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UISTOUY

OF TUB

llEYOLUTIOXS IX CL'r^Cl'^-

rnoM

THE 9UUVEKHION Ol

. t«- III • V r' -ir TO 'VilB

(.ONIIUDSS or Vir.NNA,

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TO NVinCli IS AI.llKD

IRA^CE

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WITH A coyriir.wr.sbivK a>'..u> M

iCE. rtAU, AM. TIIKOKMAS STATES IN

prnLisHi^n nv ei^vin iu:nt.

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I'.N IKl.i;!'.

i„ „,e CU.,Vs Oin.... of rU^UM Lr^(:n <'w- I'is'r.c. .>f Conn..Mic-u..

. ~i^w^»w^J t M iity afe&>Ragft^£'^'g^"'y

[UlL'l'licllt.

.jS

CONTENTS.

ftp.

Publisher's Notice, 5

Author's Preface, 7

Life of Koch, 13

CHAPTER I.
Introduction, 17

CHAPER II— PERIOD I.

From the invasion of tlie lloinan Empire in the Weal, by the Bar-
barians, to the time of Charlemagne, A. 1). 400 — 800, ■ • . 41

CHAPTER III.— PERIOD II.
FromCharlemagne toOito the Great, A. D. 800— 962, . ... 63

CHAPTER IV.— PERIOD HI.
From Otto the Great to Gregory the Great, A. D. 9G2— 1074, . . 79

CHAPTER v.— PERIOD IV.
From Pope Gregory VIII. to Uoniface VIII., A. D. 1074—1300, 101

CHAPTER VI.— PERIOD V.

From Pope Boniface VIII. to the taking of Constantinople by the
Turks, A. U. 1300—1453, 165

CHAPTER Vll— PERIOD VI.

From the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, to the peace of
Westphalia, A. D., 1453—1648 207

;. '

! *

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CONTENTS.
CllAPTKIl VIII.-I'KUIOU Vll.

From tlio rc;ice ..f Wes<li)lmliii to tliiil
1018—1713

lirccht, A 1).,

281

niAPTKll IX-l'KIUOl) Vlll.

From tl.c Peace of Tirccht i.. tin; Frennh Revolution, A. D., 1713
-178',t ■ • ■ • ^'^'^

CIIAI'TKU X -PERIOD IX.
From tl.o comm.-ncom.Mil of the Frcncl. Hcvoli.tion to the downfall
of UuoiwparU', A. 1)., 1789-1815,

CIIAPTKR XI;
The Military Predominance of France, under the sway of Napo-
leon Huonaparle, A. D. 180d— 1810,

CIIAPTKR XII;
The decline and downfall of tlic i:m\nrc of Huonaparle, A. D.,
1810—1815, ■ •

APPKNDIX;
France from the second Restoration of the Hourbons, A. I)., 1815,
including' the Revolution of July, 1830, to the Revolution of
February, 1818, .

Revolution in Uelgium, A. I). 1830, .

Rev(dulion in Poland, A. D. 1830,

Revolutiou in OreiTC, A. 1) 18ei— 18a7,

War between Ru.ssia and Turkey, A. D- 18-28—1829, . .

England, from A. D. 1810 to A, 1). 1848

FrcnchRevolutiouof February, 1818,

Revolutions in (Jermany, A- I) 1848, ....••••

Revolutions in Italy, A- D. 1848,

418

476

530

r,81
, 607
. 008
. 619
. 638
. 642
. 661
. 698
. 710

.«««i»et<N*S**SS9»'*

'Sr

1),

, . 281

1713

335

niall

418

iJapo-

476

.. D.,
. . 530

, 1815,

.ion of

. 581
. 607
. 608
. 619
. 638
. 642
. 661
. 698
. 710

PUBLISHER'S NOTICE

I'm; FuUlislKM-oI'llie prcst'iit oditioii of Koch's Revolutions,
lias hoeii iiiduct'd to pri'pare this work for j)ul)liciilion on account
ol' the very lii<rli reputnuon which it hiis in lluropo, and its
giMicr.'d adoptMii tluic in [.itrniry Institiilions, as the ontHnc of
instruction in ihc portion of History wliich it embraces. Its
high merit would no doul't have obtained for it an earlier re])rint
from the American press, but for the errors with which tlic
KiiKliah translation abounds. These defects, it is hoped, will
not be found in the present edition, which has been revised by
a gentleman who has endeavored not only to correct the faults
of language, but also to strike i'roin its pages all expressions of
principles inconsistent with iho liberal spirit of philosophical
I. 'story.

A practical acquaintance with the work as a Manual of His-
tori/, has convinced this gentleman of its admirable adaptation to
this purpose, and enabled him to recommend it for its fidelity,
impartiality, conciseness, clear argument, enlightened spirit, and
learned research. Omitting no important event, and dwelling
very fully upon those which have had great influence in pro-
ducing ilie permanent changes which liie civilized world has

h •

TzriJ

„„aov,on.- in .1... 1:... ntt-" '-""i-. " ->■ "'""■'^' '•'"""• ''"

U.inks. .1... uni-.a aav:.n.:.u.s ol . .onMUMuliou^ u.ul an .labor.,..

IHstorv.

1„ ;,nU.r iu>rr....lv ... .l.-i., .1,. wo.k to th. present nmc, a

.ketch of the Revolutions w. France. IJel.i.nn. I'ohn-l. .u,l
Greece, winch ..ccnrrcl in IBIU) ; also u narm.ive ol the recent
events ir. (ireut Britain, of .he French Uevolmion of February,
18.18. and the Revolutions which have recently occurred tn (ler-
.nany and Italv, have been pr-.pred with nnu-h labor and care,
and added to ."he iH...sent edition, n.akiuK it .he u,os. complete
historical work on Modern Europe ye, olFered .o the pnid.c.
In fnll conf.dence that i, will be ionnd deservin, o, the h.,h

Character it has ..stained a.,r 1. as a valuable and nd.hihl

t ,uide .o a knowledge of the History of Modern Ih-rope .t .s
I Lv ollered to the patronage of the friends of Uselul Knowledge,

j ^y THE AMERICAN ['UlU-ISHER.

^.,.^-,(.s^:^»^^ss^>^Tmfx^

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• rri'i'llt
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iiil euro,
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till' hijj[h (
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)l)t' it is
owledge,

AUTIIUK'S I'RKFAOE.

Tin; workliiTi' pri'sfiiti'.i to tin; public, is ii siiinniary of itii! Uevo-
luiioiis. biiili iriMicrul iiiid pm-tiriiiiir, wliii'li hiivi;liiip|K!m'il in Hurope
siiitf 111.' I'xiiiirti.iii ol' till! Uoriiiui Kiiipire. in thi; (iitli ci'iitiiry. Ai
an I'li'iucniary book, it will he tbiinil iisfrnl to tlioHe who wi.sli to have
a coiii'iM.' iuul yi-ncnil view of tin; Biicrestiivi; rcvolutioiw that liiivo
clmnirud the iiHpci't of Htalcrt uiiil kiiiifiloniH, ami givtiii birtli to tho
existing policy anil establiHlied onlL'i- of society in modern times.

Without sonic pi-eliniinary acfiuaintance with the annals of these
rcvoliitiiiii,s. wi', can nriiliiT study tlie history of our own country to
[uivaiitayi;, nor appreciute the influence which the iliU'cri'iit states,
formed from tho wreck of the ancient Homan Empire, reciprocally
exercised on each other. Allied, ai it were, by the geographical po-
sition of their territories), by a conformity in their religion, language,
and manners, these states contracted new attachments in the ties of
mutual interests, wliich the progress of civilization, commerce, and
industry, tended more and more to cement and confirm. Many of
them, whom fortune had elevated to the summit of jiower and pros-
perity, carried their laws, their arts and institutions, both civil and
military, far bi'yond the limits of their own dominions. The exten-
sive sway wiiich the Homisli liii'rarchy held fiir nearly a tiiousand
years over the greater part of the European kingdoms, is well known
to every reader of history.

This continuity of intercourse and relationship among the powers
of Europe, became the means of forming them into a kind of repub-

! j-,t

im?^sm0^-

St»»i«*s*

VIU

rRKFACK

limn Ry«trm ; it frnvr l.irth to a .mli-mal l:.w mul ronvrnt.otnl r.u'htn,
,;„„„,.,, ,.„ tlu, MK.vnm...l of tn.ituv, .U..1 ^\n• nH,.,r.-H ..f nmm..m
|mu:tuu, A ImMiil'lf I'liuilutioi. Hpr.intf up ainniiu cc.iit.'inii.ir.ii-y
sUituH. Tlu'irjruloUKU-,.. m..l .•v.n tlinr c.m.p.'titionM sin.l .livi.ioi.M,
coMtril.utnl to ih.. progroHHof r.ivili/.ution. a.ul tlu- atlMiunuMU of tlwil
l.ijjh HUilo of pr,i;...-tmi. K. wl.id. 111! luimiu. h.m.mu'cn a.ul iuHtilutioim
have bci'ii riirrif-l l.y tlio iiatioiiH of modi-in Kiiropi'.

It \h tli.-HC poliliral coniuTti-mH. this ivrii.n.ral ii.liw.'iu f ItintV

.lon.s a.Ml tiM.ir nvolutionn, a.ul e.pccMally tl.c vuri.-ti..« of system
wliici. Europe i.a. experieiu-ea in the lap.c of ko ...any a-c., tluit
rcpiire to i.e .ievlop.-.l i.. .i ^."^^''1 vi>w- ^"'^l' '"^ ^'"'^ ^^'^"•'' l"""'
fcKses lo be the objuct of llif present woi'U.

The author ha« here ren.odeie.i hi. '• Views of the llevoh.tior.H of
the Middle Ajres," (pubiishtHl i.. 1T'.«).) a..d exten.U.d or abridired
the dilVerent periods aerordinir t.. ci.ru,n.lanc..s. In .•ontinnin- th.s
work .lown to the i-resent tinie, he ha. dee.ned neressary to .■oneludo
nt the Kre.>eh Uevolution, as the numerouB results ..f that -real
event .ire too mui'l. i..volved in unreitai-My t,. be dearly or nnpar-
! tiully exhibited by eonlcmiwrary writers.*

The work Ib divided into el-hl periods of tia.e.t ..erordn.- w.th
the pri..ripal revoh.tio... which have changed, in suceessio.., the !«-
litical state of Kurope. At the head of e.ich pe.-iod. is placed e.ther
the desi.r,>alion of it« p.uticuhK revolutio.., or that ol" .!..• power or
empire which held the .isce.ubvney .it the ti..u.. In linnt..,fr h.s
treatise solely to hia IlevoUuio..s of Europe, the writer h.is not
touched upon thoBe of Asi.i .md the E.ist, exe.ept i.. bo Tar us they
have had immediate i..flae,u^e o., the destinies of Europe. Coti-
sciouB also that the distingui.hing ch.iracteristic of an luBtor...n is
veracity, and that the tcBti.nony of a writer who ha. not In.nself
been an eye-witnesB of the events he record., cannot be .el.ed on

* ,n ,. cmion nf 1=^. iron, which .he P--"';--;"'';'^ V^ib^r'^ir'''''"' '"

bee,. c,.n.,„n„l by Ih. r..h.ur. M Srha-ll. d„wn ... ,he a«h .,f N..v. n.b.r, 181...

t Nine ni the last e.lilic.i.R. i».h..h>iL' th.' oomiH.iation.

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rial.l<. iwl.Mpfriiin^r, with mtuimiIuuh rarr, il.,. prinripal luilhnrities
Hii.l vi.ii.-hir. „|- ,arh |m iiud aii.l country that Imvi' jruidr.l him
during hi« ri-HiMircheH, in Htdertin^ and .■x;ll^illirl^f hin nrntcriiilM by
tlin lorrh (.r pati.'iit (TiticiMi,,. VVilh.)iit thi« lahor iind preoaution,
the iv.)rl< W(Miid h.ive hiii ti of no avail as an rlrairntary hrip I., thnso
who were dcwiroiiH of iic.cpiirinjr a more minute and Hohd knowledge
of hiritory.

A« a uxrt'iil and Huhniiliary accoinpiininient, an Intrnilnction hni
been prrfixc.l ia wlii.di are i;iven some i,'.'neral remarkH on history
and «oo),'rapliy, sin also on jreiualorry and chronolutry. whi.di may be
Peifaril.d an auxiliary «ci..nceK. Tlic^r preliminary notices are fol-
lowed l.y a short outline of icnt history, down to the time of (he

lliirhurian invaKioii in the fifth ci'ntury. With this grand ern the
prrHcnt worli j.roperly eorinm-nces, when a new scries of king-
domsand governmenU) njiiung up in Eurojie.

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LIFE OF KOCH.

Christophkr William Koch, oqiiallv distinguished as a
lawyer and a Iparncd liisi(,ritin, was l.oni on the 9tli of Ma" 17;{7
at liduxwill.T, a .-iiii.ll town in the -tinniory of Lichtenberff in
Als;(«-, wiiicii then belonocd to the Prii.co of Hesse-Darmstadt.
His father, who was a ninnher of the Chamber of Finance
under that prince, sent him to an excellent school in his native
place, where he received liie rudiments of iiis education. At
the ajre of thirteen, he went to the Protectant University of
Strashourt,', where lie prosecuted his studies under the celebrated
Schtrpdm. Law was the profession to which lie was def lined;
but lie allowed un early predilection for the study of history'
and tlie sciences connec'ted with it, such as Diplomatics, or the
art ol deciphering- and verifyinir ancient writs and chartulnries,
GrtiraJo'^y, Chrniwlninj, &cc. Scha'pflin was not slow to appre-
ciate the risini; merit of his pupil, and wished to make him the
com|)anion of his labours. Hv. admitted him to his friendship,
and became the m.'ans of e>tablishin<. hiiu as his successor in
thatfauious political academv, which his reputation had formed
at Strashour^r, |,y attractini,^ to that city the youth of the first
families, and Iroiii all jiarts of Europe. Koch devoted much of
his time to the Canon Law, and soon gave a proof of the pro-
press he had made in that branch of study, bv the Academical
Dissertation which he published in 1761, under the title of
Commcnta/io do. Cnllatione dig/iitn/iim rt brneficiorv/ii ecclesi-
asticornm in impcrio Romaiio-Qcnnanico. This treatise was
a prelude to his Commentary on the Prngmatic Sanction,
which he published in 1789— a work which excited an extra-
ordinary sensation in Catholic Germanv, and procured the
author the favourable notice of sucli prelates as were most
eminent for learning and piety.

After takiniT his academic den^ree, Koch repaired to Paris in
17(5-2, where he staid a year; honoured with the society of the
most distin<ruisheil literati in the capital, and frequenting the
Royal Library, wholly occupied in tlioce researches which pre-
pared him for the learned labours in wiiich he afterwards en-
gajjefl. On his return to Strasbourir, lie wrote the ccmtinua-
tion of the llisioria Z irinv:n-l',adciisis, of which the fir.-t volume
only was drawn up by Sclui-plliu. All the otiiers are eniiiely
•he work of Koch, ihonjih ihey Ivar the name of the master
who had charged hiiii widi llie execution of this task. SchoKpflin
bequeathed to the city of Strasbourg, in 17GH, his valuable

•:.'^-

^gj^^^5S;^*f5»«

UFE OF KOCH.

should be appo.uUMl ke,-rr ^^"^ ;,;,,,, .^ ^i,. ,,„>e ti.ue,

the tule "^t^"f^^^ ;;;.,,, p,..,.l, arcording to tho stalulcs of
for ihe chair of S^-l'''^ ' f . ,^ ,„,,'^ of ,„eril but max-

pableof supply ug h.s place .i> '^^ ' , ,. gj,^ flj,, .-ere

Lay of the PO 'l'";^^ --'X J n Ve head of /hat diplo-

thu.s l'-^^"«'^^f^^-\ " ^r:Kl7v >a s, gave to the public so great
matic school, which, lor >im> >' » - ^

a nun,ber of .nimsters '-"'^ ^''^'l'^/^^ „flv,,a him the chair of ;
,„ 1779 the ^'''^'''X^'i^;^^^^Gomu<:.u, which he i
.bUc G-X;^-;';, !^^^ r^;-.;..h n., who knew well ^
declined. ^'^''^7,^'" .. ,oi m.lime.ited him with the dignity
how to distinguish meut, ""'",; ,ii,,. between that ot
of Knight of the E-nP;;;;^ - ,S"e About the same period ,
baron and the simple ^^'^ ?^{;.:^V „^ Strasbourg, which he 1
he obtained the cha.r o P«^'":,/;,'^^^l, ,, ,^, jhe FreT.ch Revolu-
held until that University ^^^ ^^'P ^^ ^fj^ ,^, „f Alsace sent :
tion. Towards the end of 17S.), t c r u.i ^^^^^

hi.u as their envoy ^"^-;';;,i^^'f heir civil and re-
Constitutional Assembly, the m.'iUM^ ^^^.^^^ ^^.

ligious rights, according to tl e f- " "' '^;''^^. „(■ j,,,,. 17th of
succeeded- in obtaining for ''jX.jl'^ ^i^^^*^, ,,J j '.lar-ed thai
August^ 1790, which -- '-i'i;^^^t';^re not included
the ecclesiastical benefice^ ot the rot i . >j„,,,.,„b,,r prece-
„nong those wh ch the decree o ^'^^;\^^^' .y^^,, /,..,„er
.ling.1tad placed at the 'I'^jr^;^, ; J^' ,^ au act, bearing

ratified by the King. .....Unlence of the Revolution had

.-"^'"^I'S.^SS ur"irSm";u assemblage of youth,
dispersed tiom Otiasuoui ,• ..^.^ .,nd the natura beauties

svhich the reputation "^ ^ 'V 1 nu'i^^t T hese disastrous
of the place, had attracted ^^'''^' ^^J;"^Va lime whe.i he was
events interrupted the career of Koh at .^;^^^^^

capable of rendering the "^f Vh^r. If to Pub larth^^ Being
From- that moment he J*^;"^*-' ':'""! ,^;,!;''A..enblv. he op-
^P^Tlh' S ^ht tn ^ e^ Sle "^So^ and .aumatei;

^^ ssxc^?:^ When p;t^;-;;;t:;:;r: ;;::c:

that Assembly, he "-"f ^;::;f ' ^^^^'i^hr rtoUl thi cala-
and, in a Report which he me n m^^^^^^^ ^^

E^ei^--_.

■-i-;vs:«5;iS^»,^ssft*3^i4ii^5i;S#^^^3^^3S-:K-S

LIFE OF KOCH.

; Koch

on the j
lO lime,
(■lures ; i
iiics of j
111 incn-
ill the
jn were
il (liplo-
so grenl

chair of
■hich he
low well
2 (lis'iiity
n llial of
lie period
vhich he
1 Re vol 11-
;;ai-c sent
; and ihe
il and re-
lios. He
,; 17lh of
lar-ed thai
t iiicliuh-'d
ber prece-
he former
;-l,bearinij
roved and

lution had

of youth,
ill beauties

dif^astrous
ell he was
lis country,
rs. Being
ibly. he op-

ultimately
mnniltee of
:e of peace ;
d the cala-

•ihould be
,,,, by their

clamours, silenced the remonstrances of Koch, when, on the
yOlli ol April, he spoke in opposition to a measure which proved
so fatal to France, An oHicial Idler wliicli he addressed, 10th
of Auirust. to the constituted authorities of the Lower Rhine,
Midiri.iitly expressed the iiorror with which that day's proceed-
iiiL's had inspired him. He procured, moreover, the concurrence
o( his felliiw-citizen.s in a resistance, which he had then .some
reason to hope would be made a common cause by the other
provinces. This letter drew down upon him the persecution
of the ruling- party. He was immured in a prison, where he
lanLruished for eleven months, and from which he had no pros-
pect of escape, except to mount the scatfold. The revolution
of the 9th Tliermidor restored him to liberty, when he was ap-
pointed, by the voice of his fellow-ciiizen.s, to the Directory of
their provincial department. He endeavoured by all means in
his power to defeat the measures that were taken to injure his
constituents ; and had influence enough, it is said, to prevent
the sale of the funds belonifinir to manufactories and hospitals.
He then resumed with pleasure those functions which he had
unwillingly accepted ; in 1790, he recommenced his professorship
of public law, and relumed with new zeal to his literary labours,
which ha.l been too long interrupted. Six years he spent in
these useful occupations; from which, howe'ver, he was once
more detached by a decree of the Senate, which nominated him
a ineiiiber of the Tribunal. This nomination Koch accepted,
in the hope of being useful to his Protestant countrymen, and
to the city of Strasbourg, in obtaining the re-establishment of
the reformed religion, and its restoration in the University,
He did, in eliect, exert himself much in behalf of religion, ac-
cording to the confession of Augsburg, as well as of the Pro-
testant Academy at Strasbourg, which was suppressed at this
period.

The Tribunal ha\ itig been suppressed, Koch declinei! all places
of trust or honour which were oilered him ; and only requested
permission to retire, that he might have a short interval for him-
self between business and the grave. A pension of ^000 francs
was granted him, without any solicitation on his part. In 1808,
he returned to Strasbourg, where he continued to devote him-
self to letters, and in administering to the public good. About
the end of 1810, the Grand-master of the Univer.s'ity of Franci.'
conferred on him the title of Honorary Rector of the Academy
of Strasbourg, His health, which had been prolonged by a life
of great temperance and regularity and the peace which results
from a good conscience became disordered in 1812, when he
fell inio a slate of languor, which terminated his life on the 25th

\ N'^

"'i>.

\ir^

LIFE OF KOCH.

I] October 1S13. His colleagues, the professors ofStJ.sho,nj^

' rt^^t ^ol-uH bv ^ Ohn.nucht, an eminent .cniptor .n
which \va> "'^.^"^''V .;. l,in<Trxnher- has pronounced the (ol-
Slrashonr-. One of h,. ' "'^ ' P^'^^^, ,. ^^„|.,,,,, fo, j„siice and
lowini; enlognnn "'l J^^^V-.'Vnn a .li<.once unrivalled in
r ''• ■' Cl^^'S^s':^;:"; r ;:S;nt1;l'arra,.gin. and illus.

historical 't'^-^'i''^^"'-^'^. ■',,,, ,;i,i„ intcfrritv of principle, and
traling his subject, an '"''7' S;\;'^'„;;'l,ire of rendering
unclouded serenity o min.l, ^^'^'Vn T iTv u eful to his species
his researches, his i-'f^^-^'t:;!: 1 i- n d and chiractei
-these were the rr"'"7'^"\'^^:f "*'';; .'J' 'C, been remarked,
of this amiable man." l\-^''*\°";"jf",;.\,,ro a graceful or
that althou^rh Professor Koch l^^""^;^' c "J; „ ., ,,;,„, ,,c.
even a fluent elocution, no man eve P^^^c^.^;" ' '" ; - ^^-^^^
Tree the talents and qualifications of '^ P."''"' "^l-^"; ;. ; ^J^/' „

foreigners. 1 he one '^ ^-y ' . ^.a^pj to ibc new edition

sor at Strasbourg; ')"^1 ^'' 7'"' ^^ ^ hv M Schcril, the editor
of the Histoircks Trains f^,,^«;^'^'J,4\;„,5 T''i« l^^'^'
and con.inuator of several f°'"';'^^,,"'Ji,°^' inscriptive cata-
r°""S';i'KrS::'iXnS!il of which a.^ ^.e fVd.
bgue of all ^j^;^l^i i^,,,, dcs Maiso.s SnnccrorneUv
lowing:— 1. iffW(.s ut«t(« „ i ^„„rtm Frasmatica Gcr-

manorum tlluslmla. 3. fj]rl,^!- "\ ^^w edition of this
taix criirt itj, pnlar'-cA and continued by M. be I re 11

work appeared m 1^^^'. v , L,i tUo Trpntv of Paris, 1S15.
down to the Congress of Vjen--^"^ '- ^%Lnrs hran-
4. TaUe des Trrulc^ '''%. mI 5. TaUcau drs Revo-

11- u„i ..ftor ilif» authors dentil. In M- oi uaii. i*
S histm-y and literature of his native province.. ^ ^

bouig. I .
Ill the '; I
H-rlin ; 1 1
ptor in I
lie lol- j
ce and i
lU-a in
:1 illus- I
lie, and |
uleiing
species
liiractei
narked,
•efiil or
ilier (lo-
'. Like
s not fo
li^llii'in.
1(1 know
Tliongli
;n, Koch

ritten by
a profrs-
V odilion
le pdilor
lis latter
live cata-
the fol-
rainex dn
ficn Gvr-
''raites do
m of this
A. Schrell
iris, 1815.
Y/.s- Kiran-

drs Revo-
■s Maho7is

work was

Besides

loirs of liis

. ecclesias-

A. C.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION.

h™ I / t^i' "^7 P'T''}' *'^^" considered as that particular
' i.l . P'^j'^^^P^y- '^y^''^ '«a«^hes, by examples. Lw men

ought to conduct themselves in all situations of life, both pub-
; he and private. Such .s the infirmity and incapacity of^he
I human mmd. that abstract or general ideas make no lasting
I impression on it ; and often appear to us doubtful or obscure^-

: JLd oterVatV'^ ""' ""'"'^'^ ""^ '=°"«™^'^ ^^ "P---
I It is from history alone, which superadds to our own exoe-
; nence that of other men and of other times, that we learn to
conquer the prejudices which we have imbibed from education,
and which our own experience, often as contracted as our edu-
cation, tends m general rather to strengthen than to subdue or
destroy. " Not to know,"savs Cicero, " xvhat happened before
we were borri, is to remain always a child ; for what were the
ite ot man, did we not combine present events with the recol-
lections of past ages ?"

There are certain principles or rules of conduct that hold
true m all cases; because they accord and consist with the in-

,'o ?hl , "r"!"' fu^'""^'- 7° ''^^''' ""'^ ^''S^'' 'hose, belongs
to the student of history, who may, in this way, easily form To

himself a system, both of morals and politics, founded on the
combined judgment of all ages, and confirmed by universal ex-
perience. Moreover, the advantages that we reap from the
study of history are preferable to those we acquire bv our own
expenence ; for not only does the knowledge we derive from
this kind of study embrace a greater number of objects, but it
IS purchased at the expense of others, while the attainments we
make from personal experience often cost us extremely dear.

We may learn wisdom," says Polybius, "either from oui
own misfortunes, or the misfortunes of others. The knowledge '
adds that celebrated historian, " which we acquire at our own
expense, IS undoubtedly the most efficacious ; but that which we
learn from the misfortunes of others is the safest, in as much
as we receive instruction without pain, or danger to ourselves."
Ihis knowledge has also the advantage of being in general
more accurate, and more complete than that which we derive
from individual experience. To history alone it belongs to
judge with impartiality of public characters and political mea-

J;#

'•I:

ft'Mu:

'dt

sures, which are often either misunderslood or not properly ap-
preciated bv their contemporaries ; and while men mdividually,
and from their own observation, can see great events as it were
but in part, history embraces the whole in all its various details.
Thus, for example, we can see but imperfectly all the bearing's
of that mighty revolution which is now 179J, passing before
our eyes; and it will remain for posterity to perceive all its
influence and effects, and to judge of its different actors with-
out feelings of irritation or party spirit. „ , , ,

h is a fact universally admitted, that all ranks, and profes-
mons of men, find in history appropriate instruction, and rules
of conduct suited to their respective conditions. In occupying
the mind agreeably with such a vast diversity of subjects, it
serves to form the judgment, to inspire us with the ambition of
glory, and the love of virtue. Those especially who devote
themselves to the study of politics, or who are destined to the
management of public affairs, will discover in history the struc-
ture and constitution of governments, their faults, «"« /neir
advantages, their strength and their weakness; they will hnd
there the origin and progress of empires, the principles that
have raised them to greatness, and the causes which have pre-
pared their fall. The philosopher, and the man of letters, wi I
there trace the progress of the human mind, the errors and il-
lusions that have led it astray ; the connexion of cause? and
effects ; the origin of arts and sciences, their changes, and their
influence on society ; as well as the innumerable evils that
have sprung from ignorance, superstition and tyranny.

History, in short, avails more than all precepts to cure us of
those mistakes originating in self-love, and national partiality.
He who knows no other country than his own, easily persuades
nimself, that the government, manners, and opinions of the lit-
tle corner of the earth which he inhabits, are the only ones con-
sistent with reason and propriety. Self-love, so natural to man,
cherishes this prejudice, and makes him disdain all other na-
tions. It is only by an extensive acquaintance with history,
and by familiarizing ourselves with the institutions, customs,
and habits of different ages, and of different countries, that we
learn to esteem wisdom and virtue, and to ackno\;'ledge ta-
lents wherever they exist. Besides, when we observe, tha*
though revolutions are continually changing the face of king-
doms, nothing essentially new ever happens in the world, we
cease to be longer the slaves of that extravagant admiration,
and that credulous astonishment which is generally the charac-
teristic of ignorance, or the mark of a feeble mind.

The most important attribute of history is truth, and m order

-.' - mumgnasu .wi../ », f'e*.m

yap- I
ually. I

were
Etails.
irinfjs
before
nil its

with- I

)rofes-

rules
ipying
ids, it
lion of
devote

to tht!

struc-
t their
ill find
Bs that
ve pre-
rs, will
and iU
e^ and
id their
ils that

•e us of
rtiality.
rsuades
the lit-
les con-
to man,
her na-
history,
ustoms,
that we
;dge ta-
ve, tha*
of king-
jrld, we
niration,
I charac-

INTRODUCTION.

order

i to find this out, it is necessary to examine the materials which

I serve as the elements and evidences of history, by the test of
j J sound criticism. These materials are of two kinds : I. Pubfic

I I Acts and Records, such as medals, inscriptions, treaties, char-
' 'ers. official papers; and in general, all writings drawn up or
. ; published by the established authorities. II. Private writers,

I i VIZ. authors of histories, of chronicles, memoirs, letters. &c.'

I I These writers are either contemporary, or such as live remote
j from the times of which they write.

j I Public acts and official records, are the strongest evidences

j , we can possibly have of historical truth ; but as, in different

1 1 ages, there have been fabricators of pretended acts and wri-

j I tings, it becomes necessary, before making use of any public

I j document, to be assured that it is neither spurious nor falsified.

I j The art of judging of ancient charters or diplomas, and discri-
jj minuting the true from the false, is called Diplomatics;' in
j I the same way as we give the name of Numismatics to the art of
; I distinguishing real medals from counterfeit. Both of these

I I sciences are necessary in the criticism of history.

I j It will not be out of place to subjoin here some rules that
, may serve as guides in the proper selection of historical docu-

I I ments.

j i 1. The authority of any chartulary or public act is preferable
to that of a private writer, even though he were contemporary.
These public registers it is always necessary to consult, if pos-
sible, before having recourse to the authority of private writers ;
and a history that is not supported by such public vouchers must
in consequence be very imperfect.

2. When public acts are found to accord with the testimony
of contemporary authors, there results a complete and decisive
proof, the most satisfactory that can be desired, for establishine
the truth of historical facts.

3. The testimony of a contemporary author ought generally
to be preferred to that of an historian, who has written long
after the period in which the events have happened.

4. Whenever contemporary writers are defective, great cau-
tion must be used with regard to the statements of more mo-
dern historians, whose narratives are often very inaccurate or
altogether fabulous. '

5. The unanimous silence of contemporary authors on any
memorable event, is of itself a strong presumption for suspect-
ing, or even for entirely rejecting, the testimony of verv recent
m iters. •'

6. Historians who narrate events that have happened ante-
rior to the times in which they lived, do not, properly speaking,

affasi

CHAPTER I.

deserve credit, except in so fur ns they make us acquainted with
the sources whence they have drawn iheir inlormution.

7 In order to judjje of the respective merits of historians,
and the preference we ou«ht to give some beyond others, ii is
necessary to examine the spirit and character of each, as wel
as the circumstances in which they are placed at the time ol

""Htmce it follows :-That we ought to distrust an hUtorian
who is deficient in critical discernment, who is fond of fables,
or who scruples not, in order to please and amuse his readers,
to alter or disguise the truth : That as impartiality is an essen-
tial quality in a historian, we must always be on our guard
ajrainst writers who allow their minds to be warped aside by
the prejudices of their nation, their party, or their profession ;
for, in order to be impartial, the historian must form his judg-
ment on actions themselves, without regard to the actors : 1 hat
historians who have had a personal concern in the transactions,
or been eyewitnesses of the events they describe, or who, wn-
tincr bv the permission or authority of government, have had
free access to national archives and public libraries, ought al-
ways to be preferred to those who have not enjoyed the same
advantages: That among modern historians, he who has writ-
ten last often deserves more confidence than those who have
handled the same subject before him ; inasmuch as he h^ had
it in his power to obtain more exact information, to avoid all
party spirit, and rectify the errors of his predecessors.

There are several auxiliary sciences which may be said to

constitute the very foundation of history ; and among these, geo-

irraphy, genealogy, and chronology, hold the first rank. In

I mith, no fact can be fully established, nor can any narrative

' possess interest, unless the circumstances relating to the times

and places in which the events have happeneu, as well as to

I the persons who have been concerned in them, be previously

I made known, and distinctly explained. It is obvious, therefore,

I that geography, genealogy, and chronology, are the fa.thful in-

1 terpreters and inseparable companions of history.

Geocrraphy may be divided into mathematical, physical, and
political ; according to the diflTerent objects which it embraces.
Mathematical geography regards the earth, considered as a
' measurable body. Physical geography has for "^ ;>bjeci o
examine the natural or physical structure of the earth ; while
Dolitical geography illustrates the different divisions of the earth
which men have invented, such as kingdoms, states, and pro-
vinces This science is also divided, relatively to the tunes of
which it treats, into ancient middle-age, and modern geography

-Ji

''~-^^"^n-"'"Xif^,

'^mw-

with I
riaiis,

, it lit

j well
ine oi '

lorian !
fubles,
laders,
essen-
guard
ide by
ssion ; ',
I judg- i
: That j
ictions, !
0, wri-
ve had
ght al-
c same
3 writ-
o have
las had
iroid all

said to

se, geo-

nk. In

arrative

le limes

I as to

viously

Here fore,

ihful in-

cal, and
inbraces.
red as a
)bjeci to
while
the earth
and pro-
times of
ography

INTRODUCTION.

Anrient geography ia that which explains the primitive stale of
the world, ami iis poiilical divisions prior to ine subversion ot
ihe Roman Empire in ihe west. By ihe geography of the middle
ages, i.s under.-itood that which acquaints us with the political
state of the niitions who figured in history from the fifth century
to the end of the fifteenth, or the beginning of the sixteenth.
Modern geography represents to us the state of the world and
its political divisions, from the sixteenth century to the present
time.

Antiquity has handed down to us the works of several very
eminent geographers, the most celebrated of whom are Strabo,
Ptolemy, Pomponius Mela, Pausanias, and Stephanus of Byzan-
tium. Among the moderns who have laboured in this depart-
ment of geography, those more particularly deserving of notice,
HreCUivorius,Cellarius,Briet,D'Anville, Gosselin, Mannert, and
Ukert.

The geography of the middle ages is but little known ; and
remains yet a sort of desert which demands cultivation. There
does not exist a single geographical work which gives a correct
representation of that new order of things, which the German
nations introduced into Europe after the downfall of the Roman
Empire in the fifth century. The literati of France and Ger-
many have thrown some rays of light on certain parts of these
obscure regions ; but no nation in Europe can yet boast of having
thoroughly explored them.

Of modern authors, the most conspicuous as the restorer of
geographical science, is Sebastian Monster, a German, who
published a voluminous work o.j cosmography, towards the
middle of the sixteenth century. The Flemings and the Dutch
have been among the earliest cultivators of geography since
the revival of letters. Ortelius, Gerard Mercator, Varenius,
Janson, Bleau, and Fischer, are well known by the maps and
learned works which they have produced.

Among the number of celebrated French geographers are to
be reckoned Sanson, Delisle, Cassini, D'Anville ; and more
recently Zannoni, Bauche, Mentelle, Barbid du Bocage, Malte-
Brun, &c. Delisle is the first who submitted geography to the
touchstone of astronomical observation. Biisching, a German,
wrote u work on geography, which has been translated into
several languages, and has received various additions and
improvements, especially in the hands of the French transla-
tors. M. Ritter, a professor at Berlin, published a work in
which he gives a new and scientific form to geography.

It was during the latter half of the eighteenth century, that
the attention of the learned was turned more particularly towards

•li'

iff

fUt CHAFTIK I.

geographvi when a series of the most elegant maps appeared in
all the principal states of Europe. The wars" that sprun;? from
the revolution encouraged several engineers and geographers,
both foreigners and Frenchmen, to publish those masterpieces
of their art, the charts and plans of the countries that had served
as the theatre of hostilities.

Connected with geography is the science of Statistics, or the
study of the constitution and political economy of stales. Two
Italians, Sansovino and Botero, about the end of the sixteenth
century, were the first that attempted to treat this as a particular
science, separate and distinct from geography. The Germans
followed nearly in the footsteps of the Italian writers ; they
introduced statistics into their Universities as a branch of study,
and gave it also the name by which it is still known. » It was
chiefly, however, during the course of the eighteenth century
that the governments of Europe encouraged the study of this
new science, which borrows its illustrations from history, and
constitutes at present an essential branch of national polity.

Genealogy, or the science which treats of the origin and
descent of illustrious families, is not less important to the
knowledge of history, than geography. It teaches us to know
and distinguish the principal characters that have acted a con-
spicuous part on liie theatre of the world ; and by giving us
clear and explicit ideas of the ties of relationship that subsist
among sovereigns, it enables us to investigate the rights of
succession, and the respective claims of rival princes.

The .study of Genealogy is full of difficulties, on account of
the uncertainty and fabulous obscurity in which the origin of
almost every great family is enveloped. Vanity, aided by flattery,
has given birth to a thousand legendary wonders, that fall to
pieces at the touch of sound criticism. It is by the light of this
science that we learn to distinguish certainties from probabilities,
and pro^'abilities from fables and conjectures. Few families
who have o':cupied the thrones of former dynasties, or who now
hold pre-eminent rank in Europe, can trace their genealogy
beyond the twelfth century. The House of Capet is the only
one that can boast of a pedigree that reaches back to the middle
of the ninth century. The origin of the royal families ol
Savoy, Lorrain, Brunswick, England, and Baden, belongs to the
eleventh century ; all the others are of a date posterior to those.

A single fact in diplomatics has proved sufficient to discredit
a multitude of errors and fables, that tradition had engrafted
on the legends of the dark ages. From the examiniitions that
have been made of ancient charters and records, there is abun-
dant evidence that, prior to the twelfth century, among families

**■?"'

•din
from
lers,
eccs
rved

r the
Two
tenth
rular
nans
ihey
ludy,
, was
ntury
r this
, nnd

n and
o the
know
t con-
ng us
ubsist
hts of

unt of
in of

itlery,

all to

'this

ities,

ilies

now

aiogy

only

iddle

les ot
to the
these,
credit
rafted
s thai
abiin-

nio

iin

ilius

INTRODUCTION.

«l

even the most illuHtrioiis. the distinction of surnames was un-
known. The greiitost noblemen, nnd the presumption is much
stronger that common gentlemen, never used any other signa*
ture than their bupti.smni name ; to which they sometimes an-
nexed that of the dignity or order with which they weie invested.
There was therefore little chance of distinguishing families
from each other, and still le^s of distinguishing individuals of
one and the same family. It was only towards the end of the
eleventh century, nnd during the era of the crusades, that the use
of family names was gradually introduced; and that they began,
in their public transactions, to superadd to 'heir baptismal and
honorary names, that of the country or territory they possessed,
or the castle where they had their residence ; and it must have
required nearly two hundred years before this practice became
generol in Europe.

The Germans were the first, after the Reformation, who
combined the study of genealogy with that of history. Among
their most distinguished genealogists mny be mentioned Rein-
erus Reineccius, Jerome Hcnninges, Elias Reusner, Nicolas
Riltershusius, James-William Imhof, and the two Gebhards of
Luneburg, father and son. The work of Henninges is much
sought after, on account of its rarity ; but the genealogical
labours of the two Gebhards are particularly remarkable for the
profound and accurate criticism they display. The principal
writers on this subject among the French are, D'Hozier, Gode-
froy, Andrew Duchesne, St. Marthe, Father Anselme,Chazot de
Nantigny, and M. de St. Allais.

Chronology, or the science of computing time, represents
facts or events in the order in which they have occurred. The
historian ought by no means to neglect to ascertain, as nearly
as possible, the exact and precise date of events ; since, without
this knowledge, he will be perpetually liable to commit anachro-
nisms, lu confound things with persons, and often to mistake
effects for causes, or causes for effects.

This st idy is not without its difficulties, which are as perplex-
ing as thi-y are singularly various, both in kind and degree.
These embtrrassments relate chiefly, 1. To the age of the
world ; 2. 1 he different forms of the year ; 3. The number of
years that elapsed from the creation to the birth of Christ ; 4.
The variety of epochs or periods of reckoning time.

Many of the ancient philosophers maintained that the vi'orld
was eternal. Ocellus Lucnnus, a Greek philosopher of the Py-
thagorean sect, attempted to prove this hypothesis, in a treatise
entitled De Unicerso, which the Marquis D'Argens and the
Abb^ Batteux have translated into French. Aristotle followed

}M5l"

ki.i'ii'it'-i'

CHAfTKIl I.

in the footsteps of OcpIIuh. His opinion nn to lh« c.icm*y ol
the uiiivprsp, is (lotniled nl length in liis i-oinin»'ntarips on Phy 's.
Sumo luntivru phiiosojjhiTs, w BiiHon, Hiunilton, Dolomu-u,
Suu«siire, Faiijiis dc St. Fond. Sec. Iiuvc iissijrnt-d to our gl'ibe
on exisicnci' long nntorior to the ur(?m wIumi history comini-nri's.
Their reasoning they support by the nmformiilion of the Riobe
itself, as well as the time that must have necessarily elapsed
before the earth, in the progressive operations of nature, could
be rendered a suitable habitation for man.

The most ancient account that we have of the origin of «be
world, and of the human race, is derived from Mohos This
leader ond lawgiver of the Jewish nation, lived about 1600 years
before Christ ; and nearly 1000 before Herodotus, the most an-
cient profane author whose works have been handed down to
our times. According to Moses and ihe Jewish annals, the
history of the human race does not yet comprehend a period of
six thousand ycarr. This account seems to be in opposition to
that of several ancient nations, such as the Egyptians, Indians,
Chaldeans, Thibetians, and Chinese, who carry back their chro-
nology to a very remote date, and far beyond what Moses has
assigned to the human race. But it is sufficient at present to
remark, that this high antiquity, which vanity has led these na-
tions to adopt as a reality, is either altogether imaginary, or
purely mythological, founded on a symbolical theology, whose
mysteries and allegories have been but little understood. This
primeval epoch is usually filled with gods and demigods, who
are alleged to have reigned over these nations for so many my-
riads of years. ,

Traditions so fabulous and chimerical will never destroy the
authenticity of Moses, who independently of his nativity, and
the remote age in which he lived, merits implicit credit from
the simplicity of his narrative, and from the circumstance, that
there has never yet been discovered on the surface, or in the
internal structure of the earth, any organic evidence or work of
human art, that can lead us to believe that the history of the
world, or more properly speaking, of the human race, is ante-
cedent to the age which the Jewish legislator has assigned it.

With regard to the division of time, a considerable period
must, no doubt, have elapsed before men began to reckon by
years, calculated according to astronomical observations. Two
sorts or forms of compulation have been successively in use
among different nations. Some have employed solar years, cal-
culated by the annual course of the sun ; others have made use
of lunar years, calculated by the periodical revolutions of the
moon. All Christian nations of the present day adopt the solar

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by
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if the
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INTKoniJCTlON.

2fi

fronr; wh«l<) the lunur onlruluiion is lluit followivl by the Mb-
iiiinciiini. 'I'lit' Holiir yi-nr coiiftistn of UM (liiy.t, ft hoiir?*, 48',
46",:iO"': 111.' Iiiniir ynr, ..f.'Wl diiy^ ;J lioiiri, JM', US", li>"'.

The iiivcriiioii, or iiior'- jiropi-rly ^|)»•ukin^.^ itii- calciiliilioii of
ihc sdliir y»'ar, is dm* lo ihc nnci'iii K>'y|iiiiiriN, wlio, by the
posiiion of llii'ir rountry, iis wrll as by ibe pi'riodical overflow-
ings iiiid obhiii(j>< (if ihi' Nib', bad i-itiiy ■'I'ld obvious induce-
nicni*' for iimkiiii; iistrnnoniical nbscrviiiions. 'fb*^ .solar year
has urnb'ri;orio, id procfsn of lime, various oorrcclioti iirid de-
notninatioris. The most rprnarkablf of these are iiidu-ateil by
the distiuctions, Ntill in u*e, of the Julian, the Ctregorian, and
th»' Reformed year.

Julius Cicsar introduced into ;he Roman empire, the solar or
Ejfyplian year, whicb Itiolc from him the name of the Julian
year. This he substituted instead of the luimr year, which the
Komans had used before his time. It was distinguished, on ac-
coimt of a slight variation in the reckoning, into the common
and bissextile or leap year. 'I'lie commoii Julian year consist-
ed of 366 days ; and the bissextile, whiili returned every four
years, of 36fi days. This computation was faulty, inasmuch
as it allowed UHi) days, and entire hours, for the annual re-
volution of the sun; being nn excess every year, of 11', 14",
30'", beyond the true time. This, in a long course of ages,
had amounted lo several days ; and began, at length, to deranpe
the order of the seasons.

Pope Gregory XIII.,' wishing to correct this error, employed
an able mathematician, named Louis Lilio, to reform the Julian
year, according to the true annual course of the sun. A new
calendar was drawn up, which was called after the name
of that pontiff, the Gregorian calendar ; and as, in consequence
of the incorrectness of the Julian era, the civil year had gained
ten days, the same Pope ordered, by a bull published in 1681,
that these should be expunged from the calendar ; so that, in-
stead of the 6th of October 1582, they should reckon it the 16th.

The Catholic States adopted this new calendar without the
least difficulty; but the Protestants in the Empire, and the
rest of Eur jpe, as also the Russians and the Greeks, adhered
to the Julian year ; and hence the distinction between the old
and new style, to which it is necessary to pay attention in ail
public acts and writings since the year 1682 of the Christian
era. The difference between the old and new style, which,
until 1699, was only ten days, and eleven from the commence
ment of 1700, tnust be reckoned twelve days during the pre
sent century of 1800; so that the 1st of J'anuary of the old
vear, answers to the 13th of the new.

^M^'

CHAPTER I.

The Reformed Year or Calendar, as it is called, is distinct
from the Gregorian, and applies to the calculation of the year,
which was made by a professor at Jena, named Weigel. It
differs from the Gregorian year, as to the method of calculating
the time of Easter, and the other moveable feasts of the Chris-
tian churches. The Protestants of Germany, Holland, Den-
mark and Switzerland, adopted this new calendar in 1700.
Their example was followed in 1752, by Great Britain ; and in
1753, by Sweden ; but since the year 1776. the Protestants of
Germany, Switzerland and Holland, abandoned the reformed
calendar, and adopted the Gregorian ; and there is, properly
speaking, no nation in Europe at this day, except the Russians
and the Greeks, which makes use of the Julian calendar, or
old style/

But it is not merely the variations that have prevailed as to
the form and computation of the year, that have perplexed the
science of chronology ; the different methods of commencing
it, have also been the source of much confusion. The Komans,
from the time of Julius Caesar, began the year on the first of
January. The ancient Greeks at first reckoned from the win-
ter solstice, and afterwards from midsummer; the Syro-Mace-
donians or Seleucidoe, commenced from the autumnal equinox.
The sacred year of the Jews, began with the first new moon
after the vernal equinox, that is, in the month of March ; and
their civil year began with the new moon immediately follow-
ing the autumnal equinox, that is, in the month of September.

The same diversity of practice which we observe among the
ancients, existed also in the middle ages. The Franks, under
the Merovingian kings, began the year with the month of March.
The Popes began it sometimes at Christmas, or the 25th of De-
cember ; sometimes on the 1st of January ; and sometimes on
the 25lh of March, called indiscriminately the day of the Annun-
ciation or Incarnation. Under the Carlovingian princes, two
methods of beginning the year were generally prevalent in
France, — the one fixed its commencement at Christmas, or the
25lh of December, and the other at Easter ; that is, at the day
on which that moveable feast happened to fall. This latter
custom prevailed also under the Capetian kings, and it was not
suppressed until near the middle of the sixteenth century.
Charles IX., by an edict published in 1564, ordered, that in
France the year should henceforth commence on the 1st of Ja-
nuary. Previously to this edict, it sometimes happened, from
the variable date of Easter, that the same month was found to
occur twice in one and the same year. For example, the year
1358 having begun on the 1st of April, on which Easter diiy

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IMTPODVCTION.

happened to fall, did no*, terminate until the 20th of April fol-
lowing, that is, on the eve preceding Easter. There were con-
sequently in this year, nearly two complete months of April.
Since the reign of Charles IX., it has continued the invariable
practice in France to begin the year on the 1st of January.

In England, the year used to commence on the 25th of March,
and the old style was there observed until 1753 ; when, by vir-
tue of an act of Parliament, passed in 1752, the beginning oi
the year was transferred to the 1st of January. It was decreed
also, at the same time, that, in order to accommodate the En-
glish chronology to the new style, the 3d of September 1752,
should be reckoned the 14th of the same month. '

It is easy to conceive the perplexity and confusion that must
have been introduced into chronology, as much by the differ-
ence of styles as by the different methods of commencing the
year. Nothing is more probable, than that we should here
find mistakes and contradictions which, in reality, have no ex-
istence ; and the more so, as the writers or recorders of public
acts, who employ these different styles, or date the beginning of
'he year variously, never give us any intimation on the sub-
ject ; and all reckon promiscuously from the year of Christ's
nativity, without informing us whether they follow the old or
the new style — whether they commence the year in the month
of January or March, at Easter or at Christmas.

Modern chronologists have found much embarrassment in
calculating the number of years that elapsed between the crea-
tion and the birth of Christ. Father Petau, one of the most
learned men in this science, admits, that this point of chrono-
logy is to be established rather by probable conjectures than so-
lid arguments. There have even been reckoned, according to
Fabricius, about a hundred and forty different opinions respect-
ing the epoch of Christ's nativity. Some fix this era m the
year of the world 3616, while others carry it back to the year
6484. This great discordance of opinions arises from the con-
tradictions found to exist between the three principal texts of the
Old Testament. The Hebrew text, for instance, to which most
chronologists gives the preference, fixes the deluge in the year
of the world 1656 ; while, according to the Samaritan text, it
happened in 1307 ; and, according to the Septuagint, in 2942.
The system at present most accredited, is that of Archbishop
Usher, an Irish prelate, who, founding his calculation on the
Hebrew text, fixes the date of Christ's nativity i.> the year of
the world 4000.

A variety of epochs prevailed at difllerent times ; as most na-
tions, both ancient and modern, who had governments and laws

'4^

■i

•i

■i'i

CHAPTER I.

of their own, adopted chronological eras that were peculiar to
themselves. The ancient Greeks had their Olympiads, and
the Syro-Macedonians the era of the Seleucidae. The Romans
calculated by consulships, which became the era of their public
acts ; and besides these, their historians used to reckon from
the foundation of the city, which goes back 752 years beJore
Christ, or 3249 after the creation. The era of Dioclesian, in-
troduced in honour of that emperor, and sometimes also called
the era of the martyrs, began in the year 284 after Christ, and
was for a long time used in the West. But, without stopping
here to enumerate the different eras of antiquity, we shall rather
restrict ourselves at present to the pointing out of those that
belong lore properly to modern history, viz. 1. The era of
the modern Greeks. 2. Of the modern Jews. 3. Of the Spa-
niards. 4. The Hegira, or Mahometan era. 6. The Diony-
sian, or Christian era.

The era of the modern Greeks is known by the name of the
Mundane era of Constantinople. It begins 6508 years before
the birth of Christ. The first year of the Incarnation thus falls
in the year of the world 5509 ; and, consequently, the year
1823 of the Christian era answers to the year 7331 of the Mun-
dane era of Constantinople. Under this system, two kinds of
years are in use, the civil and the ecclesiastical. The former
commences with the month of September, the other has begun
sometimes on the 21st of March, and sometimes on the 1st of
April. This era is followed, even at this day, by the Greek
church. The Russians, who adopted it from the Greeks, along
with the Christian religion, made use of it even in their civil
acts, until the reign of Peter the Great. That emperor, in
1700, abolished the Mundane era of Constantinople, and sub-
stituted in its place, the Christian era, and the Julian calendar
or old style.

The modem Jews have likewise u mundane era ; as they
reckon from the creation of the world. It commences on the
7th of October of the Julian year, and reckons 3761 years be-
fore Christ. The year 3762 of the world, is the first of the
Christian era, according to the Jews ; and the current year
(1823) answers to the year 5583 of their mundane era.

In Spain, the era began with the year of Rome 714, thirty-
eight years before the birth of Chrisi ; being the time when the
triumvirate was renewed between Ctesar Octavianus, Mark An-
tony, and Lepidus. The Spaniards, wishing to give Octavia-
nus some testimony of their satisfaction on being comprehended
within his province, began a new era with this event,* w! ifh
prevailed not only in Spain and Portugal, but also in Africa,

I Ji.t|J ! f!L,j,a-j,i i juiyi'-,Mi4Jfi y'Miin

;ror, in
nd sub-
alendar i

INTROOUCTIOIf. 99

and those parts of France which were subject to the dominion
or the Visigoths. It is of great importance to know, that the
Spaniards and Portuguese constantly employed this era in their
annals and public acts, so late as the 14ih and 15th centuries,
when they substituted the Christian era in its place.

The era which the Mussulman nations follow is that of Ma-
homet, called ihe Hegira, or the Flight of the Prophet. It be-
gan on the 16th of July 622 A. C, and is composed of lunar
years. In order to find out in what year of the vulgar era any
given year of the Hegira falls, it is necessary first to reduce
the lunar into solar years, and then add the number 622. Far
example, the year 1238 of the Hegira, answers to the year 1823
of the vulgar, or Christian era. It began on the 18th of Sep-
tember 1822, and ended on the 7th of the following September

Dionysius or Denys the Little, a Roman Abb<5, who lived in
the time of the Emperor Justinian, about the year of Chri^l 530,
was the author of the vulgar era, which afterwards received a
more perfect form from the hands of the venerable Bede, an
English monk, about the year 720. Before that time, ihe Latins,
or Christians of the West, employed the era of the Consuls, or
that of Dioclesian. Denys the Little, imagining it would be
more convenient for the Christians to reckon their time from the
birth of Christ, applied himself with great industry to calculate
the number of years that had elapsed from the Incarnation to
his own times. Modern chronologists have remarked, that
both Denys and Bede were mistaken in their calculations ; but
a difference of opinion prevails on this subject, as may be
seen in the learned work of Fabricius. There are some of
these chronologists who date the birth of Christ thirty-four years
earlier, whik oiLers find adiflference of but one year, or at most
four, between the true epoch of the nativity, and that adopted
by Denys. This disagreement of the modern chronologists has
given rise to the distinction between the true era of the birth
of Christ, and the Vulgar or Dionysian era, which the general
usage has now consecrated and established.

In France, this era was not introduced until the eighth century.
AVe find it employed, for the first time, in the acts of the Coun-
cils of Germany, Liptines, and Soissons, held in the years
742-3-4, under Pepin, surnamed the Short. The Kings of
France never used it in their public acts, until the end of the
ninth century ; and the Popes only since the eleventh.

In order to compare the difTerent eras, and to facilitate the
process of reducing the years of one into those of another, »
scheme has beeen proposed called the Julian period. Thr in-
vention of this is due to Joseph Scaliger, a professor at Leyden,

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CHAPTER I.

and well known by his chronological works. He g«ve it the
name of Julian, because the Julian year served as the basis of
it. It is composed of the several products of the cycles of the
sun, the moon, and the indictions multiplied by each other.

The cycle of the sun is a period, or revolution of twenty-
eight solar years ; at the end of which the same order of years
returns, by a kind of circle or cycle. Its use is to indicate the
days on which each year commences, and the Dominical Let-
ters. These are the first seven letters of the alphabet, a, b, c,
D, E, F, G, which are employed to indicate the seVen days of the
week, more particularly the Sabbath (dies Dominica.) At the
end of twenty-eight years, of which this cycle is composed,
there returns a new order or series of years, so similar to the
preceding, that the dominical letters again answer exactly to the
same days.

The cycle of the wwon comprises nineteen lunar years, twelve
of which are called common, and the remaining seven interca-
lary ; these yield a product of 6939 days 18 hours, according
to the calculation of the ancients ;* and are equal to nineteen
Julian or solar years. By means of this cycle always re-
curring, the new moons fall again on the same days and the
same hours on which they had happened nineteen years before;
so that, for all the new moons, the cycle which is to come is
entirely similar to the preceding. The cipher which indicates
the year of the cycle, is called the golden number, because they
used to write it in characters of gold in the ancient calendars,
where it was employed to mark the times of the new moons.

The cycle of indiations is a cycle which recurs every fifteen
years ; and which, like those already mentioned, was frequent-
ly employed in charters and public records. The origin of
these indictions is generally referred to a contribution or cess
appointed, for fifteen years, by the Romans, and afterwards re-
newed for the same period. They began in the reign of Con-
stantine the Great, that is, about the year of Christ 313, and are
distinguished into three kinds; 1. That of Constantinople,
which was employed by the Greek Emperors, and began on
the 1st of September; 2. That which was termed the Imperial,
or Caesaroan indiction, the use of which was limited to the
West, and which began on the 25th of September ; and, 3.
The Roman or Pontifical indiction, which the Popes employed
in their bulls. This last began on the 25th of December, or
the 1st of January, according as the one or the other of these
days was reckoned by the Romans the first of the new year.

The cycle of the sun, comprising twenty-eight years, and
that of the moon nineteen, when multiplied together, give a

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WHW>IWtfJ^iW ii !aWfc<i&J:J ' Jia^^lifeit^

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1 1

INTROmrcTION.

proiluct of 532, which is called the Paschal cycle, because it
serves to ascertain the feast of Easter. The product of 532,
multiplied by 15, the cycle of indictions, amoutils to the num-
ber 7980, which constitutes the Julian period. Within the com-
pass of this period may be placed, as it were, under one view,
these different eras and epochs, in order to compare and recon-
cile them with each other ; adopting, as their common term, the
nativity of Christ, fixed to the year 4714 of the Julian period.

History has been divided, according to the different subjects
of which it treats, into Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary.
Civil and political history is occupied entirely with events
that relate to mankind, as distributed into societies, and united
together by governments, laws, and manners. Ecclesiastical
history is confined to those events that properly belong to reli-
gion. Literary history treats more particularly of the origin,
progress, and vicissitudes of the arts and sciences. The His-
tory of Philosophy, which is a subdivision of Literary History,
illustrates the different systems of philosophy that have flou-
rished in the world, both in ancient and modern times.

Another division of history, according to its extent, is that of
Universal, General, and Particular History. Universal history
gives a kind of outline or summary of the events of all the na-
tions that have figured on the earth, from the remotest ages to
the present time.

By general history, is understood that which treats of the
revolutions that have happened in the world, whether of great
states or confederate powers, or of several nations combined to-
gether, by various and complicated interests. Thus, there may
be a general history of France, or of Great Britain, a general
history of the United Provinces, a general history of Europe,
Sec. Particular history embraces, in detail, the events of a par-
ticular people, or province, or city, or illustrious individual.

Finally, in regard to the time of which it treats, history is
tlistinguished into Ancient and Modern, and that of the Middle
Ages. Ancient history is that of the nations who flourished
from the time of the creation to the fifth century; while the
history of the middle ages has, for its object, the revolutions
that took place from the fifth to the end of the fifteenth century.
What is now termed modern history, is that which retraces the
events of the last three centuries.

This division, which applies more particularly to the history
of Europe, is founded on the great revolutions which this part
of the world experienced in the fifth and fifteenth centuries.
The revolution of the fifth century etided in the subversion of
the Roman «mpire in the West, and gave birth to the principal

*': .

CHAPTER I.

States in modern Europe ; while that of the fifteenth century,
which clale.s its commencement from the destruction of the
Ea>torn empire, brought along with it the revival of literature
and the fine arts, and the renovation of civil society in Europe.

Although ancient history docs not enter into the plan of the
following work, nevertheless it appeared necessary to give here
a brief sketch of it to the reader, with the view of connecting
the order of time, and the chain of the great events that have
occurred from the remotest ages to the present day. We have
divided it into three periods, the first of which embraces 3000,
the second 1000, and the third 500 years.

The first period, which comprises thirty cemurics, is almost
wholly fabulous. The notices of it that have been transmitted
to us are very imperfect. The order of time cannot be estab*
lished on any solid foundation. Even the authenticity of the
famous Parian marbles, has been called in question as spurious ;
and there is no other chronology that can guide our steps
through this dark labyrinth of profane history. The only lite-
rary monuments that are left us of these remote and obscure
ages, are the book? of Moses and the Jews. Herodotus, the
earliest profane historian, wrote more than a thousand years
after Moses, and about 450 before Christ. He had been prece-
ded several centuries by Sanchoniathon the Phoenician ; but
the work of this latter historian is lost, and there exists only a
few scattered fragments of it in Porphyry and Eusebius.

li appears, therefore, that of the 4500 years that fall within
the compass of ancient history, the first thirty centuries may,
without inconvenience, be retrenched. Amidst the darkness of
those ages, we discover nothing but the germs of societies, gov-
ernments, sciences and arts. The Egyptians, the Israelites, the
Phoenicians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, or Chaldeans,
made then the most conspicuous figure among the nations of
Asia and Africa.

The Egyptians and Chaldeans were the first who cultivated
astronomy. Egypt was long the nursery of arts and sciences.
The Phcenicians, without any other guide than the stars, boldly
traversed unknown seas, and gave a vast extent of intercourse
to their commerce and navigation. They founded many
celebrated colonies, such as Carthage in Africa, and Malaga and
Cadiz on the shores of Spain.

The history of Europe, which is utterly unknown during the
first two thousand years, begins to exhibit in the third millenary,
a few slight notices of ancient Greece. A multitude of petty
stales had then taken root ; most of which, us Argos, Athens
and Thebes, had l)een founded by colonies from Egypt. The

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The

INTBOOUCTION.

Greeks, in imitation of the Phccnicians, applied themselvei« to
arts, navigation, and commerce. They established numerous
colonies, not only on the coast of Asia Minor, but on those of
Italy and Sicily. That in lower Italy or Calabria, was known
by the name of Magna Griecia.

It was during the second period of ancient history, or in thi;
fourth millenary, that great and powerful monarchies arose;
which contributed to the progress of arts and civilization, and
the perfection of society. These are commonly reckoned five,
viz. the Egyptian, the Assyrian, the Persian, the Macedonian,
and the Roman ; all of which successively established them-
selves on the ruins of each other.

The history of the two first monarchies is enveloped in
mystery and doubt. Of the ancient Egyptians, nothing now
remains but their pyramids, their temples, and obelisks, — monu-
ments which can only attest the power and grandeur of the
ancient sovereigns of Egypt.

As to the Assyrian antiauities, the contradictions that we find
between the narratives of Herodotus and Ctesias, cannot fail to
make us reject, as fabulous, the details of the latter, respecting
the magnificence of Ninus, Semiramus, and Sardanapalus, the
supposed monurchs of Assyria and Babylon. Nothing certain
is known of this empire, or the conquests of these kings,
beyond what we find recorded in the annals of the Jews.
Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, subdued the kingdom of Sama-
ria or Israel, about the year of the world 3270 ; and Nebu-
chadnezzar, one of his successors, conquered that of Judah and
Jerusalem, about the year 3403.

The Persian monarchy was founded by Cyrus, who put an
end to the dominion of the Assyrians and Babylonians, by taking
the city of Babylon, about the year of the world 346^ The
empire, when at its greatest height, under Darius Hystaspos,
comprehended all that part of Asia which stretches from the
Indus to the Caspian Sea, and from the Euxine to the shores of
the Mediterranean. Egypt in Africa, and Thrace in Europe, were
subject to i's laws. After a duration of nearly two centuriesj
it was finally destroyed by the Macedonians in the year 3672.

Greece, which was at first divided into several petty king-
doms, changed its condition towards the commencement of the
fourth millenary ; when its principal cities, till then governed
by kings, formed themselves into detached republics. An en-
thusiasm for liberty spread over all Greece, and inspired every
bosom with the love of glory. Military bravery, as well as arts,
and talents of all kinds, were fostered and encouraged by public
frames, the principal of which were the Olympic. Two cities,

!■ 1

...

.'t

hi^

CHAPTBR I.

Athens and Lacedemon, fixed upon themselves for a time the
eyes'of all Greece. Solon was the legislator of the former, and
Lycurgiis of the latter. To these two republics all the rest suc-
cumbed, either as allies, or by right of conquest. Athens has
rendered herself immortal by the victories which she gained
over ihe Persians, at the famous battles of Marathon, Salamis.
and Platan ; fought a. m. 3512, 3522, and 3523.

The ascendency which these victories procired the Atheni-
ans over the rest of the Greek states, excited the jealousy of
the Lacedemonians, and became the principal cause of the
famous civil war which arose in 3572, between these two repub-
lics, and which is known '/y the name of the Peloponnesian war.
This was followed by Vf rious other civil wars ; and these dis-
asters contributed to greatly exhaust the Greeks, and to break
that union which had been the true source of their prosperity
and their glory. Philip, King of Macedon, had the address to
turn these unhappy divisions to his own advantage, and soon
made himself master of all Greece. The battle of Chteronea,
which he gained over the Athenians about the year of the
world 3664, completed the conquest of that country.

Alexander the Great, son of Philip, afterwards attacked the
Persian empire, which he utterly overthrew, in consequence ol
the three victories which he gained over Darius Codomannus,
the last of the Persian kings, at the passage of the Granjcus in
3668, at Issus in 3669, and near Arbela in 3672.

The monarchy founded by Alexander fell to pieces afler his
death. From its wreck were formed, among others, by three
of his generals, the three kingdoms of Macedon, Syria and
Egypt ; all of which were conquered in succession by the Ro-
mans, A. H. 3836, 3936, and 3972. Greece itself had been
reduced to a Roman province, after the famous sack of Corinth,
and the destruction of the Achsean league, a. m. 3856, or 144
years before Christ.

The empire of the Greeks was succeeded by that of the

Romans, which is distinguished from all its predecessors, not

by its extent and duration, than by the wisdom with

which it was administered, and the fine monuments of all kinds

which it has transmitted to posterity. The greatness of this em-

Eire was not, however, the achievement of a single conqueror,
ut the work of ages. Its prosperity must be chiefly ascribed
to the primitive constitution of the Republic, which inspired the
Romans with the love of liberty, and the spirit of patriotism —
which animated them to glory and perseverance, and taught
them to despise dangers and death. Their religion, likewise,
served as a powetful engine to restrain and direct the multitude,
according to the views and designs of the government.

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1 likewise,

luUitude,

INTHODUCTtrfW.

The earlier part of the Roman history may be divided into
three periods. The first of these represents Rome under the
government of kings ; from the time of its foundation, about
the year of the world 3349, to the expulsion of Tarquin the
Proud, nnd the establishment of the Republic, in 3193. The
second extends from the establishment of the Republic, in the
year of Rome 245, to the first Punic war, in the year of the
City 490, and of the world 3738. The third commences with
the first Punic war, and terminates at the battle of Actium.
which put an end to the Republican government, and re-estab-
lished monarchy under Augustus, in the year of Rome 723.

During the first of these periods, the Romans had to sustain
incessant wars with their neighbours, the petty states of Italy.
They subdued the whole of that peninsuhi in course of the
second period ; and it was not till the third, that they carried
their arms beyond their own country, to conquer the greater

girtion of the then known world. The first two periods of the
Oman history, are full of obscure and uncertain traditions. In
those remote ages, the Romans paid no attention to the study of
letters. Immersed entirely in the business of war, they haa no
other historical records than the annals of their pontiffs, which

g^rished in the sack of Rome, at the time of its invasion by the
auls, in the year of the City 365.

The most ancient of their historians was Fabius Pictor, who
wrote his Annals in the sixth century after the foundation of
Rome, or about the time of the second Punic war. These
Annals, in which Fabius had consulted both tradition and
foreign authors, are lost ; and we possess no information on
these two periods of Roman history, except what has been left
as by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Titus Livius, who both
wrote in the reign of Augustus, and whose narratives o(\en re>
semble a romance rather than a true history.

The cultivation of letters and arts among the Romans, did
not, properly speaking, commence until the third period ; and
after they had had intercourse with civilized nations, as the
Carthaginians nnd Greeks. It was not until 484 years after the
building of the city, that they struck their first silver coinage ;
and ten years afterwards, they equipped their first fleet against
the Carthaginians. It is at this period, also, that truth begins
to dawn upon their history, and to occupy the place of fable
and tradition. Besides their native historians, Titus Livius,
Florus, and Velleius Paterculus, several Greek authors, as Po-
lybius, Plutarch, Appian of Alexandria, Dion Cassius, &c. have
furnished useful memorials on this period. The history of
Polybius, especially, is a work of the highest merit. The

f.'

(

Ih^

4ic

; .1 r-

> ■

a.; J'

m
Hi

3R nilAPTER I.

Blalexman will there find lessons on polilich and government
and the soldier instructions in ilie art of war.

A long scries of foreign wars put the Romans in possession
of the fsles of the Meditcrranoan, Spain, Northern Africa,
Egypt, Gaul, lllyria, Macedonia, Greece, Thrace, and all Asia,
as far as the Euphrates. The destruction of the powerful re-
public of Carthage was the grand ciist of the die that decided
the empire of the world in favour of the Romans.

Carthage was a colony which the ancient Phcnicians had
founded on the coast of Africa, near the modern city of Tunis,
in the year of the world 3119, and 130 before the founding of
Rome, in imitation of their mother country, the Carthaginians
rendered themselves famous by their merchandise and their
marme. The extent to which they carried their commerce, and
the force necessary for its protection, rendered their arms every
where victorious. They gradually extended their conquests
along the shores of Africa, in Spain, and the islands of the
Mediterranean.

The attempts which they had made to get possession of
Sicily, was the occasion of embroiling them in a war with the
Romans. For nearly two hundred years, Rome and Carthagr
disputed between them the empire of the world ; and it wat
not until these two mighty rivals had, more than once, made
each other tremble for their independence, that the Carthaginians
yielded to the yoke of the conqueror. Their capital, after a
siege which lasted nearly three years, was completely laid in
ruins by the famous ScipioiEmilianus, the scholar of rolybius
No monument of the Carthaginians now remains to point oui
the ancient splendour of that republic. Their national archives
md all the literary treasures they contained, perished with the
city, or were destroyed by the Romans. The destruction of
Carthage happened in the year of Rome 608, and of the world
36)56, the same year that witnessed the sack of Corinth.

The fall of Carthage, and more especially the conquest of
Greece, Egypt, and the Asiatic kingdoms, occasioned a wonder-
ful revolution in the manners and government of the Romans
The riches of the East, the arts and institutions of the van
quished nations, brought them acquainted with luxuries they
had never known, which soon proved the fatal harbingers of
\ vice. Their patriotism and love of liberty insensibly declined.
I and became extinct : powerful and ambitious citizens fomented
I insurrections and civil wars, which ended in the subversion of
I the republican government, and the establislunent of monarchy
Two triumvirates appeared in succession. The first consisteil
of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus, and was dissolved in conse-

rnrnent

ssesnion
Africa,

[ill Asia,

LTful re-
live iiled

inns had
if Tunis,
nding of
iHginians
ind their
lorce, and
ins every
conquests
ds of the

lession of

with the

CarthagP j \

td it wot ' ;

ice, made

ihagiiiianii

il, after a

ly laid in

Polybiua
point out I
archives I

^ with the

.ruction of
the world
th.

jnquest of
a wonder-
Romana
f the van

juries they
•bingers of
declined,
fomented
jver.sion ol
monarchy
it consisteil
in conse-

tNTKOI , UIIOM.

quence of the civil wiir that aro!«e among the triumvirs. Casar,
havings con(|ui>red Foiii|)i>y ut the bnttle of Pharsalia, in the
y»Mir «»f Komf 706, became master of the empire, under the title
of perpetuul dictiitor. This new elevation of fortune he did
not long enjoy ; he was assiisNinutcd in the senate by a band of
cn^^<pi^at•)r^l, at the houd of whom was Brutus, in the year of
Koine 710, iind 42 before the birth of Christ.

A second triumvirate was formed between Mark Antony,
Cssiir Octaviaiius, and Lepidus. Many thousands of illustri-
ous Romans, and among others Cicero, were at this time pro-
scribed, and put to death by order of the triumvirs. Jealousy
having at length disunited these new tyrants, Octavianus stripped
Lepidus of his power, and defeated Mark Antony in the famous
naval battle which took place near the promontory of Actium,
in the year of Runic 733. Antony having been assassinated in
Egypt, immediately after his defeat, Cossar Octavianus became
sole master of the empire, which he afterwards ruled with
sovereign authority under the name of Augustus.

At this time the Roman empire comprehended the finest
countries of Europe and Asia ; with Egypt and all the northern
part of Africa. It was bounded on the west by the Rhine and
the Danube, and on the east by the Euphrates. The successors
of Augustus added the greater part of Britian to the empire.
Trajan carried his victorious arms beyond the Danube ; he con-
quered the Dncians, who inhabited those countries known at
present under the name of Hungary, Transylvania, Moldavia,
Walachia, and Bessarabia. In the East this prince extended the
limits of the empire beyond the Euphrates, having subdued
Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, Colchis and Iberia, (or Geor-
gia;) but the conquests of Trajan were abandoned by his suc-
cessors, and the empire again shrunk within the bounds pr<v
scribed by Augustus.

This empire, which extended from north to south nearly sii
hundred leagues, and more than a thousand from east to west,
viz. from the 24° to the €6*^ of latitude, comprised a total of
180,000 square leagues. The population, during its most
flourishing state, may be estimated at about 120,000,000, — a
population which equals that of modern Europe, with the ex-
ception of Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Russia and Turkey.

The government which had been introduced, was an absolute
monarchy, only clothed with the forms of the ancient republic.
Under the populai titles of consul, tribune of the people, ffeue*
ral, grand pontiff. cen.sor, dK. the prince united in himself all
the various attributes of supreme power. The senate indeed
enjoyed extensive prerogatives ; 'he legislative power, which

}

<M**>'»W«*«

30 cHArrBR I.

had been reserved at first for the pf«fM«, was nfterw»rds Iran**
ferred to this body ; but as the iiiiliiiiry re wholly subordinate
to the prince, and as ho had also i»i his coininand a numeroui
guard, it is easy to perceive that the luilliority of the senate wn»
but precarious, and by no means u counterpoise to that of the
prince.

A government so constructed could not insure the welfare
and happiness of the people, except under princes as humane as
Titus, as just and enlightened as Trajon ond the Antonines ; or
so long as the forms introduced by Augustus should »« respect*
ed. It could not fail to degenerate into arbitrary power, under
tyrants such as Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian ; and
tne senate must then have been but a servile instrument in the
hands of the prince, employed by him to facilitate the means of
satiating his passions and his tyranny.

The maxims of absolute power soon became the fashionable
and favourite doctrine. Civilians began to teach publicly, that
all the authority of the senate and the people was transferred to
the prince ; that he was superior to the laws ; that his power
extended to the lives and fortunes of the citizens ; and that he
might dispose of the state as his own patrimony. These en-
croachments of despotism, joined to the instability of the imperial
throne, the decay of military discipline, the unbridled license of
the troops, the employing whole corps of barbarians in their
wars, must all be reckoned among the riumber of causes that
hastened the downfall of the Roman empire.

Constantine the Great, was the first of the emperors that em-
braced Christianity, and made it the established religion of the
state in 324. He quitted the city of Rome, the ancient residence
of the CtBsars, and fixed his capital at Byzantium, in 330, which
took from him the name of Constantinople. Anxious to provide
for the security of his new capital, he stationed the flower of his
legions in the East, dismantled the frontiers on the Rhine and
the Danube, and dispersed into the provinces and towns, the
troops who had heretofore encampeu on the borders of these
great rivers. In this way he secured the peace and tranquillity
of the interior, and infused, for a time, a new vigour into the
government ; but he committed a great mistake in giving the
first example of making a formal division of the stale between
his sons, without regard to the principle of unity and indivisi-
bility which his predecessors had held sacred. It is true, this
separation was not of long continuance ; but it was renewed
afterwards by Theodosius the Great, who finally divided the
empire between his two sons in the year 395 ; Arcadius had the
eastern, and Honorius the western part of the empire. This

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had the
This

INTIODirCTION.

latter comprehended Italy, Uaul, Britain, Spain, Northern Afri-
ca, Khutia, Viiidclicia, Noricum, Pannonia, and Illyria. It wai
duritif^ the mifn of HnnuriuM, and under the admmistration of
hiii minister Slilicho, that the memorable invasion of the barba-
rians huppenud, which wns followed shortly aAer, by the de-
ntruction of the Western Empire.

It is with this great event, which gave birth to a variety of
new states and kingdoms, that the following History of the Revo-
lutions of Europe commences. It is divit^d into nine sections
or periods of time, according to the successive changes which the
political system of Europe experienced from the iiAh to the
nineteenth century.

In the Ant, which extends to the year 800, the barbariana,
who invaded the Western Empire, formed new states in Spain,
Gaul, and Italy ; and produced a complete revolution in the
governments, laws, manners, letters, and arts of Europe. It was
during this period that the Franks gained the ascendency over
the other European nations ; that the Popes laid the ground-
work of their secular power ; that Mahomet founded a new re-
ligion in Asia, and an empire which extended through Africa
into Spain.

In the second period, which extends from 800 to 962, a vast
empire was erected, and again dismembered, after enjoying a
short-lived splendour. From its wreck were formed new king-
doms, which have served as the basis for several states of mo-
dern times. Others were established by the Normans, Russians,
and Hungarians.

In the third period, which terminates with the year 1072,
Germany became the preponderating power, and began to de-
cline, through the abuse of the feudal system. The House of
Cap«t mounted the throne of France ; and the Normans achiev-
ed the conquest of England. The Northern nations, converted
to Christianity, began to make some figure in history: the mo-
narchy of Russia became great and powerful ; while the Greek
empire, and that of the Romans, fell into decay.

During ihe fourth period, which ends with the vear 1300, the
Roman Pontifls acquired an immense sway. This is also the
epoch of the Crusades, which had a powerful influence on the
social and political state of the European nations : The dark-
ness of the middle ages began gradually to disappear ; the esta-
blishment of communities, and the enfranchisement of the serfs,
gave birth to new ideas of liberty. The Roman jurisprudence
was restored from the neglect and oblivion into which it had
fallen, and taught in the universities : Italy was covered with a
multitude of republics, and the kingdom oi the two Sicilies, and

'•

«r

^ til

b i

CHAPTER I.

of Portugal were founded : The inquisition was established in
Franco, and Magna Charta in England : The Moguls in the east
raised, by their conquests, a powerful and extensive empire.

The^A period, ivhich ends at the taking of Constantinople
by the Turks in 1453, witnessed the decline of the Pontifical
jurisdiction : Learning and science made some progress, and
various important discoveries prepared the way for still greater
improvements : Commerce began to flourish, and extend its in-
tercourse more widely: The European states assumed their
present form ; while the Turks, an Asiatic race, established their
dominion in Europe.

The sixth period, from 1463 to 1648, is the epoch of the re-
vival of the belles lettres, and the fine arts ; and of the discovery
America: It is also that of the Reformation of religion accom-
plished in Germany ; the influence of which has extended over
all the countries in the world. It was likewise during this
period that Europe was desolated by religious wars, whtch
eventually must have plunged it again into a state of barbarism.
The peace of Westphalia became the basis of the political sys-
tem of Europe.

In the seventh period, from 1648 to 1713, this federal system
was turned against France, whose power threatened to overturn
the political balance of Europe. The peace of Utrecht set
bounds to the ambition of its aspiring monarchs, while that of
Oliva adjusted the contending claims of the North.

The European states, delivered from the terror of universal
dominion, began to think the establishment of it an impossibility ;
and losing conceit of the system of political equipoise, they sub-
stituted in its place maxims of injustice and violence.

The eighth period, which comes down to 1789, is an epoch
of weakness and corruption, during which the doctrines of a
libertine and impious philosophy led the way to the downfall of
thrones and the subversion of social order.

[The consequences of this new philosophy bring tis to the
ninth period, during which, Europe was almost entirely revolu-
tionized. The present history terminates with the year 1815,
which forms a natural division in this revolutionary epoch; the
final results of which can be known only to posterity ]

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VIEW

OF THE

REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPR

CHAPTER H

FERIOD I.

Fr^ the InvaHon of the Roman Empire in the West bu the
Barbanam, to the time of Charlemagne, a. d. 406—800.

t^„'Jr„1 ?"'"''!1 ^'"PT '"V';/"' """"y y«"«> l»^«n gradually
tending towards Us downfall. Its energies were exhausted^
and It required no great efforts to lay prostrate that gigantic
power which had almost lost its strength and activit/^fJe
vices of the government, the relaxation of discipline, the ani-
mosities of faction, and the miseries of .he people, all announced
he approaching ruin of the empire. Divided by mutual"'^
busies, enervated by luxury, and oppressed by despotism, the

of^rrr""* V" "•* Tt'^^V^ *'"'^'^"'' ">« numerous swarms
of barbarians from the North, who, unacquainted with luxury,
and despising danger and death, had learned to conquer in the
ranks of the Imperial armies. ^

Several of the Emperors, guided by a short-sighted policy,
had received into the.r pay entire battalions of foreigners ; an^d
to recompense their services, had assigned them settlements in

ht i„. f ' P'*""""' "'^ "** ^.""P''*- T''"^ 'he Franks obtained,
by way of compensation, territories in Belgic Gaul: while simi.
lar grants were made in Pannonia and in Thrace, to the Vandals
Alans. Goths, and other barbarians. This liberklity of the Ro:
mans, which was a true mark of weakness, together with the
vast numbers of these troops which they employed in their wars

prey. Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals the

Thp ri l^T'r'"'' '^^ downfall of the Western empire.
Ihe example of these nations was soon followed by the Visi-
goths, the Burgundians, the Alemanns.' the Franks, the Huns.
Lo^trf '• AM !"""'• '^' """'«• "»« Ostrogoths, and the

i!!! «f r ^" "'"*" "■"'""'• ""'• *•»« ««^«P'i»n of the Huns;
were of German origin. '

1 1

■i I

i^K

48 CIIAPTKR 11.

The Vanpals, it appears, were originally settled in that imrt
of norihern Germany which lies between the Elbe and the Vis-
tula. They forined'a branch of the ancient Suevi, as did also
the Burgundians and the Lombards. After the third century,
and under the reign of the Emperor Probus, we find them, with
the Burgundians, engaged in warring against the Romans on
the Rhine. In the time of Aurelian, (272) they established them-
selves in the western part of Dacia, that is, in Transylvania, and
a part of modern Hungary. Oppressed in these districts by the
Goths, they obtained from Constuntine the Great, settlements in
Pannonia, on condition of rendering military service to the
Romans. They remained in Pannonia, until the commencement
of the fifth century, when they set out on their emigration to-
wards Gaul. It was on this occasion that they associated them-
selves with the Alans, a people originally from Mount Caucasus,
and ancient Scythia; a branch of which, settled in Sarmatia
near the source of the Borysthenes or Dnieper, had advanced
a« far as the Danube, and there made a formidable stand against
the Romans. In their passage through Germany, the Vandals
and the Alans joined a body of the Suevi, who also inhabited
the banks of the Danube, eastward of the powerful nation of the
Alemanns. United in this rude confederacy, they entered Gaul,
plundering and destroying wherever they went. Mayence,
Worms, Spire, Strasbourg, and many flourishing cities of Gaul,
were pillaged by these barbarians.

The Goths,' the most powerful of these destructive nations,
be^ran to rise into notice in the third century, after the time of
the Emperor Caracalla. They then inhabited the cr>untry be-
tween the Vistula, the Dniester, the Borysthenes, and Jie Tanais
or Don. It is not certain whether they were originally from
these regions, or whether, in more remote times, they inhabited
Scandinavia, from which, according to Jornandes, a Gothic au-
thor, they emigrated at an early period. It is however certain,
thai they were of German extraction ; and that, in the third and
fourth centuries, they made the Ceesars tremble on their thrones.
The Emperor Aurelian was compelled (274) to abandon the pro-
vince of Dacia to their dominion.

This nation, the first of the German tribes that embraced the
Christian religion,' was divided, in their ancient settlements
lieyond the Danube, into two principal branches. They who
inhabited the districts towards the east and the buxine Sea.
between the Dniester, the Borysthenes, and the Tanais, were
colled Ostrogoths ; the Visigoths were the branch which extend-
ed westward, and occupied ancient Dacia, and the regions situ-
ated between the Dniester, the Danube and the Vistula. At*

' ' - | g ftjJv.«,^^wtta.,JteA ^J^#v

It Mft

e Vis.
d also
sntury,
™, wilh
ins on
I them*
lia, and
by the ' '
lenls in
to the ;
cement
ion to-
1 them- I
ucasus. <
armatia '
Ivanced |
against 1
Vandals i
habited {
n of the i
dGaul.
ayence,
ifGaul,

lations,
time of
itry be-
Tanais

ily from
ihabited

Ithic au*

Icertain,
lird and
thrones.

[the pro-

Lced the
llemeuts
ley who
Ine Seat
lis, were
extend*
Ins situ*
la. At>

PBKIOD I. A. D. 406—800. 411

tacked in these vast countries by the Huns, (375) some were
Rubjugfaled, and others compelled to abandon their habitations.
A part of the Visigoths then fixed their abode in Thrace, ia
MiBsia, and the frontiers of Dacia, with consent of the emperors ;
who granted also to the Ostrogoths settlements in Pannonia.
At length the Visigoths, after having; twice ravaged Italy, sacked
and plundered Rome, ended their conquests by establishing
themselves in Gaul and in Spain. One branch of these Goths
appears to have been the Thuringians, whom we find in the
fifth century established in the heart of Germany, where they
erected a very powerful kingdom.

Tub Fbanks were probably a confederacy which the German
tribes, situated between the Rhine, the Maine, the Weser, and
the Elbe, had formed among themselves, in order to maintain
their liberty and independence against the Romans. Tacitus,
who wrote about the commencement of the second century, did
not know them under this netv name, which occurs for the first
time in the historians of the third century. Among the German
tribes who composed this association, we find the Chauci, the
Sicambri, the Chamavi, the Cherusci, the Bructeri, the Catti,
the Ampsivarii, the Ripuarii, the Salii, kc.* These tribes,
though combined for the purposes of common defence, under
the general name of Franks, preserved, nevertheless, each their
laws and form of government, as well as their particular chiefs,
and the names of their aboriginal tribes. In the fourth, and
towards the beginning of the fifth century, the whole country
lying within the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe,
was called Francia.

Another confederation of the German tribes, was that of the
Alemanns ; unknown also to Tacitus. It took its origin about
the commencement of the third century. Their territories ex-
tended between the Danube, the Rhine, the Necker, the Main,
and the Lahn. On the east, in a part of Franconia and modem
Suabia, they had for their neighbours and allies the Suevi,
who, after having long formed a distinct nation, were at length
blended wilh the Alemanns, and gave their country the name
of Suabia. The Alemanns rendered themselves formidable to
the Romans, by their frequent inroads into Gaul and Italy, in the
third and fourth centuries.

The Saxons, unknown also to Tacitus, began to make a
figure in history about the second century, when we find th<>m
settled beyond the Elbe, in modem Holstein, having for their
neighbours the Angles, or English, inhabiting Sleswick Proper.
These nations were early distinguished as pirates and free-
booter* ; and, while the Franks and the Alemanns spread them-

I ;

; I

! i'^I

CHAPTER II.

selves over the interior of Gaul, the Saxons infested the coaoU
and even extended their incursions into Britain. The Franks
having penetrated into Gaul with their main forces, the Saxons
passed the Elbe, and in course of time, occupied, or united in
alliance with them, the greater part of ancient Francia, which
took from them the name of Saxony. There they suhdivided
themselves into three principal branches; the OstpLUiam to
the east, the Westphalians to the west, and the Angriaiis or
Angrivarians, whose territories lay between the other two,
along the Weser, and as far as the confines of Hesse.

The HiTNS, the most fierce and sanguinary of all the nations
which overran the Roman Empire in the fifth century, came
trom the remote districts of northern Asia, which were altogether
unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the de-
scriptions which the historians of the fifth and sixth centuries
have given us of them, we are led to believe, that they were
Kalmucks or Monguls originally. The fame of their arms had
begun to spread over Europe so early as the year 376 of the
Christian era. Having subdued the Alans, and crossed the
Tanais, they subverted the powerful monarchy of the Goths, and
gave the first impulse to the great revolution of the fifth cen-
tury, which changed the face of all Europe. The Eastern empire
first felt the fury of these barbarians, who carried fire and sword
wherever they went, rendered the Emperors their tributaries,
and then precipitated themselves on the West under the conduct
of the famous Attila.'

Several of the nations we have now enumerated, divided
among themselves the territories of Gaul. This province, one
of the richest and most important in the Western empire, was
repeatedly overrun and devastated by the barbarous hordes of the
fifth century. The Visigoths were the first that formed settle-
ments in it. On their arrival under the command of King Aiulf
or Adolphus, (412,) they took possession of the whole country
lying within the Loire, the Rhine, the Durance, the Mediter-
ranean, and the Alps. Toulouse became their capital, and the
residence of their kings.

The Burgundians, a people, it would appear, originally from
the countries situated between the Oder and the Vistula, fol-
lowed nearly in the track of the Visigoths ; as we find them,
about the year 413, established on the Upper Rhine and in
Switzerland. After the dissolution of the empire, they suc-
ceeded in establishing themselves in those parts of Gaul, known
by the names «f the Sequanois, Lyonnois, Viennois knd Nar-
bonnois, viz. in those districts which formed, in course of lime,
the two Burgundies, the provinces of Lyonnois, Dauphiny and

'^t ' ayj^^^.^dkd

IM;

PERIOD I. A. D. 406— SOO, 45

I Provence on this side of the Durance, Savoy, the Pays de Vand,
he Valais and Switzerland." These counlrie, then assumed

j the name of the Kingdom of the Bnrgundians.

I .v,7r .^'-^f '■^' ""d "if. S"EV' became flourishing nations on

I the banks of the Upper Rhine and the Danube. Thev invaded

hose countries in Gaul, or the Ger mania Prima of the Romans,

known since under the names of Alsace, the Palatinate, May-

ence, &c. ; and extended their conquests also over a considerable

part of Rhetia and Vmdelicia.

At length the Franks, having been repulsed in different ren-
counters by the Romans, again passed the Rhine (430,) under
the conduct of Clodion their chief; made themselves masters
of the greater part of Belgic Gaul, took possession of Tournav,
tambray and Amiens ; and thus laid the foundation of the new
kingdoni of France m Gaul. The Romans, however, still main-
tained their authority in the interior of that province, and the
brave^tius their general made head against all those hordes
of barbarians who disputed with him the dominion of Gaul.
»K« ,r! "' V crisis that the Hcjns made their appearance on
he theatre of war. The fierce Attila, a man of great military
talents, after having overthrown various states, conquered Pan-
noma, and different provinces of the Eastern empire on the right
bank of the Danube, undertook his famous expedition into Ga°j|.
Marching along the Danube from Pdnnonia, at the head of an
innumerable army,^ he passed the Rhine near the Lake of Con-
stance, pillaged and ravaged several places, and spread the terror
of his arms over all Gaul. The Franks and the Visigoths united
their forces with those of the Roman General, to arrest the

K'n'r M^^1?"^T"\ .^ '''""dyand obstinate encounter
took place (451,) on the plains of Chalons-sur-Marne, or Mery-

and m^'th r^.S°'*,'''"i- .Thierry, King of the Visigoth's,

the field of battle. Night separated the combatants ; and Attila,
who found his troops too much exhausted to renew the combat
resoved to retreat. The following year he made a descei.l
on Italy, and committed great devastations. This proved hi*
last expedition ; for he died suddenly on his return, and the i
monarchy of the Huns expired with him. I

The defeat of the Huns did not re-establish the shattered and |
ruinous affairs of the Romans in Gaul. The Salian Franks ^ !
under their kings Meroveus and Childeric I., the successors of '
Clodion, extended their conquests more and more ; till at leneth I
Uovis, son of Childerit I., put an end to the dominion of the i
Romans in that country, by the victory which he gained in 486 I
at S>oissons, over Syagrius, the last of "the Roman generals, who '

-J

a^Pfek-

-*-fer

iP-

40 CRAPTBR n>

died of a broken heart in consequence of this defeat. The Ale*
munns afterwards having disputed with him the empire of the
Guuis, he routed them completely (496.) at the famous battle of
Tolbiac or Zulpich ;» seized their estates, and soon after em-
braced Christianity. Emboldened by his new creed, and backed
by the orthodox bishops, he attacked the Visigoths, who were
of the heretical sect of Arius, defeated and killed their king,
Alaric II., in the plains of Vougle, near Poitiers, (507,) and
stripped them of all their possessions between the Loire and the
Pyrenees." Gaul became thus, by degrees, the undisputed
possession of the Franks. The descendants of Clovis added to
their conauests the kingdom of the Burgundians (634,) which
they totallv overthrew. . • u ■

T hpoe same princes increased their possessions in the intenoi
of Germany, by the destruction of the powerful kingdom of the
Thurinojans (631,) comprising those vast countries between the
Werra, the Aller, the Elbe, the Saal, the Mulda, and the Danube ;
and which are now known under the names of »axonv, 1 hu-
ringia, Franconia, the Upper Palatinate," &c. Thts kingdom
they divided with their allies the Saxons, who obtained the nor-
thern part of it, situated between the Unstrut and the baal.

While the Visigoths, the Burgundians, the Franks and the
Alemanns, were disputing with each other the conquest of Gaul,
the Vandals, the Suevi, and the Alans, turned their ambitious
views towards Spain. After having settled some years in Gaul,
these tribes passed the Pyrenees (409.) to establish themselves
in the most fertile regions of Spain. The Vandals seized Bff.
tica, and a part of Gallicia ; the Suevi seized the rest of Gal-
licia ; while the Alans took possession of Lusitania, and the
province of Carihagena. The Alans afterxyards submitted to
the sway of Gonderic, King of the Vandals (420,) while the
Suevi preserved their native princes, who reigned in Gallicia
and Lusitania ; this latter province having been abandoned by
the Vandals, (427,) when they passed into Afric^.

Meanwhile new conquerors began to make their appearance
in Spain. The Visigoths, pressed by the Romans in Gaul,
took the resolution of carrying their arms beyond the Pyrenees.
Under the conduct of th^ir King, Adolphus, they made them-
selves masters of the city of Barcelona (in 416.) Euric, one o
the successors of this prince, took from the Romans (472) all
that yet remained of their possessions in Spain ; and Leovigild,
another of their kings, completed the conquest of all that coun-
try (584,) by reducing the kingdom of the Suevi. The mo-
narchv of the Visigoths, which in its flourishmg state comprised,
besides the continent of Spain, -SepHmania or Languedoc lO

^l''

^fe^5S="'

PERion I. A. D. 406—800.

e Ale*

of the
ittic of
r em-
lacked
( were
king,
,) and
nd the
sputed
ded to
which

nterioi
of the
ten the
inube;
Thu-
ngdom
le nor-
lal.

nd the
'Gaui,
bitious
I Gaul,
iselves
id B(r>
•f Gal-
nd the
tted to
lie the
rallicia
ned by

;arance
Gaul,
renees.
i them-
, one of
172) all
ovigild,
it coun-
'he mo-
1 prised,
edoc io

Gaul, and Mniiritonia Tingitana in Africa, maintained its exi^t*
ence until the commencement of the eighth century ; when, as
we shall afterwards see, it was finally overthrown by the Arabs.

Northern Africa, one of the finest possessions of the Romans, ,
was wre'«ted from them by the Vandals. Count Boniface, who
had the government of that country, having been falsely accused
at the court of the Emperor Vnlentinian III., and believing him-
self ruined in the esteem of that prince, invited the Vandals over
to Africa; proposing to them the surrender of the provinces
intrusted to his command. Genseric was at that time king of
the Vandals. The preponderance which the Visigoths had ac-
quired in Spain, induced that prince to accept the ofier of the
Roman General ; he embarked at the port of Andalusia, (427,)
and passed with the Vandals and the Alans into Africa. Mean-
time, Boniface having made up matters amicably with the Impe-
rial court, wished to retract the engagements which he had
made with the Vandals. Genseric nevertheless persisted in his
^enterprise. He carried on a long and obstinate war with the
Romans ; the result of which turned to the advantage of the
barbarians. Genseric conquered in succession all that part of
Africa pertaining to the Western empire, from the Straits of
Cadiz as far as Cyrenaica, which was dependent on the empire
of the East. He subdued likewise the Balearic Isles, with
Sardinia, Corsica and a part of Sicily.

The writers of that age who speak of this invasion, agree in
painting, in the most lively colours, the horrors with which it
was accompanied. It appears that Genseric, whose whole sub-
jects, including old men and slaves, did not exceed eighty thou-
sand persons, being resolved to maintain his authority by terror,
caused, for this purpose, a general massacre to be made of the
ancient inhabitants of Africa. To these political severities were
added others on the score of religion ; being devoted with all
his subjects to the Arian heresy, he as well as his successors
became the constant and implacable persecutors of the orthodox
Christians.

This prince signalized himself by his maritime exploits, and
by the piracies which he committed on the coasts of Italy and
the whole Roman empire. Encouraged, as is supposed, by the
Empress Eudoxia, who wished to avenge the death of her bus*
band Valentinian III., he undertook an expedition into Italy,
(455,) in which he made himself master of Rome. The city
was pillaged during fifteen days by the Vandals, spoiled of all
its riches and its finest monuments. Innumerable statues, orna-
ments of temples, and the gilded cupola of the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus, were removed in order to be transported to Africa ;

■! !

VIIAHTBR li<

toRclher with many thousands of illustrious cantjyes. A Tcwel
loaded wiilj the most precious monunients of Rome, perishod

in the nnssape. , . , • • l j j

The dominion of the VandaU in Africa lasted about a hundred
vear^. Their kingdom was destroyed by the Emperor Justmian,
who reunited Africa to the empire of ihe Last. Oilimer, the
jii^l king of the Vandals, was comiuered by Belixarius, (5J4,)
and conducted by him in triumph to Constantinople.

Britain, inaccessible by its situation to most of the invaders
that overran the Western empire, was infested, in the fifth cen-
tury, bv the northern inhabitants of that island,— the free Britons,
known" by the name of Caledonians or Picts, and Scots. I he
Romans having withdrawn their legions from the island (446,)
to employ them in Gaul, the Britons, abandoned to their own
strength,' thought proper to elect a king of their own nation,
named Vortigern ; but finding themselves still too weak to resist
the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who, breaking over the
wall of Severus, pillaged and laid waste the Roman province,
thev took the imprudent resolution of calling in to their succour
the Angles, Saxons, and Jutlanders, who were already dis-
tinguished for their maritime incursions. A body of these An-
glo-Saxons arrived in Britain (450,) in the first year of the reign
of the Emperor Marcian, under the command of Hengist and
Horsa. From being friends and allies, they soon became ene-
mies of the Britons ; and ended by establishing their own do-
minion in the island. The native islanders after a protracted
8trug.r|e. were driven into the province of Wales, where they
succeeded in maintaining their independence against their new
conquerors. A number of these fugitive Britons, to escape
froin the yoke of the invaders, took refuge in Gaul. 1 here
they were received by the Franks into Armorica and part of Ly-
onnois, to which they gave the name of Brittany.

The \nglo-Saxons founded successively seven petty king-
doms in Britain, viz. Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northura-
berland. East Anglia, and Mercia. Each of these kingdoms
had severally their own kings ; but they were all united in a
political association, known by the name of the Heptarchy.
One of the seven kings was the common chief of the confede-
racy; and there was a general convention of the whole, called
ttittenagemot, or the assembly of the wise men. Each king-
dom was likewise governed by its own laws, and had its se^ia-
lale assemblies, whose power limited the royal authority.
This federal system continued till the ninth century, \vhen Eg-
lert the Great succeeded in abolishing the Heptarchy (827,1 and
• aised hiiiisell to be King over all England

HJ. ii i i ■

■

In tho midst of this general overthrow, there were still to \m
neen in Italy the phantoms of the Roman eniperori, feebly sun-
portinff a diginty which h.ul ionjr since ioM its splendour. This
hne country had been desolated by the Visigoths, the Huns,
and the Vandals, m succession, without becoming the fixed re-

, sid.nce of any one of these nations. The conquest of ihiil an-
cient seat of the hrst empire in the world, was reserved for the

; Heruls and the Rugians. For a long time, these German na-
tions, who are generally supposed to have emigrated from the

DamL 'ti ^?' ^"'^ I*"'" '»PPr«»'--hing towards the

Danube. They served as auxiliaries to the Romans in Italy,
after the example of various other tribes of their countrymen
being resolved to usurp the dominion of that country, thev
chose for their king Odoacer, under whose conduct they seized
Ravenna and Rome, dethroned Romulus Momyllus Aucrustu-
lus, the last of the Roman Emperors (476,) and put an "entire
end to the empire of the West.

The Heruls did not enjoy these conquests more than seven-
teen years, xvhen they were deprived of them in their turn by
the Ostrogoths. This nation then occupied those extensive
countries on the right bank of the Danube, in Pannonia, Illy,
na, and Thrace within the limits of the Eastern empire. Thev
had rendered themselves formidable to the Romans in that
quarter, by tneir frequent incursions into the very heart of the
empire, fhe Emperor Zeno, in order to withdraw these dan-
gerous neighbours from his frontiers, encouraged their kinc
Iheodoric, as IS aHegod, to undertake the conquest of Italy
from the Heruls This prince immediately penetrated into the
country ; he defeated the Heruls in several actions ; and at
S * ^T f''""''' '° ^''"'himself up in the city of Ravenna
(489,) where, after a siege of three years, he foil into the hands of i
the conqueror, who deprived him at once of his throne and his life '

1 heodoric deserves not to be confounded with the other bar^
barous kings of the fifth century. Educated at the court of '
Constantinople, where he passed the years of his youth, he had
learned to establish his authority by the equity of his laxvs. '
and the wisdom of his administrations. He ruled an empire <
which, besides taly, embraced a great part of Pannonia, Rhetia. :
Noricum, and Illyria.

This monarchy, formidable as it was, did not exist beyond
the space of sixty years : after a sanguinary warfare of eiffh-
teen years, it was totally subverted by the Greeks. The Em-
peror Justinian employed his generals, Belisarius " and Nui-
«!s, in recovering Italy and Sicily from the hands of the Goths,
rhis nation defended their possessions with determined obsii-

fe^

^'1^

i»1,

I* CMAPTIR n.

nacv Kncouragcd by Totila. one of their last king., thcv
main.aim"l a proUacto^ struggle a«ninst the «re^l*«' ""'I. ""^;,
rnSrable Access It w«. durin, J^'-v^r th.u he t^ ol
Rome WHS piUnged afresh, and at length (ol7,) diMnnntu.i oy

with he exception of that part of Rhelia and Noncum wh ch
Thf A^ nanns'occupied. anS which during the war between he
Greeks and the Goths, had become the possession of the l-rank^.
A new revoUuion happene'. in Italy. (5»^.) ^y .^»)\";TZ
f .V „ I nrnhnrds This people, who originally inhabited the
Intrnnart of Germany on the Elbe, and formed a branch
o?tt gre^natiln of the Levi, had at length fixed themseWes
?n Pannon a (527.) after several times changing ihe.r abode
Thev "henTo ned with the Avars, an Asiatic people, against the
Genfdrwho possessed a formidable dominion in ancient Dac.a,
' hrjrhank of the Danube. This state was soon over-
turned by the ctinbne" forces of the two nations and the who e
terrilorieVof the Gepidm passed (565) under the dominion of
the Avlrs The Lombards also abandoned to them their pos-
leLu. IS in Pannonia. and went in quest of new ^ettlemen
no Italy It was in the spring of 568 that they began_ the„
route under the conduct of their King Albo.n. who. without
comineTo regular combat with the Greeks took from then,, ,n
src's^ion. a great number of cities and provinces. Pav.a
which he Gofhs had fortified with care, was l^e only town
Tha opposed him with vigorous resistance ; and -t d.d^^ot ur
' render till after a siege of three years, in 572 Ihe Lombara
kinis made his town the capital of their new dominions, wh.oh,
hesfderUpper Italy, known more especially by the name of
LolrdVconp el ended al.o a considerable part o the middle
and lower disi^icts, which the Lombards gradually wrested

^'The'reSlluibn of which we have just now given a summary
view c lianged the face of all Europe ; but it iiad a more ^ar-
i^ular influence on the fate of ancient Germany. H'eber-
nank tribe whose former boundaries were the fth.ne and the
Zub now extended their territories beyond these rivers
?S;t^„i.venam.^fU^-ati^.^

rfedtSrire'&t Faxons. Frisians. Alemanns.

;hcy
wiin

\h ^

;)t of 1

rhich I

ly no

irhich

ished

•ccks,

,vhich

>n the

nks."

vnsion

3(1 the

branch

\selve8

abode.

nst the

, Dacia,

\ over-

; whole

nion ol

;ir pos-

lements
n theii
kvithout
icm, in
Pavia
ly town

Inot sur-
onibard
, which,
name of
le middlp
wrested

lummary
liore par-

.M.e Ger-
:\nJ the
le rivprs.
Icitus, fell
lix grand

llemaniis.

PBRIOD I. A. D. 406 — 800.

Suabians, nnd Bavarians,'* which cmhriiced all the regions nU
lerwardf coinprchciided under the name of Oermany.

The Aleinunns. and thoir neighbours the Suabians, occupied,
nlonji with the Bavnriiuis, the jjreater part of what is called
Uppor (ftTinnny, on both sides of the Danube as far as the Alps.
The Franks, masters of a powerful monarchy in Gaul, prcaerved,
under their immediate dominion beyond the Rhine, a part of
ancient France, lojjetlier with the territories of which they had
deprived the .\lemanns'* and the Thuringians. In short, in
all Lower Germany, no other names were to be found than
those of the Thuringians, Saxons, and Frisians ; and as to the
eastern part, situated beyond the Saal and the Elbe, as it had
been deserted of inhabitants by the frequent emigrations of the
German tribes, and by the total destruction of the kingdom of
the Thuringians, it was seized in turn by the Slavi, or Slavo-
nians. a race distinguished from the Germans by their language
■nd their manners.

This nation, different colonies of which still occupy a great

Start of Europe, did not begin to figure in history until the
burth century of the Christian era. Jornandes, a Gothic writer
of the sixth century, is the first author who mentions them.
He calls them Slavi, or Slavvia ; and distinguishes them into
three principal branches, the Venedi, the Slavi, and the Antes,
whose numerous tribes occupied the vast countries on the north
of the Euxine Sea, between the Vistula, the Niester, the Nie-
per, tec. It was after the commencement of the sixth century
that these nations emigrated from their ancient habitations, and
spread them.«elves over the east and south of Europe. On the
one side, they extended their colonies as far as the Elbe and
the Saal ; on the other, they crossed the Danube, and penetra-
ted into Noricum, Pannonia, and Illyria; occupying all those
countries known at this day under the names of Hungary,
Sclavonia, Servia, Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Carniola, Carin-
thta, Stiria, and the march of the Venedi. The history of the
sixth century, presents nothing more memorable than the bloody
wars which the emperors of the East had to maintain against
the Slavians of the Danube.

Those colonies of ihetn who first distinguished themselves
on the Elbe, the Havel, the Oder, and in the countries situated
to the north of the Danube, were the Czechi, or Slavi of Bo-
hemia ; the Sorabians inhabiting both sides of the Elbe, be-
tween the Saal and the Oder, in the countries now known under
the names of Misnia, Saxony, Anhalt and Lower Lusnce ; the
Wilzians, or Welatabes, and the Abotriles, spread over Bran-
denburg, Pomerania, and Mecklenburg proper ; and, lastly, the

H^ CHAPTBR I).

Mornvi. or Moravinnn, M'Ulod in Mornvin, and in a p«rt «f mo.
dern Hui.gHry. We fimi, in llu' s.-vi.Mil. .•. niury. n chief named
Sumo, who ruled over iniuiy of ihe.o nuiioM!.. Ho foughi suc-
ceH.fullv u-^uin.l ihc armies of Kins OxiT'-b.-rt. Iii^ M.ppo.ed
thai ihis man wus u Frank iiu-rihunl. whom several of ihe Sla-
vian tribes hud elected as their chief.

There is one thing which, at ihi^ period, ouRht above all to
fix our attention, and that i. the influence which the levolulion
of the hfih century ha.l on the governments, laws, manners,
sciences, and arts of Europe. The German tribes, m establish-
inff themselves in the provinces of the Western empire, mlro-
duced along with them the political institutions by which ihry
had been governed in their native country. The governmems
of ancient Germany were a kind of military democracies, und-r
general, or chiefs, with the prerogatives of kings. All matt. r»
of importance were decided in their general assemblies, com-
posed of freemen, having the privilege of carrying arms, and
Hoing to w.ir.'" The succession to the throne was not hcredi-
farv ; and though it became so in fact in most of the new German
stales, still, on the accession of their princes, they were; attc,,.
tive to preserve ilie ancient forms, which evinced the primitive
right of election that the nation had reserved to itself.

The political division into cantons (gaw,) long used in ancient
Germany, was iiiiroduccd into all the new conquests of the Ger-
man tribes, to facilitate the administration of justice. At the
head of every canton was a justiciary officer, called (xrav, m
Latin C«/,<e.v. who held his court in the open air, assisted by a
certain n.imber of assessors or sherifTs This new division
caused a total change in the geography of Europe The ancient
names of the countries were every where replaced by new ones j
and the alterations which the nomenclature of these divisions
underwent in course of lime, created no «mall embarrassment
in the study of the history and geography of the middle ages
I Among the 'reemen who composed the armies of the German

■ nations, we find the grandees and nobles, who w'ere distinguisb.vl
bv the number of men-at-arms, or freemen, whom they carried

; in their train." They all followed the king, or common chief,

■ of the expedition, not as mercenaries or regular soldiers, but as

■ Tolunteers who had come, of their own accord, to accompany
him. The booty and the conquests which they made in war,

' thev recrnrded as a common properly, to which they had all an
equal rrght. The kings, chiefs, and grandees, in the division
of their territories, received larger portions than the other mill-
tary and freemen, on account of ihe greater efTonts they had
male, and the greater number ol warriors who had followed

'- ' ..-jMbb

mo. 1 1

lined 1 1

sue- 1

[)oxeil 1 1

J Sit. i

nil to
luiion
nneM,
iblish- \
inlro-
1 ihey
imeiiiM
, und-r !
nntli T!»
I, com-

18, »M«1 '

hcretli-
jerman
V aiun-
rimilive

ancient
he OiT-
At the
Jmv, in
leil by a
(livisiiin
ancient
w one.* ;
j visions)
[iissment
jc ages
Germnn
iguisln"''
carried
[on chief,
fs, but aa
ompany
in war,
[ad all an
division
Iher mili-
|they had
followed

PBRioD I. A. D. 4(W — flOO. n

them to the lif'ld. Thpue liiiuls were ,ivrii them as property
in ovi ry rcNpcot free ; iitiil ultli()ii;;h iin ol)li(r,ition wn» impli«(l
of ihi'ir coiiiiirrin;,' in (Icffncc of lh<' ofdninon nui.se, yet it was
rather ii sort ol' (•(iriNi'(|UPnc'e of the i<>rriiorial Kriitit, iitul not im-
posed upon ihi'in at a clause, or »'NS('ntiai coruiiiinii of the tenure.

li ix thiTi'liirt' wroiiif to rejfiini this (li^■i^i()M of Iimd.s us having
given rise to tiffs. War was the favourite orinpation, the only
honourable rank, and the inalienablo preronmivc of u German.
They were .soldiert not of necessity or constraint, but of their
own free will, and because they despised every other employ-
ment, and every other mode of life. Despotism was, therefore,
never to bi> apprehended in a government like this, where the
great body of the nation were in arms, sat in their general as-
semblies, and marched to the field of war. Their kings, how-
ever, soon invented an expedient calculated to shackle the
national liberty, and to augment their own influence in the pub-
lic assemblies, by the number of retainers which they found
means to support. This expedient, founded on the primitive
manners of the Germans, was the institution of fiefs.

It was long a custom among the ancient Germans, that their
chiefs should have, in peace as well as in war, a numerou.s suite
of the bravest youths attached to their person. Beisides provi-
sions, tliey supplied them with horses and arm$,and shared with
them the spoil which ihey took in war. This practice subsisted
even after the Germans had established themselves in the pro-
vinces of the Western Empire. The kmgs, and, after their
example, the nobles, continued to entertain a vast number of
companions and followers ; and the better to secure their alle-
giance, they granted them, instead of horses and arms, the enjoy-
ment of certain portions of land, which they dismembered Irom
their own territories.

These grants, known at first by the name of benefices, and
afterwards of Jiefs, subjected those who received them to personal
services, and allegiance to the superiors of whom they held
them. As they were bestowed on the individual possessor, and
on the express condition of personal services, it is obvious that
originally fiefs or benefices were not hereditary; and that they
returned to the superior, when the reason for which they had
been given no longer existed.

The \aws and jurisprudence of the Romans were in full prac-
tice through all the provinces of the Western Empire, when the
German nations established themselves there. Far from super-
seding or abolishing them, the invaders permitted the ancient
inhabitants, and such of their new subjects as desired it, to hve
conformably to these laws, and to retain them in their courts of

1 1

1 ' ?

M,^

CHAPTER 11.

lustice Nevertheless, without adopting this system of jum.

" r"" teVXi ':t llela in the Ro.an provinces, to have the.r
ancUnt customs, to which they were so pecuharly attached, di-

^•^Th'e C" Vef ^t'sETn-d Ripuarian Franks, those of the
Vil^oths the Bu gundians, the Bavarians the AngU>-Saxons
ViMgotns, uie u">b , , T„,,,bards, were collected

P.n .ans as well as of their attachment to that personal l.berty
Gt-r lans, as weii a^' " characteristic of human ;

and 'nJeP«"d'^"'^*='.^^^''^;j^ '" According to these laws, every .

of cattle. Murder 'J^J» "J'^' equivalent, which was more

rSrs^vl'l^ai't-r/dyren. «„. o,c.„dUio„ »,

"'E°*"v''f "™a„ wa» exempt Trom cotpor.l p.ml,hm«-, .«d
in hand. Hence, we ua a ^^ customs of the

UTI8>

their
great
theit
i, di- I

)fthfc

xons,

lected

erned

loose.

A the

iberty

luman

every
reance

those
ieredi-
allow-
ed, by
lumber
ir ; and
s more
tion of

It; and \
parties ;
1 sword
of God,
i of the
sting in
, encou-
ss on all
^ments
them to
ich they
and rob-
standara
i perfidy
ourt, the

the bane-
after the
1 a single

learnmgi

PERIOD I. A. D. 406—800.

it is true, had for a lonn; time been gradually falling into decay,
and a corrupt taste had bcpun to appear among the Romans in
works of genius and imagination ; but no comparison can be
made between the state of literature, such as it was in the West
anterior to the revolution of the fifth century, and that which we
find there afier the conquests of the German nations.

These barbarians, addicted solely to war and the chase, de-
spised the arts and sciences. Under their destructive hands,
the finest monuments of the Romans were levelled to the ground ;
their libraries were reduced to ashes ; their schools and semi-
naries of instruction annihilated. The feeble rays of learning
that remained to the vanquished, were unable to enlighten or
civilize those enemies to knowledge and mental cultivation.
The sciences, unpatronised and unprolocted by those ferocious
conquerors, soon fell into total contempt.

It is to the Christian religion alone, which was embraced, in
succession, by the barbarous destroyers of the empire, that we
owe the preservation of the mutilated and venerable remains
which we possess of Greek and Roman literature.'^ The cler-
gy, being the authorized teachers of religion, and the only inter-
preters of the sacred writings, were obliged by their office to
have some tincture of letters. They thus became, over all the
East, the sole depositaries of learning; and for a long series of
ages, there was nobody in any other rank or profession of life,
that occupied themselves with science, or had the slightest ac-
quaintance even with the art of writing. These advantages
which the clergy enjoyed, contributed in no small degree to
augment their credit and their influence. Every where they
were intrusted with the management of state affairs ; and the
offices of chancellor, ministers, public notaries, and in general,
all situations where knowledge or the art of writing was indis-
pensable, were reserved for them ; and in this way their very
name (clericus) became as it were the synonyme for a man of
letters, or any person capable of handling the pen. The bish-
ops, moreover, held the first rank in all political assemblies, and
in war marched to the field in person, at the head of their vassals.

Another circumstance that contributed to raise the credit and
the power of the clergy was, that the Latin language continued
to be employed in the Roman provinces which had been sub-
jected to the dominion of the German nations. Every thing
was written exclusively in the Roman tongue, which became the
language of the church, and of all public acts ; and it was long
before the German dialects, which had become universally pre-
valent, could be reduced to writing. The corrupt pronunciation
of the Latin, and its mixture with foreign idioms and contsruc-

mmM

m )i

irif

CHAPTER II.

tiuns, pr.ve birth, in course of time, to new languages, which
still retain evidence of their Roman origm, such as the Italian,
Snat.i>h, Portuguese, French and English languages. In the
filh and following centuries, the Teutonic language or that
spoken bv the conquerors of Gaul, was called hngim Francica;
this was distinguished from the Ung^m Romana, or the language
spoken by the people ; and which afterwards gave rise to the
modern /rench It appears, therefore, from what we have just
Led, that the incursion of the German tribes mto the provinces ;
of the West, was the true source of all the barbarity, ignorance ,
and superstition, in which that part of Europe was so long and
so universally buried. , ,

There would have been, therefore, every reason to deplore a

revolution, not less sanguinary in j»\^lf '*^"" ^'^"^'.''""V" Jl"
consequences, if, on the one hand, it had not been the instru-
ment of delivering Europe from the terrible despotism of the
Somans ; and, on^the other, if we did not find, in the rude m-
stiiuiions of the German conquerors, some germs of hberty»
which, sooner or later, were sure to lead the nations of Europe
to wiser laws, and better organized governments.

Amon<r the states which rose on the ruins of the Roman em-
pire, that^of the Frnnks aco =red the preponderance; and, tor
several ages, it sustained t'lr • iracter of being l^e /"o^l P^J"
erful kinidom in Europe, ^u ...archy, founded by Clov.s
and extended still more by h . r. ..sors, embraced the whole
I of Gaul except Languedoc, «... .. uelonged to the Visigoths
i The greater part of Germany also was subject to it, with the
i exception of Saxony, and the territories of the Slav.. Afte it
i had fallen into decay, by the partitions and civil wars of the
I descendants of Clovis, it rose again, solely however by the wis-
j dom and ability of the mayors of the palace, who restored it once
', more to its original splendour.

These mayors, from being originally merely grand-masters of
I ! the court, rose by degrees to be prime ministers, governors ot
; i the state, and ulliniately to be kings. The founder of their
i ' ereatness. was Pepin d'Heristal, a cadet of the dynasty of tht
' ' Carlovingians, which succeeded that of the Merovinguins, to-
' wards the middle of the eighth century. Under the Merovin-
' gian princes, the sovereignty was divided between two P"ni;'P1>
! ' kin Joms, viz. that of Austrasia, which comprehended bast-
i I ern^rance, being all that part of Gaul situated between the
i i Meuse, the Scheid, and the Rhine ; as we I as the German pro-
• ' vinces beyond the Rhine, which also made a part of that mo-
i narchv. the whole of Western Gaul, lying between the Scheid,
I the Meuse and the Loire, was called Neustria. Burgundy,
i

mifif

mur^

«;

Till

PERIOD I. A. D. 406 — 800.

hich
lian,

the
that
•ica ;
uage
I the

just
inces
-ance

> ^"^

ore a
n its
istru-
if the ;
ie in- '
berly, '
urope '

i
n em-

id, for

; pow-

!)lovi3,

whole

oihs.*

ih the

ider it

of the

le wis-

it once

sters of
nors ot
if their
of tht
ans, to-
erovin-
rinc.ipal
i East-
een the
lan pro-
lat mo-
Scheld,
rgundy.

ff7

Aquitain, and Provence, were considered as d jpondencies of this
latter kingdom.

Dagobert II., King of Aiistnisia, having been assassinated, in
678, the Kmgnf Neustria, Thierry III., would in all probability
have reunited the two monarchies ; but the Auslrasians, who
dreaded and detested Ebroin, Mayor of Nousiria, elected a
mayor of their own, under the nominal authority of Thierry.
ThLs gave rise to a sort of civil war between the Austrasians and
the Neustrians, headed by Pepin Heristal, Mayor of Auslrasia,
and Bertaire, Mayor of Neustria, who succeeded Ebroin. The
battle which Pepin gained at Testry, near St. Quentin (687.)
decided the fate of the empire ; Bertaire was slain, and Thierry
III. fell under the power of the conqueror. Pepin afterwards
confirmed to Thierry the honours of royalty, and contented him-
self with the dignity of mayor, and the title of Duke and Prince
of the Franks; but regarding the throne as his own by right of
conquest, he vested in himself the sovereign authority, and
granted to the Merovingian Prince, nothing more than the mere
externals of majesty, and the simple title of king. Such was
the revolution that transferred the supreme authority of the
Franks to a new dynasty, viz. that of the Carlovingians, who
with great moderation, still preserved, during a period of sixty-
five years, the royal dignity to the Merovingian princes, whom
they had stripped of all their power."

Pepin d'Heristal being dead (714,) the partizans of the ancient
dynasty made a last efTort to liberate the Merovingian kings
from that dependence under which Pepin had held them so long.
This prince, in transferring the sovereign authority to his grand-
son Theodwald, only six years of age, had devolved on his
widow, whose name was Plectrude, the regency and guardian-
ship of the young mayor.

A government so extraordinary emboldened the factious to
attempt a revolution. The regent, as well as her grandson, were
divested of the sovereignty, and the Neustrian grandees chose
a mayor of their own party named Rainfroy ; but their triumph
was only of short duration. Charles Martel, natural son cf
Pepin as is supposed, having escaped from the prison where he
had been detained by the regent, passed into Austrasia, and then
caused him.self to be proclaimed duke, after the example of his
father. He engaged in a war against Chilperic II. and his mayor
Rainfroy ; three successive victories which he gained, viz. at
Stavelo, Vinci near Cambray, and Soissons, in 716-17-18. made
him once more master of the throne and the sovereign authority.
The Duke of Aquitain having delivered up King Chilperic to
him, he confirmed anew the title of royalty to that prince ; and

•1 S

[tl i'

■-tM

■^

CHAPTEB II.

shortly after raised his glory to its highest pitch, by the brilliant
victories which he gained over the Arabs (732-737,) in the plains
of Poitiers and Nnrbonne. r r>i. ^

Pepin le Bref, (or the Short) son and successor of Charles
Marlel, finding his authority established both writhin and with-
out his dominions, judged this a favourable opportunity for re-
uniting the title of royalty to the power of the sovereign. He
manacred to have himself elected King in the General Assem-
bly of the Franks, which was convened in the Champ-de-Mars,
in the neighbourhood of Soissons. Childeric III. the last of
the Merovingian kings, was there deposed (752,) and shut up
in a convent. Pepin, with the intention of rendering his person
sacred and inviolable, had recourse to the ceremony of corona-
tion ; and he was the first King who caused himself to be
solemnly consecrated and crowned in the Cathedral of Soi9-
sons, by St. Boniface, first archbishop of Mayence.* Tho
example of Pepin was followed soon after by several princes and
sovereigns of Europe. The last conquest he added to his do-
minion wai- nie province of Languedoc, which he took (75»)

from the Arabs. , , „ .a-

The oricrin of the secular power of the Roman pontiHs com-
mences with the reign of Pepin. This event, which had so
peculiar an influence on the religion and government of the Euro-
pean nations, requires to be detailed at some length.

At the period of which we write, there existed a violent con-
troversy between the churches in the East, and those in thn
West, respecting the worship of images. The Emperor Leo
the Isaurian had declared himself against this worship, and had
proscribed it by an imperial edict (726.) He and his successors
persisted in destroying these objeUs of idolatry, as well as in
persecuting those who avowed hemselves devotees to this
heresy. This extravagant zeal, which the Roman pontiffs
blamed as excessive, excited the indignation of the people
against the Grecian Emperors.'^ In Italy, there were frequent
rebellions against the imperial officers that were charged with
the execution of their orders. The Romans especially, took
occasion, from this, to expel the duke or governor, who resided
in their city on the part of the emperor ; and they formally
erected themselves into a republic (730,) under the pontificate
of Gregory H-, by usurping all the rights of sovereignty, and,
at the same time, reviving the ancient names of the senate anil
the Roman people. The Pope w-- recognised as chief or head
of this new republic, and had the general direction of allatlairs,
both at home and abroad. The territory of this republic, formed
01 the dutchy of Rome, extended, from north to south, from

'.^SfiSSSMESI

IW }

rilliant '
plains

Charles

I with-
for re-

1. He j

\.ssem-

!-Mars,

last of
hut up

person
corona- ^
f to be !
if Soia-
3 The I
ices and |

his do-
le (759)

fls corn-
had so
le Euro-

ent con-
j in thn
ror Leo
and had
ccessors
ill as in
to this
pontiffs
• people
frequent
red with
Uy, took
D resided
formally
ontiticate
nty, and,
jtiate and
if or head
ill affairs,
ic. formed

II th, from

r?^

PBRIOO I. A. D. 406 800.

6»

Viterbo as far as Terracina ; and from east to west, from Narni
to the mouth of the Tiber. Such was the weakness of the
Eastern empire, that all the efforts of the emperors to reduce
the Romans to subjection proved unavailing. The Greek vice-
rr»y— the Duke of Naples, who had marched to besiege Rome,
was killed in battle, together with his son ; and the exarch him-
self was compelled to make peace with the republicans.

This state of distress to which the Grecian empire was re-
duced, afforded the Lombards an opportunity of extending their
possessions in Italy. Aistolphus their king attacked the city of
Ravenna (751,) where the exarchs or governors-general of the
Greeks had fixed their residence ; and soon made himself master
of it, as well as the province of the exarchate,-^ and the Pen-
tapolis. The exarch Eutychius was obliged to fly, and took
shelter in Naples.

This surrender of the capital of Grecian Italy, emboldened
the Lombard King to extend his views still farther ; he demanded
the submission of the city and dutchy of Rome, which he con-
■iidered as a dependency of the exarchate. Pope Stephen II.
bt'came alarmed, and began to solicit an alliance with the
Greek empire, whose distant power seemed to him less formi-
ilable than that of the Lombards, his neighbours ; but being
r.kisely pressed by A.istolphus, and finding that he had no suc-
cour to expect from Constantinople, he determined to apply for
protection to the Franks and their King Pepin.

The Franks, at that time, held the first rank among the na-
tions of Europe ; their exploits against the Arabians had gained
theni a high reputation fnv mlour over all the West. Stephen
repaired in person to France, and in an interview which he had
with Pepin, he found means to in»»rest that prince in his cause.
Pepin did not yet regard himself as securely established on a
throne which he had so recently usurped from the Merovinf^ian

frinces ; more especially as there still existed a son of Childeric
IL, named Thierry, and a formidable rivalry in the puissant
dukes of Aquitain, who were cadets of the same family. He
had no other right to the crown than that of election ; and this
title, instead of descending to his sons, might perhaps serve as
a pretext for depriving them of the sovereignty. Anxious to
render the crown hereditary, he induced the Pope to renew the
ceremony of his coronation in the Church of St. Denis ; and,
ut the same time, to consecrate his two sons, Charles and Car-
joman. The Pope did more ; he disengaged the King from the
oath which he had taken to-Childeric, and bound all the nobility
of the Franks, that were present on the occasion, in the name
of Jesus Christ and St. Peter, to preserve the royal dignity in

•if

»u

*
f

llWi

(to

CHAPTER n.

the riffht of Pepin and his .lescendants ; and lastly, that he
n.isrhi ilu- more ellectuaily secun- the aitachment of Pep.n und
hi!feons and procure for' himself .he li'-le of be.ngthe.r pro-
teclor, he publicly conferred on ihem the honour of being pain-

*^"sn "real condescension on the part of the Pope could not hut
ex.-itrihe gratitude of Pepin. He not only promised him sue-
cour against the Lombards ; he engaged to recover the exarchate
from their hands, and make a present of it to 'he H«ly See
he even made him a grant of it by anticipation, which he signed
at the Castle of Chiersi-sur-rOise, and which he likewise caused
to be signed by the princes his sons.** It was in fulhlment of
tSese sti^pulations thai Pepin undertook (755-^) two successive
expeditions into Italy. He compelled A.stolphus to acknowledge
himself his vassal, and deliver up to him the exarchate with
the Peutapolis, of which he immediately put his Holiness in
possession. This donation of Pepin served to confirm and to
Ixtend the secular power of the Popes, which had already been
augmented by various grants of a similar kmd. The original
document of this singular contract no longer exists; but he
names of the places are preserved which were ceded to the

pontifical hierarchy.** . . i,„ „„«-

^ In the conclusion of this period, it may be proper to take some

notice of the Arabs, commonly called ,^«;^'^7«- «"tll and
irruption into Europe. Mahomet, an Arab of noble birth, and
a native of Mecca, had cons.iiuled himself a prophet a legis a
tor, and a conqueror, about the beginning of the seventh century
of the Christian era. He had been expelled from Mecca 622)
on account of his predictions, but afterwards ^f "/^'l a' »«
head of an army; and having made himself master of the city,
he succeeded by degrees, in subjecting to his yoke the numerous
tribes of Ardbia. His successors, known by the name of La-
1 or vicars spiritual and temporal of the prophet, followed
the Le triumphant career. They propagated their religion
wherever they extended their empire and "^ran with their
conauests the vast regions both of Asia and Africa. Ssyria,
PalSne Egypt. Barcl Tripoli and the whole nortern coasts
of Africa, were won from the Greek empire by the Caliphs
who at the same time (651) overthrew the powerful monarchy
of the Persians ; conquered Charasm, Transox.ana, and the In-
dies, and founded an empire more e'ften.sive than that ol the
Roman" had been. The capital of the Caliphs, which had on-
ginXlcen at Medina, and 'afterwards at Cufa, was transferred
(661) by the Caliph Moav.a I. to Damascus '" Syrm : and by
the Caliph AlmaLor, to Bagdad in Irak-Arabia, (766) which
was founded hv that prince.

.'«*jiii

?■ .

PERIOD 1. A. D. 406 — 800.

at he
n :iiid
r pro. j
pain-

lot but
n sue-
rebate

See ;
signed
:aused
lent of
lessive
.vledge
e with
less in
nnd to
y been
iriginal
)Ut the

to the

e some
if their
th, and
legisla
:eritury
tt (622)

at the
he city,
merous

of Ca-
nllowed
religion
ih their

Syria,
n coasts
!aiiphs;
anarchy

the In-

of the
had ori-
nsferred

and by
1) whicn

It was under the Calipbnle of Wulid (711,) that the Arabs
first invaded Europe, and aituckod ilu; iiioiiarcliy of ihe Visigoths
ill Spain. This cnonurchy had already sunk under the feeble-
ness of its kings, and the despotic preropiiivos which the gran-
dees, and especially the bishops, hud arrogated to tbeinselves.
These latter disposed of the throne at ihuir pleasure, having
declared it to be elective. They decided with supreme authority
in the councils of the nation, and in all affairs of state. Muza
at that time commanded in northern Africa, in name of the Ca-
liph Walid. By the authority of that sovereign, he sent into
Spain one of his generals, named Taric or Tarec-Abcnzara,
who, having made a descent on the coasts of Andalusia, took
his station on the hill which the ancients called Caipe, and which
has since been known by the name of Gibraltar (Gibel-TaricJ
or the hill of Taric, in commemoration of the Arabian general.

It was in the neighbourhood of the city Xeres de iu Frontera,
in Andalusia, that Taric encountered the army of the Visigoths,
commanded by their King Roderic. The battle was decisive,
as the Visigoths sustained a total defeat. Koderic perished in
the flight; and Muza, the Arabian governor, having arrived to
second the efforts of Taric, the conquest of all Spain followecl
as a consequence of this victory.*' Septimania, or Languedoc,
which then made a part of the Visigoihic monarchy, passed at
the same time under the dominion of the Arabs.

These fierce invaders did not limit their conquests in Europ^
to Spain and Languedoc ; the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, Corsica,
part of Apulia and Calabria, fell likewise under their dominion :
they infested the sea with their fleets, and more than once car-
ried terror and desolation to the very jratet. of Rome. It is pro-
bable even that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke,
if Charles Martel had not arrested the career of their victories.
He defeated their numerous and warlike armies in the bloody
battles which were fought near Poitiers and Narbonne (732-
737,) and at length compelled them to shut themselves up
within the province of Languedoc.

The unity of the empire and the religion of Mahomet, did
not long remain undivided. The first dynasty of tlie Caliphs,
that of the Oinmiades, was subverted ; and all the princes of
that family massacred by the Abassides (749,) who seized the
caliphate.'* A solitary descendant of the Onmiiades, named Ab-
dalraham, grandson of the fifteenth Caliph Huscham, was
saved in Spain, and fixed his residence at Cordova ; and beina
acknowledged as Caliph by the Mussulmans there, he detached
that province from the greil empire of the Arabians. ^756.)

This revolution, and the confusion with which it was accom-

'i'

^.v

•■!■?

CIIAPTRa II.

pnnied, gave fresh cournpe to the xninll number of Visigoths,
who, to rscnpp the iMnhoiiifliin yoke, hml retireil In the moun.
tains of A^lurin?'. Issuiii-j from lh»'ir retreats, they retaliated
on the Intitlels ; an<l towards the iiiiddk^ of the ei^jhlh eenlury,
they laid the foundation of a new Christiar\ state, called after-
wards the kin'^'doni of Oviedo or Leon. Aiphonso I., sur-
named the Catholic, must be regarded as the first founder of
this now monarchy.'"

The Franks, likewise, took advantage of these events, to ex-
pel the Arabs from Laiiiriiedoc. Pepin took possession of the
cities of Nismes, Magiielonne, Acrde. and Boziers (7/52,) which
were delivered up to him by a noble Goth, named Osmond.
The reduction of Narbonne was by no means so easy a task.
For seven years he continued to blockade it ; and it was not
until Vfl!) that he became master of the city, and the whole of
Lanifuedoc.

The loss of Spain, on the part of the Abassides, was soon
after followed by that of North' \frioa. Ibrahim Ben-Aplab,
having been sent thither as governor by the Caliph of Bagdad,
Haroun Alrashid (900,) he found means to constitute himself
sovereign prince over the countries, then properly termed Afri-
ca ; of "which Tripoli. Cairoan, Tunis, and Algiers, formed a
part. He was the founder of the dynasty of the Aglabites ;"
while another usurper, named Edris, having conquered Numi-
dia and Mauritania, called by the Arabs Mogreh, founded that
of the Edrissites. These two dynasties were overturned (about
90H) by Aboul Cassem Mohammed, son of Obeidallah, who
claimed to be descended from Ali, by Fatimo, daughter of the
prophet; he s-.bjected the whole of Northern Africa to his
yoke, and took the titles of Mahadi ond Caliph. From him
were descended the Caliphs, called Fatimites, who extended
their conquests to Egypt, and laid there the foundation of Ka-
herah, or Grand Cairo (968.) where they established the seat
of their caliphate, which, in the twelfth century, was destroyed
by the Ayoubides.

The irruption of the Arabs into Spain, disastrous as it was,
did not fail to produce effects beneficial to Europe, which myes
its civilization partly to this circumstance. The Abassidian
Caliphs, aspiring to be the protectors of letters and arts, began
to foimd schools, and to encourage translations of the most
eminent Greek authors into the Arab,« language. Their ex-
ample was followed by the Caliphs of Cordova, and even by
the Fatimites, who held the sovereignty of Egypt and Northern
Africa. In this manner a taste for learning was communi^cated
to all the Mahometan states. From Bagdad it passed to Cairo ;

']\

PERIOD II. A. n. SOO — 962.

6!)

[Toihti,
noun-
ilinted
niury,
after-
, sur-
ier of

to cx-
of the
which
mnnd.
1 task.
IS not
ole of

? soon
Aplab,
ngdad,
linisell
I Afri-
ined a
»ites ;"
Numi-
d that
(about
I, who
of the
to his
rn him
:lended
of Ka-
le seat
stroyed

it was,
h owes
ssidian
, bi'gan
«■ most
icir ex-
ven by
orthern
micated
I Cairo ;

and from the banks of the Eiiphriites and the Nile, it spread
itself as liir as liiu Tagus. Alathcinatifi. " Astronomy. Ciie-
misiry, Medicine, Botany, ami Materia Medira, were the sci-
ences which the Arabians adected chiefly to cultivate. They
exrellecl al.-io in poetry, and in the art nf embodying the fictions
of imagination in the most agreeable narratives. Khazes, Aver-
roes, Avicenna, are among the niimlier of their celebrated phi-
losophers and physicians. Elmacin, Abuifeda, Abulplmragius,
and Bohadin, as historians, have become famous to all [Misti-rity.
Thus Spain, under the Mahometans, by cultivating many
sciences little known to tlve rest of Europe, became the semi-
nary of the Christians in the West, who resorted thither in
crowds, to prosecute in the schools of Cordova the study of
learning and the liberal arts." The use of the numerical cha-
racters, the manufacture of paper, cotton, and gun-powder,
were derived to us from the Arabians, and especially from the
Arabians of Spain. Agriculture, manufactures, and naviga-
tion, are all equally indebted to the Arabians. They gave u
new impulse to the commerce of the Indies ; from the Persian
Gulf they extended their trade along the shores of the Mediter-
ranean, and to the borders of the Black Sea. Their carpets,
and embroideries in gold and silver, their cloths of silk, and their
manufactures in steel and leather, maintained for years a ce-
lebrity and a perfection unknown to the other nations of Europe.

CHAPTER III.

PERIOD II.

From Charlemagne to Otho the Great, a. d. 800—962.

The reign of Charles the Great forms a remarkable epoch in
the history of Europe. That prince, who succeeded his father
Pepin (7^,) eclipsed all his predecessors, by the superiority of
his genius, as well as by the wisdom and vigour of his admin-
istration. Under him the monarchy of the Franks was raised
to the highest pinnacle of glory, fte would have been an ac-
complished prince, and worthy of being commemorated as the
benefactor of mankind, had he known how to restrain his im-
moderate thirst for conquest.

He carried his victorious arms into the centre of Germany;
and subdued the warlike nation of the Saxons, whose territories
extended from the Lower Rhine, to the Elbe and the Baltic
sea. After a bloody war of thirty-three years, he compelled
Ihern to receive his yoke, and to embrace Christianity, by the

4 4

it-.

■.Ml I

91 ciiArTeii III.

peace which ho concluded with thrtn (803) at Sallz on tha
Saal. The bi.shopriis of Munsler, OMjuhurii^, Miiiden, Pnder-
born, Verdi'ii, Bremen, Hildeshciin, mid Hnlberxludl, owe their
orifjin Id thi;* prince. Several of the Sliivonian mitions the
Abotrites (789,) the Wilzians (805.) the Sorubians (8(>6,) the
Bobeiiiians {81 1,) Sec, acknowledged lheiii«-lves his tributaries;
and l)y a treaty of peace whicii he concluded with Hemming,
Kill*,' of Jutland, he fixed the river Eyder, «« the northern
limi? of his empire aKninst the Danes. Besides these, the
powerful monarchy of the Avars,' which comprehended all the
.ounlries known in modern times by the names of Austria.
Huiiirary, Transylvania, Sclavonia, Dalmalia and Croatia, was
completely subverted by him (791 ,) and he likewise despoiled
the Arabians of all that part of Spain which is situated between
the Pyrenees and the Ebro (796,) as also of Corsica, Sardinia,
and the Balearic Isles. In Spain he established military com-
manders under the title of Margraves.

Of these conquests, the one that deserve.i the most particu-
lar uilenlion is that of Italy, and the kingdom of the Lombards.
At the solicitation of Pope Adrian I., Charles undertook an ex-
pedition against the la>l of the Lombard kings. He besieged
that prince in his capital at Pavia ; and having made him pri-
soner, after a long siege, he shut him un in confinement for the
rest of his days, and incorporated his dominions with the mo-
narchy of the Franks. The Dukes of Benevento, who, as
vassals of the Lombard kings, then occupied the greater part of
Lowor Italy, were at the same time compelled to acknowledge
the sovereignty of the conquerors, who allowed them to exer-
"ise their hereditary rights, on condition of their paying an
annual tribute. The only pla-os in this part of Italy that re-
mained unsubdued, were the maritime towns, of which the
Greeks still found means to maintain the possession.

In order to secure the conquest of this country, as well as to
protect it against the incursions of the Arabian.?, Charles estab-
lished several marches and military stations, such as the
marches of Friuli, Tarento, Turin, Liguira, Teti, &c. The
downfall of the Lombards, put an end to the republican govern-
ment of the Romans. During the blockade of Pavia, Charles
having gone to Rome to be present at the feast of Easter (774,)
was received there with all the honours due to an Exarch
and a Patrician ; and there is inconteilable proof that he after-
wards received, under that title, the rights of sovereignty over
Rome and the Ecclesiastical Stales.

The Patrician dignity, instituted by Constantine the Great,
ranked, in the Greek eiripire, next after that of emperor. It wm

Miii

^^^^^s

mmit

\328r-

Rome |iliiiulcrc(l \>y liiu VuiulaU. P. 17.

'•SI'

ffl

Anglo-Saxoni landing in England. P. Js,

ii'ii

»'

It:

■''I'M

V .

ptRroD II, A. D. 800—962. 05

' of nur.h con5.i,lor™t,on, ihnt even fmrh.irinn king,, ihe de.itroveri

I for fM> h<„,or.r at llw.- Cm.rt of ConMnntinopln. Tho exu "hJ

of l{„v,.nMnw..r..srr,K.raIly invented with it, „ ,d exercised umh.J

I this t.tl.. rathor than that of cxar.-h or poiernor. the auth " tv

I whTh they enjoyed at R«,„c. Pope Stephen F had twtj

nlihouKh these princes appear never to hove exercised the riahr
rc^'^r,huK ,, ^erely „.s an honorary title, «o lonTa Yea n thL'

StS'LT t e'rh^'f "rV^T""'''' ""'^ from Rome 1: he
State, of the Church. Charles no sooner saw himself master
of that k.npdojn than he affected to add to his li e" of Ki„S
the I- ranks and Lombards that of Patrician of the Romans and
Wan to exercise over Rome and the Ecclesiastic "sTates Ihooe
entp'ST-hS ''''-' ''' ""'''' ^"'P— ^ «-"' S
This prince returned to Rome towards the end of the year
800 m order to mciuire into a conspiracy which some ol^'ho
Roman nobihiy had concerted a^ainsl ihelife of Pope Leo III
The whole affair having been Siscussed in his presence and

I'^iratThe" 1 ""' ^"'' t^'^y ^^'"•'"••'''^'1' Charles went "3
assist at the so emn mass which was celebrated in St. Peter's
Church on Christmas day (800.) The Pope. anxLs o show
him some public testimony of his gratitude. ;hose the mo „e„"
when the prince was on hfs knees a'l the foot of the gra Jdtar
to put he imperial crown on his head, and cause him to be nri
claimed to the people Emperor of the Romans. ^

iTom this affair must be dated the revival of the Roman Em-

Sledllr^^Th'"" ""^ vvhich had been extinct fofZehu^-
dred years. The emperors of the East who, durinjr that in'er-
val, had continued exclusively in the enjoymen of that tide
appeared to have some reason for opposing an innovation whch
might eventually become prejudicial to them. The cS
which arose on this sub ect between the two emnerors wT, »
length (803) terminated^ treaty. The GreekXper^^TeeoJ
Zll^" newd'ffnityof Ciharles'(812;) and on thefe condSj
they were allowed to retain those possessions, which they stHl
held by a feeble tenure in Italy, i . .^jr sun

In thus maintaining the imperial dignity against the Greek
emperors, Charles added nothing to his real po^er; heacquS
from It no new right over the dismembered pro ^"0? he
Western empire, the state of which had, for a long time past
been fixed by specific regulations. He did not even augment'
his authority over Rome, where he continued to exerSX

.'.h

, ,i3l

'i^

t*«

CHAPTER in.

same rights of superiority under the title of emperor, which he
had formerly done under that of patrician.

This prince, whose genius soared beyond his age, did not
figure merely as a warrior and a conqueror ; he was also a le-
gislator, and a zealous patron of letters. Bv the laws which he , ,
published under the title of Capitularies, he reformed several ,
abuses, and introduced new ideas of order and justice. Com- ,
missioners nominated by himself, were charged to travel through
the provinces, to superintend the execution of the laws, listen
to the complaints of the people, and render justice to each
without distinction and without partiality. He conceived like-
wise the idea of establishing a uniformity of weights and mea-
sures throughout the empire. Some of the laws of that great
man, however, indicate a disposition tinctured with the barba-
rism and superstition of his age. The Judgments of God are
expressly held by him to be legal tests of right and wrong, and
the greater part of crimes expiable by money. By a general j
law, which he passed in 779, introducing the payment of eccle- i
siastical tithes, and which he extended to the vanquished Saxons 1
(791 ) he alienated the affectiom of ihat people ; and the code
which he dictated on this occasion, is remarkable for its atrocity ;
which their repeated revolts, and frequent returns to paganism,

cannot justify. ... , i .i.

As to his patronage and love of letters, this is attested by the

numerous schools which he founded, and the encouragements
I he held out to them ; as well as the attention he showed in m-
1 viting to his court, the most celebrated learned men from every
1 country in Europe. He formed ihem into a kind of academy,

or literary society, of which he was himself a member. When
I at an advanced age, he received instruction m rhetoric, logic
1 and astronomy, from the famous Alcuin, an Englishman, to

I whom he was much attached. He endeavoured also to improve
his vernacular tongue, which was the Teutonic, or Imgua

i Francica, by drawing up a grammar of that language, giving

! German names to the months and the winds, which had not yet

received them ; and in making a collection of the military songs

i ! of the ancient Germans. He extended an equal protection tc

I I the arts, more especially architecture, a taste for which he had
I imbibed in Italy and Rome. Writers of those times speak
' ' with admiration of the palaces and edifices constructed bv his

orders, at Ingelheim, near Mentz, at Nimegnen, on the left bank
of the Waal, and at Aix-la-Chapelle. These buildings were
adorned with numerous paintings, as well as marble and mosaic
work, which he had brought from Rome and Ravenna.

The empire of Charlemagne, which may bear a comparison

I!
I!

tl
b
o
o
n
n;
tf
in

01
V(

th
th
th

to
mi
Fi
S^
ist

sei
of
thi
oth
tha
cor

the
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f-tvVlYi-;. -%fl.ij=f7^^^^j^^:?jt^^^.

?ip5i4^(^-mi«*ife:^?'^^^pe^pp

■ Mmil < ltl. '» I V l llil g t- .' ' ' MMm i Wll I

hhe

1 not

a le- j I

ch he 1 ,

iveral ,

Com-

•ough

listen
each
like-
mea-
gre at

barba-

od are

5, and

eneral

eccle-

laxons ;

; code 1

ocity ;

anism,

by the
jmenls
1 in in-
I every
idemy,
When
c, logic
nan, to
mprove
lingua
giving
not yet
y songs
ction t(
he had
s speak
i by his
eft bank
gs were
I mosaic

nparison

PKRIOD 11. A. D. 800—962.

•7

L!::::^

as to its extent with the ancient empire of the West, embraced

he prmcpal part of Europe. All &aul, Germany, and Spain

mlZZ *^'"-°' '''^'y ^° Benevento, several islands inT

I thi^ ?.r ""' ^^'"? .-i consHlemble part of Pannonia. composed

th . vast empiro, which, from west to east, extended from the

thS"5 ? u" fu ""-^ '^^ ^'-"^'^ : «"d fr«'" ^''"th to no h frlm

der t hV^ ^Tl'^r"' "'.'^ '^' ^•^"''"^ S^« »° the River eT

de,wh.ch formed the boundary between Germany and Denmark.

In defining the hmits of the empire of Charlemagne care

pomted with tiie empire with those that were merely tributary
The former were governed by officers who might be recalled at
the will of the prince ; while the latter were ffee slates, whose
only tenure on the empire was by alliance, and the contributions
they engaged to pay. Such was the policy of this prince that
orihrrt ."'"''r P" -"i'-y ^tationsVhic'h he had'e"tab Istd
on the fron lers of Germany, Spain, and Italy, he chose to retain
nil f rlP."'"'' "'^ •'"•' dominions, nations who, under the
name of tributaries, enjoyed the protection of the Franks, and
might act as a guard or barrier against the barbarous tribes of
he east and north, who had long been in the habit of making
mcursions mto the western and southern countries of Europe^
^2Z ^l . «<■ Benevento in Italy, who were simply Vas-
sals and tributaries of the empire, supplied as it were a rampart
or bulwark against the Greeks and Arabians; while the Scla-
th„".;rh TT" '^ ^""''"^' ^«""°"'«' I>'»'™''tia, and Croatfa.
K ^rtK°"'' "■■ r^**'^ of France, were governed, never-
h! Pk:- V '''^";.''!^" '««^«> and in general did not even profess
the Christian religion. '^

From this brief sketch of the reign of Charlemagne, it is easv
to perceive, that there was then no single power in Europe for^
midable enough to enter into competition with the empire of the
Franks. The monarchies of the north. Denmark. Norway and
Sweden, and those of Poland and Russia, were not then in ex-
istence ; or had not emerged from the thick darkness that still
ZZf if ^T i '^""tinental Europe, England then pre-
nf in '"P'r ''^ ""^ '7'" ^•""f^'J^'-ate governments, the union
of which was far from being well consolidated. The kings of
ltrJ°^^ •'■"'^ ''"■'^ incessantly engaged in war with each
thnfp T ,Vn "°t. ""til several years after Charlemagne, i
that Egbert the Great, King of Wessex, prevailing in the contest ''
constituted himself King of all England, in 827. '

The Mahometpn part of Spain, after it was separated from
the great empire of the Caliph's, was engaged in perpetual war- !
fare with the East. The Ommiades. sovereigns of CordZ, '

I 1

'f^ In*

rzrrri

H».

i'"': IF

"tm

f .

CHAPTER in.

far from provoking their western neighbours, whose valour they
had a^^adv expehenced, showed themselves, on the contrary.
Sttenti e tJ preserve peace and good understand.ng w.th them
The Greek emperors, who were con.; lually quarrelhng with the
irabs and Bulgarians, and agitated by factions and m est ne
cmnmotrons, could no longer be an object of susp.c.on or rivalry

" ThuTStVmV': o'f ctriemagne enjoy the glory of being
the ascendant power in Europe ; but it did not long sustain .t^
orltnal spfendbr. It would have required a man of extracrdi-
narrtaent to manage the reins of a government so extensive
and so complicated. Louis-le-Debonnaire, or the Gentle, the
Zn anSTuc essor of Charles, did not possess a s>ng « q^l'^*
caUon proper to govern the vast dominions which his father had
beaueaKed to him. As impolitic as he was weak and super-
Sus he had not the art of making himsel either loved or
?e"ed by his subjects. By the imprudent partition of his domi-
n^ns beWen h s sons, which he made even in his h etime.he

rtheaniennoWitvi^erished" Louis and Charles victorious
this enTagm^^^^^ "Wijed their brother to take refuge in Italy.
Thev nexf^arched to Strasbourg, wnere they renewed their alli-
ance^'SS.) and confirmed it by oath at the head of their troops '
The^princes were on the point of dividing the whole mo-
narchv befween them, when, by the interference of the nobility
Tev became reconciled to their elder brother, and concluded a

tince of Barcelona, and ihe lernlones which Charlemagne naa

'Trwi'rr.reL'l^roS- 'peaking, .ha. n,.o<len, Fn.«ce
commence,, which i/J a depi,.men. of .he ancen. empire of

"W^"'-'"^

■ --^ 7:*?^'\',S!^

they
trary.
ihem.
ththe
estine
ivalry

being
ain its
acrdi-
ensive
e, the I ;
[ualiii- I
er had {
super- 1
ved or j
1 domi- ;
me, he |
family, j
il wars {
death. |
mbined >
the fa- j
! flower
rious in
1 Italy,
leir alli-
troops.'
ole mo-
lobility,
iluded a
•ted the
jothaire
and the
Meuse,
Sermany
intons of
of Gaul
and the
division
the prc-
tgne had

a France
smpire of

mmmmmtm

i PERIOD II. A. D. 800 — 962. 60

i the Franks, or monarchy of Charlemagne. For a long time it
returned the boundaries which the conference at Verdun had
assigned it ; and whatever it now possesses beyond these limits
was the acquisition of conquests which it has made since the four-
teenth century. Charles the Bald was in fact then the first King
of France, and it his from him that the series of her kings com-
mences. It was moreover under this prince that the govern-
ment of the Neustrians or Western Franks assumed a new
aspect. Before his time it was entirely of a Frankish or German
constitution ; the manners and customs of the conquerors of
Oaul every where predominated ; their language (the linirua
Jiranctca) was that of the court and the government. But after
the dismemberment of which we have spoken, the Gauls im-
ported it into Neustria or Western France ; the customs and
popular language were adopted by the court, and had no small
influence on the government. This language, which was then
known by the name of the RoTnan or Romance, polished by the
refinements of the «ourt, assumed by degrees a new and purer
form, and in course of time became the parent of the modern
French. It was therefore at this period, viz. the reign of
Charles the Bald, that the Wejtern Franks began, properly
speaking, to be a distinct nation, and exchanged their more
ancient appellation for that of French; do name by which thev
are still known. '

At this same period Germany was, for the first time, embo-
died into a monarchy, having its own particular kings. Louis
the German, was the first monarch of Germany, as Charles the
Bald was of France. The kingdom of Louis for a long time
was called Eastern France, to distinguish it from the Western
kingdom of that name, which henceforth exclusively retained
the name of France.

The empire of Charlemagne, which the treaty of Verdun had
divided, was for a short space reunited (884) under Charles
surnamed the Fat, younger son of Louis the German, and King
of Germany; but that prince, too feeble to support so great a i
weight, was deposed by his German subjects (887,) and their i
example was speedily followed by the French and the Italians
The vast empire of the Franks was thus dismembered for ever !
(888,) and besides the kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy !
U gave birth to three new States— the kingdoms of Lorraine
Burgundy, and Navarre. '

The kingdom of Lorraine took its name from Lothaire II
younger son of the Emperor Lothaire I., who, in the division
which he made of his estates among his sons (855,) gave to this '
Lothnire the provinces situated between the Rhine, the Meuse,

t' .1-

p^rd*

,N-

«p*'-

'Ii*

CHAPTER III<

I'-*

and the Scheld, known since under the name of Lorraine, Al-
sace, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liege, and the Low Countries. ^
At the death of Lothaire IL, who left no ma^ or leg't'.nale ^
heirs, his kingdom was divided by the treaty of Procaspis (870.)
into two equal portions, one of which was assigned to Lou.s
ihe German, and the other to Charles the Bald.^ By a subse-
quent treaty, concluded (879) between the sons of Lou.s, .ur-
Lmed the Stammerer, King of France, and Lou.s the Young
King of Germany, the French division of Lorra.ne was ceded
to this latter prince, who thus reunited the whole of that k.ng-
dom. It remained incorporated with Germany, at the I'^e when
the last dismemberment of that monarchy took place, (896,) on
the deposition of Charles the Fat. Arnulph King of Germany,
and successor of Charles, bestowed the kingdom of Lorra.ne on
Swenlibald his natural son, who after a reign of five years, was
deposed by Louis, surnamed the Infant, so., and successor of
Arnulph. Louis dying without issue, (912,) Charles the Sim-
ple, King of France, took advantage of the commotions in Ger-
many, to put himself in possession of that kingdom, which was
at length finally reunited to the Germanic crown by Henry,

surnamed the Fowler. , , , r n ,„„„j„

Two new kingdoms appeared under the name of Burgundy,
viz. Provence or Cisjurane Burgundy, and Transjurane Bur^
eundv. The founder of the former was a nobleman named
Boson, whose sister Charles the Bald had espoused. Eleva ed
by the king, his brother-in-law, to the^'g'^««}J^lg"'"^l,\";*^«
state, he was created, in succession. Count of Vienna, Duke of
Provence, Duke of Italy, and Prime M.n.ster, and even obtained
in marriage the Princess Irmengarde, daughter of Louis II.,
Emperor and King of Italy. Instigated by this princess, he did
not scruple to raise his ambitious views to the throne. The
death of Louis the Stammerer, and the troubles that ensued,
afforded him an opportunity of attaching to his interest most of
the bishops in those countries, intrusted to his government In
an assembly which he held at Mantai le in Dauphin^, (fS.) he
engaged them by oath to confer on him the royal d.gn.ty. The
schedule of this election, with the signatures of the bishops affix-
ed, informs us distinctly of the extent of this new kingdom,
which comprehended Franche-Comtcs Ma^on Chalons-sur-Sa.
one, Lyons, Vienne and its dependences, Agde. Viviers, Usez.
with their dependencies in Languedoc, Provence, and a nart of
Slvov. Boson caused himself to be anointed k.ng at Lyons
by the archbishop of that city. He mamta.ned Possession of
his usurped dominions, in spile of the co.nbined efforts which
were .nade by the kings of France and Germany to reduce hira
to "ubjection.

g
i
a>
c
S
it
tt

tl
vi
fr

C(l

m
in
M
th
di
G
ti(
fn
de
de
CI
cit
fin
pei

fm*

I, Al.

tries. I
mate
870.)
^ouis j
ubse- j
. i.ur-
3ung,
:eded
king-
when
},) on
nany,
ne on
i, was
>or of
Sim-
i Ger-
h was
[enry,

undy,

Bur-
lamed
jvated
in the
uke of
tained
lis II.,
he did
The
nsued,
nost of
It. In
^9,) he
. The
s affix-
igdom,
■ur-Sa-
, Usez,
part of
Lyons,
sion of

which
ice him

PERIOD 11. A. D. 800—969.

The example of Boson was followed soon after by Rodolph,
I governor of fransjurane Burgundy, and related by the female
I side to^the Carlovingians. He was proclaimed king, and crown-
ed at at. Maurice in the Valais ; and his new kingdom, situa-
ted between Mount Jura and the Penine Alps, contained Swit-
{ zeriand, a^ far as the River Reuss, the Valais, and a part of

■u\' B ^ . '"*'"''' "'' ^°^°"' '^"PPen'ng about this time, fur-
nished Rodolph with a favourable opportunity of extending his
frontiers, and seizing a part of the country of Burgundy.

These two kingdoms were afterwards (930) united into one.
Hugo, kmg of Italy, exercised at that time the guardianship of
the young Coiistantine, his relation, the son of Louis, and grand-
son of Boson. The Italians, discontented under the government
of Hugo, and having devolved their crown on Rodolph II., king
of fransjurane Burgundy, Hugo, in order to maintain himself
on the throne of Italy, and exclude Rodolph, ceded to him the
district of Provence, and the kingdom of his royal ward. Thus
united in the person of Rodolph, these two kingdoms passed to
his descendants, viz. Conrad, his son, and Rodolph III., his
grandson. These princes are styled, in their titles, sometimes
Kings of Burgundy; sometimes Kings of Vknne or Aries •
sometimes Kiiigs of Provence and Allermnia. They lost, in
course of time, their possessions beyond the Rhone and the
fsaone; and in the time of Rodolph III., this kingdom had for
Its boundaries the Rhine, the Rhone, the Saone, the Reuss, and
the Alps.

Navarre, the kingdom next to be mentioned, known among
the ancients under the name of Vasconia, was one of the pro-
vinces beyond the Pyrenees, which Charlemagne had conquered
from the Arabs. Among the counts or wardens of the Marches,
called by the Germans Margraves, which he established, the
most remarkable were those of Barcelona in Catalonia, Jacca
in Arragon, and Pampeluna in Navarre. All these Spanish
Marches were comprised within Western France, and within
the division which fell to the share of Charles the Bald, on the
dismemberment of that monarchy among the sons of Louis the
Gentle. The extreme imbecility of that prince, and the calam
ties of his reign, were the causes why the Navarrese revolted
irom France, and erected themselves into a free and indepen-
dent state. It appears also, that they were implicated in the
defection of Aquitain (853,) when it threw ofT the yoke of i
Charles the Bald. Don Garcias, son of the Count Don Gar- '
cms, and grandson of Don Sancho, is generally reckoned the
first of their monarchs, that usurped the title of King of Pam-
peluna, (858.) He and his successors in the kingdom of Na-

:!»<

. I

CHAPTEH in.

varre, possessed, at the same time, the provjnre of Jacca in
Arraeon. The Counts of Barcelona were the only Spanish
dependencies that, for many centuries, continued to acknowledge
the soveieignty of the Kings of France. . •„. .„

On this part of our subject, it only remains for us to point out
the causes that conspired to accelerate the downfall of the em-
pire of the Franks. Among these we may reckon the inconve-
niences of the feudal system,-a system as unfitted for the pur-
poses of internal administration, as it was incompatible with the
maxims that ought to rule a great empire. The abuse of fiefs
was canied so far by the Franks, that almost all property had
become feudal; and not only grants of land, and portions of
large estates, but governments, dukedoms, and counties, were
conferred and held under the title of fiefs. The consequence
of this was, that the great, by the allurement of fiefs or benefices,
became devoted followers of the kmgs, while the body of the
nation sold themselves as retainers of the great. Whoever re-
fused this vassalage was despised, and had neither favour nor
honour to expect.* By this practice, the liberty of the subject
was abridged without augmenting the royal authority. Ihe
nobles soon became so powerful, by the liberality of their kings,
and the number of their vassals they found means to procure,
that they had at length the presumption to dictate laws to the
sovereign himself. By degrees, the obligations which they
owed to the state were forgotten, and those only recognised
which the feudal contract imposed. This new bond of alliance
was not long in opening a door to licentiousness, as by a natural
consequence, it was imagined, that the feudal superior might be
changed, whenever there was a possibility of charging him with
a violation of his engagements, or of that reciprocal fidelity which

he owed to his vassals. .... j v i ♦

A system like this, not only overturned public order, by plant-
ine the germs of corruption in every part of the internal admi-
nistration ; it was still more defective with regard to the external
operations of government, and directly at variance with all plans
of aeerandizement or of conquest. As war was carried on by
means of slaves or vassals only, it is easy to perceive that such
armies not being kept constantly on foot, were with difficulty put
in motion; that they could neither prevent intestine rebellion,
nor be a protection against hostile invasion ; and that conquests
made by means of such troops, must be lost with the same faci-
lity that they are won. A permanent military, fortresses and
garrisons, such as we find in modern tactics, were altogether
unknown among the Franks. These politic institutions, indis-
pensable in great empires, were totally repugnant to the genius

PKRIOD 11. A. D. 800—962.

of the German nations. They did not evon know what is meant
by hnances, or regular .systems of taxation. Their kings had
no other pecuniary resource than the simple revenues of their
demesnes, which served for the maintenance of their court.
Gratuitous donations the perquisites of bed and lodging, fines,
the third of which belonged to .he king, rights of custom and
toll, added but little to their wealth, and could not be reckoned
among the number of state resources. None but tributaries, or
conquered nations, were subjected to the payment of certain m-
posts or assessments ; from these the Franks were exempted ;
they would have even regarded it as an insult and a blow siruck
at their national liberty, had they been burdened with a sinele
imposition. °

It is obvious, that a government like this, so disjointed and
incoherent in all its parts, in spite of the advantages which ac-
crued to ,t from no-irishing a spirit of liberty, and opposin<r «
sort o! barrier against despotism, was nevertheless far from beTnir
suitable to an empire of such prodigious extent as that of the
franks. Charlemagne had tried to infu.se a new vigour into
the state by the wise laws which he published, and the military
stations which he planted on the frontiers of his empire. Raised,
by the innate force of his genius above the prejudices of the ase
in which he lived, that prince had formed a system capable of
giving unity and consistency to the state, had it been of longer
duration. But this system fell to pieces and vanished, when
no longer animated and put in execution by its author. Disorder
and anarchy speedily paralyzed every branch of the government
and ultimately brought on the dismemberment of the empire '
Another cause which accelerated the fall of this vast empire
was the territorial divisions, practised by the kings, both of the
Merovingian, and the Carlovingian race, Charlemagne and
Louis the Gentle, when they ordered the empire to be divided
among their sons, never imagined this partition would terminate
m a formal dismemberment of the monarchy. Their intention
was rather to preserve union and amity, by means of certain
rights of superiority, which they granted to their eldest sons,
whom they had invested with the Imperial dignity. But this
subordination of the younger to their elder brothers was not of
long continuance ; and these divisions, besides naturally weak-
ening the state, became a source of perpetual discord: and
reduced the Carlovingian princes to the necessity of courtin?
the grandees, on every emergency, and gaining their interest
by new gifts, or by concessions which went to sap the founda-
tion of the throne.
This exorbitant power of the nobles, must also be reckoned

■ I'

•B

' I' IL ■*

!|--

CHAPTER III.

h^h

among the number of causes that hastened the decline of th«
cni|)iro. Dukes and Counts, besides being intrusted with the
justice and police of their respective governments, exercised, ut
the same time, a military power, and collected the revenues of
the Exche({uer. So many and so different jurisdictions, united
in one and the same power, could not but become dangerous to
the royal authority ; while it facilitated to the nobles the means
of fortifying theuiselves in their governments, and breaking, by
degrees, the unity of the stale. Charlemagne had felt this in-
convenience ; and he thought to remedy the evil, by succes*
sively abolishing the great dutchies, and dividing them into
several counties. Unfortunately this policy was not followed
out by his successors, wh«i returned to the ancient practice of
creating dukes ; and besides, being educated and nurtured in
superstition by the priests, they put themselves wholly under
dependence to bishops and ecclesiastics, who thus disposed of
the slate at their pleasure. The consequence wa.«, that govern-
ments, at first alterable only by the will of the King, passed
eventually to the children, or heirs, of those who were merely
administrators, or superintendents, of them.

Charles the Bald, first King of France, had the weakness to
constitute this dangerous principle into a standing law, in the
parliament which he held at Chiersi (877,) towards the close of
his reign. He even extended this principle generally to all
fiefs ; to those that held immediately of the crown, as well as to
those which held of laic, or ecclesiastical superiors.

This new and exorbitant power of the nobles, joined to the
injudicious partitions already mentioned, tended to sow fresh
discord among the dilTerent members of the state, by exciting a
multitude of civil wars and dotnestic feuds, which, by a neces-
sary consequence, brought the whole body-politic into a state of
decay and dissolution. The history of the successors of Charle-
magne presents a sad picture, humiliating and distressing to
humanity. Every page of it is filled with insurrections, devas-
tations, and carnage : princes, sprung from the same blood,
armed against each other, breathing unnatural vengeance, and
bent on mutual destruction : the royal authority insulted and
despised by the nobles, who were perpetually at war with each
other, either to decide their private quarrels, or aggrandize them-
selves at the expense of their neighbours ; and, finally, the citi-
zens exposed to all kinds of oppression, reduced to misery and
servitude, without the hope or possibility of redress from the
government. Such was the melancholy situation of the States
that composed the Empire of Charlemagne, when the irruption
of new barbarians, the Normans from the extremities of the

fth« I'

h ihe
;d, ut
lea of
iiiited
)UM to
neans

lis in-
ucces-
11 into
llowed
lice of
red in
under ,
ised of j
rovern-
passed |
merely j

nesa to

in the

:lose of

|y to all

ill as to

to the
|\v fresh
(citing a

neces-

state of

jCharle-

Issing to

I, devas-

blood,
jce, and
tied and
|ith each
!e them-
Ithe citi-
tery and
from the
|e States
jrruption
of the

PBRIOD II. A. D. 800—962.

North, and thu Hunfrarians from the back settlements of Asia,
exposed it afresh to the terrible scourge of foreign invasion.

The Normans, of Gerinun origin, and inlinbiting ancient
Scandinavin, that is to say, Sweden, Denmark, and modern
Norway, begun, towards the end of the eighth century, to cover
the sea with their ships, and to infest successively all the niari*
time coasts of Europe.* During the space of two hundred years,
they continued their incursions and devastations, with a fierce-
ness and perseverance that surpasses all imagination. This phe-
nomenon, however, is easily explained, if we iittend to the state
of barbarism in which the inhabitants of Scandinavia, in general,
were at that time plunged. Despising agriculture and the arts,
they found themselves unable to draw from fishing and the
chase, the necessary means even for their scanty subsistence.
The comfortable circumstances of their neighbours who culti-
vated their lands, excited their cupidity, and invited them to
acquire by force, piracy, or plunder, what they had not sufficient
skill to procure by their own industry. They were, moreover,
animated by a sort of religious fanaticism, which inspired them
with courage for the most perilous enterprise. This reckless
superstition they drew from the doctrines of Odin, who was tho
god of their armies, the rewarder of valour and intrepidity in
war, receiving into his paradise of / alhalla, the brave who fell
beneath the swords of the enemy ; while, on the other hand,
the abode of the wretched, called by them Heleete, was pre-
pared for those who, abandoned to ease and efTeminacy, prefer-
red a life of tranquillity to the glory of arms, and the perils of
warlike adventure.

This doctrine, generally diffused over all the north, inspired
the Scandinavian youth with an intrepid and ferocious courage,
which made them brave all dangers, and consider the sangui-
nary death of warriors as the surest path to immortality. Often
did it happen that the sons of kings, even those who were
already destined as successors to their father's throne, volun-
teered as chiefs of pirates and brigands, under the name of Sea
Kings, solely for the purpose of obtaining a name, and signaliz-
ing themselves by their maritim? exploits.

These piracies of the Normans, which at first were limited
to the seas and countries bordering on Scandinavia, soon ex-
tended over all the western and southern coasts of Europe.
Germany, the kingdoms of Lorraine, France, England, Scot-
land, Ireland, Spain, the Balearic Isles, Italy, Greece, and even
the shores of Africa, were exposed in their turn to the insults
and the ravages of these barbarians."

France more ev>ecially suffered f'om their incursions, under

">.i

CHAPTER III.

the fpeWn reigns of Chnrlos ihn Bnid, ^nd Charles tho Fat.
Not content with the hnvoc which they innde on the coasts,
they a^'cridt'd the Seine, the Loire, the (iaronne. nnd the Rhone,
carrying fire and sword to the very centre of the kingdom.
Nantes, Angers, Tours, Blois, Orleans, Mons, Poitiers, Boiir-
deaiix, Rouen, Paris, Sens, Laon, Soissons, and various other
cities, experienced the fury of these invaders. Paris was three
times .sacked and pillaged by them. Robert the Strong, n scion
of the royal House of Capet, whom Charles the Bald had created
(861,) Duke or Governor of Neusirin, was killed in battle (866,)
while combating with success against the Normans. At length,
the terror which they had spread every where was such, that the
French, who trembled at the very name of the Norman.s, had
no longer courage to encounter them in arms ; and in order to
rid themselves of such formidable enemies, they consented to

fmrchase their retreat by a sum of money ; a wretched and
ieeble remedy, which only aggravated the evil, by inciting the
invaders, by the hope of gain, to return to the charge.

It is not however at all astonishing, that France should have
been exposed so long to these incursions, since, besides the in-
efficient state of that monarchy, she had no vessels of her own
to protect her coasts. The nobles, occupied solely with the
care of augmenting or confirming their growing power, ofTered
but a feeble opposition to the Normans, whose presence in the
kingdom caused a diversion favourable to their views. Some
of them even had no hesitation in joining the barbarians, when
they happened to be in disgrace, or when they thought they had
reason to complain uf the government.

It was in consequence of these numerous expeditions overall
the seas of Europe, that the monarchies of the North were
formed, and that the Normans succeeded also in founding several
other states. It is to them that the powerful monarchy of the
Russians owes its origin ; Ruric the Norman is allowed to have
been its founder, towards the middle of the ninth century.'' He
and the grand dukes his successors, extended their conquests
from the Baltic and the White Sea, to the Euxine ; and during
the tenth century they made the emperors of the East to trem-
ble on their thrones. In their native style of piratical warfare,
they embarked on the Dnieper or Borysthenes, infested with
their fleets the coasts of the Black Sea, carried terror and dismay
to the gates of Constantinople, and obliged the Greek emperors
to pay them large sums to redeem their capital from pillage.

Ireland was more than once on the point of bein^ subdued by
the Normans, during these piratical excursions. Their first in-
Tasioti of this island is stated to have been in the year 795

Jai

■TJDW"-

Fat.

rnaxt.s,
Khnne,
i?ilom.
, Bour-
s other
is three
n Rcion
created
B (866,)
length,
that the
n!<, had
order to
ntcd to
icd iind
ing the

lid have
! the in-
tier own
vith the
, oflered
;e in the
Some
IS, when
they had

s overall
rth were
g several
\y of the

1 to have
iry.' He
onquests
id during
, to trem-

warfare,
sted with
d dismay
emperors
jillage.
ibduedby
ir first in-
year 796

MHioD II. A. t>. 800— 9fl2. 77

G.eat ravage, wore committed by the harlmrians. who connuor-
wh;"L 1" ;'• "'",'""' "'' ^^'""•'•'■"r'l. Dubli,,. and LimeVick.

' w,. ' I n i"""' """ T'"'""" '"'"y '<"'«'l"""'- fhri.lianily
Wi. i..lro.luc..d among ihf.n towards the middle of the tenlh
muury ; and ,t was not till the twelfth, the tim. „f it. i„v„.sion
by the Lnah.sl,, that they suc.-erded in ..xpolling them from the
i.sianci, when they were dispossessed of the cities of VVaterford
and Dublin(1170) by Henly II. of England. ^^«"^""f'«

.hoM"'^f'M" "^^f'''^'*' '^': Shetlan.l and Faroe Islands, and
the I.lo of Man, were also discovered and peopled by the Nor-

where they founded a republic (874.) which preserved its inde-
pendence till nearly the middle of the thirteenth century, when
that island was conquered by the Kings of Norway." Norman-
dy, ui h ranee, also received its name from this people. Charles
the Simple, wishing to put a check on their continual incur-
sions, concluded at St C^lair-sur-Epte (892.) « treaty with Kollo
or Kolf, chief of the Normans, by whicli he abandoned to them
all that part of Nensiriu which reaches from the rivers Andelle
and Aure to the ocean. To this he added a part of Vexin,
-.uated between the rivers Andelle and Epte ; as also the ter-
mory of Brctagne. Ro lo embraced Christianity, and received
the baptismal name of Robert. He submitted to become a vas-
sal of the crown of Franco, under the title of Duke of Norman-
ay; and obtained in marriage the .princess Gisele, daughter of
Chares the Simple. In the following century, we shall meet
with these Normans of I- ranee as the conquerors of England,
and the founders of the kingdom of the two Sicilies

The Hungarians, a people of Turkish or Finnish origin,
emigrated, as is generally supposed, from Baschiria. a counlrv
lying 10 the north of the Caspian Sea, between the Wolgn, the
Kama, and Mount Ural, near the source of the Tobol and the
Jaik, or modern Ural. The Orientals designate them by the
generic name of Turks, while they denominate themselves
Magtars, from the name of one of their tribes. After havinir
been long dP4,endent on the Chazars,'o a Turkish tribe to thi
north of the Paius Mceotis, they retired towards the Danube, to
avoid the oppressions of the Fatzinacites;" and established
themselves (887) in ancient Dacia, under the auspices of a chief
named Arpad, from whom the ancient sovereigns of Hunearv
derive their origin Arnulph, King of Germany, employed
♦hese Hungarians (892) against the Slavo-Moravians, who pos-
sessed a flourishing state on the banks of the Danube the
Morau, and the Elbe.'-' While engaged in this expedition.'they
were attacked agam in their Dacian possessions by ihe Pataina-

'■!]

N i^!

m^m

If-

«r-

'ITI''

^1*

CBAPTRR III.

cites, who «»c<'pP(lf!(l nt lonpith in pxpnllinff them from their
tprriloric!*.''' 'I'nkinjj advnntiij,'^ afHTwnrd.i of the death of
Swiiitopulk, kin^ of the IVlnriiviiin.«, nod the trntiblpH conne*
qiiciit on thiit event, ihcy disnevert^d from Moraviii all the coun-
try which extends from the frontiers of Mohlaviu, Wnllachia
and Transylvania, to the Danube and the Morau. They con-
quered, about the same time, Fannonia, with a part of Noricum,
which they liad wrested from the (jcrmons ; and thus laid the
foundation of a new slate, known since by the name of Hungary.

No sooner had tlio Hungarians established themselves in
Panrmnin, than they commenced their incursions into the prin»
cipal states of Europe. Germany, Iialy, and Oaul, agitated by
faction and anarchy, and even the Grecian empire in the East,
became, all in their turn, the bloody scene of their ravages and
devastations. Germany, in particular, for a long time fell the
pfl'ects of their fiiry. All its provinces in succession were laid
waste by the.se barbarians, and compelled to pty them tribute,
Henry I., King of Germany, and his son Oiho the Great, at
length succeeded in arresting their destructive career, and de-
livered Europe from this new yoke which threatened its in-
dependence.

It was in consequence of these incursions of the Hungarians
and Normans, to which may be added those of the Arabs and
Slavonians, that the kingdoms which sprang from the empire of
the Franks lost once more the advantages which the political
mstitutions of Charlemagne had procured them. Learning,
which that prince had encouraged, fell into a state of absolute
languor; an end was put both to civil and literary improvement,
by the destruction of convents, schools, and libraries ; the po-
lity and internal security of the states were destroyed, and
commerce reduced to nothing. England was the only excep-
tion, which then enjoyed a transient glory under the memora-
ble reign of Alfred the Great. That prince, grandson of Egbert
who was the first king of all England, succeeded in expelling
the Normans from the island (887,) and restored peace and tran-
quillity to his kingdom. After the example of Charlemagne,
he cultivated and protected learning and the arts, by restoring
the convents and schools which the barbarian.s had destroyed ;
inviting philosophers and artists to his court, and civilizing his
subjects by literary institutions and wise regulations.'* It is
to be regretted, that a reig'n so glorious was so soon followed
by new misfortunes. After the Normans, the Danes reappeared
in England, and overspread it once more with turbulence and
desolation.

During these unenlightened and calamitous times, we find

find

rEnioD HI. A. p. »6S— 1074.

fine his adventures to ihe c-oa 70 oli„|,^ ,.■'''' '"" T*"'

area,,, ,p„ken, we find, in the ton.h'entl ;; „ 'o .;: A,""
ments^rnn,/„7S ?"^"''""' ' ""^ "'•-. rrmLg^e e-'

CHAPTER IV.

PERIOD m,

Prm Otko the Great to Gresory the Great. .. p. 962-1074

comprised, besides the three canton. nf% • i»r "'"*' "
Mayence, on this side the Rhin?. u '"'"''' ^^ ''™^' ""^

From the first formation of this kingdom, the royal authority

( "' .'. .< v.- '

'Ji'^*

lUii -

\ m

•iUSii.,.

|. if'i

CHAPTER IV.

was limited ; and Louis the German, in an assembly held at
Marsen (S51,)had formally engaged to maintain the states m their
rights and privileges ; to follow their coumel and advice, and
to consider them as his true colleagues and coadjutors in all the
affairs of government. The states, however, soon found means
10 vest in themselves the right of (ihoosmg their kings. I he
first Carlovingian monarchs of Germany were hereditary.
Louis the German even divided his kingdom among his three
sons, viz. Carloman, Louis the Young, and Chores the tat;
but Charles having been deposed in an assembly held at !• rank-
fort (887,) the states of Germany elected in his place Arnulph, a
natural son of Carloman. This prince added to his crown both
Italy and the Imperial dignity.

The custom of election has continued in Germany down to
modern times. Louis I'Enfant, or the Infant, son of Arnulph.
succeeded to the throne by election ; and that prince having died
very young (911,) the states bestowed the crown on a trench
nobleman, named Conrad, who was duke or governor of France
on the Rhine, and related by the female side to the Lariovin-
Pian line. Conrad mounted the throne, to the exclusion ol
Charles the Simple, King of France, the only male and legiti-
mate heir of the Carlovingian line. This latter prince, how-
ever, found means to seize the kingdom of Lorram, which
Louis the Young had annexed to the crown of Germany. Un
the death of Conrad I. (919,) the choic3 of the states fell on
Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, a scion of the Saxon dynasty
of the kings and emperors of Germany. , ,.

It was to the valour and the wisdom of Henry I., and to his
institutions, civil and military, that Germany was indebted foi
its renewed grandeur, f hat monarch, taking advantage of the
intestine troubles which had arisen in France under Charles the
Simple, recovered possession of the kingdom of Lorram, the
nobility of which made their submission to him m the years
923 and 925. By this union he extended the limits of Germa-
ny towards the west, as far as the Meuse and the Scheld. The
kings of Germany afterwards divided the territory of Lorrain
into two governments or dutchies, called Upper and Lower Lor-
rain. The former, situated on the Moselle, was called the
dutchy of the Moselle ; the other, bounded by the Rhine, the
Meuse, and the Scheld, was known by the name of Lothiers or
Brabant. These two dutchies comprised all the provinces of
he kingdom of Lorrain, except those which the emperors
judged proper to exempt from the authority and jurisdiction of
the dukes. The dutchy of the Moselle, alone, finally retained
the name of Lorrain; and passed (1048) to Gerard of Alsace,

leld al I

n their \
!.. and
all the

means \

. The 1

jditary. |

s three '•

le Fat ; :

Frank- |

lulph, a i

vn both 1

[own to j
.rnulph,
ng died
French
■ France
arlovin-
ision of
J legiti*
:e, how-
, which
ly. On
; fell on
dynasty

id to his
;bted foi
re of the
arles the
rain, the
fie years
f Germa-
!ld. The
f Lorrain
wer Lot'
illed the
hine, the
)thiers or
vinces of
emperors
liction of
' retained
f Alsace,

]'•

; (.

^ i

■

w 1

'•: ;X

■;■! ^

, :%:

1''' '

'^^

iii

I -3

l.,f i

I !i

:?to»^

i*:, .-itt

"iiif?

Flight of Maliomet. P. (io.

■p

Crowning of Chjirlcmagne. P. 05.

n m.

1 .

{4i

PERIOD III. A. D. 962 — 1074.

from whom doscended the dukes of that name, wlio in the eigh-
teentli century, succeeded to tlie Imperial throne. As to the
dutchy of Lower Lonain, tiie Emperor Henry V. conferred it on
Godfrey, Count of Louvain (1108), whose male attendants kept
possession of it, under the title of Dukes of Brabant, till 1355,
when it passed by female succession to the Dukes of Burgun-
dy, who found means also to acquire, by degrees, the greater
part of Lower Lorrain, commonly called the Low Countries.

Henry L, a prince of extraordinary g.iiius, proved himself
the true restorer of the German kingdom. The Slavonian
tribes who inhabited the banks of the Saal, and the country be-
tween the Elbe and the Baltic, committed incessant ravages on
the frontier provinces of the kingdom. With these he waged
a successful war, and reduced them once more to the condition
of tributaries. But his policy was turned chiefly against the
Hungarians, who, since the reign of Louis IL, had repeatedly
renewed their incursions, and threatened to subject all Germa-
ny to their yoke. Desirous to repress effectually that ferocious
nation, he took the opportunity of a nine years truce, which he
had obtained with them, to construct new towns, and fortify
places of strength. He instructed his troops in a new kind
of tactics, accustomed them to military evolutions, and above
all, he formed and equipped a cavalry sufficient to cope with
those of ti.e Hungarians, who particularly excelled in the art
of managing horses. These depredators having returned with
fresh forces at the expiry of the truce, he completely defeated
them in two bloody battles, which he fought with them (933)
near Sondershausen and Meraeburg ; and ;hus exonerated Ger-
many from the tribute which it had formerly paid them.'

This victorious prince extended his conquests beyond the
Eyder, the ancient frontier of Denmark. After a prosperous
war with the Danes (931,) he founded the margravate of Sles-
wick, which the Emperor Conrad U. afterwards ceded back
(1033) to Canute the Great, King of Denmark.

Otho the Great, son and successor of Henry I., added the
kingdom of Italy to the conquests of his father, and procured
also the Imperial dignity for himself, and his successors in Ger-
many. Italy had become a distiiict kingdom since the revolu-
tion, which happened (888) at the death of the Emperor Charles
the Fat. Ten princes in succession occupied the throne during
the space of seventy-three years. Several of these prinres, such
as Guy, Lambert, Aniulf, Louis of Burgundy, and Berenger I.,
were invested, at the same time, with the Imperial dignity. Be-
renger I. having been assassinated (924,) this latter dignity
ceased entirely, and the city of Rome was even dismembered
from the kingdom of Italv.

"^f^

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CHAFTER IV.

The sovereignty of that city was seized by the famous Maro*
zia, widow of a nobleman named Alberic. She raised her son
to the pontificate by the title of John XI. ; and the better to es-
tablish her dominion, she espoused Hugo King of Italy (932,)
»vho became, in consequence of thi? marriage, master of Rome.
But Alberic, another son of Marozia, soon stirred up the people
against this aspiring princess and her husband Hugo. Having
driven Hugo from the throne, and shut up his mother in prison,
he assumed to himself the sovereign authority, under the title
of Patrician of the Romans. At his death (954,) he transmit-
ted the sovereignty to his son Octavian, who, though only nine-
teen years of age, caused himself to be elected pope, by the titlo
of John XII.

This epoch was one most disastrous for Italy. The weak-
ness of the government excited factions among the nobility,
gave birth to anarchy, and fresh opportunity for the depredations
of the Hungarians and Arabs, who, at this period, wore the
scourge of Italy, which they ravaged with impunity. Pavia,
the capital of the kingdom, was taken and burnt by the Hunga-
rians. These troubles increased on the accession of Berenger
II. (950,) grandson of Berenger i. That prince associated his
son Adelbert with him in the royal dignity; and the public
voice accused them of having caused the death of King Lothaire,
son and successor of Hugo.

Lothaire left a young widow, named Adelaide, daughter of
Rodolph II., King of Burgundy and Italy. To avoid the impor-
tunities of Berenger II., who wished to compel her to marry his
son Adelbert, this princess called in the King of Germany to
her aid. Oiho complied with the solicitations of the distressed
queen ; and, on this occasion, undertook his first expedition into
Italy (941.) The city of Pavia, and several other places, having
fallen into hi- hands, he caused himself to be proclaimed King
of Italy, and married the young queen, his protegee. Berenger
and his son, bemg driven for shelter to their strongholds, had
recourse to negotiation. They succeeded in obtaining for them-
selves a confirmation of the royal title of Italy, on condition of
doing homage for it to the King of Germany ; and for this pur-
pose, they repaired in person to the dirt a«semhle(l at Augsburg
(953,) where they took the oath of vassalage under the hand.s
of Olho, who solemnly invested them with the royalty of Italy ;
reserving to himself the towns and marches of Aquileia and
Verona, the command of which he bestowed on his ' uher the
Duke of Bavaria.

In examining more nearly all that passed in this affair, it ap-
pears that it was not without the regret, and even contrary to

1. f %

i Maro-
her son
r to es-
r (932,)
' Rome.

people
Having

prison,
the title
ansmit-
ly nine-
the titlo

I weak-
lobiiity,
sdiitions
ore the
Pa via,
Hunga-
erenger
itcd his
1 public
othaire,

^hter of
3 impor-
arry his
nany to
stressed
ion into
, having
3d King
lercnger
Ids, had
)r them-
lition of
his pur-
ngsburg
p. hands
}f Italy ;
Icia and
ther the

ir, it ap-
itrarv to

-z=~\

PERIOD II!. A, n. 962—1074. 88

the wish of Adelaide, that Otho agreed to enter into terms of
accommodation with Bcrenger, and to ratify the compact which
Conrad, Duke of Lorrain, and son-in-law of the Emperor, had
made with that prince. Afterwards, however, he lent a favour-
able cPT to th.; complaints which Pope John XII., and some
Italian noblemen had addressed to him against Berenger and
his son ; and took occasion, or. ' ,ir account, to conducl a new
Hrmy mto Italy (9f)l.) Bcrenj:. , too feeble to oppose him, re-
tired a second time within his fortifications. Otho marched
from Pavia to Milan, and there caused himself to be crowned
King of Italy ; from thcnco he passed to Rome, about the com-
mencement of the following year. Pope John XII., who had
himself invited him, and again implored his protection against
Berenger, gave him, at first, a very brilliant reception ; and re-
vived the Imperial dignity in his favour, which had been dor-
mant for thirty-eight years.

It was on the 2'd of February 9G2, that the Pope consecrated
and crowned him Emperor ; but he had soon cause to repent of
this proceeding. Otho, immcdiatolv after his coronation at
Rome, undertook the siege of St. Leon, a fortress in Umbria,
where Berenger and hi , Queen had taken refuge. While en-
gaged in the siege, he received frequent intimations from Rome
of the misconduct and immoralities of the Pope. The remon-
strances which he thought it his duty to make on this subject,
offended the young Pontiff, who resolved, in consequence, to
break off union with the Emperor. Hurried on by the impe-
tuosity of his character, he entered into a negotiation with Adel-
bert; and even persuaded him to come to Rome, in order to
concert with him measures of defence. On the first news of
this event, Otho put himself at the head of a large detachment,
with which he marched directly to Rome. The Pope, however,
did not think it advisable to wait his approach, but fled with the'
Kinfj, his new ally. Otho, on arriving at the capital, exacted a
solemn oath from the clergy and the people, that henceforth
they would elect no pojie without his counsel, and that of the
Emperor and his successors.** Having then assembled a coun-
cil, he caused Pope John XII. to be deposed ; and Leo VIII.
was elected in his place. This latter Pontiff was maintained
the papacy, in spite of all the efforts which his adversary
ide to regain it. Berenger II., after havinsr sustained a long
siege at St. Leon, fell at length (9()-l) into the hands of the con-
queror, who sent him into exile at Bamberg, and compelled his
son, Adelbert, to take refuge in the court of Constantinople.

All Italy, to the extent of the ancient kingdom of the Lorn- ,
bards, fell under the dominion of the Germans ; only a few

in
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84 CHAPTER IV.

irmrilime towns in Lower Italy, with the greater part of Apulia
and Calabria, still remained in the power of the Greeks. This
kingdom, together with the Imperial dignity, Otho transmitted
to his successors on tlie throne of Germany. From this time
the Germans held it to be an inviolable principle, that as the im-
perial dignity was strictly united with the royalty of Italy, kings
elected by the German nation should, at the same time, in virtue
of that election, become kings of Italy and Emperors. The
practice of this triple coronation, viz. of Germany, Italy, and
Rome, continued for many centuries ; and from Otho the Great,
till Maximilian I. (1508,) no king of Germany took the title of
Emperor, until after he had been formally crowned by the Pope.

The kings and emperors of the house of Saxony, did not
terminate their conquests with the dominions of Lorrain and
Italy. Towards the east and the north, they extended them be-
yond the Saal and the Elbe. All the Slavonian tribes between
the Havel and the Oder* the Abotrites, the Rhedarians, the
Wilzians, the Slavonians on the Havel, the Sorabians, the Dale-
mincians, the Lusitzians, the Milzians, and various others ; the
dukes also of Bohemia and Poland, although they often took up
arms in defence of their liberty and independence, were all re-
duced to subjection, and again compelled to pay tribute. In order
to secure their submission, the Saxon kings introduced German
colonies into the conquered countries ; and founded there several
margravatcs, such as that of the North, on this side of the Elbe,
afterwards called Brandenburg ; and in the East, those of Misnio
and Lusatia. Otho the Great adopted measures for promulga-
ting Christianity among them. The bishopric of Oldenburg
in Wagria, of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Meissen, Merscburg,
Zeitz; those of Posnania or Posen, in Poland, of Prague in Bo-
hemia ; and lastly, the metropolis of Magdeburg, all owe their
origin to this monarch. His grandson, the Emperor Otho III.,
founded (in 1000) the Archbishopric of Gnesna, in Poland, to
which he subjected the bishoprics of Colberg, Cracow, and
Breslau, reserving Posen to the metropolitan See of Magdeburg.

The Saxon dynasty became extinct (1024) with tho Emperor
Henry II. It was succeeded by that of Franconia, commonly
called the Salic. Conrad II.. the first emperor of this house,
united to the German crown, the kingdom of Buruundy ; or, as
it is sometimes called, tho kingdom of Arle-'. This monarchy,
situate between the Rhine, the Rcuss, Mount Jura, the Soaue,
the Rhone, and the Alps, had been divided among a certain
number of counts, or governors o{' provinces, who, in conse-
quence of the weakness of their last kings, Conrad and Kodolph
111., had converted their temporary jurisdictions into hereditary

Vpulia

This :
niittt-'d
s time \
he irn- ;
.kings i
virtue '
The I
y, and
Great, ;
title of I
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lid not I
in and \
lem be- j
etvveen '
lis, the
e Dale-
rs ; the
took lip
all re-
n order
ierrnan
several
e Elbe,
Misnia
mulga-
nbiirg
eburg,
in Bo-
their
10 III.,
and, to
V, and
ebur^.
mperor
monly
house,
or, as
narchy,
^^Dftiie,
certain
conse-
iodolph
reditary

7TJ

PERIOD HI. A. D. 962—1074.

8fi

and patrimoniiil ofRccs. after the exm pie of the French nobility,
who had nlroiuly usurped the same pnwer. The principal and
most puissant of these Burgundian nobles, were the Counts ol
Pr'>vciu-e, Vicnne, (nflerwards called Dauphins of Vienne,) Sa-
voy, Burgundy, and Montbelliard ; the Archbishop of Lyons,
Besancon, and Aries, and the Bishop of Basle, Ice. The con-
tempt in which these powerful vassals held the royal authority,
induced Rodolph to apply for protection to his kinsmen the
Emperors Henry II. and Conrad II., and to acknowledge them,
by several treaties, his heirs and successors to the crown. It
was in virtue of these treaties, that Conrad II. took possession
of the kingdom of Burgundy (1032) on the death of Rodolph III.
He maintained his rights by force of arms against Eudes,
Cunt of Champagne, who claimed to be the legitimate suc-
cessor, as being nephew to the last king.

This reunion was but a feeble addition to the power of the
German emperors. The bishops, counts, and great vassals of
the kingdom they had newly acquired, still retained the au-
thority which they had usurped in their several departments ;
and nothing was left to the emperors, but the exercise of their
feudal and proprietory rights, together with the slender remains
of the demesne lands belonging to the last kings. It is even
probable, that the high rank which the Burgundian nobles en-
joyed, excited the ambition of those in Germany, and emboldened
them to usurp the same prerogatives.

The emperors Conrad II. (i033) and Henry HI. (1038,) were
both crowned Kings of Burgundy. The fimperor Loihaire
conferred the viceroyalty or regency on Conrad Duke of Zah-
ringen, who then took the title of Governor or Regent of Bur-
gundy. Berthold IV., son of Conrad, resigned (1156,) in favour
of the Emperor Frederic I., his rights of viceroyalty over that part
of the kingdom situate beyond Mount Jura. Switzerland, at
that time, was subject to the Dukos of Zahringen, who, in order
to retain it in vassalage to their government, fortified Morges,
Mouden, Yverdun, and Berthoud ; and built the cities of Fii-
bourg and Berne. On the extinction of the Zahringian iiuk?».
(1 191,) Switzerland became an immediate province of the er.ipive.
It was afterwards (1218) formed into a republic , and the "iher
parts of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries were gradually
united to France, ao we shall see in course of our narrative.

The Hungarians, since their first invasion under Louis I'En-
fant, had wrested from the German crown all its possessions in
Pannonia, with a part of ancient Noricum ; and the boundaries
of Germany had been contracted within the river Ens in Bava-
ria. Their growing preponderance afterwards enabled the Ger-

ki.

ll It

'! f

ii:»'

!■ ■•!

"m^'

S6 CHAPTER IV.

mans to recover from the Hungarians a part of their conquests.
They succeeded in expelling them, not only from Noricum, but
even from that part of Upper Pannonia which lies between
Mount Cetius, or Kahienbcrg as it is culled, and the river Leita.
Henry III. secured the possession of these territories by the
treaty of peace which he concluded (1043) with Samuel, sur-
named Aba, King of Hungary. This part of Hungary was
annexed to the eastern Margravate, or Austria, which then be-
gan to assume nearly its present form.

Such then was the progressive aggrandizement of the German
empire, from the reign of Henrv 1. to the year 1043. Under
its most flourishing slate, thai i», under the Emperor Henry III.,
it embraced nearly two-thirds of the monarchy of Charlemagne.
All Germany between the Rhine, the Eyder, the Oder, the Leita,
and the Alps ; all Italy, as far as the confines of the Greeks in
Apulia and Calabria; Gaul, from the Rhine to the Scheldt, the
Meuse, and the Rhone, acknowledged the supremacy of the
emperors. The Duke? of Bohemia and Poland, were their tri-
butaries ; a dependence which continued until the commotions
which agitated Germany put an end to it in the thiricenlh century.

Germany, at this period, ranked as the ruling power in Europe ;
and this preponderance was not owing so much to the extent of
her possessions, as to the vigour of her government, which still
maintained a kind of system of political unity. The emperors
may be regarded as true monarchs, dispensing, at their pleasure,
nil dignities, civil and ecclesiastical— possessing very large do-
mains in all parts of the empire— and exercising, individually,
various branches of the sovereign power ;— only, in affairs of
great importance, asking the advice or consent of the grandees.
This greatness of the German emperors gave rise to a system
of polity which the Popes took great care to support with all
their credit and authority. According to this system, the whole
of Christendom composed, as it were, a single and individual
republic, of which the Pope was the spiritual head, and the
Emperor the secular. The duty of the latter, as head and patron
of the Church, was to take cognizance that nothing ^hould be
done contrary to the general welfare of Christianity. It was
his part to protect the Catholic Church, to be the guardian of its
preservation, to convocate its general councils, and exercise such
rights as the nature of his office and the interests of Christianity
seemed to demand.

It was in virtue of this ideal system that the emperors enjoyed a
precedency over other monarchs, with the exclusive right of elect-
ing kings ; and that they had bestowed on them the title of mas-
ters of the world, and sovereign of sovereigns. A more impor-

t t.

FRRIOD III. A. D. 962—1074.

tant Drerogatlve was that which they possessed in the election of
the Popes. From Otho the Great to Kcnry IV., all the Roman
ponlifls were chosen, or at least confirmed, by the emperors.
Henry III. deposed three schisniatieal popes (1046,) and sub-
stituted in their place a German, who took the name of Clement
II. Tlie same emperorafterwardsnominated various other popes
of his own nation.

However vast and formidable the power of these monarchs
seemed to be, it was nevertheless far from being a solid and
durable fabric ; and it was easy to foresee that, in a short time,
it would crumble and disappear. Various causes conspired to
accelerate its downfall ; the first and principal of which necessa-
riljr sprang from the constitution of the empire, which was faulty
in itself, and incompatible with any scheme of aggrandizement
or conquest. A great empire, to prolong its durability, requires
a perfect unity of power, which can act with despatch, and com-
municate with facility from one extremity to the other; an
armed force constantly on foot, and capable of maintaining the
public tranquillity; frontiers well defended against hostile Inva-
sion ; and revenues proportioned to the e.xigencies of the state.
All these characteristics of political greatness weie wanting in
the Geman empire.

That empire was elective; the states co-operated jointly with
the emperors in the exercise of the legislative power. There
were neither permanent armies, nor fortresses, nor taxation, nor
any regular system of finance. The government was without
vigour, incapable of protecting or punishing, or even keeping
m subjection, Hs remote provinces, consisting of nations who
difl!ered in language, manners, and legislation. One insurrec-
tion, though quelled, was only the forerunner of others ; and
the conquered nations shook off the yoke with the same facility
as they received it. The perpetual wars of the emperors in
Italy, from the first conquest of that country by Otho the Great,
prove, in a manner most evident, the strange imbecility of the
government. At every change of reign, and every little revo-
lution which happened in Germany, the Italians rose in arms,
and put the emperors again to the necessity of reconquering
that kingdom ; which undoubtedly it was their interest to have
abandoned entirely, rather than to lavish for so many centuries
their treasures and the blood of their people to no purpose. The
climate of Italy was also disastrous to the Imperial armies;
and many successions of noble German families found there a
foreign grave.

An inevitable consequence of this vitiated constitution, was
the decline of the royal authority, and the gradual increase of

' I

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88 ciurTKR IV.

the power of the nobility. It is important, however, to remark
tiiat in Germany the progress of liie feudal system hnd t>een
much less rnpid than in France. The dukos, counts, and mar-
graves, that i.s, the governors of provinces, and wardens of the
marches, continued for long to be regarded merely as imperial
officers, without any pretension?^ to consider their governments
as hereditary, or exercise the rights of sovereignty. Even fiefs
remained for many ages in their primitive slate, without being
perpetuated in the families of those to whom they had been
originally granted.

A total change, however, took place towards the end of the
eleventh century. The dukes and count?, become formidable
by the extent of their power and their vast possessions, by de-
grees, constituted themselves hereditary officers ; and not content
with the appropriation of their dutchies and counties, they tonk
advantage of the weakness of the emperors, and their quarrels
with the popes, to extort from them new privileges, or usurp tho
prerogatives of royalty, formerly reserved for the emperors
alone. The aristocracy, or landed proprietors, followed tho
example of the dukes and counts, and after the eleventh century,
they all b'>'j;an to play the part of sovereigns, styling them-
selves, in tiieir public acts. By the Grace of God. At length fiefs
became also hereditary. Conrad II. was the first emperor that
permitted the transmission of fiefs to sons and grandsons ; the
succession of collateral branches was subsequently introduced.
The system of hereditary feudalism became thus firmly esta-
blished in Germany, and by a natural consequence, it brought
on the destruction of the imperial authority, and the ruin of
the empire.

Nothing, however, was more injurious to this authority than
the exlravogant power of the clergy, whom the emperors of the
Saxon line had loaded with honours and benefactions, either
from a zeal for religion, or with the intention of using them as
a counterpoise to the ambition of the dukes and secular nobility.
It was chiefly to Otho the Great that the bishops of Germany
were indebted for their temporal power. That prince bestowed
on them large grants of land from the imperial domains ; he
gave them towns, counties, and entire dukedoms, with the pre-
rogatives of royalty, s\ich as justiciary powers, the right of coin-
ing money, of levying tolls and other public revenues, Sec.
These rights and privileges he granted them under the feudal
law. and on condition of rendering him military servitude.
Nevertheless, as the disposal of ecclesiastical dignities belonged
then to the crown, and fiefs had not, in general, becorhe heredi-
larj', the Emperor still retained possession of those which he

PERIOD III. A. D. 962—1074.

conferred on the cIrTfry; thoso he b.-stowo.! on u'hom.soPvor he
h.-iffprl proper ; usmir them, hou-over, nUv.y. in conformity with
hi!" own views and intert'sts. •'

The .ame policy that induced Olho to transfer to the hi.hop^
a larpe portion of his domain., led him nl.s,, „, imrnsl them wifh
the jrovernment o c.ties. At th,u time, there was a distinction
o( towns into r..y« and prfjvrtorinl. The latter were d.-pendent
on the d.ikes. while the former, subject immediately m the kinc
gnye rise to what has since been called imi.enal ritln. It was

of establishmu' counts and burjromasters or mairi.strates to ex-
ercisc m their name the right, of justice, civil and criminal, the
evjmjr of money, customs, &c. as well as other preromuives
usually reserved to the Kinff. Otho conferred the connfies, or
governorships of cities where a bishop resided, on the bishops
hemsclves. who, in process of time, made use of this new power
to subject these cities to their own authority, and render th.-m
mediate and episcojml, instead of being immediate and roual as
thev were originally. ^

the successors of Otho, as impolitic as himself imitated his
example. In consequence of this, the possessions of the crown
were, by degrees reduced to nothing, and the authority of the
emperors declined with the diminution of their wealth. The
bishops at first devoted to the emperors, both from necessity
and gratitude, no sooner perceived their own strength, than thev
were tempted to make use of it, and to join the secular princes^
in order to sap the imperial authority, as well as to consolidate
their own power. To these several causes of the downfall of
he empire must be added the new power of the Roman pontiffs,
the origin of which is ascribed to Pope Gregory VII. In the
followmg Period, this matter will be treated more in detail
meantime we shall proceed to give a succinct view of the other
states that figured during this epoch on the theatre of Europe

The dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain, founded about the
middle of the eighth century, was overturned in the eleventh.
An insurrection having happened at Cordova against the Ca-
liph Hescham that prince was dethroned (10.30,) and the caliph-
ate ended with him The governors of cities and provinces,
and the principal nobility of the Arabs, formed themselves into
independent sovereigns, under the title of kings ; and as many
petty Mahometan States rose in Spain as there had been prin-
cipal cities. The most considerable of these, were the kin<r.
vTn m''"'"' Se''''^- Toledo, Lisbon, Saragossu, Torto"a.
Valencia, Murcia, &c. This partition of the caliphate of Cor-
dora, enabled the princes of Christendom to aggrandize their

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CIIAPTIR IV.

power at the expcu.se of the Mahometans. Besides ihu king*
dom:s (if Leon and Navarro, then- pxisti'd in Spain at the com-
incncprnciil of the en v(>i\th fniiliiry, the county of Caslille, which
hud l)t't.'ti disnienibiTc'd from the kinj^doin of Leon, and the
county of IJurcclonu, which aci<novvledged the sovereignty of
tlie Kings of France.

Suncho tiie Great, King :;" Novairo, had the fortune to unite
in his own family all tlu'sc .M!i i'lit sov figntics with the ex«
cepiion of Hurcefonu ; and as th:- occuri u nearly n'. the isame
time with the desir'Jction of llu- calii'lnli: >ir Cordova, it would
have been ( ;i-y fur the Christians u> './utain u complete ascen-
dency over ilic MahoiucUUKs, if they ha-l kept llieir forces united.
But the King of Navarro fell into the same mi-take that had
been so fatal to the Mahometans; he divided his dominions
among hie sons (10.'j.j.) Don Garcias, the eldest, had Navarre,
and was (he ancestiir of a long line of Navarrese kings ; the
last of whom, Jolm iI'Aliiert was deposed (1512) by Ferdinand
the Calholi". From Frrdiiiand. 'he younger son, King of Leon
and Castillo, were doscon^'i il ai! the soveroifns of Castillo and
Leon down to Queen IsmIkIIu who transferred these kingdoms
(1 17-1,) by ;;i nTia(,'o, to For!l,uMd the Catlioiic. Lastly, Den
Ramira, nutuial son of Sancl.(., was the sUnn from wiiorn sprung
all the ki.ig- of Arrugon, down to Ferdinand, who by his mor-
riage wiih Isabella, happened to unite all the difTeront Christian
Statics in Spain; and put an end also to the dominion of the
Arabs and Moor.^ in that peninsula.

In France the royal authority declined more and more, from
the rapid progress which the feudal system made in that king-
dom, after the feeble reign of Charles the Bald. The Dukes
and the Counts, usurping the rights of royalty, made war on
each other, and raised on every occasion the standard of revolt.
The kings, in order to gain over some, and maintain others in
their allegiance, were obliged to give up to them in succession
every branch of the royal revenue ; so that the last Carlovin-
gian princes were reduced to such a state of distress, that, fat
from being able to counterbalance the power of the nobility, they
had hardly left wherewithal to furnish a scanty subsistence for
their court. A change of dynasty became then indispensable ;
and the throne, it was evident, must fall to the share of the most
powerful and daring of its vassals. This event, which had long
been foreseen, happened on the death of Louis V., surnamed tha
Slothful (987,) the last of the Carlovingians, who died childless
at the age of twenty.

Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert the Strong, possessed
at that time the central parts of the kingdom. He was Count

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PBBioo III. A. u. 962 — 1074.

of Paris, Duke of France and Neustria; and his brother Henry
was master of the dutchy of Burgundy. It was not difficult for
Hugh to form a party ; and under their auspices he got himselt
proclaimed king at Noyon, and crowned at Rheims. Charles
Duke of Lorrain, paternal uncle of the last king, and sole legiti-
mate heir to the Carlovingian line,^ advanced his claims to the
crown ; he seized, by force of arms, on Laon and Rheims ; but
being betrayed by the Bishop of Laon, and delivered up to his
rival, he was confmed in a prison at Orleans, where he ended
his days (991.)

Hugh, on mounting the throne, restored to the possession of
the crown, the lands and dominions which had belonged to it
between the Loire, the Seine, and the Meuse. His power gave
a new lustre to the royal dignity, which he found means to ren-
der hereditary in his family ; while at the same time he per-
mitted the grandees to transmit to their descendants, male and
female, the dutchics and counties which they held of the crown,
reserving to it merely the feudal superiority. Thus the feudal
government was firmly established in France, by the hereditary
tenure of the great fiefs ; and that kingdom was in consequence
divided among a certain number of powerful vassals, who ren-
dered fealty and homage to their kings, and marched at their
command on military expeditions ; but who nevertheless were
nearly absolute masters in their own dominions, and often dic-
tated the law to the sovereign himself. Hugh was the progeni-
tor of the Capetian dynasty of French kings, so called from his
own surname of Capet.

England, during the feeble reigns of the Anglo-Saxon pnnces,
successors to Alfred the Great, had sunk under the dominion of
priests and monks. The consequence was, the utter ruin of its
finances, and its naval and military power. This exposed the
kingdom afresh to the attacks of the Danes (991,) who imposed
on the English a tribute or tax, known by the name of Danegelt.
Under the command of their kings Sueno or Sweyn L, and Ca-
nute the Great, they at length drove the Anglo-Saxon kings from
their thrones, and made themselves masters of all England
(1017.) But the dominion of the Danes was only of short con-
tinuance. The English shook off their yoke, and conferred their
crown on Edward the Confessor (1042) a prince of the royal
blood of their ancient kings. On the death of Edward, Harold,
Earl of Kent, was acknowledged King of England (1066 ;) but
he met with a formidable competitor in the person of William
Duke of Normandy.

This prince had no other right to the crown, than that founded
on a verbal promise of Edward the Confessor, and confirmed by an

i '

1 1

1 '

■ ■ .. ■

: ^

■■ - 'W ,;

■ , .. li

■ 1

'4 ^ -i ''

I i

.*'*'il

\i^ii

CHAPTER IV.

oath which Harold had given him while Earl of Kent. William
landed in England (October 14th 1066,) at the head of a conside-
rable army, and having offered battle to Harold, near Hastings in
Sussex, he gained a complete victory. Harold was killed in
the action, and the conquest of all England was the reward of
the victor. To secure himself in his new dominions, William
constructed a vast number of castles and fortresses throughout
all parts of the kingdom, which he took care to fill with Nor-
man garrisons. The lands and places of trust of which he had
deprived the English, were distributed among the Normans, and
other foreigners who were attached to his fortunes. He intro-
duced the feudal law, and rendered fiefs hereditary ; he ordered
the English to be disarmed, and forbade them to have light in
their houses after eight o'clock in the evening. He even at-
tempted to abolish the language of the country, by establishing
numerous schools for teaching the Norman-French; by pub-
lishing the laws, and ordering the pleadings in the courts of
justice to be made in that language ; hence it happened that the
ancient British, combined with the Norman, formed a new sort
of language, which still exists in the modern English. William
thus became the common ancestor of the kings of England,
whose right to the crown is derived from him, and founded on
the Conquest.

About the time that William conquered England, another co-
lony of the same Normans founded the kingdom of the two
Sicilies. The several provinces of which this kingdom was
composed, were, about the beginning of the eleventh century,
divided among the Germans, Greeks, and Arabians,^ who were
incessantly waging war with each other. A band of nearly a
hundred Normans, equally desirous of war and glory, landed in
that country (1016,) and tendered their services to the Lombard
princes, vassals of the German empire. The bravery which
they displayed on various occasions, made these princes desirous
of retaining them in their pay, to serve as guardians of their
frontiers against the Greeks and Arabians. The Greek princes
very soon were no less eager to gain their services ; and the
Duke of Naples, with the view of attaching them to his interest,
ceded to them a large territory, where they built the city of
Aversa, three leagues from Capua. The emperor Conrad II.
erected it into a county (1038,) the investiture of which he
granted to Rainulph, one of their chiefs.

At this same period the sons of Tancred conducted a new
colony from Normandy into Lower Italy. Their arrival is gen-
erally referred to the year 1033 ; and tradition has assigned to
Tancred a descent from RoUo or Robert I. Duke of Normandy

V
V

b
h

tl
v:
ti
tc
nn
m
in
a
d(
d(

m
tis
re
ac
re!

— I

William
'aconside-
■lastings in
s killed in
reward of
is, William
throughout
with Nor-
tich he had
>rnians,and

He intro-
he ordered
iVe light in
le even at-
sstablishing
h ; by pub-
e courts of
ned that the
I a new sort
William
)f England,
founded on

another co-

of the two

igdom was

ith century,

' who were

of nearly a

y, landed in

le Lombard

very which

:es desirous

ins of their

eek princes

and the

lis interest,

he city of

Conrad li-

which he

ted a new
ival is gen-
Eissigned to
Normandy

rRRioD 111. A. D. 963 — 1074.

-11
i!

These new adventurers undertook the conquest of Apulia (1041,)
which they formed into a county, the investiture of which they
obtained from Henry III. Robert Guiscurd, one of the sons of
Tancred, afterwards (1047) completed the conquest of that pro-
vince ; he added to it that of Calabria, of which he had also
deprived the Greeks (1059,) and assumed the title of Duke of
Apulia and Calabria.

To secure himself in his new conquests, as well us in those
which he yet meditated from the two empires, Robert concluded
a treaty the same year with Pope Nicholas II., by which that
Pontiff confirmed him in the possession of the dutchies of Apulia
and Calabria ; granting him not only the investiture of these, but
promising him also that of Sicily, whenever he should expel
the Greeks and Arabians from it. Robert, in his turn, acknow-
ledged himself a vassal of the Pope, and engaged to pay him
an annual tribute of twelve pence, money of Pavia, for every
pair of oxen in the two dutchies.* Immediately after this treaty,
Robert called in the assistance of his brother Roger, to rescue
Sicily from the hands of the Greeks and Arabs." No sooner had
he accomplished this object, than he conquered in succession
the principalities of Bari, Salerno, Amalfi, Sorrento, and Bene*
vento; this latter city he surrendered to the Pope.

Such is the origin of the dutchies of Apulia and Calabria;
which, af\er a lapse of some years, were formed into a kingdom
under the name of the Two Sicilies.

As to the kingdoms of the North, the light of history scarcely
began to dawn there until the introduction of Christianity, which
happened about the end of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh
century.^ The promulgation of the Gospel opened a way into
the North for the diffusion of arts and letters. The Scandina-
vian states, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, which before that
time were parcelled out among independent chiefs, began then
to form plans of civil government, and to combine into settled
monarchies. Their new religion, however, did not inspire these
nations with its meek and peaceable virtues, nor overcome their
invincible propensity to wars and rapine. Their heroism was
a wild and savage bravery, which emboldened them to face all
dangers, to undertake desperate adventures, and to achieve sud-
den conquests, which were lost and won with the same rapidity.

Harold, surnamed Blaatand, or Blue teeth, was the first sole
monarch of the Danes, who with his son Sweyn received bap-
tism, after being vanquished by Otho the Great (965.) Sweyn
relapsed to paganism ; but his son Canute the Great, on his
accession to the throne (1014,) made Christianity the established
religion of his kingdom. He sent for monks from other coun-

11 r

v, y !?

' i ■«

i 1 J' I

II ;

,, ■•>' ■ 1' <

i !'■

!? I

mm.L

CRAPTBR IV.

tries, founded churches, nnd divided the kingdom into dioresaei*.
Ambitious to distinguish himself as a conqueror, he nf\erwarda
subdued England and Norway (1038.) To these he added a
part of Scotland and Sweden ; and conferred in his own life-
time on one of his sons, named Sweyn, the kingdom of Nor-
way, and on nnother, named Hardicanute, that of Denmark.
These acquisitions, however, were merely temporary. Sweyn
was driven from Norway (1035;) while England and Scotland
also shook off the Danish yoke (1042,) on the death of Hardi-
canute ; and Magnus King of Norway, even made himself mas-
ter of Denmark, which did not recover its entire independence
until the death of that prince (1047.)

The ancient dynasty of Kings who occupied the throne ol
Denmark from the most remote ages, is known by the name of
Skioldiings, because, according to a fabulous tradition, they
were descended from Skiold, a pretended son of the famous
Odin who, from being the conqueror, was exalted into the deity
of the North. The kings who reigned after Sweyn II. were
called Estrithides, from that monarch, who was the son of Ulf
a Danish nobleman, and Estritk, sister to Canute the Great. It
was this Sweyn that raised the standard of revolt against Mag-
nus King of iSJorway (1044,) and kept prssession of the throne
until his death.

In Sweden, the kings of the reigning family, descended, as is
alleged, from Regner Lodbrok, took the title of Kings of Upsal,
the place of their residence. Olaus Skotkonung changed this
title into that of King of Sweden. He was the first monarch of
his nation thai embraced Christianity, and exerted himself to
propagate it in his kingdom. Sigefroy, Archbishop of York,
who was sent into Sweden by Ethelred King of England, bap-
tized Olaus and his whole family (1001.) The conversion of
the Swedes would have been more expeditious, had not the zeal
of Olaus been restrained by the Swedish Diet who decided for
full liberty of conscience. Hence the strange mixture, both of
doctrine and worship, that long prevailed in Sweden, where Je-
sus Christ was profanely associated with Odin, and the Pagan
goddess Freya confounded with the Virgin. Anund Jacques,
son of Olaus", contributed much to the progress of Christianity ;
and his zeal procured him the title of Most Christian King.

In Norway, Olaus I., surnamed Tryggueson, towards the end
of the tenth century, constituted himself the apostle and mis-
sionary of his people, and undertook to convert them to Chris-
tianity by torture and punishment. Iceland and Greenland *
were likewise converted by his efforts, and afterwards became
his tributaries (1029.) One of his successors, Olaus II., called

i wfewn w w"" '";

dioreue!?.
ifterwards
e added a
i own li fe-
ll of Nor-
Denmark.
. Sweyn
d Scotland
t of Hardi-
mself mas-
lepcndence

throne oi
le name of
ition, they
the famous
to the deity
rn II. were
son of Ulf
> Great. It
gainst Mag-
f the throne

ended, as is
fs of Upsal,
langed this
monarch of
himself to
)p of York,
igland, bap*
[iversion of
not the zeal
lecided for
uro, both of
, where Je-
the Pagan
id Jacques,
hristianity ;
n King.
rds the end
le and mis*
to Chris-
reenland ^
ds became
II., called

PGBioD III. A. o. 982 — 1074.

the Fat, and also the Saint, succeeded in extirpating paganism
from Norway (1020;) but ho used the cloak of religion to es-
tablish his own authority, by destroying several pcity kings,
who before this time possessed each thoir own dominions.

Christianity was likewise instrumental in throwing some rays
of light on the history of the Sclavonian iiations, by imparting
to them the knowledge of letters, and raising them in the scale
of importance among the civilized nations of Europe. The
Sclavonians who were settled north of the Elbe, had been sub-
dued by the Germans, and compelled to embrace Christianity.
The haughtiness and rigour of Thierry, Margrave of the North,
induced them to shake olT the yoke, and to concert a general
insurrection, which broke out in the reign of Otho II. (982.,
The episcopal palaces, churches and convents, were destroyed;
and the people returned once more to the superstitions of pagan-
ism. Ihoso tribes that inhitbited Brandenburg, part of Pome-
rania and Mecklenburg, known formerly under the name of
Wilzians and Welatabes, formed themselves into a republican
or federal body, and took the name of Lultizians, The Abo-
trites, on the' contrary, the Polabes, and the Wagrians," were
decidedly for a monarchical government, the capital of which
was fixed at Mecklenburg. Some of the princes or sovereigns
of these latter people were styled Kings of the Ve?.edi. The
result of this general revolt was a series of long and bloody wars
between the Germans and Sclavonians. The latter defended
their civil and religious liberties with a remarkable courage and
perseverance ; and it was not till after the twelfth century, that
they were subdued and reduced to Christianity by the continued
efforts of the Dukes of Saxony, and the Margraves of the North,
and by means of the crusades and colonies which the Germans
despatched into their country.'"

The first duke of Bohemia that received baptism from the
hands, as is supposed, of Methodius, bishop of Moravia (894,)
was Borzivoy. His successors, however, returned to idolatry ;
and it was not till near the end of the tenth century, properly
speaking, and in the reign of Boleslaus II., surnamed the Pious,
that Christianity became the e.stablished religion of Bohemia
(999.) These dukes were vassals and tributaries of the German
empire ; and their tribute consisted of 500 silver marks, and 120
oxen. They exercised, however, all the rights of sovereignty
over the people ; their reign was a system of terror, and they
seldom took the opinion or advice of their nobles and grandees.
The succession was hereditary in the reigning dynasty ; and
the system of partition was in use, otherwise the order of suc-
cession would have been fixed and permanent. Over a numbei

^!'

-ra^iJUiU^^*"

is:i||t:'L

CnAPTER IV.

of these purtitionary princes, one was vested willi certain riglits
o' superiority, under the title of Grand Prince, according to a
i-iiulotn found very prevalent arnon^ the half civilized nations
of iiic north and east of Europe." The greater proportiuii of
the inhabitants, the labouring classes, artisans, and domestics,
wore serfs, and oppressed by the tyrannical yoke of their mas-
ters. The public sale of men was even practised in Bohemia;
the tithe, or tenth part of which, belonged to the sovereign. The
descendants of Borzivoy possessed the throne of Bohemia until
1306, when the male line became extinct.

The Poles were a nation whose name does not occur in his-
tory before the middle of the tenth century ; and we owe to
Christianity the first intimations that we have regarding this
people. Mieczislaus I., the first duke or prince of the Poles of
whom we posses* any authentic accounts, embraced Christianity
(966,) at the solicitation of his spouse Dambrowka, sister ot
Boleslaus II., duke of Bohemia. Shortly after, the first bish-
opric in Poland, that of Posen, was founded by Otho the Great.
Christianity did not, however, tame the ferocious habits of the
Poles, wiio remained for a long time without the least progress
in mental cultivation.'- Their government, as wretched as that
of Bohemia, subjected the great body of the nation to the most
deba:jing servitude. The ancient sovereigns of Poland were
hereditary. They ruled most despotically, and with a rod ol
iron ; and, although they acknowledged themselves vassals and
tributaries of the German emperors, they repeatedly broke out
into open rebellion, asserted their absolute independence, and
waged a succcskIuI war against their masters. Boleslaus, son
of Alieczislaus I., took advantage of the troubles which rose in
Germany on the death of Otho III., to possess himself of the
Marches of Lusatia and Budissin, or Bautzen, which the Em-
peror Henry II. afterwards granted him as fiefs. This same
prince, in despite of the Germans, on the death of Henry II.
(1025,) assumed the royal dignity. Mieczislaus II., son of Bo-
leslaus, after having cruelly ravaged the country situate between
the Oder, the Elbe, and the Saal, was compelled to abdicate the
throne, and also to restore those provinces which his father had
wrested from the Empire. The male descendants of Mieczis-
laus I. reigned in Poland until the death of Casimir the Great
(1370.) This dynasty of kings is known by the name of the
Piasts, or Piasses, so called from one Piast, alleged to have
been its founder.

Silesia, which was then a province of Poland, received the
light of the Gospel when it first visited that kingdom ; and had
for its apostle, as is supposed, a Romish priest named GeoflTry.
who is reckoned the first bishop of Smogra (966.;j

KWMW

lin riglUB
ding to a
d nations

[torlioii of
omestics,
heir mas-
Bohemia;
gn. The
emia until

ur in his-
ve owe to
Tiling this
le Poles of
hristianity
a, sister ot
first bish-
the Great,
ibits of the
St progress
hed as that
to the most
oland were
ih a rod ot
vassals and
r broke out
idence, and
leslaus, son
[lich rose in
iself of the
h the Em-
This same
Henry II.
son of Be-
lle between
ibdicate the
father had
f Mietzis-
the Great
lame of the
[ed to have

sceived the
|n ; and had
Geoffry.

\l '

PERIOD III. A. 0. 962 — 1074.

In Russia, Vladimir the Great, great-grandson of Ruric, was
the first grand duke tliat embraced Christianity, (988.) He was
baptized at Chcrson in Taurida, on the occasion of his marriage
with Anna Romanowna, sister of Basil II. and Constantine VIII.,
Emperors of Constantinople. It was this prince that introduced
the Greek ritual into Russia, and founded several schools and
convents. The alphabet of the Greeks was imported into Rus-
sia along with their religion ; and from the reign of Vladimir,
that nation, more powerful and united than most of the other
European states, carried on a lucrative commerce with the Greek
empire, of which it became at length a formidable rival.

At the death of that prince (1015,) Russia comprehended
those vast regions which, from east to west, extend from the Icy
Sea and the mouth of the Dwina, to the Niemen, the Dniester,
and the Bug ; and southward of this last river, to the Carpathian
Mountains, and the confines of Hungary and Moldavia. The
city of Kiow on the Dnieper, was the capital of the empire, and
the residence of the Grand Dukes. This period also gave rise
to those unfortunate territorial partitions which, by dividing the
Russian monarchy, exposed it to the insults and ravages of the
neighbouring nations. Jaroslaus, one of the sons of Vladimir,
made himself famous as a legislator, and supplied the Novogo-
rodians with laws to regulate their courts of justice. No Ies."j
the friend and protector of letters, he employed himself in trans-
lating Greek books into the Solavonian language. He founded
a public school at Novogorod, in which three hundred children
were educated at his sole expense. His daughter Anna married
Henry I., King of France ; and this princess was the common
mother of all the kings and princes of the Capetian dynasty.

Hungary was divided, in the tenth century, among several
petty princes, who acknowledged a common chief, styled the
Grand Prince, whose limited authority was reduced to a simple
pre-ei ; ,:f -u-e in rank and dignity. Each of these princes as-
sembled i.rmies, and made predatory excursions, plundering and
ravaging the neighbouring countries at their pleasure. The
East and the West sufTered long under the scourge of these atro-
cious pillagers. Christianity, which was introduced among them
about the end of the tenth century, was alone capable of soft-
ening the manners, and tempering the ferocity ot this nation^
Peregrine, bishop of Passau, encouraged by Otho the Great,
and patronized by the Grand Prince Geisa, sent the first mis-
sionaries into Hungary (973.) St. Adelbert, bishop of Prague,
had the honour to baptize the son of Geisa, called Waic (994,)
but who received then the baptismal name of Stephen.

This latter prince, having succeeded his father (997,) changed

Hi!

;i;^'

M "' ' • i

t .

til 'I ^

— ... . , . MJH i m i M ^WIi rr" ^

01 CIIAPTBR IV.

entirely the aspect of Hungary. He nssumed the royal dignity,
with the consent of Pope Sylvester II., who sent him on this
occasion the Angelic Crowi,,'^ as it is cnlled ; the^snme, accord-
ing to tradition, which the Hungarians use to this dny in the
coronation of their kings. At once the apostle and the law-
giver of his country, Stephen I. combined politics vyith justice,
and employed both severity and clemency in reforming his sub-
iect« He founded .several bishoprics, extirpated idolatry, banish-
ed anarchy, and gave to the authority of the sovereign, a vigour
and efficiency which it never before possessed, lo him like-
wise is generally ascribed the political division of Hungary into
counties, as also the institution of palatines, and great officers
of the crown. He conquered Transylvania, about 10U2-J, ac-
cording to the opinion of most modern Hungarian authors, and
formed it into a distinct government, the chiefs of which, called
Vaivodes, held immediately of his crown.

The history of the Greek empire presents, at this time, nothing
but a tissue of corruption, fanaticism and perfidy. The throne,
as insecure a8 that of the Western empire had been, was filled
alternately by a succession of usurpers ; most of whom rose
from the lowest conditions of life, and owed their elevation
solely to the perpetration of crime and parricide. A supersti-
tion gross in its nature, bound as with a spell the minds of the
Greeks, and paralyzed their courage. It was carefully cherished
by the monks, who hud found means to possess themselves ol
the government, by procuring the exclusion of the secular clergy
from the episcopate ; and directing the attention of princes to
those theological controversies, often exceedingly frivolous,
which were produced and re-produced almost without inter-
mission." Hence originated those internal commotions and
distractions, those schisms and sects, which more than once
divided the empire, and shook the throne itself.

These theological disputes, the rivalry between the two pa-
triarchs of Rome and Constantinople,'' and the contests respect-
ing the Bulgarian converts, kd to an irreparable schism between
the churches of the East and the West. This controversy was
most keenly agitated under the pontificate of .Tohn Vlll., ami
when the celebrated Photius was patriarch of Constantinople ;
and in spite of the efforts which several of the Greek emperors
and patriarchs afterwards made to effect a union with the Romish
See, the animosity of both only grew more implacable, and
»nded at last in a final rupture between the two churches. A
' govornment so weak and so capricious as that of Constantinople,
could not but be perpetually exposed to the inroads of foreign
enemies. The Huns, Ostrogoths, Avars, Bulgarians, Russians.

^J\

il dignity,
m on thii
le, accord-
ny in ihe
I the law-
ih justice,
g his suh-
ry, hnnish-
n, n vigour
I him like-
ingary into
■at omccrs
002-3, nc-
ilhors, nnd
[lich, called

ne, nothing
rhc throne,
, was filled
whom rose
ir elevation
A supersii-
inds of the
y cherished
emselves of
cular clergy
f princes to
frivolous,
thout inter-
notions and
» than once

the two pa-
pats respect-
ism between
iroversy was
n VIII., and
stantinople ;
ek emperors
the Romish
Incable, and
lurches. A
nstantinople.
R of foreign
>s, Russians,

riRioD lit. A. D. 962 — 1074.

Hungarians, Chazars, and Patzinacites, harassed the empire on
the side of the Danube ; while the Persians'" were incessantly
e.xhiuisting its strengtii in the East, and on the side of the Eu-
phrates. All thpfo nations, however, were content with merely
desolating the frontiers of the empire, and imposing frequent
contributions on the Greeks. It was a task reserved for the
Lombards, the Arabs, the Normans, and the Turks, to detach
from it whole provinces, and by degrees to hasten its downfall.
The Lombards were the first that conquered from the Greeks
the greater part of Italy. Palestine, Syria, and the whole pos-
sesiioiis of the Empire in Greater Asia, as well as Egypt, Nor-
I them Africa, iind the Isle of Cyprus, were seized in the seventh
j century by the Arabs, who made themselves masters of Sicily,"
and three times laid siege to Constantinople (669, 717, 719.)
They would have even succeeded in taking this Eastern capital,
and annihilating the Greek empire, had not the couraj^e of Leo
the Isuurian, and the surprising effects of the Gregeois, or Greek
Fire," rendered their efforts useless. At length, in the eleventh
century, the Normans conquered all that remained to the Greeks
in Italy ; while the SeljuU Turks, who must not be confounded
with the Ottoman Turks, deprived them of the greater part of
Asia Minor.

Turk is the generic appellation for all the Tartar nations, '"
mentioned by the ancients under the name of Scythians. Their
original country was in those vast regions situate to the north
of Mount Caucasus, and eastward of the Caspian Sea, beyond
the Jihon, or Oxus of the ancients, especially in Charasm, Tran-
soxiana, Turkestan, ice. About the eighth century, Ihe Arabs
had passed the Oxus, and rendered the Turks of Charasm and
Transoxiana their tributaries. They instructed them in the re-
ligion and laws of Mahomet ; but| by a transition rather extra-
ordinary, it afterwards happened, that the vanquished nnposed
the yoke on their new masters.

The empire of the Arabs, already enfeebled by the territorial
losses which have been mentioned, declined more and more,
from about the middle of the ninth century. The Caliphs of
Bagdad had committed the mistake of trusting their persons tu
a military guard of foreigners,'" viz. the Turks, who, taking ad-
vantage of the effeminacy of these princes, soon arrogated to
themselves the whole authority, and abused it so far, as to leave
the Caliphs entirely dependent on their will, and to vest in them-
selves the hereditary succession of the government. Thus, in
the very centre of the caliphate of Bagdad, there rose a multi-
tude 01 new sovereignties or dynasties, the heads of which,
under the title of Emir or Commander, exercised the supreme

■ I' '

100

CHAPTER IV.

power ; learinff nothing more to the Caliph than a pre-eminence
of dignity, and that rHther of n xpirittiiil than u tt<nipornI nature.
Besides the cxl(>rnal marks of hoiniijje and ri'.xpcrt which were
paid him, his name cnntiniio<l to he proclaiiiu'd in the iiiosquca,
and inscribed on the coined money. By him were (rruiited all
letters-patent of inve.ttiture, robcn, swords, und slimdards, accom-
panied with high-soundin^r titles ; which did not, however, pre-
vent these usurpers from nmltreuting th<'ir uncient masters,
insulting their person, or oven attemptinf^ their lives, whenever
it might serve to promote their interest.

A general revolution broke out under the caliph Ruhdi. Thai
prince, wishing to arrest the progress of usurpation, thought of
creating a new minister, whom he invested with the title of
Emir-al-Omra^ or Commander of Commanders ; and conferred
on him powers much more ample than tho^e of his vizier. This
minister, whom he selected from the Emirs, officiated even in
the grand mosque of Bagdad, instead of the caliph ; and his
name was pronounced with equal honours in the divine service
throughout the empire. This device, which the caliph employ-
ed to re-establish his authority, only tended to accelerate its
destruction. The Bowides, the most powerful dynasty among
•he Emirs, arrogated to themselves the dignity of Chief Com-
mander (945,) and seized both the city and the sovereignty of
Bagdad. The Caliph, stripped of all temporal power, was then
only grand Iman, or ."sovercign-poniilTof the Mussulman religion,
under the protection of the Bowidian prince, who kept him as
his prisoner at Bagdad.

Such was the sud situation of the Arabian empire, fallen
from its ancient glory, when n numerous Turkish tribe, from
the centre of Turkestan, appeared on the stage, overthrew the
dominions of the Bowides ; and, after imposing new fetters on
the caliphs, laid the foundation of « powerful empire, known by
the name of the Seljukides. This roving tribe, which took its
name from Seljuk a Mussulman Turk, after having wandered
for some time with their flocks in Transoxiana, passed the
Jihon to seek pasturage in the province of Chorasan. Rein-
forced by new Turkish colonies from Transoxiana, this coali-
tion became in a little time so powerful, tlin> Togrul Beg,
grandson of Seljuk, had the boldness to cause himself to be
proclaimed Sultan in the city of Niesabur,*" the capital of Cho-
rasan, and formally announced himself as a conqueror (1038.)
This prince, and the sultans his successors, subdued by de-
grees most of the provinces in Asia, which formed the caliphate
of Bagdad.^' They annihilated the power of the Bowides
reduced the Caliphs to the condition of dependents, and al
length attacked also the possessions of the Greek 'empire

-' i < fv '' i ' j'..jj . ff^wr

■-*s-?r-*rtte**t^ftJCS^^asMW

^eminence
rnl nature,
ihifh were
i\ iiio!i()Uca,
^rruiiicil all
rtis, accom-
wever.pre-
It masters,
, whenever

uhdi. Thai
thought ol
the title of
d conferred
rizicr. This
ted even in
h ; and his
/inu service
iph employ-
ceierate its
asty among
['hief Com-
veroignty of
r, was then
lan religion,
cept him as

pire, fallen
tribe, from
rthrew the
V fetters on
I, known by
ich took its
f wandered
passed the
Isan. Rein-
this coali-
ogrul Beg,
mself to be
ital of Cho-
ror (1038.)
ued by de-
le caliphate
Bowides
nts, and at
npiro

PIRIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

— — -.- )
101 I'

Alp-Ari«lnn, the nephew ond immediate successor of Togrul
Beg, {(iiitird II sii,'niil victory in Armenia, over the Emperor
Roiniuiiis Di<>!,'i'n<'s (1071) who was there taken prisoner.
Tho confusion which this event caused in the Greek empire,
was favourable to the Turks, who seized not only what re-
mained to the recks in Syria, but also several provinces in
Asia Minor, such ns Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphylia, Lycia, Pisidia,
Lycnonia, Cappadncia, Galatia, Ponlus, and Bythinia.

The empire of the Seljukides was in its most flourishing
state under the sultan Maiek Shah, the son and successor of
Alp-Arslan. The caliph Cayem, in confirming to this prince
'he title of Sultan and Chief Commander, added also that of
Commander of the Faithful, which before that time had never
been conferred but on the caliphs alone. On the death of Ma-
Ick (1092,) the disputes that rose among his sons occasioned a
civil war, and the partition of the empire. These vast territories
were divided among three principal dynasties descended from
Scljuk, those of Iran, Herman, and Ronm, or Rome. This
latter branch, which ascribes its origin t > Soliman, great-grand-
son of Scljuk, obtained the provinces of Asia Minor, which
the Seljukides had conquered from the Greeks. The princes
of this dynasty are known in the history of the Crusades by
the name of Sultans of Iconium or Cogni, a city of Lycaonia,
where the sultans established their residence after being de-
prived by the crusoders of the city of Nice in Bythinia. The
most powerful of the three dynasties was that of the Seljukides
of Iran, whose sway extended over the greater part of*^ Upper
Asia. It soon, however, fell from its grandeur, and its states
were divided into a number of petty sovereignties, over which
the Emirs or governors of cities and provinces usurped the
supreme power.^ These divisions prepared the way for the
conquests of the crusaders in Syria and Palestine ; and fur-
nished >i1so to the Caliphs of Bagdad the means of shaking ofT
the yoke of the Seljukides (1162,) and recovering the sove-
reignty of Irak- Arabia, or Bagdad.

CHAPTER V.

PERIOD IV.

From Pope Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII. a. d. 1074—1300.
A NEW and powerful monarchy rose on the ruins of the Ger-
man empire, that of the Roman PontifTs; which monopolized
both spiritual and temporal dominion, and extended its influ-

,1-i

'sit .

^■|j

■».p|#i

;^':

fit B-^

Ip-

102

CHAPTER ▼.

ence over all the kingdoms of Christendom. This supremacy,
whose artful and complicated mechanism is still an object of
astonishment to the most subtle politicians, was the work of
Pope Gregory VII., a man born for great undertakings, as re-
markable for his genius, which raised him above his times, as
for the austerity of his manners and the boundless reach of his
ambition. Indignant at the depravity of the age, which was
immersed in ignorance and vice, and at the gross immorality
which pervaded all classes of society, both laymen and ecclesi-
astics, Gregory resolved to become the reformer of morals, and
the restorer of religion. To succeed in this project, it was ne-
cessary to replace the government of kings, which had totally
lost its power and efficiency, by a new authority, whose salutary
restraints, imposed alike on the high and the low, might restore
vigour to the laws, put a stop to licentiousness, and impose a
reverence on all by the sanctity of its origin. This authority
was the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, of which Gregory was
at once the creator and inventor.

This extraordinary person, who was the son of a carpenter
at Saona in Tuscany, named Bonisone, or according to others,
descended of a Roman family, had paved the way to his future
greatness under the preceding pontiffs, whose counsels he had
directed under the title of Cardinal Hildebrand. While Cardi-
nal, he engaged Pope Nicolas II. to enter into a treaty with
Robert Guiscard (1059,) for procuring that brave Norman as an
ally and a vassal of the Holy See. Tiiking advantage, like-
wise of the minority of Henry IV., he caused, this same year,
in a council held at Rome, the famous decree to be passed,
which, by reserving the election of the pontiffs principally to
the cardinals, converted the elective privileges which the em-
'perors formerly enjoyed in virtue of their crown rights, into a
personal favour granted by the Pope, and emanating from the
court of Rome.

On the death of Pope Nicolas II., Cardinal Hildebrand pro-
cured the election of Alexander II., without waiting for the or-
der or concurrence of the Imperial court ; and he succeeded in
maintaining him in the apostolical chair against Pope Honorius
II., whom the reigning empress had destined for that honour.
At length, being raised himself to the pontifical throne, scarce-
ly had he obtained the Imptirial confirmation, when ho put in
execution the project which he had so long been concerting and
preparing, viz. the erecting of a spiritual despotism,' extend-
ing to priests as well as kings ; making the supreme pontiff'the
arbiter in all affairs, both civil and ecclesiastical — the bestower
of favours, and the dispenser of crowns. The basis of this

I I

f iniiiiiMrTii •-

iprenincy,
object of
work of
rs, as re-
times, as
ch of his
hich was
nmoralily
d eccles'-
orals, and
it was ne-
ad totally
e salutary
ht restore
impose a
authority
Bgory was

carpenter
to others,
his future
Is he had
ile Cardi-
rcaty with
nan as an
age, like-
ame year,
le passed,
cipally to

the em-
Its, into a

rom the

)rand pro-

or the or-
eeded in
^onorius

t honour.

e, scarce-
ic put in
rting and
extend-

jontiffthe
bestower

is of this

PBBlOii IV. A. D. 1074— 130U.

103

dominion was, that the Vicar of Jesus Christ ought to be su-
perior to all human power. The better to attain his object, he
began by withdrawing himself and his clergy from the autho-
rity of the secular princes.

At that time the city of Rome, and the whole ecclesiastical
states, as well aa the greater part of Italy, were subject to the
kings of Germany, who, iu virtue of their being kings of Italy
and Roman emperors, nominated or confirmed the popes, and
installed the prefects of Rome, who there received the power of
the sword in their name. They sent also every year commis-
sioners to Rome, to levy the money due to the royal treasury.
The popes used to date their acts from the years of the empe-
ror's reign, and to stamp their coin with his name ; and all the
higher clergy were virtually bound and subject to the secular
power, by tlie solemn investiture of the ring and the crosier.
This investiture gave to the emperors and the other sovereigns
the right of nominating and conflrming bishops, and even of de-
posing them if they saw cause. It gave them, moreover, the
right of conferring, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal pre-
rogatives which the munificence of princes had vested in the
Church. The emperors, in putting bishops and prelates in
possession of these iiefs, used the symbols of the ring and the
crosier, which were badges of honour belonging to bishops and
abbots. They made them, at the same time, take the oath of
fidelity and allegiance ; and this was the origin of their depen-
dence, and their obligation to furnish their princes with troops,
and to perform military service.

Gregory VII. prohibited, under pain of excommunication, all
sovereigns to exercise the rights of investiture, by a formal de-
cree which he published in a council assembled at Rome in 1074.
There was more than the simple ceremony of the ring and the
crosier implied in this interdict. He aimed at depriving princes of
the right of nominating, confirming, or deposing prelates, as well
as of receiving their fealty and homage, and exacting military
service. He thus broke all those ties by which the bishops
were held in allegiance and subordination to princes ; making
them, in this respect, entirely independent. In suppressing in>
veslitures, the ponlifT had yet a more important object in view.
It was his policy to withdraw both himself and his successors,
as well as the whole ecclesiastical state, from the power of the
G man kings; especially by abolishing the right which these
princes had so long exercised of nominating and confirming the
ropes. He saw, in fact, that if he could succeed in rendering
the clergy independent of the secular power, it would follow, by
a natural consequence, that the Pope, as being supreme head of

.-:.J1

,■1

t w

104

CHAPTER ▼.

the clergy, would no longer be dependent on the emperors ;
while the emperor, excluded from the nomination and investi*
ture of bishops, would have still less right to interfere in the
election of pontifls.

This affair, equally interestmg to all sovereigns, was of the
utmost importance to the kings of Germany, who had committed
the unfortunate error of putting the greater part of their domains
into the hands of ecclesiastics ; so that to divest those princes
of the right to dispose of ecclesiastical fiefs, was in fact to de-
prive them of nearly the half of their empire. The bishops,
vainly flattering themselves with the prospect of an imaginary
liberty, forgot the valuable gifts with which the emperors had
loaded them, and enlisted under the banners of the Pope. They
turned against the secular princes those arms which the latter
had imprudently trusted in their hands.

There yet subsisted another bond of union which connected
the clergy with the civil and political orders of society, and
gave them an interest in the protection of the secular authority,
and that was, the marriages of the priests ; a custom in use at
that time over a great part of the West, as it still is in the Greek
and Eastern Churches. It is true, that the law of celibacy, al-
ready recommended strongly by St. Augustine, had been adopted
by the Romish Church, which neglected no means of introducing
it by degrees into all the churches of the Catholic communion.
It had met with better success in Italy and the south of Europe
than in the northern countries ; and the priests continued to
marrv, noi only in Germany, England, and the kingdoms of the
North, but even in France, Spain, and Italy, notwithstanding
the law of celibacy, which had been sanctioned in vain by a
multitude of councils.

Gregory VII., perceiving that, to render the clergy completely
dependent on the Pope, it would be necessary to break this

Eowerful connexion, renewed the law of celibacy, in a council
eld at Rome (1074;) enjoining the married priests either to
quit their wives, or renounce the sacerdotal order. The whole
clergy murmured against ihe unfeeling rigour of this decree,
which even excited tumult and insurrection in several countries
of Germany ; and it required all the firmness of Gregory and
his successors to abolish clerical marriages, and establish the
law of celibacy throughout the Western churches.*^ In thus
dissolving the secular ties of the clergy, it was far from the in-
tention of Gregory VII. to render them independent. His designs
were more politic, and more suitable to his ambition. He wished
to make the clergy entirely subservient to his own elevation, and
even to employ them as an instrument to humble and subded
the power of the princes.

ItUJHHL

•mperoM ;

id invest!-
ere in the

as of the
:ommitted
r domains
le princes
fact to de-
! bishopa,
imaginary
erors had
pe. They
the latter

connected
ciety, and
authority,

in use at
the Greek
libacy, al-
m adopted
Producing
inmunion.
of Europe
itinued to
>ms of the

islanding
vain by a

omplelely

)reak this

a council

either to

he whole

is decree,

countries

egory and

iblish the

In thus

>m the in-

is designs

e wished

ation, and

id subded

• PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

The path had already been opened up to him by the False
Decretals, as they were culled, fnrtred about the beginning of the
ninth coniury, by the famous iin|)()sior Isidore, who, with the
view of diminishing the authority of the metropolitans, advanced
in these lotlers, which he attributed to the early bishops of
Rome, a principle whose main object was to extend the rights
of the Romish See, and to vest in the popes a jurisdiction till
then unknown in the church. Several Popes before Gregory
VII. had already availed themselves of these False Decretals ; '
and they had even been admitted as true into different collec-
tions of canons. Gregory did not content himself with rigidly
enforcing the principles of the impostor Isidore. He went even
farther ; he pretended to unite, in himself, the plenary exercise
both of the ecclesiastical and episcopal power ; leaving nothing
to the archbishops and bishops but the simple title of his lieu-
tenants or vicars. He completely undermined the jurisdiction
of the metropolitans and bishops, by authorizing in all cases an
appeal to the Court of Rome ; reserving to himself exclusively
the cognizance of all causes termed major — including more es-

fiecially the privilege of judging and deposing of bishops. This
ntter privilege had always been vested in the provincial councils,
who exercised it under the authority, and with the consent of
the secular powers. Gregory abolished this usage ; and claimed
for himself the power of judging the bishops, either in person
or by his legates, to the exclusion of the Synodal Assemblies.
He made himself master of these assemblies, and even arroga-
ted the exclusive right of convocating Genera/ Councils.

This pontiff, in a council which he held at Rome (1079,) at
length prescribed a new oath, which the bishops were obliged
to take ; the main object of which was not merely canonical
obedience, but even fealty and homage, such as the prelates, as
lieges, vowed to their sovereigns ; and which the pontiff claimed
for himself alone, bearing that they should aid and defend,
against the whole world, his new supremacy, and what he called
the royal rights of St. Peter. Although various sovereigns
maintained possession of the homage they received from their
bishops, the oath imposed by Gregory nevertheless retained its
full force ; it was even augmented by his successors, and ex-
tended to all bishops without distinction, in spite of its incon-
sistency with that which the bishops swore to their princes.

Another very effectual means which Gregory VII. made use
of to confirm his new authority, was to send, more frequently
than his predecessors had done, legates into the different states
and kingdoms of Christendom. He made them a kind of gov-
ernors of provinces, and invested them with the most ample

it'

■ '•^i ,

: p.?

r- i'

|. ,, '

^ \>'

1-*

106

CHAPTFIl V.

powers These legates soon obtained a knowledge of all the
afTairs of t]\e provinces delegated to their care ; which greatly
impaircd the authority of the metropolitans and provincial coun-
cils, as well as the jurisdiction of the bishops. A clause was
also inserted, in the form of the oath imposed on the bishops,
which obliged them to furnish maintenance and support for
these legates ; a practice which subsequently gave place to fre-
quent exactions and impositions on their part.

