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 IN 
 
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 INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 IRISH FARMING. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 IRISH FARMING. 
 
 THOMAS BALDWIN, M.R.I.A., 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL 
 EDUCATION IN IRELAND, AND AUTHOR OF VARIOUS 
 TREATISES ON AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBHARY 
 CHESTNUT HILL, MAb6. 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 .1874. 
 ■BO5TUN CifiXhG^i IL^P.-^ 
 
 CfiESraUT HILL, JdA^^r 
 
 [T/ie Right of Tra7tslation and Reproduction is reseiTed.'] 
 
LONDON 
 CI,AV, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 
 BREAD STREET HILL. 
 
 581^4 
 
TO THE MOST HONOURABLE 
 
 THE MARQUIS OF HARTINGTON. 
 
 You have treated my views on one or two important 
 subjects with considerate attention; and evinced 
 an earnest desire to use your high position for pro- 
 moting the prosperity of Ireland. You are heir to 
 a great estate in Ireland, the management of which 
 affords a noble example of wisdom, goodness, and 
 enterprise. In appreciation of all this I dedicate 
 to your Lordship this little Volume. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In 1867, a new Text Book on Agriculture, written 
 to order by the Author, was pubUshed by the Com- 
 missioners of National Education. 
 
 In 1870, a smaller volume, addressed chiefly 
 to small farmers, was published at the suggestion 
 of Earl Spencer, K.G., then Lord Lieutenant of 
 Ireland. 
 
 In 187 1, two smaller volumes appeared. 
 
 The sale of these several books has already 
 exceeded sixty thousand copies. 
 
 Encouraged by this success, and by calls for new 
 editions of two of these volumes, the Author has 
 been induced to reconsider the whole subject, and 
 to produce in their place the present work, in 
 which he has eiideavoured to expound in simple 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 language the outlines of improved modes of farming 
 suited to the circumstances of Ireland. 
 
 He knows, from observations made in all parts of 
 Ireland, that if the suggestions and directions con- 
 tained in this volume were acted upon, the annual 
 wealth of the country would be increased by several 
 millions sterling. 
 
 Agricultural Department, 
 
 Board of National Education, Dublin. 
 March \gth, 1874. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Manures i 
 
 I. HOW LAND BECOMES EXHAUSTED I 
 
 II. FARM-YARD MANURE 5 
 
 III. LIQUID MANURE . 9 
 
 TV. ARTIFICIAL MANURES lO 
 
 V. LIME 13 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 The Crops to Grow, and How to Grow them . . i6 
 
 I. the potato 17 
 
 II. carrots and PARSNIPS 18 
 
 III. TURNIPS AND MANGOLD WURTZEL I9 
 
 IV. CABBAGE AND RAPE 23 
 
 V. GRAIN CROPS 25 
 
 VI. BEANS AND PEAS 28 
 
 VII. FORAGE AND HERBAGE CROPS 29 
 
 VIII. CLOVERS 32 
 
 IX. THE GRASSES 33 
 
 X. HAYMAKING 38 
 
 XI. ON FLAX 42 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Live Stock 44 
 
 i. on the food of animals 44 
 
 ii. the several kinds of cattle suited to 
 
 irish farmers . 5i 
 
 iil on the rearing of calves 54 
 
 iv. the feeding of milch cows 58 
 
 v. on dairy management .63 
 
 vi. on the fattening of cattle ..... 77 
 
 vii. the farm horse . . .' 8 1 
 
 viii. on sheep 84 
 
 ix. on swine 87 
 
 x. on poultry 95 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Examples of Successful Farming 104 
 
 I. A farm of five-and-a-half acres . . . .114 
 
 II. ONE-HORSE FARMS I24 
 
 III. TWO-HORSE FARMS I29 
 
 IV. A FARM OF I40 ACRES OF GOOD DEEP LAND . I29 
 V. A FEW GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE 
 
 CLIMATE AND OTHER MATTERS AFFECTING 
 
 IRISH AGRICULTURE 1 34 
 
 VI. EXAMPLES ON A LARGE SCALE OF THE FORE- 
 GOING ARGUMENT I42 
 
 VII. A FARM OF 2,200 ACRES IN COUNTY MAYO . . I43 
 
 VIII, ON THE RECLAMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A 
 
 LARGE TRACT OF LAND T46 
 
 CHAPTER V". 
 Cottage Gardening 155 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 IRISH FARMING. 
 
 CHAPTER T. 
 
 MANURES, 
 I. HOW LAND BECOMES EXHAUSTED, 
 
 1. Plants, like animals, require food. The food of 
 plants consists, in addition to water, of two kinds of 
 matter — namely, ten or twelve substances {cslled ^xed 
 constituents) derived solely from the soil ; and of four 
 bodies derived by our cultivated crops, partly from the 
 air and partly from the soil, and which fly away into 
 the air under the action of heat, and are, in consequence, 
 called volatile. Many wild plants have the power of 
 growing on hard rock^ destitute of any volatile matter ; 
 but cultivated plants, such as the cabbage, require for 
 their full growth a soil containing such matter. We in- 
 crease the quantity of volatile matter in the soil by laying 
 it down to grass ; and by the application of farm-yard 
 manure, of peat, and other vegetable substances. The 
 
 B 
 
:2 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 quantity of this matter in the soil varies very much. 
 Rich gardens contain a great deal of it, and it may be 
 said that, with certain exceptions, the amount required for 
 the growth of crops should increase with their luxuriance 
 and delicacy. Of farm-crops, the cabbage and the 
 .grasses require it in the largest quantity. The cabbage 
 should therefore be grown in rich ground. Of the grass 
 family of plants, there is none which luxuriates in a soil 
 rich in combustible matter, or matter that can be burnt 
 away, so much as Italian rye-grass, of which more will 
 be said further on, and of which enormous crops are 
 obtained by skilful management, on reclaimed bog and 
 moor. The fixed constituents of plants, also called the 
 ash and mineral constituents, are invariably obtained from 
 the soil. A soil deficient in any one, or in more than one 
 of them, is barren. They exist in very different propor- 
 tions in the different families of crops. The composition 
 of the same sort or variety of crop is pretty constant. 
 
 2. We see, then, that a given weight of the same 
 crop must take out of the ground a certain quantity of 
 fixed or ash constituents. If the crop, or part of it, be 
 -sold off the farm, it is evident the total quantity of the 
 ash constituents in the soil must be lessened. If the 
 -quantity of these constituents sold off were returned to 
 the soil in manure, it would not suffer any deterioration ; 
 but if crop after crop be sold without any manure, it is 
 evident the supply of ash constituents will become less and 
 less, and the yield may be so far reduced that the crop 
 would not pay. This actually occurred in some of the 
 Slave States of America, where the land was so reduced 
 in condition by crops of tobacco following each other year 
 after year, that it had for a time to be left untilled, and 
 abandoned to a state of nature. 
 
 3. Before we can apply the knowledge of the fore- 
 going facts to Irish agriculture, it is necessary to explain 
 
I.] IRISH FARMING. 3 
 
 that only a very small part — rarely more than the one- 
 hundreth part^ — of the soil is, at any one time, in a state 
 to afford food to our crops, the bulk of the constituents 
 being locked up in the structure of the soil in an unavail- 
 able condition — that is, in such a state that the plants 
 cannot use it. The stones in the soil may contain the 
 same substances as the soil itself, yet we know that crops 
 can feed on the soil, but not on the stones. In the course 
 of time, and under the influence of air and moisture, the 
 constituents of the stones become gradually liberated, and 
 thus made fit food for plants. The process is slow, but 
 it is continuous. The stones in our buildings crumble, 
 and so the stone and particles of the soil are gradually 
 worn down, and their constituents converted into plant- 
 food. An interesting illustration of this principle is 
 afforded in the observation that the removal of stones 
 from poor land, when they appear to be in excess, often 
 does harm. The farmer, in ignorance of a better ex- 
 planation, says the removal of the stones makes the land 
 cold ; the true explanation is to be found chiefly in the 
 circumstance that the stones, by the wearing down of 
 their surface, afford a certain amount of food to the crop. 
 4. If we apply the principles which we have so far ex- 
 plained to the occupiers of land in remote or badly- 
 farmed districts, we shall see that the soil, having for 
 ages been made to bear corn-crops without manure, has 
 been reduced to a poor state. Dairy produce, young stock, 
 and the potato, have also taken out of the land a good 
 deal of its most valuable ash constituents. The potato 
 contains a large amount of potash, and this substance, 
 though abundant in argillaceous clay, is contained in very 
 small quantity in the light lands in the hands of many of 
 our small farmers. Recent research tends to show that 
 the potato disease is mitigated by the application of a 
 manure containing potash. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 5. Of all the component parts of our soils, phosphate 
 of lime is most liable to become deficient. It exists in 
 ordinary land, especially in light land^ in very small 
 quantity ; yet it is contained in grain, in the bones of 
 animals, in dairy produce, and in every species of produce 
 disposed of by the farmer. We have shown in another 
 place that an enormous quantity of this substance is 
 annually taken out of the soil of this country, that it is 
 essential to pay proper attention to its restoration, and 
 that thousands of farms have been reduced to a state 
 bordering on barrenness by the ruinous system hitherto 
 pursued. 
 
 6. That the system of agriculture followed in many 
 parts of the country has reduced the fertility of the soil 
 to a very low condition is made plain by the modern 
 practice of applying artificial manures. Under our 
 direction, an application of 2 cwt. per statute acre of the 
 manure now commonly sold at 6j\ per cwt. under the 
 name of svperphosphate of lime, containing 48 lb. phos- 
 phate of lime, increased the yield of turnips on poor, light 
 land by nine tons. We have -seen similar results on 
 poor light land on the chalk formation in Wiltshire. It 
 will, then, be asked — How comes it that our soil has not 
 been reduced to a state of absolute sterility, if it has been 
 for ages subjected to the process of exhaustion we have 
 described ? The answer is, that the total quantity of its 
 constituents sold oft' in any one year is very small : in 
 some cases there has been a counter-process of restora- 
 tion, in the application of seaweed, of fish; and other 
 substances ; and plant-food has been liberated by the 
 wearing down of the stones and particles of the soil. 
 When the quantity of matter liberated in this way 
 equalled the quantity sold off, the farmer did not ex- 
 perience any deficiency in his crops. When the demand 
 on the soil exceeded the quantity of plant-focd liberated. 
 
I.] IRISH FARMING. '$ 
 
 he rested his land. Sometimes it was left to cover itself 
 with natural herbage ; sometimes it was rested for a year 
 and fallowed, which means that it was, during this year, 
 repeatedly ploughed and harrowed, to promote the action 
 of air and moisture in liberating its constituents. It is to 
 be remembered, too, that one of the leading features of 
 modern agriculture is the liberal use of artificial or 
 purchased manures ; and that in a great many instances 
 the farmer has seen the necessity of using marl and 
 composts of various kinds. 
 
 7. The lamentable consequences likely to arise from a 
 neglect of the great law of exhaustion, which we have 
 endeavoured to expound, have been brought home to us 
 by the Irish famine. It is a matter of scientific certainty 
 that the fearful havoc committed by the potato disease in 
 Ireland was largely owing to the circumstances that her 
 soil had been reduced by the continued growth of the 
 potato-crop, and of other crops, without an adequate return 
 in the form of manure. 
 
 II. FARM-YARD MANURE. 
 
 8. The great means of preserving our soil in a 
 productive state has been the collection and preservation 
 of farm-yard manure, which consists of the fecal and 
 waste products of the farm. The consideration of this 
 substance, therefore, demands our best attention. 
 
 S. The cow-house, stable, and piggery should be care- 
 fully cleaned out at least once a day, and the waste 
 carried to the manure-heap, the site and management of 
 which do not receive adequate attention. In small farm 
 districts it too frequently happens that the manure is 
 accumulated in front of the door of the dwelling-house, 
 giving rise to most offensive effluvia, which often produce 
 disease. Again, we often see small heaps of manure 
 lying loosely here and there about the house and offices. 
 
6 INTRODUCTION TO [chap; 
 
 by which its substance is wasted, as we shall now 
 explain. 
 
 10. The food of plants is supplied by the mineral king- 
 dom. Animal or vegetable bodies deprived of life soon 
 begin to decay, by which they go back again to the 
 inorganic or mineral kingdom, and become fit to supply 
 the wants of plants. A heap of farm-yard manure, ex- 
 posed to air, moisture, and a certain degree of heat, 
 decreases in bulk and weight, its combustible constitu- 
 ents being gradually converted into volatile substances, 
 and its ash constituents being liberated and left behind. 
 If the manure be under cover, the diminution in its bulk 
 will be very slow, but it goes on nevertheless, the progress 
 of the change depending on the quantity of air and 
 moisture present and on the degree of heat. Under the 
 influence of these three agents, nothing would ultimately 
 remain of the manure, even if under cover, but its ash 
 constituents. 
 
