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Les diagrammes suivants iliustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 •9"MiU I'VP^sei MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART ,-4o 2| 1^ m ilia i:^ m IIM 1- 1^ t. 11° 12.0 1.8 1.6 ^ APPLIED IIVH GE Ir 'i^^^ '6*33 East Mam Street — ■ ''6) *8/' - U.lCO - Phone ^= ■ '16! 288 - 5909 - Fqi I i \ ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES ^?Trmp :!gn :: i BJinmiimiiai!nuijiii!iiijoiiiiiujiiiii!iiiMii.jin!!iiyjiii!iiyiiiiTm 5^ Qraw'Ml Book (h Tm PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS F O R_/ Coal Age ^ Electric Railway Journal Electrical Uforld v Engineering News-Record American Machinist v jhe Contractor Engineering 8 Mining Journal ^ Power Metallurgical 6 Chemical Engineering Electrical Merchandising liiii1Miffi !iii i!f ii:!!! ffij n:: ^^ - ' ^ ^'W^ llli ff E »»'-? ENGINEERING ■ Tn OP SHOPS AND FACTORIES BY HENRY GRATTx\N XYRRELL, C. E. Bridue and Structural Engineer. EvanHon, lU ; Member of the ne^ern Society of Engineer; Society /or the Promotion of kngineering Education, \ational Geoeraphic Society, etc; Author of: Conerebt Bridget and Cutvertt, Mill Budding; HiMory of Bridue Engineering, Artittic Bridge Dtexgn. First Edition FoCKTH iMPRESalON McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc 239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., Ltd. 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., B.C. 1912 COPYKIOHTED, 1012 BY IIenrt Grattan Tyrbell THC-UAPLE.PRESU-TORK-PA PREFACE This book is basod upcn the writer's personal observations, 8tuily and experience, covenng a period of more than twenty years in this line of work. It is a secjuel, and supplementary to hJH other book entitled " Mill Buildings," and, excepting in a few cartes, parts which are fully treated there are not repea; » here. Additional information and costs on some subjects have been included, which have come to his attention since his last book was published. Chapter I., entitled " Industrial Engineers and Their Services, " should be valuable both to engineers and factory owners because it gives the standard rules of conduct and business which have been established and accepted by several of the leading engineering societies. Similar rules have long existed, governing the relations between architects and contractors. The chapters on the economics of factory location and construction are included, because of the enormous amount of money being invested in manufacturing industries. If these plants are, at first, wrongly placed or arranged, no amount of subsequent good management can remedy the initial mist ikes. Several chapters are included on concrete buildings and ti.iii . o.st, because of the increasing use of this material, -d iinuh of the objection to the type should Ik) removed h the exj ' nafim f easy and effective methods of su face i-atment o gi\ em .. more attractive appearance. Such details as foumiatii . walls, roof- ing, etc., which are fully treated in the auth<.,s h>ok ent^ 'cd " Mill Buildings," are mentioned only briefly here ^pace u.ny be left for other subjects. Several chapters originally contributed by th o tho Engineering Magazine, are reproduced with little hange. In order to make the book of greater value, some of 'hapters have been prepared with the aid of specialis^i s, mo.st ( >i latcrial on Heating and Air Washing' being supplied by the lir o Fo.-Ke Company, and that on Artihcial Lighting by the W es; house Electric Company. Many of the illustrations are from i ;^^ o ^j VI PREFACE of Engineering Xrirn, Knglnnring liininl, Rnihvaij Agr (InziHe mill otiicr joiinialH. The l)<)i»k i.s disipu'il to nid all who arc intiTOMfcd in «hop« ami factories, and cHpecially ciinincctH, arfhitt-cts, draftniiu'ii and students, as well as factory owners and cniphr. ««'m. H. (I. Tyrrell. KVANMTOV, I1XIVOI8. (Miihrr, 1012. i COXTKNTS Pkefa.k ... •**"■ , V JVTHODrcTION . . . XV <'IIAI'Ti:il I Enoinkkhk a(. 1 K Services j nuil.llr.R I'l.. „,,--% Whom Ma— Coi,t of Land— Labor Supply— Nearness to l!:,w .Materials- Nearness to Souree of IV. wer— Shipping and Freighting Facilities— Climate- Market for I'roduet— Selection of lluilding Lot. CHAPTER III E< ONdMlc- „y FAfTOUV Co.N.STHUCTION Jo Proposed Methods of Manufacture -Mcthwls of Management- Particulars of Similar Plants-Schedule of Machiner>— Arrange- nient of Machines -Area and Elevation of Floors in Each Depart- ment-Receiving, Storing and Shipping Facilities -Provision for Expansion - Arrangement for Departments -Approximate De- sign of Buildings -Approximate Cost Estimates. CHAPTER IV Example of Pbeliminart Design 34 location -Size of Lot— Grading— Arrangement of Yard— Eco- nomic Production— Co-operation witli Machine Shop and Foundry —Scope of Plant— Future Extension— Method of Constructing Buildmgs— Forge Shop, Building and Tools— Template Shop, Building and Machiner>-— Riveting Shop, Building and Equip- ment-Loading Facili'ies— Erecting Tools and Machinery- Power— Cost of Complete Plant— Temporary Plant. Tools Re- quired—Cost of Temporary Plani— Profit on "investment. vii via TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTEH V I'auk GkNKRAI, I)KMI(iN 42 Aesthetic Treat iiieiit — Wiiiil Pre.ssureH ^ Floor I,ou(In — Unit Stress — Stress Analysis in Building Frames — Knee Uraees — Specifications. CHAPTER VI SELECTION OF HuiLDIKO TvPE 52 Kind of liuilding Materia! — Essentials of Good Framing — Vibra- tion and Oscillation — Depreciation — Insurance — Roof Outlines. CHAPTER VII W(K)U AND StKKL FhA.MINO fll Timtx r Framing — Cost of Timber Framing — Steel Framing — Framing of Domes — Long Span Roof.s — Co.st of Steel Frame Uuildings. CHAPTER VHI CONCRKTK HlII.DINUS 102 Advantages of Concrete — Disadvantages of Concrete — Materials and Mixing— Design — Permissible I'nits— Separately Moulded Members— ( 'limns — Heams — Machinery Connection to P'loors — Shafting Attachments — Waterproofing — Erection. CHAPTER iX CoNCHKTE Si-hfacf; Fimsic 125 Surface Defects: Hair Cracks, Porosity, Dusting, Irregularity of Forms— Need of Treatment — Method of Treatment — Surface Coating: Washing, Painting— Veneering: Brick and Stone Facing, PInslcring, Stucco — Surface Removal, Coloring, Preparation of Surface: ,-iand Blasting, Tooling, Rulibing, Picking, Scrubbing, Pebble D;i,-hing, Acid Etching. CHAPTFU X CcsT or RKiNFoncKn Coxcrkte Brii.DiNcis 140 Cost of Buildings— Cost Analysis of Comrete and Forms. CHAPTER XI COMPARATIVK CosT OK Woon, RkINKOUCKD Co.VcnETE AND StEEL Bi;ii,DiNr.s 147 First Cost — Tlliniate Cost— Wood and Reinforced Concrete Compared — Reinforced Concrete and Steel Compared. CHAPTER XII FODNDATIONS I.oad.i on i-oiMidntiim^- H.-.iring Power of Soil.i — Area oH Soii- Foundatiou Walls— Piers — Piles — Machinery Foundations. 152 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII IX Paqb 158 (Jnoiisi) Fi.ooKs i:arth I'loors — Wood IJlotkt*— Plank Floors — Tar-coneretc and Wood— ( ^cment-concrote Floors — (Jranolif hie Finish — Asphalt — Brick — Recommended Types. CHAPTER XIV Upper Floors 172 Slow-burning Wood Floors — Safe Load on Plank — Wood Floors with Steel Beams — Triangular Sheet Steel Floors — Multiplex Floors — Metal Arches — Metal Troughs — Plate Floors — Brick Arches. CHAPTER XV Concrete Upper Floors 17g Concrete Beams and Wood Flooring— Floors with Concrete Beams and Slabs — Flat Slab Floors — Thickness of Flat Slabs. CHAPTER XVI Walls, Partitions and Ofeni.vos Brick Walls— Vitrified Tile Walls— Concrete Block Walls— Cem- ent Brick Walls — Monolitliic Concrete — Wooden Framing — Comparative Cost of Frame, Veneer and Brick Vi'alls — Partitions — Windows — Doors. CHAPTER XVII Roofs and Roofing Roof Covering — Thickness of Roof Boards — Concrete Rost of Reinforced Concreto Buildings 141 X. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Buildings 142 XI. Cost Analysis of Concrete Buildings 143 XII. C -".parative Cost of Wood and Reinforced Concrete . . 149 XIII. Comparative Cost of Reinforced Concrete and Steel . . . 1.51 XIV. Bearing Power of Soils 153 XV. Safe Load on Plank 172 XVI. Safe Load oii Multiplex Steel Plate I'loors 175 XVII. Thickness of Flat Slabs 185 XVII i. Cost of Veneer, Frame and Soli arranfiement of mac'iiinery and depart- ments, and to carry on preliminary .studies as outlined in Chapters II and III, under the direction of, and in consultation with the plai. owners. He will, in fact, outline the whole scheme and furnish the .structural engineer with preliminary plans and approxinuite cost estimates. (See Tyrrell's Mill Buildings, pa-ie 12.) This greatly simplifies work for the structural engineer, as his .lutics then relate chiefly to matters of building construction and economic tlesign. When the whole work of planning a plant, including tl preliminary, mechanical and constru.'tive details is entru.sted to one nuin or firm, the duties of the engineer are greatly enlarged and it is this condition which is assumetl in the following discussion. "^ When looking about for persons to make investigations and prepare designs and drawings, the plant owner usually finds that this work may be done in at least four different ways. 1. By the company's draftsmen ,mder the direction of the owner. '-'.By (he company's draftsmen under the supervision of a specially employed industrial engine(>r. 3. By a contracting firm expecting to .secure a contract for construction. 4. By a consulting engineer or firm, with staff assistance. 1 > •"*!>■• 'I*-^ 2 /, \r,7.V /•;/■; /i7\7; of SIKH'S .WD h.U'TOIilES 1. The first, of tlii'so hh'IIkkIs often iippearH to owners to bo the theapest imil most iittiactive, for phms wouhl then lie ob- tained at cost price. The ilisadvantaRe is, that shop draftsmen iieciistonied to working on machinery parts, are, as a rule, nnfamiliiir with Ixiildiiij; const nic' ion, and the owner oi nianaper who may be thorouiihly familial with inanufactnrinK methods and works mana>remeiit . <'veii tl u;;li lie may in earlier years have been an expert draftsman, -lo lon<;er has time to keej) himself informed <>ii >w\\ matters, .\nother di.sadvantajie of this method is that the owner and his draft inj; force are not in possession of data pertaining to mamifactnrinj; plants in gei\eral, and their time is too fully occupied with otlier duti(>s to permit tiu'm to concentrate thought on this important work. The successful man!i<;er of a woolen mill would ciMtairdy not attempt to manufactiir(> the iiuu liinery for his mill, and for the same reason he can hardly be expected to proficiently design tho details of factory building;. 2. The secoiiil method of securing plans, in wiiich the owner employs an industrial engineer to work out the designs and drawings with the assistance of the plant draftsmen, is unsatis- factory for tho same reason as stated before, that such men arc rarely familiar with structural work or building construction. If special draftsmen arc employetl under the directimi of an industrial engineer, the result is practically tho same as when a consulting engineer or firm is employed, for, if proficient, ho will expect responsible charge. If he is not tiiorougiily proficient and Is willing to give his services for little more than draftsmen re<'eive, it is hardly probable that a works manager would, on second thought, be willing to entrust him vviili tho planning of buildings involving the expenditure of a large sum of money. Tiie law of economic construction sliould be remembered, which is — that in tlie building of plants, tiie greatest efficiency and economy are ol)tained only when the work is under the direction of a thoroughly proficient and experienced por.son. 3. The acceptance by an owner of a comi)etitive design (Fig. 1) from a firm lioi)ing to I'eceiv-' a contract for the work, is (pies- tionable practice and oft< n vinsatisfactory. Contractors who make a practice of getting work in this way, expecting to secure only part perhaps one-fifth -of all work for which they make piiihs, lausi add to each bid, the cost of making plans fur the Other four-fifths. Therefore^ instead of paying for one set of ■-.l^'W^y^^S^^Sy' r!i 'ffl i:\(ifM:i:i{s .\m> rirniu shinicrus jilans. the ownrr imi.-«t. really pay for at lenMt fiv«' sots, with n poswililt increase to ten or more, if the contractor in Hiiccessfiil ia a less nuinher of cases. To compensate for this contracting CYpeiiMe, and yet keep the cost down tuildin>:s on a I'll.. 1.— 1 actory buiUiins for Scott ^: liownc, Hlooiiilielil, N. J. tonnage basis and Instead of supply inp; the ptirchaser with a rational desi;;:,, the proprietors of the structural company insisted on usinj; exce.s.s material to such an extent that riveted steel column.; were made of plates and iin^les i in. tiiick, wiicn ,',pin. thickness was .sufhcieiit, with corresponding waste in other jiaits, A better way of .securiiij; plan conscientious structui.il en.2;ii;' serve tlie best intcr.-sts of his ( the best results that are obtain:" he receives. Better results u^ !- 'o enipl )y a competent and ' 'f • '■ ■ oiiject will bo to T •, : '.. i-r should then e:et •iHu |):iy iijiiy .or service which ■''•.7,- l.v !( iving details of ''^^Dt^m^. 4 KXalNEERIMl OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES construction to the ongincor, who is hotter qualified than the owufM- to make such selection. Tiie emi)loymciit of a consult inj; oiifiincer may result in a larjier ann unt of money beinp; paid for engineering service, than if such work were attempted or done by draftsmen in the owner's office; but if the consulting engineer is honest and proficient, he should give value many times for the money received, and the result should be bettor service and lower ultimate cost. The rule previously stated will nearly always apply — that the greatest degree of efficiency and economy on construction work is secured only when it is under the direc- tion of an expericnceil, proficient and conscientious person. Such nioTi, by their superior knowledge are able to save money for their clients, and to show results corresponding to the degree of confidence which can be placed upon them. The (iiialities needed in an industrial engineer are knowledge and experience, together with enough force of character to claim and hold the confidence of those with whom he is doing business. lie must be able to design, illustrate and superintend h"s work, or to direct ot heis in such duties. While he must have a general kno\vl(Mlg(> of his whole business, he should have among his assistants, men specially trained in different kinds of work, as, for instance, one or more draftsmen on mechanical eciuipment, another on architectural drawings and perspectives. The word "engineer" is used instead of "architect," in the above discussion, for industrial problems pertaining chiefly to construction and efficiency arc better understood by engineers than arcliitects. It is true that many persons calling themselves "architects" are among the most skillful workers on industrial jihints, but th(\se persons might better be called engineers rather than arcliitects, since architecture is usually accepted as relating more particularly to the esthetics of design and construction. The results have, however, been excellent, for factory Iniildings are now made which are not only serviceable but also ornamental. The works management should delegate some one person to represent them in all matters pertaining to the new buildings, so there may be no misunderstanding of orders. This person should clearly explain to the engineer all recpiiremonts of the owners, and should thorougidy inform him on all matters that are not clear to him. Cost of Engineering Service.— In the following paragraphs, it is assumed as axiomatic that the best service with greatest ENGINEERS AND THEIR SERVICES 5 efficiency and least cost Is obtained from those who are compe- tent, experienced and conscientious, even though these (lualities are often liard to find in one person. Owners are usually unwill- ing to entrust important matters involving the expenditure of large sums of money, to novices or beginners. It may, there- fore, be assumed that in employing an engineer, the owner will prefer a man whose experience and ability would enable him to earn an income of at least $4500 to $0000 per year, or $15 to $20 per day. He should in any case be paid enough to place him beyond the need of resorting to questionable transactions in order to make a living. As the general expense of an engineering office will amount to about as much as the bill of wages, the actual cost without profit for the services of such an engineer alone would be $30 to $40 per day. Mininmm charges of $40 to $50 per day are therefore quite reasonable. The following are the charges made a few years ago by a firm of architects and engineers where the writer was chief engineer, the percentage being on the total cost of work. ppr cent. ]«'r ct'iit. |)('r I'piit. ]H'r coiit. SCHEDULE OF CHARGES Preliminary studies only 1 Preliminjiry studies, general drawings and si)ecifications 2i Preliminary studies, general drawings, siwcifications and details .'U Full professional s<*r\ices including suiwrvislon .5 Commission comjiuted on entire cost of work. Traveling expenses to be i)ald by clients. Two and one-half i)er cent, is due when drawings and ^pecifica- tions are ready for contractors, and 1 '. jjer cent, when con- tract is let. Under present prices (1912) a con/mission of 5 pc>r cent, should apply only to very large and plain buildings without much de- tail. For smaller buildings or more complicated ones, the commission should be not less than per cent. In preliminary work, as it is often difficult to detern'ine the value upon which to base the engineer's commission, it may be more definite and satisfactory to undertake such work on a fixed charge per day for the engineer, with extra compensation for each assistant, travel- ing or other extra expenses to be paid by the owners. The customary charges, anil agreements between owners and engineers, can best be shown by giving the regulations of several Engineering Societies. i:.\(;i.\i:i:i{i.\(! of shops a.M) factohiks PliOl'-KSSIONAL SKltVICKS OF C'ONSII.TI.NG ANU CoNSTULCTION lO.Nr.INKKlirf (Engineers Clul) t)f St. Louis.) Schedule of Charges. — The following; scliedule of chiirRcs is ihteiuli-d as a fiuiilo to enginoors and their clients. It is adopted as representing fair and i)roper (■oni])ensation for engineering services under the conditioiis stated, and is Ijelieved to conform to the established practice of leading American engineers. The propriety of a per diem or percentage charge is recognized, varj'ing in amount acconling to tiie magnitude or importance of the work involved, or the experience and reputation of the engineer. The riglit is reserved to dejjart from the scliedule at any time if such action seems wise and pi'ojx'r. 1 . For jireliminary study and report, j i)on a project, or examina- tion of a project prepared liy another engineer and a rei)ort on same: a. Charges, SoO to SlOO per day for the lirst two to ten days, and S2.') to ?")0 ])er day thereafter, i)lus all expenses, including salaries paid assistants witli an allowance of '2o per cent, of such salaries for general oilice exj^'uses. b. In lieu of tlie al)ove, at the option of the engineer, a pt-rcent- age charge varying from 1 to 21 per cent. 2. For ])i-eliminary study, rei)ort and final detail drawings and specilications: Charges same as under paragraph (1 <() or at t\w ojjtion of the engineei', charges of '.i\ ])er ciMit. ',i. For |)relinunary study and report, preparing detail drawings and specilications, awanling contracts and acting in a general sui)er\isory capacity during construction, including office con- sultation but not including continuous supervision, inspection, testing or nuiiuigenient-work costing .S1(),()()0 or more, ,j per cent. For work costing less than $10,000, it is projier to charge a fee in excess of 5 per cent. •1. For full professit)iial .services and management, including preliminary stiulies, detailed drawings and s])(Milications, award- ing contracts, active and continuous su[)ervi>ions, testing and insjiection work costing !?1(),00() or more, 10 ])er cent. For work costing less than S10,()00, it is proju'r to charge a fee in excess of 10 per cent. 5. For investigations and rept)rts involving (juestioiis in dispute and intended for use in connection with expert testimony; EXaiXEI'JRS AXD THEIR SERVICES Charges. — A minimum fi-o or rotaiiior of $100 to 8500 or such hirgcr amounts as may be commensurate with the financial importance of the case or the labor involved, with per diem and expense ciiarges as i)er paragraph (1 a). 0. Wiiere a per diem charge is made, six hours of actual work shall be considered one day. While absent from the home city, however, or while attending court, oiu-h day of twenty-four hours or part of a day shall be considered one day, irrespective of the actual liours of time devoted to the case. 7. When charges are based on a percentage of the cost, the commissions as above arc to be computed on the entire cost of the comjileted work or on the estimated cost pending execution or com{)letion. Payments shall be made to the engineer from time to t imc in proportion to the amount of work he has done. 8. Traveling expenses ;is well as an;^ expenses involved in the collection of the data necessaiy for the proper designing or plan- ning of the structure or pioject such as borings, soundings or other tests, and excepting only ordinary measurements and surveys, are to be paitl by the client in addition to the commissions herein provitled. 0. When alterations or additions are made to contracts, drawings or specifications, or when .services are recjuired in connection with legal proceedings, failure of contractors, fran- cliises or rigiit of way, a charge based upon the time and trouble involved shall l)e made for same in addition to the commission herein provitled for. 10. Drawings and specifications are to be considered the property of the engineer, but the client is entitled to receive one complete record copy of same upon payment of actual cost of making copies, if no duplicate .set is on hand. PliUl'KSSIONAI, CODK .\ND SciIKDlI.E OF ri:j:S FOU COXSULTING Enginp:ehs, Adoi'tkd Jink 2'>. 1911 (The American In.stitute of Consulting Lngineers, Xew York) Code of Professional Ethics. — It shall be considered unprofes- sional and inconsistent with honorable and dignified bearing for any member of the American Institute of Consulting Engineers: 1. To act for his clients in professional matters otherwise than in a strictly fiduciary nianrcr or to accept any other remuneration thnn his direct charges for services rendered his clients except as provided in Clause -1, 8 KxarsEKii'ixa of shops axd factories 2. T. To attempt to 'njure falsely or maliciously, directly or indirectly, the i)rofet>iunal reputation, jjrospects or bu.siness of a fellow engineer. 7. To accept employment l)y a client while the claim for com- pensation or ilaniages, or both, of a fellow engineer previously etnjjloyed by the same client and whose emi)loynient has been terminated, r(>mains unsatisfied, or until such claim has been referred to ar])itration, or i. sue has been joined at law or unless the engineer pieviously employed has neglecteil to' press his claim legally. 8. To attempt to supplant a fellow engineer after definite steps have been taken toward his employment. 9. To compete with a fellow engineer for employment on the basis of professional charges by reducing his usual charges and attempting to undeibitl after being informed of the charges named by his competitor. 10. To accej)t any engagement to review the work of a fellow engineer for the same client, except with the knowledge and consent of such engineer, or unless the connection of such engineer with the work has been terminated. Schedule of Fees.— As a geneial guide in determining the fees for professiomil services. The American Institute of Consulting Engineers recognizes the propriety of charging a i)er diem rate, ;i fixed sum, or a i)ercentage on the cost of work as follows: Per Diem I^ite. — 1. Charges for coMsullations, reports and oi)inions should vary according to the c' 'ter, magnitude or E\aiNEER.^ AXD THEIR SERVICES 9 importance of tlio work or suhjoft involved, and according to the experience and reputation of the indivitlual engineer from 8100 per day to a liisher fijrure, and in addition where expert testimony is reipiired, or where otherwise contlitions warrant so doing, a retainer varying from 8250 to 81000 and upward. An additional charge should he made for all actual expenses such as traveling and general office expense and field assistants and materials, with a suitable allowance for indeterminate items. In some cases six hours of actual work should be considered one day, except that while absent from the home city each day ot twenty-four hours or part thereof, shull be considered one day, irr<>spective of the actual hour^ of time devoted to the case. I'lxed Sum. — 2. A fixed total sum for above-mentioned services may be agreed on in lieu of jier diem charges. A fixed sum may also be charged for a portion or all of the items of preliminary survey, .studies, examinations, reports, detail plans, sjiecifications, and supervision, including all the expenses al)ove recited under per diem rate. Percentage on the Cost of Work.— 3. For preliminary surveys studies and reports on original projects, or for exanunation and report on projects prepared by another engineer, including in both cases all expenses of every nature except those that may be six'cifically omitted by agreement from 1\ per cent, to 3 |>er cent, on the estimated cost of the work. 4. For the preliminary stage (Xo. 3) and in addition thereto (h'tail plans and sijecifications for construction, including all expenses of every nature except those that nuiy be specifically omitted by agreement— from 2h per cent, to 5 per cent, on the estimated cost of the work. 5. For the preliminary and middle stages (No. 3) and (Xo. 4) and in addition thereto general supervision during construction, including all expenses of every nature except those that may be specifically omitted by agreenu-nt— 5 per cent., but more for work costing comparatively small amounts, and from 4 per cent, to 5 per c(>nt. where the amount involved is con.-.iderable. 6 For full professional services (3) , (4) and (5) and manage- ment, including the awarding of contracts, and including all expcn.ses of every nature .-..cept tho.se that may be specifically omitted by agreement— 10 per cent., but more for work costing comparatively small amounts, and o per ci iit. to 10 per cent, where the amount involved is considerable. 10 EXaiNEERISG OF SHOPS AXD FACTORIES 7. When ilcj^iicd, the pcrccntujiic basis may be adopted for one or more stafics, .supijleiiiciited l)y a daily or monthly charge or fixed sum for the remaining stage or stages. General Provisions.— 8. The period of time should be design- ated during which the agreed i)erreiitages and daily or monthly charges or fixed sum shall apply and beyond whicli period an adilitional charge shall be made. 0. The percentages are to l)e computed on the entire cost of the comphi. work or upon tiie estimated cost pending execution or completion. 10. Payments shall be made to tlic engineer from time to time in i)roporti()n to the amount of work done. 11. When alterations or additions are made to contracts, drawings or specifications, or when services are recpiired in connection with negotiations, legal proceedings, failure of contractors, fi-anchises or right of way, a charge based upon the time and trouble involved shall be made in addition to the percentage fee agreed ujxm. Contract between Engineer and Owner. — The following blank form of contract is taken from Kidder V' Arcliitects' Pocket Book with slight modifications, and will be found convenient. Cont ract between Engineer, and Owner. For a cotnjx'usation of , tiie engineer proposes to furnish preliminary sketches, .-mtract, working drawings and specifications, detail drawings and general superintendence of building operations, and also to audit all accounts, for a tr be ercctetl for , at Terms of payment to l)e as follows: Two-tenths when the preliminary sketches are completed; three-tenths when the drawings and specifications are ready for letting contracts; thei-eafter at the rate of per cent, ujjon each certificate due to the contractor. If work upon the building is postponed or abandoned, the compensation for the work done l)y the engineer is to bear such relation to the c(nnpensation for the entire work as determined by the publislu'd schedule of fees previously given. In all transactions between the owner and contractor, the engineer is to act as the owner's agent, and his duties and liabil- ities in tliis connection are to be those of agent only. EXaiXKERS AM) THEIR SERVICES 11 A roprcsoiitiitivc of tlio ciifiiiioer will make visits to the buiUling for th(' i)urposi! of jieiioral suijciintciuk'ncc, of such fioqueiicy and duration as, in the enfjinoer's jud^nnent, will suffice or may 1)0 necessary to ftdly instruct contractors, pass upon the merits of material and workmanship, and maintain an effective workinj; c)rf,'anization of the several contractors engaged upon the structure. The engineers will demand of the contractors proper correction and remedy of all defects discovered in their work, and will assist the owner in enforcing the terms of the contracts; but the engineer's superintenilenc;' shall not include liai)ility or respon- sibility for any breach of contract by the contractors. The amount of the engineer's compensation is to be reckoned up()!i the total cost of the building, including all stationary fixtui-('s. Drawings and specifications are instruments of .service, and a.-' such •••■" to remain the pmperty of the e' ,;ineer. Ap|)n)ve(l and accei>t(^. ]W Engineer. . . Owner. A shorter form of contract, which will in many cases be (juite satisfactory is as follows: Short Form of Contract. — The umlersigned herel)y agrees to employ Engineer, t') furnish .scale drawings, details, specifications, and to do the superintendence for a build- "'p iit ^ iit the rate of per cent, com- mission for drawings, and per cent, commi.s.sion for superintendence, the commission lo bo based on the lowest bid or bids received on the work as an entirety. Furthermore, that in event of abandonment after preliminary sketch has been submitted, will pay said Engineers the sum of • Dollars (S ) on denrmd for said sketches, and if work is abandoned after scale drawings, details and specifica- tions are completed, v,\\] pay the full per cent. t)f lowest estimate as an entirety. Signed Owner. The above contract is hereby accepted by Engineer. CHAPTER 11 MANUFACTURING DISTRICT Selection of Manufacturing District. — The sdcctiou of the most mlvantaficous district is in some irspccts one of tlii' most iitiportiiiit fi'iiturcs of shop ( conomics, for if huildir.gs arc wroiijily placed, they must continue operation imder serious handicap, or else meet the alternative of remo\al. The con- siderations which are of chief importance in selectinj? a district are as follows: 1. Place -city or suhurh. 2. Cost of land and {ground area riMiuired. 3. Labor supply and wajjes. 4. Nearness to raw materials ami fuel. 5. Nearness to source of power. (). Shii)pin}; facilities. 7. Climate. 8. Market for manufact ui'ed products. It is rarely possilile to find a ])lac!' havinf!; all the desired retiuirements, and the best tliat can b(> done after weif^hinj; tiie pros and cons of several possii)le districts is to .select the one which has the jjreatest number of advantages. 1. When contemi)latine placc^d where the clay is found, or to .s-:ive transmission expense, tlie |)resence of natural water power ni..y someliines he reason enoufih for liuildinj; th(> plant away from a town but near the water power. When too far from town, the i ipany nuist invest extra moiu'y in houses for their workmen, which has been done in many cases, such as at the plants of the Maryland Steel ("o'ni)any, and some of the American Hridjre Company's plants. The.se lioii.ses should bo (•oinfortal)le and commodious, and in keejjin}; with other accom- modations for employees in modern industries, t'on.iienial Kurroundinjis for workmen are not a philanthropic measure on the part of t'luployers, l)ut rather an assistance in securing; and retaining a proficient cla.ss of operatives. After choosiiif!; between lar^e ami snudl cities, or one of their suburbs, the other matters outlined at the beginning of this chapter may l)e taken uj) in order. 2. The three m st ;mi)ortant considerations in selecting a inamifacturinir district, are the cost of land and prescMice of labor and raw nuiterials, the first of these fre(|Uently being the most important. If too nuuh money is invested in the land, the rent, taxes and interest on the investment may be such a heavy chargo against the l)usiness as to .seriously reduce the possible dividends. In large cities, land is often more valuable than the buildings on it, and the money which might be received by selling the city land would i)ay for iiotli land and new Ijuildings in a less exp(>n- sive district. Certain lines of industry re(|uire so much ground for their one-story shops, and for yards and tracks, that city land may not only be too expensive, but a block of the reipiired size may not, l)e obtainable. Car shops, structural works, and nearly all kinds of metal working shops come under this hea value, and improvements only 45 per cent., while iu Boston the land values are nearly 50 MA S U FACT I HI Xa I) IS TlilC T 15 por cent., rnnro than irnprovonionts The land in Cicvoland, as a wlioli', is valiu'veland and I'ittshur^'; fur cotton niiiis, in Massachusetts and Rhode Island; for packing houses, in such places as Chicap) and Kansas City; and for automohile factories, at Detroit and other cities in .Miclii;;an. Theprevailinj^ rate of wajjes also varies according; to locution, heinj; lower in tho Southern Siates and most parts of Canada than in the Eastern and Middle States, or on the Pacific Coast. As th(> cost of laiior is continuous and is sometimes half the operatiii}; expense, a small difference in the rales paif huildinj; the i)lant. 4. When a larj;e amount of raw material and fuel is used, it is desirable to select a district near to one or both of them, where the total cost of all triins])ortiition charges will l)e a minimum. Nearness to materials is, therefore, of most imi)ortance in plants with heavy products, and the need of .such a location decreases with the volume of freight. For li<;ht manufacture, where tha cost of proilucts depends chiefly on the labor expended on them, rather than upon their volume or wei<;ht, nearness to supplies is of little importance. T). Nearness to the source of power is a consideration when direct water j)ower and turbines are used. This kind of power, however, is not .so much favored as formerly, for it can better bo used now for ;reneratin<; electiical currents, whicli are more easily transmitted. Thirty years au;o, water power sites were at a premium, and tlie j^rowth and business of many cities such as Lawrence and Lowell, Mass. were largely due to the presence of such power. (>. It is an advantage to have at least two competing lines of railway serving the plant if the amount of shipping is large, and water transportage may also be convenient, as, in most cases, freight l)y water is cheaper than by rail. Large cities with many lines of railroad, have the gi<>at.est shipping facilities, espe- cially those nn the Creat Lakes and on the sea coast. For light manufactures, where labor is the cuicf item of cost, and in KxaiShKHiSd OF siiors asd factories till' iinioiintrt of .xliippinp is ;-iinnIl, it iniiy 1m' piTiiiissihli' in noma instances ti> plan- 1 In- ;>lant iiwuy ficni nmin lines of ruilwiiy where other atlvantajjes, .such as cheap hind, may l>e found. 7. Cliinaf e is soniet iines an important. ;oiisiiU'ration in seh'cting a nianufai f uiiiin district, as places which are known to be subject to cyclones, earth(iuakes, aiul violent storms are in this respect undesirable. l',\treme temperatures of heat and cold, the <|epth to which fro.st penetrates, the amount of snow and rain, all affect operation to .some extent. It is well known that a cold and bracinj; climate is invifjoratin>;, and for this reason, northern districts are sometimes preferred; northern races such as tho Ilifjhlanders, Scandimivians and Canadians are usually more energetic and progressive than the re.sidents of warm countries, Huch as S|)ain and Italy. ,H. The market for products will also affect the selection of ii district. If fidods are chieliy for export to Kurojje and other eastern and southern countries, some places on the Atlantic sealioard would prol)alily be the best; whereas, if products are mostly for export to Japan and China, the I'a<'i!ic coast would be preferred. Manufacturers of agricultural implements fine.-.i --uited ft)r the ;)ro|)osed industry, sonu- one builtlin^ lot must be .selected from .several po.ssible ones. In choosinji: a district, it will be impossible to find a block with all the desired advantajies. Features to be considered are: (1) cost, (Ji .iirade, (:}) water supply, (4) drainage, (■")) foundations, and {('») approaches. There nuist also be facilities for heatiii'i, ventilatinii and lijihtinji: the buildiufr, and for development or applica.tiou of power, as well as for the handlinp; of materials. The .seieition ()! a site ma v also be affected to some extent by the need of tire protection and the dcfiree of permanence desired. The first cost is really of le.ss importance than exi)enses, such as wages and freight, that arc continuous. A lot which will save the owner «1()()0 per year by its better facilities for handling, shipi)ing or storing goods, is worth, at ."> i)er cent, ititerest, $-0,000 more to him than another lot which cannot make such saving. Therefore, if the owner can buy the l)etter lot at anything less than $20,000 more than the other, he is exercising economy. M.\.\ll'A(Tri{I.\a DISTRICT 17 Tlio pniilc of lot filiould lit' level or iieiiily so, the prefereiieo UHiially heiiij; for a slope of uliout one-half of 1 per cent, in flio direetioii that jjoods pass in the course of mnnufuotnro. Somo low jiniind is not ohjet tionahle, as it can, perhaps, he used for diini|)''nj; ashes or other refuse. Hillsides arc rarely dosirahlo, unless for f;'-uvitj transportation, stieh us at mine shafts or stone (piarries whore iiio descending; loaded car huuls the empty one up the ^rade. Asupply of fresh water is neodrd for boiler food, sanitation, etc., and soft wafer is prefi-rahlo to that containinj,' lime or salt. In cities it can he taken from tlu street mains at a cost of %'2 to %\ per year for each omployoo, wh'ch in a plant with .KK) people mi<;ht amount to SKXM) or more per J'oar. In this item alone, a lot with a natural supply would, at 5 per cent., be worth $23,000 to $40.()()() more to tlu? owner than another one without it. The lot should be hi;i;h enouj;h above some adjoining area or channel that it will 1)0 well drained, a bod of gravel and sand boinj; the best for this purpose. This sub-strata is also a good one for foundations, especially in plants whore heavy loads must bo sustained, (iuicksand nuist always be avoided, as it is too uncertain for foundations of any kind, except in cases of extreme necessity. The roads or api)roachos to the plant should be put in Rood condition. Hrick is an excellent pavin<; for driveways and walks, as it is easily drained, and horses find a nu)re secure foothold than on a smooth pavenu-nt. Cobble stones, while suitable for draft horses, are too uncomfortable for pedestrians. After carefully coiisiderinf? the advantages of several sites, and selectinjr the one most siiital)le for the purpose, a survey should bo made by a local surveyor, who has access to other jjropcrty mai)s, lines and >rrados, and a drawinj; should be plotted, showing adjoining property linos, buildings, roads, water courses, gas and water pipes, with elevations and grade, and all other data which will be of interest to the engineer and owner. The choice of lot may sometimes bo postponed until after the arrangement of departments antiiiiates. Hach of these sul.,iects will be coiisidered in the following pa<:t., and t heir relative importance will depend somewhat on the nature of the jroods produced. 1. Proposed Methods of Manufacture.— One of tiie first duties of an industrial enjiineer when undertaking the planning of a maniifacturinji plant, is to inform himself thorou-hly in reference to the metiiods of manufacture and management to be used m the shops after their completion. The owner.s will have hrst estimated the probable amount of poods that can l)e sold or put on tiie market per year, and from this estimate, reduced to a money value, an approximation can i)e made of the prospective profits. ConsiderinfT these jjiofits as interest on an investnienl, tlie expcMidituie that is i)ermissible can readily be determined. For instance, consider that fi..oe- meiit, i)roducti(,n methods and mana,iienient, and to this indi- vidual, whet ler executive or owner, the ( iurii data in reference to the ))roposed methoils of leer must look for manufacture. many plants, one of the most im])ortant Such study is indeed, in duties in corine<'tion with the whole enterjjrise, for it involv( much research, and investigation of ways and means used hv other slio])s nianufact urini; tiie sai to secure such inf ne or similar ■loods. In order ormatioii some man; ■! even resort to tho questionable method of advertisin.ii important jiositions vacant, for the i)urpose of securiiiu api)!ications from men employed in similar sho])s, not that assistance is i f jiosition is in view. The policy of t led. but that sinnrestions ro:'i these men are more easily obtained when a prospective manufacturing methods is t( sources, whether from the humblest emphivee of 1 le ofiicer m cliarf!,c of cure; new ideas from any or all •fn use til im iini)ortant officials of competing lis own factory com ■su,u"estion svst(>m. )tle furnish valuable ideas which will .aid the cost, and for this purpose letter 1 panies. Some shops wil premiums to any who in proiluctioii, or diminish )o\es are i)laccd about tho works, in which employees may drop written memoranda which ma y bo valuable to the i nana;ioment. \\'lienever anv of the.se suf-frcstions are put into u.se, the person contributing it is duly repaid. Profits in manufacturin-; plants usually depend as much upon the low cost of product" ion, as they do in retail establish- in eiits on careful buyinjr, because in both lines of 1 prices are fixed by those of comi)etitors. II tion or improved method which will reduce tl is a proportiomite j;ain. 11 )usmess, sellinj5 ence, every sujifies- le production cost le matters referred to above are familiar to plant owners and manaser.s, such knowledge being part of their stock in trade, and any data which the engineer needs sluniKl be supplied to him! He ohouM make note of the owners' ideas and reciuircments, and •20 i:\(;i.\i-:i':ifisa of shops and FAcroHiES personally inspect the old shoi>s ami sinnhir ones, to bettor ac-iuaint' himself with the needs of . the ne plant. Matters pertaining exclusively to building construction and methods of lifihting, heating, ventilating, etc., are usually better understood by the engineer or -irchitect than by any one else, though even in these matters, tiio owners will usually have their p- Terences. For the manufacture of small goo Is where labor rathci .i.an ma- terials is the largest element, buildings of rectangular plan in several stories are iisually preferable, with the advantage that a change is more easily made in the arrangement of machinery or departments, l>ut shops for the manufacture of larger goods, such as hoavv machinery, must usually be of some special form. 2. Methods of Management— During the last few years, great progress has been made in methods of shop management, and sevcrid valuable books have been written on the subject.^ For this reason, and with the prospect of further improvements in this direction, nuich foresight is needed when making preparatory plans. As far as possil)le, it is better to arrange the plant so the administration methods can be changed if necessary. Shop offices, tool rooms and other enclosures should therefore be made with partitions that arc removable, and l;enches, storage cases an.l other furnishing should be placed and installed so they can be easily changed. The use and position of time clocks may de- term'ine thelocation of doorways for employees ad passageways through the shops. Any matters of this kind relating to the subse(iuent management, may affect the design, and on these subjects the engineer should be informed. a. Particulars of Similar Plants.— Before going further with plans, the engineer should collect and compile data relating to other' plants of the same kind, or similar ones. This is most easily ()l)tained from drawings and reports in trade journals, as personal examination of buildings is usually bewildering from their complexity of iletail. A personal visit may. however, bo beneficial after drawings have been examined, or when these are not obtainable, and on such excursions, a small camera is valuable. Very little data of the kind is now available without original research, and it is for this reason that engineering companies who have collected and preserved such information, are able to pre- pare plans more quickly than others who are without it. If the new buildings are additions to old ones, the latter should be carefully studied. Floor space, capacity, number of employees. ECONOMICS OF FACTORY COWSTRVCTIOX 21 daily or monthly production, arrangoineiit of contcMits, etc., should ho examined and noted, and the l•e^^ults analyzed, to such ready reference units as floor s])ace and cubic contents of •shop per unit of product, or per employee. The cost of huildiufis, unu)unt of power, etc., should all he noted, and these data and analyses should be jireserved for future reference. New huildinf^s .should not ncce.ssarily Ije just like other ones manufacturinji similar i)roducts, and features should not ho copied witiiout knowinj? fully the reason for their presence, for in the other huildinj; there may liave heen some special need for tlio.se features, wiiich does not exist in the n(>w one. Caution must, therefore, he used in these matters. Data of the kmd gleaned from journals or drawiiifrs, can well he supplemented by i)ractical suggestions from foremen or employees, who are often more familiar than engineers with practical shop needs. If an industrial engineer is not in posse.ssion of information of this kind, several months might profitably be spent in investigation and research, and owners are frofjuently willing to wait, in order to have a more efficient plant. In otho- cases, wlion new pro- jects are undertaken, owners prefer to see results at once, even at a somewhat greater initial cost, in order to have their goods on the market and earning dividends. Industrial engineers aie therefore wise to provide themselves beforehand with as much data as possible, j)ertaining to other plants. A\'hen facts must be collected for a particular inilustry, several men may he employed in research, each one taking a special part, and the whole may afterward be assembled and arranged by one person. Uniform methods and units must be used, in or "or that the analy- sis may be accurate. For exami)le, building areas should be computed either from their inside dimensions in all cases, or from their outside. While studying other plants, especial note should be made of their efficiencj-, operating and maintenance expense, cost, type of construction, and provision for extension, so that all features of special value nuiy be incorporated in the new plans. 4. Schedule of Machinery. — After collecting data relating to the proposed methods of manufacture and management, and to other similar industries, initial work on the new jjlant may begin. It is better to start with a small plan showing only the essentials without detail, and to develop it as investigat By this method the final result should be logical. progresses. 22 7!,'.\V,7.\7;/v7,7.V0' OF SIIOl'S aSD FACTOh'TFS Tlic sr.i.'dulc cif llKMhinrs tn \>0 U>vd ill Uir iicw siiops will dciKMid upon tlie piopuscd r 'itv or (.ulput, ami the list should cither l>e made l>y tiio ov ni.iiia.ucr, or should l>o cxaiiuncd and ajiprovi'd \>y him. . luachinos !nay all be now, or, if the huildiniis arc t'xti'nsioiis of former ones, some old ones may be utilized. Those of stai\tlard make are iis\ially the cheapest and best, b(>eause improvements have been made on them as found desirable from experience. If the repilations of trade unions .■-hould in any case, pievent th.e \ise of certain machines, otliers of e.iiial utility can i)erhaps l)e substituted. .Machines should as far as pos>ible, be used instead of nninual labor, that operatin.ii exi)ense may be kei)t at a niinimum. The savinj; of SlUO i)er year in wa-es will jienerally warrant an investment of about 821)00 in machinery. It is .seldom economical to manufacture lij;ht and heavy -roods in the same shops, or articles which differ jrreatly fnnn each other, because some of the machines may then be idle much of the time. A separate schedule of machines should be made for each department. ."). Arrangement of Machines. Tn arran-Infr the machinery in eacii dei)artment of a shop, elliciency should be the chief consider- ation. T.ie course of travel taken l)y .^(.ods in i)rocess of manu- facture should first lie studied and est ablislied— a duty which shoul.l l>e iK'rform(Ml or directed by the owner or manager, and this course siiould always 1)C cither forward or zi,u,-zag ba<'k and forth over tiie shop floor, liul never backward. When the .^e,|uence nf operations has been established, the machines may then lie jilaced accordin.uly. passajreways beinji left where needed. The arrantiement sh.iuld be such as to require the least total amount of travel and handlinjr, and provision .slumld be made for additional ones when needed (Fi-. :?). The buildins laws of some cities specify the minimum space which will be allowed, as, for instance, in Cleveland where each day worker nnist have not less than 2.-) s(|. ft. of floor space, and :iOO cu. ft. of air, and each ni^ht worker 40 s.i. ft. of floor and 4S0 cu. ft. of air. \\ h(>n layouts ha\c lieen made showini; the contents of each department arrai.-ed to the best advanta>j.e, the reciuired areas of thes(- deiiartments should be tabulated. oi)en or uncovered parts bein^ kept sejiarate from tliose wliich nuist be enclosed or housed. ECOXOMICS OF FACTORY COSSTIiUCriON 23 The most convenient inetliod of aniinf;in<: and locatinj; tlie macliines is to first make small scale drawings of each ono showing the outside di- Jr'^' Oi «4'|; mensions of the base or foundation, ■with the part above the floor in dotted lines. These drawings may either lie made to the same scale as the floor plans, or since drawings ^jii ^ r. (if such small scale are n,. ~* I] "04 il -■■^ M^\ [111 Hi m . i- I ^ % Li o 0-' n 33 3 0' I 4 a a a 2 5 ncitiicr cisily made nor very accurate, they can he drawn three or fotir times larger than the de- sired size, ami zinc etch- ings of the proper reduc- tion made from the draw- ings. From these zinc plates as many jirints may l)c made as desired, only ono plate being needed for each kind of machine, even though several duplicate ones may be used. A\'hen zinc etchings are used, the drawings may be so as- sembled that the blocks or plates will be of some convenient size such as 5^ by S in., or 4 by G in., the cost of ])lates being aliout five cents ])er .s(]uare inch. Small scale drawings, or prints from the zinc plates may then be cut up and arranged over the floor plan in the de>iicd order, and temporarily attached thereto with pins. Several alternate arrangements may thus be made, each with a h,tr M-y- ^ff 8 % I CDt I ?= 24 ENGINEER!. \G OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES new floor plan and dummios, and when these alternate stiulies are fiiii.shcd they may be compared and tlie best features of each selected for the ultimate arrangement. 6. Area and Elevation of Floor in each Department. — When the machines have been arranjted to produce with the {greatest efficiency, the total re(iuired area can then be determined. If goods are handled between the machines, there must be space not only for storajje l)Ut for workmen. The space should . )t l)e too larfie, for compact arranjiement saves steps and time. This principle is well uiulerstood in house architecture, where small kitchens conveniently ai-ran>;ed are usually preferred to larjser ones. The amount of space needed around machines depends to some extent ui)on the methods of lifting {joods, whether by hand or with hoists. Space must sometimes be left for storafje and the amount will depend somewhat on condi- tions. Little is needed when goods in the course of manufacture pass continuously from one machine to another. In other cases I'm. 4.— lord Motor Works, Uutroit, Mich. more storage space may be needed, the amount depending on the size of goods and method of l)iling tliem. Some space may be saved by storing small parts on racks or shelves. The tabulated floor areas referred to above, sliould show the total areas recpiired in each department, with subdivisions giving the amount of si)ace in each case, that must bo on the solid ground. Investigation of this table will show the numljer of stories than can be used, and the probable outline of the build- ings. Experience shows, that for cotton mills, four stories are usually the most convenient. Some designers are so enthusiastic over smgle story shops, as to specify them in nearly all cases, ECONOMICS OF FACTORY CONSTRUCTIOX ])iit like many other coinjjarativoly now ideas, the one Htory .sliop has fre<|uently been used williout suHicient reason. The width of stories is usually fixed hy the need of lightinj^ from the sides. Those of modern desijjn in -which a largo pro- portion of the exterior walls is of glass, are well lighted from the side windows in widths up to 75 ft. or more. The Ford Motor Company building (Fig. 4) at Detroit, four stories high, 80.") ft. long and 7."> ft. wide, is as light inside as any old style building of only half its width. .Vdjoining buildings, even though of different widths, should liave stories of the same height, if they are ever to be coiuiected by foot bridges. Story lieights for buildings of different width are as follows: Width up to 50 ft Ilcinht of utory, 12 ft. Width up to ".") ft Ileijilit of .story, 1.3 ft. Widtli up to 100 ft Ileiglit of story, 14 ft. 7. Receiving, Storing and Shipping Facilities.— The im- portance of these facilities is evident without discussion. Goods Fia cars (li^is. .> a,„l ,;) SterafTL. spa.c shouM Ik- a.nplo f..r raw nuitonals anc linish.-d products, a. well , s f. " 'ho tcMiip'-rary acconinuKlatum of surplus slock in cours.- ..f manufacture. The last .uay be greatly n.'eae.! wl.eu Avurk in one d.-partn.ent is .lelaye.l l.y accidert or .,l..ence of en.plovees, in which case, floods from previous de- part meats can -o into temporary sf.rage. If this is not provided l"ui. O.^Sliiips and rcsidi-ncc tract, Trafford City, I'a. some departments will be over h.aded with -ioo.ls wiiile others will be delaved, Ue(iuired storafie spa<-e which can as well be out of doors should in the tabulation b«; kept separate from that which must be covered. In small phmts, jtoods in com-se of manufac- ture may pass in U-shape throuf^li the buildinfjs, so that track mav be needed on only one side of the i)lant, raw nuUerial being iinished goods receivt'd at one end of the track platform shipped from the other end (Fig. 7). KCOXOMICS OF FACTORY COSSTIiUCTIOS 27 8. Provision for Expansion. -Such rapid jnojiiv.ss is now Ih'iiik niiulc in iill lines of niiuuifactiin', tiiat no i)lant would he oco- noinically phmnt'd without provisi m for t-xpansion. It. should in fact he so dc'sijinod tliat extension can ^o on at any time without serious interference with o])eration a pood way being to lay out a plant nuich larjjer than needed, and to huild only part of it i t first. In many lines of husines-s it is (piite safe to anticii)ate an increase of 100 per cent, in ten years, or 10 percent, annually. In contrast to .systematic provision for extension, may i)e seen many old plants which have been enlarged by placing new biiihlings haphazard, wherever space couK' be found, so that, viewed as a whole, the idtimate condition shows no premeditation. They r ^ I'l.:. 7. are, in fact, nothing more than a cluster of scattered l)uildings in which business nmst l)e comlucted under .serious disadvantage. To extend a i)lant by cro.ssing streets in tunnels or over bridges, is not convenient and can usually be avoided if considered in time. Some English .shops prefer .sideway expansitm by the removal of a side wall, and the addition of new buiklings with longitudiiuil roof gutters between them. Endway extension, wings, or upper stories, are other methods of accomplishing the same result. Preliminary provision nuist also be made for extra land and for the extension of yards, service tracks and trolley lines. Walls which must ultimately be removed should at first be made temporary or of material which can easily be taken down, and reinforced concrete should be avt>idetl unless designed with joints. Plank or sheet metal may be good enough if the buildings are not difficult to heat. 9. Arrangement of Departments. — After the machinerj h.as been .■irramred and the iloor are.-i. f)f each department deter- mined, including provision for receiving, storing and .shipping, as well as for extension of each the various departments should 28 ESGISFEIilXC OF SIKH'S AM) FM'TOUIKS tlicii 1)0 uh,ssi> th-piiitiiifiits whicli have noiso, .siimkc, iliist, pis, fumes, (hI.iis, or liif, must usually Ix' separated from the rest. These will imhule th« rooius for paint injr, jaimnnin;;, Hiindin^'. polishing and rattling'. A foundry ami a maciiino shop ranmit well he plaeed in the .^ame huildinj;. for the dust from llu! first would Ix" a serious injury to machines, iiiul the online and l)oiler rooms of i)ower plants should he separated hy a hrick lire p„j R — Plan of Ijuiliiings as used on new car shops of the Canudiiin Northern Ilailroiiil Company. wall. Yet, as previously .stated, huildin.irs of rej^iilar type are preferahle to .s|)ecial ones, for rearranjiements, if needed are more easily made. Union ami non-union men nuist sometimes he housed in different huildinj;;^. Departments and huildinjis should be arrunjted as eompactly as possihle, with space enoufth arounvl and between them, and yet with no e.xcess, so there will be no u.seless travel, an excellent example heiitf; the AUis-Chalmers plant in Milwaukee. In special buildings of one story, shop offices will have better light and air when set out from the regular shop ECOSOMKS or hWCTOUY ('OXSTUCCTlOX •_'0 rcctiiti;;l('. Sn 'i ( ncluwiircs as tv on a jjiillriy, tough access by stairs is an inconvenience. Some areas may not need eir 'osing, and may as w<'il he out of (htors with a savinji of exjienso. When time will permit, it may ho an advantaKo to make tlra • .njjs Khowinj; several |)ro|)()sed arrangements of departments, and in the final composite, to include ti»e hest features of them all. The ftroupiiijc of huildiiifrs slioidd conform to the course in whicii floods travel in process of manufacture. In the Allis- Chaimers plant at Milwaukee, for the manufacture of eiifjines and I'lu. (I. — Plant of Nutional Portluml (Viiiont Co., Durham, Ontario. maclu'nery, several separate hut parallel machine shops are con- nected at one end to an (rectiiif; shoj), while at the other end hut separated from the machine shops, are a pattern shop and foundry, the axes of which arc j)arall(I to the erecting shop. When additional floor space is needed, the erectiiig and pattern shops and the foundry can be extended endways, and more machine shops placed between them. Another method of grouping buildings which is very effective, is to arrange them normal to and right and left of a central axis, additions to the buildings when needed, being made at their outer ends (Kig. 8), Extensions do not then disturb the origi- nal departments or cause any rearrangement. This method of grouping is used on the new car shops of the Canadian Northern Railway Company at Winnipeg, and is said to be ideal; ;u) ]:m,im:i:i!I\<' "/•' snors .