While occupied with the means of extending his power over
the clergy, Gregory did not let slip any opportunity of making
encroachments on the authority of princes and sovereigns, which
he represented as subordinate to that of the Church and the
Pope. As supreme head of the Church, he claimed a right of
inspection over all kings and their governments. He deemed
himself authorized to address admonitions to them, as to the
method of ruling their kingdoms; and to demand of them an
account of their conduct. By and by, he presumed to listen to
the complaints of subjects against their princes, and claimed the
right of being a judge or arbiter between them. In this capacity
he acted towards Henry IV., emperor of Germany, who en-
joyed the rights of sovereignty over Rome and the Pope. He
summoned him to Rome (1076,) for the purpose of answering
before the synod to the principal accusations which the nobles
of Saxony, engaged in disputes with that prince, had referred to
the Pope. The emperor, burning with indignation, and hurried
on by the impetuosity of youth, instantly convoked an assembly
of bishops at Worms, and there caused the pontiff to be deposed.
No sooner was this sentence conveyed to Rome, and read in
presence of the Pope in a council which he had assembled, than
Gregory ventured on a step till then quite unheard of. He im-
mediately thundered a sentence of excommunication and depo-
sition against the Emperor, which was addressed to St. Peter,
and couched in the following terms : —

" In the name of Almighty God, I suspend and interdict from
governing the kingdom of Germany and Italy, Henry, son of
the emperor Henry, who, with a haughtiness unexanipied, has
dared to rebel against thy church. I absolve all Christians
whatever from the oath which they have taken, or shall here-
after take, to him ; and henceforth none shall be permitted to do
him homage or service as king ; for he who would disobey the
authority of thy Church, deserves to lose the dignity with which
he is invested. And seeing this prince has re''ubed to submit
as a Christian, and has not returned to the Lord whom he hath
forsaken, holding communion with the excommunicated, and
despising the advice which I tendered him for the safety of bis

tl
s
li
ti

fi
P

w w i w'- — — —• ■

memmmm

if all the
h greatly
;ial coun-
luse was
bishops,
pport for
ce to fre-

mer over
f making
ns, which
I and the
1 right of
i deemed
as to the
them an
) listen to
aimed the
s capacity
, who en-
'ope. He
mswering
he nobles
eferred to
id hurried
assembly
: deposed.
I read in
bled, than
He im-
md depo-
St. Peter,

rdict from
y, son of
ipled, has
Christians
mil here-
tted to do
obey the
ith which
to submit
m he hath
ated, and
ety of hi3

PBBIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

soul, I load him with curses in thy name, to the end that peo-
ple may know, even by experience, that thou art Peter, and that
on this rock the Son of the living God has built his church ;
and that the gates of hell shall never prevail against it."

This measure, which seemed at first to have been merely the
effect of the pontiff's impetuosity, soon discovered of what im-
portance it was for him to persevere, and what advantage he
might derive from it. In humbling the emperor, the most pow-
erful monarch in Europe, he might hope that all the other
sovereigns would bend before him. He omitted nothing, there-
fore, that might serve to justify his conduct, and endeavoured
to prove, by sophistries, that if he had authority to excommuni-
cate the emperor, he might likewise deprive him of his dignity;
and that the right to release subjects from their oath of allegi-
ance was an emanation and a natural consequence of the power
of the Keys. The same equivocal interpretation he afterwards
made use of in a sentence which he published against the same
prince (1080,) and which he addressed to the Apostles St. Peter
and St. Paul, in these terms : " You, fathers and princes of the
apostles, hereby make known to the whole world, that if you
can bind and unbind in heaven, you can much more, on earth,
take from all men empires, kingdoms, principalities, dutchies,
marquisates, counties, and possessions, of whatsoever nature
they may be. You have often deprived the unworthy of patri-
archates, primacies, archbishoprics, and bishoprics, to give them
to persons truly religious. Hence, if you preside over spiritual
affairs, does not your jurisdiction extend a fortiori to temporal
and secular dignities ? and if you judge the angels who rule
over princes and potentates, even the haughtiest, will you not
also judge their slaves ? Let then the kings and princes of the
earth learn how great and irresistible is your power ! Let them
tremble to contemn the commands of your church ! And do you,
blessed Peter, and blessed Paul, exercise, from this time forward,
your judgment on Henry, that the whole earth may know that
he has been humbled, not by any human contingencies, but solely
by your power." Until that time, the emperors had exercised
the right of confirming the Popes, and even of deposing them,
should there be occasion ; but, by a strange reverse of preroga-
tives, the popes now arrogated to themselves the confirmation oi
the emperors, and even usurped the right of dethroning them.

However irregular this step of the pontiff might be, it did not
fail to produce the intended effect. In an assembly of the Im-
perial States, held at Tribur (1076,) the emperor could only
obtain their consent to postpone their proceeding to a new
election, and that on the express condition of his submitting

It w r ■

108

CHAPTER V.

himself to the judgment of the Pope, and being absolrnd immr-
dinlcly from tno excommunication he had incurred. Inconse-
quence of this decision of the States, Henry crossed the Alps
in the middle of winter, to obtain reconciliation with the Pope,
who then resided with the famous Coantess Matilda, at her
Casllo of Canossa, in the Modenese territory. Absolution was
not granted him, however, except under conditions the most hu-
miliating. He was compelled to do penance in an outer court
of the castle, in a woollen shirt and barefooted, for three suc-
cessive days, and afterwards to sign whatever terms the pontiff
chose to prescribe. This extraordinary spectacle must have
spread consternation among the sovereigns of Europe, and
made them tremble at the censures of the Church.

After this, Gregory VII. exerted his utmost influence to en-
gage all sovereigns, without distinction, to acknowledge them-
selves his vassals and tributaries. " Let not the emperor
imagine," says he, in a letter which he wrote to the German
nation, " that the church is subject to him as a slave, but let him
know that she is set over him as a sovereign." Fiom that time
the pontiff" regarded the empire as a fief of his church ; and
afterwards when setting up a rival emperor to Henry IV., in
the person of Hermann of Luxemburg, he exacted from him a
formal oath of vassalage. Gregory pursued the same conduct
in regard to the other sovereigns of Europe. Boleslaus II.,
King of Poland, having killed Stanislaus Bishop of Cracow,
who had ventured to excommunicate him, the pontiff" took oc-
casion from this to depose that prince ; releasing all his sub-
jects from their oath of fidelity, and even prohibiting the Polish
bishops henceforth to crown any king without the express con-
sent of the Pope.

This aspiring pontiflT stuck at nothing ; he regarded nothing,
provided he could obtain his object. However contrary the
customs of former times were to his pretensions, he quoted
them as examples of authority, and with a boldness capable of
imposing any thing on weak and ignorant minds. It was thus
that, in order to oblige the French nation to pay him the tax of
one penny each nouse, he alleged the example of Charlemagne,
and pretended that that prince had not merely paid this tribute,
but even granted Saxony as a fief to St. Peter; as he had con-
quered it with the assistance of that apostle. In writing to
Philip I. of France, he expressed himself in these terms:
" Strive to please St. Peter, who has thy kingdom as well as
thy soul in his power; and who can bind thee, and absolve in
heaven as well as on earth." And in a letter which he addressed
to the Princes of Spain, he attempted to persuade them, that the

1 1

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immmmmmmmi'ammiimiHiHI'r

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idimmr- I
[n conse- j
the Alps
he Pope,
1, at her
ition WH8
most hu-
ter court
iree sue-
le pontifl
ust have
ope, and

:e to en-
ge them-
emperor
German
ut let him
that time
irch ; and
ry IV., in
sm him a
e conduct
slaus II.,
Cracow,
took oc-
his sub-
he Polish
)ress con-
nothing,
jtrary the
quoted
)able of
was thus
the tax of
emagne,
is tribute,
had con-
irriting to
terms :
well as
)solve in
ddresaed
. that the

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300

109

kingdom of Spain, being originally the property of the Holy
See, they could not exonerate ihcinsclves from payinij him a
lax on all the lands they haO con(|uerpil frwii the Infidels.

He affirmed to Solomon, King of Hungary, that Stephen I,,
on receiving his crown at the hands of Pope Silvester II., had
surrendered his kingdom as free property to the Holy Sen ; and
that, in virtue of this donation, his kingdom was to be considered
as a part of the domain of the church. He wrote in exactly the
same style to Geysa his immediate successor. In one of his
letters to Sueno, King of Denmark, he enjoins him to deliver
up his kingdom to the power of the Romish See. He refused
(1076,) to grant the royal dignity to Demetrius Swiiiimir, Duke
of Croatia and Dalmatia, except on the express condixion, that
he should do him homage for his kingdom, and engage to pay
the Pope an annual tribute of two hundred golden pieces of By-
zantium. This poniifThad the art of disguising his ambition so
dexterously, under the mask of justice and piety, that he pre-
vailed with various other sovereigns to acknowledge themselves
his vassals, Bertrand, Count of Provence, transferred to him
his fealty and homage, to the prejudice of those feudal obliga-
tions he owed to the Empire. Several princes of Italy and Ger
many, influenced by artifice or intimidation, abandoned the
emperor, and put themselves under submission to the Pope.
His eflbrts were not equally successful with William the Con-
queror, King of England, whom he had politely invited by letter,
to do him homage for his kingdom, after the manner of his royal
predecessors. That prince, too wise to be duped by papal im-
position, replied, that he was not in a humour to perform homage
which he had never promised, and which he was not aware had
ever been performed by any of his predecessors.

The successors of Gregory VII., followed in the path he had
opened up ; giving their utmost support to all his maxims and pre-
tensions. In consequence, a very great number of the princes
of Christendom, some intimidated by the thunders of ecclesias-
tical anathemas, others with a view to secure for themselves
the protection of the Holy See, acknowledged tllC'^■e usurped
powers of the Popes. The Kings of Portugal, Arragon, England,
Scotland, Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and several others, became,
in course of time, vassals and tributaries to the Papal Sec ; and
there is not a doubt, that the universal monarchy, the scheme
of which Gregory VII. had conceived, would have been com-
pletely established, if some of his successors had been endowed
with his vast ambition, and his superior genius.

In every other respect, circumstances were such as to hasten
and facilitate the progress of this new pontifical supremacy. It

M'-iiiJ

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«•'•'<

I0i

CHAPTER V.

hnd commenced in a barbarous age, when the whole of tho
Wostorri world was covered wilh the darkness of ignorance ;
and when mankind knew neither the just rights of sovereignty,
nor the bounds which reason and equity should have set to the
authority of the priesthood. The court of Rome was then the
only school where politics were studied, and the Popes the only
monarchs that put them in practice. An extravagant supersti-
tion, the inseparable companion of ignorance, held all Europe
in subjection ; the Popes were reverenced with a veneration
resembling that which belongs only to the Deity ; and the whole
world trembled at the utterance of the single word Excommu-
nication. Kings were not sufficiently powerful to oppose any
successful resistance to the encroachments of Rome ; their au-
thority was curtailed and counteracted by that of their vassals,
who seized with eagerness every occasion which the Popes
ofTered them, to aggrandize their own prerogatives at the expense
of the sovereign authority.

The Emperor of Germany, who was alone able to countervail
this new spiritual tyranny, was at open war with his grand vas-
sals, whose usurpations ho was anxious to repress ; while they,
disrespecting the majesty of the throne, and consulting only
their own animosity against the emperor, blindly seconded the
pretensions of the pontifT. The emperor, however, did all in
his power to oppose a barrier to this torrent of ecclesiastical
despotism ; but the insolence of Gregory became so extrava-
gant, that, not content to attack him with spiritual weapons, he
set up rival emperors, and excited intestine wars against him ;
and his successors even went so far as to arm the sons against
their own father. Such was the origin of the contests which
arose between the Empire and the Papacy, under the reign of
Henry IV., and which agitated both Germany and Italy for a
period of several centuries. They gave birth, also, to the two
factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the former Imperial,
and the other Papal, who for a long course of time tore each
other to pieces with inct .ceivable fury.

Henry V., son and successor of Henry IV., terminated the
grand dispute about the investitures of the ring and the crosier.
By the Concordat which he concluded at Worms (1122) with
Pope Calixtus II., he renounced the ceremony of the ring and
the cross ; and granting to the churches free liberty of election,
he reserved nothing to himself, except the privilege of sending
commissioners to the elections, and giving to the newly elected
prelates, after consecration, the investiture of the regalian rights,
by means of the sceptre, instead of the ring and crosier. The
ties of vassalage which connected the bishops with the empc-

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PRRIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

Ill

tors, were still preserved by thi" trnnsnction, rontrnry to the in-
tentions of Gregory VII.; but tho onipcrors bcintf ril)liged to
approvo of tho persons whom ihr Church should bcTciirior pre-
sent, lost their chief influence in tho eloctions, and wore no
longer entitled, ns formerly, to ijrnnt or refuse invostituro.

These broils with tho court of Komo, tho check which they
gave to the Imporinl nulhority, joined to the incrousitig .jbiises
of the feudal sy.xlem, nflforded tho princes !\nd states of tho Em-
pire tho means of usurping the heritable succession of their
dutchies, counties, and fiefs ; and of laying the foundations of a
new power, which they afterwards exercised nndor tho name of
territorial superiority. Frederic II., compelled by the pressure
of events, was the first emperor that sanctioned the territorial
rights of the states by charters, which he delivered to several
princes, secular and ecclesiastic, in the years 1220 and 1232.
The Imperial dignity thu.i lost its splendour with the power of
the emperors ; and the constitution of the Empire was totally
changed. That vast monarchy degenerated by degrees into a
kind of federal system ; and the Emperor, in course of time,
became only the common chief, and superior over the numerous
vassals of which that association was composed. The extra-
ordinary efforts made by the Emperors Frederic I. and II. of the
house of Hohenstaufen,* to re-establish tho tottering throne of
the empire, ended in nothing; and that House, one of the most
powerful in Europe, was deprived of all its crowns, and perse-
cuted even to the scaffold.

The empire thus fell into gradual decay, while the pontifical
power, rising on its ruins, gained, day by day, new accessions
of strength. The successors of Gregory VII. omitted nothing
that policy could suggest to them, in order to humble more and
more the dignity of the Emperors, and to bring them into a state
of absolute dependence, by arrogating to themselves the express
right of confirming, and even of deposing them ;* and com-
pelling them to acknowledge their feudal superiority. Being
thus no longer obliged to submit their election to the arbitration
of the Imperial court, the ambitious pontiffs soon aspired to
absolute sovereignty.

The custom of dating their acts, .ind coining their money
with the stamp and name of the emperor, disappeared after
the time of Gregory VII. ; and the authority which the empe-
rors had exercised at Kome, ceased entirely with the loss of the
prefecture or government of that city ; which Pope Innocent III.
look into his own hands (1198,) obliging the prefect of Rome
to swear the usual oath of homage to the Apostolic See, which
that magistrate owed to the emperor, from whom he received

iH'(^

I t; iJ

i 'i^'

119 CHAPTBR V.

the prcfciture. Hence it imppened, thnt the chiefs of the Em-
pire. olilii,'iil lo ( ornproinisf with a pinver which liiey had learned
lo ilrcad, had no longer any difliculty in recoijnisinj^ the entire
iii(ie|K'iu!t'iue of the I'opes ; even formally renouncing the
riijlits of hii;li sovereignly whidi their predecessors had enjeyed,
not only over Konie, hut over llie Ecclesiastical Slates. The
domains of the church were likewise considerably increased
by the .icquisitions which Iimocenl III. made of ihe March
of Ancona, and the dulcliy of Spoleio; as well as by the per-
Mnial property or Pat ri mini i/ of tlie Countess Matilda'' which
the Emperor" Frederic 11. ceded to Honorius III. (1220,) and
which his successors in the Apostolic chair formed into the pro-
vince Iniown by the name of the Patrimnny of St. Peter.

One of the gimul means which the Popes employed for the
advancement of their new authority, was the multiplication o(
Religious (.)rders, and the way in which they took care lo man-
ape these corporations. Before the time of Gregory VII., the
only order known in the West was thnt of the Benedictines,
divided into several families or congregations. The rule of St
Benedict, pre.-cribed at the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (817) to
all monks within the empire of llie Franks, was the only one
allowed by the Romish Church ; just, as that of St. Basil was,
and still is, the only one practised in the East by the Greek
Church. The first of tliese newly invented orders was thnt oi
Grammont in Limosin (1073.) authorized by Pope Gregory VII.
This was followed, in the same century, by the order of Char-
treu.\, and that of St. Antony.' The Mendicant orders took
their rise under Innocent III., near the end of the twelfth, and
beginning of the thirteenth century. Their number increased
in a short time so prodigiously, that, in 1274, they could reckon
twenty-three orders. The complaints which were raised on this
subject from all parts of Christendom, obliged Pope Gregory to
reduce them, at the Council of Lyons, to four orders, viz. the
Hermits of St. William or Augusiines, Carmelites, the Minor
or Franciscan friars, and the Preaching or Dominican friars.
The Popes, perceiving that they might convert the monastic
orders, and more particularly the mendicants, into a powerful
engine for strengthening their own authority, and keeping the
secular clergy in subjection, granted by degrees to these frater-
nities, immunities and exemptions tending to withdraw them
from the jurisdiction of the bishops, and to emancipate them
from every other authority, except that of their Heads, and the
Popes. They even conferred on them various privileges, such
as those of preaching, confession, and instructing the young;
33 being the most likely means to augment their credit and their

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inflnonce. The conHcquoncc vvn«, that tho iiionkii were fre-
(jiieiitly employed by the Pnpex in (juiility of leh'utes nrul inirc
sjonnricst ; thiy were feared and rettpeciud by soverei^nM, nin-
gularly revered by the people, and lef slip no occasion of exulting
a power to which alone they owed their promotion, their re-
spectability, and ail the advantages they enjoyed

Of all the Mucccssnrs of Orcgory Vn.,he who fB»*irMWed him
most in the superiority of his genius, und the extent of his
knowledge, vint Innocent III., who was of tho family uf the
Count.s of Segni, and elevated to the pontificate at the age of
37. He was as ambitious as thot pontifT, and equally fertile
in resources ; und he even surpassed him in the boldness of
his plans, and the success of his enterprises. Innocent an-
nounced himself as the iucce$tor of St. Peter, Met up by God
to govern not only the Church, but the whole world. It was
this Pope who first made use of the famous euinpnrison about
the sun and the moon : Ai God, says )\e, has placed two great
luminaries in the firmament, the one to rule the day, and the
other to give light by night, to hat he established two grand
powers, t)u pontifical and the royal ; and at the vtoon receives
her light from the tun, so does royalty borrow itt splendour
from the Papal authority.

Not content to exercise the legislative power as he pleased,
by means of the numerous decretals which he dispersed over
all Christendom, this pontiff was the first that arrogated to him-
self the prerogative of dispensing with the laws themselves,
in vJrtu^of what he termed the plenitude of his power. It is
to him also that the origin of the Inquisition is ascribed, that
terrible tribunal which afterwards became the firmest prop of
sacerdotal despotism ; but what is of more importance to re-
mark, is, that he laid the foundations of that exorbitant power,
which his successors have since exercised in collating or pre-
senting to ecclesiastical dignities and benefices.

The secular princes having been deprived of their rights of
nomination and confirmation, by the decrees of Gregory VII.
and his successors, the privilege of electing bishops was re-
stored to the clergy and congregation of each church, and to
the chapters of convents ; the confirmation of the elected pre-
lates belonged to their immediate superiors ; and collation to
the other ecclesiastical benefices was reserved for the bishops
and ordinaries. All these regulations were changed towards
the end of the twelfth century. The canons of cathedral
churches, authorized by the Court of Rome, claimed to them-
selves the right of election, to the exclusion uf the clergy and
the pe pie ; while the Popes, gradually interfering wiu elec-

n ii ■

114

CHAPTER V.

'((

if:

tions and collations, found means o usurp the nominMion a^^^
collation to almost all ecclesiastical benefices The pr nciple J
these usurpations was founded on the false decreals ; accord-
ing to which all ecclesiastical jurisdiction emanates from he
court of Rome, as a river flows from its source. It "s from the
Pope that archbishops and bishops hold that portion of authon-
tv with which they are endowed ; and of which he does not
/ivest himself, by the act of communicating it to them; but is
rather the more entitled to co-operate with them in the exercise -
of that jurisdiction as often as he may m«yi°Vf-

This principle of a conjunct authority, furnished a very plau-
sible pretext for the Popes to interfere in collation to benefices.
This collation, according to the canon law, ^f '"g «f ««"»;j'°
the jurisdiction of bishops, it seemed natural that the Pope,
who concurred in the jurisdiction, should also concur in the
privileges derived from it, namely, induction or collation to be-
Sefices From the right of concurrence, »«l"efore Innocent III.
proceeded to that o{ preventionM^og the firs pontiff that made
use of it. He exercised that right, especially with regaM to
benefices which had newly become vacant by the death of the r
incumbents, when at the Court of Rome; in which cases it
was easy to anticipate or get the start of the bishops In the
same manner, this right was exercised m remote d'O^e «s, by
means of legates a latere, which he dispersed over the different

^TIorthlrSroTpm-^ntion were deriyni the provmonal
jnandates, and the GrOces Expectatives, ("/^.'•^'"""LP" ' "
Bulls) letters granting promise of church livings before they
became vacant.^ The Popes not bavmg legates eve^r where
and wishing, besides, to treat the bishops with some respect,
beean by addressing to them letters of recommendation in fa-
vou' of those persons for whom they were anxious to procure
benefices. These letters becoming too frequent and importu-
nate, the bishops ventured to refuse their compliance ; on which
the Popes began to change their recommendations into orders
i or mandates ; and appointed commissioners to enforce their
! execTon by means of ecclesiastical censures. These man-
i dates were succeeded by the GrAces Expectattres, which pro-
i perlv speaking, were nothing else than mandates issued for be-
Telke^^whose titulars or incumbents were yet alive. Lastly
appeared the Reservation,, which were distinguished into ge-
nSal and special. The first general reservation was that o
benefices becoming vacant by the incumbents dying at 'he Court
of Rome. This was introduced by Pope Clement IV m
1266, in order to exclude for ever the bishops from the right o!
concurrence and prevention in benefices of thnt kind.

IV'

nination and
e principle ol
tals; accord-
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[t is from the
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at the Pope,
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P8KI0D IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

116

This first reservation was the forerunner of several others,
such as the reservation of all cathedral churches, abbeys, and
priories ; as also of the highest dignities in cathedral and colle-
giate churches ; and of all collective benefices, becoming vacant
during eight months in the year, called the Pope's months, so
that only four months remained for the ordinary collators ; and
these too, encroached upon by mandates, expectatives, and re-
servations. The Popes having thus seized the nomination to
episcopal dignities, it followed, by a simple and natural process,
that the con/irmation of all prelates, without distinction, was in
like manner reserved for them. It would have even been reck-
oned a breach of decorum to aJJr'- ? an archbishop, demanding
from him the confirmation of a bishop nominated by the Pope ;
so that this point of common right, which vested the confirma-
tion of every prelate in his immediate superior, was also anni-
hilated ; and the Romish See was at length acknowledged ovei
the whole Western world, as the only source of all jurisdiction,
end all ecclesiastical power.

An extraordinary event, the offspring of that superstitious age,
served still more to increase the power of the Popes ; and that
was the Crusades, which the nations of Europe undertook, at
their request and by their orders, for the conquest of Palestine
or the Holy Land. These expeditions, known by the name of
Holy Wars, because religion was made the pretext or occasion
of them, require a somewhat particular detail, not merely of the
circumstances that accompanied them, but also of the changes
which they introduced into the moral and political condition of
society. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, which were in use from
the earliest ages of Christianity, had become very frequent about
the beginning of the eleventh century. The opinion which then
very generally prevailed, that the end of the world was at hand,
induced vast numbers of Christians to sell their possessions in
Europe, in order that they might set out for the Holy Land,
there to await the coming of the Lord. So long as the Arabs
were masters of Palestine, they protected these pilgrimages,
from which they derived no small emoluments. But when the
Seljukian Turks, a barbarous and ferocious people, had con-
quered that country (1075) under the Caliphs of Egypt, the pil-
grims saw themselves exposed to every kind of insult and op-
pression.* The lamentable accounts which they gave of these
outrages on their return to Europe, excited the general indigna-
tion, and gave birth to the romantic notion of expelling these
Infidels from the Holy Land.

Gregory VII. was the projector of this grand scheme. He
addressed circular letters to all the sovereigns of Europe, and

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116

CHAPTEK V.

\!':

invited them to make a general crusade against the Turks.
Meantime, however, more nressing inlerest>«, and his quarrels
with the Emperor Henry IV., obliged him to defer the projected
enterprise ; but his attention was soon recalled to it by the re-
presentation of a pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit a native of
Amiens in Picardy. Furnished with letters from the Patriarch
of Jerusalem to the Pope and the princes of the We^t, this
ardent fanatic traversed the whole of Italy, France, and yerma.
ny • preaching every where, and representing, m the liveliest
colours, the profanation of the sacred places, and the miserable
condition of the Christians and poor pilgrims in the holy Land.
It proved no difficult task for him to impart to others the fanati-
cism with which he was himself animated. His zeal was pow-
erfully seconded by Pope Urban II., who repaired "» person to
France, where he convoked the council of Clermont (1096,) and
pronounced, in full assembly, a pathetic harangue, at the close
of which they unanimously resolved on the Holy War. It was
decreed, that all who should enrol their names in this sacred
militia, should wear a red cross on their right shoulder : that
they should enjoy plenary indulgence, and obtain remission of

all their sins. ,

From that time the pulpits of Europe resounded writh exhor-
tations to the crusades. People of every rank and condition
were seen flocking in crowds to assume the signal of the cross ;
and, in the following year, innumerable bands of crusaders, from
the diflerent countries of Europe, set out, one after another on
this expedition to the East.' The only exception was the Ger-
mans, who partook but feebly of this universal enthusiasm, on
account of the disputes which then subsisted between the Em-
peror and the court of Rome.'* The three or four first divisions
of the crusaders, under the conduct oi chiefs, who had neither
name nor experience, marched without order and without disci-
pline ; pillaging, burning, and wasting the countries through
which they passed. Most of them perished from fatigue, hun-
ger, or sickness, or by the sword of the exasperated nations,
whose territories they had laid desolate."

To these unwarlike and undisciplined troops succeeded regu-
.ar armies, commanded by experienced officers, and powerful
princes. Godfrey of Bouillon (1096,) Duke of Lorrain, accom-
panied by his brother Baldwin, and hi. cousin Baldwin ofBoutg,
with a vast retinue of noblemen, put himself at the head ofthe
first body of crusaders. He directed his march through Ger-
; many, Hungary, and Bulgaria, towards Constantinople, and
I was soon followed by several French princes, such as "ilugh the
Great, brother of Philip I. King of France.; Robert Duke of

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the projected
n it hy the re-
it, a native of ,
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the West, this ,
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the miserable
he Holy Land,
lers the fanati-
zeal was pow-
■d in person to
)nt (1096,) and
ue, at the close
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I in this sacred
shoulder : that
in remission of

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and condition
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rusaders, from
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Robert Duke of

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

117

Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Stephen VI., Count
of Blois ; Eustace of Boulosrne, brolner to Godfrey de Bouillon,
and Robert Count of Flanders, who all preferred the route by
Italy. They passed the winter in the environs of Bari, Brin-
disi, and Otranto ; and did not embark for Greece until the fol-
lowing spring. Boemond, Prince of Tarentum, son to Roger,
Earl of Sicily, at the instigation of the French grandees, took
the cross, after their example, and carried with him into the
East the flower of the Normans, and the noblesse uf Sicily,
Apulia, and Calabria. Lastly, Raymond IV., Count of Tou-
louse, accompanied by the Bishop of Puy, traversed Lombardy,
Friuli, and Dalmatia, on his passage to the Holy Land.

The general rendezvous of the crusaders was at Chalcedon
in Bythinia. It is supposed that their forces united, amounted
to six hundred thousand combatants. They commenced their
exploits with the siege of Nice, capital of the empire of Roum,
,of which thev made themselves master, after having repulsed the
Turks who had advanced under the command of the Sultan
Kili-Arslan, the son of Soliman, premier sultan of Roum. Ano-
ther victory gained over the same sultan (1097) in the Gorgo-
nian valley in Bythinia, opened for the crusaders a passage into
Syria. There they undertook the siege of the strong city of
Antioch, which they carried after an immense loss of lives (1098.)
Having at length arrived in Palestine, they planned the attack
of Jerusalem, which the Caliph of Egypt had just recovered
from the Turks ; and which the crusaders, in their turn, carried
by assault from the Egyptians (1099.) This city was declared
the capital of a new kingdom, the sovereignty of"^ which was be-
stowed on Godfrey of Bouillon, though he refused to take the
title of king. This famous prince extended his conquests by a
splendid victory, which lit gained that same year near Ascalon,
over the Caliph of Egypt. On his death, his brother Baldwin
succeeded him, and transmitted the throne to his cousin Bald-
win of Bourg, whose posterity reigned in Jerusalem until the
destruction of that kingdom by Saladin (1187.)

Besides the kingdom of Jerusalem, which comprehended Pa-
lestine, with the cities of Sidon, Tyre, and Ptolemais, the cri*
saders founded several other states in the East. The earldom
of Edessa, first conquered by Baldwin, brother of Godfrey,
passed to several French princes in succession until the year
1144, when it was subdued by Atabek-Zenghi commonly called
Sanguin. The principality of Antioch fell to the share of Boe-
mond, prince of Tarentum, whose heirs and descendants added
to it, in 1188, the County of Tripoli, which had been founded
(1110) by Raymond, Count of Toulouse, one of the crusaders.

B''

1 1

lla CHAPTBR V.

But they were deprived both of the one and the other of these
sovereignties by the Mamelukes in 1268, w ho afterwards (1289)
conquered Antioch and Tripoli. Lastly, the kingdom of Cyprus
which Richard Cceur-de-Lion, King of England, took from the
Greeks (1191,) was surrendered by that prince to Guy de Lu-
signan, whose posterity reigned in Cyprus till the year 1487,
when that island was taken possession of by the republic of

V 6niC6

The transient duration of these diflPerent states, presents no-
thin| suprising. The Christians of the East, disunited among
themselves, surrounded on all hands, and incessantly attacked
by powerful nations, found themselves too remote from Europe
to obtain from that quarter any prompt or eflfective succour. It
was, therefore, impossible for them long to withstand the efTorts
of the Mahometans, who were animated as well as the Chris-
tians by a sectarian zeal, which led them to conibine their forces
against the enemies of their religion and their prophet. The
enthusiasm of religious wars did not however become extinct
until nearly two centuries. It was encouraged and supported
by the numerous privileges which popes and sovereigns con-
ferred on the invaders, and by the rich endowments that were
made in their favour. All Europe continued to be in motion,
and all its principal sovereigns marched in their turn to the
East, either to attempt new conquests, or maintain those which
the first crusaders had achieved.

Six grand crusades succeeded to the first ; all of which were
either fruitless, or at least without any important and durable
success. Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII.,
King of France, undertook the second (1147,) on account of the
conquests of Atabek-Zenghi, who, three years before, had made
himlelf master of Edessa. The third (1189) was headed by
the Emperor Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa ; Philip Augus-
tus King of France; and Richard Coeur-de-Lion of England;
and the occasion of it, was the taking of Jerusalem by the fa-
mous Saladin (1187.) The fourth was undertaken (1202,) at
the pressing instigation of Innocent III. Several of the French
and German nobility uniting with the Venetians, assumed the
cross under the command of Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat ;
but instead of marching to Palestine, they ended their expedi-
tion by taking Constantinople from the Greeks. The fifth cru-
sade (1217) was conducted by Andrew, King of Hungary, at-
tended by many of the princes and nobility of Germany, who
had enlisted under the banner of the Cross in consequence of
the decrees of the council of Lateran (1215.) The Emperor
Frederic II. undertook the sixth (1228.) By a treaty which he

I c

((

mmm

•WM

jther of these
rwards (1289)
om of Cyprus
took from the

Guy de Lu-
18 year 1487,
« republic of

I, presents no-
lunited amone ,
antly attacked | '
> from Europe ,
e succour. It |
and the efforts {

1 as the Chris-
ne their forces
prophet. The
}ecome extinct
and supported
lovereigns con-
lents that were \
p be in motion, |
eir turn to the i
in those which ,

of which were j
nt and durable
nd Louis VII.,
. account of the
)fore, had made
was headed by
; Philip Augus-
n of England;
ilem by the fa-

aken (1202,) at
il of the French

8, assumed the

of Montfenat ;

id their expedi-
The fifth cru-
■ Hungary, at-

Germany, who

consequence of
The Emperof

treaty which ha

PKRiOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

119

concluded with the Sultan of Egypt, he obtained the restoration
of Jerusalem and several other cities of Palestine ; although
they did not long continue iti his possession. The Carizniian
Turks, oppressed by the Moguls, seized on the Holy Land
(1244,) and pillaged and burnt Jerusalem. That famous city,
together with the greater part of Palestine, fell afterwards under
the dominion of the Sultans of Egypt.

The seventh and last grand crusade, was undertaken by Louis
IX. King of France (1248.) He conceived it necessary to be-
gin his conquests by that of Egypt; but his design completely
miscarried. Being made prisoner with his army after the action
at Mansoura (1250,) he only obtained his liberty by restoring
Damietta, and paying a large ransom to the Sultan of Egypt.
The unfortunate issue of this last expedition, slackened the zeal
of the Europeans for crusading. Still, however, they retained
two important places on the coast of Syria, the cities of Tyre
and Ptolemais. But these places having been conquered by the
Mamelukes (1291,) there was no longer any talk about crusades
to the East ; and all the attempts of the Court of Kome to revive
them proved ineffectual.

It now remains for us briefly to notice the effects which re-
sulted from the crusades, with regard to the social and political
state of the nations in Western Europe. One consequence of
these, was the aggrandizement of the Roman Pontiffs, who,
during the whole period of the crusades, played the part of su-
preme chiefs and sovereign masters of Christendom. It was at
their request, as we have seen, that those religious wars were
undertaken ; it was they who directed them by means of their
legates, — who compelled emperors and kings, by the terror of
their spiritual arms, to march under the banner of the Crosb —
who taxed the clergy at their pleasure, to defray the expenses
of these distant expeditions, — who took under their immediate
protection the persons and effects of the Crusaders, and eman-
cipated them, by means of special privileges, from all depend-
ence on any power, civil or judiciary. The wealth of the clergy
was considerably increased during the time of which we spe^,
both by the numerous endowments which took place, and by
the acquisition which the Church made of the immense landed
property which the pious owners sold them on assuming the
badge of the Cross.

These advantages which the See of Rome drew from the
crusades in the East, were inducements to undertake similar
expeditions in the West and North of Europe. In these quar-
ters we find that the wars of the cross were carried on, 1.
Against the Mahometans of Spain and Africa. 2 Against the

( , I-

■«.

I!|il'^.

' ! -

' i

130

CHAPTER v.

Emperors and King!) who refused obedience to the orders of the
Popes. ''^ 3. Against heretical or schismatic princes, such as the
Greeks and Russinns. 4. Against the Slavonians and other
Pagan nations, on the coasts of the Bahic. 6. Against the
Waldenses, Aibigenses, and Hussites, who were regarded as
heretics. 6. Against the Turks.

If the result of the crusades was advantageous to the hier-
archy, if it served to aggrandize the power of the Roman Pon-
tiffs, it must, on the contrary, have proved obviously prejudicial
to the authority of the secular princes. It was in fact during
this period that the power of the emperors, both in Germany
and Italy, was sapped to the very foundation ; that the royal
house of Hohenstaufen sunk under the determined efforts of the
Court of Rome ; and that the federal system of the Empire gained
gradual accessions of strength. In England and Hungary, we
observe how the grandees seized on the opportunity to increase
their own power. The former took advantage of their sove-
reign's absence in the Holy Land, and the latter of the protec-
tion which they received from the Popes, to claim new privi-
leges and extort charters, such as they did from John of England,
and Andrew II. of Hungary, tending to cripple and circumscribe
the royal authority.

In France, however, the result was different. There, the
kings Vieing freed, by means of the crusades, from a crowd of
restless and turbulent vassals who often threw the kingdom into
a state of faction and discord, were left at liberty to extend their
prerogatives, and turn the scale of power in their own favour.
They even considerably augmented their royal and territorial
revenues, either by purchasing lands and fiefs from the proprie-
tors who had armed in the cause of the cross ; or by annexing
to the crown the estates of those who died in the Holy Land,
without leaving feudal heirs ; or by seizing the forfeitures oi
others who were persecuted by religious fanaticism, as heretics
or abettors of heresy. Finally, the Christian kings of Spain,
the sovereigns of the North, the Knights of the Teutonic order,
and of Livonia, joined the crusades recommended by the Popes,
itom the desire of conquest; the' former, to subdue the Ma-
hometans in Spain, and the others to vanquish the Pagan
nations of the North, the Slavonians, Finns, Livonians, Prus-
sians, Lithuanians, and Courlanders.

It is to the crusades, in like manner, that Europe owes the
use of surnames, as well as of armorial bearings, and heraldry. "
It is easy to perceive, that among these innumerable armies of
crusaders, composed of different nations and languages, some
mark or symbol was necessary, in order to distinguish particular

orders of the

;, such as the

IS and other

Against the

regarded as

s to the hier-
Roman Pon-
ly prejudicial
n fact during
I in Germany
liat the royal
eflforts of the
Empire gained
Hungary, we
ty to increase
)f their sove-
a( the protec-
im new privi-
n of England,
1 circumscribe

There, the

)m a crowd of

kingdom into

o extend their

ir own favour.

ind territorial

n the proprie-

r by annexing

le Holy Land,

forfeitures oi

m, as heretics

ngs of Spain,

eutonic order,

by the Popes,

)due the Ma-

the Pagan

onians, Prus-

rope owes the
nd heraldry. "
ible armies of
jguages, some
uish particulu

FIRIOD IV, A. D. 1074—1300.

121

iiiitinnH, or signalize their commanders. Surnames nnd coins
of arms were employed as these distinctive badges; the latter
especially were invented to serve as rallying points, for the vas-
sals and troops of the crusading chiefs. Necessity first intro-
duced them, and vanity afterwards caused them to be retained.
These coats of nrms were hoisted on their standards, the knights
got them emblazoned on their shields, and appeared with them
at tournaments. Even those who had never been at the cru-
sades, became ambitious of these distinctions ; which may be
considered as permanently established in families, from about
the middle of the thirteenth century.

The same enthusiasm that inspired the Europeans for the
crusades, contributed in like manner to bring tournaments into
vogue. In these solemn and military sports, the young noblesse
wore trained to violent exercises, and to the management of
heavy arms ; so as to gain them some reputation for valour, and
to insure their superiority in war. In order to be admitted to
these tournaments it was necessary to be of noble blood, nnd to
show proofs of their nobility. The origin of these feats is ge-
nerally traced back to the end of the tenth, or beginning of
the eleventh century. Geoffrey of Preuilly, whotn the writers
of the middle ages cite as being the inventor of them, did no
more, properly speaking, than draw up their code of regula-
tions. France was the country from which the practice o
tournaments diffused itself over ail other nations of Europe.
They were very frequent, during all the time that the crusading
mania lasted.

To this same epoch belongs the institution of Religious and
Military Orders. These were originally established for the
purpose of defending the new Christian States in the East, for
protecting pilgrims on their journey, taking care of them when
sick, &c.; and the vast wealth which they acquired in most of the
kingdoms of Europe, preserved their existence long after the
loss of the Holy Land ; and some of these orders even made
a conspicuous figure in the political history of the Western
nations.

Of all these, the first and most distinguished was the Ordet
of St. John of Jerusalem, called afterwards the Order of Mal-
ta. Prior to the first crusade, there had existed at Jerusalem a
church of the Latin or Romish liturgy, dedicated to St. Mary,
and founded by some merchants of Amalfi in the kingdom of
Naples. There was also a monastery of the Order of St. Be-
nedict, and n hospital for the relief of the poor or afflicted pil
grims. This hospital, the directors of which were appointed
by the Abbot of St. Mary's, having in a very short time become

132

CMAPTBR V.

)■

ft*

immensely rich by numerous donations of lands and B«>ignoric8,
both in Europe and Palestine, one of its governors named Ge-
rard, a native of Martigues in Provence, as is alleged, took the
regular habit (1100,) and formed with his brethren a distinct
congregation, under the name and protection of St. John the
Baptist. Pope Pascal II., by u bull issued in 1114, approved
of this new establishment, and ordained, that after the death of
Gerard, the Hospitallers alone should have the election of their
superintendent. Raymond du Puy, a gentleman from Dau-
phin*!, and successor to Gerard, was the first that took the title
of Grand Master, .ie prescribed a rule for the Hospitallers ;
and Pope Culixtus li., in approving of this rule (1120,) divided
the members of the order into three classes. The nobles, called
Knights of Justice, were destined for the profession of arms,
making war on the Infidels, and protecting pilgrims. The
priests and chaplains, selected from the respectable citizens,
were intrusted with functions purely ecclesiastical ; while the
serving brethren, who formed the third class, were charged with
the care of sick pilgrims, and likewise to act in the capacity of
soldiers. These new knights were known by the name of
Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, and were dis-
tinguished by wearing a white octagon cross on a black habit.

After the final loss of the Holy Land, this order established
themselves in the Isle of Cyprus. From this they passed into
Rhodes, which they had conquered from the Infidels (1310.)
This latter island they kept possession of till 1322 ; and being
then expelled by Soliman the Great, they obtained (1530) from
Charles V., the munificent grant of the Isle of Malta, under the
express terms of making war against the Infidels. Of this place
they were at length deprived by Buonaparte in 1798.

The order of Templars followed nearly that of St. John. Its
first founders (1119) were some French gentlemen; the chief
of whom were Hugo de Payens, and Geoflrey de St. Omer.
Having made a declaration of their vows before the Patriarch
of Jerusalem, they took upon themselves the special charge of
maintaining free passage and safe conduct for the pilgrims to
the Holy Land. Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, assigned them
an apartment in hia palace, near the temple, whence they took
the name of Knights of the Temple, and Templars. They ob-
tained from Pope Honorius II. (1120) a rule, with a white habit;
to which Eugene III. added a red cross octagon. This order,
af^er accumulating vast wealth and riches, especially in France,
and distinguishing themselves by their military exploiu for
nearly two centuries, were at length suppressed by the CounciJ
of Vienna (1312.)

.initmiuBMitji

ind seignoriet, |
)rs named Ge-
eged, took the
hrcn a distinct
r St. John the
[114, approved
>r the death of
lection of their
an frnm Dau>
t took the tide
> Flospitallers ;
[1120,) divided
e nobles, called
ssion of arms,
ilgrims. The
ctable citizens,
cal ; while the
'e charged with
the capacity of
! ihe name of
1, and were dis-
\ black habit,
der established
lev passed into
Infidels (1310.)
122 ; and being
ed (1530) from
alta, under the
Of this place
798.

St. John. Its

nen; the chief

de St. Omer.

the Patriarch

scial charge of

the pilgrims to

assigned them

snce they took

irs. They ob-

a white habit ;

This order,

ally in France,

■y exploits for

by the Council

PKBIOO IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

The Teutonic order, according to the most probable opinion,
took its origin in the camp before Acre, or Ptolemais. The
honour of it is ascribed to some charitable citizens of Bremen
and Lubec, who erected a hospital or tent with the sails of their
vessels, for the relief of the numerous sick and wounded of their
nation. Several German gentlemen having joined in this esta-
blishment, they devoted themselves by a vow to the service of
the sick ; as also to the defence of the Holy Land against the
Infidels. This order, known by the name of the Teutonic
Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, received confirmation from
Pope Celestin III. (1192,) who prescribed for them the rule of
the Hospital of St. John, with regard to their attendance on the
sick; and with regard to chivalry or knighthood, that of the
order of Templars. Henry Walpott de Passcnheim was the
first grand naster of the order; and the new knights assumed
the white habit, with ablack cross, to distinguish them from the
other orders. It was under their fourth grand master, Hermann
de Saltza (1230,) that they passed into Prussia, which they
conquered (1309.) They fixed their chief residence at Marien-
burg; but having lost Prussia in consequence of a change in
the religious sentiments of their grand master, Albert de Bran-
denburg (1^8,) they transferred their capital to Mergentheim
in Franconia.

A fourth order of Hospitallers founded in the Holy Land, was
(hat of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem, who had for their principal
object the treatment of lepers ;'* and who, in process of time,
from a medical, became a military order. After having long
resided in the East, where they distinguished themselves in the
Holy wars, they followed St. Louis into France (1254,) and
fixed their chief seat at Boigny, near Orleans. Pope Gregory
XIII. united them with the order of St. Maurice, in Savoy;
and Henry IV. with that of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, in
France. On the model, and al\er the example of these four
military orders, several others were founded in succession, in
various kingdoms of Europe.'-'' All these institutions contri-
buted greatly to the renown of chivalry, so famous in the Middle
Ages. The origin of this latter institution is earlier than the
times of which we now speak, and seems to belong to the tenth,
or the beginning of the eleventh century. The anarchy of feu-
dalism being then at its height, and robberies and private quar^
rels every where prevailing, several noble and distinguished
individuals, devoted themselves, by a solemn vow, according to
the genius of the times, to the defence of religion and its minis-
ters ; as also of the fair sex, and of every person sufTering from
distress or oppression From the end of the eleventh century,

» \

', If i

V >

.f**-

*)it

1 1

124

CMAPTSR V.

to tho timo when the crufincles begnn, wr find chivalry, with itn
pomp and its ceremonies, tstnbli^hed in nil the principal ntates
of Europe. This 9alutury institution, by in!<pirin(( the mindn
of men with new enerijy, gave birth to many illu^triouii chn-
nicterB. It tended to repress the disorders of anarchy, to revive
order and law, and establish a new relationship among the na-
tions of Eiiroi)e.

In general, it may be said, that these ultra-marine expeditions,
prosecuted with obstinacy for nearly two hundred years, hasten-
ed the progress of arts and civilization in Europe. The cru-
saders, journeying through kingdoms better organized than
their own, and observing greater refinement in their laws and
manners, were necessarily led to form new ideas, and acquire
new information with regard to science and politics. Some
vestiges of learning and good taste had been preserved in Greece,
and even in the extremities of Asia, where letters had been
encouraged by the patronage of the Caliphs. The city of Con-
stantinople, which had not yet suffered from the ravages of the
barbarians, abounded in the finest monuments of art. It pre-
sented to the eyes of the crusaders, a spectacle of grandeur and
Tiiagnificcnce that could not but excite their admiration, and call
forth a strong desire to imitate those models, the sight of which
ut once pleased and astonished them. To the Italians especially,
it must have proved of great advantage. The continued inter-
course which they maintained with the East and the city oi
Constantinople, afforded them the means of becoming familiar
with the language and literature of the Greeks, of communica-
ting the same taste to their own countrymen, and in this way
advancing the glorious epoch of the revival of letters.

About the same time, commerce and navigation were making
considerable progress. The cities of Italy, such as Venice,
Genoa, Pisa, and others, in assisting the Crusaders in their ope-
rations, by means of the transports, provisions, and warlike stores
with which they furnished them, continued to secure for them-
selves important privileges and establishments in the seaports
of the Levant, and other ports in the Greek empire. Tbvir
example excited the industry of several maritime towns in
France, and taught them the advantage of applying their atten-
tion to Eastern commerce. In the North, the cities of Ham-
burgh and Lubec, formed, about the year 1241, as is generally
supposed, their first commercial association, which afterwards
became so formidable under the name of the Harueatic League.^
The staple articles of these latter cities, consisted in marine
stores, and other productions of the North, which they exchanged
for the spicerics of the Eaut, and the manufactures of Italy and
the Low Countries.

wmmmmmmmmmmm

ilry, with it«
ncipal fltatcs
g ihc mindR
i<*triou8 cha-
;hy, to revive
long the na-

> expeditions)
^ears, hasten-
e. The cru-
|[anized than
leir laws and
, and acquire
litics. Some
ved in Greece,
era had been
e city of Con-
avages of the
' art. It pre-
grandeur and
ation, and call
light of which
tns especially,
ntinued inter-
id the city ol
tning familiar
if communica*
in this way
liters,
were making
;h as VenicOi
[s in their ope*
rarlike stores
:ure for them*
the seaports
tpire. Their
towns in
ig their atten*
s of Ham-
IS is generally
fch afterwards
tatic Leagut.*
led in marine
ley exchanged
s of Italy and

PRRIOD IV. A. 0. 10T4 — 1306.

13d

"II

The projprpss of inJu.«iry, iln- proinciion which ."'ovprcignn
exlondeu to it, und ihc puins ihcy took lo chrck ilio di^ordiTs of
foudaliNiTi, contributed lo the pro:4pority of lowii^, by linily aug-
menting their pnpulutioii anil llieir wealth. This produced,
about the liniPM we arc spenkinj^ of, an ndvantn^eou)* cban^fc in
the civil nnd .social coiulitioti of the pensile, 'riirou^lutut the
principal stales of Europe, cities bei,'ari, after the Iwelflh centu-
ry, lo erect themselves into political bodie.s, and lo form, by de-
grees, a third order, di.^tinct from that of the clergy und nobilily.
Before this period, the inhabitants of town^ enjoyed iieillier civil
nor political liberty. Their condition was very little better than
that of the peasantry, who were all ^erfs, attucheii lo the soil.
The rights of cilizen.ship, and the privileges derived from it,
were reserved for the clergy and the noblesse. The Counts, ni
governorsi of cities, by rendering their power hereditary, had
approurialed to themselves the rights that were originally oi-
tachea to their functions. They used them in the most arbi-
trary way, and loaded the inhabitants with every kind of oppres-
sion that avarice or caprice could .suggest.

At length, the cities which were either the most oppressed,
or the most powerful, rose in rebellion against this intolerable
yoke. The inhabitants formed themselves into confederations,
to which they gave the name of Comiiiunes or Free Corpora-
tions. Either of their own accord, or by charters, obtained very
often on burdensome terms, they procured for themselves a free
government, which, by relieving them from .servitude, and all
impositions and arbitrary exactions, secured them personal liberty
and the possession of their elTecls, under the protection of their
own magistrates, and the institution of a militia, or city guard.
This revolution, one of the most important in Europe, first took
place in Italy, where it was occasioned by the frequent inter-
regnums that occurred in Germany, as well as by the distur-
bances that rose between the Empire and the priesthood, in the
eleventh century. The anathemas thundered ^t^inst Henry
IV., by absolving the subjects from the obedience they owed
their sovereign, served as a pretext to the cities of Italy for
shaking ofT the authority of the Imperial viceroys, or bailifls.
who had become tyrants instead of rulers, and for establishin:;
free and republican governments. In this, they were encoura-
ged and supported by the protection of the Roman pontifls,
whose sole aim and policy was the abasement of the Imperial
authority.

Before this period, several maritime cities of Italy, such of
Naples, Amain, Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, emboldened by the
advantages of their situation, by the increase of their populalior

Z «i

<»'.■.

"4 ' ^

ifi

CHAPriil V.

and (neir commerce, hail nirendy qu. 'nripiited themselves fVom
llio Imp'.'rinI yoke, nnd erected tlternstlvcit into republicM, Their
nxiimpU' WHS followed by the ciiies oi Lombnrdy nnd the V'ene*
tiitti territory, especiiilly Milmi, Pnvin, Ajti, Cremona, Lodi,
Cnino, Furinn, PIncf ntin, Veronii. Pndun, Sec. All thesn citiei.
atiiinutcd with the cnthu!«ia!im of liberty, adopted, about the be*
ginnin^^ of the twelfth century, consuls nnd popular forms of
Uoverninent. They formed a kind of military force, or city
guord, and vested m themselvcoi the ri/fhts of royally, and the
power of umkinj^, in their own name and authority, alliances,
wars, and treaties of pence. From Italy, this revolution ex»
tended to France and Uerrnnny, tlie Low Countries, and Eng*
land. In all these different states, the use of Communes, or
boroughs, was established, and protected by the sovereigns, who
f-mploycd these new institutions as a powerful check against
the encronchinents and tyranny of the feudal lords,

III Frniife, Louis the Vat, who began his reign in 1108, was
the first king that granted rights, or constitutional charters, to
certain cities within his domain, cither from political niotivei,
or the allurement of money. The nobility, after his example,
eagerly sold liberty to their subjects. The revolution became
general ; the cry tor liberty was raised every where, and into*
rested every mind. Throughout all the provinces, the iiihabi*
bants of cities solicited charters, and sometimes without waiting
for them, they formed themselves voluntarily into communities,
electing magistrates of their own choice, establishing companiek
of niiliiia, and taking charge themselves of the fortiflcations and
wardenship of their cities. The magistrates of free cities in
northern France, were usually called mayors, sheriffs, and liv-
erymen ; while, in the wouth of France, they were called syndics
and consuls. It soon became an established principle, that kings
alone had the power to authorize the erection of corporate towns.
Louis VIII. declared that he regarded all cities in which these
corporations were established, as belonging to his domain. They
owed military service directly and personally to the king ; while
such cities as had not these rights or charters, were obliged to
follow their chiefs to the war.

In Germany, we find the emperors adopting the same policy
as the kings of France. The resources which the progress of
commerce and manufactures opened to the indnstry of the in-
habitants of cities, nnd the important succours which the empe-
rors, Henry IV. and V., had received from them in their quar-
rels with the Pope and the princes of the Empire, induced them
to take these cities under their protection, to augment their num-
ber, and multiply their privileges. Henry V. was the first em-

nselvcft flfom
iblicH. Thrir
nd the V'ene*
einona, Lodi,
I thcsn cities
nbout the be*
iilar furrns of
force, or city
nity, and the
ity, alliances,
evolution ex*
ea, and Eng*
ommuncs, or
rcreigns, who
heck against
I,

in llOS, was

I charters, to

tical motives,

his example,

jtion became

•re, and into-

9, the inhabi*

thout waiting

communities,

n^ companies

fications and

ree cities in

rifls, and litr>

nlled syndics

)ie, that kings

porate towns.

which these

imain. They

king ; while

re obliged to

same policy
e progress of
try of the in-
ch the cmpe-
n their quar-
nduced them
nt their num-

the first em<

rr.HioD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

127

peror that adopted thin lino of' policy. He grnnti-d freedom to
the inhabitants of Movcrai cities even to artixiinx and triidesriion ;
whose condition, at that time, was nn dn^rriKlcd aiiil (Icbascd os
that of Mi'rfi*. H<? extended to thorn tho rank and privilege of
citizens, and thus gave rise to the divixion of citios into classes
and corporations of trades. This same prince set about repair-
ing the fault which the emperors of the house of Snxony had
committed, of giving up to tho biMhopN the tecnporni jurisdiction
in all the cities wherein they rosideJ. He gradually superse-
ded thej-e rights, by the new privileges which he granted to the
inhabitants of cities. The emperors, his successors, followed
his example ; in a little time, several of these cities threw ofl
the yoke of their bishops, while others cxlriciited themselves
from the jurisdiction of their superiors, or provosts, whether
imperial or feudal, and adopted, in imitation of the cities in Italy
and France, magistrates of their own choosing, a republican
form of government, and a municipal polity.

Th<8 liberty in cities, gave new vigour to industry, multiplied
the sources of labour, and created means of onulence and power,
till then unknown in Europe. The populutmn of these cities
increased with their wealth. Communities rose into political
consequence ; and we find them successively admitted to the
diets and national assemblies, in all the principal states of Eu-
rope. England set an example of this ; and though English
authors are not agreed as to the precise time when the Commons
of that kingdom were called into Parliament, it is at least cer-
tain that their first admission belongs to the reign of Henry III.
(about 1266 or 1266,) and that the formal division of the Par-
liament into two houses, is as late as the reign of Edward III.'''
France followed the example of England ; the convocation of
the states, by Philip the Fair (1303,) on the subject of his dis-

Eutes with rope Boniface VIII., is considered as the first assem-
ly of the States-general, composed of the three orders of the
kingdom. As to Germany, the first diet in which the cities of
tho Empire appeared in the form of a third order, was that of
Spire (1309,) convoked by the Emperor Henry VII., of the
house of Luxembourg. Afterwards, we find these cities exer-
cising a decisive or deliberative voice at the diet of Frankfort
(1344,) under Louis the Bavarian.

In all these states, we find tho sovereigns protectmg more es-
pecially those free cities which aided them in checking the de-
vastations, and putting a stop to the fury of private or intestine
wars. The most powerful of the feudal chiefs, finding every
where cities in a capacity to defend themselves, became less en-
terprising in their ambition ; and even the nobles of inferior

if;

1 4f !^

'mm.

j^iiifc

I2S

CHAPTER \.

rank learned to respect the po'ver of these communities. The
royal authority was thereby strengthened ; and the cities, natu-
rally inclining to the sovereigns that protected them, served as
a counterpoise in the general assemblies, to the power of the
clergy and the noblesse, and were the means of obtaining those
subsidiary supplies necessary for the exigencies of the state.

The liberty which the inhabitants of cities had thus procured
by the establishment of these communities, or corporate bodies,
extended itself to the inhabitants of the country, by way of en-
franchisements. Various circumstances concurred to render
the use of these more frequent, after the twelfth century. The
fiovereigns, guided by the maxims of sound policy, set the first
example of this within their own demesnes ; and they were
speedily imitated by the feudal lords and nobles, who, either out
of courtesy to their sovereigns, or to prevent the dcs<-rtion of
their vassals, or acquire new dependents, were compelled to
grant liberty to the one, and mitigate the servitude of the other.
The communities, or chartered cities, likewise seconded and
promoted these enfranchisements, by the protection which they
granted to the serfs against their feudal superiors.

In Italy, we perceive these enfranchisements following as
an immediate consequence of the institution of communities.
The continual feuds that arose among the numerous republics
which had lately thrown off the yoke of authority, made the
liberty of the serfs a measure absolutely necessary, in order to
augment the numberofcitizcnsqualified to bear arms, and hold
places of trust. Bonacurso, Captain of Bologna (1256,) pro-
posed to his fellow-citizens, and carried the law of enfranchise-
ment. All those who had serfs were obliged to present them
before the Podcsta, or Captain of the people, who alTranchiscd
them for a certain sum or tax, which the republic paid to the
owner. The feudal superiors, finding that these enfranchise-
ments had a powerful support in the liberty of the free cities,
were obliged either to meliorate the condition of their serfs, or
grant them liberty.

In France, after the twelfth century, and the reign of Louis
the F.it, these enfranchisements began to be frequent. The son
and succfssor of that prince, Louis VII., by royal letter (1180,)
affranchised all the serfs which the crown posses-scd at Orleans,
and within five leagues of i\. Loais X. passed a general law
(1315,) for the enfranchisement of all serfs belonging to the
crown. He there made a positive declaration, that slavery vxu
contrary to iiature, which intended that all men by birth should
be free and equal; that, since his Aiw^dowi was devominated
the kingdom of the Franks, or Freemen, tt appeared just and

''smmmtm mnn r ir<mm

unities. The
le cities, nalu-
tein, served as
power of the
btaining those
)r the state,
thus procured
rporate bodies,
by way of en-
red to render
century. The
;y, set the first
nd they were
vho, either out
dcs'-rtion of
compelled to
e of the other,
seconded and
m which they

following as
communities,
rous republics
rity, made the
ry, in order to
irms, and hold
la (13S6,) pro-
)f enfranchise-
> present them
10 affranchised
ic paid to the
e enfranchise-
he free citie
their serfs

.**•

reign of Louis
lent. The son
1 letter (1180,)
.scd at Orleans,
a general law
longing to the
lat slavery was
by birth thould
s denominated
'.and jtitt and

■•^k

rll

.'I* i

111 ;.? '' ■

PBRIUD IV. A. o. 1074 — 1300.

129

right that the fact should correspond with the name. He invited,
at the Riime time, all the nobility to imitate his example, by
granting lilwrty to their serfs. That prince would have en-
nobled the homage he paid to nature, if the gift of liberty had
been gratuitous on his part ; but he made it a mere object of
finance, and to gratify those only who could afford to pay for it ;
whence it happened, that enfranchisements advanced but very
slowly ; and examples of it are to be found in history, so late an
the reign of Francis I.

In Germany, the number of serfs diminished in like manner,
after the twelfth century. The crusades, and the destructive
wars which the Dukes of Saxony and the Margraves of the
North carried on with the Slavian tribes on the Elbe and the
Baltic, having depopulated the northern and eastern parts of
Germany, numerous colonies from Brabant, the Netherlands,
Holland and Friesland, were .'ntroduced into these countries,
where they formed themselves into establishments or associa-
tions of free cultivators of the soil. From Lower Germany the
custom of enfranchisements extended to the Upper provinces,
and along the banks of the Rhine. This was encouraged by
the free cities, which not only gave a welcome reception to the
serfs who had fled to shelter themselves from oppression within
their walls, but they even granted protection, and th«> .ights of
citizenship, to those who had settled within the precincts or
liberties of the town ;'" or who continued, without changing
their habitation, to reside on the lands of their feudal superiors.
This spirited conduct of the free cities put the nobles of Ger-
many to the necessity of aiding and abetting, by degrees, either
the suppression or the mitigation of slavery. They reimbursed
themselves for the loss of the fine or tax which they had been
in the habit of levying, on the death of their serfs, by an aug-
mentation of the quit-rent, or annual cess which they exacted
from them on their being afTranchised.

In the Low Countries, Henry II., duke of Brabant (1218,)
in his Inst will, granted liberty to all cultivators of the soil ; —
he afTranchised them on the right of mortmain, and ordained,
that, like the inhabitants of free cities, they should be judged by
no other than their own magistrates. In this manner, liberty
by degrees recovered its proper rights. It assisted in dispelling
the clouds of ignorance and superstition, and spread a new
lustre over Europe. One event which contributed essentially
to give men more exact notions on government and jurispru-
dence, was the revival of the Roman law, which happened
about the time we now speak of. The German tribes that de-
stroyed the Western Empire in the fifth century, would natu-

wfti'm

■t"- !'n] aawhu

130

CHAFTER V.

rally despise a system of legislation, such as that of the Romans,
which neither acrorded with the ferocity of their manners, nor
the rudeness of their ideas. In consequence, the revulmjun
which occasioned the downfall of that empire, brought at the
same lime the Roman jurisprudence into desuetude over ail
ihe Western world.'^

A lapse of several centuries, however, was requ':ed, to rec-
tify men's ideas on the nature of society, and to prepare them
for receiving the laws and institutions of a civilized and re-
fined government. Such was the general state and condition
of political knowledge, when the fame of a celebrated civilian,
called Irnerius, who taught the law of Justinian publicly at
Bologna, about the commencement of the twelfth century, at-
tracted to that academy the youth of the greater part of Europe.
There they devoted themselves with ardour to the study of this
new science. The pupils, instructed by Irnerius and his suc-
cessors, on returning home, and being employed in the tribunals
and public ofRces of their native country, gradually carried into
practice the principles which they had imbibed in the school oi
Bologna. Hence, in a short time, and without the direct inter-
ference of the legislative authority, the law of Justinian was
adopted by degrees, as a subsidiary law in all the principal
states of Europe. Various circumstances contributed to acce-
lerate the progress of this revolution. People had felt for a
long time the necessity of a new legislature, and the insuffi-
ciency of their national laws. The novelty of the Roman
laws, as well as their equity and precision, arrested the atten-
tion of all Europe ; and sovereigns found it their interest to
protect a jurisprudence, whose maxims were so favourable to
royalty and monarchical power, and which served at once to
strengthen and extend their authority.

The introduction of the Roman jurisprudence was soon fol-
lowed by that of the Canon law. The Popes, perceiving the
rapid propagation of this new science, and eager to arrest its
progress, immediately set themselves to the work of raising that
vast and astonishing edifice the Canon law, as an engine to pro-
mote the accomplishment of their own greatness. Gratian, a
monk of Bologna, encouraged by Pope Eugenius III., compiled
a collection of Canons, under the title of the Decret, which he
arranged in systematic order, to serve as an introduction to the
study of that law. This compilation, extracted from different
authors who had preceded him, recommended itself to the world
by its popular method, which was adapted to the genius of the
times, rope Eugenius III. gave it his approval in 1152,
and ordained that it should be read and explained in the schools*

Ig'MliMlf'wjii .' l Kmi ii »ji !i r.'tn'Hi- ,4a) < j "WWjliy«*Ml<yi>|jll^^

■ iU»- 7»J i itad lL

the Romans,
nanners, nor
e revuluiiun
ought at the
tudc over ali

r:ed, to rec-
prepare them
lized and re-
ind condition
ated civilian,
1 publicly at

century, at-
irt of Europe.
I study of this

and his suc-
1 the tribunals
y carried into
the school ot
e direct inter-
lustinian was

the principal
>uted to acce-
lad felt for a
i the insuffi-
r the Roman
ted the atten-

r interest to

avourable to
red at once to

was soon fol-
)erceiving the
to arrest its
of raising that
engine to pro-
Gralian, a
III., compiled
ret, which he
duction to the
from different
If to the world
genius of the
ovnl in 1152i
in the schools.

PERIOD IV. A. D 1074 — 1300.

131

This collection of Gratian soon obtained a wide and most sue-
cesitful reception ; from the schools it passed to the public tri-
bunals, both civil and ecclesiastical, ^t length, Pope Gregory
IX., in imitation of the Emperor Justinian, who had caused a
collection of his own statutes, and those of his predecessors, to
be made by Tribonian, ordered his chaplain Raymond de Pen-
nnfort to compile and digest, in their proper order, all the deci-
sions of his predecessors, as well as his own ; thus extending to
common practice, what had been originally established but for
one place, and for particular cases. He published his collection
(1235) under the name of Decretals, with an injunction, that it
should be employed both in the tribunals and in the schools.

If this new system of jurisprudence served to extend the juris-
diction, and strengthen the temporal power of the Popes, it did
not fail at the same time to produce salutary eflects on the
governments and manners of Europe. The peace, or truce of
God, which some bishops of France, in the eleventh century,
had instituted as a check on the unbridled fury of private quar-
rels and civil discord, was established, by the Decretals, into a
general law of the church.*" Tke judgments of God, till then
used in the tribunals of justice, trial by single combat, by hot
iron, hot and cold water, the cross, &c. were gradually abolished.
The restraints of the Canon law, added to the new information
which had diffused its light over the human mind, were instru-
mental in rooting out practices which served only to cherish
and protract the ancient ferocity of manners. The spirit of
order and method which prevailed in the new jurisprudence,
soon communicated itself to every branch of legislation among
the nations of Europe. The feudal law was reduced to syste-
matic order ; and the usages and customs of the provinces, till
then local and uncertain, were collected and organized into a
regular form.*"

Jurisprudence, having now become a complicated science,
demanded a long and laborious course of study, which could no
longer be associated with the profession of arms. The sword
was then obliged by degrees to abandon the courts of justice,
and give place to the gown. A new class of men hus arose,
that of the law, who contributed by their influence to repress
the overgrown power of the nobility.

The rapid progress which the new jurisprudence made, must
be ascribed to the recent foundation of universities, and the en
couragements which sovereigns granted these literary corpora-
tions. Before their establishment, the principal public schools
were those which were attached either to monasteries, or cathe-
dral and collegiate churches. There were, however, only a few

J- « !•■ ;

irt'

J32

CHAPTER V.

colleges instituted ; and these in large cities, such as Rome,
Paris, Angers, Oxford, Salamanca, &c. The sciences therr
taught were comprised under the seven liberal arts, viz. Gram-
mar, Rhetoric, Dialectics or Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music,
and Astronomy. The first three were known by the name of
Trivium ; and the other four, which make part of mathematics,
by that of Qnadrivium. As for Theology and Jurisprudence,
they did not as yet figure among the academic sciences ; and
there was no school of medicine prior to that of Salerno — the
only one of which any traces are discovered, towards the end of
the eleventh century.

These schools and academies cannot, by any means, be put
in comparison with modern universities ; which diflfer from them
essentially, both as to the variety of sciences which are pro-
fessed, and by their institutions as privileged bodies, enjoying a
system of government and jurisdiction peculiarly their own.
The origin of these Universities is coeval with the revival of
the Roman law in Italy, and the invention of academic degrees.
The same Irnerius who is generally acknowledged as the re-
storer of the Roman law at Bologna, was also the first that
conceived the idea of conferring, with certain solemnities, doc-
torial degrees ; and granting license or diplomas to those who
excelled in the study of jurisprudence. Pope Eugenius 111.
(1153,) when he introduced the code of Graiian into Hj^e aca-
demy of Bologna, gave permission to confer the same degrees
in the Canon law, as had been customary in the Civil law.
These degrees were much coveted and esteemed on account of
the honours, immunities, and prerogatives which the sovereign
had attached to them. Nothing however contributed more to
bring universities into favour, than the privileges and immuni-
ties which the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa conferred on them
(1158,) by his Authentic, (or rescript, called Hahita.) The ex-
ample of this prince was speedily followed by the other so-
vereigns of Europe.

The teaching of juri.«prudence passed from the school of
Bologna to the different academies of Europe. Theology also
was soon admitted, as well as medicine ; and these completed
the four faculties, as they were called, of which the univer-
sities were composed. That of Paris was the first which com-
bined all the faculties. It was completed under the reign of
Philip Augustus, from whc i it obtained its earliest charter,
about the year 1200. Except itself there are only the univer-
sities of Bologna, Padua, Naples, Toulouse, Salamanca, Coimbra,
Cambridge, and Oxford, that date their origin in the thirteentli
century.**

■•«!ii>>«M<>«^

' .W"WW-"

■MM

h as Rome,
iences therf
, viz. Grain-
letry, Music,
the name of
nathematics,
irisprudence,
'iences ; and
Jaierno— the
ds the end of

leans, be put
er from them
lich are pro-
s, enjoying a ^
y their own. i
lie revival of .
jmic degrees,
ed as the re- i
the first that !
!mnities, doc-
to those who
Hugenius 111.
into t4»e aca-
lame degrees
he Civil law.
nn account of
he sovereign
uted more to
and immuni-
;rred on them
a.) The ex-
ihe other so-

the school of
leology also
e completed
1 the univer-

st which com-
the reign of

rliest charter,
r the univcr-
nca.Coimbra,

the tbirleentl)

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

The downfall of the Imperial authority, end of the house of
Hohonstaufcn, and the new power usurped by the princes and
States of the Empire, occasioned a long series of troubles in
Germany, and that frightful state of anarchy, known by the
name of the Grand Interregftum. Strength then triumphed
over law and right ; the government was altered from its basis ;
and no other means were found to remedy this want of public
security, than by forming alliancies and confederations, such as
that of the Rhine,*^* and the Flanseatic League, which began
to appear about this time (1253.) The election of the Empe-
rors, in which all the princes and states of the empire had for-
merly concurred, became then the privilege solely of the great
officers of the crown, who, towardts tlic middle of the thirteenth
century, claimed for themselves exclu.sively the right of elect-
ing, and the title of Electors.^ The princes and slates of the
Empire, anxious to confirm their growing power, sought to pro-
mote only the feeblest emperors, who were incapable of sup-
porting the rights and prerogatives of the crown. The electors,
m particular, had no other object in view, than to derive a lucra-
tive traffic from elections ; bargaining every time with the can-
didates for large sums, and obtaining grunts or mortgages of
such portions of the Imperial demesnes as suited their con-
venience. One only of these weak emperors, Rodolph, Count
of Hapsburg in Switzerland, (1273) disappointed the expecta-
tions of his electors. He repressed by force of arms, the dis-
orders of anarchy, restored the laws and tribunals to their
pristine vigour, and reconquered several of the Imperial domains
from the usurpers who had seized them.

Inconsequence of the revolutions which we have now detailed,
we find very important and memorable changes accomplished in
the different provinces of the Empire. The princes and States
of the Germanic body, regarding as their own patrimony the
provinces and fiefs with which they were invested, thought
themselves further authorized to portion them out among their
sons. The usage of these partitions became general after the
thirteenth century ; and this wrought the downfall of some of
the most powerful families, and tended to multiply almost to
infinity the dutchies, principalities, and earldoms of the Empire.
The EmperoH, far from condemning this practice, which by no
means accorded with the maxims of the feudal law, on the con-
trary gave it their countenance, as appearing to them a proper
instrument for humbling the power of the grandees, and acqui-
ring for themselves a preponderatmg authority in the Empire.

The ancient dutchies of Bavaria and Saxony experienced a
new revolution on the fall of the powerful house of the

I 1

'if

;»

li if

^r"

t94

CIIAITEn V

Ouelphs, which wns deprived of both these diitchies by the sen-
tence of proscription which the Emperor Frederic 1. pronounced
against Henry the Lion (IISO,) Duke of Bavaria and Saxony.
The first of these dulchies, which hud formerly been dismembered
from the Margravatc of Austria by Frederic I. (1156,) and
erected into n dulchy and fief holding immediately of the Em-
pire, was exposed to new partitions at the time of which we
now speak. The bishoprics of Bavaria, Stiria, Carinthia, Cur-
niola, and the Tyrol, broke their alliance with Bavaria; and the
city of Ratisbonne, which had been the residence of the ancient
dukes, was declared immedia/e, or holding of the crown. It
was when contracted within these new limits that Bavaria was
conferred, by Frederic I. (1180,) on Olho, Count of Wittelsbach,
a scion of the original house uf Bavaria. This house afterwards
acquired by marriage (1215) the Palatinate of the Rhine. It
was subsc(|uently divided into various branches, of which the
two principal were the Palatine and the Bavarian.

As to the dutchy of Saxony, which embraced, under the
Guelphs, the greater part of Lower Germany, it completely
changed its circumstances on the decline of that house. Ber-
nard of Aschersleben, younger son of Albert named the Bear,
first Margrave of Brandenburg, a descendant of the Ascanian
line, had been invested in the dutchy of Saxony by Frederic I.
(llSO.) but was found much too feeble to support the high rank
to which he had been elevated. In conse(|uence, the title, or
qualification to the dutchy of Saxony and the Electorate, was
restricted, under the successors and descendants of that prince,
to an inconsiderable district, situated on both sides of the Elbe ;
called since the Electoral Circle, of which Wittenberg was the
capital. The princes of Pomeruniaand Mecklenburg, the Counts
of Holstein and Westphalia, and the city of Lubeck, took advan-
tage of this circumstance to revolt from the authority of the Duke
of Saxony, ond render themselves immediate. A part of West-
phalia was erected into a distinct dutchy, in favour of the Arch-
bishop of Cologne who had seconded the Emperor in his schemes
of vengeance against the Guelphic princes. This latter house,
whosp vast possessions had extended from the Adriatic Sea to the
Baltic and the Northern Ocean, retained nothing more of its
ancient splendour than the free lands which it possessed in Lower
Saxony, and which the emperor Frederic II. (1235) converted
into a dutchy, and immediate fief of the empire, in favour of
Otho the Infant, grandson of Henry the Lion, and the new
founder of the House of Brunswick.

The extinction of the House of Hohenstaufen having occa-
sioned a vacancy in the dutchics of Suabia and Francnnia, the

•'^:' gig:a^^6MMjjawiasW:Wi»i^^

ft ,

PiRioD IV. A. P. 1074— ]900.

188

s by the sen-
pronounced
and Saxony,
lismembered
(1156,) and
r of the Em-
of which we
irinthia, Cur-
trin ; and the
if the ancient
B crown. It
Buvaria was
Wittelsbach,
se afterwards
e Rhine. It
of which the

d, under the
it completely
house. Ber*
ted the Bear,
the Ascanian
y Frederic I.
the high rank
I the title, or
ectorate, was
f that prince,
of the Elbe ;
jberg was the
■g, ine Counts
i, took advan-
y of the Duke
jfirt of West-
of the Arch-
n his schemes
latter house,
itic Sea to the
more of its
ssed in Lower
J5) converted
in favour oi
and the new

having occa>
'runronia, the

diflerent states of these provinces, both secular and ecclfisiasti-
cui, found means to render themselves also immediate, (1368.)
A nuinbiT of cities which had belonged to the domains of the
aiirieiit dukes, were raised to the rank of free and imperial
cities ; und the Houses of Bnden, Wurtemberg, Hohen-Zollern,
and FurstenbiTg, dale their celebrity from this period. The
death of the anti-emperor, Henry le Raspon (1247,) last land-
grave of Thuringia, gave rise to a long war between the Mar-
graves of Misnia and the Dukes of Brabant, who mutually
contested that succession. The former advanced an Expecta-
tive, or defd of Reversion of the Emperor Frederic II., as well
ns the claims of Jutta, sister of the last landgrave ; and the others
maintained those of Sophia, daughter of the langrave Louis,
elder brother and predecessor of Henry le Raspon. At length,
by u partition which took place (1264,) Thuringia, properly so
called, was made over to the house of Misnia; and Henry of
Brabunt, surnumed the Infant, son of Henry II. Duke of Bra-
bunt, and Sophia of Thuringia, was secured in the possession of
Hesse, and became the founder of a new dynasty of landgraves —
those of the House of Hesse.

The ancient dukes of Austria, of the House of Bamberg, hav-
ing become extinct with Frederic the Valiant (1246,) the suc-
cession of that dutchy was keenly contested between the niece
and the sisters of the last duke; who, though females, could lay
claim to it, in virtue of the privilege granted by the emperor
Frederic Barbarossa. Ottocar II., son of Wenceslaus, king of
Bohemia, took advantage of these troubles in Austria, to possess
himself of that province (1251.) He obtained the investiture of
it (1262) from Richard, son of John king of England, who had
purchased the title of Emperor at a vast expense ; but Rodolph
of Hapsbourg, treating him as a usurper, made war upon him,
defeated and slew him in a battle which was fought (1378) at
Marchfeld, in the neighbourhood of Vienna. The dutchies of
Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, being then detached
from the kingdom of Bohemia, were declared vacant, and de-
volved to the Empire. The investiture of these the Emperor
conferred (1282) on Albert and Rodolph, his own sons. Al-
bert, the eldest of these princes, who was afterwards Emperor,
became the founder of the Hapsbourg dynasty of Austria.

In Italy, a great number of republics arose about the end of
the eleventh, or beginning of the twelfth century. These re-
publics, though they had cast off the Imperial authority, and
cb'nied to themselves the rights of sovereignty, protested, never-
theless, their fealty to the Emperor, whom they agreed to recog-
nise as their supreme head. The Emperors, Henry V., Lo-

1 |N 4

iV',\

i<*l*

196

craptbh v.

thaire the Saxon, and Conrad III., saw themselves compelled to
tolerate an usurpatitin which they were too feeble to represR.
But Frederic Barbarossa being determined to restore the royalty
of Italy to its ancient splendour, led a powerful army into that
kingdom (115S;) and in a diet which he assembled on the plains
Df Ronc&glia, in the territory of Placentia, he caused a strict in-
vestigation to be made by the lawyers of Bologna, into the rights
on which he founded his pretensions to the title of King of Italy.
The opposition which the execution of the decrees of that diet
met with on the part of the Milanese, induced the Emperor to
undertake the siege of their city. He made himself master of it
in 1162, razed it to the foundation, and dispersed the inhabitants.
This chastisement of the Milanese astonished the Italians,
but without abating their courage. They afterwards took ad»
vantage of the reverses of the Emperor, and the schism which
had arisen in the Romish Church, to form a league with the

Erincipal cities of Lombardy (1167,) into which they drew the
[ing' of the Two Sicilies, as well as Pope Alexander III., whom
the Emperor treated as a schismatic. The city of Milan was
rebuilt in consequence of this league; as also that of Alexan*
dria, called della Paglia. The war was long protracted ; but
the Emperor being abandoned by Henry the Lion, Duke of Ba-
varia and Saxony, the most jowerful of his vassals, received a
defeat at Lignano, which obliged him to make an accommoda-
tion with Pope Alexander III., and to sign, at Venice, a treaty
of six years with the confederate cities (1177.) This treaty was
afterwards converted, at Constance, into a definitive peace
(1183;) by virtue of which, the cities of Italy were guaranteed
in the forms of government they had adopted, as well as in the
exercise of the regalian rights which they had acquired, whether
by usage or prescription. The Emperor reserved for himself
the investiture of the consuls, the oath of allegiance,' which was
to be renewed every ten years, and all appeals, in civil cases,
where the sum exceeded the value of twenty-five imperial livres,
(about 1500 francs.)

The Emperor Frederic II., grandson of Frederic I., and heir,
in right of his mother, to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, made
new efforts to restore the prerogatives of the Empire in Italy.
But the cities of Lombardy renewed their league, into which
they drew Pope Gregory I A. (1226,) whose dignity and power
would be endangered if the Emperor, being possessor of the
Two Sicilies, should succeed in conquering the cities of Lom-
bardy. The war which ensued (1236,) was long and bloody.
The Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV., went so far as to
preach up a crusade against the Emperor, as if he had been an

ij! g fi^ i ^a^f!ajiaMaMife-ja^^^^^j^;i^^^

1 1

compelled to
• lo repre»».
e the roynlty
my into that
on tlie plains
;d a strict in-
nto the rights
[in(; of Italy.
i of that diet
Emperor to
f master of it
e inhabitants,
the Italians,
irds took ad*
chism which
gue with the
ley drew the
er III., whom
)f Milan was
tt of Alexan-
otrncted ; but
Duke of Ba-
s, received a
accommoda-
nice, a treaty
lis treaty was
nilive peace
e guaranteed
veil as in the
lired, whether
d for himself
e,' which was
in civil cases,
nperial livres,

c I., and heir,
Sicilies, made
)ire in Italy,
e, into which
ty and power
isessor of the
ities of Lom-
ond bloody.
t so far as to
had been nn

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

tat

infidel ; whilo ihnt unfortunulo prince, nftprthe most courageous
and indofiiliu'iiblc ftrorts, linii tlic mortilicuiion trt sec his troops
"nrt" more di>r()infilf'(l Ity the forcrs of ihe Lonuuf.

The citit's (if Itiily wvn; no i-moriiT (h-liviTcd from the terror
of the Emperors, than they Ift loosf their fury u>,'i\inst each
other; impelled by the rii|cre (if confiui'si, mid lorn by the inter-
nal factions of the Guclphs and the frbibcllines, as well as by
the contests which hud arisen between the noblesse and the free
cities. The partisans of the nobles in these cities, were strenjjth-
cned by the very measures which had been taken to humble
them. The chartered towns by destrovinir that multitude of
seignuries, earldoms, and mar({iiisates witn which Lombardy
swarmed before the twelfth century, and by incorporating them
with their own territories, obliged the deserted nobles and gran-
dees to seek an establishment within their walla. These latter,
finding their partisans united and powerful, soon attempted to
seize the government; and hence orose on interminable source
of civil discord, which ended with the loss of liberty in the greater
part of these communities.

To arrest these evils, and put a check to the ambition of the
powerful citizens, they adopted the plan of intrusting the gov-
ernment to a single magistrate, to be called the Podesla, who
should be chosen in the neighbouring cities. This .scheme was
but a palliative rather than a remedy ; and in order to guarantee
themselves from the oppression of the nobles, the corporations
of several cities gradually adopted the plan of conferring a sort
of dictatorship on one of the powerful citizens, or on some prince
or noblemon, even though he were a stronger, under the title of
Captain ; hoping, in this way, to succeed in re-establishing
peace and order. These chiefs or captains contrived, in process
of time, to render absolute and perpetual, nn authority which at
first was temporary, and only granted on certain conditions.
Hence the origin of several new independent sovereignties which
were formed in Italy during the course of the fourteenth century,

Venice and Genoa at that time eclipsed nil the republics of
Italy, by the flourishing state of their navigation and commerce.
The origm of the farmer of these cities is generally dated as far
back as the invasion of the Huns under Attila (452.) The cru-
elty of these barbarians having spread terror and flight over the
whole country, many of the inhabitants of ancient Venetia, took
refuge in the isles and lagoons on the borders of the Adriatic
Gulf; and there laid the foundation of the city of Venice, which,
whether we regard the singularity of its construction, or the
splendour to which it rose, deserves to be numbered omong the
wonders of the world. At first its government was popular, and

■1.

I (If I

'i )(

» .

ill:

m im>^~m

198

OHAFTKB T.

administered by a bench of tribuneii whose power was annual.
The divisions which nrose amoiij,' these yearly administrators,
ih'cnsioruMl the ehjclion of n chief (697,) who took the title of
Duke or Dofje. This dignity was for life, and depended on the
suflriiKOM of the community ; but he exercised nevertheless the
rights of sovereiffnty, and it was not till after a lonjf course ot
lime that his authority was gradually abridged ; and the govern*
ment, which had been monarchical, became again democratical.

Venice, which from il.s birth was a commercial city, enjoyed
in the middle a(;e8 nearly the same renown which Tyro had
among the trading cities of antiquity. The commencement of
its grandeur may be dated from the end of the tenth century,
and under the magistracy of the Uoge Peter Urseolo II., whom
the Venetians regard as the true founder of their state (992.)
From the Greek emperors he obtained for them an entire liberty
and immunity of commerce, in all the ports of that empire ; and
he procured them at the same time several very important ad«
vantages, by the treaties which he concluded with the emperor
Olliii III. ami with the Caliphs of Egypt. The vast increase of
their (ommerce, inspired these republicans with a desire to ex*
tend the contracted bounds of their territory. One of their (irst
conquests was the maritime cities of Istria, os well as those of
Dalmatia; both of which occurred under the magistracy of Peter
Urseolo JI., and in the year 997. They were obliged to make
a surrender of the cities of Dalmatia, by the emperors of the
East, who regarded these cities as dependencies of their empire ;
while the kings of Croatia and Dalmatia also laid claim to them.
Croatia having passed into the hands of the Kings of Hungary,
about the end of the eleventh century, these same cities became
a perpetual source of troubles and wars between the Kings ol
Hungary and the Republic of Venice ; and it was not till the
fifteenth century that the Republic found means to confirm its
authority in Dalmatia.

The Venetians having become parties in the famous League
of Lombardy, in the eleventh century, contributed by their ef-
forts, to render abortive the vast projects of the Emperor Frede-
ric I. Pope Alexander III., as a testimony of his gratitude,
granted them the sovereignty of the Hadriatic (1177,)*" and this
circumstance gave rise to the singular ceremony of annually
marrying this sea to the Doge of Venice. The aggrandizement
of this republic was greatly accelerated by the crusades, espe-
cially the fourth (1204,) which was followed by the dismem-
berment of the Greek empire. The Venetians, who had joined
this crusade, obtained for their portion several cities and ports
in Dalmatia, Albania, Greece and the Morea ; as also the Islands

'■^ mmmM

=^6".

wan annua).

inini.itratora,
( the title of
•tided on the
■rtheloss the
ig course ot
I the govern*
leinocratical.
:ity, enjoyed
h Tyro had
lencemenl of
•nth century,
lo II., whom

state (992.)
Bntirc liberty
empire ; and
mportant ad-

tne emperor
St increase of

desire to ex»
L- of their first
il as those of
racy of Peter
iged to make
perors of the
their empire;

aim to them.

of Hungary,
cities became

the Kings oi

1 not till the
:o confirm its

nous League

by their ef-

jeror Frede-

lis gratitude,

f7,)^ and this

of annually

jrandizement

usades, espe-

the dismera-

10 had joined

ies and ports

■so the Islands

PBiioD IV. A. 0. 1074 — 1300.

u»

of Corfu, Cephalonia, and Candia or ('r<if. At length, towards
the end of th;; thirteenth century, this r< publu' assumed the pe<
culiar form of government which it ret.tinpd tilj the day of its
destruction. In the earlier ages its cuiiMtitutuin was democratic,
anil the power of the Doge limited by it gniiul council, which
was chosen annually from among the ditli'rt.nt classes of the
citizens, by electors named by the people. As tiiese forms ^jave
occasion to troubles and intestine commotions, the Doge Fietro
Grudenigo, to remove all cause of discontent in future, passed
a law (1298,) which abrogated the custom of annual elections,
and fixed irrevocably in their ofiice all those who then sat in
the grand council, and this to descend to their posterity foi
ever. The hereditary aristocracy thus introduiud at Venice,
did not fail to excite the discontent of those whose fatnilius this
new law had excluded from the government; and it was ibis
which afterwards occasioned various insurrections, of which
that of Tiepolo (1310) is the most remarkable. The partisans
of the ancient government, and those of the new, utiRmpted to
decide the matter by a battle in the city of Venice. Tiepolo
and his party wore defeated, and Querini, one of the chiefs,
'vas killed in the action. A commission of ten members was
nominated to inform against the accomplices of this secret con*
spiracy. This commission, which was meant to be but tem-
porary, was afterwards declared perpetual ; and, under the
name of the Council of Ten, became one of the most formida-
ble supports of the aristocracy.

The city of Genoa, like that of Venice, owed her prosperity
(o the progress of her commerce, which she extended to the
Levant, Constantinople, Syria, and Egypt. Governed at first
by Consuls, like the rest of the Italian states, she afterwards
1190) chose a foreign Podesta or governor, to repress the vio-
lence of faction, and put a check on the ambition of the nobles.
This governor was afterwards made subordinate to n Captain of
the people, whom the Genoese chose for the first time in 1257,
without being able yet to fix their government, which ex-
perienced frequent variations before assuming a settled and
permanent form. These internal divisions of the Genoese did
not impede the progress of their commerce and their marine.
The crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries, the powerful sue-
cours which these republicans gave to the crusaders, and to the
Greeks, as well as the treaties which they concluded with the
Moorish and African princes, procured them considerable esta-
blishments in the Levant, and also in Asia and Africa. CafTa,
a famous seaport on the Black Sea, and the port of Azoph, the
ancient Tanais, at the mouth of the Don, belonged to them ;

:r- >

■|it-l

'^!:'l^

Hj !«'

.J»*'!

,*' '*

i -■ •

' I -.

<'■'

140

CHAPTER V.

and served as entrepots for their commerce with China and the
Indies. Smyrna in Asia Minor, us also the suburbs of Pera
an.! Galata at Constantinople, and the isles of Scno, Metelin
and Tenedos, in the Archipelaj^o, were ceded to them by the
Greek emperors. The kings of Cyprus were their tributaries.
The Greek and German emperors, the kings of Sicily, Cas-
lille and Arragon, and the Sultans of Egypt, ^jealously sought
their alliance, and the protection of their marine. Encouraged
by these successes, they formed a considerable territory o'.i the
continent of Italy, after the 12th century, of which nothing but
a fragment now remains to them.

Genoa had at that time, in its immediate neighbourhood, a
dangerous rival of its power and greatness. This rival was
Pisa, a flourishing republic on the coast of Tuscany, which
owed its prosperity entirely to the increase of its commerce and
marine. The proximity of these two states --the similarity of
their views and their interests — the desire of conquest — and
the command of the sea, which both of them desired, created a
marked jealousy between them, and made them the natural and
implacable enemies of each other. One of the principal .sub-
jects of dispute was the possession of Corsica and Sardinia,*
which the two republics conte.sted at the point of the sword,
after having, by means of their combined force, expelled the
Moors, toward the middle of the eleventh century. Pisa, ori-
ginally superior to Genoa in maritime strength, disputed with
her the empire of the Mediterranean, and haughtily forbade the
Genoese to appear within those seas with their ships of war.
This rivalry nourished the animosity of the two republics, and
rendered it implacable. Hence a continual source of mutual
hostilities, which were renewed incessantly for the space of 200
years, and only terminated in 1290 ; when, by the conquest ol
Elba, and the destruction of the ports of Pisa and Leghorn,
the Genoese effected the ruin of the shipping and commerce of
the Pisan republic.

Lower Italy, possessed by the Norman princes, under the title
of Dutchy and Comt^, became the seat of a new kingdom in the
eleventh century — thai of the two Sicilies. On the extinction
of the Dukes of Apulia and Calabria, descendants of Robert
Guiscard, Roger, son of Roger, Count of Sicily, and sovereign
of that island, united the dominions of the two branches of the
Norman dynasty (1127 ;) and being desirous of procuring for
himself the royal dignity, he attached to his interest the Anti-
pope Anacletus II., who invested him with royalty by a bull
(1130,) in which, however, he took care to reserve the territorial
right and an annual tribute to the Church of Rome. This

■■ ^imm ^ msm^' ^ ^mkm^m^&M^^^ ■

"■•'p

.fl-

hina and the
urbs of Pera
Icio, Metelin
ihem by the
r tributaries.

Sicily, Cas-
Dusly sought

Encouraged
ritory on the
1 nothing but

hbfiurhood, a
his rival was
jscnny, which
:ommerce and
! similarity of
onquest — and
ired, created a
le natural and
principal sub-
nd Sardinia,*
of the sword,
, expelled the
•y. Pisa, ori-
disputed with
ily forbade the
shipa of war.
republics, and
rce of mutual
e space of 200
le conquest ol
and Leghorn,
d commerce ot

under the title
ingdom in the
the extinction
mts of Robert
and sovereign
(ranches of the

procuring for
■rest the Anti-
alty by a bull
e the territorial

Rome. This

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

141

prince received the crown of Palermo from the hands of a ;nT-
dinal, whom the pope had deputed for the express purpose. On
ihe death of the Emperor Lothaire, he succeeded in dispossess-
ing the Prince (tf Capua, and subduini;^ the dutchy of Naples
(1139;) thus completing the conquest of all that is now deno-
minated the kingdom of Naples. William II., grandson of
Roger, was the principal support of Pope Alexander III.; and
of the famous League of Lombardy formed against the Empe-
ror Frederic Barbarossa. The male line of the Norman princes
having become extinct in William II., the kingdom of the Two
Sicilies passed (1189) 'o the House of Hohenstaufen, by the
marriage which the Emperor Henry IV., son of Frederic Bar-
barossa, contracted with the Princess Constance, aunt and here-
trix of the last king. Henry maintained the rights of his wife
against the usurper Tancred, and transmitted this kingdom to
his son Frederic II., who acquired by his marriage with Jolande,
daughther of John de Brienne, titular King of Jerusalem, the
lilies and arms of this latter kingdom. The efforts which Fre
deric made to annihilate the League of Lombardy, and confirm
his own authority in Italy, drew down upon him the persecution
of the court of ftome, who taking advantage of the minority of
the young Conradin, grandson of Frederic II., wrested the
crown of the two Sicilies from this rival house, which alone
was able to check its ambitious projects. Mainfroi, natural son
of Frederic II., disgusted with playing the part of tutor to the
young Conradin, in which capacity he at first acted, caused him-
self to be proclaimed and crowned, at Palermo, King of the Two
Sicilies, (1258.) The Popes Urban IV., and Clement IV., dread-
ing the genius and talents of this prince, made an offer of that
kingdom to Charles of Anjou, Count of Provence, and brother of
St. Louis. Clement IV. granted the investiture of it (126d) to
hirn and hi:^ descendants, male and female, on condition of his
doing fealty and homage to the Holy See, and presenting him
annually with a white riding horse, and a tribute if eight million
ounces of gold. Charles, after being crowned at Rome, marched
against Mainfroi, with an army chiefly composed of crusaders.
He defeated that prince, who was slain at the battle of Bene-
vento (1266,) which was soon after followed by the reduction of
the two kingdoms. One rival to Charles still survived, the
young Conradin, the lawful heir to the throne of his ancestors.
Charles vanquished him also, two years afterwards, in the plains
of Tagliacozzo ; and having made him prisoner, together with
his young friend Frederic of Austria, he caused both of these
princes to be beheaded at Naples (29th October 1268.)
Charles did not long enjoy his new dignity. While he was

' 1: i

4 '

'fi

■■M

i Mi I.

--IBP ■ m mi^ m

t42

CHAPTER V.

,-i

prenwing to undertake a crusade against Michael Paleologus,
a schismatic prince who had expelled the Latins from Constan-
tinople, he had the mortification to see himself dispossessed of
Sicily, on the occasion of the famous Sicilian Vespers (1282.)
This event, which is generally regarded as the result of a con-
spiracy, planned with great address by a gentleman of Salerno,
named John de Procida, appears to have been but the sudden
eflectof an insurrection, occasioned by the aversion of the Sici-
lians to the French yoke. During the hour of vespers, on the
second day of Easter (30th March.) when the inhabitants o'
Palermo were on their way to the Church of the Holy Ghost,
situated at some distance from the town, it happened that a
Frenchman, named Drouette, had offered a private insult to a
Sicilian woman : hence a quarrel arose, which drew on a gene-
ral insurrection at Palermo. All the French who were m the
city or the neighbourhood were massacred, with the exception
of one Tcntleinan from Provence, called William Porcellet, who
had conciliated all hea- by his virtues. This revolt graduaHv
extended to the other ^i. =an cities. Every where the French
were put to death on t! : Messi.ia was the last that caught

the infection; but tl.t " evolution did not take place till

thirty days after the sa;... event at Palermo, (29th April 1282.)
It is therefore not true, that this massacre of the French hap-
pened at the same hour, and at the sound of the vesper bells,
over all parts of the island. Nor is it more probable, that the
plot had been contrived by Peter III., King of Arragon ; since
the Palermitans displayed at first the banner of the church,
having resolved to surrender to the Pope ; but being driven from
this resolution, and dreading the vengeance of Charles, they
despatched deputies to the King of Arragon, who was then
cruising with a fleet off' the African coast, and made him an offei
of their crown. This prince yielded to the invitation of the
Palermitans ; he landed at Trapani, and thence passed to Pa-
lermo, where he was crowned King of Sicily. The whole
island submitted to him ; and Charles of Anjou was obliged to
raise the siege of Messina, which he had undertaken. Peter
entered and took possession of the place, and from that time
Sicily remained under the power of the Kings of Arragon ; it
b'icame the inheritance of a particular branch of the Arragonese
princes ; and the House of Anjou were reduced to the single
kingdom of Naples. . . . nu •

Spain, which was divided into several sovereignties, both Chris-
tian and Mahometan, presented a continual spectacle ot commo-
tion and carnage. The Christian States of Castille and Arragon,
were gradually increased by the conquests made over the Maho-

•an

•it'

Paleologus,
om Constan-
iDossessed of
spers (1288.)
Milt of a con-
in of Salerno,
ut tlie sudden
in of the Sici-
Bspers, on the
inhabitants of

Holy Ghost, i'
ppened that 8
lie insult to a
■e\v on a gene-
^o were m the
the exception
Porcellel, who
•volt gradually
ere the French
Inst that caught
take place till
th April 1282.)
e French hap-
le vesper bells,
)bable, that the
Irragon ; since
of the church, ^
ing driven from 1
: Charles, they
who was thnn
ide him an offei
vitation of the
passed to Pa-
The whole
was obliged to
rtaken. Peter
from that time
of Arragon ; it
the Arragonese
d to the single

lties,bothChri8-

Itacle of commo-

]le and Arragon.

t over the Maho-

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

metans; while the kingdom of Navarre, less exposed to con-
quest by its local situation, remained nearly in its original stale
of mediocrity. This latter kingdom pa.>;:'cd in succession lo
female heirs of different houses. HIniiche of Navarre, dauyhler
of Sancho VI., transferred it to the Counts of Champaijiio ( iy.'34.)
On the extinction of the male lino of that house, in Henry I. of
Navarre (1274,) Joan I., his daughter and heiress, conveyed that
kingdom, together with the ComU's of Champagne and Brie,
to the crown of France. Philip the Fair, husband of that prin-
cess, and his three sons, Louis le Hutin, Philip the Long, and
Charles the Fair, were, at the same time, kings both of France
and Navarre. Finally, it was Queen Joan H., daughter of
Louis le Hutin, and herelrix of Navarre, who tran.sfcrred that
kingdom to the family of the Counts d'Evreux, and relim|uished
the Comt^s of Champagne and Brie to Philip of V^alois, suc-
cessor of Charles the Fair to the throne of France (1936.)

The family of the Counts of Barcelona ascended the throne
of Arragon (1131,) by the marriage of Count Kaymond-Beren-

fuier V. with Donna Petronilla, daughter and heiress of Kamira
I., King of Arragon. Don Pedro II., grandson of Kaymond-
Berenguicr, happening to be at Rome (1204,) was there crowned
king of Arragon by Pope Innocent HI. On this occasion he
did homage for his kingdom to that pontiff, and engaged, for
himself and successors, to pay an annual tribute to the Holy
See. Don James I., surnamcd the Conqueror, son of Don Pedro
II., gained some important victories over the Mahometans, from
whom he took the Balearic Isles (1230,) and the kingdom of
Valentia,'*' (1238.) Don PedroIII. eldest son of Don James I.,
had dispossessed Charles I. of Anjou and Sicily, which drew
down upon him a violent persecution on the part of Pope Martin
IV., who was on the eve of publishing a crusade against him,
and assigning over his estates to Charles of Valois, a younger
brother of Philip called the Hardy, king of France. Don James
II., younger son of Don Pedro III., succeeded in making his

Eeace with the Court of Rome, and even obtained from Pope
toniface VIII. (1297) the investiture of the Island of Sardinia.
on condition of acknowledging himself the vassal and tributary
of the Holy See for that kingdom, which he afterwards obtained
by conquest from the republic of Pisa.

The principal victories of the Christians over the Mahome-
tans in Spain, were reserved for the kings of Castille, whose
history is extremely fertile in great events. Alphonso VI.,
whom some call Alphonso I., after having taken Madrid and
Toledo (1085,) and subdued the whole kingdom of Toledo, was
on the point of altogether expelling the Mahometans from Spain,

I-

1 IP t

' I

■i. \

i" i

^ll

n
i i

144

CHAI'TKR V.

when n revolution which happened in Africa augmented their
iorct'rs by fresh numbers, and thus arrested the progress of the
Casiilian prince. .

The Zcirides, an Arab dynasty, descended from Zeiri, son of
Mounad, reigned then over that part of Africa which compre-
hends Africa properly so called (viz. Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers,) ,
and the Mogreb (comprehending Fez and Morocco,) which they !
had conquered from the Faliniile caliphs of Egypt. It hap- ;
pciicd that a new apostle and conqueror, named Aboubeker, son
of Oiner, collected some tribes of Arabs in the vicinity of Sugul-
messa, a city in the kingdom of Fez, and got himself proclaimed
Commander of the Faithful. His adherents took the name of
Morabelhin, a term which signifies zealously devoted to religion ;
and whence the Spaniards have formed the names Almoravtdes
and Mutabovths. Having made him^<elf master of the city of
Su<rulmes.-a, this warlike Emir extended his conquests m the
Alogreb, as well as in Africa Proper, whence he expelled the
Zeirides. His successor, Yousulf, or Joseph, the son of Tas-
chefin, completed the conquest of these countries ; and built the
city of Morocco (1069,) which he made the capital of the Mogreb,
and the seat of his new empire. This prince joined the Ma-
hometans of Seville, to who>e aid he marched with his victorious
lroop.s, defeated the king of Caslllle at the battle of Badajos
(1090,) and subdued the principal Mahometan states of Spain,
such as Grenada and Seville, &c. ,. ,

The empire of the Almoravides was subverted in the twelfth
century by another Mahome an sect, called the Moahedivs, oi
Almohades, a word signifying Unitarians. An upstart fanatic,
named Abdalnmimen, was the founder of this sect. He was
educated among the mountains of Sous, in Mauritania, and
assumed the quality of Emir (1120,) and the surname of Mo-
hadi, that is, the Chief— the leader and director of the faithful.
Having subdued Morocco, Africa, and the whole of the Mogreb,
he annihilated the dynasty of the Almoravides (1146,) and at
the same time vanquished the Mahometan states in Spain. He
took also (1160) from the Normans Tunis, Mohadie, and Tripoli,
of which they had taken possession. One of his successors,
named Naser-Mohammed, formed the project of re-conquering
the whole continent of Spain. The immense preparations which
he mrle for this purpose, alarmed Alphonso VIII., king of Cas-
tille, who immediately formed an alliance with the rfingsof Ar-
ragon and Navarre, and even engaged Pope Innocent III. to
proclaim a crusade against the Mahometans. The armies of
Europe and Africa met on the confines of Castile and Andalusia
(1212;) and in the environs of the city Ubeda was foughl a

^ ' • ^ vtfit ^i mm

«*«

gmented their
rogress of the

n Zeiri, son of
vhich ccnpre-
, and Algiers,)
o,) which they
gypt. It hap-
iboubeker, son
nity of Sugul-
elf proclaimed
k the name of
ed to religion /
IS Almoravides
• of the city of
nqiiests in the
s expelled the
le son of Tas-
; and built the
of the Mogreb,
3ined the Mn-
1 his victorious
tie of Kudajos
tates of Spain,

I in the twelfth
Moahedins, oi
ipstart fanatic,
sect. He was
dauritania, and
arnaine of Mo-
ot the faithful.
I of the Mogreb,
i (1146,) and at
in Spain. He
lie, and Tripoli,
his successors,
f re-conquering
parations which
il., king of Cas-
,he kings of Ar-
nnocent III. to
The armies of
e and Andalusia
la was fought a

111

i\^' " fl

-'"<iii I

(iv

i-^

Henry 1V.|^ Emperor uf Germany, submitting Co Pope
Jrcgory VII. P. lUS.

Ill

lii.

Peter the Hermit preaching to the Crusadtra. P. 110.

5 to Pope

Is. P. UO.

PERIOD IT. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

146

bloody battle, which so crippled the power of the Almohades, us
to occasion in a short time the downrall and dismemberment of
their empire.*'

About this period (1269,) the Mahometans of Spain revolted
afresh from Africa, and divided themselves into several petty
states, of which the principal and the only one that existed for
several centuries, was that of the descendants of Naser, Kings
of Grenada. Ferdinand III., King of Castille and Leon, took
advantage of this event to renew his conquests over the Ma-
hotnctans. He took from them the kingdoms of Cordova, Mur>
cia, and Seville (1236, et seq.,) and left them only the single
kingdom of Grenada.

These wars against the Mahometans were the occasion of
several religious and military orders being founded in Spain.
Of these, the most ancient was that founded and fixed at Alciin-
tara (1156,) whence it took its name; having for its badge or
decoration a green cross, in form of the lily, or Jleur-de-lis. The
order of Calatrava was instituted in 1158; it was confirmed by
Pope Alexander III. (1164,) and assumed as its distinctive mark
the red cross, also in form of the lily. The order of St. James
of Cumpostella, founded in 1161, and confirmed by the same
Pope (1175,) was distinguished by a red cross, in form of a
sword- Finally, the order of Montesa (1317,) supplanted that
of the Templars in the kingdom of Anagon.

The Kings of Castille and Arragon having conquered from
the Arabs a part of what is properly called Portugal, formed it
into a distinct government, under the name of Portocalo, or Por-
tugal. Henry of Burgundy, a French prince, grandson of Ro
bert, called the Old, Duke of Burgundy, and great-grandson of
Robert II., King of France, having distinguished himself by his
bravery in the wars between the Castillians and the Mahome-
tans, Alphonso VI., King of Castille, wished to attach the young
Erince to him by the ties of blood ; and, for this purpose, gave
im in marriagr ^is daughter the Infant Donna Theresa ; and
created him Count of Portugal (1090.) This State, including
at first merely the cities of Oporto, Braga, Miranda, Lamego,
Viseo, and Coimbra, began to assume its present form, in the
reign of Alphonso I., son of Count Henry. The Mahometans,
alarmed at the warlike propensities of the young Alphonso, had
marched with a superior force to attack him by surprise. Far
from being intimidated by the danger, this prince, to animate
the courage of his troops, pretended that an apparition from hea-
ven had authorized him to proclaim himself King in the face ot
the arrnVt in virtue of an express order which he said he had
received from Christ. '^ He then marched against the enemy

•*•.

■ ii.

i ■

i! t»

iP'

i.-»' t

|i|f

>\**

140 CHAPTER V.

and totally routed them in the plains of Ouriqne (1139.) This
vii-tory, famous in the nnnals of PorluKal, paved the way for the
conquest of the cities Leiria, Santarcm, Lisbon, Cintra, Alcazar
do Sal, Evora, and Elvas, situated on the banks of the Tagus.
Moreover, to secure the protection of the Court of Rome agamst
the Kings of Leon, who disputed with him the independence of
his new state, Alphonso took the resolution of acknowledging
himself vassal and tributary to the Holy See (1142.) He after-
wards convoked the estates of his kmgdom at Lamego, and
there declared his independence by a fundamental low, w-hich
also regulated the order of succession to the throne. Sancho I.,
son and successor of Alphonso, took from the Mahometans the
town of Silves in Algarve ; and Alphonso HI., soon afttr,
(1249,) completed the conquest of that province.

The first Kings of Po" I, in order to gain the protection of
the Court of Rome, were obliged to grant extensive benefices to
the ecclesiastics, with regalian rights, and the exemption of the
clergy from the secular jurisdiction. Their successors, how-
ever, finding themselves firmly estoblished on the throne, soon
changed their policy, and manifested as much of indifference for
the clergy as Alphonso 1. had testified of kindness and attach-
ment to them. Hence originated a long series of broils and
quarrels with the Court of Rome. Pope Innocent IV. deposed
Sancho II. (124,5,) and appointed Alphonso III. in his place.
Denys, son and successor of this latter prince, was excommuni-
cated for the same reason, and compelled to sign a treaty (1289,)
by which the clergy were re-established in all their former rights.
In France, the whole policy of the Kings was directed against
their powerful vassals, who shared among them the finest pro-
vinces of that kingdom. The Dukes of Burgundy, Normandy,
and Aquitaine ; the Counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Tou-
louse ; the Dukes of Bretagne, the Counts of Poitiers, ^r,
Blois, Anjou and Maine, Alen^on, Auvergne, Angoulfiine, Pe-
rigord, Carcassonne, * &c. formed so many petty sovereigns,
equal in some respects to the electors and princes of the Ger-
manic empire. Several circumstances, however, contributed to
maintain the balance in favour of royalty. The crown was he-
reditary, and the demesne lands belonging to the king, which,
being very extensive, gave him a power which far outweighed
that°of any individual vassal. Besides, these same demesnes
being situate in the centre of the kingdom, enabled the sovereign
to observe the conduct of his vassals, to divide their forces, and
prevent any one from preponderating over another. The per-
petual wars which they waged with each other, the tyranny
which they exercised over their dependants, and the enlighten-

" II

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — V.VHt.

147

139.) This
. way for the
lira, Alcazar
iho Tagus.
loinc against
ependcnce of
knowledging
.) He aflcr-
Lamego, and
1 law, which
. Sancho 1.,
homotans the
, soon aftt-r,

e protection of
k'c benefices to
mption of the
ccessors, how-
» throne, soon
ndifference for
iss and attach-
I of broils and
nt IV. deposed
in his place.
IS excommuni-
1 treaty (1289,)
• former rights,
irected ngninsl
the finest pro-
ly, Normandy,
igne, and Tou-
Poitiers, Bar,
ngoul6me, Pe-
ty sovereigns,
s of the Ger-
, contributed to
I crown was he-
[e king, which,
far outweighed
lame demesnes
the sovereign
;ir forces, and
,er. The per-
ir, the tyratmy
the enhghlen-

ed policy of several of the French kings, by degrees re-estab-
lished the royal iiulhnrily, which had been almost annihilated
under the last princes of the Carlovingian dynasty.

It was at this period that the rivalry between France and Eng-
land lind its origin. The fault that Philip I. committed, in
making no opposition to the conquest of England, by William
Duke of Normandy, \u.\ vassal, served to kindle the flame of war
between thesn princes. The war which took place in 1087, was
the first that happened between the two nations ; it was renewed
under the subsequent reigns, and this rivalry was stiil more in-
creased, on occasion of the unfortunate divorce between Louis

VII. and Eleanor of Poitou, heiress of Guienne, Poitou, and
Gascogne. This divorced Princess married (1152) Henry, sur-
named Plantugenet, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and
Maine, and afterwards King of England ; and brought him, in
dowry, the whole of her vast possession: . But it was reserved
for Philip Augustus to repair the fauils of his predecessors.
This great monarch, whose courage was equal to his prudence
and his policy, recovered his superiority over England ; he
strengthened his power and authority by the numerous acces-
sions which he made to the crown-lands, 3' (1180-1220.) Be-
sides Artois, Vermandois, the earldoms of Evreux, Auvergne,
and Alen«,on, which he annexed under different titles, he took
Advantage of the civil commotions which had arisen in England
against King John, to dispossess the English of Normandy, An-
jou, Maine; Lorraine, and Poitou (1203;) and he maintained
these conquests by the brilliant victory which he gained at Bou-
vines (1214,) over the combined forces of England, the Empe-
ror Otho, and the Count of Flanders. ^

Several of the French kings were exclusively occupied with
the crusades in the East. Louis VII., Philip Augustus, and
Louis IX. took the cross, and marched in person to the Holy
Land. These ultra-marine expeditions (1147, 1248,) which re-
quired great and powerful resources, could not but exhaust
France ; while, on the contrary, the crusades which Louis VIII.
undertook against the Albigenses and their protectors, the Counts
of Toulouse and Carcassonne, considerably augmented the royal
power. Pope Innocent III., by proclaiming this crusade (12(fe,)
raised a tedious and bloody war, which desolated Languedoc ;
and during which, fanaticism perpetrated atrocities which make
humanity shudder. Simon, Count Monfort, the chief or general
of these crusaders, had the whole estates of the counts of Tou-
louse adjudged him by the Pope. Amauri, the son and heir of
Simon, surrendered his claims over these forfeitures to Louis

VIII. King of France (1226 ;) and it was this circumstance that

i^fl'lJ

rp:

149

CRArTKK V.

induced Louis to march in person nt the head of the crusaders,
against the Count of Touloiisf, his vatoal uiul cousin. He died
at the close of this expedition, lenviuf; to his son and successor,
Louis IX., the tasi< of tinishin}r this diMistrous war. By the
pence which was concluded at Furis (It2i29,) between the King
and the Count, the greater part of Lunguedoc was allowed to re-
main in the possession of Louis. One arrangement of this
treaty was the marriage of the Count's daughter with Al-
phonso, brother to the King; with this express clause, that
failing heirs of this marriage, the whole territory of Toulouse
should revert to the crown. The same treaty adjudged to the
Pope the county of Venaissin, as an escheat of the Counts of
Toulouse ; and the Count of Carcassonne, implicated also in
the cause of the Albigenses, was compelled to cede to the King
all right over the viscounties of Beziers, Carcassonne, Agde,
Rodez, AIbi, and Nismes. One consequence of this bloody
war was the establishment of the terrible tribunal of the In-
quisition,^ and the founding of the order of Dominicans.^

Henry II., a descendant of the house of PInntagenet, having
mounted the throne of England, in right of his mother Ma-
tilda, annexed to that crown the dutchy of Normundy, the coun-
tries of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, together with Guienne,
Gascogne and Poitou. He afterwards added Ireland, which he
subdued in 1172. This island, which had never been con-
quered, either by the Romans, or the barbarians who had deso-
lated Europe, was, at that time, divided into five principal
sovereignties, viz. Mun.ster, Ulster, Connaught, Leinster, and
Meath, whose several chiefs all assumed the title of Kings.
One of these princes enjoyed the dignity of monarch of the
island ; but he had neither authority sufficient to secure inter-
nal tranquillity, nor power enough to repel with success the
attacks of enemies from without. It was this state of weakness
that induced Henry to attempt the conquest of the island. He
obtained the sanction of Pope Adrian Iv., by a bull in 1155, and
undertook, in a formal engagement, to subject the Irish to the
jurisdiction of the Holy See, and the payment of Peter's pence,^'
xhe expulsion of Dermot, king of Leinster, who had rendered
himself odious by his pride and his tyranny, furnished Henry
with a pretext for sending troops into that island, to assist the
dethroned prince in recovering his dominions. The success of
the English, and the victories which they gained over Roderic,
King of Connaught, who at that time was chief monarch of the
island, determined Henry to undertake, in person, an expedition
into Ireland (in October 1172.) He soon reduced the provinces
of Leinster and Munster to submission : and after having con-

L i

e crusadprSi
n. He died
d successor,
iir. By ihe
en the King
llowed lo re-
inenl of this j
er wiih Al- i
clause, that |
of Toulouse I
udgcd to the ,
te Counts of
cated also in
B to the King
sonne, Agde,
f this bloody
lal of the In*
iiinicans.'*
genet, having
1 mother Ma-
ridy, the coun-
with Guienne,
Iknd, which he
rer been con-
vho had deso-
,ve principal
jeinster, and
itie of Kings,
onarch of the
o secure inter-
ih success the
te of weakness
e island. He
I in 1155, and
le Irish to the
Peter's peuce.^
had rendered
rnished Henry
d, to assist the
'he success oi
over Roderic,
monarch of the
an expedition
d the provinces
ler having con-

PERIOD IV. A. 0. 1074—1300.

149

•I"

■trucK'd several forts, and nnininated n vireroy and other crown
oflicfrs, hi' took his departure without completing the conour.il
nflhe isliinii. Kudcric, Kingof Cnnnuught, submitted in 1175;
but ii was not till the rcifrn <if Qufen Elizabeth that the entire
reduction of Ireliiiid was accomplished.

In England, the rashnes.s and rapacity of John, son of Henry
11. orcihioned a mighty revolution in the government. The
discontented nobles, with the Archbishop of Canterbury at their
head, joined in a league against the King. Pope Innocent III.
formally deposed him, made over his kingdom to the Crown of
Franco, and proclaimed a crusade against him in every coun-
try of Europe. John obtained an accommodation with the
Pope; and in order to secure his protecti<m, he consented to be-
come a vassal of the Church, both for England and Ireland ;
engaging to pay his Holiness, besides Peter's pence, an annual
tribute of a thousand marks. But all in vain ; the nobles per
sisied in their revolt, and forced the King to grant them the
grand charter of Magna Charia, by which he and his succes-
sors were forever deprived of the power of exacting subsidies
without the counsel and advice of Parliament ; which did not
then include the Commons. He granted to the city of London,
and to all cities and burghs in the kingdom, a renewal of
their ancient liberties and privileges, and the right of not being
taxed except with the advice and consent of the common coun-
cil. Moreover, the lives and properties of the citizens were
secured by this charter; one clause of which expressly pro-
vided, that no subject could be either arrested, imprisoned, dis-
[lossessed of his fortune, or deprived of his life, except by a
egal sentence of his peers, conform to the ancient law of the
country. This charter, which was renewed in various subse-

2uent reigns, forms, at this day, the basis of the English
Constitution.

King John, meantime, rebelled against this charter, and
caused it to be rescinded by Pope Innocent III., who even is-
sued a bull of excommunication against the barons ; but they,
far from being disconcerted or intimidated, made an ofTer of
their crown to Louis, son of Philip Augustus King of France.
This prince repaired to England, and there received the fealty
and homage of the grandees and the nation. John, abandoned
by all his subjects, attempted to take refuge in Scotland ; but
he died in his flight at the castle of Newark. His death made
a sudden change in the minds and sentiments of the English.
The barons forsook the standard of the French prince, and
rallied round that of young Henry, son of King John, whose
long and unfortunate reign was a succe.«8ion of troubles and

I ;
1 1

■•M

'* \^'

I«

CIIAPTKR V.

inleHtine wars. Edwiird I., mn and tiucceMBor of Henry III., is
detunnincd and coiirngnuii!) a:* liix Atther had been weak and
indolent, reotored tranquillity to Erii^land, and niadtt his name
illuDtrioua by the conqucitt which he made of the principality o(
Wales.

This district, from the most remote antiquity, was ruled by
Its own native princes, duacendcd from the ancient British kings.
Although they had been vunmuIs and tributaries of the kin^f of
England, they exercised, nevertheless, the rights of sovereignty
In their own country. Leweilyn, prince of Wales, having es-
poused the cause of the insurgents in the ruign of Henry III.,
and niiide some attempts to withdraw from the vassalage of the
English crown, Edward I. declared war against him (1282;)
and in a battle fought near the Menau, Leweilyn was defeated
and .slain, with two thousand of his followers. David, his bro-
ther and MUCceM.Mor, met with a fate xtill more melancholy. Hav-
ing been taken prisoner by Edward, he wua condemned to death,
and executed like a traitor (1293.) The territory of Wales was
annexed to the crown; the king created his eldest son Edward,
Prince of Wales; a title which has since been borne by the
eldest sons of the kings of England.

At this period, the kingdoms of the North presented, in gen-
eral, little elso than a spectacle of horror and carnage. The
warlike and ferocious temper of the Northern nations, the want
of fixed and specific luws in the succession of their kings,* gava
rise to innumerable factions, encuuniged insolence, and foment-
ed troubles and intestine wars. An extravagant and supersti-
tious devotion, by loading the church with wealth, aggravated
still more the evils with which these kingdoms were distracted.
The bishops and the new metropolitans,'*^ enriched at the ex-
pense of the crown-lands, and rendered bold by their power,
and the strength of their castles, domineered in the senate and
the assemblies of the states, and neglected no opportunity of
encroaching on the sovereign's authority. They obtained, by
compulsion, the introduction of tithes, and the immunity of the
ecclesiastics ; and thus more and more increased and cemented
the sacerdotal power.* This state of trouble and internal com-
motion tended to abate that ardour for maritime incursions
which had so long agitated the Scandinavian nations. It did
not, however, prevent the kings of Denmark and Sweden from
undt^riaking, from time to time, expeditions by sea, under the
name of Crusades, for the conversion of the Pagan nations of
he North, whose territories they were ambitious to conquer.

The Siavians, who inhabited the coasts of the Baltic, were
ihcn constantly committing piracies, in imitation of the ancient

enry IITi •»
n weak and
do hi8 name
incipalily ot

vas ruled by
tritish kings,
the kingf of

sovereignty
I, having ei>

Henry III.,
salage of the
him (1282;)
WU8 defeated
ivid, his bro-
choly. Hav-
ncd to death,
if Wales was
son Edward,
borne by the

inted, in cen-
Irnage. The
[)ns, the want
kings,** gave

and foment-
and superati*
1, aggravated
re distracted.
»d at the ex-

their power,
le senate and
pportunity of

obtained, by
nunity of the

nd cemented
internal com-
le incursions
lions. It did
Sweden from
3a, under the
m nations of

o conquer.
Baltic, were

f the ancient

riRioD tv. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

NormunH, plundering and ravaging the provinces and itlanda
of Denmark. Vuldemar I., wi.<<hiiig to put an end to lhl■^c de<
va.itationN, and thimling moreover for the glory of converting to
Chri^tillnity ihone nations ugain!)t whom all the efTorlN of the
Gurmun.s hud failed, attacked them at different timet with hie
numerous flotillas. He took and pillaged several of their towns,
such ai Arcuna and Curentz or Guriz, in the i.sle of Kugen
(1168,) Julin, now culled Wollin, and Stettin, two seaports in
Pomeraniu (1175-6.) He made the princes of Kugen his vas-
sals and tributaries, and is generally regarded an the founder of
Duntzic (116(3,) which originally wa.i merely a fort constructed
by the Danes. Canute VI., son and successor of Valdemar I.,
followed the example of hin father; he reduced the princes of
Pomerania (1183) and Mecklenburg (1186,) uiid the Counts of
Schwerin (1201,) to a state of dependence; he made himself
master of Hamburg and Lubec, and subdued the whole of Hol-
Btein. Valdemar II. assumed the title of King of the Slavians,
and Lord of Nordalbingia. He added Luuenburg, a part of
Prussia, E^thonia, and the Isle of Oesel, to the conquests of his
predecessors, and became the founder of the cities of Strulsund
and Revel (1209 and 1222.)

This prince, master of nearly the whole southern coast of the
Baltic, and raised to the summit of prosperity by the superiority
of his commercial and maritime power, commanded for a time
the attention of all Europe ; but an unforeseen event eclipsed
his glory, and deprived him of all the advantages of his victories
and his conquests. Henry, Count of Schwerin, one of the vas-
sals of Valdemar, wishing to avenge an outrage which he pre-
tended to have received from him, seized that prince by surprise
(1223,) and detained him for three years prisoner in the castle
of Schwerin. This circumstance aroused the courage of the
o^her vanquished nations, who instantly took to arms. Adol-
phus. Count of Schauenburg, penetrated into Holstein, and
subdued the princes of Mecklenburg and Pomerania, with the
cities of Hamburg and Lubec. Valdetnar, restored to liberty,
made several efforts to reconquer his revolted provinces ; but .i
powerful confederacy being formed against him, he was defeat-
ed in a battle fought (1221,) at Bornhoevet, near Segeberg, in
Holstein. Of all his conquests, he retained only the Isle of
Rugen, Esthonia, and the town of Revel, which, in course of
lime, were lost or abandoned by his successors.

Sweden, which had been governed in succession by the dy-
nasties of Slenkil, Swerkar, and <S/. Eric, was long a prey to
internal dissensions, which arose principally from the two dif-
ferent forms of worship professed and authorized by the state.

^"1

l:t.

■^

r \

-• '1. ^■

•in

t^H

iiiii

\Si

CHAPTER T.

I !

The whole nation, divided in their religious sentiments, saw
themselves arranged into two factions, and under two reigning
families, mutually hating and exasperated against each other,
for nearly half a century. Two, and sometimes more, princes
were seen reigning at once from 1080 till 1133, when the throne
began to be occupied ultimately by the descendants of Sweyn
and St. Eric. During all this time, violence usurped the place
of right, and the crown of Sweden was more than once the
prize of assassination and treason.

In the midst of these intestine disorders, we find the Swedes
even attempting foreign conquests. To these they were insti-
gated both by the genius of the age, which encouraged crusades
and military missions, as well as by the desire of avenging the
piracies which the Finlanders, and other Pagan tribes of the
North, committed from time to time on the coasts of Sweden.
St. Eric became at once the apostle and the conqueror of Fin-
land (1157;) he established alst. a Swedish colony in Nyland,
and subdued the provinces of Helsingland and Jamptland.
Charles I., son of Swerkar, united the kingdom of Gothland to
Sweden, and was the first that took the title of these two king-
doms. Eric, surnamed Laspe, or the Lisper, resumed the cru-
sading system of warfare ; and, in the character of a missionary,
conquered Tavastland and the eastern part of Bothnia. Birger,
a prince of the Folkungian dynasty, who ascended the throne
of Sweden in 1250, conquered, under the same pretext, Carelia
and Savolax, and fortified Viburg. He compelled the inhabit-
ants of these countries to embrace the Christian religion (1293,)
and annexed them to Finland. We find, also, several of the
Swedish kings undertaking missionary expeditions against their
Pagan neighbours the Esthonians, who, from time to time, com-
mitted dreadful ravages on the coasts of Sweden. These ex-
peditions, which were always esteemed sacred, served as an
excuse for the sovereigns of the North in avoiding the crusades
to the Holy Land, in which they took no part.^

Prussia and the Prussians are totally unknown in history be-
fore the end of the tenth century.^ The author of the Life of
St. Adelbert of Prague, who suffered martyrdom in Prussia in
the reign of Otho III., is the first that mentions them under this
new name (997.) Two hundred years after, the Abb^ of Oliva,
surnamed the Christian, became the apostle of the Prussians,
and was appointed by Pope Innocent III. the first bishop oi
Prussia (1215.) This idolatrous nation, haughty and indepen-
dent, and attached to the reigning superstition, having repulsed
all the efforts that were repeatedly made to convert them to
Christianity, Pope Honorius III., in the true spirit of his age,

m.^

imenls, sew
wo reigning
each otheTi
lore, princes
n the throne
8 of Sweyn
led the place
an once the

the Swedes
y were insti-
ged crusades
avenging the
tribes of the
; of Sweden,
leror of Fin-
y in Nyland,
1 Jainptland.
■ Gothland to
>se two king-
imed the cru-
a missionary,
Lnia. Birger,
ed the throne
etext, Carelia
the inhabit-
gion (1293.)
everal of the
against their
to time, com-
These ex-
served as an
the crusades

in history be-
of the Life ol
in Prussia in
em under this
bb^ of Oliva,
he Prussians,
rst bishop oi
and indepen-
ving repulsed
ivert them to
it of his age,

'1^'

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

153

Cublished a Crusade against them (131S,) to proselytize them
y force. Armies of crusaders were poured into Prussia, nnd
overran the whole country nilh fire and sword. The Prussinns
took cruel vengeance on the Polonese of Masovia, who had
made common cause against them with the crusaders of the
East. At length, Conrad, duke of Masovia, finding himself too
weak to withstand the fury of the Prussians, called in the Teu-
tonic knights to his aid ; and, anxious to secure for ever the as-
sistance and protection of that order, he made them a grant of
the territory of Culm ; and moreover, promised them whatever
lands he might conquer from the common enemy (1226.) This
contract having been sanctioned by the Emperor Frederic 11.,
the knights speedily came into possession of their new domin-
ions (1230.) They extended themselves by degrees over all
Prussia, after a long and murderous war, which they had car-
ried on against the idolatrous natives. That country, which
had been peopled by numerous German colonies in succession,
did not submit to the yoke of the Teutonic order, until the
greater part of its ancient inhabitants had been destroyed. The
Knights took care to confirm their authority and their relip'ion
in Prussia, by constructing cities and forts, and founding
bishoprics and convents. The city of Koninsberg *' on the
Pregel, was built in 1255; and that of Marienburg on the No-
gat, which became the capital of the Order, i.^ supposed to have
been founded in 1280.

The Teutonic knights completed the conquest of that coun-
try (1283,) by the reduction of Sudavia, the last of the eleven
provinces which composed ancient Prussia. We can scarcely
conceive how a handful of these knights should have been able,
in so short a time, to vanquish a warlike and powerful nation,
inspired with the love of liberty, and emboldened by fanaticism
to make the most intrepid and obstinate defence. But we ought
to take into consideration, that the indulgences of the court of
Rome allured continually into Prussia a multitude of crusaders
from all the provinces of the Empire ; and that the knights
gained these over to their ranks, by distributing among them
the lands which they had won by conquest. In this way, their
numbers were incessantly recruited by new colonies of crusp-
ders, and the nobles flocked in crowds to their standard, to seek
territorial acquisitions in Prussia.

The increase of commerce on the Baltic, in the twelAh cen-
tury, led the Germans to discover the coasts of Livonia. Some
merchants from Bremen, on their way to Wisby, in the island
of Gothland, a seaport on the Baltic very much frequented at
that time, were thrown by a tempest on the coast near the mouth

rl|is|

*:1

4'^

■4 1>

^ »« " '

iii)

154 CHAPTER V,

of the Dwina (1158.) The ('"sire o<" gain induced them to enter
into a correspondence willi the natives of the country ; and,
from a wish to give stability to a branch of commerce which
miirht become very lucrative, they attempted to introduce the
Christian religion into Livonia. A monk of Segeberg in HoN
stein, named Mainard, undertook this mission. He was the first
bishop of Livonia (1192.) and fixed his residence at the castle of
Uxkull, which he strengthened by fortifications. Berthold, his
successor, wishing to accelerate the progress of Christianity, as
well as to avoid the dangers to which his mission exposed him,
caused the Pope to publish a crusade against the Livonians.
This zealous prelate perished sword in hand, fighting against
the people whom he intended to convert. The priests, aftei
this, were either massacred or expelled from Livonia ; but, in a
short time, a new army of crusaders marched into the country,
under the banner of Albert, the third bishop, who built the city
of Riga, (1200) which became the seat of his bishopric, and after-
wards the metropolitan see of all Prussia and Livonia. The
same prelate founded the military order of the Knights of Christ
or Sword-bearers, to whom he ceded the hird of all the coun-
tries he had conquered. This order, confirmed by Pope Inno-
cent III. (1204,) finding themselves too weak to oppose the
Pagans of Livonia, agreed to unite with the Teutonic order
(1237,) who, at that time, nominated the generals or provincial
masters in I<ivonia, known by the names of Heermeister and
Landmeister. Pope Gregory IX., in confirming the union of
these two orders, exacted the surrender of the districts of Revel,
Wesemberg, Weisenstein, and Hapsal, to Valdemar II., which the
knights, with consent of the Bishop of Dorpat, had taken from him
during his captivity. This retrocession was made by an act pass-
ed at Strensby, (1238.) Several documents which still exist in
the private archives of the Teutonic order at Koningsberg, and
especially two, dated 1249 and 1254, prove that, at this p'jriod,
the bishops of Riga still exercised superiority, both temporal and
spiritual, over these Knights Sword-bearers, although they were
united with the Teutonic order, which was independent of these
bishops. The combination of these two orders rendered them so
powerful, that they gradually extended their conquests over all
Prussia, Livonia, Courland, and Semigallia; bat they could
never succeed farther than to subject these nations to a rigorous
servitude, under pretence of conversion.

Before we speak of Russia and the other Eastern countries of
Europe, it will be necessary to turn our attention for a little to
the Moguls, whose conquests and depredations extended, in the
thirteenth century, from the extremity of northern Asia, over

' *
:' t

i ii

! S'

■i 1
I tl

! tc
tl]

tiem to enter
untry ; and,
iierce which
ilroduce the
berg in Hol-
I was the first
the castle of
Berthold, his
ristianity, as
exposed him,
le Livonians. 1 1
iting against I,
priests, aftei |
lia ; but, in a 1 1
I the country, j j
built the city j
iric, and after- j
ivonia. The
ghts of Christ
all the coun-
y Pope Inno- !
to oppose the
teutonic order |
or provincial i
ermeister and
the union of
•icts of Revel,
II., which the
iken from him
»y an act pass-
h still exist in
lingsberg, and
at this period,
temporal and
gh they were
ndent of these
idered them so
uests over all
t they could
to a rigorous

Irn countries of
I for a little to
Llended, in the
km Asia, over

PKRIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

160

Russia and the greater part of Europe. The native countrv of
this people is found to be those same regions which they still
inhabit in our day, and which arc situated to the north of the
great wall of China, between Eastern Tartary and modern Buk-
haria. They are generally confounded with the Tartars, from
whom they differ essentially, both in their appearance and man-
ners, as well as in their religion and political institutions. This
nation is divided into two principal branches, the Eluths or
Oelots, better known by the name of Calmucs, and the Moguls,
properly so called. These latter, separated from the Calmucs
by the mountains of Altai, are now subject to the dominion of
China.

The Moguls, scarcely known at present in the history of Eu-
rope, owe their greatness to the genius of one man — the famous
Zinghis Khan. This extraordinary person, whose real name
was Temudgin, or, according to Pallas, Damutschin, was born
in the year 1163, and originally nothing more than the chief of
a particular horde of Moguls, who had settled on the banks of
the rivers Onon and Kerlon, and were tributary to the empire of
Kin. His first exploits were against the other hordes of Mo-
guls, whom he compelled to acknowledge his authority. Em
boldened by success, he conceived the romantic idea of aspiring
to be the conqueror of the world. For this pi- 1 pose, he as.«em-
bled near the source of the river Onon, in 12* Ki. all the chiefs
of the Mogul hordes, and the generals of his iruiies. A certain
pretender to inspiration, whom the people regarded as a holy
man, appeared in the assembly, and declared that it was the will
of God that Temudgin should rule over the whole earth, — that
all nations should submit to him, — and that henceforth he should
bear the title of Tschinghis-Khaii, or Most Great Emperor.*^

In a short time, this new conqueror subdued the two great
empires of the Tartars ; one of which, called also the empire of
Kin, embraced the whole of Eastern Tartary, and the northern
part of China ; the other, that of Kara-Kitai, or the Khitans, ex-
tended over Western Tartary, and had its capital at Kaschgar
in Bukharia.^^ He afterwards attacked the Carismian Sultans
who ruled over Turkestan, Transoxiana, Charasm, Chora-
san, and all Persia, from Derbent to Irak-Arabia and the Indies.
This powerful monarchy was overturned by Zinghis-Khan, in
the course of six campaigns ; and it was during this war that
the Moguls, while marching under the conduct of Toushi, the
eldest son of Zinghis-Khan, against the Kipzacs or Capchacs,
to the north of the Caspian Sea, made their first inroad into
the Russian empire. Zinghis, after having subdued the whole
of Tangout, died in the sixty-fifth year of his age (1227.) His-

4'^''

>+■; \

1 ,'■

wm \

«?•"■*'

■4

h |Hi

l/SG CHAPTER V.

torians have remarked in him the traits of a great mnn, bom
to command others, but whose noble qualities were tarnished by
the ferocity of his nature, which took delight in carnage, plun-
der, and devastation. Humanity shudders at the recital of the
inexpressible horrors exercised by this barbarian, whose maxim
was to exterminate, without mercy, all who offered the least re-
sistance to his victorious arms.

The successors of this Mogul conqueror followed him in his
career of victory. They achieved the conquest of all China,
overturned the caliphate of Bagdat, and rendered the sultans of
Iconium their tributaries.** Octai-Khan, the immediate succes-
sor of Zinghis, despatched from the centre of China two pow-
erful armies, the one against Corea, and the other against the
nations that lie to the north and north-west of the Caspian Sea.
This latter expedition, which had for its chiefs Gayouk, son of
Octai, and Batou, eldest son of Toushi, and grandson of Zinghis-
Khan, after having subdued all Kipzak, penetrated into Russia,
which they conquered in 1237. Hence they spread over Poland,
Silesia, Moravia, Hungary, and the countries bordering on the
Adriatic Sea; they plundered cities, laid waste the country,
and carried terror and destruction wherever they went.** All
Europe trembled at the sight of these barbarians, who seemed
as if they wished to make the whole earth one vast empire of
desolation. The empire of the Moguls attained its highest point
of elevation under Cublai, grandson of Zinghis, towards the end
of the 13th century. From south to north, it extended from
the Chinese Sea and the Indies, to the extremity of Siberia ;
and from east to west, from Japan to Asia Minor, and the fron-
tiers of Poland in Europe. China, and Chinese Tartary formed
the seat of the empire, and the residence of the Great Khan ;
while the other parts of the dominions were governed by princes
of the family of Zinghis Khan, who either acknowledged the
Great Khan as their supreme master, or had their own particular
kings and chiefs that paid him tribute. The principal subordi-
nate Khans of the race of Zinghis, were those of Persia, Zagatai,
and Kipzac. Their dependence on the Great Khan or emperor
of China, ceased entirely on the death of Cublai (1294,) and the
power of the Moguls soon became extinct in China.*"

As for the Moguls of Kipzac, their dominion extended over
all the Tartar countries situated to the north of the Caspian and
the Euxine, as also over Russia and the Crimea. Batou-Khan,
eldest son of Toushi, was the founder of this dynasty. Being
addicted to a wandering life, the Khans of Kipzac encamped on
the banks of the Wolga, passing from one place to another with
their tents and flocks, acording to the custom of the Mogul and

at mnn, bom
» tarnished by
[image, plun-
recilal of the
whose maxim
d the least re-
red him in his
of all China,
the saltans of
lediate succes-
hina two pow-
er agfainst the
> Caspian Sea.
layouk, son of
son of Zinghis*
;d into Russia,
ad over Poland,
rdering on the
e the country,
!y went.** All
s, who seemed
[vast empire of
ts highest point
towards the end
extended from
lity of Siberia ;
and the fron-
'artary formed
Great Khan ;
■rned by princes
:nowledged the
r own particular
incipal subordi-
^ersia, Zagatai,
lan or emperor
1294,) and the
ina.**

extended over
le Caspian and
Batou-Khan,
ynasty. Being
ac encamped on
to another with
the Mogul and

rsBioD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300.

Tartar nations.*^ The principal sect of these Khans was called
the Graiid or Golden Horde or the Horde of Kipzac, which was
long an object of the greatest terror to the KuMsianN, Poles,
Lithuanians and Hungarians. Its glory declined towards the
end of the fourteenth century, and entirely di^^appeared under
the last Khan Achrnet, in 1481. A few separate hordes were
III! that remained, detached from the grand horde, such as those
of Cassan, Astracan, Siberia and the Crimea ; — all of which were
m their turn subdued or extirpated by the Russians.'"'

A crowd u( princes, descendants of Vlademir the Oreat, had
shared among them the vast dominions of Russia. One of these
princes invested with the dignity of Grand Duke, exercised cer-
tain rights of superiority over the restt who nevertheless acted
the part of petty sovereigns, and made war on each other. The
capital of these Grand Dukes was Kiow, which was also regard-
ed as the metropolis of the empire. Andrew I. prince uf Suzdal,
having assumed the title of Grand Duke (1157,) fixed his resi-
dence at Vlademir on the river Kliazma, and thus gave rise to a
kind of political schism, the consequences of which were most
fatal to the Russians. The Grand Dutchy of Kiow, with its
dependent principalities, detached themrelvcs by degree.<) from
the rest of the empire, and finally became a prey to the Lithu-
anians and Poles.

In the midst of these divisions and intestine broils, and when
Russia was struggling with difHculty against the Bulgarians,
Polowzians,''^ and other barbarous tribes in the neighbourhood,
she had the misfortune to be attacked by the Moguls under
Zinghid Khan. Toushi, eldest son of that conqueror, having
marched round the Caspian, in order to attack tho Polowzians,
encountered on his passage the Princes uf Kiow, who were
allies of that people. The battle which he fought (1223,) on
the banks of the river Kalka, was one of the- most sanguinary
lecorded in history. The Russians were totally d<;feated ; six
of their princes perished on the field of battle ; and the whole
of Western Russia was laid open to the conqueror. The Mo-
guls penetrated as far as Novogorod, wasting the whole country
on their march with fire and sword. They returned by the same
route, but without extending their ravages farther. In 1237
they made a second invasion, under the conduct of Batou, son
of Toushi, and governor of the northern parts of the Mogul
empire. This prince, after having vanquished the Polow-
zians and Bulgarians, that is, the whole country of Kipzac,
entered the north of Russia, where he took Rugen and Moscow,
and cut to pieces an army of the Russians near Kolomna.
Several other towns in this part of Russia were sucked by the

it^

! :

'I h

(»!?'!1:

108 CHAPTER V.

Moguls, in the commencement of the following year. The
laiiilly of the Grand DuWe, Juri II., perished in the sack of Via-
deinir; and he himself fell in the battle which he fought with
the Moiruls near the river Sila. Batou extended his conquests
in Northern Russia as far as the city Torshok, in the territory ol
Ndvofrorod. For some years he continued his ravages over the
whole'of Western Russia ; where, among others, he took Kiow,
Kaminiec in Podolia, Vladeniir and Halitsch. From this we
may date the fall of the Grand Dutchy of Kiow, or Western
Russia, which, with its dependent principalities in the following
century, came into the possession of the Lithuanians and Poles.
As for the Grand Dutchy of Vlademir, which comprehended
Eastern and Northern Russia, it was subdued by the Moguls
or Tartars, whose terrible yoke it wore for more than two
hundred years.**

An extraordinary person who appeared at this disastrous
crisis, preserved that part of Russia from sinking into total
ruin. This was Prince Alexander, son of the Grand Duke,
Jaroslaus II., who obtained the epithet or suriiame of Newski,
from a victory which he gained over the Knights of Livonia
near the Neva, (1241.) Elevated by the Khun Batou, to the
dignity of Grand Duke (1246,) he secured, by his prudent con-
duct, his punctuality in paying tribute, and preserving his al-
legiance to the Mogul emperors, the good will of these new
masters of Russia, during his whole reign. When this great
prince died in 1261, his name was enrolled iri their calendar of
saints. Peter the Great built, in honour of his memory, a con-
vent on the banks of the Neva, to which he gave the name of
Alexander Newski ; and the Empress Catherine I., instituted
an order of knighthood that was also called after the name of
that prince. .

Poland, which was divided among several prmces of the
Piast dynasty, had become, at the time of which vve speak, a
prey to intestine factions, and exposed to the incursions of the
neighbouring barbarians. These divisions, the principal source
of all the evils that afflicted Poland, continued down to the
death of Boleslaus II. (1138,) who, having portioned his es-
tates among his sons, ordered that the eldest should retain the
district of Cracow, under the title of Monarch, and that he
should exercise the rights of superiority over the provincial
dukes and princes, his brothers. This clause, which might
have prevented the dismemberment of the state, served only to
kindle the flame of discord among these collegatory princes,
iriadislaus, who is generally considered as the eldest of these
sons, having attempted to dispossess his brothero (1146,) they

-«l^

g year. The
e sack of Via-
e fought with
his conquests
he territory ol
cages over the
he took Kiow,
From this we
,', or Western
the following
ins and Poles,
comprehended
y the Moguls
lore than two

his disastrous
ing into total
Grand Duke,
ne of Newski,
its of Livonia
Batou, to the
3 prudent con-
erving his al-
of these new
ben this great
eir calendar of
lernory, a con-
! the name of
• I., instituted
■ the name of

princes of the
1 we speak, a
ursions of the
rincipal source
1 down to the
tioned his es-
uld retain the
, and that he
the provincial
, which might
served only to
ratory princes,
ildest of these
. (1146.) they

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300.

1»

rose in arms, expelled him from Poland, and obliged his de-
scendants to content themselves with Silesia. His sons founded
m that country, numerous families of dukes and princes, who
introduced German coIon.es into Silesia ; all of which, in course

!^r SmlrT'r?J'''i° '^' Y'"^' "•■ «"^"''"'»- Conrad, son
of Casimir the Jus , and grandson of Boleslaus III., was ih*-

TZTJ '\ ^"!'''' u"*" ^"J"^'" '^"'^ ^^"^"^i"- I^ ^vas this
pnnce who called in the assistance of the Teutonic Kni<rhts
against the Pagans of Prussia, and established that orde^ in
the territory of Culm (1230.)

,.n?„^fP°r'fV?J.'n^o"^.^''"'l"'^*'«'' Russia, took posses-
r Jhi HI l^^^-^ ?""'"8^ Sf«'"*'' '^^ '''<='°^y «t «he battle

?iS' "«""!• '^'^ u' '^'^ '° ^''^•^°^^' ^"'^ 'hen marched to
Lignilz m Siles.a, where a numerous army of crusaders were
assembled under the command of Henry, duke of Breslau.
,!?.?"■"'''' """^ ■l^'^^'^'^' """^ ^"''»'" '" "i« action. The whole
fated'lTJhe'Mrg'!" ''°''''"'' ''''' ""^"^ P'"«8«^ """^ ^-O'
Hungary, at this period, presented the spectacle of a warlike

H^ir",."?"? .^''''u' '^^ ^T'^'y "'■ '"^"'^ ">""""« cannot be
better attested than by the laws passed in the reigns of Ladis-
laus and Coloman, about the end of the eleventh and becrjnninff

the loss of liberty, or of some member of the body, such as the
eye, the nose, the tongue, &c. These laws were" published in
heir general assemblies, which were composed of the kinc
the great officers of the crown, and the representatives of the
clergy and the free men. All the other branches of the execu!
ive power pertained to the kings, who made war and peace at
their pleasure; while the counts or governors of provinces
claimed no power either personal or hereditary "

Under a government so despotic, it was easy for the kings
of Hungary to enlarge the boundaries of their states. Ladis-
laus took from the Greeks the dutchy of Sirmium (1080,) com-
prising the lower part of Sclavonia. This same princTextend-
ed his conquests into Croatia, a country which was governed
for several ages by the Slavian princes, who possessed Upper
Sclavonia and ruled over a great part of ancient Illyria and
Dalmatia, to which they gave the name of Croatia. Dircislaus
xvas the first of these princes that took the title of kin^ (in 984 )
Demetrius Swinimir, one of his successors, did homage to the
t;ope, in order to obtain the protection of the Holy Se^ (1076.)
1 he line of these kings having become extinct some time after '
Ladislaus, whose sister had been married to Demetrius Swini- |
mir, took advantage of the commoUon that had arisen in Croatia. I

\y ,

h !'

> III \

M'l

160 CRAPTBR V.

and conquered a great part of that kingdom (1091,) and «••
pecially Upper Sclavonia, which was one of its dependencies.
Coiom'on completed their conquest in 1102, and the same year
he was crowned at Belgrade king of Croatia nnd Dalmatia. In
course of a few years, he subdued the maritime cities of Dal-
nmtia, such ns Spoiairo, Trau, and Zara, which he took from
the republic of Venice.*' The kingdom of Rama or Bosnia,
fell at the same time under his power. He took the title of
King of Rama(1103;) and Bela II., his successor, made over
the dulchy of Bosnia to Ladislaus, his younger son. The so-
vereignty of the Kings of Hungary was also occasionally ac-
knowledged by the princes and kings of Bulgaria and Servia,
and even by the Russian princes of Halilsch and Wolodimir.

These conquests gave rise to an abuse 'vhich soon proved
fatal to Hungary. The kings claimed for themselves the right
of disposing of the newly conquered provinces in favour of their
younger sons, to whom they granted them under the title of
dutchies, and with the rights of sovereignty. These latter made
use of their supreme power to excite factions and stir up civil wars.

The reign of King Andrew II. was rendered remarkable bv a
revolution which happened in the government (1217.) This

Crince having undertaken an expedition to the Holy Land, which
e equipped at an extravagant and ruinous expense, the nobles
availed themselves of his absence to augment their own power,
and usurp the estates and revenues of the crown. Corruption
had pervaded every branch of the administration ; and the king,
ofter his return, made .several inefTectual efforts to remedy the
disorders of the government, and recruit his exhausted finances.
At length he adopted the plan of assembling a general Diet
(1222,) in which was passed the famous decree or Golden Bull
which forms the basis of that defective constitution which pre-
vails in Hungary at this day. The property of the clergy and
the noblesse were there declared exempt from taxes and military
cess; the nobles acquired hereditary possession ol the royal
grants which they had received in recompense for their services ;
they were freed from the obligation of marching at their own
expense on any expedition out of the kingdom ; and even the
right of resistance was allowed them, in case the king should
mfringe any article of the decree. It was this king also (An-
drew II.) that conferred several important privileges and immu-
nities on the Saxons, or Germans of Transylvania, who had been
invited thither by Geisa II. about the year 1142.

Under the reign of Bela IV. (1241.) Hungary was suddenly
inundated with an army of Moguls, commanded ^ several chiefs,
the principal of whom were Batou, the son of Toushi. and Ga^

)91,) and ««•
lependencies.
ie same year
)nlmntia. In
cities of Dai>
lie took from
la or BosniH,

the title of
If, made over

I. The so*
casionally ac*
a and Servia,
1 Wolodimir.
I soon proved
Ivos the right
avour of their
er the title of
se latter made
r up civil wars,
markable by a
[1217.) This
y Land, which
ise, the nobles
lir own power,
I. Corruption
and the king,
to remedy the
usled finances.
I general Diet
r Golden Bull
ion which pre-
the clergy and
es and military
t ot the royal
their services ;
I at their own
; and even the
)e king should
king also (An-
ges and immu*
, who had been

was suddenly
r several chiefsi
oushi. and Qw-

I..

Venice in tlio lOtli Century. P. 138.

Zensliis Klian, the Mogul Prince P. 155.

3rr' I

i !■

I' 4

ill

1^ <■ I

ytift

■Jtall.. ,

'f'*

.dirn^

PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300

101

I youk, .0,1 of thr gma M,nn 0( tai. Tho Hi.npariarA.. .t.nk i..
efr.>miiia.-y nnd hvm^r j,, pprf,..-! s.vi.rity. ha.l ...■gl...-t..,I to pro
vi.l.. ... ...... for thoir .lefiM.co, Having nt Icifil, ralli.-d round

tl..- bn.= ..t.r o tl„.:r k.„g. th..y ,,iid,r.d thnr n.,,,,, v.-ry u.-^W-
Kcnllv on tlio b.u.ks ol the Sam, whore th.7 w.«r.- MirpriM-d by
ll... Mogul, who made terrible havoc of then.. Colo.nnn, the
k..ig.. brother, vyas .shiin in the nrtioii ; u.,d thr kin.' hi...v..h
....•cc.d.d wah d.fnr.,liy i„ saving hi.n.df among the i.Ios ol

Dahnal.u. fho whole of Hungary was now at the ...ercv 0/
U.0 conquernr, who nt.r,t.lrat..d with his virtoriou.s troops i.,to
Srlavon.a, Croatia, D.il.nnlia, Bo.snJn, Scrvia, and Bufgaria;
eyry where glutting hi., fury with the blood of the ........Je

which he shed in torrents, fhese barbarians seemed deier.nin^
ed to hx their residence in Hungary, when the news of the death
of the Khan Octai, and the ncces.ion of his son Gayouk to the
Ihrone of China, induced them to abandon their ronqueN' in le»
(han three year.., and return to the East loaded with immense
booty. On hearing this intelligence, Bola ventured from his
place of retreat and repaired to Hungary, where he assembled
the remains of his subjects, who were wandering in the forests,
or concealed among the mountains. He rebuilt the cities that
were laid in ashes, imported new colonies from Croolia, Bohe-
mia, Moravia, and Saxony; and, by degrees, restored life and
vigour to the state, which had been almost annihilated by the
lUoguls. ■'

The Empire of the Greeks, at this time, was grnduallv verg-
ing towards Its downfall. Harassed on the cast by the Seliu-
kian Turks, infested on the side of the Danube by the Hunga-
nans, the Patzina.:ites, the Uzes and the Cuinans ; » and torn
to pieces by factious and intestine wars, that Empire was making
but a feeble resistance to the incessant attacks of its enemies
when It was suddenly threatened with entire destruction by the
effects of the fourth crusade. The Emperor Isaac Angelus had
been dethroned by his brother, Alexius III. (1195,) who had
cruelly caused his eyes to be put out. The son of Isaac, called
also Alexius found means to save his life; he repaired to Zara,
in Dalinatia (1203,) to implore the aid of the Crusaders, who
after having assisted the Venetians to recover that rebellious
city, were on the point of setting sail for Palestine. The youn?
Alexius offered to indemnify the Crusaders for the expenses of
any expedition which they might undertake in his favour ; he
gave them reason to expect a reunion of the two churches, and
considerable supplies, both in men and money, to assist them in
reconquering the Holy Land. Yielding to these solicitations,
the allied chiefs, insteaa of passing directly to Syria, set sail for

''' i

f m

:?! t

' iti

ii M-

«i**'

-^e*-^

102

CRAPTRR V.

Thev imtm'(lint«!ly laid sietjn to the citjr, ex-

Constiintitiople. They / --- > ; ^- —

pelU'd tliu usurper, and reMlort-d Isaac to the throne, in conjunc*
tion with his son Alexiu.i.

Sfiinuly liiid the CrustiidefN quitted Con;<tanlinople, when u
new revolution hiinpened there. Another Alexius, .surniinied
Mourzoiijie, KxcMi'd iin insurrection ainon^; the G.aekn; and
having procured the deuth of tiie Emperors Isaac ond Alexius,
he mmie himself master of the throne. The Crusaders inmie-
diately returned, ajjain laid sieije to Constantinople, which they
look by as.sault ; and after haviriR slain the usurper, they elected
a new Emperor in the person of Baldwin, Earl of Flonders, and
one of the nohic Crusaders. *' This event transferred the Greek
Empire to the Latins (1204.) It was followed by a union of
the two churches, which, however, was neither general nor per-
manent, as it terminated with the reign of the Latins at Con
stantinople.

Meantime, the Crusaders divided among themselves the pro-
vinces of the Greek Empire,— both those which they had al-
ready .seized, and those which yet remained to be conquered.
The greater part of the maritime coasts of the Adriatic, Greece,
the Archipelago, the Proponlis, and the Euxine; the islands of
the Cyclades and Snorades, and those of the Adriatic, were ad-
judged to the republic of Venice. Boniface, Marquis of Monl-
lerrat, and commander-in-chief of the crusade, obtained for his
share the island of Crete or Candia, and all that belonged to the
Empire beyond the Bosphorus. He afterwards sold Candia to
the Venetians, who took possession of it in 1207. The other
chiefs of the Crusaders had also their portions of the dismem-
bered provinces. None of them, however, were to possess the
countries that were assigned them, except under the title of vas-
sals to the Empire, and by acknowledging the sovereignty of

Baldwin. u r. i

In the midst of this general overthrow, several of the Greek
princes attempted to preserve the feeble remains of their Em-

fire. Theodore Lascari.s, son-in-law of the Emperor Alexius
II., resolved on the conquest of the Greek provinces in Asia.
He had made himself master of Bithynia, Lydia, part of the
coasts of the Archipelago, and Phrygia, and was crowned Em-
peror at Nice in 1206. About the same period, Alexius and
David Commenus, grandsons of the Emperor Andronicus I.,
having taken shelter in Pontus, laid there the foundation of a
new Empire, which had for its capital the city of Trebizond.

At length Michael Angelus Commenus took possession of
Durazzo, which he erected into a considerable state, extending
from Durazzo to the Gulf of Lepanto, and comprehending Epi

IM l«

PRRinn IV. A, D. 1074 — 1300.

1<8

the city, ex*
E, in conjunc*

ople, when u
U!i, i^urniiined
G.^ek.'i ; and
and Alexin!*,
iMudf rs iinine*
c, which they
r, they elected
Flanders, and
•red the Greek
by a union of
jiiernl nor per*
Liatins at Con j

iclves the pro*
h they had al*
be conquered.
Iriatic, Greece, '
the islands of
•iatic, were ad-
rtjuis of Monl-
stained for his
)elongcd to the
sold Candia to
7. The other
»f the dismem-
to possess the
the title of vas-
sovereignty of

il of the Greek
s of their Em-
nperor Alexius
vinces in Asia,
lia, part of the

crowned Eni-
1, Alexius and
Andronicus I.,
bundation of a
f Trebizond.

possession of
tiite, extending
rehending Epi

run. Acarnnmn, Etnlin, and part of Thrssaly. All these princei
a^iHUined the riuik iirxi ili^'tiity of Einporors. The most power*
ful ainoiif,' ilitMii wii-i Theodore Luscari". Ruiperor of Nice. Hit
KUccesMors foiiiid liltlft ditlicully in resuminj;, by doprees, their
■uperiority over the Latin Emperors. They reduced thorn ■(
last ti the niiijrle city of Confttanlinonle, of which Michael Pa*
leolojrus, Emperor of Nice, und^rtooli the siege ; and, with the
BssiMluiiic of the Genoese vessels, he made himself rnnslor of it
in 1261. Baldtvin II., the last of the Latin Emperors, fled to
the Isle of Nogropont, whence he passed into Italy ; and his
conqueror became the ancestor of all the Emperors of the House
of Paleologus, that reigned at Constantinople until the taking oi
that capital by the Turks in 1453.

It now remains for us to cast a glance at the revolutions of
Asia, closely connected with those of Europe, on account of the
crusades and expeditions to the Holy Land. The Empire of
the Seljukian Turks had been divided into several dynasties or
distinct sovereignties ; the Atabeks of Irak, and a number of
petty princes, reigned in Syria and the neighbouring countries ;
the Fatimitc Caliphs of Egypt were masters of Jerusalem, and
part of Palestine, when the mania of the crusades converted that
region of the East into a theatre of carnage and devastation.
For two hundred years Asia was seen contending with Europe,
and the Christian nations making the most extraordinary efTorts
to maintain the conquest of Palestine and the neighbouring
states, against the arms of ihe Mahometans.

At length there arose among the Mussulmans a man of su>
perior genius, who rendered himself formidable by his warlike
prowess to the Christians in the East, and deprived them of the
fruits of their numerous victories. This conqueror was the
famous Saladin, or Salaheddin, the son of Ayoub or Job, and
founder of the dynasty of the Ayoubites. The Atabek Noured*
din, son of Amadoddin Zenghi, had sent him into Egypt (1168)
to assist the Fatimite Caliph against the Franks, or Crusaders
of the West. While there, he was declared vizier and general
of the armies of the Caliph ; and so well had he established his
power in that country, that he eflfected the substitution of the
Abassidian Caliphs in place of the Fatimites ; and ultimately
caused himself to be proclaimed Sultan on the death of Noured*
din (1171,) under whom he had served in the quality of lieu-
tenant. Having vanquished Egypt, he next subdued the
dominions of Noureddin in Syria ; and, after having extended
his victories over this province, as well as Mesopotamia, Assyria,
Armenia and Arabia, he turned bis arms against the Christians
in Palestine, whom he had hemmed in. as it were, with hi."

^ iA

fl.'^i.

- ''-• 'tSUi^...

164

CHAPTER ▼.

conquests. These princes, separated into petty sovereignties,
divided by mutual jealousy, and a prey to the distractions of
anorchy, soon yielded to the valour of the heroic Mussulman.
The battle which they fought (1187,) at Hittin, near Tiberias
(or Tabaria,) was decisive. The Christians sustained a total
defeat ; and Guy of Lusignan, a weak prince without talents,
and the last King of Jerusalem, fell into the hands of the con-
queror. All the cities of Palestine opened their gates to Saladin,
either voluntarily or at the point of the sword. Jerusalem sur-
rendered after a siege of fourteen days. This defeat rekindled
the zeal of the Christians in the West ; and the most powerful
sovereigns in Europe were again seen conducting innumerable
armies to the relief of the Holy Land. But the talents and
bravery of Saladin rendered ali their efforts unavailing ; and it
was not till after a murderous siege for three years, that they
succeeded in retaking the city of Ptolemais or Acre ; and thus
arresting for a short space the total extermination of the Chris-
tians in the East.

On the death of Saladin, whose heroism is extolled by Chris
tian as well as Mahometan authors, his Empire was divided
among his sons. Several princes, his dependants, and known
by the name of Ayoubites, reigned afterwards in Egypt, Syria,
Armenia, and Yemen or Arabia the Happy. These princes

S[uarrelling and making war with each othei, their territories
iell, in the thirteenth century, under the dominion of the Mamc
lukes. These Mamelukes (an Arabic word which signifies a
slave) were Turkish or Tartar captives, whom the Syrian mer-
chants purchased from the Moguls, and sent into Egypt under
the reign of the Sultan Saleh, of the Ayoubite dynasty. That
prince bought them in vast numbers, and ordered them to be
trained to the exercise of arms in one of the maritime cities of
Egypt.'^ From this school he raised them to the highest offices
uf trust in the state, and even selected from them his own body
guard. In a very short time, these slaves became so numerous
and so powerful, that, in the end, they seized the government,
after having assassinated the Sultan Touran Shah, (son and
succesior of Saleh,) who had in vain attempted to disentangle
himself of their chains, and recover the authority which ihsy
had usurped over him. This revolution (1250) happened in the
very presence of St. Louis, who, having been taken prisoner at
the battle of Mansoura, had just concluded a truce of ten years
with the Sultan of Egypt. The Mameluke Ibeg, who was at
first appointed regent or Atabek, was soon after proclaimed Sul«
Ian of Egypt.
The dominion of the Mamelukes existed in Egypt for the

L*;

k^^^u^amam

overeignties,
istractions of
Mussulman,
ear Tiberias
tained a total
thout talents,
s of the con-
es to Saladin,
erusalem sur-
feat rekindled
nost powerful
r innumerable
e talents and
ailing ; and it
ars, that they
ere ; and thus
1 of the Chris-
oiled by Chris
e was divided
;s, and known
Egypt, Syria,
These princes
heir territories
1 of the Mamc
ich signifies a
le Syrian mer-
) Egypt under
ynasty. That
ed them to be
iritime cities oi
highest offices
n his own body
le so numerous
ie government.
Shah, (son and
1 to disentangle
rity which thsy
lappcned in the
ken prisoner at
ice of ten years
eg, who was at
proclaimed Sul-

Egypt for the j

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1463.

160

space of 263 years. Their numbers being constantly recruited
by Turkish or Circassian slaves, they disposed of the throne of
Egypt at their pleasure ; and the crown generally fell to the
share of the most audacious of the gang, provided he was n na-
tive of Turkistan. These Mamelukes had even the courage to
attack the Moguls, and took from them the kingdoms of Damas-
cus and Aleppo in Syria (1210,) of which the latter had dispos-
sessed the Ayoubite princes. All the princes of this latter
dynasty, with those of Syria and Yemen, adopted the expedient
of submitting to the Mamelukes ; who, in order to become mas-
ters of all Syria, had only to reduce the cities and territories
which the Franks, or Christians of the West, still retained in
their possession. They first attacked thepiincipality of Antioch,
which they soon conquered (1268.) They next turned their
anna against the county of Tripoli, the capital of which they
took by assault (1289.) The city of Ptolemais shared the same
fate ; after an obstinate and murderous siege, it was carried
sword in hand. Tyre surrendered on capitulation ; and the
Franks were entir-i expelled from Syria and the East in the
year 1291.

CHAPTER VI.

PERIOD V.

From Pope Boniface VIII. to the taking of ComtantinopU by
the Turks, a. d. 1300—1463.
At the commencement of this period, the Pontifical power
WHS in the zenith of its grandeur. The Popes proudly assumed
the title of Masters of the World ; and asserted that their author-
ity, by divine right, comprehended every other, both spiritual
and temporal. Boniface VIII. went even farther than his pre-
decessors had done. According to him, the secular power was
nothing else than a mere emanation from the ecclesiastical ;
and this double power of the Pope was even made an article of
belief, and founded on the sacred scriptures. " God has in-
trusted," said he, " to St. Peter and his successors, two swords,
the one spiritual, and the other temporal. The former can be
exercised by the church alone ; the other, by the secular princes,
for the service of the churuh, and in submission to the will of
the Pope. This latter, that is, the temporal sword, is subordi-
nate to the former ; and all temporal authority necessarily de-
pends on the spiritual, which judges it ; whereas God alone can
judge the spiritual power. Finally," added he. " it is absolutely

$i^-J

; « , 1

166

CHAPTER VI.

,! )-'■

indispensable to salvation, that every human creature be subject
to the Pope of Rome." This same Pope published the first
Jubilee (1300,) with plenary indulgence for all who should visit
the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome. An immense
crowd from all parts of Christendom flocked to this capital of
the Western woild, and filled its treasury with their pious
contributions.'

The spiritual power of the Popes, and their jurisdiction over
the clergy, was moreover increased every day, by means of
dispemations and appeals, which had multiplied exceedingly
since the introduction of the Decretals of Gregory IX. They
disposed, in the most absolute manner, of the dignities and be-
nefices of the Chuich, and imposed taxes at their pleasure oa
all the clergy in Christendom. Collectors or treasurers were
established by them, who superintended the levying of the
dues they had found means to exact, under a multitude of dif-
ferent denominations. These collectors were empowered, by
means of ecclesiastical censure, to proceed against those who
should refuse to pay. They were supported by the authority
of the legates who resided in the ecclesiastical provinces, and
seized with avidity every occasion to extend the usurpation of
the Pope. Moreover, in support of these legates appeared a
vast number of Religious and Mendicant Orders, founded in
those ages of ignorance ; besides legions of monks dispersed
over all th? states of Christendom.

Nothing is more remarkable than the influence of the papal
authority over the temporalities of princes. We find them in-
terfering in all their quarrels — addressing their commands to
all without distinction — enjoining some to lay down their
arms — receiving others under their protection — rescinding and
annulling their acts and proceedings — summoning them to their
court, and acting as arbiters in their disputes. The history of
the Popes is the history of all Europe. They assumed the
privilege of legitimating the sons of kings, in order to qualify
them for the succession ; they forbade sovereigns to tax the
clergy ; they claimed a feudal superiority over all, and exer-
cised it over a very great number ; they conferred royalty on
those who were ambitious of power ; they released subjects
from their oath of allegiance ; dethroned sovereigns at their
pleasure ; and laid kingdoms and empires under interdict, to
avenge their own quarrels. We find tl m disposing of the
states of excommunicated princes, as well as those of heretics
and their followers ; of islands and kingdoms newly discovered j
of the property of infidels or schismatics ; and even of Catholics
who refused to bow before the insolent tyranny of the Popes.*

PERIOD V. A. D, 1300 — 1453.

167

e be subject
ed the first
should vibit
in immense
lis capital of
their pious

diction over
>y means of
exceedingly
IX. They
ties and be-
pleasure on
surers were
ying of the
tude of dif-
powered, by
It those who
le authority
jvinces, and
surpation of
appeared a
founded in
ka dispersed

of the papal
ind them in-
jmmands to

down their
cinding and
hem to their
le history of
assumed the
T to qualify
is to tax the
11, and exer-
l royalty on
sed subjects
gns at their

interdict, to
osing of the
! of heretics
' discovered;

of Catholics

the Popes.*

Thus, it is obvious that the Court of Rome, at the time of which
we speak, enjoyed a conspicuous preponderance in the political
system of Europe. But in the ordinary course of human af-
fairs, this power, vast and formidable as it was, began, from the
fourteenth century, gradually to diminish. The mightiest em-
pires have their appointed term ; and the highest stage of their
elevation is often the first step of their decline. Kings, be-
coming more and more enlightened as to their true interests,
learned to support the rights and the majesty of their crowns,
against the encroachments of the Popes. Those who were
vassals and tributaries of the Holy See, gradually shook off the
yoke ; even the clergy, who groaned under the weight of this
spiritual despotism, joined the secular princes in repressing
these abuses, and restraining within proper bounds apower which
was making incessant encroachments on their just prerogatives.

Among the causes which operated the downfall of the Pon-
tifical power, may be ranked the excess of the power itself,
and the abuses of it made by the Popes. By issuing too often
their anathemas and interdicts, they rendered them useless and
contemptible ; and by their haughty treatment of the greatest
princes, they learned to become inflexible and boundless in their
own pretensions. An instance of this may be recorded, in the
famous dispute which arose between Boniface VIII. and Philip
the Fair, King of France. Not content with constituting him-
self judge between the King and his vassal the Count of Flan-
ders, that PontifT maintained, that the King could not exact
subsidie.'i from the clergy without nis permission ; and that the
right of Regale (or the revenues of vacant bishoprics) which
the Crown enjoyed, was an abuse which shoull not be tolera-
ted.' He treated as a piece of insanity the prohibition of
Philip against exporting either gold or silver out of the king-
dom ; and sent an order to all the prelates in France to repair
in person to Rome on the 1st of November, there to advite
measures for correcting the King and reforming the State. He
declared, formally, that the King was subject to the Pope, as
Acll in temporal as spiritual matters ; and that it was a fool-
ish persuasion to suppose that the King had no superior on
oarth, and was not dependent on the supreme Pontiff.

Philip ordered the papal bull which contained these ex-
travagant assertions to be burnt , he forbade his ecclesiastics to
leave the realm ; and having twice assembled the States-Ge-
neral of the kingdom (1302 — 3,) he adopted, with their advice
and approbation, measures against these dangerous pretensions
of the Court of Rome. The Three Estates, who appeared for
the first time in these Assemblies, declared themselves strongly

). !■

M*!

m M it

.a^

les

CHAPTER VT.

in favour of the King, and the independence of the crown. In
consequence, the excommunication which the Pope had threat-
ened against the King proved ineffectual. Philip made his
appeal to a future assembly, to which the three orders of the
State adhered.*

The Emperor Louis of Bavaria, a prince of superior merit,
having incurred tha censures of the Church for defending the
rights and prerogatives of his crown, could not obtai*^ absolu-
tion, notwithstanding the most humiliating condescensions, and
the offer which he made to resign the Imperial dignity, and
surrender himself, his crown and his property, to the discretion
of the Pope. He was loaded with curses and anathemas, after
a series of various proceedings which had been instituted
against him. The bull of Pope Clement VI., on this occasion,
far surpassed all these of his predecessors. " May God (said
he, in speaking of the Emperor) smite him with madness and
disease; may heiiven crush him with its thunderbolts; may
the wrath of Ood, and that of St. Peter and St. Paul, fall on
him in this world and the next ; may the whole universe com-
bine against him ; may the earth swallow him up alive; may
his name perish in the first generation, and his memory disap-
pear from the earth ; may all the elements conspire against
him ; may his children, delivered into the hands of his enemies,
be massacred before the eyes of their father." The indignity
of such proceedings roused the attention of the princes and
states of the Empire ; and on the representation of the Electo-
ral College, they thought proper to check these boundless pre-
tensions of the Popes, by a decree which was passed at the Diet
of Frankfort in 1338. This decree, regarded as the fundamen-
tal law of the Empire, declared, in substance, that the Imperial
dignity held only of God ; that he whom the Electors had
chosen emperor by a plurality of suffrages, was, in virtue of that
election, a true king and emperor, and needed heither confirma-
tion nor coronation from the hands of the Pope ; and that all
persons who should maintain the contrary, should be treated as
guilty of high treason.

Among other events prejudicial to the authority of the Popes,
one was, the translation of the Pontifical See from Rome to
Avignon. Clement V., archbishop of Bordeaux, h- ving been
advanced to the papacy (1306,) instead of repairing to Rome,
had his coronation celebrated at Lyons ; and thence he trans-
ferred his residence to Avignon (1309,) out of complaisance
to Philip the Fair, to whom he owed his elevation. The suc-
cessors of this Pope continued their court at Avignon until
lfW7. when Gregory XT nsrain mmoved the. See to Rome.

„ij > i« i yii^ ii i

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

169

e crown. In
)e had threat-
lip made his
orders of the

periur merit,
lefending the
tbtai*^ absolu-
censions, and
dignity, and
the discretion
ithemas, after
en instituted
this occasion,
ly God (said
madness and
;rbolts ; may
Paul, fall on
iniverse com-
p alive; may
lemory disap-
ispire against
f his enemies,
rhe indignity
> princes and
if the Elect©-
loundless pre-
led at the Diet
he fimdamen-
l the Imperial
Electors had
1 virtue of that
:her confirma-
; and that all
[ be treated as

of the Popes,
rom Rome to
, h- ving been
ing to Rome,
nee he trans-
complaisance
n. The suc-
^vignon until
k>e to Rome.

This sojourn at Avignon tended to weaken the nuthority of the
Popes, and diminish the respect and veneration which till then
had been paid them. The prevailing opinion beyond the Alps,
admitted no other city than that of Rome for the true capital of
St. Peter ; und they despised i Popes of Avignon as aliens,
who, besides, were there surrcunded with powerful princes, to
whose caprice they were often obliged to yield, and to make
condescensions prejudicial to the authority they had usurped*
This circumstance, joined to the lapse of nearly seventy years,
caused the residence at Avignon to be stigmatized by the Italians^
under the name of the Babylonish Captivity. It occasioned also
the diminution of the papal authority at Rome, and in the Ec
clesiastical States. The Italians, no longer restrained by the
presence of the sovereign pontiffs, yielded but a reluctant obe-
dience to their representatives ; while the remembrance of their
ancient republicanism induced them to lend a docile ear to those
who preached up insurrection and revolt. The historian Rienzi
informs us, that one Nicolas Qabrini, a man of great eloquence,
and whose audacity w is equal to his ambition, took advantage
of these republican propensities of the Romans, to constitute
himself master of the city, under the popular title of Tribune
(1347.) He projected the scheme of a new government, called
the Good Estate, which he pretended would obtain the accepta-
tion of all the princes and republics of Italy ; but the despotic
power which he exercised over the citizens, whose liberator and
lawgiver he affected to be, soon reduced him to his original in-
significance ; and the city of Rome again assumed its ancient
form of government. Meantime the Popes did not recover their
former authority ; most of the cities and states of the Ecclesi-
astical dominions, afler having been long a prey to faction and
discord, fell under the power of the nobles, who made an easy
conquest of them ; scarcely leaving to the Pope a vestige of the
sovereign authority. It required all the insidious policy of
Alexander VI., and the vigilant activity of Julius II., to repair
the injury which the territorial influence of the Pontiffs had suf-
fered from their residence at Avignon.

Another circumstance that contributed to humble the papal
authority, was the schisms which rent the Church, towards the
end of the fourteenth, and beginning of the fifteenth century.
Gregory XL, who had abandoned Avignon for Rome, being dead
(1378,) the Italians elected a Pope of their own nation, who
took the name of Urban VI., and fixed his residence at Rome.
The French cardinals, on the other hand, declared in favour of
the Cardinal Robert of Geneva, known by the name of Clement
VII., who fixed his capital at Avignon. The whole of Chris-

.p:*

i70

CHArTBR VI.

tendom was divided between these two Popes; and this grand
schism continaed from 1078 till 1-117. At Rome, Urban VI.
was succeeded by Boniface IX., Innocent VII., and Gregory
XII. ; while Clement VII. had Benedict XIII. for his successor
at Avignon. In order to terminate this schism, every expedient
was tried to induce the rival Popes to give in their abdication ;
but both having refused, several of the Cardinals withdrew their
allegiance, and assembled a council at Pisa (1409,) where the
two refractory Popes were deposed, and the pontifical dignity
conferred on Alexander V., who was afterwards succeeded by
John XXIII. This election of the council only tended to in-
crease the schism. Instead of two Popes, there arose three ;
and if his Pisan Holiness gained partisans, the Popes of Rome
and Avignon contrived also to maintain each a number uf sup-
porters. All these Popes, wishing to maintain their rank and
dignity with that splendour and magnificence which their pre-
decessors had displayed before the schism, set themselves to
invent new means of oppressing the people ; hence the immense
number of abuses and exactions, which subverted the discipline
of the church, and roused the exasperated nations against the
court of Rome.

A new General Council was convoked at Constance (1414)
by order of the Emperor Sigismund ; and it was there that the
maxim of the unity and permanency of Councils was established,
as well as of its superiority over the Pope, in all that pertains
to matters of faith, to the extirpation of schism, and the refor-
mation of the church both in its supreme head, and in its subor-
dinate members. The grand schism was here terminated by
the abdication of the Roman pontiff, and the deposition of those
of Pisa and Avignon. It was this famous council that gave
their decision against John Huss, the Reformer of Bohemia,
and a follower of the celebrated Wickliff His doctrines were
condemned, and he himself burnt at Constance; as was Jerome
of Prague, one of his most zealous partisans. As to the mea-
sures that were taken at Constance for effecting the reformation
of the Church, they practically ended in nothing. As their
main object was to reform the court of Rome, by suppressing
or limiting the new prerogatives which the Popes for . - veral
centuries had usurped, and which referred, among other tilings,
to the subject of benefices and pecuniary exactions, all those
who had an interest in maintaining these abuses, instantly set
themselves to defeat the proposed amendments, and elude re-
dress. The Council had formed a committee, composed of the
deputies of different nations, to advise means for accomplishing
this reformation, which the whole world so ardently desired.

nd this grand
le, Urban VI.
and Gregory
his successor
'ery expedient
ir abdication ;
withdrew their
19,) where the
tifical dignity
succeeded by
tended to in-
arose three;
opes of Rome
Jinbei of sup-
heir rank and
ich their pre-
themselves to
J the immense
the discipline
IS against the

stance (1414)
there that the
IS established,

that pertains
and the refor-
i in its subor-
terminated by
sition of those
cil that gave

of Bohemia,
loctrines were
s was Jerome
Ls to the inea-
le reformation
)g. As their
^ suppressing
es for . ' veral
: other tilings,
ons, all those
1, instantly set
and elude re-
(n posed of the
iccomplishing
;ntly desired.

iStji^f

I H • ■\

PERIOD V. A. D. 13( —1453.

171

This committee, known by the name of the College of Seformers.
had already made considerable progress in their task, when a
question was started, Whether it was proper to proceed to any
reformation without the consent and co-operation of the visible
Head of the Church ? It was carried in the negative, through the
intrigues of the cardinals ; and, before they could accomplish
this salutary work of reformation, the election of a new Pope
had taken place (1417.) The choice fell on Otho de Colonna,
who assumed the name of Martin V., and in conformity with a
previous decision of the council, he then laid before them a
scheme of reform. This proceeding having been disapproved
l-y the different nations of Europe, the whole matter was
remitted to the next council ; and in the meanwhile, they did
nothing more than pass some concordats, with the new Pope,
as to what steps they should take until the decision of the ap-
proaching council.

This new council, which was assembled at Basle (1431) by
Martin V., resumed the suspended work of reformation. The
former decrees, that a General Council was superior to the Pope,
and could not be dissolved or prorogued except by their own
free consent, were here renewed ; and the greater part of the
reserves, reversions, annats, and other exactions of the Popes,
were regularly abolished. The liberty of appeals to the Court
of Rome, was also circumscribed. Eugenius IV., successor to
Martin V., alarmed at the destruction thus aimed at his author-
ity, twice proclaimed the dissolution of the Council. The first
dissolution, which occurred on the 17th of December 1431, was
revoked, at the urgent application of the Emperor Sigismund,
by a bull of the same Pope, issued on the 15th of December
1433. In this he acknowledged the validity of the Council,
and annulled all that he had formerly done to invalidate its au-
thority. The second dissolution took place on the 1st of Octo-
ber 1437. Eugenius then transferred the Council to Ferrara,
and from Ferrara to Florence, on pretext of his negotiatiniT a
union with the Greek church. This conduct of the Pope oc-
casioned a new schism. The prelates who remained at B islf;,
instituted a procedure against him ; they first suspended him
for contumacy, and finally deposed him. Amadeus VIII., Ex-
duke of Saxony, was elected in his place, under the name ol
Felix v., and recognised by all the partisans of the Council as
the legitimate Pope. This latter schism lasted ten years. Fe-
lix V. at length gave in his demission ; and the Council, which
had withdrawn from Basle to Lausanne, terminated its sittings
in 1449. *

The French nation adopted several of the decrees of the

f';'. 1

flf

.•3^

172

CIIAPTBR VI.

Council o( Basle in the famous Pragmatic Sanction, which
Charles VII. caused to be drawn up at Bourges (1438;) nnd
whose stipulations served as the basis of what is called the
Liberties of the Galilean Church. The example of the French
was speedily followed by the Germans, who acceded to these
decrees, at the Diet of Mayence in 1439. The Court of Rome
at length regained a part of those honourable and lucrative rights
of which the Council of Basle had deprived them, by the con-
cordats which the Germans concluded (1448) with Nicholas V..
and the French (1516) with Leo X. The Councils of which
we have now spoken, tended materially to limit the exorbitant
power of the Roman pontiffs, by giving sanction to the princi-
ple which established the superiority of General Councils over
the Popes. This maxim put a check to the enterprising ambi-
tion of the Court of Rome ; and kings availed themselves of it
to recover by degrees the prerogatives of their crowns. The
Popes, moreover, sensible of their weakness, and of the need
they had for the protection of the sovereigns, learned to treat
them with more attention and respect.

At length the new light which began to dawn about the four-
teenth century, hastened on the progress of this revolution, by
gradually dissipating the darkness of superstition into which
the nations of Europe were almost universally sunk. In the
midst of the distractions which agitated the Empire and the
Church, and during the papal schism, several learned and in-
trepid men made their appearance, who, while investigating the
origin and abuse of the new power of the Popes, had the courage
to revive the doctrine of the ancient canons, to enlighten the
minds of sovereigns as to their true rights, and to examine with
care into the justs limits of the sacerdotal authority. Among
the first of these reformers was John of Paris, a famous Do-
minican, who undertook the defence of Philip the Fair, King of
France, against Pope Boniface VIII. His example was follow-
ed bv the celebrated poet Dante Alighieri, who took the part of
the Emperor Louis of Bavaria against the Court of Rome. Mar-
silo de Padua, John de Janduno, William Ockam, Leopold de
Babenberg, &c. marched in the track of the Italian poet ; and
among the crowd of writers that signalized themselves after the
grand schism, three French authors particularly distinguished
themselves, Peter d'Ailly, Nicholas de Clemange, and John
Gerson, whose writings met with general applause. Most of
these literary productions, however, were characterized by bad
taste The philosophy of Aristotle, studied in Arabic transla-
tions, and disfigured by scholastic subtleties, reigned in all the
Bchools, imposed its fetters on the human mind, and nearly ex-

-1\

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

irj

anction, which
IS (1438;) nnd
at is called the
I of the French
ceded to thetiQ
Court of Rome
lucrative rightR
m, by the con-
th Nicholas V.,
incils of which
t the exorbitant
n to the princi-
I Councils over
erprising ambi-
hemselves of it
crowns. The
id of the need
earned to treat

about the four-
3 revolution, by
ion into which

sunk. In the
Bmpire and the
learned and in-
nvestigatingthe
lad the courage
) enlighten the
examine with
lority. Among
, a famous Do-
le Fair, King of
iple was follow-
took the part of
of Rome. Mar-
im, Leopold de
alian poet; and
tselves after the
ly distinguished
mge, and John
ause. Most of
icterized by bad

Arabic transla-
igned in all the
, and nearly ex-

tinguished every vestige of useful knowledge. The belles lei-
ires were quite neglected, nnd as yet had shed no lustre on the
sciences. Soinetiinss, however, genius broke with a transient
splendour through the darkness of this moral horizon ; and
several extraordinary persons, despising the vain cavils of the
schools, began to study truth in the volume of nature, and to
copy after the beautiful models of antiquity. Such was Roger
Bacon (1294,) an Englishman, and a Franciscan friar, who has
become so famous by his discoveries in chemistry and mechani-
cal philosophy. Dante (1321,) nurtured in the spirit of the an-
cients, was the first that undertook to refine the Italian language
into poetry, and gave it the polish of elegance and grace in
his compositions. He was succeeded by two other celebrated
authors, Petrarca nnd Boccacio (1374-5.)

The period of which we speak gave birth to several new in-
ventions, which proved useful auxiliaries to men of genius, and
tended to accelerate the progress of knowledge, letters, and arts.
Among the principal of these may be mentioned the invention
of writing paper, oil-painting, printing, gunpowder, and the ma-
riner's compass; to the effects of which, Europe, in a great
measure, owes its civilization, and the new order of things
which appeared in the fifteenth century.

Before the invention of paper from linen, parchment was gen-
erally used in Europe for the transcribing of books, or the draw-
ing out of publi", deeds. Cotton paper, which the Arabs brought
from the East, was but a poor remedy for the scarceness and
dearth of parchment. It would appear, that the invention of
paper from linen, and the custom of using it in Europe, is not
of older date than the thirteenth century. The famous M(mt-
faucon acknowledges, that, in spite of all his researches, both in
France and Italy, he could never find any manuscript or char-
ter, written on our ordinary paper, older than the year 1270,
the time when St. Louis died. The truth is, we know neither
the exact date of the invention of this sort of paper, nor the name
of the inventor.^ It is certain, however, that the manufacture
of paper from cotton must have introduced that of paper from
linen ; and the only question is, to determine at what time the
use of linen became so common in Europe, as to lead us to sup-
pose they might convert its rags into paper. The cultivation
of hernp and flax being originally peculiar to the northern coun-
tries, it is probable that the first attempts at making paper of
linen rags were made in Germany, and the countries abounding
in flax and hemp, rather than in the southern provinces of Eu-
rope. The most ancient manufactory of paper from linen to be
met with in Germany, was established at Nuremberg (1390.)

<i' jii

lit"

!«ife

l?4

CHAPTRR Vt.

Thp invention of oil-painting is (rencrnlly ascribed to the two
brothers Van-Eick, the younger of whom, known by the name
of John of Bruges, had gained considerable celebrity about the
end of the fourleenlh century. There ia, however, reason to
believe that this invention is of an older date. There are two
nulhiirs who have carried it hack to the eleventh century, viz,
Theophilus and Eraclius, whose works in manuscript have bi n
preserved in the library at WolfTenbiittcl, and in that of Trinity
College, Cambridge j and who speak of this art as already known
in their limes. According to them, all sorts of colours could be
mixed up with linseed oil, and employed in painting; but they
agree as to the inconvenience of applying this kind of painting
to images or portraits, on account of the difficulty in drying
colours mixed with oil. Admitting the credibility of these two
authors, and the high antiquity of their works, it would appear,
nevertheless, that they made no great use of this invention ;
whether it may be that painters preferred to retain their for-
mer mode, or that the difficulty of drying oil colours had dis-
couraged them. It is, however, too true, that the finest inven-
tions have often languished in unmerited neglect, long before
men had learned to reap any adequate advantage from them.
Were the Vun-Eicks the first that practised this style of paint-
ing ? Or did John of Bruges, the younger of the brothers, and
who carried it to the highest degree of perfection, invent some
mixture or composition for increasing the exsiccative qualities
of linseed or nut oil ; especially with regard to colours not easily
dried ? It belongs to connoisseurs and artists to examine these
questions, as well as to decide whether the pictures, alleged to
have been painted in oil-colours before the time of the Van-
Eicks, were executed with any degree of perfection in that style
of painting." This invention totally changed the system and
the principles of the art of painting. It gave birth to rules as
to light and shade, and procured modern painters one advantage
over the ancients, that of rendering their works much more
durable.

One of the most important inventions is that of printing;
which was borrowed, it would appear, from the art of engraving
on wood ; while this latter owes its origin to the moulding or
imprinting of common cards, which seems to have suggested the
first idea of it. The use of cards was borrowed from Italy ;
though we find this custom established in Germany soon after
the commencement of the fourteenth century, where card-
makers formed a distinct trade, about four and twenty years be
fore the invention of printing. It is probable that the Germans
were the first who designed models and proper casts for the im-

:iU--_.

bed to tlie two
n by the name
brity nbout the
;ver, reason to
There are two
1 century, viz.
;ript hnve be n
that of Trinity
already known
)loiirH could be
ting; but they
ind of painting
ulty in drying
[y of these two
would appear,
his invention ;
etain their for-
)lours had din*
le finest inven-
!Ct, long before
je from them,
style of paint*
: brothers, and
n, invent some
:ative qualities
lours not easily
examine these
res, alleged to
ne of the Van-
on in that style
le system and
rth to rules as
one advantage
cs much more

It of printing;
t of engraving
e moulding or

suggested the
d from Italy;
any soon after

where card-
renty years be-
t the Germans
Bsts lor the im-

PBRIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

prfision of cards.' The desire of gain, iiiggosted to these
card-makers the idea of engraving on wood, uflrr the ,snmc
manner, all kinds of figures or scenes from Surnd Hislorji
accompanied with legends, or iiarrativi's, intended to explain
their meaning. It was from these le>;end.s, printed in single
folios, and published also in the form of books, or rather of im-
pressions from engravings on solid blocks of wood, that the art
of typography took its origin.** This wonderful art, to which
Europe owes its astonishing progress in the sciences, consists
of two distinct inventions, — that of the tnoveahle tijprs, and that
of the font. The former belongs to John Gutenberg, a gentle-
man of Muyence, who made his first attempt in moveable types
at Strasburg, in 1436 ; the other, which is generally attributed
to Peter Schoefferof Gernsheim, look place ut Muyence in 1452.
Gutenberg resided at Strasburg, from 1424 till 1445. Being a
noble senator of thot city, he married a lady of rank ; and during
the twenty years of his residence there, lie cultivated all sort*
of occult arts, especially that of printing. It was chiefly in re-
ference to this latter art that he contracted an acquaintance with
several of his wealthy fellow-citizens, one of whom, named
Andrew Drizehn, having died, his heirs brought an action against
Gutenberg on account of some claims which they laid to his
charge. The magistrate ordered an inquiry to be instituted, the
original copy of which, drawn up in 1439, was discovered by
Schoepflin (1745) in the archives of the city, and is still preserv-
ed in the public library at Strasburg. According to this au-
thentic document, it appears, that from the year 1436, there
existed a printing-press at Strasburg, under the direction of
Gutenburg, And in the house of Andrew Drizehn, his associate ;
that this press consisted of forms, that were fastened or locked
by means of screws ; and that the types, either cut or engraved,
which were enclosed within these forms, were moveable."

Gutenburg, after his return to Mayence, still continued his
typographical labours. While there, he contracted an acquaint-
ance with a new associate in the exercise of his art (1445) — the
famous John Faust, a citizen of Mayence. This second alliance
continued only five years ; and it is within this interval, as is
generally supposed, that the invention of the font, or casting of
types, should be placed ; as well as that of the die and the mould
or matrix, by the help of which the art of typography was brought
nearly to its present state of perfection.'" Some disputes, which
had arisen between these new associates, having dissolved their
partnership, Faust obtained the press of Gutenberg, with all its
printing apparatus, which had fallen to him by sequestration.
Gutenberg, however fitted up another press, and continued to

p.*l

176

CHAPTER VI.

print lill the tiiur of hi;* di-at)), in 1 168. Not one of the boolu
which ixKUL-d from thi- presi of thir* celebrated man, either
at Sliasbiirj^ or Mayt'iife, bears ihu nnmc of the invrntor, or the
(iutti of the irnprefiMivi ; whi:'li< t it wuh tlint Uuu'nborg made a
B'-'ori't of hi.s invention, r ihui iIm.' prejudices m the cast to which
he beh)nf{ed prevenlt. i i . Irotn ! ou>ting of his discovery. "
Faust, on the contrary, ii'i mon^r » i>»- himself master of Quten-
berg's pre^8t■.x, than ho he.un) ■ rrnibi itius of notoriety, o.i ex-
ample ol which lie gave by pref, iig liis name and that of I'etei
Schu'lli-r lo the famous INaller, which ihoy published in 1467.

The arts of which \vu liiive just spoker., in all probability,
suggested the idea of engraving un cooper, of which we can
discover ccniiin traces towards the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury. The hxiiijur of this invention is generally ascribed to a
goldsmith of I'lorence, named Maso Finiguerra, who is supposed
lo liave made this discovery about the year 1460, while engrav-
ing figures on silver }:<lMle, Daccio lialdiiii, another Florentine,
Andrew Montogna, a.-id Mnrli Antony Haimondi, both Italians,
folldvwd in the ^tep^ of 1 Mii(;uerra, and brought this art to a
high li' gree of perfecti(ii. There if, however, some cause lo
doubt whether Finiguerra was exactly the first lo whom the
idea of this sort of engraving occurred ; since, in diflerenl cabi-
nets in Europe, we (inil specimens of engraving on copper, of a
date earlier than what hi»s been assigned to Finiguerra. If,
however, the glory of this invention belongs in reality to the
Italians, it iij quite certain that the art of engraving on copper,
as well as on wood, was cultivated from its infancy, and brought
to perfection, in Germany. The first native engravers in that
country who are known, cither by their names or their signa-
tures, in the fifteenth ceniury, were Martin Schccn, a painter and
engraver at Colmar, where he died in 14S6 ; the two Israels
Von Mechein, father and son, who resided at Bockholt, in West-
phalia; and Michael Wolgemuth of Nuremberg, the master of
the celebrated Albert Durer, who made so conspicuous a figure
about the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth
century.

Next to the invention of printing, there is no other that so
much arrests our attention as that of gunpowder, which, I;,' in-
troducing artillery, and u new method of fortifying, attacking,
and defending cities, wrought a complete change in the whole
art and tactics of war. This invention comprises seireral disco-
veries which it is necessary to distinguish from each other. 1
The discovery of nitre, the principal ingredient in gunpowder,
and the jause of its detonation. 2. The mixture of nitre with
sulphur and charcoal, which, properly speaking, forms the in-

) of the bookn
I man, either
rivcnlor, or the
■iiberg made a
D cusito which
s discovery. "
sier of Gut«n-
loriely, (i,i ex-
d ihnl of I'elet
shed in 1457.
ill probability,
which we can
? fifteenth cen-
yr ascribed to a
ho is supposed
while engrav-
lier Florentine,
, both Italians,
It this art to a
some cause to
to whom the
difll'rent cubi-
lut copper, of a
iniguerra. If,
1 reality to the
ring on copper,
•y, and brought
fruvers in that
or their signa-
[i, a painter and
le two Israels
kholt, ill West-
, the master of
icuous a figure
f the sixteenth

9 other that so
', which, l.y in-
ing, attacking,
[e in the whole
s setreral disco-
each other. 1
in gunpowder,
re of nitre with
, , forms the in-

f'frf

..^ /•'

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

li^ 1 2.8

2.5

1.8

11-25 IIIIII.4 IIIIII.6

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, NY. 14580

(716) 872-4503

4
^

1<>

^'^.U

CIHM/ICMK

Microfiche

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques

i," h'i

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300 — 1463.

177

vcntion of gunpowder. 3. The application of powder to fire-
works. 4. Its employment as an agent or propelling power
for throwing stones, bullets, or other heavy and combustible
bodies. 5. Its employment in springing mines, and destroying
fortifications.

All these discoveries belong to difTerent epochs. The know
ledge of saltpetre or nitre, and its explosive properties, called
detonation, is very ancient. Most probably it was brought to
us from the East (India or China,) where saltpetre is found in a
natural state of preparation. It is not less probable that the
nations of the East were acquainted with the composition of
gunpowder before the Europeans, and that it was the Arabs who
first introduced the use of it into Europe. The celebrated Roger
Bacon, an English monk or friar of the thirteenth century, was
acquainted with the composition of powder, and its employment
in fiife-works and public festivities ; and according to all appear-
ances, he ob^xied this information from the Arabic authors,
who excelledm their skill of the chemical sciences. The em-
ployment of gunpowder in Europe as an agent for throwing balls
and stones, is ascertained to have been about the commencement
of the fourteenth century ; and it was the Arabs who first avail-
ed themselves of its advantages in their wars against the Span-
iards. From Spain the use of gunpowder and artillery passed
to France, and thence it gradually extended over the other
States of Europe. As to the application of powder to mines,
and the destruction of fortified works, it does not appear to
have been in practice before the end of the fifleenth cen-
lury.'' The introduction of bombs and mortars seems to have
been of an earlier date (1467.) The invention of these in
Europe, is attributed to Sigismund Randolph Malatssta, Prince
of Rimini ; but in France they were not in use till about the
reign of Louis XIII. Muskets and matchlocks began to be in-
troduced early in the fifteenth century. They were without
spring-locks till 1517, when for the first time muskets and pis-
tols with spring-locks were manufactured at Nuremberg.

Several circumstances tended to check the pr(^ress of fire-
arms and the improvement of artillery. Custom made most
people prefer their ancient engines of war ; the construction of
cannons was but imperfect ;" the manufacture of gunpowder
bad ; and there was a very general aversion to the newly in-
vented arms, as contrary to humanity, and calculated to extin-
guish military bravery. Above all, the knights, whose science
was rendered completely useless by the introduction of fire-
arms, set themselves with all their might to oppose this invention.
From what we hove just said it is obvious, that the common

i.\' I

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178

CHAPTER VL

tradition which ascribes the invention of gunpowder to a certain
monk, named Berthold Schwartz, merits no credit whatever.
This tradition is founded on mere hearsay ; and no writers
agree as to the name, the country, or the circumstances of this
pretended inventor ; nor as to the time and place when he made
this extraordinary discovery. Lastly, the mariner's compass,
80 essential to the art of navigation, was likewise the produc-
tion of the barbarous ages to which we now refer. The ancients
were aware of the property of the magnet to attract iron ; but
its direction towards the pole, and the manner of communica-
ting its magnetic virtues to iron and steel, were unknown even
to all those nations of antiquity who were renowned for their
navigation and commerce. This discovery is usually attributed
to a citizen of Amalfi, named Flavio Gioia, who is said to have
lived about the beginning of the fourteenth century. This tra
dition, ancient though it be, cannot be admitted, because we
have incontestable evidence that, before this period, the polarity
of the loadstone and the magnetic needle were known in Europe ;
and that, from the commencement of the thirteenth century, the
Proven9al mariners made use of the compass in navigation. "
It must be confessed, however, that we can neither point out
the original author of this valuable discovery, nor the true time
when it was made. All that can be well ascertained is, that
the mariner's compass was rectified by degrees ; and that the
English had no small share in these corrections. It is to this
polar virtue or quality of the loadstone, and the magnetic
needle, that we owe the astonishing progress of commerce and
navigation in Europe, from the end of the fifteenth century.
These were already very considerable at the time of which we
speak, although navigation was as yet confined to the Mediter-
ranean, the Baltic, and the shores of the Indian ocean.

The cities of Italy, the Hanseatic towns, and those of the
Low Countries, engrossed, at that time, the principal commerce
of Europe. The Venetians, the Genoese, and the Florentines,
were masters of the Levant. The Genoese had more espe-
cially the command of the Black Sea, while the Venetians laid
claim exclusively to the commerce of India and the East, which
they carried on through the ports of Egypt and Syria. This
rivalry in trade embroiled these two republics in frequent dis-
putes, and involved them in long and sanguinary wars. The
result turned in favour of the Venetians, who found means to
maintain the empire of the Mediterranean against the Genoese.
The manufactories of silk, after having passed from Grtece
into Sicily, and from Sicily into the other parts of Italy, »t
length fixed their principal residence at Venice. This city

■i ~

PEBIOD V. A. D, 1300 1463.

179

T to a certain
it whatever,
d no writers
inces of this
hen he made
r's compass,
I the produc-
The ancients
ict iron ; but
communira-
iknown even
led for their
Uy attributed

said to have
jr. This tra

because we
1, the polarity
'n in Europe;
1 century, the
navigation. "
her point out
the true time
lined is, that
and that the

It is to this
the magnetic
ommerce and
»nth century,
of which we
the Mediter-
:ean.

those of the
pal commerce
e Florentines,
d more espe-
/^enetians laid
e East, which
Syria. This

frequent dis-
y wars. The
ind means to
t the Genoese.

from Grtece
ts of Italy, at
e. This city

came at length to furnish the greater part of Europe with silk
mercery, and the productions of Arabia and India. The Italian
merchants, commonly known by the name of Lombards, ex-
tended their traffic through all the different states of Europe.
Favoured by the privileges and immunities which various
sovereigns had granted them, they soon became masters of the
commerce and the current money of every country where they
established themselves ; and, in all probability, they were the
first that adopted the practice of Letters or Bills of Exchange,
of which we may discover traces towards the middle of the
thirteenth century.

The Hanseatic League, which the maritime cities on the
Baltic had formed in the thirteenth century, for the protection
of their commerce against pirates and brigands, gained very
considerable accessions of strength in the following century,
and even became a very formidable maritime power. A great
number of the commercial cities of the Empire, from the Scheld
and the isles of Zealand, to the confines of Livonia, entered
successively into this League ; and many towns in the interior,
in order to enjoy their protection, solkited the favour of being
admitted under its flag. The first public act of a general con-
federation among these cities, was drawn up at the assembly of
their deputies, held at Cologne, in 1364. The whole of the
allied towns were subdivided into quarters or circles; the most
ancient of which were the Venedian quarter, containing the
southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic ; the Westphalian,
for the towns on the western side ; and the Saxon, compre-
hending the inland and intermediate towns. A fourth circle or
iuarter was afterwards added, that of the cities of Prussia and
livonia. The boundaries of these different circles and their
capital towns varied from time to time. The general assern-
blies of the League were held regularly every three years, in
the city of Lubec, which was considered as the capital of the
whole League ; while each of the three or four circles had also
their particular or provincial assemblies.

The most flourishing epoch of this League was about the
end of the fourteenth and the early part of the fifteenth cen-
tury. At that time, the deputies of more than fourscore cities
appeared at its assemblies ; and even some towns who had not
the privilege of sending deputies were, nevertheless, regarded
as allies of the League. Having the command of the whole
commerce of the Baltic, their cities exercised at their pleasure
the rights of peace and war, and even of forming alliances.
They equipped numerous and powerful fleets, and oflfered bat-
tle to the sovereigns of the North, whenever they presumed to

h fu

t' It. ^

' 1 ^

' hi'

* 1

190 ■■ ' CIIAITKR VI.

interfere with their monopoly, or to restrict the privileges and
exemptions which they had the weakness to grant them. The
productions of the North, such as hemp, flax, timber, potash,
tar, corn, hides, furs, and copper, with the produce of the
large and small fisheries on the coast of Schonen, Norway,
Lapland, and Iceland,'* formed the staple of the Hanseatic
commerce. They exchanged these commodities, in the west-
ern parts of Europe, for wines, fruits, drugs, and all sorts of
cloths, which they carried back to the North in return. Their
principal factories and warehouses, were at Bruges for Flan-
ders, at London for England, at Novogorod for Russia, and at
Bergen for Norway. The merchandise of Italy and the East
was imported into "Flanders, in Genoese or Venetian bottoms,
which, at that time, carried on most of the commerce of the
Levant and the Mediterranean.

Extensive as the trade of the Hanseatic cities was, it proved
neither solid nor durable. As they were themselves deficient
in the articles of raw materials and large manufactories, and
entirely dependent on foreign traflSc, the industry of other na-
tions, especially of thos<^ skilled in the arts, had a ruinous efTect
on their commerce ; and, in course of time, turned the current
of merchandise into other channels. Besides, the want of
union among these cities, their factions and intestine divisions,
and their distance from each other, prevented them from ever
forming a territorial or colonial power, or obtaining possession
of the Sound, which alone was able to secure them the exclu-
sive commerce of the Baltic. The sovereigns of Europe, per-
ceiving at length more clearly their true interests, and sensible
of the'mistake they had committed in surrendering the whole
commerce of their kingdom to the Hanseatic merchants, used
every means to limit and abridge their privileges more arid
more. This, in consequence, involved the confederate towns in
several destructive wars with the Kings of the North, which
exhausted their finances, and induced one city after another to
abandon the League. The English and the Dutch, encouraged
by the Danish Kings, took advantage of this favourable oppor-
tunity to send their vessels to the Baltic ; and bv degrees they
appropriated to themselves the greater pnrt of the trade that
had been engros-ed by the Hanseatic Union. But what is of
more importance to r'^mark, is, that this League, as well as that
of Lombardy, having been formed in consequence of the state
of anarchy into which the Empire had fallen in the middle
ages, th: natural result was, that it should lose its credit and its
influence in proportion as the feudal anarchy declined, and when
the administration of the Empire had assumed a new form, and

ivileges and
ihem. The
iber, potash,
iuce of the
en, Norway,
e Hansealic
in the west-
i all sorts of
urn. Their
Bs for Flan-
ussia, and at
ind the East
tian bottoms,
lerce of the

kras, it proved
Ives deficient
actories, and
of other na-
ruinous effect
i the current
the want of
ine divisions.
Bin from ever
ig possession
m the exclu-
Europe, per-
I and sensible
ng the whole
rchants, used
res more and
srate towns in
North, which
er another to
h, encouraged
urable oppor-
degrees they
the trade that
ut what is of
IS well as that
e of the state
in the middle
credit and its
led, and when
lew form, und

PBHIOD V. A. D. 1300—1463.

181

the landed nobility, emboldened by the accessions which the
sovonteenth century had made to their power, had found means
to compel their dependent cities to return to their allegiance,
after having made repeated efforts to throw off their authority,
encnurnged as they were by the protection which the League
held out to them.

In thia manner did the famous Hanseatic League, so formi-
dable at the time of which we now speak, decline by degrees
during the course of the seventeenth century, and in the early
part of the eighteenth ; and during the Thirty Years War it be-
came entirely extinct. The cities of Lubec, Hamburg and Bre-
men, abandoned by all their confederates, entered into a new
union for the interests of their commerce, and preserved the an-
cient custom of treating in common with foreign powers, under
the name of the Hanse Towns.

The cities of Italy and the North were not the only one; <hat
made commerce their pursuit in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and other towns in the
Netherlands, contributed greatly to the prosperity of trade by
their manufactures of cloth, cotton, camlets, and tapestry ; arti-
cles with which they supplied the greater part of Europe. The
English exchanged their raw wool with the Belgians, for the
finished manufactures of their looms, while the Italians furnish-
ed them with the productions of the Levant, and the silk stuffs
of India. Nothing is more surprising than the immense popu-
lation of these cities, whose wealth and affluence raised their
rulers to the rank of the most powerful princes in Europe. The
city of Bruges was, as it were, the centre and principal reposi-
tory for the merchandise of the North and the South. Such an
entrepot was necessary, at a time when navigation was yet in
its infancy. For this purpose, Flanders and Brabant were ex-
tremely proper, as these provinces had an easy communication
with all the principal nations of the Continent ; and as the great
number of their manufactories, together with the abundance of
fish which their rivers aflbrded, naturally attracted a vast con-
course of foreign traders. This superiority, as the commercial
capital of the Low Countries, Bruges retained till nearly the
end of the fifteenth century, when it lost this preponderance,
which was then transferred to the city of Antwerp.

The intestine dissensions with which the cities of Flanders
ind Brabant were agitated, the restraints which were incessant-
ly imposed on their commerce, and the frequent wars which
desolated the Low Countries, induced, from time to time, a great
many Flemish operatives about the fourteenth century, and the
reign of Edward III., to take refuge in England, where they

111

■4

^f*.,; ,

hW,

my*

1 h

n I

188

CHAPTKR VI.

estublished their cloth manufactories under the immediate pro-
tection of the crown. One circumstance which more particu-
larly contributed to the prosperity of the Dutch commerce, wan
the new method of salting and barrelling herring, which was
discovered about the end of the fourteenth century (or 1400) by
a man named William Beukelszoon, a native of Biervliet, near
Sluys. The new passage of the Texel, which the sea opened
up about the same time, proved a most favourable accident for
the city of Amsterdam, which immediately monopolized the
principal commerce of the fisheries, and began to be frequented
by the Hanseatic traders. », t

We now return to the history of Germany. The Imperial
throne, always elective, was conferred, in 1308, on the princes
of the House of Luxembourg, who occupied it till 1438, when
the House of Hapsburg obtained the Imperial dignity. It was
under the reign of these two dynasties that the government of
the Empire, which till then had been vacillating and uncertain,
began to assume a constitutional form, and a new and settled
code of laws. That which was published at the Diet of Frank-
fort in 1338, secured the independence of the Empire against
the Popes. It was preceded by a League, ratified at Rens^ by
the Electors, and known by the name of the General Union of
the Electors. The Golden Bull, drawn up by the Emperor
Charles IV. (1356,) in the Diets of Nuremberg and Metz, fixed
the order and the form of electing the Emperors, and the cere-
monial of their coronation. It ordained that this election should
be determined by a majority of the suflTrages of the seven Elec-
tors — and that the vote of the Elector, who might happen to be
chosen, should also be included. Moreover, to prevent those
electoral divisions, which had more than once excited factions
and civil wars in the Empire, this law fixed irrevocably the
right of suffrage in the Principalities, then entitled Electorates,
It forbade any division of these principalities, and for this end
it introduced the principal of birthright, and the order of suc-
cession, called agnate, or direct male line from the same father.
Finally, the Golden Bull determined more particularly the rights
and privileges of the electors, and confirmed to the electors of
the Palatinate and Saxony the viceroyalty or government of the
Empire during any interregnum.

The efforts which the Council of Basle made for the reforma-
tion of the church excited the attention of the Estates of the em-
pire. In a diet held at Mayence (1439,) they adopted several
decrees of that council, by a solemn act drawn up in presence
of the ambassadors of the council, and of the kings of France,
Castille, Arragon, and Portugal. Among these adopted decrees.

- ^-.J^' r,....^ r^^

J'U'i'-'

ediate pro-
re particu>
merce, wan
which was
or 1400) by
rvliet, near
sea opened
ccident for
tpolized the
! frequented

he Imperial

the princes

1438, when

ity. It was

'ernment of

i uncertain,

and settled

et of Frank-

ipire against

at Rensd by

•al Union of

le Emperor

Metz, fixed

md the cere-

!ction should

seven Elec-

bappen to be

revent those

ited factions

evocably the

Electorates.

for this end

rder of suc-

same father.

ly the rights

I electors of

nment of the

the reforma-
98 of the em-
[>ted several
in presence
I of France,
Ited decrees.

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300 — 1453.

183

which were not afterwards altered, we observe those which
establiiih the superiority of councils above the Popes, which
prohibited those appeals called omisso medio, or immediate, and
enjoined the Pope to settle all appeals referred to his court, by
commi:isioncr.j appointed by him upon the spot. Two concor-
dats, concluded at Rome and Vienna (1447-48,) between the
Papul court and the German nation, confirmed these stipulations.
The latter of these concordats, however, restored to the Pope
several of the reserves, of which the Pragmatic Sanction had
deprived him. He was also allowed to retain the right of con-
firming the prelates, and enjoying the annats and the alternate
months.

The ties which united the numerous states of the German
empire having been relaxed by the introduction of hereditary
feudalism, and the downfall of Imperial authority, the conse-
quence was, that those states, which were more remote from
uie seat of authority, by degrees asserted their independence, or
were reduced to subjection by their more powerful neighbours,
[t was in this manner that several provinces of the ancient
kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, passed in succession to the
crown of France. Philip the Fair, taking advantage of the dis-
putes which had arisen between the Archbishop and the citizens
of Lyons, obliged the Archbishop, Peter de Savoy, to surrender
to him by treaty (1312) the sovereignty of the'City and its de-
pendencies. The same kingdom acquired the province of Dau-
fihiny, in virtue of the grant which the last Dauphin, Humbert
I., made (1349) of his estates to Charles, grandson of Philip de
Valois, and first Dauphin of France. Provence was likewise
added (1481) to the dominions of that crown, by the testament
of Charles, last Count of Provence, of the House of Anjou.
As to the city of Avignon, it was sold (1348) by Joan I., Queen
of Naples, and Countess of Provence, to Pope Clement VI.,
who at the same time obtained letters-patent from the Emperor
Charles IV., renouncing the claims of the Empire to 'he sove-
reignty of that city, as well as to all lands belonging to - '■: Ohurch.
A most important revolution happened about t,.<£ time in
Switzerland. That country, formerly dependent upon i \e king-
dom of Burgundy, had become an immediate province of the
Empire (1218,) on the ex'jnction of the Dukes of Zahringen,
who had governed it unuer the title of Regents. About the
beginning of the fourteenth century, Switzerland was divided
into a number of petty states, both secular and ecclesiastical.
Among these we find the Bishop of Basle, the Abb^ of St. Gall,
the Counts of Hapsburg, Toggenbur^, Savoy, Gruyeres, Neuf-
chatel, Werdenberg, Bucheck, Sec. The towns of Zurich, So>

^■^

,1 i-

. \

•*

i:\

iill' i..

184

OHAPTBH VI.

Icure, Basle, Berne, and others, had the rank of free and imperial
cities. A part of the inhabitants of Uri, Schweitz, and Under-
walden, who held immediately of the Empire, were governed
by their own magistrates, under the title of Cantons. They
were placed by the Emperor under the jurisdiction of governors,
who exercisedf, in his name and that of the Empire, the power
of the sword in all these cantons. Such was the constitution
of Switzerland, when the Emperor Albert I. of Austria, son of
Rodolph of Hapsburg, conceived the project of extending his
dominion in that country, where he already had considerable
possessions, in his capacity of Count of Hapsburg, Kyburg,
Baden, and Lentzburg. Being desirous of forming Switzerland
into a principality, in favour of one of his sons, he made, in
course of time, several new ac<u:isitions of territory, with the
view of enlarging his estates. Ihe Abbeys of Murbach, Ein-
siedel, Interlaken, and Disentis, and the Canons of Lucerne, sold
him their rights and possessions in Claris, Lucerne, Schweitz,
and Underwalden. He next directed his policy against the
three immediate cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ;
and endeavoured to make them acknowledge the superiority ol
Austria, by tolerating the oppressions which the governors exer-
cised, whom he had appointed to rule them in the name of the
Empire. It was under these circumstances that three intrepid in-
dividuals, Werner deStauflrach,a native of the canton of Schweitz,
Waller Furst, of Uri, and Arnold de Melchihal of Underwalden,
took the resolution of delivering their country from the tyranny of
a foreign yoke." The conspiracy which they formed for this pur-
pose, broke out on the 1st of January 1308. The governors,
surprised in their castles by the conspirators, were banished the
country, and their castles razed to the ground. The deputies
of the three cantons assembled, and entered into a league of ten
years for the maintenance of their liberties and their privileges;
reserving however to the Empire its proper rights, as also those
claimed by the superiors, whether lay or ecclesiastical. Thus
a conspiracy, which was originally turned only against Austria,
terminated in withdrawing Switzerland from the sovereignty of
the German empire. The victory which the confederates gained
over the Austrians at Morgarten, on the borders of the canton of
Schweitz, encouraged them to renew their league at Brunnen
(1316;) and to renderit perpetual. Asitwasconfirroedbyoath,the
confederates, from this circumstance, got the name o( EidgenosMen,
which means, bou7id by oath. This league became henceforth
the basis of the federal system of the Swiss, who were not long
in strengthening their cause by the accession of other cantons.
The city of Lucerne, having shaken off the yoke of Hapsburg,

1 I

%IM>

hs.

|d imperia)
(1 Under-
governed
They
■overnora,
^he power
institution
ria, son of
mding his
nsidcrable
, Kyburg,
witzerland
! made, in
r, with the
bach, £in-
cerne, sold
Schweitz,
gainst the
erwalden ;
)€riority of
mors exer-
^me of the
intrepid in-
r Schweitz,
derwaldon,
tyranny of
or this pur-
governors,
nished the
e deputies
igue of ten
privileges;
also those
al. Thus
St Austria,
jreignty of
tes gained
! canton of
. Brunnen
ly oath, the
dgenosten,
lenceforth
e not long
r cantons,
[iapsburg,

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1463.

ISA

joined the Lcu'^mic of Brunnen in 1333, Zurich in 1361, Glarin
and Zug 135.'], and Berne in \365. The^se formed the ei^Ui
ancient cantons.

The Kuuutiiin of the confederates, however, could not fail to
be very embarrnssincf, so long as the Austrians roiuined the vast
possessions which they hud in the very centre of Switzerland.
The proscription which the Einperor Sipismund and the Coun-
cil of Constance, issued against Frederic, Duke of Austria (1415,)
as an adherent and protector of John XXIII., at length fur*
nished the Swiss with a favourable occasion for depriving the
house of Austria of their possessions. The Bernese were the
first to set the example ; they took from the Austrian Dukes,
the towns of ZofHngen, Aran, and Bruck, with the counties of
Hapsburg and Lentzburg, and the greater partofAargovia. Ky«
burg fell into the hands of the Zurichers ; the Lucernese made
themselves masters of Surs<::e ; and the free bniliA'icks, with the
county of Baden, the towns of Mellingen and Bremgarten, were
subdued by the combined forces of the ancient cantons, who.
since then, have possessed them in common.

In the kingdom of Lorraine a new power rose about this time
(1363,) that of the Dukes of Burgundy. Philip the Hardy,
younger son of John the Good, King of France, having been
created Duke of Burgundy by the King his father, married
Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis III., last Count of
Flanders. By this marriage he obtained Flanders, Artois,
Franche-Comtd, Nevers, Rethel, Malines, and Antwerp, and
transmitted these estates to his son John the Fearless, and his
grandson Philip the Good. This latter prince increased them
still more by several new acquisitions. Th<i Count of Namur
sold him his whole patrimony, (1428.) He inherited from hit
cousin Philip of Burgundy, the dutchies of Brabant and Lim*
bourg, (1430.) Another cousin, the famous Jaqueline de Ba-
varia, made over to him by treaty (1433) the counties of Hainault,
Holland, Zealand, and Friesland. Finally, he acquired also the
dutchy of Luxembourg and the county of Chiny, by a compact
which he made with the Princess Elizabeth (1443,) niece of the
Emperor Sigismund. These different accessions were so much
the more important, as the Low Countries, especially Flanders
and Brabant, were at that time the seat of the most flourishing
manufactories, and the principal mart of European commerce.
Hence it happened, that the Dukes of Burgundy began to com-
pete with the first powers in Europe, and even to rival the Kings
of France.

Among the principal reigning families of the Empire, several
revolutions took place. The ancient Slavonic dynasty of the

i.(<

I't'^iJ.,

i'i(:W,

1 1 i\

rnit

i„>i fpfi -'iirpnk

Its

CHAPTKR VI.

Dukes and Kingfs of Bohemia became extinct with Wenceulaiw
v., who wos assasuinated in 1300. The Emperor Henry VII.,
of the house of Luxembourg, seized this opportunity of trani-
ferrin^ to his own family the i<ingdom of Bohemia, in which h«
invested his son John (1309,) who had married the Princes*
Elizabeth, sister to the last King of Bohemia. John, having
made considerable acquisitions in Bohemia, was induced to cede,
by treaty with Poland, the sovereignty of that province. The
Emperor Charles IV., son of John, incorporated Silesia, as also
Lusatia, with the kingdom of Bohemia, by the Pragmaticis
which he published in 1355 and 1370. The war with the Huh*
sites broke out on the death of the Emperor Wenceslaus, Kinnf
of Bohemia (1418;) because the followers of John Huss, and
Jerome of Prague, had refused to acknowledge, as successor of
that prince, the Empetor Sigismund, his brother and heir, whom
they blamed for the martyrdom of their leaders. This war,
one of the most sanguinary which the spirit of intolerance and
fanaticism ever excited, continued for a long series of years,
John de Trocziiova, surnamed Ziska, general-in-chief of the
Hussites, defeated several times those numerous armies of cru-
saders, which were sent against him into Bohemia ; and it wax
not till long after the death of that extraordinary man, that Si*
gismund succeeded in allaying the tempest, and re-establishing
his own authority in that kingdom.

The house of Wiltelabach, which possessed at the same time
the Palatinate and Bavaria, was divided into two principal
branches, viz. that of the Electors Palatine, and the Dukes of
Bavaria. By the treaty of division, which was entered into at
Pavia (1329,) they agreed on a reciprocal succession of the two
branches, in case the one or the other should happen to fail of
heirs-male. The direct line of the Electors of Saxony of the
Ascanian House happening to become extinct, the Emperor
Sigismund, without poying any regard to the claims of the
younger branches of Saxony, conferred that Electorate (1423,)
as a vacant fief of the Empire, on Frederic the Warlike, Mar-
grave of Misnia, who had rendered him signal assistance in the
war against the Hussites. This Prince had two grandsons,
Ernest and Albert, from whom are descended the two principal
branches, which still divide the House of Saxony.

The Ascanian dynasty did not lose merely the Electorate of
Saxony, as we have just stated ; it was also deprived, in the
preceding century, of the Electorate of Brandenburg. Albert,
surnamed the Bear, a scion of this house, had transmitted this
latter Electorate, of which he was the founder, to his descend*
ants in direct line, the male heirs of which failed about the be-

irt>iiVT*iiiiriWT<afmi,tli.'i*nr>-il>Lr[iwiiiieaiiS>w<Wi

i tm MiiiWteMMWiWii*

■*►-

I "

Henry VII.,
lily of trans-

in which he
jhe Princes*
ohn, having

iced to cede,

ince. The
ei>ia, an altio

Pragmaiicis
'ith the Huh-
eslaus, Kinjr

Huss, and
successor of

heir, whom

This war,

lernnce and

es of years,

chief of the

mies of cm-

and it wax

n, that Si-

■establishing

e same time
vo principal
e Dukes of
ered into at
n of the two
«n to fail of
xony of the
e Emperor
aims of the
rate (1423,)
irliice, Mar-
ance in the
grandsons,
'0 principal

lectorate of
ived, in the
g. Albert,
mitted this
is descend-
Dul the be-

PBRIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

187

Enning of the fourteenth century. The Emperor Louis of
nvaria then bestowed it on his eldest son Louis (1324,) to lh«
exclusion of the coilatornl branches of Suxony and Anhalt. The
Bavarian Princes, howeve;, did not long preserve this Electo«
rate; they surrendered ii (1373) to the Emperor Charles IV.,
whose son Sigismund cided it to Frederic, Burgrave of Nu-
remberg, of the House of Hohenzollern, who had advanced him
considerable sums to defray his expeditions into Hungary. Thia
Prince was solemnly invested with the electoral dignity by x\w
Emperor, at the Council of Constance (1417,) and became the
ancestor of all the Electors ond Margraves of Brandenburg, as
well as of the Kings of Prussia.

The numerous republics which had sprung up in Italy, in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were torn to pieces by contend-
ing factions, and a prey to mutual and incessant hostilities.
What contributed to augment the trouble and confusion in thai
unhappy country was, that, during a long series of years, no
Emperor had repaired thither in person, or made the smallest
attempt to restore the Imperial authority in those states. The
feeble efforts of Henry VII., Louis of Bavaria, and Charles IV.,
only served to prove, that in Italy the royal prerogative was
without vigour or effect. Anarchy every where prevailed ; and
that spirit of liberty and republicanism which had once anima-
ted the Italians gradually disappeared. Disgusted at length
with privileges which had become so fatal to them, some of these
republics adopted the plan of choosing new masters ; while
others were subjected, against their inclinations, by the more
powerful of the nobles. The Marquises of Este seized Modena
and Reggio (1330.) and obtained the ducal dignity (1452) from
the Emperor Frederic III. Mantua fell to the house of Gonza-
ga, who possessed that sovereignty first under the title of Mar-
graves, and afterwards under that of Pu^es, which was confer-
red on them by the Emperor Charles /. n 1530. But the
greater part of these Italian republics fell *j the share of the
Visconti of Milan. The person who founded the prosperity of
their house was Matthew Visconti, nephew of Otho Visconti,
Archbishop of Milan. Invested with the titles of Captain and
Imperial Viceroy in Lombardy, he continued to make himself
acknowledged as sovereign of Milan (1315,) and conquered in
succession all the principal towns and republics of Lombardy.
His successors followed his example : they enlarged their terri-
tories by several new conquests, till at length John Galeas, great
grandson of Matthew Visconti, obtained, from the Emperor Wen-
ceslaus (1395,) for a sum of a hundred thousand florins of gold
which he paid him, the title of Duke of Milan for himself and

||# 1

ii il ill

igg »' CHVIPTER VI.

all his descendants. The Visconti family reigned at Milan till
1447, when they were replaced by that of Sforza.

Among the republics of Italy who escaped the catastrophe of
the fourteenth century, the most conspicuous were those of
Florence, Genoa and Venice. The city of Florence, like all
the others in Tuscany, formed itself into a republic about the
end of the twelfth century. Its government underwent sequent
changes, after the introduction of a democracy about the middle
of the thirteenth century. The various factions which had agi-
tated the republic, induced the Florentines to elect a magistrate
(1292,) called Gonfdoniere de Justice, or Captain of Justice ;
invested with power to assemble the inhabitants under his stand-
ard, whenever the means for conciliation were insufficient to
snppress faction and restore peace. These internal agitations,
however, did not prevent the Florentines from enriching them-
selves by means of their commerce and manufactures. They
succeeded, in course of time, in subjecting the greater part of
the free cities of Tuscany, and especially that of Pisa, which
thev conquered in 1406. The republic of Lucca was the only
one' that maintained its independence, in spite of all the eflorts
which the Florentines made to subdue it. The republican form
of government continued in Florence till the year 1530, when
the family of the Medici usurped the sovereignty, under the
protection of the Emperor Charles V. • • •

The same rivalry which had set the Genoese to quarrel with
the Pisans, excited their jealousy against the Venetians. The
interests of these two Republics thwarted each other, both in the
Levant and the Mediterranean. This gave rise to a long and
disastrous series of wars, the last and most memorable ol which
was that of Chioggia (1376-82.) The Genoese, after a signal
victory which they obtained over the Venetians, before Pola in
the Adriatic Gulf, penetrated to the very midst of the lagoons
of Venice, and attacked the port of Chioggia. Peter Dona made
himself master of this port; he would have even surprised Ve-
nice, had he taken advantage of the first consternation of the
Venetians, who were already deliberating whether they sh^ld
abandon their city and take refuge in the isle of Candia. 1 he
tardiness of the Genoese admiral gave them time to recover
themselves. Impelled by a noble despair, they made extraordi-
nary efforts to equip a new fleet, with which they attacked the
Genoese near Chioggia. This place was retaken (24th June
1390.) and the severe check which the Genoese there received,
may be said to have decided the command of the sea in favour
of th» Venetians. But what contributed still more to the down-
fall of the Genoese, was the instability of their government, and

<i i iii m * ->r T' ■ 'f ■

at Milan till

atnstrophe of

ere those of

nee, like all

ic about the

vent frequent

it the middle

hich had agi-

a magistrate

n of Justice;

der his stand-

nsufficient to

lal agitations,

riching them-

tures. They

reater part of

■ Pisa, which

was the only

all the eflbrts

publican form

ir 1530, when

ity, under the

3 quarrel with
letians. The
er, both in the
to a long and
•able of which
after a signal
>efore Pola in
f the lagoons
er Doria made
surprised Ve-
nation of the
r they should
Candia. The
ime to recover
lade extraordi-
f attacked the
;n (24th June
;here received,
! sea in favour
e to the down-
vernment, and

1 1

PERIOD y. A. D. 1300—1453.

199

the internal commotions of the republic. Agitated by continual
divisions between the nobles and the common citizens, and in-
capable of managing their own affairs, they at length surrender-
ed themselves to the power of strangers. Volatile and incon-
stant, and equally impatient of liberty as of servitude, these
fickle republicans underwent a frequent change of masters
Twice (1396-1458) they put themselves under the proteciion of
the Kings of France. At length they diitcarded the French,
and chose for their protector either the Marquis of Montftrrat
or the Duke of Milan. Finally, from the year 1464, the city of
Genoa was constantly regarded as a dependency of the dutchy
of Milan, until 1528, when it recovered once more its ancient
state of independence.

While the Republic of Genoa was gradually declining, that
of Venice was every day acquiring new accessions of power.
The numerous establishments which they had formed in the
Adriatic Gulf and the Eastern Seas, together with the additional
vigour which they derived from the introduction of the heredi-
tary aristocracy, were highly advantageous to the progress of
their commerce and marine. The treaty which they concluded
with the Sultan of Egypt (1343,) by guaranteeing to their re-
public an entire liberty of commerce in the ports of Syria and
Egypt, as also the privilege of having consuls at Alexandria and
Damascus, put it in their power gradually to appropriate to
themselves the whole trade of India, and to maintain it against
the Genoese, who had disputed with them the commerce of the
East, as well as the command of the sea. These successes en-
couraged the Venetians to make new acquisitions ; the turbu-
lent state of Lombardy having afforded them an opportunity of
enlarging their dominions on the continent of Italy, where at
first they had possessed only the single dogeship of Venice, and
the small province of Istria. They seized on Treviso, and the
whole Trevisan March (1388,) which they took from the pow-
erful house of Carrara. In 1420 they again got possession of
Dalmatia, which they conquered from Sigismund, King of Hun-
gary. This conquest paved the way for that of Friuli, which
they took about the same time from the Patriarch of Aquileia,
an ally of the King of Hungary. At length, by a succession of
good fortune, they detached from the dutchy of Milan (1404)
the cities and territories of Vicenza, Belluno, Verona, Padua,
Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona (1454,) and thus formed a con-
siderable estate on the mainland.

Naples, during the course of this period, was go rned by a
descendant of Charles, of the first House of Anjou, and younger
brother of St. Louis. Queen Joan I., daughter of Robert, King

' t

•1(1

ili.4.

»:ii:. W

J \

ttio

CHAPTER VI.

of Naples, having no children of her own, adoptea a younger
prince of the Angevine family, Charles of Dnrazzo, whom she
destined as her successor, after having given him her niece in
marriage. This ungrateful prince, in his eagerness to possess
the crown, took arms against the Queen his benefactress, and
compelled her to solicit the aid of foreign powers. It was on this
occasion that Joan, after rescinding and annulling her former
deed of adoption, made another in favour of Louis I., younger
brother of Charles V., King of France, and founder of the second
House of Anjou. But the succours of that prince cume too late
to save the Queen from the hands of her cruel enemy. Charles
having made himself master of Naples and of the Queen's per-
son (1382,) immediately put her to death, and maintained him-
self on the throne, in spite of his adversary Louis of Anjou, who
obtained nothing more of the Queen's estates than the single
county of Provence, which he transmitted to his descendants,
together with his claim on the kingdom of Naples. Joan IL,
daughter and heiress of Charles of Durazzo, having been at-
tacked by Louis HL of Anjou, who wished to enforce the rights
of adoption which had descended to him from his grandfather
Louis I,, she implored the protection of Alphonso V., King of
Arragon, whom she adopted and declared her heir (14il ;) but
afterwards, having quarrelled with that prince, she changed her
resolution, and passed a new act of adoption (1423) in favour of
that same Louis of Anjou who had just made war against her
Ren^ of Anjou, the brother and successor of that prince, took
possession of the kingdom of Naples on the death of Joan IL
(14.35;) but he was expelled by the King of Arragon (1446,)
who had procured from Pope Eugenius IV. the investiture of
that kingdom, which he transmitted to his natural son Ferdi-
nand, descended from a particular branch of the Kings of Na-
ples. The rights of the second race of Angevine princes, were
transferred to the Kings of France, along with the county ot
Provence (1481.)

Spain, which was divided into a variety of sovereignties both
Christian and Mahometan, presented at this time a kind of sepa-
rate or distinct continent, whose interests had almost nothing in
common with the rest of Europe. The Kings of Natrarre, Cas-
tille, and Arragon, disagreeing among themselves, and occupied
with the internal affairs of their own kingdoms, had but little
leisure to attempt or accomplish any foreign enterprise. Of all
the Kings of Castille at this period, the most famous, in the
wars against the Moors, was Alphonso XI. The Mahometan
kings of Morocco and Grenada having united their forces, laid
siege to the city of Tarifia in Andalusia, where Alphonso, as-

a younger
whom she
her niece in
s to possess
actress, and
t was on this
her former
I., younger
of the second
:ume too late
my. Charles
Queen's per-
ntained him-
r Anjou, who
in the single
descendants,
Joan ir.,
ing been at-
ce the rights
i grandfather
v., King of
{14il;) but
changed her
I in favour of
against her
prince, took
of Joan II.
igon (1446,)
ivestiture of I
I son Ferdi- j
^ings of Na- j
»rinces, were
e county of

'ignties both
Eind of sepa-
t nothing in
airarre, Cas-
nd occupied
id but little
ise. Of ail
lous, in the
Mahometan
forces, laid

IphoDSO, U'

PERIOD V. A. V. 1300—1453.

1»1

sisted by the King of Portugal, ventured to attack them in the
neighbourhood of that place. He gained a complete victory over
the Moors (1340 ;) and triis was followed by the conquest of
various other cities and districts ; among others, Alcala-Real.
and Algesiras.

While the Kings of Castille were extending their conquests
in the interior of Spain, those of Arragon, hemmed in by the
Cnstillians, were obliged to look for aggrandizement abroad.
They possessed the country of Barcelona or Catalonia, in virtue
of the marriage of Count Raymond Berenger IV. with Donna
Petronilla, heiress of the kingdom of Arragon. To this they
added the county of Rousillon, and the seignory or lordship of
Monlpelier, both of which, as well as Catalonia, belonged to the
sovereignty of France. Don James I., who conquered the king-
dom of Valencia and the Balearic Isles, gave these, with Rou-
sillon and Montpelier, to Don James his younger son, and from
whom were descended the Kings of Majorca, the last of whom,
Don James III., sold Montpelier to Fraiice (1349.) Don Pedro
III., King of Arragon, and eldest son of Don James I., took
Sicily, as we have already seen, from Charles I. of Anjou.
Ferdinand II., a younger son of Don Pedro, formed a separate
branch of the kings of Sicily, on the extinction of which (1409,)
that kingdom reverted to the crown of Arnigon. Sardinia was
incorporated with the kingdom of Arragon by Don James II.,
who had conquered it from the Pisans. Finally, Alphonso V.,
King of Arragon, having deprived the Angevines of the king-
dom of Naples, established a distinct line of Neapolitan kings.
This kingdom was at length united with the monarchy of Arra-
gon by Ferdinand the Catholic.

In Portugal, the legitimate line of kings, descendants of
Henry of Burgtindy, hud failed in Don Ferdinand, son and suc-
cessor of Don Pedro III. This prince had an only daughter
named Beatrix, born in criminal intercourse with Eleanora
Tellez de Meneses, whom he had taken from her lawful hus-
band. Being desirous to make this princess his successor, he
married her, at the age of eleven, to John I., King of Castille :
securing the throne to the son who should be born of this union,
and failing hirn, to the King of Castille, his son-in-law. Fer-
dmand dying soon after this marriage, Don Juan, his natural
brother, and grand-master of the order of Aviez, knowing the
aversion of the Portuguese lor the Castillian sway, turned this
to his own advantage, by seizing the regency, of which he had
deprived the Queen-dowager. The King of Castille imme-
diately laid siege to Lisbon ; but having miscarried in this en-
terprise, the States of Portugal assembled at Coimbra, and

!' ii.i'*

(1|!

I* it

1,1 ■• .1

:i*'i

-I'M

igS i '«> ; CHAFTEB VI. .!ff» (

conferred the crown on Don Juan, known in history by the
nnine of John the Bastard. This prince, aided with troops from
England, engaged the Cnstillians and their allies the French,
at the famous battle fought on the plains of Aljulmrota {14th
August 13S5.) The Portuguese remained masters of the field,
and John the Bastard succeeded in maintaining himself on ihe
throne of Portugal. The war, however, continued several
years between the Portuguese and the Castillians, and did not
terminate till 1411. By the peace which was then concluded,
Henry III., son of John I., King of Castille, agreed never lo
urge the claiuis of Queen Beatrix, his mother-in-law, who had
no children. John the Bastard founded a new dynasty of kings,
who occupied the throne of Portugal from 1386 to 1580.

In France, the direct line of kings, descendants of Hugh
Capet, having become extinct in the sons of Philip the Fair,
the crown passed to the collateral branch of Valois (1328,)
which furnished a series of thirteen kings, during a period ol
two hundred and sixty-one years.

The rivalry between France and England, which had sprung
up during the preceding period, assumed a more hostile charac-
ter on the accession of the family of Valois. Till then, the
quarrels of the two nations had been limited to some particular
territory, or province ; but now they disputed even the succes-
sion to the throne ofFrance, which the kings of England claimed
as their right. Edward III., by his mother, Isabella of Franco,
was nephew to Charles IV., the last of the Capetian kings in a
direct line. He claimed the succession in opposition to Philip
VI., surnamed de Valois, who being cousin-german to Charles,
was one degree more remote than the King of England. The
claim of Edward was opposed by the Salic law, which excluded
females from the succession to the throne ; but, according to the
interpretation of that prince, the law admitted his right, and
must be understood as refening to females personally, who
were excluded on account of the weakness of their sex, and
not to their male descendants. Granting that his mother, Isa-
bella, could not herself aspire to the crown, he maintained that
she gave him the right of proximity, which qualified him for
the succession. The States of France, however, having de-
cided in favour of Philip, the King of England did fealty and
homage to that prince for the dutchy of Guienne ; but he laid
' no claim to the crown until 1337, when he assumed the title
! and arms of the King of France. The war which began in
1338, was renewed during several reigns, for the space of a
I hundred years, and ended with the entire expulsion of the Eng
: lish from France.

' i g i i ihS»*

story by thf
h troops from
s the French,
iharota (14tb
•s of the field,
imself on ihe
nued several
, and did not
;n concluded,
■eed never lo
law, who had
asty of kin^s,
ol5S0.
mts of Hugh
ilip the Fair,
Galois (1328.)
^ a period ol

ch had sprung
loslile charac-
Till then, the
)me particular
en the succes-
igland claimed
ilia of Franco,
tian kings in a
tion to Philip
an to Charles,
ngland. The
rhich excluded
xording to the
his right, and
•rsonally, who
their sex, and
is mother, Isa-
laintained that
ilified him foi
;r, having de-
did fealty and
e ; but he laid
umed the title
hich began in
the space of 8
ion of the Eng-

rBRioD V. A. D. 1300 — 1453.

193

Nothing could be more wretched than the situation of this
kingdom during the reign of Charles VI That prince having
follen into a slate of insanity in the flower of his age, two par-
ties, those of Burgundy and Orleans, who had disputed with
each other akut the regency, divided the Court into factions,
and kindled the flames of civil war in the four corners of the
kingdom. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, and uncle
to the king, caused Louis, Duke of Orleans, the King's own
brother, to be assassinated at Paris (1407.) He himself was
assassinated in his turn (1419) on the bridge of Montereau,
in the very presence of the Dauphin, who was afterwards king,
under the name of Charles VII. These dissensions gave the
English an opportunity for renewing the war. Henry the V.
of England gained the famous battle of Agincourt, which was
followed by the conquest of all Normandy. Isabella of Ba-
varia then abandoned the faction of Orleans, and the party of
her son the Dauphin, and joined that of Burgundy. Philip
the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and son of John the Fearless,
being determined to revenge the death of his father, which he
laid to the charge of the Dauphin, entered into a negotiation
with England, into which he contrived to draw Queen Isabella,
and the imbecile Charles the VI. By the treaty of peace con-
cluded at Troves in Champagne (1420,) it was acreed that
Catharine of France, daughter of Charles VI. and Isabella of
Bavaria, should espouse Henry V., and that, on the death of
the King, the crown should pass to Henry, and the children of
his marriage with the Princess of France ; to the exclusion of
the Dauphin, who, as an accomplice in the murder of the Duke
of Burgundy, was declared to have lost his rights to the crown,
and was banished from the kingdom. Henry V. died in the
flower of his age, and his death was followed soon after by that
of Charles VI. Henry VI., son of Henry V. and Catharine of
France, being then proclaimed King of England and France,
fixed his residence at Paris, and had for his regente his two
uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester.

Such was the preponderance of the English and Burgundian
party in Fiance at this period, that Charles VII., commonly
called the Dauphin, more than once saw himself upon the
point of being expelled the kingdom. He owed his safety en-
tirely to the appearance of the famous Joan of Arc, called the
Maid of Orleans. This extraordinary woman revived the
drooping courage of the French. She compelled the English
to raise the siege of Orleans, and brought the King to be
crowned at Rheims (1429.) But what contributed still more to
retrieve the party of Charles VII., was the reconciliation of that
*^ ' 13

ilf^ ■ ■'

f t

'h^

ill ]

ii't^

194

CHAPTER VI.

prince with the Duke of Burgundy, which took place at the
peace of Arras (1435.) The Duke having then united hi«
forces with those of the King, the Enghsh were in their tuni
expelled from France (1453.) the single city of Calais being all
that remained to them of their former conquests.

An important revolution happened in the government ol
France under the reign of Charles VII. The royal authority
gained fresh vigour by the expulsion of the English, and the
reconciliation of various parties that took place ,n consequence.
The feudal system, which till then had prevailed in 1* ranee, fell
bv degrees into disuse. Charles was ifie first king who estab-
lished a permanent militia, and taught his successors to abandon
the feudal mode of warfare. This prince also instituted Com-
panmof ordomnce (1446 ;) and, to defray the expense of their
maintenance, he ordered, of his own authority, a certain impost
to be levied, called the Tax of the Gens-d'armes. This stand-
ing army, which at first amounted only to six thousand men,
was augmented in course of time, while the roya finances
increased in proportion. By means of these establishments,
the kings obtained such an ascendancy over their vassals that
they soon found themselves in a condition to prescribe laws to
them, and thus gradually to abolish the feudal system. The
most powerful of the nobles could make little resistance against
a sovereign who was always armed ; while the kings, imposing
taxes at their pleasure, by degrees dispensed with the necessity
of assembling the states-general. The same prince secured the
liberties of the Galilean church against the encroachments ol
the Court of Rome, by solemnly adopting several of the decrees
of the Council of Basle, which he caused to be passed in the
National Council held at Bourges, and published under the title
of ihe Pragmatic Sanction {1^^.) . r.i. t>i „

In England, two branches of the reignmg family of the Plan-
tagenets, those of Lancaster and York, contested for a long
ti^e the right to the crown. Henry IV., the first king of the
House of Lancaster, was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of
Lancaster, and grandson of Edward III. King of England He
usurped the crown from Richard II., whom he deposed by act
of Parliament (1399.) But instead of enforcing the rights
which he inherited from his father and grandfather, he rested
his claims entirely upon those which he alleged had devolved
to him in right of his mother, Blanch of Lancaster, great grand-
daughter of Edward, surnamed Hunchback, Eari of Lancaster.
This prince, according to a popular tradition, was the eldest son
of Henry III., who, it was said, had been excluded from the
throne by hi. younger brother Edward I., on account of his de

ft
ll

L
F

11
a

•ll. [I'HnifW'iiiiliiU'ii'i

lace at thp
united hi«
their tum

lis bein^ nil

ernment of

1 authority

ish, and the

onsequence.

France, fell

who estab-

s to abandon

tituted Com-

;nse of their

rtain impost

This stand-

)usand men,

yal finances

ablishments,

vassals that

:ribe laws to

(Tstem. The

lance against

igs, imposing

the necessity

e secured the

)achments of

if the decrees

lassed in the

inder the title

f of the Plan-
d for a long
I king of the
unt, Duke of
Ingland. He
eposed by act
g the rights
ler, he rested
had devolved
■, great grand-
of Lancaster,
the eldest son
ded from the
unt of his de

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

formlty. This tradition proved useful to Henry IV. in excluding
the rights of the House of Clarence, who preceded him in the
order of succession. This latter fiimily was descended from
Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and elder brother of John of Gaunt.
Philippine, daughter of Lionel, was married to Edward Morti-
mer, by whom she had a son, Roger, whom the Parliament, by
an act passed in 1386, declared presumptive heir to the crown.
Ann Mortimer, the daughter of Roger, married Richard, Duke of
York, son of Edward Langley, who was the younger brother
of John of Gaunt, and thus transferred the right of Lionel to
the Royal House of York.

The Princes of the House of Lancaster are known in Eng-
lish history by the name of the Red Rose, while those of York
were designated by that of the White Rose. The former of
these Houses occupied the throne for a period of sixty-three
years, during the reigns of Henry IV., V., VI. It was under
the feeble reign of Henry VI. that the House of York began to
advance their right to the crown, and that the civil war broke
out between the two Roses. Richard, Duke of York, and heir
to the claims of Lionel and Mortimer, was the first to raise the
standard in this war of competition (1452,) which continued
more than thirty years, and was one of the most cruel and san-
guinary recorded in history. Twelve pitched battles were
fought between the two Roses, eighty princes of the blood pe-
rished in the contest, and England, during the whole time, pre-
sented a tragical spectacle of horror and carnage. Edward IV.,
son of Richard, Duke of York, and grandson of Ann Mortimer,
ascended the throne (1461,) which he had stained with the blood
of Henry IV., and of several other Princes of the House of
Lancaster.

In Scotland, the male line of the ancient kings having become
extinct in Alexander III., a crowd of claimants appeared on the
field, who disputed with each other the succession of the throne.
The chief of these competitors were the two Scottish families
of Baliol and Bruce, both descended by the mother's side from
the Royal Family. Four princes of these contending families
reigned in Scotland until the year 1371, when the crown passed
from the House of Bruce to that of Stuart. Robert II., son ot
Walter Stuart and Marjory Bruce, succeeded his uncle David
II., and in his family the throne remained until the Union, when
Scotland was united to England about the beginning of the
seventeenth century. Under the government of the Ftuarts,
the royal authority acquired fresh energy after being long re-
strained and circumscribed by a turbulent nobility. Towards
the middle of the fifteenth century, James 1., a very accomplished

: '4f

<»■

! T

196

CtlAPTRR VI.

;

prince, pave the first blow to the feudal system and the exorb*- ,
lanl power of the grandees. He deprived them of several of j
the crown-lands which they had usurped, and confiscated the ]
properly of some of the ino^t audacious whom he had con- j
dcmnecl to execution. James II. followed the example of his
father. Ho strengthened the royal authority, by humbling the
powerful family of Douglas, as well as by the wise laws which
he prevailed with his Parliament to adopt.

The three kingdmns of the North, after having been long
agitated by internal dissensions, 'vere at length united >nio a
single monarchy by Margaret, called the Semiramis of the North.
This princess was daughter of Valdemar HI., the last Kinc of
Denmark of the ancient reigning family, and widow of Haco
VII., King of Norway. Sh^ was first elected Queen of Den-
mark, and then of Norway, after the death of her son, Olaus
v., whom she had by her marriage with Haco, and who died
without leaving any posterity (1387.) The Swedes, discon-
tented with their King, Albert of Mecklenburg, likewise be-
stowed their crown upon this princess. Albert was vanquished
and made prisoner at the battle of Fahlekoeping (1389.) The
whole of Sweden, from that time, acknowledged the authority
of Queen Margaret. Being desirous of uniting the three king-
doms into one single body-politic, she assembled their respective
Estates at Calmar (1397,) and there caused her grand-nephew
Eric, son of Wratislaus, Duke of Pomerania, and Mary of
Mecklenburg, daughter of Ingeburg, her own sister, to be re-
ceived and crowned as her successor. The act which ratified
the perpetual and irrevocable union of the three kingdoms, was
approved in that assembly. It provided, that the united states
should, in future, have but one and the same king, who should
be chosen with the common consent of the Senators and Depu-
ties of the three kingdoms ; that they should always give the
preference to the descendants of Eric, if there were any ; that
the three kingdoms should assist each other with their combined
forces against all foreign enemies; that each kingdom should
preserve its own constitution, its senate, and national legisla-
ture, and be governed conformably to its own laws.
i This union, how formidable soever it might appear at first
' sight, was by no means firmly consolidated. A federal system
I of three monarchies, divided by mutual jealousies, and by dis-
I similarity in their laws, manners, and institutions, could present
nothm,] either Iblid or durable. The predilection, besides,
which the kings of the union who succeeded Margaret showed
for the Danes ; the preference which they gave them m the
distribution of favours and places of trust, and the tone of su

- « ) i M"w«'j| ii MwM i iMi i » jiMWjIiiM i Ma'i Wat

the exorb'*

several 0/

iscntcd the

had coii-

inple of his

iimhiing the

aws which

gf been long

nited into a

of the North.

ast King of

ow of Haco

een of Den-

' son, Olaus

nd who died

edes, discon-

likewise be-

s vanquished

1389.) The

he authority

e three king-

eir respective

;rand-nephew

and Mary of

Iter, to be re-

rhich ratified

in£rdoms, was

united states

, who should

rs and Depu-

ays give the

re any ; that

leir combined

g^dom should

onal legisla-

)pear at first
deral system
I, and by dis-
;ould present
ion, besides,
raret showed
them in the
e tone of su

iiHrtMwitivw-iiiiii '-m

I-EHIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

197

periority which they afTecled towards their iillies, tended natu-
rally to foster animosity and haired, nnd, above all, to exasperate
•he Swedes nijainst the union. Eric, after a very turbulent
reign, was deposed, and his nephew, Christopher the Bavarian.
was elected King of the union in his place. This latter prince
having died without issue, the Swedes took this opportunity 01
breaking the union, and choosing a king of their own, Charles
Canutson Bonde, known by the title of Charles VIII. It was
he who induced the Danes to venture likewise on a new elec-
tion ; and this same year they transferred their crown to Chris-
tian, son of Thierry, nnd Count of Oldenburg, descended by
the female side from the race of their ancient kings. This
prince had the good fortime to renew the union with Norway
(1450;) he likewise governed Sweden from the year 1437,
when Charles VIII. was expelled by his subjects, till 1464.
when he was recalled. But what deserves more particularly
to be remarked, is the acquisition which Christian made of the
provinces of Sleswick and Holslein, to which he succeeded
(1459,) by a disposition of the States of these provinces, after
the death of Duke Adolphus, the maternal uncle of the new
King of Denmark, and last male heir of the Counts of Hol-
slein, of the ancient House of Schauenburg. Christian I. was
the progenitor of all the Kings who have since reigned in Den-
mark and Norway. His grandson lost Sweden ; but, in the
last century, the thrones both of Russia and Sweden were
occupied by princes of his family.

Russia, during the whole of this period, groaned under the
degrading yoke of the Moguls and the Tartars. The Grand
Dukes, as well as the other Russian princes, were obliged to
solicit the confirmation of their dignity from the Khan of Kip-
zack, who granted or refused it at his pleasure. The dissen-
sions which arose among these northern princes, were in like
manner submitted to his decision. When summoned to appear at
his horde, they were obliged to repair thither without delay, and
often sufTered the punishment of ignominy and death.'' The
contributions which the Khans at first exacted from the Rus-
sians in the shape of gratuitous donations, were converted, in
course of time, into regular tribute. Bereke Khan, the suc-
cessor of Baton, was the first who levied this tribute by officers
of his own nation. His successors increased still more the
load of these taxes ; they even subjected the Russian princes
to the performance of military service.

