Operations, on the line of communications and at the Advanced Depot, — 1 Battalion of Infantry at each. Total, 4,790 of all ranks. If more than one corps was in the field it would be necessary to increase the Commissariat, medical and veterinary departments, but the nuinber of troops and combat- ant staff would be about the same. Blue Jackets and Marines from the fleet would also be avail- able in case of emergency, and the Inspector-General would besides be able to make use of detachments of convalescents and troops on the march for any temporary purpose. Besides the above, there will be a remount depot of 316 at the base of operations and another of 161 at the advanced depot. Organization required along* Communications by Road. Halting stations will be established about every 12 miles apart, where arrangements will be made for accommodating horses and men passing through. Some being of more importance than others will be called " first-class stations." Each station will have a staff with a detachment of Infantry, Police, and occasionally Artillery, Engineers, Cavalry, &c. A first-class station will be under a Lieut.- Colonel, a second-class under a Major. Save in the special case of an attar-k, when the senior officer present will take command, the Commandant is not to be interfered with by any officer senior to himself who may be passing through the station. The Commandant of each station will be responsible for the security of the roads and telegraphs within his district, and will make all necessary arrangements for the defence of the station. It is of great importance to establish good relations with the inhabitants, especially in a hostile district. The Station Command- ant is, therefore, directed to try and gain the confidence of the population to induce them to bring in supplies and form markets in the station. He will take care that those who bring in articles for sale are protected and promptly paid. of the will —141— In case of necessity the Station Commandant, under orders from tho Road Commandant, may levy contributions on the district. These may bo : (1.) Fi les on villages for bad conduct. (2.) Contributions of cattle, provisions, or stores of any kind. (3.) Tiic enforcement of the supply of provisions or other articles on payment of fixed sums. (4.) The pressing of transport, such transport being paid for at fixed rates. From this it will be seen that there is a marked difference between the British system of requisitions and that which prevails in Continen- tal Armies. Every attempt is to be made according to the English system to obtain provisions, etc., by ordinary means, and requisi- tions are not to be employed till ordinary means have failed, even then, save in cases where contributions are enforced as a penalty for acts of hostility, fair prices are to be paid for all articles requisition- ed, at once and in cash. Oar principle is to make it the interest of the inhabitants to supply us with whatever we need by prompt settlement and by giving fair prices. In foreign armies the pro- prietor frequently only receives a sort of bill to be met at the con- clusion of the war, — drivers and their carts are taken away for inde- finite distances, and sometimes their hire is not paid at all or only after a long delay. We, however, work pressed transport only one stage on the line, and treat the driver well. Railways. Railways on the line of communications are invaluable, but as the regulations observe : — "their proper use is so difficult, and so liable to produce confusion, that full and complete instructions are requisite." These instructions are drawn out for the use in time of war of the railways in the United Kingdom, but the same instruc- tions will hold good in other countries. In the United Kingdom the Railway Inspectors of the Board of Trade are, if necessary, to form a Committee under the Quarter- Master-General for issuing orders and instructions. A "Railway Staff Officer" is to be attached to the Traffic Manager of each railway used by the troops as his Military Assistant. At each station where trooj-s entrain, detrain, or stop for re- freshment, there will be a Station Commandant. The Military Commandants will act under the immediate orders of the Railway Staff Officer. Close to the rayon of military operations there will be certain stations called '''•transfer stations^ Between these stations and the Army all traffic not military must cease. . I \ —142— There will also be certain stations called "collectin(/ atations,^^ where the various convoys of stores, men, etc., will be assembled, made into trains, and despatched to their destinations. Permanent stores of provisions and military stores will be formed close to such stations. In the event of a campaign abroad, a special Director of Rail- ways would be sent out from England to take the place of the Board of Trade Inspector. This Director and the various Railway Station Commandants, &c., will not be interfered with by the Road Commandant, the railway being an independent branch of the com- munications. The Road Commandant will, however, on requisition, supply troops to protect the line or guard the stations. This officer will also cause the necessary fortifications to be constructed. The principal duties of a Railway Station Commandant are : general superintendence — regularity and rapidity in loading and unloading trains, and getting men out of the station — specially im- portant to see that Commissariat and store trains are unloaded and cleared out on arrival — trains are not to be delayed on account of irregularities or delays of troops, if troops are late the Regimental Commanding] Officer is responsible, if the train, then the Station Commandant. He should leave all traffic details to the railway official and on no account interfere witli the general arrangement of trains, as one wrong train may upset the whole arrangements. He must see that water, refreshments, forage, etc., are ready, and to the billeting and camping of troops if necessary. No troops are to be sent along the line of communications without a route. —US- CHAPTER XIV. .'I' ENCAMPMENTS. Under this head are inehided huts, bivouacs, cantonments, as well as ordinary camps formed of tents. The position and form of a camp must be governed by strate- gical or tactical reasons, — the selection of a site for a standing camp depending principally on its strategical advantages, and that for a marching or flying camp on tactical advantages. Sanitary con- siderations must, however, also be considered, so that though the selection of the site for a camp is one of the duties of the Quarter- Master General's Department, the Principal Medical Officer should always be consulted. In the vicinity of an enemy everything must give way to mili- tary requirements, but when he is at a distance, say two days' march, the health of the troops must be the chief consideration. When near the enemy troops should be encamped so that they can be rapidly moved into position for action, the camps of the diff- erent units approximating in site to the positions they would occupy in line of battle. The camp should not be along the position itself, but either in front of it when the enemy is at a distance, or in rear of it when lie is at hand. The position of a camp should not be commanded nor be liable to be turned, — if it be commanded by a neighbouring height, that height should be occupied so that it may be held by a small force. Apart from strategical and tactical considerations, the military requirements of a good camping ground ai-e, that it should offer facilities for obtaining abundance of good water, wood, forage, straw and other supplies, — that there should be easy access to the neighbouring roads and that it should have easy internal communi- cations. For this latter consideration the most favourable condi- tion is for the camp to have a good road passing through it from rear to front. For a camp which is to be used only for one or two nights on a