 11. In the manure-heap, this change goes on very 
 slowly. The farmer can accelerate or retard it by vary- 
 ing the quantity of air and moisture. For example, when . 
 we want the manure to rot slowly, we compress the heap, 
 and thus exclude air. If the season is advancing, and 
 we have reason to fear the manure is not rotting fast 
 enough, we turn the heap, so as to let more air into 
 it. Sometimes it is turned twice in the season ; but this 
 should be avoided under ordinary circumstances, as 
 the extra labour is unnecessary. All the valuable pro- 
 ducts of decay in a manure-heap are soluble in water ; 
 hence it is necessary to prevent the rain from washing 
 them away. The thick, black liquid, which is so 
 commonly seen trickling away from the manure-heaps of 
 so man y of our farmers, contains the very essence of the 
 manure. 
 
 As farm-yard manure is made up of the dung and urine 
 
I.] IRISH FARMING. 7: 
 
 of the farm animals, and of the materials used in littering 
 them, it is evident that, when properly made, it contains^ 
 all the mineral constituents taken out of the ground by 
 crops, except what is sold off. In addition to farm-yard •. 
 manure, it is desirable to have a compost-heap in which 
 are collected weeds and refuse materials. 
 
 12. Farm-yard manure is the most perfect of all ma- 
 nures ; for it contains not only every mineral substance 
 
 V /found in plants, but also a great deal of volatile matter,, 
 ^^ derived from the air by the plants from which it is pro-, 
 duced. Hence it always enriches the soil. 
 
 13. A cow fed in the house will give about a ton off 
 farm-yard manure per month; two cows, house-fed. 
 throughout the year, will therefore produce twenty- 
 four tons, which will manure an acre of potatoes or o£ 
 roots. 
 
 14. The manure made in the "bawns" of vast numbers 
 of Irish farmers is not what is here called farm-yard ma- 
 nure at all, but compost of clay. They cart a quantity o£. 
 clay from the headlands or old ditches, or from trenche3 
 cut in the fields, throw it into the yards in front of their 
 doors, and on this is poured kitchen refuse. By being 
 kept in the yard for some time, the clay " sours," and a 
 little of its mineral constituents becomes liberated. The 
 labour expended on these composts by small farmers is 
 very great ; the quantity of mineral matter liberated is 
 veiy small; and as the same object would be effected in 
 the soil itself by good tillage, the system is a very bad 
 one. Except the small supply of vegetable matter added 
 in kitchen refuse, this sort of compost does not at all 
 enrich the soil in combustible matter, and is seldom 
 worth the labour expended upon it. 
 
 15. When these composts sour in front of the door, as 
 they invariably do, bad smells are, as already explained, 
 generated, which are most injurious to the health of the 
 
8 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 people. A manure or compost-heap of any kind should 
 never be placed in front of the dweUing. 
 
 16. A proper receptacle should be formed for the 
 manure-heap, and, if possible, it should be placed on 
 the north side of the farm-yard. With the view of econo- 
 mizing labour, it should be as near as possible to the byre, 
 stable, and piggery ; and, for obvious reasons, it should 
 be as remote as possible from the dairy and dwelling- 
 house. It should also be on level ground ; for if placed 
 on sloping ground, there would be a great loss of the 
 liquid, which would make its way down the slope ; and if 
 placed in a hollow, it becomes too much saturated with 
 rain-water. 
 
 17. Many farmers have a slovenly and wasteful prac- 
 tice of allowing the manure of the byre, stable, and 
 piggery to lie for days and weeks in small loose heaps, 
 exposed to the deteriorating influence of air and rain. 
 
 18. The manure-heap should be covered occasionally, 
 and particularly in summer, with a layer of peat, vege- 
 table mould, or earth, to absorb ammonia and other soluble 
 products of decomposition. When peat exists on the 
 farm, or in the neighbourhood, it is one of the best sub- 
 stances to use for the purpose : the dung and urine of the 
 cattle induce the decay of the peat, and thus convert it 
 into good manure. In the absence of peat, a supply of 
 earth may be provided during autumn, by cutting 
 shallow and narrow trenches in the field or fields intended 
 for roots the ensuing year. It should be stored in a heap 
 convenient to the dung-pit, and spread on the manure 
 when necessary. The following plan of making it has 
 been successfully practised by the writer on a small farm 
 which is under his direction. The site of the dung- 
 heap is made level. There is no channel surrounding 
 it. The earth is placed round about the heap as soon 
 as any manure collects in it ; and when this is saturated 
 
I.] IRISH FARMING. 9 
 
 with the oozing from the manure, it is shovelled on to the 
 top of the heap, and fresh earth put in its place ; and 
 this, when saturated, is again put on top of the fresh 
 dung added. The urine of the cattle is received in a 
 barrel, and regularly poured on the whole. In this way 
 the earth itself is converted into a valuable fertilizer, not 
 only by the absorption of some of the products formed 
 by the decomposition of the manure, but also by the 
 conversion of some of its own dormant constituents into 
 active food for plants. 
 
 III. LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 19. The liquid voided by the domestic animals is 
 commonly called liquid manure, a name which is als© 
 given to the drainage of dung-heaps and town sewage. 
 
 20. The most profitable way of disposing of this sub- 
 stance is that in which the greatest quantity of it is 
 absorbed by the solid or farm-yard manure ; for, firstly, 
 as the liquid and solid excrements of animals differ in 
 composition, the most perfect manure is obtained when 
 they are mixed together. Secondly, as the liquid soon 
 begins to ferment, it promotes the decomposition of the 
 solid manure. Thirdly, as a good deal of the water of 
 liquid manure is evaporated, the cost of conveying it to 
 the land is kept as low as possible. 
 
 21. When liquid manure is disposed of in this way, 
 the litter is made to absorb a good deal of it; the 
 quantity so absorbed depending on the quantity of litter 
 used. A channel or drain should convey the remainder 
 to a receptacle ; a good barrel or two, or distillery vats, 
 will answer the purpose of the small farmer very well. 
 The large farmer must build a tank of brick or stone. 
 It should be well lined with cement inside, and drained 
 all round, to prevent the water that would otherwise 
 accumulate in the surrounding soil from pressing in the 
 
10 INTRODUCTION TO [chap, 
 
 wall. Some or all of the liquid that accumulates in the 
 tank should be occasionally pumped over the manure- 
 heap ; and any of it that cannot be disposed of in this 
 way should be applied to the nearest field of grass. 
 Rain-water should not be permitted to enter the liquid- 
 manure tank, especially in winter, as it does not pay to 
 convey it to the land. 
 
 IV. ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 
 
 22. An artificial manure is, literally speaking, one 
 made by the art or the hand of man, such as the several 
 kinds of superphosphate. At present the title is syno- 
 nymous with concentrated manure, and includes such 
 natural products as Peruvian guano, and all substances 
 that contain in a small bulk a large amount of one or 
 more of the most important of the elements of manures. 
 
 23. The reader will understand from what has been 
 already explained, that, in the practice of modern agri- 
 culture, phosphate of lime is constantly withdrawn from 
 the soil, and must be restored by applications of manure. 
 The substances used for this purpose are farm-yard 
 manure, which we have already considered, and bones, 
 guano, and other concentrated fertilizers, of which we 
 have now to treat. 
 
 24. Manures, like bones and superphosphates, which 
 depend for their efficacy chiefly on phosphates, are called 
 phosphatic mamn'es, 
 
 25. Phosphate of lime being insoluble, or nparly so, 
 in water, but capable of being converted into biphosphate 
 of lime (called also superphosphate of lime), which is 
 soluble, when brought into contact with sulphuric or 
 muriatic acid, Liebig suggested the propriety of bring- 
 ing about this change in bones and other phosphatic 
 manures "by dissolving" them in sulphuric acid. This 
 suggestion laid the foundation of the system of manu- 
 
I.] IRISH FA KMING. 1 1 
 
 facturing the class of artificial manures called "super- 
 phosphate/' which forms one of the most interesting 
 features of modern agriculture. 
 
 26. In chemical language, the terms biphosphate and 
 superphosphate are synonymous; but the term super- 
 phosphate, as commonly used by farmers and manure 
 vendors, is applied to the artificial manure produced when 
 bones or coprolites are acted on by acid. 
 
 27. Superphosphate, in common with phosphatic ma- 
 nures, is better adapted to light than heavy soils. It 
 is used chiefly for roots. When made from coprolites, 
 it contains no volatile matter, and is called mineral super- 
 phosphate. Bone superphosphate contains volatile matter,. 
 and is capable of yielding about one per cent, of ammonia. 
 
 28. G2tano is one of the most important concentrated 
 manures we possess. It is supposed to consist chiefly 
 of the dung of sea-fowl, which has accumulated in some- 
 parts of the globe. 
 
 29. There are two kinds of guano in the market. 
 When guano is subjected to the influence of heat, air, 
 and moisture, it undergoes decomposition, like all other 
 substances of animal and vegetable origin. In the 
 Chinca Islands, from which the principal supply of 
 Peruvian guano used to be obtained, no rain falls, and 
 one of the three conditions essential for decomposition — ■ 
 namely, moisture — is absent ; hence the high percentage 
 of nitrogenized matter it contained. The supply of guano in- 
 these islands has been all used ; and the guano now sold 
 under the name of Peruvian comes from the mainland,, 
 and is less valuable. 
 
 30. Manures, like Peruvian guano, which are pur- 
 chased chiefly for their ammonia, and those which, like 
 sulphate of ammonia, depend solely for their action on 
 this substance, are called ammojiiacal manures. It is 
 worthy of remark here, that all these manures not only 
 
12 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 afford their own constituents, as food to the crop, but 
 they aid in dissolving the insoluble mineral matters of 
 the soil. 
 
 31. It is not safe, therefore, to use Peruvian guano often 
 on the same land without farm-3^ard or some other manure 
 which would enrich the soil. We have known light land 
 to be reduced to a gritty and barren state by repeated 
 dressings of this manure. Like all stimulants, it is very 
 good when used in moderation ; but used repeatedly, it 
 impoverishes land. 
 
 32. Peruvian guano is applied with advantage to all 
 our cultivated crops. It may be,, stated, generally, that 
 phosphatic manures are best for roots, and ammoniacal 
 manures for corn and grass. 
 
 33. Peruvian guano produces a better effect on strong 
 clay than on light or sandy land. As a top-dressing for 
 corn and grass, especially in Spring, Peruvian guano 
 produces a better result on a greater variety of soils, 
 and under a greater variety of circumstances, than any 
 other artificial manure. It is applied to these crops at 
 the rate of from i to 2 cwt. per statute acre. Numerous 
 experiments have shown, that when from any cause 
 corn is not thriving, an application of i^ cwt. of this 
 manure, at a cost of about ^i, increases the value 
 of the crops from 30^-. to £7.. In common with all 
 ammoniacal manures, it encourages the growth of the 
 stronger grasses, such as cocksfoot ; and by enabling 
 plants to continue growing longer, retards both the 
 harvest and the hay-making. It is seldom applied for 
 roots on light land ; but many farmers consider it 
 superior to superphosphate on clay land, and equal to 
 it on clay loams. On the latter class of soils, we have 
 found a mixture of Peruvian guano and superphosphate 
 of lime to give better results than either manure used 
 alone. When used alone for roots on medium soils. 
 
I.] IRISH FARMING. 13 
 
 the quantity used is from 3 to 4 cwt. per statute 
 acre. 
 
 34. In Patagonia, in several parts of Africa, and in 
 other parts of the globe, guano is also obtained ; but as 
 rain falls in all those countries, the combustible matter 
 has, in the course of time, undergone decomposition, 
 its ammonia has been dissipated, and there remains only 
 the phosphate of lime — a circumstance which explains 
 why this species of guano is often called phosphatic. 
 A good specimen of phosphatic guano may contain as 
 much as 70 per cent, of phosphate of lime. Several 
 kinds of it are at present in the market ; but as their 
 phosphates are in the insoluble state, they are not now 
 usually applied directly by the farmer, but are used in the 
 manufacture of superphosphate of lime. 
 
 V. LIME. 
 
 35. LiiFie is the most important mineral manure we 
 possess. It produces several useful effects in the soil. 
 
 36. In common with all the fixed mineral constituents 
 of plants, lime must be present in every fertile soil, 
 
 37. Some soils contain acid substances, which keep 
 them in a sour and comparatively infertile state. Lime 
 combines with and neutralizes these acids, and thus fits 
 the soil for growing good crops. 
 
 38. In other cases, infertility or barrenness in soils 
 arises from the presence in them of noxious compounds^ 
 such as salts of iron and copper ; and lime has the pov/er 
 of decomposing these compounds, and rendering them 
 harmless. 
 
 39. Lime promotes the decay of volatile or combus- 
 tible matter. Experience tells us that applications of 
 lime diminish the quantity of this kind of matter in the 
 soil. As the quantity of vegetable matter in the ground 
 increases, so does the necessity for applying lime. This 
 
34 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 explains the old saying, " The more dung, the more hme." 
 Peaty soils, which contain a great deal of inert vegetable 
 Tnatter, are much improved by quick-lime. 
 
 40. Lime helps to liberate the fixed constituents of 
 the soil. If we mix lime with ground granite, or with 
 pulverized clay-soil, we shall find, after a time, a quantity 
 of potash and soda liberated : in other words, lime con- 
 verts some of the dormant fixed mineral matter of the 
 soil into active plant-food, or, as it were, forces the soil 
 to give up to the crops some of its latent constituents. 
 This effect is produced much more speedily by quick or 
 caustic than by mild lime (carbonate of lime). 
 