The Grand Ducal dignity, which for a long time belonged
exclusively to the chiefs of the principalities of Vladimir and
Kiaso, became common, about the end of the fourteenth cen

=JJ

•■I

.! H-

CIUrTEH TI.

tury, to several of the other principalities, who shared among
'.hem the dominion of Russia. The princes of Rezan, Twer,
Smolensko, and several others, took the title of Grand Dukes,
to distinguish themselves from the petty princes who were es-
tablished within their principalities. These divisions, together
with the internal broils to which they gave rise, emboldened
the Lithuanians and Poles to carry their victorious arms into
Russia ; and by degrees they dismembered the whole western
part of the ancient empire.

The Lithuanians,'* who are supposed to have been of the
same race with the ancient Prussians, Lethonians, Livonians,
and Esthonians, inhabited originally the banks of the rivers
Niemen and Wilia ; an inconsiderable stale, comprehending
Samogitia and a part of the ancient Palatinates of Troki and
Wilna. After having been tributaries to the Russians for a
long time, the princes of Lithuania shook off their yoke, and
began to aggrandize themselves at the expense of the Grand
Dukes, their former masters. Towards the middle of the
eleventh century, they passed the Wiiia, founded the town of Kier-
now, and took from the Russians Braclaw, Novgorodek, Grodno,
Borzesc, Bielsk, Pinsk, Mozyr, Polotsk, Minsk, Witepsk, Orza,
and Mscislaw, with their extensive dependencies. Ringold
was the first of these princes that assumed the dignity of Grand
Duke, about the middle of the thirteenth century. His succes-
sor Mendog or Mindow, harassed by the Teutonic Knights, em-
braced Christianity about the year 1252, and was declared King
of Lithuania by the Pope ; though he afterwards returned to
Paganism, and became one of the most cruel enemies of the
Christian name. Gedimin, who ascended the throne of the
Grand Duke (1315,) rendered himself famous by his new con-
quests. After a series of victories which he gained over the
Russian Princes, who were supported by the Tartars, he took
possession of the city and Principality of Kiow (1320.) The
whole of the Grand Dutchy of Kiow, and its dependent princi-
palities on this side the Dnieper, were conquered in succession.
The Grand Dukes of Lithuonia, who had become formidable to
all their neighbours, weakened their power by partitioning tneir
estates among their sons ; reserving to one, under the title of
Grand Duke, the right of superiority over the rest. The civil
dissensions which resulted from these divisions, gave the Poles
an opportunity of seizing the principalities of Leopold, Przemysl,
and Haliisch (1340,) and of taking from the Lithuanians and
their Grand Duke Olgerd, the whole of Volhynia and Podolia,
of which they had deprived the Russians (1349.)

Nothing more then remained of the ancient'Russian Empire

'^- ^f i frtw w i i mu'itf/iji

iHjaijMi-MiifiwswwtW'

PBBIOD V. A. D. 1300—1403.

19»

lared amonp
iezaii, Twer,
[rand Dukes,
Ivho were es«
Ions, together
I, emboldened
jus arms into
hole western

been of the
I Livonians,
of the rivers
mprehending
)f Troki and
iiKsians for a
[?ir yoke, and
)f the Grand
iddle of the
townofKier-
)iiek, Grodno,
'^itepsk, Otza,
es. Ringold
nily of Grand
His succes-
Knights, em-
leclared King
I returned to
emies of the
hrone of the
his new con-
ned over the
tars, he took
1320.) The
ndent princi-
1 succession,
formidable to
itioning tneir
r the title of
:. The civil
ve the Poles
d, Przemysl,
uanians and
md Podolia,

sian Empire

except the Grand Dutchy of Wolodimir, so called from the town
of that numc on the river Kliazma, where the Grand Dukes of
Eastern and Northern Russia had their residence, before they
had fixed their capital at Moscow ; which happened about the
end of the thirteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth century.
This Grand Dutchy, which had several dependent and subor-
dinate principalities, was conferred by the Khan of Kipzoch
(1320) on Iwan or John Danilovitsh, Prince of Moscow, who
transmitted it to his descendants. Demetrius Iwanovitsh, grand-
son of Iwan, took advantage of the turbulencu which distracted
the grand horde, and turned his arms against the Tartars. As-
sisted by several of the Russian princes his vassals, he gained
a signal victory near the Don (1380,) over the Khan Temnic-
Mamai, the first which gained the Russians any celebrity, and
which procured Demetrius the proud epithet of Danski, or con-
queror of the Don. This prince, however, gained little advan-
tage by his victory ; and for a long time after, the Tartars gave
law to the Russians and made them their tributaries. Toktamibh
Khan, after having vanquished and humbled Mamai, penetrated
as far as Moscow, sacked the city, and massacred a great num-
ber of the inhabitants. Demetrius was forced to implore the
mercy of the conqueror, and to send his son a hostage to the
horde in security for his allegiance.

The chief residence of the Teutonic Order, which had for-
merly been at Verden, was fixed at Marienburg, » city newly
'juilt, which from that time became the capital of all Prussia.
The Teutonic Knights did not limit their conquests to Prussia;
they took from the Poles Dantzic or Eastern romerania (1311,)
itituated between the Netze, the Vistula, and the Baltic Sea, and
koown since by the name of Pomerelia. This province was
definitively ceded to them, with the territory of Culm, and
Michelau, by a treaty of peace which was signed at Kalitz
f 1343.) The city of Dantzic, which was their capital, increased
considerably under the dominion of the Order, and became one
of the principal entrepots for the commerce of the Baltic. Oi
all the exploits of these Knights, the most enterprising was that
which had for its object the conquest of Lithuania. Religion,
and a pretended gift of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, served
them as a pretext for attacking the Lithuanians, who were Pa-
gans, in a murderous war, which continued almost without in-
terruption for the space of a century. The Grand Dukes of
Lithuania, always more formidable after their defeat, defended
their liberties and independence with a courage and perseverance
almost miraculous ; and it was only by taking advantage of the
dissensions which had arisen in the family of the Grand Duke,

IK' 1

$ »

;■ !(,,

900

CMAPTIII VI.

that they succeeded in obtaining poRSPSflion of Samogitio. by
the irenty of peace which was concluded nt Racinnx (1404.)

The Knights of Livonia, united to the Teutonic Order under
the authority of one and the same Qrund Master, added tu their
former conquests the province of Esthonia, which was sold to
them by Valdemar Iv., King of Denmark. '" The Teutonic
Knif hts were at the zenith of their greatness, about the begin*
ning of the fifteenth century. At that time they were become
a formidable power in the North, having under their dominion
the whole of Prussia, comprehending Pomerania and the New
March, as also Samogitia, Courland, Livonia and Esthonia. **
A population proportioned to the extent of their dominions, u
well regulated treasury, and a flourishing commerce, seemed to
guarantee them a solid and durable empire. Nevertheless, the

Jealousy of their neighbours, the union of Lithuania with Po«
and, and the conversion of the Lithuaniatis to Chr'stianity,
which deprived the Knights of the assistance of the Crusaders,
soon became fatal to their Order, and accelerated their down*
fall. The Lithuanians again obtained possession of Samogitia,
which, with Sudavia, was ceded to them by the various treaties
which they concluded with that Order, between 1411-1436.

The oppressive government of the Teutonic Knights — their
own private dissensions, and the intolerable burden of taxation —
the fatal consequence of incessant war — induced the nobles and
cities of Prussia and Pomerania to form a confederacy against
the Order, and to solicit the protection of the Kings of Poland.
This was granted to them, on their signing a deed of submission
to that kingdom (1454.) The result was a long and bloody
war with Poland, which did not terminate till the pence of Thorn
(1466.) Poland then obtained the cession of Culm, Michelau
and Dantzic ; that is to say, all the countries now comprehended
under the name of Polish Prussia. The rest of Prussia was
retained by the Teutonic Order, who promised, by means of
their Grand Master, to do fealty and homage for it to the Kings
of Poland. The chief residence of the Order was then trans-
ferred to Koningsberg, where it continued until the time when the
Knights were deprived of Prussia by the House of Brandenburg.

At length, however, Poland recovered from this state of weak-
ness into which the unfortunate divisions of Boleslaus III. and
his descendants had plunged it. Uladislaus IV. surnamed the
Dwarf, having combined several of these principalities, was
crowned King of Poland at Cracow (1320.) From that time
the Royal dignity became permanent in Poland, and was trans-
mitted to all the successors of Uladislaus. -' The immediate
successor of that Prince was his son Casimir the Great, who

■ npiwtW

m-i

moffitia. by

(1404.)
)rdpr under
dv(J to their
was .sold to
Teutonic

the begin*
'ore become
ir dominion
id the New
Esthonia. **
ominions, u
, seemed to
rthelesB, the
ia with Po-
'hr.'stianity,
Crusaders,
their down-
Samogitia,
ous treaties
1-1436.
ghts — their
taxation —
! nobles and
•acy against
of Poland,
submission
and bloody
ce of Thorn
1, Michelau
nprchended
'russia was
' means of
> the Kings
then trans-
le when the
andenburg.
te of weak-
US III. and
named the
ilities, was
1 that time
was trans-
immediate
Grreat, who

nnion v. a, n. iyOO_i453.

901

renounced hi- ricrliin of stiypr'-iffnty ovi-r Silesia in favour of the
Kinp of Bohfiui I ■>n(l aflttwutd-- <'om|n?ri!«Fiif(| this loss by the
acquisition of sever f' of ih^ provirrri's of nncit'tit Kussia. He
likewise took possession of Red Hiisxia (1^40,) ns also of the
provinces of Volhynin, l'o(l(/lui. Cholni iind Bel/, which he con-

Siuered from the Grand Diik<-. of Lithuania (1349,) who had
orinerly dismt'inlwred them from the Russian Empire.

Under Casimir the Orent, another revoliilion happened in the
government of Poland. That Prince, having no > bil-'ren of his
own, and wishing to bequeath the crown to his nephew Louis,
his sister'.s son, by Charlo:* Robeit Kinq of Hunirary, convoked
a general asNC'mbly of the nation at Cracow (1339.) and there
got the succession of the Hungarian Prince ratified, in opposi-
tion to the legitimate rights of the Piast Dynasty, who reigned
in Masovin and Silesia. This subversion of the hereditary
right of the different branches of the Piosts, gave the Polish
Nobles n pretext for interfering in the election of their Kings,
until at last the throne became completely elective. It also
afforded them an opportunity for limiting the power of their
Kings, and laying the foundation of a republican and aristocratic
government. Deputies were sent into Hungary (1355,) even
during the life of Cnsimir, who obliged King Louis, his intended
successor, to subscribe an act which provided that, on his ac-
cession to the crown, he should bind himself, and his successors,
to disburden the Polish nobility of all taxes and contributions ;
that he should never, under any pretext, exact subsidies from
them ; and that, in travelling, he should claim nothing for the
support of his court, in any place during his journey. The an-
cient race of the Piast sovereigns of Poland ended with Casimir
(1370,) after having occupied the throne of that kingdom for
several centuries.

His successor in Poland and Hungary was Louis, surnamed
the Great. In a Diet assembled in 1382, he obtained the con-
currence of the Poles, in the choice which he had made of Sigis-
mund of Luxembourg, as his son-in-law and successor in both
kingdoms. But on the death of Louis, which happened imme-
diately after, the Poles broke their engagement, and confeired
their crown on Hedwiga, a younger daughter of that Prince. It
was stipulated, that she should marry Jagcllon, Grand Duke of
Lithuania, who agreed to incorporate Lithuania with Poland,
to renounce Paganism, and embrace Christianity, himself and
all his suHects. Jagellon was baptized, when he received the
name of Uladislaus, and was crowned King of Poland at Cracow
(1386.)''^ It was on the accession of Jagellon,that Poland and
Lithuania, long opposed in their interests, and implacable enemies

(i f,

i^h

202

CHAPTER VI.

of each other, were united into one body politic under the au-
thority of one and the same King. Nevertheless, for nearly
two centuries, Lithuania still preserved its own Grand Dukes,
who acknowledged the sovereignty of Pciand ; and it was not,
properly speaking, till the reign of Sigismund Augustus, that
the union of the two states was finally accomplished (1569.)
This important union rendered Po'and the preponderating power
of the North. It became fatal to the influence of the Teutonic
Order, who soon yielded to the united efforts of the Poles and
Lithuanians.

Uladislaus Jagellon did not obtain the assent of the Polish
nobility to the succession of his son, except by adding new pri-
vile^- *) to those which they had obtained from his predecessor.
He was the first of the Polish kings who, for the purpose of im-
posing an extraordinary taxation, called in the Nuncios or De-
puties of the Nobility to the General Diet (1404,) and established
the use of Dietines or provincial diets. His descendants enjoyed
the crown until they became extinct, in the sixteenth century.
The succession, however, was mixed ; and although the princes
of the House of Jagellon might regard themselves us hereditary
possessors of the kingdom, nevertheless, on every change of
reign, it was necessary that the crown should be conferred by
the choice and consent of the nobility.

In Hungary, the male race of the ancient kings, descendants
of Duke Arpad, had become extinct in Andrew III. (1301.) The
Crown was then contested by several competitors, and at length
fell into the hands of the House of Anjou, the reigning family
of Naples. Charles Robert, grandson of Charles II. King of
Naples, by Mary of Hungary, outstripped his rivals, and trans-
mitted the Crown to his son Louis, surnamed the Great (1308.)
This Prmce, characterized by his eminent qualities, made a dis-
tinguished figure among the Kings of Hungary. He conquered
from the Venetians the whole of Dalmatia, from the frontiers of
Istria, as far as Durazzo ; he reduced the Princes of Moldavia,
Walachia, Bosnia and Bulgaria, to a state of dependence ; and
dt length mounted the throne of Poland on the detith of his uncle
Casiinir the Great. ^ Mary, his eldest daughter, succeeded
him in the kingdom of Hungary (1382.) This Princess mar-
ried Sigismund of Luxembourg, who thus united the monarchy
of Hungary to the Imperial crown.

The reign of Sigismund in Hungary was most unfortunate,
and a prey to continual disturbances. He had to sustain the
first war against the Ottoman Turks ; and with the Emperor of
Constantinople, as his ally, he assembled a formidable army,
with which he undertook the &iege of Nicdpolis in Bulgaria.

under the a*^-

less, for nearly

jGrand Dukes,

ind it was not,

ugustus, that

):ished (1569.)

[derating power

f the Teutonic

the Poles and

of the Polish
dding new pri-
is predecessor.

purpose of im-
Nuncios or De-
and established
ndants enjoyed
teenlh century,
ugh the princes
s us hereditary
ivery change of
be conferred by

gs, descendants
II. (1301.) The
rs, and at length
reigning family
rles II. King of
vals, and trans-
le Great (1308.)
ies, made a dis-

He conquered
I the frontiers of
!s of Moldavia,
pendence ; and
dthof his uncle
hter, succeeded

Princess mar-
d the monarchy

>st unfortunate,
to sustain the
the Emperor of
rmidable army,
lis in Bulgaria.

PBRIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

203

Here he sustained a complete defeat by the Turks. In his ro-
treat he was compelled to embark on the Danube, and directed
his flight towards Constantinople. This disaster was followed
by new misfortunes. The malcontents of Hungary offered their
Crown to Ladislaus, cdled the Magnanimous, King of Naples,
who took possession of Dalmatia, which he afterwards surren-
dered to the Venetians. Desirous to provide for the defence
and security of his kingdom, Sigismund acquired, by treaty with
the Prince of Servia, the fortress of Belgrade (1425,) which, by
Its situation at the confluence of the Danube and the Save,
seetned to him a proper bulwark to protect Hungary against the
Turks. He transmitted the crown of Hungary to his son-in-law,
Albert of Austria, who reigned only two years. The war with
the Turks was renewed under Uladislaus of Poland, son of
Jagellon,andsuccessur to Albert. That Prince fought a bloody
battle with them near Varna in Bulgaria (1444.) The Hungari-
ans again sustained a total defeat, and the King himself lost his
life in the action. ^ The safety of Hungary then depended en-
tirely on the bravery of the celebrated John Hunniades, governor
of the kingdom, during the minority of Ladislaus, the posthu-
mous son of Albert of Austria. That general signalized himselt
in various actions against the Turks, and obliged Mahomet II.
to raise the siege of Belgrade (1456,) where he lost above twenty-
five thousand men, and was himself severely wounded.

The Greek Empire was gradually approaching its downfall,
under the feeble administration of the House of Paleologus, who
had occupied the throne of Constantinople since the year 1261.
The same vices of which we have already spoken, the great
power of the patriarchs and the monks, the rancour of theological
disputes, the fury of sectaries and schismatics, and the internal
dissension to which they gave rise, aggravated the misfortunes
and disorders of the state, and were instrumental in hastening
on its final destruction. John I. and his successors, the last
Emperors of Constantinople, being reduced to the sad necessity
of paying tribute to the Turks, and marching on military expe-
ditions, at the command of the Sultans, owed the preservation
of their shattered and declining Empire, for some time, entirely
to the reverses of fortune which hud befallen the Ottpmans ; and
to the difiiculties which the siege of their capital presented to a
barbarous nation unacquainted with the arts of blockade.

The power of the Ottoman Turks took its rise about the end
of the thirteenth century. A Turkish Emir, called Ottoman,
or Osman, was its original founder in Asia Minor. He was
one of the number of those Einirs, who, after the subversion of
the Seljukians of Roum or Iconium, by the Moguls, shared

'■i !

;ii

\i-

S04 CHAPTRR VI.

among them the spoils of their ancient masters. A part of '
Bithynin, and the whole country lying round Mount Olympus,
fell 10 the share of Ottoman, who afterwards formed an alliano*
with the other Emirs, and invaded the possessions of the Greek
Empire, under the feeble reign of the Emperor Andronicus 11.
Prusa, or Bursa, the principal city of Bithynia, was conquered
by Ottoman (1327.) He and his successors made it the capital
of their new state, which, in course of time, gained the ascen-
dency over all the other Turkish sovereignties, formed, like thai
of Ottoman, from the ruins of Iconium and the Greek Empire.

Orchan, the son and successor of Ottoman, instituted the
famous Order of the Janissaries, to which in a great neasure
the Turks owed their success. He took from the Greeks thfi
cities of Nice and Nicomedia in Bithynia ; and, after having
subdued most of the Turkish Emirs in Asia Minor, he took the
title of Sultan or King, as well as that of Pacha, which is cqui-
ralent to the title of Emperor. His son Soliman crossed the Hel-
lespont, by his orders, near the ruins of ancient Troy, and took
the city of Gallipoli, in the Thracian Chersonesus (1358.) The
conquest of this place opened a passage for the Turks into Eu-
rope, when Thrace and the whole of Greece was soon inundated
by these new invaders. Amuralh I., the son and successor of
Orchan, made himself master of Adrianoplc and the whole
of Thrace (1360;) he next attacked Macedonia, Servia and
Bulgaria, and appointed the first Beglerbeg, or Governor-general
of Romelia. Several Turkish princes of Asia Minor were
obliged to acknowledge his authority ; he made himself master
of Kiutaja, the metropolis of Phrygia, which afterwards became
the capital of Anatolia, and the residence of the governor of that
province (1389.) Amurath was slain at the battle of Cassova
which he fought with the Despot of Servia, assisted by his nume-
rous allies. In this bloody battle the Despot himself was slain,
and both sides equally claimed the victory. Bajuzel I., the suc-
cessor of Amurath, put an end to all the Turkish sovereignties
which still subsisted in Asia Minor. He completed the reduc-
tion of Bulgaria, and maintained the possession of it by the
signal victory which he gained at Nicopolis (1396) over Sigis-
mund. King of Hungary. The Greek Empire would have yield-
ed to the persevering efforts of that prince, who had maintained,
for ten years, the siege of Constantinople-, had he not been at-
tacked, m the midst of these enterprises, by the famous Timour.
the new conqueror of Asia.

Timour. commonly called Tamerlane, was one of those Mogul
Emirs who had divided amongst them the sovereignty of Trans-
oxiana, after the extinction of the Mogul dynasty of Zagatai.

A pan of

nt Olympu6,
an alliance
of the Greek
droiiicus II.
■s conquered
it the capital
d the ascen-
ned, like that
ek Empire,
istituted the
reat neasure
! Greeks \hfi
after havinj^
', he took the
hich is equi-
ssed the HeU
roy, and took
[1358.) The
trks into £u-
on inundated
successor of
id the whole
, Servia and
ernor-general
Minor were
imself master
vards became
k^ernor of that
! of Cassova
by his nume-
elf was slain,
et I., the sue-
sovereignties
ed the reduc-
of it by the
1) over Sigis-
d have yield-
I maintained,
not been at-
lous Timour.

those Mogul
»ty of Tran»>
r of Zagatai.

1-":

PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453.

205

Trnnsoxiann was the theatre ot his first exploits ; there he
usurped the whole power of the Khan$, or Eiiiperor.« of Zagatai,
and fixed the capital of his new dominions nt the city of
Samarcand (1369.) Persia, the whole of Upper Asia, Kipzach,
and Hindostan, were vanquished by him in succession ; where-
ver he marched, he renewed the same .«cenes of horror, blood-
shed, and carnajje, which had marked the footsteps of the
first Mogul conqueror.''" Timour at length attacked the do-
minions of Bajnzet in Anatolia (1400.) He fought a bloody
and decisive buttle near Angora, in the ancient Gallogrecia,
which proved fatal to the Ottoman Empire. Bnjazct sustained
an entire defeat, and fell himself into the hands of the con-
queror. All Anatolia was then conquered and pillaged by the
Moguls, and there Timour fixed his winter quarters. Meantime
he treated his captive Bajazet with kindness and generosity ;
and the anecdote of the iron cage, in which he is said to have
confined his prisoner, merits no credit. Slierefeddin Ali, who
accompanied Timour in his expedition against Bajuzet, makes no
mention of it ; on the contrary, he avers that Timour consented
to leave him the Empire, and that he grunted the investiture oi
it to him and two of his sons. Bajazei did rmt long survive his
misfortune ; he died of an attack of apoplexy (1403,) with which
he was struck in the camp of Timour in Caramania.

Timour, a short time after, formed the project of an expedi-
tion into China; but he died on the route in 1405, at the age
of sixty-nine. His vast dominions were dismembered after his
death. One of his descendants, named Babour, founded a pow-
erful Empire in India, the remains of which are still preserved
under the name of the Empire of the Great Mogul. The inva-
sion of Timour retarded for some time the progress of the Turk-
ish Empire. The fatal dissensions, which arose among the sons
of Bajazet, set them at open war with each other. At length
Amurnth II., the son of Mahomet I., and grandson of Bajazet,
succeeded in putting a stop to these divisions, and restored the
Empire to its primitive splendour. He deprived the Greeks of
all the places which still remained in their hands on the Black
Sea, along the coast of Thrace, in Macedonia and Thessaly.
He even took, by assault, the wall and forts which they had
constructed at the entrance of the isthmus of Corinth, and car-
ried his ravages to the very centre of the Peloponnesus.

The two heroes of the Christians, John Hunniades and Scan-
derbeg, arrested the progress of the Ottoman Sultan. The
former, who was General of the Hungarians, boldly repulsed
the Sultan of Servia, whom he was ambitious to conquer. The
other, a Greek Prince, who possessed one of the petty states of

ii|j

<» -til,

" 4- '

" !j

■ n ^iiiig w i j i nW^T *

iii ii i iH ii^A»» i i» W i W int n p^« » W t

2(16

CRAMER VI.

;

Albania of which Croja was the capital, resisted with success
the repeated attacks of the Turks. Supported by n small hut
well disciplined army, and favoured by the mountains with which
his territory was surrounded, he twice compelled Amurath to
raise the siege of Croja. At length appeared Mahomet II., the
son and successor of Amurath, (1451.) This Prince, who was
raised to the Ottoman throne in the twentieth year of his age,
conceived the design of achieving the conquest of the Greek
Empire, by the taking of Constantinople. He succeeded in
overcoming all the difficulties which obstructed this enterprise,
in which several of his predecessors had failed. At the head
of an army of three hundred thousand combatants, supported
by a fleet of 300 sail, he appeared before that capital, and com-
menced the siege on the 6th April 1463. The besieged having
only from SOOO to 10,000 men to oppose the superior force of
the enemy, yielded to the powerful and redoubled eflbrts of the
Turks, after a vigorous defence of fifty-three days. The city
was carried by assault, 29th May, and delivered up to the un-
restrained pillage of the soldiers. Constantine, surnamed
Dragases, the last of the Greek Emperors, perished in the first
onset ; and all the inhabitants of that great and opulent city
were carried into slavery.** Mahomet, on entering the very
day of the sack, saw nothing but one vast and dismal solitude.
Wishing afterwards to attract new inhabitants to this city, which
he proposed to make the seat of his Empire, he guaranteed an
entire liberty of conscience to the Greeks who might come
to settle there ; and authorized them to proceed to the elec-
tion of a new patriarch, whose dignity he enhanced by the
honours and privileges which he attached to it. He restored
also the fortifications of the city, and, by way of precaution
against the armaments of the Venetians and other western
nations, which he had some reason to dread, he constructed
the famous castle of the Dardanelles, at the entrance of the
Hellespont.

This conquest was followed by that of Servia, Bosnia, Alba-
nia, Greece, and the whole Peloponnesus or Morea, as well as
most of the islands of the Archipelago. The Greek Empire of
Trebizond, on the ciast of Asia Minor, submitted in like tnan-
ner to the law of the conqueror (1466.) David Commenus, the
last Emperor, fell by the swords of the Mahometans, and with
him perished many of his children and relations. Such a rapid
succession of conquests created an alarm among the powers of
Christendom. In an assembly, which Pope Pius II. held at
Mantua (1459,) he proposed a general associaVon among the
powers of the West against the Turks. A crusade was pub-

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453--1648.

207

ith success
n smnJl hut
wilh whirh
lAmurath to
met II., the
e, who was
of his ago,
r the Greek
ucceeded in
enterprise,
At the head
s, supported
EtI, and com*
eged having
ior force of
ffbrts of the
The city
p to the un>
I surnamed
i in the first
opulent city
ng the very
lal solitude.
5 city, which
laranteed an
night come
to the elec-
iced by the
He restored
' precaution
ler western
constructed
ince of the

ssnin, Alba*
I as well as
c Empire of
1 like nian-
imenus, the
s, and with
uch a rapid

rowers of
, held at
among the
I was pub*

lished by his orders, and he was on the point of setting out in
person at the head ol this expeJiiion, when lie was suddenly cut
off by dealn iu Ancona (1464,) where he had appointee! the
general rendezvous of the conlederate tioops. This event, add-
ed to the terror which the arms of Mahomet had created among
the nations o( the West, disconcerted the plans of the Crusa-
ders, and was the means of dissolving their confederacy. The
Turkish Empire thus became firmly established in Europe, and
the Tartars of the Crimea put themselves at the same time
under the protection of the Porte.

CHAPTER VII.

PERIOD VI.

From the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, to the Peace
of Wettp}uUia.—K. d. 1453—1648.

The revolution which happened in the fifteenth century en-
tirely changed the face of Europe, and introduced a new system
of politics. This revolution was not achieved by any combina-
tions of profound policy, nor by the operation of that physical
force which generally subverts thrunes and governments. It
was the result of those progressive changes which had been
produced in the ideas and understandings of the nations of Eu-
rope, by the improvements and institutions of preceding times;
OS well as by the invention of paper and printing, of gunpowder,
and the mariner's compass. By means of these, the empire of
letters and arts was greatly extended, and various salutary im-
provements made in the religion, manners, and governments of
Europe. The people by degrees shook off the yoke of barba-
rism, superstition, and fanaticism, which the revolution of the
fiflh century had imposed on tham , and from that time the
principal States of Europe began to acquire the strength, and
gradually to assume the form, which they have since maintained.

Several extraordinary events, however, conspired to accelerate
these happy changes. The Belles Lettres and the Fine Arts
shone out wi'h new splendour, after the downfall of the Greek
Empire. The celebrated Petrarch, and his disciples Boccacio
and John of Ravenna, were the first that made the Italians ac-
quainted with ancient literature, as the true source and standard
of good taste. They prepared the way for a vast number of the
Grecian literati, who, to escape the barbarity of the Turks, had
fled into Italy, where they opened schools, and brought the study

»;f>r

*'■ \i

tT"

208 CHAPTER vn.

of Creek literature into considerable repute. The moit celebrated
of these Greek refugees were, Manuel Chrysoloras, Cardinal
Bessarion, Theodore Gaza, George of Trebizond, John Argyro-
philus, and Demetrius Chalcondylea. Protected by the family
of the Medicis at Florence, they assisted in forming those fine
geniuses which arose in Italy during the fifteenth c«jntury, such
as Leonard Aretin, the two Guarini, Poggio of Florence, Ange-
lo Politian, and many others. Academies, or Free Societies,
were founded at Rome Naples, Venice, Milan, Ferrara and
Florence, for the encouragement of ancient literature.

From Italy the study of the ancient arts passed to the other
stales of Europe. They soon diffused their influence over every
department of literature and science, which by degrees assumed
an aspect totally new. The scholastic system, which till then
had been in vogue in the pulpits and universities, lost its credit,
and gave place to a more refined philosophy. Men learned to
discriminate the vices of the feudal system, and sought out the
means of correcting them. The sources of disorder and anarchy
were gradually dried up, and gave place to better organized
governments. Painting, sculpture, and the arts in general,
cleared from the Gothic rust which they had contracted during
the barbarous ages, and finished after the models of the ancients,
shone forth with renewed lustre. Navigation, under the direc-
tion of the compass, reached a degree of perfection which at-
tracted universal attention ; and while the ancients merely coasted
along their own shores in the pursuit of commerce or maritime
exploits, we find the modern Europeans extending their naviga-
tion over the whole globe, and bringing both hemispheres under
their dominion.

America, unknown to the ancients, was discovered during
this period ; as well as the route to India and the East, round
the Continent of Africa. The notion of a fourth quarter of the
world had long been prevalent among the ancients. We aU
recollect the Atlantis of Plato, which, according to the assertion
of that philosopher, was larger than Asia and Africa; and we
know that .Elian the historian, who lived in the reigii of Adrian,
affirmed in like manner the existence of a fourth continent of
immense extent. This opinion had got so much into fashion,
during the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era, that
Lactantius and St. Augustine thought themselves bound in duty
to combat it in their writings ; inveighing against the antipodes
by reasons and arguments, the frivolousness of which is now
very generally admitted ; but, whatever were the notions which
the ancients might have entertained as to a fourth quarter of the
globe, it is very certain that they knew it only" from conjecture
and that their navigation never extende** io <or.

, .'•)

lo&t celebrated
ras, Cardinal
John Argyro-
by the family
ng those fine
contury, such
irence, Ange-
roe Societies,
Ferrara and
ure.

d to the other
ice over every
^rees assumed
hich till then
lost its credit,
en learned to
lought out the
r and anarchy
:ter organized
ts in general,
tracted during
f the ancients,
ider the direc-
tion which at-
nerely coasted
;e or maritime
T their naviga-
spheres under

overed during
le East, round
quarter of the
ents. We aU
a the assertion
frica; and we
igii of Adrian,
:h continent of
h into fashion,
istian era, that
bound in duty
t the antipodes
which is now
notions which
quarter of the
om conjecture

l.:\

■>1«ii

■i-5 ■

.\\-

if:

Death o( Joan of Arc. 1'. I'M. The English inhumanly
burned this Heroine as a Sorceress.

hZ': ■ y ,,.

1' ^^ " : ^

if ^ ji _i c- ' sum .jsnTi

Death of Constantine XV. in Delending Constantinople.

IV wo.

iiili inhumanly
ess.

onstantinople,

PBsioo VI. 1463—1648.

209

The honour of this important discover) belongs to modem
navigators, more especially to Christopher Columous, a native
of Genoa. From the knowledge which this i-elebrated man had
ncquired in the sciences of Navigation, Ast.onomy, and Geo-
jjraphy, he was persuaded that there must be aj lother hemispher^^
lying to the westward, and unknown to Europeans, but neces*
sary to the equilibrium of the globe. These conjectures he
communicated to several of the courts of Europe, who all re-
garded him as a visionary ; and it was not till after many soli-
citations, that Isabella, Queen of Castile, granted him three
vessels, with which he set sail in quest of the new continent,
3d August 1492. AAer a perilous navigation of some months,
he reached the l!<land Guanahani or Cat Island, one of the Lu-
cayos or Bahamas, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador.
This discovery was followed soon after by that of the Islands of
St. Domingo and Cuba ; and in the second and third voyages
which that navigator undertook to America (1493-1498,) he dis-
covered the mainland or continent of the New World, especially
the coast of Paria, as far as the point of Araya, making port of
theprovince kno>vn at present by the name of Cumana.

The track of the Genoese navigator was followed by a Flo-
rentine merchant, named Amerigo Vesputio. Under the con-
duct of a Spanish captain, called Alphonso de Ojeda, he made
several voyages to the New World after the year 1497. Difle-
rent coasts of the continent of South America were visited by
him ; and in the maps of his discoveries which he drew up, hie
usurped a glory which did not belong to him, by applying his
own name to the new continent ; which it has since retained.

The Spaniards conquered the islands and a great part of the
continent of America ; extending their victories along with their
discoveries. Stimulated by the thirst of gold, which the New
World oflered to them in abundance, they committed crimes and
barbarities which make humanity shudder. Millions of the
unfortunate natives were either massacred or buried in the sea,
in spite of the eflbrts which the Spanish Bishop, Bartholomew
de Las Casas, vainly made to arrest the fuiy of his country-
men. ' In the year af\er the first discovery of Columbus, Fer-
dinand the Catholic, King of Spain, obtained a bull from Pope
Alexander VI., by which that Pontiff made him a gift of all the
countries discovered, or to be discovered, towards the west and
the south ; drawing an imaginary line from one pole to the other,
at the distance of a hundred leagues westwaid of Cape Verd
and the Azores. This decision having given oflence to the King
of Portugal, who deemed it prejudicial to his discoveries in ths
East, an accommodation was contrived between the two courta,

810

CHAFTRR VII.

in virtue of which the same Pope, by another Bull (1404,) re-
moved the line in question farther xvest, to the distance of four
hundred and seventy leagues ; so that all the countries lying to
the westward of this line should belong to the King of Spain,
while those which might be discovered to the eastward, should
fall to the possession of the King of Portugal. * It was on thiH
pretended title that the Spaniards founded their right to demand
>iie submission of the American nations to the Spanish Crown.
Their principal conquests in the New World commence from
the reign of the Emperor Charles V. It was in his name that
Ferdinand Cortes, with a mere handful of troops, overthrew the
vast Empire of Mexico (1521;) the last Emperors of which,
Montezuma and Qatimozin, were slain, and a prodigious num-
ber of the Mexicans put to the sword. The conqueror of Peru
was Francis Pizarro (1533.) He entered the country, at the
head of 300 men, at the very time when Atnbalipa or Atahualpa
was commencing his reign as Incas, or Sovc'.>;ign of Peru. That
prince was slain, and the whole of Peru sub«i>icc bv the Spaniards.

[The Spaniards founded various colonies and. establishments
in that part of America which they had subjected to their do-
minion. The character of these colonies difl'ercd from that of
the establishments which the Portuguese had founded in India,
and the Dutch, the English, and the French, in diflbrent parts
of the world. As the Spaniards were by no means a commer-
cial nation, the precious metals alone were the object of their
cupidity. They applied themselves, in consequence, to the
working of mines; they t tinrted negroes to labour in them,
and made slaves of the natives. In process of time, when the
number of Europeans had increased m these countries, and the
precious metals became less abundant, the Spanish colonists
were obliged to employ themselves in agriculture, and in raising
what is commonly called colonial produce. What we have now
said, accounts for the limitations and restrictions which were
imposed on the trade of these colonies by the Spanish govern-
ment ; they wished to reserve to themselves exclusively the pro-
fits of the mines. Commerce, which at iir.st had been confined
to the single entrepot of Seville, fell into the hands of a small
number of merchants, to the entire exclusion of foreigners. As
for the Spanish possessions in America, they were planted with
Episcopal and Metropolitan Sees, Missions, Convents, and Uni-
versities. The Inquisition was also introduced ; but the hierar-
chy which was founded there, insteod of augmenting the power
of the Popes, remained in a state of complete dependence upon
the Sovereigns.]

The discovery of Brazil belongs to the Portuguese. Alvares

II (1404.) re.
tance of four
|tric8 lying to
ig of Spain,
|ward, should
was on this
Jht to (ienianH
inish Crown,
imcnce from
lis name that
)verthrew the
an of which,
digious num*
ueror of Peru
untry, at the
or Atahualpa
fPeru. That
he Spaniards,
stablishments
d to their do-
I from that of
idcd in India,
difTcrent parts
ns a commer-
bject of their
uence, to the
)our in them,
me, when the
ttries, and the
dish colonists
md in raising
we have now
5 which were
inish govern-
ively the pro-
)eon confined
ds of a small
eigners. As
! pUnted with
nts, and Uni-
ut the hierar-
ng the power
mdence upon

me. Alrares

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1463—1648.

211

Cnbral, the cnmnmnder of their fleet, while on his route to India-
was driven, by contrary wind^, on the coast of Brazil (1500,) and
took possosMion of the country in name of the King of 1'or*
tugal. This colony, in the course of time, became highly im-
portant, from the rich mines of diamonds and gold which werr
discovered there.

The Spaniards and Portuguese were at first the only mastpn
of America ; but in a short time, establishments were formed
there by some of the other maritime nations of Europe. The
first English colony was that of Virginia, which was conducted
to North America by Sir Walter Raleigh (1584,) but it did not
gain a permanent settlement till the reign of James I. This was
afterwards followed by several other colonies which had settled
in that part of the American continent, on account of the perse-
cution carried on by the Stuart Kings against the non-conform-
ists. The first settlements of the English in the Antilles, were
those which they formed in the Islands of Barbadoes and St.
Christopher (1639 ;) to these they added the Island of Jamaica,
which they took from the Spaniards (1656.) The date of the
French establishments in Canada, is as old as the reigns of
Francis I. and Henry IV., in the years 15,34 and 1604. The
city of Quebec was founded in 1608. It was at a later period
when the French established themselves in the Antilles. The
origin of their colonies in Martinique and Gaudaloupe, is gene-
rally referred to the year 1635. They gained a footing in St.
Domingo as early as 1630, but the flourishing state of that re-
markable colony did not beginM)roperly speaking, till 1722. Alj
the establishments which the ffnglish and French had formed in
America, were purely agricultural ; and in this respect they were
distinguished from the Spanish colonics.

The discovery of a passage by sea to the East Indies round
Africa, belongs also to the Portuguese. It forms one of those
great events which often take their first impulse from very slen-
der causes. John I. surnamed the Bastard, the new founder of
the kingdom of Portugal, being desirous of aflbrding tu his sons
an opportunity of signalizing themselves, and earning the honour
of knighthood, planned an expedition against the Moois in Africa;
he equipped a fleet, with which he landed in the neighbourhood
of Ceuta (1415,) of which he soon made himself master, and
created his sons knights in the grand mosque of that city. AAer
this event, the Portuguese began to have a taste for navigation
and maritime discoveries. In this they were encouraged by the
Infant Don Henry, Duke of Viseu, aiiH one oi the sons of King
John, who had particularly distinguished himself in the expedi-
iion of which we have just spoken. That prince, who was well

■^M

819

CHAPTXR VIl.

iikillpd in mnthematicn and the nrt nf iinvi^ntion, established hit
r»>Nidcnce iit Ciipc St. Vincent, on the woxtern extremity of AU
Kurra. There he ordered vossiels to f>e constructed iit his own
expense, and sent them to reconnoitre the coasts of Africa. From
ihat time the Portujjuesc discovered, in succession, tlie Islands nf
Madeira (1420,) the Canaries (1424.) the Azores (1431,) and
Cape Verd (1460.) There they found3d colonies; and, ud-
vancinf^ by degrees along the southern shores nf Africa, they
extended their navigation as far as the coasts of (iuineaand Ni«
gritia. The islands which they had newly discovered, were
confirmed to the Kings of Portugal by several of the Popes. The
Canaries, however, having been claimed by the Spaniards, a
treaty was negotiated between the two kingdoms, in virtue of
which these islands wore abandoned to Spain (1481.)

It was under the reign of John II. that the Portuguese ex-
tended their navigation as far as the most nouthcrly point of
Africa. Bartholomew Diaz, their admiral, was the first who
doubled the Cape, which he culled the Storrqiy Cape ; a name
which King John changed into that of Good Hope. At length,
after twelve years of toils, Vasco di Gama, another Portuguese
admiral, had the glory of carrying his national flag as far as
India. He landed at the Port of Calicut (1498,) on the Ma-
labar coast, in the third year of the reign of Emmanuel. Several
other celebrated Portuguese navigators, such as Almeida, Albu*
querque, Acunga, Silveira, and de Castro, following the tract of
Vasco di Gama, laid the foundation of the power of the Portu-
guese in India. Francis Almeida defeated the fleet of the
Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, in conjunction with that of the
Kings of India (1509.) Alfonzo Albuquerque conquered Goa
(1511,) and made it the capital of all the Portuguese settlements
in that part of the world. About the s«me time, the Portuguese
established themselves in the Molucca Islands, with some oppo-
sition on the part of the Spaniards. Anthony Silveira signalized
himself by his able defence of Din (1535.) He repulsed the
Turks, and ruined the fleet which Soliman the Great had sent
to the siege of that place (1547.) The King of Cambay having
resumed the siege, he experienced likewise a total defeat from
John dc Castro, who then conquered the whole kingdom of Diu.

The Portuguese found powerful kingdoms in India, and
nations rich and civilized. Th^re, nature and the industry of
the natives, produced or fabricated those articles of commerce
and merchandise which have since become an object of luxury
to Europeans ; at least until the activity of the Venetians had
furnished the inhabitants of this part of the world with them in
such abundance, as to make them regarded as articles of abso-

iBRinnvi. A. D. 1455—1648.

»18

tnblished hit

|<'rnity of Al«

I lit hilt own

fiicn. From

|lio Islands of

1431,) and

Is ; and, ud<

Africa, Ihcy

inea and Ni-

)vored, were

Popes. The

Spaniards, a

in virtue of

1.)

rlugut'se ex»
eriy point of
he first who
ipe ; a name
At leng'ih,
r Portugtiese
flajT as far as
) on the Ma-
luel. Several
Imeida, Albu-
ig the tract of
of the Porta-
fleet of the
I that of the
nquered Goa
e settlements
e Portuguese
h somcoppo-
ira signalized
repulsed the
real had sent
mbay having
I defeat from
jdom of Diu.
India, and
3 industry of
)f commerce
ict of luxury
inetians had
vith them in
lies of abso-

lute necessity. This circumstance was the reason why the Per-
mgiiese never formed any other than mercantile cstablishmentn
w, India, which they erected on the coasts, without extending
th- rn into the interior. The working of the mines, and the cares
of agriculture, were abandoned entirely to the natives.

This era produced a total change in the commerce of the East.
Formerly the Venetians were the people that carried on the
principal traffic to India. The Jewish or Mahometan merchants
purchased at Gon, Calicut, and Cofhin, those spiceries and other
productions of the Ea.st, which they imported into Syria by the
Persian Gulf, and into Egypt by the Red Sea. They were then
conveyed by a laborious and expensive land-carriage, either to
the port of Alexandria, or that of Bairout in Syria. Thither
the Venetians repaired in quest of the luxuries of India; they
fixed their price, and distributed them over all Europe. This
commerce proved a source of vast wealth to these republicans:
it furnished them with the means of maintaining a formida-
ble marine, iind of very often dictating the law to the other
European powers ; hut after the discovery of the new passage
round the Cape, and the conquests of the Portuguese in India,
the Venetians saw themselves compelled to abandon a traffic in
which they could not compete with the Portuguese. This was
a terrible blow to that republic, and the principal cause of its
downfall. The Portuguese, however, did not profit by this ex-
clusive commerce as they might have done. They did not, like
other nations, constitute Companies, with exclusive commercial
privileges ; they carried it on by means of fleets, which the go-
vernment regularly despatched at fixed periods. In this manner,
the commodities of the East were imported to Lisbon ; but the
indolence of the native merchants left to other nations the care
of distributing thefn through the markets of Europe. The Dutch
were the people that profited most by this branch of industry ;
they cultivated it with so much success, and under such favour-
able circumstances, that they at length succeeded in excluding
the Portuguese themselves from this lucrative traf&c, by dis-
possessing them of their colonies in the East.

If the events which we have now briefly detailed proved fatal
to the Venetians, and afl!licting to humanity, by the wars and
misfortunes which they occasioned, it is nevertheless certain,
that commerce and navigation gained prodigiously by these new
discoveries. The Portuguese, after having maintained for some
time the exclusive possession of the navigation and trade of the
East, found afterwards powerful competitors in the Spaniards,
the butch, English, French, and Danes, who all established
mercantile connexions both in India and America. Hence in-

'^:-)l

■i\

li,

■; i

|.i:<

1*1.

214

CHAPTER VII.

numerable sources of wealth were opened to the industry of the
Europeans ; and their commerce, formerly limited to the Medi-
terranean, the Baltic, and the Northern Seas, and confined to a
few cities in Italy, Flanders, and Germany, was now, by means
of their colonies in Africa, and the East and West Indies, ex-
tended to all parts of the globe. * The intercourse of the Por-
tuguese with China was as early as the year 1517, and with
Japan it began in 1542. Ferdinand Magellan undertook the
first voyage round the world (1519,) and his example found
afterwards a number of imitators. ' By degrees the maritime
power of Europe assumed a formidable aspect ; arts and manu-
factures were multiplied ; and states, formerly poor, became rich
and flourishing. Kingdoms at length found in their commerce,
resources for augmenting their strength and their influence, and
carrying into execution their projects of aggrandizement and
conquest.

[Among the causes of this revolution which took place in
commerce, it is necessary to take into account a discovery ap-
parently of trivial imDortance, but which exercised a most ex-
traordinary influence over the civilization of Europe, viz. that
of horse-posts for the conveyance of letters. Before the sixteenth
century, the communications between distant countries were
few and difBcult. Messengers, travelling on short journeys, on
foot or on horseback, were their only couriers. About the be-
ginning of the seventeenth century, and during the reign of
Maximilian I., an Italian gentleman of the name of Francis de
la Tour et Taxis, established the first posts in the Low Coun-
tries. Their object at first was merely for the conveyance of
letters by posts or post, for which he provided regular relays.
By and by, for the sake of despatch, the use of horses was in-
troduced, placed at certain distances. From the Low Countries
this system found its way into Germany, where its profits
were secured to the family of Taxis by imperial grants ; and
from thence it spread over every civilized country in the world.]

A revolution not less important, is that which took place in re-
ligion about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The abuses
which disgraced the court of Rome, the excess of the power, and
the depravity of the morals of the clergy, had excited a very ge-
neral discontent. A reformation had for a long time been deemed
necessary, but there was a difference of opinion as to the me-
thod of eflfecting it. The common notion was, that this task
r,ould be legally accomplished only by General Councils, con-
voked under the authority of the ropes. It was easy, however,
to perceive the inefficacy of any remedy left t\t the disposal of
those very persons from whom the evil proceeded ; and the un-

^*VKt<mvtfaimitsgK>-

dustiy of the

to the Medi-

confined to a

|ow, by means

t Indies, ex-

e of the Por-

17, and with

ndertook the

[ample found

the maritime

ts and manu-

', became rich

eir commerce,

influence, and

dizement and

took place in
discovery ap-
ed a most ex-
ope, viz. that
; the sixteenth
9untries were
t journeys, on
^bout the be-

the reign of
of Francis de
e Low Coun-
onveyance of
?gular relays,
orses was m-
*ow Countries
re its profits
I grants ; and
in the world.]
sk place in re-

The abuses
le power, and
ed a very ge-
been deemed
IS to the me-
hat this task
'ouncils, con-
asy, however,
le disposal of
; and the un-

PKRIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

816

successful results of the Councils of Constance an'l Basle, hod
taught the people, that, in order to obtain redress for the abuses
of which they complained, it was necessary to have recours*? to
some other scheme than that of General Councils. This scheme
was attempted by the Reformers of the sixteenth century, who
were persuaded, that, in order to restrain the exorbitant power
of the clerg:y, they ought to reject the infallibility of the Pope,
as well as that of General Councils ; admitting no other autho-
rity in ecclesiastical matters, than that of the sacred scriptures,
interpreted by the lights of reason and sound criticism.

The immediate and incidental cause of this change in reli-
gion, was tile enormous abuse of indulgences. Pope Leo X.,
who was of the family of the Medicis, and well known for his
extensive patronage of literature and the fine arts, having ex-
hausted the treasury of the church by his luxury and bis mu-
nificence, had recourse to the expedient of indulgences, which
several of his predecessors had already adopted as a means of
recruiting their finances. The ostensible reason was, the ba-
silica of St. Peter's at Rome, the completion of which wa.«
equally interesting to the whole of Christendom. Offices for
the sale of indulgences were established in all the different
states of Europe. The purchasers of these indulgences ob-
tained absolution of their sins, and exemption from the pains of
purgatory after death. The excesses committed by the emis-
saries who had the charge of those indulgences, and the scan-
dalous means which they practised to extort money, brought on
the schism to which we are about to advert.

Two theologians, Martin Luther, and Ulric Zuingle, opposed
these indulgences, and inveighed agtiinst them in their sermons
and their writings ; the former at Wittemberg in Saxony ; the
other, first at Einsiedeln, and afterwards at Zurich, in Switzer-
land. Leo X. at first held these adversaries in contempt. He
did not attempt to allay the storm, until the minds of men, ex-
asperated by the heat of dispute, were no longer disposed to
listen to the voice of calmness and conciliation. The means
which he subsequently tried to induce Luther to retract having
proved abortive, he issued a thundering Bull against him (1520,)
which, so far from abating the courage of the Reformer, tended,
on the contrary, to embolden him still more. He publicly burnt
the Pope's Bull, together with tlie Canon Law, at Wittemberg
(10th December,) in presence of a vast concourse of doctors
and students from diflferent nations whom he had assembled for
the purpose. From that moment Luther and Zuingle never
ceased to preach against the abuses of the indulgences. They
completely undermined this system of abomination, and even

ii^

I
&

216

CHAPTER VII.

attacked various other dogmas and institutions of the Romish
church, such as monastic vows, the celibacy of the priests, the
supremacy of the Pope and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. These
two celebrated men, who agreed in the greater part of their
opinions, soon attracied a number of followers. The people,
long ago prepared to shake off a yoke which uad been so op-
pressive, applauded the zeal of the Reformers ; and the new
opinions, promptly and easily diffused by means of the press,
were received with enthusiasm throughout a great part of
Europe.

John Calvin, another Reformer, trod nearly in the footsteps
of Zuingle. He was a native of Noyon in Picardy, and began to
distinguish himself at Paris in 1532. Being compelled to leave
that city on account of his opinions, he withdrew to Switzerland
(1538;) thence he passed to Strasbourg, where he was nomi-
nated to the office of French preacher. His erudition and his
pulpit talents gained him disciples, and gave the name of Cal-
vinists to those who had at first been called Zuinglians. The
Lutherans, as well as the Zuinglians or Calvinists in Germany,
were comprehended under the common appellation of Protest-
ants, on account of the Protest which they took against the
decrees of the Diet of Spire (1529,) which forbade them to
make any innovations in religion, or to abolish the mass, until
the meeting of a General Council. The name of Lutherans
was applied more particularly to those who adhered to the
Confession of Augsburg, that is, the Confession of F-^ith which
they presented to the Emperor Charles V., at the famous Diet
of Augsburg, held in 1530.

In this manner a great part of Europe revolted from the
Pope and the Romish Church, and embraced either the doc-
trines of Luther, or those of Zuingle and Calvin. The half ol
Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, and Livonia,
adopted the Confession of Augsburg ; while England, Scotland,
the United Provinces, and the principal part of Switzerland,
declared themselves in favour of the opinions of Zuingle and
Calvin. The new doctrines made likewiso great progress in
France, Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Silesia, and Poland.

This revolution did not convulse merely the Church ; it in-
fluenced the politics, and changed the form of government, in
many of the States of Europe. The same men who believed
themselves authorized to correct abuses and imperfections in re-
ligion, undertook to reform political abuses with the same free-
dom. New States sprung up ; and p.inces took advantage of
these commotions to augment their own power, and authority.
Constituting themselves heads of the Church and of the religion

he Romish
priests, thp

y. These
art of their

he people,
been so op-
nd the new
f the press,
eat part of

he footsteps

nd began to

led to leave

Switzerland

B was nomi-

ion and his

ime of Cal-

lians. The

n Germany,

of Protest-

against the

ide them to

mass, until

f Lutherans

lered to the

F^ith which

famous Diet

d from the
lier the doc-

Thehalfol
nd Livonia,
d, Scotland,
Switzerland,
^uingle and
proCTess in
ind Poland,
urch ; it in-
ernment, in
ho believed
;tions in re-

sarne free-
Ivan lage of
! authority,
the religion

PERIOD VI. A. n. 1453 — 1648.

217

of their country, they shook oflTthe fetters of priostly influence:
while the clergy ceased to form a countnrncting or controllinjf
power in the State. The freedom of opinion which characterized
the Protestant faith, awoke the human mind from its intellectual
lethargy, infused new energy into it, and thus contributed to the
progress of civilization and science in Europe. Even the systems
of public instruction underwent a considerable change. The
schools were reformed, and rendered more perfect. A multitude
of new seminaries of education, academies, and universities
were founded in all the Protestant States. This revolution,
however, was not accomplished without great and various calami*
ties. A hierarchy, such as that of the Church of Rome, sup-
ported by all that was dignified and venerable, could not be
attacked, or shaken to its foundation, without involving Europe
in the convulsion. Hence we find that wars and factions arose
in Germany, France, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Hungary,
and Poland. The march of reformation was every where stain-
ed with blood.

The means that were employed to bring the quarrels of the
Church to an amicable conclusion, tended rather to exasperate
than allay the mischief; and if the conferences among the clergy
of different persuasions failed, it was not to be expected that a
better agreement, or a union of parties, could Iw founded on the
basis of a General Council. The Protestants demanded an un-
controlled liberty for the Council. They wi.shed it to be assem-
bled by order of the Emperor, in one of the cities of the Empire ;
and that their divines should have a voice and a seat in its meet-
ings. The P « was to submit to its authority, and all matters
should there be decided according to the rule of the sacred Scrip-
tures. These terms were by no means agreeable to the Catho-
lics. Paul III. summoned a Council at Mantua (1537,) and
another at Vicenza (1538 ;) but both of these convocations were
ineffectual, as was also the proposed reform in the Court of Rome,
made by the same Pontiff*. It was resolved at last, at the instance
of the Catholic princes (1542,) to convoke the Council of Trent,
though the opening of it was deferred till 1545.

This famous Council met with two interruptions; the first
took place in 1547, when the Pope, who had become alarmed at
the success of the Imperial arms, transferred the Council to Bo-
logna, on pretence that an epidemic distemper had broken out at
Trent. All the prelates of the Emperor's party remained at
Trent, in obedience to the command of their master, who pro-
tested loudly against the assembly at Bologna, which neverthe-
less held its ninth and tenth Sessions at that city. This latter
Council having been dissolved by Paul III. f 1^48,) its aflkin

f:.i

Wl*

CHAPTER VII.

318

continued in a languid state for the next two years, wnen Vope ,
Julius III., the successor of Paul, revived it, and transferred it .
once more to Trent (1551.) Another interruption took place at ■
the time when Maurice, Elector of Saxony, had made hiniselt
master of Augsburg, and was marching against the Emperor j
towards Inspruck. It was then agreed to prorogue the Council,
now in its sixteenth Session, for two years ; and to assemble
again at the end of that period, if peace should happen in the
mean time to be established. At length, in 1560, Pius IV.,
summoned the Council, for the third and last time, to meet at
Trent. The session, however, did not commence till 1662 ; and
next year its sittings were finally terminated.

In this Council, matters were not treated in the same way as
they had been at Constance and Basle, where each nation delibe-
rated separately, and then gave their suffrage in common, so that
the general decision was taken according to the votes of the dif-
ferent nations. This form of deliberation was not at all palatable
to the Court of Rome, who, in order to gain a preponderance in
the assembly, thought proper to decide, by a majority of the votes
of every individual member of the Council. The Protestam
princes rejected entirely the authority of this Council ; which,
far from terminating the dispute, made the schism wider than
ever. Its decisions were even condemned by several of the Ca-
tholic sovereigns. In France, more especially, it was never
formally published, and they expressly excluded such of its acts
of discipline as they considered contrary to the laws of the king-
dom, to the authority of the sovereign, and the maxims of the
Galilean Church. .

It is nevertheless certain that this Council was instrumental in
restoring the tottering power of the Roman pontiffs ; v/hich receiv-
ed at the same time a new support by the institution of the Order
of the Jesuits. The founder of this order was Ignatius Loyola,
who was bom at the Castle of Loyola in Guipuscoa. He made
the declaration of his vows in the church of Montmartre at Pans
(1534,) and obtained from Paul III. the confirmation of his new
Society. This order was bound, by a particular vow of obedi-
ence, more intimately to the Court of Rome ; and became one of
the main instruments of its enormous power. From Spain the
Society was speedily propagated in all the other Catholic States ;
they filled cities and courts with their emissaries; undertook
i mission^ to China, Japan, and the Indies ; and under the special
' protection of the See of Rome, they soon surpassed m credit
and wealth every other religious order. _

In the midst of these changes which took. place in civil and
ecclesiastical matters, we find a new system arising in the poll-

wnen Pope
transferred it
took place at
made himself
le Emperor
the Council,
to assemble
lappen in the
60, Pius IV.,
le, to meet at
illl562; and

same way as
nation delibe-
mmon, so that
)tes of the dif-
It all palatable
ponderance in
!ty of the votes
'he Protestam
uncil; which,
sm wider than
sral of the Ga-
it was never
iuch of its acts
vs of the king-
maxims of the

nstrumental in
; v/hich receiv-
n of tlie Order
natius Loyola,
}a. He made
nartre at Paris
ion of his new
vow of obedi-
became one of
rom Spain the
itholic States ;
;s; undertook
der the special
ssed in credit

:e in civil and
ig in the poli-

PESioD. VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

219

tical government of Europe ; the conse({wence of those new ties
and relations which had been established amongst the different
powers since the close of the fifteenth century. Prior to this
date, most of the Europpan S»ntps were feeble, because insulated
and detached. Occupied with their own particular interests and
quarrels, the nations were little acquainted with each other, and
seldom had any influence on their mutual destinies. The faults
and imperfections inherent in the feudal system hud pervaded all
Europe, and crippled the power and the energies of government.
The sovereigns, continually at war with their factious and power-
ful vassals, could neither form plans of foreign conquest, nor carry
them into execution ; and their military operations were in ge-
neral without unity or effect. [Hence it happened, that in the
middle ages, changes were produced in the different States,
which so little alarmed their neighbours, that it may be said
they were scarcely conscious of their existence. Such were the
conquests of the English in France, which might certainly have
compromised the independence of Europe.]

A combination of causes and circumstances, both physical
and moral, produced a revolution in the manners and govern-
ments of most of the Continental States. The disorders of
feudal anarchy gradually disappeared ; constitutions better or-
ganized were mtroduced ; the temporary levies of vassals were
succeeded by regular and permanent armies ; which contributed
to humble the exorbitant power of the nobles and feudal barons.
The consequence was, that States formerly weak and exhausted,
acquired strength ; while their sovereigns, freed from the tur-
bulence and intimidation of their vassals, began to extend their
political views, and to form projects of aggrandizement and
conquest.

From this period the reciprocal influence of the European
States on each other began to be manifest. Those who were
afraid for their independence, would naturally conceive the idea
of a balance of power capable of protecting them against the in
roads of ambitious and warlike princes. Hence those frequent
embassies and negotiations ; those treaties of alliance, subsidies,
and guarantees ; those wars carried on by a gene °al combina-
tion of powers, who deemed themselves obliged to bear a part
in the common cause ; and hence too those projects for establish-
ing checks and barriers on each other, which occupied the dif-
ferent courts of Europe.

[The system of equilibrium or the balance of power, originated
in Italy. That peninsula, separated from the rest of the continent
by the sea and the Alps, had outstripped the other countries in
the career of civilization. There a multitude of indepnndeut

880

CHAPTER VII.

States had been formed, unequal in point of power and extent ;
but none of them had sufficient strength to resist the united
power of the rest, or usurp dominion over them ; while at the same
time, none of them were so contemptible in point of weakness,
as not to be of some weight in the scale. Hence that rivalry and
jealousy among them, which was incessantly watching over the
progress of their neighbours ; and hence, too, a series of wars
and confederacies, whose object was to maintain some degree ol
equality among them ; or at least a relative proportion, which
might inspire the weaker with courage and confidence. Ihe
Popes who were exceedingly active in these transactions, em-
ployed all their policy to prevent any foreign po\yer from inter-
fering, or establishing itself in Italy. The doctrine of political
equilibrium passed the Alps about the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury The House of Austria, which had suddenly risen to a
high pitch of grandeur, was the first against which its efforts

were directed.] . . , n j i l r u

This House, which derived its origin from Rodolph of Haps-
burg, who was elected Emperor of Germany towards the end of
the thirteenth century, owed its greatness and elevation chiefly
to the Imperial dignity, and the different family alliances which
this same dignity procured it. Maximilian of Austria, son of
the Emperor Frederic III., married Mary of Burgiindy (1477,)
daughter and heiress of Charles the Rash, last Duke of Bur-
gundy. This alliance secured to Austria the whole of the Low
Countries, including Franche-Comte, Flanders, and Artois.
Philip the Fair, the son of this marriage, espoused the Infanta
of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castiile. 1 hey
had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the former of whom,
known in history by the name of Charles V., inherited the Low
Countries in right of his father Philip (1506.) On the death of
Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather (1616,) he became heir to
the whole Spanish succession, which comprehended the king-
doms of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with
Spanish America. To these vast possessions were added his
partimonial dominions in Austria, which were transmitted to
him by his paternal grandfather the Emperor Maximilian 1.
About the same time (1619,) the Imperial dignity was conferred
on this prince by the electors ; so that Europe had not seen,
since the time of Charlemagne, a monarchy so powerful as that

** This Emperor concluded a treaty with his brother Ferdinand,
by which he ceded to him all his hereditary possessions inGer-
many. The two brothers thus became the ftiunders of the two
principal branches of the House of Austria, viz. that of Sjpain,

r and extent ;
St the united
le at the same
of weakness,
at rivalry and
hing over the
eries of wars
ome degree of
•onion, which
fidence. The
isactions, em-
^er from inter-
ne of political
fifteenth cen-
nly risen to a
licli its efforts

lolph of Haps-
irds the end of
evation chiefly
illiances which
Vustria, son of
'piindy (1477,)
Duke of Bur-
lole of the Low
i, and Artois.
;ed the Infanta
Castille. They
mcr of whom,
erited the Low
)n the death of
lecame heir to
ided the king-
together with
ere added his
transmitted to
Maximilian I.
was conferred
had not seen,
iwerful as that

ler Ferdinand,
!ssions in Ger*
ers of the two
that of Spain,

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — IB48.

221

(vhieh began with Charles V., (called Charles I. of Spain,) and
ended with Charles II. ( 1700 ;) and that of Germany, of which
Ferdinand I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct in the
'nnle line in the Emperor Charles VI. (1740.) These two
brunches, closely allied to each other, acted in concert for the
advancement of their reciprocal interests ; moreover ihey gained
each their own separate advantages by the marriage connexions
which they formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line, married
Anne (1521,) sister of Louis Kin"; of Hungary and Bohemia,
who having been .slain by the 1 urks at the battle of Mohacs
(1526,) these two kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the House
of Austria. Finally, the marriage which Charles V. contracted
with the Infant Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel, King of Por-
tugal, procured Philip II. of Spain, the son of that marriage,
the whole Portuguese monarchy, to which he succeeded on the
death of Henry, called the Cardinal (1580.) So vast an ag
grandi/ement of power alarmed the sovereigns of Europe, who
began to suspect that the Austrian Princes, of the Spanish and
(xerman line, aimed at universal monarchy. The unbounded
ambition of Charles V., and his son Philip II., as well as that
of Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand I., tended to confirm
these suspicions ; and all felt the necessity of uniting to oppose
a barrier to this overwhelming power. For a long time the
whole policy of Europe, its wars and alliances, had no other
object than to humble the ambition of one nation, whose pre-
ponderance seemed to threaten the liberty and independence of
the rest.

[The system of political equilibrium, which from this period
became the leading object of every European cabinet, until it
was undermined by unjust and arbitrary interferences, and
threatened to bury the independence of Europe in its ruins, did
not aim at maintaining among the different states an equality
of power or territorial possession. This would have been chi-
merical. The object of this system was to maintain a perfect
equality of rights, in virtue of which the weakei might enjoy
in security all that they held by a just claim. It was purely a
defensive and preservative system ; nor did it affect to put an
end to all wars ; it was directed solely against the ambition and
usurpation of conquerors. Its fundamental principle was to
prevent any one slate from acquiring sufHcient power to resist
the united efforts of the others.]

France was the leading power that undertook the task of re-
gulating the balance against the House of Austria. Francis I.
and Henry II. used every effort to excite combinations against
Charleo V. Francis was the first sovereign in Eiiroiw that

• ♦u

-dJ

I <

S2S2

ClIAFfER Vll.

entered into treaties of nllinnce with the Turks against Austria ;
and in this way the Porte was, to a certain extent, amalgamateil
with the political system of Europe. So long as their object
was to subvert the feudal aristocracy, and the Protestant reli-
gion in France, Francis and Henry were strenuous defenders
of the Germanic system, and extended their protection to Uw
sovereigns of the Protestant States of the Empire, under the
persuasion that all Europe would bend to the Austriari yoke, if
the Emperors of that House should succeed in rendering theii

Eower absolute and hereditary in the Empire. Henry IV.
,ouis XIII., and the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, adopted
the same line of lolicy." They joined in league with the
Protestant Princes, antl armed W turns the greater part of Eu-
rope against Austria, and the Emperor Ferdinand II., whose
ambitious designs threatened to subvert the constitution of the
Empire. This was the grand motive for the famous Thirty
Years' War. which was put an end to by the treaties of West-
phalia (1648,) and of the Pyrenees (1659.) France succeeded,
not however without prodigious eflbrts, in supporting the ba-
lance against Austria; while the federative system of the
Empire, consolidated by the former of these treaties, and gua-
ranteed by France and Sweden, became a sort of artificial bar-
rier, ior preserving the equilibrium and the general tranquillity

of Europe. , . , • r-

It was during this period that almost every kingdom in Eu-
rope changed their condition, and assumed, by degrees, the form
which they have still retained. The German Empire continued
to experience those calamities to which every government is
exposed, when its internal springs have lost their vigour and
activity. Private wars and feuds, which the laws authorized,
were then regarded as the chief bulwark of the national liberty ;
the noblesse and the petty states in general, knew no other jus-
tice than what the sword dispensed. Oppression, rapine and
violence, were become universal ; commerce languished ; and
the different provinces of the Empire presented one melan-
choly scene of ruin and desolation. The expedients that were
tried to remedy these disorders, the tmces, the treaties (called
the Peace of God,) and the different confederacies of the Im-
perial states, served only to palliate, but not to cure the evil.
The efforts which some of the Emperors made to establish the
public tranquillitv on some solid basis, proved equally abortive.
It was not until near the end of the fifteenth century that the
states of the Empire, impressed with juster notions of govern-
•nent and civil subordination, consented to thp total and enUn
iiboliDon o>' feuds and intestine wars Thi', was accomplished

inst Austria;

amalgamated
Is their object
[rotestant reli*

lus defenden

itection to tlin

re, under the

strian yoke, if

mdering theii

Henry IV.

tzarin, adopted

gue witii the

er part of Eu-

nd II., whose

litution of the

(imous Thirty

ities of West-

nee succeeded,

rarting the ba-

lysteni of the

itics, and gua*

' artificial bar-

ral tranquillity

igdom in Eu«
gtees, the form
pirc continued
government is
!ir vigour and
vs authorized,
itional liberty ;
V no other jus*
n, rapine and
iguished ; and
d one mclan*
jnts that were
reaties (called
ies of the Im»
cure the evil.
) establish the
iially abortive,
ntury that the
)ns of govern*
tai and entire
accomplishud

PLRioD VI A. t . 1443 — 1648L

S2»

under the reign of Mnxiniilian I., by the Perpetual PiMir.
Prece, drawn up at the Diet of Worms in 1495. All violent
means of redress among the members of the Germanic Body
were rigorously interdicted ; and all who had any ^omplai^l^ to
malce against each other, were enjoined to apply to the reguln-
courts of justice. This ordinance of the Public Peace, which
wos afterwards renewed and enlarged in several diets, has l>pen
regarded, smce that time, as one of the principal and funda-
mental laws of the Empire.

The establishment of the Public Peace rendered a reforma-
tion necessary in the administration of justice, which had long
been in a languid and di.sordercd state. For this purpose, the
Imperial Chamber, which sat at first at Spire, and was after-
wards transferred to Wetzlar, was instituted at the Diet of
Worms (1495.) Its object was to judge of auy diflerences that
might arise among the immediate members of the Germanic
body ; as also to receive any appeals that might be referred to
them from the subordinate trimmals. It was composed of a
chief or head, called the Judge of the Chamber, and of a cer-
tain number of assessors chosen from among the jurists and
independent nobility. The institution of the Aulic Council,
anotner sovereign court of the Empire, followed soon after that
of the Imperial Chamber. Its origin is generally referred to
the Diet of Cologne (1512.) Of the same date also is the plan
which they adopted of dividing the Empire into ten Circles, as
a proper expedient for maintaining the public peace, and faci-
litating the execution of the sentences of the two Imperial
Courts. Over each of these circles were placed princes, direc-
tors, and colonels, whose duty it was to superintend and com-
mand the troops of their respective districts.

The custom of Imperial Capitulations was introduced at the
time of the accession of Charles V. to the Imperial throne (1519.^
The Electors, apprehensive of the formidable power of that
prince, thought proper to limit it by a capitulation, which they
made him sign and solemnly swear to observe. This compact
between the new Emperor and the Electors, renewed under every
subsequent reign, has been always considered as the grand char-
ter of the liberties of the Germanic body.

The dissensions on the score of religion that happened about
the beginning of the sixteenth century, gave rise to a long series
of troubles and civil wars, which proved of advantage to the
House of Austria, by the confirmaiiou of their power in the Em-
pire. The first of these is known by the name of the war of
Smalcalden, of which the following is a brief sketch. The Ep-
peror Charles V.. in the first diet which he held at Worms (527,)

•li

1]^

834

CHAPTER VII.

had issued an edict of nioscription ngain!<* Luther and his adhr*
rents, ordaining that tliey sliould be treated as enemies of thi*
Empire, and prosecuted to the utmost rigour of the law. The
execution of this edict was incessantly urged by the Emperor
nnd the Pope's legates, until the whole Empire was in a stale nf
combustion. The Catholic princes, at the mitigation of Cardi-
nal Campeggio, as^<embled at Katisbonne (1624,) and there
•tdopte<i measures of extreme rigour, for putting the edict in'y
execution within their respective states. The case was by no
means the same with the princes and states who adhered to the
Reformation, or who gave it their protection. To apply the con-
ditions of the edii.t to them, it would have been necessary to
come to a civil war, which the more pnident members of the
Germanic body sought to avoid. This religious schism was still
more aggravated at the Diet of Augsburg, where the Emperoi
issued a decree, condemning the Confession of Faith which the
Protestant princes had presented to him. This decree limited a
time within which they were commanded, in so far as regarded
the articles in dispute, to conform to the doctrines of the Catholic
Church. Thus urged to extremities, the Protestant leaders de-
termined to assemble at Smalcaldcii before the end of this very
year ( 1530,) where they laid the foundation of a Union, or de-
fensive alliance, which was afterwards renewed at different times.
.John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, and Philip, Landgrave of
Hesse, declared themselves chiefs of this Union, In opposition
to this confederacy, the Catholic princes instituted the Holy
League; so called because its object was the defence of the
Catholic religion.

Every thing seemed to announce a civil war, when a new
irruption of the Turks into Hungary and Austria, induced the
Catholics to sign, at Nuremberg (1530,) a truce, or accommoda-
tion, with the princes of the Union ; in virtue of which, a peace
between the states of the two religions was concluded, and ap-
proved by the Emperor; to continue till a General Council, or
some new assembly should decide otherwise. This peace was
renewed in various subequent assemblies. The Protestant
princes, however, still persisted in their refusal to acknowledge
the authority of Councils convoked by the Popes ; and their
confederacy daily receiving new accessions, the Emperor, after
having made peace with France, at Crepy (1544,) anrl concluded
an armistice of five years with the Turks, resolved to declare
war against these schismatics, who, presuming on their union
and their amicable relations with foreign powers, thoiight them-
selves capable of dictating laws to the Empire. He issued an
edict of proscription (1546) against the Elector of Saxony and

IJL

■m-

ind his adhc-
leinics of thf
f law. The
the Emperor
s in a stale nf
ion of Cordi-
,) and there
the edict in'o
so was by no
dhercd to the
ipply the con-
necessary to
embers of the
hism was still
the Emperoi
lith which tho
scree limited a
ir as regarded
)f the Catholic
int leaders de-
d of this very
Union, or de»
Jiflerent times.
Lnndjjrave of
In opposition
iited the Holy
defence of the

■, when a new
a, induced the
or accommoda-
which, a peace
:luded, and ap-
ral Council, or
This peace was
rhe Protestant
to acknowledge
pes ; and their

Emperor, after
) and concluded
lived to declare

on their union

I, thought them-

He issued an

of Saxonv and

Lunaiiitf of c'uiuuibui*. r. auu.

Luther burning the Pope's Bull. P. 21.').

4
III

PRKioD VI. A. D. 1453—1648.

the Landjrrave of Hesse, the Iwo chiefs of ihn Union; and
hanna entered into a secret alliance with Duke Maurice, a
vounper branch of the family of Saxony, and a near relation of
Ihe Elector, he succeeded in transferring the theatre of war from
the Danube to the Elbe. The Elector being defeated by the
Emperor, in an action which took place at Mecklenburg (1647.)
fell into the hands of the conqueror ; and the Landgrave of Hesse
met with the name fate two months after. The Union of fc»mal.
ralden was then dissolved, and the Emperor, who now saw him-
jelf master of Germany, assembled a Diet at Aug«burg, in whicli
he acted the mrl of a dictator. A large detachment of his troops,
billeted on the city, nerved as his body guard, wh'le the rest ol
his army was encamped in the neighbourhood. At this die^ he
conferred on Duke Maurice the Electorate of Saxony of which
he had deprived his F\«oner, John Frederick The investuure
of the new Elector took place at Augsburg (1648 ;) and what
deserves to be particularly remarked in this diet is, that he bm-
peror entered into a scheme for the entire rum and extirpation
of Protestantism, by compelling the princes and states oi the
Reformation to rejoin the Catholic Church.by means of a formula
which he made them adopt, known by the name of ihe hitertm;
and which, by its preliminary arrangement, allowed them only
the use of the communion in both kinds, and the "".""l^f "
their priests, until the whole matter should be decided by a

^*The victories of Charies V., which seemed to have made him
absolute master of the Empire, were soon ^ll'^^'l ftf ^"!f';
which eclipsed all the former glory of his reign. The E^ctor
Maurice, though indebted to him for his new dignity, thought
he murht take advantage of the distressed condition to which
that prince was reduced by the low state of his finances, to make
a new attempt to limit his authority, and restore the Protestant
relitrion. With this view, having inlisted some of the pnnce»
of the Empire in his cause, and concluded a secret treaty with
Henry II. of France, at Chambord,he marched with such rapi-
dity against the Emperor, that he nearly srnrpnsed him at Ins-
nruck, and obliged him to hare recourse to the mediation of his
Cher Ferdinand, when a treaty was concluded wiU. Maurice^
which was signed at Passau (lS62.) There the liberty of h*
Protestant worship was sanctioned; and rt was agreed that a
Geneml Council should be summoned to draw up the artioles of
n solid and permanent peace between the state, of both religions.
This dietrwhich was long retarded by political events, did not
Jemble at Augsburg till the year 1^.. .There a definmre
peace was concTuded on the subject o( religion, and it was or-

1^.;

!!••

226

CHAPTER VII.

dained thai both Protestant and Catholic states should enjoy a
perfect liberty of worship ; and that no reunion should ever be .
attempted by any other than amicable means. The seculari-
zing of the ecclesiastical revenues, which the Protestant princes
had introduced into their states, was ratified; but there was
one of the articles of the treaty which expressly provided, that
every prelate or churchman, who renounced his ancient faith to
embrace the Confession of Augsburg, should lose his l^nefice.
This latter clause, known by the name of Ecclesiastical Reserve,
did not pass but with the most determined oppositirn.

Differences of more kinds than one sprung from this treaty of
peace,— the articles of which each party interpreted to their own
advantage. Hence those stratagems which at length occasioned
a new war— that of the Thirty Years. The Protestant Prmces
and States, wishing to provide for their own security, and to put
an end to those arbitrary measures, of which they thought they
had reason to complain, assembled at Heilbrunn (1594,) and
there laid the foundation of a new union, which was conhrmed
in the assemblies held at Halle, in Suabia, in the years 1608
and 1610. The chief promoter of this union was Henry IV. of
France, who designed to use it as a check on the ambition of the
House of Austria ; and as a means for carrying into execution
the grand project which he meditated with regard to the pacifi-
cation of Europe. He concluded an alliance with the Prmces
of the Union, and determined the number of troops to be furnish-
<=(d by each of the contracting parties. The Catholic princes and
States, afraid of being taken unawares, renewed their League,
which they signed at Wurtzburg (1609.) The rich dutchy of
Juliers, which had become vacant this same year, was contested
by several claimants ; and as Austria was equally desirous of
possessing it, this vras made the occasion of raising powerful
armies in France, Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries. A
considerable number of troops had already taken the field, about
the beginning of the year 1610, when the unexpected death of
Henry IV. disconcerted all their measures. This changed the

Politics of the French court, and also induced the Princes of the
Inion to conclude a treaty with the League,— the articles of
which were signed at Munich and Wildstctt (1610.)

In this manner the resentment of both parties was suspended
for the moment ; but the cause of their disunion still remained,
which at length (1618) kindled a war that extended from Bohe-
mia over all Germany, and involved, in course of time, a great
part of Europe. The history of this tedious war, in which poli-
tics had as great a share as zeal for religion, may k- divided into
four principal periods, namely, the Palatini, the Danish, the

'• i^mm:-

Iiould enjoy a
hould ever be
The seculari-
estant princes
lut there was
provided, that
ncient faith to
3 his benefice.
itical Reserve,
lir-n.

\ this treaty of
(d to their own
gth occasioned
;estant Princes
ity, and to put
J thought they
n (1594,) and
was confirmed
le years 1608

Henry IV. of
imbition of the

into execution
d to the pacifi-
ith the Princes
s to be furnish-
)lic princes and
[ their League,
rich dutchy of
, was contested
ily desirous of
ising powerful
Countries. A
the field, about
pected death of
is changed the
; Princes of the
-the articles of
)10.)
was suspended

still remained,
Jed from Bohe-
of time, a great
•, in which poli-

W divided into
ihe Danish, the

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648.

227

Swedish, and the French war. Frederick V. Elector Pa atinP.
anT head of the Protestant Union, having been raised to he
throne by die Bohemian States (1619,) which had rebelled
aiSnst \L Emperor Ferdinand II., engaged ma war w th that

fnVo hut beiL deserted by his allies, and defeated at the bat-
fie of%agieri620The was^driven from Bohemia, and stripped

' a 1 hSomLioni The victorious --f Austria soon ex-
Ipnded their conquests over a great part of the Empire.

SSI ^ss±f^s^X^

of Friedlancl, »"« i^^?^ j^ , j;^ -^^ ^nd even threatening
He Sfd m'« o7ti: No^th. Nothing could be more splen^d
tan thf campaigns of the Swedish hej3 in Ge™;^^ -^3^^^
victories which he obtained at Leipsic (1631,) and l^"«envioo^ ,;
bS having been slain in the latter action, the affairs of ^e
SwedS Sfgan to decline ; and they were totally '--d ^y Ae
defeat which they sustained at Nordlingen (16J4.) »^ '»'?'''"
?me ihrElector of Saxony, John George I., renounced the al-
• „«• Svvpden and in yielding up Lusace to the Emperor,
lirrentr/^a'seTarat" tUy o'f peU which was signed at

^'Kailuhis period that France, which till then had but fee-
WvsunnoJtedthr Swedes and the Protestant Princes, though

fSLh GenSi Gaebriant, Turenne, .nd .he Duke d'Eng^",

k!;s^fes!:^c;sSr:^chS^:5:,t;

= g'tiSimore tedious or raore ^ Pl^t^^^Je^ltSstm'
preceded the treaty of Westphalia. Tho prchminanes wen

i I

CBAPTEB VII.

signed at Hamburgh in 1641 ; but the opening of the Confess
at Munster and Osnaburg, did not take place till 1644. The
Counts D'Avaux and Servien, the plenipotentiaries of France,
shared with Oxenstiern and Salvius, the Swedish Envoys, the
principal glory of this negotiation, which was protracted on pur-
pose, as the belligerent powers were daily expecting to see the
e7ents of the war change in their favour. It was not until the
24th of October 1648, that the peace was finally signed at Mun-
ster and Osnaburg.

This peace, which was renewed in every subsequent treaty,
and made a fundamental law of the Empire, fixed definitively
the constitution of the Germanic Body. The territorial rights
of the states, known by the name of superiority— -the privilege
of making alliances with each other, and with foreign powers —
and advising with the Emperor at the Diets, in every thing that
concerned the general administration of the Empire, were con-
firmed to them in the most authentic manner, and guaranteed
by the consent of foreign powers. As to ecclesiastical affairs,
the Religious Peace of 1555 was confirmed anew, and extended
to those who were known by the nanie of the Reformed, or Cal-
vinists. The state of religion, the forms of public worship, and
the enjoyment of ecclesiastical benefices, throughout the whole
Empire, were regulated according to the decree, called TJti
possidetis of the 1st of January 1624, which was termed the
normal, or decretory year. In this treaty, France obtained, by
way of indemnity, the sovereignty of the three bishoprics, Metz,
Toul, and Verdun, as well as that of Alsace. The compensa-
tion of the other parties interested, was settled in a great mea-
sure at the expense of the Church, and by means of secularizing
several bishoprics and ecclesisastical benefices.

Besides Pomerania and the city of Wismar, Sweden got the
archbishopric of Bremen, and the bishopric of Verden. To the
House of Brandeburg, they assigned Upper Pomerania, the
archbishopric of Magdeburg, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Min-
den, and Camin. The House of Mecklenburg received, in lieu
of the city of Wismar, the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg.
The princely abbey of Hirschfeld was adjudged to the Land-
grave of Hesse-Cas««el, and the choice of the bishopric of Osna-
burg, to the House of Brunswick-Luneburg. An eighth Elec-
iorate was instituted in favour of the Elector Palatine, whom
the Emperor, during the war, had divested of his dignity, which,
with the Upper Palatinate, he had conferred on the Duke of
Bavaria. ,

The greater part of the provinces known by the name of the
t Low Countries, made part of the ancient kingdom of Lorraine

!;:.

[the Congress
1644. The
?s of France,
Envoys, ihe
rncted on pur-
(ng to see the
not until the
gned at Mun-

muent treaty,
d definiiively
ritorial rights
-the privilege
ign powers —
ery thing that
ire, were con-
id guaranteed
istical affairs,
and extended
rrmed, or Cal-
; worship, and
out the whole
se, called Uti
as termed the
e obtained, by
hoprics, Metz,
^he compensa*
1 a great roea-
)f secularizing

weden got the
rden. To the
imerania, the
berstadt, Min-
ceivcd, in lieu
nd Ratzeburg.

to the Land*
jpric of Osna-

eighth Elec-
ilatine, whom
ignity, which,

the Duke of

i name of the
n of Lorraine

■4 J. '

PERIOD VI. A. 0. I4fi3— 1648.

229

which had I>ecn united to the German Empire smce the tenth
century. The principal of these had been acquired by the Dukes
of Burgtmdy, who made them over, with other estates, to the
House of Austria (1477.) Charles V. added the provinces of
Friesland, Groningen, and Gueldres, to the states to which he
and succeeded in Burgundy. He united the seventeen pro-
vinces of the Low Countries mto one and the same government ;
and ordered, by the Pragmatic decree which he published ( 1549,)
th it they should never henceforth be disunited. This same
prince, at th» diet of Augsbarg (1548,) entered into a negotia-
tion with the Germanic Body, in virtue of which he consented
to put these provinces under their protection ; under condition
of their observing the public peace, and paying into the exche-
quer of the Empire double the contribution of an Electorate.
He guaranteed to the princes of the Low Countries a vote and
a seat at the Diet, as chiefs of the circle of Burgundy. These
provinces, moreover, were to be considered as free and indepen-
deth sovereignties, without being subject to the jurisdiction either
of the Empire or of the Imperial Chamber, who were not au-
thorized to proceed against them, except when they were found
in nt rears with the payment of their contingent, or when they
infringed the law of the public peace.

Charles V. having transferred these countries to his son,
Philip IL of Spain, they were then incorporated with the Span-
ish monarchy ; and it was under the reign of this latter prince
that those troubles began which gave rise to the Republic of the
United Provinces of the Low Countries. The true origin of
these troubles is to be found in the despotism of Philip IL, and
in his extravagant and fanatical zeal for the Catholic religion.
This prince, the declared enemy of the rights and liberties of
the Belgic Provinces, was mortified to witness the religious pri-
vileges which they enjoyed ; under favour of which the doc-
trines of the Reformation were daily making new progress.
Being resolved to extirpate this new faith, together with the
political liberties which served to protect it, he introduced the
tribunal of the Inquisition ( 1559,) as the most sure and infalli-
ble support of despotism. With the consent and authority of
Pope Paul IV., he suppressed, for this purpose, the metropolitan
and diocesan rights which the archbishops and bishops of the
Empire and of France had exercised in the Low Countries ; he
instituted three new bishoprics at Utrecht, Cambray, and Mech-
lin ; and under their jurisdiction he put thirteen new bishoprics
which he had erected, besides those of Arras and Tournay.
Having in this way augmented the number of his satellites m
the assembly of the States-Genera), he suppressed a great mul-

voL. I. 20

1.1

hi4dMl^J>^M*«MM«fak.

S30 CHAPTER VU.

litude of abbeys and monasteries, the revenues of which ho ap-
plied to the endowment of his newly made bishoprics.

These innovations, added to the publication of the decree? oi
the Council of Trent, according to his orders, excited a very
general discontent. The repeated remonstrances on the pan
o< the States, having produced no effect on the inflexible mind
of Philip, the nobility took the resolution of formmg a confe-
deracy at Breda, known by the name of the Compromise. The
confederates drew up a request, which was addressed to Mar-
garet of Austria, the natural daughter of Charles V., and Re-
gent of the Low Countries, under the King of Spain. Four
hundred gentlemen, headed by Henry de Brederode, a descen-
dant of the ancient Counts olf Holland, and Louis of Nassau,
brother to the Prince of Orange, repaired to Brussels (1566,)
and th-?re presented this request, which may be considered as
the commencement of the troubles in the Low Countries. It
was on this account that the name of Gueux or Beggars was
given to the Confederates, which has become so famous in the
history of these wars.

About this same time, the populace collected in mobs in seve-
ral towns of the Low Countries, and fell upon the churches and
monasteries ; and having broken down their altars and images,
they introduced the exercise of the Protestant religion by force.
The storm, however, was calmed ; the Catholic worship was
re-established every where ; and the confederacy of the nobles
dissolved, several of whom, distrustful of this apparent tran-

Juillity, retired to foreign countries. William Prince of Orange,
,ouis of Nassau, the Counts de Culemburg and Berg, and the
Count de Brederode, were in the number of these ernigrants.
Philip IL, instead of adopting measures of moderation and
clemency, according to the advice of the Regent, was deter-
mined to avenge, in the most signal manner, this outrage against
his religion and the majesty of his throne. He sent the famous
Duke of Alba or Alva into the Low Countries, at the head of an
army of 20,000 men (1567.) The Regent then gave in her re-
signation. A general terror overspread the country. Vast
numbers of manufacturers and merchants took refuge in Eng-
land, carrying along with them their arts and thei? industry.
Hence the commerce and manufactures of the Low Countries,
which had formerly been the most flourishing in Europe, fell
entirely into decay.

The Duke of Alva, immediately on his arrival, established a
tribunal or court, for investigating the excesses that had been
committed during these commotions. This council, which ihe
Flemings called the " Council of Blood," informed against all

rERioD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

381

[which ho ap.
Vies,
lie decreep oi
xcited a verv
on the pan
[flexible mind
ling a confe-
romise. The
ssed to Mar-
V., and Re-
Spain. Four
[de, a descen-
is of Nassau,
ussels (1566,)
onsidered as
[Countries. It
Beggars waa
famous in the

mobs in seve-
churches and
s and images,
gion by force.
c worship was
of the nobles
ipparent tran-
ice of Orange,
Berg, and the
ise emigrants.
>deration and
nt, was deter*
itrage against
!nt the famous
he head of an
fave in her re-
Lintry. Vast
ffuge in Eng-
leii industry.
)w Countries,
I Europe, fell

established s
lat had been
il, which ihe
d against all

those who had been in any way concerned with the Gueux or
Bfgf,ars, who had frequented their preachings, contributed to
the support of their ministers or the building of their churches t
or harboured and protected these heretics, either directly, or in-
directly. Before this council, whose only judges were the
Duke of Alva and his confidant John de Vargas, were cited
high and low, without distinction ; and all those whose wealth
excited their cupidity. There they instituted proceedings against
the absent and the present, the dead and the living, and con-
fiscated their goods. Eighteen thousand persons perished by
the hands of the executioner, and more than 30,000 others were
entirely ruined. Among the number of those illustrious vic-
tims of Alva's cruelty, were the Counts Egmont and Horn, who
were both beheaded. Their e.xecution excited a general in-
dignation, and was the signal of revolt and civil war throughout
the Low Countries.

The Beggars, who seem<>d almost forgotten, began to revive ;
and were afterwards distinguished into three kinds. All the
malcontents, as well as the adherents of Luther and Calvin,
were called simply by this name. Those were called Beggars
of the Woods, who concealed themselves in the forests and
marshes ; never sallying forth but in the night, to commit all
sorts of excesses. Lastly, the Maritime or Marine Beggars,
were those who employed themselves in piracy ; infesting the
coasts, and making descenis on the country.

It was in this situation of affairs that the Prince of Orange,
one of the richest proprietors in the Low Countries, assisted by
his brother the Counts of Nassau, assembled different bodies of
troops in the Empire, with which he attacked the Low Coun-
tries in several places at once (1668.) Failing in these first
attempts, he soon changed his plan ; and associating the Marine
Beggars in tho cause, he ventured to attack the Spaniards by
sea. The Beggars, encouraged by that Prince, and William
Count de la Mark, surnamed the Boar of Ardennes, took the
city of Brille by surprise (1572,) situated in the Isle of Voom,
and regarded as the stronghold of the new republic of the Bel-
gic Provinces. The capture of the port of Brille caused a re-
volution in Zealand. All the cities of that province, except
Middleburg, opened their gates to the Beggars ; and their ex-
ample was followed by most of the towns in Holland. An as-
sembly of the States of this latter province met this same year
at Dort, where they laid the foundation of their new republic.
The Prince of Orange was there declared Stadtholder or Go-
vernor of the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and
Utrecht ; and they agreed never to treat with the Spaniards, ex-

T»

232

CBAFTEB Vll.

cent by common consent. The public exercise of the reformed
rengion was introduced, according to the form of Geneva.

This rising republic became more firmly established in con-
sequence of several advantages which the Confederates had
gamed over the Spaniards, whose troops being badly paid, at
length mutinied ; and breaking out into the greatest disorders,
they pillaged several cities, among others Antwerp, and laid
waste the whole of the Low Countries. The States-General,
then assembled at Brussels, implored the assistance of the Prince
of Orange and thitj Confederates. A negotiation was then
opened at Ghent (1576,) between the States of Brussels, and
those of Holland and Zealand ; where a general union, known
by the name of the Pacification of Ghent, was signed. They
engaged mutually to assist each other, with the view of expelling
the Spanish troops, and never more permitting them to enter the
Low Countries. The Confederates, who were in alliance with
Queen Elizabeth of England, pursued the Spaniards every
where, who soon saw themselves reduced to the single provinces
of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Namur.

They were on the point of being expelled from these also,
when the government of the Low Countries was intrusted to
Alexander Farnes^, Prince of Parma. Equally distinguished as
a politician and a warrior, this Prince revived the Spanish inte-
rests. Taking advantage of the dissensions which had arisen
among the Confederates from the diversity of their religious
opinions, he again reduced the provinces of Flanders, Artois,
and Hainault, under the Spanish dominion. He took the city
of Maestricht by assault, and entered into a negotiation with
the States-General of the Low Countries at Cologne, under the
mediation of the Emperor Rodolph U., the Pope, and some of
the princes of the Empire. This negotiation proved unsuccess*
ful ; but the Prince of Orange, foreseeing that Ihe general con-
federacy could not last, conceived the plan of a more intimate
union among the Provinces ; which he regarded as the most fit
to make head against the Spaniards. He fixed on the maritime
provinces, such as Holland, Zealand, and Friesland ; and above
all, on those whom the same religious creed, viz. the Calvinistic,
had attached to the same interests. The commerce of Hol-
land, and Zealand, and Friesland, began to make new progress
daily. Amsterdam was rising on the ruins of Antwerp. The
flourishing state of their marine rendered these provinces for-
midable by sea ; and gave them the means not only of repelling
the eflTorts of the Spaniards, but even of protecting the neigh-
bouring provinces which might join this Union. ^ Such were the
motives which induced the Prince of Orange to form the special

he reformed
"eneva.
|hed in con-
lerates had
Idly paid, at
Bt disorders,
Jrp, and laid
tes>6eneral,
if the Prince
was then
russels, and
lion, known
ned. They
of expelling
to enter the
lltance with
liards every
Vie provinces

these also,
intrusted to
linguished as
Spanish inte-
t had arisen
eir religious
ders, Artois,
ook the city
tiation with
e, under the
ind some of
I unsuccess-
^eneral con-
9re intimate
the most fit
le maritime
; and above
Calvinistic,
■ce of Hol-
!w progress
i^erp. The
»vinces for-
af repelling
the neigh-
:h were the
the S])ecial

PBBIOD. Vi. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

iiKl

i!onfederacy of the Seven Provinces, the basis of which he laid
i)y the famous treaty of Union concluded at Utrecht (1579.)
That Union was there declared perpetual and indissoluble ; and
it was agreed that the Seven Provinces, viz. those of Gueldres.
Holland, Zealand. Utrecht, Ovoryssel, Friesland, and Groningen,
should henceforth be considered as one and the same Province
Each of these, nevertheless, was guaranteed in the possession of
their rights and privileges — that is, their absolute superiority m
every thing regarding their own internal administration.

[We may remark, however, that these insurrectionary pro-
vinces had not originally the design of forming a republic.
Their intention, at first, was only to maintain their political pri-
vileges ; and they did not absolutely shake off the Spanish
authority until they despaired of reconciliation. Moreover, they
repeatedly offered the sovereignty of their States to different
foreign princes ; and it was not till the Union of Utrecht that
the Seven Provinces became a federal republic. Consequently
every thing remained on its ancient footing ; and some of the

Erovinces even retained their Stadtholders or governors, at the
ead of their administration. Hence that mixture of monarchy,
aristocracy, and democracy, which prevailed in these countries;
and hence, too, the feeble tie which united them with each other,
and which would probably have speedily broken, if Holland had
not, by its riches and its power, obtained an influence and pre-
ponderance which maintained the Union.]

The declaration of the independence of the United Provinces
did not take place till 1591 ; when the Prince of Orange induced
the States-General to make a formal proclamation of it, out of
revenge for the furious edicts of proscription which the Court of
Spain had issued against him. The Prince, however, was assas-
sinated at Delft in 1584 ;' and the Spaniards took advantage of
the consternation which this event had spread among the Con-
federates, to reconquer most of the provinces of the Low Coun-
tries. The general Confederacy languished away by degrees ;
and the Union of Utrecht was the only one maintained among
the Seven Provinces. This new republic, which was in strict
alliance with England, not only made head against the Spaniards,
but gained a considerable increase of strength by the vast num-
bers of refugees from the different Belgic provinces, who took
shelter there ; as well as from France, where the persecution
still raged violently against the Protestants. It is calculated
that after the taking of Antwerp by the Prince of Parma in
1585, above a hundred thousand of these fugitives transported
themselves to Holland and Amsterdam, carrying with them their
wealth and their industry.

20*

«
1

f*r,

^ite

SU4

CHAPTER 1.

From ihiH dnlc the commerce of the Confederate Stutet in-
creased every day ; and in 1595 they extended it as far a«< India
and the Eastern Seas. The Dutch India Company wiis estab-
lished in 1602. Besides the exchisiye commerce of India, which
was guaranteed to them by their charter, they became hkewise
a political body, under the" sovereignty of the States-General of
the United Provinces. Sunported by a formidable marine, they
accjuired vast influence in the East by their conquests over the
Portuguese, whom they dispossessed by degrees of all their
principal establishments in India. The Spaniards, finding their
efforts to reduce the Confederates by force of arms ineffectual,
set on foot a negotiation at Antwerp (1609,) under the media-
tion of Franco and England ; in consequence of which, a truce
of twelve years was concluded between Spain and the United
Provinces. It was chiefly during this time that the Confede-
rates extended their commerce over all parts of the globe, while
their marine daily increased in strength and importance ; which
soon raised them "to llie rank of being the second maritime power,
and gave them a decisive influence over the political affairs of
Europe.

At the expiration of this truce, hostilities were renewed with
Spain. The Dutch carried on the war for twenty-five years
with great glory, under the auspices of their Stodtholders,
Maurice and Henry Frederic, Princes of Orange, who discovered
great military talents. One event, which proved favourable for
the Republicans, was the war that broke out between France
and Spain, and which was followed by a strict alliance between
France and the States-General. The partition of the Span'sh
Netherlands was settled by this treaty ; and the allied powers
entered into an engagement never to make peace or truce with
Spain, except by common consent. This latter clause, however,
did not prevent the States-Generol from concluding at Munster
a separate peace with Spain, to the exclusion of France (1648.)
By this peace the King of Spain acknowledged the United Pro-
vinces as free and independent States ; he gave up to them all
the places which they had seized in Brabant, Flanders and Lim-
fiurg, viz. Bois-le-Duc, Bergen-op-Zoom, Breda, and Maestricht •.
as also their possessions in the East and West Indies, in Asia
Africa, and America. The closing of the Scheld, which was
granted in favour of the United Provinces, entirely ruined the
city of Antwerp, and shut out the Spanish Netherlands from all
maritime commerce.

The feudal system of the Swiss, which had originated in the
fourteenth century, acquired a new importance towards the end
of the fifteenth, by reason of the success of the confederates in

ite States in-
as far a« India
ny WI18 ostab-
if Indin, which
icame likewise
tes-General of
e marine, they
uests over the
s of all iheir
s, findin{;r their
ns iiit'flectual,
cr the media-
which, a truce
rid the United
the Confede-
»e globe, while
irtance ; which
aritimepower,
itical anairs of

renewed with

nly-five years

Stadtholders,

who discovered

favourable for
itween France
lifince between
•f the Spanish

allied powers
! or truce with !
juse, however,
ng at Munster
France (1648.)
e United Pro-
up to them all
ders and Lim-
d Maestricht :
dies, in Asia
d, which was
ly ruined the
lands from dl

pnated in the
varda the end
'n federates in

PBRtos VI. A. D. 1453—1648.

their war with Charles Duke of Burgundy. This prince, who
wiis of a liot and turbulent spirit, was constantly occupied with
projects of conquest. Taking advantago (if the ruinous state of
the finances of the Archduke Sigismund of Austria, he induced
him to sell him the territories of Brisgau and Alsiice, with the
riffhl ol iipurchase (1409.) Peter dc Hagenhuch, u gentleman
01 Alsace, who hud been appointed governor of these countries
by the Duke, had oppressed the Austrian subjects, and harassed
the whole neighbouring states ; especially the Swiss. The
complaints which were made on this score to the Duke, ly^ving
only rendered Hagenbach still more insolent, the Swiss, with
the concurrence of several states of the Empire, paid down, at
Basle, the sums stipulated in the contract for repurchasing the
two provinces ; and, by force of arms, they re-established the
Austrian prince in the possession of Alsace and Bri.sgau. They
even went so far as to institute legal proceedings against Hagen-
bach, who was in consequence beheaded at Brisach in 1474.

The Duke, determined to avenge this insult, assembled an
army of a hundred thousand men, with which he penetrated
through Franche-Comte into Switzerland. He was defeated in
the first action, which took place at Granson (1476;) after
which he reinforced his troops, and laid siege to Morat. Here
he was again attacked by the Swiss, who killed eighteen thou-
sand of his men, and seized the whole of his camp and baggage.
The Duke of Lorraine, an ally of the Swiss, was then restored
to those states of which the Duke of Burgundy had deprived
him. This latter prince, in a great fury, came and laid siege to
Nancy. The Swiss marched to the relief of this place, where
they fought a third and last battle with the Duke, who was here
defeated and slain (1477.)

These victories of the Swiss over the Duke of Burgundvi one
of the most powerful princes of his time, raised the fame of their
arms ; and made their friendship and alliance courted by the
first sovereigns in Europe, especially by France. Their con-
federacy, which had formerly been composed of only eight can-
tons, was augmented by the accession of two new states, Friburg
and Soleure, which were enrolled in the number of cantons.

From this time the Swiss were no longer afraid to break the
ties that bound them to the Germanic Body, as members of the
ancient kingdom of Aries. The Diet of Worms, in 1496, having
granted the Emperor Maximilian succours against the French
and the Turks, the Swiss alleged their immunities, and their
alliance with France, as a pretext for refusing their contingent
of supplies. This demand, however, was renewed at the Diet
of Lindau, in 1496, which required them to renounce their alii-

'*n

!l!l

CHAPTKB VII-

ance with Frnncc, and accpdc to tho Lenpiie of Swabia ; as also
to submit themselves to the Imperial Chnmher, and the law of
the public pence ; and to furnish their quota for the support of
thai Chnm()er, and tho other contributions of the Empire. All
these demands were resisted by the Helvetic Body, who regard-
ed them as contrary to their rights and privileges. Meantime
the Grisons had allied themselves with the Swiss, in order »o
obtain their protection under the existing differences between
them and the Tyrolese.

The Emperor Maximilian seized this pretext for making war
against the Cantons. Being desirous of vindicating the dignity
of the Empire, which had l)een outraged by the Swiss, and of
avenging the insults offered to his own family, he stirred up the
League of Swabia to oppose them ; and attacked them in diffe-
rent points at once. Eight battles were fought in succession, in
course of that campaign ; all of which, with one solitary excep-
tion, were in favour of the Swiss, while the Imnerialists lost more
than twenty thoiisand men. Maximilian and liis allies, the Swa-
bian League, then came to the resolution of making their peace
with the Cantons, which was concluded at Basle (1499.) Both
parties made a mutual restitution of what they had wrested from
each other ; and it was agreed, that the differences between the
Emperor, as Count of Tyrol, and the Grisons, should be brought
to an amicable termination. This peace forms a memorable era
in the history of the Helvetic Confederacy, whose independence,
with regard to the German Emperor, was from that time con-
sidered as decided ; although no mention of this was made in the
treaty, and although the Swiss still continue", for some time to
request from the Emperors the confirmation of their immunities.
Two immediate cities of the Empire, those of Basle and Schaufjf-
hausen, took occasion, from the&e latter events, to solicit their
admission into the Confederacy. They were received as allies,
under the title of Cantons (1601 ;) and the territory of Appenzel,
which was admitted in like manner (1613,) formed the thirteenth
and last Canton.

The alliance which the Swiss had kept up with France, since
the reigns of Charles VII. and Louis XI., tended greatly to se-
cure the independence of the Helvetic Body.^ This alliance,
which Louis XI. had made an instrument for humbling the
power of the Duke of Burgundy, was never but once broken, in
the reign of Louis XII., on account of the Holy League, into
which the Swiss were drawn by the intrigues of the Bishop of
Sion (1512.) The French were then expelled from the Milan-
ese territory by the Swiss, who placed there the Duke Maximi-
lian Sforza. It was in gratitude for this service, that the duke

IJi.

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453— 164S.

237

fabia ; aa also

id the low of

[»e support of

"empire. All

I, who regard-

Mean»iinn

IS, in order to

ices between

' making war
g the dignity
Swiss, and of
stirred up the
them in difTe-
succession, in
olitary excep-
ists lost more
lies, the Swa-
ip their peace
1499.) Both
wrested from
s between the
lid be brought
nemornble era
independence,
hat time con-
is made in the
some time to
r immunities,
and Schauff-

solicit their
ived as allies,
of Appenzel,
:he thirteenth

France, since
greatly to se-
rhis alliance,
umbling the
ce broken, in
League, into
le Bishop of

1 the Milan-
ike Maximi-
lat the duke

reded to the Swiss, by it treaty which was concluded at Bnsle,
the four bailiwicks of Lugano, Locarno, iMeiidrisio, and Vul<
Maggio, whii'h he disincinbered from tiie Milaiiois. Though
con(,uer )r« nt llie battle of Novura, »he SwisM experienced n san-
guinary defeat at Marignano; when they judged it for their in-
terest to renew, their alliance with France (1>313.) A treaty o(
perpetual pcuce was .signed at Friburg between these two States
(1(316,) which was soon after followed by a new treaty of alli-
ance, concluded with Francis I. at Lucerne (1621.) and regularly
renewed under the s»ibse(iuent reigns.

The change which took place in religion, at the beginning of
the sixteenth century, extended its influence to Switzerland,
where it kin Jled the flame of civil discord. Four cantons, those
of Zurich, Berne, Schaufrhausen.nnd Basle, renouncing entirely
the Romish faith, had embraced the doctrines of Zuingle and
Calvin ; while two others, viz. Claris and Appenzel, were divi-
ded between the old and the new opinions. The Reformation
having likewise found its way into the common bailiwicks, the
Catholic Cantons rose in opposition to it (1531 ;) denying liber-
ty of conscience to the inhabitants. Hence, a war arose be-
tween the Cantons of the two religions ; which, however, was
terminated the same year by a treaty of peace, guaranteeing to
such parishes within the bailiwicks as had embraced the new
doctrines, the liberty of still adhering to them. The same revo-
lution extended to Geneva, whose inhabitants had declared so-
lemnl}' in favour of the reformed worship, and erected themselves
into a free and independent republic (1534.) The church of
Geneva, under the direction of Calvin, became the centre and
citadel of the Reformation ; while the academy founded in that
city, produced a vast number of theologians and celebrated scho
lurs. It was at this time that the duke of Savoy planned the
blockade of Geneva, to enforce certain ancient rights which he
claimed over that city ; but the Bernese espoused the cause of
the Genevans, in virtue of the treaties of common citizenship
which subsisted between them. This Canton having entered
into alliance with Francis I., declared war against the duke of
Savoy (1536 ;) and in less than three months took from him the
Pays de Vaud. Being desirous of interesting their neighbours
the Friburgcrs in their cause, they invited them to take posses-
sion of all those places that might suit their convenience ; and
it was on this occasion that the city of Friburg acquired the prin-
cipal part of its territory. These acquisitions were confirmed to
the two Cantons, by the treaty which the Bernese concluded at
Ijausanne with the duke of Savoy (1564.)

The German Empire from time to time renewed its preton-

i I

ill.

CIUPTKII VII.

'-I

■ionri on Switzerland, and thr Impcrinl Chamber usurped hu
occnsionni jiiriiHdictioii over one or other of the Cnmons. Nc-
gotintioim for n ^'encrnl peace haviiijj commenced in Munster
and Osnahiirg, the thirteen Cantons sent their minister or envoy
to wntch over tlie interests of the Helvetic Body at that congress ;
and they obtained, through the intervention of France and Swe-
den, that in one of the articles of the treaty it shouhl be decla-
red, that the city of Basle, and the other Swiss Cantons, were in
possession of full liberty, and independent of the Empire, and
in no respect subject to its tribunals.

In Italy, the authority of the Emperor of Germany, which had
silently declined during: ibe preceding centuries, langiiished
more and more under the long and feeble reign of Frederic III.
At length it was reduced to the mere ceremony of coronation,
and the simple exercise of some honorary and feudal rights, such
as the investitures which the Imperial Court continued to grant
to the vassals of Lombardy. Although the Imperial dignity im«
plied the royalty of Italy, which was considered as indissolubly
united to it, nevertheless it was the custom that the Kings of
Germany should have themselves crowned separately. Kings of
Italy at Milan, and Emperors at Rome. Frederic III., having
had certain reasons for avoiding his coronation at Milan, received
from the hands of Pope Nicholas V., in his own capital, the two
crowns of Italy and Kome. Maximilian I., being prevented by
the Venetians from repairing to Italy for his coronation (1608,)
WHis content to take the title of Emperor Elect, which his succes-
sors in the Empire have retained till the present time. Charles
V. was the last Emperor to whom the Pope, Clement VII., ad-
ministered that double coronation of King of Italy and Emperor,
at Bologna, in 1530.

The Popes, the Kings of Naples, the Dukes of Milan, and the
Republics of Venice and Florence, were the principal powers
that shared among them the dominion of Italy towards tne end
of the fifteenth century. The continual wars which these states
waged with each other, added to the weakness of the German
Emperors, encouraged foreign powers to form plans of aggran-
dizement and conquest over these countries. The Kings of
France, Charles VUl.. Louis XII., and Francis I., led away by
a mania for conquest, undertook several expeditions into Italy,
for enforcing their claims either on the kingdom of Naples, or
the dutchy of Milan. They were thwarted in their schemes by
the Kings of Spain, who, being already masters of Sicily and
Sardinia, thought it behoved them also to extend their views to
the Continent of Italy. Ferdinand the Catholic deprived the
French of the kingdom of Naples (1600.) His successor, Charles

usurped ru
Anions. Ne-
ll I Munster
'ter or envoy
Imi congre»8 ;
icp nnd Swp.
Ji\A be dccla«
tons, were in
Empire, and

y, which had
, languished
Frederic III.
)f coronation,
rights, such
lucd to grant
«l dignity im.
I indi.sjiolubly
the Kings of
ely, Kings of
' ni., having
ilan, received
ipital, the two
prevented by
intion (1508,)
-h his succes*
ne. Charles
ent VII., ad-
M Emperor,

ilan, and the
cipal powers
ards the end
I these states
the German
s of aggran-
^>e Kings of
led away by
IS into Italy.
r Naples, or
schemes by
f Sicily and
eir views to
eprived the
Bor, Charles

rKRinp VI. A. D. 1453—1048.

23(^

v.. expelled them from the Milniiois, mid obliged rriuu'ix \., by
the treaties of Madrid (l.^iH,) Cmnbray (1529,) and Cr^pj
(1644,) to f!;ivo up his pretensions on the kingdom of Naples,
and the dulrhy of Milan From this time the Spaniard? werr
the predoniinaling power in Iluly for more ilmn a hundred yoart.

In the midst of tliese revolutions there arose three new prin-
cipalities within that kingdom ; those of Florence, Purina, and
Malta. The Repiibiii' of Florence held a distinguished rank in
Italy during the fifteenth century, both on account of the flour-
ishing state of its commerce, and the Inrgf! exlrnt of its territory,
which comprehended the greater pari of Tuscany, and gave to
this Republic the means of holding the balance between the
other powers of Italy. The- opulent family of the Medici here
exercised a hisjh degree of influence ; they ruled not by force
but by their munificence, and ttic judicious use which they madi'
of their great riches. The credit and popularity of the Medici,
excited envy and persecution against them, an(f caused them to
be several tunes banished from Florence. They were expelled
from this latter place at the same time that Pope Clement VII.,
who was of this family, was besieged by the Imperialists in Rome
(1<527.) That Pontifl", in makint; his peace with Charles V., ob-
tained his consent that the Medici should be re-established at
Florence, in the state in which they were before their last ban-
ishment. The Emperor even promised the Pope to give Alex-
der de Medici his natural daughter in marriage, with a consid-
erable dowry. The Florentines, however, having shown some
reluctance to receive the Medici, their city was besieged by the
Imperial army, and compelled to surrender by capitulation (1530.)

The Emperor, by a charter dated at Augsburg on the 28th of
August following, preserved to the city of Florence its ancient
republican forms. Alexander de Medici was declared governor-
in-chief of the state ; but this dignity was vested in himself and
his male descendants, who could only enjoy it according to the
order of primogeniture. He was authorized, moreover, to con-
struct a citadel at Florence, by means of which he afterwards
exercised an absolute power over his fellow-citizens. As for
the ducal dignity with which the new Prince of Florence was
vested, it properly belonged to the dutchy of Painja, in the king-
dom of Naples, which the Emperor haa conferred on him.

Alexander de Medici did not long enjoy his new honours.
He was universally abhorred for his cruelties, and assassinated
by Lorenzo de Medici, one of his own near relations (1637.)
His successor in the dutchy was Cosmo de Medici, who annexed
to the territory of Florence that of the ancient republic of
Sienna, which the Emperor Charles V. had conquered, and

*'l,

Slit

»trkt^imUmtitM>m

340

UUAPTER VU.

conferred on his son Philip II. in name of the Empire (1664.)
This latter prince being desirous of seducing Cosmo from his
alliance with the Pope and the King of France, with whom the
Spaniards were at war, granted him the investiture of the ter-
ritory of Sienna, as a mesne-tenure holding of the crown of
Spam, by way of equivalent for the considerable sums which
he had advanced to Charles V, while he was carrying on the
siege of Sienna. In transferring the Siennois to the Duke,
Philip reserved for himself the ports of Tuscany, such as
Porto Ercole, Orbitello, Telcmone, Monte-Argentaro, St. Ste-
fano, Longone, Piombino, and the whole island of Elba, with
the exception of Porto Ferrajo. By the same treaty, Cosmo
engaged to furnish supplies to the Spaniards, for th« defence of
Milan and the kingdom of Naples.

At length the Medici obtained the dignity of Grand Dukes,
on occasion of the difference that had risen between them and
the Dukes of Ferrara, on the subject of precedency. The Pope
terminated this dispute, by granting to Cosmo the title of Grand
Duke of Tuscany, with the royal honours (1569.) The Em-
peror, however, took it amiss that the Pope should undertake to
confer secular dignities in Italy ; thus encroaching on a right
which he alleged belonged only to himself, in virtue of his
being King of Italy. The quarrels which this affair had oc-
casioned between the Court of Rome and the Empire, were
adjusted in 1576, when the Emperor Maximilian II. granted to
Francis de Medici, the brother and successor of Cosmo, the dig-
nity of Grand Duke, on condition that he should acknowledge
it as a tenure of the Empire, and not of the Pope.

Among the number of those republics which the Visconti of
Milan had subdued and overthrown in the fourteenth century,
were those of Parma and Placentia. They had formed a de-
pendency of the dutchy of Milan until 1512, when Louis XII..
having been expelled from the Milanois by the Allies of the
Holy League, these cities were surrendered by the Swiss to
Pope Julius II., who laid some claim to them, as making part
of the dowry of the famous Countess Matilda. The Emperor
Maximilian ceded them to the Pope by the treaty of peace which
he made with him in 1512. Francis I. took these cities again
from the court of Rome, when he reconquered the dutchy of
Milan (1515 ;) but this prince having also been expelled from
the Milanois (1521,) the Pope again got possession of Parma
and Placentia, in virtue of the treaty which he had concluded
with Charles V., for the re-establishment of Francis Sforza in
the dutchy of Milan. These cities continued to form part of
the Eccleisiastical States until 1645. when th^y were dismem-

tznioD VI. A. D. 1453—1648.

241

mpire (1564.)
smo from his
ith whom the
ire of the ter-
the crown of
sums which
rrying on the
to the Duke,
any, such as
taro, St. Ste-
of Elba, with
reaty, Cosmo
thp! defence of

Grand Dukes,
2en them and
y. The Pope
title of Grand
I.) The Em-
i undertake to
ing on a right

virtue of his
affair had oc-
Empire, were

II. granted to
!osmo, the dig-
[ acknowledge

he Visconti of
eenth century,
. formed a de-
en Louis XII.,
Allies of the
the Swiss to
s making part
The Emperor
of peace which
>se cities again
the dutchy of
expelled from
sion of Parma
had concluded
mcis Sforza in
o form part of
weie dismem*

bered from it by Paul III., who erected them into dutchies, and
conferred them on his son Peter Louis Farnese, and his heirs-
male in the order of primogeniture ; to be held under the title
of fiefs of the Holy See, and on condition of paying an annual
tribute of nine thousand ducats.

This elevation of a man whose very birth seemed a disgrace
to the pontiff, gave universal offence. The new Duka of Parma
soon rendered himself so odious by his dissolute life, his crimes
and scandalous excesses, that a conspiracjr was formed against
him ; and he was assassinated in the citadel of Placentia in
1547. Ferdinand Gonzaga, who was implicated, as is alleged in
this assassination, then took possession of Placentia in name of
the Emperor ; and it was not till 1557 that Philip II. of Spain re-
stored that city, with its dependencies, to Octavius Farnese, son
and successor of the murdered prince. The house of Farnese
held the dutchy of Parma as a fief of the Ecclesiastical States,
until the extinction of the male line in 1731.

The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, after their expulsion
from the Holy Land, had retired to the Isle of Cyprus, and from
thence to Rhodes, in 1310, of which they had dispossessed the
Greeks. They did not maintain possession of this place longer
than 1523, when Soliman the Great undertook the siege of
Rhodes, with an army of two hundred thousand men, and a
fleet of four hundred sail. The Knight? boldly repulsed the
different attacks of the Turks ; but being entirely dependent
on their own forces, and receiving no succour from the powers
of Christendom, they were compelled to capitulate, after an ob-
stinate defence of six months. Leaving Rhodes, these Knights
took shelter in Viterbo, belonging to the States of the Church,
where they were cordially received by Pope Clement VII.
There they remained until the Emperor Charles V. granted
them the Isle of Malta, which became their principal residence
(1^0.) That prince ceded to them the islands of Malta and
Gozzo, with the city of Tripoli in Africa, on condition of hold-
ing them from him and his successors in the kingdom of Sicily,
as noble fiefs, frank and free, without any other oWigation thra
the annual gift of a falcon, in acknowledgment of their hold-
ing under the crown, and presenting to the King of Sicily three
of their sul^ects, of whom he was to choose one, on each va-
cancy of the bishopric of Malta. Charles V. added another
clause, that if ever the Order should leave Malta and fix their
residence elsewhere, that island should revert to the King of
Sicily. The Knights of St. John continued in the sovereignty
of Malta and Gozzo till 1798; but they lost Tripoli, in 1561,
which was taken from them bv the Turks,
i 16

t'%

849

CHAPTER vn.

A memorable revolution happened at Genoa, about the beffiP- .
r,i,wSe sixteenth century. That republic, after having or a
"onf time formed part of the dutchy "J M. an recovered its a -
dent independence about the time when the French and Spa. -
Srds disputed the sovereignty of ta y. and the conquest of th
Milanois. Expelled by the Imperialists from the city of Geno^
in 1522, the F .-ench had found means to repossess it (1527,) witJ.
he ai^tance of the celebrated Andrew Do"«^J. "gj^enoe^
who had been in the service of Francis I. This distm^ished
admiral, supplanted by favourites, and maltrea ed by the court,
abandoned ^he cause of France in the following year, and es
noused that of the Emperor Charles V. „„ , , . ,

^ The French then laid siege to the city of Nap es, which was ,
reduced to the lust extremity, and on the point of s""ender,ng, ,
when Doria, having hoisted the Imperial fl.g, set sail for Naples
with the gt^lleys under his command, and threw abundance o
provisions^nto the besieged city. The French army, now cut
Eff fiom all communication by sea, soon began to experience
those calamities from which the Imperialists had just been de-
Uvered Their whole troops being destroyed by famine and con-
agYousdisease,the expedition to Naples feU to the grovmd,andth^^

affairs of the French in Italy were totally nuned. It is alleged
£ Charles V., to recompense Doria for this important service,
offered him the sovereignty of Genoa; and that, ^-^eadof ac-
i cepting this honour, that great man stipulated for the liberty ot
his Sntry, whenever it should be delivered from the yoke of
I Franr ^Courting the glory of being the iberator of his native
city, he sailed directly for Genoa, of which he made himself
' master, in a single night, without shedding one drop of blood
SSai The French garrison retired to the citadel, and were
oblieed to capitulate for want of provisions. ^ _ , ...
E expe\lition procured Doria the title of Father «f his
Country, which was conferred on him by a decree of the Senate
It was> his advice that a committee of twelve persons was
chosen to organize a new scheme of government for the republ^.
A recrister was drawn up of all those families who were to com-
pose the Grand Council, which was destined to exercise the
sunreme power. The Doge was to continue in office ten years ,
anS great care was taken to remove those causes which had pre-
viously excited factions and intestine disorders. Hence the
establishment of the Genoese aristocracy, whose forms have
since been preserved, with some few modifications which were
imrodS after^vards, in consequence of certain dissensions
which had arisen between the ancient and the new nobility.
Venice, the eldest of the European republics, had reached lh«

R4S.

vrr^rrrvrV^.^'

ut the begip-
having for a
vered its aii-
ch and Span*
inquest of the
ity of Genoa
(1527,) witli
oble Genoese,
distinguished
by the court,
year, and es

es, which was

surrendering,

ail for Naples,

abundance of

army, now cut

to experience

just been de-

kmine and con-

ground, and the

. It is alleged

portant service,

, instead of ac-

»r the liberty of

m the yoke of

or of his native

made himself

drop of blood

tadel, and were

Father of his
e of the Senate,
ve persons was
for the republic.

were to com-
to exercise the
)ffice ten years ,

1 which had pre-
s. Hence the
me forms have
)ns which were
ain dissensions
iw nobility,
had reached the

PERIOD VI. A. D. 14^3 — 1648.

243

zenith of its greatness about the end of th^ fifteenth century.
The vast extent of its commerce, si n^orted by a powerful ma-
rine, the multiplied sources of its industry, and the monopoly
of the trade in the East, had made it one of the richest and
most formidable States in Europe. Besides several ports on
the Adriatic, and numerous settlements which they had in the
Archipelago, and the trading towns on the Levant, they gained
ground more and more on the continent of Italy, where they
formed a considerable territory. Guided by an artful and en-
terprising policy, this Republic seized with marvellous avidity
every circumstance which favoured its views of aggrandizement.
On the occasion of their quarrels with the Duke of Ferrara, they
obtained possession of the province of Polesino de Rovigo, by a
treaty which they concluded with that prince in 1484.

Afterwards, having joined the League which the powers of
Italy had opposed to Charles VIII. and his projects of conquest
they refused to grant supplies to the King of Naples for the re-
covery of his kingdom, except by his consenting to yield up
the cities of Trani, Otranto, Brindisi, and Gallipoli. Louis XIL,
being res'^lved to enforce his claims on the dutchy of Milan, and
wishing to gain over this Republic to his interest, gave up to
them, by the treaty of Blois (1499,) the town of Cremona, and
the whole country lying between the Oglio, the Adda, and the
Po. On the death of Pope Alexander VI. (1503,) they took
that favourable opportunity of wresting from the Ecclesiastical
States several towns of Romagna ; among others, Rimini and
Faenza.

Of all the acquisitions which the Venetans made, the most
important was that of Cyprus. That island, one of the most
considerable in the Mediterranean, had been conquered from the
Greeks by Richard Coeur de Lion, King of England, who sur-
rendered it to Guy of Lusignan (1192,) the last king of Jeru-
salem, in compensation for the loss of hi"? kingdom. From Guy
of Lusignan descended a long line of Cypiioi kings ; the last of
whom, John III., left an only daughter, named Charlotte, who
succeeded him in that kingdom, and caused her husband, Louis
of Savoy, to be also crowned king. There still remained a Das-
tard son of John III., called James, who was protected by the
Sultan of Egyp», to whom the kings of Cyprus were tributaries,
and who succeeded in expelling Charlotte and her husband, the
Prince of Savoy, from the throne (1460.) James, who was de-
sirous of putting himself under the protection of the Venetians,
married Catherine Cornaro, dnughier of Marco Corneille, a pa-
trician of Venice. The Sen>ite, in honour of this marriage,
iidopted Catherine, and declared her daughter of St. Mark or

-1

*tl:,

i,S, «W ^-■■J}ij^''ii'-''

JWSi "

III >

244

CHAPTKB VII.

the Republic. James died in 1473. leaving a P^'J^Jj^^"' ~J

thus drying up the principal source «» ^t^eir ,

activity 01 ine ronuguc ^^ whpre in course of time

obtained a firm settlement in the East, where in co

Eastern commerce. , ^^^^^'^f/ ,1"%!°"^^^^ had inspired them
attended the undertakings of %« 7"^'^'^;,^,7 opportunity of

with a passion [- -J-J^Lir ne gCi "^^^^^^

making encroachments on "^^'r "^'S" ; ^ „ „ them-

nu irkties of peace mth h» ''Sf^'^ZiC ^^»«l<''««> °'

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

Isthumous son,
[The Republic
own inherit-
)f James, and
jtire to Venice,
le Senate, who
, in Trevisano,
the investiture

d by a reverse

1 to accelerate

received a ter-

to India round

;e of the East ;

ilth, as well as

id they put in

commercial en-

ainst them, first

kish Emperors,

supplies. The

abstacles. They

1 course of time

ion, in place of

ns of India ; and

m in this field of

e which so long

1 inspired them

y opportunity of

d sometimes for-

iwn upon them-

il States of Italy.

s League, which

XII., Ferdinand

ncluded at Cam-

rritoryon Terra

ver the republi-

uch a rapid suc-

(vere struck with

;n infallibly lost,

he Pope and the

e of the French

concluded sepa-

ivas the Emperor

n consequence of

;ed with a total

overthrow, lost only, in course of the war, the territory of Cre-
mona and Ghiera d'Adda, with the cities and ports of Romagna
and Apulia. But this loss was far surpassed by that which they
experienced in their finances, their commerce and manufactures,
on account of the expensive efTorts which they were obliged to
make in resisting their numerous enemies.

The ruin of this Republic was at length completed by the
prodigious increase of the power of the Ottomans, who took from
them, by degrees, their best possessions in the Archipelago and
the Mediterranean. Dragged as it were in spite of themselves,
into the war of Charles V. against the Turks, they lost four-
teen islands in the Archipelago ; among others Chios, Patmos,
^gina, Nio, Stampalia, and Paros ; and were obliged, by the
peace of Constantinople (1540,) to surrender to the Turks Mai-
vasia and Napoli di Romagna, the only two places which re-
mained to them in the Morea.

The Turks also took from them the isle of Cyprus, the finest
of their possessions in the Mediterranean. The Sultan Selim
II., being determined to conquer that place, attacked it with a
superior force (1570,) although the Venetians had given him no
ground for hostilities. He made himself master of the cities of
Nicosia and Famagusta ; and completed the conquest of the
whole island, before the succours which the King of Spain and
the Pope had granted to the Venetians, could join their fleet.
On the approach of the Christian army, the Turkish fleet re-
tired within the Gulf of Lepanto, where they were attacked by
the allies under the command of Don John of Austria, a natural
son of Charles V. The Christians gained a complete victory
(1571.) The whole Turkish fleet was destroyed, and the Con-
federates took immense booty. The news of this defeat struck
terror into the city of Constantinople, and made the Grand Sig-
nior transfer his court to Adrianople. The Christians, however,
reaped no advantage from their victory. A misunderstanding
arose among the Confederates, and their fleets dispersed without
accomplishing any thing. The Venetians did not return to the
isle of Cyprus ; and knowing well that they could not reckon on
any efTectual aid on the part of their allies, they determined to
make peace with the Turks (1573.) By this treaty they left
the Porte in possession of Cyprus, and consented to pay it a sum
of 300,000 ducats, to obtain the restitution of their ancient
boundaries in Dalmatia. From this epoch, the republic of
Venice dates its entire decay. It was evident, that it must
thenceforth resign its pretensions as a leading power, and adopt
a system of neutrality which might put it in condition to main-
tain peace with its neighbours.

M«vr,yi..j»it>ta;;i^iim«|Bri ni 'fif \n

S46

1 1
•I

CHAPTER VU.

England, as we have mentioned above, had been the nval of
France, while the latter now became the rival of ^ust"a- This
rivalry commenced with the marriage of Maximilian of Austria,
to Mary, daughter anu heiress of Charles, last Duke of Burgi*-
dy ; by which the house of Austria succeeded to the whole do-
minions of that Prince. The Low Countries, which at that
time were the principal emporium for the manufactures and com-
merce of Europe, formed a part of that opulent succession.
Louis XL, King of France, was unuble to prevent the marriage
of the Austrian Prince with the heiress of Burgundy ; but he
took advantage of that event to detach from the territories of
that princess whatever he found convenient. He seized on the
dutchy of Burgundy as a vacant fief of his crown, as well as the
seigniories of Auxerrois, Maconnois, Bar-sur-Seine, and the
towns on the Somme ; and these different countries were pre-
served to France by the treaties of peace concluded at Arras
(1482) and Senlis (1493.) Such was the origin of the rivalry
and bloody wars between France and Austria. The theatre of
hostilities, which, under Louis XL had been in the Low Coun-
tries, was transferred to Italy, under Charles Vlll., Louis All.,
and Francis L From thence it was changed to Germany, in
the reign of Henry IL

In Italy, besides this rivalry between the two powers, there
was another motive, or pretext, for war, viz. the claims of France
on the kingdom of Naples and the dutchy of Mikn. The claim
of Louis XI. on the kingdom of Naples, had devolved to him
with the county of Provence, which he inherited m virtue of the
will of Charles, Count of Provence, and the last male descen-
dant of the house of Anjou (1481.) Charles VIII., the son and
succe.sor of Louis XI.,'urgea on by youthful ambition, was de-
termined to enforce this claim. He undertook an expedition
into Italy (1494,) and took possession of the kingdom of INaples
without striking a blow. But being opposed by a foririidable
confederacy of the Italian princes, with Maximilian at their head,
he was obliged to abandon his conquests with the same tacility
he had made them ; and he was fortunate in being able to eflect
his retreat, by the famous victory which he gained over the al-
lies near Foronuovo, in the dutchy of Parma.

The claim to the dutchy of Milan, was founded on the con-
tract of marriage between Louis, Duke of Orleans, the grandfa-
ther of Louis XII., and Valentine of Milan That contract pro-
vided, that failing heirs-male of John Galeas, Duke of Milan,
the dutchy should fall to Valentine, and the children of her
marriage with the Duke of Orleans. Louis XII. claimed the
righu of Valentine, his grandmother, in opposition to the princes

vi.-*.*,- .'.. T;A<tfe'>-*t'.'v«*«*«-.*>s*^'

PERIOD VI. A. D.

1453—1648,

247

en the nval of
Lustria. This
an of Austria,
ke of Burgift-
the whole do-
which at thai
lures and com-
nt succession.
t the marriagfi
pindy ; but he
e territories of
i seized on the
, as well as the
Seine, and the
:ries were pre-
luded at Arras
I of the rivalry
The theatre of
he Low Coun-
[I., Louis XII.,
Germany, in

» powers, there
aims of France
m. The claim
evolved to him
in virtue of the
3t male descen-
II., the son and
ibition, was de-
f an expedition
jdom of Naples
)y a formidable
m at their head,
le same facility
ig able to effect
[led over the ai-
led on the con-
ns, the grandfa-
lat contract pro-
Duke of Milan,
children of her
Al. claimed the
m to the princes

ol the family of Sforza, who had taken possession of he
dutchv of Milan, on the extinction of the male-he.rs ol the ,
Vi conti wh ch happened in 1447. The different expedmons ,
which e undertook into Italy, both for the conquest of M.Ian
Td the kingdom of Naples, met with no better success than |
ibut of his predecessor had done; in consequence of a new j
League, called the Holy League, which Pope Juhus II. raised 1
a2st hWn, and into which he drew the Emperor Max.m.Uaiu
the K ng Arragon and England, with the Venetians and he
Swit Louis XII. lost all the advantages o h.s conquests
The kiuffdom of Naples fell under the power of Ferdinand the
iathol^ and the family of Sforza were reinstated in the dutchy

'^TheTe' Italian wars, which were renewed at different times
under the reign of Francis I., co.t France much blood and im-
mense sums. In this struggle she was forced to succumb, and
Sis Ibound himself, by the treaty of Crepy, to abandon his
claims on Italy in favour of Charles V. The kingdom of Na-
oles and the dutchy of Milan remained incorporated w. h the
Cn'sh monarchies. Francis I., nevertheless had the glory of
arSnVthe progress of his rival, and effectually counterbalan-
S' a ;ower whk, at that time, made all Europe tremble.

Henrv II., the son and successor of Francis I., adopted a new
lin" of policy. He attacked the House of Austria, in Cxermany ;
h^Jin. en teLd into a league with Maurice, EleCor of Saxony,
und the Protestant princes of the Empire, to oppt>%Charles V
Tha league, which was ratified at Chambord (1552,) procured
for Sy I . possession of the bishoprics of Metz, foul, and
Verdun ; Ld he even succeeded in forcing the Emperor to raise
the sie-; of Metz, which that prince had undertaken about the
end of the year 1552. A truce of five years was agreed on be-
tween hese two sovereigns at Vaucelles ; but, m the course of
a few months, the war was renewed, and Philip II., who had
succeeded hi father, Charles V., induced his queen, Mary of
■ EnXd, to join in it. Among the events of this war, the most
remarkable are the victory of St. Quentin, gained by the Span-
X(1557,) and the conquest of the <^ity«f Calais, by Francis
Duke of Guise ; the last possession of the English in France
nsw ^ The death of Queen Mary prepared the way for a
ieaS'lhrch was signed at Chateau-Jambresis (1559,) between
France England, and Spain. The Duke of Savoy obtained
fhere L Stution of his estates, of which Francs I. had de-
nrived him in 1536. Calais remained annexed to France.
^Tserie™ if wars, both civil and religious, broke out underthc
feeble reigns of the three sons and successors of Henry 11. 1 he

! ■;

■ f@iMI?=

H48

CHAPTER Vn.

great influence of the Guises, and the factions which distracted
•he court and the state, were the true source of hostihties, though
religion was made the pretext. Francis II. having espoused
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, the whole power and authority
.>f the government passed into the hands of Francis, Duke of
Uuise, and the Cardinal de Lorraine, his brother, who were the
queen's maternal uncles. The power which these noblemen en-
joyed excited the jealousy of Anthony, King of Navarre, and
his brother Louis, Prince of Conde, who imagined that the pre-
cedency in this respect was due to them as princes of the blood,
in preference to the Lorraine family, who might be considered
as strangers in France. The former being Calvinists, and
having enlisted all the leaders of that party in their cause, it was
not difficult for the Lorraine princes to secure the interest of aU
the most zealous Catholics.

The first spark that kindled these civil wars, was the conspi-
racy of Amboise. The intention of the conspirators was to
seize the Guises, to bring them to trial, and throw the mantle-
ment of affairs into the hands of the princes of the blood. Ihe
conspiracy having been discovered, the prince of Cond6, who
was suspected of being at its head, was arrested ; and he would
have been executed, had not the premature death of Francis 11.
happened in the meantime. The queen-mother, Catherine de
Medici, who was intrusted with the regency during the minority
of Charles IX., and desirous of holding the balance between the
two parties, set Conde at liberty, and granted the Calvinists the
free exercise of their religion, in the suburbs and parts lying
out of the towns. This famous edict (January 1562) occasion-
ed the first civil war, the signal of which was the massacre of
Vassy in Champagne. j • u

Of these wars, there have been commonly reckoned eight
under the family of Valois, viz. four in the reign of Charles IX.,
and four in that of Henry III. The fourth, under Charles lA.,
began with the famous massacre of St. Bartholomew, authorized
and directed by the King (1572.)

It is of some importance to notice here the Edict of Factjwa-
tian of Henry III., of the month of May 1676. The new pri-
vileges which this edict granted to the Calvinists, encouraged
the Guises to form a league this same year, ostensibly for the
maintenance of the Catholic religion, but whose real object was
the dethronement of the reigning dynasty, and the elevation of
the Guises. The Duke of Alen5on, only brother of Henry Ui.,
being dead, and the King of Navarre, who professed the Gai-
vinistic faith, having become presumptive heir to the crown, the
chiefs of the Catholic League no longer made a secret of thetr

li=:

icil distracted
lities, though
ing espoused
and authority
icis, Duke of
who were the
noblemen en-
Navarre, and
I that the pre*
J of the blood,
be considered
alvinists, and
r cause, it was
interest of all

as the conspi-
rators was to
7 the manM[e-
e blood. The
f Cond^, who
and he would
of Francis II.
Catherine de
g the minority
ce between the
Calvinists the
nd parts lying
562) occasion-
le massacre of

eckoned eight
Df Charles IX.,
sr Charles IX.,
ew, authorized

let of Pacifiea'
The new pri-
sts, encouraged
ensibly for the
real object was
;he elevation of
r of Henry III.,
"essed the Cal-
I the crown, the
. secret of their

PERIOD VI. A. D. 146^—1648.

measures. They concluded a formal alliance (IS-S-l) with Philip
n of Spain, for excluding the Bourbous from the throne of
Fmnce. Henry III. was obliged, by the Leaguers, 'o recom-
mence the war against the Calvinists; but perce.vmg that the
Duke of Guise, and the Cardinal his ^'^o'^er, took every occ^
sion to render his government od.ous, he caused th^'" ^"'^ to ^
assassinated at Blois (1688,) and threw h'^^^lf on the rotec
tion of the King of Navarre. In conjunction wuh that I -mce,
he undertook the siege of Paris, during which he wa-s lumself
assassinated at St. Cloud, by a Jacobm of the name of James

^'SyiS of Valois ended with Henry III., after having
occupied the throne for two hundred and sixty-one y.^/"- ^ jj"
this dynasty the royal authority had gamed cons derably, both
by the^annexation of the great fiefs to the "ovvn-lands, and by
the introduction of regular armies, which put an end to the feu-
dal power. Louis xf. was chiefly instrumental m bringmg the
'IE under subjection, and putting an end to the cruelt.es
and oppressions of anarchjr. If these changes, however, contr,-
CJ\o public order, it fs nevertheless true that the national
Sberty suSered by them ; that the royal authority da>ly received
new augmentations ; and that, so early as the reign of Lou s XII.,
it was considered as high treason to speak of the "e'^e^s.ty of
assembhng the States-General. The practice of these assemblies,
Crve "was renewed under the successors of that P"nce; they
even beckme frequent under the last kings of the house of Va bis,
who convoked them chiefly with the view of demanding supp les.
Francis I augmented his influence over the clergy by the con-
SXt whicKe concluded with Leo X. (1516,) in virtue of
which he obtained the nomination to all vacant prelatures ; leav-
ing to the Pope the confirmation of the prelates, and the libeity

°^ S^rac?of VaSs was succeeded by that of the Bourbons, who
were descended from Robert Count of Clermont, younger son of
St Louis. Henry IV., the first king of this dynasty, was related
in the twenty-first degree to Henry III., his m.mediate predeces-
sor That prince, who was a Calvinist, the more easily reduced
the party of the League, by publicly abjuring nis religion at St.
DeX He concluded a peace with the Spaniards, who were
alUes of the League, at V^rvins; and completely t/anquilized
Se kingdom by the famous edict of Nantes, whicUe published
in favour of th ^reformed religion. By that edict he ^arameed
o the Protestants perfect liberty of conscience, and the public
exercise of their worship, with the privilege of filling all offices
of trust : but he rendered them, at the same time, a piece of dis-

»►

,.i.

service, by L'mnling ihciu lorfcMieil pliu-es, under the nnrne of places
of .sfiurity. By thus fosU-rin^ a .xpiril of party uiul inttctii.e
fnrtio.i, h.- furni.lKMl a plausil.!.- prt-fxl to thi-ir advt;r«.irie8 for
gradually uiideriiiinir.^,' tin- edict, ami (iually proscnbn.g the .-x-
er{i>e of the ri-formed rfli),Mori in France.

That "reat princ<;, after having established iho iranquilhty ot
his liiii.'dom at lion.e and il.road, encouraged arts and manufac-
ture- ami put the administration of his finances into admirable
order, was assassinated hy Hnvaillac (1610,) at the very moinent
when he was employed in exiruling the grand scheme which ho
had projected for the pacilicalion of Kurope. Cardinal Kichelicu,
when he assumed the reins of government under Louis Alll.,
had nothing so niflch at heart as the expulsion of the talvinisls
from their strongholds. This he a.-complis!ied hy means of the
three wars which he waged against them, and by the famous
siege of liochcUe, which he reduced in 1()28. That great states-
man next employed his policy against the house of Austria, whose
preponderance gave umbrage to all Euroi-e. He took the op-
nort'ii'itv of the vacant succession of Mant.ia to espouse the cause
of the Ouke of Nevers against the Courts oT Vienna and Mad-
rid, who supported the Duke of Guasialla; and maintained his
protege in the dutchy of Mantua, by il>e treaties ol peace which
were concluded at Katisbon and Querasque (1631.) Having
afterwards joined Sweden, he made war against the tvyo branches
of Austria, and on this occasion got possession of the places which
• he Swedes had seized in Alsace.

Louis XIV. was only four years and s.wen months old when
he succeeded his father (1643.) The queen-mother, Anne of
Austria, assumed the regency. She appointed Cardinal Ma-
zarin her prime minister, whose administration, during the
minority of the King, was a scene of turbulence and distrac-
tion. The same external policy which had directed the minis-
try of Richelieu, was followed by his successor. He prose-
!-uted the war against Austria with vigour, in conjunction wuh
Sweden, and their confederates in Germany. By the peace
which was concluded with the Emperor at Munster, besides
the three bishoprics of Lorraine, France obtained the Land-
graviate of Lower and Upper Alsace, SungaA , and the pre-
fecture of the ten Imperial cities of Alsace. Spcin was ex-
cluded from this treaty ; and the war continued betw-een that
kingdom and France until the peace of the Pyrenees, by which
the counties of Roussillon and Conflans were ceded to France,
as well as several cities in Flanders, Hainault, and Luxembourg.
Spain, which had long been divided into several States, and
a stranger as it were to the rest of Europe, became all of a sud

L-

=JJ

'■•-VjSJ

tiE,'?ft?is: s-tta^

Inntiieofplaces

uiui intestine

lidvtTsmries for

:ril>ing tlie ex*

tranquillity of
and nianufac-
into admirable
(' very nionicnt
lenie wliich ho
inai Kichelicu,
r Louis XIII.,
° the Calvinists
V means of the
ny the foJiious
nt great states-
A\ijitria, whose
le took the op-
pouse the cause
LMinu and Mud-
maintained his
of peace which
1631.) Having
lie two branches
he places which

onths old when
other, Anne of
J Cardinal Ma-
on, during the
ce and distrac-
ictcd the minis-
or. He prose-
onjunction wich
By the peace
[unster, besides
ned the Land-
, and the pre-
Spain was ex-
;d between that
mees, by which
3ded to France,
d Luxembourg.
etal States, and
me all of a sud

TBRIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648. Ill

den a formidable power, turning the political Imlance in her own
favour. This elevation was the work of Ferdinand the Catholic,
a prince born lor grtnit exploits ; of a profound and fertile geniuK .
but tarni.<iliing \m bright (|ualitie.s by perlidy and unbouiideri
ambition. He was heir to the throne of Arragon, and laid
the foundation of his greatnes.t by his marriage with Isaliella
(1469,) sister to Henry VI. last King of Castillt!. That match
united the kingdoms of Costille and Arragtm, which were the
two principal Chri.xiian States in Spain. Henry of Castille hud
left a daughter named Jane, but she U'ing considered as illegi-
timate by the Castillians, the throne was conferred on I.suliella
and her husband Ferdinand (1174.) The Infanta June, in order
to enforce her claims, betrothed herself to Aljihonso V. King of
Portugal ; but that prince In-ing defeated by Ferdinand at the
battle of Toro (1476,) was obliged to renounce Caslille und hia
marriage with the Infanta.

At the accession of Isabella to the throne of Cnstille, that
kingdom was a prey to all the miseries of anarchy. The abuses
of the feudal system were there maintained by violence and in-
justice. Ferdinand deinoli.<lied the fortresses of the nobles who
mfe-stcd the country ; he gav<! new vigour to the laws ; liberated
the people from the oppression of the great ; und, under pretence
of extirpating the Jews anti Mahometans, he estublished the
tribunal of the Innuisition (147S,) which spread universal terror
by its unheard ol cruelties. Torfpiemada, a Dominican, who
was appointed grand Inquisitor (1483,) burnt in the space of four
years near 6000 individuals.

The Moors still retained the kingdom of Grenada. Ferdinand
took advantage of their dissensions to attempt the conquest of it,
in which he succeeded, after a vigorous war of eighteen years.
Abo Abdeli, the last King of Grenada, fled to Africa. An edict,
which was published immediately after, ordered the expul-
sion of all the Jews ; about an hundred thousand of whom fled
from Spain, and took shelter, some in Portugal, and others in
Africa. Ferdinand did not include the Moors in this proscrip-
tion, whom he thought to gain over to Christianity by means of
persecution ; but having revolted in the year 1500, he then al-
lowed them to emigrate. It was this bhnd and headlong zeal
that procured Ferdinand the title of the Catholic King, which
Popo Alexander III. conferred on him and his successors (1493.)
That prince also augmented his power by annexing to his crown
the Grand Mastership of the Military Orders of Calatrava, Al-
cantara, and St. James of Compostellu.

Every thing conspired to aggrandize Ferdinand ; and as if the
Old World had not been sufficient, a New one was opened to

^i«iiiwjiiii » > - ii>hi "|, i a^ l T.-;p M ' i ' * « i * »« tr»l

««

OnAPTKI VII.

^i.

Dim by the diacovpry of Amcrira. Ho wait heir, by the father'^
Hide, to the kiriffdomn of Arrn^^on, Sicily, and Sardinia. Hr

!rnt possefinion of Castillo by liin mnrriu(re, and of Uronadu by
brcc of arriiM ; so thai nothing was wanting except Novarre to
unite all Spain under his dominion. The Holy League, which
Poiw Julius II. had organized ai^ainst Louis All. (1611,) fur-
nished him with n pretext for seizing that kingdom. Entering
into an alliance with the Pojm?, he concerted with the King of
England to invade Guiennu, on which the English had Home
ancient claims. They demanded of the King of Navarre that
he should make common cause with the allies of the Holy
League against Louis XII. That princi', however, wishing to

C reserve neutrality, they prcscribi^d conditions so severe, that he
ad no other alternative left than to seek protection in France.
Ferdinand then obtained possession of all that part of Navarre
which lay beyond the Pyrenees. Twelve years before that time
Ferdinand had, by the treaty of Grenada, planned with Loui?
XII. the conquest of the kingdom of Noples. Frederic of Ar-
ragon was then deprived of that kingdom, ond his States were
divided between the two allied kings ; but Ferdinand having
soon quarrelled with Louis XII. as to their respective boundaries,
this was made a pretext for expelling the French from Naples,
which was agoin united to the Spanish monarchy, in the years
1503 and 1505.

Charles I. of Austria, grandson of Ferdinand, and his succes-
sor in the Spanish monarchy, added to that crown the Low
Countries and Franche-Comte, which he inherited in right of
his father Philip of Austria, and his grandmother Mary of Bur-
gundy. He added likewise the kingdoms of Mexico and Peru
on the continent of America, and the dutchy of Milan in Italy,
in which he invested his son Philip, after ha\ ing repeatedly ex-
pelled the French in the years 1522 and 1525.

These were all the advantages he derived from his wars
against Francis I., which occupied the greater part of his
reign. Blinded by his animosity against that Prince, and by his
ruling passion for war, he only exhausted his kingdom, and im-
paired his true greatness. Charles resigned the Spanish mo-
narchy to his son Philip II., which then comprehended the Low
Countries, the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, the
dutchyof Milan, and the Spanish possessions in America. The
peace of Chateau Cambresis, which Philip II. signed in 1559,
after a long war against France, may be regarded as the era of
Spanish greatness. To the states which were left him by his
father, Philip added the kingdom of Portugal, with the Portu-
gUAse possessions in Africa, Asia, and America ; but this was the

tJie father'n
nrdiriia. Hr
Oronadii by
it Navnrre lo
[eogue, which
(1511,) fur-
Entering
the King of
ah had some
Navnrre that
of the Holy
T, wishing to
icvere, that he
on in Fronce.
irt of Navarre
fore that time
d with Louif
rt'deric of Ar»
is States were
linand having
ve boundarieft,
^ from Naples,
r, in the years

ind his succeS'
own the Low
ed in right of
Mary of Bur-
xico and Peru
Vlilan in Italy,
repeatedly ex-

rom his wars
r part of his
ice, and by his
Ifdom, and im-
i Spanish mo*
inded the Low
Sardinia, the
imerica. The
gned in 1569,
I as the era of
iA him W his
ith the F'ortu*
It this was the

the ('(nircilcnitfn of iln' Low (,'fMiiilrii'K, I'
r(|ui|ipfil II r<iriiii(liiMi- llrrt, known hy tlii'

l>RRion vt. A, f). 14/13—1648. M

tcrinlnatioti of his prosperity. IIi-< riisxn nCtir tli.il wtxi^ only ■
«ut'ii'N>ion (if iiiinrorinncN. Hifi ri'voliin;,' (|f.«ii(itifin excited thu
Beii^iikiiN III inMirrei'tioti, iind ^fnvti liirtli to ilic n |iiililii' of the
Uniti'd i'riivinci'i!. I'jlizaln;tli of Kiij,'land linvlrii,' joined with

"liilip, out of revenge,
.iiinie ef llie Inrinci*
ble Armada, v,\\w\\ was composed of l.'JO veHvels of ctiorinous
size, niuiined will. iiO.OOO sofdierN, exclusive of Miilois, and arin»
ed with 1360 pieces ofcuiinon. On euterinj,' tiie ('liiiniicl they
were defeated by the English (yist of July l.lsH,) and the grcatef
part of them destroyed by a storia.

From this calamity may be dated the decline of the Spanish
monarchy, which wum exhausted by its expensive wars. Philips
At his death, left an enormous debt, and the whole glory of the
Spanish nation perished with him. The reigns of his feeble
successors are only remarkable for their disasters. Philip IIL
did irreparable injury to his crown by the expulsion of the Moors
or ftloreocoes (1610,) which lost Spain nearly a million of her
industrious subjects. Nothing can eciunl the misfortunes which
•he experienced under the reign of Philip IV. During the war
which he had to support against France, the Catalans revolted,
and put themselves under the protection of that Crown (164(\)
Encouraged by their example, the Portuguese likewise shook
off the yoke, and replaced the House of Braganza on their
throne. Lastly, the Neapolitans, harassed by the Duke d'Oli-
varez, prime minister of Philip IV. revolted, and attempted to
form themselves into a republic (1647.) These reverses on the
part of Spain added to the number of her enemies. The famous
Cromwell having entered into an alliance with France (1655,)
dispossessed the Spaniards of Jamaica, one of their richest set*
dements in America.

Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Portugal had reach-
ed a high pitch of elevation, which she owed to the astonishing
progress of her navigation and her commerce. John II., whose
fleets first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, augmented the royal
authority, by humbling the exorbitant and tyrannical power of
the grandees. In the diet which was asseniolcd at Evora, he
retracted the concessions which his predecessors had made to
the nobles, to the prejudice of the Crown. He abolished the
power of life and death, which the lords exercised over their
vassals, and subjected their towns and their territories to the
jurisdiction of officers appointed by the King. The nobles, who
were displeased at these innovations, having combined in de-
fence of their privileges, and chosen the Duke of Braganza for
their leader, John, without being disconcerted by this opposition,

' iU-- ^■^-- 4 . u^,mi^^.ajUi;ia;aia'..:j" .- ' j;." a -xv^i v. • :

984 CHAPTER vn.

liad ihe Duke brouglit to a trial, and his liead cut off, while his
brother was hanjied in effigy. This example of severity intiroi-
dated the grandees, and made them submit to his authority.
The most brilliant era of Portugal was that of Emmanuel and
John III., who reigned between the years 1495 and 1567. It
was under these two Princes that the Portuguese formed their
powerful empire in India, of which nothing now remains but

the ruins. . r vi

The glory of Portugal suffered an eclipse under the feeble
reign of Sebastian, grandson and immediate successor of John.
That Prince, who came to the throne at the age of three years,
had been brought up by the Jesuits, who instead of instructing
him in the important arts of governmeuv, had given hini the
education of a monk. They had inspirec him with a dislike
for matrimony, but with a decided attachment for the crusades.
Muley Mahomet, King of Morocco, having lequested his assist-
ance against his uncle Moluc, who had dethroned him, Sebas-
tian undertook an expedition into Africa in person, carrying with
him the flower of his nobility. A bloody battle was fought near
Alcavar, in tha kingdom of Fez (1578,) where the Portuguese
sustained a complete defeat. Sebastian was slain ; and, what is
sufficiently remarkable, his enemy Moluc died a natural death
during the action, while Muley Mahomet was dvowned in the
flight.

[During the reign of this king, every thing had fallen mto
decay ; even the character of the nation had begun to degenerate.
The spirit of chivalry which had distinguished them, was ex-
changed for mercantile adventures, which even infected the
higher classes ; while avarice, luxury, and effeminacy, brought
on a universal corruption. The governors of their colonies in-
dulged in all sorts of violence and injustice. They seized the
more lucrative branches of commerce. The military force,
which Emmanuel and John III. had kept up in India, was
neglected. The clergj' usurped the whole wealth of the colo-
nies, and exercised an absolute power by means of the Inquisition,
which was no where more terrible than at Goa.]

As Sebastian had never been married, the throne passed at
his death to Henry the Cardinal, his grand uncle by the father's
side, who was already far advanced in life. Perceiving his end
approach, and that his death would involve the kingdom in con-
fusion, he summoned an assembly of the States at Lisbon (1579,)
in order to fix the succession. ' The States appointed eleven
cwmntissioners, who were to investigate the claims of the diffe-
rent candidates for the crown. Philip 11. of Spain, who \yas one
of this number, did not pay the least regard to the decision of

■y ,i?^,^' vi'ff^pmTZ'>-'^~'>

off, while his
irerity intiroi-
is authority,
imunuel and
id 1567. It
formed their
remains hut

er the feehle
ssor of John.
■ three years,
)f instructing
ven him the
vith a dislike
the crusades,
ted his assist-
[ him, Sebas-
carrying with
IS fought near
e Portuguese
; and, what is
natural death
owned in the

ad fallen into
to degenerate,
hem, was ex-
infected the
nacy, brought
ir colonies in-
ey seized the
nilitary force,
n India, was
h of the colo-
\ie Inquisition,

one passed at
by the father's
?iving his end
iigdom in con«
jishon (1579.)
lointed eleven
IS of the diffe*
I, who was one
he decision of

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648.

255

,h. <;.-tPs No sooner had he learned the death of Henry ( 1580,)
t ?!!;«! the Duke of Alva, at the head of an army, to take
'^''" ^irofXiTal Thfe Duke defeated the troops of his
possession ol mtugai. ^"« . ^ da mants, who

then^all commerce with Po^t^S^^'-. , . , • evnectalion. The
TKo» PrJnnp however, was deceived m nis expetiauuu.
That f rince, '^•'r^7'V.V,;« Inrritive branch of their industry,

attempted to form »!«™™'Viw „uh them; »eat Banlatn,
XZ'XIT^Z- SttJ™£h f„;^ i" favour oC the
'^fj^'^i by this 6,st success, the D«o=h unde.took to de-

™ilTe"&s. of their ^'P^^^^ZT^ZltS.
^he --qu«»' ** thejj m. e^ ,^^ .^^,

SS^^Sre they /mSth. city of Bata,ia, ?kf,!-»™

independence. It was w"" "" revenues dissipated, their

marine were disoriranized, their crown re venues u v

rH^^BfWc?^,?x.:5^pi»Fiv=-

ymigL^!i-i!iimmMi?!. ' k,ASM^v^'i^ H"j

mmm.

IP-

266

CHAPTER Tir.

nobility precltidea irom the management of afTairs, and the ni*-
tion exhausted by exorbitant assessments.

The revolt of the Catalans, which happened in 1640, at length
determined the Portuguese to shake off the Spanish yoke. A
conspiracy was entered into by some of the grandees, in concert
with the Duke of Braganza, which broke out on the 1st Decem-
ber that same year. On that day, at eight o'clock in the morn-
ing, the conspirators, to the number of about four hundred, re-
paired by different routes to the palace of Lisbon, where the
vice-queen, Margaret of Savoy, and dowager of Mantua, resided,
with Vasconcellos the Secretary of State, who exercised the
functions of Prime Minister of the kingdom. Part of them dis-
armed the guard of the palace, while others seized Vasconcel-
los, who was the only victim that fell a sacrifice to the public
vengeance. They secured the person of the vice-queen, and
took measures to protect her from insult or violence. The con-
spirators then proclaimed the Duke of Braganza King, under
the title of John IV. That prince arrived at Lisbon on the 6th
of December, and his inauguration took place on the 15th. It
is not a little surprising that this revolution became general m
eight days time, and that it was not confined merely to Portugal,
but extended even to India and Africa. Every where the Por-
tuguese expelled the Spaniards, and proclaimed the Duke of
Braganza. The city of Ceuta in Africa, was the only town of
which the Spaniard:^ found means to retain possession.

John IV. was descended in a direct line from Alphonso, I'a-
tural son of John the Bastard, who was created Duke of Bra-
ganza. The first care of this new King of Portugal, on his ac-
cession to the throne, was to convene an assembly of the States
at Lisbon, in order to make them acknowledge his right to the
crown. The States, conformably to the fundamental laws of the
kingdom, declared that Catherine, daughter of the infant Don
Edward, and grandmother of King John, having become the
true and legitimate heiress to the throne on the death of Henry
'he Cardinal, her grandson John IV. was entitled to the repos-
session of those rights of which that princess had been unjustly
deprived by the Spaniards. The better to establish himself on
the throne, John concluded treaties of peace with France, the
United Provinces, the Netherlands, and Sweden ; but confining
his whole ambition to maintaining the ancient limi*s of the king-
dom, he remained completely inactive with regard to Snain,
which, being overpowered by numerous enemies, was quiie in-
capable of carrying on the war with vigour against Portugal
The truce and alliance which that Prince had entered into with
the Dutch, did not prevent these republicans froro contmuing

|i and the nu-

•40, at length
|ish yoke. A
ies, in concert
le 1st Decem-
in the morn-
hundred, re-
on, where the
ntua, resided,
exercised the
t of them dis-
id Vasconcel-
to the public
;e-queen, and
ce. The con-
King, under
•on on the 6th
the 15th. It
Tie general m
Y to Portugal,
'here the Por-
the Duke of
! only town of
jsion.

Alphonso, )'a-
Duke of Bra-
:al, on his ac- |
of the States I
is right to the j
al laws of the
le infant Don
; become the
lath of Henry
to tile repos-
)een unjustly
ih himself on
France, the
l)'U confiniiig
' of the king-
rd to Snnin,
ras q-me in-
st ronugal
ed into with
I continuing

PERIOD VI. A. D. i453— 1618.

897

their conquests in India ; yrhere, in process of time, ihey strip
ped the Portuguese of their finest settlements.

England, long before this time, had emerged from the state of
turbulence and desolation into which she had been plunged by
the destructive wars of the two Rr les. A new family, that of
the Tudors, had mounted the throne; Henry VII., who was its
founder, claimed the crown in right of his mother Margaret
Beaufort, alleged heiress of the house of Lancaster, or the Red
Rose ; and raised an insurrection against Richard III., the last
King of the House of York. This prince being defeated and
slain at the battle of Bosworth (1485,) Henry, who was then
proclaimed King of England, united the titles or claims of the
two Roses, by his marriage with Elizabeth, dau^ter of Edward
IV., and heiress of York, or the White Rose. The country be-
ing thus restored to tranquillity after thirty years of civil war,
every thing assumed a more prosperous appearance. Agricul-
ture and commerce began to flourish anew. Henry applied
himself to the restoration of order and industry. He humbled
the factious nobles, and raised the royal autnority almost to a
state of absolute despotism.

The reformatiom of religion in England began in the reign of
his son Henry VIII. That Prince, who was of a very capricious
character, vacillating continually between virtue and vice, ap-
peared at first as the champion of Popery, and published a treatise
against Luther, which procured him, from the Court of Rome,
the title of Defender of the Faith. But a violent passion, which
he had conceived for Anne Boleyn, having induced him to attempt
a divorce from Catherine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand the
Catholic, he addressed himself for this purpose to Pope Clement
VII., alleging certain scruples of conscience which he felt on ac-
count of his marriage with Catherine, who was within the de-
grees of affinity, prohibited in the sacred Scriptures. The Pope
being afraid to dirjplease the Emperor Charles V., who was the
nephew of Catherine, thought proper to defer judgment in this
matter ; but the King, impatient of delay, caused his divorce to
be pronounced by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury
{\SdQ,) and immediately married Anne Boleyn.

The sentence of the Archbishop was annulled by the Pope,
who published a threatening bull against Henry. This incensed
the King, who caused the Papal authority in England to be abro-
gated by the Parliament, and installed himself in the capacity of
supreme head of the English Church (1534 ;) a title which was
couVrred on him by the clergy, and confirmed by the Parliament.
He also introduced the oath of supremacy, in virtue of which all
who were employed in offices of trust, were obliged to acknow-

1 .

253

CHAPTKE Til.

ledge nim as head oFthe Church. A court of High Commission
was established, to judge ecclesiastical causes in name of the
king, and from whose sentence there was no appeal. The con-
vents or monasteries were suppressed, and their revenues confis-
cated to the crown (1536-1539.) Henry even became a dogma-
tist in theology' ; and discarding the principles of Luther, as well
as those of Calvin and Rome, he framed a religion according to
his own fancy. Rejecting the worship of images, relics, purga-
tory, monastic vows, and the supremacy of the Pope, he gave his
sanction, by the law of the Six Articles, to the doctrine of the
real presence, the communion in one kind, the vow i;,' chastity,
the celibacy of the priests, the mass, and auricular confession ;
inflicting very severe penalties on all who should deny or disobey
one or other of these articles.

This monarch, who was the first of the English kings that
took the title of King of Ireland (1542,) was involved in the dis-
putes which then embroiled the Continental powers ; but instead
of holding the balance between France and Austria, he adhered
in general to his friend and ally Charles V. against France.
This conduct was regulated less by politics than by passion, and
the personal interest of his minister Cardinal Wolsey, whom the
Emperor had attached to his cause, by the hope of the papal tiara.

The religion which Henry had planted in England, did not
continue after hia death. Edward VI., his son and immediate
successor, introduced pure Calvinism or Presbyterianism.
Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., by Catherine of Arragon, on
her accession to the throne, restored the Catholic religion (1553,)
and likewise received the new legate of the Pope into England.
She inflicted great cruelties on the Protestants, many of whom
were burnt at the stake ; among others, Cranmer, Archbishop
of Canterbury, and the Bishops of London and Worcester.
With the view of more firmly establishing the Catholic religion
m her dominions, she espoused Philip, presumptive heir to the
Spanish monarchy ( 1554.) The restrictions with which the Eng-
lish Parliament fettered his contract of marriage with the Queen,
80 displeased that prince, that, finding himself without poorer or
authority, he speedily withdrew from England. Mary's reign
lasted only five years : she was succeeded by her sister Eliza-
beth (1558,) daughter of Kenry VIII., by Anne Bo'cyri. This
princess once more >ibrogated the authority of the Pope, and
claimed to herself the supriime administration, both spiritual
and temporal, within her kingdom. Though .she adopted the
Calvinistic principles in every thing regarding the doctrines of
the Church, she retained many of the Romish ceremonies, and
the ffovemment of Bishops. It was this that gave rise to the

Commission
name of the
il. The con-
[venues confis-
ime a dogma-
lUther, as well
according to
, relics, purga-
)e, he gave hiN
loctrine of the
w i^f chastity,
ar confession ;
ny or disobey

ish kings that
red in the dis-
rs ; but instead
ia, he adhered
"fainst France.
)y passion, and
sey, whom the
[the papal tiara,
gland, did not
ind immediate
■esbyterianism.
f Arragon, on
eligion (1553,)
into England,
lany of whom
r, Archbishop
id Worcester,
tholic religion
ive heir to the
^hich the Eng-
ith the Queen,
houtponrer or
Mary's reign
sister Eliza-
^'cyn. This
10 Pope, and
iwth spiritual
adopted the
! doctrines of
emonies, and
I'e rise to the

PEPioD VI. K. D. 1453 — 1648.

distinction between the English or High Church, and the Cal'
vanistic or PreshyteriaJi.

About the time when the High Church par'y rose in England,
a change of religion took place in Scotland, protected by Queen
Elizabeth. The regency of that kingdom was then vested in
the Queen -dowager, Mary of Lorraine, the widow of James V.,
and mother of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland and France.
That princess, who was guided solely by the councils of her
brothers of Lorraine, had introduced a body of French troops to
repress the follow rs of the new doctrines, who had formed a
new league, under the name of the Congregation. These, re-
inforced by the Catholic malecontents, who were apprehensive
of falling under a foreign yoke, took the resolution of applying
for assistance to the English Queen, which it was by no means
difficult to obtain. Elizabeth readily foresaw, that so soon as
Francis became master of Scotland, he would attempt to enforce
Mary's claims to the throne of England, grounded partly on the
assumption of her being illegitimate. A considerable number of
English troops were then marched to Scotland, and having
formed a junction with the Scottish malecontents, they liesieged
tiie French in the town of Leith, near Edinburgh. The latter
were soon obliged to capitulate. By the Tticles signed at Leith
(1560,) the French and English troops were to evacuate Scot-
land ; Francis IL King of France, and his wife Mary Stuart,
were to renounce the titles and arms "f the sovereigns of Eng-
land, which they had assumed ; while a Parliament was to be
assembled at Edinburgh for the pacification of the kingdom.

The parliament which met soon after, ratified the Confession
of Faith, drawn t.p and presented by the Presbyterian ministers.
The Presbyterian worship was introduced into Scotland; and
ihe parliament even went so far as to prohibit :he exercise
of the Catholic religion. Mary Stuart, on her return to Scot-
land (1561,) after the death of her husband Francis, was obliged
to acquiesce in all these changes ; and it was with difficulty she
was allowed the liberty of having a Catholic chapel attached to
her court. This unfortunate princess was afterwards accused
of having caused the assassination of Henry Darnley, her se-
cond husband ; and being obliged to fly the country, she took
shelter in Englnnd (1568,) where she was arrested and impri-
soned by order of Queen Elizabeth. After a captivity of nine-
teen years ?'. was sentenced to death, and beheaded (18th Feb.
1587,) as an accomplice in the different plots which had been
formed against the life of her royal relative.

The troubles which the reformation of religion had excited in
Scotland, extended also to Ireland. A kind of corrupt feudal

260

CHAPTEn VII.

•^'sicm had prevailed originally in that island, which Henry II.
had not been able to extirpate. The English proprietors, who
wore vassals of tho crown, and governed by the laws of Eng-
'and, possessed nearly one-third of the whole country; while
iho rest of the island was in the hands of the Irish proprietors,
who, nltho\igh they acknowledged the sovereignty of the Eng-
lish kings, preserved nevertheless the language and manners of
iheir native land ; and were inclined to seize every opportunity
af shaking off the English yoke, which they detested. Hence
a continued series of wars and feuds, both among the Irish
themselves, and against the English, who on their part had no
other object than to extend their possessions at the expeii'-e of
the natives. The kings of England, guided by an injudicious
policy, for several centuries exhausted their resources in perpetual
wars, sometimes against France, sometimes against Scotland,
and sometimes against their own subjects, without paying the
least attention to Ireland, of which they appear to have known
neither the importance nor the effectual advantages which they
might have reaped from it by means of a wise administration.
The progress of agriculture and industry became thus completely
impracticable; a deep-rooted hatred was established between
the islanders and the Englif<h, who in fact seemed two distinct
nations, enemies of each other, and forming no alliances either
by marriage or reciprocal inlerconrse.

The resentment of the Irish against the English government
was aggravated still more, at the time of the Reformation, by
the vigorous measures that were taken, subsequently to the reign
of Henry VIII., to extend to Ireland the laws framed in Eng-
land against the court of Kome and the Catholic clergy. A
general insurrection broke out in the reign of Elizabeth (1596,)
the chief instigator of which was Hugh O'Neal, head of a clan
in the province of Ulster, and Earl of Tyrone. Having gained
over the whole Irish Catholics to his cause, he planned an ex-
tensive conspiracy, with the design of effecting the entire expul-
sion of the English from the island. Philip II., King of Spain,
supplied the insurgents with troops and ammunition ; and Pope
Cieinnnt VIII. held out ample indulgences in favour of those
who should enlist under the banners of O'Neal, to combat the
English heretics. This insurgent chief met at first with con-
siderable success ; he defeated the English in a pitched battle,
and maintained his ground against i! •; Earl of Essex, whom
Elizabeth had despatched to the islanc. with a formidable army.
The rebels, however, ultimately failed in their enterprise, after
a sanguinary war which lasted seven years. Charles, Lord
Mountjov- governor of Ireland, drovs the insiirgents to their last

ich Henry IF,
iprietors, who
laws of Eng.
iiintry; while
sh proprietors,
!y of the Eng.
id manners of
ry opportiinitv
sted. Hence
ong the Irish
r part had no
he expe;]-e of
in injudicious
es in perpetual
inst Scotland,
lit paying- the
to have known
res which they
idministration.
Inis completely
ished between
pd two distinct
illiances either

sh government
Reformation, by
tly to the reign
ramod in Eng.
'lie clergy. A
zabeth (1596,)
head of a clan
Having gained
lanned an ex- \
\ entire expul- I
Ciiig of Spain,
on ; and Pope
vour of those
to combat the
Trst with con-
pitched battle,
Essex, whom
nidable army,
terprise, after
Jharlcs, Lord
s to their last

-JS*«4 '--.^■*»«»=..( ,H4i^-

PBRIOD VI. A. D. 1453- ■ 164&<.

261

recesses, and had the glory of achieving the entire reduction of
the island. "

The maritime greatness of England began in the reign of
Elizabeth. That Princess gave new vigour to industry and
commerce ; and her eflbrts were seconded by the persecuting
zeal of the French and Spanish governments. The numerous
refugees from France and the Netherlands, found a ready asy-
lum in England, under the protection of Elizabeth ; and her
kingdom became, as it were, the retreat and principal residence
of their arts and manufactures. She encouraged and protected
navigation, which the English, by degrees, extended to all parts
of the globe. An Englishman, named Richard Chancellor,
having discovered the route to Archangel in the Icy Sea (1555,)
the Czar, John Basilowitz II., granted to an Engl-nh company
the exclusive privilege of trading with Russia ^1569.) The
commerce of the English with Turkey and the Levant, which
began in 1579, was likewise monopolized by a Company of mer-
chants. Francis Drake, a distinguished navigator, and the rival
of Magellan, was the first Englishman that performed a voyage
round the world, between 1577 and 1580. The intercourse be-
tween England and the East Indies began in 1591 ; and the
East India Company was instituted in 1600. Attempts were
also made, about the same time, to form settlements in North
America ; and Walter Raleigh, who had obtained a charter from
the Queen (1584,) endeavoured to found a colony in that part
of the American Continent, now called Virginia, in compliment
to Elizabeth. That colony, however, did not, properly speak-
ing, take root or flourish till the reign of James I. The compe-
tition with Spain, and the destruction of the Invincible Armada
of Philip II., by the combined fleets of England and Holland,
gave a new energy to the English marine, the value of which
they had learned to appreciate, not merely in guarding the in-
dependence of the kingdom, but in securing the prosperity of
their commerce and navigation.

The House of Tudor ended in Queen Elizabeth (1603,) after
having occupied the throne of England about a hundred and
eighteen years. It was replaced by that of the Stuarts. James
VI., King of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, and Henry Darnley,
succeeded to the throne of England, and took the title ot King of
Great Britain, whu 'i iiis successors still retain. This prince de-
rived his right to the crown, from the marriage of his great grand-
mother, Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII., with James
IV. of Scotland. Vain of his new elevation, and fond of pre-
rogative, James constantly occupied himself with projects for
augmenting his royal power and authority in England ; and by

262

CHAPTER VII.

instilling these principles into his son, he became the true arehi*
tect of all the subsequent misfortunes of his house.

Charles I., the son and successor of James, seldom convened
the Parliament ; and when they did assemble, he provoked them
by the measures he proposed, and was then obliged to dissolve
them. Being entirely guided by his ministers Laud, Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the Earle of Strafford and Hamilton, and
his Queen, Henrietta of France, he ventured to levy taxes and
impositions without the advice of Parliament. This conduct
on the part of the King produced a general discontent. The
flames of civil war began to kindle in Scotland, where Charles
had introduced Episcopacy, as more favourable than Presbyte-
rianism to royalty. But the Scottish nobility, having formed a
confederacy, known by the name of the Covenant, for the main-
tenance of their ecclesiastical liberties, abolished Episcopacy
(1638,) and subsequently took up arms against the King. The
Parliament of England, under such circumstances, rose also
against Charles (1641,) and passed an act that they should not
be dissolved without previously obtaining redress for the com-
plaints of the nation. This act, which deprived the King of his
principal prerogative, proved fatal to the royal dignity. A trial
was instituted by the Parliament against the King's ministers.
The Earl of Strafford and the Archbishop of Canterbury were
beheaded ; and Charles had the weakness to sign the death-war
rant of his faithful servants.

The Presbyterians soon became the prevailing party, and ex-
eluded the Bishops from the Upper House. The management
of affairs fell then into the hands of the House of Commons ;
Episcopacy was abolished ; and the Parliament of England ac-
ceded to the Scottish Covenant. War now broke out between
the King and the Parliament ; a battle was fought near York,
m which the latter ws ' victorious (1644.) Charles, seeing his
aflliiirs ruined, took the determination to throw himself into the
arms of the Scots (1646,) who, he supposed, might still retain
an affection for the race of their ancient Kings. He soon found
reason, however, to repent of this step ; the Scots did not hesi-
tate to sell him to the English Parliament for a sum of X400,000,
Sterling, which they found necessary for the payment of their
troops.

A new revolution, which soon after happened in the Parlia-
ment, completed the ruin of the King. The Presbyterians, or
Puritans, who had suppressed the E])iscopaliims, were crushed,
in their turn, by the Independents. These latter were a sort of
fanatics, who aJmiued no sulxirdination whatever in tho Church,
entertained a perfect horror for royalty, and were inclined for u

'lis

pe true aichi-

[oin convened
'ovoked them
d to dissolve
Laud, Arch-
lamilton, and
vy taxes and
This conduct
ontent. The
'here Charles
inn Presbyte-
injr formed a
for the main-
1 Episcopacy
' King. The
:ts, rose also
ey should not
! for the com«
ic King of his
nily. A trial
g's ministers,
nterbury were
he death-war

party, and ex-
management
»f Commons ;
England ac-
! out between
It near York,
5s, seeing hig
iselfinto the
Jit still retain
e soon found
did not hesi-
of £400,000,
nent of their

1 the Parlia-
)yterians, or
ere crushed,
ere a sort of
tho Church,
■dined for a

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

963

republican or democratic form of government. The head and
soul of this faction was the famous Oliver Cromwell, who, with
great dexterity, made it an engine for raising himself to the
sovereign authority. The whole power of the Legislature fell
entirely into the hands of the Independent party ; who, by one
act, expelled sixty members from the House of Commons. The
Parliament, now completely under their dominion, appointed a
commission of a hundred and fifty persons, whom they vested
with power to try the King. In vain did the Upper House
oppose this resolution ; in vain did the King object to the Judges
named by tho House ; the commission proceeded, and pronounced
the famous sentence, by virtue of which Charles was beheaded
on the 30th of January 1649. His family were dispersed, and
saved themselves by night.

The revolutions m the North of Europe, about the period of
which we now speak, were not less important than those which
agitated the West and the South. These arose chiefly from
the dissolution of the Union of Calmar, and the reformation in
religion ; both of which happened about the beginning of the
sixteenth century. The Union of Calmar, between the three
kingdoms of the North, had been renewed several times ; but,
being badly cemented from the first, it was at length irreparably
broken by Sweden. This latter kingdom had been distracted
by intestine feuds, occasioned by the ambition and jealousy of
the nobles, which continued durmg the whole reign of Charles
VIII., of the House of Bonde. Afler the death of that Priivx
(1470,) the Swedes, without renouncing the Union, had regu-
larly appointed as administrators of the kingdom, from the ye'\r
1471 till 1520, three individuals of the family of Sture, viz.
Steno Sture, called the Old, Suante Sture and Steno Sture,
called the Young.

Meantime, John, King of Denmark, and son of Christian I.,
had governed the three kingdoms since 1497, when Steno Sture
the elder had resigned, until 1501, when he resumed the admin-
istration. At length, however. Christian II., son of John, made
war on Steno Sture, surnamed the Young, with a view lo
enforce the claims which he derived from the act of union.
Being victorious at the battle of Bogesund, where Sture lost
his life, he succeeded in making himself acknowledged by the
Swedes as king, and was crowned at Stockholm (1520.) Within
a short time after this ceremony, he violated the amnesty which
he had publicly announced ; and to gratify the revenge of Gusta-
VU8 Trolle, Archbishop of Upsal, whom the Swedes had deposed,
he caused ninety-four of the most distinguished personages in the
kingdom to be arrested, and publicly Iteheaded at Stockholm

l!^'

-tI

;li

III! ?

964

CHAPTER VII.

This massacre caused a revolution, by which Sweden recover-
ed its ancient stntc of independence. Gustavus Vasa put liim-
sotf at the head of ihe Dalecarlians, ambitious to become the
liberator of his countiy (1521.) He was declared Regent, and
two years after, King of Sweden. The example of the Swedes
was soon followed by the Danes, who, indignant at the excesses
and cruelties of Christian II., deposed him, and conferred their
crown on Frederic, Duke of Holstein, and paternal uncle to that
prince. Christian, after having long wandered about the Low
Countries, was made prisoner by the Dunes, and remained in
captivity the rest of his days. The Kings of Denmark having
renewed, from time to time, their pretensions to the Swedish
throne, and still continued the three crowns on their escutcheon,
several wars broke out on this subject between the two nations ;
and it was not till the peace of Stettin (1570,) that the Danes
acknowledged the entire independence of Sweden.

Denmark then lost the ascendency which she had so long
maintained in the North. The government of the kingdom un*
derwent a radical change. A corrupt aristocracy rose on the
ruins of the na'ional liberty. The senate, composed wholly of
the nobles, usurped all authority ; they overruled the election of
the kings, and appropriated to themselves the powers of the
States-General, wnich they had not convoked since 1536 ; they
encroached even on the royal authority, which was curtailed
more and more every day ; while the prerogatives of the nobility
were extended by the conditions which the Senate prescribed to
the kings on their accession to the crown. The reformation of
religion took place in Denmark, in the <"- '^n of Frederic I., the
successor of Christian II. That prince empioyed an eloquent
preachar, named John Tausen, and several other disciples of
Luther, to promulgate the Protestant doctrines in his kingdom.
In a diet held at Odensee (1527,) the King made a public pro-
fession of the new faith ; and, in apite of the remonstrances of
the bishops, he passed a decree, in virtue of wliich, liberty of
conscience was established, and permission granted to the priests
and monks to marry. These articles were renewed in another
diet, assembled at Copenhagen (1530;) where the King ratified
tho Confession of Faith presented to him by the Protestant min-
isteis, similar to what had taken place the same year at the diet
of Augsburg.

At length Christian III. who was elected in 1634, brought
these changes in religion to a close. The bis'.iops, during the
last interregnum, had done every thing to dtop the progress of
the Reformation. The King, desirous of annihilating their
temporal power, colluded with the principal no\>ility to have all

PERIOD VI. A. n. 1163 — 1648.

26fi

|den recover*
i»a put liim-
become the
Regent, and
the Swedes
[the excesses
ferred their
uncle to that
out the Low
remained in
nark having
he Swediuh
escutcheon,
two nations ;
t the Danes

had 80 long
kingdom un*

rose on the
ed wholly of
le election of
awers of the
! 1536 ; they
'as curtailed
f the nobility
prescribed to
iformation of
jderic I., the
an eloquent

disciples of
is kingdom.
I public pro-
nstrances of
h, liberty of

the priests

1 in another
^ing ratified
testant min-
r at the diet

34, brought
during the
progress of
;ating their
to have all

the bishops in thn kinpdotn ariosted ; iiiul hiivinj^ then assem-
bled n meciinjj of the States iit ('opcnhiii^cn, lie abolished Epis-
copacy, and suppressed the public oxon'iso of the Ciillinlic reli-
gion. The cnstles, fortresses, and vast donuiins of the prelates
were annexed to the crown ; and the oilier benefices niul reve-
nues of the clerify were appropriated to the support of the minis-
tors of religion, public schools, and the poor. The inonk.s and
nuns wore left at liberty, either to quit their convents, or remain
there during,' their lives. The bishops were roplnccd by super-
intendents, the nomination of whom was vested in the King;
while each congregation retained the privilege of choosing its
own pastors. From Denmark this revolution passed to Norway,
which at that time, on account of having joined the party of
Christian II., who was deposed by the Danes, lost its indepen-
dence, and was declared a province of the kingdom of Denmark.

The House of Oldenburg, which had occupied the throne of
Denmark since 1448, was separated in the reign of Christian
HI. into two powerful branches, viz. the Royal, descended from
that prince ; and the family of Holstein-Gottorp, descended from
his brother the Duke Adolphus. This latter branch was after-
wards divided into three others, viz. those of Russia, Sweden
and Holslcin-Oldenburg. As the law of primogeniture was not
establishLd in the dutchies of Sleswirk and Holstein, which had
fallen into the succession of the House of Oldenburg, the Kings
of Denmark soon found themselves under the necessity of divi-
ding these dutchies among the younger princes of their family.
The treaty of partition, which was entered into (1644) between
Christian III. and his brother, had been preceded by a treaty of
perpetual union, annexing these dutcnies to the kingdom, and
mtended to preserve the throne, which was elective, in the House
of Oldenburg ; as well as to prevent any portion of these two
dutchies from falling into the possession of strangers. The
union was to endure as long as the descendants of Frederic I.
reigned in Denmark. They promised to settle, by arbitration,
whatever difTerences might arise between the states of the union ,
to afTord each other mutual succour against every external ene-
my ; and to undertake no war but by common consent.

The treaty of 1644 which regulated this partition, made seve-
ral exceptions of matters that were to be managed and adminis-
tered in common ; such as, the customs, jurisdiction over the
nobles, the bishops, and certain cities. This gave rise to a sort
of copartnership of power, common to all the princes of the union.
Every thing regarding either the general safety as stipulated in
the treaty, or the exercise of these privileges included in the ex
c«ptioDS, was to be discn i-d and settled by unanimous consent ;

1 ;

\:i:TK**:-mtr^

■ M immimnmn

SM6

CHAPTEH VII.

and for litis {lurpoHc ii council of roffency, an exchequeri and
coniinun coiirtrt wuru L>!<tabliAlicil. This union and conimunily
of ri^fhls were folioWL-d, us ii imturnl consequt-nct', by loiig and
destructive feuds l)t't\\oi.'n tix; Kings of Denniiirk and thu Dukus
of Hoistcin-Uottorp, in whicii the other powers of the North
were also iinnliculed.

Christian IV., gran.I-ion of Christian III., was distinguished
not more by the superiority of his talents, than by the indefati-
gable zeal with which he applied himself to every department of
the admit: i ; ration. It wus in his reign that the Danes extend-
ed their commerce us far as Indio. He founded the first Diinish
East Iirli.i Company (1616,) who formed a settlement in T.un-
quebar (<!i the Coromandel coast, which had been ceded to them
by the Kaiah of Tanjore. Various maimfactories of silk stuffs,
paper, and arms, were constructed, and, several towns built un-
der the auspices of Christian IV. The sciences were also much
indebted to him ; ic .'ave a new lustre to the University of Co-
penhagen, and fou'i Itl the Academy of Soroe in Zealand, be-
sides a number of co !eges. If he was unsuccessful in his wars
against Sweden and Austria, it must be ascribed to the norrow
h.nits of his power, to the influence of the aristocratic spiru and
ol the feudal regime which still prevailed in Denmark. He
Ruccoi Jed, however, in excluding the Swedes from acc^'ss to the
Icy Sea, which opened them a way to the coasts of Lapland, by
obtaining possession, at the peace of Siorod (1613,) of that part
of Lapland which extends along the Northern and Icy Seas,
from Titisfiord to Waranger and Wardhuys. The disputes con-
cerning the three crowns was settled by the same treaty, in sucb
a way that both sovereigns were permitted to use ihem, without
authorizing the King of Denmark to lay any claim to the Swe-
dish crown.

Sweden, which had long r^.aintained a struggle against Deii>
mark, at length acquired such a preponderance over her as to
threaten, more than once, the entire subversion of the throne.
This preponderance was the achievement of two great men, who
rose in the period we now speak of, viz. Gustavus Vasa, and his
grandson Gustavus Adolphus. Gustavus Vasa was not merely
the liberator, but the restorer of his country. Elevated to the
throne by the free choice of the nation, he gave Sweden a power
and an influence which it never had before. Every thing
under him assumed a new aspect, the government, the religion,
the finances, the commerce, the agriculture, the sciences and the
morals of the Swedes. Instead of the assemblies of the nobles,
formerly in use, and destructive of the national liberty, he sub-
stituted Diets composed of the different orders of the State, the

chequer. aiiiJ
(1 cummunity
, by lonif find
id thi! Dukes
of the North

distinguished
the indefali-
department of
)anes extend-
le first D;inish
ncnt in Tan-
ceded to them
of silk stufTs,
)wns built UH"
ere also much
versity of Co-
I Zealand, be-
fill in his wars
to the norrow
alic spini and
lenniark. He
[1 access to the
of Lapland, by
i,) of that part
and Icy Seas,
c disputes con-
treaty, in such
ihem, without
m to the Swe-

B against Den^
over her as to
of the throne,
jreat men, who
9 Vasa, and his
vas not merely
llevated to the
weden a power
Every thing
It, the religion,
ciences and the
s of the nobles,
liberty, he sub-
f the State, the

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PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

267

nobility, the clergy, the citizens, and the peasantry. By this
means hp acquired a new influence, of which he took advantage
to humble the power of the church and the nobles, which had
lon^ been a source of oppression to Sweden.

The reformation of religion, which then occupied every mind,
appeared to Gustavus a very proper expedient to second his
views, and introduce a better order of things. On his accession
to the throne, he authorized the two brothers Olaus and Lau-
rentius Petri, to preach publicly at Stockholm the doctrines of
Luther, and did every thing in his power to accelerate the pro-
gress of the Reformation in his kingdom. The bishops, who
were apprehensive for their benefices and their authority, having
drawn the greater part of the nobility over to their interest, the
king, in the presence of a Diet of the four orders assembled at
Westeras, took the determination of formally abdicating the
crown. This step threw the Diet into a state of consternation,
and encouraged the two lower orders, the citizens and peasants,
to declare themselves loudly for the King. The bishops and
nobles were obliged to comply ; and the King, resuming the
reins of government, succeeded in overruling the deliberations
of the Diet. By the authority of a decree, he annexed the strong
castles of the bishops to the demesnes of the crown, and retrench-
ed from their vast possessions whatever he judged convenient.
The prelates at the same time were excluded from the senate ;
the ties that bound them to the Court of Rome were broken ;
and they were enjoined henceforth to demand confirmation from
the King, and not from the Pope. The revenues of the clergy
in general, and those of the convents, were left at the free dis-
posal of the king, and the nobles were permitted to bring forward
whatever claims they could adduce over lands granted to these
convents by their ancestors. There was nothing now to retard
the march of reformation. The Lutheran religion was introdu-
ced universally into Sweden, and that event contributed not a
little to exalt the royal authority.

Gustavus secured the hereditary succession of the crown in
favour of his male descendants. The States, anxious to obvi-
ate the troubles and disorders which the demise of their kings
had oi\en produced, regulated the succession by an act known
by the name of the Hereditary Union. It was passed at Ore-
bro (1540,) and ratified anew by the States assembled at Wes-
teras. The Union Act was renewed at the Diet of Nordkoping,
in the reign of Charles IX. (1604,) when the succession was
extended to females.

The reign of Gustavus Adolphus, the son of Charles IX.,
raised the glory of Sweden to its height. The virtues and

1 1

ha
" .1

I, I
■,'1

26S

CHAPTER VII.

energies of that prince, the sagacity of his views, the admirablt
order which he introduced into every branch of the administra-
tion, endeared him to his subjects ; while his mihtary exploits,
and his superiority in the art of war, fixed upon him the admi-
ration of all Europe. ...,,.

Gustavus brought the wars, which he had to sustain against
the different powers of the North, to a most triumphant coi^lu-
sion. By the peace which he concluded at Stolboya with Rus-
sia (1617,) he obtained possession of all Ingria, Kexholm, and
Russian Carelia ; and even cut that Empire off from all com-
munication with Europe by the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic
Sea His success was not less brilliant in his campaigns against
Sigismund III., King of Poland, who persisted m contesting
with him his right to the crown of Sweden. He took from the
Poles the whole of Livonia, with a part of Prussia ; and kept
possession of these conquests by the six years truce which he
concluded with the latter at Altmark (1629.)

It was about this time that Sweden began to occupy a distin-
imished place among the powers of Europe ; and that she was
called on to take the lead in the League which was to protect
the Princess and States of the Empire against the ambition of
Austria. Gustavus, who was in alliance with France, under-
took a task as difficult as it was glorious. In the short space of
two years and a half, he overran two-thirds of Germany with
his victorious arms. He vanquished Tilly at the famous battle
of Leipsic (1631,) and extended his conquests from the shores
of the Baltic to the Rhine and the Danube. Every thing yield-
ed before him, and every place opened its gates to him. ihis
ereat prince, who had made war a new art, and accustomed his
army to order, and a system of tactics never before known, per-
ished at the memorable battle of Lutzen (1632 ) which the
Swedes gained after his death, in consequence of the skillul dis-
positions he had formed.

This war was continued under the minority of Queen Lhns-
tina, his daughter and heir. It was still carried on, although
the Swedes had undertaken a new war against Denmark, with
the view of disengaging themselves from the mediation which
Christian IV. had undertaken between the Emperor and Swe-
den, al the congress which was to meet at Munster and Usna-
burg. The result of that war was completely to the advamage
of Sweden, which gained by the peace of Bromsbro (1646) the
freedom of the Sound, as also the possession of the provinces
and islands of Jamptland, Heriedalen, Gothland, Oesel, and Hal-
land. Lastly, the peace of Westphalia secured to Sweden con-
siderable possessions on the southern coast of ahe Baltic &ea.
such as Wismar, Bremen and Verden. and part of Pomerania.

T^V

e admirable
administra-
iry exploits,
the admi-

tain against
lant conclu-
a with Rus-
ixholm, and
om all com-
d the Baltic
igns against
1 contesting
ok from the
and kept
:e which he

ipy a distin-
hat she was
IS to protect
ambition of
ance, under-
lort space of
jrmany with
imous battle
n the shores
thing yield-
him. This
:ustomed his
known, per-
) which the
e skilful dis-

(ueen Chris-
on, although
nmark, with
ation which
r and Swe-
'.T and Osna-
e advantage
(1645) the
he provinces
sel, and HaU
Sweden con-
Baltic Sea.
Pomerania.

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648.

SM9

The power of the Teutonic Knights, which hud been greatly
reduced during the preceding period, by the defection of a part
of Prussia, was completely annihilated in the North, in conse-
(j'lence of the changes introduced by the reformation of religion.
Albert of Brandenburg, grandson of the Elector Albert Achilles
on his elevation to the dignity of Grand Master of the Order,
tliought himself obliged to withdraw from Poland that fealty and
homage to which the Knights had bound themselves by the
treaty of Thorn in 1466. This refusal furnished matter for a
war between them ; which began in 1519, and ended in 1521,
by a truce of four years ; at the expiration of which the Grand
Master, who saw the doctrines of Luther disseminated in Prus*
sia, and who had himself imbibed these principles in Germany,
found means to settle all differences with the King of Poland,
by a treaty which he concluded with him at Cracow (1521.)
He there engaged to do homage and fealty to the cro^vn of Po-
land, which he had refused ; and Sigismund I., who was his
maternal uncle, granted him Teutonic Prussia, with the title of
Dutchy. as a hereditary fief, both for himself and his male-heirs,
and for his brothers of the House of BrandenburgandFranconia,
and their feudal heirs ; reserving the right of reversion in favour
of Poland, failing the male-descendants of these princes.

The Teutonic Knights thus lost Prussia, after having possess-
ed it for nearly three hundred years. Retiring to their pos-
sessions in Germany, they established their principal residence
at Mergentheim in Franconia, where they proceeded to the elec-
tion of a new Grand Master, in the person of Walter de Cron-
berg. The Poles, in getting rid of the Teutonic Knights, whom
they had regarded with jealousy, and substituting the House of
Brandenburg in their place, never dreamed of adopting an enemy
still more dangerous, who would one day concert the ruin and
annihilation of their country.

Immediately after the treaty of Cracow, the new Duke of
Prussia made a public profession of the Lutheran religion, and
married a daughter of the King of Denmark. This princess
dying without male issue, he married for his second wife a prin-
cess of the Brunswick family, by whom he had a son, Albert
Frederic, who succeeded him in the dutchy of Prussia. The
race of these new dukes of Prussia (1568,) as well as that of
Franconia, which should have succeeded them, appearing to be
nearly extinct, Joachim II., Elector of Brandenburg, obtained
from the King of Poland the investiture of Prussia, in fief, con-
junctly with the reigning dukes. This investiture, which was
renewed in favour of several of his successors, secured the suc-
cession of that dutchy in the electoral family of Brandenburg; to

:t^

i-mmM-i

'Sv

' '

J; ; 1 1 i

*^^„

270

CHAPTER Vn.

whom it devolved on the death of Albert Frederic (1618,) who
left no male descendants. He was succeeded by the Elector
John Sigismund, who had been coinvested with him in the
dutchy. That prince, who iiad married Anne, eldest daughter
of Albert Frederic, obtained likewise, in right of that princess,
part of the succession of Juliers, viz. the dutchy of Cleves, the
counties of Marck and Ravensberg, which had been adjudged
to the house of Brandenburg, by the provisional act of partition
concluded at Santern (1614,) and converted into a definitive
treaty at Cleves. The grandson of John Sigismund, the Elector
Frederic William, was a prince of superior genius, and the true
founder of the greatness of his family. Illustrious in war as in
peace, and respected by all Europe, he acquired by the treaty of
Westphalia, a part of Pomerania, the archbishopric of Magde-
burg under the title of a dutchy, with the bishoprics of Halber-
stadt, Minden, and Camin, und,cr the title of principalities. His
son Frederic was the first King of Prussia.

[The Teutonic Knights had nearly lost Livonia at the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century ; but that province was saved by
the courage and talents of the Provincial Master, Walter de
Plattenberg. The Grand Duke Iwan, or John III., having
threatened Livonia with an invasion, Plattenberg concluded a
defensive alliance at Walik (1501,) with Alexander II., Grand
Duke of Lithuania, and the bishops of that country. After havmg
assembled troops to the number of 14,000 men, he defeated the
Russian army, which was 40,000 strong, at Maholm ; a second
victory, which he gained with the same number of troops over
100,000 Russians at Pleskow (1502,) is one of the most famous
exploits in the history of the North. Next year he concluded a
truce of six years with the Livonian Order, which was afterwards
renewed for fifty years.

It is commonly said that Walter, the Provincial Master, taking
advantage of the distresses of the Teutonic Knights, and urging
the repeated succours which he had furnished them against the
Poles, purchased from them his own independence, and that of
his Order ; but a recent author (Le Comte de Bray) has shown
that this was not exactly the case. By a first agreement signed
at Koningsberg (1520,) Albert of Brandenburg, who was then
only Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, confirmed to the
Knights of Livonia the free right of electing a chief of their ovvn
number, promising to sustain the individual whom they should
nominate. He secured them the possession of the whole sove-
reignty of Reval and Narva ; the countries of Altentirken, Jer-
vfn, and Wierland ; as also the town and castle of Wesenberg,
with their dependencies. This agreement was revived and
rnlified by * second, siarned at Grobin (1625.) when it was for-

■^t" - ^----1-,-

^Mm ik iitAf^i timtt^mamieaM

ic (1618,) who
by the Elector
Ln him in the
Idest daughter
' that princess,
of Cieves, the
been adjudged
ict of partition
lo a definitive
nd, the Elector
IS, and the true
IS in war as in
by the treaty of
iric of Magde-
rics of Halber-
cipalities. His

la at the begin-
5 was saved by
ler, Walter de
n III., having
rg concluded a
ider II., Grand
{. After having
he defeated the
lolm ; a second
of troops over
le most famous
he concluded a
was afterwards

Master, taking
^hts, and urging
lem against the
nee, and that of
ray) has shown
Teement signed

who was then
)nfirmed to the
lief of their own
om they should
the whole sove-
lltentirken, Jer-
! of Wesenberg,
IS revived and
vhen it was for-

PBRion VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648.

2/1

mally stipulated, that the relations between the Knights of Li-
vonia and the Teutonic Order should be maintained as they w«»re.
and that the Livonians should continue to regard the Grand
Master as their true head, and render him homage ami obe-
dience. They were forbidden to solicit from the Emperor ot
the Pope any privilege inconsistent with their allegiance, it ap-
pears, consequently, that Walter de Plattenberg did not purcha.-e
the independence of his Order, but that he regarded those ties
which existed between it and the Teutonic Order as broken,
when Albert of Brandenburg was declared Duke of Prussia. He
next renewed those connexions with the German Empire, which
had existed since the thirteenth century ; and was declared bj
Charles V. (1527) a prince of the Empire, having a vote and a
seat in the Diet.

It was during the mastership of Plattenberg that the Lutheran
Joctiines penetrated into Livonia, where they made rapid pro-
gress, especially in the cities. Waller dexterously turned the
disturbances caused by the opposition of the clergy to the new
tenets, into an occasion for establishing his authority over all
Livonia and Esthonia, which the Order had formerly shared
with the bishops. The citizens of Kiga acknowledged him as
their only sovereign, and expelled the archbishop. The bur-
gesses of Revel followed their example. The clergy were so
frightened at these movements, that the archbishop of Riga, and
the bishops of Dorpat, Oesel, Courland and Revel, formally sub-
mitted to the Order. The clergy themsel ves soon after embraced
the reformed religion.]

The dominion of the Knights Sword-bearers, had continued
in Livonia until the time of the famous invasion of that country
by the Czar, John Basilovitz IV. That prince, who had laid
open the Caspian Sea by his conquest of the Tartar kingdoms of
Casan and Astrachan, meditated also that of Livonia, to obtain
a communication with Europe by the Baltic. Gotthard Kettler,
who was then Grand Master, finding himself unable to cope
with an enemy so powerful, implored first the assistance of the
Germanic Body, of which he was a member ; but having got
nothing but vague promises, he next addressed himself to Sigis-
inund Augustus, King of Poland, and, m concert with the arch-
bishop of Riga, he concluded with that prince a treaty of sub-
mission at Wilna (1561;) in virtue of which, the whole of
Livonia, with Esthonia, Courland and Semigallia, comprising
not only what was still in the possession of the Order, but those
parts which had boon seized by the enemy, were ceded to the
crown of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, on condi-
tion that the use of the Confession of Augsburg should be pre-
erved on the same footing as it then was, and that all orders of

h ,n

ife'iiii

*.f

' ■' '\

,;,

Sr^

■kf^

-1.'
j

■ i

rfTfiriii i i iii t iyiiiMiBaMWii^

272 ciiArTER f II.

the Smte should be maintained in iheir goods, properties, rights,
nrivilejres and immunities. . „ . „• j

^ By this same treaty, Courland and Sem.galha were reserved
:., G^.tthard K.nlcr, the last Grand ^Ia«V"\°f ,V';'°7\i^
....joyed by himself a.ul his heirs-male with the title of dulchy.
a.id as a Hef of the king and crown of Poland. The new Duke,
•m taking the oath of f.delitv to the King of Poland, solemnly
lu.d aside all the badges of his former dignity. He mamed
Anne, daughter to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schewerin a,,d
Uans^itted the dutchy of Courland to his male-descendants
who did not become extinct until the eighteenth century. Ihe
Order of Livonia was entirely suppressed, as were also the
archbishoprics of Riga, and the bishoprics under its jurisdiction.
The revolution in Livonia caused a violent commotion among
the nowers of the North, who were all eager to share m the
plunder. While the Grand Master of the Order was m treatv
Skh Poland, the city of Revel, and the nobles of Esthonia, left
V hout aid, nnd oppressed bv the Russians, put themselves undei
he protect on of feric XlV., King of Sweden, who obtaineo
possession of that province. The Isle of Oese , on the co„ r 7.
and the district of Wyck in Esthonia, were sold to Frederic 11.
King of Denmark, by the last bishop of the island, who also
cedc?l to him the bisLpric and district of P.lten m Courland
Poland at first held the balance, and maintained Livonia against
fhe Russ ans,by the peace which she concluded with that power
at Kievorova-Horca (1582.) A struggle afterwards ensued be-
Uveen Poland and Sweden for the same object, which was not
finally terminated until the peace of Oliva (1660.)

rIS during the period of which we now treat, assumed

an aspect entirdy nevv. She succeeded '".throwing ofT Ae

yoke li the Moguls, and began to act a conspicuous part on he

Iheatre of Europe. The Horde of Kipzach, called also the

S, the Gdden Horde, had been greatlv exhausted by its

territor al losses, and the intestine wars whicf followed ; wmle

the Grand Dukes of Moscow gained powerful accessions by Uie

union of several of these petty principa hties, which had for a

"onetime divided among them the sovereignty of Northern Bus-

i.^John Basilovitz IIL. who filled the grand ducal throne

about the end of the fifteenth century, knew well how to profit

Jy these circumstances to strengthen his authority at Jome, and

make it respected abroad. In course of severed expeditions he

Suedthe%owerful republic of Novogorod. an ancient aJlv of

the Hanseatic towns, and which had for a long time afTected an

entireTndependence. He was also the first sovere.^i of Russia

that dared ?o refuse a humiliating cerempn^r, accordmg to which

Somnd Dukes were obliged to walk on l^ot before &e envoys

Hi III '■■ifa-'igiitiiTiiiilfiir 11 -■ 1 1 r li

0rttmm"»fiii^i' m^ lWiiWW***'*iW*''**'W"'

properties, rights.

Ilia were reserved

of Livonia, to be

lie title uf dutchy.

The new Duke.

Poland, solemnly

ity. He married
•g-Schewerin, and

male-descendants,
ith century. The

as were also the
ler its jurisdiction.

commotion among
er to share in the
>rder was in treaty
!s of Esthonia, left
It themselves undei
den, who obtaineo
iel, on the contrary,
iold to Frederic II.
e island, who also
'ilten in Courland.
ned Livonia against
ded with that power
erwards ensued be-
ject, which was not
1660.)

now treat, assumed
n throwing off the
ipicuous part on the
ich, called also the
tly exhausted by its
ch followed ; while
ul accessions by the
;s, which had for a
ty of Northern Ru»-
grand ducal throne
7 well how to profit
thority at home, and
end expeditions, he
1, an ancient ally of
)ng time affected an
soverei^i of Russia
, occording to which
ot before ue envt^s

;:, it

FKRIOD VI. A. D. 1453 1648.

273

that came from the Khan of Kipznch. He even suppressed the
resideiico of Tartar envoys ut his court ; and at length siiook
off their yoke entirely, refusing to pay the tribute whicli the
Griind Dukes had owed to the Khans for several centuries.
Achrnet, Khan of Kipzach, having despatched certain deputies
willi an order, under the great seal, to dcmiind payment, of this
tribute, the Grand Duke trampled the order under his feet, spit
upon it, and then put all the deputies to death except one, whom
he sent back to his master.

The Khan, with the view of revenging that insult, invaded
Russia several times, \m\ the Grand Duke vigorously repul^^ed
.ill his attacks; and while he was arresting the progress of his
arms on the borders of the Ugra, he despatched a body of troops
to the centre of Uie Grand Horde, who laid every thing desolate
(1481.) The Nogai Tartars joined the Russians to finish the
destruction of the Grand Horde, whose different settlements on
the Wolga they laid completely in ruins ; so that nothing more
remained of the powerful en , ire of Kipzach than a few de-
tached hordes, such as those of Casan, Astracan, Siberia, and
the Crimea. Iwan rendered himself formidable to the Tartars ;
he subdued the Khans of Casan, and several times disposed of
their throne. The entire reduction of that Tartar state was ac-
complished by his grandson, John Basilovitz IV., who twice
undertook the siege of Casan, and seized and made prisoner
of the last Khan (1552.) The fall of Casan was followed by that
of Astracan. But John was by no means so fortunate in his en-
terprises against Livonia, which, as we have already said, he was
obliged to abandon to Poland by the peace of Kievorova-Horca.

John IV. was inspired with noble views of policy. Being
anxious to civilize his subjects, he sent for workmen and artists
from England. He requested Charles V. to send him men of
talents, well versed in the different trades and manufactures.
He introduced the art of printing at Moscow, and established
the first permanent army in the country, that of the Strelitzes,
which he employed in keeping the noblei^ i i check. The dis-
covery of Siberia is one of the events th i/-. long to his reign.
A certain chief of the Don Cossacks, name'' -Termak, who em-

Eloyed himself inrobberiea on the borders of ihe Wolga and the
laspian Sea, being pursued by a detachment of Russian troops,
retired to the confines of Siberia. He soon entered these re-
gions at the heiid of seven thousand Cossacks, and having gained
several victories over the Tartars of Siberia, and their Khan
Kutschemi, he got possession of the city of Sibir, which was their
principal fortress (1581.) Jermak. in order to obtain his pardon
of the Czar, made him an offer of oil he had conquered ; which
was agreed to bv that Prince, and the troops of the RusisiaBS

274

CHAFTBIl Vn.

»p <:;Vu.rin (1683 ^ The total reduction ol

come the capital of Siberia. , ^ ^^ ■

Fedor Iwanovitz, a prince ;;v ^'^ J^ 1^. ^^ Qo/unow, '
entirely under the ^ounselsof his b other in^a

who, with the view of opemng a uay f«' h— ^^^ ^^ „,,,,.

^!^""V^ASr'Thir:S'|ive° i e ^atng series of trou-
sitiated (15910 This crime e^^^^ With him, as '

de„ who .-umeJ |W n.™ »f ^ °«S. presem^d .Vk-
by the Poles. During nueeny^u * . i^n^th, as a remedy

i„^, spectacle of -" "J^ -iXtTbe8t^^ling'the' crown on 'a
for these disasters, ^^ey thouRht oi b ^ j,^^„f (j^g.

foreign prince. Some chose Ch^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ f„, Uladislaus, the
tavus Adok.h«s "/Sweden and othe^ ^^^^j^, . ^^^ ^^^^ j

sonofSigismundIV.,Kingotroiana^ The Swedes took ad- 1
onlytoincrensethedisordersoflhestate.^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

1 vantage of them to seize ^"g^g^^Ji^X^^^^ its dependencies,
the Poles took possession of S^f ^^^.y, „„ ^4 edge of a

The R'^^^'an^'X XHf electing a neJczar of their own
precipice, adopted the plan ol «>?"'"- pedrovitz, who became
Ltion. Their choice «»1 «"Xt of Snow (1613.) under
the founder of the new ^y^J^J^^^^J^ J^^/,"^^^^^^ That

whom Russia attained to ^*»«^^"'*yy,isVther, Fedor Roma-
prince, guided by 'h-age councils oh^JaUier,^ ^.^^^^^^^ ^^

now, Archbishop of Rf^^^'I'^f^J^s.vedes, by surrendering
►.he state; he purchased P^ace ot tne owe ^J which he
to them Ingria and Russian Carelm- ^ he sacn ^^^^ ^^.

-de to P«\- -rdVe"; aS f^"^^^^^^^^^ ^o

fhemThelartirtrils'oFsmolensko, Tschernigou, and Novo-
corod, with their dependencies. aristocracy, which

^ Poland, at this time, P-^f.^^'l^Xe anarchy- The nobles
had insensibly degenerated into on^pleean^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ .

were the only persons that «" °f ^j^^^^/the nuncios or de-

, -_Mfe*^«s<-«»M<i<*' I i i jiaM i irtiiiiiiiW it Bi

! total reduction ol '

lil the reign of the j \

and successor of j

i^hich has since be- ■ '

und and body, was 1 \
\v Boris Godunow,
tnself to the throne.
)rother, to be assas-
loiig series of trou-
98.) With him, as I
• ancient sovereigns
xtinct ; after having
idred years,
by persons of diflfe-
l by various preten-
and were supported
a presented a shock-
length, as a remedy
ring the crown on a
I, the brother of Gus-
•d for Uladislaus, the
ise resolutions tended
The Swedes took ad-
ofNovogorod; while
nd its dependencies.
:hy on the edge of a
ew Czar of their own
•drovitz, who became
manow (1613,) under
her greatness. That
1 father, Fedor Roma-
;d all the disorders of
edes, by sunendering
he sacrifices which he
lie. By the truce ot'
a (1634,) he ceded to
ichernigou, and Novo-

jpt aristocracy, which
anarchy. The nobles
. rights of citizenship ;
, by the nuncios or de-
; the honours and dig-
[eneral all prerogatives
iile the bwrgesses and

PERIOD VI. A. D. 1463 — 1648.

poafnntry alone supported the whole burden of expenses. ThiV
constitution, at the siimc time, was under the control of a sort of de-
mocracy, in as far as the nobles, without exception, were held to
be perfectly equal in their rights and dignities. Imperfect as a
government must have In^en, established on such a basis, it still
continued, nevertheless, to preserve some degree of vigour ; and
Poland supported, though feebly, the character of being the ru-
ling power of the North, so long as the House of Jageflon occu-
pied the throne. Besides Prussia, of which she had disposses-
sed the Teutonic Knights, she acquired Livonia, and maintained
it in spite of Russia.

The reformation of religion was likewise promulgated in Po-
land, where it was particularly patronized by Sigismund II. A
great part of the senate, and more than half of the nobility
made, with their King, a profession of the new opinions ; and if
the reformation did not take deeper root in that kingdom, or if it
had not a more conspicuous influence on the civilization of the
eople, it was from the want of a middle class in the kingdom,
y which it could be supported.

The male line of Jagellon, having become extinct with Sigis-
mund II. (1572,) the throne became purely elective; and it was
ordained that, during the King's life, no successor could be ap-
pointed ; but that the States, on his demise, should enjoy for
ever a perfect freedom of election on every vacancy of the throne.
Such was the origin of the Diets of Election, which, from their
very constitution, could not fail to be always tumultuous in their
proceedings. The nobles in a body appeared at these Diets •
thither they repaired in arms and on horseback, ranked accord-
ing to the order of the Palatinates, in a Camp prepared for the
purpose near Warsaw. The custom of the Pacta Conventa,
took its rise about the same time. Henry de Valois, who was
elected King on the death of Sigismund II., was the first thai
swore to these conventional agreements, [by which he engaged,
that no foreigner should be introduced either in a civil or mili-
tary department.] These Pacta, which had all the force of a
fundamental law, specified those conditions under which the
throne was conferred on the new monarch. The royal authori-
ty was thus curtailed more and more, and the prerogatives of
the nobility exalted in proportion.

Poland, in consequence, soon lost its influence ; the govern-
ment was altered in its fundamental principles, and the kingdom
plunged into an abyss of calamities. Among the elective Kings
who succeeded Henry de Valois, the last that supported the dig-
nity of the crown against Russia, was Uladislaus IV., the son of
Sigismund III., of the House of Vasa. In an expedition which
he undertook into the interior of Russia (1618,) he penetrated

\\-

i"'i

876

CHAPTEH VII.

an far ns Moscow ; and in n .spooihI which he rnnde 0634,) he
rompt'lied the Riissinns to raise the sicjfe of Sniolt'iicko ; and
shut them up m closely in their canin, that they were ohiiired to |
capitulate for want of provisionn. He then made a new attack ^
on the capital of Russia ; and at the peace ol Wiasma. he ob- ,
tained conditions most advantaj,'eous to Poland. ;

In the history of Huiij,'nry, the most splendid era wns the ,
reiffn of Matthias Corvin, who, at the ago of scarcely sixteen, |
had been raised to the throne by the free choice of the nation
(1458.) Liko his father the valorous John Hunniades, he was
the terror of the Turks during,' his whole reign ; he took Bosnia ,
from them, and kept Transylvania, Wollachia, Moldayia, Scla- j
vonia, and Servia in dependence on his crown, in spite of the j
incessant eflTorts which the Turks made to rescue these provinces. ,
He likewise conquered Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia ; he even i
took Austria from the Emperor Frederic III., and came to fix ,
his residence at Vienna (1485.) It was in that city that he tcr-
minated his brilliant career, at the early age ol forty-seven (149U.)
That great prince added to his military talents, a love for elegant
literature, of which, from the first revival of letters, he showed
himself a zealous protector. . , , r n/i

The glory of Hungary sufTered an eclipse in the loss of Mat-
thias. His successors, Uladislaus II., the son of Casimir IV.
King of Poland, and Louis the son of Uladislaus, who held at
the same time the crown of Bohemia, were weak and indolent
princes, who saw Hungary torn by factions, and ravaged with
impunity by the Turks. Soliman the Great taking advantage
of the youth of Louis, and the distressed state in which Hungary
was, concerted his plans for con(iuering the kingdom. He at-
tacked the fortress of Belgrade (1521,) and made himself master
of that important place, before the Hungarians could march to
Its relief. His first success encouraged him to return to the
charge. Having crossed the Danube and the Drave without
meeting with any resistance, he engaged the Hunpnans near
Mohacz (1526,) in that famous battle which cost them the Iile
of their king and their principal nobility. Twenty-two thousand
Hungarians were left on the field of battle, and the whole king-
dom lay ut the mercy of the conqueror. Soliman now proceeded
as far as the Raab; but instead of completing the conquest of
Hungary as he might have done, he contented himself with the
1 laying waste all that part of the country with fire and sword ;
' and carrying several hundred thousand prisoners into slavery.
The premature death of the young King who left no progeiiy,
occasioned a vacancy in the throne of Hungary and Bohemia.
Ferdinand of Austria who married Anne, sister to Louis, ciaimefl
the succession in virtue of the difTerent treaties signM in the

w«>«WiiMKM»4lMSn«^(l^>«Ai^

,-.4« aifea »«iito w ^»n*fciaM»

■N^r

idc il634,) ht
lolt'iifko ; and
kftTi! ohliged to
' II new attack
'^iasnia, he ob-

1 era was the
arcely sixleen,
of the nation
iiiudes, he wa6
le took Bosnia
loldavia, Sola-
in spite of the
lese provinces,
satia ; he even
[ud came to fix
•ity that he ter-
^-seven(1490.)
ove for elegant
ers, he showed

lie loss of Mat-
of Casiniir IV.
is, who held at
k and indolent
I ravaged with
king advantage
vhich Hungary
igdom. He at-
I himself master
could march to
3 return to the
Drave without
ungarians near
it them the life
ty-two thousand
the whole king-
1 now proceeded
the conquest of
himself with the
fire and sword ;
rs into slavery.
( left no progerjy,
y and Bohemia.
Louis, claimed
>s signod in the

PKRIOD VI. A. D. 14fi3— 1648.

977

years 1463, 1468, 1491, and 1515, between the Austrian princes
and the last kings of Hungary. But though the Bohemiai)
Slates were disposed to listen to the pretensions of Ferdinand,
it was not so with those of Hungary, who transferred the crown
to John de Zapolya, Count of Zips, and Palatine of Transylvania.
That prince Iwing hardly pressed by Ferdinand, at length de-
termined to throw himself under the protection of the Turks.
Soliman marched in person to his assistance, and laid siege to
the city of Vienna (1529.) In this enterprise, however, he failed,
after sacrificing the lives of nearly eighty thousand men.

In 153S, a treaty was agreed on between the two competitors,
in virtue of which the whole kingdom of Hungary, on the death
of John Zapolya, was to devolve on Ferdinand. This treaty
was never carried into execution. John at liis death having
left a son named John Sigismuiid, then an infant in his cradle,
Bishop George Martinuzzi, prime minister of the deceased king,
proclaimed the young prince, and secured for him the protec-
tion of the Turks. Soliman undertook a new expedition into
Hungary in his favour (1541 ;) but by a piece of signal perfidy,
he took this occasion to seize the city of Buda, the capital of the
kingdom, and several other pla.'es ; and banished the prince
with his mother the queen-dowager, to Transylvania, which he
gave up to him, with several other districts in Hungary. The
city of Buda with the greater part of Hungary and Sclavonia
remained in the power of the Turks ; and Ferdinand was obliged
to pay an annual tribute for the protection of that kingdom, the

Cossession of which was guaranteed to him by the truce which
e concluded with them in 1562.

In the midst of these unfortunate events, the Austrian princeb
had again the imprudence to alienate the affections of the Hun-
garians, by the intolerant spirif they displayed, and the efforts
which they incessantly made to extirpiite the Protestant religion
from that kingdom. The opinions of Luther and Calvin had
already been propagated in Hungary during the reign of Louis,
the predecessor of Ferdinand. They had even made j.reat pro-
gress ; especially in Transylvania, where the German language
and literature were generally cultivated. The oppressions which
the partisans of the new doctrines experienced, added to the at-
tempts which the Austrian princes made, from time to time, to
subvert the ancient constitution of the kingdcm, excited fresh
troubles, and favoured the designs of the discontented and am-
bitious, who were watching their opportunity to agitate the
state, and make encroachments on the government. Stephen
Boischkai, Bethlem Gabor, and George Ragoczi, princes of
Transylvania, were successively the chiefs or leaders of these

*-ilii

1 < !

11:

378 CHAPTBB TU.

malecontents, in tho reigns of Rodolph II., Ferdinand JI-. and
Ferdinand III., Emperors of Germany. Accordmg to the Paci-
fication of Vienna (1606,) and that of Lintz (1645,) as well as
by the decrees of the Diet of Odenburg (1622.) and of Presburg
(1647,) these princes were compelled to tolerate the public exer-
cise of the reformed religion ; and to redress the political com-
plaints of the Hungarian malecontents. , . . . , J
The same troubles on the score of religion, which infested
Hungary, extended likewise to Bohemia, where the new doc-
trines met with a much better reception, as they were in unison
with the religious system of the Hussites, who had already nu-
merous partisans in that kingdom. It was chiefly under the
reign of the mild and tolerant Maximilian II. that Protestantism
made its way in Bohemia. All those who were formerly called
Utraquists, from their professing the Communion in both kinds,
joined the followers either of Luther or Calvin. Rodolph II.,
the son and successor of Maximilian, was obliged, at the Diet of
Prague (1609,) to grant them the free exercise of their worship,
without distinction of place ; and even to extend this indulgence to
the Protestants of Silesia and Lusatia by letters-patent, known
by the name of Letters of Majesty ; copies of which were made
at Prague on the 11th of July and 20th of August 1609. These
letters were confirmed by King Matthias, on his accession to the
throne ol Bohemia ; as also by Ferdinand III., when he was
acknowledged by the Bohemian States, as the adopted son and
successor of Matthias.

The different interpretations which were put on these letters
occasioned ihe war, known in history by the name of the Thirty
Years' War. The Emperor Matthias happening to die in the
midst of these disturbances, the Bohemian States, regarding
their crown as elective, annulled the election of Ferdinand II.
(1619,) and conferred the crown on Frederic, the Elector Pala-
tine. Being in strict alliance with the States of Silesia, Mora-
via, and Lusatia, they declared war against Ferdinand, who was
supported, on the other hand, by Spain, the Catholic princes of
the Empire, and the Elector of Saxony. ,„,,.-.,

The famous battle of Prague (1620.) and the fall of the Elec-
tor Palatine, brought about a revolution in Bohemia. The ring-
leaders of the insurrection were executed at Prague, and their
goods confiscated. Ferdinand, who treated that kingdom as a
conquered country, declared that the States had forfeited their
rights and privileges ; and, in the new constitution which he
gave them, he consented to restore these, only on condition of
expressly excepting the rights which they had claimed m the
election of their kings, a." well as the Letters of Majesty which

- ffv^ n Tv m mi t ^*m iir iJ Wr it

■ m'HliiiMlMlW'l'''

tnd n., and
to the Paci-
,) as well as
of Presburg
public exer-
olitical com-

lich infested
he new doc-
ere in unison
I already nu-
iy under the
i'rotestantism
rmerly called
n both kinds,
Rodolph II.,
at the Diet of
:heir worship,
indulgence to
)atent, known
;h were made
1609. These
^cession to the
when he was
opted son and

n these letters
! of the Thirty
S[ to die in the
Les, regarding
Ferdinand IL
Elector Pala-
Silesia, Mora-
nand, who was
olio princes of

ill of the Elec'
ia. The ring-
igue, and their
, kingdom as a
forfeited their
tion which he
on condition of
claimed in the
Majesty which

PBRioD VI. A. D. 14d3 — 1648.

279

S -anted to the Protestants the free exercise of their worship
ut this prince did not stop with the suppression of their reli-
gious liberties, he deprived them also of their rights of citizen-
ship. Laws the most atrocious were published against them,
and he even went so far as to deny them the liberty of making
testaments, or contracting legal marriages. All their ministers,
without exception, were banished the kingdom ; and the most
iniquitous means were employed to bring back the Protestants
to the pale of the Catholic Church. At length it was enjoined,
by an edict in 1627, that all Protestants who persisted in their
opinions should quit the kingdom within six months. Thirty
thousand of the best families in the kingdom, of whom a hun-
dred and eighty-five were nobility, abandoned Bohemia, trans-
porting their talents and their mdustry to the neighbouring
States, such as Saxony, Brandenburg, Prussia, &c.

Ferdinand judged it for his interest to detach the Elector of
Saxony from the alliance with Sweden, which he had joined.
He concluded a special peace with him at Prague, in virtue ol
which he made over to him the two Lusatias, which he had dis-
membered from the kingdom of Bohemia, to reimburse the Elec-
tor for those sums which he claimed, as having been the ally of
Austria against the Elector Palatine, then King of Bohemia.
That province was ceded to the Elector John George, for him-
self and his successors, as a fief of the Bohemian crown, under
the express condition, that failing the male line of the Electoral
branch, it should pass to the female heirs ; but that it should
then be at the option of the King of Bohemia to use the right of
redemption, by repaying to the female heirs the sum for which
Lusatia had been mortgaged to Saxony. This sum amounted
to seventy-two tons of gold, valued at seven millions two hundred
thousand dorins.

The Turkish empire received new accessions of territory, both
in Asia and Europe, under the successors of Mahomet IL, who
had fixed their capital at Constantinople. The conquest of Bes-
sarabia belongs to the reign of Bajazet IL, about the year 1484
That prince had a brothftr named Jem or Zizim, who had been
his competitor for the throne ; and having fled to Home, he was
imprisoned by order of Pope Alexander VI., at the instance of
Bajazet, who had engaged to pay the Pope a large pension for
him. Charles VIII. of France, when he made his expedition
into Italy for the conquest of Naples, compelled the Pope to sur-
render up the unfortunate Zizim, whom he designed to employ
in the expedition which he meditated ag ust the Turks, but
which never took place. Selim I. the son and successor of Ba-
jazet, taking advantage of a revolution which happened in Persia,
and of the victory which he gained near Taurus over the Scbaw

■i

280

CHAPTER VII.

Ismail Sophi I. (1514,) conquered the provinces of DiarbekiT
and Algezira, beyond the Euphrates. , i. m

The same prince overturned the powerful Empire ot the Ma-
melukes, who reigned over Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and part of
Arabia. He defeated the last Sultans, Cansoul-Algour^ and
Toumanbey (1516,) and totally annihilated that dynasty. Cairo,
the capital of the Empire of Egypt, was taken by assault (1517,)
and the whole of the Mameluke States incorporated with the
Ottoman Empire. The Scheriff of Mecca likewise submitted
to the Porte, with several tribes of the Arabs.

Soliman the Great, who succeeded his father Selim, raised
the Turkish Empire to the highest pitch of glory. Besides the
island of Rhodes, which he took from the Knights of bt. John,
and the greater part of Hungary, he reduced the provinces of
Moldavia and Wallachia to a state of dependence, and made
their princes vassals and tributaries of his Empire. He likewise
conquered Bagdad and Irak-Arabia, which happened, according
to the Turkish authors, about the year 1534.

That prince distinguished his reign, by the efforts vvhich he
made to increase the maritime strength of the Empire, which
his predecessors had neglected. He took into his service the
famous pirate Barbarossa, King of Algiers, whom he created
Capitan Pacha, or Grand Admiral. Barbarossa equipped a fleet
of more than a hundred sail, with which he chased the Imperi-
alists from the Archipelago ; and infested the coasts of Spam,
Italy and Sicily (1565.) Soliman miscarried, however, in his
enterprise against Malta. The courageous defence made by the
Knights, together with the arrival of the fleet from Sicily, obliged
the Ottomans to retreat. . , , . u »

The decline of the Ottoman Empire began with the death of
Soliman the Great (1566.) The sultans, his successors, sur-
rendering themselves to luxury and effeminacy, and shut up in
their seraglios and harems, left to their Grand Viziers the gov-
ernment of the Empire, and the management of the army. The
sons of these Sultans, educated by women and eunuchs, and se-
cluded from all civil and military affairs, contracted from their
earliest infancy all the vices of their fathers, and no longer
brought to the throne that vigorous and enterprising snirit,
which had been the soul of the Ottoman government, and the
basis of all their institutions. Selim II., the son of Soliman,
was the first who set this fatal example to his successors. In
his time, the Turks took the Isle of Cyprus from the Venetians
(1570,) which they maintained in spite of the terrible defeat
which they received at Lepanto (1571,) and vvhich was followed
by the ruin of their marine.

;,iuimaiim't»'-f»itniir.>!dt<iiiim:t>«nw'n^

of DiaTbekir

re of the Ma-
e, and part of
Algouri, and
nasty. Cairo,
ssault (1517.)
ated with the
ise submitted

Selim, raised
Besides the
s of St. John,
e provinces of
ce, and made
He likewise
led, according

forts which he
Umpire, which
bis service the
m he created
quipped a fleet
ed the Imperi-
ists of Spain,
owever, in his
:e made by the
Sicily, obliged

th the death of
iuccessors, sur-
and shut up in
'iziers the gov-
he army. The
muchs, and se-
cted from their
and no longer
rprising spirit,
nment, ana the
m of Soliman,
successors. In
1 the Venetians
terrible defeat
;h was followed

■rur^anrr.v*"

--11

CHAPTER VIII.

PERIOD VII.

From the Peace of Westphalia, to that of Utrecht. — a. d. 164&—

1713.

The political system of Europe underwent a great cnange at
the commencement of this period. France, after having long
struggled for her own independence against Austria, at length
turned the balance, and became so formidable as to combine
against herself the whole policy and military power of Europe.
The origin of this extraordinary influence of France, belongs to
the reigns of Charles VII., and Louis XI. Several important
accessions which she made at this epoch, together with the
change which happened in her government, gave her a power
and energy, which might have secured her a decided preponde-
rance among the Continental States, had not her influence been
overbalanced by Austria, which, by a concurrence of fortunate
events, and several wealthy marriages, had s\jddenly risen to a
degree of power that excited the jealousy of all Europe. Hence,
for nearly two hundred years, it required all the political re-
sources of France to make head against her rival ; and what
added to her misfortunes was, that, though freed from the dis-
traction of the Italian war, she was still agitated by civil wars,
which employed her whole military force.

It was not till near the middle of the seventeenth century that
she extricated herself from this long struggle ; and that, disen-
gaged from the shackles of her own factions and internal dis-
sensions, her power assumed a new vigour. The well regulated
condition of her finances, the prosperity of her commerce and
manufactures, and the respectable state of her marine, all con-
curred to diffuse wealth and abundance over the kingdom.
The abasement of the House of Austria, eflfected at once by the
treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, together with the
consolidation of the Germanic body, and the federal system of
the Provinces in the Netherlands, put the last climax on her
glory, and secured to her the preponderance in the political scale
of Europe. This change in her political system was achieved

i ' i

I. I

■f!

M ' i

282

OUAPTBK VIU.

principally by the two great statesmen, Cardinals Richelieu and
Mazarin, who, by drying up the fountains of civil dissensions,
and concentrating the reins of authority in the hands of the go-
vernment, raised that monarchy to the rank which its position,
its population, and its internal resources, had assigned it among
the powers of the Continent. ,

Mazarin left the kingdom in a flourishing state to Louis Al V.,
who, aided by the counsels and assistance of the fanious Col-
bert, became the patron of letters and the fine arts, and finished
the work which was begun by his prime minister. Nothing
could equal the ardour which inspired that prince for military
fame. France would have been prosperous under his reign,
and respected even by all Europe, had he kept nothmg else in
Tiew than the true interests and happiness of his people ; but
he was ambitious of that sort of glory which is the scourge of
mankind, the glory of heroes and conquerors. Hence there re-
sulted a long series of wars, which exhausted the strength and
resources of the state, and introduced a new change in its po-
litical system. The same States which had formerly made
common cause with France against Austria, now combined
against the former, to humble that gigantic power whwh seemed
to threaten their liberty and independence. , ., , ,
[In these alliances the maritime powers voluntarily took part ;
and, having less fear than the others of falling under the yoke
of a universal monarchy, they joined the Confederates merely
for the protection of their commerce— the true source of their
influence p.nd their wealth. They undertook the defence of the
equilibrium system, because they perceived, that a State which
could command the greater part cf the continental coasts, might
in many ways embarrass their commerce, and perhaps become
dangerous to their marine. They soon acquired a very great
influence in the affairs of this system, by the subsidies with
which fron. time to time they furnished the States ot the l.on-
tinent. From this period the principal aim of European policy
was their finances and their commercial interests, m place ot
religion, which had been the grand motive or pretext for the
preceding wars. With this new system began those abuses oi
commercial privileges and monopolies, prohib.tions, imposts,
and many other regulations, which acted as restraints oniiatural
liberty, and became the scourge of future generations. It was
then that treaties of commerce first appeared, by whwh every
trading nation endeavoured to procure idvantages to itselt, at
the expense of its rivals; and it was then that the belligerent
powers began to lay restraints and interdicts on the commerce
of neutral States.

:Simi>-wit^^»i=*iii

Richelieu and

iril dissensions,
ands of the go-
ich its position,
igned it among

to Louis XIV.,
16 famous Col-
ts, and finished
ister. Nothing
ce for military
nder his reign,
nothing else in
lis people ; but
the scourge of
Hence there re-
le strength and
ange in its po-
formerly made
now combined
r which seemed

tarily took part ;
under the yoke
ederates merely
source of their
le defence of the
it a State which
ital coasts, might
perhaps become
red a very great
! subsidies with
ates of the Con-
European policy
3sts, in place ol
• pretext for the
those abuses oi
x'tions, imposts,
Taints on natural
rations. It was
by which every
iges to itself, at
t the belligerent
n the commerce

riRioD vn. A. 0. 1648—1713.

283

But the political system of Europe experienced other changes
at this period. Standing armies were introduced, and augment-
ed to a degree that proved ruinous both to the agriculture of the
inhabitants, and the finances of the government, which, by this
means, was rendered more and more dependent on those States,
whose principal object was commerce. The frequent commu-
nication between foreign courts, which the policy of Richelieu
had rendered necessary, gave occasion for envoys and resident
ministers ; whereas formerly scarcely any other intercourse was
known, except by extraordinary embassies.]

The first war that roused the European powers, was thai
which Louis XIV. undertook against Spain, to enforce the
claims which he advanced, in name of his Queen Maria The-
resa, over several provinces of the Spanish Netherlands, espe-
cially the dutchies of Brabant and Limburg, the seigniories of
Mechlin, the marquisate of Antwerp, Upper Gueldres, the
counties of Namur, Hainault and Artois, Cambray and Cam-
bresis, which he alleged belonged to him, in virtue of the jus
devolutionis, according to the usage of that country. According
to that right, the property of goods passed to the children of the
first marriage, when their parents contracted another. Maria
Theresa, Queen of France, was the daughter, by the first mar-
riage of Philip IV. King of Spain; whereas Charles II., his
successor in that monarchy, was descended of the second mar-
riage. Louis XIV. contended, that from the moment of Philip's
second marriage, the property of all the countries, which were
affected by the right of devolution, belonged to his Queen ; and
that, after the death of her father, that Princess should enjoy
the succession. In opposition to these claims of France, the
Spaniards alleged, that the right of aevolution, being founded
merely on custom, and applicable only to particular successions,
could not be opposed to the fundamental laws of Spain, which
maintained the indivisibility of that monarchy, and transferred the
whole succession to Charles II. without any partition whatever.

In course of the campaign of 1667, the French made them-
selves masters of several cities in the Low Countries, such as
Bruges, Fumes, Armentieres, Charleroi, Binch, Ath, Toumay,
Douay, Courtray, Oudenarde, and Lille ; and in course of the
following winter, they got possession of Franche-Comte. The
Pope and several princes having volunteered their good offices
for the restoration of peace, they proposed a congress at Aix-la-
Chapelle ; but the principal scene of the negotiation was at the
Hague, where Louis sent the Count d'Estrades, to treat sepa-
rately with the States-General. This negotiation was greatly
accelerated by the famous Triple Alliance, concluded at the

'■iB '».' i

^ • ^'

. »-

284

CHAPTER VIII.

Hnmie 1668. between Great Britain, Sweden, and the States-
General. By the terms of this treaty, the Alhed Powers re-
quired Louis to ofler Spain the option, either to eave h.m in
jrcssion of the places which he had conquered dur.ng the
carnpaiffn of 1667, or to cede to him either the dutchy of Lux-
eXg or Franche-Comte with the cities of Cambray, Douay
Aire, St. Omer, and Fumes, with their dependencies. The
Spaniards having accepted the former of these alternatives, the
draught of a treaty of peace was agreed on, and signed by the
Siislers of France, England, and the States-General ; and this
Seme served as the basis of the ^roatV, which ys concluded
at Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and Spam (May 2d 166^
In consideration of the restitutions which she had "^ade 'o S™.n,
France retained, in terms of this treaty, the towns of Charleroi,
Bnch Ath, Douay, Tournay, Oudenarde, L.l e, Armentieres.
£'4 Bergues! and Furnes, with their bailiwicks and de-

^'iTs' peace was soon followed by a new war, which Louis
XIV undertook against the Republic of the Seven United Pro-
^nces Wishing^o be avenged on the Dutch, whom he knew
The the principal authors of the Triple Alliance, and consuls
inff only his own propensity for war, he alleged, as a pretext,
S insulting medals which had been struck in Holland, on
Jhe p "a e of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Triple Alliance.' In vain
d d fhe States-General offer him every satisfaction ; he persist-
ed in his purpose of declaring war ; and the better to succeed m
his design, he endeavoured first to dissolve the Trip^ Alliance.
Colbe't de Croissy, whom he sent to England found means o
detach Charles II!^ from the alliance, ana to draw h.m over to
sfde wi^h Louis against the Republic. The «ame success at-
tended the negotiation which he set on foot with the Court of
Itockholm. following the example.of Eng and, the Swedes
renounced the Triple Alliance, and joined with France. Seve-
arpr"nces of the fempire, such as the Electo, of Cologne and
he Bishop of Munster, adopted the same line of conduct. The
war b oke out in 1672; and so rapid were the conquests o
Louis that he subdued in one single campaign the provinces of
Guerdres, Utrecht, Overyssel, and part of Holland. He would
have carried the city of Amsterdam, it the Dutch had not cut
their dikes and inundated the country.

Alarmed at these extraordinary successes, and apprehending
the entU^e subversion of the Republic, the Emperor "Leopold 1.
the King of Spain, the Elector of Brandenburg and the Impe-
rial Stafes leagued in their favour, and marched to their relief,
fhe Pari aS of England obliged ChaMes II. to make peace

'•5*.s««l(ta#»ft*ste«««««»*-«*i*rt'a^-.

aJC ^**'""--" " w ii i i i i iaiiKi

nd the States*

ied Powers re-
leave him in
red, during the

utchy of Lux-
anibrajr, Douay
sndencies. The

alternatives, the
d signed by the
eneral ; and this
1 was concluded

(May 2d 1668.)
d made to Spain,
ras of Charleroi,
le, Armentieres,
liliwicks and de-
ar, which Louis
sven United Pro-
, whom he knew
ice, and consult-
jed, as a pretext,
:k in Holland, on
liance.' In vain
ction ; he persist-
jtter to succeed in
i Triple Alliance.
, found means to
Iraw him over to
same success at-
vith the Court of
land, the Swedes
11 France. Seve-
I of Cologne and
of conduct. The

the conquests of
n the provinces of
Hand. He would
lutch had not cut

md apprehendins
iperor Leopold 1.
rg, and the Impe-
lled to their relief.
II. to make peace

PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

285

•*ith the Republic, by refusing to grant him supplies (1674.)
The Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Miinster did the
same thing. Louis XIV. then thought proper to abandon his
roriquests in Holland ; and direaed his principal .strength against
Spam and the Germanic Stages. He subdued Franche-Com'e
in the spring of 1674; and in course of the same year, the
Prince of Conde gained the battle of Senef. In the following
winter Turcnne attacked the quarters of the Imperialists in
Alsace, and chased them from that province, in spite of their
superior numbers. That great general was slain at Saspach in
Ortenau when he was on the point of lighting the famous battle
with Montecuculi (11th Aug. 1674.) Next year Admiral do
Que3ne gained two naval victories, near the islands of Lipari
and Messina, over De Ruyter, who died of the wounds he had
received.

The Swedes, according to the secret articles of their alliance
with France, had penetrated, in the month of December 1674,
into the Electorate of Brandenburg, to cause a diversion against
the Elector Frederic William, who commanded the Imperial
army on the Rhine ; but the Elector surprised them by forced
marches at Rathenow, and completely routed their army near
Fehrbellin (1675.) The Emperor then declared war against
Sweden ; and the Elector, in concert with the princes of Bruns-
wick, the Bishop of Munster, and the King of Denmark, strip-
ped the Swedes of the greater part of their possessions in the
Empire.

At length, in the years 1678-79, a peace was concluded at
Mimeguen, under the mediation of England. Louis XIV. con-
trived to divide the allies, and to make a separate treaty with
the Dutch, by which he restored to them the city of Maestricht,
which he had. again seized. The example of the Dutch was fol-
lowed by the Spaniards, who in like manner signed a special
treaty with France ; in virtue of which, they gave up to her
Franche-Comt^, wkh several cities in Flanders and Hainault,
such as Valenciennes, Bouchain, Conde, Cambray, Aire, St.
Omer, Ypres, Warwick, Warneton, Poperingen, Bailleul, Cas-
sel, Bavay, and Maubeuge, with their dependencies. The peace
of Munster (1648) was renewed by that which was concluded
at Nimeguen, between France, the Empire, and the Emperor.
France, on renouncing her right to a ^rrison in Philipsburg,
got possession of the city of Friburg in Brisgaw, but refused to
restore what .sue had wrested from the Duke of Lorraine, except
on conditions so burdensome, that the Duke would not accept
them and preferred to abandon the repossession of his dutchy.
As tc the peace which France and Sweden had negotiated with

1 'I

i !

r .^^

r;::

286

durrBR VIII.

Denmark and her allies the Princes of the Empire, it was «.
npwed by different special treaties, concluded in course of the

vear 1679. i . . v l

" No sooner was the peace of Nimeguen concluded, than there
aprunff 10 new troubles, known by the name of the Troubles oj
the Rpunmis. Louis XIV., whose ambition was without bounds,
had instituted a Chamber of Reunion, in the parliament of Metz,
for the purpose of examining the nature and extent of the tern-
tones ceded to him by the treaties of Westphalia, the Pyrenees,
Aix-ia-Chapelle, and Nimeguen. This Chamber, as well as the
Parliament of Besan9on, and the Sovereign Council of Alsace,
adjudged to the King, by their decree, several towns and seigmo-
ries, as being fiefs or dependencies of Alsace ; as also the three
bishoprics, Franche-Comte, and the territories which had been
ceded to him in the Netherlands. , . , u

The King's views were principally directed to Alsace. He
had already°tendered his claims on this province, shortly after
the peace of the Pyrenees, when the matter had been referred
to the decision of arbiters chosen by the Emperor himself. The
work of arbitration was not far advanced, when it was inter-
rupted bv the Dutch war, in which the Emperor and the Em-
Dire were both implicated. The peace of Nimeguen haying
confirmed the treaty of Munster, he preferred the method of re-
union to that of arbitration, for reclaiming his alleged rights.
Taking advantage of the general terms in which the cession of
Alsace was announced in the seventy-third and seventy-fourth
articles of the said treaty, he claimed the absolute sovereignty
of the whole province, and obliged the immediate states, inclu-
ded in it, to acknowledge his sovereignty, and to do him fealty
and homage, notwithstanding the reservations which the eighty-
seventh article of the same treaty had stipulated in favour of
these very States. M. de Louvois appeared before Strasburg
at the head of the French army, and summoned that city to sub-
mit to the King. Accordingly, it surrendered by capitulation
on the 30th September 1681. These reunions extended also to
the Netherlands, where the French seized, among others, the
cities of Courtray, Dixmude and Luxemburg.

Louis XIV., in thus taking upon himself alone the interpre-
tation of these trea'ies of peace, could not but offend the powers
interested in maintaining them. A new general league was
projected against France, and at the Diet of Ratisbon they de-
liberated on the means of setting on foot an Imperial army ; but
the want of unanimity among the members of the Germanic bo-
dy the troubles in Hungary, which were immediately succeed-
ed by a war with the Porte, and the march of a Turkish army

■■ s^i»*^««Bafejw«*)

tBiu»*iW>iii''a.it'i!sagaMjB^ai^g^S^i^W^w'^

re, it was re-
course of the

ed, than there
le Troubles of
ithout bounds,
ment of Meti,
nt of the terri-
the Pyrenees,
as well as the
icil of Alsace,
18 and seigniO'
also the three
hich had been

3 Alsace. He
I, shortly after
I been referred
■ himself. The
n it was inter-
and the Em-
leguen having
! method of re-
alleged rights.
1 the cession of
seventy-fourth
jte sovereignty
te states, inclu-
do him fealty
[lich the eighty-
2d in favour of
;fore Strasburg
that city to sub-
by capitulation
extended also to
ong others, the

ne the interpre-
fend the powers
Tal league was
atisbon they de-
erial army ; but
le Germanic bo-
dialely succeed-
a Turkish army

rsRioD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

S87

oil Vienna, threw them into a state of consternation, and pre-
vented the Imperial Diet from adopting any vigorous resolution.
Spain, exhausted by protracted wars, and abandoned by Eng-
land and Holland, was quite incapacitated from taking arms.
Nothing else, therefore, remained for the parties concerned, than
to have recourse to negotiation. Conferences were opened nt
Frankfort, which, after having languished for fifteen months in
that city, were transferred to Raiisbon, where a truce of twenty
years was signed (15th August 1684) between France and Spain;
as also between France, the Emperor and the Empire. By the
former of these treaties, Louis retained Luxemburg, Bovines,
and Chimay, with their dependencies ; restoring all the places
which he had occupied in the Netherlands prior to the 20th Au-
gust 1683. As to the treaty between France and the Emperor,
the former retained, during the truce, the city of Strasburg, and
the fort of Kehl, besides all the places and seigniories which
they had taken possession of, since the commencement of the
troubles till the 1st of August 1681. In all the places that were
surrendered to him, Louis preserved the exercise of his sover-
eign rights, leaving to the proprietors or seigniors the entire en-
joyment of the fruits and revenues belonging to their territorial
rights.

It was nearly about this same time that Louis XIV. under-
took to extirpate Calvinism from France. Incensed against the
Protestants by the old chancellor Letellier, and his minister Lou-
vois, the chancellor's son, he circumscribed, by repeated declara-
tions, the privileges which they enjoyed in virtue of former
edicts. The holding of general synods was forbidden ; the two
Chambers were suppressed ; and they were all, without excep-
tion, debarred from exercising any public function. At last,
Louis went so far as to send, immediately after the truce of Ra-
tisbon (1684,) dragoons over all France, to endeavour, as was
said, to convert the Protestants by gentle compulsion. This
measure was next followed by the famous Edict of 1685, which
revoked that of Nantes, published in 1598, and that of Nismes
in 1629. All exercise of their religion — all assemblies for wor-
ship, even in the house, were forbidden to the Protestants, under
pain of imprisonment and confiscation of goods. Their churches
were ordered to be demolished. Parents were enjoined to have
their children baptized by the Catholic clergy, and to bring them
up in the religion of the state. The ministers were banished,
and the other Protestants were forbidden to depart the country,
under pain of the galleys for men, and imprisonment and confis-
cation for women. The rigour of these prohibitions, however,
did not prevent a vast multitude of the French Protestants from

1 i

'»

I'K.

f . I m;

288

OUAFTKR Vm.

«m»Ting 1» foreign couMric-., and l'«"»fe"i"8 *• •»' »' *•"
eJ ihe prerogative of hegale acstr\ts lu uc ^ j havinir

,„ ,1.. King in favnur o .(.e t;*"^;- JJ"' "„ «hth, toide.

allow himself to be <='7Ty^:,tu JburHn iSsoXtweeri the
he cited the treaty «^°"5l"J;f/\h^;'|tS.Ge, eVa? Sweden, the

i maintenance of the t-«"- ,f "£f .^Si fhe Dutchess of
: wished moreover to enforce the .^^f'T succession of the Pala-
1 Orleans, his sister-in-law, alleged « 'J'e «"^yf J^^^ gi^^tor

if^^^M-'' ■^-' J^t

I the seat of their

not hinder Louis

\vn against the

the dinercnt dis>

Int which regard-

Jticuliirly reniarit-

and 1675, having

bishoprics within

8, who pretended

ng hi.s protection.

lich he addressed

nduced Louis to

in which, besides

draw up the four

le basis of the li*

sitions were, (1.)

ings spiritual, and

That the authority

to a general coun-

ons, the customs,

can Church. (4.)

is not infallible.

;cnly years at Ra-

'hich Louis again

brination, that the

ision of the peace

he thence inferred,

te his enemy, than

' of this assertion,

16S6, between the

leral, Sweden, the

he Empire, for the

I France. Louis

1 the Dutchess of

ession of the Pala-

es, the last Elector

ed in 1685. She

I succcs:4ur in the

1 comprehended a

the new Elector,

laintained thai, ac<

the entire succes-

rhatever.

set forth in a long

vim

' ' ' '.

" >i"'i"iiiii>iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii!iiiiiiiniiili

Execution of Charles I. KU'J. P. 203.

ill

4 «■ ■

t :'fcj;^-^

Cromwell dissolviiij; the Loii!' Piiliaiiiciii.. P. ":i«'j.

1 T'

rl'

1 1

■1. i

" "^ lfc<

',1

-,'•

» (

Itil

ptaioD VII. A. D. 164S— 1719.