march, the first consideration is rest for the troops, so that although extension is good for sanitary reasons yet it is very trying to men W —144— after a fatiguing march to have to go long distances for their rations, water, etc., and the camp should, therefore, be compressed, and if the country is much cultivated it becomes extremely ditUcult to find Buiticient space for even a Division in extended order. For the site of a camp, a grass country with a sandy or gravelly subsoil is best, clay is usually damp. There should be good natural ' '.age and marshes must always be avoided if possible. Forests extensive woods are liable to produce fever, but for a single night and for bivouacs they would probably be preferred ; brushwood is also bad unless on a gravelly or sandy soil. Ravines and water courses must be avoided, as a sudden fall of rain may convert them into streams. The banks ol running rivers are good provided the banks are not marshy. Ploughed fields after a few hours' rain turn into regular mud beds. ClialK near the surface is not good unless coverea with gravel. Old camps which have been used for any time are as a rule objectionable. Unenclosed lands which have not been broken up are the best and healthiest. Tlie same conditions apply with regard to the selection of sites whether the camps be of huts, tents or bivouacs. The form of the camp must always be suited to the ground, and 1 diiferent arms should be encamped on the ground best adapted them. Cavalry and Artillery on level ground and sheltered places, on account of the horses as they suffer more than men from exposure. Infantry, if necessary, may be encamped on ground with a considerable slope. Good roads should lead from the camps of mounted corps to the water supply, but these should not run through the camp. Principles fob Encampments : — 1. Free passage through the camp. 2. Tlie tents, huts, etc., should be disposed M'ith a view to the greatest amount of order, cleanliness, ventilation and salubrity. 3 The different regiments and corps must be able to assemble quickly under arms and clear of their tents. 4. The camp must be as compact as possible consistent with the foregoing considerations. Regulations lay down that as a rule the frontage of cavalry, artillery and infantry camps should correspond with the space they cover when deployed into line (allowance being made for intervals between corps) ; — but with a large force these spacer, must be compressed. Spaces required. — A Battalion of Infantry generally encamps in company columns, officers' tents,kitchens, and regimental transport being in rear. When encamped at full company intervals the front- age required is about 250 yards and depth 166 yards. Sometimes a parade ground 80 yards in depth or less is allowed in front. When ground is restricted the depth may be reduced to 150 or 125 yards. —145— Tlio front may bo compressed by ])lacing the rowA of touts at a minimum dirttanco apart of 8 paces trom pole to polc,--tlio frontage will then bo reduced to 55 yards. Between the open and compressed order there are many stages, but as a rule, with a large force such as a Division, a pattern closely resembling the compressed order is adopted. A Cavalry Regiment is generally encamped in Column ot Troops. In opi :i order, at 50 troopers per troop, the frontage is about 230 yards and doj)th 190 yards. A parade ground 80 yards deep or less is sometimes allowed in front. Close order, 128 yards of front by 1130 yards. The general arrangement is to place tlio horses of every two troops so that they stand head to head, two rows of tents being be- tween each line of horses. The 8i)ace required for each line of horses is G| yards from heel peg to heel peg, and each horse recjuires a width of G feet. If the frontage is much restricted infantry may be en- camped in double companies, and cavalry in s(piadrons. A Battery of Artillery in open order has 19 yards between each gun. The front recpiircd is 135 yards, depth 138 yards. At close order guns are placed 9^ yards apart with 12 yards on the flanks, or 72 yards of front by 85. A parade ground is sometimes allowed in front. The arrangement of a battery camp consists of six lines, each line having in front a gun, then its ammunition wagon, and horse lines for them in rear ; men's tents on the flanks, offlcers' tents, etc., in rear. An Engineer Field Company usually requires 60 yards of front by 90. A Transport Company 40 by 100 yards. Divisional Head Quarters 70 by 70. A small spot for Brigade Head Quarters near each Brigade. A marquee for a Hospital requires 170 yards by 85. For the Transport Department allow the space required by a Field Battery for every 18 wagons. The intervals between the different units vary according to cir- cumstances, 30 yards is the njaximum space nsually allowed, — for cavalry this space may be reduced to 25 and for infantry to 15 yards. In encamping large bodies of troops, a rough sketch of the ground showing the place to be occupied by each corps should be prepared beforehand. In an enemy's country a stafl' officer cannot of course precede the advanced guard. As soon as the camping ground is selected, orderlies are sent back to show some officer of each unit, sent forward for the purpose, the ground allotted to that unit, the watering arrangements being indicated at the same time. The Brigade is the Infantry unit. Each unit must strictly keep within the limits marked out for it. —146— Cavalry and Artillery should never be placed on a flank as mounted corps take longer to turn out, unless the Artillery may be necessary tor defensive purposes, in which case the guns should be protected by a strong guard of Infantr3\ The Engineers usually encamp near the head quarters of the Division. The depots, both for provisions and ammunition, should be placed in a central position, with easy access to all parts of the camp, and close to a good road by whicii supplies can be brought up, and the Army Service Corps Companies and Transport Columns should encamp near these depots. It is often advantageous to have a special issuing camp very accessible to the troops and separate from the great depots. When a Division is encamped the troops are generally encamped in 2 or 3 lines, — two lines for the combatant forces and the third for auxiliary services. Where the depth is lim- ited, it is better to place the Brigades side by side with a diminished front and greater depth, than to divide the diminished depth into two lines. If possible units of one command should not be broken up. Thus the battalions of a Brigade, or the 3 batteries of the Divisional Artillery, should not be separated, as their being together is better for discipline, supply, and general convenience. In selecting the site for an encampment the water supply as regards, quantity, quality, distance, and appliances for making it available, have to be carel'ully considered. Wliere there are rivers or canals there can be no doubt as to quantity, but where there are only springs or wells the quantity has to be calculated. A very small stream will, with care, supply a large force, — but its section and velocity should be roughly estimated. Example . — Section of stream 0'25 square feet, — velocity 100 feet a minute. Its supply is 1,500 cubic feet an hour, or at v^ gallons per cubic foot, 9,375 gallons per hour. Taking an Englisn Division at 10,000 men and 2,500 horses, and allowing 5 gallons per man and 10 per horse, some 70,000 gallons would be required, which this stream svould supply in 8 hours, — but it would be necessary to collect it by dig- ging pits, making dams, etc. Wolseley's pocket-book gives several plans for collecting the water supply aad for filtering. Certain sections of a stream are told ofi' to different units for watering, and certain hours allotted when the different units may draw water. Those parts of the stream where horses are watered must be below the parts told off for the troops, and lower down again washing and bathing