 41. This partly explains why lime produces the greatest 
 effect when first applied to a field, and that the oft-repeated 
 use of lime, without any other manure, by stimulating the 
 soil, would ultimately end in rendering it sterile. Hence 
 the converse of a proposition stated above, which says 
 that the more dung, the more lime, is also true — namely, 
 the more lime we apply, the greater the necessity for dung 
 — a notion well expressed in the old saying, " that the use 
 of lime without manure, is sure to make the farm and the 
 farmer poor." 
 
 42. If we mix quick-lime with Peruvian guano or well- 
 rotted dung, a peculiar smell is felt, caused by the escape 
 of ammonia. Hence, lime should never be permitted to 
 come into contact with either of the manures named, 
 or any other manure containing ammonia. When farm- 
 yard manure and lime are applied to the ground in the 
 same year, the lime should be used before or after the 
 dung. 
 
 43. The state in which lime is applied to land varies 
 with the quality of the land and other circumstances. 
 The common practice is to cart the lime to the field, 
 make it into a heap or heaps, cover it over with a little 
 earth, and allow it to fall into powder, or to slake spon- 
 
I.] IRISH FARMING. 15 
 
 taneoLisly ; after which it is evenly spread on the land 
 and harrowed in, or otherwise worked into the ground. 
 
 44. The slaking of lime is a chemical process. The 
 lime absorbs and combines with moisture, forming 
 hydrate of lime, and causing the development of heat 
 and a swelling of the lime-shells, which soon crumble to 
 powder. The finer the state of sub-division into which 
 the lime falls, the- more completely it is distributed 
 through the soil, and the more thorough and uniform 
 its action. 
 
 45. When the lime is applied as above described, it 
 absorbs moisture from the air, and is said to slake spon- 
 taneously ; and for general purposes there is no better 
 way of applying it. Some farmers who use much lime, 
 make it into a large heap or heaps, and hasten the slaking 
 process by pouring water upon the mass. If applied 
 immediately after slaking in this way, lime is quickest in 
 its action, as it is in the caustic or hydrate state. 
 
 46. Sometimes, again, the lime is made into a compost 
 with earth or peat, in which state its action is slower 
 than in either of the preceding states. 
 
 47. It is evident that the propriety of applying it in 
 one or other of these three states depends on the nature 
 of the ground ; also, on whether we wish its action to be 
 quick or slow. When the soil is light or sandy, and de- 
 ficient in vegetable matter, and its texture open, it is 
 recommended to apply the lime in a state of compost, 
 which contains the lime, in the mild state, and also con- 
 tains other materials in which these soils are deficient. 
 It is said that lime when applied to light land in the 
 caustic state, encourages the growth of red poppy and 
 other weeds. On the other hand, lime should be applied 
 in as caustic a state as possible to all soils containing much 
 vegetable matter, such as peat and moss, as well as to 
 clays, moors, and other soils undergoing reclamation, 
 
i6 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 and to all soils containing injurious substances, such as 
 the salts of iron. 
 
 48. The application of lime to clay-land renders the 
 soil more friable, and, at the same time, converts a good 
 deal of its dormant constituents into the active state. 
 
 49. An excess of moisture in the soil prevents lime 
 from producing its full effects. Hence, wet lands require 
 a greater quantity of lime than those which are naturally 
 dry, or those which have been made so by drainage. In 
 the permanent improvement of clay-land, or wet ground 
 of any kind, lime should, therefore, be applied after 
 drainage. For the same obvious reason, good farmers 
 put lime upon the ground in dry weather. 
 
 50. Lime is applied with advantage to all crops except 
 flax. 
 
 51. There is a difference of opinion among farmers as 
 to the crops to which it is best to apply lime ; some con- 
 tend that it should be applied for roots, while others 
 prefer to apply it for grain. Regard being had to its 
 various functions, it cannot be expected to produce its 
 full effects in the year in which it is put upon the land. 
 If, therefore, the farmer has good reason to suppose 
 that one crop in the rotation requires lime more than 
 the rest, it should, if practicable, be used a year before 
 that crop. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE CROPS TO GROW, AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 
 
 52. The crops most extensively grown in Ireland are 
 potatoes, root-crops, green crops, grain-crops, forage and 
 herbage plants, and flax. 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 17 
 
 I. THE POTATO. 
 
 53. The potato is raised by every farmer for his own 
 family, the area under the crop depending on the size of 
 the family, and the extent to which the potato enters 
 into their diet. To supply the wants of an ordinary 
 family, half an acre of ground is required. When 
 well manured, this will yield at least three tons of potatoes 
 fit for table, and a ton of small ones for feeding pigs and 
 cows. The potato grows in all sorts of land. A rich 
 loamy soil gives the heaviest return ; the soundest crop is 
 obtained from dry land ; and marshy or boggy ground 
 gives the best potatoes for seed. It is almost invariably 
 the first crop planted on bog or waste land undergoing 
 improvement. 
 
 54i The potato admits of being planted after any other 
 crop. The small farmers very generally plant it on lea. 
 The ground is ploughed in spring ; the crests of the sods 
 broken or levelled down ; manure spread on the ridges^ 
 and the " sets " (cut potatoes) should be laid across them 
 in rows eighteen inches apart, and nine or ten inches from 
 set to set, and the whole covered with clay from the 
 furrows. When the plants appear at the surface, they are 
 moulded with earth taken from the furrows ; and as they 
 grow up, the clay in the space between the rows is raised 
 against their stems. The weeding of the crop, afterwards, 
 should be properly attended to. 
 
 55. On cottier and small farms, the lea may be dug 
 deeply as early as possible ; when the planting season 
 arrives, the surface should be levelled with the spade 
 or harrow, and the manure carted out and deposited in 
 rows ; a straight trench is opened with the spade to the 
 depth of four inches, the manure deposited in the bottom 
 of this trench, the sets placed over it at intervals of ten 
 inches or a foot, and both manure and sets covered with 
 
 C 
 
1 8 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 the clay lifted out of another trench marked off with a 
 garden-line about twenty-four inches from the first. In 
 this second trench, manure and sets will in turn be 
 deposited, and covered in with clay taken from a third 
 trench ; and so on. Or, drills may be opened with the 
 shovel twenty-eight inches wide, farm-yard manure spread 
 in the hollows of these drills, the sets placed on it at 
 from ten inches to a foot asunder, and both manure and 
 sets covered by splitting the drills. The after-culture 
 consists in digging or grubbing between the rows, to 
 loosen the ground, in keeping down weeds, and putting 
 earth against the stems of the plants. 
 
 56. In the ordinary course of cropping land under 
 rotation, the potato usually follows lea oats, and occupies 
 the same place in the rotation as root-crops. In this case 
 the ground is ploughed deeply as early in autumn as 
 possible, and when the proper time for potato-planting 
 arrives, the ground is grubbed or cross-ploughed, harrowed, 
 and made into drills ; the manure is applied, and the crop 
 planted and treated as already described. The main crop 
 of potatoes is sown in March, and loo stones of tubers, cut 
 into sets, will plant a statute acre. For early use, a few 
 drills of kemps should be planted in February. For 
 general use, the following sorts may be recommended : — 
 White Varieties — White Rocks, Scotch Downs, and 
 Regents. Red Varieties — Kerry Blues and Red Rocks. 
 ■ 57. Crops raised for their fleshy roots are called 
 Root-Crops J the roots most commonly grown are carrots 
 and parsnips, turnips and mangolds. 
 
 II. CARROTS AND PARSNIPS. 
 
 58. Carrots and parsnips are deep-rooted plants, and 
 are treated alike. The parsnip is a wholesome and 
 nutritious vegetable, and is saleable at a high price 
 almost everywhere. A variety [of carrots, called White 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 19 
 
 Belgiaii, is grown in small quantities for feeding horses 
 in winter ; they improve the " coat " and appearance of 
 horses : one feed in the day is enough. Both these crops 
 require deep, rich ground, which should be dug deeply, 
 and, if possible, manured in autumn. The parsnip admits 
 of being sown as early as the ground can be got ready for 
 it in spring ; the carrot is sown in the end of March or 
 beginning of April. The drills for either crop may be 
 made eighteen inches in width ; when the ordinary 
 drilling plough is used, they must be made wider — savj 
 two feet. 
 
 III. TURNIPS AND MANGOLD WURTZEL. 
 
 59. Of all root-crops, the turnip is the most generally 
 grown. There are three kinds of it — swedes, Aberdeen 01: 
 yellow turnips, and white turnips. Swedes are the 
 hardiest and most nutritious ; white turnips are the 
 softest and least nutritious ; and yellow turnips are 
 intermediate in quality between swedes and white turnip?^ 
 Mangold wurtzel is a newer crop than the turnip. The 
 more it is grown, the more it is valued. For the produc-r 
 tion of milk it is better than any sort of turnip ; for 
 fattening purposes it is- considered slightly inferior to. 
 swedes, but superior to yellow turnips. Mangolds ara 
 less liable to casualties than turnips ; and when the 
 ground is rich, and the climate favourable, mangolds give, 
 a heavier crop. The crop requires a drier climate than, 
 turnips ; and as it is more easily injured by frost, it 
 requires to be stored earlier. It thrives best in the east- 
 and south of England. The climate of the north and. 
 north-west of England, and of Scotland, and the west. 
 of Ireland, is not so well suited to it. On reclaimed bog 
 and moor it yields a heavier crop than turnips of any- 
 kind. The preparation of the ground is, in the main, the 
 same for turnips and mangolds. Both crops usually , 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRA^^v^ 
 CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. 
 
20 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 follow grain, and the stubble should be dug or ploughed 
 deeply, in autumn, as soon as the corn is removed. In 
 spring it is forked by the cottier, cleared of weeds, and 
 made into drills twenty or thirty inches wide. When one 
 or more horses are kept, the ground is grubbed, harrowed, 
 and rolled, until it is reduced to a fine state ; it is then 
 cleaned, and made into drills. If farm-yard manure is 
 used, it is evenly spread in the bottom of the drills, all 
 lumps being broken ; it is then covered in by splitting the 
 drills. The seed is sown by hand on small farms, and by 
 a machine on large farms. There is a slight difference 
 in the mode of sowing turnips and mangolds. For 
 turnips, a rut is made on the top of the drill with a 
 pointed stick or corner of a hoe ; the seed is deposited 
 in a continuous stream in the' rut thus made ; it is 
 covered with a rake, and in dry weather, or on dry 
 ground, the tops of the drills are gently beaten with the 
 back of a spade or shovel, to keep the moisture about the 
 seed. In sowing mangolds, openings may be made at in- 
 tei-vals of ten or twelve inches with the corner of a hoe ; 
 in each of these holes four or five capsules of seed are 
 deposited, and a little of the finest mould in the bottom 
 or sides of the drills is taken with a shovel, and put over 
 the seed, and the whole gently beaten as before. 
 
 60. Mangolds are sown in the end of April or beginning 
 of May ; swede turnips as soon after as possible, or, say, 
 from the loth to the 20th May ; yellow turnips from 
 ist to 20th June; and white turnips any time in June. 
 The quantity of seed required per acre is — of mangolds, 
 6 lb. ; of swedes, 5 lb. ; of yellow and white turnips, 
 6 lb. ; and of carrots and parsnips, 6 lb. to 8 lb. 
 
 61. On land capable of giving a good crop, mangolds 
 require 25 tons, and swedes 20 tons of farm-yard manure 
 per statute acre. If there is any difference in the quality 
 of the manure, the best of it should be used for mangolds. 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 21 
 
 62. When from any cause a farmer has to raise roots 
 with the aid of artificial manure, the following may- 
 be used. On light land, superphosphate made from 
 bones is best for turnips ; it is applied at a rate vary- 
 ing from 6 cwt. per statute acre on good land, to 3 cwt. 
 on poor light soils. On good deep land, the same money's 
 worth of a mixture of four parts of superphosphate 
 and one part of genuine Peruvian guano, or of sulphate 
 of ammonia, gives a better return. A manure composed 
 of two parts of superphosphate and one part of Peruvian 
 guano or sulphate of ammonia, answers better for man- 
 golds. This mixture, when used without farm-yard manure, 
 may be applied at the rate of 5 cwt. per statute acre on 
 good land. 
 
 63. In many cases it happens that the farmer has only 
 as much farm-yard manure as would give an ordinary 
 dressing to one-half or two-thirds of the area of roots he 
 wants to grow. In this case, experience tells us the 
 surest way of obtaining a good crop of roots, and of 
 keeping up the condition of the soil, is to distribute the 
 farm-yard manure over the whole of the ground, using a 
 little more for the mangolds, and supplementing it all 
 round with the mixtures of artificial manures recommended 
 above. If we apply two-thirds of a full quantity of farm- 
 yard manure — ^for example, to mangolds — we should use 
 one-third the quantity of artificial manure recommended 
 to be used when no farm-yard manure is applied ; and if 
 we apply half a full dressing of farai-yard manure for 
 swedes, we should supplement it with half a full dressing 
 of artificial manure ; and so on. 
 