289

manifestn, thef* wm another W'hich he kept concealed, the ob-
ject (1^ which wnn, to prevent th* <'xpedition which tlio Prince
of Oratiif Stadihoider of (he United Provinces, was preparing
to siMid lo liri/land, against Jaidi s II. his brotht'r-iri-uiw, who
had become odioii? U) ilie whole English nufi"n. It was of great
importance for Fran< e to maintain, on the llirone of Great Bri-
tain, a prince whom she protected, and who would alwiiys e.^-
pouse ner intere.sts ; while it was easy to foresee, that if the
Prince of Orange, the declared enemy of Loa .s, and the author
of the league of Augsburg, should succeed in uniting the crown
of England to the stadtholdership, he would not fail to employ
this new influence, and turn the combined force of both states
against France. The only method of preventing an event so
prejudicial to the true interests of that kingdom would have been
doubtless, to equip an expedition, and pitch his camp on the
frontiers of Holland. The Court of France knew this well, and
yet they contented themselves with sending an army to the
Rhine, which took possession of Philipsburg, Mayence, and the
whole Palatinate, as well as a part of the Electorate of Treve*
(Sept. and Oct. 1688.) Louvois, the French minister who di-
rected these operations, had flattered himself that the Dutch,
when they beheld the war breaking out in their vicinity, would
not dare to take any part in the troubles of England. In this
opinion he was deceived ; the Prince of Orange, supported by the
Dutch fleet, effected a landing in England (16th November 1688.)
The revolution there was soon completed, by the dethronement
of James II. ; and Louis XIV., enaing where he should hare
begun, then declared war against the States-General. This
mistaken policy of the French minister became the true source of
all the subsequent reverses that eclipsed the reign of Louis XIV.
A powerful league was now formed against France, which
was joined successively by the Emperor, the Empire, England,
Holland, Spain and Savoy (1689.) Louis XIV., in order to
make head against these formidable enemies, recalled his troops
from those places which they occupied in the Palatinate, and on
the banks of the Rhine ; but in withdrawing them, he ordered
a great number of the towns to be burnt to ashes, and laid waste
the whole country. By this barbarity, which circumstances by
no means called for, he only aggravated the hatred and increased
the ardour of his enemies. War was commenced by sea and
land ; in Italy, Spain, Ireland, the Low Countries, and on the
Rhine. Louis supported it nobly against a great part of Europe,
now combined against him. His armies were victorious every
where. Marshal Luxembourg signalized himself in tht cam-
paigns of Flanders, by the victories which he gained over the

290

CHAPTER Vlll.

allies at Fleunis (1st July 1690,) Steinkirk(3d Aug. 1692,) and
Landen or Nerwinden (2^th July 1693.) In Italy. M<^«hdC".
linal gained the battle of Stafarda (18lh Aug. 1690,) and Mar-
snfflia (4th Oct. 1693) over the Duke of Savoy. The naval
gKof France was well supported bv the Count de Tourvdle
at th^e battles of Beachy-head (10th July 1690,) and La Hogue

^^HoSr «Lt the s .ccess of her arms might be the pro- ,
digious efforts which the war required could not but exhaust
France, and make her anxious for the '«;»'>} «fP!?.^«/^f"^i
Louis XIV. foresaw the approachmg death of Charles 11. of
Spain ; and it was of importance for him to break the grand
Xnce as soon as possible; as one of its articles secured tfie
Ju cession of the Spanish monarchy to the Emperor and h s
descendants, to the exclusion of the King of France- . I"*';
case he wished, for his own interest, to give every facili y tor
Se esloration ^f peace ; and by the treaty which he concluded
separately with the Duke of Savoy he granted that P""*^^' ^;
Bides theWess of Pignerol, and the marriage of his daughter
wih the Duke of Burgundy, the privilege o -yal honour^ for
his ambassadors. This treaty, concluded at Turin (29th Aug.
1696,) was a preliminary to the general P^^e, signed at Kys-
wick, between France, Spain, England, and Holland (20th Sept.
1697 ) Fv.h of the contracting parties consented to make
mutual restitutions. France even restored to Spain all the tmjms
and territories which she had occupied in the Low Countries,
rmeans of the reunions; with the exception of erghty-two
Ices, mentioned in a particular list, as l>«'"f /^^Pf "<>«"'='«,^ "i
SLlemont, Maubeuge. and other places ceded by the preceding
treaties. Peace between France, the Emperor, and the Empire
was also signed at Ryswick. The treaties of Westphalia and
N^mefTuen were there renewed ; and the decrees of the Cham-
ber of Reunion at Metz, and of the Sovereign Courts at Besan-
con and Brisach, were rescinded and annulled. Louis XIV.
engaged to restore to the Empire all that he had appropriated to
2sdf, by means of the reunions, either before or during he
war ; that^s to say, all places situated or acquired beyond the
bounds of Alsace.' The city of Strasburg was ceded to France
bv a particular article of the treaty ; but the fortress of Kjhl, the
cfties of Friburg, Brisach, and Philipsburg, were surrendered to
She Emperor. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and son of Charles
v.! waVreinslated in his dutchy, without any other reservauon
Ihan that of Saar-Louis, and the city and prefecture of Lon&wy
As to the claims of the Dutchess of Orleans on the Palatinate
they were submitted to the arbiuation of tl>e Emperor and the

m iiji ip . i! i,ifi

MW ' f'ifeJ ' UM'^-4i^»^4gi*Si^f ' ^^'''' '

ug. 1693,) and
Marshal Cn-
i90,) and Mar-
The naval
nt de Tourville
and La Hogue

ght be, the pro-
ot but exhaust
peace. Besides,
Charles II. of
»reak the grand
les secured the
mperor and his
•"ranee. In this
svery facility for
ch he concluded
that Prince, be-
of his daughter
oval honours for
urin (29lh Aug.
signed at Rys-
Hand (20th Sept.
isented to make
)ain all the towns
Low Countries,
in of eighty-two
dependencies ol
by the preceding
, and the Empire
Westphalia and
ses of the Cham-
Courts at Besan-
;d. Louis XIV.
id appropriated to
ore or during the
uired beyond the
ceded to France,
rtressof Kehl, the
■re surrendered to
id son of Charles
other reservation
scture of Longwy
on the Palatinate
Emperor aad thi!

_ji

PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

S91

King of France ; to be referred to the decision of the Pope,
should these two Sovereigns happen to differ in opinion.

The peace of Ryswick was followed by the war of the Spanish
•Succession, which embroiled Europe afresh, and occasioned
considerable changes in its political state. Charles II. King of
Spain, son of Philip IV., and last male descendant of the Spanish
branch of the House of Austria, having neither son, nor daughter,
nor brother, the Spanish monarchy, according to r. fundamental
law of the kingdom, which fixed the succession in the cognate
line, appeared to belong to Maria Theresa, Queen of France
eldest sister of Charles, and to the children of her marriage with
Louis XIV. To this title of Maria Theresa, was opposed her
express renunciation, inserted in her marriage-contract, and con-
firmed by the peace of the Pyrenees ; but the French maintained,
that that renunciation was null, and that it could not prejudice
the children of the Queen, who held their right, not from their
mother, but by the fundamental law of Spain.

Admitting the validity of the Queen's renunciation, the lineal
order fixed the Spanish succession on her younger sister, Mar-
garet Theresa, who had married the Emperor Leopold I., and
left an only daughter, Maria Antoinette, spouse to the Elector
of Bavaria, and mother of Joseph Ferdinand, the Electoral
Prince of Bavaria.

The Emperor, who wished to preserve the Spanish monarchy
in his own family, availed himself of the renunciation which he
had exacted from his daughter, the Archdutchess Maria Antoi-
nette, when she married Maximilian, the Elector of Bavaria, to
appear as a candidate himself, and advance the claims of his
mother, Maria Anne, daughter of Philip HI. King of Spain, and
aunt of Charles II. He alleged, that the Spanish succession
had been secured to this latter Princess, both by her marriage-
contract, and by the testaments of the Kings of Spain ; and as
he had two sons, the Archdukes Joseph and Charles, by his
marriage with the Princess Palatine of Neuburg, he destined
the elder for the Imperial throne and the States of Austria, and
the younger for the Spanish monarchy.

These different claims having excited apprehensions of a ge-
neral war, England and Holland, from a desire to prevent it,
drew up a treaty of partition, in concert with Louis XIV. (11th
Oct. 1698,) in virtue of which the Spanish monarchy was se-
cured to Joseph Ferdinand, in case of the death of Charles II. ;
while the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tusca-
ny, the marquisatc of Finale, and the province o.* Guipuscoa,
were reserved to the Dauphin of France. The Archduke
Charles, son to the Emperor, was to have the dutchv of Milan

tt:

»ii:i

fii

' \

■

if^

292

CHAPTER Vnl.

Although the King of Spain disapproved of the treaty, so far n^
it admitted a partition, nevertheless, in his will, he recognised
the Prince of Bavaria as his successor in the Spanish monarchy.
A premature death having frustrated all the high expectations
of that prince, the powers who had concluded the first treaty ol
partition drew up a second, which was signed at London (March
13 1700.) According to this, the Archduke Charles, youngest
son of the Emperor Leopold, was destined the Presumptive heir
to the Spanish monarchy. They awarded to the Dauphin the
dutchy of Lorraine, with the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and
the province of Guipuscoa; assigning to the Duke of Lorraine
the iutchy of Milan in exchange. Louis XIV "«ed every effort
to have this new treaty of partition approved by the Lour ot
Vienna. He sent thither the Marquis Villars, who, after having
been long amused with vague promises, failed entirely in his
negotiation; and the Emperor, whose mam object was to con-
Se he Court of Madrid, lost the only favourable moment
wh?ch might have fixed the succession of the Spanish monarchy
This &, with the consent of Louis XIV. and the principal

^ AfMldridX's affair took a turn diametrically opposite to
the views and interests of the Court of Vienna Charles II .
following the counsels of his prime minister. Cardinal Forto-
carrero, and after having taken the advice of the Pope, and of
he mo^t eminent theologians and la™s "^is kingdom de-
termined to make a second will, m which J|e 're'iognised the
rights of Maria Theresa, his eldest sister ; and declared, hat as
denunciation of that princess had been made solely to pre-
vent the union of Spain with the kingdom of France, that mo-
dve ceased on transferring the Spanish monarchy to one of^he
younger sons of the Dauphin. Accordingly, he nominated Phi-
Cof Aniou, the Daupliin's second son, Wir to his whole do-
nSnions ; in case of his death, the Duke of Bern, his younger
Mother ; next, the Archduke Charles ; and lastly, the feuke of
Savov exnressly forbidding all partition of the monarchy. ^
^Thlriefll hiding died L th'e 1st of November Wlo^^^^^^
the Junta, or Council of Regency, whurh he had appointed by
his will, sent to Louis XIV., praying him to "^^^d^ °jhe »t^
i tlement of their late King, and jnve up his ?™ndson to^he
i wishes of the Spanish nation. 1 'f T' 'r nJ Jnd md^S
I pass on to Vienna, in case of a refusal on his P^", and make
i The same offer to the Archduke. .TheCourt of France then
' assembled a Grand Council, in which '^^y held a deliberation
i as to what step it was best to adopt.m ^n affair jhu^^^^^^^^
I concerned the general repose of Europe. The result ot tnw

ll|l!ilLI|MUIJl|itllll,i|lllJtr

■it^-

PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

293

treaty, so far nv

1, he recognised

inish monarchy.

igh expectations

le first treaty ol

London (March

harles, youngest

presumptive heir

the Dauphin the

"wo Sicilies, and

)uke of Lorraine

used every effort

by the Court of

vho, after having

d entirely in his

bject was to con-

vourable moment

panish monarchy

and the principal

ically opposite to
na. Charles IL,
■, Cardinal Porto-
the Pope, and of
his kingdom, de-
le recognised the
1 declared, that as
lade solely to pre-
France, that mo-
rchy to one of the
e nominated Phi-
r to his whole do-
Jerri, his younger
istly, the Duke of
le monarchy,
trember following,
had appointed by
accede to the set-
I grandson to the
irier had orders to
is part, and make
rt of France then
leld a deliberation
.ir which so nearly
Che result of this

I'ouncil was, that they ought to accede to the will of Charles
II.. and renounce the advantages which the second treaty of
partition held out to France. It was alleged, as the reason of
this resolution, that by refusing to accept the will, Louis must
either abandon altogether his pretensions to the Spanish mo-
oarchy, or undertake an expensive war to obtain by conquest
I what the treaty of partition assigned him ; without being able,
in this latter case, to reckon on the effectual co-operation of the
two maritime courts.

Louis XIV. having therefore resolved to accede to the will,
Philip of Anjou was proclaimed King by the Spaniards, and
made his solemn entry into Madrid on the 14th of April 1701.
Most of the European powers, such as the States of Italy, Swe-
den, England, Holland, and the kingdoms of the North, ac-
knowledged Philip V. ; the King of Portugal, and the Duke of
Savoy even concluded treaties of alliance with him. JMore-
over, the situation of political affairs in Germany, Hungary, and
the North was such, that it would have been easy for Loui?
XIV., with prudent management, to preserve the Spanish crown
on the head of his grandson ; but he seemed, as if on purpose,
to do every thing to raise all Europe against him. It was al-
leged, that he aimed at the chimerical project of universal mo-
narchy, and the union of France with Spain. Instead of trying
to do away this supposition, he gave it additional force, by
issuing letters-patent in favour of Philip, at the moment when
he was departing for Spain, to the effect of preserving his rights
to the throne of France. The Dutch dreaded nothing so much
as to see the French making encroachments on the Spanish
Netherlands, which they regarded as their natural barrier a-
gainst France ; the preservation of which appeared to be equally
interesting to England.

It would have be«ti prudent in Louis XIV. to give these ma-
ritime powers some security on this point, who, since the eleva-
tion of William Prince of Orange to the crown of Great Britain,
held as it were in their hands the balance of Europe. Without
being swayed by this consideration, he obtained authority from
the Council of Madrid, to introduce a French army into the Spa-
nish Netherlands ; and on this occasion the Dutch troops, who
were quartered in various places of the Netherlands, according
;o a stipulation with the late King of Spain, were disarmed. This
circumstance became a powerful motive for King William to
rouse the States-General against France. He found some diffi-
culty, however, in drawing over the British Parliament to his
views, as a great majority in that House were averse to mingle
m the quarrels of the Continent ; but the death of James II. lU

■i I

1 Hi!

1! t

^1;

294

CHAPTBE Vin.

I ;
I i

tered the minds and inclinations of the Eng.ish. Louis XIV.
having formerly acknowledged the son of that prince as Kmg of
Great Britain, the English Parliament had no longer anjr hesi-
tation in joining the Dutch, and the other enemies of France.
A new and powerful league was formed agamst Louis. The
Emperor, England, the United Provinces, the Empire, the
Kings of Portugal and Prussia, and the Duke of Savoy, all
joined it in succession. The allies engaged to restore to Aus-
tria, the Spanish Netherlands, the dutchy of Milan, the king-
dom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tuscany ; and nevei
to permit the union of France with Spain.

At the commencement of the war, Louis for some time main-
tained the glory and superiority of his arms, notwithstanding
the vast number of adversaries he had to oppose. It was not
until the campaign of 1704 that fortune abandoned hm; when
one reverse was only succeeded by another. The Duke ot
Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated Marshal de Tallard at
Hochstett or Blenheim, (Aug. 13,) where he lost thirty thousand
men, and was himself carried prisoner to England. 1 his disas-
ter was followed by the loss of Bavaria, and all the French pos-
sessions beyond t"he Rhine. The battle which Marlborough
gained (May 23, 1706) at Ramillies in Brabant was not less dis-
astrous; it secured to the allies the conquest of the greater
part of the Netherlands ; and to increase these misfortunes,
Marshal de Marsin lost the famous battle of Turin against
Prince Eugene (Sept. 7,) which obliged the French troops to
evacuate Italy. The battle which was fought at Oudenarde m
Flanders (July 11, 1708) was not so decisive. Both sides
fought with equal advantage; hv' the duke of Burgundy, who
was commander-in-chief of the French army, having quitted
the field of battle during the night, contrary to the advice ot
Vendome, Marlborough made this an occasion for claiming tne

I ""T^ength the dreadful winter of 1709, and the battle of
Malplaquet, which Marlborough gained over Villars (bept. U.)
reduced France to the greatest distress, and brought Louis un-
der the necessity of suing for peace, and even descending to
the most humiliating conditions. M. de Torcy, his minister for
foreign affairs, was despatched to the Hague ; and, amorg a
number of preliminary articles, he agreed to make restitution of
all the conquests which the French had made since the peace of
Munster. He consented to surrender the city of Strasburg, and
henceforth to possess Alsace according to the literal terms of
the treaty of Munster; the throne of Spain was reserved lor
the archduke ; and Louis consented to abandon the interests ol

ij;

»lr

Louis XIV.
ince as King of
onger any hesi-
[lies of France.
Louis. The
Empire, the
of Savoy, all
restore to Aus-
ilan, the king-
:any ; and nevei

ome time main-
notwithstanding
so. It was not
ned him ; when
The Duke of
kial de Tallard at
t thirty thousand
nd. This disas-
the French pos-
ch Marlborough
was not less dis-
t of the greater
ese misfortunes,
if Turin against
?rench troops to
at Oudenarde in
ve. Both sides
Burgundy, who
, having quitted
to the advice of
for claiming the

nd the battle of
illars (Sept. 11,)
ought Louis un-
n descending to
, his minister for
; and, amorg a
ake restitution of
ince the peace of
)f Strasburg, and
literal terms of
vas reserved for
n the interests of

PBRIOD VII. k. D. 1648 — 1713.

295

Philip. But the allies, rendered haughty by their success, de-
manded of the King that he should oblige his grandson volun-
tarily to surrender his crown, otherwise they would compel him
by force of arms, and that within the short space of two months.
The conferences, which had been transferred from the Hague
to Gertruydenberg, were consequently broken ofT, and the war
continued.

In this critical state of things, two unexpected events happened,
which changed the face of aflairs; and Louis XIV., far from
being constrained to submit to the articles of the preliminaries
at Gertruydenberg, saw himself even courted by England, and
in a condition to dictate the law to several of the powers that
were leagued against him. The Emperor Joseph I. died (April
11th 1711) without leaving any male offspring. His brother the
Archduke Charles, who took the title of King of Spain, now
obtained the Imperial dignity, and became heir of all the States
belonging to the German branch of the House of Austria. It
appeared, therefore, that the system of equilibrium could not
possibly admit the same prince to engross likewise the whole
Spanish monarchy. This event was coupled with another, rela-
tive to the change which had taken place in the ministry and
Parliament of Great Britain. The Whigs, who had been the
ruling party since the Revolution of 1889, were suddenly sup-
planted by the Tories. This overthrow brought the Duke of
ularlborough into disgrace, who had long stood at the head of
affairs in England, as chief of the Whig faction. Queen Anne,
who stood in awe of him, found no other expedient for depriving
him of his influence, than to make peace with France. L'AbbMS
Gualtier, who resided at London in quality of almoner to the
ambassador of Charles of Austria, was despatched by her Ma-
jesty to France, to make the first overtures of peace to Louis. A
secret negotiation was set on foot between the two Courts, the
result of which was a preliminary treaty signed at London
(October 8th 1711.)

A congress was opened at Utrecht, with the view of a general
pacification. The conferences which took place there, after the
month of February 1712, met with long interruptions ; both on
account of the dismclination of several of the allied powers for
peace, and because of the matters to be separately treated be-
twecin France and England, which retarded the progress of the
general negotiation. The battle of Denain, whicn Marshal Vil-
lars gained over the Earl of Albemarle (July 24,) helped to ren-
der the allies more tractable. Peace was signed at Utrecht m
the month of April 1713, between France and the chief bellige-
rent powers. The Emperor alone refused to take part in it, as

5'*

% ;.

r i !

' ■ 1

■1 :|
..fill

t '^'\

29G

CHAPTER TIU.

he could not resolve to abandon his claims to the Spanish
monarchy.

The grand aim of England in that transaction, was to hnnl
the overwhelming power of France ; for this purpose she took
':are, in that treaty, to establish as a fundamental and mviolable
law, the clause which ordained that the kingdoms of France and
Spain never should be united. To effect this, it was necessary
that Philip of Anjou should formally renounce his right to the
crown of France ; while his brother the Duke de Bern, as well
as the Duke of Orleans, should do the same in regard to the
claims which they might advance to the Spanish monarchy.
The deeds of these renunciations, drawn up and signed in
France and in Spain, in presence of the English ambassadors,
were inserted, in the treaty of Utrecht ; as were also the letters-
patent which revoked and annulled those that Louis had given,
for preserving the right of the Duke of Anjou to the succession
of the French crown. Louis XIV. promised for himself, his
heirs and successors, never to attempt either to prevent or elude
the effect of these renunciations ; and failing the descendants
of Philip, the Spanish succession was secured to the Duke
of Savoy, his male descendants, and the other princes of his
family, to the exclusion of the French princes. , , , ,
Another fundamental clause of the treaty of Utrecht declared,
that no province, city, fortress or place, in the Spanish Nether-
lands, should ever be ceded, transferred, or granted to the crown
of France ; nor to any prince or princess of French extraction,
under any title whatever. These provinces, designed to serve
as a barrier for the Low Countries against France, were ad-
judged to the Emperor and the House of Austria, together with
the kingdom of Naples, the ports of Tuscany, and the dutchy of
Milan ; and as the Emperor was not a party to the treaty, it WM
agreed that the Spanish Netherlands should remain as a deposit
in the hands of the States-General, until that prince should ar-
range with them respecting the barrier-towns. The same stipu-
lation was made in regard to that part of the French Nether-
lands which Louis had ceded in favour of the Emperor ; such
as Menin, Tournay, Fumes, and Furnes-Ambacht, the fortress
of Kenock, Ypres, and their dependencies.

England, in particular, obtained by this treaty various and
considerable advantages. Louis XIV. withdrew his protection
from the Pretender, and engaged never to give him harbour in
France. The succession to the throne of Great Britain, was
guaranteed to the House of Hanover. They agreed to raze the
fortifications of the port of Dunkirk, which had so much excited
the jealousy of England : while France likewise ceded to hei

l!:

MiMN

1 1^-t

PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

297

9 the Spanish

1, was to limit

rpose she took

and inviolable

of France and

was necessary

his right to the

! Berri, as well

1 regard to the

lish monarchy.

and signed in

1 ambassadors,

also the letters-

ouis had given,

the succession

for himself, his

»revent or elude

he descendants

d to the Duke

r princes of his

trecht declared,
Spanish Nether-
icd to the crown
ench extraction,
isigned to serve
'ranee, were ad-
a, together with
id the dutchy of
he treaty, it was
lain as a deposit
rince should ar'
The same stipu>
French Nether-
Emperor; such
icht, the fortress

laty various and
iw his protection
him harbour in
eat Britain, was
preed to raze the
so much excited
ise ceded to hei

Hudson's Bay, and Straits, the Island of St. Christopher, Nova
Srotia, and Newfoundland in America. Spain gave up Gib-
raltar and Minorca, both of which had been conquered by the
English during the war; they secured to her, besides, for thirty
years, the privilege of furnishmg negroes for the Spanish Ameri-
jan colonies.

The King of Prussia obtained the Spanish part of Gueldres,
with the city of that name, an4 the district of Kessel, in lieu of
the principality of Orange, which was given to France ; though
he had claims to it as the heir of William III. King of England.
The kingdom of Sicily was adjudged to the Duke of Savoy, to
be possessed by him and his male descendants ; and they con-
firmed to him the grants which the Emperor had made him, of
that part of the dutchy of Milan which had belonged to the Duke
of Mantua, as also Alexandria, Valencia, the Lumelline, and the
Valley of Sessia. Finally, Sardinia was reserved for the Elec-
tor of Bavaria, the ally of France in that war.

As the Emperor had not acceded to the treaty of Utrecht, the
war was continued between him and France. Marshal Villars
took Landau and Friburg in Brisgaw ; afterwards a conference
took place between him and Prince Eugene at Rastadt. New
preliminaries were there drawn up ; and a congress was opened
at Baden in Switzerland, where a definitive peace was signed
(Sept. 7th 1714.) The former treaties, since the poace of West-
phalia, were there renewed. The Electors of Cologne and Ba-
varia, who had been put to the ban of the Empire, and deprived
of their estates, were there fully re-established. Sardinia, which
had been assigned to the Elector of Bavaria, by the treaty of
Utrecht, remained in possession of the Emperor, who likewise
recovered Brisach and Friburg in Brisgaw, instead of Landau
which had been ceded to France.

Louis XIV. did not long survive this latter treaty. Never
did any sovereign patronize literature and the fine arts like him.
Many celebrated academies for the promotion of the arts and
sciences owe their origin to his auspices, such as the Academy
of Inscriptions, Belles-Lettres, Sciences, Painting, and Archi*
tecture. His reign was illustrious for eminent men, and talents
of every description, which were honoured and encouraged by
him. He even extended his favour to the philosophers and lit-
erati of foreign countries. This prince has been reproached for
his two great partiality to the Jesuits, his confessors, and for
the high importance which he attached to the dispute between
the Jansenists and the Molinists, which gave rise to the famous
Bull UnigenitiiSy * approved by the clergy, and published by the
King as a law of the state over all France. This illustrious

i< I ',,

1 %

ii\

■•"■(I

■1

298

CHAPTER VIII.

Pnnce ended his days after ii reipn of seventy-two years, fertile
in great nventa ; he transmitted the crown to his great grand-
son, Louis XV., who WHS only five years of age when he mount-
ed the throne (Sept. 1, 1714.)

In the course of this period, several memorable events hap*

Eened in Gorinnny. The Emperor, Leopold I., having assem-
led a Diet at Rntisbon, to demand subsidies against the Turks,
and to settle certain matters which the preceding Diet had left
undecided, the sittings of that assembly were continued to the
present time, without ever having been declared permanent by
any formal law of the Empire. The peace of Westphalia, had
instituted an eighth Electorate for the Palatine branch of Wit-
tle.sbach ; the Emperor, Leopold L, erected a ninth, in favour of
the younger branch of the House of Brunswick. The first Elec-
tor of this family, known by the name of Brunswick-Luneburg.
or Hanover, was the Duke Ernest Augustus, whom the Em-
peror invested in his new dignity, to descend to his heirs-male,
on account of his engaging to furnish Austria with supplies in
money and troops, for carrying on the war against the Turks.
This innov.ition met with decided opposition in the Empire.
Several of the Electors were hostile to it ; and the whole body
of Princes declared, that the new Electorate was prejudicial to
their dignity, and tended to introduct; an Electoral Oligarchy.
The Duke of Brunswick-WolfTenbultcl especially protested
against the preference which was given to the younger branch
of his House over the elder, in spite of family compacts, and the
right of primogeniture established in the House of Brunswick.
A confederacy was thus formed against the ninth Electorate.
The allied Princes resolved, in an assembly held at Nuremberg,
to raise an army, and apply to the powers that had guaranteed
the treaty of Westphalia. France espoused the quarrel of these
Princes ; she concluded with the King of Denmark, a treaty of
alliance and subsidy against the ninth Electorate, and declared,
before the Diet of the Empire, that she regarded this innovation
as a blow aimed at the treaty of Westphalia. In cour«e cf time,
however, these animosities were allayed. The Princes recog-
nised the ninth Electorate, and the introduction of the new
Elector took place in 1708. A decree was passed at the Diet,
which annexed a clause to his admission, that the Catholic Elec-
tors should have the privilege of a casting vote, in cases where
iho number of Protestant Electors should happen to equal that
of the Catholics. By the same decree, the King of Bohemia,
who had formerly never been admitted but at the election of the
Emperors, obtained a voice in all the deliberations of the Empire
and the Electoral College, on condition of his paying, in time
Roming. an Electoral quota for the kingdom of Bohemia.

years, fertile
great grand-
leii he mount-

e events hap«

mving assein-

inst the Turks,

g Diet had lef\

ntinued to the

permanent by

i^i'stphalia, had

jrunch of Wit-

th, in favour of

The first Elec-

vick-Luneburg.

whom the Em*

lis heirs-male,

t'ith supplies in

insl the Turks.

in the Empire.

he whole body

Is prejudicial to

(oral Oligarchy.

I'ially protested

younger branch

>m pacts, and the

of Brunswick.

inth Electorate.

I at Nuremberg,

had guaranteed

quarrel of these

lark, a treaty of

e, and declared,

this innovation

a cour«e cf time,

! Princes recog*

ion of the new

sed at the Diett

e Catholic Elec-

in cases where

en to equal that

ng of Bohemia,

e election of the

IS of the Empire

aying, in time

ohemia.

PKRIOD VII. A. D. 1848 — 1713.

299

The Imperial capitulations assunied a form entirely new, about
the beginning of the eighteenth L-eutury. A diflbrence had for-
merly existed among the members of the Germanic body on thii
important article of public law. They regarded it as a thing
illegal, that the Electors alone should claim the right of drawing
up the capitulations ; and they maintained, with much reaxon,
that before these compacts should have the force of a fundamen-
tal law of the Empire, it was necessary that they should have
the deliberation and consent of the whole Diet. The Princes,
therefore, demanded, that there should be laid before the Diet a
scheme of perpetual capitulation, to serve as a rule for the Elec-
tors on every new election. That question had already been
debated iit the Congress of Westphalia, and sent back by it for
the decision of the Diet. There it became the subject of lone
discussion ; and it was not till the interregnum, which followed
the death of the Emperor Joseph I., that the principal points of
the perpetual capitulation were finally settled. The plan then
agreed to was adopted as the basis of the capitulation, which they
prescribed to Charles VI. and his successors. Among other
articles, a clause was inserted regarding the election of a king of
the Romans. This, it was agreed, should never take place
during the Emperor's life, except in a case of urgent necessity ;
ind that thi proscription of an elector, prince, or state of tne
Gmpire, should never take place, without the consent of the
Diet, and observing the formalities enjoined by the new capi-
tulation.

Three Electoral families of the Empire were raised to the
royal dignity ; viz. those of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Bruns-
wick-Luneburg. Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, after hav-
ing made a profession of the Catholic religion, was elected to
the throne of Poland ; a dignity which was afterwards conferred,
also by election, on his son Augustus III. That change of re-
ligion did not prevent the Electors of Saxony from remaining
at the head of the Protestant interest in the Diet of the Em-
pire, as they had given them assurance that they would make
no innovations in the religion of their country, and that they
would appoint a council entirely composed of Protestant mem-
bers, for administering the affairs of the Empire. These prin-
ces, however, lost part of their influence ; and so far was the
crown of Poland, which was purely elective, from augmenting
the greatness and real power of their house, that, on the con-
trary, it served to exhaust and enfeeble Saxony, by involving it
in ruinous wars, which ended in the desolation of that fine
country, the alienation of the Electoral domains, and the increase
af the debts and burdens of the state.

'I' 4

( -i, ,

300

CHArTBR Vlll.

If the royal dignity of Poland was nreiudicial to the House
of Lxony/it waf b/no .nea,.s ., witk tl^at of Pr--^-h.c^
the House of BranduiiburK a^iuired soon after. Ihe blector,
John Sipis.nund, on succeeding to the dulchy of Prussia, had
IknowSed himself a vassal and tributary of the crown of
Poland Hi. grandson. Frederic William, took advantage of
he turbulen Ituation in which Poland was ploced at the tune
o the invasion of Charles X. of Sweden, to oblam a grant of
thesovedgnly of Prussia, by a treaty which he cone uded with
that RepX at Welau {mi September 1657.). Poland, m re-
nounSg the territorial rights wUch she exercsed over Ducal
Prussia, stipulated for the reversion of these same rights, on the
ex ncU^n of the male line of the Electoral House of Brandenburg
Frederic I., the son and successor of Frederic W.ll.am, hay.no
become sovereign of Ducal Prussia, thought himself authorizeB
S assume the royal dignity. The elevation "^ .^is cous.n-ge -
man. the Prince of Orange, to the throne of Britain, and of his
next neighbour, the Elector of Sar.ony. to the sovereignty ot
PoCd. fempted his ambition, and induced h.m to enter mto a
negotiation Sn the subject with the Court of Vienna^ The Em-
peror Leopold promised to acknowledge him as King of Prussia,
Sn ttccounl of a supply of ten thousand men which Frederic pro-
mised to furnish him^ in the war of the Spanish Succession
wS wa then commencing. To remove all apprehensions on
Aeparrof Poland, who mi'ght perhaps offer some opposition,
the fleeter signed a compact, bearing, that the royal dignity o
Pruss a hould in no way prejudice the rights and possession ot
The Kng and State, of Aland over Polish Prussia ; tha neither
he no his successors should attempt to found claims on that part
of Prussia and that the clause in the treaty of Welau which
8ec™he reversion of the territorial right of Ducal Prussia
on the extinction of the heirs-male of Frederic William, should
?emarn?nfuU force and vigour, never to be infringed by the new
Ee or any of his successors. After these different conventions,
Se iSrepaired to Koningsberg. where he was proclaimed
KUig of Prussia (18th January 1701.) It is worthy of remark,
Sat on the ceremony of his coronation, he put the crown on ha

**'*AlHhJ*European powers acknowledged the new King, with
the ex option of France and Spain, with whom he soon engaged
tZ The Teutonic Knighu. bearing in mmd thm ancient
ckims over Prussia, deemed it their duty to support thein by a
nrotTst Ind fheir example was followed by the fcourt of Rome.
Copinion which the 'author of the M^^j^^fBraMurg
delivers on this event is very remarkable. Frederic, says ne

— —J

to the Houw

ra^sia, which

The Elector,

Prussia, had

the crown of

advantage of

d at the time

tain a grant of

oiirluded with

Poland, in re-

icd over Ducal

rights, on the

f Brandenburg.

\''illiain, havinc

self authorized

his cousin-ger-

lain, and of his

sovereignty oi

to enter into a

ma. The Em-

{ing of Prussia,

:h Frederic pro-

lish Succession,

pprehensions on

ome opposition,

royal dignity of

nd possession ot

sia; that neither

lims on that part

f Welau, which

Ducal Prussia,

William, should

nged by the new

■ent conventions,

was proclaimed

)rthy of remark,

the crown on his

new King, with
he soon engas«d
nd their ancient
pport them by a
Court of Rome,
j/ Brandenburg
■edenc," says he

PBKioD vn. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

3U1

" was flattered with nothing so mu^h, as the externals of royalty,
the potnp of ostentation, and a certain whinisiial self-conceit,
which was pleased with making others feel their inferiority.
What at first was the mere offspring of vanity, turned out in the
end to be a masterpiece of policy. The royal dignity lilieratcd
the House of Brandenburg from that yoke of servitude under
which Austria had, till then, held all the Princes of Germany
It was a kind of bait which Frederic held out to all his posterity,
and by which he seemed to say, I have acquired for you a title,
render yourselves worthy of it; I have laid the foundation o(
your greatnes.s, yours is the task of completing the structure."
In fact Austria, by promoting the House of Brandenburg, seemed
to have injured her own greatness. In the very bosom of the
Empire, she raised up a new power, which afterwards became
her rival, and seized every opportunity of aggrandizement at her
expense.

As for the Electoral House of Brunswick-Luneburg, it suc-
ceeded, as we have observed, to the throne of Great Britain, in
virtue of a fundamental law of that monarchy, which admitted
females to the succession of the crown. Ernest Augustus, the
first Elector of the Hanoverian line, had married Sophia,
daughter of the Elector Palatine Frederic V., by the Princess
Elizabeth of England, daughter of James I., King of Great
Britain. An act of the British Parliament in 1701, extended
the succession to that Princess, then Electress-Dowager of Han-
over, and to her descendants, as being nearest heirs to the throne,
according to tiie order established by former acts of Parliament,
limiting the succession to Princes and Princesses of the Protes-
tant line only. The Electrcss Sophia, by that act, was called to
the succession, in case William III., and Anne, the youngest
daughter of Jamea II., left no issue ; an event which took place
in 1714, on the death of Anne, who had succeeded William in
the kingdom of Great Britain. The Electress Sophia was not
alive at that time, having died two months before that princess.
George, Elector of Hanover, and son of Sophia by Ernest Au-
gustus, then ascended the British throne (Aug. 12, 1714,) to the
exclusion of all the other descendants of Elizabeth, who, though
they had the right of precedence, were excluded by being Catho-
lics, in virtue of the Acts of Parliament 1689, 1701, 1705.

The war of the Spanish Succession had occasioned great
changes in Italy. Spain, after having been long the leading
power in that country, gave place to Austria, to whom the trea-
ties of Utrecht and Baden had adjudged the dutchy of Milan,
the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, and the ports of Tuscany.
To these she added the dutchy of Mantua, of which the Empc*

ill V

• \

!,}'•

■i &'

' 30'J

CHAPTEF VIII.

ror Joseph I. hn.l ai.po.sosscd Duke Charles IV. of the Honnc
of GonAir". f'T ^'RviI.^' osnouscd iho cause of France m the
Wur of the Succcsion 'l*he Duk. of Mira.ulola met w, h n
similar fate, as the ally of the French in that war H.s dutd^^^
was contiscated by the femperor, and sold to the Duke of Modena.
This new ae^frandizoment of Auxlr.a m Italy exe.ted the jea-
lousv of EnKlaud, lest the princes of that house should take oc-
Siou to revive their obsolete dai.ns to the royalty of Italy an,

the Imperial diRnity ; and t was ''" V'^' n 'b nJ tvov in
of London to favour the elevatmn of the Dukes of Savoy, m
order to counterbalance the power of Austria m Italy.

The origin of the House of Savoy is as old as the be^g'""'"??
of the eleventh century, when we fmd a person named Berthold
?n possession of Savoy, at that time a province of the kingdom
of Burgundy or Aries. The grandson of Ber;hold married
Adelafde de^Sv.za, daughter and hcires^ .1 ^^l-''"['°;- Mffq"'*
of Italy and Lord of Suza. This r.arnage brought the Ho.se
of Savoy considerable possessions ,r, Ita y.snch as the Marqui-
^ite of Suza, the Dutchy of Turiiu Piedmont, and Val d;Aoste
Humb(.rt H. Count of Savoy, con.i icred the province of laren-
l,im. Thomas, one of his successors, acquired ^y marnoge the
barony of Faucigny. Amadeus V. was invested by the Empe-
ror Henry VII. in the city and coui f o^ A,t.. Amadeus Vll.
received the voluntary submission of the mlabitants of Nice,
which he had dismembered from Provence, together with the
counties of Tenda and Boglio ; having taken advantage of the
intest ne dissensions in that country, and the conflict between
he factions of Duras and Anpu. who disputed the successKm
of Naples and the county of Provence. Amadeus VIII. pur-
chasei frcm Otho de Villars the county ol Geneva, and was
created, by the Emperor Sigismund, first Duke of Savoy (Feb.

^ VhVJivalry which had subsisted between France and Austria
since the end of the fifteenth century, placed the House oi Savoy
Ta sUuaUon extremely difficult. Involved in the wars wh.cf.
had arisen between these two powers in Italy, it became of ne-
.ossity more than once the vlctirn of H'Vi^* f 'r™ V v„;
Duke^Charl^s III. having allied himseff with Charles V., was
deprived of his estates by France ; and his son Philibert, noted
for his exploits in the campaigns of FManders, did not obtain re-
«titution of them until the peace of Chateau Cambresis The
Dukes Charles Emanuel 11, and Victor Amadeus II., experi-
enced si^"" indignities, in the wars which agitated Fran«
and Spain during the seventeeth century, and which were teP
minated by the treaties of the Pyrenees and Turin in the years

■**..«**jfleR*i.'*i?'crjv"'.-_;: -

"^^

lAmMmmi^

, of the Hotme
France in the ]
ula met with a {
His dutchy !
like of Modena.
'xcilcd the jea-
should tnkc or-
lly of holy nnd
luied the Court
js of Savoy, in
Italy.

iR the beginning
named Bertholtl
of the kingdom
crihold married
ainfroi. Marquis
night the House
1 as the Morqui-
and Val d'Aoste
ovince of Taren-
by marriage the
}d by the Empe-
Amadeus Vll.
ubitants of Nice,
ogether with the
advantage of the
conflict between
;d the succession
ladeus VIII. pur-
Geneva, and was
e of Savoy (Feb.

ance and Austria
c House of Savoy
1 the wars which
, it became of ne-
al circumstances.
1 Charles V., was
n Philibert, noted
did not obtain re-
Cambresis. The
mdeus II., experi-
1 agitated France
d which were ter-
rurin in the years

•r~r\

rcRion vit. A. D. 1648—1713.

303

IfiflO, 1696. In the war (tf the Spani.sh Succession, Victor
Amadous II. declared at first for his sou-lti-law, Philip King of
Spain, ev(>ii taking upon hiinsolf tlx; rhicf coiiiiiiaiul of the
Fri'uch army in Italy ; but aftfrwiinls, perceiving the danger of
his situation, and seduced by the advantageous otrers which the
Emperor made him, ho thought proper to alter his i)lan, and
joined the grand alliance against Fraruie. Savoy and rieiiinonl
again became the theatre of the war In'twec^n France and Italy.
The French having ur'ilcrt.iken the siege of Turin, the Duke
and Prince Eugene foned their army in its entrenchments be-
fore the place, and obliged them to abandon Italy. The Empe-
ror granted the Duke the investiture of the different estates
which he hud secured to him, on his accession to the gnu d
alliance ; stich as Montferrat, the provinces of Alexandria und
Valencia, the country between the fanaro and the Po, the Lu-
melline, Val Sessia, and the Vigovanesco ; to be possessed by
him and his male descendants, as fiefs holding of the Emperor
and the Empire.

The peace of Utrecht confirmed these possessions to the Duke ;
and England, the bettor to secure the equilibrium of Italy and
Europe, granted him, by that treaty, the royal dignity, with the
island of Sicily, which she had taken from Spain. That island
was ceded to him under the express clause, that, on the extinc-
tion of the male line of Savoy, that kingdom should revert to
Spain. By the same treaty they secured to the male descen-
dants of that house, the right of succession to the Spanish mon-
archy ; and that clause was confirmed by a solemn law passed
in the Cortes of Spain, and by subsequent treaties concluded be-
tween these powers and Europe. The duke was crowned King
of Sicily at Palermo (Dec. 21, 1713,) by the archbishop of that
city ; and the only persons who refusecl to acknowledge him in
that new capacity were the Emperor and the Pope.

In proportion as France increased, Spain had declined in
power, in consequence of the vices of her government, the fee-
bleness of her princes, and the want of qualifications in their
ministers and favourites. At length, under the reign of Charles
II., the weakness of that monarchy was such, that France de-
spoiled her with impunity, as appears by those cessions she was
obliged to make by the treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nimeguen,
and Ryswick. Charles II. was the last prince of the Spanish
line of'^the house of Austria. At his death (Nov. 1700,) a long
and bloody war ensued about the succession, as we have already
related. Two competitors appeared for the crown. Philip of
Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., had on his side the will of
Charles II., the efTorts of his grandfather, and the wishes of the

\\i

pol

raised against France. i . o • j

Philip, who had been placed on the throne by the Spaniards,
had already resided at Madrid for several years, when the Aus-
trian prince, his rival, assisted by the aUied fleet, took possession
of Barcelona (Oct. 9, 1705,) where he established his capital.
The incessant defeats which France experienced at this period,
obliged Philip twice to abandon his capital, and seek his satetj
in St. He owed his restoration for the first time to Marsha'
Ber^k, and the victory which that f,"^'-.^ „f "?!j„7'^^«,
allies near Almanza, in New CastiUe (April 25, 1707.) The
.xhduke having afterwards advanced as far «« Madrid he
Uuke de Vendome undertook to repulse him. That General,
," conjunction with Philip V., defeated the allies, who were
commanded by General Stahremberg, near Jf^J^Sih^
10 1710 ) These two victories contributed to estabhsh f hilip
on his throne. The death of Joseph I., which happened soon
Xr and the'elevation of his brother, the Archduke Charles, to
Se Imperial throne and the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia
accelerated the conclusion of the peace of UtrecKt, by which the
Spadh monarchy ^vas preserved to Philip V. and his descen-
dants. They deprived him, however, in virtue of that treaty, ot
the Netherlands and the Spanish possessions in Italy, such as
the Milanois, the ports of Tuscany, and the kingdoms of Naples,

'I'^rcldSwhich England had exacted at tbe treaty^"
Utrecht to render eflectual the renunciation of Philip V. to he
crown of France, as well as that of the French princes to he
monarchy of Spain, having made ft necessary to assemble the
Sortes or^Statef-General, Philip t03k advantage o that circum-
stance to change the orderof succession which till then had s^
isted in Spain, and which was known W fe narne of the C^'
tUian Sticcession. A law was ..assed at the Cortes (1713,) by
which it was ordained that females should "^^'^e admitted to

' the crown except in default of the male line of Philip ; that the
male E should succeed according to the order of pnm«gen|.

i mre that, failing the male line of that prince, the crown shoula

falTto the edest daughter of the last reigning king, and her de-
fall to tne eiaesi u g ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^j^^^^^ ^^

i jretSgTalwa^^^^^^^^^^ fo-e the right of primogeniture.

and the preference of the male heirs in the order of succession.
' FraLe by the sixtieth article of the treaty of the Pyrenees,

having renounced the protection of Portugal, the war Uweon

-.xe.ijg^i'jsasjaT^E'^g

^ ^#^M

I H WIWII II HI

n of the Enipe-
league, which
ler powers had

the Spaniards,
when the Aus-
took possession
bed his capital,
i at this period,
seek his safety
time to Marsha'
rained over the
15, 1707.) The
as Madrid, the

That General,

lilies, who were

a Viciosa (Dec.

establish Philip

happened soon
duke Charles, to
y and Bohemia,
ht, by which the
and his descen-
of that treaty, ot
in Italy, such as
rdoms of Naples,

\ at the treaty or
' Philip V. to the
;h princes to the
' to assemble the
^e of that circum-
till then had sub-
name of the Cos-
Cortes (1713,) by
er be admitted to
f Philip; that the
der of primogeni-
the crown shoula
king, and her de-
nearest relation ot
of primogeniture,
der of succession,
r of the Pyrenees,
the war between

' '4 N

I i * •

n " i*

ii ■;.

-,^^^

Death of Charle. the XII. of Sweden. P. 319.

Eivampment of n Roaiment nf Imperial nwly-Guards.

1\ :-.')

mMm>Mm^iUj.<^ M ^fUi-M^iH^

I. p. 319.

nixlv-Gunrds.

nuii i i mni w Mwii

pBnioD vu. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

305

Spain and this latter power was resumed with new vigour.
Alphonso VI., King of Portugal, finding himself abandoned bv
his allies, resolved to throw himself on the favour of England.
The English granted him supplies, in virtue of a treaty which
he concluded with them (June 23d 1661,) and bv which ho
ceded to them thn city of Tangiers in Africa, and the isle of
Bombay in India. France, who well knew that it was her inte-
rest not to abandon Portugal entirely, rendered her likewise all
the secret assistance in her power. The Count Schomberg
passed over to that kingdom with a good number of officers, and
several companies of French troops. The Portuguese, under
the command of that General, gained two victories over the
Spaniards ai Almexial, near Estremos (1663,) and at Montcs
Claros, or Villa Viciosa (1665,) which re-established their affairs,
and contributed to secure the independence of Portugal Wlien
the war took plnre about the Richt of Devolution, the Coui t of
Lisbon formea a new alliance witn France. Spain then leai ned
that it would be more for her interest to abandon her projects of
conquering Portugal, and accept the proposals of accommodation
tendered to her by the mediation of England.

It happened, in the meantime, that Alphonso VI., a prince of
vicious habits, and of a ferocious and brutal temper, was de-
throned (Nov. 23d 1667,) and the Infant Don Pedro, his brother,
was declared Regent of the kingdom. The Queen of Alphonso,
Mary of Savoy, who had managed the whole intrigue, obtained,
from the Court of Rome, a dissolution of her marriage with Al-
phonso, and espoused the Regent, her brother-in-law (April 2d
1668.) That prince would willingly have fulfilled the engage-
ments which his predecessor had contracted with France, but
th . English Ambassador having drawn over the Cortes of Por
tugal to his interests, the Regent was obliged to make peace with
Spain, which was signed at Lisbon, February 13th 1668. The
Spaniards there treated with the Portuguese as a sovereign and
independent nation. They agreed to make mutual restitution
of all they had taken possession of during the war, with the
exception of tlte city of Ceuta in Africa, which remained in the
power of Spain. The subjects of both states obtained the resto-
ration of lill property alienated or confiscated during the war.
That peace was followed by another, which Portugal concluded
at the Hague, with the United Provinces of the Netherlands
(July 31st 1669,) who were permitted to retain the conquests
they had made from the Portuguese in the East Indies.

The Court of Lisbon was soon after involved in the war of
the Spanish Succession which divided all Europe. Don Pedro
II. had at first acknowledged Philip V., and even contracted an

1,1

411

I '

*— — ^'^^- ■•

306

CHAPTBB Vin.

allinnce With him; but yielding afterwards to the «nfl»«P" »[
the British minister, as well as of the Court of Vienna, he jo ned
the Grand Alliance against France.' The Portuguese made a
distinguished figure in that war, chiefly during the campaign of
1706 when, wifh the assistance of the W»«h, thev penetrated
as far as Madrid, end there proclaimed Charles of Austria.

The Portuguese, by one of the articles of their treaty o
accession to the gran<f alliance, had ^en given to expect that
ce tarn important places in Spanish Estremadura and Gal icia
would be ceded to them at the general peace. That engage-
ment was never fulfilled. The treaty of peace, concluded at
Utrecht {6th February 1715,) between Spam and Portugal, had
ordered the mutual restitution of all conquests made during the
war The treaty of Lisbon, of 1668 was then renewed, and
especially the art'icles which stipulated fr the restitution of all
crfiscated property. The only point which they Y'eWed to the
Portuguese; was that which referred to the colony of St. Sacra-
ment which the Portuguese governor of Rio Janeiro had estab-
ScdTS) on the nonhern bank of the river La Plata, u, South
Ameri a, which was opposed by Spain. By the sixth article o
heVtreaty with Portu^l, she renounced all her former claims
and pretensions over the above colony. t>„,.„™1

A similar dispute had arisen between France and Portugal
relative to the northern bank of the Amazons river, and the terri-
ories about Cape North, in America, which t^e French mam-
tained belonged to them, as making part of French Guiana.
The Portuguese naving constructed there the fort of Macapa, it
iJs taken by the French gove-^rr of Cayenne. By the reaty
of Utrecht, it was agreed between France and Portugal that
both banks of the river Amazons should belong entirely to Por-
i tugal ; and that France should renounce all right and pieten-
! Ss whatever to the territories of Cape North, b'lng.betv^en
I the rivers Amazons and Japoc, or Vincent Pmson, in South

1 ^fn England, an interregnum of eleven years followed the death

of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Independent
1 party, pissed two Acts of Parliament one of which abulished

fhe House of Lords, and the other the royal dignity. The
i kinRlv office was suppressed, as useless to the nation, oppressn^
' and dangerous to the interests and liberties of the people ; and it

•Ls decided, that whoever should spoak of the restoration of the
: Stuarts, should be regarded as a traitor to his country. The king-
t dom being thus changed into a republic, Cromwell took on hum e!f

the chief direction of affairs. This ambitiou. man was n^^^^^^^
I in monopolizing the sovereign authority (1663.) He abolishfirt

1'f*lr

[he influence of
lenna, he joined
[ugucse made a
the campaign of
Jthey penetrated
|of Austria,
their treaty of

to expect, that
ira and Gallicia

That engage-
;e, concluded at
id Portugal, had
made during the
n renewed, and
restitution of all
ey yielded to the
»ny of St. Sacra-
ineiro had estab-
a Plata, in South
e sixth article of
er former claims

ce and Portugal
ver, and the terri-
le French main-
French fruiana.
brt of Macapa, it
;. By the treaty
id Portugal that
J entirely to Por-
ight ana pieten-
h, lying between
'inson, in South

allowed the death
the Independent
which abolished

I dignity. The
lation, oppressive
le people ; and it
restoration of the
mtry. The king-

II took on himself
nan was not long
.) He abolislmd

:.{

PERion VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

307

the Parliament called the Rump, which had conferred on him his
power and military commission. He next assembled a new
Parliament of the three kingdoms, to the number of one hun-
dred and forty-four members ; and he took care to have it com-
posed of individuals whom he knew to be devoted to his inte-
rests. Accordingly, they resigned the whole authority into his
hands. An act, called the Act of Government, conferred on
him the supreme authority, under the title of Protector of
the three kingdoms ; with the privilege of making war and
peace, and assembling every three years a Parliament, which
should exercise the legislative power conjunctly with himself.

Cromwell governed England with a more uncontrolled power
than that of her kings had been. In 1651, he passed the fa-
mous Navigation Act, which contributed to increase the com-
merce of Great Britain, and gave her marine a preponderance
over that of all other nations. That extraordinary man raised
England in the estimation of foreigners, and made his Protec-
torate respected by all Europe. After a war which he had car-
ried on against the Dutch, he obliged them, by the treaty of
Westminster (1654,) to lower their flag to British vessels, and
to abandon the cause of the Stuarts. Entering into alliance
with France against Spain, he took from the latter the island
of Jamaica (1655) and the port of Dunkirk (1658.)

After his death, the Generals of the army combined to restore
the old Parliament, called the Rump. Richard Cromwell, who
succeeded his father, soon resigned the Protectorate (April 22,
1659.) Dissensions having arisen between the Parliament and
the Generals, Monk, who was governor of Scotland, marched
to the assistance of the Parliament ; and after having defeated
the Independent Generals, he proceeded to assemble a new Par-
liament composed of both Houses. No sooner was this Par-
liament assembled, than they decided for the restoration of the
Stuarts, in the person of Charles II. (18th May 1660.)

That Princp made his public entry into London, May 29,
1660. His first care was to take vengeance on those who had
been chiefly instrumental in the death of his father. He re-
scinded all Acts of Parliament passed since the year 1633; and
re-established Episcopacy both in Englan ' and Scotland. In-
stigated by his propensity for absolute power, and following the
maxims which he had imbibed from his predecessors, he adopt-
ed measures which were opposed by the Parliament ; and even
went so far as more than once to pronounce their dissolution.
His reign, in consequence, was a scene of faction and agitation,
which proved the forerunners of a new revolution.* The ap-
pellation of Whigs and Tories, so famous in English history

Wki

308

CHAPTER Vin.

took its rise in his reign. Wc could almost, however, pardon
trils for his faults Ld irregularities, in cor..derat^ of^he
beMevolence and amiableness of his character. IJut it was
mhervvse with James 11., who succeeded his hrother on he
Brit sh Throne (16th Feb. 1685.) That Prince alienated the
m nds of his subjects by his haughty demeanour, and his extra-
vagant zeal for the church of Rome, and the Jesuits h.s confes-
lors Scarcely was he raised to the throne, when he undertook
change thrreliirion of his country, and to govern s. 11 more
despotSlythL his brother had done. Encouraged by Louis
XlT who offered him money and troops, he was the first Kmg
of England That had kept on foot an army in time of peace
and caused tie legislature to decide, that the King can dispense
wl tr law. ivailing himself of ^^^^^^o^J'Z^
with the several statutes issued against the Catholics , ne peT
mUVed them the public exercise of their religion Withm the
"hree k ngdoms, aid gradually gave them a Pje<^r«"<=«;" j"
plSes of frust. At length, he even solicited the Pje /o « jd

fpectlng CatLiics, were treated as guilty of sedition, and .m ,

nrisoned by his order in the Tower. r-Mt a „„ ^«n

: ^ D«ri..g these transactions the Q-7'T^''^"6^? known Fn

I nened to be delivered of a Prince 20th June, 1688,) kno;^" '"

Cry b7 the name of the Pretender. As her Majesty had

i teo ch\ldL for more than six years it was "Ot difficult to

gain credit to a report, that the young Prince %yas a supposit^

Ks child James IL, by his first marriage with Anne Hyde.

i Sghter of the Earl of ClLndon. had two ^-ghte., both ^ro-

' testants ; and regarded, till then, as heirs to the crown. Mary,

i he elde;t, was m'arried to William, Prince of Orange and Anne

Sf D=r' ^^^sJZ^:^^ LTtSttSve5
IfaTtlt^gsa^d misfortunes would^

death of James II. and the accession of the P""'^^f ^.°^y,™X
TL throne. Being disappointed in these ^^F^/^f/^^^^^^
birth of the Prince of Wales, their only P'^V^JJ^^^'^^Sg
.v,„ If intr The Tories even ioined with the W higs m oneniig
t f-S 1, .t PrEof Oringe. William m-.^f^'g^

i5=!9BKK

owever, pnrdon
|si deration of the

r. Rut it was
s brother on the
ce alienated the
ur, and his extra-
csiiits his confes-
hen he undertook
govern still more
oiiraged by Louis
vas the first King
in time of peace,
(ing can dispense
iion, he dispensed
atholics ; he per-
igion within the
preference in all
the Pope to send
arrival of Ferdi-
fided this mission,
Windsor (1687.)
ihe declaration re-
sedition, and im

•y of Modena, hap-
•, 1688,) known m

her Majesty had
ras not difficult to
e was a suppositi-

with Anne Hyde.
lughters, both Pro-
the crown. Mary,
Orange, and Anne,
•"rederic III., King
[altered themselves
terminate with the
Princess of Orange
expectations by the
n was to dethrone
Whigs in offering
1 III., supported by

and landed fifteen
[688,) without ex-
rt of James, who,
ook the resolution

PERIOD Vll. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

309

of withdrawmg to France, where he had already sent his Queen
and his son, the young Prince of Wales. He afterwards re-
turned to Ireland, where he had a strong party ; but being con-
quered by William at the battle of the Boyne (11th July 1690,)
he was obliged to return to France, where he ended his days.

Immediately after the flight of James, the Parliament of Eng-
land declared, by an act, that as he had violated the funda-
mental law of the constitution, and abandoned the kingdom, the
throne was become vacant. They, therefore, unanimously con-
ferred the crown on William III., Prince of Orange, and Mary
his spouse (Feb. 22, 16S9 ;) intrusting the administration of af-
fairs to the Prince alone. In redressing the grievances of the
nation, they set new limits to the royal authority. By an Act,
called the Declaration of Rights, they decreecf, that the King
could neither suspend, nor dispense with the laws ; that he
could institute no new courts, nor levy money under any pre-
tence whatever, nor maintain an army in time of peace, without
the consent of Parliament. Episcopacy was abolished in Scot-
land (1694,) and the liberty of the press sanctioned. The suc-
cession of the crown was regulated by different Acts of Parlia-
ment, one of which fixed it in the Protestant line, to the exclu-
sion of Catholics. Next after William and Mary and their
descendants, was the Princess Anne and her descendants. A
subsequent Act conferred the succession on the House of
Hanover (1701,) under the following conditions: — That the
King or Queen of that family, on their accession to the throne,
should be obliged to conform to the High Church, and the laws
of 1689 ; that without the consent of Parliament, they should
never engage the nation in any war for the defence of their he-
reditary dominions, nor go out of the kingdom ; and that they
should never appoint foreigners to offices of trust.

The rivalry between France and England assumed a higher
tone under the reign of William III. ; and was increased by the
powerful efTorts which France was making to improve her ma-
rine, and extend her navigation and her commerce. The colo-
nies which she founded in America and the Indies, by bringing
the two nations more into contact, tended to foment their jea-
lousies, and multiply sulyects of discord and division between
them. From that time England eagerly seized every occasion
for occupying France on the Continent of Europe ; and the
whole policy of William, as we have seen, had no other aim
than to thwart the ambitious views of Louis XIV. If this
rivalry excited and prolonged wars which inflicted many cala-
mities on the world, it became likewise a powerful stimulus for
the contending nations to develope their whole faculties ; to

h I

If:;

#■ 11 ;

rijdlJ

"ar

310

CHAPTKR Vni.

make the liighest nllninir.enls in the sciences, of which they were
susceptible ; and to carry arts and civilization to the remotes*,
countries in the world. ,,„n«v i. • ^-

William HI. was succeeded by Anne (1702.) It was in ncr
reicn that the grand union IxHwccn England and Scotland was
accompli«hed, which incorporated then, into one kingdom, by
means of the same order of succession, and only one Parliament.
That Princess had the honour of maintaining the balance ol
Europe against France, by the clauses which she got inserted
into the treaty of Utrecht. At her death (1st August 1714,)
the throne of Great Britain passed to George I., the Elector o(
Hanover, whose mother, Sophia, derived her right to the British
throne from James I., her maternal grandfather.

The power and political influence of the United Provinces of
the Netlierlands had increased every day, '""•^^ Spain ncknow-
ledged their independence by the treaty of Munster (1648.)
Their extensive commerce to all parts of the globe, nnd their
flourishing marine, attracted the admiration of al Europe-
Sovereigns courted their alliance ; and the Hague, the capital
of the States-General, became, in course of time, the centre ol
European politics. That Republic was the nvnl of England in
all her coinmercial relations ; and she ventured also to dispute
with her the empire of the sea, by refusing to lower her flag to
British vessels. These disputes gave rise to bloody wars be-
tween the two States, in which the famous Dutch Admirals,
Troinp and De Ruyter, distinguished themselves by- their mari-
time exploits. De Ruyter entered the Thames with the Dutch
fleet (1667,) advanced to Chatham, burnt the vessels m the roads
there, and threw the city of London into great consternation.
Nevertheless, by the treaties of Breda (1667) and Westminster
(1664 ) they agreed that their vessels and fleets should lower
their flag when they met either one or more ships carrying the
British flag, and that over all the sea, from Cape ?'"'«»«"«">
Gallicia, to the centre of Statt in Norway ; but the Slates-Gen-
eral preserved Surinam, which they had conquered during the
war ; and at the treaty of commerce which was signed at Breda,
the navigation act was modified in their favour, m so far that
the produce and merchandise of Germany were to be considered
as productions of the soil of the Republic.

ft was during these wars that a change took place with regard

to the Stadlholdership of the United Provinces. William 11..

Prince of Orange, had alienated the hearts of his subjects by his

! attempts against their liberties; and having, at His death, left

his wife, the daughter of Charles 1. of England, pregnant of a

' son (1650,) the Slates-General took the opportunilv of leaving

Ivhich they were
to the remotest

It was in ner
ul Scotland was
[nc kingdom, by
J one Parliament,
the balance ol
8he got inserted
It August 1714,)
the Elector of
'lit to the British

trd Provinces of

s Spain acknow-

Munster (1648.)

globe, and their

of all Europe.

ague, the capital

me, the centre of

ra\ of England in

kl itlso to dispute

lower her flag to

bloody wars be-

Dutch Admirals,

es by their mari-

s with the Dutch

'sscls in the roads

;at consternation.

and Westminster

■ets should lower

hips carrying the

ipe Finisterre in

[ the States-Gen*

uered during the

signed at Breda,

lur, in so far that

! to be considered

}]ace with regard
!s. William IL,
is subjects by his
at his death, left
d, pregnant of a
unity of leaving

fKRIOD VII. A. D. 164S — 17/).

311

that ofPce vacant, and taking upon themselves the direction of
affairs. The suspicions which the House of Orniigo had excited
in Cromwell by their alliance with the Stuarts, and the resent-
ment of John de Witt, Pensionary of Holland, against the Stadt*
holder, caused a secret article to be added to the treaty of West-
minster, by which the States of Holland and West Friesland
engaged never to elect William, the posthumous son of William
II., to be St.tdthnlder ; and never to allow that the office of
Captain-General of the Republic should be conferred on him.
John (le Witt likewise framed a regulation known by the name
of the Perpetual Edict, which separated the Stadtholdership
from the office of Captain and Admiral-General, and which
enacted, that these functions should never be discharged by the
same individual. Having failed, however, in his efforts to make
the States-General adopt this regulation, which they considered
as contrary to the union, John de Witt contented himself with
obtaining the approbation of the States of Holland, who even
went so fur as to sanction the entire suppression of the Stadt-
holdership.

Matters continued in this situation until the time when Louis
XIV. invaded Holland. His alarming progress caused a revo-
lution in favour of the Prince of Orange. The ruling faction, at
the head of which was John de Witt, then lost the good opinion
of the people. He was accused of having neg'.ectcd military
affairs, and left the State without defence, and a prey to the en-
emy. The first signal of 'evolution was given by the small
town of Veere in Zealand. William was there proclaimed
Stadtholder (June 1672,) and the example of Vecre was soon
followed by all the cities of Holland and Zealand. Every where
the people compelled the magistrates to confer the Stadtholder-
ship on the young Prince. The Perpetual Edict was abolished,
and the Stadtholdership confirmed to William III. by the As-
sembly of States. They' even rendered this dignity, as well as
the office of Captain-General, hereditary to all the male and
legitimate descendants of the Prince. It was on this occasion
that the two brothers, John and Cornelius de Witt, were massa-
cred by the people assembled at the Hague.

After William was raised to the throne of Great Britain, he
still retained the Stadtholdership, with the offices of Captain
and Admiral-General of the Republic. England and Holland,
united under the jurisdiction of the same prince, acted thence*
forth in concert to thwart the ambitious designs of Louis XIV.;
and he felt the effects of their power chiefly in the war of the
Spanish Succession, when England and the States-General made
extraordinary efforts to maintain the balance of th ; Continent

: i

Hf,<

mi ii wiLji wpi

312

■*:-:,:

OBArTBR Vlll.

which they thought in danger. It was m consideration of these
efforts that they guaranteed to the Dutch, by the tretty ol the
Grand Alliance, as well as by that of Utrecht, a barrier against
Franco, which was more amply defined by ^heHarrter Treaty,
sijrned at Antwerp (15th November 1715,) under the mediation
and guaranty of Great Britain The provinces and towns of
the Netherlands, both those that had been possessed by Charles
II , and those that France had surrendered by the treaty of
Utrecht, were transferred to the Emperor and the House of
Austria, on condition that they should never bo ceded under any
title whatever ; neither to France, nor to any other prince except
the heirs and successors of the House of Austria in Germony.
It was agreed that there should always be kept in the Low
Countries a body of Austrian troops, from |:h'rty to thirty-five
thousand men,of which the Emperor was to furnish Jree-fif hs,
and the States-General the remainder. Finally, 'Jf Si"*"-
General were allowed a garrison, entirely composed of their own
troops, in the cities anS castles of N^mur, rTournay Menm,
Fumes, Warneton, and the fortress of Kenock ! while the Em-
peror engaged to contribute a certain ?um annually for the main-
tenance of these troops. , .^ i-. . j :„j.
Switzerland, since the confirmation of her liberty and indej
nendence by the peace of Westphalia, had constantly adhered
to the system of neutrality which she had adopted ; and taken
no part in the broils of her neighbours, except by furnishing
troops to those powers with whom she was in alliance. The
fortunate inability which was the natural consequence of her
union, pointed out this line of conduct, and even induced the
European States to respect the Helvetic neutrality.

This profound peace, which Switzerland enjoyed by means of
that neutrality, was never interrunted, except by occasional do-
me tkquarrei; which arose from tW difference of their re igiou,
ODinions. Certain families, from the canton of Schwe.iz, had
fled to Zurich on account of their religious tenets, and had been
nrotected by that republic. This stirred up a war (1656) be-
fween the (Jalholic cLtons and the Zurichers, with their all^s
the Bernese ; but it was soon terminated by the peace of baden,
which renewed the clauses of the treaty of 1631, relative to these
very subjects of dispute. Some attempts having afterwards been
made against liberty of conscience, in the county of Toggenburg,
by the Sbbe of St!^Gall, a new war broke out (1712,) between
five of the Catholic cantons, and the two Protestant cantons of
Zurich and Berne. These latter expelled the Abbe of St. Gall
from'his estates, and dispossessed the Catholics of the county of
Baden, with a considerable part of the free bailiwicks which

14.

tmtm

leration of thew

e tre«ty of (he

barrier agninnt

)iarrier Treaty,

r the mediation

s nnd towns of

ssed by Charles

ly the treaty of

I the House of

cded under any

or prince except

ia in Germany.

ept in the Low

TXy to thirty-five

■nish three-fifths,

lly, the States-

)sed of their own

'ournay, Menin,

; while the Em-

tlly for the main-

iberty and inde-
nstantly adhered
|ited ; and taken
'pt by furnishing
n alliance. The
sequence of her
vcn induced the
lity.

yed by means of
)y occnsioRal do-
of their religious
)f Schweitz, had
ts, and had been
L war (1656) be-

with their allies
peace of Baden,
, relative to these

afterwards been
r ofToggenburg,
(1712,) between
(stant cantons of
Abb.' of St. Gall

of the county of
ailiwicks which

: :

PKBioo m. A. D. 1648—1713.

318

V(ft9 flTanted to ther.i by the troaty coiicludod at .\raw. The
Abbe then saw him.«(elf abandonod by the Ciiiliolic i'antoii<i ; and
it was only in virtno of a treaty, wliii-li ho ( oiicjudcd with Zu-
rich and Borne (17 IS.) that iiissnrioMsorolitaincd his restornlion

Sweden, during the groiiter part of this period, supported the
(irst nink ainonsf the powers of the North. The vigour of her
governinout, added to the weakness of her iieiyhliour.'i, and the
important advantages which the treaties of Slolbova, Stumsdori,
Bromsbro, and Westphalia had procured her, secured this supe-
riority ; and gave her the same influence in the North that
France hold in the South. Christina, th(? daughter of Gusiavus
Adolpm's, iield the reins of government in Sweden about the
middle ol'tlio Bcventi'euth cntury ; but to gratify her propensity
for tlu. tine arts, she resolved to abdicate the crown (1651.)
Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine of Deux-Ponls, her cousin-
german, succeeded her, under the title of Charles X. Being
nurtured in the midst of arms, and ambitious only of wars and
battle.s, ho was anxious to distinguish himself on the throne.
John Casiniir, King of Poland, having provoked him, by protest-
ing against his accession to the crown of Sweden, Charles made
this an occasion of breaking the treaty of Stumsdorf, which was
still in force, and invaded Poland. Assisted by Frederic Wil-
liam, the Elector of Brandenburg, whom he had atta'-hed to his
interests, he gained a splendid victory over the Poles near War-
saw (July 1H5H.) At that crisis, the fate of Poland would have
been decided, if the Czar, Alexis Michaelovitz, who was also at
war with the Poles, had chosen to make common cause with
her new eneir.ie.s ; but Alexis thought it more for his advantage
to conclude a truce with the Pole.^,and attack the Swedes in Li-
vonia, Ingria. and Carelia. The Emperor Leopold and the King
(f Denmark followed the example of the Czar; and the Elector
of Brandenburg, after obtaining the sovereignty of the dutchy of
Pru."?ia, by the treaty which he concluded with Poland at We-
lau, acceded in like manner to this league, — the object of which
was to .secure the preservation of Poland, and maintain the equi-
librium of the North.

Attacked by so many and such powerful enemies, the King
of Sweden determined to withdraw his troops from Poland, and
direct his principal force against Denmark. Having made him-
self master of Holstcin, Sleswick, and Jutland, he passed the
Belts on the ice (January 1658) with his army and artillery, and
advanced towards the capital of the kingdom. This bold step
intimidated the Danes so much, that they submitted to those ex-
ceedingly severe conditions which Charles made them sign at
Hoschild (Februarv 1658.) Scarcely was this treaty concluded.

1!;^

cHArriR viii.

when lI»o KiiiR of Sweden broke it anew ; and under .d'flcienj
pr.-i.Kts, Ini.l sie^'c to Cpoiiha-^oii. His intention wus, if he had
ciirri.Ml ihiil pliu-e, to riiz.' it t.. the ^r<.u^d, to luinihihite the
kinif.lo.n of Denmnrk. mid fix his residence in the province of
Sciioii.'ii, wli.-re he could inninliiiii his .loininion over the North
and th.' Baltic. Tiie hesie-ed Dunes, however, made a vigor-
oils ,h.f.M..e.nnd they were .•iicourufred by the example of Fred-
eric III., wlio superintended in person the whole operations o
the sie-r..; nevertlieleiss, th.-y must certainly have yielded, had
not the Dutch, who were alarmed for their commerce in the Bal-
tic, sent a fleet to the assistance of Denmark. These republi-
cans f()u.Tht mi obslinute nav.il battle with the Swedes in the
Sound (29th October 1«.SS.) The Swedish fleet was repulsed,
and tl.e Dutch succeeded in relieving Copenhagen, by throwing
in a supply of provisionn mid ammunition. . ,. ,

The Kin.' of Sweden peisisted, nevertheless, in his deternii-
nation to reduce that capital. He was not even intimidated by
the treaties which France, England, ari.l Holland, had conclu-
ded at the Hague, for maintaining the e.piilibrium of the Worth ;
but a premature <lealh, at the age of thirty-eight put an end to
his ambiti..us projects CJSd February 16H0.) Hie regents who
governed the kingdom during the minority o his son Charles
XI., immediately set on foot negotiations with all the pow-ers
that were in league against Swe.len. By the F"^-« which they
concluded at Copenhagen with Denmark (July 3, 1660,) they
surrendered to that crown several of their late conquests ; re-
serving to themselves only the provinces of Schonen, Bleckin-
gen, Halland, and Bohus. The Duke of Holstem-Gottorp, the
protege of Charles X., was secured by that treaty m the sove-
reignly of that part of Sleswick, which had been guaranteed to
him by a former treaty concluded at Copenhagen. 1 he war
with Poland, and her allies the Elector of Brondenburg and the
Emperor, was terminated by the peace of Oliva (May M IbOU.)
The King of Poland gave up his pretensions to the crown ot
Sweden ; while the farmer ceded to the latter the provinces ^
Livonia and Esthonia, and the islands belonging to them ; to be
possessed on the same terms that had been agreed on at the
Treaty of Stmnsdorf in 1635. The Duke of Courknd was re-es-
tablished in his dutchy, and the sovereignty of ducal Prussia
confirmed to the House of Brandenburg. Peace between Swe-
den and Russia was concluded at Kardis in Esthonia ; while
the latter power surrendered to Sweden all the places which
she had conquered in Livonia. • . .u n ,.M.

Sweden was afterwards drawn into the w{ir against the Uutcli
by Louis XIV., when she experienced nothing but disasters.

under diflcienf
was, if he had
atinihiliite tho
ho province of
ovrr the North
I, made n vigor-
ample of Fred-
c operations of
ve yielded, had
erre in the Bal-
These rcpubli-
Swedes in the
t was repulsed,
!n, by throwing

in his determi-
intimidated by
md, had conclii-
m of the North ;
t, put an end to
^hc regents who
his son Charles
I all the powers
leace which they
{ 3, 1660.) they
; conquests ; re-
honen, Bleckin-
ein-Gottorp, the
ity in the sove-
n guaranteed to
gen. The war
Jenburg and the
(May 3d 1660.)
to the crown of
the provinces of
' to them ; to be
l^reed on at the
riand was re-es-
f ducal Prussia
3 between Swe-
Isthonia ; while
16 places which

gainst the Dutch
7 but disaster?.

■ I

• i

piRioD vn. A. D. 164S— 1713.

8i»

She wnr deprived of all her provinces in tho Empire, and only
regaim.'d possession of them in virtue of tho treaties of Zeli,
Niin(-guon, St. Oermain-on-Laye, Fountainbleau, and Lunden
(If579,) which she concluded successively with the powers in
league against Franco. Iininediiitely after that jKMice, a riivolu-
tioii happened in the government of Sweden. The abuse which
the nobles made of their privileges, tho extravagant authority
claimed by the senate, and the difTeront methods which the
grandees employed for gradually usurping the domains of the
crown, had excited the jealousy of tho other orders of the state.
It is alleged, that John Baroti Gillcnsticrn, had suggested to
Charles aI. the idea of taking advantage of this discontent to
augment the royul authority, and humble tho arrogance of the
senate and tho nobility. In compliance with his advice, the
Kingasdombled the Estates ofthe kingdom at Stockholm (1680;)
and having quartered some regiments of his own guards in the
city, he took care to remove sucli of the nobles as might give
the greatest cause of apprehension. An accusation was lodged
at tho Diet against those ministers who had conducted the ad-
ministration during the King's minority. To them were attri-
buted the calamities and losses of the state, and for these they
were made responsible. The Senate was also implicated. They
were charged with abusing their authority ; and it was proposed
that the States should make investigation, whether the powers
which the Souato had assumed were cotiformable to the laws of
tho kingdom. The States declared that the King was not bound
by any other form of government than that which the constitu-
tion prescribed ; that the Senate formed neither a fifth order, nor
an intermediate power between the King and the States ; and
that it ought to be held simply as a Council, with whom the
King might consult and advise.

A College of Reunion, so called, was also established at this
Diet, for the purpose of making inquiry as to the lands granted,
sold, mortgaged, or exchanged by preceding Kings, either in
Sweden or Livonia ; with an offer on the part of the crown to
reimburse the proprietors for such sums as they had originally
paid for them. This proceeding made a considerable augmen-
tation to the revenues of the crown ; but a vaA number of pro-
prietors were completely ruined by it. A subsequent diet went
even further than that of 1680. They declared, by statute, that
though the King was enjoined to govern his dominions accord-
ing to the laws, this did not take from him the power of altering
these laws. At length the act of 1693 decreed that the Kinjf
was absolute master, and sole depository of the sovereign power ;
without being responsible for his actions to any power on earth ;

lit"

1 . )

t. ML i

!i":i

I'WiiaiWiMi:.

316

CHAPTER Vni.

an<l that he was entitled to govern the kingdom according to his
will and pleasure.

It wns in virtue of these different enactments and concessions,
that the absolute power which had been conferred on Charles
XI., was transmitted to the hands of his son Charles XII., who
was only fifteen years of age when he succeeded his father
(April 1, 1697.) By the abuse which this Prince made of these
dangerous prerogatives, he plunged Sweden into an abyss of
troubles ; and brought her down from that high rank which she
had occupied in the political system of Europe, since the reign
of Gustavus Adolphus. The youth of Charles appeared to his
neighbours to afford them a favourable opport'.nity for recover-
ing Vhat they had lost by the conquests of his predecessors,
Augustus II., King of Poland, being desirous to regain Livonia,
and listening to the suggestions of a Livonian gentleman, named
John Patkuf, who had been proscribed in Sweden, he set on foot
a negotiation with the courts of Russia and Copenhagen ; the
result of which was, a secret and offensive alliance concluded
between these ihrt^ powers against Sweeden (1699.) Peter the
Great, who had just conquered A/off" at the mouth of the Don.
and equipped his first fleet, was desirous also to open up the coasts
of the Baltic, of which his predecessors had been dispossessed by
Sweden. War accordingly broke out in the course of the year
1700. The King of Poland invaded Livonia ; the Danes fell
upon Sleswick, where they attacked the Duke of Holslein-Got-
torj), the ally of Sweden ; while the Czar, at the head of an
army of eighty thousand men, laid siege to the city of Narva.

The King of Sweden, attacked by so many enemies at once,
directed his first etTorts against Denmark, where the danger ap-
pear id most pressing. Assisted by the fleets of England and
Holland, who had guaranteed the last peace, he made a descent
on the Isle of Zealand, and advanced rapidly towards Copenha-
gen This obliged Frederic IV. to conclude a special peace
with him at Travendahl (Aug. 18, 1700,) by which that nnnce
consented to abandon his allies, and restore the Duke of Holstem-
Goltorp to the same state in which he had been before the war.
Next directing his march against the Czar in Esthonia, the young
Kin<T forced the jlussians from their entrenchments before Narva
(Nov. 30,) and made prisoners of all the general and P"ncipa
officers of the Russian army ; among others, Field-Marshal
General the Duke de Croi. ,. . „ u

Havincr thus got clear of the Russians, the Swedish Monarch
♦.hen attacked King Augustus, who had introduced a Saxon ariny
into Poland, without being authorized by that Republic, t-h^'es
vanquished that prince in the three famous battles of Riga ( 17U1,/

fS^i^^fWSS

)rding[ to his

concessions,

on Charles

s XII., who

his father

lade of the.se

an abyss of

which she

ce the reign

)eared to his

for recover-

jrcdece.ssors.

riiin Livonia,

liian, naineil

he .set on foot

ihagcn ; the

e concluded

.) Peter the

I of the Don,

up the coasts

?posse.''sed by

e of the year

le Danes fell

Holstein-Got-

! head of an

y of Narva.

mies at once,

le danger ap-

Bngland and

ide a descent

rds Copenha-

special peace

h that prince

s of Hoistein-

fore the war.

lia, the young

before Narva

md principal

'ield-Marsnal

lish Monarch
L Saxon army
blic. Charles
Riga(170U

1 1

PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

317

Clissau (1702,) and Pultusk (1703;) and obliged the Poles to
depose him, and elect in his place Stanislaus Lecksinski, Pa-
latine of Posen, and a proteg^ of his own. Two victories which
were gained over the Saxons, and their allies the Russians, the
one at Punie (1704,) and the other at Fraustadt (1706,) caused
Stanislaus to bo acknowledged by the whole Republic of Po-
land, and enabled the King of Sweden to tran; fer the seat of
war to Saxony. Having marched through Silcsiu, without the
previou: authority of the Court of Vienna, he took Leipzic.
and compelled Augustus to sign a treaty of peace at Alt-Ran
studt, by which that Prince renounced his alliance with the
Czar, and acknowledged Stanislaus legitimate King of Poland.
John Patknl being delivered up to the King of Sweden, ac-
cording to an article in that treaty, was broken on the wheel,
for having been the principal instigator of the war.

The prosperity of Charles XII., had now come to an end
From this time he experienced only a scries of reverses, which
wore occasioned as much by his passion for war, as by his in-
discretions, and the ur;conquerabIe obstinacy of his character.
The Russians had taken advantage of his long sojourn in Po-
land and Saxony, and conquered the greater part of Ingria and
Livonia. The Czar had now advanced into Poland, where he
had demanded ')f the Poles to declare an interregnum, and elect
a new King. In this state of matters, the King of Sweden left
Saxony to march against the Czar ; and compelled him to eva-
cuate Poland, and retire on Smolensko. Far from listening,
however, to the equitable terms of peace which Peter offered
him, he persisted in his resolution to march on to Moscow, in
the hone of dethroning the Czar, as he had dethroned Augus-
tus. Th(- discontent which the innovations of the Czar had ex-
cited in Russia, appeared to Charles a favourable opportunity
for effecting his object ; but on reaching the neighbourhood ot
Mohilew, he suddenly changed his purpose, and, instead of di-
recting his rouie towards the capital of Russia, he turned to
the right, and penetrated into the interior of the Ukraine, in
order to meet Mazeppa, Hetman of the Cossacs, who had offered
.0 join him with all his troops. Nothing could have been
more imprudent than this determination. By thus marching
into the Ukraine, he separated himself from General Lewen-
haupt, who had brought him, according to orders, a powerful re
inforcenient fromLivonia ; and trusted himself among a fickle and
inconstant people, disposed to break faith on every opportunity.

This inconsiderate step of Charles did not escape the pene-
tration of the Czar, who knew well how to pri/fit by it. Putting
himself at the head of a chosen body, he intercepted General

:n :' I

<« I'-li i

<r •■ 'i

'iii,ttmi»i*'>Sm'ilSli'i'mSt

^M>

318

CHAPTER Vin.

Lewcnhaupt, nnd joined him at Desna, two miles from Pro-
poisk, in the Palatinate of Mscislaw. The battle which he
fougl)t with that general (October 9, 1709,) was most obstinate,
and, by the confession of the Czar, the first victory which the
Eussians had gained over regular troons. The remains of
Lcwenhaupt's army, having joined the King in the Ukraine,
Charles undertook the siege of Pultowa, situated on the banks
of the Vorskhiw, at the extremity of that province. It was
near this place, that the famous "battle was fought {8lh July,
1709,) which blasted all the laurels of the King of Sweden.
The Czar gained tii«;e a complete victory. Nine thousand
Swedes were left on liie field of battle ; and fourteen thousand,
who had retired with General Lewenhaupt, towards Perevo-
latsi'hna, between the Vorsklaw and the Nieper, were made pri-
soners of war, three days after the action. Charles, accompanied
bv his ally Mazeppa, saved himself with difliculty at Bender in
Turkey.

This disastrous route revived the courage of the enemies of
Sweden. The alliance was renewed between the Czar, Au-
gustus II., and FredcricIV.,King of Dennmrk. Stanislaus was
abandoned. All Poland again atknowledeed Augustus II.
The Danes made a descent on Schonen ; and the Czar achieved
the conque^t of Ingria, Livonia, and Carelia. The Slates that
were leagued against France in the war of the Spanish Suc-
cession, wishing to prevent Germany from becoming the theatre
of hostilities, concluded a treaty at the Hague (31st March
1710,) by which they undertook, under certain conditions, to
guarantee the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany,
as well as that of Sleswick and Jutland ; but the King of Swe-
den having constantly declined acceding to this neutrality, the
possessions of the Swedes in Germany were also seized arid
conquered in succession. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, .he
nephew of Charles XII., was involved in his disgrace, and
stripped of his estates by the king of Denmark (1714.)

In the midst of these disasters, the inflexible King of Swe-
den persisted in prolongin"' his sojourn at Bender, making re-
peated efforts to rouse the Turks against the Russians. He did
not return from Turkey till 1714, when his aflfairs were already
totally ruined. The attemfits which he then made, either to
renew the war in Poland, or invade the provinces of the Em-
pire, excited the jealousy of the neighbouring powers. A for-
midable league was raised against him ; besides the Czar, the
Kings of Poland, Denmark, Prussia, and England, joined it.
Stralsund and Wismar, the only places which Sweden still re-
tained in Germany, fell into the hands of the allies ; while the

es from Pro- 1'
tie which he ' ;
lost obstinate, \ '
ry which the j
remains of \'\
the Ukraine, i :
on the hanks
mce. It was
;ht (8th July,
? of Sweden.
line thousand
cen thousand,
I'ards Perevo*
rcTC made pri-
, accompanied
f at Bender in

he enemies of

he Czar, Au-
i^tani.slaus was
Augustus II.

Czar aciiieved
he Slates that

Spanish Sue-
ing the theatre
! (31st March

conditions, to
s in Germany,

King of Swe-
neutrnlity, the
!so seized arid
n-Gottorp, .he

disgrace, and
1714.)

King of Swe-
r, making re-
iians. He did
! were already
ade, either to
s of the Em-
wers. A fer-
tile Czar, the
ind, joined it.
reden still re-
while the

PERIOU VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

.319

Cw added to these losses the conquest of Finland and Savolax,
In a situation so desperate, Charles, 'oy the advice of his minis-
ter. Baron GortE, set on foot a special and secret negotiation
with the Czar, which took place in the isle of Aland, in course
of the year 1718. There it was proposed to reinstate Stanis-
laus on the throne of Poland ; to restore to Sweden her pos-
sessions in the Empire ; and even to assist her in conquering
Norway ; by way of compensation for the loss of Ingria, Ca-
relia, Livonia, and Esthonia, which she was to cede to the Czar.

That negotiation was on the point of being finally closed,
when it was broken off by the unexpected death of Charles
XII. That unfortunate prince was slain (December 11th, 1718,)
at the siege of Fredericshall in Norway, while visiting the
trenches ; being only thirty-seven year-! of ago, and leaving the
affairs of his kingdom in a most deplorable state.

The new regency of Sweden, instead of remaining in friend-
ship with the Czar, changed their policy entirely. Baron de
Gortz, the friend of the late King, fell a sacrifice to the public
displeasure, and a negotiation was opened with the Court of
G.Britain. A treaty of peace and alliance was concluded at
Stockholm (Nov. 20, 1719,) between Great Britain and Swe-
den. George I., on obtaining the cession of the dutchies of
Bremen and Verden, as Elector of Hanover, engaged to send a
strong squadron to the Baltic, to prevent any further invasion
from the Czar, and procure for Sweden more equitable terms of
peace on the part of that Prince. The example of Great Bri-
tain was soon followed by the other allied powers, who were
anxious to accommodate matters with Sweden. By the treaty
concluded at Stockholm (21st January, 1720,) the King of
Prussia got the town of Stettin, and that part of Pomerania,
v;hich lies between the Oder and the Peenc. The King of
Denmark consented to restore to Sweden the towns of Stral-
sund and Wismar, with the isle of Rugen, and the part of Po-
merania, which extends from the sea to the river Peene. Swe-
den, on ner side, renounced in favour of Denmark, her exemp-
tion from the duties of the Sound and the two Belts, which had
been guaranteed to her by former treaties. The Czar was the
only person who, far from being intimidated by the menaces of
England, persisted in his resolution of not making peace with
Sweden, except on the conditions which he had dictated to her.
The war was, therefore, continued between Kussia and Sweden,
during the two campaigns of 1720 and 1721. Different parts
of the Swedish coast were laid desolate by the Czar, who put
all to fire and sword, To stop the progress of these devasta
lions, the Swedes at length consented to accept the peace which

% JM

t
i

ij- ■ ;

V <>

r?ii»«-

1\r

320

CHAPTER VIU*

tho Czar offered them, which was finally signed at Nystadt I
<13iii Scpteinbor 1721.) Finland was surrendered to bweJen
on condition of her formally ceding to the C/ar the provinces of
Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Carelia; their limits to be deter-
mined according to the regulations of the treaty.

The ascendency which Sweden had gained in the ISorth since
the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, had become so fatal to Den-
mark, that she was on the point of being utterly subverted, and
ediiced from the number of European powers. JNor did she
extricate hersiclf from the disas^trous wars which she had to sup-
port against Charles X., until she had sacrificed some of her
best provinces ; such as Schoncn, Bieckingen, Halland, and the
government of Bohus, which Frederic III. ceded to Sweden by
the treaties of Roschild and Copenhagen. It was at tiie close of
thi« war thata revolution happened in the governmcntof Denmark.
U..tU that time, it had been completely under the aristocracy of the
nobles ; the throne was elective ; and all power was concentrated
in the hands of the senate, and the principal rnembers of the
nobility. The royal prerogative was limited to the command ot
the army, and the presidency in the' Senate. The King was
even obliged, by a special capitulation, in all affairs which did
not require the 'concurrence of the Senate, to take the advice of
four o-reat officers of the crown, viz. the Orand Master, the
Chancellor, the Marshal, and the Admiral ; who were considered
as so many channels or vehicles of the royai authority.

The state of exhaustion to wiiich Denmark was reduced at
the time she made peace with Sweden, obliged Frederic 111. to
convoke an assembly of the States-General of the kingdom.
These which were composed of three orders, viz. tlie nobility,
the clergy, and the burgesses, had never been summoned to-
gether in that form since the year 153G. At their meeting at
Copenhagen, the two inferior orders reproached the nobles with
having been the cause of all the miseries and disorders of the
' State, by the exorbitant and tyrannical power which they had
I usurped ; and what tended still more to increase their animosity
against them, was the obstinacy with which they maintained
1 their privileges and exemptions from the pubhc burdens, to the
prejudice of the lower orders. One subject of discussion was,
to find a tax, the proceeds of which should be applied to the most
' pressing wants of the State. The nobles proposed a duty on
articles of consumption; but under restrictions with regard to
I themselves, that could not but exasperate the lower orders. 1 he
\ ; latter proposed, in testimony of their discontent, to .3t out to the
I ' hiffhest bidder the fiefs of the crown, which the nobles held at
i rents extremely moderate. This proposal was highly resented

tmmm

d at Nystadt
red to Sweden
le provinces of
its to be deter-

le North since
fatal to Den-
subvcrted, and
Nor did she
die had to sup-
i some of her
alland, and the
to Sweden by
i at tile close of
int of Denmark,
ristocracy of the
as concentrated
nembers of the
Lhe command of
The King was
[fairs which did
ic the advice of
nd Maf^ter, the
were considered
ithority.
was reduced at
Frederic III. to
f the kingdom,
iz. the nobility,
1 summoned to-
heir meeting at
the nobles with
disorders of the
which they had
: their animosity
they maintained
: burdens, to the
discussion was,
plied to the most
posed a duty on
1 with regard to
irer orders. The
to !3t out to the
e nobles held at
highly resented

I
n

PERIOD VII. A. D, 1648 — 1713.

321

by the nobility, who regarded it as a blow aimed at tneir rights
and properties ; and they persisted in urging a tax on articles of
consumption, such as they had proposed. Certain unguarded
expressions which escaped some of the members of the nobility,
gave rise to a tumult of indignation, and suggested to the two
leaders of the clergy and the burgesses, viz. the bishop of Zea-
land and the burgomaster of Copenhagen, the idea of framing
a declaration for the purpose of rendering the crown hereditary,
both in the male and female descendants of Frederic III. It
\vas not difficult for them to recommend this project to their
respective orders, who flattered themselves that, under a heredi-
tary monarchy, they would enjoy that equality which was denied
them under an aristocracy of the nobles. The act of this de-
claration having been approved and signed by the two orders,
was presented in their name to the Senate, who rejected it, on
the ground that the States-General then assembled, had no right
to deliberate on that proposition ; but the clergy and the burges-
ses, without being disconcerted, went in a body to the King,
carrying with them the Act which ofTered to make the crown
hereditary in his family. The nobles having made a pretence
of wisshing to quit the city in order to break up the Diet, care was
taken to shut the doors. The members of the Senate and the
nobility had then no other alternative left than to agree to the
resolution of the two inferior orders ; and the offer of the crown
was made to the King by the three orders conjunctly ( 13th Oct iber
1660.) They then tendered him the capitulation, which was
annulled ; and at the same time they liberated him from the oath
which he had taken on the day of his coronation. A sort of
dictatorship was then conferred on him, to regulate the new con-
stitutional charter, according to his good pleasure. All the orders
of the State then took a new oath of fealty and homage to him,
while the King himself was subjected to no oath whaterer.
Finally, the three orders separately remitted an Act to the Kin?,
declaring the crown hereditary in all the descendants of Frederic
III., both male and female ; conferring on htm and his succes-
sors an unlimited power; and granting him the privilege of
regulating the order both of the regency and the succession to
the throne.

Thus terminated that important revolution, without any dis-
order, and without shcddmg a single drop of blood. It was in
virtue of those powers which the States nad conferred on him,
that the King published what is called the Royal Law, regarded
as the only fundamental law of Denmark. The King was there
declared absolute sovereign, above all human laws, acknowledg-
ing no superior but God, and uniting in his own person all tb<p

l*k

1 '«

|5 i'ii

*ti I' -4; <

I ^

i .

' i*"'**^';

CHAPTER vni.

rights and prerogatives of royalty, without any exception whatever ,
He .-ould exercise these prerogatives in virtue of his own author |
,IV ; but he was obliged to respect the Royal Law ; and he couW
neilher touch the Confession of Augsburg, which had been
adopted as the national religion, nor authorize any partition ot ,
the kingdom, which was declared indivisible ; nor change he ,
order of succession as established by the Royal Law. That sue- .
cession was lineal, according to the right of primogeniture and I
descent. Females were only admitted, failing all the male issue ,
,f Frederic III. ; and the order in which they were to succeed, j
was defined with the most scrupulous exactness. Ihe term ot ,
majority was fixed at the age of thirteen ; and >t.;vas >« the
power of the reigning monarch to regulate, by his will, the tutor- 1
age and the regency during such minority.

This constitutional law gave the Danish government a vigour
which it never had before ; the effects of which were manifested
in the war which Christian V. undertook against Sweden
(1675,) in consequence of his alliance with Frederic William,
Elector of Brandenburg. The Danes had the advantage of the
Swedes both by sea and land. Their fleet, under the command
of Niels Juel, gained two naval victories over the_m, the one
rear the Isle of Oeland, and the other in the bay of Kioge, on
the coast of Zealand (1677.) That war was terminated by the
peace of Lunden (Oct. 6th 1679,) which restored matters be-
tween the two nations, to the same footing on which they had
been before the war. The severe check which Sweden re-
ceived bv the defeat of Charles XII., before Pultowa, tended to
extricate Denmark from the painful situation in which she had
been placed with respect to that power. The freedom of the
Sound, which Sweden had maintained during her prosperity,
was taken from her by the treaty of Stockholm, and by the ex-
planatory articles of Fredericsburg, concluded between Sweden
Snd Denmark, (14th June 1720.) That kingdom likewise re-
tained, in terms of the treaty, the possession of the whole dutchy
of Sleswirk, with a claim to the part belonging to the duke of
Holstein-Gottorp, whom S-weden was obliged to remove from
under her protection. . j „„

Poland, at the commencement of this period, presented an
afflictine spectacle, under the u:..'3rtunate reign of John tasimir,
i S brother and successor of Uladislaus VII. (1648.) Distracted
I at once by foreign wars and intestine factions, she seemed every
i moment on th.^ brink of destruction ; and w^iilc the neighbour-
insr states were augmenting their forces, and strengthening the
hands of their governments, Poland grew gradually weaker and
■ weaker, and at length degenerated into absolute anarchy. 1 bf

ion whatever
s own author

and he could
ich had been
y partition of
jr chonge the
That suc-
ngnniture and
the male issue
;re to succeed,

The terra of
it was in the
will, the tutor-

iment a vigour
ere manifested
gainst Sweden
Icric William,
Ivantage of the
r the command
them, the one
of Kioge, on
(minated by the
ed matters be-
ivhich they had
:h Sweden re-
towa, tended to
which she had
freedom of the
her prosperity,
and by the ex-
'tween Sweden
)m likewise re-
le whole dutchy
; to the duke ol
.0 remove from

], presented an
if John Casimir,
148.) Distracted
le seemed every
• ilie neighbour-
rcngthening the
ally weaker and
! anarchv. The

PRRIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

323

orig^in of the Libenim Veto of the Poles, which allowed the op-
position of a single member to frustrate the deliberations of the
whole Diet, belongs to the reign of John Casimir. The first
that suspended the Diet, by the interposition of his veto, wa&
Schinski, member for Upita in Lithuania ; his example, though
at first disapproved, found imitators ; and this foolish practice,
which allowed one to usurp the prerogative of a majority, soon
passed into a law, and a maxim of state.

Towards the end of the reign of Uladislaus VII. a murderous
war had arisen in Poland, that of the Cossacs. This warlike
people, of Russian origin, as their language and their religion
prove, inhabited both banks of the Borysthenes, beyond Kiow ;
where they were subdivided into regiments, under the command
of a general, called Hetman; and served as a military frontier
for Poland against the Tartars and Turks. Some infringements
that had been made on their privileges, added to the eflTorts which
the Poles had made to induce their clergy to separate from the
Greek Church, and acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope, ex-
asperated the Cossacs, and engendered among them a spirit of
revolt (1647.) Assisted by the Turks of the Crimea, they in-
vaded Poland, and committed terrible devastations. The Poles
succeeded from time to time in pacifying them, and even con-
cluded a treaty with them ; but the minds of both parties being
exasperated, hostilities always recommenced with every new
offence. At length, their Hetman, Chmielniski, being hardly
pressed by the Poles, took the resolution of soliciting the protec-
tion of liussia, and concluded a treaty with the Czar Alexis
Michaelovitz (Jan. 16, 1654,) in virtue of which, Kiow and the
other towns of the Ukraine, under the power of the Cossacs,
were planted with Russian garrisons. It was on this occasion
that the Czar retook the city of Smolensk© from the Poles, as
well as most of the districts that had been ceded to Poland, by
the treaties of Dwilina and Viasma. That prince made also
several other conquests from the Poles ; he took possession of
Wilna, and several places in Lithuania, at the very time when
Charles X. was invading Poland, and threatening that country
with entire destruction. The Czar, however, instead of fol ow-
ing up his conquests, judged it more for his interest to conclude
a truce with the Poles ^1636,) that fie might turn his arms
against Sweden.

The peace of Oliva put an end to the war between Poland and
Sweden ; but hostilities were renewed between the Russians
and the Poles, which did not terminate till the treaty of Andnis-
.sov (Jan. 1667.) The Czar restored to the Poles a part of his
conquests ; but he retained Smolensko, Novogorod-Sieverskoe.

.';*

ill

.i
'1

:'!"'" '<»%'"

lifj-i-"^

824

ciiArniR viu.

TcherniRov. Kiow, and all il.e cmintry of the Cossacs, beyond
the Boryslhcnc8 or Dnieper. The Cossacs on this side the
rivr were annexed lo Poland, and as for those who dwelt n^ar
the" mouth of the Dnieper, called lavorogs^ U was agreeu that
thev should remain under the common juri^dicliori ol the two
states ; ready to serve against the Turks whenever circumstances
mighi require it. The wars of which we have just spoke.^ were
attended with troubles and dissensions, which reduced Poland
to the most deplorable condition during the reign of John Lasi-
mir. Thra prince at length, disgusted with a crown which he
had found to be composed of thorns, resolved to abdicate the
throne (16th Sept. 1668 ;) and retiring to France, he there ended

' MiTael Wiesnouiski, who succeeded John Casimir. after a
stormy interregnum of seven months, had no ot^her "'erit l^ian
that of being descended in a direct line from Conbut, the brother
of JagellonT King of Poland. His reign was a scene of great
agitatbn, and of unbridled anarchy. Four diets were interrupted
in less than four years ; the war with the Cossacs was renewed ;
the Turks and the Tartars, the allies of the C.ossacs, seized he
city of Kaminiec (1672.) the only bulwark of Poland against the
Ottomans. Michael, being thrown into a state of alarm, con-
cluded a disgraceful peace with the Turks; he gave up to them
Kaminiec and Podofia, with their ancient limits ; and even
agreed to pay them an annual tribute of twenty-two thousand
ducats. The Ukraine, on this side the Borysthenes, was aban-
doned to the Cossacs, who were to be placed under the protection
of the Turks. This treaty was not ratified by ihe^ KetHiblic ot
Poland, who preferred to continue the war. John bobieski,
Grand General of the Crown, gained a briliant victory over the
Turks near Choczim (Nov. 11th, 1673.) It took place the next
day after the death of Michael, and determined the Poles to con-
fer their crown on the victorious General. , . , „

Sobieski did ample justice to the choice of his fellow-citizens.

Bv the peace which he concluded at Zarowno with the lurks

(S«th Oct. 1676,) he relieved Poland from the tribute lately pro

mised, and recovered some parts of the Ukraine ; but the city 3«

I Kaminiec was left in the power of the Ottomans, with a consid-

\ erable portion of the Ukraine and Podolia. Poland then entered

. into an alliance with the House of Austria, against the Forte

' Sobieski became the deliverer of Vienna ; he signalized himsell

in the campaigns of 1683 and 1684 ; and if he did not gain any

I important advantages over the Turks if he had nof even the

' satisfaction of recovering Kaminiec and Podolia. it must be as-

cribed to the incompetence of his means, and .to the disunion and

■sacs, beyond
this side thp
ho dwelt n^ar
IS agreed that
in of the two
circumstances
I spoken, were
duced Poland
of John Casi-
jwn which he
) abdicate the
he there ended

asimir, after a
her merit than
but, the brother
scene of great !
ere interrupted |
1 was renewed ; |
sacs, seized the i
and against the •
of alarm, con- i
rave up to ihera
its ; and even
y-two thousand
Enes, was aban-
■r the protection
the Republic of
John Sobieski,
victory over the
k place the next
he Poles to con-

3 fellow-citizens,
with the Turks
ibute lately pro
J ; but the city 3«
s, with a consid-
and then entered
ainst the Porte
gnalized himself
did not gain any
bad not' even the
ia, it must be as-
the disunion and

PERIOD VII. A. p. 1648 — 1713.

325

indifTercnce of the Poles, who refused to make a single saeriticc
in the lauso. Sohiexki was even forced to have recourse to the
|in)U'cii()ii of the Russians against the Turks; and saw himself
leduccd to the painful necessity of setting his hand to the defi-
nitive peace which was concluded with Russia at Moscow (May
liili, 1()SG,) by which Poland, in order to obtain the alliance of
that power against the Ottomans, consented to give up Smolen-
^ko, Belaia, Dorogobiiz, Tchernigov, Slarodub, and Novogorod-
Sicverskoe, with their dej)endencies ; as also the whole territory
known by the name of Little Russia, situated on the left bank of
the Borysthcnes, between that river and the frontier of Putivli,
as far as Perevoloczna. The city of Kiow, with its territory as
determined by the treaty, was also included in that cession.
Finally, the Cjssaes, called Zaporogs and Kndak, who, accord-
ing to the treaty of Andrussov, ought to have been dependencies
of these two states, were reserved exclusively to Russia. Sobie-
ski shed tears when he was obliged to sign that treaty at Leopold
^or Lemborg,) in presence of the Russian ambassadors.

The war with the Turks did not terminate until the reign of
Augustus IL the successor of John Sobieski. The peace of
Carlowitz, which that prince concluded with the Porte (1699,)
procured for Poland the restitution of Kaminiec, as well as that
part of the Ukraine, which the peace of Zarowno had ceded to
ihe Turks.

Russia became every day more prosperous under the princes
of the House of Romanow. She gained a decided superiority
over Poland, who had formerly dictated the law to her. Alexis
Michaelovitz not only recovered from the Poles what they had
conquered from Russia during the disturbances occasioned by
the two pretenders of the name of Demetrius ; we have already
observed, that he dispossessed them ot Kiow, and all that part
of the Ukraine, or Little Russia, which lies on the left bank of
the Borysthenes.

Theodore Alexievitz, the son and successor of Alexis Mi-
chaelovitz, rendered his reign illustrious by the wisdom of his
administration. Guided by the advice of his enlightened mi-
nister. Prince Galitzin, he conceived the bold project of abolish-
ing the hereditary orders of the nobility, and the prerogatives
that were attached to them. These orders were destructive of
all subordination in civil as well as in military affairs, and gave
rise to a multitude of disputes and litigations, of which a court,
named Rozrad, took cognizance. The Czar, in a grand assem-
bly which he convoked at Moscow (1682,) abolished the here-
ditary rank of the nobles. He burnt the deeds and registers
by which they were attested, and obliged every noble family to

^ ! - \

I !
1 t'i

; '■'.!

- i
li

/(: 1

11%

CHAPTER Vlll.

produce the extrncls of these registern. which thcv had in their
SossPssion. that they might be comnuttea to the flames. That
Ele uiv ng no children, of his own, had destmed h,« younger

iVer Pc tef Alexievitz to be his successor, to the exclusion of ,
John, hireWer brcther, on account of his .ncapacty. But, on ,
tl^ death of Theodore, both princes were procla.med at once by
t military, and the government was '""-ted to thc^ P^^^^^^^^^^ ;
Soohia, their elder sister, who assumed the title oi Autocratix ,
anfsovere gn of all the Russias. Peter, who was the son of
he secoS^narriage of the C.ar, was «;^;.»;^"; ^-«/;; ^J^^^
years of age. It was during the admm.stration of the Pnr^ss
Sia that the peace of Moscow was concluded (May 6 1686 ,)
Tne'clause of wfich contained an alliance ofTensive and defen-
sive between Russia and Poland agamst the I'ortt.

Peter had no sooner attained the age of siwenteen than he
seized the rei"s of government, and dep.»«ed h.s s.ster Soph.a,
Sm ie seS to a c'onvent. Endowed -1^^^. -^-^j-^JS
genius, this Prince became the reformer ol hm En.p.re. wh. h^
under his reign, assumed an aspect totally new. By the advice
of Le For , a^mtive of Geneva, who U entered the Russian
service and whom he had received into his fr.endslnp and con-
fidence he turned his attention to every branch of the publ.c
adminl tration. The military system was changed, and mo-
3eUed af e that of the civiliml nations of Europe. He found-
ed the aritime power of Russia, i.nprovcd her finances, en-
cou aged commerce and manufactures, introduced letters and
anstnto his dominions, and applied himself to reform the laws.
in nolish and refine the manners of '^^c people.

leter Sg in alliance with Polaud engaged m the wa
aea^^st the Porte, and laid open the Black Sea by h.s conques
Tthe citv and port of Azoflf; and it was on this occasior. thn^
he equ pped Krst fleet at Woronitz. Azoff remamed m h»
nosses" ion bv an article of the peace which was concluded with

time Peter abolished the patriarchal dignity, which ranked the

S of the Russian Church next to the Czar, and gave h.m a

• Sangerous influence in the affairs of government He trans

f»rr«^ thP nuihoritv of the patriarch to a college of hlteen per

'""S; dLtuf ffting .nd ex.mini„f in pern. 0.. m.

had in their
anies. That
his younger
excliinion of
ty. But, on
ed nt once by
the Princess
f Autocrutix
as the son of
.\me only ten
if the Princess
Vliiy 6, 1686 ;)
ve und defen-
te.

iteen than he

sister Sopiiia,

extraordinary

mpire, which,

By the advice

d the Russian

dship and con-

I of the public

nged, and mo-

jie. He found-

:r finances, en-

ced letters and

aform the lav/8,

red in the war
by his conquest
s occasion that
remained in his
concluded with
About the same
lich ranked the
nd gave him a
Bnt. He trans-
; of fifteen per-
y it was to take
tl, of all matters
matriarch. The
ihe oath at the
him on the pre-

person the man-

PBRIOD VII. A. D 164S— 1713.

327

ncrs and customs of other nations, he undertook two difTcrunt
vryages into foreign (countries, divested of that pomp which ia
tht- usual aoconipariiinent of princes. During these travels, he
culliviilcil the arts iiiid sciences, especially thoMf connected with
cuMinuTce and navigation ; he engaged men nl talents in his
siri vices, such as naval officers, engineers, surgeons, artists, and
mechanics of all kinds, whom he disjwrsed over his vast do-
miniuns, to instruct and improve the Russians. During his first
voyage to Holland and England, the Strelitzes, the only per-
manent troops known in Russia before his time, revolted ; tney
were first instituted by the Czar, John Basilovitz IV. They
f(»ught lifter the manner of the .Funissaries, and enjoyed nearly
the sam(! privileges. Peter, with the intention of disbanding
these seditious and undisciplined troops, had stationed them on the
frontiers of Lithuania ; he had also removed them from being his
own body-guard, a service which he entrusted to the regiments
raised by himself. This sort of degradation incensed the Stre-
litzes, who look the opportunity of the Czar's absence to revolt.
Tliey directed their march to the city of Moscow, with the design
of deposing the Czar, and replacing Sophia on the throne ; but
they were defeated by the Generals Schein and Gordon, who had
marched to oppose them. Peter, on his return, caused two
thousand of them to be executed, and incorporated the rest among
his troops. He afterwards employed foreign officers, either Ger-
mans or Swedes, to instruct the Russians in the military art.

It was chiefly during the war with Sweden that the Russian
army was organized according to the European system. The
Czar took advantage of the check he had sustained before Narva
(Nov. 30, 1700,) to accomplish this important change in levying,
equipping, and training ail his troops after the German manner.
He taught the Russians the art of combating and conquering the
Swedes ; and while the King of Sweden was bent on the ruin
of Augustus II., and made but feeble efforts against the Czar,
the latter succeeded in conquering Ingria from the Swedes, and
laid open the navigation of the Baltic. He took the fortress of
Noteburg (1702,) which he afterwards called Schlisselburg ; he
next made himself master of Nyenschantz, Kopori, and Jamp
(now Jamburg) in Ingria. The port of Nyenchantz was entirely
razed ; and the Czar laid the foundation of St. Petersburg in
one of the neighbouring islands of the Neva (May 27, 1703.) In
the middle of winter he constructed the fort of Cronschlot to
serve as a defence for the new city, which he intended to make
the capital of his Enu)ire, and the principal dep6t for the com
merce and marine of Russia. The fortune of this new capital

• '■• !

< !

:i'

*«!^^'<l*^

■ JJ

828

CHAPTBR VIII.

WHS decided by ihe famous balllc of Pultowa ( July 8, 1709.)
whi.-h likewi!..' HCiured the preponderunnc of Russia in ihe >orf»i.

Clmrles Xll., wlio had taken refnge in Turkey, used every ,
efll.rl 10 instiiratc the Turks ugttinsl the Kussums ; and ho sue ^
.-eedcMl by dint ..f inlripuc. The Porte deilared war agauisi the |
Czar towards the end of the year 1710 ; the latter opened the .
camnaiLm of 1711 by an expedition which he undertook into i
Moi.iavia ; but having rashly penetrated into the interior of thai |
province, he was surrounded by the (Jrand Vuier near Falczi ,
on the Prulh. Besiej^ed in his camp by an army vastly supe- |
rior to his own. and reduced to the last necessity, he found no
other means of extricating himself from this critical situation, |
than bv airreeinff to a treaty, which he signed m the cump ot i
Falczi (21st July 1711 ;) in virtue of which, he consented to re-
store to the Turks the fortress of AzofT, with its territory and
its dependencies. This loss was amply compensated by the iin-
portant advantages which the peace with Swe.len, signed at Ny-
stadl (Sept. 10, 1 721,) procured the Czar. It was on this ucca-
sion that the Senate conferred on him the cpithel of Great, (he
Father of hu Country, and Emperor of all the Rusma^. His
inauguration to the Imperial dignity took place, Octoljor 22d
1721, the very day of the rejoicing that had been appointed lor
the celebration of the peace. Peter himself put the Imperial

crown on his own head. . , • /-,

That great prince had the vexation to see Alexis Czarowitz
his son, and presumptive heir to the Empire, thwarting all his
improvements, and caballing in secret with his enemies. Being
at length compelled to declare that he had lorfeited his right to
the throne, he had him condemned to death as a traitor (171«.)

1 In consequence of this tragical event, he published an Ukase,
which vested in the reigning prince the privilege of nominating
his successor, and even of ^hanging the appointment whenever

' he might judge it necessary. This arrangement became fatal to
Russia ; the want of a fixed and permanent order of succession
occasioned troubles and revolutions which frequently distracted
the whole Empire. This law, moreover, made no provision in
cases where the reigning prince might neglect to settle the sue-
cession during his life ; as happened with Peter himself, who
died without making or appointing any successor (Feb. I7-S&.)
Catherine I., his spouse, ascended the throne, which, after a
reign of two years, she transmitted to Peter, son of the unfortu-

""in Hungary, the precautions that had been taken by the States
of Presburg to establish civil and religious liberty on a solid ba-
sis, did not prevent disturbances from springing up in that king-

July 8, 1709.)
II in ilie NorlK.
y, used every

; ami ho «uc-
n\T ngiiirisi >htt
or openi'd the
iiidertodk into
interior of that
lor near Falczi

y vastly supe-
tf, he found no
tical situation,
in the cump of
on^ented to re-
3 territory and
nted by the im-

signed at Ny-
AS on this ucca-
?t of Great, the

Riisfias. His

, October 22d
n iippointed for
ut ttie Imperial

lexis Czarowitz
iwarting all his
Miemics. Being
ited bis right to
1 traitor (1718.)
Ished an Ukase,
e of nominating
ment whenever
t became fatal to
icr of succession
lently distracted
s no provision in
lo settle the suc-
ter himself, who
ssor (Feb. 1725.)
!, which, after a
n of the unfortu-

<en by the States
rty on a solid ba-
r up in that king-

•1

rKRinD VM. A. II. 1648 — ni'.j.

890

dom. The Court of Vieinm, pon-eiving tin- nccc-isily of ronsoh*
dating its vast nionnnhy, whose incohcrfiit |mrls were suffering
from the wunt of unily. eiigeily sei/.ed iIm'sc oi'ciisioris for ex-
tending its power in llungnry. where it was greatly rircurnscri-
bed by the laws and conslitulion of the countrv. Heruc! those
perpetual infringements of wliicli ihe Hungarians had to com-
plain ; and those ever-recurring disturbances in which the Otto-
man Turks, who shared with Austria the dominion of Hungary,
were also fre<juently implicated.

Transylvania, as well as a great part of Hungary, was then
dependent on the Turks. The Emperor Leonold I. having
granted liis protection to John Komeny, Prince of Transylvania,
against Michael AbafTi, a proteg«i of the Turks, a war notween
the two Empires seemed to be inevitable. The Diet of Hunga-
ry, which the Emperor had assembled at Fresbiirg on this sub-
ject (16H2,) was most outrageous. The States, before they
would give any opinion as to the war against the Turks, de-
manded that their own grievances should be redressed ; and the
assembly separated without coming to any conclusion. The
Turks took advantage of this dissension, and seized the fortress
of Neuheusel, and several other places. The Emperor, incapa-
ble of opposing them, and distrustful of the Hungarian malecon-
tents, had recourse to foreign aid. This he obtained at the Diet
of the Empire; and Louis XIV. sent him a body of six thou-
sand men, under command of the Count de Coligni. An action
look place (1664) near St. Gothard, in which the French signal-
ized their bravery. The Turks sustained a total defeat ; but
Montccuculi, the commander-in-chief of the Imperial army, fail-
ed to take advantage of his victory. A truce of twenty years
was soon after concluded at Temeswar, in virtue of which the
Turks retained Neuheusel, Waradin, and Novigrad. Michael
Abaffi, their tributary and protege, was continued in Transyl-
vania ; and both parties engaged to withdraw their troops from
that province.

This treaty highly displeased the Hungarians, as it had been
concluded without their concurrence. Their complaints against
the Court of Vienna became louder than ever. They complain-
ed, especially, that the Emperor should entertain German troops
in the kingdom ; that he should intrust the principal fortresses
to foreigners ; and impose shackles on their religious liberties.
The Court of Vienna having paid no regard to these grievances,
several of the nobles entered into a league for the preservation
of their rights ; but they were accused of holding correspondence
with the Turks, and conspiring against the person of the Empe-
ror. The Counts Zrini, Nadaschdi, Frangepan, and Tattenbanh

It*

Ifr'

iMig

m-i

CHAPTEE VUl.

were condemned as guilty of high treason (1671,) and had their
heads cut off on the scaflold. A vast number of the Protestant
clergy wore either banished or condemned to the galleys, as
implicated in the conspiracy ; but this severity, far from abating
these disturbances, tended rather to augment them. Th^ sup-
pression of the dignity of Palatine of Hungary, which took place
about the same time, added to the cruelties and extortions of all
kinds practised by the German troops, at length raised a general
insurrection, which ended in a civil war (1677.) The insur-
gents at first chose the Count Francis Wesselini as their leader,
who was afterwards replaced by Count Emeric Tekeli. These
noblemen were encouraged in their enterprise, and secretly abet-
ted by France and the Porte.

The Emperor then found it necessary to comply ; and, in a
Diet which he assembled at Odenburg, he granted redress to
most of the grievances of which the Hungarians had to com-
plain ; but Count Tekeli having disapproved of the resolutions
of this Diet, the civil war was continued, and the Count soon
found means to interest the Turks and the prince of Transylva-
nia in his quarrel. The Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha, at the
head of the Ottoman forces, came and laid siege to Vienna (July
14, 1683.) A Polish army marched to the relief of that place
under their King, John Sobieski, who was joined by Charles
IV., Duke of Lorraine, General of the Imperial troops; they
attacked the Turks in their entrenchments before Vienna, and
compelled them to raise the siege (September 12, 1683.) Every
thing then succeeded to the Emperor's wish. Besides Poland,
the Russians and the Republic of Venice took part in this war
in favour of Austria. A succession of splendid victories, gained
by the Imperial generals, Charles Duke of Lorraine, Prince
Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene, procured for Leopold the
conquest of all that part of Hungary, which had continued since
the reign of Ferdinand I. in the power of the Ottomans. The
fortress of Neuheusel was taken, in consequence of the battle
which the Duke of Lorraine gained over the Turks at Strigova
(1685.) The same General took by assault the city of Buda,
the capital of Hungary, which had been in possession of the
.Turks since 1541, The memorable victory of Mohacz, gained
by the Imperialists (1687,) again reduced Transylvania and
Sclavonia under the dominion of Austria. These continued
reverses cost the Grand Vizier his life ; he was strangled by
order of the Sultan, Mahomet IV., who was himself deposed
by his rebellious Janissaries.

Encouraged by these brilliant victories, the Emperor Leopold
assembled the States of Hungary at Presburg. He there de-

■il^'SfSgiHW^t!?'-

and bad their

the Protestant

the galleys, as

ar from abating

m. Th^ sup-

lich took place

xtortions of all

aised a general

7.) The insur-

as their leader,

Tekeli. These

id secretly abet-

iply ; and, in a
inted redress to
ans had to com-
' the resolutions
the Count soon
ce of Transylva-
lustapha, at the
to Vienna (July
ief of that place
ined by Charles
ial troops; they
ore Vienna, and
1, 1683.) Every
Besides Poland,
part in this war
victories, gained
Lorraine, Prince
for Leopold the
[ continued since
Ottomans. The
nee of the battle
'urks at Strigova
iie city of Buda,
)ossession of the
Mohacz, gained
ransylvania and
These continued
ms strangled by
himself deposed

Smperor Leopold
:. He there de-

rERioD VII A. D. 1648—1713.

331

manded, that, in conr ideration of tne extraordinary efTnrts he
had been obliged to make against the Ottomans, the kingdom
should be declared hereditary in his family. The States at
first appeared inclined to maintain their own right of election :
but yielding soon to the influence of authority, they agreed to
make the succession hereditary in favour of the males cf the two
Austrian branches ; on the extinction of which they were to be
restored to their ancient rights. As for the privileges of the
Slates, founded on the decree of King Andrew II., they were
renewed at that Diet ; with the exception of that clause in the
thirty-first article of the decree, which authorized the States to
oppose, by open force, any prince that should attempt to infringe
the rights and liberties of the country- The Jesuits, who were
formerly proscribed, were restored, and their authority estabhsh-
ed througnout all the provinces of the kingdom. The Protes-
tants of both confessions obtained the confiimatiou of the churches
and prerogatives that had been secured to them by the articles
of the Diet of Odenburg ; but it was stipulated, that only Catho-
lics were entitled to possess property within the kingdoms of
Dalmatia, Croatia and Sclavonia. The Archduke Joseph, son
of Leopold I., was crowned at this Diet (December 19, 1687,)
as the first hereditary King of Hungary.

The arms of Austria were crowned with new victories during
the continuation of the war against the Turks. Albe-Royale,
Belgrade, Semendria, and Gradisca, fell into the hands ot the
Emperor. The two splendid victories at Nissa and Widdin,
which Louis prince of Baden gained (1689,) secured to the Aus
trians the conquest of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria. The de-
jected courage of the Ottomans was for a time revived by their
new Grand Vizier Mustapha Kiupruli, a man of considerable
genius. After gaining several advantages over the Imperialists,
he took from them Nissa, Widdin, Semendria, and Belgrade ;
and likewise reconquered Bulgaria, Servia, and Bosnia. The
extraordinary efforts that the Porte made for the campaign of
the following year, inspired them with hopes of better success ;
but their expectations were quite disappointed by the unfortu-
nate issue of the famous battle of Salankemen, which the Prince
of Baden gained over the Turks, (Aug. 19, 1691.) The brave
Kiupruli was slain, and his death decided the victory in favour
of the Imperialists. The war with France, however, which then
occupied the principal forces of Austria, did not permit the Em-
peror to reap any advantage from this victory ; he was even
obliged, in the following campaigns, to act on the defensive m
Hungary ; and it was not until the ccmclusion of peace w<th
France, that he was able to resume the war against the Turkt

^■ka I

1 :i

■■\

I' n

if.'

■■k< ,

332

CHAPTER Via.

'vith fresh vigour. Prince Eugene, who was then commancler-
in-chief of the Imperial army, attacked the Sultan Mustaplia
11. in person, near Zenta on the river Teiss (Sept. 11, 1697,^
where he gained a decisive victory. The grand Vizier, seven-
fjicn Pachas, and two thirds of the Ottoman army, were left
dead on the field of battle ; and the grand Seignior was com-
pelled to fall back in disorder on Belgrade.

This terrible blow made the Porte exceedingly anxious for

Baoe ; and he had recourse to the mediation of England and
olland. A negotiation, which proved as tedious as it was in-
tricate, was set on foot at Constantinople, and thence transfer-
red to Carlowitz, a town of Sclavonia lying between the two
camps, one of which was at Peterwaradin, and the other at
Belffrade. Peace was there concluded with the Emperor
and'his allies (Jan. 26, 1699.) The Emperor, by that treaty,
retained Hungary, Transylvania and Sclavonia, with the ex-
ception of the Banat of Temeswar, which was reserved to the
Porte. The rivers Marosch, Teiss, Save, and Unna, were
fixed as the limits between the two Empires. The Count Te-
keli, who during the whole of this war had constantly espoused
the cause of the Porte, was allowed to remain in the Ottoman
territory ; with such of the Hungarians and Transylvanians as
adhered to him.

The peace of Carlowitz had secured to the Emperor nearly
the whole of Hungary ; but, glorious though it was, it did not
restore the internal tranquillity of the kingdom, which very
soon experienced fresh trouble's. The same complaints that
had arisen after the peace of Temeswar, were renewed after
that of Carlowitz ; to these were even added several others, oc-
•asioned by the introduction of the hereditary succession, at
he Diet of 1687, by the suppression of the clause in the thirty-
tirst article of the decree of Andrew II., by the restoration of
he Jesuits and the banishment of Tekeli and his adherents.
Nothing was wanted but a ringleader for the malecontents to
[ekindle the flames of civil war, and this leader was soon found
in the person of the famous Prince Ragoczi, who appeared on
'he scene about the beginning of the eighteenth century, and
when the greater part of Europe were involved in the war ol
the Spanish Succession. .

Francis Ragoczi was the grandson of George Ragoczi 11.,
who had been prince of Transylvania ; and held a distinguish-
ed rank in the States of Hungary, not more by his illustrio_'s
birth than by the great possessions which belonged to his fa-
mily. The Court of Vienna, which entertained suspicions ol
him on account of his near relationship with Tekeli, had kept

PERIOD vn. A. D. 1648 — 1713.

333 !

en commantler-
iltan Mustaplia
lept. 11, 1697,)
1 Vizier, seven-
army, were left
afnior was corri-

gly anxious for
)f England and
)U8 as it was in-
thence transfer-
)etween the two
nd the other at
the Emperor
•, by that treaty,
ia, with the ex-
1 reserved to the
ind Unna, were
The Count Te-
istantly espoused
in the Ottoman
'ransylvanians as

Emperor nearly
it was, it did not
dom, which very
I complaints that
re renewed after
several others, oc-
iry succession, at
use in the thirty-
the restoration of
id his adherents.
J malecontents to
jr was soon found
who appeared on
inth century, and
ed in the war ol

lorge Ragoczi II.,
leld a distinguish-
by his illustrious
elonged to his fa-
ined suspicions ol
Tekeli, had kept

hini in a sort of captivity from his earliest infancy ; and he
was not set at large, nor reniojed to the possession of his estates,
until 1694, when he marrie 1 a princess of Hesse-Rheinfels.
From that time he resided -luietly on his estates, holding bis
Court at Sarosch, in the district of the same name. Being sus-
pected of having concerted a conspiracy with the malecontents,
he was arrested by order of the Court of Vienna (1701.) and
carried to Neustadt in Austria, whence he escaped and retired
to Poland. Being condemned as guilty of high treason, and
his estates declared forfeited, he took the resolution of placing
himself at the head of the rebels, and instigating Huneary
against the Emperor. France, who had just joined in the war
with Austria, encouraged him in that enterprise, which she
regarded as a favourable event for creating a diversion on the
part of her enemy. Having arrived in Hungary, Ragoczi pub-
lished a manifesto (1703,) in which he detailed the motives of
his conduct, and exhorted the Hungarians to join him, for vin-
dicating their ancient liberties which had been oppressed by the
House of Austria. He soon attracted a crowd of partisans, and
made himself master of a great part of the kingdom. The
Transylvanians chose him for their prince (1704 ;) and the States
of Hungary, who had united for the re-establishment of their
laws and immunities, declared him their chief, with the title of
Duke, and a senate of twenty-five persons. Louis XIV. sent
his envoy, the Marquis Dessalleurs, to congratulate him on
his elevation ; and the Czar, Peter the Great, ofTered him the
throne of Poland (1707,) in opposition to Stanislaus, who was
protected by Charles Xll.

The House of Austria being engaged in the Spanish war,
was unable for a long time to reduce the Hungarian malecon-
tents. The repeated attempts which she had made to come to an
accommodation with them having failed, the war v\-as continued
till 1711, when the Austrians, who had been vl torious, com-
pelled Ragoczi to evacuate Hungary, and retire ( » the frontiers
of Poland. A treaty of pacification was then di uvn up. The
Emperor promised to grant an amnesty, and a goneral restitu-
tion of goods in favour of all those who had been implicated in
the Insurrection. He came under an engagement to preserve
inviolable the rights, liberties, and immunities of Hungary, and
the principality of Transylvania ; to reserve all civil and mili-
tary offices to the Hungarians ; to maintain the laws of the
kingdom respecting religion ; and as for their other grievances,
whether political or ecclesiastical, h» consented to have them
discussed in the approaching Diet. These articles were ap-
proved and signed by the greater part of the malecontents, who

iiliii

'■■■'\

==ii

-jjgjj^ggj^CS iiw' *^

834

♦.HAPTBR VUl.

.1.™ imIi . new oath of allegiance to the Emperor. Ragoco
*a btprS .Lent. «en, the ooly persona that retrntn.
ed proia and attamted, havtng refused to accede to the»

"ThTTurkiA Empire, once «. formidablo, had gradually Men
f„ m the imit ofV. grandeur ; its resources were exhausted,

Ss ITwi^SSed o£ hisTuc'cessor, Mahomet IV

Venetians. These latter, on surrender ng Candja, reserved «

?u"r'U"' .trlelmSb .he p.-rful league formed

toween Slria, Poland. B"»»i». «';'l "«.''«/»''''" .°i,y.r^
£;?xperienced,^w.h..ea,jea^^^^^^^^^^^^

rrmina7oftrSuh^lr;'fl.ed to dep»« hin.
M ! „hn II the third in succession from Mahomet IV., ter-
Si'2l"th"te«u«W. war h, the peace of Carl.«,.», when

leror. Ragoczi
tis that remain-
iccede to these

gradually fallen
ivere exhausted,
nes. The eflfe-
)ntempt for the
Is of a govern-
undermined its
g and presiding ^
id undisciplined j
hrone the same j
ed over the an- i

i
the Turks made j
public of Venice. '
1 of that island,

Sultan Ibrahim
r, Mahomet IV.
ilary courajre and

Turkish fleets;
gc of the Darda-
;he famous Vizier
3 city of Candio
his siege was one

The Turks lost
it till after a siege
;e surrendered to

at the same time
e Turks and the
ndia, reserved, in
viz. Suda, Spina-
Clissa, and som€
I they had seizec
»m that time, pre-
vhich that against
an Empire. The
ful league formed
epublic of Venice,
d, a series of fatal
ese misfortunes to
ed to depose him.
Mahomet IV., ter-
if Carlowitz, when

rERioD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

335

the Turks lost all their possessions in Hungary, except Temeswar
and Belgrade. They gave up to Poland the fortress of Kami-
niec, with Podolia, and the part of the Ukraine on this side the
Nieper, which had been ceded to them by former treaties. The
Venetians, by their treaty with the Porte, obtained possession
of the Morea, which they had conquered during the war ; in-
cluding the islands of St. Maura and Leucadia, as also the for-
tresses of Dalmatia, Knin, Sing, Ciclut, Gabella, Castlenuoyo,
and Risano. Finally, the Porte renounced the tribute which
Venice had formerly paid for the isle of Zante ; and the Repub-
lic of Ragusa was guaranteed in its independence, with respect
to the Venetians.

CHAPTER IX.

PERIOD VIII.

A. D

From the Peace of Utrecht to the French Revolution.

1713—1789.

[During the wars of the preceding period, arts and letters
had made extraordinary progress ; especially in France, where
they seemed to have reached the highest degree of perfection
to which the limited genius of man can carry them. The age
of Louis XIV. revived, and almost equalled those master-pieces
which Greece had produced under Pericles, Rome under Au-
gustus, and Italy under the patronage of the Medici. This
was the classical era of French literature. The grandeur
which reigned at the court of that monarch, and the glory which
his vast exploits had reflected on the nation, inspired authors
with a noble enthusiasm ; the public taste was refined by imi-
tating the models of antiquity ; and this preserved the French
writers from those extravagancies which some other nations
have mistaken for the standard of genius. Their language,
polished by the Academy according to fixed rules, the first and
most fun(iamental of which condemns every thing that doe8
not tend to unite elegance with perspicuity, became the general
medium of communication among the different nations in the
civilized world ; and this literary conquest which France made
over the minds of other nations, is more glorious, and has
proved more advantageous to her, than that universal dominion
to which Louis XIV. is said to have aspired.

In the period on which we are now entering, men of genius
and talents, though they did not neglect the Belles-Lettres,
devoted themselves chiefly to those sciences, and that kind of

it illl I

1..

'M'li

.ft

•fl^

■r

' *'■:

if :

1 ■ 1
I i-

CHAPTER IX.

Ipnrninff the study of which has been diffused over nil classe,
of sSw Seveml branches of mathematics and natural phdo-
ol society. ^^^""^ „ pntirelv new; the knowledge of the

academies m Europe. Natural *^'>"°^°P' > . f^m 'the

the laws and phenomena of namre S' Jof an iuractive
^''"' 1 "kSrHSr::enr&dVthe§?scoveriesof lear^^^
;=r,.^rlt^ted;f those ^g^^;^^— f l^^S^
S^ScTo^r tJ^ihy atS'ciL.olS^gy, became a
branch of general P^>''''^°PH-. «.„,„„, ot„tes disturbedbytheam-

influence in general affairs ;^^>^";„S^^^^^^^^^ to an extent

That nation carr ed their ^^^^^J^^'^'I^? .^SeTcTal and maritime
which could not fail to alarm '^'^^f'^cZoTihen own trade
states, and make them perceive tha^^^^^^^^ „f

and independence ^^^^^^^'^^^.^^^IXy important for their
equilibrium on the Continent, u was 4 J » j.^j^ ,

posperitythatbound^^^^^^^^^

of England. This gave rise^ ^^^^^^ ^^xe

tween France a".^ England a nvairy eighteenth cen-

particularly manifested ^ft^V^^^'^i^^.f;^^ alliance among the
fury, and which ^^'^'^J"^^,^"^ %Ta later date, and in^on-
branches of the Ho«8e of Bourbon A ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^

sequence of the prmcipes which the ^ng p ^^

commerce of neutral states, the powers o^ n j^ "^^^

themselves against that '^n*^"/; . f ^^^^J^r^^
accused of wishing to "^P, "^"^^^^^Jfo/; hort time turned
- tf thrn^^ni'SirS ops has been able to prober,
her commerce and her independence. .

v^:^;iie:s^m^'

b j i Mi'i

iver all classes
1 natural philo-
)wledgc of the j j
1 chiefly for the i
education, and j
searches. Geo- ■
vere brought to I
ferent scientific !
overed many of •
■ rose from the |
jf an attractive j
reries of learned j
•himeras which i
ipported by the '
logy, became a

urbedbytheam-
)eace of Utrecht,
any great altera
which took place
which had been
lie theatre of civil
by the success of
rtant advantages
, both in Europe
and gave her an
id enjoyed before,
larine to an extent
cial and maritime
of their own trade
itain a system of
Tiportant'for their
nopolizing power
kind of rivalry be-
eflfects were more
e eighteenth cen-
liance among the
r date, and in con-
professed as to the
he North leagued
which they were
I the Ninth Period,
. short time turned
en able to preserve

rsBioD viii. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

337

This preponderance of England is the first change which the
poliiical system of Europe experienced in the eighteenth century.
The second took place in the North. Till that time, the norihem
countries of Europe had never, except transiently, had any poH-
lica! connexions with the South. Russia, separated by the
possessions of Sweden on the coasts of the Baltic, had belongt-d
rather to Asia than to our quarter of the world. Poland, fallen
from her ancient greatness, had sunk into a state of anarchy and
exhaustion. Denmark and Sweden were disputing the command
of the Baltic, and had no other influence on the politics of the
South than that which Sweden had acquired by the personal
qualities of some of her kings. The great war of the North,
which broke out at the commencement of the eighteenth century,
and the conquests of Peter the Great, which extended the limits
of his Empire as far as the Gulf of Finland, and reduced Sweden
to a state of debility from which she has not yet recovered,
enabled Russia not only to take a distinguished lead in the
North, but to become an important member in the system of
Europe.

Meantime, the foundation of the Prussian monarchy gave rise
to a new and intermediate power between the North and the
South ; but that state remained within the bounds of mediocrity
until the middle of the eighteenth century. At that time the
genius of Frederic II. alone raised it to a pitch of greatness which
enabled it to struggle against the superior forceof its neighbours,
but without menacing the independence of other states. This
growing power of Prussia, however, occasioned a rivalry between
it and Austria, which for seventy years had an influence on the
politics of Europe. It produced the extraordinary spectacle of
an intimate alliance between two ancient rivals, the Houses of
Austria and Bourbon ; and, by dividing Germany between two
opposite systems, it paved the way for the dissolution of that
Empire. Such was the third change which the polity of Europe
experienced in course of the eighteenth century.

The fourth change was less felt than the three others ; its
fatal consequences did not develope themselves until the Ninth
Period. For the first time within the last three centuries, the
sovereigns of Europe ventured to break treaties and to violate
engagements, to declare war and undertake conquests, without
alleging any other motives than reasons of convenience, and the
ambition of ag^andizement. Thus the basis of the equilibrium
system, the inviolability of possessions honourably acquired, was
sapped, and the downfall of the whole system prepared. The
events of the wars for the succession of Austria, furmshed the
first exampl)e» of this contempt for treaties ; Uiey were renewed.

lit,'

'■ iV i

ft'*

h '

ill

sit

1 1

"WF

888

CHAPTER 11.

"commerce continued, in .he eighteen* ";'yi'»„^%»;

,m.to lion of V"" \Xto »hich lliey even carried to exce...
SX-oVeVJ dTn cSnenliil nff.ir. wa. inc,ea»d;

lt?a ^SrSTie n«.sar^ '^^^ZlTj'^r mO,
Beside,, "IXtiirrv an i^ genc" : h"d "=«" » 'l»e'«« "'

' '^%^he^e!tra"ordinary efforts which the powers of E^'ope had

3i?;stutrdt.werer:ndG^^^^^^

_■ ^-^i »?»s

-.«-

i, and by the
Bavaria. Th**
I cited, during
, sorts of vie-
long train of

r, to be one of
Europe. The
1, and became, |
in. The niari- |
edthe greatest
if which were
gulations. In
; up numerous
•ried to excess,
vas increased ;
y in proportion
ish them with
on their wars,
the year 1740,
led a degree of
irther improve-
tes experienced !
the payment of
Pitt, called the

of Europe had
the equilibrium
of France and
ity, which gave
ts, industry and
ich the long and
■ere attentive to
echt and Stock-
d against every
rhe good under-
at Britain during
t of George II.—
Walpole.wasthe
sed the attention
of the Pretender,
3 of Spain,
ring the minority
eace and political
havin? it in vip«

PBRIOD VIU. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

839

lO remedy those disorders in the finance, which Louis XIV. had
left in so deplorable a state.' The King of Spain, on the other
hand, who was desirous of reviving his rights to the crown of
France, wont into the rash schemes of Cardinal Alberoni," his
prime minister, purporting to renew the war ; to rsconquer those
territories which the peace of Utrecht had dismemberf d from
the Spanish monarchy ; to deprive the Duke of Orleans of the
regency, and vest it in the King of Spain ; and to place the « re-
tender, son of James II., on the throne of Great Britain.

The treaty of Utrecht, although it had tranquillized a great
part of Europe, was nevertheless defective, in as far as it had
not reconciled the Emperor and the King of Spain, the two prin-
cipal claimants to the Spanish succession. The Emperor
Charles VI. did not recognise Philip V. in his quality of King
of Spain ; and Philip, in his turn, refused to acquiesce in those
partitions of the Spanish monarchy, which the treaty of Utrecht
had stipulated in favour of the Emperor. To defeat the projects
and secret intrigues of the Spanisii minister, the Duke of Or-
leans thought of courting ati alliance with England, as being
the power most particularly interested in maintaining the treaty
of Utrecht, the fundamental articles of which had been dictated
by herself. That alliance, into which the United Provinces also
entered, was concluded at the Hague (Jan. 4, 1717.) The arti-
cles of the treaty of Utrecht, those especially which related to
the succession of the two crowns, were there renewed ; and the
Regent, in complaisance to the King of England, agreed to
banish the Pretender from France, and to admit British com-
missaries into Dunkirk to superintend that port.

Cardinal Alberoni, without being in the least disconcerted by
the Triple Alliance, persisted in his design of recommencing the
war. No sooner had he recruited the Spanish forces, and
equipped an expedition, than he attacked Sardinia, which he
took from the Emperor. This conquest was followed by that
of Sicily, which the Spaniards took from the Duke of Savoy
(1718.)

France and England, indignant at the infraction of a treaty
which they regarded as their own work, immediately concluded
with the Emperor, at London (Aug. 2, 1718,) the famous Quad-
ruple Alliance, which contained the plan of a treaty of peace, to
be made between the Emperor, the King of Spain, and the Duke
of Savoy. The allied powers engaged to obtain the consent of
the parties interested in this proposal, and in case of refusal, to
compel them by force of arms. The Emperor was to renounce
his right to the Sjanish crovra, and to acknowledge Philip V.
as the legitimate King of Spain, in consideration of his renoun-

^■l'-\

'•ill''

I I
i •

.Art

•f,

I , M

. "

i¥"

340 CHAPTER IX.

tunl 7«^^«'-'^'«" '^•"\"''"';''7au rhv of Tuscany, oi. o.,...lition ot

'The Duke of Savoy did not heMtnte to subscribe to the condi- '
J^of^tt quadruple ^^^; ^^,Z '^?r::^^ ^
King of Spain, who persisted in his ^^'"^"^'^J^'T j ^^.i the
England declared war against him. The i' "[^"'j? '"yT^'V

i„g for seveml ye.«. The «'« '"J^iP^'i J„ between

as to the form of these '•'""".^•'^^"'"Jv JJ^i'j'^jfNetLrk^^
lip's renunciation of th^r™?^^"^,^"'*^ demanded
3hould be confirmed by the Spanish Lortes. rnuip

riTTT^FFaiyf^?''^^'**™"^" •■

■Jti^

rh the trfnly

ic EmpcrnT.

ill, rpceiving

» to give up.

IS trniiftcrred

iti'd to Don

[\r(>, the oven-

riim and Pla*

I condition ot

Empire, aftei |

; Farnesc and

ttcr to secure

lo introduce a

[) be nuartered

a. The con-

ment of these

c to the condi-
rwise with the
n France arid
h invaded the
English seized
IS proceedings
He signed the
heron i from his
the allies com-
cily and Sardi-
mer, and Victor

)eace, however,
remained many
King of Spain,
and conclude a
Congress was
1721, under the
disputes which
rded their meet-
al object was to
ciation between
;d by the treaty
was reluctant to
arted difficulties
anded that Phi-
he Netherlands,
hilip demanded.

PKRioD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

341

In his turn, that the rrniitn'iation of the Emperor with regord to
Spain, should lie rutilicd l)y the States of the Empire. To get
clear of this (llfrieiiltv, Franc; and Eiijiland agreed, by a special
compact, signed at I'aris (Sept. 27, 1721,) llial the renunciations
of both princes, however defective they might be, should be held
valid under the guaranty of the two mediating powers.

Scarcely was this difllculty settled, when another presented
itself, much more embarrassing. This related to the Company
of Ostend, which the Emperor had instituted, and lo which, by
charter signed at Vienna (Dec. 19, 1722,) he had granted, for
thirty years, the exclusive privilege of trading to the East and
We.st Indies, and the coasts of Africa. That establishment set
the maritime powers nl variance with the Emperor ; especially
the Dutch, who regardeil it as prejudicial to their Iiidian com-
merce. They maintained, that according to the trer.ty of Mun-
Hter, confirmed by the twenty-sixth article of the Barrier Treaty
(1715,) the trade of the Spaniards with the East Indies was to
remain as it was at that time.

Nothing in those preliminary discussions met with so much
opposition as the grant of the eventual reversion and investiture
ofTuscany, Parma, and Placentia, which the Emperor had en-
gaged, by the Quadruple Alliance, lo give lo Don Carlos, the
Infante of Spain. The Duke of Parma, the Pope, and the Grand
Duke of Tuscany joined in opposition to it. Anthony, the last
Duke of Parma and Placentia, of the House of Farnese, de-
manded that the Emperor should never, during his life, exerci.se
over the dutchy of Parma, the territorial rights established by
the treaty of the Quadruple Alliance. The Pope also protested
loudly against that clause of the treaty which deprived him of
the rights of superiority over Parma and Placentia, which his
predecessors had enjoyed for several centuries. As for the
Grand Duke ofTuscany, John Gaston, the last of the Medici, he
maintained, that as his dutchy neld of God only, he could never
permit that it should be declared a fief of the Empire nor recog-
nise the Infante of Spain as heir of his estates, to the prejudice
of his sister's rights, the widow of the Elector Palatine.

Charles VI. without stopping at these objections, laid the
business of these investitures before the Diet of Ratisbon ; and,
after having obtained their consent, he caused copies to be made
of the letters of reversion and investiture in favour of Don Carlos
and his heirs-nmle. These havin<T been presented to the Con-
gress, the King of Spain refused to receive them ; alleging the
protests of the Pope, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany ; nor
would he agree to them, except on condition of an act of guaranty
on the part of the mediating powers. All these difficulties being

\ f'l

fe|^.

r"-""

842

CHAPTRR IX.

«ttled. and the preHnunarie, closed they ntlongthp^^^^^^^^
wilh the conferonrcH nt C.n.bmy (Anr.l 1724,) [«'•-'•";;"
.ion of a drfinitivr p.-me h.nwci-n ih.- EniptTor, the Kn.K of
Spain and ho DnkJ ..f Savoy. Evory thin^ neen.ed urnved
at nn an b t.Tn.ination, when son.c dil .TCK-es arc- hc.tw..cn
1 ;in.i..ion...rs of the En.p.-ror and those ol th« n.cdmt.ng
nower^ which oi-i-nsioned new interniptionH.
"^ Moantin.o, the Duke of Bourhon. who had succeeded the Duke
of Orlea .. .^e n.inistry. sent back to Si.ain the Infanta Mana
3a>?.hter „" Philip V. wL had been, ^-'^n^.^f^ ttrbl 1

l^'Initr^fr Ktmh av! ^;;on\ipperda. ^ who,n he had sent
^8 e ov to the Imperial Court put an end to the d.irerences bo- j
me n te two powern, in despite of the 7-1";"- ^ Jj^^^"^; |
In consequence, i special treaty was 5""'''"'»«*\„^;./'5"5;26 '
Uveen the Emperor and the K.ng of ^P^ . f P^' f ^^e pro-
This treaty renewed the renunciation ol PhiliP V. » /"c pro
vin es of Kaly and the Netherlands, as well as tliat o the Em-
pe or to Spain and the Indies. The eventual investiture o the
duchies of Parma and Placentia, and that of the grand dutchy
Tu™; were also confirmed. The only now clause con-
lained h K; treaty, was that bv which the King «1 ^^PJ"' '"'J^-
ooU to Ruarantee he famous I^ragmalic Sanction of Charles VI.,
ii secured to the daughter of that Pnnce the succe^-on of
all his estates. It was chiefly on this account that 1 hilip V.

became reconciled to the Court of Vienna.

The peace of Vienna was accompanied by a defensive alliance
I JveenTe Emperor and the Ki\ig of Si^in. Among other
Causes, one was^hat the Emperor should '"te^PJ ^° «^^3
1 for the Kin<r of Spain the restitution of Gibraltar and the 'sla a
of Mfnor^a''; while Philip, on his side, granted to the shippmj
of the Emperor and his subjects free entrance into his ports, and
a 1 immunities and prerogatives which were enjoyed bv the
nations in the strictest commercial connexions with bpam^
Th secLses alarmed England and Holland; and the mtimacj
which had been established .between the Courts of V'^""'' ""^^^
Madrid attracted more particularly the atention of the Duke ol
Bourbon who dreaded the resentment of the King of Spain, as
?e had advised the return of the Infanta, To prevent any^uch
rnnsecmences he set on foot a league with England and Frus-
a'c^pa^r^f counteracting that of Vienna, w^k V^ ^^tJ
at Herrenhausen, near Hanover (Sept. 3, 1725.) and is known
bv the name of the ilWiaMce o/ //a7toj)er. .,

^AU Europe was divided between these two alliances. Hoi-

'^^^.

proceeded

the conclu-

the Kin(f of

it'd iirrivt'd

isi' lictwcon

iiifdintini}

led the Duke
i'uniii Maria,
the court of
s event broke
rei'iilled his
n he had sent
iircrences bo-
il of France,
t Vienna be-
ril 'M, 1726.)
V. to the pro-
,t of the Em-
;stit\ire of the
grand dutchy
w clause con-
Spain under-
if Charles VI.,
succession of
hat Philip V.

I
•nsive alliance j

Among other '

pose to obtain

and the island

the shipping

his ports, and
ijoyed by the
! with Spain.
[I the intimacy
jf Vienna and
if the Duke of
g of Spain, as
jvent any such
ind and Prus-
was concluded

and is known

liances. Hol-

rEHioD VIII. A. D. 171.9 — 1789.

343

land, Sweden, and Dennmrk aciedfd to tiie ivIliaiKo of Honover.
Cutli(!rine I. of Uus.siu, and the prin('i|ml Ciuholic Stute.>i of tho
Empire joined lliiit of Vienna. Tho Emperor even Buccfcded
in (Ictai'liiiig the King of Prux^ia from the alliance of Munovcr
to join liis own. Euro|)e seemed then on the ivcof a general
war ; the ambassadors to the diHereiit courts were retailed. The
English sent a numerous nnd powerful fleet to America, the
Mediterrc.iean, and the Baltic ; while the Snaniards coimnenced
hostilities, by laying siege to Gibraltar. Ihe death of the Em-
press of Russia (May 17, 1727,) however, caused a change in
tho disijosition of tho Northern powers. The Emperor, seeing
he could no longer reckon on the assistance of Russia, showed
no anxiety to second the etForts of the Spaniards ; but what
chiefly contributed to the maintenance of peace was, that neither
France nor England was desirous of war.

In this situation of affairs, the Po|>e interposed his mediation ;
and a new preliminary treaty was signed at Paris, which or>
dained that there should be nn armistice for seven years ; that
the Company of Ostend should be suspended for the same time ;
and that a new General Congress snould be held at Aix-la-
Chapelle.

This congress was first transferred to Cambray, and thence tc
Soissons, where it was opened in 1728. Ambassadors from
almost all the Courts of Europe appeared there ; und they ex-
pected, with some reason, a happy conclusion of the business ;
as most of the difficulties which had embarrassed the Congress
of Cambray were settled by the peace of Vienna, and as the only
subject for deliberation was to settle the succession of Parma and
Tuscany. But the Emperor having demanded that the Austrian
Pragmatic Sanction should be adopted as the basis of the arrange-
ments for establishing the peace of Soissons, that incident be-
came the subject of new disputes. Cardinal Fleury, then prime
minister of France, having strongly opposed this claim of the
Court of Vienna, tho Emperor, in his turn, threw obstacles in
the way of the negotiation at Soissons. This inclined the Car-
dinal to make overtures to tho Court of Madrid, with whom he
concerted a secret negotiation, in which he also found means to
associate England.

This gave rise to a treaty of peace, union, and oflTensive al-
liance, which was signed at Seville between France, Spain, and
England (November 9, 1729.) These powers engaged to gua-
rantee the succession of Parma and Tuscany in favour of the
Infante Don Carlos ; and to efTect this, they resolved to substitute
six thousand Spanish troops in the Swiss garrisons, named by
the Quadruple Alliance. The Dutch acceded to that treaty, in

IJF^

{'■S

.11. '(

344

(JHAPTER IX.

ronsideration of the engagement which the contracting powers
came under to give them entire satisfaction with respect to the

The"lmperor! finding the treaty of Seville concluded .vith-
out his co-operation, was apprehensive of having failed in his
:.rincipal aim, viz. the adoption of the Austrian Pragniatic Sanc-
tion. He was indignant that the allies at Seville should pre-
tend to lav down the law to him touching the abolition ot tha
Ostend Company, and the introduction of Spanish troops into
Italy. Accordingly, being determined not to comply, he imme-
diately broke off all relationship with the Court of Spain ; he
recalled his ambassador, and took measures to prevent the Spa-
nish troops from taking possession of Italy. The last Duke of
Parma, Anthony Farnese, being dead (1731,) he took posses-
sion of his dutchy by force of arms.

At length, to terminate all these differences, the Kmg of t-ng-
land, in concert with the States-General, opened a negotiation
with the Emperor ; the result of which was a treaty of alhance
signed at Vienna, between him, England and Holland (March
16 1731 ) In virtue of that treaty, the three contracting pow-
ers' mutually guaranteed their estates, rights and possessions ;
England and Holland, more especially, engaged to guarantee
the° Austrian Pragmatic Sanction ; and the Emperor, on his
side, consented to the introduction of Spanish troops into Italy,
and to the su.-ression of the Company of Ostend; he even
aereed that the Netherlands should never carry on trade with
the Indies, either by the Ostend Company, or any other.

In consequence of this treaty, which was approved by the

States-General, Don Carlos took possession of Parma and P a-

centia ; and the Grand Duke of Tuscany also recognised him

as his successor. Thus terminated these long disputes abou

the Spanish Succession, after having agitateu the greater part

of Europe for upwards of thirty years. ... , .^^^

In the midst of these contentions, a war had arisen between

the Porte ^.d the Republic of Venice ; in which the Emperor

Chafles VI. was also implicated. The Turks were desirous of

reco Sng the Morea, wLch they had been obliged to abandon

the Venetians at the peace of Carlowitz ; but mstead of at-

tacking that Republic, while the Emperor was enff J wUh \he

French war, and unable to render it assistan.:e, they waitfd till

the concfu'l^n of the treaties of Utrecht. Rastadt, and Baden,

Lfore they declared hostilities. The pretexts which he Turks

made to justify this rupture were extremely frivolous , but they

knew we 1 thatthe Venetians, who had ived ,n the most c^n^-

pletc security since the peace of Carlowitz, had neglected to re-

iimmmm

ing powers
sped to the

uded ivith-
liled 111 his
matic Sanc-
should pre-
ition of the
troops into
y, he imme-
Spain ; he
ent the Spa-
ast Duke of
took posses-
ting of Eng-
1 negotiation
f of alliance,
and (March
racting pow-
possessions ;
to guarantee
peror, on his
ps into Italy,
id ; he even
1 trade with
other.

roved by the
rma ana Pla-
;ognised him
isputes about
greater part

isen between
the Emperor
•e desirous of
i to abandon
nstead of at-
iged with the
ey waited till
and Baden,
ch the Turks
»us ; but they
e most com-
>glected to rc-

PERIOP VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

345

|»ir the fortifications which had been dcstroj'ed in the war, and
that it would be easy for them to reconquer them.

In fact, during the campaign of 1715, the Grand Vizier noi
only recovered the Morea, he even dispossessed the Venetians
of the places which they still retained in the Isle of Candia ;
and, ai the commencement of the following campaign, they laid
MOge to the town of Corfu. Charles VI. thought he was bound,
as the guarantee of the peace of Carlowitz, to espouse the
lauso of the Venetians ; he declared war against the Porte, and
his example was followed by the Pope and the King of Spain,
who united their fleets to those of the Republic. The Turks
were defeated in several engagements, and obliged to raise thr»
siege of Corfu, after sacrificing a great many lives.

The campaigns of 1716 and 1717 in Hungary, were trium-
phant for the armies of the Emperor ; Prince Eugene gained a
brilliant victory over the Grand Vizier, near Peterwaradin (Au-
gust 5th,) which enabled him to invest Temeswar, which he
carried after a siege of six months, and thus completed the
conquest of Hungary. To crown his glory, that great captain
next undertook the siege of Belgrade, regarded by the 1 urks
as the principal bulwark of their Empire. The Grand Vizier
marched to the relief of the place, at the head of a formidahi??
army. He encamped before Belgrade, and enclosed the Impe-
rial army within a semicircle, reaching from the Danube to the
Save. Prince Eugene had then no other alternative than to
leave his camp, and attack the Turks in their intrenchmenls.
He took his measures which such address, that, in spite of the
great superiority of the Turks, he forced them back to their
camp, and put them completely to rout (Aug. 16, 1717.)

This victory was followed by the reduction of Belgrade, and
several other places on the Save and the Danube. The Porte
began to wish for peace ; and as the Emperor, who had just been
attacked in Italy by the Spaniards, was equally desirous to put
aa end to the war, both parties agreed to accept the mediation
of England and Holland. A congress was opened at Passaro-
witz, X small town in Servia, near the mouth of the Morau. A
peace was there concluded between the three belligerent powers
(July 21, 1718,) on the basi^' of the Uti pomdetis. The Empe-
ror retained Temeswar, Orsova, Belgrade, and the part of Wal-
lachia lying on this side of the river Aluta ; as also Servia, ac-
cording to the limits determined by the treaty, and both banks
of the Save, from the Drino to the Unna. The Venetians lost
the Morea, but they retained several places in Her/egovma,
Dalmatia, and Albania, which they had conquered during the
war. The Porte restored to them the Island of Cerigo in ih»»
Archipeingct.

j. 1.

,^l

.%[-

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L \ \

i!ii

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846

CHAPTER IX.

The success of Charles VI. in this war procured some new
adva..tages to his house, on the part of the States of Hungary. ;
The Diet of 1687, in vesting the hereditary right of that king-
ar.n in the Emperor Leopold I., had restricted that right, solely
to the male descendants of the House of Austria; and Charles
VI , on his accession to the throne, had acknowledged the dec
tive right of the States, in case he should happen to die without
leaving any male offspring. This prince, find'"g fft«7^1;4«
that he had no other children left than the two daughters by his
marriage with Elizabeth princess of Brunswick, and being desi-
rous of securing to them the succession of Hun^iy as well as
his other estates, assembled a Diet at Presburg (1722,) and there
engaged the States of the kingdom to extend the right of sue-
cession to females, according to the order which he had estab-
lished in the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction, and published some

^^Arevohd'on happened in the government of Sweden imme-
diately after the death of Charles XII. and before the grea war
of the North was quite ended. Reduced to a state of great dis-
tress by the folly, ambition, and inflexible obstinacy of that prince,
Sweden saw her finest provinces occupied by the enemy, her
commerce annihilated, her armies and her fleets destroyed.
Thev attributed these disasters chiefly to t.ie absolute power ol
Charles XII., and the abuse he had made of it. 1 he only reme-
dy for so many evils, they conceived, was to abolish a power
vvhich had become so pernicious to the State. As Chyles had
never been married, the throne, according to the hereduary law
established in Sweden, passed to the son of the dutchess oi Hoi-
stein-Gottorp, eldest sister of Charles ; but the Senate of Sv eden
preferred to him the princess Ulrica Eleonora, younger sister ot
Ihe late king ; because of the declaration she had made, renoun-
cing all absolute power, and consenting to hold the crown only
bv the free election of the States of the kingdom. The States,
in an assembly held at Stockholm, in the beginning of 1719, de
blared the throne vacant, and then proceeded to the election oi
the princess. With their act of election, they presented her with
I a new form of government, and an act known by the name ot
I the Royal Assurance, which imposed new hnntations on the
' royal authority. The princess signed these acts (February jh)
i and the States declared that whoever should attempt to restore
■ absolute power, should be considered as a traitor to his country.
The government was intrusted to the queen conninctly with
: the Senate ; while the legislative power was reserved to the
Slates, to meet regularly every three years. The q"een had
the right of proposing bills or ordinances : but before these

i!f*ff::^"t?;-fnr-if. :?,%r-£~"

PERIOD 7111. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

347

i some new
of Hungary,
if that king-
, right, solely
and Charles
ged the elec-
) die without
g afterwards
ghters by his
id being desi-
ry as well as
22,) and there
right of suc-
he had estab-
iblished some

vveden imme-
the great war
e of great dis-
of that prince,
le enemy, her
;ts destroyed,
jlute power of
"he only reme-
olish a power
s Charles had
tierediiary law
Itches? of Hol-
late of Sv eden
unger sister of
made, renoun-
he crown only
. The States,
ig of 1719, de
the election ol
rented her with
)y the name of
itations on the
(February 21,)
empt to restore
to his country,
conjunctly with
•eserved to the
rhe queen had
It before these

could have the force of law, they were to be submitted to the
examination of the States, without whose consent war was never
10 be proclaimed. As for the deliberations of the Senate, it was
resolved, that they should be decided by a plurality of suffrages,
that the queen should havf two votes, and a casting vote be-
sides. Thus, the chief power was vested in the hands of the
Senate, the members of which resumed their ancient title of
Senators of the kingdom, instead of that of Counsellors to the
King, which had been bestowed on them at the revolution of
1680. Ulrica Eleonora afterwards resigned the crown lO her
husband prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. The States, in their
election of that prince (May 22, 1720,) ordained that the Queen,
in case she should survive her husband, should be reinstated in
her rights, and resume the crown, without the necessity of a new
deliberation of the Slates. Frederic, by the Royal Assurance,
and the form of government which he signed, agreed to certain
new modifications of the royal power, especially concerning ap-
pointments to places of trust. By these different stipulations,
and the changes which took place in consequence, the power of
the Swedish kings was gradually reduced to very narrow limits.
It was so much the more easy to make encroachments o" the
royal power, as the King, by a radical defect in the new form
of government, had no constitutional means of preserving the
little authority that was left him.

The death of Augustus II. of Poland, occasioned new dis-
turbances, which passed from the North to the South of Europe
and brought about great changes in Italy. Louis XV. took the
opportunity of that event to replace Stanislaus on the throne of
Poland, who was his father-m-law, and the former proteg^ of
Charles XII. The Primate, and the greater part of the Polish
nobility being in the interest of that prince, he was consequently
elected (Sept. 12, 1733.)

Anne Iwanowna, dutchess-dowager of Courland, and niece of
Peter the Great, had just ascended the throne of Russia ; having
succeeded Peter II. (June 20, 1730,) who was cut off in the
flower of his age without leaving any progeny. The grandees,
in conferring the crown on Anne, had limited her power by a
capitulation which they made her sign at Mittau, but which she
cancelled immediately on her arrival at Moscow. That princess,
dreading the influence of France in Poland, in case of a war
between Russia and the Porte, espoused the interests of Augus-
tus III., Elector of Saxony, and son of the late King, whom she
wished to place on the Polish throne. Part of the Polish nobility,
withdrawing from the field of election, and supported by a Rus*
sian army, proclaimed that prince, in opposition to Stanislaus,
ihe proteg^ of France.

iil'N

I, i

ii-ll

in'

348

CHAPTER IX.

The Russians, reinforced by the Saxon troops, seized Warsp.'.v .
and compelled Stanislaus to retire to Dantzic, where he was be-
sieged by a Russian army, under command of Field-Marshal
Munich, and obliged to seek safety in flight. Louis XV. wish- !
ing to avenge this injury offered* to his father-in-law, and not :
being in a condition to attack Russia, resolved to declare war
against the Emperor ; ,.a the ground that he had marched an j
army to the frontiers of Poland, for supporting the election of
the Saxon prince.

Spain and Sardinia espoused the cause of Stanislaus, which
seemed to them to be the cause of Kings in general ; while the
Emperor saw himself abandoned by England and Holland,
whose assistance he thought he might claim, in virtiie of the
guarantee which the treaty of Vienna had stipulated in his fa-
vour. But these powers' judged it more for their interests to
preserve strict neutrality in this war, on the assurance which
France had given the States-General, not to make the Austrian
Netherlands the theatre of hostilities. The French commenced
operations by directing the Count de Belleisle to seize Lorraine,
the sovereign of which, Francis Stephen, son of Duke Leopold
was to have married Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of the Em-
peror Charles VL About the same time, Marshal Berwick
passed the Rhine at the head of the French army, and reduced
the fortress of Kehl. By thus attacking a fortress of the Em-
pire, France gave the Emperor a pretext for engaging the Ger-,
manic Bodv in his quarrel. In fact, he declared war against
France and her allies ; which induced the French to seize seve-
ral places on the Moselle, and to reduce the fortress of Philips-
burg, at the siege of which. Marshal Berwick was slain (June
12, 1734.) , , ^ .

The principal scene of the war then lay in Italy ; where the
campaigns of 1734 and 1735 were most glorious for the allies.
After the two victories which they had gained over the Impe-
rialists near Parma (Ju'.e 29,) and Guastalla (Sept. 17,) they
made themselves master of all Austrian Lombardy, with the
single exception of Mantua, which they laid under blockade.
A Spanish army, commanded by the Duke of Montemar, ac-
companied by the Infante Don Carlos, directed their march on
Naples, which threw open its gates to the Spaniards. The
victory which they gained over the Imperialists at Bitonto
(May 25,) decided the fate of the kingdom of Naples. After
this conquest, the Infante passed to Sicily. He soon reduced
that island, and was crowned King of the Two Sicilies at Pa-
lermo (July 3, 1735.)

The Emperor, overwhelmed by so many reverses, and unaWo

led Warsp.'.v
e he was be-
ield-Marshal
s XV. wish-
aw, and not
declare war
marched an
election of

islaus, which
1; while the
ind Holland,
virtue of the
ted in his fa-
ir interests to
urance which
the Austrian
h commenced
eize Lorraine,
)uke Leopold
;er of the Em-
shal Berwick
, and reduced
ss of the Em-
iging the Ger-,
d war against
I to seize seve-
;ss of Philips-
as slain (June

ly ; .".here the
for the allies,
ver the Impe-
lept. 17,) they
irdy, with the
ider blockade.
Montemar, ac*
leir march on
aniards. The
sts at Bitonto
^Taples. After
soon reduced
Sicilies at Pa-

les, and unablo

fill

PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

349

•0 withstand the powers leagued against him, eagerly solicited
assistance from Russia. The Empress Anne, who saw the war
loiminated in Poland, and Augustus in quiet possession of the
throne, despatched a body of ten tliousand auxiliaries, under
the command of General Count de Lacy, into Germany, m thf
i^pring of the year 1735. These troops, the first Kussians who
had appeared in that country, joined the Imperial army on the
Rhine, which was commanded by Prince Eugene. That Gene-
ral, however, did not succeed in his design of transferring the
seat of war to Lorraine.

Matters were in this situation, when the maritime powers in-
terposed their good offices for restoring peace between the Em-
peror and the States leagued against him. Cardinal Fleury,
perceiving that their mediation was not agreeable to the Impe-
rial Court, took the resolution of concerting a secret negotia-
tion with the Emperor, the result of which was a treaty of pre-
liminaries ; although much deliberation was necessary before
coming to the conclusion of a definitive peace. This was at
lengtli signed at Vienna, between France, the Emperor, and the
Empire, on the 8th of November 1738. The former treaties of
Westphalia, Nimeguen, Ryswick, Utrecht, and the Quadruple
Alliance, were admitted as the basis of this treaty. Stanislaus
renounced the throne of Poland, and retained the title only
during his life. They gave him, by way of compensation, the
dutchies of Lorraine and Bar, on condition that, at his death,
they should revert with full rig.it to France. The single coun-
ty of Falkenstein, with its appurtenances and dependencies,
was reserved for Francis, Duke of Lorraine. In exchange for
the dutchy which he abdicated, that prince received the grand
dutchy of Tuscany, whose last possessor, John Gaston, of the
House of Medici, had just died without leaving any posterity
(1737.) The kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of
Tuscany, were secured to Don Carlos and his descendants,
male and female ; and, in failure of them, to the younger bro-
thers of that prince, and their descendants. On his part, Don
Carlos ceded to the Emperor the dutchies of Parma and Pla-
centia, and even renounced the rights which former treaties had
given him over the grand dutchy of Tuscany. They restored
to the Emperor all that had been taken from him in the pro-
vinces of Milan and Mantua ; with the reservation of the dis-
tricts of ^^ovara and Tortona, which he was obliged to cede lo
Charles i^imanuel III., King of Sardinia, together with San-
Pidele, Torre di Forti, Gravedo, and Campo-Maggiore ; is also
the territorial superiority of the fiefs commonly called Langhcs,
to be held entirely as Imperial fiefs. Finally, France under-

iiH

I*::

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,: i

.■:.■'

I'll

,li

It- '.'

'( 'it

1 ■

,|:-,i

ijljIH \

850

CHAPTER IX.

took, in the most authentic form, to guarantee the Pragmatic
Sanction of the Emperor.

The Kinf's of Spain and Sardinia were not satishcd with ihe
conditions of this treaty. The former wished to preserve the
•nand dutohy of Tuscany, with the dutchies of Parma and
Placentia ; and the other had expected to obtain a larger portion
M' Lombardy. Thus, these princes long hesitated to admit the
articles agreed to between the courts of France and Vienna ;
nor did they give their consent until the year 1739.

While these disputes about the succession of Poland occupied
a trreat part of Europe, a war broke out between the Turks and
the Russians, in which Austria was also implicated. The Em-
cress Anne of Russia, wishing to recover Azoflf, and repair the
loss which Peter the Great had sustained m his unfortunate
campaign on the Pruth, took advantage of the war between the
Turks and the Peraians, to form an alliance with Khouli Khan,
the famons conqueror of the East, who had just subverted
the ancient dynasty of the Sophis of Persia. The incursions
which the Tartars had made at diflerent times into the Russian
provinces, without the Porte thinking proper to check them,
served as a motive for the Empress to order an expedition
against the Turks (1735,) and to declare /ar against the Porte
soon after. It was during the campaign of 1736 that Count
Lacy madf^ himself master of Azoti; and that Marshal Munich,
after having forced the lines at Perekop, penetrated into the in-
terior of the Crimea ; but having in that expedition lost many
of his men by famine and disease, he found it impossible to
maintain himself in that peninsula.

The Emperor offered himself at first as a mediator between
the belligerent powers. A conference was opened at Niemerow
in Poland, which proved fruitless. The Russians who had just
! taken Oczakoff, emboldened by their success, were desirous to
I continue the war ; while the Emperor, without reflecting on the
i bad condition of his military strength, and the loss which he
I had sustained by the death of the celebrated prince Eugene
I (April 21, 1736,) thought only of sharing the conquest with the
' Russians. He then laid aside the character of mediator, to
' Tct on the defensive against the Turks ; but he had soon rea-
I son to repent of this measure. The Turks, encouraged by the
i famous Count de Bonneval, gained considerable advantages
j over the Austrians ; and in course of the campaigns of 17J7
! and 1738, thev dislodged them f m Wallachia and Servia, re-
! took Orsova, and laid siege to the city of Belgrade in 1739.
The Court of Vienna, in a state of great consternation, had
recourse to the mediation of M. de VilTeneuVe. the French am-

•j.

le PragnAtic

ified with ihe
preserve the
f Parma and
arger portion

to admit the
and Vienna;
J.

land occupied
he Turks and
d. The Em- 1
nd repair the |
s unfortunate 1
r between the \
Khouli Khan, |
ust subverted
i'he incursions
o the Russian
) check them,
an expedition
linst the Porte
'36 that Count
irshal Munich,
ted into the in-
tion lost many

impossible to

liator between
d at Niemerow
s who had just
ere desirous to
eflecting on the
loss which he
prince Eugene
iquest with the
of mediator, to
had soon rea-
^ouraged by the
ble advantages
ipaigns of 1737
and Servia, re-
ade in 1739.
isternation, had
the French ajn-

PERIOD Vlll. A. D. 1713 — 1799.

351

tossador a^ Constantinople, to sue for peace with the Porte ;
Count Neipperg, who was sent by the Emperor to the Turkish
camp before Belgrade, signed there, with too much precipita-
tion, a treaty, under very disadvantageous terms for Austria :
and the Empress Anne, who had intrusted the French ambas-
sador with her full powers, consented also to a peace very un-
favourable for Russia, notwithstanding the brilliant victory
.vhich Marshal Munich had gained over the Turks in the neigh-
bourhood of Choczim (Oct. 28, 1739,) which was followed by
the capture of that place, and the conquest of Moldavia by the
Russians.

The Emperor, by that peace, ceded to the Porte, Belgrade,
Sabatz, and Orsova, with Austrian Servia and Wallnchia. The
Danube, the Save, and the Unna, were ngain settled as the
boundary between the two Empires ; ^nd Austria preserved
nothing but the Banat of Temcswar, of all that had been ceded
to her by the peace of Passarowitz. The Austrian merchants,
however, were granted free pas.sage into and out of the king-
doms and provinces of the Ottoman Empire, both by sea and
land, in their own vessels, with the flag and letters-patent of the
Emperor, on condition of their paying the accustomed dues.

Russia surrendered all her conquests, and among others
Choczim and Moldavia. The boundaries between the two Em-
pires were regulated by different special agreements. The for-
tress of AzofT was demolished ; and it was stipulated that Russia
should not construct any new fortress within thirty versts of that
place, on the one side ; nor the Porte within thirty versts, on the
side of the Cuban. Russia was even interdicted from having
and constructing fleets or other naval stores, either on the Sea
of AzofT or the Black Sea. The Zaporog Cossacs continued
under the dominion of Russia, which obtained also from the
Porte the acknowledgment of the Imperial title. The peace be-
tween Russia and the Porte was declared perpetual ; but they
limited that between Austria and the Porte to twenty-seven
years. The latter was renewed under the Empress Maria
Theresa ; and rendered also perpetual, by an agreement which
that princess concluded with the Porto, May 25, 1747.

The succession to Charle*- VL.the last male descendant of the
House of Hapsburfj, who died October 20th 1740, kindled a new
general war ir Europe. That prince, in the year 1713, had

fublishijd an order of succession, known by the name of the
'ragmatic Sanction, which decreed, that failing his lineal heirs-
male, his own daughters should succeed in preference to those
of his brother the Emperor Joseph I. ; and that the succession
of his daughters should be regulated according to the order of

f'J \

mi/.

III

:11:

nrimojrcniture, so thai ihc elder should be preferred to the ,
Vounffcr, and that she alone should inherit his whole eatate*. ,
He took <rrcat pains to Ret this order approved by the differenl
hereditary States of Austria, as well as bv the daughters of his ;
brother Joseph 1., and by the husbands of these princesses, the ,
Electors of Saxony and liavaria. He even obtained, by degrees
the sanction of all the principal powers of Europe. But though
his external policy had been very active m securing the rights
of his eldest daughter Maria Theresa, he neglected those mea-
sies to which he ought rather to have directed his attention.
The wretched state in which he left his finances and his army,
encouraged a number of pretenders, vho disputed the succession

''''oV\k)U' claimants, the principal was the Elector of Bavaria,
who. as being descended from Anne of Austria, daughter of Fer-
dinand I., advanced the claims of the females of thee Ider hne,

against those of the younger ; f """^^^ «" ''^t'°"f r'„v1^ „;
riace between that princess and Albert V. Duke of Bavaria, as
well as on the will' f Ferdinand I. The El-t«ro Saxony,
then Kin- of Poland, although he had approved of the Prag-
malic Sanction, claimed the succession, as being husband of the ,
e der of the daughters of Joseph I., and in virtue of a compact be-
titenhetwobrolhers.JosephI.andCharlesVI..whichprov^

that the daughters of Joseph should, under all circumstances, be
nrefen-ed to those of Charles. . ■• j „f n«

•^ Philip v.. King of Spin, laid claim to the kingdoms of Bo-
hp.nia and Huncrarv. He grounded his rights on an agreement
i (Sr we nSip HI. of Spain and Ferdinand of Austria
! afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand H. ; ^/'^^-^'^^ '« .^'»^ f
! ?hese kin-doms were to pass to the descendan s of Phihp HI.,
I fan ng the male line of Ferdinand. A war had ""^en beuveen
i Spain and England on account of the clandestine traffic which
I The English carried on in Spanish America, under favour of the
I .LuTcM^xe Assiento^ Philip V. thought of turning these
; dSences eblive to the Austrian succession to his own advan-
tose either for drawing France into an alliance with h.m against
England or to procure for his son Don Phiip a settlement m
Italy, at the expense of the daughter of Char es VI.
Kederic H. King of Prussia, who had jusl succeeded hw
; father Frederic William I., judged this a favourable time or
^ urning his attention to the affairs of his own kingdom, and fro-
fitting bv the troops and treasures which his father had leJt.
WUh this view, he revived certain claims of his family to
.Tv ral Sitciies' and principalities in Silesia, of ff ^js an-
ceslors, he maintained, had been unjustly deprived by Austria

fened to the
whole estates.

the differonl
ighters of his
rincesses, the
d, by degrees,
But though
ing the rights
ed tliose mea-

his attention,
and his army,
the succession

:or of Bavaria,
ughter of Fer-
the elder line,
jntract of mar-
of Bavaria, as
or of Saxony,
1 of the Prag-
husband of the
fa compact be-
vhich provided,
cumstances, be

n£jdoms of Bo-
i\ an agreement
uid of Austria,
ding to which
i of Philip III.,
arisen between
le traffic which
er favour of the
i( turning these
his own advan-
'ith him against
a settlement in
VI.

[ succeeded his
iirable time for
igdom, and pro-
father had left.
if his family to
f which his an-
ved by Austria

I t

TERior vui. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

353

Finally, the King of Sardinia laid claim to the whole dutchy of
Milan ; grounded on the contract of marriage between his an-
cestor, Charles Emanuel Duke of Savoy, and the daughter of
Philip II. of Spain. The Court of France, wishing to avail
herself of these circumstances for humbling Austria, her ancient
rival, set on foot a negotiation with the Elector of Bavaria, and
engaged to procure him the Imperial crown, with a part of thr
territories, of which he had deprived Austria.

An alliance was concluded between France, Spain, and the
Elector of Bavaria, which was joined also by the Kings of Prus-
sia, Poland, Sardinia, and the two Sicilies ; and to prevent
Russia from affording assistance to Maria Theresa, they pre-
vailed on Sweden to declare war against that power. The
Court of Vienna having complained of these resolutions of the
French Cabinet, which were directly opposed to the condition?
of the last treaty of Vienna, Cardinal Fleury, who had been
drawn into that war by the intrigues of M. De Belleisle, alleged
in his own justification, that the guarantee of the Pragmatic
Sanction, which France had undertaken by that treaty, pre*
supposed the clause Sine prejudicio tertii ; that is to say, that
France never intended, by that guarantee, to prejudice the just
claims of the Elector of Bavaria.

The most active of the enemies of Maria Theresa was the
King of Prussia, who entered Silesia in the month of December
1740. While he was occupied in making that conquest, the
Elector of Bavaria, reinforced by an army oif French auxiliaries)
took possession of Upper Austria ; but, instead of marching di-
rectly upon Vienna, he turned towards Bohemia, with the inten-
tion of conquering it. Meantime, the Electoral Diet, which was
assembled at Frankfort, conferred the Imperial dignity on that
prince, (Jan. 24, 1742,) who took the name of Charles VII.
Nothing appeared then to prevent the dismemberment of the
Austrian monarchy, according to the plan of the allied powers.
The Elector of Bavaria was to have Bohemia, the Tyrol, and
the provinces of Upper Austria ; the Elector of Saxony was to
have Moravia and Upper Silesia ; and the King of Prussia the
remainder of Silesia. As for Austrian Lombardy, it was des-
tined for Don Philip, the Infante of Spain>. Nothing was letl to
the Queen, except the kingdom of Hungary, with Lower Aus-
tria, the Dutchies of Carinthia, Stiria and Camiola, and the
Belgic Provinces. In the midst of these imminent dangers,
Maria Theresa displayed a courage beyond her age and sex.
Aided by the supplies of money which England and Holland
furnished her, and by the generous efforts which the Hungarian
nation made in her favour, she succeeded in calming the storm

23.

I
1

■■ti H

V (♦. .

i I. I

II is

CHAPTER It. 1

oat

repulsing the enemy with vigour, and dissolving the grand
leLue which had been formed agamst her.

"^tCkT of Sardinia, who dreaded the p,epondenn» of the
Bo^boK Imly liWew » abandoned .he gr,.nd «"i«"». «"J

Sic.hes J«»"f J'' S^'ir'^VreateSed to bombard the city, and

powi.ia ilia fe »„„'• .1 Hanoverians, and Hessians.

defeated the Ffench at Dettingen (June 27. 17«.! They we™

£=tnrtS'«.S„;o»el=en?lcrth?^^^
lienerai seni, "i * ot' Vienna. Last v. that pnnce, m order

S=«Ka™...^^

*"/,d'» th Kinrof sS. he territor/of Pa.ia, betwee"

Si^.fSoi.nnd'^iy.edtcf"^^^^^^^^

wSo In for the «rviee of .he Queen, in oon„derat,on of the
.applies which England promised to pay him.

,i'drt.?^:^i.'.t;rst"S;«J!iretrn"h"fr.n.

ig the grand

two victoriei

^ziislau (May

Moravia, and

iieen to get rid

Iritain having

ireslau, which

Berlin (July

to the King of

ing the princi-

's of Tmppau,

a was soon fol-

med at the sud-

acceded to the

ith the Queen

nderance of the
d alliance, and
compact which
rds then turned
king of the two
English squad-
ird the city, and
inbardy, and re-
f service which
ing one of the
1, he sent to her
s, and Hessians,
■my, fought and
3.) They were
lich the States-
which they had
;t prince, in order
) the interests of
hich the Queen
Pavia, between
'laceiitia, and the
y claimed to the
•I, abandoned all
port an army of
isjderalion of the

he Queen recon-
the French from

rKKmri viii. a. d. 17 J 3 — 1789.

355

Bavaria, and drove them even beyond the Rhino The Emperor
• /htirliJ* VII. van obliged to transfer his residence from Munich
U) Fniiikfitrt on the Maiiio. France, who had never acted till
lii'^n but as ihe ally of the Elector of Bavaria, resolved, m con-
seijuence of these events, formally to declare war against the
Queen and the King of Great Britain (March 15, 1744.) The
King of the Two Sicilies broke his neutrality, and again joined
his troops with the Spanish army, who were acting against the
Queen and her ally the King of Sardinia. The war was now
carried on with fresh vigour. Louis XV, attacked the Austrian
Netherlands in person, and negotiated a treaty of Union, at
Frankfort, between the Emperor, and several principal States
of the Empire. By this treaty it was stipulatea, that the allied
princes should unite their forces, and constrain the Queen to
acknowledge the Emperor Charles VII,, and reinstate him in
his hereditary dominions.

It was in consequence of this treaty, that the King of Prussia
again commenced the war, and made an attack on Bohemia.
Prince Charles of Lorraine, who had invaded Alsace, at the
head of an Austrian army, was obliged to repass the Rhine, and
march to the relief of that kingdom. The French penetrated
into Germany, and while Louis XV. laid siege to Friburg in
Brisgaw, General Seckendorf, who commanded the Imperial
army, reconquered Bavaria. Charles VII., who was then re-
stored to his estates, returned to Munich.

During these transactions, an unforeseen event happened,
which changed the state of affairs. The Emperor died at the
early age of forty-seven (Jan. 20, 1745,) and his son Maximilian
Joseph II., used all expedition to make up matters with the
Queen. By the special treaty, which he concluded with her at
Fuessen (April 22, 1745,) he renounced the claims which his
father had made to the succession of Charles VI, He again
signed the Pragmatic Sanction, satisfied with being maintained
in the possession of his patrimonial estates. The French had
in vain endeavoured to prevent the election of the Grand Duke
of Tuscany to the Imperial throne, who had been associated
with his wife, Maria Theresa, in the government of her heredi-
tary dominions. That prince, however, was elected at Frank-
fort, under the protection of the Austrian and Pragmatic armies.

An alliance had been concluded at Warsaw between Maria
Theresa, Poland, England, and Holland (Jan. 8, 1745.) Au-
gustus III. had engaged, as Elector of Saxony, to despatch an
army of thirty thousand men to the Queen's assistance, in con-
sideration of the subsidies which England and Holland had pro-
mised to pay him That army being joined by the Austrian^,

|!r

4 t

.Ji

'iii»f7r'

J ,

srw)

ClIAPTBR IX

i • '

liud nHvaticod into Silesia, whon- they """tnincfl n totnl dc»fra»
near Holierifripdlicr^' (Junf 1.) 'I'lio vitlorimia Kin;,' of IVub'ib
returned to Bylictniii, nnd tliero dofcntrd ilio niiics n swnrifl
time, near Sorr, in the Circle of Konifjrat/ (Sept. HO.) He then
attacked SaX'Hv , in order to I'ompcl the (.iueen to iimKe peofe.
by hara.ssinjj ifn !'"leclor her ally. The victory, wliich ho gain-
ed over the Saxons at Ke.iselsdorf (Dec. l/j,) made him mastpr
of Dresden, and the whole Electorate, wliich he laid under con-
iribu ion. These victories accelerated the peace between the
King of Prussia, the Queen, and the Elirtor of Saxony, which
Wfis Nigtied at Dresden, under the medial ion of (Inat Jlritain.
Tlie Khig of Prussia restored to the Elector all hi •I'lates, the
latter promising to pay him a million of Itnnerial crowns. The
Queen jjave up Silesia and theComteof Glatz ; while the id.ig,
as the Elector of Brandenburg, acmiiesced in the eie( ti(/ii v{
Francis I. >'■ he Imperial throne. The Kinp of England, the
Dutch, and -te States of the Empire, undertook to guara'itec
these stipuluu. ^;is.

The treaties of Fuessen and presden restored tranquillity to
the Empire ; but the war was contiimed in the Netherlands,
Italy, and in the East and West Indies. The Ff nch, under
the conduct of Marshal Saxc, distinguished themst-lves in the
Netherlands. The victories which they gained over the allie?
at Fontenoy (May 11, 1745,) and at Rocoux (Oct. 11, 1746,) pro-
cured them the conquest of all the Austrian Netherlands, excep»
the towns and fortresses of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Guoldres

Charles Edward, son of the Pretender, encouraged and assist-
ed by the Court of France, landed in Scotland in August 1746.
Being joined by a number of partisans, whom he found in that
kingdom, he caused his father to be proclaimed at Perth and
Edinburgh, assuming to himself the title of Prince of Wales,
and Regent of the three kingdoms. The victory which he gain-
ed near Prestonpans over the English troops, rendered him mas-
ter of all Scotland. He next invaded England, took Carlisle,
and advanced as far as Derby, spreading terror and consternation
in London. George II. was obliged to recall the Duke of Cum-
berland, with his troops, from the Netherlands. That Prince
drove back the Pretender, retook Carlisle, and restored tranquil-
lity in Scotland, by defeating the Rebels near Culloden in the
Highlands. Charles Edward was then reduced to the necessity
of concealing himself among the mountains, until the month of
October following, when he found means to transport himself to
France.

The campaign of 1745 in Italy was glqrious for the French,
and their allies the Spaniards. Tne Republic of Genoa, being

ti total dpfrt*
iii),'()f I*ruB»<«
lies ft Nf'Colid

)().) Hf thnn
T iiinko pcn'^e,
irlucli lie gain-
lo him irmster
lid iimliT con-
(> belwfcn the
Snxony, which
Grcftt Britain.
Ill- ^.'I'liites, the
crowns. The
while tho King,
the eie(:li(/ii of
f Englaiifl. the
k to guarasitoe

1 tranquillity to
.e Netncrlnnds,
! French, under
emwlvcs in the
1 over the allief j
1. 11, 1746.) pro- I
hcrlands, excep* i
5, and Gueldres
•aged and assist-
n August 1745.
he found in that
?d at Perth and
'rince of Wales,
y which he gain-
idered him mas-
id, took Carlisle,
ind consternation
le Duke of Cum-
s. That Prince
restored tranquil-
r CuUoden in the
id to the necessity
ntil the month of
msport himself to

IS for the French,
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PERIOD VIU. A. D. 1713 — 1780.

357

offended at the clause in the treaty of Worms, which took from
them the marquisate of Finale, espoused the cause of the two
rrowiis, and facilitated the junction of the French army of the
Alps with that of Lombardy. One effect of this junction was
the conquest of Piedmont, as also of Austrian Lombardy, except-
ing the cities of Turin and Mantua, which the allies had laid
under blockade.

The fate of the war, however, experienced a new change in
Italy, at the opening of the following campaign. Maria The-
resa, disengaged from the war with Prussia, sent considerable
reinforcements into Lombardy, which gave her arms a superi-
ority over those of the allies. The French and Spaniards were
stripped of all their conquests, and sustained a grand defeat at
Placentia (June 16, 1746,) which obliged them to beat a retreat.
To add to their misfortunes, the new King of Spain, Ferdinand
VI., who had just succeeded his father, Philip V., being dis-
pleased with the Court of France, and unfavourably inclined
towards his brother Don Philip, recalled all his troops from Ita-
ly. The French had then no other alternative left than to fol-
low the Spaniards in their retreat. Italy was abandoned to the
Austrians, and the French troops again returned to Provence.
The whole Republic of Genoa, with its capital, fell into the
hands of the Austrians. The King of Sardinia took possession of
Finale, Savona, and the western part of the Republican terri-
ritory. The Austrians, joined by the Piedmontese, made a
descent on Provence, and undertook the siege of Antibes.

An extraordinary-event produced a diversion favourable for
France, and obliged the Austrians and Piedmontese to repass
the Alps. The Genoese being maltreated by the Austrians,
who had burdened them with contributions and discretionary
exactions, suddenly rose against their new masters. The in-
surgents, with Prince Doria at their head, succeeded in expel-
ling them from Genoa (Dec. 1746.) General Botta, who com-
manded at Genoa, was obliged to abandon his stores and equip-
age, that he might the more quickly escape from the territory
of the Republic. The siege of Antibes was raised ; the allies
repassed the Alps, and blockaded Genoa. But the French hav-
ing sent powerful supplies by sea to that city, and at the same
time made a vigorous attack on the side of Piedmont, relieved
the Genoese, and obliged the enemy to retreat.

In 1747, the Fretich, who were already masters of the Aus-
trian Netherlands, attacked and conquered Dutch Flanders.
They blamed the Dutch for having sent constant supplies to
Maria Theresa, for having invaded the French territory anv'i
granted n retreat through their own to Ju* I'lioiny s iroo()!», ..iiej

P! ^

/ -

the battle of Fontenoy. This invasion spread terror in the
province of Zealand, who thus saw themselves deprived of their
barrier, and exposed to the inroads of the French. The parti-
sans of the Prince of Orange took advantage of that circum-
stance to restore the Stadtholdership. This dignity, as well as
that of Captain and Admiral-General of the Republic, had re-
mained vacant since the death of William III.

William IV., Prince of Nassau-Dietz, though he was testa-
mentary heir to that prince, had only obtained the Stadtholder-
ship of Friesland, to which was afterwards added that of Gro-
ningen and Gueldres ; but the efforts which he made to obtain
the other offices and dignities of the ancient Princes of Orange,
proved ineffectual. The four provinces of Holland, Zealand,
Utrecht, and Overyssel, persisted in their free government, and
even refused the Prince the office of General of Infantry, which he
had requested. France, by attacking Dutch Flanders, contribu-
ted to the elevation of William. There was a general feeling in
his favour in those provinces which had no Stadtholder ; the peo-
ple of the different towns and districts rose in succession, and
obliged the magistrates to proclaim William IV. as Stadtholder
and Captain-General. This revolution was achieved without
disturbance ; and without any obstacle on the part of those who
had an interest in opposing it, but who were obliged to yield to
the wishes of the people. They even went so far as to declare
the Stadtholdership, as well as the offices of Captain and Admi-
ral-General, hereditarj' in nil the Prince's descendants, male
and female — ^a circumstance unprecedented since the foundation
of the Republic.

This change which happened in the Stadtholdership did not,
however, prevent the French from making new conquests.
They had no sooner got possession of Dutch Flanders, than
they attacked the town of Maestricht. The Duke of Cumber-
land having advanced with the allied army to cover the town, a
bloody battle took place near Laveld (July 2, 1747,) which was

¥ lined by the French, under the command of Marshal Saxe.
he fortress of Bergen-op-Zoom, which was deemed impregna-
ble by its situation and the marshes which surrounded it, was
carried by assault by Count Lewendal, two months after he had
opened his trenches.

However brilliant the success of the French arms was on the
Continent, they failed in almost all their maritime expeditions.
The English took from them Louisburg and Cape Breton in
America ; and completely destroyed the French marine, which
had been much neglected, under the ministry of Cardinal Fleu-
ry. All the belligerent powers at length felt the necessity of

\ terror in the
jprived of their
J. The parti-
f that circum-
litv, as well a»
)ublic, had re-
he was testa-
le Stadtholder-
:d that of Gro-
Tiade to obtain
ices of Orange,
land, Zealand,
•vernment, and
intry, which he
ders, contribu-
neral feeling in
older ; the peo-
uccession, and
as Stadtholder
lieved without
"t of those who
ged to yield to
vc as to declare
tain and Admi-
:endants, male
the foundation

ership did not,
sw conquests,
""landers, than
e of Cumber-
'er the town, a
7,) which was
ilarshai Saxe.
led impregna-
iinded it, was
s after he had

ns was on the
e expeditions,
ipe Breton in
larine, which
ardinal Fleu-
! necessity of

PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

8S9

peace ; and there were two events which tended to accelerate
it. The Empress of Russia, conformable to the engagements
into which she had entered with the Courts of Vienna and
London, by the treaties of 1746 and 1747, had despatched
Prince Repnin to the Rhine, at the head of 30,000 men. Mar-
shal Saxe, at the same time, had laid siege to Maestricht, in
presence of the enemy, who were 80,000 strong. The taking
of that city would have laid open all Holland to the French, and
threatened the Republic with the most disastrous consequences.

A preliminary treaty was then signed at Aix-ia-Chapelle,
which was followed by a definitive peace (Oct. 18, 1748.) There
all former treaties since that of Westphalia were renewed ; a
mutual restitution was made on both sides, of all conquests
made during the war, both in Europe, and in the East and West
Indies ; and in consideration of the important restitutions which
France had made on the Continent, they ceded to Don Philip,
the son-in-law of Louis XV., and brother of Don Carlos, the
dutchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla ; to be possessed
by him and his lawful heirs male. The treaty of preliminaries
contained two conditions upon which the dutchies of Parma and
Guastalla should revert to the Queen, and that of Placentia to
the King of Sardinia ; viz. (1.) Failing the male descendants of
Don Philip. (2.) If Don Carlos, King of the Two Sicilies, should
be called to the throne of Spain. In this latter case, it was pre-
sumed that the kingdom of the Two Sicilies should pass to Don
Philip, the younger brother of that prince; but they did not
seem to recollect that the peace of Vienna (1738) had secured
this latter kingdom to Don Carlos, and all his descendants male
and female ; and consequently, nothing prevented that prince,
should the case so happen, from transferring the Two Sicilies to
one of his own younger sons ; supposing even that he were not per-
mitted to unite that kingdom with the Spanish monarchy. The
plenipotentiaries having perceived this oversight after the con-
clusion of the preliminaries, took care to rectify it in the defini-
tive treaty, by thus wording the second clause of the reversion,
" Shotdd Don Philip, or any of his descendants, be either called
to the throne of Spain, or to that of the Two Sicilies."

The Empress agreed to this change, but the King of Sardinia
was not so complaisant. In respect to him, it was necessary to
make the definitive treaty entirely conformable to the prehmi-
naries. It was this circumstance which prevented the King of
the Two Sicilies, from acceding to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
By that treaty the King of Sardinia was confirmed in those dif-
ferent possessions in the Milanois which the treaty of Worms
had adjudged him. These, however, did not include that part of

[■.

•■' t,

. , i

J.!.-:

*; I iiij«;^'ii

■^b^hmImmmAm

360

CHAPTER IX.

Placentia which had just been ceded to Don Phihp; nor the
marquisatc of Finale, which the Genoese retained. That Re-
public, and the Duke of Modena, who had always been the ally
of France, were restored to the same state in which they were
before the war. Silesia was guaranteed to the Kii^ of Prussia
by the whole of the contracting powers. As for England, be-
sides the guarantee of the British succession in favour of the
House of Hanover, she obtained a renewal of the expulsion oJ
the Pretender from the soil of France ; while this latter power,
victorious on the continent, consented to revive the humiliating
clause in the treaty of Utrecht, which ordered the demolition of
the Port of Dunkirk. The only modification which was made
to this clause was, that the fortifications of the place on the
land side should be preserved. Lastly, by the sixteenth article
of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the contract of the Assiento re-
specting the slave trade granted to England by the treaty of
Ijtrccht, was renewed in favour of the English Company of the
Assiento, for the four years in which that trade had been inter-
rupted during the war. * u i- • i
This peace produced no considerable change on the political
state of Europe ; but by maintaining the King of Prussia in his
conquest of Silesia, it raised a rival to Austria in the very centre
of the Empire. The unity of the Germanic body was thus
broken, and that body divided between the two leading powers,
Austria and Prussia. The system of aggrandizement and con-
venience which Frederic the Great had put in practice for de-
priving Austria of Silesia came afterwards into vogue ; and by
gradually undermining the system of equilibrium, which former
treaties had introduced, it occasioned new revolutions in Europe.
The dispute about the Austrian succession, extended its in-
fluence to the North, where it kindled a war between Russia and
Sweden. The Empress Anne, a little before her death (Oct. 17,
1740,) had destined as her successor on the throne of Russia, the
young prince Iwan or John, the son of her niece Anne of Meck-
lenburg, by Prince Anthony Ulric of Brunswick. The Regency
during the minority of Iwan, was conferred on her favourite
Biron, whom she had raised to the first offices of the state, and
created Duke of Courland. The mother of the young Emperor,
indignant at seeing the management of affairs in the hands of a
favourite, gained over to her interests Field-Marshal Munich,
by whose assistance the Duke of Courland was arrested and
banished to Siberia, whilst she herself was proclaimed Grand
Dutchess and Regent of the Empire. , .

The ministry of this princess were divided in their opinions,
on the subject of the war about the Austrian succession. Some

tiaita

. [)i I III iiiwir-r • r--^'--

iiMiiiiifiiiirif^^*"^'

•m

; nor the

That Re-

!en the ally

they were

of Prussia

ngland, be-

irour of the

expulsion o(

liter power,

humiliating

imolition of

was made

ace on the

enth article

Assiento re-

le treaty of

pany of the

been inter-

the political
ussia in his
very centre
y was thus
ling powers,
nt and con-
ctice for de-
ne ; and by
hich former
5 in Europe,
inded its in-
1 Russia and
ith (Oct. 17,
' Russia, the
ne of Meek-
he Regency
er favourite
e state, and
ig Emperor,
! hands of a
al Munich,
rrested and
med Grand

!ir opmions,
lion. Some

tERtoD vni. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

361

(iupported the cause of Prussia, with which Russia had jusi r*"-
iicwcd her treaties of alliance; while others were inclined for
AuMrin, the ancient ally of Russiii. This latter party having
prevailed, France, in order to prevent Russia from assistnig
Maria Theresa, thought proper to give her some ofcupaiion in
the North. It was by no means difficult to raise Sweden
against her ; where the faction of the Hatx, then the ruling
party, was entirely devoted to the French interest. This fac-
tion, which was opposed by that of the Bonnets, or Caps, re-
newed the treaty of subsidy with France, and also concluded a
treaty of perpetual alliance against Russia (Dec. 22, 1739.)
Encouraged by the young nobles, they flattered themselves that
the time was come, when Sweden would repair the losses which
she had sustained by the foolish expeditions of Charles XII.

A Diet extraordinary was assembled at Stockholm (Aug.
1741,) which declared war against Russia. They alleged,
among other motives, the exclusion of the Princess Elizabeth,
daughter of Peter the Great, and the Duke of Holstein-Gotlorp,
from the throne of Russia ; the assassination of Major Sinclair,
who had been murdered, as the Swedes aflirmed, by the emis-
saries of Russia, while bearing despatches from Constantinople
tor the Swedish Court, and when he was passing.through Silesia
on his way to Stockholm. This declaration of war had been
made, before the Swedes could take those measures which pru-
dence should have dictated. They had neither an army fit for
action, nor stores prepared in Finland ; and their General, Count
Lewenhaupt, had nothing to recommend him but his devotion
to the ruling party. Sweden had flattered herself that the Turks
would recommence the war with Russia, and that she would
thus find resources in the alliance and subsidies of France. The
first action, which took place near Wilmanstrand (Sept. 3, 1741)
was quite in favour of the Russians ; a great number of Swedes
were there either killed or made prisoners, and the town of Wil-
manstrand was carried sword in hand.

Meantime a revolution happened at St. Petersburg, which
seemed to have brought about a favourable change for the Swe-
dish government. The Princess Elizabeth, supported by the
Marquis de la Chetardie, minister of France, and by a company
of the guards whom she had drawn over to her interest, seized
the Regent Anne, her husband the Prince of Brunswick, and the
young Emperor ; all of whom she sent into exile, and caused
herself to be proclaimed Empress. The Swedes, who had flat-
tered themselves with having aided in placing that princess on
the throne, immediately entered into negotiations with her ; but
as they carried their pretensions too high, the conference was
broken ofl*. and the war continued.

•iii».

I-

'*'

■ifci ■= '

V:f

302

CHAPTBR IZ.

The campaign of 1742, proved also unfortunate for Sweden.
Iheir iinny in Finland, though equal in point of strength to that
of Russia, durst not keep the field. They abandoned all their
best posts one after another, and retired towards Helsingfors.
beyond the ri . er Kyrnen. Shut up in this position, and besieg-
ed by sea and land, they were obliged to capitulate. The Swe-
dish troops returned home, the Finnish regiments laid down
Itieir arms, and the whole of Finland surrendered to the Russians.

The States of Sweden having assembled under these circum-
stances, and bcMig desirous of an accommodation with Russia,
offered the tiirone of Sweden to Charles Ulric, Duke of Holstein-
Gottorp, and nephew of the Empress Elizabeth. That prince,
however, declined the offer of the Diet. He had just been de-
clared Grand Duke, and presumptive heir to the Russian Em-
pire, and had embraced the Greek religion. This intelligence
astounded the Diet, who then placed on the list of candidates for
the throne, the Prince Royal of Denmark, the Duke of Deux-
Ponls, and the Bishop of Lubec, uncle to the new Grand Duke
of Russia. A considerable party were inclined for the Prince of
Denmark ; and they were on the point of renewing the ancient
union of the three kingdoms of the North in his favour. To
prevent an election so prejudicial to the interests of Prussia, the
Empress abated from the rigour of her first propositions, and
offered to restore to the Swedes a great part of their conquests,
on condition of bestowing their throne on Prince Adolphus Fre-
deric, Bishop of Lubec. This condition having been acceded
to, Prince Frederic was elected (July 3, 1743 ;) the succession to
descend to his male heirs. A definitive peace was then conclu-
ded between Russia and Sweden, at Abo in Finland.

Sweden, by thus renouncing her alliance with the Porte, rati-
fied anew all that she had surrendered to Russia by the peace of
Nystadt. Moreover, she ceded to that Crown the province of
Kymenegard in Finland, with the towns and fortresses of Frie-
dricsham and Wilmanstrand ; as also the parish of Pyttis, l)ring
to the east of the Kymen, and the ports, places, and districts,
situated ut the mouth of that river. The islands lyinff on the
south and west of the Kymen were likewise included in thin
cession ; as were also the town and fortress of Nyslott, with its
territory. All the rest of Finland was restored to Sweden, to-
gether with the other conquests which Russia had made during
the war. The Swedes were permitted to purchase annually in
the Russian Ports of the Baltic, and the Gulf of Finland, grain
to the value of 50,000 rubles, without paying any export duty.

Portugal, about the middle of the eighteenth century, became
the scene of various memorable events, which attracted general

^mim

te for Sweden.
strength to that
doneu all their
ds Helsingfors.
ion, and besieg-
ite. The Swe-
ants laid down
to the Russians,
sr these circum-
}n with Russia,
uke of Holstein-
. That prince,
id just been de-
e Russian Em-
'his intelligence
)f candidates for
Duke of Deux-
ew Grand Duke
for the Prince of
ving the ancient
lis favour. To
s of Prussia, the
)ropositions, and
their conquests,
2 Adolphus Fre-
ig been acceded
the succession to
vas then conclu-
dand.

h the Porte, rati-
i by the peace of
t the province of
irtresses of Frie-
h of Pyttis, lying
es, and districts,
ids lyin? on the
included in thin
Nyslott, with its
d to Sweden, to-
lad made during
lase annually in
f Finland, grain
tiy export duty,
century, became
attracted general

PERtOD ▼III. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

3G3

attention. John V., who had governed that kingdom from 1706
till 1750, had fallen into a state of weakness and dotage, and
abandoned the reins of government to Don Gaspard, his confer-
sor, under whoite administration numerous abuses hud crept into
the state. Joseph I., the son and successor of John V., on
ascending the throne (July 31, 1750,) undertook to reform these
abuses. By the advice of his minister, Sebastian De Curvulho,
afterwards created Count D'Oeyras, and Marquis De Pombal,
he turned his attention to every branch of the administration.
He patronized the arts and sciences, encouraged agriculture,
manufactures, and commerce ; regulated the finances ; and used
every effort to raise the army and navy of Portugal from that
state of languor into which they had fallen. These innovations
could not be accomplished without exciting discontent in the
different orders of the state. The minister increased this by his
inflexible severity, and the despotism which he displayed in the
exercise of his ministerial functions ; as well as by the antipathy
which he showed against the nobility and the mmisters of reli-
gion. The Companies which ho instituted for exclusive com-
merce to the Indies, Africa, and China, raised against him the
whole body of merchants in the kingdom. He irritated the no-
bility by the contempt which he testified towards them, and by
annexing to the Crown those immense domains in Africa and
America, which the nobles enjoyed by the munificence of former
kings. The most powerful and the mo.st dangerous enemies of
this minister were the Jesuits, whom he had ventured to attack
openly, and had even ordered to be expelled from Portugal.
This event, which was attended with remarkable consequences,
must be described more fully.

During the life of John v., a treaty had been signed between
the Courts of Madrid and Lisbon (1750,) in virtue of which the
Portuguese colony of St. Sacrament and the northern bank of
the river La Plata in America, were ceded to Spain, in exchange
for a part of Paraguay. King on the eastern bank of the Uru-
guay. This treaty wa^, ...i the point of being carried into exe-
cution ; the commissioner :ippointed for this purpose had com-
menced their labours ; but the inhabitants of the ceded territories
opposed the exchange, as did several individuals in both Courts.
The Jesuits were suspected of being the authors and instigators
of that opposition. In the territories which were to be ceded to
Portugal, they had instituted a republic of the natives, which
they governed as absolute masters ; and which they were afraid
would be subverted, if the exchange in question should take
place. They used every means, therefore, to thwart the arrange-
ments of the two courts ; and it is alleged they even went so fai

'!■■..

'iU ■ 1

'■iH.{

.#•

,y^

864

CHAPTER IX.

as 10 excito a rebellion amonp the inhabilanlf of the countries to
bo cxiliariged. The ((.iispciuciicc was. a long and expensive
war between the two crowns, which orcu«ioned much bloodshed
and cosi I'oriugul alone ne.irly twenty millions of cruzados.

In the midst of these events, there occurred a terrible earth-
quake, which, in the twinkling of an eye, demolished the greater
part of Lisbon, and destroyed between twenty and thirty '.hou-
wnd of its inhabitants (Nov. 1, 1765.) Fire consumed what-
ever had escaped from the earlh(|uake ; while the overflowing
of the sea, cold and famine, added to the horrors of these ca-
iamities, which extended even over a great part of the kingdom.
The Jesuits were reproached for having, at the time of this distres-
sing event, announced new disasters, which were to overwhelm
Portugal, as a punishment for the sins of which the inhabitants
had been guilty. These predictions, added to the commotions
which still continued in Brazil, served as a pretext for depriving
the Jesuits of their office of Court-confessors, shutting them out
from the palace, and even interdicting them from hearing con
fessions over the whole kingdom. , v .

The outrage which was committed against the King s person
immediately after, furnished the minister with another pretext
against that religious order. The King, when going bv night
to Belem, (Sept. 3, 1758,) was attacked by assassins, who mis-
took him for another, and fired several shots at him, by which
he was severely wounded. Several of the first nobles in the
kingdom were accused, among others the Duke d'Aveiro, the
Marquis and Marchioness de Tavora, the Count d'Atougia, &c.
as being the ringleaders in this plot against the King's life, who
were sentenced to execution accordingly, [but their innocence
was afterwards fully established.]

The Jesuits were also implicated in this affair, and publicly
declared accomplices in the King's assassination. They were
proscribed as traitors and disturbers of the public peace ; then
goods were confiscated; and every individual belonging to the
order was embarked at once at the several ports of the king
doin, without any regard to age or infirmities, and transported
to Civita Vecchia within the Pope's dominions. The Portu
guese minister, apprehensive that this religious order, if pre-
served in the other states of Europe, would find means, sooner
or later, to return to Portugal, used every endeavour to have
their Society entirely suppressed. He succeeded in this at-
tempt by means of the negotiations which he set on foot with
several of the Catholic courts. In France the Society was
dissolved, in virtue of the decrees issued by the narhameni
(1762.) Paris set the first example of this. Iy0ui.s XV. declared.

mMMMM"^'

countrieH to

nd expensive

ch bloodshed

ruzados.

errible earth-

d the greater

thirty '.hou-
isutned what*
e overflowing
I of these ca-
the kingdom,
ofthisdistres-
to overwhelm
ic inhabitants

commotions
t for depriving
tting them out
hearing con •

King's person
nother pretext
?oing bv night
sins, who mis-
him, by which
: nobles in the
! d'Aveiro, the
d'Atougia, Sec,
king's life, who
heir innocence

, and publicly
They were
c peace ; theii
slonging to the
s of the king
nd transported
I. The Portu
3 order, if pre-
means, sooner
savour to have
ed in this at-
t on foot with
! Society was
he parliament
XV. declared.

KRIOD viit. A. D. 1713—1789.

that the Society should no longer oxist within tha kingdom.
The Court of Madrid, where ihoy hnd two powiTful iMicmie;!
in the ministry, Counts d'Arnnda and de Ciimpoimiiics, tom-
miindcd all the Jesuits to depart from llio territory nml jurisdic-
tion of Spain ; and, at the same time, declared their ;,'()0(l.s con-
fiscated. They wore likewise expelled from the kingdom of
Naples ; and the order was at length entirely suppressed, by a
brief of Pope Clement XIV. (July 21, 1773.)'

The peace of Aix-la-Chapello hnd by no means restored a
good understanding between France niul England. A jealous
rivalry divided the two nations, which served to nourish and
multiply subjects of discord between them. Besides, the ac-
tivity of the French in repairing their marine, which had Ijcen
destroyed in the last war, was viewed with jealousy by Great
Britain, then aspiring to the absolute command of the sea, and
conscious that France alone was able to counteract her ambi-
tious projects. Several matters of drsnute, which the peace of
Aix-la-Cnapelle had left undecided, still subsisted betweeen the
two nations, relative to their possessions in America. The prin-
cipal of these, regarded the boundaries of Nova Scolia and Cana*
da, and the claims to the neutral islands. Nova Scotia had been
ceded to England, by the twelfth article of the treaty of Utrecht,
according to its ancient limits. These limits the French had
circumscribed within the bounds of the peninsula which forms
that province ; while the English insisted on extending them to
the southern bank of the river St. Lawrence, of which the ex-
clusive navigation belonged to the French.

The limits of Canada Were not better defined than those of
Nova Scotia. The French, with the view of opening a com-
munication between Canada and Louisiana, had constructed se-
veral forts along the river Ohio, on the confines of the English
colonies in America. This was opposed by England, who was
afraid that these establishments would endanger the safety of
her colonies, especially that of Virginia. The neutral islands,
namely the Caribees, which comprehended St. Lucia, Domini-
ca, St. Vincent, and Tobago, still remained in a contested state,
according to the ninth article of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
The French, hov^ever, alleged certain acts of possession, by
which they claimed the property of thete islands, as well as of
the Caicos and Turkish islands. Commissiorjers were appoint-
ed on both sides to bring these disputes to an amicable termi-
nation. A conference was opened at Paris, which began aboat
the end of September 1750, and continued for several years ;
but as neither party was disposed to act with sincerity, these
conferences ended in nothing. The English, who saw that the

1^ CIIMTRR IX.

Frf ncli only sonj^ht to p;nin time for augmenting their marine
hasten»<(l the riiptiiro by committing: nets of hostility in AmRrica.
The first breach of the peace wiin committed on the banks of
the Oliii), where the French, to avenj^e the murder of one of their
orticers, seized on Fort Nece^Mity, belonging to the English
(July 1761.) The English, on their side, captured two French
vessels oir the Bank of Newfoundland, which had refused to
siilute the English flag. They even attacked all the French
merchantmen which they met, and captured about three hun-
dred of them. Thus, a long and bloodjr war was waged for the
deserts and uncultivated wilds of America, which extended its
ravages over all parts of the globe, involving more especially
the countries of Europe.

England, according to a well known political stratagem,
sought to occupy the French arms on the Continent ; in order
to prevent the increase of her maritime strength. France, in-
stead of avoiding that snare, and confining herself solely to
naval operations, committed the mistake of falling in with the
views of the British minister. While repelling the hostilities
of England by sea, she adopted nt the same time measures for
invading the Electorate of Hanover. The Court of London,
wishing to guard against this danger, bcgpn by forming a
closer alliance with Russia (Sept. 30, 1755 ;) thev demanded of
the Empress those supplies which they thought they might
claim in virtue of former treaties ; and on the refusal of that
princess, who was afraid to disoblige France, and to find her-
self attacked by Prussia, they applied to this latter power, with
which they concluded a treaty at Westminster (Jan. 16, 1766;)
the chief object of which was to prevent foreign troops from
entering into the Empire during the war between France and
England. To this treaty France opposed the alliance which
she had concluded with Austria at Versailles, by which the two
powers guaranteed their respective possessions in Europe, and
promised each other a mutual supply of twenty-four thousand
men in case of attack. The differences then subsisting between
France and Great Britain were not reckoned among the Casta
Federis.

[The alliance of 1756 has given rise to differeiit opinions
among statesmen ; the greater part have condemned it. Its ob-
ject was, on the part of France, to guard herself against all at-
tacks on the Continent, that she might direct her whole force
against her maritime rival ; but experience proved, that without
attaining this object, she was henceforth obliged to take part in
all the disputes of the Continent, however foreign they might
be to her own policy. It was even contrary to her interesU lo

Mnaawainisaci**"

their rrtarinw

y in America.

the hanl<R of

f one of their

the English

d two French

ad refused to

the French

t three hun-

waged for the

I extended its

ore especially

il stratagem,
lent ; in order
France, in-
rself solely to
J in with the
the hostilities
measures for
rt of London,
by forming a
Y demanded of
It they might
refusal of that
id to find her-
er power, with
an. 16,1766;)
n troops from
n France and
lUiance which
which the two
1 Europe, and
■four thousand
isting between
ong the Cana

erent opinions
led it. Its ob-
against all at-
sr whole force
1, that without
to take part in
fn they might
er interesta to

PERIOD vm. A. V. 1713 — 1789.

867

have Austria extricated from the rmbarrnssmonts which the op-
position of I'russia hud (U'casiDiicil Ih.t. If llint project had »uc-
rt'CcU'd, Austria would have hcfotne tlio propnruU'nitiiig power
in Gfrninriy, to a degree which would Imvo coiiipulU'd the I* renrh
to turn their arms against her.]

Whilo the French were still hesitating as to the part wiiich
they ought to take relative to the F'lectoruie of Hanover, the
King of Prussia invaded Saxony (Aug. 1756.) On taking this
step, he published a manifesto, the object of which was to prove
by the despatches of the three Courts of Vienno, Dresden, uiul
Petersburg, that they had concerted a plan among them for at-
tacking him ; and that coiimion prudence required him to pre-
vent it. He declared at the same time, that his entrance into
Saxony had no other aim than that of opening a communication
with Bohemia ; and that he would only retain that country as a
depot until the conclusion of the peace. This invasion, however,
stirred up a powerful league against Prussia (1757.) Besides
France and the Empress, it was joined by the Germanic body,
Russia and Sweden. France, wliich had at first restricted her-
.self to furnishing the Empress with the supplies stipulated by
the alliance, agreed, by a subsequent treaty, to despatch an army
of more than 100,000 men into Germany, against the King of
Prussia, and his ally the King of England ; and, moreover, to
pay to that Princess an annual subsidy of twelve millions of
florins.

In this war the French arms were attended at first with the
most brilliant success. They conquered the island of Minorca,
and seized the Electorate of Hesse, and the whole States of
Brunswick and Hanover ; but fortune soon turned her back on
them, when they experienced nothing but defeats and disasters. "
The extraordinary eflTorts which they were making on the Con-
tinent iifiturnlly tended to relax their maritime operations, and
thus afforded England the means of invading their possessions
in other parts of the world. In the years 1757 and 1761, Chan-
dernagore, Pondicherry, and Mahe, in the East Indies, fell into
ihe hands of the English , and in 1758, they seized on all the
French settlements on the river Senegal and tne coasts of Africa.
The Islands of Cape Breton and St. John in America ; the forts
and settlements on the Ohio ; Quebec (where General Wolfe
fell.) and the whole of Canada, were all conquered in like man-
ner, between the years 1756 and 1760. Finally, the Islands of
Guadaloupe, Managalante, Dominica, Martinique, Grenada, St.
Vincent, St. Lucia, and Tobago, were also taken from France.

The King of Prussia, though overwhelmed by the number of
his enemias, and finding no great assistance from his alliance

• M

^i ' >■■

.^w

li^'^

jlfl k ^t'tmint I 'm <r'' - i<i" *i* J

368

CHAPTER IX.

'; 1

xvith Enciand, nevertheless did not lose courage. He distin- ,
^^ shed Eself by the number of victories which he gamed ^
^vTr U.e power leagiied against him, during the campaign of j
r Seven Years' War." This war was already far advanced
vhenX Dale de Choiseul, who was then at the head of the ,
French ministry, observing the great superiority of the Englsh ,
r rencn minikin , , °f j famous Family Compact, which
i-e ^e^STd wUh thfcou t of Sadrid, and Jhich was conclu-
d af ParMlugust 15, 1761.) The object of this treaty was
.„on; . ,, nUlance and a perpetual union among the differ-
™.'bn,Sc.;" ftX.^ „r Ubon. tor .he purpose of «.«»■

•"S"S "ofVp'S 'is c';rUde?nt"l»-n. ,0 iota in
the war S suCisted tewecn France and England , bm .he

published by the two allied courts, -jJ^^J; ^f^i^E
irnnns should enter Portugal to secure the ports ot that kinguom

the ^P^"'"f' """y, ^i^^gjda was the only conquest which the

I? , nf r„ba in America; as a so Manilla and the Philip
• ;« the Indian 0™ a^fThe war thus became m ,re general.
Sn"d se n eS ^"0 Snie a new vigour, when an unloreseen
:;e"chTnged entirely the face of affairs, and disposed the beL

, '^^SXXpress of Russia, ^.ed abjij this t^^^

SdmadeTprussia and Pomerania d n.ng the war. Pete,

e. He disliiv
ich he gained
campaigns of '
far advanced,
le head of the
of the English ,
'!ovipact, which i
ch was conclu- I
this treaty was
ong the differ- i
irpose of coun-

ment to join in
igland; but the
n demanded of
Compact, gave
courts. Spain |
accede to their '
ain alleged the
ition, and which
A declaration,
hat the Spanish
»f that kingdom,
receive them as
id him under the
Igland (May 18,
ps, was then sent
ch troops joined
gainst that king-
quest which the
on the contrary,
Sfreat part of the
°and the Philip
me m )re general,
en an unforeseen
disposed the bel-

, this time; and
he throne. Peter,
isia, took an early
A suspension of
lich was foUowrd
rg (May 5, 1762.)
quests which she
the WOT. Petet

PERIOD vin. A. D. 1713—1789.

369

renounced the alliances which he had formerly contracted
agamst the King of Prussia; while he, in his turn, refused to
form alliances or engagements contrary to the interests of Rus-
sia, or to the hereditary possessions of Peter in Germany. But
the new Emperor was not content with testifying this mark of
affection for the King of Prussia. He agreed to send a body of
troops into Silesia to his assistance. A revolution, however,
happened in Russia, which occasioned new changes. Peter III.
was dethroned (July 9,) after a reign of six months. The Em-
)iress Catherine H., his widow, on ascending the throne, pre-
served the treaty of peace with the King of Prussia ; but she
recalled her troops from Silesia, and declared that she would
maintain neutrality between the King and the Empress.

Sweden, who had experienced nothing but defeats in course
of that war, followed the example of Russia. She agreed to a
suspension of arms with the King of Prussia, and soon after con-
cluded a treaty of peace with him at Hamburg (May 22, 1762.)
These two treaties paved the way for a general peace, the pre-
liminaries of which were signed at Fountainblean, between
France, England, S[fein and Portugal. The definitive peace
was concluded at Paris (Feb. 10, 1763.) This treaty was fol-
lowed by that of Hubertsburg, which reconciled Prussia with
the Empress and the Elector of Saxony.

By this latter treaty, the Empress surrendered to the King of
Prussia the province of Glatz, as also the fortresses of Wesel
and Gueldres. The Elector of Saxony again took possession
of those States which the King of Prussia had taken from him ;
and the treaties of Breslau, Berlin and Dresden, were renewed.
Thus, afler seven campaigns, as sangiunary as they were ex-
pensive, the peace of Hubertsburg restored the affairs of Ger-
many to the same state in which they had been before the war.

France, by the treaty of Paris, ceded to England Canada and
the island of Cape Breton, with the islands and coasts of the Gulf
and River of St. Lawrence. The boundaries between the two
nations in North America were fixed by a line drawn along the
middle of the Mississippi, from its source to its mouth. All on
the left or eastern bank of that riv«>r was given up to England,
except the city of New Orleans, which was reserved to France ;
as was also the liberty of the fisheries on a part of the coasts of
Newfoundland, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The islands of
St. Peter and Miquelon were given them as a shelter for their
fishermen, but without permission to raise fortifications. The
islands of Martinico. '^raudalonpe, Mariagalante, Desirada, and
St. Lncia, were sunundered to France; while Grenada, the
Grenadines, St. Vincent, IX>minica, and Tobaffo, were ceded to

^ i\

I l:-|

--' .1. i ww^ -

370

CHAPTER IX.

Enffland The latter power retained her conquei.t8 on the Sen-
fX^d reitowd to Fmnce the island of Gorea on the coast of
^Ska France was put in possession of the forts and tactones
wh"ch belong to her in the East Indies, on the coasts of Coro-
mandel OriL, Malabar, and Bengal under the restriction of

in Gemany TZ> the island of Minorca. England gaveup
o herTSeisle on the coast of Brittany ; while Dunkirk was
kept n the ame condition as had been ietennined by the peace
Kix-la-Chapelle. The island of Cuba with the Havana was
It'edto^he'Kingof Spain, -^o, on h.s part ceded to E^^^^^^
io«,l FlnTirfa with Fort Augustine and the Bay oi rensacom.
rt S of Portugal was restored to the same state in which
Kbfen before Se war. The colony of St. Sacrament in
AmerkaTwhich the Spaniards had conquered, was given back

^ S" peace of Paris, of which we have just now spoken, was
theera of England's greatest prosperity. Her commerce and
Lavi^tion eSded over all parts of tlte globe, and were sup-
3bv a naval force, so much vhe more imposmg, as it was
TTonger counterbalanced by the maritime power of France
which had been almost annihilated in the Preceding war. The
Jnmense territories which that peace had secured her, both in
AfricTand America, opened new channels for her industry,
^nd whTt deSrves es^cially to be remarked, is, that she ac-
quired at the same ti^e vast and important possessions m the

ThSpire of the Great Mogul in India had fallen into decay
»bout thebSginning of the eighteenth century. The viceroys
and ieuv governor! of the Empire, called SoubaAs ani Nabobs
Sd Omfindependent, and usurped the prerogatives o royalt,'
Ke d^Sricts u'nder their authority; 7'g^..f,f^fj^;^P^:
-or. reduced almost to the single city of Delhi, his capital, pre
;^rVed nothing but the shadow of sovereign power, by means of
Srinvesituri which he granted to these ambmous princes
and The coinage that was struck in his name. Whenever any
5?fferences aroS among these princes, they usually had recourse
fo the Euroian nations, who had settlements in W.a, and had
erected forS^Uh the consent of the Great Mogul, where thev
E an imed force for the protection of their commerce. If
the Frenc"Took the part of one nabob, it was sufficient to induce
the English to espouse the quarrel of his adversary ; and wh^e
Se two nations were mutually cult vatmg peace •« Europe,
, -hey were offn at the same time making war m India, by fur-

! t,

bts on the Sen- 1 1
m the coast of j
,8 and factories
coasts of Coro-
restriction ol

she had made
ngland gave up ,

Dunkirk was '

ed by the peace \

le Havana, was |

ceded to Eng- ;

r of Pensacola.

state in which

Sacrament in
was given back

ow spoken, was
commerce and
;, and were sup-
losing, as it was
3wer of France,
iding war. The
ired her, both in
)r her industry,
1, is, that she ac-
ossessions in the

fallen into decay
I. The viceroys
bahs and Nabobt
gatives of royalty
he Mogul Empe-
i, his capital, pre-
wer, by means of
mbitious princes,
Whenever any
lally had recourse
in India, and had
[ogul, where thev
lir commerce. If
jfficient to induce
srsarj' ; and while
jeace in Europe,
r in India, by fur-

PERioD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

371

nishing supplies to their respective allies. Success was for i
long time equal on both sides ; and it was not until the war of
1765, and by the victories and conquests of the famous Lord
Clive, that England obtained a decided ascendency over the
French in that quarter of the world.

Sourajah Dowlah, the Soubah of Bengal, instigated, as is sup-
posed, by the French, had taken possession of Calcutta (1756,)
the principal settlement of the English on the Ganges. His
cruel treatment of the English garrison, which he had made
prisoners of war, excited the resentment of that nation. To
avenge this outrage. Colonel Clive, supported by Admiral Wat-
son, retook Calcutta (Jan. 1757 ;) and after havmg dispossessed
the French of Chandernagore, their principal establishment on
the Ganges, he vanquished the Soubah in several actions, de-
posed him, and put in his place Jaffier Ali Khan, his general
and prime minister, w^ho was entirely devoted to England.

With this era commences the foundation of the British Empire
in India. It happened a short time after, that the Mogul Empe-
ror, Shah Allum, being driven from his capital by the Patans,
an Indian tribe, solicited the protection of the English, who
availed themselves of this occasion, as well as of the death of
Jaffier Ali, which happened at this time, to get themselves vested
by treaty (1765,) and by means of an Imperial charter, in the
sovereignty of all Bengal. In virtue of this title, which legiti-
mated their power in the eyes of the people, they seized on the
public revenues of the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa ;
with the reservation of an annual tribute, which they promised
to pay to the Mogul Emperor, and certain pensions which they
assigned to the Soubahs, whose phantom power they disposed
of at their pleasure. The dominion of the English in India, was
increased still more by subsequent conquests ; the most impor-
tant of which was the powerful state of Mysore, which they
utterly overthrew, after a series of wars which they carried on
with Hyder Ali, and his successor Tippoo Saib.*

[The death of Ferdinand VI., King of Spain, was an event of
some importance. He was succeeded by his brother Don Carlos,
King of the Two Sicilies, and eldest son of Philip V. by his
^second marriage, who assumed the title of Charles III. Under
this prince the philosophy of the eighteenth century penetrated
into Spain, where it displayed an energy, and gave rise to con
sequences, which had not yet attended it in France. It occa-
sioned the downfall of the Jesuits, which was accompanied by
deedd repugnant to justice and humanity. The ministers and
counsellors of that monarch, the Counts Arranda, Florida Blanca,
and Campomanes, introduced into the internal administration

«^ i

372

CHAPTER «•

!"'■

of Spain, especially its finances and tactics, an order ana rc^ni-
larit? which Imd b^en long unknown in that country. Ajrr.cul-
ture commerce, and industry were ^''^£'"".'"8 J° '^^J^'' '^[^"l"
their langour, when the American war again threw them mto
a state of fatal depression.] _ , i .u i

Before quitting Naples to take possession of the throne of
Spafn, Don Carlos, who, as King of the Two S.c.hes, had the
title of Charles VII., published a fundamental law, bearmg, that
agreeably to former treaties which did not admit the union of
theltalian States with the Spanish monarchy, he transferred
the k ngdom of the Two Sicilies to his third son Don Ferdinand j
as hi eldest son, Don Philip, was incanable of reigning, and his
second, Don Carlos, was destined for tlie throne of Spain. He
mrusted the administration to a regency, during the nonage of
he young prince, whose maiority was fixed at the age of seven-
een^ B? Ihis law he rcgufated the order of succession which
was to TaL place in the kingdom of the Two S.ci les, and which
wa the same as that which Philip V. had established m Spam
at the Cortes of 1713. After the descendants male and female
of his own body, Charles substituted his brothers Don Phihp,
Duke of Parma, and Don Louis ; adding, that the k/ngdom of
the Two Sicilies should never in any case be united with the
Spanirh monarchy. This regulation of the new King of Spain
accorded perfectly' with the terms of the seventh article of the
treaty of Vienna (1738,) which secured the kingdom of the Two
Sicilies to that prince and his descendants, male and female ,
and Sing these, to his younger brothers and their descendants,

"^ The King of Sardinia continued, however, to enforce his right
of reversion to that part of Placentia, which the fourth article of
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had secured to him, in case Don
Carlo shVuld remove frl the kingdom of the Two SicrUes t„
the crown of Spain. The Court of Prance, wishing to etam that
possession for 6on Philip, and to prevent the tranquillity o^^^^^^
from beinc disturbed by the pretensions of the King of »ardinia,
enLed foFocure tlL prince an equivalent with which he
:a have 'reason to be satisfied. This enu.vaknt way^^^^^^^
flune 10 1763) by a convention concluded at Pans, Between
France, Spain, L J the King of Sardinia. The latter consened
To Sic7his right of reverSon in the two cases sjjeci ed in Ae
seventh article of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; viz. (1.) tau
rthemSe descendants of Don Philip ; (2.) Should that pnnce,
or one of his descendants, be called either to the throne of Spa n
ox "o that of the Two Sicilies ; and should one or other of '.he.e
tii caLeV happn in the meantime, the drowns of France and

■ , I .i i i >uijMi»r«niMW I

mtmut

)rdcr aiiQ rcjn'*
ntry. Agricul-
to recover from
rew them into

the throne of
Sicilies, had the
AV, bearing, that
it the union of
, he transferred
)on Ferdinand ;
eigning, and his

of Spain. He
g the nonage of
he age of scven-
uccession which

ilies, and which
)lished in Spain
nale and female
lers Don Philip,
. the kingdom of
united with the
w King of Spain
th article of the
gdom of the Two
ale and female ;
heir descendants,

enforce his right
e fourth article o(
lim, in case Don
e Two Sicilies to
ling to retain that
mquillity of Ita.lj
King of Sardinia,
It with which he
valent was settled
.t Paris, between
e latter consented
Bs specified in the
;; viz. (1.) Fail-
hould that prince,
le throne of Spain
e or other of these
ns of France and

PPRIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

373

Spain engaged that the King of Sardinia should enjoy the same
airiount of annual revenue, which might accrue to him (after
deducting the expenses of administration,) from that part of Pla*
centia on the Nura, should he overcome into actual possession.
Foi this purpose, France undertook, by a special agreement,
yvhich was signed at Paris the same day with the preceding, to
pay the King of Sardinia, by twelve instalments, the sum ni
eight millions two hundred livres ; on condition of reverting to
France, should one or other of these alternatives happen.

The sudden aggrandizement of Russia, since the time of Peter
the Great, had changed the political system of the North. That
power had raised herself to the first rank. She dictated the law
to Poland and Sweden, her ancient rivals ; disposed of the
throne of Poland on every change of reign ; and at the same
time decided the fate of Courland. That dutchy, which had
long been possessed by the family of Kettler who held it as a
fief of the crown of Poland, had become vacant on the death of the
Duke Ferdinand, the last malo descendant of that House. Ann,
Empress of Russia, being then only Dutchess of Courland, had a
favourite, named Ernest John Biron, a man raised by fortune,
whose grandfather had been groom to James III., Duke of Cour-
land. When that princess mounted the throne of Russia, she
raised Biron to the rank of Count, and to the office of Great
Chamberlain and Prime Minister. The haughty favourite as-
sumed the name and arms of the family of Biron, in France ;
and prevailed with the Empress to grant him the dutchy of
Courland. At the death of the last Duke, he even succeeded in
getting himself elected by the States of that country (1737;)
with the aid of a body of Russian troops, which the Empress
had sent to Mittau, to support his election. He was invested
in the dutchy by the Republic of Poland, to be possessed by him-
self and his heirs-male ; but he did not long enjoy this new dig-
nity. He was deprived of it on the death of the Empress (1740;;
and banished to Siberia by the Grand Dutchess Ann, mother of
the young Emperor. This princess caused a new election to
be made by the nobility of Courland. The dutchy was then
conferred on Louis Ernest, Prince of Brunswick, who was to
marry Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. But the young
Emperor, Iwan, having been dethroned immediately after, the
Prince of Brunswick never obtained possession of the dutchy.
The Empress Elizabeth having decla'-ed to the Republic of
Poland that the Duke de Biron should never be liberated from
his exile, Augustus III., King of Poland, declared the dutchy of
Courland vacant. He then pre /ailed on the States ct that coun-
try to elect his own son, Prince Charles, whom he solemnly
invested in the dutchy (17/)9.)

^iUS

J n

"■"'^:r

374

CHAPTBR IX.

A new change happened at the death of the Empress Elua-
beth, in 1762. Peter III., on his accession to the throne ol Rus-
s-a, recalled the Duke de Biron from his exile. The Empress.
Catherine II., who succeeded her husband that same year, weiii
even farther than this; she demanded the restoration of de
Biron to the dutchy of Courland, and obliged Prince Charles of
Saxony to give it up to him (1769.) The Duke de Biron then
resigned the dutchy to his son Peter, who, after a reign of twen-
tv-five years, surrendered it to the Empress ; the btates ol
Courland and Semigallia made a formal submission to Russia

(March 28, 1795.) ,„ , . ^

The dethronement of Peter III., which we have just men-
tioned, was an event very favourable to Denmark, as it relieved
that kingdom from a ruinous war with which it was threatened
on the part of the Emperor. Peter III. was the head of the
House of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denmark had deprived ol
their possessions in Sleswick, by taking advantage of the dis-
asters that befell Sweden, which had protected that family
against the Danish kings. The Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp ex-
claimed against that usurpation ; to which the Court of Denmark
had nothing to oppose, except their right of conquest, and the
guarantee which the Kings of France and England, as media-
tors in the treaty of Stockholm, had given to Denmark with
respect to Sleswick. r u • v „

Peter III. was scarcely seated on the throne of Russia, virhen
he began to concert means for recovering his ancient patrimo-
nial domains, and avenging the wrongs which the Dukes of
Holstein-Gottorp, his ancestors, had received at the hands ol
Denmark. Being determined to make war against that power,
he attached the King of Prussia to his cause, and marched a
Russian army of 60,000 men towards the frontiers of Denmark
Six thousand Prussians were to join this army, which wassup-
potlcd by a Russian fleet to be stationed on the coasts of Po-
merania. The King of Denmark made every effort to repel the
invasion with which he was threatened. He set on foot an army
of 70,000 men, the command of which he intrusted to M. de
St. Germain, a distinguished French officer.

The Danish army advanced towards Mecklenburg, and esta-
blished their head-quarters in the town of that name, one
league from Wismar. The Danish fleet, consisting of twenty
sail of the line and el-^en frigates, appeared at the same time
off Rostock. The flames of war were about to kindle in the
North, and Peter III. was on the point of joining his army in
person at Mecklenburg, when he was dethroned, after a short
' feign of six months (July 9. 1762.> The- Empress Catherine

mpress Ehu-

throne oi Rus>

The EmprciiB,

line year, wetii

storation of Jc

■ince Charles of

de Biron then

reign of twen-

; the States uf

ision to Russia

have just men-
k, as It relieved
was threatened
he head of the
lad deprived of
tage of the dis-
ted that family
tein-Gottorp ex-
)urt of Denmark
nquest, and the
^land, as media-
Denmark with

of Russia, when
incient patrimo-
h the Dukes of
at the hands of
linst that power,
and marched a
ers of Denmark
, which was sup-
le coasts of Po-
sfTort to repel the
: on foot an army
trusted to M. de

nburg, and esta-
that name, one
i sting of twenty
L the same time
to kindle in the
ling his army in
ed, after a short
iprcss Catherine

i>RRI0D vui. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

375

il., who succeeded him, did not think fit to espouse the quarrel
of her husband. She immediately recalled the Russian army
from Mecklenburg; and being desirous of establishing the tran-
quillity of the North on a solid basis, and confirming a good un-
derstanding between the two principal branches of the House
of Holstein, she agreed, by a treaty of alliance with the King
of Denmark (1765,) to terminate all these differences by a
provisional arrangement, which was not to take effect until the
majority of the Grand Duke Paul, the son of Peter III.

This accommodation between the two Courts was signed at
Copenhagen (April 22, 1762.) The Empress, in the name of
her son, gave up her claim to the ducal part of Sleswick, oc-
cupied by the King of Denmark. She ceded, moreover, to
that sovereign a portion of Holstein, possessed by the family of
Gottorp, in exchange for the counties of Oldenburg and Del-
menhorst. It was agreed, that these counties should be erect-
ed into dutchies, and that the ancient suffrage of Holstsin-Got-
torp, at the Imperial Diet, should be transferred to them. This
provisional treaty was ratified when the Grand Duke came of
age ; and the transference of the ceded territories took place in
1773. At the same time that prince declared, that he designed
the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst to form an esta-
blishment for a youngei branch of his family, that of Eutin ;
to which the contracting powers also secured the bishopric of
Lubec, to be held in perpetual possession. The bishop of Lubec,
the head of the younger branch of the Gottorp family, was that
same year put in possession of the counties of Oldenburg and
Delmenhorst ; and the Emperor Joseph II. erected these coun-
ties into a dutchy and fiet male of the Empire, under the title
of the Dutchy of Holstein-Oldenburg.

Here it will be necessary to advert to the revolutions that took
place in the Island of Corsica, which, after a long series of troubles
and distractions, passed from the dominion of Genoa to that of
France. The oppressions which the Corsicans had suffered
under the government of the Genoese, who treated ihem with
extreme rigour, had rendered their yoke odious and insupporta-
ble. They rose several times in reoellion against the Republi-
cans ; but from the want of union among themselves, they failed
in the different attempts which they made for effecting their
liberty and independence.

One of the last insurrections of the Corsicans was that of
1729. They chose for their leader Andrew Geccaldi of a noble
family in the Island, and Luigi Giafferi, a man of courage and
an enthusiast for lilierty. The Genoese, after trying in vam to
subdue the insurgents, were obliged to have recourse to the pro*

' li

'■: i''M

<r4

'(.!♦'

376

CHAPTER IX.

tection of foreigners. They applied to the Emperor Charleb
VI., who sent ihem severul detachments of troops under tne
command of General Wnchtendonk, and Prince Frederic Louis
of Wurtemljerg. The Corsicans, too feeble to oppose an enemy
so superior in strength, were glad to lay down tneir arms. But
the war about the Polish Succession having obliged the Empe-
ror to withdraw his troops, the Islanders raised a new insurrec-
tion. A general assembly was then convened, which declared
Corsica to be a free and independent republic (1734.) GiafTeri
was re-elected General, and had for his colleague Hyacinthus
Paoli, father to the famous general of that name. Thus the Ge-
noese, after lavishing much expense on auxiliary troops, had the
mortification to find themselves still in the same condition in
which they were, before receiving the Imperial succours. They
then took into their pay bodies of Swiss and Grison troops ; and
even enlisted outlaws and vagabonds, and placed them in their
ranks to oppose the Corsicans.

It happened, during these transactions, that an adventurer ap-
peared in Corsica, the celebrated Theodore Baron Neuhof. He
was descended of a noble family in the county of Mark, in West-
phalia ; and having procured arms and ammunition at Tunis,
he repaired to Corsica (1736,) where he was determined to try
his fortune. His engaging manners, added to the prospects
which he held out of a powerful foreign assistance, induced the
Corsicans to confer on him the royal dignity. He was proclaim-
ed King of Corsica, and immediately assumed the external
badge? of royalty. He appointed guards and officers of state,
coined money in his own name, and created an order of knight-
hood, called the Redemption. Taking advantage of the enthu-
siasm with which he had inspired the Corsicans, he boldly made
war on the Genoese, and laid several of their places under
blockade. But his money being exhausted, and the people be-
ginning to cool in their attachment towards him, he took the
determination of applying for assistance to foreigners. He em-
barked for Holland, where he found means to engage a society
of merchants, by the allurements of a lucrative commerce with
Corsica, to furnish him with artillery, ammunition, and other
Bupplies, with which he returned to the Island.

Under these circumstances, the Genoese, threatened with
lotting for ever their sovereignty over Corsica, entered into an
awriciation with the Court of Versailles. This Court, fearing
thai England would take advantage of these disturbances to get
poHacssion of the Island, concerted measures with the Court of
Vienna, Jor obliging the Corsicans to return to t)ieir allegiance
to the Genoese. For this purpose, a plan of pacification was

!iMil'fiil.iil«»)iliMT*«i!i«>»iiiiii]'!,.ii'liri"lilill»»

PBRIOD VIII. A. D. 1713—1789.

ot Charkb
under tne
leric Louis
an enemy
irms. Biit
the Empe-
V insurrec-
h declared
I Giaflferi
iyacinthus
us the Ge-
ps, had the
ondition in
irs. They
roops ; and
m in their

enturer ap-
euhof. He
k, in West-
\n at Tunis,
lined to try
prospects
nduced the
LS proclaim-
le external
irs of State,
r of knight-
' the enthu-
x)ldly made
aces under
! people be-
lie took the
s. He em-
1^ a society
merce with
, and other

tened with
ired into an
urt, fearing
inces to get
le Court of
' allegiance
[ication was

dmwn up at Versailles, and Count lie Boissieux wus charged to
carry it into execution. This General liiiulcd in the Island
(1738,) (It the head ol' a body of French auxiliaries ; and his ar-
rival determined King Theodore to abandon Corsica, and seek
his safety in flight. He retired to London, where he was im-
prisoned for debt. After a long captivity he was set at liberty,
and died in a state of misery (1756.) boissieux harassed the
Corsicans exceedingly, but he failed in his efforts to reduce them
lO submission. His successor, the Marquis de Maillebois, was
more fortunate ; he took his measures with such precision uud
vigour, that he obliged the Islanders to lay down their arms, and
receive the law from the conqueror. Their Generals, Giaflcri
and Paoli, retired to Naples.

The war of the Austrian Succession, having obliged the
French Court to recall their troops from Corsica, that island be-
came the scene of new disturbances. Gaflbrio and Matra then
took upon them the functions of generalship, and the direction
of affairs. They had a colleague and coadjutor in the person
of Count Rivarola, a native of Corsica, who, with the assistance
of some English vessels succeeded in expelling the Genoese
from Bastia and San Fiorenzo. The Corsicans might have
pushed their advantages muth farther, if they could have sub-
dued their own feuds and private animosities, and employed
themselves solely in promoting the public interest ; but their
internal divisions retarded their success, and allowed their ene-
mies to recover the places they had conquered. Rivarola and
Matra having resigned the command, the sole charge devolved
on Gafforio, who was a man of rare merit and of tried valour.
He was beginning to civilize his countrymen, and to give some
stability to the government of the island, when he was assassi-
nated, as is s';pposed, by the emissaries of the Genoese (1753.)
His death plinged Corsica once more into the state of disordei
and anarchy from which he had laboured to deliver it.

At length appeared the celebrated Pascal Paoli, whom his
aged father had brought from Naples to Corsica. Being elected
General-in-chief by his countrymen ( 1756,) he inspired them
with fresh couroge ; and while he carried on the war with suc-
cess against the Genoese, he made efforts to reform abuses in the
State, and to encourage agriculture, letters and arts. Nothing
was wanting to accomplish this object, and to confirm the liberty
and independence of his country, but the expulsion of the Geno-
ese from the maritime towns of Bastia, San Fiorenzo, Calvi, Al-
gagliola and Ajaccio ; the only places which still remained in
their power. In this he would probably have succeeded, had he
not met with new interruptions from France, who had underta-

I I.

,!Sil*

M--

378

CnAPTBR IX.

ken, by the several treaties which she had concluded with ihs
Genoese in the years 1752, 1765, 1756 and 1764, to defend their
ports and fortifications in that island.

Tlie original intention of the French, in taking possession of
these places, was not to carry on hostilities with } aoli and the
natives, but simply to retain them for u limited time, in discharge
of a debt which the French government had contracted with the
Kejablic of Genoa. The Genoese had flattered themselves,
that if exonerated from the duty of guarding the fortified places,
they would be able, with their own forces, to reconquer all the
rest of the island ; but it was not long before they found them-
selves deceived in their expectations. The Corsicans drove the
Genoese from the island of Capraja (1767.) They even took
possession of Ajaccio, and some other parts which the French
had thought fit to abandon. At the same time the shipping of
the Corsicans made incessant incursions on the Genoese, and
annoyed their commerce.

The Senate of Genoa, convinced at last that it was impossible
for them to subdue the island, and seeing the time approach
when the French troops were to take their departure, took the
resolution of surrendering their rights over Corsica to the crown
of France, by a treaty which was signed at Versailles (May 15,
1768.) The King promised to restore the island of Capraja to
to the Republic. He guaranteed to them all their possessions
on terra firma; and engaged to pay them annually for ten
years, the sum of 200,000 livres. The Genoese reserved to
themselves the right of reclaiming the sovereignty of Corsica,
on reimbursing the King for the expenses of the expedition he
was about to undertake, as well as for the maintenance of his
troops. This treaty occasioned strong remonstrances on the part
of the Corsicans, who prepared themselves for a vigorous de-
fence. The first campaign turned to their advantage. It cost
France several thousand men, and about thirty millions of livres.
The Duke de Choiseul, far from being discouraged bythese dis-
asters, transported a strong force into the island. He put the
Count de Vaux in the place of the Marquis de Chauvelin, who,
by the skilful dispositions which he made, found himself master
t<f all Corsica, in less than two months. The Islanders not hav-
ing received from England the supplies which they had request-
ed, the prospect of which had kept up their courage, considered
it rash and hopeless to make Itmger resistance. The different
provinces, in their turn, gave in their submission ; and the prin-
cipal leaders of the Corsicans dispersed themselves among the
neighbouring States. Pascal Paoli look refuge in England.
The throne of Poland having become vacant by the death ol

"-■ rt%.iitj*M»t^^jiatf?ig?jg^iiB

■lu'^tuiitwiiriiMii

idcd with ihtt

defend their

possession uf
) aoli and the
B, in discharge
acted with the
themselves,
ortified places,
onquer all the
y found them-
cans drove the
hey even took
ch the French
he shipping of

Genoese, and

was impossible
time approach
irture, took the
ica to the crown
;ailles (May 15,

1 of Capraja to
leir possessions
nnually for ten
Bse reserved to
rnty of Corsica,
e expedition he
itenance of his
inces on the part
• a vigorous de-
antage. It cost
lillions of livres.
red by these dis-
id. He put the
Dhauvelin, who,
1 himself master
ilanders not hav-
liey had request-
rage, considered
. The different
a ; and the prin-
elves among thp

in England.
t by the death oi

nnu VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

379

Augustus III. (Oct. 6, 1763,) the Empress Catherine II. des-
iiiicd that crown for Stanislaus Poniatow:«ki, a Polixh nobleman,
who hud gained her favour when he resided at St. Petersburgh
as plenipotciitiarv of Poland. That princess having gained over
the Court of Berlin to her interests, sent several dc^tachnicnts of
trnops into Poland ; and in this manner succeeded in tarrying
the election of her favourite, who was proclaimed King at the
Diet of Warsaw (Sept. 7, 1764.) It was at this diet of election
that the Empress formally interceded with the Republic in
favour of the Dimdents (oi dissenters) of Poland and Lithuania,
with the view of having them reinstated in those civil and ec-
clesiastical rights, of which they had been deprived by the in-
tolerance of the Catholics. The name of Dissidents was then
given in Poland to the Greek non-conformists and to the Pro-
testants, both Lutherans and Calvinists. That kingdom, as well
as Lithuania, had contained from the earliest ages a vast num-
ber of Greeks, who persisted in their schism, in spite of the
efforts which were incessantly made by the Polish clergy for
bringing them back to the pale of the Romish church. The
Protestant doctrines had been introduced into Poland, and had
made considerable progress in course of the seventeenth cen-
tury ; more especially under the reign of Sigismund Augustus.
The nobles who were attached to that form of worship, had ob-
trined, at the Diet of Wilna (1663,) the right of enjoying, along
with the Greeks, all the prerogatives of their rank, and of being
admitted without distinction, both to the assemblies of the Diet,
and the oflices and dignities of the Republic. Moreover, their
religious and political liberties had been guaranteed in the most
solemn manner, not only by treaties of alliance, and the Pacta
Cmiventa of the kings, but also by the laws and constitution of
their kingdom. The Catholics having afterwards become the
stronger party, their zeal, animated by their clergy and the Jesuits,
led them to persecute those whom they regarded as heretics.
They had in various ways circumscribed their religious liberties,
especially at the Diet of 1717 ; and in those of 1733 and 1736,
they went so far as to exclude them from the diets and tribunals,
and in general from all places of tntst ; only preserving the peace
with them according to the ancient laws of the Republic.

The Dissidents availed themselves of the influence which
the Empress of Russia had secured in the affairs of Poland, to
obtain by her means the redress of their grievances. That prin-
cess interposed more especially in favour of the Greeks, accord-
ing to the ninth article of the peace of Moscow between Russia
and Poland (1686 ;) while the Courts of Berlin, Stockholm
London, and Copenhagen, as guarantees of the peace of Oliva

■

380

cnAPTER II.

urcfcl the c^'-ond nrticle of tlmt treaty in support of the I ro-
icMant (li^8c^t.'rs. Fur from yiol<linK t" "» intercession .n
novverfnl, thf Di.-t of Wnrcaw. in.ilitrulc.l by l ho rlorgy nnd the
Court of KoMK-, ill :ho venr 1706 i-onlirrned nil the former hiWH
riLminsi the I'mieMiuits Whicli the foreign courts had desireil to
bo iiUored tiud lunondcd. They n.er.-ly introduced some few
ino<liru-utioti.s in the law of 1717, relative to the exercise of their

worship. . „ ,. o n . u

This pullifttivc! did not satisfy the Court of St. Petersburg,
which persisted in doumnding an entire eciunhty of rights in
"ftvour of those under its protection. The Dissidents had the
couracre to resist, and entered into a confederucv at the assem-
blies which were held at Sluckz(1707) ond Thorn. Such ol
the Catholic nobility as were discontented with the government,
allied themselves with the Dissidents, and formed several dis-
tinct confederacies, which afterwerds combined into a general
confederation under Marshal Prince Radzivii. An extraordi-
nary Diet was then assembled at Warsaw. Their deliberations,
which began October 5, 17«7, were very tumuUuous. Without
being intimidated bv the presence of a Russian army, the
Bishop of Cracow and his adherents gave way to the full torrent
of their zeal, in the discourses which they pronounced before
the Diet. The Empress caused them to be arrested and con-
ducted into the interior of Russia, whence they were not per-
mitted to return till after an exile of several years. 1 hey agreed
at length, at that Diet, to appoint a committee, composed of the
different orders of the Republic, to regulate all matters regard-
ing the Dissidents, in concert with the ministers of the protect-
ing courts. A separate act was drawn up (February 24, 1768)
in the form of a convention between Russia and Poland.

By that act, the Dissidents were reinstated in all their former
rights. The regulations which had been passed to their pre-
judice in the years 1717, 1733, 1736, and 1766, were annulled ;
and a superior court, composed equally of both parties, was
granted to them, for terminating all disputes which might arise
between persons of different religions. This act was confirmed
by the treaty of peace and alliance concluded at Warsaw be-
tween Russia and Poland (Feb. 24, 1768,) by which these two
powers guaranteed to each other the whole of their possessions
in Europe. The Empress of Russia guaranteed, more especially,
the liberty, constitution, and indivisibility of the Polish Republic.
The act we have just now mentioned, as well as another
which modified what were called the cardinal or fundamental
aws of the Republic, having displeased a great majority of the
Poles, thev used every effort t.» have these. acts recalled. The

.'fgtta.iuiLmtmmim

riRioD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789

881

»rt of the Pro-

nlprtes«ion so
Inr^jy and ihe

w Cormpr Iuwh
met desired to
ed some few

uercise of llieir

St. Petersburg.

ty of rights ii)

idents had the

y at the assein-

lorn. Such ol

10 governmont,

ed several dis-

into a general

An extraordi-

ir deliberations,

uous. Without

(inn army, the

) the full torrent

jnounccd before

rested and con-

y were not per-

rs. They agreed

composed of the

matters regard-

8 of the protect-

»ruary 24, 1768)

1 Poland.

all their former

!ed to their pre-

were annulled ;

)th parties, was

lich might arise

t was confirmed

at Warsaw be-

vhich these two

fieir possessions

more especially.

