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EL 
 
 
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PUBLIC SCHOOL 
 ELEMENTARY FRENCH GRAMMAR 
 
 PART IL-SYNTAX 
 
 ' By AUGUSTE BKACHET 
 
 AiListed for tlie use of Eugllsh SchoclE aud PerwriB eiiga«ea in 
 
 Elementary Teaching 
 
 nr 
 
 The Lev. P. H. E. BRETTE, B.D. 
 
 HEAD-MASTEB OF THE FRENCH SOHOOI., CHBIST'S HOSPITAL, 
 
 AND 
 
 GUSTAVE MASSON, B.A. 
 
 ASSISTANT MASTER AND LIBRARIAN, HARROW SCHOOL, 
 BXAMISEBS IN THE UMVERSIXy OF LONDON. 
 
 FIFTH EDITION, 
 
 JAMES CAMPBELL & SON. 
 
 1878. 
 [All rhjlda retfctei?.] 
 
|! 
 
PXIEFACE. 
 
 ^f 'HE publication of the Syntax of our " E»,emkn- 
 TAUY French Grammar " has been postponed 
 much longer than we either wished or expected ; 
 wo trust, however, that the result of t'iis uuavoid- 
 ijy.o delay will have been to reudor our work more 
 worthy of the success already obtained by the 
 "Accidence." Persons engaged in tuition ki^c ♦v 
 perfectly well how difficult; it is to modify the 
 explanation of Syntactic rules, originally addressed 
 to French pupils, so as to meet the wants of 
 English students ; grammatical problems meet us 
 as wo go on, which we did not anticipate when we 
 Btirted ; and thus, what was to have proved the 
 occupation of a few wteiis, has ended in being the 
 labour of months. 
 
 The present volume, composed exactly on the 
 T)lan of the previous one. is also followed by au 
 alnhabctical iudex^ which, w« trusty will bo foun(i 
 
Iv 
 
 flli 
 
 PRKPACE. 
 
 useful for purposes of reference. In accoraanco 
 with the wishes of many experienced musters, we 
 have also adtled a complete French-English and 
 English- French Vocabulary. Finally, a supple- 
 mentary series of Exorcises is in active prepara- 
 tion, and will be ready in the course of next 
 August. 
 
 P. n. ERNEST BRETTE, 
 GUSTAVE MASSON. 
 
 \1 ! 
 
 London, Felriiary, IS??. 
 
 I 
 
nee 
 
 we 
 
 nnd 
 
 ira- 
 oxt 
 
 \ 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK IIT.-SYNTAX. 
 
 rXSST PART. 
 
 Syntax of Words 
 
 CHArTER I. 
 
 Syntax of the Substantive ••• 
 
 Peciion I.— Agreement of tbe Substantive.— Of Gender ... 
 
 SiicTioN II.— Of Number 
 
 I. Plural of I'ropor Nouns 
 
 II. Plural of Words taken from Foreign Languages ... 
 
 III. Plural of Compo- d Nouns 
 
 Section III.— Compleni J of the Substantive 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Syntax of the Article 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Sytitax of the Adjective 
 
 Section I.— Agreement of the Adjective 
 
 Section II.— Of the Position of tbe Adjectives 
 
 Section III.— Complement of tbe Adjective 
 
 Section IV.— Degrees of Comparison 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Syntax of Numeral, Possessive, and Indefinite Adjectives ... 
 
 Section I. — I. Numeral Adjectives ••• 
 
 Section II. — II. Possessive Adjectives 
 
 Skctiom XU. — ladefiuite Adjectives ... «^ <<• 
 
 PAOS 
 
 a 
 
 ... ... 
 
 <«• 
 
 4 
 4 
 8 
 9 
 9 
 10 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 19 
 21 
 24 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 2a 
 
 SO 
 
TADLE OF C0NTr,NT3. 
 
 p 
 
 Is 
 
 'I 
 
 OHAPTEH V. 
 
 Syjitftx of the rronouns 
 
 I. Personal Prououu8.-.Conjinic*ti'vo " 
 
 l>isjiiiictivo .. 
 . . BoHoctivo 
 
 Itcj)ftition of the Perflonal Pr(>iiouaH 
 
 If. PoHBLHsive Prououus '" 
 
 IK. Dc'iiionHtrative Pronouns 
 IV. Jioliitivo and IntornwitivoPronoimH" 
 V. luileiiuite Prououua ... 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Syntax of the Verb 
 
 I. ARreoment of the Verb with o'ne sunplo Sabjoet .'*.' 
 If. Agrocmont of the Verb with several SubjeclH 
 m. Compk'uieut of the Verb 
 lY. Use of the Auxiliary Verba ..*.' .".' [[[ ]" 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 Syntax of the Participles 
 
 Section I^Agreement of the Present Participle .'!! "' 
 S*:cTioN n._Agreement of th. Past Participle ... 
 
 1. General Principles 
 
 2. The Past Participle used with the Auxiliary Verb 
 
 ©tre {=to he) 
 
 3. The Past Participle used with "the Anxiliary 
 
 avotr {=to have) 
 
 4. Additional Remarks on the" A.rreement"'of the 
 
 Participles 
 
 6. Summary .'. " '' [" 
 
 Txnn 
 ao 
 
 80 
 39 
 Hi) 
 40 
 42 
 43 
 46 
 (50 
 
 65 
 
 53 
 58 
 01 
 Gl 
 
 67 
 07 
 70 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 77 
 
 Byii 
 
 Byt 
 
 01 
 
 In( 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Syntax of Adverbs 
 
 ••• ••• ••« 
 
 ••• ••• 73 
 
 Byntax of Prepoai.tions .., 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 M< ••• 
 
 ^^•. 'v 84 
 
 I 
 
%Ant,tt Ot' CONTENTSk 
 
 VU 
 
 CHAPTEU X. 
 Bynliix of Conjunctions ••• ••• 
 
 ••• t«» ••• 
 
 PaUB 
 
 U9 
 
 SBCOWB VAST. 
 
 Syntax of PropoHitioUH 
 
 I. Dt'Hnitions 
 
 II. Of tlio Sulumlinato Proposition 
 
 III. Une of the Indicutiva and of the Subjunctive in 
 
 Conjunctive PropoHitiouB 
 
 IV. Use of the TunHes of the Subjunctive 
 
 V. Belative Fropusitioua • ••• ••• 
 
 93 
 
 93 
 95 
 
 96 
 100 
 1U3 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Of Annlysia 
 
 •»• ••• 
 
 fit *t« ••• 
 
 105 
 
 In(!ex ••# ••• •'• 
 frouch-En^^liBh Vocabulary 
 Engliah-French Vocabukty 
 
 • •« 
 
 »•! 
 
 in 
 
 <t> 
 
 • •• 
 
 115 
 
 •>• 
 
 • #• 
 
 123 
 
^i- 
 
BOOK III- 
 
 ^-4 
 
 SYNT/X 
 
 219. We have studied successively the ten kinds 
 of words of which the French language is composed ; 
 it remains for us to show how these words can be 
 brought together, m order to form sentences, iliat 
 part of grammar which treats of the manner of con- 
 necting words so as to make sentences is called 
 Byntaz* 
 
 Syntax comee from tho Greek mWraCc (= arrangement, con- 
 itruction). 
 
 220. We cannot express a thought by words, 
 without making what is called a propoBltion. When 
 we say: Dim est tout-puissant ( = God is almighty), 
 Venfant aime ses parents (=the child loves his parents), 
 each of these phrases forms a proposition. 
 
 221. The proposition may be simple, as in Dieu 
 aime les hommes ( = God loves men), or compound, as 
 in Dieu, qui est clement, aime les hommes (=;<J0{1, wHo is 
 merciful, loves men). This latter proposition is caUed 
 compound, because, to the principal proposition {Vieu 
 aime Us hommes), a oecondary proposition is added [qui 
 eat clement). 
 
 Syntax. • 
 
8 
 
 BTNTAX. 
 
 m: • 
 
 1 
 
 ijl 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 222. Syntax, then, is divided into two parts: tlio 
 first teaches us how to combine two or more words in 
 order to make of them a smjs/e proposition ; the second, 
 how to combine two or more simple propositions, in 
 order to make of them a covi2'ound proposition. 
 
 223. These two parte of syntax are called : the 
 first, syntax of words, the secoud, syntax of 
 propositions. X^. 
 
SYNTAX OF WORDSs 
 
 8 
 
 : tlio 
 ils ill 
 !ond, 
 s, in 
 
 FIRST PAUT, 
 
 the 
 of 
 
 SYNTAX OF WORDS. 
 
 22*. We have said that we cannot express a thonght 
 by words without making what is called a proportion. 
 
 Every proposition contains three terms : the siihject, 
 the vJb, the attrihute. When we say, lor instance, 
 lejuge est juste (=:the judge is just), we attribute to the 
 persin called juchj'^ the quality oijust ; v.'e affirm that 
 the judge possesses that quality. The word just, desig- 
 nating the quality which we attribute to the judge 
 is for that reason called attribute ; the word ,U 
 (=is), which serves to affirm that this quality ot just 
 L-.f/in the judge, is caUed verb ; finally, the judge, o( 
 whom we have affirmed that he possessed the quality 
 pointed out by the attribute, is called subject. 
 
 Tims the subject of the proposition is that of which 
 something is affirmed, the veil is the word which 
 exprc^^^^^^^^^^^ affirmation, and the attrihute is the quality 
 which we affirm to exist in the subject. 
 
 In evcrv proposition, the verb and the attril.ute agree wit'n the 
 Bub^cShat ?s to saV. they take the number, the «eudejs and 
 
 the^erson of the subject to winch t\'^y /'^i^l.^tS Person 
 Vhprh,' est vert(^ ( = tho grass is green) est is the third pel son 
 LnaJlai and i%i (^ green) is the feminine of the same number, 
 Suse the Nvo words^ ed and verte, refer to the same object- 
 Se (itleVmHB)-which is in the feminine gender and 
 sinmdar mimber. If we compare the proposition to a little baud 
 of solicrs wo can say that the subject is the commander and 
 ?hat the verb a.ul attribute recognise his authority and wear hu 
 unt arm We ongiit then to begin syntax with the study of the rules, 
 a?coXg to 4h'ch different words ayree together, whtu we wisa 
 to combine them in ord ; l;> form a proposition. 
 
SYNTAX OP THE SUTJf?TAN'nVE. 
 
 i t 
 
 1i 
 
 I 
 
 When we say I'herhe est rorto (=the grass is green), the word 
 grass as yet only indicates a very vague iiloa; we know tbat that 
 which is green is the grass, not ivator or the earth, but we do not 
 know whether it is this or that grass which is green — if it ia the 
 grass of the garden, for instance, or that of the meadow. If, to 
 particularise this general idea, we say I'horbe du jardin est vorte 
 (=tiie grass ot the garden ia green), the word garden, which comes 
 in to complete, to explain the word grass to which it refers, is called, 
 for this reason, its complement. To express an idea by the help 
 of words joined together in a proposition, we must know how to 
 render that idea clearer by adding to the proposition one or more 
 complements, which explain or determine it. 
 
 225. The syntax of words has, then, the double 
 object of determining for each of tlie ten parts of speech 
 all the rules which couceru the agrreement and the 
 oomplement. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 ^~f~ SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 AOSSSMSXTT OF THE SVBSTAIO'TXVB. 
 
 226. Wheu two substantives following each otlu't 
 point out the same person or the same thing, the second 
 agrees with the first in gender and in number. Le rot 
 rlwalier {=the king-knight), Ja rdnc viere{r=:{\\e queen- 
 mother), hs soldats lalmvrmrs ( = the ploughmen sol- 
 diers), ClotiUe, reive iUvstre ( = Clotilda, an illustrious 
 queen), Turmite kait un heros ( = Tureime was a hero). 
 
 or GsirjDEit. 
 
 227. The nonns aide, critique, g>arde, ma- 
 noeuvre, statuaire, are : — 
 
 A. Feminine when they denote the action : — 
 
 J,' aide jmissante de Dieu r=the powerful help of God) 
 Xa critique est bonne (=the criticism [review] is good) 
 Xia garde des frontieres (=the watching over the frontiers) 
 Xa manmiivre dhm navire (-^the working of a ship) 
 
 — .——.... ^ — !,„v jjttt.tj'i'irj' oi triie auvicuiai j 
 
 C 
 
 f 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 \ 
 
 lil 
 
f 
 
 SYNTAX Ot tnE StJCStANTIVlS. g 
 
 B. Masculine when they denoto the man \Bho 
 accomplishes those different actions : — 
 
 Un critique {=a critic) 
 
 Vn gardo-cliasse ( = a gamekeeper) 
 
 Un aido-cldrur<jien ( = an iissihtaut-surgeoii) 
 
 Vn mui,noimre ( = !i workman) 
 
 Va staluaiio ( = a sculptor) 
 
 228. Aigrle ( = eagle), properhj and fujuratkely, ifl 
 
 masculine when it denotes the male bird or a man, as : — 
 
 ttaicjle estfier etconra^ienx (^tlieongli' isproitdandcouraseons) 
 Cet homme est un aiglo (=thi3 muu ip aftrauscemleut geuius) ; 
 
 It is femimne when it means the female of the eagle, 
 or a military standard, as : — 
 
 Une aiglo attaqua un vautnur (—nn eagle attacked a vulturo) 
 L'aigle romaine ( = tlio lloman eagle). 
 
 229. Amour (=love), ddlice ( = delight), and 
 orgrue ( = organ), are vuisculine in the singular, and 
 fembdtie in the plural : — 
 
 Los premikrea anioura (= first 
 
 love) 
 Bo joycusen delicos (=jo.yful 
 
 delights) 
 De belles orgxios ( = fine organs). ^ 
 
 It^ amour Jiliail (= filial love) 
 
 Un (7f'?tci3enuTant(=an intoxi- 
 cating i)leiinure, deligbt) 
 Un bel orguo (=a fine organ) 
 
 230. Chose in the locution quelque chose, or quelque 
 chose de is masculine: — 
 
 J'ai appris qwlque those de /ac/ieux (=1 have heard some 
 sad news, lit., something sad). 
 
 But in quelque chose que je lui aie dite, je ri'ai pu le convaincye 
 (= whatever I might teU him, I could not convince him), quelque 
 chose means quelle que soit la eliose, and is feminine. 
 
 231. Foudre is feminine when it means lightning^ 
 
 thunderbolt : — 
 
 lOL foudre aillonne lea nu«s (—the lightning flashes through 
 the clouds) ; 
 
 but it is masculine when Vl^q^ figuratively *— 
 
 i- t 
 
 F 
 
 Vn/ouure d" cloquenr,e (:=a very cio(iueut oratCk'). 
 
 
il 
 
 6 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE StBSTANTIVlB. 
 
 232. eent is feminine in the singular, and means 
 race, tribe, crowd : — 
 
 Xa gent moutonnlkre (=the ovine race) 
 Xa govt criarde (=tbe noisy crowd). 
 
 In the plural (ffens) it means men, people, and 
 tcvaamsfeininitie if an adjective comes before it : — 
 
 Les tonnes gens (=good folks) ; 
 but it becomes masculine if an adjective follows it : — 
 Les gens dece pays sont bona (=the people of tliat country 
 
 are Rood) , , , i 
 
 les vioillen gens sont soupgonneux (=old people are bus- 
 
 picious). 
 The adjective tout is an exception, as it remains 
 vtasculine whether it comes before or after the word 
 gens : — 
 
 TouB les gens guej'ai ma ( = all the people I have seeu) 
 Ces bonnes gens sont toMS ennuyeux (= these good folks are 
 all tkesome) . » . ^ 
 Tout, liowever7«>ccomes feminine when it precedes 
 an adjective not having the same termination for both 
 genders. Thus it is right to say : toua les honneUs yem 
 (=:all honest people), because honnete is spelt alike for 
 the masculine and feminine ; but we must say : Unites 
 les l)onnea r/t-ws ( = all good people). 
 
 §W Oens de lettrea and other compounds are 
 always masculine. 
 Oent is feminine, "nd meant formerly nation, ^people ;— 
 
 •• comhien lore aura de veuves 
 
 La gent qui porte le turhan ! "— Malherbe (1556-1628). 
 (=0h how many widows will there he then among the people that 
 wear turbans 1) But it soon lost that meaning in the pl«ral 
 (which, however, is even now retained in le droit des gens, for le droit 
 des nations, =the law of nations) for that of wen, individuals, as : 
 Us gens de cepays ( =the men of that country), les gens de mer 
 (=the sailors), etc. Jnst as the feminine word pcrsonne (see 
 
 {I 110), with the moamng of man, became mascuUne in such 
 ocutions as: personne n'est hon dans ce pays (= there is no 
 good man in this country), personne n'est venu (=no one haa 
 come), the idea of man causing its proper gender to be forgotten ; 
 in the same way, the new idea oi man, individuai cauacu tue 
 change of gender in the word genf. This conflict between the two 
 genders has given rise to the doulAe rule explained abovo. 
 
are 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 233. Hymne, 
 
 when moaning a hymn (of tlift 
 
 church), is feminine:— 
 
 I la simplicitS 
 
 Leo aneionnea hymnes tie VejUse ont le m6nte i- 
 
 7=«!i3ancimit hymns of the church have the merit of 
 
 simplicity) ; 
 but it is vwscuUne in all other cases:— 
 
 Chaquevo^^p^'oason hymne national (=every nation has its 
 natioual ^^^^)-y^jL^j ^^ 
 
 234* Orge (= barley) is feminine : — 
 
 De belle orge (=Bome fine barley) ; 
 but, according to the Dictionnaire de VAcacUmie, it is 
 viaaculine in the expressions : — 
 
 Oracperle { = poarl barley), 
 ^Orge mondk (= Scotch barley, husked barley). ^^ 
 
 235. The following substantives have differoul 
 meanings according to their gender:— 
 
 llvre 
 
 UASO. 
 
 __cEap«-- 
 
 bouk 
 
 "w^nme. memoir, bi UtJItaBfig- 
 
 "mode , mood_ . -1 
 
 ' movde Jlfl""^'^ 
 
 -^musse gabiii-bay 
 
 '-<^wj§.- -Pag^ ^^^* — 
 
 FEH. 
 
 pancake 
 pound > 
 sleeve .■ 
 jpemory 
 -iaaiiisn. 
 
 -mnaael.^ 
 
 somme na^, slumljar.. 
 
 -ffftJr ^ ~furn, ti5ck. lathe 
 
 "vase 
 votk 
 
 vasejV^aal.. 
 
 page ipf u bookV 
 clock, timepiece 
 
 III J 'V-- — ft II II I— ^ 
 
 period 
 _ Jrying-pan 
 sum 
 mouee 
 tower ~"^ 
 
 ">^ QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. VHtat is the rule for the agreement 
 of substantives ? 
 
 2 What have you to say on the gen- 
 der of aide, cHlique, garde, 
 nuinceuvref 
 
 a. (iivc the mles concerninR the 
 genior of uiyU^, «i»uUi; Uciicc, | 
 Digue, fvudt't, eJum. 
 
 i. State fully the rules relating t^ th« 
 agreement of adjectives accom- 
 panying gens. 
 
 e. Give six nouns which are mas- 
 cnline in one sense ami femiuina 
 iu tlie uiher. 
 
d 
 
 OP NtJMBEJl. 
 
 Sxeroise 40. 
 
 Ik Les paratonnorrea inuscrveut les ('dificcs do la foudre. S. 
 Cetto critique est bonne. 3. Si .vous cassez quelque chose, je le 
 rabuttrai sur vos gages. 4. Lo moulo est cass6. 5. Donuoz-moi 
 la poele. 6. Tons les honnetes gens le rospectent, mais toutos les 
 tnauvaises gens le liaTssent. 7. Les soldats clianterent leur b.ymue 
 national. 8. Certains gens de lettres gout vonus mo voir. 9. A 
 Milan 11 y a ^oux grandes orgiies. 10. On a plac6 un orgue de 
 oliaque c6t6 du choour. 11. Ce sont mes plus chores d61ices. 
 
 "sfiUo (/.), 'fais.iit, 'garde, 'pour, " chirurgion (m.), * trompeur, 'oaohor, 
 •frapixjr, ° foudre, '"inoinc (m.). 
 
 1. All the eagles taken from the enemy were placed in the 
 hall.i 2. It is a good help. 3. He kept * a good watoh.^ 4. All 
 these people have been very kind to * me. 5. This surgeon ' has 
 two very good assistants. 6. This raanoeuvro was deceptive.* 
 7. If something remains ho hides "> it. 8. This tree was struck • 
 by lightning." 9. The monies lo were siugiug a beautiful hymu. 
 10. All the good people were surpriuod. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 OF xruMBsn. 
 
 iit 
 
 236. Aleul, oiel, oeil, travail, see § 86. 
 
 237. T^moln (= witness) does not take the sign 
 of the plural wlien it is placed at the beginning of a 
 sentence, or in the locution a te'moin : — 
 
 T6moin les hlessures qu'il a regues (=wituess the wounds ha 
 
 has received) 
 Je vousprends tons i Umoin {=*! call you all to witness). 
 
 N.B. — Prendre d tffmom means properly prendre powr Umoin; 
 the Old French said: €lire un elievaiier d roi (=to elect a knight 
 for king). 
 
 238. Some noons are only used in the singular :— > 
 
 14 hnira ^=«<1r'r>lrir>«»\ 
 
 -is ^ „Q^ 
 
 M mantfer (= eating) 
 la botaniqm (s botany) 
 
 la reconnaissance (= gratitude) 
 le silence (=:iBileuce) 
 
 
 iU 
 
OF KtJMBEB. 
 
 
 
 Others are used only in the plural :— 
 
 Ah'ntonrs, m.(= neighbourhood, riiT.";t™:Ll"S?^'"''^""'^' 
 
 euvirons) 
 air.hives, f. (=archivoH) 
 catu CO (II hes,t.i = ciitiicouiba) 
 ciseam,* m. (= scissor b) 
 
 vicinity, environs) 
 mathnnatiquea f. ( = matho. 
 
 nmtics) 
 Uneh-es, f. (=dttrknos8, dark, 
 
 night). 
 
 X. Plural of Proper Wouns. 
 
 239. In English proper nouns take the sign oi the 
 plural, but, in French, they do not, as :— 
 
 LesdmxCoTneUlesontnS, 4 Rouen (= the two CcrnciUes 
 were born at llouon) , ..■a,i- 
 
 Lea Comellle, les MoUfire, Us »»?»"«""* '•""**'" VRa«in2 
 de Louis XIV ( = mon Uke Corueille, Mohcre, and Eacine 
 have rendered the age of Louis X.1V iUustnous) ; 
 
 Except (1) when they are common to great families 
 
 or dynasties, as : — 
 
 Les deux Gracques, en jlatJant ^^J'^;!'^'^- ^™«"'^ros80FT) 
 divisions qui nejiniront qu^avcda ««P"''^'3^f-i^^?'"Sl 
 t = The two Gracc'ai, by flattering the people, originated 
 those quarrels which only ended with the Itepublio) ; 
 
 (2) when they are used as common nouns, as :— 
 Vn Augusta aJsement pent /aire des Vlrglle. (i.e., des poet^ 
 eommo Virgile) ( = an emperor like Augustus can easily 
 produce poets like Virgil) ; 
 (8) when the name of an author is used to designate 
 his works, as : — 
 
 J'at plusieurs Vlrgllea dans maUhUotheq^e (=Ihave several 
 copies of Virgil in my Ubrary). 
 
 2«0. Proper names of countries take the sign of the 
 plural, as : — 
 
 Les dcun Oulnfees (= Upper and Lower Guinea) 
 Los deux AmSriques (= North and South America). 
 
 XI. Plural of Word* taken flrom PorelRn X.angruages. 
 
 2«X. Words taken from foreign Unguages, and 
 which have become French by frequent use, take « in 
 
 the i^lurftl; 
 
 • Citfau In tbc Miis«lar means chiaeL 
 
I( 
 
 i ( 
 
 10 
 
 OF MUMREB. 
 
 Vn acces.-tit {proxiine accessit 
 
 montiou) 
 un album (= album) 
 «» eramen ( = examination) 
 un upiha (=t>perii) 
 ttu pennim ( = an irapo8ition, ta^'l.) 
 UH spdcimen (=a spocimou) 
 
 bouoiirable de» aecessilti 
 
 dcs albumn 
 dos cjcanient 
 dos (ypi';ra» 
 des pensunm 
 des8})cciiHen»^iSco. 
 Excnii'T (1) names of prayers: des ave, des credo i 
 [i) compouud nouus: des in-octavo, des eA'-vuto - O 
 terms of music borrowed from tLo Italian: dea allearc, 
 des crescendo. '' 
 
 Carbonaro, lazzarono, dilettante 
 carbonari, laxzaruni, dilottantl. 
 
 keep their Italian plural: 
 
 XZZ. Plural of Compound XTouns. 
 
 242. Comi)ound nouus written in one word as 
 
 rnrtemuiteuu (= portmanteau, lit. that which carries 
 the cloak), contrevent ( = shutter, lU. that which protects 
 a<jamst the n-ind), follow the rules for the formation of 
 the plural ol simple nouns : des portemanteaux (= port- 
 manteaus), des contreventa ( = shutters). 
 
 r^" Gentllhomme (= nobleman), monsieur 
 ( = 8ir, Mr.), madame ( = Madam, Mrs.), made< 
 molselle ( = Miss), however, become (/entilshummea 
 messieurs, meadames, mesdeniuisclles, in the plural. 
 
 243. When the compound nouns are written in two 
 vroT&s,a8 cof re-fort ( = strong-box, safe), porte-drapeau 
 ( = standard-bearer), the noun and adjective alone can 
 take the sign of the plural ; all the other Avords, whether 
 verb, adverb, or preposition, remain invariable. ^^ v^ 
 
 244. The rules for forming the plural of compound 
 nouns are six in number. 
 
 When a compound noun is formed 
 
 1. Of two nouns, both nouns take the sign of the 
 plural :— 
 
 un ehat-tigre (=a tiger-cat) des cliata-iigrem 
 
 un chou-jlcur ( = a cauliflower) des choux-fleura. 
 
 2. Of two nouns Joined by a preposition, the 
 
 jitsi alone taues the sign of the plui-al :— 
 
 un arc-en-eiol ( = a rainbow) des arc%-en-ciel 
 
 %n chef-d'a.uvr« (=a masterpiece) des duij».d\eu,vr». 
 
 
OF NUMIIKR. 
 
 11 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Wlion the proposition is undi'vstood, the Biirae rule 
 
 must 1)0 obsciv.'d ; thus nn huhl-Dirii, wliicli Ktiuids for 
 
 vn Iwtd de JHvu (^^a houso of God^a lioapitul) la lu 
 
 the plural ties liotil^-IHeu ; 
 
 ExcEi'T : Vn trto-a-trte ( = a pviviitc interview) 
 
 wn coq-a-Vme ( = a cocli niv\ Imll hI< ry) 
 
 «n picd-atem! (^louipomry lodyiiigs, a country box) 
 
 •which rcmaiu tho aamo : des tete-a-tcte, itc. 
 
 8. Of a noun and an adjective, butU take the 
 Bigii of tho plural ; — 
 
 wne hasse-taille (=a bass voice) des h'^nset^-tiilhB 
 un coffre-fuft (=a safe) des coJJieB-fod*. 
 
 Except some oxprcHsious fofncd with Old Frcnoh words Bticli an : 
 icrre-vhin (^i.latlonn, torre-).loii'), from tho old ndjuotivo y. .wri, 
 j,/at.i (=fliit, oveu); chovau.U,jor (=li,!lit horsoinau), jHop.rly 
 cheral Icgor ; Uanc-sein {=siKuaturo on a blank viii.er.froin llio 
 Old Frcucli seing, for .st.;nat»re. Thoso nouns form their p nnil 
 like the compounds written in ono word — that is to Huy, that tlie 
 last word alone takes the plural— (^s U,re-i>\ci.n», des clmau- 
 leger», des blanc-seing: A jyi/f)[_^ 
 
 4. Of a noun and a verb, ina nuun alone takes 
 the sign of the phiral : — 
 
 «n j>asse-i)ort ( = a passport) des passe-poHi 
 
 un tire-boucJion (= a corkscrew) des tire-houchon». 
 ExcKVT the compound nouns formed with tho verb gardor : nn 
 * gard^-chasse (=a game-keeper), un aarde-mawjer {=a larJcr, 
 meat-safe), iu which goirde takes s in tho plural when xt means n 
 keeper : un garde-chasse, des garde»-chasse ; but remains invariablo 
 when it designates an instrument or object : un garde-manger, des 
 garde-manger (see § 227). 
 
 6. Of a noun and a preposition, or of a 
 noun and an adverb, the noun alone takes the sigu 
 of the plural : — 
 
 un sous-o^cier {=a noii-commissioued officer) djis «o«s-(.fIndr« 
 «n avanir.ureur (=a precursor, harbinger) des avant-coureurm 
 
 6. Of Invariable words (verb, preposition, ad- 
 verb), both words ronain unchanged : — 
 
 w(mi-(Zir-«(= a hearsay) des out -dire 
 
 «« pasM-pai-tout (= a master-key) dos passe-jpartouU 
 
12 
 
 OOMl'LKMENT OF TllK SUBSTANTIVE, 
 
 K 
 
 2*5. JiKMAijKs.— Ill forniiiij,' tl/o plural of compouna 
 nouns wo must first exaniino what is their exact 
 meaning; thus wo writo drs smy-teie ( = head bands) 
 without 8 alter tctr, h,>cause the hand is ftistcned round 
 one /uad omy, iiud un cm'n-pirdB (r=a countorpauo, 
 quilt) because it covers the feet; again, des abat-jour 
 ( = siiaaes), b(H,-anso it shades the lujht; but nn j>one- 
 clija (=a turuiiuy), because ho carries inanij keys 
 
 Exerciae *1. 
 
 1. Los doiu Corncillo sout nCs i\ lloueu. 2. Los BoUoftn et les 
 Gilbert fiirent los Juvuui i-. de lour sioclo. 8. J'ai deux Moliires 
 dans Ilia libliotlitKiuo, , . Hout des in-octftvo. 4. Lea porto-clofs 
 ftirivuient. 5. Je voua prenda tons d tomoiu. 6. 11 a roniportfi 
 deux prix et tiois accessits. 7 rerrnettoz-moi de vous prcaoutor 
 uioa beimx-frcies. 8. Void un cassc-uoiBcttoa. 
 
 •porto-pluuic (m.), ' ivoiiu (»i.). "KOioii, •couvre-fcu (m,). " "»" -^ '"<■ V /.A 
 
 1. These towels 1 arc now. 2. Your boot-jack" is upstairs." 
 8. The foxes* visited several poultry-yards.s 4. Those penholders • 
 are of ivory.7 5. The rainbows were beautiful. 6. The Rame- 
 keepers were in the forest. 7. These Icings wore as many Neros.« 
 
 8. Poets such OM (the pi.) Corneille and (the pi) Milton are rare. 
 
 9. The sub-lieutenants wore speaking with the . r , ?, h. irn'a. 10. 
 I have lost my tooth-pic -t 1 1 . The curfew » wq ■» i avr,..lu.'od into 
 England by William the Conqueror. 12. TJ • • - ?y .jys ar« 
 veil mudo. 
 
 
 SECTION in. 
 
 COMPXEMBBTT OF THB SVB8TAWTZVB. 
 
 a-J^-* When one substantive is used as a complement 
 ■ . . lother, this use is generally marked by the pre- 
 noutions do :.of) or h ( = to): un houme d'homieur 
 ! -a man ol honour), la maison de Paul {^Pcsx^Va 
 house), un oiseati de proie (=a bird of prey), un fusil 
 & ahmille (=a needle-gun), un chandelier it, branches 
 ^_-., 1.....,!^.. vetiiaicciiuii.;, «« piani) sk queue ( = a «'i"au(i 
 piano), UH enfant aux chemtx noira (s=a black-baiied 
 clii^d). 
 
 \U 
 

 OOSrPT.KMENT OF TIIK BTinHTANTlVB. jg 
 
 _ In oxpr«»-HionH like tlio aluivo, which mark posHcsmon, k («t(») 
 Bigiiifies aveo ( = witli); fusil h aifiuWe, piano it, 'inene aro 
 equivtilent to /usil areo aiyiu?/a, piano aveo iiucuo {lit. a yiano 
 with a tftil). Besides possession, & iiinl de servo to mnrk the 
 relutiou between cause and effect, that of a part to the whole, etc. 
 
 Be is uscil when the idea of (iriijin, er>i)i]<iisition, or pof'ssim is 
 iniylied ; 4 iuiphaa »wa>t« or purpose, and is also used i inieud of 
 with. 
 
 247. V/o find also en, sans, autour, etc. ( = in, 
 without, round, etc.) equally employorl I'o) this pur- 
 pose: MM homme sans fortune l = tk man wi lumt 
 ioYixmo), une epee en acier \ = a, steel Bwonl), un v iimje 
 autour (ill vwnde ( = a voyage round the world). 
 
 248. The infinitives can also be used as comi lo- 
 ments to the substantive: Van r/'^orire ( = tho .irt 
 of writing), la Jaqon de marober ( = tho way of 
 walking), etc. 
 
 249. We must carefully distinguish between the 
 case where the noun and its complement are united by 
 the article du ( = of the), and that where they ar.- 
 united by the preposition de ( = of) : vn juihis de rot 
 et le p-'ah du roi ( =a kingly palace, and thepaliK'o of 
 the king) do not by any means express tho 3ame idea ; 
 the former phrase is general, and qualifies a palace of 
 m/rt/ appearance: cette maison eat tin vrai palais Ae roi 
 ( = that house is quite a royal palace); the latter 
 phrase, on the contrary, is very special, and determines 
 to whom the palace belongs : cette maison est le palais 
 du roi ( ~ that house is the king's palace). 
 
 250. When two nouns require after them the samo 
 preposition, they may have the same complement : son 
 arlmr H son ai>plication au travail (=his ardour and 
 his application to work), because ardeur and application 
 both require after them the prepo^i^ion a. 
 
 But we cannot say : son devouen t et son ohcissanee 
 pour son maitre (=his devotedness and his obedience to 
 his master). Each word must take its ani^rnnriatfi crsni' 
 plement. We shall say then : son de'cuuement pour son 
 mattre et son oh'issance envera lui» 
 
u 
 
 COMPLEHIF-NT OF TIIE SUBSTANTIVB. 
 
 Ekmark. — Tho iifio of a noun in tho singular or 
 the plural after a proposition depends entirely on the 
 idea exjiresscd. We must see whether the noun con- 
 veys or not an idea of plurality. Thus we must say : 
 marchand de lait ( = a milkman) = (/)«' vend du lait, and 
 marchand de pommes ( = an apple-seller) = </«* vend 
 ■iespommes ; un fruit a noyau ( = a fruit with a stone 
 in it — i.e., apricots, peaches, cherries, etc.) = (;Mi a un 
 loyau, but un fruit a pepins ( = a fruit with pips — »>., 
 apples, pears, eic.) = qui a des pepins. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOB EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. Olve the plnral of aXeul, ceil. 
 
 2. In what instances do nonns of per- 
 
 sons take the sif^n of the plnral ? 
 I. Write out the plnral of pi^isiim, 
 vUimatitm, dikltante, ave, te deitm, 
 pnsf-scHplum. 
 
 4. How do you form the plural of 
 
 compound nonns composed of (1) 
 two nouns, (2) an adjective and 
 a noun, (3) a vei-b and a noiiii, 
 (4) a preiwsition or adverb and a 
 noun ? 
 
 5. Wliat is the best means to know 
 
 ■whether any parts, and whJch.of 
 a conijxjnnd noun ought to be in 
 the plnral ? 
 
 6. How is the use of the complement 
 
 generiiUy marked in French ? 
 
 7. What are tne ideas exprus-sod by 
 
 tho two prepositions ci and de re- 
 S))cctivcly ? 
 
 8. When do two nouns take tho same 
 
 complement? 
 
 9. When is a noun to be placed in the 
 
 sinjiular and wlirn in tiie plural 
 after a preposition ? 
 
 II 1:1 
 
 Exercise 42. 
 
 1. Tout bon citoyen doit I'obcissance auxlois etsi la constitution 
 de son pays. 2. Les rSgles de I'honnt tet6 eout cellos de la 
 bienscance et dea bonnes mccurs. 3. Le Perou a de nom- 
 breuses mines d'or, d'argent et do diamnnts. 4. Le plnisir est 
 Bouvent I'ennemi de la raison. 5. J'ai toujours des armes a feu 
 chez moL 6. Prencz un yerro de vin. 7. La domestique a laissfi 
 tomber le pot au lait. 8. Ou est la bouteille a vin ? 9. Le raisiu 
 est un fruit t, pepins et la pechc est un fruit h noyau. 
 
 'rfcgle (/.), «d(5cence (/.), *main"6re (/.), *b<ntp. (/.), 'couvertHre (/.Jt 
 •noyer (m.). 
 
 1. Has the servant broken the wine bottle ? 2. Give a glass of 
 beer to that brave soldier. 3. The rules i of decency = and good 
 manners* condemn this action. 4. JMy sister has bought a grand 
 piano. 5. Who is that lady with a blue bonnet ? 0. I shall buy 
 a pair of satin shoes. 7. liring down tho tea-caddy*; it is in my 
 bedroom. 8. The peach is a stone-fruit, but the orange is a fruit 
 with pips. 9. It is a book with a green cover \ 10. Tho cover ( f 
 the book is grefin. 11. A walnnt-wood " table. 12. A stou'j h'jusf . 
 
 Js-. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ABTIOi.K. 
 
 u 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 flBTITTAX OF TBB ASTZCXiB. 
 
 251. The article is used in French : — 
 
 1. Before nouns taken in their general as well as in 
 tlieir particular sense : lea livres sont les meiUcurs amis 
 (ie Vhomme (=books are man's best friends), le livre que 
 je lis ( = the book which I read). 
 
 2. Before nouns of measure, weight, number, etc. : 
 ee vin coute six shillimjs la boiiteiUe ( = this wine costs six 
 Bhillings a bottle). 
 
 Instead of the article, the preposition poA- (=l)y)is placed before 
 nouns expressing a subdivision of time, or the ■^ages, salary, price 
 of entrance paid, etc. : iljouit d'un rerenu de irois cent mille francs 
 par an (=he has an income of three hundred thousand francs a 
 year). 
 
 8. Before nouns of kingdoms, countries, provinces, 
 etc. : V Atujlcterre est un ■pays libre ( = England is a free 
 country). 
 
 4. Before adjectives taken substantively : le rovrje eat 
 line couleur qui ne vous sied pas (=red is a colour which 
 does not become you). 
 
 6. Before titles followed by the name : le docteur 
 Nelaton (= Doctor Nelatou). 
 
 252. Every noun which is either the subject, the 
 attribute, or the object of a verb must have one of the 
 two articles, definite or indefinite : lie cheval manije du 
 foin ( = the horse eats hay), un ami est un tre'sor sans 
 prix ( = a friend is a priceless treasure). 
 
 253. When the article refers to two substantives in 
 the singular, it must be repeated before each of them : 
 le cousin et la niece ( = the cousin and the niece), and 
 not les roiiHin et niece, except in the locution les pere et 
 mere (^^tlio father and mother), which usage has cou- 
 eecratcd. 
 
ii 
 
 le 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLB. 
 
 IIP 
 
 254. Wlicn two adjectives united liy et (=and) 
 refer to the same substantive, and the substantive 
 represents two distinct things, the article must bo 
 repeated before the second adjective : Vhistoire ancienne 
 ©t la moderne ( = ancient and modern history), not 
 VhiHtoire ancienne et nunlmxe ; but it would be correct to 
 say le brave et illnstre Turenne ) = the brave and 
 1 lustuous Turennt), because both adjectives qualiiV 
 the same person (Cf. § 800). 
 
 255. No article is used in French : 
 
 1. Before the ordinal numbers introduced in quota 
 tions : Hire premier (=book the first). 
 
 2. Before the numbers expressing the succession of 
 popes, kings, etc.: Charles premier ( = Charles the 
 Fir-^it). ^ 
 
 8. Before nouns expressing the title, profession, 
 country, etc., of the person or thing represented by 
 the preceding noun, the material of which a thing is 
 made, and generally before a noun when it is used to 
 complete the meaning of another : vne table de marbre 
 ( = a marble table), du vin d'Espatjne{=)^y)Q,nh\x wine), /m 
 hoKime d' esprit ( = a witty man), mon pere etait libraire 
 ( = my father was a bookseller). . 
 
 4. Before subs tai?t: res placed in apposition: le roi/nt 
 requ en tnomphe, honneur qiiHl meritait bien ( = the king 
 was received in triumph, an honour he well deserved)." 
 
 5. In the title of a book: histoire de France (=a 
 history of France). 
 
 6. After the pronouns quel, quelle, quels, 
 
 queues ( = which, what), used as exclamations: ,jud 
 viaynifique coucher de soleil! ( = what a splendid sunset!) 
 
 7. After words of quantity, v/ant, etc., except la 
 phipartand bien; votre theme a bcaiicoup de /antes {=yonr 
 exercise has many mistakes), bien des annees aprcs la 
 mort^ d' Alexandre ( = many years after Alexauder'rf 
 
 J. 
 
la 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 1^ 
 
 8. In proverbs or in sentences of a general kind: 
 pauvrete n'est pas vice (= poverty is no crime), 
 
 9. In enumerations, when we wish to give more 
 rapidity to the phrase : rots, pciiples, etineiuis, tout trem- 
 hlait decant lui <■ = kings, people, enemies, all trembled 
 before him). 
 
 256. Before the adverbs plus, molns, and mleuz, 
 
 the articles le, la, les are employed Avhen a comparison is 
 meant : la ruse est la })lm belle des jleurs ( = tlie rose is 
 the finest of llowcrs), Ics gazelles sent lea plus agiles des 
 qiiadrupedes (=ga2elles are the nimblest of quad- 
 rupeds). 
 
 257. Le, however, remains invariable when we wish 
 to express a quality carried to the highest degree, 
 without making any comparison : c'est en Asie que les 
 vinntaijnes sont le plus hautes (=it is in Asia that the 
 mountains are highest). 
 
 Xio is further invariable before plus, mleuz; molns, 
 
 when these words are followed by another adverb, or 
 employed by themselves : c'est elle qui a repondu le plus 
 adroitement (=it is she who has answered the most 
 skilfully), c'est la rose que j'aiine le mieux (=it is the 
 rose which I like the best). 
 
 258. The indefinite article du, de 1% de la, des 
 
 is used before all nouns taken in a partitive sense, except 
 when an adjective precedes the noun, or when the 
 sentence is negative {see § 48). Sometimes another 
 proposition comes before de : Charles est venu aveo des 
 amis (= Charles came with some friends). 
 