\\i> iwrroini-.s tli«- cciitiiil :i\is ill tlii-i I'asi' l.rini,' all clt'Viilcl ciain'way cnvcnii^ l!i" Hacks wliiill clllir llic rnli>rclllivi' hllililililis il'i;:. 1 lOi. 1(1. Preparatory Design of Buildings.- \\ lieu ilt|>arliiitiils iinvc liccll >:ls at'iiMicil l.y tlii'ir ('(niii'iits ami llic (tiit>iil<' tin' risk, lliuii'iii ill iiit>>t cases a tin-pruof l.iiiMiiiir is prcfcrahli- tumu' wliidi is iini liicinouf, csiii-ciail;- uluii tlicir ((>.-> t. is ucaiiy tlic gallic. Fine huililui;;s. wlicii well lucatcl, atv in tliciiisclvcs ati a' £a^^^-t^"^,-v I' Flii. 111.— riant (if the Culf HaK Co., New (»rlciins, l.a. tiieir e<|uii)iiieiit. fcr lifting MkI t laiisp'Ttin^' tnat(>rials. Xopift of tlie fiainiii.ii- slmiild ever iiiteifere with or himler t li(> i)roce.-.ses (>f proihictioii. Some e.\pemlitiire may bo ])erinissiMe above the absolute ininimuiii, tliouiih tlii< will depeml <>ii cirruiiist aiices. It is better to iiivi^st l,.ss m.niey in tlie iilaiit than to incur a debt that will make dividends impossible. .Moreover, the prop"Si'd new industry may be out of date. aure busily en^ajied in niakin;x tiiem. As liie demand for Tlicin ha.; i- a ;.;:cat extent vv--~i''\. those shops have been i)ut to other uses, and it is (piito possible EroS(KMl('S OF F.\(Tnuy rn\STinciln.\ 31 fli.'it sfimc ,slio|>s csiiccially luiilt for tlic iii:iniif:ict\iri' itf aiito- innliilcs iti:iy likmvi.M! he pii' to ollirr u-^rs wIh'M I lie linvclly of tli«'Hc CDiivcyaiici's and the popular dc^irf for tliciii lias iIIimIm- islicil. Th(! jicni-ral riilo is that inxcstmciits arc pcrr>iissil)U! wlicii the corroKpondinn saving; or rclurii from sticli invest MientH will pay interest on the money, toj;(>tlier with maintt'iiance, cost and depreciation, with Homcthin}; left o\(T for i)ro(it. This in ulTectod by the rate of interest, tlic nuniher of years that the fj^'^^" i-j'v'4lj^_£.^ Tio. U. — Skctcli for a proposed light metal working shop. buildinf; will last and its ultimate scrap value when worn out. In the design of buildin<;s, as well as in the selection of e' sec clearly Lw his Dlant will appear wlien finished (Figs. 10, 11, li . 1 Approximate Cost Estimate.-After departments have be ^™Tand grouped in buildings to the best advantage, n apprci^ate estimate should be made of the whole p ant a. Zposed Cost units should be large enough and liberal 1 Xngs mav be figured at an approximate cost per squa e Tf floor irea or per cubic foot of contents; land at the ;; in d prco p"; acre' machine equipment at a certain uni ;Xr;er':;iare'foot or'per employee; which unit will vary for n Fio. 12.-PrcUminary sketch for an engine and boiler works. ailTerent ki.uls of shops. The equipment m machine shops o the manuftuturo of medium or heavy nuichiuc tool., ^il u,st about WOO per employee, or about $8 per square foot of shop ""*;;;fore submitting outline pkn. and c.timatos to tlie o^^^ the engineer should figure out a number of alternates b> which ^«i ECONOMICS OF FACTORY CONSTRUCTION 33 the cost corikl he reduced, for an owner often tliinks at first that lie needs a larger plant tJian he is finally willing to accej)t when the cost is considered. Every item of the estimate should be carefully examined to see if it is warranted, and the engineer should be prepared to show where possible changes can be made, and how such will affect the cost. Plans and estimates should then be presented to the owner, that he may see if the prospective business and profits are enough to justify the investment. If the expense is too large, which is often the case at first, the scope must be reduced. When both owner and engineer arc satisfied that the proposed layout and arrangement are satisfactory both as to efficiency and cost, it is then time to proceed with the making of detail plans and specifi- cations, and with actual construction. The prejjaratory work which is sometimes done by a mechanical or plant engineer in consultation with the owner, is then completed. CHAPTER IV PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND REPORT FOR A STRUCTURAL PLANT In order to more fully illustrate the subject, an example is given of a preliminary design and report for a proposed plant, made by the writer about twelve years ago. A small plant is chosen in preference to some larger ones, as it illustrates the subject quite as well, with less complexity of detail. The plant was an adtlition to a rolling mill which was then e(iuipi)ed with machine and forge shops, and served by both rail and water shipping. The report is reproduced in full as originally made. Location.— The most desirable location for the bridge plant is somewhere in the vicinity of the steel mill from which the structural shapes will be received. As a large part of the output from the bridge shop would be sliipped by water, it is desiral)le to place it near the river. A site just west of the dock would probably be suitable. It has the disadvantage of being low and wet, and would reiiuirc considerable grading and filling, pr()l)ably not less than 2 ft. Some of the material for filling would be taken from the building and machine foundations, but the greater part of it would need to be hauled in on cars. The triangular piece of ground, bounded by three lines of rail track at the east end of the :f-l plant would be desirable. This site is drained by the r ^r. Size of Lot.— To carry oi. aeme outlined in this report, the size of lot reciuired is no . han 400 by 10(M) ft. One of the chief reiiuiren, -Uio of a modern bridge plant is ample yard room. At one end of the yard, stock should be well spread imt on skids, that it may be easily reached with little handling. This end of the yard should be intersected with numerous service tracks. . . , , At the other end of the yard, where the loadmg is done, there should bu umpio room fur the storage of finished products, and 34 DESIGN FOR A STRUCTURAL PLANT 35 also for loadinji thorn on cam. There should be space for loading several ears at one time, and additional space for shop extension, or the erection of ';i?ier small buildings as may be reciuired. Grading of Site. — It is desirable to slope the entire site on a down grade of al)out 1 per cent, in the direction that the material goes in passing through the works. The cost of this will depend on the site s(>Iected. Arrangement of Yard. — The templet shop and the stock yard are located near one end of the main shop. From these, the stock and templets will be taken to the laying-out department. It will then pass on to the punches and shears, thence to the assemblers, reamers and riveters, and last to the milling and bor- ing machines. It is then passed out at the other end of the shop, painted, and loaded on cars. The broad gauge shipping track is shown passing between the main shop on one side and the templet and forge shops on the other. The main building will have two lines of service tracks passing through it.i entire length, and the forge shop will have a single line of track. The stock yard will have several parallel lines of service tracks which are connected by a transfer-way. A service car on any track can then be run on the truck in the transfer-way, and run off again on any desired track. Cost of the service tracks need not exceed $2500. Economic Production. — In order to produce economically, and compete successfully for work, it is necessary that the equipment should be the best that can be sccvired. In estinu\ting on the plant, only such an equipment has been included as is necessary, but everything is of the l)ost. Co-operation with Present Machine Shop and Foundry. — These shops are already well ecpiipped, and ai'tcr the new cop.^truction is finished, will doubtless be able to make some parts required by the structural plant. Such parts as bridge pins, turned bolts, machine screws, finished castings, etc., can be made in the machine shop. The foundry can j)roduce all the necessary iron castings, and equipment for makitig steel castings can be added. These will fn'o trunsforrod to the structural shop, and all such work done there in tl'e future. This will leave more room in the machine shop, which appears crowded at pr(\sent. Scope of Plant.— This estimate is for a shop etiiupped to ...anu- facture all kinds of bridfie and structural work, including pin- connected and riveted bridges, plate girders, both light and heavy steel frames for l)uildings, b(>ams, trusses, columns, tanks, ore boxes, etc., etc. Only three priiu'ipal buildings arc outlined at present, viz.: the templet shop, forge shop and riveting shop. The templet shop is to be a two-story building. The upper floor is to be finished smooth, and large enough to lay out templets for large riveted sections, such as roof trusses, etc. The^first storv will be used at one end for the storage and drying of lumber, and at the other rn 1 for a drafting office. "t1u> forge shoi) is shown close enough to the main shop so that loads of angles or beams tliat must be heated and bent, may bo easily transferre.l from one shop to the other and back agam. It wouhl not be economical to send such heavy material over to the present blacksmith .shop, a distance of nearly one mile, and back again to the structural shop for rivc-ting and punchmg. Loop rods, clevises, rivets, and miscellaneous forging will be done here. Th(>re will be an i.p-set.ting nuichine, an anneahng furnace, power hammers, etc. The roof trusses will be arranged with trolleys and hoists for lifting material. The riveting shop will have traveling carriages, trolleys, and iK.ists hea%y enough to handle the heaviest girders, and other lighter ones for lighter and smaller work. The l)uildings will all 1)C well lighted. The forgo shop will have a timl)er frame. For the other two buildings, estimates are made for making the walls either of masonry, or corrugated iron on plank. To start with, it is the intention to have only such l)Uildings and tools as are necessary to turn out work economically. Other small buildings may be added in the future. Future Extension of Plant.— The design should be made so that the end can be removed and the buildings made longer. Other small buildings will be required as busiuusa increases. The follow'xg may be needed: 'i5?* DESIGN 1 OR A STRUCTURAL PLANT 37 Paint shop, Storage liouse for oroctioii tools and rigging, Separate office huilcling, Plate bending shed, etc., but none of these are included in the present estimate. Method of Constructing Buildings. — The forge sliop may be put up first and used temporarily as a structural shop. This is designed with a wood frame that can be built on the ground by carpenters. Only such tools need be used as are necessary for manufactur- ing the frames for the other two buildings. These machines may be placed oii temporary timber foundations. Templets for these two buildings may be made in the present pattern shop, and drawings in the attached office. Then when the permanent buildings are constructed, the tools may be removed from the forge shop to the main riveting shop, and set up on concrete foundations. Under the.se conditions, the cost of manufacture will of course 'i)e excessive, luit it will be quite as satisfactory as waiting for some other shop to manufacture the frame. FORGE SHOP Size: 10 ft. I)y 10() ft. 20 ft. under trusses. WiKxl frame, ("ovcriii);, cs 8 ft. apart. Trolleys on tie Iwanis. 10-ft. continuous sji.sh all around under eave.s. S-ft. monitor with swing sa.sh. E.>«Ti.\iATE OF Cost Cost of building complete ( including foundations) . $3500 Machinery: 1 up-setting macliine $ 800 1 rivet and holt former 1200 1 annealing furnace 300 4 forges (from present Macksmith shop) 4 anvils (from present hlacksmith shop) 1 steam Immmer 800 1 steam hammer 1500 (i lioists at $50 300 100 ft. track 00 4 service cars 1)30 -5120 Total cost $8620 38 J'M.IM^HiaXG OF SIIUI'S AXD FACTOlilES TEMPLET SHOP AND OITICE Size: oO fl. 1,/ 1"0 ft. Two .stories. Stce! frume. Masonry Tj t cf l)iii''i; >K, complete, including floor, foumiatiorih ii'jj, iieuiiiij;, etc If the walls are made of plank, covered with corrugated iron, the cost will bo SISOO less. Maciiinery: 1 wood i)lanpr S2()0 <' drills :j(M) 1 saw 200 1 band saw 400 1 motor 2(K) Belts, imlleys, etc 2(K) 6 sets small tools 200 Total co.st . walls. linl.t- .*14,:500 1,700 .?1 0,000 BUIIXiE fiUOV Size: 80 ft. by 400 ft. 22 ft, IiIkIi under trusses. St(H>l frame. Masonry walls. Hoof: eorrucated iron on plank. Cost of building — including floor and foundation . . S2S,3(X) Etjuipment : Cranes and hoists .*17,.">00 Heating 2.(>(H) ]:iectrio lighting S(H1 Machinery foundations 1,200 Skids and rails l.IJOO Service tracks jjoo 'M CATS SOO Tot. ' t:ost . 21,400 $52,700 M.VCIIIXK TOOLS FOR PHOPoSED HHIDtiE SHOP 1 plate she.ir for 00 in. X 1 in. metal, motor driven $ 1 angle .shear for 8 in.XS in. X 1 in 1 angle shear for 5 in. X.) in. x:{ 4 in 1 bar shear for 12 in. XI 1,4 in 1 punch :{() in. throat for 11,4 in. holes in I in 1 punch 20 in. throat for 114 in. hoh^s in 1 in 2 ])uncli;-s 10 in. throat for angle in. xO in. x 1 in 1 I)late <'dge i)laner 1 boring machine for iiin-holes 1 beam saw for 2 I in. beams 1 beam saw for 1.') in. beams 1 beam coping and notching machine Milling niaciiiiR-, 54 in. licad lieuder and straightencr for beams and angles 4,500 ;j,500 2.5(KI 2,(MJ0 1,000 1,500 2,200 4,500 1,500 i,;joo 600 1,800 3,100 2,200 DEHWS FOR A STRVCTIRAL PLANT 39 1 air conipnw.sor 2 riveters, 2") in. roiicli (conipri's.st'd air). 1 riveter, 30 in. reach (coniprcs.sed air). . 1 riveter, 5 J in. reacii (cDmpressoil air). . 10 hoists 2,500 800 500 500 500 12 drills and reamers ■ 1,000 500 500 200 l'i|)inj; for drills and reamers. ('hi|)|>ers and caulkers 4 rivet furnaces 2 emery wheels ' 2 Rriiid stones. 1 bar shear 1 threading machine for hmIs, 1 allele heatiiiR furnace 4 elect rio motors 50 500 400 100 h(K) Total co.st . *tl,7."iO Loading Facilities. — To loud lioavy work economically, an outdoor traveling; crane is ncces.saiy. For tlie present, however, loadini; may he done hy two derrick.s capable of lifting about 20 ton.s each. They may oe operated by two electiic hoisting engines. Cost of two derricks at .?i400 4 MK) Cost of two hoisting engines at .StMK) 1,200 .«2,()00 Erecting Tools and Machinery. — Tiie numl)er of erecting tools and amount of material required, depends on the nature of the structure to l)e erected, and the number of contracts ju hand at any one time. In erecting tiic frame of the templet and bridge shops, the parts may be hoisted with a gin pole. The cost of the necessary rigging including rope, pulleys, hoists, guys, timber, gin jjole and hoisting engine, need not exceed $1500. Power. — In the bridge .shop, all of the large machines will be driven by direct connected electric motors, and the small ones by compressed air. A few small ones such as threading macliines, grinders, etc., will be belt driven. These may be grouped and the overhead shafting turned by a separate electric motor. The templet shop machinery may be belt driven, and power furnished by a separate electric motor. 40 K\(!isi:i:iu\(! OF SHOPS axd factories (OST (.1 truiko KorKc .slio|), l>uilcl|iiK l''i>rKi' ^liop, tools Templet .slio|) uiid oflitv .Miu'hiiicry Uridnc sliop, liuil.liiij; uii.l ciiiipmcnt, . . lirl(lK« shop, tools LoiKJiriR .Icrricks uiid ftiRiiics Krectliin -NT $ 3 2 a r>, 14 1 2, 1, (H)0 .:m) .dOO 120 ,;»)0 ,7()0 7()0 7.-.0 (MJO Tola! coNt . «12S,()70 MAfinXK T<)(H,S roil TKMl'OKAIiV SII()1>- -4" FT. HY KM) IT. 1 pliitc filii'iir, for 3r> in. x 1 iti 1 aiijrli- .siicur, for (> in. < (i in, ^ } i„ 1 bar .sliear, for 12 in. X 1 in 1 i)unch, 30 in. throat 1 punch, 10 in. throat 1 beam saw for 24 in. bcam.s ("opiuK and noteliing machine Hender and straiglitener Air comi)r<'ssor 2 riveters (compre.s.sod air) 10 lioist.s (conipres.sed air) 12 drills and reamers (compress.-d air). Piping for drills and reamers Chippers and eatilkers 2 rivet furnaces 1 threading machine 2 motors 2,500 2,500 2,(H)0 1,600 1,1(M) 1,300 1,S(X) 2,200 2,.'')()0 8tH) 500 l.(HM) .">(K) .")00 1(H) 4(K) 400 'Jotal . $21,700 (OST OF TK.MPORAUY PLA.NT One building 40 ft. by KM) ft. an.l machinery necessarv for making biulding Irames. ' '' ^,'™""« $ 500 N.rv.co tracks 4,^, '?""'"'« 3,500 '""'" 21,700 Load! E Mg derricks and c r 'ding tools ngiiuv 2,(M)0 I, .500 Total cost. $29,000 «• vaKBK*J?aPS»£3E«5aEB' -^l^ae£i^9mil^^m'--^:^-'^^-i^''i^mi'^^^f9. '^^,;.n■ DESKjy FOli A SriiVVTUHM PLANT 41 PnoMT ox I.WK.STMENT Count then on an output of 10,(M)0 tons por vcar which « u low ...stunatc. Fron. personal knowledge .■..n.petit'ors are producing 20,00() ton-s per year. yah.,, of 10,., *i:«),(MH) at 7 jH.r ,...„f ,, ^^^ l)..|)r(...iati<..i oil Mock at .i iht t(.|it . •{'.„,(, N.'t i.rofit: $,0,000, l.-ss $13,000, ,M,„als $-,7,000 This is 44 per cent, clear yearly profit on the money invested. «' •:.. i.pmi:f:i. '.rw7.Mr. ■^K ■srssr-mzji f'IIAI'Ti:R V GENERAI. DESIGN Having completed in stifiatioiis of the Eronomics of Factory Construction, and decided all matters relating to the eflfect of liiiildinjis upon output ami elficieucy, detail designs, drawings, and si)ecilications must lie jirepared. These will he l)a.se addeil to cover uncer- tainties. Clear ami accurate working diawings also pay for themselves many times over in the mistakes which are thereby avoided. While standard house plans In book form are aliundant, then; ficems to be little or nothing of the kind yet available for shops and fact(nty of work for Mill and industrial Engineers. I i addition to the detail plans for construction, drawings must also be made for the interior equip- ment, including heating, ventilating, liirhting, i)lumbing. electric wiring, jiower generation and transmission, line shafting, fire protection, handling ajijiliances, yards and tracks, and for all other features of a s])ecial nature. The building must serve ■ shelter for its occupants and ecjuiprnent, should give suijjiort tor shafting and machinery when needed, and form support for crane and other handling appliances. It shoukl also faciiitate as far as possible the economic management of labor. He^'ore starting detail drawings, the structural engi;-.ecr if he is not already supplied, shoukl have data or .sngges'i.-iis from the owner on matters peitaining to construction, so that the 42 (!Esi:i{.\i. i)i:si(!\ 43 owner's prcfcirnccs in tlicsc niiilicrs may t>c dliscrvcd jiiui tlie pluii.s and «|)('(ilicatii)ii.s .suited In cniiditioiis. He sliould also have coinplcti? data on the followiiif; siilijects: Climate, possiliility of cartlnpiake.s or cyi'lones, j)revailinK storms, cxtretnes of heat and eoi|iii)\ ' '• Esthetic Treatment. Art isiic troatiiitui iiiniicni plants is often ;i part n\ ,i dcliii'tc pnliiy of llicif iMioi- i' may !"' raniiMl nut fur 1 1 pinji. i.-failvcii -ill'-: r to sitti c ' ntli r titilitariati .--t > ictures aiui < n;: ineerinj; w^e ks sni ^ da' power plan's, \,il' s, ' tc. Wa I'r u>\\ << wiicp en' >sod \ ■,;.. walls', I'ni. i:i. — < itlii'C iiii'i uork~ iif I • Im;: A MariiiMiifciicr f' .k. ■•, W have aliiuera;: iiue i witi, j:tiint .iii' npeii fraiii- injr. ('(il'ii'd tile- nay ''■ c, .ii ronf ^nd " Is may ho relieved vnh cnf .'s. t>' . . >a>. diffeunt material or ciilui-etl ].ane; (1 _ Int- ii~ liiiiklinfrs may ho paiiileil wliile ■'.'.'■ lijii; me an' iay i relie d with a simple >tencil , !.,• n ti- " i-oar th' eilin^. or with <»c<'a,-iiinal deeerai (> panels. Wind Pressure. Winl pre- o "U roIati\ -mall aroas vaiies in amount \ ■. !;ie hei'jiit al)n\i' tlio jiruiiU'! This was prov<'n l)y ox|ierin;< Is man •! ]']n<;land hy Stoi)iionson, on urlai''s at hi'ijiiis ,,-, ."), pi T ', and '>0 ft. al)o\e jiround, his uhser ations (nvi 'ii ■ a its of varviiij; velocities with (;i:\i:i{.\f, />/>■/<,• v pr.' iir.-s ,.f I 4.] II,. ,„,,. s.|,i:iiv fn of ili.'si' v\\,n-l'. iciits arc ;i.s follows: Th •' ii\rni;:f n'siilts 1 1.— Details of market huildiiiK. SIKI'I! Hci«lit ill".- . pr ill fiH't 25 15 10 s i;\ri;Ki.Mi;\Ts ior wind phkssire •"'"' ^^ill'l pr.-sMirc per Miuaro foot ill |)IMlll(ls I'it.l LT).!) •_'■-' . H 21 2 •"' i:{.8 _ Tlioso results sIkw i-olatlvo prnporf ions oiilv, .m <'omp.u-M- tivoly small oxposcl anvis. As l,uiMiii-s le.i.l, more ..-• ' to sli.'ltor each other, pspccially in districts wlicro tliov .■ surroim.hMl, jt is usually sufficient at a height of SO ft" above ground, to provide for a wind Dressnre of 40 H. • foot a.ul for less lieight to reiluco this pressure accord, formula />^4\/i/ + 5 40 E\(!iM:i:in\n of shops am) factories wlioro /' is tli(> wind prcs-iurc in pdumis per sqiiair fciot, and // flic liciiilit infect In tile area in (lucstion. This nives rcsidts con- fdiininj; closely with Stepliciison's oxperinients, tJie results being shown on the foUowinj; diajirain. As a win so effective that it ia freijuently nuite safe to entirely disregard wind pressures up to a lieijjht of L'O to 30 ft. above frround. There is a tendency on larjre wall areas toward eiiualizalion of pressure at varying heights, owing to the elasticity of the air, the condition being different to that in Stephenson's experiments, which were on snuiU areas. Wind pressure on the interior of buildings may be serious, es- pecially where the sides re partly open, or broken with many doors or windows through which air cur- rents may enter. Need of protec- tion against inside upward pres- stire has long been know-n, for in some exposed districts in Europe, it has been the custom for the peasants to load their roofs with rocks. The ends of high single- story buildings, such as erection shops with traveling cranes, are often harder to l)race than are tiie sides, for they lack substantial bracing at the lower chord level and at intiM'uieiliate heights. When tlie sides are open enough to admit free air currents, wind ju'essure on tiie two sides will be nearly eipial, and the sum of these sides will be the area vuuler jjicssure. Wind conditions will evirallv he light for the total M-eight of machinery, men and materials will seldom exceed M) Ih. per s.piare foot. Stories 8 to 9 ft. in height used for the storage of cotton hales, .should he j..-opo,tio,ied for an imposed load of 100 to 1.-.0 Ih. per s.p.are foot, while higher ones for general storage and packin,-, might he suhject to 200 Ih. Rooms for pattern storage rarely carry more than l.>0 Ih. on the R,,ua.e foot Hui .lings for light machinery fre.juently have provision for loa.ls .)f 2:)0 to ,'300 Ih. Unit Stresses.-A fa.tor of f.,ur is sufhcient f,)r dead an.l live- loa.l stresses, hut for greater c.mhinations such as dea.I. live and <'iane loads all a<-(ing together, a fa.'L.r ..f safetv of three i.s mgh. Th(.tempf.raryhuil.lingsf.,rth..(',,Iunihiani;xp..siti..nat (.hicago in ]mi. wen propnpf innod for tensile stresses of 20 OUO to 2o,000 lb. per s.iuare inch of section on steel. Comparatively .Mfi'u. -IS J-:\<;i.\Ki':i{is<; of shops axd factoiuks liijrh unit strcssos arr usually pcnnissihle on hiu'ldinj^s oxcpptinR perhaps in columns, for it is well known that such structures rarely fail by the collapse of their princijjal parts, hut rather rack to pieces from the vihration of cranes and lieavy machinery. ROOF TRUSSES. Stresses, Bevels and Lengths To fmd stresses in any truss, multiply stresses grivcn by the panel load. /'.Vt'4/J )=+(!.,«)-• To find stresses in any truss, multiply stresses fsivcn by the i>ancl load. /' - V('4ft)-+(T7/OS To find stresses in any truss, multiply stresses Riven by the panel load. Fiuture should receive .juite a large part of an engineer's att<-ution when planning such structures. On the contrary, the anaivsis of such stress is very simple, though it is affected to some extent by local conditions, such as the detail of column base, and amount of anchorage; nature of walls, whether clo.se.l or paitly open etc In many, if not in most cases, the experienced designer can see from inspection that computation of stresses from knee braces IS unnecessary, as they are insignificant. But when buildings •^'•^ iCJIWiS f^.=^««''^''^3HTCPWi ■)0 ESaiSKKIUXd OF S/IOPS AXD F AC TORI EH aro liiRh and oxposo,! to stn.n- wi.ul, invcstiVation of knee l.rucc stress may ho lurde.l. It is, however, imjx.rtant tl.at k.,.>e hra.es have riKid fnu,,!,,. at tl.eir extremities (I-if;. 18), and tiiey siiould conneet to a truss panel where the members are heavy en<,ugh to resist compression. At the other end of the l,race tlie column must be firm enough to resist bending, web lattice fre,iuently bc-inf; too li-jht for rij-idity. The knee brace problem IS quite similar to one of the simplest in bridge analysis viz the proportionlns of portals. Columns may be considered' fixed at the base when they are firmly anchored, or when they have enou«ii load on them to hold them s-iuarely down. A lai-e one- story steel-frame metal workin- shop which was inspectcfby the writer after its collapse during erection, but after columns had '>«;'^n anchored, illustrates the case. The c.lumns remained with their buses fixed to the foundations an.l bent at about one- tlurd of their height, the whole frame falling in one direction r^ H^ r^ Fin. 10. JL I >n ended action is sehlom found in building columns Wind pressures on ti.e bents may usually be considered as transferred o the oun.lation in e.,uul amounts on the two sides, for if the leaward braces and columns are not stressed at first, defiectlon <.f the windward side will bring the other into action Columns shouhl be proportioned not only for their direct load, but also for the bending stress and a.hlitional load on them fn.m the overturning effe.-t of wind on the buil.ling as a whole causing givater load un the win.lward onos Additional Notes.-In conclusion, the design should l,e eare- ully studied out. preferably on small sheets of paper, 81 by tL'?;: '■'''Y''"'"T '""''"' '"'"^' '''''' ""'' «""»""'l ^l^tails. Ihe upper flange of crane guder. may be stiffened laterally by f^.^TiR m^mm^^imr^^^'^:^7m^i\mm^ ohWKif.iL i)i':si(;x gj plaoiM,, an.„l..r I,,.,,,, or ..i.a.uu.l witl. its wol, in a hovhonVA pos„u.n al...vo tl.e pWucipai u.u, the upper one h.-i,,, K- ed tl. ..„,i. the web to the fiance of the o,»e beneath it (Fi: <, i ho .le.s,,.n .sh<,uld al.so be c.he,.kecl, an.l evorv part reemusiderecl lu'fore .■unstru.-tn.n. Any parts which are found to l>c ,Ze' " -ry n,ay then be on.itted, or additional ones n.av be in od ced where needed. The dead wei-d.t sl.ouid be ..figured to «^ that I -•...■« not exeeed that whieh was assun.d. C^o o .we j'w .ns or general dnnvn.,s shouhl be n.ade. ,ivin. ail the frauZ M.e. and .enera duuensions, these plans serving as a .uide for the .Irafts.uen wh,>n making the details Specifications -l-nless a building speeifieation is clear and uu <> nusunde..tan.li,^ will surely arise, with eorres^^u ir^^y In^hu ten.h-.s. Successful contractors are not willing to take -.•kless chances, and they usual!,- add enough to 1 1 ir 1,1 t.! -ver any pou.ts which are indefinite. Then, if the con n u^ ••.•un,,, ,na constru,.tion should be carried ou in a clu' per wu " iKur profit wo.dd be in.-reased. For the sake of del ness ii; v.-.t.ug of specdl..ations should be deferred until all deta is of V Sn; :;; r •"•■" '; t'- ^' «"-'' ->- - ^^ c.;::; :i^ (X. uune all drawuigs, whether complete or under wav nnd fn .nake note of details of every kind.'exan.i.iing c^.r^Lt t o oughly :n al particulars before taking up another one Ea h note should be n.ade on a separate card of uniform size and these nSi,f ;:!;::' '^ "•■■''"^''^^ "-•- •'■^-■-t headings, th: : r at.ng to masonry, carpentry, painting, etc., each being kept In themselves. The cards for each heading mav then be classl fled n, proper order. In this way a logical arrangement is o.^y obta„,ed. Before writing the specifications of anv panfc^ it -I.ject, su, . as carpentry work, this branch should be' evet U.deu. \\ ords known as localisms should be avoided which arc used and c.|early understood only in certain districts 'a'd I oca resuients, for elsewhere the meaning n.ay not be kno vn"^ nnd deHi'r''"s '"'■"■.'•^'"^■"^"'-'^ --» -veml. special features and details should be exphuned and particularlv those which aro not easdy shown on the plans. Unceaain' featu es^m J -.no.nnes be covere.l by "blanket clauses" or comprehen" ^e on the di ;;\ving5 be repeated in the specifications. psass'sw^^K!^ ," CHAPTER VI SELECTION OF BUILDING TYPE The priiiiiiry object of factory buildings is financial profit, and in this respect they differ from houses or nionumental structures, which, in addition to utility, are for comfort and beauty. Manufacturing buildings are merely supplementary to their contents and all the plans should be developed together, the buildings forming a convenient enclosure of the right size and form, for the machinery within. Capital is more easily secured for the erection of buildings of regular form than for irreg- ular ones, because those of the former type can more easily bo adapted to other purposes if vacated by the original industry. Kind of Building Material.— The usual types of factory build- ings are: 1. Complete wooden buildings. 2. Slow l)iirning or mill construction framing with brick walls. 3. Steel frame with walls of brick or concrete. 4. Reinforced concrete frame with walls of brick or concrete. The rule is to select that type in which work can l)e done with the greatest ease, efficiency and security at the least ultimate cost, when interest, insurance and depreciation are considered. The extent to which building materials will affect the first cost', depends upon their selling price at the place of numufacturei with transportation charges to the site added, and the facility for receiving and hauling them when they arrive. Preference will often l)e given for that material which is near at hand and therefore more quickly obtained at a l-.wer cost. In those Pacific states where good timber is still plentiful, it is much used in preference to steel, which must usually be brought a long distance— often from Pennsylvania and Ohio. On the other hand, in the vicinity of rolling mills and structural works, steel framing nuiy !)e more (luickly made than timber and at nearly the same cost. Wood, metal and concrete framing each have their special merits which are mentioned elsewhere. Exposed metal framin.!? IS not suitable for buildmgs where gases or sulphuric acid fumes 52 SELECT u).V OF PJIi OING TYPE 53 aro ponorated, as in locoi^iot -o sheds, ,.,is houses, or shops for making storage batteries, for the -uetal is rapidly corroded- by the fumes. Reinforced concrete conipai. , favorably in cost with timber, for buildings of several stories and column spacing of IG to 20 feet, with floor loads of 2.>0 lbs. per square foot or more Hut for one story buildings and especially those with long spans n>inforced co- f„r framing cannot compare in cost with steel. W ood iug for roofs is cheaper in first cost than slaba of iciiiforced ( m. ^o. Essentials of Good Framing.— The essential qualities of good framing are: 1. .Strength 2. Durability or endurance ;}. Utility 4. Simplicity of construction •'). Economy 0. Possibility of quick and easy erection. The columns, walls and floors must evidently be strong enough to carry their loads, and requirements of the near future should be anticipated, for the strengtiiening of buildings is difficult and expensive. Durability or endurance depends much on the absence of vibra- tion, the injurious effect of which is very great. The building must also resist the attacks of weather and the elements, and Kliould be as nearly fireproof as possible. Utility and efficiency are .secured by goo.l lighting, heating and ventilating, together with cleanliness and sanitarv conditions Simplicity, quick erection and economy are essentials, factors of economy being low cost of construction, maintenance and operation. Vibration and OsciUation.- Vibration is a local shaking of parts under loads or impact, while oscillation is the .swpm- i- of the building as a whole, resulting from the movement of .-^,^0' or machinery acting in unison. Both of these cause serious aijury to the framing with frequent breaking of skylights and windows Ihese movements also cause excessive wear on machines and nece.ssitate a greater amount of power to run them. OsciUation often occurs in steel frame buildings of several stories with brick exterior walls, which are used for such purposes as orinting and iJiiiding, a notable one of seven stories in Chicago having a move- ment at the top of several inches, even though the five-story I':.\(;im:i:iu.\(; of shops asd factories buildinfi ii(lj(>iniii>: it is iii;uk> reciation usually accompanies hij>;h fust cost, and rapid deprociatiou h)W first cost, thoujih there arc ex- ceptions to the rule. Wooden ])uildiii;is of slow burning con- struction luivc a yearly tie])ieciation of 1 to It per cent,, while those of reinforced concrete ])ly and fire protection. Approximate annual insurance cluufrcs on buildiiijrs of ditTerent ty])cs for city location, but without sprinkler systems, are jriven in the following table. The figures are the rates of in.surance in cents per SI 00 of value for both building and contents. TAUI.r; I.— AI'IMloXIMATi: IXSUUAXCK C'lIAUCKS Oenpral storoliouso. Wool warehouse 20 Office Cotton factory Tannery Shoe factory Woolen mill Machine shop, Merchandise builillng Paper factory 12 Average Wo )il mill AN'ood mill Concrete l>ldg. coii.st p., brick con.sti ., wood tiideti sides Bl()g. Contei'l« ni.ig. i Conteii's niig. Contents 20 , »•"> GO 1(K) 100 125 20 35 40 00 75 KM) 15 30 35 50 100 125 40 100 100 ■:m 2(M) 300 20 40 75 too 100 100 25 SO 7.5 KM) 1.^0 200 30 SO 75 1(H) 150 200 15 25 50 50 100 100 35 75 50 100 100 1.50 12 29 30-70 21 20-75 05 00-100 10-40 75-1,50 1(H)- 200 F^:if, j.^;^;-'"':s£f^^^»BwaMO SELECTION OF BUILDISG TYPE 55 TABLK It.-INSURANCE CHAROKS KKI'uUTKU BY ANOTIIIK COMPANY AUi; AS FOI.I.<)\\.S: ("oncrctc l)I-65 '■'"'»""lry UO-GS 05- UK) Macliine Bhop 25-50 50-75 Wootl mill 1 coiislr., brick ' Brick utid stoc 8idus coii.st ruction Ruilding and Hiiildiiig and coiitonts contents 85 70 135 115 100 85 liuildiiiRs for Mcrrit&Co. of Philadelphia had, in 1907, insur- ance rates per SlOO of value for building and contents of 182 cents per $100, for reinforced concrete buildings .3.17 cents per SUM), for mill construction Iniildings' All of the above charges are for buildings without automate si)nnkler systems. When these are installed, the charges are reduced by 7,0 to lo per cent. Reports publishetl in 1908 show that the rate of insurance on l,uildiiigs of mill construction remforced concrete, or steel frames not fireproofcd, when pro- vid.-d with automatic sprinkler systems, is 20 to 35 cents per •? 1 00 per year. Fig. 20. Roof Outline.— The exterior roof outline should be such as to shed water, and if necessary, to admit .,t and air, but it should also be of pleasing appearance. These results are obtained in many ways, some of which are, by double pitch roofs with center monitor (Fig. 20). transvense monitors on flatter pitches (Fig 21), and single slopes with light admitted from the north side only (Fig. 22). A double pitch roof with a center monitor is an .'Hi K\(!ISl-:Klil.\G OF SHOPS A.\n FACTORIES excellent outline as fur as wai.-r sheurlins are su,.|mrted A c...,d example of this type, is a pattern .shop n-cerUly ..re.te.l for the Marylan.1 Steel Co.npany. Inst.md of eoverin^ alternate roof l>uy.s, the tran.sverso monitors may be i)laeed at l.-.s frecpient in- tervaLs and may extend either part way or entirely across the ro.)f. Transverse monitors over every third roof panel, tho .non.tor s.des being covered with sla.ss, ^mvc good li^diting eff.-ct W itli panel lengths of 20 ft. an coiit*-!- of ilic hiiil.linfj; with a '\(; typk 50 tuJ poon-r Vfntilntic.ii. >, li three longiliuliiial |jii\ s— 1| 1110 rcci'iit metal !•' central one for i'U!. 2S, ?'■ 1.— Shiil with .sing!,. g!il)lo. the m\o. l.,vy. ,,,., with a double-piltl. roof in i\,^ ,„i,,,„, U.crc IS ]Utlo or no diflorence in the cost bctw.en vert.i.,d < I'k;. 32.— HuildiiiR with double galile. incline,! surfa.vs for the north windows, for while vertical Tvccs guc a f,M-eater tuea to be covered, the cost of framing j„: pening h.. ii»'i, 00 KSaiSEERISa OF SHOPS A\D FACTORIES llic windows is loss. The Rroator cost of vortical sides is, there- fore, (ifTsot hy tlio loss cost of windows (Fifj. 28). North roof 11^111 may i)o admitLoil to i)uiklinKs with widths of (U) ft. or less, l.y placing a sin;;lo lon-^itudinal monitor over the whole lenstli of the l.uiidini;, with jilass oa the north .side (mly. This monitor may take the form of a saw-tooth (Fig. 29), or may I'Ki. 3.1.— Market building around uu oj)fu square. he .symmotrical with vortieal faoos on both sides, and the south fac(> covered with sheathinfr (Fi^r. ;{()). .^n example of this kind with .saw-tooth monitor may he seen in the new two-story con- crete shop at ('ornell Univer.sity. ^Hiiildin-s may have either one ridRO (Fip. 31), or two (Fig. ■i.l), or may ix- hiiilt around an open scpiare (Fig. .«), a form which iscspeeiidly suitable for market buildin<;s where an' abund- anc- of fresh air is iieeiled. CHAPTER Vir WOOD AND METAL FRAMING Timber as a structural material, has lately roocivo.l wholo- .alo c...ulemnati..n l.y tlmsc who arc cmmorciallv intorost.-d in rc-mforcod concrete, but the rc.tl eaus,. for a ,l(>.T,vusing use of '^'^^^^^^^^^^^^k^&r. Bnd Pott And Bottom Chord Connoction. 'W^ .■z^..,^m Noil«i9 of bottom Chord Dewilk in Top and Bottom Chords. I C'-'f' * r»wwv S'„d^^ ^C t IPC \ r' Hoff Tro,»^ S«rt«« E.^«n -^ Ei,«tbn,f a, ? Fjc. 34.--Timl)or framing for aiKliforiuin at Seattle. 61 iV2 j:.\(,i.\j:i:i{!X(; of shoi's axd factories tiiiihor is not its lack of nuiii, l.iit latlior tlio difliculty of socui^ iii^ it ill workiiiji icii'itlis iiiul at a ivasoiiahii- cost. Xolwitii- staiuliiiK tlio increased use of steel a. id reinforced concrete, tiie continued importance of tinil.er in const met 'on is siiown hv a recent rei)ort. .f the rnitetl States (ieojojiicai Survey, covering forty-nine American cities. Trum tlii.s report it appears tluit tim- Fi.;. 3.-,. ber still constitutes (il per cent. ..f all structural material with only ;j!t p-r c.ni. of ,,tlier inaK rials. In llie .\ew Knjrland States more mill.-, ar.'f rained of \\,H,d than of allot her nialerialscoml.ined. Tiinlier has a low tir.-l cost is easily fram.Ml, and is often pre- ferre.l especially in ili.. S,.uih :,.i.l West where il is still plentiful. The ohjection to timi.er is its fire risk and corresponding^ insur- ance charges. Its j;vneral u.se on the Tacihc coast is shown l,y i^W ' >*-3"rii-x»J'.-'^ .^i^i*ri«-»--J:V«-sA»7*-*Ai.'4^v ^ m)01) AM) MET^i^ FlLUflXG 63 tULSMs 1<() ft 1,,,,.^ Uk. au.litoriu.n at Wnico, California ..n.l u hr... one at Soatth- wi.i. a span of 90 ft. (Fi,;34) The ', -^i / San FnuH.,sco Jn.s in-nts :>(, ft. apart, with t ro. f pi h 7l In . :, and l,oltonu-honl.s in the ...nu-nt of a cirde. 'wses . « of Oregon pn.e planks, an.l the total roof weight Z u£t t._nss.. purhns an.l eorn.,ate.l iron is 10 11,. per lu . ^f lM,s. 3o_an. :m show other detail, of tinU.er fraLin. ' " Kvon ,„ the Kast an.l Mi,I,|le States, timberis still often favored us cvuieneed by the erection in 1907, of a roof over the .-s u^ *'9- -t - re- sk.itn.. n„i, at Cleveland, with wooden arH. trusses of 100-ft ■"Pan^ \M.en provided with auton.ati,. sprinklers eut off d ' j- fire ext,n«nishers. slow burning consiruetion with hi:: t; '"tn "f'r ""\«'-'-'"'':"^- - -"-'--1 a good fire r^Z tli(> action of fire on large tind)ers is slow Tnisses ,ro easily fran.ed by making .d.ords of several lavers •;f plank sp,ked together, with main web diagonals f ^> ^ 'nnber, an.l ..ounters of double 2 to .3-in. nlank.s h.sert .1 or - .n,„K.ro^ joints, n.a\ be computed irom the following cable: • 61 j':.\(;i\i:KiiL\G of shops asd factories TAHI.i; III -SIIEAKINii VAIXK IN I.HS. OF NAII.KO JOINTS Hcsistance at ; Ultiinalt yield point .'• (1 wire null 6 1 (1 wiru null 7 in. wire niiil. KuiiKe '• N ill. wire nail, Kiim;c (M( 460 230 For working nnit ■m 280 1 use half of this i,.i() 32.'. last column, or 7.50 375 u <|uartcr of the 1070 ■)3.> ultimate. 12'.M) fri:. 1 C'dlumns .sliouKl lu' of ■iixul straight timlxr without knots, the l)Ost kind bcin;: Si)iitli(>rii pine. They should be bored through l''ir.. 'Mo. — Details of tinilicr framing. the ceiit.T with a 1 Uiii. hole and should remain unpainfcd for uixmt two j-ear.s. ("ohiiun.s .supportinj: floors must usually be li(i. Mh. — Iron caps anil ha.-sc for wooden eohimns. spared not nioro thiin IJ to 10 ft. apart, owinj; to tiie inrreasinR difficulty in K<'ttin« jircater lengths. Timlx-r columns were often desiiined with excessive strenjrth and dimensions, but tliey should now be proporticmed by Profe.ssor Lanza's formuhe or some other one e()ually reliui)le. ^.P-':5'^-j!Mi^''?0iM^-J^i^^^ ~?^^^r- WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 65 .37^nd3r' "'""" "' '"''" -""-■'•-« are .shown in Figs. Floor timhers Learing on walls .should be anchored thereto attP . r ^"''"""'^ ""^'"^'^'^ ^^''t'^ ^^•'^^J'«'^> because the .>n.l«eand,>i.ed.o.et.K.^,J;^.^-j::>.,:'-::-^'^^ of 1-in. flooring. (.Sec Wood Floors). ^ Fk;. 38. — Hroni hang<'rs Xim^lHT of ht.. •*, A, or 5 Htofjt^. 2 story 1 ufor,- f'ost in cents Ii^T Riiuarc foot of fioor aron fost in conts per cubic foot of contents S.5 to B.l (Ml to UK) 5*."> (o 10.5 6.5 to 7 ,5 ".n to 8.0 7 5 to 8.5 ^ -rea.^ lH.. coM oy 1 to 2 cents per cubic foot in each A GG i:\(;i.\i:i:ii!.\(; of shops and factories ciiso. In country districts where labor is cheap, the cost may be l.j to 1>() per cent, less, and in tlie South, where both labor and materials are M to .-)() per cent, less than in the North, the cost will bo reduced accordingly. Hiiildings which cost 8i ecnta per cubic foot in large cities, have been reproduced in small towns for about 6 cents per cubic foot. Under the most favorable con- ditions, wood factory buildings in the South, not including the items mentioned above, will cost as low as 4\ to 5 cents per cubic foot. In Georgia and Carolina, • 100* J !> ll \ 1'. li'ii'v.r -- — .--- -- - - - --». □ □DDDDDDDn D D D"n"D""n"D"[]'n'D □ ODD D^D D"n¥D D D U D D D ¥ D'dJd D D □ D n'n^'n 'd"d d' D J D D DD D D D D D D D D an D D D da D D m Df □ m D □ mn D j~ Fif!. 30.— Sovon story f.irtorj' at rinoinnati, Ohio. two-story cotton iiiiils liavc occasionally been erected at prices of 4") to 00 ccMits per sciiiare foot of floor area. The building rusts given abov(> for nort licni latitudes are quite low, and wooden buildings of mill (oust ruction with lloorloads of 200 lb. per square foot, have soihctiincs cost from Sl.-lO to iJl.dO per square foot. A slow buriiin- wood nii'i hniMing (Fig. 3!i) designed in lOOo by the writer, with a basement and seven stories, and a total flour area ,4 .-^.700 sq. ft., cost for the structure oniv, with foundations. «.„„> and framing, but without ecpiipment, 90 cents per squa-*' fo.-t of floor area, and 7.7 cents per cubic foot ^y'>OJ) AM) METAL FHAMISG 67 of ';""t,.n,s It was pr„porti„no.| for .■. live l,.,ui of 200 Ih p.,- KM) ft lo„. for a floor load of only IW li.„ est 8:^ v.uU u.r ■s-iuaro foot or (,. j ,,,nts per cul.i,. foot, tho .ost of ,he floors L\ coh„„ns only, l.,n« 27 ..n.s p,. ..,„,,■ foot .,f floor an _ A tal.l,. pv.n^r ,i„. ,„,, „f ^^ ,„iscellan.-o„s lot <.f woo.l l.uiM- n.,s, n,>nul„.....l f,..„„ a r.port of th. National Associat f C cnient I sers for ]!)()!), is as follows: TAB..,.: ^v.-C(>siM,K^Hri.nixo8 OP woor, vn.r ' Tost ^'"'- I'l.x.r Mr..,, I"'' i'«t oil. It. si|. It. <'U. ft, .Ni|. ft. \\ ar.. u.„..., Ji.,s.„„ ; .-{.-ctHK, i.„S0H,.S.-,(, .7 ' "' J'"- "•"'"",. ; H:U88 I,271.a.M) l-.,.20 , L, >.-. Mill I.-. ,1 . i0 KW.WHi 05(1 ,.,v Mill, FifhlmrK 7204s 1 rn '.,"., "•'** *'" Mill,ront,.rvill..... jo- ' ! ' l!:''^ *^'-'«» «■«'< 10.^ Mill, Pawtuok..t r,: H ,:!;■'. '•^"•'" o^,-, ,.,, Mill, l.i„.l,|.„rK l-.,",l -■';'•-'•:"" '"'"'•" ■"•»'' 542 Av.Tap ;.;,st •"* -'•"■•'"*' '•■■•'•«' O^-' W .()0!» .(M> 0,1 , „,„! hy i),o simpl.nty of tlic (luniinc It h ii,i,.,l]„ -,..«,., ,.„. ,.,.Iiv,.,.o„ pH„ ,.,-„g „ , „UZ , , , • ;" ''.''"'"' "■'"' '"■'■''" '■''"«« •■«i*'.i. 1^ .^ V . 1 . .Mai.i ot Jioston, are as follows: H. G. Tyrrell, ii, Carpu.lry and Building, Nov., 1905. G8 t:.\aiM:hia\(; of shops .wd hwctuihes 50 WO 150 TOO 250 300 350 4*0 W MO Length in ft . Fi,i. 40 —Cost (liuKram f..r l.rick mill l)iiil Col. No. 3 Col. No. 4 Hoor.H Twelfth ■lIj>.2ix2Xi" I PI. 8 X i" 1 Eleventh. 10' .)" 4Zs. 3XJ" 1 PI. 6XJ" i ' Tenth . . . 10' ;t" ! Ninth.. . Id' .)" ■« Zs. r,xi" Eighth. 10' ,1" J .Seventh.. 10' .t" 4 ^s. 6XJ" 1 PI. 8 \ i" 6 aa Col. No. 1. i o. I. Sixth. , 10' .'!" 1 as Col. I s Fifth... lo';*" 1 1 4Z». 6X11" r. Same V E 'Si Fourth. 10' :t" 1 PI. SXli" Third.... 10' :i" 1 .Si'cond.. 10' 3" 4 Zs. 6XJ" 1 PI. 8Xi" 2 Vh 1 » X j" l-i'st ll>'0" 4Zs. fiXJ" 1 PI. 8 X I" 1 PI. 8X1" (eilar. \>' 6" 2 Pis UVJ" 4 /,-. 6 V j" ■iK^p?^ WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 75 SCHEDULE OF COLVMUS— Continued Height Floor l?3tweeii Col. No. 5 floors Col. No. 6 Col. No. 7 Col. No. 8 Twelfth. I 4Ij<. 21X2XJ" Eleventh: 10' 3" 1 I'l. 6 X J" Tenth... .j 10' 3" i Ninth.. 10' 3" Eighth. . . 10' 3" Seventh. 10' 3" Sixth. 10' 3" Fifth I ID'S" i Fourth. .1 10' 3" Third. ...' 10' 3" Second.. . 10' 3" First. Cellar. . . 12' 0" 12' 6" — ?:- o s 4 Zs. 4X1" 1 1*1. 6JXJ" 4 Zs ipi. aix,i^« J 4 Za. 5X»" 1 PI. 7 X i" 4Ij!. 2iX2Xj" 1 PI. ex J" 4 Za. 3 X I" 1 PI. 6 X i" 4 Z*. 4 X 1" 1 PI. 6JXi" 6 -5^ S a ■J. 4 Zs. ex,'.," 1 PI. 8X,'." 4 Za. exi" 1 PI. 8X1" 4 Z.S. 6XU " 1 PI. 8X1|~ 4Z»exir 1 IPl. 8XH" 2 Pis. 14X1" 4 Zs. 6XU'' 1 PI. SXil" 2P1 14X,V 70 EXaiXKI'JlilXc; of shops AXD FACTOIUES SCIIKUfl.I-; OK foI.UM.V.S C„n/,n«,,/ <'"1 -N'l' 111 Col X... 11 '"'■"'h-; 1 Fjf. 2JX1' " i" I I.» L'i vy 1" ii'i. oix;" u'laxj" Hii.)r liiMwciMi <',,!. .Nil. !l ('.,1. N.). 12 i:i>-viMiiii 10' ,{■' 'I'l-rilh. . 10' :) 4 Zh. IX J" I 1 Z«. .txl" 1 ri. fixi" ' 1 I'l. OJXJ" ] VirKh.. 10' .t" j I JZa. flXJ" I IZs. r.x,».," ScviMiih. 10' .1" f^it'h lO'.i" Kiflh 10':(" KcHirili. 10' ;i' Zs. fl X ,■•„" I I Z«. 6 X ,'„" > 1 i'l. SX,i" 1 i'l. sx.^," j 1 Zs.^oxu" I 1 Z». flxi" I 1 i'l. sxir' I 1 I'l. s^^-Conli-jed '■ Heifht ' Floor hjj'we..,. O,]. No. 1.1 r„l. \„. u (•„!. s„. ir, Co.. v„. jg Twflfih. ■II*. 2}X2Xi" I I>i. 24 Xl'xl" Kli'vnlh: 10' .)" 1 I'i. 6xi" Tenth....! 10' 3" Ninth ! 10' 3" I ! J 4 Zs. .'txj'' 1 I'I. OX I" 4 Z.... 4XJ" 14 Z.H. ix,»," 1 I'I. 61 X J" lll'l. 6JxV^ Kighth. . . 10' 3" Seventh. . IC 3" 1 PI. -XJ" I 1 I'l. 8^,',' 4 Z, 4X,"," 1 I'l. 6iX,»/' 4 Zs. 6XJ" Sixth. ... 10' 3" 1 Fifth 10' 3" ! 4 Z«. .'JXi" 1 VI 7Xr 1 I'l. SXJ" 1 PI. 8X1J : Zfl. 6X|S" Fourth... 10' 3" Third. ... 10' 3" I 4 Zs. 6 X u" 4 Zs. OX]r I 4 Zs. 6Xi' 1 PI. SXIi" I I PI. 8Xi" J Second., . 10' 3" First : 12' 0" Cellar. 1 PI. 8X,'." 4 Z.S. 6X,»„" 1 PI. 8 X ,"." 1 2 Pis. 14 X,'.' ) PI. NXJ" IZs. exu" 4Zs. 6XJ" X PI. 8 X 13" 1 ri. 8XJ" 2Pl8. 14 XL'S," 4 Z.H. 6 X J" ) 2 Pis 16 X J" 1 I'l. 10X1" IZs. Oxi" I 4Z8. 6XJ" 1- <> 1 II. 8X|i I 2 Pis. 16X1" J 21'ls. 14Xi" I 4Zs. OxJ" 78 llSdlSKEHISC OF S HOI'S AND FA( TORIES tiCUF.nVl.i: OF COI.lTM.Ns Cnntinued rio„i Hi'lEht I..Mw.^jn C.l. \„ 17 ,„|. v,, ,,s (.,,1. j<„, ,,, j,,,,^ j.^^ ,,j Twelfth Klcvenlh: 10' ,t" Ton 111. 1 I'l. -,<,';," 4 Zx. 5 X ,"," ii,i..2jxjxr 1 I'l. 6X1"^ I J'l. 7XA" Ninth.. 10' :i" lUghth. 10' .T' Spvfnth. 10' :i" 4 -. 6XJ" 1 PI. 8XJ" Sixth 10' :j" I 4Zs. 6X}" 1 PI. 8XJ" 4 Z». .IX J" 1 PI. bXl" 4 Z.'i. .3XJ' 1 I'l. 6XJ" J'ifth 10' 3" Fimrth. lo' ;)" 4 Zs. 4X,«." 1 "1. 6J X ,'i" I 4 Zs. 6Xi" f 1 I'l. sx»'' I i; I'ls. I4x:j'- J Third... lo' .(" .Scconil.. 10' .i" First (Vlhir. l;." 0" IJ' fi" 2P1.S. 14X,',' ' 1 I'l. 8 X i" j 4Za. 6Xi" 1 .-. 1 PI. 8XJ" 'Pla. 14 X!" i 4 Z». 6Xi" 14 z,,. r,x,». 2 1'N.ISXJ'' I I PI. 12X1" IZs. 6Xi" 1 I I. 7 X ,"," 1 PI ! 2 Pi... ij 4Zs 12 XI" 1,SX}" exi" 4 Zs. .5X1' 1 PI. Ty-y WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 7» SCHEDULE OF COLUMNS— Con/inwd Hright i Floor Iwtween | Coi. No. 21 Soon Twelfth. Col. No. 22 I Col. No. 23 4 1^. 2JX2XI"! 4 L«. 2JX2XI"' I lPL6Xi" 1P1.SJXA'' i Col. No. 24 Eleventh 10' 3" ' 4Zii. 3xt' I 1P1.6X." Tenth...., 10' 3" Ninth., 10' 3" 4 Z«. 5 X i" 4 Z». 4X,"." 1 PI. aj X ,"/' 1 PI. 7X1" Eighth. J 10' 3" 4Za. 6XJ" Seventh. . ! 10* 3" 4Z«. 5XJ" 1 PI. 7 X i" ) PI. 8XJ" 4Zs. flxl" Sixth. 10' 3" 4Z». 6X11" 1 PI. 8X1" Fifth 10' 3" ; ! I 1 PI. 8X1J" Fourth. . . 10' 3" 4Zs. 8Xi" Third... 10" 3" ■ IPl. 8Xi" 1 1 4Zs. 6X|r' ) PI. 8XU" 2Pl8. 14XA' i 1 PI. 8X1" I 4Z8 l8. 14 X A" PI. 8xi" Zs. 6Xi" Second...) 10' 3" i 2Pls. HX|" i ^^'•'*^'" 1 PI 8X|r 2Pl8. 14X,V' 4Z3. 6XU" : 4Zs. 6X3" First.. 12' 0" Cellar. 12' 6" IPl. 8XIil" I 2 Pis. 14 xr." 2Pl8. HX,'." ! IPl. 8X|r 4 Z». 6Xir ' 4Za. exiij" 2PI»14XU" IPl. 8 X IS" 4Z.J. 6XU" 2 Pis. 14 X}" IPl. 8X1!" : 4Zs.6X|r a 3 s a: M) K.\(;i.\hhiii\(; OF snoi's axd factories srirr;r)irr.K up roLtruvs -r,miin„e.i lleJKht Fl....r U.|«,...„ C.l No. z: C,,!. \„, -.( c,,!. X,.. ;;7 C.I. N„, I'H Tw.lfdi Kli'v.iiih 10' .1" Tcrilli,. 10' ;t" Vinlh.. 10' It" Kiuhlh. ID' a" ScviMilh. 10' ,i" Sixth. . 10' .i" Fifth 10'.!" i FiMlrlh. . , 10' ThinI 10' :)" s >ihI.. 10' :i" First. L'Pk 2»X,'. 2 I'l.i. 26 X 1 Ij.. 6X4X 2 I'l«, i:) X 2 I'N. 24 X J" 2 rix. 2fl X I t Ij< 8X4) 2IMh. i.txi" 2 1'I», 24 X,-/' 12' 0" 2 1'1.-, 2fiX " 4 Ks. H X 1 X " 2 FN. i:tx " 2PN. 24X1" 1 12' ti" 2I'I». JfiXl" 4 l,s. 6X4 X J" J 2I'l . lliXi" 'm^s^ WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 81 SrUKDULE OF COI.mfV,S-r„n/.nu„i Ilright i lHjtwe«„ Cul. .V„.28 Col. .N,,.30 Tol. No .11 c„l. N„. 32 ■^"""•h-i UJ..2J ...yj" 4 r^ ^, I JPI.rt.,1" IPl.BJxr' Klcvfiilh 1 10' 3" f pT « ■ " IZ-. IXJ" ll'l. 6 X " 1 I'l. ,lJv;V' ! Tenth.... ID'S" 4 Zn. 8 X 1" 1 1 Zs. a X ,'." IPI. 8X,V' 1 1 Ninth.. . 10' 3" 1 PI. 8 XT' 1 Eighth. 10' 3" 1 1 ' 1 NZ.,.6XJ" 4Z,.6X!" IPl. 8xi" J .— . Spvcnth..| 10' 3" 1P1.8X}" ° n Sixth 10* 3" i 1 4Z». 6XJ" 1 i J 4Z«. 6X1" i Fifth 10' 3" 1 PI. 8XJ" lP1.8Xi" 2PL,. nx,«." 1 , Cellar. . . j 12' 6" 1 2I'l.s. 16 XI J" »Z.-..6X<" ll'l. 10X1" 2PI«. 18 XU" 4Zs. 6X}" i IPl. 12X1" j Jr-: ♦'* ^ iC ''r*^ ' ^ ^'^ w* ew^.-..v'-4| i:s(;isi:i:i{is(; of shops .\sd factohies SCHKDfr.i; OF ("iI.fMNS -r,m/mi«-,i llciith' Klii'.r (.fiwi-ii, C.il. Nil :i:i C,,). So. .U Col. No. :).'j dil Nn. ;w floorn i Twelfth. 4fj2JXL>x|" II..2lx2y|" 4Z«. 3X1" ll'l. «1.J" ll'l.7x,l." MM. flxj" Elrvi-riih 10' :i" Tmlh . . 1(1' :t" Niiilh... • 10' ,1" Kighlh. 10' ;(" SfviMith. Ill' it" Sixth.. 10' :i" Kifth, .. 10' :i" Fimrth. 10' .!" Thinl... 10' :t" Suconil.. 10' .(" Firsl.. IL" 0" (Vllar. IJ'ti" 4Z«. 4XJ" 1 ri ejxi" 4Zp< BX,'." 1 i'i.«x,'." IZ». 8XU" 1 I'l. 8XU" I 2i'U. nx.'.'- 1 ri « X J" I IZ... «XJ" j U'I.Ib'xI" ) 2t'k MX,'/' ■» Zs a X j" 1 2V\». 14 X,'." IPI. 8vJ' i 4Z11. 8Xi' 4 7.,.. 5X,'," 1 I'l. 7 V ,\" I Zk. 6xJ' U'l. «XJ" I Z- 6X13" I I'l. 8X14" 4 Zs. 6 Y i " 1 I'l. 8X5 " J 2 Pis. 14 X,',." 1 I'l. 8Xi" 2 ri«. 14 X J" 2I'ls. 14X11" 1 -8xi'' 4Zs. 6xJ" '.VU ISXI" 4Z.-. (1 ri,;'' I'l'K llxi" 1 I'l. 8X1J" Fifth 10' .!" 10' .1" 10' :)" 10' .i" 4Zs-ox::" 1 I'l-oXU" 4 Zs 8XU" Fcmrth. -' I'Is. 11X3" 1 I'l liXi" 1 Zs. tixi" 1 I'l. 8X5" -> I'l-- 11 - ;" 1 '/.f (i ■ i" L'l'l». ISX-J" 1 U'Xl" 4 Z.-<. flxS" 1 I'l. 1.' . 1" ■1 I'l.M. IS X 1,1" I Zs. fi X i" 1 I'l. 12X1" ■2 I'l- IS. ;■' 1 z- t) >v 1 PI. cxir 2 Pis -14X,V' Thinl... 1 4 z.s. fix;" 1 1 I'l. sxi" 2 ris. 14 X,';," 2 Pis. 14 xr 1 -8X|J" 1 Zs. 6> 13" SeroiiU. . i 1 PI. S IJ" 4ZS.6 vir 2 Pis. 14X1" First 1." 0" 2 I'Is. 1 ( < ,"„" 1 I'l S X i" 4 Z.s. «xi'' 1 I'l. SXZ" 2 1'l.s. 14 xy I Zs fi - ■ " ' l-6Xi" 2 Pis. 14 XU" 4Z8. 6Xi" (Vlhir ... l.'T." i 1 1 PI. 8XJ" 4Zs. 6X1" 2rLs. 14 xi" WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 85 SCHEDULE OF r()I.U.M\S-r,,n/,n»frf Height ' FI,K.r l^twee,. O.l. No. .5 C.,!. N,.. ,« C.l. NV .7 Col. N... 48 I I Twelfth..' I 4 K-. 1>JXL'X1' ! I PI ax J" EloviMiih: 10' ;t" 4Zh. .IXJ'' 1 PI. ox;" 4 Z^. 4Xi" 1 PI. 0.1 X J" Tenth... 10' :(" 4 Zs. 5XJ" Ninth.. 10' .1 ,,11 PI. 7XJ" Eighth. . . 10' .T' 1 ! 4 Zs. ox,';" Seventh. . 10' 3" 1 PI. 8X,-," ?i Sixth. . . 10' .1" 4Z.S. exi.i" 1 PI. 8X |i'~ y, 5 Fifth... 10' 3" 1 (4 Fourth. . 10' 3" 2l'ls. 14 X A" l-8X|i" I 4 Z.. •IXA" f 1 PI. J 7X,V' J Z.S. OXIJ" ! 1 PI. J SXiJ" Third. 10' 3" 1 PI. 8X13" 2Pk 14 X J" i Z.-. 6X|i" SecDml.. 10' ;t" First 12' 0" Cellar. 12' 0" 1 PI. 8XJ" ' 2 i'K MX J" _4 i^. a XI" 1 ri. 8xj" 4Zh OxJ" 2PU. 14 xi;" -• Pis. 14X5" 1-8X5" 4 Zh 0x5" 2-14X2" 1 - S X !" I 4Z.S. ox}" 1 PI. 8XJ" 2PI.S. 14X!J' 4Za OXJ" 2I'I.'<. 10 X J" 10X1" 4 Zs. 6X1" 1 PI. 10X1" 2 PR lexj" 4 Z.S. OXJ" 1 PI. 1 1 XI" 2 }'U 20 X}" 4 Zs. 6X5" TpTiTxT^ 2 Pis. 20X11" 4 Zs. 6X5" 1 PI. 14-1" .' VU. 20 XU" I 4Z». 0X5" C ^5_ ■f. ^ m-i^'j"^^^ -jsraatmiii 86 EXdIXEERIXG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES SrUKDUI.E OF CX)I.UM.\S— r.-n/inuf,/ Il.'itiht "'"" '"("l'o,V""" ' "' ■^"' "* *'"'■ "^'"' ■"■'* ^"' •^"' •"'' ''"'■ •"*■'"■ ■"- Tttvlfth. Kll'VlMill] 10' .T IVnlll. Id'.!" I Zs. tx{:" 1 I'l. tiJV,-;,^ 1 4 I-s. 2iX2XJ 1 PI. 6X1" 1 Zs. ^vj" 1 I'l. 6X1" Niiilh.. 10' .i" 1 Zk. fix,"/' j .t z.s. rtxi" I i'l. 8x,v' I Tpi.Vxr KiKhtli. 10' : Si'viMilh. 10' .(" 1 Zs, fiXi" 1 ri. sxi" 4 Zm. HXj" 1 I'l. 8XJ" Sixth.. lO'.i" Fifth 10' :i" Fi>iirlli. 10' :i' ■2 l'l.s 14 X J" 1 SVJ" 1 y.s 6x5" 1 I'l. 8X4" 1 Zs. 6X1" 1P18XJ" i ■iVU 14 V J" 4 Zs OXJ" ! •-•I'ls. IHXj" 1 -IL'XI'' 4 Zs. 6Xi" Thiril 10' .i" .SiToiiil... 10' :i" Kr»t I."0" 1 I'l. 12X1" 2 1'l.s. 18X1" 4Zs 6XJ" I I'l. 14X1" 2 Pis, 20Xi;" 4 Zs OX J" I 4Zs. 6X12" I iT'iTsxTr ) 2 I'l.s, 14X3" 1 I'l. 8XJ3" 1 IIXj" fiXU" tVliar. . . . 12' d" , 2 I'ls. 20 VI, ^" 2 PI,, ux,-," 1;^14X1" I~8X)i" _4Z«_6^Xj" 4Z.S. 6XK'' 2i'K2oxij" TpirTTxTr 1-14X1" 4Zs6X|l" 4Zs 6XS i-isxir s^'Tja^i-..^ .•*f^ '-"-? WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 87 SCHEDULE OF COLVMyiS—Coniimud : Height Floor between ' floors Col. Xo. ;-,3 Col. No. .'>4 Col. No. 55 I Col. No. 56 Twelfth..' ; 4 1^.. 2iX2Xj" 4Iji. 2JX2XJ" ii'i. 6XJ" ii'i. eixr Klevcnth. 10- ;j" Tenth. 10' ,i" Ninth.. . 10' :i" 4 Zs. 3XJ" 1 PI. 6XJ'' 4 Zs. 6 X J" 1 PI. 8Xj" 4 Zs. 4 X i" I PI. 6JX3" 4Ij.. 2 1 PI JX2Xi" .6X1" 4Zs IPl 3X1" 6Xi" 4 Zs. 5XA" 1 PI. 7XA" 4 Zs. 6X,'V Eighth. 10' 3" 1 PI. 8X,"." 4 Zs. 6X|" Seventh.. 10' 3" ."^i.xth 10' 3" Fifth 10' 3" Fourth. . . 10' 3" Third... 10' 3" Second. . First. 1 PI. 8X1" 4 Zs. 6XJ" 4 Zs. 6X1,1" 1 PI. 8X!i" 1 PI. 8Xi" 2 Pis. 14 Xt" 1-8X1" 4 Z.S. 6XJ" c ■n J Pis. 14X;V' 4Zs. 6Xi" 1 PI. 8X1" 2 Pis. 14X1" : 4 Zs 6 X J" 1 PI. 8X»" .>Pla. 14XJI" 4 Zs. 6Xi" 2 Pis, 14 X J" l-8Xi" 4Z.S. 6XH" 10' 3" 1 2 Pis. 14X,»," l-8Xi'' 4 Zs. e-'xi 12' 0" 1 PI. 8X1" Pis. 14 Xt 4Za. 6X1 2 Pis. HXtil" •~ - J,, ! 4 t'" flxj" Cellar.... 12' 6" I PI. 10 X!" I ; 2 Pis. 16 XU" \- 1 PI. r-xi" , 2 Pis. 14X1" I 4Za. 6XJ" ' 2PI.S. 18XJ" 1-12x1" 4 Zs. 6X1" I PI. 12xr ; Pis. isxts" 4 Zs 6Xf" 4 Zs. 5XJ" 1 PI. 7 X i" I 4Zs. 5XU" 1 PI. 7X1J" 4 Zs. exj" 1 PI. 8X|" 2 Pis. 14 X,'." 1-8X1 4 Zs. 6X}" 1 PI. 8XJ" 2PK 14X1" 4 Zs. 6xi" 1 PI 6XJ" ! 2 Pis 14X,".' I 4Z9 6XI 88 KS(;1SEKH1\(! OF SffOPS AM) FACTORIES SCHKDUI.i: OF Columns— Cunrmuci Hi-i«ht Ho.,r hetwivn C.l, \„. .-,7 f„|. \„. ,w (',,1 N„ .vj Twflfih . 1 r.s "J Y 'x!" 1 I'l. fl kV' 1 I.S. 2iX2Xl" ll'l. 7xr' i:ii'viMiih 10' :(" 1 ■'.< :! .- 1" ' 1 i'l. (i ■ J" IViiih... 10' .(" t-Zs. r.x;" 1 VI 7 V V' -Ninth.. 1(1' :t" I J I Z.S. r)X3' ! 1 I'l. 7VJ" Kiisluli. . 10' .j" t Z^^. 0X|" 1 I'l. 8 X J'' Seventh. 10' :t" t Zs. fi X ,".," 1 I'l. .SX,",," Sixth. I-ifth I'l' .1" I 4 Zh. fix}'' I I'l. ,s <3'' Fimnh. 10' .'i" 1Z< Oxj' lliir.l... 10' ;i" ! J 1' I'l.s. 1 I X ,«„" ncs. f>xj" 1 I'l. 8 X J " ji'is. nv,^." 1 -8XU" ■1 z». 6X),;" lI'I. 8XU" 2 1'ls. MX,"," »Zs 6X|r S'fnlHl., 10' .-i" J |.|, 1 )■,;■■ 1 Zs tix;" ^ ll'l. 8xi" I'ir-li3.i III. Fio. 52. — Office building with dome. Framiug plan. ■mmw". •k* • .^i^sryp-i-^^-'ii^jrc'^'isr^*^. '■ WOOD AND METAL FRAMING 91 siderablo elevation are conspicuous. No form of roof lenda itelf with greater effect to the art of the electrician, for the lines both inside and out are so easily traced with rows of lights that the effect at night is beautiful. No one who has visited any of the recent World's Fairs, and has taken time to study and admire the illumination, can fail to appreciate this form o' construction All the principal lines are inuicuted with lamps, the numerous ridges radiating from the center to the base— the base itself— and the crown, are all brought out in curves of light. And inside of the building, the effect may be even more attractive. A circle of globes surrounds the inner lining of the dome, and each rib radiating from the center is studded with gems, whUe at the center IS a brilliant clustc; . Since beauty and utility are now so often combined in the design of factory buildings, an illustratioi' is given for the framing of a dome which is suitable for an office, or such other buildings as a library or welfare hall, which are nowso often a part of large works The roof herewith described (Figs. 51 and 52) is 78 ft wide 97 ft. long and the dome is 37 ft. in outside width. It is covered on the outside with curved sheets of rough wire glass supported on copper nbs, and is lined on the inside with another dome of colored glass supported on a light frame suspended from the main ribs An unusual feature of the framing is, that no bending is requi cd excepting for the copper skylight ribs. The dome is octagonal in form and each of the trusses is made of straight sections. These tru«.ses carry the purlins, which in turn support tae skylight. To resist the bursting effect at the base of the dome, as well as to curry its own weight an arrangement of beams and trusses is provided connecting with the roof principals and thence to the wall columns. The bursting tendency produces a ten.sion of 3000 11 ,.. in the members er.circling the base of the dome Each of th.o m:un ribs intersects at an angle of the supporting octagon, thuh- insuring only direct tension in the outside members The mam roof is covered with slate on 7/8 in. boards laid on tiles between 7-in. steel purlin beams. The ceiling also is made of tile between 6-in. beams, and the whole is furred and plastered on the under side from the wall to the opening of the dome On all four sides of the main room is a heavv cornice of expanded metal and plaster, and the whole int-rior, both ceiling and dome are bnlhantly lighted with electric lamps. The coloring of the interior dome produces a beautiful effect by day and the re- 92 ESGISEFAUSG OF SHOPS AXD FACTORIES flcclion of these eolors tlin)iif;li the outer dome presents even a more hejuitifiil exterior effect jit lUKlit. The wei<,'lit of steel in the roof uml cohimns, is us follows: Kiulit (•(iliiiims 27,r>no lb. *;•'""« I7,(i<)()ll,. TrusM's 1111(1 purlins 101, KM) ih. 14t),:UN) II). Tile total eost of tiie steel work is S I30n, wiiich is ecjual to ").') cents per S(iii:ire foot of ground covered. Tru.s.ses and colunms are i)liiced at the rear gable and at the •nterior partition, with a view to a possil>le removal of the partition wall, or extension on the rear end. If such changes are not anticipated, two tru.s.ses and four columns could be omitted, iind file weigiit of steel reduced to ll,j,300 lb. and the cost to S3000. This is equal to 14 1/2 lb, or 45 cents per square foot of icround covered. The tile roof and ceiling is fireproof, but quite heavy and expensive. If it were essential to reduce the cost still further, H cheaper covering such as slate on plank could be u.sed, which Vould not only cost less in it.self, l)ut since it is lighter, would re- duce the weight of the steel framing. If the skylight is not reipilred, the dome might be covered with nietal^ inst(>a(l of ghuss, and the interior or lining made of plast(>r. The tloines of monumental buildings are usually gilded on the exterior, which makes them conspicuous during day-light, but if this expense is not de.sii-ed, they may be covered with plairi l)riglit metal wliich is easily seen at a great distance. In either ca.Kc, electric illumination may be used at night. Ventilation must be provided, especially with glass covering; otherwise the <'xce.ssive summer heat is lial)le to crack or melt the glass. An ornamental ventilator is .shown on the drawing, but if preferred, the (lonie may be linislicd with a simple crown, ami ventilation l)i()yide(i through port ii.iles in the side or louvres around the base. The cost of the roof with dome is about $700 more than if roofed directly over, and an e(iual amount of light admitted through several box skylights.' Long Span Roofs.