Polish Republic.

tvell as another

or fundamental

majority of the

recalled. The

D»fi of Xf^ was no nooncr tcrminntod, than they formed thom-
»eff^s into a ('(infedoracy at Bar in Podoliii, for the defence of
tht'ir roliir?"" and liberties. By degrees, the^f extended to
S'-vcriil Fnlai/niiM's, and were at leiiirlh conibiniMl into a general
confi'deration, under (li'" Marsha! Count De I'lic The flnnchirds
of llicse confederates bore rijir'-''rituti()ri.s of ilic Virj/in Mary
and the Infant Jesus. Like the (,'riisnilers of the iniddic iiges,
they wore embrnidpred crosses on their giirrnent.", with tin- tuntio
Citnqucr or Die. The Russians dr-sintrht'd troops to disper.^e
the I'onfederates as fast as they .'oriibiried : but at length, with
the assistance of France, and M. De Vergeiines, the French
Ambassador at the Porte, they Micceeded in stirring u|) the
Turks against the Russians. The war between these two Em-
pires broke out towords the end of 1768, which proved disas*
•rous for the Turks, and suppressed olso the confederates in
Poland. The manifesto of the Grand Signior against Russia
was published October 30th, and his declaration of war Decern*
ber 4th, 1768.

The Empress despatched several annios against the Turks,
and attacked them at once from the banks of the Dniester fo
Mount Caucasus. Prince Alexander Galitzin, who commanded
the principal army, was to cover Poland, and penetrate into
Moldavia. He passed the Dniester different times, but was al-
ways repulsed by the Turks, who were not more fortunate in
their attempts to force the passage of that river. On their lost
attempt (September 1769,) twelve thousand men had succeeded
in crossing it, when there happened a sudden flood which broke
down the bridge, and cut off the retreat of the Turks. This body
was cut to pieces by the Russians, when a panic seized the Ot-
toman army, who abandoned their camp and the fortress of
Choczim. The Russians took possession of both without cost-
ing them a single drop of bloofl, and soon after penetrated into
the interior of Moldavia and W^nllachia.

The campaign of 1770 was most splendid for the Russians.
General Romanzow, who succeeded Prince Galitzin in the com-
mand of the army of Moldavia, gained two brilliant victories
over the Turks near the Pruth (July 18,) and the Kukuli
(August 1,) which made him master of the Danube, and the
towns of Ismael, Kilia, and Akcrman, situated in Bessarabia,
near the mouth of that river. Another Russian army, under
the command of General Count Panin, attacked the fortress of
Bender, defended by a strong Turkish garrison. It was carried
by assault (Sept. 26,) and the greater part of the garrison put to
the sword.

The Empress did not confine herself to repulsini^: the Turks

i'^i^Vi t

-J

38-2

CHAPTER IX.

on the banks of the Dniester and the Danube, and harassing
their commerce in the Black Sea. She formed the bo d pro-
ject of attacking them at the same time m the islands of the Ar-
ch.pelago, and on the coasts of Greece and the Morea^ A Rus-
sian fleet, under the command of Alexis Orloff and Admira.
SniritofT, sailed from the Baltic, and passed the ^orthern feeas
and the Straits of Gibraltar, on their way to the Archipelago.
Beinsr joined by the squadron of Rear- Admiral Elphinstone, they
foupht an obstinate battle with the fleet of the CapUan Pacha
(July 5, 1770,) between Scio and Anatolia. The ships of the
two commanders, Spiritoflf and the Capitan Pacha, having met
in the engagement, one of them caught fiie, when both were
blown into the air. Darkness separated the combatants ; but the
Turks having imprudently retired to the narrow bay of Lhisme,
th^ Russians pursued them, and burnt their whole fleet during
the ni"-ht. This disaster threw the city of Constantinople into
great consternation ; and the bad slate of defence in which the
Dardanelles were, gave them reason to fear, that if the Rus-
sians had known to take advantage of this panic, it would have
been easy for them to have carried the Turkish capital. Rear-
\dmiral Elphinstone, who commanded one of the Russian squad-
rons, had suggested that advice ; but the Russian Admirals
did not think proper to follow it. . .

The war on the Danube was continued next yeor, though
feebly ; but the second Russian army, under the command ot
Prince Dolgoruki, succeeded in forcing the lines at Perekop, de-
fended by an army of 60,000 Turks and Tartars, commanded
by the Khan of the Crimea in person. Dolgoruki, after hav-
ing surmounted the formidable barrier, made himself master of
the Crimea, as also of the Island of Taman ; and received from
the Empress, as the reward of his exploits, the surname of
Krimski. An act was signed by certain pretended deputies
from the Tartars, by which that nation renounced the dominion
of the Ottomans, and put themselves under the protection of

Russia (1772.) , ,., . . . v. u .

These conquests, however splendid they might be, could not
t fail to exhaust Russia. Obliged frequently to recruit her ar-
mies, which were constantly thinned by battles, fatigues, and
diseases, she soon saw the necessity of making peace. The
plague, that terrible ally of the Ottomans, passed from the army
into the interior of the Empire, and penetrated as far as Mos-
cow, where it cut ofT nearly 100,000 men in the course of a
single year (1771.) What added still more to the embanass-
ments of Catherine II. was, that the Court of Vienna, which,
in coniunction with that of B<>rlin. had undertaken to mediate

-tmmmimmm

PERIOD VJII. A. D. 1713— 17S9.

383

and harassing
I the bold pro-
ands of the Ar-
lorea. A Rus-
ff and Admira:

Northern Seas
le Archipelago. ,
Iphinstone, they

Capitan Pacha ,
'he ships of the
ha, having met
when both were
ibatants ; but the
' bay of Chism^,
lole fleet during
istantinople into
ice in which the
that if the Rus-
ic, it would have

capital. Rear-
3 Russian squad-
issian Admirals

;xt year, though
the command of
IS at Perekop, de-
;ars, commanded
oruki, after hav-
limself master of
ind received from
the surname of
etended deputies
ced the dominion
the protection of

ght be, could not

recruit her ar-
:les, fatigues, and
ing peace. The
ed from the army
d as far as Mca-

1 the course of «
to the embarrass-
)f Vienna, which,
rtaken to mediate

lietween Russia and the Porte, rejected with disdam the condi-
tions of peace proposed by the Empress. Moreover, they
strongly opposed the independence of Moldavia and Wallachia,
us well as of the Tartars ; and would not even permit that the
Russians should transfer the seat uf war to the right br nk of
the Danube.

The Court of Vienna went even farther : it threatened to
make common cause with tlie Turks, to compel the Empress to
restore all her conquests, and to place matters between the Rus-
sians and the Turks on the footing of the treaty of Belgrade.
An agreement to this effect was negotiated with the Porte, and
signed at Constantinople ('uly 6, 1771.) This convention,
however, was not ratified, the Court of Vienna having changed
its mind on account of the famous dismemberment of Poland,
concerted between it and the Courts of Berlin and St. Peters-
burg. The Empress then consented to restore to the Turks
the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, on the conclusion of
the peace ; and the Court of Vienna again engaged to exert its
friendly interference in negotiating peace betv/een Russia and
the Porte.

In consequence of these events, the year 1772 was passed
entirely in negotiations. A suspension of arms was agreed to
between the two belligerent powers. A Congress wos opened at
Foczani in Moldavia, under the mediation of the Courts of Ber-
lin and St. Petersburg. This Congress was followed by another,
which was held at Bucharest in Wallachia. Both of these
meetings proved ineffectual, the Turks having considered the
conditions proposed by Russia as inadmissible ; and what dis-
pleased them still more was, the article relative to the indepen-
dence of the Tartars in the Crimea. This they rejected as con-
trary to the principles of their religion, and as tending to esta-
blish a rivalry between the two Caliphs. They succeeded,
however, in settling the nature of the religious dependence
under which the Khans of the Crimea were to remain with re«
gard to the Porte ; but they could not possibly agree as to the
surrender of the ports of Jenikaleh and Kerch ; nor as to the
unrestrained liberty of navigation in the Turkish seas, which
the Russians demanded. After these conferences had been re*
peatedly broken off, hostilities commenced anew (1773.) The
Russians twice attempted to establish themselves on the right
bank of the Danube, but without being able to accomplish it ;
they even lost a great number of men in the difierent actions
which they fought with the Turks.

The last campaign, that of 177 \, was at length decisive.
Abdul Hammed, who had just succeeded his brother Mustaph*

<l i

|:.f

384

CHAFTER IX.

in on the Ihu.ne of Constantinople, being eager to raise tne
glory of the Ottoman arms, made extraordmary preparations
for this campaign. His troops, reckoned about 300,000 men,
ureaily surpassed the Russians in point of number ; but they
were not equal in point of di..ipline an.l military skill. About
the en<l of June, Marshal Komanzow passed the Uanube,
xvitbout meeting any obstacle from the Ottoman army. That
(ieneral took advantage of a mistake which the Grand Vizier
had committed, in pitching his camp near Sc-humla at too great
a distance from his detachments, and cut otThis communication
with these troops, and even with his military stores. Ihe de-
feat of 28,000 Turks, who vere bringing a convoy of four or
five thousand wagons to the army, by General Kamenski,
struck terror into the camp of the Grand Vizier, who, seeing his
army on the point of disbanding, agreed to treat with Marshal
Romanzow on such terms as that general thought fit to prescribe.
Peace was signed in the Russian camp at Kamargi, four le^es
from Silistria. Bv that treaty, the Tartars of the Crimea, Boud-
ziac, and Cuban, w'ere declared entirely independent ofthe forte,
to be governed henceforth by their own sovereign. Russia ob-
Uiincd for her merchant vessels free and unrestrained naviga-
tion in all the Turkish seas. She restored to the Turks Bes-
sarabia, Moldavia, and Wallachia ; as well as the islands m the
\rchipelaffo which were still in her possession. But she re-
served the city and territory of AzofT, the two Kabartas, the for-
tresses of Jenikaleh and Kerch in the Crimea, and the tvastle ol
Kinburn, at the mouth of the Dnieper, opposite Oczakoff, with
the neck of laud between the Bog and the Dnieper, on which
the Empress afterwards built a new city, called Cherson, to serve
as an entrepSt for her commerce with the Levant The foun-
dation of this city was laid by General Hannibal (Uct. Itf,
1778.) on the western bank of the Dnieper, fifteen versts from
the confluence of the Inguletz with that river.

The House of Austria also reaped advantages from that war,
bv the occupation of Bukowina, which she obtained from Kus-
sia. who halconquered it from the Turks. This part of Mol-
davia, comprehending the districts of Suczawa and Czernowitz,
was claimed by the Court of Vienna as one of its ancient ter-
ritories in Transylvania, which has been usurped by the princes
of Moldavia. The Por'e who was indebted to Austria lor
the restitution of this laiter province, had no alternative but to
abandon the districts claimed by Austria. Pnnce Ghikas o!
Moldavia, having opposed the cession of these proTinces, was
put to death by order of the Porte ; and Bu't";^!"" '*«^«''"S!?:
ed to Austria by subsequent conventions, (1776, ana im,]

mmmm

er to raise tne
y preparations
300,000 men,
iber; but they
' skill. About
the Danube,
1 army. That
I Grand Vizier
la at too great
communication
)res. The de-
ivoy of four or
iral Kamenaki,
ivho, seeing his
with Marshal
fit to prescribe,
•gi, four leagues
Crimea, Boud-
■nt of the Porte,
n. Russia ob-
trained naviga-
the Turks Bes-
ie islands in the
1. But she re-
abartas, the for-
nd the Castle of
Oczakoff, with
ieper, on which
Jherson, to serve
int. The foun-
nibal (Oct. 19,
>en versts from

8 from that war,
[lined from Rus-
his part of Mol-
ind Czemowitz,
' its ancient ter-
id by the princes
I to Austria for
Itemative but to
rince Ghikas of
B proTinces, was
ina was confirm-
776, and 1777,)

Earthtiuake at Lwbon. P. 3U4.

Engagement of the Rusiiian and Turkish Fleets off Scio,
1770. P. :tS'2.

■^

*i !

I-,

PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

385

which at the same time regulated the limits between the two
States. The peace of Kainargi, though glorious for Kussia,
proved most calamitous for the Ottoman Porte. By establishing
the independence of the Tartars, it lost the Turks one ot
their principal bulwarks against Russia ; and they were indig-
nant at seeing the Russians established on the Black Sea, and
permitted unrestrained navigation in all the Turkish seas.
Henceforth they had reason to tremble for the safety of their
capital, which might be assailed with impunity, and its supplies
intercepted, on the least disturbance that might arise between the
two Empires.

The many disasters which the Turks had experienced in the
war we have now mentioned, had a direct influence on the fate
of Poland, which ended in the dismemberment of that kingdom.
This event, which had been predicted by John Casimir in the
seventeenth century, was brought about by the mediation of the
Courts of Berlin and Vienna for the restoration of peace between
Russia and Turkey. The conditions of that treaty, which were
dictated by the Empress Catherine II., having displeased the
Court of Vienna, which had moreover displayed hostile inten-
tions against Russia, by despatching troops into Hungary, and
taking possession of a part of Poland, which Austria claimed as
anciently belonging to Hungary, the Empress took this occasion
of observing to Prince Henry of Prussia, who then sojourned at
her Court, that if Austria seemed inclined to dismember Poknd,
the other neighbouring powers were entitled to do the same.
This overture was comrrunicated by Prince Henry to his brother
the King of Prussia, who resolved to act on this nevy idea. He
foresaw it would be a proper means for indemnifying Russia,
contenting Austria, and augmenting his own territories, by
establishing a communication between the kingdom of Prussia,
and his dutchy of Brandenburg. These considerations induced
him to set on foot a negotiation with the courts of Vienna and
St. Petersburg. He gave the former to understand, that if war
should break out between Austria and Russia, he could not but
take part in it as the ally of the latter power ; while he repre-
sented to the Empress of Russia, that if she would consent to
restore Moldavia and Wallachia to the Turks, and indemnify her-
self by a part of Poland, she would aroid a new war, and facili-
tate an accommodation with the Porte. In this manner did he
succeed, after a long and difficult negotiation, in recommending
to the two Imperial courts, a project which was to give Europe
the example of a kingdom dismembered on mere reasons of con-
venience. A preliminary agreement was drawn up, in which
the equality of the respective portions of the three courtu waa

■'I'

386

CHAPTBR IX.

ra:»St»s ioSr:^r„,nf s:i::.»

"„4 oV=. r?«n»r. for oUaining a final «™S™';„'t'J !

the three Courts, were P'^^^?"^''^ "\^^" f^; ^s and districts
establishing the l^f'^'X^^t.-oPo ad m^ his ministry, in

manded. A y*^^'^"'^" ^. g^^^te and the Equestrian order,
Tlf of Ve kinin of Galicia and Lodomeria. One very

PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

387

A negctiatioii
r reculaling the
le Empress and
the divisions to

d at St. Peters-
(Aug. 5, 1772.)

which were to
I'cly, were there
r. They agreed
?mber following,
genient with the

the same treaty
urks, in order to
lid the Porte. In

letters-patent of
r, ill September

ies and districts
id memorials for
cr the countries
il his ministry, in
' the powers that
• alternative left,

three courts de-
^ar-saw, appointed
Equestrian order,
iree powers, as to
iiich the provinces
I them on the part
iigned at Warsaw,
the Diet of Poland,
■eaty with the Re-
Sips, which Sigis-

Polaiid in 1412 ;
ow, part of Sando-
jcutia, and part of j
were again incor- ,
een dismembered ; | .
r Slate, under the j '
meria. One very

was, the rich salt
r, which furnished

ivonia, the greater j
linatc of Msci?law, ,

and the two extremities of the Palatinate of Minsk." These
vhe Empress formed into two grand governments, those of Polotsk
and Mochilew. The King of Prussia had the states of Great
Poland, situated beyond the Netze, as well as the whole of
Polish Prussia, except the cities of Dantzic and Thorn, which
were reserved to Poland." That republic, in virtue of a treaty
with the King of Prussia, renounced also her rights of domaine,
and tiic reversion which the treaties of Welau and Bidgost had
secured to her with regard to Electoral Prussia, as well as the
districts of Lauenburg, Butow, and Draheim. The portion of
the King of Prussia was so much the more important in a poli-
tical point of view, as it united the kingdom of Prussia with his
possessions in Germany ; and, by giving him the command of
the Vistula, it made him master of the commerce of Poland ;
especially of the corn-trade, so valuable to the rest of Europe.

The three courts, in thus dismembering Poland, renounced,
in the most formal manner, all farther pretensions on the re-
public ; and, lastly, to consummate their work, they passed an
act at Warsaw, by which they sanctioned the liberum veto, and
the unanimity in their decisions formerly used at the Diet in
state matters; the crown was declared elective, and foreign
princes were to be excluded. The prerogative of the King, al-
ready very limited, was circumscribed still more by the establish-
ment of a permanent council ; and it was statuted, that no one
could ever change this constitution, of which the three powers
had become the guarantees.

[This partition of Poland must be regarded as the harbinger of
the total overthrow of the political system which for three hun-
dred years had prevailed in Europe. After so many alliances
had been formed, and so many wars undertaken, to preserve the
weaker states against the ambition of the greater, we here find
three powers of the first rank combining to dismember a stat?
which had never given them the slightest umbrage. The bar
riers between legitimate right and arbitrary power were thus
overthrown, and henceforth the destiny of inferior states was no
longer secure. The system of political equilibrium became the
jest of innovators, and many well disposed men began to regard
It as a chimera. Though the chief blame of this transaction
must fall on the courts of St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Vienna,
those of London and Paris were accomplices to the crime, by
allowing this spoliation to be consummated without any mark of
their reprobation.]

In Sweden, the aristocratic system had prevailed since the
changes which had been introduced into the form of government
by the revolution of 1720. The chief power resided in the body

*' i\

/':J^''>

'tr

If ^he Senate, and the royal J-^-i^^-^jKi.^ojS
shadow. The same Action., to H"^""^ ' ^J , ^y^^^^,, ,ho stale,
we have spoken above, contmued o n^ talc a ^^ ^^^.^^^^^^

The Hat« were of "P'"!""' ;'^,' Vj^Jl a, d Finland, it was ne-

and to recover the P'^.'"'',?,^.'^ ^ C c'^ ""'^ '^' ''"""' •
cessary to cultivate f"«"JJ P ^^^J^ „7" ^tpture with Russia,
order to secure 'I'^'Xr ha..d nailinel that Sweden ex-
The Bonnets, on the other ™. ' ;„ „o under-

hausted by. the P-ced-g war • -^M to u g 8 ^^ .^^^ .

taki..g against R"««'«;^/ ' P^jew £" to maintain peacfand
they had no other object m view than ji,,,„eti„n. These
good understanding ^^''J «'" "^^^'J"' ^ „,quiFed a new impot-
fwo factions, instigated by ^orc^guJM, g ^^^ ^^^ p^^^^
tance ^v^en the war broke oub,en^ ,^^^^ ^^^^^

It was in the Diet of ^^^^^^ '^ jyrnriving the members of the
possession of the f y""""""!' f J„ Jov Sts. There was some !
Sppo^i'" P^^^y °f T" r"T ^co W.C ce of her connexions

reason to believe that F™"^^^' '" ^-^J^^"; ' Sweden against '
with the Porte, had used every eflyt to st^rP ^^^^^

I Ru-ia. and that the J-- "J;^^^^^^^^^^^ ,

Constantinople to Stockholm, na ^^^^ ^^^j,j „„j

Russia had then to make ^'''l^XZ\l\n peace with Swe-
influence of the Bonnets, m °™f '"'"";;, ^^d by the Court of
den. In these endeavours .^^Hrto Tupport tie interests of
tetArof r o^to-lit^^o thwart France in her po-

"'^;S of Adolphus Jr^^^^S^, ^hS
n^eantime. opened a -^^^^^^^ ^Sol of his son and suc-
was summoned «" f^""^ ^Q 1771? This young prince at
cesser Gustavus HI. (^f- 12. J'? ; J^J'^ ^^ fo e^onciliate
first interposed ^tween the twopart.es, wim ^^^ ^^^^-^

them; but ^vith so httle ^^'^^'^^'^'^^i'^^^^
animosity, until the B«""«»;;^j^nrtreTta^ exp"l«io" of the
England, went ««J^' f ^^^^^^bu" from all other places and
Hats, not only from the f."^'^""*

dignities in the kingdom. I^'^^'^;;"'"!" dv was in the time of
an? circumscribed as the royal Ppr'f^^X.ions to be imposed
Adolphus Frederic, they de^"'!^.^ "^^^J^"^^^^^^^^ with Russia
: on hiS successor. The "«a.ies that ^^^^^^
and England, were evidently the resuu 01 >

that faction who had now ^^^^^I'^^^^Zl the necessity of
In this state of affairs, the youi^gK.K ^^^

Mjiwigijjijuuj-im- —

I
Iced .0 a mere
nncts, of which
jwiract the slate.
Lry of Sweden,
hiiid, it was ne-
|il the Porte, in
e with Riisnia.
int Sweden, ex-
re in no tinder-
. of pacification,
ntnin peace and
.notion. These
ed a new impor-
atid the Porte,
nd means to get
members of the
There was some
if her connexions
I Sweden against
who passed from
object than this,
ise the credit and
peace with Swe-
l by the Court of
rt the interests of
France in her po-

happencd in the
1 the Diet, which
f his son and suc-
I young prince al

I view to conciliate
ler increased their
rtcd by Russia and
al expulsion of the

II other places and
n became extreme ;

was in the time of
nions to be imposed
tjected with Russia
system adopted by
government,
iw the necessity of
Iministraiion. His
li popular manners.

TEKIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

889

had gained liiin a niuiiber of partisans. He possessed in an
einiiiftit ikjjfrce the art of dissimulation; and while he was
Miaiiiii;,' every arriitigcinpnl for a revolution, and concertiug rnea-
suri's ill xccrel with the French ainba.ssador, he seemed to have
iiotliiii'T so iniu-h at heart as to convince the world of his sincere
attachment to the established constitution. It is alleged, that he
had .sent emissaries over the whole kingdom to stir up the people
against their governors ; and that he might have some pretext
for calling out his troops, he induced Captain Hellichius, the
commandant of Christianstadt in Blekingen, to raise the standard
of revolt against the states who still continued their sittings at
Stu<'kholtn.

That officer, known afterwards by the name of Gvstafsckeld,
or the S/iield of Guslar us, published at first a kind of manifesto,
in which he reproached the States for their misconduct ; which
he showed to have been diametrically opposite to the public in-
terest and the laws of the kingdom. Prince Charles, the King's
brother, who was at that time al Landscrona in Schonen, being
informed of the proceedings of the commandant of Christianstadt,
immediately assembled the troops in the provinces, and marched
to that place, with the intention, as is said, of stifling the revolt
in its birth. The news of this insurrection spread consternation
in the capital. The Stales were suspicious of the King, and took
measures to prevent the ambitious designs which they supposed
him to entertain. Hellichius was proclaimed a rebel by the
Senate, and guilty of high treason. They advised the King not
to quit Stockholm, the command of which was intrusted to a
senator, the Count of Kalling, with the most ample powers. At
length the regiment of Upland, whose officers were devoted to
the Senate, were ordered to the capital, with the intention, as is
supposed, of arresting the King. That prince then saw that he
had no longer time to delay, and that he must finish the execu-
tion of the plan which he had proposed.

On the morning of the 19th of August, the King presented
himself to the troops who mounted guard at the palace ; and
having assembled the officers, he detailed to them the unfortu-
nate state of the kingdom, as being the consequence of those
dissensions which had distracted the Diet for more than fourteen
months. He pointed out to them the necessity of abolishing that
haughty aristocracy who had ruined the state, and to restore the
constitution to what it was before the revolution of 1680 ; ex-
pressing at the same lime his decided aversion for absolute and
despotic power. Being assured of the fidtiity of the guards,
who were eager to take the oath of allegiance to him, he ordered
a demchment to surround the Council Chamber where the Se-

'4'

. i

'Jl'

390

CHAmR IX.

natora were aasembled, and put the leaders of the ruhng party
under arrest. The artillery and other regiments of guards hav-
ing also acknowledged his authority, their example was soor,
followed by' all the colleges (or public offices,) both civil ano
military. The arrest against Hellichius was revoked, and the
regiment of Upland received orders to march back. These mea-
sures and some others were executed with so much skill and
punctuality, that the public tranquillity was never disturbed ;
and by five o'clock in the evening of the same day, the revolu-
tion seemed to be accomplished without shedding a single drop
of blood. Next day, the magistrates of the city took the oath to
the King, and the assembly of the States was summoned to meet
on the 21st. On that day the King caused the palace to be sur-
rounded by troops, and cannons to be pointed into the court op-
posite the Chambt-r of the States. Seated on his throne, and
surrounded by hi. guards, the King opened the assembly by an
energetic discou'-si;- which he addressed to the members, in which
he painted, in lively colours, the deplorable state of the kingdom,
and the indispen-suble necessity of applying some prompt remedy.
The new form of government which he had prepared was read
by his orders, and adopted without opposition by the whole four
orders of the kingdom. The king then drew a psalm-book from
his pocket, and taking off his crown, began to sing Te Dettm, in
which he was joined by the whole assembly. Mat'ers passed
in the interior of the provinces with as little tumult and opposi-
tion as in the capital and principal cities. The King's brothers
iSLcived, in his name, the oath of fidelity on the part of the in-
habitants and the military.

In virtue of this new form of government, all the fundamen-
tal laws introduced since 1680 were cancelled and abolished.
The succession to the throne was restricted to males only.
The lineal order, and the right of primogeniture, as settled by
the convention of 1743, and by the decree of the Diet of 1760,
were confirmed. The King was to govern alone, according to
the laws ; and the Senate were to be considered as his counsel-
lors. All the senators were to be nominated by the King, and
matters were no longer to be decided by a plurality of votes.
The senators were simply to give their advice, and the decision
belonged to the King. Courts of justice, however, were ex-
cepted. The chief command of all the forces in the kingdom,
both by sea and land, and the supreme direction of the Exche-
quer, were conferred on the King. On the report of the senate,
he filled up all the high offices in the state, both military, civil,
and ecclesiastical. He alone had the right of pardoning, and
of summoning the States, who could ne*er assemble on tlieir

le ruling party

of guards hav-

inplc was soon

both civil and

voked, and the

. These inea-

much skill and

ever disturbed;

lay, the revolu-

g a single drop

took the oath to

ninoned to meet

palace to be sur-

ito the court op-

his throne, and

assembly by an

imbers, in which

of the kingdom,

prompt remedy.

spared was read

the whole four

psalm-book from

ling Tt Detim, in

Mai'ers passed

mult and opposi-

? King's brothers

le part of the in-

.11 the fundamen-
d and abolished.
I to males only,
re, as settled by
he Diet of 1760,
ine, according to
d as his counsel-
by the King, and
ilurality of votes,
and the decision
wever, were ex-
I in the kingdom,
on of the Exche-
)ort of the senate,
>th military, civil,
f pardoning, and
assemble on tlieir

rBRioo VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1780. iH

own authority, except in a case where the throne became VMallli
by tJK? total oxlitiotion of the royal family in the male line. The
dunitioii of the Diets was lixcd for three muiiths, and the King
had the nrivilege of dissolving them at the end of that time.
He could make no new laws, nor interpret the old ones, nor im-
pose subsidies or assessments, nor declare war, without the ad-
vice nnd consent of the States. lie was allowed, however, to
levy an extraordinary tax, in cases where the kingdom might
hi attacked by sudden invasion ; but on the termination of the
war, the .States were to be assembled, and the new tax discon*
tinned. All negotiations for peace, truces, and alliances, whe-
ther offensive or defensive, were reserved to the King, by whom
they were to be referred to the Senate. If, in these cases, th«
unanimous voice of the Senate was opposed to that of the
King, it became his duty to acquiesce in iheir opinion. Every
Swedish citizen was to be judged by his natural judge. The
King could attaint neither the life, honour, nor fortune of any
citizen, otherwise than by the legal forms. All extraordinary
commissions or tribunals were to be suppressed, as tending to
establish tyranny and despotism.

The revolution of Stockholm, of which we have just now
spoken, had nothing in common with that which happened at Co-
penhagen the same yeor ; and which, without in any way af-
fecting the constitution of the kingdom, merely transferred the
reins of government from the hands of the reigning Queen to
those of the Queen-dowager."-

In a remote corner of Europe, there existed an association of
warriors, of a kind quite peculiar, namely, that of the Zaparog
Cossacs ; so called because they dwelt near the cataracts of the
Dnieper, where they served as a military frontier, first to the
Poles, and afterwards to the Russians. The chief residence of
these Cossacs was called Setscha. It contained a considerable
mass of houses, scattered and badly constructed, and had a
small fort occupied by a Russian garrison. The position of
Setscha had not always l)e(.ii the same ; but it was ultimately
fixed on the western bank of the Borysthenes, opposite Kame-
noi-Saton, an ancient fortress of the Russians, and was called
New Setscha. These Cossacs, known in Poland by the name
of Haydamacs, and formidable by their incursions and their de-
vastations, had adopted a republican form of government. Their
capital was divided into thirty Kurenes, or quarters. Every
Cossac belonged to one of these Kurenes. There he lodged
when he stayed at Setscha, and was obliged to conform to its
laws. All those who belonged to the same Kurene, formed as it
were one and the same family. Like the ancient Spartans

I'V

!'■. t

309

OHAFTBS n.

thev were nourished with the same food, and ate a*, the mam
tabfo. The overseer of ench Meparate Kurene v as called Ata-
man, and the chief of all the Kurenes Koichewoi- Ataman. All
the chiefs, without distinction, were elected by common consent ;
the Ataman by his own Kurene, and the Koschewoi l>y the
whole Kurenes united. They were deposed whenever they be-
came unpopular. The assemblies of Setscha were either ordi-
nary or extraordinary. In that which was repularly held every
year on the 1st of January, they made a formal division of the
fields, rivers, and lakes, among the Kurenes. They mad«» use
of lots in order to avoid disputes ; and they renewed them every
year, that a favourable chance might be given to all the Kurenes
in succession. At th«t assembly they elected new chiefs, if they
happened to be discontented with the old ones. As for the ex-
traordinary assemblies, they were held when it was in agitation
to undertaKe a campaign, or to make an excursion ; and gene
rally on all occasioms when the common interest seemed to re-
quire it. They had a judge and some other officers in Setscha.
The judge never pronounced sentence except in affairs of little
importance. Those which appeared more weighty required the
intervention of all the chiefs. They would suffer no woman to
remain in Setscha. Those who were inclined to marry were
obliged to remove elsewhere. To keep up their numbers the
Zaparogs received deserters and fugitives from all nations.
They were particularly careful to recruit their ranks with young
boys, whom tbey kidnapped in their excursions ; and brought
them up according to their customs and manner of living.

The treaty of Andrussov between Russia and Poland had
left these Cfossacs under the common protection of those two
States. They preferred that of Russia, and were continued
under the dominion of that power by the peace of Moscow.
Being afterwards implicpted in the revolt of Mazeppa, they put
themselves under the protection of the Tartars of the Crimea af-
ter the battle of Pultowa, and transferred their capital of Setscha
to the eastern bank of the Dnieper, nearer its mouth. Being
discontented under the Tartars, who repressed their incursions,
and often imposed exactions on Setscha, they took the resolution
of putting themselves once more under the dominion of Rus-
sia (1733.) The Empress Anne confirmed them in their pri-
vileges, and furnished money to assist them in rebuilding their
capital on the western bank of the Dnieper.

As they continued, however, to commit robbery and plunder
on the frontiers without intermission, and having neither friends
nor allies, Catherine II. resolved to annihilate this fantastic as-
sociation. Besides their depredDtions, the Zaparogs were ac-

te a', the nailM

an called Ate

Ataman. Ali

mmon conjicnl ,

schewoi Ivy the

icnever they be-

ere either ordi-

Inrly held every

division of the

They mad* uie

wed them every

all the Kurenes

!wchief», if they

As for the ex-

wn.s in asitation

^ion ; and gene

si seemed to re-

iccrs in Setscha.

n nflairs of little

hty required the

flfer no woman to

1 to marry were

eir numbers the

■om all nations.

ranks with young

IS ; and brought

er of living.

and Poland had

ion of those two

were continued

Mice of Moscow.

[azeppa, they put

of the Crimea af-

:apital of Setschn

i mouth. Being

their incursions,

)ok the resolution

ominion of Rus-

em in their pri-

rebuilding their

bery and phmder
ig neither friends
this fantastic as-
iparogs were ac- <^

PBIIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

filled of having usurped pufsessinn (»f several roiiiitrios between
the DriijMier nnd the Hi>j>'; ns well iin of Mvcrnl distrutN which
\\vtk lit nil tiincM lH>li)iiiri>(l lo tlu> ('(i.sMU'N of th(> Don. What
mop' pitrticuliiriy cxiifncratt'd the KinprcsM a>,'niiiMt thoni, wns,
ilint iK'iiig so olwtitmtcly ultiirlicd to tlicir nhsunl form of tjo-
vornmfut, they onpofc.l every schiMiie of reform, the ohjuf. of
whii li was to muke them live in re',Milnr nociety, nnd in the
boii'ls of mntrinutny ; or l«) induce ihf ni to form themselves into
regiments, after the manner of the other Cossncs. They had
also refused to send their deputies to Moscow, at the time when
Catherine had sent for them from all partis of the Empire, for
the formation of a new code of laws ; and there was some rea-
son to fear they might attempt to revolt, on "ccount of the
changes which the Empress proposed to make n the adminis-
tration of the government. These nnd other considerations in*
duced that princess to despatch a body of troops against Setscha
(1775.) The Zaparogs, attacked unawares, and inclosed on all
hands, saw themselves without the means of making the least
resistance. Their capital was destroyed, and their whole tiibo
dispersed. Those who were not inclined to embrace another
kind of life, were sent back to their native towns and their re»
spective countries.

The succession of Bavaria reverted of right to the Elector
Palatine, Charles Theoaore,as head of the eider branch of Wit-
telsbach. That prince had on his side, the Feudal Law of Ger-
many, the Golden Bull, the peace of Westphalia, and family
compacts frequently renewed between the two branches of that
house ; all Europe was persuaded that, should the case so turn
out, the rights of the Elector Palatine would be beyond all con-
troversy. Meantim»', the Elector Maximilian had scarcely
closed his eyes, when several pretenders appeared on the field, to
dispute the succession as his presumptive heirs. The Emperor
Joseph II. claimed all the fiefs of tne Empire, which his pre-
decessors had conferred on the house of Bavaria, without ex-
pressly including the princes of the Palatine branch in these
investitures. The Empress, Maria Theresa, besides the fiefs of
the Upper Palatinate holding of the crown of Bohemia, demand-
ed all the countries and districfi of Lower and Upper Bavaria,
as well as of the Upper Palatinate, which had been possessed by
the Princes of Bavaria-Straubingen, who had become extinct in
1425. She also alleged a pretended investiture, which the Em-
peror Sigismund had granted, in 1426, to his son-in-law Duke
Albert of Austria. The Electress-Dowager of Saxony, sister to
the last Elector of Bavaria, thought herself entitled to claim the
allodial succession, which she made out to be very extensive

;

394

CHAPTER IX.

Lastly, the Dukes of Mecklenburg brought forward an ancient
deed of reversion, which their ancestors had obtained from the
Emperors, over the landgraviate of Leuchtenberg. •

Before these different claims could be made known, the Aus-
trian troops had entered Bavaria, immediately after the death of
the late Elector, and taken possession of all the countries and
districts claimed by the Emperor and the Empress-Queen. The
Elector Palatine, intimidated by the Cabinet of Vienna, ac-
knowledged the lawfulness of all the claims of that court, by a
convention which was signed at Vienna (Jan. 3, 1778,) but which
the Duke of Deux-Ponts, his successor and heir presumptive,
refused to ratify. That prince was supported in his opposition
by the King of Prussia, who treated the pretensions of Austria
as chimerical, and as being incompatible with the security of the
constitution of the Germanic body. The King interposed in this
affair, as being a guarantee for the peace of Westphalia, and h
friend and ally of the parties concerned, who all claimed his pro-
tection. He demanded of the Court of Vienna, that they should
withdraw their troops from Bavaria, and restore to the Elector
the territories of which they had deprived hiin. A negotiation
on this subject was opened between the two courts, and numerous
controversial writings were published ; but the proposals of the
King of Prussia not proving agreeable to the court of Vienna,
the conferences were broken off about the end of June 1778, and
both parties began to make preparations for war. ^

It was about the beginning of July when the King of Prussia
entered Bohemia, through the county of Glatz, and pitched his
camp between Jaromitz and Konigratz, opposite that of the Em-
peror and Marshal Daun, from which he was only separated by
the Elbe. Another army, composed of Prussians and Saxons,
and commanded by Prince Henry of Prussia, penetrated into
Bohemia through Lusatia ; but they were stopped in their march
by Marshal Laudohn, who had taken up a very advantageous
position, and defeated all the measures of the Prince of Prussia.
At length a third Prussian army marched into Austria and Sile-
sia, and occupied the greater part of that province. Europe had
never seen armies more numerous and better disciplined, and
commanded by such experienced generals, approach each other
so nearly without some memorable action taking place. The
Emperor and his generals had the good sense to act on the de-
fensive ; while the efforts of the King of Prussia, to bring him to
a general engagement, proved altogether unavailing. This
prince, who had lost a great many rnen by sickness and deser-
tion, was compelled to evacuate Bohemia about the end of Oc-
tober, and his example was soon followed by his brother Prince

rBRioD vui. A. D. 1713—1789.

895

ward an ancient
itained from the

■g-

cnown, the Aus-

'ter the death of

le countries and

ess-Queen. The

of Vienna, ac-

that court, by a

1778.) but which

eir presumptive,

in his opposition

isions of Austria

le security of the

nterposed in this

^oKtphalia, and n

claimed his pro-

, that they should

ire to the Elector

. A negotiation

ts, and numerous

proposals of the

court of Vienna,

if June 1778, and

ir.

i King of Prussia

:, and pitched his

e that of the Em-

jnly separated by

ians and Saxons,

, penetrated into

led in their march

ery advantageous

Prince of Prussia.

Austria and Sile-

ice. Europe had

' disciplined, and

)roach each other

:ing place. The

to act on the de-

a, to bring him to

lavailing. This

:kness and deser*

It the end of Oc-

is brother Prince

Henry. At th"! beginning of this first campaign, the Empress-
Queen being desirous of peace, had sent Baron Thugut to the
King of Prussia, to offer him new proposals. A conference was
agreed to take place at the convent of Braunau (Aug. 1778,)
which had no better success than the preceding, on account of
the belligerous disposition of the Emperor, who was for continu-
ing the war. At length the return of peace was brought about
by the powerful intervention of the courts of Versailles and St.
Petersburg.

France, who was obliged, by the terms of her alliance with
Austria, to furnish supplies for the Empress-Queen, could not in
the present case reconcile this engagement with the interests of
her crown, nor with the obligations which the treaty of West-
phalia had imposed upon her, with respect to the Germanic body.
Besides, the war which had broken out between her and England,
on account of her alliance with the United States of America,
made her anxious for the restoration of peace on the Continent,
for avoiding every thing which might occasion a diversion of her
maritime forces. The Empress of Russia, who thought her
glory interested, could not remain a quiet spectator of a struggle
which, if prolonged, might set all Europe in a flame. She de-
clared to the Court of Vienna, that in consequence of the ties of
friendship and alliance which subsisted between her and the
Court of Berlin, she would find herself called on to join her
troops to those of Prussia, if the war was to be continued. But,
before coming to that extremity, she would interpose her good
offices, conjointly with France, to bring existing differences to an
amicable conclusion.

The mediation of these two courts having been accepted by
the belligerent powers, a congress was summoned at Teschen, in
Silesia, which was opened in the month of March 1779. The
Empress of Russia, to give the greater weight to her interfer-
ence, despatched a body of troops to the frontiers, destined to act
as auxiliaries under the King of Prussia, in case the war should
happen to be renewed. Prince Repnin, who commanded that
body, appeared, at the same time, in the capacity of ambassador-
extraordinary at the Congress. France sent, on her part. Baron
de Breteuil, her ambassador at the Court of Vienna. All things
being already prepared, and the principal difficulties removed,
the peace was concluded in less than two months. By this treaty,
the convention of the 3d of January, made between the Court
of Vienna and the Elector Palatine, was annulled. Austria wa."?
required to give up all her possessions in Bavaria, except the
places and districts situated between the Danube, the Inn, and
the Salza, which were ceded to her as all she could claim of ti»e

^^ M

It:

396

CRAPTBS nc

roccession of Bavaria, which she had renounced in 4e most for-
mal manner. The fiefs of the Empire, which had been confer, j
red on the House of Bavaria, were secured by that treaty to the .
Elector Palatine and his whole family ; as well as those situated
in the Upper Palatinate, and holding of the Crown of Bohemia. j

The Elector Palatine engaged to pay the Elector of baxony,
for his allodial rights, the sum of six millions of florins, money
of the Empire ; while the Empress-Queen gave up to the said
prince the rights which the crown of Bohemia had over certain
ieiffniories lying within Saxony, and possessed by the Counts o
ScCurg. The Palatine branch of Birkenfeldt, whose right ot
succession to the Palatine estates had been disputed, on the
Itiound of their being the issue of an unequal marriage, were
now declared capable of succeeding to all the estates and pos-
sessions of the House of Wittlesbach, as comp'ehended in the
family compacts of that house.

The existing treaties between the Court of Vienna and he
King of Prussia, and also those of Westphalia, Breslau, Berlin,
and Dresden, were renewed and confirmed; and a formal ac-
knowledgment made to the royal line of Prussia, of their right
to unite the margraviatcs of Baireuth and Anspach, failing the
piesent possessors, to the hereditary succession of the Electorate
of Brandenburg; which right the House of Austria had called
in question during the dispute which we have already mention-
ed. As for the House of Mecklenburg, they granted to it the
Diivilese of the non appellando,m virtue of which, no one could
carrv an appeal from the tribunals of that country to the sove-
reien courts of the Empire. The two mediating powers under-
took to guarantee this treaty. Thus the war for the succession
of Bavaria was checked at its commencement. The following
peculiarities are worthy of remark, viz. that the Palatine famiW,
who were the party chiefly interested, took no share in it ; while
Bavaria, the sole cause of the war, was no way engaged in it ,
and the Elector Palatine, who had even refused the assistance
of the King of Prussia, was, nevertheless, the party chiefly ben-
efited by the peace, by means of the protection of that prince.

The House of Austria having failed, as we have ]ust seen, m
her project of conquering Bavaria, tried, in the next piace, to
get possession of that country by way of exchange for the IN e-
Qierlands. The Elector Palatine appeared willing to meet the
views of the Court of Vienna ; but it was not so with the Uuko
of Deux-Ponts, who haughtily opposed the exchange; while the
King of Prussia, who supported it, was obliged to acknowledge
that such an exchange was inadmissible, and in opposition both
to former treaties, and to the best interesi8>of theGermamc body

in the most for-

ad been confer*

hat treaty to the

as those situated

wn of Bohemia.

lector of Saxony,

f florins, money

e up to the said

had over certain

by the Counts of

dt, whose right of

disputed, on the

I marriage, were

! estates and pos-

pi^ehended in the

' Vienna and the
, Breslau, Berlii\
and a formal ac-
isia, of their right
ispach, failing the
1 of the Electorate
\ustria had called
! already mention-
granted to it the
hich, no one could
untry to the sove-
ing powers under-
for the succession
I. The following
le Palatine famiW,
share in it ; while
ay engaged in it ,
sed the assistance
party chiefly ben*
1 of that prince,
have just seen, in
the next place, to
liange for the N««
rilling to meet the
so with the Duko
:hange ; while the
sd to acknowledge
in opposition both
le Germanic body

1 1
I

PKRiOD Vtll. A. 0. 1713 — 17S9.

90T

The Court of Vienna then abandoned this project, at least in
uppenrancc ; but the alarm which it had caiisecf throughout the
Empire, gave rise to an association, known by the name of the
Germanic Confederation. It was concluded at Berlin (July
23, 1785,) between the' three Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg,
and Brunswick-Luneburg ; besides several provinces of the Im-
periol State who adhered to it. This association, purely de-
fensive, had no other object than the preservation of the Ger-
manic System, with the rights ond possessions of all its members.

The Revolution in North America, deserves to be placed
among the number of those great events which belong to the
general history of Europe; Besides the sanguinary war which
it kindled between France and England, and in which Spain
and Holland were also implicated, it may be regarded as the
harbinger of those revolutions which took place soon after in
several of the Continental Slates of Europe. The English
colonies in North America were no otherwise connected with
the mother country, than by a government purely civil, by a
similarity of manners, and by customs, which long usage had
rendered sacred. They were divided into provinces, each ot
which had its particular constitution more or less analogous to
that of England, but imperfectly united with the mother coun-
try, because the inhabitants of these provinces were not repre-
sented in the national Parliament. If they had been so, Great
Britain would certainly never have enjoyed that monopoly which
she had reserved to herself, agreeably to the colonial system of
all modem nations. The exclusive privilege of sending her
commodities to the Americans, by lettering their industry, alien-
ated their affections from England, and made them naturally de-
sirous of shaking off her yoke ; and this propensity could not
fail to increase, in proportioti as these colonies increased in
strength, population, and wealth.

One consideration, however, likely to secure their allegiance,
was the protection which England granted them against their

Eowerful neighbours the French in Canada, the Spaniards in
'lorida, and the Barbarians in the West. The Canadians, es-
Ecially, proved daring and troublesome neighbours to New Eng-
id, which rendered the assistance and protection of the mother
country indispensable. The aspect of affairs changed at the
thne of the peace of Paris (1763.) England, by getting pos-
session of Canada and Florida, broke the main tie Avhich at-
tached the colonies to her government. Delivered then from
the terror of the French, and having no more need of foreign
succour to protect them from their attacks, the Americans began
to concert measures for extricating themselves from the domin-
ion of Britain.

r«1

.'.<

398

cnAFTBii a.

Tlic first disturbances that broke out were occasioned by the
altomnts which the Briish Parliament had made to unpose
mc's on the Americans. The national debt of England having
h^c eased considerablv during the precedmg war. the Parha-
ment thought they had a right to oblige the colonjes to furnish
Se r Juota for the' liquidation of that debt, -h.ch had been^on.
tracto( , in part, for the interests of America. The Parliament
passed an act, according to which all contracts ,n the American
colonies were to be drawn upon stamped paper ; and the tax on
Ihe stamp was regulated according to the different objects of the
conirac" When^his act had passed into a law, and was about
to bo carried into effect in America, it caused a general maur-
rection. The people committed all sorts of excesses and abuses
n.a n" the Ki Jg's' officers. The Courts of Justice were shut
un and the colonies began to form associations among them-
K They diJp"ted"the right of the British Parliament to
impose taxes on them ; alleging that they were "ot represented
there, and that it was the constitutional privilege of every Eng-
Uian, not to be taxed except by means of his own represen-
atives. The colonies having thus attacked the sovereignty and
oTislative power of the Parliament, laid an interdict on all
'•ommerce with the mother country, and forbade the purchase
of commodities imported from Great Britain.

The Parliament rescinded the Stamp act They publ shed,
however, a declaratory act which set forth that the colonies
were subordinate to, and dependent on, the Crown and Parha-
ment of Great Britain, in whom resided full power and au-
thority to make laws and statutes binding on the colonies, mall
nossible cases. The provincial assemblies of the colonists were
Snioined, by that act, to receive into their towns whatever num-
ber of British troops the mother country might think proper to
send, and to furnish them with wood and beer. Far from al-
laying these disturbances, this new act tended, on the contrary,
^exasperate them still more. The Americans considered i as
; tyrannical, and as having no other design than to des^^roy the
I foundation of their liberty, and to establish an absolute and

I '^^fhefiS' ministry made still farther conce.ssions. They
I abandoned altogether the idea of a tax to be levied m the m-

?e^or of the country, and limited themselves entirely to taxes
I or duties on importe'd goods. The Stamp act was replaced by

another (1767,) which imposed certain duties on lea, paper,

fead and paint-colours, &c. &c. exported from England mto the
olonie": 'This act was no better received than its predecessor.

The Assembly of Massachusetts, which was formed at Boston,

~l I

:casioned by the
nadc to impose
England having
war, the Parlia-
onies to furnish
had been con-

The Parliament
in the American

; and the tax on
int objects of the
r, and was about
a general insur-
esses and abuses
ustice were shut
ns among them-
h Parliament to
e not represented
ge of every Eng-
is own represen-

sovereignty and

interdict on all
,de the purchase

They published,
that the colonies
rown and Parlia-
II power and au-
Lhe colonies, in all
the colonists were
ns whatever num-
it think proper to
sr. Far from al-
1, on the contrary,
IS considered it as
in to destroy the

an absolute and

ncessions. They
levied in the in-

entirely to taxes
; was replaced by
ies on tea, paper,

England into the
%n its predecessor,
formed at Boston,

rEBIOD Till. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

890

addressed circular letters to all the colonies, cxhortmg them to
act in concert for the support of their rights against the mother
country. The resolutions which some of the colonies had al-
ready adopted, of prohibiting thn use of commodities manufac-
tured in Great Britain, became common to all the colonies ; and
the American merchants in general, countermanded the goods
which they had ordered from England, Scotland, and Ireland.
The spirit of revolt thus extending wider and wider, the British
government determined to employ troops for the restoration of
order and tranquillity in the colonies, and making them respect
the sovereignty of Great Britain (1769.)

Affairs were in this situation when Lord North, who had been
placed at the head of the admiriistration, succeeded in calming
the minds of the colonists, by passing an act which abolished
the obnoxious ta.xes, with the single exception of that on tea.
The view of the minister in retaining this tax, was not of reap-
ing any advantage from it; but he hoped by this trifling duty
to accustom the colonies to support greater taxes. The Ameri-
cans were very sensible of this ; however, as they imported very
little tea from England, and as the Dutch furnished them with
this article by way of contraband, they showed no symptoms of
resentment until the year 1773. At that time, the Parliament
having given permission to the East India Company to export
tea to America, of which they had large supplies in their ware-
houses, the Americans, indignant to see this Company made the
organ of a law which was odious to them, resolved to oppose the
landing of these tea cargoes. Three of the Company's vessels,
freighted with this article, having arrived at Boston, and prepa-
ring to unload, the inhabitants boarded them during the night
of the 21st of December, and threw all the chests into the sea,
to the number of 342. In the other provinces, they only sent
back the ships loaded with this obnoxious commodity.

On the news of this outrage, the British Parliament thought
it necessary to adopt rigorous measures. Three acts were passed
in succession (1774,) the first to lay the port of Boston under in-
terdict ; the second to abolish the constitution and democratic
government of Massachusetts, and substitute a royal govern-
ment ; and the third to authori: ^ the colonial governors to trans-
port to England the Americans who were accused of rebellion,
to be tried at the Court of King's Bench. General Gage was sent
to Uo.^ton with a body of troops and several vessels to carry these
coercive measures into effect. By thus adopting decisive mea-
sures, the British Parliament in vain flattered themselves, that
they could reduce, by force, a continent so vast, ond so remote
from the mother country, as that of America. Supposi.ig even

II \i

:.~J

400

CHAPTER IX'

flmt ll.ev could have suwceded, the spirit and nature of the

A general Congress, composed of the rePJ«H«nta •>«« of aU^he
clonics was opened at Philadelphia (Sept. 0-/77^.) iney
del ed the acu of the British Krliament aga.nst Massachu.
sous u be unjust, oppressive, and unconst.tut.onal. They
ate;d never more to nn port articles of cornmerce from G eat
bS. and preset un address to the King, and a petition
?o"hrHouse of 5on..nons. for the -dress c^ those gr.va^^^^^^^^^^
which the colonies had to complam. Th s latter step naving
nrodtld no effect, and the Parliament havmg «t.l Frs.^ted m i
fheir rigorous measures, hostilities commenced in the month o
Am 1 1775. The American Congress then conferred the com-
mS of their army on George Washington, a rich planter m |
T^Lll who had Acquired considerable military reputation by
hisCc^ss in opposing the French in Canada ; and at the same
til to ra se" hSnediate supplies of which the colon.es stood
n iieed the Congress agreed to issue paper money, sufficient to
ITtt Avoidable expenses of the war. A declaration, pub-
j Ushed in "he month of July, 1775, explained the reasons which
I had compelled the Americans to take up arms ; and announced
Er mention not to separate from Great Britain, nor adop a
pLro7absolu"te independence B"t as the BrU.sh Minis^^^^^
i hid made extraordinary efibrls for '^e campaign of 1776 and
1 aken a body of German troops mlo their pay. the Americans
' .houL'ht proper to break off all alliance with England that they
tight have Recourse in their turn to the protection o foreigners,
^hp indenendence of the Colonies was thereiore formally de-
clal^>aTAct^Cong^ess(July4,1776,) They f- drew
' up articles of confederation and perpetual union among tjie States
' ' of America, to the number of thirteen provinces, under the title
ot^rUnied States of Amrica. In virtue of this union, each
of th • Slates remained master of its own egislative and inter-
„a adm nistration. while the Congress, which was co^PO^ea o^
i 1 deouties from all the colonies, had the power of regulating all
' poEa affairs ; that is to say, every thing concerning war or
Seacf, alliances, money matl.^rs. weights and measures, posts,
§^ 'as well as the settlement of any differences wh.ch migh
aSse between two or more of the confederate States. The first
: i ?a oumble action for the Americans in their ^ar agun^t Eng-
■ I «nd wa^ that at Trenton on the Delaware, (Dec 25, 177r>,)
' wjie Geneml Washington surprised a My of Hessians and

1 niture of the i i
i them to main-
wever, far from i I
ed the cause of |
nishment. i I

tatives of all the
, 1774.) They
aiiist Massachu-
utional. They
erce from Great
g, and a petition
3se grievances o(
itter step having
still persisted in
in the month of
nferred the corn-
1 rich planter in
jry reputation by

and at the same
ihe colonies stood
jney, sufficient to
declaration, pub-
he reasons which
; and announced
itain, nor adopt a
! British Ministry
lign of 1776, and
y, the Americans
fngland, that they
tion of foreigners,
efore formally de-

They then drew
I among the States
;es, under the title
of this union, each
;;islative and inter-
1 was composed ol
r of regulating all
:oncerning war or
d measures, posts,
ences which might

States. The first
f war agi.inst Eng-
3, (Dec. 25, 1776.)
y of Hessians and

I 41 '■

■i;

Dentructioii of the Bastile ut TarU by the People. P. 433.

Lxccutioii of Louis XVI "C VrMu-i-.. P. 429.

Ill

u|)le. P. 433.

PKRioD nu. it D. 1713 — 1789. 401

English, and made thorn prisoners. But the event which in
some degree set the seal to the independence of America, waa
iliL' important check which General Burgoyne met with near
tSnratogn. Having advanced from Canada to support the opera-
tions of General Howe, who was marching on Philadelphia, he
was compelled by the American troops under General Gates to
Iny down his arms, by a capitulation which was signed in the
camp .It Saratoga (Oct. 16, 1777.) The news of this disaster
was nu sooner received in Europe, than France, who, during
ihe time that England was occupied with the disturbances in
America, had put her marine on a respectable footing, took the
resolution of acknowledging the New Kepublic,and entered into
d formal alliance with it. Treaties of friendship, alliance, and
commerce, were concluded at Paris between them and the Uni-
ted States of America (Feb. 6, 1778.) France demanded as a
primary condition, that the United States should not lay down
their arms, until England bad acknowledged their independence.
I'he notification which the Court of France made to that of Lon-
don of this treaty with the United States, became the signal of
war between these two nations.

This war which France had undertaken against England for
the free navigation of the seas, was the first which did not in-
volve the continent of Europe, as it was confined entirely to
maritime operations. The European powers, far from thwart-
ing France in this enterprise, applauded her success; and while
Great Britain depended on her own stren^h, and had not a sin-
gle ally on the Continent, France contrived to interest Spain
and Holland in her cause.

Spain, after having for some time held the rank of a media-
ting power, entered into the war in fulfihnent of those engage-
ments which she had contracted, by the Family Compact ; and
as respected Holland, England had determined to break with
her. The British ministry were oflended at that Republic, which,
instead of granting England the supplies that she was entitled
to claim in virtue of former treaties, had lent itself an accomplice
to the interests of her enemies. The Dutch, on their side, com-
plained of the multiplied vexations with which they were inces-
santly harassed by the British privateers. They had sought
to protect themselves against these, under the shield of that
armed neutrality which tne Empress of Russia had just negoti-
ated for protecting the commerce of neutral States ; and it was
in order to prevent their accession to that neutrality, that Eng*
land made such haste to declare Mrar against the Republic (Dec.
20, 1780.)

Without entering here into the details of that war, the prin*

p. 420.

.:■<•

402

OHAPTSK II.

cipal scene of which was in America, though it extended to
Africa and the Indies, we shall cnn^ne ourselves to a few g^n-
era) observations.

When hostilities commenced between Franco nnd England,
the latter had a very great superiority in maritime strength. She
had armies at the two extremities of the globe. The number of
her vessels was prodigious. Her arsenals were overloaded with
stores. Her doclc-yards were in the greatest activity ; but after
France and Spain had united their naval force, it was no longer
possible for Great Britain, obliged as she was to divide her
strength, to defend her distant possessions against the numerous
attacks of the French and their allies. Not fewer than twenty-
one engagements took place between the belligerent powers ; m
all of which England, from the experience of her Admirals, and
the ability of her naval officers, did not lose a single shin of the
line. The first naval action was fought near Ushant (July 27,
1778,) between D'Orvilliers and Admiral Keppel. This action,
the glory of which was claimed equally by both nations, was as
indecisive as most of those which followed it. The only decisive
actior, properly speaking, was that which Admiral Rodney fought
with Count de Urasse (April 12, 1782,) between the isfands of
Dominica and Saintes. The English Admiral having broken
the French line, succeeded in taking five ships of the line, inclu-
ding the Admiral's, and had the honour to carry him prisoner
to London.

At the beginning of the war, the English stripped the French
of their possessions in the East Indies, such as Pondicherry,
Chandemagore, and Mahe. They took from them the islands
of St. Peter and Miquelon, as well as that of St. Lucia, and
Gorea on the coast of Africa. The French afterwards repaid
themselves for these losses, by conquering the islands of Domin-
ica, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, St. Christophers, Nevis and
Monteserrat. All the forts and establishments of the English
on the Senegal in Africa, as well as Gondelore in the East In-
dies, fell into their possession.

The Spaniards made themselves masters of the fort:t which
the English occupied on the Mississippi. They took fort Mo-
bile or Conde, in ancient French Louisiana, and subdued the
whole of Western Floridii, with the town of Pensacola. In
Europe they recovered, with the assistance of the French, the
island of Minorca, with port Mahon and fort St. Philip; but the
combined forces of the two nations failed in their enterprise
against Gibraltar. This place, which was bravely defended by
General Elliot, was twice relieved with supplies by the English
fleet — first by Admiral Rodney (1780,) an4 afterwards by Lord

1 it extended lo
res to a few g^n-

CR nnd England.

me strength. She

The number of

overloaded with

livity ; but ofker

it was no longer

tras to divide her

inst the numerous

wer than twenty-
rerent powers ; in
her Admirals, and

single shin of the

Ushant (July 27,
pel. This action,
>th nations, was as

The only decisive
iral Rodney fought
'een the islands of
ral having broken
s of the line, inclu-
carry him prisoner

tripped the French
:h as Pondicherry,
n them the islands
of St. Lucia, and
I afterwards repaid
; islands of Domin-
jtophcrs, Nevis and
ents of the English
ore in the East In-

of the fortJi which
rhey took fort Mo-
a, and subdued the

of Pensacola. In

of the French, the
St. Philip ; but the

in their enterprise
>ravely defended by
(lies by the English
afterwards by Lord

rsRioD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789.

Howe (1788.) The flnnting batteries invented by M. D'Ar^oii,
whirii wf'ri" directed ngniuNt the garrison, were destroyed by thn
red-hot bullets whirh tli(« English commander showered upon
them in i,'rp<it profusion, it was i-hiefly this olistinnte determi-
nation (»f the bpniiiards to rerover the rock of Gibraltar, iliat for
a long time deprived France and Spain of the advantages which
ought to have accrued to them from the combination of their
naval strength against Great Britain. As fur the Dutch, they
experienced heavy lossi^s in this war ; their islands of St. Eu-
statia, Suba, and St. Martin in the Antilles, were sei/cd by the
English, who carried olF immense booty. Besides their esta-
blishments of Deinarara and Essequibo in Guiana, those which
they had on the Malabar nnd Coromandel coasts, especially Ne-
gapatani and Trincomalee, on the coasts of Ceylon, were reduced
in succession. The French succeed(!d, however, in reconquer-
ing the Dutch Antilles, atirl the fortress of Trincomalee.

In North America, the success of the war was for a long time
equally balanced between the English nnd the Americans. At
length Lord Cornwallis, nfterhavingconquered the two Cnrolinas,
advanced into Virginia. He took York Town and Gloucester ;
but having penetrated into the interior of that province. Generals
Washington, Rochainltaud, nnd La Fayette, turned their forces
against him, and were supporred in this attack by a French fleet,
which the Count de Grasse had brought to tneir aid. Lord
Cornwallis, surrounded on all sides, and shut up in York Town,
was obliged to capitulate (Oct. 19, 1781,) and surrendered him-
self and nis whole army prisoners of war. This event decided
the fate of America. The news of it no sooner arrived in
England, than a change took place in the British ministry.
Lord North and his colleagues resigned, and were replaced
by the members of the opposite party. The new ministrv
attempted to negotiate a special peace, either with the Ameri-
cans or with the Dutch ; but their eflTorts having proved unsuc-
cessful, they adopted the alternative of recognising the inde-
pendence of America, and then entered into a negotiation with
France. A conference was opened at Paris, under the media-
tion of Joseph II. and the Empress of Russia. It continued from
the month of October 1782, till September 1783, when definitive
treaties of peace were signed at Paris and Versailles between
Great Britain, France, Spain, and the United States of America.
The conclusion of the treaty between England and Holland did
not take place till the 20th May 1784.

In virtue of these treaties, the independence of the Thirteen
United States of America was acknowledged by England ; and
the boundaries of the respective possessions of the two powers

;HI

cnAPrm ix.

wfre regulated over the whole extent of North America. A
territory of vant extern \vu« nssignctl to the Unitml States, who
also obtained tht* right of fishinjf on ihc hanks of Newfoundland,
and in all othor piacp^ when- (ishinflf had till then hc'ri practised.

The French fisheries at Newfoundland, were settled in a man-
ner more ndvantaiifeous than hy the former treaties. The Inlands
of St. Peter and Mimiolon were ceded with full priviioffos to
France. In the Antilles, France retained St. Lucia and Toha-
go, restoring to England <irenada and the Grenadines, St. Vin-
cent, Dominica, St. Chri?<topher, Nevis, and Montserrat. In
Africa, the fort-s and settlements on the Senegal remained in
the possession of France, and the island of Goreii was restored
to her. In the East Indies, all the French settlements such at
Chandernagore, Pondicherry, and Mahe, were restored, and Eng-
land engaged to make some additions to Pondicherry. The
clauses in the former treaties relative to Dunkirk were abolished.
The island of Minorca in the Mediterranean, and the whole of
Florida in America, were ceded to Spain, who restored to Eng-
land the islands of Providence anti Bahama ; and moreover
granted the English the liberty of cutting logwood or dyewood
in certain places on the Bay of Honduras. Finally, Holland
ceded Negapatam to England, and granted to British subjects a
free trade in the Indian Seas, where the Dutch had till that time
maintained an exclusive commerce and navigation.

Such is an outline of the treaties of Paris and Versailles,
which terminated the American war. France thereby main-
tained the balance of maritime power against England, whose
vast naval superiority had alarmed all the commercial States of
Europe. [It is true that this advantage was of short duration,
as the English recovered their superiority, and during the French
Revolution, carried it to a pitch which it had never before reach-
ed ; besides, their commerce suffered no check by the loss of
their extensive colonies. The growing industry of the new Re-
public had more need than ever to be supported by all the capi-
tal and credit which the merchants could find in the mother
country.] France acquired the glory of having contributed, by
her efforts, to establish the new Republic of the United States,
which, by the vust extent of its territory, the progressive increase
of its population, its industry, and its commerce, must exercise,
in course of time, a prodigious influence on the destinies o^^
Europe.

One memorable event, which has some reference to the Amer-
ican war, was the confederacy of the Northern powers, under the
title of the Artned Neutrality. That war, which was purely
maritime, having given an astonishing hiacrity to the commerce

irth America. A

nitinl States, who

ofNowfomullnnd,

n l)C''ti prnrtised.

' si'ttlcil in II man-

rn. Tho Ifllnnds

full privilocjos to

. Lnriii and Tobft"

enadinos, St. Vin-

I Montserrat. In

legal remained in

orcii was restored

ettloments such a»

restored, and Eng»

•ondicherrv. The

irk wore abolished.

1, and the whole of

10 restored to Eng-

na ; and moreover

(gwood or dyewood

Finally, Holland

;o British subjects a

ch had till that time

gation.

iris and Versailles,
ance thereby main-
ist England, whose
omniercial States of
is of short duration,
id during the French
never before reach-
!heck by the loss of
istry of the new Re-
)rted by all the capi-
find in the mother
ving contributed, by
f the United States,
progressive increase
lerce, must exercise,
on the destinies of

iference to the Amer-
sm powers, under the
, which was purely
rity to the commerce

rsRioi* VIII, A. D. 1713 — 1789.

«05

of the North, by the demand which the belligerent powers made
for wood fur ship building and naval stores of nil kinds, Engiund,
ill order to prevent the French and Spaniards from procuring
these commodities in tho North, took advantage of her innri'wne
superiority, by seizing, without distinction, nil merchant vessels
under a neutral flag ; and confiscnting nil articles found on
board, belonging to the subjects of hostile countries. Tlie Em-
press of RuHMiii, wishing to put a stop to these depredations, re-
solved to protect by force of nrins, the commercial interests of her
subjects. By a manifesto which she addressed to France and
England (February 1780,) she informed these powers, that it
was her intention to maintain free intercourse for all effects
which might belong to the subjects of those nations at war ; ex-
cepting only genuine warlike stores, such as powder, balls, and
cannon, and in general, whntever might be reputed contraband
goods; in virtue of the 10th and 11th articles of her commercial
treaty with Great Britain (1766.) She did not rest satisfied
with making this declaration herself. She engaged Sweden
and Denmark to publish similar ones ; and entered into a con-
tract with those powers, for tho purpose of protecting the navi-
gation of their subjects by means of convoys, and for rendering
each other mutual assistance in case of any insult offered to
their merchantmen. The Court of Copenhagen declared more
especially (Aug. 10, 1780,) that the Baltic, by its local situation,
being a shut sea, no ships of war belonging to the belligerents
could be admitted there, or allowed to commit hostilities against
any one whomsoever. Several of the Continental powers, such
as the King of Pruosia, the Einperor Joseph II., the Queen ot
Portugal, and the King of the Tvvo Sicilies, joined the Armed
Neutrality, on the principles established in the declaration of
the Empress of Russia. France and Spain applauded these
measures, and the principles which the Empress had thus sanc>
tioned. England dissembled, pretending to refer to treaties,
and to wait a more favourable opportunity for explanation. But
in order to prevent the Dutch from taking shelter under the
armed neutrality, she declared war against that Republic, even
before the act oi her accession to these treaties had been ratified
by the powers of the North.

New disputes had arisen between the Russians and the Turks
after the peace of Kainargi. The haughtiness of the Porte was
unwilling to admit the independence of the Tartars, which was
sanctioned by that peace. He was indignant to see the Russians
parading their flag even under the walls of Constantinople ; and
moreover, he tried every stratagem to elude the execution of
those articles in the treaty which did not meet v/ith his approba-

1 -

lets expelled the £han Dowlut Gueray, who was favourably
SmedCards the Porte, and put Sahin G-ray .n hjs plac.
who was devoted to the interests of Russ a. 1 his lattnr having
SLe^ dispossessed by Selim Gueray, with the assistance of the
Porte the Empress marched a body of troops mto the Crimea,
iTer the command of Suwarow (1778.) and restored her pro-
♦po-p tn the throne bv force of arms.

^ThP Turks made cr.-":.t preparations for war, and a new rup-, I
turlbetweenrtwo empires was expected when, by the inter-
tare between me \ ambassador to the Turk-

Fsh Cour the fi van r^eVted to an accommodation which was
conclS It Constantinople (Marcli 21, 779,) under the name
TihTExplicative Convention. The independence of the Cn-
^Pn^ndXe sovereignty of Sahin Guenvy, were thereby acknow-
Su4d anronf^^^^^^^^^ anew. Russia and the Porte engaged to
withdraw theTr troops from that peninsula, as well as from the
wtnaravv ineir j promised especially never to al-

'i'l° p "cT., of^'p'Snt-, fo, Wring wi.h .he
lege uiiy v\\'-'- "^ » , t^i,„„„ The free intercourse be-

tIeXtk KftrXVhtSea'vt secured in the most
expr^s ma. iier to all Russian vessels that wore of the form, size
a'ldcapacity, of the ships of other nations who carried on trade

"'S.nrnSofdId not restore any permanent good und^r-
standing between the two Empires ; new troubles were no long
i , snrinffin- up a<rain in the Crimea. The Khan Sah n Gueray
wa?onoTmore eVlled by the party adhering to the Turks
1782T A Russian army immediately entered that peninsula,
Ee tored the Sgitive iChan ; while a Russian fleet sad.ng
i Se no t of Azoff, cut off" the malecontents from all commu-
Sion wUh Constantinople. Under these circumstances the
' Emnress Catherine II. thought the moment had arrived for pla-
d^ he Crimea among the number of her own provinces. She
■ cHu^ed her t^oop, to occupy that peninsula as well as the whole
nf rnban and expelled the Turks from Taman, of which they
i haJmade'themsekes masters, with the view of opening a com-
mu, SaUon with the Tartars. Finally, she explained, ma man-
So the motives which induced her to unite the *3r.mea to her
Emoirrtoither with the isle of Taman, and the Cuban and
\ feqXdsS Gueray formally to resign the sovereignty which
he had enjoyed for so short a lime (June 28, 17HJ.)

That event was a terrible blow to the Ottoman Porte. The
inhabilSinte of Constantinople loudly demanded war; but the

lili

5? ii.'

independence of

er ambitious pro-
was favourably

»ray in his place,
lis lattnr having

assistance of the
into the Crimea,

restored her pro-

r, and a new rup-

hen, by the inter-

iador to the Turk-

)dation which was

,) under the name

[idonce of the Cri-

e thereby acknow-

Porte engaged to

well as from the

cially never to al-

iterfering with the

ree intercourse be-

secured in the most

re of the form, size,

10 carried on trade

lanent good under-
iblcs were not long
[han Sahin Gueray
ring to the Turks
red that peninsula,
issian fleet sailing
lis from all commu-
circumstances, the
^ad arrived for pla-
vn provinces. She
s well as the whole
man, of which they
■ of opening a com-
xplained, in a man-
3 the Crimea to her
id the Cuban, and
3 sovereignty which
, 1783.)

oman Porte. The
nded war; but the

FfcuioD vin. A. D. 1713 — 178(9.

407

Divan, who were sensible of their weakness, used every endea-
vour to avoid it. The preparations of the Russians both by sea
and liiiid, were immense ; and there subsisted a co-operation and
,\ perfect intimacy between the Courts of Vienna and St. Peters,
burg. England tried in vain to engage the Turks to take up
arms, but they were withheld by France and Austria. Instead
of fighting, they were resolved to negotiate ; and a new treaty
was ."signed at Constantinople (Jan. 8, 1784.) The sovereignty
of the Crimea, the island of Taman, and all the part of Cuban
which lay on the right bank of the river of that name, and form-
*ed, as it were, a frontier between the two Empires, were aban-
doned to Russia. The fortress of OczakofT, to which the Tar-
tars of the Crimea had some claims, was ceded to the Porte,
with its whole territory. Thus ended the dominion of the Tar-
tars in the Crimea, once so terrible to Russia. The Empress
formed the whole of that vast country into two new govern-
ments, Taurida and the Caucasus.

There had existed for a long time certain disputes between
the Dutch and the government of the Austrian Netherlands, as
to the execution of the Barrier Treaty (1715,) and that of the
Hague (1718.) They had neglected to define precisely the
limits of Dutch Flanders, which these treaties had pointed out
rather than determined ; and for a long time the Imperial Court
had ceased to pay the Dutch the subsidies which the Barrier
Treaty had stipulated in their favour. That court would not
consent to agree to a definitive settlement of these limits, or the
payment of the subsidies, until England and Holland should co
operate with her in repairing the Barrier towns, whose fortifica-
tions had been ruined during the war of the Austrian Succes-
sion. She demanded, also, that these powers should unite for
concluding a treaty of commerce, and a tariff favourable for the
Low Countries, as they had engaged to do by former treaties.
At length the Emperor Joseph II. thought he might avail him-
self of the war which had arisen between England and Holland,
to free the Austrian Netherlands entirely from the claims which
the Barrier Treaty had imposed on them. The order for de-
molishing all the fortified places in the Netherlands compre-
hended the Barrier towns ; and the Dutch were summoned to
withdraw their troops from them. These republicans, not be-
ing able to solicit the protection of England, with which they
wore at war, found themselves obliged to comply with the sum-
mons of the Emperor. Their troops then evacuted all the Bar-
r-er towns in succession.

This compliance on the part of the Dutch, encouraged the
Emperor to extend his pretensions still farther. Not content

■■') ,

I ft

/^1

if" :i '

408

CHAPTER IX.

Nvith annulling the treaties of 1715-18, he required that the
boundaries of Flanders should be re-estabhshed on the footing
of the contract of 1664, between Spain and the States-General ;
and instead of making his new demand a subject of negotiation,
he took possession of the forts, as well as of the to^^nris and dis- ,
tricts included within the limits which had been fixed by thi&
latter agreement. The Dutch having addressed their com- .
plaints to the Court of Vienna against these violent proceedings, |
the Emperor consented to open a conference at Brussels (17«4,)
for bringing all these disputes to an amicable termination. He
declared, at the opening of the meeting, that he would desist from
all the claims which he had against the Republic, provided they
would grant the Belgic provinces the free passage and naviga-
tion of the Scheldt ; with the privilege of direct commerce with
India, from all the ports in the Netherlands. But while proposing
this state of things as the subject of negotiation, he announced,
that from that moment he was firmly resolved to consider the
Scheldt as free ; and that the least opposition, on the part ot the
States-General, would be, in his eyes, as the s:-nal of hostih-
ties, and a declaration of war. The Dutch, v .. .ut b^mg m-
timidated by these threats, declared the demai,! .,: ivmperor
to be contrary to their treaties, and subverr v - ,h salety
and prosperity of their Republic. Vice-Admiri - , nst ^yas
ordered to station himself, with a squadron, at the mouth of the
Scheldt, and to prevent all Imperial or Flemish ships from pass-
ing Two merchantmen having attempted to force the passage,
the Dutch gave them a broadside, and obliged them to strike.

The Emperor then regarded the war as declared, and broke
off the conference at Brussels ; he had, however, made no pre-
parations ; and the Low Countries were entirely divested of their
Troops, magazines, and warlike stores. The prince had flatter-
ed himself, that the Court of France would espouse his quarrel,
and that he would obtain from them the supplies stipulated by
the treaty of Versailles. But France, who was then negotiating
a treaty of alliance with the Republic, easily foresaw, that if she
abandoned them at that particular time, they would be obliged
to throw themselves into the arms of England. M. de MaiUe-
bois then got orders to pass to Holland, while France set on toot
two armies of observation, one in Flanders, and the other on the
Rhine. The King wrote to the Emperor very pressing letters,
wishing him to adopt pacific measures. , • . .u„

These proceedings and the numerous difficulties which the
war of the Netherlands presented to the Emperor, induced him
to accept the mediation of the Court of Fiance ; a negotiation
on this subject was entered into at Versailles. The bmperor

quired that the
d on the footing
States-General ;
t of negotiation,
e towns and dis-
n fixed by thi&
ssed their com-
lent proceedings
Brussels (1784,)
ermination. He
would desist from
ic, provided they
iage and naviga-
:t commerce with
t while proposing
n, he announced,
d to consider the
on the part of the
signal of hostili-
ivii ■ lUt being in-
,() M' Fmperor
V i. safety

lin ^^nst was
; the mouth of the
1 ships from pass-
force the passage,
them to strike,
clared, and broke
ver, made no pre-
y divested of their
prince had flatter-

fouse his quarrel,
ies stipulated by
s then negotiating
jresaw, that if she
would be obliged
d. M. de Maille-
France set on foot
id the other on the
•y pressing letters,

iculties which the
leror, induced him
ce ; a negotiation
8. The Emperor

rEBioo vin. A u. 1713 — 1789.

409

there persisted at first in maintaining the liberty of the Scheldt,
but afterwards became less rigid on this point. He was con-
tent to enforce his other claims. This negotiation was as tedi-
ous as it was intricate. It occupied the French ministry dur-
ing the greater part of the year 1785. The Emperor insisted
much on tlie cession of Maestricht, and the territory of Outrc-
Meuse. From this demand he would not recede, except on the
payment of a large sum of money by way of indemnity, and
another in reparation of the damage which the inundation of
Flanders, ordered by the States-General, had occasioned to his
Austrian subjects. By the peace which was signed at Fontain-
bleau, the treaty of Munstcr (164S) was renewed ; but nothing
was said of the Barrier treaty, nor of that of Vienna (1731.)
They agreed on shutting the Scheldt from Saftingen, as far as
the sea; as well as the Canals of Saas, Swin, and other com-
munications with the sea in the neighbourhood. The States-
General engaged to pay the Emperor, in lieu of his claims on
Maestricht and the Outre-Meuse, the sum of 9,500,000 Dutch
florins ; and another of 500,000 florins for repairing the damages
done by the inundations. That Prince got ample satisfaction
on the subject of most of his other claims ; and France under-
took to guarantee the treaty. Immediately after it was signed,
they renewed the negotiation respecting the treaty of alliance
projected between France and the Republic. This treaty was
also signed at Fontainblcau (Nov. 10, 1785) two days after the
treaty of peace.

Various intestine disturbances at that time agitated the Repub-
lic of the United Provinces. The animosity of the Republican
party against the Stadtholder and his partisans, had been re-
vived more keenly than ever, on account of the war in Ame-
rica between France and England. The Republicans reproach-
ed the Stadtholder for his devotedness to the interests of Eng
land, which had made him neglect their marine, and fail in the
protection which he owed the Dutch commerce, in his capacity
of Admiral-General of the forces of the Republic. The dif-
ferent magistrates of the municipal towns, in order to discredit
the Stadtholder in the opinion of the public, encouraged peri-
odical writers to inveigh against the person of William V. and
nis administration. They blamed his coun-sellors, and especially
Louis Duke of Brunswick, who, as governor to the Stadtholder
during his minority, had had the principal direction of aflairs,
and who still continued to aid him with his councils.

The city of Amsterdam, which had always been distinguish-
ed for its opposition to the Stadtholder, was the first that de-
manded the removal of the Duke, whom they blamed as the

*v;

1 .

j"r

4in

CHAPTER IX.

1 1

r«i«e of the languid state of their maritime power. That
\\ 0^08 Is CO, id to resi5,n., (17>S4.) and even to withdraw
! From the territories of the Republic. The retirement of the Duke
! embodened the oppo.unUs of the Stadtholder, who soon went be-
i vond all bounds, ^f hut party, purely aristocratic .n its ongu., had
I C a ler wards reinforced by a nudlitude of democrats who,
I! To^o Sed with hu,nblin/the Stadtholder, attacked e
'■ ' the power of the magistrates ; and tried to change the constUu-
! i tion by rendering the government more popular and democraUc.
• n the prLipal towns, associations were formed under the
■ i name of^Fre Vfc, for exercising the citizens m the manage-
: St o arms. The party opposed to the Stadtholder took the 1
Zlo(Zrio,s. fhe/were secretly supported by France
whTwished to employ them as an instrument for deslroymg the
Xerfo EnglaUand attaching the Repubhc to her own
imere tJ^ A popSlar insurrection, which happened at the Hague
1785 urnished the Stales of Ho.land with a pre ext for re-
movhg the Stadtholder from the command of that place, which
was ilusted to a Council. This blow, struck at a prerogative
Xh was regarded as inherent in the Stadthoklership.mduced
Ihe Prince of Orange to quit the Hague, and (ix his residence
n the provhce of SueldSrs, the States which were most par-
"cukrly devoted to him. An attack which the prmce made
agai t the towns of Elburg and Haltem, for refusing to ex-
ecL the orders which he had intimated to them in the nan,e
of the States of Gueldors. exasperated the minds of the Uutch^
U added to the strength of the Patriotic party, and encouraged
he States of Holland to make a renewed attack on tie Stad-
tholdership ; and even to go so far as to suspend the prince from
the functions of Captain-General ot that province.

The Court of Berlin had taken measures, bo h with the
States-General and the province of Holland, to facilitate an ac-
commodation between the two parties F;f ^Ji^ ^^'"'^^ "^
who succeeded his uncle Frederic the Great, (1786,) sent to the
Hague, with this view, the Count de Gortz, his minister of state .
while M. Gerard de Ravneval was ordered to repair thither on
the nart of France. A "negotiation was opened between these
two ministers and the principal leaders of the Patriotic party
but without effect. Their animosities rather increased, and the
Patriots broke out into every kind of violence. They uismis-
sed the magistrates of the chief towns by force, 7f/<^P'^J«^
them bv their own adherents ; a step which obliged the aristo-
crats to coalesce with the Stadtholder's party, in order to with-
suind the fury of the republicans. A civil war seemed 'o aU
ap^arance Sevitable. In this state of mMters. the Princess of

power. That
to withdraw
nt of the Duke
soon went be-
lts origin, had t
mocrats, who, j
attacked even :
Tc the constitu- |
md democratic,
ned under the
in the inanage-
holder took the
led by France,
destroying the
blic to her own
ed at the Hague
I pretext for re-
hal place, which
iit a prerogative
lorship, induced
X his residence
were most par-
le prince made
refusing to ex-
em in the name
ids of the Dutch
and encouraged
ick on tie Stad-
l the prmce from
nee.

s, both with the
) facilitate an ac-
leric William II.
1786,) sent to the
minister of state ;
repair thither on
ed between these
! Patriotic party,
ucreased, and the
E. They liismis-
rce, and replaced
bliged the aristo-
in order to with-
ar seemed 'o all
rs. the Princess of

PBBioo vm. A. n. 1713 — 1789.

Orange took the resolution of repairing in peroon to the Hague,
with the dr^sign, as she alleged, of endeavouring to restore
pence. She was arrested on her route by a detachment of the
republican corps of Gouda (June 28, 1787,) and conducted to
Schcenhoven, whence she was obliged to return to Nimeguen,
without being able to accomplish the object of her journey.

The King of Prussia demanded satisfaction for this outrage
offered to his sister. The States of Holland, not feeling dis-
posed to give it in the terms which the King demanded, he sent
ii body of 20,000 men to Holland, under the command of the
Duke of Brunswick, who, in the space of a month, made him-
.self master of the whole country, and even obliged the ciiy ot
Amsterdam to submit. All the former resolutions which had
been taken for limiting the power of the Stadtholder, were then
annulled, and the prince was re-established in the plenitude of
his rights.

Although the subsistence of the alliance between France and
the Republic was obviously connected with the cause of the
Patriots, the former took no steps to support that party, or to
oppose the invasion of the Prussians. France had even the
weakness to negotiate with the Court of London, for disarming
their respective troops ; declaring, that she entertained no hos-
tile intentions relative to what had passed in Holland. The po-
litics of the States-General from that time, underwent a com-
plete revolution. Renouncing their alliance with France, they
embraced that of Prussia and Great Britain. By the treaties
which were signed at Berlin and the Hague (April 15, 1788,)
these two powers undertook to guarantee the resolutions of
1747 and 1748, which made the Stadtholdcrship hereditary
in the House of Orange. France thus shamefully lost the
fruits of all the measures which she had taken, and the sums
which she had lavished for attaching Holland to her federative
system, in opposition to England.

The troubles which we have just now mentioned were soon
followed by others, which the innovations of the Emperor Jo-
seph II. had excited in the Austrian Netherlands. The differ-
ent edicts which that Prince had published since the first of
January 1787, for introducing a new order of administration in
the Government, both civil and ecclesiastical, of the Belgic pro-
vinces, were regarded by the States of that coimtry as contraiy
to the established constitution, and incompatible with the en-
gagements contracted by the sovereign on his accession. The
great excitement which these innovations caused, induced the
Emperor to recall his edicts, and to restore things to their an-
cient footing. Nevertheless, as the public mind had been exas-

: i

. N

\ ^k

-,«

ui*

«"ii

•1^

412

CHAPTEB IX.

Derated on both sides, disturbances were speedily renewed. The
Einpcror ha vin<^ demanded a subsidy, which was refused by tlie
Slates of Brabunt and Hainault, this circumstance induced him
to revoke tiie anmesty which he had granted ; to suppress the
States and Sovereign Council of Brabant ; and to declare, that
he no longer considered himself bound by his Inaugural Con-
tract. A great number of individuals, and several members of
the States, were arrested by his orders. The Archbishop of
Mechlin, and the Bishop of Antwerp, were suspected of having
fomented those disturbances, and saved themselves by flight.

Two factiojis at that time agitated the Belgic Provinces, where
they fanned the flame of civil discord. The one, headed by Vonk,
an advocate, and supported by the Dukes of Ursel and Arem-
berg, inclined to the side of Austria. These limited their de-
mands to the reformation of abuses, and a better system of re-
presentation in the States of the Netherlands. The other, under
the direction of Vandernoot, and the Pensionary Vaneupen,
<vhile adhering to the support of the ancient forms, pretended to
vest in the States, that sovereignty and independence of which
they wished to deprive the House of Austria. The partisans of
Vonk hoped to eflect, by their own means, the reforms which
they had in view ; while the adherents of Vandernoot founded
their hopes on the assistance of foreigners— especially of Prussia,
who would not fail, they supposed, to seize this occasion of weak-
ening the power of Austria. This latter party had undertaken
to open an asylum for the discontented emigrants of Brabant, in
the territory of the United Provinces in the neighbourhood of
Breda. The two parties acted at first in concert. Vandermersch,
a native of Menin in Flanders, and formerly a Colonel in the
Austrian service, was proposed by Vonk, and received as Gen-
eral by both parties. A body of the insurgents, under the com-
mand of Vandermersch, marched to Turnhout in Brabant, and
repulsed the Austrians, who had come to attack them under the
orners of General Schroeder. This first success gave a stimu-
lus to the insurrection, which spread from Brabant over the other
Belgic provinces. The Austrians abandoned by degrees all the

Erincipal towns and places, and retired to the fortress of Luxem-
urg. Vandernoot made his triumphant entry into Brussels.
The States of Brabant assembled in that city, and proclaimed
their independence (Dec. 29, 1789.) The Emperor Josejjh II.
was declared to have forfeited the sovereignty, by having viola-
ted the engagements which he had come under by his Inaugural
Compact.

Tlve example of Brabant was soon followed by the other pro-
vitices. An assembly of Deputies, from all 'the Belgic provinces

,. . '"^imlu^*^

nniov VIM. A. D. 1713—1789.

413

•enewed. The
refused by the
3 induced him
) suppress the

declare, that
augural Con-
•al members of
Archbishop of
icted of having
'es by flight. i
ovinces, where
eaded by Vonk,
•sel and Arem- |
miled their de- |
r system of re-
'he other, under j
vry Vaneupen, !
as, pretended to
dence of which
rhe partisans ol

reforms which
dernoot founded
;ially of Prussia,
[■casion of weak-
had undertaken
ts of Brabant, in
eighbourhood ot

Vandermersch,

1 Colonel in the
received as Gen-
, under the com-
, in Brabant, and
i them under the
;ss gave a stimu-
ant over the other
ly degrees all the
)rtress of Luxem-
ry into Brussels.
f, and proclaimed
nperor Joseph II.
j by having viola-
■ by his Inaugural

by the other pro-
! Belgic provinces

WP.« formed at Brussels (Jan. 11, 1790.) They signed an Act,
by which these provinces joined in a confederacy, under the title
of the United Belgic States. The rights of sovereignty, in m
fur as regarded their common defence, were vested in a Con-
gress, composed of deputies from the diflercnt provinces, under
the name of the Sovereign Congress of the liv/gir States. Each

1>rovinco preserved its independence, and the exercise of the ,
egisiative power. Their union was declared permanent iind
irrevocable. They meddled neither with religion nor the con-
stitution, and they admitted no other representatives than those
who had been already nominated. This latter determination
highly displeased General Vandermersch, and all those of Vonk's
party, who had as much horror for an oligarchy in the States as
for the despotism of the Court of Vienna. The party of the
States prevailed nevertheless by the influence of Vandernoot,
and the instigations of the priests and monks. Vandermersch,
and all the zealous partisans of reform, were removed from the
management of afiairs. The former was even arrested, and
General Schonfield put in his place. Ruinous impeachments
and imprisonments were the consequences of this triumph of ike
aristocratic faction.

These divisions, added to the death of Joseph II., which hap-
pened in the meantime, produced a change favourable for the
mterests of the Court of Vienna. Leopold II., who succeeded
his brother on the throne of Austria, seemed disposed to termi-
nate all these differences; and the Belgic Congress, seeing they
could not reckon on the assistance of foreign powers, were also
desirous of coming to an accommodation. The Court of Berlin
had refused its protection to the Belgians, and that of London
was decidedly opposed to their independence. These two courts,
conjunctly with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, inter-
posed their mediation for allaying those disturbances. The
Emperor Leopold solemnly engaged, under the guarantee of the
three media*ing powers, to govern the Netherlands agreeably to
the constitution, laws, and privileges which had been in force
under the Empress Maria Theresa ; never to do any thing to
their prejudice ; and to annul whatever had been done to the
contrary under the reign of Joseph II. A declaration published
by Leopold (Nov. 1790,) enjoined all his Belgic subjects to take
anew the oath of allegiance. That Prince granted a general
and unconditional pardon to all those who should lay down their
arms within a given time. All the provinces in succession ac-
knowledged their allegiance. Brussels opened her gates to the
Austrian troops (Dec. 2, 1790,) and the patriots Vaneupen and
Vandernoot took refuge in Holland.

'if;

414

CHArTER U.

The nnimosily which had for n long lime subsisted betweiD
Riisstn nnil the Porto, oira^ioned a new war between these two
powers in 17W. The T nri<s roiild not endure the huifiiliuting
conditinnM wiiich the late treaties with Russia liad imposed on
them. Tiif hiirli tone which tlie Court of St. Petersburg used
in tiii'ir ooninnitiications witli the Porte, wounded the pride of
the Ottomans ; and tlie extraordinary journey of the Empress
to Cher.«on iinil tlic Crimea (May 176?,) in which she was ar-
companied by tiie Emperor Joseph II., created alarm even in
the city of Constuntinopie. Tlic inhabitants of that capital
thou(<;ht they could perceive, in that journey, a premeditated do*
sign in the Courts of St. Petersburg and Vienna to annihilate
the Ottoman Empire, and divide the spoil between them. The
Court of London, supported by that of Berlin, dexterously fanned
the sj)ark which lay concealed under these ashes. They wish-
ed to be avenged on the Court of St. Petersburg for the diflicuU
ties which slie had thrown in the way of rcnewinj^ ^..eir treaty
of commerce ; as well as the advantageous conditions which she
had granteil to France by the conuiiorcial treaty concluded with
that power. The great activity with which Russia had carried
on her commerce in the Black Sen, since she had obtained en-
tire liberty liv her tri»aties with the Pone, excited likewise the
jealousy of England, who was airaid that the commercial con-
nexions which she maintained with that power, through the
Black Sea, might thereby l»e destroyed. The Turks, moreover,
had to complain of the Russian Consul in Moldavia, who, as
ihey alleged, sought every means to interrupt the peace and good
understanding between the two Empires. They demanded that
he should be recalled, and moreover, that the Empress should
renounce the protection of Prince Hcraclius, and withdraw her
troops from Georgia. Finally, they wished that all Russian
vessels that passed the Straits should be subjected to an exami-
nation, in order to prevent contraband trade.

These demands were no sooner made, than the Divan, with-
out waiting for an answer from the Court of St. Petersburg,
determined to proclaim war (Aug. 18, 1787,) by sending the
Russian minister, M. de BoulgakoflT, to the Castle of the Seven
Towers. On the news of this rupture, the Empress despatched
a considerable force against the Turks ; her troops extended
from Kominjec in Podolia, to Balta, a Tartar village on the
frontiers of Poland, between the Dniester and the Bog. Prince
Potemkin, the commander-in-chief of the army, had under him
Suwarow, Repnin, Kamenskoi, and others. The Emperor Jo-
seph II., after having for some time supported the character of
mediator between the Turks and RuSitiaHS, engaged in the woi

(sisled belweiB

wuen these two

the huiTiiliuting

lad imposed on

'etersburg used

ed the pride of

of the Empress

ieh she was ar-

ularm even in

of that capital

iremeditated de-

iiu to annihilate

een them. The

xterously fanned

es. They wish-

(r for the diflicul-

wiii^ ...eir treaty

litions which she

y concluded with

ussia had carried

hud obtained en-

ited likewise the

commercial con-

wer, through the

Turks, moreover,

Moldavia, who, as

he peace and good

ey demanded that

e Empress should

and withdraw her

that all Russian

BCtcd to an exami-

II the Divan, with-
»r St. Petersburg,
',) by sending the
!astle of the Seven
mpress despatched
r troops extended
rtar village on the
I the Bog. Prince
ny, had under him
The Emperor Jo-
»d the character of
ingaged in the woi

z..

PBKIOD VIII. A. ». 1713 — 1789.

415

as the alljr of Russia (Feb. 9, 178H.) Ho attacked the Turks
in Moldavia, and on sevcriil points of Ilunpiiry. Marshal Lau-
don undertook the sicffo of Uc'l^'railo, of whidi ho niudc himself
master (Oct. 8, 1789.) It was obvious, however, that t'vj pro-
gress of the Austrians did not correspond either to the ability of
their generals or the superiority of iheir arms.

Another enemy of Russia appeared on the stage. Gustavus
III., King of Sweden, listencnl to the iiisimiations of the Cabi-
nets of London and Berlin, and made a diversion in favour of
the Porte. That prince, after renewing his alliance with the
Porte, commenced the war against Russia, at the very instant
when the whole of her forces were turned afjnirisi the Turks.
A land army was formed by bis ordiTs in Finland, while a
Swedish fleet, consisting of twenty ships of the line and ten
frigates, advanced on Cronstadt, and threw llie city of St. Pe-
tersburg into a state of prciit terror. An engagement between
the two fleets took place near the Isle of Hoogland (May 30,
1789.) Both sides fought with equal advantage ; but an un-
foreseen event disconcerted the measures of the Swedish mo-
narch. After he had made his dispositions for attacking the
city of Fredricksheim in Finiiind, several oHicers of his army
refused to march, alleging as a reason, that the constitution of
the kingdom would not permit them to be accessary to an olFen-
sive war, which the Swedish nation had not sanctioned. The
example of theae officers occasioned the defection of u great
part of the troops. The expedition to Finland failed, and the
Russians thus gained time to put themselves in a state of defence.

The Empress, thus attacked by the King of Sweden, claimed
the supplies which Denmark owed her, in virtue of the alliance
which subsisted between the two States. The Danes fitted out
a squadron, and marched a body of auxiliary troops into tne go-
vernment of Bohus, which they soon conquered (1788.) From
Bohus they marched to West Gothland, and laid siege to Got-
tenburg. The King of Sweden hastened in person to the de-
fence of that place, one of the most important in his kingdom.
It would certainly have fallen, however, but for the powerful
intervention of the Cabinets of London and Berlin, who oblig-
ed the Court of Copenhagen to conclude the different truces
with Sweden (1789,) and to adopt a perfect neutrality, even
with the consent of the court of St. Petersburg.

The war between the Swedes and the Russians was then con-
fined to naval operations, the success of which, in the campaigns
of 1789 and 1790, was nearly equal on both sides. The defeat
which the Swedish fleet sustained in the Gulf of Viburg (July
3, 1790,) was compensated by the victory which the King of Swe-

4 in

CHAFTER IX.

If!

't;!

. <*

ilcn gnint'd in person (July tt, 10,) at Swcnknsund over iho
Russian Hoct, lonmiiUKlfrd by llic I'riruc of NnsMnu-Sicgeii.
This nctif)n, which cost thf ltus^<ilInH many men, mid n great
ninnber of llieir sliips, tended to iiccelernto the peace Ijctwecn
the two j)ower9. The King of Sweden \mn^ deserted by the
Courts of London and Berlin, who hud drawn him into the war,
was terrified lost the Russians should take advantage of the dis-
contents that prevailed amf)ng the Swedish Nobles, to penetrate
into the interior of his kinjfdoin. He willingly accepted the
equitable conditions which the KinproHs of Russia proposed to
him. Peace was concluded in the I'lain of Werela, near the
liver Kymen (Aug. 14, 17U0,) between the advanced posts of
the two camps : and the limits of both States were re-estab-
lished on the footing of former treaties.

As to the events of the war between Russia and the Porte,
they were entirely in favour of the former power. A body of
Russian troops, in conjunction with the Austrian army, made
themselves masters of Choczim (Sept. 1798.) Prince Potem-
KJn undertook the siege of the important fortress of OczakofI
(Dec. 17,) and carried the place by assault, in spite of the cou-
rageous defence made by the Turks. The whole garrison was
put to the sword, and a great part of the inhabitants met with
the same fate. Suwnrow and the Prince of Coburg beat the
Turks near Focksani in Moldavia (July 21, 1789.) The same
General, with the assistance of that Prince, gained a brilliant
victory over the Turks jiear Martincsti, on the banks of the
Rymna (Sept. 22,) 'vhich gained him the epithet of Ryvinuki.
The taking of the fortress of Bender, was an immediate conse-
quence of that victory. Besides the province of Oczakofl", the
whole of Moldavia and Bessarabia, with Tulcza, Isakzi, Kilia, and
Ismael, and the fortress of Sudjoukkale, in Turkish Cuban, fell
successively into the hands of the Russians. The taking of
[smael by Suwarow, occasioned prodigious slaughter. It cost
the lives of 30,000 Ottomans ; without reckoning the prisoners,
who amounted to the number of 10,000.

These victories stirred up the jealousy of the British minis-
try, who fitted out an expedition to make a new diversion in fa-
vour of the Porte, and engaged their ally, the King of Prussia,
to despatch a body of troops to the frontiers of Silesia and
Poland. Not confining himself to these operations, that Prince
concluded a formal alliance with the Porte, in which he agreed
to declare war against the Austrians, as well as the Russians, in
the course of next spring. The Emperor Leopold IL, yielding
to these menaces, and being desirous of restormg peace to his
suhiects, concluded an agreement at Relchenlmch (July 37.

Bund ovei iho
ias«iu-Siegen.
I), iiiid a great
ponce Ijctween
cNi-rU'd by the
II into thc! war,
mge of thc (lis-

■n, to penetrate
y accepted the
in proposed to

rein, near the
nnccd posts of
were re-cstab-

imd the Porte,
r. A body of
m army, made
Prince Potem-
DS9 of Oczakofl
pile of the cou-
ile gnrrison was
lilants met wilii
'oburg bout the
•id.) The same
lined a brilliant
lu bnnlis of the
et of Ryviniski.
n mediate conae-
of Oczakofl', thc
Isakzi.Kilia.nnd
•kish Cuban, fell
The taking of
lughter. It cost
ng the prisoners.

le British minis-
V diversion in fa-
King of Prussia,
s of Silesia and
itions, that Prince
which he agreed
3 the Russians, in
)pold II., yielding
ring peace to his
enbach (July 27.

rxRioD VIII. A. D. 1713—1789.

1790,) with the Court of Berlin, by which he granted an armia-
ticc, and consenlf'd to make n f>pecial pence with the Porte on
the basis o*" the statvs aiili bellnm. This peace was signed
at Szistnwn, in Bulgaria (Aug. 4, 1791,) under the mediation
of Hollnnd and Prussia. The Emperor restored Belgrade, and
in general, nil that he had taken from the Turks during llje
war. He agreed to retain Chocziin no longer than the conclu-
sion of the peace between the Russians and the Turks ; only
they promised him a more ndvantageous frontier on the left
tmiik of the Unna ; and on the side of Wallachia, the river
Tzerna was ndopted as the boundary between the two Empires.

The Empress of Russia having resolved not to receive the
proposals which the two allied courts ofTered her, then continued
the war alone against the Porto, and her generals signalized
thein,selves by new exploits. At length the British ministry be-
ing convincea that this Princess would never yield, thought fit
to abandon the terms which, in concert with the Court of Ber-
lin, they had demanded, as the basis of the peace to be conclud-
ed between Russia and the Porte. Besides, they were desirous
of making up matters with Russia, at the time when she de-
tached herself from France, by renouncing the engagements
which she had contracted with that power by the treaty of com-
merce of 1787, with the Court of Berlin. The British minis-
try agreed never to assist the Turks, should they persist in re-
fusing the equitable conditions of peace which the Empress had
offered them.

A negotiation was opened at Galatz on the Danube. The
preliminaries between Russia and the Porte were signed there;
and the definitive peace concluded at Jassy in Moldavia (Jan.
9, 1792.) This treaty renewed the stipulations of all former
treaties since that of Kainargi. The Dniester was establishea
as a perpetual frontier between the two Empires. The Turks
ceded to Russia the fortress of OczakofT, with all the country
lying between the Bog and the Dniester. The cession of the
Crimea, the isle of Taman, and part of the Cuban, lying on the
right bank of the river of that name, was confirmed to Russia.
The Porte likewise engaged to put a stop to the piracies of the
Barbary Corsairs, and even to indemnify the subjects of Russia
for their losses, should they not obtain reparation within a lim-
ited time. Russia likewise restored all ner other conquests ;
only stipulating, for certain adrantages, in favour of Moldavia
and Wallachia.

It had been agreed between the plenipotentiaries of the Iwe
Empires, that the Porte should pay a sum of 12,000,000 of
piasters, to indemnify Russia for the expenses of the war. But

,> '■ '•!

J^^

■¥

4t8

CRAPTBR X.

intimation that she 7"'*' "''";;",'. ,7, /xcLd tho admiration
the Porte; a piece of generoMty ^^»"' /^J^;; „f j„,,v Rave
of the Ottoman nlen.potentmnos T»u^pcjn o^,^ ^^^. ^^^^^

new energy to t\ie '^"'"'"'^'^7,;^ town and port of Odessa,
Sea; and the Empress found d the own anaj^^^^^^^ ^^^

CHAPTER X.

PERIOD IX.

. ^f ih. Vrenrh Revolution to the doum-
From the mnmencement of the ^'^^^'^.^uqIirIS.
faU of Buonaparte, a. d. 1789— l»io-

The period of the Frencl. R-olution on whi^^^^^^ -

tering, Ls not --prehend more han -^^^^^

that short space <^«"''''"«J"S'' ^ed it. In course of that
than the two centuries which prece« Usa u. , ^^0 po-

Unte the condition of f ,Xo7X o^itd Uour of th ee

kingdoms and whole nations in the "uns. ^.^^^

l?wa8 an era fertile ,n "a^l^ both « J'^^^^^f „^,„„,„
It displayed the extremes of suffenng and ^^ ^^^^
and magnanimity. *^\"edom8 ro.e a. i . ^^j

New principles in '^"^tvf ,fe sEurorwas subdue'd and
were Quickly superseded by f'?;^.^^ZTeZ\iiy, and after-
enslaved, first in the naine of ^f'^y J"J^^"„'',, /^ length an
wards to gratify the ^'^^^ °J "^^^i^'^"'^^^ he nations of the
tZ^^:^^^ tiTuirpati^n which they had too

powers who dismembered P"'"^"*^'":*" f'„ „ "ample that might
Ld equity yield to conve-ence, and t n„ xamp^^^^ ^^^^

^graltEf wU XnTinTe-iinets of Europe, that

Empress gare
U in favour of
tlio luimirniion
of Jiistty ifnvc
on the Black
»ort of Odessa,
twoen the Bog
1 Oczakoff.

ion to the down-
815.

lich wc are on-
r-fivc years ; but
(riant instruction
n coarse of that
inRed. The po-
d labour of three
its basis, burying

irtues and vices,
ence, of meanness
ppeared by turns,
led for a day, and
was subdued and
quality, and after-
ir. At length an
the nations of the
vhich they had too

ted in the fifteenth
f Westphalia and
uring the neriod of
its downfall. The
iciples.by the three
vhich made justice
ixample that might
rhe other was the
ets of Europe, that

PBHIOD IX. A. 1). 1780 — 1^15.

410

fne project of fnundiiijf an univorinl monarchy was for evef
hopi'lc!<s and visionary — ii iiersiiu.-'ion which hud lulled them
into a siiite of (iilnl reposf. ThiN project, however, wiiich they
thought iin()riii'ticnl)li', was actually carried into execution ;
thou^'h it np|)('ared under a new form. The daring individual
who conceived the desijrn, gove it the name of the Fedrrative
Sijstiun. By his plon, the difrerenl States on the Continent were
to preserve an apparent independence, A'henever this did not
thwart his own views ; but their policy was to be entirely sub-
servient to his interest, and to lie regulated according to his di-
rection. In this manner he undertook to conquer the whole
world, with the aid of the Federal States, who were obliged to
espouse his (juarrels, and to make common caufc with him
against every power that refus<;d to submit voluntarily to his
sway, or to that of his family, whom he placed as his vassals on
some of the most ancient thrones of Europe.

To this was added another, which he called the Conti7iental
Sijstem. Its main object was to exclude Great Britain from all
commerce with the other European states. By this means ]}e
hoped to deprive her of the command of the sea, of which she
wos now undisputed mistress ; to annihilate her commerce ; cut
ofTthe sources of her wealth; ruin her marine; and even to
overthrow the constitution, which had so long been the boast and
happiness of the English nation. Had it been possible to carry
this project into execution, the Continent must necessarily have
been impoverished and ruined.

The twenty-five years of which we are now to give a brief
outline, are so crowaed with events, that, for the sake of perspi-
cuity, it will bo necessary to divide them into separate periods.
In the history of France, the natural divisions are the five fol-
lowing, viz. (1.) From the opening of the States-General, May
5, 1789, till the abolition of Monarchy and the Constitutional
Government, Aug. 10, 1792. (2.) The Reign of Terror ; from
Aug. 10, 1792, t'll Oct. 26, 1795, when the Convention ceased
to govern France. (3.) The Republican Government ; from
Oct. 26, 1705 till May 18, 1804, when Buonaparte was declared
Emperor. (4.) The Reign of Napoleon Buonaparte ; from May
18, 1804, till March 30, 1814, when the Allies entered Paris.
(5.) The Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, after an exile of
more than twenty years.

These divisions point out the most remarkable changes that
occurred in France during this period. Nevertheless, as we
must notice the events which took place in the rest of Europe, a
more convenient division will be as follows. (1.) From the
commencement of the French Revolution till the Peace of

^'i 1 ^■

CHAPTER t.

« k 07 isno (2 ) From the Peace of Amiens tin
Amiens, March 27, l»u~. {-■) ^ j^ greatest

fur |3TFi"h?enTo7th1 yeT;T810, til, the Tre.f of

the French Empire "."^er Buonapar e ana ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^

new political system m Europe Alter ^^^ ^^_

various events which ^ap^enecUn Franc^ . we s y ^^

vert to the revolution wli ch the ^ "ereni » J^^^ ^^

, J.^igr.fr C* Be™£r(«ay 1789,, and ending

France must be tmced tack w '^^'"^^f'i ■„, ,„,„my
ce», which began under U,™ XIV., o. he gen ^^^^^^^^^^^^

which premiled under *« B?f "' °t°°'„ L„„i, XV. ; and,
iaration ot the S»«™™' £,r„'Su°and polilical, which
S;StcrJrXna«='Sr'Sj-Sre> U,e e%h.ee„.h cen-

> - "^eSitr r-^usxr^i^d!" t£

UUng government of Fmn^inaq ^^|^. ^^^^^^

-"••iSfel'BstSsrb^sCir^

cations, letters of exile, *<^- ' ^' . Certain bodies, it is true,

resisted only by the feeblest t'^";Yh;sc nrSges were seldom
possessed means f J^ :r:;r'e" xtpteH^^^^^^
respected. 1 he noDiesse ^eie r g ^y the prohi-

thestate and totally separated from th^^^^^^^^ ^ Jmpted from

?'^\n fTXchTey subsUtuted'v'oruntary grants/ Besides
laiation, tor wmcn 'nej ^i ;„i,,nal administrat on was badly
these oppressive imposts, the mtemal »»"""' y^^ „ere

°'^"'"i,- ^dtd rnrLeV*fa^°X w» ataSked «. all.the
"efS'rdes^neVtX-SotSnnhhacieswiththeir

mtm

;e of Amiens tiH

at its greatest

ill the TrealY of

2cline and fall ot

restoration of a

a sketch of the

shall shortly ad-

is of Europe un

if other parts of

lay happen to he

;ommencing with
789,) and ending

\e Revolution in
state of her finan-
sneral imiAorality
to the mal-\dmin-
Louis XV. ; and,
id political, which
[le eighteenth cen-

^ abuses in the ex-
be corrected. The
1 arbitrary rather
lity, greater power
ties of the subject
of imposts, confis-
rous authority was
lin bodies, it is true,
ileges were seldom
)m contributions to
mons, by the prohi-
also exempted from
ry grants. Besides
listration was badly
orders, which were
ibandoned to all the
irtial representation.
vho lived on the fa-
lon sympathies with
rmy for which they
il appointments and
into two classes, one
d abbacies with their

PERIOD IX. A. D. 178ft— 1816.

421

rich revenues, while the other was destined to poverty and la
bour. The commons scarcely possessed a third part of the
soil, for which they were compelled to pay feudal services to the
territorial barons, tithes to the priests, and taxes to the King.
In compensation for so many sacrifices, they erjoyed no rights,
had no share in the administration, and were admitted to no pub-
lic employments.

Such was the condition of France when Louis XVI. ascended
the throne. This order of things could not continue for ever;
but with proper caution and skilful management, many salutary
improvements might have been introduced, without plunging
the nation into rebellion and anarchy. Louis XVI. had just
views and amiable dispositions ; but he was without decision of
character, and had no perseverance in his measures. His pro-
jects for regenerating the State encountered obstacles which he
had not foreseen, and which he found it impossible to overcome.
He was continually vacillating in the choice of his ministers ;
and his reign, up to the assembling of the States-General, was
a complication of attempt«(l reforms, which produced no benefi-
cial result. Maurepas, Turgot, and Malesherbes, had been succes-
sively intrusted with the management of affairs ; but they found
it impossible to give satisfaction to any party. Their efforts for
retrenchment displeased the courtiers, while the people were dis-
contented at the continuation of existing abuses. The exhaust-
ed state in which the American war had left the finances of the
kingdom, and the unskilfulness of the ministers ; one of whom,
the celebrated Necker, could contrive no other method of repair-
ing these losses, than by means of forced loans, which augment-
ed the national debt, and added to the other embarrassments of
the government. The plan of M. de Calonne, another of the
ministers, was to assemble the Notables, or respectable and dis-
tinguished persons of the kingdom (Feb. 23, 1787,) with the
view of obtaining through their means those new imposts which
he could not expect to be sanctioned by the Parliament of Paris.
But this assembly seemed little disposed to second his designs.
They discovered, with astonishment, that within a few years
loans had been raised to the amount of one th'^asand six hun-
dred and forty-six millions of francs ; and that there was an an-
nual deficit in the revenue of one hundred and forty millions.
This discovery was the signal for the retirement of Calonnn.

His successor. Cardinal Brienne, the Archbishop of Toulouse
tried in vain to overcome the resistance of the Parliament, who
declared, by a solemn protestation (May 3, 1788,) that the right
of granting supplies belonged to the States-General alone. Louis
XVI., yielding to this expression of the public opinion, promised

^ 11

'»•' ; '

's-i^ap^nm':^,.:,

422

CHAPTER X.

to assemble the deputies of the nation. A second meetir ; of
the Notables, held at Versailles (Nov. 6,) deliberated as to the
f'mn and constitution of the Stales-General. _M. Necker, who
was recalled to the ministry, counselled the King to prefer the
advice of the minority, who had espoused the popular side ; and
proposed to grant to the Tier.s-Etat, or Thtrd Order a double
number of Representatives in the States-General ; which advice

was followed. ,. .,,

The Slates-(Jeneral were summoned to meet at Versailles on
the 27th of April 1789. The number of deputies was twelve
hundred ; six hundred of wJiom were of the Tiers-Etat, three
hundred of the noblesse, and three hundred of the clergy. Ihe
Kincr opened the assembly in person (May 5, 1789^ It was
accompanied with great solemnity and magnificence. The dergy
occupied the first place; next came the noblesse. Ihe liers-
Etat followed hst. These individuals comprehended the choice
of the nation; but the greater part of them were entirely inex-
perienced in state affairs, and not a few of them were imbued
with the principles of the new philosophy. The majority pro-
posed to rocenerate the government according to their own specu-
lative notions ; while others secretly entertained the hope ot
overturning it, to gratify their own antipathies ; or to satiate
their avarice and ambition. , ,1.1,

A difference immediately arose on the question, whether they
should sit according to their orders. Conciliatory measures
havincr been tried in vain, the deputies of the Tiers-Etat resolved
to declare themselves a National Assembly. The King having
ordered them to suspend their sittings, they changed their place
of assembly to a Tennis Court, where, in opposition to the Koya
authority, they took an oath never to separate until they ha 1
achieved the regeneration of France. The majority of the
clergy, and some of the nobles, joined this tumultuous assembly.
Louis XVI., by a Royal Session (June 23,) condemned the con-
I duct of this meeting ; abrogated its decisions ; and published a
declaration containing the basis of a free constitution. B«t the
authority of the King had now ceased to be respected. Ihe
1 National Assembly refused to accept from him as a boon, what
1 they were preparing to seize by force. Alarmed at this opposi-
tion, Louis commanded the nobles and the clergy to join the
I popular party, or Tiers-Etat, as a measure for conciliating the

i public mind. t.^. , „ „f

I The prime agent in this revolution was Mirabeau, a man ol
i an ambitious and turbulent spirit, who inflamed the Assembly
by his violent harangues. A demagogue from mterest, and o
' good abilities, though immoral in his character, he was resolved

I meetir. ' of
ited as to the
Necker, who
to prefer the
lar side ; and
ier, a double
which advice

Versailles on
s was twelve
rs-Etat, three
i clergy. The
rsg.) It was
J. The clergy
. The Tiers-
dcd the choice
entirely inex-
were imbued
I majority pro-
leirowuspecu-
i the hope of
; or to satiate

, whether they
tory measures
s-Etat resolved
e King having
gcd their plac(
on to the Boy a I
until they hal
najority of the
tuous assembly,
emned the con-
md published a
iition. But the
espected. The
as a boon, what
d at this opposi-
■rgy to join the
conciliating the

a beau, a man of

(d the Assembly

interest, and of

he was resolved

PBBIUD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1816.

423

*o bu'ld 1 is fortune on the public troubles, and to prevent, by all
ipeans in his power, the first symptoms of a return to subordina-
tion and tranquillity. The Duke of Orleans supplied money
to corrupt the troops, and excite insurrections over all parts of
Franco.

In the mean time, the King assembled an army at Versailles,
under the command of Marshal Broglio ; and btmishcd Necker
(July 11,) with whom he had some just reasons to be displeased.
This was the signal for a popular commotion. Paris was in a
state of the greatest fermentation. The press inflamed the pub.
lie mind. The people discussed in the open air those questions
which were agitated in the Assembly. A table served the pur-
pose of a rostrum ; and every citizen became an orator, who
harangued on the dangers of his country, and the necessity of
resistance. The mob forced the Bastille (July 14,) seized on the
depots of arms, mounted the tri-coloured cockade, which was the
distinctive banner of the city of Paris, and became that of the
apostles of the revolution. Bailly, the academician, was appoint-
ed mayor ; the citizens formed themselves into a National Guard,
under the command of the Marquis La Fayette. The King,
placed in so critical a situation, and surrounded with danger,
;'onsented to withdraw the troops collected in the capital and
the neighbourhood. He recalled M. Necker, (July 17,) and re-
paired to Paris to intimate his good intentions to the Assembly ;
declaring, that he identified himself with the nation, and relied
on the afTection and allegiance of his subjects.

The National Assembly had usurped the whole legif lative
power, and ui dertaken to draw up a new constitution. T deir
charter commenced with a Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Such was the ardour of their revolutionary enthusiasm, tha iJiey
abolished, without discussion, and at one nocturnal sitting, the
feudal regime, the rights and privileges of provinces and corpo-
rations, the tithes, and the greater part of the seignorial preroga-
tives. It was decreed (Aug. 4,) that the legislative power should
be exercised by a single chamber ; and that the King could not
refuse his sanction to these decrees longer than four years.

As the Revolution did not proceed with a rapidity equal to the
wishes of the Orleans faction, they took care to stir up new insur-
rections. The mob of Paris attacked Versailles (Oct. 6,) in-
vested the Chateau, committed the most horrible excesses, and
conducted the King and his family prisoners to Paris, where
they were followed by the National Assembly. These legisla-
tors decreed the spoliation of the clergy, by placing their benefices
at the disposal of the nation. They ordered the division of
France into eighty-three departments ; the sale of the crown-

V:f,

wtm

424

CHAPTER X.

lands, and ecclesiastical property ; the proceeds of which to be
pkdged for the redemption of tie paper money, which waa or-
Sered to be issued, under the name ofassignats ; the admission
Sr/ews to the rights of citizens; the prohibition of monasUc
vows • the ri-ht of the National Assembly to declare war. m
oTsequence of a proposition from the King ; a -" ar consU^^^

tion, which rendered the clergy jnJ^F"'!^"^"^*^,^^ ''\1ho!,';
church, and gave the people a right to nominate their bishops ,
5he Swon 5f the noblesse ; and the establishment of a tribunal
It Orleans for iudcring crimes of high treason against the nation

OccupTe'dwiih these decrees (1790-91,) the National Assem-
bly left Ihe King no authority to repress the crimes and excesses
wLch were multiplying every day within the kingdom nor d^d
thev adopt themselves any measures for putting a stop to them.
The King, indeed, according to the plan of their constitution,
was. To be Ihe depository and supreme head of the executive
power ; but he had been stripped of the means necessary to the
Eve exercise of any authority whatever. He had n«'ther
places to grant, nor favours to bestow. He was left without any
Kol o?er the inferior parts of the administraUon, smce^he
men who filled these posts were elected by the people. He was
not even allowed the pomp of a throne, or the splendour of a
crown The Assembly seemed to think it a part of their glory
to divest their monarch of his most valuable prerogatives. They

magTned that a monarchy could subsist when its authority was
reduced to a phantom ; that the throne could stand secure amidst
ZrZ of ranks ; exposed to all the waves of faction, and when
every sentiment of respect and affection was destroyed. Such
was^the la of royalt'v entertained by the French legisktoj^
By abolishing the graiations of society, they sapped the very

foundations of that frail ««* '"^^gi^^y.^^J'^^^.r^^'^l'^fltdt
modelled and fashioned according to their own ideas. Thousands
of noble families, finding their lives insecure, reso ved to abandon
the country. The King himself made an attempt to escape from
he capSy in which he was held. He did escape in disgu.se
lut wS reJognised, and arrested at Varennes ^y theNationd
Guard (June 25,) reconducted to Pans, and suspended from his
S ions. Monsieur, the King's brother, was more fortunate
He aJ^"ved at Brussels. The Count D'Arto.s, the younger
brother, had quitted France the year before.

The Orleans party undertook to compel the National As em-
bly to pronounce the'deposition of the King. A l"ge ^-'^^^^^^^^^
which had met in the Champs-de-Mars (July 17, 1791,) was dis
Trsed by an armed force, by order of Bailly, and commanded
Ey La Fayeue The mode-ate party in t^ie National Assembly

of which CO be

which was or-

the admission

on of monastic

declare war, in

iccular conslilu-

ihc head of the

their bishops ;

cnt of a tribunal

ainst the nation

National Assem-

ica and excesses

ingdom ; nor did

; a stop to them.

eir constitution,

jf the executive

necessary to the

He had neither

1 left without any

tration, since the

people. He was

[e splendour of a

art of their glor)'

rogatives. They

its authority was

md secure amidst

faction, and when

lestroyed. Such

rench legislators.

sapped the very

y which they had

deas. Thousands

solved to abandon

ipt to escape from

scape in disguise,

s by the National

ispended from his

is more fortunate.

tois, the younger

National Assem-
large assemblage,
17, 1791,) was dis-

and commanded
iationai Assembly

PBRIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

425

had gained the ascendancy. The constitutional articles were
revised in some points, and digesttd into n systematic form.
The King accepted this new code fS^^pt. 13;) and tlieru was
every reason to believe tliat he was n.'dlved to carry it iiilo exe-
cution. The Constituent Assembly, altti having declared Avig-
non and Venaissin annexed to France, separated (Sept. 30,) to
make way for a Legislative As.seinbly.

The Royal brothers and most of tht; emigrants, havina- fixed
their residence at Coblentz, published addresses to all the Courts
of Europe, to solicit their assistiiiire in restoring the King, and
checking the revolutionary loriciit which threatened to inundate
Germany. The Princes of tlie Empire, who had possessions in
Alsace, found themselves aggrieved by the decrees of the Con-
stituent Assembly, in respect to those rights which had been
guaranteed to them on the faith of existing treaties. They ac-
cordingly claimed the intervention of the Emperor and the
Empire. The Electors of Mayence and Treves had permitted
the French noblesse to organize bodies of armed troops within
their estates. After the arrest of the King at Varennes, the
Emperor Leopold had addressed a circular to all his brother
Sovereigns, dated from Padua (July 6,) in which he invited them
to form an alliance for restoring the King's legitimate author-
ity in France. Accordingly, an alliance was concluded at
Vienna a few days after between Austria and Prussia, the object
of which was to compel France to maintain her treaties with the
neighbouring States. The two monarchs, who met at Pilnitz
(Aug. 27,) declared that they would employ the most efficacious
means for leaving the King of France at perfect liberty to lay
the foundation of monarchical government. But after Louis
had accepted the constitution of the Assembly, the Emperor
formally announced (Nov. 12,) that the co-operation of the con-
tracting powers was in consequence suspended.

In a moment of unreflecting liberality, the Constituent Assem-
bly had formerly declare<l, that none of its members could be
elected for the first Legislative Assembly. This new Assembly,
which met Oct. 1, 1791, was composed of men altogether defi-
cient in experience, and hurried on by the headlong fanaticism
of revolution. It was divided into two parties. On the right
hend were those who hoped to preserve monarchy, by maintain-
ing the constitution with certain improvements and modifications ;
and on the left, those who proposed that they should proceed in
their revolutionary career. This latter party, in which the depu-
ties of the Girondists had the ascendancy, had conceived two
methods for overturning the constitution, viz. 1, to bring the
King into disrepute, by obliging him to make use of his suspen-

49.G

OHAFFBH X.

! ii

•„». fliniP aecrees which appeared most popu.ar ;

"•/„ ':£ ;f;Zl"c fdeeCSS «„, and .hereby .e. rid
„r .he .?mv The dcmuL on ,he let. nc.er ceased .o inve.gh from

ealammes. The mminry re,isi.ed ihe.r offlce, and lh» K.ng re

ThTSembirconSd .0 4 Aei' ""'"frK'nran'd
which .«ere bolh repagnan. lo the coascence of ihc K.ng. ana

rangeroas .o the security of .he "I'TK-'^Zks decked hJ
recenlly offended by Ihe dism.ss.1 of h.s guards, declarea

most popuiar ;

It find employ-

e new order of

majority, had

an. The As-

s brothers, as
10 had taken no
red the King of
;s of annoyance

the enjoyment
f those popular
ailed from their
ing to that reli-
cad all France,
the control and
I. It was there
led the National
raiiist the Royal
)f emissaries in
ind prepared the

[1 thereby get rid
d to inveigh from
ign powers ; and
them in their de-
le object of their
and the King re-
March 17, 1792,)
iez, who became
5 and Duranthon,
Roland, who was

irere on terms of
js of those princes
nng him satisfac-
ing to propose to
iwer his demands
ir. This proposi-
1 hailed with en-
irage to oppose it.
lutionarv decrees,
! of the King, and
lis, who had been
lards, declared he

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1816.

427

could no longer submit to the insolence of those new ministers,
three of whom he discarded with indignation. Their accim-
plices, the Jacobins, and Pethion the mayor of Paris, then or-
ganized an insurrection of the armed popiilaic of the Faiixhonrgs
or suburbs. The mob then repaired to the Tuileries (June 20,>
to force the King to sanction the decrees of the Assembly, and
recall the patriot ministers. The King saved his own life, and
that of his Queen, by repelling those factions demagogues with
firmness and courage. He constantly refused to grant what
they demanded of him by violence ; while the National Assem-
bly displayed the most shameful pusillanimity. They oven car-
ried their cowardice so far, as to replace Pethion and Manuel in
their functions, whom the King had suspended for having failed
to perform their duty.

rethion, and those v.'ho ruled at their pleasure the Sections
of Paris, where no royalist dared to appear, then demanded the
dethronement of the liing; and in order to compel the Assem-
bly to pronounce sentence against him, the conspirators publicly
organized a new insurrection. The populace rose in arms, and
attacked the Castle of the Tuileries (Aug. 10.) The King re-
fused the assistance of those faithful citizens who had flocked
round his person. Misled by unwise or perfidious counsels, he
repaired with his family to Paris ; and entering the National
Assembly, addressed them in these words : " Gentlemen, I am
come here to avoid the commission of a great crime. I shall
always consider myself and my family in safety when I am
among the representatives of the nation." The populace having
assailed the Castle, the faithful Swiss Guards defended it with
courage, and perished in the performance of their duty. The
greater part of those found in the Tuileries were massacred
by the rabble. The representatives of the nation, who were,
during this time, in a state of the greatest alarm, decreed, in
presence of the Sovereign, and on the proposal of Vergniaud,
that the King should be suspended, and a National Convention
assembled.

Some days after, Louis, with his Queen, the Dauphin, Ma-
dame Royale, and Madame Elizabeth, the King's sister, were
imprisoned in the Temple, under a guard of the municipality of
Paris, composed of partisans of the Revolution. This munici-
pality, and the ministers appointed by the Assembly, exercised
a most tyrannical authority. The prisons were crowded with
priests and nobles. Danton, the Minister of Justice, and a most
violent revolutionist, entered into arrangements with the Com-
muve for the massacre of these innocent men. The cruel work
of butchery continued for three days without remorse (Sept. 2,

1 M

4-28

CIUPTCB X.

^"Trw;;';hadco.n.ncncod in the month "f April 1791. L-J
ner Roc unhand, and Lu Fayette commanded the French

s^i^t their "p-tthj:;s:;t:r=ofr::i.(^::.

trians had meridy acted on llu.aekn^.ve ^ ^^^^ ^^^

concluded at Berlu. (^eb. 7.) between 1 ^^ ^^^-^^^

the command of Ihe army , "^,. "y , *^ ,c„,„ on 1 which was

:i=hv^;^««9g^y-.d

■»^-.sdis^;|S'h(Al5^^-^

""T°„lS"I*laws and acts which ihc Convenlion publis^

Mfttf

i-RRiob IX. A. D. 1799 — IS 15.

429

to interp«»«e

It to the Tribu-

1 put to dniilh

the Legislative

ir the National

•il 1791. Luck-
ed the French
ss. The Aus-
le of an alliance
npcror and the
ssiana, to whicti
jf emigrants, all
uul an Austrian
e by way of the
ir gates to the
arrested by the
La Fayette in
•ss and the want
. 20,) which was
led army retired
emburg.

siasts in France,
) The very day
yalty, on the pro-
:i proclaimed the
ceded it, this was
of the Girondists
on of order ; the
u continuing the
of contest which
but they assumed
lain purpose from
! Mountainists, as
1 the reproach of
'.ralkts, a reproach
in order to nave a
the Republic was

onvention publish-
France, would be

lid extravagances ;

I such of its opera-

, or produced any
to banish all enii-

grnnts for ever ; and to order those to bo put to death who should
return to their native country- Soon after, they made a tender
of ihrir nssislnnce to all subje'cn who niiu;hl be inclined to revolt
aganist their legitimate sovereigns; and in the countries which
were occupied by their own nrniies, they proclaimed tlie sover-
eignty of the people, and the abolilion «if iheestalilished authori-
ties. The moderate party, nr, more ]' operly speaking, the less
furiousparty of the Convention, were willing to spare the King'.s
life. This, however, was one reason for the Mduntainiitts to

5 lit him to death. The Convention accordingly decreed (Dec.
, 1792,) that a trial should bo instituted against Louis Capet,
as they called him ; and combining, in the most absurd manner,
the functions of accusers, judges, and legislators, they assumed
the right of pronouncing as to his culpability. Twice they com-
pelled him to appear at their bar (Dec. 11, 26,) where de Seze,
Malesherbes, and Tronchet undertook his defence. The de-
meanour of the King was full of candour and dignity. Of seven
hundred and twenty voters, six hundred and eighty-three de-
clared him guilty (Jan. 15, 1793.) Thirty-seven refused to vote
on different grounds, some of which were honourable ; but the
Assembly did not contain a single man who dared positively to
pronounce the innocence of their victim. Two only of those who
refused to vote, declared they did not think themselves entitled ,
to sit as judges of the King.

The minority in vain had flattered themselves that they might
rescue the King from death, provided they referred the punish-
ment to the nation itself. But in this they were disappointed.
Of seven hundred and eighteen voters, fourliundred and twenty-
four objected to the appeal to the people. Two hundred and
eighty-three admitted it ; and eleven had voted from interested
motives, which could not be sustained. Nothing now remained
hut to pronounce the punishment to be inflicted on the King.
Of seven hundred and twenty-one voters, three hundred and
sixty-one were for an unconditional sentence of immediate death,
and among these the Duke of Orleans, (Jan. 17.) The partisans
of Louis interposed, and appealed from this sentence to the na-
tion. In vain did the Girondists support this petition. Of six
hundred and ninety voters, three hundred and eighty decided
that his execution should take place within twenty-four hours.

Louis heard his sentence of death with composure and Chris-
tian resignation. He had already made his will, a monument
at once of his piety and the purity of his heart. He died the
death of a martyr (Jan. 21, 1793.) At the moment when the
executioner's axe was ready to strike, the Abbe Edgeworth, his
confessor, addressed him in these sublime words : — " Son of St.

It* I

... . -i

4:J0

CHAPTER X.

J . iT„..ini, "• The whole "mhabimuts of Paris, who

!;:r;,x"t:r ""\vi.b .":,: .0. , .- «... a ,no«n.

tat «iK»..o 'oii;.!''! iii 1I.0 nty. , . ,|^ conduct <if lb«

eu^eer of ll.; ^i*"'''''"'?; S' ^ ,Ves reS the ruin of ihe

airondi.t. tl.o.^h ^y -^^ ' :^;:;r |,r Lis (£ a,)
four mon hs ^ "^ ■^' , ,^^^^^^ ^f the commune and by llie
organized by H.btri, procur . jpcidcd the victory,

deputies Marat. Danton, ""'^ f .^^^^^^ federalism. The

TlK. Girondists were P^"^"^ '";'','; uthc title of Sam-cu-
victorious party houome. ^ '^ '^^'^f^^^^Xj ^ Reign of Ter-
loltes, and c-onunenced ^^'"^ , ' J^ .I'^re than an assembly
ror. The ConvuU.on was ^^l^^^^^ "to hoodwink and de-
of executioners and a den "' ^, '^'J 7, ,i/„„probation the plan
ceive the people, they «"*"">"^^ ',^ '^j Sdles (June 24 ;)

-^-T'r''Z^;Tv!i^^^^^^^-^^^ to exercise the
accordmg to wh cl t lie I '^"''''J'^ le.rislalive measures. After
sovereignty, •"''l/'^'''t'rno e wa« in t le ha,.ds of the Com-
U,e 2d "f J;;-;/ -.;;;^,f Xcl ^^^^^f "med in the Convention,
mittec ol l"H' r ^ r„r e L a popular assembly more
Danton, the cJucf of ' '^^^P, f ^J, ;^^ the most influ-

extravagant than ^e - b -^^-^^^^^^^^^^ by Robespierre,
ence for a tnt^e , 7\ '"^ . , , j,.„e had been adopted m the
The ConsUtut..n of \« f ^»;^^°' ^ m decreed that it should be
Primary Asb^^-^: /'^ «£ PJ^ Republic was in a state ol
suspended ^ug- -« •) ""^^ ^^^ ^,3 acknowledged.

nical and the -«f .-^^^"rj;^/*^ til Frances v^^^^^^^^ with
Robespierre was at the h^*^*^ «' "-^^j^-^^'^J '„",„ies were disper.-
revolutionary comm.tteej f J"^ "^'eU-afTected to pun-
ed every -hejej^raggu g^he weaj^th^^^^^^^

ishment. A law wun re^ui" r • p^sons with

the public edifices ^ « Pn o^^^^^^ ^^^ remedy the fa^l of the as-
vjctims de;ogd ^^des^cuon. ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^„^j ^e mar.

signals, the ^"""^^""f" „_\„mption : a measure which reduced
mum, on all articles "f ^o"f.""™P"2{I „ Qu^en. Maria Antoinette,
the country toa state 0^^^^^^^^^ brought to

was •^'^Xr. (O t 16 Many of the Girondist deputies vvere

:i:erd':n t& i^^^tr:^^ 7:^^

^^"^S:^::^ ^o^ody pitied

tsof Paris, who
in«. A mourn- j 1

conduct of the

A not check the

with which the

the ruin of the

liy 1 flruRfe'le of

I riiris (June a,)

une, unil by the

jdcd the victory.

fedcrahsin. The

title of Sam-cv-

le Reign of Ter-

hnn un assembly

oodwink and de-

robiilioii the plan

lelles (June ^4 ;)

re to exercise the

meiisures. After

unds of the Com-

i the Convention.

ar assembly more

id the most influ-

d by Robespierre.

len adopted in the

d that it should be

I was in a state ol

vledged.

•nt, the most tyran-
)ry ever recorded,
ncc swarmed with
mies were dispers-
ell-afTected to pun-
ersons changed all
1 the prisons with
the fall of the as-
t. called the maxi-
jure which reduced
1. Maria Antoinette,
ml, and brought to
idist deputies were
le same fate. The
ct of execration to
7.) Nobody pitied

PKRIOD IX. A. V. 17b9 — iSli).

431

hiN fntp. Over nil tin- provinces of the kingdom the blood of
the innocent flowed in lorrenln.

The revoiulionints diil not stop here. To their political
cririiec they lulded iicis of impiily. They liegim liy iiliolishing
the (jrrcgorian caiciuhir and tin- Christian em, iirid Nul)>iituted
in its place the era of the iicpublic ; t<i conuncruc on (In- lliid
SeptemlK-r 175).'J. In a short time, Hcbert and Chaunieiic, two
chiefs of tin; comnnine, got the Convention to decree the abo-
lition of the Christian religion (Nov. 10.) The worsliii) of
Reason was substituted in its place; and the chunh of Notre
Dame at Paris was profaned, by lx;ing converted into a templfl
of atheism. Gobel, the Coiistituli(mal Bishop of Paris, and se-
veral other ecclesiastics, publicly apostatized from their faith.
Plunder and sacrilege of all kinds were committed in the Catho-
lic churches.

The departments in the west of France had remained faithful
to the King. In Poitou, Maine, Brittany, and Normandy, a
civil war arose, known by the name of the Vendean War, which
was on the point of overturning the Republic. The Vendean
insurgents took the title of the Catholic army, which was com-
manded in the name of Louis XVII., (who still remained a pri-
soner in the Temple after his father's death,) by a Council which
sat at Chatillon. M. d'Elbee was Commander-in-chief. He
had under him Artus de Bonchamp, the Marquis de Lescurc,
de Larochcjacquelin, Cathclineau, Charette, and Stofflet. This
insurrection had broken out on account of a levy of troops which
the Republic had ordered.

The war was carried on with violence and cruelty. Among
the most remarkable of its events that happened in the year
1793, were the battle of Saumur (June 9,) after which all the
towns on the Loire, except Nuntes, declared for the King ; the
battle of Chatillon, where the Royalists were repeatedly defeated
by the army of Mayence, which the Convention had sent against
them ; the passage of the Loire (Oct. 17, 19,) by a hundred
thousand of the Vendeans, including old men, women and chil-
dren, who were eager to approach the coast, where they expect-
ed the supplies promised by England to arrive ; the defeat of the
army of Mayence at Chateau Gontier ; the taking of Mans by
the Republicans, and their victory at Savenay ; the taking of
Noirmoutier, where the brave d'Elbee fell into the hands of the
enemy (Jan. 2, 1794;) and, in the last place, the defeat of Cha-
rette at Machecoult. The troops of the Convention were com-
manded in succession by Biron, Oanclaux, Westermann, Kleber,
Beysser, I'Echelle, Marceau, and Rossignol. The deputy Car-
rier de Nantes covered the whole country with slaughter, and
exerted his ingenuity to invent new methods of massacre.

:i '

■iit

I a

432

CIIAI'TBR X.

OiIkt insiirroctionx nroso in the «outh of Frnnce, nftcr the r«
volution of tlioUil of JiitK.'. Uoiinlciiux, Lyons, MarsoilloB, and
Toulon, (Icclnri'il ihcinRt'lvfs uijiiinjtt the Convention. Kordenux
wn." speedily f«uli(lucd (An>,'. ii'l, 179:j.) Ueiienil Carteaux took
possi-.isiou of iMiirfieillo!*, with the iiNsiNtance of the populnco.
Toulon proclniined Louis XVII. (Auir, i»9,) and threw them
selves under the protection of AdrniniU Hood nnd Lnn^arn, who
were cruisinij otf their coast with the Kngli.^h tind Spanish fleets
Kellcrinan had onler.-: to he^ieije Lyons; a ta.«k which was
nfterward.s intru.sted to Doppet. This city surrendered after a
vitforous re.nistance (Oct. 9.) It hecaine the scene of the most
atrocious actions. Its finest huildini^s were entirely ruined nnd
demolished by order of the Convention. Carteaux took Toulon
by assault (Dec. 21.) It was during the siege of this place, that
a young officer distinguished himself by his (Courage, and after-
wards by his enthu.siasm for the Revolution. This youth was
Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Ajnccio in Corsica.

The very same day on which the Convention met, the Duke
of Saxe-Teschen nt the head of the Austrian army, had com-
menced the siege of Lille ; but he was obliged to raise it in about
twenty days. The Legislative Assembly had declared war
against the King of Sardinia (Sept. 10, 1792.) General Mon-
tesquiou took possession of Savoy, nnd Anselm made himself
master of Nice. Some months niter, the Convention declared
these provinces to be annexed to France. While the allies were
retiring from Champagne, Custine took Mayence by n coup de
main (Oct. 21,) assisted, as it afterwards appeared, by treachery.
Dumouriez, with asuperior force, bent the Duke of Saxe-Teschen
ut Gemappe (Nov. 6,) and soon achieved the conquest of the
Belgic provinces. The Convention having declared war against
England and the Stadtholder of the Netherlands (Feb. 1, 1793,)
at) well as against Spain, a powerful coalition was formed against
them, of which England and Russia were the prime supporters ;
the one by her ammunitions, and the other by the subsidies which
she furnished. They were joined by all the Christian Sover-
eigns in Europe, with the exception of Denmark.

Dumouriez undertook the conquest of Holland, and penetra-
ted as far as Moerdyk : but he was obliged to abandon his ob-
ject in consequence of the defeat of Miranda who had laid siege
to Maestricht, by the Austrian army under the command of the
Duke of Saxe-Coburg. Dumouriez was himself defeated at
Nerwinden (March 18,) after which he retired towards the fron-
tier of France. Being determined to put an end to the tyranny
of the Convention, and to re-establish the constitution of 1791,
he concluded an armistice with the Austrinns, and delivered up

PBBioD IX. A. n. 1789—1816.

433

(•«•, nftPT the re
Murspillod, and
ion. Biirtlonux
Carti'ttiix look
tho populace,
ul threw them
il LniiKura, who
,; Spanish fleets
tank which was
renJere (1 after a
eno of tlie most
iroly ruined and
(lUX took Toulon
of this place, that
lurage, and after-
This youth was
)rsica.

jn met, the Duke
army, had com-

raise it in about
lad declared war
) General Mon-
dm made himself
nvention declared
lilo the allies were
encc by a coup de
ured, by treachery.
[oofSaxe-Teschen
le conquest of the
jclared war against
nds (Feb. 1, 1793.)
was formed againsl

prime supporters ;
the subsidies which
16 Christian Sover-
mrk.

)lland, and penetra-
to abandon his ob-
who had laid siege
;he command of the
himself defeated at
ed towards the fron-

1 end to the tyranny
onstitution of 1791,
18. and delivered up

to them the commissioners which 'lie Convention had sent to
deprive him of his office ; but Ihm army haviti),' rt-'fused to obey
him, he escuned to Tounuiy, where (Jenerul Clairfait then wa»..
The younjr Duke nf Chartres accompanied him in his flight.

During the rest of the campaign, success was divided In'tween
the two parties. The Austriuns, who were conquerors at Fi»-
mars (May 21,) took Conde, Valenciennes, and Quesnoy (July.)
The Duke of York, who con\iiianded tho English army, wa.'^
Deat by Houchard at Hondscote (Sept. 8.) Jourdun compelled
General Clairfait, by means of the battle of Wattignies, to raise
the siege of Maubeuge. On tho side of the Pyrenees, the Span-
ish generals, Kicardosand Venturu-Caro, gained several advan-
tages ; the former having taken Bcllegardc, CoUioure, and Port
Vendre. On the Rhine, the allies had the best of the campaign.
After an obstinate siege, Mayence surrendered to tho Prussians
(July 22,) who beat Moreau at Pirmasens (Sept. 14,) though
they failed in the siege of Landau. An army of tho allies,
80,000 strong, commanded by Wurmser and the Duke of Bruns-
wick, forced the lines at Wissemburg (Oct. 13,) and penetrated
nearly as far as Strasburg ; but General Pichegru, who had
taken the command of the French army, obliged Wurmser to
repass the Rhine (Dec. 30.) The Prussians maintained them-
selves on the left bank of that river, between Oppenheim and
Bergen.

In France, the revolutionists were divided into three parties.
The Committee of Public Safety, at the head of which was
Robespierre, supported by the club of Jacobins, governed with
an absolute power. Heoert, Chaumette, Anacharsis Clootz, a
native of Prussia, and the other members of the Commune of
Paris, formed a second party ; more violent than the first, but
contemptible from the character of the individuals who composed
it. The third, comprehended Danton, Desmoulins, Herault de
Sechelles, and others, who stood in awe of Robespierre, and
were terrified by the extravagant fury of these bandits. The
faction of the Commune was the first that was annihilated by
the temporary union of the other two parties (March 24, 1794.)
After that, Robespierre found little difficulty in sending Danton
and his friends to the scafTold (April 6 ;) but in a short time some
of the members of the Committee of Public Safety, and the re-
mains of the Girondist party, conspired against him. In order
to please the people, he abolished Oie worship of Reason (May
7,) and caused the Convention to proclaim the existence of a
Supreme Being (June 8 ;) he introduced a new religion, that of
Deism, of which he created himself high-priest.

The power of Robespierre was now in its apogee, and his

'I'fliit'*"

434

CHAPTER X.

downfall approached. As the revolutionary tribunal was noi
sufficiently expeditious in despatching those whom he had mark-
ed out for destruction, he passed a decree (June 10,) by which
an unlimited authority was vested in that tribunal. This open-
ed the eyes of his enemies in the Convention ; and, not doubt-
ing that they were doomed to death, they conspired the ruin of
the tyrant. T allien and Billaud Varennes were the first that
attacked him before the tribunal. Having repeatedly attempted
to defend himself, he was prevented by the voice of the Assem-
bly, crying, " Down with the tyrant !" At length, repulsed and
dispirited, he allowed himself to be arrested. Having found
means, however, to escape from the fjuard, he saved himself in
the midst of the Commune, which was composed of those who
had adhered to him after the fall of Hebert. Both sides took to
arms; Robespierre and his faction were outlawed, but they
showed little courage. Finding themselves undone, they en-
deavoured to escape the swords of the enemy, by despatching
themselves. Robespierre attempted self-destruction, but he only
broke his jaw-bone with a pistol shot. He was executed, with
twenty-one of his accomplices (July 28, 1794.) Eighty-three
others met the same fate in course of the two following days;
fi jm that time the reign of terror was at an end, and thousands
of innocent persons were liberated from the prisons. His do-
minion, however, was not yet discontinued ; and the career of
this Convention, from its beginning to its dissolution, was mark-
ed by a series of cruelties and oppressions.

The campaign of 1794 was triumphant for the French arms.
Pichegru commanded the army of the North, and Jourdan that
of the Sambre and the Meuse. The Duke of Coburg had at
first the command of the Austrian army ; but towards the end
of the campaign, he transferred it to Clairfait. The King of
Prussia, become disgusted with the war, had threatened to with-
draw his grand army from the Rhine, and to leave only his con-
tingent as a prince of the Empire, and the 20,000 men which
he was bound to furnish Austria, in virtue of the alliance of
1792. But England and Holland being engaged, by a conven-
tion signed at the Hague, to furnish him with supplies, hepro-
mised to retain 62,400 men under arms against France. Tney
were under the command of Field-Marshal Mellendorff. The
taking of Charleroi by Jourdan, and the battle of Fleurus, which
he gained over the Duke of Coburg (June 26,) decided the fate
of the Netherlands. After some movements in conjunction with
the army of the Upper Rhine, under the command of the Duke
of Saxc-Teschen, — movements which had but little success, from
the want of agreement among the gfenorais. — Clairfait. at the

■*

tribunal was noi
lotn he had mark-
ine 10,) bjr which
unal. This open-
; and, not douht-
ispired the ruin of
rere the first that
peatedly attempted
oice of the Assem-
igth, repulsed and
d. Having found
e saved himself in
losed of those who

Both sides took to
jutlawed, but they
;s undone, they en-
my, by despatching
truction, but he only
was executed, with
'94.) Eighty-three
two following days ;

end, and thousands
le prisons. His do-
; and the career of
ssolution, was mark-

for the French arms,
th, and Jourdan that
ke of Coburg had at
but towards the end
irfait. The King of
id threatened to with-
to leave only his con-
le 20,000 men which
tuc of the alliance of
ngaged, by a conven-
with supplies, hepro-
rainst France. Tney
lal MellendorfT. The
ttle of Flcurus, which
3 26,) decided the fate
Its in conjunction with
command of the Duke
1 but little success, from
rals.— Clairfait. at the

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

435

h»!ad of the Austrian army, retired, about the end of the year, on
the right bank of the Rhine, followed by MellendorfT, whom the
French had never been able to bring into action.

The army of the Pyrenees, under the command of Dugom-
oiier, gained a splendid victory at Ceret over General La Union
vApril 30,) and retook Bellegarde. The two generals of the
army were slain at Monte-Nero, where, after a battle of three
days, the Spaniards were repulsed by Perignon (Nov. 27.) The
French took Figuieres (Feb. 4,) and Roses about cwo month»
after. The western army of the Pyreneec, under the command
of MuUer, entered Spain, took Fontarabia and St. Sebastian
(Aug. 1, 11,) beat the Spaniards at Pampeluna (Nov. 8,) and
spread terror to the very gates of Madrid. After the reduction
of Toulon, the English fleet, under Admiral Howe, being invited
into Corsica by Paoli, took possession of that island (June 18,)
which submitted to Britain as an independent kingdom. The
French fleet, under Admiral Villaret Joyeuse, was defeated off
Ushant by Admiral Howe (Jun« 1.) Most of the French colo-
nies had already fallen into the power of the English.

General Pichegru, favoured by the rigour of winter, and the
intrigues of the party opposed to the Ho ;se of Orange, had
made himself master, almost without striking a blow, of the
United Provinces of the Netherlands (Jan. 1795,) where the
Patriots had re-established the ancient constitution, such as it had
been before the year 1788 ; the office of Stadtholder being again
abolished, as the Prince of Orange, after being deprived of all
his functions, had fled to England. France concluded a treaty
with this Republic at the Hague (May 16,) where the indepen-
dence of the latter was formally acknowledged. She entered
also into an alliance against England ; paid one hundred mil-
lions of florins ; and ceded a part of her territory. It was at
this time (June 8, 1795,) that the royal Infant Louis XVII., only
son oi Louis XVI., died in the Temple, in consequence of the
bad treatment which he had endured incessantly for nearly
three years. His uncle, who had assumed the title of Regent
about the beginning of 1793, succeeded him in his right to the
throne. That Prince, who then resided at Verona, took the
title of Louis XVIII.

After the battles of Mans and Savenay, and th' taking of Noir-
moutier, the Vendeans had found themselves grtatly exhausted
But at the time of which we now speak, they formed themselves
into bands of insurgents in Brittany and Normandy, under the
name of Ckovans. After the death of Larochejacquelin, Cha-
rette and Sapineau concluded a peace with the Convention at
Tausnaie (Feb. 17, 1795.) Cormartin, the leader of the Chouans,

„ f ■ ' ,

;t >■ -i

i 1 1 '(

43G

CHAPTER X.

did the same at Mabilais ; but, a few weeks after, the Conven-
tion caused hitn to be arrested and shot, with seven other chiefs.
This was the signal for a new insurrection. The English go-
vernment at length resolved to send assistance to the Royalists.
A body of emigrants and French prisoners of war were landed
in the Bay of Quiberon (June 18.) But the whole of the expe-
dition was badly managed, and had a most disastrous result.
General Hoche attacked the troops on their debarkation. Tbo
greater part might have saved themselves on board the vessels ;
but the Marquis de Sombreuil, and five hiindred and sixty young
men of the best families, were taken and shot by order of Tal-
lien (June 21,) in spite of the opposition of General Hoche, who
declared that he had promised to spare their lives.

In the National Convention, two parties were contending foi
the superiority ; the Thermidorians or Moderates, and the Ter-
rorists. The inhabitants of Paris, reduced to de.spair by the
dearth which the waximum had caused, and instigated by the
Jacobins, had several times revolted, especially on the days of
the 12th Germinal (April 1,) and the 1st Prairial (May 20.)
The moderate party, strengthened by the accession of many of
the deputies proscribed since the 2d June 1793, gained the vie
tory ; and purged the Convention, by banishing or putting to
death the most execrable of the Terrorists. They even concili-
ated, in some respects, the opinion of the public, by drawing up
a new constitution (June 23,) \vhich might appear wise and ju-
dicious compared with the maxims which had been disseminated
for several years. Its fundamental elements were a Legislative
Body, composed of two elective chambers ; one of which was
to have the originating of the laws, and the other, composed of
men of judgment and experience, was to be invested with a
veto. The executive power was to be lodged in the hands of a
Council of five persons, clothed with an authority greater than
that which the Constitution of 1791 had given to the King.
The Convention passed several other laws, which indicated a
desire to return to the principles of morality. They also resolved
to exchange Madame Royale, the only remains of the family of
Louis XVI., for the deputies delivered up by Dumouriez. Bui
they lost again the iflTections of the people, by their laws of the
6th and 13th F-uctidor of the year Three, (Aug. 22, & 30,
1795.) Premo'iished by the fault which the Constituent As-
sembly had committed, in prohibiting its members from entering
into the Legislative Body, and wishmg, at the same time, tc s-
cape punishment for the many crimes they had committed, they
ordained that two-thirds of the members then composing the
Convention, should, of necessity, become a part of the new Le-

■BSSE

PEHIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1816.

437

after, the Conven-

seven other chiefs.

The English go-

ce to the Royalists.

if war were landed

whole of the expe-

disastrous resuU.

. debarkation. Tbo

n board the vessels ;

Ired and sixty young

lot by order of Tal-

General Hoche, who

ir lives.

were contending foi
lerates, and the Ter-
;d to despair by the
and instigated by the
icially on the days of
it Prairial (May 20.)
accession of many of
1793, gained the vie
nishing or putting to
. They even concili-
public, by drawing up
It appear wise and ju-
had been disseminated
nts were a Legislative
3 ; one of which was
he other, composed of
to be invested with a
Iged in the hands of a
authority greater than
id given to the King,
iws, which indicated a
ly. They also resolved
jmains o"f the family of
p by Dumouriez. But
e, by their laws of the
rhree, (Aug. 22, & 30,
;h the Constituent As-
niembers from entering
at the same time, tc s-
ey had committed, they
irs then composing the
! a part of the new Le-

gislation ; and that if the Primary Assemblies did not re-appoint
five hundred of the ex-conventional deputies, the newly elected
members should themselves complete the quota, by adding a
sufficier number of their ancient colleagues.

The New Constitution had been submitted for the approba-
tion of the people, which they doubted not it would receive, as it
was to deliver France from the revolutionary faction. The Con-
vention took advantage of this disposition of the people, to cor..-
pel the Sections likewise to accept the two decrees, by declar-
ing them an integral part of the Constitution. But this attempt
was the occasion of new troubles. The Sections of Paris wished
to vote separately on the Constitution, and on the decrees which,
in that case, would have been rejected over all France; the
moderate party of the Convention, if we can honour them with
that name, joined with the Terrorists. Perceiving the storm to
be gathering, they now sought assistance and support from the
troops whose camp was pitched under the walls of Paris. They
armed a large body of men, at the head of which was Bona-
parte, who gained a sanguinary victory over the Parisians, on
the 13th Vendemiaire, in the year Three (October 5th, 1795.)
The desire to restore the Bourbons had been the secret motive
with the chiefs of the insurrection.

A new Legislative Body assembled, which might be regarded
as a continuation of the Convention ; so long at least as the five
hundred deputies of the Convention were not excluded, who sat
in consequence of the annual renewals of one-third of its mem-
bers. The Executive Directory, appointed by the Council of
the Ancients from a hst presented by the Council of Five Hun-
dred, consisted of Lareveillere-Lepeaux, Rewbel, Barras, Le
Tourneur, and Carn6t, who had replaced Sieyes, — this member
having declined to make one of the Directory — the whole five
being Regicides. The forms of Terrorism were mitigated in
some respects, but the morals of the administration gained no-
thing by the change. The reign of the Directory was an era of
corruption and dissoluteness, whose effects were long felt. An
Unbounded avarice seized the nation, and the Directory encour-
aged and fed that shameful passion, by lending itself to the
most infamous traffic. Men coveted the nobility of riches,
rather than that of honour and birth.

The Directory had to struggle against two inconveniences ;
the one was the spirit of rebellion, which induced the Terrorists
to form a I'onspiracy among themselves, — such as that of Druet
and Babeuf (Mny 10, 1796,) and that which is known by the
name of the Conspiracy of the Camp at Grenoble (Sept. 9.)
The other inconvenience was still more serious, namely, the

.f;

''■J

ma.

I S.t^

438

CHAPTER X.

^Srmirp'riv "V neffecmal. .he ...igna.s ™re reptaced

t"Sl:o„'';Ll°~d.h., U ».u.dhe found n--y

then »e':ame ■ •; ^ ^^^^^ accustomed to pay.

'ThTEtcudve oTreSory had succeeded in puttingan end to
thPwL in La Vendee. This success was owing to the firmness

=B:53£^t:o»S^S'S^^!

%teS.ral"^^^^^^ a third of the members of the
two eg\l ve councils, the moderate party gamed the ascend
ancv On M. Berthelemy's being appointed to the Directory,
here aro"e a schism between LareveiUere-Lepeaux, Rewbel and
Barras who were called the Triumvirs, and Carndt and Ber-
fhelmayrwho were inclined for peace, and for p77g,7^^"^^°
therea ures of the Kevolution. The triumvirate lost the ma-
oritv ia the Council, where Pichegru had put himbelf at the
Dof the moderate party, who hoped to restore the monarchy.
R^yil 4' aS£ by'^^^ of W press -hich France^t en

erioved, had made such progress as frightened the triumvirs
Thev thought themselves sure of the army, so easy to be sedu-
red when thev are allowed to deliberate ; and especially of Bo-
naparte They hen performed the exploit, which ,s known by
?he name of the Revolution of the 18th Fruct.dor (Sept. 4^

Si; and he moderate kws, issued three months befo^.
were superseded by revolutionary measures. The au hors, ed-
■. „n,1 nrinters of rovalist or moderate Journals, were a so

itity of assigtiats

',000 francs. To

)0,000 in specie.

Its vere replaced

; and finally by

the former after

ere put into effec-

! found necessary

The State thus

ions of francs. It

system of regular

omed to pay.

putting an end to

ing to the firmness

was betrayed, and

ho had fallen into

ime fate at Nantes

[March 29.) The

Generals, signed a

idal, the leader of

le members of the
gained the ascend-
d to the Directory,
peaux, Rewbel, and
I Carn6t and Ber-
ir putting an end to
ivirate lost the ma-
put himself at the
store the monarchy,
which France then
sned the triumvirs,
so easy to be sedu-
id especially of Bo-
which is known by
?"ructidor (Sept. 4.)
erthelemy and Car-
l such of them aa
!erts of Sinamari in
two Councils were
iree months before,
The authors, ed-
Journais, were also
olished, and contin-
Merlin, n la-vjer of

r&'iffiriwr'r- ,

PEIIIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

439

Douay, was appointed to the place of one of the exiled Direc-
tors, and the poet Francois, a native of Neuch&teau in Lorrain, to
that of another.

Here, it will be proper to take a retrospect of the events of the
war. The Grand Duke of Tuscany was the first th^it set the
example of a reconciliation with France, which wi- signed at
Paris, (Feb. 9, 1795.) The King of Prussia, whf.j finances
were exhausted, entered into a negotiation with Berthelemejr,
the Republican ambassador, which was concluded at Basle by
Baron Hardenberg, (April 5.) Prussia not only abandoned the
coalition ; she even guaranteed the neutrality of the North of
Germany, according to a line of demarcation which was fixed
by a special convention, (May 17.) The Landgrave of Hesse
Cassel likewise made peace at Basle, (Aug. 28th.)

The retreat of the Prussians oa the one hand, and the scar-
city which prevailed in France on the other, had retarded the
qpening of the campaign of 1795. Field Marshal Bender hav-
<ng reduced Luxemburg, after a siege of eight months, and a
plentiful harvest having once more restovd abundance, the
iirmy of the Sambre and Meuse, commanr^ed by Jourdan, and
■-hat of the Rhi iC and Moselle, under Pichegru, passed the Rhine.
The former, being beat at Hochst by Clairfait, (Oct. 11,) repas-
sed that river in disorder; and Mayence, then under siege, was
relieved. Pichegru, who had taken Manheim, (Sept. 22,) re-
treated in like manner, and General Wurmser retook that city.
An armistice was concluded on the last day of the year.

In Italy the French were expelled from Piedmont and the
States of Genoa, which they had invaded ; but the victory which
Scherer gained over de Vins at Lovano (Nov. 23,) was a pre-
lude to greater advantages, which they gained in course of next
year.

In Spain, Moncey gained the battle of Ormea, and occupied
Bilboa. But the peace which the Chevalier Yriarte signed at
Basle, (July 6,) put an end to his conquests. The King of Spain
ceded to the Republic his part of the Island of St. Domingo.
Lord Bridpoit defeated the French fleet off L'Orient, (June 23,
1795,) which intended to oppose the debarkation of the emi-
grants at Quiberon. The coalition, which the retirement of
Prussia and Spain had threatened to dissolve, gained fresh
strength by several new alliances, such as that of Vienna, be-
tween Austria and Great Britain, (May 20,) and the Triple Al-
liance of St. Petersburg, (Sept. 28.)

The campaign of 1796, was glorious for the French arms in
Italy. Napoleon Bonaparte was there, at the head of an army
destitute of every thing except courage. By a series of vie-

t>l

: ; ; '1

«»1 3

ii, ;

440

CHAPTER X.

tories which he gained at Montenotte, Deco, Millesimo, Ceva,
and Mondovi, over the Austrian General Beaulieux, and the
Sardinian General Colli, he obliged the King of Sardinia to
sign a truce at Cherasco, (April 28,) by which he surrendered
up three fortresses. Bonaparte passed the Po at Placentia ;
granted a truce on very disadvantageous terms to the Duke of
Parma ; and forced the passage of the Bridge of Lodi, (May
9.) The fate of Lombardy was decided. Cremona and Piz-
zighitone opened their gates to the conqueror, (May 14,) who
soon made his entry into Milan. The Duke of Modena obtain-
ed a suspension of arms. The King of Sardinia agreed to sign
a peace at Paris, by which he surrendered Savoy and the dis-
trict of Nice. The terror of the French arms was so great,
that the King of Naples promised to remain neutral, by a con-
vention which he concluded at Brescia (June 6.) The Pope
also obtained neutrality, by the armistice of Bologna, (June 28,)
but on conditions exceeding "y severe. Though the war had
ceased in Tuscany, a body of French troops occupied Leghorn,
(June 28,) to seize the English merchandise in that port.

The Court of Vienna was resolved to make every effort to
save Mantua, the only place which remained to them in Italy.
At th^ head of 50,000 fresh troops, Wurmser marched from the
Tyrol, broke the French lines on the Adige, (July 31,) and com-
pelled Bonaparte to raise the siege of Mantua. The latter
General encountered the Austrians, and beat them al Castig-
lione ; without however, being able to prevent Wurmser from
throwing fresh supplies into Mantua. This place was invested
a second time ; and a second time the Austrian army marched
to its relief. While Bonaparte was engaged with Davidovitch
at Roveredo, (Sept. 4,) and Massena pushing on as far as Trent,
Wurmser marched in all haste towards Mantua. Bonaparte
suddenly directed his course against him, vanquished him in
several battles, and compelled him to throw himself, with th'3
wreck of his army into the fortress (Sept. 15.) After this
event, the King of the Two Sicilies, and the Duke of Parma,
signed a definitive neace at Paris ; and the Republic of Genoa
concluded a treaty, (Oct. 9,) by which it retained at least the
appearance of indtpendence. Austria tried a third time to
relieve Mantua. Two armies under the command of Alvinzi
and Daviii'^vitch marched, the one from Friuli, and the other
from the Tyrol. The former was encountered by Bonaparte,
who defeated them in a sanguinary iction at Arcole, (Nov. 17.)
Immediately he directed his march aj^ainst the other, and beat
them at Rivoli, (Nov. 21.)

While matters were thus passing in Italy, the army of the

illesimo, Ceva,

ulieux, and the

of Sardinia to

he surrendered

o at Placentia;

to the Duke of

of Lodi, (May

cmona and Piz-

, (May 14,) who

f Modena obtain-

lia agreed to sign

voy and the dis-

is was so great,

leutral, by a con-

; 6.) The Pope

tlogna, (June 28,)

igh the war had

ccupied Leghorn,

1 that port.

ie every effort to

to them in Italy.

marched from the

Fuly 31,) and com-

ntua. The latter

it them at Castig-

it Wurmser from

place was invested

in army marched

with Davidovitch

JR as far as Trent,

mtua. Bonaparte

anquished him in

himself, with the

15.) After this

Duke of Parma,

lepublic of Genoa

tained at least the

I a third time to

nimand of Alvinzi

uli, and the other

red by Bonaparte,

Arcole, (Nov. 17.)

lie other, and beat

', the army of the

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 1815.

441

Sambre and Mouse, commanded by Jourdan, had sevi,,il en-
gagements with the Archduke-Charles, brother of the Emperor,
on ilie Sieg and the Lahn. Morcau, at the head of the army of
the Rhine and Moselle, passed the Rhine at Strasburg, and gained
several advantages over the army which Wurmser hail com-
manded at the beginning of the campaign ; he concluded truces
with the Duke of Wurtembcrg, the Margrave of Baden, and the
Circle of Swabia, who supplied him with money and provisions,
(July,) and penetrated into Bavaria, the Elector of which was also
obliged to submit to very rigorous conditions, (Sept. 7,) to obtain
a suspension of arnis. Jourdan, on his side, having also passed
the Rhine, marched through Franconia, as far as iho Upper
Palatinate. The iichduke-Charles, who, since the departure of
Wurmser for Ita'.y, had been at the head of all the Austrian
armies in Germany, retired before so great a superiority of num-
bers, and drew near to the quarter whence he expected the ar-
rival of reinforcements. He immediately fell on the undis-
ciplined army of Jourdan, defeated them at Aniberg,(Aug. 24,)
and Wurtsburg, (Sept. 3;) and put them so completely to the
rout, that tiiey were obliged to repass the Rhine (Sept. 19.) This
disaster compelled Moreau to make his retreat ; in effecting
which, he displayed the talents of a great general. After a
number of engagements, in which he was more frequently the
conqueror than conquered, he brought back his army to Hunin-

fen, (Oct. 26,) where they passed the Rhine. That fortress and
[ehl were the only points on the right bank of the Rhine which
remained in the possession of the French.

The Cabinet of London, finding that Spain had declared war
against her (Aug. 19,) according to the treaty of St. Ildefonso
which allied her strictly with France ; and moreover, seeing
Ireland threatened with an invasion, ordered the British troops
to evacuate the island of Corsica, (Oct. 21,) of which the French
took possession. Lord Malmesbury was sent to Lille to nego-
tiate a peace (Oct. 24,) which he was not able to obtain, because
the conditions were not agreeable to the three Directors who
formed the majority. The attempts which the French made to
land in Ireland (Dec. 22,) under Admiral Morard de Galles, and
General Hoche, proved unsuccessful.

In 1797, the Austrians made a fourth attempt to save Man-
tua. Alvinzi arrived with 80,000 men ; but after several bloody
engagements, this army was dispersed, and old Wunnser was
compelled to surrender Mantua by capitulation (Feb. 2.) Bo-
naparte, who had broken his truce with the Pope, invaded the
Ecclesiastical States ; but being menaced in the rear by a new
Austrian army, he again made peace with his Holiness at To-

* '; >

.iH

442

CIMPTKR X.

i\!

luntino (Feb. 19.) The Pope, besides renouncing Avignon i\nd
the Venaissin, ceded also Fcrrara, Bologna and Komagnn. The
new Austrian army in Italy was commanded by the Archduke-
Charles ; but not being able to cope with that of Bonaparte in
pitched battle, the Archduke retired through the Tyrol and Curin-
thia into Stiria, where he was followed by the French General.
This precipitate march threw the French army into a situation
highly perilous; since, besides the want of provisions, they were
menaced in the rear by an insurrection of the Tyrol, and the
arms of the Venetian Republic. Bonaparte then offered peace,
which was accepted by the Cabinet of Vienna, and signed at
Leoben (April 18, 1797,) the same day that Heche passed the
Rhine at Neuwied ; and two days after Moreau had passed that
river at Strasburg.

The preliminaries at Leoben were honourable for Austria.
She renounced, it is true, Belgium and all her possessions in
Italy, as far as the Oglio ; but she was indemnified by a con-
siderable part of the Venetian territory, as well as by Istria and
Dalmatia ; for which the Republic were to receive Bologna,
Ferrara and Romagna ; Peschiera and Mantua were to be sur-
rendered to the Emperor. France recognised the principle, that
the integrality of the Empire was to be the basis of a pacifica-
tion with the Germanic Body. Immediately after the peace ol
Leoben, Bonaparte, without having received orders, overturned
the Venetian Republic, and caused his troops to occupy that
city (May 16.) He united the provinces of Lombardy which
Austria had ceded, into a Republic, on the model of that oi
France (June 29;) and this new State was called the Cisalpine
Republic. He obliged the Genoese to change their government,
and toconstitute themselves into the Ligurian Republic (June 6.)

The negotiations for a definitive peace were long in coming
to a conclusion. Bonaparte regretted having promised the
restitution of Mantua ; and the three Jacobin members of the
Directory, who were displeased with the terms on which the
peace with Germany was to be founded, began to intrigue for
the cession of the left bank of the Rhine ; and with this view,
to protract the conclusion of the peace, until the Revolution of
the 18th Fructidor should gain their party the asseiulancy. The
negotiations with Lord Malmesbury were immediately broken
off; and Bonaparte threatened to resume hostilities, unless
Austria would accept the conditions dictated by the New Di-
rectory. Peace was at length concluded at Cainpo Formio near
Udina, (Oct. 17,) by Buonaparte, and Count Louis de Cobenal.
The two parties divided between them, it is said, the whole ter-
ritory of the Republic of Venice ; so that the Adige should be

ig Avignon nnd

'lomugna. The

the Archduke-
}f Bonaparte in
fyroland Carin-

rench General.

into a situation
sions, they were

Tyrol, and the

in offered peace,

and signed at

xhe passed the

had passed that

ble for Austria,
possessions in
nified by a con-
as by Istria and
eceive Bologna,
were to be sur-
le principle, that
sis of a pacifica-
'ter the peace ol
rders, overturned
s to occupy that
ionibardy which
model of that ol
ed the Cisalpine
leir government,
cpublic (June 6.)
long in coming
g promised the
members of the
s on which the
to intrigue for
with this view,
le Revolution of
ssendancy. The
lediately broken
ostilitics, unless
ly the New Di-
ipo Formio near
uis de Cobenzl.
1, the whole ter-
kdige should be

PERIOD IX. A. I). 1781) — 1815.

443

ihe frontier on the Continent of Italy, while tin- Venetian Is-
lands, on thtj coast of Albania and Turkey, should belong to
France. Austrian Lonibardy, with Peschiera and Mantua, the
Modenois, and the Venetian territory to the west of the Adige,
and the three Leijutincs of Bologna, Ferrara, nnd Roningna,
were to form the Cisalpine Republic. A Congress for a treaty
of peace with the Empire was to be opened at Rasladt. By
certain secret articles, the Emperor consented eventually to the
perpetual and complete cession of the left bank of the Rhine ;
and stipulated for him.self the possession of Salzburg, in case of
a partial cession ; and greater advantages, provided the whole
left bank of the Rhine were abandoned to France. The States
of Germany, who might suffer loss by the partial or total cession
of the left bank of the Rhine, were to receive indemnification
in Germany, as was expressed in the treaty. A compensation
was to be allowed to the Prince of Orange ; but this was not
to take place in the neiffhbourhood of the Batuvian Republic,
nor in that of the Austrian posscss^ions. Prus.sia was to pre
serve hei provinces on the left bank of the Rhine ; but she was
to claim no new acquisitions in Germany.

The Directory were not eipially satished with all the articles
of this treaty; bat they durst not disavow the negotiator, who
had assisted in accomplisbin? the Revolution of the 18th Fruc-
tidor. The French government were displeased with the in-
crease of power granted to Austria, and especially with the
dismemberment of Bavaria, which Rewbol,who piqued himself
on his political abilities, regarded with reason as contrary to the
interests of France. Moreover, the articles relative to Prussia
and the Prince of Orange were in direct opposition to the Con-
vention of Berlin, (1794,) which was the basis of the existing
unanimity between Prussia and France. By that Convention
the Bishopric of Munster was made over to the King, by way of
reimbursement for his possessions beyond the Rhine ; while the
House of Orange was to have Wurtzburg and Bamberg. These
circumstances obliged the Directory to conceal from the Court of
Berlin the secret articles of the treaty of Campo Formio ; and
this constraint greatly embarrassed them, by the mistrust which
it excited on the part of Prussia.

General Bonaparte, with Trielhard and Bonnier, members
Df the Convention, were appointed to negotiate at Rastadt with
the deputation of the Empire. Bonaparte made only a short stay
(here, to sign a secret convention with Count Louis de Cobenzl,
(Dec. 1 ;) according to which Mayence was to be restored to the
(ruops of the French Republic, in fulfilment of what had been
resolved on at Campo Formio. The object which the French

I .

'/^

i "I

444

CIIAPTEn X.

n.-otittt.rs proposoa. was to obtnm the entire ''c^''"" " ^^f
left bunk of the Rhino, free from all charges ; and to obtain ,t
V ho u boinir ..bliR,Hl to p.ir.lK,«e it at the price which Bona-
pa te had pro^nis..! to Austria. The means tor attammff the
Sect veUlo seaiie tlie consent of the majority of the deputa-
"ion mid the agroemeiit of I'n.ssia, and then to prevail with
Ihe la ir to object to ihe dimnembernK-nt of Bavar.a-a measure
which would compel France to reveal the secret negotiations
at Camno Forinio. The first proposition on which these mm-
isters (lemanded the cession of the whole left bank of the
E e became the subject of a tedious negotiation, RH«"'ile Kr
nronolc'l aTd thwarted by a thousand intrigues. At lenglfi

h" deputation admitted itW-h ^f •) ^"V^TrS U.en
which the ministers were determined to reject. The latter then
proposed as a second basis, the idemnification of the princes in
possession of the left bank of the Rhine ; which was adopted
^without much difficultv ^!iarch 15.) The third d~\ ^
ferred to the manner of" carrying the fundamental articles in o
execution. On this ground the French advanced a multitude
of pretensions, each more unjust and more ridiculous than the

"'until then the negotiations, in all probability, w-re serious
on the part of Austria and France ; as the former, supported by
r"i sia,\oped to obtain the consent of Prussia to the dismem-
be r^ent of Bavaria ; while France, on her side, vainly antici-
pated a sUcfallLc; with the Cabinet of Berlin, which would
Save e^mbled lh< Directory to have dictated its own conditions
of neae B. .towards iL middle of the year, war had be-
come inevitable, in consequence of the numerous aggressions
which the Executive Directory had committed in difTerent coun-
tries To them war had become necessary to occupy their ar-
m'es. The continuation of the Congress at Rastadt, therefore,
served m.>relv to gain time to prepare for hostilities 1 the
C"urt of '/ieina had flattered themselves, that the Cisalpine
Republic would form an independent State.they were undeceived
?;^he treaty of alliance with France which t^at Republic was
otliged to accept, in spite of the determined refusal »[. tl\« C^oun-
cil of Ancients. It was, in reality, a treaty of subjection by
which, among other articles, it was stipulated that here should
always be 25,000 French troops in the Cisalpine States, tor the
support of which they should pay eighteen millions per annum.
A tumult having happened at Rome, •" wh'ch .°ne of the
French generals was killed, the Directory made Uiis a pretext
for invading the Ecclesiastical States. General Berthier pro-
ckimed thf Roman Fepublic (Feb. 15, 179S;) and Pope ^us

cession of ihe
d to obtain it
whicli Bonn-
fUtnininp the
of the (lepnta-
[o prevail with
ia — a measure
t negotiations
ich these min-
"t bank of the
ion, ttltornatel
■s. At lenf^lli
Icr restrictions
The latter then
the princes in
h was adopted
rd demand re-
articles into
red a multitude
ulous than the

lely
L'th

y, •.V'^re serious
3r, supported by
to the dismem-
le, vainly antici-
n, which would
own conditions
ir, war had be-
ous aggressions
1 different coun-
)ccupy their ar-
stadt, therefore,
3tilities. If the
it the Cisalpine
vere undeceived
it Republic was
sal of the Coun-
f subjection, by
lat there should
e States, for the
ons per annum,
lich one of the
le this a pretext
il Berth ier uro-
and Pope Pius

ya<M

PBRinU IX. A. D. 1789 — ISl/J.

445

VI. was curried captive to France where In- died, (Aug. 29, 1799.^

The Directory, from no just motive, excited a revolution in
Switzerland ; and under pretence of being invited by one of the
jMrties, they sent troon^ into that country (Jan. 26;) overturned
the exi.«ting order of tliinjfs ; and under the title of the Ihlrrtir
Rtpiihlir, they established a government entirely .subject on
their authority (April 11.) A piece of imprudence, conimitl«'d
oy the French ambassador at Vienna, was the cause of a populu.-
commotion there ; in consequence of which he ([uitted his ^ituT-
tion. This event made a great noise. It gave ri.'^e to the con-
ferences which took place at Seltz in Alsace (April 13,) between
the Ex-Director Francois and Count De Cobenzl ; in which
France and Austria tried, for ibe last time, if it were possible to
corno to a proper understanding regarding their mutual interests.
These conferences had no other effect than to convince the Court
of Vienna, that they must turn the current of their politics into
a new channel.

A French fleet, commanded by Admiral Breueix, sailed from
Toulon (May 19,) with General Bonaparte and 40,000 men.
When they arrived off Malta, Bonaparte got possession of that
island by means of a capitulation, signed in name of the order of
St. John (June 12,) by some of the knights who had disclaimed
all submission to the Grand Master and the Assembly of the
States. From Malta the French fleet sailed with a fair wind
for Egypt, and Lnded at Alexandria (July 2,) to undertake the
conquest of that country ; although France was then at peace
with the Porte. The English fleet, however, under Admiral
Nelson, which had gone in quest of the French, joined them off
Alexandria, and defeated them in an action which was fought in
the bay of Aboukir (Aug. 1,) and which lasted thirty-six hours.

Charles Emanuel IV., King of Sardinia, insulted in every
kind of way by the French generals, and by his neighbours the
Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics, resolved to shelter himself
from these annoyances under the protection of the Directory.
He had concluded an alliance, offensive and defensive, with
France (April 5, 1797 ;) but the latter having demanded a nev
pledge of his friendship, he concluded a convention at Milan, by
which the French government granted him their protection ; or.
condition that he would surrendertothem the citadel of hiscapital.

The events which we have now detailed gave rise to a second
coalition against France, which was entered into by Great Britain,
Russia, Austria, the Porte, and the Two Sicilies. The two first
of these powers promised to support the rest ; Britain furnishing
supplies, and Russia auxiliary troops. Before taking up arms,
the Cabinet of Vienna attempted to conciliate that of Berlin.

» I

1*1)

44(1

ClfAPTKR X.

!!!»

with ihc view ofrompfllinjrFrnniro to mod rate somoofherclaim!i.
Xt'j^oliiitidiiM were iicrordiii^^lyiilcn'd iiiio nt Hcrlin, nt lirU bf-
tw»'C'i\ tlif twfi |»o\V('rH iiloiic, mill nl'tcrwiinls undir the mcdiatiou
o( tlio ICni|iiTnr I'liiil of Rii>^iii. But in order to obtiiiii n tiiiituul
co-oj'prnlion, it was iiccoHsiiry to begin by Liablishiriff mutiinl
ronndi.'iirf. 'J'hi.s was irnpnssiblo, us ciich of tlic f'lbincM? iuid iti
yvni ^l(■(•r('t, whicli it would not commiiiiicnto to " ■ f !i"r. Piu*"
sia had her own treiity of tlie If^t of August 179<, , , d A\w ■■<
iu>T SLcrot nrtii'ics of Cnmno Forinio. The circuinsijini'i' \vh: h
dntorinined the Emporor I'liul to takr a part in the war o 'unst
Franco, was the indignation «liic! he felt at the 8poliuii.or> of
the Knights of Malta, whom lie liad taken under his protection,
and afterwards accepted tlie oflice of Grand Master of the Order

This coalition was formed by tren'ie* of alliance between the
several parlies respectively. HnssiaagTi d to send an army of
60,000 men, under Suwarow, tothe Daiiiilie, and to furnish Prus-
sia with 45,000, to bo paid by Great Britain.

After the revolution of the ISih Fructidi)., t)ic Execuli\c Di-
rectory of the French Republic bad to strugj^de against the gene-
ral discontent, as well as ag.viist tli*- disorderel -late of the
finances, and the intrigues of liic Jacobms, whose tiflucnce they
had imprudently augtnented, hoping, by their means, to annil.i-
latc the party of the op|)o.vilioii. That faction would infallibly
have aflecled a counter-revolution in France, had not the Direc-
tory, by a stretch of arbitrary power, annulled the elections of
1798. The want of funds, which was always growing worse,
had retarded the renewal of the war ; but w:;en it broko out, the
Directory adopted a measure which we ought not to pass in si-
lence, as it has exercised a lasting influence on nil the States o(
Europe, who were obliged to follow the example. We allude to
the law which introduced the military conscription (Sept. 5, 1798,)
and M hich was the work of General Jourdan.

Th( Coalition was not yet consolidated, and Austria had not
yet fin died her preparations for war, when the King of the Two
Siciliet, instigated by a party who wished to urge the Cabinet of
Vienna to greater despatch, commenced hostilities, by expelling
the French from Rome (Nov, 24.) That enterprise failed of
success. The Neapolitan troops, who were commanded by a
foreigner. General Baron de Mack, showed neither disciplme
nor courage. After this first repulse, the King took shelter in
Sicily. His capital became a prey to the most frightful anarchy.
Mack, to save his life, deserted to the enemy. The Lazzaroni
defended Naples against the French army, and it was not till
after a battle of three days, that Championnet, who was at theii
head, succeeded in getting possession of tjie city ; after which he

nmnofherclaims.
IJcrlin, tit liru b«-
dtr the mediation
(I nbtaiii n iniauitl
al)lisliin(T Miuiunl
' (^ibincii? hud it"*

> ■Vii- '.:i]u:\: PlD"'-

rtX., , d Aus!' =•
rcuins'»rn"i! wh;' i'
n the war o 'iinst
t the spoliiil'oi* o!
Jcr his prolection,
iKlcr of the Order
iancc between the
) !»end an army of
id to furnish Prus-

the Executive Di-
np:ainst the gene-
Icreii =late of the
ios<j .tifluence they
means, to annil.i-
n would infallibly
had not the Direc-
;d the elections of
^s jTTOwing worse,
;n it broke out, the
it not to pass in si-
m nil the States oi
pie. We allude to
lion (Sept. 5, 1798,)

id Austria had not
le King of the Two
irgc the Cabinet of
ilities, by expelling
interprise failed of
I commanded by a
neither discipline
ing took shelter in
t friglitful anarchy.
f. The Lazzaroni
and it was not till
;t, who was at their
;ity ; al\er which he

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PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

447

proclaimed the Parthenopeaii Republic (Jan. 25.) General Jou-
bert took possession of Turin ; and when the new campaign
opened, the whole of Italy was in the hands of the French.

The Executive Directory made these hostile preparations of
the King of the Two Sicilies a pretext for declaring war against
the King of Sardinia (Dec. 6, 179S,) who was in alliance \yith
France. General Joubeit having already advanced into Pied-
mont, Charles Emanuel I /. signed an act, drawn up by General
Clauzel, by which he renounced the exercise of all power, and
commanded his subjects to obey the provisional government
which the French were about to establish. He afterwards re-
tired into Sardinia, where he protested against the violence which
he had experienced.

The Congress of Rastadt had continued their sittings. On
the 6th December 1798. the French plenipotentiaries gave in
their ultimatum on the third proposition relative to the mode o(
carrying into execution the two fundamental articles agreed to ;
with a threat to quit Rastadt unless it was accepted within six
days. The majority of the deputation, who were not initiated
into the secrets of great cabinets, and who were importuned by
a crowd of princes, nobles, and deputies under the influence
either of interest or terror, accepted this ultimatum ; against
which Austria, Saxony, and Hanover voted. The plenipoten-
tiary of the Empire ratified it ; probably because the Court of
Vienna, who were on the point of abrogating every thing that
had passed at Rastadt, did not think it necessary to enter into
any discussion on that subject. This finished the operations of
the Congress. From that moment, the French plenipotentiaries
did nothing but complain of the march of the Russian troops,
who in effect had penetrated into Galicia, and were approaching
the Danube. The deputation, whose distinctive character was
Dusillanimity, confirmed these complaints in presence of the
Emperor (Jan. 4, 1799,) who, however, eluded giving any posi-
tive answer, until the whole of his measures were organized.
A French army, commanded by Jourdan, passed the Rhine, be-
tween Strasburg and Basle. The Congress, nevertheless, con-
tinued to sit until ^he 7th April, when it was dissolved by Count
Metternich, who aimuUed all its decisions.

The 28th of April was a day memorable in the annars oi
modern history. Some of the Austrian Hussars, within a quar-
ter of a league of Rastadt, assassinated the French ministers
Bonnier, Debry, and Roberjot, who were on their return to Paris.
That deed was not aiithorized by the Executive Directory, aU
though it was attributed to them because they had artfully turned
it to their advantage, by exciting the public mind which had

(•««• •, :-iAtA

so«'

i^ih

CHAPTER X.

448

already declared itself against the war ; neither was it author
ized by any cabinet, or commander of the army. Its real au-
thor has never been officially made known.

The French Republic had already declared war against the
Emperor and the Grand Duke of Tuscany (March 12, 1799,)
without any apparent motive. But, before this declaration was
made, the campaign had already opened in Switzerland, where
General Massena had dislodged the Austrians from the country
of the Grisons, which tliey had occupied in consequence of a
treaty with the Republicans, concluded at Coire (Oct. 7, 1798.)
The Archduke Charles, at the head of the main Austrian army,
acquitted himself gloriously. He defeated Jourdan in several
pitched battles at Pullendorf and Stockach (March 20, 25,) and
compelled the army of the Danube, as it was called, to repass
the Rhine. The remains ef Jourdan's army were then united
to that of Massena.

In Italy, while General Macdonald, who had succeeded Cham-
pionnet in the command, was covering Rome and Naples, Gen-
eral Gauthier occupied Florence. Sherer, at the head of the
army of Italy, was defeated by Kray at Legnago (March 25,)
Roco (30,) and Verona (AprifS.) It was at this time that Su-
warow arrived in Italy with the Russians, and took the chief
command of the combined army. IMoreau, who with a noble
resignation had taken on himself the interim command of the
French army in its present discouraging circumstances, was de-
feated at Cassano (April 27,) and retired to Alessandria. It was
of great importance for Suwarow to prevent Macdonald, who
had arrived at Naples, from joining Moreau. But the two
French generals manoeuvred so dexterously, that this junction
took place ; although Macdonald had been attacked by Suwa-
row near the Trebia (June 17,) where he sustained a considera-
ble loss. The whole of Lombardy fell into the hands of the
Allies. Mantua likewise capitulated. Joubert, who had been
appointed General of the army of Italy, had scarcely arrived
when he offered battle to Suwarow near Novi (Aug. 15 ;) but
he was slain near the commencement of the action. Moreau,
who had continued with the army as a volunteer, could not pre-
vent the general rout. Championnet, who succeeded Joubert,
was not more fortunate. Coni, the last place in their possession,
having been taken (Dec. 3,) the French retired within the Ap-

penines.

The Archduke Charles having marched into Switzerland,
Massena took up a strong position on the Aar and the Reuss.
The hopes which they had entertained of bringing over Prussia
to the coalition having entirely failed, it was agreed between

I:
('
r

fcia#is*«»4-»^'-*''*^ '*"•'• •■^^«-'*

PERIOD IX. A. o. 1789—1815.

449

r was it author
Its real au-

war against the
larch 12, 1799.)
declaration was
itzerland, where
from the country
jnsequence of a
e (Oct. 7, 1798.)
1 Austrian army,
iirdan in several
irch 20, 25,) and
called, to repass
were then united

succeeded Cham-
,nd Naples, Gen-

the head of the
ago (March 25,)
lis time that Su-
d took the chief
vho with a noble
command of the
nstances, was de-
essandria. It was
Macdonald, who
1. But the two
hat this junction
tacked by Suwa-
lined aconsidera-
the hands of the
rt, who had been

scarcely arrived
i (Aug. 15 ;) but
action. Moreau,
!er, could not pre-
icceeded Joubert,
I their possession,
d within the Ap*

into Switzerland,

r and the Reuss.

jing over Prussia

agreed between

Great Britain and Russia (June 29,) that the army of 45,000
men which the latter had eventually promised to place at the dis-
posal of the King of Prussia if he became a party in the war,
should henceforth be employed against France in Switzerland.
Accordingly these troops, who were commanded by Prince Kor-
sakoff, havmg arrived on the Limmat, the Archduke joined to
them 30,000 Austrians ; while with the rest of his troops he
marched towards the Rhine, where a new French army had
occupied Heidelberg and Manheim. The Archduke compelled
them to repass the river, and took Manheim by assault (Sept. 18.).

After the battle of Novi, Suwarow quitted Italy with the
Russians whose number was now reduced to 24,000 men, to
march on the Limmat, and take the command of the allied army
in Switzerland. Massena, who was anxious to prevent this
junction, attacked Korsakoff, and defeated him near Zurich (Sept.
24 ;) which obliged him to evacuate Switzerland. Suwarow,
whose march across the Alps had now become very dangerous,
accomplished it nevertheless with boldness and celerity; and
although he had to encounter Lecc orbe who wished to intercept
him, and afterwards Massena who was in pursuit of him, He
crossed the small cantons of the Orisons, and effected a union
with the remains of Korsakoff's army.

The Roman and Parthenopean Republics had fallen to pieces
after the departure of Macdonald. Ancona, where he had \eh
a body of troops, did not surrender until the 29th of November.
The combined fleets of the Turks and Russians, about the end
of the year 1798, had taken possession of the French islands
that had formerly belonged to the Venetians. Corfu held out till
the 1st of March 1799. The Archduke Charles having advanced
on Switzerland after the defeat of Korsakoff, Lecourbe, who had
been called to the command of the army of Alsace, passed the
Rhine ; but he was soon after compelled to return to the left
bank of that river.

In virtue of a convention which was concluded at St. Peters-
burg (June 22,) the Emperor Paul, in addition to the 105,000
men which he had already despatched, engaged to furnish 17^00
more. These with 12,()00 English, under the command of the
Duke of York, attempted to make a descent on Holland, and
landed at Helder. This expedition proved a total failure. The
Duke of York, after having been worsted in several engage-
ments with General Brune, evacuated the country, in conse-
quence of a capitulation signed at Alkmaar (Oct. 18, 1799.)
These disasters were but feebly compensated by the taJdng of
Surinam (Aug. 16,) the last of the Dutch colonies which fell
into the hands of the English.

450

OBAPTBR Z.

While these events were transacting in Europe, Bonaparte
had subdued the greater part of Egypt ; but he was less suc-
cessful in the expedition which he undertook against Syria.
Being obliged to raise the siege of Acre (May 19,) after sus-
tauiing considerable losses, he returned to Egypt wUh the feeble
remains of his army. Shortly after (July 16,) a Turkish fleet
appeared off Aboukir, and landed a body of troops, who took
possession of that fort. Bonaparte directed his march against
them, beat them, and almost totally annihilated them (Juljr 25;)
but being displeased at the Directory, who had left him without
support, and having heard of their disorganization, he resolved
to return to Europe. He embarked secretly (Aug. 23,) and
landed at Frejus on the coast of Provence (Oct. 9, 1799.)

At the time of his arrival, France was in a state of the most
violent commotion. The Council of Five Hundred was become
more and more Jacobinical, in consequence of new elections.
Sieyes, Gohier, Roger Duces, and Moulins, with Barras, Direc-
tor of the Ancients, formed the government. The revolutionary
measures which were adopted by the Council, seemed a pre-
lude to the return of Terror. Such was the law which author-
ized the Directory to take hostages among the relations of the
emigrants (July 12 ;) and the loan of a hundred millions, which
was decreed (Aug. 6.) ...

In the west, the Chouans had organized a new insurrection
under the conduct of George Cadoudal and the Counts de Frot-
te, D'Autichamp, and de Bourmont. Disturbances had broken
out in other provinces ; the government had fallen into contempt ;
» general restlessness had taken possession of the public mind.
Barras and Sieyes were perfectly conscious that this state of
things could not continue. Each of them, separately, had con-
trived the plan of a new revolution ; and each of them endeav-
oured to make a partisan of General Bonaparte, who had just
arrived in Paris, and on whom the hopes of France seemed at
that time to depend. The General deceived Barras, and entered
into a conspiracy with Sieyes and the more powerful mem-
bers of the Council of Ancients. On the 18th Brumaire (Nov.
9, 1799,) the Council nominated Bonaparte commandant of the
troops ; abolished the Directory ; and ordered the Legislative
Assembly to be transferred to St. Cloud. The meeting which
took place next day was a scene of great turbulence. Bonaparte
ineffectually attempted to defend himself in the Council of t ive
Hundred, when tue Tirmness of his brother Lucien and the gren-
adiers of the guard alone secured his safety. The Council was
dissolved, and the constitution of the year Three abolished i IN ov.
11.) A provisional government was established, consisting of

l-V'tfli-'-l'i'i'-'^"--

Surope, Bonaparte
t he was less suc-
9k against Syria,
lay 19,) after sus-
ypi with the feeble
5,) A Turkish fleet
f troops, who took
his march against
!dthem(Juljr25;)
id left him without
sation, he resolved
ly (Aug. 23,) and
>ct. 9, 1799.)
a state of the most
indred was become
I of new elections,
vith Barras, Direc-
The revolutionary
icil, seemed a pre-
law which author-
the relations of the
red millions, which

a new insurrection
the Counts de Frot-
rbances had broken
alien into contempt ;
of the public mind.
s that this state of
separately, had con-
ich of them endeav-
parte, who had just
if France seemed at
Barras, and entered
lore powerful mem-
8th Brumaire (Nov.
1 commandant of the
Bred the Legislative

The meeting which
julence. Bonaparte

the Council of Five
jucien and the gren-
'. The Council was
hree abolished (Nov.
)Ushed, consisting of

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

451

Sieves, Roger Ducos, and Bonaparte. A legislative commission
of twenty-five members were charged to draw up the plan of a
new constitution.

The new constitution was announced on the 22d of Frimaire,
of the year Eight (13th Dec. 1799.) The republican forms were
preserved ; and the government, in appearance, was intrusted to
a Council of three persons, appointed for ten years, and decorated
with the title of Consuls, viz. Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le
Brun ; but in reality to the first only, on whom they conferred a
power truly monarchical. The other constituted bodies were a
Conservative Senate, contrived by Sieyes, to be the guardian of
the public liberties ; a Tribunal of one hundred members, whose
business it was to discuss such forms of law as the government
laid before them ; and a Legislative Body of three hundred
members, who gave their vote without any previous debate.
Bonaparte seized the reins of government with a firm hand. He
abrogated several of the revolutionary laws, amalgamated its
different parts into a system, and by degrees organized the most
complete despotism. He consolidated his power by quashing
the insurrection in the West. By his orders. Generals Brune
and Hedouville concluded a peace (Jan. 18, 1800,) first with the
Vendeans at Montfaucjon, and afterwards with the Chouans. He

fave a most striking example of perfidy, by causing the brave
'rotte to be shot a few days after. But he conciliated the af-
fection of his subjects by the restoration of religion, which he
established by means of a Concordat with the Court of Rome,
(July 15, 1801.)

Bonaparte was no sooner placed at the head of the govern'
ment, than he proposed to make peace with England, by means
of a letter (Dec. 26, 1799,) not written, according to etiquette, bv
one of his ministers to the Secretary of State for Foreign Af-
fairs, but in his own hand, and addressed to King George IIL,
whom he complimented for his patriotic virtues. He stated the
necessity for peace ; and trusted, that two nations so enlightened
as France and Great Britain, would no longer be actuated by
false ideas of glory and greatness. This step, made in so un-
usual a form, could not possibly have a successful result, espe-
cially as Mr. Pitt was determined to employ all the resources of
England to overthrow the revolutionary despotism which the
First Consul was endeavouring to establish in France. That
great statesman endeavoured, by the treaties of subsidy which
we have already mentioned, to repair the lo.ss which the coalition
had just suffered by the retirement of Paul I., who being morti-
fied with the bad success of the Russian arms, which he ascribed

i' \i

tfki'

•#-.jii

■ % i L i ,1 1 HI" ■» ,»»" ' ■ , I'-ip w "

452

CHAPTER X.

10 the allies themselves had recalled his troops at the beginning

of the year ISOO. ■ t i

General Mel.is.who romnmnded the Anstrians in Italy, open-
ed the campaign of 1800 in the most splendid manner. In con-
sequence o/ the victory which he gamed over Massena at Voltn
(April 10.) the latter was obliged to throw himself into benoa,
where he sustained a siege of six weeks with great courage.
Melas made himself master of Nice (May 11,) and Souchet
passed the Var on his march to Provence But, in a short time,
feonaparte, at the head of a new army which collected a D on
passed the Alps, and took possession of Milan (June 2;) w^ule
Melas was not yet aware that his army was in existence, b or •
tunately for the latter, Massenawas obliged to surrender Genoa
at that very time, (June 5,) which placed the corps of Genera
Ott at his^disposai. He had found it dimcult, with his small
earrison, to preserve order among the inhabitants, of whom
15.000 are said to have perished by famine or disease during
the blockade. General Ott was defeated by Berlhier at Monte-
bello (June 9.) Melas himself engaged General Bonaparte at
Marengo (June 14.) Victory was already within his grasp,
when tlie arrival of the brave Desaix with his division, disap-
pointed him of the triumph. The defeat had a most discourag-
ing effect on General Melas, and cost Austria the whole of
Lombardv. A truce which was concluded at Alessandria (June
16,) put bonapartc in possession of that town ; as well as ol
Tortona, Turin, Placentia, Coni, Genoa, &c. The Austnans
retired beyond the Mincio.

Moreau, at the head of a French army, had passed the Rhine
(April 25,) and defeated Kray in several engagements. Ihe
Austrians then retired within the Upper Palatinate. Moreau
had already made himself master of Munich, when he received
the news of the truce at Alessandria. He then concluded an
armistice at Parsdorf (July 15.) The Count St Julien who
had been sent by the Emperor Francis II. to Pans, having
siened the preliminaries of peace without sufficient authority,
the Court of Vienna refused to ratify them, as they had engaged
not to make peace without the consent of England. Hostilities
were to recommence in Germany in the month of September ;
but the Archduke John, who commanded the Austrian army m
Bavaria, having requested that the armistice should be prolonged,
General Moreau consented, on condition that Philipsburg, Uim,
and Ingolstadt, should be given up to him. This arrangement
was signed at Hohenlinden (Sept. 20.) and France immediately
demolished the fortifications of these two places Hostilities
having recommenced about the end of November, General Mo-

^-jai»i;;itf JBWtfWtft^i ^ vriiw.^**

)sutthe beginning

inns in Italy, open-

mnnner. In con-

Masscna at Voltri

imscif into Genoa,

th great courage.

11,) and Souchel

ut, in a short lime,

collected at Dijon,

an (.June 2;) while

in existence. For^

to surrender Genoa

e corps of General

cult, with his small

mbitants, of whom

c or disease during

Borthierat Monte-

enerul Bonaparte at

r within his grasp,

his division, disap-

id a most discourag-

ustria the whole of

It Alessandria (June

own ; as well as of

Sec. The Austrians

ad passed the Rhine
engagements. The
'alatinate. Moreao
h, when he received

then concluded an
int St. Julien, who
I. to Paris, having
sufficient authority,
[IS they had engaged
ngland. Hostilities
onth of September ;
le Austrian army in
should be prolonged,
It Philipsburg, Ulm,
This arrangement
France immediately

places. Hostilities
ember. General Mo-

period IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

453

reau defeated the army of the Archduke John, at the memorable
baillo of Jlohcnlindt'u (Dec. 3 ;) after which he marched in all
haste on Vienna. Austria being released from her engagements
by the Cabinet of London, then declared that she was determined
to make peace, whatever might be the resolutions of England;
on which a new armistice was concluded at Steyr {Dec. 25.)
Braunau and Wurtzburg were delivered up to the French.

General Brune, who commanded in Italy, renewed the truce
of Alessandria by the convention of Castiglione (Sept. 29,) and
thus gained time to take possession of Tuscany, which they had
forgot to include in the truce. Being reinforced by the army of
Macdoiiald, who had arrived in Lonibardy, he passed the Brenta ;
after traversing, by a perilous march, the lofty mountain of Splu-
gen. In virtue of a new truce, signed at Treviso, the French
obtained the recovery of Peschiera, the forts of Verona, Legnago
Fermo, and Ancona.

Meantime, negotiations for peace had been entered into at
Luneville, between Joseph Bonaparte and Count Louis de
Cobenzl. The First Consul having refused to ratify the armis-
tice of Treviso, because it had left Mantua in the hands of the
Austrians, the Imperial plenipotentiary at Luneville signed an
additional convention, by which that place was delivered over to
the French. Peace between Austria and France was signed a
few days after (Feb. 9 ;) and Francis II., at the same time, made
stipulations for the Empire. He ceded the Belgic provinces,
the county of Falkenstein and Frickthal. In Italy, the frontier
line between Austria and the Cisalpine Republic was traced, so
that the Adige should separate the two States, and the cities of
Verona and Porto Legnago should be divided between them.
The other conditions were, that the Grand Duke of Modena
should have Brisgau in exchange for his dutchy ; that the Grand
Duke of Tuscany should renounce his grand dutchy, and receive
a free and competent indemnity in Germany ; that the F t'-je
should give up all the left bank of the Rhine ; that the here-.u-^^ry
princes, who lost their territories in consequence of these v sa-
sions, should receive compensation from the Empire ; and lastly,
that the Germanic Body should ratify the peace within the space
of thirty days. By a secret article, Saltzburg, Berchtolsgaden,
Passau, the bishopric and city of Augsburg, Kempten, and twelve
other immediate abbeys, besides nineteen Imperial cities in
Swabia, including Ulni and Augsburg, were secured to the
Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Empire showed great anxiety
to ratify this peace, which was the precursor of its annihilation

The English had compelled General Vaubois to surrender the
Isle of Malta. After the flight of Bonaparte from Egypt, Kleber

■fr . }

tfti!-

1:^1

w i'- -'^

HMWiWMMi

mmk^maimfmtfUH^

454

CHArrRn x.

hud taken the coinmnnd of the French army, which was thnn
reduced to 12,000 men. A convcntiori was conchided at El
Ariscli with the Oriuid Vi/i(!r who had arrived from S^ria at
tlie head of a formidable army, by which the French General
engaged to evacuate the country. The English government
having refused to ratify this treaty, unless Kleber would surren-
der himself prisoner of war, timt General immediately attacked
the Grand Vizier, and defeated him at El Hanka (March 20 ;)
after which he again subdued Cairo, which had raised the stand-
ard of revolt. The English Government were willing to ratify
the convention of the 24tli January ; but General Menou having
succeeded Kleber who had fallen by the dagger of u Turkish
fanatic, was determined to maintain himself in Egypt, in spite
of an evident impossibility. Sir Ralph Abercromby, the Eng-
lish commander, who arrived with a British force, effected his
landing at Aboukir (March 8, 1801.) Menou was defeated in
the battle of Rahmanieh, near Alexandria (March 21,) which
cost General Abercromby his life. But the French soon saw
themselves assailed on all hands by the Turks and the English,
who had been recalled from the East Indies, and had disem-
barked on the shores of the Red Sea. General Belliard, who
had the command at Cairo, concluded a capitulation (June 27,)
in virtue of which he was sent back to France with the troops
under his orders. Menou found himself obliged to follow his
example, and capitulated at Alexandria to General Hutchinson
(Aug. 30,) who consented to the safe conveyance of the French
troops to their native country. Thus ended an expedition,
which, had it proved successful, must have become fatal to the
British Empire in India, and given a new direction to the com-
merce of the world.

Various treaties were concluded between the peace of Lune-
ville and that of Amiens, which put an entire end to the war.
(1.) General Murat,who commanded the army in Italy, having
shown some disposition to carry the war into the kingdom of
Naples, Ferdinand IV. concluded nn armistice at Foligno (Feb.
18,) which he afterwards converted into a treaty of peace at Flo-
rence. He gave up the State of Presidii, and his share of the
island of Elba and of the principality of Piombino. By a secret
article, he agreed that 16,000 French troops should occupy the
peninsula of Otranto and part of Abruzzo, until the conclusion
of peace with England and the Porte. (2.) Portugal, since the
year 1797, had wished to withdraw from the first coalition, and
even concluded a peace with the Executive Directory at Paris
(Aug. 10 ;) but the English stjuadron of Admiral St. Vincent
having entered the Tagus, the Queen refused to ratify that

Ifnn iiiB I

^t tiv it ■iM^ttUt*''^- •

which was ihon
iH concluiiod at El
v(!il from Syria at
he French General
nplish povernment
el>er would surren-
iincdiately attacked
Ianl{a (March 30 ;)
lad raised the stand-
ore willing to ratify
neral Mcnou having
ugger of u Turkish
r in Egypt, in spite
Hircromby, the Eng-
h force, effected his
nou was defeated in
(March 21,) which
e French soon saw
rks and the English,
ies, and had disein-
ncral Belliard, who
pituhition (June 27,)
mce with the troops
)bliged to follow his
General Hutchinson
?yance of the French
ided an expedition,
e become fatal to the
direction to the com-

n the peace of Lune-
itire end to the war.
rmy in Italy, having
into the kingdom of
tice at Foligno (Feb.
rcaty of peace at Flo-

and his share of the
}mbino. By a secret
ps should occupy the

until the conclusion
) Portugal, since the
he first coalition, and
e Directory at Paris
Admiral St. Vincent
efused to ratify that

PIRIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815.

465

treaty. Portugal thus o itinued at war with Franco until 1801.
Thf French army, which was ulready in Spain, having shown
some disposition to enter Portugal, peace was concluded at Ma-
drid between Lucion Bonaparte and M. Freire (Sept. 29.) the
ministers of the two States at the Court of Spain. Portugal
shut her ports against the English, and regulated the frontiers
of Guiana, so as to prove advantageous to France. (3.) In Rus-
sia Bonaparte had succeeded to a certain extent in conciliating
the good will of the Emperor Paul. Nevertheless, at the death
of that prince (Oct. 8, 1801,) there existed no treaty of peace
between Russia and France. A treaty, however, was signed
at Paris in the reign of Alexander, by Count MarkofT and Tal-
leyrand (Oct. 11,) and followed by a very important special con-
vention by which, among other things, it was agreed : That the
two governments should form a mutual agreement, as to the
principles to be followed with respect to indemnifications in
Germany ; as well as to determine respecting those in Italy,
and to maintain a just equilibrium between the Houses of Aus-
tria and Brandeburg : That France should accept the mediation
of Prussia, for the pacification with the Porte : That the inte-
grality of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies should be maintained,
according to the treaty of the 28th March, 1801 ; and that the
French troops should evacuate the country as soon as the fate
of Egypt was decided : That a friendly disposition should be
shown to the interests of the King of Sardinia ; and that the
Elector of Bavaria and the Duke of Wurtemberg should be com-

fensated for their losses, by a full indemnity in Germany. (4.)
mmediately after General Menon had signed the capitulation
of Alexandria, the preliminaries of peace between France and
the Porte were concluded at Paris (Oct. 9 ;) but they were not
confirmed into a definitive peace, until after the preliminaries
were signed at London (June 25, 1802.) The free navigation
of the Black Sea was secured to the French flag.

When Mr. Pitt had quitted the English ministry, France and
England came to terms of better accommodation. The first ad-
vances were made on the side of the latter power. The preli-
minaries were signed at London, between Lord Hawkesbury
and M. Otio ; including their respective allies (Oct. 1, 180L)
Of all her conquests. Great Britain was to retain only the Island
of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. Malta was
to be restored to the Knights of St. John, under the protection
of a third power ; and Egypt was to belong to the Porte. The
French troops were to abandon the kingdom of Naples, and the
English to quit Porto Ferrajo. France was to acknowledge
the Republic of the Seven Islands, which was composed of Corfu
and the six other islands formerly belonging to the Venetians

^■■'W

CHAPTRR Z-

For carrying these preliminaries into execution, a ConareM
was openoci at Ami-ns, where Joseph Bonaparte appeared for
France, Lord Comwallis for England, the Chevalier Azara for
Spain, and M. Schimmelpenninck for the Batavjan Republ.c.
Some unexpected difficulties arose with regard to Malta, ns Grea^
Britain had repented of having given it up in the preliminary
treaty. They found means, however, to remove these obstacles ,
and the peace of Amiens was finally signed after a negotiation
of six months (March 27, 1802.)

We shall only take notice here in what respects these articles
differed from the preliminaries. With vegaA to the stipulation
respecting the surrender of Malta to the Knights of St John.
sevVral modifications were added, viz. as to the election of a i^ew
Grand Master; the suppression of the F';"fJ ,f "^^ ,^"8^^
Langues, or class of Knights ; the institution of a Maltese hingtu,
the time for its evacuation ; and the future appointment of the
earrison. Finally, it was said in the treaty, that the indepen-
dence of that island and its present arrangement, were placed
under the guaranty of France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain.
Russia and Prussia. It may be mentioned, that Russia and
Prussia declined to undertake that guarnnty, unless certain
modifications were added. This refusal furnished England with
a pretext for refusing to part with that island ; and the war, as
we shall soon find, was recommenced rather than give up that

'T°ne Mtide o^thetreaty of Amiens having promised the Prince
of Orange a compensation for the losses he had sustained m the
late Republic of the United Provinces, both in private property
and exMUses, another convention was signed at Amiens between
France and the Batavian States, importing that that compensa-
tion should in no case fall to the charge of the latter.

There is one essential observation which we must make on
the peace of Amiens. Contrary to the general practice, the for-
mer treaties between France and Great Britain were not renewed
by that of Amiens. It is not difficult to perceive the cause ot
this silence. At the time when the peace of Utrecht was con-
cluded, Great Britain had an interest in having the principle o.
free commerce for neutral States held sacred ; and she hod con-
sequently announced it in the treaty of navigation and commerce.
wiJich was concluded in 1713. All the following treaties, unt 1
that of 1783 inclusive, having renewed the articles of Utpct^t,
the silence on this subject at Amiens placed Great Britain, m
this respect, on the footing of a common right, which, according
to the system of the English, would not have been favourable to
the principle of a free trade,-a doctrine which it was for their

tion, a Consreu
arte appcaroa for
levalicr Azara for
ntavian Republic,
to Malta, ns Great
n the preliminary
re these obstacles ;

'ter a negotiation

)ect8 these articles
to the stipulation
ights of St. John,
« election of a new
?nch and English
a Maltese Langiu;
ippointment of the
, that the indepen*
ment, were placed
n, Austria, Spain,
., that Russia and
ity. unless certain
shed England with
1 ; and the war, as
than give up that

)romi8ed the Prince
ad sustained in the
in private iiroperty
at Amiens between
hat that compensa-
[le latter.

we must make on
al practice, the for-
(1 were not renewed
rceive the cause of
f Utrecht was con-
ing the principle ol
1 ; and she had con-
tion and commerce,
wing treaties, until
articles of Utrecht,
d Great Britain, in
t, which, according
■ been favourable to
ich it was for their

#l»»jtWWitT*if^.

PRjimo IT. A. n. 17S9— 1S15.

467

huoroft to siipprrss, siiirc they liad then llir rnrnmnnd of the rpr>..
VVr Imvo now i)rought down the liJMtory of the French Kev"-
liilioM, from its cnnimenrornt'nt to the yonr 1802, when the
Fri'iich power In-j^'aii to prepoiidcrnte in Kiiropc Tho inflii-
I'Mi'o of the Hcnnhiic was i-rioriiKiusly ^rrcnt. Tlu' Nrthorlnnds
and u floiirisliinp porliori of (ii-rtniuiy. ns well ns (Jeiievn, Sii-
vny, and I'ii'dinoiit, were ineorjiorMtcd with the territories whifh
had been governed by Louis XVI. Tho Dutch nnd the Cisal-
pine States, includiiiir the Milaiiois, a considernlile part of the
Venetian territories, tho dntchies of Mantua, Modena and Par-
ma, besides some of the Ecciesiaslical provinces, had bowed tli«ir
neck to the yoke of the First Coii.'^ii!. Tho Swiss, enslaved by
the Directory, had not been al)le to recover their ancient inde-
pendence. ^Tuscany and tho Ligurian Republic durst not pre-
sume to dispute the will of tho conqueror ; while Spain, forget-
ful of her ancient dignity, was reduced to a state of subservient
and degraded alliance. It will be now necessary, according to
the plan of this work, that we take a .survey of the more remark-
able events which happcmod in the course of the preceding thir-
teen years, in the other States of Europe.

Portugal hail been a ro-partner in the first coolition against
France, nnd had furnished a body of 6000 troops to Spain, ond
some ships of war to England. We have already related how
Mary I. was prevented from disengaging herself from the treaty
of 1797. The Prince of Brazil, who had assumed the regency
(July 15, 1799) in consequence of the infirm state of his mother's
health, took a more decided part in the second coalition, by sign-
ing an alliance with Russia (Sept. 28.) This alliance drew him
into a war with Spain. The Duke of Alcudia, usually styled
the Prince of Peace, seized several citi<<! in Portugal without
much difficulty ; as her ormy was in as bad condition as her fi-
nances. A pence was speedily concluded at Badnjos (,Iune 6,
1801.) Portugal agreed to shut her ports against Engli.sh ves-
sels ; and ceded to Spain Oliven(ja, and the places situated on
the Guadiana. The engagement re.specting English vessels was
renewed by the peace of Madrid (Sept. 29,) which reconciled
Portugal with France.

In Spain, Charles IV. had succeeded his father Charles III.
(Dec. 13, 1788;) Philip, the eldest son, having been declared
incapable of reigning, on account of his deficiency of intellect.
That prince, who had no pleasure but in the chase, gave himself
up entirely to that amusement. He was the jest of the Queen
and her favourites, to whom he abandoned the cares of govern-
ment. In 1790 a difference which had arisen with England
respecting the right of property to Nootka Sound in North Ameri-

*^\

^■.^"4

4 i ti''

m .

» •■

■i -.t

,,i , . -v^- | -- ;iinii:i-i- r- :'■ > '" ■-■■>"■"' f " xt-tunn - nn-iM t

458

CHAPTER X.

ca. was on the point of interrupting the repose of this indolent
monarch. But matters were adjusted by a convention signed
at the Escurial (Oct. 28, 1790,) by which Spam renounced her
rights over laat distant possession. The chief favourite since
1790 had been Don Manuel Godoy, created Duke of Alcudia ;
a weak minister, under whom every thing became venal, and
the whole nation corrupt. The revolutionary principles which
had taken root there after the expulsion of the Jesuits, as sufli-
cient care had not been taken to supply the place of these fathers
witii other public instructors of youth, were readily propagated
under so vicious an administration ; especially after the pubhca-
tion of the famous Memoir of Jovellanos (1795,) on the improve-
ments of agriculture and the Agrarian La^y ;. a work %yhich \yas
composed by order of the Council of CastiU,., and written with
clearness and simplicity. The author, no doubt deserved credit
for the purity of his sentiments ; but in his enthusiasm tor the
objects which he recommended, he overlooked all existing laws ;
encouraged the spoliation of the church, the crovyn, and the com-
munity ; as well as the suppression of corporations, and condi-
tionariegacies, or liferents ; in short, a total and radical subver-
sion of the institutions of the country. This work may be said
to have produced a revohition in Spain ; for the Cortes of Cadiz
did no more than carry into execution the schemes of Jovellanos.
If the Prince of Peace failed in conducting the administration
of the interior, he was not more successful in making the crown
of Spain respected abroad. By the peace of Basle (July 22,
1795 ) Charles IV. renounced the Spanish part of St. Domingo.
Bv the alliance ofTensive and defensive of St. Idletonso (Aug.
19 1796,) Spain identified herself with the French system.
The war with Great Britain ruined her marine. Admiral Jer-
vis defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent (Feb. 14
1797,) commanded by Admiral Cordova. It was in this engage
ment that Captain Nelson, afterwards so famous, established his
fame, by the courage and conduct which he i>splayed Admiral
Hervev conquered the important island of Trinidad (Feb. 18.)
General Stewart without much difficulty took possession of Mi-
norca (Nov. 7, 1798.) The alliance of Spain with France was
also the reason why the Emperor Paul de<:lared war against
her after his accession to the coalition (July 27, 1799.) ine
Porte followed the example of Russia (Oct. 1, 1801.) After the
peace of Luneville, a reconciliation with the former power was
Lned at Paris (October 4.) The war which Spain was obliged
to wage with Portugal, procured her the city of 01iven9a, which
was ceded by the peace of Badajos (June 9.)

By the treaty signed at St. Ildefonso, Spam surrendered Lou-

ii h i ini ri nrt ii t i

iiDTiiTm(a-inTiiiiu»ii«ii"il *'

pose of this indolent
a convention signed
Spain renounced her
chief favourite since
d Duke of Alcudia ;
g became venal, and
lary principles which
the Jesuits, as sufia-
plare of these fathers
re readily propagated
ially after the publica-
795,) on the improve-
w •. a work which was
till-*, and written with
doubt, deserved credit
lis enthusiasm for the
)ked all existing laws ;
le crown, and the com-
irporations, and condi-
tal and radical subver-
Dhis work may be said
for the Cortes of Cadiz
schemes of Jovellanos.
ting the administration
i\ in making the crown
■ce of Basle (July 22,
h part of St. Domingo,
of St. Idlefonso (Aug.
,h the French system,
marine. Admiral Jer-
St. Vincent (Feb. 14
It was in this engage
famous, established his
he displayed. Admiral
of Trinidad (Feb. 18.)
took possession of Mi-
Spain with France was
I declared war against
(July 27, 1799.) The
ct. 1, 1801.) After the
the former power was
hich Spain was obliged
city of Oliven9a, which
e9.)
Spain surrendered Lou-

_ji...ijjj ii ,, -,a

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815.

459

isiana to Bonaparte ; and eventually the Slate of Parma (Ucto-
ber 1, 1800.) She also surrendered to him five ships of the line,
besides a considerable sum of money which she paid him ; and
all this on the faith of his promising to procure the Grand Dutchy
of Tuscany, with the title of Royalty, to the King's son-in-law,
the Infant of Parma. These stipulations were more clearly
established by the treaty v/hich Lucien Bonaparte and the Prince
of Peace afte'rwards signed at Madrid (March 21, 1801.) The
peace of Amiens cost Spain no other sacrifice than the Island of
Trinidad, which she was obliged to abandon to England ; en-
tirely on the decision of Bonaparte, who did not even ask the
consent of Charles IV. Spain had lost all sort of respect or
consideration, both from the universal and contemptible weak-
ness of her government, and because she had voluntarily placed
herself under dependence to France.

From the very commenccnicnt of this period. Great Britain
had been preserved from the influence of the revolutionary prin-
ciples, which had a great many partisans in that kingdom, by
the firmness of her Prime Minister, William Pitt, and the splen-
did eloquence of Edmund Burke, a member of the House of
Commons. Pitt consolidated the system of finance, by extend-
ing the sinking fund, which he had created in 1786. He gave
vigour to the government, by obtaining the suspension of the Ha-
heus Corpus Act ; and by means of the Alien Bill (Jan. 4, 1793,)
which allowed the magistrate an extensive authority in the sur-
veillance of foreigners. The greatest number of malcontents
appeared in Ireland, and these consisted chiefly of Catholics ;
although an act, passed in 1793, had rendered the Catholics
eligible to almost all oflicial employments. That island never-
theless was the theatre of several conspiracies, the design of
which was to render it independent. Their leaders acted in
unison with the French, who made attempts at different times
to effect a landing in that country. Fifteen thousand troops, ac-
companied by eighteen sail of the line, embarked for that pur-
pose from Brest harbour in the mor^th of December. But thi^s
formidable armament had scarcely put '.o sea, when they were
overtaken by a storm. Eight of these vessels reached the Irish
coast, and appeared ofT Bantray Bay ; but they were forced from
that station by another tempest, when they returned to France
with the loss of two ships of the line, some frigates having nar-
rowly escaped falling in with two squadrons of the English
navy.

At length, as a remedy for this political mischief, the union of
Ireland with Great Britain was effected, so that both kingdoms
should have one and the same Parliament ; and George III. as-

Mijiiiiiii . matmiwi

460

CHAPTER X.

sutncd the title of Kin? of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland (July 2, 1800.) p . „ .;

Great Britain was the moving pr.ncple of the two first coah-
lions a.rainst Franco, although she fought rather with money
than wUh troops. She succeeded in ruining the marine and
the commerce of both France and Spain; and obtained the com-
plete command of the sea. A short time before the death of
kul I., she was involved in a war with the powers of the No th.
The resentment of that Prince against the Cabinet of London,
for refusing to put him in possession of Malta, which the English
troops had seized, was the true cause of host.hties ; althoudi a
litigated question of public right was made the pretext, llie
point at issue was, whether the convoy granted to the merchant
shins of neutral states by their sovereign, protected them from
being searched by those of the belligerent powers, or not Den-
mark, with whom the discussion first arose, inaintained the a( r-
mative, and England the negative ; although it was not till the
end of the year 1799 that she maintained this doctrine. At
that time there had been some misunderstanding between Ad-
miral Keith, the commander of the British forces in the Medi-
terranean, and Captain Van Dockum, who was convoying a fleet
of Danish merchantmen. In the month of July following he
Danish frigate La Freya, which had attempted to defend her
convoy against a search of the English cruisers, was taken and
carried into the Downs. .,„,;„„

These acts of violence gave rise to a very warm discussion
between the Courts of London and Copenhagen. The formei
having sent a fleet to the Sound, commanded by Admiral Dick-
son, Denmark was obliged to yield to the tempest, but in a man-
ner very honourable. By a convention which was signed at
Copenhagen (Aug. 29, 1800,) ihedecis.on of the question u-as
remitted for further discussion. The English Government re-
leased the Freya, and the King of Denmark promised to suspend

''^ ThTaccommodation did not meet with the approval of the
Emneror Paul. That prince, who entertained lofty ideas, but
who yielded too often to his passions, had determined to revive
th.) principles of the Armed Neutrality, according to the treaty
of 1780, and to compel England to acknowledge them. He in-
vited Denmark and Sweden, in so very peremptory a manner, to
join with him for this purpose, that these States could not refuse
their consent without coming to an open rupture with him. 1 hi8
agreement with the courts of Copenhagen, Sweden and Berh r
was finally settled by the conventions signed at St. Petersburg
(Dec. 16, and 18.) As Great Britain could not find a more con-

*><irli» ■

»tmtm

of Great Britain

le two first coali-

ther with money

the marine and

obtained the com-

fore the death of

vers of the North.

abinet of London,

which the English

lities ; ahhough a

he pretext. The

d to the merchant

(tected them from

vers, or not. Den-

aintained the affir-

it was not till tlic

this doctrine. At

ling between Ad-

orces in the Medi-

s convoying a fleet

uly following, the

pted to defend lier

ors, was taken uud

y warm discussion
igen. The formei
i by Admiral Dick-
npest, but in a man-
jch was signed at
f the question was
sh Government re-
)romised to suspend

the approval of the
ned lofty ideas, but
stermined to revive
ording to the treaty
jdge them. He in-
mptory a manner, to
ites could not refuse
ure with him. This
Sweden and Berlin
d at St. Petersburg
lot find a more coa-

PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9 — 1815.

461

venient occasion than that of her maritime preponderance, foi
deciding those questions on which she had maintained silenct
in 1780, wur was declared ; and hostilities commenced in course
of a few months. A body of Danish troops occupied Hamburg
and Lubec. The Prussians took possession of Bremen and
Hanover (April 3.) An English flee', consisting of seventeen
sail of the line, commanded by Ad?iiirals Sir Hyde Parker and
Lord Nelson, forced the passage of the Sound without sustain-
ing much injury (March 30.) A squadron under Lord Nelson
engaged the Danish fleet before Copenhagen (April 3,) which
was commanded by Admiral Olfart Fischer. The action was
spirited on both sides, and added a new wreath to the fame of
Nelson ; and although the Danes were obliged to yield to the
superiority of British valour, they acquitted themselves bravely
and honourably. Within seven days after, an armistice was
concluded.

Admiral Parker continued his route by the Baltic and arrived
before Carlscrona (April 19,) where he was on the eve of com-
mencing hostilities against Sweden, when he was apjiriscd of
the death of the Emperor Paul. That event dissolved the League
of the North, and put an end to the war. By a convention
which the Emperor Alexander concluded at St. Petersburg
(June 17,) the principles of maritime law which the English had
professed were recognised. The other powers of the North ac-
ceded to this convention. The Danes evacuated Hamburg and
Lubec ; but Prussia continued in possession of Hanover until
the conclusion of the peace between France and England.

With regard to Holland, the twenty years which elapsed be-
tween 1795 and 1814 formed an era of calamities and disasters.
The Patriots, who comprehended the middle class of the Dutch
community, had gained the ascendancy on the entrance of the
French army ; one consequence of which was, the abolition of
the Stadtholdership. But that party became sensible of their
error, when they saw the ruin of their country. The indepen-
dence of their Republic was acknowledged by the treaty of the
Hague (May 16, 1795,) which, by giving it France for an ally,
subjected it in effect to that power ; and reduced it to the con-
dition of a province, — the more neglected, as it was not entirely
united. The constitution which the Batavian Republic (the
title which it assumed) had adopted, vacillated between two op-
posite systems, the adherents of which could rome to no agree-
ment ; — namely, that of a United and that of a Federal republic.
While these matters were under debate, the English, who had
joined the Stadtholder's party, stripped the Republic of its colo-
nies ; destroyed its marine, particularly in the action which Ad-

***afteigWM*'*«*'

t»»w*f ^ ' ^wii'M (■^i tt j 'tf Mag-^'Mi^

462

CHAPTER X.

-4

miral Duncan fou?ht with De Wmter near Camperdown (On
T 1797") an<l annihilated her commerce and her navigation
bv'biockading her coasts,-not excepting even her fisheries.
^The overthrow of the ancient Helvetic Confederacy, is un.
doubtedW one of the high crimes with which history has to re-
moachUie Executive Directory of France. The constitu ion
d awn up by MM. Ochs and La Harpe after the model of tha
France, vvhich excluded the federative system, was published
bv the Fr;nch party (May 30, 1798,) in spite of the modifica-
JLs wh ch the'^ more judicious patriots had attempted to iiUro-
duce ; and supported by the French army under General Schau-
enbug To compel the smaller cantons to submit to this yoke
it «"? necessary to have recourse to fire and sword. The
Grons found means, however, to evade it by receiving an Aus-
uian army among them, in virtue of a convention which was
0, clud Jat Coifo (Oct. 17 ;) and it was not tiU after the -J^^^^
tunate campaign of 1799, iliat ihey were ^«'"F"«'*,;\'™Y^^^
their independence.. France urpropriated to herself the Swiss
par of the bishopric of Basle, and the ci"cs ot Mulhouse and
Geneva. The terms of subjection on which the Helvetic Re-
public was to stand in future with France were determined by
an alliance, oftcnsive and defensive, concluded at Par s (Aug.
iSrSwizerland henceforth renounced that neutraity which
for centuries she had regarded as the pledge and safeguard of

''^TKnSosity which reigned between the Unionists and the
Federalists, caused several revolutions in the government of
that Republic. But as these intrigues were carried on, on a
small scale, and have left few traces behind, it is unnecessary
hTre to ente'rTnto any detail. If the Revolution in Switzerland
SS not produce a single man remarkable for great talents, or of
a commanding character, the religious spirit of the country, the
tnslrucTon of the people, and the diflusion of knowledge, at
least preserved them from those crimes and excesses which
stained the Revolutionists in France.

At the peace of Amiens all Italy, with the exception of a part
of the Venetian territory which was unUed to Ajtna \ad
yielded to the dominion of France. The King of the Two Si
cilica alone had still maintained a sort of independence. In
no country had the revolutionary principles of the eighteen h
century found more abettors among the higher classes than m
Piedmont. The King of Sardinia was the fi'^«4««^"«'g" "'j^^
throne was undermined by their influence. Scarcely had Vic-
to/Amadeus III., who ascended the throne in 1773, joined the
Wuragainst France (July 25, 17920 when the Republican

J m ii

m m mtinnm

adrtiiliiiliil*

mimiuitiKmtmmi

1 1 •rai|ir"i'"'iiii^"

!amperdovvn (O-l
nd her navigation
1 her fisheries,
jnfederacy, is un«
history has to re-
The constitution
the model of thai
:em, was published
e of the modifica-
attempted to intro-
ler General Schau-
ubmit to this yoke,
and sword. The
y receiving an Aus-
mention which was
till after the unfor-
ipelled to renounce
) herself the Swiss
i of Mulhouse and
h the Helvetic Re-
vere determined by
led at Paris (Aug.
lat neutrality which
je and safeguard of

le Unionists and the
the government of
sre carried on, on a
[id, it is unnecessary
ation in Switzerland
ir great talents, or of
t of the country, the
m of knowledge, at
and excesses which

le exception of a part
ited to Austria, nad
{ing of the Two Si-
f independence. In
les of the eighteenth
gher classes than in
first sovereign whose
. Scarcely had Vic-
e in 1773, joined the
vhen the Republican

PEniou IX. A. D. \ns9 — 1815.

463

armies attacked, and made an easy conquest of Savoy and Nice.
Great Britain granted him, by the treaty of London (April 25,
1793,) subsidies for carrying on the war with vigour. We
have related above the disasters which he met with in the war
against France. The pence of Paris cost him the sncriliin of
two provinces. In vain did his son Charles Emanuel IV. hope
to save the remainder of his estates, by becoming an ally of the
French Directory at the treaty of Turin, (April 5, 1797.) His
political influence was lost ; they knew they could commnnil any
thing from that ally. Their first request was the .surrender of
the city of Turin, by the convention of Milan (June 28, 1798.)
The Directory afterwards declared war against that prince with-
out any grounds ; and he could not obtain permission to retire
to Sardinia, except by signing a kind of abdication (Dec, 9 ;)
against which he afterwards protested. Piedmont was thus
governed entirely according to the pleasure of France ; and
immediately after the peace of Amiens, it was definitively an-
nexed to her territories.

Austrian Lombardy (with the exception of Mantua,) the
dutchy of Modena, the three Legatines ceded by Pius VI., and
a part of the Venetian territory, formed the Cisalpine Republic,
which Bonaparte declared independent, by the preliminaries of
Leoben (June 29, 1797.) He soon after (Oct. 22,) added to it
the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, which he had taken from
the Grisons ; and at a later period (Sept. 7, 1800,) he added a
part of Piedmont, viz. the Novarese, and the country beyond the
Sesia. Mantua was likewise annexed to this Republic at the
peace of Luneville. Its connexions with France had been de-
termined by the alliance of 1798, which were more servile than
those in which the Batavian Republic, and afterwards that of
Switzerland, were placed. In this pretended Republic, France
exercised an absolute power; she changed its constitution at
pleasure, appointed and deposed its highest functionaries as suit-
ed her convenience. The victories of Suwarow put an end for
some time to the existence of that State ; but after the battle of
Marengo, matters were replaced on their ancient footing.

The Republic of Genoa, distracted by innovations at home,
and threatened from abroad by England and Fiance, hesitated
for some time as to the system which they should adopt. But
after the French had become masters of the Bocchetta, the
Senate consented, by a treaty concluded at Paris (Oct. 9, 1796,)
to give them a sum of money, and shut their ports against the
English. After the preliminaries of Leoben, this Republic ac-
cepted a democratic constitution from the hand of Bonaparte,
according to the treaty of Montebello (June 6, 1797.) It paid

^\'\

.*/''

464

CHAPTER X.

nea^ oue'rs ; b"?t during his l.ricf reign, he was more a vassal
of Bonaparte than an independent sovereign.

Pius VI. had protested against the spoliation of the .^Jvircn,
vvh;. the Const luenl AsstMnbly of France had committed, by
he il of Av mo" and the County of Venaissin to the Re-
the union 01 Avi no" that time he was treated as an

?n"em; ^ Th^ tce'oVLTogna: (June 23, 1796,) cost him twenty-
Te n Ulions of francs, and'many of the fi"-t jci-ns o a t
H,.rnnscnted that such statues and pictures as might be seleciea
WcZ i^sbners appointed for that purpose Bh°«ljbe conveyed
S the French capitS. Finding U .mpjsible u. ^b^-^rhe

nnd I e CS of Venaissin. In consequence of a tumul

Government was vested in five consuls, thirty-two senators, and
f^m vTwo tribunes, called the Representatives of the people^
pTus VI. was carried captive to France, and died at Valence
fiu. 29, 1799.) The 'conclave assembled at Vemce-and
itSed Cardinal Chmrajnte i^ is P a^^^^^^^^^

First Consul, Slowed him to enjoy the rest of his estates m

^^Towards the end of 1792, a French fleet, cornmanded by Ad-
niimlLa Touche, appeared off the port of Naples, and obliged
Jhl Kinff to acknowledge that first of all sovereigns, the French
LuWif ThisdTd not prevent him from entering into the coa-
KepuDiic 1111 V ^jjj^^^g ^jjh England,

is w^^colfflaXl-. 'Aft.r the success of %on«.

he Imperial fiefH

en took the name

[avu aiieady men-

unjustly deprived

the treaty of St.

na, son-in-law to

s proclaimed King

il by all the Euro-

vas more a vassal

on of the Church,
had committed, by
snaissin to the Re-
e was treated as an
6,) cost him twenty-
st specimens of art.
.3 might be selected
should be conveyed
e to obtain an equi-
300 men, which he
a native of Austria ;
lis Holiness to con-
which cost him fif-
es of Bologna, Fer-
same time Avignon
qucncc of a tumult
ncli General Duphot
Jorthicr, entered that
lan Republic ; which,
ral existence. The
ly-two senators, and
ttives of the people,
ind died at Valence
3led at Venice, and
B, (March 13, 1800,)
within a short time
naparte, then elected
est of his estates in

, commanded by Ad-
Naples, and obliged
vereigns, the French
entering into the coa-
iance with England,
he success of Bonn*

Bonaparte crossing the Alps. P. 452.

Fall of Kosciuszko. P. 473.

<•*■;

.fe^

\0'

i» a a ifawSaii< i ii i J^ > ^ i tf >* Tr -- "

■^■i«y*^.-iM

irKKT-tinmrOTi; t fpn"' "»»'

PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9 — 1S15.

4GS

parte in Lombard/, Ferdinand IV. avertcU the storm which
threatened him, by signing first a suspension of arms at Brescia
(June 5 1798,) and the peace of Paris a few months after,
which he obtained on honourable conditions. We have already
mentioned, that he was one of the first sovereigns who entered
into the second coalition against France ; and that the precip-
itancy with which he then commenced hostilities, proved pre-
judicial to the success of the war, as well as disastrous to^ him-
self. He did not regain possession of the kingdom of Naples
till after the retreat of Macdonald in 1799 ; and he purchased
pence (March 28, 1800) at the expense of receiving into his
kingdom 16,000 French troops, who remained there until the
conclusion of the treaty between Alexander and Bonaparte.

The combined fleets of Turkey and Russia had subdued th«
islands that formerly belonged to the Venetians, viz. Corfu,
Zante, Cephalonia, St. Maura, Ithaca, Paxo, and Cerigo. Ac-
cording to a convention concluded at Constantinople between
Russia and the Porte (March 21, 1800,) these islands were to
form an independent State, although subject to the Ottoman Em-
pire, under the name of the Republic of the Seven Islandt
This Republic, was acknowledged in subsequent treaties by
France and Great Britain.

By the peace of Basle, Germany had been divided into two
parts; the North, at the head of which was Prussia; and the
South, where Austria had the predominancy, in consequence ot
her armies, and by the favour of the ecclesiastical Princes ; for
the secular States abandoned her as often as they could do so with
impunity. By a convention which Prussia concluded at Basle
with France (May 17, 1795,) the neutrality of the North of
Gennany was recognised, on conditions which the Princes situ-
ated beyond the line of demarcation were anxious to fulfil.
Prussia afterwards concluded arrangements with these States
for establishing an army of observation. This defection created
no small animosity between the Courts of Berlin and Vienna,
which the French dexterously turned to their own advantage ;
especially during the sitting of the Congress at Rastadt. In
vain did the Emperor Paul, who had determined to make war
against the Republic, attempt to restore harmony between these
two leading States. He was equally unsuccessful m his pro-
ject of drawing Prussia into the coalition. Although Frederic
II. had been deceived by France, who, after having promised
him, in a secret convention concluded at Berlin (August 5,
1798,) a compensation proportioned to the loss which he had
flusiamed by ceding the left bank of the Rhine, entered into en-
gagements directly opposite, by the secret articles in the treaty

r I

!/,

1!p^'

i (

_^ . ...- k.

■11

466

CHAPTER X.

;si'uy^tc,:tr.i:i"ti p™i." «-»- "p^™"'' •»

their '^^-XT^^AfZrlnZ S'ei was assembled at War-
to avoid the i«co,.vea.ences of jjf/''*^;^^;;;;,, of Russia

enter mto an f '"^^« «S7J.VJ;',i,;;vho, in consequence of his

^"tSs resohuion of the Diet could not but displease the Em-
ores VRusia, who remonstrated against .t as a d.reci mfrac-
E of the ar tides agreed between her and the Republic in
?;«; The p£, who thus foresaw that the changes which
thev had in view wLd embroil them with that princess, ought
tS h^aJe consi^e^d. in the first place, how to put themselves in o
a good state of defence. But instead of P^o^^^l^l^L^l^^Z

Sg S; r;;?; it th?cUtution which had Wn submit-

»iiiwiiW I MIIIW i .lWWI!

PKnioD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1»16.

467

William III., who
ainud rnithful to a
inances appeared to

transplanted into
en on a soil well

root. By the peace

the loft bank of the
id the momeni was

nfall of the German
1 with a strange ma-
fi their very founda-
csi'cs which appear

u the North another
by their neighbours,
luthority of the laws,
go of a foreign yoke.
,t while the forces of
and the Turks, as we
3ft at liberty to alter
to the government of
as assembled at War-
onfcderation, in order
mm Veto, and of the
he Empress of Russia
o engage the Poles to
le was thwarted in her
in consequence of his
eftbrt to instigate the
lem, by offering them
lir government, which
ommittee of Legisla-
sioned to draw up the
lew energy to the Re-
but displease the Ern-
st it as a direct infrac-
r and the Republic in
lat the changes which
th that princess, ought
to put themselves into
roviding for the melio-
my of the Republic on
nsidcrablo time in dis-
^hich had been submit-

ted to them. The assurance of protection from Prussia, which
hnil been officially ratified to them, rendered the Poles too con-
fident ; and the treaty of alliance which the King of Prussia had
in effect concluded with the Republic (March 29, 1790,) began
to lull them into a profound security. Stanislaus Augustus,
after having long hesitated as to the party he ought to espouse,
at length voluntarily joined that party in the Diet who wished
to extricate Poland fronj that state of degradation into which she
had fallen. The new constitution was accordingly decreed by
acclamation (May 3, 1791.)

However imperfect that constitution might appear, it was in
unison with the state of civilization to which Poland had arriv
ed. It corrected several of the errors an<l defects of former laws ;
and though truly renublican, it was free from those extravagant
notions which the French Revolution had brought into fashion.
The throne was rendered hereditary in favour of the Electoral
House of Saxony ; they abolished the law of unanimity, and the
absurdity of the Liherum Veto; the Diet was declared perma-
nent, and the Legislative body divided into two Chambers. One
of these Chambers, composed of Deputies whose functions were
to continue for two years, was charged with di-scussing and
framing the laws ; and the other, consisting of a Senate in which
the King presided, were to sanction them, and to exercise the
Veto : the executive power was intrusted to the King, and a
Council of Superintendence consisting of seven members or re-
sponsible ministers. The inhabitants of the towns were allow-
ed the privilege of electing their own Deputies and Judges, and
the burgesses had the way laid open to them for attaining the
honours of nobility. The latter were maintained in all the
plenitude of their rights and prerogatives ; the peasantry, who
had been In a state of servitude, were placed under the imme-
diate protection of the laws and the government ; the constitu-
tion sanctioned before-hand the compacts which the landed i)ro-
prietors might enter into with their tenantry for meliorating
their condition.

The efforts which the Poles had made to secure their inde
pendence, excited the resentment of Russia. The Empress had
no sooner made peace with the Porte, than she engaged her par-
tisans in Poland to form a confederacy for the purpose of over-
turning the innovations of the Diet at Warsaw, and restoring
the ancient constitution of the Republic. This confederation,
which was signed at Targowica (May 14, 1792,) was headed by
the Counts Felix Potochi, Rzewuski, and Branicki. In support
of this confederacy, the Empress sent an army into Poland, to
wage war against the partisans of the new order of things. The

^f^i

, v.«^

M »«

[iiniiinif— "'

4G8

CnAPTBK X.

Poles had never till then thought seriously of auopting vigoroun
measures The Diet decreed, tluit an unny « iho line should
rnuneEely take the field ; u.ul that n Icv^ ^houUl be nmde of
.Tvero corJs of light iroop.. A lo«n of thrrty-lhroo HuU.ons of
norins P» Led wiilmut the l.aM opposition; but the FrusHmn
mi ier having been .-ailed upon to give some explanation a to
Sc subsidies which th.. King his muster had promised to the
Republic by the treaty of alliance of 1790. he nmde an evasive
.nswer. which discouraged the whole patriotic party.

The rXal of the Polish Diet to accede to a mercanti e
scheme, by which Dantzic and Thorn were to be abandoned to
he King of Prussia, had di^afTected that monarch towards Po.
and U was not difficult, therefore, for the Empress of Russia
obtain his consent to a dismemberinent of that kingdom.
The aTersiin which the sovereigns of Eurote ctertained for
every thing that resembk-d the French Revo ut.on, with which,
Cver. tL events of Poland where the King and the nation
weTeacingin concert had nothing in common except appear-
rnces'had « powerful effect upon the Court of Berlin ; and
pjoved he cause of their breaking those «"B<»&'^.'P''»'^J,»''^»;
Key had contracted with that Republic. t was then that the
Poles fully comprehended the dangi-r of their situation The r
first ardour cooled, and the whole Diet were thrown into a state
of the utmost consternation. . ji • . .•.„

Abandoned to her own resources, and convulsed by intestine
divisions, Poland then saw her utter inability to 0PP««« ^^'If^"
my so powerful as the Russians. The campaign of 1792 turned
out entirely to the disadvantage of the Palriolic party. After
a successful career, the Russians advanced on W"^/'^^ ; J^f"
Stanislaus, who was easily intimidated. «f.«;^' .^^^ ^° ^'jf/jfjj^"
racy of Targowica. by renouncing the constitution of the 3d May,
in/the actf of the revolutionary Diet of Warsaw. 1 hat prince
even subscribed (Aug. 25, 1792) to all the conditions which the
Empress thought proper to dictate to him. A suspension of
arms was agreed to, which stipulated for the reduction of the
Polish army In consequence of the arrangements entered mto
oetween Russia and Prussia, by the convention of St Petew-
burg (Jan. 23. 1793.) the Prussian troops entered Poland, and
Sad over the country after the example of the Russians.
Aoclamalions were issued by the Courts of Berlin and St. Pe-
tersburg, by which they declared the districts of Poland which
their trSops had occupied, incorporated with their own domin-
ions. The adoption of the constitution of 1791, and the propa-
gation of the Somocratic principles of the French, were the
causes ot tais new dismemberment of Poland.

}{ adnpting vigorous

of tho lino should

tiliuuM he made of

ty-throo inillioii; of

|i ; hul the F'ru«niun

DO explanation as to

lad promiMcd to the

he iniide nn evasive

)tic party.

;de to u mercantile

tu Im> abandoned to

lonarch towards Po-

; Empress of Russia

It of that kingdom.

iroi,c entertained for

rolution, with which,

Cing and the nation

mon except appcar-

ourt of Berlin ; and

engagements which

It was then that the

cir situation. Their

re thrown into a state

onvulsed by intestine
lity to oppose an ene-
npaign of 1792 turned
'atriotic party. Af\er
1 on Warsaw ; when
xcded to the confede-
itution of the 3d May,
I'^arsaw. That prince
conditions which the
n. A suspension of
the reduction of the
igemenls entered into
ention of St. Peters-
entered Poland, and
pie of the Russians.
)f Berlin and St. Pe*
icts of Poland which
ith their own domin-
1791, and the propa*
the French, were the
ind.

PKnionix. A. p. 1789— lRf/5-

469

Prni'sia Iruik |>oh»es9io« of the \ntgPT pfirl of Great Poland. In*
cluiiint,' tlie cilicH of Dantzic and Thorn ; l\w f^>wn of CzeiistO'
fhowii in Little Poland was also ndjiidged to her, with its fron-
tier exiondiiig to the rivers Piiicrt, Sterniewka, Jezowka, nnd
Bziira. The loft bank of thoso rivers was assigned to Prussia,
and the right ros'.«rved to Poland. The portion awarded to the
fornier, t-ontaiiioi'. ono thousand and sixty-one Oertnt'in srpiaro
miles, and one iniliion Uvo hundred thousand inhabitants. Rus-
sia got nearly tlvo half nf Lithuania, including the Palatinates of
Podolia, Pololsl' aiul Minsk, n part of the Palatinate of Wilna,
with the half of Novogrodok, Brzo.sf, and Volhynia ; in all, four
thousand five hundred and fifiy-lhroe Gorman square milcf and
containing threo millions of inhabitants.

The Poles were obliged to yield up, by treaties, those pro-
vinces which the two powers had seized. The treaty between
Poland and Russia was signed at the Diet of Grodno (July 13,
1793.) But that v/ith the King of Prussia met with the most
decided opposition ■ and it was necessary to use threats of com-
pnl'iion before it was consunnnutod. On this occasion, these
tv/o powers renounced anew the rights and pretensions which
they might still have against the Republic under any denomina-
tion whatsoever. They agreed to acknowledge, and if it should
be required, uIro to guarantee the constitution which should be
established by ih'.' Diet with the free consent of the Polish nation.

After these treaties, came a treaty of alliance and union be-
tween Russia and Poland (October 16, 1793,) the third article
of which guaranteed their mutual assistance in case of attack ;
the direction of the war was reserved to Russia, as well as the
privilege of sending her troops into Poland, and forming maga*
vcines there, when she might judge it necessary ; while Poland
agreed to enter into no connexion with foreign powers, and to
make no (^Ii^nge in her constitution, except with the approbation
of Russia The portion that was left to the Republic, either
in Poland or Lithuania, contained three thousand eight hundred
and three square miles, with somewhat more than three mil-
lions r.f inhabitants. This State was divided into eighteen
palatinates, ten of which were in Poland, and eight in Lithua-
nia. To each of these palatinates were assigned two senators,
\ palatine, a castellain, and six deputies to sit in the Diet.

These diflerent treaties, and the grievances of which the
Poles had just cause to complain, threw the public mind into a
ftate of agitation, which in the following year broke out into a
general insurrection. A secret association was formed at War-
saw ; it found numerous partisans in the army, which was to
have been disbanded according to the arrangements with Rus-

r*.!

rt iSi I '

H »*

^_.:». _

470

CHAPTER X

sia The conspirators chose Thaddeus Kosciuszko for theii
chief, in this projected insurrection against Russia. That gen-
eral had distinguished himself in the American war under
Washington ; he had very recently signalized his bravery in the
campaign of 1792 ; and after the unfortunate issue of that war,
he had retired into Saxony with a few othei^ patriots, who were
ready to exert their energy in the cause of freedom. The in-
surgents reckoned with confidence on the assistance of Austria,
who had taken no part in the last dismemberment of Poland ,
they flattered themselves that Turkey and Sweden would not
remain mere spectators of the eflbrts which they were making
to regain their liberty and their independence.

Kosciuszko :md wished that they should postpone the execu-
tion of their plan, in order to gam more time for preparation ;
especially as a suspicion was excited among the Russians. He
even retired into Italy, where he remained until one of his ac-
complices, who had been ordered, as a propagator of sedition, to
banish Aimself from the Polish territories, informed him that
his countrymen wished him to appear among them without de-
lay, as a better opportunity might not soon arise. Madalinski,
who commanded a brigade of cavalry under the new govern-
ment, when summoned to disband them, refused ; and throwing
ofl* the mask, gave the sigt.al for insurrection. He suddenly
quitted his station, crossed the Vistula, and after having dis-
persed some detachments of Prussians, whom he encountered
m his route, he marched directly to Cracow, where he erected
the standard of revolt. The inhabitants took arms, expelled
the Russian troops who were quartered in that city, and pro-
claimed Kosciuszko their General. A sort of dictatorship was
conferred upon him (March 24, 1794,) which was to continue so
long as their country was in danger. He took an oath of fidel-
ity to the nation, and of adherence to the principles stated in
the act of insurrection, by which war was declared against the
invaders of their rights and liberties.

The Russians and Prussians immediately despatched their
troops to arrest the progress of the insurrection. The defeat oi
a body of Russians near Raslavice, by Kosciuszko, inspired the
insurgents with new courage. The inhabitants of Warsaw
rose in like manner against the Russians, who had a garrison
there of 10,000 men, under the command of General Igelstrom.
It was on the night of the 17th April that the tocsin of revoh
was sounded in the capital ; the insurgents seized the arsenal,
and distributed arms and ammunition among the people. A
brisk cannonade took place between the Russians and the Poles.
The combat continued for two successive days, in which several

•ifgit'iiit-'rWiiT

siOL-

iKosciuszko for theii
Russia. That gen-
merican war under
|zed his bravery in the
late issue of that war,
le' patriots, who were
)i freedom. The in-
assistance of Austria,
fnberment of Poland ,
d Sweden would not
h they were making
ence.

d postpone the execu<

time for preparation ;

ng the Russians. He

■d until one of his ac-

opagator of sedition, to

es, informed him that

long them without de-

)n arise. Madalinski,

under the new govern-

refused ; and throwing

rection. He suddenly

and after having dis-

whom he encountered

:ow, where he erected

ts took arms, expelled

in that city, and pro-

)rt of dictatorship was

lich was to continue so

> took an oath of fidel-

le principles stated in

IS declared against the

ately despatched their
•ection. The defeat oi
osciuszko, inspired the
ihabitants of Warsaw
, who had a garrison
I of General Igelstrom.
at the tocsin of revolt
Its seized the arsenal,
mong the people. A
lussions and the Poles,
days, in which several

FERIOO IX. A. D. i7£M — 1816.

