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B F. f^OBINSON, B.f\. THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. BY E. B. F. ROBINSON, M.A., Philosophy Prizeman ok Trinity Univh-rsitv in 1893. TORONTO: Pkinikd I ok riiK AurtiOR iiv WIIvIvIAiVI BRIGGS, \V'i-;si.i;y IUu.ijings, 1896. HV!cn 204548 o Entered, ac-cordintf to the Act of tlie Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eij,'ht hundred and ninety-six, by William Briogs, of Toronto, in the oflk-e of tlie Minister of Ajfriculture, at Ottawa. PREF'ACE. 73 LINDNIvSS, althoui^li of fi'cciuent occurronce in i)iii'- -L' ticuhir families, does not urtect a v«'rv lai'fc iut- centaf the total iiuiube!-, so that nothing approaching a genei-al interest is taken in the hjind. As I liav(? unilert iken, then, to write and to liave puhlislu'd a l)ook which, hy my own confession, does not deal with a suhject of general interest, it seems to me that a few remarks regarding tlie aim of the work are necessary. The chief aim of tlie hook is set forth in its title. T believe " The True Hpliere of the Blind" to be in those vocati(jns which reijuire mental activity rather than man- ual skill for their successful prosecution. By a careful psychological analysis I show that blindness renders possi- ble a more intense mental life, and by an examination of the attempts to employ them at trades I find that, as a matter of fact, the blind are unfit for such pursuits. The other important objects are : To furnish a guide to t)ie correct way to deal with blindness and the blind, to point out the danger threatening the eyes of the people ^ VI l»REFAf;E. tliiou,u;li oui' oduciitional s\'stlindness*' in the vaiious Kncyclo[tjedias : and foi' my cha|)tei- on the "Diseases of tlie Eye" to Dr. iMinoi's article on " IMindness," in the Keferencc; lland- liook of th(; jNledical Sciences. For my account of the Amei'ican institutions, J have relied mainly on their olh- cial j-epoits. In my "Psychological Analysis" T have followed the oi'der of treatment of tlie suhject in Pro- fessor John Dewey's "Psychology," and I have also ])een indehted for some valuahle suirirestions to Professor Mark l.5ald win's " Psychology." ^ 'A I I 'OO^ CONTENTS. PAIIT I. Tiir: I'sYCiiUAL Like ov the Blind. (•IIAI'TKK IKOK I. (lenenil Xature of Bliiuliit'ss and 'ri'iidonciea of its EU'ects tipoii the Life of the Soul - - - 9 II. Sensation ami tlie Senses of the Blind - - - 28 III. On Locomotion -•--.... ,"53 IV. Tlieoiy of Vision ....... q^ v. The Higher Psyehical Processes and Stages of Know- I« of Neglect 'Jl^tj XXI. Blind Deaf-Mutes ....... 241 XXII. Census Returns and other Tables of Reference - - 249 I'AnK 2(J0 -'()7 •-M2 ti'JO LIST OF ILLUSTP.ATTONS. ■V* The Author Fig. 1. The Braille Alphabet - II 2. The New York Alphabet It 3. The Braille Interlining Frame I. 4. The Hall-Braille Writer - II 5. The Stereotype-Maker II 6. The Kleidograph - II 7. The Stereograph - ■ lis - IIS - 121 - l.SO - u:i ■ 1.35 - 13S The True Sphere of the Blind PART I Til E ViiYC 1 1 ICA L LI I' K 1" I' I ! !•: BLI XD. CllAPTEll I. (JENEUAL NATUUE OF MMN'DNESS AN!) IIS TENDENCIES UN THE LIl'E OK THE SOUL. FOR ceiitiirit's blindness was coiisidcrc*! i\\v sad- dest misfortune l»v wlncli men mio-lit l)e ovei'- wlielmed. As a pnnislnncnt it was moi'c feared than deatli, anl(3 stjitc! the blind were when Ilaiiy began his work, and wliat reason men liad to tliink death a less evil than blindness : " At the annual fair of St. Ovide, an innkeeper had collected ten poor blind persons, attired in a ridicu- k)ns maimer, and lind of Haiiy's time and those of our own da}- is forcibly brought out by these extracts. I have ([uoted so nuicli of the Boston report because I believe that the public are greatl}^ interested in such performances, and ])ecause it is peculiai-ly typical of the way in which the ])lind of the special schools ai"e treated. I shall have more to say of this treatment further on. Bliny sight, while an individual with less must read it bv touch. In fact, I call all those people Idind who are obliged to follow their vocation without the aid of sight. The point where sight ceases to be of any practical value in this way is found to be about 1 200, or inability to count fino-ers at the distance of one foot. Blindness may be generally defined, for my pur- pose, as a condition undei* which people must make their way in the woi-ld with(3ut the aid of sight. Such individuals must not be led around. It is fatal to their own happiness, and causes unnecessary sorrow and irritation to their relatives and friends. I am insisting on this, the distinction between my view and that expressed in Dr. Minors article: not be- cause I wish to seem critical, but for this reason, in that in stating that the blind have to be " led around," Dr. ]\[iuor gives expression to an opinion held almost universally. To my mind, future progress in better- ing the condition (jf the blind depends altogether upon the degree of self-reliance, self-respect, and independence which the blind themselves can be made to feel. It is, no doubt, a fact that the blind are " led around," but it is a mistake to say that they have to be. In the chapter on "Locomotion " will be found a le misfortune, a sad calamity, or is it a blessing- :* We 16 TilE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND, are told tliat all misfortunes are blessiiiga in disguise, and 1 must confess it seems so. For hundreds of years blindness has bee i, and, by many, is still thought, a great atHietion. There are many, too, who think that people are made blind, and otherwise afflicted, to restrain them from committing great crimes. This is a curious philosophy and comforting, — that is, to apply to other people's misfortunes. In my own experience I have found that the blind, at all events, will have none of it. Indeed, I have known the advocates t-,^ people THE TlUE SI'HKRK OK THK hLIN'D. 17 isguise, reds of is still )(), who lerwise ; great 'ovtiiig, es. In 1, at all known 11 most lictions law of mother len one arises, i places V blind ul. In e blind every- niai^e agreed maker 2es and ^rench oltaire called to this of the pie W(} liave a set of circumstances well calculated for the ])roduction of such a man as Voltaire. On the otlier liand Voltaire, by the versatility of his genius, bril- liancy of wit and sting of his sarcasm, contributed powerfully to hasten the great French revolution, (ireat men are more the makers than the products of their time, while ordinary pei'sons have not the strenofth to transcend, to be in advance of their time, and are more products than makers of it. In this fact lies the misfortune of blindness, few limited by it have the courage to make their environment, and are consequently its products. It is in improving this environment then, that progress is to be made in ameliorating the condition of the blind. It is un-juestionably a fact that in proportion to their numbers that more blind men have attained dis- tinction in certain arts and sciences than have the sighted. To what is this due ? Can it be i^easonabl}'^ held that so many men of great ability have been made blind in order to preserve the balance of power, as it were, to limit them in order to compensate others ? Is it not more reasonable to suppose that their blindness was in some way connected with their success ? If it can be shown that such is the case then blindness cannot have been a misfortune to them, then, also, looking at blindness from the teleological point of view the existence of it is a neces- sity, an integral part of the plan and order of the universe. Without blindness God could not impart some portion of his fullness unto men. It must always be remembered that, having sight or being blind, like 18 THE TUTK SPHERE OF THE HLIXD. liav^ing wealth or I>t'ing poor, like havin<^ stren<^tli or beino- woak, may be either a blessino- or a curse according to the ii.se to which it is put by the agent, and may be either a good or misfortune according to the circumstances in which the agent finds himself ; yet these circumstances may often }>e so altered as to change what seemed a misfortune into the greatest blessing. I believe that an analysis of the p.sychical life of the blind will account not only for the fact that so many great men have been blind, but also that it will prove that the true sphere of the blind is to assi.st in those tasks which recjuire reflection rather than action foi- their execution. The blind should follow those pursuits which depend on the brain and not on the hand. They should earn their right to citizenship by virtue of what they know, not for what they do. It is in the professions, in the arts and sciences, in the larger operations of the connuercial world that the blind shouhl be trained, not in the trades where their time is lost and their labor unremunerated even under the most favorable circumstances. In those professions, arts, and sciences which the blind have entered many of them have won con.siderable distinction, as I have already said. Some of them, such as Fawcett and Saunderson, hold the highest rank, while few fail altogether. In order to find out the general tendency of the effects of blindness upon the life of the soul it is necessary to ascertain what blindness means from a [)sychological point of view. For the soul the exter- THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 19 stroiiijrtli r a curse lie cat^eiit, ordin^ to ; himself : ered as to e greatest al life of !t that so liat it will ) assist in Kan action low those Dt on the enship by y do. It ces, in the that the here their ven under rofessions, red many IS I have *vcett and 5 few fail cy of the soul it is ns from a the exter- nal world is a world made out of sensations. One of the chief ways in which the soul is affected by the external world is through the excitations of the optic nerve. In blindness this most fruitful source of sensations is either partially or totally closed. How does this loss affect the life of the soul :* Before going farther I must pause to notice a ditt'erence in psychical life between the totally and partially blind. By partially blind I mean those whose sight ranges from the mere perception of light to 1/200. It has often been a source of wonder to the instructors of the blind why it is that the merest perception of light is so highly prized by those who possess it. The explanation of this is, I think, that this mere per- ception of light seems to those who have it to connect them in a real way with the sighted world. I have known some of these persons to say that they were not blind, only short-sighted, and indeed they were very short-sighted. Nevertheless these people are almost invariably more energetic and more like ordin- ary persons than those who have never seen the light of day ; they seem to be more in harmony with their surroundings. This fact has also some psychical importance, but in a short work like mine it is impossible to notice it particularly. The general tendencies of the effect of blindness upon the psychical life is to intensify and strengthen all those mental activities which depend more for their existence upon the internal and higher processes of knowledge than on the external and inunediately sensuous elements. The reason for this will be at I ,r" 20 IIIK TRTK SIMIKKK OK TUF: I'.MM). onc(3 apparent wlu'ii it is reiiioinitorcd that tlic sense of sight carries with it tlie power to see and tlie way to he seen. Even for thi' niost intelligent people the innn(!(liately sensuous world has its attractions. There are few like the celebrated German })hilosopher who left one of hisslioes stuck fast in the nnid and walked on oblivious of the accident, undisturbed in his medi- tation. The blind are not exposed to the distracting sensations to the same extent that the sighted are. A strange dog, a pretty face, is not so likely to interrupt their chain of thought. Thus blindness clears the way for a more intense mental life. It is to be regretted that there are cases which seem to militate against this theorj'. Some blind men lead the most abandoned lives and are gnlty of the worst of crimes. Instead of being evidence against my position, however, this serves only to strengthen it. In these cases the lack of food for the intellectual life has caused the passions to become greatly intensified. Where this is not the case it will be found that the* vicious tendencies which assert them- selves are related to blindness as causes, and not as effects. As a general statement it is not true that the blind are more vicious than any other class, while it is true that their intellectual development is generally greater in proportion to their numbers. Man is endowed with a certain amount of energy, and ordinarily this finds an outlet in the pleasures obtained through the eye. In the blind, however, it is forced back into the higher mental activities. Instead of tiring themselves in the pleasures of !!l! THE TRT'E SIMIERE OF THE RMXD. 21 tlir sense I tlu' wav R'ople the IS. There [)hei* wlu) 1(1 walked his ine«li- istractinjjj ;'hted are. likely to blindness life, hich seem men lead the worst gainst my gthen it. itellectual greatly t will be ;ert them- id not as e that the ;, while it generally )f energy, pleasures Dwever, it activities, asures of sight-seeing, the Ijlind grow weary in the world of thought, memory and imagination. Sensations are elementary consciousnesses, psychical units out of which knowledge is Imilt, and conse(|uently any great loss of this material of knowledge is bound to affect not only the knowledge of the <'xternal world, but to react upon the higher mental processes theniselves. The blind can form no judgments, therefore, of any- thing which depends altogether upon the eye for its material. It is only where this material can be got unaltered in its nature through the other senses that the judgment of the blind is of any \alue. They can form corivct notions of cipiity, right and justice, of music and literature, and of all ([uestions relating to mental, moral and political science. How much human happiness depends upon such arts and sciences, how the perfect ideal of life forms the end to which human effort ever tends, the ideal of personal freedem preceded long enough the reali- zation of it. All such matters are well-known facts to thinking men. The time has almost gone by when the work of the schoolmaster is thought unpro- ductive, and the v.orld is beginning to realize that the more it advances in knowledge the less it will suffer. It is necessary, therefore, fliat while some should toil with their hands, others should work with their brains. It is to this latter class I conceive that the blind belong. Not so much because they are unfitted for manual labour, but from the nature of their limitation they are peculiarly adapted to follow the intricate windings of a mental labyrinth. The 00 THE TiiuK si'nnin: of tfit: mlixd. blind are imdistructcfl, luidisturhed in the midst ol' the vaiyini^ petty details of the visible world. No matter where the blind man be no chance stroke of the eye can call up an iri'evelant chain of associations. He is exposed to the attractions and distractions of the remainin*^ senses, but these are simply o])trusive cnou^^h to keep the mind from sta|!;natin<4' altogether. From all this, a prioi'i, the blind should have a mental life difi'erent to, and hijLjher than that of the sighted, ditlerent because of the diti'erence in the sensuous material, and hioher because of its depeiidin*;" upon the inner j)sychical processes. Does not the careers of such men as Holman, Huber, Milton, Saunderson and Fawcett constitutes posteriori evidence in favour of my view. A short paragraph on each will make this plain. Homer. — There is a tradition that Homer was blind. But belief in this tradition as well as in every other concerninl('t»' and lack that keen ohscrvation of details noticeable in his earlier poems. Nor can this ditii-r- t'uce be at^ ; ibuted to the s of his neiolibours and the wall-flowers. In this case the threat trouble is that the sijjfhted dancers often make mistakes which throw the blind man out in his reckoning. My own experi- ence in dancinii' lias convince*! me that this form of amusement is not altogether suited to the blind. In schools and at home it shouM be taught for its physi- cal benefits, but ball-rooms are two crowded, and one meets with so many wretched dancers there that such places should be avoided. I must add, however, that my training in dancing was not of a very high chiss, and that careful teaching might remove many of tlie difficulties with which I come in contact. It is not ill dancing itself that the trouble arises, but in its surroundings. Once on the floor with a good partner and good couples it is not very difficult to dance, but these conditions are so very seldom filled that it is almost useless to look for them. Besides this there is another obstacle which, in a crowded room, often puzzle the sighted, that, namely, how to find your partner. This task is almost impossible for the blind. Not only does marching form a part of the training of the blind in almost all of the institutions for the education of the blind, but in many of them military exercises are embodied in the regular routine. These exercises improve wonderfully the deportment of the pupils as well as serving to keep them in good health. As to personal carriage and general position of the ffi § 11 If 36 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. body and its members I need say nothing ; for, if the blind can dance and go through military drill it will be readily understood deportment would not be difficult for thom to learn. I cannot leave this sub- ject, liowever, without remarking upon the prevalent ignorance of such matters. I have been asked, and by those, too, whose education might have seemed to warrant hope of better things, how 1 managed to find my mouth when I wished to feed myself ^ Now, so far as I know, people when dining do not use a mirror, and how they manage to locate their mouths without it is to me incomprehensible. I repeat that I have been asked this ( question frecjuently, and, aside from its impertinence, I think it a display of the most disgusting ignorance imaginable. Thinking of the impertinence of this ([uestion I am led to ask, Why it is that when anyone has a physical misfortune people are always prying into the cause and all other particulars about it <* It is not so when other mis- fortunes happen. If a man has lost a large fortune through no fault of his own, people do not cry it after him in the streets a;-< they do when one has become blind or deaf. Active Touch. — This nnlon of passive touch and muscular sense is always present in normal life. It abbreviates all touch processes by nmltiplying the number of impression which can be had in a given time. It makes it possible to bring the object to be touched in contact with the most sensitive portion of the organ. Active touch is capable of making much finer discriminations than passive touch. THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE RLIXD. 