places. It is most important that the water supply should not be polluted, and sentries should, therefore, be posted over it taken from the first troops that arrive on the ground, — a regular guard being posted when the camp is formed. When the only supply of water is from wells, time must be allowed to draw it, and each well can then only supply about 90 gallons an hour. ■]isB!Bmsi!iassKas&-- be —141— Bivouacs. For campaic^ning and manoeuvres European armies have out- grown the use of tents, which are now only used in standing camps. Troops when possible are cantoned in farms, villages and towns, when these are not sufficient the remainder have to bivouac. In bivouacking, shelter should always be sought for, improvised shelter places may be constructed with brushwood, straw, branches of trees, blankets, etc ; — frequently, however, in campaigning troops have to bivouac where tliey stand on the tield of battle. The staft' officer merely allots the bivouac ground and leaves all extemporized arrangements to be done regimentally. The spaces required for bivouacking troops are rather greater than when they are under canvas. A Prussian Battalion and a Cavalry Regiment is allowed 200 paces of front, and a Battery of Artillery ]00 paces. An Infantry Battalion for bivouacking is fori ed in a column of double com- panies, the two front companies being wheeled outwards form with tlie rear companies 3 sides of a rectangle in which the arms are piled. Cavalry bivouac in columns of squadrons at half intervals, the front and rear rank horses stand head to head, the men lying down on the flanks and in rear of the horse lines. A Battery of Artillery bivouacs with guns in front line and horses between, wagons in second line with horses between, and men in rear. Sir Garnet Wolseley says that Cavalry should wheel into open column of squadrons, picket their horses, and each man sleep in front of his own horse. Infantry having wheeled into column should pile arms, and sleep as they then stand in the ranks, the officers in both instances sleeping on the reverse flank. The Artillery having picketed their horses and placed the guns, wagons, etc., as if for a camp, should, like the Cavalry, sleep opposite their horses. A hut encampment is arranged in much the same way as a per- manent canvas camp, with streets and avenues regularly laid out. Huts are either sent out from home arsenals, in which case they are Ordnance Department Stores, or constructed locally by the Engi- neers. Cantonments or Billets. The circumstances under which cantonments are taken up must limit the extent over which troops can be spread. There are two cases to be considered, as when the army is more or less stationery, during a long mobilization, slow preparation for war, suspension of hostilities, in siege operations, etc., — or when an army is on the march or near the enemy, and only halts for one or two nights. In the fiist case troops may be spread over a considerable area. This is done with a view to general convenience as better sanitary condi- tions are obtained and it is less severe on the inhabitants, — while in the second case troops must be kept concentrated. li J \ l\ !! 11^ —148— With regard to the choice between bivouacs or cantonments on tlie march, the Prussian Regulations lay down some good rules. The choice with them lies between complete exposure, and complete shelter and comfort in houses; — consequently they prescribe that troops must be cantoned to the utmost extent, and they are only to bivouac when they have to be ready for immediate caction. The regulations state that even in presence of the enemy and when ex- pecting an attack, troops may be partly bivouacked and partly can- toned in neighbouring villages, — the troops bivouacking nearest to the enemy so as to give those who are cantoned time to assemble. Commanding officers must of course use discretion that the villages are not too far off. The distance from the outposts materially affects the question. The practice in 1870 of covering the whole front with Cavalry pushed well forward added to the confidence with which troops were placed in cantonments. In the distribution of cantonments troops are to be arranged as far as possible in the order in whicli they fight. The mixing up of units is more to be avoided even than in camps, as troops are more likely to be confused turning out into streets, especially at night. It is, however, impossible to prevent mixing up the different arms to some extent on account of utilizing all the stabling available for Cavalry and Artillery. Neither Artillery nor Cavalry should ever be left alone or iso- lated if there is any chance of attack, as these services take longer to turn out, so they must be supported by Infantry. In all cases places of assembly must be appointed for each sep- arate unit. As the advanced guard for the next day's march is detailed before the men lie down, the advanced guard should have a separate point of assembly in case of alarm. The Division is in all cases the unit of assembly, and when assembled, it awaits further orders before any further concentration is effected. The street immediately in front of the houses in whicli the troops arc quartered would probably be the point of assembly for a Regiment, whence it would march to the Divisional or perhaps the Brigade place of assembly, — which is always chosen on the side nearest the enemy. If a force occupies several villages there would be a separate place of assembly in each village where the troops fall in and whence they will then be marched to the general place of assembly. Places of assembly for Cavalry and Artillery should be outside of and in rear of the village with good roads leading to it. All Baggage and Transport not required for use should be in rear on the outskirts of the village or town, in order that the wagons iSt'^-'S ex- iso- —149— may be quite clear of the cantonment so as not to encumber the roads, but leave them free for the movement of troops. Transport Columns sliould be near railroads if there are any. Some good building outside the town should be selected with the advice of the Principal Medical Officer foi a Hospital. The head-quarters of each Corps and Division should be well placed and easily accessible. Telegraphic communication between the different head-quarters should be established as soon as possible. All the roads in the district must be surveyed, and if the can- tonments are to be held for any time, they must be kept in repair. Important bridges must be permanently guarded. All plans for rapid concentration should be prepared even if the cantonments be for only one night. The Staff Officer having made a rough survey of the place in which troops are to be cantoned, allots certain areas to different units. Divisions, Brigades, or in small forces or when time admits, even down to Regiments, taking care to give each unit a distinct line of demarkation. The principal streets and places should be lettered and hnger-posts put up directing to Head-quarters, Hos- pitals, &c. On the corners of streets should be chalked the number of the Regiment in occupation, and on the doors the force in each house. CALCULATION FOR THE NUMBER OF TROOPS THAT CAN BE CANTONED IN ANY PLACE FOR LENGTHY OCCUPATION. It is usual to allow one, two, or even three, men per family according to the social conditions of the persons on whom the troops are billeted, — and in these proportions it is considered that troops niay be permanently lodged and supplied by the householders. In considering the force which can be billeted on inhabitants in large areas, the number of inhabitants shouh' be known beforehand, and all such information should have been accurately ascertained before the outbreak of war by the Intelligence Department. Average populations per square mile : — Central Europe, Franco, Germany, &c., 200, Austria 150, England 400, Belgium 425. A practical estimate for a lengthy occupation is to allow troops equal in number to half the population in agricultural districts, because the supplies in farms are greater than in towns, and one- third the population in towns and manufacturing districts. Take an example : — Suppose it is proposed to quarter an Army Corps of 35,000 men in a country where there are 200 inhabitants per s(|uare mile, — over what area can it be cantoned ? Take the mean between ^ and ^ the population =-j^, therefore the Corps would require a space of 400 square miles,— or it could be cantoned in a square area of 20 miles a side. It is always advisable to ap- proxinuite the area to a scpiare as then the troops can be more easily concentrated. In this case it would take a day and a half to con- centrate the Corps. 