471

thousands of the Russians perished, while 4S00 were made pri-
•oner". Igulslrom escaped from the city with about 3000 men.
The same insurrection broke out at Wilna, from whence it ex-
tended ever all Lithuania. Several Polish regiments who had
entered into the service of Russia, changed sides, and enlisted
under the banners of the insurgents.

In spite of their first success, it was soon perceived tha^
Poland was deficient in the necessary resources for an enter-
prise of such a nature as that in which they were engaged.
The great body of the citizens were neither sufHciently numer-
ous nor sufficiently wealthy, to serve ns a centre for the revolu-
tion which they had undertaken ; and the servitude in which
the peasantry were kept, wns but ill calculated to inspire them
with enthusiasm for a cause in which their masters only were
to be the gainers. Besides, the patriots were divided in opin-
ion ; and the King, although he appeared to approve their ef
forts, inspired so much mistrust by his weakness and timidity,
that he was even accused of secretly abetting the interests of
Russia. Lastly, the nobles who alone ought to have shown
courage and energy, were found but little disposed to give any
effectual support to the cause of liberty. Every contribution
appeared to them an encroachment on their prerogatives ; and
they were as much averse to a levy en masse as to the raising
of recruits, which deprived them of their tenantry. They were,
moreover, afraid of losing those rights and privileges which they
exclusively enjoyed.

Under these considerations, Kosciuszko was convinced that it
was inipossible for him to organize an armed force equal to that
of the Russians and the Prussians, who were acting in concert
to defeat the measures of the insurgents. After some inferior
operations, an important engagement took place on the confines
of the Palatinates of Siradia and Cujavia (June 8, 1794,) where
he sustained a defeat ; in consequence of which the King of
Prussia made himself master of Cracow. That prince, supported
by a body of Russian troops, undertook, in person, the siege of
Warsaw. The main forces of the insurgents were assembled
under the walls of that city. They amounted to about 22,000
combatants, while the enemy had more than 50,000. The siege
of Warsaw continued nearly two months, when a general msur
rection, which had spread from Great Poland into Western Pros
sia, obliged the King to retire, that he might arrest the progress
of the insurrection in his own dominions.

The joy of the insurgents, on account of this incident, was
but of short duration. The Court of Vienna, which till then
had maintained a strict neutrality, resolved also to despatch on

• 1 "«'

•^-

i^^-

472

CHAPTER X.

army into Poland. This army was divided into two columns,
one of which marched on Brzesci, and the other on Dowhno.
On the other hand, the Russians under the command of Suwo-
row, advanced into Lithuania, and pursued u body of the m««ur-
gents, who were commanded by Sirakowski. Kosciuszko. whc
now saw the great superiority of the enemy, made a last effort
to prevent the junction of the army of Suwarow with that of
Baron de Fersen, the Russian General. Directing his march
towards the latter, he fought a bloody battle with him near
Matchevitz (Oct. 10, 1794.) The action continued from sunrise
till beyond mid-day. Six thousand of the Polish army perishet*
on the field, and the test were made prisoners. Kosciuszko was
himself dangerously wounded, and fell into the hands of the
conqueior. He had endeavoured to escajpe by the swiftness of
his horse, but was overtaken by some of the Cossacs; one of
whom, without knowing him, run him through the back with
his lance. Falling senseless from his horse, he was carried to
a monastery ; when it was intimated, by one of his officers, that
he was the Commander-in-chief. Surgical aid was immediately
administered to him, and he was soon after conveyed to St.

Petersburg. , „ i tu •

This disaster quite dejected the courage of the Poles. Their
Generals, Dombrowski and Madalinski, who were carrying on
the war in Prussia and Great Poland, abandoned these provinces,
and marched with their troops to the relief of Warsaw. Suwa
row likewise directed his march towards that capital, and was
there joined by a considerable body of Prussians, under Dorfel-
den and Fersen, in conjunction with whom he commenced the
blockade of that city (Nov. 4.) The Russians, who amounted
to 22,000 men, prepared for an attack of the entrenchments of
Praga, one of the suburbs of Warsaw. The Poles, who had a
body of between eight and ten thousand men, made a courage-
ous defence ; but nothing could withstand the ardour and im-
petuosity of the Russians, who were burning with rage to avenge
the blood of their countrymen who were massacred at Warsaw.
Three batteries had Seen erected in the night; and the two
first divisions, though harassed by a vigorous fire in every direc-
tion except the rear, bravely surmounted every obstacle. In the
apace of four hours, they carried the triple entrenchment of Pra-
ga by main force. Rushing into tae place, they pursued their
adversaries through the streets, put the greater part of them to
the sword, and drove one thousand into the Vistula. In this
scene of action, a regiment of Jews made an obstinate defence,
and at length were totally extirpated. Thirteen thousand of the
Poles, it IS said, were left dead on the spot ; two thousand were

into two columns,
other on Dowhno.
ommand of Suwa-

budy of the in«iir-
KoRciuszko. who

made a last eflbrt
rarow with that of
irecting his march
tie with him near
inued from sunrisp
)lish army perishe<'
Kosciuszico was

the hands of the
by the swiftness of
le Cossacs; one of
>ugh the back with
, he was carried to
of his ofRcers, that
lid was immediately
ler conveyed to St.

f the Poles. Their

were carrying on
ned these provinces,
f Warsaw. Suwa
lat capital, and was
sians, under DorfeU

he commenced the
ians, who amounted
le entrenchments of
i Poles, who had a
'n, made a courage-
the ardour and im-
with rage to avenge
ssacred at Warsaw,
night; and the two

1 fire in every direc-
ry obstacle. In the
itrenchment of Pra-

they pursued their
iter part of them to
le Vistula. In this
1 obstinate defence,
een thousand of the
two thousand werr

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 18i6

473

drowned in the Vistula, and between fourteen and fifteen thou-
sand were made prisoners. The suburb of Praga was pillnired,
and razed to the foundation. Terror seized the inhabitants of
Warsaw, aod they determined to capitulate. Suwnrow made
his triumphant entry into that capital, and was prc-enterl with
the keys of the city (Nov. 9.) The Polish troops laid cJotvu
their arms ; the insurrection was quelled ; and the greaterpari
of those who had distingiiishcd themselves in it, were arrested
by the Russians. The Kingr of Poland retired to Grodno ; and
the final dismemberment of that country was agreed upon by the
three allied powers.

The Court of Berlin having signified their intention of retain-
ing Cracow and the neighbouring country, of which their troops
had just taken possession, Austria, who was also desirous of pro-
curing that part of Poland, took advantage of the distontent
which the conduct of Prussia during the campaign o( 1794, and
her retreat from the ensuing coalition, had excited in the Em
press of Russia, and entered into a separate negotiation with the
Court of St. Petersburg. They arranged privately between
themselves, as to the shares which were to fall to each. An act.
in form of a declaration, was signed at St. Petersburg, between
these two courts (Jan. 3, 1795,) purporting, that the Cabinet of
Berlin should be invited to accede to the stipulations therein
contained; in consideration of the offer which the two courtfi
made to acquiesce in the reunion of the remainder of Poland
with the Prussian monarchy, and the engagement which they
entered into to guarantee that acquisition.

A negotiation was afterwards set on foot with the Court of
Berlin, which was protracted to a great length ; as that Court,
who were ignorant of the engagement which Catherine had come
under to secure Cracow to Austria, had always entertained the
hopo of being able to retain it themselves. It was only when
the act of the 3d January was communicated to them, that they
agreed to a' special convention with the Court of Vienna, which
was signed at St. Petersburg (Oct. 24, 1796.) The city of Cra
cow was abandoned to Austria, who, on her side, resigned in
favour of the King of Prussia a portion of the territory which the
declaration of the 3d January preceding had secured to her. It
was settled, that the limits of the Palatinate of Cracow should
be regulated between these two powers, under the mediation of
the Court of St. Petersburg. Stanislaus had then no other al-
ternative left, than to resign his crown into the hands of the Em-
press of Russia. The act of his abdication was dated at Grodno
(Nov. 26, 1795.)

It WHS bv these dificxent conventions, that Russia obtained hU

4"*

*i-

■p^

, *

itm

■ ^^\tt

'*t4t3^pMWH@HIM^-

--■^v:- ■■'m-t^f^

474

CHAPTER X.

that remained of Poland and Lithuania, as far as the Niemen
nna the confines of Brzesci and Novogrodek. bhe likewise
ined the greater part of Samogitia, with the whole of Cour-
oDtainea '"^ o , r . ^ ^ gijgg „ Little Poland, that

t' oT thf tS y of Ihelm situated on the right bank of the
C and the remaUer of Volhynia; in «- containing about
two thousand square miles, with one million two hundred

^^AtSi^rrassigned. in addition to the principal part of
Cracow the whole Palatinates of Sendom r and Lublin, with
part the district of Chelm. and the Pa aUnates of B"e«c.,

whfch Hes on this side of the Niemen, as well as the small dis-
uSn L tt"e Poland, making part of the Palatinate of Cracow ;
h:':hr:onsisting of abSu? one thousand J^erman «jua^^^^
miles with a population of one million. Finally, by a suDse
^uen convendo.1 which was concluded at St. Pfrsburg {Jan.
^'mh the three co-participant Courts arranged among them-
sSves as to the manneJ of discharging the debts of th^ KHig
and the Republic of Poland. They »g^««<i by this same ccjj
vention to allow the dethroned monarch an annuity of 200.000

"^"iTthe commencement of this period, it was not yet perceived
of what importance it was for Russia to get possession of the
Crimea 3 it was not until the agriculture and industry of
fhrcountry had begun to prosper under a wise administration,
tha Jhev Sgin to apprehend it might one day have a powerful
XlS on^the balance of trade The Empress Cayenne,
who had been flattered in her youth by the eulogies of the phi-
tesophe« so aTto become a 'disciple of their new doctrines,
was the first to perceive this danger. She then declared her-
Sf amost implacable enemy to the French Revolution, and
would dad y have armed all feurope to "'"'"J"-^^ f « ^fc
He iSevertheless, she did not take up arms herself, and onhr
oined the first coalition in an indirect manner, and by conclud-
Weaties purely defensive, such as that of Drontningholm
S Tweln' (Ocl 19. 1791) and that of St Pet^sburg with
the Kinir of Hungary and Bohemia (July U, 17fcK,) w^a mat
wSich was concluSZlAug. 7.) in the same c.ty with Pmssja.
Nevertheless, when Frederic had retired from the list, she re-

ar as the Niemen
ek. She likewise
the whole of Cour-
Little Poland, that
e right bank of the
, containing about
llion two hundred

the principal part of
r and Lublin, with
atinates of Brzesci,
>ft bank of the Bug ;
thirty-four thousand
an of inhabitants,
latinates of Masovia
the Bug ; in Lithu-
ki and of Samogitia
rell as the small dis-
alatinate of Cracow;
ind German square
Finally, by a subse-
St. Petersburg (Jan.
rranged among them-
e debts of the King
ed by this same con-
1 annuity of 200,000

was not yet perceived
ret possession of the
ture and industry of
L wise administration,
! day have a powerful

Empress Catherine,
e eulogies of the phi-

their new doctrines,
lie then declared her-
ench Revolution, and
^terminate the Repub-
irms herself, and only
nner, and by conclud-
at of Drontningholm
r St. Petersburg with
y 12, 1782,) and that
me city with Prussia.

from the list, she re«

PRHioD IX. A. u. 17c(a — 1816.

475

■oived to send into the field the sixty thousand men ivhich Eng'
land waR to take into pay. The treaty was on the eve of being
signed, when the Empress was suddenly cut off by death
{Nov. 17, 1796.)

Paul, her successor, refused to sanction that treaty. We have
already noticed the active hand which that monarch took in the
war of 1799 against France ; and we have already mentioned
the unsuccessful attempt which he made to revive the principles
of the armed neutrality. This Emperor, who wanted stead-
iness and consistency, published at his coronation (April 5, 1797,)
a fundamental law regarding the order of succession to the
throne. This law, intended to prevent those revolutions which
the unsettled state of the throne had produced in Russia, es-
tablished a mixed lineal succession, agreeably to the order of
primogeniture ; admitting females only in case of the total
extinction of the male descendants oi the male line of Paul ;
and defining with the most scrupulous exactness, the order in
which females and their descendants should succeed to the
throne. But being weak and narrow-minded, and incapable of
discharging his imperial functions, he entailed upon himself the
Hatred of both the nobility and the people. He met with a
violent death, having been murdered by a party of daring con-
spirators (March 24, 1801.)

Alexander, who succeeded his unfortunate father, lost no time
in restoring peace to his dominions, by entering into an arrange-
ment with Great Britain (June 17,) by which he abandoned the
principles of free trade for neutral vessels ; admitting that even
a convoy should not protect these from being subjected to a
search or visitation, when ordered by the Captain of a vessel
belonging to the public navy of a belligerent state. He like-
wise concluded peace with France and Spain (Oct. 4, 8.)

Sweden had extricated herself without loss from the war
which Gustavus III. had imprudently commenced. That
Prince had succeeded in extending the royal prerogative, and
making the Diet adopt the fundamental act of union and secu-
rity (March 29, 1792,) vesting in himself the right of making
war and peace, which according to the former order of things,
he could only exeicise with the concurrence of the States. Be-
ing endowed with an ardent and heroic character, he had pro-
potied to march at the head of the armies which Louis XVI.
nad set on foot ; but he fell the victim of a conspiracy formed
by the discontented nobles, leaving his son a minor.

The Regency of the Duke of Sudermania, during the minor-
ity of Gustavus IV., was infested by jealousies and intrigues ;
while the finances, which were under bad management, fell

..'M

x'hl

■U .

II I triifii'iiiff iif TllTr-

470

OHAfTBB XI.

gradually mlo a state of disorder. The policy of the Re^en.
Tva-s decidedly f..r the maintenance of peace. The vourg King
hi n.elf assumed the reins of government (Nov^-^' ^^ ^^^^^^^^
Althoujrh he had e .tered into the league of the INorih, tormea
bv Pau! I for the maintenance ..f the mant.me rights of neu-
ril State L acceded shortly after to the opposite systen., to
M Alexander 1. had declared h.mself favourable

Christian VII. had reigned m Denmark «'"^« ™ ' ^^^^^^^^^
the last twenty years, the Prince Royal and Count Bernstorr
had Ken at L\ead of his councils. Under their adm.nistra-
!;;JX" kingdom nourished in P-f-d pea^ jv^^^^^^^^^
for an instant been nterrupled, except in 1800, by i"^ ^^xauou
.Jeatment which the Danish ships had met with on the part of
il%Z. Denmarkwasthefirs^of the European powers that
abolished the African slave trade (May 16, 179b.)

CHAPTER XI-

PERIOD IX.

The Military Preponderarue of Prameunderthe mayofNa
poleon Bonaparte, a. d. 1802—1810.

In the period on which we are now entering, and which com-
orehends^eight years, we shall find Napoleon Bonaparte devot-
rnThis unremitting efforts to a threefold project, the object of
which was to secure for himself the empire of the world. The
first of^hese was to render the monarchical government hered,.
Ty in his family, preparatory to the introduction of a unjveml
dominion; the next was to extend the boundaries ot Fnn^e,
and The last to surround that country, not with a multitude of
Slnublics as the Directory had done, but with a number of
J^t^^mTnar^w':, the exisSnce of which should be - amal^J
Sited with his own dynasty, that they must stand or faU wiA
it We shall find him keeping these projects incessantly in
view, so that every step whicn he took towards the accomplish-
ment of the one. was calculated at the same time to advance the

"^BctiTethe end of the year 1801. a council, composed of 450
deputies of the Cisalpine Republic, was assembled at Ly«ns, ">
order to deliberate as to the changes to be made m the cons tu
t;on. which was assimilated more and "-o'^to the^-^'Xc '^
forni. In the mean time, the Presidency of 'he u-pubhc xvas

llc^

cy of the Receni
The vourg King

ovembijr 1, 1796.)

the North, formed
time rights of neu-
opposite system, to
trourable.

since 1766 ; but for
d Count Bernstorf
er their administra-
euce which had not
DO, by the vexatious

with on the part of
ropean powers timt
1796.)

tider the sway of Na
1—1810.

ring, and which com-
mon Bonaparte devot-
project, the object of
B of the world. The
il government heredi-
luction of a universal
undaries of France ;
with a multitude of
It with a number of
should be so amalga*
lust stand or fall with
rojects incessantly in
irards the accomplish-
e time to advance the

icil, composed of 450
lembled at Lyons, in
made in the constitu-
re to the monarchii-al
of 'he aI ^public wa«

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

477

conferred on Bonaparte (January 26, 1802,) under the title of
(he Italian Republic.

Notwithstanding the easy triumph which the constitution oi
the year Eight had gained, by dissolving the Legislative Body
of France, dissension was not long in breaking out among its
member? ; and an opposition was formed which, coiulomnpd n,
silence, had no other means of manifesting itself, than by secret-
ly thwarting the views of the government. There was, liowcver,
another opposition which appeared among the members of the
tribunate, and which greatly irritated Bonaparte, by openly at-
tacking his projects of legislation. The period had now arrived,
wnen one-fifth part of the members of these two bodies were to
retire. But the new convention, in settling this partial altera-
tion, were divided as to the mode of proceeding ; or rather it
was the general opinion, that the ex-members should be deter-
mined by lot. This temporary vacancy furnished Bonaparte
v/ith a pretext for getting rid of all those whose pre.sence had
laid him under any sort of restraint. A decree of the Conser-
vative Senate, of the 22d Ventose, in the year Ten (March 13,
1802,) turned out twenty of the tribunes, and sixty of the le-
gislators ; and supplied their places with members taken from
the lists formed by the Electoral Colleges of the Departments.
Having thus discovered what advantages might accrue to him
from an institution which Sieycs had contrived for balancing
the authority of the government, from that moment he convert-
ed the Senate into an instrument for sanctioning his own mea-
sures.

A notification from the French ambassador in Switzerland
announced that the Valais>hould henceforth form an Independ-
ent Republic (April 3.) The inhabitants had not requested this
favour ; it was granted to them because Bonaparte wished to
get possession of the Simrlon, preparatory to the union of that
country with France. The second decree of the New Consti-
tution of the 6th Floreal (April 26,) granted a general amnesty
to all emigrants who should return within the space of three
months, and take the oath of allegiance. All their property that
remained unsold was restored to them, except the forests. About
a thousand individuals were excepted from this act of justice,
which strengthened the authority of Bonaparte by conciliating
the public opinion in his favour.

Immediately after this, Bonaparte submitted to the Tribunate
and the Legislative Body a plan for the institution of a Legion
of Honour (May 10.) This Legion was to be composed of fif-
teen cohorts of Dignitaries for life. The First Consul was the
Chief of the Legion ; each cohort was to be composed of seven

(It

)'!

r \rm(.llnt^arf»Wmi^fTlmf

478

CHAPTER XI.

Grand Officers, twentj Commandants, thirty Officers, and three
hundred Logionarifis. The object of Bonaparte evidently wns
to esinblii^h n new aristocracy. But the minds of the Council
were so little prepared for this proposition, and so contrary was
it 10 the republican ideas with which they were still imbued, thm
it passed but by a very small majority, and the First Consul
thouirhi proper to delay carrying it into execution.

For some time the First Consul had been in negotiation with
Pope Pius VII. nn the affairs of religion. He had adjusted a
Concordat with liis Holiness, subjecting public worship to the
superintendence of ten prelates of the highest rank, and fifty
bishops. This famous Concordat was signed at Paris (July 15.'
and ratified at Rome (Aug. 15,) 1801. It was afterwards sub-
mitted for the acceptance of the French nation, and adopted by
a very great majority. The Sabbath and the four grand festi-
vals were restored ; and from this date the government ceased
to follow the decennary system. This was the first abandon-
ment of the Republican calendar. Bonaparte hoped to attach
to liimself the sacerdotal party, the order most disposed for pas-
sive obedience ; and in this manner to balance the clergy against
the Royalists, and the Pope against the interests of the Coali-
tion. The Concordat was ratified with great pomp in the church
of Notre Dumo by the Senate, the Legislative Body, the Tri-
bune, and the public functionaries. The First Consul appeared
in tlic ancient court carriage, with all the circumstances and eti-
quette of royalty.

Another law of the Constitution of the 30th of Floreal (May
20,) sanctioned the Slave Trade in the colonies restored to
France by the treaty of Amiens, and in the French colonies sit-
uated beyond the Cfape of Good Hope. By this law, however,
slavery was not restored in St. Domingo. That colony was un-
der the dominion of the Negroes, who, after having massacred
the Whites, and committed barbarities which surpass even those
of the French Revolution, had succeeded in establishing their
independence. After the preliminaries signed at London, Bo-
naparte had sent an expedition to that Island, having on board
40,000 men, commanded by his brother-in-law General Le Clerc.
On their arrival at St. Domingo, the French took possession of
the town of Cape Francois, which was the seat of government,
as well as of several other places. Toussaint L'Ouverture, ori-
ginally a slave, and raised to be the Chief of the Blacks, sub-
mitted to the French ; but General Le Clerc, having afterwards
arrested him, had him conveyed to France where he died. This
circumstance excited the Blacks to a new revolt under the com-
mand of Christophe, the relative and friend of Toussaint ; and

'i >l> ii |l|.M"HIHW l l

li)

Officers, and three
mrie evidently wpm
irids of the Council
lid so contrary was
re still imbued, thm
the First Consul
ution.

in negotiation with
He had adjusted a
ublic worship to the
lest rank, and fifty
d at Paris (July 15/.
was afterwards sub-
tion, and adopted by
the four grand festi-
government ceased
the first abandon-
irte hoped to attach
lost disposed for pas-
ice the clergy against
iterests of the Coali-
nt pomp in the church
ntivc Body, the Tri-
'irst Consul appeared
:ircumstances and eti-

30th of Floreal (May
colonies restored to
e French colonies sit-
Jy this law, however,
That colony was un-
fter having massacred
ich surpass even those
I in establishing their
gned at London, Bo-
and, having on board
law General Le Clerc.
rich took possession of
e seat of government,
aint L'Ouverture, ori-
ef of the Blacks, sub-
erc, having afterwards
where he died. This
revolt under the com-
nd of Tnussaint ; and

•SRIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

479

after a bloody war, France lost this valnnble colony, togethei
with a numerous nrmy and many commcrciiil ndvanlnges.

After the conclusion of the ponco of Amiens, the Tribunate,
purpd of its Republican members, signified a wish that some
pledge of national gratitude should be offered to General Bona-
parte. The Conservative Senate then nominated him First
Consul for ten years. When this decree of the Senate was an-
nounced to him, he could not conceal his chagrin ; and that he
might not be compelled to accept a favour which he disdained,
he demanded that the decision of the Senate should be submitted
for the sanction of the people. The two other Consuls were re-
solved to consult the nation (and this was the only occosion in
which they ever acted on their own authority,) not ns to the de-
cree of the Senate, but on the question whether Bonaparte
should be elected Consul for life. Out of .1,577,379, of which
the primary Assembly was composed, 3,66S,885 voted in the
affirmative, and only 8,494 in the negative. Agreeable to this
expression of the public voice, the Senate proclaimed Bonaparte
First Consul for life (August 2, 1802.)

Two days after, the third decree of the Senate of the 16tb
Thermidor, brought the government still nearer the monarchical
form, by granting to the First Consul great influence over th<?
Electoral Assemblies, with the power of ratifying treaties, grant-
ing pardons, nominating senators without presentation, appoint-
ing the Presidents of the Electoral Assemblies, adding to the
number of their members, and even proclaiming his own suc-
cessor. The Tribunate, which still appeared somewhat formi-
dable, was reduced to fifty members.

Such, in the space of two years, was the progress of arbitrary
power. In the course of 1802, the union of three diflferent
countries to France was either accomplished, or in a state of
preparation. The first was that of the Island of Elba, of which
the Kings of Naples and Sardinia had resigned their rights ;
the second was that of Piedmont, which France had occupied
since 9th December 1798 ; and lastly, on the death of Ferdinand,
Duke of Parma, his estates were taiten possession of by France,
as having devolved to her in virtue of the treaty of Madrid (Mar.
21, 1801,) although they were not annexed to that country till
1808. These acquisitions were made, on the political principle
avowed by Bonaparte, which allowed every thing to be done
that treaties did not expressly forbid.

The Peace of Campo Formic and Luneville had recognised the
right of Switzerland to form a constitution for herself; and Aloe's
Reding happening to be in Paris aliout the end of 1801, had ob-
tained the consent of the Pirst Consul for the re-establishment

\¥''

i'' ■■'i

480

CHAl^RR XI.

ro<'c who had long been kept uown uy i"i . it-:™:,!- or

thought proper to reckon all »»« .'''«'*"^'^''^ "T,; «\ „, ifaving
nn<l Uiencw constitulon was iniroduced (July J,) as navnig

M 1 .SrWeitz restored the ancic.it confedcratim, to which
SI fSocrntm" acceded. The central government,
havng no other supp.)rt than the new cantons, a"d seeing t^^^^^^
JSves^ttacUed£in their ow^^

&Ztof Mediation. Switzerland thu. became a federauve

RepubUc, ciposed of nineteen --^-S" .^'""^hc equ^lUy
stitStion of each was more or le.s ^crat c, but Ihc equamy
of the citizens formed the bas<is of them all. "n.^? ^ > ^''. "
Diet was to assemble in one of the six prmc.pal c.t es n Sw t

Louis d'Affrv. was nominated by Bonaparte.

"'^XuttiTnSgtt^^^ details of these negcjijio-.
we shaU merely observefthat the ma n <>b8t«<=l« '^h'";! »>«^ 'r;
Tded the negotiations of Ratisbon being removed ^y the treatu^s
which France concluded on this occasion, tje deputation came
w a final conclusion, known by the name of the -Recess (or R-

mt time two partie*
! ; and Switzerland
!h the Unionists or
nooratic, alternate!)
istilution, mott aria-
le approbation of the
ns, and rejected by
hcd a right to vote,
he Helvetic Senate
imong the a'-ceptors ;
(July 3,) as having
)Ie. Bonaparte had
icd on their willing-
Helvetic povernmeni
t invitat 'VI, he with-
.) Thtfi <vas the sig-
ins, who ^vtre asgem-
ifcdcratirn, to which

central government,
ons, and seeing them-
)ries, importuned the
army, under the com-
-established the gov-
First Consul. Bona-
•n the two parties, and

(Feb. 19, 1S03,) and
[1, known by the name
us became a federative
n cantons. The con-
ratic ; but the equality
1 all. Once a year, a
irincipal cities in Swit-
mman, or chief magis-
; first Landamman, M.
ir»e.
in the negotiations for

a part or the whole of
eft bank of the Rhine,
nder, was the principal

s of these negotiations,
Dbstacle which had im-
removed by the treaties
m, the deputation came
»e of the Recess (at Re-

■it

.ti-r,'\i . ..^ ^

D..th of PriDC. PonLtowiki in puting tl« EUUr. P. W.

Polytechnic Scholars joining the people. P. 603.

gUieEUler. P. 5ftl.

I people. P. 603.

rEiiioo IX. A. 0. 1802—1810.

481

•oliition!*) of the Deputation (Feb. 25, 1803,) bv which ihe ar-
ranfj^nine .1 reffarJiRj^ indomnitiua and lerritorial exchanges waa
broiifftit to a (Tctermination.

The war between France and Great Britain wan renewed in
180.') Public opinion in Englund had declared avainn Ui*
peace of Amiens, which was by no means favourable tu her.
concidoring the sacrifices which she bad made. The liritiith
ministry repented having oRreed to the surrender of Malta unJ
ihp Cape of Good Hope. They delayed the restoration of Miilla
under pretext that the guarantees had not been sranted without
restriction. The arbitrary and violent acts which Bonaparte
had committed since the peace ; and above all, the annexation
ol Piedmont to France, furnished a second motive for not ••■ acu-
ating an island so important from its position. After a very
spirited negotiation. Great Britain olferod to restore Malta to
its own inhabitants, and to acknowledge it as an independent
State ; only for the term of ten years, however, and on condition
that the Kmg of Naples would cede Lampedosa. The French
troops were to evacuate the Batavian and Swiss Republics. On
these terms England would recognise the Italian and Ligurian
Republics, and the King of Etruria. His Majesty of Sardinia
was to receive an adequate territorial provision in Italy. Th«
Rml Consul having rejected thif ultimatum, war waa declared
(May 18, 1803,) and all the English who were travelling or re-
siding in France, arrested and detained as hostages.

Charles IV. King of Spain, by the treaty of St. Ildefonso, had
ceded Louisiana to France. When this news arrived in Amer-
ica, it spread consternation in the Republic of the United States.
President Jeflerson felt great reluctance hi consenting to oppose,
by It military force, the entry oi the French into a country which
would give them tlie command of the Mississippi. To prevent
this, and from other motives, be directed the American minister
in Paris to enter into a negotiation with the French government
for the purchase of Louisiana, which waa eflected at Paris (Sept.

30, im.)

A French army, which was assembled in the Batavian Re-
public under the command of General Mortier, was despatched
immediately after the declaration of war, to occupy the Electo-
rate of Hanover, the patrimonial dominions of the King of Great
Britain. The Government of that country concladed a capitu-
lation at Suhlinffen (June 3,) in virtue of which the native troopa
retired beyond the Elbe, while the French army were to occupry
the country and its fortresses, and be nwintained by the inhabi-
tants. They likewise took possessios of Cuxhaven and Retze-
butel, belonging to the city of Hamburg. The German Empire

482

CHAPTER ZI.

which had the mortification of seeing its interests regulated by
two foreign powers, did not even protest against this violation o(
its '.errirory. Bonaparte, deceived in his expectation of rendering
the Cabinet of London compliant, annulled the capitulation of
Suhlingen, and ordered Mortier to attack Count Walmoden, who
commanded the Hanoverian army. The latter, however, laid
down their arms, in consequence of a convention which was
signed at Artlenberg (July 5.) After these proceedings, the
mouths of the Elbe and Weser were immediately blockaded by
an English squadron, which prevented ttie invaders from bene-
fiting by the navigation of those rivers.

England had g<^ nerously offered to acknow.edge the neutrality
of Holland, provided she could get the French troops to evacu-
ate her territory. This measure, however proved clisastrnus in
its result for the Republic. Bonaparte laid them under obliga-
tion to maintain a body of 34,000 men, both French and Bata-
vians ; and to furnish five ships of war and five frigaief, with a
number of transports and sloops of war, for conveying to Eng-
land 61,000 mon and 4000 horses. After the conclusiim of peace
with the Emperor of Russia (Oct. 8, 1801,) Bonaparte had
withdrawn his troops from the kingdom of Naples ; but, by a
forced interpretation of the treaty of Florence, he pretended that
he had a right to send them back whenever he should happen
to be at war with England. Ferdinand IV. was obliged to suc-
cumb ; and in consequence of an arrangement with General St.
Cyr (June 25, 1803,) the French again took possession of
Abruzzi.

The loss of Trinidad, and the selling of Louisiana to the
United States of America, had created no small coolness between
the Court of Madrid and Bonaparte. Already had he brought
an army near to Bayonne, which, under the command of Gen-
eral Augereau, threatened Spain. She, however, succeeded in
evading the storm. As it was of much importance for hor to
avoid war with England, and on the other hand, as Bonaparte
had more need of money than of ships, especially considering
the nature of the attack which he meditated upon England, it
was agreed by a secret treaty signed at ]\Iadrid (Oct. 30,) that
Charles IV. should substitute money, instead of the succoun"
which the nature of his former engagement l>ound him to fur-
nish. Theamount of this subsidy is not officially known. The
hopes which this Monarch had entertained of escaping from the
war were sadly disappointed. He was dragged into it towards
the end of the following year.

Portugal likewise purchased her neutrality, by a convention
which was signed between General Lannca, Bonaparte's minis

nterests regulated by
inst this violatiop o(
pectation of rendering
d the capitulation of
bunt Walmoden, who
latter, however, laid
onvention which was
ese proceedings, the
lediately blockaded by
le invaders from bene-

ow.edge the neutrality

rench troops to evacu-

r proved disastrous in

(lid them under obliga-

)oth French and Bata-

nd five frigates, with a

for conveying to Eng-

the conclusiiin of peace

1801,) Bonaparte had

1 of Naples ; but, by a

ence, he pretended that

lever he should happen

IV. was obliged to suc-

sment with General St.

ain took possession of

ig of Louisiana to the
> small coolness between
Already had he brought
r the command of 6en-
, however, succeeded in
1 importance for her to
her hand, as Bonaparte
, especially considering
itated upon England, it
Jladrid (Oct. 30,) that
nstead of the succoun*
ncnt iKiund him to fur-
t officially known. The
ed of escaping from the
dragged into it towards

trality, by a convention
nes, Bonaparte's minis

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802— 1S1C.

483

ter at Lisbon, and Don Manuel Pinto ; the contents of which
are not known with certainty.

From the breaking of the peace of Amiens to the second war
with Austria, Bonaparte had employed himself about a project
for effecting a landing in England, for which he had made im
inense preparations. All the ship-carpenters throughout France
were put in requisition for the equipment of a flotilla intended
to convey the armies of the Republic to the English shores. A
multitudinous army, called the Ar-my of England, was assem-
bled on the coasts, extensive camps were formed, and convoys
prepared for protecting the transportation of these invaders. In
England, under the ministry of Mr. Pitt, vigorous measures of
defence were adopted, by setting on foot a regular army of
180,000 men. The English Admirals frequently harassed the
French shipping, and bombarded the towns situated upon the
coasts. But from this th^re did not happen any result of im-
portance.

St. Lucia, St. Peter, Miquelon, and Tobago, as also the
Dutch colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, fell into
the hands of the English in the beginning of the year 1803.
General Rochambeau, who had succeeded Le Clerc, concluded
a capitulation at St. Domingo, with Dc^salines the B'ack Chief,
for the evacuation of Cape Franjois ; but as the English Ad-
miral Duckworth blockaded it by sea, he was obliged to sur-
render with his whole army, which was transported to Eng-
land. Dessalines, thus relieved from the French, proclaimed
the independence of St. Domingo, or the island of Hayti, of
which he assumed the government, under the title of Governor-
General, for life.

Meantime, the plan of Bonaparte for disengaging himsel
from those political restraints which fettered his ambition, was
growing to maturity. Three parties divided France — the Roy-
alists, the Systematic Republicans, and the Jacobins. Of the
two first, the one had always entertained hopes that Bonaparte
would recall the Bourbons ; and the other, that the moment was
approaching when true liberty would take the place of despotism.
General Moreau was regarded as the head of this party, if his
character had at all made him a proper person to play an active
game in public affairs. Bonaparte, who desired neither King
nor Republic, was convinced that he could only arrive at his pur-
pose by attaching to himself the Jacobin party. In order to in-
spire them with confidence, lie felt that i' was necessary to give
them a pledge ; this was, to be continually at variance with the
other two parties, which they equally detested.

Bonaoarte resolved to ruin Moreau, whom he mistrusted

i.*i1

'•w

OHAPTBRXl.

484

Pichepru. Georges. Cadoiulal, and other Royalist Chiefs, se-
cretly en ered France, believinij that the t.me was now como
for reestablishing royalty, and that Moreau wou d place h.m-
self at the head of the enterprise. Pithegrn twice saw his old
friend Moreau, who refused to take any part m a plot agajns
he Government; but he was reluctant to betray th» excelent
man, whom Bonaparte hated, and who had been excepted by
name from the general amnesty. His silence was sufficient to
eSgle him in a pretended conspiracy, with which the tnbu-

"■^PicTegm tpt himself secreted in Paris for some days, but
through the treachery of a friend he was at length discovered
arrested, and committed to prison, where he was found dead, on
Tmoniing of April 7th., 'a black handkerchief being twisted
around his neck, and tightened by the twisting of "^ f J^ ^o
proof appeared against Moreau of takin? n.^' part m the con^
SDiracv ; but his own confession, that he had seen Pichegru
E was deemed sufficient by his judges to justify his con-
dTmnaUon, for a high, although not capital crime ; he was sen-
fenced to t'wo years'imprison^ent, which, by J*- ."tercession d
his friends was commuted for the same period of ex le. Ihis
distinguished General made choice of America, as his place of

^''Auhis time another occurrence took phce, which imist ever
'orm the darkest chapter in the history of Bonnparte-the arrest,
condemnation, and execution of the Duke d'Engh^en Jh s
Drince was living in retirement in the castle of Ettenheim, in
fh" Dutchy of Baden, a neutral territory. On the evening of
ihe 14th of March, a troop of French soldiers passed Hje 'jon-
tier, surrounded the castle, and seized the P""<^|' *"'[';" J" "^j
tendants. He was immediately conveyed to Strusburgh, and
from thence after a confinement of three days to Pans, where he
was kept for a few hours in the Temple, and then removed to
,he nefghbouring castle of Vincennes^ ?\-*'h r±J Hd-
20th he was charged by a military cx,urt, of which General Hul-
lin was president, with having fought against France, being .n
the pay of England, plotting against the nternul and externa
safely of the Republic, and having conspired against the 1'^ of
the chief Consul. The court pronounced him ?"dty ; the de-
cision was immediately despatched to B«""P«"«' «"{. '^'^ f "'j
•ence " condemned to def h," which was written on the back of
it. carried into execution .t six o'clock the following mornmg.
The charges alleged against him were unsupported by any
eviSence but he persevered in declaring, that her"ld ever
in the rights of his family, and that as a Condc, he could
n«ver enter France, b'lt with arm.^ in his hand.

Royalist Chiefs, se-
ime was now como
u would place him-
ni twice saw his old
part in a plot against
betray this excellent
lad been excepted by
nee was sufficient to
ith which the tribu-

i» for some days, but

at length discovered

e was found dead, on

erchief being twisted

sting of a stick. No

any part in the con-

c had seen Pichegru

res to justify his con-

tl crime ; he was sen-

by the intercession ol

eriod of exile. This

fjerica, as his place of

Ince, which must ever
Bonaparte — the arrest,
ke d'Enghien. This
stle of Ettenheim, in
^ On the evening of
dicrs passed the fron-
prince, and all his at-
[}d to Strusburgh, and
lays to Paris, where he
and then removed to
On the night of the
of which General Hul-
linst France, being in
interniil and external
ired against the life of
d him guilty ; the de-
[)naparte, and the sen-
written on the back of
le following morning,
unsupported by any
g, that he would ever
as a Cond6, he could
hand.

I-KRIOD IX. A. D. 1802 — 1810.

485

This last act paved the way for Bonaparte to ascend the
throne. France had scarcely recovered from the slupor in which
she had been plunged by the judicial murder of a Bourbon,
when the Conservative Senate, who had perceived that the best
way to please Bonaparte was not to wait till he should make bi»
wishes known to them, presented an address, inviting hini tc
complete the institutions necessary for tranquillizing the State
(March 27.) At this signal of flattery, many of the Orders of
the State were eager to express their desire that the power
which was vested in Bonaparte, should bu conferred en him by
a hereditary title. One month was allowed to elapse, for pre-
paring the public mind for the result. It was then that the First
Consul, in replying to the address of the Senate, desired these
Orders to e-xplain themselves more clearly. The Tribunate
took the merit of anticipating this explanation, by voting the re-
establishment of hereditary monarchy in favour of Bonaparte
and his family (April 30.) The Senate, not wishing to be be-
hind in complaisance, acceded to the desire ; and a decree of
that Body declared Bonaparte Emperor of the French (Ma^
18;) conferring on him the Imperial dignity, to be hereditary
in himself, and his lawful or adopted sons, to the exclusion of
his daughters ; and failing the males, to his brothers Joseph and
Louis, and their male descendants.

The same decree of the Senate made several important
changes in the constitution, with the view of rendering it per-
fectly monarchical. Bonaparte accepted the dignity which
had been conferred on him. He only asked, that the nation
should be consuK. J upon the question of hereditary right.
Wishing to legalize this attempt in the eyes of the people ; he
invited the sovereign Pontiff to Paris to crown him. This ce-
remony took place in the Church of Notre-Dame (Dec. 2, 1804 ;)
and contrary to the general custom, Bonaparte put the crown
on his own head, after which he placed it upon that of his
spouse. Some weeks afterwards, in opening the Session ol
the Legislative Body, he solemnly declared, that, as he was sati»
fied with his grandeur, he would make no more additions to
the Empire.

The base transaction of 21st March was followed up by an
exchange of ver^violent letters, between the Russian amkissador
at Paris, and the minister of Bonaparte. In addition to the indig-
nation which that event had excited in Alexander, and which
the prevailing tone of the notes of the French minister were not
calculated to diminish ; there was a dissatisfaction, on account
of the non-execution of many of the conditions agreed to in the
Ueaty of 10th October 1801. Alexander demanded, that the

\<n

486

'CHAPTER XI.

French troops should be withdrawn f'om ihe kingdom of Napics .
that Bonaparte should concert with him as to the Drinciples upon
which the atTairs of Italy were to be regulated ; that without de-
lav he should indemnify the King of Sardinia, and evacuate
tfanover (July 27, 1804.) To these, Bonaparte only replied by
recriminations, when the two Courts recalled their respective
ambassadors. The Emperor had not waited for this opportunity
to employ means for setting bounds to the ambition of Bona-
parte. By the declarations interchanged betwixt the Courts ol
St. Petersburg and Berlin (May 3, and 24,) it was agreed, that
thev should not allow the French troops in Germany to go be-
yond the frontier of Hanover ; and that should this happen, each
of these two Courts should employ 40,000 men to repel such an
attempt. The Prussian declaration added, moreover, that there
should be no dispute as to the countries situated to the west of
the Weser. Not content with having thus provided for the se-
curity of the North of Germany, the Emperor Alexander imme-
diately concerted measures with Austria, with the view of
opposing a barrier to the usurpations of Fran-e. Declarations,
in the shape of a convention, were exchanged between these two
Courts before the end of the year ; and they agreed to set on toot
an armv of 350,000 men. ,. , i .

The maritime war, like that of 1803, was limited to threats,
and immense preparations on the part of Bonaparte, and on the
part of Sir Sidney Smith, to attempt preventing the union of
the French fleet, or for burning their shipping in their own ports.
The English took possession of the Dutch colony of Surinam
(May 4 ;) and towards the end of the year commenced hostilities
against Spain.

The first six months of the year 1805 were marked by new ag-
erandizements on the part of Bonaparte in Italy. 1. A decree of
the Estates of the Italian Republic assembled at Pans (Mar. 18.)
proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte King of Italy ; and it was stipu-
lated that he should remit that crown to one of his legitimate or
adopted sons, so soon as the foreign troops should have evacuated
the kingdom of Naples (where there were no foreigners except
the French troops,) the Seven Islands and Malta; and that
henceforth the crowns of France and Italy should never be united
in the same person. Bonaparte repaired to Milan (May 26,)
where he was crowned with the iron crown of the Emperors of
Germany, who were kings of Italy. Eugene Beauharnais, the
son of the Empress Josephine, was appointed his viceroy. 2. He
conferred the principality of Piombino, under the title of a here-
ditary fief of the French empire, on Eliza Bacciochi his sister,
uid her male descendants (May 25.) This completed the spolia-

kingdom of Naiiies .

the principles upon

ted ; that without dc-

dinia, and evacuate

parte only replied by

lied their respective

for this opportunity

ambition of Bona-

betwixt the Courts of

,) it was agreed, that

n Germany to go be-

>uld this happen, each

men to repel such an

, moreover, that there

ituated to the west of

IS provided for the se-

ror Alexander imme-

1, with the view of

'ran:"e. Declarations,

jed between these two

jy agreed to set on foot

was limited to threats.
Bonnparte, and on the
3venting the union of
ling in their own ports,
ch colony of Surinam
commenced hostilities

ere marked by new ag-
1 Italy. 1. A decree of
)led nt Paris (Mar. 18,)
[taly ; and it was stipu-
me of his legitimate or
should have evacuated
e no foreigners except
and Malta; and that
should never be united
d to TVlilan (May 26,)
vn of the Emperors of
^eiic Bcauharnais, the
ted his viceroy. 2. He
der the title of a here-
:a Bacciochi his sister,
s completed the spolia*

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802— ]S10.

487

tion ot the House of Buoncompagni, to whuin that title and en*
tTite belonged, together with the greater part of the Isle of Elba.
3. The Senate and people of the Ligurian Republic demanded
voluntarily, as is said, to be united lu the French Empire. Their
request was agreed to (June 5;) and the territory of that Repub-
lic was divided into three departments. 4. The Republic of
Lucca demanded from Bonaparte a new constitution, and a prince
of his fcmily. By a constitutional statute (June 23,) that Repub-
lic was erected into a principality, under the protection of France ;
anc] conferred as a hereditary right on Felix Bacciochi, and his
wife Eliza Bonaparte. 5. The States of Parma seemed destined
to be given up by way of compensation to the King of Sardinia,
together with the territory of Genoa ; but Bonaparte, finding
himself involved with the Emperor Alexander, caused them to
oe organized according to the system of France.

It was impossible for the sovereigns of Europe not to unite
against a conqueror who seemed to apply to politics that maxim
of the civil law, which makes every thing allowable that the
laws do not forbid. We have already seen that Russia and
Austria had concerted measures for setting bounds to these usur-
pations. But it was William Pitt, who was restored to the
British ministry in the month of May 1804, that conceived the
plan of the third coalition. Disdaining the petty resources which
the preceding ministry had employed for harassing France, he
conceived the idea of a grand European League, for the pur-
pose of rescuing from the dominion of Bonaparte the countries
which France had subdued since 1792, and for reducing that
kingdom within its ancient limits. With regard to the territories
which were to be taken from France, he proposed arrangements,
by means of which they might form a barrier against her future
projects of aggrandizement ; and finally, to introduce into Europe
a general system of public right. In fact, the plan of Mr. Pitt,
which was communicated to tlic Russian government (June 19,
1805,) was the same as that which, ten years afterwards, was
executed by the Grand Alliance. If this plan failed in 1805, it
was only because they calculated on the participation of Prussia,
as an indispensable condition ; which *hey did not give up when
that power had declared her resolution > > preserve her neutrality.

By the treaty of April 1 1th, between Russia and Great Britain,
it was agreed that the Emperor Alexander should make another
attempt for arranging matters with Bonaparte, so as to prevent
the war. M. de Novosilzoff, one of the Russian ministers, was
•ent to Paris. On his arrival at Berlin, he received the pass-

Eorts which the cabinet of Prussia had procured for him at F'aris ;
ut Hi the same time, he received an order from St. Petersburg

ri7ilf,r

488

CHAFTBK XL

not to continue his journey. The annexation of the Ligunan
Republic to France, at the moment when they were making con-
ciliatory overtures lo Bonaparte, appeared too serious an outrage
for the Emperor to prosecute farther negotiations. War was
consequently resolved on. ,„,... u

The preparations for the invasion of England had been ear-
ned on for some time with extraordinary vigour. Every thing
•eemed to announce, that Bonaparte meant lo attempt that peril-
ous enterprise. Part of his troops had already embarked (Aug
27 ^ when all of a sudden the camp at Boulogne was broken up.
and the army directed to move towards the Rhine, which it pass-
ed within a month after. Austria had set on foot three armies.
The Archduke Charles commanded that of Italy, where it was
expected a decisive blow was to be struck ; the second army,
under the command of the Archduke John, was stationed m the
Tyrol, to maintain a communication with the third army on the
Inn, which was commanded nominally by the Archduke Fer-
dinand the Emperor's cousin, but in reality by General Mack.
The first Russian army under the command of General Kutusoff
had arrived in Gallicia, and was continuing its march m all
haste. It was followed by another under Michelson. The Rus-
sian troops in Dalmatia were to attempt a landing m Italy.

The army of Mack passed the Inn (Sept. 8.) They had
reckoned on the co-operation of the Elector of Bavaria ; but that
prince, who was always distrustful of Austria, abandoned the
cause of the allies, and retired with his troops into Franconia.
The Electors of Wurtemberg and Baden were desirous of con-
cluding treaties of alliance with Bonaparte, after he had passed
the Rhine ; these treaties were signed at Ludwigsburg and Et-
tingen (Oct. 4, and 10.) The plan of Bonaparte was to cut ofl
the army of Mack who had entered into Swabia, from that of
Kutusoff which was marching through Austria. In this he suc-
ceeded, by presuming to violate the Prussian territory. Mar-
mont who had come by way of Mayence, and Bemadotte who
had conducted the army into Franconia, where they were joined
by the Bavarians, traversed the country of Anspach, and came
thus on the rear of the Austrian army (Oct. 6.) From that date
scarcely a day passed without a battle favourable to the French.
Several divisions of the Austrians were obliged to lay down
their arms. Mack, who had thrown himself mto Ulm, lost all
resolution, and signed a capitulation (Oct. 17,) by which he pro
mised to surrender if assistance did not arrive withm eight days.
He did not, however, wait for this delay. By a second capitulation
two days after, he surrendered on the spot with 25,000 men.
The army of Mack was totally destroyed, except 6000 caval-

jtion of the Lignrian
»y were making con-
serious an outrage
siiations. War was

gland had been car-
igour. Every thing
to attempt that peril-
;ady embarked (Aug
logne was broken up.
Rhine, which it pass-
on foot three armies,
f Italy, where it was
k ; the second army,
, was stationed in the
the third army on tlio
the Archdulce Fer-
ity by General Mack,
d of General Kutusoif
ling its march in all
Vlichelson. The Rus-
landing in Italy.
Sept. 8.) They had
)r of Bavaria ; but that
ustria, abandoned the
roops into Franconia.
were desirous of con-
e, after he had passed
Ludwigsburg and Et-
naparte was to cut ofi
Swabia, from that of
istria. In this he suc-
sian territory. Mar-
, and Bernadotte who
here they were joined
f Anspach, and came
t. 6.) From that date
mrable to the French,
obliged to lay down
self into Ulm, lost all
17,) by which he pro
ive within eight days.
r a second capitulation
t with 25,000 men.
d, except 6000 caval-

I'ERIOC IX. A. D.

1802— ISIO.

489

ry, with which the Archduke Ferdinand had opened himxelf a
passage through Franconia ; and 20,000 others with which Kien-
muyer had retired to Biaunau, where he was met by the van-
Fuard of Kutusoif. The^e two generals continued their retreat.
The Russian army repassed the Danube rieur Grein (Nov. 9,)
and directed their march towards '.he Morau. A few days after
(Nov. J3,) Viennii, the capital of Austria, fell into the hands of
the French. They passed the Danube near that city, and pur-
sued the Russians. In the meantime General Buxhovvden with
the second Russian army, having joined KutusoHTat Olmutz, on
the same day that the EJinperor Alexander arrived in the camp,
they conceived themselves strong enough to encounter the ene-
my, and immediately discontinued their retreat. The battle of
Austerlitz, which Bonaparte fought (Dec. 2,) with the combi-
ned army of the Austrians and Russians, decided the campaign
in his favour.

Meantime Bonaparte found himself in a position which might
become dangerous. When the Archduke Charles had perceived
that the French had concentrated their forces on the Danube, he
sent supplies to General Mack, and commenced his retreat from
Italy, that he might be nearer the centre of hostilities. This
retreat he could not effect, e.\cept by hazarding several engage-
ments with Massena, who continued the pursuit. When near
Cilley he formed a junction with the Archduke John, who had
retreated from the Tyrol (Nov. 27.) The united armies of these
two princes amounted to 80,000 men, with whom they marched
towards Vienna; while the Hungarians rose en masse to defend
their sovereign. The next day after the battle of Austerlitz, the
Russian army received a reinforcement of 12,000 men. An
army composed of Prussians, Saxons, and Hessians were on the
point of penetrating into Franconia ; and some corps of Prus-
sians, Russians, Swedes, Hanoverians, and English, had joined
a second army in the north of Germany, ready to invade Bel-
gium. Moreover, the English and the Russians were preparnig
to effect a landing in the kingdom of Naples.

It was in this critical moment that the Cabinet of Vienna
signed an armistice at Austerlitz, by which they engaged to send
back the Russian army, and to quell the insurrection in Hun-
gary. Within twenty days after, peace was signed at Presburg
between Austria and France (Dec. 26.) The former acknow-
ledged all the claims of Bonaparte, ana ceded to him, to form a
Eart of the kingdom of Italy, the ancient states of Venice, with
talmatia and Albania ; and tc his allies, the Elector of Baden
and the new Kings of Bavaria and VVurtomberg, the Tyrol and
all her hereditary possessions in Swabia.

iSl

I V'M

^1,^

490

CIUPTER XI.

The violation of the Prussian territor_y in Franjonia, had M-
'iled Ihe most lively indignation nt Ben.n. The King resolved. |
:^.rd in hand, to Jvenge thi. mUrnge "g-'-^^Xl? ncf S I
The Prussian troops occupied Hanover, which the French had |
ju't evacuated ; an^d thatUuntry was restored to |^^« leg. Uma^
tovereiffn. A hody of Russians, for who.n they had till then
vallv demanded a passage through S.les.a. ohtained permisMon
to traverse that province to jmn the ""'^ "f ^u J«o»r. The
Emperor Alexan-Ur had himself arrived at Berhi. 0=^26.) as
well as the Archduke Anthony, Grand-Master of the Teutomc
Kni..hts. A convention was cone uded at Po sdam (Nov. 3 )
J^tween Alexander and Frederic HI. of Prussia This atter
nrince joined the coalition, with the reservation of a prelim.na.7
St mp to obtain the assent of Bonaparte to conditions extre^nely
equitable. In case these were re ected, Frederic promised to
ta1<e the field with 180,000 men, wfio in fact, were put in a con-
d^.ion to march at the earliest notice. Coun HaugAVitz, who
had been sent to Vienna as the bearer of overtures of peace to
Bonaparte, accompanied with an energetic declaration, took it
E h^is head that it would be prejudicial to the interests of Prus-
^a were he to press the object 0/ his coinniission ; he resolved,
therefore, to wait the course of events. After the truce of Aus-
te litz, he took it upon him to change the system of his govern-
meat. Without having any sort of authority, he concluded an
Sliance with Bonaparte at Vienna (Dec 15,) for the guarantee
of tlieir respective states, and for those of Bavaria and the Porte.
Prussia was to cede the principality of Anspach to Bavaria,
that of Neufchatel to France ; and tlint of Cleves to a pnnce of
the Empire, whom Bonaparte might name. In return Prussia
was to get possession of the Electorate of Hanover.

When Count Haugwitz arrived at Berlin with the treaty,
Frederic at first was inclined to reject it ; but the minister having
represented to him the danger to which this would expose him
in the present state of affairs, the King r. .ctantly consented to
ratify the treaty ; provided a clause woa aa .d, that the occupa-
tion of the provinces mutually ceded should only be announced
as provisional, until the King of England should give his assent
by a future treaty, to the cession of Hanover. It was in th»
manner that Prussia, in effect, got possession of that Electorate
(Jan 27, 1806.) Meantime, Count Haugwitz, who had reimired
to Paris, found it impossible to obtain the acceptance of Bona-
parte to the ratification of the treaty so modified. He then
signed a second convention (Feb. 15.) by which Prussia enga-
ged to declare the occupation of Hanover definitive ; and to shut
the rivers in the North of Germany against the English. 1 ht

Frarconia, had ei-

The King resolved.

si hif royal dignity.

ch the French had

red to its legitimatfe

I they had till then

obtained permission

of Kutusotr. The

Berlin (Oct. 25,) as

ster of the Teutonic

Potsdam (Nov. 3.)

russia. This latter

ion of a preliminai'y

:onditions extremely

rederic promised to

t, were put in a con-

juiit Hatigwitz, who

)vertiires of peace to

declaration, took it

the interests of Priis-

lission ; he resolved,

ter the truce of Aus-

ystcm of his govern-

ity, he concluded an

5,) for the guarantee

nvnrin and the Porte.

Lnspach to Bavaria ;

Cleves to a prince of

!. In return Prussia

Hanover.

rlin with the treaty,
t the minister having
is would expose him
ictantly consented to
'-id, that the occupa-
d only be announced
liould give his assent,
ver. It was in this
9n of that Electorate
itz, who had repaired
acceptance of Bona-
modified. He then
ivhich Prussia enga-
tfinitive ; and to shut
t the English. Tht

I m

PRRIOD IX. A. D. 190S2 -1810.

491

King of Prussia, who had already disbanded Ins army, found
himself in a situation that obliged him to ratify that urraiigement.

Bonaparte had made prodigious efTorts to revive the French
marine. The fleet at Rocheiort, commanded by Admiral Mis-
siessi, had taken the opportunity of sailing from that port (Jan.
11, 1805.) They had .xet out with the intention of levying con-
tributions in the Little Antilles, belonging to the English ; and
after throwing in supplies to General Ferrand who still kept
possession of St. Domingo, they had returned without accident
to Rochefort. The fleet at Toulon, consisting of fourteen ves-
sels of the line, commanded by Admiral Villeneuve, and hav-
ing on board troops under the command of General Lauriston,
probably destined for Ireland, had repaired to Cadiz (April 9,)
where they were joined by the Spanish fleet under Admiral
Gravina. Next day the two combined fleets sailed from that
port, but afterwards separated. That under Villeneuve had
proceeded to Martinico ; but being apprised of the arrival of
Lord Nelson at Bnrbadoes, Villeneuve again joined the Span-
ish Admiral, when the fleet returned to Europe. An engage
ment took place nc!^r Cnpe Finistorre (July 22,) which was
honourable to Sir Robert Culder, the English Admiral, who
captured two ships of the line. Being soon after considerably
reinforced, and amounting to thirty-five ships of the line, they
set sail for Cadiz, where a partial blockade was maintained for
some time by Calder and Collingwood. But Nelson, who had
been invested with the command of the English fleet, induced
the enemy, by means of a pretended retreat, to leave their sta-
tion. An engagement took place ofTCape Trafalgar (Oct. 21,)
which cost the English Admiral his life, but which ruined the
combined fleet. Villeneuve was made prisoner, and Gravina
fled towards Cadiz with ten ships. This glorious victory se-
cured to England the command of the sea.

When Bonaparte had made preparations for marching against
Austria, he resolved to reinforce his army in Italy by the troops
which occupied a part of the kingdom of Naples. To ingrati-
ate himself with Ferdinand IV., he concluded a treaty with that
prince 'Sept. 21,) by which the latter, on obtaining the evacua-
tion 01 his own states, promised to remain neutral. He did not
depend, however, on that monarch's fulfilling his promise. It
was a part of the plan of the allies, that the Russian and Eng-
lish armies should land in the kingdom of Naples ; the one by
'he way of Corfu, and the other from Malta. The plan was
carried into execution, and the foreign troops were received as
friends. A decree of Napoleon, dated from Schoenbrun (Dec.
27,) had declcred that the dynasty of the Bourbons had censed

mtf

492

OHAPTRR XI.

to reign at Naples. Aftor the battle of Auster .tz, the Ruswan.
and En-rlisl. nluHuloned Italy ; and Ferdinand IV. found h.m-
sclf witiicut defeno.., exposed to a French army, who were ap-
proarhi..^' his capil.il. He embarked for Sicily, when the French
Lnlered Naples (Jan. 1S0«5 ) and Joseph B«""P^.''«';*;';,^™l^jf;
of Napoleon, was created King of the Two Sicilies (March 30,)
although his sway never extended farther than the kingdom ol

"'fhose are probably in a mistake, who imagine they find in
the conduct of Bonaparte, the gradual development of a great
plan, conceived before-hand; and springing from his head, so
lo speak, like the fabled Minerva from the brain of Jupiter.
The circumstances in which he was placed, the success of his
arms, and the weakness of foreign Cabinets, suggested to him
one idea after another. It was when he was on his march
against the Russians, that he received the news of the bat le ot
Trafalgar, which hud completely destroyed the labour of three
years, and annihilated his hopes of reducing England by plant-
Ing his standard on her soil. His imagination then conceived
the plan of opposing one combination of strength to another,
and surrounding France with a number of states, [ndependent
in appearance, but subject to the direction of the head ol the

Tfler' the peace of Presburg, he had repaired to Munich,
where he adopted his stepson, Eugeue Beauharnais, and de-
clared him his successor in the kingdom of taly. In announ-
cing this elevation to the Senate, (Jan. 12, 1806.) he declared
that he reserved to himself the right of determining the cominon
tie which was to unite all the States composing the Federatwe
System of the French Empire. This was the first time that
thts system was spoken of. In a short time after, he declared,
that the whole peninsula of Italy made part of the Grand brn-
Dire Finally, a constitutional statute of the Imperial family,
which he published at that time (March 30,) may be regarded
as the fundamental law of the Federative System he had lately
announced. That statute granted to the Emperor of the French
an absolute supremacy over all the sovereigns of his family ; and
he no doubt had great hopes, that the time would arrive when
no others would be found in any of the adjacent states.

In annexing the Venetian provinces to the kingdom of Italy,
Bonaparte detached from them Massa-Carrara and Carfagnaua,
which he bestowed on the Prince of Lucca. At the same time,
he created within these provinces twelve dutchies, as hereditary
liefs of the Empire, and three within the states of Pnrinu ; all
of which he disposed of in favour of his generals and ministers.

lerlitz, the Ru8HianH
iiul IV. found liim-
riny. who were ap-
when the French
tinpariu, ihe brother
Sicilies (March 30,)
han the kingdom of

naginc they find in
elopment of a great
^ from his head, so
lie brain of Jupiter,
d, the success of his
ts, suggested to him
> was on his march
news of the battle of
I the labour of three
ig England by plant-
lation then conceived
strength to another,
f states, independent
n of the head of the

repaired to Munich,
Beauharnais, and de-
)f Italy. In announ-
l, 1S06,) he declared
ermining the common
posing the Federative
IS the first time that
ne after, he declared,
irt of the Grand Em-
the Imperial family,
30,) may be regarded
System he had lately
Imperor of the French
^s of his family ; and
le would arrive when
Ijacent states,
the kingdom of Italy,
'rara and Carfagnana,
t. At the same time,
lutchies, as hereditary
states of Parmu ; all
enerals and ministers.

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — ISin.

498

The dutchy of Cleven, ceded by Prusitia, as well as that of
Berg which Imd born ceded to him by the Kiiii,' of Bavaria,
were conferred, together with the hereditary diirniiy of Admiral
of France, on hid brother-in-law Jonchiin Miirat (Munh HO.)
Alexander Berthier was crented Prince of Neiirchiiti.'l (June 5.)
At a la'er iMriod, hv granted the diitcliy >'f Henevento to M.
Talleyrand rerigord, under the title of Sovereiy;!! I'riniipniity ;
-and the principality of Poiitecorvo to Jean Biipti-le Beriiiulotte,
the brother-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. He ior)k these twt) ter-
ritories from the States of the Church, under the pretext that
their sovereignty was an object of litigation between the Courtk
of Rome and Naples ; an allegation which was not true.

The continuation of the History of Bonaparte presents us
with a series of new usurpations and aggrejisioiiK. Towards
the end of January, the French troops entered into the free city
of Frankfort, where they levied four millions, to punish the in-
habitants for their connexion with the English. Bonaparte was
living at that time in the most perfect peace witii the German
Empire to which that city belonged, aiicl which could not protect
it. By the treaty of Presburg, the Bocca di Cattaro, in Dalma-
tia, was to be restored to the French ; but the Russians, whose
fleet was cruising off these coasts, immediately took possession
of that place (Feb. 4,) at the moment when the Austrians were
about to surrender it to the French. Bonaparte made this a
pretext for refusing to give up to the Court of Vienna the for-
tress of Braunau, which he was to evacuate according to the
stipulations of that same treaty, and for leaving a part of his
army in Germany. He did more ; he ordered General Lauris-
ton, who commanded the French army in Dalmatia, to occupy
Ragusa (May 27,) a Republic placed under the protection of the
Porte, with whom there subsisted a treaty of peace. It was not,
however, until the 13th August 1807, that Ragusa was formally
united to the kingdom of Italy.

The Elector of Baden and the Princes of Nassau were oblig-
ed to make cessions to France. The former surrendered Kehl,
nnd the latter Cassel and Kostheim, opposite Mayence. Wesei,
a fortress in the dutchy of Cleves was likewise occupied by the
French troops. All these were so many violations of the peace
of Luneville, and the treaty of Vienna in 1805.

In order to promote this federative system, the States-General
of the Batavian Republic received a hint to ])etttion Bonaparte
for a King. A treaty was in consequence concluded at Paris
(March 24,) by which Louis, the brother of Napoleon, was cre-
ated Hereditary and Constitutional King of Holland ; the title
to descend to his male issue. That young man accepted with

i':^

f*i'

401

CHAPTKR XI.

'»..■

rclMct»tic(! u iTowii which he had never coveted, and which h«
wnro with iiiiuli dififnity.

William Pitt, whom history would have been proud to call the
Grout Pitt, had shn not already given that title to his father, hnd
died about the b<>^rinnin^r of the year (Jan. 23.) Charles Fox,
hin forrnor onta^fonist, succofilfd him in the niinixtry. He im«
nuMliatoly t'liton-d into negotiations for peace between Francn
and Knglaiid. This comuiission, on the part of the latter, wai
intrusted lirst to Lord Yarmouth and afterwards to Lord Lau-
derdale. After the death of Fox (Sept. 13,) the negotiations
ended without having produced any change in the relations be-
tween France and England ; nnvertheless they deserve to be
placed among the important events of that year, as they were
the immediate cau.<e of the war with Prussia, as we sh.iU have
occasion to mention.

The Emperor Alexander likewise made an attempt for a re-
conciliation with Bonaparte. He sent M. U'Oubril to Paris,
who, after a negotiation of ten days, concluded a treaty with
General Clarke, the French plenipotentiary, (July 20, 1866,) by
which it was agreed that the Russian troops should evacuate
the Bocca di Cattaro, and the French troops cpiit Kagusa; that
the independence of the Republic of the Seven Islands should be
acknowledged, ns well as the independence and integrity of the
Porte ; that in three months the French troops should evacuate
Germany; that the two parties should use their joint influence
to procure a cessation of the war between Prussia and Sweden;
that Bonaparte should accept the mediation of Russia, in nego-
tiating a maritime peace. A secret article secured to Ferdi-
nand IV. the Balearic Isles, in compensation for the kingdom of
Naples, It thus appeared that the King of Sardinia was the
greatest sulTerer. The Emperor Alexander refused to ratify
this treaty, whether it was that he considered the terms not alto-
gether honourable, or that he was displeased with the conclu-
sion of the Confederation of the Rhine, which took place at this
time.

The Confederation of the Rhine was undoubtedly the most
important conseauence of the peace of Prcsburg. That event
which entirely changed the state of Germany, and placed so
large a portion of that Empire under obedience to Bonaparte,
was prepared by the article of the peace which recognised the
sovereignty of the Kings of Bavaria and Wurlemberg, and the
Elector of Baden ; as well as by several other irregular transac-
tions which took place after that time. Such was the conduct
of the Elector Arch-Chancellor, in arrogating to himself the
right of appointing his own successor ^ and nominating Cardinol

voted, ftnd which he

lj«eii proud to call th«
iIb to his father, hnd
23.) Charles Fox,
10 niini»try. He im-
ace between France
(art of the latter, wa»
^rwards to Lord Lau-
13,) the negotiations
^e in the relations be-
is they deserve to be
t year, as they were
isia, M we 8h.\ll have

; an attempt for n re-
/I. D'Oubril to Paris,
K-luded a treaty with
ry, (July 20, 1806.) by
roops slioiiid evacuate
(psiptit Kngiisa; that
won Islands should be
ce and integrity of the
troops should evacuate
se their joint influence
Prussia and Sweden ;
ion of Russia, in nego-
icle secured to Ferdi-
lion for the kingdom of
g of Sardinia was the
inder refused to ratify
ered the terms not alto-
eased with the conclu-
vhich took place at this

undoubtedly the most
'resburg. That event
rmany, and placed so
Kidietice to Bonaparte,
! which recognised the
Wurlemberg, and the
other irregular transac-
Su(;h was the conduct
jgating to himself the
id nominating Cardmal

IKRIOU IX. A. D. IHO'J— ISIO.

49S

Fesch ns such, who was Bonaparte's iinrK'. The Conft-dcra*
lion of the Rhine was concluded at Pnris (July 12, 180H,) Iw
twpon IJonnpurtp and sixteen of the Oermiin prim'i-s, iiiciudiiiij
thi" Duke of CIt'ves, who sepnralod frnni the Germanic Kin-
pire, and formed a particular union among themselves, under
th«M»rotection of Bonaparte.

The declarations which the minister of France and those of
the Confederated Estates, remitted on the same day to the Diet
of Ratisbon, intimated to that assembly, that the German Em-
pire had ceased to exict. The Chief of the Gcrmonic body, who
had been kept ignorant of all these measures, then published a
spirited declaration (An>(. 6,) by which he resigned a crown
which could only oppenr valuable in his eyes so long ns he was
able to fulfil the duties, and exercise the prerogatives which
were attached to it.

This transaction, which put an end to the German Empire,
had been kept a secret from Prussia. Bonaparte, in announcin
to Frederic William the result which it had produced, invitei
him to form a similar confederation in the North of Germany ;
but at the same time, he negotiated privately with the Electors
of Hesse and Saxony, to prevent them from entering into that
union ; and declared, that he could never permit the cities of
Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubec, to become parties to it. In his
negotiations with England, he proposed to make over these ci-
ties to Ferdinand IV. King of the Two Sicilies. He carried
ni.s stratagems even farther. He several times oflfcred to the
English plenipotentiaries the same Electorate of Hanover which,
a few months before, he had almost compelled Prussia to claim
as her own ; and he offered to the Elector of Hesse the princi-
pality of Fulda, which had been granted to the House of Orange,
then in strict alliance with that of Brandeburg. All these un-
derhand man«Euvres opened the eyes of the Cabinet of Berlin,
which immediately resolved to declare war. Unfortunately for
Prussia, she commenced hostilities without waiting the arrival
of the supplies which Russia owed her, in virtue of the alliance
between the two States by the treaty of PeterhofT (July 2S,
1800;) and she had to take the field against an active enemy,
whoso warlike troops were already in the heart of Germany.

General KnobelsdorfT, whom the King of Prussia had sent to
Paris, gave in the demands which were to be considered as his
ultimatum : — Bonaparte treated his propositions as extravagant
and insulting, and accordingly commenced hostilities. The
campaign was decided by the battle of Jena, or rather by two
battles which were fought on the same day (Oct. 14, 1806.)
Bonaparte in person gained the one near Jena over Prince Ho>

AwM

496

CHAPTER XI.

■\*i^

henlohe ; Marshal Davoiist gained the other near Auerstadt
over thej)ukc of Brunswick, Commander-in-chief of the Prus-
sian army. The rout was complete. For a siiort time the
troops retired without confusion. The approach of the enemy's
cavalry, however, extinguished all remains of order, and the
most precipitate dispersion of the vanquished army ensued.
About 20,000 were killed and wounded in the battle and piir-
suit ; and the prisoners formed at least nn equal number. The
scattered remains of the troops who united after the action, were
either defeated or obliged to surrender as prisoners of war. The
King, with the wreck of his aruiy, marched hack to Prussia.
Berlin, his capital, fell into the hands of the conqueror. The
carelessness, the unskilfulness, or the treachery of their com-
inanders, and the want of means of defence, were the causes
why several fortresses, and whole battalions of troops, surren-
dered after a slight resistance. There were some who were
even obliged to capitulate in spite of their bravery. At Erfurt,
Field-Marshal MellendorfT capitulated with 14,000 men (Oct.
Ifi.) Spandau fell on the same day that the enemy entered into
Berlin (Oct. 2f5.) Prince Hohenlohe, after a brave defence, ca-
pitulated at Prentzlau (Oct. 29,) with a corps originally consist-
mg of 16,000 infantry, and sixteen regiments of cavalry. Stettin
and Custrin opened their gates after a slight resistance (Nov. 1.)
At Lubec, 21,000 men, with General Blucher, laid down their
arms (Nov. 7.) Magdeburg capitulated next day with 22,000
men.

Immediately after the battle of Jena, Bonaparte took posses-
sion of the principality of Fulda. He also sent a message to the
old Duke of Brunswick, that none of his family should ever reign
after him. That prince died of the woimds he had received at
Auerstadt ; and his lifeless body was not permitted to be deposi-
ted among the asiies of his ancestors. The Elector of Hesse,
who had remained neutral, was declared an enemy to France,
and his territories seized. Bonaparte, in return, granted neu-
trality to the Elector of Saxony, whose troops had fought against
him at Jena.

The King of Prussia had tried to allay the £.torm which threat-
ened his monarchy. The Marqui« de Lucchesini and General
Zastrow entered into a negotiation with Marshal Duroc at Char-
lottenburg (Oct. 30.) Bonaparte refused to ratify the prelimi-
naries which were signed there, because the idea had occurred
to him in the meantime of exciting the Poles to insurrection.
An armistice was then signed (Nov. 16,) on conditions extremely
rigorous, by which Breslau, Glogau, Colbei^, Graudentz ana
Dantzic, were delivered up to the French. Frederic, who luid

-*»;»- rt »«iiwi J w «H iiaB»»iaJB

! i.a » a

other nenr Auerstadt

in-chief of the Prus-

or a sliort time the

proiuh of the enemy's

ns of order, and the

uished army ensued.

in the battle and pjir-

equal number. The

after the aciion, were

prisoners of war. The

ched back to Prussia.

the conqueror. The

reachery of their com-

rciice, were the causes

ions of troops, surren-

were some who were

ir bravery. At Erfurt,

vith 14,000 men (Oct.

the enemy entered into

fter a brave defence, ca-

corps orifjinally consist-

lents of cavalry. Stettin

jjht resistance (Nov. 1.)

Ilucher, laid down their

i next day with 22,000

Bonaparte took posses-
Iso sont a message to the
family should ever reign
jnds he had received at
t permitted to be deposi-
The Elector of Hesse,
cd an enemy to France,
in return, granted neu-
roops had fought against

' the itorm which threat-
Lucchesini and General
Marshal Duroc at Char-
ed to ratify the prelimi-
e the idea had occurred
[le Poles to insurrection,
on conditions extremely
[JolbeiW. Graudentz ana
ch. Frederic, who hiid

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802 — 1810.

497

resolved to throw himself on Russia, whose forces were approach-
ing in all haste, rejected that armistice. From Berlin Bona*
parte repaired to Posnania, where he concluded a treaty with
the Elector of Saxony (Dec. 11.) That prince then assumed
the title of King, joined the Confederation of the Rhine, and go*
possession of the Circle of Cotbus, belonging to Prussia. By a
treaty signed at the sRme plaf;e (Dec. 15,) the Dukes of Sax-
ony, of the race of Ernest, weie likemse received into the Con-
federation of the Rhine.

A Russian army of 90,000 men had arrived in Prussia in the
month of Novembier. Frecieric William, on his side, formed a
new army of 40,000 men. Several actions took place without
any decisive result; but after the battle of Pultusk (Dec. 26,)
where the victory was claimed both by the French and Rus-*
sians, each party retired to winter quarters.

During Bonaparte's stay at Berlin, he conceived the idea of
the Continental System ; or at least reduced its elements into
shape. The purport of this system was to ruin the commerce,
and by consequence, the prosperity of England, by excluding
from the Continent of Europe the importation not only of her
own manufactures, but the productions of her colonies ; the use
of which had become, through long habit, one of the necessaries
of life to all the nations of Europe ; and for which, moreover,
no substitute could be found in home manufactures. This chi-
merical scheme, and the Federative System, which we have
already mentioned, were the two scourges which Bonaparte in-
flicted on the Continent of Europe. The abuse, it was alleged,
which the English made of their superiority by sea, had provo-
ked Bonaparte to this measure. The right of blockade, that is,
the right of a belligerent power to station a force before a hostile
port sufficient to prevent any neutral vessel from entering, is
founded in principle. But England pretended, that if a port
were declared to be under blockade, it must be considered as
actually blockaded ; and accordingly, she had declared all the
ports between Brest and the Elbe under blockade (May 16.)
An order issued by Bonaparte, known by the name of the De-
cree of Berlin, declared the whole British Islands in a state of:
blockade, by way of reprisals (Nov. 21.) He commanded ail
British subjects to be arrested, who might be found in the coun-
tries occupied by his troops, or those oi his allies. He ordered
their property, and every article of British or colonial produce
on the Continent to be confiscated ; and excluded from his ports
all vessels which should come directly from Britain, or any of
its dependencies. The development of this system we saall
notice afterwards.

^es-

■ «»■

498

CHAPTER XI.

The repose of the armies did not continue longer than a month.

Genera fienn.-sen, who had the chief command of the Russmm

and Prussians: undertook to relieve the cities of Grauden z

DantHc and Colberg. After a number of petty engagements

SS daTm'no parti'cular notice,, tb^ campaig^ was grmina ed

bv the battle of Eylau in Prussia (i eb. 8, 1807.) .**°"»P°"«'

o?rather Davoust. was successful against the left wmg and thfl

centre of the allie;; but Lestocq, the Prussian General, having

arrived on the field of battle, near the right wmg of the Prus-

l"s which had never been engaged, marched instanly to s^-

nort the left win-T which was giving way, and snatched he vie

forv rom thJTands of Davoust. Bennigsen who was m want

of ammTnition, retired towards Koningsberg leaving Bonapane

nn the field of battle, wh ch was covered with JU.UUU ot me

Frpnch slain and 12,000 wounded. The Russians had lost

n 000 men After this carnage, Bonaparte announced that he

ild defeated the Russians, and retired behind the Passarge.

Hostilities were then suspended for some months.

"rSe month of FebrWry, negotiat ons f- Pe-V^ f J^

newed. Bonaparte, who was at Osterode, sent General Bertrand

Sh was on y a mancuvre of Bonaparte, who merely wished
o gaTn timeto repair his losses. The negotiations, accordingly,
wefe broken off. Baron Hardenberg, who had been placed by
r/S of Prussia at the helm of foreign affairs then resumed
the nroifcfofM Pitt, which had failed in 1805, because Count
Hau^wS the former minister, had dissuaded Frederic Wi ham
"om ending into the alliance. The basis of a new coalition
waTlaS by fhe convention of Bartenstein, between R"«|'a and
Prussia ((pril 21,) in which Austria, Great Britain, Sweden
rnTSLma'rk'we;; invited to join. The --ej;/^';-"-;:
Son with the King of Sweden was likewise signed at Barten
st^nn consequence of which Prussia promised to send a body
oftroops intokmerania. Austria ^vas disposed to enter imo
this nroiect, but before coming to a decision, she tried the
chem if l;ediation ; and in the month of M'^jch, jw pro-
nosals for peace were made, which proved unsuccessful. Sup-
E wcreVomised to Prussia by a convenl.ou signed at Lon-
5on ( W 27,) but which a change of circumstances prevented

^' WhUe^hTSes continued in a kin<l of inaction Marshal
Lefebvre pre3sed the siege of Dantzic. After several attempU

^■iL^-

vr.Kioo IX. A. D. 18C2— 1810.

499

onger than a month,
nand of the Russians

ities of Graudeniz

petty engagements
aign was terminated

1807.) Bonaparte,
he left wing and the
;ian General, having
ht wing of the Prus-
hed instantly to sup-
ind snatched the vic-
en, who was in want
g, leaving Bonaparte

with 30,000 of the
e Russians had lost
•te announced that he
)ehind the Passarge.
months.

s for peace were re-
sent General Bertrand

to detach him from
lis proposal, some de-
m armistice ; but the

I at Memel, saw that
', who merely wished
jotiations, accordingly,
had been placed by
n affairs, then resumed

II 1805, because Count
ided Frederic William
sis of a new coalition
1, between Russia and
Jreat Britain, Sweden
e same day a conven-
I'ise signed at Barten-
romised to send a body
disposed to enter into
ecision, she tried the
h of March, new pro-
d unsuccessful. Sup-
f^onlion signed at Lon-
rcumstances prevented

A of inartion, Marshal
After several attempta

to blockade the place. General Kulkrcuth obtained a capitulation
on very honourable terms (May 24.) Neis.se, Kozel and Glatz,
likewise capitulated in course of the following month. These two
latter places were not to be restored by the French. Hostilities
recommenced in the month of June. Skirmishes were daily
taking place, until the battle of Friedland decided the campaign
(June 14.) General Bennigsen defeated the divisions of Lan-
nes and Mortier, when the Rus.sians, thinking the Irattle was
gained as they no longer saw the enemy, slackened their exer-
tions ; but towards the evening Bonaparte arrived on the field
of battle with guides, and the corps of Mar.shals Ney and Vic-
tor ; and taking advantage of the confusion which appeared in
the Russian army, he put them completely to the rout. In
consequence of this defeat, Koningslierg opened her gates to the
conqueror. The Russian and Prussian armies passed the Nie-
men (June 18 ;) and ne.\t day Bonaparte entered Tilsit.

Meantime the Cabinet of Vienno, with whom negotiations,
wore still carrying on to obtain their accession to the convention
of Bartenstein, had sent General Stutterheim to the head-quar-
ters of the two monarchs, with power to sign a defensive al-
but the war had then recommenced with new vigour.

lance :

There was a party in both Cabinets, and even among the allied
Generals, who wished to prevent this alliance ; and this party
succeeded in their designs. A Russian General appeared at
Tilsit on the part of Bennigsen to negotiate an armistice, which
was concluded on the spot (June 21,) without including the
Prussian army. Four days after, an interview took place be-
tween Alexander and Napoleon, on the invitation of the latter,
who wished to exert all his address to seduce the Northern Au-
tocrat from the alliance into which he had entered. This me-
morable interview took place on a raft in the middle of the river
Niemen. Each prince, accompanied by five generals and cour-
tiers, reached the raft from the opposite bank at the same mo-
ment, and embraced each other with all the appearance of per-
fect cordiality. They conversed for two hours in a pavilion,
and the ambitious ruler of France displayed in such glowing
colours the joys of arbitrary power and unlimited dominion, and
held out such an attractive prospect of the advantages which he
might derive from a union of councils and co-operation, that
Alexander listened with pleasure to his new adviser, and was
ready to rush into a new alliance. On the same day, Field-
Marshal Kalkreuth signed an armistice on the part of Prussia.
The next day he had a second interview, at which the King
of Prussia assisted, who, when he objected to some parts of the
proposed treaty, wan insulted with a hint of his not being enti-

jj^i

500

CIUFTER XI.

tied 10 the honour of consultation, as he had been so couipletcly
conquered. It was on this occasion that Bonaparte demanded
that the Emperor Alexander should dismiss his minister Baron
Budberg, and the king of Prussia Baron Hardenberg. The Prince
Kourakin, and Count de Goltz were substituted in their place.

The treaty with Russia was first signed (July 7.) The Em-
peror A''>xander obtained from Bonaparte the spoliation of his
former ally, or according to the form which was given to it in
that transaction, That the King of Prussia should recover one
half of his estates. The provinces which Prussia had obtained
by the second and third division of Poland were ceded to the
King of Saxony, under the title of the Dutchy of Warsaw,
with the exception of the fortress of Graudentz, which remained
in the possession of Prussia, and the city of Dantzic, which was
to regain its independence, with the exception of the department
of Bialystock which was annexed to the Russian Empire. Alex-
ander acknowledged the Kings created by Bonaparte, including
the King of Westphalia. He likewise acknowledged the Con-
federation of the Rhine, and ceded to Bonaparte the Seignory of
Jever, which he inherited from his mother. He promised to
withdraw his troops from Moldavia and Wallachia; and to make
common cause with Bonaparte against England, should the lat-
ter refuse to make peace by submitting to the principles of free
commerce by sea. It appears, moreover, by certain secret arti-
cles, that Alexander promised to surrender to Bonaparte the
Bocca di Cattaro, and the isles of the Ionian Republic ; which
took place in the month of August following. The peace which
was signed between Russia and Bonaparte two days after (July
9,) included nearly the same stipulations.

A special convention was required for executing the articles
of the treaty, which related to the evacuation of the States of the
King of Prussia. This was negotiated and signed at Konings-
berg (July 12,) with unpardonable precipitancy, by Field-Marshal
Kalkreuth, who forgot to insert certain stipulations so essential
and so obvious, that it must have appeared to him superfluous
to mention them. Bonaparte took advantage of these omissions
to ruin the provinces which were left in possession of Prussia.
It may be justly said, that the convention of Koningsberg did
nearly as much mischief to Prussia as the peace of Tilsit itself.
It occasioned the necessity of signing a series of subsequent con-
ventions, by each of which Prussia had to submit to some new
sacrifice. Some of the more important of these we shall after-
nrards have occasion to mention.

The' King of Sweden, who was attacked in Pomerania by
Marahnl M ortier, had concluded an> armistice at Schlalkorv

PKKIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

501

been so coiiipletely
>naparte demanded
his minister Baron
nberg. The Prince
uted in their place,
"uly 7.) The Em-
spoliation of his
was given to it in
I should recover one
russia had obtained
were ceded to the
Dutchy of Warsaw,
ntz, which remained
Dantzic, which was
on of the department
isian Empire. Alex-
Bonaparte, including
nowledged the Con-
jarte the Seignory of
er. He promised to
illachin ; and to make
gland, should the lat-
^he principles of free
by certain secret arti-
ler to Bonaparte the
lian Republic ; which
ig. The peace which
B two days after (July

executing the articles
on of the Slates of the
id signed at Konings-
ncy, by Field-Marshal
pulations so essential
jd to him superfluous
age of these omissions
possession of Prussia.
n of Koningsberg did
I peace of Tilsit itself,
•ies of subsequent con-
o submit to some new
f these we shall after*

;ked in Pomerania by
nistice at Schlalkorv

(April 18.) Gustavus Adolphus IV. projected an attack on Mar-
shal Brune, while a body of 10,000 Prussians were to make a
descent for blockading Colberg. To carry this project into exe-
cution, he was so eager to declare against the armistice, that, on
the signature of the peace of Tilsit, he found himself alone under
arms, and exposing his troops to great danger. This unseason-
able zeal obliged him to evacuate Stralsund and the whole of
Pomerania (Sept. 7.)

In erecting the Dutchy of Warsaw, Bonaparte had given it a
constitution modelled after that of France, without paying atten-
tion to the difference of manners, customs, and localities of the
inhabitants. The King of Saxony wos put in possession of that
State ; but the new dutchy was nothing else than a province of
the French Empire. The city of Dantzic was again ilunged
into a state of the most abject dependence ; and until the yeai
1814, it remained under the o-ders of a Governor-general ap-

Eointed by the French. The throne of Westphalia was destined
y Bonaparte for his younger brother Jerome. That monarchy
was composed of the greater part of those provinces ceded by
the King of Prussia ; of nearly all the estates of the Elector ol
Hesse and the Duke of Brunswick ; of a district belonging to the
Electorate of Hanover ; of the principality of Corvey, and the
county of Rittberg — containing in all about two millions of in-
habitants. Only a small part of this kingdom was situated in
Westphalia ; and it is not known by what chance the name ol
that country was selected for the new monarchy. Deputies from
that kingdom were summoned to Paris, where they received
from the hands of Bonaparte a constitutional charter (Nov. 16,)
in the construction of which they had never once been consulted.
As to the other districts which Bonaparte had taken possession
of in Germany, or of which he had deprived their rightful sove-
reigns, viz. the Electorate of Hanover, the principalities of Erfurt.
Fulda, Baireuth, and Munster, with the counties of Catzeneln-
bogen and Hanau, they were governed entirely to his own inter-
est, and disposed of at his convenience.

While the armies of Bonaparte were occupied in Prussia,
Spain formed the resolution of shaking off the yoke which the
Emperor of France had imposed upon her. Charles IV. soli-
cited privately the mediation of the Emperor Alexander, to bring
about a pence with England. By a proclamation of October
30th 1806, a levy of 40,000 men was ordered for the defence ol
the country, without mentioning against what enemy. This
imprudent step, which they had not courage to prosecute, ruined
Spain. At the commencement of 1807, a French army was as-
sembled in the vicinity of Bayonne. A trap was laid for Gharlea

it,-

S ■■* ''

.ii

5oa

CHAPTER XI.

IV : and he had the misfortune to fall into it. According to a
on -ention signed at Fountainbleau (Oct. 27,) between h.s plem-
Dotentiarv and that of Bonaparte, for the partition of Portugal,
K k ngdom was to be divided into three lots. The most north-
X parf was destined for the King of Etruria (who w„s to sur-
render up Tuscany to Bonaparte,) and to be called the kinadom
of Northern Lusitania. The southern part, comprising A.ga. ves,
was to form a principality for Don Manuel G«J«y- Jhe p o-
vinces in the middle part were to be disposed of at the general
peace, when the King of Spain was to assume the title of hm-
peror of the two Americas.

Immediately after the signing of this treaty, Bonaparte an-
nounced to the Queen-Dowager of Etruria, who was Regent for
her son Louis II., that the kingdom no longer be onged to him;
and that a new destiny awaited him in Spain. In course of a
few days, the French troops occupied Tuscany. Mana Louisa
resigned the government, and retired to Madrid AH this took
place after Bonaparte had obtained orders that the 15,000 Span
lards, who were in Etruria, should be sent to the islands of

^ ATcree of the French Senate, of August 18th 1807, though
not published till a month after, suppressed the Tribunate, and
introduced other changes, intended to extinguish all traces of the
Republic. Bv a treaty signed at Fountainbleau, Bonaparte made
over to his brother Louis, the principality of East Friesland and
the territory of Jever, in lieu of the city and port of Flushing.

In terms of the treaty of the 27th October, 30,000 French
troops, under the command of Junot crossed the Pyrenees in
two divisions ; and took possession of Pampeluna, St. Sebastians,
Figu^ras, and Barcelona. The two divisions united again at
Salamanca, and being reinforced by 13,000 Spaniards they
marched upon Li.bon ; while 40,000 others assembled at Bay-
onne, under the pretence of supporting their companions if it
were necessary, ^he Prince Regent of Portugal embarked with
all his treasures (Nov. 29,) and departed for Brazil. The whole
of Portugal was taken possession of; and General Junot pro-
claimed that the Hou:e of Braganza had ceased to reign in bu-
rope ; but the French never executed their scheme of partition.
We have already observed, what progress the Federative
system of the French Empire had made in 1807 by the founda-
tion of the kingdom of Westphalia and the dutchy of Warsaw,
and by the occupation of Portugal ; and we shall next advert to
the measures adopted during the same year by Bonaparte, for
consolidating the Continental system, and by Great Bft"'" /or
eounleracting its effects. An order was issued by the British

t. According to a
between his pleni-
tition of Portugal,
The most north-
Sa, (who was to sur-
Icalled the kingdom
mprising Algaives,
Godoy. The pro-
id of at the general
no the title of Em-

saty, Bonaparte an-
who was Regent for
er belonged to him;
in. In course of a
my. Maria Louisa
drid. All this took
lat the 15,000 Span
It to the islands of

it 18th 1807, though
the Tribunate, and
■ui.sh all traces of tiie
sau, Bonaparte made
f East Friesland and
port of Flushing,
.ber, 30,000 French
sed the Pyrenees in
eluna, St. Sebastians,
ons united again at
00 Spaniards, they
s assembled at Bay-
eir companions if it
ugal embarked with
Brazil. The whole
General Junot pro-
ased to reign in Eu-
scheme of partition.
ress the Federative
1807, by the founda-
dutchy of Warsaw,
shall next advert to
ir by Bonaparte, for
)y Great Britain for
isued by the British

KKIOD IX. A. 0. 1802— ISIO.

508

Cabinet (Jan. 7,) declaring that no neutral vesse. would be per-
mitted to trade with any port belonging to France or her allies,
or occupied by their troops, or under their dependence. A de-
cree, published at Warsaw (Jan. 25,) ordered the confiscation
of all English merchandise in the Hanseatic towns, which had
been occupied by the order of Bonaparte. An order of the Brit-
ish Cabinet (March 11,) again prescribed a rigorous blockade of
the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems. A declara-
tion was made by Bonaparte (Oct. 14,) in presence of the foreign
ambassadors at Fountainbleau, purporting that he would permit
no connexion, either commercial or diplomatic, between the
Continental powers and England. An order of the British
Cabinet (Nov. 11,) declared, that all the ports and places in
France, and the countries in alliance with them, or any other
country at war with England, as well as all other ports and
places in Europe where the British flag was excluded, though
not actually at war with Great Britain ; and all other ports and
places of the colonies belonging to her enemies, should hence
forth be subjected to the same restrictions as if they were really
under blockade ; and, consequently, that the vessels destined
for these ports should be subjected to examination by the British
cruisers ; and required to stop at a British station, and pay a
duly proportioned to the value of the cargo. Another order of
the British Cabinet (Nov. 25,) modified the preceding declara-
tion in favour of neutral vessels, which should come to discharge
either English merchandise or Colonial produce in the British
ports. A decree of the 17th December, called the decree of
Milan, because it was issued at that place, declared, that all
ships which should be searched by a British vessel, or pay any
tax whatever at the requisition of the English Government,
should be denationalized, and regarded as English property ; and
having thus forfeited their original and national rights, they
might be lawfully captured wherever found. The same decree
declared the British Isles to be in a state of blociiade both by sea
and land.

Having thus established the Continental system, Bonaparte
used every endeavour to make all the Continental Powers ac-
cede to it. Prussia and Russia adhered to it, after the peace of
Tilsit. Denmark soon entered into this French system. Spain
acceded to it (Jan. 8,) Austria (Feb. 18, 1808,) and Sweden
(Jan. 6, 1810 ;) so that, for some years, the Continent of Eu-
rope had no other medium of communication with England than
by way of Constantinople. There was one prince in Christen-
dom, who refused his accession to the Continental system, and
that was Pius VII. This sovereign Pontiff declared, that an

.! :■- r

504

CHAPTER ».

alliance which prohibited all intercourse with a nation from
whom they had suflcred no grievance, was contrarv to religion.
In order to punish his Holiness for this resistance, &Dneral Miol-
lis had orders to occupy Rome (Feb. 2, 1808.) This was the
commencement of a series of aggressions and attacks, by which
Bonaparte vainly hoped to bend that great personage, lo
eratify his resentment, he stripped the States of the th«rch, by
a decree issued at St. Cloud (April 2,) of the provinces of Urbino,
Ancona, Macerata and Camerino, which were annexed to the
kingdom of Italy.

In order to add lustre to his crown, and to attach his servants
to him by the ties of interest, Bonaparte resolved, not to re-
store the noblesse— though there was no reason known why he
should not— but to create titles of nobility which should pass
ni hereditary succession to their descendants. These title*
were those of Princes, Dukes, Counts, Barons, and Chevaliers
or Knights. They were constituted by an Imperial statute,
which he transmitted to the Senate ; for the decrees of the Se-
nate were seldom used, except in declaring the union of territo-
ries, or ordering levies of conscripts. . . , • i

The spoliation of the Church appeared but a trivial violence
compared with that masterpiece of intrigue and cunning by
which the House of Bourbon was deprived of the throne ol
Spain. The second French army formed at Bayonne, passed
the Pyrenees about the beginning of the year, under the com-
mand of Joachim Murat, and advanced slowly as if it only
waited an order to seize the capital. A popular insurrection
broke out at Madrid, directed against Godoy, the Prince of
Peace • and Charles IV., who, from the commencement of his
reign, had been disgusted with state affairs, abdicated the crown
in favour of his son, the Prince of Asturias (March 19, 1808,)
who assumed the title of Ferdinand VII. The intrigues of the
Queen-molher, who was unwilling to quit the throne, and the
plots concerted by Murat, soon embroiled the R«yal Jnmi'y"'
disputes. The French troops entered Madrid (Mar. 23.) la-
king advantage of the inexperience of the young monarch, they
inveigled him into an interview with Bonaparte at Bayonne,
where Charles IV. and his Queen, allured by promises of fa-
vour and friendship, likewise presented themselves. This weak
prince there retracted his abdication, and ceded his dominions
over to Bonaparte by a formal treaty (May 5.) By threatening
Ferdinand VII. with death, they extorted from him a similar de-
claration (May 10.) Charles fV. his Queen, and the Prince of
Peace were conveyed to Compeigne, and afterwards lo Mar-
seilles.

'-^mv-^

vith a nation from
ontrary to religion.

nnre, General Miol-
«.) This wns the
d attacks, by which
at personage. To
8 of the Church, by

provinces of Urbino,

rere annexed to the

) attach his servants
resolved, not to re-
ason known why he
which should pass
ants. These titles
rons, and Chevaliers
an Imperial statute,
le decrees of the Se-
the union of terrilo-

ut a trivial violence
ue and cunning by
'ed of the throne of
at Bayonne, passed
I'ear, under the corn-
slowly as if it only
popular insurrection
adoy, the Prince of
ommencement of his
, abdicated the crown
IS (March 19, 1808,)
The intrigues of the
the throne, and the
the Royal family in
irid (Mar. 23.) Ta-
yroung monarch, they
naparte at Bayonne,
ed by promises of fa-
nselves. This weak
ceded his dominions
5.) By threatening
om him a similar de-
m, and the Prince of
1 after^vards to Mar-

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1902- 1810.

600

Ferdinand VII. nnd his brothers were imprisoned in the cas-
tle of ValcMicny. Bonnpartt- conforn-rl the throne of Spain on
his brother Joseph (June'),) who wiis tli«<ii King of Naples. A
S|miiisti Junta, assembled nl Baymuie, reri'ivpd a constitution
Iroin the hands of Napoleon. On oi)tniiiiiig the crown of Spain,
Joseph made over the kirif,'dotn of Naples to his brother, who in
his turn resigned it to Miirnt, by a treaty concluded at Bnyonne.
Murat then gave up the dutchies of Clevos and Berg.

Bonaparte found himself deceived as to the character of the
Spanish nation, when he supposed they would tolerate this out-
rage with impunity. A tumult of the inhabitants of Madrid
wns quelled by Murat, who ordered his troops to fire upon the
crowd (May 2,) when upwards of 1000 people lost their lives.
Towards the end of the same month, a general insurrection
broke out in all those parts of Spain not occupied by the enemy.
This wos a great annoyance to Bonaparte during the rest of his
reign, and prevented him from subduing that peninsula. It
served as an example nnd encouragement to other nations to
shake off his yoke. The Portuguese rose, in imitation of their
neighbour.^. The English sent supplies to both nations ; and
it was beyond the Pyrenees that Bonaparte experienced those
first disasters which were the harbingers of his downfall.

One event, more remarkable for the pomp with which it was
accompanied, than for the consequences which it produced,
was the interview which took place at Erfurt (Sept. 27,) be-
tween the Emperor Alexander nnd Bonaparte. What negotia-
tions might have been agitated there, are not known with cer-
tainty ; but publicity has been given to the measures concerted
in common between Bonaporte and Alexander for making over-
tures of peace to England, although they must have foreseen
that the attempt would prove fruitless. From that time an in-
timate friendship subsisted for two years between the Courts of
Russia and France.

The inconsiderate haste with which Field-Marshal Kalkreuth
had concluded the convention of Koningsberg, and the defects
or omissions of that act, furnished the agents of Bonaparte with
numerous pretexts for oppressing the Prussian States by per-
petual aggressions ; and for continuing not only to occupy the
country, but to impose taxes for the service of France, without
deducting their amount from the usual contribution which that
kingdom had to pay. To extricate themselves from so harassing
a situation. Prince William, the King's brother, who had been
sent to Paris to negotiate for the evacuation of Prussia, signed
a convention there (Sept. 8,) by which the King engaged to
pay, at stated terms, the sum of 140 000,000 francs. The Em

i>'*

iif

'iw*

CnAPTBR Xt.

606

peror Alexatuler, (UirinR the interview of Erfurt, got .his miir
reduced to or.e hundriHl .u.d twn.ty .nillums. In n.nseauenc.
oi this, a new convention wtu signed at Berlin (iNov. J,) at-
cordinR to which, St.-ttin. Cu«trin. and (ihfrm, were to renm.n
in the hands of the French, as s.vuriiy for puyinenl of the sli-
puhited sun. ; the rest of the Pru**iun states were evacuated.

Austria was on the point of entering into the fourth coalition,
when the peace of Tilsit was concluded. From that inou.ent
the Cahinel of Vienna resolved to prepare for war by s ow and
successive operations, which inijrht appear to be merely mea-
suresof precaution ; more especially by orRanizin<,' her armies
an better principles, and trainin- all the citizens to arms, by the
institution of a militia called Li>,dtv^:hr, that they mi^'ht be in
condition to act on the spur of the moment. The Arch, uke
Charles, who was appointed Generalissimo, supenntendeil all
these preparations, and succeeded in reviving the courage of the
nation. Although these armaments could not escape the notice
of the French agents, and although in the course of the year
180S, and especially in the beginning of the year 1&U9, they
had several times asked for explanations on this subject, never-
theless. Count Sladion who was at the head of the depiulment
for foreign aaiiirs, and Count .Metlernich the Austrian minister
at Paris, dissembled so well, that Bonaparte never dreamt of
war till it was on the very point of breaking out. Ihe time
chosen for this was when the French armies were occupied in
Spain and Portugal.

Reasons— or it may be rather said pretexts— were not want-
ing to Austria; for undoubtedly her true motive was, to raise
herself from that state of abasement into which she had sunk.
Violations innumerable of the peace of Presburg, the organiz-
ing of the Confederation of the Rhine, the compelling her to
accede to the Continental System, and the spoliation of the
Bourbons in Spain, were causes more than sufTicient to justity
her having recourse to arms. The war which Austria under-
took in 1809, has been called the war of the fifth coalition. It
is true that Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, and the King of
Sicily, were her allies ; but, with the exception of the descent
which the English made on Zealand, she had to support alone
\he whole burden of the war. On opening the campaign, she
made an appeal to the German nation, which was answered by
the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, by a declara-
tion of war. ^ . u • .
The-Austrians had divided their forces uito three armies ,
iwo hundred and twenty thousand men, under the Archduke
Charles, were destined to act in Germany; the Archduke I'er-

Erfurt, goi (his suit
)iiH. Ill coiisequen':*
Berlin (Nov. 3.) ac
nfjiiu, wero to rciiiiiin
r payment of the sti-
es were evacuiitcd.
the fourth coalition,
From that inouietit
n for war by slow uiid
•iir to he merely iiieo-
(ir<(ani/iiig her armies
'iti/ens to arms, by the
that they mij,'ht be in
iient. The Archduke
mo, superintended all
ving the courage of the
d not escape the notice
ihe course of the year
f the year 1809, tiiey
on this subject, never-
liead of the depnrlment
1 the Au.strian minister
iparto never dreamt of
■aking out. The time
niiies were occupied in

!texts — were not want-
ue motive was, to raise

which she had sunk.
Presburg, the organiz-
, the compelling her to

1 the spoliation of the
lan sufFicien'. to justify
■ which Austria under-
f the fifth coalition. It
pain, and the King of
cception of the descent
e had to support alone
ling the campaign, she
vhich was answered by
I Saxony, by a declara-

ces into three armies ;
1, under the Archduke
ny ; the Archduke For-

MRioD IX. ». P. 1802—1810.

r>07

dinand of Est/% with thirty-six thousand men, wa4 to penetrate
through the dutchy of Warsow into Prussia, where he expected
10 1k' joined by the troops of thot country. The Arcndukt)
John, with eighty thousand men, was to enter Italy. The
campaign was op»'iied, on the part of the Austrians, by the in-
vasion of Bavaria (April 10, 1809.) Bonaparte at first beat the
Archduke Louis and General Miller, who commanded two divi-
sions, at Abensberg (April 20,) and thus cut them otf from the
grand army under the Archduke Charles. The latter was him-
self defeated at Eckmiihl and Ratisbon, three days after, and
ertectcd his retreat along the left bank of the Danube., Bona
parte then pursued Hiller, who was defeated at Eberslwrg (May
3,) and retired to Kreins, on the left bank of the Danube. Vi-
enna in consoijiience was left defenceless, and surrendered by
capitulation (May 13.) It was there that Boiia|)arte passed. the
Danube, and fought with the Archduke ut EberdsorlF, Aspern
and Essling, two most sanguinary engagements (May 21 — 22,)
in which the French lost 30,000 men. He then retired to the
Isle of Lobau, where his army, cut off from provisions and
supplies, pas.sed forty-eight hours in great distress, until they
had succeeded in reconstructing the bridges which the floods o(
the Danube had carried away. In Italy the Archduke John
had defeated Eugene Beauharnais, who commanded the French
army, at Sa(,'ile ; but being informed of the defeat at Ratisbon.
he commenced his retreat, and was defeated near the Piave
(May 8,) after which he retired on the Kaab, where he was
again defeated (June 14.) Beauharnais then joined the army
of Napoleon. The Archduke Ferdinand took possession of
Warsaw, and marched as far as Thorn, where he took from the
Prussians one hundred pieces of cannon. But an insurrection
which happened in the rear of his army, obliged him to retreat,
when the Polish troops took possession of Cracow (July 14.)

About the beginning of July, Bonaparte pas.sed over to the
left bank of the Rhine. The battle of EnzersdorflT, where Ber-
nadotte and the Saxons distinguished themselves, was bloody,
but not decisive : next day (July 6,) the Archduke Charles was
defeated at Wagram, and retreated in good order into Moravia.
An armistice wos then concluded near Znaym (July 12,) c«i
conditions very oppressive for Austria. But the negotiations
for peace were long protracted ; as both parties were waiting the
result of an expedition which the English had made to Zealand ;
and as Austria hoped that Prussia, and perhaps even Russia,
would declare in her favour.

The inhabitants of the Tyrol ; who were very mnch attached
to the House of Austria, from whom they had been separated at

tiif

i(i*'

(In''

no8

CHAPTBR XI.

ihe |..ri.T of Proshnrsr, hml tnkfi. up arms unacr the conduct of
a.. i!mk...per. nun.-ul lloir-r. By iho urnu.tu-e of /'"-^y'"; A"-
•riu wns cmiipoll-.l i.. .ibatulon ihis l.r.ivo people, whom th« Bu-
varin.is an.l the Fn-nch loKollier Im.l ^real .litlictiUy in reducing

Id submission. .... •• • i u.. .».„

VVoomnot puss in silence the bol.l expedition made by the
Duke of Bruiiiwick, the son and heir of hiin who had command-
ed at Jena. At the head of a body of volunteers which he had
forme<t in Boh-Mnia, ho had entered Saxony when the armistice
was concluded. Not beinff disposed to a- cede to it, he traversed
the dutchy of Brunswick and the whole of Lower Saxony; beat
the Westnhalian General Rewbel, who had attempted to stop
his march ; and reached the mouth of the Elbe in safety, where
he found transports which took him and his army on board, and
ronveved them to Enffland. . ,

An Enirlish fleet, commanded by Sir Richard Strachan, with
thirty-eight thousand" troops, under the command of the barl ol
Chatham, the brother of Mr. Pitt, was despotched to Zealand,
with the intent of destroying the shipping, dockyards, and arse-
nals at Antwern and Flushing, and for occut.ying the Island o
Walcheren. '^hey landed in that Island (July 30, o which
thev took possession, and made themselves masters of Flushing,
after a siege of fifteen days. But Lord Chatham fc.un.l it im-
possible to execute his commission with regard to Anlwrrp, on
account of the activity of Marshal Bernadotte, ^vho had formed
there an army of 35,000 men. The whole expedition ^yas badly
conducted, and in about four months Lord Chatham relumed to
England. The English destroyed the fortifications of b lushing,
which they were unable to retain. . • .u- .„„,

Russia, as the ally of France, likewise took part in this war
A body of troops, commanded by Prince Gahtzin, had entered
into Galicia; but it was merely a display, by which Alexander
meant to fulfil an engagement that he had contracted with re-
luttance. The peace between Austria and France was signed
at Schoenbrunn (Oct. 14, 1809,) which regulated the terntorial
cessions niade by the former to Bonaparte, the King of Saxony
and the Emperor of Russia. The very day on which the peace
was signed, Bonaparte united the territories which had been
ceded to him directly into a single State, under the name of the
lUyrian Provinces, which he governed on his own separate ac
count, without annexing them to France.

A de^ee of the Senate, of the 2d March 1809, erected the
government general of the Tuscan departments into a grand
dignity of the Empire, to be conferred on a Princess of the Im-
perial blood, under the title of Grand Dutchess. This lady was

)

Is urulcr tho conduct of
liiNtice of Ztmytn. .\n»-
pt'onle, whom th« Bu-
ilt dimrulty in reJufinu

xpcilition made by the

liin who had commund-

J)lunloera which he had

)ny when the armistice

i-edc to it, he traversed

f Lower Saxony ; beat

hnd attempted to stop

e Elbe in safety, where

liis army on board, and

Richard Strachan, with

ommand of the Ear! of

Jcspatched to Zealand,

g, dockyards, and arse-

occupyinjj the Island of

nd (July '30,) of which

'es masters of Flushing,

Chatham found it im-

1 regard to Antwerp, on

ladotte, who had formed

ole expedition was badly

rd Chatham returned to

srtifications of Flushing,

ie took part in this war.
e Galitzin, had entered
ly, by which Alexander
had contracted with re-
and France was signed
regulated the territorial
rte, the King of Saxony
day on which the peace
-itories which had been
, under the name of the
on his own separate ac-

[arch 1809, erected the
partments into a grand
ti a Princess of the Im-
itchess. This lady was

riiKioD IX. A. I). 1802—1910,

600

iVIadnm Eliza Bacciochi, Princess of Lurca and Piombino, who
was next day decorated with tlir Arch-ducal tiiic On the sumo
day, Napoleon cedeil ihe Urund Dutchy nf Uvr;^ to his nephew,
the son of the King of ilollund ; taking the government on hiu)-
self during the minority of that child.

No outrage had been able to overcome the |)erseveram'o cf
Pius VII. Bonaparte published a decree at Sclioeidtrutin (Mny
n,)by which the States of the Pope were annexed to the Frencfi
Empire, and the city of Rome <lci'lared a free Imperial city
The union of the States did take place; i)nt Home had no ap-
pearance of a free city. VV^lien tho decree was put in execution
(June 11,) the Pope published a Bullof exconnniniicatioii against
Bonaparte and his adherents, counsellors, and coadjutors. From
ihut moment the venerable captive was more closely imprisoned.
On the night of the 5th of July, ho was forcibly removed from
Rome by order of Napoleon, and transferred to Grenoble, and
thence to Savona, where he was detained three years under
rigorous supervision.

Tho year 1809 proved disastrous for the French arms by sea.
The captain of an English vessel, and Manjues, a Portuguese
colonel, took possession of the Island of Cayenne and French
Guiana (Jan. 12.) Lieutenaiit-General Bcckwith and Rear-Ad-
miral Cochrane took Mnriinico by capitulation (Feb. 12.) Ad-
miral Gambler and Lord Cochrane destroyed a French fleet,
commanded by the Vice-Admirnls Villaumez and L'Allcmand
(April 11,) in Basque Roads, by means of Congreve rockets.
The French fort of Senegal fell mto the hands of the English in
the month of June following. General Carmichael, and a body
of Spaniards who had arrived from Portorico, expelled the French
from St. Domingo (July 7.) Admiral Collingwood and General
Oswald took possession of the Ionian Islands (Oct. S.)

Bonaparte had now arrived at the summit of his grandeur,
but Providence had denied him a family by his wife Josephine
Tascher de la Pagerie. With the consent of both parties, a de-
cree of the Senate pronounced the dissolution of that marriage
(Dec. 16 ;) which the ecclesiastical court of Paris conlirmed.
Another decree of the Senate (Feb. 17, 1810,) conferred on the
eldest son of the French Emperor the title of King of Rome ;
ind ordained, that the Emperor of the French should be crowned
a second time at Rotne within the ten first years of his reign.
Bonaparte soon after (April 1,) espoused the Arch-dutchesa Ma-
ria Louisa, eldest daughter of the Emperor of Austria.

By a treaty of peace concluded at Paris, between Bonaparte
and Charlea XIIl. of Sweden, this latter prince regained posses-
sion of Swedish Pomerania on condition of acceding to the Con

■w

610

CHAPTER XI.

t>*

,tl,..

tinentnl system, though under certain modifiitnlions. Had Charles
executed this engagement, his kingdom would have been ruined
beyond resource. The part of the Hanoverian States belonging
to the King of England which Bonaparte had still reserved in
his own possession, was ceded by a treaty concluded at Paris
(Jan. 14,) to his brother Jerome, to be incorporated with the
kingdom of Westphalia. Besides the dutchy of Lauenberg,
Bonaparte reserved to himself a landed revenue of four millions
five hundred and fifty-nine thousand francs, for bestowing in
legacies and endowments.

Louis Bonaparte had reluctantly accepted the crown of Hol-
land ; but from the moment he had placed it on his head, he de-
voted himself to the interests of the country; and resisted, as
far as prudence would allow, the arbitrary orders of his brother,
when he judged them prejudicial to the welfare of Holland.
This gave rise to frequent broils, accompanied sometimes with
threats. Bonaparte reproached the Dutch Government, more
especially for not earnestly and rigorously enforcing the Con-
tinental system, so pernicious to their commerce. At the be-
ginning of the year 1910, things had come to such a state, that
it was expected Napoleon would cancel the kingdom of Holland
from the list of European States. To avert this calamity, Louis
signed a treaty at Paris (March 16,) by which a body of 12,000
Dutch and 6000 French were to be stationed at the mouths of
all the rivers, to protect the French revenue-officers who were
superintending the execution of Bonaparte's orders. Louis
ceded to him Dutch Brabant, Zealand, and a part of Gueldres.
of which the Waal was henceforth to form the frontier. In vain
did that excellent man hope, by so great a sacrifice, to repur-
chase the independence of his kingdom. Under pretext of cer-
tain insults which the French agents had received at the hands
of this exasperated people, Bonaparte sent a French army to
occupy the whole country. Then Louis resigned a crown
which he could no longer wear with honour ; he abdicated in
favour of his son (July 3.) But Napoleon, indignant at a mea-
sure on which he had not been consulted, annexed the kingdom
of Holland to the French Empire, by a decree dated at Kam-
bouillet (July 9.)

Some months afterwards, the Republic of Valais, which, since
the year 1802, had formed an independent State, was united to
the French Empire by a decree of Bonaparte (Nov. 12.) But
the most important of his usurpations in 1810, and that which
was instrumental in working his downfall, wus the union of the
H.unseatic countries situated on the coasts of the North Sea, viz.
certain districts of W:;stphalia, and the Grand Dutchy of Berg

"ERIOD IX. A. D. 1S02— 18J0.

511

lions. Hrtd Charles
I have been ruined
n States belonging
id still reserved in
concluded at Paris
>rporated with the
;hy of Lauenberg,
lie of four millions
, for bestowing in

the crown of Hol-
)n his head, he de-
; and resisted, as
lers of his brother,
eifare of Holland,
d sometimes with
Government, more
enforcing the Con-
nerce. At the be-
) such a state, thai
ingdom of Holland
his calamity, Louis
1 a body of 12,000
d at the mouths of
-officers who were
!'s orders. Louis

part of Gueldres.

frontier. In vain
lacrifice, to repur-
ider pretext of cer
eived at the hands
a French army to
resigned a crown

; he abdicated in
ndignant at a mea-
lexed the kingdom
se dated at Kam-

/^alais, which, since
tale, was united to
> (Nov. 12.) But
10, and that which
i»s the union of the
he North Sea, viz.
d Dutchy of Berg

some possession.! of the princes of Salm-Salm, and Saki-Kyr-
burg, part of the dutchy of Oldenburg, the free cities of Bremen
and Hamburg, as well as the citv of Lubcc and the duti>hy of
Lauenburg. By a decree of the Senate (Dec. 13,) these places
were declared united to France ; the necessity of which Bona-
parte had stated in a message addressed to these pliant and sub-
missive bodies.

France still retained possession of Guadaloupe, the Isle of
Bourbon, and the Mauritius. The year 1810, in which the
greatness of Bonaparte in Europe reached its summit, deprived
him of these possessions. General Beckwith and Admiral
Cochrane, attacked and seized Guadaloupe. An expedition
sent by Lord Minto, the English Governor-General in India
and a thousand men from the Cape, reduced the Isle of B.. ur-
bon (July 7,) and that of the Mauritius some months after.

It will now be necessary to point out some of the modifica-
tions wlich the Continental system underwent. The English
had shov n some disposition to put an end to that unnatural stale
of commerce which preceding measures had established. They
first modified the Orders of 1807 regarding America; so that
the Americans were permitted, under certain conditions, to carry
on trade in all ports subject to French influence, which were
not actually under blockade ; and the law of blockade was even
restricted to the ports of Holland and France, and those of the
northern part of Italy, between Pesaro and Orbitello. The
clause in the decree of 11th November, relative to the payment
of a compulsory duty in England, was abolished.

A new era in the Continental system began with a decree of
Bonaparte (Aug. 7,) known by the name of The Decree or Tariff
of Trianon. A second, by way of supplement, was issued
from St. Cloud (Sept. 12.) Making a distinction between the
trade and the produce of the colonies ; and availing himself of
the universal custom which had rendered the latter among the
necessaries of life, he resolved to take advantage of this cir-
cumstance to replenish his treasury, by permitting their impor-
tation on paying an ad valorem duty of 50 per cent. A third
decree, signed at Fontainbleau, ordered all English merchandise,
found in France or her dependencies, to be seized and burnt.
At that time, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, were
covered with bonfires, which destroyed the property of native
merchants, and opened a new prospect for English manufactures
one day to replace the articles that wore thus wantonly consumed.

We shall now give a short outline of the most remarkable
events that took place in the rest of Europe, during this period
of French preponderance.

51-2 CHAPTBR XI.

For more than six years Portugal, by means of the pecuniary
sacrifices which she had made to the French crown, haJ maiu-
tanied iier neutrality between France and England. But as she
had betrayed her predilection for England during the Prussian
war, her ruin was determined oti ; and as she could no longer
I'onceal from herself the danger of her position, the Prince Ke-
)7ent entered into a strict alliance with Great Britain, by a con-
vention signed at London (Oct. 22, 1807.) General Junot had
taken possession of the country after the Roy.il family had em-
barked for Brazil ; and solemnly declared, that the House of
Braganza had ceased to reign in Europe (Feb. 1, 1808.) Fol-
lowing the example of the Spaniards, the Portuguese soon shook
off the yoke of the oppressor. The city of Oporto gave the first
signal of insurrection (June 6 ;) an English army, commanded
by Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed in Mondego Bay (July 31,) and
defeated Junot at Vimeiro (Aug. 21.) The French General,
whose army was reduced to a most distressing state, obtained
from General Dalrymple, who had taken the command of the
Engli.«h troops, a capitulation on very honourable terms, wliich
was concluded at Cintra (Aug. 30.) Junot, and his troops, were
conveyed to France in English vessels.

The Russian Admiral Siniawin was not so fortunate. He
was. then lying in the Tagus with a fleet of nine ships of the
line, and a frigate, which had been employed in the war against
the Turks in the Archipelago, and found himself under the ne-
cessity of surrendering his fleet to Sir Charles Cotton the Eng-
lish Admiral (Sept. 3,) which was not to be restored to the Em-
peror until the conclusion of a pacific treaty between Russia and
Great Britain. The convention of Cintra, of which the true
circumstances are not well known, excited so great a discontent
in England, that Sir Heu Dalrymple and Sir Arthur Wellesley
were called home, that an investigation might be made into thi.i
unpopular measure.

During their absence, and after the affair of Corunna, Soult
received orders to attempt the conquest of Portugal, where there
were not more than 8000 English troops, under the command of
General Craddock, and an army of the natives. At the head of
23,000 men he marched towards Chaves, and took possession of
that place (March 7,) which is one of the frontier fortresses of
the kingdom. But on his arrival at Oporto he encountered the
Portuguese army, who for three days disputed with him the

EDSsession of the place. Here he remained a full month before
e durst proceed on his march. Meantime General Wellesley
had landed at Lisbon with a new English army. He manoju-
wed so well that by the end of May, Soult was obliged to retire

IS of the pecuniary
1 crown, hai maiu-
ghind. But as she
uring the Prussian
he could no Inneer
on, the Prince Re-
t Britain, by a con-
General Junot had
yal family had em-
that the House of
eb. 1, 1808.) Fol-
tuguese soon shook
)porto gave the first
1 army, commanded
Bay (July 31,) and
e French General,
sing state, obtained
be command of the
irable terms, which
and his troops, were

; so fortunate. He
of nine ships of the
d in the war against
imself under the ne-
les Cotton the Eng-
restored to the Em-
between Russia and
, of which the true
30 great a discontent
ir Arthur Wellesley
ht be made into thii)

r of Gorunna, Soult
ortugal, where there
ider the command of
ires. At the head of
id took possession of
frontier fortresses of
I he encountered the
puted with him the
1 a full month before
J General Wellesley
army. He manceu-
was obliged to retire

PERIOD a. A. D. 1803—1810.

513

into Galicia, with the loss of his artillery an' baggage. Next
ycai the French sent a third expedition to Po tugal, bat as this
belt gs more properly to the war in Spain, v c shall take o'-ca-
sion to notice it afterwards. After the retreat of Soult, the For-
tuguese acted a considerable part in the liberation of Europt*
General Wellesley, who was intruisted with very extensive
powers, organized their army, and augmented it to 40,000 m<>»,
wiih the assistance of 600,000/. Sterling, which England fur
nished for that purpose.

The connexion between Great Britain and Portugal, became
still more intimate bj' the treaty of alliance which was conclu-
ded at Rio Janeiro (Feb. 19, 1811.) George III. there promised
never to recognise any King of Portugal but the heir and legiti-
mate representative of the House of Braganza. The Regent
granted Britain the right of building ships of war in Brazil, and
of supplying themselves with timber for the purpose from the
forests of that country ; and by abrogating certain former stipu-
lations, he agreed to receive into his ports as many British ves-
sels as chose to enter. The Regent likewise promised to co-
operate with England for the abolition of the Slave Trade ; and
this is the first example of a stipulation of the kind. Together
with this treaty there was also concluded a treaty of commerce.
Towards the end of 1810 Portugal became the theatre of war,
as we shall observe when we come to speak of Spain.

Charles IV. King of Spain, had flattered himself that by sub-
mitting to the payment of subsidies to France, according to the
treaty of October 30, 1803, he would be exempted from the ne-
cessity of taking part in the war which had broken out between
Bonaparte and England ; and it was on the faith of this that
the latter power had commenced hostilities. Four Spanish
ships returning to Europe, loaded with treasures and valuable
merchandise from South America, were seized off Cape St.
Mary (Oct. 5, 1804,) by an English squadron. After that act
of hostility, which, but for the negotiation that had preceded it,
might have been regarded as a violation of the law of nations,
Charles IV. declared war against England (Dec. 12 ;) and the
following year he had the mortification to see his marine totallv
destroyed by the battle of Trafalgar, which Admiral Nelson
gained over the combined fleets of Gravina and Villeneuve.

In 1806 the English made an attempt to get possession of the
Spanish colony of Buenos Ayres. Tne expedition sailed from
St. Helena under the command of Admiral Sir Home Popham.
The troops were commanded by General Beresford. Buenos
Ayrea capitulated on the 2d July ; there the English found nn*
merous treasures which were transported to Europe ; but t.n

•1 .(«

i^i'

' H,-!

I i■^

514

CHAPTER XI.

incunection of the inhabitants, headed by a Spaniard named
Puerido" and Liniers a native of France, obliged General Beres-
ford to surrender himself and his troops prisoners of war (Aug.
12.^ Admiral Popham took possession of Maldonado (Oct. 29,}
where he remained in expectation of the supplies which he f x-

Scted to come from England. General Auchmuty landed m.
aldonado in the beginning of the following year, and took the
town of Monte Video by assault (Feb. 2.) New reinforcements
having arrived from England, General Whitelocke again attack-
ed Buenos Ayres, and penetrated into the town (July 5 ;) but
Liniers, at the head of the Spaniards, made so able a defence,
that the English General signed a capitulation, by which he v»b-
tained the restitution of all British prisoners ; and the English
promised to evacuate Monte Video within the space of two
months.

Charles IV. and his minister, during the war with Prussia,
had shown a desire to shake off the yoke of Bonaparte. By
signing at Fontainbleau the partition of Portugal, they opened
a way for the French armies into Spain, who took possession of
St. Sebastian, Pampelunn, Figueras, and Barcelona ; and were
even masters of Madrid while one part of the Spanish army
were occupied in Portugal, and the other in Denmark. The con-
sequences of these imprudences were, the overturning of Spain,
and the dethronement of the House of Bourbon, as we have
noticed above.

When the Spaniards rose in rebellion against the royal intru-
der, they formed themselves into Juntas, or directorial commit-
tees, in every province. That of Seville, which was composed
of enterprising men, took the lead in the insurrection, declared
war against Bonaparte in the name of Ferdinand VII., and con-
cluded an armistice with England. Their authority was not
acknowledged by the Provincial Juntas, each of which had set
on foot an army of their own. All these armies engaged the
French troops wherever they met them, and were very often
vanquished. The insurrection did not come to a head till after
the battle of Baylen (July 20, 1808,) where 14,000 French
troops, under Generals Dupont and Vidal, laid down their arms.
Castanos, to whom this success was owing, was then appointed
Generalissimo ; and the Junta organized a Regency, at the head
of which they placed the old Cardinal de Bourbon. There were
two other events which greatly encouraged the Spaniards ; the
one was the expulsion of Le Febvre from Saragossa by General
Palafox, and the other the arrival of the Marquis de la Romana
at Corunna with 7000 men, who had been conveyed to the ic-
land of Funen for invading Sweden, but had embarked, m spite
of the French, to come to the assistanco of their country

a Spaniard named
ged General Beres-
oners of war (Aug.
aldonado (Oct. 29,)
pplies which he ex-
uchmuty landed at
T year, and took ilie
ew reinforcements
elocke again attack-
town (July 5 ;) but
e 80 able a defence,
ion, by which he ob-
s ; and the English
n the space of two

le war with Prussia,
of Bonaparte. By
ortugal, they opened
10 took possession of
Jarcelona ; and were
f the Spanish urmy
Denmark. The con-
verturning of Spain,
Jourbon, as we have

fainst the royal intru-
r directorial commit-
which was composed
insurrection, declared
jinand VII., and con-
lir authority was not
ich of which had set
I armies engaged the
and were very often
ne to a head till after
here 14,000 French
laid down their arms.
r, was then appointed
Regency, at the head
Jourbon. There were
d the Spaniards ; the
Saragossa by General
arquis de la Romana
n conveyed to the le-
ad embarked, m spite
" their country

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1803~1810.

515

Joseph Bonaparte having abandoned Madrid and retired to
Burgos (Aug. 1,) a Central Junta was established at Araniucz.
This Junta raised three armies: that of the North, under Blake
and Romanu ; that of the Centre, under Castanos ; and that of
Arragon, under Palafox. Immediately after the interview at
Erfurt, Bonaparte placed himself at the head of his army, which
had been increased to 180,000 men ; and after gaining several
advantages over the enemy, he sent back his brother Joseph to
Madrid. Meantime, two divisions of the English army having
arrived, the one from Lisbon, and the other from Corunna, they
formed a junction in the province of Leon, under the command
of Sir John Moore. Bonaparte marched against them, but they
thought it prudent to retire. Having arrived at Astorga,he re-
ceived intelligence of the preparations of the Austrians, when
he set out for Paris, leaving the command of the army to Soult,
who obliged the English to embark at Corunna, after a severe
engagement in which Sir John Moore lost his life. A treaty of
peace and alliance was signed at London between England and
the Supreme Junta, acting in the name of Ferdinand VII. (Jan.
14, 1809.) England sent into Portugal a new army, under the
command of Sir A. Wellesley. The second siege of Saragossa.
which was undertaken first by Junot, and continued by Lannes,
vas one of the most extraordinary events in modern war. The
garrison, commanded by Palafox, and the inhabitants of the place
who were completely devoted to him, performed prodigies of
valour. When the French took the city (Feb. 21,) it presented
nothing but a mass of ruins. It was calculated that above 100,000
men perished in that siege.

Marshal Victor defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28,) and
Suchet defeated General Blake at Belchite (June 16 :) but Soult,
who had penetrated into Portugal, was repulsed by Wellesley^
who fought the bloody battle of Talavera with Marshals Jourdan
and Victor, which turned to the disadvantage of the French.
The misconduct of the army of Cuesta, which had been con-

t'oined with that of Wellesley in this battle, determined the latter
lenceforth to carry on a defensive war with the English and
Portuguese alone ; and to leave to the Spaniards the care of
occupying the French, by harassing their troops incessantly,
destroying their convoys and magazines, and surprising their
entrenchments. The battle of Ocana (Nov. 19,) which Cuesta
fought with General Mortier and lost, was the last pitched bat-
tle which the Spaniards fought. From that time they confined
themselves to a Guerilla warfare, by which they did infinite
damage to the enemy

In 1809, the Central Junta retired to Seville. Towards the

■^0^

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>i.<

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516

CHAFTER XJ.

end of the year, they were replaced by an Executive Directory
uf nine membera; and next year these were superseded in their
turn by a Regency of five members, which was established at
Cadiz. An assembly of the Cortes was summoned to meet
there, the members of which were nominated, not by the clergy,
the nobility, and the cities, which composed the legitimate States
of Spain, out by the great body of the inhabitants. That assem-
bly, who could do no more for the defence of their country, em-
ployed themselves in establishing a democratic constitution in
Spain, destroying by degrees all the institutions of the monarchy.

Soult, who was commander-in-chief of tho army of the South,
conquered the whole of Andalusia in 1810, with the exception
of Cadiz, which Victor had in vain attempted to besiege. The
principal efforts of the French were then turned towards Portu-
gal ; and on this occasion Massena was ordered to undertake
the reduction of that country, at the head cf 70,000 men. Junot
laid siege to Ciudad Rodrigo, which surrendered after a vigorous
defence (July 10.) Almeida was likewise obliged to capitulate
a few weeks after (August 27.) These conquests were made,
without any apparent wish on the part ofthe English commander,
recently created Lord Wellington, to prevent them. He had
then begun to carry into execution the plan of defensive warfare
which he had conceived after the battle of Talavera. In the
spring he was stationed on the Coa, and began to retreat after
the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo ; nor did he stop till he had reached
Torres Vedras. Four months were employed in effecting this
slow tetrograde march. Massena followed him every step, suf-
fering from continual fatigue and daily skirmishes ; and strug-
gling against amine, as the English army had destroyed every
thing that lay in their way. Towards the end of October, Lord
Wellington took up an impregnable position, where for four
months the French General found all his manceuvres unsuccess-
ful Lord Wellington took advantage of this interval to secure
considerable reinforcements which arrived from Lisbon. He was
thus prepared to fall upon his adversary, when the impossibility
of subsisting longer in an exhausted country should at length
compel him to retreat.

When giving a summary of the history of France, we spoke
of the renewal of hostilities between Bonaparte and Great Britain
in 1803, as well as of the part which the latter took in the Con-
tinental wars of 1805, 1807, and 1809. The efforts which she
had made to support these expenses, added a frightful increase
to her national debt ; but the constantly increasing progress of
her commerce furnished her with the means of meeting this
enormous expenditure In vain had Bonaoarte expected to rain

PKRior IX. A. 0. 1802—1810.

617

Executive Directory

superseded in their

was established at

summoned to meet

d, not by the clergy,

[the legitimate States

roitants. That assem-

Jof their country, em-

cratic constitution in

ons of the monarchy-

o army of the South,

), with the exception

ted to besiege. I'he

irned towards Portu-

irdered to undertake

f 70,000 men. Junot

Jered after a vigorous

obliged to capitulate

onquests were made,

! English commander,

vent them. He had

1 of defensive warfare

of Talavera. In the

began to retreat after

op till he had reached

loyed in effecting thie

d him every step, suf-

cirmishes ; and strug-

T had destroyed every

end of October, Lord

ition, where for four

(lantBuvres unsuccess-

this interval to secure

from Lisbon. He was

irhen the impossibilitv

ntry should at length

of France, we spoke
arte and Great Britain
atter took in the Con-
Fhe efforts which she
d a frightful increase
icreasing progress of
eans of meeting this
oarte expected to i uin

the industry of England by the Continental system. In the
Fionch, Spanish, and Dutch culonie;-; which she conquered, she
found new channels to supply the place of those which were
shut against her on the Continent of Europe. The Empire of
the sea still remained in the possession of the British ; and, in
1807, they annihilated the marine of Denmark, the only king-
dom which then retained any maritime power. But of this cir-
cumstance we shall speak hereafter.

The year 1806 is remarkable for the abolition of the slave
trade in the English colonies. Since 1785, the Blacks had found
zealous advocates in the British Parliament, amongst whom Fox,
Wilberforce, and Pitt, were the most distinguished. But the
British Government, too sagacious to enter precipitately into a
measure which might endanger the fortun-; of the planters, and
even the tranquillity of the colonies, wishfd first to consult ex-
perience on the subject, and to leave the proprietors time to pre-
pare themselves for a different order of things. For twenty
years they had refused to adopt the bill which Mr. Wilberforce
regularly laid before the Parliament, to demand restrictive laws
against the trade. It was not until Mr. Fox and Lord Grenville
entered into the ministry, that this question occupied their serious
deliberations. An Act of Parliament, ratified by the King (May
16, 1806,) forbade the exportation of slaves from the Englisn
colonies, and conveying them into foreign colonies. A Bill of
the 6th February 1807, which was ratified by the King on the
17th March following, enacted, that the slave trade should ac-
tually cease from the date of May 1st ensuing ; providing, how-
ever, that vessels already departed fn the trade should be allowed
to import slaves into the West Indies until the 1st January 1808

Of^ all the countries which were brought under the yoke of
Napoleon, the most unfortunate without dispute was Holland.
Her commerce, the only resource of her numerous inhabitants,
was annihilated by the Continental system ; her finances were
in such a state of disorder, that, in spite of all their economy,
the annual deficit was regularly about twenty millions of flo-
rins : her inhabitants were harassed as much by the soldiers of
Bonaparte as by his revenue officers ; and as if nature, in con-
cert with political oppression, had conspired her ruin, her soil
was laid waste, and her industry destroyed by periodical inun
dations, fires, and other calamities. Such is the picture which
that wrretched country presented up to the moment when Bona-
parte extinguished the feeble remains of independence which it
enjoy«d. After various alterations, that Republic obtained a
constitution similar to that which had existed in France since
1804. M. Schimmelpennink was placed at the head of the go

•^*'

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518

CHAPTER XI.

vemment (April 1806,) under tlio title of Grand Pensionary
and vested with such powers as the last Stadtholders had never
exercised, e\en after the revolution of 1788. We have already
observed how this power, together with the Royal title, were
rendered hereditary in favour of Louis Bonaparte ; and how
the Dutch monarchy vanished at the fiat of Napoleon.

Switzerland, with the exception of some partial commotions
which are scarcely worthy of remark, had remained tranquil
under the system of government which Boncparte had pre-
scribed in the act of mediation (Feb. 19, 1803.) The Conti-
nental System, and the prohibition laid on the greater part ol
Swiss commo<lities in France, paralyzed their industry and
their commerce ; and caused many of the inhabitants to emi
grate, who for the most part directed their course towards North
America. A treaty which General Ney had signed at Friburg
(Sept. 27,) regulated the connections between France and the
Helvetic Confederation, in a manner more advantageous for that
country than in the time of the Directory. Bonaparte was sa-
tisfied with a defensive alliance ; but the Swiss agreed to im-
port from the mines of France their stock of salt, which they
had till then been in the habit of receiving partly from Bavaria
This stock amounted to two hundred thousand quintals per an
num ; and the revenue which France derived from furnishing
this article, was sufficient to support more than 20,000 troops.
At the same time a military capitulation wa?. signed, by which
Bonaparte took into his service sixteen thous^^nd Swiss volun-
teers. It must appear astonishing, that in this nation of war-
riors, a sufficient number could not be found to make up the
complement of 16,000 men. The incomplete state of the Swiss
regiments was a subject of perpetual complaint with Bonaparte.

The number of the Italian States had been perpetually di-
minishing ; and about the time of which we now speak, that
peninsula was entirely subjected to the influence of Bonaparte,
and divided nominally between France, Naples, and the kingdom
of Italy ; excepting the small Republic of St. Marino, which
preserved its independence in the midst of the general convulsion.
The Italian Republic, which since the year 1805 had borne the
title of the kingdom of Italy, was oppressed by the enormous
load of contributions which were exacted for the support of the
French troops, as well as by payments for the civil list of the
King and his viceroy. That country submitted with great im-
patience to the law of the military conscription, which was con-
♦.rary to the feelings and customs of the inhabitants. It obtained
considerable aggrandizements after the peace of Presburg by

die union of the Venetian provinces in 1807, and by that of t}»»-

K^r^ili^ir^tui

tpi mi

jGrand Pensionary
thoiders had never
We have already
ic Royal title, were
>naparte ; and hnv>
Napoleon,
partial commotions
remained tranquii
loncparte had pre-
1803.) The Conti-
the greater part ol
their industry and
inhabitants to emi
)ur3e towards North
il signed at Friburg
en France and the
ivantageous for that
Bonaparte was sa-
5wiss agreed to im-
; of salt, which they
partly from Bavaria
and quintals per an
'ed from furnishing
than 20,000 troops.
1?. signed, by which
>usu.nd Swiss volun-
I this nation of war-
md to make up the
te state of the Swiss
lint with Bonaparte.
been perpetually di-
we now speak, that
uence of Bonaparte,
les, and the kingdom
St. Marino, which
! general convulsion.
1805 had borne the
d by the enormous
r the support of the
■ the civil list of the
itted with great im-
ion, which was con-
>itants. It obtained
ace of Presburg by
', and by that of tlif

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

51<J

four provinces of the Ecclesiastical States ; but those accessions
miide no addition to its happiness. Eugene Beauhariiuis, dig-
nifit'J with the title of Prince of Venice, was proclaimed heir
to the throne of Italy, failing the male desceiidiuiis of Bonaparte.

The kingdom of Naples was overthrown about the beginning
of 1S06. Ferdinand iV., had retired to Sicily, and Joseph Bo-
naparte was put in his place ; but he had occupied that unstable
throne only two years, when he exchanged it for another still
more insecure. But before surrendering the kingdom of Naples
to Joachim Murat who was appointed his successor (June 28,
1808,) he wished to immortalize his nam by giving a new con-
stitution to that kingdom, which was guaranteed by Bonaparte.
The attempts which Murat made to conquer Sicily proved
abortive.

Germany had experienced two complete revolutions in course
of the nine years of which we have given a short summary
The constitution of the Germanic Empire was changed in se-
veral essential respects by the Resolutions of the Deputation of
Ratisbon. Of all the ecclesiastical princes that belonged to the
Germanic body, one only was retained, viz. the Elector, Arch-
Chancellor, who took the place of the ancient Elector of May-
ence ; the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, was secu-
larized. The territories of the rest, as well as the revenues of
all ecclesiastical endowments, mediate or immediate, were em-
ployed either to indemnify the hereditary princes who had lost
the whole or a part of their estates on the left bank of the Rhine,
or to aggrandize those whom the policy of Bonaparte chose
to favour. In place of the two Ecclesiastical Electors who
were suppressed, four lay Electors were appointed, one of whom
only was a Catholic, that of Saltzburg, who had formerly been
the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and three were Protestants, those
of Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Cassel.

The House of Orange obtained the bishopric of Fulda and
other territories ; Brisgau and Ortenau were ceded to the Duke of
Modena, who left them at his death to his son-in-law the Arch-
duke Ferdinand. The relation between the two religions was
still more unequal in the College of Princes, where the Pro-
testants had acquired so great a superiority that the head of the
Empire refused to ratify that article of the Resolutions. The
free cities were reduced to six, viz. Augsburg, Lubec, Nurem-
berg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg. The immediate nobi-
lity were retained ; but those of them who were entitled to
indemnity were disappointed, as nothing remained to be distri-
buted. In place of the existing duties payable on the Rhine,
a rate of navigation was established, the proceeds of which

'*m>

•'k

*».

<j(!

. il

:i».

I r

620

CHAPTEn XI

were to be divided belwoon Frnnec and Germany ; a part of the
endowment of the Aich-Chaiicellor was fouiule d on that revenue.

The execution of the Resolutions of the Deputation, gave rise
(0 several conventions nmong; the States of the Einpirc, as well
as to a great variety of claims. So many difficulties had arisen
on this occasion, especially from the refusal of the Emperor to
sanction the Resolution, without certain modifications, that the
Empire was abolished before this new fundamental low could
be carried into practice in all its bearings. The peace of Pres-
burg had created two n^w Kings in the centre of Germany,
namely, the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, who had as-
sumed that dignity. These two princes, with the Elector of
Baden, were declared sovereigns, and obtained territorial addi-
tions at the expense of Austria, the Knights of St. John of Jeru-
salem, and the city of Augsburg. The King of Bavaria annex-
ed that free city to his Estates. The Elector of Saltzburg ex-
changed all that the Resolutions of the Imperial Deputation had
given him for the principality of Wurtzburg which was taken
from the King of Bavaria, to which the Electoral title was
uansferred. The Grand Mastership of the Teutonic Knights
was secularized in favour of a prince of the House of Austria.
The heir of the Duke of Modena lost Brisgau, and Ortenau,
which fell to the Elector of Baden.

The annihilation of the German Empire, the germ of which
is to be found in that treaty, was effected by the Confederation
of the Rhine, which the Kings of Bavaria and Wunemberg, the
Arch-Chancellor, the Elector of Baden, the Dukes of Cleves and
Berg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Princes of Hohen-
zollern, Salm, Isemburg, Lichtenstein and Aremberg, and Count
Leyen, concluded with Bonaparte (July 6, 1806,) who was
named Protector of the League, as they announced in their de-
clarations to the Diet. The act by which the Emperor Francis
II. abdicated the crown of Germany (Aug. 6,) completed the dis-
solution of the Germanic body. The princes who had joined
that confederation usurped the sovereignity, instead of the mere
mperiority which they had formerly enjoyed under the authori-
ty of the Empire. By overthrowing the barriers which the laws
and institutions of the country, the most ancient customs, and
conventions, had opposed to the encroachments of absolute
power, they set a fatal example of trampling under foot the well
acquired rights of their people. They carried their injustice
still farther. They usurped dominion over the princes, pro-
vinces, and cities, their associates and coequals, who were un
fortunately placed in their neighbourhood; and who had not
been apprized in time that they might repair to Paris, in ordei

fA,:a^^ri7r

rmany ; a pari of the

idi'il on that revenue.

Dcpulntion, gnvc rise

the Empire, as wi'll

jirticuhies hnd nri^en

of the Emperor lo

0(iiHcation», that the

ndamcntal low could

The peace of Pres-

centre of Germany,

emberg, who hnd as-

with the Elector of

(lined territorial addi-

I of St. John of Jeru-

ng of Bavaria annex-

ctor of Saltzburg- ex-

>erial Deputation had

irg which was taken

Electoral title was
he Teutonic Knights
ho House of Austria.
Jrisgau, and Ortenau,

e, the germ of which
by the Confederation
and Wunamberg, the

1 Dukes of Clevcs and
he Princes of Hohen-
Aremberg, ond Count

6, 1806,) who was
tinounced in their de-
the Emperor Francis
6,) completed the dis-
inces who had joined
', instead of the mere
ed under the authori-
Triers which the laws
ancient customs, and
chments of absolute
g under foot the well
arried their injustice
i^er the princes, pro-
quals, who were un
i ; and who had not
lir to Paris, in ordei

rBKlOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

S21

to co-opernte in that trniisnction, or counternrt tli»» intrigiieii by
whii'h it was acconinlished.

TIk' KliTtor Arili-Clianc('lli)r then assumed the dignity of
Prini-e F'rinmto ; tlip Elector of Hadcn, ilie Dukus of Bert; ond
Cloves, ond the Landgrave of HL'ssc-Darnistadt todk the title of
Grand Dukes; to which the an of the 12lh July attached th'
nrerogoiivew of the royal dignity. The head of the house oi
Nassau took the dignity of Duke, ond Count Leyen that of
Prince. A federal Diet, divided into two chambers, was to de-
liberate on the general interests of the union ; but that assembly
never met. Of the six free cities which the Deputation had
preserved, the King of Bavaria had Augsburg adjudged to him
by the peace of Presburg ; he afterwards obtained Nuremberg
by an act of the Confederation. Frankfort fell to the shore of
the Prince Primote ; so thot there remained only three of the
Hanseatic towns.

Several other princes entered successively into the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine ; but none of those accessions were voluntary.
They all took place in consequence of the war with Prussia,
which broke out in October 1806. These princes, token accord-
ing to the order of accession, were the following: — The Elector
of Wurlzburg, the old Elector of Saltzburg, who took the grand
ducal title, the King of Saxony, the Dukes of Soxony, the Houses
of Anhalt and Schwortzburg, the Prince of Waldeck, the Houses
of Lippe and Reuss, the King of Westphalia, the House of
Mecklenburg, ond the Duke of Oldenburg. Thus all Germany,
with a few exceptions, entered in succession into that Confede-
ration.

Several other changes occurred in the Rhenish Confedera-
tion, especially after the peace of Schoenbrunn. The grand
dutchy of Berg received considerable accessions. The kingdom
of Westphalia was augmented in 1810, by the union of the States
of the King of England in Germany, with the exception of the
dutchy of Lunenburg, as has been already mentioned. Within
a short time after he hod disposed of the territory of Hanover,
Bonoporte formed the grand dutchy of Frankfort, by adding the
district of Fulda, and the greater port of the county of Hanau,
to the possessions of the Prince Primate ; with the deduction of
the principality of Ratisbon, on condition that after the death of
the Prince Primate, who had assumed the title of the Grand
Duke of Frankfort, these territories should pass to Eugene Beou-
harnais and his male descendants ; and failing these, they should
revert to the Crown of France. The Grand Duke ceded to
Napoleon the principality of Ratisbon, and his moiety of the
navigation-dues on the Rhino.

!««'

"W^

I J! I

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529

CHAPTIR XT.

The i;it>ctor of Bavaria had lost by the fM-acn of LunevHle
that part uf the i'alatiiuito NitimtucI on the left bunk of tho Khine,
with this diilohy of Deux-nonts. Tho Deputation of 1803 de-
prived him of the retit of the Palatinate ; but that act amply
compemiatfd him, by makinjr over to him the bishoprica of
Bamberi^, Wurtzburj,', Freisinj^en, Passau, and Auitfsburjf, with
several abbeys and free citie*. By tho peace of I'resburK, Bo-
naparte took Wurtzburg from him ; but ho gave him in lieu of
it tt considcrablo part of the spoils of Austria, especially the
county of Tyrol, which contained more than 700,000 inhabitants.
To recompense that monarch for the zeal which he had displayed
1809, BonapartB put him in posse.^sion of the principalities of
Baireuth and Ratisbon, the dutchy of Saltzburg, with Berch-
tolsgaden, and the part of Lower Austria whicli the Emperor
had renounced by tho peace of Schonbrunn. In return, the
King of Bavaria ceded back a part of the Tyrol, containing about
305,000 souls, which was annexed either to the kingdom of
Italy or the Illyriau provinces.

By the peace of Luneville, the Austrian monarchy had lost,
in point of extent and population ; but she had gained an addi-
tion of six millions of francs to her revenue. 1 he government
had to struggle incessantly against th^ ruinous state of the ex-
chequer, and the over-circulation of paper money. Neither loans
nor economy could recover them. The embarrassed state of his
finances was still more increased by the disastrous war of 1805.
The peace of Presburg cost the Emperor the States that formerly
belonged to the Venetians, the Tyrol, and all the possession.') of
his House in Swabia. He acquired nothing by that treaty, ex-
cept the dutchy of Saltzburg and Berchtolsgaden. His losses
amounted to more than a thousand German square miles of ter-
ritory, and nearly three millions of subjects. The following
year (Aug. 6, 1806,) he voluntarily laid aside the Imperial crown
of Germany, adopting instead, the hereditary Imperial crown of
Austria, with the name of Francis I. Besides Saltsburg and
Berchtolsgaden, the ci-devant Grand Duke of Tuscany lost also
Passau and Eichstctt ; but ho oblained the principality of Wurta-
burg. The Archduke Ferdinand was deprived of Brisgau and
Ortenau.

At the commencement of the year 1807, Austria had made
warlike preparations which indicated that, but for the precipi-
tancy with which the peace of Tilsit had been concluded, she
would have made a powerful diversion on the rear of the French
army. It was not till the convention of Fontainbleau that she
obtained the restitution of Braunau, which had remained in the
possession of the French, and which she purchased by new ter

pcacd of Lunflvllle
bank of tho Rhine,
luiution uf 1S03 (Ih-

but that act nniply
In the bishoprics of

mil Augiiburg, with
|cc of I'rcsburu, Bo>

gave him in Ueu of

itria, especially the
700,000 inhabitants,
ich he had displayed
the principalities of
tzburg, with Berch-
which the Emperor
nn. In return, the
rol, containing about

to the kingdom of

monarchy had lost,
had gained an addi-
J. 1 he government
nous state of the ex-
loney. Neither loans
barrussed state of his
iastrous war of 1806.
! States that formerly
all the possessions of
ig by that troaty, ex-
Isguden. Hib losses
1 square miles of ter<
!ct8. The following
e the Imperial crown
ry Imperial crown of
isidcs Saltsburg and
of Tuscany lost also
irincipality of Wurt2-
rived of Brisgau and

, Austria had made
, but for the precipi-
been concluded, she
le rear of the French
ontainbleau that she
had remained in the
irchased by new ter

>£^

r^l^'

PERIOD IX. A. D. 180S— 1810.

023

riiorial losses on the side of Italy ; from that inomcnt the Arch-
duke Charles made great exertions fur rc-orguiii/iiig the army,
introducing a new order and a better diifciplint-, forming bodies
of militia, and repairing fnrtres.Nc.s. M(! coritiniied to inspire the
natiiiii with an enthu»iaMm which it had never lnTore displayed.
Many wealthy individuals made large pecuniary sacrifices for
the seivice ol'^their country

The peace of Schccnbrunn, which terminated the war of 1809,
brought Austria down to the ronk of the third Contiiu'iilul
power. That monarchy compri'hended ii surface of 9471 Ger-
man square miles, and a populnticm of twenty-one millions ; but
her commerce was annihilated by the loss of Trieste and Fiunie,
which separated her from the sea. The immense quantity of
paper money in the ceded provinces, flowed back into ttie interior
of the kingdom, and reduced the currency of these bills to one-
hfth of their nominal value.

Prussia, by the Resolutions of the Deputation of 1S03, gained
426,000 subjects, and more than four millions of francs to her
revenue ; and the provinces which she acquired, established, to
a certoin extent, the continuity of her Westphalian possessions
with the centre of the kingdom. A convention with the Elector
of Bavaria respecting an exchange of territory, made consiiler-
able additions to the Principalities in Franconia. The King,
from that time, occupied himself in applying the remedy of a
wise administration to repair the calamities which wars and
levies had inflicted on the country. In vain had they tried every
means of persuasion to make him join the third coalition ; and
it was only the violation of his territory by the French troops,
that at last prevailed with him to take that step. We have al-
ready spoken of the convention at Potsdam, by which he engag-
ed eventually to become a party to that confederacy, and of the
attempt which he made to restore peace by means of negotiation.
We have already mentioned how he became involuntarily, and
by the turn which his minister gave to the affair with which he
was intrusted, the ally of him whom he wished to engage in
war. Prussia obtained, by the treaty of Vienna, the precarious
possession of the Electorate of Hanover, in lieu of which she
ceded Anspach, Cleves, and Neufchatel The superficial extent
of the whole monarchy amounted then to 6746 German square
miles, with a population of 10,668,000 souls.

The occupation of Hanover dragged Prussia into a war with
England ; and the course pursued towards her by Bonaparte
soon compelled her to declare war against France. He had
offered the Electorate of Hanover to the King of England, and
opposed Prussia in the project of associating Saxony, Hesse,

I"; I I

524

CHAPTER XI.

and the Hanseatic towns, in the confederation which Frederic
wished to oppose to that of the Rhine. The convention of Vienna
thus became the occasion of inflicting new calamities on Prussia.
Frederic William renounced the territory of Hanover, by the
peace which he concluded with George III. at Memel (Jan. 2S.
1807 ;) but the treaty of Tilsit cost the former the half of his
German estates, viz. an extent of 2657 German square miles,
and a population of 4,670,000 souls. This sacrifice was not
sufficient to appease the resentment of Bonaparte. By misin-
terpreting the equivocal terms of the convention of Koning.sberg.
he restored to the King only a part of his provinces on the east
of the Vistula, which were desolated by the war, and reduced
almost to a deser'. After sixteen months of peace, he could not
obtain repossessic i of his other provinces, until he engaged lo
pay 120,000,000 ol francs, to leave three fortresses in the hands
of Bonaparte by way of pledge, and to promise never to keep
more than 40,000 men in the field.

Prussia was in a state of the greatest destitution, at the time
when Frederic William turned his attention to the administra-
tion of the country. The army had devoured the substance of
the inhabitants ; the population had suffered a great diminution ;
while sickness and a complication of miseries, were continually
cutting them off in considerable numbers. The King submitted
to many privations, to fulfil the obligations he had contracted
towards France, and thereby to obtain the final evacuation of tlie
kingdom, as well as to relieve those provinces which had suf-
fered more severely than others by the sojourn of the French
army. He did every thing in his power to revive agriculture
and industry among his subjects, and restore the resources of
the army ; and thus prepare the way for recovering the rank
which the Prussian monarchy had former^ held.

Independently of the hardships which Bonaparte inflicted on
Prussia, by protracting the stay of his army, and by the contri-
butions which he imposed on her, this country was made the vic-
tim of a rapacity which is, perhaps, unprecedented in history
By a convention which the King of Saxony, as Duke of War-
saw, concluded with Bonaparte (May 10, 1808,) while occupied
at Bayonne in overtiming the Spanish monarchy, the latter
ceded to him, for a sum of twenty millions of francs, not only
the pecuniary claims of the King of Prussia over his Polish
subjects, (for these he had abandoned by the peace of Tilsit,)
but also those of certain public establishments in Prussia, such
us the Bank, the Society for Maritime Commerce, the Endow-
ment for Widows, Hospitals, Pious Foundations, Universities.
and Schools ; and what may seem incredible, those of private

ration which Frederic

e convention of Vienna

calamities on Prussia.

y of Hanover, by the

I. at Memel (Jan. 28.

former the half of his

jrerman square miles,

'his sacrifice was not

onaparte. By misin-

ention of Koning.sberg,

s provinces on the east

the war, and reduced

i of peace, he could not

es, until he engaged lo

fortresses in the hands

promise never to keep

destitution, at the time
ntion to the administra-
voured the substance of
sred a great diminution ;
series, were continually
i. The King submitted
ions he had contracted
e final evacuation of the
svinces which had suf-
! sojourn of the French
ver to revive agriculture
restore the resources of
for recovering the rank
erly held.

h Bonaparte inflicted on
irmy, and by the contri-
untry was made the vic-
nprecedented in history
xony, as Duke of War-
), 1808,) while occupied
sh monarchy, the latter
ions of francs, not only
'russia over his Polish
)y the peace of Tilsit,)
iments in Prussia, such
Commerce, the Endow-
}undations, Universities
redible, those of private

\\i\i

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

525

individuals in Prussia over Polish subjects. The pecuniary
claims were so much the more considerable, as the capitalists of
the ancient provinces, since the introduction of the system of
mortgage into Prussia, had advanced large sums to Polish pro-
prietors for the improvement of their patrimonies. The sums
thus taken from those who had furnished them, and transfeired
to the King of So xony, were estimated at first at forty -three
millions and a half of francs, and four millions of interest ; but
the financial authorities of the dutchy of Warsaw, discovered
that they amounted to sixty-eight millions'. In vain did Fre-
deric William offer to repurchase this pretended right of the
King of Saxony, by reimbursing the twenty millions of francs
which the latter had been obliged, it was said, to give to Bona-
parte. The Revolution of 1814 rectified this piece of injustice,
as it did many others.

During this period the north of Europe was agitated by three
different wars, that of England against Denmark, which occa-
sioned a rupture between the Cabinets of St. Petersburg and
London ; that of Russia against Sweden, in which Denmark
was involved ; and lastly, the war between Russia and the
Porte, in which England look an active part.

The expedition of the English against the Isle of Zealand in
1807, was an event which was censured at the time with great
severity ; and which cannot be justified, since it is the nature
of all preventive war to destroy the very arguments and evi-
dences of its necessity. Nevertheless, if on the one hand, we
consider what was requisite to support the interests of Bona-
parte after the peace of Tilsit, or more properly speaking, to
:arry into execution the system he had organized ; and if on
the other, we examine into his conduct a short time after, to-
wards Spain and Portugal, we shall find England not wholly
without excuse. The peace of Tilsit had excluded British com-
merce from a'l the southern ports of the Baltic, and she na
turaily wished that Sweden, and especially Denmark, who had
a communication with the Continent by way of Jutland, should
apen their ports to her. Several appearances indicated that it
was the intention of Bonaparte to seize Denmark also after the
peace of Tilsit ; and the British minister declared that he was
in possession of proofs of a plan to that effect.

The British Government accordingly fitted out an expedition
for the purpose of preventing his designs, with an activity and
a celerity such as they had never displayed in sending aid to
their allies; and that difference in their conduct tended not a
little to create an unfavourable opinion as to the enterprise
-vhich they undertook ag^iinst Denmark in 1807. An English

.^*

52G

CHAPTER XI.

fleet, having an army on board, to which a Hanoveiian legion
of 7000 men then in the Isle of Rugen, was afterwards added,
sailed from England about the endof July or beginning of August.
It was divided into two squadrons, one of which, under Commo-
dore Keats, took up their station in the Great Belt, which till then
had been thought inaccessible to ships of war, and thus cut oft
the Isle of Zealand from the main land, where the Prince Royal
with the Danish army then was. The second division, under
the command of Admiral Gambler, with troops on board com-
manded by Lord Cathcart, arrived oflf Copenhagen. Mr. Jack-
son was sent to Kiel to demand from the Prince Royal the
surrender of the Danish fleet, which they alleged it was the in-
tention of Bonaparte to seize.

After a fruitless negotiation, Copenhagen, after being invested
by the army of Lord Cathcart on the land side, was bombarded
for three daj's (Sept. 2, 3, 4,) and a great part of the city de-
stroyed. At length General Peymann, the Commander-in-chief
of the Danish forces, demanded an armistice to treat for a ca-
pituliition. Sir Arthur Wellesley, the same ofli'^er who soon
after so distinguished himself in Portugal, signed that capitula-
tion on the part of Great Britain. The citadel was given up
to the English. The Danes surrendered their fleet, with all
the naval stores in their arsenals and dock-yards. The Eng-
lish stipulated for a delay of six weeks to pvepare for departure,
after which they promised to surrendei the citaael, and evacuate
the Isle of Zealand.

In this manner the Danish marine, consisting of eighteen
ships of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five sloops
of war, fell into the hands of the English. During the six
weeks stipulated for, the Court of London offered Denmark the
alternative either of returning to a state of neutrality, o? of form-
ing an alliance with England. The Prince Regent having re-
fused both of these, England declared war against him (Nov.
4 ;) but she did not violate the capitulation of Copenhagen, as
the evacuation of that city and the island of Zealand took place
at the ter.n specified. This event added Denmark to the French
system. Her minister concluded a treaty of alliance at Fon-
tainbleau, the tenor of which has not been made public ; but if
wo may judge by the events which followed, it was agreed that
the Danish islands should be occupied by French troops des-
tined to act against Sweden. In the month of March 1808,
32,000 French, Dutch, and Spanish troops (the last brought
from the kingdom of Etruria,) under the command of Marshal
Bernadotte, arrived in Zealand, Funen, and the other islands of
the Baltic ; but the defection of the Spanish troops, and the

iH*

a Hanoveiian legion

as afterwards added,
Ir beginning of August.

hich, under Commo-
at Belt, which till then

war, and thus cut oft
here the Prince Royal
econd division, under
troops on board com-
)enhagen. Mr. Jack-
the Prince Royal the
alleged it was the in-

en, after being invested
d side, was bombarded
at part of the city de-
le Commander-in-chief

slice to treat for a ca-
saine officer who soon
il, signed that capitula-

citadel was given up
d their fleet, with all
ock-yards. The Eng-
j pvepare for departure,
lie citauel, and evacuate

consisting of eighteen
, and twenty-five sloops
3[lish. During the six
)n offered Denmark the
►f neutrality, Ojr of form-
nee Regent having re*
var against him (Nov.
ion of Copenhagen, as
I of Zealand took place
Denmark to the French
ity of alliance at Fon-
;n made public ; but if
ved, it was agreed that
by French troops des-
tnonth of March 1808,
)ops (the last brought
t command of Marshal
ind the other islands of
panish troops, and the

PERIOD IX, A. D. 1802—1810.

527

war with Austria, prevented the projected invasion of Sweden
The English took possession of the colonics of Denmark, and
ru.ned the commerce of her subjects. Frederic VI., who had
succeeded his father Christian VII., (Mo'ch 13, 1808,) after
having been at the head of the government ds regent since 1784,
strictly executed the Continental system ; especially after the
commencement of the year 1810, when the two Counts Bern-
storflT had retired from the ministry. He even went so far as to
arrest all the English subjects found in Denmark.

The expedition of the English against Copenhagen, induced
the Emperor Alexander to declare war against them (Nov. 7.)
That monarch entered decidedly into the Continental system,
and demanded of the King of Sweden, that agreeably to the
conventions as to the armed neutrality of the North, he should
enforce the principle by which the Baltic was declared a shut
sea. The King of Sweden replied, that the principles establish-
ed by the conventions of 1780 and 1800 had been abandoned by
that of June 17, 1801 ; that circumstances were entirely changed
since Denmark, on whose co-operations he had formerly reck-
oned, had lost her fleet ; and since, independently of the Sound,
the English had eflfected another entrance into the Baltic, through
the Great Belt ; these objections, however, did not prevent him
from incurring a ruinous war.

A Russian army entered Finland (Feb. 21, 1808.) General
Buxhowden, who had the command, announced to the inhabi-
tants of that province that the Emperor Alexander had thought
it necessary to occupy that country, in order to have a pledge
that the King of Sweden would accept the proposals of peace
which France had made to him. Although the Swedish troops
in Finland were but few in number, and defended it bravely,
they were compelled to yield to the superior force of the Rus-
sians, and to retire into East Bothnia. Sueaborg, the bulwark
of Finland, and deemed impregnable, surrendered (April 6,)
after a siege of a few days by Vice-Admiral Kronstadt. A mani-
festo of the Emperor Alexander (March 28,) had already decla-
red the grand dutchy of Finland to be incorporated with iiis Em-
pire. This une.xpected attack excited the most lively indignation
in Gustavus IV., who so far forgot himself, as to cause M. d'Alo-
peus, the Russian minister at his court, to be arrested. Den-
mark having also declared war against him (Feb. 29,) n Swedish
army of 20,000 men, under the command of Gen. Ann field, un-
dertook the conquest of Norway. But this expedition was repuls-
ed with loss ; and the Danes even made incursions into Sweden.

Field-Marshal Count Klinspor being placed at the head of the
Swedish army, then at Uleaburg began to act on the ofiensive

''^ M

538

CHAPTER XI.

^t<4 >l

in the north of Finland ; while a second annVt under the com
maiid of General Vegesack, disembarked at Abo (June S. The
war was carried on with variable success, but with equal bra-
very on both sides. At the end of the campaign, the Russians
were again masters of Finland. A body of 10,000 English
troops, commanded by the same General Moore who, a few
months after, fell at Corunna in Spain, had arrived in the roads
at Gottenburg (May 17 ;) but as the Swedish King could not
come to an agreement as to the employment of these auxiliaries,
nor even as to the command, he refused to permit the troops to
disembark. He even ordered General Moore, who had repairer
to Stockholm, to be arrested. But having soon found means to
escape, Moore returned to England with his troops. Mr. Thorn-
ton, the British envoy, who had remonstrated against this arbi-
trary conduct of the King, was recalled.

Admiral Chanikoff, with a Russian fleet of twenty-four ships
of war, made an attempt to burn the Swedish fleet, commanded
by Admiral NauckhofT, in Virgin Bay (Aug. 18 ;) but the ar-
rival of an English fleet under Sir James Saumarez in Baltic
Port where NauckhofT was, with a reinforcement of some Eng-
lish ships under the command of Admiral Hood, kept th^m in
blockade for nearly two months. In Finland an armistice iiad
been concluded, (Sept. 1808,) on the footing of the Uti Posside-
tis; but the Emperor Alexander refused to ratify it. Another
was then concluded at Olkioki (Nov. 19,) by which the Swedish
army engaged to evacuate Uleaburg, and to retire behind the
Kemi. Towards the end of the year, the English Cabinet ad-
vised the King of Sweden to make peace, which he obstinately
refused, and even demanded additional supplies to continue the
war with vigom The British Cabinet having declined to grant
them unconditionally, Gustavus was on tne point of coming to
an open rupture with that Court. But his indignation having
pbated, he agreed, soon after, to conclude a n jw convention at
Stockholm (March 1, 1809.) when Great Britain engaged to pay
in advance 300,000/. sterling by quarterly instalments.

Meantime a revolution was fermenting in Sweden, which was
to change the aspect of aflfairs. The haughtiness and obstinacy
of the King, had created him many enemies. The people were
oppressed in a most extraordinary manner by burdens and im-
posts, which Gustavus increased arbitrarily, and without regard
to constitutional forms. The severity with which be punished
the troops, not only when they had committed faults, out even
when they were unsuccessful, had alienated the minds of the
soldiers from him, and especially the guards. A conspiracy
was formed, atthe head of which was Lieutenant-Colonel Adler-

''€*:

riny, under the com

t Abo (June S. The

but with equal bra-

jnpaign, the Russians

of 10,000 English

Moore who, a few

arrived in the roads

dish King could not

t of these auxiliaries,

» permit the troops to

ore, w^ho had repairc >

soon found means to

s troops. Mr. Thom-

ited against this arbi-

t of twenty-four ships
lish fleet, commanded
.ug. 18;) but the ar-
3 Saumarez in Baltic
cement of some Eng-
I Hood, kept th'-Ti in
land an armistice nad
ng of the Uti Posside-
to ratify it. Another
by which the Swedish
d to retire behind the
; English Cabinet ad-
, which he obstinately
ipplies to continue the
iving declined to grant
ne point of coming to
is iridignation having
a njw convention at
Britain engaged to pay
r instalments.
in Sweden, which waa
^htiness and obstinacy
es. The people were
r by burdens and im-
y, and without regard
th which he punished
rjitted faults, but even
ted the minds of the
jards. A conspiracy
tenant-CoIonel Adler-

!^.

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

529

sparre, and Colonel Skioldebrand, and which was joined by the
army of the West, or of Norway, and the troops that were sta-
tioned in the Islands of Aland. Adlersparre and the army of
the West marched on Stockholm. They had arrived at Orebro,
when Field-Marshal Klinspor, who had been disgraced, advised
the King to avert the storm by changing his conduct. On his
refusal, General AcMercieutz arrested him in the name of the
people (March 13.) The Duke of Sudermania, the King's un-
cle, was proclaimed Regent. Gustavus was conveyed to Drott-
tiingholm, and thence to f^ripsholm, where he signed a deed of
abdication, which he afterwards declared on various occasions to
have been voluntary. The revolution was terminated without
commotion and without bloodshed.

The Regent immediately assembled the Diet at Stockholm.
Not content with accepting the abdication of Gustavus, such as
he had given it, they excluded all his descendants from the
throne of Sweden. They offered the crown to the Regent, who
declared his willingness to accept it when they had revised the
constitution. This revision, by which the royal authority was
limited ,\vithout reducing it to a state of humiliation and depen-
dence,! .laving been adopted by the Diet, the Duke of Suderma-
nia was proclaimed King (June 5, 1809,) undc the title of
Cl'.arlej XIII. according to the common but erroneous method
of reckoning the Kings of Sweden. As the now monarch had
no family, they elected as his successor to iae throne. Prince
Christian Augustus of Holstein-Augustenburg, who commanded
the Danish army in Norway, and who had procured the esteem
even of his enemies. Gustavus and his family were permitted
to leave the kingdoni ; and towards the und or the year a new
.''andamental law was published, regulating the order of succes-
sion to the throne.

At Stockholm the people fla ., red themselves that the de-
thronement of Gustavus would speedily bring peace to Sweden ;
bnt it was not so. Alexander I. refused to treat with a govern-
ment so insecure as a regency, and hostilities accordingly con-
tinued. General Knorring who had passed the Gulf of Bothnia
on the ice with 25,000 Russians, took possession of the Islands
of Aland (March 17,) when the Swedish troops stationed there
retired to the continent of Sweden. Knorring granted the
Swedes a cessation of hostilities, to allow them time to make
overtures of peace. Apprized of this arrangement, Count Bar-
clay de Tolly, who haa crossed the Gulf with another body of
Russinns on the side of Ynsa, and taken possession of Umea,
evacuated West Bothnia, and returned to Finfeind. A third
bodv of Russians, tmdcr the command of Schouvaloff, penetrated

"^-.i

530

CHAPTER X:.

into West Bothnia by the route of Tornea, and compelled the
Swedish army of the North, which was commanded by Gripen-
berg, to lay down their arms at Seiwis (March 25.) This san-
guinary affair occurred entirely through ignorance ; because ih
that country, lying under the 66th degree of north latitude, they
were not aware of the armistice granted by Knorring. On the
expiration of the truce, hostilities recommenced in the month of
May, and the Russians took possession of the part of West
Bothnia lying to the north of Umea.

The peace between Russia and Sweden was signed at Fre-
dericsham (Sept. 17.) The latter power adhered to the Con-
tinental system, reserving to herself the importation of salt and
such colonial produce as she could not do without. She sur-
rendered Finland with the whole of East Bothnia, and a part of
West Bothnia lying to the eastward of the river Tornea. The
cession of these provinces which formed the granary of Sweden,
and contained a population of 900,000 souls, was an irreparable
loss to that kingdom, which had only 2,344,000 inhabitants left.
The peace of Predericsham was speedily followed by that of
Jonkoping with Denmark (Dec. 10,) and that at Paris with France
(Jan. 6, 1810.) By the first, every thing was re-established on
Its ancient footing between these two States. But by the peace
of Paris, Sweden renoun''ed the importation of colonial produce,
and only reserved the privilege of importing salt as an article
of absolute necessity. It was on this condition alone that she
could obtain repossession of Pomerania.

The Prince Royal of Sweden having died suddenly, a Diet
assembled at Orebro, and elected John Baptiste Julius Berna-
dotte. Prince of Ponte Corvo, his successor to the throne (May
28.) The election was unanimous ; but out of more than one
thousand of the nobility who had a right to appear at the Diet,
only one hundred and forty were present. Bernadotte accepted
an off*er so honourable. On his arrival at Elsinore, he professed,
as his ancestors had done before him in France, his adherence
to the Confession of Augsburg, which was then the established
religion in Sweden. King Charles XIII. having adopted him
as his son, he was proclaimed at Stockholm (Nov. 5,) eventual
successor to tha throne, under the name of Charles John.
Twelve days afterwards, Sweden declared war against Great
Britain.

In Russia, the Emperor Alexander, since hr iccession to the
throne, had occupied himself incessantly in improving cverv
oranch of the administration. The restrictive regulations whicb
had been published under the last reign were abrogated ; by
(gradual concessions, the peasantry were prepared for a libertv

1, and compelled the
nmanded by Gripen-
irch 25.) This san-
fnorance ; because iti
f north latitude, they
Knorring. On the
need in the month of
of the part of West

I was signed at Fre-
adhered to the Con-
nportation of salt and
) without. She sur-
Bothnia, and a part of
e river Tornea. The
le granary of Sweden,
lis, was an irreparable
14,000 inhabitants left.
y followed by that of
at at Paris with France
^ was re-established on
es. But by the peace
on of colonial produce,
rting salt as an article
ndition alone that she

died suddenly, a Diet
Baptiste Julius Berna-
ior to the throne (May

out of more than one

; to appear at the Diet,

Bernadotte accepted

Elsinore, he professed,
France, his adherence
as then the established
[. having adopted him
>lm (Nov. 6,) eventual
ime of Charles John,
red war against Great

nee hi' iccession to the
y in nnproving cverv \
ctive regulations which
jn were abrogated ; by I
prepared for a liberty '

TERIOD IX. A. D. 1803—1810.

531

which they had not yet enjoyed. The number of universities,
and what is still more essential to civilization, the number of
schools was augmented. The senate, the ministry, and the
civil authorities were reorganized, and new improvements
adopted, tending to abolish arbitrary power, to accelerate the
despatch of business, and to promote the distribution of fail
and impartial justice to all classes of society. Canals were
dug, new avenues were opened for industry, and commerce
flourished, especially the trade of the Black Sea. The only
point in which the Government failed, was in its attempts to re-
store the finances ; but the four wars of the preceding seven
years in which Russia had been engaged, rendered these at-
tempts unavailing.

We have already related the origin, events, and termination
of two of these wars, viz. that of 1806, which ended with the
peace of Tilsit, and procured Russia the province of Bialystock ;
and that of Sweden, which annexed the province of Finland to
that Empire. The war against England continued after the
peace of Fredericsham, but without furnishing any events of
great importance. The two other wars were those against Per-
sia and the Porte. At the beginning of his reign, Alexander
had annexed Georgia to his Empire, which had till then been
the prey of continual disturbances. This accession drew him
into a war with Persia, which did not terminate till 1813. The
principal events of that war were the defeat of the Persians at
£tschmiazin,by Prince Zizianofr(.Tune 20, 1804;) the conquest
of the province of Shirvan by the same Prince (Jan. 1806 ;)
the taking of Derbent by the Russians (July 3 ;) and the defeat
of the Persians by Paulucci, at Alkolwalaki, (Sept. 1, 1810.)

Before speaking of the war between Russia and the Porte, it
will be necessar to lake a brief retrospect of the Ottoman Em-
pire. The cone ition of that Empire, badly organized and worse
governed, wis uch, that every thing tnen presaged its ap-
proaching dissolution ; or in other words, the expulsion of the
Turks from Europe. Every where the authority of the Grand
Seignor was disregarded. Paswan Oglou, the racha of Wid-
din, was in open revolt. Ali Pacha of Janina was obedient
only when it suited his convpiiicnce. The Servians had taken
up arms under theii leader C/crni George, and threatened to
possess themselves of Sabacz and Belgrade. Djezzar, the
Pacha of Syria, without declaring himself an enemy to the
Porte, enjoyed an absolute independence. The sect of the Wa-
habites was in possession of Arabia. Egypt was distracted by
civil wars. Selim III., who had reigned there since 1789, con-
vinced that the Porte could never re-establish its authority e»-

532

CHAPTER XI.

cept by better orgfanizing the army, had endeavoured to model
it on the European system. This attempt afterwards cost him
his throne.

Such was the situation of the Ottoman Empire, when Bona

farte, in order to prevent Alexander from sending supplies to
'russia, resolved to embroil him in a quarrel with the Porte.
General Sebastian!, the French Envoy at Constantinople, con-
trived to obtain so great an influence over the minds of the
Divan, that for some time it was entirely under his direction.
Subjects of dissension were not wanting between Russia and
the Porte ; and these were of such a nature, as to furnish each
partjr with plausible reasons for complaining of the infraction ol
treaties. The French minister was not slow to fan the spark ot
discord. He even induced the Divan to refuse to renew their
treatjr of alliance with England, which was then on the point of
expiring. The Emperor Alexander, foreseeing that there would
be no redress to his complaints, gave orders to General Michel-
son to enter Moldavia and Wallachia. The Porte then declared
war against Russia (Dec. 30 ;) but deviating for the first time
from a barbarous custom, he allowed M. d'ltalinski, the Russian
minister, to depart unmolested.

A few days after, Mr. Arbuthnot, the English minister, quit-
ted Constantinople, after having repeatedly demanded the re-
newal of the alliance, and the expulsion of M. Sebastiani.
Within a few weeks an English fleet of nine ships of the line,
three frigates, and several fire-ships, commanded by Vice- Admi-
ral Duckworth, forced the passage of the Dardanelles, and ap-
giared before Constantinople. Duckworth demanded of the
ivan, that the forts of the Dardanelles and the Turkish fleet
should be surrendered to him ; that the Porte should cede Mol-
davia and Wallachia to Russia, and break ofi" alliance with Bo-
naparte. But instead of profiting by the sudden panic which
his appearance had created, he allowed the Turks time to pu»
themselves in a posture of defence. Encouraged and instructed
by Sebastiani, they made their preparations with such energy
and success, that in the course of eight days the English Vice-
admiral found that he could do nothing better than weigh an-
chor and repass the Dardanelles. On his arrival at Malta, he
took on board 5000 troops, under the command of General Era-
ser, a..d conveyed them to Egypt. The English took posses-
sion of Alexandria (Mar, 20;) but in the course of six months,
they found themselves obliged to surrender that city by capitu-
lation to the Governor of Egypt.

The campaign of 1N07 was not productive of niiy very deci-
sive result, as General Michelson had received orders to detach

intleavoured to model
(t nrterwardri cost him

Empire, when Bona
in sending supplies to
arrel with the Porte.
|t Constantinople, con-
ver the minds of the
ly under his direction,
g between Russia and
ure, as to furnish each
ing of the infraction oi
slow to fan the spark oi
refuse to renew their
ras then on the point of
seeing that there would
ers to General Michel-
Die Porte then declared
inting for the first time
d'ltalinski, the Russian

! English minister, quit-
itedly demanded the re-
sion of M. Sebastiani.
if nine ships of the line,
mmandedby Vice-Admi-
;he Dardanelles, and ap-
^orlh demanded of the
es and the Turkish fleet
! Porte should cede Mol-
;ak off alliance with Bo-
the sudden panic which
i the Turks time to pu*
ncou raged and instructed
rations with such energy
days the English Vice-
ng better than weigh an-
his arrival at Malta, he
jmmand of General Fra-
le English took posses-
he course of six months,
inder that city by capitu-

luctive of any very deci-
received orders to detach

ia>-n-^ i i J7 i 'fi.-(''->i i|> T

:,Sfr*-\ii:^'i

TERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

533

SO,nOO men to oppose the French in Poland. Czerni George
lh(.' leader of the revolted Servians, took Belgrade, Sabacz, and
Nissu, penetrated into Bulgaria, where he was reinforced by some
Hiissinn troops, and gained divers signal advantages. General
Miihclson himself was victorious near Guirdesov (March 17,)
without, however, being able to get possession of that place. The
war was condiirted with more success on the frontiers of the two
Empires in Asia. The Seraskier of Erzerum was entirely de-
feated by General Gudovitch (June 18;) and that victory was
an event so much the more fortunate, as it prevented the Persians
from making a bold diversion in favour of the Turks. The most
important event in the campaign was the naval battle of Lemnos,
where the Russian fleet, under the command of Vice-admiral
Siniawin, defeated the Capitan Pacha, who had sailed from the
Dardanelles after the retreat of Duckworth.

When the Ottoman navy sustained this defeat, Selim III. had
ceased to reign. That prmce had rendered himself odious to
the troops, by the introduction of the European discipline and
dress, known by the name of Nizami gedid, and by his connexion
with the French Emperor. One circumstance, regarded as a fun-
damental law, and according to which a Sultan who had reigned
seven years without having any children was regarded as un-
worthy of the throne, served as a pretext for the military to have
him deposed. Selim, finding it impossible to quell or allay the
revolt, abdicated voluntarily (May 29,) and placed his cousin,
Mustapha IV., on the throne. In the amnesty which that prince
published, he recognised the right of the Janissaries to withdraw
their allegiance from the Grand Seignor who should depart from
the established customs, and that of appointing his successor.

The Emperor Alexander had promised, by the peace of Tilsit,
to evacuate Moldavia and Wallachia, on condition, however, that
the Turks should not occupy these two provinces till after the
conclusion of a definitive peace. The French General Guille-
minot was sent to the Turkish camp to negotiate an armistice
on these terms, which in effect was signed at Slobozia (Aug. 24.)
The evacuation of the two provinces stipulated by that arrange-
ment never took place, as the Emperor of Russia refused to ratify
the treaty, as it contained certain articles which he judged in-
compatible with his dignity ; so that matters remained on their
former footing. That circumstance was one of the pretexts
which Bonaparte alleged for continuing to occupy Prussia.

In the midst of these political quibblings, the time arrived
when a new system of things took place. The Cabinets of St.
Petersburg and Paris were making mutual advances ; and it is
probable that the fate of the Porte, and especially of the pro-

'•I!

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634

CHAPTBR XI.

vinces beyond the Danul^e, was one of the subjects which were
discussed during the intervitw at Erfurt. France lost her influ-
ence at Constantinople, when they saw her enter into an alliance
with Russia ; and from that time England directed the poliiica
of the Divan.

Mustapha IV. had in the i?iean time been hurled from ihe
throne. Mustapha, styled Bairactar or the Standardbearer,
the Pacha of Rudschuk, a man of extraordinary courage, and
one of the most zealous abettors of the changes introduced by
Selim, which he regarded as the sole means of preserving the
State, had marched with 35,000 men to Constantinople, with
the view of reforming or seizing the government, and announced
to Mustapha IV. (July 28, 1808,) that he must resign, and make
way for tne ancient and legitimate Sultan. Mustapha thought
to save his crown by putting Sclim to death ; but Bairactar
proclaimed Mahmoud, the younger brother of Mustapha, who
was then shut up in the Seraglio. Bairactar, invested with abso-
lute power, re-established the corps of the Seimens, or disciplined
troops on the footing of the Europeans, and took vigorous mea-
sures 'ir putting the Empire in a condition to resist the Russians.
These patriotic efforts cost him his life. After the departure of
a part of the Seimens for the army, the Janissaries and the in-
habitants of C onstantinople revolted. At the head of a body of
newly organi;:ed troops, Mustapha defended himself with cou-
rage ; but seeing the moment approach when he must yield to
the superior number of his assailants, he put to .leath the old
Sultan and his mother, whose intrigues had ini .gated the insur-
rection. He retired to a fortress or strong pkce, where he had
deposited a quantity of gunpowder. The Janissaries having
pursued him thither, he set fire to the magazine, and blew him-
self and his persecutors into the air. The young Sultan Mahmoud
had the courage t(> declare that he would retain the European
discipline and dress ; but after being attacked in his place, and
learning that the city was filled with carnago and conflagration,
he gelded to necessity, and restored the privileges of the Janis-
sanes. It is probable they would not have spared his life, but for
the circumstance that he was the last scion of the race of Osman.

The ministers of the Divan, whom General Sebastiani had

fainedoverto the interestsof France, finding themselves entirely
iscarded by the last revolution, Mr. Adair, the new English
minister at Constantinople, concluded a treaty of peace (Jan. 5,
1809,) by which the Porte confirmed to England the commercial
advantages which the treaty of 1675 had granted them, as well
as the navigation of the Black Sea, which Mr. Spencei Smith
had obtained (August 3, 1799.)

subjects which were
France lost her iiiAu*
[renter into an alliance
M directed the politici

been hurled from the

the Standardbearer,

ordinary courage, and

hanges introduced by

!ans of preserving the

) Constantinople, with

nment, and announced

must resign, and make

. Mustapha thought

death ; but Bairactar

her of Mustapha, who

tar, invested with abso-

Seimens, or disciplined

md took vigorous mea-

[» to resist the Russians.

After the departure of

Janissaries and the in-

kt the head of a body of

ided himself with cou-

when he must yield to

ie put to .'eath the old

lad ini .gated the insur-

ng place, where he had

'he Janissaries having

agazine, and blew him-

roung Sultan Mahmoud

1 retain the European

icked in his place, and

nagrj and conflagration,

privileges of the Janis*

! spared his life, but for

n of the race of Osman.

reneral Sebastiani had

ing themselves entirely

dair, the new English

reaiy of peace (Jan. »5,

ingland the commercial

granted them, as «vell

ch Mr. Spencei Smith

PBRIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810.

C35

Immediately after the return of the Emperor Alexander from
Erfurt, an order was given to open negotiations with the Turks.
Tile confercMice took place at Jassy ; but it was immediately
broken utf, uftcr the Russian plenipotentiaries had demundi'd,us
preliminary conditions, the ccs.><ion of Moldavia and Wallachia,
and the expulsion of the British minister from Constantinopk.
Ho.stilities then recommenced. Tli'' Russians were conunanded
by Prince Prosoroffski.and nftorhis death, by Prince Bagration.
Having passed the Danube, they took po.-sseasion of Ismael, and
fought abloody battle at Tarlaritza,riear Silistria (Sept. 26,) which
compelled them to raise the siege of that place. The Grand
Vizier, without taking advantage of his good fortune, retired to
winter-quarters.

The campaign of 1810 was more decisive. General Kamen-
skoi, the second of that name, had taken the chief command of
the Russian army ; his brother of the same name, and General
Markoti', opened it by the taking of Bazardjik (June 4;) the cap-
ture of Silistria (June 11,) by the Commander-in-chief and Count
Langeron, opened the way to Shumla, where the Grand Vizier,
YussuflT Pacha, occupied a strong position ; while General Sa-
banieft' defeated a body of Turkish troops near Rasmird (June
14,) the remains of which were obliged to surrender. The Grand
Vizier then demanded an armistice for negotiating a peace. The
reply was, that it would be concluded immediately on his recog-
nising the Danube as the limit of the two Empires, and promising
to pay a sum of twenty millions of piastres ; the Russians re-
maining in possession of Bessarabia until it was paid. The
Grand Vizier, at the instigation of the British minister, rejected
these conditions. Yussuff Pacha still occupied his camp near
Shumla, the rear of which was protected by the Hemus. Ka-
menskoi the elder, attacked him in his entrenchments, but was
repulsed with loss (June 23 ;) he left his brother at Kargali Dere
(about five leagues from Shumla) at the head of a corps of ob-
servation, while he attempted himself to take Rudschuk by main
force, but was again repulsed. The younger brother then found
himself obliged, by the approach of a superior force, to abandon
his position at Kargali Dere (Aug. 15.) YussufT being deter-
mined to save Rudschuk, detached Mouhtar Pacha with a body
of 40,000 troops, who took up a formidable position at the place
where the Jantra runs into the Danube. Kamenskoi leaving to
Count Langeron the care of the siege of Rudschuk, and ordering
Sass to invest Guirdesov, which is situated on the other side of
the Danube opposite Rudschuk, immediately directed his march
against Mouhtar, and attacked mm in his entrenchments at
Batine. Ai''.er e '.errible carnage, the Russians took possession

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■530

CHACTER Xn.

af the Turkish cnmn by main force (Sept. 7.) when Mouhlar
csca; rtd with a small dctachmoiit. Within afiwdays after,
Count St. Priest took Sczistov, -vith the whole Turkish fleet,
Rudschuk and Guirdesov sun. ud' red on the same day (Sen(.
27,) and Nicnpoli and Widdin in a short time after ; so that by
the end of the campaign the Russians were masters of the whole
right bank of the D.m abe. The Grand Vizier had continued
all this time in his siivnig camp at Shumla. The Servians, as-
sisted by a body of Russians, hod taken possession of the last
fortresses in their country which the Turks had still maintained,
such as Cladova, Oreavn, and Praova.

CHAi'TKR XII.

PERIOD IX.

The declirw and downfall of the Empire of Bonaparte. — a. d
1810—1816.

The power of Napoleon had now attained its greatest height.
The birth of a son. an event, which happened March 20, ISll,
might have given stability to this power, had he known how to
set bounds to his ambition. The heir to the Imperial throne
received the title of King of Rome, a dignity which had been
decreed in anticipation.

The differences that had arisen between Bonaparte and the
Head of the Church, became this year a subject of public dis-
cussion. The will of a despot whom no power could resist, was
made to recoil mo/e than once before the inflexible firmness of
an old man, disarmed and in captivity. Ever since Bonaparte
had deprived the Church of her patrimony, and had been laid
under the ban of excommunication, Pius VII., faithful to his

Erinciples, had refused confirmation to every bishop nominated
V a man who was excluded from the Catholic communion
Bonaparte thought it might be possible to dispense with the
confirmation of the Pope. With this view, he assembled a na-
tional council at Paris (June 17, 1811,) composed of French and
Italian bishops, and in which Cardinal Fesch, the Archbishop
of Lyons, presided. He soon found, however, that despotic au-
thority was of little avail against religious opinions. The pre-
lates, on whose compliance he had calculated with too much
confidence, declared that the Council hud no power to grant that

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izicr had continued
The Servians, as-
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the Imperial throne
ity which had been

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lubject of public dis-
iver could resist, was
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f, and had been laid

VII., faithful to his
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ver, that despotic au-

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PERIOD IX. A. D. ISIO— 1815.

537

rontirmation which was refused by the Pope ; but the arrest of
three of the most refractorv prelates, who were imprisoned :it
Viiiceiines (July 12,) having given rha to a negotiation, the rest
adopted a modified scheme which the government had commu-
nicated to them ; on condition, however, that it should be sub-
mitted for the approbation of the Pope. But his Holiness, who
had still remained at Savona, refused to treat with the Council,
which he declared null and void, as having been convened with-
out his authority. The project of Bonaparte thus completely
failed ; the Council was dismissed ; and twenty of the Sees of
France and Italy were left without bishops.

Before proceeding to detail the grand events which overturned
the dominion of Bonaparte, it will be necessary to advert to what
took place in Spain and Portugal in 1811 and 1812. Sickness,
and the want of provisions, had at length compelled Massena to
effect his retreat (March 1,) during which he sustained con-
siderable loss by the pursuit of Lord Wellington. Thus, for
the third time, was Portugal released from the invasion of the
French army. It would be impossible, within the narrow limits
to which we are here confined, to detail the various marches and
counter-marches of the Generals, or the operations in which they
were engaged. We can only point out the principal actions in
a detached and cursory manner.

Marshal Soult retook Badajos (March 10,) while Lord Wel-
lington still retained his position at Torres Vedras, which he had
quitted with reluctance to go in pursuit of Massena. As the
possession of that place was of importance for the English, Lord
Wellington determined to besiege it ; but Marshal Marmont
who had replaced Massena in the command of the army of the
North, and Marshal Soult who had formed a junction with him,
obliged him to discontinue the siege. He retired to Portugal,
where he remained on the defensive during the rest of the cam-
paign. The advantages of the campaign of 1811 belonged to
General Suchet. After a destructive siege, he took Tortosa by
capitulation (Jan. 1,) and Tarragona by main force (June 28.)
He made himself master of Monteserrat in the same manner.
(Aug. 19.) By a signal victory which he gained over General
Blake (Oct. 25,) at Murviedro, the ancient Saguntum, he pre-
pared the way for the conquest of Valencia, which surrendered
by capitulation (Jan. 9, 1812.)

At the commencement of 1812, the French forces in Spain
amounted to 150,000 men. The allies consisted of 52,000 Eng-
lish troops, 24,000 Portuguese, and 100,000 Spaniards, mcluding
20,000 guerillas. Lord Wellington reduced Ciudad Rodrigo
(Jan. 19,) and then retired once more mto Portugal, where hs

•■!■ ;

,,.. I

:s m

538

CHAPTER XU.

kepi on the defensive for nearly five months. He then attacked
Salamanca, took that city (June 28,) and defeated Marmont in
the famous battle of Areopiles, near Salamanca (July 21,) where
Clause! saved the French nrmy from a complete rout. Joseph
Bonaparte (juitted Madrid. Soult gave orders to raise the siege
of Cadiz, which had continued for two years. He evacuated
Andalusia, and joined King Joseph in Murcia. Wellington,
now master of Burgos, was desirous to get possession also Oi
the citadel of that place, the acquisition of which was necessary
for his safety. But Souham, who had succeeded Marmont, and
Soult having approached on both sides to save the town, the
British General retired again into Portugal, and Joseph Bona-
parte returned to Madrid (Nov. 1.)

At this time the North of Europe had been the theatre ot
great events. For some time, the friendship between the Courts
of St. Petersburg and St. Cloud had been growing cool. The
last usurpations of Bonaparte, during the course of 1810, brought
about a complete rupture. The extension of the French Empire
towards the Baltic, was becoming a subject of suspicion and
anxiety to Alexander. The manner in which Bonaparte had
taken possession of the dutchy of Oldenburg, the patrimony of
his family, was an outrage against his person. The first symp-
tom of discontent which he exhibited, was by abandoning the
Continental system, although indirectly, by an Ukase (Dec. 13,
1810,) which permitted the importation of colonial produce,
while it interdicted that of France, wine only excepted. Under
pretext of organizing a force for the maintenance of these regu-
lations, he raised an army of 90,000 men. A rupture with Bo-
naparte appeared then unavoidable.

In Sweden also there arose new subjects of quarrel. Bona-
parte complained, that in that country the Continental system had
not been put in execution with sufficient rigour. He demanded,
that Charles XIII. should put two thousand sailors into his pay ;
that he should introduce the Tariff of Trianon, and admit French
revenue-officers at Gottenburg. In short, Sweden, Denmark,
and the dutchy of Warsaw, were to form a confederation, under
the protection of France. During these discussions, Marshal
Davoust, who commanded in the north of Germany, took pos-
session of Swedish Pomerania and the Isle of Rugen (Jan. 27,
1812.) Bonaparte offered, however, to surrender that province
to Sweden, and to compel Alexander to restore Finland to her,
if Charles XIII. would agree to furnish 30,000 troops against
Russia.

Sweden, on the contrary, was on terms of conciliation with
that power. By an alliance, which was signed at St. Petersburg

He then attacked
feated Marmont in
ca (July 21,) where
)lete rout. Joseph
rs to raise the siege

:irs. He evacuated
rcia. Wellington,
possession also Oi

'hich was necessary

;eded Marmont, and
save the town, the

, and Joseph Bona-

been the theatre ot

between the Courts

growing cool. The

rse of 1810, brought

the French Empire

of suspicion and

lich Bonaparte had

g, the patrimony of

m. The first symp-

by abandoning the

an Ukase (Dec. 13,

)f colonial produce,

ly excepted. Under

nance of these regu-

A rupture with Bo-

of quarrel. Bona-
itinental system had
rour. He demanded,
sailors into his pay ;
n, and admit French
Sweden, Denmark,
confederation, under
iscussions. Marshal
jrermany, took pos-
of Rugen (Jan. 27,
render that province
tore Finland to her,
1,000 troops against

of conciliation with
ed at St. Petersburg

TEHIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1816.

539

(April 5,) Alexander promised to procure her Norway. A body
of between twenty-five and thirty thousand Swedes, and be-
tween fifteen and twenty thousand Russians, were then to make a
diversion against France on the coasts of Germany. This
arrangement was afterwards changed ; in a conference which
the Emperor had at Abo (Aug. 30,) the latter consented that the
Russian troops, destined to act in Norway, should be transported
to Riga for the defence of Russia ; and that they should not, till
a later period, undertake the conquest of Norway. Charles XIII.
was also reconciled to England, while he had always pretended
to be ignorant of the declaration of war of November 17, 1810.
A treaty of peace was signed at Orebro (July 12,) where they
agreed, though in general terms, on a defensive alliance.

Bonaparte, seeing the moment approach when a rupture with
Russia would take place, hesitated for some time as to the part
he should take with regard to Prussia, in the very centre of
which he still possessed three fortresses. He determined at last
to preserve that State, and to make an ally of it, on which the
principal burden of the war should fall. Four conventions were
concluded at Paris, on the same day (Feb. 24,) between these
two powers. By the principal treaty, an alliance purely defen-
sive was established ; but according to certain secret articles,
that alliance was declared ofTensive ; on such terms, however,
that Prussia^was not to furnish any contingent beyond the Py-
renees in Italy, or against the Turks. By the first convention,
which was likewise to be kept secret, the alliance was expressly
directed against Russia ; and the King of Prussia promised to
furnish a body of 20,000 auxiliary troop3. Glogau, Stettin, and
Custrin, were to be still occupied by the French. The two other
conventions related to the sums still due by Prussia, and the sup-
plies which she had to furnish.

A few days after, there was also signed at Paris a defensive
alliance agamst Russia, between Austria and France. The recip-
rocal supplies to be furnished by each, was 30,000 men ; and the
Court of Vienna was given to nope, that she might again be re-
stored to the possession of the Illyrian Provinces. From that mo-
ment, Bonaparte began to make the most active preparations. By
a decree of the Senate, the whole male population of France, be-
tween the ages of twenty and sixty years, was divided into three
Bans, or bodies summoned by proclamation ; the first of these
contained 100,000 men, to be placed at the disposal of the govern-
ment. The princes of the confederation were to furnish their con-
tingent as follows: — Bavaria 30,000 troops, Westphalia and
Saxony each 20,000, Wurtemberg 14,000, and the kingdom of
Italy 40,000. Negotiations were at that time in progress between

''"'•"r

(■i

•♦««"<.

•1*1

' ,1^

i.kii

110

CIIAriER XII.

Bcinapane and Alexander, apparently with a view of adjusting
their rniilual complaints. But matters had recently taken a
turn, which left little reason to hope that they would come t<»
any satisfactory result. These conferences were continued at
Dresden where Bonaparte had gone, and where he met the Em-
peror and Empress of Austria, the King of Prussia, and a great
number of the princes of the Rhenish Confederation, rhis
was the last moment of Bonaparte's greatness. He waited the
return of Count Narbonne, whom he had sent to Wilna with
his last proposals to the Emperor Alexander. Immediately af-
ter the arrival of the Count, war v/as declared (June 12, 1812.)
The army of Bonaparte amounted to 587,000 men, of which
73,000 were cavalry. It was separated into three grand divi-
sions ; the main armv was composed of the divisions oflia-
voust, Oudinol, and Ney. It contained also the troops of Wur-
temberg, at the head of whom was the Prince Royal. f he
second army, commanded by Eugene Beauharnais, consisted of
the divisions of Junot and St. Cyr ; the Bavarians, under the
command of Deroy and Wrede, made a part of it. The third
army, commanded by Jerome Bonaparte, consisted of the Poles,
under Prince Poniatowski, the Saxons, under Regnier, and the
Westphalians under Vandamme. The Austrian auxiliaries, at
the head of whom was Prince Schwartzenberg, formed the ex-
treme right wing. The corps of Marshal Macdonald and the
Prussians, were placed on the e.xtreme left. To oppose this
immense mass, Alexander had only 260,000 men, divided into
two armies, which were called the first and second armies of
the West. The former, under the command of Count Barclay
de Tolly, extended as far as Grodno, and communicated on the
north side with Count d'Essen, Governor of Riga ; and on the
south, with the second army of the West, at the head of which
was Prince Bagration. But independently of these forces,
there were bodies of reserve, and armies of observation, formed
with all expedition, and ultimately joined with the main armies.
Of the great number of battles fought during this memorable
campaign, we must content ourselves with selecting the more
important ; without entering into a detail of the various move-
ments of either party. The inferiority of numbers which Alex-
ander had to oppose to Bonaparte, seemed to render a defensive
plan advisable, according to which, by destroying all the means
of subsistence in the districts which they abandoned, they might
allure the enemy into countries desolated and destitute of every
resource. Bonaparte allowed himself to be duped by feint re-
treats ; his scheme was to place himself between the two Rus-
sian armies, and after having destroyed botji, to penetrate into

FERIOD IX. A. D. 1810— 1S15.

541

w of adjusting
^cenlly taken u
would come t«i
re continued at
he met the Em-
isia, and a great
'erntion. This
He waited the
I to Wilna with
[mmediately af-
June 12, 1812.)
) men, of which
iree grand divi-
divisions of Da-
j troops of Wur-
e Royal. The
lais, consisted of
rians, under the
f it. The third
Bted of the Poles,
Regnier, and the
m auxiliaries, at
, formed the ex-
cdonald and the
To oppose this
len, divided into
econd armies of
f Count Barclay
nunicated on the
:iga ; and on the
le head of which
of these forces,
iervation, formed
the main armies.
', this memorable
ecting the more
le various move-
aers which Alex-
nder a defensive
ig all the means
oued, they might
estitute of every
ped by feint re-
en the two Rus-
penetrate into

the inferior of the Empire, whore he reckoned on finding im-
mense riches, and to dictate the terms of pence, as he had twice
done at Vienna.

The passage of the Niemen, by the French army, was the
commencement of hostilities (June 22;) llie Russians immedi-
ately began their system of retreat. Bonaparte, at first, suc-
ceeded in penetrating between the two armies; but after several
battles fought by Prince Bagration, more esperinlly ilml at
MohilofT (July 23,) the two armies effected a junction at Smo-
lensko. Jerome Bonaparte and Vandamine, to w hoin Bonaparte
attributed that check, were ordered to quit the French army,
while he himself advanced as far as Witcpsk.

Bonaparte engaged Barclay de Tolly, and fought a bloody
battle with him at Smolensko (Aug. 17.) He took possession
of that city by force, after it had been set on fire by the inhabit-
ants. He found no provisions in it, and scarcely a shelter to
cover his sick and wounded. On the news of the progress
which the French were making, a general enthirsiasm seized
the Russian nation. Alexander had encouraged and e.xcited
this patriotic spirit by repairing to Moscow. The nobles armed
their peasantry, and prepared to fight with desperation to the
last. The two armies of the West were combined into one,
of which Prince KutusofT took the command. He engaged
Bonaparte, and fought the famous battle of Moskwa, about
twenty-five leagues from Moscow (Sept. 7.) Although 65,000
men, including Russians, French, and allies, were left dead on
the field of battle, that action was by no means decisive ; but
KutusofT, whose army was reduced to 70,000 men, while Bona-
parte, out of 150,000, had still 120,000 left, resolved to continue
his retreat, and to leave Moscow at the mercy of the enemy.
The French entered that place seven days after the battle (Sept.
14.) They found that ancient capital entirely abandoned, but
still containing immense wealth which the inhabitants had not
been able to carry with them. Within two days, a conflagra-
tion which broke out in five hundred places at once, reduced
that immense city to a heap of ashes. The precautions of the
incendiaries had been so well taken, that all the efforts of the
French to arrest the progress of the flames proved ineffectual ;
and out of 9158 houses, they could only save 2041. Thus
perished irrevocably the means of subsistence, which had for a
moment revived the courage of the invaders.

In a short time famine began to make its appearance in the
army of Bonaparte. Dissembling the real state of his aflairs,
he twice offered peace. Alexander refused to treat at a time
when the war was only on the eve of commencing ; and told

■^f

tt'lfll

Ija.

^Si

ur '

ij^

flU

H*.{

pi*i

■

S42

CHAPTER Xn.

the Knosinn s;:onernfc, thnt he wns still resolved to rontimie his
retreat, whicli coinmonced acrordingly on the l/)th October.
Mnrshal Mortier, who commanded the rear-^unrd, had orders to
set tiro to the Kremlin, the palace of the ancient Czars of Rus-
sia. Unnaparto directed his march towatds Smolensko, through
a country reduced to an entire desert. He was incessantly
harassed by the Russians, whofc troops, marching at a conve-
nient distance, attacked both his flanks. On arriving at Smo-
lensko (Nov. 9,) after having lost 40,000 men, the army was
assailed by the rigours of winter, which added to their other
misfortunes. Kutusoflf having advanced before them, and tak-
ing post at Kriisnoi, they were obliged to force a passage with
the loss of 13,000 men, and 70 pieces of catmon. Two days
after, 11,000 men of Ney's division, laid down their arms;
35,000 men, and twenty-five cannons without horses, were all
that remained to the conqueror of Moscow.

This exhausted and dispirited army had 50 leagues to march,
before they could reach the Beresina, where other dangers
awaited them. The passage of that river was occupied by the
army of TchichngotT, amounting to 50,000 men, who had arrived
from Moldavia. Another Russian army, under Count Witgen-
stein, was marching from the north to join the former ; but
Marshal Victor's body of reserve, which had arrived from Prus-
sia, intercepted them for a while, without having been able to
prevent their final junction. Victor, Oudinot, and Dombrowski,
brought a reinforcement to Bonaparte of 35,000 men, exhaust-
ed with cold and famine. The passage of the Beresina was
forced with admirable bravery (Nov. 27-28 ;) but it cost France
or the allies, the lives or the liberty of more than 30,000 men.
At this point, the main body of the Russians ceased to pursue
the unfortunate wreck of Bonaparte's army ; nevertheless, as
far as Wiina, they were continually harassed by the Cossacs.
There was besides a frightful deficiency of provisions and
clothing, so that upwards of 2''<.00 men fell a sacrifice to these
privations in their route to W.; .c. This was the first city oi
town that fell in their way ; all i' c others had been completely
destroyed ; the miserable remnant who reached that place (Dec.
9,) were at length supplied with provisions ; but the Cossacs
did not leave them long in the enjoyment of repose. On the
following day they were obliged to commence their retreat to
Kowno, from which they directed their march towards the Vis-
tula. Independently of the corps of Macdonald, who had the
Prussians under his command, and of the auxiliary body of
Austrians and Saxons, none of which took any part in that
route, only 18,800 French and Italians, and about 23,000 Poles
and Germans, found their way back from Russia.

I i'':ii';i'i iTi .nii,»fifaig>ttiii*i''iii»m

1 to rontirme his

lo 15th October.

rd, had orders to

nt C/ara of Kus-

olensko, through

was incessantly

hing nt a conve-

arriving at Smo-

n, the army was

ed lo their other

re them, and tak-

;e a passage with

non. Two days

own their arms ;

horses, were ail

leagues to march,

c other dangers
s occupied by the
I, who had arrived
?r Count Witgen-

the former ; but
rrived from Prus-
i^ing been able to
and Dombrowski,
)00 men, exhaust-
the Bercsina was
but it cost France
han 30,000 men.
i ceased to pursue
; nevertheless, as

by the Cossacs.
f provisions and
I sacrifice to these

the first city oi
[ been completely
d that place (Dec.

but the Cossacs
repose. On the
:e their retreat to
towards the Vis-
ild, who had the
iiixiliary body of
uiy part in that
out 23.000 Poles
ia.

PERIOD !X. A. D. 1810—1815.

Bi?,

boiiapnrlo himself had taken his departure privately on the
6th December, leaving the commiirKl of the army to Murat.
With such despatch had he consulted his safety, tlint on the 18th
of the same month he arrived at Puris.

Prince Schwartzenberg, being joined by General licynicr who
commanded the Saxons, had fought several engagements with
the army of TchichngofT, none of whicii had proved decisive ;
and after the nflliir of the Bercsina he; lind retired towards War-
saw and Pultusk. Several most sanguinary engagements,
although not more decisive than tlie former, had taken place
between Count Witgenstein and the left wing of the French
army ; especially towards the commencement of the campaign,
when Marshals Oudinot and St, Cyr had joined Macdonald.
On these occasions, the Prussians had rendered very important
services ; but the moment General Yorke, who roninmnded
these auxiliaries, had been informed of the retreat of Bonaparte,
he thought himself authorized, not from any political motives
which he would never have avowed, but from the destitute con-
dition in whicli he had been left, to conclude a capitulation with
the Russians, by which he withdrew his whole forces from the
French army (Dec. 29.)

That event was of little importance in itself, although it pro-
duced a very great sensation in Prussia, and served as a pretext
for Bonaparte to demand new levies, without being obliged to
acknowledge the whole extent of the losses he had sustained.
One of his ministers, Regnault d'Angely, spoke of the event, in
his official report, as the Glorious Retreat of Moscow! More-
over, a decree of the Senate, issued at the commencement of the
following j'ear (Jan. 11,) placed a new conscription of 350,000
men at the disposal of the government. In order to raise the
necessary funds for this new armament, Bonaparte seized the
revenues of all the communes in France ; their properties were
sold to promote his schemes ; and he promised to make them
ample reimbursements, by assigning to them annuities on the
civil list.

Nothing annoyed Bonaparte so much as the incessant resis-
tance and opposition of Pope Pius VII. In the hope of gaining
a more easy victory, by bringing that respectable old man nearer
his person, he had ordered him to be conveyed to the Palace of
Fontainbleau, about the middle of the year 1812. After his re-
turn from Moscow, he repaired thither himself, and succeeded
in extorting the Pope's consent to a new Concordat ; on condi-
tion, however, that the stipulations .«hould be kept secret, until
they were examined by a Consistory of Cardinals. But Bona-
parte took an early opportunity of publishing this new Concof

*««•■'•

^ I " Mi

mtnntm

644

CIIAPTBR Xll.

dtti as a lundainctal law of ihe Statc-a circum.tttnce which
inducea FiiH VH. 10 disavow it, and lo declare it null and of

"""USc, a new and lonnidable league wa. preparing again«
Bona. rr After the .•a,npai^^n of 1812, the Kmg of taa
had demanded, agreeal.iy to the convention of l'ebruar>' -Uh,
that Bonaparte should reimburse him for the ninety- hriu,. mil-
1. which he had advanced in furnish.n- m.pplies to the I- reach
a 1 V beyond the sum wbich he owed as his contingent lor the
wT' Tie refusal of Bonaparte to pay that debt, served as a
pretext for Frederic William to sbaUe oil an alliance so contrary
Tthe true interests of his kingdom. An appeal which he made
the nation excited a general enthusiasm ; and as every thing
had been lor five years preparing m secret, in the twinkling of
an eve the Prussian army, which had been reduced to 42.000
men,\vas raised to 12S,6oO. This defection o Prussia fur-
^ish;d Bonaparte with a nlea for demanding new levu^. A de-
cree of the Senate (April 3, 1813,) ordered him 180.000 addi-

'"'The'Trty which was signed at Kalisch and Breslau (Feb.
'27 28 ) laid the foundation of an intimate alliance between Kus-
sia and the King of Prussia. Alexander promised to furnish
150 000 men, a,rd Prussia 80,000, exclusive of the troops in
garrisons and fortresses. Alexander moreover engaged never
fo av down arms until Prussia should be restored to her sta Us-
tical,- financial, and geographical position, '^""^"""'jjb' '" /^^^^
state of that monarchy, such as it had been b..fore the wa of
1806 Within a few days after, these two monarchs had an
interview at Breslau, where a more intimate friendship was con
traded, which subsisted between thein for a long time.

Prince Kutusoflf issued a proclamation, dated from Kahscli
<March 23, 1813,) which announced to the Germans that the
Confederation of the Rhine must henceforth be regarded as dis-
solved The House of xMecklenburg, without waiting for that
annunciation, had already set the first example of abandoning
Jhat league. The allies had flattered themselves that the King
of Saxony would make common cause ^y.lh the.n ; but that
monarch declared that he would remain faithful to his system.
Th"s perseverance of a respectable Prince whose country abound-
ed with resources, did much injury to the common cause. At
a later date, it cost the King of Saxony the half of h.s estates
wiolout taking into account the dutchy of Warsaw, which could
never be regarded but as a precarious possession.

The kinfof Sweden had engaged with Alexander to make
a diversion 5n the rear of Bonaparte ; pn condition that he would

i Mt i r i T-^ifrf •"[•"fT''"' '■•'""'i I ■""•

IMJjiWlM

?.ircuin!<tftnce which
-lure it null and of

ms prcpiiring ngainvt
the King of Prussia
(if Februiir}' 2'lth,
ili(- iiiiR'ly-lhroe iriil-
ppiies to iho French
lis I'untirigent for the
ml debt, served as a
1 iilliante so contrary
)(>cal wiiich he made
; and as every thing
t, in the twinkling of
n reduced to 42.000
:lion of Prussia fur-
ig new levies. A de-
d him ISO.OOO addi-

h and Bresiau (Feb.
nlliaiicc between Rus-

proinised to furnish
sive of the troops in
reover engaged never

restored to her statis-
1, conformably to the
•en before the war of
:wu inonarclis had an
lie friendship was con
' a long time.
1, dated from Kaliscii
he Germans that the
■th be regarded as dis-
thout waiting for that
icample of abandoning
inselves that the King

with them ; but that
aithful to his system,
vhose country abound-
e common cause. At
he half of his estates,

Warsaw, which could
isession.

th Alexander to make
ondition that he would

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1910—1819.

64S

ht'cure him the possession of Norway, or at least the province
of that kingdom callc I the Bishopric of Drontheim. Great Bri-
tain was desirous that that arrangement should be made with
the consent of the Kint; of Denmark, who was offered a com-
pensation on the side of Holstcin, as well as the whole of Swe-
dish Poinerania. Frederi>: VI. having given an absolute refu-
sal, a treaty between Great Britain and Sweden was concluded
at Stockholm (March 3, 1813,) by which the latter engaged to
employ a body of 30,000 troops on ihe Continent in active ser-
vice against France. It was agreeil that this army should act
in concert with the Russian troops placed, in consequence of
other arrangements, under the command of the Prince Royal of
Sweden. Great Britain promised to employ every necessary
means for procuring Sweden the possession of"^ Norway, without
having recourse to force ; unless the King of Denmark should
refuse to accede to the alliance of the North. She promised to
furnish supplies to Sweden, and ceded to her the island of
Guadaloupe. After this alliance with England, Sweden entered
likewise into a league offensive and defensfvuMjyth Prussia, by
a treaty which was signed at Stockholm (April3!zr) Frederic
William promised to despatch 27,000 troops to joir> the army
which the Prince Royal commanded in Germany.

Murat, to whom Bonaparte had intrusted the command of the
few troops which he had brought back from Moscow, abandoned
his commission, and retired to Naples. Eugene Beauhamais
then assumed the command, and arrived with 16,000 men on the
Elbe (March 10;) but after being joined by the French troops
from Pomerania, the Bavarian!), the Saxons, and a corps which
General Grenier had formed, his army by the end of the
month amounted to 87,000 men ; extending along the left bank
of the river from Dresden to Hamburg. In a short time, the
whole disposable force of Bonaparte in Germany were again
augmented to 308,000 men.

The Prussian army consisted of 128,000 troops, including

Sirrisons and bodies of reserve; but the three battalions of
lucher, Yorke, and Bulovr, who had taken tite field, did not
amount to more than 51,000 combatanU. The main army of
the Russians, which, since the death of KutusoiT, had been com-
manded by Count Witgenstein, amounted to 38,000 men ; al-
though the whole of the Russian forces on the Vistula and the
Oder, and between the Oder and the Elbe, amoanted to 166,000
men. The first action, which took place in Germany, was the
battle of Lnneburg (April 2,) where the Russian Creneral Doren-
berg oUiged General Morend's division, on their route from
Pomoninia, to lay down their arms.

■f

>i#»'-i.

i^lii

•J

546

CHAPTBR XII.

On the /5th of April, Bonnpnrto look the command of his army
in person ; and on ihe ad of May wilh 115.000 men, ho rnffHn.id
169,000 Prussians and Russians, under the rommnnd ol W it-
censtein. The advantaifo in ihiil aclion was on the side ol Ihe
French. The loss on hoth sides was equal. The Pru.suins
look 1000 prisoners, wilh 10 pieces of cannon, without them-
selves losing one. The scene of this battle, so glorious for the
Prussians, was in the neighbourhood of Gross-Oorschen, to
which Bonaparte gave the name of Lutzen, in commejnoration
ot the famous Guslavus Adolnhus. In his bulletins he rcprc
sented that battle, which was by no means decisive, as a com-
plete victory, because the ullies did not renew the comb.it, and
next day commenced their retreat to the right bank of the Khine,
to advance nearer to their reinforcements.

They took up a position nt Bautzen. Their numbers there
amounted to 96,000 men, who engaged 148,000 French, under
the command of Bonaparte (May 21, 1813.) The Allies had
determined not to expose themselves to a defeat, but to teriTiinate
every battle the moment they sow it could not turn to their ad-
vantage. Within five dnvs after that engagement, to which the
French gave the name of the battle of Wurtchcn, Blucher gam-
ed a decided advantage ot Haynau over the division of General
Maison, and captured the whole of their artillery. An armis-
lice was then concluded between the two parties at Poischwitz.

This measure was nt the request of Bonaparte, as it was
necessary for him to await the arrival of his reinforcements ,
especially since he found himself menaced on the North by an
invasion of the Swedes. It is probable he would not have taken
this step had he penetrated the views of Austria; but Count
Metternich had dexterously contrived to conceal these from him,
in the several interviews which he had with him at Dresden, so
that the sagacity of that great commander was completely al
fault. The Allies hod no wish for an armistice, which could
only make them lose time, as their armaments were in a stiite
of readiness ; but they consented to it at the re(iuest of Austria,
who hod need of some delay to complete her preparations,
although she was at first actuated by a difl'erent motive. She
had still hopes to avoid the war, by inducing Bonaparte to accept
those moderate conditions of peace to which the Allies had given
their consent bv the treaty of June 27, of which we shall have
occasion to speak immediately. At the time when the armistice
was signed, Count Metternich, who had apprized Bonaparte of
these conditions, had already certain information that ''^e j^)'"
monarchs were not deceived in predicting that they would be
refused. All hopes of peace had now vanished ; but there still

iiiiiiiriMirKiM

Mik

llMHlMltltolllllll«l1»l*l'«

r.TurTif*"^"""' •" ""'' ■■■■■'■''■•'

otnmand of his army

000 men, ho enjpitttjd

c romnmnd of Wit-

hh on the side of the

nal. The Pruxsinns

non, without ihein-

', so glorious for tho

Oross-Oorsphen, to

n, in coinmeniorntion

s hullotins he rcpro-

s dt'iMsive, ns a coin-

•nrw the combiit, i\nd

fht hunk of the Rhine,

Their numbers there
18,000 French, under
i;).) The Allies had
efeat, but to terniinnte

not turn to their nd-
igeinent, to which the
irtchon, Blucher gain-
\e division of GenernI
artillery. An arm is-
parties at Poischwitz.
Bonaparte, as it was
of his reinforcements ,
»d on the North by an
e would not have taken
)f Austria ; but Count
■onceal these from him,
ith him at Dresden, so
ier was completely at
armistice, which could
nments were in a state
the reijuest of Austria,
lete her preparations,
liHeront motive. She
ng Bonaparte to accept
I'h the Allies had given
r which we shall have
mo when the armistice
apprized Bonaparte of
brmation that the two
ag that they would be
mished; hut there still

PRRIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1810.

547

remained another motive, which mode the Court of Vienna
nnxious for further delay.

By a convention .signed iit Dresden (Juno ?,0,) Bonaparte oc-
cepled th<' rnodiiitioii of .\u^tria for a peace, either general or
Conliiientnl ; and the aniiisiice, which was to expire on the 20th
July, was prolonged to the 10th of August. At the request of
Francis I., a sort of congress was opened at Prague. Bonaparto
had no wish for t»eace, as he never supposed that Austria would
declare against him. The Allies haa no wish for it, as they
knew well the disposition of that power ; while Austria, the only
Cabinet which had pacific views, had given up nil hope of ever
bringing Bonaparte to any reasonable terms of accommodation.
Such were the auspices under which the Congress of Prague
was opened. They were discussing the form in which the ne-

fotiations wore to proceed, when the 10th of August arrived,
'he ministers of Russia and Prussia then declared that the
term of the armistice had expired, and consequently that their
diplomatic powers were at an end.

Within two days after, Austria declared war against Bona-
parte ; and the throe monarchs who met at Prague, resolved to
accompany the main army, which was under the command of
Prince Sciiwartzenberg, during the whole campaign.

It will not be improper here to give a summary of the treatien
which constituted the sixth coalition, and procured the accession
of Austria so decisive for the cause of the allies. (1.) The
treaty of Reichenbach (June 14,) between Great Britain ard
Prussia. The former bound herself to pay to the other, within
the six months, 666,666Z. sterling, lor the maintenance of 80,000
troops ; and came under the same engagement with regard to
the augmentation of Prussia, that Russia had entered mto by
the treaty of Kalisch. The King of Prus.sia promised to cede
to the Electorate of Hanover a certain portion of territory, inclu-
ding the principality of Hildesheim, and containing a population
of between Sand 400,000 souls. (2.) The treaty of Reichen-
bach between Great Britain and Russia (June 15,) by which the
former promi.'sed to pay to the other, before the expiration of the
year, 1,333,334/. sterling, for the maintenance of 160,000 men.
(3.) The treaty of Reichenbach, between Austria, Prussia, and
Russia (June 27 ;) the first engaged to declare war against Bo-
naparte, if at the conclusion of the armistice he had not accepted
the conditions of peace which they offered him. The following
are the proposals to which we have already alluded. Austria
on her own behalf, demanded only the restitution of the Illyrian
provinces, and the territory which she had ceded to the dutchy
of Warsaw. Such were the pledges of her sincere desire for

*'!

"•m**

548

CHAPTER Xn.

V «„» Prussia was content to obtain tne
restoring peace to Europe. f'^^^^.^J^J „„d ^hat of Dantzic.
restitution of her part othejme^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^.

and the evacuation of the •°/;'^'''^^ bank of the Elbe,

thus abandoning all her poss°Mo^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^.

Moreover, they f «r'l;*k«.^^^"^„^^^^^ of his last usurpation.
main, and they deprived Bonaparte omy ^^^ .^

in the north of Germany By J^P^Jf JJ,, .ejected, and war
was stipulated, that »f;^««^!,^"°"T'^reJe but on condition that
once begun, they should »« y^f>^';;Pf;^'^^^^ on the footing in
Austria and Pmssia were to te ^ga ^^Confederation of the
which they had b?en in 1805 , ^^^l' „f HoHand and

Rhine should be dissolved , ^^^/"^,^E restored to the throne
Italv secured : and the Ho«s gf Bou^^^^^^^^ (jrcat Bri-

of Spain. (4. T^ie treaty of merswa ^^^^^^^^ to sup-

tain and Russia (July 6 Ww^ch the lor ^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^^.^

port a German legion of 1";""", „ ,%' „,:., /gcpt. 9,) between
\5.) A definitive all ance signed a^^^opluz (J^ep^^ J ^^^^^ ^^

Austria, Prussia, and R^^q-J ^^J Tt ^ ag'^^'^ '° ^'=^""'''"'^'
assist each other with 60,OUU me". " fo^ching as near as

the Austrian nionarchy upon thejJaYPP-- ,^^^^^^ f the
possible to that of l^OS , to d «s^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^„,, ^he House

bhine and the kingdom of West,^hnlia. ^^ ^^^^^^^ ,; ^d at
of Brunswick-Luneburg. (b.) ^ne « j
Toplitz between Austr a arid Great BrUam .^_

fionaparte, on his side, ''^J^^j^'^S entered 1 Hamburg
portant crisis. The Danes had alr«id>enterea ^^^^^^

Lh the ^'^"'^^'-^"^.u^rdu (MaTsS,)^^ he had got
Tettenbom to evacuate that cU>,( Way ^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^^

possession of in the month of March ^n S^^^^ ^^^ ^^..^^^
kpneared ofT Copenhagen (May 31^ aM ^^^^^^ ^^^^,^_

of Norway in favour of ^^J^j^ ' enhS, by which the former

was joined to that of Davoust. ^^^^^^^ ;„

Tile plan of the ^J^P^ntrg by Ae Emperor of Russia,
the conference held at Iraclien^rg y ^^ ^^^^ pje,,,.

the King of Prussia, the P^^^^J^^yl^^rn^^"^ forces of the
potentiaries of Austria ?^J ^^^^^^'^^^^^ «««««""•

fcoalition amounte to 264,000 Aus^^^'^"'''j^„^ '„„^ ^^.e than

Is content to obtain the
y, and that of Dantzic,
upied by the French ;
e left bank of the Elbe.
Westphalia still to re-
ef his last Uburpationa
article of the treaty, it
were rejected, and war
ice but on condition that
placed on the footing in
he Confederation of the
ndence of Holland and
nn restored to the throne
Idau between Great Bri-
former undertook to sup-
er the service of Russia,
oplitz (Sept. 9,) between
h these powers were to
was agreed to reconstruct
1 approaching as near as
the Confederation of the
, and to restore the House
reaty of alliance signed at
ritain.

quired an ally at this im-
dy entered into Hamburg
ivoust compelled General
ay 30,) which he had got
An English fleet having
and demanded the cession
King of Denmark conclu-
logen, by which the former
eden, Russia and Prussia,
lediately after, an army of
r Frederic Prince of Hesse

allies had been settled in
»y the Emperor of Russia,
[ of Sweden, and the pleni-
tritain. The forces of the
strians, 249,000 Russians,
edes; but not more than
mpaign ; of which 192,000
zic, Zamoscz, Glogau, Cus-
m were divided as follows :

fEKIOD IX. A. D. 181U — 181A.

549

The Army of Bohemia, composed of Austrians, Russians, and
Prussians, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg,
amounted to 237,700 men, with 698 pieces of cannon.

The Army of the North, composed of Prussians, Russians,
and Swedes, under the command of the Prince Royal of Swe-
den, amounting to 154,000 men, with 387 pieces of cannon.

The Army of Silesia, composed of Prussians and Russians,
under the command of Blucher, 95,000 strong, with 356 pieces
of cannon.

The Austrian Army of Bavaria, commanded by Prince Reuss,
containing 42,700 men, with 42 pieces of cannon.

The Austrian Army in Italy, under Hiller, 50,000 strong,
with 120 pieces of cannon.

The Austrian Army of Reserve, stuiioned between Vienna
and Presburg, under the command of Duke Ferdinand of Wur-
temberg, 60,000 strong.

The Russian Army of Reserve in Poland, under the command
of Bennigsen, 57,000 strong, with 198 pieces of cannon.

To these forces Bonaparte opposed an army of 462,000 men,
including 80,000 who occupietl thirteen fortresses ; besides the
army of Bavaria, which watched the movements of the Prince of
Reuss, and 40,000 men which Eugene Beauharnais had in Italy.

Hostilities recommenced immediately after the termination of
the armistice ; Silesia, Saxony, and sometimes the frontiers, be-
came the theatre of war. The Prince Royal of Sweden
covered Berlin, which was threatened by Marshal Oudinot.
The battle of Gross-Beeren (Aug. 23,) which was gained by
the Prussian General Bulow, saved the capital. In Silesia,
Blucher, pressed hard by Bonaparte, had retired as far as Jauer ;
but the latter having intelligence of the march of the allies on
Dresden, retraced his steps with a part of his army, while Blucher
attacked Marshal Macdonald at the river Katsbach, and gained
a signal victory (Aug. 26,) in which he took 10,000 prisoners,
and 103 pieces of cannon. General Puthod, who commanded a
detachment of 8000 men, was obliged to surrender at Plagwitz
to Count Langeron (Aug. 29.) The army of Bohemia attacked
Dresden a few hours after Bonaparte had arrived with his rein-
forcements. The battle was bloody, and lasted two days (Aug.
26, 27.) Thirteen thousand Austrians being cut ofT on the lef^
wing, were obliged to lay down their arms ; the allies retired in
good order, leaving 6000 men killed and wounded on the field
of battle, and 26 pieces of cannon in the hands of the French, who
had lost 18,000 men by that victory. General Moreau, who had
come on the invitation of the Prince Royal of Sweden to take
a part in the struggle against Napoleon, was mortally wounded.

'%i\^

!"#'■■

'i 1

would srceed in cutting off the \mperor Akxander f^om h«
armv. The Russians fought the whole day (Aug. dV,) wun ine
Sheroic determination; Count Ostermann having had h«
Wt arm carried off by a shot, the command was taken by
MarsZ MmoradowicJ;. At length they -- -nfo.e^
LvBrnl Austrian and Russ an armies, which the King ot rrussia
had TenUoTela'sistance, and which enabled them tj main-
S the r position. During the night. Barcode lolly had

;,i„„n^'this enterprise. But he sustained a complete roul
ecution °f this enterprise « ^^^^^^^ . ^^^

Sners with 80 pieces of cannon, and a 1 their baggage

;rl^(STwede.T3;ey 'had be.„ able to form . u„,o„ ..

%r.T,73rr™!.°n^emi had pn»eded .his g,e.,b.ul..

Kvel.1 acUoraa.Wachao.Connewm, and Lijdenau. Wm»
rEe were prod.Ktire of any docsive re.ul.; b«. Btah«

detached with 30,00u
e encountered Count
f 8000 Austrians, and
, The King of Prus-
sian general, that un-
Vandamme, the latter
r Alexander from his
ay (Aug. 29,) with the
nann having had his
imand was taken by
y were reinforced by
ich the King of Prussia
nabled them to main-
Barclay de Tolly had
;xt day (Aug. 30,) the
ch was decided by the
ts of NoUeiidorf, lying
e latter finding himself
irced their passage, by
recruits. Vandamme
:h 10,000 men and 81

) get possession of Ber-
'as charged with the ex-
tained a complete rout
Royal of Sweden ; and
•"rench there lost 20,000
and all their baggage,
parte from Dresden, and
where they could unite
1 entirely to their wish,
d of 125,000 men, with
arate armies. But the
the armies of Bohemia,
army of reserve, were
signal. The plains of
His army there amount-
irould have had 301,000,
lians, 136,000 Russians,
able to form a union at

eceded this great battle.

imia alone fought three

and Lindenau. None

ve result; but Blucher

rSRioo u. A. 0. 1810—1815.

551

had encountered Marshal Mannont on the same day, and de-
feated him at Mockern. On the following day, there were some
engagements, but without any decisive result ; they were fought
by the three armies of Sweden, Blucher, and Bennigsen, who
were on their march to the field of battle at Leipsic. Bona-
parte then began to be aware of the danger of nis position.
For the first time he foresaw the possibility of a defeat, and
sent General Bertrand to Weissenfels to secure the bridge over
the Saal. On the 18th, at day-break, he made proposals of an
armistice and peace, through the Austrian General Meerfeld,
who had fallen into his hands ; but both the Oi.e and the other
were disregarded. This was the first day of the battle of Leip-
sic ; the French army resisted with great heroism, and it vran
not till after the arrival of Blucher and the army of Sweden,
that they were compelled to abandon part of their position, and
to retire to the very gates of Leipsic. Several bodies of Saxons
and Wurtembergers passed over on that day to the ranks of the
allies. During the night, the French army effected their retreat
by Leipsic to Weissenfels. Macdonald and Poniatowski had
orders to defend the city. It was attacked by the allies next
day. The French made a vigorous resistance. At ten o'clock
in the morning, Bonaparte escaped among the fugitives, the
cannon, and the equipage which encumbered the gate of Altran-
stadt. The Elster, which runs by the city, had only one bridge,
which they caused to be blown up n:^ soon as Bonaparte had
passed. Thus Macdonald and Poniatowski found themselves
fairly enclosed with their divisions. The latter was drowned
in attempting to swim across the Elster. Macdonald was made
prisoner, as well as the King of Saxony, who had remained at
Leipsic. Bonaparte, on these two days, lost in killed, wounded,
and prisoners, 70,000 men, and 300 pieces of cannon. The
allies purchased that victory by the death of 50,000 of their
troops.

Bonaparte directed hfe flight with all haste towards Mayence,
closely pursued by theVossacs, who made a great many pri-
soners, besides a rich booty in cannon and baggage. When he
arrived at Hanau, he found his passage intercepted by an enemy
which he did not expect. Since the month of August, a nego-
tiation had been set on foot with the King of Bavaria, for in-
ducing him to abandon the cause of Bonaparte. To this mea-
sure he at length agrf-ed, by a convention, which was signed at
Ried (Oct. 8,) which secured to Bavaria the possession of ab-
solute and independent sovereignty, and complete indemnity for
the restitutions which she was, in that case, to make to Austria.

Immediately after the signing the convention at Ried, the

•t0t '

:I1T

-f'

552

CHAPTER Xll.

F^nch Mho in their «tre.thid .rri.ed .t Ge\„h.«.J : ihe-e.

to the left bank of the Khine. iviarsnai oi. \jy , 97 nno men

had left at Dresden, was obliged to capitulate with SJ-JW men.

less did honour to the French general. Sweden

SmiL prloners Jourdan lost the whole of his artillery.
jrprBona^pTrte then abandoned the throne of Spam for over^
The activity of Marshal Suchet defeated an expedition bysea,
IndertXnV Sir John Murmy against Tarragona Lord Wd-

Conne. "sTu-fa^i/ tool? the ^^^^ ^i^^ ^^^ ^'
reinforcements increased the army to 40,000 men.

a body of between

s, began their march

nd ailer taking this

ch he took possession

He encountered the

Gelnhausn ; there a

uccessive days. Bo-

d, and prisoners ; but

L passage, and retired

Cyr, whom Bonaparte

late with 27,000 men.

1 Torgau with 10,000.

arnais had taken the

ipied the lilyrian pro-

rond the Adige, before

f master of the Tyrol

is campaign neverthe-

ice Royal of Sweden
}, the former of whom
)anes had retired into
m, from which however
ed, as they had capitu-
Frederic Vl. concluded
14 ;) and Denmark en-
We shall have occasion
ons that were made by
rk signed a peace with
10,000 men to take the
in engaged to pay them
ime time established be-
;y of Hanover (Feb. 8 ;)
lat of Berlin (Aug. 26.)
rshal Soult from Spain
jton, the Generalissimo
in at Vittoria (June 21,
n the field of battle, and
whole of his artillery,
irone of Spain for ever,
id an expedition by sea,
Tarragona. Lord Wel-
na (Aug. 31,) and com-
dassoa, and to retire on
land, and by means o^
,000 men.

PERIOD IX, A. rt. IfllO — 1816.

553

In Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine and the kingdom
of Westphalia had both been dissolved. The Electors of Han-
over and Hesse, the Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg, were
restored to the possession of their ]iatrimonies, and joined the
alliance. The King of Wurtcmberg, and the Elector of Baden,
made their peace with the Allies, by means of special treaties.
All the princes of the Rhenish Confederation entered into the
Grand Leagu'e, except the King of Saxony, the Grand Duke of
Frankfort, and the princes of Isemburg and Leyen, who were
excluded from it, and their territories treated as conquered
provinces.

On his return to Paris, Bonaparte announced his inteniion of
continuing the war, and caused the Senate to grant him a new
conscription of 300,000 men. Nevertheless he appeared willing
to bring to a conclusion the negotiations which the Allies on the
Continent had set on foot. According to the terms agreed on at
Toplitz, the Rhine was to form the frontier of France, and the
kingdom of Holland was to be given to a brother of Bonaparte ;
but the movements of Napoleon, and the warlike preparations
which he had ordered, gave England an opportunity of changing
the sentiments of these monarchs ; and they determined to adopt
the scheme which Mr. Pitt had contrived in 1805.

The decree of the Senate, of November 18, 1813, completed
the immense number of 1,260,000 men ; all of whom, indepen-
dently of the existing army, had been sacrificed to the restless
ambition of Bonaparte. The forces with which the Allies in-
vaded France, were divided into three armies.

The Army of Bohemia, commanded by Prince Schwarlzenberg,
and composed of 261,000 men, Austrians, Russians, Prussians,
and Germans, was destined to enter France by way of Switzer-
land.

The Army of Silesia, under the command of Blucher, consist-
ing of 137,000 men, Prussians, Russians, and Germans, were to
pa.ss the Rhine near Mayence.

The Army of the North, composed of 174,000 Prussians, Rus-
sians, Germans, Swedes, Dutch and English, were to occupv
Holland and the Netherlands. They were to be commanded by
the Prince Royal of Sweden, and, in his absence, by the Duke
of Saxe-Weimar.

Independently of these three armies, the Allies had an army
of reserve of 236,000 men, and the Austrians had an army of
80,000 men in Italy. About the end of December 1813, and
the beginning of the year 1814, the two first armies entered
France. We can only advert to the principal events of that
ihort campaign. After some actions of minor importance

CHAM'KH XII.

Blucher attacked Bonaparte at Rothiere with » superior force
SK'sJitc of the vigLus resisp^^^^^^^^

B^iug enclosed by Grouchy. Blucher had to cut h.s way at the

P^'C'AlUe'TCh^i'r^^^^^^^^^^^ checl«, combined

Ihe ^''•^; '''"'' J?J^^^^^^ but Prince Schwartzen-

took place at Soissons (March 3.) »'"'='^®' °;, ^; ^l ^ Lfeated

behind the Aisne. Bonaparte havmg P^^^^^o^^^^^^^^

two bodies of Russians under Woronzoff and baken at J^raone

March 7 ) and attacked Blucher at Laon (March 10.) He wa.

J^^'Totaily defeated ; .and that victory -l"-f.f ^^^ ^^^^^^^^

S ^'^-r f Irt'Tu^Aubf w^r^lh b^^^^^^^^^^^
®°""PTLtitTherwere in expectation of seeing the en-

'";""' i.h S; Rh ne as weU as to draw reinforcements from
rTarwls o^EoSn^a^d Alsace, and thus transfer the the-

^'lut bXe briS'the sketch of this campaign to a close,
it wiU be necessary to%ake notice of the Congress of ChatUlon.
whkh was opened^on the 5th February, and which was a con-
i'lionof^thene^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^t^r^eXtL^cIolnJ^F^^^^^ the limUs of that king

h^ ieS^lUnJtrti^olrL^^^^^^^^ hS-i:

?ec? was to giin imf . Whenever his troops had gained any

idJaXrhf immediately heightened his tone; and m he

^n.^r,P of six weeks the allies broke ofT the conference. During

heSting of le Congress of ChatiUon, Austria. Great Bri^n

PrussTand Russia, signed the famous Quadruple Alliance at

SiaumonUMarch .) thich became the basis oAhe new po h U-

ca svTtem If Europe. Each of the allies engaged to maintain

an army^f 5S,000^ men constantly in the field agavnst the com-

mon eJemy. Great Britain promised to furnish to the three

Xroow™?s a subsidy of 5,000.000^ sterling foi the year 1814.

?n such Tway, however, that she was only to pay them propor.

S,^Uv unT he end of tha month m wWh the peace should

{

mmmmlm 'U siim''' -

[vith a superior force,
lich he met with, he

[teen days afterwards,
<toges or Vauchamp.

I to cut his way at the

us checks, combined

t Prince Schwartzen-

tion, began to retreat.

lue on the defensive ;

visions of Bulow and

Igium ; their junction

er took up a position

ed that river, defeated

and Saken at Craone

(March 10.) He was

luced Schwartzenberg

Paris. He engaged

)attle, although bloody,

ition of seeing the en-

arte suddenly resolved

s from their communi-

IV reinforcements from

1 thus transfer the the-

s campaign to a close,
Congress of Chatillon.
and which was a con-
iken place towards the
sented to allow Bona-
the limits of that king-
1 in 1792. Bonaparte
terms, but his real ob-
troops had gained any
his tone ; and in the
le conference. During
ustria, Great Britain,
(Quadruple Alliance at
basis 01 the new politi-
!s engaged to maintain
e field against the com-
10 furnish to the throe
ling foi the year 1814;
\y to pay them propor-
rhich the peace should

.MRk-

PERIOD iX. A. D. 1810—1816,

555

be concluded, adding to these two months for the loturn of the
Austrian and Prussian troops, and four for those of the Russians.
The main object of this alliance was the re-establishment of an
equilibrium of power, based upon the following arrangements :—
German,, to be composed of Sovereign Princes united by a fed-
eral bond : The Confederation of Switzerland to be restored to
its ancient limits and its former independence : Italy to be divi-
ded into Independent States, lying between the Austrian pos-
sessions in that peninsula and France : Holland to be a free
and independent State, under the sovereignty of the Prince of
Orange, with an increase of territory.

Blucher had made himself master of Chalons and Chateau
Thierry, when the allies learned, by an intercepted letter, what
were the plans of Bonaparte. In order to persuade him that
they had taken the alarm at his march, and were resolved to
follow him, they sent Count Winzingerode after him at the head
of a body of 8000 cavalry, which he might easily mistake for
the vanguard of the allies. By this manoeuvre he was deceived,
and continued his route eastwards while the allies directed their
march on Paris. Schwartzenberg attacked and beat the two
divisions of Marmont and Mortier, at Sonde St. Croix (March
25,) while the army of Silesia compelled Puthod and Amey to
surrender near Lafere Champenoise. This double encounter
cost the French 6000 killed, 10,000 prisoners, and 80 pieces of
cannon. Marmont and Mortier retreated to Paris, but they
were defeated at Montmartre and Belleville (March 30.) The
heights, which on that side overlook Paris, were taken by the
allies, who purchased that victory by the loss of 9000 men. A
capitulation for Paris was signed the same night.

The entrance of the allies into the capital of France took
place next day. The Emperor Alexander immediately declared
in his own name, and in that of his allies, that they could treat
no more with Napoleon, or with any of his family. He invited
the Senate to establish a provisional government, — a measure
which was necessary, as the Count D'Artois, who was appoint-
ed the King's Lieutenant-General, had not yet arrived. He
likewise invited that body to prepare a constitution, that is to
say, to submit their counsel and advice to the King, as to the
modifications to be made in the government ; for the French
constitution which is based on the Salic law has been in exis-
tence for centuries. The Emperor Alexander made that propo-
sal to the Senate, as being the only order of the State then in
existence ; but that monarch did not know tha' the Senate was
the last authority to which the public opinion would have granted
any influence, as to the settlement of the condition of France

ill

I 1

*']

■r-y

550

CHAPTKK XII.

Tl« aoT,cr»l Coan.n of the Department otthe Seine, .ndlh.

On .he -»en.h day '•^h" 7'^ „h= f T^J /„,, ,„„„a.
p'Siu'' A to .ev'erlrSnsucce^fnl auemp.., either to
feP„&r or to transit '' '» hj"- ^ ^CE-

Elba, with full X:;'ffitkiraccetd ^ ha^a^^^^^^^ to

Ice in Holland and Belgium, and on the ^f/ "^ 1-^^^^^^^
loiWeZ^Z^ii^^^^^ornihe Duke D'Angouleme then was

^Fr %ttr^° wSarraaSde^^;:^

replace ^^^^ «" f^^X^ (Peb 27,) and compelled that Gen-
the army of So«lt ^t^rthes (teb^/,; J ^^^^ .^^^^.^

^^"Tfitalv an event not a little extraordinary had happened.
mL had turned his back on his benefactor, who had raised

r'tvSo?:ttn's2*'°K«;:i'ir.t^itti^«

wmOKms^^

r the Seine, and the

he return of Louis

1.) In pronouncing

Senate exercised a

Is that body owed its

have ceased with his.

nperor of the French

in all haste towards

1 attempts, either to

on, he was obliged to

Austria, Prussia, and

egates Ney, Macdon-

'gesiion of the Empe-

;ssion of the Island of

ates of Parma for his

that arrangement, to

stranger. Bonaparte

repair to his place of

nfine our observations,
tary events which took
ic side of Lyons. But
in the Pyrenees and in
the Allied Sovereigns,
O'Angouleme then was,
dated January 27th, to
nonth after, he defeated
nd compelled that Gen-
e wishes of the inhabi-
i conducted the Duke
the first city in France
13.) The allies had
id abdicated his crown,
it of these events, fought
Lpril 10.) In that san-
French were totally de-

irdinary had happened,
efactor, who had raised
bvith a diadem. From
he had endeavoured to
use of Austria. After
ontinental system, from
m the ports of his king-
itered into a negotiation

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1816.

657

with the Courts both of London and Vienna, with a view to be
admitted into the grand alliance ; at the same time, he set on
foot an army of 34,000 men, who entered Rome and directed
their march towards Ancona. Austria concluded nn alliance
with him (Jan. 11, 1814.) which puornntcrd to him the posses-
sion of the kingdom of Naples, with the ^o^ervation of nn in-
demnity for the King of Sicily. Inimedintcly after, Murat an*
nounced the change in his political conduct. He blockaded the
citadel of Ancona, took possession of Florence, where his sister-
in-law, the Grand Dutchess, escaped to save her life, and pushed
on as far as Modena. Lord Bentinck, who commanded the
British forces in Sicily, then concluded an armistice with Murat.
Eugene Beauharnais, who had supposed that the Neapolitan
army would come to his succour, was at length undeceived, and
obliged to retreat on the Mincio ; but he fought a battle with
Field-Marshal Bellegardc who commanded the Austrians in the
room of Hiller (Feb. 8,) which cost the latter the loss of 8,500
men. in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Fouche, who was at
Lucca as Commissary-general of Bonaparte, concluded a con-
vention with the Neapolitans, in virtue of which Tuf^cnny was
restored to them. The Viceroy, seeing himself pressed on the
one hand by the Atistrians, and on the other by the Neapolitans ;
and having received intelligence of the entrance of the allies
into Paris, negotiated an annistice, which was signed at Schia-
rino Rizzino (April 16.) A few days after, his friends made an
attempt to have him proclaimed King of Italy by the people of
Milan. But the hatred which the Italians had for the French
prevailed over their attachment to the Viceroy, who wisely adopt*
ed the resolution of surrendering all the places in the kingdom
of Italy to the Austrian troops, and retired with his family to

Germany.

The Senate of France had, with all expedition, completed and
published a pretended constitution (April 6,) in which two things
especially shocked the opinion of the public, viz. the care which
the authors of that production had taken to secure the continu-
anea of their own authority with the revenues thereto attached,
and the violation of the first principle of monarchy of which they
had been guilty, by arrogating to themselves tlie right of con-
fernng ihe crown of France on him to whom it belonged by
bir«h-right, and who, far from renouncing it, had taken care to
secure his rights by fonnalprotestations. Within six days after,
the Count D'Artois, the King's Lieutenant-general, arrived in
Paris, and concluded a convention with the allies (April 23,) as
a prelude to a general peace. They engaged to evacuate <he
territory of France ; and they settled the terms on which the

«»•<'<'

558

CHAPTKR Xli.

places possessed by the French troorw not within their own
territories, wore to Ik- dolivored up. The King of France hud
lauded at Culiii!« (April 2.'3,) iind was slowly onpronching hia
capital. A (lecliirnlion, wliiili he published at St. Ouen (May
2,) nnniillcd the corislitiitioii of the Senate, and promised the
nation ii charter, the nrinr.iples of which were announced in that
same declaration. Next day Louis XVIII. made his solemn

entry into Paris. • , . »ir

The first care of Louis was to conclude peace with the Allies.
A military convention was signed (May 28,) regulating differ-
ent points" regarding the maintenance and inarch of the troops,
hospitals, magazines, Sec. ; and immediately treaties of peace
were concluded with the four grand powers (May 30.) to which
the others acceded. France was to return to her ancient limits
of January 1, 1792, with an augmentation of territory on the
north side. She likewise retained Avignon and the County of
Vnnaissin. Louis XVIII. adhered to the principles of the al-
liance of Chauinonl, as to the political system to bo established
in Europe. England retained Malta, but gave up the French
colonics, with the exception of Tobago, St. Lucia, and the Isle
of Franco, with their dependencies. Guiana, which had been
taken from Portugal, was restored. Certain secret articles
pointed out the manner in which the Allied Powers were todis
pose of the territories surrendered by France ; and annulled the
endowments and donations made by Bonaparte in these territo-
ries. Certain special articles were added with regard to Prus-
sia, which annulled the peace of Tilsit, and all its conseauences.
In the month of June, the Emperor Alexander, the King of
Prussia, and Prince Metternich, repaired to London, where they
concluded a new quadruple alliance, by which the contracting
powers engaged to Keep on foot an army of 75,000 men each,
until the restoration of order in Europe. The sovereigns
agreed also, during their stay in London, that Belgium should
be united to Holland, with which it was to form one and the

same Slate. . ^..„.

Immediately after the conclusion of the peace, Louis AVJll.
published the charter or Constitution which he proposed to the
nation. This was not a constitution in the sense which had
been attached to that word since the year 1789 ; that is to say, a
body of laws or regulations, fully and finally settling the prero-
gative of the King, and the powers of the different authorities,
as well as the rights and privileges of the citizens. It was a
declaration by which the King, in conformity with the principle.s
which had prevailed for a century, modified the Royal power
in certain respects, and promised nevter to exercise it in futur<?

mmimm:

It within their own
I King of Franre hud
Iwly anprouching hia
Id at St. Ouen (May
Ic, and promised the
fre announced in that
II. made his aolcnin

icace with the Allies.
8,) regulating difler-
march of the troops,
ely treaties of peace
■s (May 30,) to which
to her ancient limits
I of territory on the
m iind the County of
principles of the nl-
tern to bo established
gave up the French
. Lucin, and the Isle
ana, which had been
jrtain secret articles
d Powers were to dis
ice ; and annulled the
iparte in these territo-
with regard to Prus-
l all its consequences,
exander, the King of
) London, where they
ivhich the contracting
of 75,000 men each,
le. The sovereigns
that Belgium should
to form one ond the

I)eace, Louis XVIIL
h he proposed to the
he sense which had
789 ; that is to say, a
lly settling the prero-
diirerenl authorities,
e citizens. It was a
y with the principles
ied the Royal power
> exercise it m futur<?

FBRIOU IX. A. D. 1810 — 1816.

65\)

?x«-epi according to the established Umux. Thus the Royal
authority, which Louis XVIII. derived from his iinm-Miors, nnd
which was founded on the oncient order of succession, remained
inviolate and entire in .ill its brunches.

The peace of Paris gave rise to u multitude of ireniies be-
tween the diirercnt powers of Europe. Of these we can only
notice a small number, which we shall do when wo come to
speak of the history of these countries. Meantime, we must
confine our remarks to general alliiirs, and more particularly to
those in which France is concerned.

An orticio in the treaty of Paris, of May 30th, had stipulated
that within the space of two months, the plenipotentiaries of all
the powers who had taken part in the late events, France in-
cluded, should meet in u general Congress* at Vienna, to concert
the necessary arrangements for completing the conditions and
regulation.s of the treaty. The reconstruction of Germany into
a body politic ; the replacing of Prussia and Austria on a foot-
ing analogous to the power which they had enjoyed in 1806
and 1805; the fate of Poland; the establishment of nn inde-
pendent state between France and Germany ; the neutrality of
Switzerland ; the organization of Italy, which had been com-
pletely subverted by Bonaparte ; the regulating of the indem-
nities which might be claimed by the difTerent States who had
taken a part in the war ; and the settling of the territorial ex-
changes to which these claims might give rise, were the im-
portant objects about which the plenipotentiaries were neces-
sarily to be employed. To these England added one subject
which might appear foreign to the business of that Congress,
viz. the question as to the abolition of Negro Slavery ; ano-
ther arose from the most unexpected event of Napoleon's return,
which compelled the sovereigns of Europe again to toke arms,
and to conquer France a second time.