87 By runnirif^ the luind over a body iniprossin^ niul inouldin*^ it, we<^etthe ideas of hardness and softness, elasticity and inertia, rcmu^lmess and smoothness, t'tc. Sensations of successive points make us juders, not so ac- curjvtely as the blind are able to do it, it is true, but within a few minutes of it, though. In this connection I am reminded of an anuisino; display of ionoranee that I met with once. I had taken out mv watch in order to ascertain the time, when a by-stander in(|uired how it was done. I was under the impression that this (question arose out of idle curiosity and not from any desire to learn, but be this as it may I told him that mine was an ordinary watch. " And do you," said he, " feel through the glass." I wanted to laugh but succeeded in smothering my desire. I replied that I did so, and that when I was in a particular haste I did not botlier opening the watch at all but felt through case and all. He turned away and began to converse with a friend of his upon the wonderful achievements of the blind. The blind are able to shave themselves. This requires no special delicacy <-■ : tcjach, as a sighted friend of mine constantly' sh.aves himself in the dark. Tiie blind are able, too, to bk cken their own boots by the sense of touch. In hci, they can do everythu - in connection with Dei-forming their own toilet, and moreover they ought to be made to do it. The more the blind do for themselves the less other people wdl have to do for them nnd the less inconvenienc blind- ness becomes. What sensations are there, then, wMch the sense of touch cannot rei)lace ;' Cei'tainly riot tJiose r( suiting h- I 40 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BUND. from affections of the optic nerve, colours with its variations of tints and shades. Some time ago I was led to investigate this question, and I came to the conclusion that the blind cannot tell colours by the sense of toucli or in any other way. I had often heard of blind men who were said to possess this power. But knowing, as I did, that the blind are very much given to practical joking, I tliought that this prevalent idea was due either to a blind man's joke or that it was a complete hoax. Several instances of the supposed possession of this power to discriminate colours have been brought to my notice recently, and my incjuiry into them has led me to take another view of the origin of this idea. The blind who claim to possess this power are themselves mistaken. Instead of trying to impose on others they imagine themselves to be able to discriminate colours. Colours cannot be touched, though certain textures may happen to be of particu- lar colours. To make my meaning clearer ; in yarns, a grey or white ya.'n is generally coarser than a blue. It is a difterence in the texture from which the differ- ence in colour is inferred. I was led to this conclusion by a conversation with a blind friend of mine, a Mr. James Miller, who supposed himself to be able to tell colours, and I succeeded in inducing him to explain how he did it. My advice to any one who wishes to test this question, is to give to the blind man claiming to possess this power the painted s^ats used in match- ing colours, and I venture t(3 say that his claim will fail to be supported. If by any cliance this claim THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 41 should be made good, then there is no reason why it could not be taught to other blind persons and so throw open the enjoyment of painting to them. Even if a blind man could discriminate differences of colour by touch, it cannot be appreciated as difference of colour. In other words, red felt and red seen cannot be shown to be one and the same sensation. The practical advantages of being able to discriminate colours is not affected by this psychological difference, but It will be time enough to treat of these advant- ages when the possession of this power by the blind is proved. In an inquiry into it cai*e must be taken to avoid imposters, to beware of the tricks of the blind, and to guard against any erroneous impressions that the supposed possessors of this power may entertain. The part which the sense of touch plays in locomo- tion will be taken up in the next chapter. Sense of Smell. — The physical stimulus of smell exists a! •-> ys in the form of a gas: non-volatilizable solids ^Tiu V/(uids Jo not excite it. Heat does not excite; , ;p '^, and it is uncertain whether mechanical pressure ,u 1 electricity are stimuli of this sense or not. The organ is the ending of the olfactory nerve in the upper and back part of the nostrils in the mucus membrane. All that is known about the mode «jf excitation is that it is some form of chemical action, and that the particles must move. The sensa- tion itself belongs more to the emotional than to the cognUivo hue of our nature, and therefore smells are best classified as agreeable and disagreeaV»le. '! r \m m 42 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. Smell is oiiiployed by the l)liii(l pretty much as it is by the sighted. The chief (Htfereuce is that the blind use it to assist in locomotion. Various kinds of busi- ness places can be locatelind man can detect such places and guide himself accordingly. A particularly offl -live smell apprises him of an open sewer, while an drain has always an earth}^ smell about it. It . >onerally through carelessness that the blind fall into such places. The importance of noting these differences will be seen in describing locomotion. Sense of Taste.— The physical stimuli are elec- tricity and mechanical pressure. Only bodies in a licjuid condition are sapid. The organ of this sense consists of those portions of the tongue and soft palate provided with ta.ste-buds. The sense itself is purely subjective, and by reason of its office, difiers in no way in the blind from its normal condition. The fact that the sense remains is of considerable practical value, inasnuich as those occupations in wdiich it is extensively used are by it kept open to the blind. Mr. H. L. Hall suggests that the blind might be trained as tea-tasters. The suggestion should be in- vestigated by the trades instructors of the blin! the otlier. It is tlirou^li tlie t'jiciul sonso tliat tho l)lin(l lijivc their ideas of hulk, distance, muf^nitude and direction eidar^^ed to an extent wliicli could never be reached through the other senses. These sensations play a very important part in assistinj^; tho blind to move about, but as this point must be iuUy explained in tlic next chapter it need not Ije dwelt upon here. From a psycholon-ical point of view this sense might possibly be I'cduced to the tactual sense and tempera- ture sense. It might be perhaps sliown that these nerve endings, acted upon by atmospheric pressure, form the basis from which ideas of distance and magnitude could be inferred. But the reduction of tl is sense to some form of contact does not make it identical with the senses of temperature and touch, any more than hearing and sight are identified with them, because they can be similarly reduced. These sensations are not identical with those produced through actual con- tact from the very fact that no actual contact exists in their case. Moreover, the most sensitive parts of the body for the sense of touch are not those used in this sense. The hand has a very fine set of tactile nerves while it does not possess the power to determine bodies not in actual contact with it at all. On the otlier hand, the face, which possesses this power, is not very finely sensible of touch. The connection be- tween tlut facial and the temperature sense is easy to explain, though their distinctness is somewhat difficult to show : but as the heat and cold spots cannot be siiimltaneously dominant, if they contained the facial i: '1 I ■ If i » f i- hi Sdt; 52 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. nerves there would be found great ditierences in tlie activity of the sense in different temperatures, such is not the case so far as I know. It is quite as active in all temperatures except in extreme cold. Many ex- periments would have to be made in order to work out the details of my hypothesis, meanwhile the fact remains that the blind possess such a power no matter what its true nature may be found to be. This somewhat lengthy enquiry into sensation may have been tedious to some, but it is absolutely essential to a true insight into the capacities and mental life of the blind. Sensations, it must be remembered, are the result of psycholo:^dcal analysis, and have no real existence. Every concrete intel- lectual act is always one of intuition. Sensation is the work of a perceptive intelligence, and a lack of sensation certainly affects the whole structure of the intellect. CHAPTER III. ON LOCOMOTION. THE difficulty of moving about without the aid of a guide is the chief obstacle in the way of the blind. Every blind man must surmount this difficulty before he can hope to enjoy all the rights and privileges of ordinary citizenship. The more completely any blind man succeeds in going about by himself, the less will such a person's treatment differ from that of ordinary people. It is of the utmost importance that some account should be given of the way in which the blind do manage to dispense with o'uides. Locomotion is the power of moving from place to place. This word does not give so good an idea of the independent motion of the blind as that which they themselves apply to it — navigation. The methods employed by them for their guidance resemble those of navigation more than those of ordinary loco- motion : but the word navigation hardly admits of being used in this connection. If the blind are to go about alone it is obvious that they must employ a new set of signs for their guidance. The characteristic difference between this new set and that ordinarily used is that, while the latter is general in its nature, the former is particular. A sighted man recognizes :i^ 1] ■if; ''it I ' i ' 54 THE TRUE SPHERE OF TPIE HLIXD. IH . any particular street or locality by its general appear- ance, by a collection of familiar objects ; a blind man, on the other hand, may wander along a street on which he has been scores of times and yet have no notion of his whereabouts until he finds a certain stone, post, or other particular oltject which he knows to be located on a particular street. This c' -ge in guides to locomotion from genei-al appearance to par- ticular sii^ns, is due to the fact that sii^ht is the only sense which has the poAN'er to obtain the sensations necessary to the mind for the orderly and accurate arrangement of external ol»jects in a very wide area. In less scientific language, sight lias a more extended range than the other senses. Probably the best way of showing that men may go around without the aid of sight is l)y following the movements of a well- trained blind man, explaining his methods, pointing out the uses of the remaining senses, and accompany- ing my explanation with appropriate remarks. It would be difficult to do this in the form of a continu- ous narrative, so that I shall follow the psychological order in the treatment of the senses, beginning with the sense of touch. The Sense of Touch and the Use of the Stick. — Leaving his residence, the blind man selects that side of the walk which brings his ria^ht hand, in which the cane is usually carried, immediately above its edge. The right hand side, by a tacit agreement, is the side on which all people are supposed to walk, and I may say here tliat the blind would be greatly benefitted if this convention were always observed. THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BTJXO. 55 For the first two or tliree steps he taps the edge of the walk with his cane. His reason for this is to put himself in toucli with the direction of tlie walk, in order that he may follow it in a straight line at a certain fixed distance from its edge. As he is in a ({uiet part of the town he walks rapidly and balances his cane immediately in front of him, keeping it oscil- lating like the pendulum of a clock, to guard his shins and knees from surprises in the way, such as wheel- harrows and baby carriages. If the blind man be an especially expert " navigator," like my friend, Mr. Stewart, a blind lawyer, he tucks his cane under his arm in the (juiet places. It is anmsing to read of the exploits of the blind man in the story l»ooks. He moves so slowly, and is forever tapping the edge of the sidewalk. I wonder what is his object in the tap, tap, tap. The expression sounds well and seems plausible, but to those who know, it is nonsensical. The blind man attends carefully to the varying character of the pavement under his feet In this he is guided, not so much by the sound, as is generally HU})posed, but by its feel. The close attention which the blind give to what they are treading on, is well brought out by the following incident. Mr. F. W. Johnston, the secretary of our association, and myself were walking down Ontario Street, Toronto, one evening. We had a small boy with us. Mr. John- ston had lost one of his gloves, and we were going back to a house where he thought that lie might have dropped it. We were walking very rapidly, when I stopped suddenly. I had stepped on something. It I , ■ ■' lil* 1 ) ! I?; ■ r^ 56 THE TRUE .SPHP:RE OK THi: JUJXJ). was tlie glove. I do not tliiiik tliat tliis was a mere coincidence, thoii(;li if the glove had not been missing I would not have stopped, pei-ha])s. The blind man is moving rapid ly along, wlien he strikes a tree with his cane, which flies out of his hand. But he does not stoop over to feel for it with his hand, as this would not onl\- attract too much attention, but would not enable him to find it as quickly as he can with his feet. The feet have a large surface area, and very soon succeed in locating the stick ; he stoops now and picks it up. The blind man resumes his way. He has been over the road many times, and hence certain unevenness in the planks, or a break in the granolithic pavement, are to him signs of his whereabouts, and often tell him that he is approaching to a step down or up, and at these points he slackens his pace, because there is noth- ing so jarring to the whole organism as an un- expected step of this kind For this reason, to- gether with the absence of familiar signs, the blind move much slower on a strange street. Even yet, however, his gait is not as slow as tliat of the blind man in fiction. Psychologically, the cane is but an extension of the tactual nerves in the hand. The stick and feet together enable the blind to move freely in a straight line in quiet places. My blind friends have had numerous disscntions as to what is the best kind of stick for them to use. In ni}^ own experience I have found that a steel rod covered with leather rings or washers is the best. This cane is very durable, not easily THE TRUE SPHERE OK THE IJLIM). 