 64. In using farm-yard manure and artificial manure in 
 conjunction, the following is found to be a good mode of 
 applying them : — The farm-yard manure being spread and 
 broken in the bottom of the drills, every second drill is 
 split, and at the back of the clay thus throw"n over, the 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 CHESTNUT HILL. Mass 
 
^2 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 artificial mixture is deposited by hand ; the remaining 
 drills are then split, and the seed sown, as already pointed 
 out. In this way the plants will find artificial manure 
 -within their reach just as they are brairding, which is the 
 anost critical period in their growth ; and the farm-yard 
 .manure will be available when the roots begin to swell. 
 ■On large holdings the manure may be distributed by a 
 ^nachine, or scattered broadcast. 
 
 65. Young turnips suffer very much from a pest known 
 as the turnip-fly, which often destroys whole fields. The 
 best safeguards against the ravages of this enemy are, 
 to sow plenty of seed, to use artificial manure to force on 
 the young plants, and, when practicable, to use liquid 
 manure for the same purpose. A mixture of salt, soot, 
 -and lime spread on the drills, is also found to check the 
 fly ; and when salt and soot cannot be had, lime may be 
 iised alone. Mangolds and turnips require to be thinned 
 when the leaves have grown to the length of about three 
 
 'inches. It is usual to thin mangolds twice, leaving two 
 plants in each clump at the first thinning, and removing 
 the smaller of the two when it begins to interfere with 
 the other. Turnips are thinned at once, the best plants 
 being retained. The distance from plant to plant, in both 
 
 -crops, varies from ten inches in light ground, to twelve 
 inches, or a little more, in rich land. 
 
 66. In a very dry season a good deal of the seed of 
 m.angolds and turnips does not grow at all for want of 
 moisture. The blanks are filled up in several ways. 
 First, as both mangolds and swedes bear transplanting 
 very well, a number of plants taken out in thinning them 
 are carefully put in with a dibble or spade. This should 
 
 iDe done when the ground is moist ; the greatest care 
 should be taken that the roots are not doubled ; and the 
 clay should be so pressed about the roots, that on 
 taking one of the leaves between the fingers, the plants 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 23 
 
 will not come away. It is also useful to put the plants 
 for half a day, or a day, in clay puddled with weak 
 liquid manure. 
 
 67. Blanks in mangolds or swedes may also be filled 
 up with cabbage-plants, or with late turnips. We gene- 
 rally sow, for this purpose, a mixture of Dale's Hybrid 
 and Greystone turnips. 
 
 68. The after-cultivation of roots consists in hoeing 
 two or three times, to admit air into the soil, and to keep 
 down weeds ; and in digging or grubbing the spaces 
 between the rows, to enable the roots of the plants to go 
 in search of food. 
 
 69. The following are a few good varieties of root crops : 
 Swede turnips — Skirving's Ptcrple Topj Suttmt's Chatn- 
 pion. Aberdeens — Dale's Hybrid. White turnips — Grey- 
 stone. Mangold wurtzel — Long Red, for strong ground 
 and for reclaimed moorland -, Yellow Globe for light and 
 medium land. Oval Yellow is a good intermediate sort. 
 Carrots — White Belgiiwi for feeding horses. Parsnips — 
 Jei'sey Hollow Crowned. 
 
 IV. CABBAGE AND RAPE. 
 
 70. Green Crops embrace cabbage and rape, the leaves 
 of which are used in a green state. Both are useful for 
 feeding stock. Neither bears being stored like root-crops ; 
 but as they admit — more especially the cabbage — of being 
 sown at different times of the year, it is possible to have 
 them coming in for use in succession. For instance, by 
 making three sowings of cabbage-seed, in a well-prepared 
 seed-bed, and by putting out the plants in regular succes- 
 sion, we can have a supply throughout the year. One of 
 these sowings is made in August. The crop is trans- 
 planted in April, and fit for use in autumn, at a time when 
 grass is scarce, and before any of the root-crop is ready. 
 
24 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 71. The cabbage grows best in a rich, deep soil. It is 
 grown after several crops. For the reasons just stated, it 
 is generally put into the same place in the rotation as 
 potatoes and roots ; the plants may be dibbled on the 
 top of drills, made and prepared in the same way as if 
 for these crops. On spade-labour farms the manure may be 
 forked in, and the cabbage planted with a dibble in lines. 
 
 72. Drumhead is the best variety to grow in this way 
 on the farm ; the rows of plants should be two feet six 
 inches apart, and the distance from plant to plant in the 
 lines, eighteen inches. The yield is at least twenty tons 
 per acre. . The after-cultivation of cabbage consists in 
 loosening the earth in the spaces between the drills, keep- 
 ing down weeds, and putting earth up about the stems 
 of the plants. 
 
 73. Another sowing of cabbage-seed is made in April ; 
 the plants are put out in summer, and are fit for use 
 in winter. Plants of this sowing are used for filling up 
 blanks in mangolds and swedes. The third sowing of 
 seed is made in the third week of July ; the plants put 
 out in autumn for use in spring. 
 
 74. Sheep-breeders find the cabbage invaluable food for 
 ewes suckling their lambs in spring. It is found useful 
 to cut up the cabbage with a chaff-cutter, or some other 
 instrument, more especially when feeding is scarce, as 
 the chopped leaves may be mixed with other substances. 
 In the hand-feeding of cows on small farm^s, we have 
 found this practice very profitable. 
 
 75. It is useless to attempt to grow drumhead cabbage- 
 without a liberal application of, say, 25 tons of good farm- 
 yard manure per statute acre. A variety called Thotisand- 
 headed Cabbage gives a heavy crop of leaves, and does 
 not require such rich ground as drumhead. The seed is 
 sown in April ; the plants put out in June and July ; and 
 they become fit for use in winter. 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 25 
 
 76. Rape is raised in this country principally as a 
 stolen crop between grain and turnips. The stubble is 
 dug or ploughed, and the seed sown broadcast at the rate 
 of from 10 lb. per acre on good ground, to 14 lb. on 
 poor land. The seed may also be sown in ruts or drills, 
 sixteen inches asunder. The strong roots of rape loosen 
 up clay-land ; and the crop grows luxuriantly on bog- 
 land. It is necessary to apply some manure to this crop. 
 Ten tons of farm-yard manure, or three cwt. of super- 
 phosphate of lime, may be used. 
 
 77. Rape being, like cabbage, a slow-grower while 
 young, the seed is often sown in a seed-bed, and the crop 
 afterwards transplanted. For spring use, the seed should 
 be sown in July, and the plants dibbled in October in 
 ground properly prepared for them. Sometimes the 
 plants are carefully laid in every second furrow as the 
 ground is being ploughed, a little manure being applied 
 about the roots at the same time. Rape, treated in any 
 of the foregoing ways, yields at the rate of eight or ten 
 tons of feeding per acre ; and on good land twenty tons- 
 have been obtained. 
 
 V. GRAIN CROPS. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 78- The grain-crops raised in this country are wheat^^ 
 barley, oats, and rye. Since the introduction of free 
 trade, the growth of wheat has declined, as it can be 
 produced cheaper in warmer climates. Good crops of 
 wheat can, however, be profitably raised, especially after 
 potatoes, in some of the southern, eastern, and midland 
 counties of Ireland. It is pretty extensively grown in 
 the south and east of England, and in the south of 
 Scotland. The crop admits of being sown either in 
 autumn or in spring. In this country, spring wheat is sa 
 
26 . INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 uncertain, that it is rarely attempted. In Ireland the 
 growth of wheat is now very much confined to potato- 
 ground, which is cleared in time to admit of the wheat- 
 sowing at the best period, which is the end of October 
 or beginning of November. On clean, level ground the 
 seed is often sown broadcast, and ploughed or dug in. 
 A favourite mode of sowing wheat is by ribbing— that is, 
 the ground is made into ridglets or ribs, with a common 
 plough stripped of its mould-board, or with a ribbing 
 machine. On cottier farms the ribs may be formed with 
 the corner of a hoe or with a small shovel. The seed is 
 scattered broadcast on the ribbed surface, and covered 
 with a harrow. In England the seed is very generally 
 sown with a corn-drill. The quantity of seed varies 
 from eight to twelve stones per acre, according to the 
 quality of the ground. 
 
 79. On rich, dry land, white is better than red wheat ; 
 on inferior soils, red wheat is more certain. A better 
 climate is required for white than for red wheat. Red Chaff 
 White is a favourite white variety. White Irish is hardy 
 and productive. Of red varieties, Spalding'' s Prolific 
 -and White Chaffed Red are very good. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 80. Of late years the demand for barley has become 
 so brisk, that it is a very profitable grain-crop on land in 
 ijuitable condition. It requires the surface-soil to be rich ; 
 hence it is grown after root-crops. The preparation of 
 the ground consists in ploughing or grubbing across the 
 direction of the drills ; in harrowing, and, when necessary, 
 rolling, to produce a proper seed-bed ; in sowing the 
 seed, and covering it with the harrow. The quantity of 
 seed sown per statute acre is about ten stones. The 
 variety of barley known as Chevalier is one of the 
 best in use. Barley is sown in the end of March or 
 'beginning of April. 
 
IJ.] IRISH FARMING. 27 
 
 Oats. 
 
 81. Of all cereals, the oat-crop is most generally suited 
 to the climate of the North and West of England, as 
 well as to Ireland and Scotland. In the latter countries 
 it is almost the only grain-crop raised on lea. It is also 
 very extensively grown after roots, but on most well- 
 managed farms barley pays after two crops better when the 
 climate is not too wet. On lea ground, well ploughed, the 
 seed is scattered broadcast on the surface ; it falls into the 
 hollows between the slices ; and is covered by breaking 
 down with a harrow the crests. When the land is badly 
 ploughed, this mode of sowing does not answer, as a 
 large quantity of the grain is apt to fall so low into 
 holes and fissures, that it does not germinate. To pre- 
 vent this, the surface is first harrowed ; the seed then 
 scattered broadcast, and covered with the harrow ; and 
 in shallow ground it often becomes necessary to shovel 
 some earth from the furrows over the ridges, so as to 
 secure the necessary covering for the seed. 
 
 82. Speaking generally, our small farmers do not 
 plough their lands to more than half the proper depth for 
 oats. The result is, that the crop is very short, and in 
 dry seasons it partially fails. 
 
 83. The quantity of seed required per statute acre 
 varies from ten stones in good, to fourteen stones in poor 
 ground. The crop is usually sown about the middle of 
 March. Of good varieties we would name the following : — 
 
 White Oats — Potato for good rich ground ; Sandy for 
 medium land. Black Oats — Com7no7i Black Oats for 
 poor cold land. Black Tartary for rich, moory ground, 
 or land which contains a large proportion of vegetable 
 matter. This variety has become a general favourite. A 
 variety called Tawney Oats is sown in October, and 
 ripens sooner than any other kind. The common black 
 
28 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 oats of the country when well selected yields well. Com- 
 mon speckled oats is very hardy. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 84. Rye is the hardiest of all our grain-crops. It 
 grows in soils too poor, or in situations too exposed or 
 elevated, for oats. In Belgium, it is grown more exten- 
 sively than oats or barley, notwithstanding that the 
 summer is drier and w^armer than ours ; but there, the 
 rye is harvested so early that it admits of being succeeded 
 by a crop of turnips the same year. This crop may be 
 sown in autumn, in winter, or in spring ; the best time is 
 in the end of October or beginning of November. The 
 quantity of seed used per acre depends on the time of 
 sowing — twelve to fourteen stones being the average. 
 Common Rye is hardy, but a variety called Giant English 
 is the best. The seed is sown and covered in the same 
 way as oats. 
 
 85. We have known mountain land, let at 6^-., to pro- 
 duce 76 stones of rye per statute acre. Last year, the 
 grain was sold at i^-. a stone, and the straw, which is 
 used for special purposes, at ^s. a cwt. 
 
 86. The yield of the corn-crops is increased, and their 
 quality improved by a change of seed. On this subject 
 we shall make a remark or two further on. 
 
 VI. BEANS AND PEAS. 
 
 87. Beans and peas being raised for their seed, are 
 sometimes classed as grain-crops ; but, as the seed is 
 enclosed in legumes or pods, they are, with more coiTect- 
 ness, called leguminous crops. 
 
 88. Both these crops are rich in what is called flesh- 
 forming material — that is, they contain, in large quantity, 
 the substance of flesh or muscle. Hence, they are found 
 useful in feeding horses, which carry heavy loads in cities 
 and large towns. They are also consiuned by man ; but,. 
 
11.] IRISH FARMING. 29 
 
 as they contain little fatty and starchy matter, they have 
 a costive effect, and must be used in moderate quantity. 
 
 89. The bean is best suited for strong clay-land. It is 
 grown in several ways. Sometimes it is raised in drills 
 like potatoes. In some places it is often sown broadcast. 
 The ground being ploughed, and harrowed when neces- 
 sary, the seed is scattered by hand, at the rate of four 
 bushels, or more, per statute acre,- and covered in the 
 same way as corn. Very heavy crops have been obtained 
 in this way on our heavy clay-lands. 
 
 90- An expeditious way of sowing beans is to drop the 
 seed in every second furrow, as the land is being ploughed. 
 The plants grow in rows, the space between which can be 
 dug or grubbed and hoed. 
 