'I mm —150— When largo iocces such as several Army Corps have to be can- toned they have to be arranged in two or more lines. A certain portion of Light Cavalry would naturally be cantoned in first line to cover the front, and the remainder ot the Cavalry as far back as possible to aftbrd them greater protection. The actual allotment of Divisions, Brigades, &c., to particular towns or villages is done by the Quarter-Master-General's Depart- ment in the same way as in camps, certain areas being allotted to each unit and boundaries rigidly defined. This requires some pre- paration, and the Superior Quarter-Master General must have in his possession all necessary statistics on which to frame his arrangements. Localities notoriously unhealthy, or afffected with diseafse, must be avoided. It must also be ascertained whether there is sufficient additional water supply over and above what is required by the population. When rrussian troops were in cantonments for any period during the Franco German war, as on the line of communi- cations, they were, as a rule, partly rationed and partly fed by the inhabitants, each case being arranged according to circumstances. It is always politic not to press too heavily on the inhabitants even in an enemy's country. In all cases where troops have to be quartered for any length of time the co-operation of the civil authorities should be obtained as far as possible. CALCULATION AS TO THE NUMBER OF TROOPS THAT CAN BE QUARTERED IN A TOWN OR VILLAGE ON THE MARCH WHERE THE TROOPS CANNOT SPREAD. Many rules have been given, and the following are good prac- tical ones : 1st. Large buildings, such as factories, churches, halls, hospitals, etc., having large areas and irrespective of their being encumbered with machines, pews, etc. Measure area of whole floor, and allow 1 man to every 3 square yards of space. 2nd. Ordinary houses. The following rule does not apply to each house but to an aggregate of houses in a street. Strike oft' the whole of one flat for the inhabitants, — then for each of the other stories allow 1 man per yard of front if the house is one room deep, — or 2 men per yard if the house is two rooms deep, — i.e.^ if it has back rooms ; then deduct one-third off the total for unavailable space such as stairs, passages, etc. For horses, measure the length of barns, outhouses, etc., and allow 5 feet of length for each horse. The numbers actually put into houses by the Prussians in 1870 during rainy weather was often much in excess of this calculation. Billets for Artillery and Transport trains must be found in parts where the guns and wagons can be packed without blocking —151— up the main avenues or streets, and therefore these should generally be placed on the outskirts. Under these circumstances, where a large number of troops are billeted on inhabitants, it is impossible for the latter to feed them, and the troops must therefore be rationed. Places for issuing supplies should be in some central spot, or spots, from which streets ramify, so that they may be easily acces- sible. For purposes of concentration it is better to billet troops in a few large buildings than to scatter them about in small houses. A large factory, for instance, might hold a whole battalion. Whenever the enemy is close at hand, and an attack may be expected, or when a sudden advance or retreat may have to be made, every morning one hour before daylight all baggage, etc., of the covering troops may have to be packed and troops turned out under arms as a precautionary measure. In the Spanish Peninsula, when the two armies were watching each other and the Duke of Wellington expected the French troops to advance daily, the British troops covering the main army had every morning for two whole months to pack up all their baggage and stores ready for a start one hour before daylight. il: \ —152— CHAPTER XV. MARCHES. Scientific combinations of marches are the means by whicli strategical plans are carried into effect, — and success or failure is often attributable to the power of marching. To arrange for the march of a large force is a statf duty of the liighest importance. An army should always march on as many roads and on as broad a front as possible, provided the various columns are snfiiciently near to afford each other mutual support. But the nature of the country, whether close or open, the proximity or distance of the enemy, and the object for which the march is undertaken, are the principal con- siderations which modify the choice of roads. The choice of roads has been much influenced by the improve- ments in "modern fire-arms, their increased range, accuracy, and rapidity of fire, enabling troops on the defensive to keep the enemy at a greater distance and to contain them more easily, since the power of local defence has so much increased, — and, consequently, the distances between columns on the march may be increased beyond what would have been considered safe in former days. In drawing up plans for the general advance of a large force main roads only can be relied upon, as bye-roads are apt to be tor- tuous, ill-kept, and to become impracticable in rainy weather, — and in close country troops are apt to lose their way. A General may, however, use all the roads in his neighbourhood which have been reconnoitred by his staff' and found practicable, provided there is no chance of collision taking place between neighbouring columns even of the smallest kind, — this is most important. Troops marching by one road should always if possible compose one complete unit. Thus supposing two Divisions can march along two roads, it would be better to have one Division on each than both used by the two Divisions. By having each Division complete on its own road, greater unity of command is obtained, and in form- ing order of battle each Divisional Commander can form his own supports and reserves having all his force in liand on one road. « SfEsi'^Saiif own •T —153— Rate of March. — Calculations for extensive operations cannot be based on the regulation pace for small units, for tlie rates vary with — the size of the force, the nature of the country whether moun- tainous or level, the roads whether good or bad, the number of roads that can be used, the distance to be marched wliether the march be for many or only for a few days, etc. In small bodies Infantry can march 2f miles an hour, Field Artillery 3^, Horse Artillery and Cavalry 5 miles, including occa- sional sliort halts of 5 minutes. The rate of march decreases as numbers increase, and every check is felt in increased effect in long columns. The arm most affected by a check is Infantry because when gaps occur the front has to step short, while mounted corps trot up. In large bodies, including short halts of 5 minutes, Infantry cannot do more than 2J to 2^ miles an hour. A Division can march at this rate. If the roads are fair, and with good arrangements, an Army Corps can only do 2 miles an hour, but if the roads are bad, or encnmbered, or if there are defiles the rate is much slower. Fifteen miles would be an ordinary day's march for say a Division which it could complete in 8 hoars — six hours' marching at 2^ miles, one hour's halt, and one hour to allow the fighting tail to come up. In 1866, before the battle of