57 1 (uokeii, {111(1 moreover the steel tran.sinits to tlie hand a stronger and more reliable sensation, or it enables the hand to re})ort more accurately on the nature of external olijects with which it is brought in contact. Steel appears to act as a better nerve than wood, so to speak. Its weight is against it, however, and prevents many from using it, as when they take hold of it for the first time it seems far too heavy. As soon as one becomes accustomed to it the weight is not noticed, and it is agreed by all those who have tried it that this stick is superior to all others for our purpose. Light inalaca, bamboo or rattan sticks answer very well, but they are very liable to break, and a blind man without his cane is like a ship without her rudder. Heavy oaks and Irish blackthorns are sturdy enough, but they do not respond readily to extra-organic stimuli. Every blind man should be taught the cor- rect use of the stick, and, above all, he must not keep pounding the edge of the walk, for while he is engaged in this delightful occupation he is sure to get himself into trouble — into too close quarters with a tree in the walk, a wheelbarrow, or some other thing of the kind. The only time he need pay any attention to the edge is when the walk is narrow and winding, or when it runs along on the top of an embankment or edge of a ditch ; then look out for it. The blind man should walk erect, as that is the only way he can keep in a straight line. He must not go wool gathering, but k'^ep his whole attention fixed upon his move- ments. I ! ^t 11 m I ; u nT 58 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. The Use of the Sense of Smell. — I Imve already notice* I the use to which the blind put this sense. As there is some fish wanted at the house, the blind man wislies to find a fishmonger's. This is no difficult task, as such places have, to put it mildly, a peculiar odour about them. He has also another commission to execute. He wishes to find a jeweller's. Now, a jeweller's establishment has no distinct odour; in fact, it is almost free from it altogether. Now, though the sense of smell does not directly guide him to such a place, the blind man knows thai this par- ticular jeweller's place is tlie third door from a certain fruit store. Accordingly he finds the fruit store, which, by reason of its peculiar odour, is not difficult of location, and then counts the doors to his destina- tion. Similarl}^, many other stores are located by remembering their situation with reference to certain odoriferous establishments, such as hotels, eating- houses and the like. Of course, the signs of this sense depend upon varying concomitants. The " in- dition of the physical organism of the subject >m me- times renders him less able to detect peculiar odours than at other times. The state of the shop also makes considerable difference. A clean, well-kept store with a small stock may have such a faint odour that the nature of its lousiness cannot be made out. But the chief cause which operates to render these signs nugatory is the weather. In the summer, when doors and windows are thrown open, many business places send out an odour whicli is shut in in winter. ^)f In winter, however, some places retain their odour, as THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 5U even the open fanlights allow it to escape ; but where this is not the case, a blind man has only to thrust his head into a door at a venture, and if he fails to detect the odour he may inquire for what he wishes to find. It may be added that at any time odours are more easily recognized indoors than outdoors. A dry goods store cannot be distinguished from a grocer's sliop outside, but either can be made out and dif- ferentiated within doors. This is due partly to the fact that the excitant is less remote from the peripheral organ and partly to the increased sensibility of this organ itself. The sense of taste contributes nothin*:" to aid in locomotion, as we have already seen. Its subjective nature and the. limited range of its operation render it unfit for c'.ny other purpose than that for which it is normally used. It is import vnt to remember, never- theless, that this sense remains intact in the blind. Use of the Sense of Hearino. — Normally this sense is used little to assist in locomotion, but the blind depend upon it greatly for this purpose. Ideas of things in motion are normally formed from the sense of sight, but in the blind they are dfjrived chiefly from that of hearing. The sense of hearing, as we have seen, enables us to locate sounds on the right or left side, according as the stimulus is more strongly felt in one ear than in the other. This fact is of considerable practical value to the blind. It is by carefully attending to the direction of the sound that they are enabled to cross streets with comparative safety. These sounds also become signs of particular i-\ ;' * 'i i f f •■■ i • i 1 !■ . y assimilation. As tlie blind employ these forms exactly as the sio-hted do, they need no special examination here. As we have seen that the more connnon form of oontig'uous association is lost in blindness, it is hardly necessary to point ont that associ.'iiiun by similarity is more extensively nsed in c()nse(|nence. Tlie ex- tiMisivc nse of this latter form has been sliown to I'esidt in a hioher intellectnal develo])ment. It follows from this that the blind shonld ha,ve iiTcat intellectual development. This is, moreover, a neces- sary result of the withdrawal of association by spacial continuity, because the mind is thereby compelled to einploy its remainino- powers in associatino- activities. Tlu' onlv' other condition necessai'v to this i-esult is not always present in the blind — that is, .sensuous material enough out of which to construct intellectual edifices. It is the lack of this material which pre- \'ents the majority of the blind from attaining to that degree of intellectual development which is otherwise nece? arily involved in their condition. It would be wise economy, then, to put these data within their reach, and this may be done by improving the facilities for their education and increasing the num- ber of embossed books largel\-. Dissociation. — In associating sensuous elements, the mind never gives all the elements eijual value, but emphasizes some and neglects others. Dissocia- ti(^n is therefore an aspect of association, because only those elements can be dissociated which ha\e been 6 !!^ 82 THE TIU'K SI»1IE1{E OF THE liEIXI). (jri<4in;illy associated — analysis ))resupposes syntlicsis. It is a more active foi'iiK liowever, for in it the iiiind selects sonic t'lcnicnts and ne^-lccts others, whih' in association all the elements are notice some intellectnal end. ritimatelv this end is the si'lf, and tlu.' whole process is one of self-de\elop- ment. There are three aspects of attention — the selectine', the adjusting;', an*! the relating' activities. The mind s(>lects some of its activities whih^ it nei^lects others ; thus considered, attention is a hie'her form of dissociation, hut in dissociation the stress is hiid because of the intei'est of the presenta- tiori for the mind. In attention, because of the interest (jf the mind in the ])i'esentation. As adjust- ing- activity of attention enables the mind to ri'S])ond <|uickly to its ])resentatious, and the extent to which the mind is able to antici])ate what is comine- de])ends the ra])idity o\' the presi'utation's reco_i;'nition and inter[)retation. Attention is a relatin*;' activity, anei-ience. Retention is <;rowth of the self in faet. dust as the ]»hysical organism reeeixcs and die-ests its fooih so retention assimilates tlu; results of apperce[)tion into the organ- ized structure of the mind. The Stages of KxowLKDfiE. — The staji-es of know- ledw are the forms into which the minds activities n I IBB 'i 84 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE liLIND. Hi put all the sensuous material ju'esented to it. The n^rowth of kiio\vleatei- vividness of the remembered imao-o is not an clement in memory at all, so that it is better to say that the process of retention is more developec], for the memor}- itself is actually less perfect. Imagixatiox. — Imagination is that operation of the intellect which embodies an idea or image in a particular form. In imagination the blind are very fertile, and as literature is lai'gel}^ the work of imagination, the blind are well htted for its pursuit. A blind man's imagination produced that greatest of all English epics, "Paradise Lost." Imagination must supply all that perception fails to give, and it is for this reason that the bhnd cultivate it. The faces of friends, when no longer seen, must be imagined, and if they have never been seen they are altogether the work of cre;.,tive imagination. Thinking. — Thinking may lu^ detined as know- ledge of universal elements : that is, of ideas as such or of relations. From its definition it is evident that blindness does not effect it. There is a considerable difference in the subject matter of thinking or thoutjht, but there is none in its form, thinking'. The stages of knowledge are all mutually impli- cated, and are all manifestations of the u'eneral law ,j?=r5s»" 86 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE I'.MND. II lilt that knowlLMlo'e is a process of rcc()u;nitioii of the in(livi(hial, tlirouf^li tlie functions of analysis and syntliesis. While every concret(i act of knowle(l<^(' is self-related, and therefore one ol' intuition, the term is limited by Professor Dewey to ultimate wholes of knowledge, and these he calls, intuition oF tlic world, intuition of self, intuition of God. The first two are dependent upon each other, and both to<;'ether are dependent upon the thir 1. IxTriTiox OF THE WoRLD. — The wholeness of the world, the recognition of nature as a S3^stem is implied even in the simplest perception. It is the result of a synthesis by the mind of several intuitions, which form a chain from the conception of substance to the intuition of the woi-ld. Each link in the chain represents the recognition by the mind of a new element in its presentations. lNTi:rnox of the Sef.f. — This is the knowledu-o of sell' as a universal, permanent activity. This knowledge has been already impli(Ml, for the I'ecogni- tion of self is only the perception of what is involved in every act of knowledge. It is a more complete staii'e of intuition, for in it we reco^'nize that the true existence of nature is in its relation to mind. Intuition of God. — This is the complete stage of intuition. The true self-related must be the organic unity of the self and the world, of the ideal and the real, and this is what we know as God.. Every con- crete act of knowledge involves an intuition of God. It is the most concrete and : o >> /A e-v^ / Photographic Sciences Corporation A V s V \\ fv rv 6^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 C/j 92 THE TRUE SPHERE OP THE BLIND. ■c appear so great as wlien we look at it as a whole. The religious life of the Church, in spite of the strenu- ous eflbrts of her ministry to make it otherwise, depends largely on the attractions it has for the eye. The ritual of the Church charms by virtue of its artistic arrangement. The music of it is gi'and in itself, but the watching of the changing facial expres- sion of the singers adds greatly to its charm. The decoration, painting and trimming of the church itself are agreeable to look upon, and the passion to see and be seen is gratified in the church social life. All this combines to make Christianity attractive, and is helpful to religion as long as these aids do not become ends in themselves. The opinion of many that this is already of too frequent occurrence explains the existence of so many sects, wiio think that the whole of the visibly artistic should be banished from the church, along w^ith statuary. With the social and artistic life of the Church, the blind have little in common. They take no interest in gorgeous pageants, and, moreover, as their affliction prevents them from following the varying attitudes of the service, their non-conforming to these attitudes attracts attention, and often provokes remarks, so that i i time church becomes positively distasteful to them, but religion does not. After what has been said it is hardly necessary for me to meet the charge of materialism sometimes brought against the blind. The blind have too active a mind and too definite an idea of matter to confuse li THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 93 matter and motion with the orimn of all thintrs. The blind are often indifferentists to religion, sometimes agnostics, but very seldom materialists. Those blind persons of my acquaintance who might be called materialists, using that term in its widest significance, are those who have become blind late in life, and whose mental centre of gravity has been disturbed by the sud- e the worst. It is now pretty generally agreed that some form of ])oint character is best suited to the wants of the blind, although some schools still teach and cm[)loy the Boman letter. When the "American Printing Housi;" abandoned this letter the last great stronghold was won for the point systems. The blind themselves have brought about this change and, I bolieve, that it is they who must solve 'i ul ii-l5 }.| I 'I 'h^ II m i'. 96 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. I) r ' i t \: i ij .* • for tljonisolvoH tlieir own problems yet to be solved. This idea must l)e kept in iniiul throup^liout this work. The blind, T contend, jire the only persons v\dio understand their own difficulties well enouLfh to overcome them. Those who have done most to improve the condition of the blind liave themselves been blind. Braille, Montal, Dr. Armita^e, F. C. Campbell, W. B. Wait, and H. L. Hall were men whose blindness enabled them to deal with our ditti- culties. It is true that, accordinjij to Dr. Minor's definition, the late Dr. Armitage cannot be said to have been blind ; but his vision, so he tell us, wjis impaired to an extent which made it possible for him to realize the position of the blind. These are by no means all the men who have done much to further the interests of their attiicted brethren. There are many more, but these few illustrate each a dili'erent work. Braille invented and taught his unsurpassed system, Montal proved tiiat piano tuning was the best trade for the blind, Campbell and Armitage founded and built up the Royal Normal College and assisted greatly in the work of the " British and Foreign," Mr. Wait promoted the New York system and trained his pupils as agents and small traders, and Mr. Hall is the founder and manager of " The Blind Men's Working Home." Though many sighted persons have contributed much to the bettering of the condition of the blind, yet where the greatest amount of success has been attained, the blind have been at the helm. Thousands of dollars have been spent by the sighted in attempt- 1 ; THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE IJLIND. 97 ing to introduce the Roman letter, and now, in the most advanced institutions, these embossed Ijooks are preserved in their libraries otdy as interesting relics of bygone times — " literary curiosities," as Armitage calls them. He says, also, that the extent to which the Roman letter is used in any school forms a goorl basis for determining its usefulness : " The less this extent the greater its usefulness, anossing books has pre- vented the blind from obtaining the most improved text-books. In fact, so great was the cost of stereo- t^'ping raised letters that in many subjects there existed no technical works at all, and even when there were any the subjects were often dealt with in so antiquated a fashion thot little benefit could 7 u! i ih ii; M m 98 i? ^ I ■• ; l1 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. be t^'.\l i ;' !>| i«!lii l! Ilipi 1 1 V. i i i lili: V. it 1?!; 100 THE TUUE HI'HEIIE OF THE BLIND. special schools, and of those trained in the ordinary schools, and the amount of success in the one class, compared with that attained by the other. Upon the result of this in(iuiry an opinion mi<^ht be safely based. The organization would not be very difticult to ol>tain. A federation of existino; associations would almost answer the description just given. This (jues- tion could be solved by precisely the same methods as those ado})ted by the British and Foreign Blind Association, in determinin<^ the best form of tan*j^ible print. My own opinion is that circumstances ought to govern each individual case. If circumstances permit, it is better for a child to remain at home and attend the day or public schools than to go to a special institution. The chief advantages of so doing are, I consider, the preserving of the home ties and the avoiding of those faults of carriage and of char- acter necessarily inherent in the life of a special school. The chief danger in special schools is, as Dr. Arniitage says, that those officially connected with them are apt to forget that these schools exist for the benefit of the blind, and not as comfortable sinecures for themselves. This is peculiarly apt to occur in insti- tutions altogether in the hands of the State. The plan of the London Board School, of bringing the blind to different local centres, is found to answer very well, and might succeed in our cities. The best form of boarding-school would be obtained by a judicious combination of educating a number of sighted pupils with the blind. This is the plan of the " College for the Blind Sons of Gentlemen," at • «1 !