 259. The article remains, however, (1) when the 
 adjective follows the noun: du paiii excellent { = excel- 
 lent bread) ; (2) when the noun and adjective form a 
 compound noun : dovnez-moi des jietits-pois (=give mo 
 some green peas); (8) when the negative question 
 implies a pcsitive meaning: n'avez-voua pas dea amis ? 
 
 I l>r»«T/\ -.rj-m »»y-v4- nt-ifr j^i.irtv»-T" *^\ 
 
 ^ I'.-!.tU JUII ilVL Utijf XtlUiiUB 11 
 
hf 
 
 18 
 
 SYNTAX OB* THE ABTlcLft. 
 
 260. "With nouns expressing things which are not 
 capable of enumeration we must not use nn or une, 
 but du or de la. Thus we cannot say : dnnnez-moi un 
 vin, une viande (=give me a wine, a meat), as we say : 
 donnez-moi une cerise ou une jiomme (=give me a 
 cherry or an apple) ; we must say : donnez-moi du vin, 
 de la viande (=give me some wine, some meat). 
 
 Un must be used after c'est : c'est un Frangais {=he 
 is a Frenchman), arid des after ce sont : ce sont des 
 Anglais ( = they arc Englishmen); but it is not ex- 
 pressed after it est {=he is): il est AnyUiis (=he is an 
 Englishman). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOE EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. Wlien Is the definite article used in 
 
 Vreiich ? 
 3. Enumerate the varione cases in 
 
 wliich no articl'j is used. 
 •, When is te invariable in connection 
 
 with the adverbs plus, moitu, 
 
 mietix* 
 
 4. When is the article du, de t, de ta' 
 
 (1"s used ? 
 
 5. What article is used with nouns 
 
 exjiressing thi s which are not 
 capable of enumeration ? 
 
 Exercise 43. 
 
 1. La fortune est une divinity capricieuse. 2. Le printcmps, 
 I'et^, I'automne et I'hiver sont les quatre saisons de I'lmnSe. 3. 
 Le fromage cofite soixante-dix centimes la livre. 4. La charitc est 
 la premiere des Tertu<» chretiennes. 5. La Touraine est le jardin de 
 la France. 6. Le bon et le maiivais sont meles ensemble dans 
 toute la nature. 7. Donnez-moi du pain et du beiirre. 8. Voici 
 d'excoUents fruits. 9. Le fer et I'acier sont des mutaux utiles. 
 10. La politesse est souvent le fruit de I'usage, de I'experience et 
 de I'application. 11. Guillaume Trois monta sur le trone 
 d'Angleterre k la .suite d'nne revolution. 12. Vous tronverez ce 
 passage dans i'Listoire de France d'Auquetil, cbupitre cinq, livre 
 trois. 13. Ampdre ttait a la fois pliilosoplie, chiuiisto et niatlic- 
 maticien. 14. Je reviens de Marseille, ville dont la fondation est 
 attribute k une colonie de Plioceens. 15. Quel malbeur votre ami 
 A eprouvS I 
 
 • n'importe qui, 'boiteox, »valoIr, ♦par, 'Inde (/.), "crayon 
 Espagne, • m^chant, 'esprit (»>.), '» birn, "s'utaient ccoulbes, 
 
 («,). 'en 
 
 1. Good example is a language which anybody ^ can understand. 
 2. The horse which you have lent me is lamo.^ 3. Eggs are 
 Worth » a shilling a dozen. 4. I have passed thron.Ldi * Greece 
 in coming from Iudia.6 5. Blue is one of the primitive colouig. 
 
 
AGKlTEMENT OP TUB AWECTlVBk 
 
 59 
 
 is. When you go out, buy me some pencils" nud colours, 7. I 
 found iu Spain 7 wretched 8 iuua and detestable roads. 8. Italy 
 prodacos oranges and olives. 9. Book the teuth, section the 
 eighlfenth. 10. What an accomplished man ! 11, My frimd is 
 an officer, 12, I have road Heniani, a tragedy by Victor lingo. 
 
 13. Charles II., king of England, had much wit » but no prudeuce! 
 
 14. Many w years bad elapsed " since. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 AGRBSMfiSTT OP THE AB7X3CTZVB. 
 
 261. The adjective agrees in gender and number 
 with tlie noun which it quiihfios : Diea eat clement 
 ( =G()d is merciful), le cid est bleu ( = the sky is blue), 
 les homines sont mortols ( = meu are mortal). 
 
 262. An adjective which relates to two or more 
 nouns in the singular is put in the plural and agrees 
 m gender Avith those nouns; thus : lafoiiimet la behtte 
 sont e'l/alemcnt <^rty///r/euses ( = the polecat and the weasel 
 are equally dangerous). 
 
 If tL'e nouns are of different genders, the adjective 
 generally takes the masculine, thus : le rut ct la rcine 
 sont yenerexix ( = the king and the queen are 
 generous). 
 
 263. After two nouns separated by the conjunctions 
 ou ^ = or), ainsi que ( = as well as,' like), de xndme 
 que (r=:as, as well as), etc., the adjective agrees 
 Avith the latter, provided it really qualifies °that 
 noun only : les mhnnes se mnstniisoit en bois ou en pierre 
 tiis-ilnre ( = ihe columns are made of wood or of very 
 hard stone). ^ 
 
 264. When two or mnro substantives nnrk a gra- 
 dation, or foiiu a chmax, and we wibh to lis the 
 Ritcution particularly upon the last, wo give to iha 
 
 H; 
 
^WP'IW'WWPIiW 
 
 20 
 
 AGUEEME^tT OP THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 I ^ 
 
 adjective the gentler anil the lumiber of this last sub- 
 stantive : Conde montra a llocroy itn couraf/e, un saiuj- 
 frvUl, une audace eiomiante ( = Contl^ showed at Eocroy 
 courage, coohicss, and wonderful audacity). 
 
 265. When an adjective is composed of two adjec- 
 tives (or of an adjective and a participle), united by a 
 hyphen, the two pnvts agvoe with the noun : des poires 
 aii/rcB-douceB ( = half-sweet, half-sour pears). 
 
 The only exception is the word mort (=dcacl), whicli never 
 takes the sign of the feminine iu compound adjectives : une hrcbi$ 
 mort-n^e (=a Biill-born lamb). 
 
 266. But if the former of the two adjectives is 
 employed adverbially, it does not vai-y, being then a 
 real adverb: Vhcrhc eat im-clair-scwe'e— that is to say 
 tm-clairement semee (=the grass is very thinly sown), 
 cea personnafjes etaient QOixxt-vetus — that is to say, 
 courtexnent vctus ( — those persons wore very short 
 clothes). We say, likewise: une Jille nouveau-nei; 
 (= a new-born daughter). 
 
 267. Adjectives employed adverbially can never 
 agree with the substantive, inasmuch as tliey are really 
 adverbs — that is to say, words which from their nature 
 are invariable : cUc cJiaiite faux ( = she sings out of tune), 
 cette Jleur sent bon (--this flower smells sweet), etc. 
 
 268. We have seen in § 282 that the substantive 
 gf<?«5 ( = people) requires in the feminine the adjectives 
 which precede it: de sottes f/ens; and masculine those 
 which follow it : </<'s t/ais sots ( = stupid people). 
 
 For the uetails of this exception and the exiilamitiou of its 
 origin, see § 232. 
 
 269. Demi, nu, feu., cl-jolnt, etc., see §§ 
 275-278. 
 
 270. Orand (=great, large, tall) remains invariable 
 in certain locutions : grand' mere ( = grandmother), 
 grand' route (=higii road). 
 
 In Old French grand and a few other adjectives had the same 
 form for tb6 masculine and the femininfi. Tintp.r f.lio.y Isot-.^rt?" 
 variable like courU couite (== short), but several expressions ia 
 which grand did not vary were retained. 
 
OF THE POSITION OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 21 
 
 271. Substantives, employed m adjectives to express 
 certain colours, are invariable : dcs eto(/'es noisette 
 (= nut-brown stuffs), des robes olive ( = olivo-coioured 
 dresses). 
 
 Two adjectives combined for the purpose of express- 
 ing a colour remain invariable : des chevcux chatain- 
 clair (=light browu hair), des yeu.c blou-fouc^ 
 ( = darlc blue eyes). 
 
 • In oxprcsRiona such as ohdtain-clnir, hUu-foncr, tlio former word 
 is properly a suljstantivo in tho siu<.;ular number (i.o., dus clieroux 
 d'un chataln), and tho second word, i.e., tho adjoclive, agrees 
 with that substantive. 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 
 1. La victoire que C3sar gagna h Pharsale fut dfisastrense pour 
 lo genre humain. 2. Mu-abeau montrait dans tons scs diseoura 
 un talent, une liabiletC ctonnante. 3. Men fr^re et ma sa'ur sont 
 hcureux. 4. Un style uni, simple et nnturol cut le soul renom- 
 niandnblc. 5. Une personne sensible ne pent voir un vieillard ou 
 une fommo pavivres et sonffrants sans 6tre onine. 6. La grand'- 
 routo est bord<je d'arbres. 7. Lours vetements sont gi'is-fonce. 
 
 'porter, 'nW (m.), "constrnire, * robe f/), 'possiilor, ° wdonr (/.). 
 
 1. Charles and Emily aro attentive. 2. He wore ^ hlaok silk 
 stockings. 3. These nests ^ are built ' with an iidmirable art and 
 skill. 4. Blue cotton stockings. 5. I do not soo very distinctly. 
 6. Light blue dresses.* 7. These oranges hove a good smell 
 (translate : smell good). 8, Colbert had* pre found judgment, 
 indefatigable industry ,« and a very extensive knowledge of foreign 
 commerce. 9. Robespierre acquired in Paris au absolute power 
 ond authority. 
 
 SECTION n. 
 
 OF TBB POSZTXOIO' OF ABTBCTZVES. 
 
 272. GENERAii EuiiE. — Adjectives are in French 
 
 generally placed after the substantive to which they 
 relate, as : — 
 
 una table rondo (=a round 
 
 table) 
 «}i elimat chaud (=a warm 
 
 climate) 
 un tliime franga%8 (=a French 
 
 exercise). 
 
 an Iwmme riclie (=a rich man) 
 una penseo morale (=a moral 
 
 thought) 
 uno chamhre obscure (=a duik 
 
 cuom) 
 
22 
 
 OP THE POSITION OP ADJECTIVE8. 
 
 273. AUliougli many adjectives may be placed eithe* 
 before or after tlio noun at i)leasure, as unlwvme habile, 
 or tin haldle homme ( = a clever man), the best way to 
 avoid mistakes in writing exercises is to put them after 
 the substantive, except the following, which usually 
 precede it : — 
 
 joune (= young) 
 joli ( = pretty) 
 maurais {=bad) 
 meilleur (= better) 
 moindre (=less) 
 petit (= little) 
 
 Beau (=fine) 
 hon (3= good) 
 eher (=dear [denoting 
 
 affection]) 
 digne ( = worthy) 
 grand (=:great) 
 
 saint (=lioIy) 
 tel (=:sucli) 
 tout (=all) 
 viouji (=old) 
 vilain (=ngly). 
 
 N.B. — Past participles used as adjectives follow the 
 noun: un homme instniit ( = a learned man), «« Uvre 
 recall ( = a book which has been received). 
 
 274. Several adjectives take a different signification 
 according as they are i)]accd before or after the noun. 
 The following arc some of them : 
 «n«3 certaine nnuvelle ([Lat. 
 
 quidam] =certain news) 
 mon cher frh'e (=iny dear 
 
 brother), 
 diff(i)-entos ) , , , 
 
 direr ses \ "^"^'^^ (= sundry 
 
 things). 
 un nouvol liahit (=a fresh 
 
 coat). 
 un pauvra poeto (=8an indif- 
 ferent poet). 
 tmplaisant conte (=an absurd 
 
 tale). 
 son propre hahit (=his own 
 
 coat). 
 son se^d enfant (=hi3 only 
 
 child). 
 un vrai coquin (=ftn arrant 
 
 [notorious] rognc). 
 «n brave hoinme (=an honest 
 
 man), 
 till gr'Mid Iwmme (=a man of 
 
 genius). 
 de michanis vers ( = poor verses). 
 
 la dernicre ttnnee (=tho last 
 year [of any period]). 
 
 un mal certain ([Lat. eertum] 
 
 a positive evil). 
 un Uvre cher (=an expensive 
 
 book). 
 
 rent, various objects). 
 w)i habit nouveau, ( = a new- 
 fashioned coat). 
 un poete pauvre (=a needy 
 
 poet), 
 un conte plaisant (= an amusing 
 
 tale). 
 un hahit propre (=a clean 
 
 coat). 
 un enfant seiil (=a child 
 
 nlonc). 
 une wmvclle vraie ( = true intel- 
 
 h'gouee). 
 \vn homme hrave (=a brave 
 
 man), 
 un homme grand (=a tall man). 
 
 dcs vers mcchants ( = malicious, 
 
 Vannee dernicre (=last year). 
 
OF TUB POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 28 
 
 275. Tlie two adjectives, nu (=nal(etl) nnrl deini 
 ( = liall'), placed before the noun, are invariable, anil 
 are united to the substantive by a hyphen : nu-picda 
 (=bare-footcd), nu-tete ( = bare-headed), nne demi-Uvre 
 (=half-a-pound), xine demi-heure ( = half-au-hour) ; 
 placed after the noun, they agree ■with it — the former 
 in gender and number : les pieds nus, la tete nne ; and 
 the latter in gender only : une livre et dcmie ( = a pound 
 and a-half), deax heurea et demie (=two hours and a- 
 half). 
 
 Bemaiik. — When demi is used aa a substantive, it is masculine 
 when it means a half in arithmetic : deux demis font un entier 
 (=two halves make a whole) ; but it is feminine when it applies to 
 Tiours : cctte pendule sonne lea demies (=this clock strikes the 
 half-hours). 
 
 276. The adjective feu (=late, deceased) is in- 
 variable when placed before the article : feu la reine 
 (= the late queen); but when placed after it, it agrees 
 with the noun in gender and in number: la feu© 
 reinb. 
 
 Zll, Ci-joint, ol-inoluB remain invariable :— 
 
 1. At the beginning of a sen to nee : d-Jolnt la 
 lettre dc voire pere ( = annexed is your father's letter), 
 oi-inclua les pieces dii contrat (—enclosed are the 
 documents referring to the deed). 
 
 2. In the body of a sentence, when the following 
 noun is used without an article or a determinative adjec- 
 tive : voxis trouverez ci-joint copie desa lettre (= you will 
 find a copy of his letter annexed). 
 
 In every other case the agreement takes place: lea 
 pieces Gi«jointes sont precieuses (=the annexed docu- 
 ments are valuable), vous trouverez ci-Jointe la copie 
 du traite (=you will find herewith the copy of the 
 treaty). 
 
 278. Franc, in the expression franc de port (=s 
 carriage, or postage paid), is invariable when it precedes 
 the substantive : vous recevrez, franc de port, la lettre 
 que je vous envoie (=you will receive the letter I sen^ 
 
24 
 
 OOMPLEMKNT OP THE ADJECIIVB. 
 
 yon, postage paicl). Placed after the substantive, it 
 agrees with it : cette lettre est fk-anohe de port {= this 
 letter is i^repaid). 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 I i '■''■ 
 
 if 
 
 «j 
 
 Szerolse 45. 
 
 1. EUe marohait nu-pieds. 2. La feue reine ^tait tiSa esh'Tn<fe. 
 8. Dans uno domi-lioure jo vous reverrai. 4. Cette oaisso est 
 fraucho de port. 5. Ce sont leg propres termea do^tU s'ost servi. 
 6. C'eet une vraie hlstoire que vous me contoz Id. 
 
 •montagnnrd (m.), 'ficoase (/.), • dans, * rovenir. 'de tloyant. "i.^ie (w.). 
 
 1. The Higlandersiof Scotland* have their legs bare in 'all 
 eeasons. 2. I send you herewith the documents (which) you 
 require. 3. I shall call again * in an honv «nd a-half. 4. Behind 
 the house there was a large garden, bu*: tlio front » garden was 
 small. 5. It is an expensive hotel. 6. This war began in tlio 
 last year of Henry's rciga.« 7. I havo bought a now book (i ». 
 lately published). 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 OOMPXBMEXTT OP THB AS7BCTZVB. 
 
 279. Two adjectives qualifying the same noun must 
 each have the same preposition as a complement. 
 Tnus we can say : ce Jih est utile et cher a sa were 
 ( = that son is useful and dear to his mother), because 
 elre utile d,qiielqu'un( = to be useful to some ono), etre 
 rher k qvelqu'un { = to be dear to some one) are gram- 
 matically correct; but we i.ould not say: ce /Us est 
 utile et chdri de sa mere, because etre titile de quel- 
 qu'un is wrong; in this case we must lengthen the 
 proposition, and say : ce fils est utile & sa mere et il en 
 est Chen (=that son is useful to his mother and he is 
 beloved by her). 
 
 ^ 280. Some adjectives, having a determinate mean- 
 ing, take no complement; thus inrlolable in the 
 
 following sentfincp : 
 Invlolablea ( = the 
 
 violable). 
 
 //!« 
 
 rights 
 
 droits do. 
 "of 
 
 conscience are in- 
 
©BnnF.Kfl or compaiiison. 
 
 86 
 
 281. Adjectives, wlii'^h Bij:;nify plenty, scarcity, or 
 tvant, take the preposition ile before the word which 
 they govern. Such are the following : — 
 
 ahttent (= absent) 
 affliijc ( = aimctcd) 
 avide ( = greedy) 
 ea2)able ( = capiiblo) 
 combJe (=ovoi\vholmc(l) 
 «ow}j?ico (=accc8soiy, privy) 
 content ( = content) 
 eiirieu,r> ( = curious) 
 di'sc.fpere ( = diglicartcne(3) 
 dcsolti ( = desolate, very souy) 
 ilif(';rent ( — different) 
 digre ( = worthy) 
 elovjni! ( = disiiin(.) 
 enricux (=on\ioii8) 
 egclave (=a slave to) 
 eivoitipt (= exempt) 
 /at(V;u^( = tired) 
 fier (=proud) 
 
 282. Adjectives, denoting aptness, fitness, incH- 
 nntion, ease, or any habit, take tho preposition a ; such 
 are the foUowiii" : — 
 
 /ju (=mad) 
 glorienx (=prond) 
 hontenx (=aslmnied) 
 impatient (= impatient) 
 innayable ( = incapable) 
 indigne ( = unwortliy) 
 jalonx ( = jealous) 
 las (= tired) 
 lassd ( = tired) 
 mvciwlaxt ( -dissatisfied) 
 plrin (—full) 
 rflw.sasiij (= satisfied) 
 vawpli ( = filled) 
 sovjnene ( = careful) 
 »ur ( = sure) 
 ti'ihutaire ( = tributary) 
 victimo (=a victim to) 
 
 ^^1 
 
 accessible (= accessible) 
 accontumd (= accustomed) 
 anterieur (=pieviou3) 
 ardent (=ardent)) 
 altentif ( = attentive) 
 cher ( = dear) 
 
 eonforme (=conformablo, agree- 
 able) 
 eontrairo (=contrary) 
 en din ( = disposed, prone to) 
 exact (= punctual) 
 favorable (= favourable) 
 fwneste (=bauof ul) 
 
 %mp6n(>traUe ( = impenetrable) 
 importun ( = importunate) 
 invincible ( = unconquerable) 
 invisible (=invisible) 
 nuisibJo ( = injurious) 
 preferable { — preferable) 
 •prompt (=prompt) 
 pi-op ica (= favourable) 
 propre ( = good for) 
 redoutablc (=redoubtable) 
 semblablo (= similar) 
 aujet ( = subject) 
 visible (= visible) 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 SEOAEES OF COMPARXSOXT. 
 
 283. We have seen, § GG, that the comparatives of 
 BUperiority, inferiority, and equality iiru foruiud hy 
 means of the words plus... que, moins...que, au93^ 
 ^ .que, and ne...si...que in negative sentences., 
 
 H 
 
 ■if 
 
: 5 
 
 W DEGREES OP COMPARISOIf, 
 
 28«. When a numeral adjectivo or a Bn1)8taiitivo 
 comes alter tJio comparative, que ia chan<?ed into de : 
 avez-vous plus de vimft francs Jans votro bourse? ( = liave 
 you more than twenty francs in your purso ?) 
 
 285. When a verb follows a comparative, de is 
 placed after gue, if the verb is in the infinitive, and ne, 
 U It 19 m the nidicativo mood : il est plus grand de 
 vamcre ses passions q.n«) de conque'rir des roymmes (==ii 
 IS greater to overcome one's passions than to conquer 
 iangtloms) ; vans vous flattez plus que vous ne le dcvricz 
 (=you flatter yourself more than you ought). 
 
 Except: 1. When the first infinitive is preceded by 
 A, this proposition is repeated before the second: il est 
 plus duspose & vous plaindre qu'it vous punir (=hQ ia 
 more disposed to pity than to punish you). 
 
 ^ 2 When the verb being in the indicative, a con- 
 junction comes between que and the verb : vous ctos plus 
 enclin a tramtller que quaml vous etiez au coUrqe r = vou 
 concJ^e^^ """"^ *° work than when you were at 
 
 8. When the sentence expresses negation, interro- 
 gation, or doubt: il n'est pas plus heureux qix'il Vetait 
 (=*e IS not happier than he was). 
 
 286. When a comparative is repeated, no article 
 should be used m French : plr- on lit, plus on aiwe a 
 lire ( = the more one reads, the more one likes to read) • 
 plus tme chose est difficile, plus il y a de merite hV accom- 
 phr (=the more difficult a thing is, the greater merit 
 there is in accomplishing it). 
 
 Notice that dificile and de merite are placed after tho 
 verb in French. 
 
 287. The article le, which precedes a superlative, 
 agrees^generally with the noun before an adjective, but 
 no. ueiorc an adverb (see §§ 2o6, 257): les plus belhs 
 roses (=the finest roses) ; c'est elle qui agit le plus 
 qdmtment (=it is she who acts with the greatest skill). 
 
 i 
 
DEORKKS OF COMPATIISON. 
 
 27 
 
 2Q8. Tlio vovl) wliicli follows a fluporliitivo willi que 
 is j,'(!iieriilly in tlid Hiiltjuiictivo mood : <'ft oinrdijr rst le 
 viciUmr que je oonnaia»e ( = tlub work ia tlio lost I 
 know). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXA^IINATION. 
 
 1. Sfato tTio rnlo mid cxorptlonfi for 
 thnuj,'i%M!iiiniitol' omMUijcctivo with 
 Bi'vcrul snlistnntivcs. 
 
 I, Wliut iri the mil! lor the nifreonicnt 
 of I'oiiipoiiiiil luljoctives? 
 
 5. How do luljcctivis n^ree »ith tho 
 
 Biilwtaiitivi' ijiii.i ? 
 4. Statu tlio riilo ot nyrrpmont (\) for 
 udjoctivi'S fiiiployiil lulvcrliiMlly ; 
 (2) for Ktibstiiiitives emiiluyi'd an 
 ndjoctlves. 
 
 6. Wlicrcarondipctlvesgencrally placoil 
 
 ill I'Voiinh y 
 
 6. Write a list of the lul.icctivos wliicli 
 
 ))i'ofiO(le tlie milistiiiiiive. 
 
 7. Niiiiic a few ailjii tivcs which take a 
 
 dllTeront iiiiiii'iiiK at'conliMK as 
 they arc placed t</or<; or (ly/i;- the 
 soiin. 
 
 8. Expliilii the mil' of iifrerTiK'nt no 
 liinmit ulVeetHtlioadjeclivtM iiii, 
 
 ll'llll./iU,/llllll'. 
 
 0. Wind, are the i.!"\» cxpri"<sed hy 
 ailjeetives which trovcni llicir 
 ciiiiipleiiieiit with (1) the piepo- 
 hition (''■ ; CJ) the prepciiUoii it. 
 
 10. How Ih I/kiii expressed iiieoiiiiiara- 
 
 tlvo ser.tences ? 
 
 11. State the nilo furtho coniparatlvo 
 
 repeated. 
 
 12. How is the verti put In KCiiteiictoS 
 
 with the siiperlativu ? 
 
 13. State the tiilcH for the a Tepinont 
 
 (if /.' ill Hciiteiiees whoro the 
 siipcrhitive occurs. 
 
 14. Wluiiirau two adjeetivea have the 
 
 same complement ? 
 
 Bxercise 46. 
 
 1. Rien ne me plait tant (iiio los oiiviii^^oH do Rniiliuel. 2. La 
 d6esse Calypso Ctait plus grundo qii'l'liicliariH do tonlo la teto. 
 8. Rion n'est plus agruablo a rpsjnit (pio la lumiiire do la vi'.itfi. 
 4. Y a-t-il rien de plus injnste (pio do puuir cc pauvro soldat ? 
 6. L'armoo aveo laquello Ale\andio-le-(iraud dult Darius uo 
 8'61evait pas a plu.s do quaranto millo homnics. 6. Mollis vous 
 fitudierez, moins vous piofitoio/. 7. La villo de Troio fut autiefois 
 la plus c^joliro do I'Asio Miucuio. 8. La probite est uue des i)lii8 
 belles qualitt's qu'un hommo puisse po8s6der. 9. Los bomuios 
 les plus savants font quelquefois Ics fautes los plus grossicros. 
 
 ' gagner, 'dispense (/.),' fairc, ♦ goftt (m.). 
 
 1. The public good is preferable to private interest. 2. Wliy 
 are you dissatiHfled with your condition P 3. He is not fit to 
 discharge his duty. 4. I do not like people who are cruel to 
 animals. 5, The Thames is not so rapid as tho Rhine. 6. I am 
 older than you by two years. 7. Wo tlattor oursolves more than 
 «e should. 8. The more I examine this question, the more 
 difficult I find it. 9. The less money he gcts.i tho less expt^ise* 
 ho runs into." 10. It is the best work which that author has 
 written. 11. These three young ladies sing well, but Miss Martin 
 is the best singer. 12. It is she who siuga most tastefully (tiiUia- 
 ifiie : with the most of taste '). 
 
 ' ( 
 
 '!■ 
 ! 
 
 !!(■ 
 I .1 
 
; 
 
 
 
 
 
 ]r 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 li 
 
 28 
 
 STJMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SYNTAX OF NUMERAL, POSSESSIVE, AND 
 INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 X. innWSRAlb ABJSCTZVES. 
 
 289. The names of cardinal numbers are invariable : 
 trols hommcs, quatre fomnes ( = three men, four 
 women), except un, vingt, cent ( = oue, twenty, and 
 one hundi'cd). 
 
 290. Vn (=one) makes uno in the feminine : de\u3 
 coffrcts et une hoite (=two coffers and one box). 
 
 291. Vins-t and cent do not vary as to gender, but 
 they tnko s when they are preceded by a multiple: 
 quatre-vlng-ts Iinivmes ( = eighty men), deux cents 
 sohhm (=:two hundred soldiers). 
 
 ExcKPT (1) when they are themselves followed by 
 anotlior number: quatre-vin^t-troia, deux cent 
 trente (= eighty-three, two hundred and thirty); 
 (2) when tlicy are used instead of the ordinal 
 numbers: paue quatre-vlng-t (=page eighty, i.e. 
 eightictli). Van hult cent (=tho year eight hundred, 
 i.e., eiglit hundredth). 
 
 292. BKille ( = thousand), invariable in gender and 
 number, changes its form when it expresses tiio date of 
 a year, or the date marked on coins ; it is then written 
 viil (but only in this case) : I'ayi mil hnit cent soil-ante- 
 seize ( = the year eighteen hundred and soventy-six). 
 Note, further, that this spelling only applies to the years 
 subsequent^ to the Christian era: Co fait arriva chcz lea 
 HchmuvVandxb inonde m!lle deux cent quarante { — i\m 
 Jiappened among the Hebrews in the year of the world 
 two thousand two hundred and forty). 
 
 The word mil is not, as is commonly snpposwl, on abbreviation 
 or the trench word millo, but comes from the Latin aiuKuIar 
 
 TlllHe, whilst Wt, 7(3 is dcrivcil frmn t.lin T.ofi., ..I„..«l .,,.-i7v- 'I'l.- 
 
 ua;. saiu : nul Uommas (=:oue thouaund men). 
 
iij 
 
 ;K1 
 
 MUMKRAIi ADJECTIVES. 
 
 29 
 
 MiVe (=mile) is a substautive, and, of course, takes the sign ol 
 tlie plurul. 
 
 293. Oi'clinnl adjectives agree in goncTor and in 
 number with tlio noun which they determine : (cs pre- 
 mieres niaisons, la seconde ville, la trenti^me aniu'e 
 till rhine de Lotas XIV ( = the lirst houses, tlie second 
 town, the thirtieth year of the reign of Louis XIV.). 
 
 294. We have seen (§ 80) that the ordinal adjectivea 
 indicate order andrank : Ic dixldme tiiecle, la vins"ti6me 
 
 ainii'e ( = the tenth century, the twentieth year) ; but the 
 cardinal numbers are employed exceptionally to point 
 out : — 
 
 1. The order of a sovereign in a dynasty: Charles 
 XXX ( = Charles the Twelfth), not Cliarles le dou- 
 zidme ; Nafiolcon XII ( = Napoleon the Third), not 
 Napoleon le troisi6me. 
 
 , 2. The days of the month : le deiiz arril, le trois 
 jtnVet ( = the second of April, the third of July), not 
 le deuxidxne aviil, le tToi&ihme juillet. (Notice that 
 the preposition o/is not transhiled into French.) 
 
 8. In quoting parngrnphs, pages, etc.: livre dix 
 (=book ten); ^a^6' deux-cent (page two liimdj-edj. 
 See § 291. 
 
 The ordinal premier ( = first), however, is alone 
 exceptionally used: Napolam premier, le premier 
 
 jiiiUit ( = Napoh;on the First, the first of July), and has 
 iiL'ver been supplanted by ua. 
 
 2D3. Adjectives expressing the dimensions or the 
 size of objects can be translated into French in several 
 wnys. Tims : la nef de cette ajliiic a sui.ra'iite pieds de long*, 
 or de long^ueur: or la ncf de, etc... est long-ue de 
 sohante pieds (=:the nave of this church is sixty feet 
 long). The same rule applies to haut... hauteur ( = high, 
 height), and lar(fe...lar//eur ( = wide, width); but deep 
 must be expressed by de pro/u-iideur, not by deprofond. 
 
 ■ By or and, used when defining length and breadth, 
 is translated by sur. XL as: les inurs de (a ciiadeUt 
 
fto 
 
 frOSSKSStVfe ADJECTIVES. 
 
 ont trente-cinq pink de hauteur sur qiiinze d'cpumrur* 
 (==the walls of the citadel are tliiity-five feet hi"h and 
 nfteen thick). ° 
 
 . ?.^^" -l^tore, less, after a numeral, are expressed 
 in ]^ reach by de plus, de moins: il a deux a,is de 
 pluB que moi ( = he is two years older than I, lit. lie 
 has two years more than I). 
 
 Exercise 47. 
 
 1. La France est longue d'environ trois cents licnea. 2 Ccf to 
 maifion est haute de viugt metres. 3. Cola est arrive en mil huit 
 cent deux. 4. Henri IV est un des meilleurs rois que la Franco 
 ait eu. 5, Cost la cinquanti^mo anne'e de son regne. 6. Vous 
 trouverez ce passage a la page quatre-vingt cinq. 7. Co foas6 a 
 quatre pieds de large eur trois pieds de profoudeur. 
 'rctarderde, "desTurcs, "Ktats-Unis, 
 
 1. The room is 40 feet long, by 30 wide, and 15 higli. 2. The 
 crusades delayed the Turkish 2 invasion by 1 300 years. 3. Napoleo.. 
 the First was proclaimed emperor in 1«U4. 4. Eiglitv lords an<l 
 more than 1200 knights perished at the battle of Ciecy 5 It 
 was on the 4tli July, 1776, that the independence of the United 
 States* was proclaimed. (>. Have you read page 80? Yes- I 
 am reading page 100. 7. Give him 10 francs moro. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 II. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 29% Possessive adjectives, in French, rrrvoP 
 
 n 
 
 gender an-d number witli tJie object possessed, aijd not -. , 1 
 the jwssessor as in Enj.^lish : — 
 
 son /Tf/e( = his, lior, or its age) 
 «0(i niuri (=-her luiKbaud; 
 8a j'ciiiiHe ( = lii8 wife) 
 
 son frere (=:his or her ur.. u 
 so, saeiir ( = his or her .si.stor; 
 sa mere (his or her mothc'r) 
 
 j.j 
 
 2!>3. Ihe possessive adjectives are repeated in 
 French before each BubstanLive, and agree with it in 
 gender and number ; — 
 
 monfriro et ma saeur (=my brother and sister). 
 * Un mur epa,i» Ae quinzo pieds, or de quinzo pt'v'*! d on-ils- 
 
 Bnur 
 
 a wall liftoen feet deep), can be used, bm, not «» 
 
 ~-.._c; ^5- "... •- ^ jrTV«B« 
 
 A*-'' 
 
POSSESSIVE AWECTIVES. 
 
 dl 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 in 
 
 299. Where, in English, a possessive adjective 
 refers to two or more nouns connected by a conjunction, 
 it must be repeated in French : sa sagcsse et sa pru- 
 deuce (=hi8 wisdom and prudence). 
 
 300. When two adjectives of dissimilar meaning 
 quaUfy the same noun, and the noun represents two 
 distinct things, the possessive adjective is placed before 
 each : notre bonne et notre mauvaise fortune ( = our 
 good and bad fortune). 
 
 But when the adjectives are of similar meaning, and 
 the same things are signified by the noun, the possessive 
 adjective is only placed before the first : noa belles et 
 ferities plaines (=our beautiful and fertile plains). (Cf. 
 § 254.) 
 
 301. The nair.e of the object possessed (when it 
 belongs to several persons) is put in the singular, if the 
 object is possessed in common : le pere et la mere atten- 
 daient leur voitnre (=the father and the mother were 
 waiting for their carriage) ; it is put in the plural 
 when there are as many objects possessed as 
 there are possessors : les amhassadenrs attcndaicnt 
 leurs voitures ( = the ambassadors were waiting for 
 their carriages). 
 
 302. When the objet possessed bolon'^s to a person 
 (and not to an inanimate being), son, sa, ses are used : 
 j'aime Henri, mais je connais aes dej'auts (=1 love Henry, 
 but I know his faults). 
 
 When speaking of things en is gojiorally used, 
 followed by the definite article : si jo vous parte de ccs 
 fruits, c'est que fen connais la saveur ( = if I speak 
 to you of those fruits, it is because I know the flavour 
 of them). 
 
 303. The possessive adjectives man, ton, son, etc. 
 (:=my, tiiy, his, etc.), are replaced by thb article 
 when they refer to somctliing inseparable from the 
 person, and wiicu the sense of the phrase clearly 
 
'h 
 
 ' » 
 
 iJl 
 
 J 
 
 82 
 
 INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 indicates the possessor : il s'est casse le bras (and not 
 son hras ( = ho has broken liis arm] ) ; but we must 
 Biiy : il a ]>eidu &a. fortune (=hG has lost his fortune). 
 
 Note that the expression il s'est coupe la jnmhe would 
 mean : ho has cut his leg off ; whilst il s\'st coupe a la 
 jamhc means : he has made an incision in his leg. 
 
 304. In French votre (in speaking of relations of 
 the person addressed) is, out of politeness, often pre- 
 ceded by the words : Monsieur, Madame, Mademoiselle 
 ( = Mister, maaam, miss) ; plural, Messieurs, McsdameSf 
 MadeinoiseUcs, which are not expressed in English ;— 
 
 monsieur voire pere (=your father) 
 viOAlotiioiselle votre sceur (—your sister) 
 messieurs vosfreres (=your brothers). 
 
 305. XMton, ma, mes are used in speaking to 
 relatives or friends: vencz, mon enfant (=come, my 
 child), boHJour, ma tante ( = good morning, aunt). In 
 the same way soldiers say to their officers : mon capiiaine 
 ( = captain), mon colonel ( = colonel), instead of : monsieur 
 le capitaine, monsieur le colonel, expressions which would 
 be used iu society. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 tXTDBFIMZTE A97ECTXVBS. 
 
 • S06. Indefinite adjectives do not call for any par- 
 ticular remarks as far as the Syntax is concerned, except 
 in the case of the words tout ( = all, every), quelqu6 
 ( = some), chaque ( = each, every), meme ( = tne same, 
 even), and viaint ( = many, many a). 
 
 307. The adjective tout ^ = all. every) does not 
 present any difficulty when it is used as an adjective, 
 as it follows the ordinary rules bearing on that part of 
 speech: tout homme, toute/cwwe ( = any, every man, 
 anv. everv wnman^ : Vai vu toua h's hmnnifis ? =l- T Im.vA rppti 
 aii the men) ; je ne puis vous accorder ceci, mats demandez* 
 
<):\ 
 
 \<'\ 
 
 liJDRriNlTK ADJECTIVES. 
 
 {i8 
 
 mni toute autre cliose et vous VobUendrcz [that is to say, 
 toute cliose autre que cclte que vous vie danandez] ( = 1 
 cannot graut you this, but ask me for anytliing else, and 
 you will obtain it [that is to say, anything else but 
 what you have asked me for] ). 
 
 In the same way, in tout Paris^ tout Londres (=all 
 Paris, all London), tout agrees with peojde under 
 stood : tout le lyeiqAe de Paris (=all the people of 
 Paris), etc. 
 
 308. We have 
 
 §§ 260, 2C7 that adjcctiv( 
 
 seen i 
 can be used as adverbs : parler haut, chanter faux, 
 voir clair (=to speak loud, to sing out of tunc, to see 
 clearly) ; in like manner tout ( = cll, every) can be 
 employed adverbially, and it then means tont-a-J'ait 
 (= altogether, quite) : je luis tout surpris [jesuis tout- 
 a-fait surjms] ( = 1 am quite surprised). 
 
 "When used as an adverb tout is naturally in- 
 variable : ellc est tout hcurciise du succes de son Jils 
 ( = she is quite happy in the success of her son) ; ces 
 niercs sont tout hcureuscs des succes de leurs Jils [that 
 is to say, tout-a-fait /t^'Mnx.sr.s] ( = those mothers are quite 
 happy in the successes of their sons) ; Londres est tout 
 autre chose que Paris [that is to say, une chose tout-a-fait 
 autre] ( = London is quite another thing from Paris), 
 
 But before feminine adjectives, or past participles, 
 beginning with a consonant, such as surprise ( = sur- 
 prised), or an h aspirate, such as honteusc ( = ashamed), 
 the adverb tout is made to agi*ee with the subject, 
 ]''ke a simple adjective, for the purpose of softening 
 <he pronunciation: elle est toute surprise ( = she is 
 quite surprised), elle est toute honteuse (=Bhe is quite 
 ashamed). 
 
 In the same way, we can say : ees genssovt tout ]ieux^ 
 tout oreilles ( = these people are all eyes and ears). 
 Tout means also quelque, si [adverb] ( = however): la 
 valeur, tout heroique qu'elle est, ne suffit pas a /aire dea 
 kcros (= valour, however heroic it may be, is not sulli- 
 cicnt to make heroes). 
 
 Syntax. D 
 
 ■1 
 
 :;t 
 
81 
 
 INDEFINITE ADJECTTVES. 
 
 '.Hit 
 
 ii 
 
 I 
 
 30S>. Quelque (=some), used as mi adjective, 
 follows the ordiuary rules of agrecniout with the iioun 
 to wliicli it refers: quelques hoiuincs { = souni men), 
 quelques eiiveinie que vons aijez, vous triompherez 
 ( = whatever enemies you may have, you will conquer). 
 
 But when it is used adverbially, qndqiie remains 
 invariable, and signifies : 
 
 1. With substantives, environ, a jmi pres ( = about, 
 nearly) : j'ai rencontre' quelque rii"it pernonncs (~I met 
 about twenty people) ; il vivait quclque cmt am apres 
 Jesus-Christ (= he lived about one hundred years after 
 Jesus Christ). 
 
 2. Joined to adjectivcf, it means the same as the adverb 
 ri : (quelque puissants que soioit vos enneivis [that is to 
 nay, si puissanis que soient vos ennemu] ( = however power- 
 ful your enemies may be, or powerful as your enemies 
 may be). 
 
 310. We must not confound quelque (used with its 
 corresponding substantive) with another adjectival 
 locution, quel que, which is never used except when 
 separated from its substantive (and which is always 
 followed by a verb in the subjunctive, to express doubt 
 about the person or the thing spoken of) : quel quo 
 soit votre bonheur ( = whatever your happiness may be), 
 quelles qu' a^ent ete vos infortunes ( = whatever your 
 misfortunes ma,y have been). 
 
 Quelque, written in one word, must not, therefore, be mistaken 
 for the expression quel que (formed from quel, quelle, and the con- 
 junction que) ; this latter word is not at all, as some grammarians 
 believe, the adjective quelque divided into two. 
 
 311. AKdine ( = the same, self, very, even) varies 
 when it is an adjective, and remains invariable when 
 it is an adverb, that is to say, when it has the sense 
 of de jdus, aussi, encore { — hosides, aha, again, even), 
 It is an adjective, for instance, in : hs mdmes howvica 
 ( = the same men, tlie very men), IcsdUux ^/a;-m6mes 
 mnt etonne's ( — the gods themselves are astonished). It 
 is an adverb in : le citoyen doit ohc'ir aux km., mdme 
 injustes (=the citizen ought to obey laws, even unjust 
 ones). 
 
INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 85 
 
 SXdme is an aclvorb when placed after several sub' 
 Btantives : leu vieiilards, les femmes, lea enfants mStno 
 furmt egonji's ( = tUe old men, women, and even childrcu 
 were slaughtered). 
 
 312. Chaque ( = each, every) being an aJjectivc, 
 must never be used except with its corresponding sub- 
 stantive, whilst chacun, chacune, being pronouns, 
 are used without a substantive following them : chaque 
 paijs a SOS usaiji's ( = every country has its customs), 
 ces villes ont cbaoune une citadelle ( = each of these 
 towns has a citadel). We must not eay, then : ces 
 fruits valent un franc chaque, but uii franc chacun 
 ( = these fruits are worth a franc each). 
 
 313. Maint ( = many a) is used indiscriminately in 
 the singular and in the plural: fai, lii dans maint 
 auteur { — I have read in many an author), il m'a rendu 
 maints services (=he has rendered me many services). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXA.MINATION. 
 
 M! 
 