— Although long roof spans without inter- mediate columns are not often used for shojis and factories, they are frequently convenient for such buildings as rnUing 'ills, ' II. Ci. Tyrrell, in Architcch- and BuUdtrs' Mayazine, March, 1905. ■•=»%-. '■*-^- i:*^-- ..lijt'. WOOD AND METAL FHAMIXa 93 and arc usually preferred f..r drill halls, armories, cxhil>ition hulls, train sheds, et<-., (Fi^r. .-,3). As the floor is then free from columns, tracks or machinery can be placed anywhere without restriction. Wide spans are, however, not economical when hoistinR appliances are suspended from the framing, for the weight and cost of trusses increases rapidly with the span and supported load. l-"or the purpose of estimating approximately the weight and cost of long span roofs, without inside columns, the following data will l,e useful. The weights are for the steel only, including trusses, shoes, bracing and purlins, but they do not include wooden jack rafters, boards or covering, nor any gallery framing W eights {;iven are i)or stpiare foot of sloping roof surface. Arched ri(i. T)."?.— Roof witliout interior columns. roofs, rot including the items mentioned above, usually weigh from 8 CO 12 lb. per square foot of outside area. All of the following cases were proportioned for slate and plank rouiing on wood rafters 2 ft. apart, supported by steel purlins at intervals of about 10 it. The unit stresses were 12,000 and 15,000 lb. per square inch in compression and tension respectively. They all have curved arch ribs and are similar in general outline. The spans are the distances between centers of side bearings,"which are 4 to 5 ft. less than the outside width of the building.' The assumed loads on these roofs are as follows: Dead weight of roof and covering, for trusses, 25 lb. per square foot of sloping surface, and for purlins, 18 lb. per square foot. ' H. G. Tyrrell, in Architect's and Builders' Magazine, Oct., 1901. *^--1«-^- _rt - -yv.-. - -w- -TV /,?ailB'.-??^fi3^B2Kr 94 h:\(ii\p:i':i{i.\(! of siiors .wn factories Doad wci>;lit of snow, 10 11>. per s(|U!irc foot of .sloping .surfnro. Wind i)ressiiio was assumed at 40 \h. per .s(|uaiu foot horizontal or 28 11). normal to the surface. I'awtuiket ariiinry is 82 ft. wide and 14.J ft. long, with five main trusses, 24 ft. apart. The roof pitch is A',l degrees, and the lieights are, 10 ft. to eave, and 40 ft. to ridge. fiU.V.XTITIKS ■5 Irusws 07,(KK) lb. ^'- purlins i>H,(KM) 11). 1- purlins 7,.')(.()ll). '"■"'•'I'K 0,1()«)11>. •'»*'<'••* 2,lt(K)ll). !"«*'"«''• 4,5(M)lb. T"»"l 110,000 11). This weight is e(iuivalent to 8.7 Ih. per sciuare foot of sloping roof surface. Portland armory has a span of 92 ft., an('. length of l."),S ft., with five main trusses 2o ft. apart. Its height to eaves i.s 24 ft.,' and to the ridge .JO ft. (a'AXTITIES 3 trusses :it 17.Sti() ll> 53 r^^ |i,_ 2 tnisM's at l!t,7(M) lli 3<»,4(«) 11). (least shoes "j'tOO lb.' ■*<""** •"'""■^ 1,100 lb. •'•''■'""•''■ 2,4r,7 1b. -♦''^ '■"•''' l,9,S0 1b. -"^ I'"""!""* liUOOlb. ^^l"""'""' !M)00 1b. '■^I""''''"' 22,4(H)lb. **I'"""'""* .5,lH4 1b. '*I""'""'^ 2,S7f,lb. 44 hracing struts 4,488 li). 30 bracinj; struts 3 3Q0 ||j "-'■*>''■'' 3,'540 1b! '''"♦"' 171,400 1b. This weifrlit correspoM.ls I.. (1.7 Ih. per square foot of sloping roof sui-face,(.r 11.7 Ih. per s(iuare foot of ground covered. The trusses in this case were made strong enough to carry a i:i-ft. gallery on two sides and one end. to be added in the future Phoenix Hall (Fig. 54), Brockton, Mass. is 100 ft. wide, and fmsf^>y^.^jrm ^si^^k'. •. "fc'^- r " m^- **..« p.'ii»- WOOD .lA. METAL FRAMING 05 144 ft. long outHidc. It ha« five main archoH 94 ft. center to renter. Di.stiinco between tni.s«e8 ia 24 ft. It ia 33 ft. IiIrIi to eaves, and 67 ft. to the ridfie, and has a gallery 17 ft. wiMo. The only steel included for the gallery ia that for the ten brackets. Fig. 54. — Three-hinged arch roof. QUANTITIES ^2 purlins 28,7001b. ■^S »*■■"»* 6,600 1b. rod bracing 2,600 lb. St'^'ods 4,680 1b, 5 »•■''*>•'» 99,5001b. *'^8*>«'« 3,100 1b. 10 gallery brackets 6,060 lb. 'ro*''^ 151,240 1b. This weight is equal to 8.6 lb. per square foot of sloping roof sur- face, or 10.6 lb. per square foot of ground covered. Northampton Armory, is 100 ft. wide and long, or square in plan. It has three main trusses, and eleven lines of trussed purlins, and no gallery. •Vr ■I,- -fr>.-vvT:a»*i- - •jt*S-'=!;if",'*«i';?«iM!«KK. !Mi /•■.Vr,7.V /•;/•/?/. Vr; of SHol'S .WD FACTORIKS (l II. J.UH) III. ;» lie nnU lit 7H() 111 . 2,:J »() II.. 4 t piirllMs lit CTII II. 20,.'HHI II.. I.otti.ni rhor.l strut. ."i 20<) II.. Iiiilli.in cliiinl tics 2, (M» II.. T.ilnl '.)■•:.'.{) 111. .\s the sinpiiij; roof iiicii is 11,(100 sc]. ft. tlu- v»'i(;lil jht .•iiiiiarc font is 7.'.*.') Il>. Il.iitfnnl Hiiik is lO-t ft. wide, and 124 ft. lonji. It has four main rihs .")4 ft. Iiijrli center to center of pins, is 24 ft. liijih to eaves, i.nd lias a Ks'Hi'ry Iti ft. al.ove tlio floor, which in this ca.se is framed of steel, the main lirackets l.ein^r framed with the trusses. Tiie roof has seven lines of trussed purlins. QIANTTTIES Tnisvs uikI raftiTs I.'?2,t00 lb. I'lirliiis Ht,4(H) 111. Hods 1H,(KK) 11). TntMl 1S.J,N(HHI.. Gallery «>7,000 Ih. The total exjxised roof area is l."),('(0() .sq. ft., and the wei;;lit per sijUare foot is therefore: Hoof ISl,SOO---l.-..r.OO = ll.,Sll.. tiulU'ry 67,000. l."),(K)0= 4.111). Providence I'.Nposition Hall. This is 118 ft. wide, and lOli ft. iorg, and ha.s seven main trus.scs, JO ft. hiyh to eaves. (ir.VXTlTIKS 7 tnisx's lit 2.-..0(H) II. 17r.,0<)0 II.. lU.-, purlins at .■.,S0 II. (iO,:j(H) II.. 7 tic Mitls at 1,100 III 7,7(KI I!.. Itaflcr hraciuR 4,0(H) II.. <.M) struts at 1(K) II) 9,f)iK) lli. 14 oast shoos at tiOO Ih K,40<) |h. Total 265,000 lb. noo/> .|.\7> MI-riM, F RAMI Ml 97 This w.-iKl.t rum nnn.l, „i,|, .,..-, ||,. ,„., ,,,„,,,,. f„„^ ^, ;,^^, ^^^ 1 I .) III. |nr .s(|iiai< f.H.t, I'liizDiital. TIm. fnjlowin;. lal,!.. ^ivs .•, .s,„,„„ary .,f w..i«l„.s an.l .lata f..r till- inofs (Ic.scrilM'il above. Txrii c iir i.ii\,i si'Av .)F.s ■<|.ur, l.,.„K,|, '"" ""X'" |> " -l'>|iin«, lii.ru..ri(„|, II, II.. II,. I'nwtuckvl. . .s.' rorlli'iij !ij rhtwnjx. . NiirtliiiniptiMi \'.iV.,cv rr.iviilcriri' . I'luvi-lniiil . H.Ml.iM. . Ni'w York. . Uriioklyn. . . UN) I'M lis l.^fl l.':.' 1711 lltii ll;i III 1!KS :.M. 2: 1 :ti) J I.. lit J I .1.1 I'l 111.. N'tHM' .Von.' .Vone !t.7 Mil .S II lis (1..-. IJ I III 11.7 IH.Ii tl.2 I * 111. 10 1 1,100 1 v: (Ki() ,IKIO -'."i.llOO l.'.OOO All of the above oxainple.s have arei, action, a grapi.ieal unalvsin of ,stres.se.s for a typical ea.s<; iieinK -sliowii ia Fijj. ",5 A sitnp!o truss roof witii curve.! lower - i.onl b„t witlmut any arch action IS illustrated in Fij,'. ,')(). For the ,)urpo,se of coir,pari,aV 1' .. Mi.llai..|... 1' I! li !■ K It I' A U siri:n rn ■■^p.'in ft l\> l!l!) ■Ml LMO 2:.> .■i7H 70 i u.-,.t ."m.*i ■.O'l .")II,S Hi... fl ill 1117 iK) lOS N'lliiilii-r of Iraiks 12 11 12 .\r,.a 1 OV.TI..I S'l. ft. Jcrsfy city N'l'w York f'liii'.'iijo , I.oriiioTi .Icrxf.y fitv. ....... I'itl-il>iirK l'liihi,l,.|,ihiri . - 12!I.MK) Hid. Kill llil,!l(IO Phil- 'olphia. r U If :t(M) 1.. ■•■! m i:\(;i\i:i:rir\(; of shops a\d factories Cost of Steel Frame Buildings. — Ono-storj' steel mill buildings creetod coiiii>l(t(', witli .solid walls and criinc supports, cost 80 cents to 81.10 per siiuai'e foot of <;roimd covered, not inchidius ground floors or foundations, and t<-KW !^ similar !)uildinj;s with crane supports and corrugated \{ 'ti^ iron walls will cost, from 70 cents to!?l per S(iuarc foot. One-st.ory steel frame sheds ..-.uf) r>^;^ or huiklings (Fig. 57) without provision ,::^' ^'^ "^?>ife-., for cranes, and with corrugated ;'■''' iron covering, will cost, (>rected complete, from oO to 70 cents <..v' per sijuare foot of ■:;j,3 '•=>|; grouiul covered. llie cost of mate- }•> 'j-,% 4 .•j'5f.?;. 'M ''^^'^'k} ':-^f'''i-J>/^ ..>y -f ■? '^ »- . 1-u, -'I liic(-hiiif;ril an'li riMif. .'^trcss slicet. ture l)Ut not erected, for steel frame buildings with sheet metal covering, including structural steel, corrugated iron, doors, win- dows, lla.-hiiigs, gutters, (■ondu(•!^r^, but without ground floor or fo\nidations, is as follows: Machine shops and foundries, 40 to ,")() cents per square foot of ground covereil; sheds, enclo.sed on roof and sides, 30 to -10 cents p<>r square foot of gnu-.nd covered. WOOD AXD METAL FRAMISG 99 Tho ,.ost of ,.u,Tu,atH iron huildin^s (Fi. 08) vviM.mt cranes maj alM, 1... approxunufcl l.y finding; tiu- total exposed outside 1-... 5M,.l.. r,.of truss wi,!, ,.„rv..,l lH,tt,„n , hnnl. Stros« sluvt. ";•";> ofthc Imildins, i..rludin,,^ l„.tl. walls and roof and .nnln-- i-'yng a by 30 cent, per «,uare foot. Steel fran^esVor eran^ I i s. . 100 i:xaixi:i':i{L\G of shops asd factories inchulirif; supports and girders only, cost from 70 cents to $1 per liiioiil foot of Imildiiij; for every ton cupacity of the crane. The weiglit of steel frames in multi-story factory buildings I'ni. ")7. — Metal covort'd lioiler house. not over eleven stories in height, with steel joist, ginlei's and cohimns, designed according to modern specifici'.ons and building laws, witii columns 15 to l(i ft. apart are as follows: Fi(i. 5S. — A power house. tahii: v— \vi:r Imposed Hoor loml, poiuiil.s per jsijuarefoot Exterior walls Weiflht of sloel, pounds per sipiurc foot of fi(M)r ''>0 W ith outsiy Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, Kngland in 1SL>4, and it is to the recent development of methods for ])roducing it in largo Muantities at low cost, that much of the recent i)rogress is duv. 'i'he first reinforced coni'rete building in the United States was •A resid.Mice at Port Chester, X. V. erect (-d in 187.-), and three years later the first really important American patent in this ni.aterial was issued to Thaddeus Hyatt, though other ones of less practical value had been granted as early as 1S44. The first reinforced concrete factory in America was erecteil in 1S87-1«SS bv Mr. Krnost L. Kansome, but the tyi)e seems to Iiave met with no great fa\-or, as the sccoikI one of the kind was not undertaken for another ten years, when .Mr. Ransuine erected one for The Pacific Coast Horax Company at Payonne, X. J. Tlie early efforts of this American pioneer in concrete building seem to have been discouraging, for the new system received no general recognition tmtil about 1002 when several buildings of the typo uppearc.l. Durinjr the next five years about forty shoi)s and factories in reinforced concrete were l)uilt in America, and since that time the number is too great to enumerate. Progres.s IS well illustrated by a table showing the amount of cement produced. 102 COXCRETE FRAMISd 103 TABIX VI.-CEMENT l'Rul)ftTI<..V .IF Till: l\I!i:i) ST.ATKS (IN BARUKI.S) I'l.rtluiid .Natural ISilO :{(H),(H)0 1Ste without reinforcing is strong in compression and is therefore well suited f()r heavy structures with only coinjiressive stress, such as \\a\h, piers, abutments, foundations, short column.s etc., as ordinary mixtures of concrete are at least three times as strong as the best quality of brick work. Some of the advantages of reinforced concrete buildings are as follows: 1. They are monolithic, with the soliditcof stone, and grow harder with age. UI.khs may after a few years sustain loads oO to 100 per cent, greater than tliose iuc Avhich they were originally designed, or additional stories can be added without Btrengtliening the original frame. i(»f j:\(;L\i:i:h'ix(; nr siiors a.\i> factoiues L'. ''■''•■y iircrnvpr.)nf;iii.l\\lic(isupi)Iic(i wit li\vin--f;l;.ss windows iiiid safely ci.nlincii to one story. Thi-y jirc W(>li suited for foi-e shops Of wlii'ievoi- open (iivs arc" maintiiincd. ;5. Floors can Ik- made wai('r|)roof, and during; a fire, water Avill not run tliroujili and injure -nods in lower sl<.ries. For this reason all openiiifrs at the lloor should have a :i-in. etirh. 4. Concrete I luildinj^., are (iural)lc. .">. They are ais,. saiu'tary and can lie washed out Avilh a hnso, iiein- well suited for food factories or i)ackin<; houses. (i. They are economical in >,>t. As thev often need no spruikler sy>ten. they may have a less total cost than wood Construction expense is reduced, owing to the possihilitv of using common lalmr. 7. Local lalior and materials can generallv l.p used with ninch saving of time, for no delay is caused in waiting for structural timlier or steel from a distance. S. TJiey can he easily and <|uickly erected. it. The design can he modified at any time, previous to or even during erection, without causing exi)eiisive delay. 10. The thinner walls leave a greater area of renting space and produce less load on the foimdations. 11. \ilirations are less than in either wood or steel l.uildin-s 1-!. MachuH's can nin at higher speeds and .shafting has l^ss fiictK.n and therefore needs less power. Wear on the bearin-s IS .-ilso less. !•{. CoiMiete buildings make a larger amount of wall area av.ulalile for windows. 14. <'""'•'■*■>(■ tloors are not affected by nu'neral or vegetable oils. I... Tiiey are vermin ,,ro,,f. for rats, mice and in.sccts can finil no liidmg ]jlaces m the naming as in timber. Ki. They have a low Iieating cost and an even temperature, I'l'iiijr warmer m winter and cooler in summer. Disadvantages of Concrete Constniction.-^In some resjiects <"ncret.. Imij.lings are not desirable, some of their disadvan- tages hemg as follows: 1. Changes or alteratiims are difficult to make after comple- tinn. 'Iheivfore, since concrete is hard to tear down, brick walls sliould be used wlHMe e\tensi,,iis are anticipated. -'. When outgrown, tiiey jiave little or no salvage value ■■^. Thin walls ami llo,,rs easily transmit soun.l. ami in certain l'ia. iiKM-il of Inw ...sl inny in sonic .mscs I,.- I„st whore inst.-a.I ./ .•onu.,.,n ImIm,,- tlu- r,-ulati..Ms .,f tn,.l(. unions niay '■«'n.,,loyn.,-nt of l,ri.klay.M-s or ni.-n at o.iuallv lii-h ^va-(■H for nuxin- and pla.'inj; the .•onctct.., tl.ou-h sucii n.on may reasonably l)e en-aKed for layinjr concrete blocks. .^. Shaftinfi and machinery are not so easily attached to the ceilm;; and iloors as in Wooden biii!iliiij;s. (). Hidldin-s with concrete exterior walls usuallv have an imhn.shed api>,.arance, uidess extra ."xiM.ns,. is incurred in sin.c.al treatment of the surfac,., or unless it is veneered witJi some other material sucli as brick. 7. Holes or openin-s throu-h the wi'lls and floors for the iU'commodation of pipes or shaftin- are not easilv made after completion, though the cuttin- of such holes mav be no more ddhcult than through floors of brick or terra coital 8. When made of a poor (piality of concrete or a dry mixture the walls may occasionally i- foun.I damp inside, thou-h tir' condition may disappear aK.x three to six months whe- they become well dried. 9. The effect of certain destructive agencies on reinforced concrete has not yet be.Mi positively determined. Sea water cntamiuK -suit was beli(.ved to have a disintejiratins effect but expeiience .so far sh..w.-< that this is insisnificant {('nncni' A,,,. Oct. 1911). The effect of electrolysis on ctmcrete is not well known tliou-h it may have no efTI sx Sin. *'"'**''■"" Oin. nnin.l. Icilow pine 12X12 in ^'"■"*='' 11X11 in." '^'""•■'••'♦•' ISXlSin. Beams and girders in irlnforced concrete are i)]-oport innately largewhcn compared to tho..e of other material. The objection to this is that the large columns occupy a greater amount of floor .space, leaving a sma^er renting area. This may be important 100 i':.\(;i\i:i:L'i\(i or snoi's asd f icT(Jiiii:s ill lar^o lilies mkIi as I'.rooklyii, w licit- rented spare for iiijimi- fiieturiiif; |iui|Mi.-.> cusis 2."j t.i ;}() ccnis per .s(juaie foot, (if Hour urea, or in New \,,rk Cily, wlu'iv it. rents f.-r 10 to GO ct-nl.s per Ki|Uai'(' fcidi. Materials and Mixing.— 'ihe lliice kinds of nioderii cement are known as Xatiiiai, I'oitlaiid and i'u//olan or Slaj; cement. Natural ceiiicnt is suiialile for masonry witli only compres- sive .stress, i'oitland l>ein;;- used for nearly all other cases. I'uzzolan caniiol lie put in any important work. A^^ref;ates may ho eitlier line or coarse. Fine asKi^e^iite contains sand, jriavel. or cruslied stone, ail of which will pass thron,i;li a screen with 1, 1-in. ojieniiiKs. Mortar composed of three parts of line a.i:,ure!:ate and one part of rortland cement sliould l.e at least 70 ])er cent, as strong as that made from ono part of cemeiil and tiiree of clean sand. Course iigsrcgatea .should prefeialily contain stone of assorted sizes, the largest lu. -)i.t.s. Jia-s of ccincnt wci-i, it.l II.. at.d coiitaiii al)oiit 1 eu ft as ordinarily packed. \ ham.l .,f Portland cement c.ntain.s four baRH or 380 II,., and as tli.- e.nply l.arre! w,.i.iii.s ai.ouf 20 lb tlio total weight of barrel and c.nient is 100 lb. The volume of cement depends to some extent on the amount to wliid. it is compressed, and barrels may be made to contain ai;vwhero from 35 to -li cu. ft., though 3.8 cu. ft. weighing Oo li;. each. IS the standard. Natural cement is also .sold in bags of 95 lb., though there arc only three bags of this to the br ■•,■.■!, which weigh altogether about 300 11). Hod.s or bars .should be medium steel with elastic limit not .■x.'ml.ng 3-,000 lb. p.-r s-juare inch, though wire mesh is con- venient for slabs, and for reinforcing structural parts As the "'•■tal m concrete is preserved only when all water and moi.sture are e.yluded, the concr..!.- sliould b.- d.'use enough to perform such duty, ^\hen th.,n.ughly enclosed an.l protected, the metal IS safe ev.-n un.ler salt or fresh wat..-, as is fairlv well proven by the experiments at Hoston an.l Chariestowu \rnnvHt Aqc October I'lll). For this reason cracks should b<> avoided 'as steel would soon be destroy,-d by corrosion when water enters J'.xpenments to as-vrtain the (-fleet of pai.it on nu-tal for rein- forcing c.ncrete, show that the a,l],e..ion <.f con.M<'le to steel is decreased !)() p,,- cent, wiu-n metal is painted with iv.l lead and SOper cent, when coated with oil. It shows also that adhesion IS increased from 30 to 40 per c.-nt. when the m.-tal is given a c.)at of cement grout, mixed thin enough so one pound of cement will cover \\ hen applied with a brush, (JO to 70 s.i. ft The cost of cement coating per square (100 sq. ft.) is 15 cents for one coat and -2 cents for two coats, the latter being e.pial to GO cents per ton of ordinary metal, or about 1 per cent, of the cost of the steel 111 place. The barrel is the most convenient unit of measurement when mixing concivte. and 1 cu. yd., or 27 .■u. ft. contain just seven IJarrcls. A mixture which is suitable for foundations, contains: 7 barrels of brokon stone, Rravol, etc., p<>r cul)ic yard 3 l)arr 'Ls of sand, jior cubic yard U b;irrr!s of efr.i<,-;it, per cui.ic yai'vl 25 gallons of water, per cubic yard ins i:\(;i\r:i:Ri\ factories 'I'lir cnsi of smli coii.n'lc will fic.|iicntly tiol cxcocd ?."> |)(«r vnhlc yard, wliilc ,t cniicsiioiiiliii;:; fniiiulatinu of (niany <>.• river Moiu! ill raiii'iiii si/.cs laid in (ciiiciit, iiii'ilit cost «8 per yard, tluMigli these prices will dcpeml uu locul (•.mdiiiuiis. The streii^itii uf cincretc of ililTereiit aj;e.s should he about us follows: 1 iiioiitli, cniNliiiii; strciiKtli, I tons i>,.r squiire foot ;{ iMi>iitlis, rnisliiiiK MreiKCth, 1(1 t.iiis per »(|uari- f.Mit (1 iiioiitli>, ility depend on the details, and this is quite as true of concrete framing; as of steel. All details should be plainly shown, even minor ones, and sizes, j)osition of rein- Connection* of B*am» to 6ird*r». (10. forcoment, v\v., all properly s(u:s "f .iilTririii liciiiht,, t||,,„. ,,f (.(> ft. nr „,..,•... kti..wri as firopn.of, may !.•■ ,|..M,i;natc.| as ( la-s A aial luw.w l.iiil(liii>;s or lum-iiie- pl-ddf tiiifs a- Cla-- 15. Cl.xss A Hi Il.DiNds (•nlilliillS l.rains all, I liinlcrs imist liavc li.,t los tliali J-iii. tnsciiiiii (i\(|' till' metal. Slal.s iiiu>t liav.' a c.Nriiim ,.f imt 1,-s tliaii 1 in. l„.l„w tl,e metal. Cl. \^> U I'.i n.l)I\(;.s Column-, l.eams ai„l ■■h;]n< mu-i have „ut less tlian 1', in coveriiur M\cr the metal. >lal.s must have a coveiiiii: of not les- ,l,;ni '. in. hclow the metal. As the efTeri of 111-,, on eonrrete lias seiWoni ],('on fouml to '"■'"■;'.■'"• ''-••■["■'- 'li.-n. ; in. even in ^vat .onfiajn-ations, the pinvisions mven alH.ve afe laru' en,..u,h. an.l airreo ••lo.selv with 111.' praelire , erom nien.le, I l,y the .loiut ('ommiltee on'Kein- f..f.T,l Connete. The a^hlilional eonrrete speeiher forms are removed •'. Applieallon of te., lua.l on s.,,ne of tlie we.,ke-:t pnr^^ *W0 months after coiuplction. (■osciii/rr. FRAMisa 111 Working Units. Wlu-n pn.po.liuninK „„..nlM.,>. worki,.. „„it. Mr..s,so. slH.uI.l 1,0 „s...| .s in ......| f,,,„i„,, ,,„,,, „,,„ „„;,„,,„. va ....... as p,o: ,H,.,| l.v ..,„„.. ,.,,,.1 ,l„.s,. ,.„i,> sh.M.M l.. I.nv „^|, to Im> well (iiulcr tin- ,\mv u„it i„ ,.olu,„ns m itl, vo,-,!,.,! ,vi,.f„rnn« onlv ..s n>prc>s..„„Hl ..V V, tiu- wo.ki,.,- sin-ss n.ay h. in,.roas,.l l.v ''O per c-ont when h...,ps o,.ly ..uo „s<..l, an.l l,y 4,-. p.r ,v„t. if" ,ho eoL.n.n has h„,h vmin.! roinf„n.i„. and spiral 'vin.li,,. IVn- ^^l..n n. (•..nnrte sl.,>„|.l i,, n,„st cases 1„. i;r,„„,.,| Adhesion.~Thc ultiM.ato a.lli..si„n val,.o ,.f conrn.to to ol.-an stcvl .s ..(,,, to ,;on 11,. p..,. s,p,a,v i„,.h, l.,.t w.„.ki,., s,n.s... ., n.>t exco...! M) to 80 11,. per .,ua,o in.h for plain l,ars, and :5() ,0 •>t) 11). tor wire. The wurkin^r shearintr stress in ron-Tefe that is not rei„for.e,|, sho..ld not exeee.l 40 11,. per s.p.are ineh. thon.h <;0 II. is per- nuss,Me wuh partial reinforein., and 1:20 Ih. per s.p.are huh .\tien iii,|j- reinforced. Tensile stres.s in reinforcing ha.-s .shonhl not exeee.l 14 000 1 .. per square inch in .soft .steel, an.l ic.ooo i„ ,n,.,|i,„„ „,,, o,d or^o'T ' r'"""'^'^'- ^"•""^"^» '-f -'"•-• -..rete at the end of 30 days, do.-s not exceed 700 to 000 11.. per s.n.aie inch and it.s weight i.s u.sually al,o„t 110 11.. per ..ul,i,. foot Separately Moulded Members.-In this type of constructi.n, t u^ parts are „.otd.le.l either at the site or in a fa..torv an.l then Buppod to the h.ul.lin,, the fonn..r n.otho.l nsnallv- l.ein-^ the H.eaper A num:.>r of types have l.een devise.l inVludin^ the S jvart \an,d,an, Arn.onre.I Tnl.ular, Clin.ax, Unit. Hta.^lar.l ad ^\at.son sy.steins. Son.e of these relate onlv to the floors oth-rs only ,0 the fnunes, while s.„„e in,.lu.le l..,th The Si...: wart sy.stem of hollow .-on.rete l,ea,ns (Fi;;. .;i), though origin- ally a Li.ropean pro.luct, is niani.factured al.so .nt Mnn^n-d Ca.Kuia, the cost of Ih.or wh..,i ,.rectod v.iryinR from ir'to "^i) cents per square foot, depending on the span a.ul load specified Ill' i:.\(;i\hi:Ri.\(; or shops a\d factories 'I'lii- \i-tiic.(iiv(l 'ruliular t^ystcni (Fi-;. 02) is :ui IuikUsIi product cost in;; ulxmt '_'_' cents \h-v .siiiian; foot. Climax Ix'uiiis (Fi^r. (KJ) arc made in Cliicauo, and tlic Unit, Standard (Fi;,^ (il'a), and Watson systems (I'i^. (iHa) are also American. Separately moulded memheis, wlieii factory made, havo the -/;'y ,r^l{nWi>i^'i,'^Z^:4^(:'^^ T % I'lii. til.— Sciijuart llc«,i- l,i-;niis Staiul.iicl Sect. .\(). 21. In;. Ilia. — \'auj;lian system. advaiita^'e that the projxirtion of materials can ho more exact and the meinliers can lie tested hefore election. They are more relialile, and hi.nher working stre.s.se.s may therefore he allowed, with a corresponding!; decrea.-c in materials and weight. Tliey need fewer forms than monolithic work and this item of e.xpense E^ ijsi».rx '- /5--_ 1 I.;, til'.— .Vriiieiina tulH.„.r system. Fiu. C.L'a.— Standard system. is. therefore, comi)arati\Tly .small. They can he quickly erected and alterations after completion are more easily made with separate memhers than with .solid coiustruutiou, the former heiuo; more like other block .structures. • -/■f' « I '■'"■• •'•'•-' '''"'">^ system. p,,;. (llia.-WatM.u sy.stcm "A." The di.sadvanta^vs of hidldings made of .separately moulded niemliers, are 1. Lack of timidity, and (; metal. The first of these ol ore '^ iiicrea.sed amount of reinf )jections disappears to some e.\.t mg ent when the parts are well connected with dowels and cement f.-»£i£r?2^^;-u^^ r iJBi. :',:£ jiSi^cmssii^r:' COXCRKTK FRAMISa 113 C»o's SrcT-ion -rnifovtK rLOOMS I'Hi. (il.— Detail of Watwm.sv.s li-ni. Scparafily iiioiildcil hcains. -/■s • - 1-K=. 05.-Dotail of Watson syst,-,,,. Separably tnouLk-.I „„.,„l,ers, ff>ni!>ined alah ami braiu consiiuction. -^^WSS^'W^, 114 E\r,I\EKIU\(; OF SffOPS AXn FACTORIES Tlio incroii.scil aninunt of roinfnrclnp; metiil is clue chiefly to a liK'k of continuity in beams and slabs, and is a condition which is not easily (iveiconie. The foilowinj; table {fives comparative weijjhts per square foot of floor for all mat(>rials, including reinforcing metal, in concrete floors of dilTerent types. Wciclit of all iiiateriiil.s lbs. Flat slabs ('oncrcti' and tile ( Kahii system) Slab and beam Tcrra-i^cittu arches with concrete top bet\V(H'ii .ste<"l beams. Wat.soa sv.stcin 96 72 50 55 45 w iight of stool lbs. 3.75 2.77 2.41 5.4 2.75 Concrete structural members are conveniently made at the building site by first laying the shop Hoor, which may then be tised as a working ))latform on which to make the pieces for the suporst.ucture. Slal)S may be cast in piles with nothing more than heavy waxed manila paper between them, which is easily removed after erection by a jet of water from a hose. The l)ieces may Ix; slightly offset in the piles to facilitate handling. When the concrete in the members has hardened, they can be erected with a stiff leg derrick or a traveling crane at a cost for hoisting whicii should not exceed ?! per ton. The relative cost of buildings of the monolithic and separately moulded types can best be shown by a comparison of two dupli- cate ones built for tiie Central Peiuisylvania Traction Company. It appears, therefore, thai the building with separately moulded members cost S2.18.") per cubic yard of concrete, less than the monolithic building. To offset this saving, the building with separately moulded members contained 20 per cent, more material than the other, but even so, the net saving in favor of the building with separate members was 15 per cent. The addition to the United Shoe Machinery Company's building at Beverly, Mass., which has separately moulded framing members cast on the ground, but monolithic floors, showed a saving of 10 per cent, over the original building, which ■.^'*i^j^wmEi%^s^^^impm7m^m' COXCliErE FRAMING TABLE VII Materials iinr cubic yurd -Monolitliic Separately moulded Materials: Stone, sand and cement. H(Uiif(>rcenient Lumber l'ai)er Tools •?;i. ISO .!llo 1 . ;<;j5 .000 .U.5 13 . 480 1.140 .4 SO .040 .145 Total material Lalxir: 85.875 Carpentry work Bending and i)lacinf;. Concreting Erection $5,285 3.2,50 .905 . 095 .230 2 210 l.f)85 Am) 1.080 Total labor Total material and labor ¥5, 5,55 •«3.900 $11,430 «9.245 was wliolly monolithic, l,nth the addition and the original l^e.ns nult nnder the direction of Mr. Ernest Ran.some The co«t of grouting the face after completion was 1 cent per square Comparative co.sts are also avaihvble for two other buildini ^ of separate members, namely, the Textile Machine Works of Reading Pa. and the Edison Portland Cement Companv's build- ings. Ihe plant at Reading cost 80 cents per squar^e foot of floor for the frame and floor only, without curtain walls finish or engineonng charges, and 2.5 per cent, of this cost was for carpentry labor and forms. The buikling when completed cost only .., cents per cubic foot. The Edison Portland Cement ( ompany 8 buikhng is one .story high, M-t ft. wide and 3C0 ft ong with 32-ft. columns and 24-ft. girders, all made at the building site. The cost of making and erecting the concrete was only S,,t,0 per cubic yard, which is extremely low, and coul.l hardly be reproduced at less than 87.50 to «8 Cement cost SI per harrel, and crushed stone GO cents per cubic yard W^3 ^'•:. ■vi-*;..!:;- .^-*r.: 11G EXarXEEIilSG OF SHOPS AM) FACTO.' f[-:S Tlic cost i)f 4-in. sl;il)s in place, wlien moulded in a horizontal position j)i'evious to erect mii, is about as follows: ConI . tents per 1(H) s(i. ft. Stool 2 . ;{(> eriual • JO pt-r cent, of total Concrcic lalinr 2.').') i^iual to 32 jkt cent, of total Carpenter lal.or ")!> equal to 7.5 per cent, of total Labor, inixins and placing .">() equal to 7 l>er cent, of total En-clioii 1 Sti ('cjual to 2.'5 . 5 ])er cent, of total 7.91 eciual to 100. jxjr cent, of total Columns. — 'I'liree kinds oi columns are ordinarily used in concrete l)uildiii;;s. 1. Colunius with vertical reiiiforcinji; only. 2. Colunnis with vertical reinforciiifj and lioojjs. 3. Cohi'Mus with li<;ht structiu-al steel frames. Square columns, even in the ui)per stories, seldom have less than 11' in. sides, and the corners usually have a 1-inch chanip- fcr. The general practice is to use scjuaro columns with only foiir vertical reinforcing rods for sizes of 10 to 18 in. In lower stories where greater strength is needed, lioops or spiral winding may be used, in which case an octagonal form with eight rods is pre- ferred. Columns in walls may have a uniform thickness tl'.rough several stories, in- creased sectional area being secured by a change in width. A mixture of cement, sand and stone, in the proportions of 1, 11 and 3, is the best, and stone shotdd generally not exceed 1 in. in diameter. Columns should be reinforced when tlieir length exceeds six times their diameter, and when extra material is added for fireproofing, only the area inside of the fireproofing should be considered as sustain- ing loads. The maxinuim column length should never exceed, fifteen times the inside diameter. An additional thickness of 1 to 3 in. over the stntctural part should be allowed for fire- })roofing as previously described under " Design," I'lu. 00. — Spiral reinforcing for colunin.s. CONCRETE FRAMING 117 ^'e^tical reinforcement wlien used, may vary from 1 to 5 per cent, of tlie inside colunm area, tJ.e average being about 2 per cent. Four rods are most convenient in square columns, and eight in octagonal ones, and bars are quite as good plain as when roughened. They should be spliced just above the floor level with butt joints, and the bars surrounded with sections, of pipe about 12 in. long, and 1/4 in. larger inside tiian the diam- etcr of the rod. Footing plates .should l)e placed undei the rod at the l)ase of the column.^, and tlie.se plates should be large enough to distribute their portion of the load. Column hooping (Fig. 6G) may consist of either bands or spirals, the latter being conveniently made of round bars from 3/lG- to 1/2- in. diameter with a pitch of 2 to 4 in., the spacing being maintained by flat bars notched at the proper interval. Bands when used may be spaced from 4 to 20 in. apart, the usual practice being 12 in. The cost of columns 18 in. square per foot vertical is about as follows: ^'"n"*"''" $0 . 5.-J i>or vertical foot ^*''*'' "•"> per verticul foot ^''"'''"'* 50 iM-r vertical foot Total $1.80 per vertical foot The most economical column spacing depends upon the loads and the kind of floor construction. For 2.-)0 lb. per square foot or less, the economical column spacing for two different floor types is: Floor with l)<>ams and girders 18X18 ft Floor with flat slabs 20x20 ft For loads of 300 lb. per s.piare foot or more, the column .spacing for the above types is: Floors with beams and girders 15X15 ft Floors with flat slabs 17x17 ft Beams.— Experiments show that reinforced concrete beams are at least ten to twelve times stronger than beams which are not reinforced. They are generally suitable in building frames, but in some places, such as crane girders, subject to frequent and lieavy jars and impact, steel framing is more reliable. And yet reinforced concrete beams have occasionally been used ev. r crime girders, as illustrated in the shop for the Ingersoll Milling Machine Company at Rockford, 111. mr^^mmPmsEjw. 118 i:\(;ixi:i:h'i.\(; of shops axd factories 'I'lic cniss-scctioiiiil outline of coiuTotc beaiiis is usually rcc- taii^'uhir, or in tin; form of u bruiid T. A good i)n)i)ortion for rectangular lieaius is to make tlie depth from one-tenth to one- twelftii of the si)an length, and the width from one-half to three- fourths of the depth. Deep and narrow beams contain less material and are proportionately fheajjer than wido and shallow ones. T-lu'ams are really riblied or stiffened slabs, the com- pression being resisted by the slab, and the tension by bars in the lower part of the stem, the concrete stem acting like the comi)rossion braces in tru-sed beams to separate the rods from the compression chord. The proportioning of T-beams is at the best only a rough aj)proximationifor it is impossible to know J how great a width of slab is 6- Si. I Not more than r — it' — l"io. >'u. — T-I)i':un. subjected to compression. The common practice is to as- sume the breadth of T-beams (Fig. 07) as not more than i)ne-f(}urth of the span, and the distance at each side from the stem to the edge of the compression llange as not more than four times the slab thickness. The width of the stem is freijuently assumed at one-third to one-lift h of tlie slab width. If the stem wcic wide enough there would be no need of assuming any pait of the slab in compression. It is, there- fore, inconsistent to attempt fine proportioning in concrete beams of any kind, for the natu -e of the material and the j)rimary assumptions are such as to nuike these efforts useless. While the coefficient of elasticity for steel is quite close to 30,()0(),()0(), that for reinforced concrete varies anywhere from 1,.")()(),()00 to :),(I0(),()0(), and their relative proportions or the value usually designated by the letter \, varies accordingly from to 20. Home other assumptions have quite as large a variation. The comi)licated beam formula! proposed by some writers, are, therefore, not only absurd, but an actual waste of time, and simj)le fornudai only are approj)riate. Smicc the compression in slabs and beams is usually resisted wh.ilyby the concrete, joints in these members should be made near the center of the span. In this position cracks are of little consequence, but near the end in the region of maxinmm shear, they are serious. When a condition of continuity exists, it is CONCRETE F RAM ISO 119 customary to assume tlie honling momont as 25 per cent, less than for simple beams supported at tlie ends. The formula! for continuous beams are ^1= ,., for intermediate spans M= ,-> for end spans where M is the bending moment in foot-pounds W the load in pounds per lineal foot L the length of span in feet. When square panels are reinforced in two directions, one-half of the above stresses should be considered in each system. Beam and girder reinforcement are less expensive and more effective when made into unit frames (Fig. 68) in a metal shop than when loose bars are asseml)lcd in the beams at the build- ing site. Enough reinforcement should be used to prevent Fiu. 08. — Unit girder frame. deflection, for when this occurs cracks will form, which may admit enough water or moisture- to ultimately destroy the bars with rust. Beams may have from two to eight reinforcing rods and rods should not be closer together horizontally than 2\ to 3 diameters and the clear space between two layers of bars should not be less than 1/2 in. The distance from the center of a bar to the bottom or sides of beam should not be less than two diameters of the bar, in order to secure a good bond and to protect the metal from fire. The bond between concrete and steel depends wholly upon the contraction of the concrete when hardening, during which process it furms a grip on any material embedded therein. There is no chemical affinity or i2n i:\(;i.\EEhi\(! or sffops a\d factories union, for if (•(Mui'iit or concrete is pljiced on a metal .surface and allowed to harden, it. caii very easily he l)roken ofT. The con- crete must, therefore, surround the metal in order to form a grip. IMain un])ainted Lars, either round i •• .vmare, are the hest and a sli-ht coat of rust i.s no disa = depth of beam in inches, from the upper surface to the center of the rods COSCRETE FRAMIXa 121 3/ = hon(IinR inoinont in inch pounds r = ,v fact,,,, varying fn.m 00 to !:,(), Init usually tak(,n at 1(H). /i= breadth of beam in iiudics. Tho cost pc, lineal foot of concre.,. joists, dxll' in., is about as follows: r..ncrcto an,l st.H-l ,„ r. ,..r lineal foot. -•> ptT liiieul foot. Total -,, 11, '"• 1>x ^0 HI., is: o , - ^ Concrete an,l stcol SO. (iO per lineal foot I'orins ■)- 1- . „ ■ >■> per hneal foot. Total ,1- . ,. ■ '■>•> |ier hneal foot. Reports on the cost of concrete of 1-2-4 nii.xture, in a number of lar«e bu.lCnKs, showed that for tiie concrete alone without ^^a.s SO.IU per cubic yard, and iu the columns, S0.70 per cubic >-.ird, w^ieu cement cost 81. 3o per barrel, and sand and crushed sto u. 80 cents and $1.2:, per cubic yard respectively Plant rental <-oal, and power cost from oO cents to 91M per cubic yard of concrete. The above data is based on Chicago prices in 1011, and should be carefully modihe,! to .suit the local price of labor and mate- rials, variations in which may eau.se great changes from tho above appro.xunate costs. sh.^Jwf '"'T-.^''"""""'' **" ^°°"^** Floors.-Connections to «hop lo<.rs differ according to the size and weight of the machines, ho best practice for heavy machines is to raise th.-m about V ".. a .ove the floor and to run in thin grout to a width of 4 to h n. all around. Light machi.ies with insufficient weight to hold thein in place must be fastened to the floor by expansion bolts set in holes 1] to 3 in. deep, drilled into the .slab, a shield xung used when drilling, to prevent the tool from going through fl ■ , 1" °\ 7 "''"''' '"'"'■'^'"^•'^ ''-"^^^ ^^''^ '>«lted through the floor slab and fastened with nuts and washers on the un.ler Hi'io. V ery light machines may sometimes be screwed down to a temporary wood floor placed over the concrete. 122 i:.\r![\f:i:i{[\(; of shops axd factories \ ''■ ;« Vil.l..,r |l,,lt /} irl.T :-J:vfi^ 'ijil' tVl Iron |{jT H,.u.l. .1 Holuil'' - AmU. o o o o|c llantfi'r* eti.-. "IP/:- ■^ ■ l^nii^l^E ;siEs r ByNtem 1 1 Ca-t Ir,.„ Clamp / . 'T*, h/^j-^^j!^., ;; 'T"H.M.Ic-.l Alla.-I.iri^l ViL'/ f' ~~"'^:S3 Uult, in Slut ^ ,s ^-1 Ct t^ . , , . Anchor Uottom "tT Ht)on\\ /i jj„|t UiMin ur CroHsvW •/ /, ' \\\ /.. Ciwtinjs H a- L.,v.| .1.1, i'"J^'^'_ uit.i.tol„t c.i-t lr.)U Cljmp Attai'hi,.!) Unit, fur llauger» ota O 0':O Unix for Aitachiiitf i llloMIng ,'.'0 UoU ,_,Ko.iiia[-'/i 'f\ I, - 'riii^'^'-^lSi:XX eJd' O Ol'O <>\o Uiflir ; rjiKhor Uolt ]M C,>-Ur,„.-1^^ '^ i5l o o *-''"""• AtUc-hli.« Uolt Girder f>J Xir Fio 7('. — Connections to concrete beams. *iiW"7Sm^' COSCRETK FI{ l//.V(/ 123 ^ Shafting Attachment. Tlicri ,- u number of good niothods Jti use for attacliinj; sliaftiiig to iUv uiul.T .side of concivlt" lu-ums and II.M.rH (Fi- 70) and other details can easily be devised an neetled to suit .special cases. If no provision was in.ide for such attachments when the building was first erect.'d, holes can then be tapped for <'.xpans;,.n bolts, usin« a portal»le air drill. This machine works (piickly and at very small cost. When c(.iuu-ctions are planned h.'forehand, holes may then be left 2 to ;i ft. apart through the beams beneath the floor, and in flat floors without beams, cast-iron spool sockets can be set into the ceiling. Holes in the walls and lloors for plumbing and heat- ing pipes should have cast-iron spools or sockets ami they should, if jMKs.sible, be placed during first con.struction. For thi.s purpo.sj subcontractors for plumbing and heating should supply the con- crete contractor with a i-lau showing the size and position of all such openings. _ Waterproofing.— Concrete made with wet mixture is imper- vious to wati-r, and walls of this kind with no greater thickness than 8 in. and without any waterproofing may safely be used for cellars and basements. It is only when concrete is made too dry that walls are pervious. Coiicnle blocks whicii often have a dry mi.vtur. in order to make them (,uickiy are subject to this objection. Conden.sation is likely to form in basements or other damp places, but this can be avoided by lath and plaster over fur-mg. \\l,ere there is danger of crack formation from tem- perature changes or other causes, metal reinforcement should be used. This will prevent the formation of large cracks and pro- duce a larger number of small ones so narrow that moisture ciinnot enter. W ..forproofing may be necessary to prev(>nt moisture from soaking 1 ^he joints and freezing, thereby tending to disin- tegrate ti.r masonry. It may be necessary also to prevent water leaking through, and discoloring or othe.wi.se disfiguring the interior of the building. Waterproofing may be affected in several ways. 1. By making a rich and wet outer mi.xture of mortar with equal parts of Portland cement and sand. On horizontal sur- faces this can be laid as granolithic with a troweled surface on a wet or green base, at a cost of about o cents per square foot. 2. By covering tlie outer surface of the concrete with layers of waterproof felt coat(>d with asphaltum. iLM i:\(:!\i:i:i{!\(; or siiofs .wd {•.{<■ iouihs ■'{. Ky rc|.l.i(inL' 10 |mt iciil. ..f the it'iiiciif wiih liy.lriiti'd liiiir, III ii.--i-i ill lilliii" \.ii(is ;iii(| iiiakiiij; tli(! ciiiiciclo iiiniu iii'Mi'ly Iiii|)i'i\ iuiis. Erection. M.lnfincc.l (•..hcicIc l)iiil(Iini I lie pmii.il direction of iln; designer. In cold weather, nialeiial may lie healed hy pjlin;; it ,,ver sleaiii pipes, the mat. rial pile lieiiiii eovereij witli raiivas, and duriii^r \vorkiii« 1 1'" ill'' I'Jiil under const riiei ion may lie enclosed l.v ;i curtain mid' 'lirh heal is inaintainecl. in juinim; new work to old, tiie iiardeiied .siiif.aco siiould first lie cleaned till the aiivreuate is w.^li exposed, and it should IIk'H lie slir-hed wiih iriorlar coiisistini; of one jiarl of I'orlhmd cement ' "■• "' liciiifiircc.l iniicrctc \\arcli(iiisc, < hica'io. with two part, ,if line a-fe-ale, iu'fore ])lacin- th. new con- ci-ete. lixpaii.Mon joints .sin.uld i.e provided at intervals not (xcee.lin- :.() ft,, and tiny sho' Id have overlapping or dovetailed joints, Th. rum rete should he carefullv inspected for hardi.e.s.s hvuuv tl... forms are renn.ved. After the foundation.s arc coni- J.IeK'd, reinforced concrete l.uildin-s can usually he erected at the tale of one story per u.M'k, and records s'liow that lai-e I'Uh linus to six to iN^elve sloriivs can he erected complete in three to seven months. li,-. 71 •"l"'Wsaconcreteniaciiinery warehouse in (hicaoo, with one tier of >ide fiallerv. CHAPTKR IX CONCRETE SURFACE FINISH ''"'"• 'liliM^uKv of pHHlnrin. ostl.Hi,. .■n,.I ,.|.....si„.. ,.ir,.,.ts has unt.l n.,-..ntly Invn ...,<> ..f tl... ..hicf .,l.j..,.,i.ms t„ .•u„,.n.te ns t 8tru..t„ral n,uf..rial iu ,.x,>„s,..l p„si,iu„s. Th. ,„m„v j.ri.nitivo and unn.uth ,.nMl„..ti,.ns of tl,.. ..xp.TinK.ntal vra.s nf i,s .i..v..l- '>l""»'".». ^'n- s.ill ,„„ evi.U.nt about our lar,.." ..iti... ami tJ.,.,. o >...,x,o,..s ,.n.a..o„s hav.. of„.„ t„n.,..l pn,.p....tiv. huil.l.Ts ,o other an.l ,„uro attra.Mivc typ..s. FaHory l,uil.li,.us with l.nv MHiy vails, tlu. ,nn„„tony of ^^|,i..h is l.n.iun ..niv l,v mni-hilv form ,n. r.nhtly ,.„titl,.,l to .lisap.prnval. '.Ma't.v of il...:,. .Utklm. , ro or..,..,..l before the ......ho.is of s..rfa,.e treat.ne,,, M.-.e . levelop..,! whtle o,h.-rs are the result of supposed eeouo.nv cr deliberate disre-ar.l for appearances Surface Defects.-Sun.e of the surface I.uperfeetio„s of eo,.- cret.. whMh must be avoided or retuov..!, iueh.le efllores- ce.we, era.-ks, irregularity of section, rou.uhness, p„rositv uul dustinji. ' • ' ' Efflorescence is supposed to result fro.u a porous ,.o,.di,io„ of the ^yalls, a hnv.n;, moisture to enter, for it i. not found in drv IX's.t-ons It would, therefore, app..ar desir-d.le that wails be water t_i;:ht, and n.ethods of waterproolinj. concrete have ai.va.lv b(..n oiven m a previous chapter. The n.o.l m.table case .if florescence re.M.nal is on the Connecticut Avenue ],n.|..,: ,t A\a.sh.n.ton. ilydrochh.ric acid, diluted with five parts o wa er, was apphed to the surface with sc-ubhing brushes M jaHor. o acd and thirty-six brushes bein, used in ei;a;i;;" mlustrades was . cents per square foot, but on plain stufa... th(> cost .1.(1 not exceed 2\ ..ents ,,er square foot Hair Cracks.- The best n.eans of preventing hair cracks is ,o .M> a comparat.veiy dry and loan mixture not richer than o„o part of cement with four of sand, for it h.,. been f,,- -d '=■ r they mcrcase rapidly with the proportion of cement"" Th'^l'e 125 ]•-•() f:\(if.\j:/:Rf.\(; or shops a\d factories cracks arc caiisrd liy coiiicnt on llio sui-farc hardening and slirinkinii mhiic lajiidly lliau that iii.-i(h'. and tlicy can he partly av()i(h'd liy kecpiiii; tlie surface covered with wet sand or saw (hist. They are ahiiost <>ntirely absent on iine artilicial stone, whicli is niduhled in wet sand. Porosity.—Porosity is caused by a lack of density, and if the outer and hardest layer is removed, tlie .surface is more likely to leak. Walls which will admit water arc liable to be disinte- grated liy frost in winter seasons, and the outer surface should not. therefore, be removed in cold climates. Dusting. -This may l)e ihie to several causes, some of wJiich are: In>uflicient cement, soft sand, presence of foreign matter such as loam, ])oor mixing, partial setting of cement before finishing, excess of or not enough water in the suiface mixture, or the use of driers to liasten setting. After such a condition has developed, it can best be remedied by applying two or three coats of boiled liiisee(I oil. Forms and Moulds.— Defects from forms and moulds are very comnKm, and include irregularities from bulging or spring- ing of the plaids, joint marks or seams, roughness, and insufficient care in tamping the ingredients against the sides. To avoid leaving any impress on the masonry, the wooil may be given a fine surface or may be coated with soap, grease, or paraffine, or covered over with building paper. These will also prevent the concrete from sticking to the wood. A sticky oil has some- times licen ajiplied to the inner face of forms, and clean sand then blown over it from a bellows. This gives a uniform surface which appears on the concrete as a sand finish. A rather cx- jHiisive method which lias occasionally been used on important W(!rk, is to cover the forms with expanded metal and then coat with fijie i)Iaster, the resulting surface being so smooth as to avoid marks of any kiml on the comi)leted exterior. A similar but cheajH'r way is to cover the forms with fine clay and then overlay the clay w'wh building paper. When concrete is deposited against the lioards, utiless they are otherwise covered, they should li(> wet with a hose to jireveiit absorption from the mixture which would result in tun rapid nr tmeven drying. "When exterior (ivatmenf is iiitendid after the forms are removed, the above precautions are umiccessary, and indeed, a poorer grade of lundu'r can be used, tiicreby reducing this item of expense, which will to some extent o!T.-et tiie extra cost of after treainu-ui. mm^'mw'wEJF^ CONCRE TE S ( 'RF. U'K FIMSH 127 Since It IS (hfficult to avoid joint marks, they arc sometimes ac'-cntuated by fastening small triangular strips over the cracks between the planks, leaving horizontal Rrooves on the masonry somewhat similar to stone joints. It is claimed l,y some that such markin^rs aro insincere and an effort at imitation but if used wholly to efface unsightly lines, they would seem to have a sincere and truthful purpose. Moulds for fin«T w..rk have been made of wood, metal, sand and plaster of Paris. Artifu^ial stone is usually cast in sand the cement and fine crushed stone mixed in the consistency of soft cream, beinK poured into the sand and allowetl to remain the-e for three or four days. The excess water from the mixture easily drains off through the sand and allows the stone to harden and dry uniformly without the formation of surface cracks Need of Treatment-There appears to be onlv one process of building concrete in wliich an after treatment" of the exposed surface is unnecessary, and that is by using a fairly dry and lean mixture on the face, with fine aggregate. With concrete of this kind, form marks do not appear when the boards are re- moved. A suitable mixture is composed of cement, sand and fine-crushed stone in the proportions })y volume of 1, IV and 41,, the stone ranging in a size from i to \ in For thin walls, this composition is used alone, but on thicker ones it should form a facing about 1\ in. thick over ordinary concrete backing, the facing mixture being placed bv using a movable metal shield, or by any of the other approved methods The use of a dry mixture makes a wall that is more or less porous but in Chicago where it is extensively used by the South Park Com- mission, after a trial of eight years, no injury from frost has been found. Methods of Treatment.-The surface of concrete made with a wet mixture, and enough density when dry to be impervious to water, almost always shows imperfections of various kinds some of which are form marks, roughness, cracks, and efflores- cence, and these can be removed onlv bv some kind of after treatment. After several years of careful experiment and investigation, a number of methods of treating and finishing concn-te surfa.'es have been developed, which have proved satisfactory. These methods may be grouped into three gen- eral classes, (A) Surface Coating. (H) veneering; an.I (C) surface removal. Tliese may be further subdivided as follows: .SJfei'^tS'Ji i-'8 i:.\<;i.\i:i:ix'r.\G of shops a\d factories (A) Siirfai'o Coating. (1) Wasliing. (2) I'ainting. (B; Veneering. (3) Brick, stone or Tile Facing. (4) Plastering. (J) Stucco rinisli. (C) Surface licnioval. (Oj Sanring from each other only enough to allow p.Mtent j)roprietors to esta!)lish their ownership. Washing monolithic surfaces with cement or lime has tiio merit of low cost, but is oidy a poor substitute for something better, as it is not stable. Wherever jwssible, the thin grout siiould be applied with wooden floats, as l)rushes leave streaks. A cement wash is made by mixing three ])arts of natural or Port- land cement with one part clean sand and etuiugh water to nudsired, the cement wash can first be a|)plied in two coats and whitewash added afterward. These api.lications will adhere better when applied to concrete that ia gi'uun or moist. '^^■'^iiirt-^'- v^''v'"^'^'>¥. -mkx CONCRETE SURFACE FINISH 129 A Rood whitcwasli wl.icl, is uso.I on Unitorl Stn. witl. h„ilins water .ml ',.-•,• ' ''"''^'"^ ''' ''"^J^^' «f l""e »>oilccl to a thin jelly i \\, ^f T.u ^ . .' "^ ^"'""'"'^ "^« 2 lb. of dissolved . iar «l^e li n f^'f^' "'"*'"«' ^"^ "»-' -ixed, and appl ed tot .vitl . I • ' ' "'■"'^'"^- ^^'^^^^ -;.«urfaeeis^i.i.inl:nf;^^^^^^^ fiv.juent renewils Tl.o ,. i , ^ ''^ ^'^"i ^n^ needs of zinc sii nhate Tf m..,. i *• . , , ' ^'"* ^"^ 2 lb. fawn color. ' " ' '^ ^^'''"^ '^'^ ^'^^ ^ lb. of lamp bUck for Painting.— An oil paint suitable for walls is mn.1. i one i)art oacli nf «-l,;t„ „ i , . made by mixing tl..» mixture a.s a !»«■ emu" I, r,, li , "■""•"■ ^° tai..» no l„„,| „h," or"n.or ,"'' ' ■"•■*<"■»"■»■ It co„- ;i™.» -viti, » .mil fi„i,i,, a„ I „„ ' ■ " ' °"' '''■»°* »■«"■ . II » n,aclo „„ly i„ ,;,,„•„ f„„ L ■ to ll 'I T'"''™ *"' paste. '"-''"> lor use and never in a ■•' ^'"v"ii*aie a„j :x'; r ;:,"rz',r '!■: Y Tfi" aii.AV.-d to dry for two or three d-ivs "-liL ". '^•'^^'°"^^^ '^^ applle. over .,.e .e.„e„. .„„ ».:et :;.;'::;i'::;;Ve: "" ^° o*i.;'''.r- no e\gim:ering of shops and factories VEN'EEniNG Brick and Stone Veneering. — This is one of the oklest methods of fiwinji concrote, for tlie Romans used it twenty centuries ago. Kul)l)lo masonry and concrete were often faced with tufa and travertine as on t]ie bridges over the Til)cr, and recent excava- tions at Pompeii liave revealed concrete walls covered with niarhle slalis. Many of the finest works in France completed during the last half of tlic eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries, are nuide of conci'ete faced with stone. A comparatively recent bridge at Soissons is similarly faced with separately mouUleil concrete slal)s. In America, some of the finest and latest manufacturing buildings have exterior con- crete frames veneered with brick or previously moulded slabs of concrete. Good effects are produced by a judicious use of brick in different colors and by the use of colored tiles. Decora- tive work when used, should be concentrated in certain places to contrast with ailjuining unbroken areas. Colored tiles can be cast with the concrete in large slabs and built in with the walls, or a space may be i)anolcd out of the walls with ^ornis, anil the tiles set in afterward. Concrete blocks or artificial stones are used more for s(jlid work than for surface facing, and are dcscribe(l elsewhere. Plastering. — Plastering on concrete walls is not recommended, fot it is stable only when moisture cannot reach the under surface and it rarely lasts more than ten to fifteen years even under favorable conditions. Hefore applying plaster, the concrete sliotdd be rough and dean, without scale or dust, and should be wet to prevent extracting water fnjm the mortar before it hardens. Tlie applied matcial should be pressed and worked well against the under surface to avoid open places or cavities wliich would (juickly break. A finish of comparatively recent use, known as Stonekote, is a mixture of Portland cement and white sand or white quartz containing no lime. In hardness, st length and durability it is nearly erpud to natural stone and can be procm-ed in several colors. Three coats of this mixture are recommended for use on sheathing and metal lath, with 100 lb. to 21 j-d. of surface, and one finish coat on brick, concrete, or concrete blocks. It can ])e aj)i)lied on a low-priced concrete wall, making a rough cast surface of the desired color, which may be waterproofed. Stonekote isi slow in setting, but covers all joints if applied by ..-'••^ffS. vjK-.'r">'^.''Hgj ' COSCRKrE SURFACE FIXISH ui Xalunil color. .,., ColoHMl sc^co,,,! coat T,^ """ '"■■ ''"'"'« >'"^'' niuto s,K,.„n,l coat t "'" ' ''*"" "'""^'' >-"^'l RouKh cast, na*„ral •' - '"" ' '"'■■ **''"'"■*" >"^'' Rough cast, clorcl t '""" •'^■'' "1""^" J'"^'' W I.ito on natural l.aso t ' '"^^ "'""'''' '''"■'' I.i«ht colors on whito l.a^.. 4 ," ''^'' '''""'*■ ^'"''^ "■ ' •>- cents j)or s.pmre vanl Schface Rkmovai, tains .ndnv^.! '"f "' 'l' '"'^"■^^ ^^^'^"•^«'^^'' -''•<•'> it -n- a ns and never less ti.an 1 i,,. It sh..ul,l he fairlv wet when taJ^Sf :;''"'"7' r'" '" "''^'■^^^ -^^'- l'>- the use of eer- .ft,.;/ ''' ''''^-''"ti'W unless tJ.o surface is tre^ited f P rock „ ' "'•"'"'" "^ ^^'"'^^ ^"'^' '•'-■'< n^arl.re ,.r 1 inel ^ ' ": ' l'"""' "•"^'••■"'' ^^''^'^ ''"^^''ter effects are ol.tained from ,.„l„red n.arhles „r re.l -rr-mite (Itlu,- 1 ! n.Uena. s,.h as l.roken ..rick, hurnt ch.y .;Xn.a?t L^:!/ n"xed : u ;'u' <;'n''o crushed to any desired si.e^^^S fi nes ""■ '"^^^" "' ^'"' ^'^•^'^'"- - 1'- «-se of beauty and ■mSM¥T79^7^ -■:i.= 'iTi-'. ■-■ ■k^'k-'a 1.32 KSdISEKRISC '■/•' .S7/0/',S' AM) FACTORIES Xatiiral ('(iloiiiij. is ]>i(T(>r"M to artificial, and yot when colored ajifireuati* is 'lo". 'i'>iainal)le, pi};nicnt.s may ho used. Mineral ])ij;iiieiits oiily a e '-i'', .hi,'. l)ecai!se vcjictahlc colors iire not ])(Miiiaii( nt. J{ed, yclloAv, hlue and black arc the hest. Some conunon pigments with their approximate cost arc given inTal.Ie VIII. liiifT color made from yellow ochre and mineral red is afavorite, and a mixlure of carl)on liiack with red iron ore gives a dull red, while the addition of lamp Idack to the last produces a darker effect. Lime is generally used for whitening. As the presence of pigments tends to lessen the strength of concrete, the amount of pigment should he limited to 5 per cent, by weight of the cement, or 5 Hi. ])(>r bag. A less amount than this will give lighter shades. The cement aggregate and pigment should all be mixed together dry, and it should be observed that mortar when wet is darker than when it is dry. TABLE VIII (.'(ilor (Ic^iicil Cimmicrciiil ii:iiii('s iif colors for use ill ClMllCIlt Approxiniato] prices per founds color ro- poiiiid in 1(K>- (|iiir«'(l for each 111. lots for lniK of CL'inont to liiKli-)ir:i(lc j secure colors Lit.'1'.t .Mciiiuin .sIkicI(! .shade ! < I c r Ml ;i II t o w II iMiiiplilack. (iriiys, Mu('-l>l:i(k Carlion l)la(^k ami lilack. Black oxide of I manganese. Blue sliaile t'lirainariiie lilue. . B r o w n i s Ii-hmI to lied oxiile of iron dull l)rick red. Brif;lit red to vi-r- -Mineral Tiirki-y reil niilioti. Hed sandstone to Indian red pwrpli-ii-red. Brown to red- Metallic 1> r o w n dish-brown. io\i(l(\i. BntT, colonial tint. Yellow ocher and ypiiow. H) cents H cents (') cents IS cents H cents 1") cent.s 1(1 cents 4 cents ('( cents 1 2 10 10 10 10 10 10 CONCRETE SURFACE FINISH 133 Before startinR construction, it is worth while experimentini' on sa.„,,les to get the coh,r effect and surface finish that is saf is- fyiUK, and when proportions have been established, they shouici be ch,seiy adJiered to, as slight variation in successive batche. o concrete may give shades that are quite noticeably different' The proportion should, therefore, l,e measured, and not simplJ g^iuged by the number of barrows. Coloring with pigments will usually cost from \ to 2 cents per scpiare foot Removal of Surface—Defects and invgularities on concrete surfaces can be removed by the sand blast, or by tooling, rubbing, p.ckmg, scrubbing or etching with acid. The objection to any kind of surface removal is the loss of the outer and hardest part of the mortar, which removal may allow water to enter RouHi- omng the surface by any of the processes just mentioned cau'iies the building to more easily collect grime and dust, but as con- crete buildings are usually of a smoky gray, such dust collection may not be very noticeable. Sand Blasting.