^ THE THUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 101 Worcester, and the results linve been \ t rv irrntifvini:. Tlie sighted pu})ils prcviMit the develojinient of tlu)se peculiar eccentricities which .nv ni'iierally found in tlie blind of the special schools, and the blind pupils secure all the advantae doinir hettcr than an older one. He is full of cnthusiasin, and has not yet leanuMl that he toils in \ain. ()f eours*', this applies to woi'knien only, an\ 128 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. The brass guide used in writinf^ New York point is similar in principle to the Enf^lish Braille guide. In the bed the New York guide has, instead of a triple row of e(|uidistant pairs of cups, a double row of e(|uidistant cups ; in the upper part the cells are square instead of oblong. These differences are due to altered position of the length of the six points. Pocket slates for tliis system are also manufactured in Phila- delphia. The speed attainable in \vriting the New York system is etjual to, if uot greater than, that attained by the majority of sighted persons in the ordinary freehand writing. I have myself made experiments in this particular, and can therefore speak upon it with some assurance. It is also claimed that New York Point can be, as a rule, written faster than the Braille. This is a point conceded by the advocates of Braille, and is of some practical importance in determining which is the better system. The im- proved methods of writing these systems, however, may make considerable difference in the speed attain- able in this system, and I am not aware that any experiments have been made to see which can be written the faster. American Braille. — An important modification of pure Braille is extensively used in many of the American institutions. It had its origin in Boston, and though Armitag-e thouHEUK OK THE JiErXD. 18." liecaiise as yet Mr. W. B, Wait's machine, the stereo- graph, is not on the market, and we have lost two years' worth of cheap books. This thought brings us naturally to the consideration of Mr. Wait's machines. The Kleidoghaph. — The Kleidograph (key-writer) was invented by W. B. Wait. It is but an application of Hall's machine to the New York Point system, and is intended to answer the same purpose as the Braille- writer. The following description of the Kleidograph is taken from Mr. Wait's report to the Board of Fi(i. — The Kleidograph. Managers of the New York Institute for the Blind, for the year 1894 : "The manual consists of twelve embossing ke3^s and a space key, the foi'mer being arranged in three rows, stepwise, one above the other. The eight keys of the two upper rows correspond with the fourth base form of the Njbw^ Yoi'k Code, viz., ; : : : For convenience the keys are known by numbers, in the same manner as the points in the foregoing sign; those in the upper row as 1, 3, 5, 7, and those in 'S;! V i!f|r Ti" } ;■'■ II 1 Vj : . ' i' |:l ^ 1 « 'i i.i . ;; f ■ ■ 1 ; ■ '! ~ :' i, .( IJ ' 1 i ' li ! 1 I'll Jl 13G THE TRUE SPIIEHE OF THE BLiKI). the row next below as 2, 4, 6, 8. At the back end of the key-levers are the eight embossing styluses, or stylets, each of whicli corresponds in position and action with the key having the same number. Thus Key 1 actuates Stylet 1 and produces Point 1. If the manual were provided with only the eight keys above describ 1, the use of both hands would constantly be required . operating the keys. One of the most important . .' vars of the student, however, is that of making written notes while reading from books. While so engaged one hand should be free for reading and keeping the place on the page, while the other should manage the key-board. This important object is fully attained by means of the supplementary keys of the lowest row, each of whicli, when pressed down, will carry with it the pair lying directly above it. To distinguish these keys from the eight primary ones they are called Compound Keys, and are known by the ordinal names, first, second, third and fourth. The efficacy of this mechanism will appear when it is seen that eight points are made at a single movement by the use of only four fingers of one hand. "The paper carriage consists of a light frame carry- ing a slotted cylinder of thin metal, and provided at the right hand end with a fixture, by which the cylinder may be revolved at will. The paper may be of any width up to ten inches. " Having first passed the sheet between the rubber feed rolls, and properly inserted one end of it in the cylinder, the paper, by gently turning the cylinder, is neatly wrapped around it until the head of the sheet tttK TUUK Si»HEUE OK THE BLIND. 137 is brought to its proper position, which is indicated by the liead line edge, formed by a bevelled depression in the reading board. It is important that the inser- tion of the paper should be effected easily and correctly. This has been amply provided for as follows : First, the paper rests evenly and conven- iently on the reading board ; second, it can be squarely adjusted against the inside of the cylinder; third, when being drawn in it can be lined up with the outer edge of the board, and finally with the head line edge. It is equally important that the forward feed of the paper from line to line should be true, as otherwise the lines would not be parallel upon the paper, and might run entirely off at the bottom of the sheet. Accuracy in this respect is secured by sub- stantial feed rolls of metal, covered with rubber." The kleidograph will write either literature, nuisic or mathematics, according to the New York Point sys- tem. The machine, like the Braille writer, will permit any degree of speed which the operator can attain. So far as I can learn these machines are as yet used only in the New York Institute : where upwards of one hundred are in daily use in the educational work of the school, and are giving good satisfaction. I learned this from some correspondence which I have lately had with Mr. Wait regarding the machine. I wished to purchase two of these machines, but Mr. Wait inforuis me that he cannot fulfil the order at present, but has filed it for reference. The Stereograph. — This machine is a develop- ment from the kleidograpli, and, like it, is a 1 it »1 ,1 J :ls THE THUE SPHERE OF THE 15MN1). t I practical accessory of the New York system, but of broader character and use. The special work of this machine is to emboss metal plates ready for printing New York Point. The action of the machine is liirht lit! ill ■ t' , i-:^- ilii - J ?Hl 1 Fici. 7 — The Stereooraph. I and (piiet, and its manaj^ement is easily learned. The stereograph's details are different in every par- ticular from those of the kleidograph, except that the key-board is the same ; but the principle is identical. "W " THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE HLIXD. 130 Like the stereotype-maker the stereograph's styhises are driv^en by i'oot-power. The operation of the inacliine is thus described in Mr. Wait's report : 'The carriage being in place at the riglit liandend, with the front feed rolls open, the metal plate is inserted and adjusted between the stylets and the im]Dression plate, after which the feed rolls are closed upon the plate, thus tirndy holdino- it in place on the carriage. Motion is then imparted by the treadle to the diiving- wheel, which primarily turns upon its bearing as a loose pulley, ready, however, to be Hrndy engaged with its shaft by the action of the kej'board. By depressing the spacer or any of the embossing keys, the following results are produced : First, the stylets required for any chosen letter or sign are selected : second, the feed pawl is thrown forward from one to five teeth of the feed rack, thus determining the throw of the carriage, which will correspond to the length of the sign last made : third, the driving- wheel is thrown into engagement with the shaft, thus imparting motion to the embossing plate by means of an eccentric connection with the shaft at the left hand end ; fourth, by means of the slotted cam, shown in the enlarged part of the shaft at the right, motion is transmitted through a lever and intermediate connections with the shaft at the left hand end. When nearing the end of the line notice is given by a signal bell. When the end has been reached the metal plate is thrown forward for the next time by means of the feed-rolls, which are oper- ated by the milled thumb-piece at the right hand end I* I] t .1 ^ f a I''!: 140 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. I i ; i ■{ IJ I .;« n : ! :■ ^ I ■ of the carr'age. The feed pawl is then disengnged from the rack by lightly pressing a lever, placed just below the table, and the carriage is gently restored to the starting-point by the tension of a spring, which also serves to prevent an overthrow of the carriage. In this manner line after line is embossed until the sheet has been filled. In regard to speed the machine will be limited only by the capacity of the operator." I have quoted Mr. Wait's descriptions of his machine so fully, partly because these inventions have yet to establish their usefulness and efficiency, and partly because they are the machines in which we of Ontario take the most interest, as they are designed to do work in the S3''stem which we use here. Some time ago I w^rote to Mr. Wait regarding tlie stereograph, and on behalf of the Blind Self-help Club I ordered one. In December of last year (1895) I received the reply that no machines had yet been completed except the model, but that the castings for some were being made. We have decided to wait for the stereograph for a while, but if it does not soon materialize we shall order a stereotype-maker and endeavour to introduce American Braille, as we consider a change of system a less evil than a long delay. There are several other point-writing and point- printing machines which space does not permit to describe. Among them the punctograph and the Orindorf press may be mentioned. The punctograph is an ingenious contrivance for writing either Braille or New York Point. It may be of use in schools using both systems, but where only one is used, THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 141 either the Braille writer or tlie kleidograph will be found more serviceable. The Orindorf press is an invention for dry printing. Further information about it may be obtained from tlie inventor himself — Orindorf, Worcester, Mass. Our review of appliances is ended. We can see progress in all these inventions. Each new invention is an outgrowth of some previous one. Step by step we can follow this development from Barbier's frame to the stereotype-maker and the stereograph. We have now only to notice what in theory is the grandest triumph of the educators of the blind. A whole nation has been led to recognize the importance of providing for the education of its blind children, and the American Printing House was the result of this recognition. The American Printing House for the Blind. — This noble monument to the wisdom and goodness of a whole people is located at Louisville, Ky., and was chartered by the Legislature of Kentucky in 1858. By an Act of Congress approved March 3rd, 18T9, the Secretary of the United States Treasury was directed to invest the sum of $250,000 in 4 per cent. United States Bonds, and to pay to the treasurer of the American Printing House the interest accruing on this investment. For sixteen years therefore the American Printing House has received from this source the sum of $10,000 annually, and by it has been enabled to supply to the American Institutions books and tangible apparatus free of charge. No act can well be imagined more calculated to minister Si ■' ■li'i ' ,1 ■ 1 j Mr if; f f ■ I I' i t U2 THE tui:e sphere of the blind. u m I > fl to the iiolmIs of the blind, and yet such is the perver- sity of humanity that this nia^iiiticent institution lias been allowed to become a cudjj^el in the hands of one contending faction for the purpose of closing out the Braille. For three yej>rs the stereotype-maker has been an accomplished fact, a plant which can bo obtained at one-tenth of the cost andopei'ated at one- Hfth less than that of the American Printing House, and yet the American Printing House sticks to the old methods and appliances of embossing. Not a single instrument has been purchased at Louisville. This is not all. Besides refusing to adopt cheap methods the authorities of this institution have endangered and jeopardized the privileges of the blind by violating the conditions of the Act making the grant. They have received plates from institutions and charged more for the liooks made from these plates than these books cost them. This action is distinctly a violation of the third clause of the Third Article which clause says that no profit to the Printing House shall be put on any book furnished to the American institutions under the provisions of the Act. If this grant were withheld it might never be restored. Surely the general welfare of the blind should be better taken care of by these, its most important guardians. With a view of showing how vastly superior the new methods are to the old I copy from Dr. Armitage's work on the " Education and Employment of the Blind " the following account of the old methods of stereotyping now in use at the American Printing House for the Blind : ' THE TRUE SPHERE OK THE MLIXD. 14:j " Movable typo is tivst set ii]) : tlienanionld is iiiado l>y pastiiio- tlii'ee slieets oi' pap«M" too'etlier, the Hhre of wiiieli lias been partially desti'oyed by slioht eharriiilind differing as little as possible in their thoughts and actions from the sighted. Throughout the whole of the education of the blind the fact that they are to live for the greater part of their lives among the sighted should never be forgotten, and it is essential to their welfare that they be like other people. Reading. — The blind should be taught the art of reading from the same text-books as the sighted, and ii'i I Mi \ hi W' Pi .,! n'p: 1 ,1 I ■ I I ' 1 ! I ! 148 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. should take up these text-books in the same order and series. Tlie chief importance of tliis is to estab- lish a bond of sympathy between blind and sighted children. In fact, use of the same text-books through- out the whole course of education serves not only both the blind and the sighted to gauge each other's degree of culture, but also to unite th^'^^ in thought, memories, hopes and ambitions. Part, alar attention must be paid to correct spelling by the instructors of the blind, for their pupils are peculiarly liable to mistakes in orthography, and such mistakes are usually thought to be heinous offences by educated people. The blind are less likely to err in spelling now than formerly. Phonetic spelling and the limited number of books in raised letters, coupled with the difficulty of reading them, were the chief causes which tended to destroy correct spelling. Phonetic spelling has now been virtually abandoned in books for the blind, and the greater tangibility of the books pub- lished recently makes it easier for the blind to notice the spelling. Formerly the whole attention was re- quired to make out the words into sentences, even yet there are so comparatively few books embossed that special instruction in orthography is absolutely essen- tial, if they are to avoid the ridicule attaching to incor- rect spelling. The blind must carry on correspondence with the sighted both in business and in private life, and correct spelling is a condition both of social and business success. Writing. — We have now come to a problem which has not yet been satisfactorily solved. To succeed in I '^il i THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE I'.LIXD. 149 any kind of business it is almost impossible to dis- pense with letter-writing. The question is, How are the blind an h(:,; liri |ii;i! Wi I li i 152 THE TRUE SPHERE Of THE BLIND. are tot) tedious for arithmetical woi'k, though, doubt- less, such type are of value to give to the younger pupils an idea of the way in which problems are ordinarily demonstrated. The ])entagonal and octa- gonal boards are further developments of Saunder- son's plan. Instead of having a separate type for each number the different numbers are indicated by the difterent position of the type with reference to the calculating board. Dr. Armitage considers the octa- gonal board the best means for calculating, and differs from the practice of the Paris School, where the Braille frame is used. The doctor's objections to the old frame are valid, but the Braille-writer and the kleidograph are not open to them. For in tliese machines the paper does not have to be reversed many times in a single lengthy operation, but a number may be struck with one hand and felt with the other the very instant that the keys are released. The Braille-writer, by producing the points on the upper instead of the lower surface of the paper, renders arithmetical work nv\ easier tlian by any calculating board ; and the rapidity with which figures can be written down gives it greater advantage. Grammar. — Here the only point to be insisted on is the use of the same text-books. To speak grammati- cally, is even more important than to spell correctly. Incorrect speaking grates on the educated even more tlian incorrect spelling, and must therefore be guarded against very carefully. History. — This is a favourite study of the blind. Their retentive memory takes care of those minute THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE IJLIXD. 