 I. When ilo tho mimbera viiigl and 
 cciil take the sign of the plnral ? 
 
 5. How is mille written in dates of 
 
 tlie Christian era? 
 
 t. When does mille take the sign of 
 the plural V 
 
 4, What is the rule for the agreement 
 of ordinal nnmerala ? 
 
 0. When are cardinal numbers used 
 instead of the corresixjnding or- 
 dinal ones ? 
 
 6. Explain tho difforonce between 
 
 the Knpilish and the French, so 
 far as tho a^reiinient of possea- 
 rive ftdjcctives is concerned. 
 
 7. When are possessive adjective* 
 
 repeated ? 
 
 8. When is tlie possessive adjecUve 
 
 replaced by the article ? 
 
 9. State the rule and excoptiona to 
 
 the agreement of tvnt. 
 
 10. Explain thoroughly the syntax of 
 
 quelque. 
 
 11. How does m(me (adjective) agree? 
 
 12. When is mtme used as an adverb ? 
 
 13. Distinguish between chaque and 
 
 chacun. 
 
 14. Explain the ase of iiMlnt. 
 
 Exercise 48. 
 
 1. Mon frfiro a laissC tous ses livres dans sa chambre. 2, J'at 
 rencontrC madomoisoUe votre sceur au bal. 3. Nourri dana le 
 B^rail, i'eu conuais Ics dotoura. 4. Je me siiis fait mal k la jambe. 
 5. Madame votro more m'a paru toute surpiiso de me voir. 6. 
 Ces livres sont tontcouverts d'encre. 7. Vons ue pouvez manquer 
 de lui trouver quebiue merite. S. (iiiukiuo adroileuioui. que voub 
 voua y preniez, your ne r^ussirez pus. 9. QixoUes que soient sea pro- 
 tections, il obtieudra dillicilemeat le puste qu'il souiiaite. 10. 
 
no 
 
 PERSONAt. PRONOUN'S. 
 
 Quclquea richeasos qu'il ait, fou avarice est insatiable. 11. lis bo 
 Bont trompfis eux-mfimcs. 12. Leurs vortus et meme lours uuuis 
 <>taioat ignor6s. 13. On trouve mainte 6piue oil Ton cLerchait dea 
 roses. 
 
 * troubl(5e, 'tonler, • laisscr tomber. 
 
 1. How is yonr sister to-day f 2. Your brothers have each a 
 good place. 3. This lady is quite confused i by your question. 
 4. Whatever your motives may be, your conduct will be blamed. 
 6. Whatever services you have done me, I have been thankful 
 for them. 6. I have sprained a my wrist. 7. These peaches cost 
 A shilling each. 8. These are the same things I saw this morning. 
 9. Even the wisest men are liable to make mistakes. 10. Yonr 
 sister has dropped » her pocket-handkerchief. 11. London is a very 
 large city ; I know well its parks and its principal monuments. 
 12. Learned as they are, they could not discover these mistakes. 
 13. 1 met one of yoiu- clerks at the Stock Exchange. 14. This lady 
 sings beautifully ; every one admires her voice. 15. Every ago 
 has its pleasures. 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 X. vtatBonAx. PRoxrovxrs. 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 314. We have seen (§ 89) that the personal pronoung 
 are divided into conjunctive, disjunctive, and rejtectivf, 
 and that the conjunctive are called so on accoimt of 
 their position immediately before or after the verb. 
 
 315. These pronouns are placed before the verb : 
 
 1. When used as subject in affirmative sentences : Je 
 farZe (=1 speak). 
 
 2. When used as direct or indirect object to a verb 
 not in the imperative affirmative : tu me remerciea 
 (=thou thankest me), il te I'a dome (=hii has given it 
 to thee), ne me le dif i 2^(^ ( = do not tell it me), Vavez- 
 vous VM.? (=:have you sefin hira'i : the indirect rsbs^ct 
 coming first when two pronouns are used, except, 
 Uowcver, when both are in the third person : il le lul 
 
frERSONAIi PRONOUNS. 
 
 87 
 
 ■ donnJ (=he has giveu it to liim) ; ih le leur out eiuoue 
 = tliey have sent it to them). 
 
 3X6. They are placed after the verb :— 
 
 1. Wlieu subject of the verb : — 
 
 (a) In interrogative seiiteuces : est-il heureux? {—is 
 he happy ?) 
 
 (6) In parenthesis: nov, a-t-ll clit, iie le Jaisons pa$ 
 (=no, he said, let us not do it) ; 
 
 (c) Sometimes after the expressions h peine i 
 
 ( = scarcely, hardly), aussi (:=and so, ac- / 
 cordingly), peut-6tre ( = perhaps) : peut- / 
 6tre ne viendra-t-il pas aujourd'hui (=perhap3/ 
 he will not come to-day) ; 
 
 (d) In elliptical sentences when the subjunctive is 
 
 used without a conjunction: puiss^-je de 
 mes yeux y voir toinber la foudre ( = may I, 
 with my own eyes, see it struck by lightning) ; 
 «l<it-il m'en couter la vie (=evexi if it were to 
 cost me my life). 
 
 2. Wlien object of the verb, in the imperative mood 
 nsed affirmatively : apportez-le moi demain ( = bring it me 
 to-morrow). The pronoun dative is then changed from 
 conjunctive to disjunctive, i.e., moi is used instead of 
 me, unless followed by en, y {see § 324) : vmdez-va.*eu 
 la moitie ( = 8ell me half of it). 
 
 317. If the sentence is negative, ne is put directly 
 after the subject, before the governed pronoun, as — 
 
 j» ne vous donne pas (bI do not give you) 
 tu ne me connais pas (=you do not know me) 
 vous ne lea avea pas vus (syoa have not seen them) 
 
 318. Nous, vous (=we, you), used forje, ft* (=1, 
 thou)govei:i the verb in the plural, but the past participel 
 or adjective referring to them remains in the singular : 
 Sf 011S sotntnes sikT- dit Is Toi- de votve Adelitd ( = wo nrs 
 assured of your loyalty, said the king) ; voua etes ett« 
 cUn a la paresse (»you ore prouc to idleness). 
 
88 
 
 Personal pRoNotrNa. 
 
 319. When thnpronoim replaces two or more imraofl 
 of poi'Pons ffranimutically ditlerent, it is put in the hrst 
 person, if there is one in tlio sentence ; if not, it is put 
 in the secontl person ; tlms : vons, ltd et vioi, nous 
 sommnfort «//,?«(= you, he, and I are very old); tot 
 et lid. vous etcs vialhctirmx ( = t]iou and he are un- 
 happy), (i^ee § 182.) This resuming pronoun is not 
 requn-ed alter nl : ni vous ni vioi m I'avons vu ( = neither 
 you nor I have seen it). 
 
 320. When the pronoun le represents a ^7ord wliich 
 descrihcs a state, such as 7nalnde (=ill), or a function, 
 aa reine ( = queen), or a quaUty, as 7nere (-= mother), it 
 is invanahle : Madame, etcs-vous malade ?—je le suia 
 ( = Madam, are you ill ?— I am) ; kes-vous rahre ?—jr le 
 stds ( = are you a mother ?— I am) ; kes-vous reine ?— 
 je le auis ( = are you a queen ?— 1 am). 
 
 But when U represents a word which, insteiid of 
 describmg either a state or a functim, stands for tho 
 jinson in that state, or exercising tlat function, or pos- 
 sessing that quality, it varies in gender and number : 
 
 kes-vous la mahide que Von vi'a recommandee? Je la 
 
 suis ( = are you the invalid who has been recommended 
 
 to mo ? — I am) ; kes-vous la dame que nous cherchoiis ? 
 
 je la suis ( = are you the lady for whom we are looking ? 
 — I am) ; etes-votis les soldats qui out hattu Vennemi hier? 
 ^oui, nous les sommes ( = are you the soldiers who beat 
 the enemy yesterday ?— we are). 
 
 Le is invariable in the firat case and vnriable in the second, 
 
 because m the first instance it means that, what you say. This la 
 
 18 about the only trace of the Latin neuter which still exists in 
 
 French, In the second instance it is used instead of the noun • 
 
 • je la suis, i.e. the lady [you look for] . 
 
 ^ 321. Note that le, preceded by tho negr^iive ne, 
 18 used in French after a comparative, and is not 
 expressed in English : vous kes plus avance qu'il ne 
 Vest (=you are more advanced than he is). 
 
 322. Wlien speaking of animals or thinffs. the 
 pronouns en and y are used instead of de lui, d'elle, 
 d'eux ; a hd, a elle, a eux, etc. s cet arbre est grandi^ n» 
 
tEHSDNAL PllONOUNS. 
 
 80 
 
 en feratt vn null (=:tliiit, troo lias <,n-own, one couUl 
 i,iake a inant of it) ; rrtte chaiw rsi. aissrc, j'yfci\ti imitie 
 wn2»/«i! ( = this chair is brokeu, 1 shall havo a kg put 
 ou to it). 
 
 En, y arc also used with rcfrrcnce to persona, vi 
 Older to avoid the repetition of a noun or pronoun : 
 quoiqueje parte heancoiip de vans, niaJlUfi, j'y pi'iisf encore 
 </ar'oi(a7e( = although 1 speak much of you, my daughter, 
 I think of you still more). 
 
 SlvJunotlvM* 
 
 323. We have seen (§§ 08—95) what is meant by 
 i^iKJinictire pronouns, and said that these pronouns are 
 used as subject to give greater emphasis to the expression, 
 or as object after the verb etrc, and after prepoblvions. 
 
 324. They are used also : — 
 
 1. After a comparative: elle est nicilUure que tol 
 ( = she is better than thee). 
 
 2. After the imperative affirmative, to express the 
 dative: j^arlcz-taoi ( = speak to me). 
 
 But the conjunctive pronoun is always used before en, y : 
 c,)nncz-m'en (=give me some). 
 
 ja- Notice that lul, leur (=to him, to her, to them) 
 are used both as conjunctive and disjunctive pronouns, 
 i.e. before or after the verb {see §§ 315, 316). 
 
 325. When there are two imperatives in the saino 
 sentence, the conjunctive pronoun is sometimes used 
 before tlie second imperative: hattcz-vioi ettae lainmz 
 lire (=beat me and ^et me laugh) ; aj>portez-inoi mnt 
 pantouffles et mo donnez moti bonnet de nuit (= bring ma 
 my slippers, and give me my night-cap). 
 
 Beflectlve. 
 
 326. Se (=one'8 self) is used for both genders and 
 both numbers as direct or indirect object. It is always 
 piaceti buiuru liic vciu \jtc ;,-y xua ttu-i i.-j\t) . tr ^^- y"«» 
 xme loi de lui e'crire ious ha moia (=he makes it a duty to 
 vrjte to him every month). 
 
 ,1 
 
n i 
 
 Mi 
 
 i ; 
 
 f ' ! 
 
 40 
 
 PKUSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 327. Sol ( = one's self) is used instoad of /lu r«iirmi^ 
 elle {^hvr) :— ^ '* 
 
 •^* jilli^-^^^UllMuito iMviiouiis : on ( = ono), chamn 
 ( = overy imv),ju'nn,i,u( i,„hod.v), etc.: on >,e,/aitj„um$ 
 paHrr ,ie Boi ( = ouo should never Kpeuk of one's self); 
 chaoun nt puur sol (= nery one lives for liimself). 
 
 2. ALdr an impersonal verb, or an infinitive : 11 faut 
 jh'iiurr a eol (=ono must think of one's self); 6tre 
 ton jours CO, tent il' sol est unr sutijsc ( = to be always 
 satiHiied with one's self is foolishness). 
 
 8. Aft^wft noun iu. the a//u/i/7«/- expressing a thwg' 
 cette fa.ute entratne apres sol Inen des regrets ( = that 
 fault entails [brinnrs after it] many regrets). But if 
 the noun is in the plural, sol cannot be used • oes 
 fautes cntrahient apres elles hieu des ro) rets (^tlmae 
 faults entail [brnig after them] many regrets). 
 
 Pemark.— Sol is even used with a determinate 
 Bubjfct, m order to -ivoid ambiguity : Varure qui a un 
 tils prudujue n'amasse id pour sol ni /".»/r lul ( = tho miser 
 who has a prodigal son accumulates neither for himself 
 uor for him). 
 
 Repetition of the Personal Vronouns. 
 
 ^^®" Personal pronouns, used as subject, must bo 
 repeated m French : — 
 
 1. Before every verb, if these verbs are not in the 
 same tense: ^etudie et yetudierai toujours ( = 1 study 
 and I will always study). But if the verbs are in the 
 same tense, the repetition of the pronoun is optional : 
 Je crams Dim, et n'a, point d' autre crainte ( = I fear 
 trod, and have no oth(>r fear). 
 
 2. After a conjunction : 11 est humble, paroe qu'U est 
 pauvre (=he is humble, because he is poor). 
 
 329. Personal pronouns, used hh nbippt mncf, l^/^ 
 repeated before OHch verb : il vous estinie et vous 
 fiojtore (=he esteems and honours you). But when the 
 verbs nre in a compound .ense,.the pronoun need not 
 
*l!,ll.'*v>NAL rRONOtJNS. 
 
 11 
 
 bo ropeatod, if tlio auxiliary is umlorstood : il le» a 
 flatten et luuea ( = lie has Uattorcd auil praised tliem). 
 
 330. AVhcii wo wish to express ourselves with 
 emphasis, the disjunctive pronouns are used as well as 
 the conjunctive (st-c §§ 91, U5): cela me frappu, moi 
 et tons ceiM qui VentemUicnt ( = that struck lue and all 
 tlioso who heard it); il mo Va dit a mol-mdme (=ho 
 said it to myself). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOK EXAMINATION. 
 
 t. Wlion are the conjuiiutive personal 
 
 pvoiioiiua pIiici'U before tlio verb ? 
 a Wlioii are tUey placed ufUT the 
 
 verb? 
 S. What pronoun U used nf ' r tho 
 
 iniporativo to expres-J ' s^ o ? 
 
 4, Wlint liavo you t.- irk m lOUt 
 
 •ud voui utiud i ..A of ie, tu t 
 
 6. When is /c Invariable? When doei 
 
 it vary ? 
 fi. Say wliat en and y arc used for. 
 
 7. lleinark on tho use and pliioo of 
 
 tho (lisjnnctivo personal pronoans. 
 
 8. Oivo thi! rules for the use of if, am. 
 
 9. Say when tho ixjrsonal pronoun* 
 
 mu8t Iw re|)eatod, and in wlu* 
 caseti they may bu uoiilted. 
 
 Szerciae 49* 
 
 1. VuUB avez boaucoup de pommes, vouillez m'en dotmer. 
 2. Prtitez-moi voire grammaire; je voua la rendrai demain. 
 ". Chacun agit poiur sou 4. Ma tante eat malade, tt olio le sera 
 lougtemps. 5. Etcs-vouslasiBurde Monsiiur Bertliior? Oui, je 
 laauis. 6. Ces eiifants out f .n; donuez-leur A manger. 7. Je 
 la vols et je lui pailo tous les joura. 8. II veut, il no vent pus, il 
 accorde, il leluae. 9. A poino ^tions-nouB ai-rivfia qu'il voulait 
 dcja repartir. 10. Polissoz votre ouvraKc et le i epolissez. 11. II 
 lo lui fera aavoir imm6diatemeut. 12. Je veux le voir, le prior, le 
 pressor, riuiportuner, le flficbir. 
 
 •lendre, "partir, »gi-onder, * supplier, ■ealnetsauf. 
 
 1. If you have no pens I shall lend you some. 2, There is hia 
 giatnmar; why have you not returned ^ it to him? 3. Virtue ia 
 amiable of itself. 4. Are your Bisters unwell? Yea, they are. 
 6. Are you my friend's mother ? Yes, I am. 6. I assure you that 
 I ahall not do it. 7. He haa deceived me, his lieat friend. 8. You 
 and I Bhttli leave * at the same time. 3. i »-ili sco hcf , herself. 
 10. He haa scolded » and punished them. 11. We consulted, 
 questioned, and entreated* him. 12. He will peihapa do it for 
 luo. 13. I Vfish /(« may (may he) rutuvu aafcly*. 
 
4ii 
 
 ii 1 1 
 
 h 
 
 ! i 
 
 
 
 
 POSSESSIVE PBONOUNB. 
 
 It. POBSEssxvs paoxroims. 
 
 331. The possessive pronouns le mien, le tlen, etc. 
 ( = miue, thme, etc.), only refer to a noun already ex- 
 pressed : j achete votre vmisoa et je vends la mienne 
 ( = 1 buy your house, and I sell mine). These pronouns 
 are never used as adjectives, except in a few old ex- 
 pressions : im mien comin ( = acousin of his), une sienne 
 tante ( = an aunt of his). {See § 101.) 
 
 332. When used with the verb kre (=to be), the 
 possessive pronouns j,,/.., thine, his, ha-s, ours, yours, 
 and theirs are generally translated in French by & mol 
 ^ tol, & lui, d, elle. ^ nous, & vous, d, eux, or h 
 elles: ce chapcau est a moi (=thi8 hat is mine, or 
 belongs to me). "**"c, 
 
 333. My own, thy own, etc., are sometimes translated 
 
 rJ^J^ \ ^""T'^ '"''Z'^" * inol(=I have a house 
 01 my own) ; and sometimes by the possessive adiectives 
 mon, ma, ines, etc., followed by the adjective propro 
 ( - own) :jelai vn de mea propres yeux ( = I have seen 
 it with my ovm eyes). ^ ^-vubeeu 
 
 33*. The possessive pronouns le mien, le Men, le 
 
 Blen, etc., when used absolutely, express j.ro;,^n» when 
 they are in toe singular : fai demande le Li^n,iiea de 
 plm (=J asked for niy own, nothing more); le mien 
 et le tien enyendrent beaucoup de yuerres et depmces 
 
 m]^^^ ^'^^ "'^ *° ""^"y ""^^^ and law- 
 
 335. Thoy express reUtiom, family, tribe, partisans 
 when they are used in the plurah ont'est jamJ^stZi 
 que pur les siens ( = one is never betrayed but by one's 
 own people); tl est pt^n d'eyards pour Li et polrZl 
 miens (=he is fuU of attentions for me and mine). 
 
 tbn^di^inf ""'^ *^^ possessive pronouns are real nouns, as 
 thoy do not refer to any substantive previously expressed. 
 
 336. The English expressions: a friend of mine, a 
 :?,^^ '^}!^:.^^;.^^ translated into f'rench by un de me* 
 
 SrUiSf fflE ue Scii iiVrsSf GiQ, 
 
DKMONSTRATIVK PUON0UN3. 
 
 4ft 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 To what do tbo ixjssesaive pronouna 
 
 ivfcr ? 
 How are jxissessive pronouns ox- 
 
 pn'ssed wlien connected witli tUti 
 
 verb to be t 
 How uro the expressions mij own, 
 
 thy own somctinics rcuderud in 
 
 French? 
 
 When do the pronouns If in1<m, U 
 liiii express property ? When 
 ilo they ex press reliitionsof fninily, 
 tril)C, or frieiidshi|> ? 
 
 When do the possessive prOnounii 
 Ix'Couio reiil nouns? 
 
 Translate into French : he wa» going 
 towards a house t(fhU, 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 1. Ces cliapoaux sont h moi. 2. Vous avcz poidu votre place, et 
 j'ai conservo la mienno. 3. J'ai renconti6 au musee un mien 
 cousiu. 4. Ce tableau est k moi ; jo I'ai ncbetu de mes proproa 
 deniers, 5. Ne m'accusez pas de convoitise ; jo ne domaude que 
 le mion. 6. Ce general fut l&cheraent abandonno dos sions. 7. II 
 prit iin dos livres de sou frcre. 8. (Jetto uiai^ou n'est paa a liii, 
 elle est k moi ou propre ; elle me vieut des mieus. 
 ' 86 retircr, ' magniflquo. 
 
 1. Wliose is this umbrella? It is mine. 2. You have your 
 pleasures; I have mine. 3. This old man is an uucle of 
 mine. 4. I have retired ^ from business, and I have now a houso 
 of my own. 5. He has bought this splendid * picture with his own 
 money. 6. That poor widow only claims what belongs to her. 7. I 
 have been betrayed by my own family. 8. He had beeu using a 
 pen of his brother's. 
 
 IXZ. SEMOXrSTXtATZVS PROSJOUSrS 
 
 337. We have seen (§ 99) that cecl, celui-jpl, 
 
 ceUej;;ci, etc., are used when speaking oT an object 
 closfjUfiis, and calflM — o ^ t» t-M > > etc., when we 
 r6T5rTo"ah object far Jro^ }us. We 'have now to add 
 that cecl often refers to what jfolloivs : nouhUez paa 
 eeci raHSte-toi, le del Vaidera ( = cEo"not forgot this'. 
 help thyself, and Heaven will help thee), whilst JBILJ* 
 applies to Vi\\vX^jcojsiSi&„h(SoX.6-U: I'orgueil est tin grand 
 defaut, retenek bien cela (= pride is a great defect, 
 remember that well). The same applies to void, 
 voii^. 
 
 In colloquial and rather familiar language, the contraction ca i« 
 nsed instead of oela : oa m'eat 4gal (= I don't core). Cela and CO* 
 lelerring to pcieons, ate mot'tly used in coutempi. 
 
41 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE tRONOUNB. 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 
 III! 
 
 338. Celui, celle, ceux, celles caunot determine 
 a siniijle adjective or participle ; thus, instead of saying: 
 j'ai hi voire letlre et celle dcslinee a mon frere, we must 
 add the relative pronoun qui or que (see § 348) to the 
 demonstrative, and say: fai la voire letire et celle qui 
 est desiince a won frere ( = 1 have read your letter, and 
 the one which is intended for my brother). 
 
 «^ What, meaning that tvMch, must always bo 
 tp-anslated ir> that way, i.e., by oe qui or ce que. 
 
 , 339. Ce is used with the tljird person singular or 
 plural of etre,pouvoir, devoir : ce pourrait eire ltd 
 (=it mighfljeTieJ; ce doIt7i(r<? touchant (=it must be 
 impressive). 
 
 340. When oe is used before those verbs, it refers 
 • either to persons or things, and the verb is always in 
 / the snigular, unless the pronoun following the verb" is in 
 the thud person plural : ce «'est pas vrai ( = it is not 
 true) ; si jamais homme en a ete capable, ce fut sans doute 
 Alexandre ( = if ever a man could do it, it was doubtless 
 Alexander) ; oe sent eux (=it is they). 
 
 3*1. Ce is used instead of il, eUejjux, elles,v/hen tho 
 verb eire is followed by afl^arUcle," T' jtossessivo 
 oro-. demonstrative adjective: 6'estunT^rangai^ (=leT8 
 a Frenchman); c'esi ba smir ( = sheis his sister); oe 
 sont vos amis ( = it is your friends) ; ce n'eiaimt pas cea 
 arb, t qiCil voulait ahattre (=it was not these trees he 
 wished to fell). 
 
 But we must say: 11 est Franqais, the noun (or 
 rather adjective) being used without any article or 
 adjective. 
 
 342. If the verb eerjija-fpllowed3y an^ad^ec^^ 
 English word it is expressed >^'" 
 
 1. By oe, when referring to what precedes : o'est vral 
 (=it is true). -"' — *^-— 
 
 2. By il^ .wben eire is used as an impersonal verb, 
 and t< refers to what follows: fl est vraique c' est man 
 frere qu*'d a vu (=it is true that it is mj biutLer Lu baa 
 locu). 
 
DEMONSTOATIVE PR0N0UK3. 
 
 d5 
 
 bo 
 
 3 13. Ce is used by redundance : — 
 
 1. When etre is ^ce.4, between two infinitives: 
 laisser un crime impunhO^'si s'm rendre complice ( = to leave 
 a crime unpunished is to make one's self an accomplice 
 of it). 
 
 2. When the second part of a sentence begins 
 with the verb dtre followed by a substaa tive oran 
 infinitive, the pronoun ce is repeafed if it begms the 
 TenPSBTce : ce que faime, c'est la cmte (=what I like is 
 trutl ' ; ce queje desire, cVst de vous voir reussir (=wh«,t 
 I ^vish is to see you succeed). 
 
 'i**. When either part of the sentence can be the 
 predicate of the other, the pronoun ce may be used or 
 not before the second : boire, manger, dormir italt, ot 
 c'^tait, leur seide occupation f = drinking, eating, sleep- 
 ing was their only occupation). 
 
 315. Que de, before an infinitive in the second 
 part of the sentence, when ce begins the first part, 
 gives great force to the expression : o'est acheter cher un 
 repentir que de se miner pour une fantaisie (=it is 
 buying repentance dear to ruin one's self for a mere 
 fancy). 
 
 346. In interrogations, certain forms aro to bo 
 avoided on account of their harsh sound ; such are : 
 furmt-ce, doivent-ce; another way must then be employed, 
 such as les Romainsfurent-ils... (=were the Romans...). 
 {See § 888). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. When are celui-ci, eelui-li, eeci, cela, 
 
 void, vuilii used ? 
 S What does (a mean, and when is it 
 
 used? 
 •. How do yon translate : the one which, 
 
 or that which t 
 4, In what number Is the verb put 
 
 after e«f 
 
 e. When is the English word « trans- 
 lated by ce, and when by it ? 
 
 «. State the cases when ce must be 
 expressed in the second part of a 
 sentence. 
 
 7. What is the effect produced by c«... 
 que de before an infinitive ? 
 
 Bxercise 51. 
 
 1. Vous fetes venu de bonne beure, c'est vrai. 2. Comment (ja 
 vn til ehea -oas ? 3. O'cst xio.ns. qni avons payfi le dOiofttmr, 
 4. Voyez-vous ces dames ? 5. Ce sont elles que j'ai eu rhouneur 
 
 f 
 
 
I - f 
 
 i t, 
 i 
 
 46 
 
 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 }>fi 
 
 u 
 
 II I 
 
 d'accompagner axt bal, 6. Ceci me couvient mieux que cela. 
 7. Laplace et Newton furent deux cclebres niathj),aaticiens; celui-lA 
 4tait Fran(;ais, et celui-ci Anglais. 8. Je ue mo soucie pas de <ja. 
 
 9. O'est remporter la plus belle des Wctoiies que de commander a 
 ses passions. 10. Ce pourriiiont 6tre vos motifs. 11. II n'est pas 
 Bfir qu'il vienne aujourd'liui. 12. Je vous dis que c'est trSs-sCir. 
 
 • d^on prendre, '^a, 'devoir, * tout i fait 
 
 1. It is a mistake to suppose that he is ill. 2. It is (to) yoa 
 that. I shall call to account.^ 3. It is they who are making that 
 noise. 4. I like this, but that seems to me very dangerous. 
 6. How are you this morning ? 6. They « give themselves (de) such 
 airs. 7. French and English are the two languages most generally 
 • spoken ; the former in Europe, and the latter in the other parts of 
 the world. 8. That is what you know, this is what you are going 
 to loam. 9. They must » be the same gentlemen we saw yesterday. 
 
 10. He is a man you may trust. 11. It is quite* evident, 12. It 
 ia certain that in this circumstance he did not do his duty. 
 
 IV. ssZiATxvi: Airs nrxsitKOGATXVB PHoxrovxrs. 
 
 3*7. Eelative pronouns agree in gender, number, 
 and person with their antecedent, even when the> 
 themselves do not change : les maisons qui sout 
 dam cette rue sont him hades (=the houses which are in 
 that street are well built). Althou<,'h qui does not 
 change, it agrees in gender, number, and person with 
 maisom, and the verb sotit which agrees with qui, is in 
 the third person plural. 
 
 348. Qui in the nominative case, and que in the 
 
 objective {or accusative), may be used for jyersons or 
 thimjs: le livre qui est snr la tahle ( = the book which 
 is on the table); I'/iomme qui vieut {=the man who 
 comis): le livre que vovs voi/ez { = the book which you 
 see); I'homme que vous voyc^ (=the man whom vou 
 see). •' 
 
 349. B^ Great care must be taken to distinguish 
 between que and qui, as, owing to the dear Kense «^f 
 those two words, inversions are very frequent in 
 French :— " ^ 
 
BEI.ATIVE AND INTERROaXTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 47 
 
 Vtnrs qui tua la chasseur (=the bear wbich killed the 
 
 hunter) ; , . , i -n i i 
 
 I'oMi'sque tua le chasseur ( = the bear which was killed by 
 the hunter, or which the hunter killed). 
 
 35C. Qui can be used, without an antecedent, eitlicr 
 as subject or as complement (or object). In that case, it 
 applies to persons onhj, and is always masculine : qui 
 $ert hien son pays n'apas besoin d'aicux ( = he who serves 
 his cou»try well has no need of ancestors) ; a qui venge 
 8011 pere it n'cst Hen cV impossible (= there is nothing 
 ixnpossible for the one who avenges his father) ; choisis 
 qri tu voudras ( = choose whom you like). 
 
 351. Qui, repeated, is used sometimes in the sense 
 of ceil x-ci, ceux-la: chacun y est en action, q,ui a bdtir, 
 qui a V agriculture ( = every one there is busy, some in 
 building, others in agrioulture). 
 
 3SZ. Qui, preceded by a preposition, applies to 
 persons or things personified : V enfant k. qui (not 
 
 m 
 
 auquel) tout le monde cede est le plus malheureux (=:tho 
 child to whom everybody yields, is the most unhnppy) ; 
 rochei'8 escarpes I c'cst a vous que je me plains, car je 
 n'ai que vous & qui je puisse me plaindre { = steep 
 rocks ! it ia to you that I complain, for I have only you 
 to complain to). 
 
 353. Quol, as a relative pronoun, is used with a 
 preposition, and is applied to things only; it generally 
 refers to an antecedent having an indefinite meaning : 
 c'esth,q}xoiVonpt7isera (-that is what we will think 
 about) ; la chose & quol (or & laquelle) Von pense le 
 plus est souvent celle dont on parh le »(o«i.s( = the thing 
 about which we think most, is often that of which we 
 speak least). 
 
 354. De quol forms an idiomatic expression which 
 means enouqh, the means, money, &c. : il y a de quol se 
 plaindre ( = there is reason to complain); il n'a pas 
 de quo! payer ( = ho has not enough to pay) ; U a de 
 quol vivre (=:hc haf. enough to live upon). 
 
43 
 
 BELATnOS AND INTEBROGATIVE PUONOUNB. 
 
 :| 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 359. Dont Ir used for both geudors and uumLcis, 
 and may apply to all nouns, as : — 
 
 1« eommis dent vous parlea ( = the clerk of whom yon spenk) 
 las chases dont vouu parlez (=sthe thiuga of whi-ih you speak) 
 la nature dont nous ig')iorons lea secrets (=Natui'0, wlioso 
 secrets are unknown to us). 
 
 356. If the relative pronoun is separated from its 
 antecedent by another substantive, whose or of lohom is 
 Iratrslated by de qui, and of which by duquel, 
 de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, according to the 
 gender and number of the antecedent : c'est un ami a la 
 ge'nerosite de qui je puis toujours faire appcl (=he is 
 ft friend to whose generosity I can always appeal) ; c'est 
 une entreprise a la reussite do laquelle je ne puis croire 
 (=it is an undertaking in the success of which I cannot 
 believe). 
 
 357. When dont denotes the origin, lineage, 
 descent, it applies to persons only: la famille illustre 
 dout il descend (=the illustrious family from which he 
 is descended). In every other case /row whom, from 
 which must be translated by duquel, do laquelle, etc. 
 
 With nomis of things, d'oti is employed : le pays 
 d'oiLJeviens ( = ih(i country from which I come). 
 
 D'o<i is used also, instead of dont, to announce p. 
 conclusion : c'est un fait d'oii je conclus (=it is a fact 
 from which I conclude). 
 
 358. Oti always refers to inanimale objects ;— 
 
 l» sihU oii (or dan$ lequel) nous vivona (=the age in which 
 
 we live) 
 lea moyens par oik (or par leaquels) vou>a riussirea (a the 
 
 means by which you will succeed). 
 
 359. All the above pronouns being used for both 
 numbers and genderi?, there is sometimes doubt as to 
 which noun is their antecedent. This can be obviated 
 by the use of lequel, which agrees with its antecedent 
 in gender and number, as we have seen at § 104. 
 
 .360. XiOquel can be used for persons and thinya ; 
 
 Vh^^-^wtnji Ath Mill /nr .InmiAl^ vittta nnrley ( = \:\\r\ rnji.n flf 
 
 ,. ,^ ., _ -jM- ^... 2. / '■- i \ — -- 
 
 whom you speak) ; le cheval Bur lequel il etait munt« 
 (ssthe horse on which he was mounted). 
 
 ^' 
 
RELATIVE AND INTEBBOaATIVE PRONOUN8. 
 
 49 
 
 ■ the 
 
 Duquel, de laquelle, etc., are used to translate 
 fiomxvhom,fmiH which. 
 
 361. Groat care nuist be taken to place the relative 
 pronoun in such a way that there can be no doubt as to 
 what word is its real antecedent ; thus : il y a plusieurs 
 jiarjes dans ccs manuscrits qui sunt illisibles is an in 
 correct sentence, because the relative pronoun qui 
 seems to refer to manuscrits. The correct way is : il y 
 a dans ccs manuscrits plusieurs jmycs qui sont illisibles 
 ( = there are in these manuscripts several pages which 
 are illegible). 
 
 362. Eelative pronouns, which are often understood 
 in Enghsh, must always be expres^jed in French : — 
 
 le livre aue vous roycz ( = tlje book you sec) 
 la logon qu'll apprend ( = tlie Icssou ho learns). 
 
 363. The relative pronouns are also used as Inter- 
 rcg-ative pronouns. They have not then quite the 
 game meaning, and are subject to the folio whig rules:— 
 
 Qui refers to i)ersuns onhj : qui roulez- vous ? ( = whom 
 do you want ?) ; qui parle? f = who speaks ?j 
 
 ^ue refers to things only: que voulezvoiis? 
 (=what do you want ?) 
 
 Quo! is used in exclamations, in a simple question, 
 and after a preposition, instead of que: quol ? 
 ( = what?); quol de niicux ? { — what is there 
 better?); avec quo! ? ( = with what?) 
 
 XiOqael shows a preference, a choice made of 
 some thing among a number : lequel de cea 
 tableaux voulez-vous ? ( = Avhich of those pictures 
 will you have ?) 
 
 Dont is never used as an interrogative pronoun. 
 
 364. To these must be added the interrog-atlve 
 adjective (juel ( = what, which). It varies in gender 
 and number {see § 107), and is always followed by a 
 noun: quel /tow ;«e ( = what a man)! quelles maisons 
 
 I l.«4^ l.„„„„„\ I ' 
 
 Ksr Notice tiiat, in the singular, the EngUsh article 
 rt is not translated into French. 
 
 fi 
 
 / 
 
60 
 
 IKDKFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. To whnt RubBtantiveB do qui and 
 que niiply ? 
 
 3. What is the difference between 
 
 i/iii anil i/iiet 
 8. How is <iui used when it has no 
 nntccwlont V 
 
 4. Explain the idiomatic forceof?M< 
 
 repeated ? 
 
 5. I!v plain the use of gunt. 
 
 6. Iteniark on donf. — Distingniah 
 
 between dont pud d'ou. 
 
 7. To what clnsa of gubgtantiTca 
 
 (loos on refer ? 
 
 8. When are lequel, laquelle, &c., to 
 
 1k! usod ? 
 
 0. Wlicrc are the relative pronouna 
 to Ikj placed ? 
 
 10. Wliat is the difference hetwcon 
 qui, que, quol, hqitel used 08 in- 
 terrogative prononna ? 
 
 i ; 
 
 Sxerclae 52. 
 
 1. Les malheiirs que Eon adminiBtration 3(5chatna fiur la 
 France. 2. Toi qui snis ta IcQon, vieus la rijcittt.-. ;). Qui sert 
 bien son pays n'a pas besoin d'aieux. 4. lis eaiairant qui un fusil, 
 qui un pistolet. 5. A qui e^t ce chapeau? 6. De qiti parlez- 
 vous? 7. Oe Boldat dont le couraj^o est connu recevra la mCdaillo 
 d'bonnenr. 8. C'est un soldat au courage de qui je me confie. 
 9. Lo bonheur appartient i qui fait des heureux. 10. La famille 
 dont je Bors est une des plus illustres de I'Angleterre. H. Qui 
 habite la chaumi^re d'oft vous sortez? 12. Par oft irez-vous? 
 13. En quoi coneiste la difference? 14. Que peusez-vous do 
 cela? 
 
 •paletot (»n.), • so plaindre de, »enba«, * se fier i, • dans toute V Europe 
 • compter, ' malheureu" utOresscr. 
 
 1. What has b ' .>. ia you ? 2, Which of these two great-coatB* 
 is mine ? 3. WLat do you complain of ^ ? 4. The friend you love 
 BO much is downstairs.8 5, That is the aim to which he tends. 
 6. Ho is a writer on (to) whoso good taste you can always rely,* and 
 whose genius is known throughout the whole of Europe." 7. With 
 whom did you come ? 8. I do uw admit the principles from which 
 you derive your system. 9. D. ,., is an evil for which there ia 
 no remedy. 10. Where wUl you i. after ? 11. On what do you 
 reckon*? 12. Which of these boo!:s do you like best ? 13. What 
 is more unfortunate "> than his position ? 14. I read a story iu 
 the book of that author which interests ^ me much. 
 
 V. nrsBrzxarzTE pronouws. 
 
 J——.— ml - A** *%-«.-w%..^nnr>cf nyy irlno AT ITTli* 
 
 3<59a XilO prUIiUUU VU, C-VpJ-CC^to trll ji... .- "» 
 
 versality in a vague manner. It only refers to persons, 
 and is only used as subject : on mawje pour vivre (=oue 
 cats to live^. 
 
tNDEFINITB PB0M0UN3. 
 
 51 
 
 On is generally sinrpilar, but when it cluaily tlesip;. 
 nates a woman or several persons, it becomes either 
 feminine or i)lural: a votre dije, ma /ille, on est hien 
 curienae ( = at your age, my dauj^'litor, one is very 
 inquisitive) ; ici on est e'tjAux (=bere people are equal). 
 
 Note. — Instead of usinij: tlie passive voice, the FroiicJi 
 put, whenever it is possibk-, the verb in the active, 
 giving to it the pronoun on as a nominative : on a lei^u 
 des lettres (= letters have been received). {See § 141),) 
 
 366. Zi'on is frequently used instead of o?i, after 
 the conjunctions et( = aud), si { — ii), ou ( = or), and tho 
 adverb ok (= where) : si Jl'on saiait tout ( = if one knew 
 all); parlez, et Von'Tcoutera ( = speak, and we shall 
 listen) ; sachez oti I'on va ( = know where we are going). 
 Before the pronoun le, la, les, however, it is better to say 
 on to avoid the repetition of the sound of I: qiCil parle, 
 et on Va-Dutcm ( = lct him speak, and we shall listen to 
 him); si on' le savait ( = if people knew it) ; sachez oil 
 on la conduit ( = lmcw where she is led). 
 
 On, in the twelfth century om, and o.ai-lior h-^m, is simply tho 
 Latin word homo, and means properly " a man " : on lai umnia 
 son destrier (=a man brings him his war-horse). Tlius, on wna 
 originally a substantive ; and this accouuta for its being sonietimea 
 preceded by the article (I'on). 
 
 367a On is used to avoid naming the persons of whom we 
 speak, and, in that case, it generally shows a certain amount 
 of contempt, although not so much as ?a: vous, Narcisse, 
 appi-ochez, et i'o«s, qu'on se retire {=as for you, Naroissus, draw 
 near ; and you [i. e. the other persons present!, withdraw). 
 (&e§337). 
 
 Vous takes sometimes the place of on in colloquial language : 
 «i VOU8 soitez apres dijo hcitres, on vous arrcta ct on vous uU'ii» 
 en ptison (=if you go out after ten o'clock, yon are arrested, and 
 taken to prison) ; vous savez bien qiiand vous y entrez, mais 
 fiersonne no peat dire quand vous en sortiroz ( = you know wbou 
 you go in, but uo one can tell when you will come out). 
 
 368. The pronoun chacun takes son, sa, ses after 
 it: — 
 
 1. When it is the subject of the verb : chacun dcU 
 yarler h son tour (=each quo nmst speak in Lis 
 turn). 
 
62 
 
 iNDEKlNltR PROVDUNS. 
 
 ^'CJ^' 
 
 \ 2. Wiiifh it is placed uficr the comploraont of tlio 
 vorl), or wlion IIkh' is ho com])loineut : reiiiettez ces 
 livrrs-lu chacun a sa jihire ( = put back tlioKe books, 
 cacb in its place) ; let (iniwmix sf»it reliia ohacun m^lnn 
 ses lii-Kdinx ( = the auimals are clothed, each accordiug 
 to its wants). 
 
 369. Chacun takes hur, Icurs, when it is placed 
 bffore the direct complement : les aheUlcH hdtisscnt 
 chaoune leur ccllidt' ( = the bees construct each its 
 cell); U's laiiyiii'sont ohacune leura lihanerics ( = each 
 language has its oddities) ; Ics ju<ics out ihiine chacun 
 leur opiition ( = each judge has given his opinion). 
 
 370. If chacun is preceded by a verb which can- 
 not have a direct object, the use of sun, sa, scs, or icur, 
 h'lirs is optional : ils sunt veiius, chacun avir ses, or 
 leurs [/('IIS (=:they came each with his servants). 
 
 / 371. The locution I'un I'autre ( = one another, each 
 fothor) expresses rcci})rocity, and takes both genders 
 and both numbers; thus: Us s'aimaiciit lea una lea 
 autrea { = they loved one another); elles se nuiscnt 
 lea unea auz autrea ( = they injure one another). 
 
 Tho locution I'un et I'autre (=botli) does no^ exp roaa 
 reciprocity, but nierolj the idea of two or mora porsoog, two or iiior3 
 things ;iTlirce J b3ore a noun it is nn adjective, and agrees in 
 goiijict witli the lu/.rii : j'ai parcouru I'une et I'autre re<jioH$ 
 X=l liave gone over both regions). 
 
 372. Autrui ( = others, other people) is always used 
 fls a substantive, and does not take the plural : ne parlez 
 jamais mal rf'autrui(=: never speak ill of other people). 
 
 373. The indeterminate pronouns whosoever, u-hoecer 
 are usually expressed : — 
 
 1. By qulconque, when they mean all those icho : 
 quiconque touchcra anion livre sera yuni (=whoever 
 touches my book shall be punished). 
 
 2= By qui quo C6 Rolt Qu!^ or "tie ^followed 
 by the verb in the subjunctive mood), when they mean 
 whatever the person may he iiho, or whom : qui que ce 
 solt qui vienne, dites-hn que je rentrerai dam une demi* 
 
 I 
 
INDEFINITE moXOUNS. 
 