-This method is economical only for lar.re areas. It cannot be undortaken in less than ten days or two weeks after the concrete is placed, and a longer time of about a month IS often preferable. For this reason, it is suitable for the underside of girders or arches where forms supporting weight cannot be removed in less than thirty days. Air should have a pressure at the nozzle of 50 to 80 lb. per square inch, and the nozzle shc.uld not be larger than i to { in. diameter, for if greater, t H> jet of sand cannot be concentrated on small defects Sand should be clean and hard and of a size to pass a x\o 12 screen for ;-in. nozzle, and a No. 8 screen for 1-in. nozzle. The cutting action of the sand removes the surface film of cement at a cost of ••ilx.ut 3 cents per scjuare foot. Work can usuallv be done by or witli apparatus from, some company of building cleaners ' Toohng.-Tooling, to remove about ^ in. from the surface may be done either by hand or pneumatir process, hand work iH-.ng cheaper for small jobs, and especially for low walls where scaffol. ing ,s „ot needed. For large areas, high above groun.l air tools will probably be cheaper than hand work by 30 to 50 per cent. The concrete should be two to three weeks old and tlie best results are usually obtained from a fine aggregate If arge stones he near the surface, the concrete should bo at least two months old, to prevent stones from being knocked out by the tools instead of being cut. One laborer will dress from 50 l.Tl KXdfXEKRlXn OF SHOPS .WD FACTORIES t■.:•■' K'i '■••■'.'*'■■ ■•■^•''■': ,^.VT>.'.„,-.: MiwaMagggMiaHcaBag|!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiittiiiiiiiiiiiiiit I'Ki. 72. tions of labor unions and fre(iuently on government work. Tooling such as generally useil on Jiedford or similar stone can be done to the best advantage when the concrete lias a fine mortar face and has thoroughly hardened. In this case experi- enced stone cutters are needetl. Machine work with pneu- matic tools can be done at the rate of liOO to (iOO super- ficial feet per mar. i)er day, at a cost on large areas of 1\ to ;i cents i)er .S(|uare foot, witli labor wages at $2 per day. Those who liave done this kind of work extensively, recommend the more liberal allowance of 3 to 4 cents per stjuare foot for green surfaces and o to 10 cents per square foot for hard surfaces. Some tooling clfects are shown in Tig. 72. CONCRETE SURFACE FIMSII 135 Rubbing.— In this method, the Purfacc is rubbed or ground with u brick, a bh.ck of siindstone or carliorundum, after the forma have been removed, wiiich should be between six and forty-eight hours after phicing. To facilitate grinding, a wash of cement and sand mixed in the proportion of 1 to 2, should be used between the wall and the grinding stone. As lather forms it may bo washed off, and the grinding process continued after applying more cement and sand. Wlien rubbing is done with carborundum, a No. 10 stone is most appropriate for the first application, but the finishing should be done with a No. 30. This method is most suitable for fine mortar facing and when soft stone such as marble is used in the aggregate, the process being similar to that used in finishing a Terrazza floor. The cost should not exceed U to 2 cents per sciuare foot, or 4 cents, with carborundum. A variation of this method' is to cut the surface with sand rubbed on with a plasterer's float, using plenty of water, in which case a laborer can wash and clean 100 sq. ft. per hour. Picking.— This work can be done either by hand or pneumatic tools. Within three or four days after the concrete is placed a lal)orer can do four times as great an area as lie could when con- crete is only two weeks old. The costs are, therefore, as follows: Picking concrete t,. 24 hours old 1 cent per square foot Picking concrete 2 days old 2 to 3 cents per «,uare foot. Picking makes a rougher and coarser surface when green than when dry, and experience shows that one man with air tools can dross 400 to 500 sq. ft. per day. Scrubbing.— In this method, while the concrete is still green the surface is washed with stitf brushes to remove enough of the cement that the stone and aggregate may be plainly e.xposed. Aggregate in the facing mixture, v.hich should be at least 1 in. thick, may consist of pebbles, fine-crushed granite, trap rock, broken brick, or a mixture of several kinds of stone and these materials can be plainly exposed when a little of the cement is washed away (Figs. 73-78). The rate at which work can be done will depend largely on the hardness which the concrete has attained. For different climatic conditions, the time of form removal should be as follows: In hot weather, remove forms in 24 hours. In cooler weather, remove forms in 2 to 3 days. In cold and wet weather, remove forms in. 6 to 7 days. 136 ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES ■.■'^i>^;v■^;• ■■..•V Fig. 73.— Scrubbed and etched surface of 1-3 fine sand mortar. Fig. 74.-Scrubbed and etcl.cd surface of 1-3 coarse sand mortar. I'lG. 7.5— Scrubbed and etched surface of 1-3 smiH pebbli e mixture. :i«v,.^^r^'2?i- ^:kM~»sm: CONCRETE rvuface pjslw F.a. 7fl.-Scrubbed and etched surface of l-oj „,«tu„, of fine granite screenings. l-io. 77.-Scrubbed and etched surface of l-oj n^.ture coarM. granite screenings. Fio. 78.— Scrubbed and etchtd surface of 1-; 2i tnixture of coarse pebble i:{H i-:\ai.\i:i:f{i\lor, and the resn is a tn.'hfii! expre.s-.ion of coiKTete eon ■ruction exhibiting : it does, he \ct is imprc "d if. .itter Hc ilibin^. the .surface is waslied with hydroeiiloric : lid nii.\- d wiili five times its volume of water. This eleuns th( agpvf gate and brightens tlic color, but the face must afterward bo ihor- ouf:! 'v washi d with :. ho.se to avoid future diseolorat Any kind of liinestoiic "= marble wlii'di would be aitackt v aci ' eaniiot be used when etchiiif: is intend*'!, i'o rns Ni,Muld 1*; taken down only fust enough to ki i an h. ur's Tk ahead of the scrubbers, ami "H vertical siirfans this can l)i ..iranjreu by setting 'he studs oi t frui i the forms on i. locks, which ar> i.suy knocked ' it as needed, allowing \hb lioards to be l.iken ay. When doi •■ at the vv^\\i tin.e. a man cai s, rub i;H) •[. i per hour, though it i, take him two i ti\ • times .s i mg if the work is pbistering tli" iiiM'^ -of i.. \sith stiff (!:i\ I in. thicr.. aiui e -eddii^ of penhles of r.iniiom size. Liid (■!• loget poured in and tami)ed against ' fiu iuii. lunus, the forms arc removed u <• ■ 'ay brusli and ho-e, leaving: the jx'i .( - t .pose- l^art of the concrete wail. Acid Etching. — The < \tcrior filn f cement <>!; 'onirete wall; nuiy also l)e n noved wliolly l)y ac tc Jiing. but the acid must lie used witl are, f..r if not thoroi lily wa.-i i off afterward, diecoloratio!: '1 de\f!op. ^\■|i: p. ti^is n!-!M-f. intended, the aggregate m . ont u no limest ! or as these would ove. '1 be "orui . ".rds i tiie clay !■, er Co; te i. .en After '. enty-aiur shed aw ;, with wl. h lire now COSruETE SUHl Mh' FI.MSIl ];{<) ho attacked n.*J .l,.,„n.pos. < I,y .ui.I. Kith,.,- J,v,i ...Mori^ .t Milphuric a.Kl ,n..y I). us<.,i. tlimmh the former i. „Miallv ptv- feri-,1, un.i tJ.- -tror.Kth ^vill .l.perul upon the a^o of the coni- eoii.rote is only two days old, the arid niay Ik; •r .SIX time« its •, „iu,„e „f water, but when' ■. id ' ,11. i lie twi.-e iis stronjr. At tlu- er ,f ho mixture shouhl (onit.ine one j).irt of acid .v i, ' water, iid 'lie liquid may he allowed to remain on the . f' r th 'ty inutcs before wa.shin«; it awav. ' .nrrete •'^ ie wiiJi while sa...t and fine eru.shed stone, after bei. - ettdicd ^ way to remove fh- outer film of cement, give.i the appear- .tBf'> of fine fini-hed whi - stone. po.-iii ion. dilui Wee I thin two sun Wli d with hv. old, tlie dav! niAPTKR X COST OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS' The most recent ro])()rt of specific costs of reinforced concrete factory buildinjis is that presented at tlie convention of the National Association of Cement Users in Alarcli, 1U12. Tliese custs in (h'tail are jiiven in Tabic IX. From this table it appeai-s that the average cost of single- story buildinfis with saw-tooth roof is .$1.77 per square foot"^ of " ■ '^"•'•*^'' ^'f""*-^ Pt'i- t-'i'-Ji' foot of contents, while the averafie cost of biiildinfrs with mou; than one story is SI. 12 per scpiare foot or 8.7 cents j)er cubic foot of contents. These fi^-ures are on the complete building with plumbin- but they do not include heatm-r, li-htii,n, sprinkler .system, elevators or power eijuip- ment. The s.piare foot j)rices were obtained by dividing the total cost of the buildin- by the ixiiiriv cost of concrete, steel'. laltor and forms is as follows: Concrete, cM)st.s HI |ht cent, of (!». totiil Sl.i-f. costs 17 per (M-nt. of tlic total I.al.or. ,,.Ms .'fl per <',.|it. of (lie total rorriis, costs :i:i |"-r cent, of the total Total IOC, percent. ' II. (i. lyrreli, in hiiyiiarruiy .\h„j,izi„f, Jnv.o, 1012. 140 COST OF UEINh^OItCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS 141 m g c >^ a »j I < i K I Q Sfi 1-4 U & w c a — '^ to « -; r^ t CI h. C t; O t>. In. U5 M S .: tc § ■3 Q 'S - o S V . -c c o 2 - X - [2 — £ S i" '2 c: 10 LO in o -r — _. C u; c 1(5 r» I- -. af p; S ■ -r lO c - 1- > _. — — ^ . .i ^1 Ti CI ri Ti — CI S ?i — . ~ xxxxxxxxxx X i s Jf L: T '' '-f « = « w • -i' ? 'C C S ir^ — i« •^ r* 10 to CI c CI CI -J CI CI -« ■- ■t* CI -* lO CI CI ^- «H ci tc — lO i >. X i iO ci SO c :2 r2 £ ^' J I _| ^ J : J -f CI ^36 Z Tl J! S ? ^ ? ■ « - CI CI re CI - .o ■ CI X ^. X X X X X : X 2 I-: .0 ■? J io £ -2 Ci - - . « .S t^ c 5- -^ C 0) C' t c * tc J S r X i = 3 = = g -g € g 1 g fc _ . »- ^ Ct, ^ ,*5 CB X 7j X 142 ENGINEERIXG OF SHOPS AXD FACTORIES TAUi.i: X.— COST OF C()\ciii:ri: nun.niMis Typo Place T()lal (•list llf I.Mk, Store I .Viishiiii . II .spilal ^ Huffali). . . IXIicc Kvercit Cold siiirc- 1 Hostori Factory ; Chfl«ra Factory [ Cambridge. . Storchoii-,(> I Saco Factory , ; rrovidence. . (Jffioe j Jarksoii villi- Factory | Cairihri.lKe. . Factory i Caiiil)rid)?e. . (141 60 61 200 19, Ml, "6, 01, 1.16, l.t.i, Factory. Cainhridge. . Office 'Portland- 181 Factory | (irwTifiel.l. . . Factory ; SouthbridKC . Factory Attldioro. . . ('■arage I Brooklimv . . Filter j Lawrence. . - . Fire .sln'iiri I Weston 01)servui,.ry ' .Miliim Filler Lawrence. ,S00 ,646 Ojl 2U2 ,.")29 ,700 ,.-i77 ,880 ,061 ,001 23,.'>..2 12 ■41 39. 10. 1!1,' 6, 3, 20, 194 771 652 S.TO 436 ,993 57 62,^ 078 Volume in cubic (eet 1,711,100 703,092 406,780 l,.'>3.-j,000 212,1(X) 1 ,329,868 1,110,000 1 ,3,S0,.T(XJ 693,840 10.1,6{X) 1,211,361 180,000 1 ,36.->,800 112,410 716,674 312,000 I.W.IQS 1 19,2,jO 44,20r, 9,731 .50,991 Floor area, sii ft. 168,090 $.O.S27 57,6.-,l .0863 j 39,840 .124 1, 54 ,000 .13 1.5,(HX) .091 106,000 .107 116,000 .06.S5 90,240 .067 t 56,552 .197 8,8(X) .121 75,004 .062."> lfl,.t94 .129 00,174 . 133 7,.519 .lit 49,516 .060 21.!»60 .127 10,806 .085 19,208 .134 2,982 .1.53 657 .373 5,213 .333 Cftsts Cu. tt. . Sq. ft. $.84 1.05 1..515 1.30 1.28 1.3,35 ..575 1.01 2.42 1.485 1.01 1.42 2.00 1.70 .;k)2 1.60 1.23 1.04 2.26 5.45 3.82 .\veraKe. Tlii.s analy.sis u.ssumo.s that niaterial.s can ho dclivorc' at the sito (III cars, and tliat form hiniher can ho u.sed twico .\.s two- thirds of till' total co.st is for lahor and forms, and one-third for the forms alono, it is oconomi'-.' i v.liorc time will permit, to use forms more than twico, or as often as t ho luml)or will last. Repe- tition and duplication of forni.s are, in fact, the greatest factors in c()st reduction, and the de-sign .should he so made that this in possii)le. The average cost of forms ohtained from a different sot of records from those given ahovo, is, for floors with heams, girders and .slal)s, 10 cent.s per sciuarc foot, and for flat slah flt)ors without l)oams 7 cents per square foot. The correspond- ing cost of column forms is Vi cents per .stiuare foot. The cost of hending and placing roinforcing stool, including wire me.sh in slahs, varies from $5 to 817 per ton, the average hein; u -nit ?10 per ton. A reinforced concrete Ijuilding designed hy the writoi , "i .;. wide and 88 ft. long with S(>von .stories and hasoment and .")0v.,0()0 ou. ft. of contents, cost Sl.l.l per .siniaro foot of floor, or 9.1 cents per cubic I'uol uf contenis. The floors were proportioned for COST OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS 143 H a cj c c tx ." cr. i c B :.> t™* rr t 1 -I- o C t. CJ IS -3 »5 s < « c b C a. < S'. n » 2 9 "5 *J5 ?5 ft i t- S! t- —4 CI =5 ^ ^3 2 ^ i? ^' ^ I oi ?^ O X '^ ci r* s'So'SaE'S I S I § I i ,;: c -5 O - i^ -N i 2 2 '" '- o 6 3 c c - ~ o J 2 "* tr iJ ? «s '" ^ ^ 2 c S i>- — C O .^ 10 » M ~I ^ :2 ::; 5 ^ = s 3 3 :^ ^ C'l M 7-1 r-i n = S S S 5 * ^ ^ K^ X ri :C fc -* j"! C -J — 10 3r t, O O O S i 5 g = |3 § 5 - s :S c •£ ;o J ^ ;« »3 ^ w "-■ C/i (;/< F-» ii< ^ if I. 3t: Ml KSaiXKERlSd OF SIIOl'S AXD FACTORIES :i total load of 200 11>. jior s. \ ;ind by contractors who are only occasioiudly employed on such work, the cost is likely to e.\ceed tiie niiiiiniuiu prices given above, and amount to $1.30 per .siiuaie foot for buildings of three stories or more, to IJl.CO per s-in. cement finish, costing .SI. 2.") per sepiare foot, would witli cement finish on 2-in. cinder concrete, cost about SI. 30 per scjuare foot, and S1.3.J per sq. ft. with ; maple on 2-in. cinder concrete, with a concrete floor .slab in each case. (Sec Con- crete Floors.) A two-story reinforced concrete factory building 100 ft. square, at Walkerviile, Ontario, with (i-in. curtain walls, and columns K; ft. -axkxvX in lioth directions, cu.^i conq^lete, including concrete, rods and forms, •'JIO.SS per cubic yard of concrete in place. ^.. r?:3>^ V «Ji&'W^'^-^iF^<$voriiiiij; considora- tioii, for in tlicsc liincs of laific cntcrprisfs, any rca.soiialilc invest iiiciil is |)crini>sili|(> whicli will result in ultimate economy, when the expcMises of maintenance, depreciation, interest and insurance are considered. The selection of a building type is, iiuleed, a choice of th(> most profitai)lc investment. The annual tleprcciation of v.ood mill huildinjis is usually assumed at 1 to \\ percent, of their first cost, and the corre- sponding depreciation of coiu'rete l)uildin<;s would proi)al)ly not exceed half of 1 per cent., thoufjh on this suhject there is little reliable information as the type is comparatively new. Oscilla- tion and vil)ratinn in huildinu; frames of wood and steel, cause a further loss in machinery repairs and increased power, which is variously estinuited at 1/2 to 1 per cent, of tlieir first cost, and this loss is avoided hy the use of rifjid framinn; such as ccmcrete. Fireproof types have a sli-jht advantage also over wood constr-M- tion in the matter of sanitation and lijiht, for more wall area is available for windows, and rats, mice and other vermin luive less chance to collect and live. In comparing the first cost of buildings in wood mill construc- tion and in reinforced concrete, it will be found that their relative cost varies with the locati to ;iO per cent, less than reinforced concrete, while in districts where wood is scarce, the two types may be nearly e(iual. The com|)arison depends also on the size of the Iniilding, for large ones have often lieen found to c«)st about the same in either material, and small ones are sometimes more rxpensive bj- 150, 40 or .")0 per ctiit. in reinforced concrete than in wood. Tlie required 'loor cajjacity also affects the comjjarison. Light loads with louf, spans are cheaper in wood mill construction' than in reinforced corn'rete, the cost of the two types being nearly ecpial in large buildings with I'OO-Ib. ' posed loads pei' scpiare foot, and colunui spacing of IS to 20 . With loads of 300 to oOO lb. I)er s(|uure foot, concrete bicmn. ihe cheaper, and the saving increases rapid y with greater loads of 1000 to IJOO lb. per sc(uare foot. A concrete building designed hy the writer and containing about oOO.OOO cu. ft., was found to cost 17 per cent, more than , •'^*AVx:»p*ijni, t w'''-: ' ,':^ir *.*^A IVOOD, COSCRErE ASD STEEL BUILDISCS 119 one in wood mill constructior., and al)oiit the samo as a building with complete interior fireproofed steel frame, solid walls and wood floorn. It was in Ohio, and the total floor load, inclu.ling both hv(! and dead, was 200 lb. per s,,uare foot. (See Tyrrcirs Mill Huildinf,'s, p. GJ.) As a general rule, therefore, it will be found that reinforced concrete in the Northern States, costs about the s;une as wood for large l)uildings, worth .SL'.-)0.000 or more, with heavy loads Those worth $2.-),(KK) to S1(K),0()0 will usuallv cost 10 to 20 per cent, more in concrete than in wo(.d, ami small structures, espe- cially for light loads, may be cheaper in wood by 30, 40, or even .iO per cent. The following table gives a miscellaneous lot of bids and esti- mates on manufacturing buildings, with comparative costs in wood mill construction and in reinforced concrete. It will ])o Been that tlie costs in most cases are from 1 to 27 per cent higher in concrete than in wood, though two of them are cheaper in concrete. TABLK XII-COMPAItATIVK COST OF WOOD MM.!, roVSTRUCTIO.V WD iu;i\K)uci;d co.ncuktk iiiiii.Di.viis Kind F;i(!tr)ry. . . . I-'actury. Factory. . . . Factory. Factory Warehouse Warehouse Warehouse Warehouse I'rt'ss Mciff HaktTy.. Shop ... Sho„ . . . <'osI of Co t of CoiKTl'tO I I'lae,. ; '"^•' s,„n., ';""' „.„„, e.u.cr-,.. "'"'" '" ''- I , bl.l«. , l,ld«. , >"-^«-d !'''"■"''■ •■' •■*"" »-8.20O f2H.:m I 1 ..5 n.orc I.T.sey City. . 60X110 5 L'lX) iL'.iHHI Mm) 7.1 more '.run, Ka„.,l., ... ,s.-,„«„, ,s«,(XX) ! 1 .;t ,„„ro FallR,v..r. 112X111', 1 . . 7 1,,«K) si,.^M, , ,o.:i .m.rn Mui.cheslor. «X100 I r, . r,2m) 7--,(K)(l i L'7 7 more ""■'"» 20X1.W !) . :i2.m) luo.mx) ' »i..ii,..s8 ■f.wy City. . .-WX «l fi i'(K) .(•(.(HK) 4:i,000 O..'!.„ore I iltsburg. 100X120 l oi,.VK, fi:,,6,K) .j.:, „„,„. \.i.,h.m... 100X20(J 8 . ii7,0(J0 1:U,0(H) 10.7 luor.- ... . . ■ ■• I.Onioro (MI 220 7,700 $<),:S(M) Tlic rcinfnicfd ((.iicri'to huildiii}' co.stinK S11(),(X)0 will then liiivc ii iiiaiiitcnimcc ciLst of 82100 per year, or "J.l per cont. less than the wooden oiu- at $100,000, and thi.s ditTcrcncc of $2100 at per cent., is intere.st on .$3.'),(M)0. It would, therefore, he per- nii.ssihle to invest an additioind ?;jr),()00 on a eonerete buildinji, to make the two types of equal idtiniate (ost. A eonerete huild- inj; co.sting ?1 1.'),000 or 1,") pei eent. more, has therefore no greater ultimate cost than a wooden one at .$HM),(K)0. In comparing the cost of fireproofed .steel construction with reinforced concrete, complete framing and e.vterior curtain walla being considered in l)oth cases, it will be found that for imposed floor loads of 1")0 lb. per square foot or more, concrete will be cheaper than steel by 5 to 20 per cent., depending on condition-^. For light loads, the coat of the two types will be nearly equal, and in some ca.ses with very light load and long spans, steel framing will be slightly cheaper. One-story buildings over large areas are best when framed in steel. -V comparison made by tiie writer, on a building costing about ■'i.'jO.OOO, for total floor loads of 200 lb. per s, COSCRKrE ASD STHHL HVlU)I\ilS 151 TAB!.i; XIII luMi-AKATivi: fosT (tF nuiLDixcs IX iti:i.\Fom'i;i> fov- CHDTE AND IN dlEKL' Kind Place Si»o CoMt of Sto- Loaui« . 120X140 I 8 St. I^uiii.. I 11 Ohio f 12 SprinRfield 105X283 9 a 1 200 3 2(X) 10 200 70 70 125 70 70 200 l.V) teo.eoo 23,000 2S0,tX)0 170,000 278,200 90,(XX) 89,.500 7i>3,000 171,000 2U0.000 40,000 280,(J00 tB9,7SO 28,000 280,(X)0 184,000 286,400 K7,;t00 i 06.000 823,000 I 181.000 , 304,000 1 letis than 320.000 ! 13'-. Ie« . 10.7 lew. . 10.7 lew... 7.AI«M . 4.0 leiM. .. 2.8 leai... ^t . 3 more 0.8 lew . 3.6 lew. . 7.0 less. 4 . 6 lesd. steel 12..'5 1ei«... Kit. Bid Bid Hid Bid Bid Bid Bid Bid Bid Bid Bid Bid proofed steel frame and solid bearing walls, co.st 19 per cent, more than wood. If the first building mentioned above had a reinforced concrete floor, its cost would be 37 per cent, more than wood mill construction, while the corresponfling cost of the second one with reinforced concrete floor would Ijc 26 per cent, more. ' J. P. II. Terry, in Engineering Magazine, July, 1911. CIIAPTKU XII FOUNDATIONS Permanoni hiiildinjrs sl.niil.I hiivo siihstiintijil foundations, for on (Ih-iii dejn'Uil.s tia- .stal.ilily of tlic wliol.^ cii-ction. Und.-r tliiM heading is considorod the siilj-stmta or soil on Vliicii tlic I'uilding stands as woll as the footing ((.iir.scs or masonry below ground level. Foundations fur factory building's are usually not difficult, for a site will have hetn selected witli due regard for economy in this direction, so the subject will be discussed only briefly. Any effort at exhaustive treatment would in itself, fill a vyhole volume. Foundations must be provided not only for the buildiiifis, but also for maciiinery, yard cranes, water towers an.l other works al)out the plant, and enou-1, foresioht must be i.-ed to provide spa<-e or openings throu-:h tiie walls for power tunnels or for lines of pij.e, sewers, service mains or conduits. Loads.— The loads which the foundations must sustain can be computcil approximately from i)icliminarv 1 lildins plans, and from tli.' wei^'ht ..f machinery and appliances ^ re" ported by their makers. Floor loads v, ill have been .-stabiiMied, and these, t(.^ether with their dead weight, will be tt .nsmitted throu-rh the framin- to the grouii.i. Fr..ni the kiun u weifiht of mas(mry and other buildin- mat. rials and the approximate rules for weijiht ..f framinj; as jiiven in previou chapters, the total wei-ht .m the M.il can be .Utermined. Impact from cranes and machinery, to the extent of :,() to 100 per ci-iit of the live load, must in som^ cases be added, and sometimes the over- turnnif; effect of wind on the leavard side. Bearing Power of Soils.— The best method of determining the safe bearin- powci' of soils, is by loa.lin-; small known arearand observing the settlement . f n many cases this mav not be neces- sary, -AS an experienced builder can decide the matter l)v insp<-.- tion or by very simple examination. But when tlierc is am doubt, tests or borings should be made. So many buildings have been permanently injured I'V xuu'von settlonicnt, that it is iolly to assume risks in this direction when the condition of the 152 ^^'^mi^msmr. FOUSDATIOXS ,-,3 pro.m.i ran easily he four at .lii^ht expense. WI.en soun.lh.us are .le.iral.le, ti,.y shoul.i made under the siw „{ - 1 ,■ ,„„p,w,.,l }>u.lclinK ami not Minply • ,.r it. The be.st nio.h.,,1 ..f (li.,uv.-r- ing su.l .unditmns is hy u ..,.g test pits, th"Uj;h a ,,uici?e wood auge, fastened to a rod or F)i|>e. The test pit gives the jireatest <.ppoi unity for exaiiiitiin^r tl„. .strata For the purpose of takhi- soundings, .se.tions of pipe ul,o.ifc IJinnn-s .lian.eter, ean l.e driven into il... gn.und with the assistance' of a water jet whei m-.e.ssarv, the driving Imm,,. ;l,„.e with a u MHlen maih-t. The upper end of the pipe shoui.l he pioteete,! hy a eap, and new s,-. tions of j.ipe n.av he spli,.,.,i ,s needed. ' The sah' h,,.aring vahie of diffen-nt kinds of soil, as us<-,i hy the I nited States government engineers, is as foihnvs: TAUI.i: .\iv \^"^^ ■, -'00 tons per K.|u«ri< f< ot Gravel, cem.M.to.! s to 10 tons jxt s,,uur.> l.^.t Sand, comiuiot anr ^,,,mr.. ,„ot Sand, onhnarj- -' to 4 ton« jht s,,uaro foot IryHtiffclay 4 to G tonn ,H>r s,,uar,.. f.n.t M.MleratWy dry clay. li „. 4 tons ,H'r M.uare foot ,P: ;■""'' 1 to 2 tons ,K^r N.|.iare foot Quicksand an.l wot soil ... 1 2 to 1 ton jht s,|uare foot Tl o hearing power of .soils may .sometimes he increased hy drain- i^'v. Mr coinpressing the eari^ . . •• a firm,.,- .tra.a n.av l.^ found •I. -• ater depth. In of lier , ..- ilcs „u,y he driven " Area on the Soil.-Fr,.„, v, - n:re of the ground as revealed j .. soundings or test . • . u . .^,. oearing load per square foot can l.e determined, and fro. , tv weight of the huilding as found l,y computation, the area of ha.se can he proportioned. Founda- tion loads are rarely assumed greater thru 1 to 2 tons per square In propMi-tioning tlie foundation area to the load upon it an effort need not he made to elimin.ate all .settlement, hut rather to so plan :he huilding that whatever .settlement does take place, will he un.form. With this in mind it will he .seen that it i. often as great a. ...jury to make some parts too large as it would be to make them small, for they would then not settle at the same rate Ho,-k foundation is satisf,,tory whon it underlies the whole building, though cranes and maehinerv may run ea.sier when founded on earth or timber. Hock under' «omo parts nua UA E\GIS'KKliI\G OF SHOPS A\D FACTORIES earth under otlier parts, is not desinible, for the first is unyield- ing while cartli will compress, to some extent. Tiierefore, in pasainj; from rock to earth, the footing courses should be spread out over the softer material so the pressure per square foot on the soil adjoining the rock will be less than it is further away. jSloping rock must be dressed off into horizontal 8tei)s. Loam is seldom reliable, and sand, gravel and hard pan are the best, for they are firm and can easily be drained. Trenches through earth and clay shoidd have layers of sand and gravel rammed in solid to fill the whole width of trench from side to side. Soft strata overlaid with a layer of hard material, G to 8 ft. thick, is usually safe. Till" footings must be far enough under ground to be below the reach of frost, and should go down to the original bed below any recent filling. The cost of excavation without shoring will bo about as follows: General oxcnvation in soft material, costs 25 to .50 cents per cul)ic yard. Treiicli excavation in soft inateriiii, costs 50 to 100 cents jht cubic yard. Trencli excavation in rock material, costs $1.00 to $2.00 jht cubic yard. Foundation Walls. — lirick should be clean and wet before laying, and basement walls should recci\-e two coats of tar on the exterior before filling earth in behind them. Continuous walls are freciuently the best, especially when columns are fairly dose together, but separate piers are cheaper when they are far apart. Piers. — Interior columns may be arranged to deliver their loads (1) on a solid slab of concrete covering the whole shop ba.-sement, (2) on separate concrete bases extending over to the adjoining wall colunuis, or (3) on independent interior piers. The first of the.se methods was used in ^'^80 in i .^ nv England mill 50 by SO ft. in plan, a solid mass of ci. ■ 'rcte / hick being placed under the whole building, but a more nr .jrn and im- proved method is shown in Fig. 80, Individual piers should have se- <'ra! oITiset footing courses (Fig. 81) rather than building them as truncated concrete cones (rig. 82), for in the fir.st methotl the forms are more easily made. The projecting courses should l)e small enough so they will not crack, and succ(>ssive layers should generally spread out at an angle not exceeding 30 degrees with the vertical. Spread con- crete footings can also be made in octagonal form with plain or roughened reinforcing bars in fo\ir directions. Bars may gener- FOUNDATIONS 155 ally be J to I in. diameter, and 3 to 12 in. apart. Other bases may be made with beams or track rails in two directions embedded in concrete, or timber foundations can be used in places where they will be always wet or always dry When section A- 8 Fia. 80.— Foundation slal) for a building over quicksand. Stone i.s used in piers, it must li(> flat on its natural bed, but on account of their b.-tter Ijoml, hard brick's or concrete are prefer- able. Piers should be large enough so the pressure on them will not exc.'cd 250 lb. per square inch on stone, or 150 to 20C fiJ 150 K\GL\Ef-RI.\(; OF SHOPS A.\D F.U'TOIilES lb. on brick, and tlicy .sl,„„Ul l,o c'.pped with a block of cut -stone fine moulded coricrcK , or cast iron. Tlie tliicknesH of masonry caps should not lu' less than one-fifth of their lon^jest side. Notwithstanding j^eneral rules, each ca.se must have separate thuuK!:t and study, for it may i.,-ed some special treatment. Piles.— lioarin- pih-.s may bo eitlicr of wood or concrete, -ind biiect piles of wood or steel. The top of wooden piles shoul.l always be umier water to prevent decay, because timber rots when alternatelv wet and dry. They shoui.l generally \ye .iriven until tlie peiu^t ration under the last blow of a 2()()0-lb. lianuner does not e.xceed 1 in flu.u^il, tins ,.s not an ab.sohite rule, for in certain places as aIonaie load, m pounds, = ,~ . S+\ In both of the abov.", JI' is the weidit of hammer ia pound.s // is the fall of the hammer in feet, and S is the penetialiuii in inches under the last blow. J'lies .lependiii'-, on fiiction will iienerally safely support 10 to 1") tons each. thoii>,di never more tiian IM t(,ns. They should have .an iron ring fit.ed over their liead wlien there is a tViuU'ncy t" split, and they may also hav(> pointed cast-iron shoes when nece.s.sary, tiiou-h this adds to the expeiusc and is oft.^n no better than pnintin- the pile it>..lf. They can be driven 2'. to.'Ut. apart, and when .sawed (.tflevel, they .should be capped with timber jirillafie or a .solid .sjai) of concrete 2 to :5 ft. thick e.xtendinfr down over the pile hea.\l)ressed for wood over jiny otiicr kind of wearing surface. Tin*' llooring is i)erhaps tlie best when the life has not all been tapped out of tlie tree before sawing it into boards. Flooring boards for upper surface should not exceed 3 to 4 in. in width, and they should have hollow backs and be laid in the direction of the greatest travel. Seven-eighth-inch flooring is (piitc as good as one aiul one-eighth, for when the thinner boards are worn away enough for renewal, it would also bo time to replace the thicker one. Maple wearing .surface in short lengths is satis- factory, for it can be easily repaired. Two layers of tar paper should be placed between the upper and lower courses. The lower course shoulil preferably span two bays or panels for the sake of greater .strength or stiffness. Planks 3 in. thick or more should have splines rather than tongue and groove, though when floors are used for trucking, the upper boards should have S(piare edges, as grooved edges break under heavy loads and wlii'cls. Blind or edge nailing interferes with repairs and is, therefore, not desirable. Four-inch planks should have 7-in. steel spikes, one keg of 100 lb, being enough to lay 1200 scj. ft. of floor. All wood floors liavc the disadvantage that water used in cleaning tJK'm will soak into the cracks and cause the boards t<- cxpiind and form ridges. It is important, therefore, to devise methods for preserving them, one good process being tiiat of ( i-eosoiiiig. In this process, the wood is first dried and tlic crc.isote oil is then forced into it under a pressure of 150 lb. per s(|uare inch. Unseasoned timber must remain unpainted, for paint on siuh material is wor.sc than none at all. .After two or three years, when the wood is dry, it should receive three coats of oil paint. The timber mu.st also be well ventilated to pre- vent (lest tint ion from dry rot. A very cheap and temporary floorismade l)y placing 3-in. plank on iialf-round timbers, .i ft. apart, embedded in to 8 in, of cin- der,-, tlie wood being cua-.-d on the under side with lime. Its cost is very low, being oniv .'>0 rents j)er scpiare yard. A floor similar to this with 2-in. plank on chestnut .slabs, embedded in ffii-Ji GROUND FLOORS kjj Kravol over inado Kn-Mul, .l..,.uy.d witl.in a y.ar, a.,,1 .Iutc- aftor al,..ut l.alf of i, was n-pla.-cd annually. L ll .. i,,..'.... a" v..uu.y was ano.iu.- (l.,or .i,h 2-in. plank ,.„ 'A l.v 12-in jo sH ' " n-ncwa for twdv. yans. A floor .i,..ilar to tho.so d.d 1 bj J-in spliiu-s, was used in the Santa IV- Kuilwiv Hhops, the maple flooring being .spiked to 3 by 4-in. vello^- l^ locpers 18 m. apart, embe.lded in G in. of 'concrete. In 'is ra^e the comrc-to and sleepers without the flooring cost 8 t 9 cents per s.p.are foot. In the McKees liock.s railroad sh 1 >v.re conduits were placed below the door ai *'" • ""''^ ft., for receiving the light and , layer of concrete 4 in. thick was fir five sheets of tarred felt in h tervals of 'A power wires for the machines. .V ■St spread and co\-eml with iiH'h of band. On this 1 ot tar, over which w and filled between with .yerof sand,4 hv 4- coursi! "f 2|-in. pine plank, and more .sand, over whici is spread an lors were laid 1 was spiked a sleep !i wearing surface of 1, tongue and groove maple. Tlie railway shops at I -in. 'arsons, Kan. 102 KSGlSKI'JIilSa OF SIIOI'S AXD FACTORIES have a snmowhat .similar floor except ing that the wearirif; .sur- face i.s i \>y 1 |-in. white oak witli a hiyer of roofing felt he- twcen the upper aiul lower cour.se.s. The 3 by 4-iii. yellow pine sleepers were treated i)y the zinc i)roce.s.s to jjreserve fheni, and the space between them filli-d with dry .sand. They were laid on an inch of sand and tar over a G-in. bed of broken .stone. Floors of this general lype with .slight modifications are numerous, nhowing the favor with wl.icli they are n-ceived. One man will lay '1\ siiiuires (J.JO si], ft.) per day of eight hour.s on upjier floors including the hoisting, and three scpiares per day at street levi'l. Laying sleepers co.sts $■{ to $4.."iO per thousand feet, board measure, and 3-in. flooring about $',i per thousand. \<>. 1, Y.P. 1! X(>-iii tonpup ami rtoovp, posts ?S to .*10 p<'r s-iii., toM);up!in laiil. 6 X i-iii. Y.f'., tonnuo !iii [ht siiiian; luid. 4X Jin. W.f'.. loiiuuo :iri(l j:nM)vp, costs .*.s.,')() to SIO ]wr scpiaro luiil. -I ^ j.;-'"- clear niaplo, tongue ami groovp, co.sts $fl to $13 per .sipiaro laid. Floors of Tar-concrete and Wood. — \n exc(>llent shop floor consists of a bar'e of concrete and tar or asphalt, with a wood wearing surface. Over a mixture of tar, the wood is preserved, while o\-er cement concrete it decays (piickly, and over dead air .space, it succumbs to dry rot. .\ floor of concrete and tar with wood top is solid, without vibrati.)iis, tools do not break when they fall, and machines may be screwed to the floor any- where. It is nearly firepr\ pensive, and will last from twenty to t wenty-fiv year- while the wood top makes it comfortable to walk uixm. It is laid by first s|)reading a 4 in. layer of screeneii CTavel or stone not larger than 2^ in., mixed with tar. The tis i shonlil be lieated to 200'^ l'\, and enough adiled so the mixture will be compact when rolled, tlie amount of tar re(iuired for difTen>nt kind.s of aggregate being as f')llows: Stono 2^ in. to 1 in fliatn, uso. Stone '_*J in. to J in, callons of tar p. ' r the t.-ir is added. Over hard ground, .' oi 3 ui. of tarreu .- 'no uw be (IHOUND FLOORS 1G3 enough. No economy mnults from usinp; rintlor.s or «imd in prp- fcrciu'o to 8? fine for t lie hot torn covering, for cimierH re.(uire 1 *> gal- lons of liir i-.TcuLic yard, and sand, -'() gallons. Htonc at $1.2r)p(.r (•ui)ic yard iias, therefore, no greater ultimate cont than cinders at ")0 cents per yard. In some cases, 4 to (i in. of cement con- crete is ii.sed for a hawe course, instead of the t ar-concrete above specitieil, hut when this i.s done, it should receive a coat of tar hefore laying the sand. Over this base of concrete is spread a 1-in. layer of sand ami tar, mixed in the proportion of 50 to (iO gallons of tar to each yard of sand. This mixture should he lieated to 2_>,r F., sjjread \\ in. thick and roiled down to 1 in. While it is yet warm and soft, a layer of .3-in. plank is embedded therein, over which is laid a top wearing surface of maple. The cost of a door made of cinders and 'ar 0-in. deep, overlaid with ;{-in. pla!»k on .'5 hy l-in. sleepers, Iti in. on centers, embedded on the cinders, is as follows: Cii licr.s anil tiir S ci-nfs jM-r wiuaro foot ^^ ^^ 10 Cf iits per sijuaro foot In the above, one barrel of tar was used with eight barrc . ■ /' cinders. With tar at $1' to %:, per barrel, the cost of these iuwn should not exceed 'Jt to 30 cents per square foot. A floor of this kind in a shop tor the Boston and Albany Railroad Com- pany, with a 4-in. layer of coal-tar-concrete, overlaid with one iiu'h sand and \-\\\. rooting pitch, with two layers of spruce plank, 2i and U in. thick, cost in 18i»8 only 18 cents per square foot, \\ithout the wood work, the cost of base with stone, sand and tar should not exceed 10 to 13 cents per souare foot. ^ This type of floor has been used with many modifications. In one shop cement concrete was laid G to ]'> in. thick, with 4 by 4-in. wood strips endx-dded therein 2 ft. apart. Over the strips and concrete, was 8i)read a layer of fine sand and coal tar, in which the lower plank course of 2-in. fongue and groove yellow pine was laid and nailed. The w_ smg surface in this case was 4 by 1 '-in. maple with square edge. Owing to the splitting of matched flooring under trucks, and the difficidty of rep;>.iiii;g it. .sipiare edge i)oards are frequently preferred for the upper 'ourse. Cement-concrete Floors. Floors of cement-concrete should be laid sin:! ir to u good sidewalk pavement, with cement and ill til let i:\i;l\ FHIM. I IF SWU'S AM) FACTOIilKS u^KrcKui.' iiiixj'tl ill alx'iit tlio mimo proportion. In (Ictormiiiins tlu' proportion of inati rial.-s for tho iiHKr»'gut<', a ' irrcl slioultl he filled with Irnkcn .-'inc, or tlic largest matoriol, ami tlic iuiiount of water tliat ( uii lie added to ilie " irrel thus filled, representn tlie amount of jiravcl or liiie-erusii stono that it will hold. This amount ,' its hulk re|)resents the amiuuit of .sand needed. In tl '• same way, tiie recpiireil amount of .sand should he placiil in another ve.sMei, aiul the amount of water that it can he nuido to hold will reprisi'iit the re(iuircil amount of eement. In order to h i\(' all vnids in the largpr material well filled hy the finer ones, It is well in each case to increase tho amount of finer material hy ahcmt 25 per cent, over the theoretical amounts found hy the above tests. For makiufr these experiments, it maybe more convenient to u.-e a box of exactly one or two cubic feet capacity, and the proportion by wei;;ht may be determined hy weij;hin>; the injrredients as found from the above experiments. To obtain the proper density for a water tifiht floor, the proportion of cemt i.i shoidd jienerally be not less than 1 part of cement with 2\ of sand and 41 of larjter aggre- gate, thoujih in some cases a tiglit floor has been made with a leaner mi\t ure at a pniporticnately less cost. Unscreened material from a sand and ;riavel bed are sometimes used, but as their relative iiniounts Mif tmrertain, it is usually better to mix them in definite known piHpuitious. One ha'it'l of cement contains 3.8 cu. ft., and when mixed as liirected above, tho concrete will cover an area of 100 .sq. ft., '2\ in. dcrp. Tlie lit pth (if excavation and filling under the concrete will depend . u the nature of the subsoil and hxal loiulition, as well as on the carrj-ing capacity of tho floor, a wet .-loil rtHpiiring a greater deptli of broken stone for drainage. A heavy floor may be strong enough to support large macliines placed anywhere, while a lightei' one may require special machini! foundations. As a general guide for laying concrete floors, the following din lions are given. First, excavate the soil to a depth of lo to 22 in. below the fmished unule level. Then sjjre.ul a layer of broken stone 8 to 12. in deej), over which lay 4 to G in. of grav 1 or crushed stone, thoroughly tamped .r.u. I'olled. Then spiead a layor of concrete 2 to 4 in. thii i win. u uuisl be covered while il is still G HO I'M) FLOOliS 165 grwn with a wearing surface \ tu 2 in. thitk (1 in. being tho UHUal) conipiweil (»f cement and Haml in tlie pmportion of 1 to 1, or 1 to 2. It may bo colored if desired, and Hlio\iid be leveled off with a straight edge aiul marked into Hd, for if dry, the upper course will wocm crack and di-sintegnite. The floor should be protected for about thirty-six hours, after which it is ready for use. Instead of using 12 to 18 in. of broken stone and gravel as specified above, a depth of 5 to (i in. may be enough in some cases for light floors and well drained 8ul)8oil, tlie cost of this lighter construction being 12 to 20 cents per square foot. .\ concrete slab G in. thick with J-in. burfaco finish, supported on a well-drained base of gravel or broken stone, has been found satisfactory for round hou.ses, though somewhat difhcult tu repair. Tiie cost of a floor with \-h\. surface over a 2-in. concrete base, is as follows: (Vment 30 conts jxt KijuMro y;inl HtoTK! and wiikI 10 e laid at the rate of UK) »<{. ft. per (la> of eight hours for each man em{)loyed, the cost per scpiare foot being Miitorials o e,.„ts [kt s<|U!iri> f.M)t I-abor 2 wilts |M>r sipiare foot. Total 11 cents jht «0 to 11.75 per cubic yard, the cost MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART .ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2) 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ IIIIM IIIIM 1,^ i£ III 2.2 i^ 1^ llliM i~ , II ''^ 1.4 1.6 ^ II ^ APPLI ED I M^GE Inc S^S 'Rochester. Ne« YofH U609 u'jA ''^ '''6) *e; - OJOO - Phone ^^ ■ ^16} 288 - ^989 i^j. 166 ENGINEEIUXi. OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES of c'onfiete may be taken at 20 to 25 cents per cubic foot, and a 1-in. surface finish at o to G cents per scpiare foot. A 1-in. finisli over a G-in. concrete -base should, therefore, cost 15 to 18 cents per square foot. A cement base 10 in. hijrh and I in. thick joining the wall and floor, costs 12 conts per lineal foot in place in large amounts, and 15 to 20 cents per lineal foot for small(>r quantities, and the labor cost of forming floor gutters is 15 to 20 cents per lineal foot. When this type of floor is used in a fo>in- dry, the finished wearing surface must be covered with 4 i>i. of moulding sand. Granolithic Floors. — '^■ranolithic floors in shops arc not very popular and yet as tlu-y are largely used, some rules are given to aid in securing the iK^st results. In order to discover the degree of favor with which they have Ijeen received, letters weie sent a year or two ago to a large number of factory owners, and out of forty replies received, twenty-six expressed a decided preference for wood, with only eight in favor of granolithic, while the remahiing six liked the two kinds of floor equally well. As the chief objection to granolithic floors is that they rapidly convey heat away from the l)ody and produce a feeling of weariness, it is now an established rule that these floors are suitable only when they are heatetl. This has been successfully done in several shops, as in the plants of the Brown Hoisting Machinery Company and the Morse Chain Company. When these floors are not luxated, employees may wear shoes witii wooden soles, as is frcMiucntly done at metallurgical works when walking over hot metal, or where the floors are constantly wet. Some other disadvantages of granolithic floors are that they are dusty and wear into ruts and hollows, especially when exposed to the action of trucks and wheels. The tendency to dusting or to disintegration of the surface is due to a lack of density, and can be avoided by attending to the directions for laying granolithic herein given. When laid out in S(iuares or rectangles the granolithic chips around the edges, and for this reason wheels should have rouiuled treads or rubber tires. Concrete is also cliii)i)ed by heat, and in conflagrations it dis- integrates for a depth of about half an inch below the surface, (iranolithic floors need experienced men to lay them, for it only recpiires a little bad workmanship, poor concrete, insufhcient cement, or some foreign substance such as loam, to make the floor a failure, and early breaks and disintegration a certainty. GROUSD FLOORS 167 They are also difficult to repair, much more so than wood, and repairs occui)/ a longer time. They are not suitable for shops with edged tools, which arc easily injured, and castings are liable to break by falling. In addition to these objections, it is difficult to attach machinery to granolithic floors. The merits of these floors depend largely upon the cire with which they are laid. They are fireproof, and are accepted as waterproof l)y the New York Board of Fire Underwriters. They can be washed off clean without injury and are not disintegrated by such usage. When properly laid, they arc i:; pervious to oil and are not injured by it, though oil will, of course, enter cracks which are large enough to admit it. These floors are cheaper than wood and when heated, as can easily be affected in upjxT stories, they no longer have the objection of causing cold feet and limbs. The most approved mixture for granolithic work consists of equal parts of cement, sand, and screened cr -shed stone, from a size which will pass through a 20-mesh up to a ni;.xinnim size of h in. It is important that the crushed stone be screened to remove the dust. Some cement users prefer to omit the sand entirely, using only equal parts of cement and screened crushed stone. It siiould be mixed as dry as can be worked, and put down in two layers with a total thickness of about I in., the top coat being put on while the under one is wet, so they will unite. To prevent edge chii)ping and dust formation, the stiuarea should be large, not less than about 20 ft., and where the floors are to be used by horses for pulling loads, the surface should be roughened. Along heavy lines of travel, wheel plates of either wrought or cast iron may be set into the floor, or a track may be made of iron grating bars on edge, filleil in between with the granolithic mixture. These will j)revent the floor from cracking and supply horses with a good foothold. A recent and rapid method of surfacing concrete floors is by the use of the cement gun worked by compressed air which throws the mixture into place through a hose. It has been successfully used by the United States Government and is proposed for some large buildings in Chicago. Dust formation may be avoided in several ways, the easiest of which is" to give the surface a hard troweled finish. Dust may also be prevented by an occasional application of hot silicate of soda, or a wash of linseed oil thinned with turpentine or naphtha, f '' 'I 1' i 168 EXaiM:ERL\G OF SHOPS A \D FACTORIES or l)y painting. A method of preventing; dust which is perliapa the most effective of all, is to cove- the floor with linoleum fastened down with glue, using l\ gallons of glue per 100 sq. ft. (,f floor surface. (Jranolithic 1\ in. thick, when laid on a moist or green hase, costs 4\ cents per scpiare foot, hut when pft down after the I'ase has hardened, it will cost about 7 cents. The rei)airing of these floors is also important, requiring the services of skilled workmen. Main aisles or passageways, when they l)ecome worn, nuiy be reinforced with an additional layer of granolithic over the old one. IJroken edges may be rei)aired with a mixture of soft asphalt, the bonding being affected by heating the injured surface with a blow torch. This method is better than patching with cement paste, though not as per- manent as the process descrii)ed later. The most approved method of repairing is to cut away the granolithic with a sand blast or with chisels to the bottom of the break, until the aggre- gate is exposed enough to give a bond. Then treat the surface with acids aiul wash with a hose to remove the dust, after which, t he surface should be covered wit h a thin grout. The new grano- lithic material should then l)e api)lied while the grout is still wet, and the patch should be kept protected and moist f(.r about a week, when the repairt-.l floor is again n^ady for u.se. Asphalt Floors.— Asphalt floors have many commendable features, though costing more than some other kinds. They are waterproof; have no dust; are not volatile like tar; are elastic enough to j)revent crack formation; can be kejjt clean; and arc comfortable' to walk upon. They do not tire the feet of workmen like concrete or ])rick and do no! wear away but siniplv compress They are n()t injuivd by frost or thaws, and should last at least ten years without repyaiis. Hock asphalt is limestone impregnated with 8 to 17 per cent, bitumci. It is made into asphalt mastic for commercial use^ by first grinding it to a i)owder and then heating it for hve hours in a kett'e at a temperature of ;j:,0° F. with 8 per cent, of Trinidad asphalt added to prevent its burning. It is then moulded into blocks weighing oO to 00 lb., each block having the name of the mine moulded thereon. The fini.shed product contains II per cent, of bitumen and 8() per cent, carbonate of lime. It is prepared for floors by mixing it with Trinidad asphalt and sand in the following proportions by weight; '■'iFfW"- 'mmrs- .'»■•*'' ' «"?---' ^ GROUND FLOORS 169 Broken mastic blocks f,o per cent. Irinulud uspluilt 4 ,„,r cent I'ino Kruvel un,l sa.ui ;{,i j^.^ p,.„t. ''"*'*' 100 i)cr cent. The mixture is tlion lioatod to a toniporatiirc of 300 to 400° F for about five liours and conscautiy stirred, after whicli the mixture is tai^en out and spread on the floor to a thickness of 1 in. It is then covered with sand and rubbed to a smooth finish. ^ A base for this floor may eonsi.st of a hiyer of concrete 3 to 4 in. thick, or a course of plank on sleepers, the plank l)eing overlaid with tarred felt or sheathing paper. Asphalt is also moulded into paving blocks -1 by 4 by 12 in., and when laid with these blocks, floors are more easily repaired. Asphalt has several imitations made of tar and crushed lime- stone which are of poor (luality, for like other t.tr products the tar evaporates and the floor cracks. Asphalt floors are' not suitable in shops where oil collects or drips, for tlie asphalt is softened and destroyed by oil. A 1-in. floor without the base costs from 10 to 18 cents per square foot. A substitute for asphalt paving which may be suitable also for shop floors is now extensively used on streets at Ann Arbor and is giving good service. Over a base of 4 to in. of gravel- concrete, tar or bitumen is spread, using a half gallon per scpiare yard, and into this is rolleil a layer of sand J in. thick. The wearing surface comi)lete, costs only .") cents per square yard, and the whole pavement about 80 cents per stiuare yard, with labor at .'52 per day and cement ut SI per barrel. Brick Floors.— A fine basement floor over dry soil is made by first placing a 12-in. layer of well compacted sand rolled and leveled, over which a course of brick is laid Hat, and on tliis anoth(>r layer of brick on eilge, both courses being jointed with cement mortar and grouted full. The floors of foundry pits should have two layers of brick over a G-in. concrete base, and the i)it walls should be one brick or 8 m. thick, all laid in cement mortar, i or boiler house floors' the bricks may be laid flat with diagonal joints, giving a pattern effect. There is no better floor for round houses than l)rick for when injured they are easily repaired. The pressure of heavy jacks and the rolling about of trucks and wheels have been found to cause frequent breakage to round house floors; and when made of brick, they can be easily replaced by removing only a small ~.q-_> . I')' i !■ 170 ENGISEKHING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES portion. Wood floors wear out too quickly, and concrete cracks and disintcfiratcs under heavy loads. A timber base should be asoided, the repairing of which would necessitate the removal of a larger area. The grounil should be excavated to a depth of 8 in. and should then lie well rammed, all alluvial soil being removed and de- pi-cssions filled uj) with sand and {rravel. A 4-in. kyer of sand should then be spread and tampci. after which hard bricks are laid on edge. If a waterproof floor is needed, the bricks should be grouted and coven d with tar. As slag and cinder usually costs the railroad company nothing, they are frequently used as a bed for these pavements instead of sand and gravel. The floors of engine pits should be crowned two incl.vjs at the center for drain- age, and the walls should b t-apped with timber at each .side of the pit. These floors usually cost from 85 cents to $1.15 per scjuare yard. Recommended Types. — The types of floor which have been found from experience to be the best for shops of different kinds are given in tlie following tabulation: Annealing rooms Brick or cast-iron plates. Car shops and car liouses Concrete base with granolitliic finish. Cleaning rtwms Cast-iron plates. Cupola floors Inverted ste<'l channels, rough rolled or cast-iron plates. Forgo shoij.s Earth or cinder floors. Foundry pouring floors Cast-iron plates or brick on plank and sand. Moulding floors Concrete or brick. Machine shops Creosoted wood blocks or plank on con- crete ba.se. Offices Miiple or yellow pine on sleejx?rs over concrete. Power house, Engine rooms Concrete with cement or tile finish. Power l;ouse. Boiler rooms Concrete with cement or brick on edge. Toilets Concrete with cement finish. Wash rooms Concrete with cement surface. The above are generally the best, though in some cases, such as round houses and machine shops, preference and practice has a considerable variation. Round house floors have received much attention from the railroad companies, and .several types are extensively used, including cinders oi clay, plank, brick, anil concrete. These floors receive very hard Usage from hydraulic jr jka and the removal of trucks and other pi..io, and a, floor of GROUND FLOORS 171 vitrified paving brick is usually prcforrcd; for as previously stated, when damaged, it can easily be repaired by removing only the injured part. The repairing of timber or concrete floors is more difficult, for a larger area must be taken up. Wood blocks lack resistance, and when laid over plunks, they are sub- ject to the same objection as other timber floors. Machine shop floors have been the subject of many experiments. They usually receive hard service, especially in erecting shops wh"re loads are dragged along the floor by the lifting cranes and machinery parts are piled up high, thus subjecting the floors to heavy weight. Brick, concrete and asphalt conduct heat away from human bodies and are, therefore, uncomfortable; and shaqi edged tools ar- injured by falling on such hard surfaces. Grit and dust rising from them are injurious to machines, especially in the bearings. For these reasons, some kind of wood floor is usually preferred. CHAPTER XTV UPPER FLOORS Slow Burning Wood Floors.— Tlie ossi-ntial priiuiple of this type of oonstruetion i.s to u.so tlic fewest nuniluT of huge framing pieces, ho that tiicy may not easily "oe tacked by fire. It has been well proven by numerous fire^ . wood framing so ar- ranged is a better fire risk than unpj .ted .ste.'l framing, which collapses quickly under heat. Heams siiould not be closer than 5 to 10 ft. apart, and the pro- per spacing may be found from the following table giving the required thickness of plank for various spans and loads. TA ni.I. XV.-SAFE r.n ADS IN- POU.VDS IT.R SQUARK FOOT FOR SPRUCE PI WK «»F VARIOUS Si'ANS AXU TIIICK.NK.SSIOS, FOR I.I.MITi;!) DKFI.KCno.VS " l.nMil per si|ii;iri' fniil siiptTficial Span ill fiH't 12 II 4(». IIX).., i2r,. . , IM. . . 175 -•(KJ . . 2Jr,... I'.Vt. . . 27-.. . . .•JIX). . . .ILTi. . . .).".(>. . . :i7o. . , 100. . , .1.1 1..' 1. 1 I..-, l.U 2. t J.(> -' . 1» .i.l ■J . .■! :) . .■) .i . (i .'i.s t.o 1.2 l..t 1. 1 i.r. 1..S 2.:t 2.6 2.!) .'i.l .i. I .■t.o :!.,■> I.l) 1.2 1. I t.li I.S .j.l) 5.1 i.n 2.1 I .It 2.1 2.7 .'t.o :i. I .'i.7 1.0 1.2 1.1 •1.7 I.!) 5 . 2 .') . I .1 . li .-..,s 6.0 2. I ;!.n .'!. I .'t.S :t. 1 l.:t 1.7 2.1 2.,S :i.() .'i.s I.l •l.,S 2.6 .'i.O :) . :i 1.2 l.,s .■>.;! 2..S .'! . 2 .'1.6 i.r, :!.i :t . .". .'i . !) .■i.o j.6 ■t.i ■.i.s 1.2 '..1 6.0 1 . .'. 5.2 5.S i 1 I.s 5. 1 0,0 ■ 1 1 i .'>. 1 0.0 .'> . 6 ' i .'i M 1 6.1 ■ riank when laid flat, should, for thicknesses of 2J in. or less have tongue and groove, and for greater thicknesses should for economy be connected by splines. An excellent solid floor IS obtained by placing boards on edge, and spiking them together, 172 V PI' Eli FLOORS 173 tho upper mirfiiro hcinj.' rovcrod with 1/2-in. far mortar before laying the top i-ourse of Ixmrds. The niorUr ahould consist of one part of tar with two parts of sand. The extra stren>;th of continuity is secureil by staggering the board joints, preferably at the point of contra flexure, about one quarter way between the bearings. The l)est material for wood beams is hard or yellow pine. The lower corners should be champfered, and in brick walls, beams should h.ivc cast-iron bear- ing plates with flanges, one to anchor them to the masonry, and another fitted into the beam. The uj)per end of the beams above the bearings should be mitred, to prevent inner leverage on the wall, in case the beams collapse by fire. Wood floors should always have an upper wearing surface which can be removed as often as it becomes worn. Yellow pine is the best, though maple and oak are sometimes used. The Pdges were formerly matched or tongue ami grooved, but owing to the difficulty of replacing this kind of floor, and its liability to splitting at the edge under trucks or other loads, square-edged flooring is now preferred. A thickness of I in. is quite as good as IJ in., for when the floor is worn enough to need renewal of the thinner boards, the thicker board would also have needed renewal. In order to prevent water from leaking through the floor, there should be two or tJiree layers of tar or rosin paper between the upper and lower coum«s, and the last layer of paper should pre- ferably be mopped with tar. Asbestos pajjer for this purpose has the additional advantage of being fireproof. Wood must remain unpainted until the timber is thoroughly seasoned, for if applied too soon, it only promotes decay. The cost of wood floors with ■ -in. maple over 3-in. plank on 8 by 12-in. yellow pine, 6 ft. apart, is as follows: WocKi hoanis 5 f, 50 ,„.r .s,,„aro Iron stirrups 3 ,,0 j,^.^ s,,uHre ^"''•'"'■^ 2.50 per square 3-'"- t''""!^ 12.00 per square P^P^-" M per s,|uaro Factory maple flooriiiR 7.00 iH>r s.,uarfi '^"'*"1 Wl ,50 per -mare The Sessions Foundry at Bristol, Coim, has .3-in. ton-ue an.l groove yellow pine on 12 by 18-in. yellow pine beams, while a 171 i:SGISEEHlS(i OF SHOPS A \D FACTORIES Rullcry floor in tlic Granpcr Foundry at I'rovidcjico, (loHigncd by tlic writi'r, li.is :i doiililc wood loor on S l)y 12-iii. liciiniH only 5 ft. apart, .sii|i|mii led on ll.'-in. steel Ix-ains. These floors should '.le protocteil uj^ainst fire- by un adequate Kpiinkling system. Wood Floors with Steel Beams. — A low rost wood floor which is lacking in lire resistinj; (pialities, is nuule by placing heavy wood joi^is say '.i by 10 in., 1(5 to If) in. apart — which are sup- ported on steel beams or riveted girders 10 to l.l ft. on centers. T!u' cost of wood \Vork in the floor, with two layers of pine, J and 2h in. is \2 to 15 cents per diiuare foot erected, not in- cluding any steel. .\s framing timber is l)ecoming more scarce every year, steel joists are often used instead of wood, and this type is now ac- cepted by the insurance companies as a substitute for .slow liurning wood construction, lieam spacing in this type can bo reduced to '.i or 4 ft. with u c"! responding reduction in the thickness of plank. The steel joists are capped with wood spiking i)ieces, about 4 by "> in., which are hook bolted to the beams. The beams may be protected from fire by a suspended ceiling of expanded metal ami plaster, and if extra fire precaution is needed, an U])per wearing surface of asphalt nuiy be use ' in- stead of wood. Suspended ceilings are only a ])artial protection, for in great conflagrations, such us at San FrancLco, it was found that these ceilings break. Triangular Sheet Steel Floor (Buckeye). — Several forina of sheet metal trough floors are available, most of them having the merit of maximum stiffnessforthe amount of material used. One of these, made in ( )hio and known as the Buckeye floor, has metal trough 2h in. deej), and including the concrete filling and IJ in. wearing surface, weighs about 3") lb. per scpuire foot. Wi:iGIIT OV GATA'ANIZr.D TRIWCOr.AR TROUGT{ FLOORI.VG, 2i IN. iii;i:r, ix I'ou.vus 1'i:r mx) sq. i-t. Ghuko No. Ill 38f) II). por square IS ,'51,'? II). per square ? 