153 details, sucli as names and dates, so disaoreeable to many students. I have no special conunent to make upon tliis subject, except that a variety of historians should be within the reach of the pupils, and in no case should the teachinjj^ be altoo-ether oral. GEO(iRAPHV. — For a longtime no satisfactory means was found whereby the elements of geography might be taught to the blind. It was very hard to impart to them a general idea of the earth — its motions ^xnd the ph\'sical features of its surface. Finally, this difficulty was removed by M. Heller, Director of the Jewish Blind School at Vienna, who introduced the plan of beginning with the construction of plans of the school-room and play -ground. The pupils themselves were taught to make these plans, and gradually the drawing of rough maps, by means of pins and strings upon cushions, was introduced. Besides giving an idea of varying outlines and boundaries, this method formed a good manual exercise, by advancing from concrete ideas of the immediate neighbourhood to larger and larger areas, a good general notion of the earth's surface was at last obtained. Map drawing by pins and strings may be followed by the drawing of maps or figures on paper by means of the point frame and stylus, or of a dressmaker's ordinary trac- ing wheel. The latter is very useful in studying geometry, as curved as well as straight lines can be made with it. Maps. — All methods of map drawing, however, can serve to produce only the outlines of various geo- graphical features. It is necessary, therefore, to ,i i ii'i Mi' I M H h! 154 THE TRUE SPHERE OP THE BLIKD. il'i ' construct maps which will furnish the details. This has been done in several ways, the best of which is by constructing- large wooden maps that may be dissected. In the map of Europe, for instance, each country is represented by a single piece of wood which fits into its place on the map just as a section of a puzzle. Variations in coast and boundary lines are marked by variations in the shape of the piece. All the pieces, when put together, present to the eye a perfect wall map. Mountain ranges, railways, cities and towns, are marked by different headed tacks, and the lakes and rivers are cut into the wood,. The sea is kept on a lower level, and is not movable, forming, in fact, the edge of the bed into which the countries are fitted. The bed itself forms no part of the map any more than does the material of an ordinary map. The best of these maps are made at the Perkins Institute and at the American Printing House. Of course, these maps are expensive, and are suitabl(3 for scliool work only. If in later life a blind person wishes to study geography. ]5ossibly the best way is to have the outlines of an ordinary printed map followed with thread, or by the sewing machine. In all relief maps on paper, the physical features are necessarily very indistinct, and cardboard maps are little better, but even such maps are infinitely more useful than none at all. ({lobes. — Many kinds of globes have been made for the instruction of the blind, to whom they are of the same use as they are to the sighted. They give an idea of the eartli's motions and the relative position of continents to each other. THK TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 1 * " loo Object Lessons. — Under this head I include all those studies in wliich the aim is to make known to the blind the names of common objects and their uses. This work must be begun in the kindergarten and be continued throughout the whole course of educa- tion. The work done in blind kindergarten clas.-jes differs but little from that done in ordinary classes. As knowledge is obtained through the limited range of the sense of touch, there is necessarily more individual instruction. The blind should be made familiar M'ith the use of all sorts of tools, for upon the dexterity of the hand depends not only their entire education, but also their success in after life. The Sloyd system should, therefore, form a part of the regular course in every institution for the educa- tion of the blind, and a few remarks about it may not be out of place. I may say here, before speaking of Sloyd, that though in general there should be no difference between the aims of the education of the blind and those of the sighted, yet the methods in the former should be of the very best and adapted to suit the altered conditions of the pupils. Sloyd. — The educational value of manual training in general, and of Sloyd in particular, is becoming more and more appreciated, both in the Old World and in the New. Both the Century Dictionary and Funk & Wagnall err in saying that Sloyd originated in Sweden. It, no doubt, was given its name and scientific form in that country, j^et it is the gift of Finland to the world, Uno Cygaenus, a disciple of Froebel, was the inventor of Sloyd as a factor in i\ fi''! ■^■It < I 15G THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BI.IND. ]i|. ii'i' Kl ?-.i- pedaf^ogy. Sloyd (Sloyd Sw. Slojd. skill, dexterity, especially nieehanical skill and maimfactiire) is, as its name implies, a kind of manual training. In Finland it forms a part of the National School work, and embraces working in wood, iron, cardboard, pine strips, canvas, cloth and worsted. In Sweden wood Sloyd is chiefly taught. In England and America, national educators are becoming alive to the immense advantages of this system. If knowledge of the use of tools and the training of the hand is regarded as important to sighted children, how much more import- ant must it be to the blind ? At the Perkins Insti- tute, Boston, Sloyd has been regularly taught for several years, and the results have been very satis- factory. The course begins with Sloyd in knitting and sewing, and ends with wood. Several other institutes have made some moves in this direction, but none have placed Sloyd on a scientific basis as the Massachussetts Institute has. Sloyd is yet in its infancy, and is but a further application of the natural methods and principles of Froebel. It recog- nizes the fact that true education consists of skill as well as of science, of action as well as of reflection. In all object lessons the principle involved is that, as the blind do not see things they must get hold of them. In this way, every reading lesson becomes a writing lesson, a history, geography and language lesson, for in reading about such a subject as the apple, its growth and genus, its forms and varieties, its history and where it is grown, are all involved. Sloyd, too, comes in, for in the best schools the pupils ! :H i CHAPTER X. HIGHER EDUCATION. i! ( ; m III: 1.')' i: n H„!h-' '•'; i ^ i i 1 ' \ I ;'!1 k kiilm INTO tlie (question whether or not true education is attainable through an educational system, it is no part of my business to inquire. The fact is that in America education is valued, not so much for itself as for it earning j)ower. The mass of the American students are reading the course with the vie\v that a degree will make their work entitled to a higher remuneration. Theoretically the aim of the univer- sity is to teach liow to study, but 'practically it (qualities its students for some professional vocation. As I am not writing a treatise on education, but simply trying to show how the education of the blind should and can be made like that of the sighted, I shall call higher education that standard of excellence reijuired of the students in the High schools, collegiate institutes and universities. Our task, therefore, will be to investigate how the blind may successfully prosecute study in classics, mathematics, ni< ilal did moral philosophy, political economy ' -.ical and natural science, history, English ai uodern la guages. From works on these subjects selo ted the course of reading required for the degree of B. A. Most universities have other faculties, such as theology, law, medicine, dentistry, music, etc., but as these are 4PI THE TRUE SPFIEKE OF THE BLIND. I.i9 distinctively technical, I shall consider theui under the head of employment. Classics. — From an academic point of view, Latin and Greek are the only classics of which most stu- (lents are expected to know anything, and the study of these subjects present few difficulties peculiar to the blind. Lack of the proper text-books is the chief trouble. The actual text is not very voluminous as a rule, and may be easily copied out by hand. The notes and other additional matter usually puljlished with this text, however, are too len<4thy to be tran- scribed in this way. The limited number of text- books refjuired for the use of the blind rendered it very expensive to obtain such books formerly, but the stereo-machine has made it possible to secure any reciuii^ed text-book for a reasonable Hgure. Diction- aries, however, if published, would be so bulky as to be of little use. After the pupil has been well drilled in grammar and prose composition, probably the best method to follow is to use free translations. The training in grannnar and composition will prevent the student regarding the translation as literal, and at the same time enable him to dispense with a dic- tionary. This plan also constitutes a good language lesson. A well-chosen vocabulary, nevertheless, should be witliin his reach. The bare text of a few classics hav€^already been published in raised letters, both in England and in the American Printing House. Mathematics. — How far the blind may successfully prosecute the study has already been made evident in my sketch of the career of Nicholas Saunderson, I ; si 'f ,1' I; ,.l; h Is i, J ' I ■, IGO THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BUND. the blind professor of matlieinatics of Canibrulge. Saunderson, thoiif^h tlie most eminent, docs not stand alone ; there are many others. Only a few years ago a f^raduate of the Worcester Colleefe for tlie Blind Sons of Gentlemen won a place among the senior optimes of Cambridge Ordinarily geometry, algebra and trigonometry are the only branches of mathe- matics reciuired. I shall now show how the blind fare in these studies. Geometry. — The text of geometry is so much con- densed that its transcription forms but a small part of the work of mastering the subject. In a few hours enough of euclid may be copied out to last the student for months. The chief difficult}^ is the con- struction of diagrams. This may be done in a variety of ways, by pins and strmgs on cushions, by V^tali's ink, and by the sewing machine. For beginners the first two methods are best adapted, but in complex diagrams the last is the most suitable. Many bli'id persons grasp the notion of space so clearly and definitely that they are able to dispense with dia- grams altogether. They carry the construction of the figure in the mind's eye, as it were, nor is this done from necessity, for the most complicated dia- grams can be made by the sewing machine, the details of which can readily be followed by the finger. By means of the point slate these diagrams may be lettered, so that the blind can obtain diagrams as full and complete as those used by the siglited. AlgerUA. — Algebra is a much harder subject for the blind to master than < uclid, In the beginning 1' THE TRUE SPHKIIE OF THE BLIND. 161 !t for hniiig of algebra they find no great inconvenience, but when surds, indices and work in brackets, fractions and quadratics come on the scene, they have no ade- quate machinery for setting down the data of the problem. All the possible combinations of the six points fail to supply symbols enough for the varied and numerous modes of algebraic expression. The great amount of space covered by a single example, in bracketing for instance, and the limited range of the dermal sense in the fincjers combine to baffle the blind in solving the question. The Hall- Braille writer, by printing on the upper surface, has removed one of the great difficulties in the way of the blind studying algebra. A number of carefully chosen signs will remove another. Such a code has been recently prepared by Mr. Bevins, of the Pennsylvania Insti- tute, assisted by two blind graduates of the University of Peimsylvania. • This code, if found satisfactory, should be universally adopted. Trigonometry. — This science has in it so much that is of the nature of geometry that the blind do well in stud^'ing it. Similar precautions must be taken to guard against confusion of signs in trigon- ometry as in algebra, neither should the same sign liave one significance in the one, and another in the otjier. The text o^ trigonometry is condensed like tliat of euclid, and like it may be easily copied out and the diaurams similarly made. Mathematical tables may be constricted by piecing together, on a stift* cardboard, sheets of paper on which sections of the table have been written, so that n I ! m^ i: ' s I I' 1^, |i:l ij'; III' I'-- I i ■ ■ j , Jl '■■ i i !■' i ' ; ' ■ i 1 ;. i 1 i ■ ' ■ u i ■ 162 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. the lines are continuous, both vertically and horizon- tally. Small logarithmic tables, and tables giving the sines, cosines, tangents, etc., of angles may be produced in this way, I have some such which I had con- structed for my own use, and they answer very well. Philosophy. — The blind are very fond of this study, and they are capable of advancing in it as far as their mental ability w411 carry them. The only difficulty is that of procuring text-books. As in a primary course these are not numerous, they may be transcribed. In more advanced work the student had better transcribe the chief text and make analyses of the others ; e.g., in the history of philosophy, a work like Schwegler's " Handbook of the History of Philosophy " must be copied out, as every line of it is important, .and in some cases facts are noticed in it that are overlooked in larger works. Zeler's " Sketch of Greek Philosophy," on the other hand, need only be read out to the student, who, as he listens, may stop to note down the more striking and peculiar parts of the book. Political Economv. — This science is of compara- tively recent origin, and as yet its principles are fluctuating. Tlie (juestion of text-books again rears its ugly head. The plan suggested for philosophy will not answer here, as each author gives to the subject a diflerent treatment. Probably the best way is to make analys(s of all tlie books recpiired, and, as the reading is not so very hard, this may be done rapidly. The more importnnt chapters, sucli as those on land, labour, capital, rent, wages, profits, iipura- \\ rears >sophy :,o the |e best juired, may |s, sucli nroiits, '■»'■ ■ THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 163 etc., had better be transcribed in full. The chapters dealing with the disputed points require only to be noted. Physical Science. — Under this head I shall deal with physics and chemistry only. Geology, miner- alogy and applied science are all studied by the blind with some success, yet, as it is possible to dispense with them in a collegiate course, I shall omit them. The text-books are not voluminous and are easily obtained. Physics. — The book work in connection with the study of physics is not extensive, and is, therefore, not too lencrthv to transcribe. The chief obstacle is the practical work, so it has always been thought. Tliis obstacle has been overcome in such a variety of ways that it lias ceased to be an obstacle at all. In some of the American institutions for the blind, Ohio in particular, the pupils have been taught to perform many experiments themselves. Electrical appliances, it may be thought, are not the safest kind of toys to be put in the hands of tlie blind ; yet in these institu- tions this has been done with comparative!}" as few Mccidents as in schools for the sighted. One fact, motion lies at the root of all the laws of heat, sound, lijxht and electricitv, and wlien this fact has been grasped, progress in this science is made easy. Of course, the microscopic work must l)e taken on trust. It may be thought strange that a child blinded in infancv could know auvthiiii'' alxnit liu'lit, and vet Samiderson understood tlu; laws of light as well as anyone, a single ray of which he had no recollection of ever having seen, • 2 I .: ■!