 68 
 
 hmre ( = whosoever may como, toll him that I shall 
 be back in half-an-hour). 
 
 374. Quol que ce BOlt (^wlmlovor) is used in liko 
 manner for til iiiL^s : quo! que ce aoit que nniH th'.v'n, 
 on roiin croira (=whatover you may Bay, you will bo 
 believed). 
 
 375. Rien moans properly quelque chose ( = some- 
 thing), iiitl it has Htill that moaiiin;jj in iiitiivrogative 
 sentences: y a-t-il rlen de plus beau "? ( = i3 there; anything 
 more bcautii'ul?). 
 
 376. Used with a nepfativo, it means noihimj: je ne 
 fais rlen ( = 1 do nothing). 
 
 377. Rien is used in the sense of mthmj, and 
 without a vc(jative : — 
 
 (1) After a comparative: il a mains que rien ( = he 
 has less than nothing) ; 
 
 (2) After a proposition: il fait cela aiw rien (=ho 
 does that with [almost] nothing) ; 
 
 (8) in answers: que faitcs-vous .^ rien ( = what are 
 you doing ? nothing) ; que voi/ez-ious / rien (=what do 
 you see ? nothing). 
 
 378. Rien and tout are placed after the verb in 
 simple tcnKos, and between the auxilirnj and the parti^ 
 ciple in compound tonsos : il ne lur't rien et voim 
 royez tout (=ho soos notliing, ni.il you see everything) ; 
 il n'a rien vu mais vous avez tout vit (=he has scan 
 nothing, l)ut you have seen all). With an infinitive, they 
 generally come first: vous ne devez rlen f aire (=you 
 must do nothing); il faut tout dire (=you must say 
 all). 
 
 379. Personne, meaning anybody, docs not take' 
 ne : — 
 
 (1) in interrogative sentences : y a-t-il personne de 
 mieitx renseiyne? (—is there any one hotter informed?). 
 
 (2) In sentences expressing doubt: je doute qu'il 
 vienne personne (=1 doubt whether anybody will 
 come) ; 
 
54 
 
 INDEFINITF PIlONOTmg. 
 
 h 
 
 ill 
 
 i '. 
 
 'J fl 
 1 ' I 
 
 (8) In answers: qui eat laf personne ( = who ia 
 
 thoro ? no one) ; 
 
 (4) After a comparative: ilU fera mieux que per- 
 Sonne (=he will do it bettor than any one). 
 
 380. Peraonne, with a negative' sense, is mart- 
 culine, unless it clearly rek^rs to a woman : peraonne 
 n'eat mitierenimt bon (=no one is entirely good); 
 peraonne n'est phm Jolle(=no one [lady] is prettier). 
 When peraonne is used as a noun, i.e., when prt!codcd 
 by an article or an adjective (demonstrative or possessive), 
 it is feminine : nne peraonne de qualite (=a man [or 
 woman] of title). 
 
 For the other pronouns, tout, etc., sec Indefmitt 
 Adjectives (§ 800, § 814). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 Explain the Tarions idiomatic ngca 
 
 , Wiicn does the pronoun cA/icKn take 
 ton, m «M after it? — W lien docs 
 it take Imr f 
 
 Distin^lsh between I'un raulresoiil 
 fun etl'ti litre. 
 
 When is auWui aged? 
 
 8. How arn tlit> pirononnB nhoever, n ha- 
 fofver, whaUcfT translated ? 
 
 6. Wliiit ia tlio . >J ;-.fiinln|? of Hm ? 
 
 7. When nrocji'jfun fwjonn* followed 
 
 by ne »— whon awi \ '.tC'y not V 
 
 8. Where arc rim and iw ?ilnced ? 
 
 0. Wlienis/)<*r*o»j»Mniusoiil.a,j?— wlien 
 ia it fcminin* t 
 
 
 llh! 
 
 A 
 1 
 
 lUi 
 
 Exercise 53. 
 
 1. On dit qn'il y a en on violent inceuclie & Londrcs. 2. On f si 
 ^gaux quand on s'aime. 3. Les dix tribus de I'Attique avaieht 
 cbacuno leur president. 4. Ces messieurs ont vot6 cbacun selou 
 ses opinions. 6. Par soi-m6me on pent juger d'antroi. 6. Qui- 
 eonqne anra fini son devoir k midi pourra aller jouer. 7. Je n'eu 
 parleral d, qui que ce soit. 8. Pretcz-moi un ouvrage quelconquo. 
 9. Ne vous maltraitez pas I'un I'autre. 10. lis sont toujours & se 
 moquer Tun de I'autre. 11. Je n'aime ni I'un ni I'autre. 12. Quand 
 vouB etes Ik, vous n'avez plus que quelques pas a faire pour arrivcr 
 A la gcre. 13. On ne pent rieu faire de mieux. 14. Peruonue n« 
 I'avu. 
 
 • apporter, ■tfoocnpcr, • pl.ace (/.), ♦ enven, • fc la maison. 
 
 1. News have been brought i from Pario. 2. Tbey say that 
 the king is dead. 3. Every one must take care* of himself. 
 ^ These two gentlemen have each a good situation.* 6. 0! whom.' 
 
I 
 
 AOEKKMENT OF TUB VRIID WITH ONE BlflPIiE BUBJEOT. 6S 
 
 •oever you sponk, avoid calumny. 6. WhoHoover la not nshnmecl 
 of bin faults deserves to be puuisliod. 7. You arc guilty of sroiit 
 injustice towards * ench otli.r. 8. Both Busju'ct him, but nciUier 
 will say why. 9. Men'' i- i ..i fnot to nobody. 10. You should 
 never spoak evil of /Ji.i;; : We wish to soo ovcrythiuR. 
 12. Tliero is nothing tt we. 1 • There is nobody at homo.* 
 H, This person is ver^ v '^ i^ What is in that box? nothing. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 
 X. AORBBMEWT OT THB VBRB IVZTB OVB 
 BZMFXiB SUBJECT. 
 
 3831. Every verb agrees with its subject in number 
 and person: les hommcs sont mortcls ( = men are 
 mortal) ; no^m avona le Urrr ( = wo have the book) ; 
 le courage est une vertii (=: courage is a virtue). 
 
 382. When the subject is a collective noun, tliat is 
 to say, a noun which denotes an assemblage, a collection 
 of objects of the same kind, tlio vor^ is put in the 
 singular, if the collective n<>nn is takoa ■>■.> the subject : 
 une nu^e de mutcrelb's obscurcit lair (=a swarm of 
 locusts obscured the air). 
 
 It is put in the plural, if the complement of the collec- 
 tive noun is tnl' "U as the subject : une nue'e de barbares 
 d^soldrent le pays (=a swarm of barbarians desolated 
 the country). 
 
 Practice will teach when to put the plural and when the 
 singular. The invariable rules, which grammarians pretend ta 
 establish on this point, are more than doubtful. It is, in reality^ 
 with the most important word, that the verb agrees. 
 
 383. After la plnpart (=most part), le plu» 
 grrand noxnbre (=thG greatest number), nne foule 
 de ( = a crowd of), une infinite de ( = a m rtitude of), 
 etc., the verb always agrees with tlie complmient of 
 these collective locutions, either expressed or under- 
 itood : la yhi^art de* grens ne font rejlevion sur rien. 
 
 |{ 
 
N 
 
 I* 
 
 I ii 
 
 50 AGREEMENT OF THE VEUI5 WITH ONE SIMPLE SUBJECT. 
 
 ( = most people think of nothing); la phipart dorlvent 
 ce noin de cette maniere (=most i^eoplo write this namo 
 tlius). 
 
 381. After the adverbs of quantity beaucoup 
 ( = niiich), peu ( = httli!), moius ( = less), asscz 
 ( = enough), trop ( = too much), etc., followed bv a pliiriil, 
 the verb never agrees with the adverb, but a,l\vays with 
 the noun: beaucoup do personnes ig-norent la tjrarite 
 de cdte afaire (r=njany people are ignorant of the 
 gravity of that affair) ; pen de g-ena supportcnt 
 la contradiction ( = few people bear contradiction). 
 
 / 385. Plus d'un requires the verb in the siiuiular, 
 I although it calls forth an idea oi pJuraiitii : plus d'un 
 1 brave mord la ponmcre ( = morc than one brave man 
 / bites the dust). 
 
 ' But when rm'prnctty is implied, the verb is put in the 
 phtral : plus d'un arocat qui s'insultent au palais se 
 serrent la main en sortant ( = many brvristers, who 
 insult each other in coui-t, shake hands when they go out). 
 
 380. The verb dtre ( = to bo), preceded by ce (c'eat, 
 o'^talt, etc.), remains in the singular : — 
 
 (a) When it is followed by one or more nouns, 
 the first of which is singular : c'ost la phde 
 et le brotiillard qui attristent VAnghtcrre ( = it 
 is the r in and the fog which make England 
 gloomy) ; oe sera le meme theatre et lea nu'meH 
 de'to 7 «/ons ( = it will be the same theatre and 
 the same scenery), 
 
 I (ft) If the pronoun ce recalls the idea of a singular 
 
 substantive expressed before : pour lui le bon- 
 heiir, c'est degrandes richesses ( = as for him, ho 
 thinks that happiness consists in being very 
 riob). 
 
 (c) When 6tre is followed by a pronoun of the 
 Jirst or second person : c'est nous qui son- m 
 lea vrais coupahtes ( = it is we who are the real 
 m^'^jrits) ; c'est vous qui anriez di) U fain 
 (=it is you who should have done it). 
 
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ONE SIMPLE SUBJECT. 5T 
 
 {(1) When the noun coming after 6tre is preceded 
 by de : c'eat de vos parents que nous parloM > 
 (=it is of your relations wo speak). 
 
 387. But tho verb 6tre is put in the piural :— 
 
 (a) When the first noun is in tlic phiral : co sont 
 les iiteiucs (h'cofations, le memo, tlu'atre ( = it is tho 
 same scoiiory, tho same theatre); ce sont 
 IcK arbres, le clieiiiin, la maison <inefal rm mitre- 
 fois ( = it is tlic trees, the road, tho house, I saw 
 formerly) ; ce sont les roin ipii ftont /c.s chefs 
 dea nations ( = it is the kings who are the chiofs 
 of tho peoples). 
 
 lb) When the pronoun ce recalls the idea of a 
 phu-al noun expressed before : il y a die espkes 
 de mots : ce sont [.'article, le nom, etc, ( = there 
 are ten kinds of words : they are the article, 
 the noun, etc.). 
 
 (c) When 6tre is followed by pronouns of tho 
 third person plural : co sont eux qui lu'unt 
 accuse {=^it is they who have accused me). 
 
 388. The verb 6tre, however, although followed 
 by a pronoun of tho third person plural, is put in tho 
 singular : (a) in order to avoid expressions disagreeaJVlo 
 to the ear, such as sont-ce, scront-cc, Jurent-ce, Thus, 
 wo must say : sera-ce vos amis qui vous tireront <ff af- 
 faire? (=will it be your friends who will get you out of 
 didiculty ?). * {l>) In the locution si co n'est (== unless 
 it be, if it is [or was] not) : b1 co n'est oui., quels ho)itiue$ 
 eussevt oae I'entreprcmlre? (=what men, besides them, 
 would have dared to undertake it ?). 
 
 389. Impersonal verbs (or verbs employed as such) 
 remain invariable, even when they are followed by a 
 plural noun : 11 tomba des millicrs de ■projectiles sur le 
 champ de hataille ( = thousand of projectiles fell ou tlae 
 battle-field) ; 11 vint plmieurs personnes^ = several peraons 
 came). 
 
 • ga<* que may also be nsal in thU com. See } iZ9. 
 
J ski 
 
 1 
 
 58 AOREEMKNT OF THB VERB WITH SEVERAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 See § 162 for the partienlar nature of the word »7. Impersonal 
 verbs may be used figuratively in the the third person plural : lea 
 traits pleuvent (= darts are showered), les canons tonnent 
 (=the cannons roar). 
 
 Exercise 5«. 
 
 1. Ces enfanta sont trSs-aimables. 2. Une foule de soldats sa 
 pr6cipite.rent dans I'enceinte de rassemblde. 3. La plupart peusent 
 que la guerre sera bientdt dficlar^e. 4. Une multitude de saute- 
 relies d^vorSrent la rficolte. 5. Beaucoup de maisons ont 6t6 
 d^truites par rincendie. 6. A Paris, aa coUege de France, un tres- 
 grand nombre de jeunes gens suivjnt gratuitement les cours des 
 meiUeurs profosseurs. 7. Plus d'nn philosophe s'y est tromp6. 
 8. Peu do gens savent cotte nouvelle, et je vous engage k ne paa 
 l'(5bruiter. 9. Ce furent les Phfiniciens qui inventSrent r^criture. 
 
 10. C'est des anciens habitants de cette region que je vous parle. 
 
 11. II est venu plus de deux miUe personnes k la cCremonie. 
 
 •enclin, 'Bortir, • impale (/.), * assistance (/.), "tehapiierA. 
 
 1. These men are not so rich as we thought. 2. He and I , je 
 inclined i to do it. 3. Many people think this news is false. 4. A 
 crowd of cliildren came out « of the court.* 5. Half the passengers 
 were so ill that they could not give any help.* 6. Few persons 
 put into practice the saying : Time is money. 7. It is the barkings 
 of the dogs that I hear. 8. What are the chief towns of Frawe ? 
 They are ; Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Lille, TovUouse 
 Nantes, Bouen. 9. It is of them (/. pi.) they speak. 10. Was it the 
 Phenioians or the Egyptians who invented writing? H. The 
 multitude of errors which escaped* his attention have been 
 correctP'^ Riuce. 
 
 SX. AOSSBMBITT OF TBB VBBB WZTB SBVBBAZi 
 
 8irB7BCTB. 
 
 390. A verb which has two or more subjects in the 
 fiame person of the singular is put in the same person 
 of the phiral: le chien et le chat reoberohent h 
 vouinage de Vhomme ( = the dog and the cat seek tlie 
 vwrnity of men). 
 
 But if the subjects are of different persons, the verb 
 fellows the same rule as the pronoun {see § 319), that is 
 to day, it 18 put in the first perHou plural if ihoro ja one 
 ifl the sentence ; vqm, lui et moi^ fWM« •Qmmea h^reiZ 
 
AORKEMENT OF THE VERB WITH SEVERM. SDRJECTS. 
 
 60 
 
 (=you, lie and I are happy) ; nnd if there i;- not a first 
 person, it takes the second : r«(/" et lui, vous 6te» 
 caupahles (=you i*ud he are guilty). 
 
 391. The verb is put in the singular after several 
 subjects: — 
 
 1. When the subjects form eithc'- an enumeration or 
 a kind of climax : uu regard, tine parole, un serrement ih 
 main suffit jwur rehrer le conrofie da malheiireux { = 9, 
 \odk, a word, *«. grasp of the hand is euou«,'h to raise the 
 courage of the uuh.ip^y man). 
 
 2. Wlion the enumeration is summed up by a word, 
 such as ehaciin, tout, rien, etc. : vn soujfle, une vinbre, un 
 rim, tout hd Aonrxuit la Jieire ( = a breath, a shadow, 
 a trifle, everythmg gave him a fever). 
 
 392. When the siibjects are connected together by 
 comme ( = as), ainsi que ( = a3 well as), de mdme 
 que ( = as well as), autant que ( = as much as), plus 
 que ( = more than), moins que (--=less than), auBsl 
 blen que ( = as well as), the verb agrees with the first 
 only: la vcrite, commr la luiiiiere, est inalk'rable 
 (= truth, as well as light, is unalterable) ; Vor autant 
 one Ics honneurs e^dult T/ton'.v.e ( = gold seduces man 
 as much as honours). In this last example, the verb of 
 the secondary proposition is understood : Vor s^duit 
 I'homme atUant que les honneurs le B«5duisent. 
 
 393. After I'un et I'autre (=both) the verb talcea 
 the plural: I'un et I'autre sent w»orfs (=both are 
 dead) ; I'un et I'autre (juerrier sont de haute taill* 
 (=both warriors are of tall stature) ; 
 
 But run ou I'autre ( = one or the other), ni I'un 
 nl I'autre ( = neither one nor the other) require 
 the verb in the singular : I'un ou I'autre a rahont 
 waislequddi'sdexx? ( = either one or the other is right, 
 but which of the two ?) ; nl I'un nl I'autre ue rmi- 
 jH)rtera la victoire (= neither one uor the other wui guiQ 
 the victory). 
 
 "} i.-- 
 
60 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE YEIIB WITH SEVERAL SmjECTS. 
 
 «.metae, thoy take the verb in th ^ J ™.t,' Zf 
 Z^^^X^:''"' "' '"■-'y "»<1° '">» commit , 
 
 are ,tan4„(,-„, the voih i, i,r H „ ■ ' ™''? ""', "* 
 
 BroMun fif/ "'". "^l'""" '"'• '" «"''.i'>'=' "10 "-claiive 
 =5^^hl-SS--- 
 
 Bxerdse 55. 
 
 1. Les convonancea, son int^ret, I'honnenr I'etiVe 2 Pr;;^rn« 
 menaces, coups, rien m peut lo corrigor 3 Sn« „ ' 
 
 Maximo est tr^.s-parcsseux. 4. La v6r S commn iT "'' '^"' 
 
 inaltorablo. 5 C'est vn„a „„• '^"^'^conimo la conscieuce est 
 
 J "• o. jj un et i autre scut parfaiteraent oubli.'... 7 ivr 
 cousm ou son frere aura sa place ft v7»L ^"^ 
 
 viendrom ce soir Q T^L ^otre sceur ou ma tante 
 
 nne cave me. id J wL ° "''" ''' ''o^^Pagnons se oacba dan. 
 
 Ni run niTautL\Son^ ;;:i^;rp"iiiT r^'^^' ■^^• 
 
 un coup d'cEil nous tral,it. ° ''"' "'°*' "° «*'"?"•' 
 
 'Sftrrnslns, 'Damietto. •n;usslrik. 
 J.-J^^.^"'.^. ^' ^« «!'«» go into the connfrv. q v. , 
 
fcOMPLEMKNT OF THE VEUB. 
 
 61 
 
 ftociety. 6. It is a H.itire, nut a useful book, tliat bo Iws wiritt^n, 
 (). Nfitber of lliom will corao. 7. Neither you nor I mo wri up. 
 8. It was Tlioinistocles ami Miltiailcs wbo vamiuibhed tlic rcrsi'iua; 
 J). I am Lpuis, king of France, wbo repulsed the Saracens * alt 
 Dainietta.a iQ. Entreaties, threats, barsh measures, nothing 
 Bncceedca in» making blm speak. 11. Ilia couiage, bis perseve- 
 rance, bis endurance astonishes me. 
 
 
 ZZX. COMPXifiMSNT OF TBS VSRB. 
 
 396. Two or more verbs can have a common com- 
 plement, but only wlieu these verbs do not require 
 complements of a difiereut nature : V enfant (hnt oh^rir et 
 respecter sen jmrcnts {-^iho child ought to lovo and 
 respect Lis parents) ; in this sentence, parents may serve 
 as a complement to both verbs clierir and respecter, 
 because we say cherir quchpCua, respecter qnehpCim ( = to 
 love a person, to respect a person) ; but with a verb 
 governing an indirect complement like uhcir ( = to 
 obey), lor instance, we could not use pannis as a 
 common complement ; we could not say, for example : 
 V enfant doit ob61r et respecter ses parejtts ( = tlxe 
 child ought to obey and respect his parents) ; it is 
 thou necessary to express both complements : Vcnjant 
 doit respecter ses parents et leur oU'ir. 
 
 397. When n verb has two or more complemonts, 
 these complements ought to be of the same nature ; wo 
 miglit say correctly : ;7 aime d. chanter et a dessiner 
 {—he likes to sing and to draw), or il aime le .'liant et 
 le dessin ( — he likes su.-ing and drawing), but wo 
 cannot say: il aime le ciiunt et £i dcst '..('• if— ho likes 
 singing and to draw). 
 
 398. A verb cannot have two indirect complements, 
 ■when the latter is a more repetition of the former ; thus, 
 we nuist not sny : r'cst h vous & qui je parte, c'est de 
 VOUB dont il s^ujit, but c'est h vous qaeyV" parte i = it 
 is to you I am speaking), c'est vous dont il saijit ( = it 
 is you who are in question) ; or c'est vous a qui je 
 2><irht c'est de vous qu't/ s^a^fit. 
 
61 
 
 flOMPLEMKNT OP THE VKRB. 
 
 yh 
 
 
 I I 
 
 /!^;. / 1 ^ ^''^r' ,(- to help , ;,;«,, (^ to pre.i-]e), sad 
 i ,7'V ^"^'^ •''^'•'' ^<p<rhiu'un both mean to ]ielp a 
 n.Jc. '^^),pr,Wrr & v,^,r.,o/f»/„j7a = to hive the nnnncrp 
 
 H^b lities Z^^ ^ >!«'s en,,cutements ( ,. f have met my 
 -laDilities), but^ m satujait mon maitre (.-.: I have satisfied 
 my mmter)' surpleer qudgu'un ( = to so,- . v a pe^^^^^^^^^^ 
 place), supplier gaclq.e chose ( = to Bupp ^;, LLSv in 
 some article winch is not cUpletajV^^^^^'J-Tl"! ,^ 
 C/.O.S. (=to make up for one thing by another). * ' 
 
 -oJcsTeTL /2''^ '^'""l^ '^^ "^^^'^ if the action ex- 
 bioti^lr)! ^=^' ^"'^ ^^^^ *^^"S'^^* ^y ^^^ widest 
 
 in T" /^^'^'^T^. *^^'^* ""-^ Pi-eposition . 
 m the sense of m order to is Renerali 
 French by the preposition pour fuT 
 rotrepoiy .«( = hecame to make v.. , , 
 times t. reposition is not exp , 
 J -go aiiu bee him), venez me cherclie, , 
 
 £1,1° r' "^i'^/p^^owing verbs take no prn 
 Uicir du-ect object :-^ *■ 
 
 in English 
 
 >ressed in 
 
 yonr faire 
 
 ■ait). Some- 
 
 . allcx le voir 
 
 ome and fetch 
 
 • ion before 
 
Complement op the veub. 
 
 ft»r>MW viieilx{=to like bettor) 
 
 apei-cevuir (=to perceive) 
 
 wppi'ouror 
 
 ttssitror* 
 
 ia,ttiind,re\ 
 
 therclierX 
 
 compter 
 
 C) aindvef 
 
 (=to approve) 
 (=to assure) 
 (= to wait, to expect) 
 ( = to look for, to seek) 
 ^ = to count, to reckou) 
 (=to fear) 
 
 dejcndi-e*\ {= 
 
 deinatide 
 
 drsirer 
 
 payor* 
 
 prier 
 
 reiidi'dor 
 
 vouloir 
 
 I" tl = 
 
 ( = 
 
 f: 
 
 03 
 
 to forbid) 
 to ask for) 
 to desire) 
 to pay for) 
 to beR of) 
 to look on) 
 to bo willing, 
 to wish). 
 
 *04. The following verbs, which take no preposition 
 in English, must be followed by & in French :— 
 
 aitentcr a 
 eonvenir a 
 d^Jendre af 
 dire at 
 sejier ii 
 obe'ir d 
 
 (=to attempt) 
 f = to Buit) 
 ( = to forbid) 
 r= to tell, to say) 
 |=to trust) 
 (=to obey) 
 
 pardonner a* 
 permettre af 
 plaire a 
 prmnettre a\ 
 riipondre a 
 succcder a 
 
 i=to pardon) 
 = to allow) 
 ( = to pleat-e) 
 
 i=to promise) 
 = to answer) 
 {=to succeed). 
 
 405. The following verbs are followed by de in 
 French : — 
 
 abuser da 
 approclicr de 
 avoir garde de 
 eliatKjer de 
 conrenir de 
 douter do 
 jouir de 
 manquer de 
 $e moquer de 
 se servir de 
 so souvenir de 
 user de 
 
 t abuse) 
 
 . approach) . , , ,v 
 
 I take care not to, to mind lest) 
 
 » change) 
 
 » agree to) 
 
 ) doubt) 
 
 J enjoy) 
 
 ) want) 
 
 ) laugh at) 
 
 ) use) 
 
 3 remember) 
 
 } use). 
 
 I.I 
 
 Xixercise 56< 
 
 1 Ella le rcgrette ct s'en repent. 2. II obfiU S «on g^nSral et 
 le respecle beaucoup. 3. Est-ce a moi (lue vous park/. ? 4 C'es 
 sur le mont Sinai -lue Diou donna sa loi i Moise. 5. est k Im 
 
 • Assurer une chose <i qudqu^un (=to assure some one of a thi"R) 
 , .,„„ ,^^ ( = to forbid some one to do a tlung) 
 dj'jendre ,, „ L'to ask some one f..r a thing) 
 demander .. m Lto pay some one for a thing) 
 iTLner I! I! (=topVdon some one for a thing), 
 t Aitendie, eramdra, anfmurv, ^t-;.-r-;--- ,---•-, x- *- 
 
 weitre take the preposition de before an mhnitive. 
 
 ; Chorcluir reciuiros the proposition & before an infimtive. 
 
64 
 
 ^SE 6p the AUXILUnY VEnBS. 
 
 II 
 
 • aller d cheval, • ai.uer, "coup de pi.tolct, • lualle (/.) 
 1. Charles went out to look for Lis brotl.or 9 tr 
 father that the Ktter had been nent s r , , "''"'■"'^ ""^ 
 
 your uncle. 4. You ou/ht n^ o truat Lh" 7c '"' "'^^ ^"'* 
 about the prion P 6. He as.ed hi fTtl' ^^^ 'XZ "T 
 I dou't thmk he ever aRsured any oue of a thi.J TlTfT 
 not certain. 8. The letter was^wriUen by ?"„!' TusLTl 
 and returned from Kingston iu two hofxrs aTd « ha^f 10 1 
 i«vei7fondof»[to]walJunguudridinff II Tb« „ I 
 wounded by a pistol-shot" by the ga doner 12 1 1 TmT' T! 
 made to go to America. "^ ""^ e*''^'^°"«'- 12. 1 had this trunk* 
 
 IV. VSB or TBE AVXIMARY VBRBS. 
 
 in wjJ!" I^ave Bcon (§ 158) that some neuter verbs 
 ,r,p\ . :^ *i.. ,^ co»n(//M ( = tliat man has not ploaspd 
 
 r 
 
 
USE OF THE AUXIUARY VERBS. 
 
 08 
 
 The verbs demeurcr ( = to remain) , exidrer ( = to expire) , 
 tester ( = to stay), the Benso of which is susceptible of 
 variation, follow the same rule. 
 
 409. The following verbs only take the auxiUary 
 avoir :— 
 
 eourtr 
 
 dormir 
 
 lamguir 
 
 marcher 
 
 faraitre 
 
 !=to rnn) 
 = to Bleep) 
 (=to languish) 
 ?=to walk) 
 (=to appear) 
 
 succomher 
 vivre 
 surviwe 
 ttiompher 
 
 ( = f.o perish) 
 f=to succumb^ 
 ? = to live) 
 t = to outlive) 
 (=to triumph) 
 
 «10. Twelve neuter verbs, of which a list is given 
 in § 153, take the auxihary 6tre only. 
 
 411. The English make frequent use of auxiliaries, 
 and such words as do, did, shall, will, etc., (1) in 
 answers, (2) to question the truth of a statement, 
 (8) to express surprise: (a) lias Mr. Smith arrived? 
 Yea, he has; (b) Is it Spanish lie is reading? Ye% 
 it is ; (c) Will your brother come tu-day ? No, he will 
 not ; (d) He has bought a country Imuse. Has hef 
 
 The French language is loss elliptical, and requires 
 the sentence to be comitlete. The above sentences would 
 be translated thus : (a) Mr. Smith cst-il arrive ? Oui, 
 11 est arrive ; (b) Est-ce de Vespagnol quHl lit ? Oui^ 
 o'enest; (c) Voire frereviendrat-ilaujotmVhui? Non, 
 tl ne Tlendra pas ; (d) II a achetc une maisnn de cam- 
 •pagne. Vraiment ! or en v^rlttf , or any other ex- 
 clamation suited to the occasion. 
 
 NOTICE, therefore, that the auxiliary is not used 
 alone, but that the principal verb and a noun or pro- 
 noun must be expressed ; and that in exclamative sen- 
 tences some suitable exclamation must be used in the 
 f an adverb, a verb, or an inteijection. {See 
 and the rules on the position of pronouns.) 
 
 QUESTIONS FOE EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. state the rule for the agreement 
 
 of the vt^rh witli Its snbjoct. 
 f How Is the rnlo riltccitcd wtipii the 
 
 tiibjpct is a collective noun ? 
 g. "1 what number Is the verb put 
 
 ifti'i- In i''npiirt i—le plui grnnd 
 
 lO'iilire, etc. 
 
 t^.Vnl;l» 
 
 i. What number does the vorli tnko 
 lifter hniiieoHp followed l)y s 
 iiouu in tiio piui'ui f— ufw-r plui 
 
 8. WliiMi (1op» the verb /f^v, pre'ifled 
 by (•'•, take thuBin'.'ulnr?— 'Vhen 
 (liH's it Uike the v'lni.tl '/ 
 
 - (I 
 
 ! ; 
 
m 
 
 USE OF THE AtJXnJART TFRHS. 
 
 \1 
 
 fi. "^tfite tho exenption t) .„ .uio. 
 
 i. When iiii/frs<iii"t vorba arr fol- 
 lowed by a jilural noun, wlmt 
 iinnibtT'lotlicy tnko ? 
 
 •■ When is tlio verb, foUowIni; 
 suveral sulijucts, pnt In the 
 hingftilnr ? 
 
 0. Ill wlmt number Bhonld the Torb 
 bo written after two sabjects 
 connected by n< ? hyouf 
 
 10. When is the verb put in thfl sln- 
 
 Kular utter ou and ni ? 
 
 11. In what nnmber is the verb 
 
 written after I'lin rt [autri f 
 |9. State the rolo which ofCccts tho 
 
 Tf.. havhi,? M Iti tntijoet tti* 
 
 proiiiiini '/«(. 
 IS. Can !i verb liove two oomplo- 
 
 nu^nts ? 
 M. Corifct tho fault In the expr««- 
 
 Rion c'fil ^ vous (V 1^1 IJi'/uirle. 
 
 15. What auxiliary do neuter vcrlM 
 
 take when they expreM (a) 
 aiUon, (b) itate ? 
 
 16. Oivo a few neuter verbs conln- 
 
 ffited (rt) with fire, (b) with 
 nviHr, (c) with either. 
 
 17. Explain how certain rerbs alter 
 
 their meaning, acoonlintf to the 
 Auxiliary verb with wliich 
 tboy arc conjugated. 
 
 Szeroise S7. 
 
 1. Est-oe k moi qne vous parloz ? Onl, c'est k vons. 2. Pai 
 paBsfi quatre mois a 1 ris. 3. Mon fr6re est paasfi en RuHsie 
 depiv" plnsieurs annCes. 4. Avez-vous descendn ma boite k 
 ouvrage ? Oui, je I'oi descendue. 6. Cctte maison lui a nonvoua. 
 6. Noi.ri somrnes oorvenus d'aller ensemble. 7. Elle a bu /ecu k 
 ioute sa famUlo. 8. iJ est tombfi duhant de la maison. 9. Qne 
 Bont devenus vob couHins ' 10. 11k sont parvenuB aux po8t<9 
 qo'ilB fherohaiv^jjt k obtei r. 1.1. E-it-co nn roman que vcms 
 lisez ? ni, o'c est un. J. Jacque est arriv6 hier d'Afrique. 
 Vraimoutl d6j4I 
 
 •revenir, ' '■ 'Hiig apflairt ssmonUst, •deso<"flre, * de. 
 
 1. Ton rill write to yoi:r uncle, will you? Tes, I vlll, 
 2. Your brother has not yet returned i from ..inerioa 8. We 
 agreed to meet nt the stati u irclve o'cloclc. 4 James and 
 llunry have brought *' table nnd the chairs uiistairs." 5, Tlico 
 books have not yet t., ak( down.« 6. Th. Itahc lias expired 
 yesterday. 7. He si a tl years in that town. 8. Churl, a 
 triumphed over* all hi. onemitn. 9. Is that your carriage ? Yes, 
 it is. 10. Is it an Italian book you are read ,,? Yes, it is. 
 
 11. Do you give these boys translations to tlo • No, T do not! 
 
 12, Should you like to stay tht-ro ? Yes, indeed, I thouid. la! 
 The loase is expiied since yeBterdfty, 
 
4nKKRMKNt OF THE PttEBENT rAUTICIPLT:, C7 
 
 Cn AFTER VII. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE rAllTICIPLES. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 AOttSBMBXffT or TBS 
 
 VKBSBirT VAATXCZVXll. 
 
 *12. Tho present participle is always invariable: 
 cctte personne obllgreant torn In maUwnretix est vraiment 
 charitable ( = that ixusou being kind to all the nntor- 
 tunate is really cluiritablo) ; Vorane, noun effrayant 
 tous, reJonhIa {^i\io Btoini, Iriglitening ub all, recloublea 
 in violence). 
 
 413. Tal(on as an aajoctive, tho present participle is 
 ' cd a verbal a.ljective, and, like all other adjectives, 
 io...)WK the rules of airreement. The verbal adjective 
 expresses a state : VolmHtiu' rst effrayante ( =the dark- 
 ness is alarminp) ; while the present participle expresses 
 an actiun: I'oraifc, en efflrayant /^.s auimaux, disperna tout 
 h troiipeaii (=the storm, in frightening the animals, dis- 
 persed the whole flook) ; wo must, there fre, whilst 
 examining a sentence, ascertain whether a 8tat£ or m 
 action is expressed. 
 
 «14. There is action, and, consequently, no agree- 
 ment : — 
 
 1. When tho participle has a direct complement: on 
 n'entnid plus Ir^ marteanx frappant Venclume ( = tlie 
 hamiuors are no longer heard strudng the anvil) ; 
 
 2. "When the participle is preceded by the preposition 
 en: lamer s'oi-ance enmugissant (= the sea advances, 
 roaring) ; 
 
 3. "When the participle is folhtml by an adverb : «jw 
 fiH? oMissant Men ( -a irl obeying faithtuUy), an 
 esprita agisaant toujours (=mindB always busj). 
 
Mi 
 
 W AORKEMENT OF THE PREHENT PAUTICIPLB. 
 
 418. State is expressed, and, therefore, agrooraoni 
 takes place : — 
 
 1. When the verbal adjective fs accompam'rd hy th« 
 verb fttro: cette Jteur est ohai^mante ( = tlub flower is 
 charming) ; 
 
 2. When the verbal adjective is preceded by an 
 adverb; une /die blen ob^iasante ( = a very obedient 
 girl). 
 
 When the form in -ant is followed by nn indirect or ciroum- 
 ■tantial complement, the aenso alone oim show whether there 
 ■hould be agreement or not. Thus we shall write : voyea-vous ea 
 dihria flottant vera la e6te f (= do yon spo thoHO friipmonts drifting 
 towards the shore ?) ; but Calypso vit ilea cordagea flottants «uc 
 lo eMe (-CalypRO saw on the shore tloatinR cables). In the 
 former example, flottant is invariable, beoauae it is a participle and 
 implies action ; in the latter, flottanta asrcos with the noun, 
 because it is an adjective, and shows the state of the cablcB which 
 had long been left to the mercy of the waves. 
 
 BST The present participle, so often nscd in 
 English, must be translated into French by the in- 
 dicative: je la vois qui parle avec eotie mur (= I see 
 her speaking with your sister). 
 
 416. We ha\o seen (§ 44) that the French lan^na^e 
 makes up fresh nouns with the help of the present 
 participle : from croyant, tranchavt, debitant the present 
 participles of croire ( = to believe), traneJier (^to cut), 
 dibiter (=to retail), it forms un croyant ( = a believer) 
 U tranchant ( = ihe edge [of a knifo]), v a debitant .= a 
 retailer). All these words naturally follow the general 
 rule for the formation of the plural of substantives : de$ 
 eroyaiits, des tranchanta, des debitants. 
 
 Wo must not confound the present participles, such as nMigoMt 
 (=neglecting) adMrwut (=adherinf?). differasit (-differing). 
 e^tmiai,u«t(=8aying or doing odd iugs). with the adjective. 
 niglxgttnt (= negligent), adhdrent (=uiiJicrent), different (=diffe. 
 rent), extravagwut f = oxtravftLfntitl. TUa fr...r.w,.. „..„ _l-..i__i 
 derived from the "French verbs negligeW'"adJ,IrZ/7S'e'r, 
 extrara^tier ; the latter are real adjectives taken directly 
 ..rom the Latin. Thfise adjectives cann .t therefore, in any case, 
 be called the vcrb^U n.ijectives of negliger, adh< yr, et«. 
 
AOHEEMENT OF tllft »»ltK»KNT rAUtlOtMitt. 
 
 69 
 
 The followiug coiuiniriUivo lint of pnmut pivrliciples aud verbal 
 ailjcetivoB or iionua will bo foiiud iiBttul :— 
 
 APJECTIVRS. 
 
 PKKHENX I'ABlHaPLES. 
 
 AdhcrtMt 
 
 afl'iinnt 
 
 diffrrtLUt 
 
 0xci'//ant 
 
 extravagutint 
 
 fahriquAUt 
 
 fatiguaskt 
 
 intriijuwat 
 
 nf.gliijGwat 
 
 jv)V'ei:'(iant 
 
 viotant 
 
 (=a(lherij>R) 
 
 i- abounding) 
 - diffcrint') 
 ^oxcellini^) 
 ( = diHpiitching) 
 (-:rnnibling) 
 
 (i/i'»ont 
 t/i/lrrent 
 
 c.i/i'i'ient 
 e.r(>(ii'<'!/ant 
 
 ( = niiimi(actnring) /ti''/i«aiit 
 
 l=futigning) 
 (= plotting) 
 ( = neglecting) 
 ( = preceding) 
 ( = proHidiug) 
 ( = residing 
 (= violating) 
 
 /a<i;/ant 
 t1l^l'(l/ant 
 
 jrrtv'iJent 
 violent 
 
 ( - iidlierent) 
 (--(Mintliicnt) 
 r-dilTennt) 
 i-oxcoUont) 
 ( = expedient) 
 (= extnvviij^'iint) 
 (-^nniniifHetmur) 
 (—tiresome) 
 ( = intriguing) 
 ( = negligent) 
 ( = proviou8) 
 ( = proHident) 
 ( = resident) 
 ( s: violent) 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. Wlist \t»parHeipU1 
 
 I. flow ia tlio piii-tioipio connoctod 
 
 with the adjective? — with the 
 
 verb ? 
 a. How innny kiiidaof participles are 
 
 there ? 
 4. Deflne a verbal ailj- rtive. 
 k, What !■ the dlflerutice between % 
 
 vorbiil adjective and ft prcsenl 
 imrticipleV 
 
 6. Whuu Is nil rfr/iVmcxprcPSOil ? 
 
 7. When is ii sUtlf expiosMKl ? 
 
 8. Whatrule docstho |)re8cnt ixirtlcipta 
 
 follow when used as a substiui- 
 tive? 
 
 9. Rcinark on the H]x<Uing of ctrtoia 
 
 verbal adjectiveH or nouus. 
 
 Bzeroiae 58. 
 
 1. Voire scour est une charmanto personne. 2. Les aoldaia 
 d'Alexandre oubliant leur patrie ne songeaient qii'au butiu. 
 3. Une dame obligeant ses amis. 4. Une prouve couvainquaute. 
 6. Les ennomis surprenni.t nos troupeH n'eiirent pas de peine a lea 
 vaiucre. 6. Les (Jmipiiiuls c-ont partis de France sous Louis 
 XVI. 7. Les fabrica.-ts ont dficidfi d'616ver leurs prix. 8. Eu 
 exp^diant demain, les marcliaudiHea arriverout luudL 9. Cot 
 homme est des plus u^gligeuts. 
 
 » bftlcr, • convainore, * amener, • s'eff orccr, ' attendrir, • passant, ' soicries {f.\ 
 •gater. 
 
 1. This delicious music, charming my senses, produces th« 
 
 desired effect. 2. My sister is more obliging than yours. 8. The 
 
 eit is of electricity are surprising. 4. Wo hear the bieatLug^ 
 
 aheep. 6. Your arguments, convincing* the judges, brought 
 
 about' the prisoner's acquittal. 6. Beggars always endeavour * to 
 
 «ork ou th« feelings of' the passers-by .<> 7> It is in making silk 
 
70 
 
 AOREKMENT OP THE PAST PAimciPI.f!, 
 
 
 :' r 
 
 i 
 
 goods » that the Lyons mauufuctmers boconio rich. 8. Tlii.i \t 
 an oxcelknt remedy. 9. The Kuuiii-od piipcr adlieiin^' to 
 the diiiwing Lad entirely Hi>oiled8 it. 10. He hus written to his 
 adhcroutH. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 AOBSBMBWT OP THE PAST PaJBTXCX»Z.S. 
 
 1. Oenerul Principles. 
 
 417. Whon tlie past participlo is joinod to the Rubstan- 
 tivc without the hcip of an auxiliary veil » it is treated m au 
 adjective— that is to aay, it always agrees witli the noun 
 to which it refers in gondoi- and number: des merites 
 rdoompena^s ( = merits rewardea), ths bonhmrt 
 passes ( = happiness past), des Icttres re9ueB I'=letter0 
 received). 
 
 «18. When the past participle is preceded by the 
 auxiliary verb dtro ( = to be), it always agrees with 
 the subject in gtnder and number: 11 nat veiiu (=hc is 
 como), elle est t-cxue (-she is come), «lles aontvmu9» 
 ( = thoy are come), 
 
 *19. When the past participle is preceded by the 
 auxiliary verb avoir { = t,o ha-e), and is not accom- 
 panied by any complement, it is always invariable: 11 
 •( chanti ( =lie has sung), elle a hant6 ( = she has sung), 
 Ala out chanti or elles out chants ( = they have sungj! 
 
 a. The Past Participle used wltb tbe ausiUary verb 
 
 6tre (=to 69). 
 
 420. We have said that the past participle joined to 
 the auxihary verb «tre ( = to bo) always agrees with the 
 Bubject: la ville est ouverte ( = the town is open), Uport 
 estfmn6 (=the port is shut), oes Jleurs iotU epanouiea 
 (= these flowers are full-blown). 
 
 421. Conse iuently, passive verbs, being aU con- 
 jugated with the auxiliary verb «fcre, aiwavs have their 
 past participle agreeing with the subject . U roi est aim^ 
 (=:tlie Itmg 18 loved), la rdne est aim4« (-^Uie queen is 
 loved), l9m princet tont aimem (= the princes a*© i'>ved). 
 