Owing to different causes, the opening of the Congress did
not take place till towards the end of the year. We may men-
tion, with regard to the form of the Congress, thot although it
was composed of the plenipotentairies of all the allies, great and
small, they never held any general Session. The affairs of
Germany were kept distinct from those of the rest of Europe ;
theCongro89,c<msi8ting of the plenipotentiaries of the five great
powers, namely, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and
Russia ; and the other of the plenipotentiaries of these and
the remaining powers ; Spain, Portugal, and Sweden, being
added to the first five. The questions relating to Gerinanvi
were discussed at first by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover,
and Wurtcinberg ; although, afterwards, all the sovereigns of

^c"'.

=rt

5G0

CIIAPTCn Xlfc

Qtimitm were callod i.Uo Uiesc dcliboralion«. There wore
cerlurkir, which were prepared and d.BCU«ed by .pcc.al

'"S'thj^ct which n.-caMoned the greatest dilTu-ulty and
xvhi<h wa« even on the po.n, of di.lurbing ihe ""'"'"""y « »'«'
Cub.nel., wa« the ree,...«tr.clio.. of .he 1 rus.m.. "I""" '^y-
Pru sux ^ns to be restored to all that she hod possesxe.! i. 1S05,
exrepl t»'c principaliti.- of Franconia which w.rem the poS-
«esMm, of Bavuria; the diMricl of Bialy«to.-k which was un-
m" d to Ku.siu; and the gra.»d dntchy of Po«nanm, which
Al'jxunder had declared hi« intention of coniprehendm^ in the
kin«.Unn of Poland which he proposed to restore Frederic
William proinined to cede to Hanover a ^^•7''«0; '"hj^ 'J^d ^^^^^
between three and four hunt^red thouHand ««"1'-^. J 'J 'Jj v
los«eH he claimed an indemnity ; and a. ^'^-I'^-'y^^/^Vw iS
kinirdoin which could offer him compensation, Grea' Brnain,
Russia, and Austria, had consented to an acquisif.n which
smn' d to be justified by the conduct of the King of Saxonj-^
whi, in 1907 hid shared the spoils of Prussia, an J in lSl3 bad
made common cause with Bonaparte. . . . ,

The Emperor Alexander thus uut Prnsaiu in posHession of
Saxony, which her troops had till then ^cumed The man-
ner, h.iwever, in which public opinion ,n England and in Eu-
rope generally had expressed itself against the designs of Prus-
sii und the insinuations of the French minister at Vienna,
' induced Austria and the Cabinet of London to oppose the exe-
cution of this plan, not only by interesting themselves for the
preservation of Saxony, but by disput ng the claims advanced
by Prussia, and refusing to allow the dutchy of War.aw to fall
'mirelv into the hands of Russia. The Emperor Alexander,
who concurred entirely with Prussia, supported it with nil his
efforts. Being apprized, however, that Austria, France, and
Great Britain had just concluded an alliance or agreement which
appeared to have some reference to the fate of Saxony, anc
Wishing to remove every ground of misunderstanding, he offerea
to augment the portion of Prussia on the side of Poland and
advised her to be content with the moiety of Saxony which was
offered her, and to accept the provinces beyond the Rhine, which
were also destined for her. .

The five powers having come to an agreement on these points
(Feb 12.) the king of Saxony was invited to come to the neigh-
bourhood of Vienna. Ever since the battle of Le.psic, that
Prince had remained in a kind of captivity at Fredericsfeldt near
Berlin. He accepted the invitation and repaired to Vienna, bUv
he refused to conient to the cessions, which they demanded of

MHWM

tions. There wura
iliBCUsieil by special

ntc«t (iifficulty, and

he uiuiiiiinity of tho

ruBxiaii iiiuiinnhy.

il possessed in 1S05,

ii wcrt! in tlic pus-'

stork which was un-

(if I'nsnania, which

itniprehendin^' in the

to restore. Frederic

erritory inhiihited by

nd souls. For these

Siixony was the only

isiition, Grca' Britain,

nu atquisifjn which

the Kintf of Saxony,

issia, nnu in 1813 had

usdiu in pos.session of
occupied. The man-
Englund and in Bu-
st the designs of Prus-
h minister at Vienna,
don to oppose the exe-
ig themselves for the
J the claims advanced
Ichy of Warsaw to fall
L* Lmpcror Alexander,
pported it with all his
Austria, France, and
ice or agreement which
! fate of Saxony, anc!
iderstanding, he offerea
c side of Poland, and
'f of Saxony which was
yond the Khinc, which

reemcnt on these points
d to come to the neigh-
battle of Lcipsic, that
y at Fredericsfeldt near
repaired to Vienna, but
lich they demanded of

rRRioD IX. A. 0. 1810—1815.

him. Kin refusal mduced iho five great powers to go to greater
excess; 'hey ordained that, until the King should have come to
n determination, Prussia should remain in possession of the
whnio of Saxony. Frederic Augustus was obliged to yield to
the course of events, and ratified a treoty whicii was signal at
Vienna (May 18.) Thot port of his kingdom which was ceded
to Prussia wos named the Dulchy of Soxony.

The organization of Germany into a Confederacy, to be com-
posed of sovereign States, wa» . next to the settlement of Prussia,
the object which occasioned the greatest embarrassment. But
as France and Russin took no direct part in it, and as for that
reason it can scarcely bo said to belong to tho class of general
affairs, we shall not now speak of it. The same must bo done
with regard to all the negotiations concerning Switzerland and
Italy, of which wf shall speak elsewhere.

Ureat Britain had introduced the question as to Negro Sla-
very, of which, in the name of humanity and religion, she de-
manded the entire aix)lition, by a derree of all Europe. Den-
mark had prohibited thai ifiiffic long before Engkind. Neither
Austria, Russia, Prussia, n«;r Sweden, had any motive for
favouring it ; but it was not the cnse with Portugal, Spam, and
France, who referred, with reason, to the example of England
h'Tself, for resisting the introduction of any sadden change
which would be pernicious to the state of their colonies, and
might ruin the fortune of their subie is. These powers readily
agreed to combine with England foi the abolitmn of the trade ;
but they «rished that it should be left to each of them to fix the
term on which they could do so to the most advantage. This
question was made the subject of discussion in the conferences
between the eight powers at Vienna. Lord Castlereagh de-
manded, in the name of the British government, that all the
powers should announce their support of the general principle
of the abolition of the slave trade, and their wish to carry that
measure iirto effect with the shortest possible delay. This pro-

Ksition was unanimou!>ly adopted ; but the other proposal which
made, to inquire into the possibility of an immediate aboli-
tion, or at least, into the period when each of the powers might
be able to fix its ultimate abolition ; and a third by which he
wished to obtain an immediate partial abolition of that traffic, met
with the most decided resistance on tho part of the three States
who had foreign colonies. As the four other powers had no
right to interfere in the internal legislation of these States, the
Declaration which the Congress published (Feb. 9,) proclaimed
the principle recognised by them all, viz. that the determination
of the period when the trade was to cease generally should be
ieA to the negotiations of the contracting powers.

■m.

if*

.t 'iA

,/ I*!

562

CHAPTER Xn.

Europe was in the enjoyment of apparent tranquillity, when
Bonaparte quitted Elba, landed with a thousand adventurers on
the shores of France (March 1,) invited his former friends to join
him, and deceiving the inhabitants by pretending to be supported
by Austria, marched towards Paris, which he entered within
twenty days after his landing. The King and the Royal Family
were again obliged to retire to Lille. When Louis arrived in
that city, he signed an order for disbanding the army ; but the
greater part of the troops had already ?worn allegiance to Napo-
leon, r inding himself insecure at Lille, the King retired to
Ghent (March 30.) Bonaparte published a new constitution
(April 22,) under the title of The Additional Act to the Consti-
tution of the Empire. One of the articles which it contained,
pronounced the perpetual banishment of the Bourbons. In order
to flatter the partisans of the sovereign people, this act was sub-
mitted for their acceptance, and Bonaparte summoned an assem-
bly of extraordinary deputies, to meet in the Champ de Mai. He
likewise summoned aChamber of the Representatives, or Legis-
lative Body. The meeting of the Champ de Mai was held ; and
two days after, a Chamber of Peers, created by Bonaparte, and
a Chamber of the Representatives of the Nation, opened their
sessions.

So soon as the news of the landing of Bonaparte in France
was received at Vienna, the eight contracting powers published
a declaration, importing, that as Bonaparte had thus broken the
convention which had placed him in the Island of Elba, he had
destroyed the only legal title on which his existence depended,
and had thus forfeited all relations, civil and social. The allied
sovereigiM refused to receive the letters by which he announced
to them that he had again taken possession of the throne of
France. Being of opinion, that the time was come for executing
the engagements tkey had contracted at Chaumont, the four
powers who were parties to that treaty, renewed their engage-
ments by new treaties of allianoe (March 25.) They promised
to combine all their ferces for maintaining the treaty of Paris of
May 30th 1814, and to set on foot, each of them, an army of
180,000 men. By an additional convention, Great Britain un-
dertook to pay to the three others, subsidies to the amount of
5,000,0002. Sterling per annum. All the princes of the Germanic
Confederation* — Portiigal, Sardinia, the Netherlands, Switzer-
land, and Denmark^ acceded to thie alliaDce ; and Great Bri-
tain granted subsidies to them all, proportioned to the forces
which they might fiend into the field. Of all the powers having
plenipotentiaries at Vienna, Spain and Sweden only declined
•entering into thi« ailianoe. The KilMT of S^in refused his ^i"

HMMMIM

£t3«^-

jnt tranquillity, when

usand adventurers on

former friends to join

jnding to he supported

ch he entered within

and the Royal Family

Then Louis arrived in

ng the army ; but the

«n allegiance to Napo-

!, the King retired to

ed a new constitution

mal Act to the ComtU

les which it contained,

he Bourbons. In order

eople, this act was sub-

e summoned an assem-

he Champ de Mai. He

[presentatives, or Legis-

p de Mai was held ; and

aied by Bonaparte, and

e Nation, opened their

of Bonaparte in France
acting powers published
irte had thus broken the
: Island of Elba, he had
his existence depended,
1 and social. The allied
by which he announced
session of the throne of
was come for executing
at Chaumont, the four
renewed their engage-
;h 25.) They promised
ng the treaty of Paris of
ich of them, an army of
mtion, Great Britain un-
bsidios to the amount of
J princes of the Germanic
e Netherlands, Switzer-
llt«Dce ; and Great Bri-
roportioned to the forces
Of all the powers having
1 Sweden only declined
of Spain refused his <«<••

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1815.

563

cession, as being contrary to his dignity ; he would have had no
objections to have become a principal party, and he coH)perated
as such in the war. Sweden was too much occupied with tiie
conquest of Norway to take any part in the deliverance of Franco.

There was still another monarch who had not joined the alli-
ance of Vienna, and that was Murat. The King of France had
refused to acknowledge him as King of Naples, and Lord Cas-
tlereagh had declared at Vienna, that Great Britain could not
treat with Murat, as he haH not fulfilled his engagements ; and,
therefore, that it depended on the Congress to decide as to the
fate of the kingdom of Naples. These declarations induced
Murat to take arms ; nevertheless, he continued to dissemble,
until he learned that Bonaparte had arrived at Lyons. Then
it was that he threw oflf the mask. He marched at the head of
his armv towards the Po, and issued a proclamation (March 30,)
by which he proclaimed liberty to all the inhabitants of Italy.
The Austrian army in that peninsula, immediately put them-
selves in motion to oppose him. Being defeated at Tolentino by
General Bianchi (May 2,) he retreated first to Naples, and after
a short stay there, he took refuge in France. The government
of Ferdinand IV. was again restored.

Meantime, as the partisans of Bonaparte, and the revolution-
ists every where, were at great pains to propagate and cherish
doubts as to the determination of the allied sovereigns to follow
up the act of the 13th March, which had been adopted at a
time when it was hoped that France would have no more need
of foreign aid ; the allied sovereigns deemed it necessary to
make known the expression of their principles by a solemn act ;
to which they gave the form of a proeis-verbal, or edict, signed
by the plenipotentiaries of the eight powers. The publication
of that act was equivalent to a declaration of war against Bona-
parte. It opened the eyes of those credulous followers who had
till then believed that Austria and Russia were on friendly
terms with him.

All the negotiations of the Congress of Vienna beine termi-
nated by the signing of the Act of the Germanic Confederation,
which took place on June 8th, the plenipotentiaries of the eight
contracting powers next day signed the Act of Congress, which
was a recapitulation or abstract of all their preceding regula-
tions, eidier by particular treaties or by declarations and edicts,
(or protocols, aa they are sometimes called at Vienna,) relative
to Poland, die territorial amingements in Germany, the Ger-
manic Confederation, the kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzer
land, Italy, Portugal, the navigation of rivers, the rank of dip-
lomatic agents, and the form of accessions and ratifications of

OBAPTEB XII.

but the «n.gg>« '««'°L?3Cfoteignere»tfootonll»
200,000) »°i"»Vi:°"l ?rhSd & tat amie., vix.

,ta., under the .otttnmnd^arBtel^at^ Sch«.men

"~« .-^^f * M'^iififKifr trr.'j;:i"dt'

c»niiund ot BBcUy de My. inev „^,, „ „,„,e

of 147,000 of the national g^ *mi^g ^hit of the north.
He had divided ^^ ^J^^o « ght^^^^^^^^ ^^^
which he commanded him8eW,con«^^^ ^^^^ j^ l,y de-
Bonaparte opened ^J^^^^g^bre, to attack the Prussian
tochingasecondcornsacrossUieba^^ ^ the superior

General Zieten. who ^„*^ "towards Fleurus. Next day
strength of *« ^'^^-^Y; Ao i k^BrusseU at the head of
the Duke of B™"'^^^ Russians, was killed at QuatreBrw^
12,000 men to support the t]^«»"" ' p h, sustained a consi-

Mwshal Ney, who ^^'^Zl^Z^^\^^'^^^ ««« ^^^S""^^
derahle loss ; on the same d jy Marsha ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

atLigny.but he '^^^^J.*" ^^^^^ atuck WeUington, who

parte from that """Xtlrlooir Mont St. Jean. The combat
Jave him battle » Waterloo, ^ra^^^^^ j„ ^in fou,

5,as continued. wUh ^'^^ 2^„'' "f General Bulow's di-
o'clock. when the P^'J^^J^'in^ person, approached the
vision, and '^«"^*Pff iUron the right wing of the French,
field of battle. .nJ ^^ «^Wt**the whole Prussian army was
while Bonaparte supposed „U had sent against them with a
:nga«.d wiK Groudgr, whom ^«„^J,*Xt ^"^,5 "' W
detochment of 40.000 «»"; "J^ ^ j^ ^gs General Grouchy,
Prussians. Bonaparte sy^d tha^^^^^^^^ ^ marchiiig to the
who after having defeated the rrus ^^^^^ ^j^ i.

^£S.SS^ h?Srh,«« W.™. BLche.

hembly tenninate it*

ng to invade France,
s decided by about
gners set foot on the
jur armies, viz.
ied by Lord Welling-
)verians, and Bruns-
ds and Nassau,
ing of 140,000 PruB-

inded by Schwartzen-
and 124,000 German

000 strong, under the
irere to be stationed be-
y were unable to arrive
campaign was decided

213,000 men.exchisive
employed in garrison.
is. That of the north,
I of 108,000 men.
the 16lh June, by de-
■e, to attack the Prussian
) yield to the superior
rds Fleurus. Next day
Brussels at the head of
as killed at Quatre Braa ;
rench, sustained a consi-
al Blucher was defeated
!8t order to Brie. Bona-
attack Wellington, who
t St. Jean. The combat
, from morning till four
r of General Bulow's di-
i person, approached the
right wing of the French,
hole Prussian army was
sent against them with a
; first appearance of the
it was General Grouchy,
ans, was marching to the
t is, that General Thiel-
hy near Wavre, Blucher

■tttf MB ff'

PEUIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1816.

665

had sent him word to defend himself the best way he could,
and did not allow himself to be diverted from his original plan
of falling upon the right wing of Bonaparte. When Bonaparte
at length discovered his error, he lost ail resolution. His army
were panic-struck, and fled in all directions. He was himself
nearly taken prisoner, having escaped with great difficulty.
The Germans have given this battle the name of Belle Alliance,
from the ho\i ", where Blucher and Wellington met after the
action. Of 120,000 French, 60,000 were either taken or killed
in the two days of the 16th and 18th June 1815 ; 64,000 Eng-
lish, and 50,000 Prussians were engaged in the battle. The
Encflish lost 14,000 men on the 18th, and the Prussians 33,000
in the two engagements of the 16th and 18th.

Bonaparte made his escape to Paris, but the Chamber of
Representatives, composed of the partisans of the Revolution of
1789, and of Republicans who had no wish to promote the in-
terest of Bonaparte, except as an instrument for the execution
of their own plans, determined to take advantage of the con-
tempt into which he had fallen to get rid of his presence. They
required him to abdicate, which he did June 22d, in favour of
his son. The Chambers appointed a government commission,
at the head of which they placed Fouche, who sent deputies to
Heidelberg, where the head-quarters of the Allied Sovereigns
then were, with a commission to treat with them on the basis
of the national independence, and the inviolability of the soil
of France. But as there was no mention made in the proposi-
tions about the restoration of the King, the allies refused to
treat until Bonaparte should first be delivered up to them.

Bonaparte had demanded of Wellington and Blucher, pass-
ports for quitting France ; and on being refused, the govern-
ment commission conveyed him to Rochefort, where he was to
embark on board a frigate and go to America. But Captain
Maitland, who was cruising off that port with an English ves-
sel, prevented him from leaving the place unless he would sur-
render to the English, on which condition he promised to
guarantee his life. The danger becoming every day more
pressing, he at length saw himself compelled to submit. The
Bellerophon, with Bonaparte on board, arrived in Torbay (July
24,) but the English government would not permit the General
to set foot on land. By a convention signed bv the allies at
Paris (Aug. 2,) England took upon herself the charge of keep-
ing guard over him at St. Helena. He was accordingly trans-
ported to that island, where he remained till his death, which
happened May 5th, 1821.

After the battle of the 18th June, Wellington and Blucher

f' i'f

"^i'

CHAPTBB XII.

were enabled to form ^XrHe^S^S^^^-'^ '^^ ^^'''
some attempte to defe'^d Jans.^^^^^^^ announced to

at Sevres and Jl^X ' *[^«'^^rAris vL^ the point of surren-
tr 'it^S'tf^n r: ^7 S. C Jd Umy 30 and
Wrench arJ.y retired ^^f^f^^Xiy, ,„d Louis XVIII
The allies occumed Pans »»^«^T^„\i7dkys after, the Allied
entered on the ¥^7^"^ ^J; JgU^J^^^^ twenty

Sovereigns arrived. A a«"^| °] Imworthv of their country,
nine in3iv««' "^k Vlllr of B^naprt^^^^^^^^ the ban-

as having sat ^V**" ^^n? NitfeeHerso^^^ "^ »»'^^i"«

ishment of the Bourbons. J»«^f " P^^' ^„e remitted to the
betrayed the Kmg before the pSdMarcn.wer ^^

tribunals; thirty-e.ght other '^^^'fj^egici^

Paris. These latter were m general rflaPf «^ '^f , . 'j^ iqIS.

JS^L who. after having o^ed Pardo" - JSU »>ad m Ib^^^

Sgned the banishment °f ^^?J"''^f'^Je ' prTmary regicides, t^
broke his word of honour given to he^P^^^^^^^ g^^^

leave them to the remonstrances of their o^^^^ ^^^

months after (Jan. 12^ 1816) the £^^^^^ elapsed

changed into a law; 7»J .J^^ J^f^oTof France. Of the in-
regicides were to ^^^'^^"^XTribunals two only were executed,
dividuals ar^ign^d before the triW^^^ ^, ^^

SX the^^oifr^e^^^^^^^^^^ »^ ^^« ^»«

threw a veil over all other "imes. ^^^

as It was a P"^/j^*^ /^^ of the commandanU refused to re-
tresses ; and t^e 5^*'f^' P*7/i length convinced, that in order
ceive them. The allies were ai le g necessary to take

to secure the t"^««l"»"'*yr/K\adX^ in 18l4; but it
more vigorous measures than hejjiad^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^

& «-y/i{^^£rrt's^'ekTnuiteS^^^^^

tween France and the Allies ^^ ""IfJ ^^de several lerri-
Switzerland, and the King of Sardmia^ ^^^_

I the army of Schwart*

joined the fugitives :

) save his division, they

too men, which made

igagements took place

iDavoust announced to

Jn the point of surren-

t. Cloud (July 3.) and

uly, and Louis XVIII

ro days after, the Allied

July declared twenty-

orthy of their country,

rte, and sworn the ban-

'sons accused of having

were remitted to the

were ordered to quit

lapsed regicides, that is,

in in 1814, had, in 1816,

for the King never

le primary regicides, to

own conscience. Some

icree of July 24th was

cation, that the relapsed

il of France. Of the in-

, two only were executed,

; a third (Lavalette,^ ? na

e clemency of the King

> the King ; but the war
n the frontiers of France,
iea to occupy all the for*
namandants refused to re*
I convinced, that in order
it was necessary to take
id done in 1814 ; but it
that their plan was suf-
negotiations with France,
nter ; and the treaty be-
ligned until the 20th No-
rance made several lerri*
russia, Austria, Bavaria.

ay to the allies a pecuni-
is of francs; that 150,000

FEBIOD IX. A. D. I8l0 — 1815.

507

of the allied troops should occupy certain places in France fox
6ve years ; and that they should be paid and maintained by
France. By an additional article, they engaged reciprocally to
concert measures for obtaining the entire and final abolition of
the slave trade.

The same day, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia,
concluded an alliance for the following purposes : — (1.) The
maintenance of the treaties and conventions which had just been
concluded: And, (3.) The perpetual exclusion of Napoleon Bo-
nai)arte and his family from the sovereignty of France ; the
maintenance of tranquillity in that country ; and the suppression
of revolutionary principles, so that they might never again dis-
tract France, or threaten the repose of Europe. For this two-
fold object, the allies agreed to furnish their contingents as de-
termined by the alliance of Ghaumont; finally, they agreed to
have another personal conference in the course of the year 1818.

Prior to this quadruple alliance which, by securing the main-
tenance of the Bourbon dynasty on the throne of France, forma
one of the bases of the new political system of Europe, the Em-
perors of Austria and Russia, and the King of Prussia, signed
at Paris (Sept. 26,) an Act, known by the name of the Holy
Alliance, which forms the second basis of the same system. The
real object of this alliance was doubtless a mutual guarantee
against any encroachments which might be made on their sov-
ereign power ; to disguise this, it set forth their firm determina-
tion to take no other rule for their conduct than the precepts of
the Christian religion. They promised to continue in the in-
dissoluble bonds of brotherly union, and to be ready on all occa-
sions, and in all places, to succour and assist each other — to
consider themselves but as members of the same Christian na-
tion, and as delegated by Providence to govern three branches
of the same family ; and finally, to receive into the same alliance
all other powers who were willing to profess the same principles
which had dictated that act. All die Christian powers in Eu-
rope acceded to the treaties and conventions of the 20th Novem-
ber 1815, except Sweden, who had taken no share in the war.
They all entered into the Holy Alliance, except the King of
Great Britain, who, while he fully sanctioned the principles set
forth in that Act, was prevented from signing it, because, accord-
ing to the constitutional custom of England, the Soverei|p signs
nothing without the countersi^ing of a responsible minister.

Here it will be necessary briefly to point out the more impor
tant events which happened since 1811 in the other European
States, and the changes which were produced by the Congress
•f VJAnna.

i»{.i«

568

CnAPTKK Xl(.

Portugal seemed destined to be nothing more in future than
a dependency of Brazil, in a political point of view, as she al-
ready was o^ England with respect to agriculture, industry, and
commerce. The latter power attached so great an importance
to the abolition of the slave trade, that by a treaty signed during
the conferences at Vienna, she had purchased the eflective co-
operation of Portugal in this measure, by giving up all the ad-
vantages which she had reserved to herself by the treaty of Rio
Janeiro of February 19th 1810, which she consented to annul ;
nevertheless, Portugal only prohibited her subjects conditionally
from carrying on the slave trade in that part of Africa lying to
the north of the Equator.

In Spain, the Extraordinary Cortes then assembled at Cadiz,
after having published a decree, January 1, 1811, importing that
they could make no treaty with France until the King enjoyed
full liberty, and that he could not be regarded as at liberty until
he had taken the constitutional oath, finished the work which
they alleged had been intrusted to their hands. Their constitu-
tion, which was founded on the principle of the sovereignty of
the people, intrusted the legislative power to a popular assembly,
and the execution of the laws to a functionary with limited au-
thority, decorated with the title of a King, was published on the
18th of March 1812. In violation of historic truth, it was an-
nounced to the world as the genuine ancient constitution of Spain.
The Cortes terminated their session on the 20th September
1813. The new or ordinary Cortes, convened in the constitu-
tional form at the rate of one deputy for every 70,000 inhabitants,
without distinction of fortune or estate, transferred their sitting
to Madrid towards the end of the year. It was this extraordi-
nary meeting of the Cortes that concluded a treaty of friendship
and alliance (July 28, 1813) with the Emperor of Russia at
Weliki-Louki, where he had then his head-quarters. Alexan-
uu «here acknowledged the Cortes and their constitution. That
acknowledgment was extremely simple. Alexander could no*
treat except with the government then established. That gov-
ernment acted in the name of Ferdinand VII., and their acts
were to be regarded as legitimate so long as that prince had not
disavowed them. The Emperor of Russia had neither the will
nor the power to lend his sanction to an order of things which
had not the approbation of a King, in the full enjoyment of lib-
erty It was in this same sense that the King of Prussia enter-
ed into an alliance with the Spanish government, by a treaty
which was signed at Basle (Jan. 20, 1814.)

After returning from the campaign of 1813, Bonaparte con-
sidering Spain astlost, resolved to set Ferdinand VII. at liberty .

more in future than
It of view, as she a!>

[culture, industry, and
I great an importance
treaty signed during

lased the effective co-
giving up all the ad-

If by the treaty of Rio

e consented to annul ;
subjects conditionally

part of Africa lying to

en assembled at Cadiz,
1, 1811, importing that
until the King enjoyed
irded as at liberty until

Eished the work which
ands. Their constitu-
of the sovereignty of
r to a popular assembly,
ionary with limited au-
ig, was published on the
listoric truth, it was an-
;nt constitution of Spain.
)n the 20th September
nvened in the constitu-
very 70,000 inhabitants,
transferred their sitting

It was this extraordi-
3d a treaty of friendship

Emperor of Russia at
lead-quarters. Alexan-
their constitution. That
Alexander could no*
istablished. That gov-
knd VII., and their acts
; as that prince had not
«ia had neither the will
I order of things which
le full enjoyment of lib-
! King of Prussia enter-
Ifovemment, by a treaty
14.)

f 1813, Bonaparte con-
irdinand VII. at liberty .

PBSIOD u. A. D. 1810—1815.

569

but in the hope of turning that tardy net of justice to his advan-
tage by making that prince his friend, he represented Spain as
overrun with Jacobinism, which was labouring to overturn the
throne, and to substitute a republic in its place ; and he accused
England as having favoured that project. Ferdinand VII. de-
manded that a deputation of the Regency should be admitted to
a personal interview with him, who might inform him as to the
real state of matters. Bonaparte, who executed with despatch
whatever he had once resolved, found this mode of proceeding
too slow. He empowered M. de la Forfit, whom he had sent to
Valencay to conclude a treaty with his captive, by which the
latter was acknowledged King of Spain ; and promised, on his
part, to cause the English troops to evacuate the whole of that
kingdom.

Ferdinand VII. sent his minister, the Duke of San Carlos, to
Madrid, for the ostensible purpose of communicating that treaty
to the Regency, but in reality to take cognizance of the state of
affairs. The Regency refused to acknowledge the treaty of
Valencay, because the King was not at liberty. Bonaparte being
apprized of this difficulty, immediately released Ferdinand (Mar
7, 1814.) He set out on his return to his dominions, but per-
formed his journey slowly, that he might have leisure to obtain
personal information, as to the spirit which reigned among the
Spaniards. He was soon convinced, that the people, attached
to their religion, and to the family of their lawful prince, were
very indifferent about the constitution of the Cortes, and that
that assembly enjoyed very little influence or authority. Sixty
members of the Cortes had even protested against an Act which,
by degrading the Royal Dignity, was preparing the way for es-
tablishing a democracy. On his arrival at Valencia, Ferdinand
abrogated the constitution of 1812, and directed his course to-
wards Madrid, which he entered on the 17th May. The people
every where expressed their attachment to a prince, whose ar-
rival they hailed as the return of justice and order ; though it
is foreign to our purpose to narrate why that hope has not been
realized.

Great Britain was the power which acted the most conspicuous
part during the era of which we have given the preceding his-
torical sketch. The fortitude and perseverance with which she
had prosecuted her system of policy, after the breaking of the
peace of Amiens, was crowned with the most complete success ;
and the plan conceived by Mr. Pitt, but which that great states-
man had despaired ever to see carried into execution, became
the corner-stone of the future policy of Europe. Great Britain
was the mainspring of the alliance, which in 1813 undertook the

670

CHAPTBR Xn.

deliveranco of Europe. She made the most extraordinary efljrta
in raising armies, and granting supplies for maintaining the
troops of the Continental nations.

A mental calamity, with which George III. had been afflicted
towards the end of the year 1810, obliged the Parliament to
establish a regency. That important charge belonged of right
to the presumptive heir to the crown ; but as the ministry were
apprehensive that the Prince of Wales might in some respects
change the system of the existing Government, the Parliament
passed an Act (Dec. 31,) which restricted the authority of the
Regent to one year. The Prince Regent submitted to these
modificutions. He exercised the regency at first with a limited
power ; but, after the year 1812, when the prospects of his Ma*
jesty's recovery were considerably diminished, he continued to
exercise the Royal authority until his father's death, which hap-
pened January 29, 1820, when the Prince then assumed the
title of George IV. The Regent found the kingdom at war with
Russia and Sweden ; but it was only in appearance, and without
effective hostilities. Lord Castlereagh, who, since the year
1812, had been at the head of foreign affairs, listened with eager-
ness to the first advances which these two powers made towards
a mutual accommodation. Peace was signed at Orebro (July
12,) first with Sweden, and a few days after with Russia. The
former, in indirect terms, abandoned the principles of the armed
neutrality of the North. We shall have occasion hereafter to
revert to the stipulations of the treaty signed with Russia.

She was now assailed by a new enemy. A misunderstand-
ing had existed for years, between Great Britain and the United
States of America, in consequence of the various restrictions
she had imposed upon the commerce of Neutrals, the humilia-
ting conditions to which she wished to subject it, and the im-
Eressment of seamen. The Government of the United States
ad sought by various retaliatory measures, to operate upon her
interests and induce her to abandon her system of arbitrary do-
minion over the great highway of nations. From 1806 to 1812
the pacific disposition of the American Government was mani-
fested by the several expedients of NoU'lmportatUm, Embargo,
and Non-Intercourse, to which they had resorted, to prevent an
open rupture, but as none of these resulted in an acknowledg-
ment of her rights on the part of Great Britain, an appeal was
made at last to the Ultima ratio Regum. On the 18tn of June,
1812, an Act of Congress was passed, declaring War against
Great Britain ; the reasons for this measure, as stated in th«
President's manifesto, were " The impressment of American
•eamen by the British, the blockade of her enemies' ports sup

|o8t extraordinary efTirtn
38 for maintaining the

[e III. had been afflicted

iged the Parliament to

harge belonged of right

>ut as the ministry were

might in some respects

irnment, the Parliament

ed the authority of the

tgent submitted to these

cv at first with a limited

the prospects of his Ma>

inished, he continued to

ither's death, which hap-

rince then assumed the

the kingdom at war with

appearance, and without

:h, who, since the year

iairs, listened with eager-

wo powers made towards

I signed at Orebro (July

after with Russia. The

>e principles of the armed

ave occasion hereafter to

signed with Russia.

3my. A misunderstand-

it Britain and the United

r the various restrictions

of Neutrals, the humilia-

to subject it. and the im>

ent of the United States

ures, to operate upon her

it system of arbitrary do-

>n8. From 1806 to 1812

1 Qovernment was mani-

a-Importation, Emiargo,

id resorted, to prevent an

ulted in an acknowledg-

Lt Britain, an appeal was

»t. On the 18th of June,

1, declaring War against

aeasure, as stated in the

ipressment of American

her enemies' ports sup

pruiod iz. a. v. 1810 — 18 lA.

571

porteil by no adequate force, in consequence of which the Ame«
rican commerce had been plundered in every sea, and the
Britifh Orders in Council."

The remoteness of the two contending nations from each
other, rendered it impossible for them to bring together great
armies to meet in a general conflict. On the one side, the Ga-
nadas were attacked by the Americans in many points with
various success, and on the other, the cities and settlements
along the coast of the Atlantic, were subjected to constant an-
noyance and depredation from the British maritime forces. In
acts of hostility of this kind, and in naval combats, the war
was continued for nearly three years, during which abundant
proofs were given that the veteran forces of Great Britain could
claim no other superiority, than that of experience, either in
officers or soldiers, to ."ler enemy. Many of the land, and all
the sea battles were fought with great skill and bravery, and
gallantry by the Americans. The last important occurrence of
the war, was the battle of New Orleans, where the American
forces, under the command of their heroic leader General Jack-
son, gained a brilliant victory.

The situation of Europe was now so entirely changed, that
(he grievances of which America had complained, and for the
redress of which she had fought, must naturally cease, and as
neither party deemed it expedient to continue the war for ab-
stract rights, a peace was settled at Ghent, between the pleni-
potentiaries of the two nations, Dec. 24th, 1814, which restored
friendship and amity, without settling any of the great points in
dispute which had induced a resort to arms.

The financial system of Great Britain underwent an essen-
tial alteration, by the adoption of a plan presented by Mr. Van-
sittart. Chancellor of the Exchequer, introducing certain modi-
fications relative to the accumulation of the sinking fund. The
expenditure of the government in 1815, amounted to 77,337,475/.
sterling, of which Ireland cost 8,651,335/. sterling. The inter-
est of the national debt amounted to 36,607,128/. sterling, of
which 13,188,510/. were applied to the sinking fund. Great
Britain paid to the States of the Continent, in 1813, 11,400,000/.
sterling, under the name of subsidies ; 24,107 ships, and
105,030 seamen, were employed in commerce. In 1814, these
numbers were augmented one-seventh more. At this latter pe-
riod, their navy consisted of 1044 ships of war, 100,000 sailors,
and 32,600 marines ; the land forces amounted to 302,490 men,
including 63,000 militia.

Holland, and the other powers which had anciently formed
the Republic of the United Provinces, after having been for

**-''*

Mii

jl>

r.7'2

CHAPTER Xn.

two years united to France, resumed once more their national
independence. After the battle of Leip^ic, when the corp» ot
Generals Bulow and Winzingerodc approached that country,
;he parlixans of the Prince of Orange at the Hague, with M. ae
liogendurps at their head, mounted the ancient cockade, estab-
lished a provisional government (Nov. 17, 1813,) and invited the
heir of the last Stadtholder to return and place himself at the head
of the government. The French troops, finding themselves ton
weak to defend the country at once against the allies and
against the inhabitants, quietly took th^ir departure. The
Prince of Orange having arrived at Amsterdam (Dec. 1,) was
proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the Low Countries ; but he ac-
cepted that dignity, on the condition that his power should be
limited by a constitution ; a plan of which he caused to be
drawn up, which was adopted and sworn to in an assembly of
the Representatives.

During the sojourn of the allied sovereigns in England, it
was agreed, that in order to oppose a barrier to Frano<f on the
side of the North, Holland and Belgium should be united under
the same government. A treaty, concluded at the samt time
'in London (Aug. 13, 1814,) restored to the Dutch all theii an-
cient colonies, with the exception of the Cape of Good !lope,
Essequibo, Bcrbice, and Demarara. According to the regula-
tions of the treaty of Vienna, the bishopric of Liege, and the
diitchy of Luxemburg were ceded to the sovereign prince, on
condition that he should make a part of the Germanic Con-
federation. It was at this time that he received the title of King
of the Netherlands. By the second treaty of Paris, this new
kingdom obtained a slight increase of territory, and a sum of
sixty millions of francs, for constructing a line of fortresses.
The superficial extent of that kingdom, w^ith the dutchy of Lux-
emburg, amounted to 1164 German square miles, with a popu-
lation of 5,460,000 souls ; besides the population of its colonies,
amounting to 1,726,000 inhabitants.

Switzerland vainly flattered herself, when the allies approach-
ed the Rhine, about the end of 1813, that they would grant
her the privilege of neutrality. The allied troops had to tra-
verse the territory of the Confederacy, in order to enter France.
The public opinion then declared itself, by annulling the Act
of Mediation which united Switzerland to France ; but this
opinion was not unanimous aa to the future constitution of the
country. Of the thirteen ancient cantons, eight concluded a
Confeaeration, on the principle which granted an equality of
rights to every component part pf the union ; and to this the
new cantons gave in their adherence. Berne, Friburg, and

nee more their nalional

ip»ic, when the corp« oi

pproached that country,

t the Hague, with M. ae

c ancient cockade, estab-

17, 1813,) and invited the

phice himself at the head

>8, finding themselves too

e against the allies and

c th»»ir departure. The

msterdam (Dec. 1,) was

Dw Countries ; but he ac-

that his power should be

which he caused to be

vorn to in an assembly of

sovereigns in England, it

barrier to Frano<^ on the
im should be uniteJ under
ncluded at the samt time

to the Dutch all theii an-
1* the Cape of Good !iope,

Accordmg to the regula-
ishopric of Liege, and the
the sovereign prince, on
part of the Germanic Con-
e received the title of King

treaty of Paris, this new
of territory, and a sum of
icting a line of fortresses,
m, with the dutchy of Lux-
square miles, with a popu-
e population of its colonies,

r, when the allies approach-
13, that thoy would grant
le allied troops had to tra-
^, in order to enter France,
(self, by annulling the Act
riand to France ; but this
3 future constitution of the
antons, eight concluded a
ich granted an equality of
he union ; and to this the
ice. Berne, Friburg, and

rsRioD IX. A. D. ISIO — \916.

373

Underwaldcn, refused to take a part in it. The Orisons re-
established their anrient form of government. The interven-
tion of foreign powers quashed the civil war with which thot
country was threatened ; and, after many diflictiltics, a new Con-
federation of the nineteen cantons was signed at Zurich (Sep*
S, 1814.) There still remained, however, several litigated
points to be decided, which were settled by the Congress of Vi-
enna, who declared that the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland
should be acknowledged by all the other power!) ; and that the
Valais, the territory of Geneva, and the principality of Neuf-
chatel, should make a part of the Confederation, as three addi-
tional cantons. The Swiss States having acceded 'u this de-
claration (May 27, 1815,) it was renewed, confirmed, and
sanctioned by the Allied Powers, in a second declaration signed
at Paris (Nov. 20.)

In consequence of a convention concluded at Turin with
Prince Borghese, Governor-General of the French provincis
beyond the Alps, Field-Marshal Bellegarde had taken posscn-
sion of Piedmont in the name of the King of Sardinia. Soon
after, Victor Emanuel took the reins of government into his
own hands. By the first peace of Paris, he recovered Nice,
and about two-thirds of Savoy. A secret article of that treaty
secured him the possession of the State of Genoa, which was
confirmed by the treaty of Vienna ; but he ceded to the canton
of Geneva, certain districts in Savoy. The second peace of
Paris restored him that part of the province which had been
given to France in 1814. The Sardinian monarchy thus com-
prehended an extent of 1277 German square miles, with 3,700,000
inhabitants.

The convention of Fontainbleau had disposed of the dutchics
of Placentia, Parma and Guastalla, in favour of the Archdutchess
Maria Louisa, and her son Napoleon. This disposition was
keenly opposed at Vienna by the House of Bourbon, who es-
poused the interest of the young King of Etruria, the lawful
heir to these estates. Nevertheless the Congress of Vienna ad-
judged the States of Parma to the Archdutchess, without making
mention of her son, or deciding the question as to their rever-
sion ; a point which was not determined till the treaty of Paris
of June 10, 1817, between Austria and Spain. After the death
of the Archdutchess, the States of Parma are to pass to the
Queen-Dowager of Etruria and her son. They contain about
102 German square miles, and 380,000 inhabitants.

The Archduke Francis, the heir of Hercules IIL, the last
Duke of Modena of the House of Est6, was restored to the
dutchy of Modena and its appurtenances, about the beginning

%¥

iH'!

I i ^

574

CHArriR zii.

of 1814. The whole comprehends a surface of 96 Oemian
■quart) inile», with 3HR,00() inhabitants.

According "i nn article of the treaty of Vienna, Lucca, uii*
iter the title of u dutchy, was given up, not to the young King
of Etruria, the lawful heir of the States of Parma, but to his
mother, and her descendants in the male line. Besidns, the
(£m|)eror and the Grand Duke of Tuscany were bound to pay
her II supplementary annuity of 500,000 francs until the deatn
of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa, when the Dutchess of Lucca,
or her heirs, are to have the States of Parma ; and the dutchy
of Lucca is to devolve to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, on con*
dition of ceding to the Duke of Modena certain districts con*
tiguous to his estates. The dutchv of Lucca is the most popu*
lous country in Europe. It contains about 137,500 inhabitants
within 19} German square miles.

T-he grand dutchy of Tuscany, which Murat's troops had oc-
cupied about the beginning of the year 1814, was restored to
Its lawful sovereign, the Archduke Ferdinand III. (May 1,)
who then gave up the Principality of Wurtzburg to the King of
Biivnria. By the treaty of Vienna, that prince obtained the
Stote of Presidi, part of the island of Elba, and the Imperial
fiefs included in these States ; containing 395 German square
miles, with a population of 1,178,000 souls. The property of
Piombino was restored to the family of Buoncompagni, wnom
Bonaparte had dispossessed. The Grand Duke is to succeed
to the dutchy of Lucca ; but he must then give up his territo*
ries in Bohemia to his brother the Emperor, which are very
considerable, and destined for the young Duke of Reichstadt,
son of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa.

Bonaparte having found it impossible to overcome the per*
severance of Pius VII., had set him at liberty about the begin*
ning of the year 1814. The Sovereign Pontiff returned to his
Estates amidst the general acclamations of the people, and re*
stored every thing to the footing in which thev had been before
the usurpation of the French. Nobody was molested on the score
of his political conduct. The Order of the Jesuits, suppressed in
1772, was restored by a Bull, as a necessary barrier to oppose
the doctrines of the Revolution. The Congress of Vienna re-
stored to the Sovereign Pontiff the Marches and Legatines,
with the exception of a portion of territory situated to the north
of the Po, which was annexed to the kingdom of Venetian
Lombardy. The Ecclesiastical States at present contain a sur-
face of 714 German square miles, and a population of 2,424,150.

The extravagant conduct of Mjint, promoted the restoration
of the Bourbons to the throne of Naples. This was effected

surface of 96 Oernmn

of Vienna, Lucca, un-
I, not to the young King
lies of Parma, but to his
lale line. Bcsidns, the
ly were bound to pay
10 francs until the death
n the Dutchess of Lucca,
Parma ; and the dutchy
uke of Tuscany, on con*
■na certain districts con-
Lucca is the most popu*
ilraut 137,600 inhabitants

:h Murat's troops had oc-
ar 1814, was restored to
Ferdinand III. (May 1,)
Wurtzburg to the King of
that prince obtained the
)f Elba, and the Imperial
ning 396 German square
I souls. The property of
of Buonconipagni, whom
Qrand Duke is to succeed
It then give up his territo*
Emperor, which are very
)ung Duke of Reichstadt,
sa.

ible to overcome the per-
at liberty about the begin*
ign Pontiff returned to his
ions of the people, and re-
rhich they had been before
y was molested on the score
if the Jesuits, suppressed in
scessary barrier to oppose
le Congress of Vienna re-
B Marches and Legatines,
rritory situated to the north
the kingdom of Venetian
es at present contain a sur-
1 a population of 2,424,160.
t, promoted the restoration
Naples. This was effected

PIRIOD tx. A. D. ISIO— 1816.

575

by the expedition which Austria had despatched in 1816 against
Murnt, in consequence of the alliance nflfenaivc and dcfensivn
which that Court had concluded at Vienna with Ferdinand IV.
(April 29, 1816,) who made his entry into Naples on the 17th
June. A short time after, Muraf, at the hou.l of a s.imll bond
of adventurers, thought of imitating the example of his brother-
in-law. He landed at Pizzo, in Calabriu (Oct. 9,) where he
hoped to be welcomed by his former adherents ; but the peosanlry
combined against him ; he was arrested, tried by a court-martial,
and shot (Oct. 10.) The kingdom of the Two Sicilies has iiti ex-
tent of a.OS-l German souare miles, and 6,600,000 inhabitants.

After Ferdinand IV. had retired into Sicily, that Island was
put under the protection of the English, who had there an army
of 16,000 men, with a considerable fleet. T^^neral Lord Ben-
tinck, who commanded the English troops, used all his influence
to introduce the British constitution into thai island. The Queen,
who was at the head of the opposite party, was obliged to leave
her family. From that moment the English remained masters
of Palermo. But after the first peace o( Paris, Ferdinand IV.
resumed the reins of government ; and before embarking for
Naples, he annulled the constitution of 1812.

Corfu, the only one of the Ionian islands which was not yet
in the power of the English, was given up to them by the Con-
vention of Paris (April 23, 1814.) The fate of these islands was
decided by a treaty concluded at the same place between Aus-
tria and Great Britain, Prussia and Russia. They were com-
bined into a free and independent State (Nov. 6,) under the
name of the United States of the Ionian Islands, and placed
under the immediate and exclusive protection of Great Britain.

By the events of the years 1813 and 1814, the House of Aus-
tria gained possession of all that belonged to her in Italy, either
before or in consequence of the peace of Campo Formio. A
small portion of Ferrara to the north of the Po was ceded to her,
as were the Valteline, Bormio, Chinvenna, and the ancient re-
public of Ragusa. The Emperor constituted all these posses-
sions into a separate and particular State, under the title of the
Kingdom of Venetian LombardV' Independently of these, Aus-
tria recovered the Illyrian provinces, of which she also formed a
distinct kingdom. By a treaty signed at Vienna with Russia,
she likewise gained possession of the part of eastern Galicia
which she had ceded to Alexander in 1809, and the jxclusive
property of Wieliczka, which was then divided between her and
the dutchy of Warsaw. The Austrian monarchy, in it& present
state, contains a surface of 12,000 German square miles, ud a
population of twenty-nine millions.

hi,.u.

■!l>(

illl

J76

CHAPTBR Zn.

It was a more difficult matter to reorganize the monarchy of
Prussia. We have mentioned the negotiations, in consequence
of which she acquired ahout a half of the kingdom of Saxony.
The Congress of Vienna restored to her not only a part of an-
cient Prussia, now called the Grand Dutchy of Posnania, and
all the other possessions which she had lost by the convention
of Vienna, (Dec. IJ, 1805,) and the peace of Tils?t (with the ex-
ception of Bialystock, Anspach, Baireuth, Westfriesland, and
Hildeshcim,) but also a considerable territory on the left bank of
the Rhine, the Grand Dutchy of Berg, the Dutchy of Westpha
lia, Swedish Pomerania, and the sovereignty of several othei
principalities and counties. These territorial arrangements
were not concluded till 1819. The Prussian monarchy contains
a surface of 4882 German square miles, and a population of
nearly 1 1 millions.

The sovereign princes and free cities of Germany were uni-
ted by an Act signed at Vienna, under the name of the Germanic
Confederation. All the members of the Confederacy enjoy
full sovereignty, and all take part in the deliberations of the
Diet in matters relating to the general interests of the Union.
The thirty-nine members, however, in ordinary cases, have only
seventeen votes ; eleven of the States have each a vote, while
six collective votes belong lo the other twenty-eight. Never-
theless, in constitutional questions, the thirty-nine members have
in all seventy votes ; each State having at least one, and several
of them two, three, and four votes. The members have the
right of concluding every kind of alliance, provided these are
not directed against the safety of the Union or of its constituent
members. The equality of civil and religious rights was secured
to all who professed the Christian religion.

Various States, forming the Germanic Confederation, under-
went certain changes in their territorial possessions; but the
negotiations by which they were definitively settled did not take

Silace till 1819. The kingdom of Bavaria received indemnity
or the various restitutions which had been made to the Court
of Vienna. Its superficial extent amounts to 1505 square miles,
and 3,300.000 inhabitants. The grand dutchy of Hesse-Darm-
stadt obtained considerable augmentations on the left bank of
the Rhine, and has a surface of 314 German square miles, and
six hundred thousand inhabitants. The Grand Duke of Olden-
burg, the Duke of Saxe Cobourg, the Landgrave of Hesse-
Homberg, and the House of Orange-Nassau, obtained territorial
indemnities on the Rhine. The Elector of Hesse-Cassel obtained
the grand dutchy of Fulda ; his dominions consisted of 200 Ger-
.•iMUi<%quare miles, and 540,000 inhabitants. The King of

.ni'ze the monarchy of

iations, in consequence

Ihe kingdom of Saxony.

not only a part of an-

tchy of Posnania, and

lost by the convention

e of Til9?t (with the ex-

th, Westfriesland, and

itory on the lef^ bank of

the Dutchy of Westpha

eignty of several othei

territorial arrangements

issian monarchy contains

iles, and a population of

of Germany were uni-
te name of the Germanic
the Confederacy enjoy
the deliberations of the
il interests of the Union,
ordinary cases, have only
have each a vole, while
ler twenty-eight. Never-
I thirty-nine members have
g at least one, and several
The members have the
iance, provided these are
Union or of its constituent
ligious rights was secured
igion.

nic Confederation, under-
}rial possessions; but the
litively settled did not take
ivaria received indemnity
1 been made to the Court
lunts to 1505 square miles,
id dutchy of Hesse-Darm-
ations on the left bank of
Grerman square miles, and
^he Grand Duke of Olden-
the Landgrave of Hease-
f assau, obtained territorial
ir of Hesse-Cassel obtained
lions consisted of 200 Ger-
babitants. The King of

Battle of Waterloo ; contest of the 42d Regiment for the
French Eagles. P. 365.

BatUe of Waterloo. P. 505.

- II t

ii!

"~i

PERJODIX. A. D. 18I<V-1816.

577

S^£n^t"1I!S"'J.«e hundred .„dnine„.h™. .b».-
sand inhabitants. Oprinftn Confederation, an

the city of Cracow, a d;«^"=» S°"''\'7/„X^;^^^^^

burg instead of Pomejama. ^^ ^h wf^j^^^^^^ ,», «,^ect8, and
It r^Suce'd ToTntxC: in^^^^^^^ Icel-d. of 242^ Gennan
Tqlare miles, and 1,700,000 il'hab.^m^. , „^

578

CHAPTER XII.

^ Cwav to the crown of Sweden, as an independent kingdom.

W an act signed between the two kingdoms (July 31, 1816.) By
KeatyTvienna. Sweden ceded to Prussia her part of Po-
meranTe^^and thus was separated from Germany of wh,ch she
had been a constituent member since the time of Guf ™s Ado^
phus. The Swedish monarchy contams an extent ol 16,16U
Can square miles, with 3,330,000 inhabitants.

.^rbJ^=t-nKi-^raS3

the commaS having been obliged to send five divisions of his
army roPo and. caused Silistria to be demolished^ presemng
onTv Rudsdiuk on the right bank of the Danube. The indolent
jiff Pacha who had n'ever stirred from his c-P ^^t .Schu^^^^^
was renlaced by Achmet Aga, an active and enterprising Uene
XvhS?fo?a reinforcement of 35.000 men, mostly composed
^excellent cavalry, and supported by a form^ab e art Her j
served by French officers. Achmet marched against Kutusott
and thei? first encounter took place two leagues from R«d ^huk
(July 4 ) Eight thousand Russians, who were opposed to the
vanlua d of the Ottomans, under the command of Ah Pacha
werfdriven back to their entrenchments. Two days af er the
Grind vSer attacked the Russian entrenchments and disbdged
the Toops, who threw themselves into Rudschuk. It was chiefly
the infaS^ of the Russians who suffered in that battle, owing
to the suSiority of the Turkish cavalry, who would have cut
Lm toTe e" but for a bold manoeuvre of Count Langeron,
wCsaUi^d from Rudschuk, at the head of the garrison, and pro-
«cted the fugitives. The Grand Vizier advanced under the
lery cannoi S the fortress. He attempted three times m one
day to carry it by force, but was repulsed each Ume (Ju y »•)
KnVEollowing night the Russians quitted Rudschuk and
p3the Danube* But the Turks having got mtelhgencej
Entered the town, and prevented them from carrying off all theit
urtillerv and ammunition. ui . ,

The army of Kutusoff. weakened by disease was unable w

. 16 ) The National
!0,) decreed the union
I independent kingdom,
sentative constitution,
established in Sweden
King of Norway (No> .
d Norway were sealed,
Tis (July 31, 1815.) By
'russia her part of Po-
ermany, of which she
time of Gustavus Adol-
is an extent of 16,150
habitants.

ing the period of which
mention any event of
oncerned. She was at
'ersia, when Bonaparte
11. The Russians acted
rince Kutusoff, who had
?nd five divisions of his
! demolished, preserving
Danube. The indolent
m his camp at Schumla
! and enterprising Gene*
JO men, mostly composed
Y a formidable artillery
arched against KutusoiT
leagues from Rudschuk
who were opposed to the
command of Ali Pacha,
Its. Two days after the
enchments and dislodged
iludschuk. It was chiefly
ired in that battle, owing
Iry, who would have cut
rre of Count Langeron,
of the garrison, and pro-
ier advanced under the
ipted three times in one
Ised each time (July 9.)
IS quitted Rudschuk and
having got intelligence,
rom carrying off all their

r disease was unable lo

PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1916.

579

orevenl the Grand Vizier from taking possession of the islands
of the Danube, where they constructed bridges, by means of
which they made frequent incursions into Wallachia. A body
of 15,000 troops, commanded by Ismael Bey, took up the same
post on the right bank, so that the Grand Vizier passed the river
at the head of the main body of the forces (Aug. 3.) But the
face of affairs soon changed. General Ouwaroff having brought
a reinforcement of 50,000 men to Kutusoff, the latter detached
Markoff, with a considerable body, who passed to the right bank
of the Danube, marched in all haste against the Turkish reserve
before Rudschuk, seized their camp, and thus cut off the retreat
of the Grand Vizier. The latter found means to enter Rudschuk
in a small bark, leaving his army in Wallachia, under the com-
mand of Seraskier Tchaban-Ogfou, who was blockaded at Slo-
bosia by Kutusoff, and after being reduced to 25,000 men, they
were obliged to capitulate and lay down their arms (Dec. 8.)

The Grand Vizier then Hemanded a suspension of arms,
which was signed at Guirdt ov. Negotiations were opened at
Bucharest, but the Turks refused for a long time to make the
smallest cession of territory. At length the mediation of Eng-
land, Swed 3n, and Russia, overcame the obstinacy of the Divan,
and peace was signed (May 28, 1812.) The Porte ceded to
Russia about one-third of Moldavia, as far as the Pruth, the for-
tresses of Choczin and Bender, and the whole of Bessarabia,
with Ismael and Kilia ; an amnesty was granted to the Servians.
Although England had appeared at Bucharest as a mediating
power, nevertheless her treaty of peace with Russia was not de-
finitively signed, although actual hostilities had long ceased be-
tween the two powers. The treaty was at length concluded at
Orebro (July 18,) the stipulations of which are not all known.
The peace with Persia was signed in the Russian camp, near
the river Seiwa, under the mediation of England, and confirmed
the following year at Teflis (Sept. 16, 1814.) Persia ceded to
Russia Daghistan, Shirvan, Derbent, and in general the whole
western coast of the Caspian Sea, renounced her pretensions on
Georgia, Imirete, Guriel, and Mingrelia, and recognised the ex-
clusive right of Russ'a to the navigation of the Caspian Sea.

At the Congress o.' Vienna the Emperor of Russia had ob-
tained the kingdom of Poland, as we have already noticed. In-
dependently of that acquisition, the Russian Empire had an
extent of 346,000 German square miles, 80,000 of which are in
Europe, the population of which amounts to thirty-eight mil-
lions. The population of the whole Empire is estimated at forty-
six millions.

A concurrence of fortunate circumstances has saved the Otto-

i|'!j

580

CIUFTBK Zn.

man Empire from that ruin with which it has mow than o«»j
Ln threatened, and for which the total d'««o\"'«'» ?f "•f'"
order in the provinces has along time prepared the wav. If
"ill survives the«e evils, its preservation 'M«'»»?P» »° ^Xe
bed to that Holy Alliance which has sometimes be." *e objm
of terror to the torte, he having been persuaded that th«Ch"j;-
San League was directed against IVfahometanism. I w this
lurnicSTthe offspring of ignorance and weakness, which at u
recJit date had Searly precipitated him into imprudent mea
S; If the wisdom ofliis powerful neighbour had known, in
S circumstances, to unite his own glory with the maintenance
*pS?ranquillity. of which Europe stands so m«ch in need
Se Porte, enlfghtened as to his true interest by Austria, Great
BriSnndVs other allies, will feel that he cannot prolong his
orexistence. except hy substituunp: the "'gnof J'»»'"' '^^
the principles of humanity, to despoUsm and cnMlty.

"f-l

t has more than
|1 dinsolution of social
pared the way. If it
perhaps to be ascri-
times bebii the object
luaded that that Chris-
imetanism. It is this
weakness, which at u
1 into imprudent mea -
ghbour had known, m

<f with the maintenance

ands so much in need,
rest by Austria, Great
he cannot prolong his

e reign of justice, and

and cruelty.

A. O. 1815—1880. — FftAMOt.

C?l

CHAPTER XIII.

From ih» Second Restnration of the Bourbons, A. D> 1815, to
the Revolution in Poland, A. D. 1830.

France had undergone a complete change since the Revolu.
tion, which the Bourbons, on their return could not understand.
Their unfitness to reign over this people, was immediately per-
ceived, and gave rise to a prevalent saying, that " the Bourbons,
in their misfortunes, had learned nothing, and had forgotten
nothing.'*

The open acknowledgment, made by Louis XVIII., that he
owed his throne to the Prince Regent of Bngland, was a dis-
honor, and a source of deep mortification, to the pride of France ;
and the country was farther humiliated, by the presence of the
Allied troops, occupying two.thirds of its territory to enforce
tranquillity.

By the treaty of Paris,* concluded November 20th, 1816, be-
tween Louis XVIII. and the three Allied powers, France was to
pay 700 million francs, give up seventeen citadels for a pe-
riod of three to five years, and support one hundred and fifty
thousand foreign troops, within her territories ; besides satisfy-
ing all public and private claims, to the countries belonging to
the Allied sovereigns, and restoring the productions in the arts,
and the treasures of literature, with which as spoils. Napoleon
had enriched the capital. This last requisition was enforced,
while the Allied troops were in possession of Paris.

Richlieu, the new minister, signed this treaty in September,
1815, which occasioned great dissatisfaction to the French na-
tion. The King opened the new chamber, November, 4, 1816,
with a speech which diacloaed the unfavorable condition of
France.

February 5, 1817. The liberals and independents obtained
the law of election ; and, on March 6, 1818, the recruiting law ;
but were not successful in their attacks on the laws of excep.
t-on, which prevented the complete operation of the- charter.
The machinations of the ultras, led to troubles in OvenoMe, in

* ••• pafai nSuM SM, vol. a.

'»■< ,

ciii\i*rER xni«
T ifli7 Julv 1819, their intrijruc* wore

1816. and in Lyons l^^^-, . ''"'LMThU to engage the Allies
di«:ovc.red. which were. »*;i'"8 »«« t'^^/" ^he minirtry then
to assist them in abolishing "'° ^Jr^;;* ^ A loan of 24
Sclined towards t)'ejibc«rals, and nat^^^^^^^^ Allied troop,

million, was required toeffectth^ecva^^^^^^^ ^^ j^^^,,

stationed in Franco, in »»»« *"'"7"A?x.la.Chapcllc, October 9,
mined upon by the ^o"?"^ °J,,^^ elaimifor the oxjicnscs
1818; akd for the ^^'"^"i.lSSf He^ wa. a successful
of the war, and «»TVlnmtv t th«« settl.menU, in the
exhibition of French .J'Pl"";"^^^; ^"f tK^
matter of liquidations, the paymtm ot i ^ .^^.^^^ ^^

the treaty of 1815. ••«du«e^iXn, in payment of these 1390
postponed till ^^y«^;]jKanc /equivalent to a capital of
millions, a rent of l^'O*"'""" "j This was about a seventh

I pelle, to 265 million francs. ^ „..„_j :„to Uie Quadruple alii

^November 12. /'«««« ^°^J'.'"""t^^^^^
1 ance of the great E>|">pe•"^f^J^^«'^^ ^^^ So of election, and

lieu, dcclai-cd himself against the exB^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ j^^ ^^

against the operation ol ^*'«j;".f K^°"„i^;, Dccazes was vi^
^division in the nunistry, ^^^"'^YSon, and liberal princi-
torious over the ultras, m the luw ol elec^n ^ j ^^.^

pies. A new niinirtry was ""^es waTmade president of the
Lee 1815. The ^^ « i^ o^rthi^Tn, Nov. 19, 1819 ; Des.
ministerial ~»n«l»V*'^!*=\rdrnde™ of the charter, resigned.
«,les, St. Cyr and Louis, ^e defenders ot ^^„^^^,„y ^es.

Decaxes now became P""?^ ™'" '^^^^^ the cen«.rship of the
pecting the construction f ^fP ^J.^"^^;^^^^ were writers

Be'=U,'£tSubS'iui, an^d Ficvee for the

"X session fn>m 1819 to iSiroTtle^'r^r^^^^^^^^^^^^
ofthe most violent kind; ^*»«2 "rrmnh^r *. Uecazes, pre..-
ed in excluding Grogoire ^^^^^^^ ,.*;7J7„,^,rate cou
dent of the 'ninistry attemiHed ^J^o..^ ,^,,,o„«, Febru-
several judicious bdls. 1" ^ne "i. -..j^j^d. a new law

ary 13, 1820, the Duk« ^^ "f/^JL'fp'.'^t and Decazes resign-

Vaiele.

•tijlii^'

their intriffuc* were

to cngaf^e the Allina

The ministry then

party. A loon of 24

tion of the Allied troop*

818, which was deter>

a-Chapeiie, October 9,

cldima for the oxiicnsea

Here wax n successful

hcse setthiinents, in the

le debt acknowledged by

to 1390 millions was

payment of these 1390

equivalent to n capital of

lis was about a seventh

three millions was grant-

claims of British subjects.

3r reduced at Aix>la>Cha>

d into tlie Quadruple alii
^he prime minister. Rich,
ling mode of election, and
lonal system, which led to
comber, Decazcs was vie-
lection, and liberal princi-
y Louis XVIII. the third
vas made president of the
jwn, Nov. 19, 1819 ; Des-
I of the charter, resigned.
In the controversy res-
■ and the censorship of the
d Dunoyer, were writers
naU, and Fiovee for the

IS one of continued conflict
5 of the royalists succeed-
;hnmher: Decazes, presi-
3w a m<xli!rato course, by
>f tlujse agitations, Febru-
(issassinuted. A new law
lost, and Uticazes resign-
as president was formed,
illy increased their powei
r 1822, to the tnlento of

■|JH

A. D. 1816 — 1880. — FRANCE.

583

Attempts were made for continuing restrictions of the press,
till the close of the s(>sHion of 1820, and to impose further re*,
trictions, which met with decided opposition, and ended in the
resignation of the ministry, December 17, 1821, when a sixth
Ministry was formod in which ultra-royulism was triumphant.
The censorship of the press ceased February 6, 1822.

A conspiracy in favor of young Na|K)le<)n, was discovered in
lS21,and the following year s«!veral revolts were projected in
difTercnt garrisons. Villelc, minister of finance, displayed
great adroitness in the management of ufTuirs, and was appoint-
ed president of the ministry, having great influence over public
opinion. The ultras were dissatisfied with his moderation ; he
is represented to have perfectly scicn that France could no longer
be governed by an alisolute monarchy. The most important
events of the session of 1822, were re-lutive to the new tariflf,
and the foreign ]Mjlioy in regard to Greece and Spain. The
liberal party wer<! ilefeatcd on the great question, whether
Franc(! should by forc(! supjircss democratic principles in Spain
On the 28th January, 1823, the King announced in the opening
of ;lie session, the march of an army of 100,000 French troops
for Spain. This <,<x|)edition evinced the determination of the
fanatic party, to put down liberal principles, and restore Ferdi-
nand to despotic power. In this attempt, they were but too suc-
cessful.

A Loan of 100 millions was required for the extraordinary
expenses of 1823. The Spanish campaign of six months
tended to strengthen legitimacy, and cost Franco 207,827,000
francs.

In 1824, the estimate of expenditure amounted to 900 mil-
lions. This was owing to the payment by government of the
clergy, now become dci>cndent upon the state. The greatest
eflforts were now made by the ecclesiastics, to regain for the
church its former splendor, in spite of the feelings and habits of
the people. They wielded their immense power, in the most
arbitrary and bigoted manner; but with all their zeal, were un-
able to check the diflusion of knowledge — and so far from re-
Uirding the marcli of liberty, they hastened the overthrow of
despotism und bigotry, and eventually brought on their own
downfall.

Louis XVIII. died September 16, and was succeeded by his
brother, Charles X. We have now hastily sketched the events
during the reign of Louis XVIII., enough to show the temper of
the French people, and the obnoxious measures which tended
to bring about a new revolution in France.

Charles X. commenced his reign by a declaration ofhu inten-

584

CUAPTKR XIII.

Uoiu of coiifirining tliu churtor. Ho uppuinUtd iia a member of
the ininiatorial council, tlio Duke d'Angouleine, und suppre«ed
the cenaorahip of the journals, Sept. 29. Ap|)uintud the Ck>unt
do Clermont-Tonnere, minuter of war. Viliule gained the cuu>
fidcnco of the King, by his prudent nieusuroM, while Chateau,
briond proved, in the Journal des I)<;buts, (his paper,) a [wwer.
ful and eloquent opponent. In the session of I8i25, Villele was
triumphant : a bill granting 1,000,000,000 francs in rents, as an
indemnification to the emigrants, proved u source of great dis-
satisfaction to the nation, which became uppwMid to the course
now pursued. The civil list of the King was established at
26,000,000 francs, annually, for life, tuid thut of the royal fami.
ly at 7,000,000. On the 29th May, the splendid coronation of
Charles X. took place ut Uheims, at which time he took the
oath to govern according tu the charter. In the session of 1826,
thirty .one new peers were created to strengtlicn the ministry.

In August, 1824, General Lafayette landed in New York,
upon an invitation of James Monroe, President of the United
States, and was received with the warmest expressions of grati-
tude, a nation could bestow ; and passed through the twenty,
four states of the union, with more than the splendor of a tri>
umphal procession. Me sailed hence, in the Brandywine, a
Umted States ship, September 7, 1825, and arrived at Havre,
where every demonstration of attachment and respect was shown
him. The following particulars respt^cting the " Nation's (xuest,"
on his return to France, in 1825, cannot fail to be interesting,
[t shows that the affectionate and enthusiastic welcome of him
by liis countrymen, on his return to France, and portrays the
sullen hatred of the Bourbons to every thing that partook of
liberty. At Rouen, the " Guest of the American people," the
veteran defender of liberty in the two hemispliert^, was honor-
ed with a public dinner, accompanied by his family and friends.
In the evening, a great concourse of citizens, among whom
were many females, repaired to the house of M. Cabanon, where
Lafayette appeared on the balcony, and the greatest tranquillity
reigned. Notwithstanding the crowd, a serenade, given to the
General, was heard with perfect silence. At this juncture there
arrived, from two opposite directions, a detachment of the guard
royal, and a detachment of gendarmes. The former conduct-
ed itself with moderation ; the latter proceeded to dis|)erae the
CoeaMe citizens, whose meeting had occasioned no distur-
ce, and made a charge upon the populace, treating them as
rioters ; when many were thrown down and murdered ; and thn
whole assembly was put to flight, by the sabres and bayonets of
the gendarmes ; and by them many were arrested. To justify

inU'd UM a meniber of

Ic'ine, und supprened

Ap|M>intu(l tho Count

'illulu ^uinud tho cuii.

lusurcs, wiiilu Chutoau.

, (hia paper,) u power.

in of lH'i5, Villtilo was

•0 francs in ronts, as an
u sourco of Kruut (lis-

3 uppoMid to tho courao

in^ was established at

that of tho royal fami>
splendid coronation of

hic^h tinie ho took the
In tlio st-ssion of 1826,

n^thcn the ministry,
landed in New York,
President of tho United
lest expressions of grati<
Kid through tlie twenty,
iui the splendor of a tri*
, in tho Brandy wino, a
, and arrived at Havre,
nt nnd respect was shown
ig the " Nation's (iuest,"
lot fail to be interesting,
lusiastic welcome of him
ranee, and portrays tho
y thing that partook of
) American people," the
fiemispheres, was honor-
y his family and friends.

citizens, among whom
»e of M. Cabanon, where
I the greatest tranquillity
a serenade, given to the
!. Atthis juncture there
detachment of the guard
8. The former conduct-
)roceeded to dis|)erao the
id occasioned no distur.
>pulace, treating them aa
I and murdered ; and the
e sabres and bayonets of
ere arrested. To justify

A. D. 1810—1880. — FRANCK.

585

this proceeding, the Prefect at Rouen issued, in a public journali
n note, in which ho said, " That the citizens groaned to see the
tranquillity menaccHl by the presence of u man whose sad celeb.
rity connects itself with the moat disastrous iieriod of tho Revo.
lution !"

On the return of Lafayette to Ln Urangi;, the villii;^i ra united
in u public fi-stivul on the occasion ; und uddr his weie pre.
aented although tho govfjrimient took every up|M<aiinity to pre.
vent any (leiiionNtratiun of respect bcitiK hIiomii to liiin. Not
less than rt,000 persons assembled on this juyouH iieciiMJon, to
commemorate the return of him, wliom th«'y designated tho
" Amerieun Nation's (iuest."

The Jesuits coininenred pnjseeutions against two of the libo.
ral papers. This led to much hostility between the liberals and
tho royalists ; and s(K>n after, a law against the Jesuits was at.
tempted to be passed, und the liU-rty of the press was carried,
April 27, 1827. Tho national guards of Paris, 45.000 in num.
her, were disbanded, u measure highly obnoxious to the people.
This was followed by a rigorous censorshi|> of the press, (June
24, 1827,) which tended still more to irritate tlie state of public
feeling against the ministry. The iHipers of tho opposition fre-
quently apiieured with wholo colunms blank.

A war commenced this year with Algiers, said to have ariaen
from a controversy re8|K>cting a debt for corn, purchased for tho
French government in 1739. The ministry dissolved the cham.
ber which had still three years to run. In the now chamber, a
majority was gained by the liberals ; out of 8,000 votes in Paris,
only 1114 were on the ministerial side; tho same decided result
took place in the different depart/nents. This occasioned great
joy in Paris, and led to some disasters : about fifty persons wore
killed by the gendarmes. By nn ordinance of November 5,
1827, seventy-six new peers wore created. Of these scarcely
any, Soult excepted, were entitled by services, to the honor.
Three others were added, Jan. 4, 1828 — these wore Villelo,
Peyronnet, and Corbiore.

On opening the aeasion, Febn.Hry .5, 1828, Charles X. con-
gratulated the nation on tho occasion of tlio victory of Navari-
no. In 1828, tho French troops returned from Spain ; and in
August, (shortly afterwards,) an expedition was fitted out for
the delivery of Greece from Turkish thraldom. The command
of the expedition was given to General Muison. The number
of troops amounted to 14,000. {Sec Ilevolution in Greece.)

The appointments announced, August 0, 1829, were the fol.
lowing : Prince Jules do Polignac, minister of foreign affairs ;
M. Courvoiaier, keeper of the aeala, and minister of justice ;

8RB

ciurrxR XIII.

Count Fldiirmont, miriwUT of war; Admiral Rifi^y, minister of
mnriiio; ('omit (l<- In noiirdnnnnyn, ininiBtor of tlw interior;
Haron do MorithnI, ministor of prclcniiwtioul uffuira and public
inatniction ; Count ('hiihroi d»i Crouwjj, minixtfr of finnnc*'.
Admiriil llij^iiy docliiifd the oHi-n-d port folio, which wns g\vin
to M. d'HaUHStv/., I'rofcct of th«i (Jirondo. TliiH was an idtra.
royalist iniiiintry. liourinont had Ik'ch a aoldifr under Niipo.
l«!on, declared lor Louis XVIII. — njjnin took oflicn under Nn|)o>
l«!on, and drsertei! hini at tin; battle of Watf-rloo, fli;d to the
BourlMiuH at iliiiiit, was elevated to the peerage, and entrusted
with the comniati'l of the army ofocTUpation in Hpain, after the
return of the Oiikc d'Angouleme.

I'riiice Poli^nar was one of the old royalists, anri was early
attached to C-'hiirlos X. lie, with his brothers Armnnd, was
implicated in I'ieliejrru'M t'otispiracy, and received the pardon
of Napoleon. Hinec 1R2H, in- had been amimssador at the Hritish
court, and his eiiviition was said to have been through Knp-
linh infliunce, more especially that of the Duke of WcHinpton.
lie professed a jjreat fonrlness for I'Ingland ; but how«!ver thin
may be, certain if is, he was no favorite with the l''rench pec-
pie. The niitiister of the interior, La Bourdonnaye, hud disfin-
piiished himself for his violence, and active measures for the ul-
tras. No sooner wos the ministry formed, than La Bourdonnaye
was dis[K)Hed to dissolve- the cbamlKir, n« Villele had done to
secure a majority ; trustiii); for success, to the activity of tl»e
royalists, and the aid of the clergy. When this hazardous
proposition was rejected. La Bourdonnaye resigned, and Polig-
nuc was made president of the ministerial council. Baron Mont,
bel was tiansfitrred to the deportment of the interior, and Count
G. de Rainvillo wns made mmister of ecclesiastical affairs. An
ordinance to this effect was issued on the 17th November, 1829.
Such was the organization of the ministry at the end of that
year.

The eflbrtfl of the Bourbons to build up aristocracy and abso-
lute monarchy, had failed — their measures having had on oppo-
site effiHJt ; and the poverty of the nobles having impaired their
former influence, they now followed instead of leading the nation.
The French wcrf; now too much enlightened to suffer them-
selves to be deprived of tlieir privileges. The country was, nl
this time, in o state of prosperity. The struggle that followed,
was for the protection of their liberties, and not the result of
suffering ond want. This noble regord for the cause of free-
dom, gave n«!W glory to France, ,und to liberty, a fresh impulse
throughout the world.

1680, March 2. The speech from the throne announced that

I a

nmmm

liirnl Rif^ny, ministfroT
liniiitor of thi! interior ;
)irul afTuira iinH piihlio

, minintrr of finiinc*'.

folio, which wild given

p. Thii) wiiH nil ultra-

n soldirr under Nnpo-
took oflico under NniKi-
f Wut«rl<K), flod to the

[K-criifft!, and entruated
)atiou in Hpain, after the

royaliMtM, and waa early

brothers Armnnd, waa

nd received the imrdon

iiiiiliaasndor nt the BritiNh

(nvc Iwen throufch Knp-

the Duke of WcUinpton.

pland ; but how«!ver this

Irite with the l''rench peo-

[ nourd<>nnuy(>, had distin-

ictive measures for the ul-

ned, than La Bourdonnaye

'.r, tiH Vill<;le had done to

ess, to the activity of the

When this hazardous

inaye resifpicd, and Polig-

!rinl council. Baron Mont-

of the interior, and Count

'ecclesiastical aflairs. An

the 17th November, 1829.

niniatry nt the end of that

d up aristocracy and nbao-
surcs havinp had an oppo-
)ble8 hnvinp impaired their
stead of londinfi; the nation,
niightened to suffer them-
Dfes, The country was, at
rhe strupf»le that followed,
rties, and not the result of
fard for the cause of free-
1 to liberty, a fresh impulse

n the throne announced that

A. f.. 1815 — 1880. — rsANCE.

687

w»r nnd been cnrnnicrii-ed with Alf^iers, and ende«l with th^ae
worda : " I'eora of l-'runee, deputi<!s of the depnrtiiienta, I do
not doubt your co.o|)eration in the giKxl I (l<;aire to do. You
will repel, with contempt, the iM-rfidious inHiniiations which ma.
Iftvolence is busy in propagating. If guilty intrigues should
throw luiy obstacles in the way of my government, which I can-
not aiui will not anticipate, I should find force to overcome them,
in my resolution to preserve the public peace; in tlioconfidi-uco
I have in the French nation, anil in the love which they have
uiwuys evinced for their kings."

As suoii as this spivHih was made public, the funds full, nnd
the ministers had a d(K:ided majority opposed to them in the
ciiamber of deputies. Uoyer-Coilnnl was re-elected president.
On th<! iWtli, a deputation of IIk; chamber presented an answer
to the King's speech. This addntHS reM|M!Ctfully hut frankly
informed him, " That a concurrence did not exist between the
views of the government, and the wishes of th<! nation ; that the
administration was aetunted by a distrust of the nation ; and tha»
the nation, on the other liiind, wits agitated with npprnhonsionb.
which would become! fatal to its prosperity and rejKwe." "Sire,
(continued the address,) France does not wish for imarchy, any
more than you wish for (le8[)Otism." 'I'his was a firm nnd pru-
dent warning hero given to the King ; who, in reply expressed
hia regret, that the concurrence which he had a right to expect
from the deputies, did not exist. He declared his resolutions
wore fixed, and that the ministers would make known his inten-
tiona. The answer of the peers to the King's speech, on the
10th, waa a mere echo of the same. Chateaubrinnd made u bold
attack on the ministers. Both chambera were convoi<ed for
the 19th, when they were declared to be prorogued to tiio 1st
of September of the same year — a measure that was immediately
productive of great public excitement throughout France. Roy.
aliats and Jesuits blindly exulted in this measure ; while the
liberal journals increased their activity, and boldly predicted
the course of events that speedily followed. Prince Folignac
and the ministry were contemned for their imbecility. In Paris,
a society furnished the printing of journals, where they wore
destitute through the efforts of the government; and in Brittany
an itssociation was formed, determined to refuse the payment of
taxes, not regularly granted by the chambtsr of deputies.

But it is now time to turn to the war with Algiers, a city that
had long been the seat of the most extensive piracy. The main
object, however, of the ministry in prosecuting this war, waa
evidently popularity. Knowing the inordinate fondness of the
oation for military glory, it waa anticipated that the subjugation

''•f

'i*

'^ fc{

588

CHAFTBR XIII.

of Algiers would establish Charles X. and his ministry in the
aiTcctions of the people, and secure a favorable majority in the
chamber. In this hope they were disappointed ; for though the
success of the army was announced during the election, it did
not silence the opposition : a strong majority being elected.

The army, commanded by Count Bourmont, consisting of
37,577 infantry, and 4,000 horse, embarked on the 10th of May,
at Toulon. The fleet consisted of 07 vessels, of which eleven
were siiijMi of the line, and 24 frigates. On the 14th of June,
the army began to disembark at Sidi Fcrrajh, on the African
coast ; and on tiiu 5th of the following month, Algiers surren-
dered. This event was mude known in Paris on the 9th of July,
by a telegraphic despatch. The treasure found in Algiers
amounted to 90,000,000* of francs in money, and 10,000,000 f
in gold and silver bullion and plate ; besides about 25,000,000;).
not in the inventory, stated subsequently in the Journal du
Commerce, to be 43,000,000 francs.

Having given very briefly the successful issue of the French
arms, over barbarism in Africa, we now return to our narrativ*
of the events in France.

The success attendant on the French arms in Africa, occa-
sioned great exultation in France ; but it did not divct the pub-
lic from struggling for their liberty, against a detested muiistry.

The chamber was dissolved on the 17th of May, by a royal
ordinance, and new elections ordered ; and the two chambers
convoked for August 3d.

The elections for the new chamlxir took place in June and
July. The o|>position displayed great activity and talents, in
this momentous struggle ; and it was soon seen, by men of Intel-
ligence, that a change of ministry would be the result. They,
however, were determined not to yield, and had the infatuation,
rather to violate the charter, and expose France to civil war,
than to retire. The King appears to have been blinded by a
bigoted priesthood, and the ministers utterly regardless of the
sacred rights of the people, expressed by their representatives.
In the new chamber 270 were liberals, 145 for ministers, and
15 undecided. In consequence of this result, the ministry made
a report to the King, July 20, on the dangers of a free press.
In the chamber of deputies, convoked March 2d, then* were
221 members hostile to government, on which account l,he Kbg
had prorogued both chambers, and had appointed the 23d of June,
and third of July, for the election of now members, to assemble
on the third of August. The elections were not all finished, tUI
the 19th of July ; before which time, it was sufliciently appa-

*»I«,«U,ON. t «I,Sr4,iro. t •8,008,030

■(■njl,

I :'!i

A. D. 1630. FRANCE.

589

jd his ministry in the

oruble majority in the

jinied ; for though the

■ing the election, it did

ity being elected.

tourmont, consisting of

ccd on the 10th of May,

vessels, of wiiich eleven

Oa the 14th of June,

''crrujii, on the African

month, Algiers surren-

Paris on the 9th of July,

lisurc found in Algiers

noncy, and 10,000,000 f

sides about 25,000,000 i

itly in the Journal du

Bsful issue of the French
V return to our narrativ«

h arms in Africa, occa-
it did not diven the pub-
[ainst a detested ministry.
I7th of May, by a royal
, ; and the two chambers

took place in June and

it activity and talents, in

loon seen, by men of intel-

ild be the result. They,

, and had the infatuation,

pose France to civil war,

have been blinded by a

utterly regardless of the

by their representatives.

lis, 145 for ministers, and

I result, the ministry made

dangers of a free prem.

id March 2d, therp were

tn which account t,he Kmg

I appointed the 23d of June,

low members, to assemble

IS were not all finished, till

, it was sufficiently appa.

t«8,0M,SM

rent, how the elections would terminate. When the list was
completed, tl«5 opposition, was found to have increased from 221.
to 270. It will now be seen, how affairs stood in France between
tno crown and the people : the ministry represented the former,
and the chamber ol deputies the latter. The ministers whow
auty it was to have withdrawn, resolved upon the mad project
of iictting the voice of the nation, and the constitutional chartei
at defiance ; in other words, of annulling the late elections. Tliis
plan seems to have been arranged about the middle of July. It
was subsequently stated on the trial of ministers, that these
measures were concerted between the 10th and 15th of that
month. M. Montbel in a pampliiet which he has published, says.
the ordinances were presented to the King, in a council hold on
the 21st. They were signed at the next council held on Sunday
the 25th, the day previous to their public appearance.

The report made to the King, signed by seven ministers and
published at the same time with the ordinances, was intended
to justify themselves for the course they had resolved upon. In
this flimsy document they called for the suspension of the press,
remarking, " At all epochs, the periodical press has only been,
and from its nature must ever be, an uistrumcnt of disorder and
sedition."

By the first ordinance, the liberty of the press was suspended.
By the second ordinance the chamber of deputies was dissolved.
And a third ordinance abrogated the existing law of election
itself, reducing the number of members from 430 to 258, and
sweeping off three-fourths of the former constituency, abolishing
the ballot and nearly extinguishing the representative system.
In defiance of these ordinances, the conductors of all the liberal
journals determined to publish their papers.

The only papers allowed by government to appear were the
Mooiteur Universal, Quotidienne, Gazette de France, and Dra-
peau blanc. The seizure of the liberal journals on the morning
of the 27th July, was the commencement of the revolutionary
drama. These ordinances were nothing less than a determi.
nation on the part of the crown to deprive the nation of its
liberty, and to establish despotism. The audacious attempt
however failed. Had the French ministry succeeded in silencing
the pi-ess, and bringing the representation to a state of subser.
viency, they might for u time perhaps have succeeded in their
mad projects. Nothing shov.s more strikingly the rashness and
entire want of discernment of the ministry, at the time of which
we are speaking, than the issumg of orchnances ao obnoxious,
without even anticipating resistance of any kind, much leM •
resolution.

j*»*

'%.

W""-

'"Hi-)'..

i^if

CHAPTEB X»l«

Chautelauze, and Montbel, at the . corning. Aa

nmnuscript for P^bUcation on thejo^ .Jerked, he ^enied
Lavo glanced over the con en^j^M«mDe^^ ^^

L w^U " At an early hour o^/Jj'J/CnTteul and Bulletin
obnoxious oi---t,;Ttc Seine -^ -tounded at seemg
dc9 Lois. The prefect of tc»e ^^j^^^j^^ any thing of
them, about 5 o'clock, no J'^^^J ^/ J pear to have had any
the kind, nor does M^"^,^/^^^^^^^^ he received

knowledge of these "[^^^^^^V Komiero^vski, one of his aids
of the fatal ordinance was by ^ exclaimed that it

wh le he was breakfastmg at bt- » ^^ ^^^^
was not possible the report could be ^J" ^iU his arrival

he set out for Paris, not ^avng ^,^" \^^2 where he met his
?„ the city. He then w nt to tl^ ns^.^^ .. ^^''"1^1
friend M. Arago--" Well, ^J^ " the fools have driven

things are proceeding «« ^ ^^"^J J^^^y [o mourn in your capa-
matters to extremities, ^ou have y ^^^^ ^^^,^ ^^,

dty of a citizen and a good Fj-*J ^,,1 ^haps be obliged
caLhave I to lamcn , who^^J^ J ^ ^^hor, and for people
irerESg^-Sestudiedonlyhowtooverwhelm

Uc : this however ^^ J^ '^oJ^ment. For severa hou«
read by those connected witn b^Ji , r^>^^^ class who first
To unusual excitement wa^m^f^Btejl. 1^^^^ ^^^ted, that at

?elt its effects were he JO«jf;„, ^ere engaged in printing
this period thirty thousand P^!f°"' wasTo throw them out
T?Ir^. The «ffec^,:^tdutoro? journals repres^^cl ^^

them, they must go -"d^"fVilp?ayed great courage : seeing the
oaliste, on this emf ge^^y. d«playej g ^^ ^ ^^

ordinakces would be rumous to J^e'' ° ^' publishing second
Xthey fearlessly ^t them aUefianc^^^^^^ p^ ^^^^^

elitions of their P^f'^' ^^^„'^""lt five o'clock, the prefect of
them more ge^^f'^^^L'^Snction to the printing offices, to
police, Mangin, issued ^^^^^^^^ ^ ;„ conformity to the new

„ fatal ordinancea were

listers, and ut 11 P. M.

initeur, received from

le of the former, the

[lowing morning. As

il remarked, he seenM^d

the King, God save

e answered, "we hope

rnoming the 26th, the

Moniteur, and Bulletin

vaa astounded at seeing

prehended any thing of

ippear to have had any

t intimation he received

irowski, one of his aids.

He exclaimed that it

uc. At half past seven,

newspaper till his arrival

(Stitute where he met his

him, " you perceive that

n ; the fools have driven

y to mourn in your capa-

uu : but how much greater

ier shall perhaps be obliged

Il I abhor, and for people

led only how to overwhelm

r in Paris, among the pub-
Mraiiteur being principally
iment. For several hours
;ed. That class who first
It has been stated, that at
were engaged in printing
ices was to throw them out
of journals represented to
»nger any employment for
jir good King. The jour-
, great courage : seeing the
business, and destroy their
fiance, by publishing second
lilernoon, m order to make
five o'clock, the prefect of
to the printing offices, to
)t in conformity to the new
[nation to ba circulated and

FRENCH REVOLUTION, MONDAY, JULY 26, 1830.

591

pained on the walls with tlie penalties to the keepers of reading
rooms, &c.

The journalists assembled and drew up in great haste an
•iddrcss to tlieir countrymen ; tliis was signed and published.
It was u noble display of courage and patriotism : they stated,
" as they were first called on to obey, so they ought to give the
llrst example of resistance to authority, now that it had stri|>|)ed
itself of tiie character of law. This day, the government lias
violated all law, we are set free from obedience ;" and declared
tiiuir determination to publish their journals, regardless of the
ordinances. " We will do our cndoiivors, that for one day
more, at least, th^jy may be circulated over all Fruiicc. It be-
longs not to us to point out its duties to the chamber, which has
been illegally dissolved. But we may supplicate it in the name
of France, to take its stand on its manifest rights, and resist, us
far as it shall have the power, the violation of the laws. Its
rights are equally cei-tain, with those on which we ourselves
rest. The charter (article 50,) says the King may dissolve the
chamber of deputies, but for that power to be exercised, the
chamber must have met and been constituted — nay, must surely
have done something to warrant its dissolution. Before the
chamber has met and been constituted, there is no chamber to
dissolve. There are only elections to annul ; now no passage
\n the charter gives the King the right of doing this. The ordi-
nances which have this day appeared, do only in fact annul the
elections, and are therefore illegal ; as doing that which the
charter does not authorize.

" We assume the attitude of resistance in so far as we are
ourselves concerned ; it belongs to France to consider to what
extent she will adopt the same course." This address was signed
with the names of forty-four of the journalists.

In the mean time, the agitation had already begun in the
streets ; the crowd assembled at the Palais Royal, to hear the
papers and news discussitd, was continually increasing, till their
increased numbers, and violence of language, alarmed the
authorities, who sent a party of gendarmes to watch over them.
By 3 o'clock in the afiemoon, the crowd spread from the square
of the palace, to the adjoining streets. They then began to
assail the gendarmes, who kept their stations, making as yet no
attempt to drive the people back.

About 8 o'clock, there was a gi«at addition to the crowd
about the Palais from the printing and manufacturing establish-
ments. Their masters, in dismissing their hands, afler their
day's work, had notified them they should have no further em-
ployment for them. Here then was a great addition of nteu

592

CHAPTER xm.

under hi.h oxcucont, determined upon resistance, wh.ch w»

by sympathy, and each speech was reccrvc^^^ ^^^

^'4 te r tvl"" T.r: shops were now dosed.

'Zrsnt-^^T'':^Z^^^^ crowd in the

The iK)lico and sendarmes "dvancea T* j^g jt, without
Pafais,\uul succeeded for^ . — Jfjed to'the hotel of
.nflicting any ^«™\/Bo„irard de^ Capuchins, who was
Prince PoUgnac, on the """fj^^^i this fact, many went on
at this time at St. Cloud. >'"/"\2 his carriage, he was
purpose to intercept ""»/. !^"' "^er the escort of two gen-
Lablcd to return w.thout .njury, unde t ^^^^^^^ ^^

d^rmcs. The windows of h.s hotu ^^^^ court, the

carriage assailed w,th «r«^- Aj^r^emente to set fire to his
mob threatened to return withremjorce^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

hotel. During the ™g*'\'.^f,t, eSguished, and the windows

did not return tUl late to St- ^'oud. ^^ ^^^.^^ ^j,^ g

Tlie whole effective ^f''Pj'''J\^^ovd\mnces, was 11,550
day previous to the pfj— ^° ^J^so „en of this number,
men, 8 cannon, and 4 howitzers ^^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^ p^^^s

includes the guards «^d gendarmes aa.y ^^^^^ ^^^^

S the Capital, St. Cloud, ''f J»^^Vhrdlpo^We force, there-
all seized'and disarmed m detail. J^ he msp ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ,^^^

fore, did not at most «''«^^«d, »'J^? ^ " , and a few artillery,
three regiments of S^^rds, two ol cavairy, ^^^^^ ^^^^

4,200, were all that ^^^^^go^iSy beR^^

besides, 1000 ««^valry, and 300 in W^ s^^^ ^^ ^ ^

Versailles, and St. Germam, buUjiese we ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^

staff officer of the g"«^'-<^«' ^t ^^^^Sken a fortnight previous,
Tatedifsuitable precaution had b«e„t^enat^ ^^g^ P^.^^ ^^

that it would have ^«" ry;°^"„lfS Paris,
forty thousand men, with ^^y /=^"°°;,'" x several of the jour.
On the morning of th« ^.^t^ (l"«^^y j^^^ ^^re the jour-
nals were printed and ^^'^^ «**,'. f^i^The ConstUtUionel
ialists to discharge their duty otl^^^ K papeL by the police
was prevented from the distribution rt^ts p pe J^^^ ^^^

haviSg stationed a ^^ftfj.^lJZj\TM-^ at an ear.y

SSrJld^'^Si^rr ^^ wS- amig the people, and

resistance, which was

eople, drawn together
,ed with loud cries or
down with the nunw
lops were now dosed.

,pon the crowd in tne
, clearing it, without
ceded to the hotel of
, Capuchins, who was
his fact, many went on
2 his carriage, he was
the escort of two gen-
were broken, and his
entered the court, the
mente to set fire to his
™ several of the streets
.ished, and the windows
I these acts sufficiently
aw. This day the King
Mse at Ranibouillet, and

ationed at Paris, the Sun-
, ordinances, was !!,&&"
50 men of this number,
Iv stationed at the posts
aces near. These were
e disposable force, there-
J, and of this number, uut
airy, and a few artillery,
»ded upon. There were
■y, belonging to St. Cloud,
e were never engaged. A
ngaged during the conflict,
; taken a fortnight previous,

assembled from thirty to
1, in Paris. .

•sday) several of the jour-

determined were the jour-
public. T\ie ConstUuttonel
l( its papers by the police
door of the office. The
„. were printed at an early
,W8 among the people, and

ji'

"?^

Street fighting before the Church of St. Roch,
July 2Sth, 1830.

Place du Chatelet, July 28, 1S30. P. 596,

FRENCH KEVOLUTION, TUESDAY, JULY 27, 1830.

693

St. Roch,

P. 596,

rapidly tlispcraed through the city. These papers contained
the oidinances, and the noble protests of the journiilists. The
autiiorities commenced their operations against tiie printing
oilices that had set the ordinances at defiance, and part of lliuir
printing presses were taken away, so ns to rundor tliem useless.
The National distributed to the crowd 7,000 copies in less tiian
an liour. Thus far the journalists hud manfully discharg(Ml
tiieir duty. This day a considerable number of the newly
elected members of the chamber of deputies assembled at iJ
P. M. at the house of M. Casimir Perrier ; when a protest was
drawn up and signed.

The King this morning appointed Marshal Marmont, com-
mander in chief of the forces in Paris. He immediately esta-
blished his head quarters at the Tuileries. At half past four,
an order was issued at the barracks for several regiments to
march to difTerent stations. One battalion of guards, and two
pieces of artillery, were stationed on the Boulevard des Capu-
chins, in front of Polignac's hotel, the interior of which was
protected with soldiers of the 5th regiment of the line. A
squadron of lancers protected this part of the Boulevard.
Several battalions of the line occupied the portion of the Boule-
vards from the [ion-: St. Martin towards the place de la Bastilo,
and also the place Vendome. Three battalions of the guard
were placed in the Carrousel, and the place of the Palais Royal:
and two battalions of the guards, with two cannon, were sta>
tioned in the jjlace Louis XV.

While these dispositions of the troops were making, the streets
were filled with the multitude, as yet unarmed : they now began
to supply themselves with arms from the shops of gunsmitha;
and were soon in actual conflict with the military.

The battalions of the regiments of the line, stationed in front
of the Palais Royal, were received by the crowd with cries of,
" the line forever, the line does not fire, the line is on our side."
Both men and officers, were averse to firing upon the people.
But the guards considered themselves obliged to remain faithful
to the government. The mob had already begun in several
instances to attack the soldiers with stones, and every kind of
missile : these they carried to the upper stories, and roofs of
houses, and hurled them on the soldiers beneath. They now
began to barricade the streets, and thus sheltered, they were
enabled to oppose the patroles.

This night the remaining lamps were demolished, a judicious
precaution p\A not proceeding from mere wantonness ; as it
enabled th ,m to erect barricades during^ the night, and rendered
their opeiations more secure from the vigilaoca of the nuli>

504

CHa]>TER xiii.

tnry. Marshal Marmont hud written to the Kin^, informing
him that public tranquillity was restored, and therefore made
no preparations during tho iiifjht, nor sent dispatches for more
troops. He did not even guard tho great depots of arms and
ammunition.

During the nigiit, tho greatest activity prevailed on tlu! part
of the people. 'J'lxs inhabitants were enrolled into bands, and
arrangements made for supplying them with muskets, ammu-
nition, tXic. The ttilegraphs had been rendered us<!lcss in tho
night ; — this was an effectual means of preventing signals for
further succors. Bands of men supplied themselves freely from
the gunsmiths shops, and the arms used at the difleront theatres,
and in tact, every kind of offensive weapon was seized and
pressed into service.

Wednesday, 2Stli. — At an early hour, tho throng assembled
in the streets, and directed their march upon the Hotel lie Ville,
soon fdling tho square in front of tliat building. This morning
the national guard appeared in their uniform, among the liirong.
Measiu-es were soon taken to organize this favorite corps ; a
commission was nominated to proceed to Oen. Lafayette, and
receive his orders. He did not however assume the command
of the guards, till the morning of the 'iOth. The re-organiza-
tion of the national guard went on promi)tly during the day :
the number that appeared was considerable, mostly in uniform,
and with them appeared the famous Tri-colored flag, so dear to
the hearts of all Frenchmen. Uy nine o'clock it waved on
the pinnacles of Notre Dame, and at eleven, it surmounted tho
central tower of the Hotel de Ville, which was taken possession
of by the populace, and who immediately stationed tliemselves
at the windows with fire-arms. The tocsin had been ringing
from the bells of Notre Dame, and the church of St. Gervais, with
all other means that could be devised, to give tho greatest |)ub.
lie excitement; and to fill the populace with courage, vehement
speeches were made, and placards, with imprecations against
the ministry, were stuck up in uU the public thoroughfares.

At eight o'clock this morning, the different regiments Ujft the
barracks, and at nine took their stations at the following places :
six battalions of French guards, about 1320 men, with three
squadrons of lancers, of 100 men each, and 8 guns, were drawn
up in the place du Carrousel. 500 cuirassiers were quartered
in the barracks, near the Raatile, and were in commimication
with the 5th, 50th, and 53d regiments of the line, who occupied
nearly the whole extent of the northern Boulevards and place
Vendome. — The 15th light infantry, were ordered to the place
de Greve, Pantheon, and Palais de Justice. The place de Greve

fi'

ic Kinfif, informing
iiid tlioreforo made
lisputciics for more
IcpoU of arms and

iViiiled on tlid part
led into biuuls, and
th miisltots, ammu.
(!rcd iistjli'ss in tlio
jventinf,' siffnals for
insi.'ivi'S fri'ciy from

difleront tiioatres,
on was sei/.od and

3 throng assembled

1 tho Hotoi lie Ville,
nff. This morning
, among tliu liirong.
s favorite corps ; a
Jen. Lafayette, and
isume the command

Tiio ro-organiza-
ly during the day :

mostly in uniform,
ared flag, so dear to
'clock it waved on
, it surmounted the
vns taken possession
itationed tliemsclves
in had been ringing
I of St. Gervais, with
vc tho greatest |)ub.
I courage, vehement
mprecations against

thoroughfares,
nt regiments hid the
;ho following places :
20 men, with three
I 8 guns, were drawn
liors were quartered
e in communication
e line, who occupied
oulcvards and place
Drdered to the place

The place de Greve

FRENCH REVOLUTION, WEDNESDAY, JULY 28, 1830. 595

had, from an early hour, been fdled with the armed populace;
a dctachiiKiit of soldiers no sooner arrived there, than, arcorrl.
ing til the testimony of Jiiiut. St. (Jermain, seven or eight hun-
dred persons, most of whom bore (ire-arms, rushed upon them,
with a loud outcry, auil lircil a volley, by which two nun were
killed, luid most of tin- detaebmeiit wounded, with tlw; ollicer in
command. The soldiers then (iri;(l, and several of the peo|)le
fell. They immediately retn'iited, pursued by the crowd. At
the plueo flf! Chatclet, wliieh was also fdled w'ith peoph-, a body
of soldiers W(!rc druwn up in the order of battle: here the bar.'
rassed detiiehmeut of Lieut. St. tiermain, found a rein((»reement
ill a platoon of gn nadiers, a few shots from whom drove back the
assailants. A heavy (ire was now eommeneed upon tli<' battu-
Jion, from the I'ont au Change, from the- adjoining (|uay, und
from all the windows near. IVIany of tli(! soldiers were wound,
cd, and forecifl to retire to the other side of the river, and got
to the Tuileries at three-quarters past 10, where some addi-
tional troops had arrived from St. Dennis, Vincennes, and Ver-
sallies.

It does not appear, that Marshal Marmont had formed any
regular or elfeetive plan of proeewling : the troops were marrhed
and countermarelied, about the streets and quays, assailed b'-
every kind of missile, thrown from windows and tlu; toj)s of
houses : the time was lost, when any thing effective could be
accomplished. The warfare hud now iKicarm; general, and
the events are so confusedly related, that it is difhcult to give
to them a systematic arrangement. We shall therefore endea.
vor to describe the most prominent facts, as related by the
different writers at this memorable ofKich. Wherever the mil-
itary took their stand, the increasing crowds th.-it surrounded
them, and the constant accession of arms, rendered the situation
of the soldiers extremely galling; barricades were also thrown
up on every side, which rendered their situation still more dis
heartening.

A column consisting of a battalion of guards, half a squadron
of lancers, with two pieces of cannon, was sent to occupy the
Hotel de Ville. Their force was joined by one of the battalions
of the 15th regiment ; this column then crossed tho bridge, Pont
Neuf, and advanced along the Quai de I'llorloge, &c.,nnd pre-
pared to recross tho river to march upon the Hotel de VHle, by
the Pont Notre Dame, a few hundred paces west of the Greve.
The people now advanced in great force, and tolerable order,
with drums beating, on the opposite end of the bridge, to op|)OMe
their passage. The two cannon were now planted on the centro
of the bridge ; a field officer of the guards here advanced and

Ci'M

CHAPTUR XIII.

1;^?

warnoil tlio pf^oplo of thoir diiiiKer, by pointing lo tlic Kuna, and
aasurcil tliuin tliijy wvrv, iniircliiii;,' to certain (icstnictioii. Tlim
hnd tiio cfll'ct of Ciiimiiig tiu; |icii|ii(! to witlidriiw; liut wiiilo so
doing, sonM! shots wcr»- lirtMl, lunl ini luljiitaiit kiiii'il. Thi- ciiii-
non firinl oiio sliot ciicli, and tiiu i "luinii passcMl over and own-
piwi the (inays do (jTovos and I'clli^ticr on tli<; iiortli side of tho
river. In tix; nuian time, u sinallrr lorco attrmptcd to pass the
new siispt'nsion liridgc, dimctly opposite tin- tircvr, \vli('r(! tlioy
woro riM'oivcd with a galling lire, from tht3 li(insi;-ti>i)8, windows,
and (|uays along tho Scini,'. Tiio r(;st of the eolinnn coming up
to their assistance, tho place was taken. The; guards had no
sooner taken their position, than they learniMJ witii deep conster-
I'Ution that a battalion of tin; IM\ light infantry station<;il along
tlio(piays had revolted. The general in couimand of the guards
was soon apprised of this, hy th(! filling of his men. Tlu^tiuai
do Citi was lilled with sharpshooters of tin; insurgents, who pro-
tccted by the presence of the ITnli regiment, k(,'pt up a continued
fire upon the guards in the place.

By this time tin; r»(Hh regiment, statiomsd in the morning at
the Boulevards, and afterwards marched to tho place do (Jnjve,
determined to lay down thcur arms : they wishinl to return to
their barracks, but finding these wi;re already in |)ossession of
the people, they joiiM.'d 40 cuirassiers, then departing from tho
Bastile, for tlv; Hotel do Ville. Tho latter had many dillicultics
to encounter, marching through back streets, and at length
reached tho Motel, but the 50th regiment took no part in the
fighting, by which the cuiraasiers made their way. On their
arrival nt tho Hotel do Ville, the ollicer commanding the guards
wasapprisetl that he could not depend on receiving the reinlurco-
ment from the Bastile, as he fully expected ; and what rendered
hia situation more trying, his cartridges were now about spent.
Two detachments were sent in (piost of ammunition, but did not
return. A message succeeded in gaining the Tuileries ; this
was by a party of cuirassiers ; 200 Swiss were sent to the jilace
de Grove ; when they arrived there, the guards 220 strong, had
been engaged five hours, and hnd forty men hors de combat,
(about 5 o'clock,) and had gained an entrance, with a part of
their forces, into the Hotel de Ville. The populace having now
returned, the cavalry and artillery sheltered themselves in the
stable yards from the severe fire, directed against them, from
the opposite bank of the river. The 50th regiment was also
protected in the inner court of the Hotel.

The hardest fighting yet, had been at the entry of Rue du
Mouton, a street that opens into the place de Grove, from th«
north. When the troops had established themselves in the place

tiii^ to tlic guim, and
a (If'stnictioii. Tliib
idriiw ; liur wliili! so
lit killi'il. Till' ciiii.
is8(h1 ()V(;r and occu.
till! iiortli sido of tho
ittt'in|iti'il tu |)as.i the
' (ircvc, wlicri! tln;y
li(ins(;-ti>i)8, windows,
ic coliinm coining up
TIk; i^iiiirdii had no
•d with d<'c|) coiustf^r-
iiitry statii»n(;d aloii^
iiiiiiand (j|'tli(!i;iiards
hit) men. Tlirtiuai
insui'gciits, will) i)ro-
, kept up a continued

(!(l in tlie morning at
tho place do (Jnjvu,
wished to n^turn to
ady in |)o39esMion of
1 departing from tlio
had many dilliciiltica
reels, and at length
took no part in tho
lieir way. On their
ninanding the gniirds
cc'iving the reinl'iM-cc.
; and what rendered
;rc now about spent,
imunition, but did not
g the Tuileries ; tiiis
were sent to the place
uards 220 strong, had
men horn de combat,
ance, with a part of
populace having now
wl themselves in the
d against them, from
h regiment was also

the entry of Rue du
e de Greve, from the
lemselvcs in the place

rRKMi-H RKVOMJTUIN, WEDNESDAV, JULY 2fl, 1830. 697

do («reve, a aevert! lire wan kept up against them fron". both
anglis of the street, iiinl iVom behind a liarricaile there thrown
up, hut which was sokii taken an<l n^taken, on the arrival of
the Swiss, during a luoveiuiMit ill executed ; irs loss led to tho
severest eonflict of the day, fniui tlu- detenniriation of the sol-
diers to regain this post, in whirli they finally su('<;ceded, and
(Irnvc till' po|)iilar lorees away. TIk; truops at length were
withdrawn uitu the lloti'l de V'ille, except a detaeliuieut of light
infantry, that hehl the barricade in tho Hun du .Moutoii. Tho
8har|)-sliii(»tei's of the guards, kept up a destructive fire from
the windows of the Unfi'l, hiiviug now received a supply of
cartridges froiii tin,' regiments of the lini;, wliicdi refuses! to fire

upon the people,

Alb'r the Hotel was taken possession of by tli(! trtKips,* they
kept it during the day's light.

Wednesday was the usual day on which the King held a
council ; but tli" stati; of ulUiirs in Paris, prevented the routine
of business, and the ministers for safety, had taken up their
quarters at tlie Tuileries.

Th(! eeli'brated M. Ara!.'o, of the Acadi-my of Scieiici^s, who
was on terms of great intimacy with Marmont, sought an inter-
view : for this j)urpose, he exposed himself, in eouipany with
his son, to all risks, to gain the palace of tin; Tuileries. It
was 2 o'clock, P. M. when ho arriveil, where ho was ushered
into the presence of Marmont, in a saloon looking towartis the
Carrousel. He foiinii him with many olfice-rs, ant! other |)er.
sons not in uniform. M. Arago, taking the Marshal aside, in
a conversation insisted on the rights of resistance on the part
of the peopii," — that the ordinances should be immediately with-
drawn — and the dismissal of the ministers, A:c. During this
discu.ssion, an aid-discamp brought intelligence that General
Quinsenas could no longer maintain his position, which put an
end to this interview. Immediately after, the arrival of several
members of the chamber of 'epnties was announced ; and
these were introduced to the presence of the Marshal. These
deputies were M. M. Lafitte, Casimir Perrier, G«!neral Gerard,
Lobaii, and Maiiguin. They represcmted the dangers which
threatened the throne; ; the convulsed and frigbtfiil state of the
Capital ; and demanded that the ministers should be dismissed,
and the ordinances withdrawn, as tho only means to stop the
effusion of blood. The Marshal communicated the substance

• There iippenrs to he some disrrepnnoy in the stiitemBnts of different
writers nhoiit the tnkini; iind holding the Hott'l ; but tlie fact, na stated
above, is eatablishod by the narration of the stair-officci and others, givefi
during the trial of the ministers

li><

rllAHTKB XIII

of thih m(S!»(ij((' to tlir ministers. The ri'|)lv of !VI. Polijnino
was, It WHS iiscli'ss for liiiii to sim- tlicin. 'rliuy iiniiu'diutflv

witlldnW. Iillfltti', the ehiel" Hpeuker, Saill, (he (|liestioil Could

oalv he decided liy the cliiiiiee of iiniis; and h('n(;eforward, tlio

deputies deterinilied to e\irt thi.'lliselves ill the rev<illlti(Jllury

cause — seeing there was Jio liojie ol' an Mccniiiiiiodation.

In the coiillict inaiiitained this day, in tlie phice de ( Ireve,
the |)o|itila('e displayed the utmost perseverance, and thit iiiOHt
uiishriiikiii;; ••oiirai;e. The rapidity and exrelh'nt jud;^iiient of
their IllciVellielits, tile readiness to si'i/e on every adviiiita^fe to
annoy tiie enemy, shows, they must have had leaders jiossessed
of iiiueli practical military kMowledi;e. Nor did they shrink
from the sanj^iiinary contest, where any tiiinj,' could he gained
by the siK-rifice (jf lili'. It should he home in mind, tiiat this
stni^'ljle was also carried on, under a most oppressive heat,
Fahri'iiheit's thermometer raiiKin;,' at ().')".

The iron suspension-hridj;e was the theatrn of many dariiif;
feats of valor ; and has since been calk^l, in cuinmomuratiun,
the hridf^e of Arcole, (/c I'ont (C Arco/r.)

'V\\i' wounded, duriiitf the day, were carried in carts and lit-
ters, to the hospitals ; and the diad to the Morjiue, amidst thu
most respecirul silence of the crowd.

The royal troops, tlioii;,'li they wert^ in possession cd' tiio
Flotcil do Ville, without any hopes of njceivinf^ further reinforco-
meiits, were now cxci-edin'rly anxious to ipiit it. They accord,
in^ly ellected a retreat, diirinj; the stillness <if the iiif;ht, to thu
Tuilories. Of wounded men, they had helweeu T)!) and (>0 —
tliouj^h another stati-inent makes tlu; numher much lii;,'her,
th(!8o thuy carried with them. The peojile had f;enerally lell
the str(>(!t.s and windows, durin<| the nijjht. Tlu! troojis at
length reached the Tuileries, without any obstruction except
a barricade they had to take down, to get their cannuii along:
this made aonm noise, and occasioned some shots to be fired
about them.

In the Boulevard St. Denis, a great crowd had assembh^d at
an early hour, and among these was sc.cu the uniform of the
national guard. This crowd was not generally armed with
muskets. About S o'clock, n detnchrnent of cuirassiers made
a charge ujioii the crowd, ut full gallop. They were then en-
gaged in tearing up the pavement, and carrying the stones to
the top of the Port St. Denis. TImy stood firm, aixl with long
poles threw the ciiirassic^rs from th(ar saddles at the first oncoun-
ter, and simzihI their arms, sufTering none to esca|)e. With these
new equipments, the oirensive was now assumed by them. At
9, a guard of 20 soldiers of the lino surrendered their arms;

ly of ^f. P.)li;rnno
Tlicy iiniiicdiuti'ly
ln' (|iicstioii r.imUl
liiiicclorwiinl, tliii
till- ri'voliitioimry
iiiiiiid.'itioii.
• |p|!ic(: i|i> (ircvi',

lli'l', IiIkI till) IIIONt

• •lit ju(lj,'m<'nt iif
■very (ulvaiitii;;f to
• I li'iidcrx iHiMSfSHcd
or did they shrink
,' <'ould In- <,'nini'd
ill mind, that this
'St o|>|)rcs.siv(; hciit,

trn of mnny diiriiif^
in coniincinoration,

I'd in carts and lit-
Morgue, uinidst tho

n |>(is.si'.vsion of tho
i;,' fiirthi'r reinforce.
it it. 'I'hey accord,
of the nii,dit, to the
ween rd) and (JO —
nher much lii;,'lier,
! liatl };<'iicraily loll
lit. 'I'ho troops at
obstruction except
heir cannon along:
10 shots to bo (ircd

*'(! had assembled at
the uniform of tho
nerally armed with
uf cuirassiers made
'hey were then en-
rying tho stones to
firm, and with long
at tlu! first )»ncoun.
iscai)c. With those
med by them. At
ndorod their arms;

r tf, I ^irrW'

PRRNCII RRVOLUTION, WEDNKSPAV, JULY 28, 1830. r>09

lliir guard-house was ilemoliMhcil, and ul'the materials, a bairi*
cade was consti'ucted across the liouleviird. A t'urious t'licuun-
tor to(»k place with tho guards, at tho gate, wlioro stuiioH woro
hurled, anil a brisk fire kept up.

'I'lie pi'ojile now coiiniK'iKU'd encting barricades on a groat
scale, alon;; tlic- HouK-vard, at the suggestion of Ambrose Meno-
rot, a carjienter : lor this |»urpose, tho line trees, planted by
Louis tho Grand, wore levelled by tho axo. It was done with
expedition /md gnsat science, luidisr the direction of Menoret,
who su|ipli(!d tlieui with tools from his shop. This was a most
fortunate iili;a. 'i'liesi; barriers were so numerous, as to bo
insuimount'ible, and cut olf all communication with the troops,
'i'his line of barricades extended from the Hue du 'I'emple, in iho
east, to the lliio do llicbelieu, west. An eminent architect, Mr.
Crecy, had a large cpiantity of timbi'r, scallbld poles, pick-axes,
crow. bars, iVc. carried away ; all thcso woro utlorwards returned
with scrupulous exactness.

From a subsequent report, it appears that during tho revo-
lutiouary struggle, 405.') barricades were thrown up, consisting
of trees IoUcmI, carriages of every description overturned, anil
the ])avi,'ments tak(;ti up. The number of paving stoiiv's torn
up, for this |nirpose', were :),r2>'3,OOU. Tho expense of paving
tiic streets again, was '2.')0,0()0 francs. Paris is i)av(!d with
large squari! stones. Tho gutters are in the middh; of the streets,
and they flowed with blood during these sanguinary conflicts.

The immeiisiv importance of these numerous barricades,
thrown up with such unparalleled rapidity, will he best illus-
trated by tho following details. A strong column arrived at the
Bastile, and began to firo upon tho piople ; these discharges
were kojjt up without intermission, and returned by the people,
who were forced to retire; and were pursui-d by the troops, as
far as tho Iluo do Reuilly, which meets the Rue du Faubourg,
St. Antoine. Hero the troo|is W(;ro again assailed with a sharp
firo, and had several barricades to overcome. Tho column
remained in tho Iluo Faubourg St. Antoine, till half |)ast three,
and when about to retire, were again luaailod with firing, and
missiles from the houses. On the return of this body of troops
to tho Bastile, tho commander, M. St. Chamans, found he could
not return by tho nortlujrn Boulevards,* from tho numerous bar-

•The totiil number of streets in Paris, oxolusivo of Cu/»(/e Sac, are 1142,
mostly narrow. The 18 Boulevards are broad strei-ts, planted on both
sides with trees, and furmini; bcautifid promenades. Those outside of tho
walls are called the exterior Boulevards. The interior Boulevards are
divided into tiie old, or northern, and the now, or southern, and are of great
length, with ninny streets running into them.— fine. Am. Vol. IX. p 534,
a work from which we have derived ;nany imjiortant facts

600

CHAPTER XIII.

ricadcs, that had risen as if by magic. The attempt to force a
passage to the Hotel do Ville, by the Rue St. Antoine, also
failed, from tlie same cause ; while the troops were exposed to
a heavy fire from all the windows, and their ammunition was
now exhausted. Under all tlicso dangers, M. St. Cliamans
returned as well as he could, with his column, over the bridge
of Austerlitz, and by a circuitous way to the Tuilories, by the
soutiiern Boulevards. The column arrived at the place Louis
XV. between 10 and 11 at night. After this, no more troopt
were seen in the place de la Bastile or neigh borhood.

The 28th closed with the retirement of the royal forces froir
every position in which they had attempted to establish them,
selves during the day. During the niglit, the citizens did not
cease from their exertions, but availed themselves of this respite,
to complete the erection of barricades, in every part of the
city. In this great wot a, all ranks of citizens, tiie aged and
the young, were alike ardently employed. These barriers were
erected at about forty or fifty paces asunder, breast high, and
four or five feet in thickness, the work was carried on by torch
light, the lamps having been broken. The dreadful tocsin con-
tinued ringing during the night. In the vicinity of the Louvre,
and the Tuileries, a patrol of guards, continued to walk during
the night, and fired upon all who came within reach of their
muskets.

Thureday, 29th, the drums beat the reveille, and the hurrying
crowds as they assembled, cried, " To arms, to arms .'" Several
distinguished military characters, were this day to act as lead-
ers. Among them were Generals Gerard and Dubourg. The
entire failure of the plans of Marmont had induced him to adopt
this day a different mode of warfare. Instead of marching his
troops through the streets to no purpose, he had sent for further
reinforcements, and now intended to concentrate all his strength
in the Tuileries, and keep up a communication with St. Cloud.
The following places were in possession of the royal troops, this
morning : the Tuileries, Carrousel and Garden, the Louvre, the
Bank, and Palais Royal, place Vendome, the Champs Elysees,
Rue St. Honore, and several streets.

There was an addition to the royal forces of 6,700 men, that
had arrived since yesterday, so that the total number of the
guards amounted to 11 battalions of infantry, and I'S squadrons
of cavalry, in all 4,300 men. The eight battalions of the line,
amounting to 2,400, were of no service to the royal cause-
one battalion of guards occupied the military school. It will
be seen that the military were this day to be put on the defen-
sive : It remained therefore with the popular forces, to make the

«.*-•***.. ---,-..«-. •

Vmi

e attempt to force a
ie St. Antoine, also
ps were exposed to
cir ammunition was
3, M. St. Ciiamans
iTin, over the bridge
he Tuileries, by the
1 at the place Louis
his, no more troopi
;h boriiood,
le royal forces fron-
I to establish them,
the citizens did not
jelves of this respite,
I every part of the
zens, the aged and
These barriers were
er, breast high, and
carried on by torch
dreadful tocsin con-
inity of the Louvre,
iiued to walk during
ithin reach of their

lie, and the hurrying
, to arms .'" Several
day to act as lead-
and Dubourg. The
induced him to adopt
jad of marching his
had sent for further
trate all his strength
tion with St. Cloud,
he royal troops, this
den, the Louvre, the
lie Champs Elysees,

I of 6,700 men, that
total number of the
■y, and I'S squadrons
attalions of the line,
the royal cause—
;ary school. It will
e put on the defen-
r forces, to make the

FRENCH REVOLUTION, THWRSDAV, JULY '29, 1830. GDI

attack, who were this day strengthened by the students of the
cclebratfid Polytechnic school, alKuit fiO of wliom scaled ih«
walls, and headed the civic columns by whom tlioy were hailed
witli the greatest entliusiasm.

The bands from the Faubourgs had poured into the Rue St.
Honore, by its east(;rn extremity, and a fioce and niurdcrous
warfare was carried on, and here, tiic Poiyteciinic scholars led
the citizens to tlie charge. TIk; battle began to ragn fiercely
at several points near Rue St. Honore.

But before any important engagement had occurred, to
decide the fate of the day, tiie d<;rection of troops occupying
important stations, led to important results. About half past
eleven, the troops of the line, at the ))Iace Vendome, and the
Palais Bourbon, negotiated witli the leaders of the populace,
when new barriers rose in all directions round these stations.
The 5th and 53d regiments of tlie line, stationed in the place
Vendome, fraternized with tiio people : this ceremony was per-
formed by taking off their bayonets, and shouldering their
muskets, with the butts in the air. Marslial Marmont was
immediately api)rized of the defection of tlie troO(m, and sent
a battalion of Swiss guards from the Louvre, to supply their
posts. By some strange oversight, the battalion was withdrawn,
that defended the whole position, the Colonnade and gallery
of the Louvre. The populace soon found their way into the
garden, called L'Enfant, in front of the Louvre, and there meet-
ing with no obstacles, entered the lower windows, and glass
doors, and took immediate possession of the interior of this noble
pile.

From the windows of the inner court the Parisians fired upon
the battalion beneath, and soon every wi<idow in the great gv.\.
lery of paintings was filled, whence they fired on the troops in
the place du Carrousel, and soon drove the Swiss guards away
in great disorder. There were also two squadrons of lancers in
the inclosure of the Tuileries, exposed to the fury of the popu-
lace. The Swiss rushed to the Triumphal Arch, and getting
through it with great irregularity, threw themselves among the
lancers. The egress from this railed space was blocked up by
the latter, but through it the troops escaped as soon as possible.
It is said, two platoons of firm soldiers might have driven the
popular forces away, who were not numerous at this time. It
was at this spot (the Triumphal Arch) that Marslial Marmont
had established his head quarters ; and so unexpected was the
attack that he retreated precipitately, leaving behind him 120,000
francs (5,000Z.) in bags. His retreat was by the Rue de Revoli,
and thence round into the garden of the Tuileries. From the

002

CHAPTER XIII.

trrrjicc, t-.>o cannon shot were fired on the Parisians. The
Swiss iri-ni (1 af,'nin, but only to retire iuimetliately, by order of
Ihe Murslia , upon St. Cloud. Thus terminated the capture ot
Ihe Louv.o and tin; 'J'uilories.

In tliia attack on the Louvre, tlie strongest column was com-
manded i)y Ceiieral (Jcrard ; while the pupils of the Polyteciimc
school served under him, advancing at the head of their respec-
live f;onipani(;s. !t was one of these youths tiuit led the attack
on one of its gates and drove it in, when the forces rushed ini-
petiiously on tiie guards. Many interesting facts are related,
allowing the courage and noble hearing of these youths, whose
services w(M-e so conspicuous during the revolution. It was
about 1 o'clock when the Tuileries were captured. In the
famous gallery of the Louvre, the splendid coronation picture
of Charles X. with another painting, was instantly destroyed.
The rest of this precious collection of paintings was left im-
touched. This fact reflects the highest honor on the Parisian
multitude. No sooner was the palace of the Tuileries in pos-
session of the populace, than every thing relating to the Hour-
bons met with iiimKuliate destruction. A splendid painting of
the Duke of Ilagusa, (Marmout,) was torn into a thousand
pieces, and every bust and painting of the royal family destroyed
with the e.\e(!i)tion of a bust of Louis XVIII., to whom France,
was indebted for the charter. Upon the whole, the populace,
even to the poorest of the working classes, displayed a remark
able degree of forbearance from pillage when in possession of
the riches of the royal pahice.

The Swiss barracks, in the Rue Babylone, had been taken
possession of hv<bro. the capture of the Tuileries. Finding this
place defended with great obstinacy, it was set on fire with
straw and turpentine. Major Dufay, the commander of these
quarters, was killed ; when the flames and smoke forced the
soldiers to make a desperate sortie, when great numbers fell.
Major Dufay was an officer of great distinction, and had served
under Napoleon in his celebrated campaigns.

The archbishop's palace, in the He de la Cite, was assailed
under the command of seveml Polytechnic scholars. Finding
there, unexpectedly, ammunition and newly sharpened poinards,
the multitude were so exasperated that the work of destruction
immediately commenced. Costly articles of furniture and Irooks
in gorgeous bindings were torn to pieces, scattered, and thrown
from tli(! windows into the river.

A sanguinary combat was kept up in Rue St. Honore with
the Swiss, after the Louvre and Tuileries were taken. This
incensed the pooplo greatly— the soldiers almost to a maa pe-

^i(4i,i;

FRENCH REVOLUTION, THURSDAY, JULY 29, 1830.

603

the Parisians. The
icdiiiUily, by order of
mated the captun; of

:est column was com-
pils of the rolytechnic
) liead of their respcc
hs tiuit led the attack
the forces rushed iiu-
iiifr facts are related,
' these youths, whose
I revolution. It was
ire captured. In the
lid coronation picture
3 instantly destroyed,
laintinps was left un-
lonor on the Parisian
' the Tuileries in pos-
relatin^ to the Hour.
L splendid painting of
torn into a thousand
royal family destroyed
HI., to whom France.
3 whole, the populace,
3, displayed a remark
vhen in possession of

y^lone, had been taken
'uileries. I'inding this
: was set on fire with
3 commander of these
and smoke forced the
en great numbers fell,
inction, and had served
gns.

Ic la Cite, was assailed
nic scholars. Finding
ifly sharpened poinards,
le work of destruction
i of furniture and books
, scattered, and thrown

1 Rue St. Honore with
ies were taken. This
rs almost to a man pe-

rwhed — the carnage there was horrible, about nine hundred
dead bodits being ibund. About half jjast JJ, P. M. the last of
the military posts in the city of Paris surrendered.

'i'hc royal troo|)s retreated towards St. Cloud, not without
meeting with obstructions on the way, and being somewhat
harassed. The brid/re at Neuilly had been blocked up with
heavy carts and wagons at tiie suggestion of 1 -afayette ; and
the people still continued to fire upon the exhaustinl and dispirited
soldiers. Thus ended the three days' hard conflict, in which
the citizens of Paris had fought and bled, and at last achieved
a glorious victory.

The number of citizens killed and wounded in these three
days' fight, has been variously stated. From the report of the
committee of national rewards, appointed to investigate the
claims of the wounded and of the relatives of the slain, it ap-
pears that the number of killed and those who died from wounds,
was 788 ; and of wounded about 4,500.

On tlio 31st of July, the deputies published a proclamation,
declaring that they had invited the Duke of Orleans to become
Lieutenant-(Jeneral of the kingdom. At noon on the same day,
Louis i'hillippe d'Orleans issued a proclamation declaring that
he hastened to Paris, wearing the " glorious colors" of France,
to accept the invitation of the ass(;mbled deputies — to become
Lieuteuant-Cencral of the kingdom. A proclamation of the
same date appointed provisional commissaries for the difTercnt
departments of government : these were, M, Dupont de I'Eure,
for the department of justice ; Baron Louis, of finance ; General
Gerard, of war ; de Rigny, of marine ; M. Bignon, of foreign
affairs ; M. Guizot, of public instruction ; M. Casiinir Perrier,
of the interior and public works.

The same day, (31st,) Chfirles X. and his household fled from
St. Cloud to Rambouillet. Three commissioners were sent to
treat with him: these were, Messrs. De Schonen, Marshal
Maison, and O'Dillon Barrett. The national guard advanced
towards Rambouillet, which brought about a s[)eedy delivery
of the crown jewels from Charles X. and hastened his depar-
ture. August 2d, the abdication of Charles X. and the Dau-
phin, Louis Antoine, was put into the hands of the Duke of
Orleans ; and a letter from Charles, appointing the Duke regent,
and ordering him to proclaim the Duke of Bordeaux King, with
the title of Henry V.

The chamber of deputies met on the 3d of August. On the
6th, the throne of France was declared vacant by the chamber
of deputies (de jure ct de facto.) On the 7th, some changes
in the charter were adopted, when by vote, the Duke of Orleana

**»•■

!Fi,5!'

604

CHAPTER Xni.

was invited to become King of the French, on condition of
hifl accepting the changes made in the constitution. The votei
were 219 in favor, 33 against : the whole number of depntiej*
18 430.

On the 8th, the chamber in a body wtnt to the Duke of Or-
leans and ofTorcd him the crown, which lie accepted ; and on
the 9th, Louis Phillippe toolt the oath to support the new chartPT.
In these measures, a majority of tlie chamber of peers present,
concurred. On the 12th of August, the Mohifeur announced
the names of tlie new ministry, from the moderate Hberal party,
as follows: Count do Mole, foreign affairs; General Gerard,
war ; Baron Louis, finance ; Guizot, interior ; Gen. Sebastian',
marine ; Dupont de I'Eure, keeper of the seals and minister of
justice ; Duke de Broglie, president of the ministry. Lafitte
and Casimir Pcrrier were also appointed ministers of state,
without any special departments.

Charles X. was permitted to retreat unmolested from France.
He, with his household, took passage in two American ships for
England, where lie was received merely as a private individual,
and took up his residence at Ilolyrood-llouse, Edinburgh, where
he had formerly resided during the sway of Napoleon.

Many changes were made in the officers of the French
government, in accordance with the spirit of the times and for
the better establishment of harmony in the government. Out
of 86 prefects, 76 were removed ; and of sub-prefects, 196 out
of 277. In the army, 65 general officers out of 75 were
changed, 65 colonels removed, and almost all the governors of
fortresses. 74 procurcurers were dismissed. Special missions
were sent to the different courts of Europe, which were well
received by all of them except Russia. 1 he greatest activity
was exerted in the army to put it on a footing to meet any inva-
sion, and the organization of the national guard was provided
for. Of the late ministry, Polignac, Chantelauze, and Guernon
de Ranville, underwent a trial and were declared guilty of trea-
son and sentenced to imprisonment for life, with the penalty of
civil death to Polignac. He and his colleagues were transferred
to the prison at Ham.

Nov. 3d, the ministry was changed, and Lafitte advanced to
the presidency of the council and minister of finance. March
the 14th- Casimir Perricr succeeded him in office. On the 18th
of October, 1831, a bill passed the chamber of deputies for
abolishing the hereditary rights of the French peerage : to
ensure its passage in the chamber of peers, Louis Phillippe
created thirty -six new peers.

'Ntj^lil

FRENCH REVOLUTION, THURSDAY, JULY 29, 1830. G05

ch, on condition of

ititutioii. Tlie voUai

number of deputiej*

to the Duke of Or.
le accepted ; and on
jjort tlie new clmrtPT.
ber of peers present,
Mohifeur announced
(derate liberal i)arty,
s ; General Gerard,
or ; Gen. Sebastian*,
leuls and minister of
le ministry. Lafitte
ministers of state,

olestcd from France.

American ships for
a private individual,

se, Edinburgh, where
f Napoleon.
3ers of the French
of the times and for
e government. Out
sub-prefects, 196 out
ers out of 75 were

all the governors of
id. Special missions
ipe, which were well
the greatest activity
ng to meet any inva.

guard was provided
telauze, and Guernon
sclared guilty of trea-

with the penalty of
»ues were transferred

1 Lafitte advanced to
of finance. March
office. On the 18th
Tiber of deputies for
French peerage : to
jers, Louis Phillippe

The most prominent events which marked the reign of Louis
Phillippe, during the yciir 1832, wore the siege of iho citadel of
Antwerp, and its surrender by the Dutili, afler a long and vig-
orous resistance — the arrest of the l)ui;li(;ss of Herri, at Nantes,
and an attempt to assassinate the King. During the succeeding
twelve months, the country was comparatively quiel. In the
year 1831, a treaty formed by the Duke de Uroglie, and General
Scbastiani, with the American Minister, wiis annuUeil by the
refusal of the (Jhamber of Deputies to grant 'iJ.OOO.OOO francs
to the United .Slates as an indemnity for injuries received by
American ships and commerce during the last European war.
In April, of this year, a treaty, termed the quadriijde alliance,
was concluded between Great Jiritain, France, Spain and Por-
tugal, the object of which was to secure the peace of the last
two countries, under their existing constitutiouiil government.

On the lOlh of April, 1835, the Chamber acknowledged the
propriety of the American claims, and provided for the payment
of the indemnity in annual installments. On the 28lh of July,
of the same year, the anniversary of the revolution of 1830, as
the king was reviewing the troops, an infernal machine from an
adjoining house exploded. Many were wounded, aiid some
lives lost, but Louis Phillippe, and three sons then with him,
escaped unharmed. Fieschi, the conspirator against the King's
life, was arrested and condenmed to death.

On the 25th of June, 1830, a third attempt was made to take
the King's life. He was lired at while taking a drive, but the
ball lodging in the carriage, no injury was done. The guilty
actor, a young man, named Alibaud, was arrested and guil-
lotined. On the King's birthday, Oct. Glh, the ex-ministers of
Charles X., imprisoned in the Castle of Ham, were released
from confinement ; indignation towards them having given place
to pity. In October, an insurrection was attempted by L<mis
Napoleon Bonaparte, at Slrasburg, but it was at once suppressed,
and he was exiled to America. In September of this year, as
the King was proceeding to open the session of the Chamber of
Deputies, with his three sons, he was again shot at— the ball
barely missing him, passing through the back of his carriage.
Meurice, a workman, by whom the pistol was fiied, was appre-
hended and condemned to death, but afterwards banished for 10
years.

In the spring of 1838, a model was discovered of a new " in-
fernal machine," made by Huber, a pardoned republican, who
designed constructing a machine for the destruction of the royal
family. He was tried and banished.

In 1840, 1,000,000 francs was appropriated for the purpose of

^^ .:«&

606

CHAPTI.ll XIII,

brinijinf; to Frani-r. ilio ivMiiaiiis of Napoleon, and interring them
witli pomp. Louis Napoleon liavinif retnrnod from America,
and iijrain uttcmi)ttid to rally a party in his favor, was arrested
and imprisoned for life in the Castle of Ham. In October,
while reviewing the National ( juards, the King was fired at with
a musket with six balls, but escaped for the fifth time. The as-
sassin, named Darmcs, was afterwards executed.

In iH-t-^, the Duke of Orleans, heir apparent of the King, lost
his life by being thrown from a carriage. In consequence, it
was decided that should Louis Phillippe die before the young
Count of Paris, son of the Duko of Orleans, came of age, the
regency should devolve on the next individual, in the order of
succession to the throne, who should reach tlie age of 21 years.

During the last few years of this period, nothing of further
moment than the capture of the Marquesas and Society Islands,
in the Pai'ific Ocean, and the interchange of friendly visits be-
tween Queen Victoria and Louis Phillippe occurred in the
history of Prance, until the eventful dawning of 1848.

V'i

REVOLUTION IN rELGlUM.

607

n, and interring them
irnod from America,
s I'avor, was arrested

Ham. In ()elol)er,
[in^ was fired at with
! fifth time. The as-
Miuted.

rent of the King, lost
In consequence, it
]ie befori! the young
ms, canio of age, the
idual, in the order of
1 the age of 21 years,
id, nothing of further
! and Society Islands,

of friendly visits bo-
ppe occurred in the
ing of 1848.

Revolution in Ihlgium,

TnB Belgians soon followed the cxamplo of the French, in
the career of revolution, by rising luul expelling a king that
hud been forced upon tliem against their wisht^s. The eongreas
of Vienna, it will be recollected, in 1814 and 1815, severed the
Netherlands from France, with wliicli it had been incorporated
since 1795, and constituted it with the Uiu'tf;d I'rovinci^s, into
one political body, under William, Prince of Orange, having the
title of King of the Netherlands. This was done with a view
of giving to Germany greater security against the jiower of
France. The consent of the Southern Netherlands was never
asked or given ; it was disposed of by the grc;at powers as a
conquered province or district. William attempted to unite two
million of Dutch Galvinists, engag(!(l principally in commerce,
with four millions of Belgian Catholics, employed in agriculture
and manufactur(>s — whose interests, language, and manners, were
widely opposed to the Dutch, and whoso language was disagree,
able to the Belgians, who have much the habits an<l feelings of
Frenchmen, and who arc also greatly influenced by a priesthood
decidedly hostile to all innovations, more especially when coming
from the Dutch ; so that the attempt to blend these discordant
feelings and conflicting interests entirely failed. And the policy
of William's government was by no means calculateu to con.
ciliatc the proud and rich Belgians, whom he treated more as
vassals than subjects. The Belgians had many just causes of
complaint against the arbitrary measures of William's govern-
ment ; they were burdened with heavy taxes, and the education
of their children was taken out of the hands of the natives.
This state of dissatisfaction led to several demands contained in
an address for this purpose ; the grievances ennumerated were
fifteen. They demanded an equitable division of public offices
between the two countries, liberty of language, instruction, and
the press, and the responsibility of ministers. After various
struggles, an insurrection at Brussels broke out in August, 1830,
and the Belgians made a formal declaration of their indepen-
dence on the 4th October, 1830.

The representatives of the European powers, viz : Austria,
France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, assembled at Lon-
don, and there agreed to a protocol in favor of an armistice,
and directed that hostilities should cease between the Dutch and
Belgians. The acknowledgment of the independence of Be*,
gium waa announced December 27th, 1830, to the national con

ll ii lM ii< i i UW!|!'J

•1-(

G08

CHAPTER XIM.

gress ttt FlnisaclH, tlic Belf,nana liaving decided upon a constiiu
tioniil inoiiiuoliy Foliruury 3d, 1831 — tlus Duku of Nemoure,
the accoiid sou of Louis rhiilipi)o, kiiifi of Friince, wus elected
to fdi the throne. On tlio 17th, the King of Friuico declined
the proirortd throne on belmlf of liis 8on. February 24th, M
Sul<!t de Cliokier was elected n-ent of Belfiiuni. January 4th,
the Belgium congress-elected Prince Lf.'Ji)old of Saxe Coburg
for their king, by a vote of 15'i to 34, which was sanctioned by
the five great |)o\vers. The new king iTiai;o his entrance into
Brussels July 'J 1st, and took tlie oath to supjwrt the constitution.
September 8th, Leopold, king of Belgium, opened his first par-
liament. November Ist, the chamber of representatives of
Belgium agreed to the terms of settlement between Belgium
and Holland, prescribed by the London conference, and on the
8d, the senate agreed to the same by a vote of 35 to 8.

Revolution in Poland.

The spirit of Poland has never been crushed. The sword
of Suvaroff and tlic snows of Siberia had diminished the num.
ber of her bravo sons, but they who clung to the soil of their
country and they who devoted tiieir lives to the service of for-
signers alike breathed vengeance on their oppressors and ardent
aspirations for the restoration of Poland. They expected much
from Napoleon — they S|)ent their best blood in his service, and
spent it in vain. Napoleon rejected the opportunity of creating
a barrier nation, a camp of devoted soldiers, which would for.
ever have secured his empire on its weakest side. Still the
Poles did not despair. The moderation of Alexander made
their servitude more endurable ; but no sooner had Nicholas
ascended the throne of Russia, and sanctioned the barbarities
of his brutal brother, Constantine, than the old spirit revived,
if indeed that spirit had ever slept. The successful example
of France, followed by Belgium and Brunswick, roused them to
action and ins|)ired them with the liveliest hopes. The day of
vengeance and liberation seemed to have arrived. France well
knew that Poland alone stood between her and the already ad.
vancing' legions of Russia, and her emissaries offered every
encouragement to the patriot Poles. Lashed to fury by her own
wrongs, listening to the voice of hope, and encouraged by pro-
mises of support, Poland stood in the gap, encoimtered the first
onset, and bore up against it manfully and well. But every

•n

11 iri

nKVOLUTIUN IN FuLAND.

609

(led upon a coiistitu
Duko of Nemours,
Friince, wus elected
; of Franco declined
February 24th, M
;;iiini. January 4th,
)old of yaxo Coburg
r\\ was sunctionod by
uio his cntruncc into
|)|)ort the constitution,
opened his first par-
if reprcsentutivca of
int between JJelgium
nfcrence, and on the
to of 35 to 8.

irushcd. The sword
diminished tlie num.
ijl to the soil of their
to the service of for-
oppressors and ardent
Tlioy expected much
)d in his service, and
pportunity of creating
jrs, which would for-
iukost side. Still the
I of Alexander made
sooner had Nicholas
3tioned the barbarities
the old spirit revived,
le successful example
iswick, roused them to
t hopes. The day of
arrived. France well
r and the already ad-
issaries offered every
lied to fury by her own
d encouraged by pro-
, encoimtered the first
ind well. But evory

victory weakened her strength — tiie delusive hope of assistanci
vanished, and Poland lias sunk in iron-bound despair. How
will I'' ranee, saved jierliaps by the siierifice of Poland, answei
to man and to (.Jo<l for her ingratitude and perfidy !

it was on tli(! 2l)th of November, 18:tO, that the insurrection
ot Warsaw burst (brth. .Secret societies had existed in that
city since 1818, for the express purpos(.' of s(!curing tiie liberty
and nationality of Poland. It was a noble dcsif^n of her patri-
ots to unite again under one government thoscr portions of their
nnliMiipy country which had i)eeu torn ussunder and despoiled
by tlie rapacity of Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

As early as 1821, Russia had eomnienccd a system of pro-
scrijition against tiii'se secret societies ; and in 1825, a conspi-
racy was kindled into flame at Petersburg, which it was thought
could be traced to Warsaw. The societies had members
throughout Poland and Lithuania, Podolia and Volhynia, and
even the old provinces of the Ukraine, which it might be sup
posed had long since lost all recollections of Polish glory,
riiesc associations were formed during the reign of the Empe-
ror Alexander, to whom sonu; of the patriots had vainly looked
for a better state of things. After the death of Alexander, his
successor, Niciiolas, was crowned King of Poland at Warsaw,
May, 1829.

The diet assembled in 1830, and in spite of all the endeavors
of the Emperor, many patriots were elected. Nicholas opened
tiiis assembly in person, but failed to overawe the liberals from
impeaching ministers for violating the charter. This liberal diet
was closed June 28th.* Such freedom of discussion could not
be endured by a despotic monarch, whose unvarying aim has
been to tread out every spark of liberty in the northern parts
of Europe. The Arch-Dukc Constantino was made viceroy
of Poland, and by his monstrous atrocities became universally
detested by the brave and generous Poles.

The ardent hopes and wishes of the Polish patriots at length
burst forth into flame. At 7 in the evening, the hour agreed
upon, fifteen intrepid youths sallied forth determined to seize
on Constantino, whose residence was about two miles from
Warsaw. They rushed into the palace of the Belvider, where
the usual guard consists of sixty men, first wounding the director
of police, who fled. They next killed General Gendre, a Rus-

• The constitution of Polar. 1, issued by Alexander, Emperor of Russia,
m 1815, contained many important provisions. The diet, composed of two
houses, was to be assembled once every two years ; yet in violation of this
provision, none was convoked from 1830 to 1835, and only one under th«
Emperor Nicholas.

**<.

610

CHAPTBB Xnt.

•lan infamous for hit crimes. Ti... struggle .ilarmod Cons nn.
uno. who iMHUnlly roso from Lis b.-.! an. .s-a|...l mulr.ssed l.y
. sJcrct door, lluit wm.cio«.ul alkr linn by in« valft jimt as t .«y
wore on the point of ruucinn- Im.i.ana had 8U|.j..«..d thomsi.lvoH
•ocuro of thoir victim. Constantino instantly (I.mI to Ins guards.
Thus disappointed, this band rotiro.l to Ihoir companions m
arms, who uwaite.l, ut tho br^'-c of Sob.e^k., the n«uk of tins
n,ovcnun.t. In returning to ihe city they ha.l to pnas the ba •
rucks where the gwurds, though air.;ady mounted, were urml.le
to attack th.un on ac.-ount of a precautumary measure ol
Constantin.- in Hurrounding the barracks with a deep and wide
ditch, passed only by narrow bridges. The guards l.r...d upon
the nsurgcnts; but tl... latter were so advanlageouHly situ
ated, and r.-turned the fire so w.dl, that they kilh.l three hua
dred of the guards, und retreated with tho loss of only one o,

^'liy"tSiine the streets of Warsaw were filled, somf! houses
had been set on fire, and the cry resounded " I o arms, to arms
Poland is up, tiod fi.r our country !" The inliubitants rushed
to arms. The state prisoners were liberated ; the students oi
the university and th.; school of enginecn-s joined the msurrec-
tion ; the arsenal was forced, and in an hour and a Imlf from
the f.rst crv of liberty, 40,000 men w^m-c m arms. Soon he
fourth Polish regiment joined the populace, and presently the
rest of the Polish soldiers. When Constantino heard ot tins,
he fi-'U back with two Polish regiments of guards, and was p.-r-
mitted to retire by the magnanimous Poles unmolested to the
frontier. Chlopicki was appoint<'<l general in chief, and four
days afterwards d.-dariKl dictator by the provisional govern-
ment. Although a soldier of undisputed bravery, he has been
blamed for suffering the grand duke to escape when he might
have captured him, and for losing time m trying to negotiate
with tho Emperor Nicholas. „ ., , i •

The diet that assembled in twenty days after the breaking
out of the revolt, confirmed Chlopicki dictator; but on Ins r-'fus.
incr assent to the manifesto of January 9th, 1831, m which the
wrongs of Poland were t.o feelingly portrayed, he was deposed.
Instantly a supreme national council was formed, and 1 rince
Adam Czartorj'ski appointed president, when a spirited procia-
maUon was i.ssned, informing tho Polish soldiers that Chlopicki
had resigned the glorious task of conducting them to combat.

It was unfortunate for the cause of Poland that Chlopicki was
made dictator. He issued an order, " that whoever should crosa
the frontiers of the kingdom, and attempt to raise the old pro-
vinces, should be punished with death." Such an order might

'ii^uH''

i**-

BKVOl.trriON I.N I'OL.iND.

611

nUinniHl Constnn-
i(:a|)i!i| undressed by
l\iti viili't jimt as tlioy
8ii|)iMwcd tluimsolvos
;ly (Ifd to Ills i^uiirds.
their curnpuiiioiis in
iki, tlu! nault of tiiis»

Imd to pass tlio bur-
lounted, were utuibie
itioiuiry nieasun! of
with a deep and wide
le guards lired upon
advanlageously situ
ley killed tliree luia
3 loss of only one o!

V filled, somfi houses

1 «' To arms, to anus,
10 iiihiibitants rusluil
ited ; the studtnts ol
i joined the insurrec

hour and u half from
I in arms. Soon the
ic(!, and presently the
tantine heard of this,
guards, and was per.
les unmolested to the
ml in chief, and four
e provisional govern-
bravery, ho has been
scape when he might
in trying to negotiate

ays after the breaking
ator ; but on his ri.'fus.
h, 1831, in which the
■ayed, he was deposed.
[IS formed, and Prince
dien a spiriteil procla-
soldiers that Chloi>icki
ting them to combat,
and that Chlopicki was
at whoever should crosa
pt to raise the old pro.
Such an order might

havn bonn issued in respect to Pruftsian and Austrian Poland;
lull not to those provinceH that had risen t<> shake olF the Rui-
siiui yoke, and Lithuania, wiiere the revolt had iMigun, and whoro
thousanils impatiently waitt-d the signal from old Poland, to ri»<
and join tlii! struggle for liberty. 'Phis order of Chlopicki was
i.gardrd by tin; patriots, not only as a scsvere ch<Tk to the enlhu-
Riasiii of those [irovinccs waiting to rise on the signal Ijcing gi\on.
but as almost traitorous to their cause. That time was hi«t in
fruitless negotiation that should have Iwu-n devoted to kindling,
liir and wide, the spirit of revolt ; and in the most active prepa.
ration to meet the vast resources of Russia, which had refused
all terms but absolute submission ; and the proparotions in tho
army were strangily neglecte<l. 'I'lu'se proceedings at length
causi'd so much dissatisfaction against Chlopicki, as to lead to

his dismission.

A Her two months delay the inevitable conflict Iwgan ; when
the Poles marched into the field, " with half the force which
under an energetic administration it would have wielded."
They ought to hav(! been ready to have commenced otFensive
operations with tiieir enemy at a distance, instead of waiting
for him on their uun soil, exposed to his iasults and outrages.
Russia had now brought into tins field against Poland 200,000
m(!n, while Polanil had out about 50,000 equipped for the fight
—a fearful dis|)arity in numlwrs. Through the inlluence of
the aristocracy, thc'command of the army woa given to Prince

Uadzvil. i_ ^« . r

The Russian invading army rendezvoused, on the 20th of
.lanuary, at various points of the western frontier of the empire.
It was composed, according to the report of Field Marshal
Diebitsch, of 105 battalions of infantry, 135 squadrons of cav.
ttlry, with 396 pieces of artillery, and II regiments of Cos.
sacks. The army crossed the Polish frontiers on the 5th of
February. The advanc(> of the Polish army woa at Biala, the
right near the high road to Warsaw, the left at Lomeza on the
Narew. On the advance of the Russians, the Polish corps
fcll back, tho right on Warsaw, and the left on Modlin and Pul-
tusk. On the 18th of February, the Russian head.quarters were
csttiblishcd at Minsk, ten miles from Warsaw, and their advance
pushed to Melisna, within five miles of that city. Tho Russian
left rested on the \'istula al)Ove Warsaw, ami the right on the
Bug near its junction with the Nurew, its centre protected with
woods and artillery.

On the 18th, the Polish army of 50,000 men had its right on
Grokow, with Praga in the rear, and the left thrown back oppo-
■he the right wing of the enemy.

612

ClIAPTKR XIII.

The n!CoiiiiuiiMaiic('i« uf llir IDtli iiiul 'iOtli, wero nsisU.d by
the ('oica und led to ii suvi-rc battle. Accordin); tit tin; lUiMiuc
Ui't'ount, tlio Ileal of tliu battle wan diiriii}{ the early part uf the
duy confined to the lel\, ('omit I'ahleii'H advanced ^aiard, whieh
waa attacked oa soon ua it had chared the defile iieur (irokow,
und compelled to retreat two iiiilea. Tho advanced f{uai(l,
(iiuiur General Uuaon, waa attacked at tin; aaine time, advaiuiiig
from Okanief. On tin? arrival of Diebilseh, he miit a reinforce,
iiient mider (Jeneral Toll, with aeveral lialtalioiiM and '-iOeaniion,
to tho ridief of Count Pahleii. A furious eharj^i! was now iiiado
iiy the KuHHiaiiH, with Diebitsrh in perHoii, which ehan^'ed the
fortune of tho day, and at 1 o'clock thi; Rutisiaii v/\u\is united,
when the I'oica were driven from the Held of iMittli!. Korthn^o
days after thia action the lluiwiaiis made no onward iiioveiiient,
but naked un armistice for tin; burial of the dead, which wn*
granted.

Pearly on the 25th, the Ilussians having received a reiiifoirn-
ment of 25,000 men, felt i)rej)ared for action. They drew
forth their whole army in front of the forest, and cominenced
an attack on tho Polish left wing, near Jublonnn. (JenernI
Uminaki received thia attack with great bravery, and n pulsed
the enemy, taking six cannon, which he spiked, and drove tho
Ruaaiana to tho forest. He then attacked the Russian eeiitro
with dreaufu! slaughter, and drove them from their position.
Diebitach had calculated, with the great strength of his N-ft
wing, to crush the Polish right, situatid near tJrokow, under
the command of Chlopicki and Skrzynecki. The Ilussians
made six tremendous charges, and were as often repulsed with
great loss ; a seventh charg*; made against a new regiment,
put it in disorder, and caused it partially to retreat. Two
regiments of cuirns8i(!re were then sent against the faltering
regiments : the latter l)eing aided witli the Polish Inncers, rallied,
rushed on the regiments of cuirassiers, and cut them to pieces,
of which only forty escnjKjd, twenty prisoners only being taken,
mostly officers, and among them the commander of one of these
regiments. Thia aflair decided the day, when the Russians wr-re
obliged to withdraw from the field of battle into their strong
holds in tho foreat of Milosna. This battle waa fought with
great fury. General Chlopicki, who was in the centre, had two
horses killed under him, and was wounded. Forty thounand
Poles here withstood the shock of one hundred and fifty thou-
sand of their enemy ; and at the close of the battle, nearly
15,000 Russians lay weltering on the plain, and several thouaand
prisoners were taken.

After the battle. Prince Radzvil gave up the command of the

Ill, wi;ro rcsiated by

idill^' to tin- UU!«IUK

le curly imil of tlie
iincnl j{uaril, wliinh
le(il<' iK-'ir (irukow,
u advanced ){imi'<l,
iinii; tiino, advancing

ho Hcnl u niiiiorco.
lionH and '20 cannon,
uirgc was now iniido

wliicli clmngcd the
iiHsian wiiifis united,
if ^M»ttl(^ Fortiirco
J onwanl niovcnicnt,
lio dead, wliicli v/ob

received a rcinfoion.
action. Tiiey drew
rest, and connnenced

Jublonnn. (Jcncrul
•ravcry, and rcpnlseii
jiiiied, and drove tiio
[ the Russian ivntio
from tlieir position.
; 8trenj?tli of lii« ''''^

near (irokow, under
jcki. The RuHsians
H often repulsed witii
inst a new regiment,
lly to retreat. Two
against the faltering
Polish lancers, rallied,
d cut them to pieces,
icrs only being taken,
nander of one of these
hen the Russians w(«ro
ittttlo into their strong
ittle was fought with
in the centre, had two
led. Forty thousand
undrod and fifty thou-

of the battle, nearly
1, and several thousand

ip the command of the

KKV0I.UTI0N IN POLAND.

013

amiy ; when Rkr/ynecki, who had displayed fixtraordinary
bravery luid skill, was chosen commander in chief. Mut this
sli'p led to till' rankling enmity of Krukowiecki, the second in
command to ('lilo|)icki, who thenceforward meilitatod revenge,
ploltiil, and atlcTWiirds |iroved a traitor to his country.

'I'lie first step of Skrzynecki was to attempt to negotiate with
OicliiiMch. When lie found his advances repelled, he prepared
for the unequal struggle.

The ice in tlirs ''istnla hail now broken up, and the swamjis
were filled from the melting of the snow, and the roads were
almost impassable for artillery and cavalry. Skrzynecki now
ilctermined to net on the oH'cnsive. On learning that Diehitsch
had ilivided his forces, he led the Polish army of 25,0()() men
to Piaga, and on the .'Mst, favored by the darkness of the night,
approached the Russian camji, and fell upon the advanc(!d
guard of (ieneral (ieismiir, at VVawar, consisting of 8,000 men,
intrenched in n very strong position, which force he nearly
destroyed, capturing 4,000 prisoners, nnd taking a number of
cannon. (Jerieral llminski had previously been despatched
towards Ostrolenka, to kfiep in check the corps of General
Sacken and the gu j ! j ho W(!re advancing there. ^ While the
Polish advance' ;^\uird was engaged in combat at Wawar,
(ii'ueral HybinsKi, with his division, attacked the enemy's right,
and carried it by the point of tin • yonet; destroyed one entire
regiment, and f - .ed another t, loy down their arms. The
combat lasted tv. o hours. Colonel Romarino's brigade here also
distinguished itself. Skrzynecki next fell upon the corps of
(ionera! Rosen, posted ot Dembe Wielski with 20,000 men, who
were unable to withstand the imptuous attack of the Poles.
The Russians fled by way of Minsk, and made several efforts
to sustain their poaitions as they received reinforcements, but
were unable to sustain them. It was at 5 o'clock, P. M. when
they arrived at Dembo Wielski, a position strongly fortified, nnd
the resistance was olwtinate. But the force of the artillery from
the centre, and the vigor of the assault, completely routed the
Russians, who fled with precipitation.

By this masterly movement of the Polish commander in chief,
20,000 Russions were thrown hors-de-combat, and many superior
officers were captu^-ed during this day, so glorious to the Polish
arms, besides taking two standards, fifteen wagons filled with
ammunition, some thousand muskets, and fifteen pieces of can-
non This victory occasioned but small loss to the Poles, owing
to the rapidity and surprise with which their movements were
executed. The regiment of scythemen (leucheurs) having
lemanded arms, the muskets left on the field of battle were

k.l

614

CHAPTER Xin

aaaigned them. The combat lasted till 10 at night. The army
had then been actively engaged, fighting and marching, twenty
hours.

On the 9th, the Polish army gained a considerable victory,
taking several cannon, and from .3,000 to 4,000 prisoners ;
among them were 300 oflicers of different ranks. The head-
quarters on the 10th wore at Seidlec ; and on the same day,
at that place. Marshal Diobitach succeeded in uniting all his
forces. From this time the Polish cause appears to have de-
clined.

General Dwernecki with a valiant corpa entered Volhynia,
surrounded by Russian corps under Generals De Witt, Keuts,
and Rudiger. Dwernecki passed the Bug on the 10th, and on
the 11th routed some Russian forces, took a number of prison-
ers, some transports, and baggage. The left wing of the Rus-
sian army, stationed at Kock, upon Veprez and Rudjew, fell
back, and Marshal Diebitsch, baflled in his attempts, retired
with the army across tlie river Bug, alarmed for his safety.
Insurrections spread in his rear, in the provinces of Lithuania
and Volhynia. A violent insurrection broke out at Wilna on
the 28th of March.

General Chrzanowski, with 8,000 men, ci.i his way through
the Russians, and penetrated as far as the fortress of Zamosc.
The greatest enthusiasm now spread through the Polish province
of Samogitia. This expedition of Chrzanou-ski, by forcing his
way through the enemy's detachments, was one of great daring.
In three days he defeated tlie Russitais three times, and took
800 prisoners. These movements in Volhynia occasioned
great uneasiness to the Russians, and obliged them to change
their plan — that of attempting Warsaw in front by Praga. On
the last days of April, Diebitsch retired with the Russian army
beyond the river Bug. The barbaritieji of the Russians during
this warfare against the patriots in Lithuania, were of the most
revolting kind.

April 26th, General Dwernecki surrendered his force, con-
sisting of 4,000 men and 17 pieces of cannon, to the Austrians.
He had been pursued by a superior force, and was under the
necessity of passing into the Austrian dominions. Diebitsch,
with the principal Russian army, retreated in the direction of the
Bug and Narew, to gain the Prussian frontier, to relieve the suf-
fering state of the army. At Thorn there was a great supply ot
provisions, ammunition, &c., waiting his approach.

The Polish government issued a manifesto against Prussia
for her shameful violation of the principle of non-interference.
This conduct of Prussia destroyed all the advantages gained by

in^fl

it night. The army
id marching, twenty

onsiderabie victory,
to 4,000 prisoners ;

ranks, 'fhe head-
nd on the same day,
!d in uniting all his

appears to have de-

la entered VoUiynia,
•als De Witt, Keuts,
; on the 10th, and on
a number of prison-
left wing of the Rus-
■ez and Rudjew, fell
his attempts, retired
•med for his safety,
ovinces of Lithuania
•oke out at Wilna on

cui his way through
B fortress of Zamosc.
^li the Polish province
owski, by forcing his
J one of great daring,
hree times, and took
V^olhynia occasioned
Jiged them to change
front by Praga. On
ith the Russian army
f the Russians during
nia, were of the most

idered his force, con-
non, to the Austrians.
!e, and was under the
lominions. Diebitsch,
in the direction of the
itier, to relieve the suf-
was a great supply ot
ipproach.

lifesto against Prussia
e of non-interference,
advantages gained by

REVOLUTION IN POLAND.

615

Polish valor. The Prussians furnished supplies of every kind,
and constructed bridges over the Vistula for the passage of the
Russian army. In many instances when tiie Russian trnopa
Were forced by the Polish sohliers into the Prussian dominions,
they were suflered to return with their arms, while the Poles in
ail similar cases were retained prisoners.

The conduct too of Austria was most outrageous. While the
brave Dwernecki, the " camion provider," was withstanding a
greatly superior force on the Austrian frontier, the Russians
p.iascd over neutral ground to outflank him. He was followed in
his retreat by the Russians who were allowed to retire, while
tl.e brave, patriotic, and devoted champions of Pohmd were
obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war to the Austrian
forces stationed on the frontier.

While a Polish corps was at Minsk, Skryznecki united all his
corjis on the left, crossed the Bug, and forced his way to Ostro.
lenka, a flank movement of 80 miles, and defeated the Russian
guards at Tycliosin. He then sent forward 300 Polish officers
lo Lithuania, there to organize the patriot forces.

The sanguinary battle of Ostrolenka was fought on the 26th
May, in which 20,000 Poles were opposed to 60,000 Russians.
This battle was fought with an inveteracy unexampled — quarter
was out of the question. The Poles having succeeded in pass-
ing to the right bank of the Narew, they attempted to destroy
tlie bridge. This they were unable to effect, as the Russians
were protected by a numerous artillery placed on the opposite
iank. Several regiments of Poles, under a most galling fire,
attempted to arrest the progress of the Russians. The combat
was for a long time one of slaughter ; they fought man to man,
and thousands were killed by being thrown into the dyke which
passes along the marshy shore of the Narew. The battle did
not end till 12 o'clock at night, when the exhausted Rursians
retrograded as far as the bridge, and the Polish army commenced
a retrograde movement unmolested, and fell back on Fi'agsi.
Tiie loss of the Poles in this battle has been stated at 4,000 men.
The Russians snllbred very severely and had three generals
killed. The Russian guards are said to have displayed great
bravery in the action. It was the object of Diebitsch to cut off
the retreat of the Poles. The second Polish corps under General
Lubienski displayed great gallantry on the 25th : it forced its
way, at the point of the bayonet in a retreat from Chirchnowiec,
through 40,000 Russians.

It was subsequently ascertained that a correspondence had
been kept up by traitors and Russian agents in Warsaw, through
whose mians Diebitsch was informed of the plans of the Polish

616

CHAPTER XIII.

commander in chief, and led to the disastrous battle of Oatro.
lenka. On the same day that tiie battle of Ostrolenka waa
fouglit, General Chiupowski gained a victory over the Ruasiamt
at Mariampil, commanded by General Sacken.

The Russian commander in cliief, Diebitscli, died suddenly ai
Klechewo, June 19th, at that time the head-quarters of the Rus-
sian army. He had been superseded a short time previous to
his death by Paskewitch, who had greatly distinguished himself
in the war against the Persians. Shortly afterwards, the Arch
Duke Constantino died very suddenly.

The Russian arms under Diebitsch in the campaign against
enfeebled and distracted Turkey, acquired a fictitious celebrity ;
but Russia has been entirely shorn of this fame by a handful of
Polish patriots. Had it not been for this untoward war against
Poland, Diebitsch's name might have descended to posterity as a
renowned warrior. Poor Diebitsch became the laughing stock
of all Europe ; and the boasted prowess of Russia has since been
viewed in a very ditferent aspect. Russia, in the height of her
pride and in the full confidence of her strength, was about to
march her legions upon France ; when the breaking out of the
Polish revolution afforded her sufficient employment nearer
home. If Poland, at the commencement of the revolution, had
succeeded in establishing an energetic government, and possessed
a leader fully competent to direct her valiant soldiers, the over-
Dearing power and haughty pride of Russia might have been
humbled to the dust.

General Gielgud was sent with a force of 8,000 men into
Samogitia, a district of Lithuania, and was for a time success-
ful ; but was defeated in an attack on Wilna, and forced to
retreat. On the 13th of July, the remains of the corps of Giel-
gud and Chlapowski, reduced to 2,500 men, passed over into the
Prussian territory, when General Gielgud was shot by a Polish
officer.

General Dembinski had entered Lithuania at Olitta, about
55 miles west of Wilna, with corps to aid the insurgents. The
failure of Gielgud before Wilna obliged him to retreat — he forced
his way through the Russians, and arrived safely in \Varsaw.
This retreat was a masterly display of generalship.

June 29th, a conspiracy was this day timely discovered in
Warsaw, which was to set the Russian prisoners, thirteen thou-
sand in number, at liberty. Several disaffected officers attempted
to bring about a counter-revolutioa to favor the Russians. It
was to be accomplished as follows : the prisoners having been
allowed to go at large, they were to be supplied with arms ; and
on a signal being given the powder mill was to be blown up,

■• ','■ I >(■

-vt-i^ii if-

REVOLUTION IN POLAND.

617

ous battle of Ostro-
of Ostrolenka waa
y over the Ruasmns
en.

ill, died suddenly a>.
quarters of the Run-
)rt time previous to
listinguishcd himself
lerwards, the Arch

e campaign against
fictitious celebrity ;
ime by a handful of
itoward war against
ided to posterity as a
the laughing stock
lussia has since been
in the height of her
;ngth, was about to
breaking out of the
employment nearer
' the revolution, had
iment, and possessed
it soldiers, the over-
lia might have been

! of 8,000 men into
i for a time success-
iina, and forced to
of the corps of Giel-
, passed over into the
vas shot by a Polish

mia at Olitta, about
he insurgents. The
to retreat — he forced
i safely in Warsaw,
eralship.

dmely discovered in
loners, thirteen thou-
ted officers attempted
or the Russians. It
isoners having been
jlied with arms ; and
vas to be blown up,

when a general attack was to be made on the citizens and
national guard. General Janowski, one of tlie traitors, to save
himself, made the discovery of this horrid conspiracy just in
time to save Warsaw. •

On the 14th July, General Ghrzanski was attacked by Gene-
ral Rudigor's coii)s. on this side of Minsk, live miles from War-
saw ; when the Russians were defeated and forced to retreat,
iiaving 3,000 men killed, 900 prisoners taken, and 1000 muskets.
On tiic 12th, tlic main army of Puskcwitcli was encamped be-
tween Sisno and Kikal, and on the same day a great part of it
passed the Vistula between Warsaw and tiie Prussian frontier,
having received from Thorn a great number of barges and
materials for bridges. The Prussians, to facilitate the passing
of th^ Russians, had constructed a bridge over the Vistula at
Drewenca.

On the 13th of August, General Skryznecki resigned the
command of the army to General Dembinski, compelled, by the
force of circumstances, to do so, in order that faction might
have no further pretext to injure his country. His letter of
resignation on this occasion, is full of generous devotion to the
cause of his country. The patriotic club, irritated with the
measures of government and dissatisfied at not seeing General
Janowski condemned, determined to take violent measures. To
these acts they were instigated by the base Krukowiecki On
the 15th August, at 8 A. M. the club foimally demanded that
Skryznecki should be ordered to Warsaw. They then pro-
ceeded to the castle, that was protected by 200 of the national
guard, who made scarcely any resistance. On the same day,
the patriotic club demanded the death of Janowski ; and on
the 16th, the state prisoners concerned in the conspiracy for
a counter-revolution, were murdered in their rooms by the
clubists. Thirty-five persoas were thus put to death without
ceremony ; among them were Generals Janowski, Bulkowski,
Hurtig, Salacki, and Benthouski, the Russian chamberlain, Fus-
liane, &c.

During the night. General Krukowiecki was appomted
governor of the city. He sent for a reinforcement, and his
first measures were to put a stop to these horrors. August
17th, the government was dissolved, and Krukowiecki was
placed at the head of the new government, with very extended
powers. He caused the arrest of the president and ten of the
club, and appointed General Prondzynski to the chief command
m the army.

From the time that Krukowiecki came into power, he took
measures to deliver Warsaw to the Russians, and made every

618

■'I.^Th

CHAPTEK Xtll.

attempt to induce the diet to demand an amnesty, and sent the
main part of the Polish urmy to the ri^ht side of tiie Vistula,
when the tiiunder of the Russian artillery was breaking over the
devoted cil^. The proposals of Krukowiecki were repelled by
the diet with indignation, who declared to the suspicious deputies,
" rather will we die here in our places than stain the honor ot
our country." The traitor was deposed at midnight d a new
governor of the city named, which gave new vigor ir the famt-
in? defenders of Warsaw.

On the 6th of S(3ptemher, at daybreak, the Russian army of
100,000 men and 300 pieces of cannon, advanced to storm War-
saw, which was defended with great heroism. On the 8tli, aftei
two days hard fighting, it surrendered to Field Marshal Paske-
witch. The Russians had 20,000 slain in storming Waraaw.
The Poles lost about half that number in its defence.

The government and the most distinguished citizens retired
with the main body of the army, under the new commander in
chief, Rybinski, upon Modlin and Plozk. The army, however,
kept in three divisions instead of uniting, which could thus offer
but a feeble resistance to the Russian forces. As a last resource,
the Poles crossed the frontiers into the Austrian and Prussian
dominions. Up« ards of 1500 of the most distinguished leaders
of the Polish revolution were arrested and imprisoned at War-
saw ; and to c. .nplcte the measures of oppression and vengeance,
the Russian troops fired upon the prisoners confined in one of
the wings of the prison, under the pretence of a revolt among
the prisoners, though it was knowi. that three-fourths of these
were imprisoned for political offences.

Of twenty-two Polish generals that became, in a manner, pn
aoners under the amnesty, the greater part were sent to distant
n- ts of the Russian empire, and but four returned to Poland.
T ne soldiers were marched by thousands to Siberian exile, linked
together by the wrists to bars of iron. The nobles were treated
in the same ignominious manner, with their h<ads shaved, and
consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia ; and the chil-
dren were tjrn from their mothers, and carried off to glut the
vengeance of the Autocrat of all the Riissias.

Numbers of the patriots that escaped after the fall of Warsaw,
when the army passed the frontiers, have gone into voluntary
exile, and are now mourning over the calamities of their country,
the loss of their homes, their wives, and th.eir children.

The Prussian government treated the Polish refugees that fled
into her territory with horrible brutality, in order to force these
now miserable and heart-broken outcasts into the iron fanga of
Russian despotism. »

»*4^!SSS»*ii«=3a%v^y-r ^h-'-i-M^y:'"' ■

QBEEK BEVOLUTION.

619

imnesty, and sent the
It side of tlie Vistula,
was breaking over tlie
2cki were repelled by
he suspicious deputies,
an stain the honor of
it midnight d a new
lew vigor ir the faint-

the Russian army of
Ivanced to storm War-
sm. On the 8tli, aftei
Field Marshal Paske-
in storming Wai-saw.
its deft'nce.
;uished citizens retired
je new commander in

The army, however,
which could thus offer
es. As a last resource,
Austrian and Prussian
it distinguished leaders
d imprisoned at War-
ression and vengeance,
iiers confined in one of
nee of a revolt among

three-fourths of these

same, in a manner, pri
rt were sent to distant
ir returned to Poland,
to Siberian exile, linked
7he nobles were treated
leir hiuds shaved, and
Siberia; and the chil-
;arried off to glut the
ssius.

ler the fall of Warsaw,
w gone into voluntary
imities of their country,
their children.
Polish refugees that fled
, in order to force these
i into the iron fanga of

The recital of the barbarous deeds perpetrated by insatiate
and faithless Russia on completing the subjuguuon of Poland,
cannot fail to fill witli sorrow the breast of every friend to hu-
manity : and it sickens the heart to think, that these wretched
and troddcn-down Polos are now [terhaps for ever beyond the
reach of all human aid. The French government, during the
Polish struggle, a period of intense interest to the fervent and
sympathizing Frenchnir-n, showed the blackest ingratitude and
perfidy towards the cliivalrous Poles. It was in vain that the
good Lafayette filled up his imploring voice in their behalf to
the citizen King. It would seem, indeed, as if the nationality
of Poland was now for ever blasted ; and the survivors of this
once noble race of warriors and patriots were destined, by seve-
ral of the arbitrary governments of Europe, to be hunted down
like beasts of prey.

Russia is at present erecting a citadel at Warsaw, intended
to overawe the Poles for the future. The cost of the building,
20,000,000 florins, is to be extorted from the oppressed citizens
of Warsaw.

CHAPTER XIV.

Greek Revolution. War between Russia and Turkey. England,
from A. D. 1816, to the passing of the Reform Bill, A. D. 1832.

Among the extraordinary events of the 19th century, there is
none that occasioned more thrilling interest at the time, than the
protracted and fearful struggle made by the modem Greeks to
gain their independence.

The classic soil of Athens and Sparta, Thebes and Corinth,
for the last four centuries had been profaned by Turkish despot-
ism. It was the same soil that, 2500 years ago, was the seat
of learning and the abode of free institutions. It was the land
of Homer and Demosthenes, Solon and Pericles, that, after the
slumber of ages, was awakened to new life.

The struggle, of which we are about to give a faint and rapid
sketch, is the one made by the modern Greeks to achieve their
country's independence, and elevate Greece to an equal rank
with civilized nations. And though this people had been so long
under the most debasing slavery, they nevertheless displayed,
during this momentous struggle, numerous deeds of valor worthy
their renowned ancestors.

Before entering on this eventful revolution, which began id
the Morea, March 23, 1821, it will be necessary, in order fully
to understand its origin, to state, that some years before the

■ I;'

3>llfl

620

CHAPTER XIV.

commencement of hostilities the patriots of Greece founded in
1814, an association called the Fletaria. There was u society
established at Vienna the same year, of which Count Capo
d'Istrias was one of the first members ; but it did not publicly
avow any political desifins. The head-quarters of this society
were at St. Petcrsburif, whither many of the most distinfjuished
(Jrecks repaired under the pretext of having commercial busi-
ness to transact.

Tiie Gre(!ks it appears had, at different times, been called
upon by Russia to shake off the Turkish yoke, namely, in the
years 1769, 1786, and 1800 ; and a society, avowedly for the
lilxiration of Greece, was formed in Paris in 1809. It was found
that the beginning mo'lT in 1814, was too early to insure suc-
cess. A people who iiad long been kept in an abject state of
slavery, needed first a due preparation and a general diffusion
of knowledge ; and the plans for such a weighty undertaking
required to be well matured.

The intercourse kept up with France, was of great conse-
quence in forwarding the cause of liberty in Greece ; and the
revival of literature and the spread of science, brought with it
an ardent desire for their country's freedom. This was further
promoted by giving them the works of Goldsmith, Franklin's
Poor Richard, Fenelon, and Montesquieu, which were translated
into modern (Jreek at Athens, Saloniki, Smyrna, &c. ; and
schools were established, that were subsequently swept away
by the war.

The Hetaria, or society of friends, kept up an active corres-
pondence with the Greeks in different parts of Europe, who
hastened to join it ; while some men of the highest standing
visited St. Petersburg to further their designs, and even looked
to Russia for aid. When this hope was found to be fallacious,
the Greeks resolved to begin themselves. The first movement
was made by Czemi George, in 1817, an exiled chief of Servia,
who was suddenly to appear in Servia, his native province,
while Galati, and other Grecian chiefs, were to raise the stan
dard in the south of Greece, and the Morea. Czemi George,
the Servian, was treacherously betrayed and murdered on his
way by Milosh, a relative and former friend, and his head
sent to Constantinople. Count Galati retired to Bucharest, and
there shortly afterwards died. The next attempt was arranged
for 1826.

In the mean time some chiefs, burning with desire for the
glorious cause of freedom, began the revolution. These were
M. Suzzo, hospodar of Moldavia, one of the Hetarists ; Alexan-
der Ypsilanti, a major general in the {lussian army, and Pnnce

if Greece foundpi!, in
'J'here was u society
f which Count Cupo
»ut it (lid not publicly
larters of tiiis society
the most distinfiuisiied
ing commcrciul busi-

nt times, been called
yoke, namely, in the
ety, avowedly for the
n 1809. It was found

early to insure sue-
in an abject state of
id a general diffusion

weighty undertaking

was of great conse-
in Greece ; and the
;ience, brought with it
)m. This was further
Goldsmith, Franklin's
, which were translated
i, Smyrna, &c. ; and
sequently swept away

it up an active corres-
parts of Europe, who
if the highest standing
iigns, and even looked
found to be fallacious.
The first movement

1 exiled chief of Servia,
a, his native province,
were to raise the stan
orea. Czemi George,
1 and murdered on liia

friend, and his head
stired to Bucharest, and
t attempt was arranged

ig with desire for the
evolution. These were
the Hetarists ; Alcxan-
issian army, and Pnnce

GREEK REVOLUTION.

621

Catacuzene. Ypsiianti was to begin hostilities beyond the
Danube, while nil (Jrceco was to be summoned with a procla-
mation ; and to rondor their measures more certain, im explosion
was to take place at Constantinople.

Ypsiianti begun before Moldavia wrut prepared to co-operate.
His proclamation wuh energetic, and called on all Greece to
shake off the Turkish yoke. It roused the Moldavians, and
Y[isilnnti took possession of Hucliarest, the cnjiital of Wulucliin.
containing 80,000 inhabitants. But Russia diacliiimcd all parti-
cipation in a manifesto which she publislu d. Suz/.o gave up
the command in Moldavia, and the plot at Constantinople was
frustrated. A chieftain who joined Ypsiianti, wiis suspicted of
treachery. He was arrestc'd and beheaded. This was Vladi-
miresco ; and the price of his correspondence with the Porte
was, that he was to be made hospodar.

Ypsiianti was now forced to retire from Bucharest before
10,000 men, who entered the city without firing a shot. The
Hetarists who fell into the hands of the Turks were impaled
alive, and numbers of children hung up by their feet along the
roads. The monasteries were entered, and the inmates butch-
ered. Prince Ypsiianti retreated to Tergovist, followed by the
Turks. A battle was fought at the monastery of Dragachan,
on the morning of June 17th. The Turkish infantry charged
with loud shouts, but were repulsed with the bayonet. A second
charge was repelled with equal firmness. At this juncture, the
cowardice and treason of Caravia, an ollicer of cavalry,
changed the fate of the patriot army. He turned round and
fled, and immediately the whole army was in confusion. Gior-
gaki, with his corps, displayed great firmness during the route.
The sacred band of about 400 or 500 young Greeks stood firm,
while the rest fled and crossed the Oltau ; these sustained the
shock of 1500 Turkish cavalry. They sold their lives nobly,
determined to fall rather than yield. The disparity in numbers
was too great for success, when about 400 fell. Such an exam-
pie of patriotism had a most salutary ufft-ct on the Greeks. The
arn;y of Prince Ypsiianti being annihilated, he repaired to
T' ipste, intending to rejoin his countrymen in the Morea. The
Austrian government seized him, and imprisoned him at the
castle of Montgatz, in Hungary.

When the intelligence of the insurrection in Moldavia reached
Constantinople, the Sultan issued immediate orders to disarm all
the Greeks in the empire, and a war of extermination at the
capital commenced. The Greek patriarch, Gregorius, was mur-
dered on the 22d April, the day of the greatest festival of the
Greek church, and his body dragged by Jews through the streeta

•«-l«.,

1t|,T

iM.ti

■»' 'I

622

CHAPTER XIV.

of Constantinople. Scvornl other occlesiustics slmrcd the aatne
fatn, anil a nuiiibor of Greek chnrclies were destroyed, whicli
exusperatinl tlie Lireeks to a degree of desperation, who saw
that notliinj;; short of externiimition awaited them. The priests
in the islands of tlx; Morea, from the atrocious acts nt Constan-
tinople, saw tliemselv(,'s (hnimed to certain destruction. They
therefore exerted themselves strenuously, to inspire the people
to resistance and venfjeance.

Hy the 1st of April, the excitement became general. The
inhabitants of Patras wore disaffected by the exorbitant levies
of the Turks. Mutual distrust began between Greeks and
Turks— each prepared for the worst. Hostilities were first
o|)ened by the inhabitants of Suda, a large village near Gala-
vrita, in the northern part of Arcadia. At I'litras, the Greeks
refused to give up tlujir arms, when the Turks fired with cannon
U|)on the place from the fortress, and soon took possession of it.
Germanos, archbishop of Patras, assembled an army of 4,000
peasants, and took the city from the Turks. Tiie scene that
followed ended in the destruction of three hundred houses and
pillage.

In the islands of Hydra, Spczzia, and Ipsara, the greatest
activity was displayed in fitting out ships of war, the united force
of which was eighty or ninety vessels of 10 or 12 guns each;
and fifty or sixty smaller vessels were supplied by other islands.
The flag hoisted liy the Greeks, consisted of eight blue and
white horizontal stripes. The superior activity of the Greek
navy was soon shown.

The first Turkish fleet left the Dardanelles on the 19th of
-May, and was followed by the Greek fire-ships. On the 8th of
June, they burned a ship of the line, ashore near Tenedos —
compelling the Turkish fleet to put back to the Dardanelles.

The Ipsariots landed on the coast of Asia Minor, and took
possession of Cydinia, which was soon after retaken by the
Turks, and the inhabitants murdered and driven away to the
number of 35,000. It must be kept in mind during this strug-
gle, that the islanders displayed higher traits of patriotism and
valor than the Moreots ; m which the women took part in this
struggle for liberty. The Turks next disarmed Candia, and
executed the archbishop and several clergymen. The peo/iants
in the mountains and suburbs of Candia would not give up their
arms : they united and succeeded in driving the Turks back into
the towns, though they were thousands strong.

In the month of November, the island of Cyprus was disarmed,
and nearly all the inhabitants of Lamica murdered. The pea-
santry for uniting in their defence, had, in the month of Auguat,

iistics simrcd the same
vore ilt'stroyod, which
(ksperution, who saw
(I tlioiii. Tlic prioats
)cioua nets at Conatan-
II dostruction. Tliey
, to inspire the people

became general. The
r the exorbitant levies
between Greeks and
Hostilities were first
rgc village near Gala-
At Putras, the Greeks
'urka fired with cannon
n took possession of it.
led an army of 4,000
urks. The scene that
e hundred liouses and

d Ipsara, the greatest
of war, the united force

f 10 or 12 guns each ;

ijiplied by other islands.

istcd of eight blue and

r activity of the Greek

inellcs on the 10th of
e-sliips. On the 8th of
ashore near Tenedos —

to the Dardanelles.
' Asia Minor, and took
1 afler retaken by the
nd driven away to the

mind during this strug-
traits of pacriotism and
^omen took part in this

disarmed Candia, and
rgymen. The peiutants

would not give up their
\ring the Turks back into
strong.

)f Cyprus was disarmed,
a murdered. The pea-
in the month of Augiut,

OKKEK REVOLUTIOit.

623

1922, their villages, sixty-two in number, bunied. In the mean
time the great Turkish fleet supplied tlieir garrisons iu the Mo-
rea with arms, ammunition, &c.

The cause of Greece received a new impulse by the arrival
of Deni(>trius Ypsilaiiti. and Prince Alexander Cantanizenp.
After some diliiculty, Ypsilanli was appointeil communder in
chief, July 24, 1821, of the Peloponnesus, the Archipdiigo, and
all the liberated provinces. There was at this tinu; dissensions
amongst the Greek leaders. Tripolizza, the chief fortress of the
Turks, was besieged by Demetrius Ypsilanti, and 8,()()() 'I'urks
perished. It was in this fortress the Greeks obtained tiieir first
hefivy cannon ; and it became the seat of govciniiient till it was>
transferr'id to Argos. In Thessaly, Ulysses with several other
leaders orcapitani, defeated near Tliermopyhi', a Turkish army
which had advanced from Macedonia. Prince Mavroeordato
received the chief command of the Albanian forces ; when the
government began to acquire some form, after much difiiculty
and dissention. Prince Mavroeordato succeeded, Jan. 13, (Jan.
1,) 1822, in establishing an approximation to a federative con-
stitution at Epidaurus, until the second national assijmbly in
Astro, March 14, 1823. At this convention more tiian (JO depu-
tics attended.

The western part of Greece, Arcania, jEtolia, and Epirus,
sent 30 deputies to Missilonghi, who, under the presidency of
Alexander Mavroeordato, formed a govenmiert consisting of ten
members.

The eastern part of the main land sent 33 deputies to Salona,
under the presidency of Theodore Negris, forming the Areopa-
gus of 14 members, November 16 ; and the Morca, or Pelopon-
nesus, with the islands of Hydra, Ipsara, Spezzia, &c. sent to
Argos 60 deputies, who assembled, December 1st, under the
presidency of Prince Demetrius, and established the Peloponne-
sian Gerousia of 20 members.

These three governments, Missilonghi, Salona, and Argos,
were to prepare a permanent constitution. With this view, 67
deputies from all the (ireek provinces, formed the first national
assembly in Epidaurus, Jan. 10, 1822, under the presidency of
Mavroeordato; and on the 13th, proclaimed the constitution,
(which was provisionary) and on the 27th, the congress of Epi-
daurus issued a maniSato, in which they pronounced the union
of the Greeks, under an indejjcndent federative government
The central government was fixed at Corinth, and some time
after at Argos.

We are obliged to pass over many of the movements, till
the arrival of the great Turkish fleet, April 11, when 15,000

024

CHAPTER XIV.

barbnriiin A.siiitic troops wore Innditd nt Scio : nnd soon thin
(ioli;^'litrii'. Mtid flourishing iHlaiul was chan^rcd into ii ncciio of
liio (iiid blood. Down to Miiy y.^tli, tlio 'I'lukrt, lu'cording to
I heir own lists, sold into sluvry, 41,000 Hciots, mostly women
and r^jiildrcn.

'i'lio (^a|iudan I'ucha wns next prcparid to desolate I|)Hnrn.
Tine;, iiiid Smnos ; but flic Ipsariots, with 70 small vcH.sels anil
fini-HliipH, bovert'd round the Turkish fleet, and in tli<! iii;,'ht.
liMie, rowed anioni,' their shipH, while ytil tliey lay in llie rood
of Scio, and attached fire-ships to the (.'ajHidan Pariia's vissel,
whieh blew up with 2,280 men ; and tlio I'ueba himself, nior.
tally wounded, was carried ashore, where ho died. Another
ship of the lino narrowly escaped. These dnrinfj acts of the
Ipsariots stupified the Turks; from which, when they hud reco-
verc^d, tlay destroyed the lust traces of cultivation.

The savage fury of the Turks about tliis time moy be judged
by the fact, that they bought the wretched Sciots at Constanti.
nople, merely for the pl(;asure of putting them to death. The
Pacha of Sidoniki, (Ablwhibut,) boasted that he bad destroytici
1500 women and chihlren in one day. ITjO villages and ."1,000
Christians experienced the fate of Scio. While all these horror*
were taking |dace, Mavroeonhito, president of the executive
council, was organizing the government, which met with resist-
ance from the avariciousncfw of Coloctroni and others.

It had now become important to cover Missilonghi, tiie strong
hold of western llelias, iVfun the weakened state of the army.
Mavrocordato, with 300 men, and Marco Botzaria, with 22 Suli-
ots, on the ."ith of Novembtsr, threw themselves into Missilonghi ;
while 11,000 Turks advanccul against it. Another force of
25,000 under Khursbid, principally cavalry, passed Thermopyla;,
and as they advanced through Livadia, laid every thing waste,
and occupied Corinth. In attempting the passes of Larissa,
Khurshid was repelled three times by Ulysses. Khursbid died
Nov. 26. Most of this cavalry perished for its rashness in the
defiles of the Morca ; and the remainder formed a junction with
5000 men, of Jussaf Pacha's army, and sent reinforcements to
Napoli di Romania. The Greek fleet kept tbe great Turkish
fleet from afTording relief to this place. Ulysses, Coloctroni,
and Ypsilanti, now prosecuted their operations with great zeal,
and drove the Turkish forces out of the Morea. Niketas fell
upon them in the defiles of Tretea, and only 2,000 escaped to
ihe Isthmus of Corinth, where Ypsilanti fell upon and destroyed
them. More than 20,000 Turkish soldiers perished in less than
four weeks. In Greece, there were yet some thouaand Turks,

Scio : m\(\ soon thin
np'tl into a scciib of

Tiiikrt, acconling to
Wciots, iiioMtly womoD

I to desolate Ipsnro.

70 small vcssulii ami

ct, and in tho nlf{lif.

tlicy lay in tlio road

iiulaii I'aflia's vr.ssisl,

■ Paolia hiiiiscir, iiior.

I) ho died. Anothor

o dnrin;; acts of the

\vli(!n they hud rcco-

ultivation.

is timo mny bo jndgndj
li Sciots at Constanli-
thciTi to death. The
ti)at ho Imd destroycid
r)0 villages and 5,000
While all tliesc horror*
idcnt of the executive
wliicii met with resist-
ni and others.
Mi8silon<,dii, tiie strong
led state of the army,
i Botzaria, with 22 ISuli-
selves into Missiionghi ;
it. Another force of
ry, passed Thermopylm,
laid every thinp waste,
the passes of Larissu,
lysscs. Kliurshid died
1 for its rashness in tho
r formed a junction with
sent reinforcements to
kept tho great Turkish
). Ulysses, Coloctroni,
•ations with great zeal,
e Morea. Niketns fell
1 only 2,000 escaped to
fell upon and destroyed
jrs perished in less than
t some thousand Turks,

Stori^ing of Warsaw. P. 020.

Fall of Missolonghi. P. 634.

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OBEEK REVOLUTION.

629

that held the Isthmus and the Acrocorintlius, that were SOOQ
after di«)er8ed and destroyed.

The Turkish fleet left the Gulf of Lepanto, where it had failed
against Missiionghi. It was unable to break the line of 57 Greek
ships blockading Romania, and at last came to anchor off Tene.
dos. Nov. 10, a small number of Ipsariots carried fire-shipa
among the fleet, and fired the ships of the admiral and the capi.
tan Bey. The latter was blown up witli 1800 men. Three
frigates were wrecked on the coast of Asia, and a vessel of 36
guns captured. Of 35 vessels, 18 only returned much injured
to the Dardanelles. The 17 Ipsariots who had done these
exploits, arrived in safety at Ipsara, and Kanaris and Mniauly
were rewarded, by the Euphori, with naval crowns. Again the
Greeks were masters of the sea : it enabled them to blockade
the Turkish forts, which was acknowledged by Great Britain.
The change of ministry in England was most fortunate for
Greece. With Canning as premier, and Maitland lord commis.
sioner of the Ionian Isles, they had less hostility directed against
them. Omar Vrione was repulsed by Mavrocordato and Bot-
zaris, before Missiionghi, where he lost his cannon. Napoli di
Romania was taken from the Turks Dec. 12, (new style.)

A proclamation to the European powers was issued April 15,
1822, wliich the Holy Alliance considered incompatible with
their views on legitimacy, though disposed to be lenient towards
the suflering state of Greece. The dissensions among the Greek
leaders, had an unfavorable influence on their cause with the
European cabinets. Coloctroni meditated a division of the Morea
into hereditary principalities.

The central government called a second national assembly at
Astro, Jan. 1823, which averted a civil war ; while the judicious
measures of Mavrocordato tended to bring about concord. When
the national assembly opened, March 14, at Astro, it consisted
of 100 members. Mavromichalis was elected president ; Theo.
dore Negris, secretary ; and the perfidious and avaricious Coloc-
troni submitted to the assembly.

Condurioti was chosen president of the legislative, and Petro
Mavromichalis, Bey of Maina, of the executive council. Both
legislative bodies resolved to raise about 50,000,000 piasters, to
levy and equip 50,000 men, and 100 large men of war. The
French military code was adopted. This assembly proclaimed
the new constitution of Astro, April 23d, 1823. Several changra
took place in the ministry. Mavrocordato was made president,
and Coloctroni, vice president.

This year the Sultan had determined upon exterminating the
Buffering Greeks. Mavrocordato was placed at the heiui ct

ill

rf^j'i

■f ^

626

CHAPTER XrV.

the army, and Orlandi, a Hydriot, organized the navy, now
consS of 403 sail, with cannon. The largest su,, earned 2b
guns^and Miaulis wa^ admiral ; M. Tumbasis of Hydra beorge
Etracci, of Spezzia, and Nicholas Apostoles of Ipsa a,
v^^radmirals. The financial department met with much d.f-
ficulty In March, the f.cet had gained a victory over the
Egypdan flotilla, des'tined for the invasion of Cand.a, though it
waJ unsuccessful in its attempt to prevent the landing of lurk-

'"''m Bot;aris,the Suliot, now commanded the forces in western,
and Uhios in eastern Greece. The battles ^^ft during Uus
year were not less fierce and sanguinary than those m 1822.
SlloTzaris surprised the Turkish camp at ^ arpmiss. u -^
night, with 500 Suliots, and penetrated to the tent ot the lacia
Kelvino; but in the moment of victory received a -^^^^^
wound. The victory, however, was, completed by his biotlier

Constttine. The noble Botzaris - '- ,f l^?;^ S;;^" oH^
" How sweet it is to die for one's country." 1 he detuat ol tne
Turks wl comjlte, all their baggage and artillery being taken.

and the Pacha made prisoner. . ,

T le members of government wer. at Argos, in November
1823. About this time the campaign was fin.slied, though a
partizan warfare continued in Thessaly and Ep.rus SocietK«
in England aided the Greek cause by means of loans, and by

"tits poet, Lord Byron, took a deep interest in the
struggle made by the Greeks to throw off the Mohammedan
v^kf fiis zeal led him to offer his personal and pecuniary aid
L their cause. He embarked August, 1823, with five or six
Fnlhsh iViends in an English vessel he had purposely hired.
Sii ed h Gree^ at the beginning of the third campaign
where he was received with marked distinction. On his arrival
rCcphalonia, where he first established himself, he addressed
a letter toThe Greek government, and was induced by the mfor-
mat on he received, to^advance 12,000Z. for the relief of Missi-
r^, where he afterw^ds >Ui C^J^^^H^-k an^^d
^-^"STZtl^^^s^:^- He alsotookaOO

an emnized bv a general mourning of twenty-one days.

" TrTurks'b^gL the campaign of 1824 with ^-h more vigor

than it had previously been carried on. Peace being concluded

%mattmm

GREEK RBVOLVTiON.

627

the navy, now
ship carried 26
lydra, George
C3, of Ipsara,
witli much dif>
ictory over the
mdia, though it
uding of Turk-

rces in western,
jglit during tliis
those in 1822.
rpinissi, ut mid.
nt of the Pacha
ceived a mortal
by liis brother
•cd, exclaimed —
'ho defeat of the
iery being taken,

s, in November,
nishcd, though a
pirus. Societies
of loans, and by

;p interest in the
lie Mohammedan
ind pecuniary aid
with five or six
purposely hired,
i tl)ird campaign,
• On his arrival
self, he addressed
uced by the infer-
le relief of Missi-
po, took an active
mself established
lie also took 500
actory and unwil-
unto. This preyed
amo dang(!rously
His death was
one days.
1 much more vigor
c being concluded

with Persia, July 28th, 1823, ond a rebellious Pacha of St. Jean
d'Acre, having yielded voluntary submission to the Porte, it wa»
enabled to send forces from Asia, and those that had been 8ta>
tioned in Moldavia and Walachia now evacuated.

The preceding carni)aign nad taught the Turks, that the de.
struction of the Greek navy was their only means of succeeding
in subduing Greece. The Capudan Pacha, Khosru, sailed from
Mitylenc, July 3d, with two ships of the line, eight frigates, four
corvettes, forty brigs, and smaller vessels to the amount of 200.
Among the latter were a number of neutral transport ships,
belonging to the Russians, Austrians, and others, hired by the
Capudan Pucha, that sailed from the Dardanelles, April 28th.
Thf! Russians were now on the most friendly terms with the
Grand Seignior, and aided the Turks with transport ships.
There weie besides, Austrian, Italian, and Spanish vessels, en-
gaged against tlie liberties of Greece.

To oppose the armament of the Capudan Pacha, the Ipsa-
riots had 2,r)()() men, the entire male population, and a corps of
Albanians and fugitive Sciots, about 1,500 in number, divided
into four companicjs. Their forces were provided with batte-
ries, ammunition, &c. The Turks landed silently in the night,
in spite of the vigilance of the islanders, and advanced in three
columns. One advanced upon the town, and two proceeded to
the batteries, taking them in the rear, when the most horrible
butchery was perjietrated. Five hundred Albanians shut
themselves up in fort St. Nicholas, which defended the town.
Wretched and afflicted mothers first flung their children from
high precipices, and then cast themselves into the sea. The
Albanians in the fort barricaded the gates, and killed half of the
first assailants.

The Turks concentrated their forces to reduce the fort, and
during the night made a dreadful assault upon the Christians,
who in defence performed prodigies of valor ; but unable longer
to withstand the overwhelming force of the barbarians, they
threw open the gates, suffered 2,000 men to rush into the fort,
till it was entirely filled, and on a concerted signal, in an
instant all were blown up, and buried amidst its ruins. This
took place on the fourth of July. By the disasters of Ipsara,
4,000 Christians perished, besides the total destruction of all
property ; with 100 vessels of different sizes, belonging to the
islanders.

Admiral Miaulis, with the Greek fleet, arrived before Ipsara,
on the 8th of July, when the Turks immediately put to sea, and
numbers were captured. The Greeks, on landing at Ipsara,
found nothing but ruins and heaps of putrid corpses ; but the

i^ii

#-;'!'^

f**^

628

CHAPTER XtV.

dreadful stench obliged them to retire from this scene of horror
SatroiiesV '^^ ^P"*^"^ by the barbar.ans. at onoe

roused UP all the energies of Greece with dire revenge.

The next attempt of the Capudun Pacha, was upon Samoa.
Kemaris tlie brave^Ipsariot. with a Hre-slup destroyed a 40 gun
frSc under s'ui • and several transports shared a similar fate.
SeVi TunSan brig of war, and I large Tripolitan curvet^.
fLthoVlst another fleet of transports destined for bamos,
S^redspersrand^^^^^ The fo"owi"g Jay^the

Turkish fleet attempted to make the passage from Cape Tro-
Suuri to the oppoJte shore; but f^c appearance of two or
Sree fire-ships caused such terror m the Ottoman fleet, as to .
dr^e itin d^grace on the Asiatic coast. Some time after,
a bnction took place between the Egyptian vessels and
Aoie of L Capudan Pacha, intending to return to Samos
tS skill and boldness of the Greeks destroyed a number of
theL wi h their fire-ships, and thus astounded the Turks with
S deeds of valor, who were glad to effect a retreat to the

^Yn November, the Egyptians sustained ^^-^^-age ^rom
their enemy on the northern coast of Candia. Ihe to ces ol

he G?eeks successfully repelled their barbarian invaders by
iand i that the campaign of 1824 was glorious for Greece, and

SpXc^ more chLring than had appeared at anj time pn.
vio^. This gladdening prospect continued up to the beginnmg

°^S government of Greece now began to assume harmony and
rtrenih, and commerce revived. Their army was attempted o
be oreanized after the European tactics ; justice was regularly
adSeret and freedom fthe press a"owec^^ In J^- ong^^^
four newspapers were issued twice a week. In ^^e midst ot these
cheering irospects for Greece, an Egyptian fleet which had been
delayXme months, sailed on the 19th July, from Alexandra,
conistinnf nine fr gates, four corvettes, forty brigs and ga -
UrS 18,000 troops in 240 transports. This armament

nder Ibrahim Pacha, was designed to subdue and desolate the
ZreaT™ Egyptian and Turkish fleets united in the gulf
of B^roun Sept^'lth, where a naval action ensued Kanans
Wpw iiD a 44 Bun Egypt an frigate and a brig. J he fleets tnen
i^^Ir^d-th^e Turkish fleet returned to Constantinople, and
Zwmt'fllet to the gulf of Bodroun Soon f er f mus
attacked it off Candia, and destroyed a ^"^^'^^"^ r^l^^^'.

.nH T4 transDorts: when he retired to Rhodes, lurtnerweaK

::VbyrTfa%e on board hU ships, and frustrated m h»

plain of conquering the Morea.

^■MiiiiiMM

' y^'jjly,,

GREEK REVOLUTION.

629

one of liorrof

ians, at onoe

onge.

upon Samoa.

fed a 40 gun
similar fute.

itan corvette.
5d for Sunios,
wing day, the
im Cape Tro-
ICC of two or
(111 fleet, as to
ne time after,
1 vessels and
irn to Samoa.

a number of

he Turks with

retreat to the

damage front
The forces of
in invaders by
for Greece, and
t any time pre-
a the beginning

le harmony and
'as attempted to
! was regularly

In Missilonghi
le midst of these
which had been
•om Alexandria,

brigs and gnl-
This armament,
nd desolate the
ited in the gulf
isucd. Kanaris

The fleets then
stantinople, and
II after, Miaulis
10 small vessels.
9, further weak-
frustrated in hu

Notwithstanding the critical situation in which Greece wan
now placed by tiie power of Kgypt being exerted against her,
we find the peninsula in the most distracted state by the diasen>
sioiis and broils of tiio capatani. In October, the election for the
third term commenced. The executive council at Napoli di
Romania, consisted of 03 members. The president, Mavrocor-
dato, resigne<l, and Panuzzo Notaras was chosen his successor.
Coloctroni was disa[)pointed in his ambitious views. Some other
disuflectod chiefs raised the standard at Tripolizza, under the
command of Panoa Coloctroni. Troops were sent thither, by
the command of Condurioti, and after several battles, the rebels
were defeated and dispersed, and Panos Coloctroni killed. About
this time tlie famous Amazon Bobolina, a follower of Coloctroni,
was assassinated. Ulysses entered into a secret treaty with the
Turks, but was defeated and captured. In attempting to escape
from a tower lie received a fall, and died in consequence thereof.
Coloctroni, the father, finding himself deserted, surrendered him-
self up in December, 1824. Several other leaders of this rebel-
lion fled, and the rest were seized.

The government now exerted itself to carry into effect the
provisions of the law, and keep up discipline in the army. The
annual revenue the Porte received, from tlie Peloponnesus alone,
amounted to 35,000,000 Turkish piastres.

In the campaign of 1825, Ibrahim Pacha landed his troops in
the Morea ; and Missilonghi was bnsieged by Redschid Pacha,
aided by the fleet of the Capudan Pacha. This calamitous event
was owing to the treachery and dissensions of the Greek chiefs,
which permitted Ibrahim to land between Coron and Mordon,
February 22, 1825, an army of 4,600 men ; and the next
month his force was augmented to 12,000, drilled with French
officers, after the European tactics. He had besides, an excel-
lent body of cavalry. Ibrahim besieged Navarino, which soon
fell into his power. He next pressed on to Tripolizza. Old
Coloctroni was pardoned by the government, which received
his iissurances of fidelity ; and in May, 1825, the command of
the Peloponnesus was entrusted to him. A third siege of Mis-
silonghi was commenced April 22d. The Pacha's fleet lost
several ships in an engagement with the Greek admiral, Sac-
touri, near Cape d'Oro. Calamata and Tripolizza were taken
by Ibrahim, who went on destroying every thing till he reached
\rgos. He then received a severe check from Coloctroni'a
army, which caused him to fall back to Tripolizza. When
Ibrahim found that the Greeks would not obey him or submit
tu his authority, he put the men to death, carried the women

m^-

^ ,i'^

i i

mt t f m> i '

G30

CHAPTER XIV.

and children slaves to Egypt, und desolated every place within

his reach. . , n .1

Missilonghi, defended by Nolo Botzans, the first among the
bruve, was now closely besieged by the Turks, having before
it 35,000 land forces, and 4,000 by sea. After a severe contest
of several days they were totally defeated, August 2d, 1825.
The Turks lost 9,000 men. During this siege the brave and
active Miaulis arrived with his fleet, and burned several of the
enemy's ships, and forced tlie rest to retire. The siege of Mw-
silonghi was raised October 2d, 1825, four months and a half
from its commencement.

In the mean time, Ibrahim was carrying terror with his arms,
and desolating the Morea more widely ; and the government
was in great danger, having entirely lost the confidence of the
auxiliary societies in England, whose loans had been improperly
laid out. At last the Greeks sent deputies to England, resolved
to throw themselves on the protection of Great Britain. Before
the arrival of their deputies, the English government had issued
(Sept. 30,) a declaration of neutrality. But the alliance of the
powers of Europe prevented the interference of any single power
in behalf of Greece.

Sir Stratford Canning, the English ambassador to Constanti.
nople, set out in January, 1826, and on his way had a long inter-
view at Hydra with Muvrocordato, and other Greek statesmen,
with a view to inform iiimself respecting the state of Greece.
He then proceeded to Constantinople, where he arrived the last
of February. About the same time, (March,) the affairs of
Greece were discussed at St. Petersburg, by Lord Strangford,
the British resident minister there, und who had formerly been
minister to Constantinople, and the Duke of Wellington, envoy
extraordinary, who had been sent thither by Canning. A hope
now began to be cherished, that the independence of Greece
would be acknowledged by the Christian powers of Europe.

The Pacha fully bent on reducing Missilonghi, had landed
more troops in the Morea, in order to carry on a winter cam-
paign. The affairs of Greece were, at this time, in the most
gloomy state, having scarcely 6,000 men under arms to with-
stand this rapacious foe ; while the money furnished by the
friends of Greece for the equipment of the army, was squandered
by the capitani. The French, at this time, were busy intriguing
against the English agents, to the great injury of ^reoxe. In
the midst of all these disasters, the Greeks succeeded, Novem-
ber 24th, in throwing into Missilonghi, besieged for the fourth
time, a supply of ammunition and provisions for this garrison,
which had so gallantly repulsed an attack, both by sea and land

liitl

■MMiMMM

-HIM

place within

It among the
|having btifore
severe contest
ust 2d, 1825.
_the brave and
leveral of the
siege of Mis*
lis and a half

with his arms,
le government
ifidence of the
3en improperly
gland, resolved

ritain. Before
nent had issued

alliance of the
ny single power

>r to Constanti.
lad a long inter-
reek statesmen,
tate of Greece,
irrivcd the last
the affairs of
3rd Strangford,
1 formerly been
llington, envoy
ming. A hope
,'nce of Greece
of Europe,
jhi, had landed
1 a winter cam-
ne, in the most
r arms to with«
rnished by the
was squandered
busy intriguing
of Greece. In
eeded, Novem.
1 for the fourth
r this garrison,
)y sea and land

OREEK BSVOLUTION.

631

A body of troops sent by Ibrahim against Corinth, was destroyed
by Niketas.

In December, the Greeks fitted out another naval equipment
At Hydra, for tlie safety of Missilonghi ; where Miaulis, January
6th, put to flight the Capudan Paclia'a fleet ; wiiich some timo
af\er returned, when anotlier attomnt made to throw supplies into
the place, tailed. On the 28th, Missilonghi was <tuminoned to
surrender, which was bravely set at defiance. The fleets had
an engagement in the gulf of Patras, when Canaris destroyed
with his fire-ships, a frigate and several smaller vessels. Ibra-
him, dissatisfied with the Capudan Pacha, caused his dismission.
The success of the battle enabled the Greeks to furnish Mis.
ailonghi with some farther supplies ; but they failed in attempt-
ing it again, Feb. 12th, then blockaded by the Turco. Egyptian
fleet.

The siege of Missilonghi was carried on with vigor by Ibra-
him Pacha alone, who had before it 25,000 men, and of these,
9,000 were regular troops. He had before it Ibily-eight cannon,
that had been sold him by the French ; and he was aided by
Pierre Beyer, a general, (a Bonapartist,) notorious for his cru-
elties in Egypt, Spain, and St. Domingo. The frequent over-
tures made by Ibrahim to the garrison to surrender, during its
bombardment, were rejected. The assault continued from Feb.
28, till March 2d, when it was attacked by sea and land, with
a loss to the besiegers of 1,000 men. The valor of tl»e garri-
son had sustained it for a fifth time, though it was nearly desti-
tute of provisions. In a short time, the sufTerings of the garrison
became extreme, and the surrounding country was devastated
by the barbarian forces. Their sufferings and heroic defence
gained for Greece, many ardent and active friends in Europe ;
and funds were immediately raised for the heroic sufferers. Mr.
Eynard, of Geneva, made them a liberal donation, in addition
to 50,000 francs he had before given ; and it was on his repre-
sentation respecting the Greeks, that the committee of Paris
voted 60,000, and that of Amsterdam 30,000. With these
means supplies were sent, and the Greeks were successful in
throwing some of them into the place, in the face of great dif-
ficulties. From April 15th, Ibrahim directed all his attention
to prevent supplies being sent from Zante in small boats. The
situation of the besieged had now become truly deplorable. On
the 17th and 18tii they began to die of hunger ; the four follow,
ing days, their horrors hourly increased. Mines were now pre-
pared in various parts of the city to blow it up, as they were
determined not to surrender.

On the 21st and 22d, the Greek fleet under Miaulis, made an

ii^

■»-4

^■fff"

« -)

632

CHAPTER XIV.

attempt to relieve the sufferers that proved unavailing. Hii
■hips were t(x) small to contend with the overwhelming fleet of
Ibrahim, consisting of 6 ships of the line, 8 or 10 frigates, and
90 vessels of different sizes. Missiiongiii, at length reduced to a
heap of ruins, fell April 22d, 1826. At midniglil, about 2,000
men, accompanied by women and children, rushed out on the
batteries of the enemy ; ."jOO Greeks foil on the spt, while the
rest, amounting to 1,800, under Noto Botzuris and Kitzos Isa-
vellas, reached Sulona, and afterwards fought at Atiiens. Those
that remained in tiie city, about 1,000 in number, mostly women
and children, with old men, blew the/ntKslves up by the mines
that had been purposely prepared. At daybreak, the barbari-
ans entered the city. Thus fell Missilonghi, which had so long
boen the strong hold of western Greece. T' o plain between
Missilonghi and the mountains was covered wu.i the dead bodies
of the Suliots, who had been its most valiant defenders. Many
escaped to the mountains. More than 3,000 pair of ears were
cut off the dead, and sent as a precious trophy to Constantinople ;
dnd above 5,000 women and children were made slaves.

The onnals of history can furnish but f«w instances of such
ardor, firmness, and perseverance, as was exhibited by the
Greeks, during this memorable siege. Mr. Meyer, a Swiss
editor, in a letter he wrote a short time before the fall of this
place, says — " A few days more, and these brave men will be
angelic spirits, who will accuse before God, the indifference of
Christendom for a cause which is that of religion. We are
drawing near our final hour ; history will render us justice ;
posterity will weep over our misfortunes. May the relation
of the siege of Missilonghi, which I have written, survive me.
I have made several copies of it." Lord Byron, who died at
Missilonghi in April, hnd resided in that place since the begin-
ning of January, of the same year.

Missilonghi was fortified in 1823, under the superintendance
of English officers ; and partly at the expense of a patriotic Eng-
lishman, whose name, (Murry,) deserves to be handed down to
posterity. It had been made the strongest hold in Greece.

Ibrahim was now in possession of Modon, Coron, Navarino,
and Patras; and had already removed three pachas. It only
remained for him to gain postiession of Napoli di Romania, to
be master of the islands of the Archipelago. This fact at orice
opened the eyes of the European powers, who now looked with
distrust on Ibrahim.

Great exertions by societies in France, Germany, Switzer-
land, and England, were made in behalf of the suffering Greeks,
and numy new societies were formed, when a change of men*

aaJitm

.lifrr.MM

:, «►-

ORRRX RIVOLVTIOIf.

633

navailinff. Hii

lelming fleet ut

10 frigntcs, and

gtli reduced to a

(lit, about 2,000

led out on the

spot, while the

und Kitzos Isa*

Athena. Those

r, mostly women

p by the mines

tk, the barbari'

lich had so long

I plain between

1 the dead bodies

feiiderii. Many

ir of ears were

Constantinople ;

e slaves.

istances of such

xhibited by the

Mever, a Swiss

the fall of this

ive men will be

i indiflercnce of

ligion. We are

nder us justice ;

luy the relation

ten, survive me.

ron, who died at

since the begin*

superintendance
r a patriotic Eng-
handed down to
I in Greece.
!oron, Navarino,
lachas. It only

di Romania, to
This fact at once
now looked with

rmany, Switzer-
lufiering Greeks,
change of men<

•tires in the English ministry had a most decided influence on
their destiny, lly order of Cnnniiif,', tho Duke of Wellington,
at St. Petersburg, had sigtierl tlio protocol for the interference of
the throe great powers in holiiilf ol" (Jrtecc!. It was the wish
of Canning to adjiist the (litHciiilies between (Jreeceand Turkey,
without any reference to llus.sia ; but death, at l\nn period, sealed
his noble d(!sigim.

While tlie8(! measures were slowly advancing among tho
diplomatic corps, I hrahiui was d^^so^ating the Morea ; and the
•truggliiig (irueks, a prey to every kind of horror, were dying
of hunger.

June 17th, 1827, Athens capitulated to llodschid ra<;ha. Lord
Cochrane now arrived with steam vessels from I'Jigland, to aid
the Greeks ; and General Church had the command of the land
forces. New dissensions arose at Napoli di Romania, and I'al-
mades began to cannonade the city to force the payment of
arrears. The executive fled to ^Egina In this state of des.
peration, the (ireeks looked to Russia, and chose Count Capo
d'Istria as their president, who entered on his oi'lice January
22(1, 1828.

In the mean time, a treaty for the settlement of Greece was
signed July 6tli, 1827, at London, by the jilenipotentiaries of
England, France, and Russia. This treaty was communicated
to the ambassadors of the three powers residing at Constantino.

Ele ; and on the 10th August, their joint note was sent to the
leis Eflendi. The Porte refused to admit the interference of
the three powers, and further attempts to induce the Porte to
listen to tho mediation of the allied powers, proved unavailing.
The Greek government proclaimed an armistice on the 25th, in
conformity with the treaty of London.

September 9th, the Turco-Egyptian fleet arrived at Navarino ;
and on the 13th, a British squadron under Admiral Codrington,
reached this bay. By the 22d, tho French squadron, commanded
by Admiral Rigny, and that of Russia, under Count Heyden,
united. The admirals had an interview with Ibrahim Pacha on
the 25th, and informed him of their determination to establish
an armistice de facto, between Greece and Turkey. On the
following day, Ibrahim attempted to sail from Navarino, but was
prevented. When he found he would not be suffered to remove
his fleet, he commenced the work of destruction by burning
houses, destroying vineyards, and the most wanton massacre of
women and children. In consequence of those atrocious deeds
the combined fleet entered the port of Navarino, to compel Ibra«
him to desist from these brutal outrages.

October 20th, the combined fleet passed the batteries, and bj

I /

634

<;1IAPTBH XIV.

a P M wen> rondy for action. Tl.o Turco-EKyntian fleet WM
3ra;ru,riu ho form of a croscmt , their h.rg. n^s pru«>nted
a CmSde. aud h.tw...» tlus,, sn.all v-hsoIs uUervm-d. I he
AlliT ulron was lod by the Asia, tho »lu,. o A.hn.ral Cod.
Ainu 8.1 > 1 ,.,,„^j,, i.ytl.e Grnoa and Albion, and an-

dS^ ;.btS ^^i tb^ lin., i>.ana« ti. ««« ofCapitana
I V a. h largo doul,l...banl<.d IVi^at., ; wluio Moharem hoy,
K. laudor'of tl,o l-'.^yi'ti'- <l-t, wa« on tbo ot^ujr sulo ..f |

,. Asia Tbo 'I'urlts brougiit on tlio action, by ki bn« two
F .it non nd it soon b. ca.no gonoral, raging furiously ior
four rI-. It cndod in tbo dostructiun of tbo Moorish foot,
htt a Xrt timo boforo. bad consisted of 3 ships of the lino,
siiunsS. urazoo, 10 frigates; 27 largo eorvettes, from
18 fo 24 gii and tho 'same number of brigs, with tire ships.
Of this armarncnt there remained afloat, al or the action, but 20
corvettes and brigs ; and these were abandoned.

S inte Igenco of tbo destruction of tho Moorish fleet at
Navarino, was received with tho liveliest joy by all the fnends
of Greece*, both in Europe and America. This arose from the
: n^ict^on'trattbis blow'had decided the ''-edom oHhe Greeks
who, during six years of extreme sufforing, had boon a prey to

the most dreadful horrors. . i,™,,iiitips

There was now an involuntary suspension of hostilities.
Soon afterwards, the Greek pirates began to infest tho seas,
wlS. caued the admirals of the united squadron to send a
V rm remonstrance to the legislative^ council of the Greoks
After some punishments had been inflicted upon the offondes,
safety was rLtored in those seas; but not unt, the British had
destroyed the head-quartors of tho pirates in Candm, tobruary

^®The Porte was exasperated, in the highest degree, *ith the

annihilation of its fleet at Navarino; and forthwith seized and

detained all the vessels of the Franks at Constantinople where

th?y were kept from November 2d, till November 19 ; and

even stopped a\\ communication with the mm.sters of the Allied

powo^Sl indemnification should bo made for the destruction

Khe fleet. The Sultan, in tho height of his rage, prepared

for war, and used all the means in his power to >nflame the pas.

Inrof the Moslems. In December, the ministers of the three

Zers left Constantinople, when the Porte adopted conc.hatory

me3e8 In tho mean time, all the Moslems from the age of

wT 50 had been called to arms. On the 30th, the Sultan

Mai lud ioard that Persian Armenia had fallen into the iK.wer

of Russia, where Puskewitch had achieved a senes of splendid

victories.

'^ii"rtriMnfttfiff'iii>tf''v'^'"'''^^'

[t! fiUlmi'^' -

,|{yptinn fleet waa
ships prc'sontttd
iittTvonod. The
if Adiniriil Cod«
Albion, itml an.
flii^ uf Capituna
Muliuruin Hey,
tlio otiier siilo of
11, by killing two
ning furiously fur
till! Moorish <l<!et,
ships of thu lino,
50 corvettes, from
, with (i lire-ships,
the action, but 30

0(1.

) Moorish fleet at
by all the friends
his arose from the
don> of the Greeks,
lud been a prey to

ision of hostilities,
to infest the seas,
(puidroii, to send a
icil of the Greeks,
upon the oflenders,
itil the British had
1 Candia, February

St degree, with the
rthwith seized lUid
nstantinople, where
Jovember 19 ; and
listers of the Allied

for the destruction
' his rage, prepared

to inflame the pas-
inisters of the three
idopted conciliatory
us from the age of
he 30th, the Sultan
iillen into the power
a series of splendid

ORBKK RBVOU'TION.

635

By this time, Capo d'Istria, thu president of rirccce, had
appointed the able Tricoupi his wcretury ot' statu ; and hud
uHlublished u high national council, calli'd I'anhellenion. Feb.
4tli, ut Napoli (li lloniunia, he also established a bank, and re.or*
gaiiized the military. I"' ranee and Russia each lent (1,000,000
francs to aid the new state.

In consequence cl" the death of Canning and a changt; of the
Mnglish ministry, the battle of Navarino was ealled an untoward
(;vont. The I'orte continued to reject eve-ry proposal for settle.
niont with Greece, and during this time, Ibrahim was carrying
away the Greeks into slavery. A war broke out, March, 1828,
between Uussia and Turk(;y, so that thu I'ortu hud, with this
power alone, (|uite business enough to attend to.

The French cabinet, in concert with England, now sent an
army to thu Morea, under the command of General Maison,
which arrived August 20th, in the bay of Coron, near Petalidi ;
and Admiral Codrington coucludtid a treaty with the viceroy of
Egypt, Aug. Otii, for thu evacuation of the Monu by Ibrahim
Pacha, ami for the liberation of the Greek prisoners, while those
who had boon carried away, wore to bo freed or ransomed.

Gctober 4th, Ibrahim sailed from Navarino with 21,000 men,
for Alexandria, with tho wreck of his fleet, leaving 2,.'j00 in the
Messinian fortn-sses.

The French took undisputed possession of Navarino, and
attacked and took tlie fortresses in Messina, so that Navarino,
Modon, and Coron, were soon in tlieir possession. I'atras, with
3,000 men, capitulated October 5th, and the flags of the throe
Allied powers, with the national flag of Greece, waved undis.
puted over these cities. Admiral Rigny convoyed the Turks to
Smyrna.

To defend the Morea from any new attacks of tho Turks,
a manifesto was issued by tho ministers of tho throe powers,
Nov. 16, 1828, declaring — " That they should place the Morea
and the Cycladea under their protection, till the time when a
definitive arrangement should decide tho fate of the provinces,
which the Allies had taken possession of; and that they should
consider the entrance of any military force into this country, as
an attack upon themselves." A French agent carried this note
to Constantinople, to which an immediate answer from the Porte
was required. But during this time, the Greeks continued active
hostilities. Demetrius Ypsilanti, having under him Coloctroni
and several leaders, and 5,000 men, marched into Livadia, and
defeated the Turks, Nov. 2d, at Lomotico, and Dec. 3d, took
Salona ; then in succession, Lepanto, Livadia, and Vonizza.
The Greeks commenced fitting out a great number of privateers

■I,"

JUi.

~,1

636

CHAPTER XIV.

In consequence of these measures, tl.e Sultan banished 25,000 ^
persons, Cireeks and Armenians, not born there, from the city
of Constantinople ; and the Sultan still dechned to recall his ,
barbarous edict of extermination. ^ „, . ^ , „„„ i

Throucrh the energetic measures of Capo d'Istr.a, Greece began
to recover hersei f ailer a long period of distraction. He divided
the states of Greece into 13 d.-partments, seven of these formed
the Peloponnesus, with 280,000 inhabitants, and 8,543 square
miles; the eighth, the Northern Sporades, 6^00 mhabitan ts
106 square miks ; the ninth, the Eastern Sporades, 58,800
inhabitants, 318 square miles ; the tenth, the Western bporadcs,
with 40,000 inhabitants, 169 square miles ; the elf vcnth, twemh,
and thirteenth, the Cyclades, (north, central, and south ) 91, .500
inhabitants, 1176 square miles. Total inhabitants, 476,500,

square miles, 10,312. j *• i ,„ ,u„

The Brititsh plenipotentiary presented his credentials to the
president of Greece, Nov. 19, 1828; and Colonel t abler, after
his return from France, took upon him the organization of the
Greek armv. On the delivery, at Constantinople, of the protocol
of the three powers, in January, 1829, a verbal answer was
given by the Reis EfTendi, that the Porte wished for peace.^ In
July, Sir Robert Gordon, the British ambassador, and Count
GuiUimont, from France, arrived at Constantinople. Ihe sue-
cesses of Diebitsch, who had crossed the Balkan mountains, and
was on his way towards Constantinople, compelled the lurkisti
plenipotentiaries to sign a treaty, which recognized fornially, in
the sixth article, the treaty of July 6, 1827. Peace between
Russia and the Porte was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14, l»x!»,
and was ratified by the latter, six days afterwards.

Havin<T brought down the affaira of (ireece to the cessation

of hostilities, it only remains to add a few particulars respecting

the death of Capo d'Istria. This individual became exceedingly

unpopular with the Greeks, from his supposed attachment to

Russian interests, and the jealousy and impatience of restraint

of the Greek chiefs. In the spring of 1831, the islands and

province of Maina were in open resistance to the government.

Miaulis, Mavrocordato, and Condurioti, demanded a convoca-

tion of the national assembly, the liberty of the press, and that

certain state prisonera should be liberated. The insurgents took

possession of Poros, and the Greek fleet lying in the harbor. In

August, the troops of the president attacked the town, while the

Russian fleet was standing in to attack the Greek fleet m the

harbor. Admiral Miaulis then blew up his ships, rather than

suffer them to fall into the hands of the Russians. The city of

Poros, deserted by its inhabitants, was reduced to ashes. In ttio

'vnnrtdiiMiilinimTiiiMAmii

bnnished 25,000
ere, from the city
ned to recall his

stria, Greece began

ction. He divided

'en of these formed

, and 8,543 square

0,200 inhabitants,

Sporudes, 58,800

Western Sporadcs,

le eleventh, twelllh,

,and south,) 01,500

labitanta, 476,500;

credentials to the
olonel Fabier, after

orji;anization of the
lopie, of the protocol

verbal answer was
ished for peace. In
(rissador, and Count
intinople. The sue
Alkan mountains, and
npelled the Turkish
;ognized formally, in
27. Peace between
3ple, Sept. 14, 1829,
r wards.

'ce to the cessation
tarticulars respecting

became exceedingly
posed attachment to
ipntience of restraint
131, the islands and

to the govemrr.ent.
;manded a convoca-
f the press, and that

The insurgents took
ig in the harbor. Id
i the town, while the
e Greek fleet in the
is ships, rather than
ssians. The city of
:ed to ashes. In the

ilMtTfi ' n ■*■•••'-'■'

OHEEK REVOLITTION.

637

niean time, the Mainotit «v<ro actively engaged by land against
the government.

The Russian fleet now appeared in the gulf of Coron ; when
Miauiis, wlio had been co-opernting with tiie Muinots with a
small squadron, destroyed it for the same reasons he had done
witii the ships at Poros.

Octol>er 9th, 1831, as the president was going to attend ser-
vice at the church, he was assassinated by two men, who had
repaired purposely to Napoii di Romania. Uiic lired a pistol at
the head of Capo d'latria, and the other stabbed him with a
Turkish dagger, when he fell dead on the spot. Tiiose persona
were George the son, and Constantine the brother of Mavromi-
chnlia, who had been imprisoned since January. Constantine
was immediately killed by the guards of the president, and
George was detained in custody.

In 1832, the three powers obtained from the Grand Seignior
a much more advantageous northern boundary line for Greece,
than had been granted in 1830. The line is to run from the
gulf of Volo, in the iEgian Sea, along a range of mountains,
to the gulf of Arta, in the Adriatic. By this arrangement,
Acarnania and iGtolia, chiefly inhabited by Greeks, are included
in the kingdom of Greece — an acquisition of great importance,
as it adds nearly 100,000, inhabitants, and almost 3,000 square
miles to the new state. Besides the frontier line is more strongly
marked, and will be easier of defence.

This accession to Greece was obtained from the Grand
Seignior for 50,000,000 of Turkish piasters ; which are to be
deducted from the sum he had undertaken to pay to Russia.

The present population of Greece is estimated at from 635,000
to 900,000 souls. Its territory, including Acarnania, jEtolia,
and the islands, is about 18,000 square miles, equal to about two*
fifths of the state of New York, and about equal to it in popula*
tiou. The Morea, or Peloponnesus, comprises 7,227 square
miles, and nearly equivalent in extent to the state of Massachu-
setts. The same treaty which fixed the boundary line, raised
Otho, a Bavarian youth of seventeen years of age, to tiie throne
of Greece ; who carried with him 3,500 Bavarian soldiers, when,
as stipulated, the French troops were to be witlidrawn.

In the maintenance and aid of the new government, England,
France, and Russia, have provided, and become responsible for,
a loan of $3,750,000 ; and have further agreed to furnish, at
two instalments, an equal amount, should it be required for the
good of the country. This loan is to be refunded in due time,
and the payment of the interest is provided for.

King Otho, the new monarch of Greece, arrived at Napoii

*]tl:i

H.,-

t-J.

■•hi

.5*...,

III

f'-i"

di Romania, Fob. 6, 1B33. There were, at this t™e. !" ^I^^
,>ort of Na,.oli di Ron.unin, several sh.ps of war belonging lo
Kneland, France, and Russia. On the following da>, King
OthoTssued a proclamation, declaring his good mtenfons and
well wishes for his adopted country, and engaging to protect the
religion of the Greeks.

War between Russia and Turkey.

HnsTiUTiEs between Russia and Turkey commenced at a most
ror"uir;SJt the safety of Greece The Port, breathing
vengeance, and intent on exterminating ^^e entire Greek popu-
hitioii, would listen to no terms of accommodation offered by the

"^''flt'^rttle'of Navarino had, for the present, paralyzed the
operations of Ibral.im Pacha; and after such a s'gn^l jhw jse-
n ent of the infidels by the Allied powers, they could not honor-
ably withdraw their ft.ture protection to the Greeks, who had so
long been left to contend alone against their cruel oppressors

"t'i" PorTwas led to consider that Russia secretly favored
the Greek cause, and therefore took possession of Moldavia and
Walachia, and put restrictions u,)on its mar'timc commerce.
Thi wTan open violation of the peaceof Bucharest on which,
after an excha'nge of notes, the Russian "^'"-ter M ^oi^mn.
tinople; but through the exertions of the ministers of Austria
and^England, and the desire of the Emperor Alexander to p e-
serve peace, the commencement of hostiities was avoided. St n
Uie Porte refused to give any satisfaction to the Russian court
ThinpUaLd in this state lill the Emperor Nicholas issued
hi, ulUmatum, May 14, 1926, when the P"':^^ /™"f^^ °," J,'^^
demands of the court of Russia and promised Jat Moldavia
and Walachia (where the Porte had derived, m three years, a
revenue of 37,000,000 of piasters, to aid the pn«ecut,on of the
war against Greece,) should be restored. October 6j, 1826 «t
Ackerman,the Russian ultimatum was «c.<=«Pt«d. The Porte
also surrendered all the fortresses in Asia to Russia. lh«

n^eStaTMahmoud'h^'U nis hands full of other business
' Having detelined to reform his army, he began by extermmat.
ms the corps of Janisaries, which he effected after a oU^y
battle in JuTe, 1826 ; when he formed his army on the Euro-

nAtJWif*'*'" '

.^MM^MiiHMMHl^'^ '

this time, in the

war belonging to

lowing (lay, King

;ood intentions and

aging to protect tlie

rkey.

jommenced at a most

riie Porte breathing

entire Greek jiopu-

Jation offered by the

aent, paralyzed the
;h a signal chastise-
liey could not honor-
! Greeks, who had so
leir cruel oppressors

»ia secretly favored
sion of Moldavia and
maptimc commerce.
Bucharest, on which,
[ninister left Constan-
ministers of Austria
or Alexander to pre-
3S was avoided. Still

to the Russian court
leror Nicholas issued
orte granted all the
mised that Moldavia
'cd, in three years, a
he prosecution of the

October 6, 1826, at
cceptcd. The Porte
sia to Russia. This

full of other business,
began by exterminat-
fected after a bloody
is army on the Euro-

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TUHKEY.

639

,wan system. The Sultan himself wore the European dress, and
prohibited, throughout his cnipiro, tlio cnliing of Christians,
•' dogs." Tliis new system of reform led to a violen/ insurrec-
tion, and the loss of 6,000 houses in Constantinople.

In June, 1827, the Porte refused the intervention of Hussia,
France, and Eupland, for the settlement of Greece ; and seemed
to bid defiance to the jiowers of Europe, by attempting to rally
together all his subjects for war.

Russia declared war against Turkey, April 26, 1828. In that
document the emperor declared, that he would not Iny down his
arms till he had obtained the following results, namely : the
paym«mt of all the expenses of the war ; the acknowledgment
of past treaties ; inviolable liberty of the commerce of th<! Black
Sea ; the free navigation of the Bosphorus ; and lastly, the
fulfilment of the convention of July 6th, for the pacification of
Greece.

The campaign opened May 7th, 1828, by the Russian army
of 115,000 men passing the Pruth, under Count Wittgenstein,
commander in chief. Un the 19th, the Emperor's staff arrived
before Brailow, of which Diebitsch was chief. June l.'itli. in
attempting to carry this place by storm, the Russians lost 640
men killed, two major generals, and 1340 men wounded. June
20, Brailow surrendered to the Russians, on condition of the
garrison being permitted to retii-e to Silistria. Two hundred
and seventy-three cannon, besides a great quantity of halls and
ammunition, were taken. Up to July 2d, the Russians had taken
seven fortresses — Brailow, Matschin, Toultscha, Hirsova, Kus-
tendji, Keuzgon, and Managalia. Toultscha was defended by
91 cannon, and 2,000 men.

August 7th, the Russian flotilla before Varna, attacked that
of the Turks, and captured 14 vessels. On the 20th August,
the Grand Vizier left Constantinople for the army. September
20th, the Seraakier of Widdin was defeated by General Geismar,
with great loss, and compelled to retreat. Aliout the same time,
a Russian manifesto issued at St. Petersburg, ordered a new levy
of four men out of every .500 of the population. Varna was
carried by assault after a siege of two months, October 11th.
Its garrison originally amounting to 22,000 men, was reduced
to 6,000. This was the most important fortress of the Turks ;
and gave the Russians the command of the western coast of the
Black Sea. On the 15th October, the blockade of the Darda-
nelles was announced officially by Admiral Heydcn. In July,
the Turks retired into the strongly fortified mountain position of
Shumla, where they had more than 40,000 men, under the com-
mand of Hussein Pacha.

.''..('

-:' I* :

=t1

640

CHAPTEK XK.

The principal Russian force, 45,000 men, ^^^er Field Man.hoJ
W.„go,;stoin,'with the Emperor approached f!'""^-^. ^^^^^^^^^^
onvrutioim were coiuR on Inifore Varna. 1 lie Grand V izier cau-
SSv vo doa giving battle to the Russians before Shuni la.

S 'th^ adl of Varna', the Russian --y^^''> ^'^ Tnd "S
October 15. Silistria was besieged m Scptembe and ra,^^^^^
November 10th. The heavy artillery ot the Russians was

whole pachalic of Ikjasid, as far as the banks of the Luphra es.
was conquered. The approach of wmter put an end to ^is
campaign, in winch the Russians lost "'^"^y^^" ^y ^^^^'l^
wanl of supplies. The loss of horses was great. Th« 'csuha
of the camuairrns in Kurope and Asia, were, two lurkish prin-
dpahti^rS, three pac'halics, fourteen ortre^c. a^ thre
castles. Notwithstanding these ««««%°*^ f'^ ^/j^^'J^^^^^
refused the terms of accommodation offfr^^;. b«fo'« ^™ J^^.'J^^g
this campaign, by the Emperor Nicholas, throg fhe B"tmh
1 ambas»ador,\ord Heytesbury, viz. '"'^^^'^'^^ "^^^^^^^^
1 p,,.nse of the war, and security against future injuries and viola-

I tions of treaties. . r'„„r,r(.l n^phitsrh

The Sultan prepared for a new campaign. General U.ebUscn

' was anSttd coLiander in chief of the Russian forces, Feb.
211829 The siege of Silistria was renewed on the opening
of tin campa^^, under the direction of Diebitsch, May 17th.
The TuSi army, commanded by the Grand \ izier, a acked
S Ru^h^ns posted near the village of Eski An.aoutlar, at
t..TZ Lrning.^ The battle l-te^ till 8 in tlie evening
when the Turks retired with the loss of 2,000 killed, un ine
mo June, a great battle was fought at Koulevtcha. near
Shumla-the TuVks commanded by the Grand V.zier, and
fheTlLians by Diebitsch. The battle -a» f-ght Jith gre^t
obstinacy; when European tactics prevailed over lurkisU
em. S The Turks loLt 5,900 killed, a great number of pn-
s^S. 43 pieces of cannon, 6 standards, all their ammunition

"CSfStS^urrendered to the R"~nt?5:S
son consisted of 8,000 men, and the armed '"'^^J'^^^J Jf-^JX^^
made prisoners of war ; 220 pieces of cannon, 80 stand of colora,
and 2 three-tailed pachas, were also taken, besides the whole ot

^'llSel^ithe surrender of the J^ress of ^ij;
IHebitsch commenced preparations to paas the river KamtclucK

.^nnj ...

laV«;iiS*#'-''t. "^ ' "

er Field Marsha)
iiumla, while llie
irand Vizier cau-
before Shunila.
ick from Shumla,
nbcr, and raiaed
le Russians was
(f forward, Gene-
I, was advancing
y, and liad gained
if September, the
of tlie Euphrates,
It an end to ilus
m by disease and
iat. The results
iwo Turkish prin-
tresses, and three
! Turks, the Porte
)efore and during
rough the British
cation for the ex-
injuries and viola-
General Diebitsch
issian forces, Feb.
■ed on the opening
bitsch, May 17th.
id Vizier, attacked
ski Aniaoutlar, at
1 8 in tlie evening,
)0 killed. On the
; Koulevtcha, near
Grand Vizier, and
I fought with great
iled over Turkish
■eat number of pri-
ll their ammunition

ssians. The garri-
ihabitants that wece
1,80 stand of colors,
jesides the whole of

fortress of Silistria,
he river Kamtcluck

>■«.<■,! i|

''•ill

M's

Mawacre of the Greeks. P. 636.

^- - ..

BatUe of Navarino. P. 036.

''■A

836.

G36.

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY.

641

•nd tho Balkan mountains. On the 17th of July, tho camp
before Shumla was Icil, and by the 22d, Diebitsch had attained
the summit of the Balkan. In descending these mountains,
the Russians encountered n Turkish force of about 7,000 men,
under the Semskier Abduhl Rahman, and defeated him, takmg
4U0 prisoners, 12 cannon, and 7 standards. On the 28d, Mesom-
bria was captured, with 20 standards, 15 cannon, and 2,000 pri-
soners ; and on the same day Achioli was captured, containing
14 piuces of cannon, ammunition, &c.

when tho Russian army readied the shores of the Black Sea,
it was able to co-operate with the fleet under Admiral Greig.
Ou the 24th of June, Bourgas was taken, with ten pieces of
cannon, and abundance of military stores. On the 25th, Aidos
was captured, with the whole Turkish camp, 600 tents, 500
barrels of gunpowder, 4 standards, &c.

August 19th, the Russians approached Adrianople, and the
next day took unresisted possession of the place, where nego-
ciations commenced. Sept. 14, a treaty of peace was signed.
Russia agreed to the restoration of Moldavia and Walachia, and
all the towns occupied by them in Bulgaria and Rumclia. Mol-
davia was to have an independent administration and free trade ;
and the Russians freedom of commerce throughout the Ottoman
empire, agreeably to former treaties ; and free commerce and
navigation of the Black Sea, to all nations at peace with Tur-
key. The Porte stipulated to pay as an indemnification to
Russia, 1,500,000 ducats of Holland, for the losses of Russian
subjects : and a further sum, as should be agreed upon, as an
indemnity for the expenses incurred in the war. And tho Porte
acceded to the terms of Russia, Great Britain, and France, for
the settlement of the afioirs in Greece.

The indemnity for the expenses of the war, was arranged in
a subsequent act, to be paid in instalments. On the fiist pay-
ment, the Russian troops were to retire from Adrianople ; on the
second, to repass the Balkan ; and on the third, to repass the
Danube ; and on the fourth payment to evacuate the Turkish
territory. So far, the Emperor Nicholas fulfilled his declara-
tion and pledges to the Allies, on the commencement of the war
— after having gained the objects for which it was undertaken.
In this campaign, it has been stated, that the Russians lost
200,000 men and 20,000 horses.

It was stated in the papers at the time, that the Russian forces,
at the commencement of the present campaign, amounted to
541,731 regular troops, and 146,601 irregulars, making a total
of 688,833.

-..-'■v,

''i '

642

CHAPTER XIV.

England, from A. D. 1816. to the passing of the Reform P^'

A' "• 1""*-

The courae of policy pursued bv the British caWnet^;;jj;'Ij
broucht about the restoration of Louis XVIII. to the tfro"^ "
Fr3e Its accomplishment loaded England wi h an cnor.
^n^:ZcKas mueiri^ opposition to the wishes of the -jn^^^^
of Englishmen, as the restoration of he B«Y„t Jt ^^^^^^^ ,
trarv to the desire of the French nation. Smce that evem,
the Fench have expelled the Bourbons; and the people of j
kXland have succeed, after an «f-- «|-/Sjf '^S, J^ |
overthrow of toryism, or more properly speaking, of military

''Te'lring corruptions in the representation and the abuses j
which existed in the » rotten-borough system," had long ago ,
TeefcSrW shown, by writer of great political knowledge ;
and many of England's best and purest patriots had labored to
eorrect the abuses which existed i^n their representation The
liberal ioumnlists exerted themselves incessantly to cflect this
obP, auH was repeatedly urged in pariiament with great force

"^TheTcce'ssion of William IV. who soon became the most
populL monrrch that had reigned in Eng'""^' P-^^ D^^f
Ltho cause of liberty. After the overthrow ot the Uuke oi
WdlinX and his cabinet, William called a whig n>'n>stry, wi^
Earl Grey at its head; and this eminent statesman, with his
coHeagTe! Brougham, carried through the long and ardenly
SeS reform, thich, eradicating the " rotten boroughs pro-
vXd for the free and equal representation of the people of Eng

^-^.;:'mtrrrof the English ^governm-t ha^^^^^^^^^^^^

i^qSV^ttluTatLHi^^^^^^
British statesmen, more especially of those who have so essen-
Sy a£ tTe n^w and more enlarged line of policy, m accord^
inee with the spirit of the age, and opposed to the " slavish and
despotic monarchies of Europe. ,

In the 1820, George III. died, January 29th, at the age ot
82 after a reign of threescore years, the longest m the Bt.tish
Snr;^hen'(^,eorge IV. who had been regent si nce^tcbn
8, 1811, succeeded to the throne of GreajBrita.^ wd of the
p^l ^U nominated by the P™^^ /egent fiij loni ol U^e
treasury, Jan. 9, 1812. and continued in office till 1837. His

ENOLAND.

643

the Reform BiU,

cabinet, mainly

to the throne of
d with an enor-

of the majority
urbons was con-
Since that event,
ul the people of

struggle, in the
iking, of military

n, and the abuses
n," had long ago
itical knowledge ;
3t8 had labored to
resentation. The
ntly to effect this
int with great force

became the most
1, proved favorable
w of the Duke of
whig ministry, with
tatcsmon, with his
long and ardently
in boroughs," pro-

the peoole of Eng

nt having a nios>
■ Europe, it will be
public measures of
^ho have so essen-
»f policy, in accord,
to the " slavish and

9th, at the age o(
ngest in tho British
rent since February
•itain. Earl L'ver-
, first lord of the
ice till 1837. His

prudence and moderation at home, were strikingly contracted
with till! course |)ursuod by Custlereagh, minister of the foreign
department. This luttor minister destroyed himself by sui-
cide, August 12, 1822. On his interment in Westminster
Abbey, po|)ular indignation against his memory was strongly
exiiibitod. And that this Wfis not without reason, will appear
by a rcl'orcncc to his many unfeeling and tyrannical measures,
and his violations of the constitution. We are Ihtc constrained
to offer a passing remark, on the public character of this minis,
ter, whose true reputation is not generally known in this coun-
try. Custlereagh was hated for his tyranny ; he was the dupe
of courts, and the betrayer of the people. The part he took
in the congress of Vienna, in parcelling out and trafficking
away tho rights of weaker states, to build up a military despot,
ism throughout Europe, loaded him with the execrations of all
those people whom he had so basely sold. His death was con-
sidercd in England as a hapjty event for the cause of liberty,
which his measures had for so many years crushed. It will be
seen, that the foreign policy of England underwent a complete
change aflcr his death.

In 1816, the income tax was taken off from personal estate,
capital, and colonial possession. This was but shifting the bur-
den of taxation from landholders to the working classes, those
great consumers of the necessories of life ; who were now
reduced to the greatest state of suffering. England for a time,
surmounted all these diflicultics, and even greatly increased her
foreign trade. This k' ept the manufacturing districts quiet, aa
long as they wore weil employed.

In the month of August, 1816, a British squadron of five sail
of the line and five frigates, under the command of liord Ex-
mouth, bombarded Algiers, and destroyed the Algerine shipping,
batteries, and magazines : when the Dcy agreed to the total
abolition of Christian slavery, and the release of all Christian
captives in his dominions. A few months afler this defeat the
Dey was strangled, when piracy again flourished, till the French
afterwards conquered this piratical city.

The distresses in England led the populace to offer public
insult, and assail the prince regent, in 1817, on his return from
parliament to Carlton House. February 3, a royal message
and accompanying documents were communicated to parlia.
ment, giving information of the existence of societies, combi-
nations, &c. in the metropolis, and throughout the kingdom,
dangerous to the constitution ; and that insurrections had been
planned. In consequence of this information, which was greatly
exaggerated, the ministry took a high-handed course. Lord

, 1

Ltt i iiftiiiip

644

CHAPTER XIV.

S.dn,outh introduced a bill -nto « «; Ho-;J ^ - ^^ «-
1 pc.«iou of the hubcu. corpvm ": l^^ «;''J ^^ Ir.HS .k-buting

r-Tfort-nSg, witl. -v-ity. uU attc.npt^ to corrupt the
"S^ fSt. M.y mK a^.in brought ^--[^^y-

r-r^-tbf^^^r^riis^^^^^^^

Lament, ^^ '^'^J^'^^^^l^Z^, .uB,.onHi..n uct, accompun.ed

hLdod act Sir «-"-i.,f T^^ , ' r Uibaed the righU
reading of the >'wJ«'""ty,J^ "' , Z'JL^ froui thorn; who had
of individuals, and took -" '^'g'^Vuncons it t^^^ exerc.He of
Buffered by an irresponsible and unconsmuuon

^"^'"'^^^It 1819 there was a meeting at Mmichester, to di».

samo wretches '''Tiifmeeting at Manchester was of a peace,
of the minis ry.hmmeer.ng ^^^^^^^ .^^^^^^^^^

able -''"'-'; ;.^;^;rofrpetitioner.. There was no ap-

?S. 77r,Z"r^T^ UL, uA «™. of co.^

"°E"rHSy, to the hou» of lord., moved for .n "f^.
Ik. iuS if the Miuicheaer maparMc, but «a» defe'ted,

ss^ofir/^^r^^ of"Th»'.t -.^" to,^

M«UJ .' i)U.l)i i !IJIJU ' Mi"Wi- ' '-." '

ords, fur the sum
into u luw ; and
i|i|)rti88 (luLiiting
third bill was

it8 to corrupt the

)r\varii the qiios-

was aided by Sir

votes being 265

• opening of par-

of the people, by

net, aoconipuniod

H for such ti high*

il, on the aecond

liihited the rights

0111 tho8(! who had

tionol exercise of

Vliinchesler, to dis-

ll sliould here be
ernnient, hiid gone
a people ; and these
cl behind the power
t(!r was of a peace-
100 souls, including

There was no up.
re any arms among

during his speech,
ind many lives were
'his nefarious trans-
sh populace. The
uring districts, were
tinuance of twenty.
)00,000,000 pounds.

public discussions.
It a scene of conflict

1 for an inquiry into
I, but was defeated ;
se of commons, and
was renewed before

guardians of public
;rant outrage on the

the ministers intro-

RNOLAND.

645

duced several bills that became Inws, to bo continued five
years. These have; gone by the designation of the six acts.
They were : Ist, a bill to take away the right of traversing,
in cases of misdemeanors. '2d, for piiniHiiing any person found
guilty, on a seeoiul <'onvictioii of IiIk'I, by fine, imprisonment,
or banishment for lifi;. 'M\, for preventing seditious meetings.
4tii. to prevent private military trainings. M\, the application
of the severe stamp system to pamphlets under two sheets, and
a more rigorous punishment of IIIk-Is and seditious writings.
6th, a bill giving magistrates the power of entering hoiiw.>s by
night, or by day, for the purpose of seizing arms believed to be
collected for unlawful purpos(!S.

1820. The death of (jeorge III. this year, protluced no dif-
ference in th(! public measures ; although the aspect of ('England
was quite changed by the great increase of trade, and the dimi-
nution of taxes, and by better harvests. The renewal of specie
payments, and the increasing value of paper currency, was
highly favorable to manufactures. The countiy was now rwco-
vering from the heavy burden of war, in which she had so long
been engaged.

A daring conspiracy to assassinate ministers, called the Cato
street conspiracy, was detected, for which Thistlewood and four
of his companions paid the forfeit of their lives, and four others
concerned were transported for life to Botany Buv

July 19, 1821. The splendid coronation of George IV. took
place at Westminster Abbey.

On the death of the Marquis of Londorderry, better known
as Lord Costlereagh, Mr. Canning was called to the cabinet, as
secretary of foreign affairs, Sept. 16th, 18iI2. One of the first
measures of Canning, was to check the fanatic influence of the
French in Spain. In 1823, England allowed her subjects to aid
the Greeks, and even acknowledged their right of blockade.
With the republics of South America, she formed treaties of
alliance ; and in 1825, formally acknowledged the independence
of the South American states.

In the years 1825 and 1826, the commercial diflSculties were
great, occasioned by the speculation in foreign loans, and in
the most costly undertakings, which led to bankruptcies, and
gave an unusual shock to men of business. " Bankruptcies
spread like a vast fog over England, America, France, and
Germany, at the same moment. But the vigor of England is
mcalculable."* Seventy-five banks broke in the same number
of days ; and 255 joint-stock companies, that, a week before,

* Crol/i Life of George IV.

64G

CHAPTER Xiy.

wcio in hi«l» credit, oiul ready for vu-- undortakiogi, were in

« u.r v.. r conlidcncn was r.M,8tal.ii8luMl, c-,„Mn..rr.> revived
tS\:!^;: butl w.u.t forward wi.l. reuow.l actm.y and

^"lir^unerous iuiUues of bank,. tl.-O^'^ ;J;^^;;^-ij5

X Thus rLtres^ of the country wa- in a great .m-asure

"'KaO, \pril 4th. England united with the court of St. Peters-
bug to compel the Porte to cease hostilit.eBW.th the C,rj..eks.
Mr. Canning was appointe.! prin.e mnuster Apr. 12th l^J^
.v^ died in the month of August of the same year. His policy
was crown..d b X recognition of the South American states
The maSnanS of the indeiH^ndenco of Portugal, and the treaty
stnedarCulon. July mil. fur the settlement of the war m
Greece which treaty led to the battle of Navarmo.*

TordGodcrich succeeded as first lord of the treasury. Ho
ret n-d from office January 8th. when the Duke of Wellington
wts made premier, alihough the duke had declared in parliumen ,
The year before, his entire unfitness for high c.v.l ofhce. In Apnl.
a Catholic relief bill was passed.

George IV. King of Great Britain, died June 26th, jsaO, and
was succeeded by his second brother, the Duke of Cbrence

Tder^hrtitle of Villiam IV. The ^^^^XTZ/.tJ^^^
of Wellington was overthrown. November 16th, and a «w days
after, a nfw ministry was formed, with Earl Grey at lU head.

nrS'^orwXS overthrow was ascrilyd to his
JsSnce of retrenchme'nt. and his "PPf;--- "J ^ ^
riots and opposition to parliamentary reform. Ihe political
oSiacy o??rDuke arLe out of his ignorance and contempt
of the people, and a blind confidence in his own supremacy and
J^wer.Tnd a thorough oisregard of public opinion, while

. Mr. Brougham .aid of Mr. Canning, in the British h°»»« "J^'J"^^;;?;

10 be hoped, that the efforts he made, crowned as they were wim succeia,
might be followed up."

i I

i!! BHU,-Jim... ' H-"J<*""-'^'-'m ' '-""'"

Irtakint^ were lA
lli'soliitioii, ffi all-
Ldirirrri; rtivived,
Iwid uctivity and

rird tliu littxirini
o ciirrnicy
ncnt itniiu'diutcly

l(>8.sil)l(3 (l<;8imtcll.