 91. The spring varieties of beans are sown from the 
 ist February to the middle of March. The variety known 
 as Russian or winter bean is sown in October. 
 
 92. The crop should be cut when the pods, as well as 
 the upper part of the stem, become brown, and when the 
 seed is easily detached from the pod. It is allowed to 
 remain one day in the swath, after which it is bound into 
 small sheaves, stocked, and, in due time, carried to the 
 stack-yard. In suitable land the yield of beans is fully 
 as much as of wheat. 
 
 93. The J)ea, like the bean, belongs to the order of 
 leguminous plants. It is divided into two classes, namely, 
 common garden pea, the seed of which is white ; and 
 field or grey pea, the seed of which is of a greyish colour. 
 In Ireland, the pea is so precarious, that it is not exten- 
 sively grown as a field-crop. The range of soils suited 
 to its growth is very limited. It thrives best on light, 
 calcareous soils. It is sown in the beginning of March. 
 
 VII. FORAGE AND HERBAGE CROPS. 
 
 9-*. We now come to consider forage and herbage 
 
30 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 plants which have been divided into artificial and natural 
 grasses. According to this division, artificial grasses 
 include vetches, clover, lucerne, and sanfoin, which are 
 not grasses at all, but are given to cattle chiefly in the 
 green state ; and the rye grasses, which are true grasses* 
 All these plants are called artificial grasses, because they 
 are cut and prepared for cattle by hand or art. 
 
 The Vetch. 
 
 95. The tare or vetch is, in this country, chiefly grown 
 as a stolen crop after corn. The ground — being clean- 
 is dug or ploughed, farm-yard manure at the rate of ten to 
 twelve tons per acre is applied, the seed sown broadcast, 
 the ground harrowed to cover the seed, and some earth 
 shovelled from the furrows to complete the covering. A 
 sowing of it should be made as soon after harvest as the 
 ground can be got ready ; and a second sowing a fort- 
 night later. As the stems of the vetch do not stand erect, 
 it is necessary to sow along with it rye, oats, or Italian 
 rye-grass. Rye may be mixed with the seed of the first 
 sowing, rye-grass with the second, and oats with the third. 
 This crop yields on an average twelve tons of forage per 
 acre, and affords excellent feeding for all farm animals ; 
 and on small farms it has the advantage of coming into 
 use at a time when other feeding is scarce. The quantity 
 of seed is about two bushels per statute acre, with a 
 bushel of oats or rye-grass. 
 
 96. As vetch-seed is very dear, farmers ought to allow 
 a small portion of the crop to come to maturity, so as to 
 raise their own seed. 
 
 97. The small farmer may sow in autumn at least 
 twenty perches of this crop for every milch cow kept on 
 the farm. 
 
 98; Vetches sown in spring afford excellent feeding in 
 summer and autumn. Cottiers and small farmers who 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 3t 
 
 house-feed their cows in summer ought to use the crop 
 for this purpose. Several sowings of it may be made 
 from February till May, so that the produce of these 
 several sowings may become ready for use in succession. 
 
 Liicerne. 
 
 99. Lucerne, though a very useful forage-crop, is little- 
 known in many parts of the country. It grows best in 
 rich land, but is most valuable on medium land. It may 
 be planted in waste corners and places which could not 
 be easily tilled. It is sown along with a corn-crop in the 
 same way as clover and grass-seed, or by itself. If sown 
 alone, the ground should be deeply tilled, and made quite 
 even, the surface made into ridglets or ribs, the seed 
 sown, and covered with the rake or harrow. The ruts 
 are made at least fifteen inches apart. The best time for 
 sowing is the middle of April. Twelve pounds of seed 
 per statute acre is enough. If sown broadcast, three or 
 four pounds additional may be used. 
 
 100. One good cutting is sure to be obtained the first 
 year ; and on good land two may be produced. In the 
 year after, the crop will be in full bearing, and give three 
 cuttings ; and if the spaces between the rows of plants 
 be hoed after the last cutting in autumn, and a top- 
 dressing of farm-yard manure or of good compost be 
 applied, at the rate of ten tons per acre, it continues to 
 yield g, good return for eight or ten years. 
 
 101. Lucerne is the first forage-crop available in spring. 
 It is, therefore, of great value to the small farmer who 
 house-feeds, and who often has a difficulty in providing 
 feeding for his animals before the clover or rye-grass is. 
 fit for use. The second crop of lucerne becomes fit for 
 use at another critical time — namely, between the first and 
 second cutting- of clover or rye-grass. 
 
32 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 Sa7ifoin. 
 
 102. Sanfoin is a forage-crop, not unlike lucerne in its 
 habits of growth. It may be sown with a corn-crop, or 
 by itself in the beginning of April, at the rate of two or 
 three bushels of seed per acre. It gives one' cutting the 
 first year, and is not fully grown till the second or third year. 
 
 103. This plant is deep-rooted, and is capable of 
 growing in light stony ground, where rye-grass, clover, 
 or even lucerne, would not pay. Every farmer who holds 
 land of this class should have a plantation of it for the 
 feeding of his cows in summer. 
 
 104. Both lucerne and sanfoin may be made into 
 hay. After eight or ten years these crops die out. The 
 land should be then put under other crops for four or 
 five years, after which either may be sown again in the 
 same ground, 
 
 VIIT. CLOVERS. 
 
 105. Thei'e are several kinds of clover^ the most com- 
 mon being called, after the colour of the blossoms, red, 
 yellow, and white. Red clover is far the most pro- 
 ductive. Being a deep-rooted plant, it is extensively 
 grown in the east and south-east of England, where, owing 
 to the dry climate, thefe is not moisture enough in the 
 surface-soil to nourish rye-grasses, which are surface- 
 rooted plants. Red clover grows luxuriantly in this 
 country ; but if repeated oftener than once in eight years, 
 the land becomes what is called clover-sick, and refuses 
 to grow this plant. The mode of preventing clover- 
 sickness will be explained further on. Red clover is 
 sometimes sown alone, but is generally mixed with other 
 seeds, such as rye-grasses. If sown alone, sixteen pounds 
 of seed should be used ; and as the seed is very small, 
 the surface of the ground requires to be rolled before 
 sowing ; the seed is covered lightly with a bush or light 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING.^ 33 
 
 harrow, and the surface again rolled. Red clover gives 
 two and sometimes three heavy cuttings in the year, 
 after which it begins to die out. Yellow clover is raised 
 as a forage-crop on poor light land, which would not 
 yield red clover. White clover is not sown except 
 in small quantity in mixture for permanent pasture. 
 It affords sweet herbage, and is greatly relished by 
 sheep. 
 
 IX. THE GRASSES. 
 
 106. Of true grasses, the best for forage purposes are 
 named rye-grasses, and are so called because of a slight 
 resemblance they bear to common rye. There are two 
 species of rye-grass ; namely, Italian rye-grass, and 
 perennial rye-grass. They are very like in appearance, 
 and are grown and used in the same way. Of the 
 two, Italian rye-grass is the more productive. On deep, 
 cool soils, it is, in many places, the best forage-crop we 
 possess. It is most productive in wet climates. The 
 heaviest crops of it are obtained on reclaimed bog in the 
 west of Ireland. It gives two, three, and sometimes four 
 cuttings in the year, in favourable situations. It is gene- 
 rally sown with a corn-crop at the rate of about three 
 bushels of seed per statute acre. 
 
 107. It has been sown alone in autumn, after pota- 
 toes, at the rate of four or five bushels. In this case, 
 it is necessary to sow it not later than September, 
 so that the plants would be sufficiently strong to bear 
 the winter's frost. Enormous crops of it are obtained 
 in this. way. 
 
 108. The seed of Italian rye, and indeed all seeds, are 
 grossly adulterated. Farmers would, therefore, do well to 
 have as much of the seed of this crop as would supply 
 their own wants. The second cutting in the season, 
 which is clean, should be used for this purpose. 
 
 D 
 
34 INTRODUCTION TO [chap, 
 
 109. Perennial rye-grass is often mixed with the 
 Italian, in the ratio of two-thirds Italian to one-third 
 perennial. The Italian grows in tufts, and the perennial 
 helps to fill up the spaces between these tufts. On rich 
 soils, Italian grows so rapidly, and the stems and leaves 
 cover the ground so soon, that it is unnecessary to mix 
 anything with it ; but in other places it is better to use 
 the mixture. 
 
 lio. On all soils, except those which are very rich, 
 Italian rye-grass begins to die out after the first year. 
 Perennial rye-grass is more lasting ; hence its name. It 
 is not, however, a true perennial plant ; in fact it rarely 
 lasts more than a year longer than Italian. 
 
 111. There are a great many species of permanent 
 grass ; but not more than ten of them, which we shall now 
 name, should be sown by the farmer. Cocksfoot is a 
 productive grass, and is so called from the resemblance 
 of its flower-stalk to a cock's foot. It grows in all soils 
 except those which are saturated with water, or too light 
 in texture. It is met with in all good meadow-land, and 
 is readily known by its strong leaves, which are nume- 
 rous, of a deep-green colour, and grow with great rapidity. 
 It should enter into ^11 mixtures for meadow-land. It 
 thrives particularly well in shaded places ; and when 
 mixed with the weaker sorts in such situations, it becomes 
 a support to them, and prevents their foliage from being 
 rotted on the ground. 
 
 112. Timothy^ or Meadow Catstail, is best adapted 
 for deep, moist soils, and is said to excel all other grasses 
 on strong, tenacious clays. It also grows well on re- 
 claimed moory ground. It should, therefore, form part 
 of ail mixtures on such lands for meadow or pasture. 
 The aftergrass of Timothy is very light, which has 
 brought it into disfavour. 
 
 113. Meadow Foxtail is the earliest of the valuable 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 35 
 
 grasses, and forms a large proportion of the herbage in 
 our best pastures. It throws out from the crown of its 
 root long, broad, and succulent leaves, which are re- 
 newed with great rapidity — a circumstance which greatly 
 enhances its value for permanent pasture. It answers 
 very well for irrigation. As it does not acquire its full 
 size for three years, and throws up a comparatively bare 
 stem, it is not sown in mixtures for one or two years' grass. 
 
 114. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass is very generally 
 met with in good meadows and pastures. It grows most 
 luxuriantly in rich, moist soils, and does very well in the 
 shade of trees and in irrigated land, but gets burned 
 up in the heat of summer on light, dry ground. It 
 throws out shoots from the root at the base of the culms, 
 which trail on the ground, and send down small roots 
 at their joints in moist weather. Its habits of growth 
 fit it admirably for being sown along with the more 
 upright kinds of grasses, such as rye-grass and meadow 
 fescue. 
 
 lis. Smooth-sialked Meadow Grass is not so valuable 
 as the last-named plants which it resembles in some 
 respects. As the names of both indicate, the stem of 
 the one is rougher than that of the other. The root 
 of the rough- stalked meadow-grass is fibrous, or but 
 slightly creeping, whereas the smooth-stalked species has 
 a creeping root. The smooth-stalked meadow-grass, too. 
 is the smaller plant. As a rule, grasses with creeping 
 roots thrive better in light land than grasses with 
 fibrous roots. This grass cannot be recommended for 
 cultivation, except, perhaps, to enter in small quantity 
 into mixtures for soils which are too light for more 
 valuable grasses. 
 
 116. Meadow Fesaie grows abundantly on rich pasture^ 
 especially where the soil is somewhat moist ; but it is 
 not well suited for light, dry land. The stalks are strong 
 
 D 2 
 
36 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 and coarse ; but they are greedily eaten by horses and 
 cattle. 
 
 117. Hard Fescue is, perhaps, more abundant in 
 British pastures than any other grass. It thrives in a 
 great variety of soils, but it is best suited for dry, light 
 land, and forms a very large proportion of our sheep- 
 walks. It resists the drought of summer, retains its 
 verdure during winter, and is more productive than its 
 dwarfish habits of growth would indicate. It is a good 
 grass to sow with others in lawns, when it is desired to 
 produce both a pleasing effect and a good return. 
 
 lis. Sheep's Fescue forms a large proportion of the 
 herbage of sheep-pastures, especially those in elevated 
 situations. It is a smaller grass, and less productive than 
 either meadow fescue or hard fescue, but it is greatly 
 relished by sheep. 
 
 119. Crested Dogstail is a grass on the merits of which 
 there is a great diversity of opinion. Like meadow fox- 
 tail, it throws up a number of root-leaves, of which sheep 
 are very fond. Unless pasture which contains much 
 of this grass is kept closely stocked, it throws up hard 
 wiry stems, which sometimes irritate the eyes of sheep, 
 and which neither sheep nor cattle eat until winter. It 
 should, therefore, be used sparingly in putting land 
 into grass. It has deep roots which enable it to resist 
 drought. 
 
 120. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, which is supposed 
 to give out the agreeable odour so characteristic of 
 newly-made hay, is not a productive grass ; but it begins 
 to grow early in spring, and continues growing up to a 
 late period in autumn. It should be introduced only to 
 a limited extent into any mixture of grass-seeds. 
 
 121. Florin Grass has a creeping root, each stolon or 
 joint of which is capable of sending independent roots 
 into the grounds and producing an independent plant. 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 37 
 
 It gives a weighty crop on salt marshes and reclaimed 
 bog, where other grasses would not thrive. It is also 
 a useful grass on irrigated lands, especially those of a 
 moory or peaty character. Fiorin grass is propagated 
 either from seed, or by chopping up the plant, and 
 planting the stolons in rows. 
 