AORKEMENT OF THE PAST PARTlCirLE. 
 
 ^1 
 
 422. A few neuter verba are conjupnUd with 
 fitro (line § 158) and follow tho same rule, buch as alhr 
 ( = to go), venir (~io oomo), jiartir ( = tOBet out), aniifir 
 ( = to arrive) ; conformably with tho rulo given in § 418, 
 their past iinrticiplo always agrees with the subject ; II 
 est ram, elle est renue, ila sunt vmvM, elle» sunt venuea 
 ( = hc, she, they are couio). 
 
 43:23. In the case of impersonal verbs conjugateil 
 with 6tre,thoparticii)K-' agrees witn tho subject <7(§ 120), 
 ami this pronoun being always invariable, it follows 
 that tho past participle never changes in verbs of this 
 l;ind : 11 est sunenu un ora(je{ = o. storm camt on), 11 est 
 uniie des vialheura ( = misfortunes happened). 
 
 For reflexive verba see §§ 481-435. 
 
 42*. We have seen (§ 205) that thf) French language 
 creates new propositions wit}i the help of certain past 
 pnrtieiples, such m eACipte ( = except), atlemUi {=.iioi\- 
 tiil'.riug), iiasse ( = paKt), etc., for instance, exn-idc sa 
 ,;„"■/,•( = except his mother), nttendu /'Ar't/n- ( = considering 
 tiie hour), ?/a«.st- Vepoijue ( = tho epoch being past), etc. 
 In these cases tho words e.m'pte, attciidu, etc., are always 
 placed ht'J'ure tho noun ; but tho same words aro parti- 
 ciples aiid agree with the noun when they are put after 
 it : «a mere excej)t6e, L'iicure attendne, Vepoqm pass^e. 
 
 «. Tbe Vast Vartldple naed wltb Una auzlUary 
 avoir (=to have). 
 
 «25. While the past participle with fttre depend-^ 
 upon the subject and agrees with it, the past participle 
 united to avoir i? always independent of tho subject, 
 flud only agrees with the complement : J'at %m le rot, 
 ilB out vu le roi( = I have seen the liing, they have 
 Been the king), le roi que j'ni vu, lea rois (fuej'ai vua 
 (=thc king whom! have eeen, tho kings whom I havo 
 Bccu). 
 
 <f.26. Tho past participle with avnl*.- varies when it 
 h prec'dcd by its vliriicfc complemcut, and it then agrc-'i 
 
 
 A ■■«■ 
 
If 
 
 :h 
 
 
 ^2 AGBEESreNT OF TUE PAST PABTlClPLIt* 
 
 lio.sfs flmt I havo seen ; lea y/^Mr« o»« iW coupee^ 
 (-the flowers that I have cut) ; coM/,«re. 
 
 J3.it it always remains invariable wl.on the complo- 
 
 Ijr omtes /,m e6ml (=1 have oftcntimos 8if,'hed over 
 al those misiortunos; or when the direct cornph^ment 
 follo^vs the participle instead of preeodiii<r it : fat vu la 
 wse J ai vu des ro^.s (=1 have .cun the roae, I havo 
 seen some roses). * 
 
 1 *^^1 Pouter verbs, never having a direct com- 
 plernent, the past participle of these verbs, conjugated 
 
 r,^^//;''.! rr/"'"'^'^^'^"= o.«.„m«r«J action 
 now. «nul( = that bad action has proved injurious to 
 us)/.* n,e,rs ont g-^mi ,h tons m malfwL ( = the 
 mothers havo groaned over all tliose misfortunes). 
 
 «28. Wo have seen (§ 899) that a few verbs are 
 
 vpH.1''^ Tn'^r^'t"''"' "' "'"r' ««»^«""^e8 as neuter 
 veibs. In the former case they follow the rule of the 
 past participle conjugated with avoir: cet homme vous a 
 Jiddcmna servlB (==this man has served us faithfully. 
 ».e., a seni nous). ^* 
 
 lmv«"i7r'" .*^''^ f "^ employed as neuter verbs, they 
 
 nvaria?.ln^^^^^^^ ^."^Plement, and their participle remains 
 
 invariable: ces hvres noun ont beaitcoup •ervir = thG8fl 
 
 i''"" '"" '' ^"^^ -« '^ n.:T:.!int')z 
 
 *29. Remarks. 
 idleucB. baatJo^ght ui^'n';:"^!"'''^''^ '''' '^' '°"''" which ^c..u 
 
AGRKEMENT Olf THE PASt PABTlClPLB. 
 
 n 
 
 2. Tlie pnfit participlo of the verba vlvre (=to live), dormtr 
 (=to sleep), r6g:ner ( -vo reij,'u), is always inviiriiible : les jourg 
 qu'on a vkeu dans Voit-ircte sont penliis (==tho diiys upont iu idle- 
 ness nro lost) ; les heunts qu'ello a dortni I'ont repos^e (= the honra 
 she has slept liave rested her) ; just as if the seuteucos had stood: 
 IMiidant lesquela mi a veou..,, pendant Uii^tMlles elle a repose... 
 
 430. Zmpersonal verbs, conjugated with atotV, 
 having no direct coinplomont, their past participle is 
 always necessarily invariable: il a ne'uje ( = it has 
 snowed), il a ;>/«( = it has rained). By analogy, this 
 invariableness has been extended to the participle of 
 active verbs employed as imperaonal verbs : les ijmmles 
 chaleurs quil a fait ( = tho great heat there has been), 
 although those verbs have a durect complement, exactly 
 like active verbs properly bo called. 
 
 •ft31. H^eflexive verbs, as we have seen in § 16G, 
 can either bo verbs reflexive by nature (s'ecruuler =io 
 fall down), or active verba {laver =io wash), or neuter verbs 
 {miire=:io injure), employed rcfloxively {se laver=to 
 wash one's self, se nuire — to injure one'd self). Accord- 
 ing to these three cases, the rule for the syntax of the 
 past participle differs. 
 
 «32. In the case of verbs reflexive by nature, 
 
 like sW'crouhr ( = to fall down), s'hov uir ([—to faint), m 
 cabrer ( = to rear), etc., the past participle is always 
 variable, and agrees with the pronoun se, wliich repre- 
 sents the subject: la jununt s'ent cabr^e ( = the mare 
 has reared) ; la malade sent ^vanouie ( = the invalid 
 lady has fainted); la maison s'est ^oroul^e (— tlxe 
 house has fallen down). 
 
 »3" In those verbs the auxiliary etre is used instead 
 of avoir; that is to say : lajumeiU a cabre elle, Ui malady 
 a hanoui elle. 8e is then a direct object, and, as it 
 precedes the participle, there must be agreement. {Svt 
 § 426.) 
 
 BEMARKS.— 1. The verb ••arro»er(-.to arrogate to one's selO 
 Is the only vei b reflexive bv nature which does not take the pre- 
 ceding pronoun aa its direct complemeut. We must accordingly 
 write -. ellea se sont arroffi certains droits qu'elles n'o/f-aient p<M 
 (athej^ bav« arrogated to theiuMiivca ccrlulu ri;;lit8 to which tii»j 
 
 1 • ' 
 
74 
 
 AGBEEMENT OF THE PAST PABTlCIPLfi. 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 I .' 
 
 I i 
 
 \ 
 
 19 = 
 
 il^ 
 
 ■i- ' 
 
 l.Ieincnt. But wo shaJl writo : dies n'araicnt pas Ics dndts q,Celle» 
 se sont arrogem (=tlio.y had not the riKhts whi.^h thoy have 
 arrogatoa to th.-msolveH), because arr<>,,es agroea witli que, HtuudiuK 
 for drotts, dniict complement, and procoding the verb. 
 
 2 Under tlio catuKory of verbs rejl-mro by naturo cortaiu verba 
 nro placed hiu-1i an ojru-cemir ( = to perceive.), aUa.,uer { = to 
 n ark), «««„,;,., (to wait), dbul.r {^ to doubt), jMre = to 
 \M:,],preralotr ( = to prevail), .svuw ( = to seize), taire (=to keep 
 M. rot), etc. the meann- <,f which chanfieH when they become 
 ri'h.xive: elks so sont prevalue. do lour j\,iao,so (-they h vo 
 aken nd van tap of their weakness) ; olios se sont tue. (Lthly 
 have remained silent). I— luey 
 
 *33. For the reason given in § 482, the past par- 
 
 ticipJo ol active verba anphn^cd as reficdve always a^rce • 
 
 je me sms lav^e ( = 1 washed myself) ; ih se sont lavds 
 
 ( = they have wasjica themselves), that is to say : Us out 
 
 lave eux ; and th.,' past participle of neuter verbs med as 
 
 reJlexnciH always invariable, bocauso tlu-so verbs cannot 
 
 Have a direct complomont: elles se sont nul, i.e elles 
 
 ont niu d, elles ( = thoy have injured themselves)';' bien 
 
 ih'H rntsse .sont Bnoo6d6 sur le trone { = mauy kings have 
 
 occupied the throne in succession); elles se sont ri ds 
 
 vos menace, ( = tl,oy have scorned our thr.-ats) ; ils so 
 
 xmt plu a mal/uire ( = they have delighted m doing 
 
 r,„5^*'i ^'f,° *''^., *^''^'''* coniplument follows, the past 
 participle of the reflexive vc-rb naturally n-nuiius invari- 
 able : .//. ,\:st brftW /. dot;,t ( = she has burnt her fin-rer) • 
 se is here an indirect complement {elle a hrAU le d2,t i 
 elle). Wo mm ' not confound this case with the former 
 one, whoro wo have seen that the past participle agrees. 
 
 ella « 7 w '^''''T "'; 'f"'^*~thatiHtosay, .//..a /..ei/i 
 elle m dou/t-^ae here being a direct complement. 
 
 *. Additional Remark* on the Aereement of tlie 
 
 «3!l. When followcul by an infinitive, the past pjir- 
 j>iovidcd that noun or pronoun is its diix-ct complement 
 
 WHSi 
 
 mm 
 
AOUKKMENT OF THE PAST PAIlTICirLK. 
 
 w 
 
 CCS femnu's vhantent Hen ; ./> hs ai entendues ehantcr 
 ( = "tlu)Hc womou 8in<^ well; I havo luurd tliem win;,'). 
 Horo, i-ntemlui's agrors with llio pronoun les, staiuliiiK 
 for femmes : j'ai entmdu (jiii.^ ( = 1 have licard whom?) 
 ceafemmes chanter ( = tliose women Bingiug). 
 
 But tlio paat parfunplo remains invariable when it 
 has the infinitive for its direct c(»niploment : (<» runuinrrs 
 Stmt hicn connurs ; jn h'fi ai entendu chanter a Paris 
 ( = tlu)SO ballads arc well known; I have; hoard them 
 sung in Paris). In this case, the past participle remaiiia 
 unchanged, as it ib followed by its direct compbuuint 
 (gee § 420), the infinitive chanter, which, moreover, is 
 naturally invariable:* j'ai entendu tinui? ( = 1 havo 
 heard what ?) chanter cat baUades (=thobe ballads sung 
 in Paris). 
 
 NOTE that when the past participle agrees, the 
 infinitive is expressed iu English by the present par- 
 ticiple, and when the past participle docs not agree, tho 
 inliuitive is translated by tho English past particij[do. 
 
 The past participle IWIt, followed by an infmiiivo, is nUvnys in- 
 vuiiiihlo : las mai.tonn qu'U n flfcit co)intrnira (~tiie litmscs wliicli 
 lio liaH Im.l built). Tlio piirli(i|iles dd, pu, voulu ure iiiviiiiiiblo 
 wlicn wo can supply a verb ufUT them : /o Ini ai »«n'/it tnuf 1o» 
 sorriees que j'ai pu tt qac j'ai d4 {{lui rendto iw nndciHtood') =1 
 Imvo ronderod him all tho Kevvicca whi<'h T <'«iiild, and which it 
 was my dnty to render him) ; je Ini ai In t"tis Jrs Uvroti qtA'il a ▼oulu 
 ([(/no jfl Ini hisge is understood) =»I have read to him all the books 
 ho wiHhed that I Hiioiild n-ad [to him]). Itut we muHt Hay : fai 
 p.iyfi l0B »omme8 que i'ai dues ( = 1 have paid the s\um I owed) ; 
 beoautie the post participle dues ai^roes with itH direct object q\i«, 
 standing for the substantive fcmiuino plural sommes. 
 
 «36. When le, signifying eela ( = thi8, that), prooodos 
 the past participle, this latter word is always invariable: 
 sa tranqmllite nest pott anssi assuree ifii'il Vanrait d^sird, 
 (=hi8 tranquility is not so secure as he would havo 
 wished), i.e., il aurait desire cela, h savoir, que m 
 tranquUiite /ill dejinitivemcnt a^uree ( = he would have 
 
 • llemember that the infinitive i« always in the ma(!Ci*?»n« 
 gender, when ufied as a substaut.ve: le 6ci>-« ct 1« titui,j/«r 
 (o; eating and driukiaj^J. 
 
 
w 
 
 AOREKMteNt OF THE PA8t PAIlTlOlPLB. 
 
 fl 
 
 1' 
 
 wislicd that, namely, tliat his tiaiKiuility would liuvfl 
 boeu quite necure). 
 
 We have geen (§ 320) tlmt ?« (in tho sense of cela) is a vosti'o of 
 tljo purticjplo 18 easuy explained. 
 
 ^37. The past participle placed bctwcot- que, 
 relative, and que, conjunction, is invariable • h'.s liors 
 quo,; amis pr^aumd que vo,<s liru'z ( ^ tho books whicJj 
 1 thought you would road) ; horo tho rolativo .,m' is tJio 
 diroct complement, not of the past participle, but of tho 
 loUowinfT proposition. Locutions of this kind should 
 be avoided, 
 
 -laa. The past participle preceded by en is invari- 
 able : Umt le v„m,le m'a ajfcrt ,les services, mais personne 
 nemen a rendu ( = everyone has offered me services. 
 Dut no one has rendered ino any). 
 
 But the agreement takes place when the pronoun en ia 
 preceded by an adverb of quantity : plm il a en de livres, 
 piu» 1/ en a lus (=.-the more books he has had, the 
 more ho has read, i.e. plus de litres il a lus). 
 
 However, there is no agreement if the adverb follows 
 the pronoun en instead of preceding it : i'en ai beau- 
 ooup vul^l have seen many of tliem) ; j'en ai tant 
 »mfe( = I have visited so many of them). 
 
 *39. The past participle preceded by tho locution 
 loc ?*" ^*^"*^^ according to the meaning of that 
 
 When le pen signifies a maU quantity, the parti- 
 ciple agrees with the noun : le peu de muMture auHl 
 a priae lasauve ( = the little nourishment he has taken 
 Has saved him, i.e. the amount of nourishment, how- 
 ever small, has sufficed to save him). 
 
 r.Jlt^'\ !• peu means insufmency, xcant, lack, the 
 partici])le IS invariable : c'est le peu de mmrnture au'U 
 a pria quia cause savu>rt (=it is the insufficient amount 
 ol food he has taken wiuch has caused hia death). 
 
AOnREMENT OP THR PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 77 
 
 8< Bummary* 
 
 #40. To sum up, the past participle, joined to the 
 auxiliary dtro ( = to be), agrees with the subject; 
 
 Joined to the auxiliary avoir ( = to have), it agrees 
 with the direct complement if tlio complement proccdoH 
 it, and remains invariable if the direct complement 
 follows it, or if there is no complement at all. 
 
 €41. We have seen successively the application of 
 tliis general rule to the past participles of active verbs 
 (§ 419), passiie (§ 421), neuter with iJtre (§ 422), impir- 
 sonal witli etre (§ 428), neuter with avoir (§ 427), iiniier- 
 aoual with avoir (§ 480), rejlenve by nature (§ 482), 
 rejiexive by accident, either neuter (§ 438) or active (§ 488); 
 finally, to participles followed by an infinitive (§ 485), 
 or accompanied by certain locutions (§§ 486 — 4bU). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXA.MINATION. 
 
 I. Btnte the nile of tho pant piirti- 
 oi|ilo ugo<l tM an adjective. 
 
 9. Explain tiiu rulo8 applicable to the 
 {Hist participle ugeti with (n) 
 nvoir, (6) ttrr. 
 
 8. What is the rule for tho past par- 
 ticiple of (n) /xiMiw v<'rl>*, (b) 
 mulrr Tcrb«, {i) impi'rtvnal 
 verbs? 
 
 4. Ileuiark on alfindii.fxitt^l, tHppos^, 
 
 6. Whoii ((IK'S the imst ptirtii'iplo 
 
 atroompanied by an>ir atrrceV 
 «. When il(>c» itrtMiiftIn iinchiuiKeil ? 
 
 7. State (lie riih^ for the niii f i>a«t 
 
 jmrt iiiplo actsmipajjicrt I y nvvif, 
 
 8. State tlie rule which affects cu(U.i, 
 
 vnlu. rf.ru, doitni, etc. 
 
 9. What is the rnle for the pn«t par- 
 
 tici|>Iir of iHi/'irmiifil ▼ertis ooiv- 
 jntjaUxi with iteoir ? 
 
 10. How do verlw rrjifxitt Iky natur* 
 
 atcree ? 
 IT, Hemarll on n'nrroger, t'liprrefvoir, 
 
 I'fittaqwi 
 12. State the lule which affects (1) 
 
 actipe verbs used rfjlrrirely ; (2) 
 
 neuter verba iiaeU in tlic same 
 
 manner. 
 
 15. Explain tho rnle for the pait pap- 
 
 tiviple folluwert by an inttnltivo. 
 14. What is the nil<> for M, pu, roulu ? 
 
 16. What hapjiens when the participle 
 
 is (I) placed between two •/ii-'a, 
 (2) preoeticd by nt, (S) preceded 
 liy fc y 
 16. When does the participle atrrea 
 with Ir i>'U 'I When dues it ajiree 
 witli the complement of te ptu ? 
 
 BzerolM) 99. 
 
 1. Qnede rempftrts (UttraitK! Quo de viUe» tant m \ 2. II » 
 qnatre maidonB, y eitmpris sa maiHon d« ammimgtmt, 8. Vomh 
 truuveroz meu truis lettres ci-inolosea. 4. Bhb wm& a diutiuKUoa 
 doB aiitreB anintaux, («artout par lo don de la parole. 5. Didon a 
 foudu Bur la cote d'Afriquo la BUjierbe ville de Cartbafif. 6. hm 
 jours uu'U a cunversv aveu st-s onfanta. 7. Boaauiat a tadd au« 
 
fl 
 
 SYNTAX OP ADVEROfl. 
 
 Inngtic que lui sonl a parlf^e. 8. KUoa bV-ii sont nMm nmn m« 
 voir. 0. Saturnoeut tiois fila qui so »oiit ]mrt>it^6 lo iloni.ii.e de 
 I'nnivers. 10. La disotte qu'il y » eu pondaut I'liiver. 1 1. II Best 
 trouv6 dix porsonnei cliez moi. 12. Je Tai rendne horrible H nm 
 yeux mhuniaiuH. 13. Il» so sout percC le corps. 14. EIIbh se M.ut 
 trauquiUia^es pea i peu. 
 
 1. Tho books whicli I havo bonRht are wet bonnd. 2. Hia 
 fortune waa Rroater tlian I had believed it. a. You have umdo 
 her laugh. 4. How many harcH did you kill ? I kilkd four (of 
 them). 5. We muBt deduct from life the hours we have slept. 
 6. He has helped us with his purse. 7. I have helped her to 
 come downstairs. 8. Tho soldiers whom the general condemned 
 were put to death yesterday. 9. I know the tune to which you 
 allude ; I heard it sung lust week. 10. Vfc Imve met, but havo not 
 spoken to one another. 11. Great misfortunes have hap|iened to 
 your father. 12. The troops liave murchod across a ba'ren 
 country. 13. They seemed astonishod. 14. 8hc has broken b«.tU 
 her oi-ma. 
 
 if 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADVERllS. 
 
 «42. We may give, as a genoral rule, tliat the 
 adverb is placed after the verb in tlie simple tenses : il 
 re'iissira prohahlement dans cvtti; entrepme { = ho will 
 probably succeed in this undertaking) ; and hetivcm 
 the auxiliary and the verb in the compound tenses: il 
 I'a entldrement oublie { = ho has entirely forgotten it). 
 
 JBlen, mal, tort, beaucoup, pcu always follow 
 this rule. 
 
 ^€3. NOTE that the adverb is never placed in 
 French, as in Euj-^iish, botwoon the conjunctive pronoun 
 subject and the verb: vous vmez toi:^oura en retard 
 (=you always come late). 
 
 444. Advorba of time or place are eomotimos put at 
 the commencement, and sometimes at the end of the 
 sentence : il est renu me voir liier avec son frere, or 
 hler ti! egt venu me voir arec son frere (—^tiHtovdiiy Ixq 
 came to see me with his brother). 
 
SYNTAX OF Am-KniW. 
 
 70 
 
 44S. Tlio »e;iatiiuf consistfl of two parta, ono of whioh 
 is always noi when tho two words are to bo oxprosHt-d ; 
 tho otluT varies accor(lin<,' to tho meauiug. Tho 
 principal adverbs of negation aro : — 
 
 ne...pas 
 ne... point 
 ne...rten 
 ne... Jamais 
 ne...plus 
 ne...qae 
 
 (=not) 
 (=iiot ftt ftll) 
 f=ii(itlung) 
 f— nover) 
 (=110.. .more) 
 • only) 
 
 446. If pas or point is followed by a noun in tho 
 partitive sense, this noun is simply precuded by de : — 
 
 Affirm. : j'ai An pain (=■ I have some brciKl) 
 Negat. : je n\ii pas de pain (i-I Iiavo no broad) 
 
 447. No is always placed hr/ore, and pas, point, 
 
 etc after the verb in tho simple tenses, and iMliiren 
 the auxiliartf and the verb in tho com])ound tenses : 
 jfi ne vois pas ( = 1 do not see); jetc ' pas man(/e'{ = l 
 have not eaten). 
 
 I. With tlie present infinitive the two parts of tho 
 negative are not separated, as : — 
 
 ne pas sevenger (a not to rovonRO one's aol/) 
 ne plus derive (=<to write no uiorv). 
 
 449. If tlie verb is in tho perfect of tho infinitive, it 
 is optional to separate thorn or not, as : — 
 
 Not to have -'-♦ ^"« «»•■ "■''''' *''"^< 
 
 slept [« 
 
 arotV pas doimi. 
 
 490. When used without a verb, tho negatives stand 
 without ne, as : — 
 
 pas a la,fnis ( = not at once) 
 pas henueniip (=not much) 
 tant (=uot 80 much) 
 
 pas v\ni ( = not I) 
 
 pas top (=not too mnnh) 
 
 pa' luim&rd'hui (=not to day). 
 
 491. Won plus (= neither ^oquiros the full uo* 
 gation ne...paa before it, as :- 
 
 je ne le vcux pas nun pins (s.mu^licr .vill I have it). 
 
 V' 
 
80 
 
 •TNTAX or ADVERBS. 
 
 «2. Iftho words nor.. .either aro only connootod 
 with a noun or pronoun witlu.ut a verb, the noun or tho 
 pronoun ih procoded in French hy ni, as .-__ 
 nl Charle» non plus ( = nor ClinrloH fltlipr). 
 
 o«"f;:-""''* "'" expression no... que moani..g 
 j0 n'ai que deux ,amr, (=1 have only two Hintors). 
 «5ft. We is used before tho second verb :-— 
 1. After words cxprossinrr apprehension or foar, snch 
 
 as the verbs apprrfheader ( = to apprehend), ivoir 
 
 eiajv, .ijer ( = to prevent), etc. : enip^chez qu'm no Id 
 par (prevent any one from speaking to him) • 
 |»-w . ^.trde qu tl no sorte ( = take care lest be should ko 
 
 iJofta^ *^!'''''^ oraindre ( = to fear), and the con- 
 unctive locutions do crainto que, do pour quo 
 
 ( = for fear lest... etc., xvhen the thing expressed by 
 the second proposition 18 «o« desired («./§ 610) • tuisj. 
 VOH8, ilejmw 9«'«n no v,>m entmde (=bold your ton-ruo 
 lost any one should hear you) ; w"o»o. 
 
 8. After a comparative of tVmV>,v>,/ or .w;,mV,nVy. and 
 the words autre, autremont : il it plL mvant «" . 
 t-o,/«ne;><r«*..^(=he,8moro learned than you think)- 
 
 '!;/"•"" "^I" 'If""" »• '•^"'■^ ( = !'« is lc4 rich than 
 
 e<,plo imag.„e ; tl pome autnwnu quHl no parle ( = he 
 
 thinks differently from what he says) ; z' M "« 
 
 4 When both propositions are negative : U m,r,f, 
 
 «n-/»/«( = the monkey no more belongs to our si.ccies 
 than we belong to his, t.... we do not belong to hii)' 
 
 6. After U a'on faut accompanied by a negative or 
 the negative expressions pou, pre.quo, Hon : ,7 Z 
 
 wants little to make np the necessary sum); peu s'm 
 /««<7"*^;; ^'t,Uen-om,„ won dmnur, ( = a little more 
 Would make me mtenupt my speech) ; 
 
SYNTAX or AOVKUUB. 
 
 81 
 
 C. Afttr & moina quo : il pat dm demain h inrhia 
 qtw vouH n'dllii'z Ifi voir ce mr ( = ho v avo to-monow 
 uiilcBS you go ami see him tliiB cvtii j. 
 
 459. We is snpprcsscil before the eccoml Verb : — 
 
 1. After a verb accompaniid by a iieRiitive : je m 
 craiiiH i>tu qu'il vicnue ( = 1 do not ilroivd his oomiu^') ; 
 
 2. After d^fendre (^^to in-ohibit) : il ilt'l'nulit 
 qu'auciin eUauijir cntrdt (}iiii.s la rille ( = ho prohibitod ull 
 btrangers from entoiiug th< town); 
 
 8. After the locutious avant que ( = before), aanB 
 quo ( = without): j'trai le voir avant qn'il porta ( — 1 
 bluill ^'o and hcd liim bi^foro liis departure) ; ./a >»/• ;'i//8 
 jiarLr ttaiis //u'*/ vi'iutaruinpe (=1 cauuot Bpeuk withouk 
 his interruptiuf,' mo). 
 
 No may bo inserteu after ©mpdchor ( = to hinder), 
 doutor ( = to doubt), nler ( = to deny), dlBConvonir 
 
 ( = to disa^'ree), conteiitor ( = to contest), Ubcd m'ga- 
 tively: on ne pent lUnder (/(/<'/«'« poUit ne Mticnt cunnrtH 
 lie iitaco ( = wc cauuot doubt but that the poles aro 
 coverod with ice). 
 
 •ft96. Pa» and point »m;/ be Bupprcpsed: 
 
 1. After the verba pouvolr^ DOSBor, osor, and the 
 
 conju ctiou Bl.oBpecially iu the locutious : si ce n'cst or d 
 ct!n'etait(==\\vYO it not, uidess, except); i7. ne ccsse lU 
 parler (=ho does uot leave ofY Bpeaking) ; jc n\>srValx)r- 
 (Irr ( = 1 dare not approach him) ; je ne pnis wctaire (==I 
 cannot remain silent) ; won frcre vie rtssrmhle, si ce n'lst 
 iju'it est pins petit ( = niy brother resembles mo, only ho 
 is shorter); st ce li'ltait la crninte <h vans dqAaiy 
 ( = were it not for the fear of displeasing you) ; 
 
 2. After il y a, depuis quo, in the compound 
 tenses : il y a un an queje ne Vai vu( = it is a year since 
 I saw him). 
 
 8. When autre. ..quo is used: je rCaid'antre hut qne 
 de tons etre utile (=1 have no other objtct than to ba 
 useful to you) ; 
 
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART 
 
 (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 Li 
 
 iM. 
 
 
 In 
 
 Li. 
 
 y. 
 
 US 
 
 IK 
 
 14. 
 
 12.5 
 Z2 
 
 2.0 
 1.8 
 
 4 APPLIED IIVMGE I 
 
 nc 
 
 1653 East Main Street 
 
 Rochester, New York 14609 USA 
 
 (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone 
 
 (716) 288 -5989 -Fox 
 
82 
 
 SYNTAX OP ADVEBBS. 
 
 Iff 
 
 ft : 
 
 If autre is understood, pas or point must hd 
 
 suppressed : il n'a de volonte que la mimne 
 
 (=lie has no other will but mine). 
 
 4. After prendre grarde (=to avoid) : preiiez garde 
 
 tfu'on nevous trompe (=take care that they do not 
 
 deceive you). 
 
 457. Pas and point must he 8Ui>pros8ed: — 
 
 1. After aavoir used instead oi pouvoir : je ve saurais 
 vnns montrer le chimin (=1 cannot show you the way). 
 
 2. After que meaning pourquoi ( = why): quen'etcs 
 vous arrive plue tot? (=why did you not come sooner) ? 
 
 8. When two negatives are joined by ni : je m parle 
 id n'e'cris (=1 neither speak nor write). 
 
 458. Point is more emphatic than paa: je ne 
 Vaimc pas ( = 1 do not like him, her, or it) ; je ne Vainie 
 point ( = 1 do not like him, her, or it at all). 
 
 459. Plus tdt, plutdt. Plus tdt, in two words, 
 means avant ( = sooner), and is the opposite of plus 
 tard(= later): il est arrive plus tdt que dohs ( = h0 
 arrived sooner than you). 
 
 Plutdt, in one word, expresses an idea of choice, 
 preference : plutdt la mart que le de'shonneur I ( = death 
 rather than dishonour !). 
 
 460. Auparavant, davantage. Both these 
 advcrl)a, being taken absolutely, must never be followed 
 by either de or que. II a davantagre de livres que itioi 
 is wTong ; we should say : // a plus de Urres que riwi 
 ( = he has more books than I). Auparavant qu'/i 
 vimiie is also wrong; Ave should say: avacit qu'ii 
 vienne (= before he comes). 
 
 461. Si, aussl, tant, autant. — Aussi and 
 autant are used exclusivehj in partitive, whilst tant 
 and si are generally used in negative sentences : 
 j'ai autamt de livres que vous ( — 1 have as many books 
 as you); il est aussi savant que son ami (=he is as 
 learned as his friend) ; je n'ai pas tant d'aramt que 
 vous (=1 have not so much uioue^ as ^uu) ; il nat pas 
 
SYNTAX OF ADVEKB9. 
 
 83 
 
 Bi riche que sonfrere (=ho is not bo ricK as his brotlior). 
 AuBSl and autant, however, are sometimes used in 
 negative sentences. 
 
 462. Mai parler, parller mal. Care should bo 
 taken to distinguish between these two expressions; 
 mal parler means to sIoikJit, to make me of offeimve or 
 imuklng landmine; parler mal meauB to speak an- 
 yramuMtically. 
 
 463. Oul, »1. Oul is used in answer to an affirm- 
 ative question : arez-vous de la monnaie ? oui, numsienr 
 (=:have you any change? yes, sir); si is emidoycd 
 when the question is put negatively : nUm'z-rom pas 
 periln votre bourse^ si, madame (=have yoa not lost 
 your purse ? yes, madam). 
 
 464. Aussi, non plus. These two adverbs, tal.cn 
 in the souse of likewise, equallji, arc used, the former in 
 allirniatire, the latter in negative sentences: jirai levoir, 
 et w,vi aussi ( = 1 shall go and see him; so shall I) ; 
 jenai pas lace Hire; id uioi non plus ( = 1 have not 
 read that book ; no more have I). 
 
 465. De suite, tout de suite. De suite means 
 successively, without interruption : il ne travaille pas deux 
 heures de suite (=ho does not work two hours suc- 
 cessively); tout de suite meuns immediately : je viem 
 tout de suite ( = 1 am coming immediately). 
 
 466. Partant, pourtant. Partant moana 
 therefore, accordinyly : pea courtisan, partant homme de 
 foi (*= little of a courtier, therefore a man to be trusted) ; 
 pourtant means nevertheless : c'est nn grand general, et 
 pourtant il a e'te battii ( = he is a great general, never- 
 thelcss, he has been defeated). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. Wlintist^e place of tlioiulvorb? 
 
 2. Wliiit is tlie distinctivo sigu o£ ue- 
 
 (Tiition in FreiH h ? 
 8. \N lipn is nc nsf rt V 
 4. W'lion is ni- suppressed ? 
 A. After what verbs are pas and point 
 
 lutt out ? 
 
 6. Wliat is Hie diflference between pal 
 
 anil point f 
 
 7, Distinf-'uisli between pliilol nnrt 
 
 plus t(il—si,aii!i.n and t(titl,(iuliint 
 —mal parlfr find pnrlir mid~oiii 
 and ni—aii.iH und non plui—de 
 siiif'' and hml de iUilf—pitilniU alid 
 puin Unit. 
 
84 
 
 6YNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 t 
 
 iu 
 
 Exercise 60. 
 
 1. On 86 repfehk tairemeut de parler pcu, njais sonvent de pnrler 
 tiop. 2. Ce (lui se fait avoc pluisir ost ordinairement bien fait. 
 3. II a plu aujourd'bui. 4. Autrefois ou coumjouijait plus tut 
 ses etudes, et on les terminnit bcaucoup plus tard. 5. Nous 
 perilous jusqu'au dernier plutot quo de nous rendre. 6. Quelque 
 niccbants que soicnt les hommcs, ils n'oseraicnt pnraitre enneuiis 
 de la vertn. 7. On ze voit d'un autre ail qu'on ne voit sou pro- 
 cbiiiu. 8. Vous ne sauriez nicr qu'un bomuie ni)iirend bcaucoup 
 de Glioses en voyageiuit. 9. Plus on aime une personne.nioins on 
 doit la flatter. 10. Plus d'amour, partant plus de joie. 11. Cromwell 
 couchait rartmout d( ux uuits de suite dans la mCiiie cbambro. 12. 
 Faites voire devoir tout de suite. 
 
 1. Tbere are persons wbo write better tlinn they speak, and 
 •otbers who speak better than tbey write. 2. He does nulliiug but 
 play from morning till nipbt. 3. I do not blame bim tbe less for 
 it. 4. My clerk is more punctual tlian he was. 6. My little girl 
 can scarcely ^vrite, and she reads with difficulty. 6. Have you 
 ever been to Paris '/ 7. Hr ppoarcd suddenly. 8. I lost 
 
 £10,000 at one single stroke. owever clover you may be, you 
 
 filiould not despise the advice oi .your friends. 10. Your brother 
 expresses himself incorrectly. 11 Never speak evil of any one. 
 
 12. It is now two years since I met with that accident. 
 
 13. I tremble lest you should be seen. 14. His wants are small, 
 and therefore ht la happy. 
 
 CIIAPTEH IX. 
 
 SYNTAX OF PllErOSITIONS. 
 
 467. Prepositions are always placed in French 
 hrfore the words to which they relate, and never after, 
 as is sometimes the case in Enghsh, as : — 
 
 de quoi sc plaint-il ? (=what does he complain of ?) 
 
 Durant is the only exception, as we can say : »a vie 
 durant ( = during his life). (-SV^ § 205.) 
 
 4:68. The preposition ft. is used for to* at, or «?, 
 
 • NOTICE that the preposition <o, when it is used in English 
 as the sign of the infinitive, is not translated iulo FreuoliX 
 fiMinyer imp nuil [—to eat too uiuch io hui tlui). 
 
SYNTAX OF rBRP0SIT10N3. 
 
 86 
 
 before proper names of places, such as towns, villages, 
 etc, and the preposition en is used for tu or in before 
 names of countries and provinces, as : — 
 
 mowpere est k Varis (=ray fatber is nt or in Paris) 
 nous allons en Ecosse (=we aro going to Scotland). 
 
 If, however, the name of the country requires tho 
 article, the preposition & is used; as : i/ est au BrcsU 
 ( = he is in 13razil). 
 
 NOTICE the difference between the expressions h 
 terre and par terre : h terre is used wl\on a 
 thing raised above the ground falls ; iiud par terre 
 when tho accident happens to a thing or person 
 standing on the ground. 
 
 «69. En is used with nouns taken in a vague and 
 ir.letcrminate sense, and is not generally followed by 
 the article. Dans, on the contrary, is used with 
 nouns taken in a more determinate sense, and requires 
 tho article ; as : je dmeure en AnnU'terrc, dana le cowt4 
 de MidiUescx ( = 1 live in England, in the county of Mul- 
 dlesex). En is used before a pronoun ; as : man esijoir 
 est en vous ( = my hope is in you). 
 
 NOTICE the difference of meaning between en and & 
 in the following phrases : le f/encral ext h la campaijiie 
 ( = the general is in tJic country) ; le (joiun-al est en cam- 
 pafine{ = t\\e general has taken the field); mm maHro' 
 esihla. ville ( = my master is in town, [by opposition to. 
 the country] ) ; je dine en ville ( = 1 dine out). 
 
 470. In is translated by en when we speak of ibo 
 time it takes to do a thing : on va de Londres a Paris t - 
 dix heiires (=it takes ten hours to go from London to 
 Paris). 
 
 In is translated by dans when we point out the time 
 at which a thing is to be begun : fiiai a Home danB 
 six mois (=1 shall go to Rome six months hence). 
 
 *7l. Avant means before, with reference to timie or 
 order ; devant is used "for hrforc, with reference to 
 piuce : ne vous tenez pas dcvamt mot (=- don't staiix<l 
 
ee 
 
 SYNTAX OP PRKPOSITlONa. 
 
 before inc) ; avant la Jin da mois (= before the cud of 
 the mouth). 
 
 472. Parml ( = among) is used when the person or 
 thing alluded to is in the midst of others : je Vat trouve 
 parml mes Uvres ( = 1 have found it amongst my books). 
 Entre should be used (a) when only two persons 
 or things are mentioned ; and {b) when the persons or 
 things aUuded to are not connected together : je mis 
 entre mcs amis {==1 am between my [two] fyiouds) ; 
 la jalousie entre poiites est chose assez cowtHmMe (= jealousy 
 amongst poets is common enough). 
 
 473. Vera ( = towards) is used with referenca to 
 nouns which indicate place or time: vera la porte 
 (=towards the door), vera le quatorzieme siecle ( = to- 
 wards the fourteenth century). Bnvera means wUh 
 
 .reqard to, and is used after words implying hehactour: 
 charitable envera les pauvres ( = charitable to the poor). 
 
 474. Care must be taken not to confound the prepo- 
 Bitions aur (=upon), and aoua ( = under) with the cor- 
 respondmg adverbs deaaua (= above) and deaaoua 
 (= underneath). 
 
 475. Deaaua and deaaoua are used as prepositions 
 when both are used together : fai cherche deaaua et 
 deaaoua le lit ( = 1 have looked on and under the bed). 
 
 47<S. Pour is the word generally used to express 
 for : faites cela pouT moi ( =do this for me). Mal^r^, 
 nonobatant mean for in the sense of notwithstandm<j : 
 malgr^ tout cela, il n'a pas reussi (=for all that, he did 
 not succeed). 
 
 477. Pendant, durant refer to time: il a ete 
 en Turqiiie pendant mm mois ( = he has been in Turkey 
 for a month). 
 
 478. Bepuia corresponds to shwe: je n'ai pas vh 
 votre ami depula si^v mois ( = 1 have not seen your friend 
 for [or since] six months) 
 
SYNTAX OP PnEPOSlTIONS. 
 
 87 
 
 479. Vls-ifc-vls ( = opposite) is construed with de ; 
 je nieplar/ii vis-a-vlB de /«i( = I placed myself opposite 
 to him). 
 
 In the colloquial style custom sanctions tlie followinp phrases j 
 vls-^vis notre maison, (=opposite our house) vls-i-vU lo'p(aa%$ 
 ( = opposite the palace). 
 
 On vis-ii'Vis, see § 206 
 
 ^80. The prepositive locution vla-Si-vls is nevei' 
 used figuratively. We must say infirat envera son 
 hienj'aiteur, and not vis-Si-vla de son bieu/aitcur (= un- 
 grateful towards his benefactors). 
 
 •9:81. Au travera is always followed by the prepo- 
 sition de, whilst h travera never takes it : U se Jit 
 jour au travera dea eniwmis (=ho fought his way 
 through the enemies) ; il marchait h travera les qnm» 
 (=he was walking through the thorns). 
 
 482. Void announces what we are about to say ; 
 voilit recalls what has been said : void ce que je vous 
 apporte: une hiatoire, nne tjrammaire, un atlas (=here is 
 what I bring you : a history, a grammar, an atlas) ; la 
 prudence et la sagcsse, vollft, ce que Salomon demanda h 
 Dieu (= prudence and wisdom, that is what Solomon 
 asked of God). 
 
 483. All prepositions in French require the following 
 verb in the infinitive (present or perfect), except en, 
 which takes the present participle. 
 
 484. The prepositions &, de, and en are always re- 
 peated before every complement: il dut la vie & la 
 eUmence et h la magnanimite du vainqueur (=he owed 
 his life to the clemency and the magnanimity of the 
 conqueror). 
 
 The other prepositions should also be repeated, unless 
 the various complements are synonyms : dana la paix 
 et dana la qucrre (=in peace and in war); dana le 
 desordre et V intemperance (=in disorder and intemta- 
 
88 
 
 SYNTAX OP PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 488. Be and &. In the following sentences the idea 
 of duty is implied :— 
 
 c'tist a vous de mo sniiro (=it ia your duty to follow mc). 
 
 c'est a Dioi A'oheir (=it is my duty to obey). 
 
 The idea exi^ressed in the following phrases is that of 
 
 turn, rotation ; — 
 
 est-co (i Ini kjonor ? (=is it his turn to play?) 
 o'cst & elle k parler (=it is her turn to speak). 
 
 •ft86. The use of the preposition de often alters en- 
 tirely the meaning of certain phrases : — 
 
 il no fait que parlor (=he does nothing but speak). 
 il no fait que de parlor (=he has only just spoken). 
 
 De is also used in some particular sentences : — 
 
 1. After quelque chose, rien, quoi, quclqu'un, persoime, 
 pas, -point, etc. : je n'ai rien vu d'etoniiant ( = 1 have not 
 seen anything astonishing). 
 
 2. Before a past participle preceded by a noun of 
 number (in this case the use of ile is optional) : il y a 
 eic viwjt-cinq homnies tiu'a or de tuc's ( = there have been 
 twenty-five men killed). 
 
 487. Chez ( = at the house of) can be preceded by 
 del je sors de cbez vous ( = 1 come from your house). 
 
 »W Chez moi, Chez sol, etc., can also be used as 
 substantives : fai un chez moi ( = 1 have a home), 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. state the rule and exception for 
 the placini,' of preiiositions. 
 
 |. Expluin tJio fUfferenco between i, 
 en, and dans. 
 