Sadowa, an Austrian Corps took 14 hours to march 12 miles because the roads were both bad and encumbered. At the same battle the Advanced Guard of a Prus- sian Corps marched 6 miles right across country in 2^ hours, while the main body coming up in rear took 6 hours. Again in the Waterloo campaiojn, the Prussians from Wavre to Waterloo averaged only 1^ miles an liour, as the roads were all bad. A French column took 7 hours to march 10 miles. These examples are sufficient to show that it is difficult to march at supposed rates under all the cir- cumstances of a campaign. Ordinary Military Transport can generally march 3 miles an hour, or 20 to 24 miles a day ; if empty, they can go at a greater speed and make a longer march ; for long marches and lengthy convoys only 2 miles an hour can be calculated upon. In very long marches, halts for a whole day are generally neces- sary after from every 4 to 6 days' of marching, to rest the men and enable repairs to clothing, shoes, harness, etc., to be executed, and horse galls attended to. From history it would appear that single Corps or Divisions • can average 12 or 15 miles for marching days, halting on every 5th, 6th, or at most every 7th day. For a few days, 15 to 20 miles a day could be covered, — above 20 miles is considered a forced march and would only be done under exceptional circumstances. MMmM=^^ \ —154— The state of training troops are in regulates the distances con- siderably. The weight a man carries also tells against him, espe- cially if the roads are bad and hilly. Any weight tells against a man in ascents, and still more so in steep descents, as it drives the foot against the toe of the boot and tends to sore feet. As a rule short marches should be commenced with, and gradually increased as men get hardened. More soldiers are temporarily disabled from sore feet during a campaign than from any other cause, and fre- quently strong active men are knocked up if long marches are begun at once ; training diminishes this evil. Also if long marches are begun at once horses are very liable to sore backs. The best march on record is that of Napoleon's army from Boulogne to the Rhino in 1805, which was executed at an excep- tional rate at tlie end of August, when the excessive heat of summer was over. The distance is 400 miles and was accomplished in 25 to 26 days. Three Corps marched along 3 separate roads by Divisions at one or two days' interval. The average rate for marching days was 20 miles a day, troops were halted and billeted every 5th day, and, therefore, including halts the rate was 16 miles. The Army arrived on the Rhine in excellent condition and with but few casu- alties and continued its march on Ulm. In 1870 Prince Frederick Charles' Army, in marching from Metz to Fontainebleau, averaged 12 miles a day. The 9th Corps was sent on in advance and accomplished this distance in a shorter time as follows: — Metz to Troyes 131 miles in 9 days, and Troyes to Fontainebleau 76 miles in 4 days, — or 19 miles a day. While the Crown Prince was in ])ursuit of MacMahon's Army between the 26th and 30th of August, his army accomplished from 15 to 20 miles a day. In this pursuit, owing to the necessity of concen- tration, large bodies had to march on the same roads, and the troops were consequently frequently on foot for 12 or 16 hours. General Sir F. Roberts' march in 1880 from Cabnl to Candahar to the relief of the latter place deserves notice. His force consisted of 9,900 British and native troops including 1600 Cavalry, and 18 mountain guns with 750 mules. There were in addition some 8,000 camp followers. Medical transport for 1,000 sick, was provided and comprised 300 animals and 2,300 dooly bearers. The transport numbered about 2,000 pack animals. The distance to be actually traversed was 318 miles along a single and indifferent road, and the force was dependent on the country for its food supply. The march was completed in 23 days including two halts, or an average of over 15 miles a day, the last two days being very easy marches so as to bring up the troops fresh for action. The above marches are rather exceptional, as a rule the average rate of advance for prolonged operations may be calculated at 10 miles a day, — i.e., an actual advance of 10 miles along the main —155— road. Actually troops liave to march longer distances as the dis- tances from their encamping ground to the main road, and then from the main road to tlie eticamping ground have to be added. The probability of iiriding suitable camping grounds must necessar- ily cause the length of each march to vary from day to day. In marching it is very important to have frequent short halts of 5 minutes when men can throw off their valises and lie down. Medi- cal authorities state that the action of the heart is very greatly in- creased in marching, but that it subsides to its normal condition in one minute after the knapsacks are off and the men lie down. Regi- mental officers are apt not to let their men have this rest, but to make them close up more than necessary and harass them in other ways ; this practice should be discouraged. On the other hand loss of distance on the march is a very great evil, evincing want of drill and discipline. A long halt of about one hour in the middle of the march for dining should be allowed at a spot where water is easily obtainable. The order of march and formation of columns are chiefly tacti- cal questions and are, therefore, not dealt with here, but the nature of the country, and proximity or distance of the enemy will of course modifv the arrangement of the different arms. An Army consists of two parts, combatants and non-combatants; the latter have to provide for the wants of the army but must never get in the way. Near the enemy tactical considerations predomi- nate and the trains must be kept in rear, and the order of march must then be dependent on the order of battle ; but when the enemy is at a distance, the ease and comfort of the troops are the first con- siderations and for this all arrangements that facilitate their ration- ing should be adopted. At a distance from the enemy troops may march at intervals which secures a quicker rate and the march is easier to the me i, but the question arises what should be the marching unit when at a dis- tance from the enemy ? By single regiments is tiie most comfort- able and the quickest method, but they have no Provision Columns, and units become too much broken up. So also marching by Brigades breaks up the organization, and consequently the Division is generally the marching unit. A Division is the most convenient force, it is tactically complete and can fight its own battles, — it is also administratively complete as it can supply itself, having its own trains, reserve ammunition columns, medical establishment, etc. In calculating the length different columns will occupy on a road allowance must be made for lengthening out. In England one-third is generally allowed for lengthening out as a minimum, but it should never reach f ds, — if so the discipline of the troops must be bad. As Cavalry and Artillery open out less than Infantry ^d should be suf- ficient for a mixed force. Sir Garnet Wolseley allows 5 per cent, but that is too little. The Germans allow 25 per cent. Other inter- —166— vah, according to circumstances must of course be added, — as wlien noaring the enemy, an interval of 1, 2 or even 3 miles or more would be left between the combatants and non-combatants. Length of Column of. Route. A BRITISH DIVISION. A Battalion of Infantry on a war footing numbers 1,000 rank and file, but 96 of these are band, drivers and pioneers, so that deducting these, and 5 per cent sick, the maximum fighting strength would be about 850 bayonets. The war establishment of a Regiment of Cavalry is 480 troop horses, deducting horses for the band and a percentage of sick, only 440 sabres can be counted upon. Taking, then, an infantry battalion as 850, and a regiment of cavalry as 