■•! I m \h if:' I If 'i ;,' I i ill I i 164 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. Chemistry. — This science is so similar to physics in its methods and subject matter that it hardly needs special notice. I mnst say, however, that the symbols of the science should be fixed in the embossed copy just as they are in the ink-printed text. All experi- ments may be performed by the blind except those depending absolutely on the eye and the microscope, which must not be attempted, and the results of which must be taken on trust by the blind student. Natural Science. — Natural science, or biology, has, like physical science, a very wide range. Botany and zoology divide into almost as many distinct sciences as there are varieties of animal and vegetable life. I shall nooice only botany, zoology and physiology. The methods employed in teaching natural science to the blind are only a more complete series of object lessons than that used in teaching it to the sighted. The blind require to have specimens — stuffed, modelled and alive — put in their hands, that is all. Botany. — Botany is a science peculiarly open to investigation by the blind. To begin with, its nomen- clature and terminology are fuller and more definite than those of any other science. Not only has every plant its own name, but every known form of each part has a term descriptive of that form. A good memory enables the blind to retain the various names and terms of the science with their exact significance. Many of the finer differentiations, it is true, depend upon the eye, either naked or aided by the micro- scope : but these differentiations may be enlarged and modelled in clay, or where this is impossible they may THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 165 be, when described in the terms of the science, remem- bered and associated with the differences appreciable by touch. In the higher forms of plant life tangible differences are well defined, and even in the lower forms many such differences exist. Zoology. — This science has not as yet been so thoroughly classified as botany, though, as the differ- ences in animal life are more sensible to touch, it can be studied with as great, if not greater, facility. As we ascend in the scale of animal life, it becomes more and more easy for the blind to obtain ideas of animals. Those microscopic animals which form the lowest class can only be known to them from description, as models are of little use. Sponges, corals, star-fish, worms, moluscs, lobsters and insects may be all more or less definitely made out by touch ; but the vertebrate animals are far easier to determine. Fish, reptiles, birds and the different orders of mammalia may be mastered thoroughly by the blind. When a blind man became the authority 9f his day on bees, I need say no more of the ability of the blind to succeed in zoology. Stuffed birds, snakes, bears and monkeys are easily obtainable. Models may be made, and the more docile of the domestic animals examined alive. All this combines to make zoology a very interesting and instructive study for the blind. Physiology. — Structure and function of the human body have ever been interesting to man, and it loses none of its attractions when the student is physically defective. In physiology the methods employed in botany and zoology need only be applied by the man ■ mW "'-.ii :-. 11 166 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 1'' ' fl 1 himself to himself. The skeleton and models of the brain, heart, lungs, and other perishable parts of the human organism, together form the basis for the object lessons of this science. A knowledge of one's own body and what is good for it, and what not, is of great importance to every one. It is vastly more impoitant to those who have any physical weakness, and therefore no a'ood school for the blind should be without a good teacher of physiology, and the best facilities for teaching it. History and English are to be studied in higher education Ity the same method as in primary. The only changes necessary are those resulting from the more advanced stage in the student's growth. Modern Languages. — There are a great many modern languages, but those with which most students have to do are French and German, and now and then a little Italijin. The blind hnd no difficulty in learning modern languages, but text-books are difficult to obtain. IJidike Latin and Greek, Fi-ench and German texts are very lengthy. Probably the best way of studying these languages is by transcrib- ing a portion of the text and using small vocabularies. Translations are as long as the texts, and compara- tively useless. CHAPTER XL SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR THE BLIND. 7 y ■ ■ SCHOOLS lor the blind are very numerous, l»otli in tlie Old World and the New. The purposes ot* these schools are various ; some being for children, others for youths, and yet others for the teaching of some trade. Most of them, however, are for all of these purposes. A list of the institutions for the blind, and a brief account of each would till a volume. I can notice only a few of the best and most efficient. Nor is it necessary for me to do more, since I hold that these institutions are, on the whole, doing good work. It is not upon the improvement of the schools that the amelioration of the blind depends, but upon the formation of associations of the intelligent blind themselves. Without this co-operation the institu- tions can accomplish little. The schools in England, previous to the formation of the British and Foreign Blind Association, were practically asylums, and since its organization they have become educational institu- tions. Although the majority of the institutions in America are not asylums, yet I think that the in- creasing of their usefulness depends chieHy upon their intelligent graduates. These American schools are as efficient as the sighted can make them for us, and we must do the rest ourselves. liiJ » r"' I jl II'.' I 168 tHE TRUE SPHERE Ot' THE BLlNt). The Pauis School. — "L'Institut des Jeunes Aveug- les," founded by i/aiiy, in 1784, is the oldest and perhaps the best school for the blind in the world. Its aim is to give to its pupils a thorough literary and musical education. It was the first school to recognize the fact that the blind are the persons best able to deal with their own difficulties, and, conse- quently, it was the first to make a success of their education. All the teachers are blind. This is, per- haps, carrying the principle too far, and would, I think, have a tendency to isolate the blind. A staff having the heads of departments blind and the assist- ants sighted, would be more suitable. The Paris school, however, has an enviable record. About 60 per cent, of its graduates have succeeded in maintain- ing themselves in after life. No higher praise can be given to it than to point to this great success of its ex-pupils. The history of the Paris School has been one long series of the triumphs of genius over blindness. The Braille system, the Braille musical notation, music as a profession for the blind, and piano-tuning as a vocation for them, all had their origin within its walls. In fact, only one great advance in the educa- tion of the blind has been made out of France. The last epoch-making invention in this direction is the stereotype-maker .md American appliance. The Royal Normal College. — " The Royal Nor- mal College and Academy of Music for the Blind," Upper Norwood, London, was founded in 1871. Its aims are similar to those of Paris, and its reputation, as a school, is almost as great. It has a peculiar n' THE TRUE Sl'HEUE OF THE BLIND. 109 interest for us, arising from the fact that the found- ing of this great institution was ahnost altogether due to the efforts of tlie Britisli anle experience as an educator of the blind. He was formerly libi'arian of the Koval Normal, and later a teacher in th(; Perkins Institute. It is to his efforts that the Pennsylvania Institute owes its place among the foremost educational insti- tutions in America. Baltimore. — Anothei- corporate school of il institutions for the blind is |u- sp( •y land School for the Blind, incorporatever a line, and which was intro- duced there in 18(50. Its management has ever been ready to adopt the most improved nu'thods and appliances used in educational work. The Braille- W)"iter and the stereotype-maker were no soon<>r shown to lie practical than they were introduce*! here. Phonographs art' used to dictate to the pupils. This fact is alone sufiieicnt to show the ])rogressive tendency of the school. I bclicNc that nowhere else is such a novel an1XD. :l f > m^ raska, Ohio, Tennessee, T(;xas and Wi.sconsin. Most of the other States ami some of the territories provide foi" tlie education of their blind, hut eiilier the insti- tutions are in their infancy or connected with schools for the deaf. When the blind and deaf are placed under one nianag-ement, the l)lind are ^-enerally the losers ; as it is so much easier to overcome the difficulties of the deaf, the blind receive less atten- tion. An examination of the repnrts of these insti- tutions will bear this out. The chief drawback to these State schools is, as I have said, that their superintendence is regarded as party plunder. With- out permanent and competent officers no school can succeed, and by this method of appointment these are very hard to obtain. I am of the opinion that we will have to wait until a better class of men arise before such appointments will cease to Ije regarded as fair game, and that at present the State would con- sult more the interests of the blind whom it wishes to benefit by endowing and not controlling insti- tutions. The New York State school has had three different superintendents in as many years. Ohio and Wisconsin have had similar experiences, and all the State schools are subject to similar disturb- ances. I do not say t;iat incompetent men have been or are certani to Ite appointed, but the education of the blind is peculiar, and its needs cannot be under- stood in the twinkling of an eye. To master it thoroughly recpiires years of patient study and research, and so long as the liead of an institution knows that his tenure of office expires with the Government that appoints him, he will not be so m THE TRUE SIMIEUE OF THE BLIND. 179 con- ishes insti- three Ohio and isturb- ; been ion of under- ster it und itution tU the be so \' likely to take time to inve.sti^^ate, and nioi'eover he is likely to g-ive some ol' his time to the service of the party that gave to him his position. Canadian Schools. — The total nmnber of insti- tutions for the l)lind in Canada is four. Of these two are in Montreal, and are not of mnch account. The otiier two are the Ontario Institute, at Brantford, and the Halifax School. Brantford. — The Ontai-io Institute for the Educa- tion of the Bliiid was founded in 1872. Before speaking of this venerable and valuable institution, I ma}^ say that I speak from experience. I was a pupil there for seven years, from 1883 to 18P0. In my account of other institutions I have had to rely altogether upon their reports, and what I iiavc said is based upon information contained therein. For the past fourteen years the institution has been under the able superintendence of Mr. A. H. Dymond, a good manager and a strict disciplinarian. As an institute, as far as one can judge from reports, the Ontario Institute is, if anything, a little above the average of American State schools. The Principal, though reserving to himself a veto in all cases, leaves the conduct of departments pretty much in the liands of their senior officers. Of the music and handicraft departments I shall treat in the chapters on employ- ment. Of the kindergarten and department of physi- cal culture I have nothing to say, except that I believe them to be ([uitc up to the average now. The gvnniasium has been built since mv time, and the kindergarten was onl}' in its iirfancy when 1 left, so that I have no personal knowledge of their work. I * II '! 1 : f ■ .ii j if. 1 1 1 ISO THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE RIJND. ii' I"'' Of tlic littrary departinent, a few words will suffice. The \\'ork in this departnient is as thorouo-li as tlu^ present condition of the blind justifies. The instruc- tion is nearly all oral, and the pupils are orally examined. Such practices have long been condemned and abandoned by the best schools for the blind, an. #:r lis iiiid art ill tlicsc Provinces. In its education the Sloy^ 1^ IIIII2.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 -< 6" — ► v: iff /a %. O ^l. 4V^ M / Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 873-4503 ,\ iV ^^ \\ >%■ >" 6^ I i T ^ S r li 18H THE TIUTE SPHEKE OP THE I5MXI). " Tlie Physical Development of the Blind," by H. N. Felkel, Florida Institute. " System va. Individuality in the Education of the Blind, in hoth Local and National Preference," by W. 0. Todd, Kansas Institute. " How can we give our Pupils a More General Knowlege of Business ? " by J. M. Costner, North Carolina Institute. " Methods of Discipline," by T. F. McCune, Iowa College. " Primary Reading," by Miss Nellie Love, Indiana Institute. " Are we Working on Wie Right Line," by H. B. Jacobs, West Pennsylvania. " State Homes Uw the Blind," by F. R. Place, New York Institute. These meetings of the Association of Instructors derive most of their importance from the fact that the trustees of the American Printing House avail them- selves of the opportunity afforded to hold their own meetings at the same time. The superintendents of the institutes of the United States are ex-q^cio trustees of the Printing House. The American Asso- ciation of Instructoi-s of the Blind passed a resolution in convention at Indinapolis recommending that the New York Point System should be taught in all institutions for the education of the blind. (1871.) During the seventh biennial convention of the Asso- ciation at Janesville, Wis., in 1882, the trustees of the Printing House decided that 50 per cent, of the whole revenue arising from the Congressional grant should THE TIU^E SPHERE OK THE BLIND. 187 be expended in publishing books in the New York point. In July, 1892, at Bi-antt'ord, Canada, F TUF-: VAASD. ¥■ ,11 ii The Toronto Clubs and Oxtauio Association OF THE Blind. — In tlic full of LSOl, oftbrts were inado to obtain an oi'j;ani/ation of tlio Toronto blind, but it was not until tlie following year that the Self- Help Club was foiined, with Mr. Willian^ Stewart barrister, as its president, and myself as its secretary. The object of this association was to i)roniote the employment of the blind, or I'ather to <;ather informa- tion regardin*;" it, and to apply such as far as we were able. After about a year and a half, in which meet- ings were held regularly on every second Tuesday in the month, the name of the association was changed and its objects and pcrsonuH considerably altered. We had accomplislied considerable. The most valuable [)art of our work was an interchange of ideas upon methods of locomotion, education and employment. The results were, our association and its objects were brought before the public by means of reports of our proceedings in the papers and a concert given under our auspices. Some three or four were taught to read the New York Point, and tw^o piano-tuning. Our members received many valuable hints on methods of locomotion, and the attention of the Government was called to the failure of the basket- making industry. But perhaps its most important outcome was : The "Associated Blind." — When Mr. Stewart and myself left the city, and Dr. Howie the country, the reins w^ere handed over to President J. K. Cameron and Secretary R. J. Harcourt. In a few weeks the whole club formed itself into a ring of TIIK TUITE SPHKIIE OK THE RI.IXD. 191 coal and wood aircnts. It was found that this husiness was vt'iy |)roHtal»lo, and arran^iMncnts wen' made with Mr. McFarlanc and the Dominion Coal Co. to to its >1> d( 'nt in to ^ ; connnissions on tlicm. For a time this arrangement worked well,b\it later on, owinj;' to difficulties with the coal people and to internal lo a more iTuiti'iil mental hl'e. We liave seen also tliat blind men have attained to the highest honour and distinction in many branches of literature, philosophy and art. Their education, we have found, need bo in no material way im])eded by their blindness, and that though few blind men can be said to have been men of the widest scholarship, yet many of them have been men of the deepest learning. Now, however, we are brou(;'ht face to face with that which makes blindness a misfortun«'. h\ a single sentence this cause may be stated : Blindness gener- ally destroys the earning power of its victims. No matter how intelligent or how well educated blind men may be, they finil it impossible in the majority of cases to maintain themselves. I am aware that even to those who are familiar with the subject tliese 13 104 TMK TRUE SPirEUE (H' THE IJEIND. 11 i ) !■:!!