 8. When la demnl used ? What rela- 
 tion does avant express ? 
 
 4. Distinguish between enlte nnd 
 pa mil. 
 
 t. Wlint are the adverlw corrosiMnd- 
 ing to the prcpositioua tur and 
 tuiist 
 
 State the difference between vis-A- 
 vis and envcrs, ii Irnnrs and all 
 Iravffs, void and voilA f 
 
 What prepositions must always bo 
 repeated ? When should all pre- 
 positions bo repeated ? 
 
 Show, by examples, in how many 
 ways the English preposition /or 
 can bo translated into French. 
 
 Remark on certain idtoniatio ubci 
 of de and d. 
 
 Exercise 61. 
 
 1. H y a une inscription curieuse sur cette m^daillw. 2. Us se 
 ar>>|f, liaitnci nniii^nrjf ilf;uv '•ourSi 3. II SB '^lao6 touioiu'S dovftni 
 i^oi & table. 4. Le bateau 4 vapour de Boulogne est arrivfi avan^ 
 
BTOTAX OF CONJtJNCTIONS. 
 
 80 
 
 celni do C«l.iis. 5. Lea tronpoB du roi de rrusao sont on cam- 
 paRue. 6. Madame dinera-t-ello en viUo aujourdlun? 7. Le 
 traiet de Paris h Bordeaux se fait en quclqucs lieures. 8. Lo 
 g6uCral partira dans troiB jours. 9. J'ai ci..quanto volumes A 
 ^endre, et 11 y on a de bien rolios. 10. A qui do.s-je ^f^^^ 
 11. La charito ne fait ricn nans r6flexi<.n n. sans ordro. 12. L oia?o 
 a delate vers cinq bcurcs. U. Nous ^rrivcuous joudi pioc .am. 
 14. Voici des fleurs quo j'ai cucillios pour voua. 1... La dioituro . u 
 crur. la vCritc, i'innoccnco, I'empiro sur les passions : voila la 
 voritablo grandeur. 10. En ess.yant do ra.uasser les livros qui 
 fitaiout tombes a tcrro, jo suia touibu par tcrro. 
 
 1. Alexander took tbe field at tbc head of an army of fmty 
 thousand men. 2. Bo dutiful to your parents. 3. I never diue 
 out more than once a week. 4. He will arrive on Tuesday, a ^^■o.k 
 before ray brother. 5. Tiio elm was planted ,n front of the bouse 
 6. I shall remain in Loudon for a month. 7. Has the servant 
 looked for mv bracelet upou and under the table ? \es she has. 
 8 All the plums have fallen down. 9. On arriving at Dover, we 
 went to the hotel. 10. I have not read Ilonur for several years. 
 11 You arc to play first. VI. It is your business to coun ers.-n 
 the minister's letter. 13. Tl.ore wero three now operas performed 
 last season. 14. I walk every day from t^r to welvc. lo. It is 
 „tt far from my house to the river. 10. v- xt do you compbun 
 
 oil 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 ' 480. Amont? the simple conjunctions quolque 
 r = tlionsli or although), with its synonyms bien quo, 
 encore que, is the only one which governs the sub- 
 junctive mood : — 
 
 Quoique (or lien que, or encore guo) je sois malade (=thongh 
 I am ill). See § 491. 
 
 489. A molns que ( = unless), de crainte que 
 orde peur que { = for fear that), require ne bctoro 
 the following verb in the subjunctive mood :— 
 
 nn'irapas, k molni. que jmis ne M J^mandiez (=he will 
 
 not go unless you ask him) ; 
 Allez-vous-en lien rite, de peur qu'il ne smt trap tard (=go 
 away quickly, lest it should be too late). 
 
90 
 
 ■YNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 ■11 
 
 *1 ; 
 
 490. A molns que ( = unless), followed by a verb 
 in the infinitive mood, requires the preposition de 
 without the negative ; as : je ne pouvais pas lui purler 
 plmfortement a moins que de le quereller ( = 1 could not 
 speak to him in stronger terras unless I scolded him). 
 The que may be omitted : a moiua de le quereller. 
 
 €91. When a conjunction governs several verbs, it 
 is placed before the liiHt verb only, and que is user. 
 before the other verbs :— 
 
 Comme il est appUquA et qu'iZ prend de la peine (=as lie ia 
 dili{,'eiit aud takes pains ). 
 
 492. The conjunction ni serves to unite : — 
 
 1. Two negative propositions : ilnehoit nl ne mange 
 (=he neither eats nor drinks) ; 
 
 2. Two propositions depending on a negative pro- 
 position : je ne crois pas qu'il vieiiiie, nl meine qu'il pense 
 a venlr ( = 1 do not believe that he will come, or that he 
 even thinks of coming). 
 
 Hi is also used int. iead of pas : il n'est nl bon ni 
 mauvais ( = he is neither good nor bad). 
 
 493. Quand is a conjunction, and expresses the 
 same idea as //(/o?^?/^ ( = altliough), and lorsque { = '<n\\qi\) : 
 je viendrai quand weme il plctivrait ( = 1 shall come 
 even if it were to rain) ; je partirai quand j'aurai Jini 
 ( = 1 shall go when I have done). 
 
 Quant followed by i^ is a prepositive locution, 
 meaning the same thing as j^our, a I'egard rfe ( = as for ... ) : 
 quaat h moi, je n" en feral Hen ( = a8 for me, I shall do 
 nothing of the kind). 
 
 494. The conjunction que is often employed : — 
 
 1. Instead of the conjunctive locutions afin que ( = in 
 order that), «aws jwe ( = without), rf/?pMM que ( = since), 
 etc.: venez que je vous le montre ( = come, in order 
 that I may show it to you) ; je ne puis parler qu'eV w<s 
 mCinterrompe ( = 1 cannot sneak without his interning n» 
 
PYNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 01 
 
 2. 
 
 Tn ovaor to av.-ul tlio r(i.otiti.)U of tho cotijunc 
 
 in good hoalth, one must wk); **!;''' ^ ^,„t Jo ami if 
 lie gives you back my book, Bcud it me). 
 
 Whon QUO is used instead of »l, iV^^'^Tu.t^.d't 
 
 Si. 'allalB vous voir i-l)'Z.l\t should come, would 
 you receive him?). 
 
 Que, at the bc^innin, of a scutn^o ^^'^^^^^'^Z 
 
 them, I vish, thoy s ho aid, tt., w _u ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ 
 
 nouHarvrtisso lorsquhl sera f ret (-let luin {,ive u 
 is ready). 
 
 ;:rr.'.^r^/:;t (=i arsilent. J.Je [for tUo 
 reason that] 1 am afraid). 
 
 Par ce que, in three words, is a locution identical 
 
 Tather has told me, i.e., par cela ,ue .on pere ,n a d^t). 
 
 496 Ouolque should not be confounded with 
 
 t? «■«? Ouolque, in one word, is 1 conjunction 
 
 quol que. ^uoiq»w, " /_„uiinnfrhV quolquo 
 
 corresponding to hm 9"« i=Sou^h he is icUe, he 
 
 paressmix, il reusdt assez ken ( = althou^n ne 
 
 succeeds tolerably well). 
 
 -.^.4 e„- \n f.wo words, means qndle que sott la 
 clSfuepihi^t^set the thing may be): qnoi que 
 
02 
 
 8YNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS, 
 
 vniis Jim'rz, il fait la snunle oreille ( = wlintcvor J'on miij 
 say, lio turns a cloaf ear). See § 874. 
 
 For tho goverumeut of oonjiiuUive lociaong $ee t C08 aiul fol. 
 lowiug 80ctious. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. Wi)\ch Fmncli coi.jnnctiuns requiro 
 
 tlio siihjiinctivo ? 
 
 2. After whiit cdiijiiiictlotiH is we iisotl 
 
 with tlio vcrli in tlic siihjmicti vc ? 
 S, Kxplaiu tho rule fur u nwiiu que. 
 
 4. Eiinii'crnte tlio \nrloiii Idlonmtlo 
 
 nsugof ilin conjiliictioii i)iie. 
 
 5. Ifow Ih vi nswl V 
 
 tt. I)i8tlntriiisli i)(>t\veen qmind nnd 
 (/iiaiii—piii'ff iiiiif iM'ii iHir ce que— 
 quohiue iiiid quoi que. 
 
 ■■ . 
 
 Exercise 62. 
 
 1. Dion existe, CJir co qui pcnso en moi, jo ne lo doia point & 
 moi-memo. 2. Vencz, que jo vous diae uii fuit qui vous intt'ica- 
 Bcra. 3. II y a nil mbvle quo jo no vous ni vu. 4. Quo no mo iliHio/.- 
 vous quo vous avo/. besoin d'urRont f 5. Qu'il lo veuillo ou non, il 
 prcudra 8a mCdecine. 6. Si vous rencontrcz un hiiko, et quo voua 
 deveiiio/, son ami, estimcz-vous licuroux. 7. 11 no suit ni lo Liitiii 
 ni le Groc. 8. Je vois, par co que vous mo ditos, quo j'utiiis uial 
 inforiuo. 9. Je crois quo j'ctais ma) informo, paico quo vous me 
 He dites. 10. Quoi quo vous cciiviez, 6vitoz la bassosse. 11. Le 
 nitrite est souvont n6^;li;,'c parco qu'il est trop modosto. 12. De 
 crainte qu'ils n'eutrasseut dans le port, il ordonua k ses guerriers 
 de les poursuivre. 
 
 ' II est Inutile quo fn, "d'apr**, »i I« fois, «tandi8 que, 'd'nno nii\nl6ro 
 pi-ontiible. 
 
 1. That poor man noitlier speaks nor hears. 2. Since you do 
 noi) like tho play, it is no use my » sending you a ticket. 3. When 
 I am in Paris, and have plenty of spare time, I attend the lectures 
 at the Sorbouue. 4. Wliat is the matter with you that you do not 
 eat? 5. Wliatever you may do, you will always succeed. 6. 
 Although he knew I was out, he called upon me. 7. As for 
 that rascal, he shall be sent to prison forthwith. 8. From* 
 ^hat I have just heard, I think we shall soon have war. 9. The 
 king was loved, because he was both ^ firm and just. 10. Yqu 
 lose youi tiuie, whwreos'jrou ought to s^oud it [^roatably.* 
 
iVNTAX OF ruoposirioss. 
 
 19 
 
 "^ 
 
 SECOIJ^D TART. 
 
 SYNTAX OF rilorOSITIOMS. 
 
 X. Ootinitlons. 
 
 *97. The f.rHt part of the Syntax ^^^^^^^)2^l 
 
 £^r;!^p:;:iuonT':her::.ay;t.^^ 
 
 TulZ'^oTnun-o^i.rle vr„rosiUo.s xu order to 
 make a compound proposition. 
 
 There uro o.ly three way. of uu.tin« mnyi. luorositions iu order 
 to form a compound propobitioD ;— 
 
 1 Fither Bimplo propositions remain in.hT^"'lent of ono another, 
 and S S; llal^ tLu. side by .i^do : j« ..-• vena. , a. .... , .. 
 i-aincit (=1 came, I Biiw, I cou.iutrcd) ; 
 
 which is called the prt/idjuil proposition. 
 
 ^Ve have seen (§ 224) that every proposition has 
 three terms : the subject, the vcd>, tiie ailnhate. 
 
 498. Generally speaking there are in a ffllUJ^J^ 
 
 iU film tj-' 
 
 propositions. 
 
n 
 
 SYNTAX OP frRO^SrtlONa. 
 
 •> I - 
 
 
 
 
 ft9d. i3ut in certain sentences containing only end 
 verb in the subjunctive: que Dieu rous assiste (-—iniiy 
 God help you) ; or in the imperative: allez ! { = i;o\); 
 or, lastly, in an interrogative form : qui a dit cela ? 
 ( = who has said that ?), there is always an indicative 
 understood: je desire que Dieu vous assiste ( = 1 Avisli 
 ;,hat God may help you) ; je veux que vous alliez ( = 1 
 insist on your going) ; je demande qui a dit cela ( = 1 
 ask who has said that); because in such cases the 
 mind really discovers two propositions. 
 
 These senteDces are called elliptical, because there is in them an 
 ellipsis or suppression of words. 
 
 500. The same thing occurs when, in order to impart 
 greater rapidity to the speech, we suppress one of the 
 verbs of the compound proposition : je I'aime comme 
 nwnfrere, i.e., comme j'aime monfrere ( = 1 love liira 
 as my brother) ; or even both verbs : thus, an feu ! 
 ( = fire!) really means allons au J'eiit ( = let us go to 
 the fire !), i.e., il est ne'cessaire que nous alliens au feu 
 (=it is necessary that we should go to the fire). In 
 this sentence, although no verb is expressed, there are, 
 nevertheless, two propositions. 
 
 We have said (§ 497) that propositions are either 
 principal or subordinate. 
 
 501. The verb of the principal proposition is always 
 in the indicative mood,* because the indicative is the 
 ajpnmntf mood, and every principal proposition conveys 
 some affirmation: je doute que vous veniez ( = 1 doubt 
 your coming) ; je doute, being in the indicative, is the 
 principal proposition. 
 
 Every verb in another mood than the indicative 
 belongs to a dependent or subordinate proposition. In 
 
 • Je ne sache is the only instance of a verb in the subjunctive 
 appearing in the principal proposition : des enjants etourdis de- 
 viennent dea hommes vulgaires ; Je ne sactae point d'ohservaUnn 
 plus genirale et plus certaine que celle-ld (=heedle8B childien 
 become vulf,'ar men; I do not know any observation more 
 geueial and mure eurtuiu tliuu that). 
 
SYNTAX OP PROPOSITION^. 
 
 05 
 
 tuies tlie dependent proposition. 
 
 IX. Of tlie Subordinate Proposition. 
 
 502. The subordinate or dependent proposition is 
 formed, either :— 
 
 1 Bv the ' •>! of a participle: je lis en mar- 
 cJant^S i..d whilst walkiu,);J^-'-.^.P--4 
 par la faim, deirient cnminel (=man, auvcu j 
 binvor, becomes criminal). 
 
 2? By the help of an Infinitive: fame ^ travaiUer 
 (=ri like to work). . ^,. ^ 
 
 3 By the aid of a conjunction: j> sais €ine Jteu 
 est ion ( = 1 know that God is good). 
 
 4 By the holp of a relative pronoun : axm^z Dieu, 
 Ji ..LV..y(=.love God, who protects you). 
 
 p.^iriS.Se^S;^l-fe^ 
 
 £?^.=» 
 
 us now review them briefly :— 
 
 cipial propositions. 
 
 505. When the parliclpM propOBition rrf«», "« 
 
 Srele°vSl' B ,vouli, therefore, he -^".gU.J.y: 
 
' 1 
 
 I i 
 
 dc 
 
 SYNTAX OP tROPOSlTIONS. 
 
 50G. Every dependent proposition, of which the 
 Verb is in the infinitive, is called an infinitive pro- 
 position : il aspire h. r^g-ner (=:he aspires to reign); 
 il aiiiie A travailler (=he likes to work)v 
 
 507. Every dependent proposition, united to the 
 principal one by a conjunction, is called a coi^unotive 
 proposition : fespere que vous viendrez ( = 1 hope you 
 will come). Que vous viendrez 's a conjunctive propo- 
 sition. 
 
 For relative projjositions, see § 519. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 ITow mnny terms docs a proposition 
 
 cimtiiin ? 
 1> line a diften/iinl piopositioii. 
 How ninny proitditions are tliero 
 
 in a sentonco ? 
 Ill wliat nioo*! is tlio verb of tlio 
 
 principal jprupusitiuu to be put ? 
 
 6. How many kinds of snbordinnte 
 proixjsitions aio tliere ? How are 
 tlioy distinguished from one 
 anotlier ? 
 
 6. Dfiline a participial proposition. 
 
 7. Wliat is an infinitive proposition? 
 
 A conjunctive ono ? 
 
 Exercise 63. 
 
 Translate the fnUoidntj sentences into KmiUsh, and underline 
 the conjunctive propositions : — 
 
 1. Nnl ne snit s'il vivra demain ; et tons nous faisons des pro- 
 jete, commo si nous devious vivre toujours. 2. Los Romains sou- 
 mettaient les villages voisins pendant qu' Alexandre conqu^rait 
 I'Asie. 3. Arrangez votre vie de telle sorte que les envieux n'y 
 repreunent rien. 4. Je doute que les vertua soieut jilus graudea 
 depuis que les richesses ont augments. 
 
 XZX. Vse of 
 
 508. The 
 
 must always 
 
 imesurequel <=^" proportion durant que 
 ^ ( as) non plus qi 
 
 a%nsi que 
 attendu que 
 aussi hien qtie 
 aussitvt que 
 autant Qwe 
 de meme que 
 dox>uis quo 
 
 de» que 
 
 the Indicative and of the Subjunctive in 
 Conjunctive Propositions. 
 
 seventeen following conjunctive locutions 
 have the indicative filter them : — 
 
 (= whilst) 
 ( = no more than) 
 ( = besides) 
 ( = because) 
 (= whilst, duriug) 
 ( = whilst) 
 f (=as long as, aa 
 \ much as) 
 y (=consideriug 
 ^ iluu) 
 
 aa) 
 
 ( = even as) 
 = whereas) 
 =as well as) 
 ( = as soon as) 
 (=as much as) 
 f = the same as) 
 (= since) 
 
 us) 
 
 non plus que 
 outre que 
 parce ijue 
 pendant que 
 tandis que 
 
 tant que 
 
 
/"■mi. 
 
 
 SYNTAX OP PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 m 
 
 1|09. The six conjunctive locutiong : — 
 
 demaniercquc ( = so thnt) si co n'est que ( = wore it not) 
 
 (icsnrteque,en. { = iu such a man- siaon que (-oxtept nui) 
 sorteq>w uorthat) te'loncnt que {-=bo um^h that) 
 
 are sometimes followed by the Indicative, and some- 
 times by tlie subjunctive : — 
 
 1 They are followed by the indicative when the sentence 
 expresses a fact positive, certain, ahsohite : cet enfant si'st 
 midiiit de telle sorte que tons sen parents ont 6t6 co»tent.!, 
 ( = tliat child conducted himself in such a manner, tiiat 
 all his relations were pleased with him). 
 
 2 They are followed by the subjunctive when the 
 fiontcnce expresses a fact in Wiefut^ire, and which way not 
 take place at all : faites en sorte (jkU vionne ( = act so 
 that he may come) ; condimcz-vom de telle sorte que tout 
 le immde soit content de vous ( = conduct yonrselt in sucU 
 a manner that everyone may be pleased with you). 
 
 510. The seventeen following conjunctive locutions 
 always require the subjunctive after thorn :— 
 
 (=not but that) 
 (=iii or ler tliai) 
 {=j)rovi(lccl thit) 
 
 ofin que 
 a mains que 
 avant que 
 «Tt, cas que 
 hicn quo 
 
 (=in order that) 
 
 {=lUll('SS) 
 
 ( = bot'oi-e) 
 
 ( = in casG that) 
 
 (=althuuKh) 
 
 4epearque,de | / f^^. j^.^j. j^^^gt) 
 craintii quo ) * 
 
 non qne 
 pour que 
 pourru qtw 
 sans que 
 
 pour pcu que [ • ti^ that) 
 
 jusqu'a ce quo (=:uutil) 
 hinque (= far from) 
 
 ( = without that) 
 ( = for ever bo he* 
 
 tie that) 
 (=wliethL'r that) • 
 (=8ui)i)osiiif,'tliat) 
 {=:;althout'h) 
 
 soit quo 
 supji'isc qvs 
 qwiique 
 
 JW le wir avant qull pai'to (=1 shall go and see him 
 
 before ho t^tarts) ; ^77/- .„„ 
 
 la torre no s'epuise jamais, pourvu qu'on sache Ja udtier 
 (=the earth is never exhausted, provided one knows how 
 
 to cultivate it) ; , t i n i nw „r,„ 
 
 je Zimi Jusau'i ce que vous venie. (-=1 shall read till you 
 
 come). 
 
 5X1. When the sentence includes two dependent 
 
 propositions beginning with .s^ ( = if) : ma tnstrsse ^raU 
 
 Grande, si Charles venait en France, et sil pa.ssaU par 
 
 ru:Hs sans me voir (=my sorrow would be great if 
 
 -,, ■, i.^ ■fiVor,/.f. ori'l if h« nassed throuch raria 
 
j 
 . I 
 
 I ill 
 
 'I 
 
 08 
 
 SYNTAX OF PE0P0SITI0N8. 
 
 «! f j 
 
 I* i i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 w 
 
 without seeing me), the second si maybe replaced hf 
 que ; but in this case the verb preceded by que is put 
 in the subjunctive ; ma tristease serait grande si Charles 
 yenait en France et qu'if pass&t ;par Paris sans me 
 
 lou: 
 
 512. The subjunctive is used; 
 
 1. After verbs which express douht, desire, fear, sur- 
 j)yise, supposition, will: jc doute quii sache sa le^on 
 ( = 1 doubt whether he knows his lesson); je crains 
 guHl ne parte ( = I fear lest he should go) ; je desire 
 qu'il vienne ( = 1 wish he may come) ; je suis sur- 
 pris que rots soyez arrire {—-1 am surprised at your 
 having arrived); je suppose qiril lise ce livre ( = 1 
 Buppoe^e that lie will road this book) ; je veux quHl 
 soi'te ( = 1 insist upon his going out). 
 
 2. After verbs used inter rofiatirehj or accompanied by 
 a ufaative : croijez-rous qit'il parte? ( = do you think 
 he will start ?) ; ;v»s<?c vans qu'il vienne? ( = doyou 
 suppose he will come ?) ; je ve presume jms qu'il soit- 
 airiv^ ( = 1 do not presume he has arrived). 
 
 0. After the impersonal verbs : it faut (=it is neces-' 
 Bary), il importe ( = it is of consequence), il convient 
 ( = it is proper), il est possible ( = it is possible), and,, 
 •generally speaking, after all those which express will, . 
 supposition, or doubt: il faut qu'il vienne (=ho must- 
 come); il importe qu'il soit ici ( = it is of consevjuence' 
 that he should be here) ; il eonvient qu'il sorte (=it is 
 proper that he should go out); il est possible qu'il do:^vxe 
 ( = it is possible that he is asleep), etc. 
 
 013. But the indicative is used : — 
 
 1. Even after verbs expressing supposition or willy 
 \\'hen the thing in question is considered as very proba- 
 ble : je sup)>osc qu'il lit le tivre que vous lui arez prete 
 (•:I suppose that he is reading the book you have lent 
 him) ; je prkends quil «bt la (—1 maiutdiu that he ia- 
 tlieroj. 
 
 1 
 If 
 
SYNTAX OF PROPOSITION§» 
 
 €9 
 
 replaced hy 
 y qiie is put 
 de Bi Charles 
 'aris sans me 
 
 'e, fear, sur- 
 ;he 6a le^on 
 ; je crains 
 ; je desire 
 ! Buis Bur- 
 ised at your 
 ce Hvre ( = 1 
 veux qu'il 
 
 ompanied by 
 o you think 
 ? ( = do you 
 pas qu'il soit'. 
 I). 
 
 =it is neces- 
 1, il convient 
 rssible), and,, 
 express mil,. 
 ) (=he must- 
 consevjuence 
 orte (=it ia 
 qu'il dorme 
 
 Hion or willr 
 s very proba- 
 ui avez jirctS 
 ou have lent 
 lin that he ia- 
 
 6. In the case of a verb conjugated xnterrorfauvehj, 
 or accompnnied by a nenathc, when the thing alluded 
 to is considered as certain or extremely probable. 
 Thus, we shall say : cmyvz-vom que Vawresttviimrtcllef 
 { = do you believe that the soul is immovUil ?), because 
 we consider the immortality of the soul as a certain fact ; 
 i;ous ve ditcs pas que Paul est mon ami (-you do not say 
 that Paul is my friend), because, by these words, i 
 ajjirm that Paul is my friend. 
 
 3 After ivipcrsonal verbs such as: il est rlair ( = it 
 is clear), which express certainUj or prohakhty : tl 
 est certain que la tcrre Be meut dans Vespace (=it is cer- 
 tain that the earth moves in space) ; il est clair que deux 
 et deux font quatre { = it is clear that two and two mako 
 four); il est probable que le del s't'c/aimm ( = the blcy 
 will probably clear up). 
 
 Bat as a negative destroys certainty or probability, the same verbs 
 conjugated negatively re.iuire the subjunctive after t liem • "^''^ -;« 
 fas probable que le del »'«claircisso ? ( = is it uot bkely that tiie 
 Bky will clear up) f 
 
 514. To sum iip, if the idea expressed in the sub- 
 ordinate proposition is looked upon as certain and 
 positive, the verb of that proposition is put in the in- 
 dicative. If the idea expressed is considered as 
 doubtlul or simply probable, the verb is put in the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOE EXAMINATION. 
 
 1. Which nre ttio cnnjnnctive propo- 
 
 sitions wliioh roquire the tndic«- 
 (ir'-aftor thoni 9 
 
 2. Eminierntc tliose which rcqnire 
 
 sdmetiinpg the inxHcudve, soino- 
 
 tiiues tlie siilijunctive, and state 
 
 when ? 
 8. Which nre those wliich nlwnys 
 
 tnke th,o siihjiniclire t 
 4. When does que require the Bnb- 
 
 junrtivc ? ... * 
 
 J. In wliat mood is the verb ot 
 
 the Bubordiiuite propoFition put 
 
 (a) nfter verbs expressing <io>iht, 
 dcsive, etc. ?— (ft) after verbs em- 
 jildvcd inlevroantively or nnju- 
 tirrlijf—(e) iiltcr the verbs il 
 faiil, it conriitit, (,tc. ? 
 
 e. When isthcinrfirn/iMUhod (a) nfter 
 verbs exin'essint; supposition mid 
 ,„ill9—{l,) iifter verbs employed 
 intrrriigativily or nigtitirily ? 
 
 7. Wlien do impiTsoiKil verlis recinire 
 (n) the indicative ?— (.6) the sub- 
 JuucLivo i 
 
lod 
 
 SYNTAX OF PBOP0SIXI0N£L 
 
 I ,' 
 
 M -I 
 
 
 I 
 
 Ezerolse 64. 
 
 ^raiislate tkdfoUoicing setitences, and put in the ptopet 
 moods the verbs in italics : — 
 
 1. Que de gens se font du tort parce qu'ils vouhir parler avant 
 •d'avoir appris & 6couter. 2. Autant que je le pouvoir, j'6vite 1» 
 rencontre des bavards et des importuns. 3. La femelle du ros- 
 eignol couve ses oeufs pendant que le mfile chanter sur la branclie 
 voisine. 4. Vous marciez de maniere que ces enfanta ne pouvoir 
 vous suivre. 5. Faites en sorte que tout le monde etre content 
 de vouB. 6. Get enfant a travaill6 de telle sorte que tout le 
 moude ctre content de lui. 7- Pour peu qu'on connattre le dSfaut 
 dominant d'un homme, on e«t assur^ de lui plaire. 8. Quoique 
 I'Espagne soit au midi et que la temp6rature y Hre plus elevee 
 qu'eu France, il y gfile quelqnefois. 9. S'il arrive quelque chose, 
 faites en sorte que j'en Stre inform6 immfidiatement. 10. II 
 iuiporte que les enfants aller de bonne heure a I'^cole. 11. 
 Ignoroz-vous que I'hiver etr» I'cpoque oi le Boleil est le plus 
 rapprocb^ de nous ? 
 
 kv. trse of tbe Tensec of tbe Subjunctive* 
 
 519. Having examined the cases in which the verb 
 of the dependent proposition ought to be used in the 
 subjunctive, we have now to point out in which tense 
 oi" the subjunctive mood this verb ight to be put : — 
 
 516. The use of the tenses of the subjunctive depends 
 entirely on the idea we wish to express; the only rule 
 to be observed, therefore, is the following one : see in 
 uhat tense of the indicative or tlw conditional you 
 
 uuuld put the second verb, if the sentence required one of 
 these tivo moods, and use the conesjponding tense of the sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 Remarks.— 1. The present subjunctivo corresponds to the in- 
 dicative present and future. 
 
 2. The imperfect subjunctive corresponds to the imperfect of the 
 indicative, and the present conditional. 
 
 3. The perfect subjunctive corresponds to the past definite, the 
 past indefinite, and the future anterior. 
 
 4. The pluperfect Bubjunctive corresponds to the pUperfeet 
 indicative and the past cuuJiiiuiiaL 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
SYNTAX OF PROrOSITTONS. 
 
 101 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 (6) 
 
 517. In the clioice of the tenses of the suhjunctive, 
 tlic verb of the suboruumte proposition alwaya (hpomlH 
 upon the verb of the principal proposition, and la 
 subject to the two following rules :— 
 
 1. If the verb of the principal proposition is in the 
 preaent or the future of the indicative : j<; dejemh, 
 je dejendrai ( = 1 defend, I will defend) ; the verb of tho 
 dependent proposition is put : — 
 
 (a) In the present of th subjunctive, when 
 the action has still to bopevfoiuita : je di'hwh 
 quil vienne (^=1 forbid him to coine), je 
 dejendrai quil vienne ( = 1 will forbid him to 
 come) ; 
 
 In the perfect subjunctive, when the 
 action is already performed : je duiite que 
 vous ayez pu le faire ( = 1 doubt whether 
 you have been able to do it), je duuterai 
 toujours que vous ayez pu le /aire ( = 1 shall 
 always doubt...). 
 
 2. If the verb of the principal proposition is in one 
 of the past or the conditional tenses: jevoulmsje 
 voulns, favais voulu, je voudrais ( = 1 was wishing, 1 
 wished, I had wished, I should wish), the verb of tlie 
 dependent proposition is put : — 
 
 (a) In the imperfect of the subjuuotive, pro- 
 
 vided tho action has still to be performed : je 
 voulais quHl vInt ( = 1 wished that he might 
 come),i6'WMJrfl/.s7«'<7. Vint ( = Ishould wish. ..)» 
 j'ai vuulu qu'il Vint (=1 have wished...) ; 
 
 (b) In the pluperfect of the subjunctive, when 
 
 the action has alivady been performed : je ne 
 savais pas que vous eussiez d/ja 6tudi6 ce 
 Uvre si conqdkemeut (=1 did not know that, 
 you had already studied that book so 
 thoroughly) ; je n'aurais pas voulu qu'il eut 
 
 
 ,>tl.> 
 
 declanitum ( = 1 should not have-. 
 
 k\ 
 
 MWMV --- - , . . 
 
 ■\>-ishcd him to wake that declaration). 
 
i- .J, 
 
 102 
 
 SYNTAX OF PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 I 
 
 iv 
 
 
 518. These rules only admit of two exceptions :— 
 
 1. WLen the sentence expresses the idea of any cou- 
 •dition (the principal verb bcin;^ iu tlio present or in 
 the future of the indicative), the vorL of tlic dopendont 
 proposition is phiccd in the imperfect or in the phijwrfect cf 
 the subjunctlvo : je ne croirai jamais qn'il edt or6 
 le /aire, si on le lui avait defendu ( = 1 will never 
 believe that ho Avould have dared to do it, if he had 
 .been forbidden to do so). 
 
 2. When the sentence expresses a permanent fact, 
 which reproduces itself or which has existed for a lonjj 
 time, the dependent verb (whatever may be the tense of 
 the principal one) is always put in the preserit of the 
 siibjunotlre : Dieu a roulu que Vhomuie 6-provLve (und 
 not tfprouvftt) sa pmssance ( = it has been God's will 
 that mau should feel His power). 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 I. state the general nile for the use of 
 the tenses of the suh/uiuiiri'. 
 
 a. To wlmt tenses of the inriientive 
 do tho premU, impei/cct, per/ id. 
 
 plnper/rct subjunctive rcspeo* 
 
 lively correspond ? 
 8. What are the principal rules? 
 4. statu tho exccptiuua. 
 
 Exercise 65. 
 
 'Translate the followimj sentences into Entjlish, and put 
 
 the verbs in italics in the proper tense : — 
 
 1. Ne dites jamais : " je veux que cela ctre ; " dites plut6t : " je 
 voitdi-ais que cela etre." 2. Le petit Saint-Bernard etnit le pas- 
 sage le plus facile qu'Amiibal pouvoir trouver pour penutrex en 
 Italie. 3. Vous ne saviez pas que Louis XI avoir encourage les 
 lettres et les arts. 4. II a falln, pour me faire reveuir de mea 
 premieres idfies, qu'un nouveau jom' se faire dans mon esprit. 6. 
 Les oiseaux de rivage 6tttnt destines a vivre dans la vasn, la nature 
 leur a donne de longues jambes pour qu'ils pouvoir s'y promener. 
 6. 11 faut que celui qui parle se mettre h, la portt'e de ceux qui 
 rucoutent. 7. Les Remains ne pouvaient voir sans indignation 
 que les Cartliaginois oser les attaquer. 8. II faut qu'un homme 
 etre bien 13 die pour pers^cuter la vertu opprimue. 9. On raconte 
 que Henri IV voulait que ohaque paysan mettro la poule au pot 
 tous les dimanches. 10. Un philosopbe ancien djsait que le soioil, 
 Hre gra^d Qpmme le P^loponese. 
 
SYNTAX OP PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 103 
 
 V. llolatlve Propositions. 
 
 519. Every dopciulf'iit proposition, united to tho 
 priucipiil one by a relative pionoun, is called a relative 
 proposition : craiijnons Dieu - qui nous protege 
 
 ( = let us fear God - who protects us); j'aime V enfant- 
 qui eat courasreux ( = I lovo the child - who is 
 coura;,'eous). Qnl nous inot^tjc, qui est couvaijcax are 
 relatlee pyoiiuiiitions. 
 
 ■520. After a relative in sentences v/liidi express mU, 
 .desire, doubt, netjatitni, the verb of the dopendeut prupo- 
 ;sition is put in the subjunctive : je ceux iin serciteur 
 .qui w,'ob6isse ( = 1 wish for a servant who will obey 
 lue) ; je ne connais persniine qui soit vraiinmt heureux 
 ,( = ! don't know anybody who is really happy). 
 
 Ee-maric— This rule applies to the case of the advcvb 
 •cti : allez dans une retmite oil vouh soijez heuieux ( = ga 
 anto a retreat where you may be happy). 
 
 521. The dependent verb is likewise put in the sub- 
 junctive when the relative is precodod by the word 
 iieul ( = only, one), or by a superlative s voire frero, est 
 ./« senl-qui soit habile ( = ynur brother is the only 
 one who is clever) ; il est aussi L'homnie lo plus adroit- 
 que je connaiase (=he ia also the most bkiliiiluuin I 
 knoAv). 
 
 522. The only exception to these two rules is wh^n 
 the verb of the dependent proposition includes uu 
 absolute affirmation : fai rencontre un onvrier qui w'a 
 tir6 d'endiarrns ( =1 met a workman who extricated me 
 from my difficulties) ; aehetez tons les ineilleurs vins que 
 vous trouverez, et expediez - les - moi ( = buy all the 
 best wines you liud, and send them to me) (see § 513). 
 
 QU15STI0NS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 1 \n\:it\%me'^»*.hy a relative propo- \ (/.) the word «M/f—(c) the ««;»»r- 
 
 '■,,•,„, f I liith-i' ? 
 
 • r;i v.h't is tho vrrb of tho 3. Wliiit ia the exception to that rule? 
 
 ' ' relnlivc proiro'sition put after •». btiiiethi; rule for ou. 
 
 Juj verbs exiircssiuiS duubti-" 1 
 
104 
 
 rVNTAX OF PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 t h 
 
 >\'h 
 
 It!' 
 
 '* i 
 
 I i 
 
 I J 
 
 Exercise 66. 
 
 After having translateil the following piece into 
 En^'lisli, the pui)ils should 
 
 1. Mark out :— 
 
 (a) the principal ) ropositions ; 
 
 (b) the subordinate propoaitiona ; 
 
 (c) the participial, the infinitive, the conjunctive, 
 
 and the lelative propositions ; 
 
 Si. Write in the proper tenses the verbs printed in 
 italics. 
 
 LE MADRIGAL DE LOUIS XIV. 
 
 H faut que je vous ^crire nne petite historiette, qui est trfes- 
 vraie et qui vous divevtira. Lo roi se mule depuis peu de fairo des 
 vers; MM. de Saint- Aignan et Dangeau lui appreunent comment 
 11 faut qu'il s'y prendre. II fit I'autre jour uu petit madrigal quo 
 lui-meme ne trouva pa^ trop joli. Uu matin il dit au marCclial 
 de Graniniont : " Monsieur lo niaruelial, je voudraia que voub lire 
 ce petit madrigal, et que vous me dire ui vous en m-oir jamais vu 
 UD si impertinent: parce qu'ou salt que depuis peu j'aimeles vers, 
 il n'est pas de jour que je n'en recoroir de toutes los famous." Lo 
 marfichal, aprfis avoir In, dit au roi : " Sire, Votre Majeste jw^e 
 divinement bien de toutes choses : il est vrai que voila Ic plus sot et 
 le plus ridicule madrigal que j'arotr jamais vu." Le roi se mit i 
 rire, et lui dit : "N'est-il pas vrai quo celui qui Taroir fait vtre 
 bien fat ? — Sire, il u'y a pas moyeu de lui doiiner un autro uom. 
 — Ell bien ! dit le roi, je suis ravi que vous m'en ai'oiV pnrl6 si 
 bonuement ; c'est raoi qui I'ai fait. — Ah ! sire, quelle t^ahison ! 
 que Votre Majesty me le rendre ; je I'ai lu trop brusquemeut. — 
 Non, monsieur Je marcclial ; les premiers sentiments sont toujoure 
 les plus naturels." Le roi a fort ri do cette folia, et tout le monde 
 trouve que voilS la plus cruello petite chose que Ton powmir faire 
 a un vieux courtisan. Pour moi, qui aime toujours k faire des 
 reflexions, je voudrais que le roi en j'aire IS-dessus et qu" jugar 
 (or Id, combien U s'«u faut qu'il connditre jamais la verito. — 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 OF AirAX.TSZS. 
 
 1. There are tliroo kinds of analyHis : 1. tlie fjram- 
 matical analysis; 2. the lutjical analysis; 8. the etyino' 
 logical analysis. 
 
 2. The gramn^atlcal analysis treats of the nature and 
 form of words, and aetermiues the part they perform in 
 the eenteuce. 
 
 Szample i 
 L'ecureuil est un joli petit animal qui n'est qu'a 
 demi sauvage, et qui, par sa geutillesse, par sa 
 docilite, par I'inuocence meme de ses nioeurs, meri- 
 terait d'etre epargne : il n'est ni carnassiormuuisible, 
 quoiqu'il saisisso quelquefois des oiseaux. 
 
 7/ (for la)y del. art., masc. sing., referring to ecurnn'L 
 ecureuil, common subs., masc. sing., subject oi est. 
 est, verb subs., 4th conj , ind. pros., 3rd pevs. sing. 
 7rn, indef. art., masc. sing., referring to animal, 
 jolt, quahf. adj., masc. sing., quaUfying animal, 
 jietit, quahf. adj., masc. fiiug., quahl'yiug animal. 
 animal, common noun, masc. sing., complement of 
 ecureuil. 
 
 qui, relative pron., masc. sing., having as its antecedent 
 animal, subject of est. 
 
 n' (for ve)...que, adverbial locution. 
 
 est, verb substantive, 4th couj., ind. pres., 8rd pcra. 
 sing. 
 
 a demi, adverbial locution. 
 
 sauvaye, qualif. adj., masc. sing., qualifying quu 
 
 ett conjunction. 
 
sr 1 
 
 loe 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 •:*! 
 
 r : 
 
 I 
 
 
 qui, relative pron., mdso. flinior., having as its tinta- 
 
 cedtiiit animal, Bubjoot of vieritcrait, 
 fiar, preposition. 
 
 sn, possess, adj., fera. sinj?., clotormiiiinj? doeilite. 
 ilucilit/i, common noun, fcm. sing., indirect complcn.eut 
 
 of nieriterait. 
 jiar, preposition. 
 
 m, pob386s. adj., fern sinj?., determinins (lentiUme. 
 gentilh'sse, common noun, fern, sing., indirect compleniout 
 
 of mentcrait. 
 jiar, preposition. 
 
 /• (for la), dcf. art., sing, fem., referring to innocence, 
 innocence, common noun, fem. sing., indirect complq. 
 
 ment c^. merited ait. 
 vieme, indef. adjec, fern, sing., referring to innocence, 
 lie, preposition. 
 
 ses, possess, adj., fem. plural, determining mmurs. 
 mceura, common noun, fem. plural, complement of 
 
 innocence, 
 nieriterait, active verb, 1st conj., cond. pres., 8rd pers. 
 
 smg. 
 
 de, preposition. 
 
 etre eparyn^, passive verb, 1st conj., infin. pres.^ 
 
 il, pers. pron., 3rd pers. sing, m^sc, subject of est, 
 
 n" (for ne), adverb of negation, 
 
 est,yQxh s. ..itautive, 4th conv, iu'l. ,tros., 3rd pers. 
 
 sing. 
 ni, conjunction. 
 
 carmssier, qualif. adj., masc. sing., qualifying il, 
 ni, conjunction. 
 
 nuisihU, qualif. adj., masc. sing., qualifying il. 
 quoique, conjunction. 
 
 t/., pers. pron., 3rd pers. sing, masc, subject oi saimae. 
 aaisisse, verb active, 2nd conj., pres. subj., 8rd pers. 
 
 aing. 
 quelquefois, adverb of time. 
 
 dea, indef. art., plur. masc, agreeing with oiseaux. 
 oiseaux, common noun, masc. plur., direct complemouli 
 
 
 -e .-.:~ 
 
 yi otitstsot;. 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 107 
 
 2. The Iwiiral mtah/sU fihows tlio rolahon in vv-liich 
 
 onln lti'loii:'iiik' to tho Biviuo 
 
 propositions, aud also \v 
 proposition, stand to one uiiotlier. 
 
 Wo subjoin an cxinnplo of loj^'ical analy:sis, in whicli 
 the suhordiuato propositioim have l»ucii placid after 
 iho principal propositious to wliioh tlh y rcspuctivoly 
 belong : — 
 
 hH UznrH gvis aiine k recpvnirlA chnV ur du soloil; 
 ai/ant besoin d'lino teniiK'rature d')uce, \[ clinrlio lea 
 a'bris; et lois(iu'uno iLuniero ])m'e eel aire vivoiaont uu 
 gazon en peuto ou nne muraillo, on le r„it a'etcinlre 
 sur ce mur, ou sur I'horbo nouvoUo, avcf uu plaisir 
 qui 80 decine aisement. 
 