440, and supposing all the trains to be present and tlijit the infantry are marching in fours, and cavalry in sections (front of two) occupying, therefore, double their length of front in line, a British Division (without tents) will occupy 8,330 yards, adding one- third for lengthening out on the march (2,776 yards), it will occupy a road space of 11,106 yards or 6^ miles ; practically, however, the whole of the trains would rarely bn present. A British Army Corps will occupy 35,810 yards, adding one- third (11,943 yards),— 47,773 yards or 27 miles. * In these calculations the road spaces occupied by guns, wagons, and all vehicles of whatever description are estimated as follows : 12 yards for every 2 horses ) To these distances add 4 yards 16 " " 4 " > for every additional pair 20 " " 6 " ) of horses. These spaces include 4 yards between each vehicle. The rule is to march on as wide a front possible, but it is not safe to march infantry in closer column than their length of front in line, because they could not deploy so easily, — also there should be room for orderlies, mounted corps, etc., to pass them. Cavalry and wagons may, however, be packed closer on broad roads. A rough but good practical rule for calculating the space occu- pied by troops on the march is to allow : — 1 yard for every two Infantry soldiers. 1 " for each horseman. 20 " for every gun. Add space for trains according to the rules already given, and add one-third to the total distance to allow for lengthening out. Circumstances must determine what description of wheeled transport must keep up with the fighting portion of a force, and whether that portion of wheeled transport which is required, such as the Regimental Ammunition Carts and Tool Carts, is to keep up —157— one- such witli individual Ret^inients, or with Brij^adcw, or DivisionH. If thoy follow their Hejijimonts the fij^litiiif;; ]Jortion is too murh hroken up, and the same hap])en8, tiiouj^ii in a lesser dcj^ree, if they niarcii in rear of Bri^ad's. However, if contact witli the enemy is exj^ected they generally follow I3riortion of the Mounted Police not employed as orderlies, etc., is usually with the train of the Division. The train is arranged on the principle that everything should be in the order in which it is likely to be wanted. For instance, when near the enemy the Reserve Annnunition Column or a portion of it would come first, — also a section, or the whole, of the Bearer Company with ambulances. Then would follow the Provision Column and catt'c i'or a day's food and then the baggage. Regi- mental baggage lollows in the order in which the Regiments are marching })receded by the Staff Baggage, — 1st, the Divisional Stafl' Baggage, then the Baggage of the first Brigade preceded by the Brigade Staff Baggage and so on. The bulk of the Field Hospitals would then follow and finally the remainder of the Supply and Military Store trains. When not in the vicinity of the enemy the above normal forma- tion may be varied, — as for instance the Small Arm Ammunition and Tool Carts follow the Division. Every variation which gives ease to the troops, and enables them to reach their destination more rapidly, and to obtain their necessaries quickly, should be studied. Thus the day's rations, if not carried byjthe men, their baggage, and camping tools should be at hand, — all other trains being kept well back. Also when the enemy is at a distance modifications in the order of march may be made for the convenience of the troops. Thus Cavalry nn'ght start later than Infantry so as to relieve them of the Infantry rate which is so tiresome and fatiguing to horses. Artillery might start last so that the roads may not be cut up by it before the rest of the troops have passed, and the dust Artillery raises will not then inconvenience them. The following is the detail of the road spaces already given for British Divisions and Army Corps, marching without tents and ready for battle, the fighting portion being in front and followed at a safe distance by the non-combatant portion : —168— For a Division. CDMIIAIANT I'OIITKIN. YdrUll. 7 Battalions Infantry (850 bayonets) with ammunition and tool carts only 2,870 1 Ilc— NON-COMBATAMT PORTION. 3 Divisional trains 8,886 Cavalry Brigade trains 804 Corps Artillery " 920 Corps En<;incer6 '' 184 i Troop Military Police 38 Medical Department 552 Commissariat and Transport Dcpartjnent 3,176 Ordnance Store Department 480 15,040 Add i 5,013 Total 20,053 Or 11 J miles. Total for Army Corps 27 miles. It is most important that one officer should be responsible for the march of the train and for the execution of orders, etc., concern- ing the train, so that in the British Service Bagf^age Masters are appointed who are charged with the command and management of the Baggage and Train. A Baggage Master, usually a Field Officer, is appointed to each Division,— and one, usually a Captain, to each Brigade. The Divi- sional Baggage Master is in command of the baggage guard, and is directly responsible to the Assistant Quarter Master General for all the baggage, and receives his orders from him. The Brigade Baggage Masters collect the Baggage of their Brigades acting under instruc- tions from the Divisional Baggage Master. There are two main limiting conditions to the size of the column which can march on any one road, — one administrative, namely the power to supply the troops with food, — and one tactical, namely the power to concentrate in time for battle. In a country like England where roads are exceptionally numerous it would rare- ly be necessary to move more than about a Division on one' road, but in most other countries at least one whole Corps lias generally to march on one road. The inconveniences are great if a whole Corps starts from one place to march along one road as the tail of the column cannot reach its bivouac till the night is far advanced whatever time in the morning the Cor})s may have started. There are numerous instances in history of the disastrous eff'ectt^ of ill-planned marches, a»id the chief disasters arise from troops p jt being fed at all or not regulai-jy fed. It is very rarely ])ossible to reduce the distance occupied by troops on roads by widening the front, though when feasible it should be done as it saves the wide 6ei)aration of troops from their supplies. In an open country Cavalry may move across fields, and —160— Infantry also in the fields on either or on both sides of the road,leaving the latter clear for the Artillery and Train, and thus a force can march closely concentrated. Napoleon frequently used onl_y one road for very large num- bers, he inarched as many as 60,000 to 80,000 men along one road, but the difficulties have increased since then owing to the great accumulation of trains of modern armies. In 1870 the Germans always endeavoured to march one Corps only on one road, and when this was impracticable the second Corps marched a day's distance behind the iirst. The French did not adopt these precautions and, consequently, their marches were slow and resulted frequently in great confusion. When a force is broken up among several roads as is the case in peace time, or in a friendly country when the enemy is distant, when each arm may march on a separate road, the following de- scriptions of roads are best for each arm : — Cavalry the softest and least stony ; Artillery the hardest, most level and best ; Infantry the shortest. When large numbers have to march by one road a common practice is to march Corps by Divisions with intervals between the Divisions called sometimes marching in "Echelon." At full inter- vals the Divisions encamp at the distance apart of the length of their column of route ; this is only done when the enemy is at a dis- tance. In an Army Cori)s, for purposes of marching, the Corps Cavalry and Artillery may be looked upon as a fourth Division, and when marching at full intervals the distance of the hindermost Division is so great as not to permit of its concentratiiig