241 ]l). jx>r square 22 20111). porsiiuaro 24 168 11). por .«quare The sheets an' made in lengths up to 10 ft. and in uniform widths of 21 in. UPPER FLOORS 175 ^ Multiplex Floor.— Another cxcpllont wlioot motui trough floor IS that known as the Multiplex. Tlie tnuighs are nimle of > i„ uniform width, and depth of 2, L'i, li and 4 in. either painted or galvanized. Stock length.s vary anywhere from o to 10 ft and gauge from Xo. Ki to X„. 24. They ar.> laid diivtly on the J«.,r beams and arc filled with concrete to a depih of 2 in. above the metal, but eann( .: ho pla.stered on the under side and mu.st he kept painted. If a wood wearing surface i.s desired, wood nailing »tnp.s must he embedded in the concrete al)ove the metal or these may be omitted, and a granolithic surface used instead. TABLi: XVI -.SAH: lO.UlS <..V .MUr.TIPI.EX STEEL FtOOR.S WITH CONCRETK Hl.U.Vi 1 J.V AHOVK THE METAI, Metal gatiRo I)c|.th WViglit 18 17.3 4 ft. i Oft. i 550 352 1 1 8 ft. 1 i ; 3(X) 198 10 ft. 20 24 1 1260 792 185 127 20 24 31 , 17.5 16 1115 720 485 320 1 2;} lb. Metal Trough Floors. — A much stronger and heavier metal floor is obtained by usin.j, troughs made of rolled shapes riveted together. Thes«' are in. re used for very lieavy stTvice uh on bridge floors, but are occasionally appropriate in l)uildings, tho o(fic(! of the I'encoj'd Iron Works, having several floors, nuideof Lintlsay troughs painted a light blue on the umler side. Floor sections made with sloping sides are liable to vary slightly in width when riveted, and it is, therefore, difficult to nuitch the connecting holes in the supporting girders. For this reason, vertical sides are geiu'rally preferred. To economize in head room, the see 'ions should rest on shelf angles, fastened to the girder webs rather than bearing on their upper flanges. Vertical troughs in small sizes are most conveniently made of Z's and plates, but for greater de[>ths they are composed of plates and anj;les. Fi. >r troughs vary in weight from 15 to 10 lb. per square foot, and tables of safe loads may be found in the luuiubook of the Carnegie Steel Company. Plate Floors. — Cast-iron or rohed-steel plates roughened on the upper side are much used in certain places exposed tt) fire, such as cupola floors, or around furnace openings. Rolled steel plates are made in thicknesses of -j*;- in. to ^ in., weighing l;i.8 u) 21.4 11). per scpuire foot. Cast-iron plates can be made heavier and stifTer •h:i:i roUeil ones and can be roughened enough on the surface . > jirevent men from slipping. They are exten- sively used in foundries and for charging floors. Brick Arch Floors. — Hrick or terra cotta arch floors are heavy and expensive and not well suited to factory buildings subject to jars and vibrations. The movement of heavy machines is liable to loosen the bricks and cause them to fall Brick arches are laid in single rings 1 in. thick on temporary wooden forms, -i^ri Vl'I'ICU FLOORS 177 the tlistaiu-e In-twcMMi iK-iiiriH not oxcocling t I., :, f( ,,,1,1 the urch riso at IciiHl ,)iic-.iKli|l .f the Hpaii. riu" filliiij md tloor al)<>v.« thi' arch may l.i- Hiiiuiar to that iisortim, "'"' '■ ■'■<'»«• ""ly l)(> used for fillinir. with a fuii.sli oitht-r of wood boards on nailing Htrijw, or granolitliic. 13 m-^^^sim ^ CHAPTER XV CONCRETE UPPER FLOORS Concrete floors are of three general kinds. 1. Those without slabs but with concrete beams and wood floors. 2. Those with concrete beams and shibs. 3. Those with fiat concrete slal)S only, supported directly on columns. The first of these types with no slabs but with concrete beams supportiufj; .^ doubl(> layer of floor planks (Fijj;. 79) is very eco- nomical in cost. It is also lighter than a concrete floor, for while this material weighs 110 lb. per cubic foot, wood does not exceed 50 lb. A four-story concreti; ofTu-e building in Massachusetts, with T-beams without slabs and two layers of wood floor, cost with the eciuipment of lighting, heating, toilets and partition.^ only 9.2 cents per cubic foot, or $1.30 per square foot of floor area. Without eciuipment, the cost including foundation, walls, floors and roofs, was only 4\ cents per cubic foot, or SO. 03 per scjuare foot of floor area. Wood nailing pieces were secured to each side of the concrete beams, and between it and the lower course (if plank was a thin filling of cinders. A five-story con- crete factory hi the same state', 50 ft. wide and 300 ft. long, of the same general type as the last, cost without e(iui])ment, only 7.(Ieniiig felt 005 per sfiuare foot 7, S-iii. floor and fiiiisli 09 per sfumre foot I'latster board 02") per siiuaro foot 'I'otal $.19 per square foot For the same place a floor with reinforc' concrete slab and wood top, would h.'ive ('OKt; 178 ^-.:f .""f^.-'S^Kt,-' xraefi 7.^3' CONCRETE UPPER FLOORS 179 Roinforco,] concrete slab ,40 per square foot Nailing stnps in place o'* rl., . \ Upper floor, finished "w ^''"" "* Plasterunder 09 per square foot 04 per square foot Total ~„ ' 5 . 56 per square foot or about three times as much as that used Generally, concrete buildings with timber floors but without any s ab, cost 15 to 2o per cent, less than when a slab is used and they cost less than woo.i mill construction Floors with Beams and Slabs.-This type constitutes by far the _ ^Bridging: Joist ^^ Box \j Box G\tiet J^^^ ^ Jo'rt Mould for Bottom of Girder Fig. 85.— Metal covered, wood form boxes. largest class of floors in concrete buildings. Apart from shop- made floor sections and joists, which have previously been described under "Separately Moulded Members" there are Fig. 85a,— Steel forms for concrete floors, many systems of monolithic beam and slab construction A type which IS quto economical is that used in buildings for the Lniversity of Wisconsin. For the purpose of forming ril>s inverted boxes were used instead of the usual f.u-ms, and they were so arranged as to make a system of inverted beams and joists, Fig. 80. These box(>s were covered witli sheet metal and wereuscd thirty times or more. The total floor area in one building was 4500 sq. ft., and provision was made for a live ^ifeL-.^'fl 180 p:.\Gi\Ki:iii\G OF SHOPS and factories li)iul of 200 11). per scuuirc foot. The itemized cost of floors in tliis buildlag, jicr stjuare foot of floor was as follows: Concrete 10 . .54 cents per square foot Kc'inforcinR steel 7 . 86 cents per sciuaro foot Timlwr for supports 6 . CO cents per square foot Wo(k1 Ijoxes, 1/15 of cost 72 cents per stiuare foot Erecting sujiports and boxes 5.54 cents per square foot Placing concrete and reinforcement. . . 4.44 cents per square foot Removing supports and boxes 1.10 cents ]K>r scjuare foot Total 30 . 80 cents j>er square foot A sj'stcm of beams ))hued dose together, with sloping sides, forming a heavy rilbed slab (Fig. 8(1) , was used in the balcony floor of a machine siiop for tiie Fairbank-Morsc Company at Toronto, Canada. The beams were 22 in. wide at the top and Settion of Balcony Floor Section -of Roof Girder Fio. 80. — Machine shop of Fairbanks-Morse plant, Toronto, Canada. G in. at the bottom, and were placed 3 ft. apart on centers, each beam being reinforced with six rods, \\ in. in diameter. A roof over tiie gallery was of tiie same general type with, a 3-in. slab on beams of the same size placed 8 ft. apart. The tendency, however, in recent years is to use heavier slabs and fewer beams, and it is now common to find beams 10 to 20 ft. apart, at the columns only, without intermediate joists. Slabs may be supported at all four sides or at two sides only, CONCRETE UPPER FLOORS 181 the first being the strongest and most economical arrangement With four side supports, the reinforcing stool will lie in two direc- tions at right angles to each other, and for economy, the slabs should be continuous over their supports. Another economical plan is to use slabs 8 to 12 ft. long, supported on lines of beams resting directly on the columns without joists or cross girders Koof framing is usually made of the same dimensions as the floors, for extra stories can then be added if desired without removing the roof or strengthening it. In some cases, however as in the machine shop at Toronto, mentioned above, the roof framing is made lighter than the floor. Wire mesh or expanded metal is more convenient for slab reinforcement than loose bars, for it is made at a factory and can be spread out in sheets. No. 10 gauge expanded metal with 4-m. mesh is often used and costs $3.50 per 100 sq. ft. Rein- forcing metal in slabs generally costs 3i to 4^ cents per square foot of floors when designed for a live load of 100 lb. per foot. Wire is economical because of its high tensile strength Triangular mesh with strands of No. 4 wire 4i in. apart^ united by a weave of lighter wire welgiis 57 lb. per 100 sq ft' and costs $2.30 at the mill. It is shipped in rolls up to 58 in in width and GOO ft. in length. Concrete slabs may have wearing surfaces of granolithic boards or asphalt. A granolithic surface, as previously descril)ed under " Ciround Floors, " is by far the cheapest though uncomfort- able to walk upon. When a wood floor is laid over a concrete TJ 1% Maple 3 P.ank Reinforced Concrete m Via. 87. slab, the slab should first be covered with two lavers of tar felt or heavy paper in pitch, or the lower course of plank may be bedded on tarred sand as was done in the Blake and Johnson factory at Waterbury, Conn. A shop at Woonsocket de- signed by Mr.F. W. Dean, has nailing strips built into the6-in concrete .slab, and to this is spikod a lower course of 3-in plank which 18 covered with |-in. maple (Fig. 87), The screeds 182 ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES should 1)0 creosott'd or coated with tar to prevent dry rot. An upper layer 1 in. thick of sawdu.st concrete into which nails can be driven, has sometimes been j)laced over the lower slab and beneath the floor boards. It should be made of equal parts by volume of cement and sawdust with two parts of sand. Matclied factory maple floorin}:; | in. thick over 2-in. spruce costs 13 cents per S(|uare foot, and J-in. yellow i)ine over 2-in. spruce costs 9 cents per scpiare foot. Nailing strips or sleepers cost 4 cents per lineal foot in place, and 2- to 3-in. cinder fill between the strips costs 3 to -1 cents per scjuare foot. An asphalt wearing surface is both lighter and cheaper than wood. The concrete should first be washed with a mixture of melted tar and asphalt, having just enough asphalt to make it hard when cold. The asphalt should be spread 1 mi. thick and rubbed smooth with siaid, as described under "Ground Floors." A car shed at Jersey City, designed by Mr. J. B. French, has a -l-in. roof slab of cinder concrete, reinforced with No. 23 triangular mesh. Original and .-iimple formuke for proportioning concrete slabs are given herewith: \ioo 1000 A = D 12 Where D is the depth of slab in inches from t!ie upper surfa'^e to the center of the rods M is the bending moment in inch pounds per foot width of slab A, tiie area of steel in square inches i)er foot of width (Fig. 88). r D o o □ □ a a Fia. 8.S. The weight of various concrete floor systems varies from 60 to 120 lb. per scjuare foot, including the steel, which for the floor only, is from 2^ to (5 lb. per S(juare foot. Dry cinder concrete weighs from oO to 75 lb. per cubic foot. The weight of floors dcjrnds, therefore, nn the system used, the kind of material and their carrying capacity. CONCRETE UPPER FLOORS 183 The cost of reinforced concrete floors and framing, under average conditions, is about us fellows: Floor slabs and beams without coluians 35 to 15 cents por square foot of floor. Complete reinforced concrete frames without walls 50 to 65 cents per Br cul)ic yai.l. Total cost of concrete in place including stwl $12.00 i)er cubic yard. Forms and scaffolding S5.00 pc- cubic yard. Total cost of concrete, steel and forms, $17.00 jjcr cubic yard. Cinder filling 3 in. thick over slabs, 4 cents |)er s(iuare foot. Cinder filling IJ to 2 in. tliick, 3 cents per square' foot. Forms, 5 cents por s()uare foot. Or including beam- 10 to 12 cents per stjuaro foot. Plain rods cost $30 per ton while patent or deformed ones usually sell for $40 to $45 per ton. The comparative cost of wood and reinforced concrete floors, with columns 10 to 18 ft. apart, as determined b> the writer, showed that doulile wood floors on fireproofed steel beums, cost about 18 cents per square foot including the beams. Reinforced concre*3 beam and slab floor.; with granolithic finish cost from 2o to 30 cents per s(iuare foot, while concrete slabs with wood wearing surface will cost 12 to 15 cents per s(iuare foot additional. The concrete in the floors of a large Luikling at Kansas City was, in 1008, laid at the rate of 50 cu. ft. piu man per day. Under less efficient management, it had formerly been placed at only ha'f that rate. Flat Slab Floors.— Concrete floors with flat ceilings have some advantages over those which have exposed ribs or beams under- neath them, because in case of fire, -"ts of water from fire hose or sprinkler systems are less obstructed on flat ceilings than when beams are used, and light is also better diffused. Shafting and sprinkler heads are more easily attached to flat surfaces than t- those broken up with beams, the saving in these items amounting i'£ some cases to 25 por cent, of the cost of installation. Forms or false work for flat ceilings cost 5 to 8 cents less per squpre foot, when beams are omitted. A flat surface can, of course, be affected by suspending a ceiling of expanded metal and plaster below the floor beams, l)ut this not only incurs extra expense for the ceiling itself, but it is no saving either in the height of the building or in the cost of forms. Another common method is that 184 ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES ill wliich liolh.w tcriii cottii t'lcs arc placed between floor joists (FiK. H'J) witli coiuparatively close spaeiiiR. While this method reduces the cost of centeriiif;;, it saves nothing in the floor thick- ness and includes the additional cost of tiles. Besides, tho tiles are liable to crack and fall from the jars and vibration of nuichin- ery, exposing the building contents ami the workmen to danger. Floors with solid slabs without beams have a less total thick- ness than the combined depth of slab and beams, and the available head n)oni ifi a story is correspondingly greater; or if a fixetl clear-story height is needed, the total height of a building with flat slabs can b( .es« than with .slabs and beams. In a ten- story buihling with beams 10 in. deep, the total saving in the building height i^y using slab floors would be from 10 to 12 ft. .' \* '* • .:-.':' ?r;.>v »..'■! : ■•■;--"^'i\/:r:^^' ••■•; •v>->^!^ Zl '■ ' '» □ □ nrn ' ■ - ■ LJLJ Fig. 89. The chief objection to solid slabs supported directly on columns without beams is their uncertain st'oss conditions. For fifty years or more structural engineers ha e wrestled with the prol)lcms of uncertain stress. The merits of continuous girders, imdtiple truss systems and other uncertain types, have long been appreciated, and yet the uncnlainty of their stre.s.sea has gradually but surely caused nearly all such systems .to be discarded. One of these flat slab systems with the floor sup- ported by bars radiating from the column tops at the four corners is suitable for column spacing not exceeding 20 ft. Floor panels If) ft. scpiare with a 7J-in. rough slab not including the 1^*- in. strip filling wi;! su.stain a safe test of 800 lb. per square foot. Larger panels, 17 ft. square, with a rough slab thickness of oj in. and a concrete unit stress of 800 lb. per square inch, is strong enough for a live load of 250 lb. per square foot, with IJ per cent, of steel reinforcement at the top and bottom of the slab. If IJ per cent, of steel is used at the top only, the re.piired thickness of rough slab would then be 12 in. This type requires about 40 per cent, more steel than floors with beams and thinner sl.-ibs, but the difTerence i,s partly offset by the lower cost of centering. 'BB,*i '=•>»»« ar/» CONCRETE UPPER FLOORS 185 TABLE XVII.-THICK\RS3 OF FI.AT UKIVFORCKD CONCRKTK FLOOR SLABS _.S(£PP(,Rr..DA1^THK FoUi; U)KNKR.S O.VI.Y Total load [xr Span, feet ! B(|uare foot, pounds 12 Slal) tliicki.oss, inches 14 16 18 20 25 ^ 7» 5 7 8 5J 9 6 8 10 10 u In order to determine the comparative cost of reinforced concrete bulldinRs with flat slab floors, and witli floors of com- bined beams and shibs, estimates were made on a ten-story bufldmg 109 ft. wide and 580 ft. long, which showed that the design with flat floor .slabs, including a patent royalty of IJ per cent., had a cost only 2 per cent, less than the design with slabs and beams. The itemized cost of concrete per cubic yard, of 1-2-4 mixture was as follows: ' Concrete, lij barrels at $1 . 10 .$1 .80 Sand, i yard .q Stone, 1 yard j q^j l^'^^'o'" '.'.'.'. inn Sundries jq Total $4^30 7^»as wm •a&j;**^ ISO E.\ai\E!:R!S(; of shops a\d factories CoiuToto ill coluiims luid an additional cost for labor of 70 cents per ciil)ic yard. It is well known tliat Hat siahs supported only hy columns at the four corners are not subject to exact analysis and are pro- f T' UJ StuKUktr t } Cblcjo I I T-T- I H^r I K i I 'Uucimto i.i .Iuiu., |J, i g -t ] I n^, I I Tyi.icul Si'ction I Uirlri Ikftm autl P P I I II II I Cd IxJk I I I si.i iwijn j , "■{','■'■ ■'■',.".■ 1 . 1 . ' ■■ '■■ ' J v ' 'iy . l w",",^';A^'J)i^\f,»|^v, ' l^ i -l■r!v'^' '..■' ' ". '■ ^ ' r ^ Jij> .. i.>.'v "fv""""^' ' . ' " ' " ■ » Fig . V Typical Section; raneled-Floor Construction Ginlcr, Beam and Slab Design 90. — Paneled cciiinR, eoniparfd with licam ami slab desif;ii for Stude- liakcr Co. Iniikliiig, ('liitaf;i). portioned cliiefly from cxporinientH, thou- il \^VliSri-i t .-I*',* - " ...•■.?"ii,K«* CMArTKIl XVI WALLS, PARTITIONS AND OPENINGS Brick Walls. Uiick cotitimics to he a fiivoiitc type fur tlio ')iitsi(l(! \>:ills (if sliops utul factory hiiildiiif^s, Ipccaiise of its iiciit appoaraiicc. It may 1)(> usccl for tlio wlioli' fxtcrior wall, or as a \('nc('r over the coiicrcto stnictiiral parts. Solid hrick walls are laid with Knulisli or Flemish lioml, and tho liricks should lie wet iicforo layiiij; to |)rcv('iit the extraction of water from tiio I'm. Ul- Iliilliiw (•(incictc tile walls. Hunter llliiiniiiatcil Car Sinn f"o., I'lu.shing, Long Island. mortar. A])oiit nnc-fiftli of lirick walls is composed of mortar, wiiich should Ijo nuule ]>y mixing one barrel of lime, four of sand, and one-half barrel of cement, with one and a half barrels of walei-. Wiu'U laid up in courses, brickwork will set lie aiiout 1 in. for every ')0 ft. in height. One nmn can lay 1000 to 1200 188 WALLS, I'AUTITIO.XS AM) ()l'L.\l.\t„> 189 briiks per day in jjlaiii walls, ami UMM) to .■)()()() per day in inassivo lilofks such as cn^iiif licds or foiiiidalions. Douis and window frames should be niaile of the proper size to suit the brick c ourses witlM)ut cuttinfr. Krirk walls, cither 8 or 12 in. thii k, cost about the same — 45 cents per superficial foot— for the material >:aved in the 8-in. wall is ofTset by the greater lal)or cost of la.\ ,.;r it. Vitrified Tile Walls.— Walls of vitrified tile are li;;ht and do not absorl) water. Hlocks are usually 8 by 12 by 18 in., and when laid in the wuU cost 2"> cents per superficial foot, or '.iS cents when ])lastered on both sides (l''i<:. Ml). Concrete Block Walls. — Concrete blocks have a lijrht woijiht and low cost, but have the objection of bcinjj rather jjorous. When tiic regulations of labor (inions are such as to retjuire the Ficj. 02. — Hollow concrito hlock wall. employment of union masons or bricklayers for placing them, the cost of this kind of wall will be increased. A recent type is sliown in I'ig. 92. Walls may also be made of 8-in. hollow concrete tile blocks 8 by 8 by 16 in., with cement and aj;prej;atc mixed in the pro- portion of 1 to 3. Stones in afrjirejiate should not exceed o 8-in. diameter. The cost of laying these tiles with common labor is only about one-third that of layinp brick and the final cost of gyq§ig^ g«-:.j ^ 15J«. - — ' llll«>- llllllr* •■■■M" III! • IIIK;; illl mil:— lllll imm Fig. <).'{. — Huilding witli concrete l)lnck walls. the finished walls lias been found to be only 40 to 7') per cent, as much as ordinary brick and 2.") to 50 per cent, as much as cut stone or face brick (Fiji. 03). Cement Brick Walls. — Cement brick was successfully used by the Plymouth Cordape Company in a two-story shop, 114 ft. wide and 430 ft. long. It contains 2,400,000 bricks made with i!K) /•;.\7,7AAA7// V; OF SIKH'S AM) FACTO HIES IuiikI nuichiiios, flio proportioii nf coiiu'iit ami aand l)rinK 1 to li. Six kiiiiis of lirii'ks wen* iiiailc, and \\\v rate at which tlicy were produced is as follows: f'nmition pomi'tit hrirks 1 1,000 por straii:hteiied out and built into the brick joints, thus (irmly uniting; the two materials. \\'hen the walls are not veneered, the concrete surface may be tr(>ated by any of the methods jriven in the chapter on "Concr(!te Surface Finish." The orifiinal Ijuildini; for the I'nitcd Shoe .Machinery shop at Hevcrly, .Mass. (I'ii;. i>4) was m ule with solid walls, but when making additions in 1907, the walls were cored. Concrete curtain walls 8 in. thick, when cast in place with double wooden forms a^ter the skeleton is finished, cost aljout 40 cents per square foot, but when poured at the same time as the columns, the cost is increased to aijoiit 48 cents per scpiare foot. Curtain walls or filliiifr slabs 4 in. tJiick, when poured as described abo\e, cost a.j cents j)cr scpnire foot. It appears, therefore, that walls of 8-in. concrete and 12-in. brick co.st about the same (Fig. 95). Monolithic concrete walls have, however, been recently made WALLS, I'AHTiriOSS AM) O/'A'.V/.Vf.'.S' I'Jl ' A* -» i»» ^ae" C^www* . ,1,-. ,..->*.'■" •H C«rit«rs of Mam Builfl'^gs m iXrS »-k'>*rfital Barm Fio. 94.— United Shoe Mackinerj- Co. Shop , Beverly, Mass. m f^' ■, 5'.**^ 1<,)2 K\(!ISh:i':iiI\(! OF Sn()I< A\D FACTORIES with loi.u.val.lo inotal forms at a fitcat savin- in expense, the actual cost with unskilled labor being as follows: Twelve-inch monolithic concrete walls,' made as above, cost .J"ra»n Stvne n ^ r 4. n- ,»«.:»» ' Vertical Section. Port Front Elevation. !,-,(,_ 95. — Details for concrete Imilding. l^j.^prial H ■'• <■'""' ■'^ l"^'"" SQ""''"" f""* MUiiiK :uul placing :' <' "■'"'' I«''" '^'1'"""^^ f""'* Moval.lo iiu'tal forms 1 ■ "> cents per s-iuaro f<.ot 'j'„,.jj 1(1. U cents i)or siiuiirt^ foot Six-incii monolithic concrete walls cost i^j.ij^.,.j.i| .") 7.') cents ytfT sciuaro fniit Mixins aM.l I'.laeinf; 1 ■"' "■'"'^ I'-'r ■''!'■''"' f-.t Moval.le medial r..rn.s 1 "> cents per square foot ■I-,,,.,] S.T.") cents per !si|Uare foot ]f a surface coat is desired it can be adde.l at an additional cost of 2\ cents i)er s(iuarc foot. The concrete itself in the G-m. » Cvment Age, February, 1912. WALLS, PARTITIONS AND OPENINGS 193 walls cost S.j.40 per cubic yard or 20 cents per cubic foot. The cost of the removable steel forms has been found to be about one-half cent per .s(iuare foot for each face, while wood forms would cost at least 5 cents for each face. Unskilled labor can be u;-ed on monolithic work, whereas block walls must usually be laid by masons at a higher rate of wages. These costs are re- markal)ly low for a wall that is substantial and that can be made attractive at an aditional expense of 2 or 3 cents per square foot, as elsewhere described. Walls 3 to 4 in. thick, of previously moulded concrete slabs, can be made and erected at a cost of 8 to 10 cents pers(|uare foot, but they lack the rigidity of mono- lithic work. (See "Separately Moulded Members".) Wooden Walls.— Tliese are but little used in modern sliops and should be covered with slate, shingle, or metal siding either stamped or rolled. Plank with splines or tongue and groove may stand vertically and be fastened to horizontal girths, and square edged plank may have the vertical joints covered with i-in. battens. If the planks are laid diagonally, they form substantial bracing for the building, though the diagonal cutting causes some waste. Planks should be horizontal when the walls are covered with slate or metal. A weather boarded wall over plank not including the framing, will cost 10 to 12 cents per square foot. The comjiarative cost of frame, veneer and solid brick walls is as given in the following table: TABLE XVIII Thame '''""♦''•■'"K $0.24 per square yard I.tmihcr, IS ft. at 2 1,2 eonth 4.') per scr per yard put on 03 ,ior yard square Back plaster 20 jwr sipiare yard '"*•'' 81 . 51 ])er square yard RiiicK Venkku P'"«*'''"'"K so 24 iwr square yard Lumber, IS ft. at 2J cents 4,^, ,„.r square yard ' "!'*•'" o:i per K(iuaro yard Face l)rick, <>:{ at A cents 1 . 89 {)er square yard '*""'"' *2 . 01 per square yard 13 ' 194 ENGIMJERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES Solid Hhick Vmi) brick, «:{ iit 3 ctMits SI S9 por s(iuaro yard Common l>ric-k, 120 at 1 cent 1 .2() iH>r si|uare yard FurrinR "6 por K%^ffb'^^yj'^f,^prjtf.'^vt^Ag;».^ ^ CLAMP' fLHSTCii -r ^5^^S2^S3SS Fig. 98. — Concrete channel block partitions and wall furring. i!)ii K\(;i.\j:i:h'i\l<>.'ks 2 in. tliick liave ficiuently boon used and arc easily elected, as tiiey are VI in. wide and 4 feet lonji. As the blocks are soft, they should be coated with adamant plaster. Some makers of expanded metal also manufacture metal studs with oiitstandin.ir iiroiiirs ready for clincliin,u: when the expanded metal is in jjositiou. These studs greatly simplify the work of partiticm buildin-r. Concrete and expanded metal walls 2 m. thick cost 20 cents per s(iuare foot. Windows.— One of the chief differences between old manu- facturing buildings and new ones is in tlu> amount of light ad- mitted, modern ones fretpiently having three to four times a.s Y^^■ 00.— A motlcrii plant for Dod^o Hrothcrs Co., Detroit. much as tlieir predecessors. In fact, the exterior walls are now compo.^ed chiefly of glass, many having window areas of 70 to SO per cent, of their exterior surface (Fig. OH). When walls have brick on the outside, the si/e of window frames should !>e nnide to suit an even number of brick courses to avoid cutting tlie brick. Cypress was formerly used for largo sash and frames, but it lias been found to warp easily, and pine is, therefore. i)referred. Nearly all of the latest shops, however, have steel frames and sasii. i)rovided with opening mechanism, to operate a number of sasli a' once (Fig. 100). Trunnions should turn in brass sockets lu avoid any possibility of binding from rust. WALLS, PARTITIONS A\D OPEMSdS 107 A pood iirranfjonioiit for side \v;dl windows is to have three tiers of sash, tlie upper one beinji pivoted for ventilation and the two lower ones luin>etal ones. lOS KSGIXEEli. r, OF SHOPS A\D FACTORIES Stonigo huililinfis are often i)r()vido(l with double sets of doors, solid ones to close at nifiiit, and iinier ones for use during the day with open slats which will allow air to circulate. Car shed doors 10 ft. hy 1('> ft. are economical and convenient when made of wood and hunji on cast-iron eyelets l>uilt into the wall. They may have plass in the upper panels, and the cost should not exceed about SIOO. Rollinfr steel shutters for the same place would proliably cost SKiO to S170. In sjiecial places where loading cranes must extenvi out through the side walls of a l)uilding to cover an adjoining line of railway, a rolling steel shutter may be mounted on wheels to move out from tlic building in advance to the crane and return again to its original position on the side of the building, when the crane is indoors. For more comjjlete details of windows and doors for shops, see Tyrrell's "Mill Buildings" pages 331-373. CH.\PTFR XVII ROOFS AND ROOFING The weight and permissible roof inclination for different kinds of roofing are given in the following taljle. From thi.s it appears that either the inclination or its covering can be selected arbi- trarily, but when u choice of one of these has been made, the other T.VBI.K XIX— ROOF COVKHING— WKIC.UT AND LIMITS OF SI.OPK Material From I 1 Corrugated iron on purlins 5 Zinc on boards Zinc on purlins ! Lead* on boarding ' Flats and Lead and purlins ' Flats and Slates on boarding 20 Slates and purlins 20 Tiles on battens and rafters 30 Tiles and purlins 3() degrees) orizontal Weight in pounds per square foot To 30 5 30 5 30 7i gutter only 10 gutter only 12i 45 12i 45 15 70 17i 70 20 Fig. 101. — Tile roof details. must conform to it. The slope must be great enough to shed water over the joints or seams of the diffierent coverings, and flat enough in some cases to permit the covering to be placed. 199 200 ES(!I.\Ki:i{I\a OF SIIOI'S AM) I'ACTOUIK^ lloofiiifi is muilc ill jirciit variety, iiichnliiij,' til(>, sluto, com- position, phcet iiK'tal, and wooil sliiiifilcs, and tlicso are sup- ported directly on purlins or on plank oi' a lillini; of concrete between thcin, siicli lillinj; niakiiiK excellent roof bracing. Boards should be strong enough to sup|)ort a man's weight, and the maximum span lengths for difterent thicknesses are as given in the following table: 2 ft. S ill. :i ft. <) ill. •1 ft. 1 ill. ■1 ft. S i:i. .j ft . :t ill. .->ft. lit ill. (ift. .") ill. 7 ft. ill. TABLE XX. -UOOF DO.\ni)IXG— TIIICKNIXS .WD SI'.W I Thickness in inches Ma.xiinuni .siian 9 f i 1 n n n n BuiUling.s in which acid fumes are generated, as in brass foundries, mu.st be covered with an indestructible material such as slate. Uralite has been used in England, its cost being about the same as \o. 20 corrugated iron. Flat roofs should be framed like floors, excepting that they should have a slope of at least 1/- in. jjcrfoot, and they are most conveniently covered with tin, tar and gravel, or some kind of composition. Tin roofing (M. F. Brand) is sold in boxes containing 110 sheets and costs about S7.2o per box. The a"tual cost of laying it will be about G cents per square foot additii nal. Previous to laying the metal, the roofing bf)ards should b(> overlaid with three layers of tar jiaper fastened down with nails and tin washers. The quantities of material recjuired to lay one square of tar and gravel roofing, are: SheatliinK pajwr 100 .sy 48 ill. to tlic wfiitlicr, \vcifiliin<; in position, alxmt 13 11). per S(lU!ire foot. I'lirliiis must he 4 ''*. a|):irt on (•enters. Tiles are reinforeed with iiuiiilicr IS expanded metal. With this roofing jllass skvlijilits are iinneeessaiy, as any desired proixirtiou of filusa tiles eaii be siihstitiiteil for the rcfiular ones, and they can be arranged as desired, either in clusters or in small scuttered areas. niArTER xviir NOTES ON SPECIAL BUILDINGS The Drafting Office. -Tlic import anrc of the draft ing ofTico cnn better l>e (■oniprelieiKied wlieii it is considered tliat not less tlian S.")(),<)<)(),0()0 ill wages is paid anmiaiiy to draftsmen in the United States, and otiier conntrios can iloubtiess show siiiiihir propor- tions. As the drafting room is the phiee where inventions are ma(h^ and developed, and details of construction determined, every facility should be providod that will assist in these direc- tions. ICngineers and designers shouUl not be tied down to routine work or to exact hours, for such restrictions arc a hin- drance to thought and studj-. An hour or two over a drawing board at one time without interruption is enougli, and the day's work generally should not exceed eight hours. It sliould be remembered tliat in this office, wealth can either \)0 made or lost for the factor} .vncrs, and the greatest latitude should be given to men who are capable of creating profits and saving in expense. Those who liave the faculty for design should not l)c hampered, for the day is short enough, and '.iun fatigued with trivial duties even an inventive mind must take time to rest. The drafting office (Kig. ItKi) in all its j)articulars should, therefore, bo made to assist its occupants in doing their best. Ciood light, air, and a comfortable degre if warmth are essentials, but nothing is more important than oi ler. Attention cannot be concentrated on a sul)jcct to the best advantage in a room where papers and litter of every kiiul are piled about, and since papers must accumulate rapidly in a drafting office, there should be facility for filing them where thc\' can be easily reached. Room interiors and furniture should preferablj' be finished in light tones, for dark colors absorb light. Upp'T sash may Iiave ribbed glass which diffuses daylight better than plain, but the lower glass should be clear, that men may rest their eyes by occasiona distant views. Each window should have two shades, one for each sash. The office must also be well ventilated, for clear tliought is impossible in a foul atmosphere, and rooms 203 201 i:.\(;i.\i:i:i{is(i of snors asd factokifs h1i.hi1<1. tlii'iffnic, lie lii;;li and in warm wcatlicr slioiild liavc fans. 'I'liry .-liuiild 1)1' lar;;i' ciicdiuli tlial carli mail will have nut li-ss than 1(H) sc|. ft. of lici.pr .space, ami tlifii- .•.jiuiilil he I'mmiLtli toilets lUid Wash huuls III pinviilf (iiic for cvciy twelve to fifteen o( lUpaiits. Ollice ei|uipment slionld he selected with a view to promoting order and ( nnveineiice lioth as to quantity ami kind of furnishing'. Iiiclineil or liori/ciiital drawing: hoards are hetter than vortical ones, hecau^e staiidin;; all day with extended arms hefore a ver- tical lioard i> loo fati^iuinjr. One or more illuminated druwinK Ik.. Iu:{.— .V ilial'tiiig otiicc. hoards are conveident for traciufr hluejirints. The hoard is, in fact, a jjieco of plate frlass in a wooden frame with facility at the edjics f(U- clampin'i the drawing: down. It has electric lights l)e- neath the f;lass to illuminate the hlueprint from helow. A small printing press is a saving; of time in i)Utliiiji on titles or other wording that is repeated on several sheets. It can also he used for i>rin(in, hlank^ aiid .-.uiiiiar pajtors. I'rinters' ink which dries slowly and is likely to smear shoidd he »S. & .\()Ti:s n.\ si'i:riM, miLDisas 20.') sprinklocl ovt-r witli |Mi\vc|crcil dialk or .sDapstoiu'. Driiflsinni hlit»ulyiM;;, and carWori negatives may be iiiade im liiiii papi-r that can ea.iily h(> l)liu'j)rintt"il. A liektograph rapalile tif niakin cents per s(iuare imdi. The cameru is also useful for v'prouucinir (l. The cylindrical arc liuht blueprinting;' machine is the l)est and most relialile for all kinds of weather, but the office should also have one or more suidi^ht frames, ^\'henever alterations are made on blueprints that have alieady jione to the shoj), the date of such alterations should be noted thereon. Blueprints may be photo;!;rai)!u>d by chan^in^ them to brown in the following waj'. The prints should hrst lie immersed in a dilute solution of am- monia until tiic blue disappears. They are then washed in water and placed in a weak solution of tannic acid until they turn brown. The prints should again be washed with water and dried, when they can easily be photographed. A rcvoiil hook of contnu'ts shoultl he kept hy tlio cliief drafts- man or oflice iiiana.iicr, ami this should consist of ,lui)liciite pa-cs altcnuitclv white :uul yellow, the yellow hein- used for a carhon c.py. Then, wJien work in tlic draft in-; oIImc is assi,i;nee overhead appliances as well. Cranes and trolleys should hang from a heavy system of trusses, leaving the floor free from obstruction of columns. Round Houses.-- In choosing between rectangular (Fig. 10r>) and circular engine houses, the first form requires about 50 per Pi if If III •JOS KXaiXKKRISr, OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES cent, less door Mre;i than tlie second, and has straiglit walls and less donis, innking a rectani;iilar luiildinf; altu<:ethor cheaper than a round one. liut the latter type has other advantages and continues in favor. The dimensions of a round house will depend on the length of engires (Fig. lOtl). Turntahles moved by an electric tractor or comjiressed air must lie a few feet longer than the engine, and enough space nnist lie left for doors to ojien between the table and the inner engine house wall. Duors shuukl be 10 ft. wide, I'lc. 10t>. — circular ciiniiic house. thus leaving some clearance at each side of the engine (Fig. 107). Hy li\iiig on a mininnim wiilth of pilaster between the doors, tiie panel leii'MJi at the inner wall will be determined. .Sliding, swing and rolling doors liave all been used, but as those which swing on hinges at the side are in danger of being cloggetl with snow and ice, . balanced tloor is sometimes preferred. Steel rolling doors cost more than either of the others. The width of tiie building should be 10 to 1." ft. greater than the length of th(3 (Migine, allowing space for workmen to pass when the doors are closet'.. A width of 1)L* ft. is generalh' enough for ordinary largo locomotives, but Mallet engines, some of which have a length of ll-'Oft., will ecjuire special housing. I'igure 108 siiows a turn- talilo in use on the A. T. & S. F. Ry. for turning Mallet engines. *>:4fir' « A'077;;.S (>\ SI'KCIAL liUILDIXCS 209 Willis sliould 1>(> of hrick or coiiciete hlocks, hccjiuso iiionolitliic conci-t te is too incouvi-iiifiit to repair wlwn damajiod, thoujih it is suitaltlc for tlio foundations. As runaway engines occasionally {TO tlir()uj;ii the outer wall, it is bettor to place an arch or lintel at the >■ :if each track, which would prevent the roof from falling if tlie walls should he Jjroken down. The building should be divided l)y occasional fire walls, six to eight stalls apart, and these should extend above the roof. ^nf>mmmfmm I fii I rv^»w»^»T7^(^ 'J'A'fil'W^W Fi<:. 107 -IiiM\/v aiul wciiilit of jiart-s mkuIc aud iiaiidlcd in car sliop.i, iicci's.-.itatc a onc-.sloi-y l)uildiii;i with lioor on tin- solid };ouiid. The location for tlicsc .shops is iiii])ortiuit, as they usually lU'cd a lariic area of land, not only for spr("a5 nut their one-storv huildiniis. liut for storing; ('ars and hulky material. .V tract just outside of some lai'.m' city is usually the best, wherelaiul values and taxes are low and a!)untlance of lalior near at hand, rienty of extra land should tie acipiired at iirst, so there will be room for exiiansion. In Hat or low re^ionslike the prairie states, it is often iiest to raise the frrade from 2 to d ft. aliove tin! surroundin.i; country, and where natural draina.ti<' is not available, sewers may empty into an artilicial siunp. from which the drain- aj;e can l>e ])vunped and dischar?:ed into the neai'est watercourse. An excellent metiiod "f avran.^iuii the luiildinfis is to ])lace them rif^ht and left of ;. central elevatei- cianeway, crossin.sj; trans- versely all the tracks which enter the su'cessive Imildinjrs and the sidinf^s i)ara!lel to them. \W means of this traveling crane, material from any of the liuildin.iis may 1>(> loaded (ui to carsor lifted from them and conveyed to any other track desired. When cit V water is not ol)tainalile. an underground reservoir nuist, lie made and ]iressin'(' can be seemed fi'om an ele\ated tank 100 ft. in heiiiht or more. The new car shops at Winiupei;, Man. (M^. 110), wiiich are amon^ the finest over built, ai'e laid oiu as docribed aliove.tii(> reservoir bein.i;- 00 ft. wide, I'TO ft. lon- ft. for three rows. For greater convenience, some architects use outside widths of .")(), To, and 100 ft. re- spectively, and correspondiiij; clear-story hei;;hts of 12, 13, and 11 ft. Fig. 111. — .\ car house. Power Houses. — Some iUructural features of power house desi<;ii may he illustrated, hy descrihinj; hriefly two jMaiits recently tlesijiued hy the writer, in connection with an electrical engineer in each case. The first of these (Fig. 112) was for in interiirhan electric rail- way company in Ohio. It consists of an enfjino room 52 hy lU) ^t and a hoiler room 02 hy 140 ft., containing the hoilcrs and a si^.-pended coal hunker 12 l)y 75 ft. on the outer side of the l)uilding, adjoining the railway company's projjorty. The engines anil heavy electrical machinery stand on concrete founda- tions, the space around the foundations l)eneath the nuichinery floor heing left ojien and used for hasement or cellar .storage. The remainder of the engine room floor, not occupied \>y t!ie engine foundations, is covered with a reiiJorccd concrete slab on steel heains. The 'eel fi-aming of this floor weighed 22 tons and cost $1100 in plai and the reinforced concrete slah cost $3100 or 50 cciit.s per gtiuare toot. The height under the trusses in both hoiler and engine room NOTES ON SPECIAL BUILDINGS 215 Fia. 112. — A power plant. I i'lCi f;.\7,7.VA7;/i7.\7/ i)F Sl/Ol'S AM) F.\(T(>UIi:S is L'l ft. Sliito cnvciiii;; is hiiil (ni 2-iii. iiluiik ('iiiiicd on steel trusses of tlu* l''ink type willi stiff top clionls, pia<'ey ") in. wood luiilinc, piece to wliich the plank is spiked, tiie joints Ix'inj: parallel with tlie cuvc as re(|uirfd for slate coveriii};. Koth the lioiler and engine room have doulile pitched roofs, forniin;; a coiitiiuious flutter over the center partition wail hetween tlie two rooms. .\t the (>Ti(ls the roofs are hipjieil, and two pani'ls ov(^r each niom have stiff-aii;j;le Inaciiifr in the i>lane of the iiottom chord to keep the trusse.'! properly in line. These two luaced panels are united with a line of anj;les in tlu? center of each span, anil in the jilaiu* of the rafters also, the same two panels have ilouMe rod hracing. The trus.ses .stand on plate and angle columns in the walls and are rigidly knee braced to them. In tiie engine room is a 10-ton hand traveling crane running on l.Vin. beam girders, which an? carried on coluum brackets. The presence of this craiu! enables the varii'is i)arts of the engines ami machinery to be .set or replaced -umt injuring the trusses. Over the boilers is a coiitinuou,'. ventilator, 48 ft. in length, the sides of which are covered with fixed louvres, and the roof with slate similar to that on the rest of the building. .\t the rear of the boilers is an elevated ])latonn 04 ft. in length, framed with 0-andS-in. beams, and supported on steel columns. The brick walls serve merely as ciu'tains, because the roof aiul crane loads are carried directly on the columns. The largest single item of expen.se in the steel work is the coal bunker, which lias a caj)acity of 200 tons. Coal is hauled uj) an iiuline in hopper bottom cars and the coal is emi)tied from them info the bunkers, the frame of which is strong enough to safely carry the weight of a car holding .")() tons of coal and weighing lo tons when empty. The tracks and biniker are enclosed and covered with a corru- gated i'-on shed as protection from the weather anil the snow. The toe or lower end of the bunker hangs over fh(> front end or doors of the fire box anil boilers, and six lines of chutes convey the coal down to automatic stokers. The discharge of coal through these chutes is regulated by means of .swinging gates operated by hand. The space below the suspended bunker is used by the workmen In the boiler room. The bunker is lined throughout with J-in. steel plates, and the bottom is .supported SOTFS O.V SPECIAL RVJLDISGS l\ r on O-in. 1k>uiiis, (1i(> wliolo Ix-in^ siispctulfd from two lincj. 'f pinto pirilcr one on cacli wiilc, uliidi stand oii steel loliiiim.s. Tiii! H|)!ice lictwcen the track stringers is left open for iidtiiittiiiK coal from the liopj)er lars, and the strinjiers arc, therefore braced over to the jjlate ^i'ders at the sides. The (piaiititios of rtteel in the various parts, and the cost thereof, are j;iven in thofol- lowiiif? schedule: ( omI l>iinkcr for ."O-ton oarH. . 7t foiiK of hf.-<>l, cost S.V.'OO HiinkiT nIhmI IS Ions of Mc-I, cost L'KK) Mnniiie-rooin lloor 22 tons of stci'l, ciwt 1 1(K) Stt^-I roof fnirno (j;, tons of stJH'i, cost -I.VH) Traveling crane, 10 tons . i loo -BO 1 — ><9'l'>-« 8''-< 8''-^ S >-^ J iW »-. — 42 2'^ >< -—50 4 Fi(!. 113. — Power plant at llimtingt on, W, Va. The Other power house {V'v^. W.i) was for an iaterurban railway in West \irfrinia. Tlic building is 142 ft. long by 94 ft. wide, and is divided by a brick wall through the iiiiildle, making two rooms of c(iual size. The engine room has a l.l-ton hand traveling crane for lifting machinery parts, and \\n- rails on which the crane runs are fastened to the top flange of the crane beams with hook •.'IS HSalSEHIilSd OF SHOPS AM) FACTORIES Imlts. 'riii:^ allows iKljiirttiiiciil of tin' riiiln to suit tlioiliMiiincrlu'- t\M'cM tliccraiH' wheels. 'I'lit' roof surf aci' of both rooiimis cuvt'r«'d with JS-iii. slate oii steil an^:le purlins, '1 by 1 J liy i\ in., spaced \'.\ ill. apart. 'I'he lioiler room has eoiitimious >;alvaui/etl iron louvres on tlie monitor and the onftino room, four ciriular 48- in. >;ulviinizei'k«'tf*, HdiiH' of wliicli all' liircuilli illiistratcil. While these pockets were forineily Imilt of lieavy tiinlier thai would decay or wejir out ill a few years, tliey are now framed laif^ely of steel, and in many cases lire ulso lined wiili steel plates. r -'■ ^ '' - ' r--*':ri^^^''^^^^i!=H. ^ ^ w^^ Fici. 11 I.— A 2()0-t()n pe mentioned, such as those at "Worcester, Mass., ai 1 a large one designed by the writer at Montreal. The 2000-ton pocket (Fig. 114) mentioned above was 3") ft. wide, 80 ft. long and 72 ft. higii to the eave, and coal was conveyed to it by cable cars running on steel trestle work, the cars entering the pocket through ' H. G. TyrrcU, in Railroad Gazrttc, Oct. 4, 1901. 219 •jL'o ]:.\(;i.\i:Kiii\ ailjuiuiiif; ovi-ns. Thoy were liiicil witii j>laiik and covered witli a jralvauizcd iron roof, and tlio total \veij;lit of steel in one ])ocket was olO.OOO Ih., which is e(|uivalent to 'I'hi Ih. of steel for every ton of coal stored. Tho COOO-ton jxx'ket on the dock received coal directly from the vessels, t)u I he top of the pock(>t al)ove the I'ocif were four steel hoisting towiM's mounted on wheels, and the position of the towers could l)e suited to the hatchways in the ships. This pocket was 28i ft. wide, and V.Vl ft. lonj;, and stood on a framework of beams and columns, leaviu':; a clear lieadway of 11 ft. heneath for the passage of cars. It v.as lined inside wiili i)lank which is held in jxtsition l)y 12-in. I heani studs, 1 ft. apart. The sloping iio])j)er sides wi'W. of i)lank on tindter hlockiiif;'. Hoof ti'usses with a 3-in. ])itch, i)laced 12 ft. apart, carried channel iron ])urlins and corrugated iron covi'rinji;. Tlie hopjx'r j^ates weic (>\treniely siini>le hut elTective. Tho total iiuantities of niaierial in the (iOOU-ton ])ocket '.\-ere as follows: Steel frame .(MM) lli. One liiiiulriMl li(i|)|n'rs ;{'.l,(l(M) Ih. ()n« luirulrcd li(i|i|i('r };:if('s 17,000 lli. ('(irnijiat- I iron 1 1..")00 si\. ft. Spni.'c IuimImt 17,:!0() It. B. .M. Tlie total wei,;:iit of steel cori'esponds to lt at Montreal is 2S ft. S in. wide, h\\ ft. hinii and loo ft. lon^. Like t lie one just ilesc rilieil, it stands on a frame wm k of lieams and columns. lea\in;i a clear headway of 11 ft. underneaiii foi' the passa;j,(' of cais. In desi;;ninji it. tho foUowiu}? units were used: Wfi^lit (if coul .")() 11). per culiic fiiot Wind pressure :!0 II). ]iiT .si|\i:trc foot Total roof louil 10 III. |HT .'^iiuare foot Steel in lension l.'i.OOO lli. per siiii:irc incli SliM'l in coinpres.sion r_',0(»0 lli. per .sipiiire inch Filler stri>,s.s in lieain.s 10,00(1 II). [ht Mjuare inch STOlt.Ulh' roCKETS .LVD HOISTING TOWfliS 221 Tliis iii'ckct was (lividctl into tliirly-tliicc panels of 12 ft. IJ in. and was lined tlnou.niiout witli oak plank. The total weight of stei'l, includiii}; the pocket itself and the ]ilatforin of heani.s and eolunins on whieh it stands, was titlli.OOO lb. This is equivalent to lIKi 11). of steel for every ton of coal stored. Another desij^n for the same pocket, with J-in. steel plate lining instead of plank, contained 98;5,()()() 11). of .steel, equal to 24.") lb. for every ton of coal. These ii;!;ures do not include in either case, the rails on which the hoisting toweis travel, amounting to about 10,000 lb. The abo\e weijihts of steel correspond to 3 to 4 lb. per cubic foot of contents. The weight of steel in storage pockets varies almost directly accortling to the number of tons stored and for plunk-lined pockets, is from KiO to 170 lb. per ton of contents, increasing to 2 10-2.")0 lb. ))er ton of contents where the pockets have steel lining. If they are designed for the storage* of some heavier material such as ore, the above figures will .still u]')i)ly. A large bin designed by tli(> writer for export to South Africa, for the storages of gold ore weighing 100 lb. ])er cubic foot, contains 7 11). of steel jx-r cubic foot of bin, or 170 lb. of steel for everj- ton of ore, the I'atio remaining the same as before. These figures give a ready and convenient means of estimating approximately, the (luantity of material in these structiu'cs. The coal pocket shown in Fig. 1 1.") is somewhat similar to those previously descriijed, l)Ut in this case, the coal is l)rought to the site by rail insteatl of watiM-. At one end is ;i sloping trestle, upon which cars are drawn to the track above the bin, where they are cmi)tied through .sliding ho])]iers into the pocket. The loaded cars are delivereel on an adjoining si and lias a i)lank roof on steel stringers. The side studs lire 1 ft. iil)art and the main panels are Iti ft. each. SusjxMision bunkers (I'ig. 1 Ki) are jji-obably the most economi- cal form in metal, for mucii hea\y beam framing is avoided, and the metal plates vhich served merely as a lining, in the form described abo\(>. now sup])ort the load by tension. The type is desirable chiefly when metal plates are rcejuired inside. For timber lining, tiie old style with plank supported on a system of incliiK'd b(>ams, ma}' be found clieajier. Patents on suspension bunkers have been granted, but these do not include all forms of 222 l-SGINEERISG OF SHOPS ASD FACTORIES construction, for similar pockets are made by otliers without patented features. Metal lias the advantage of occupying somewhat smallerspacethan timberorconcrete fram- ing. Pockets of some kind are now almost, indispensable for power houses or wherever a large quantity of coal is stored. ■fi-] -nr^-TT" v. U is i Concrete coal pockets of 3000 ton capacity or more, c"st from S">."jO to $7.-)0 per ton of capniity, and concrete stand pipes, not including llie foundations, cost from 2^ to 3 ct-nt.^ i>>-r ga'.lnn of contents. Combination coal pockets with supports M STORAGE POCKETS AND HOISTING TOWERS 223 Mean Hiil ~itiaa.lrS!!!tF^. Fin. 110.— Ash pocket at Philadelphia. Philadelphia Ilapid Transit Co. STORAUE I'OCKKTS AXD llOISTIAG TOWERS 225 d u 220 i:.\f!i.\.r:i:iii\(; of shops a\d f 'Cjohies and floor of ((mcn-tc and walls of tiiiihcr, vnM ,l)'int V) per ton of cai)acit3-. Some tli-tails of coiuTote coal po»k( *; arc sh", u in Fif;s. 117 to 120. Hoisting Towers.' — Coal holstiiif? towers on the wharfs at sea- board cities were formerly constructed of wood, as were also the jxickets to which they deliver coal, but with the introduction of steel, many were afterward built of metal, which, though more expensive than tlie old style, make a safer and more satisfactory hoisting tower (Fijr. 121). Tlu y are usually mounted on wiieels to travel on the top of a storafje pocket, all of those descrilud hero being of that type. Other kinds are also used, where the tower Via. 121. — Coal handling plant at Dollar Hay. is combined witli a lower house containing the weighing and crusliiiig hopper, tiie whole being mounted on wheels traveling on the ground. A design of this kind was made l)y the writer for The Hoslon Elevateil Railroad Company, at the Lincoln Wharf plant. The type of tower traveling above a storage pocket, is illus- trated by one for the Metropolitan Street Railway Company of New York, the frame being ").") ft. high and 24 ft. s(|uare at the base, with a single l)oom 31 ft. in length overhanging the water and boats, 'i'lie tower has four legs strongly braced together, and the lower part contains an engine room from whicii the hoisting is controlled. The engine house is roofed over and enclosed on the sides with corrugatctl iron, having windows enough to uJniit ' II. G. Tyrrell, in Engineering Xews, May 30, 1001. ^-^m' STORAGE POCKETS AND HOISTIXG TOWERS 227 228 K.\(ifsi:i-:ni.\(! of shops asd factouiks the lijilit. Till- cnislicr.s arc supjxirlcd oi, franiiiif; tibovit 8 ft. hi'low tlic ciijiiiu' idi'iu floor, 'llu- lioppcr is of ^t-'nx. plato witli ii frame of allelic .uhI rliaiiiu'l iron. Tlic tower was desifjiied to carry a live load of three tons at tiic end of tlu* hooiii with an allowance of KM) i)er cent, for inij)act. It iontains 18 tons of steel and cost, incliidiii}; door, roof and sides, $12250. Another tower, somewhat similar to the hist, desi<;neil l>y tlie writer for the ]3ominion Coal Comimny at Montreal, has a heijjht of (>;} ft. and a l)oom ol ft. lon^;, with ii base 21) ft. lon^ and 2o ft. wide. The hoom is swivoled at the roar end and was propor- tioned for a live load of 3J tons, with provision of 100 per cent, for impact. The floor is very heavy, hein}? made of 12-and IS-in. steel heanis. It has a ladder on one side, enabling the operator to inspect a!id oil the bearings at the tower top. The total assumed load at the end of the boom is 18,000 lb. The tower is mounted on seven wheels and has a safety clamp at the rear to prevent tijiping. It contains 27 tons of steel besides the trolley rope and operating machinery. The hopper is lined with plank and the house enclosed with sheathing. (Fig. 122.) #^J^ CHAPTER XX FACTORY HEATING Heating may be done by the use of direct or exhaust steam passing through coils of pipe, or by warm air in hirge (juantitics forc'id l)y fans tiirough ducts to different parts of the shop. As the latter type of heatirg is the one best adapted to shops and factories it is described at greatest length in the following pages. In the heating and ventilating of industrial buildings, economy is of prime importance, and it is from this standpoint that the acceptance or rejection of the fan system must be decided, though sanitation even from a mercenary consideration must not be disregarded, for upon the comfort and well being of the workmen must their efficiency and contentment depend. Apparatus for Fan System. — A heating system is composed of three essential elements — the heater, the fun and the distribut- Fio. 123.— Fan system in automobile plant of George M. Pierce, Buffalo. ing ducts. The heater consists of rows of vertical 1-in. wrought- iron pipes, screwed into a manifold cast-iron base which is divided into separate units or sections. The coils are tightly enclo.sed on 229 tlic top 1111(1 h'uU'h l)y slici't .sicfl casiii;;. Tlic air is drawn or forced tliroii^li hctwccii t lie jiipcs \>y Micaiis of a (•ftitrifii;;al fan wliicli coiinci'ts with tlu> licalcr i asinj;. '|"lic fan sliould l>e umply large and slionld he driven at snllicient wpeed to jjroduce an air velocity of about lUtM) ft. jx'r niinnle tlirou;;li tiie clear area of the coils. Thi.s velocity is an important condition since tho effectiveness of the coils is laip'ly dependent upon it. Tho increaned efliciency of the heatinj; surface from this cause is so great that only from one-tiiird to one-fiftli as much surface in retpiirod with the fan system as with direct radiation. Further, as will be shown later, the heat is so applied and distributed that it is far more thoroughly utilized than in ordinary radiation. Heat Losses. — Ileat los.ses occur in a building from two causes. First, by the direct transmission of heat through the walls and exterior surfaces of tho building, and second, l)y the infiltraticm of cold air from without. In designing a heating plant, the first of these los.ses may bo very accurately determined by referring to tables showing the amount of heat radiated under different conditions through various thicknesses of walls, windows, doors, floors, etc. Tho heat loss thro\igh infiltration differs so greatly in various sizes and constructions of buildings, that no absolute rule can be given. Tho aliowanc(> to be made for lieat loss is necessarily the result of experience and of careful tests of previous installation. Infiltration or leakage is imxlucod by the unbalaiu'cd pressure of tho colunui of heated air within the building, and that of tho cold air without. The action is, in jjriuciple, precisely like that of a chimney. Tho ditTereiice in j)ressu-' ])rr, and increases in direct jjroportion to tiie difference in tem{)oraturo between the air within tho building and that without. Since the flow of air is jiroportiona! to th(> S(|Uare root of tho pressure, that amount of air entering or leaving the building through leakage will bo in projjortion ti> the square rout of the difference of tom])eratun>. The effect of this leakage i.s as evident in theory as it is uoticeabh" in practice. Tho air which escaiios from the building is naturally the very hottest and, therefore, has not had its heat fully utilized, while that which enters along the floor chills the air at the lower part of the building percej)til)ly, forming a cold layer of air which cannot bo removed except ]>\ a j)o^Iiivo circulation or diffusion with lieuted air such as may bo socun-d by the fan system. In FACTORY HEATING 231 larRo machiru' hhops and foundries, thi.s hiyor of cohi air may fr(ndant loss, which is relatively great, is unavoidable. Practically, the only way in which thia heated air can be made use of is by placing the coils ne.\t to the wall near the floor, and allowing the heated currents to pass upward along the walls, but even Jiis method is wasteful from the fact that it heats the walls unduly, causing a loss which may usuidly be estimated as great as IV) per cent, of the total lieat supply. Pijx's near the walls fail to properly distribute the heat and the central i)art of a building may b(> much cooler than the sides.^ The fan system, however, since the method of distrii)uting tlie air is entirely mechanical, affords an oi)port unity for utilizing its heating effects to thi- very best advantage. Various methods of distribution have been devised with fan system whereby the effect of a rising current of heated air is almost entirely avoided. These systems in general, dei)end upon securing diffusion of the heated air along or near the floor line. Systems of Air Supply.— The method of distributing the air in the buildin- l- i consideraticm of chief importance. The usual methods of sui)plying lieated air an- First, to take the air entirely from without, and force it ilirectly into the building through distributing ducts. This method is generally known as the Plenum System. The pressure produced in the building causes ;> continuous exit of air from the building, either through the natural openmgs as is usually the ease in factories, or through special vent openings provided for the purpose. This effectually prevents the entrance of cold air from without. j:!_' ; \(;i\ri.i:i\i: or siiors .1 v/> iwcroh'ii .<; A si'i 1 114I liwic I iiiiiriiDii iiirlliiitl fur ^liiij) liilililiii^.s ulicrp furred veil lalioi i- ii..l a ncii sits, is to dfaw the -U]>iily o{ air fiitircly fii.ii! wilii.ii till' Imildiii^' and :ij;uiii foici' it tliruiij;li the distrilHiiii^ ducts, causiiij; a cdiil iiiiioiw cirt'iilatiiiii (if tin air wiiliiii tlic hiiildiiiji. 'I'liis often has .in advafJafji' over tlic pieiiiiiu .sy.steiii ''i I 'lat :ii! 'he heat sii|iiili(d to the air is etTc< vr for iieaiiii;;. '1 • i.eliiMl is opeciallv siiifalih^ in very "id climates Imt ca-i • im . only where t;as. fumes, or .