 In the above sentence, there arc ei^ht p; .positions, 
 \iz., three principal ones :— 
 
 1. le ILard ijHs aimn, 
 
 2. il chcrche lea abris. 
 8. on le voit. 
 
 And five dependent propositions :— 
 
 1. a recevoir la chaleur du soldi. 
 
 2. aijant besoin d'une temperature douce. 
 
 8. lorsqu'une lumiere pure klairc vicenunf v » gazon 
 en ptute ou nne muraiUe. 
 
 4. s'etetidre sur ce mur, ou sur Vherbe jinuvt. e, aeee 
 
 nn plaisir. 
 
 5. qui se devine aisement. ^ 
 
 1. Le lezard gris aime, principal ])roposition. Sub- 
 ject : le lezard gris ; simple, because there is only one ; 
 complex, because its complement is gris ; verb est , 
 attribute: aimant, simple aud complex, becau. ; its 
 complement is the infinitive proposition a receioir la 
 chaleur, etc. 
 
 A recevoir la chaleur du soldi, dependent iv/initive 
 proposition. S"liject : lezard gris, simple and com- 
 plex ; verb : etrc : attribute : recevant, simple and com- 
 plex,, because, its complement is la chaleur du sukil.. 
 
108 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 r I 
 
 
 2. iJc/icre/ieZ^'* aim, principal proposition. Subject: iT 
 (placed instead oiUzard), simple and incomplex, because 
 It has no complement ; verb: est; attribute: cfierchaiit, 
 simple and complex, having as a complement les ahris. 
 
 Aijaiit hesoin cVime temperature douce, dependent parti- 
 apial proposition. The subject is le lizard yris (under- 
 Btood), snnple and complex; verb: est; attribute: 
 aijant, simple and complex, because it has for its com- 
 plement bcsoin d'une temperature douce. 
 
 S. On le voit, principal proposition. Subject: on, 
 simple and mcomplex ; verb : est ; attribute : voyant, 
 simple and complex, having for its complement le (put 
 instead of lui). 
 
 Lorsqiihine lumiere pure edaire virement tin gozon m 
 Itente ou urn miiraille, dependent conjunctive proposition, 
 bubject : une lumiere jmre, simple and complex; verb: 
 est ; attribute : eclairant, simple and complex, having 
 as its complement un yazon en pente, etc. 
 
 S'etendre sur ce mur, ou sur I'hcrhe nouvelle, avec un 
 platsir, dependent iujinitive proposition. Subject: le- 
 zard ijris (replaced by le), simple and complex ; verb : 
 are; attribute: etemlant, simple and complex, having 
 as its direct complement se, and as its iudii-ect comple° 
 mcnt sur ce mur ou sur, etc. 
 
 Qui se devine aisement, relaHve dependent proposition, 
 bubject : qui{=un plaisir), simple and incomplex; verb: 
 est; attribute : derinant, simple and complex, because 
 It has lor its complements se and aisemmt. 
 
 3. The etymological analysis studies the formation of 
 words, and shows how the derived words are formed 
 trom the primitive ones. 
 
 Bzample i 
 
 Sur le penchant de quelque agrdable coteau bion 
 ombrage, je voudrais une petite maisonnette riistique. 
 tioute blanche;^ avec des contyevents veyts^ 
 
ippENDfit. 
 
 iod 
 
 Sur, simple preposition, used as a prefix, before adjec- 
 tives and verbs. 
 
 le, simple article. 
 
 penchant, common noun derived from tlie verb penchery 
 through the i^articiple present. 
 
 dfl, simple preposition. 
 
 quclqne, adjective composed of quel and of the conjunc- 
 tion que. 
 
 agriahle, adjective derived from the verb ayreer with the 
 suffix able. 
 
 coteau, common noun derived from cute with the cuffix 
 
 can. 
 bien, adverb employed as prefix before adjectives and 
 
 verbs. 
 omhrmic, adjective derived from the verb omhraijcr through 
 
 the past participle. 
 je. pronoun. 
 souhaitemis, verb in the cond. pros, derived from the 
 
 infin. pres. with the imperf. of the verb aniir. 
 unc, femitiinG article derived from un with the e mute, 
 
 sign 6f the feminine. 
 maisonnette, common diminutive noun, formed from 
 
 maison, with the suffix cite. 
 rustique, adjective, prnuitivo word. 
 toute, feminine adjective formed from tout with the e 
 
 mute, sign of the feminine. 
 blanche, feminine adjective formed from blunc, by the 
 
 changing of c into che. 
 avec, simple preposition. 
 <les, article fo"med from de lea. 
 mnirecents, common noun, derived from vent with the 
 
 prefix contre, and s, sign of the plural. 
 vcrtii, adjective, primitive word, to which s, sign of the 
 
 plural, is added. 
 
 The pupils might now be required to give vivd voce . — 
 
 1. A few adjectives or verbs formed with the help 
 of the prefix sur, such as siuabondant, sur 
 naturel, surpasser, sHrmoutcr, sunuener, etc. 
 
110 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 2. Adjectives or verbs formed with the help of thd 
 in-efix Men, such as Inensmnt, ii^veillaut, 
 l/icniaire. 
 
 By taking, also, the primitive words in the above 
 exercise, they might be asked to form the derived ones ; 
 thus : from rus, root of rustiqne, we have nistre, rustawl, 
 rnsticite. Again, from vert (formerly verd), ^ve have 
 verddtre, verdclet, verdeur, verdivp verdure, vcrdoyt, , etc. 
 
 4 f 
 
 
 
 4 1 
 
 
 \ '' 
 
 
 \ H 
 
 
 --' 
 
 
 'Mi 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 ts 
 
 
 ^^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Kit 
 
 
 p \ 
 
 
 i1 
 
 Bl J 
 
 
 Bii 
 
 m 
 
INDEX. 
 
 The iHimbflw refer to the parRgraphs In t'.ie prnmmar. 
 
 & and en, 468 ; repeated, 484. 
 
 & and de, 485. 
 
 adjective, aRveement, 2fil- 
 271 ; after nouns separated 
 by on, ainxi que, etc., 203 ; 
 after a gradation, 264 ; alter 
 a Ycrb having for its subjent 
 nous, vous used instead of je, 
 ttt, 318; compound adjective, 
 265; adjective used ad- 
 verbially, 2G6, 207 ; adjective 
 used witlitfC?i8, 232 ; adjectives 
 of colour, 271 ; position of 
 the adjective, 279-282 ; de- 
 grees of comparison in adjec- 
 tives, 283-288 ; how forniod, 
 <i6; when followed by de, 
 234; by que de, 2-^5; com- 
 parative repeated, 28(5 ; mood 
 of the verb after a superlative, 
 288. Numeral adjectives, 
 cardinal, 289-292; used in- 
 stead of the ordinal, 294 ; 
 ordinal, 293; adjective of 
 dimensions, age, 205. 296. 
 Possesiiive, 297 - 3Uf) ; re- 
 peated, 298-300 ; replaced by 
 en and the article, 302 ; re- 
 placed by the article, 303 ; 
 before names of relations, 
 304, 30.'). Indejiniie, 306- 
 313. [nterro<iative, 364. 
 
 adverb, adjectives used as ad- 
 verbs, 260, 267 ; syntax of 
 adverbs, 442-466 ; their 
 place, 442-444. 
 
 aide, 227. 
 
 aieul, 230, see 36. 
 
 algle, 227. 
 
 amour, 221, 
 
 analysis, in appendix. 
 
 article, definite, wlien used, 
 251, 252; repeated, 253, 
 251; when not used, 255; 
 before plus, wieux, vioins, 
 250, 257 ; indefinite and pac- 
 titive, 258, 259 ; article used 
 instead of the possessive ad- 
 jective, 302, 303. 
 
 attribute, 224. 
 
 auparavant, 400. 
 
 aussi, 461, 464. 
 
 autant, 401. 
 
 autrui, 372. 
 
 auxiliary verbs, 40C-411. 
 
 avan % devant, 47 1 . 
 
 avoir, us auxiliary, 406-409. 
 
 pa, 337, 307. 
 
 ce, followed by a verb in the 
 sing, or plur., 339, 340; 
 instead of il, eUe, etc ,311, 
 312 ; used by redundance, 
 343. 344 ; followed by g«e de 
 in the second part of the 
 sentence, 345 ; used in intoi'- 
 rogations, 341!, 388 ; number 
 of the verb Hre after ce, 386, 
 387 ; before ce, 388. 
 
 cent, 291. 
 
 chacun, followed by son, sa, 
 scs, 368-370 ; by lew, Itura, 
 30;)~370. 
 
 chaque, 312. 
 
 cliez, 487. 
 
 chose. 227. 
 
 ciel, 2.'?6, i^on RH 
 
 ci-inclus, 277 
 
 ci-joint, 277- 
 
112 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 t ^ 
 
 comparative, 283 ; followed 
 by de, que or que de, 284, 296 ; 
 repeated, 286. 
 
 comparison, degrees of, sm 
 adiective and comparative. 
 
 complement, 225 ; of sub- 
 stantive, 246-250; of adjoc- 
 tive, 279-282 ; of verbs, 396- 
 405. 
 
 conjunction, ''.SS-dgG; require 
 the Bubjun>i*,ive mood, 488. 
 
 coiite, its agreement, 429. 
 
 de cralnte que, followed by 
 ne or de, 489, 490. 
 
 crepe, 235. 
 
 critique, 227. 
 
 dans and en, 469, 470. 
 
 davantagre, 460. 
 
 de, in itead of du, etc., after pas 
 
 point, 446 ; repeated, 484 ; 
 
 de ftnd a, 485, 486. 
 delloe, 229. 
 deml, 275. 
 depulB, 478. 
 dessous, sous, 474, 475. 
 dessus, sur, 474, 475. 
 de Buitet tout de tiulte, 465. 
 devant, avant, 471. 
 do, did, hew translated, 411. 
 dont, 355 ; dont, duquel, d'oii, 
 
 357. 
 dorml, its agreement, 429. 
 d4, its agreement, 435. 
 
 en (pronoun), instead of son, sa, 
 tea, etc., 302 ; used for per- 
 sons and things, 322. 
 
 en (preposition) and k, 468 ; en 
 and dans, 469, 470 ; repeated, 
 484; what tense it governs, 
 483. 
 
 entre, parml, 472. 
 
 envers, vers, 473. 
 
 envers, vls-4-vis, 480. 
 
 fetre, as auxiliary, 4CG-410. 
 
 iait, its agreement, 430, 435. 
 leu, 278. 
 
 lor, how to tniusl'ite it, 476, 
 477. 478. 
 
 foudre, 227. 
 firanc de port, 278. 
 
 ffardd, 227. 
 
 grender of nouns, 227-235. 
 gent, e:ens, 232. 
 gentlltaomme, its plural, 212. 
 grand, 270. 
 
 taymne, 233. 
 
 11, replaced by ce, 341, 842. 
 
 Impersonal verbs, their past 
 participle, 423, 430. 
 
 indicative, after conjunctions, 
 488 ; after conjunctive locu- 
 tions, 508, 609, 513, 614. 
 
 in order to, translated by pour, 
 402. 
 
 le (pronoun), 320, 321. 
 lequel and qui, 360, 363. 
 livre, 235. 
 I'un I'autre, 371. 
 I'un et I'autre, 371. 
 
 madame, its pluiril, 242. 
 
 mademoiselle, its plural, 212. 
 
 main^, 313. 
 
 mal parler, parler mal, 402. 
 
 macche, 235. 
 
 manoeuvre, 227* 
 
 meme, 311. 
 
 memolre, 235. 
 
 mlUe, 292. 
 
 mine, a friend of, 336. 
 
 mode, 235. 
 
 k moins que, followed by ne 
 
 or de, 489, 490. 
 monsieur, its plural, 242. 
 moule, 235. 
 mousse, 235. 
 
 ne, its place, 447-449 ; used 
 before the second verb, 454 ; 
 suppressed, 460, 455. 
 
 neuter verbs, their past par- 
 ticiple, 422, 427-429. 
 
 ni, 4il2. 
 
 non plus, 464, 
 
INDEX, 
 
 113 
 
 !i2. 
 
 last 
 
 ns, 
 cu- 
 
 12. 
 G2. 
 
 ne 
 
 ur- 
 
 noun, see substantive. 
 nu, 275. 
 
 OEll, 236, see 3G. 
 
 on, its gentler and number, 
 31)5; preceded by tbo iii tielo, 
 30lj ; used to avuid naming a 
 person, 367. 
 
 orge, 231. 
 
 orgue, 221). 
 
 ou, 358; d'nu nnd dont, 357. 
 
 oul and sk, 103. 
 
 own, 333. 
 
 pagre, 235. 
 
 par nnd de after a passive 
 verb, 100, '101. 
 
 parce que, par re que, 495. 
 
 parler mal, mal parler, 102. 
 
 parml, entre, 172. 
 
 partant, pourtant, •iCtQ. 
 
 participle, after a verb luivinc; 
 for its subject nous, vons, use, I 
 for ,/e, tu, 318 ; present par- 
 ticiple, 412; distinj^'uisbed 
 from tlie adjective, 413-1H5 ; 
 past participle, general rulrs, 
 417-1*0, 440 ; past p.utiuiple 
 used witb ftre. 420-423 ; with 
 avoir, 425-^130; paht parti- 
 ciple of reflexive verbs, 431- 
 435 ; past participle followed 
 by an infinitive, 435 -, prece- 
 ded by Zc, 436 ; placed betwec u 
 twogMc's,437; preceded by tn, 
 438 ; prf'cedod by le i<cu,, 43J. 
 
 pas, us li without ne, 450; 
 8uppres.,od, 457 ; suppressed 
 or expressed, 45(5. 
 
 passive verbs, their past par- 
 ticiple, 421 ; propositions tiioy 
 govern, 400. 
 
 pendant, (iura::it, 477. 
 
 pendule, 235. 
 
 perlode, 235. 
 
 personne, 370, 380. 
 
 de peur que, followed by ne 
 or dn. 480, 490. 
 
 plus tot, plutot, 459. 
 
 poele, 235. 
 
 Syntax 
 
 point, etrouger than jias, 458. 
 
 pour, 402. 
 
 preposition, meaning in order 
 to trans' jd by pom', 402 ; 
 syntax, 467-487 ; place of tlio 
 prejiosition, 407 ; what ten^e 
 prepositions govern, 483 j 
 prepositions repeated, 484. 
 
 pronouns, jit'/'.s*o)i<i( . ronjunc- 
 tive, 314-322 ; placed beioie 
 the verb, 315 ; alCer the v» ib, 
 316 ; le when it agrees, I 2 t ; 
 le after a negation, 321 ; en, 
 y, 322 ; disjunctive, 323-325 ; 
 reflective, 326, 327 ; per- 
 sonal pronouns repeated, 
 32H-330; iwsscssire, 3:i1- 
 336 ; absolutely in the siniiu- 
 lar, 331 ; in the plural, 335 ; 
 demonstraiire, 337-316 ; re a- 
 tive, 347-360; always ex- 
 pressed in l''rench, 362, and 
 as near the antecedent as 
 possible, 301 ; inteiTogative, 
 363, 301; indfjinite, 365- 
 3-0. 
 
 proposition, 220 ; simjile, 
 221, 497 ; compound. 221, 
 497 ; number of propo.siti ms 
 in a sentence, 498-501; sub- 
 ordinate, 502-507 ; relative, 
 519-522. 
 pu, its agreement, 435. 
 
 quand, quant, 493. 
 
 que and qui, 348, 349,363; 
 quo de after a compiirative, 
 285; after ce, 345; que used 
 instead of another conj auc- 
 tion, 491-401. 
 
 quel, .'iOl. 
 
 quelJiUH, 309. 
 
 qui and que, 348, 349, 363; 
 qui relative, witb.out ante- 
 cedent expressed, 350 ; re- 
 pciited, 351 ; preceded by n 
 preposition, 352 ; de qui. and 
 duqvcl, etc., 350; qui and 
 lequel, 360, 363; gut iuter- 
 rogalive, 363, 
 
U4 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 qaJoonqne, 373. 
 
 «»I que ce Bolt, 373. 
 
 quol, relative pronoun, 3ns- 
 de quoi, 351; iuterrogative 
 pi'ououn, 303. ^ 
 
 quolque and quol que 40(S 
 auot que ce solt, 3?" 
 
 reflexive verbs, tlieir past 
 
 participle, 431-435. ^ 
 
 rien, 375-378. 
 
 tVur^5^" *«"•«• ^««. 
 
 «o"t Oidj.) 307, (adv) soft 
 
 ^traver8,autravers, ISl. 
 
 uu, 2ao. 
 
 •hall, w«i. how translated. 
 
 •«. 461, 463. 
 •oinmo, 235. 
 ■ourls, 235. 
 »ou», dessous, 474 47^ 
 
 ■tatualre, 227 
 
 •ubject 221; verb after ore 
 S:^-J^3HI-38,;«,.Ar 
 
 won 48B; after conjnuctive 
 locutions, 609, 510; af !? 
 que used for si 511. „u 
 
 *?2fi**°"7' ^*« n;?reement. 
 ^^«;f2"der of substantives 
 ff-2So; number of sub- 
 s^an ,ve 236-238; subs an- 
 tn^s used only in tlie singular. 
 „r 'i^ the plural 2;(8 • 
 Pjmilof proper nouns, 23?: 
 
 tnn °'2ir?""'f *^' *■-■-•«« 
 iio.u"' ^2 vV**^ compomid 
 of tbt . 1 7 "^^ ' ««"ipl^'UH'nt 
 "f the siibstuijfcive, 2.16-->'^() 
 
 J««uite,t^utdo8ultatu5 
 
 «aper.ativa.....a,j,,S;^'-- 
 
 sur, dossua, 471, 1/J. 
 
 ''alu, its agreement. i'Xi 
 vase, 235. * ''• 
 
 veeu, its agreement, 420 
 
 fiinmii ' ^''■'^«nient with one 
 simple subject, 381 ; aftei a 
 
 aaverbof quantity, 384. 385- 
 
 Jj'.afterc.,380,£7;bt;e 
 ce, dtis; impersonal. 38<) • 
 agreement with severalsu! / 
 gs 3.0-395 ; compLlS;,; 
 
 bfpi^iu'7ertor^^^ 
 
 /,.n 1 , *t-"'s, "lUU; verlia 
 
 verbs whinh /„i ' ^"'^ ' 
 
 U-T waicn take avoir or 
 <^t>-e, and when, 40!MlO. 
 
 P^sparticipleofp-assivevtl"; 
 ^-i. of neuter verbs, 422 -of 
 ""personal verbs, 423 -'^J 
 reflexive verbs, 431-433 ' 
 
 '^ers, envers, 4?' 
 
 '■Ingrt, 291. 
 
 vis-u-vis, 479, 480 
 
 void, voili, 337. 482 
 
 voile, 235. 
 
 voulu, its agreement, 435 
 
 vcusu.sed instead of ^7318. 
 "^'^^J msteud of on, 307' 
 
 tant, 461. 
 te:noln, 237 
 
 What, how to translate it q^P 
 -ja^tever. how to trausia'tet 
 
 v'hcever, whusoever l,n» 
 '^JJl, «LaU, how translated, 
 
 y-^^^.i for person, and things, 
 
 j 
 
 ,1 
 
FKENCn-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 Ahnndonner, v.a., to for- 
 BHke 
 
 sccessit, s.m., liouuiuble 
 mention 
 
 acconipagner, v.a., to ac- 
 company 
 
 aceorder, v.a., to grant 
 
 accuser, v.a., to accuse 
 
 achfter, v.a., (aclietant, 
 achcte, j'aclicte, j'ache- 
 tai, j'aclicterai), to buy 
 
 acier, s.m., steel 
 
 administratiun, s/., ad- 
 u:inistration 
 
 adiesser, v.a., to address; 
 s'adressor, v.r., to ap- 
 ply 
 
 adroitement, adv., clever- 
 
 ly 
 
 Afrique, s.p. Africa 
 agir, v.n,, to act 
 agr6able, adj. , agreeable, 
 
 pleasant 
 flieul, s., {plur., aieux), 
 
 ancestor 
 aieux, see alcul 
 aimable, adj., lovely 
 aimer, v.a., to love, to 
 
 like 
 aller, v.n. (allant, alio, 
 
 je vais, j'allai, j'iiui), 
 
 to go 
 ami, s.m., friend 
 
 EmOUr, a.m., lOvc 
 
 aucien, adj., old, ancient 
 
 Ar3p;lai.<?, adj., English 
 Anglt'terre, s.prop., Eng- 
 land 
 animal, s.m., animal 
 aniieo, sf., year 
 apjiartonir, r. n. (ap- 
 partenant, ai)i):irteau, 
 i'appartiens, j'u]ip:ir- 
 tius, j'uppartieudrai), 
 to belong 
 appartieut, see appartenir 
 appreudre, v.a. (upjirc- 
 nunt, appris, j'ap- 
 prcnds, j'appris), to 
 learn 
 appris, see apprendre 
 arbre, s.m., tree 
 argent, s.m., silver 
 arme, s/., arm 
 arm6e, s.f., army 
 arranger, v.a., to arrange, 
 
 to order 
 arriver, v.n., to arrive 
 Asio, 8. prop., Asia 
 asaemblue, s.f., assembly 
 assurer, v.a., to as.sure 
 attaquer, v.a., to attack 
 Atticpie, s.p., Attica 
 attribuer, v.a., to altii- 
 
 bute 
 augmenter, v.a., to iu- 
 
 crcase 
 aujourd'tHii, adv., to-day 
 autant, adv., as much, 
 
 as many 
 automiiC, .-f.m., autumn 
 autreiois, adv., formerly 
 
 antnii, wlj.. otlicrs 
 avant, jut'^i., bolore, pre- 
 vious to 
 avarice, s/., avarice 
 
 B 
 
 bal, s.m., ball (In dance 
 
 at) 
 basst'swe, sj'., nioauuess 
 bateau, s.m., boat 
 battre, v.a., to beat, to 
 
 strike; so buttro, v.r., 
 
 to light 
 bavard, s.m., talker, 
 
 chatterbox 
 beaucoup, adv., much, 
 
 many 
 beau-fiore, s.m,, brother- 
 in-law 
 Bernard (Saint), s. pi-oj)., 
 
 St. Bernard 
 besoin, s.m,, want 
 bourre, s.m., butter 
 bibliotiicque, s.f., libinry 
 bienseance, s.f., gou.l 
 
 manners, propriety 
 bieutot, adv., soon 
 blanc, adj., white 
 blesser v.a., to wound 
 boite, s.f., box ; boitc & 
 
 ouvrage, workbox 
 bon, adj., bonuo, good 
 boniieur, s.m., hajipiues? 
 boiinoment, adv., simply 
 bc-rd(^, adj., lined, hem* 
 
 iiicd, trimmed 
 bouteille, a^f.^ bottle 
 
118 
 
 FRENCU-ENOLISH VOCABULARY, 
 
 • 
 
 Is 
 
 I 
 
 brnnche, sj., branch 
 brusqiiement, ativeib, 
 
 quickly 
 buUu, s.in., bootj 
 
 <;n, pron., that 
 
 se ciioher, v.r., to hide 
 
 one's self 
 eaisBC, s./., case, box 
 campngne, s./., country; 
 en campagne, cam- 
 paining, in the field 
 capricieux, a'Z/., capri- 
 
 ciouB, wliiuiKical 
 carnassier, adj., flesh 
 
 enlir.g 
 Carthage, s.p., Carthage 
 casser, v. a., to break 
 casse - noisettes, a.m., 
 
 niit-crackcr 
 caverne, sj., cave 
 coin, prow, do.m., tliat 
 ciJleLre, adj., celebrated 
 cent, a(?/- wiim., hundred 
 centime, s.m., centime 
 ceremonie, s/., ceremony 
 Cesar, s.prop., Casar 
 chacun, pion., each 
 chambre, s./., room 
 chanter, v.a., to sing 
 chapeau, s.m., liat 
 cliapitre, s.m., chapter 
 chaque, ad}., eiich 
 charit6, « /., cliarity 
 cliarmant, adj., hvely 
 cliaumiere, s.j., cottage, 
 
 little thatched house 
 clurcher, I'.a., to try 
 cliez, piv'p., at the linuso 
 of ; chez moi, at my 
 house 
 chimiste, s.m., chemist 
 cboiur, s.m., choir 
 chose, s/., tiling 
 Chretien, ad}., cLristian 
 chfiie, s.}., fall 
 
 cinq, u.tt;. tittr,-!., uv5 
 cini|uante, oc^. rutin., 
 h..y 
 
 oinqnantifeme, ad}, num., 
 
 tiftieth 
 citoyen, s.m., citizen 
 CQ'ur, s.m., heart 
 colonic, fj., colony 
 coiiimnnder, r.a., to com- 
 mand 
 comme, prep., like, as 
 commoucer, v.a., to be- 
 gin 
 comment, adv., how 
 compagnon, s.m., com- 
 
 jmnion 
 coniprondre, v.a. (com- 
 prenant, compris, jo 
 coniprends, je com- 
 pris), to understand, 
 to include 
 compris, sec comprendre 
 connaitrc, v.a. (connais- 
 Bant,connu, je conuais, 
 je connui), to know 
 se conlier, v.r., to trust 
 
 one's self 
 connu, sue connaltre 
 conquerir, v.a. (conqn6- 
 rant, conquis, je con- 
 quiers, je conquis), to 
 conquer 
 conscience, s.f., con- 
 science 
 conserver, v.a., to keep, 
 
 to preserve 
 eonsister, v.a., to consist 
 constitution, s/., consti- 
 tution 
 content, ad}., satisfied 
 center, v.a., to relate, to 
 
 tell 
 contrevent, s.m., shutter 
 convainquant, ad}., con- 
 vincing 
 convenance,s/.,propriety 
 convenir,v.w.(convenant, 
 convcnu, je conviens, 
 je convins, je convien- 
 drai), to suit, to agree 
 
 trt^'iivt .1.1, .-.•'- *i -- 
 
 converser, v.n., to con- 
 ■vcrso, to talk 
 
 corps, s.m., hoc^y 
 corriger, v.a., to con'cck 
 cote, sj., coast 
 cOte, s.m.. side 
 coteau, .s.m., bill, hillock 
 couclier, v.a. and n., to 
 
 lie down, to sleep 
 coup, a.m., knock, blow 
 coup d'(Eil, s.m., glaiipo 
 courage, s.m., courage 
 cours, s.m., course of 
 
 lectures 
 courtisau, s.m., courtier 
 cousin, s.m,, cousin 
 couter, v.a., to cost 
 couvcr, r.a, to hatch, to 
 
 sit (for hatcliing) 
 convert, ad}., covered 
 de erainte que, cow;'., foi 
 
 fear that 
 cr6er, v.a., to create, to 
 
 establish 
 critique, s.m., critic 
 critique, s/., criticism 
 cruel, ad}., cruel 
 cueillir, v.a. (cueillaut, 
 
 cueilli, je cueille, jo 
 
 cueillis, je cueillerai), 
 
 to gather 
 curieux, ad}., curious, 
 
 strange 
 
 dame, «./., lady 
 dans, prep,, in, into 
 dechainer, v.a., to lot 
 
 loose, to bring on 
 decider, v.a., to decide 
 declarer, v.a., to declare 
 dtesse s.f., goddess 
 defaire, va, (dul'aisant, 
 defait, je dofais, je 
 defis),todefeat,toundo 
 dffaut, s.vi, fault, delect 
 d6fit, see defaire 
 dt'ja, a(/v., already 
 (leifiiiner, s.m., breakfnst 
 dfiiice, .s.m. or/., dclii-'ht 
 deniaiu, adv., to-n.oirow 
 
 .-^:aui^.i:.si!."Wi Svr ~ 
 
to concck 
 
 It 
 
 e 
 
 hill, hillock 
 
 and n., to 
 
 ) sloop 
 
 ock, lilow 
 
 71., gliiiipe 
 
 courjigo 
 
 courbe of 
 
 .., courtier 
 Bousiu 
 o cost 
 o hiitcb, to 
 cliiug) 
 covoied 
 e, con;'., for 
 
 ) create, to 
 
 , critic 
 criticism 
 uel 
 (cueillaut, 
 cueille, jo 
 cueillerai), 
 
 '., curious, 
 
 11, into 
 '.a., to lot 
 ling on 
 to decide 
 , to dec lure 
 ofidesB 
 (deliiisiint, 
 dofais, je 
 !feat,toundo 
 fault, d^luct 
 aire 
 ready 
 
 (., Lieakf.isl 
 )r/., dclis-'lit 
 ., to-u.oiro\v 
 
 PnENcn-KNOLisn vocxuuLAn!?. 
 
 
 domander, v.a., to ask, 
 
 to demand 
 deiui, ait/'., half 
 doimis, prep., since 
 doruier, adj., last 
 dcsastreux, adj., disas- 
 trous 
 desirendre,f.a., to descend 
 dostiner, v.a., to destine 
 detour, s.m., turn, ways 
 dCtruire, v.a. (detruisaiit, 
 ilc'lruit, jo detiuis, je 
 detruisis),to destroy 
 doux, a Ij.nnm , two 
 devaut, prtip., before, in 
 
 front of 
 d vuir, v.a. and n. (do- 
 vonant, devenu, je de- 
 vious, jo devins), to 
 heeoino 
 devenu, sco dcveiiir 
 de^'oir, a.m., exercise, 
 
 duty 
 devoir, v.a. (devant, dft, 
 je dois, je dus, je de- 
 vrai), to owe 
 dovorcr, i'.a., to devour, 
 
 to eat np 
 diauiuut, s.m., diamond 
 Dlen, s.m., God 
 dilTerencn, s/., dilTerence 
 tliHicilenient, adv., with 
 
 dilliculty 
 dinianche, .s.m., Sunday 
 diuer, v.n., to dine 
 dire, v.a. (disant, dit, je 
 dis, jo die), to say, to 
 toll 
 dist'ours, a.m., discourse, 
 
 speech 
 disette, sj., scarcity, 
 
 dearth 
 distinguer, v.a., to dis- 
 tinguish 
 distribution «/., distri- 
 bution 
 dit, see dire 
 divertir, v.a., to divprt 
 Uivinile, «./., deity, i^oJ, 
 
 dix, adj.nnm., ten 
 docilito, s./., docility 
 doit, SCO devoir 
 domaino, .".m., dominion 
 domostiiiue, s.vi. or /., 
 
 servant 
 dominant, acZ;'., chief, 
 
 ru'.ing 
 don, s.m., gift, present 
 (lont, pi-o)i., of wiiich 
 d(iut(!r, v.n., to doubt 
 droiture, s.f., strai^ht- 
 
 foiwarduoss, upright- 
 
 uesa 
 
 B 
 
 cbruitcr, v.a., to spread 
 
 about 
 eclator, v.n., to burst 
 Ccole, s.f., school 
 ^couter, v.a., to listen 
 fieriviez, see ecriro 
 6crire, v.a. (<?erivant, 
 
 dorit, j'ocris, j'ecrivis), 
 
 to write 
 Ccriture, s.f., writing 
 ocureuil, s.m., squirrel 
 edifice, s.ni., building 
 ugal, adj. ocpial 
 eh bien I int., well ! 
 61ever, v.a., ti raise, 
 
 I'armeo s'elevait, the 
 
 army miiubered 
 Emigrant, s.m., emigrant 
 empire, s.m., ernphe, 
 
 command 
 £mu, adj., moved 
 en, pron., of it, of that, 
 
 of him, of her, of them 
 en, prep., in, into 
 enceinte, s.f., enclosure 
 eucourager, v.a., to en- 
 courage 
 encre, s/., ink 
 enfant, a.m., child 
 engager, v.a., to advise, 
 
 to engage 
 ennorai, ".jii., enemy 
 tiUBtmble, otiv., together 
 
 117 
 
 envious 
 
 onvionx, a.m.. 
 
 people 
 environ, adv., about 
 epino, sf., thorn 
 C'pargnor, v.a., to siiaro, 
 
 to save 
 C'lMHiue, s/., epoch, time 
 6prcuver, v.a., to jjrovo, 
 
 to experience 
 Espagnc, s. j>;-i/ji., Sjiain 
 esporer, v.a., to liopo 
 osprit, s.m., wit, mind 
 essayer, v.a., to try 
 estimer, v.a., to esteem 
 (;te, s.m., summer 
 Otonnaut, adj., astonish. 
 
 ing, surprising 
 etude, s.f., study 
 6tudier, r.a., to study 
 Cviter, v.a., to avoid 
 exiger. v.ci., to exact 
 exister, v.n., to exist 
 exp^dier, v.a., to send 
 
 fabricant. a.m., maker 
 facile, adj., etiL-,' 
 fa(.-on, s.f., fr.d. ion, man- 
 ner, kind 
 faim, s.f., hunger 
 fait, a.m., fact 
 faire, v.a. (faisant, fait, 
 je fais, je lis, jo ferai;, 
 to do, to make 
 falloir, v.n.unip. (falln, il 
 faut, il fallut, il fou- 
 dra), to he necessury 
 fallu, see falloir 
 familie, s.f, fan>ily 
 fat, adj., foppish 
 faute, s-f., mistake 
 femelle, sj., female 
 fenime, sf, womua 
 fer, s.m,, iron 
 fera, see faire 
 leu, s.m., firo 
 feu, adj., decrnsed 
 iiuir, I'.u., lu iiu."h 
 liattcr, I'.tt., to liattar 
 
118 
 
 SbENCII-KNOUSII VOCAimiAllY. 
 
 ! 
 
 flC(!liir, I'.a., to maho to 
 
 .vit'ld 
 fuis, «./., timo ; ah fois, 
 
 (it the sauio time 
 folic, s./., folly 
 fondiitioii, s/., fouiula- 
 
 lion 
 fonder, v.a, to build, to 
 
 trect 
 fout, see faire 
 forcer, r.o,., to break open 
 fortune, s/., fortune 
 fossu. s.in., ditch 
 fondrt), «./., tlinnderliolt 
 foulo, «./., multitude, 
 
 crowd 
 franc, adj., frank, free, 
 
 open 
 frnn(,'ais, ad}., French 
 frcrc, s.m., brother 
 froninRC, s.in., cheese 
 fruit, s.irt., fruit 
 fusil, s.m., gun 
 
 a 
 
 ppRO, .i.Tii., wages, pledge 
 gfij^ner, v.a., to win 
 garc, .«./., station, ter- 
 minus 
 geler, v.a., to freeze 
 general, a.m., general 
 genre, s.m., gender,Uind ; 
 genre humain, mankind 
 gens, s.m. or /., people ; 
 gens delettres, s.m.jtJ., 
 men of letters 
 gentillesse, sj., gentlo- 
 
 ness 
 grammaire, «/, gram- 
 
 uiivr 
 grand, adj., tall, great, 
 
 large 
 grandeur, s.f., greatness 
 grand'route, s.f., high 
 
 road 
 gratuitement, oJv., gra- 
 tuitously 
 greo.s.m., Greek 
 gridvenuui acti'., Bcri- 
 
 UUiiljf 
 
 gris-foncf. adj., dark grey ; 
 grossiei','((/;., coarse ,great 
 guerre, */., war 
 guerrier, s.ir>.., warrior 
 Guilliiutue, B.pyvp., WL- 
 liam 
 
 H 
 
 habiletC, s/., cleverness 
 habitant,s.ni., inhabitant 
 habiter, v.a., to live, to 
 
 dwell 
 hair, v.a., to hate 
 liaut, adj., high 
 Henri, s.p-'op., Henry 
 heure, . ♦■., hour ; de 
 
 bonuf iioure, early 
 heureux, adj., hajjpy 
 hier, adv., yesterday 
 hisloiro, s.f., history, 
 
 story 
 historiette,s./.,little story 
 hiver, s.m., winter 
 homme, s.m,, man 
 honnete, adj., honest 
 honnetete, s.f., honesty 
 honneur, s.m., honour 
 horrible, adj., horrible 
 huit, adj.nnni,., eight 
 humain, adj.. humane, 
 
 human 
 hymne, s.m. or/., hymn 
 
 ignorer, v.a., to ignore 
 illustre, adj., illustrious 
 il y a, there is, there are 
 imm6diatement, adv., 
 
 immediately, at once 
 impertinent, adj., imper- 
 tinent 
 importer, v.unip., to be 
 
 important 
 importun, s.m., importu- 
 nate person, trouble- 
 some person 
 importuner, v.a., to im- 
 
 inalterable, at^,, ua- 
 chunguablo 
 
 incendie, s.m., firA 
 incluro, v.a., to inclnd* 
 indignation, aj"., indigna- 
 tion 
 inhumain, adi.,inhnninn 
 informer, v.a,, to iiilorui 
 injuste, adj., imjust 
 innocence, «/, innocence 
 insatiable, adj„ unsali- 
 
 ab!o, unquenchable 
 inscription, 8 J., inscrip- 
 tion 
 interesser,i'..i.,to int( rest 
 interet, s.m., interest 
 inventor, v.a., to iiiveut 
 irez, see alkr 
 Italie, a.p., Italy 
 
 jamnia, adv., never 
 ! jambe, s.f., leg 
 
 jardin, s.m., garden 
 i Jeter, v.a., to throw 
 
 jeudi, s.m., Thursday 
 
 jourti, adj., young 
 
 joie, sj., joy 
 
 joli, adj., pretty 
 
 jouer, v.a. and n., to pi ly 
 
 jour, s.m., day, hght 
 
 juger, v.a., to judge 
 
 L 
 
 liiche, adj., coward 
 
 lachemon t ,atZ ;' . , coward !y 
 
 laisser,v.ft.,tolet, to leave 
 
 lait, s.m., milk 
 
 large, adj., wide 
 
 latin, s.m., Latia 
 
 lecjou. »/., lesson 
 
 lettro, s.f., letter 
 
 leur, adj., their 
 
 lieue, «./., league 
 
 lire, v.a. (lisant, In, je 
 lis, je lus), to read 
 
 lisez, see read 
 
 livre, a/., pound (ster- 
 ling), pound (weight) 
 
 livre 5.?!^., book 
 
 loi, if., law 
 
 LjudtCo, s.p., Ijoiidoo 
 
„firt 
 
 to iiiclufld 
 ./., indit;ua- 
 
 !;.,inhnninn 
 ,, to i!:loitu 
 unjust 
 '..innoceure 
 .d}„ unsiiU- 
 enchable 
 I J,, iuscrip- 
 
 i.,tointf rest 
 interest 
 ,, to iuvei;t 
 
 r 
 
 never 
 
 eg 
 
 garden 
 throw 
 Dhursilay 
 TOung 
 
 3tty 
 
 idw., topiiy 
 
 ly, li^ht 
 judge 
 
 L 
 
 joward 
 
 i//.,cowarii!y 
 
 oltjt, to leave 
 
 ilk 
 
 vide 
 
 Latin 
 
 BSSOU 
 
 etter 
 
 leir 
 
 (ague 
 
 isant, In, je 
 
 ), to read 
 
 id 
 
 pound (stor. 
 
 nd (weight) 
 
 )Ook 
 
 p., lioudua 
 
 VUKNCU-ENGLIrtll VOCAUULAnY. 
 