for battle the same day, consequently when near the enemy reduced intervals must be resorted to. The advantage of marching with intervals is that on halting the tail of the whole Army Corps has not to be drawn up (27 miles) but only the tail of each Division. Take as an illustration the march of an English Army Corps which has to be kept concentrated so as to be ready to deploy for battle. Suppose the strength of the battalions and regiments calcu- lated as on page 15'i and the combatant portion of each Division to be also of the same strength, thatis, suppose the Ammunition and Tool Carts to march with the troops, and the PJngineer Company, half the Reserve Ammunition Column, and the 1st line of the Medical train to accompany each Division, with the remainder of the trains in rear of the wiiole Corps. Also suppose each man and horse to carry a day's rations so that no ])art of the Provision Column be needed. Then the length occupied by the fighting portion of each Division is just over 4 miles as a maximum, and this limit ought not bo exceeded if it is to deploy rapidly. ' 11 urn- road, great i —161— Should the Divisions move in Echelon at full intervals the head of eacli will be 4 miles in rear of the head of the Division in its front. The advantage of this is that all the Divisions can start at the same hour, — but the rear of the fighting part of the 3d Divi- sion would be 12 miles in rear of the head of the leading column, which is too far for rapid concentration. It is, therefore, advisable to reduce the intervals ; an interval of 2^ miles may be taken as a normal type, and this reduces the extreme distance between the fighting portions of the 3 Divisions to 7^ miles, or half a day's march ;, and with this interval each Division may commence its march one hour later than the one before it. Now suppose the Corps troops to be a 4th Division, and A, B, C, and D to be the respective camping grounds of the Divisions 2^ miles apart. Each Division leaves its baggage behind in camp until all the fighting units have passed. If the Division at A. starts at 5:30 a..m. its tail will move off at 7:10 ; therefore, if B starts at 6:30 it cannot reach A till 7:30, so that a margin of 20 minutes will be left between the time the tail of the 1st Division leaves A, and the head of the 2nd Division reaches A, and so for the other Divisions. The tail of D will be clear of A at 1:10 p.m., when the baggage trains of all the divisions may start simultaneously, viz. at 1:10, and as the Baggage train of each Division will not exceed 2^ miles in length, there will be a quarter of a mile between each train. In some cases of course the Corps troops may have to be split up among the Divisions, as for instance the Corps Artillery may have to march near the front; this would naturally increase the interval of time at which the Divisions could march oflP. Mounted orderlies should be posted at the intersection of roads, and in towns at the corners of streets, to prevent the heads of the columns taking a wrong turniiig and to stop stragglers escaping along them. Framing: Orders for a March. The Quarter Master General's Department is responsible for the whole arrangements and execution of a march and frames the orders which are published by the Adjutant General's Department. The details orders enter into depend greatly on the system of responsi- bility in existence. Generally, the Commander-in-Chief issues min- utes of instruction or gives verbal directions to his Chief of the Staff and does not enter into details. Napoleon used only to give general instructions to his Chief of the Staff' Berthier, but sometimes, espe- cially before a general battle, he entered into what he considered essential particulars and issued detailed orders. His usual plan was to indite a short note to his Corps Commanders comprising informa- tion as to the general object of the movement, the state of affairs, the direction of the movement, and information as to what the Corps on tjre right and left of the Corps Commander addressed, were doing andavere ordered to do. This last information is very important as ove'if Corps Commander should know something respecting the morf ments of the neighbouring Corps. —162— Wellington's orders were more minute and elaborate, allowing very little latitade to his subordinate Commanders. Tiiis is not ad- visable with large armies, where a close superintendence cannot be maintained, and each Commander on the spot can grasp local cir- cumstances better than the Commander-in-Chief. Tlie most important principles in framing orders are accuracy, clearness, and brevity. Superior orders of any kind should not deal unnecessarily with details ; the points to which special attention must be given are those in which differences might arise between heyds of Depart- ments or Kegiments, — and here great clearness is required ; but all matters that affect merely the detail of a subordinate command should be left to that Commander to make his own arrangements. To interfere in minor details is not only discourteous but siiows dis- trust, and may even prove deleterious as it hampers 'i;he subordinate Commander's arrangements in which he, being on the spot, must be the best judge. In the British Service there is greater tendency to restrict the unfettered action of subordinates than in many foreign armies in which all subordinates have to act on their own responsibility and discretion in matters that belong to their province, thus strengthening charac- ter, inducing self-reliance and a habit of assuming responsibility all so necessary on active service. Thus in framing orders for a march, if one Division marches independently of all others, i.e., by one road alone, the Divisional Commander should be left ah -^e to arrange his hours of march, etc.; but if other Divisions are on the same road with it, crossing it or joining it, then definite instructions must be given. If several Divisions, Brigades, or Regiments have to meet at a particular point, the hour at which each is to arrive should be detailed, not the hour of starting which should be left to each indi- vidual Commander. If columns have to cross each other the orders should specify the hour at which the column which is to pass first should dear that point, but the orders for the second column should specify the hour at which its head should arrive. German orders usuall}" give some information concerning the enemy's movements and positions. This is not usual in the British Service, but it has its advantages, as such knowledge given in cau- tious terms is more likely to secure the proper carrying out of orders ; sometimes, however, it is better to conceal these, as when it is advisable for the enemy not to be informed that his movements are known. All orders are headed with the authority from which they ema- nate, as " General Orders," or "• Army Corps Orders," the place and date. Paragraphs are numbered and each paragraph should contain what is necessary for one item and no more ; separate mat- ■ wing >t ad- ot be cir- ca 11- —163— ter should not be mixed up in one paragraph. For instance, in orders for the march of an Army Corps the first paragraph would be a sort of preamble, as, — the Army Corps will march to-morrow, — and give the general direction, object of the march, hour and order of march, roads to be followed by different Divisions and detachments. The 2nd paragraph will perhaps contain all that relatas to the first Division, the 3ra paragraph all that relates to the second Division, and so on. Then paragraphs dealing with Corps troops, &c., taking them item by item and keeping them separate. Tlie formation of Advanced and Rear Guards, instructions for flanking parties, what are to become of Field Hospitals, Reserve Ammunition Columns, Engineer Forces, Pontoon and Telegraph trains, with details as to what the latter are to do, what telegraph lines to lay, hours when these are to be ready, etc. Then should come the dispositions of that