) a iluy, nnu Hiip-
i)f tlio mint on this
giiH pt-r (lay wcro
rnrily, two pound
n a groat tnt^oaure

:ourt of St. Peters,
s with thn Greeks.
April 12th, 1827,
year. His policy
I Americnn states,
igal, and the treaty
ont of tlie war in
variiio.*

tlio treasury. He
uke of Wellington
lared in parliament,
vil office. In April,

me 26th, 1830, and
Duke of Clarence,
tration of the Duke
kh, and a few days
I Grey at its head,

as ascribed to his
lension of popular
'm. The political
■once and contempt
>wn supremacy and
}lic opinion, while

sh house of commons,
ature sacrifice to his
of policy ; and it was
ey were with success.

ENOLAlfD.

647

events at home and abroad ptirplexed him. The continental
inouurcliH of the Holy Alliunce had looked to the tory ministry,
' wit!) Wellington at itH head, for security and protection. What
'niii.'<t hav(! been the sensittion in the courtx of those countries,
when intelligence was received of the Duke's overthrow and
resigiuttion ?

The whig niiniHtry, with Karl Grey at its head, was pledged
to sii|>|K)rl the reform bill,* '/'liix ministr^ took upon them a
gr(uit task — an arduous res{/«jii»<bility. That gross ubust^s
nboundi-d in the Hritish governmin:, no one could deny ; and
rellirm was demanded by the united voice of the nation. Mr.
Brougham was pledged to parliamentary reform, the reduction
of expenses and sinecures, and against negro slavery.

The ministerial plan of re-form, by Earl Grey and his cabinet,
was brought forward by Lord John Russell, on the 1st of March ;
and uiler a debate of seven days, leave was given to bring in
three bills for reforming the representation of England, Scotland,
and Ireland. The bill wus ( arried, after a debate of two days,
to a second rcadiujf, IVIarch •-J2d, by a vote of 302 to 301 ; but
was lost on the third reading, the vote being 201 for the minis>
try, 209 against it.

The King dissolved the parliament in person, on the 22d of
April. In the speech delivered on that occusujii, William said,
" I have been induced to resort to this nieuiiure for the purpose
of ascertaining the sense of my people," &ic.

The new parliament, of which a largo number v/m pledged
to support reform, assembled June 14th, 1831, and was opened
by the King, who recommended the question of a reform in
the representation, to their earliest and most attentive conxtdera-
tion. On the 24th, the reform bill was again brought forward
by Lord John Russell, in the house of commons, and puwed its
second reading July 6th, by a vote of 367 to 235, and to a third
reading Sept. 22d, by a vote of 349 to 236. The bill was car-
ried up to the house of lords, and on October 8th, rejected by a
vote of 109 to 158. Parliament was prorogued on the 20th of
the same month.

The rejection of the reform bill in the house of lords, on the
8th, led to strong manifestations of popular fury against the
nobility, especially those who had voted against the bill. At
Nottingham and Derby, as well as other parts of the kingdom^
riots commenced soon as intelligence of the defeat of the bill

* In 1797, Lord Grey made a motion for reform. Its failure caused that
great statesman, Fox, to withdraw from parliament, which was by soma
jadged to be a dereliction of duty.

*i/,i(

iu,

648

CHAPTER XIT.

was received. Oa the 29th, 30th, and Slat, dreadrul riota took
place at Bristol — many of the public buildings and an immense
amount of property were destroyed ; ninety persons were k-lled
and wounded at that time ; afterwards five were executed, and
many were sentenced to transportation. The total damage
done, during this riot at Bristol, was estimated at 300,000 pounds
sterling.

Parliament was opened again, December 6th, by the King ;
and on the 12th, Lord John Russell, (a third time,) introduced
a new bill for reform, very similar to the former, and declared
to be " equally efficient." It was read the second time, on the
16th, by a vote of 324 to 162. On March 23d, it was brought
up for a third reading, and passed by a vote of 355 to 239.
The bill passed to a second reading, in the house of lords, April
13th, by a vote of 184 to 175. An amendment to defeat the
bill was introduced by Lord Lyndhurst, which passed May 8th,
by a vote of 151 to 116 ; and on May 12th it was lost by a
majority of 40. Earl Grey advised the King to create a sufli.
cient number of new peers to secure the success of the bill, ten-
dering his resignation as the alternative, which was accepted.
On the resignation of ministers, great public excitement followed.
The political unions, organized throughout the country, deter,
mined to refuse the payment of taxes, and demanded that the
ministers should be reinstated. Earl Grey had stated, that he
would stand or fall by this bill ; and that nothing less efficient
should be supported by him.

The excitement was so great in Birmingham, that 100,000
persons assembled suddenly and spontaneously, and forwarded
an immediate express to London. There was a firm determina.
tion to have the reform bill carried, or pay no taxes ; and this
determination was echoed from every part of the kingdom.
There was no riot ; the people had risen in their collective
strength, to assert their just rights. Bursts of indignant feel-
ings were directed against the bishops and nobility. The
Duke of Wellington failed in his attempts to form a ministry ;
when Earl Grey and his colleagues were reinstated in office
May 18th, with the assurance from the King, of having a suffi-
cient number of peers created, to secure the passing of the bill.
When the lords were apprized of this fact, they resolved to let
it pass.

June 14th, the bill passed a third reading, by a vole of 106
to 22, and the royal assent was given by commission, on the 17th
of the same month. It is worthy of remtwk, that not one of the
bishops was present on the final passage of the bill. In answer,
iog the forebKodings and objections made to it by the lords, Eaii

eadful riota touk
and an immcnae
[irsons were k-lled
3re executed, and
The total damage
It 300,000 pounds

Ith, by the King ;

time,) introduced

ncr, and declared

cond time, on the

3d, it was brought

e of 355 to 239.

use of lords, April

lent to defeat the

Ih passed May Stli,

h it was lost by a

g to create a suiii.

[ess of the bill, ten-

nich was accepted.

xcitement followed.

the country, deter.

lemanded that the

lad stated, that he

thing less efficient

:ham, that 100,000
sly, and forwarded
8 a firm determina.
lo taxes ; and this
: of the kingdom,
in their collective
of indignant feel,
nd nobility. The
D form a ministry ;
reinstated in office
, of having a suffi.
passing of the bill,
ley resolved to let

, by a vote of 106
nission, on the 17th
that not one of the
le bill. In answer,
by the lords, Eaii

BNOLAND.

649

Grey said — " That the peace, power, and prosperity of England
would all be increased by the reform."

By it, 22 new boroughs, in England, are to send two new
members each ; 19 new boroughs, one each ; 62 new members
are added to the English county members ; three to the county
members, and two to the borougli members of Wales ; five to
the Scotch members ; and five to the Irish members. By this
reform bill, 56 of the old boroughs, cullcfl rotten or decayed
boroughs, have been wiiolly disfranchised ; and 30 boroughs,
tiint before sent two members each, are to send but one. The
united borough of Weymouth and Mclcombe Regis, which before
sent four members, is to send but two.

County members under the reform act. — Formerly, each county
sent two members, except Yorkshire, which returned four —
total 82. The counties in Wales, one each — total 12. By the
reform act, the number of the county members of England is
raised to 144 ; those of Wales to 15. And 26 English counties
are divided, and return four members each ; 7 counties three
each ; the ridings of Yorkshire, two each ; and the six remain-
ing counties, two each ; and the Isle of Wight, one. Of the 12
Welch counties, three send two members each ; the remaining
nine, one each.

The reform act also extends to the right of voting, in the elec
tion of members for cities and boroughs, to every male person
of full age, not subject to any legal incapacity, who occupies, as
owner or tenant, any house, warehouse, shop or building, of not
less than ten pounds yearly value : provided such person pa)rs
assessed taxes and poor rates. And in the election of county
members, the elective franchise extends to every male person
who shall be in actual occupation of a freehold for life, or of
lands or tenements of copyhold, of the clear yearly value of not
less than ten pounds. In England, a county member of parlia-
ment must possess real property to the amount of 600 pounds
Gr annum ; and a borough member, 300 pounds. But in Scot-
id, no such qualification is requisite.

Lord John Russell, in his speech on introducing the first
reform bill, (March 1, 1831,) made the following statement
respecting the number of voters that would be added by that bill :
number added in towns and boroughs in England already sending
members, 1 10,000 ; electors of towns in England sending mem-
bers for the first time, 50,000 ; electors in London, who will
obtain the right of voting, 95,000 ; increase of electors in Scot-
land, 60,000 ; in Ireland, perhaps 40,000 ; increase in the coun-
ties of England, 100,000. « It is my opinion, therefore," said
Lord Russell, " that the whole measure will add to the constitu-

CHAPTEK XIV.

^, of ,he common ho«» of p«rU.n,enU "J»"' ^f; "J'ijJ

nliSLtu'STof 'boo,l,s an. >o W P«^P»-^» "••'.ft
polUnn <o contmuc, if '«'l''"«^>.'- '"? ^S houm on U.e

b7"vi;rrH,t„r„f:r.™-t:L.ep>opo„.a»

the English house ol lords ; and o the dwin oi u
''T»'p...in« of .he reform hill »" Mo««'l !H »£"!"!

cr°Vhrry^:^^».r^H;XK^.

re^/fi^^^reissts^hivrxra .«'. i--

ihem with complete hberlv. parliament, and

The cond.tio» ol 'j'j f/^J^^^^^^^^^ investing

in connection with the Irish coercion , session of

the executive wUh ^''[.^^"'tl'^Cirfo^^^^^^^^^^
disturbances, various bills «« « '""f "•^^j, „„ ^f one of these,
of the grievances of that country. ^J;f°'"r'^2 Protestont
which had for it« object ^^e reform ^^f the Ijish^r^^^^ ^^

Church, involved the appropriation of l"f ^'^'^^^^^ ^ -'

vision for the Protestant Clergy, to the general put

purposes ot

|)ut half a million
property of the
and deeply into-

ured, so that not

iipartmcnt. The

.aaive days only ;

orht hours on the

be kept open later

a third reading in
)f tiie same month,
I house of lords,
was read a third
On the 16th of
ogued to the 16th

irliament has been
wisdom, and stem
or many years, the
nmons, — a firm and
3crats and leagued

owed by a general
dry. The first ses-
thu king, in person,
session, the charters
I. The former was
of the British terri-
le East India Com-
>wn open to British
1 memorable by the
slavery in the VVest
nted to the proprie-
BS were placed in a
(pired and invested

fore parliament, and
I measure investing
- the suppression of
for the amelioration
lion of one of these,
he Irish Protestant
titles, after due pro-
general purposes of

ENGLAND.

651

education. In the session of 1831, the Irish coercion bill,
which was to have expired in August, was renewed, and ren-
dered more stringent, Init before it was passed, the administra-
tion of Earl (Jrey was dissolved. Upon the resignation of Mr.
Littleton, the Irish secretary. Lord Althorp and Earl Grey, Lord
Melbourne became premier, all the other members of the cabinet
retaining office. One act was carried by the .Melbourne admin-
islnation, which has proved of great importance to all classes.
This act had for its object the entire re-organization of the poor
laws. Great difference of opinion exists, regarding its merits,
but it is clear that it has relieved the owners and occupiers of
lands from heavy burdens, and raised the moral character of the
English peasantry. Under the old poor-laws, they unblushingly
sought the pittance of charity : now they are mainly sohcitous
to subsist by honest industry.

The rule of the Melbourne administration was brief. Before
the prorogation of parliament, its weakness had been apparent,
and its want of intrinsic power had rendered it dependent on
O'Connell and his party. At the same time, the public press
denounced its incapacity to carry on government on any fixed
principles. Certain of its members gave high offence to the
king, who availed himself of an opportunity, aflbrded him by the
death of Earl Spencer, to dismiss the whole ministry from his
service. To Sir Robert Peel was committed the task of form-
ing a new cabinet, which was accomplished towards the close
of the year.

This change in the administration was followed, in 1 835, by
a general election. In England the new government obtained a
majority in the elections, but in Ireland and Scotland, public
opinion was decidedly against them. When parliament assem-
bled, they were left in the minority, in the first subject of debate,
that of the choice of a speaker. Upoki several subsequent divi-
sions they were equally unsuccessful, and on being defeated in
a measure, concerning the appropriation of the surplus of the
revenues of the Irish church. Sir Robert Peel resigned. The
Melbourne cabinet, with the exception of Lord Brougham, were
now recalled, and during this session they succeeded in passing
bills for the reform of the English corporations, and for the
solemnization of the marriages of dissenters in their own
chapels. These measures were followed in the session of
1836, by laws for the better registration of births, marriages
and deaths ; for the commutation of English tithes, and the
nearer equalization of episcopal sees. Upon Irish questions,
the house of lords was still opposed to the views of the cabinet,
and the majority of the house of commons. The lords refused

•H\i

Wit

•/

652

CHAPTER XIV.

to nass an Irish tilhe bill with the aprropriation clause, and the
^oJimons rliecting the measure without U. there was once more

'^ '^Z^ZS^l^C^^^^^ forced themselves
At this tune, ine a ,pj^ y^^^^^ ^i assembly m

o„ 4, 19th of June, h.8 majesty "P''t*J"°°°' fV^b-
Few tiKTOreh. of K„gl«nd ...r po>».8.ed the lo.e of thetr WB-
jeete in s grentcr degree then Wllham IV.

AUxandrina Victoria.
1 n laiT tieiandrlna Victoria, who now succeeded to

wu hailed with mote than ordinary enthnsiaam. One eltect oi
1? descent of the crown to a female, wa. the .eparatton from
* of Ha!».°r, after a onion of more than a oenlory. The

'"Cia",::!"' c^p^^'te^r fS °S»> ... p-*

di.» at .£ao»of .H. ^t™ofT..?rM"
S ZiSToHh; S.".. l»d been 'declining, but the

clause, and the
was once more

reed themselves
of assembly in
on to the mother
An attempt at
ution of cominis-
les of the British
ractory 8i)irit dis-
rd Durham was
as, with the most
evolt, the amelio-
the institutions of

:'s health had, in
lent spring, symp-
sing rapidly, until,
ithout a struggle,
love of their sub-

now succeeded to
late duke of Kent,
as 18 years of age,
im. One effect of
he separation from
I a century. The
irer.

I with all possible
ts dissolved. The
terfect tranquillity,
declining, but the
lity to their power.
I educated by her
id her countenance
ernment and make
roclaimed that she
andidates traversed
loyalty to her

9ir

ENGLAND.

majesty by supporting her ministers. This appeal to the people
failed to accomplish its object, the triumphs of the political
parties, after a keen trial of their strength, being nearly balanced.

In the autumn of this year, the corporation of London distin-
guished itself by a demonstration of its loyalty to the queen, in a
magnificent entertainment given to her in Guildhall, on the 9ih
of November. The utmost enthusiasm prevailed on this occa-
sion. The queen opened the new parliament on the 20th of
November. The motions relative to vote by ballot, and slavery,
which occupied their attenticm during this session, were nega-
tived. A bill which had for its object the education of the
people, without reference to creed, was brought in by Lord
Brougham, but the difHculties it encountered were insurmountable.

A disaffection arose among the working classes in the manu-
facturing districts, during the autumn of this year, excited by the
poor laws and the price of provisions, but. by the exertions of
government, order was restored.

In the session of 1839, a bill was passed for the regulation of
municipal corporations in Ireland. At this time disputes existed
between the British government and the Jamaica legislature,
arising from an act, which empowered her majesty in council
to make rules for the government of the West India prisons, to
appoint inspectors, and to regulate other matters of discipline.
This was resisted by the Jamaica assembly, as a violation of
their rights ; resolutions condemnatory of the act were adopted,
and the members resolved to forego the exercise of their legisla-
tive functions, until it was repealed. In consequence of this, a
bill was brought into parliament for the suspension of the exist-
ing constitution of Jamaica, for five years. Before this the minis-
try had lost some of their supporters, and others now voting against
them, the result of the debate brought about their resignation.
Sir Robert Peel having failed to form a new cabinet, the Mel-
bourne administration again resumed office, and measures were
taken by them for the advancement of education, not, however,
commensurate with the wants of the people. Every section of
the religious community opposed each other on this question,
which rendered it diflicult for ministers to adopt any enlarged
or enlightened educational measure. A bill, for the healing of
the breach between the British parliament and the Jamaica
assembly, was passed, which had the desired effect. Acts were
passed for the better ordering of prisons, for the suppression of
the Portuguese slave trade, and for the disposal of waste lands in
the colonies ; but this session was particularly signalized by the
reduction of the rates of postage, a measure, promotive of the
. interests of trade and commerce, and of individur* bennfit.

ffll

CIIAITER XIV.

A mntion to take into consiJeration a '«Nalional Petition,"

? asses domandiMK universal 8uflrn«c, vole by ballot, annual
narliaments and remuneration of members for their attendance
f„ the n anS the abolition of the property qual.ficat.ons, was
rol. tPd Its rciectiou was c-otemporaneous with various riots
at'mrlgl am iSng out of the pToceedmgs of the chartists,
Su twh 1. wer^ suppressed by the action of parharnent.

An announcement was made, at the opening of the se s.on
of 1840 that her majesty was about to be married to Albert,
ln.o of ?ixe Cohura and (iotha. A bill was consequently

rglttr;pa:sed,''for the -J-'^ j"-^ ^i^T^it
an nnn npr annum, was a so voted him, out ol tne con
SitefS rcZmence on the day of l.is marriage wuh
her majesty, and to continue during life. The marriage tooK
place on the 1 0th of February. , .

\ bill was this year brouaht into parliamenl and passed, lor
the urn, o the t Jo Canadas. During the last year, a serious
coUrJio. took place between the Chinese authorities, and the

cannon wrested'^from the emperor of that vast empire a portion

This dominions. The policy «f f -^'-if^^,;? S" con-
the affairs of China, was made the subject of a series ol con
demnSlry ^Lolutioi'is, and they were only negatived by a small

""iT'this period Sir Robert Peel moved a resolution, to the
eflect that Ter majesty's ministers did not possess the confidence
«r.hV house sufficiently to enable them to carry any measure
o essenS imjorunce'^lo the public welfare, and that their

Ire mSLty unfavorable to the administration. An amend-
ment to*he address from the throne, representing to her majesty
ri c ssitv ia her ministers should enjoy the confidence of

atioiml Petition,"
of the working
y ballot, annual
their attendance
ualifications, was
ith various riots
of the chartists,
arliitrnent.
ing of the session
married to Albert,
was consequently
of his royal high-
m, out of the con-
his marriage with
^he marriage took

!iit and passed, for
iist year, a serious
ulhorities, and the
(vcrnment had pro-
r country, and an
ry particle of this
be delivered to the
s was refused, and
the British govern-
he Chinese empire,
first time, British
ist empire a portion
t, with reference to
Df a series of con-
egatived by a small

I resolution, to the
isess the confidence
carry any measure
ire, and that their
!ee, was at variance
dution was adopted,
Hras dissolved, and
: general election,
his occasion, but at
ilts of the elections
ration. An amend-
iting to her majesty
y the confidence of

ENGLAND.

6SS

the country, and that it was not possossed by the present admin*
istrntiun, was carried against them by a large majority. In
reply, her majesty stated tliat she would take measures lor the
formation of a new cabinet, and Sir Robert Peel was charged
with the task, in executing which, he was successful. The
principal members of the new .idministration were ihe Duke of
Wellington, the Duke of Buckingham, the Karl of Haddington,
Sir James Graham, Lords Ellcnborongh, Stanley, Wharnclifle,
Lowthor, and Lyndhurst; the Honorable H. Goulburn, Sir E.
Knatchbull, and Sir H. Hardingo. The only measures of
importance, brought forward by the new ministry, were bills for
the belter administration of justice in the court of chancery, and
for the continuance of the new poor law commission.

This year, the differences which had arisen between the
courts of Great Britain and the Chinese empire, were, for a
time, adjusted. After the forts, surrounding Canton, were cop-
lured, the Chinese emperor purchased peace by indemnification.
The island and harbor of Hong Kong were ceded to the British
crown ; an indemnity of 6,UOO,000 dollars was to i)c paid to the
British government, and the trade and commerce between the
two countries renewed. Further important concessions were
made by the Chinese empire, and the result of the war was
highly favorable to Great Britain. It must bo mentioned, to the
honor of the British nation, that great exertions have been
made, and are still making, for the Christianizing of the Chinese
people.

An important treaty was this year signed between France,
Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, whereby the former
powers agreed to adopt the English laws relative to the slave
trade. Several important measures were passed by parliament
in the session of 1842 : one of these was a new corn-law, on
the principle of a graduated scale, to which great opposition
was made, but which finally passed, in its original state. The
next important measure was an income tax bill, by which all
persons, having an income of more than jCidO per annum, were
subjected to a tax of seven pence in the pound : personal property
was also taxed to the same amount. The passing of this measure
was followed by extensive alterations in the tariff, or customs'
duties. The duties on numerous articles of trade and commerce
were either greatly reduced, or wholly repealed by a bill, enti-
tled the "Customs' Act." The repeal of the corn-laws was
demanded, but still opposed by government. .Another bill was
passed, by the exertions of Lord Ashley, which had for its
object the restraining of the employment of children in mines
and collieries, which had been a cause of great moral degrada-

! !

■Junilifr"'-

656

CHAPTER XIV.

A bill was also passed, renew ng ^!»« "'"' '^ ^f education,
five years, and forming 'l'«'"S\^, "'„ ^^eSrof the session
with various minor matters j,'"P~S view of its opera-

EoTh partiel and which gave "-;».--;- ^twed. but in this
Hostilities with China had recenijy been rene . ^^

year the war was fi^-^^y^rifj^nese now engaged to pay
■the :-6ih of Augtist. ^y ^^^^^^Jj^^j^^^ ^ now JJ ,„

21.000,000 dollars, and ! ^ f [".dsof ClLan and Kolang-soo

'''' "lo'tS by he B iih UU the money payments were
were to be heW ny lao "» „_,,:„„ ,i^e ports completed,
made and arrangements '"-^ «1 ^"'"f "^^l this year, in a war
The British arms were also ^^J'-^f "^^S,, commencement
with the Aflghans, m the East "^rcd several reverses, but
of this war. the British ^^^^^ .i^^^„' "^'yeveral fortresses
they were now every where ^'f «™- -n^ j^g .lu^t, while
were stormed, and some of them levelled wUi U^e t , ^^^^^^

thousands of the Affghan f 7«,. ^^^i- fJh "roo ' , devastated,
country, in the line of ■"''^^^^wttuH"! b^e""'!! .« the
The Affghans had for «-- ^»^-£"j:i,i',i troops evacuated

created great disquietude and anxiel>.l^^ was a con-

and industry there .^"^f, f ^«f .^^JP^^rp customs, and taxes,
siderable decrease in the e''"««>J3r ^^me suggested the
To remedy the «lif'«f jj^f/lotted remigrftln, as the
repeal of the corn-laws, and «'^^^" P°'";* ^yje. \ lengthened
only means to relieve the ^/J^^f J/^ J^^^^^^ government, to
debate took place on a Pl/"' ^'^""gf, "!*"i was the animosity
promote the education of the P«oj ^-J^ ^.j^ , i,, i„,

displayed against ^^v^^'' -orirSe" and the augmentation
for the endowment of ^^dmona^ f ^^^^^^^^ ^^i}^^ f^/s for these
of small livings, was .""^"^^^^'^J^^^^^^^^ Anne's bounty

purposes were to be «1«"^«'^' '"f''''^ bishoprics, cathedrals,
Ld in part from the revenue otcermn bishop .^ ^^^

and other ecclesiastical ^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^hich materially altered
relating to defamation and hbel.

la.

W'JHr ' * ' !

ENOLAND.

657

having been made
[amed Dean, a bill
perfect unanimity,
law commission for
)se8 of education,
Ings of the session
re viewof itsopera-
s been adopted by

renewed, but in this

eaty was . signed on

low engaged to pay

orts were opened to

iHan and Kolang-soo

mey payments were

ts completed.

this year, in a war

t the commencement

several reverses, but

Several fortresses

with the dust, while

lain, and the whole

)h troops, devastated.

been adverse to the

lish troops evacuated

le which still inspires

jpect of public aflairs
every branch of trade
There was a con-
, customs, and taxes.
, some suggested the
1 to emigration, as the
isure. A lengthened
ird by government, to
ich was the animosity
id. A bill brought in,
and the augmentation
The funds for these
Queen Anne's bounty
bishoprics, cathedrals,
Several reforms in the
lich materially altered
iveral changes in that

Great commotions took place this year in Ireland. A loud
cry fur the repeal of the union, was heard throughout the coun*
try. Mr. O'Connell and his coadjutors were arrested on charges
of coiLspiracy, sedition, and unlawful assemblage. Their trial
occurred in 1844, when they were fined and sentenced to be
imprisoned for twelve months, but parliament soon after reversed
their suiitcnce, and they were liberated. There was some com-
motion also, at this time, in South Wales. A war was raised
against the turnpike system, arising from the vexatious tolls to
which the peasantry were subjected. The toll-gales were
every where demolished, and no sooner were they re-erected
than tiiey were again destroyed. In order to quell these disturb-
ances, government sent a large body of troops and many of the
London police, into Wales. In a short time, some of the most
active in these tumults were captured, and towards the close of
the year Wales became more quiet.

This year witnessed another war in the East Indies. It was
discovered that the ameers of Sinde were preparing to attack
tlie British, and Sir Charles Napier was sent against them. A
great battle was fought at Meeanee, the result of which was
that the six ameers who governed that country were captured,
and that the whole of Sinde was annexed to the British domin-
ions in the East. The Sindian population every where expressed
their satisfaction at the change of masters. Sir Charles Napier
was appointed Governor of Sinde, and was empowered to take
such measures as might appear best calculated to suppress the
slave trade, which had long existed in that country, and to
abolish all duties of transit, which had been imposed by the
ameers. In the course of this year the British troops gained
two decisive victories over the Mahratta forces.

In the Autumn, queen Victoria, accompanied by Prince Albert,
visited Louis Phillippe, late king of France, in his own dominr
ions. This was an interesting event, as it tended to increase
the harmony existing between the two countries. After receiv-
ing a most cordial reception from his majesty, the queen and;
prince Albert proceeded on their voyage to Ostend.

In the session of 1844, were passed several important acts;
one having for its object the regulation of railways ; another,
containing salutary provisions for the regulation of joint-stock
companies, and a third, entirely remodelling the system of turn-
pike-road management in South Wales. A further alteration
was made in the Poor Law Amendment Act, having for its
chief object the preservation of morality among the poor.
Another act permitted sugar, not being the produce of slave
labor, to be imported into the country at diminished duties. A

» i

658

ciiatteh xrv.

1 .-,.1 f.ir i>in iiboliiion of a number of penal acU,

bill was al«o passcj for the '^'»» " „y obsolete. The

retained in the I'-'^)^ «ta «tc »«ok ^^^ g«"« l^ ,,^„ , „,„^i„„

'TuT r:r?nind a.7the aZiniHtrution of hanking con-

:i;!:;i;:^ir«vatpnncip.^fu..^^^

::;rde.and. -/»S;Zvirr ;:d1:2i5:!^-^ny year, at
Dunng th.H y«"' ^J' .; 2,,; of the East India Company. wa«
Macao, as c»»'«f-»"P''""'" , " \,°' " cent acqnisitionH in China. I

The income tax *7,„^» ^ ;\l';ii;hc" and expectations of the

ingof P»-^»i«™^'"''J°"^'7Su^rple.l, wilh^great opposition, I
l>eople, was renewed^ A hm « as p , y^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ,.^_^

for improving "^f '"".JJ«";^ ^alhoiic priesthood. Other acta
the education ol the '^«"'*". '^''"'""^lieh had previously been
relieved the Jews from <=«««;" ".J;™' „ ,„„V,icipal oftices ; ,
required from ^^^'JP"" '^j";; ^rwoks provided for the
regulated Juvende labor - - ^ P^^^ J,,^ ,, sLtland and Ire- ,
better care of l«"""".' [.^ l" .i.„,e ol the bank charter of
Sa„°J, E fS-"'lh'e ISSe o, c„»,.»n. in E„g,.nd

left bank of the ^""^'J' 7.^ , r J^aj declaration of war,

'^'^" ""TAa^: Ts Sat MooS in which the British
and a terrible batt e was lougni » , gj^^ j,o had

"'"'"1.LX' ttV -i'recrS t^Vtlei

escaped '^^ ^^-^jf J*,' J°* British followed them and pressed
the year ^ ^46, the vtcwrious ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^

forward to Lahore. T«'"?' "^^iJ!" dment of the Sikh army,
of the stipulations 7" %«/(^3eTNaWr was employed in
Earlier in the year 1845, Sir ^'»»"f * 7' ^^e rMit bank

military operations agrainsUhe monn.am .r^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

completely success u; the ^wer o^ ^^^^^^^

had been long a '"^'"^I'^J^Tm important than the phy-

s^frdett\3rthr;o7eo^
-j^t5:^:q^eaiof^^^^^^^^

S rtg-s otXt harS:. sent^to every part of the

!r of penal acts,

obAolotn. The

ir tho ri-gulation

Jof l)unkiiig coii-

|ill concerned the

makers of )>roin-

umld bo uhlo to

)ld.

ul niiiny years at
ia Company, was
isiiionN in China,
■rnment of India,
cesser.

but on the mect-
xpectations of the
1 great opposition,
■nooth college, for
lood. Other acts
,d previously been
niiiiicipul ofHces ;
; provided for the
Scotland and Ire-
bank charter of
unions in England

I dominions on the
ded by tho Sikhs.
Icclaration of war,
I which the British
a Sikhs who had
iitlej ; and early in
them, and pressed
igreed on, and one
if the Sikh army,
r was employed in
B on the right bank
! operations he was
ibber tribes, which
;rly broken. The
rtant than the phy-
de the power of the

lad been demanded,
le had been set on
> every part of tho

659

country, to enlighten the |i«of»le on this qnesiion. Hitherto, Sir
Robert Peel hiid been decidedly opposed to such a repeal, but
the utter failure of the potato crop, which had created great
diNtreM<4 throughout the tJiiite<l Kingdom, and rendered some
meaHtire neccMsary for its alleviiitioii, induced him to alter his
opinion. In the session of INtC*, a bill was brought in by the
premier and carried, which made a great and an immediate
reiluction of duties on corn, and provided for its free importation
at the end of throe years. Ccmnected with this measure was
another, by which customs' duties were wholly repealed, or con-
siderably reduced. These enlightened measures procured the
downfall of Sir Robert Peel as premier. At the same time
with tlicse, he brought in a protection life bill for Ireland, and
the agriculturists, olVended by his free trade movements, united
with the whigs, who were ailv( ise to coercion, and this bill was
rejected. Sir Robert Peel now resigned ; and to his cabinet
succeeded a whig ministry, Lord John Russell being created
premier. Sir Robert Peel carried to his retirement the sympathy
and admiration of the people.

The wisdom of these measures was seen in the autumn, in
the failure of the potato crop, which had promised to be abundant.
The visitation was felt by England, Ireland and Scotland. So
great was the distress, that parliament was convened for the
purpose of opening the ports for the admission of corn, free of
duty. Uy this measure, ships arrived from all parts of the world,
laden with corn, and the impending famine was averted. Yet
in Ireland, where, for ages, the people had depended upon the
potato crop for food, famine and its consequent disease had
swept away thousands of its inhabitants, 'llie year 1847 was
marked by grnat commercial distress in England, and numbers
hitherto living in affluence, were plunged into poverty. Various
causes gave rise to this distress; one of the most prominent
was the dangerous spirit of speculation, which had for some
time pervaded the whole community.

The principal measures of public policy which engaged the
attention of the British parliament, during the session of 1848,
were the navigation laws and the sugar colonies. A bill for
rendering Jews eligible to parliament, which was introduced,
was lost in the House of Lords by a majority of thirty-five.

The success of the French revolution of February, 1848, and
the outburst of popular feeling which ensued in almost every
part of Europe, gave a new stimulus to the friends of reform in
Great Britain and Ireland. In England, for about ten years,
there had exisied a political association, denominated Chartists,
whose object it was to secure universal sufTrage ; vote by ballot ;

't' fl

660

CHAPTER XIV.

annual parliamonln ; pay to ifM* iiiomhi-rH, nii>/l no properly tiiiaii*
fication to eligibility. For thi mirpone of mnkiiig n (lornoimtra-
tion of their strength, ami oi jiromotiniK tlu> ohJpctD of their
asHociation, the chartinta proifost d a gciii'ral incutini; in Loiulon,
on 'ho 10th of April, 'i'heir nunili«>r having liccn much exag-
gerated, the go/ernmcnt tortilied the public building!*, tMilarged
the civil force to an unpnx-cdcnti'd extent, and took every pre-
caution against the conHtruction of bnrricadi'H.

On the day appointed, about tun thouHand iiMsombled in Fitzruy
Square, marched quietly to Hlacklriar's liridgc, which they
were permitted to cross, and thence to Kensington Common,
their place of rendo/vuus for the day. The number of chartists
and spectators hero was not far from fiiVy thousand. They again
crossed the Thames, delivered their monster petition to parlia-
ment, and dispersed. The result of this affair aflbrded to the
friends of the Constitution and of order an evidence of their own
strength, and of the weakness of the chartists.

Of late the chartists have renewed their assemblages with
increased ardor, but they seem to create no alarm. On the Gth
of July last, six of their number were convicted of sedition, and
sentenced to two years imprisonment.

In Ireland, sympathy with the French in freeing their nation
from the shackles of monarchy, stimulated the friends of repeal
to renewed and greatly augmented efforts, and inspired in many
hearts the hope that the day of the desired separation from
Great Britain was at hand. Clubs were extensively formed,
and rebellion against the authority of government was openly
counselled and vindicated by their leaders.

In May last, John Mitchell, a prominent agitator, and editor
of the " United Irishman," was arrested and convicted on a
charge of treason. The types of his paper were seized by the
government, and Mitchell was sentenced to transportation for
fourteen years.

A new journal, entitled the " Irish Felon," was immediately
issued, the editor of which, Mr. Martin, was arrested on a charge
of treason, in July, and sent to Newgate. O'Brien, Meagher,
Dillon and Doherry, engaged most actively in organizing and
inspiring the clubs, preparing, meanwhile, for an active resistance.

Fearing that a crisis was at hand, the government adopted the
most vigorous measures. Viscount Hardinge was sent into
Ireland to take connnand of the troops. Every available soldier
was despatched from England to Ireland, and largo rewards
were offered for the arrest of the leaders of the insurgents.

On the 25th of July, parliament passed a bill. authorizing the
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to apprehend and detain until the

irty qiiaU*

omoniitra-
ul' their
Loiulon«

ucli exug-
(Milnrged

every pre-

ill Fitzroy
hich ihey
Common,
r chiirtista
rii(*y ugain
II to )>arlia-
iled to the
f their own

lages with
On the 6th
edition, and

their nation
U of repeal
red in many
iration from
oly formed,
was openly

r, and editor
victed on a
eized by the
portation for

immediately
i on a charge
n, Meagher,
^anizing and
re resistance,
t adopted the
as sent into
liable soldier
irgo rewards
iirgents.
ithorizing the
ain until the

FRANri.

661

lit of MaTfti, 1810, iiny pc-rson HUH|)ect6d of conspiracy against
her MitjoHty'ii xu^'riiinoiit. He accordingly proclaimed the
cities III' Diililin, Cork, Wntcrford, and the town of Drogheda, to
be uiiil«-r tlio act, iiiNtruitiiig the [mlico to search fur arms, and
to take into cuittody nil persons found to bo in the possession of
them without ii licuimu.

On the 2!Hh of July, the insurgents came in conflict with the
police of Miillingarry, in the county of Tippuriiry. They were
armed with muskets and pikes, and commanded by Smith
O'Urit'ii, but were ilispcrst-d after u short fight. Seven were
killed. O'lirinii, Meagher, and others, fled from the officers of
justice, but they, with the principal leaders, were subsequently
arrested.

At present, the agitiitors of Ireland seem to have yielded to
the formidable preparations and energetic forces of the govern-
ment, and that unhappy country is, for the time, in a slate of
tranquillity.

On the 5tli of September, the queen prorogued parliament in
person, by a speech from the throne, recapitulating the most
important tivents of the session, and immediately after, took her
departure lor Scotland.

The French Revolution of February^ 1848.

The revolution accomplished in Paris, on the 24th of Febru-
ary, 1848, is without a parallel in history. At once the most
bloodless and the most complete of modem times, it was the
spontaneous, unpremeditated act of the unarmed people of Paris.
No long-matured and widely-ramified conspiracy preceded the
outbreak, as in 1830. The whole work was accompUshed by
the people in the brief space of three days.

A general feeling of discontent with the measures and policy
of the government, suggested the holding of political reform ban-
quets throughout France. No fewer than sixty-two of these
were held in different towns, and attended by th« leading oppo-
sitionists.

The omission of the King's health from the list of toasts, on
almost all these occasions, was a circumstance that gave pecu-
liar poignancy to the irritation with which such displays were
regarded by the government. It having been announced that
reform banquets were to be held throughout France on the 22d

i
ii

662

CHAPTER XIV.

of February, the birth-day of Washington, the administration
determined to put down that which was to take place in Paris.
Military preparations were made on an extensive scale ; guns
were mounted on the fortresses around the city ; large stores of
ammunition were provided, and nothing seemed wanting to enable
the government to crush any attempt at insurrection. On the
evening preceding the '22d, proclamations were posted about the
streets by the police, announcing that no banquet or procession
would be permitted, and cautioning the public against tumultuous
assemblages in the streets.

In the Chamber of Deputies, an intimation to the same effect
was received during the early part of the sitting, and at once
put an end to the discussion of all other business. Some differ-
ence of opinion arose among the members of the banquet com-
mittee and the deputies of the opposition, whether the procla-
mation of the government should be obeyed. A minority were
inclined to form the procession at all hazards ; but it was finally
agreed that the meeting should be given up; that the public
should be urged to maintain a peaceable attitude, and that the
late discussion of the question in the chambers should be
renewed in a form that would lead either to a dissolution, and so
bring it before the electors, or to a change of cabinet. Articles
of impeachment were therefore to be moved against the ministry
by Mr. Odillon Barrot.

In the morning a formal announcement that the banquet was
deferred appeared in all the opposition papers, and the orders to
the troops of the line to occupy the ground, and all the avenues
leading to the place of meeting, were countermanded. Picquets
only were stationed in places where crowds might be expected
to assemble, sufficient, it was presumed, to disperse the mob ;
but no serious disturbance was anticipated, either by the minis-
try or its opponents.

The proclamations, however, of the prefect of the police, and
the announcement of the opposition journals, came too late. At
an early hour, the Place de la Madeline, the Place de la Con-
corde, and the Champ Elysees, were thronged by the working
classes. At noon, the multitude around the Church of the Made-
line, whence the banquet procession was to have set out, became
formidable in numbers, though manifesting no symptoms of dis-
order, and at one time could not have numbered less than thirty
thousand persons. The regiment, which had arrived, was
drawn up in line along the railing of the church. Soon after,
several squadrons of the municipal cavalry arrived, and the popu-
lace were desired to disperse. This order being disregarded,
the charge was sounded, and the dragoons rushed on the people.

"fl

FRANCE.

663

iinistration
e in Paris,
cale ; guns
e stores of
g to enable
On the
d about the
procession
tumultuous

lame effect

nd at once

>onie difier-

nquet com-

the procla-

nority were

was finally

the public

ind that the

should be

lion, and so

t. Articles

the ministry

banquet was
he orders to
he avenues
I. Picquets
be expected
>e the mob ;
r the minis-
police, and
K> late. At
de la Con-
[he working
)!' the Made-
out, became
toms of dis-
i than thirty
rrived, was
Soon after,
nd the popu-
ilisregarded,
1 the people.

At first an effort was made to disperse the crowd by the mere
force of the horses, without the use of arms, and the dragoons
did not draw. This, however, proving ineffectual, several
charges with drawn swords were made, the flat of the sword
only being used. By these means, the mu'.atude was at length
dispersed without any loss of life, or other serious casualties.
At one o'clock the main thoroughfares were clear. During the
remainder of the day, the principal streets were patrolled by
cavalry of the municipal guard, the infantry of the line keeping
clear the footways.

At the Chamber of Deputies, three impeachments against the
cabinet were handed to the president, who, without reading
them, ordered that they should be taken into consideration on
Thursday. One of the impeachments was presented on the
part of M. Odillon Barrot, and signed by fifty-three deputies ;
another on the part of M. Duvergier d' Hauranne ; the third on
the part of M. de Genoude, deputy for Toulouse.

In the evening, the disturbances were renewed, and now
began to wear a threatening aspect. Gunsmiths' shops were
broken open ; barricades were formed in the neighborhood of
the principal markets ; lamps were extinguished ; posts of the
municipal guards were attacked ; the streets were filled with
troops ; and at night, anxiety for the result of the sanguinary
contest on the morrow, which had become inevitable, spread
throughout Paris.

At an early hour on Wednesday, February 23d, crowds began
to assemble and to busy themselves in the formation of new bar-
ricades. These were attacked and partially destroyed as fast
as formed, by the municipal guard, or the troops. The morning
passed in skirmishes, in which some were killed, and success
was generally on the side of the authorities ; the people, how-
ever, when dispersed in one place, assembled instantly in
another, and rapidly increased in numbers. Considerable bodies
of the National Guards appeared in the streets, but although at
first wavering as to the course they would follow, it soon became
evident that they would yield to the contagion of popular enthu-
siasm, and act with, rather than against, the movement.

About one o'clock, a portion of the National Guards having
declared for reform, their officers held a council, and agreed to
depute their Colonel to the King, to acquaint his Majesty with
their wishes. Their requests being signified to Louis Phillippe
at the Tuileries, through General Jacqueminot, they were at
once acceded to. Reform and the dismissal of the Guizot
cabinet were promised, and Count Mol6 was entrusted with the
charge of forming a new ministry. The news of this change

,t '

664

CHAPTER XIV.

was immediately carried to the Chamber of Deputies by M.
Guizot himself, which soon after rose in great agitation.

The dismissal of the ministry produced a momentary calna.
But the streets continued to be crowded with rioters, who, as e ven-
ine drew on, compelled the inhabitants to illuminate, and when-
ever they found themselves in sufficient force, attacked the piquets
of the municipal guard, and often succeeded in disarming them.
Between ten and eleven, the somewhat subdued excitement
of the populace was changed into rage. A crowd passing the
Hotel of Foreign Affairs, which, as the residence of M. Ouizot,
had been repeatedly threatened, and was now occupied by the
14th regiment of the line, was suddenly fired upon by the troops
with fatal effect. Many fell, some dead, others desperately
wounded. The people fled in consternation, but fear soon gave
way to indignation, and thirst for vengeance. The cry then
burst forth from every lip—" To arms ! Down with the assas-
sins ! Down with Louis Phillippe ! Down with all his race !
Barricades, barricades !" and these cries were speedily rc-echood
through all the streets of Paris.

The attempt to establish a MoW administration having failed,
the King sent, late at night, for M. Thiers to the Palace of the
Tuileries, and asked him to form a ministry. M. Thiers under-
took to do so, provided he might be permitted to join with him,
as one of his colleagues, M. Odillon Barrot. To this the King
acceded. Marshal Bugaud was, during the night, apjwinted
Commander-in-Chief of the National Guard, but finding he was
not to have a carte blanche, he resigne. almost as soon as ap-
pointed, and the appointment was given to General I,amorici«re.
During the night the egress of the mails had been stopped, and
the railways around Paris had been damaged or destroyed at
every point at which troops were expected to arrive.

Early in the morning of Thursday, Feb. 24th, a placard was
posted about the streets to the effect that, at 3 o'clock, A. M., M.
Thiers and Odillon Barrot had been appointed ministers. Subse-
quently, the following proclamation was posted at the Bourse :
" Orders have been given to cease firing every where.
" We have just been charged by the King to form a new

™'" The Chamber will be dissolved, and an appeal made to the

*^ ""oeneral Lamorici6re has been appointed commandant of
the National Guards. " Thiers,

" Odillon Barrot,

' " DUVEROIER Dk HaWBANNE,

•• Lamorigieke."

nitics by M.
ition.

lentary calm,
who, as oven-
e, and when-
3(1 the piquets
arming them,
d excitcnicn't
1 passing the
>r M. Guizot,
;upied by the
by the troops
desperately
ear soon gave
rhe cry then
ith the assas-
atl his race !
dily rc-echood

having failed,
Palace of the
Thiers under-
join with him,
» this the King
ght, appointed
finding he was
IS soon as ap-
il Lamoriciire.
n stopped, and
>r destroyed at
ive.

, a placard was
lock, A. M., M.
listers. Subse-
t the Bourse :
where,
to form a new

';,'■

FRANCE.

665

The orders issued to the troops were, it appears, not only to
cease firiri", but to retire to their quarters. Accordingly, about
11 o'clock, the trumpets sounded a retreat, and most ot the
important positions which, up to that hour, had been occupied
by the infantry, cavalry, and arlilleiy, were abandoned to the
people anil the National Guard.

Marshal Bugeaud protested against the orders given, and
resigned. Whole regiments marched to their barracks, and
allowed themselves to be quietly disarmed by the mob. 1 here
was now no want of arms among the insurgents, and the number
of working men and others engaged in eflorls to expel the royal
family, exclusive of the National Guards, was swelled to an
estimated force of twenty thousand men.

Between eleven and twelve o'clock, this army directed Us
course to the Palais Royal and the Tuileries. At the Palais
Royal, some severe fighting look place between the people and
a company of the Hih regiment of the line m charge of the
state apartments, who refused to surrender their arms, and main-
tained a contest of nearly two hours before they were finally
overcome. The noise of the firing was heard in the 1 uileries,
and combined with the unfavorable reports reaching the court
from every part of the city, produced a panic among the inmates
of the chateau, and all there assembled. In the court yard of
the Tuileries were 3,000 infantry with six pieces of cannon
and two squadrons of dragoons. These might have swept the
space before them (the Place du Carrousel,) clear of combatants
but it would have been of little avail, for they were surrounded
by an armed populace and six legions of the National Guard,
demanding the abdication of the king, and ready to c bse in
upon them, if rendered desperate by their position. It was
represented to Louis Phillippe, that abdication would alone
secure the interests of his family, and that his disposal of the
crown in favor of his grandscm, the young Comte de Pans, with
the appointment of his mother, the Duchess of Orleans, as
Regent, would satisfy all parties— few voices having, as yet,
been openly raised for a republic. In the ourse of this day,
the king signed an act of abdication, presented to him by hmile
de Girardin, but before this fact could be known in Pans, he
troops of the line were summoned to quit the court-yard ot the
Tuileries. Not knowing whom to obey, the commander-in-
chief having resigned, and the government having been dissolved,
they agreetl to yield their post. The Chateau was to be pro-
tected by the National Guards, but the armed populace rushed
by them and entered in triumph. Bonfires were made of the
royal carriages and furniture, at the Palais Royal and imlenes.

Li <

(

666

CHAPTER XIV.

The throne of the slate reception room wus carried in triumph
through the streets, and finally burned in the I'lace de la Bas-
tille. The plunder and destruction of property was chiefly con-
fined to the insignia of royally, and speedily checked. Sentinels
were placed at the entrance of the Tuileries by the leaders ot
the people, and no person allowed to leave the Chateau, with-
out a vigorous search.

xMeanwhile, the ex-King and Queen had passed out at a
private door into the gardens, and demanded an escort ol the
National Guards through the crowd beyond. A troop ot
National Guards on horseback, and about thirty persons in
difTerent uniforms attended them, to ensure their safety. 1 he
Queen walked with a firm step, casting around looks of mingled
assurance and anger. She was dressed in full mourning : the
King wore a black coat, with a common round hat. Arriving
at the Place de la Concorde, they drove oft' to St. Cloud with so
much rapidity that the coach appeared carried rather thau
driven away. They pursued their way to Versailles, and
thence to Dreux, where they passed the night with a friend, who
procured disguises for the royal fugitives. That of the king
was a green blouse, with a sailor's frock coat over it, a red and
while comforter and a casquette, or peasant's cap. I he queen
concealed her former dress by a woollen cloak of black and
white plaid. From Ureux they proceeded to Honfleur, where
they remained concealed for some days, the boisterous weather
not allowin.r their embarkation until Thursday of the next week,
when they were conveyed in a French fishing boat to Havre,
thence sailing for England, and arriving at New Haven that

^'^ About half past one of the day on which the Royal pair left
Paris, it was rumored in the Chamber of Deputies that the
Duchess of Orleans, and the two young princes, her sons, were
about to arrive. Shortly after, the Duchess and her sons entered,
followed by the Due de Nemours and the Due de Montpensier.
The Comte de Paris, led by one of the Deputies, entered first,
his way being made with difficulty through the crowd of officers
and soldiers of the National Guard. His presence and that ot
the rest of the royal party, created a great sensation. A moment
afterwards, the Duchess of Orleans seated herself in an arm-
chair, with her sons on either side of her. Immediately every
vacant place was filed with such of the populace as had suc-
ceeded in crowding themselves in with the National Guard, a
number of men forcing their way under tl\e tribune. 1 he
Duchess then arose and retired with the young princes, to one
of the upper benches of the Centre, and opposite to the f resi-

li^^

-_* ...A*.—-—— '

FRANCE.

667

in triumph
c (le la Bas-
chiofly con-
Sentincls
10 leaders of
lateau, with-

9C(1 out at a

escort of the

A troop of

persons in

safety. The

ws of mingled

ourning : the

lat. Arriving

Jloud with so

rather than

ersailles, and

a friend, who

t of the king

it, a red and

. The queen

of black and

inflcur, where

erous weather

he next week,

oat to Havre,

V Haven that

loyal pair left
jties that the
ler sons, were
: sons entered,

Montpensier.

entered first,
iwd of officers
;e and that of
[\. A moment
If in an arm-
ediately every
e as had sue-
onal Guard, a
ribune. The
irinces, to one
J to the Presi-

dent's bureau. 1'he Due do Nemours and the Due de Mont-
pensier placed thetnselvtifi in the lust line of seats, directly
behind the princess and her sons. The greatest agitation
prevailed.

M. Dupin then ascended the tribune, and, amid deep silence,
said, that in the present situation uf the capitol, it had been
found necessary to re-assemble the Chamber without loss of
time. The King had abdicated the crown in favur of his grand-
son, and devolved the regency on the Duchess of Orleans.
This announcement was greeted with applause from all the
benches of the centre, and from some of the public tribunes.
Disapprobation was expressed on the benches of the left, and
one voice was heard, exclaiming, " It is too late." The scene
of confusion that ensued, it is impossible to describe. A num-
ber of deputies and the National Guards hastened to surround
the royal family.

M. Marie then ascended the tribune, and after silence was
restored, reminding the Chambers that a law existed giving the
regency to the Due do Nemours, and which could not be abro-
gated by an act of the King in favor of another, demanded the
nomination of a provisional government. M. Cremieux and the
Abb6 de Genoude, supported the proposition. Odilion Rarrot
then declared himself in favor of the regency of the Duchess of
Orleans, a ministry of tried liberal opinions, and an appeal to
the country. The Duchess then arose and addressed some
words to the Chamber, but was advised by those about her to be
seated. Odilion Barrot resumed his discourse, appealing to all
parties to defend the crown of July, now committed to the
custody of a chiM and a woman, as the only means of averting
a civil war. A majority of the deputies signified their assent,
but their tokens of approbation were drowned in murmurs from
the galleries, and cries of " Vive la Hepublique." M. Cheval-
lier, editor of the " Bibliotheque Historie," ascended the tribune,
amidst cries of " you are not a deputy," " you have no right to
be there." He cautioned the Chamber against proclaiming the
Comte de Paris, without the consent of the people, into whose
hands the real sovereignty had again fallen. The Marquis de
Larochejaquclin rose to speak, but hac' only uttered a few words
when a crowd rushed into the Chamber, some armed with
swords, lances, muskets, spears, and tri-colored flags; others
unarmed, in blouses, with dragoons' helmets on their heads, or
with cross belts and infantry caps. These persons it once
seized on such deputies' seats as were unoccupied, several
ascending the tribune and stationing themselves there.

A number of the deputies, appearing to consider their position

668

CIIAITER XIV.

'■'.

perilous, bcgnn to withdraw, and as they abandoned their
places, the crowd took thoni. The tumult was tremendous, and
many deputies looked with anxiety towards the Duchess of
Orleans and her children, but she sat calm amidst the uproar.
After M. Ledru Kollin and M. Lamartine had succeeded in
making themselves hoard for a few moments, a violent and
imperative knocking arose at the door of one of the tribunes. It
being opened, a crowd of armed men rushed in. Several of
them forced their way to the front seats, and pointed their
muskets at the deputies below. Some of these weapons were
turned in the direction of the royal party.

Immediately the persons near the Duchess of Orleans seemed
to address her energetically, and at once, with her sons and the
two princes, she quitted the Chamber by a door on the extreme
left. M. Sauzet left the chair, and a great number of deputies^
rose from their places. The greatest disorder was visible.
Shortly after, silence being somewhat restored, M. Ledru Rollin
said, "According ns I read out the names, you will say * Yes,'
or 'No,' just as they please you ; and in order to act officially,
1 call on the reporters of the public press to take down the
names and the manner in which they are received, that France
may know what has been done here." The honorable deputy
then read the names of M. M. Dupont (de I' Eure) Arago, De
Lamartine, Ledru Hollin, Gamier Pages, Marie and Cr^niieux,
all of which were received with acclamations.

Cries of " To the Hotel de Ville," here arose, followed by a
cry of " No civil list," and another of " No King !" Some one
having directed the attention of the crowd to the picture of liouis
Phillippe swearing obedienco to the charter, cries of " Tear it
down !" arose. A workman, with a double-barrelled fowling
piece, who was standing in the same circle, cried out, " Just
wait until I have a shot at Louis Phillippe!" and at the same
moment both barrels were discharged. Great confusion ensued,
amidst which, two men jumped on the chairs behind the Presi*
dent's seat, and prepared to cut the picture to pieces with their
sabres. Another workman ran up the steps of the tribune and
exclaimed, " Respect public monuments ! respect property ! why
destroy the pictures with balls ? We have shown that the peo-
ple will not allow itself to be ill-govemed : let us now show
that it knows how to conduct itself after victory." (Great
applause.)

The next instant, M. Dupont (de I' Eure) was placed in the
chair. M. de Lamartine and Ledru Rollip attempted to obtain
a hearing, but were unsuccessful. Several of the guards and
some of the people made a similar vain eflbrt. A cry then

andoned their

mcndous, and

Duchess of

8t the uproar.

succeeded in

a violent and

le tribunes. It

n. Several of

pointed their

weapons were

Orleans seemed

er sons and the

on the extreme

ber of deputies^

or was visible.

^f . Ledru Rollin

will say ' Yes,'

to act officially,

take down the

ved, that France

honorable deputy

5ure) Arago, De

e and Cr6inieux,

ie, followed by a
ig !" Some one
I picture of Jiouis
:ries of " Tear it
)arrelled fowling
cried out, " Just
and at the same
:onfusion ensued,
lehind the Presi-
pieces with their
f the tribune and
ict property! why
>wn that the peo-
et us now show
victory." (Great

as placed in the
tempted to obtain
f the guards and
>rt. A cry then

rnANcB.

609

arose in one of the tribunes, " Let I^amurtine speak ;" and
" Larnartine" resounded from all quarters.

M. dc Lamarline. " .\ provisional government is about to be
proclaimed." (Cries of Vive Lamartino I " Nsimcs, nnmcs !")

The noise not ceasing, the names were written on a slip of

faper, and carried round the chamber on the lop of a musket,
n the midst of shouts Ledru HoUin road the names. Nearly all
the deputies had, by this time, departed, and the N'atiomil (luards
and the people had the chamber to themselves. .VI. Rollin
continued, " We are obliged to close the sitting in order to pro-
ceed to the seat of governnKMil."

(From all sides shouts, "To the Hotel de VjIIo!" " Vive la
R6publique !") The crowd then dispersed at four o'clock.

Another terrible scene now took place at the Hotel de Ville,
where, on adjourning from the chamber, the members of the
provisional government sat to decide upon the course to be
adopted. Suddenly the doors of the Salle de Conseil were
violently shaken, and the people loudly demanded the commu-
nication of the first act of the government. The great majority
of the members wore opposed to the establishment of an unmiti-
gated democracy, but the populace were resolved that a purely
democratic Republic should be formed, and that every male
above a certain age should be eligible to the National Guard,
and empowered to carry arms. Every attempt to oppose this
was the signal of renewed shouts. In vain it was attempted to
adjourn the question till minds should become calm. The popu-
lar will prevailed, and resolutions were passed in accordance
with it.

The provisional government at once issued the following
proclamation :

" TO THE FRENCH PEOPLE.

" A retrograde and oligarchic government has been overturned
by the heroism of the people of Paris. This government has
fled, leaving behind it traces of blood which will forever forbid
its return. The blood of the people has flowed as in July, but
happily, it will not have been in vain. It has secured a national
and popular government, in accordance with the rights, the pro-
gress, and the will of this great and generous people. A Provi-
sional Government, chosen by the acclamation and at the call
of the people, and some of the Deputies of the departments in
the sitting of the 24th of February, is for the moment invested
with the care of organizing and securing the national victory. It
is composed of MM. Dupont (de I'Eure,) Larnartine, Cr^mieux,
Arago (de I'lnstitut,) Ledru Rollin, and Gamier Pages. The

CHAPTER XIV.

.crrcarirs to tl.U fiovcrnmnU are MM. ^™d ^arra«^ e.litor

of the ' National ;' \.o\m iUnnc, iMTdinaml Hocoii, tclitor ol ino

/i L.nr • and AlLert. Th.-nr ctti/.cns have not hrH.latr.l for an

i /s r o a"l ho patriotic mission whic-h ha« been .mpoHed

J Wv th.: urLMM cv of the ocea«io.i. When iho rapitai ol

Fni i-n^nJer n^ .Kt^.m of the i-ron«ional t;overnment Jj

hTo ,m c saf.tv. All Franco will understand this, and w.ll

t:^:1^^of its patriotism. , Under ^^^V^l^^'

men* now nrorluimed l)V the Hrovisional C.overnmont, . very

"^enir a' magistrate.' Frenchtnen. «-e U, the wodd^ t^^^^^

^Ls which vrare abont to be called upon to R.ve y.o«"elve»^
S- Provisional C;ov..rn.nont desires a Hepnbhc, H'-bject to the

r/Z nent dVsiro\o"ufsth their opinion for tho opin.on-

^'ItrScns at large, upon '»'•;''{:''" tl'r '^'rSrS^
which the national Hovercignty ^Imll proclaim^ 1 Uc """[ »'
The nation, formed henceforth of all ^l"-- "'.V^^^^/'^^X

and pass-word to be ' 1 tie J « opie , ^u „hirh our

Boveniment which France owes to herself, and which our
E will assure to her. St.ch are the first acts of the Pro-
vi8i.mal Government. Lamartine, Ledru Rollin,

bI'XmIJSJ^^^I Arai. Bcthmont. Marie. Canto,

"^"X^S^S oSS is disbanded. The protection c^
cityofrurins Confided to the National Guard, under the orders
of M. Courtais."

This proclamation was Allowed by another appointing a Pro-

ernor of Algeria. To these decrees succeeded .

"The Municipal Guard is dissolved. M. Gamier Pages is

VI arrant, editor

I, t'ditor of the

ir(«ilatP(l for nn

been iinpo«e(l

the capital of

(iovornment is

this, and will

()opiilar govern-

eriiment, every

the world the

lare yourselves,

n Htrong institu-

nivo yourselves.

c, subject to the

ho inimedialcly

the Provisional

for tho opinions

> of Kovcrninenl

Tlic unity of

he people which

y itself; liberty,

national device

i the democratic

and which our

nets of the Pro-

5, Ledru RoUin,
It, Marie, Camot,

protection of the
under the orders

appointing a Pro-
le I'Eure,) Presi-
inariinc, Minister
uslice ; M. Ledru
ioudechaux, Min-
ster of Marine;
Vlinisterof Public
ter of Commerce ;
('avaignac, Gov-
1:

Qarnier Pag^s is

TRANCK.

671

named Mayor of Paris, and to him are given as mljoints, MM.
Guinard and Keeiirt, M. I'liilard is niiined Sccntary-uoni'ial.
All the other Mayors of Paris are provisionally maintained.
The Pr^leciuro of Police is under the drpciidi'iice of the Mayor
of Paris. In tho name of France, the Provisional (ioverninent
decides that the Chamber of iJeputios is dissolved, 'I'ho
ex-Chamber of Peers is forbidden to meet. A Nalional .\ssem-
bly will be convoked as soon as the Provisional (iovertimeiit
shall have regulated the necessary measures of order and
police."

Further appointnionis followed in rapid succession. General
Siibervie was substituted for (Joneral Hedean, as Minister of
War ; Cieneral lledeau taking command of the first military
division ; Admiral llaiidin was appointed ('ominander of the
Fleet; the Police department was entrusted to the citizens
Caussidiere and Sobrier ; and M. Arago was appointed to the
Direction-General of the Post-oHico. A notice also advised the
bukers, or furnishers of provisions of Paris, to keep their shops
open to all those who might have occasion fur them. The
people were expressly recommeiuled not to quit their arms,
their positions, or their revolutionary attitude. It was further
announced that the liberation of all who had been imprisoned
on political grounds had been effected ; but, at the same time,
all who had been convicted of crimes against persons and prop-
erty were detained.

The revolution was now consummated ; royalty had vanished
like a dissolving view, and its place was already filled by a now
and totally diflerent spectacle.

The day after tho battle was one of strange, tumultuous ex-
citement, but passed without any infraction of the peace. The
streets were crowded, during the whole of Friday, with men
and women, and wore the appearance of a festival.

The people had not dismissed from their minds all apprehen-
sion of an attempt to rally on the |iart of those favoring the claims
of the DuchesB of Orleans and her son, and maintained a jeal-
ous attitude towards the soldiers of the line, who were still in
arms. Yet they displayed the moat frank and generous forgive-
ness towards their vaiupiishcd foes. Disarmed Municipal Guards
and soldiers of the regiment, who had fired on the people, were
seen walking about the streets, and no one insulted or molested
them.

Among the scenes of the late conflict, none attracted more
painful curiosity than the space before the Hotel of the Minister
of Foreign Aflfairs, where the fatal volley had been tired on the

072

OIUPTKR XIV.

niifht III the '^3il. Pools of l)loud, fil'ty pacnn long, HtitKnatod
horribly on tin* unpliultu |mvuiiiont.

The lioiili-vunlit preitoiitfil u terrible proof of that reckless-
iii'S8 of iii'Htructioii coiiiinoii to ull kinds of battle. The trees,
which wiTu tlu) ortiiiiiiciit of tliu splendid stroots, were all cut
down. Till V W(>rt' Nttvered about three feet from the ground, and
formed ii line of posiH, neither useful nor ornamental. The mu-
tilated Htuiii|ii4 rumiiinud Btandin)( for some days, when they were
rcuujveii by u liirjjo body of laburors.

All tlif tlt'tacUitil {Hists around i'uris surrendered this day with-
out rosiiit incu. A lari^u body of the National Guardt, and of
the crowd, had marched against the fort of Vinconnes, but their
presence proved unnecessary, for the soldiers of the line had
tacitly joined the revolt.

liy l-'riday evening, order was to a great extent restored ; one
proof wiLi the rc-opuning of the Bunk of France, which was
chiefly due to the admirable conduct of l\u> National Guard, and
the intrepidity, energy and good sense of the Provisional Gov-
ernment. To M. Lamarlinu especially belongs the renown of
having, that day, saved his country from the most bloody an-
orchy.

Among the earliest resolutions adopted by the Provisional
Government, were the abolition of capital punishment for politi-
cal od'ences, and the re-adoption of the tri-colorod flag. lioth
these measures were proposed by M. Lamartine, and owed their
success to his extraordinary eloquence and courage. Five
times on Friday, he addressed the [teople, still tierce with ex-
citement, assembled under the windows of the Hotel de Ville.

On Saturday, the restoration of order was complete. The
public departments resumed their duties, and among them the
department of Finance. It was (mly on the previous Monday
tliat the notice to pay the city taxes had been issued. The
whole of the coming year's taxes, derived from per-centage on
rents of the apartments and shop keepers' licences, would thus
fall into the hands of the new Ciovernmenl— an enormous fund
with which to begin. The million a month had already been
confiscated, or, us the ordonnance has it, "restored to the people,"
a handsome addition to the fund applicable to the relief of dis-
tress.

The streets being partially cleared of the barricades, under
the scientific direction of the students of the "Ecole Polytech-
nique," in such a way as not to compromise the security against
a surprise afforded by these popular fortiftcations, the country
people were enabled to bring in their provisions, of which there
wa9 an abundant supply. The vast number of cabmen and

ihat recklew
lo. The treea,
In, were ull cul
ihc ground, nixA
iiittl. The mu-
wheii they were

. this day with-

Guardb and of

lennes, but ihoir

f iho line had

restored ; one

, which was

„ial Guard, and

rovisional Gov-

tho renown of

most bloody an-

r the Provisional
ishmvnt for politi-
lorcd flag. Both
ue, and owed their
J courage. Five
ill fierce with ox-
Hotel de Ville.
M complete. The
1 among them the
previous Monday
een issued. The
>m per-centage on
;e»ces, would thus
-an enormous fund
I had already been
lorod to the people,"
to the relief of dis-

te barricades, under
B "Ecole Polytech-
ihe security against
cations, the country
ions, of which there
iber of cabmen and

Ijil

FRANCE.

673

coachmen were thus allowed to resume their occupation. The
law-courts again connnnnced their sittings ; the shops were
opened, and every thing was done to calm apprehension.

On this day, Lamartine declared the Republic. He presented
himself, with the other members of the Government, on the
steps of the Hotel de Ville, and thus addressed the multitude :
■' Citizens ! The Provisional Government of the Republic
has called upon the people to witness its gratitude for the mag-
nificent national co-operation, which has just accepted these
new institutions. .

" The Provisional Government of the Republic has only joy-
ful intelligence to announce to the people here assembled.
Royalty is abolished. The Republic is proclaimed. The peo-
ple' will exercise their political rights. National workshops
are open for those who are without work.

" The army is being re-organized. The Nation'/i Guard in-
dissolubly unites itself with the people, so as to promptly re-
store order with the same hand that had only the preceding mo-
ment conquered our liberty.

" Finally, gentlemen, the Provisional Government is anxious
to be itself the bearer to you of th^ last decree it has resolved on
and signed in this memorable sitting ; that is, the abolition of the
penalty of death for political matters. This is the noblest decree,
irentlemen, that has ever issued from the mouths of a people,
the day after their victory, ii is the character of the French
nation, which escapes in one spontaneous cry from the soul of
Government. We have brought it with us, and I will now read
it to you. There is not a more becoming homage to a people,
than the spectacle of its own magnanimity."
He then read the following noble proclamation:
" The Provisional Government, convinced that greatness of
Boul is the highest degree of policy, and that each resolution,
effected by the French people, owes to the world the consecra-
tion of an additional philosophical truth ; considering that there
is no more sublime principle than the inviolability of huniaa life ;
considering that in the memorable days in which we live, the
Provisional Government has remarked, with pride, that not a
single cry for vengeance or for death has dropped from the
mouths of the people, declares— That, in its opinion, the pun-
ishment of death for political offences is abolished, and that it
will present that wish to the definitive ratification of the National
Assembly. The Provisional Goyemment has sc^ firm a con-
viction of the truth, that it proclaims, in the name of the French
people, that, if the guilty men who have just ca«sed the blood
of France to be spilt, were ia tbe hands «rf the people, it would,

4»

11-^

*'■

674

CHAITER XIV.

.„.Wropinion,bea.o.e exemplary Chastisement to ae,r^^^

cal offences tended, "^7,^^=^" Siv „f the entire nation, m
to produce the unparalleled unammuy .^ ^,j^ j.

accepting the new men. as the "«^«««;'X ,, ,,eU as all the

die classes in Pans ''"d^" J?" Ctatio-^to t^e Government
press, yielded >-?^°«\rrrtof the army, and the Archbishop
Slarshal B^^^'^'rof Kergy gave in their adhesion to the
of Paris, on the part of the ciergy, b

new Republic. . ^^e barricades had all been

Sunday was a high festival, in ^,^,„^k, the

removedfand the streets we e thronged.^ ^^^ ^ody of National
Provisional Governmen '«"«75 '" „„ ^^.^ steps of which,
Guards, before the Column of July, on .^^^ \^^ ^ „
the celebrated astronomer, ^J^go, P Comtais, with his

amidst the >vildest enthus^^m General ^^^^^^ ^^^^^
,,hite her. "-covered, harangued every grj ^^^^^^^^^
I Bouleva.a. the Foreign Office, re<.om . i,iu„,inated.

quillity. • " ' «ning, the «^P'^-^^ j^, ,^^ t^-color transpa-
Venetian! ,, ' ' «l/«P°«^«.f ^^'" ^Boulevards were exceed-
rent, were --"«^"^*y ,T wTndows and under .he lamps, were
ingly gay. People at all t^e -"f"^^^^^^^^ „„ every body to

devouring the journals. HawRers ^^^^^^ ^^ j „„.

purchase little tri-colored cockades tU^^^ ^

guish it from the red, ,^^»*^» 'f/ ' °"' ^inst private persons and
was the capital freer from "V '*8«« l^gj'^^ ^ i^^j^n, b„t it

properly, than during the wild turn^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^,

must not be ^nPP^i'^^'^^trn Paris who thought they saw m
weredesperate male ac^rsm Pans ^.^.^^ ^^^^ ,apine, but

struction of Property. The ex King ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^re

was burned on S=;turday; but most o ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^

carefully removed, and sent to the pumic - j j^^^^ ^aved,

of conflagration began. Among th^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ K^ ^,^^y
were two volumes of 'l^^ "^"^^ ^'^^^ of the Con-

terminating at t^ F""J r^Stc ?n presence of the armies of the
Bulatc proclaimed the R"?"'^ "= '"^J y^^nds of the new Govern-
enemy' There '^l-P-;:J;7,he ex-King, among which was
ment, various pnvate P-^P*-" °' '" < ^^,J^^ Men I am sure of.

lent to degrade

ileath for politi-
le Government,
ntire nation, in
ime. The mid-
well as all '.He
the Government,
the Archbishop
r adhesion to the

ides had all been
two o'clock, the
Ijody of National

steps of which,
id the Republic,
omtais, with his

he met, along the
ng order and tran-
iantly illuminated.
[ tri-color transpa-
rds were cxceed-
er the lamps, were
g on every body to
lal color, to distin-
lad adopted. Never
rivatc persons and
B Revolution, but it
committed. There
lought they saw in
ties for rapine, but
id punished by the

is much wanton de-
jI chateau at Neuilly
luable contents were
,ury, before the work
cresting items saved,
s of Louis Phillippe,
ssioners of the Con-
> of the armies of the
of the new Govern-
jr, among which was
"Men 1 am sure of."
child was burned on

FllAXfE.

675

Sunday, under the imprcsNion that it belonged to the King.
The greatest destruction was that committed on the Northern
Railway, the damage done to which amounted to no less than
jC400,000. Repairs were quickly made, sutFicient to render the
line practicable to a certain extent ; hut the effect of the mis-
chief was not confined to the heavy loss of capital ; three fourths
of the traffic of the line were annihilated. ^

^ 'I'he Revolution of February, 1848, in Paris, is, in some
respects, a continuation of the Revolution of July, 1830, while
in other points, it is entirely new. The old principle combined
with the new to overturn the throne of Louis I'hillippe, and to
proclaim the republic, but as soon as the monarchy was abolished,
the old and new principles commenced a war againsl each
other. The old principle included the right of self-government,
and civil and religious liberty, and merely attempted what the
American people have realized under a republic. Louis Phil-
lippc invaded this principle, and fell. The new principle, which
aided in his overthrow, went much further, insisting not merely
U|>on civil and religious liberty, and upon a share in government,
through the suffrage, for the adult male population, but upon the
establishment of new social relations between wealth and labor.
It was in fact Socialism, or Communism ; and affirmed that the
State collectively can and must supply food and labor for the
whole population. The one principle was purely political and
philosophical ; the other was social and unpliilosophical. Both
were active in France during the reign of ].iOuis Fhillippe ; both
desired a change ; the one, that France might become a great
republic like the United States — the other, that France might
work the mighty problem of Communism, and show to the world,
by a new distribution of wealth, and by the destruction of
individualism, that every man might have more than enough for his
wants, and poverty and crime be altogether banished from society.
The first acts and proclamations of the Provisional Govern-
ment were looked to with great interest throughout Europe. It
was announced that the constituent National Assembly was con-
voked for the 20th of April, a dale afterwards postponed to the
4th of May. It was decreed that the electoral colleges should
meet on the 9th of April, and that every Frenchman, without
respect to property, being of the age of twenty-one years, should
have a vote, under the protection of the ballot — the Assembly,
80 elected, to consist of 900 members, or one member to every
40,000 of population, each member to be twenty-five years of
age, or upwards. The principle of the payment of members
was affirmed, and the indemnity for each was fixed at 25 francs
a day during the session.

676

CHAPTER XIV-

„f i>ifi revolution was the first
The interment of the v^'^'uns of .he e « ^ ^,,^,„,,i,,, .„

great ceremony of the J^'a.cS er of the people, U was
fts general aspect as suited tlu-c^^ ^^^^.,^i returns gave

nevertheless grand and ^f.^'X fiihting, but it was believed
150 killed, and 500 ^"""f.f";;^ larger- All the members of
that the number was '•«^'»"y T" eeremony of interment, excep
Ihe mimstry -"^.P^frbsence was accounted for on the ground

M Lamartine. whose absence w

of excessive fatigue. revolution, the people were

For the first few ^^««^« ^^^^'i^ed tree« of liberty to amuse

kept in good humor, ^^'".l^eet to street with uprooted

thLselvL, and -arched from ^rect^ .^^ ^,,^^ ,„ p, ,^em^

poplars, seeking vacant P>°^« «'^^i^ banners flying, and with a
Jrhey marched in Pf^^'I'f' °"\J ".ees in the name of bod, and
priest at their head, to ^ess the tree^ ...nusement and

S the cause of liberty. ..^^oX theatres, the people did
favored with gratuitous '^?;jf '"^^^^^^nt, taking a lesson from
not think of mischiet. l ne go» . ;,„,„,i its irorgeous ffete, ana

r £y of the fi--«,rs'rb"; r 7^^

brought large -^^^^J'^^^f ^J^.J^ an^ banners, the firmg ol artil- ,
the republic with spears, sworas,j^^jjgg ^

lerv and the shouting of enthusiastic m ^^^ j,„t j

The "People." however ^^ f^^Sient and necessary to |,
occasion npoi. which ^^^^^^-"f^IueTof uniform among the ,
show their P«r''XoTers orone favorite division insisted
National Guard. 1 jY^^hnlnt' which the working classes |
upon a distinctuia «/. '^^''''"""f.Ue principle of '' equality.

Zked upon as an infringement c,^ ,}'&,) the emissaries of
Early on Friday morning (nth of M^^^^,.^^

the clubs proceeded to all the 8»o«rD , ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,„

endlvous on difi-frent I»intB, an«i ^^ ^,^^^^^,^,, laborers
bodies to the Hotel de Vile. About e ^^^ ^^^.^ j

Zired down in massea tnt«.^^^„"^?.v' ^e who assembled in the
P:;rire working, to pin the- 1 ho-; p^„^ ,,^,,„l, «as

Champs Elysees exceeded 30,OU

covered. , , . .,, ^^^ the crowd remained on the

From twelve o'clock t}" '^°'. '".^^Is raising the chorus of

Place, cheering and shouting, ^J^ j"^^^^ their drums. There

5 e« Marseillaise." or beatmg ^he ^JP «' „f f^,,, , the

was no sign of oppo^tt^o" »o 'h>„^ J^^^ ^^^„ ^,^,x. Towards
guard on duty was e^en l«f ""I" though very slowly,

fio o'clock, the crowd began ^"f^ffjjumphoveran attempted
^^The demonstration was con-^^^^ those who. U «

I was the first
iiit theatrical in
people, it was
1 returns gave
it was bcUeveJ
the members of
iterment, except
>r on the ground

the people were

liberty to amuse

!t with uprooted

ch to plant them.

yring, and with a

ame of tiod, and

anmsement, and

es, the people did

ng a lesson from

rorgeous f6te, and

ther to inaugurate

, the firing of artil-

es.

times. The first
It and necessary to
iniform among the
le division insisted
B working classes
)ie of " equality."
) the emissaries of
vite the laborers to
Bed from thence in
o'clock the laborers
J all their comrades
^o assembled in the
Pont d'Arcole was

d remained on the
iising the chorus of
their drums. There
,tion of feeling ; the
m usual. Towards
lough very slowly,
ph over an attempted
ver those who, it is
republic.

FRANCE.

677

The succeeding night passed in perfect tranquillity, though
the ileiiiDiistr.-ition continued to a late hour. Hodies of men,
marcliiiig nine and ten abreast, continued to defile along the
Boulevards fnnn four till seven o'clock. As night fell, crowds
collecteil in diflVrcnt spots, but principally about the Porte St.
Denis and Porte St. Martin. The inhabitants in this quarter
illuminated their houses, and about eight o'clock an immense
body of the people began to move slowly along the Boulevards
in the direction of the .Madeleine, singing and calling on the
shopkeepers to light up ; the citizens were taken by surprise,
and whenever a delay occurred, cries of " Des lampions .'" were
raised : as soon as lamps were fixed to the balconies, the crowd
gave a round of applause, and marched on. In this way they
advanced in comparative darkness, leaving a blaze of light behind
them. They were in a very good humor, and not the slightest
damage was done : not a single pane of glass was broken, nor
did the shopkeepers exhibit any alarm, though neither police
nor military were to be seen. By ten o'clock the throng began
to diminish, and by midnight everything was quiet again.

The Minister of War addressed a circular to all the chiefs of
corps, directing them to present in future for promotion none but
candidates entitled to it by their military service.

.\fter their demonstration at the Hotel de Ville, the workmen
of Paris proceeded to the ministry of the interior to salute M.
Ledru Hollin personally, and the different trades succeeded each
other without interruption from four to seven o'clock, P. M.
Not less than 100,000 men presented themselves at the Hotel
during that interval, and M. Ledru Rollin stood constantly under
the porch receiving addresses and replying to them.

The position of the armed force of France, in relation to the
people, was singular. The army, notwithstanding many re-
assurances, had not recovered from the disgrace inflicted by the
general disarming ; the public were not sufficienily reassured of
its disposition to permit the introduction even of two regiments
into Paris without a nmrmur. The National Guard was tainted
with anti-revolutionary tendencies ; the Garde Mobile was
imperfectly armed and quite undisciplined, and the military and
political systems seemed alike disorganized.

The Mint was encumbered with an enormous mass of silver
plate, brought there to be coined into pieces of five francs each.
A number of silversmiths, despairing of selling their second-
hand articles, resorted to this expedient to render their dead
stock available: others announced a reduction of 10 percent,
on their goods, in order to ensure such a sale as might keep
their workmen employed.

i.t

f I

678

CHAPTER XIV.

. „f thfi newly enrolled Garde

The arming and «a"!Pr";,:L rapidity.^ A decree in the

Mobile was urged on ,^'"V . ITf War to issue from the stores
ELeur au Jrized U.e M.n. e o War^to^^ ^^^^^^ ^. ^^^^ ^„.

of the army such clothing, i-c,

convenience to the ^^''"W,^..^^smeT^i, the Government was
In the face of financial ^n'^arrassme , ^.i.eady too

compelled to find the ."--^-"^ "^^^J^^^^ Jf the country- The
large for the necessities or '^^^J^ „f ^^e republic the young
Sa'rde Mobile enl^,^ - ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^.^ higher rate than the
men of the "people paid them a .^ ^^^ ^ „f jis-

troops of the line, and bor« ' W ^j they formed the greatest
cipline. As it afterwards appeared y^^^^

bulwarks against f "^^^y.^^'p^Ji^jroni 20 to 55 years of age
All able bodied men in fans, i ^ ■ j Guard. The

^ere invited to f "r«»,tTrm them all, to provide clothing at
Government undertook « """JJ^'^ere not able to equip them-
the public expense, fo^. ^^°r„„7o° Sens were enrolled m the
selves, and in a sl^^^^^^f^tf A d scount office, under the
guard of Pans and "« J "^i Traders," was directed to be
title of " Endowment f^^/^'jf > „\ facilities for pecuniary
established for thmr ''^^^JgJ^^\f ,tamp duties on journals
accommodation rhe suppressto^^^^ Another decree,

and other perio^U-al pi^UcaUon^was a ^^ ^^^^^.^^

dated 3d March, ordered that the a ^^ ^^^ ^ ^

Paris and in the «ubur s shouW be^h^^^^ . ^ ^^^ ^,^ r,,„,h
for all professions, blavery w ^ i

colonies and possessions. Provisional Govern-

The French " people" no soone' «J^^« ^^ ^ manifest ,
niont installed at the Hotel dej^l^^^ t^^n J^ uf transfom into
the hopes which they ^^VfZ^ll Liaginary, was laid at the
realities. Every grievance jea^ or ' fj Arago. with a view
feet of Messrs. De Lamartine Marras , B ^^.^^^^^ ^^^p. ,

to a remedy. Carpenters, buddersslu,^^^^^^^^ ^hoe-cleaners,
stresses, purse-knitters, .l«T"'„"'ery maids, formed deputations,
grooms, waiters, ^ookB,^^A iHrocLrion through the streets to
day after day, and marched in P™J^J^' .^ey suffered in their
delail to the government ^« ^"XP^.ong were dwellers in
Respective callings. ^^•"fl^^^Ja Workers ^and head-workers ;
the town and in the <=««""y : ^^^^^^^^^^ wants of society and
those who administered to ^h« '^g'J-^ j^ ^^j Englishmen,
those who flourished on Its vices tren ^^ j,

Swiss, Poles. Germans Italians tHj^^^,^^^^^^^
SutatrtS rlSr, tli: Owenite, all ranks, classes and
degrees of men.

Inrolled Garde
decree in the
[from the stores
Ved without in-

jvernment was
:my already too
country. The
ublic the young
er rate than the
manner of dia-
led the greatest
have raised.
)5 years of age,
lal Guard. The
>vide clothing at
le to equip thein-
e enrolled in the
office, under the
iis directed to be
les for pecuniary
luties on journals
Another decree,
effective labor in
ten hours a day,
n all the French

rovisional Govern-
began to manifest
n to transform into
y, was laid at the
irago, with a view
ters, tailors, semp-
srs, shoe-cleaners,
}rmed deputations,
jugh the streets to
r suffered in their

were dwellers in
ind head-workers ;
:it8 of society, and
n and Englishmen,
rs of slavery, the
t, the patriotic, the

ranks, classes and

FRANCE.

They sought relief in every form, possible or impossible ;
fewer hours of labor, better wages, and more holidays. All these
were but a small portion of the tasks it was expected that the
Government would accomplish in behalf of " th*' people."

In the way of business, things continued deplorable. Money
became scarce, misery increased, and anxiety as regarded the
present, alarm as regarded the future, did not diminish. The
rich families who left Paris during the revolution, did not return,
and the few who remained continued to emigrate.

The elections for the National Assembly caused great ex-
citement throughout all France, ami there was, or appeared to be,
reason to believe that in the Provinces the Republic was not
quite so popular as in Paris. The danger here, the Provisional
Government deemed fit to provide against ; for it was justly
felt that if by any combination of circumstances, an assembly
should be elected, f;ontaining a majority of anti-republicans, a
state of anarchy and bloodshed would most probably be the con-
sequence.

The Republicans, if proved to be in a minority, would show
themselves a continual source of alarm and mischief, a minor-
ity that never would submit, and that would change itself into a
majority, by dint of its zeal, energy, and strength of conviction.
To prevent this renewal of a struggle, of which the only possi-
ble result could be the triumph, at a somewhat later period, of
republican principles, iM. Ledru Rollin and M. Carnot issued cir-
culars to their agents, which excited much indignant remark.
That of M. Ledru Rollin was the most bold, and attracted the
greatest blame. It expressly declared that the agents of the
Government should use all means at their command to secure or
forward the return of Republican candidates. The circular of
M. Carnot took the same ground, and insisted that it was better
to choose an uneducated Republican from the ranks of the peas-
antry or the workmen, than an educated Royalist, however great
his reputation, or pure his character. The object of this procla-
mation was somewhat misunderstood, as meaning, that in all
cases an uneducated was better than an educated representative.
This, however, he never stated ; but, on the contrary, appealed
to the teachers in the public schools throughout the country
to offer themselves as candidates, showing them the career
that was opened to talent and learning by the Republic, and merely
insisting that Republicanism was the first requisite for a seat
in the Assembly. Republicanism with education, J'" possible —
but on no account education without Republicanisn. This was
his meaning ; and, his advice was generally acted upon. Can-
didates were found in sufficient numbers combining both rcqui-

CHAPTER XIV.

rapid and f -'"^ a rat*,^^^^^^^^^^ ^f he tcpe-e of paying ihem

come reaUy useful and productive Communist

On Saturday, the I5th of AP"!; "» j extensive, gave

clubs, whose organization ^"^^ ^^^Pj^'^^d Jloustration uiH,n

orders to the working classes for a grand dcm ^^^^^l^^

the following day. ?\S""S;^'Sg groups of workmen
curred. From an early hour in the morning, ^o i ^^^ ^ ^^^^
assembled in the Champ de Mars wh«r« t Ja* ^^^^^^

the elections of the Captains of the Stan ottn ^^ ^^^^

destined to 'eF««''"S% ^l^"^eir' but it soon became
These elections passed ofT ^'"^^'y ^"Sm„„ ^t, and other men
known that the party of B anqin th« Comrn «ist ^^^^^^^ ^^

of extreme opinions, ^•'^^"'^"^^Vwh.ch caused the greatest
make a demonstration in ^^^^J^^^'.^, „ "^e most extravagant
alarm among the middle «^''^««^«' ^"''"'VrediL by reasonable
reports. Although these rumors ve « not ^^^^^^^^^ Ouard should
people, it was deemed P-^^f-^^^J'^'^^J^.rrs beaten in every
be called out. Accordingly, ^^.^J''JJ''',;„e closed, and the
quarter ; and, in a ew m.nutes af r ho s weje^.^^^^;^

National Guard might be ^^^""""y' ^4^3 por some lime the
of rendezvous of their respective companies !< ^^^^^ ^^^^

town presented the appearance of t^ ^J^^^^ ^,„„j ,,

S/r^^^aSSsS^^-J;^;"^^^^

were no barricades. rhamo de Mars continued to

Meanwhile, the crowd on the Champ ae ^^,,„,ati„ns,

increase, and it soon a^oume-^;- "/^^^^^^ ^ ™ ^^^^^ ^^^. „„
to one hundred '^^'^^^.^^Zo^^^ the different trades
was nearly as great. ^<^'f/'*'^„r^„ they made a collection
had elected their respective officer^^^^^^^^

scandal that
been elected

increased at so
)ne month they
of paying them
nd even Louis
le Government
■nied should be-

lus Communist
extensive, gave
onstration u^ton
irst outbreak oc-
ups of workmen

been tixed that
National Guard,
ere to be held.
I it soon became
It, and otlier men

the workmen to
lused the greatest
most extravagant
ited by reasonable
nal Guard should
beaten in every
re closed, and the
5 different places
For some time the
le day of the 24th
I children stood at
lurried to and fro,
ere was one great
Revolution — there

lars continued to
most calculations,
iltitude looking on
he different trades
nade a collection
patriotic gift to the
lotel de Ville.
the Garde Mobile
icipal places — the

FRANCE.

681

Place dc la Bourse, the Place du Carrousal, tht Place de la Con-
corde, <^c. Patrols of theni al^o Iraversfd tliu stri-ct.'s.

'I'he manner in which the Natiunal (iuanl acted, excited un-
bounded admiration among the middle and ros|)oct:il)lu classes
of society, struck the Communist piirlies with dismay, and great-
ly strengthened the moderHtc soctiun of the Provisional (lovern-
nieiit. This section, tliougli forming the majority, was continu-
ally kept in check by the dread of the immense ph) sical power
which it was supposed that the minority — Ledru Uollin, Flocon,
Albert, and Louis Diane — had at their connnand ; but this dem-
onstration proved that the real physical power of I'aris, consist-
ing of the National (iuard, the Garde Nationale Mobile, and other
forces, were not only in favor of the moderate party, but ready
and even anxious to crush their enemies, who were also the en-
emies of law and order. To this force the moderate section of
the Government could have added from 20,000 to 30,000 regu-
lar troops, who were stationed within easy reach of Paris.

On Tuesday morning, the 1 Hth, at six o'clock, the rappel for
the assembling of the National Guards was beaten in all quarters
of Paris, in consequence of information that the Communists,
and most violent of the ('lubs, had determined on another attempt
to overthrow the Provisional (Jovernment, to establish a commit-
tee of public safety, and to attack the Hotel de Ville.

During the night, great numbers of the Connnunists assem-
bled in the neighborhood of the Motel de Ville and the Tuil-
eries, uttering threats against the moderate members of the Gov-
ernment.

The intentions of the " people" being made somewhat clear
by these events ; and the danger to society being somewhat more
manifest than before, the Government became anxious to dis-
cover whether it could with safety resort to a step so bold as the
re-introduction of the troops of the line to Paris. The National
Guard was worn out and harassed, and would hail the return of
the troops as the greatest boon that could be offered them. But
the working classes and Communists might be mistrustful. To
inquiries, made both openly and secretly by the emissaries or
employes of the Government, a satisfactory reply was obtained,
and at length it was decided that the troops should be recalled.
It was not wise, however, to allow the real secret of their recall
to be promulgated ; and a scheme was adopted to throw the peo-
ple off their guard, and flatter their national and proverbial love
of grand spectacles, by one which should cast into the shade by
its magnidcence all the previous spectacles of the Revolution.
The Grand Festival of Fraternity was devised, and passed
off in the most brilliant manner. As early as five o'clock on the

fi!

,i.

682

CIIAI'TKR XIV.

'Li 1"

morning of thu 2Utli of April, the druniM wt-re beat for the aii8em«
blin){ul the iliflcrtint legions of tlu; Nutioiial (iuards ; hy uighl,
all I'aria suimiumI to havi! pourrd down into the Htrout. 'I'lii- day
wim dull, drizzly, and drviiry, hut llu- ardor neither of the actors
in the mighty show, nor of the (-rovvda of spoctators, was to be
damped. Countlesis thron(>H jioured along the ('hanipn Elyaeus
to the chief point of interest.

The immi UHC estnule erected beneath and l)efor« tho Arch of
Triumph, with its ascending galleries and tribunes, and decora-
tions of Koman and Cirocian uttribules, was not without a cer-
tain grandeur of etfect. lJ|ion this eslnulr. were assembled all
the generals, the courts, and the tribunals, the wounded of the
days of February, delegates from the schools, the commissions
and associations of the working classes, and from the clubs.
On either side, and in the galleries behind, was a crowd of priv-
ileged spectators and ladies, adtnitted by tickets.

The ceremonies were announced to commence at nine o'clock ;
at eight the tribunes had been tilled, but it was past ten before the
main body of the members of the Provisional Government made
their appearance. An address to the armed force was read by
M. Arago, as Minister at War. About eleven o'clock l)egan the
display. Nothing could be more imposing than the flood uf bay-
oneis, as it poured up the long avenue of the Champs Elysees,
towards tho Arch of 'rrium|)h. Tlie dilferent troops were min-
gled in the order of their approach — now a legion of the Garde
Mobile, now a regiment of the line ; a legion of the National
Guards, the schools, the associations of artisans, then cavalry
and infantry. Across the Place de la Concorde, down the ex-
Rue Koyale (now called the Rue Nationale,) and along the line
of the Boulevards, the scene was the same. The ferment of
the returning troops, and the swarming crowds, continued until
long after midnight. The whole city was brilliantly illuminated.
It was expected that during the night, when all tho Naticmal
Guards were exhausted by fatigue, a fresh attempt would be made
by the Ultras ; but nothing of the kind took place. The number
of men under arms during the day amounted to 400,000.

At night the illumination in the Champs £lysees presented a
fairylike scene. Lights, festooned from tree to tree, were hung
from the Place de la Concorde all the way to the magniticent trium-
phal arch, and then the vista was terminated by a splendid display
of various colored lamps. All the public buildings, of course,
shone resplendent ; and the Chamber of Deputies, and the noble
edifices on the Place de la Concorde glared with lights, and added
to the glories of the scene. In the midst of all this, hosts of

FKANCE.

(JS3

or tli«i assem-

,rd» ; liy oiKht,

ml. 'I'll*' liay

of the actors

tors, wa8 to be

lumps Elyseus

ore the Arch of
08, iiiul dccora-
t withuiil a cor-
aHstMiibled all
wounded of the
he coininisHioiis
from the clubs,
a crowd of priv-

at nine o'clock ;
H8l ten before the
overninenl made
irce wa8 read by
D'dock began the
1 the Hood of bay-
Champs Klysces,

troops were min-
ion of the Garde
n of tl»e National
aiis, then cavalry
do, down the ex-
Eind along the line

The ferment of
Is, continued until
iantly illuminated.

all the National
npt would be made
ace. The number
to 400,000.
lysees presented a
to tree, were hung
I magnificent triuni-
r a splendid display
lildings, of course,
ilies, and the noble
th lights, and added
f all this, hosts of

Republicans, male and female, sang their songs, with that light-
heartedneHS peculiar to the I'ariNiaii.

In thi> meautiuie, the elections for the Assembly hiid com-
menced, and were conducted for the iuonI part with great tran-
quillity, regularity and order.

It WHS remarked as a singular thing in Paris that not more than
one third of all the persons entitled to vote exercised the fran-
chise, The working classes hung back — a fact greatly lament-
ed, it proved that the French, though skilled in ellectiiig rev-
oluti(ms, were so little alive to the vahie of liberty, as to be indif-
ferent to the right to vote, the great privilege of the freeman ;
and, on the other hand, it created the apprehension that it was
not by peaceful constitutional means, but by actual violence, that
the working classes wt^re disposed tocause their wishes to prevail.

Lntc on Monday night, the 2 lih of April, the ballot-boxes were
closed, and the elections terminated. The general examination
of the votes was fixed for Friday, the 28tli of April, by an order
of the Mayor of Paris, who also laid down the regulations to be
followed on the occasion. Candidates, who obtained more than
'20UU votes, according to the order of sulFrages given to them,
were proclaimed " representatives of the people" by the Mayor.

The elections throughout France, generally, showed a liirgo
majority in favor of the moderate party. Some Monarchists, but
few, found their way to tlie Chamber.

The Assembly mot on the day appointed, and an immense
multitude assembled on the Place de la Concorde, on the liridgo,
and in all the places commanding u view of the National Palace,
as the building formerly known as the C'hambor of Deputies was
called. On the demand of General Courtais, the Commander
(if the National Guard, the Assembly showed itself bodily to the
people upon the peristyle of the building ; and the "Republic"
was proclaimed, amid the waving of innumerable banners, the
firing of artillery, and the shouts of the delighted multitude.

All the preliminaries having been gone through, [lowers veri-
fied, a president (M. Buchez,) and vice-presidents, secretaries,
&c., appointed, the members of the Government proceeded to lay
before the Assembly an account of their ministries since the es-
tablishment of the Republic.

On Saturday, May 6, .Vlinister Lamartine ascended the tri-
bune, and read a document, which purported to be a report of
the acts of the Provisional Government in the restoration of order,
the organization of the National Guard, Mobile Garde, the army,
&c., enumerating what had been done in the midst of two months
of a crisis during which not a drop of blood had been shed.
Many portions of this report were much applauded.

III

" The Mini.u-r «i •'"'""^•' ^^ " ,3 < his official .ut^u.
trihun.-. .n.l pro.-o.l.- to ;;,,,,,r ',;,,,, to the uanunis-

bunc vvu« M. Louis y^^'-^^-;^^^^;::^^ "i ich'he Hui.l the
i„ favor of his "^>.""".-' '""'', ' o^ ;« to the people asncn..

blo.l before the Hotel .le \ lie th« "J ^.^^^^^^ ^,,^ ^,,„.

His oration was r.-ceived with ^"l""" "« , , ,,„a ^as suc-
ister ..f l'«hlie I"'''"'^'"" ^'m rr^M om^ who laid

ceedcd by M. »-'"""" l''*:,,^';^ d part.nent.

onthe finaucial ^^^^;l^^Su'-^-^, and M. Marie,
M. Arago, the ^ " f "^^^^ ^.^^ ,e«cnted the sUimtion of
the Minister o( Public ^\ 'j^;; " ,;.j hy M. Lanmrl.nc, Mm-
their departments ^ J'^^X to ok a slu.rl'^ review of the aspect

-f ^-TTS^n^^-^^^^^ poet.
J"nt;rrea" pSrLs.read; but the Assembly unant-
Sly fefused to aecepuhe resignation ^^ ^ ^^^^.^

A stormy f ''"^^f ,£ Assembrto the Provisional Govern-
offerinjj the thanks of \''" ^T'"°'Jmini8tration of affairs, and
ntent for theu «^»».tl;"fi;eLctra Government «J m^.r,..,
nominating a committee of five to act as ^^^^ ^^^^^,.

until the P«'^'"''""^"\^""3S was mSdby the withdrawal
tuted. Subsequently,the motion was mo ,^^^^^^^ p^^^^.

„„„ld,ooc..ion 'l'"»''>«"Ji„,tSs W been ..nt .0 the
signal.

FEANCR.

685

iili

Jer of thn Inlo-
liiintralion, with

imrfindtid the

otficinl nets, ill

to the iidniiniH-

imeiit for polili-

iccntU'd ihc iri-
tcmjiore oration
ich ho miitl the
people asMem-
the Hevoliitioii.
Jarnot, the Min-
i\, and was suc-
rnerce, wlio laid
ent.
eluded his report

p, and M. Marie,
I the sitimtioii of

Lamarline, Min-
iew of the aspect
ne of his remarks
»le8 of his address
ranee,
•ranger, the poet,

Assembly unani-

ion of M. Domds,
rovisional Govern-
in of affairs, and
rnment ad interim,
y had been consti-
by the withdrawal
3d that the Provi-
ountry. The vote

ez, the President,
ult of this sitting
was stationed in
been sent to the
narch at the first

On the following Wednesday, the appointment of an Kxeeu-
tive Ciiuunittet', in lieu of the I'roviHiuiiul (Jovornmeiit, wun
annomiied. The result of the ballot wun —

Arnno, .... 7'i&

(iarnier I'agds, . . 715

Mario, 70'.i

Lamartine, ..... 643

Ledru Kollin 598

Those five nieml)crs having; obtained the re(|iiired niiijurily,
were procliiinied iiiemliers of the Kxeciilive (."oiiimittee. M.
Louis Hlanc, M. .Mbert, and .M. i'locon wen entirely exclinlfid;
a fart which the " people" and the " Communists" clieriMhed
in vindictive remembrance. .M. Ledrii Uolliii, whose violence
had alarmed the majority, was at the bottom of the list ; and M.
dc l/imartine, who had lent his hi^h name ami <.;reiit popularity
to Mupport M. Ledru U<»llin, was placed next lowest — all beiii^
most siijniticant facts to show the spirit of the .\ssembly, anil
the probable policy to be hereafter exploded from it.

VVhilo these scenes had been takiiiK place al Paris, the work-
ing classes in Uouen, Kllxi-uf, and otluT mitnufacturinf( towns,
alarmed that the revolution would not take up the (luestions of
Socialism and (\)mmunism, and decree labor and food to every
man — whethttr idle or industrious, skilled or unskilled — hud
been in considerable agitation.

On Monday, the 15th of May, Paris was the scene of another
revolutionary struggle. The National Assemltly was surrounded
and entered by thousands of the population, led by Uarl)es, Ulaii-
(|ui, Hubert, and others, who drove the deputies I'roni their seats,
and, amid a scene of indescribaule tumult, assumed the functions
of Government. General Courtais, Commander of the National
Guard, had treasonably opened the gates of the Assembly to the
mob, and the Prefect of Police, M. Caussidiere, was sup|)osed
to be another of the conspirators. Louis Ulanc was also impli-
cated in the plot ; and thus organized and supported, the insur-
rection manifested itself. Having forced their way into the
National Assembly, the conspirators were not slow to announce
their objects and intentions. With a drawn sworil in his hand,
Barbes addressed the Assembly, and proclaimed that a contribu-
tion of a thousand millions of francs should bo levied on the
rich for the benefit of the poor, — that a tax of another thousand
millions should be paid by the rich for the aid of Poland, — that
the National Assembly should be dissolved, and an Executive
Government, composed of Barbes, Albert, Louis Ulanc, Flocon,
Blanqui, Raspail, and Cabet, be immediately appointed. He
concluded his proposals by demanding the re-establishment of

«'!

) 5

'4fi' '^''

686

CHAPTER XIV.

:v.'

'"it,

'Am

the guillotine! The members of the Assembly withdrew, leav
iiig the hall in possession of the mob.

As soon as the fact of the erime committed against the
National Assembly was known in Paris, about four o'clock, the
rappel was beaten in all the legions. The National Guard
immediately assembled with admirable ardour, to cries of " Vive
I'Assemhlee Nativnalc .'" The 10th and 3d legions went towards
the National Assembly to protect it. Several representatives
joined their ranks, asking for arms. The other legions, detach-
ments of the Garde Mobile, detachments of infantry and cavalry,
and a battery of artillery, went to the Hotel de Ville, to possess
themselves of the two or three Provisional Governments who
had installed themselves therein. M. de Lamartine and M.
Ledru Rollin were on horseback, side by side, in the ranks of
the 2d legion. Ev irywhere on their passage they were received
with acclamation, i nd by the cry of *' Vive I'Assemblee Na-
tionale .'" On arriving at the Hotel de Ville, they entered it
without resistance. They found about a hundred individuals
assembled, the greatest number of whom were arrested, the rest
escaping. No act of violence had to be deplored. M. de
Lamartine and M. Ledru Rollin left the Hotel de Ville at 7
o'clock, (they were both on horseback,) and proceeded to the
National Assembly. The immense and compact crowd scarcely
allowed their horses to advance ; they were almost borne by
thousands of arms. Unanimous cries broke out on their passage.
M. de Lamartine, with his arms extended, and shaking hands
with thousands, with tears in his eyes, addressed thanks to the
multitude of devoted citizens. This demonstration accompanied
him to the Palace of the National Assembly. Between six and
seven o'clock, the legions of the banlieue entered Paris, by all
the barriers, to oiler their support to the National Assembly, and
their co-operation to the executive commission.

At six o'clock, Barbes was at the Hotel de Ville, drawing up
a proclamation, which was to be printed, and by which the dif-
ferent administrations were distributed among his friends, when
two captains, and about ten National Guards of the 3d and 6th
legions, entered the salle. " Barbes ! Where is Barbes ? We
must have him !" was their first cry. " No, no ! To arms !"
cried some men with red belts. " You shall march over our
dead bodies sooner than have him !" A greater number of
National Guards then entered, and endeavored to go into the
salle occupied by three members of the Provisional Govern-
ment. The sentinels posted by Barbes offered great resistance.
A deputy-mayor of Paris then came up. There were cries of
" Vive Lamartine .'" M. Lamartine having then arrived ; and

iHiAMfeili

i I

withdrew, leav

led against the
our o'clock, the
^'ational Guard
( cries of " Vive
[18 went towards

representatives
legions, detach-
ilry and cavalry,
Ville, to possess
Dvernments who
inartine and M.
, in the ranks of
ey were received

I'AssembUe Na-
, they entered it
idred individuals

arrested, the rest
leplored. M. de
icl de Ville at 7

proceeded to the
,ct crowd scarcely

almost borne by
X on their passage,
nd shaking hands
ssed thanks to the
ation accompanied
Between six and
ered Paris, by all
»nal Assembly, and
n.

! Ville, drawing up
1 by which the dif-
g his friends, when
i of the 3d and 6th
re is Barbds ? We
0, no ! To arms !"
lall march over our

greater number of
ored to go into the
'rovisional Govern-
red great resistance,
rhere were cries of
f then arrived; and

-J

FRANCE.

687

he was borne in triumph into the Hotel de Ville, and could only
sav a few words, which were received with noisy acclamations.
The 5th and 7th batteries of the artillery of the National Guard,
headed by their chefd' cscailron, made a line in the passage lead-
ing to the piace occupied by Barbes, Albert, Thore, and others.
Shortly after seven o'clock the following was issued :—
" The Hotel do Ville is delivered. The Provisional Govern-
ment is leaving it amidst the acclamations of the people. The
conspirators have been arrested. Citizen Bois Lecomte, bearer
of the present proclamation, is charged to read and cause it to
be placarded in all the mairies of Paris.

" Flottard,
" Secretary-General of the Marie of Paris.
" May 15. — Seven o'clock in the evening."
At eight o'clock the following proclamation was issued from
the Hotel de Ville : —

"French Rkpublic.
» Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
"The National Assembly is not dissolved. The President,
yielding to the tumult, declared the sitting at an end. The
brave citizens of Paris are called on to maintain the respect due
to the National Assembly, which was elected by universal suf-
frage To attack the National Assembly, is to attack the
republic conquered in February, and proclaimed by the Assem-
bly. • Vive VAssembUe Nationale ." ' Vive la Republtque !

" Armand Marrast,
" Representative of the People, Mayor of Paris."
Thus the fidelity of the Guards, and the firmness of the Gov-
ernment, averted the crisis. The plot was widely ramified, and
parties high in oflice were implicated. The Government did not
deem it prudent to proceed against all the delinquents, but most
of the leading desperadoes were committed prisoners to the
Castle of Vincennes, among whom were M. Barbes, a man of
fortune, and highly educated; M. Raspail, a distinguished
chemist ; and M. Blanqui, a gentleman of ancient family, and of
high acquiiements and talents.

Paris had scarcely subsided into c Jiet after these terrible
commotions and alarms, when the inhabitants were summoned
by the Government to a great National F&te of Concord, which
took place on Sunday, the 21st of May. A procession was
formed from the Place de la Concorde to the Champ de Mars.

In the evening all Paris was brilliantly illuminated. The
Champ de Mars, Champs Elys^es and the Tuileries, were
lighted by half a million of lamps, aided by ten thousand Lhi-

CHAPTER XIV.

at a cost of upwards of two hundedm^^^^^^^ ^^^ 1

Immediately after ^^^.^^V'^fuislation and oratory. On the
Assembly resumed Us ^"^"'^ji 5 Banishment Bill, ^h'^^^.^^J
24th of May the <^^1«^"^^,^^,"'",7j unanimously approved of by
been referred to a ^omm tlee a" ^^^^ read from the

them, was brought up. J^'^^^^J .'^nd the Duke de Nemours,
Duke d'.\umale, Prmce *!'; "'"^^^^'prancsois, Henry, and Louis
(denominated i" ^he Proceedings as ^J^S a declaration was
^'Orleans,) against the decree oban^shm ^^^ .„^^^„,,i ^o the
unanimously adopted by the Assemoy, .^^^^^^l compact

Executive «"v«"r"'' Ins n ction o a„ independent and tree
with Germany ; the '^^construction o ^^ ,^^^^ ^^^^ ^ j

rt Etcr™C=:Sn "^^^^ the clubs of which |,
bUbs and Blanqui were p^f-;'-^^.^^ ,,, „,anifested \\

An unusual display «f ""^'^e line of the quays on the :
around the Chamber. J he entire Un ^^ ^^ f

«outh bank, adjoimng the CjKimber ^^ ^^^ opposite sue

troops, (horse and foot.) ^ '"l^^j^-gction, were occupied by
Sding from the l>"<lg?;,';,^'^^^^he precinc'ts of the legislative \
battalions of the Garde M°^Jj;^,i,7,,^ consisting of infantry «t ^
palace literally «warmed wihsoiaie ,_^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ,

[he line, cavalrj-. and artiUe ^ ammunition-waggons

mounted on l^>« l'"^^*^' ^' nrtanrprenarations were taken on
in the court. These »"iP°f ''."^ J^taly and Poland, the topics
account of the debate aPP«'"^f J^the outr^^^^^ of ^^^ ^th. .

Sh had served as a P-^-^^^^^if^.t^of another popular mani-
"" The reports which «'«'^?, "XTof the Assembly to transfer
Testation determined ^^^^ ^'^^ J^-^^^^f War, the full command

^^KSli whole w.ek ^i -Si^^S^f t^*
was found absolutely necessary, horn n ^^ ^^^ ^,i

finances, to put a ^^op j^emP «y ng ^^^^^ alarmed the

expense, and the !f«X^%"SS Government. To abolish
workmen, and excited them agamst ^^ ^jble and inhu-

evil.

•••■I ■

FRANCE.

689

(verywhoe \re-

slivily. 1 -vas
[ia the f6te, and

ited among the
was estimated

ancs.

e, the National
)ratory. On the

Bill, which had
y approved of by
re read from the
ukc de Nemours,
Henry, and Louis
A declaration was
instruction to the
i'raternal compact
Rpendent and free
crecs were signed
le clubs of which

n was manifested
the quays on the
:upied by bodies of
the opposite side,
I, were occupied by
cts of the legislative
isliug of infantry of
y-men stood reae*/
mmunition-waggons
»ns were taken on
d Poland, the topics
re of the 5th.
lOther popular mani-
\s8embly to transfer
r, the full command
ut the palace of the

a state of alarm. It
)ndition of the public
borers at the public
hat end, alarmed the
ernuient. To abolish
impossible and inhu-
ssity of stopping the

The Minister of Public Works issued a proclamation, in
which he dislinctly stated that the Government was occupied in
preparing for the organization of the national workshops

At an early hour of Monday, the 29th, the rappel was beaten
in live or six arrondissements, and great numbers of the National
Guard immediately turned out in arms. By eight o'clock
several thousand of them were assembled at the different ren-
dezvous. They were then marched to the National Assembly,
the Garden of the Tuileries, the Luxembourg, the Hotel de
Ville, and other places. The different ministries were also
strongly guarded. At the National Assembly the force was
immense, not only of National Guards, but of troops of the line.
The quays, the Pont de la Concorde, and, in fact, all the
approaches to the Assembly, were strongly guarded. The
occasion of this overwhelming display of bayonets, was the fear
of a threatening demonstration against the Assembly and the
Executive Government. Affairs continued in this state for
many days, when the election of Louis Napoleon, as represen-
tative of Paris, for a vacancy caused by the double returns of the
original elections, led to a demonstration of a more serious kind.
His popularity seemed great, and he was not only elected for
Paris, but for three departments wherein vacancies had occurred
from a similar cause. On the following Sunday his name was to
be heard in all the assemblies of the holyday people of the lower
class, outside the barriers of Paris. On Monday morning, a
new journal appeared entitled, Le Napoleonien, the advocate of
the Prince, and its first number displaying considerable ability.
Crowds collected in the quarters leading to the National Assem-
bly ; troops and National Guards were called out, and amid
much excitement, because M. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was
expected to take his seat in the National Assembly.

During the day a placard appeared, bearing an address of
General Piat, Colonel of the Fourth Legion of National Guards,
(he who had taken possession of the Hotel de Yille on the 24th
February,) in which he, as an avowed friend of Prince Louis
Napoleon, disclaimed for him any ambitious project. Other
friends of the Prince, in the country, were not, however^ equally
discreet. They carried their ballot in front of their hats, on
which was inscribed, in large characters, "Louis Napoleon !
Vive VEmpereur ! A bos la Republique .'"

About five o'clock in the evening, the Government ordered
strong measures against the crowds assembled in the Place de
la Revolution. Regiments of infantry and cavalry, and large
bodies of National Guards immediately crossed the bridge in
front of the Palace of the Assembly, and forming a junction with

CHAPTER XIV.

oyu

0.0.0 already on the P^ee^^it. ^I^rlr.^^^

of the immense ^^^'^"^^^^'^f'^^^^.^ry violence on the part of
Complaints were made of unnecess >^^ ^^ ^^^ government,

the armed fo^'^^^^^f^l^^ter of War, under whose eye the
conveyed through '^« .^l'^'^','^ ^ers had come to something
£"rSs!lTstt2' was" allowed when the command

" Withdraw"' was issued. ^^^^^ gOOO Gardes

Having cleared tt'«/\"jl"'^ ' JeRi^"*'' *"^ ^""'"""^
Mobiles wheeled up to the Rue de K ^ ,^^^^^ ^^^

twenty abreast. Fhe «^J" J'^^^^j ^^ double quick time along
beat a charge, and the «/«'"" TJ^, R^es Castiglione and La
the Rue de Rivoh, and Ij^^^fJjJ,^;^, ^hey proceeded n the
Paix Having reached the »o"'®^*' ' u^^ \ ^f the Ministry
r.mi order an'd at the «-« P/^^d in the tanwhile. the ! '
for Foreign Affairs ^"^/^fp^t de la Revolution, by the R«e
dragoons advanced from the ^''J^« "j ^^^ did not comply ,

I Royale, driving the people hefore^^^^^^^^^^^^ ,

sileW. f«^ <^T "^ Ifthem vigl^^^^^^ The Boulevard |
' /,„„ -" were shouted b> .^^^™. 3,:.:o,/ The whole of the i
cTeared, the dragoons remained^^n^^^^^^^^^ Access to the

Rue Roy ale was filled with ^^^"O" ^^^. This con- 1

l> Uca d^ la Revolution was re «^ed^ to j^ery^bo^J ^^ .^^^^^ ^^^^

tinned for an hour or two "^"^^ ^ater in the evening, I
venting their displeasure >« «^«»»"^'' ^,,, dispersed withou j
:S tS f^^^e Asrei? itsdf the greatest excitement I

prevailed. o^vant-iire of the panic, and proposed

P M. de }^--^-^rx8TSmi!iorhm^g the entry o the
that the laws of ^^16 an^ J« ^ ^^ ^^,.^^^^^ ^ ,he

l::S::. %";i& - rU^ived amid deafening shouts of
^<Vive la Republique!" ^^^^^^ minister of Louis

The recent election »[ JJ" * " ^^ '^f popular excitement and
PhiUippc, --;;;VtSrha"indicate5 'growing restlessness
jealousy, and every tning

and discontent. ^^ imposed on the public

The Government, hnding me .determined on sendmg

treasury too heavy to be borne, i workmen

rif'paris to the provinces about U,000 ^_^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^
in the national workshops^ ^^^ ^.^,^,^ ,„ p,o

and on the 22d of June, a ^o^ f„, ^^e purpose of

cession to the ly'^'^'^f^XehM oi the Government con-
remonstrance. 1VL Mane m beha ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^„

Bented t< receive five ot tnem.

t of the bayonet, ;
, in five niinutes.
5 on the part of
the government,
whose eye the
me to something
n the command

•ast 2000 Gardes
nd formed about
rch. The drums
quick time along
stiglione and La
proceeded in the
■1 of the Ministry
e meanwhile, the
lution, by the Rue
o did not comply j
Vive Louis Napo- \.
The Boulevard L
The whole of the \
18. Access to the |j
r body. This con- |
eople retired, after 1 ;
er in the evening, |i
dispersed without ji
greatest excitement .

panic, and proposed j ;

ig the entry of the ,

nforced against the j;

deafening shouts of J

jr minister of Louis i'
mlar excitement and 1 !
Trowing restlessness \\

nposed on the public
icrmined on sending j
100 of the workmen \\

a signal of alarm, ,
jut 400 wont in pro-

for the purpose of ;
the Government, con- !
f these, who had been

FRANCE.

691

an active party in the affair of the Ifnh of May, he refused to
rsten n7 uldressing the others, said, "you are not t^je slaves
of that man: you can stale your own gnevances." He heard
In vHattention, hut failed to satisfy them with the course
1,. had been adopted. ( >n returning to their companions they
d Ir teV M. .Mario's expression, and said that they had been
clled ''s avos." The mob then cried, "Down with Marie !
'S'otn w.Ih the Executive Committee!" "Down with the

""tt "^^^y stationed themselves in the Place de la

Rastile and at the Harriere du' Trone. , n . c,

Barrlcaies were formed at the Porte St. Denis and Porte St.

'^Theenvirons of the Hotel de Ville, of the Luxembourg the
Boul vardl, and the quarters of St. Martin, St. Denis, and Le
Temple, w;re all thronge.l with multitudes of operatives.

Atei^ht o'clock the square of the Panth6on was filled with
se eral1housands,whom\rched with banners to the Faubourg
du Temple, wher^ they were joined by large bodies of working

'" Measures of precaution were taken during the evening. The
NaUonT Guard were called out. Numerous detachments of
™ were stationed at the Luxembourg. At ten o^clock a
sauadron of dragoons and several companies of the troops of the
r bivouacked on the Place de I'Hotel de V.Ik. At eleven
I o'clock a battalion of the line took possession of the court of he
Prefecture of Police. The peristyle of the Palais de Jus ce
Vas guarded by the Garde Mobile. The Assembly was filled
with uoops Everywhere the armed force was very numerous^
The "nsurgents, in the course of Friday morning, threw up
barricades U. various quarters on both banks of the Seme, and at
i"o" was to be seen^i all directions the formidable nature of
"he preparations which they had made for the coming contes.
Spfr nKn disDlaved great strategic skill and correct judgment.
TtHn r^S e^^ on the^right bank from the Faubourg

Poissonniere to the Seine, embracing thus the whole Faubourg St
Antoine • on the left bank it occupied the Faubourg St. Marcel,
StTcto'r, and the lower part of the Quarlier St. Jacques ; these
two pSns were connected by the occupation of many pojn^.
such^as the church of S^^'er-is, a part o the Quartierdu Tem-
ple, the approaches of Notre Dame, and the Pont St. M chel

The church of St. Severin served as head quarters, and the
Faubourg St. Antoine as a magazine. This plan was ingeni.
onsly conceived, for the insurgetits were thus master of an
immense semicircle, which formed nearly one-halt of Pans. In

['A:

'li

692

CUAl'TKR XIV.

■m

success, ii. was easy <«[. '^"^ " '"^'" „ ' s and Boulevards, and
occupv the important lines of he qu.>s yin^^hich would

thoTcoul'l «""«""•! '^.y •^'''^'^r % on e masters of that and the
ha/ebeen thus i" ^^^^'/^ '.n'.HsS their government.
Jrefecture. they could have e^n^bl^^^^^^^^^ ^ „„^ber

P The measures »''''«" ^^f^^^ inevitable, from the savage
of lives; but that sad .'^'^''""_'^,^*;_L,ded themselves,
energy with which the "-urger^ cMe -le^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^

Across the boulevard, and ^^J^ ^^^^ „, five omnibuaes, i
was an immense barricade t^''^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^en from
several carriages a huge w-g^--^^"^ PonsiLral.le distance on
the streets, which were torn "P '«; ^ ^^^^^^ was another
both sides. A little beyo"dt^^^^^^^^^^ ^

barricade, as formidable as Ae first an |^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^

same miscellaneous '"f ";;i«t;,;iV not quite so large as the
Porte St. Mfinwas a ^irl^"'^^,,^.! jefence against a coup
first, but stiU sufficient to be a po ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j

de mam. The end of \^«^^f "f. '^ Vhich prevented the approach
closed up with a huge Jamcade whicn p^ ^^^ .^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.
of troops from the outskirts U e ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^,^^^ ^ ^ut.

leneuve Bourbon, the ^"^„^'fJ,e conspirators, were similarly

ting on the spot in P««««««„V" ^m ' were industriously working
defended, and thousa^ids of g«m.«s w ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^.^^^ ^^ ^^^

with pikes and spades, tearin^ v

defences. j<.fpnd>'d by some hundreds of the peo-

The barr cades were aelend>-a oy ^^^j ^^,1

pie in 6Jo«se., of whom "l-y ^^^^r^S:? 'of tri-colored flags
Show their arms. TJey ^^^ ^^ , with the words •' Atehers
stuck upon the top of the bamcaae^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^.^

Nation^x" in^^^^^'l^P"" 'Sors was decorated with a black
was in the hands of the conspira jrs ^^ paving-stones

flag, and on the top "f »t were arra g ^^^ ^^^^ f

apparently for the purpose o^h^ng ^^^^ J^.^^ ^^^^ ^^n^j
those who might attack U. 1 je u ^ ^^ commenced

u^on, without effect, to ^urren^^^, the e^^^^ ^^ ^^^ mfantry the

aSd lasted twenty ""^""^^^^^ /j^nSt only from the barricades,
rioters responded with a sharp fire, no y ^^^ ^^^

but from the neighboring streets. |^ g loss, [he

Jaken, but not until the "oo^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ was mortally wounded
commanding officer of the Natumai^^^^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^ ^^^^„

and many men and otticerB o
army were killed.

( narrow streets
he troops, and
reat : in case of
mcing a little, to
Boulevards, and
lie, which would
rs of that and the
)vernment.
I a great number
from the savage
smselves.
: Porto St. Denis,
)r five omnibuses,
stones taken from
arable distance on
lenis was another
posed of much the
ler on towards the
lite so large as the
i\ce against a coup
St. Denis was also
ented the approach
Denis, the Hue Vil-
> other streets abut-
itors, were similarly
dustriously working
is and adding to the

lundreds of the peo-
Bd, or at least did not
er of tri-colored flags
the words " Ateliers
wte St. Denis, which
ecorated with a black
aps of paving-stones,
)d upon the heads ol
ts having been called
lagcment commenced
>ns of the infantry the
ly from the barricades,
;th the barricades were

Jd a severe loss. The
was mortally wounded,

le Mobile and regular

FaXNCB.

Disrhartres of n.uskctry were heard throughout the night, and
noth ;g3d exceed thJalarn. everywhere pr-a^ng. Abou
n oVlock on Saturday, notice was given by the National
A sem ly Lt Paris was'in a state of siege, and Gen. Cavaignac
tZ declared commander of the whole military force

Il'.^r h s decree was passed, .he Executive Counc. ad-
dressed the following com'.nunication to the President of the
Assembly :

safety of the Republic. .. u„,ht.ne,

" Araoo,
" Ledro Rolun,
" Garnier Pages,
«' Marie,
Members of the Executive Committee.

..24th June. .'Paonerre. Secretary.

OnP of the first orders of General Cavaignac, after the capital

twd gS'he «,eeu, prevent .!« .s.en.bh"g o c.owJ., and

carrying ball cartridges in their l'^«''«'^«-. , ^^^J". fT^ifh gun-

break on Saturday mormng, the se/^^««\'""|'' one o'clock,
1J^^?S^5S^I^." e S=e I^^iadecon-

CHAPTER XIV.

tor took place. At the «an.e hour ho^^fTf ^^ ^„„ ^^u the

^^'I'Vr^"\1w°p'rthe fnsurgem. were drive,, to the
At half-past three, 1 . M., ine ni b desDeralely, and

Pantheon and ^here surrounded ;t^^^^^^^

:l: rnHt^ttvS'th^tL^^^ was recovered fro.

them 'after three — -^^f ^^SV )'™^^^^^ "^ ^^^

In the cour«eo the day (baurda^,)^ .^^ ^l.^ ^^^^^

received a wound m the 8^0"'.'™"' Cavaiiinac to go on a
The venerable priest having offered Gtn. V^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^

accepted and three membrs ot ^^^^^^^^ ,o,„.,teered to

Larabit, Gait Caxa et «, j^^. „ t^e Faubourg

accompany hm^ Arrhb shorand his companions advanced to
St. Antoine, the Arch')t8hop ara^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^

1 speak to them. ^/^J^p^^^^^J'^'^hen unfortunately the beat of
at the entrance to the t aubourg, wiie .jigp^arged on both

a drum alarmed the msurgents Shots were m3 g

the ^'^^^^'^^'.''^"''i'ZonS^U nigbt was still very alarm-
The situation of Pans on ^'''"^^y "'8^^' f their position

ing; thot.gh^\«»-:f":f„e^l wS quite

on the lef^bank of the Seine and Itiatp^^^^ ^^^7 ^^^.^^^^

free from them, being held ''^ ^"^""g P^ ^j^^ g^eat force at
Guards, and Molnles, J;«yj'',;^XhX troops had been

occurred.

,'t*3fir 'J

pieces of can-
ihe insurgents,
)dtMl in forcing )
n o'clock this j
iloody ciicoun- 1
Is of'the Fau- |
iiclion with the i
en o'clock was 1
that after that j

resumed. Shot

;entre of whose

'he battle raged

and thousands,

e driven to the
lesperately, and
Bvoted to a just
recovered from

hbishop of Paris
d in his death,
ignac to go on a
iflor was tit once

Assembly, MM.
volunteered to
to the Faubourg
ons advanced to
lidable barricade
lately the beat of
ischarged on both

the Archbishop,
Its went immedi-
, who was carried
gents denied that

is still very alarm-
rom their position
the city was quite
»f troops, National
ith great force at
16 troops had been
most vigorous and
great loss of life

FKANCB.

.r„e K-K,,,,. si„rT'r: '::E:':hSKr.t

the east, and the tlos St. l.a^.iro, on u

formed their strong holds in th>^ -^•rc^^ »"^ commenced.

At ».n early hour on Sunday, »'»;™o to erect barricades on
r.uring the Ji^y --.""^'"C, Zy Trei^^untly destroyed by
the Ivft bank of the Seine, Dui imy we

the National Guard and tl'« ^^^P^dispe ed wi"th Z exception
the insurgents here were «""^'y fS^J^^'J^, ,no«t remote
of a few isolated parties, who ^'^1 h«»d ""^ 'J ;\„ ^^^ij have
part of the great Faubourg St. '^''/V^^"' '^" ,„„„„ them that no
Surrendered before, but ^^aj - --^^i^^*^^^^^^^^^^ however,

quarter was to be given. In '^'^/J^'^ "' ' ^ „ot the slightest
the danger was at an end, ^"^ t^«^" ^i'^i^^a ^f St. Louis,
appearance of a fresh insurrection Tj^ ';'^"°^° insurgents,
Jl'nchhad been for ™ -« ^.Vtant t^^^^^^^^^

r e^t^SruSbi^^i^ st^i^j-.;^ :-^:rz

struggle, in which ^J^^^^^^^ll^^.^Z^Zus which they
both -'I-. -;^X/l ASlicTn^ the'streets between the
D de Yi 1 the basin of the Canal St. Martin^
" The National Guard and the troops """J-^if ^^t^^^^^^
line of the canal from the Place de la Ba^.le U, t ^^ ^

called the Chapelle St. Denis, ^^ich last place wa
late hour, after a murderous ^'f "gf V^^^ who ^^^^^^^
formed a junction -f ^^enenil La'^^^^^^^ .„ ^^,

'"r'^WSr?irl The "action was thus driven
S;tSl:^t^ I^'whichith^^

l^UTshrSrirS h^oS^X^en concealed behind

X to this period of the conflict, U was es^^^^^^^^^^
number of troops. National Guards and Gar^eJ ,^^. ^^^
and wounded, was upwards of IS.UUU. v^u
^urJL the casualties were -t so X^-- ,heu the insur-
On Monday mormng an "'">«»'^Vsurrender on the condition
gents sent a deputation to propose a f""«nj^' ""^^is proposal
fhat they should ^e aUowe to ret.„ the r m ^V^ P„ ^„
was at once rejected by general v^amgnd , ^-n t^n

unconditional surrender, and allowed the "'^^^S^^ -^ ^,,
o'clock to determine what they «h«"»d do At that hou
thought that ihe terms proposed were agreed to, but

696

(•IIAITIIll XIV,

goviTiimpnt troops ImviiiK n'.it within the linos of tho inniirgpnts,
wtru I'lrod at, and a uron nuinhor of tliiNii wxrr killetl. Ilostiii-
tieH inuni^liatfly recommciiL-cd, which, at'icr a Hhurt cuntost,
was l)rou|irht to an end by the unconditional surrundcr of tlio
insurgent!*, who thornselves assisted in pulling down their
barricades.

During the conflict on Sunday and Monday, it should be
mentioned, the National Guards from the departments near
Paris, particularly Kouen, Amiens, Orleans, &c., fought gal-
lantly by tho side of their i'aris brethren.

Monday night passed without the slightest disturbance or
appoariince of an intention on the part of the insurgents to renew
the contest. After one o'clock in the day there was no fight-
ing, but it was not till twenty-rive minutes to ten o'clock at nii^'lit
that M. S6nard, the President of the National Assembly, an-
nounced that all was terminated, that tho barricades had been
taken down, and that nothing remained excepting that agitation
which was inseparable from such events.

A great number of the insurgents had laid down their arms,
but by far the greater number of them had taken refuge in the
country between Vincennes and St. Denis, where they were
pursued by several regiments of cavalry and infantry. In tho
course of Monday evening 1500 took up their quarters in the
cemetery of Pere la ("haise ; but on an alarm that the tro«)ps
were coming, they retreated to the neighborhood of Uoinain-
ville.

The total number who had fled to the country amounted to
several thousands. The number of prisoners already made was
very great. Tho prisons were filled with them, and every hour
added to the number. On Monday night 300 prisoners, who
had surrendered in the Faubourg du Temple, were marched
along the Boulevard, strongly guarded by infantry, and carried to
one of the detached forts in the neighborhood of Paris. They
consisted principally of ouvriers, but several of them were
dressed in the uniform of National Guards, and a considerable
number in that of the Garde R6publicaine ; and on the same even-
ing the whole of the city was illuminated, not so much as a
token of rejoicing for the victory gained, as to enable the sen-
tries to distinguish each other, and to prevent any further attempt
upon the part of the insurgents.

The insurgents had resolved to defend themselves to the last,
and had posted up a printed proclamation in the streets, declar-
ing that they would bury themselves under the ruins rather than
surrender, except on their own terms. They had cannon of
large dimensions, from which they poured a murderous fire upon

^yiH

BIII>l«Wll

10 insiirgpnts,
led. llostili-
Nhorl contest,
rcmltT of 'ho
down thoir

it should be
artmitnts near
fou|{ht gal-

iisturbance or
gents to renew
was no lii^ht-
)'cluck at night
Assembly, an-
ados had been
{ that agitation

)wn their arms,
n refuge in the
tiere they were
ifantry. In the
quarters in the
that the troops
ood of Uomain-

try amounted to
ready made was
, and every hour
I prisoners, who
, were marched
■y, and carried to
of Paris. They
1 of them were
d a considerable
)n the same even-
jt so much as a
) enable the sen-
t\y further attempt

selves to the last,
le streets, declar-
ruins rather than
ly had cannon of
urderous fire upon

m^Si

VI -

raxNcM.

697

the froop^t. nn.l tlioy only irnvo way wlin. thry found ihnl the
howiizt'rs wore rapidly tliiiiiiiii« tli.'ir riiiiks. 'I licy thou l..'«an
to (ly in tnery diri'ilioii, many "f ihcni iihanilnninK ihoir
niimk.'ts ; l.ut the (•xiisperiuion of ih(^ troops of the hue, and tho
nrlillery of the National (iimrd was fundi that it was impossible
to prevetit ii consiehirabh; ntassiicre anions tin- insnrKents. A
ureat number, however, were iiuuhf prisoners ; and ilie armed
fujiitives, who in their ni«ht fre.pieiilly turned round to conlinuo
tho attack, were pursued by a division of the artillery of tho
National CJuard to a consideral)lo distance.

Thi^ iiisurreelioii was by far the most terrible that has over
des(d!.ti;! Paris. The number of killed and wounded will
probably never bo known, but certainly amounts to many
thousands. Many calculate the numb.T as IukIi as 20,000, and
none estimate it below 10,000. The troops of the line suth-red
greatly, and of the Oarde Mobile nearly one-third were either

killed or wounded. r u- i .u

(!en. Cavai<,nmc, having fulfilled the purpose for whicli the
dictatorial power had been confided to him, resigned it to the
Assembly, and issued the following proclamation to the National
Guard and the army : .. , ,, ,,• i

" Citizens, soldiers :— Tho sacred cause ot the Republic has

triumphed; your devotedness and unshakeable courage have

balllcd guilty projects, and done justice on fatal errors. I" "'»

name of tho country, in the name of all humanity, be thanked

for your efforts— be blessed for this necessary triumph. 1 his

morning the emotion of the struggle was legitimate, inevitable.

But at present, be as great in calm as you have just been m the

combat In Paris I see victors and vanquished, but may my

name be accursed if I should consent to see victims. Justice

will take its course— let it act— that is your wish, and it is

mine also. Ready to return to the rank of simple citi/en, I will

carry in the midst of you the remembrance of having, in these

grave trials, only taken from liberty what the salety of tht

Republic itself demanded, and of leaving an example to whoever

may be in his turn called on to fuUill such great duties.'

The Assembly then passed a vote of thanks to him and Mi»
associates, and unanimously yielded to him the chief executive
authority, with the power of electing his ministers.

The council, formed accordingly, was ultimately composed
of the following members :

General Cavaignac, President.

M. Marie, Minister of Justice.

M. Bastide, Minister of Foreign Affairs.

M. Senard, Minister of the Interior. .:

(syifi!

CHAPTER XIV.

General Lamoriciere, Minister of War.

M de Verninhac, Minister of Marine.

M. Goodchaux, Minister oil- inance.

M Recurt, Minister of Public Works.

M Tourct, Minister of Couimevce.

U Vaulabelle, Minister of Public Construction^

General Chargarnier was appointed Commander of the Wa

'^"S:Ss^^?^r the most part. ^^^^^ ^S
talents and character ^"«P"« I««P^,^ ' ,„^tX„es' tmambitious
self is considered a ^^^'^^^^ZwlTiCnuZ^^^^^ oi

and able man-one who will «f .^^^ ^"J^^^^J^ ^1^^^^^ personal
the affairs of his country, not ^^P'^^J"^ advance the public
aggrandizement, or private -ter-ts. but ,. ad^vance^^ ^^ p ^^^_

tion thus far has been distingmshed by judgment, energy
resolution.

Revolutions in Germany in 1848.

The large number of independent states, of ^Jj^^^f f^^";';,^,
ConLeraLn is formed, renders a ^^^--^^^X" of S^^
.evolutions that have taken pUcen them a ™aU.r^«'^^. J

federalempire, hasexisteainme 11 .,. . ^ f ^he great

triotic men in Germany ; and ^';\;f;X^r^^^^^^
•/olverein. or Customs Union, was hailed wiin joy, a»

mill,. The ...11 r" "P^tok Tihese ™..»r,, .»d very

■Of'

ler of the Na^

of men whose
^avaignac him-
!St, unambitious
mpled crisis of
own personal
ance the public
jnt of the van-
his administra-
ent, energy and

which the United !
count of the great
liter of difficulty,
them being very
ernment, and only
ionate contingent
langer. For hun-
lany into one great
earts of many pa-
nent of the great
I joy, as one of the
•lished. With the
and Mecklenburg-
immediately join-

r had been making
ig the employment
on of factories and
opulation, with its
3 matters, and very
t their Government

GERMANY.

699

increased their evils, without attempting to alleviate them. They
recognized in the government of Austria an open despotism ; they
saw through the pretexts of constitutional liberty with which
Frederick William of Prussia soug^ht to hide the despotic ten-
dencies of his mind ; they learned to despise the disgraceful
profligacy of King Ludwig of Bavaria ; they discovered the petty
tyrannies practiced by the smaller Princes and Electors of
Germany ; and their minds awakened to a just sense of their
rights and privileges as men, as well as subjects. Silently,
these impressions were circulated throughout the diflerent

* \rBaden, M. M. Welcker and Basserman openly called for a
constitutional government, and freedom of the press. The time
for action was approaching ; men understood that it was neces-
sary, and were beginning to measure their strength, when sud-
d^iiilv the fire of the French Revolution of February, 1848, in-
flamed all Europe ; its sparks flying in all directions, kindled
the train in preparation throughout Germany, and immed(ately
the .hole country was in a blaze. Popular commotions took
pla - in all the large cities, and the cry was for a political con-
stitution, which should give the people a share m legislation,
establish the liberty of the press, abolish odious restrictions, re-
form the judicial system, nnd otherwise extend popular rights.
On the 29th of February, 1 ^-18, at Carlsruhe, in Baden, depu-
tations from every town in the Grand Duchy besieged the Grand
Duke, demanding liberty of tlie prr.s, mal b' jury, extended
sufFrage, constitutional Government, institution of a burgher giiard,
right of public meeting, and amended ^fepreseniation of the Ger-
man nations in the Diet at Frankfort. On the 2nd o March, the
Grand Duke yielded to the demands of his people, dismissed
his obnoxious ministers, and called to his council M. W elcker,
for many years the firm and consistent opponent of all the des-
potic proceedings of the Government. , . , r • i

Great popular demonstrations were made in favor of similar
concessions at Mayence.in Hesse Darmstadt ; Hanau,in Hesse
Cassel; Wiesbaden, in Nassau; Stuttgardt, in Wutomburg ;
and many smaller towns in those neighborhoods.

On the 3rd of March, «.t Cologne, the people proceeded in a
' body to the town-house, where the Council were sitting, and
required of the Prussian authorities their sanction to similar pe-
titions. A riot ensued, the town-house was stormed and the
authorities made prisimers. The intervention of the military re-
leased them, and the Governor of the Rhine Provinces prom-sed
to forward the petitions of the inhabitants to Berlm. <-''<"»«
sameday the inhabitants of Frnnklort met together, and added

\. I

700

CHAI'TEri XIV.

their voices to the almost universal shout for reform, express-
ing their discontent with the meagre concessions which the
Diet had that day made. The Diet had abandoned the idc . of
a universal law of the press for all Germany, and resolved to
allow each stale to exercise its own judgment in the matter, sub-
ject to certain guarantees. The 4th of the month witnessed the
bloodless revolution of Munich. On that day the people of Mu-
nich assembled together in large numbers in the streets in the
neighborhood of the palace, and demanded reform. In the ex-
citement of the moment they stormed the arsenal, possessed
themselves of the arms it contained, and thus equipped, uncheck-
ed by the military, proceeded to the palace, and forced from King
IjuJwig those concessions which he had refused to make. A
week had thus elapsed since the occurrences at Paris, and we
find that at its close the demands of the inhabitants of the king-
dom of Bavaria, the dukedom of Baden, the kingdom of Wirtem-
burg, the dukedom of Nassau, and the electorate of Hesse Darm-
stadt, had been conceded by the ruling powers. At Hanau, in
Hesse Cassel, an insurrection, with barricades, and conflicts be-
tween a portion of the people and the soldiery, were needed be-
fore the Elector would yield.

At the united Diet at Frankfort, they agreed that their rulers
ought to cease to be alone represented at the Diet, and demand-
ed that the people should have their representatives at its sittings.

On the 5th of March, fifty-one representatives of different coun-
tries of Prussia, Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Hesse Cassel,
Nassau, and Hesse Darmstadt, met together at Heidelberg to
consult on the state of Germany, and the steps necessary to be
adopted in such a crisis. They unanimously adopted a series
of resolutions, embodying the following plans : — That no war
of intervention should be made against the new order of things ;
that no attempts should be made to deprive other nations of the
liberty and independence which they had earned as a right ;
that a representative assembly should be convened for all German
states, to avert internal and external dangers, and to develop the
energy and prosperity of the country ; that a body of volunteer
representatives should be organized to offer their assistance to
Government in this matter ; and that all Germany should unite
to defend the country against foreign aggression. The Diet, then
sitting at Frankfort, on the fallowing day declared its conviction
of the necessity of reforming ihe Federal Diet, and invoked the
different (Jerman states to send immediately to Frankfort men
enjoying the confidence of their countrymen, to assist in the de-
Uberalions necessary for anew constitution of the Diet. During
this first week of March, matters remained tranquil in the north

form, express-
jiis which the
[led the idc . of
nd resolved to
he matter, sub-
i witnessed the
5 people of Mu-
streets in the
m. In the ex-
inal, possessed
ipped, uncheck-
Kced from King
>d to make. A
t Paris, and we
mts of the king-
;dom ofWirtem-
of Hesse Darm-
At Hanau, in
and conflicts be-
were needed be-

;hat their rulers
iet, and deniand-
ves at its sittings.

of diff"erent coun-
>, Hesse Cassel,
at Heidelberg to
J necessary to be

adopted a series
: — That no war
' order of things ;
ler nations of the
arned as a right ;
led for all German
Mid to develop the
body of volunteer
their assistance to
nany should unite
1. The Diet, then
aredits conviction
t, and invoked the
' to Frankfort men
, to assist in the de-

the Diet. During
ranquil in the north

GERMAN V. 701

and south of Germany, though the uneasiness felt by the royal
heads and their councillors had very much increased. The agi-
tation of the sturdy inhabitants of the Rhine provinces, and slight
symptoms of the same near the capital, induced Prince Fred-
erick William of Prussia, on the fith, \.o promisr. that he would
grant to the assembled States the right conferred by the law of
the 3d of February on the assembled Committees of the States, to
meet periodically, at fixed times ; and he promised to confirm the
privileges of the Committees in a corresponding manner. No time,
however, was fixed. On the same day the Prince of Prussia was
appointed Governor-General of the lihine Provinces. He did
not, however, leave Berlin. Largo bodies of troops were moving
all this time from the eastern provinces of Prussia to the neigh-
borhood of the Rhine. On the 10th of the month the King of
Prussia issued a decree declarin;,' himself dissatisfied with the
resolution of the Diet with respect to the freedom of the press,
and announced that, unless the Diet granted substantively the
freedonri of the press for the whole Confederation, he would take
the initiative for the Prussian kingdom at the next meeting. We
may here state that on the 14th he issued another decree, an-
nouncing that, in conjunction with Austria and Saxony, he had
accepted the invitation of the Diet to send deputies to Frankfort,
for the purpose of deliberating on the re-construction of the Fed-
eral Diet on a more extended basis, and in order that, fundament-
ally united by strengthened free institutions, Germany might once
more become one great country, and re-assume its ancient grand-
eur and proper rank in Europe.

While King Frederick William was thus engaged in Pnissia,
his ally in Saxony was nndergoinp the process of compulsory
concession. Dresden and Leipsic pronounced in favor of the
universal progress, and compelled the King to grant their
request King Ernest Augustus of Hanover, after much tempo-
rising and great delays, which, if prolonged another day, might
have cost him his throne, was compelled on the 16f.h to grant the
demands of the Hanoverians. Long held to be the moet politi-
cally careless race in Germany, their city, one of the most pleas-
ant in Europe for the resort of foreigners, renowned for its varied
attractions, musical, theatrical, and scientific, but regarded as
dead to all else, the Viennese nevertheless preceded Berlin in
the attainment of the Constitutional Government.

On the 1 3th March, the session of the Diet of Lower Austria
was opened. An immense concourse of the inhabitants assem-
bled in the neighborhood of the church, headed by the students.
They drew up a petition in favor of constitutional Government,
freedom of the press, national armament, trial by jury, and re-

CHAPTER XIV.

,i,ious freedom. Having P"-"-^, tral\in'« ^e sU,de^

Assembly, ^^^^'^X^^^^A Notwithstanding this as-
that their demands should lie gr^nt^' • ' . j ^omxA-

suranee of the A-h «k. n^^^^^^^^^^^ - ^one ,^ ^Jhdra^n^ithin
gating freedom o the V^^^^^2\vere then refused. Angry and
half an hour, and f '«'i'^ ^^^'^'f ' ^^ents rushed upon the arsenal,
excited, the populace and ^"^'^f "'^"^^^^^^ who were or-

obtained arms, and advanced to meet the sow^ ^ ^^^^_

dered to suppress the not n J^^l^^^^h^'night of the 13th,
cades were built an cnfl^ee.^^^^^^^ „o^„p.ession on

and <"°'^"'"g°V^W Government, finding the neighboring coun-
the rioters ; and the '^overnmenw b insurrectionists,

trymen were flock ng ^"^VllU were also leivfng the ranks, felt
and a^at portion of Oie soldiery wer^^ resigned the

themselves compelled to ^^uccu ino ^yiUiam, retired, the

unpopular Archdukes, Albert, >'"'i '^ '^'«* ^^'^^j^ i„3talled,

feller :=^^^^ ,

3i; l50willberoumUobenearjhetr.h^^ ^^^^.^^^ |

One of the results o ^^^^ cliange was^ h^Mi^^^g^ y^^^ ^._ ^
, a national government. ^^ "ungar^^^ ^^^ ^^^^

I ously remonstrated verv s^ron y ^ ^ f ^^ Austrian author-
Metternich, and had 'l«'"*f ^f '7^^7,'/, „ ^^ places.
i,ies, and the substitution "f^^XmeeUng was held in Berlin,
On the I3th of March, a "i«"^;^;";^3 j,, other countries,
to petition the K ng for the ^«^«7; ^^^^^^^^^ "i^s dispersed by
The meeting, which was raherj^mulu^^^^^^^ ^^^^P^^^ ^^

the soldiery; blood was ^^^'^'.^.i^^^Vee, which were put
the 14th aiid I5th, simdar -- -ff^tiCday the students of
down in the same way. On the lol o g y .^ ^^^.^

Berlin, united with those "J »;f ^^^^^^^ peUtbns were granted,
titions, and threatened to arm, un ess their p ^t^Herlin,

On the 17th the R.«volu"0" ".Vienna becan^e K ^^^^ ^^^^^^

and, on the morning «f . ^J« f ^^i^d "^ge union of the whole
markable decree, in which he dema^^e^ confederation, the

German Enripire, the i;*-"^?;^ ^"J.^"^^^ common army, and a

institution of a •=«""^°" ^ '1^2 nly intimated his willing-
common customs union, and very plain ^^ ^^ ^.j^

nes8 to ascend th>, Imperial throne ^^l^" ^^^^jf %, had been

■"Ml

■'. .

or.RMANy.

703

8 of the Hall of
uring the students
hstanding this as-
i decree, promul-
ftfithdrawn within
ised. Angry and
upon the arsenal,
ers, who were or-
f the town barri-
nightof the 13th,
no impression on
neighboring coun-
le insurrectionists,
ring the ranks, felt
ich resigned, the
'illiam, retired, the
■ ministry installed,
the 15th of March,
as burnt. The ac-
two days vary very

Hungary obtained
hamber had pr n-
s policy pursued by
the Austrian author-
leir places.

was held in Berlin,

in other countries.
, was dispersed by
ivr" .vere lost. On
,ce, which were put

day the students of
le people in their pe-
ilitions were granted,
me known at Berlin,
r issued that most re-
[e union of the whole
ts confederation, the
3ommon army, and a
intimated his willing-
wledging, as he did,
ceeding, he had been
Vienna. Tliough the
nds of his people he

was necessary to the

attainment of his object, to grant some, at least, of the required
concessions. lie granted liberty of tbe press, subject to the
penal laws for libel, <tc., and convoked the Diet for the 2d of
April. Slight as were these concessions, the great aspirations
of his Majesty were very popular apparently ; and in the after-
noon of the ne day the people assembled in the square in
front of the pa ,ce, to thank the King and cheer him, when, by
an unaccountable accident, suddenly two shots were fired, and
the people were immediately charged by the infantry and
cavalry, with whom the palace and its courts were filled ; many
lives were lost, and the people fled in all directions. Barricades
were erected, the gun-shops sacked, and the people armed.
All that afternoon and the following night did the battle rage
with the utmost vehemence.

In the morning, though apparently successful, the troops were
utterly worn out with fatigue ; and their General being in the
hands of the people, a prisoner, the King capitulated, ordered all
the troops to leave the town, permitted the establishment of the
burgher guard, granted universal suffrage, dismissed his hated
minist»-s, (Bodelschwingh, Thile, and Eichorn,) and nominated
Count Arnim President of the Council, with Count Schwerin
and M. Auerswald (all Liberals) as his assistants. On the
morning of the 19lh a royal proclnmation appeared, declaring
that the revolution had been caused by evil-minded foreigners,
and that his troops did not use their weapons until forced to do
so to defend themselves. On Sunday morning his Majesty was
forced to appear in the balcony, to see thirty-seven dead bodies,
the victims either of a blunder or an unfortunate treachery. Of
the people, nearly two hundred and forty fell during the fight ;
the number of soldiers killed is not known, but is conjectured to
be near seven or eight hundred. Of course, very many died of
their wounds subsequently. On the 20th a political amnesty
was declared, and M. Camphausen summoned to assist in the
ministry. During the conflict, the Prince of Prussia, who was
very obnoxious to the people, remained hidden in the palace.
He subsequently left Berlin disguised, and fled to England. On
the 21st, King Frederick William annihilated the kingdom of
Prussia in a proclamation, and declared his intention of once
more uniting Germany, and taking it under his guidance in these
moments of peril and anarchy. Prussia was to be merged into
Germany ; constitutional government, equal political and civil
rights, popular and liberal administrations, were the order of the
day. This proclamation was received with enthusiasm, and on
the following day the King rode through Berlin, wearing the
German national colors, escorted by h;ilf the population, the

i I \

i
?

i
1
1

H^^

704

CHAPTER XIV.

blood of the slain subjects hardly dried in the streets, and their
bodies lying in state in all the churches. On that occasion, his
Majesty swore that ho did not intend to dethrone any one Ger-
man Prince — that he did not wish for the Imperial Crown, and
only wanted liberty, union, and good order in Germany. To
assist in the ministerial deliberations on the new constitution,
Professor Dohlmann, the well-known historian and tried friend
of liberty, was summoned to Berlin.

While matters were proceeding thus in the capital of Prussia,
King Ludwig of Havaria suddenly abdicated the throne in favor
of his son Maximilian. On the 22d, the new King opened the
Chambers in person ; and in a gracious speech from the throne,
announced his intention of perfecting the concessions granted
by his father.

In Austria, matters were steadily progressing ; the Ministry,
employed in securing by law the liberal concessions, were
assisted by twelve members of the Diet and twelve citizens.
The secret police was abolished, freedom of the press being
considered a guarantee against treasonable associations ; a po-
litical amnesty was pronounced, and nearly 200 political pris-
oners were released.

At Presburg, the capital of Hungary, great dissatisfaction was
expressed at two decrees, which placed the control of the Gov-
ernment somewhat in the hands of Vienna ; in the National
Assembly violent speeches were made, and the two Imperial
Commissioners were burnt in effigy in the streets. The bohe-
mians being also at this time much agitated, Uaron Pillersdorf
promised them that all their demands should be granted ; that
they should have their national representatives, a national guard,
and that their own i.inguaae sliould be used. On the Gth April,
the Ministry at Vienna underwent another change; Archduke
Ludwig, Kolowrath, and Knheck, who were suspected of reac-
tionary designs, resigned office, and were succeeded by Arch-
duke John, M. Fiquelmont, and Krauss, with Marshal Zanini
for Mieiister of War. Hungary continued much agitated, and
Bohemia was in open reljoUion, two or tinoe of the Magnates or
Princes setting themselves up for Kings.

Vienna, during the whole of April k J May, may be said to
ha:'e been uikIct the rule of the mob, guided by the students.
On the lOih serious disturbances occurred, Piquelmont was
forced to resign, and was succeeded by Baron Sehzellini. On
tie 18th of .May the Kmperor left Vienna, and by a party of his
friends, anxious for his personal safety, was conveyed to Inn-
spruck in the Tyrol, .\fter his arrival at Innspruck, he issued
a proclamation, in which he promised to contirm his concessions

.^*g?n»0?"*Wt''»*i'W«w ^-^-

•mt*,

OEHMANY.

705

itreets, and their
jat occasion, his
ne any one Ger-
erial Crown, and
Germany. To
new constitution,
1 and tried friend

capital of Prussia,
ho throne in favor
King opened the
h from the throne,
ncessions granted

ing ; the Ministry,
concessions, were
id twelve citizens.
»f the press being
issociations ; a po-
200 political pris-

; dissatisfaction was
control of the Gov-
a; in the National
d the two Imperial
Itreets. The Uohe-
1, Uaron Pillersdorf
lid be granted ; that
es, a national guard,
. On the Gth April,
change ; Archduke
3 suspected of rfiac-
succeeded by Arch-
vilh Marshal Zanini
much agitated, and
e. of the Magnates or

May, may be said to
ded by the students,
ed, Fiquelmont was
aron Sehzellini. On
and by a party of his
t&a conveyed to Inn-
Innspruck, he issued
inlirm his concessions

in March, and offered lo return to Vienna when order and tran-
quillity should be restored. On the 27th of May fresh disturb-
ances occurred at Vienna, in consequence of an order from the
Minister for the Interior to the students' legion to disband. Bar-
ricades were built, and afler a short conflict the students were
victorious. Baron Pillersdorf then ratified the wishes of the
citizens and students, declared them independent of every other
authority, and answerable for the public safety. Vienna then
became tranquil, and the elections to the new Assembly pro-
ceeded quietly.

Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia openly revolted, and pro-
claimed their intention of founding a Slavonic Empire, while
Hungary, having been fraternally addressed by the Emperor, in
proclamations and decrees, and its demands having been
granted, remained tolerably quiet and loyal, the Emperor prom-
ising to visit Presburg and Pesth.

In Bohemia events were rapidly hurrying to a crisis. The
hatred of the Austrian Government was as deep as it was of old
standing. The weak and vacillating conduct of the Austrian
Government, the infectious triumphs of the people at Vienna,
fanned the love of insurrection, and on the 29th of May a Pro-
visional Government was proclaimed at Prague, independent of
Vienna, with Count Leo Thun at his head. Immediately after
its establishment, the Provisional Government opened a com-
munication with Vienna, and a perfect conflict of protocols
ensued, which lasted more than a week. Irritated at the
triumphs and determination of the Bohemians, preparations
were made on the 12th June, by the Austrian commander in
Prague, Count Windischgrfttz, to remove some of the cannon
and other military stores to the neighboring bills, which com-
manded the city, when the inhabitants opposed this proceeding
by force. A roost fearful and bloody contest ensued, which
lasted until the 15th, when, finding the troops unable to sustain
the fight in the narrow streets of the city, Count Windischgr&tz
drew off his troops, and on the two following days bombarded
the town from the neighboring heights. On uie evening of the
17th, thirteen of the insurrectionary Ifad'-rs 6tirr- nderod, and the
town once more was in the hands of the .m^triurts. The num-
ber of the slain has not been accurately ascertained, but was
very great.

Berlin, in the days immediately after the revolution, quietly
witnessed the change of ministry, and listening to the promises
that were made, on the 22d the inhabitants commenced assem-
bling in moderate meetings, to discuss the social question of tbo
day, viz., the want of regular well-paid employment ; they ended

706

CHAPTER XIV.

ii9i

in demanding the formation of a ministry for the administration of
labor. On the 24th, the King promised the national organization
of Posen ; and immediately appointed a committee, half Ger-
mans and half Poles, to confer with his commissioner, Count
Wilbain, on the necessary proceedings to be adopted. This
proceeding was regarded with much dissatisfaction by the Ger-
man inhabitants, who, inimical towards the Poles, composed ihe
larger number of the inhabitants. On the 28th of March a new
ministry entered oilice ; Counts Arnim and Schwerin retired,
and tluir places were tilled by MM. Camphausen, Hauscmann,
Bornemann, Auerswald, men of the most radical character.
Their first step in office was to procure from his Majesty a
decree placing the whole public business in their hands, and
rendering them responsible for its conduct. On the 3d of April
the Diet was opened, and for the Rrst time were its sittings open
to the press and the public. Ministers were well received.
Great difficulty was experienced by the authorities in employing
the people out of work ; large public works were planned and
immediately commenced, and the poorer classes in the town
were sent to cleanse the dirty streets. The Diet occupied itself
in discussing a project for a new law of elections for the Assem-
bly to be convoked for the consideration of the Prussian Consti-
tution. The elections were to be indirect ; every 500 inhabit-
ants, of the age of twenty-four, were to elect one elector, and 80
of these electors were to elect the deputy. Every one was
qualified to vote at the age of twenty-four, and to be elected at
the age of thirty. About 350 members were to be thus elected,
and so their Assembly would meet as one Chamber. Those
laws were adopted by large majorities.

The alarming condition of the province of Posen at this time
attracted much attention. The concessions made to the Poles
by the King had very much alarmed the German inhabitants,
more particularly the peasants. Several bloody engagements
took place, in the earlier of which the Poles, under Mieros-
lawski, obtained the most decisive advantages ; but on the 6ih
of May a general engagement ensued in the neighborhood of
Xionx, in which Mieroslawski was defeated and made prisoner.
The routed Poles were pursued and dispersed on all sides.
The insurrection was completely quelled; and General ('olonib
having been withdrawn, General Pfuehl, the President of the
province, by conciliatory, but determined measures, suixeoded
in quelling the turbulent spirits.

The Assembly at Frankfort has sipce rejected a proposition
for the indepcndoncr of I'osen.

The sending away of boine arms from the arsenal on the SOtb

, administration of

;ioiinl organization

mittee, half der-

imissioner, Count

e adopted. This

iction by the Ger-

)le8, composed the

ih of March a new

Schwerin retired,

lusen, Hauscmann,

radical character.

om his Majesty a

a their hands, and

On the 3d of April

ere its sittings open

rere well received.

Drities in employing

s were planned and i

ilasses in the town j

Diet occupied itself j

tions for the Assem-

the Prussian Consti-

; every 500 inhabit-

t one elector, and 80

y. Every one was

and to be elected at

re to be thus elected,

e Chamber. Those

Df Poaen at this time
s made to the Poles
German inhabitants,
bloody engagements
Poles, under Mieros-
iges ; but on the 6ih
the neighborhood of
sd and made prisoner,
ipersed on all sides,
and General Colomb
the President of the
measures, succeeded

rejected a proposition

be arsenal on the 30tb

OERMANY.

707

of May, excited the students and the people ; the boats were
stoppt'd, the cases opened, and the contents divided among the
actors in this scene. The turbulent excitement of the people
increased day by day ; they demanded that the working classes
should be armed. This was partially conceded, and they wore
pacified. On the 6th, the Prince of Prussia anived in Berlin,
and took his seat in the Assembly on the 8th. His reception
was any thing but favorable.

Angry dissatisfaction was excited out of doors by the success
of a motion in the Assembly that the revolution should not be
acknowledged. The ministerial crisis existed until M. Camp-
hauscn resigned ; his succesfor being M. Auerswald, one of
his colleagues. The present ministry is regarded as rather
democratic. It has need of wisdom, courage, and determina-
tion ; for the same causes which effected the fearful events in
Paris are at work in lierlin and elsewhere. Foresight and pru-
dence may prevent an outbreak ; but men are beginning to dread
its occurrence.

As the Germanic Parliament took a very active part in sup-
porting the war in SchleswigHolstein, it will be well to narrate
the proceedings of that body before the events of the war. The
assembly of deputies from all the states of Germany, who were
appointed to make arrangements for the convocation of a German
Parliament, was constituted on the 31st of March. After a
preliminary meeting, the plan for the election of the German
Parliament was proposed, based upon universal suffrage, with-
out consideration of property, class, or religious creed. The
Assembly resolved, at its first meeting, to recognize Schleswig-
Holstein, and urged upon the federal states of the empire, par-
ticularly Prussia, the necessity of assisting the duchies in their
endeavors to maintain their independence. They also decided
upon the incorporation of the province of Posen in the Diet, as
well as East and West Prussia. During the sittings of this
Assembly, the Republican party made several attempts to procure
the recognition of Republican principles, but they were com-
pletely defeated, the Assembly declaring that the constitution
of Germany could alone be remodelled upon the broadest con-
stitutional monarchical basis. They held their last sitting on
the 7th of April, and then dissolved, leaving a committee en per-
manence, to keep the Diet which still existt-d up to the proper
mark, and to discuss the question of the new German constitu-
tion. On the 27th this committee completed tht^ir labors, and
presented the Diet their project for a Constitution, which was
drawn up by the celebrated Dahlmann. It proposed that all the
states hitherto belonging to the Confederation should form one

^MM

708

CIIAI'TEfl XIV.

empire, with their separate inJopenilence somowhut limited.
That the Government of the F.mpiro should represent Germany
or any particular state in foreign aflairs, and manage all diplo-
matic matters, determine upon peace or war, controll the army
and navy, the customs, canals, railways, and telegraphs, all
legislation, and dispose of all customs and postage revenues.
The power of the empire to ho united in the Eniptror, the Im-
perial Upper and Imperial Lower House. The Upper House
to consist of 200 members : viz. all the reigning princes ; a
deputy from each of the four free towns ; Peers to be chosen,
half by the Parliaments and lialf by the reigning princes, for a
term of twelve years, one-third withdrawing at the end of every
four years ; the Lower House to consist of representatives of
the people, one for every 100,000 souls. The Parliament to
meet once a year at Frankfort, and the Lower House to have
the controll of the budget, similarly to the English House of
Commons. A supreme court of justice to bo instituted at
Nuremh rg, to decide all disputes between reigning princes, or
against any one of them, and all charges of high treason.

On the 18th of May the German Parliament mot for the first
time at Frankfort ; 397 members were present. M. Von Gagern,
the monarchist candidate for the presidency, was elected by u
majority of 280 votes. The first sittings were occupied by
questions of form, and in settling something like standing orders;
frequent attempts, however, were made by the Republicans to
procure a Republic in Germany ; and though some diflfered as
to the form of government, all were agreed on the question of
its union into one great Confederation. They appointed a com-
mittee to consider the proposed Constitution, and another to
consider whether a provisional central power should be created
until the adoption of the Constitution. During the sittings of
these committees many heated discussions took place, but
nothing of importance occurred, excepting the appointment of
another Committee, to consider the rights of the people. On
the 26th of June, the latter, and the Committee on the provisional
central power, made their reports to Parliament. The former
issued the following declaration of rights : Religious liberty,
gratuitous education, freedom of opinion, inviolable secrecy of
letters, the inhabitant of any state to possess the same political
privileges while residing in another, right of petitioning, meet-
ing, and forming clubs ; no political privileges ; equality of taxa-
tion ; independence of the judges ; trial by jury ; constitutional
representation of the people in every state ; mul the Ministers
to be responsible ; all Parliaments to be opun to the public.
The other committee proposed the institution of a Directory of

CKIIMANY.

709

lowhilt limited.

.sent Germany

luuigo all (liplo-
■iitroll the army

telegraphs, all
stafTo revenues.
miHfor, the Im-
le Upper House
ning princes ; a
rs to be chosen,
ng princes, for a
the end of every
epresonlalivcs of
ic Parliament to
r House to have
Inglish House of

bo instituted at
gning princes, or
;h treason.
It met for the first

M. Von Gagern,
was elected by a
vere occupied by
Le standing orders ;
he Republicans to
I some differed as
on the question of
y appointed a com-
in, and another to

should be created
ing the sittings of
8 took place, but
;he appointment of
f the people. On
e on the provisional
ment. The former

Religious liberty,
violable secrecy of
B the same political
f petitioning, meet-
5s; equality of taxa-
jury ; constitutional
; nii'l the Ministers
open to the public,
on of a Directory of

Stote, to i)<) approvful and appointed by tho (ierman Parliament,
with very oxtendi'd powers. On the '.iTlli this proposition was
rejected ; and on the '28th the I'ariiament decided upon appoint-
ing a Lieuten!tnt-(iciieral of the Empire, to bo perfectly irrc-
sponsiliie. This also enacted that, on the appointment of the
Lieutenant-Cieneral of the Empire, the existence of the Diet
was at an end ; and, further, that on the completion and adop
tion of the Constitution for Germany, the Provisional Central
Power should cease.

On the 29th the Assembly proceeded to the election of the
Lieutenant-General. The choice fell upon the Archduke John
of Austria, who is uncle of the Emperor of Austria, liberal in
politics, and a thoroughly practical man.

But little space remains for a brief narrative of the events in
Schleswig-Holstein. A long, narrow, sandy peninsula com-
prises the two Duchies and Jutland. For more than a century
the two former have been under Danish rule, though they al-
ways considered themselves as governed by the King of Den-
mark in his capacity as a Sovereign Prince of Germany. Ix>ng
dissatisfied with the Danish rule, and more particularly with a
recent refusal of the King to concede to them any of their de-
mands, they declared themselves independent of Denmark, and
a German Duchy, on the 26th of March, under the sway of the
Duke of Augustenburg. The Provisional Government sent to
Hanover, Berlin, and Hamburg for assistance, which was granted
from the two former, and before the 3rd of April more than
13,000 Prussians and Hanoverians had entered Holstein. TSc
inhabitants had already possessed themselves of Ren »)> irg, aut*
had expelled the Danish authorities. The Danes wc ? not b«'
hind hand with their military preparations, and very soon had
an imposing force in the field ; while the extraordinary popular-
ity of the war in Germany brought shoals of volunteers from even
the southernmost states of Germany to the assistance of their
enemies. At Flensburg an engagement took place between the
Holsteiners and Danes, in which the latter were victorious.
Nearly 20,000 Prussians and Hanoverians, besides volunteers
and Schleswig-Holsteiners, were now under arms against the
Danes, whose forces were nearly equal. During the months
of April and May a great many skirmishes occuned, with vari-
able success ; one or two general engagements at Schleswig and
Apenraade, and one which lasted two days at Duppeln. The
Danes were driven northward, and the combined troops were
at one time in possession of Jutland. The island of Alsen was
also the scene of an engagement. Though beaten and driven
back on land, the King of Denmark made several reprisals at

Pk''

l.t,

I . 1.

1'^ I

710

tHAPTER XIV.

SOU. Iln hlocknilcd tht* wlioh; nortlifrn coimt of (iiTtrtunv ; hia
VDHscU of wiir look poM.sj'HHion olilif ri<h iiH'rclmnt sliipN rftiirn-
iiig to lluinbiirg ami Hreiiieii — uii inculculuble loan tu ihu ilunse
Towns*.

Swetlfi! . omine li'.Btl prepariiiiovis (or tlio adsistanco of Den-
mark ; Ku. • . "S'<» ro^M'rUul to li« doing the same ; the Diet at
Frankfort ii;e ed all ■ ii rs of mediation for a long time, and
ihn national r<jt'lir!): in i 'or of the Duchies wus beginning to
flag.

Uy these united eiforts, an armistice for three months, between
I'russia nnd Denmark, wa« fllocted, which was concluded at
Malmo, between Count I'ortalis, on the part of the King of Prus-
sia, and the Swedish and Danish ministers. The conditions of
the armistice were that the 'Jerman and Danish troops should
withdraw, and that the provisional goeernment should act until
a new ndministration could be formed from the duchies, two
membe'a of which should be nominatod by Denmark, and two
by Prusp'a. npresidentto bo selected by the four, or in the event
oi'dJsagrectdvnt, by England.

The dunhiea declined yielding to this arrangement, and Gen.
Mangel, who claimed to be a cuiifedorate, as well as Prussian
general, was unwillingto comply with it until he should be em-
powered from Frankfort.

It was therefore apprehended that hostilities would recom-
mence, although Ijord Palmerston was anxious that the truce
should be maintained. It remains yet to be seen whether Den-
mark is to bo further dismembered, or whether the Germans
are so bent on obtaining the maritime territory of Denmark to
strengthen their naval power as to risk a war.

Revolutions in Italy in 1848.

At the death of Gregory XVI., the political affairs of Italy
had reached a point which imperiously demanded reform :
thousands of her citizens were exiled in foreign lands, and the
prisons were crowded with political offeno^rs. There was no
public instruction, and justice was unattainable.

On the 16th of June, 1846, the conclave of Cardinals, assem-
bled for the purpose of choosing his successor, declared the
Cardinal Giambaiista de Majitia Ferrelti, also Bishop of Imola,
elected under the name of Pius IX., and on the morning of the
21st of June, the new Pope was solemnly crowned at St. Peter's
in the Vatican.

f OiTrniiMy ; his
itiil shipN rt'tiirii-
\}Ha tu till! liuiiHe

listanco of Den-
iie ; the Diet at
a loiii; time, and
tvua beginning to

months, between
was concluded at
he King of I'rus-
rhe conditions of
ih troops should
should act until
the duchies, two
)enmark, and two
ur, or in the event

rement, and Gen.
well as Prussian
he should be em-
ties would recom-
tus that the truce
een whether Den-
ther the Germans
iry of Denmark to

cal affairs of Italy
demanded reform :
cigii lands, and the
r3. There was no
le.

f Cardinals, asseni-
Bssor, declared the
so Bishop of Imola,
the morning of the
owned at St. Peter's

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ITALY.

711

Pius at once commenced those reforms throughout his domin-
ions, whose progress attracted the attention of the civilized world.
He suppressed the military warrants, a kind of secret tribunal
for the seizure and condemnation of political offenders, and pub-
lished a decree that no one should be prosecuted for his political
opinions. On a certain day of each week he gave a public
audience to persons of every rank and condition, without any
distinction. In the hall of the Vatican he caused a private
letter box for himself to be placed. He had filled the office of
Pope but one month, when an amnesty was declared for all
political offenders. This event was followed by festivals and
illuminations, continuing many days, both in the Roman States
and other parts of Italy. To relieve those who had been ruined
by imprisonment, the Pope joined with many others in a sub-
scription for their benefit.

The joy of the Bolognese was so excessive that they voted
a marble statue to Pius IX. Political parties, throughout Italy,
resolved themselves into one great party of the Pope. By a
circular issued by the Secretary of State, Pius invited from all
the magistrates, suggestions for the instruction of the poorer
classes, and for the suppression of the miseries of idleness and
ignorance ; and a committee was appointed for the investigation
of the subject, anjl for the establishment of the desired reforms.
The income he received from the bishopric of Imola, was
appropriated to public charities. He solicited from private com-
panies of citizens, projects for railroads in the Roman States,
for the promotion of industry and commerce.

Resolving to publish a new code of laws, in place of that
existing, as old as popery itself, he appointed three eminent men
to assist in its compilation ; and judicial and penal systems, which
abolished capital punishment, and established trial by jury, were
adopted by them.

By order of the Pope, every town sent a delegate to Rome to
report concerning the wants of the people, and a private con-
gress was established to grant all necessary improvements. On
the 18th of November he preached to a vast crowd assembled
in San Giovanni, in the Lateran, and afforded the first example
of a pontifl^s preaching publicly. He was followed to the
Quirinal palace by the multitude, with shouts of joy. On the
20th of the month he proclaimed a universal jubilee.

He gave orders to found asylums of infancy, and houses of
education ; and for laboring people in Rome, who could not attend
oy day, he established free night schools, at his own expense.
He prohibited beggary, and at his own cost endowed public
alms-bouses for the destitute.

712

CHAPTER XIV.

In a letter to the leaders of all the religious orders, he com-
manded them to be examples of morality and religion, and the
funds of many religious societies ho applied to public charities
and instruction. The freedom of the press was declared, amid
the rejoicings of the whole people, and the friends of liberty,
throughout Italy, encouraged the Pope in his system of reform.

The Emperor of Austria, alarmed by these movements, used
every measure to change the course of the Pope, and at length
threatened an invasion of the Roman States. Accordingly, on
the 19th of July, 1847, the Austrian army entered Ferrara, with
lighted matches, as if moving against an enemy. The news
of the occupation of the city excited such a spirit of revenge,
that in many states the people were clamorous for arms.

In the course of a few weeks, although there was no outbreak,
no open display of force, the whole aspect of Italy was so
changed, that the Papal Nuncio at Vienna was enabled in the
name, not merely of the Papal States, but of all Italy, to demand
the withdrawal of the troops. On the 23d of December, the
Austrian troops were marched from Ferrara ; and the right of
all the States of Italy, not under Austria, to choose their own
forms of government, was established.

Charles Albert, king of Sardinia and Piedmont, was the first
Italian Prince who favored the new Pope and his policy, and
offered him military aid against his enemies.

The Pope and the Grand Duke of Tuscany and Lucca, formed
an alliance with Charles Albert. The publication of the con-
vention of these princes set forth " that these states, animated by
the desire to contribute by union to the increase of the dignity
and prosperity of Italy, and being persuaded that the true and
essential basis of the union of Italy consists in the fusion of the
material interests of the population of their respective domin-
ions, have agreed to form an association on the principal of the
German Commercial League, the tariff to be drawn up with the
utmost amount of commercial freedom, compatible with the
respective interests of the contracting powers." The news of
this convention was received throughout Italy with enthusiasm.
It was a revolution, a return to the ancient free trade policy of
Italy, and brought with it hopes of the restoration of commerce,
and the revival of trade and industry.

Throughout Austrian Italy the impulse was felt ; it made the
trade-repression rule of the foreign power more irksome.

At the close of last year the Austrian Cabinet resolved to
reinforce the army in Italy, so as to have 40,000 men at com-
mand without lessening the strength of the several garrisons.
The measure was notified to ihe^^reat powers as being intended

.,a0imM&^^

irders, he com-
iligion, and the
public charities

declared, amid
ends of liberty,
Item of reform,
lovements, used
3, and at length
Accordingly, on
id Ferrara, with
ly. The news
lirit of revenge,
>r arms.

iras no outbreak,
if Italy was so

enabled in the
[taly, to demand

December, the
,nd the right of
loose their own

lit, was the first
his policy, and

d Lucca, formed
tion of the con-
tes, animated by
re of the dignity
lat the true and
the fusion of the
spective domin-
principal of the
awn up with the
latible with the
' The news of
vith enthusiasm,
e trade policy of
on of commerce,

felt ; it made the
irksome,
linet resolved to
)00 men at com-
everal garrisons.
IS being intended

ITALY.

713

solely for the better security of the Austrian possessions in
Italy.

On the 19th of December, M. Nazari, deputy of the city of
Bergamo, in the central congregation of the kingdom, moved a
resolution that a committee be appointed to lay before the Em-
peror of Austria a project of reform for the Lombardo-Venetian
kingdom. The motion was founded on the universal discontent
of the country. It was opposed by the Governor of Milan,
President of the congregation, who declared that the Viceroy
himself was engaged in preparing a project of reform ; never-
theless, the resolution was passed unanimously by the Assembly ;
the committee was appointed, and the inhabitants of Milan
crowded to the residence of Nazari to inscribe their names as
an expression of approbation and respect.

The committee consisted of deputies from Como, Milan,
Cremona, Lodi, Brescia, Bergamo, Mantua. But neither in
answer to the committee, nor as the invention of the viceroy,
was any reform promulgated or even promised; instead, troops
continued to arrive, and the directors of the imperial iron foundry
at Mariazelle, in Austria, announced publicly that for six months
they could not execute any private orders, as night and day the
entire works would be employed in casting cannons and millions
of projectiles.

At Pavia the university was provisionally closed ; a fight took
place between the students and Austrians ; six or seven persons
were killed, and thirty wounded.

At Turin, on the 14th, a grand funeral service was celebrated
in the church of La Gran Madre de Dio, in commemoration of
the patriots murdered at Milan and Pavia. The most respecta-
ble inhabitants, dressed in deep mourning, assisted at the cere-
mony. A similar funeral ceremony was celebrated in the church
of the Lombards at Rome, the Pope permitting the demonstra-
tion which the Austrian Ambassador had vainly endeavored to
prevent. The young men belonging to the Lombardo-Venetian
Guard, instituted in 1838, at the coronation of the Emperor at
Milan, all tendered their resignations ; the theatres were de-
serted, and the expression of hatred to Austria, and condemna-
tion of the conduct of the police, military, and Government, were
universal.

At Venice, notwithstanding the prohibition of the police, ladies
made a collection for the wounded of Milan, and 8000 francs
were forwarded, with a letter of sympathy, from the Venetians.
The Mayor of Vincenzia forwarded 2000 francs from the inhab-
itants. At Verona, 1600 francs were subscribed in eight hours,
when the subscription was stopped by the police. On receipt

i mmmsmm m-i'wmc:

714

CHAPTER XIV.

of the nPW8 from Milan, orders were dispatched from Vienna,
and followod by the arrest of several distinsu.shod ""l.v.doals.
;„ aSo^to tLse. as the lower orders were th- Ume d.scon-
tented upwards of 400 of them were apprehended; 180 of he
voungest^rnd most robust were sent to Trieste to serve m he
shiDS of the Imperial navy, and the remainder, without even the

^^^7^f'''ToSr^

SriSa'ranVth^^'JegirK?^^^^^

in ihfi massacre of Gallicia, was quartered at favia.

The Emje or wrote to the Archduke Uai^ner, Viceroy of he
Lombardo Venetian kingdom:-"! have duly exammed the
events which occurred at Milan on the 2d and 3d ins ant. U
L evident to me that a faction, desirous to destroy pu bhc orde
and tfanqu llity, exists in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom All
S you deen^ed necessary to satisfy the waiits and wishes of

e different provinces, I have already done for the Lombardo-
vletian kingdom. / am not disposed to grant further conces-
l«r Your Highness will make'^known my sentiments to he
pubUc The a tlude of the majority of the population of the
Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, however, induces a YJ^^.'
simTar distressing scenes shall not again occur. At all events,
I rely on the loyalty and courage "/-^JJ^Vekdinano I.)

This letter was interpreted by General Radetzsky in an order
of the day issued to the troors under his command, in terms the

"mtS of to Ce"r and his general had some efTe.t.
On the 2 st'of June, three hundred of the most respectable
h^habiLts of Milan Applied to the police for their passports ;
every body dreaded a second Gallicia. and was eager to leave
r^countVbefore the fury of Austria might break forth m

P^&gthrcr;: of these events in Venetian Lombardy. th«
subjec of Ferdiiiand of Sicily also demanded ex ensive refor^

A oromise that public offices in Sicily should be filled by
Sic'^Urs ha'd been' openly broken, and that the people migh
have no opportunity of remonstratmg, the liberty of the press
SS been Ihshed^ and all foreign newspapers, even those of
absolute Governments, had been prohibited.

The people petitioned for reforms, and were PUt off wUh
nromises At the commencement of the present year, Ferdi-
S3 of Naples became active, presided daily at councils at
wMch the sL of the country, the deficit m the finances, and the

iSMHU

HTTttJ-'l '■ •■-"-"-' -"-''*■'«"'

ITALY.

715

ed from Vienna,
hed individuals,
his time discon-
ded; 180 of the
5 to serve in the
without even the
Moravia, to work
in Milan, 10,000
;rac.eful notoriety
avia.

r, Viceroy of the
Y examined the
1 3d instant. It
itroy public order
in kingdom. All
ts and wishes of
)r the Lombardo-
nt further conces-
sentiments to the
population of the
ces a hope that
ir. At all events,
»

Ferdinand I.)
etzsky in an order
nand, in terms the

[ had some effect,
most respectable
r their passports ;
ras eager to leave
ht break forth in

ian Lombardy, the
extensive reforms,
lould be filled by
, the people might
berty of the press
)er8, even those of

were put off with
esent year, Ferdi-
lily at councils, at
le finances, and the

need for immediate abandonment of the old, worn-out and hateful
political forms, were eagerly discusstul.

It was arjfiied, also, that the army should be diminished.
Ferdinand felt it no easy matter to lot go absolute power, to
abandon the notion that the people of Sicily were born to obey
him and pay him taxes.

Their demands were, therefore, from day to day, adjourned,
until their patience could endure no longer, and the popular dis-
satisfaction broke out into open rebellion. There was some
hope in Sicily and Naples that, on the King's birthday, the new
and repeatedly promised constitution would be declared. The
result of the final extinction of these expectations was the out-
burst of rebellion in Palermo.

Nobles, students, women, priests, the whole populace, deter-
mined to be trifled with no longer, turned out and fought. The
garrison took refuge in the Palace and small forts about the city.
These forts were attacked, and the whole of Palermo, and, it
might be said, all Sicily, fell into the hands of the insurgents.
The news threw Ferdinand into a fever of rage and fury ; a re-
inforcement of 4500 men were ordered to embark immediately ;
and, under the command of the Count d'Aquila, the King's
brother, landed at Palermo on the I5th ; but the Count did not
dare to risk a battle with the people. The troops remained in
the forts, and, during forty-eight hours, continued to fire upon
and bombard the city. The people, however, were not to be
conquered. They attacked, and, by fierce fightings, took the
fort of Castellamare. The whole populace were on the point of
rising. The King's brother returned to Naples ; his report con-
vinced even the King that immediate concessions must bo made.
The Palermitans demanded and obtained the proclamation of the
constitution of 1812, which of right had belonged to them ever
since that date. On the 29th the constitution was announced
at Messina ; on the 30th, at Palermo ; and, on the same day,
steamers were sent to bring back the troops.

At Naples, meanwhile, popular feeling, excited by the events
in Sicily, had reached such a height, that there was no safety
except in granting a constitution there also, which was accord-
ingly published on the 28th, and on the 8th of February a con-
stitution was proclaimed in Sardinia.

Throughout Italy, the progress of these events was watched
eagerly, and the accounts welcomed with the utmost enthusiasm.
At Genoa there was a popular rejoicing, and the shout of the
people, heard in all directions, was " A Constitution fur Pied-
mont !" At Rome the people crowded out for miles to meet the
couriers on the Via Appia, and extraordinary supplements were

;

716

CHAPTER XIV.

i8»ue,l hourly by the newspapers A /^'« «'!'«)f«>'»l° ''^I't,?!*
the triumph of the Liberals. There was a mmht file at Flor-
ence, and at nearly all the other groat towns of Italy.

In Lomhardy, the people, beset by 100,000 soldiers, scarcely
dared to rejoice. Austria was marching more troops upon them.
The little ".rmy of the Duke of Medona had been incorporated
with the (iraiul Duchy, and placed under the command of General
Radetzsky. On the 'iOth, 30th and 3lstof January, the railroad
from Treviglio to Milan was closed to the public, being exc u-
sively occupied with the conveyance of troops from Lombardy.
The army was to keep back the tide of opinion rising through-
out Italy ; there was no chance of peace but in submission ; no
hope of reform under Metlernich and terdinand. But this
ga hering army and the gloomy adherence to relentless tyranny
increased the hatred of Austrian rule, and enlisted universal

sympathy for its victims. , .• r .u M<.a

At the Bologna /e/c, to celebrate the proclamation of the Nea-
politan constitution, the popular cry was " ^ive the Constitu.
iion !" " Death to the Austnans !" " Let us march to Lombardy
to assist our brethren !" u i u „

But the case of Lombardy seemed hopeless ; the army had been
increased to 1 10,000, with 700 cannon. Arrests were incessant ;
the orison of Milan was crowded ; numbers were sent to the
House of Correction at Porta Nuova. The Austnans were
everywhere insulted ; it was evident that the storm ol popular
indignation must burst forth soon ; that the struggle would be a
fierce one, though it was scarcely possible to believe the Italians
could be successful. The outbreak was hastened, and help
came to them from a quarter altogether unexpected.

Austria was the first to feel the revolutionary impulse given
by France: the whole policy of Metternich fell before it and
he himself had to escape in disguise from amongst a people to
whom he had so long been a source of terror With his fa 1
absolutism perished, and the will of the people was acknowl-
edged A constitutional Government was declared at Vienna,
but it was too late to save the dominions in Lombardy by any
Austrian form of Government.

On the 17th of March the Austrian Viceroy left Milan, and
met on the road the courier with the intelligence of the popular
triumph at Vienna. On the 18th, the Milanese seized on the
military post at the palace of the governor, and began the con-
struction of barricades; carriages were seized upon and over-
turned— the pavement was torn up ; not a soldier was to be seen,
and the barricades were finished during the night.

On the morning of the 18th the fitting commenced. Ihe

^aaffiitniiniriwii

as held to celebrate
imilar file at Flor-
of Italy.

) soldiers, scarcely
) troops upon them,
been incorporated
command of General
anuary, the railroad
public, being exclu-
jps from Lombardy.
nion rising through-
t in submission ; no
jrdinand. But this
9 relentless tyranny
1 enlisted universal

iamation of the Nea-
" Live the Cdnstitu-
I march to Lombardy

s ; the army had been
ests were incessant ;
)rs were sent to the
The Austrians were
he storm of popular
struggle would be a
to believe the Italians

hastened, and help
expected.

tionary impulse given
ich fell before it, and
1 amongst a people to
error. With his fall
people was acknowl-
) declared at Vienna,

in Lombardy by any

iceroy left Milan, and
ligence of the popular
ilanese seized on the
r, and began the con-
seized upon and over-
soldier was to be seen,
be night.
,ng commenced. The

ITALY.

717

fire of cannon and musketry was kept up all day. The artillery
planted in front of the cathedral and puluce were seized by the
people. A Provisional Government was formed, and the fighting
continued on the '20th with doubtful success to the people, who,
nothwithstanding the support of a body of fSwiss, wore forced
from the centre of their movement.

On the morning of the Slst they regained their position, took
possession of the powder magazine, and planted a cuimon in the
tower of San Celso. General Uailetzsiiy otl'ered to treat with
the Provisional Government, but was refused, unless on terms
of unconditional surrender.

A deputation was despatched to Turin, demanding assistance,
which was at once granted, and the Piedmontese force, under
the command of the Duko of Genoa, crossed the frontiers, and
advanced upon Milan on the22d. The Au^^trians retired before
it, and left the city garrisoned by its own citizens and the
auxiliary forces of Piedmont.

On the 18th, the people of Parma rose suddenly and took pos-
session of the chief posts in the city. On the 20th, after some
lighting, the Duke issued a proclamation, declaring the appoint-
ment of a council, with supreme authority to give such instruc-
tions and adopt such measures as the circumstances might
require, whilst he and his royal family quitted the states. On
the same day the Duke of Modena was deposed and imprisoned,
and the Austrians were driven out of Pavia.

On the i9th, Venice, Trieste, and Padua were in open insur-
rection ; rebellion also spread through Vincnnza, Treviao, and
the whole of the Venetian territory, as far as Verona. On the
22d, General Count Zicler capitulated with the Provisional Gov-
ernment of Venice, and set it free from the domination of Aus-
tria. The King of Sardinia, Charles Albert, issued a proclama-
tion, taking Lombardy under his protection, marched an army to
join his forces at Milan, took the field boldly to drive Austria
beyond the Alps, &n^ r^ually proclaimed himself the liberator
of Italy. The Austi^^r; were driven beyond the Mincio at
Goito, and compelled to lurrender Peschiera.

On the 1st of March, an insurrectionary movement took place
at Rome, in consequence of its being understood that the Pope,
influenced by an intrigue amongst the Cardinals, hod refused to
declare war against Austria. The people had allowed him the
previous day to form his resolution ; and at five o'clock in the
morning the whole city was on foot, in eager impatience. The
answer was that war would be formally declared ; and (as the
people had also demanded a complete separation of temporal and
spiritual aflairs,) that no priest should be appointed to fill any

718

OHAPTKR XIV,

public cmploymont; that Pii.s the Ninth was 'j^ ^«'"' "f '^«
Snrn,ni,,lf that a daily ofllcial bulletin woul.l be pub .«hed
of tlif cv.-nts of th.^ great war, and encouragement given to the
Uoman yo,.tl. to am. and drive the barbarians j'"-" "^' ' ^^
8ali8ti.MUhe people; tho ferment was calmed, and all classes

'' oVIhefaih of April, the Sicilian Parliament passed by accla-
niation a .lecreo, "That Ferdinand Bourbon and h.s dynasty
were forever fallen from the Throne of Sie.ly. S.c.ly should
govern herself constitutionally, and call to the throne an Italian
Prince as soon as she shall have reformed her «^«"«t'J""°\. „
The list of candidates for tho throne were a son of the Ring
of Sanlinia, .he son of the Duke of Tuscany, Louis Napoleon
1 onaparte. son of Lucien Bonaparte,) and the Prince de Beau-
har ais. Enraged by this boldness, the King o Naples declared
w„; against Sicily. From first to last, the conduct of !• erdinand
was nUse and treacherous: no promise was kept a"d «v«ry
opportunity was grasped at to weaken or retract the hboral
measures he was forced to yield. , , •

■IZ Commons had been reiurned ; but no Peers had been
eleried bv the people. On the 15th the houses were to meet.
No PeersC U named up to the 13th, but, on the U.h, a
proclamation appeared, emanating from the Ivin^, nominating
f,r"y members for the House of Peers. Immediately on the
publication of this document the Commons met privately, and
Sgreed to address the National Guard on this encroachment of

'TlSSay, the 13lh of May, the deputies were assembled
in preparatory session, to modify the form of oath to be taken
at theTpening of the Parliament. The oath was, 'I swear
Slelitym the King and the Constitution of the 29th of January."
The deputies refused this form, as not being ui accordance with
the concessions of the 3d of April ; the National Guard, num-
berinK 15,000, objected, and Saturday and Sunday were passed
in Telotiation's. ^ At eleven o'clock on Sunday night it was
announced that the King would not modify the form. Eghl
deputies met, declared the sitting permanent, and sent a deputa-
tion to treat with the King, but without success. Another
deputation was sent at twelve , the King asked time t" consider,
and at length pretended to accept a modihcation of the oath,
reserv ng the rights of the 3d of April. Meanwhile, the troops
had been ordered out. Soon after midnight the National Guar^
began raising barricades ; at half past one the ^e»«r«fe was
beaten and a, two, the troops, cavalry, infantry, and artillery,
o^cupTed the space; round the palace, 'castle, and market-place.

,s the head of the
ould be published
eineiit given to the
from Italy. This
)d, and all classes

nt passed by accla-
n and his dynasty
ily. Sicily should
le throne an Italian
cr constitution.
I a son of the King
ly, Louis Napoleon
he Prince de Beau- i
r of Naples declared
induct of Ferdinand
IS kept, and every
retract the liberal

no Peers had been
ouses were to meet,
but, on the Uth, a
c Kin^, nominating
Immediately on the
! met privately, and
his encroachment of

ities were assembled
of oath to be taken
oath was, "I swear
the 29lh of January."
5 in accordance with
iational Guard, num-
Sunday were passed
Sunday night it was
ify the form. Eight
nt, and sent a deputa-
it success. Another
sked time to consider,
dification of the oath,
Meanwhile, the troops
It the National Guards
)ne the generate was
nfaiitry, and artillery,
jtle, and market-place.

ITALY.

719

On hcinjr informed that barricades had bori\ thrown up, the
Kinjf orilcrcd the withdrawal of \\w tro()|m, inid promised that
thrt Parliament should bo oix-ncd without any oath. Hut he
was not to bo believed; and the National (hmnlN refused to
lower the barricades unless the Chamber of I'eers were abol-
isht^d, the fortresses surrendered, and the troops removed from
the metropolis. The soldiers were called out again, and at nine
o'clock the Swiss Guards were drawn up round the castle. A
musket was discharged by accident ; the National (Juard com-
menced firing, the Swiss and artillery opened a murderous fire
upon the people, and the batth) raged in all directions.

At San Fernando and San liridgida, the National Guard
maintained their ground for three hours under an incessant fire
of musketry and artillery. The town was given up to pillage
and massacre. At a preconcerted signal the troops burst into
house after house, and, without regard to se.x, massacred the
inhabitants.

At the last accounts, Great Britain had offered to mediate
between Austria and the Italian States, and hopes are enter-
tained that a settlement of the difficulties in Italy will soon be
realized.

■ I'^^ii^^fli

i '

NOTES

CHAPTER 1,— IrrmoDucTioii.

"ill. of Ewtod. « b. ■"" "f JT',£ FntK . "''.' of .b.

, From 11.0 y..r 1733 10 lb. .nd .1 '""".'jS' 7„,h„d of con..

nailonal toi.venl.oii of ho 51h ol "' '""■ •''°''"?, ,„,„ „ „ldiii,hl

S:5irottr.»5!""a\
SXr,;:Si"TS:?irs.txr:'.^;iao«. »■•■ »'

a r'Siti i bT.™. !.; 3o' Tbi. ."o, w.. oomolod ..
JJ, "Simfition of Ih. dend... b, Gi.Bon- XIII.

NOTES TO CHAPTER I1.—P«wob1
Oylh,,.. of PloUmy, -k" 'fe' .■"*™ SSSl p"ob.bl, o., »d .b.

I-:ts:»°3R;;ffi'rl."A-:.. b. 'o.i,foi,i.d.d .i* *.
&-i;t:i'^<K.r";.m.^»..o..d;b.B,M.i«.*.

NOTBk.

721

omtuif, whioh meun
I the policy of foreign
oniuli, See,

univenity, wm the
is programme or pro.
iWkUL, a profeiior at
le name.

ntion to the reforma*
n the lubject to Henry
Dra, vol vi. p. 119.
ch, by a decree of the
Dil a method of com*
It began at midnight
f September. It wa»
rullowed by five or lix
, ceased on the 31st of

!o its origin. It is not
tniards ; und is merely
inte Auguito, T.
luch as nineteen exact
hours, 36', 15" ; while
years, only give 6939
cquently exceeded the
irror was corrected at
II.

uodI

erwarda to all the Oer-
ticular tribe, which we
I distinguish them from

t» of Tacitus, and the
ice in the northern part
ist probably one and the
le confounded with the

among the bishops who
Ulfilas, a Gothic bishop
•lated the Bible into the

langiiBoe of his nation, making use of the Orerk and Roman charuc-
ter». His foMr Ooipelt, pri'sorvod in the Cudfx Argi-nieus, In the
libriiry ut Upsnl, is the moul oncicnt s|iecimen wi- linvn of the German
lnii«iingi;, of wliicli thu Gothic is one of the principal dialects. Vide
Friinmriit* of UIJila», pulilishiul liv M. Zohn. 18().'j.

4 Th. identity of thr Franks with tfifso German tribi-s, may be shown
Iroiii a pnssagii of St. Jerome, as wi'll as by the TubU Ptutingirienn*.
oil Thtndoiieniif, so colli mI, because it is supposed to hove been drown
up urulcr the Emperor Theodosins, obont the beuinning of the fifth
cfntiiry ; though M. .Mnnncri, in his Treatise Dt Tab. Peuting, alalt,
hos proved that it is as old as the third century ; and that the copy
preserved in the librory nt Vienna, ond published by M. de Scheyl, is
but an incorrect ropy, which he attributes to a monk of the thirteenth
ccniury. From this Table, it appears that, in the third century, the
name Franeia was given to that pan of Germany which is situate in
the Lower Rhino in Westphalia ; and that the Dructeri, the Chauci,
Chomovi, Cherusci, Ampsivarii, &,c. were the some as the Franks.
The names of Saliani and Ripuariana, evidently taken from the situa.
lion of some of these tribes on the Rhine, the Yssel, or Saal, appear to
have been given them by the Romans, and were afterwards retained
by thf .

5 Ammianus Morccllinus, Lib. 31 c, 9. Jomattdet De Eebiu Oetieit,
cap. 35. This latter historian gives the following portrait of Attila,
King of the Huns. "His stature was short, his chest broad, his head
rather large, his eyes small, his beard thin, his hair grey, his nose flat,
his complexion dark and hideous, bearing evidence of his origin. He
wos a mon of much cunning, who fought by stratagem before he en.
gaged in battles."

6 We iTtay judge of the extent of the kingdom of the Rurgundians by
the signatures of twcnty.five bishops, who were present at the Council
of Epoo, held by Sigismond, King of Burgundy, in 617. These bish-
ops were the following ; Besancon, Langres, Autun, Chfilona, Lyon,
Volence, Orange, Vaison, Carpentras, Covaillon, Sisteron, Apt. Gap,
Die, St. PauLtrois-Chetaux, Viviers, Vienne, Embrun, Grenoble, Oe.
nevB, Tarantaise, Avenche, Windische, Martigny in the Bas.Valais,
Taurentum in Provence. Vide Labfcei, Acta OtneU. vol. iv. p. 15731
1581.

7 Many kings and chiefs of diflTerent nations marched ander fait command
JoHmiides (cop. 38.) observes^" As for the rest, a rabble of kings, it
they may be so called, and leaders of divers nations ; they waited like
satellites the orders of Attila ; and if he gave but a wink or a nod,
every one attended with fear and trembling, and executed hia com;,
mands without a murmur. Attila alone, like a king vf kings, had tbe
supreme charge and authority over them all."

8 The Salian Fmika are distinct from the Ripnarian, who formed a saps,
rate kingdom, the capital of which was Cologne, lliere were also,
about the end of the fifth century, particular kings of the Franks art
Terouane, Mama, and Cambray, oD of whom were aabdued bv CIoTia^
shortly before his Leath in 511.

9 Clovis took from thfi Alemanns a part of their territories, of which he
formed a distinct province, known afterwards by the name of Aoner
en the Rhint. They retained, however, under their hereditary chiefs,
Alsace, with the districts situated beyond the Rhine, and bounded o»
the north by the Oos, the Entz, the Necker, the Muhr, the Weraitx
and the Jagat. Vide Schoapflin, Almtia lUvt. vol. i. p. 630

^^ _n.>4i«W»«^l~*

■r.

111

722

NOTBS.

,0 The Visigoths then ta^ed^

rrih'e Me'irriran. ^^I^I^Zo^.o^o^^^, a, the reward fo..er.
^ces which the latter had rendered them in their wars with the Franks.

11 Scheidingen on the left bank of the Unstrut, about three leagues from
Naumbufg on the Saal. is supposed to have been 'he residence of the
uicient kings of Thuringia. Venantius Fortunatus, the friend of queen
RadegoS a princess of Thuringia. gives a poetical description of it
in his eleey De Excidis Thuringioe. ^q

19 BeHsarius'was recalled from Italy by the Emperor Jue™^^^^^^
He afterwards incurred the displeasure of the court of Constantinople ,
Sr, J a. mod"em writers have 'asserted that h« -- "'"•^U^i^^^J'^/j
to beg his bread, is destitute of foundation. Mascow, GtthicMt aer

IS Aeathilriib 1. p. 17, asserts, that the Goths abandoned the nation of
tlifAlemann; Mhe Franks, ik order to interest the latter m their cau e
.or«h^8t the Greeks. The same was the case with that part of Gaul,
Ee between th^ Alps, the Rhone, and the Mediterranean, which
penned .rthe Ostrogoths, and which they ceded to the Franks, on
oondition that they would never furnish supplies to the Ureeks.
14 The ame of the Bavarians does not occur in history before the middle
of the sTxth centu^. when Jomandes, De Eeb. Getid,, and Venantius
Fortuna r m his piems, speak of them for the first time. Mannert,
OaMchte BaioarieM, p. 108, reckons the Bavarians an association of
S^etrGcS tribes'; the Heruls. Rugions. Turc'l.ng.a^s, «id Scy
rians all oriff'nally emigrat ng from the shores of the Baltic. 1 tie new
rettlements which they formid in Upper Germany, comprehended that
JartoTJncient Rheti^ Vindelicia, and Noricum, which lies betw^^^n
the Danube, the Lech, and the Noce m Pannoma, and the TyroL
They were govemid bj? kings or chiefs, who, from the year 595. were
dependants on the Frankish crown. „r,heir

IS Clovis left the Alemanns, after their defeat, a considerable part of their
Terri or es under hereditary chiefs, who acknowledged the ?"Pe"oriq^
of the Frankish kings. Such of the Alemanns as Theodoric King ol
lu ly then re eWeJTfSio a part of Rhe.ia and Noricum, continued de-
JenSants on the kingdom of the O.trogoths. till the decay of that mo.
narchy, near the middle of the sixth century, when they became subject
to the dominion of the Franks. , ,

Tacitus De Moribus German., cap. 2. It was the Prerogative o free
men to have the honor of bearing arras. Even bishops and ecclesias.
tic" when admitted into the national assemblies, and to the rights ana
privileges of freemen, never failfed to claim this military dignity ; ana
occupied, like others, their ranks m the army.

17 We find kmong the German nations, from the remotest times he dis-
tinction into nobles, freemen, and serfs: a distinction which they still
nreserved. in their new settlements in the Roman empire.

18 &al eToJdeals. Besides the trial by -"^^-°'"*«VXr: C S
bv hot iron, boiling or cold water, the cross, ^■c. V de Ducango Oloss.
SirOoth" Vandfls, Suevi. and Alan.s. were already Chr.— , when
Ihey settled mthin the bounds of the Western Empire. They follow-
edihe doctrines of Arius, which they had imbibed in the «"«; and,
which the Suevi of Galicia abandoned for the orthodox creed under
Their Kg Cnriaric. about 551 ; and the Visigoths of Spain under heir
King Recarede, in 589. The Lombards ot Italy were, at firs^Armns.
but became Catholics, under their Kmg Agifulphus, in 602. The Van.

NOTES.

723

in Gaul than Septi.
le Rhone, the Alp«i
the reward for sor-
rs with the Franks,
three leagues from
e residence of the
the friend of queen
al description of it

r Justinian, in 549.
t of Constantinople ;
1 blind, and reduced
icow, Gethichte der

idoned the nation of
latter in their cause
;h that part of Gaul,
editerranean, which
■d to the Franks, on
> the Greeks,
ry before the middle
ting, and Venantius
rst time. Mannert,
ns an association of
rcilingians, and Soy-
he Baltic. The new
, comprehended that
which lies betw sn
inia, and the TyroL
n the year 595, were

liderable part of their
dged the superiority
a Theodoric King ol
ricum, continued do-
lie decay of that mo-
1 they became subject

3 prerogative of free,
[shops and ecclesias.
and to the rights and
military dignity ; and

notest times, the dis-
iction which they still
1 empire.

'tat, there were others
Vide Ducange Gloss.
eady Chrintiuns, when
Inipire. They follow,
bed in the east ; and,
orthodox creed under
8 of Spain, under their
were, at first, Arians,
lus, in602. The Van.

dale and Ostrogoths, on the contrary, havmg persisted in A.i"""m ;
this perseverance may be numbered among the causes that hastened
the destruction of their monarchy, both in Italy and Africa. As to the
Buruundians they did noi embrace Christianity till after their establish,
mcnt in Gnul. Thoir example was soon followed by the Franks, who
likewise protected the dissemination of the orthodox faith among the
German nations, settled in their dominions beyond the Rhine, the
Christian religion was introduced, about the end of the sixth century,
among the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, by some Benedictine monks
whoin Pope Gregory I. had sent there. Ethelbert, King of Kent, was
tho first of the Anglo-Saxon kings that embraced Christianity, by the
persuasion, it is said, of his queen. Bertha, daughter of Chanbert I.

90 The^posscVs'ions of the Ostrogoths in Gaul, lying between the Rhme,
the Alps, and the Mediterranean, were ceded to the Franks about 8».

91 Eginhard, Vita Cnral. Mag., cap. 11. It seems then an error m history,
to designate these princes as a race of kings, who had all degenerated
into a state of imbecility or idiocy. (Of this opinion was the Abbe
Vcrtot, who endeavors to rescue these monarchs from this generally
received imputation. Vide Men.oir de I'Academie, vol. iv. I .) ^

93 This same St. Boniface, in 744, induced the archbishops of France to
receive, after his example, the pallium from Pope Zachanas, acknow.
Icdgine the jurisdiction and supremacy ol the Roman See. Ihis ac.
knowledgment of the Romish supremacy, had already taken place in
England, in 601 and G27, when the archbishops of Canterbury and
York, received the pomificial pallium. Vide Bede. I ist. Eccles.

93 It is alleccd that state politics had no small share m favoring this leal.
Not only did the emperors reckon, by abolishing images, to weaken
the excessive power of the monks who dommeered over the Byzantine
court; but they regarded also the destruction of this heretical worship,
as the only means of arresting the persecutions which the Mahometafti
then exercised against the Christians in the east, whom they treated aa
idolaters, on account of their veneration for images.

84 The name Exarehatt was then given to the provmce of Ravenna, be.
cause it, as well as the Pentapolis, was immediately subject to the ex-
arch as governor-general ; while the other parts of Grecian Italy were
governed by delegatos, who ruled in the name and authority of the

95 "wM during his sojourn at Chiersi that Pope Stephen II. g»y« J« J"
cisions that we find in Sirmondi, Concil, Gall. yo\. II. 16. Anastas us
(in Muratori, vol. III. p. 168, 186) memions Chiersi as «>>« Pl««« <»* »»
donation, which he also says was signed by Pepin and h's wo jions-
This prospective grant is even attested by the letter wh ch S ephenll.
addressed to Pepin and his sons, immediately on his return to Rome,
exhorting them to fulfil their engagements w-ithout delay.

96 Tho Pope, m his letters to Pepin, calls this donation an augmentation
of the Romish dominion; an extension of th«/»'""'Vp",l!^'^i„^^
Cenni. vol. I. p. 85, 124. Besides the city and duchy of Rome, Anas,
tosius mentions various former grants of territories to ;!'« K"™*"
Church. The same author informs us, that the »"g'"."' »f ^^P'" » °°-
nation existed in his time in the archives of the Romish See, and he
has recorded the I es gifted to the church.

97 Different interpre.iU.ons have been given to the word Saracens which
the Greeks, and after them the Lat'"B.h«ve applied to the Arabs. Some
explain it by rtAberi or hrigandt, and others by Ori«t.f«/», or natives

mss f mv

mn .*< K^» .«i|i.n^rti«.

ft"

¥ '

724

NOTES.

„<• the east Casiri. Bibl. Arab. Hist. vol. II. p. 19. Some pre»end to
Seme h" appeZion from the Arabic word Sarrag, or .ts plural Sar
^ »t« which means, men on horseback, or c.ivuliers.
Sir ^may judgTorthe ferocity of the Arabs at this t.jne, from a passa|.
of rTsTs. an Arabic author, hi Casiri. (Bibl. Arub. Hist. vol. ■>• P- 322.)
M,.« n a fitof iealousy, had caused Tarec to be bastmadoed atTole.
?o Jid Jet contnuedw employ him as a general. The cahph, to avenge
tC. caused Muza to be bastinadoed in h.s turn, when he came^

« TreiiidttottSr^^^^^ rrl%°/

»« ?;:»;rpeSateTots^roS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ \

FrrnkB iLldorus Pajfn»i«. a Spanish author of that t.me, pubhshed !

nart of Sicily from the Greeks ; but they were deprived of it. m 940,
S;Ve FSiteTwho were succeeded in the following century by the
Zerides in Africa. (Vide Period IV. under Spa'"-) gj,

« The celebrated Gerbert. bom in Auvergne, and afterwards rope oil-
^ Tester IL,wI^ among th^ first that repaired to Spam. about the m.dd e
of the tenth century, to study mathematics under the Arabs. Numbers

^ Sr^YstSS in th"£r; of the Escurial in Spain, 1851 Arabic
^ S whfch escaped the%onflaUon of ion have been

amply described by Casiri in his Bibl. Arab. Hwp.

NOTES TO CHAPTER III.— PraioD IL

I The immense intrcnchments or fortifications of the Avars called^Aw.
-Jl Vf thrFrnX were destroyed by Charlemagne, to the number of
S^B ' A pfrt of Konia and the territory of the Avar, he left in pos-
Toionorthe native chiefs, and the Slavian P"--' -'j"/^^:
ledged themselves his vassals and tributaries. J^e Slavi, the Mora^
Ml., and Bulgarians, seem to have then seized on « ParJ of «he terrU^

""' '•^ t!r;L'c«r'rc£ie^m"::s5:Tsli^^^^^^^^ «:««"

MarT(Au«l agairVh^M^^^^^^ he -ceivedalso .he pro.

jjct of joining ,L Danube and the Rhine, by a canal drawn from the

S« t^f th: oat In -the Teutonic language, Louis i" the Romance
iMOTWe : the forms of which have been preserved by the Abbe Nith-
„d!T?ou.in of these princes. We may observe *«» Ais « the mo.t
mcient monument of the Romance Iwiguage ; out of which ha. n)rung
the modem French.

NOTES

725

Some pretend to
g, or its plural Sar-
■s.

time, from a passage
I^iat. vol. ii. p.333.)
astinudoed at Tole-
he caliph, to avenge
when he came to
)ain. His son, whom
of the caliph. Such

s paternal uncle of
Ommiades were de
he prophet,
as the founder of thii.
ic Fharamond of the
that time, published
g of him. He extols,
111 the Visigoths, ac.
iiad chosen as their
hronicle of Alphonso
ited in favor of Don
le tenth century, and
nder of the kingdom
m.

iquest of the greater
eprived of it, in 940,
owing century by the

I afterwards Pope Sil-
pain, about the middle
the Arabs. Numbers

in Spain, 1851 Arabic
and which have been

lOD II.

le Avars, called Skin-
pie, to the number of
B Avars he left in pos.
{irinces, who acknow.
rhe Slavi, the Moravi.
I a part of the territo-
I the Theyss. It was
tablished the Eastern
lonceived also the pro*
canal drawn from the

Louis in the Romance
ved by the Abbe Nith-
e, that this is the most
At of which has spranK

3 This treaty, which has been preserved by the adthor of the Annals of
St. Rertin, mentions all the countries and principal places assigned tu
each of the brothers. It forms a valuable document in the geogrtphy
of the middle ages.

4 As an example of this, it is said that a nobleman of Suabia, named Eu-
ehon, brother to the Empress Judith, quarrullud with his own son, and
refused to see him, because, in his estimation, he had debased himeeir
by receiving as fiefs, from Louis the Gentle, a certain number of his
own lands, iiituatud in Upper Bavaria.

5 The Dunes and the Swedes dispute with each otiier the honor of these
pretended heroes, who signalized themselves in the Norman piracies.
It is without doubt, thiit all the tribes of ancient Scandinavia, in their
turn, took pnrt in tliene expeditions. According to the Monk of St.
Gall, it was not till about the end of the war of Charlemagne with the
Avars, i. e. 796, that the Normans began to infest the coasts of the
Prankish umpire. In order to stop their incursions, Charles construct
ed a fleet, and stationed in the harbors and mouths of rivers, troops and
guard-ships; precautions which were neglected by his successors.

6 The beautiful palaces which Charles had constructed at Nimeguen and
Aix-la-Chapelie, were burnt to the ground by the Normans in 881-2.
At the same time, they plundered Liege, Maestricht, Tongres, Cologne,
Bonn, Zulpich, Nuys, and Treves.

7 Nester, a monk of Kiovia, and the first annalist of Russia, about the
end of the eleventh century, says the Russians, whom he calls also
Wareguet, came from Scandinavia, or the country of the Normans.
He assures us, tluit it was from tiiem that the state of Novogorod took
the name of Russia. The uuthur of the annals of St. Bertin, the first
that mentions the Bissians (Uhoa) a. d. 839, assigns Sweden as their
original country. Luitprand also, bishop of Cremona, in the court of
Constantinople by Otho the Great, attests, in his history, that the
Greeks gave the name o' Ruaaiani to the people, who in the west are
called Normans. The Fiims, Laplanders, und Estonians, at this day,
call the Swedes, Root*, Routti, or RooUlane. It is likely that from
them, being nearest neighbors of the Swedes, this name passed to the
Slavonian tribes. Hence it would seem, tnat it is in Sweden that we
must look for Russia, prior to the times of Ruric ; in the same way,
as ancient France is to be found in Westphalia and Hesse, before the
days of Clodion, and the founding of the new monarchy of the Franka
in Gaul.

8 The Orkney Isles, the Hebrides, the Shetlands, and the Isles of Man,
passed, in course of time, from the dominion of the Norwegians to
that of the Scottish kings, while the Faroe Isles remained constantly
annexed to the kingdom of Norway.

9 Olaus II., King of Norway, had rendered the Icelanders tributaries, but
they soon renewed their independence ; and it was not till the time of
Habo V. and Magnus VII., in 1361 and 1264, that they submitted to the
dominion of Norway, when the republican government of the island
was suppressed. Iceland, when a republic, furnished the annalists of
the north. The most distinguished of these is Snoerb Sttolssom,
who wrote a history of the kings of Norway about the beginning of the
thirteenth century. This celebrated man died in 1241.

10 The Chazars, a Turkish tribe, ruled, at thn time we now speak, over
the northern part of the Crimea ; as also the vast regions lying to the
north of the Euxine and Caspian seas. The Onogurs or Ugurs, sup.
posed to be the same as Hungarians, were subject to them. These

726

MOTBS.

'■ l

Chaiars having embraced ChriBtianity in the ninth century, auopted*
ion of syncrefisni, which admitted all sorts md.fferently. Hence the
nam. of CAowM or Ketzen has been given, by the Germar d.vme^ to
every species of heretics. Their power vanished about the begimuii<f

I TV^P«SS)<rror7a«ff««n.. also a Turkish and wandermg trib-.

' I'jin^Srhublte'dthe bor^ders of the Juik and the Volga, between ««..
two rivers. Expelled from these countries by the Uzes or Cumans.
'Z Sned^ith the Chazars against them they attacked the Hm,^^
rians, whom they slript of their possessions, lymg between the Tanais.
the Dnieper, and the Dniester, (a. d. 884.) ., , . j r>u«.

la The Moravians were the lirst of the Slavian tr.bes that embraced Chrw. ,
tianity. The Greek Emperor Michael, at their own request, sent them,
S. 863 Cyril and Methodius, two learned Greeks of Thessalon.ca, who |
Evented the Slavonian alphabet, and translated mlo their language the
sacred books, which the Russians still use.

13 The Patzinac tes possessed all the countries situated between the Alma,
the Deeper, and the Done*, which near its source, separated them
from the Chizars. They gradually disappeared from history about he
end of the eleventh century, when they were dispossessed or subdued

14 ffistriansTve commonly ascribed to this prince the division of Eng-
hmd into counties, hundreds, and tithes, as also the institution of junet.

15 F«m 1 orcupition of Greenland and Finland by the Normajis we
may infer that North America was known to them several centuries
before it was discovered by the English.

NOTES TO CHAPTER IV.— Pbeiod III.

1 The Hunearians having made a new invasion npon Otho the Great,
advanced'as far as Augsburg, to which V^ey laid siege ; but Otho in a
battle which he fought with them m the v.cmity °« '^atj J, (955.)
routed them with such slaughter that they never dared to return.

3 On this oath, which was taken in 903. the emperors of Germany founded
the title by which they claimed the right to confirm, or to nommale
Sid depose the popes. Lawyers generally allege the famous decree
of Leo VIII., published 964, as establishing the rights of the emperors
over Rome .md the popes. But the authenticity of this decree has
blen attacked by the ablest critics, and defended by others It would
^Jear that there is no necessity for this to justify these nshte. Otho,
Xr having conquered Italy and received the submission of the Roman,
and the Pope, could easily claim for himself and his successors th«
^e rights of superiority which the Greek and Frank emperors had

3 Z wl A^ dukiTof Lower Lorrain. and had obtained that dukedom
from ofho II. in 977. He transmitted it to his son Otho, who w«i tl.e
Unt nrince of the Carlovingian line, and died in 100b.

4 The principalities of Benevento. Salerno, and Capua, >*«« govenj^f
bv Lombard princes, who held of the German emperors. The duke.
S^i^of Ks. Gaeta, Amalfi. and part of Apulia and Calabria, were
dependent on the cistern emperors ; while "■"Arabs, masters of the
areater part of Sicily possessed also Ban and Tarenom Apulia.

5 From tWs treaty is derived the right o^ vassalage, whjch the popes have
exercised till the present time, over the km^dom °| Naples.

6 The first invasion of the Normans in Sicily wm m 1000. Palemu*. «h«

■.li^ f »<i ^^ * lfc

NOTB8.

727

century, aaopted a
reatly. Henc« the

Germar divinaa, lo
about the begiiuiiny

nd wandering trib*-
^olga, between thesa
he Uzes or Cumana,
attacked the Hunga.
between the Tanaia.

that embraced Chris,
n request, sent them,
if Thessalonica, who
o their language the

!d between the Aluta,
iree, separated them
'om history about the
ossessed or subdued

the division of E2ng.
e institution of juries,
by the Normans, we
em several centuries

>D III.

pon Otho the Great,
siege ; but Otho, in a
ty of that city, (955,)
dared to return.
8 of Germany founded
ntirm, or to nominate
e the famous decree
rights of the emperors
ty of this decree haa

by others. It would
y these rights. Otho,
mission of the Romans
nd his successors the

Frank emperors had

l>tained that dukedom

an Otho, who was the

1006.

^apua, were governed

mperors. The duke-

ilia and Calabria, were

Arabs, masters of the

arento in Apulia.

, which the popes have

I of Naples.

n lOGO. Palermo, the

capital, fell under their power in 1073, and in 1090 they conquered the
whole island.
1 The first seeds of Christianity were planted in Denmark and Sweden,
by St. Ansgar, whom Louis the Gentle created, in 834, first archbishop
of Hamburg, und metropolitan of the North. But the progress ot
Christianity was extremely slow in those semi.barbarous countries-
The first annalist of the North was an Icelander named Are Frode.
who flourished about the beginning of the 11th century. The moft
eminent historian of Denmark, was a monk named Swend Aageson.
who digested, about 1187, an abridgement of the history of that king-
dom. He was followed by Saxo the grammarian, whose history of
Denmark, written in beautiful Latin, is full of fables in the times preced-
ing the 13th century. Norway had for its first annalist a monk named
Theodoric, who wrote about 1160. As to Sweden, it has no national
historian anterior to the Chronicles in Verse, the first anonymous editor
of which lived in the time of King Magnus Smeck, about the middle
of the 14th century.

8 Olaus sent, in 996 and 1000, missionaries into Iceland, who succeeded
in making the whole country adopt Christianity. An Icelandic fugitive,
named Eric le Roux, discovered Greenland, and formed the first settle,
ments there, about the year, 983. His son, Lief, embraced Christianity
during his sojourn in Norway. With the aid of some ecclesiastics
whom King Olaus gave him, he returned in 1000 to Greenland, and
there converted his father and his fellow-countrymen. The knowledge
of the first Norwegian colonies of Greenland, was lost about the begin,
ning of the fifteenth century. The southern and western districts of
it were again discovered about 1576 ; but it was not till 1731 that the
Danes formed new settlements there.

9 The Polabes inhabited the duchy of Lauenburg, the principality of Rat.
zenburg, and the province of Schwerin. The Wagrians were settled
beyond the Bille in the Wagria, in the principality of Eutin, and a part
of Holstcin.

. Henry, Duke of Saxony, Conrad, Duke of Zahringen, and Albert,
Margrave of the North, headed an army of these crusaders against the
Slavi in 1147.

11 The right of hereditary succession in the eldest son of every ducal
family, was not introduced into Bohemia till 1055. This was the ancient
usage in Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Russia, and Hungary.

IS No writer of this nation is known anterior to the thirteenth century.
The most ancient is Vincent Kadlubeck. bishop of Cracow, who died
1233. He wrote Historia Polonia, first published in 1613.

13 This eroien, singularly revered in Hungary, contains Greek ornaments
and inscriptions, which give us to understand that it was manufactured
at Constantinople. There is a probability that it was furnished by the
Empress Theophania, mother of Otho III., to Pope Sylvester II., whom
she had lately raised to the pontificate.

14 The Greeks upbraided the Latins with fastine on Saturdays — permission
to eat cheese, butter, and milk, during the first week of lent — the cell,
bacy of their priests — the repetition of the unction, of baptism in confir-
mation — the corrupting of the confession of faith — the use of unleavened
bread in the eucharist — permission to eat the blood of animals strangled
— and the prohibition against the priests wearing their beards.

15 The difference of rank and pre-eminence of these two patriarchs, be.
came one of the principal subjects of dispute between the two churches.
There was a warm debate as to the title of Eeumtnical Patriarch, or

728

NOTSS.

Sh the patriarch, of Constantinople ; and Gregory I.. ^'»h.ng «o give
these patnarchs an example of Christian humility, m opposition to th •
lofty tftle of Universal Bi.hop, adopted that of Servant of the eervanU

16 ^hfeilgarian., newly converted to Christianity by Greek and Latin
4iiion.ries. had priests and bishops of both ?hurches; and each pon.
tiff claimed he sole jurisdiction over that province. This affair hav ng
been referred by the Bulgarians themselves to the judgment of the
Sreek E "perorf he decidid in favor of the See of Constantinople. In
cJ^eouenre of this decision, the Latin bishops wid priests were expelled
from Bulaaria, and replaced by the Greeks in 870.

17 Th". terSblo fire, reckoned among their state secrets, was exploded |
from tubT. of copper, or thrown with cross.bows and machines tor the
pZ«« Fire-ships were likewise filled with them, which they des-
;S among the^nemies- ships to bum them. These could not be
extinguished by water, or any other way than by the help of vinegar or

18 Thentme of TWtor. in the sense in which it is «»"""«'">?»!;*'*'';»]'.
pear, to be of a Chinese origin. The Ch nese pronounce " TA«.«Aa.
knd designate, by this name, all the nations that dwell north of the

19 ¥'he*fiTsUhat employed this military g"ard was the Caliph Montassem.
who succeeded to the caliphate in 833 or 218 of the Hegira.

30 Sultan or Soltkan, is a common name m the Chaldean and Arabic Ian.
euages, to designate a sovereign, ruler, king, or master.

31 Syria was conquered by the Seljukidcs, between 1074 and 1085. They
were masters of Palestine since 1075, which they had conquered from
the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt. . , , .. _ ^,. . a„u^„

98 The most powerful of these Emirs dared not assume the title of Su tan.
but vTre content with that of Atabek, which signifies in the Turkish
language, Father of the prince.

NOTES TO CHAPTER V.— Period IV.

1 He was the first of the Roman Pontiffs that assumed the title of Pofe,
(Papa,) to the exclusion of the other bishops and prelates who had tor-
merly made use of that denomination.

3 Pope Urban II.. one of the immediate successors of Gregory VII.. went
w far a. to recommend to all secular princes, that they should make
slaves of such of the priest's wives as lived with their husbands atter
they h»i received holy orders. In Denmark and Sweden, he eeU.
bacy of the clergy was not introduced Ull near the middle of the IStli

3 Pope "Nicholas I. and Adrian H.. in the 9th century, and Jo»»r. IV. and
Greaory V., about the end of the 10th, appealed to the False Decretal,
in their disputes with the kings of France, on the subject of supremacy
and legislative power over the whole church.

4 This house which succeeded the Sahc dynasty, occupied t.ie throne of
the empire trom 1138 to 1254. . • -, . d„

5 Grecory VII. in 1080, conhrmcd the election of the AnM-Emperor Ko.
dolph. Iraiocent III., claimed the right to' arbitrate m the dispute.

NOTES.

729

nople had aiRumed
he Roman pontiffs,
that title us proud
rdict all communion
' I., wishing to give
in opposition to this
eant of ike tenant*

by Greek and Latin
ihes ; and each pon.
This affair having
le judgment of the
Constantinople. In
riests were expelled

crets, was exploded
ind machines ibr the
Bm, which they des-
These could not be
le help of vinegar or

commonly taken, ap
onounce it Tha-thai
t dwell north of the

.e Caliph Montassem,

;he Hegira.

dean and Arabic Ian.

naster.

1074 and 1085. The/

r had conquered from

me the title of Sultan,
tiftes in the Turkish

>d1V.

med the title of Pope,
prelates who had ior>

of Gregory VII., went
lat they should make
1 their husbands after
uid Sweden, the cell-
he middle of the 13th

lury, and Johti IV. and
to the False Decretals
3 subject of supremacy

occupied the throne of

the Anti.EmperoT Ro.
litrafe in the disputes

between Philip of Swabla and Otho of Bnmsw.ck (119S,) on the subject
of Tei" election. The cont-sted iiecti<.n of Rifhnr.l .!.■ CornwuU and
Xlpholso of Castille to the throne of Spain, was submUted to the judg-

6 ^he'popJs'derivcd their clainus to thcBC estates, fron, n lona.ion of
them; which the Countess hnd n.a.ie in 1077, to Pr>pe Gregory VII..
nnd which she renewed in 1102 to Pascal 11. jni, .

7 The Order of St. Anthony was founded about 095 ; and that o .har-
ueux was founded in 1080-86. by Bruno of Cologne • and that of
Grandmont, by Stephen do Thiers, a native of Auvergne.

8 The Arabs took possession of Palestine under the Cahph Omar, a. d.
657 It fell into the hands of the Fntimito Caliphs of Egypt, a. d. 968

9.10 There is an amusing description of the crusaders in the Chronicle
^1? Conradus Urspergensis, and the sensation which their first appear.

U On" r?hele''firdli;isions was conducted by Peter the Hermit in
person A contemporary author gives the foliowmg description of
AatBhostly general. " His appearance was rude m the extreme, of
aLrtstirbut of a most fervid zeal. His face was meagre, h^
feet bare a^d his dress of the meanest and the most squalid sort. On
hTsjoumeTa^d wherever he went, he used neither horse mare,
Hor muTe7 but only a vehicle drawn by asse^ Peter mtrusted «

*•' "7 "dTc^ Em ''\'iro"us"Todt S'maSd'^'bTf GermiS
rr":l7o1lowSiim."-NeUThe whole of'them perished to the amount

13 T?eT°birof Venice having refused, in spite of the thundenng

'* Julls Sched against them, to -"e"f / »P ^^g^'^J tL" compelled
Clemonl IV. published a crusade agamst them 1J09, and thus compeuea

13 tZXZ X'er^'no armorial bearings before the 12th century. We
"donotletX[th^hef'/««r..rf..//«onthecrownortherobeoftheFrench

kings, until the time of Louis VII., a. "•^^'Y- ^„ . „„.„„. „ ..„

U The crusades were the means of spreading leprosy in B"'^°P«; »'"•«*

the oCue which in 1347 and the following years made dreadful havoc.

From luly Ttspread over all Europe, and occasioned a violent pars*.

15 ForAeXBee'th* accoiants of Spain, Italy, Portugal.

16 This is the common opinion as to the origin of the HanseaUc League

th« Kincr of France, in favor of the Germanic merchants.

17 The ^afliamlm of 1342 is generally cited as the first in which we find

18 SLttrnlmes'o? S^W- '^^ ^"'-^'^' '' ^ »'"«''" ^'*"'
S tho r^idst of the darkness that covered Europe prior to the 12th

^_..m|ii ;i i i !HH.Jj.,^_,.!f;«,»IJ ' *;

mt^ tinnrwn ri'hwi'

730

NOTES.

91 Hutfolinu., a famous lawyer, under Frederic 1. i. generally regarded
M Hr't' Vat digested the Two Book, of F.ete. at the end of ti.e

82 £vora/"[£r universities were founded in the following century :-.
^uth us that of Prague, in 1347 ; Vienna, in 1365 ; lie.delburg. m 1386 ;

ciues of Mayence. Cologne, Worms, S,nre, Strasburg, and Berhn, ioi
the protection of their commerce on the Klimw.

84 TlJse grand officers were seven in number, although formerly other
princes were admitted to these elections. r.«„^^u tk«

85 There appears some reason to doubt this statement of Dandolo, the

36 S^^r^ttlVi^'lfiarof the Roman empire in he 5th century Corsica
^^ ias con.,u "re.l in turn by the Vandals, Ore. ks, Frank, and Arab.

The latter settled tliere i.. the 9th century, and were expelled m the
11th Sardinia experienced nearly the same revolution «" Corsica It
fell successively into the hands of the Vandals, Greeks, Arabs, Geno.
ese and pians Pope Boniface VIII. vested the King ol Arragon m
Sardinia in 1297, as his vassal and tributary, who expelled the Pisans

37 Th?fa^?s Cttstilian hero Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivnr f^mamed the
^' cS had already seized the king.lom of Valencia "b*^"' h« «"d of the

11th century ; but the Arabs took possession of it after his death 1099.

38 DeGutgnes^ fixes the entire destruction of the Almohade. m the year

29 After the defeat of the Mahometans, Alfonso having assembled the
bi hop declared on his oath that Jesus Christ appeared to h.m on the
evenh K before the battle, promised him certain victory, and ordered
Zto be proclaimed king of the field of battle, and to take for h..
arms the five wounds inflicted on his body, and the thirty pieces ot silver
for which he was sold to the Jews.

30 The first six of these were the ancient !"/ Pe«" f, J« "°-^\, J**,^;
were established in the reigns of Louis VII. and IX., a. well a. nx

31 SlTeS Gemany. in order to preserve the feudal system, passed
a law, which forbade the princes to leave the grand fief. o. the empire

38 bX SSeVeac'e concluded at Paris, in 1359. between Louis IX..
KenrylL. Normandy. Lorraine. Mame Anjou. and Poitou. were
«ded to F anie. who then surrendered to England Limousin Pen.
aord Quercy. &c.. on condition of doing fealty and hom.ige to the
kS of France, aiid to be held under the title of the Duke of Aqui-

33 TtiTfim o'rigln1f?h?inqui.uion may be dated from a commission of
Suisitor^^^Tsia. which Innocent III. established at Toulouce against
the A Censes; Gregory IX. intrusted the inquisition to the Domm..
ea^swhl erected it into'an ordinary tribunal before which they cited
n^only those suspected of heresy, but all who were accused of .or-
rprv maaic. witchcraft, Judaism, &c. . ^ . . ■ ., -.u

U Domi^co 8ub.prior of the church ofOsma in Spam, co.gomtly with
D°eTod'Azebez^he bishop of that church, undertook, in 1206, the mission
?gafns. the heretic, in Jnguodoc. Innocon, VIII. in 1208, established
a perpetual commission of preachers for that ^""n'^y' "p"^ Kino-Tl^
was declared chief. Hence the oriain of the 6rder of Preaching Fnar»

-^'

NOTBS.

731

jenerally regarded
at the end of the

lowing century :—
cidelburg, in 13H6;

:ludod between the
iirg, and Berlin, foi

ugh formerly other

ont of Dandolo, the

ith century, Corsica
j'ranke, and Arabs,
ire expelled in the
ition as Corsica. It
•eeks, Arabs, Geno-
King of Arragon in
expelled the Pisans

^ivar, surnamed the
about the end of the
after his death 1099.
nohades in the year

ving assembled the
leared to him on the
victory, and ordered
and to take for his
Ihirty pieces of silver

)f the crown. They
1 IX., as well as six

eudal system, passed
id fiefs of the empire

I, between Louis IX.,
»u, and Poitou, were
land Limousin, Peri.

and homiige to the
af the Duhe of Aqui-

rom a commission of
d at Toulouce ai;ain8t
sition to the Domini-
fore which they cited
were accused of sor-

»pain, conjointly with
)k, in 1206, the mission

II. in 1208, established
ry, of which Dominico
r of Preaching Frinrw

;« The Irish were coOTerted to Christianity in the 5th century. St. Patrick
was their first aposth, ; he founded the archbmhopno o Armagh n 479.
The supremacy of the Pope was not acknowledged m that island 1 11 the
comicTof Urogheda, 11.^2. when the Pope's polhuin, and the cehbacv
of the priests, were introduced. • , i -, ..,.»

36 In Denmark, the throne wuh elective m the ro.gnmg innuly. »t was
equally so ill Norway, where, by a strange cuntom, -aturd sons were
admitted to the crown, and allowed the privilege of attestmg their
descent from the royal line by the ordeal of hre.

37 The power of the clergy in the North was considerably increased by
the i-uroducln of MeUopolitans. The archbishopric ol Lundcn was
erected in 1152, uiid that of Upsal m 1163.

38 The introduction of tithes met with great W»»'"°"/" »''''!« ^^"^^^^^^^
nor were they aenerally received till near the end ol the 13th century,
cluto IV was^t to death in Denmark, principally for havmg attempt-

39 Eltc^prSurd iil K^HK o( Norway, who undertook a crusade to the
Holy LanrKot lUe head of an army of 10,000 men, and a fleet

40 TaSuT'and the writers of the middle ngcs, before the 10th century,
geem to have included the Prussians, and the people inhabiting he
coal of the Baltic eastward of the Vistula, under the name of L^-stho.

41 ItTalleaed this city took its name from Ottokar II., King of Bohe.
Jlia, who headed an army of crusaders, and encouraged the buildmg

42 In 'the Mogul language, Zin or Tgin, signifies Great, and Kit, very :
so that the word means MoH Great Khan or Emperor. Accorduig to
oOiers who quote the constnm tradition of the Moguls, this new name
was token from the cry of an extraordinary and divine bird, which snt
on the tree during the assembly in question, and ""ered he word
Ttehingki: This name was adopted as a special and favorable augury
from heaven, and applied to the new conqueror. „ „i. ,„

43 The Igours were dependent on this latter empire, a Turkish people to
the north-west of China. It is alleged that they cul«vated the arts and
sciences ; and communicated letters and the alphabet to the other

44 Jietmefoflr; SS took place in 1279, and the latter in 1243
The Caliphs of Bagdad were annihilated by the Moguls, under the reign

45 ;t^fr?a?h:^t"•Emfe■ror Frederic II.. when summoned by the
*" G rea K to submit, and offered an »«<=« °»' h^^^"* " "» ^

replied to his singular message by way of pleawntry, that he knew
enough of fowling to qualify him for grand fnljoner.

46 The dvnastv of the Moguls n Persia ended m 1410 ; that of the Zagatai
fell into th?hands of the usurpers in the 14th century. Thts dynasty
produced the famous Timour. , . .„■ „•

47 Batou Khan was in the habit of ascending the W<.lga. with his whole
tribe, from January till August, when he began to descend that river

48 •iirferK&esf^ Tartar l«.gu.ge, mean, a tent or dwellm,.

49 These tribes dwelt to the north of the Caspian Sea, between the Jaik,
the Wolga, and the Tanais. ...i.„, i,„

») Th. MoSuU of Kip«ac, who ruled over Russia, are known rather by

-ii

...^._.i.._j —

782

NUTEa.

the name of TartnM thnn Mogul., a- they adopted by degree., the \m.
guage nnd m«.merH of tho Tnrmr. nmong whom »hey livud.
M An author who wrote in the tw.llth ^^'^'V- '^■'"'';''*\.''''V„^' ""^
J«,,..n.Ht.llliv.dintt...W,in ...n.mer nnd ...tumn ; he «^''° '•"■'»
5,ut kinudon. vvcro b.nit of wood or ot .tone ; that the g"'"Je«"' *'?•»
S"y went to ro,.rl, brought their -eaW or . lui.r. with them i »nu thrt
IheeaTne thing wa; practi.ed by tho.e who went to v...t their neigh.

53 The inv«H?on'of Dulmutia became a .ourco of ''«"'>'«' ''."^„7''^*'
twoen tho king, of Hungary and the republic of Vienna ; and it wa.
not tiV the fifteenth century that the Venetian, .ucceeded in getting
po8.es.ion of the maritime town, of Dalmatia.

53 The Cuman. establi.hed one of their colonic, in a part o' ancient
Dacia, now Moldavia and Wallachia, which took from them the name

54 BaSwrw'a. .ucc-ede.l by hi. brother H.nry ; and »>« ^y^. brother-
in-law. Pierre de Courtenny, grandaon of Loui. VI. oJ trance. lh«t
prince le(t two .on., Robert and Baldwin, who both reigned at Con.
•tantii.ople, and were the la.t of the Latin empuror..

55 Trey took the name of BakariU,, which in Arabic iigiufiet manttm,,
or dwellers near the lea.

NOTES TO CHAPTER VI.— Pbbiod V.

1 Thi. jubilee, which, according to the bull of Boniface VIII., wm io
be celebrated only once in a hundred year., wa. reduced to filty by
Clement VI., to thirty by Urban VI., and twenty.live by Paul II., and

2 mitm vl' Nicholn. V., and Calixtu. II., gave to the Portugue.e all the
"erritoriea which they might di.cover, from »he J^anarie. to the ndie..
Adrian IV., who adjudged Ireland to "«"'yil- '" "J^, had claimed
that all island, in which Chri.tianity wa. introduced, .hould belong to

1 The^klnga of France maintained the excroi.e of that right in .pite of
the effort, which the court of Rome made i»,;^f,P"*?,"'em of it.

4 The King even .em to Italy the Chevalier William Nogart with a body
of troop., who .urpriaed the Pope at Anagni, made him priaoner, and
Dillaeed hi. trea.ure., a. well a. tho.e of the cardinal, m hi. .uit.

5 If we can believe an Arabic author from Mecca, of the thirteenth cen-
tury. paper, of cotton mo.t probably, wa. invented "Mecca by one
Joaeph Amru, about the year 70G. According to other., the Arab,
found an excellent paper manufactory at Samarcand. when they con.
quered that country in 704. The invention of paper among the Chmeae

6 M.'de^MecheT mention, three P'^-^e'jJ'he gallery of Vieima,oo.
of the year 1297, and the other two of 1357. as havmg been pamted in

7 Thefiwt'cMdywere painted and designed, which rendered them very
dear Great variety of card, are found among diflTerent nations. PtqMt
became the national game of the French ««roc of the Itahans; the
Spaniard, invented ombre and quadrille, and the Germans lon^'^'*-

B One of the oldest of these folio, is that found m the library of Buxheiin,
nearMeningen. It repre.enU the image of St. Chn.topher illumed,
with a legend, dated 1423. Printmg, by blocks of wood, was pracOMd
in China since the vea' 950-

MUTKS.

7S8

y (Ugraet, (h« luk
y livuil.

irkH, that the Hun.
tliu few houtfti in
the grandeoii, when
ih them ; unu that
viiit their neigh.

ubivi and wan be.
i^ienna ; and it waa
cceedod in getting

I a part of ancient
om them the name

i he by hia brother-
I. of France. That
oth reigned at Con-
ra.
lignifiea maritimtt

bV.

niface VIII., waa to

reduced to fifty by

vo by Paul II., and

le Portuguese all the
itnari«8 to the Indies,
in 1155, hud claimed
ed, should belong to

that right in spite of
ive them of it.
1 Nogart with a body
ie him prisoner, oncf
dinuls in his suit,
of the thirteenth can-
ed at Mecca by one
to others, the Araba
and, when they con.
Br among the Chinese

allery of Vienna, ona
aving been painted in

I rendered them very
ierent nations. Piqiut
of the Italiana ; the
iermana laiuijuentt.
e library of Buxheim,
Christopher illumed,
f wood, waa practiacd

9 Gutenberg, who atill kepi ins art a secret, on the death of Driahen.
sent diH'erent ptTsons into his house, and charKed thum to unscrew th«
press, and take it to pieces, that no one might diacovor how or in what
he was eniployvd.

10 Schii-'flin dates the inventiun of ihii font about the year 1459. The
honor of it ia commonly ascribed to Peicr Scho'ller, (he companion of
Faust.

11 In n deed made by Uutcnburg and his brntlirr in 1459, he took a for.
mal engagement to give to the library of the convent of Hi. Claire, at
Mayence, the books which he had already printed, or might print i
which proves that Giitonlnirg had printed IiooWh lung before 1459. anu
that he still intended to print.

10 According to Cusiri, there can bn no doubt as to the oxiNtcncu of can
non among the Moors in the years 1343 — 44. The firHt undoubted
proof of the employment of cannon in France, is of the year 1345.
The Genoese, it is alleged, employed minus fur the firsi time at the
siege of Heraiiessa, against the Florentines, in 1487 ; and the Spaniard!
atrainst the French at the siege of the castle of Ocuf, in 15U3.

li The first cannons were coiintructed of wood, iron, or lead. Oustavul
Adolphus used cannons made of leather. They could not support near
the i|uantity of powder o( those in modem times.

H tiuiot de Provins, who wrote a satirical poem called the Bible, about
the end of the liith century, speaks most distinctly of the mariner'a
compass, which was used in his time in navigation.

15 The herring tishuries on the coast of Bcaniu, in the 14th and 15th con*
turies, proved a mine of wealth for the Ilanseafic trade ; so much the
more gainful, ns all Kurope then observed lent.

16 William Tell is commonly regarded as the first founder of the Swiss
liberty.

17 The Grand Duke Michael Joroslawitz was executed by the Horde in
1318. Demetrius Michaelovitz met with the same fate in 1336.—
The Russian princes, on going to an audience with the Khan, wore
obliged to walk between two fires to purify themselves and the presents
which they brought. They were even compelled to do reverence to
an image which was placed at the entrance of the Khan's tent.

18 The first mention which the annals uf Nestor make of the Livoniana,
and their wars with the Russians, ia about the year 1040.

19 Various contracts were made before that snip wos accomplished. The
first was in 1341, and the price was 13,000 marks of silver. In 1846,
the Margrave Louis sold hia rights over Bathonia to the Teutonic Order
for 6000 marka.

90 Livonia did not belong exclusively to the Teutonic Order at this time.
The archbishop of Riga was independent, and master of the city where
he resided.

91 Before Uladislaus, there were only some of the sovereigns of Poland
invested with the royal dignity ; and the tradition which carries back
the uninterrupted succession of the Polish kings to Bolialaua, in the
year 1000, is contrary to the evidence of hiatory.

99 The converaion of the Lithuaniana to Christianity waa resolved on in a
general assembly of the nation held In 1387. It consisted simply of
the ceremony of baptism. The Polish priests who were employed on
this mission, being ignorant of the Lithuanian language, King Jagellon
became himself a preacher. One custom which he practised, succeeded
better than all the force of reasoning or argument. The Lithuanians,
till thnn. had used onW clothes of shins or linm The Kinc canred

....dsnswi

784

NOTKR.

1S«
if

woolirn ilrrwuoK, n( which hr Imd ordirril » InfRP qiiftlltity to be Importad
Croni I'ohiticl, to lif (hHtrilMitcd to ull thocit who wtre biiptizod, Thou
•ondff ol thit Lithimniiirm ihi-n rtoiiked lo the ndminintrntioii ol that ritft
The Siinicpuitiiirid cinhniiTd Chrintinnity about tho 13th cuiitury.
•a The WullnrhiiiMR, nii their hingnngn proveH. urn n mixture of the dcucend.
anti of Ihn Roinnn coloninn of iincient Unciii, with the Hlnviana ana
(•otha. They iidhnriid to Ihn tJrfok church in thn ninth century.

94 Philip CnlliiniicHu, lli" himorian of Uladialnui, waa doacondcd of an
illuHtriouH fiimily in Tuncnny, und one of thono (Inu genmaes which
Itiiiy prodiiri-.l in ihu tirtrtnth ceniury. Hoing poraocutcd ot Rome, he
retired to Poland to Caaimir IV., who intruntod him with the education
of hi* children, iind nmdo him hi" iocretnry.

95 The conquest of Indonlan by Tiniour ia fixed to the ycara 139^ UW.
Ilia doareat trophies wore huge towera, formed of the heada which he
had cui from his encmiea. He railed 190 of theae after the taking of

Bagdad in 1401. .„,..., a .u

W In the short apace of aix or feven houri, the Turka had cleared the
city entirely of all itx inhabitanta.

NOTE.'^ TO CIIAPTBR VII.— Period VI.

1 Lna Cnaaa ia gencrnlly rrpronmnd for having ndviaed the employing ol
Africiin Klnvea in the Antillua, iiiatend of the nativea, while ho was
«eiiloii»lv BiipportinK the liberty of tlio Americana ; and that it waa by
hia advice that CImrIrs V., in 1517, authoriae<l the Beliflan inerchanta
to import 14,000 African!' into these islands, which gave rise to the treaty
on the slave trade. • • c

2 The kings of Portugal had already obtained similar commiasiona for
their discoveries in the east, from Pope Nicholas V., Calixtua 111., and
Sextus IV. . J

a The Philippine isles, discovered by Magellan in 1591, were occupieC
by the Spaniards in 1564. After several fruitless attempts to find a
north-east or north-west passage, the Englinh doubled the Cape of Oood
Hope before the end of the ItUli century. ,. . ,

4 Magellan, in his voyage, discovered a new route to India by the strait*,
to which ho gave his namo. The Moluccas and the Philippines were
Chen visited by him. Ho waa killed in tlie Isle ol Mutmi, one of the
FhiliF-.iines, April 97, 1591. , l-i- u u f

£ Henry IV. conceived the project, and concerted with Elizabeth of
England, for securing the equilibrium und the pouce ol the continent,

by humbling Auatia. ..... . , , , i..

6 The Bssassin was called Balthatar Gerardi. lie is said to Imve bought
the pistols, with which he committed the deed, with the money which
the prince had given him a few days before.

7 The first alliance of the Swisa with trance was m 1453. It WM
renewed in 1474 and 1480. In virtue of this latter tr.aty, the 8wi88
engaged to furnish for that prince a body of 0000 ai.x.l.at.cs, the first
regular Swiss troops that had been received into the service o) I-ranca,
with consent of the confederation. , , , e e\- k_.i.

9 That war waa terminated in IGOS, a little before the death of Eluabeth.

NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII.— Period VII

I The first of theae medals represented the United Provinces imder the
figure of « woman trampling Discord, with an Inicription a little haughtjr,

iiMitity to bp importsd
• re biipti/tMl, Thou
niatrntioii of that ritft
13th cuiitury.
xturo of the (Icucend.
ith the Hlnvians ana
1 ninth century.
raa (leicondcd of an
tinu geniuiieB which
riociitcd ot Rome, he
m with the cdiicntian

the yean lXi», 1399.
f the headi which he
le after the taking of

irka had cleared the

3»VI.

i«ed the pmploying of
ittiven, while ho wb»
I ; anil thiit it wa« by
« Beli^un niL-rchanta
gave rixo to tiic treaty

lilar commiaeiona for
v., Calixtua HI., and

1531, wcro occupied
4R iittpnipta to find a
bled th(! Cnpe of Good

:o India by the straiU,
the IMiilippinci! were
uf Mutnii, one of the

I'd with I'Jiznbeth of
Duce of tlie continent,

is ftiiiil to hnve bought
with ihf money which

A-as ill MS3. It waa
ittcr iri'iity, the 8wiaa
i) niixiliatlcs, the first
I ilie cervicn of Franca,

tliti dvnih of Elizabeth.

HOD

Vll

i Provinces under the
sription a little haughty.

NOTES.

735

but by no fftpflns nutrngroun for Friimr. The othrr medal wnn more
pjcjimnt ; it oH'crt'd tile rrowri of Ffiiiire t.i M. Viin lliiuninxt'n, the
amtriitisHflor of llollund, under the tijjurt' of JuNhiia, uliu louiiimndcd
thi' Kun tu fttmul still.

9 This bull, the sourtf "* many tht'ologiral iticputi'H, was issiinl in 1713,
in which Clement XI. coiidnurKMl n humlrcil aiiil one proposition*,
exiriu'tcd from the Nnw Tcstanii lit, as false, and infected with the
errorx ol Jiinsenisni.

S In 1713. In tliii* .ssmi; year was concluded fho famoiiH treaty of MpIIij
yen, by which Portugal ('iiga>,'i'd to roceivo Kinjliuli «iiollcii rliitlm, on
conilition that England woiiUi admit tho wineu uf Portugal at one. third
K'HM duty than those of Franco.

4 The national liberty gained under Charles II. by the fiimoux Uab*(U
Corput Act, passed in 1679.

NOTES TO CHAPTER IX.— Period VIII.

I Among the means which the rctrcnt employed for i-learing ofT tho
debts of the state, which anuiunled to tlirro millions, one was tho
famous scheme of Law, a Scotchman, and the establishment of u
bank, which completely failed after having great success, and ruined n
number of families.

3 Alberoni, a nion of vast and enterprising genius, was at first o/ilv »
simple priest in a village near Purma. lie insinuated himself into the
ittvor of tho Duke of Vendome, when he commanded the French uriny
m Italy. The Duke took him to Spain, ond recommended him to tho
Princess des Ursius who was then all powerful at the court of Philip V.
There he was elevated to the rank of cardinal and prime minister.

3 This famous adventurer was descended of a noble family in the pro.
vince of Groningcn. In 1715, he was appointed ambassador for Hoi.
land at the court of Madrid. There he insinuated himself into favor
with Philip v., who sent hin., in 1724, to the court of Vienna, to treat
with the Emperor Chorles V. On his return, ho was raised to the
rank of duke and prime minister of Spain. Being disgraced for his
imprudences, he wos imprisoned in the Custle of Segovia, whence he
made his escape in 1728, ond after wondering over several countries,
he passed to Morocco, where it is alleged he become a Mahometan, oa
he turned Catholic at Madrid. Being obliged to quit that new retreat
he repaired to Totuan, where he died.

4 The trade which the EJnglish carried on in Spanish Arerico, in virtue
of tho Atsiento, having given opppotunities for contraband, it was ogreed
by a subsequent convention, signed ot Madrid in 17.50, between those
two courts, that England should entirely renounce that controct in con.
sideration of a sum of £100,000 sterling, which Spain promised to pay
the English company engaged in that trade.

5 On the death of Joseph I. in 1777, ond the accession of his daughter
Mory, the grandees of Portugal avenged themselves for the indignitiet,
which the Marquis de Pombal hod subjected them to.

6 The principal actions which took place between the French and the
Hanoverians, with their allies, were those of HastenbecL in 1757
Crevelt, 1758 ; Bergen ond Minden, T759 ; Clostercamp, 1760 ; Villing-
Imusen, 1761 ; Grebenstein, 1762.

7 The battles fought by the King of Prussio in that war were the follow,
ing : that of Lowoaitz in 1756 ; Prague, Kolin, Jagerndoff, Rosbach,
Bieslaiiand l<iaaa, 1757 ; Zorndorff and /focA&t'riAen, 1758; ZuUiekmh

.,' I

736

MOTES.

■^^

and Kunnermlorff, or Frankfort on O-e Oder. 1759 ; ^iepiiU «.d Tor
gnu, 1760; Fryburg, 1768. The King gained them all except iho.e

8 New'ierence""h.ving arisen between Spain and Po«YMtS
which occasioned hostilities, a treaty of ?/?«• <=°"=l»*>^i'*""5Ji
1778 put an end to these differences, and finally regulated the limits

, SHrii ;:°isrS;he1i:ge'^of Senngapatam. his capital, which

J^p^p^S'Ctt o^S^ which the Empress of Russia made to the
King of Poland in 1771, 1775. that she was averse to the partmon of
Po"and, which, in effect, appeared to be in opposition to the true inte-

Th^AusSafdivi^ion -.as estimated at about 1300 (Jerman square
miles, with 700,000 inhabitants. _ ..„ „,^

19 Thes; countries were estimated at 4157 square miles, with 3.050,000

13 Se'^onlo; of the King of Prussia comprised "61 square tnUe.. with
1,150,000 inhabitants. It contained 2G2 cities. »"<! 8274 villager

H I waL in this revolution that Counts Struensee and B'«"d;j«" •";
cuted-the former bei«? prime minister of S«^eden \^' '^''^^^^l
these two persons, see t nverts from Infidelity. Vol. II., by the trwii-
later of this work.

CHAPTER IX.

I The first act of the Confederation !■ dated Oct. 4. 1776. It then e<mi-
Sended only eleven rtate.. South Carolina and Marrlwd were «K
included till 1781.

Liegnitz and Tor-
n all except thoae

Portugal in Braxil,
ncludcd March 34,
egulated the limita

I, his capital, which

Russia made to the

to the partition of

on to the true inte-

300 (jerman square

niles, with 3,050,000

31 square milei, with
J 8374 villages,
id Brandt were eie-
n. For the live* of
ITol. II., by the trmi-

,. 1776. It then com.
id Maryland wera not

(

i'^SiSsS*. -