■ Htutcmcnts may seem a little too ;;enoral in their character, a little too hroad. Hut I Hpoak of the blind as I know them, many of whom are persons of supei'ior intellioenct', «;oo(l education, and very desii-- ous of makini;' their own way in the world : yet most of them fail in their e'ftorts to do so. This greatest of all obstacles in the way of the blind is the chief cause of their unhappiness. The great problem to be solved, either by or for the blind, is this one of self-maintenance. No satis- factory solution of this problem has yet been found, nor do I claim to have discovered any. I merely suggest an hypothesis which may prove to be the true solution. Mv idea is to cease trainino- the blind for manual labour, and begin to fit them for mental work. The it priori i-easons for this change have been noticelume mi<;ht easily be filled with accounts of the ways in which individual blind men have supported themselves, yet in any lar<»«' nuud)er of cases it is hard to find more than the oeiicral law exem[)Iitied, viz., the increased activity and fertility of the nnnd. I have selected from the material available a few of the more strikinjj: cases to illustrate my view. The exact position of the blind with reference to employment may be sunnnarized thus : Most of the trades are closed to them alto<^ether, because the eye is absolutely essential to working at them. Of those trades in which the eye can be 100 TIIK TUUE SIMIEIIE OK THE lU.INI). n.ii Willi ri'lVrciiCL' to tliese vocations tljc lorc^oincv statt'inciit st'ts i'ortli the |)OHition of the l)lin(l^('ii('>}illy and a]H>li('.s i»ot)i to men and to women. A word, liowovci", niust )»(' ad cxainiiKMl closely it will Ix' loiind that those which reiiiaiii open require a l«nin;aner of apprentices, who are taken from e\'ery walk of life, and not speciall\' from the mechanical, is very con- siderable. But where the custom of this place is most at variance with the ordinaiy practice of the busine.'^ world, is in employing its workmen whetlier times be good or bad, and in paying to the least valuable of them a wage sufficient to mair^'-'bi them. From what has been said .o is evident that the Blind Men's Working Home does not e\en pretend to be a business enterpi-ise. As an indication of its pros- perity I may say that an addition to the factory m 202 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE IJLINl). I'i r,i; I' 1 IJi li.'is been built recently, increasing its floor space by some 20,000 square feet. For many years Mr. H. L. Hall, himself a blind man, has been superintendent and laisiness manager of this home, and it is chiefly through his efforts and those of his colleagues that it has been so successful. Mr. Hall and his friends have also done much to induce other cities to follow Philadelphia, and Chicago and Brooklin have done so lately, and New York philanthropists are inquiring into the ways and means. Of course this establishment is a home as well as a factory. The most of the workmen reside on the premises, are well housed and well fed. Beyond all doubt or (question tliis is the best way of dealing with the indigent l)lind. The Saxon System and the Dresden School. — The Saxon system is a plan wliereb}?^ the Dresden Institute relie\'es the temporary distress of its grad- uates. It is the most practical recognition of a prin- ciple everywhere adhered to in Europe, but nowhere followed in America, viz : It is the duty of a school for the blind to keep in touch with its graduates. In Europe this principle, when acted upon, has been found not only helpful to the ex-pupils, but highly beneficial to tlie school itself. It is the duty of the superintendent of the Dresden school to visit the school's graduates from time" to time, and if he find any needy and deser\'ing, they are assisted from a fund created for this purpose many years ago. This system is a far less delicate way of giving relief than the Philadelphia plan, but it has this great advantage. THK TIUE SIMIEUE OF THE BLIXD. 203 tliat it does not break tlie lioine ties, a very important consideration indeed. A full and interestino; account of the orii»in and workino- of this system may l)e found in Armitao-e's work. Besides bein«^ remark- able for its relief of the Saxon blind, the ])resden school is noted for the ^reat attention which it pays to the teachino- of trades, of which brush, rope, and basket-making* are the chief It iinist not be supposed, however, that elementary education is ne(;"lected, Broom-Making. — This is the chief trade taught to the blind of the United States. Every American institute gives instruction in it. But how far the blind trained in these institutions are enabled t(3 maintain themselves by following this trade cannot be guessed at even, because no efibrt has been made to collect the information upon which an opinion might be based. That Mr. Hall partially succeeds in the Home forms no criterion, as collective labour often succeeds where individual fails. The making of brushes, ropes, mats and nets, and the caning of chairs are trades sometimes taught to the blind. According to Armitage none of these trades are very remunerative to the English blind who follow them, though they are of great use for manual training. In America they are little taught and are pn^ctised mostly by individual blind men. Brush-making has been abandoned at Philadelphia for purely economic reasons, 1 believe. Chair-caning is a good enough trade in itself, but the sort of chair on which such work is put is no longer very exten- sively manufactured. I .•A I » 11 r ^04 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE RLlND. m^f 1 <' V V Basket-Making. — Armitfi^e considered l)aHket- inakino- a i»ooir 15 I f I I iJ- V { THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. if I.V« Ii. past achievements in literature we have evidence enough in favoi' of their clumces of success. A good education and some literary training sliould therefore form a part of every special scliool's cuii-iculum. The blind, as instructors of the blind, ha\e, as I have frequently said, been most successful. F. J. Campbell, the Principal of the Royal Normal College, has made that institution one of the best in the world. Mr. W. B. Wait, of the New York school, has been men- tioned so often by me that I nee'reatest preachers and orators that tlie Canada ^lethodist Church has ever had, was born near Scott's home at Abl)otsfovd, Scotland, in 1825. His parents were staunch Presbyterians, and George was brought up in that faith. Jii lS-')2 the Douylas faiuilv emii>Tated to Canada. In 1843, Douglas joined the Methodist Church, and some years later ([ualitied himself for its ministry. For two years he laboured as a missionary in Bermuda's isles, but was forced to give up the work on account of a violent fever, from the effects of which he never fully recovered, and retnrnod to Canada. For the ney*" twent\'-five years he was reiiu- larly engaged iii CIk it:ii work. He w;is stationed at Montreal, Tur*^'' o Hamilton and Kingston, and every- where left beiiiiKt him a good record. In 1.S7.'3 the Montreal Wesle 'an Colleiie was founded, wioii Douglas as its principal. In 1877 Douglas became blind. At first this misfortune threatened to crush him, but after a time he rallied, aiul for sixteen vears faith- fuUv and eheerfullv finij-luMl his .ife':' .vork in the discharo'e (jf his office. Saturilav ev-ni'io', February 10th, 1804, wlien his week'^ W( I'v v, is done, Douglas passed quietly away. lu 22S THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. i ' Ui George Douglas had made a great reputation years before helostliis sight. Yet afterhis blindness his intel- lect lost none of its strength, and his voice none of its eloquence. His later life is a complete refutation of the statement that blindness, when it comes to the young, may be no misfortune, yet when it afflicts the elder it is insurmountable. MiLBURN. — Willam H. Milburn, the distinguished preacher and lecturer, was born in Philadelphia in 1S23. His blindness resulted from one of the );;.<-.i, revolting cases of malpractice on record. When rive years old he was struck in the eye with a missle in the hand of a playmate. The wound healed, leaving a slight protuberance on the eye. This the physician determined to remove. The operation was painful, and the boy protested against its repetition, and finally resisted. The doctor seized him in his arms, and in the struggle both of the child's eyes were dashed with the caustic. The physician's folly cost Milburn his sight. He was educated at the Illinois College at Jacksonville, where he studied with the small amount of sight loft him. In later life he became totally blind. At the age of twenty he was admitted as a travelling preacher to the Methodist Illinois Confer- ence. He was a bold and fearless preacher. A striking instance of his character happened when he was but twenty-two years of age on an Ohio River steamer. He rebuked a number of Congress- men on board, telling them in a sermon that they were patrons of drunkenness, debauchery and gam- bling. This attack so astonished the gentle'nen that Dn years bis intel- me of its ,ation of s to the Hicts the n^uished ilphia in the it^ost, ^hen rive inissle in I, leaving; physician 1 painful, rid finally s, and in dashed Milburn 'ollege at amount totally ted as a Confer- eher. A ,ed when an Ohio /ongress- luit tlu>y ,nd gam- nen that THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 229 in appreciation of his fearless honesty they offered to make him Chaplain to Congress, a promise which they afterwards fulfilled. He was several times re-elected to this office. In four of the six years of his ministry in the South he preached 1,500 times, and travelled G0,000 miles. He travelled alone chiefly, and tells us that in all his wanderings that only once was he refused help in getting about when he asked for it. In the summer of 1855 he prepared a course of lectures, entitled " Sketches of the Earl}^ History and Settlement of the Mississippi Valley," first delivered before the Lowell Institute in Boston, in December of the same year. Ever since he has been one of the most popular of American lecturers, and is a living protest against his own theory that the blind cannot become great orators. G. L. Howie is a native of Syria, and a graduate of i\ ;!' burgh. While pursuing his studies at the uni- vr^vj.iy he became blind. Yet notwithstanding this hi took the degrees of M.A. and Ph.D. When in ?i.(iinb\rgh he was employed by the Edinburgh Home Teaching Society as one of their distributors of books to the blind, a work which he performed to the satisfaction of both the society and the blind themselves. On coming to Canada he was engaged as a regular Presbyterian clergyman, and as a special nv'ssionary. In 1894 he returned to his native land. VVlnle in Toronto he was Vice-President of the Self- Help Club, was an efificient officer and an agreeable colleague. 230 THE TIU:E SPllEIiE OF THE I'.I.IXD. Tlie blind are proverlnally clieerful, and tliis char- acteristic is especially prominent in their ministry. Millmrn used to call himself the Minister of Cheer- fnlnt!ss. In the United Kinnclom an. t 40 ijrJaucoma ^ ^.j.. Sympathetic Oplithalmia 4"5(j(, Oonorrlioeal OphthaJmia fno Disease ot the Eye from Small-pnx" ." .' ."".".'"" 2"'n(; Intoxication Amaurosis " ' o (j'i!) '^'"^"'^ 4J.(J!);j ^'fi \l-'h 2:U Tin-: TIUTE SPHEIIE OF THE r.LlN'l). i i Piior.ABLY Preventable Blindness, Per cent. Diseasos of the Cornea 4.034 Direct Injuries to the Eye 2.017 Unsuccessful 0{)eriitions 1.978 Trido-choroiditis, Cyclitis, Iritis 4.430 Uetuchmeut of Retina 1.000 (ilauconia 0.978 Uiielassitialde 1.081 Disease of the Eye from Syphilis 0.238 Choroiditis, Choroidoretiiiitis 0.3()9 Idiopathic Optic-nerve Atrophy 2.000 Optic-nerve Atrophy — Cerebral 2.000 Optic-nerve Atrophy — Spinal 0.333 Typhus, Measles, Scarlatina, etc 1.105 Total 24.189 Unpreventable Blindness. Disease of the Cornea 4.034 Direct Injuries of the Eye 2.017 Tumors of the Eye and surroundings 0.350 Irido-choroiditis, Cyclitis, Iritis 4.430 Injuries to the Head 0.277 Scrofulous Diseases 0.039 Unclassifiable 1.681 Disease of Eye from Syphilis 0.238 Choroiditis, Choroidoretinitis 0.738 Idiopathic Optic-nerve Atrophy 5.751 Optic-nerve Atrophy — Cerebral 4.961 Optic-nerve Atrophy— Spinal 2.000 Typhus, Measles, etc 1.165 Irido-choroiditis with Meningitis 1.424 Other causes, including 3.835 per cent, of con- genital blindness 5.412 Total 34.523 THK TIU'E SPIIEHK OV TIFE P.MNI). 2:^: .034 ,017 ,356 430 ,277 .039 .C81 ,238 738 751 961 ,000 165 424 412 .523 Op examiniiiijf' tliis tjiblo we are struck witli tlie hioli percentauje of tlie preventable causes oF blind- ness. Four out of ten l)lin(l persons are needlessly blind, antl probably two of the reniainiii^ six sliouM be aljle to sec well. We nuist reniend)er this, how- ever, that many of the prexentable causes of blind- ness are fre(pie)itly not actually prevented. Yet \vith the advance of civilization the lunidx'r of cases actu- ally prevente'ether uidcnown diseas(3s. Tliere are, howe\'er, on the list two diseases wdiich do not dimin- ish, but actually increase with the advance of civil- ization, and about these I liave somethinfj to sav. Choroiditis myopia and detachment of the retina furnish nearly G per cent, of the blind. The cause common to each of these conditions is myopia, and merits careful consideration. It may be said to be an outgrowth of civilization and education, and may be taken as an indication of a nation's studious ludjits. Myopia (short sio-Jitedness) is almost peculiar to e(bi- cated people, and is seldom if ever found in the ignorant and barbarous. At present there are many causes at work calculated to increase the nundjer of myopes. The long hours of confinement in class- room and studv, and the lack of sufficient out-door exercise and fresh air, tend to culti\'ate sedentary habits and to lessen the resistirig power of the tissues of the body. The close application of the eyes at near work with badly constructed desks and insuffi- , i<: i' I Hi i.: fil ' 1 1 1 •{.Mi II if Tm THE TUrE SPHERE OF THE HLIND. cient li^ht I)rin«r on congestion of the fnnter as )Osition dl offer le next ack in seeing h he is vahie CHAPTER XX. ON TUE CAKE OF THE EVES AND THE CONSEt^UENCES OF NEGLECT. L'^NDER this head are grouped a few remarks ^ upon some of the bad lial»its wliich, h)ng per- sisted in, produce permanent injury of the eyes. The bad liabits I mention are peculiar to people who read a pi*cat deal, and as this class orows larmsr with the advance of civ^ilization, it is probable that the number indulging in these practices is increasing. I have, therefore, the same interest in ]M)inting out the conse- quences here as I had in dealing especially with the diseases resulting from myopia in the last chapter. For as myopia is a cause of blindness, and bad habits of myopia, the remote cause of blindness from myopic affections are misuses of the eyes. The hereditary nature of myopia is established almost beyond ques- tion, and consequently any large increase in the number of myopes is certain to be followed by a proportionate increase in the number of the blind from myopic affections in the next generation. Such facts make the eradicating of the bad habits referred to a matter of paramount importance. Reading while l3'ing down is a habit productive of much eye trouble. The strain on the accommo- dating muscles recmired to keep the eyes in the 240 TJIE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. N' / ?, ■ « :, m i unwonted position, both with reference to the liead and tlie prhited page, results in serious derangement of the refracting media : and, in consequence, impair- ment of vision. Simihir troulik's result from reading" by insufficient illumination, such as that at some distance from the window, that of twilight or moon- light, and that giv^en by small, badly-trinnned artificial lights. But the habit which deserves the severest condemnation is that of reading in bed. It combines, besides the e\'il of reading while lying down and by insufficient illumination, almost all the predisposing conditions which render the eye prone to disease. Not only are the eyes weakened by this practice, 1)ut serious and sometimes permanent injury to the healtl) of the whole body result from it. All these habits should be avoided. No small print should b(! read, and the reader should get so close to the light that no strain is felt in reading. Finally, when any- one notices vision impaii'ed, a first-class oculist or (lualified general pi-actitioner should be consulted at once. Neither ([uack remedies nor procrastination should be tolerated, as either may be attended with serious conse([uences. e liead ^•eineiit mpair- 'eadiii^' b some inooii- rtificial ev^erest mbines, iiid bv sposing disease. ractice, to tlie 11 these ould be. le light 11 any- Ill ist or llted at nation d with CHAPTER XXL BLIND DEAF-MUTES. OF absorbing interest to psychologists, physiolo- gists, glossologists and philanthropists is the work of systematically educating blind deaf-mutes, begun many years ago by Dr. Howe, of Boston, at the Perkins Institute and Massachusetts School for the Blind and still going on there with ever-widen- ing scope and equally gratifying results. In other parts of the world, chiefly in America, isolated cases are found in educational institutions, but nowhere else is this work systematically and regularly taken up. My aim is not to treat of this matter fully, as I have neither the space nor the knowledge requisite for such a task, but rather to call the attention of students of science to this field of comparative psychology and physiology, and to interest philanthropists in such a glorious work. I shall, therefore give a brief account of the blind deaf-mutes of the Perkins Institute, and mention a few of the isolated cases elsewhere. Laura Bridgman. — When Charles Dickens was in Boston in 1842 he visited the Perkins Institute and had an interview with Laura Dewey Bridgman, whose education had been undertaken bv Dr. Howe five years before. Dickens was so deeply impressed with Di*. Howe's success in teaching this child that he gave 16 242 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BEIND. 