■- 'iko nf not ;:enerateil ii.s. !'• Ah' si' ip. Ai! ideal an .a.',<'!.ic!ir i- a i uuiiination of the pien iiri and return system-, . u 1 '!.'-> di'" 'd he useil u h<'rever ])os- le, Mv lS^....v. a "S"l,l '""11"'' -^,-*--p-i,. ^-■JJ "V t t— ^ ~ ■- -^^ 1 ..:....t -!.. '±. IR- Utfiuti • .„KMOT 11" .-.i,cr f 'Zl - 3 L Iiii. IJt. — laii system in ntihiay niacin:, r ,-ii..p at Collinw ..od, < tiiio this inetliod. tile (greater iioriinn of the :;\v is returned to ;»» aiipaialus, litit snflicieiit air is idtitinuously talleiium withiii ht- hiuldiii.i; an.l pi< ■, ■ ,t the inward ieakaj;e of cold ,ir ahiii.i; ' ;ic> lloor. Ill tiiis niamif tli(> iK:?u;al leakaj:" is sufinlied, not i.v inlhiw of col,! air tiiiv ,-iici, m- es around t ■ doors and wiiuhiw lint li\ air jiassed tiiiou;;ii the apparatus ,, .{ jieated to an ctTeci ive (h'frree. Thi- cornliination has \m-\ ' >nnd l.y tests to he Ji'Kirc- iT.pn-aiy licati of t iic ..iil.liior air. Air should iil'va>» l-r ipi/jccj :r the ri;;lii i.-^n »• of liumidiiy ill i>r.l( ti» pwv. :it *M'(ii!.aiil.s (if lii'lmiMii. froi l, kin-; .(,1,1. '.it.shin;: inuccss. TIn' hcalinj; This : ;ir. Im-.i Ih- (June in tho ail apparatus an. I "ins ^^liouli he pi BniiK'v^ lic-i' ncT th i-ntcr of which ! at iiH' 'uniri' ''"i yste of Air Liismbu ■ istrili .III, thr . )||, atul offirc i ■.iltiih V. tical li' I s \' ical h1 ail lir is : W.ll' •ro fir> .-■i.i .\ air is 'til, lie itii forci UHi ('(I (low ■ ■s cmiiloycu ill fa' 1 llic lir is adiiii s and o])('iiii 'piiiiiiirs all t. Hy this ihi ifii as i: (ool.- Ollll' (• "d at on.- sid i;:' 'i, ' 111 t' <'\ iMldc... riifi-c arc sovoral systems of air. A inc'hod usi 1 in j)ul)li(! ii's. is the ' hroiifih a point p|>li('d at ■thod, the . and the (I at the floor ,ii(\ In soiiM' cases duels .1 e hei'ii lined with lioll. w hrick. hut iter exjieri- his to he not only unnecessary l>ut un. -irahh>. HI distribution (|uite similar to this is o? w hlo-^vn into hrick ducts underneath .r verMcal fralvaiiiz-tl il 11 risers are ; i ' aiv placed so a- to hlow downwai . - le -ht of ahoiit S ft. from the (loor. idji hl(. so that, in ease too direct a ili riion the huildinj;-, the outlet can he tin "cuon here the air current will not he oUjciiiojiahle. system is sometimes iiKMlified hy placinj; (he outlet.s close floor and hlowiiij;- downward directly alonj; the floor. This seeuivs a perfect iliffusioii of the Ik ated air at the floor lino, and avoids any draft. F.Nc lent results can he seci," ; i,y the use of ovcrh -ad piping, .vioivd it is not placed at too jireat a distance from the floor '' f I advantajre of tlie oveih(parately controllfMl heater sections, than vrith direct radiation, ami thus a jireat loss which fretiuently occurs, due to overheat iiijr, is prevented. Utilization of Waste Heat. — Another point in economy is the utilization of waste heat. By far the most common form of wast'> heat is from steam enjiines and other steam driven ma- chinery. Tiie ordimiry sinijjlo enjiine ninninj; noii-condensinf; has a water rate of aliout Hi* 11). j)er horse-jjower and uses only 20 per cent, of the total heat of steam in work radiation, lea. ir.;^ a renuiinder of NO per cent, available for the use in heatnif;; apjia- ratus, which would otherwise i>e wasted. As the mean effective I)ressure in the ordimiry enjrinc cylinder may be placed at 40 lb. !)('•■ s(iuare inch, an increase of 1 11). per s([uare inch in back pressure reduces the effective horse-power of the engine 21 per cent, and correspond in jrly increases the cost of the power prodvicticn. In a compound engine the effect of back pressure is still more noticeable since the tnean effective jjressure referred to tlie low ])ri'ssure cylinder may be placed at about 30 lb. per sipiare inch; each ])otuul of back pressure therefore reduces the power of the engine 3', per cent. It is therefore eviilently un profitable to use a system which will greatly hicrease the back j)ressure of tlu^ engine. The ordinary system of ilirect railiiition used in shoj) buildings usually camiot be operated successfidly without placing a back pressure upon the engine which is pro- hibitory. On the other hand, the fan .system heater is designated FACTORY HEATING 2.S7 to circulate steam at very low pressure and can be operated successfully with i-lh. i)ressurc on the eiijiine. Air Economizers. — An air economizer is employed to preat advanta{;e at the plant of the Cheboygan Paper t'onipany, where 900 boiler horse-power of live and exhaust steam is recpiired in heatinj? the rolls and beaters. The building is heated by the fan system in connection with an air economizer, and a systeni of mechanical draft. This makes nearly all the exhaust steam of the j)lant available for use in the rolls and increases the economy and heating capacitj' of the boilers from 10 to lo per cent. Tiiis .sj'stem illustrates another method of removal of the steam directly from the machinery by the use of hoods and disk fans. Sufficient hot air must be introduced into the building to take the place of the air removed, and to keep the building warm, other- wise condensation would occur. The above system of heating with air economizer is in successful operation in many places. Heating with Exhaust Steam. — Where condensing engines are used, it is sometimes (piestioned whether it is cheaper to run them non-condensing and use exhaust steam for heating, or to operate condensing and use live steam for heating purposes. The water rate of a compound Corliss engine at full load is about 20 lb. per horse-power non-condensing, and 14 11). condensing, so that the water rate is .SO percent, less when running condensing than when non-condensing. The amount of heat available in the exhaust steam when running non-condensing is about 80 per cent. Hence, we .sec that the saving of steam running condensing is only 6 lb. i)er horse-power while the heat available in the exhaust steam is 10 11). per horse-power and therefore a saving of 10 lb. of steam per horse-power could be made by operating non-con- densing and using the steam in the heater if all the steam available could be used. There would also be saving so long as more than 38 per cent, of exhaust steam was utilized in the heater, ^\ith less economical CTigincs the saving made b\- running non-con- densing and utilizing the exhaust steam is greater. With the steain turbine, the water rate increases very much more rapidly with the decrea.sc in vacuum (as shown by an in- crease in the nutnber of inches registered on the vacuum gauge) than with a ,Ueam engine. A steam tiu'bine which, with 28 in. of vacuum, has a water rate of 20 !b. of steam per kilowatt hour at full load when running non-condensiiig requires 50 lb. of steam per kilowatt hour at full load. Hence the use of exhaust from 2.\^ FSfilXEFRrSG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES tMihiiios witliout ii vacimni is oconoiniriil whon tlip hoatinj; roiivii-cTiicnts arc iiinvc tliaii CO per (•cut. of the steam consiiiniition of t!ie turhiiio ruiiiiiii.!; iion-coiKl(>nsiii<:. Other soui-ces of waste lieat have lieeii utilized to jrreat advan- tage l)y means of an air economizer in connection witli tiie fan system of lieat in;:, and mechanical draft, and the waste fjases from tiie l)oikTs, hiuninii: kihis. jias engines, etc. Tiie heat of these gases is being successfully used in many places for hoth licating and drying purposes. By this system it is i)ossil)le to reduce the temperature of tlie boiler Hue gases from ooO to iMO degrees, there- by increasing the Jieating capacity and economy of the boilers ai)proximat'jly 1.") i)er cent. The saving affected by the utiliza- tion of tiiese sources of waste heat frequently pays for the cost of installation, in one season's oper'tion. Flexibility of Oper.ition.— The fan system possesses a great advantage over iHrect radiation systems hi its flexibility of opera- tion. With direct radiation a building heats up very .slowly, and it is usually necessary to maintair a normal temperature all night in order to have it suliiciently warm in the morning. On the other hand, the fan system with the proper amount of reserve, can heat a building up in a short time. This allows the building to be cooled down during the night to just above frcuzhig-point, wav an average temperature of '.i't to 40 degrees. First Cost. Besitles these advantages in economy over direct radiation, there is usually a considerable advantage in first cost in favor of the fan system. This is due to the compactness of the .«y>tem, retparing fewer connections and shorter lengths of steam mains, but more |)articularly to the great saving in amount of radiating surface requireil owing to its great vT effectiveness in the fan svstem. .\ determining factor in the rate of heat trans- mission of any licating surface is the velocity of air over that .'■urfac'c. This can be shown l>y curves or chart, exliibiting the relation between air velocities and heat transmission. In direct radiation, the heat is transmitted by convection currents iiiid radiation only, wiiile witli tiie fan system an air v(>locity over the coils of 1200 to 1 "lOO ft. per minute is usual; the former trans- mits only from J to J.O U.T.l'. per squar(> foot i)er hour per degree ditTereiic(> in temperature, wliile the fan system heater, transmit- front lis '■■■' V-^A IVT.IT. per scn.iare foot }>or hour, per degree difference in temiieratiire, or more than five times as much as direct radiation. Hence a correspondingly smaller FACTOR Y HEATIXG 239 amount of nuliafinjr surface may l)c used, wliicli more than off- pets tlie additional cost of fan, en<;ine and liot-air piping. The cliief points of superiority of tlie fan system may bo summarized as follows: 1. (!ood ventilation re-iardless of exterior conditions. 2. Uniform and proper distribution of heat. 3. High efficiency of heatinj; surface, 4. (ireatest economy in operation. 5. Utilization of exhaust steam. 6. Prevention of cold drafts from without by jiroduction of a plenum. 7. Independent regulation of heating and ventilating effects. 8. Great flexibility in operation to suit varying conditions. 9. Ease of control which prevents overheating. 10. Compactness with economy of space and low cost of steam connections. 11. Good drainage, with few repairs. 12. Low cost of installation. 13. Apparatvis capable of removal to another plant if required. The Vacuum System. — The evident and growing need of a heat- ing system Avhich will utilize the exhaust from condensing en- gines and steam turbines under a considerable vacuum has led to the introduction of the vacuum fan system of heating. This system competes in no way with others, i)ut simiilifies the method of ai)i)lication and enables vacuum to be secured, otherwise impossii)le. It insures at all times a perfect circulation of the steam in the heater coils and maximum economy when ojierating with the exhaust from engines or turbines operating with high vacuum. The system is particularly adapted to the successful operation of several heaters wiilcly separated and well removed from the central source of steam. Roundhouse Installation.— The application of the fun system is advantageous in the heating and ventilating of locomotive roundiiouses. These are especially difficult to heat on account of the large volume of warm air carrieil off through the open smoke jacks which act as ventilators. A great deal of heat ia absorbed, too, in the melting of the snow and ice on the locomo- tives an-i in the evaporation of the moisture thus proiluced. Ample ventilation is recjuired to remove the smoke and steam produced by the engine and this necessarily consumes much heat. The air is drawn directly from out of doors and after passing 2.0 i-M;iM^i:iii^'' OF snors asi> i-ArroiUKS ,hrm...h tl.o n.ils of th. Iu.U.m-. is aistril.u..'.l l.y a syston, ..f un- . 1 ciof^ ntin.lv. Mu.r f.v.iuontly, however, outlets :;;;:re;n:;i;;"::ope.:at.ni...es. Hy.,.o^..,hei..ta.r , ,.„.,est P;- ; ; - • ;^ ,,,^. aist.iht.tion of tl.o l.eat at the ;•:;:;: .ru:;i;en-;u.aea a,.ape.-...i,s it t., be utn^ f 1.S .vte..t l.ef...v the air passes rut of the l....hl...« As : : l^nt e..ti.ely f.-o..i .u.taoo.s, the ..eeess.uy ve..t.ia u.a . .ai ti.i.es a.ia n l.h>..U... is l..-o w..^^^^ „,,,,iv;.lv sn.all spaee. In oinler that .he hesl .e^ults . .a> h._ ': ; a h. a eottl .nill. .he air .....st .o,,.a.n a per..e..ta,e o. , s . e whieh -a., n.os, easily he proviaed hy blown., a.r ...to ;tXp' ..har.ea wit h the proper ..notn.t. A dry at n.osphe.-e i'.",l,'.trine..tal to the n.a..ufaetiirc of cotto.. };uou.-, lu tiuu i. l:^T^^Lx o. ..icctucity wLicl, make. ,1» iibcs Bcparate, FACTOJx'Y //A. 1 77 AG' 241 l)ut wluMi a ccrtiiiii ainniiiit of liuiuidity exists, tlu' fihor liccomcrt iiinrc adlu'sivc and pliant, and consetiuently the yarn becomes Hiiioother, stronger and softer. The demand for a betterment of these eondilions has h-d to recent improvements in ventilathiK and heating textile mills, one of the verj' latest improvements in this direction is a system for humidifyinfr, ventilating and heating. The apparato cr)mposed of five essential elements, the temp(>ri!ig coils, luimidilier, the heater, fan, and the system of air ducts. The air is first drawn through a series of tempering coils con- trolled by the i)roi)er temi)eratiire for humidifying: thence, it is drawn by the fan through the humidiher and forced through heater coils and by-pass where sufficient heat is imjiarted to it to maintain the desired temperatures in a room. By this arrange- ment the control of humidity is absolute and may be varieil at will between any desired limits. The mechanism is exceedingly simple and relatively inexpensive. The temperature in the room is under absolute control without affecting the volume of ven- tilation. A uniformity of tem])erature and humidity is main- tained. When the air is taken from outdoors it is washed and l)urified as well as humidified. In this ^vay fresh air is constantly sui)])lied, enal)ling the operatives to work in a pure iiealthful atiiiosphere luuler all conditions of weather. Fan System in Paper Mills.— In cold weather great trouble is usually experienced in pajx'r mills from tiie condensation pro- duced from the moisture laden air coming in contact with the cold roof and walls. This condensation not oidy drops back on the dry i)aj)cr producing blisters, and thus injuring the product, but causes tlic roof boards and timbers to rot out cpiickly. The most practical and satisfactory method yet devised is to blow liot air into the building just over the machines. Heated air is thrown against the roof and walls by a set of outlets, while another set of outlets is discharging air against the machines. The first set of outlets keeps the roof warm while the air from the second set diffuses the steam remaining away from the machines and dissijiates it. Air supplied is always drawn from without, and an exit for the moisture laden air is provided by louvres or ventilators in the roof. This insures a rapid absorp- tion and removal of the atmosphere. Fan System in Paint Shops. — lu paint shop.-, ii is desirable to dry paint rapidly and it is necessary to avoid drafts which agitate la 212 i:.\(;iM-:t:iii.\(-! of shops and factoiues \ ■ / ?K \ \ !■•:";.[ a. \ I ^ , \ _\_- T / ;•{ I 1 CJ OJ iK!. 127.— Il.atin./ plunt for paint shop at Scdalia, Mo. ConipleU :r distribution to avoid drafts. ■SiSPBff IH^^HK FACTORY HEATING 243 (lii.st and lilow it almut the building. Willi tho fan system the f(>iin(>r results are obtained by the introduction of dry air from without, and the latt.-r is avoided l)y the use of unusually low air velocities and special arrangement of ducts. In the fan system of paint shop heating, a combined plenum and exhaust system is frequently employed with most gratifying results. The air may be discharged through an overhead system at low velocities. A downward circulation is produced and all cold or moist air is removed at the floor line by exhausting a portion of the air through underground ducts opening into the pit under the cars. Tliis system avoids all disturbing air currents and affords a i)erfect distribution of the heated air. In locations where a great ileal of smoke and dust ])revails, a system of air purifying may be used to advantage. The rapidity of drying secured by the fan system far exceeds that obtained by any other method, owi..ij. to the friMitient renewal of the air and its consequent greater drying effect (Fig. 1137). Steam Heating. — Heating l)y direct radiation is usually slow on account of the long lin(>s of pipes, unless a vacuum circulation is installed, and steam pipes are likely to leak and fill with conden- sation. A common rule, known us " the 222 formuhe" for finding the amount of radial ion surface, is to supply 1 s((. ft. of radiation fov every 2 sq. ft. of window, 20 sq. ft. of exterior wall, and 200 cu. ft. of building contents. The sum of these three quotients will l>e the total r('(|uired area of radiation surface. Modern multi-story sIiojjh with 70 to 80 per cent, of their walla composed of glass, should have 1 sq. ft. of radiation for every 130 to 1 '>0 cu. ft. of volume. In Nortliern latitudes with mini- mum temperatures of 10 to 20 degrees b(>low zero, 1 sq. ft. of radiation may be needed for every 75 to 100 cu. ft. The amount provided in buildings of the old style, with less window area, where 1 ft. of radiation was enough for 200 to 220 cu. ft. of building, is f|uite insufficient in shops of the modem type. Allot lier approximate J'ule for es buried in the concrete floors, tlie larger pipe being covered with i in. of wearing surface. A large metal working Hhop ill Cleveland, plans for which were made partly by the writer, is heated in a somewhat similar manner. The building is 100 ft long, and •2\r> ft. wide, and heaters are placed in four pits below The floor at one side of the shop. Hot air is conveyed tiiroiigh four main transverse concrete ducts below the floor, to oixMiings or registers L>2 in. in diameter, in the base of the columns. ]{y using four separate heaters, the probability of a general breakilown is small, for if one should be out of repair, there would still be three in operation. Branches from the main ducts are 2 1-in. tile sewer pipes. The floor of the shop is concrete and granolithic — a type which is often objectionable on account of its transmitting heat rapidly from the body and causing fatigue— but in this case with heat ducts below the floor to warm it, this objection is removed. FACTORY UEATISG 245 tablf; xxi.-weiuht i-kk i.isial foot ok galvanized pipes, u. a. STANDAUI) tiAlKiE W»4||hlirr runniiiK foot 1 13 1.39 l.fi5 1 91 2 18 2.44 2 70 2.06 3.22 3.48 3 74 4.01 4.27 4 . 53 4.87 5 14 5 10 .") :.<> 5.92 IH 0.45 6.71 6.97 7.33 7 .50 7.75 8.10 8 36 8.62 8.88 9.15 9 41 9 67 9 03 10.10 10.46 10.72 26 .13 .39 .65 .91 2.18 2.44 2,70 2.96 3.22 3.48 3 4. 4 4. 4. 5-. 5. 5. 5. 74 .01 27 .53 .87 14 .40 59 .92 6.1H 6.45 6.71 6.'.i7 7.33 7.50 7.75 8. 10 8 36 8 nj 8.88 9.15 9.41 9.67 9.93 10.19 10.46 10 72 24 1 47 1.80 14 ,48 .K\ 17 51 3.85 4,18 4 . 52 4,80 5,21 5.55 5.85 6 33 6,68 7.02 7.26 7.7(1 8.04 8.38 8.72 0,05 9.40 9,7.-. 10. "7 10 54 10 87 11 20 11 56 11 12 23 K! 57 12 91 13 25 13 60 13 95 22 20 1 69 1.97 2.08 2.43 2.47 2.89 2.86 3 34 3 27 3.81 3 . 66 4 27 4.05 4.72 4 44 5.18 4 . s:\ 5.03 5 22 6.09 5,61 6.54 6,01 7.01 6,40 7.47 6 , 7'» 7.92 7.30 8.51 7 71 9 00 8,10 9 4.'^ 8,39 9.7S 8,8S 10.35 9.27 10.81 9 67 1 1 . 30 10,(«) 11.74 10,45 12,20 10,85 12 67 11,27 13,13 11.63 13,58 12 17 14,20 12 .-)4 14 f.3 12 03 15 10 13.34 15 56 13.73 16,(K) 14 10 16,48 14.r)0 16 91 14.90 17 40 15.29 17 SI 15 60 18 31 16.08 18.76 18 16 2 56 3,10 3,19 3,82 3.79 4,54 4,39 5,25 5,01 6,00 5,61 6 71 6,21 7,42 6,80 8 14 7,40 8,85 8.00 9.57 8,60 10 28 9,22 10,86 9,82 11 74 10.42 12 45 11.18 13,36 1 1 , 80 14 11 12,42 14,85 12,8.-> 1 5 , 36 13.61) 16.25 14,40 17 00 14 84 17,71 i 1,->,41 18,41 16,00 19.15 16,62 19,87 17,26 20,60 17,81 21.30 18,62 22,25 19,20 23,00 19 84 23 , 70 20 42 24 , 40 21,08 25 18 21 65 25,85 22 22 J ; 60 22 , 84 27,30 23.40 28 00 24.02 28,70 24,68 29.50 wm^ wm L'Jti i:.\<.i\Khi!i.\(i Of-' S/IOl'S ASh hA<"r ni'is. us. Wiiurtil' 111 l'.>ini|. Willi, lu|ii>i» |n'r KiliHiiiiK I mil NiiiiilMr of caiiKi' Si|ii:iri' fi'i't i)iatn..t..r ^^^.^ ^,,_^_,i„^ '"' •"'"' foot J,i M •_'() IS D) 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 SO ftl 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 7J 70 78 80 82 84 86 IIcatinR and vciitilutiiig Duets to IS ill. ilianictor, 20 R.il. Ducts 10 to 29 in. (liaiiiclcr, 24 gnl Ducts 30 to 39 in. (liamctor, 22 Kal. Duct.s W to 49 in. diaiuctor, 2(l gal Ducts 50 to 70 in. diairK'tcr, IS gal Above 70 in. diameter, 10 gul. 1(1 9S 1 10. it^ 1 1 27 10 17 10 20 25 25 .to, 20 1121 1 1 J 11 00 If. SO I'.i 01 25 . ,S0 HO.IM) 1 1 59 11 5 10. 7S 19.35 22 . 00 29 70 35, Vl 13.15 13.15 17.10 19 72 23 («l 30 25 Mi . 20 13 a 13. II 17.45 20 12 23 . ,50 30. '.Mt 30. !M) 13 00 13 00 17 75 20 19 23.90 31.40 37 . .50 13 "1 13 91 IS 12 20.97 2 1 40 32. (Ht 3S..30 1 1 Ji) 11 20 IS 40 21.30 21 (M) 32 . tiO 39. (H) 1 t Iti 1 1 40 IS so 21 t..; 25 30 33.20 39.70 11 SI 14. SI 1' -'S 22 22 25 . 9 1 31.10 40. SO 15 07 15.07 19 iiO 22 01 20.40 31.05 41 40 15.:!3 15 33 19 iC. 23 (M) 20 . ,S0 35.21 42 10 15 5H 1.-, -s 20.30 23 37 27.30 35. S! 4 2. SO 15.83 15 s 20 55 23 . 7 1 27.70 30. 10 13 .50 10.12 10 12 20 95 24.1s 2S.20 37. (H) 44 30 10 05 10 05 2 1 t>5 24 . 97 29. 10 3S.20 45 70 17.lt) 17,1'i 22.30 25.74 30 (H) 39.50 47.20 17 "OO 17 tiO 22 97 20 49 3(> (H) 40.00 4S..50 IH 21 IS. 21 23 . 05 27.31 31 ,S3 41 SO 50. (H) 1 s 75 IS. 75 21 40 2S 1 2 32. SO 43.10 51. 50 19 25 19 25 25 (12 20 92 33 . 70 44. 30 .53.00 1'.».79 19 79 25 7(t 1 29. OS 3l.ti5 35.ti2 35 . 75 45 .50 4.1 77 10.90 54 . 50 .54 . 73 .55.13 :io.o5 i is.io .50.63 ' ;<7 57 49 40 ,58 ()0 :i.s 50 i .50.00 i .59 40 i 39.39 51.77 00.77 lor |ilaniiin-niill work Hucts 1o S in. diainctor, 24 Rill. Dints 9 fo 1 i in. diameter, 22 gal. Ducts 15 to 20 in. diameter, 20 gal. Ducts 21 to -iO in. diameter, IS gal. ■pn F.U TOfiY UK.UISa T.vm.K XXII < \1U(^ im; f.\i'A< i n <'F vivv.h 24 : Ciil...' feet of uir per iiiiiiiile Ve'Kicilii'S —', \ \— ■ I , ! ! ! r> 4(HI i:{ 11 W •) ,s ,s " 1 (> li li li (1(X( i \'> , U '- 11 10 ' <• ^ s 1 t I'l 11 S(K» 1 IS 1 !-i 1 1 ! 13 u lit • 1 (} .H « 1 i ( MKM) ' ai IS It) 1 1 1:1 IJ 1(1 10 ft s H : 7 l/.MK) ! 21 20 17 '•'' It l.i 11 11 10 ft 9 ' 8 1 , KM) I'-i 21 ' IH 10 ! 1.-) 11 12 12 11 10 ft 9 It KM) 1 -':> •-'.■» 20 IN 10 1". 13 i:; 11 It 10 9 l.HIM) 20 i 21 21 19 17 l.-) 11 1:'. 12 11 10 10 •i,(MM) 2S 2."> 22 i 20 IS 10 l.-) 1 1 13 IJ 11 10 2.'-'(M) 29 27 23 21 19 17 1.". 1.-. 1 ! 12 11 11 2,4IM) 30 2S 24 21 21 > IN 10 I'l 11 i^i 12 11 2,ti(M) i :U ^ 29 2') 22 2(1 IN 17 10 1'. 13 12 11 2.,s(Mi : ;w 30 26 j 23 21 19 IS 10 1:. 14 13 12 3,(MM) 34 31 27 24 22 2(1 IS 17 l.'> 14 13 12 3,2(M) 3 1 32 2S 2.'> 23 20 19 l.s 1.') 15 13 13 3,4(M) 3(i 33 3,tHK) 37 34 2S 29 2.') 20 23 21 21 21 19 20 IS 19 10; 10 1') 1.". 14 14 13 13 3,K(M) 3S 3.'. :!() 27 2:1 • >■> 21 19 1" 10 j 1.-. 14 4.(MM) 30 3.-. 31 ■^ 2.'. 22 21 20 IH 10 l.-> 14 4.2(H) 10 3f. 32 :■ ;• 23 21 20 IS 10 t.-> 14 4,4(H) 41 37 3:' :'■■! ;:; •>•> 21 l.s 17 10 i.") 4,t)■» 21 19 17 i 10 4,K(M) 12 3!l 34 * ' ■ •.'n ■. ) ''2 21 10 IH ' l)i ■ 'i 5,(MM) 43 4(1 34 ■y% ''» 23 ■ )■» 20 IS r ~ '- r>,2r" 44 40 3."> 3. : ■.'.\', 2.") 24 *'2 20 I'- iV tf_ 5,4(M) 3:) 32 29 20 24 2i 21 ll ' • i'> 5,t)(M) " ' ' T ' :«> 33 .30 27 24 23 21 19 l^ 17 r),s(M) — i.. 37 33 ; 30 27 2.") 24 21 19 IS 17 f, (MM) .... 3H 34 i 31 2S 2.'> 24 21 20 18 17 6.2(M) 1 3H .34 31 2H 2.') 24 21 20 18 17 6,1f)0 39 3.5 32 2.S 20 2.') '*2 20 19 IS n.(MM) 39 30 32 2(1 20 2.'> 22 i -* 19 18 ■i.SfM) i 40 40 : 41 30 3('> 37 33 33 34 29 30 30 27 27 , 2.S 2.") 2»> 2() 23 21 21 •-'1 19 1ft 20 18 7,00*) ' ■ ' ' 1 " 18 7,200 . 1 . 19 7.400 ' 41 37 34 30 2K 27 24 21 20 19 7,0(K) 42 38 34 31 28 27 24 22 20 19 i3\ .U^»x W 218 KSaiMJEULW} OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES TABIJ: XXII— CAUKYIXi: capacity ok VlVKA—CanlinurJ Cill)ic feet of iiir per miiiuto Velocities Sdll IIHM) 12(K) \MH) 1S(MI 2(MM»i2ri<«l :«MK) 3:)0() 4(M;0 7.S(M) »:? 3; -M', ' -M 2<) ' 27 s.cxK) 4:t :«'.» :«■) :<2 2'.t 2h X,2(H) I :{'.• : M\ :{2 21» 2.S s'4(H» I Ill '■»> :«:t :{() 2h KiKK) 10 :i7 :i:{ :») 2!» ,s,s(Ki II :i" :i:: :«> 2< :!i :«l •-"•' «),2(Mi 11 :!x :ii : :*'-' -•' o,s()<) i:< •(•■» : :i-' ;*<• jo!(HM» 1:5 10 M :<-' ;{i .i,{)0(t i:. 11 ••!: :« 31 12,(HM) 4T i:t :«» 3.") 34 iiUMM) I'l 4'> 111 37 ar. 1 t.ooo . .'"l 17 12 3S ;}»•, l.-,,(MM) .Vf IS |:i 40 US l(),(too .■)■> .V) t:> 41 .!'.> i;,()(M) .">(i -''1 Hi 12 40 is.ooo .vs .">:; 17 i:< 41 1<.1,(K)() no •">! I'.» !l 12 •_>(»,(MIO •>! ■'><> "'O Hi 4:{ 21, (MX) r>3 .'.7 r,l 47 II 22.0(M( (il .^s ."12 4.S 4."> 2:{.(MI() . . . Ii'> (io .">:( 4".t Hi 21. (KK) tin Ii2 .')•( .")! IS 2»(,ooo 70 r.:i .")7 .'>2 4!) 27, (MM) 71 <>•') .'i.S ■>:( .')<) 2,S.(MM( . . 72 (itl .')'.) .'ll .">1 2'.»,(MM) 7:i r.7 (it) ').") 52 IjO.tMM) 7."> lis (11 ■")•> •">.! ;{1.(MM) 7(i (i!) I>2 .')7 .')4 :j2.(mm) 77 70 (i:i .')7 ."i.'> ;{;<,(MH) 7s 72 (>4 ."vS .">() lil.tMKi 7!) 7:{ ().') ."lit I .')(> ;{."), (Mmi si 74 titi ()0 ."17 3(),(MM) S-' 7.') ti7 (il .")S 24 2."> 2.-) 2.j 2.") 2ti 2(1 20 27 2S 20 ;«) 31 33 34 3.") 3() 37 3S 3 27 28 28 29 30 31 31 32 33 34 34 35 3() 3(1 37 38 38 39 i 39 I 40 40 41 FACTORY m: ATI Ml 249 TABLE XXH. CAUHYIXti CArAClTY OF ril'I.S— CorUinuai Cubic feet (if uir per minute Velocities KMIt) IL'OO l.rtKt IMMt •.'•-'0(1 2.'i(MI .{(MMI :{">(M) J(M)() :{7,(KH) :w,(MX) 39,000 10,000 •tl.O(K) 42,(K)0 4:{,(M)0 44,000 4."),(MM) 4f.,(M)0 47.(M)0 4S,(M»0 49,000 .')0,(H)0 51,000 52,(K)0 .5:<,0(M) M.tMM) rM.tMM) .'iCi.CHM) AV.tMK) .W.OOO OT.tMK) 00,000 r. 1,000 02, (MM) 0:{,(MM) f)4,{MM) G,">,(M)0 r«r>,(MX) f.7,0 50 51 51 52 53 53 54 5.5 55 56 50 57 57 58 .58 59 00 (50 60 61 02 62 03 03 03 (il (4 05 0(i tiO (36 07 07 OH 44 45 46 40 47 47 48 48 49 50 50 50 51 51 52 53 53 54 54 55 .5.5 50 .56 57 57 57 58 5S .59 59 (il) (iO 01 61 61 62 02 03 42 42 43 43 44 44 44 45 40 40 47 47 48 48 49 49 .50 .50 51 51 52 52 52 53 .5.5 54 54 5.5 55 5t> 50 50 57 57 57 58 58 59 2,-)0 KSaiSKERISG OF SHOPS AM) FACTORIES TAIUJ; XXIl -CAIlllVlNl.i lAl'ACITY OF I'U'KS— to-idnmd Cubic fret of air per iiiinutL' Vflocilics •.':'()0 2.">00 3(MK) .3")0n 4(K)0 7.'..(>0() "0,(MK) 77.fK)t) 78.IMM) 7!>,(M»() $(I.I)(K) Sl.lHK) .S_'.(M)fl ,S:{,i)(M) .SJ,(I(K) Sr),(M)0 ,Svi,(H;<» S7,(I(M) 88.000 <«),(>( 10 91,(«Mi 0J,O(H) 0:<,n'i() !M.(MM) 9."i,(MK) nil. 001) 07,000 9S,(KK) 9(t,(MK) lOO.ftOO 79 .SO M M >'j S2 .s:{ .s.{ .M .M >.") ,S."i Kti S(\ .S7 s7 HH SS ss .sit so 90 90 91 91 9-' 70 7(> 7S 7 s ro r9 r9 so so SI SI 82 HH s:{ ,sl si M 8.") X.") sti sti 08 tiO 09 70 70 70 71 71 79 -•> 79 H<) 7'i , Si) -'I SI 71 SI 7 J 75 70 70 ..s 7 s 7'.t n:{ f.4 (V4 (A 0.') 0.') fiO (it; tUi 07 07 (IH 08 08 09 09 70 70 70 71 71 71 7:! .'■)9 fiO 00 GO 01 tU (>1 02 02 , *V.i 04 M 04 0.") 05 05 00 00 00 •17 07 08 08 OS CHAPTER XXI AIR WASHING SYSTEMS Sevpral ofToctivo systems are iivailal)lc for washinji and purify- ing; air Ix'foro forcing; it hy fans tu (liffcrciit parts of l)iiiliiiiijj;s. These ineliide tlie Carrier, Wehster. Acme, Kitiealy, and otliers. Ail are niueii alike in essential principles, tliouj:li they differ somewhat in detail. The chiet features of air washing; and hunddifyinf!; systems are the spray, separator, and the method of humidity control. The first of these is one <f water in a nozzle causes tiie stream to burst into an invisible mist upon leavinji the orifice. The distribution of the sjiray fnun simple brass nozzles is even and practicalh' uniform over the eiit ire area of dischaifie. When dependence is placed on lateral discharfre, the necessarily hi;:h velocity of the air throujih the ciiatiiber so disturlis the normal form of the spray that an even distribution is imjjossible. The sprays nuiy, howe\er, be distributed in great numbers over the entire area of the eluimber and the direction of the discharge 2:)2 i:\(ii\/:i':Ri.\(; of siioi's asd factories made iioiuly jiarallcl to tiic air current. In tliis way, there will he no iindesii'alile distortion of tiie discliarfre and the ciiainher will he uiiiforniiy and coMipieteiy fiileil with a perfectly atomized spray. Pipe littinr.s slmnld he either galvanized or of hrass, to BV-PASS DAMPtR; ReGULATED DV ; THtRMOSTAT CUEVATION a J SPRAt. CHAMBER iTRAiNER. PLA^ I li.. l'.".l. -.\ir luirllKT and liiiinidilicr. "1^ |)t<\('iit corrosidii, and a s\iitahle strainer should he provided. 'I'lif design of llic nozzles and of the systems should he such that no .-,1 (ip|i;iL'i' (If rhokiui: lan occur. Construction of Eliminator. -.Vfter the spray water has per- AIR WASIIIXG SYSTE.US 253 formed its function of cloaninfr, moistening and coolinR the air, nil free i)arti(les of moisture and impurities should he removed; at the same time, no excessive resistance must he offered to the air passage which will intr-rfere with the ventilation. This can be accomplished l.y an arransremerit of baffle plates, placed nearly vertical and i)arallel to .-acli other, with a space between, forming a series of unbroken sinuous- pswsageways. Kach baffle is comoosed of a numlier of bent jjlutes fastened together. The plates should be non-corroding and nuiy be con*lructed of .sheet copper at some aiUlitional cost. Owing to tiieir form, the plates are rigid without excessive weight, and they should be fastened together in a substantia, manner. The eliminator should be .self-contained and have a itange connection f<»i- attach- ment to the s,.ray chamber and To the fan i-asing. It .should bo rigidly braced by .'uigie irons and supported on a galvanized structural iron foundatinn. Action of Eliminator. — The first portion of the eliminator is covered with a sheet of runninu water pivt-ipitiited from tiie spray ladei: air. The air passing Through this ])ortion imj)inges upon the wet surface and all solid j)articles in tlie air are caught and washed away. The s<'cond portion contains li).-iike j)ro- jections whicii prevent the free passage of water acro.s.s the surface and form vertical guitcrs .lown which the water flows. Xo trace (.1 free moisture will be found in the air after passing through the eliininator, even with high velocities. The lo.ss in pressur(> of the air in passing: ilirough the separator is inappreci- able when staiidai'd propoitiojv* are used. Spray Chamber.— The spruv chamber should be m.-ide of heavy galvanized iroti throuirhoui and stiffly biaci>d on the out- side with IJ-in. angle irons. It should be jmt together in flanged .sections and be wan*rtigiit. Pumps.- The spray system may be operated from tlie city pressure, although it is usual to pumrp the water over ami over again until it becomes unfit for u.^e. The latter plan re-|uires a pump, a receiving tank with s«"ttling chamber, a strainer, an automatic sujijily and an overfl»>w. A centrifugal pump is (•onvenient for it can Im* nuide n*tirly noiseless in operation, and may be belted directly from ttu' fan sliuft or driven !i\ a small direct-connected motor. There are no valves to w- ir out or become clogged, making i; superior to a pLsto.". puiap for continuous service. 2.11 E\(;isi:i:i{i\(; of sm)i's .wd iwctouies Hygrodeik. -The (•(Hiiinun foiins of liydnmu'tcrs iiiako it lU'ct'ssiiry for tli" (>l)siTvi'r sifter readiiiji lli(> wet iiiid dry Imlh teiii|HM;itiiies. to refer to u chart and eah-iihile tlie relative WESH AIR INLtT C^ i[| wiTm aiN 1F*CI /1\ o o o o o o FIRST FLOOR PLAN 1 1,;, l;'.ll, lari sy>ti-ni ill a ciittnn mill. iiiiiiiidity. In^truiiiciiK whirh imlimir ihe relative- Iminidky direci are unrelialile; the liyiinxhik consists of wet and dry bulb iheriuuiiieters mouuled in .such a pu.sitiun that with the AIR WASHING SYSTEMS 255 assistance of the diagram and pointer, the reading is taken with ease and accuracy. They are made in various styles, ranging in price from $7 to $11, Gas Heater.— The adaptation of the gas heater to provide for warming the air entering a heating and ventilating system represents a field for use quite distinct from those employing steam heated radiating coils. Its use is appli(;uljle to any situa- tion where economy and particularly cleanliness, minimum amount of apparatus, and automatic operation are desirahio features. Reports of tests read before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1905, show efficiency of gas-fired steam boilers to be seldom in excess of 65 to 75^, yet this can be ex- ceeded in the guaranteed efficiency of the heater used, which may have a special arrangement for the return of a portion of the flue gases. IJesiiles, the direct-heat furnace is nmch cheaper to install than a gas-fired boiler and steam coil, hence, its wide application in natural gas belts or where fuel gas can be obtained at ordinary cost. In the case of a roundhouse at Parsons, Kansas, the design insures an efficiency .>f 90 per cent, at full capacity with maximum furnace temperature not exceeding 1200°, and a minimimi temperature of waste gases about 400°. General Arrangement. — The apparatus consists in general of a bank of vertical boiler tubes expanded at top and bottom into wrought-iroii boiler pl-.tes. The space between the tubes can be placed below the floor line, and divided into two compartments. The first compartment comprises the furnace proper, where the gas is burned under general conditions described later. The other portion underneath the tubes is simply an exhaust cham- ber for the waste gases. Above the tubes is located a single chamber which has a removable sectional cover to provide for cleaning and inspection of tul)es. The ])atli of the gases is thus upward through the tubes from the lower to the up|)er cham- ber, and lience downward through the tubes to the chamber underneath. Above the tulies is an exhaust fan which handles waste gases. The l>ank of tubes is enclosed at top, bottom and two sides, and the current of air for heating purposes is drawn through by a motor-driven steel plate exhauster. From this fan the air lieate. Moro clicfrfu! suriinindiri'r-'". It will li(« seen fnmi lliis list tli:it uliilc the first of tin-sc items will readily li<> iippreciutcil liy «v(Myl""ly, since it can he iii> .isiitt d in exact nullify values, such is not the cn>e with the others; in fact the very existence nf some of them may perhaps he a nmcl thoujiht to many people who liave not ^rivn the ihject of lijrhtinn any particular study. Ten years ml'o factory electric lijihtinj: wa." limited to th'- car- lion filam(>nt and arc lamp. The smaller unit, the incandescent lamp, is still very useful where the special ])lacin^ of small lamps is necessary. Likewise the arc lanip is useful for lar^re and hi>;h area.s such as hi^jh hays of larpe machine shops, foundries and the like. Hut neither of these .serves for '.lose intermediate conditions tyi)ified hy large rooms with ceiliiifis from 12 to 18 ft. in hei>;ht. The siiuill lamps did not jiive enoujrii li>;ht unless used in larjre muiihers, clusters often heinj; employed which were in frciieral expensive and unsatisfactory. The are lamps in such cases recjuired considerable sejiaration and provided poor distriliution, not a very satisfactory illumination, and usually an intense light in the line of vision. Within the last few years, tungsten lamps of various sizes have been introduced, witli candle-power valu's lying between and overla[ipiiig those of the enclosed arc and the carbon filament lam])s. The relative efficic iices of the old tyju's and the new tungsten lamps nuiy lie roughly stateil to be 2 to 1 with the old enclosed ar( lamps, atid from 3 to 1, to 4 to 1, with the carbon filainent lamps. The introduction of these lumps has nuido possible what niay be termed a ne\\ cru in factory illumination, ii distincti\<; feature of which is the scientific iii-tallation of the liirlit units, suiting each to the locati(ui and vl;,e of unit was a>.iilable. the cv.'! on filament lamp in the fniiner and the eiido.sed carbon arc lamp in the latter case. F.UTOHY LlanriSa 25U For low rrilin^rs „p f. IM ft.. ,l,o „... , ifhor of fl„. rnrimn f. aiM.-... or an- lamp msnlt.,] usually in anvMiiriK 1-ut uniform ill.iMiir.at inn over the wurkinj; planr, an.l often pro.hi.nl nim-ly a low general illumination wi.i.h ^^a.s prah ting " effort. Such a form of lilununation for factory work is unsatisfact..ry an.l in- Whc.ent, iM.t a.s state.l. was in n.any cases the onlv "availahle scheme. J ho absence of himpH of tho proper size is no longc-r an excuse for the existence of such con.lit ions in industrial plants Relation of Lighting Problems to Efficient Management.- ].i fa.tory work, efficiency «hould l,e consi.lerod from at least two v.ew-,,o,nts. in the one cas<., that of the ma.l.ine. and in the other, thM of the workn.an. The surrounding conditions under winch work IS done ;.;•<. of prime importance when considering tho Items whi.h contrihute to man-etficioncv. Among those ••'"-i'ti""'^ IS that of artificial light. l'o„r illumination j.roducoH u Lodily and mental discomfort which seriously affects the nuin and his work, \\hen the work is seen with difficultv. when the drawings are indistinct and the surro.in.lings dim and gloomy the eond.tiuns necessary for high effici,.n<-y are lacking In those instances, therefore, where superi.,; illumination im- l.n.vos the physical characteristics which tend toward a helt.-r class of work and affords more cheei-ful cnditions, it should without (picstion, 1)0 provided. ' How much is the accuracy and general (pialitv of workmanship improved by good instead of pc.or lighting results? How much does the stimulating effect of bright surroun.lingH cuntribuf. to cheerfulness of mind an.l ah-rtness of a.'fion"' How many mistakes in rea.ling figures on blueprints or on scales .ire .luo t.i p..or illumination? How mu..h fatigue ami ey<- strain and impaired vision h cause.l hy infermr or impr.)per lighting? To ' i,,a extent are acci.lents to machinery an.! to w.)rkmcn decreased by having good instea.l of p,,,,,- illuminati..n" It IS ,li(h,.ult to answer th.-,M> <|uestions in a .lefinite manner l'»t no one familiar with in.lustrial .•on.litions will take exc-ep- t.on to the statement that goo.l illumination. ..f a sufficientiy high intensity, is belter than that of a low an.l insufficient inten- 'i-i- ^*;' MMi MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART lANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2) =r. '6?! losl Mo^n STe»i| ^= l''61 482 - C30e - Phone 200 EXaiNEERIXG OF SflOI'S AND FACTORIES sity. And if it can l)c sliown tiiat tlio actual cost f)f ^jood iliuiiii- nation is small compared with the value of the advantajies secured, then inadecinate lifrhtinj; has no defence. The practical problems involved in plannin.i; a lijrhtinj; system are the deternu'nation of the factors Avhicli constitute^ iiood illumi- nation, by caref\d study of the exact conditions under v.hich the lijrht is to l)e usml, and the adaptation of I lie ni(>ans at hand to these conditicms. Simple as these prol)lems may seem, when carefully analyzed, they will be found to be much more intricate and involved than mij;ht be exi)ected. Importance of Good Illumination in Factory Work. — A iec|uato illumination increases output. A sa.inr ilay for the workmen will soon ))ay for the entire cost of installinji and operating a suitable factory li,t;htinf the light How imu'h of a retui-n in cpiantity and ([uality of work will icsult from the adoption of a superior system as com])ai('d with an inferior one, is the deterniiniiig ([Uestion. The value of good light may be placed in terms of time saved by the em])]o>'ee in jierforming a piven amoimt of work, in the greater accuracy and ]ieifection of the Work, in tlu' sa\ing of the ey(>s of the workmen, and in promoting the facilities for better and inoi'e work liy i)roviding brighter and more <'heerful surreuuidings. If then, belter ligiit, may be inter])i'eted in teims of so nnicii time save(l by the em- ployee in factory operation, the ei|uivalent in wages of this tim(> saved, is an asset of the iiii))ro\('(l lighting system. Assume tiiat the amnial o]ieration and mainteiuiiu'e cost for a tyi)ical factory bay. Itl ft. by 40 ft., may ix- taken as ?.")0. As.sume further that sue h a bav will accommodate five vvorknien ^m^m^ FACTORY LUlirnSG 261 whose liourly rate avorajios 1'.") cents and whoso annual wajies e ^T^K^U FACTORY LIGHTING 263 in Huch a sfhomo, two siJiiccs of the same dimensions and ceiling lieight might cull for entirely sejjanite illumination plans due to other conditions, as before suggested. For these reasons a complete classification of work of this kind is hardly possible or even advantageous. It has, however, been found convenient and heli)ful in a given factory to separate the lighting problems in the various locatimis according to ceiling heights, because the sixe of lam))s and their spacing depend to a large extent on this factor. Low ceilings generally call for suiall or medium sized Ian ps, while large lamps are more applicable to the higher ceil- ings and mounting heights. The Overhead Method of Lighting. — A system of lighting in which the lamps ;ire mounted above the hcadts of the workmen can be made to fulfill most, if not all, of the recpiiroments better than other systems. The advantages of this so-called overhead system as compared with those in which individual cart.un filament lamps mainly nre depended upon, are as follows: 1. Such a system can be made to furnish good illumination at each point of the working plane, thus permitting work to be done with ecpud comfort at any point. 2. In many cases it can be made to furnish a light of .such (jUality as jiracticaily to eliminate the necessity for individual lamps. :i. \^y momiting the lamps at the j)roper height and making a selection of the proper size, glare can be practically eliminated. -1. The eye is sul)ject to a harmful effect from the use of a single lamp placed directly over and close to the work. The bright spot of light, generally of too high an intensity, about the work, if surrounded by a region of comparative darkness, causes the eye to become fatigued since the line of vision is con- tinually changing from the bright area to the darker surround- ings. This .strain m of men desiring to he transferred to t)ther departments on account of the ilarkness, was solved. Some of the workmen were overheard to say that tools and machine ])ai ^ were found which up to that time had been lost in corners due to the ilark surroundings, the shoj) receiving practically no daylight and tiierefore having been constantly in partial darkness. In another instance where tungsten lamjjs replaced a, poor system of very large units, Kui)])lemented by indi'i '"al lamps, the superintendent stated that on many da'-s, because of insuf- ficient light in the early morning and the iate afternoon hours, liis workmen lost one and one-half hours j)er day. This condi- tion was entirely changed by installing the overhead system. Practically all drop lamj)s were removed. In still another factory location a superintendent blamed defective work to inadeiiuatc light. He stated that he liad experienced great difficulty in retaining a good class of he]]). Large tungsten lam])s tnuis.o.-ned the dark and dingy location to one of cheer- ful and i)leasing a])])earance, and ])ut an end to comi)laints. Another factory location had been in alniost complete darknes.-! as far as overhead lighting was concerned. The almost hvimor- ous Stat 'inent was made U])()n tlie installation of a good over- head system, that the men did not wear out their slioes as fast as formerly — meaning that tl.e matter of getting around had been comi)licated by their stuml)ling against the loose iron and material which had l)een allowed to uccuimilate on the floor when th" illuminati'iu was so poor. An inspection of the place after the new system was installed showed it to be in perfect order and the floor space neat and clean. Mudi satisfaction was evidenced by the workmen. The substitution of an overhead system will promote a liigher efficiency of production, as well as greater ch(H'rfuIne.-s ami a better spirit among the workmen, which though ditticult to express in money value, for.ns a distinct feature in the promo- tion of good and efficient workmanship. Glare.- One of the most pernicious effects of imprc^perly arranged lamp,- is the glare produced by a source of consideraMo ^m\i^k^:.^;^7.::!'^^^J^J^S^^%-^% {Tiv^. '^,. f^i^ms^mmf^^mmg^mmaa^mm FACTORY LiailTIXG 265 brilliancy when uurthioKlctl fniiii the eye. In fiittory work tho points which have a large bearing on the glare, may be noted under the four following divisions: 1. Mounting Height of Lamp. — As a general rule, it is best to mount all lamps well out of range of vision. The argument that the lamps should be close to the work for the purpose of gaining the greatest effectiveness from the lamps is poorly founded, since the increa.se in intensity by mounting them low n>ay be more than offset by the evil effect on the eye produced by lamps mounted in the bne of vision. 2. Size of Lamps. — The size of lamps has much to do with ghn-o. It has i)eeu found that where the ceiling is low a small lamj) is not nearly so trying to the eye as a large one. 3. Spacing of Lamps. — The .sj)acing has a certain bearing on the glare, since the closer the lamps the smaller may be their size to provide a given intensity. 4. Type of Reflectors Used. — While modern reflectors have, as one of their greatest claims, the resulting increase in efficiency of light distribution, the protection afforded in shielding the eye from the lamp filament is also a very important item. Shielding Effect of Girders. — Very often in factory construc- tions, glare may be mucn reduced by mounting the lami)s so that they are protected b\- some feature of the building con- struction. Thus in the room shown in Fig. l:i2, the girders afford an excellent protection for the eye, while in that shown in Fig. 133, the lamps are all visil)le down the ai.sle whenever a workman looks up from his work. Selection of Lamps. — The seh>ction of lamp units best adapted to fac )ry conditions and their most advantageous installation are twj essential factors of shop lighting. The questions in- volved arc: proper number and size of units; their best arrange- ment; economy in operation; relative first cost, and installation CO.-itS. Number of Lamps per Unit of Floor Space. — On this item depends the realization of a uniform and satisfactory distrii)U- tion of tho light. Care should be taken to choose the nund)er of units per unit of floor space, which will furnish a .sufficiently uniform illumination to meet the imj)ortant condition, that work can be pcformed at any point on the floor without regard t") location. The next step will ho that of selecting a size and tyi)e of unit which, with coi lect spacing, will furnish an illuniin- ? with ease at any point of the floor space. In this par- ticular instance, carbon filament lamps had been used for years as drop lights over each bench. With rejieated shifting of the work a continual adjustment of these drop lights was necessary. This maintenance expense was considered sufficiently large to be a factor in tne substitution of an overhead lighting system and the subsecpient removal of all drop lights. Hero the use of nine 100-\\'att tungsten lamps, per standard 2") by 2.')-ft. l)ay, rather than four 2.')0-watt lamps, produced a satisfactory result. It should be noted that the choice of the number of units i)er bay depended on the furnishing of light etpially good in every direction at any point in the bay. The use of the 2r)()-watt lami)S would have resulted in a distribution as luiiform, and an intensity ctjually great, without fulfilling thr ■ • "'(luirement in tlie matter of direction, which in this ca ortant. ■ .^amps. — At present the size of units is a much larger faitoi .,;an ever before. If the ceiling height is low, say 12 ft. or undei, the use of arc lam])s is ol)jectionaV)le because of their relatively Jiigh candle-power; and besides the glare, the himps cannot be used economically in sufficient numbers to provide uniform light distribution. Here, medium sized units have the advantage, and (>0-watt and 100-watt tungsten lamps have been used successfully. For bays f)f 40 to GO ft., in height, 500-watt tungsten lamps may be usoil. For intermediate ceilings from 12 to 18 ft., in height, lamps of the 100 to 400-watt sizes seem best adapted Mounting Height of Units Above Floor.— In factory work the mount i!ig height of lamps will often be governed by the details of building construction and the interference of cranes. mmmmmm M¥^-W^^:3^^'r^^9M LHis K\(;i\i:i:h'i\(; or siiors asd f.utoi{u:s All units slimild he iiidunlcd so as to he out of tlip niiij^c of \ ision. This couditioti may lie iMtcii)rctc(l in M'Vcral ways. Tlic ularo from lamps will not lie so noiii ,il>lc to workmen who constantly look down at their work, as when the ••>(« is for the most i)art directed alon;^ the horizontal. A^ain a sniidl lamp in tiie lino of \ ision will n^t he so annoying: as ,, laif;e oiie. One solution, when tlie lamjis nuist necessarily lie mounted low with re.sj)ect to the lloor, will he to iise smaller lamjis in iar;;er nun. hers. ( ilare is jirohaiily of less importance in factory work than in ollices, hut is harmful nevertheles.s. The ulare from rays of excessive hri;fhtn(>ss should he avoided hecause "i lowers the sensitiveness of tlu^ eye. Tin- intensity of the illumination on the work, while possihiy .sulliciently hij;h uiuUt other comlii.ms with lamps jjroperly placed and siiielded, may seem to he insuf- ficient, due to this redintion of sensitiveness. From the i)iiysical stand])oint, the elTect of fjlare and the sui)se(|uent eye strain is an evil, and it is evident that a workman !o lie of the most value, should he surrounded hy the most achar if^eous condi- tions for i)romotin,t; rai>idity and accuracy in his woik. Illumination of Vertical Surfaces. —Another important feature connected with the mounting'. hei;ilit is the furnishin-; of li<;ht at an anjile, so as to illuminate tiie side of the tool or piece of Avork. Tlie point at -which the tool is makinji' :i cut m;iy reipiiro lijrht from an aniilc rather than from a point directly overliead For a fiiveii s])acin;; of lami)s, the hi.uher they are mounted, tlio more concentrating nnist he the reliecicr to ))roduce the hi;ihest efficiency of horizontal illumination on the workinjj suiface. This illumination on tlie horizontal surface nuiy not, liowever, he the greatest feature of importanc(>. One way to secure more illumination on tiie side of machines is to lower the lamps and use more l)roadly distril)i'.tin gcncniliy refers to the illunii' nation on the horizontal i)l:ui(s, simihir to :i l)ench or tv tiil'le. I'niform int(>nsity of illiniiiniition over tlio entire heneh or floor sni-facc of a room is ^enirjil!'- looked upon ii> :'n a(l\iintagc in a li^litiiig system, and is sometimes tlie only factor considered. Hellc, tors or shades ha\e heeii made for two piiiposes. One ol>j(>ct is to shield the direct rays of the lamp from the eyes, the otiier heiim to reilirect the light from the lamp in the most use- fnl and eliective direction. In so far as this scieiitifii; side of reliectors is concerned, tliey arc now designc(l so as to furnish fairly definite results, I{nles for the use of such reflectors call for a certain relation hetwecu the spacing of lamps and their mounting height, if uniform downward liuiht over the entire working sui-face is ilesired. For example, one ty|)e of reflector calls for a spacing of lamps e<(ual to 0.7 of the mounting height i h. 6. ^ ^ '??• / ^Fi. 5s. / J^ —7 ^.. ^r ^ /"^ 3- --^ ^ \V¥t. —3 I2F 1/6 K Fui. I'M. — Viiriation in intensity of illuniiniition, witli various nK)iinting lu'ighls. above tlu> floor. If this relation between spacing and natunling is followed, uniformity of the ilhiminaticm on the plane assumei;, may be expected, although other effects such as ceiling reflec- tion may tend to vary the residting intensity. In case this relation is violated by mounting the lamps either higher or lower tiian called for by rules - 'ii( h consider uniformity of the down- ward light, the resulting ilmmination on the working .surface may depart very radically from a condition of uniformity. Test for Uniformity. — The effect on this illumination caused liy variations in the mounting heights is indicated by P'ig. 134. i@^^;*?e«?3iaki)f^«^f^^M^^^ e^M' '270 KSaiSKKUlSd OF SIKH'S AM) FACTOKIKS The luwcr curve, iiunkctl .vitli a riinuntinn liclfjht of 12 ft. (> in., shows all appnixiiii'itf iiiiifuriiiity nf tlic illiiiiiiiiatiiii. 'I'ho rt'iiiaiiiiiin nirvcs .show the ctTccI mi the iiitt-iisity of the illiiiiiiim- tioii at the saiiio Idcatiitris wlicii ilic lamps and rcllcctorH aro luwcri-d. If, then, iiniforiiiity of tlu> illiitiiinatitui is (ii'sircd, siirli rules as are indicateil l.y the various reflector eoinpaiiies for the sjiacinj: and mounting of lamps for u given reflector, .should lie adhered to. Value of Light Ceilings.— With a light ceiling, the reflection of that portion of the light which j)asses through the reflector to the ceiling, and which is added to the light directed down- ward from the reflectors, is a factor in building up the intensity (>*" the illumination on the working surfaces. In a case of this kind uniform illumination is obtained b\ he use of almost any reflector whether designed for the jnirposr or not, firoviiled the lamjis are fairly close together. In fact, tests indicate that if lamps without any reflectors whatever are installeil in a, nx-m with a particularly light ceiling, fairly uniform illumination will result. Under such a condition, however, the bad effect of the unshielded lamps will call for reflectors of some kind. It shoidd also be stated that while a uniform light distribution may result where no reflectors are used, the intensity of the illumination when measured on the working plane may be increa.sed by as much as (10 jier cent., by the use of efficient reflectors. This is due to the utilizaticii of the liorizontal rays of light which pre- dominate in the bare tungsten lamp, whereas the most efTect- ivc light rays for factory woik are those which arc directed downward. Lighting Circuits.— -The matter of suitable lighting circuits is an important consideration. tSome units are ada[)tcd to direct current only, others operate most favorably with certain fre- (piencies of alternating current. All units to be iiK.st effective should be supplied with constant voltage. In factory work, the power load will lu aily always be found to exceed that for lighting. With the lighting and pov.-'r .-ircuits separate, it is easier to maintain the voltage constant on the lamps. Switch Control. — The switch control of tlui lamps in any light- ing system is of importance, especially where large numbers of small or medjim sized units are used. That method of con- trolling the lanijis is most economical in which the interest, depreciation, and niaintenancu ijuulvcd in the firat cool of iho FACTOHY LlCHTISa 271 iiiwtiillntion oi switches and thoir nltondnnt wiring, docs not px- cecd the cost of tlic onerfty siived hy tlieir u«c in b«er of workmen is great, practically all the lamps will be needed all the time, and too great refinement in switdi control is not warniiited In prac- tice, how( ver, it will usually he found advisable 'Mstall a considerable rnimber of sAvitches, as their cost is ' ■ in com- parison with that of the energy saved by the ability to iwn off the lamps in sections when not needed. Placing of Switches. — One item of considerable importance in large installations is the plac"ng of switches at uniform places; tliat is, if located on colun;-: , the switches should be placed Fig. l.!."). —Typical working plan for wircmen. on the same relative side of each, and on columns located oi e san c side of the aisle. A fairly safe rule is to coiitn I the la ..j.s in rows or groups parallel to the windows or skj''vhu-. This will he evident by reference to Fig. 13"), where the - vitching is indicated by numerals adjacent to ea«.. ; -mp. T;.i = ,e lamps away from the windows will be required i.. ■ .any cases wl'.en tlie work nearer the windows is still sufficiently illuminated by daylight. If lamps are controlled in rows perpendicular to the windows, all units in a row will necessarily be on at one time, when often only a portion is needed. The Working Drawing. — A complete self-contained working diawing of the proposed arrangement of lamps will contribute to the ease of installing a lighting system throughout a factory. Such a drawing should be intelligible to the average wircman. It should give the uuiiine of the floor space to be lighted and 272 EXGlNEEIiING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES slioiild dosi};nato the lipht units in some clour and distinctive fiirni, lilt atcd to scale as in Fig. 121, a typical working drawing tiiat has luH'ii found to give satisfaction in its details. This drawing gives the dimensions of the floor space, distance between lamjjs and tlie distances between walls and lainj)s. The speci- fications should contain the number and type of lamps, the number and style of reflectors, the muii'oer and type of shade holders, and the mounting height of socket above floor. The method of switch control is i)erhaj)s most easily shown on the drawing by jjlacing the same numeral aeljacent to all lami)s to be controlled from a given switch. It will be found advanta- geous to furnish the maintenance and wiring departments with blue prints of such a drawing. Maintenance Problems. — The foremost item connected with the oj)eration of a factory lighting system is its systematic maintenance. To furnish the l)est results a lighting sy.stem should be malntaiiunl with the same care which attiMuled its installation. The factors which go to make uj) the nuiiiitenancc include renewals of incandi'scent lamps and tlie cleaning of rcllectors and sliades. First of all, if tin factory is sufTiciently large to warrant it, there should be an organized maintcnaiu-e department for looking after this work. This department should i)ossess an accuratu record of every lanij) in tiie factory and its ty])e. Arrangements sliould b(^ made for carrying in stock a suflicient supjily of rc])air parts and renewals. It is iini>ortant that a record be made of all such re])airs as well as of tiie renewals, together with the labor involv(>d. Tiu'se reconls will show the maintenance cost of the various units and will serve to indicate if this expense is excessive, due to abnormal conditions in tll(^ circuits, in the handling of the lain])s or otherwise. In lamps possessing mech- anism repairs are necessary, and the trimming of arc lamps is the large item to be charged to a system in which they arc used. The designing engine(>r may be o. service in preventing excess maintenance by seeing that the lamps are so located that the renewals may be easily made. A practical instance will indicate how the maintenance may l)e affected by the method of installing the lam]is. In buildings of open steel construction, so-called stringe'- boards are often placed between girders, as lamp sup- ports. If these boards are not of .suflicient strength to support a ladder, renewals and cleaning of lamps will be ditlicult. The FACTORY LIUHTISG 273 hiKhor oxponso foi i)n>viiliiiK Ixmnls of sufficient size will ho offset by tlio f^rcatcr oust; in making renewals, thus reducing the niaintcnanco exj)ense. Cleaning Reflectors.