 122. The foregoing list includes the most valuable 
 grasses ; but there are two others very common in this 
 country which we shall notice, in the hope that they will 
 be avoided by farmers. Soft meadow grass, called also 
 " Yorkshit'e Fog " and " White Hay^'' is too prevalent. 
 It is covered with soft, downy hairs, and it is found that 
 all grasses of this kind possess little value. This grass 
 is little better than a weed, and yet we know meadows 
 one-half of which is composed of it. Many farmers are 
 very fond of buying what they call white hay-seed, but 
 which, being the sweepings of haylofts, and composed 
 principally of the seed of this plant, are dear at any 
 price. There can be no greater mistake than the purchase 
 of these white seeds, which are not only composed of the 
 seeds of worthless grasses, but frequently convey to the 
 land the seeds of most noxious weeds, whose eradication 
 afterwards costs a great deal of labour. 
 
 123. Creeping Soft Gi'ass is another plant of the same 
 class, often met with in meadow and pasture-land, but 
 not to the same extent as Yorkshire Fog. It is not only 
 downy and innutritious, but it has a creeping root, which 
 gives it the character of a troublesome weed. 
 
 124. A rich, clean soil is required to produce good crops 
 of the grasses ; and as their seeds are small and delicate, 
 they also require the seed-bed to be extremely well 
 pulverized. We have seen that the place in the rotation 
 usually assigned to them is after the grain that follows 
 manured roots and potatoes. 
 
 125. Barley is the best corn-crop with which to sow 
 
38 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 grasses ; oats is next ; and wheat the least suitable of the 
 three. The mode of sowing grass-seed with spring corn is 
 as follows : — The grain being covered with the harrow to 
 a sufficient depth, the ground is rolled, the grass-seeds 
 evenly distributed, and harrowed in with a bush-harrow, 
 or seed-harrow (which is much lighter, and has shorter 
 tines than a common harrow), and the ground again 
 rolled. It has been ascertained by careful experiments 
 that grass-seeds should not be covered to a greater depth 
 than half an inch. 
 
 126. In laying land of good average quality down to 
 permanent pasture, the following mixture may be sown 
 with a corn-crop : — 
 
 lb. lb. 
 
 Italian rye-grass ...... 6 
 
 Perennial ,, 9 
 
 Cocksfoot 5 
 
 Timothy 3 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow grass . 3 
 
 Meadow Foxtail 2 
 
 Common fescue 4 
 
 Hard fescue 4 
 
 Red clover 5 
 
 Yellow clover t 
 
 White clover 2 
 
 For sheep-walks, and more especially in elevated 
 situations, Italian rye-grass and cocksfoot are left out, 
 the quantity of perennial rye- grass is diminished, and 
 haxd fescue increased.' 
 
 HAYMAKING. 
 
 1S7. We find that the grasses, while the blades are 
 young, contain more water than at any subsequent 
 period ; that as they grow in size, sugar, fat, and flesh- 
 forming matters are produced ; and that, until the seed 
 begins to grow, they not only continue to increase in bulk, 
 but the quality of a given weight of that bulk improves. 
 If permitted to grow beyond this stage, the feeding 
 quality of the plants is greatly deteriorated, woody fibre 
 being rapidly produced at the expense of the sugar. We 
 may safely assume that, so far as the quantity of the pro- 
 
n.] IRISH FARMING. 39 
 
 diice (including the aftergrass) is concerned, we obtain 
 the maximum by mowing the grasses when in blossom. 
 As, however, all grasses do not flower at the same time, 
 the following rules may be observed. 
 
 128. Italian rye-grass should always be mown on the 
 appearance of the flowers. Ordinary rye-grass may be 
 allowed to produce the flowers. Clover is best cut when 
 the heads are in full blossom. Mixed meadows should be 
 mown when the bulk of the herbage is in full flower, 
 or when the seeds of the earliest grasses are fully formed, 
 such as sweet-scented vernal grass and meadow foxtail ; 
 and the seed of the late grasses, such as crested dogstail 
 and meadow fescue, are just beginning to produce the 
 floral organs. Timothy, Italian rye-grass, perennial rye- 
 grass, and cocksfoot generally flower during the latter 
 half of June, which is the proper time for mowing the 
 cultivated grasses. 
 
 129. The ruling idea in the saving of hay should be to 
 allow it to remain in the field as short a time as is 
 absolutely necessary, and to ' rick it as soon as it can 
 be done with safety. The time within which this can 
 be accomplished varies with the succulence of the grass. 
 In the case of rye-grass, and mixed grasses, from light or 
 dry soils, the period may, by skilful management, be 
 reduced to four days in dry weather ; in rich low-land 
 it takes at least a week or ten days. By delaying the 
 process too long, the hay is burnt up by the sun ; and it is 
 also liable to have its soluble constituents washed out of it 
 by rain. Well-made hay retains its green colour, and 
 possesses an agreeable odour. Hay exposed to too much 
 sun and rain is of a whitish colour, without flavour, and 
 looks dry and coarse, like straw. To promote uniformity 
 in the colour of the hay, all parts of it should be equally 
 exposed to the sun and air. In half-a-day or a day after 
 it is mown — the exact time depending on the character of 
 
40 INTRODUCTION TO [chap, 
 
 the grass, and the state of the weather — the swarth is 
 turned over and shaken. This work is done by the hand 
 or fork on small farms, and by a machine called a hay- 
 tedder on large farms. When both sides become 
 sufficiently exposed to sun and air, the grass is made 
 with forks into cocks, called fork-cocks. Next day, these 
 cocks may be opened, and the hay made into larger cocks 
 in the evening. In a day or two after, these cocks may, 
 if necessary, be made into still larger ones, from which 
 the hay may be taken to the stack-yard. ^ Should wet 
 overtake the farmer in making hay, the safest plan 
 is not to meddle with it ; for each time that we turn or 
 disturb it, a fresh surface is exposed to the solvent and 
 deteriorating action of the rain. It will keep quite safely 
 for several days in well-made cocks of 5 cwt. each, 
 
 130. The hay crop suffers deterioration chiefly from the 
 following causes : — first, rain ; second, loss of fragrance 
 by fermentation ; third, loss of colouring matter ; fourth, 
 it is allowed to remain in the field until a portion of it 
 is rotted away ; and this again involves loss of after- 
 grass. 
 
 13X. Hay contains a considerable quantity of matter 
 soluble in water, varying from 6 to 8| per cent., which is 
 liable to be washed away by rain. Considering the rain- 
 fall in Ireland, we shall not be considered to overstate the 
 case when we assume that, during the process of hay- 
 making, the Irish farmer permits the rain to run away 
 with 5 per cent, of the valuable constituents of the crop, 
 
 132. The loss of the fragrance of hay deteriorates its 
 value to an extent which has never been estimated, and 
 which it is not easy to determine. The peculiar fragrance 
 of hay is produced by a volatile organic compound, 
 which is, probably, the compound that imparts any extra 
 value they possess to those cattle foods which are puffed 
 off at such exorbitant prices. In excess it produces an 
 
11.] IRISH FARMING. 41 
 
 injurious effect upon the brain of all animals ; but, in 
 moderate quantity, it incites a healthy action in the glands 
 that secrete the saliva, without a due quantity of which 
 all the nutrient constituents of the food (hay included) 
 cannot be digested and assimilated. 
 
 133. When hay ferments, the alcohol, in the presence 
 of water (rain), dissolves this compound, and thus destroys 
 the fragrance of the hay, and deteriorates its value. Andy 
 though we cannot determine with any degree of accuracy 
 the injury done to the hay, yet, in practice, we find a 
 difference of 50 per cent., in value, between well-saved 
 and very badly-saved hay from the same ground.^ 
 
 134. The natural green colour of the grasses should, 
 as far as practicable, be preserved in converting them 
 into hay. The colouring matter is a vegetable fatty, or 
 waxy body, which, like that which gives fragrance, is 
 separated by alcohol. When the grasses dry in the open 
 air, this substance becomes oxidized, and the more oxygen 
 it takes in, the more the colour changes. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the sooner hay is ricked the better ; for 
 the longer we expose it to the air, the more it becomes 
 oxidized and diminished in value. If ricked too soon, 
 however, the loss of fragrance by fermentation (without 
 speaking at all of the loss of sugar, &c., from the same 
 cause) would more than counterbalance the advantages of 
 retaining the green colour. 
 
 135. That a considerable quantity of hay is lost annu- 
 ally, by being allowed to remain too long in field-cocks, 
 is well known to anybody who has travelled much 
 through the country. The portion on the ground, as well 
 as that on the outside of the cocks, is, too often, only fit 
 for manure. And the aftergrass, as well as the subsequent 
 
 "^ "A difiference of an hour in a very hot, drying day is supposed to ^ 
 occasion a loss of 15 to 20 per cent, in the hay, by its being carried beyond 
 the point of perfection." — Young, " Farmer's Calendar." 
 
42 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 year's crop (if hay or pasture), suffers to the extent of 
 from dd. to is. per acre. 
 
 136. If we unite all the foregoing sources, the loss 
 annually sustained in this country is enormous. On an 
 average for all Ireland, it is not under 20 per cent., or a 
 fifth of the actual value of the crop. We have about 
 1,500,000 acres under meadow in Ireland, the average 
 produce of which is about two tons per acre. The total 
 hay produced, therefore, is 3,000,000 tons (the value of 
 which is at least 50^-, a ton), or ^7,500,000]; and of this 
 sum one-fifth, or _;^ 1,500,000, is lost by bad management. 
 
 ON FLAX. 
 
 137. In the north of Ireland, flax is a very important 
 crop. It affords profitable employment to the small 
 farmer and his family, and supplies the raw material 
 for the linen industry, which has been a source of wealth 
 and prosperity to many persons in Ulster. Several 
 attempts have been made to extend the growth of flax in 
 other parts of the united kingdom ; in most cases these 
 attempts have not been successful. 
 
 138. Flax suits a variety of soils. It can be grown 
 successfully in every county in Ireland. It succeeds best 
 in cool land of medium strength. 
 
 139. In order to produce flax of fine fibre, the land 
 should not be too rich. On the other hand, it is useless to 
 grow it on very poor land. There is great want of skill 
 in the management of the flax-crop in this country. It is 
 grown too often on the same land. In Belgium and the 
 north of France, where first-class fibre is produced, it is 
 not repeated on the soil until after the lapse of ten or 
 twelve years ; and for the production of fibre for cambric 
 the interval often extends to eighteen years. 
 
 14.0. On ordinary land, the best place for flax is after 
 lea-oats. If the farmer pursues the five-course rotation 
 
II.] IRISH FARMING. 43 
 
 on the tillage portion of his land, he can manage to have 
 his flax come round on the same ground once in ten years, 
 thus : — 
 
 I St — Root-crops. 
 
 2nd — Grain, with seeds. 
 
 3rd — Grass — ist year. 
 
 4th — Grass — 2nd year. 
 
 5th — One-half the field is put under flax. 
 The remaining half is cropped with grain, potatoes, 
 rape, or vetches, according to circumstances. Five years 
 afterwards, the flax can be put in this section of the field. 
 
 141. The ground, in preparation for flax, should be 
 deeply dug or ploughed in autumn ; and in spring the 
 surface should be reduced to the finest possible state of 
 tilth. It should also be made as even as possible, to 
 ensure plants of uniform length ; and all root-weeds 
 should be carefully removed. 
 
 142. The seed is sown as early in April as the ground 
 can be got ready for it, the quantity of seed used being 
 2\ or 3 bushels per statute acre. To ensure an even 
 braird, it is a good plan to sow one-half the seed by 
 going up and down the field, and the other half by going 
 across it ; and to secure this still further, it is covered in 
 by giving a double stroke of the harrow up and down, 
 one straight across the field, and another in the direction 
 of one of the diagonals. 
 
 143. Flax is fit to pull when the stems become yellow 
 to about two-thirds their height from the ground. 
 
 144. The bolls, or capsules, which contain the seed 
 ought to be preserved, as they make excellent feeding for 
 calves and milch cows. A statute acre of flax ought to 
 produce twenty-five stones of scutched fibre, which would 
 bring from Zs. to 12s. a stone. Riga seed is the best for 
 most soils ; but on strong, low-lying land, Dutch seed is 
 found to give a better return. 
 
44 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 145. The author has detailed his experience on steep- 
 ing and scutching this plant, in a separate tract, to which 
 the reader is referred for fuller information on these points 
 than he srives in this treatise. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 I. ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS. 
 
 146. The nutrition of animals is governed by laws 
 which every person ought to understand. We shall give 
 an outline of these laws by explaining the various pur- 
 poses served by food in the animal. The component 
 parts of food may be grouped as follows : — 
 
 1. Water. 
 
 2. Heat-giving materials, such as starch and sugar — 
 
 compounds identical in composition, and supposed 
 to be equal for feeding. 
 
 3. Oil or fatty matter. 
 
 4. Flesh-forming material, such as the gluten of wheat. 
 
 5. Woody or indigestible fibre. 
 
 6. Ash, or mineral matter (a large portion of which 
 
 is composed of phosphate of lime, the well-known 
 substance of bones). 
 