 110 
 
 1(111!;. mlj., lonpf 
 lon;^U'uiiis, adv., ft long 
 
 tiiuo 
 loiK-T, i'.a., to let, toliiro, 
 
 to praise 
 lui, pron., him, to him, 
 
 to her, to it 
 lumiere, «./.. li„l t 
 luudi, a.m., Mouday 
 
 M 
 
 mndcmoiselle, s/., miss 
 madrigal, a.m., madrigal 
 maint, adj., many 
 iniiia, conj., but 
 niaisou, sj., bouse 
 maisonnette, s/,, little 
 
 house 
 ri ijest6, s./., majesty 
 uial, adv., iU 
 mill, s.m., evil, hurt, in- 
 jury, harm, pain 
 mnlade, adj., ill 
 niillo, s.ni., male 
 ui:illieur,s.m., misfortune 
 nialtraiter,r.a.,to ill treat 
 manger, v.a., to eat 
 Iualli^ro, s./., manner ; 
 de mauicro (luo.so that 
 nianquer, r.a., to fail 
 luarchandisc, s/., goods, 
 
 merchandise 
 marcher, v.n., to walk 
 niarcchal, s.m., marshal 
 Marseille, s.prop., Mar- 
 seilles 
 mathematicien, s.m., 
 
 mathematician 
 matin, s.m., morning 
 mauvais, adj., bad 
 mechant, adj., naughty, 
 
 evil 
 mcdaille, s./., medal 
 medecine, s.f., medicine 
 meilleur,aclj., better, best 
 mfiler, v.a., to mix 
 menace, sj., threat 
 ni^re. sJ., mother 
 mfirite, .•»»., merit 
 lUttiiaioiu'ti, iiin luuubieur 
 
 mrtal, s.m., metal 
 .'iielre, s.m., metre 
 I'lidi, s.m., south 
 midi, aiii'., uoou 
 miDn, pnm., mine 
 mifjux, adv., bettor 
 mil. see miilo 
 millc, adi.nam .,thousp.U'l 
 mine, s /., mine 
 mineur, adj., minor, 
 
 lesser, under a(,'o 
 modeste, adj., modest 
 mii'urs, sJ'. 1^1., manners 
 moi, pi-on., mo 
 moins, adv., less 
 mois, s.)u., mouth 
 mondc, s.Jrt., world; tout 
 le moude, every one, 
 everybody 
 nionsienr, s.m,, gontlo- 
 
 man, sir, Mr. 1 
 
 mont, s.m., mount, ' 
 
 niountain \ 
 
 monter, v.a. and n., to ; 
 
 asiHuid 
 moiitrer, v.a., to show 
 se nioiincr, ".r., to joke 
 motif, a.vb., motive 
 nioule, s.m., mould, 
 
 shape 
 moulfi, «/., mussel 
 moyeii, s.m., means 
 inusc'e, s.m., museum 
 mnsicien, s.m., musicia« 
 naitre, v. (naissant, no 
 je nais, jo naiiuis, je 
 naitrai), to be born 
 
 N 
 nature, s.f., nature 
 naturel, adj., natural 
 naufrage, s.m., shipwreck 
 naufrage, s.m., wreck ; 
 
 faire naufrage, to be 
 
 wrecked 
 ne, see naitre 
 negligent, odf., negligent 
 nicr, t'.a., to deny 
 uuui, s.iii., name, noun 
 I uombre, s.rA., uumbor 
 
 nombreux, adj., numo- 
 
 rons 
 nourri, soo nourrir 
 uourrir, v.a., to feed, to 
 
 nourish 
 nouvello, «./., news 
 noyau, s.m., stone 
 nu-pieds, adj., bare- 
 
 f(;(>ted 
 nuisible, ndj., hurtful 
 nul, adj., no one 
 
 
 
 obfir, v.n., to obey 
 obi'issance, sJ., obe- 
 dience 
 obliger, v a., to oblige 
 obtenir, v. (obtei>ant, 
 obtenu, j'obtiens, j'ub- 
 tins, j'oblieudrai;, to 
 obtain 
 onif, s.m., egg 
 
 (eil, s.m. (111., .youx), eye 
 
 oiseau, s.m., biro 
 
 ombrager, v.n,., ti; sh ido 
 
 opinion, s.f., oi)i'r.oi! 
 
 c.pprimer,v.(r., lo cppre.ia 
 
 or, .s.m., gold 
 
 orage, s.ia., storm 
 
 ordouner, v.c., to order 
 
 ordre, s.m., order 
 
 orgue, s.m. or/., organ 
 
 oser, v.a., to dare 
 
 ou, conj., or 
 
 on, adv., where 
 
 oublier, r.a., to forgot 
 
 oui, adv., yes 
 
 Guvrage, s.m., work 
 
 page, Syf., page 
 
 pain, s.m., bread 
 
 paraitre, v.n.(parais8flni., 
 paiu, je parais, jo 
 parus), to appear 
 
 parler, v.n., to apeak 
 
 ptiratonnerre, s.m., light- 
 ning rod 
 
 J imiv.t: 'i'** i '••■".ft "• — =« 
 
120 
 
 FllENCn-RNGUan VOCAnULAUY. 
 
 parfiiilonicnt, ad}., per- 
 fectly 
 pamlo, 8 J., word, Ian- 
 
 partiif,'or, I'.a., to divide 
 pa'-tiiut, adv., tliprcfuro 
 piirtir, v.n. (purtant, 
 parti, je para, j(; par- 
 tis), to go, to dL'i)art, 
 to leave 
 para, sea paraftro 
 par veil ir, I'.Ji.lpurvonnnt, 
 parvenu, j(^ ))arvi(iiH, 
 je p.irviiiH, je parviea- 
 driii), to attain 
 parvenu, sec parvenir 
 pas, s.m., step 
 pas8af.;e, s.in., passaRe 
 pa86er,v.a.,tolive,to pas.s 
 passion, s.f., passion 
 patrie, s./., country 
 pauvre, adj., poor 
 payer, v,a., to pay 
 pays, s.m., country 
 paysan, s.m., peasant 
 pc:olio,s/., poacli, fisliin;]; 
 peine, sj., trouble, dif- 
 ficulty ; a peine, 
 hardly 
 Pe.loponneSG, s.p.m., Pe- 
 
 loijonnesus 
 penchant, s.m., slope 
 peudant, prep., for, dur- 
 ing 
 pcnetrer, v.a., to enter 
 ponser, v.a., to think, to 
 
 believe 
 pcpin, s.m., pip [break 
 percer, v.a., to pierce, to 
 perdre, v.a., to lose 
 perdu, see perdre 
 perir, v.n., to perish 
 permettre, v.a. (permet- 
 . tant, permis. je per- 
 mets, je permis, je 
 permettrai), to permit, 
 to allow 
 
 t , -., . ., 
 
 persecuter, v.a., to per- 
 secute 
 
 porsontio, «./., jieraoa 
 
 petit, adj., little 
 
 jicu, ailv., little 
 
 jjiut, nci! pouvoir 
 
 I'lnirKale, a.prop., Phar- 
 salia 
 
 philosoplie, s.m., philo- 
 S()i)li('r 
 
 phoci'en, s.pr., Phoccau 
 
 pied, s.m., foot 
 
 piiire, s.f., fitono 
 
 pistolet, .s'.ni.,!) stol 
 
 place, s.f., piace, situa- 
 tion 
 
 placer,i\a., to place 
 
 pliiiro, vn. (plaisant, 
 plu, je ])lais, je plua), 
 to please 
 
 jdaisir, s.iii., pleasure 
 
 j)lait, .see, plaire 
 
 pleuvoir, v.imp. (pleu- 
 vant, plu, il plout, il 
 plut,il pk>uvra),toniin 
 
 plu, see pleuvoir and 
 Itlaire 
 
 la plupart, adv., most 
 
 plus, adv., more 
 
 phisieurs, ad,}., many 
 
 plut6t...que, loc. coiij, 
 rather... than 
 
 poelo, s.m., stove 
 
 poele, s/., frying-pan 
 
 pcdir, v.a., to polish 
 
 politesse, sj'., politenes" 
 
 pomm , s.f., apple 
 
 port, s.m., carriage, port 
 
 porte-clels, a.m., turn- 
 key 
 
 portee, «/, reach 
 
 poste, sj., post (for 
 letters 
 
 poste, B.m., place, offi .e 
 
 pot, s.m., jug ; pot uu 
 lait, milk-jug 
 
 poule, s.f., hen 
 
 poursuivre, v.a. (pour- 
 Buivant, poursuivi, je 
 p.".r<rsr,.s, je poiir- 
 suivis), to pursue 
 
 poutre, sj^., beam 
 
 pouvoir, v.n. ^pouvnt't, 
 pu, jo peux, JO pus, je 
 l)ourrai), to be able 
 8C iin'cipiter.v.r., to rush 
 prendre, v.a. (i)r('uant, 
 pris. jo prends, je pris), 
 to tak(^ 
 prends, see prendre 
 premier, adj. num., first 
 pr(Uie/, see luvndro 
 presenter, v.a., to pre- 
 sent, to introduce 
 preserver, v.a., to keep, 
 
 to jireserve 
 prC^sident, n.m., presi- 
 dent 
 pri'sider, v.a. and n., to 
 
 preside 
 presser, v.a., to press 
 preter, v.a., to lend 
 j preuve, sj., proof 
 j prior, v.a., to pray, to 
 I beg 
 priero, s.f., prayer 
 prince, s.m., prince 
 printimps, s.m., spring 
 prix, s.m.., prize 
 ju'obite, s/., honesty 
 prochain, adj., next 
 profepseur. s.m., teachei, 
 
 professor 
 protiter, v.a., to profit 
 profondeur, s.f., depth 
 projet, .s.m., project 
 BO jironiener, v.r., to walk 
 projire, adj., proper, own 
 
 clein 
 protection, «./., prote< 
 
 tion 
 Prnsse, s.prop., Prussia 
 puisse, .see pouvoir 
 puuir, v.a., to punish 
 
 Q 
 
 quality, s.f., quality 
 quaud, conj., when 
 quarante, adj.num., forty 
 qUiiLrc, adj.nnm., four 
 que, adv., how ; que de, 
 liow much, how many 
 
tRRNCn-KNOI^THll VOdAUULAUY. 
 
 V21 
 
 I 
 
 IJno, ennj., that; ne... 
 
 que, only 
 quel, adj., what, which 
 (inclqno, adj., Bomo 
 iluel(iuo, adv., howovor 
 tiut'lqiicfois, adv., aomo- 
 
 tirnoa 
 qiiicouciue, wlj,, whoever 
 
 rnhattre, v.a., to hoat 
 down (a price), to tiilie 
 oil (money) 
 rncouter, v.a., to relate 
 raisin, s.m., grapes, rai^iu 
 raison, s./.» reason 
 ramasser, v.a., to pick up 
 rnpprochor, v.a., to bring 
 
 near 
 rarement, adv., rarely, 
 
 unfrequontly 
 ravi, adj., dehghted 
 recevoir, v.a., to receive 
 recevra, see recevoir 
 r6citor, v.a., to recite 
 ri^coUe, s.f., harvest 
 recommandahle, adj., 
 
 comineudable 
 redexion, s.f., reflexion 
 refuser, v.a,, to refuse 
 reKiou, s.f., region 
 riii'^e, s.f., rule 
 regrettcr, v.a., to regret 
 reine, sj., queen 
 relier, v.a., to bind (a 
 
 book) 
 jcgnc, s.m., reign 
 renipnrt, s.m., rampart, 
 
 bulwark 
 romporler, r.n,, to carry 
 
 away, to win, to obtain, 
 
 to gain 
 rencontre, s.f., meeting 
 roncontrer, v.a., to meet 
 J eudre, v.a., to make, to 
 
 render, to give back 
 loudU; se« rend re 
 repartir, v.n., to set out 
 
 Uij.iiu {sue partlr) 
 
 HO rt'pontir, v.r., to 
 re)ient 
 
 rtqiolir, v.a., to polish 
 agani ! 
 
 respecter, v.a., to respect 
 
 ruvenir, v.n. (rovcnaiit, 
 revenu, je revieus, jn 
 rovins, jo reviindrai), 
 to come back, to re- 
 turn, to niccuaider, to 
 retract 
 
 reverrai, .sea re voir 
 
 revoir, v.a. (revoynnt, 
 rovu, jo rovois, je revis, 
 jo reverrai), to see again 
 
 roussir, v.a. and n., to 
 succeed 
 
 ricliesse, sj., wealth, 
 riches 
 
 ridicule, adj., ridiculous 
 
 rien, adv., nothing 
 
 rire, v.n., to laugh 
 
 rivuge, s.m., coast 
 
 roi, s.m., king 
 
 ronian, s.m., novel 
 
 lloniain, s.m., Roman 
 
 rose, sf., rose 
 
 rossiguol, s.m., nightin- 
 gale 
 
 Ivussio, s.p., Ivussia 
 
 rustique, adj., rustic 
 
 S 
 
 sago, s.m., sago, wise man 
 Saint-Bernard, s.p,, St. 
 
 Bernard 
 sais, see savoir 
 saisir.v.a., to take hold of 
 saison, s.f., season 
 salle, s/., hall, room 
 sans, prep., without 
 satisfaire, v.a, (satisfai- 
 sant, satisfait, je satis- 
 fais, je satisfis, je 
 satisferai), to satisfy 
 savant, adj., learned 
 savoir, v.a. (sachant, sn, 
 je sais, je sus, je sau- 
 nii.quc jo sacho, que jo 
 1 bu...iL') to know 
 
 Httuterello, a J., grass- 
 
 hopiK'i' 
 Buuvago, adj., savage, 
 
 wild 
 solon, prop., according to 
 sensible, ailj., sensitive, 
 
 kind hearted 
 sentiment, s.m., senti- 
 ment 
 serail, a.m., seraglio 
 scrt, ace servir 
 sorvir, v. (servant, servi, 
 JO sers, je 8ervis),t(> use 
 seul, adj., only, only one, 
 
 alone 
 si, conj., if 
 siCcle, a.m., century 
 sire, s.w.., sire 
 sieur, s.f., sister 
 soi-meme, adj., hiiusulf, 
 
 herself, itself 
 soi. pron., one's self 
 soir, a.m., evening 
 soixanle, adj.nnin., sixty 
 solilat, .s.m., soldier 
 Boleil, .s.m., sun 
 Sanger, v.n., to thiiiu, to 
 
 believe 
 f )rs, see sortir 
 en sorte que.,conj.,si. that 
 Bortir, v.a. and n, (je so>-8, 
 je :iortis, sortant, sorti) 
 to go out, to conn: out 
 sot, adj., stupid 
 so soucier, v.r., to cum 
 souffrant, adj., sufferii.j 
 Rouhaiter, v.a., to wish 
 soumettre, v.a. (sounjet- 
 tant, souniis, je sou- 
 mets, je souniis), to 
 submit 
 soupir, s.m., sigh 
 souveut, adv., often 
 style, a.m., style 
 suite, s.f., sequence, fol- 
 lowing ; a la suite de, 
 after 
 Buivre, v.a. (suivant, 
 suivi, jo snis, je sui- 
 vii^), to follow 
 
122 
 
 FRENCH -ENaLlSH VOCABULAtiy. 
 
 i)niiril)o, adj., superb, 
 
 R])lcmlid 
 «ur, prep., on 
 Gar, adj., certnin 
 iiui prenaiit, see surprcn- 
 
 dre 
 fiuiprendre, v.a. (aurpre- 
 * uiiiit, surpris, je sur- 
 ^ preuds, je snipiiK) 
 
 overtako, snrprif-o 
 Biuinis, adj., surprised 
 Biirtout, adv.t especially, 
 
 above all 
 8nrvucu, see snrvivre 
 Buivivre, v.n. (survivaut, 
 
 survccu, jo siu'vis, je 
 Buivccus), to outlive 
 
 tnMcaii, s.m., picture 
 
 talent, s.m,., talent 
 
 taut, adi\, so much 
 
 taiito, .t./., aunt 
 
 tard, adv., late 
 
 tcnioin, s.m., witness 
 
 temperature, s.f., tem- 
 ]ieratnre 
 
 terme, s.m., term, word 
 
 terminer, v.a., to ter- 
 minate, to tinish 
 
 tcrre, sj., eaiiili, laud, 
 {ground 
 
 trte, sj., head 
 
 tombcr, v.n., to fall 
 
 tort, s.m., wrong 
 
 toucher, v.a., to touch, 
 to bo close to 
 
 toujonrs, adv., always 
 
 Touraine, s.m,, Touraine 
 (the country in tlie 
 nricrbbnirhoyd ol 
 
 tons, see tout 
 
 tout, adj. (toute, tons, 
 
 toutes), all 
 tout le monde, pron., 
 
 every body 
 tout do suite, loc.adv., 
 
 directly 
 trahir, r.a., to betray 
 trahisou, s.f., treason 
 trajet, s.m., journey, dis- 
 tance 
 tranciuilliser, v.a., to 
 
 quiet 
 travailler, v.n., to work 
 triis, adv., very 
 tribu, s.f., tribe 
 truis, adj.num., throe 
 troniper, v.a,, to deceive 
 so tromjier, v.r., to mis- 
 take, to deceive one's 
 self 
 tro!)e, a.m., throne 
 trop, adv., too, too much 
 troupe, sj., troop 
 trouver, v.a., to find 
 
 un, adi.num., one 
 iini, adj., smooth 
 univers, s.m., universe 
 usage, s.'in., custom 
 utile, adj., useful 
 
 vaincre, v.a., to conquer 
 vapeur, «/., vapour, 
 
 steam 
 vase, sJ'., mud 
 vemire, v.a., to sell 
 venir, v.n. (venaut, venu, 
 Je viens, je vins, je 
 vi;>.ndrdi)nto c.;me 
 
 venu, see voniir 
 veritable, adj., true 
 vurito, sj., truth 
 vcrre, s.m., glass 
 vers, s.m., verse 
 vers, prep., towards, 
 
 about 
 vert, adj., green 
 vertu, s.f., virtue 
 vetemcnt, s.m., clothing 
 veuilloz, from vouloir, 
 
 please 
 vcux, see vouloir 
 victoire, sf., victory 
 vieiliard, s.m., old uum 
 viens. see venir 
 village, a.m., village 
 ville, s/, town 
 vin, s.m., wine 
 vingt, adj.num., twenty 
 violent, adj.. violent 
 vivre, v.n., to Uve 
 voici, adv., here is, hero 
 
 are 
 voii, v.a, (voyant, vn, ja 
 
 vois, je vis, je verrai), 
 
 to see 
 voisin, acZ/., neighbouring 
 volume, s.m., volume 
 voter, v.a., to vote 
 vouloir, v.a., to will, to 
 
 wifih 
 voyager, v.n., to travel 
 vrai, adj., true, mere, 
 
 downright 
 vraiment, adv., trulj, 
 
 indeed 
 vu, see voir 
 
 y 
 
 y, adv., there 
 y, }N'0/i., to U 
 
trarils, 
 
 l::;GLisii-FliENCii vocabulaiiy. 
 
 thing 
 uloir, 
 
 y 
 
 iiaa 
 
 enty 
 
 it 
 
 , hero 
 
 ra, ja 
 
 Tvai), 
 
 )uriiig 
 \\b 
 
 ill, to 
 
 ivel 
 mere, 
 
 trulj. 
 
 About, prep., pour, A 
 
 propos de "■ 
 
 accident, s., accident (m.) 
 accomplished, adj., ac- 
 compli 
 acquittal, s., acquitte- 
 
 mont ())i.) 
 action, s., action, acta 
 adliermg, adj., adhcrant 
 athnit, v., admettre irr. 
 admire, v., admirer 
 advice, s., avis (ni.), con- 
 
 seil (m.) 
 after, prep., apres 
 af^e, s., age (m.) 
 agree, v., s'accorder, torn 
 
 ber d' accord 
 aim, s., but (m.) 
 air, «., air (m.) 
 all, adj., tout 
 allude, v., faire allusion 
 although, eonj., quoique 
 America, a., Am6riqii»;(/.) 
 amiable, adj., aimablo 
 animal, 8., animal (m.) 
 anybody, peon., (lui que 
 ce soit, n'importe qui 
 author, s.,Huteur ('».) 
 argument, a., argument 
 
 (m.) 
 arm, s., brns (w.) 
 aimy, *•, armOe (/.) 
 as co.ij., couiuie, que 
 as . . . u»t uUi^Hi . . . 
 
 as, conj., comiue ; as 
 
 much, as many, au- 
 
 tant de 
 ashamed, adj., houtcux 
 assistant, s., aide 
 assure, v., assurer 
 astonish, v., etonner 
 at home, o.dj., a la mai- 
 
 son, che/, moi, chez 
 
 toi, chez lui, etc. 
 attend, v., suivre 
 attention,."!., attention (/.) 
 avoid, v., eviter 
 
 B 
 
 bare, adj., nu 
 barking,s.,aboiement(in.) 
 battle, s., bataille (/.) 
 beautiful, adj., beau, bel 
 become, v., devenir irr. 
 bed-room, s., ohambre & 
 
 coucher 
 beer, s., biere (/.) 
 beggar, s., mendiant (m.) 
 begin, v., commeucer 
 behiud', pi-ep. and adt'., 
 
 derricre 
 believe, v., croire, irr. 
 belong, v., apparteuir, 
 
 irr., etre h . . 
 betray, v., trabir 
 hind, v., lior, relicr 
 blame, v., bhuner [(in.) 
 bleatmg, *., bfelemeni 
 blue, ail}., bleu 
 bonnet, .s., bonnet (m.), 
 cLaiJoau {jn.) 
 
 boolc, s., livrc (m.) 
 
 boot-jack, s., tire-bottes 
 
 both, pro7i., I'un et I'au 
 tre ; both, adv., a U 
 fois 
 
 bottle, ».. bouteille (/,) 
 
 box, s., bolte (/.) 
 
 boy, s., gari;on (m.), en- 
 fant (in.) 
 
 bracelet, s., bracelet (lu.) 
 
 break, v., casser 
 
 bring, v., apporter ; brinp 
 down.di s.H'ndro ; bring 
 about, auu'uer 
 
 brotlier, s., frere (m.) 
 
 business, s., affaire (/.) ; 
 (trade) atT aires (/.pJ.) 
 
 but, prep , niais 
 
 buy, v., achetet 
 
 by, prep., par, de 
 
 C 
 
 caddy, »., boite ; tea- 
 caddy, boite a tlio 
 call, v., appcler ; call on, 
 passer chez ; call at, 
 passer a; call again, 
 revenir, irr. 
 call to account, s'en 
 
 prendre a 
 calumny,)!., cnlomnie (/.) 
 can, I'., pouvoir, irr. 
 carriage, s., voiture (/.) 
 castor, s., castor (m.) 
 certain, adj , certain 
 chaur, a., chaise (/.) 
 Cluukti, a., CUarlM 
 
 M 
 
124 
 
 INOLtsn-FRENCn VOCABOrAltV. 
 
 m\ 
 
 I 
 
 cIiDmi, v., c'lnrmer 
 cliief, adj., pviucipiil 
 diild, s., piit'iint (in.) 
 cii'cnnistiiiicc, s., circou- 
 
 staiice ( /.) 
 citv, s., ville(A),sit6(/.) 
 el liiii, f., flemauflcr 
 clerk, s., CO mni.s (m.) 
 colour, s., coulenr (/.) 
 conio, r., veiiir, irr. ; 
 
 coiiio out, Bortir. irr. 
 00)11 ))laiu, v., so pluiu- 
 
 dro 
 ooiulomn, v.. condamiier 
 coiiiiitiou, s., couilitiou 
 
 roiiiused, adj., tronbli'! 
 conqueror, 5.,cou(ii!(.'ruut 
 
 consult, v., consnltor 
 convince, v., couvaiuore, 
 
 in: 
 correct, v., corriger 
 cost, v., eoutor 
 countersign, v., contre- 
 
 fiigner 
 coiintry,fl., campagne f f.) 
 courage, s., courage (/.) 
 court, a., cour, imijasse 
 
 cover, s.. couverturo,(/.) 
 
 couvercle (m.) 
 croud, .s., foule (/.) 
 Crecy, s., Crecy 
 crusade, s., croisade {/.) 
 curfew,«.,couvre-feu (m.) 
 
 D 
 
 Pnmicttn, s., Daniiette 
 dall^'P^ous, adj., dauge- 
 
 reux 
 dead, adj., mort 
 death, a., mort (/.) 
 deceive, v., tronii)er 
 decency, s., dilceuce (/.) 
 deceptive, adi., tromjieur 
 di'duct, v.. (h'duire, irr. 
 delay, v., rn irder 
 ('"■licious, adj , doiicinux 
 Utn.o, v., cloriver, tiicr 
 
 deserve, v., mi'riter 
 
 desire, v., desirer 
 despise, v., inc'prisor 
 detestable, adj., detes- 
 table 
 di Hi cult, 0(7?., dillk'ile 
 diiliculty, s.,di(licuU6 (/.) 
 dine, ('., diner 
 disii>pear, v., dispa- 
 
 raitre, irr. 
 discharge, v., dechaiger, 
 
 s'acquitter do 
 discover, v., deeouvrir, 
 diss itistied, adj., aiucon- 
 
 tent 
 do, I'., faire ; to do a 
 service, lea.lre service 
 document, s., douuuiunt 
 
 dog, s., cliien 
 D.jver, s., Donvres 
 downstairs, adn., en bas 
 dozeii, s., douzaine (/.) 
 drawing, s., dcssin {m.) 
 drop, r., laisser touiber 
 duty, s., devoir 
 dutifuly adj., respectuoux 
 
 E 
 
 each, pron., chaeun 
 each other, I'un I'autre 
 eagle, s., aigle 
 endeavour, v., s'efforcer 
 endurance, «., patience 
 
 ettect, s., efTet (m.) 
 egg, s., oeuf (w.) 
 Egyptian, s., Egyptien 
 eighteen, oilj., d^x-hnit 
 eighteenth, adj., dix-hui- 
 
 tieme 
 eighty, adj.,quatre-vingts 
 elapse, v., s'ecouler 
 electricity, «., 61ectricit6 
 
 elephant,.s. , elephant (m.) 
 elm, .1., orme (m.) 
 cmpcr'^r, s., cirpereur 
 
 oULUiy, s., euu<.mi (m.) 
 
 England, «, Angloterr<» 
 
 English, adj. and s., 
 
 Anglais 
 entirely, adv., entiiirj- 
 
 nieiit 
 entreat, v., supplier 
 entreaty, s., supplicatio.'i 
 
 (/■) 
 error, s., errenr (/.) 
 escape, v., echajiper h 
 even, adv., memo 
 ever, udi\, j.un.iis, ton- 
 jours 
 every one, pmn., chaeun 
 everything, tout 
 evident, adj., 6vident 
 evil, s., nmi (»».) 
 Europe, ,s., Europe (/.) 
 examine, v., examiner 
 example, s., exei.>,)le (w.) 
 expense, s., depense (/.) 
 expensive, wlj., cher 
 exi)ire, v., exjiirer 
 express, v., exprJmer, 
 parler 
 
 fict, s., fait (jJt.) 
 
 fill, v., tombor 
 
 false, adj., faux 
 
 family, s., fainille (/.) 
 
 far, adv., loin 
 
 father, «., p6re (i:%.) 
 
 fault, 5., faute 
 
 feaf, 8., crainto (/.) 
 
 feeling, s , sentiment(in.) 
 
 few, adv., pen 
 
 fifteen, adj., quinze 
 
 lind, v., trouver 
 
 tirin, adj., fermo 
 
 first, adj. premier 
 
 fit, adj., capable, conve- 
 nable, to be fit for or to, 
 etre capable de 
 
 flatter, v., flatter, se flat- 
 ter 
 
 fond, atZ;., fou ; to b« 
 fond of, aimer ,\ 
 
 forest, s., lojut (J.) 
 
KNOLISH- FRENCH VOCALUL.VRY. 
 
 1'26 
 
 foi'tliwifli, flr?v., tout de 
 
 suite, imm6(.liateinuQt 
 forty, adj., qnarnute 
 foot, s., piud (m.) 
 four, adj., qiiiitre 
 fox, »., rouard (m.) 
 franc, s., franc (m.) 
 French, adj. and «., 
 
 Franpais 
 friend, s., ami (wi.) 
 from, prep., de 
 front, s., dovant (m.) 
 front, ai//., de devant 
 fvuit, a., fiuit (m.) 
 
 O 
 
 gaino-l^ecper, «., garde- 
 
 chasse (w.) 
 garden, s., jardin (n».) 
 gardf^uer.,8., jaidiuier (m.) 
 general, s., general (m.) 
 genius, s., genie (in.) 
 gentleman, s., monsieur ; 
 
 gentlemen, messieurs 
 get, 1'., gagiior, oblouir 
 girl.s., liljo (/.) 
 give, v., donner 
 glass, «., verre (m.) 
 go, v., allcr (in:); go 
 
 out, sortir {irr.) 
 good, 8., bieu (m.) 
 goods, 8., miruliandises 
 
 (/•) 
 grammar, «., grammaire 
 
 grand, adj., grand ; grand 
 
 piano, piano a queue 
 great, adj. grand 
 great-coat, s., i) iletot(m.) 
 green, adj., vert 
 guilty, ailj., coupable 
 gummed, adj., gommu 
 
 H 
 
 half, «., moiti6, demi ; 
 
 half, adj., demi 
 hall, s., salle 
 liappen, v., arriver 
 li.ue, s., hevre (m.) 
 harsh, ac^., dur, severe 
 
 have, v., avoir (irr.) ; to 
 have just, venir do 
 
 head, s., tete (/.) 
 
 hear, v., entendre 
 
 help, v., aidoi' 
 
 help, s., aic'e (/.), assis- 
 tanee (/.) 
 
 Henry, s., Henri 
 
 herewitli, ai//.,ci-inclu3 
 
 liido, v., caclicr 
 
 high, a'lj., haut 
 
 higldander, s., monta- 
 
 gUfild (ill;) 
 
 Homer, s., lIouu'irG 
 horse, s., cbeval (m.) 
 hotel, 8., hotel (ill.) 
 hour, «., heure (/.) 
 house, 8., maison (/.) 
 how, arh., commciit 
 iiundied, adj., cent 
 hymn, s., hymue 
 
 if, eoni., si 
 
 ill, adj., malado 
 
 in, prop., dans, en. A, 
 
 inclined, adj., euclin, 
 
 dispose 
 incorrectly, a(^r.,ne...cor- 
 
 rectcinnut 
 indeed, adv., vraimont 
 indopendence, s., iudo- 
 
 pendau'.e (/.) 
 India, s., ludo (/.), los 
 
 Indes 
 injustice, «., injustice (/.) 
 ion, s., aubcrge (/'.) 
 interest, s., intCret (m.) 
 in'o, prop., dans 
 intioduce, v., iutroduiro 
 invasion, 8., invasion {/.) 
 invent, v., inveuter 
 it, irron., lo, la 
 Italiiin, adj., italion 
 Italy, s., italic (/.) 
 ivory, s., ivoire ("t.) 
 
 James, «., Jacques 
 judge, »., jugo (nt.) 
 
 July, «., jnill^t (m.) 
 judt, adj., juste 
 
 K 
 keep, v., trarder, cousor- 
 
 ver, i>iv.suiver 
 kill, v., tucr 
 kind, adj., bon 
 king, s., roi 
 Kin^^'ston, *•., KiTi"st'in 
 kuigiit, s., clioviilier [m..) 
 know, 1'., sivoir (ice), 
 
 counaitre (irr.) 
 
 l:xdy, »., ditnn (/.), 
 
 y .uuglady (/.'.dumoi- 
 
 Belle {/.) 
 lame, adj., boite i:c 
 hinguage, s., langue (/.), 
 
 langiige (m.) 
 large, adj., luige, grand 
 last, ailj., dernier 
 laugh, v., riro 
 learn, f.,apiirpndre (irr.) 
 learned, adj., iusLiuit, 
 
 savant 
 lease, s., bail (m.) 
 leave, v., laisser, aban 
 
 donner 
 lecture, s., cours ("*.), 
 
 cjnferenco (/.) 
 leg, 8., jambe (/.) 
 lend, v., i)reter 
 less, adc, nioins de 
 lost, conj., de peur quo 
 letter, s., lettro (/.) 
 liable, adj., sujot, expos6 
 lit'ut(!nant, s., iiuutcuuut 
 
 lifc,^., vie(/.) 
 
 l.glitning, 8., foudre (/.), 
 eclair (m,) 
 
 like, v., aimer 
 
 look, v., regarder ; look 
 for, chercher 
 
 London, s., Londres 
 
 lung, adj., long 
 
 bird, 8., lord {m,), seig- 
 neur (in.) 
 
123 
 
 BNOLtSH-PBENCn VOCABUL.VBY. 
 
 lose, v., perdrs 
 love, v., aiiiiur 
 Lyous, s., |jyon 
 
 M 
 
 make, v., faiie (»■'*»"■) 
 miui, s., homme (m.) 
 muucEUvre, 5., miucDUvro 
 manner, s., maniore (/.) 
 manufacturer, s., fabri- 
 
 caut (m.) 
 many, oAv., beanconp de 
 Marstiilles «., Muisuille 
 mastov-key ,s., passe-par- 
 tout (ill.) 
 matter, s., matitire (/.) ; 
 Wliat is tho matter 
 with you ? qu'avez- 
 vous ? 
 mo, pron., moi, me 
 measure, »., mesure (/.) 
 meet, v., renooutrer 
 mention, v., uiontionner 
 Milton, s.piop., Milton 
 niino, pyon., Sl moi 
 minister, s.,ministre(ni.) 
 misfortune, s., infortunc 
 
 (f.), mallieur (»n.) 
 miss, mademoiKoUo (/.) 
 mistake, s., erreur (/.), 
 
 faute (/.) 
 money, s., argent (m.) 
 monk, 8., moine 
 month, s., mois (m.) 
 monument, s., nionu- 
 
 menb (m.) 
 morning, s., matin (tii.) 
 moLlier, s., mere 
 mok'emout, s., mouve- 
 
 mont (lit.) 
 multitude, s., fonle (/.) 
 m.i-io, 8., musiquo (/.) 
 mast, v., devoir 
 
 N 
 N.ipolcon, s.. Napoleon 
 neither, conj., ui I'liu, ni 
 
 I'autre 
 Noro, a, prop., N(;roii 
 never, adv., jamiiui 
 
 nows, «., nonvelle ( f.) 
 night, «., nuit (/.) 
 nine, culj., neuf 
 uo,'X(ij.,aucun,ne. . -pas de 
 nobody, pmn., nersoune 
 noise, s., bruit (in.) 
 nothing, pron., rien 
 now, adr., miintenant 
 now, ad;'., uouveau, nou- 
 
 vel, neuf 
 newspaper,s., journal (>».) 
 
 
 
 oblige, V,, obliger 
 o'clock, aiZi'., beure (/.) 
 of, pi'ep., de 
 ofUcor, s., (ilficler 
 old, adj., vieux, vicil 
 on, prep., stir 
 once, adv., nue fois 
 olive, s., olive (/.) 
 only, alu., seulement, 
 
 no... que 
 opera, fi,, opera (m.) 
 orange, s., orange (/.) 
 other, pron., a itro 
 ought, 1'., devoir 
 ourselves, pivn., nous- 
 
 raemes 
 out, prep., liora ; dine 
 
 out, dine' en vilie 
 own, adj., propre, Sl mci, 
 
 a toi, etc. 
 
 page, s., page (/.), page 
 
 (m.) 
 pair, s., paire (/.) 
 paper s., papier (m.) 
 park, s., pare (>»i.) 
 p;ut,s.,part(/.), partio (/.) 
 pass, v., passer 
 passengor,s. ,passager(»n,) 
 passor-by, s., pa88aut(j/..) 
 peach, 8., pcche (/.) 
 pencil, «., crayon (m.) 
 pen, s., plume (/.) 
 penholder, s., porto- 
 
 plume 
 pojple, s.pl., goua 
 
 perform, v., joner 
 perhaps, atif., peut 6tr9 
 peril, s,, peril (m.) 
 perish, v., perir 
 perseverance, s., pers6- 
 
 verauce (/.) 
 Persian, «., Perse 
 person, s„ personne (/.) 
 Pheuician, s., Ph6uiciuu 
 pip, s., pepiu (in.) 
 pistol, s., pistolot (m.) ; 
 
 pistol-shot, coup de 
 
 pistolet 
 place, I'., placer, poser 
 plant, v., planter 
 play, v., jouer 
 play,,f., jeu (m.), comCdia 
 
 (/•) , . . . . 
 
 pleasure, s., plaisir ^^)l.) 
 
 plenty, adv., be lucoup 
 
 plum, «., prune (/.) 
 
 pocket-handkerchief, f., 
 
 mouchoir (m.) 
 poor, adj., pauvre 
 position, s., position ( /.) 
 poultry -yard, s., has 0- 
 
 cour (/.) 
 practice, •., pratique 
 
 preferable, adj., prefer- 
 able 
 price, s., prix (wi.) 
 primitive, adj., primitif 
 principal, adj., priucipil 
 principle, s., principe(m..) 
 prison, «., prison (/.) 
 prisoner, «., prisonnior 
 
 private, adj., pnve 
 ! proclaim, v., proclamet 
 
 produce, r.,produire, irr. 
 I profitably, ado., d'une 
 I maniere profitable 
 
 prudence,s., prudence(/.) 
 j public, adj., public 
 I punctual, adj., ponctuel, 
 I exact 
 
 punish, v., punir 
 I purse, «., bourse (/.) 
 I pat, V , meltre, irr. 
 
A- AM^ 
 
 ENGLISH-FRKNCn VOr.Mnil.ARY. 
 
 vr\ 
 
 questicn, v., qnestionner 
 quite, adv.f tuut & fait 
 
 B 
 
 rainbow, »., arc-en-ciel 
 
 rapid, acfj., rapicle 
 rare, adj., rare 
 rascal, s., coquin (m.) 
 read, v., lire, irr. 
 reckon, v., compter 
 roisn, s., re^iie (m.) 
 Rhine, s., Uliiu (ni.) 
 rely on, v., se tier & 
 remaiy, v., raster 
 remedy, s., reniede (m.) 
 repulso, v., repousser 
 require, v., demuuder, 
 
 avoir besoin de 
 retire, v., retirer, se re- 
 
 tirer 
 return, r., retourncr, re- 
 
 venir, rendre 
 rich, (irf;., riche 
 ride, t'., aller a cheval 
 road, s., cbemin (m), 
 
 route (/.) 
 room, s., chambre (/.) 
 rule, 8., r^Ji^le {/.) 
 run,. v., courir, irr. 
 
 B 
 
 safely, adv., en s(iret6, 
 
 sain et sauf 
 game, adj., meme 
 Baraceii , s., sarrasin 
 satin, 8., satin (m.) 
 s itire, a , satire (/.) 
 say, 'J., dire, irr. 
 saying, s., maxime (/.) 
 scarcely, ad";., a peiuo 
 scold, 1/., gronder 
 Scotland, «., Ecosse (/.) 
 season, «., saison {/.) 
 section, s., section (/.) 
 see, v., voir, irr, 
 seem, v., sembler 
 seud, V-; envoy or 
 
 sense, .s., sens (tn.) 
 servant, s.,domeatique(/n. 
 
 and /.) 
 service, s., service (>n.) 
 several, adj., plusiours 
 seventy, adj., soisante- 
 
 dix 
 shall, v., devoir (not to 
 
 be mistaken for sltall 
 
 which indicates the 
 
 futme) 
 sheep, s., monton (to.) 
 shilUuK, s., sliillinR (»»■) 
 shoe, .s., Soulier (»i.) 
 shonld, ica shall 
 silk, .?., soie (/.) ; silk 
 
 Roods, soiries 
 since, 2>it2^. and adv., de- 
 
 puis 
 since, cojij., puisque 
 sing, v., ch.aiier 
 singer, s., chautear 
 sister, «., sa'ur (/.) 
 situation, s., situation, 
 
 place 
 six, cuVj., six 
 
 small, adj., petit, modcre 
 society, s., society (/.) 
 soldier, s., soldat (m. ) 
 some,tid/.,du,dos,qu(l|ue 
 something, a., q lelque 
 
 chose 
 so much, aAv., tant 
 soon, adv,^ bientot 
 Spain, s,, Espagne (/.) 
 spare, adj., de reste 
 speak, v., pnrler ; speak 
 
 evil, mal parler (used 
 
 only in the pres. inf. 
 
 and ccmp. tenses) 
 spend, r., depenf^er ; 
 
 spend time, puss'ji' le 
 
 temps 
 spoil, v., gfiter 
 sprain, v., fouler 
 station, v., station (/.) 
 stay, u., rester 
 stock exchange, s., bourse 
 
 stone, i.t pierro (/.) 
 
 stone-fruit, «., frui<t k 
 noyau 
 
 story, s., histoiro (/.) 
 
 strike, v., fitijiper 
 
 sul)-!ieutenant, s., sous- 
 lieutenant (m.) 
 
 succeed, v., rCussir 
 
 such, I"//., tel 
 
 suddenly, adr., teut ik 
 coup 
 
 suit, v., convenir, irr. 
 
 supiiose, v., supp()fler 
 
 surgeon, s., chirurgien 
 
 surprised, a.d')., surprii 
 
 suspect, v., soup(;onn( r 
 
 system, «., systeme (»n.) 
 
 table, «., table (/.) 
 
 take, r., prendre, iVr. ; 
 
 take cure of, s'occuper 
 
 de ; take down, iles- 
 
 cendro ; tnke the field, 
 
 entrer en campagne 
 taste, s., goftt (»'.) 
 tastefully, ai/r., avec gout 
 tea, «., th6 (r«.) 
 tell, v., ^ire, irr. 
 teii, adj., dix 
 tend, v., tendre 
 tfuith, adj., dixieme 
 Thames, «., Tamise (/.) 
 than, conj.y que 
 thankful, odj., recounais- 
 
 sant 
 that, ixdi., ce, cet 
 that, pron-, cela, celuili 
 that, coyi)., que 
 their, cul).^ lour 
 theni, fYou., eux ; for 
 
 them, i>our eux, en 
 Thoniistucles, s., Th6- 
 
 mistocle 
 therefore, (ulv.^ done, pnr 
 
 consequent, c'est. pour- 
 
 quoi, aut-si 
 thing, s., chose (/.) 
 think, ?'., penser, CAiiie, 
 
 \irr. 
 Umty, adj., trente 
 
123 
 
 ENGLISH-FRENCH VOOABULiUlY. 
 
 this, ad},, ce, cet 
 this, pron.. ceci, cehii-ci 
 thousand, adj., inille, mil 
 threat, s., menace (/.) 
 lln-ee, adj., trois 
 throaf,'h, prep.. & travers 
 ihronphout, prep., dans, 
 
 h travers de 
 ticket, s., hillet (m.) 
 till, conj., jusqn'a 
 time, 8., temps (m.); at 
 
 the same time, en 
 
 meme temps 
 to, prcp.y a, pour, envera 
 to-day, atli'., aujourd'hui 
 tooth-pick, s., cure-dents: 
 to\vards,i)rep.,ver8,enver8 
 towel, s., essule-mains 
 
 (w.), serviette (/.) 
 town, s., ville (/.) 
 tvnpcdy, s., tragedie (/.) 
 translation, s., traduction 
 
 tree, s., arhrc (m.) 
 tremhle, v., trembler 
 triumph, v., triompher 
 tnuik, s., malle (/.) 
 trust, v., avoir confiance 
 
 en 
 Tuesday, «., mordi (m.) 
 tune, s., air (»».) 
 Turkish, adj., mto, des 
 
 Turcs 
 twelve, adj., douze 
 two, acl;.««)»., deux 
 
 U 
 
 umhrella, «., paraplnie 
 uncle, s., oncle (m.)[(w.) 
 undf r;<taud, v., compreu- 
 dic irr. 
 
 unfortunate, adj., mal- 
 
 heureux 
 United-States, «., Etats- 
 
 Unis 
 umvelli adj., indispose 
 upstairs, adv., en haut 
 use, J., usage (m.) ; it is 
 
 no use, il est inutile 
 use, 1'., se servir do, in:, 
 
 employer 
 useful, adj., u !e 
 
 vanquish, v., vaincre,tr . 
 very, adv., tr5s 
 vice-admiral, «., vice- 
 
 amiral 
 virtue, s., vertn (/.). 
 visit, v., visitor, faire 
 
 visite 
 voice, s., voix (/.) 
 
 W 
 walk, V-, marcher, faire 
 
 une promenade & pied, 
 
 aller A: pied 
 walnut, s., noix (/.) 
 walnut- wood, s.,noyer(w.) 
 want, s.. bcsoiu (m ) dcsir 
 war, s., guerre (/.) ■ 
 watch, s., garde, moutre 
 
 (m.) 
 week, s., semaine (/.) 
 well, adv., bien 
 what, adj., quel 
 what, pron., ce qui, ce quo 
 whatever, adv., quelque 
 when, conj., quand 
 whereas, conj., tandis que 
 which, pron., qui, quo, le 
 
 who, pron.^ qn! 
 whole, 3., tout {adj.) 
 whose, pron., k qui 
 whosoever, pivn., qui» 
 
 o.onque 
 why, wiv., pourquoi 
 wide, adj., large 
 will, v., vouloir, irr. (not 
 to be mistaken for loiU 
 which indicates tho 
 future) 
 William, s., Guillaume 
 widow, s., veuve (/.) 
 wine, s., vin (m.) 
 wise, adj., sage 
 wish, v., vouloir, irr, 
 wit, 8., esprit (m.) 
 with, prep., avec 
 work, 8., ouvrage, travcil 
 work, v., travailler 
 world, s., monde (ni.) 
 worth, 8., valeur ; to be 
 
 worth, valoir, irr. 
 would, see will 
 wound, s., blesser 
 wretched, adj., muchant, 
 
 mauvais 
 wrist, s , poipnet 
 write, v., (Jcriro, irr. 
 writer, s., ficrivain (ni.) 
 writing, s., 6criture (/.) 
 wrong, adj., mauvais ; to 
 ho wrong, avoir tort 
 
 Y 
 
 year, »., an (m.) ; ann6o 
 
 (/•) . 
 
 yes, adv., om 
 yesterday, adv., hier 
 yours, ^con., la v6tte 
 
 mmmmmmmm