— The cleaning of glass reflectors is an important item. Tlie depreciation of the efficiency of reflectors of all kinds due to the accunuilation of dust and dirt is large. The j)r()per time to clean reflectors is when the value of the light lost, due to lUist and dirt accumulations, equals the labor and material cost of cleaning them. In order to realiz(> the best results from such a maintenance dei)artment it is desirable that all lighting installations be in- si)ectcd once a day. An inspector making his rounds, should report all lamps out of service, together with the number of lamps missing or otherwise in need of repairs. This information embodied in a report and furnished to the maintenance depart- ment in such form that all defective lamps can be located (juickly, will permit of prompt ly replacing such lamps, and will furni.sh at the same ti e a valuable record for calculating the mainte- nance costs. Cost Comparisons. — Cost figures should not be permitted to stand alone, I)ut sIkhiUI be weighed with a duo consideration of the usefulness of the light as an invaluable accompaniment of cpiality and (piantity of work produced in a given time. If the factory manager can gain something of this attitude to the light- ing (luestion, viewing the matter as an asset to facti vy produc- tion, and will study the kind and (piality of light most suitable to each condition of work, better results may l)c expected than when all attention is fixed on slight difTercnces in first cost or annual charges. Certain illu.>iination data, which has been taken from actual installat inns in :i factory, is shown in Table XXIII. The informa- tion contained in this table is not intended to serve as a rule for factor} work in general, but may be ii-ed as a guide in other locations where the ceiling heights correspond and where sur- roundings are comparable. 18 274 EXaiSEKIilXG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES Ji.tr. = -^ ^ tt lb is 2 - = ?. 2 y^ !f 5^ 1 y- y s iy^ -J "^ ^ i; u'-~ ~ ~ ■- -M -^ y:r-^~~'t tB~r3 ~ ' ' ' 'fft -3 ": 't ^ ^ 't £ y^ ^ C S 55 ". ^ rt S 5 S •£ o S is j3 jS j£ ^" '^ -if •^" " - "o ■i " 3 M > i- H ."3 X. . 6- -Z- u. c ~ '- " - - c t is o o . 5 S !S b£ > X — f -r cc -r o t- t^ ft "J* t ci « — re w w — = ^ rt" ^ _; — ,^ J — -i -i "^ -H -« fi " ci ci C) ti 10 'O lO M ri rt =" =■ s c _=■ a _c _e .5 .c .c s c _s c _c c _c ,= ctor. -re; scooc:::-. cccco coc X Ji X ~ X X X X Z: X JC ~ £ 'l' -^ l^ ti-- XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX =' =■ = =' = c =' .c .c c c _= .=' .=' .= .S .= .= .= ccococoooooo-ccco oco y. fc: vt X X X ce X t^ t» xxaox — cccc S£ — .1 ■- -3^ — — ~; CC fC O C '-O f< f) CJ CJ CC CO CC t>. d .- £ c d £ d d d £ d £ £ £ c £ d d d c ■ _ c - -■ - = c c '-C X c c c c e c: c o Ti ddc:c;>r:-r££i:t'i;"i^"^"^'— "— c — c: a^ - _ _ „ ^ ?^ ^ ri re -^ j£ 2 2 S r. ?! ?i ?1 e 2 — "2 ■a'i ^ so c ^ c is a s c o C 3 >i ;- ^ g c re 1 b- ^ a > ■*- r. " "U ^* rt 73 ^ C ? FACTORY LIGHTING 275 A TVPICAI- Fa( TOKY LuiiriIN(i PliOHLKM As a typical example of factory lighting in -whirh many api)li- ciition.s of tlio i)iiii(iples ])roviouwly stated arc in evidence, a factory Ijuildinj; will lie consitlercd ■which contains more than 22"), ()()() sq. ft. of flof)r space and in which over .'iOOO tunjisten lamjjs have recently been installed. This Iniiklin"', a plan of which is shown in Fineral illumination for all ordinary j)ur])oses. 2. Intensities of illumimition higher in some lucations than others. 3. lligiur intensities |)redomiuating on horizontal surfaces in certain sections. 270 K.\(;i\i:i:L'r.\r this spacing (since eighteen Limps tilled one bay) but the arrangement was symmetrical with respect to the bay itsv'lf. The ratio of spacing distance to mounting Jieight calK^d for concentrating reflectors, which were installed along witii bowl-frosted lamps. Several adjoining l)ays were ei|uip])ed witii lamps of the same size l)ut witii clitTerent types (if relh'ctors, botii glass and metal. These trial l)ays were left in servile for s(>\-eial months so that the opinions of all con- cerned, including; tiie workmen, could be obtained, and also for the purjiose of making tests and noting the efTect of dust and dirt on each type of refUctor. Six lamjis were controlled per switch, thus re(|uiring three switches per bay, all three switches being mountetl on one column. A trial was also made of several liays with l)are lanijjs to note whether the resulting illuniiiuiticm was noticeiibly less than that with reflectors. It was thought that tlie shielding efTect of the girders might serve as a sufli- cient i)rotection foi- the eyes of the workmen without the addi- tion of shades or icllectors. I'lntherniore, various mounting licights and various shapes of reflectors were tried for the pur- pose of investigating the i)roportiiuuite relation of downward and side light. The same procedure was also tried with other i ACTOR Y LICHTiya 277 sizes of lamps and reflectors so as to ileterniino whctlier the size nominally selected was most suitable ft)r the purpose. Notes on Final Arrangement. — The main results from these experiments, eoveriiifi several montiis, were as follows: 1. Size of Lamps. — The lOO-watt lami)s seemed the best averajre size, but at least two intensities were foimd advi-^able, one somewhat hifih for iletail and machine work, and a lower intensity for assembly work. 2. Mounting Height. — Of the various mount inj; heifihts tried, it was found very desirable to mount tin- lamps as close to the ceiliiifi as possible, so that glare was reduced to a minimum. 3. Number of Lamps per Bay. — The general scheme of instal- ling eighteen lamps per bay seemed best. 4. Arrangement of Switches. Tlie switching of six lamps per circuit, while possessing some good features, did not seem a sufficient sub-division. At times, the work directly next to windows was sufficiently lighted by daylight, while the work under the second row of lamps was not. This led to the conclu- sion that the lamps next to the windows in each bay should be on one switch, and four lamps per switch in general seemed a better arrangement than six. "). Depreciation Due to Dust. — It was found after several months of service, during which time the reflectors were allowed to remain uncleaned, that tests on each "f the reflectors before and after cleaning indicatetl about the same degiee of reductiou in efficiency. It was noted, however, that reflectors located near belting Ijecamc covered with dirt in very nun h less time than when the lamps were in a clear ojjcn space. G. Intensity of Illumination on Other than Horizontal Surfaces. — While the ratio of sjjacing distance to mountinj- heiuht of the lamjjs called for a concentrating reflector for prcn'. .cing uniform downward light, a distributing reflector was essential to provide side light. An intensity of about two foot-candles on the sides of machines seemed to be sufficient, lor reasons previously stated, in certain portions of the building the reduced intensities of the illumiration on the lu)rizontal surfaces, owing to distribut- ing reflector < being usetl, which vlirectcd a. larger proportion of the light uj)on tiie vertical svii^faces, was made up by the use of higher cantUe-power lamps than originally contemplated. 7. Bowl-frosted versus Clear Lamps. — Bowl-frosted lamps proved not so desirable as clear lamps, due to the more rapid 27S E\(;iM-:i:i{iXG of shops and factories ctTcct of (lust and diit uii llic frustiri;;. This oflect Ls, of course, paiticuhuly UDticoalile iu factory work. S. Metal versus Glass Reflectors.— Metal reflectors in these locations were far inferior to j;lass liecaus*; no ]i<;lit passers throu^rh tliein. (.Ilass redectors, on tiie otiier lianctors were deharred on account of the j;lare which resulted when a man looked up from liis work and furtln'r, since (i'J i)er cent, more illufiination was delivered, on th working surfaces \)\ lani])3 ecjuipped with reflectors than witli hare lamps of the same size. It was considered a good investment from these two im])ortant standpoints, to i)rovide all lamps with the mosf efficient reflec- tors available, conclusive tests showing very clearly that cheap ones rarely justify their cost. Some Comments on This System. — This tungsten lighting sys- tem has now ])een in s(>rvice long enough to indicate that for a majority of the work in this building, the illumiiuition facilities are unusually satisfact.>ry. Experts have viewed this lighting arrangement and have expressed the opinion that this particu- lai- factory is one of the l)est lighteil buildings in the country, lii'inging out many valuable ])oints inrect^nt iiluminatingengin' r- ing ])ractice. A gi-eat many individual lamps were visi>d i)re\ ious to the new lighting system, ami it was thought by woi'keis and foremen tliat these lamps would have to be left in rervice not- withstanding the new overhead lighting installation; jjractically all individual lamps were taken out, however, with the under- standing that they would be put back after several weeks if found necessary. The object has Ijeen to give a sufficiency of light to every workman, ard it was found that a very nuich less number of indivi(lual lami)s v. vre called for than were fmnierly thought to be necessary. Here and there a didp lamp has been installed to take care of some special work re(|uiiing light at an umisual angle or of more than ordinary intensity; but as an evidence of the acceptabilit}- of tlie new light, it may be stated that during the pa~t winter since the new system has been installed, the complaints and calls for changes in the wiring have been negligible, comi'..ued to the extreme number of similar com- plaints during the preceding winter when u system of inferior Fia. 137. — Shop interior lighting. FiQ. 138. — Shop interior, well lirthted. 2so I':.\(;im:i:ui.\i'eceding notes, and the completed work was chosen, on a basis not •)nly of tiiese tests, but also on the opinions of those who were to work under the lighting. Theory and fornuda give a general basis, but often fail to take account of certain jjrac- tical c()nditit)ns. For example, the reflection from ceilings and walls; the color of machinery or materials; the need for numerous lamps of smaller si/e to prevent shadows which are unavoidable with high candle power units, and the allowance to be made for dust and dirt on lamps and reflectors, are points which show why many things nuist be ctttisidered, aside from the mere area to be lighted, if satisfactory results are to be assured. CIIAPTKll xxiir DRAINAGE OF INDUSTRIAL WORKS' The drainafic of industrial plants may intlude not only the drainage of the individual buildings, but the arianjiinji and layinji of a complete system of sewers, the importaiue of the latter being proportionate to the whole undertaking. As so nuiny manufacturers are now erecting new works on suburban or rural sites, wliere al)undant oi)portunity exists for expansion, the importance of drainage is increased. In such cases, tlio laying out of a sewerage system dilTers liut little from that for a small town or village, and this condition is assumed in the fol- lowing pages. The science of sanitary enginecrmg is of late origin, for not until the middle of the nineteenth century did the people fully realize that their lives were, to a great extent, in their own hands, and that many, if not the majority of deaths might be avoided. The application of sanitary drain:. ge to manufacturing plants is still more recent, for most of the old style factories had oidy the crudest accommodations in this respect. In this connection one writer says, "If the air is vitiated, water rendered iini)ure, or food improper or insufhcient, the body is robbed of life-giving elements and soon succumbs to disease and deatli. It is the true aim of the sanitary engineer to assist nature in her great but simple operations to facilitate the purification of air, to i)revcnt dangerous impurities entering our supplies of water, to furnish an abundance of tiiese life-giving elements, and to remove as speedily as possible before .lecom])osi- tion commences all those matters eliminated from animal bodies, together with all decomposing refuse." The study of sanitary drainage is essentially one of life, for health and longevity are natural, while disease is abnormal, death, except from old age, is accidental, and both are to a large extent preventable by human agencies. But no sooner do human bein/s begin to live and work in one place, than danger ' H. G. Tyrrell, in Municipal Journal and Engineer, May, 1901. 281 L'sj EsaisEKiiisa OF siiors .i.v/) factories from (lcc-onii)()sinn refuse l.eniiis. As hainlets iiicreiise U> villanos, 1111(1 these again to towns ami cities with tlie many ami ciowdeil workshops, the danger heeomes greater. Heme from the first it is important th; ' the greatest attention siioukl l>e given to tlie drainage of the plai'e. During twenty-two years of eontinuoiis war on the continent, I'.ngland sustained a "loss of 7'.),()(K) men. but in one year <.f eh.ilera her loss was 144,000. In the Hriti.sh army before 8ani- lary improvements had been installed, the death rate was one in forty-two, with two sick men out of every five picked and able- bu.iied men. Hut after a more i)ei-fect system had been pro- vided, the death rate was only one in one hundred and forty- tliree,' with one sick out of every twenty-one. Epidemics of disea.se are too often ascribed to " an act of Pn.vidence to whose ruling all mii.st submit, but looking with the eyes of science upon^thc overflowing cesspools and reeking :ewers as inevitable causes, and with the eye of humanity ui)on the interested and inm)cent victims languishing in pain and peril, or mouldering in their shrouds, such implications of Providence, though per- haps sim'erely nuule, are ne.\t to blasphemy, especially when uttered by the agents wlio are responsible, though the prayer of charity might be, "Father forgi%e them for they know not what they do." The Drainage of Buildings.— The final object of any system of sewers however elaborate or complicated, is the drainage of buildings. In order that this drainage may be complete, the following reiiuiici.ients should be kept in view: 1 . The foundation .-oil shall be free fror impness. 2. All li(iuid and txcremental waste .shall be safely and • piickly conveyed oeyo.id the building limits. :?. A ronstant supply of pure air shall be admitted. 4. Nothing shall be' allowed to collect aluiut the place which would taint the air or render the atmosphere impure. .-). Proper arrangement must be made to prevent the entrance of sewer gas through traps or other fixtures. The first of these reciuirc-nents, that the sub.soil be free from moisture, is of great importance. If a basement or cellar irf always damp, and gases are continuously rising through the shops, it is "impossible that the occupants ba hale and strong. If the foundation is of grasel or sand, no other drainage is necessary. But where elay occurs, as is usually the case, a '-'-in. dram all hA >.^mf* 'WPE5:jp^»»*'7m-'r'.a!irwsi»*«i»iP^ . DiiMs.un-: OF i.\i)isriii.\L wouks 2H:i „,„„,1 j,.., insi.l.- ,1... wall a.ul ulumt u fu,.( ..r so fmn. i. uill ,„. ,„,...UmI Si.nilur <....- -iM.-l'l 1"' Pl'''''"' "^ 'l"^"""'^'-^ "1"^'< "f .,lK,ut 1.-. ft., erosswis. .,f il.o l...il.lin^'. Tu prevent tl.o oxhalu- ,i.,u of n.oisturo uhirh ris... ovcm tl... .hirst s.,.1 a .•uut j.f s-nu. i,n,,orviou.s sul.sta.uo s.uli as d.-nsv c.unvH', asphalt ..r hy.lrau- lic ciMiu'iit slu.uld 1)0 spread. .... IVMhaps tl... most .lilll.Mlt of all \n this ronnorti.m is th,' „,,an.'in^' of piiu^s an.l lixtmvs for tl.e n.in..val of wast.-. It t .<• piiKW aiv of l.-a.l th.-lr .luialMlily Nvill U' ..'....•h u.r.ras.Ml l.y I-iviu.^ th.MU a thi.k coat of pai.it i.isi.l.-. an.l ^^l..■n thus pn.t.-t.Ml a„a .veil vc.ililate.1, th.-y slmuM last fnmi tw.-.ity to tl.irty y.>a.s In.n pip.-s an. sonu.ti.n..s us.-.l a.ul th.-y are usually s.t..w.. t„.a.tlu.r, thus hvluii str....« e.i..u;:h t.. supi...rt th(>.r .nvu w.'i^ht with thi. hflp ..f strai.s. Arou.i.l th.- joiuts si.h.M-i..il .■ov.;rs an^ s..m.-ti.m.s pla.'.-.l, s., that a slifiht scttliiij; of th.> l-.l-.s will lu.t l.r.'ak tln! .•.yiiiiection. Tl... essential features in the arrai.-...n.-nt ..f wat.n h.sets, ""l.'Kxt.'..si!.n of all soil and waste pip.-s thn.Ufih, an.l at..,ve L>. Provision ..f fr.-sl.-air inl.'t In the .Irain, at the f.u.t ..f the soil- an.l \vaste-pip.> syst.'in. . • , . ■5 Trapi.inj; of the main .Lain ..utsi.le ..f the fresh-a.r inlet. 4 Pla.inn of ea.'h hxture as near as j.ossil.le to it, with a ' self-eleai.sin- tfap, safe against sipl...na>ie an.l l.aek -,. iTatin's ..f vent pii)es t.. traps un.l.T su.^h fixtures as a.e liable t.> l.e empti<..l by sipli.uia^c. Thus l.v havinj; a ventilation at Imth o.uls of ti.e s..il pipe, the a.^cuinulati...! ..f foul fjases is prevent.-.l, ^^h..•h w..ul.l very s.M.n d..stn.v lea.l pil-e. With.-ut this ventilation traps a.-e alwavs liable t.» be f.-ree.l .-r sipli..ne.l, .nvin- t.) the f.-.-.e ..f tides" or win.ls at the m.mth of sewers, or to a ehanfic of temperature. ., . . . « While the fresh-air inlet at the fo..t of the soil pipe is lieneh- eial as a ventilat.n-, it is obm.xi..us .m a.'c.unt .-f emitting ^as. Waste pipc.s from sinks shoul.l have traps .mtsi.ie the Imil.lmK n..ar tlie wall, to cat.h ..ily matter bi-fore it hardens. Catch basins may be made of brick or roncn>te about 4 ft. in .liainet<.r, ,vith pii^..s Mrrnn-e.l t.) siplu.n when the chamber is f.iU. If the catching of grease Is not the object, a flush tank may be substi- r"-'" :»«"^ i.'si i:\(ii.\i:i:h'i.\(! of s/iors wd iA(T(Hiii:s tilted. Wlit'ii llif lank is full, niic iiiuif llnw of watir into it Mtarts ihc sii>lic(ii acliim wliiili ciiiiPtics ii iicmly to llio liullom. Ill aoiiii! ia.>L's, .sIkj's may 1)0 disposcil of liy canyinj^ tliem :!iili I'~kL,'ZV.Z','.-S.'1X.\''.IZ.1^ 1 -W-^^ I'lii. 130. — Siiihon tank. tlii'otijih a system of ])i|)es with o|)en joints, laid underneath >ome adjoiiiiii;; farm land or meadow. Before entering; the open drains, tiie walrr passes throii;:li a Ihisli tank, makiiiK the 1 I.., 1 K). — Line 111 ua.^ll ImAnI.J. discharfre intermittent, ami the flow of water heimrnioro copious, satiii'ates tiie iiround to a j;reater distance. Watereloscts are iht! most trouiiloome uil.lii!j:.<. l>iit as this wotiKl to ;> v'i«'iit i-xiciit .Ifstniy tlu'ir ((.nvfiiifiKf, tlifv may Ik- scparati'.l fmm tlu> sli.ip l>y ii vontilatcd lul.l)y or l.y (l.jul.lf doors, atnl tli.y hhoulil always liavo outside u nidows. Tho most approved ar- nm>;eiiieiit is to pluec all toilets in a sitiglo room (.n each story, or to frroii|) them all in one story, usually the basement or the upper floor Fixtures should l.e extra heavy as they often jret rou;:h usa^'e. llnou-ih wash l.owls U'W- ' »"' «'"•"''' l'^' l"<'vi.h-d so there \ il !•«• at least one for every three people in the l.uildiii}:, and not .ess than one toilet for every twelve i)ersons. Mnamele.i inm ware is so much cleaner than any other, that it shouhl m- I'lG. 1-11. — (,'lu^tl:r of ahowcrs. varial.Iv l.e used, .nid wood excluded. Foundries are especially in need of etlicient wash rooms, and in some cases, one bath room is provided for eai h workman. In .some states, the law requires that foundries shall lur.e shower l.aths (Fijr. 141) and full provision for the comfort and cleaidines. ^.f operatives. ^ These rooms should be in -har^e of an attendant whose duty it is to keep them clean. The wi.lls and floors should bo of cement or tile, so a hose can be used for washin.n. A room for the storafie of ciothinji should adjoin the wash room, and this should have individual lockers with perforated sides for ventilation, metul ones being preferred. Watei closet fixture.-i (Fig. 142) are made in great \ ariety, and ;^7fV# f5r.^'.«'»^'\>,,j»:«a«s«w*agr^~»iT^K^^^ -TSFi. .s. Onule 1 in ">0() .•?(>-iii. pipes, fJr.tde 1 in TOO 48-in. pipes. Grade 1 in SCO Mt\ DRAINAGE OF INDUSTRIAL WORKS 289 \VlH>n llic diroction cliangcs, the friction increases and the fall must be ftrcator. The most rapiil fall should be given at tlie upper end of the sewer where the quantity of water is least and conseciuently wliere the velocity is needed to start the flow. Instances are known in which inaccuracies of 1/lG to 1/8 in. in the grade of sewers rendered them inefficient and necessitated their removal, but in such cases the inclination was very small, not exceeding; 7 or 8 in. per mile. If the amount of water flowing is proportional to the size of the conduit, sewers of different sizes give the same velocity at different inclinations. For example, a 10-ft. sewer with a fall of 2 ft. per mile; a 5-ft. with a fall of 4 ft. per mile; a 2-ft. with a fall of 10 ft. per mile; and a 1-ft. with a fall of 20 ft. per mile, will all have the same velocity, but the 10-ft. sewer will recpiire 100 times as much sewage as will the 1-ft. sewer and unless it carries a volume of water proportional to its capacity, the velocitj^ of its stream will be correspondingly lessened. It becomes, therefore, especially important that the size of the conduit be adjusted to the volume of the stream. When half full and when full, the velocity is the same, and when a little more than three-cpuirters full the velocity is greatest. In determining the size of a sewer it is necessary to consider not only its fall, but also the amount of rainfall and sewage which it must carry away. The commonest of all defects is that expensive one of being too large. It is much better to have occasional repair after excessive rainfalls, thnn to provide for extraordinary ones. The invariable result vri .naking a sewer too large is that sediment forms in the bottom and before long it is doggeil with filth, or only a small orifice remains large enough for the ordinary flow. Whereas, had the sewer lieen of proper size at first, it would by its own flow, have In^n kept clean, and would have received a much greater rainfall than the larger but choked sewer. In small towns and villages it is not usual to allow for a greater precipitation than \ in. per hour, but in cities where the area is mostly built over, and water can more easily find its way to the sewers, a fall of i in. per hour is allowed. Even in popu- lous towns and cities a considerable quantity of water will not reach the sewer but will soak into the ground or evaporate. Assuming that a fall of i in. per hour reaches the sewer, thia 19 200 KSaiXEEItlXG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES is provulinfi for ii nuicli heavier fall, probably a total of about 1 in., the average anioiint of sewajic in a town with water sui)iily is about L'.") Kiill""^ f'"' ciivh jjernon per day, half of which will be discharjicil between !) A. M. and o P. M. As a stream Hows on, its velocity will increase, and conse- quently its volume will diminish. Therefore, a pipe running full at its upper end, may receive a large quantity more during it.s course. .V street in London has a brick sewer oj ft. high and 3J ft. wide with a 12-in. pipe laid along the bottom for a dis- tance of ")»■)() ft . This was never known to be choked, and during storms, stones could be heard rolling along the bottom. This l)i])e is rarely more than half full at the head. The cross-sectional area of all the drains entering it is eciual to that of a pipe 30 ft. in diameter. Although the 12-in. pipe is always clean, the large brick sewer is constantly collecting deposits of filth, 20 or 30 ft. from where the small one joins it, which deposit must be removed by expensive hand labor. Instances have fre(iuently occurred where workmen, by mistake, have put in pipe as sewers, which the architect intended for a single building, and the re- sidt has been that they were always clean and served their pur- pose well. The round sewer, as a general rule, is the best. With it, good joints can always l)e made by turning the best fitting parts to the bottom, and they have the greatest area for their perim- eter. The pipes should always be hard and smooth, for if at all porous, they contaminate the adjoining ground, and are more subject to frost, and to the destroying action of sewer gases. If there is danger from roots of trees, it is advisable to lay the pipe in cement. Where the supply of sewage is very intermit- tent, an egg-shaped sewer is sometimes preferred, because when the stream l)ecomes very shallow, it is also narrow, so that setliment is not likely to collect. This shape of sewer is usually made of brick, and is m huildiiifr. licsidv-s, if means Ix; provided for a free passajic of air tiirou.uli tiic sewer; 'ho same amount of jjas will not l>e jienerated, for nuuli of the foul mutter in a short time becomes oxidized. \'entilation by means of water j)ipes to the eaves of build- injfs has been advocated, Init this method is faulty, in that dur- ing; heavy rains when most needed, the i)ii)e.s aro choked with a, flow of water. Most authoiities on sanitation have decided that, the best sewer ventilators yet used, are manholes c<}verod with iron firatiiifis, emerjiiiif!; in the center of the street. The char- coal ventilator has also been used with success, for in a city of Knjiland where more than .")00 of these ventilators were installed, the total yearly e.\i)eiiso was less SI. J.") for each. 'Jhe arrange- ment consists of a special tray covered Avith charcoal set in the ventilator so that all fiases siscending are forced to pass either througli or o\er the charcoal. When it is rcniiMnbered that 1 in. of charcoal contains as much interior surface as 100 sq. ft., an idea can be formed of its power as a disinfectant. Around the special tray is a box for catching aiiy rainfall or dust which may find its way through the inm grating. These ventilators in order to give thonmgh satisfaction, shoidd be placed every JOO or ;JUO yd. apart in the sewer. They should not branch off directly from the sewer, but should rise from a camber of about a foot, so that passing gases will be lead to the outlet. When the street incline is great, a light hanging valve maj' be placed above each ventilator. Thi.s will not ol)suuct the flow of sewage, but it will prevent gases rising to the higher part of the system, and cscapiTig all from one ])lace or through a few ventilators. In the city of Wiiui.-ur, Kngland, in I80O, a case of typhoid fever was discovered. From lack oi proper sewer ventilation, the foul and poisonous gases from the fecal matter f)f this one patient, ri.sing through forced and siplionod traps, caused the death of no less than 4,')0 other persons, all of whose houses with- out exception wore connected with this sower. Windsor Cas- tle, having its own drain, escaped. In another city, the break- ing out of typhoid fevt : in the higher parts of the town while the lower portions roiiiainod untouched was considered a mystery until it was found tiiat the sewers not lieing properly arranged ed the poisonous gases to 'iso to the liigher parts of the !»2 y;.\7,7.\7;A7i'/.\7/ ' SHOPS a.M) factories pystoni, wJioro tliry escaped and .s])roa(l tho fiorins of disoaso. In tliis, as in many otlicr cases, tlie coniinunity was stirred to action only \>y tlio cruel hand of pestilence. Flushing of Sewers. — When a system of sewers is faulty either in firado or in size, special appliances for flushiuf? should he provided. One effective arrangement consists of an iron tank fastened on trunnions, havinj; the hack end the heavier when empty. On lieinji tilled with water and waste, the front end becomes the lieavier and it is tilted forward. It i.s faulty in one respect, tiuit when in a fallen position all matter issuinj; from tho sewer above it, will form a pile of filth beneath tho back part of the box. Other arnuifrements such as dams, etc., have been used, l)ut they are insufficient, since they are not self-acting but re(piire constant attention. Another useful flushiiif; tank for sewers has a disk held in ])lacc by the force of the water covering the mouth of the sewer running from the manhole. The sewage is j)eriodicalIy released by means of a chain fastened to a circular block, but as a precaution, a float is attached to the chain, so that, should the water rise to that height, it woulil lilierate itself. If, however, sewers are i)roperly arranged in other respects, they will re(iuire but little flushing. During hot summer niontJis or if fever is j)revalent, an occasional cleaning will b<> necessary. The work should always be begun in the lower end, so deposits already there will not. stop other wash. Catch l)asins should be placed at the corners of the streets or wliereved' required, for the purpose of arresting silt and solid wash from the streets. In these the iron over the mou n of the pipe leading to the sewer is liinged at the top and is cemented to the brickwork witii ])laster of Paris, so in case of frost the cement only will ]>(> broken, wliich can be easily repaired in the spring. Many engineers still ])refer the method of conveying street wash away in a separate channel. These conduits may be constructed in the form of deep cast-iron gutters covered with a cast-iron grating, the inner edge of the gutter being carried up to the height of the sidewalk. .\s the accumulated flow requires greater cross-sect ion;d area, it should be made in dei)th rather than in the width, which will assist in keeping the gutter clean. The chief objection to this method is that in the winter time the crossings become coated with ice, but this difficulty DRMXAdl': OF ISDrSTHIAL WORKS 293 is no greater than that arising from ico >>n tlie sidewalks and about the catch l)at*ins. Pneumatic System. — All the elements liave been called upon as aids in the drainage of coniinunities, including water, dry earth and ashes, and now the aid of compressed air is used in removing refuse from buildings. On account of its compara- tively recent discovery, this system is but little uscil, but in Holland and Austria where it has been tried, good results have been obtained. It is to the research and ingenuity of a Dutch engineer tiiat the world is indebted for the discovery of a system which has been deda.ed as the greatest modern invention in sanitary science. It consists in having a number of air-tight iron reservoirs, as many as the sL-^e of the manufactory or village needs, sunk to a sufficient depth beneath the surface to prevent freezing, to which are connected the drains from the buildings. These iron chambers at certain intervals are exhausted of their air, so that when valves connecting with the tlrains are opei the pressure of the atmosphere forces everything from the pipes down into the central reservoir. If these pipes arc numerous, tney may all, in the same way, be emptied by a similar process into one central and final vault. The chief difficulty that pre- sented itself in this undertaking was that some pipes would be emptied before the others, in which case the air, finding easy access through the empty drains, would no longer affect those which were still full. But the difficulty was overcome by apply- ing the principle of equal barometric pressure. Before entering the main, each building drain, has a break or abrupt change in elevation of say, exactly 1 ft. If one building drain discharges a large quantity daily and another supplies only a small quan- tity of sewage, then if the air be extracted from the main so atmospheric pressure acts in both drains, the liquid in the first will descend before that in the second begins to move. Then when they have both reached the same point, the liquid in both will flow out together. In the same way, no matter how great the number of drains, they will all be emptied at the same instant. The closets were originally simple iron hoppers, placed where possible one above another, so the fall was nearly straight. But other kinds may be used eciually well, provided a large size ventilation pipe passes up through the roof by which the atmos- 2'.vt K.\ others is that it returns to the soil that w'lich is taken from it. and also the in- come from the sale of the product soon pays for the extra cost of construction. Conservation of Sewage. "The ear^h, given by the Creator to man, was intended not as a store house to be pillajied, but to 1)0 judiciously used. With the water .system, refuse run into the lakes t)r ocean is lost, as far as the i)resent era of the world is concerned. If year after yaw and jieneration after <;eneration the nourishinj; properties are extrucied from the soil, the inevi- table result must be impoverishment. A city of 100. ()()() inhab- itants has a yearly provision supply of al)out 100.000,000 lb. which is all turned into the .sewers and lost. This would produce annually about ,")000 tons of dried excrement. The yearly amount of excrement from an averajre inh.ibitant is ."j(i lb., the amount of orjianic matter in .solid dried excrement bein<; 88 per cent, and in urine, \\ per cent. Hut the total daily amount of or>;anic matter from the latter is about one-third more than from the former. Rememberinf^ that five-sixths of the ain- mr)nia capable of being generated from human excreta is fur- nished by the urine and only one-fifth by the feces, and how small is (he j)roportion of the total urine ])assed at the same time, and that it is impossible to collect all the latter, the intrinsic value of tiie fertilizing matter which can be jjractically recovered is probablv not more than one-third the value, or amounts to 7.") cents per annum for each i)erson. taking tlie usually accepted value of excreta fiom an average person as .S2.2.") per yv,\:\ Hy ilischarging its sewage into a lake or waterway, a city of 100,000 loses annually no less than i?70,000. Assuming'the present population of the i:nited States to be KO.OOO.OOO, the nation loses annually from this waste $00,000,000 to §70.000,000. Final Disposal of Sewage.— Thi.-; is, perhaps, of all problems in sanitary science, the most difficult. Attempts have l)een made to dispose of .sewage by irrigation, ignition, etc., but no com- plete and satisfactory method seems to liave been devised. For DRAIN A(IK OF INDUSTRIAL WORKS 293 Hmall manufacturing; plants or industrial villajics and for Hinplc factory l>uildinjis tlie pn)l)leni is comparatively wimple, hut in larfie centers where the (piantity of solid and lltjuid refuse is great, it is much more comjjlicated. Sewers cannot discharge into a lake in the vicinity of water works or intake, neither should they run into a stream from which a few miles further down another manufactory or village derives its supply of fresh water. Perhaps the most successful solution yet presented for the subject is that of irrigation. Experiments siiow that for this l)urpose there should he at least one acre of land for each MO persons. The most suitable soil is a loose gravel thoroughly drained at a depth of about G ft. below the surface. The same plot should not l)e used continuously, for sufficient time should l)e given at intervals for tiie ground to become thoroughly aeriated. On being th. • exposed to earth and air, all organic particles become so oxidized that the licjuid passes off in a comparatively pure state, and may with safety be discharged into a lake or stream. This system recpiires but little time to pay for itself, for the amount of extra vegetation produced yearly on the irrigated soil has in almost every case been e(iual in value to a large proportion of the original cost of land and labor. At Coventry in T^ngland, the liquid sewage is rendered harmless by mixing it with sulphate of alumina. The engineer in charge of the works there states in his report that the fluid passing off at the rate of 80,000 gallons per liour was clear and bright, and of a high standard of purity. It was without smell or color and at noon was found to contain only 5.85 parts of am- monia in 100,000 parts. The solid matter from the sewer, after being separated from the licjuid, is dried and sold as a fertilizer for the land. In order that the discharge may be more copious various storage tanks have been devised, so that when a flow occurs it will be dispersed over a greater area of land. Another method of sewage disposal is that of ignition. The precipitated sewage is first run into shallow pits where it is par- tially dried, after which it is burned in large kilns. This method, ahhoiish producing no revenue from the waste, and on the other hand creating some expense, has the advantage of immediately and thoroughly destroying the source of disease, which is far -".»(i i:.\(;iM:]:ui\a of si/ni's axd fmtoiuks ».Ht(-r than st.-rin- up fV:,p..rat(Ml (..vcnMa witl. Ilic (vxpctation ••f s..ll.n^' a, an.l the lialulitv ..f sp.vading .• irkm's.s througJiout tlic fount ry. l-'n.n. tin. «l,„vo it appears fliaf hu^v manufactories instead (.f Uieurru.K constant expense for the disposal of sewage can cause It to l,e a souice of revenue, and streams n.av cntiime pure »"<1 cloan instea.l of l.eing polluted as they «o often are witli dyes and refuse from sliop.s and mills. KXOOOOaiHXtS niAl'TKU XXIV WATER SUPPLY AND STORAGE TANKS The four chief departments of water siipjily are: (1) The source, (2) the reservoir or storage taiii<, (;{) tlie puiiipiiif; e(iuipiuent, ami (4) tlie distril)Uting pipes ami system. Water for mamifactiirinjr plants can he taken either from some estal)lislie(l town supply, or independently from an adjoining lai;o or river, thouizh spriufis or artesian wells are often used. In some re;;ions such as that adjoining; the great watershed of the Mississipjii river, or in the western arid states, artesian wells are common, j^... and the depth at which water is found capxit^t ^ i 'v,-? i.'aco'** may vary from 100 to 30(K) ft. These wells are usually 8 in. in diameter and are lined with wrought-iron pipe. Klevated tanks are valu ' 'o not only for regular water service, but for fire protection, especially with automatic .sprinkler systems which should always he connectetl to two .separate water sources. lOven in towns and cities with adjoining fire hydrants, insurance rates are greatly reduced hy the ])rescnce of a private pressure tank. These were formerly made cxclusivel}' of wood and are now to a great extent, hut as they rarely last more than twelve to fifteen years, they arc heing replaced hy steel. They may either be at ground level or elevated on a tower, the latter being most effective when only a limited water sup['ly is needed, for their whole contents is then under a higher pressure than if standing on the ground. Some designs are illustrated in Figs. Ma, 146, 147 and 14«, tiie last being of concrete. Fig, 14!) is tne detail of a tank roof. 297 Clevotion Fic. 145. — Steel water tank and tower at Paris, III. 298 HS(;iSKi:i{!\(! OF SlKiPS .l.\7) FAcrouiFs; Thp nuiiil.cr of |..uer Ux» slioul.l Kn pioportM.nal to tlio si/o of Iniik, Uunc ones mniirin^ a ftrcatcr minihrr than .smaller om-s. liy fur tJie luvniest and luont cxpoiiMive j)art of fraiiifd water towers is the platform uiuler tho tank, where very heavy heamH uro often needed, but this expense may he rediiceii liy iisin^' a spher- ieal bottom. They must be sironjj enough to resist the pressure of water, a eiiliie foot of which, containing 7.48 jtallons, weighs ut t>2° V. Gl'.;{() lb. A gallon of water con- taiiiinj; L';n eu. in., weighs 8.;j;{ lb., and a pressure of 1 II). per scpiare inch therefore resultsfrom adepth vf-JMl ft. The problem of water supjjly may be comparatively simple in reuions near the coast with large precipitation, but in a;id coun- tries it is often perplexing, and tho little water that can be found nuist be collected and stored, in the Masternor Middle States, small streams may oft«>n be dammed at two or three points, thus form- ing ponds or storage basins of fresh wafer, but streams are not always available and other methods must be sought. In order to show some of the , .^ _ I'ondit ions in t!ie arid states, and '""k ■■/wi5r^rl^«-7/;^^,^?j'-** the methods of overcoming them, Via. 146.— Water tank and ^ ^"".'^'^ account is given of the in- towcT, Great Northern Power Co. vestigations and plans made by Height 241 ft. the writer for supplying and stor- ing w;iter for railroad shops and locomotives, at a snudi town in Nevada on a main line of railwav. The old i)ut insufficient water supply came from a snuill reservoir on rising ground about a mile north of the railway U\\Ti:i{ SCI'I'LY AM) STOHAai-: TASKS I'OO depot. Tlic .Murfaco of this rcsorvoir was 22 ft. aliovc ilio haso of rail nt the old wati-r tank, md from tliis reservoir ix 1( -in. riveted iron pipe l)roiinht wat» r ilown l>y f;raviiy to a .'JO, (MM) fiallon wooden tank located about 7(M) ft. from I lie depot. T'a.s A ' J, Ulrdcr m 111 &JU ttKMT i:j* I 1*1 U ■ Sft 3i« I'l :»'s Si ' if»i« .114.; o S f 11. 11 Htnln i^■%^^} iHk ir. !„■ v.-'."j.ii'5" lU4'<3"l5i. ' atniB X>u.liO ai-ti. iTi }r . lin*n-. H(,..w.an t LI ii J a ?u' Fig. 147. — Tower for water tank. tank stood on wooden posts and the highest water in it was 20^ ft, .".hove the hane of rail. Tt \v:i.a, !!,';pd not :m]y for sup- plying locomotives, but for the workmen's liou.ses and u few fire hydrants. ;5()() twaiXKEHixa of sifors and factories On account of increased travel on tiic railway, ami the huild- ing of lar-o new shops and round house, as well as for additional 6DranHoiei'> 508 2i-no- o .M-rvice, the old supply had become insufReient and it was decided to build an additional or larger tank, leaving the old WATER SUI'l'LY AM) S:'>IiA(H': TAXKS 301 one and the pipe ronncctins it to tlic reservoir in tiieir orijiinnl condition. In providinj; a new tank, it wuh tiie intention to have a supply of 100,000 jtailons of water above tlic level of the spouts whieh deliver v or to the enjiines, which are a])out 12 ft. above the b: , of raii. 1> vis further intended to have the new tank with 'ii> uJpc siippl' :. reservoir on the hill showed a di.iy ..i: . ' ;r';t of l'.)0,000 fjallons, whieh was sufficient for both old and new sj'steins. An attempt to raise the level of the reservoir by banking it up with earth had pre- Fio. 149. — Dome of reinforced ooncrete water tower. viously been made, but instead of rising as was expected the water seeped away and escaped. It appeared, therefore, that in order to secure a greater liead of water it would be necessary to go farther up the valley and dam the water at a higher level, which plan was not favored on account of the extra expense. Comparative designs and estimates were, tiierefore, made for several kinds of storage tanks, with a view to selecting the most economical and efficient one. The designs in all cases have steel tanks, and when towers arc used they stand on concrete bases, with pedestals of sufficient size under the foot of each 302 ES(!ISEERIS(; OF SHOPS AM) FACTORIES (•(.Imnn so tlio prossure on tlio s..il will not oxcoed three tons per s.iiiMro f....t. As the soil in this vi.initv was sand and gravel it was excellent for foun.lations, an,l the assn.ned unit j.res.sure comparatively .small. Hetwc.n the i.edestals is a layer of eon- nete 12 ni. thi.k over tJic whole remaining area, this feature iM-mg des.rahle, espeeially in winter, when water from leakage mifiht soak helow 'he foundations and cause injury from frost Where the tanks rest directly on tlie foundation without cohimns, the estnnates provide for u solid l.ase of concrete 4 ft thick under the tanks, extending' a foot outside of them at the upper sui-face, and stepped out still further at the bottom In this case a lai-,, p.,,t „f the cost is in the concrete, which is al.nut four times -reater than for desi-ns with towers. Instead of usin- a solid hl„ck of concrete, tJie cost mijiht be reduced by conn- out the center jiart and fillino- it with sand Tlic e'li.i, would then bo excavated to a dej.th of .'iV ft. and a laver of c.mcrete laid 12 in. thick, with a wall 2 ft. thick and 3 ft" liLd, around the sides, the top of wall being 6 in. above the grouml After this concrete is set, tlie inside part is hlled to a tiejjth of 2 ft. with sand and gravel, well rammed in lavers ti in thick Oyer the tilling is then placed another slab of concrete V> in" thick, tiie toj. being covered with ! in. of ri.^h cement mortar' It should be 1 m. higher at tlie center than at the rim, and should have occasmnal water gutters about 1] in. deep formed in the concrete for drainage, radiating from the center to the circiimference. ]{y comi)aring the .lesigns it will be seen that the low, flat t.vpe of tank is not economical, and, generallv, the more nearly equal are the diameter and height, the less will be tJie cost Lstimates in all cases include roofing the tank over with a wooden frame covered with • in. sheathing and galvanized iron Comparative Designs. Style A.— This is a steel tank 10 ft high and 48 ft. in diamet.-r with a cai)acitv of 100,000 -al- lons, stamling on columns 12 ft. high (Fig. l,-,()). Tank plates are > m. thick, ami veitical joints are lapped and double riveted, but the bottom lias butt joints .single riveted so the tank bottom will have even bearing on the beams or base Joists are 7-in. I at IT. lb. per lineal foot, 2 ft. apart, rest- ing on l.-,.,n. I a, 12 lb., spa.^ed !) ft. apart, the whole floor sysi,.n. b..m- canie.l or, 2K columns each made of f„ur angles and a j.lale. Diagonal vind bracing is placed in two direc- WATER SUPPLY A\D STORAGE TAXKS 303 tions at rii t anjilos to each other. Inside of the tank are four liftht cukimns at the four corners of an 8-ft sejiiare, supi)orting tlie roof, and these staml on tlie bottom plate vertically over the colunins under them. The supi)ly pipe Fig. 150. Fio. 151. Tank tloipns. enters the tank through the bottom near its center, and it has a gravity valve. AVhcn water in the tank is drawn off, ilie availaV)le or acting head is increas(>d, and the velocity in the pipe is accelerated, but as the tank fills up the head is diniin- FiG 152. Fig. 153. Tank designs. ished and the velocity and discharge gradually decrea-se. The overflow pipe adjoins the inlet and both are enclosed in frost bo.\es made of matched lumber with double walls G in. apart, the space between them being filled with sawdust tightly rammed in phitc. TliC ostiiiiated cost of the conipleto Blructure, not including pipes or connections, is $5000. ;<()! i:.\(i/M:hh'i.\(; of sjiops am) factories Style B.-Tiiis is similnr to A. iiinl is lic.-ivy fnoufrh to stip- linrt :iii ndtlilioiial li(>iulit of IT) ft. iFij,'. l.")!) if sucli extni cMpacity slioiild l,c rc(|iiii(Ml in tlic future. The est iiiiated cost, of tanlv and tower (•oni|)iete in j)ositiori is StL'OO. Style C— 'riiis is a niodilicatioii of tlic last witii tJic a;s(K). This amount added to the cost of the tank itself makes tlie total cost of 'lotli alM)ut SKMO. Vu.. l.-|. lie. 15.5. Tank ili-imis. Style D. It i-eseml.les Style A except inji that the tank stands diicctiy on the concicte foundation (Vh^. l,"))}) instead of lieinj;- elevated on columns. Tlie amount of water stored in fiiis taidv al)ov(> tlie level of the locomotive feed is no j;reat( r than for .\. l)ut the total amount is aliout :{{)().(){)() <;allons, and the extra supply can l.e used to advantage in the waterin<:- of cars and for use around the enoi,|(. Jn)use and machine shop. The cost includin.ii' a solid concrete liase 4 ft. thick is SGIOO. Style E.- This is similar to the last, hut is made sutriciently strong to sujiport an additional 1.") ft. in heij;ht in case it should he 7ieed(r. 1-,G) is ri'diiccil to L'S ft. iiiid li.S ft. Iiijih of tlio n'i|iiii('(l .size to hold 1(M),()()0 fralloiis. It stands on col- unms 12 ft. liijiii, and only one-third of its caijacity, or about 30,000 jjallons can l)e filled \>y i;ravity from tiie old reservoir. The reniaininj; two-thirds must either be pumped or come from a reservoir at a lu^lier level. In this case, as in C and F, the estimate includes an item of SSOOfor a pump and its e([uipnient. If this ])ump should l)e out of order at any time, the tank will still contain .'^O.OOd ;;:dIons of water, su])plied from the old reser- voir by jiravity, which amount is cipial to the whole capacity of the old wooden tank, and would temporarily be sufHcietit to meet the ordiiuiry demand of locomotives. Witiiout any re- serve sujiply the estimated cost of this design, including the immping outfit, is .?4l*00. Fio. l.-.r,. Vi,:. 157. Tank designs. Style H. — Tin's is similar to Style ('>, excepting tliat instead of su])i)orting the tank on steel columns, it stands directly on a concret( base (Fig. 1")7), tliereby increasing the storage capacity to loO.OOO gallons. The estitnated cost of tlic structure complete and in position, including the pump and accessories, is S4500. It is 28 ft. in tliameter and 40 ft. high, and will always contain at least :50.000 gallons of water above the locomotive spouts, as this height will be maintained by gravity. The extra lieight of about 20 ft. can be filled by a centrifugal pump with 4-in. suction and deliver}- connections, which will be located in the machine shop convenient to the main driving shaft. The l)ump would cost Sl.lO and is guaranteed to deliver 200,000 to 300,000 gallons per day. but with this cup' 'ity it need lie in operation only during regular working Lm....! or a j)ortion()f them. If it should ever become necessary to keep the pump 20 3nc, i:SGINEERI\G OF SHOPS A\D FACTOIUES ill roiistant oiioration. a small 8-h.p. engine might be installed at an additional cost of aliout -S'-'OO. The tank is supplied liy an independent line of riveted steel ])ipe 10 in. in diameter, nmning from the old reservoir alnnit one mile up the valley, and connecting to a cast-iron sump box (.r cistern under the machine siioj) lloor. The sump has a movable to]) which can be taken off for cleaning or removing deposit that may have come tlown the supi)ly i)ipe. It is permanently under tlie i)ressure of a L'_'-ft. head of water, and from it a cen- trifugal pump forces water into the storage tank. Valves are provided on eacii side of the sump to shut off the flow of water in tiie ])ipes. The supply enters the tank from the bottom, so it will be filled up to the 20.i-ft. level by gravity before ]nimp- ing is needed. By connecting the su])ply pipe to the Ixjttom the greatest velocity is secured, and when water in the tank is low it fills again at a greater speed than when tank and reser- voir are approaching the same level. No frost boxes or other pipe ])rotection are recpiired, as the pipes are embedded hi the concrete below the level of the groune ;'onnection made tlu'reto. A suitable site for such a water basin could be found 2 or ',i miles farther up the valley at a place where the hills converj.'e, Avhere the head would have an additional heijiht of 200 ft. TIk^ cost of this leservoir and the 2 or '.i miles of pipe would be from S4000 to !?.')()()(), while the i)umping plant can lie installed for an additional cost of only S800. The reason for the low cost of a pum])iiijr ])lant is, that the machine shop adjoiuinfi the round liouse which is only .")00 ft. from the proposed water tank, is already e([ui|>])C(l with power, ami the only addi- tional machinery needed is a pump v.liich may l)e run by belt from the overhead shaftinjr. The third consideration in choosinj; from the possible types described abo\ e is the matter of cost, a summary of which is given in the following schetlule: ■Mi Cost Capacity in gallons Style A ,•?.)()()() Style n 0200 Style C S.TOO Style 1) 0100 Style F. 7;«)0 Style F <)40() Style (i -J-iOO St vie II I.')00 100,(M)0 100,(KK) 300,000 ;«M),(K)0 3(H),(K)0 4.J0,()(H) 100,000 l.->0,000 In selecting a tank from the eight designs considered, Style 11, for a tank 40 ft. in height and 28 ft. in diameter, standing on a solid concrete base, offered the greatest advant iges and was therefore chosen. Its comparative merits have previously been given. Other designs for water tanks or stand i)ipes arc shown in Figs. 158, 159 and IGO. 308 i:.\(;im:i:his(! of siiors axd factories ' . ''JV?r«y>bw s'O'C'iio* Fig 138.— Steel and conrrotc water tnnk at Gniml l!apiT:<.JCOCu ri. aitiUi LU. ^ , Fuund.(i(.q ■^v 4i'DMm bj j'Thkk* 1" Cu Vda. al JTQO H>^»6a4/i';j_" CcariDj (Surface FuutiJalii>B | _j 4i' Diain -IJ'."U I Si Ft. 0,.".5l.'J:0Lbi.-i.i:''.">4Ni F(." 35ni.I.i.p«r J, ttt^.^'t.* l.i^ TuM bMj Um(1. "^ UfKrtLiniiri^ Mumcut of Wind H, luna l>i JUUttrsf*'* lTT()M sirri, tanks Capacity ill galloii.s ( )iit>i(lc (liaiiic- tcr in fci't l<'ii:lil of tank siiii' nut incimlin); cnrvtil iMiltiiin It. In. 1(1,0110 !."),( 100 'Jtl.OOO 2.'), 01 10 ;io,o(M) .•^■>,ooo 40.000 4.").(K(0 ")0,00() ")."). 000 liO.OOO ri."),(M)o 70.000 7.").(MM) SO.tKH) 00.000 ICHl.OOO 1L'.').000 l.->0,000 17.'),000 200.000 •J.")0,000 ;ioo,ooo 11 12 i:i 14 ITi 10 IS IS 10 1!> 20 20 21 21 22 24 25 2(! 28 30 :\2 10 1 1 111 17 IS IS IS 21 20 2.{ .)•> 2f 2:i 2.". 21 27 2S 2;» ;!2 3.". :?7 o J 4 :i 9 6 5 1 4 .{ WATi:ii srri'LV .t.v/> srou.un-: tasks an TABl.r: XXV -CAPA' ITV I.I- CYTIXniUrAI, TANKS, INI I.UDIJJfl IIKMI- Sl'lll.KUAI. IIOITUM Diuiiutrr Capiu'ity in gallons j.cr in fcL't wrtical foot (':t|iiicily in pillonn of li('ini>|>li('ri('ul liottoiii ."l 1 Itl 1) 6 211 5 i 2M7 1» H 1 ;i7t).l) (» 47-.. !> 10 587.(1 11 nc 9 IJ 84f..O i;{ <)02 . !t 14 li:.i.5 1.-. l.i21.<) Kl l.-.()4 1 17 ir,) 2120.;) L'O 2:!:>() 1 21 2.V.)1.0 ')•> 2HU.r> 23 3t(VK < 24 ;! M 25 ;«)72(i 2(J 3971. (i 27 42S.J.O 2.S 40O0.2 2".) 4911.0 liO -.2.S7 7 244 H 423 ♦171 S 1002 7 1427 1 195,S.3 2ti(Ml (i :{:{H4 t) 4:«)2.t> r):<7;i . 7 ()(1(I9 . 5 8021.9 9021.4 11421 6 KM 32. 4 l.-.C.()7.3 1.SI37.0 2(».S.3:?.l 2:iS28.0 27072.8 ;{0(i(M) . 34420 5 3.8547.0 '2991.2 47703 () 52877 :ji_' i:.\(iiM-:h:iii.\a of sik^i's asd factouies ;« .. - Tl X 7 •i y; = ^! " S 5 i 5 ,- I ,. i| I 2 '/ il « C) ri :i :i fi r: — ri rj i- i-i « .xi si ^ n H b. c C c H b. C C t I ' r X ?i-r: if;^;:? ,,■«:?; :;5^5 j^^^^ ^ijc^j """*"*• "^ ^ -« fl ?l ei CI tl .-o fffl -fi ■({ ,(^ ^ 30 51 -.' ~ 'i « r .- -? = :■« •.- 2 3 .^ > ft S^Eij s?$s/i g-liq j^S7| -^uS| - -, „ _ _ „ - :i :i ci ci ^c r^ .; "C c i- si - ^ ^J .c i: 'i :^ ? s V * :■, s :: - - £ - « ^. -*: =. - ^! = ■- « ^. i; - K ^ -. '\~ - -r ^ S -^ ». ^ « ■, ,^ ^ ^ -., -^ CI r^ r: -!■ ».': «c u ad '- £ «. M " l"* f^iri r. = ^n S^-2S 'j;>?3;1 ^»:-,ty '": '. -. =. r ~ t '■■'. •-: '. = - rf x = « * r^ « S -. « _ _ _ „_,;,., ^; ,; y^ ^ ^ ,-■ .^ j^ ~ ". " * '". ■'. -: = - '] 3 ^ "■: ■'- « s - S R 5 S z ? ^ f^ .5 r ~ i '" ,rt'/. ~- S y ;r _ „.,.._ 5 .. .. - -■. U ,~ .■^ f, ~ IT ~; ci M CI CI - -» 2 _ it ,« ^ * I; -. :■: '•.'*■'.'■•. =*-: = -; ^1 " - ■■• a c -- 1^ -->;■, $ ^ $ 3 .- M !*? . 5^;^ Sftil i=2ii — CI CI CI ■- /: X — c -. :r. 3. s-. -c .^ I. m CI ; ; O -" — cin — XS-" ei. s._ ;g = r 'rf S .-* 2 r * :i ? 1" "-' i S S CI ci -f - .c i 1. r S u 1 ^ •/. < a: g ,? Q — K ^ b: -r u * c "I u M K e:^ 1 jff X £, t; s c ,'4 a ^ ^ ^ f- ■T L.^ "ZT u: X "* t i "' w p 1 X I- — » — ^1 ci .T A ;! ■T r. K Ti o /: I. r. — — r* y. ri X c ^ o r-"' « •J -• I- -I /■ — : I tl c; re f « — -. 1— w CI CI " re -?■•■:'» 1- r. c ci •■? xii; ^^^ ^^^ I-'^l ^^I^ 5^ r. r 1-1- — -H ,-, -4 ji c I- n — -I Scl 2si iiii r — I- « '£ ?i /: r: ^ .^ 'C i: x * ri <-• -* -^ -* CI ci ^: — *i ^• i* « 1- X C "H C( <* :^ -( .T? ^ 1^ — * ti 1^ I. ceo 000 o^— —1^-^ TtCir? «•-•* ^t--M c o cop -< 1-1 Cl CI X 25 5 1 •^ — -^ — CI M .^ re -^ S5 j 314 e\(!I.\i:i:ri\(i of shops a.\d factories I- I- Its C5 -3 M -■ = S v. y y. c ?i t>. 2= f- fl -r i s c = 2 U5 2 C T •r K S| s -f is CJ X SS-: "' PI S g2 u5 X S| ^ PI 1^ r. s PI »!^ X PI !C X ?. ■^ 5 .? 5 s ? w c. ." .-• u c c ^ N ^ c u N u X */: X c. ~ _o o h S3 CJL L. u ••^ ILm 3 '/: c? ^ r. c "S. ? ■r. s c j; ~ 'c — i -/. 'r x z- ^ X 'r- "S ~ -T .H S = &. a< - • .s i ^ > ~ a WATER SUPPLY A.\D STORAGE TAXKS 315 I £ > jj ^3 S, •g. T. ■- &. ? C u S^ P -3 cf i; I . i c •5 e I "_0 i 1 s sg o o o o C 3 2 1* s n o O o o c o 2 ^ 71 2 "^ =" o o O C 3 oooooooccs— r: -• I* ^ t- c » -ri n c o ^5 rcCCCO — r:-ri*5i?i dddddodccdd-* OOOOOOO-HiTJ — C'l rt O « :» ?. M X d d d d d d d ?t :c ^ ^ CI ?? t « r* -4 :c f h- c: n r ■M t-. I* O *I I* O — — - 5 C t- C C ^ CI "f !0 O CI ?C C -" ■* « X ?? c o c o £1 =31 ^^^^C4C4C^n riTAPTEK XXV STEEL CHIMNEYS This typo of stack is used ehiofly for lofty ones with heights of 130 to 300 ft. They liave tlio advantage of occupying small space, and costing 30 to 30 per cent, less tlian brick. The effect of wind on cyliiulrical surfaces is only half as great as on flat ones of the same width, and in metal stacks, the overturning tendency inay l)e resisted by increasing the bottom diameter. This obviates the use of unsightly guy ropes, which at once betray their weakness. They should be proportioned for a winil pressure of .")0 lb. per square foot, corresponding to a velocity of 100 miles per hour. The small weight of steel draft stacks pro- duces a corresponding saving in the cost of the foundations. One 300 ft. in height would have a bottom wall thickness of 55 to ()0 in. in brick, and 18 to 24 in. in icinfoiced concrete, retjuiiing greater width and sustaining power in the foundation. Metal stacks can be erected nuich more rapidly than masonry, and an onlimiry one 100 ft. in height sJiould easily be completed within thirty days. Thoy have, however, the disadvantage of requiring fnvnient ])ainting, at least once every four years (Fig. 101). Their re(iuired height dejjends somewhat on tlie surroundings, and the elevation of adjoining hills and buildings, and they are more efTeclive on higji ground than in a, valley. But their lieijriit sliould always be at least twenty times their inside diameter. Tlie need of lining will depend largely on the proximity of the boilers, because when removed frtmi the source of heat the /^moke and gases will have cooled enough before reaching the ^tack to make lining uimecessary. Some builders make a prac- tice of lining all stacks exceeding 75 ft. in height, and reinforced concrete is now being much used for this purpose. With the relative proportion of diameter and height as given above, the thickness of plates should be according to the follow- ing table; 316 STEEL CHIMNEYS 317 V»rt.col Piv»+;ng ©•♦0.19, fPiirrrs 7t "TtV Iron Door ond Frarrw in Fokjndotoo ■ — • ~ T I iiarn f*ifn Horizontal Rivating Data-Is- 'I t=^ n m b J J i r Lodaar- Cor^nection Drtala o* Anchor ono BoH- ■^ _- r ».•..:'!; 1, 5 hOi/ *tf #r. Shoulder ond Fou"da*-'on P1at« Connef»icn D«ratl». Vtri-ital S»c*'on P.an of B«ll arxJ Foundation Plata*, Enlarged Fia. 101. — Steel chimney for the St. Louis Transit Co. Height 202 ft. 318 i:\(ii.\i:j:i{i.\(j of siiors axd factories '^D UpjKT 40 ft. of sfiuk sliould liavc i)lat('s :i l(i in. Iliick. 40 to (iO ft. l).'low the top, ])latc.'; 1/4 in. tliiclv. (iO to 80 ft. below tlio top, plates ,5/10 in. tliick. SO to 100 ft. l)clo\v the to]), jilatcs S/S in. tliick. 100 to 120 ft. l)i'lo\v till' toji, i)late.i 1/2 in. tliick. The width of hasr shoolil usually lip iiicT'casod to twice tho iippor diameter, the chaiijii' starliiij: at a licijilit of live (liaiuctcr.s aliove the foiiiKlation (Fi.ir. 1('>-'). I'l) to 200 ft. in licitilit, th(> avcraiic cost shoidd not exceed -SIO to SI") pel' vertical foot. A ladder should lie placed on the ontsid(> for use wlicn paint iufr, and a circular trolley track near tlu; toj), standinj; out a few inches from the cylinder, will ])erniit workmen on a siis[iendcd platform to mo\e themselves about to any desired position. The whole apjiearance is improved liy tiie addition of a neat orna- nient.d iron top with jirojectinj; cornice. A clieajiei- type of m(Mal staid< may he made in reclanuular form, framed with structural shapes, and lined inside with corrujiated iron. Anj;les are convenient for corner members, and chan- nels fur the horizontal j;irths, which shoidd be placed aiiout \)\ ft. aj)art vertically, for 10- ft. me*al sheets. They must usmdly be puyed at intervals of about .SO ft. apart vertically. One of this form, 1<)0 ft. in hei<;ht, and 10 by ll2 ft. in sectional area, erected at (Jarfield, .■).'>.(MK) 111. and cost less than $4000, equivalent Q s <-2D » lir.. 102.