3^^ 1 m Si! 1 '• a full account of liercase in liis " American Notes." It was the recollection of his visit to the institution and of Laura Bridgnian, the best possible evidence of its usefulness which probably, (juite as much as Dr. Howe's personal appeals, lead the great English author to have published in raised letters at liis own expense his " Old Curiosity Sliop," finisl i and dis- triljuted by Dr. Howe in 1(S69. For more than forty years after this visit Laura Bridgman continued to be one of the wonders of the educational world. She was born in New Hampshire in 1829. At two years of age, by scarlet fever, she was deprived of the senses of sight, hearing and smell, wliile lier sense of taste was also impaired. At the time when she was taken charge of by Dr. Howe she had learned to move about some and could sew and even knit a little. Dr. Howe first devised and taught to her the manual alphabet. Then she learned to read embossed letters, next endiossed words, and she learned to associate each word with its corresponding object. So far the work was merely a cultivation of memor^^ But at length she discovered that by this means she could have communication with others, and her whole mental life was changed. She grew happy and enjoyed her- self at play like other children. She learned to know people instantly by the touch alone. In a few years she was able to be taught geography and history and mathematics. Sh(^ rcctsived and answered letters from all parts of the world, was always employed and conse(|uently always happy and contented. She learned to write a legible s(|uare hand and to read THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 243 :es." It on and of its as Dr. English is own nd dis- n forty med to I. She years e senses iste was 1 charge nt some )we tirst Iphabet. s, next ,te each i work length d have mental ed her- ,o know kV years ry and letters ed and She to read well, and to think deeply on religious and other matters. She became a successful teacher of the blind and deaf. For fuller information see a work on her life and education by her teaclier, Miss Lamson, Boston, 187S, and " Dickens' American Notes for General Circulation." For tlie pathological results of investigation into tlio Imiin of Laura Britlgman, see the papers of ]3r. Henry Donaldson, of Clarke University, in the American Journal of Psychology, where the histological conditions are fully set forth. In the sixty-first report of the Perkins Institute, Dr. Donaldson says : " The brain was simpler than that of a normal person, and Laura was shut oil' from those cross refer- ences between her several senses which usually so facilitate the ac(iuisition of information and the pro- cess of thouofht. Mental association was for her limited to various phases of the dermal sensations on the minor and imperfect senses of taste and smell. Yet, from their fundamental and protean character, the dermal senses are perhaps the only ones on which alone the intellect could have lived. We are thus brought l)ack to Sanford's conclusion as derived from the study of her writings : ' She was eccentric, not defectiv^e. She lacked certain data of thought, but not in a very marked way, the power to use what data she had.' " One word more upon the cortex. The deficiency in the motor speech centre is mainly microscopical, the motor centre has lost some but not all of its asso- ciative connections. Histologically it was slightly ;r;j k Ji ': I : ; i i I i' ' ,! f i ) i- 244 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. deficient. . . . Finally the deficiency was not so very great even in those areas where it was most marked ; and the question arises as to what sort of occupation the cells in those areas had which would thus justify their prolonged existence. If they were thrown entirely out of function it is not easy to see how they could last so well for nearly sixty years." Helen Keller. — The place in the educational world so long held by Laura Bridgman, is now occupied by another, and, if anything, a more interesting blind deaf-mute, Helen A. Keller. Her character, strength of intellect, warmth of heart, and the wonderful purity of her English are well illustrated by the following appeal for her fellow-in-affliction, Tommy Stringer, taken from the sixty-first report of the Perkins Institute, and delivered spontaneously and extempore at the kindergarten annual reception : " I want to say something to you myself ; I cannot speak very well yet, but my heart is full of thoughts, and I nmst express some of them. Kindness is like rain in April, it maizes everything grow. Your kind- ness will make the little plantlets grow and blossom. Think how happy we shall all be when Tommy's mind bursts beautiful and bright from behind the clouds which hide it now. Loving thoughts for others are the most fragrant blossoms of the heart ; their perfume may so fill with sweetness and joy the life of a blind and deaf and dumb child that he will never dream how full the world is of wonderful things which are hidden from him. Life is beautiful and sweet when we have that beautiful key — Ian- % THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BUND. 245 not so ,s most sort of would jy were to see ars. \\ world pied by g blind trength inderful by the Tommy of the sly and on : cannot loughts, is like ' kind- ossom. ommy's ind the others their he life le will nderful autiful y — lan- guage — to unlock its precious secrets. So liclp us educate Tommy ; help us to bring liglit and gladness into his life, and into the lives of all little l>lind children." Helen spoke with unsurpassed fluency and fervour, and her listeners were entranced and moved to tears. To Helen, as to Laura Bridgman the power of the recognition of persons by the hand does not seem wonderful. She wonders rather that any otlier means are necessary. At a tea given by her in aid of the kindergarten for the blind, held in 1892, she dis- played this power to a marked degree. Her friends were present in large numbers, and she recognized them all, each by the hand grasp. By this tea over $1,100 were raised, and an inexhaustible fund of sym- pathy and resource created. The tea was Helen's own idea, and brought from an idea to a fact by her own exertions, in spite of the discouraging opposition of her dearest friends. Divine providence was never better exemplified than in the earnest appeal of this beauti- ful girl to ameliorate her fellow -sufferers. She left the Perkins Institute in 1892, and is now attending a private school for the deaf in New York. Her latest triumph is the acquisition of the power to sing. By placing her fingers on the throat of a singer she is able to follow notes covering two octaves and pro- duce them with her own voice. Her sense of touch has been so finely developed that by placing her hand upon the piano case she can discriminate notes not more than half a tone apart. Her voice is simple, like the tone of a tuning-fork, and lacks the resonance . t I? hi' ■A ^t ■ !| 1* h Mi! 246 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. of the normal voice cUie to their composite char- acters of tone. Helen's mind, owing to the great care taken of her education, is more developed than that of the normal pirl of her ao-e. Her sense of smell is very acute, and she is often able to recognize persons by this means alone. Her touch is so fine that she can discover the play of an individual's emotions by passing her hand over his face, Edith Thomas. — The senior blind deaf -unite now in the Perkins Institute is Edith M. Thomas, and the methods adopted in h6r eHERE OF THE BLIND. tho central temperate regions lootli towards tlie equator and towai'ds tlie poles. In Egypt and Mexico and tlie remote northern regions, it is estimated that 10 ])er cent, of the population ai*e blind: and in the temperate zones al)out O.l per cent. It is also more common in the eastern than in the western hemisphere. With tliese vague geiieraUties, I dispose of the rest of the world, and pass on to the last cenftus returns for the United States and Canada. According to the census of 1891, there were then in Canada 3,.S()8 blind persons — 1,839 males, and 1,529 females. In Ontario there were 1,227 blind persons, of whom 158 were at school at Brant ford. In the whole Dominion the proportion of the blind popula- tion to the whole population is less than one to a tliousand, being about 6.5 in ten thousand. The following table, taken from the Twenty-third Animal Report of the Ontario Institute for the Blind, shows the number of pupils in attendance there in each year since its foundation. " Attendance for portion of year ending September 3rd, 1872 : ■i; :\ • Year. Males. Females. Totals. Year. Males. Females. Total 1872.. . 20 14 34 1884.. 71 69 140 1873.. . 44 24 68 1885.. 86 74 100 1874.. . . 6H 46 112 1886.. 93 71 164 1875.. . . 89 50 139 1887.. 93 62 155 1876.. . . 84 64 148 1888.. 94 62 156 1877.. .. 76 72 148 1889.. 99 68 167 1878.. . . 91 84 175 1890.. 95 69 164 1879.. . . 100 100 200 1891.. 91 67 158 1880.. . . 105 93 198 1892.. 85 70 155 1881.. . . 103 98 201 1893.. 90 64 1.54 1882.. .. 94 73 167 1894.. 84 66 150 1883.. .. 88 72 160 THE TRUE SfHERE OP THE ULIND. 251 Totals. 140 IGO 1G4 155 156 167 164 158 155 154 150 In tlie United Statos, accordino- to tlie census of 1890, there were o(),4ll l)lin(l — males, 27,9S.S: females, 22,428 — of tlies(! 'A,'20:i were in the American insti- tutions for the education of the blind. The following: table, taken from the last report of the Pennsylvania Institute for tlie Blind, gives the names of insti- tutions in the UnittMl States in 181)4, and where iJ,(j30 were in attendance in that year : Statk. I'L.\CK. Talladega Talladega .... Little Rock... Berkeley Colo. Springs. St. Augustine. Macon Jackson\ille .. Indianapolis. Vinton Kansas City . . Louisville .... Baton Rouge_. Baltimore . . .'. Baltinioie Boston Lansing Faribault .. .. Jackson St. Louis Boulder Nebraska City Santa Fe Batavia New York City Raleigh Columbus . . . . Salem N.\.MB. Si PERISTEXDKNT. Alabama Alaba;iia Academy for the Blind School for Negro Ueaf-.Mutcs and Blind. ... Carlton Mitchell. J S (» raves. Arkansas California Colorado School for the Blind Inst, for the Ivluc.iti.on of the Deaf and Dumb and Blind. . Inst, for the Kducation of the Deaf and Blind W. K. Ferguson. \V. Wilkinson. D. C Dudelev. A M Florida Inst, for the Deaf and the Blind H. N. Felkel. Georgia Illinois Academy for the Blind Inst, for the Education of the Blind W. D. Williams. Rev. VV. F. Short, 1>.D. Indiana Iowa Inst, for the Education of the Blind College for the Blind Inst, for the Education of the Blind \V. H. Glasscock. T. F. .McCune, A.M. Kansas- Rev. W. G. Todd. Kentucky Louisiana Maryland Maryland Massachussetts Michigan Minnesota . . Inst, for the Education of the Blind Inst, for the Blind School for the Blind School for Deaf Mutes and Coloured Blind Perkins Inst and Massachu- setts School for the Blind . . School for the Blind School for the Blind B. B. Huntoon. VV. H. N. Magruder, LL.D. F. U. Morrison. F. D. Morrison. M. Anagnos. E. P. Church. J. J. Djw. Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Inst, for the Education of the BHnd School for the Blind School for Deaf and Blind . Inst, for the Blind P. Fairley, M.D. J. T. Sil)ley, A.M., M.D. J. A. Tillinghast. Wm. Ebright. New Me.vlco. . . . New York New York . . . Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind Inst, for the Blind Inst, for the Blind L. M. Larson. F. R. Place. VV. B. Wait. North Carolina. . Inst, for the Deaf and Dumb 1 and Blind VV. J. Young, A.M. Ohio Inst, for the Education of the 1 Blind Inst, for the Blind Oregon S. Borrows, M.D. Rev. E. S. Bollinger 1 252 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. , 11 <■':'< ,s i !■ ■I ' ! 1 'I ',.91 (■■■ -■!-' State. Pennsylvania . . Pennsylvania . . South Carolina Tennessee , Texas Texas Place. I'hiliwiclphia. . Pittsb"';^ . . Cedar Sprliifis Nashville .. . . Austin Austin Name. SlPKRlNTENDENT. Utah Salt Lake City Virginia Stanton 1 VVashinjfton I Vancouver . . . West Virj^inia , . i Rouiney Wisconsin ulanesville .... Wyomintf j Cheyenne I Inst, for the Instruction of the mind E. E. Allen. Inst, for the Blind II. E. .Jacobs. Inst, for the Blind, Deaf and Dumb School for the Blind David Lipscomb, Jun. School for the I'.lind Dr. K. P. Beeton. Inst, for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind Coloured Youth Inst. University of Utah, De- partment for Blind Inst, for the Education of the( Deaf and Dumb and Blind. . T. S. Doyle. School for Defective Youth . . .1. Watson. School for the Deaf and Blind C. H. Hill. School for the Blind L. S. Pease. Inst, for the " Blind and the Deaf and Dumb ' N. F. Walker. W. H. Holland. Dr. .1. E. Talmnge. * Blind Dejiartment not yet opened. I have inserted the foregoinf]f table partly because it shows far better than any statistics can the wide rani^e of the movement to educate the blind, but chiefly in order to enable tliose desiring further in- formation to obtain it by writing to the superin- tendents of the institutes. I know from experience that all letters will be attended to and inquiries answ^ered- The following tables, taken from a late report of the Iowa College for the Blind and prepared by its principal, T. F. McCune, shows the cost of mainten- ance per capita in fourteen of the largest Anuri m Institutions : Name of School. Pupils Enrol FOR 1891. osT Per Capita. New York State School . . 139 |3L' . 27 Pennsylvania School .... 177 290 27 Private Corporation — Ohio State School 212 282. 66 Missouri State School. 107 275 56 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. 2.53 Name ok Schooi,. Board of Managers — New York City School. . Private Corporations — Maryland Kentucky State School . . Nel)raska State School . . No Trustees — Indiana State School Tennessee State School . . Wisconsin State School . . State Board of Supervision — Michigan State School . . Board of Control — Illinois State School Advisory Board — Iowa State School Pupils En'hoij.ed FOK 1891. 243 lOfi 121 70 124 100 107 117 200 184 Cost Pkk CaI'ITA. $251 28 2.30 04 2.30 41 2,32 14 211 55 200 00 108 48 101 40 181 99 168 28 The estimates for Michigan were based upon the report of 1 880. For the same year, 1891, the cost per capita at the Ontario Institute was $271.81, it was reduced in 1894 to $267.76. Of course in making comparisons of this kind, differences in management and in locality must be carefully considered, and it is probable that slight differences in cost of maintenance may be explained in this way. As an appropriate ending, both to this chapter and to my book, I give the record of the vote upon the resolution to employ the whole of the Congressional subsidy to the publishing of books in the New York Point. It is the last great triumph of the point h i [n i f 254 THE TRUE SPHERE OF THE BLIND. cliaracters, and ousts forever the Roman letter. It also shows the strength of the contending factions. The New York Point prevailed and the American Braille was vanquished. But if the Stereograph does not materialize, the reign of the New York Point will be a short one ; there can be no doubt that the stereotype-maker is a fact, and where the difference in cost is so great, and the difference in utility so little, even a greater change than from one to the other would be warranted. At a meeting of the trustees of the American Printing House, held at Brantford, Ont., 1802, Dr. Sibley moved, That of the 50 per cent, of the Subsidy Fund, whose expenditure is not provided for in tlie bydaws. 2.5 per cent, be expended in the production of Braille nuisic and 25 per ceat. in the production of books in line. Mr. H. H. Johnson, of West Virginia, moved, in substitution, That 50 per cent, of the subsidy now ex- pended on line print be expended hereafter in the duplication of line books and in printing general literature and music in New York Point. When the question was put upon this amendment tiie following was the result : Yeas — Colorado, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Mary- land, Nebraska, New York City, New York State, West Virginia, Wisconsin — 10. Naj^s — Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee —9. THE END, :tor. It acfcioiLs. merican 30grapli •k Point :hat the fference ility so to tlie nerican 102, Dr. 5ub,siflv^ in tlic tluction ition of ved, in ow ex- in the general idiiiuiit Marv^- State, usetts, messee