 147. The value of any feeding substance depends 
 mainly on the proportions in which these six groups 
 exist in it. The food which the animal takes in through 
 its mouth passes into the stomach (or stomachs, of which 
 the cow and sheep have each four, and the horse and the 
 pig only one each) ; after being acted on by various 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 45 
 
 agents in this organ, the indigestible or innutritious part 
 passes away through the intestines, and the nutritious part 
 is conveyed to the blood. 
 
 148. Overlooking water, the constituents we have first 
 to consider are sugar, starch, and similar compounds. 
 These, it has been found, go to support animal heat. 
 Animals could not exist without heat ; and the heat 
 they require is chiefly kept up by the consumption 
 of starch and sugar, which are, therefore, very properly 
 called heat-givers. The temperature of the body of an 
 animal is about the same in all climates, provided it is 
 properly fed. The blood of man, e.g., is as warm in the 
 Arctic as in the Torrid regions of the earth. In the 
 former, or colder climate, he must eat more carbonaceous 
 food, or more starch, sugar, and other compounds capable 
 of supplying carbon, to keep up animal heat. 
 
 149. The same holds good with regard to live stock. 
 If we leave them exposed to cold they must eat more food 
 to keep up the necessary heat of the body. This shows 
 the necessity of providing suitable shelter and food for 
 farm animals in winter. 
 
 150. The fat of animals is identical in composition 
 with the fatty or oily matter found in plants ; and it is 
 believed the fat of the food goes to form the fat of the 
 body. The fatty matter of food is also capable of supply-—^ 
 ing animal heat. There is this difference, however, be- 
 tween the fatty and starchy matter of food as producers 
 of animal fat, namely, that an animal can produce its own 
 fat from the fatty matter of its food more readily than 
 from compounds not fatty in their nature, such as starch 
 and sugar, f A pound of fatty matter is supposed to be ^ 
 equal to two and a half pounds of starchy matter, or sugar, 
 for fattening purposes. The more fatty matter, therefore, 
 any kind of food contains, the better it is adapted for the 
 fattening of stock. \ Linseed (flax seed) contains 34 per 
 
46 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 cent., or about one-third of its weight, of oil ; and is, 
 when properly used, one of the most rapid fat producers 
 we have. Used largely it has a laxative effect. The oil 
 is so valuable for other purposes, that the seed is pressed 
 in mills, the oil extracted, and a solid residue or cake is 
 obtained, which contains about twelve per cent, of oil, 
 and is sold underthe name of oil-cake or linseed-cake. Oil- 
 cake from linseed, when free from adulteration, is one of 
 the best substances which the farmer can use for fatten- 
 ing cattle and sheep. Rape-seed, which contains a great 
 deal of valuable oil, is also pressed in the same way ; the 
 oil, called colza oil, so extensively used in lamps, is sold 
 to oil merchants, and the cake called rape-cake, which 
 contains about eleven per cent, of oil, is sold to the farmer 
 for feeding stock. Compared with linseed oil cake, rape- 
 cake appears to be very cheap. It does not, however, 
 agree with cattle or sheep as well as linseed-cake. Before 
 using rape-cake it is recommended to subject it to the 
 action of boiling water. We are of opinion that rape- 
 cake pays best when given to store cattle and milch cows ; 
 notwithstanding the higher price of linseed-cake it pays 
 better than rape-cake in the fattening of cattle or sheep. 
 Rape-cake, when adulterated with the seed of wild 
 mustard, is injurious to stock. By making a small 
 quantity of it into a paste, the pungent smell, so charac- 
 teristic of mustard, will be emitted if the cake is adulter- 
 ated with mustard seed. 
 
 151. A cake, called cotton cake, is obtained from the 
 seed of the cotton plant. Made from the whole seed, it 
 contains six per cent, of oil, and upwards. When first 
 introduced the husk was not ground in any way ; the 
 result was that animals died from inflammation of the 
 intestines, caused by the lodgment therein of this indiges- 
 tible woody matter ; but, as now manufactured, it is safe 
 and good for all stock, especially milch cows. When the 
 cake is deprived of this husk, and becomes what is known 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 47 
 
 in the market as "decorticated" cotton cake, it contains 
 ten per cent, of oil. 
 
 152. The flesh-forming constitutents of food supply the 
 muscles of the body. The muscles and all the tissues of 
 an animal are continually wearing away ; even in a state of 
 perfect health and repose this process goes on. If we 
 wish the animal to keep up its health and condition, the 
 matter removed in this way must be supplied to it in the ^^ 
 food. It has been estimated that a man's body is renewed 
 
 in about half-a-dozen years. In flesh and bone, therefore, 
 we are not to-day what we were yesterday. The degree 
 of waste which the body of any animal suffers varies 
 with a great many circumstances. Disease or irritation 
 increases it very much. A sheep suffering -from foot-rot 
 does not produce as much mutton from a given quantity of 
 food as when free from this affection. A cow of a restless 
 disposition does not thrive as well as one of quiet temper. 
 
 153. Exercise, whether mental or bodily, accelerates 
 the waste of the body. The harder a horse is worked, 
 
 ^ /the more food he requires. It follows, that in fattening 
 
 \y cattle, the quieter we keep them the greater the quantity of 
 
 meat we are likely to get from a given quantity of food, 
 
 because the less of the latter is expended in supplying the 
 
 waste of the body. 
 
 154. Woody fibre enters very largely into the composi- 
 tion of our farm crops. It is made up of the same substance 
 
 \^^ as starch, sugar, and gum ; but, as it is indigestible (or 
 nearly so), its chief use is to give bulk to the food, so that 
 it may be detained sufficiently long in the stomach to be 
 thoroughly acted on. 
 
 155. The mineral constituents of the food are required 
 ^ / to supply the mineral matter of the body. The bone and 
 
 framework of the animal could not be formed without 
 mineral matters, and as these matters are wasted, like the 
 other constituents of the tissues, the food must always 
 afford a fresh supply. If the food is deficient in phos- 
 
48 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 phorus, the bone is weak, and the limbs unable to bear 
 the animal. We have frequently seen young pigs suffer- 
 ing from weakness of the bone, which may be prevented, 
 and where it already exists, sometimes even cured, by J. 
 affording food rich in the substance of bone, such as bran. 
 Lime, which is a constituent of phosphate of lime, Ts'^^ 
 required to build up the bone. Phosphate and carbonate 
 of lime exist in the ashes of our pasture grasses and grain 
 crops, the seed of the latter being particularly rich in 
 phosphate of lime. The hard shell of the eggs of poultry 
 is composed principally of carbonate of lime, and instinct 
 teaches the common hen to pick up pieces of mortar, 
 gravel, or chalk, which contain this substance. Iron is an 
 essential constituent of the colouring matter of the blood. 
 Common salt affords two most important constituents, - 
 which appear to be necessary for digestion. Man obtains 
 the saline matter necessary for his body in flesh meat, 
 milk, and the common salt which is so universally used 
 at table. Our crops contain comparatively little common 
 salt, and hence it is used largely by those who live prin- 
 cipally on potatoes. The intelligent farmer also gives 
 common salt to his live animals, knowing that it not only 
 causes them to thrive better, but that it also prevents 
 many diseases which would otherwise affect them. Full- 
 grown cattle may occasionally get a couple of ounces of 
 it in their daily allowance of food ; horses, from one 
 ounce to two ounces ; sheep and pigs, about half-an-ounce. 
 Grazing cattle and sheep should have access to lumps of 
 rock-salt in the field. Lumps of it may be also placed 
 within reach of stall-fed cattle, or it may be strewed over 
 or mixed with their food. The best way of giving it to 
 horses is by dissolving it in their mashes. It is given to 
 pigs mixed with their food. 
 
 156. We append a table showing the proportions of 
 the foregoing constituents in the several crops and feeding 
 stuffs, which will be found useful for a variety of purposes. 
 
III.] 
 
 IRISH FARMING. 
 
 49 
 
 
 Every 100 
 
 parts (by weigh 
 
 , say lbs.) 
 
 Kind of Food. 
 
 
 contam as follows. 
 
 
 U 
 
 c 
 6 u 
 
 ill 
 
 
 >•.; 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 >>s ^ 
 
 t! a 
 
 T3 JJ 
 
 rC 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 o.-a 
 
 < ' 
 
 I. Seeds. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat .... 
 
 iS-o 
 
 12.0 
 
 66.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 1-7 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 14.0 
 
 ii-S 
 
 58.5 6.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 3-0 
 
 Barley .... 
 
 16.0 
 
 10.5 
 
 65.0 2.0 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-0 
 
 Bere (.mean of 4 analyses) 
 
 14.2 
 
 10. 1 
 
 62.6 2.0 
 
 9-03 
 
 2.02 
 
 Rye ... . 
 
 16.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 (660) 
 
 8.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 Beans .... 
 Pease .... 
 
 14.8 
 14. 1 
 
 24.4^ 
 
 47.0 
 48.3 
 
 1-5 
 1-7 
 
 10. 
 
 lO.O 
 
 3-4 
 2.5 
 
 Linseed . ' . 
 
 7-S 
 
 30-7 
 
 34-0 
 
 
 3-3 
 
 Tares .... 
 
 15-3 
 
 20.1 
 
 53-9 
 
 1.8 
 
 S-3 
 
 3-4 
 
 Indian Corn . 
 
 i4'5 
 
 10. 
 
 61.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 5-0 
 
 1-5 
 
 Rice .... 
 
 14.0 
 
 5-3 
 
 (78.5) 
 
 2-5 
 
 0.7 
 
 2. Fodder, Straw, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hay, ^c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat .... 
 
 14.2 
 
 1-79 
 
 29.9 
 
 I.I 
 
 45-4 
 
 7-S 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 12. 1 
 
 1.63 
 
 36.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 43.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 Barley .... 
 
 14-3 
 
 1.68 
 
 38.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 Q9.8 
 
 4.2 
 
 Rye . . . . 
 
 14-3 
 
 2.29 
 
 (371) 
 
 43-2 
 
 3.1 
 
 Meadow hay (average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 25 samples) . 
 
 14.6 
 
 8.4 
 
 (43-6) 
 
 27.1 
 
 6.x 
 
 Meadow hay, very in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ferior, one year old. 
 
 13.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 (77-6) 
 
 
 5-2 
 
 Bean straw . 
 
 19-4 
 
 3-3 
 
 6.5 I.O 
 
 65.6 
 
 5-7 
 
 Pea do. ... 
 
 12,0 
 
 12.5 
 
 19.6 2.3 
 
 47-5 
 
 .6.0 
 
 3. Green Food, Roots, &'c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White Turnips (white 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Globe) . . . 
 
 90.4 
 
 I.I 
 
 (5-45) 
 
 2-3 
 
 0.6 
 
 Purple top, Aberdeen, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 collected 5th October . 
 
 89.9 
 
 1.06 
 
 (82) 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 Swedes 
 
 89-5 
 
 1.4 
 
 (5.9) 1 
 
 2-5 
 
 0.6 
 
 Mangold- wurzel . 
 
 87.8 
 
 1-5 
 
 (8.6) ! 
 
 I.I 
 
 0.9 
 
 Carrots (white Bel- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gian) 
 
 87.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 n^ 
 
 
 0.7 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 82.0 
 
 1-3 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 cabbages} S '.=^''! 
 
 91.1 
 94.5 
 
 1.6 
 0.9 
 
 '&f 
 
 
 2.2 
 0.6 
 
 Potatoes, White rocks 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 (seed sample) 
 
 76.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 15.0 1 0.2 
 
 5-5 
 
 1.0 
 
 Vetches . . 
 
 82.S 
 
 3-8 
 
 (12.4) 
 
 
 1-3 
 
 Rape (green) . 
 
 87.0 
 
 3-1 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 3-5 
 
 1.6 
 
 Rye (green) . 
 
 75-4 
 
 2.7 
 
 §-^ 
 
 0.9 
 
 10.5 
 
 1-3 
 
 Furze .... 
 
 72.0 
 
 3-2 
 
 8.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 13-3 
 
 2.1 
 
5© 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 [chap. 
 
 
 Every 100 parts (by weight, say lb: 
 
 .) 
 
 
 
 contain as follows. 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 T3.S • 
 
 
 
 
 Kind of Food. 
 
 4> 
 
 1^ ■ 
 
 
 ^i 
 ^ 
 
 II 
 
 
 4. Artificial Food. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Linseed-cake 
 
 1Z.4 
 
 27-3 
 
 34-5 
 
 12.8 
 
 6.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 Rape-cake 
 
 10.7 
 
 29-5 
 
 30-9 
 
 II. I 
 
 100 
 
 7.8 
 
 Cotton-cake from whole 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 seed .... 
 
 II-3 
 
 23-7 
 
 31.0" 
 
 6.2 
 
 21.? 
 
 6.5 
 
 Do. with some of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 husk removed, — the 
 
 
 
 
 i . 
 
 
 " decorticated " cot- 
 
 
 
 
 - ! 
 
 
 ton-cake of commerce 
 
 9-3 
 
 41.2 
 
 16.4' 
 
 16.0 ; , 8.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 Poppy-cake . 
 