— fliim my (liajrrMni. rt.'dl, Weii^hed to S.S cents per pound. ^HAPTKK XXVI FIRE PROTECTION The need of ailcqiiate fire protection can best be shown by reference to statistics. During the year 1907, which was free from any great conlhigrations such as those which visited tlio cities of Chicago, Haltiinore and 8an Francisco, the fire loss in the United States was as follows: Property $215,000,000 Lives lost 14.",() Persons injured oO.)!) About two-thirds of the above loss was from wooden buildings. Reports from the insurance companies show that there are annually about 2000 fires in manufacturing buildings in the United States, resulting in losses of $25,000 or more, each, nuiking a yearly loss e(iual to $2.50 for every living person in the countr}-. At least one quarter of these fires include more than one buihling. Reports from seven large cities of Europe reveal a nmch smaller loss, the average being only 30 cents for each inhabitant. Fire loss is relatively small in plants which are built and eijuipped according to the standard regulations of the fire insur- ance companies, the average for ten years being only 4 cents per $100 of value, while in plants devoid of such jirotection the loss is about GO cents per $100. While fires cannot be entirely avoided, it is now well known tluit by taking the proper precaution, at least 60 per cent, of them would never occur. Insurance is merely a means of reaater daiifier of takiii!.' fire. Chimneys where they i)ass through the roof should i)e surrounded by a metal Iiood. A flue is not always hottest near the furnace, for some of the jjases may not fully i,iinite until reachiiifr the open air. Pi])es ar(>, therefore, often hotter near the to]) than adjoinin.u- the furnace. If a pii)o should endanuer the roof, the danger may sometimes be lessened by lenntheiiin.ir it. Small framinu' members sucli as are freijuently found in .^kv- liiihts, ventilators, jiiitters, and louvres, should be avoided, as they easily catch and hold fire, and the roof exterior should be well covered with some such coverin<; as jiravel or sheet metal. Arrangement of Departments. — Departments where the fire risk is greatest should be divided from the rest by fire walls, or l)laced in separate buildings, and, as far as j)ossible, floors and departments sliould be sejiarated from each other. Openings through the floors must be avoided, for they not only ailow fire to puss up through the building, but heat from fire in a lower FIRE PliOTKCTIOX ■^•21 story m:iy riso tlirou-li ll„„r ..poiiiiijis and cjuiso sprinklers in upper stories to open wiili accompanying: water loss, even where !ire may liave done no injury. Stairs between the floors should l)e in separate towers ()utsis, or about .")0 degrees above the highest summer heat. These pipes are connected to at least two inde- petident sources of water sup])ly, usually the public system of the city and a private elevated tank or stand pipe. Ceiling pipes vary in size froin J-in. diameter for that which supplies a single head, to G-in. dia- meter for those supplying 200 lieads. Nozzles (Fig. 163) are made in several ways and should stand above the pipe in order to throw water on the ceiling from which it is deflected to the floor. This not only gi:-es the greatest spread of water but l'<-rnuts the pipes to be drained, all those on the ceiling having !i slight inclination toward the verfi-al ones. Pipes must not be enclosed in the ceiling or in ca^ng, but must be open for inspection. In the "dry system" where water in the pipes would freeze water is held back by compresse.l air, but is liberated when the sprinkler fuses melt. In the outside system of yard pipes for the sprinklers the supply (o each l.uiidijig siiould he regulated by a valve outside the building which can be closed in case any one building is Fio. lO;?.— Sprinkler nozzle. 322 ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES dcstroyod, for if such pij)CH were left open, the pressure in the othor l)uiklinjiH would be lowered. Sprinkler systems, inehuling the whole equipment, cost ti to 10 cents per square foot of floor area. In some cases the inside Fig. 164. Fio. 165. Hose coils. Fio. 166. Fia. 167. Hose coils. work alone, with piping and haads, has cost 7 cents per squarefoot, and 10 cents per foot including the cost of tanks, yard pipes, etc. Other fire fighting appliances include sand pails, water buckets, hose coils (Figs. 164-167) and chemical extinguishers (Fig. 168). FIRE PROTECTION 323 These are useful chiefly for putting out fire in its first stage before tiic sprinklers have begun to work. Hose pressures should not exceed 40 to GO lb. per square inch, for those who are not accustomed to handling hose are unable to control the nozzle at high pressures. The discharge of water through nozzles of different size at a pressure of 100 lb. per square inch Is as follows: Fig. 168.— Chemical extinguisher. 1 i in. nozzle, discharges at 100 lb.. 466 gallons per minute. 1 J m. nozz e, discharges at 100 lb.. 671 gallons per minute. 1 i in. nozz c, discharges at 100 lb., 904 gallcos per minute. ^ m. nozzle, discharges at 100 ib., 1194 gallons per minute. Inspection.— Rigid and frequent inspection of plants by officers of the Fire Insurance Companies is one of the best methods of preventing fire loss. These inspections are made every three months by different men who are not supplied with previous reports, and independent inspections of this kind are therefore a check on each other. Examination is made of every thing pertaining to fire risk, including the methods of lighting, heating — -IJ «,->,! mm THiapa ■jwpw?* - t:*fv^ ^^w^ ">«^rB^ 32 1 K\(;ixE!':Ri\a of shops a\d factories typp of const ruclidii, hnildinj;; contents and npi)liancps, nearness of fire liyilraiils and tiie 1(>( al ijrotoctive systen.. The dejjree of order and cleanliness niaintained inside tlie huildin<;, and the familiarity of the occupants with the methods provided for lire extinction, are all noted and reported. Such inspections are, of course, cpiite expensive, l)ut liave proved to i)e ultimate economy. While inspection by oflicers of the insurance companies la valuable, it slnmld not be left -wholly to them, because their examinations are fre(niently more for their own benefit than for tiic owners or occupants. The insurance company nuiy be willing; to receive a hijiher rate, ami are often most interested in seein^f that the rate is hif;h enoufih. Cleanliness and Order. — Prevention of fire is l)etter than extinction, for loss is rarely co\ered by the insurance. Failure to complete ccmtracts on time, the scattering; of workmen and loss of liusiness, are matters not in the insurance policies. It is therefore wisdom to use every effort toward the prevention of fire, and no measiues are more effective in this direction than order and cleanliness. Certain rules should lie established in referenc'e to smoking or the use of fire al)out the buildings, and violations of these rules should be punished by suspension or dis!iiissal. Buildings sliould be cleaned daily during dayliglit, preferably just before closing. This will not only avoid the need of artificial light and its a<'conipanying danger, but will give janitors better light for tiu'irwork, and avoid any excu^e for imjiroper service. Aisles will no doui)t be kept dean, and attention should be given to space under tables, behind machines, in closets, i,r under stairs, where dirt is most likely to accunuilate. Rubbish must not lie allowed to collect, but must be removed from the shops to outer sheds or to the dump. Kubliish boxes should be of metal with self-closing covers, and they should be emptied daily. Dust is a common cause of fire, and once or twice a month, the whole })uilding interior should be swept and dust removed from such places as door and window heads, and from the truss framing if it is exposed. Certain articles used al)out shops often cause spontaneous combustion. Dust, shop sweepings, or waste wlien soaked with oil frequently take fire, and sal ammoniac and iron filings mixed with dirt are also dangerous, and these should not be permitted to collect or remain unprotected. Likewise FIHE I'ROTECTIOS 3l'5 the duMt from jiriiidii-j; .Htoni-s ami oinci y \\\\w\» .spttlinji on wet Ku:fuci'.s is likely to take lire. (Vllais, attics aiul all liiiiden places .sht)uKl ho kept dean aiul clear uf nihhish, and the \m'- ^enti()n of fire sluudd l)e included as part of the rejivilar expense, llniployees in jjattcrn and templet shops have occasionahr been found dryinn lumher over furnaces, or usinjt other dangerous means to hasten the seasoning, and at other times, torches and ftasolino lamps have I.een can-lessly used. Any such rarelesri conduct should \,v efTectively stoppid amf its repetition prevent<'(i. Fire nrill.— A re;;ular system of fire drill should 1)0 nuiintained at every factory. These systems should he jroverned by law and should l)e uniform for all plants, so that employees chan<;in); from one place to another will not he ohlified to learn a new lot uf rcfiulations, or be confused with orders with which they are not familiar. Tile sy.stem of drill should he military in character, under the direction of ofhCers of different rank. It should i)o directed hy a fire marshall whose authority in these matters is supreme, and captains should iiave char>;e of Hours or huildin^s, with lieutenants for separate rooms. The or- franization should he extentled furtiier if necesstry, with foremen to direct the movements of occupants in companies of twenty-five to fifty persons. All officers should he accustomed to command, so their authority in fire emerfiencies will he re- sju'cted. Other men wil' '-.■ jussijrned to special duties as retpiired, anti to prevent crowdinjr, -fairs and fire escapes should have a guard at every landing. The officers should make daily or fre,,uent inspections, noting stairs, exits and passage ways to see that they are always clear Doors must always open ojtward and nmst he examined to see that tiiose at exits which ure seldom used excepting at fire drill, are .accossi!-lc. Gongs „f other signals must be kept, in order Full printed instructions for fire drill and protection must he posted conspicuously throughout the buildings, and in different Fig. 109.— Hand ex- tinguislier. P^ TP* 326 FSaiS'KEk/Xa OF .^UOPS ASD FACTORIES liiHguiigCM, if n«>(e: iiic ii. if. t8 h\<;iM-Kin.\G OF SHOPS A\D FACTORIES not provided, :ind knee l>nicos are omitted or made so small that they are almost useless, the stiffness of the whole frame is eaerifieed. Iii tliis desijin, however, ample room is left for deep braces, and the crane hiid-e is jjlaeed close up under the roof trusses, resulting iu a stiff building frame and maximum clearance under the crane. Another important feature of the design is the side or lateral bracmg. It is important that a shop crane should travel truly parallel with the building/ «ut with insufficient bracing the frame of the crane is liable to get out of square, causing one end to travel slightly in advance of the other. To pievent such action this crane has wide side bracing connecting out to the extremities of the end trucks. As previously stated, these cranes are made of various sizes and capacities, but the standard form of si)ecification is as follows: SPECIFICATION- FOR HAND TUAVELIXr. CRAXE. ^ General.— The crane will be as shown on the print accompany- mg these specifications. It consists of a box girder grooved on the upper side, and mounted at the ends on a pair of trucks which are carried on 24-iii. cast-iron chilled tread wheels. The wheels are ground to run on standard lb. track rails. The gearing throughout is steel spur gears, with teeth cut from the solid. The end truck wheels have roller bearings. Ihe general dimensions are as shown on the plan. Capacity.— The lifting capacity of the crane is .' . . . .tons, and the guaranteed testing capacity tons The height of lift is ft. Movement.— The bridge travel is operated with a hand chain working on a 3G-in. sprocket wheel, which is geared through a series of reduction gears to one i)!iir of truck axles. The shaft to which this si)rockei is geared runs along the length of the crane and is supported at intermediate points to the frame The trolley is moved by pulling on the suspended hoisting block. The lifting is performed by pulling on the 3/8-in. chain of a . . . . . ton trii)lex hoisting block, which is part of the block mechanism. Trolley.— The trolley is made of four single flange in. CRANES 329 chilled tread wheels supported by bent plates that are curved in at the lower side and united with a pin on which the hoist block is sustained. The trolley wheels run in the outer faces of channels which form the lower chord of the crane girder. Hoist Block and Hook. — The hoist block is forged from the best refined iron, and is amply strong enough to carry its maxi- nmm load. It swivels on hardened steel balls turning between disks. Material. — The material of the bridge and other riveted parts is medium open hearth or Bessemer steel with an ultimate capacity of 50,000 to 00,000 lb. per square inch in tension. The maximum fiber stresses used in proportioning the crane are 10,000 lb. per square inch in compression, and 12,000 lb. per sfiuare inch in tension. A factor of safety of five is provided throughout. Wheel Loads. — The maximum wheel load is lb., or a total of lb. on the two wheels at the loaded end of the crane. Th. weight includes the weight of the frame, inachincry trolley, hoist block and suspended load. Erection. — The crane is to Ic erected by the contractor, so he shall be responsible for the proper and cffii lent working of the machine. Guarantee. — The contractor guarantees the crane to be made of the best material, and to be satisfactory ami according to sj)ecifications in every respect. Any l)reakage that may occur witliin one year after date of contract or purchase, will be replaced by the contractor free of cliarge to the purchaser. It is guaranteed also to handle the working load with ease and safety. Note. — The subject of "Cranes" is so extensive that it is impossible to give it any comprehensive treatment in the scope of this volume. Several treatises have been written covering all branches of the subject, and to these the reamww ftuT. /*■.=. ' YARDS AND TRANSPORTATION 333 tics may ho estimated approximately at the rate of $2 per lineal foot. Lijiht track for service cars sliould 1)0 freely used about the yard and works, hut adjoining ones should iu)t he closer together than G ft. on centers. The distance between rails may vary anywhere from 15 in. to 4 ft. 8 1/2 in. as used for standard steam cars, thoufjh the usual width is 30 in. Rails weighing 40 lb. per yard aro heavy enough, and in shops, streets or thoroughfares, tiie rail heads should never be al)ove the floor or grade. Drive- ways about the yard or between the tracks and buildings may conveniently l)e paved witii brick, which is easier to walk upon than stone, and offers a better foothold for horses than asphalt. m. I'm. 173. — Caiiailian Pacific RaiKvay sliops. Montrua), Canada. Motors. — The kinds of haulage motor used about shops and iiulustrial works include steam, electric and compressed air loco- motives, the electric type, all things considered, being the best. These can travel on the standard gauge steam tracks, even though the custom is not favored by the steam railroad officials. When the trolley wire for an electric locomotive would interfere with the movement of cranes, the locomoti\e can have a trolley connection through a slot in the floor, or when entering a Imilding with the trolley on an overhead wire, the wire can be made to uncoil in advance of the locomotive and furnish it with jK)wer, the wire coiling up again as the motor recedes. A motor derrick car is also very handy about the yard for lifting and hiading goods. Compressed air locomotives are perhaps tlie safest about works which have much lumber or other combustil)le materials, but as they require a higher air pressure than usod for other purposes, an additional heavy and expensive compressor is needed. With any of the above kinds of motor haulage, small industrial cars - I II h: .^••jat- i»S^ 334 ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES must be supplied for the service tracks, and hand trucks -with slightly rounded tires, preferably covered with rubber, are useful for moving goods promiscuously about the shops to parts not served by the narrow gauge trucks. Car-wheel treads should not be flat, but slightly tapered inward toward the flange as on standard heavy cars. Loading and Conveying Apparatus. — Lifting and handling appliances about the yards and buildings, include travling cranes, gantry cranes, trolleys, mono-rails, transfer tables, and moving platforms. Nearly all modern plants are equipped more or less with traveling cranes, and in metal working shops and power houses they are an economic necessity. Many works now have their whole yards covered by a system of traveling cranes on ■ J»#'>» Or r^^^t. ,.t-.-...v,.jffi :=:r=X -f/f-O'- Fio. 174. — Cantilever crane. U II elevated tracks. When the cranes move l)otween adjoining buildings with girders on the wall colunms, the supports then form no additional obstructions, but over larger yards where special runways must be erected, this type of crane is not so desirable. In sucii cases traveling gantry cranes are better. Cantilever gantries with a central tower moving on a pair of tracks, and arms overhanging the yard at each side (Fig. 174), offer the least obstruction but are not so stable as those with end supports, though some makes give excellent results. Individual trolleys are suitable for lifting and conveying loads up to 5 or 6 tons in weight or occasionally up to 10 tons, and they have the merit of comparatively low cost but they can travel only in one general direction without lateral movement. Mono-rail systems which are only a special kind of trolley conveyor are useful in connection with traveling cranes and can '^I'M' YARDS AND TRANSPORTATION 335 be provided with switches and cross-overs or can travel around curves and corners. The trolley support consists of a single bar of wrought metal folded over in such shape that the trolley runs within it, and the thickness of the metal is proportioned to the load to be sustained. The track is in many respects similar to a familiar type commonly used for rolling doors. Its narrow width and light metal permits it to be curved to comparatively small radii for turning corners. This system is extensively used in multi-story buildings, especially in packing plants, where the tracks have connections with the freight elevators for transferring goods to any story. ■^ CHAPTER XXIX ESTIMATING tn order to illustiato methods of csfiinatinf; building costs, exaiiiples are jiiveii of estimates and hids made hy tlie writer in I'.tOS. for two difTeieiit manufaeturinj; i)iants. Tli(> first of these is for tiie superstructure of liuec metal working shops at Chicago containing: 1 niiililiiiK. 12")X IT.'i ft. 1 Story and l)a.sompnt, HIiIr. A. 1 Huil(iiii);, lt;xl.«fl. 2 Stories and liawniciit, Ulilj;. H. 1 Building, 112 X-':J0 ft. 2 Storius und basement, Uldg. C. Building A. Xunil)or of squarr foot of wall of ditTcrent thicknesses 12 in. lU in. 21 in. 24 in. Brick. Kast, \\(>.s( , I'ront, Ifi in. wall If) in. wall 12 [lier.s 1(> in. wall 1(> in. wall .jJXlT.i ft., 41 '■I ""'ft-, 22X2X4 ft., r>\ ■125 ft., •M <'125 ft., 4 piers 15 ft. '21 in. X4 ft. 5 piers 10ft, '21 in.X4 ft., 10 in. wall 51X125 ft., 1,750 1.11 1,050 440 Hi in. wa 1 0X12.- ft., l,i:i7 4 piers 2x4Xlf>ft., .sot 4 [licrs 2v IV 10 ft., 100 Bear, Id ill. wa 12 piers 1 1 -'vl7.- JX4X fi- ll ft., 2.100 528 In.side u all, NO X 10 ft 175X10 ft XOXlSft .soxioft I75x:!0ft X17 xi: XlL xv: Xll in., in., in., in., in., 1,140 5,2.-.0 soo 1,750 1 Stack, 10X40 t. X17 in.. 010 1 Stack, 20X40 ft xi; in.. soo 0,900 10.402 440 2.048 3S6 >i /•;.S77.U.l77.Vr/ Viicr hrirk, dcduet from ahow at tlti.fM) per >f. •'«-';< -'-'<» ft., 7,040 Lc** i2xi!»xnft. 12X 4 X 14ft. IMXltiff., ;{,s4 l")X9ft., 20X.y)ft., i,,MK) 12X11X.J ft., Tile wall rappiiiK, t'i"> lin. ft. Fire lirick. J in. tliiok 2JX 10 ft. 8,424 3,Ii»2 072 i:i.-) 337 4,395 = 4,01.'!Im|. ft. = 2H,;>(M) j.rirk 800 N.]. ft. = 0, ICO brick M Summary. fi.iKH) sq. ft. wall, 12 in. tliiok, at 2(1 bricks, l.SO.SOO 10. 102 .S.I. ft. wall, l(i in. thi.k, at 2(i brick.-, 270,152 2,488 sn. ft. wall, 21 in. thick, at M bricks, 82,104 HuihiiiiR H. 492,356 less 28,000 face -464,000 bricks. Hrick. 2 Walls 12 in. thick, 35X133 ft. 9,310 Lcs.s 4X2Jft. 90 !•! 4X9 ft., 468 8 4X6 ft., 192 5 6X13 ft., 390 Brick face R,\y 16 in. thick, 7X120 ft. Tile Toping i;{0 it. for 12 in. wall. Face brick 40 M (deduct from aoove). 22 1,110 8,170X20- 163,400 21, ,800 185,200 338 E SGI SEEKING OF SHOPS ASD FACTORIES Building C. Brick. 12-in. face wall, 084x34 ft. SOl'iiastprs 2J ft. X8in, Less 04 llXSft., 32 11X3 ft., 32 10 X 9 ft., 16 10X2 ft., 23,256 X.^O 5,032 8(1. ft. 1,050 2,880 320 9,888 12-in. inside wall 124 X 42 ft. 40X42 ft. 50X42 ft., 24X42 ft. 10X52 ft., 400 ft. tile wall coping 12-in. wall. Firebrick 4 in. thick, 20x50 ft. Face brick 134X34 ft. -15,436 Less 04 8X11 ft. 5,760 13,308sq. ft. net 9,996 832 24,196 9,676 X 7 -68 M. Deduct from above. Summary. 12-in, 8-in, wall 24,200 sq. ft. at 20, wall 3,750 sq. ft. at 14 484,000 52,500 536,500 Bnck summary. Common Face Fire Tile coping Building A., 404,000 28,000 0,100 435 lin. ft. Building B., 14.5,000 40,000 130 lin. ft. Building C, 408,000 68,000 7,000 400 lin. ft. 1,077,000 130,000 13,160 965 Un. ft. Building .\. Stone. 2 stone chimney caps, 5X5 ft. 50 sq. ft. 1 stone chimney cup, 3X3 ft., 9 sq. ft. Coiling 10 in. X2i ft.. 415 lin. ft. 830 sq. ft. .300 lin. ft. stone belt course 5X8 in. 21 window sills 6 X 8 in. X i 2 ft. long. est: I ATI NO Building B. Stono. lli)-ft. coping 10 in. X2 ft. in. l.'«)-ft. coping 10 in. X2 ft. 2 in. 6 stone gate posts 3J X.IJ X 10 ft. ■ 02 stone sills 5ft. in. ■ 735 cu, ft. 380 Building C. Stone. 464-ft. Willi coping, \t\ in. X2 ft. 90 stone sills, lo ft. l„ng. Entrance Ashlar, 220 sq. ft. Oin. Summary of stone. 1119-ft. coping, 10 in. X2 ft. 5 In. = 2,220 cu. ft. at $1.20 1822-ft. sill, SXSin., 2 chimney caps, 5X5 ft., 1 chimney cap, 3X3 ft., 6 gate posts, 3} X3J X 10 ft.. Entrance Ashlar, Setting, COO cu. ft. at 50 cu. ft. at 9 cu. ft. at ■ 735 cu. ft. at 220 sq. ft. at 3,724 cu. ft. at .60 2.00 2.00 1.20 .60 .30 S2,660 1,092 100 18 882 132 1,117 SO.OOl Building A. Tile partitions. 61X16 ft. of 0-in. tile, 976 36X10 ft. of Oin. tile, .360 1,336 60X16 ft.of 8 in. tile, -960 Building C. Tile. Second story, Second story. First story. First story, Basement, 180 ft., double 6 in. tile wall, 18 ft. high, 6,480 sq. ft, 6 in. tile wall, 14 ft. high, «!■> =„ tt 58 ft., single „ .... ,..^- „„.., ^, „. „,gn^ 180 ft., double 6 in. tile wall, 15 ft. high, 124 ft., single 6 in. tile wall, 15 ft. high, 161 ft., double 6 in. tile - " --•■■' wall, 9 ft. high, 2.,S9.S 812 sq. ft. 5,400 sq. ft. 1,860 sq. ft. 17,450 .q. ft. I ;?i(» i:\(;!\i'i:iii\ sq. ft. K ill. '.KiO .si|. ft. UilililiiiK V. ' ■lllTcIc (Vlhtr puviiiir 'i ill. tliick Witll (XpMllilccl MlrtMl t ii N'o. H ( iraiiDlithu: .stirfujc 1 1, I iii. lliit;k, IJ5 <17J ft. 1 •.•.■> X 1 7.') ft - •-• 1 ..sT.'i Kc 1. f t . Hiiililiiii; .\. l{pinfi)rcc(l ('oncn-lc. Dc.iinii !>) Cniilriu'tnr. r Hi <:(() ft. ISO V.'iits I i:iv:iti ft. JtW ltiX7Sft. l.'.MS ■J 10«) Floor. r> ft.XUO ft. I'cllar S..'),SO (iraiiolilliio Mirfacivs on 7S ! U) ft. Buililiiii- It. Coiirrotc p.ivinj; .'■i!; ':ir to A. l(lxi:i:i ft. -2,12H Huil(tiii); ('. KcinforiU'il c.oiKTt'tr'. in--.>ixi: \... ll» I). .\r 'a, .'i <2M) ft. J l.'fi,(.'>(l .mj. ft. Ov.r vault, r.'Xl2v_> ft.-2S.S Prcv-i pit !»(»() Mj. ft. :i in. on Kx. metal. I'laiii coiicri'tc. .\rca wall 2:{()-;{xn ft. 1,0.3,5 cu. ft. =10 cu.yd. Summary of conerrto. Cell ir floor ami surface with ex. metal Roof Floor ]mi|. yd at IS =. .S,(i,'(.S H<»of, .'l.lM M|. ft. St'Ooinl IliMtr, H,SV\S .M). ft. 3 in. Willi, - i:i5 3tl > 4,155 l2,«i;i Uuildl'iK A. Cur|)c'iitry. \o. 1, L. L. y. p. s. 3. s. ft. 0,450 17 «iXl-' in. (U ft. ti,.-c'8 5.-. 2X10 ill. SO ft. 7,:t.i;j :{7 l(»X12iii. 0.". ft. :'J,o,-,0 It S.H in. 1» ft. 1 , i >0 20 tiXU in. 1» II. 2,000 58 lOXH in. M ft. 20,.«M» au (thing. 71,701 ft. H. M. HiHif, IJ XC) in. r.'.}/, i: ■ I,, Sccimd, 2ixtiiii. SOX 111 f ,r;.> I'irst, 2ixt)in. 42X17." nr, .Maple flooring, IJX.'U iii.Xl". x4. 7,.{.J0 sq. ft No. 1 nuiple in oHice Building iiajxr, 175x42-7,350 si), ft. "; y.p. 21,875 ( y.p. 8,S0O ■I y.p. 7,:{.50 matched side and i F.roct mill work. Erect hii Iwure. Coai blinkers, -t8 ft. long X 9 ft. high. 20 4X bin. X!)ft., 300 CXIO in. X(t ft.. 270 2 in. plank IS x 'J ft., 9B0 150 ft. tix J ill., OOii 2,1',^0 ft. B. .M. ili 342 engixeehim; of shops axd factories VVeiglits and cortls. Building B. Carpentry. 53- 8X14 in. X 18 ft. - 8,904 45- 7X14 in. X 18 ft. «i,C15 2.3- Ox 12 in. X 18 ft. 2,484 2- 8X12 in. X 9()ft. 1,440 1- 8x12 in. X 132 ft. 1,004 2- 8X14 in. X 90 ft. 1,680 1- 8X14 in. X 120 ft. 1,120 2- 4X Sin. X 133 ft. 704 2- 7X14 in. X 44 ft. 735 1-10x12 in. X 44 ft. 440 25,186 fCin. floor, 8X278 ft. . < 6X3 in. on edge 12,000 with I in. open joint J 2i in. flooring. First floor, 16 X 133 ft. =2,000 sq. ft. second floor, 16 X 133 ft. =2,000 sq. ft. li in. flooring, roof, 10X133 ft. =2,000 sq. ft. li in- finish flooring, flrst floor, 10X133X2. MapIe-4,000 sq. ft. net. Building paper, 16X133X2 tv. =4,000 sq. ft, Weiglits and cords for all 3 buildings. Weights 460 windows at 60 lb., 27,600 lb., say 15 tons at $30 = $450 Cords, 460 windows at 20 ft. 9,200 ft. at .04, 350 $800 Building C. Carpentry. Roof, Second, First, 50- 0X12 in. 112 ft. 33,600 06- 8X12 in. 109 ft. 5 7,550 12-10x14 in. 68 ft. 9, .'520 44-10x14 in. 42 ft. 21,. 560 36- 6X14 in. 42 ft. 10,,'>04 54-12x16 in. 27 ft. 23,328 16-10x14 in. 54 ft. 10,080 20- 6X14 in. 56 ft. 7,840 173,982 ESTIMATING 343 Flooring and Roofing. 1} Roof Less 10 109X227 ft. 13X24 ft. 2} in. flooring second, 109X227 ft. Less 4 10x20 ft. First, Less 4 109X227 ft. 10X20 ft. -24,743 sq.ft. 3,120 21,623 24,734 800 23,943 24,743 800 23,943 11 in. maple, first and second floors, 24,000X2 sq. ft. =48,000 sq. ft. Building paper, 48,000 sq. ft. Wood bolts, spikes, nails, etc. Total lumber 624,000 ft. B. M. Floor Anchors. Using 10 lb. for 1,000 ft. B. M. framing timbers. Using 30 lb. for 1,000 ft. B. M. flooring. 285 M framing at 10 lb. nails per M - 2,8.50 lb. 400 M flooring at 30 lb. nails per M - 12,000 lb. 14,850 = 148 kegs Or, if one keg used for every 3,000 ft. H. M. X- , 68,500 „„„ , ^°- *"■«"- 3,W -228 ''"K^- Carpentry Summary. Framing timber liX6 Building .\. .. . 73,890 21,875 10,150 1 7,350 7,350 Building U... 25,186 2,000 4,000: 4,000 4,000 12,000 Building C. .. , 173,982 j 21,623, 48,000 | 48,000 48,000 1 273,058 45,498 68.150 59,350 59,350 I 12,000 ii '■: . -aTfS'.- -::im-': ^ 'M[ i:.\(;ixi:Kii.'\(! of siinrs .wd factohiks ( .irjM'iitry Siininiary, roiiliiiucd. I'Vuniin); timlier, riooriiin, 1,' x<>, Klooriiin. 2\ Xt), ri(K)riiiK, li-iii. ir.aplc, Paper, Eroct 1 'irilwarc on, Window wcinlit.-. Window cords, Spikes, holts, ('to,. Anchors, cti-., Hauling, Hoisting, 2,S.J,(H)() ft. B. M. at S: .■>r,()(MJ Mj. ft. Kross .S.'),1()0 t(]. ft. uro-.i 7."),(M)() .■)i»,4 tons !),2(M) lin. ft. 2(t(l k(«s "), -',.S.")() (IS (i,,S(),S (171 •l,(MK) . ( H 1.") MM .">() \>M (1.(10 4.-)(> .01 ;«i.s .'! (HI (KM) .01 2(«» . 7."i I MM .oU ;i42 20,733 I.ISl i>K .Si u-HIoa Iron and .■steel: Hi. I .\ Hi. I li Hi.) (• $-1:^,725 40,C.20 3.S,.-).J0 liid I) (-^t.iirs. ffiianis, L.dder only) 0,085 Iron Doors: Hi.l .\ Mi. I B I'aintinn: Bill .\ Bl.t l: I5id ( Hoofing: Bi.l .\ . I'.i.l B Bid C i'lnnihinf;: Bi.i .\ liid I'. Hid C PiastcriiiK: Bi.l .\ Bid B i»,.">.S'.» •J, 102 :i,,s,->6 2„S<)7 2,400 1,013 I , litS 1,400 S,100 0,440 70O 730 -» :^3s^ tfMMKWii 1^ ESTIMATING Mill Work: '^''l^ 5,500 "'-« 5,025 Glazing: l.ifS< ^ii'i I* i-i:^ Torra Cofta: '*'''-^ i,:{70 '"'"» 1,125 Marblo: Mid A ..-., *ii z Sheet Metal: f!\-^ 4,280 , . , 3,o31 '^ ^ 2,SS8 '^ ' 2,730 I' : 2,188 ""' '■ 2,059 Ueiiiforoeil Concrete and Cellar Flcior: "'^'•^ 8.755 ESTIMATE SUMMARY SUPEHSTUUCTUKE OnlY Thrcx' Eactory Huildings, Chieago 1 Imilding. 125X17.5, 1 .story and hasenient, A. 1 iMiilding. l()Xi:«, 2 .story and ha.sement, B. 1 building 112X230, 2 story and basement, C. Superintendent (4 mcnths) ( ^q I'orenian ..,w^ Watelinuin .qq Olfiee and shetls ofuj Telephone c,. Harrieade, (J.jO ft. (lineal) . joy Ae, and wall.s with brick facing;, but composed chiefly of gl!i.s.s. Alternate design also, on steel framing. Excavation: General, 1(K)X78X8} ft. =06,300 cu. ft. =2,455 cu. yd. Trench, mn) ft. at lJX4i ft. = 12,825 cu. ft. Piers, 88 at 7} X7J X4J ft. =22,170 cu. ft. 88 at tij XOJ X4J ft. = 16,720 cu. ft. 7 at 2J X2J X4i ft. = 196 cu. ft. = 1,930 cu. yd. lleinforccd ('oticrete: 4 in. floor .slabs. 3 floors, 74 X SCO ft. i Iroof, 74X860 ft. | =^->->'56<> «q- "• 6 in floor slabs, <'iOx74 ft. = 4,440 sq. ft. 178 bcam.s, 12 X 18 In. X 70 ft. = 12,460 lin. ft. 44 beam.s, 0X12 in. X 780 ft. = 34,320 lin. ft. ESTIMATING Wall Beams: 780 ft. beams = 18 X 30 in. 1,560 ft. beams -16X24 hi. 780 ft. beam." = 16 X 4S is. 2,920 ft. beams = 8X24 m. 347 ff 6,040 Columns: S8 inside columns, 16X16 in. x52 ft. =4,576 lin. ft. 104 outside columns, 16X24 in. y .52 ft. =5,468 Bn. ft. Colunm Piers: 88 piers, 7X7 ft. X 18 in. 1 ,,„_ 88 piers, 0X6 ft. X 18 in. / = 11-220 cu. ft. 860 ft. parapet, 2J ft. X8 in. = 1,2'JO cu. ft. and 2,700 8q. ft. = 700 cu. ft. 1.990 ou. ft Reinforced Concrete Summs-ry. 4 in. lab, 2,54,56C Sf). ft. 84.853 cu. ft. 6 in. slab, 4,44( H<(. ft. •-'.220 cu. ft. 12X18 in. beam, !2,4«0 iin. ff. 18,690 cu. ft. 6X12 in. beam, 34,320 lin. ft. 17,160 cu. ft. 18X30 in. beam, 780 lin. ft. 2,925 cu. ft. 16X24 in. beam, I. ,560 lin. ft. 4,160 cu. ft. 16X48 in. beam, 780 lin. ft. 4,160 cu. ft. 8X24 in. beam, 2,920 iin. ft. 3,890 cu. ft. Cols. 16X16 in., 4, '.76 lin. ft. 9,152 cu. ft. Cols. 16X24 in., 5,-*08 lin. ft. 13,500 cu. ft. Cols, bases, 1 11,220 cu. ft. 71,930 cu. ft. Forms for slabs. 260,000 ».-(. ft. Forms for beams, 52 820 lin. ft. Forms for cols.. Cost. 9,980 lin. ft. Concrete, 172,000 cu. ft. at. $ 23 = S 39, ,'560 i^teel, 570 tmm mt 30 00 28,800 Steel hauling, 576 r^ms at 50 288 Steel erecting, 576 tons St 4 00 2,300 Forms, slabs, 26f».iKK) si), ft. at .06 15.600 Forms, beams, 5-',»(»0 iin. ft. at .30 = i.'>,H40 Forms, cols., lO.tHM) lin. ft. at .40 4,000 Damp proof, 3,2(K) scj. :t. at 05 160 1 in. surfacing, 260,(K)fi wj. it. »t .05 7..S00 16 stairs, 4 ft. wide. 2,400 »116,7 .'MS h'xaixKKHixa of shops axd factories Hrick. Foundation Tunnel S-in. wull, 18 ft.X7,S ff. 210 ft. X-iii. wall, S ft. 200 ft. i;-in. null, 10 ft. 20 ft. 17-in. wall, 10 f(. ■■(70 ft. S-in. wall, 7 ff. .S70 ft. 12-in. wall, 7 ft. 1,170 ft. S-in. rtall, 7 ft. I'irst Story. 44 pilastcr-s, 5 ft. XS in. thickx II ft. high aOO-ft. wall, ,S in. thick X U ft. hij;h Area of wail in 8(juarc feet. S-in. 12-in. 17-in. wall wall 50-ft. wall, 210-ft. wall, SO-ft. wall. 17 in. thick <14ft. high 8 in. thick X 14 ft high 17 in. thickx 14 ft. high wall 1,404 1,080 2,000 2(H) 2,om) 10,290 C,0,840 960 900 1,920 Hnck .Suniinarv. Solid wall in foundation. l."),904 K(]. ft. wall, 8 in. at 14 bricks 0,090 «(j. ft. wall, 12 in. at 21 brickK 2,8(K)i.l. ff. wall, 28 in. at 28 bricks 224,000 bricks 128, 1(H) bricks 78,4(M) brickK 430,500 bricks Hollow ami face brick. First story, Scconil story, Tliird story, Fourth story, IViit house, ESTIMATING 8-in. wall 10,HH)s.]. ft. 0,840 wj. ft. fi.S 10 M|. ft. 6,8^J0 S(]. ft. "i..S.H() H,|, ft. 349 17-in. wall l,.s:.'0«,|. ft. 1,920 srick = 727,440 -40, 100 = 0S7,.340 bricks. Ueiuforccd concrete: dcsiRn with steel framing. Floors and roof, 4 74 X 860 ft. 4-in. floor slabs, 2.54,600 sq. ft. = 0-in. floor slabs, 4,440 sci. ft. 12xl8-in. beam, 12,400 lin. ft. = 0X12-in. beam, 21,900 lin. ft. .- Column ba.S(-.s, 410 cu. yd. = 84,S.5;i cu. ft. 2.220 18,090 12,480 11,220 129,403 Forms for slabs Forms for beams Cost. 2r>0,(XH) s(| ft. = ;J7,420 lin. ft. Concrete, 130,000 cu. ft. Steel, 4(X) tons Steel, 400 tons, hauling Steel, 400 tons, setting Forms, slabs, 2fiO,000 sq. ft. Forms, beams, 38.0(M) lin. ft 1-in. surfacing, 260,000 sq. ft. at 10 stairs, 4 ft. wide at Brick: design with steel framing. at .$ .SO -= at 50. (H) - .50 4 00 .06 ..30 .03 150 00 .?39,000 20,000 2.")0 1,600 15,600 11,400 7,800 2,400 $98,050 lO-in. wall beams. 0.2(H) lin. ft. 15,l,i5 m. ft. 16-in. wall cols., 5,408 lin. ft. l,l,,->00 cu. ft. 1*1 11 28,600 at 21 =<)00,600 bricks 350 ENGISKERI.SG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES Ahovp divided as follows: Face brick, 1(X),0(M) at Common bricks, 600,0<)0 at 2.U) Mtone hills, 1 7 ft . long = .1910 ft at 88 Col. casings, 4 ft. around X 5() ft . -352 M. at $tr,. =. S4,500 18. - a,(KX) .50- 1,065 »I8. - 0,330 21,791 LIST OF .SUB-BIDS Round high-carbon steel bars 3/ 4to 1/4 in., SI .52 1/2 5 8 in., 1 .57 1/2 1/2 in., 1. 62 1/2 F.O.B. in car load 3/8 in., 1 77 1/2 List of Sul>-bids, continued , Sm L-et Metal and Roofing: Coi k'ering Total Metal Doors For For only only cone. de.sign steel design Bid \. Gutters, cornice, flash- ing, conductor heads $1,0()0 Hid B: For concrete 1,483 $931 For steel :>anie 1,834 Bill V 995 1,025 Bid D 1,101 Bid E $2,246 Bid F 3,454 Bid r.u TmuEs i:si !\| \Ti; SCMMAHV Tor AutiitiKiliili- lactory with Coiifretc I niniitii; Kxrjiviition, (teller;!. ', llxoiiviiticiii, fri lu'li, Hcinfi)r('C(| eimcri'ti', Steel I'. (). H Steel liiitiliiiK, Steel seltiiit;, riirms, sjiilis, ForiiLs, IxMfns, I'liriMs, foluniiis, I-in. surfiifitii;. J I.Vi y.N. X.'XW 172,(MKI cii. ft. TiUS tons .57(5 tons .'"ufi tons ;.'(M),(KMI .s.|, ft. rCHOOliri. ft. Kt.lKM) lin, ft. 2(((t,INM) N<|. ft. Iti roiicrete stairs, I ft. wiile Hasemellt flour, .'>(i,(HKI .sq. ft. Hrick, eoiiiiiKiii, 4.'<:.>,(K)0 Hriok, liollow, ().S7,;UK) Hriek, face, 1(),(KH) Hriek, fancy fare, ;t,l(M) Tile edping, 210 liii. ft. H.V inonth.s at %\M, \\ atchiiiaii, 'nieplione, Wat.r, Hiilihish clearing, Water closet, Storage slied.s, Insurance, I.ial.dity Hond, 1 per 'm :iI. on 1 J of eontract, Temporary stairs. Id sets at .$."iO Tools and pin;:'. Traveling ex{>ense, ..•.(I . 2.{ ."ill (M) ..V) I (K) .IMi .;«) Ill l.">() (K) 11 IS (Ml Mi IK) ■l.'i (M) S() (HI '2'> .()( .(H),"j « 1,227 .(!),.•)««) 2.S.,S(H( 2H.S 2..«H) I. ').)»)() l.">,.SI(t l.tNH) 7,,S(H) 2.1(H) 7,.SI() 7,77('> 1I,IHH) 1,.S(K( 240 M 280 :?(K) 'l,(HKI ■S<) S,2()0 14,(t()f) .•i,(KM) 2,.5(K) 1,(MK) KM) .500 l.O'K) 50 500 400 2.500 7.50 500 5.00 • 200 ESTIMATISa 353 HuililiriK |M-rmit, Inciili'iittiN, 1 |«T criit., 170 lioriiiRs, 3no rrtifit, ."> proiit to the build'ng construction, tlie installiition of this is usually let in a sepunitc contract. This will include the lu-atiiif;, lifihtiuR, plumbing, power and water supply, fire pro- tection, and elevators. These are wholly the designs of me- chanical engineers. Superintendence. — This work may be done either by the owner with the assistance of a salaried superintengime, men and women treated as human beings have regained self respect. Women workers, who were .ormerly all "girls," "hands," or "help," now receive the more respectful "Miss," and men, when passing through the women's workrooms, remove their hats as they would at home. Under these conditions employers rightfully expect a better education in those that they employ, and in many factories graduation from a high school is now one of the necessary qualifications. The attitude of the factory to the public is also changed, for a welcome to visitors is now a common and definite policy. Reception rooms are provided and furnished, and guides are delegated to conduct persons about, often meeting visitors with a conveyance at the nearest depot, and escorting them to the works. Balconies or galleries afford a panorama of the work in operation, and elevators lead to an observation tower where a view is obtained of the plant and j.s surroundings. Now factory conditions are so greatly appreciated by the public that their owners or managers are usually entitled to respect and confidence. One modem and almost ideal plant for which the writer made elaborate plans was so highly esteemed bj the citizens that the return ci its president from a world tour was accompanied by a great demonstration. A special train with a hundred representative men »vent out to meet him and escort -mmmm^^.m,iJL-4 ^v^mm^ 'MM* -*. ^S WELFARE FEATURES 360 him home and 40,000 people paraded the streets in his honor and presented him with a loving cup. Health Conditions. — No argument is needed to show that healthy bodies are essential to efficient work. The following health requirements should therefore be maintained : 1. General cleanliness of buildings and occupants. 2. Abundance of washing and bathing facilities. 3. Good light, and pure ai'' of the right temperature and humidity. 4. Regular working hours, with sufficient time for rest and recreation. With these requirements fulfilled, there should be enthusiasm during working hours. In order to start right, applicants should pass a health exam- ination before being given employment. The building should be swept daily, and washed out once a week, and this work will require the service of one janitor for about fifty employees, or four for every acre of floor space. Spitting should be prohibited. In some plants where a large number of women are employed, they may be supplied with clean aprons and half sleeves twice per week. This will average about ten articles per week for the laundry for each person. In large establishments a steam laundry may be maintained, and to avoid disagreeable odors it should be on an upper floor. Windows should be regularly cleaned and curtains renewed when they are soiled. In shops as elsewhere, order and cleanli- ness promote self respect, but interest, inspiration and energy are lost Then working amid dirty surroundings. Lavatories and shower baths are now prescribed by law in many states, and some shops permit employees to take two baths per week in summer and one in winter during working hours. Occupants in some departments of paint works are required to bathe daily to prevent possibility of lead poisoning. Hot and cold water, towels and soap should be provided free, for if any charge is made, their general use will be limited. Plants where light machinery is made should have one shower bath for every twenty to thirty persons, and some foundries hav^ one bath and shower for every man. A swimming tank in the basement may be supplied for those who like to use it. Good light and pure air are essential to health. A vacuum system should be used in polishing rooms, and suction hoods : i V,,,. :•^;- P ^.. ••rfi^fi"' .^rM>.^m' 3G0 I-.\( ERISG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES liung ovor tiil)ios wlure dust or odors are evolved. This ia ospecitilly iinportaiit in shops making (loth or cotton goods, where the dust often jjroduces throat and In .'isease. In one cotton mill in England, no less than 7-1 per eent. of all the workers were thus affected. Air can be cooled ia summer by passing it through a sj)ray chamber before forcing it uj) through the build- ing, and at forges and rolling mills this may be actual economy, as it permits continuous instead of spasmodic work before the hot and open fires. 1 Inergy should be cfMi,'- ved for usefid purposes, and operatives and especially women Id, in nudti-story buildings have free use of elevators. W .i should ulso have high-backed chairs aiul footstools for occasional or continuous use, and they should be dismi.ssed ten to fifteen nunufes earlier than men at night and come later in the morning, so they nuiy find .seats in the street ears. Some shojw also give morning and afternoon recess of ten minutes for relaxation. Shops emi)Ioying women should have a rest room with comfortable chairs and lounges, and large works often have a regular nurse in attendance. This room should contain a case of nu'dicines, jjjusters, bandages and other things needful in emergencies, and arrangements should be made with i)hysicians that one will always l)e within immediate reach. Foremen .should be instructed in inethod.s of rendering aid hi case of accident. The shop slumld occasionally be vi.sited by the company's oculist, to .serve any who nuiy need attention. Pleasant Surroundings.— Next to healthful coiulitions, pleasai. surroundings are perhaps the mo.st attractive. The large facilities in this direction are offered in suburban districts, wherr- enough land is obtaimible for a lawn or park. In laiidscape gardening, large grass areas should renuiin unbroken, and shrubbery and flowers concentrated in nuisses. A pond or lagoon adds beauty by its contrast. The roofs of nudti-story shops, which are usually neglected, may ])e turr-d into a roof garden or promeiuide, and i)artly coven-d with canvas awnings. The building interior may be i)ainted in pleasing colors, light green or brown being suitable for the walls, with a dado of darker shade, and cream or some warmer tint for the ceiling. White wash for this purpose is no longer favored. A limited number of mottoes or pictures on the walls are appropriate to relieve their monotony, and these may occasionally be changed or rearranged. Machinery which is enameled, or painted a nickel color, allds "mfm^T^^ms^^MmsfaBm^i^tm^^'^^m^'^^^. T^^0 WEL FA UK FEA T UKES 3(11 greatly to the nppparunce and clpanllnofls i)f the shop, for wlicu it is soiloil it can easily bo washed off apiiii. In . ., j pounds Fig. 175. — Metal covcre(, .1 framed bui.'ling. per s(|uarc foot, and ar»> o.>spe<-illy designed for export to warm climates, but are also suitii-.le lor other places where they are for 8ht«lter and er ...urf^ only .. A not for supporting cranes, ma- chinery, or hea ^jud.s. \eiitilators may he included or omitted as desired. The tables refer to the framing only, and do not in- clude windows, doors, corrugated iron, louvers, or other sheet metal, nor do they include the foundations. Because of the light loads for which the framing is proportioned, they are suitable only for light covering such as corrugated iron, and not for heavy plank sheathing. As ocean freight rates depend both on the weight and spaco occupied in the ve.s.sel, space is left in the tables for both kinds of data, though in many places the columns are left blank, to be filled out by the user to r .it local conditions and current prices. 365 Tvjwv5^..;gfrr»'£.^^ 366 ENGINEERING OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES I! i' TABLE Material fob Bdildino 30*0" widb HeiKhtH U.iof Side truaaet) i columns End columns Knee braces Roof 8ide purlins purlins Purlin finish angles See l<2JX2XAi (each) : 2 <8 i 21X2XJ 3X2XJ i < :i ■ 2 ■: 1 1 G" 1 •• 1 <« , :t\2xl ■• 2 < 25X2X1 1-7' I IS" 1 H! 21 12'()" 1 < :i - 2 X J 1-7" ] !t.7.-> 1 .V I Matkimai, Fon Hrii.nisii ."lO' 0" .'i 2 X ,', "i" l-O.') .•ix2xl :!x2X} 1 < :^^2xi 22 ll'if " 1 7"1 !l.7.-. 1 I'.' I " 1 < 2 iN<; "la' 0" 2"I 2 18'0" . 1-7' I .. 1 .. , ., 1 ., 45 ; 20*0" 1-8" I Purlin finish angles STANDARD BUILDINGS 371 XXX. — Continued \ViDEX6i' 0" LoNQ. 16 rr. Panels Purlin tiex , Purlin clips < 3 x 1! X J ICavesirut at ends Ilmring j l)etwi't'n I rafters 1"0 rods Ivong'l bruclTia; Long'I struu Bracing on tie beams End purlins Knd raften |"0 1 2 iU ^"'" "^ ' I rar,r '■"»•"'« »-<« , Z:i P-li... ranrr. l^nnN jt^X^Xl 3X2xi r'Or.Hl« T'O r.Hl.s j a" .lift. | aj X21 X J :ij X2J X 1 1-fl" } 8 lb. Wide X 72' 0" Lo.va. 18 rr. Paneus ■ < I 2 * Em Es. £ & I I \ -'. 1 i IJ i '- I : - ! • • : § '3 '3 if" 3 2-3 1 U -4 1^ f 1 M ^ M : 1 i'M ^ 1 * £ ■c 1 « 1 £ ? • i S n * 1 ii I'm 1 " -.-,- - : ::::!: : : : : ! : :■ :l : ; 1 : ' : ■ i ■ sis => * s IS « s 10 ? :JN ■ s •0 ^ s 3 S s g E|g 380 EXGINEERIXG OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES TABLE XXXVI Ends of Buildings. Diaqrams shcwinq General Cons-truc+ion, Pitc/J, e"fo IB'. The Sketches shown are for a Heiqhf of ZO' to lave Line. For Heights of lb ' and under, use one less Line of Purlins than shown on Sketches. ff\ Aw'AnV^ k ^i^) -\ / "k '■ v ^\ / K r^ \ ^ / \ / \ Tor Spans up to 30'0" Tor Spans to 70 '0. Tor 5pan& up to 50'0 For Spans up to SO'O" STANDARD BUILDINGS 381 J o M O Q 3 n o ■« a S te 'S (S S c a. 'S E - -' ^1 £ 2 if - " S o i 3 ^ O I C — — i .5 -O TS 3 ■«! •< e is s 'I r w , 1- o ^ s • !^ Cl tc 36 c» 1 s g •c ■s II a o ■n 382 ESaiSKERISa OF SHOPS AND FACTORIES 7J ss ! z z 2 >< • £ ^ f- _; cS* S f i^'' fe §-? CO a is &•" ""S 1 ■en 5 ■|.P hi4 > l^£ '^ s^^ >i .S' £ X ig* w L. J >J S-3» < H ■^^^ '^-n-n OTJ-O s« la •fli d 9 2~ iis a^ 1^ sf-B s I i^ <•• .< 1 h- n S 9. — — 1 § > T "" s £ •s ? S ■^ s o 2 8 ^ M 1 r. .:3 c L. = 0. •a: 5 i S 1^ 1 a .= •= a. T. -^ "f ^ ft< ! ■/: S TA NBA RD B UILDINGS 383 « 3 » * llll S - M M 1 ft.o.S " .9 M M J3 S C.S I .H .S .2 g _ M M M e g .a ,c a .2 u C K S & s li 11 ^ -3 -9 i « 01 « V e e s S 0^ S 2 JJ § £ £ £ C 0) V Q^ .O J3 J3 jO : "? '5 .£ S; ) 3 3 * S B K « 10 n i £ £x t ; .e .fi 'S •8 ! si 1 ^ 1 o >o e i ? 1 i 3 "l § S « P4 1 1 1 S £ -; -i — : — : — : — : ~ : 1 i s 1 i — ; — .- -: '■ : • • -: -; — ; — : -: • --■--• -a is o o « S? 1^ M ffj « -w ? S S K I- •* -r •»■ O ] i S i : : : £.1 : : : li S £ ll -: — f — : N n ■* S ?? 2? £ : : ; 1 : : : : : ' : ^^ 1 1 i i § ^ M M 1 g R ? i 1 1 j i i 1 ^ s? s S S 3 s s 1 i ^m 384 i':\<:[\i:i':iifS'G of si/ops asd factories c 0. i S S ■<: 1 J: -^ < u< ^ 5 il / — a = y. 's. c - 5 X y X i^ - t - X is ."B* "' ^ H ^ ^ M Z; ^ -."Mr ■I ffl i •? i 1- , .. i - I - i . I : \ I I I I STANDARD BUILDISGS 385 T\ni.i: \i, Dcliiils anil Wcitjlil-i of ('(;nn('c(i()iis for l5iai'iii(j bftvvwm Trusses at Tie IJcains, and Posts to Tii- H<'anis. Noti\ — Tlic ^V('i^llls jiivcn ini'lud" only tlic Wi'ij;lits of Material for whicli .sizes arc uiven in the Details, and the Measurements, etc., for the same. 5f « Cf:pral of Tie Beam \L.3,UH \/pi.af.^'iiiJi' Connecfion for Bracing between Tie Beams fv Inter Posts of Ind Framt Weight- of One . 3C /*s *J iSAleighf oi^' iJ ^5//•.■5. »? / IT ^/^ Yteighf of One ■= 25 !b$. ^■Purlin Connecfion fa Posts of *!?, Latticeal, af Corner of £nd Frame. Weight of One • SI lbs. Z,?;5J|x:^'J PI.3. ^r^^ Connection for Bracirg between Tie Beams to Corner Po^ts of' End Frames if Posts are I Beams . Weight of One = /3 lbs. 9.9. 6% Connected to Inter. Posts of End Frame where a Lifti-.c.i ^\ . Strut extends across the End/y' ZDc;:: PQliqV--' ii_ d'pf' ^ at Eaves. r '!ight of One • n lbs c ** Urff:tr.i |0:«>iOi i««l fff 25 38G A im:i:i{L\'g of shops axd factories -a •I B '/3 C c <; — "* -^ ■■ V V V 1 ^ X X X •I X CI X CI X CI T^ m V -- V V I,^ -»* ^ X X X ; Lp» ; ?i CI Ti X X X rt 'ci n V 9i V BO V ^ X .*> ^ X CI « X X * n .«• BD ao V V ■^ T ; X 5 ■«« CI X X CI X 1„ n n n V V ^ 'p :i V STANDARD BUILDINGS 387 I » 1 ■s o 0. o te 1 ?, =;. CI :: .2 ■J a X V V V V ^« V ?! X ^5 V -r 1 X ?i X V -r 1 e 1 X X n V T 1 X X « V > > \ • M 1 > > c 1 (. >' > 38S KSGlM'JhlilXd OF SHOPS AM) FACTORIES T. -5 » — IIS Z .= 2 sr — - 3 = t r " <^ ■6 i = '3 -■m^ian- ■>>' z s 3 - 2 i K V ^ ^i < c 3 S ■«« X X A rr . ^ X . ■ X i X ; ; X ^i '• =•* ; n • CI i 1 »- r ' bt 1 I « I 1-1 •*•"!• ye c X - ■«* X tc < c < ■ o niBLKHiRAPHY 389 BIBLlOGltU'IIY TrMtisM. (:nif<)n;il)lp Shops. /)■../( A'je, Nov. H, KWMt. ('oni|>iirutive ('out of WikkI- and Stccl- friinic Fiictory HuildiiiKH H. (i. Tykkell. Unilroad Giizelte, Oct. 1!M)4. Carprritrij and Building, Nov., liJO.'j. Compiirative Cost of \Von. American Machinist, Oct. 20, 1911. Foundry Design .■ (i. K. Hooi-eb. Iron Aye Jan. 5-12, 1911. Foundry Design J. IIouneh. Engineering, Jan. 21, 1910. Gary, Indiana, Steel Plant. Eny ering Record, Oct. 9, 1909. Gateshead, England, Tlie Northwestern Iliiiiwuy Works. Engineering, London, Dec. 18, 1896 (Jlajsgow, Works of Sir William Anol & Co. Engineering, London, May 18, 1900. Higher Law in the Industrial World 11. F. J. Porter. Engineering Magazine, .Vugust, l'.M)5. Ilunslet, Leeds, Worka of Graham, .M rton & Co. Iron and Coal Trade Review, March 18, 1904. Ideal Blacksmith Shop A. W. McCaslin. Railway Master Mechanic, Xov., 1904. Impressions of American Workshops A. J. Gimson. Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Jan. 20, 1905. Industrial Works Gibson. Mechanical Engineer, July 30, 1909. Iron .Mill Buildings J. W. Seaver. Transactions, Engineer's Society of Western Pennsylvania, 1892. Lajnng Out of Workshops Joseph Hokner. Pages Magazine, March, 1903. Lighting of Shops II. C. Spillman. Electrical World, Feb. 23, 1011. Machine Foundations. Mechanicnl World, Jan. 22, 1909. :W2 h:\(;iM:i:iii.\a or snoi's .i.\7> FAcrouirs Mucliino Shop MarmgcnK nf H. |'. i„ om i 1 1. Ilnijinnrimj Mmjiuine, Jan. to Aug., 18i?<>. Macliini' Shop Hoof* j. j.; Swkkt. t'dn.sur's Miujtueinf, Aug., 1003. Market Uuil.litigs n. (). Tvhhki.i,. .\riliiti it' n mid Huildirx Mttijiizim , July, l!M)l. Mill unci Shop CotiNtrurtioii Hi hk K. Fikld. Connecticut Association of Civil KriKineers, 1894. Mill IJuildinRs A Di^cu.Nsiim \i.iiKiii Smith. Jiiurnut Wmlirn Smiil;/ of h.'ntjiiiiirx, Fi-h., lltll. Mill Huililiiig CoiLffrufiioii (i. H. Ill Triii\.s<)N. IJiKiiKcr's Society of WcM.rii reiui.'.ylvnniu, Oet., 1S1)2. Modern .Miiehine Works of LiMwe & Co., Herliii. Ziitch. d. V. Dculchir Ing., Sept. :«), 18!»9. Modern .Mucliiiie Shop at I'raKue J'hof. T. DKMrTll. Zvih-h. D. V. Diiiturh r Imj., Oct. 23, 18!)7. Motiern .Machine Shop in Prussia K. .Vmikhtj*. Sidlil uiid EiKin, Sept. 1, 1!M)1. Modern .Machine Shop Location 1[. L. .Vu.voi.n. FJn;ist.T Works, Dayton, Ohio. .V Keries. Aniiriiiin Miuhinixl, .March 2."!, l,Sit7. Oniiya Shops of tlie .Nijipnii Haihvay of "'"I'-'*" " . . W. C. Tvi.f:!!. liiiilwaii and /unjiniiriny Jirrinr, Oct. I, !,>>'.»!. Operation of HiinRarian Itailuay Work- "''"P** HroMi.K S.\,:t:u. (llaser's Annakn, Feb. 1, 1. Pavements h. (j, Tyukell. Canadian Kntjiimr, I'eh., 1002. Pcncoyd Iron Works— .V .Serial. Amirican Machinist, Juno 2.j, 190.3. I'hotograpliy for tlie Shop. American Society of .Meelianical Engineers, \;>v., 1909. Planning of Factory HiiildinKM Hioo Dikmku. Knijintiriiiij MayiKinr, .Varch 2\, 1!M»4. Planning of In.histrial Muildings II. F. Sti.mpsox Eni/innriny litrord, .May 29, 1909. Progress in the Design of Roofs since 18,>0. Ewixa Matheson. Knginrmmj, London, Jan. 9, 190.3. Railroad Shops Waltek (J. Hero. Railroad (In:, tic, .Marcli 13, 1903. Railroad Shops and their Fiiuipnient. Irnu and Co'd Tradi: R: riru-, Aj-ri!, 10, 1890. I{jiihvay Shops R. H. Soule. American Lngintir and Railway Jovr., Feb., 1903. IA> I! liinUCM.ftAPIlY .m3 RoofinK ExistitiR Hhops R. H. Fowi.km. IriHtitiit ,•( Mirliiiiiicnl Kiigiii<-< 't, July, I'HKJ. UH. Anu'rican Sooicty of Moclianical Kngiiiccrs, July, lOl(>. Sclienectatly Hhopn of tlio (Jt-ncral Klcolrif Co S. I). V. HtHH. Iron Age. Jan. 4, IIHK). Shipping Directions for Structural .Steel II. (J. Tykkei-L. Iron Age, April 25, 1<.M)1. Shop Cranes " " Iron Age, Jan. 19, 19()5. Shop Conntruction (Wau K. rr.itniao. Machinery, C)ct.-\ov., UH)2. Shop DcHi|;n . " " Iron Trade Review, Dec. 29, 1910. Shoj) KstheticH l{. L. Twkedy. Amvrieaii Architect, June 14, 1011. Sonic Features of McMlern Shops S. T. 1'hkkland. American Machinint, Nov. 2('>, IXOCi. Steam lOngineering Plant at New York .Navy Vard ( . H. Matthews. Jour. An- riea'i S'>riili) of \aval Knginei rx, .Nov., liKtl. Stit'l liuililings for ICxport II. CJ. TYimELL. Engineering Sews, April 11, 1abor Cakwoll T. Fugitt. Cassiers Magazine, Sept., 1905. United Shoe Machinery Shops ut Beverly, Mass. Engineering Record, April, 1905. Ventilation of Shops. Practical Engineer, Jane 24, 1910. Warehouses and Factories in Architecture. Russell Stdrois. Architectural Record, Jan., 1904. Weight of Steel Hoof Trusses H. G. Tyhhell. Engineering News, June, 1900. i I j; i , j T il' 31)1 ESUISEKRING OF SHOPS A\D FACTORIES \Voig}it of Trusses and Girders for All Spans and Lv)a(ls II. G. Tykkei.l. KngiiDiring, London, July 25, 11I02. Workman's Dwellings at the Krupp Steel Works. aiuckauf, May 29, 1S97. Works Design as a Factor in Manufacturing Economy Henky Hess. Engineering Miigmine, July, 1904. Workshops of Modern Type A. I'hint.i.e. Cauudiun Society of Civil Engineers, Dec, 1903. i i 1 ! INDEX i 1 A Cement concrete floors, 163 l)roduction of the United States, Acid -'i'l ; )l coil" ii'ti- surfiicos, 103 ViH Charges of consulting engineers, 5, 0, Aillu'sion of concrete, 111 7, 8 Air (listriljution, system of, 2153 (Chimneys, 310 economizers, 237 City location for plants, 12 f;nipliy of factory ImihlinRs, of wood, concrete and steel, 147 3,S<) of wood and concrete, 149 Hlue printing, 20.") Concrete beams, 117-118 Hoarding, tliickness ami span, 200 design of, 120 Jirick ardi floors, 170 buihlings, cost of, 140 floors, 109 construction, advantages of, lluckeye floor, 174 103 Huilding frames, stress in, 48 disadvantages of, 104 lot, selection of, 10 coal and ash pockets, 224 materials, kinds of. .52 floors, beam and slab type, 179 l)lans, by whom made, 1 framing, 102 tyi)es, selection of, .'>2 materials, 100 Hunkers, .suspen.sion, 221 roofs, 201 surface, treatment of, 127 C surface removal, 131 upper floors, 178 Canadian Xorthern shops, 29 Construction, 354 Cantilever cranes, 334 C'ontracts, 355 ! Car houses, 212 between engineer and owner, j shops, 212 10-1 1 1 Ceiling, value of light ones, 270 Consulting engineers, charges of, 5 | (filings, flat or riblied, 184 Co-oj)eration of different shops, 35 j 395 il 1 ;{tt(i IXDKX ("ost charts for shops, OS-70 estiinutcs, ',i2 estimate for stnu'tiiral plant, ;17 nuxiiiicalion of, io suit location, VIII of heating, I'liS of land anil area rc<[uired, 14 of light ing. 2''.i of steel buildings, 99 Cotton mills, 214 Crane girders, lateral stiffness of, 50 specifieations, .'528 Cranes, H27 D Departments, arrangement of. 27 for fire protection, ;i2() Depreciation, .")4 Design of ooncrele buildings, KKS Direct radiation, 2:il District, selection of, 12 Doors, 107 Domes, framing of, MO D.irfting ofhce, 2();5 Draimige of liuilding- JSl of industrial works. 2SI of i)lants. 2,St( Drawings for buildings, 12 Dust formation on lloors, Ki" E Karth floors, lo8 Economics of factory construction, 18 I'.liminator, action of, 253 con.struction of, 2,")2 Ends of buildings, arrangement of framing, .'{SO Engine foundations, 157 houses, circular and rectangular, 208 Engineers and their services, 1 Engineering .service, cost of, 4 Engineers' Club of St. Loui.s, .schedule of charges, (i Erection ' concrete buildings, 124 tools and niachinerj", 39 Esthetic treatment, 44 Estimating, 330 Ivstiinates and tenders, 354 E.s.sentials of good framing, 53 Exhaust steam heating. 237 l-.xpansion, provision for, 27 ]v\tension of plant, 30 Eactorj' lighting. 257 an example, 275 Fan system for heating, 229 Fire drill, 325 extinguishers, 323 Fireproofing ' structural concrete, 110 Fireproof material, 320 Fire protection, 319 sj-stems, 321 streams, 314 Flat slab floors, 183 slal)S, .strenjjth of, 185 Floors, area and elevation of, 24 asplialt, 108 brick, 109 arch, 170 cement concrete, l(i3 concrete upper, 178 earth, 1.58 flat slab type, 183 granolithic, 100 metal arch, 175 plate, 170 trough. 176 plank, 159 recommended tyiies, 170 slow burning, 172 tar concrete, 102 wood block, 159 loads, 47 Ford Motor Works, 24 Forge shops, 200 I'^ormuia" for concrete floors, 182 Foundations, 152 walls. 154 Foundries, 207 Friction of wat«r in pipes, 315 INDEX 397 G (inl)les, out' or two, .")0 (ioiienil (losigii of ImildiiiKs, 42 (■rade of lot, 17-U5 (ira'' " io floors, Kift (irouiiti noors, 158 (irowth of plimts, VII H Hair cracks on concrete, 125 Ileulth coniUtions in factories, :t51) Heating, 229 l)y Hoor radiation, 2 44 Heat losses, 2:«) Hoisting towers, 220 Horse-power to raise water, ',iV\ Illumination, importance of, 2(10 of vertical surfaces. 2r>,S Industrial engineers, VII qualifications of, 4 Inspection for fire risk, 323 Insurance, 54 K Knee braces, 49 Location of factories, .34 Long span roofs, 92 M Machines, arrangement of, 22 schedule of, 21 Machine shops, 20<) Machinery connection to concrete floors, 121 Manufacturing di.strict, selection of, 12 city or suburb, 12 Market buildings, 00 for manufactured products, 10 Material benefits for employees, 3<)1 and mixing for concrete, 100 Metal arch floors, 175 framing, 71 trough floors, 170 Method of construction for buildings, 37 Methods of management, 20 of manufacture, l.H Monitors, longitudinal and trans- verse compared, 57 Monitor framing, estimate for, 375 Monolithic and sei)arately moulded members, 114 Motors for yard haulage, 333 Multiplex floors, 175 L N Labor supply and wages, 15 Lamps, height of, 20.5-2()7 number of per unit of lloor area, 205 selection of, 2()5 Lighting as related to effective man- agement, 259 drawings, "271 glare in, 264 overhead method of, 203 rcfpiirements, 201 units, candle-power of, 258 Loads on foundations, 152 Loading apparatus, 334 facilities, 39 Nailed joints, value of, 04 National Cash Hegi.ster Works, 13 Portland Cement Co. Plant, 29 North light roofs, 58 O O.scillation of biiildings, 53 Painting concrete, 129 Paint shops, heating of, 241 Paper mills, heating of, 241 Partitions, 194 39S IXDKX 11 i' IMidtdprapliy, tisp of, 43-20.") Picking cdticrcto siirfacr^. l.'{."> ri(r>, l.-)t I'ilis l.-)t( I'ipi's, carryiiij; capacity of, L'l" I'its ill eiiRiiic luni.-cs, L'll riaiik floors. l.V.) safe load on, 172 Plant location. Mil I'lastcrinR c lirai "s, cstiniatcs for, ;{7ti Power, :!(• houses. 214 nearness to source of. \'< Preliminary design for strrtural l)lant. :U Prejiaration of concrete surface-, I.'il Preparatory desijrn of plant, .'iO PrcMTvation of metal, 71 Profit on investment. 41 Pumps. cai)acity of. 812 liafler hracinjr. estimates for. ;i.^;i It.aw materials. ;ieariiess to, l.'i liecreatiori, provision for. :i(i2 lieinforced concrete frames ^\itll hrick walls. .52 lieinforcinR l>ars. 107 Itetloctors for illumination, 2(10 Kepairins pranolithic floors, ICS Hoof outlines. 5,", purlins, estimates for, .'{78 truss cocflicients, 48 trusses, ostinuites for, 374 Hoofs nnd roofinfj, 109 Hound hou.ses, 207 house heatinfc. 2.39 Jiuhliing concrete surfaces, 13.5 S Sand blasting, 133 Scope of plants, .3(i Scrulihing concrete surfaces. 135 Separately moulded menilfors, 14.-) Sewage, conservation of, 294 disjiosal of. 294 Sewers, flushing of, 292 ventilation of, 290 Shafting attachments to concrete beams, 123 Sheet Jiiling, 157 Shingles, concrete, 201 Shijipiug facilities, 15-25 Shower baths. 285 Side ])osts, size of material for, ,38(5 Similar i)lants to the iirojMi.sed one, particulars of, 20 Size of lot, 34 Social relations for factory cm- I)loyees, 357 Soil, area on, 1.53 Soils, bearing power of, 1,52 Slow burning or mill construction, ,52 Specifi<'ations, 51 Spiral reinforcing for concrete col- umns, 1 1() Spray diambers for air wa.sliing, 253 Stanilard building table.', 3(i4 Stand pijics, ,308 Statistics of indu.strics, VIII Steam heating. 213 Steel frame buildings, cost of, 98 with brick walls. 52 Steiihen.son'.s experiments for wind pressure, 45 Stirrups for concrete l)eam.s, 120 Storage pockets. 219 tanks, 297 Storing and receiving sjiace, 2.5 Stres.s analy.sis in building frames, 48 Suburi)an districts, advantages of, 13 Superintendence. 3,50 Surface coating of concrete, 128 defects of concrete, 12.5 finish of concrete. 125 removal on concrete, 131 Surroundings of plant, .300 Switches for lighting, 271 1 INDEX 309 T Veneering concrete surfaces, 130 Vibration of buildings, 53 Tanks, 207 ciipacity of, ;U1 W .standard dinicnsion.s of, SIO Tar concrete floors, 102 Walls, 188 Tee l)euins, 118 Wall purlin.s, size of, 388 Textile mills, heating of, 240 Waste heat, utilization of, 236 Theory, applied to concrete build "g. Waterjjroofing concrete, 123 109 Water supply, 17-297 Tie U'am bracing, 384 towers, 208 Tile, concrete, 201 Weight of galvanized iron i>ii)es, 2)5 Tooling concrete, IIW of steel frames for multi-story Track arrangement in yards, '.VM buildings. 100 Train she7 Winnipeg .shops of the Canadian lighting system, 274 Northern Ky, 28-20, 213 Turntables, 210 Woo