portion of the train not necessary to follow the fighting portion. Also instructions for provisioning the troops for the day or next 3 days, what rations to be carried by the troops, and whether to be supplied from the trains, magazines, or inhabitants. The orders should also refer to the dis- position of the Baggage and other Columns. One order which is never to be omitted in such orders, is where the General is to be found, or in Army Corps or Divisional orders where the Army Corps or Divisional Commander is to be found ; should he »nove from his place a Staff Officer must be left to open correspondence, and give orders on an emergency. As a rule this is not necessary in Brigade Orders unless the Brigade is much spread out. Then would follow minor details, such as Escorts for the Staft", Baggage trains, also regimental parties required to pitcli staff tents etc., — these are laid down clearly in orders t the commence- ment of a march and only referred to when necessary. The orders also publish the Postal arrangements and the means established for communicating with Anny Head Quarters, how often regular orderlies are despatched from distant Divisions to Army Head Quarters, so that persons having business correspon- dance may know when to send them. During a march orders are given by word of mou^h, or better, by written memoranda. Verbal orders are dangerous when they relate to iniportant matters as orderlies are apt to make mistakes. When an order is very important and has to be sent any distance, especially when there is a chance of orderlies being intercepted, duplicate or even triplicate orders should be sent and messengers despatched by different routes. With reference to what has been said respecting the tendency in the British Service of superiors to interfere in minor details which properly belong to subordinates, it may be remarked that the in- terference of a Commander with the detail duties of subordinates —164— should be avoided as much as possible, and he should place tonfidenco in, and allow all reasonable latitude to, the latter. On the other hand, the amount of discretion which can be safely left to subordinates depends on the proved ability, energy, attention to duty, experience, and knowledge of the subordinate officer. When officers are only partiall}^ trained, or inexperienced, or of doubtful fitness, a commanding officer must necessarily issue more detailed instructions and supervise details more, and he must of course never trust blindly that his subordinates will always carry out instructions in the best manner. He should avoid interference, but he must from personal observation have certain grounds for knowing that his subordinates are performing their duties thoroughly and well, otherwise, when too late to avoid it, a catastrophe may be the first rude awakening to the fact that duties and orders have been always, or have gradually become, neglected, whether from want of know- ledge or carelessness. At all times an exact and regular perform- ance of all duties and strict obedience to instructions must be exacted. k —IBS- CHAPTER XVI. k EMBARKATIONS AND DISEMBARKATIONS. In the British Navy there are several Transport ships in Com- mission to carry on all the ordinary transport of troops by sea ; in war time, however, these cannot meet the requirements and vessels of the mercantile marine have to be chartered. The head of the Transport Department of the Admiralty is called the " Director of Transport Services." It is to this Depart- ment that all requisitions for the transport of troops are addressed by the Quarter Master General's Department. At foreign stations the local representative of the Quarter Master General's Depart- ment applies to the local representative of the Admiralty, generally the senior naval officer, who has to decide whether the service is to be performed by one of Her Majesty's Transports, or by hire, char- tering, or freight. When there is no naval officer the agent for hir- ing transports is the Commissariat officer. Three distinctive terms are applied to hired vessels : 1. Transport^ — a ship wholly engaged for Her Majesty's ser- vice by the month or by the trip. 2. Troojyfreight ship^ — one not wholly engaged but in which conveyance for troops can be secured. 3. Storefreight ship, — one either wholly or partially employed for carrying stores. The first operation in hiring shipping is to call for tenders, stating the general object for hiring, and by what time vessels are to be read}'. In cases of small hirings tenders are sufficient, for larger hirings a "charter party" is necessary which is a legal document binding each side. Certain clauses always bind the master of the ship to comply with the orders of naval agents and with the Regu- lations, and in case of disobedience of orders, or breach of agree- ment, he is to be mulcted. Clauses are also inserted securing the ship's boats and crew for embarking and disembarking. When ves- sels are hired by the trip the master of the ship stipulates for demur- rage (usually at the rate of 20 shillings a ton per month for steamers) vm\ —166— if kept waiting longer tlian a specified time at any port. For em- barking or disembarking troops or stores the time allowed is gener- ally from 6 to 10 days, and 4 days for calling at intermediate ports. Paddle steamers are preferable for Cavalry as they do not roll 80 much, and vessels for Cavalry should never have less than 30 feet of beam. Large ships are in all cases preferable to small ones, — they are more economical, comfortable, and healthy. The minimum height between decks for Infantry should be 6 feet and for Cavalry 7 feet. The capacity of a ship is estimated by its tonnage ; the usual estimate is about 2f tons per man, and from 8 to 10 tons ])er horse. These rates include all requisite accommodation for equipment, baggage, food, forage, etc. If the meat supplied is salt beet, and bis- cuits are in bags, 10,000 rations occupy 950 cubic feet ; if the meat is salt pork and biscuits are in barrels, 10,000 rations occupy 1,350 cubic feet. A cabin for one otHcer is estimated at 30 superficial feet and 195 cubic feet. To ascertain accurately the number of men a ship will accom- modate it is necessary to measure the clear space between decks and then calculate the number of hammocks it will hold. Formulae have been given but these are not of much use as the spaces are much cut up M'ith masts and gear of all kinds. For slinging ham- mocks the height between decks should be 6 feet at least. A ham- mock is 9 feet long but the ends interlace 1^ feet, the breadth allowed is 16 inches, so that 6 feet x 16 inches is the space required for each hammock, — except for those at the end of each row where 1^ feet are lost. Before calculating the space for men, all spaces required for extra cabins, baggage rooms, etc., must first be deducted. These requirements are : — extra officers' cabins ; hospital room in the proportion of 3 per cent to the men embarked, with Dispensary attached ; baggage room ; helmet room : magazine ; room for stowing hammocks ; stowage room for provisions ; latrines tor 3 per cent, etc. There must also be mess table accommodation, and places to stow away valises and kit bags near the tables, also a well protected spot for stowing arms easily got at by the troops. Two Boards of Survey generally assemble to inspect each ship that is to be hired ; the first lias to decide whether the ship is suit- able for the purpose ; and if taken up, the second board is convened to sec that all the necessary fittings, etc., are complete. These boards are generally mixed boards of naval and military officers. The operation of embarking men, after the heavy baggage is on board, is a very simple operation if the ship is alongside a wharf, but if the vessel is 200 or 300 yards from the shore boats have to be used and the operation takes time. If accommodation ladders are provided, the slings of rifles are removed as rifles are stowed with- „:..,-