 6.6 
 
 34-0 
 
 23.2 
 
 II.O ' II. 3 
 
 13.8 
 
 Bran .... 
 
 12.8 
 
 138 
 
 50.1 
 
 5-5 ' II-5 
 
 6.1 
 
 Brewers' grains 
 
 758 
 
 0.6 
 
 i.i^ 
 
 ? 1 21.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 Do. (draff) . 
 
 74-7 
 
 3-6 
 
 
 (20.3) .. 
 
 1-3 
 
 Hemp-cake 
 
 7.2 
 
 21.S 
 
 22.5 
 
 1 7-9 1 25.1 
 
 15-8 
 
 Malt dust 
 
 6.2 
 
 25.6 
 
 
 (59-4) 
 
 8.7 
 
 Oat dust 
 
 5.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 45-7 
 
 3-6 
 
 35-3 
 
 S-o 
 
 Barley dust . 
 
 II. 
 
 8.4 
 
 69.7 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 7-3 
 
 Palm kernel-cake 
 
 10.7 
 
 13-4 
 
 27.4- 
 
 11.4 
 
 ' 33-0 
 
 4.0 
 
 Thorley's condiraental 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 food .... 
 
 II. 4 
 
 11.4 
 
 1 64.0 
 
 4.1 
 
 1 6.2 
 
 2.8 
 
 157. This table is a mere approximation to truth. An 
 accurate table cannot be prepared in the present state of 
 science ; for, in the first place, it is well known that soil 
 and climate influence the composition of the same plant 
 very much, and samples of crops raised on soils and in 
 circumstances alike in every way have not been analyzed ; 
 secondly, there are defects in the present mode of deter- 
 mining some of the constituents of food ; thirdly, such a 
 table does not take any cognizance of the mechanical 
 condition in which the different kinds of flesh-formers, 
 heat-givers, &c., exist in the food. For example, flesh- 
 forming material may exist in a more digestible state in 
 one food than in another. And so also, in accordance 
 with the old saying, that "what is one man's .meat is 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 51 
 
 another man's poison," a constituent of food may be easily- 
 digested in the stomach of one animal, while it may be 
 digested with difficulty, or altogether incapable of under- 
 going digestion, in the stomach of another. 
 
 II. THE SEVERAL KINDS OF CATTLE SUITED TO IRISH 
 FARMERS. 
 
 158. The most valuable kind of cattle we possess is the 
 short-horn, which was established in the north-east of Eng- 
 land in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Among 
 the men to whom the world is indebted, for the great 
 perfection to which this race of animals has been brought, 
 the foremost place is usually given to the brothers Charles 
 and Robert Colling of Darlington, Mr. Bates of Kirk- 
 levington, and Messrs. Booth of Wallarby and Killerby, 
 who applied great skill and judgment to the breeding of 
 short-horn cattle. Several other persons also aided in 
 the work. The results of the labours of all these men 
 afford to our farmers a most instructive lesson. For 
 example, Mr. Charles Colhng commenced his career as 
 a breeder with cattle which at the time would bring 
 only ordinary market prices, or a shade higher. The bull 
 Hubback, sometimes called the father of short-horns, was 
 purchased for ^8. Yet in about a quarter of a century 
 Mr. Colling brought his cattle to such perfection that at 
 his sale in 18 10 forty-seven animals realized ^7,115 ijs., 
 or an average of ^151 8>y. a piece. 
 
 159. This result was accomplished by the exercise of 
 skill in the selection of parents, and by close breeding. It 
 is well known that the shapes and qualities of parents 
 are capable of being transmitted to their offspring. It is 
 also found that valuable properties are established, or fixed, 
 very soon when the parents are related. Close breeding 
 is, however, often carried too far. It is neither so safe nor 
 so necessary when a pure breed is established as in the 
 
 E 2 
 
52 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 earlier stages of the process of improvement. The 
 improvement that may be effected in a short time is well 
 illustrated by the following saying of Charles Colling : 
 " Give me my sight, and the touch of my fingers, and in a 
 half-dozen years I will produce as good a herd as I have 
 sold off." 
 
 160. The class of farmers for whom our remarks are 
 intended cannot afford to procure a herd of pure short- 
 horns. We consider, however, that the short-horned 
 breed is the best for improving the cattle of Ireland ; and 
 we ask the co-operation of the landed interest of the country 
 as the great agency for effecting this. They should all 
 possess bulls of first-rate quality, not only for their own 
 use, but also for the use of their tenantry. By the use of 
 good and pure bulls of this breed on the one side, and by 
 the use of the eye and the touch in selecting the cows, or 
 rather in rejecting bad cows, our farmers could rapidly 
 improve their cattle. In fact, in a few years they could 
 produce cattle little inferior, even for fattening purposes, 
 to pure-bred animals. To effect this object it is not 
 necessary to give extraordinary prices. The better the 
 animals are, the more effectually will the object be ac- 
 complished ; but we know, from experience, that a short- 
 horn bull can be had at a moderate price, good enough 
 for the purpose. The crosses produced in this way are now 
 forwarded to London from Scotland, Norfolk, and other 
 districts, weighing from 45 to 55 stones of 14 lbs, each, at 
 two years old and under. Formerly so much weight and 
 quality could not be produced under from three and a half 
 to four years. If our own farmers were to pursue this 
 system with skill, the wealth of the country would be 
 considerably increased, and the consumer of meat would 
 become less dependent on foreign supplies than he is at 
 present. 
 
 161. Pure-bred short-horns have good shape and 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 53 
 
 symmetry, deep and level carcase, fine limbs, and that 
 quiet disposition which is so favourable to fattening. 
 They have a soft mellow hide, which is covered with a 
 soft thick coat of hair. The animals transmit their own 
 qualities to their offspring with great certainty. They are 
 on the whole, noted more for the production of flesh and 
 fat than milk ; but this has arisen, as already explained, 
 from the fact that the milking properties have not received 
 sufficient attention. In selecting bulls, Irish farmers should 
 resort to herds in which the two properties are united. 
 
 162. There are several other breeds of cattle which 
 have been tried in Ireland, such as the Hereford, and 
 Devon, Polled Angus, Kyloe, and Ayrshire, the peculi- 
 arities of which are detailed in our larger work on agri- 
 culture. The Kerry is the only pure breed in Ireland. 
 It is essentially a mountain breed. It is small in size, 
 exceedingly hardy, and can subsist on poor and exposed 
 pasture, and often bears a close resemblance, in size, 
 shape, and colour, to the native cattle of Wales and 
 Brittany. The colour preferred in Kerry is black, with 
 a ridge of white along the spine, and a white streak 
 along the belly. Cattle of true Kerry descent are met 
 with of other colours. Thus, we have seen them brown, 
 black and white, and black and brown. The horns are 
 fine, somewhat long, and turned upwards at the points. 
 The skin is soft, unctuous, and of a fine orange tone, 
 which is visible about the eyes, the ears, and the muzzle. 
 
 163. The beef is tender, well marbled, and commands 
 the highest price in the market. The milk is peculiarly 
 rich and well-flavoured ; and the quantity of it yielded, 
 even on hard fare, is so great, that the Kerry has been 
 styled the poor man's cow. Professor Low observes, 
 "that in milking properties the Kerry cow, taking size 
 into account, is equal, or superior, to any in the British 
 Islands." Is it not, therefore, lamentable that so little 
 
54 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 attention has been bestowed on its improvement ? Addi- 
 tional capital is not necessary. More care in the selec- 
 tion of parents, and more attention to food and shelter 
 in the winter, are all that we ask to improve this race 
 of cattle. We do not recommend it for our rich or. 
 middling pastures ; but being one of the valuable inoim- 
 tain breeds we possess, it ought to be kept pure. It 
 is well adapted for the hill pastures of its native county, 
 and for parts of Clare, Galway, Mayo, Down, Donegal, 
 and Wicklow. 
 
 III. ON THE REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 164. The health arid vigour of a full-grown ox depend 
 greatly upon the food and care it receives when young. 
 If badly reared it cannot be expected to beo^ome a profit- 
 able beast. I 
 
 165. The cow goes in young nine monthX. A month 
 or six weeks before calving she should be run dry. If 
 the cow be milked up to the time of calving, the calf 
 must suffer, the udder does not spring fully, and the 
 cow herself will not yield the full quantity of milk that 
 season. 
 
 166. After calving, the cov; should get a warm bran 
 mash, or white drink of some kind. For a day she should 
 be fed principally on soft food. 
 
 167. Many farmers allow the calf to suck its dam 
 for some days, believing it to be most natural and best 
 for both. Other farmers, again, who separate the calf 
 from the cow at once, say, that if they are allowed to- 
 gether for some days, the cow not only becomes quite 
 restless when the calf is removed, but goes back in her 
 milk in consequence. 
 
 168. The calf should get its dam's milk until it is 
 fit for dairy purposes. New milk being the most natural. 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. $$ 
 
 food for calves, should be supplied to them for about 
 three weeks. An ordinary-sized calf consumes about six 
 quarts of milk daily for this period. It is sometimes given 
 in two, and sometimes in three or more feeds daily. 
 
 169. Farmers are aware, to their own heavy loss, 
 that great numbers of calves die every year ; and the loss 
 arises, principally, from bad food, and want of care in 
 feeding. When the food is deficient in quantity or qua- 
 lity, the calf is liable to disease ; and want of care and 
 regularity in feeding produces disease of the intestines, 
 which is the most common cause of the mortality of Irish 
 calves. 
 
 170. It is found very expensive to continue giving new 
 milk to ordinary calves any longer than three weeks. 
 Various substitutes are used, skim-milk being the most 
 common. Gruel, made from both linseed and linseed- 
 cake, and hay-tea, are also used. In providing a substi- 
 tute for new milk, two things should be observed : first, 
 as new milk is the food intended by nature for the calf, 
 we ought to imitate, as far as possible, the proportions 
 in which the several nutritive constituents exist in it ; 
 and, secondly, we must provide a food which the young 
 animal can assimilate. 
 
 171. Skim-milk contains a great deal of the flesh- 
 forming material, as well as of the sugar and mineral 
 matter of new milk, but it is deficient in fatty matter ; 
 in other words, the nutritive constituents do not exist in 
 it in proper proportion. 
 
 172. It may therefore be assumed, that calves could 
 be reared more cheaply by substituting for some of the 
 skim-milk, gruel made of some food rich in fat-forming 
 and heat-giving material, than by feeding them on skim- 
 milk alone. Linseed jelly, in moderate quantity, is ex- 
 cellent food for calves ; but if given too freely, it is apt 
 to purge them. The small farmers of Ireland should 
 
56 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 carefully preserve the seed of the flax plant for the use 
 of their calves. It is made into jelly by first moistening 
 it in cold water, and afterwards pouring hot water upon 
 it in a common bucket, and covering it with an old sack, 
 or a piece of old cloth, to keep in the heat, taking 
 care to stir it occasionally, and cover it up again. When 
 the farmer has no linseed of his own he can buy linseed- 
 meal in the shops ; and where the meal cannot be had, 
 linseed-cake may be broken fine and made into gruel. 
 
 173. Hay-tea, obtained by boihng some good hay in 
 water, may also form part of the food of calves. We 
 have had ample experience of the value of this beverage 
 in rearing calves. It is used in many parts of Ireland 
 by the small farmers, who often, however, make the mis- 
 take of relying too much upon it. A mixed diet, com- 
 posed of skim-milk, jelly made from flax-seed or from 
 linseed-oil cake, and hay-tea, and some ground corn, is 
 a good substitute for new milk. In many parts of the 
 country oatmeal is a favourite food for rearing calves ; we 
 have found a mixture of oatmeal and wheat flour better 
 than oatmeal alone. 
 
 174-. When the calf is a month old, it should be 
 gradually accustomed 'to dry food. Mangold- wurzel (of 
 which calves are very fond), or turnips cut up into thin 
 pieces, should be given in troughs ; and oil-cake, finely 
 broken, should be placed within the reach of calves. 
 A wisp of sweet hay should also be suspended in the 
 calPs crib. This the calf will first lick or suck, and 
 afterwards eat. As it eats more and more of dry food, 
 the quantity of liquid food should be decreased ; and 
 at the age of about four months liquid food may be with- 
 drawn altogether. 
 
 176. In obedience to instinct, calves suck one another, 
 and as this is injurious, it should be prevented by con- 
 fining each calf to a separate crib for about six weeks, 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. S7 
 
 when there is accommodation enough for it, or by putting 
 nets or baskets on their heads when allowed to run 
 together. 
 
 176. As young calves differ greatly in their habits, 
 we ought to study the peculiarities of each. We should, 
 for example, see that those which drink slowly get ample 
 time and are not disturbed by the others. For this 
 reason, as well as for that just mentioned, some farmers, 
 who allow their calves to run together, tie them up at 
 meal-time. 
 
 177. Calves are liable to several diseases which are 
 in a great measure prevented by providing them with 
 adequate food, serving it out at regular intervals, mixing 
 it well, when composed of different materials, never 
 giving it them too warm, avoiding sudden changes of food, 
 and by keeping the animals clean, dry, warm, and quiet. 
 
 178. Many breeders continue to feed the calves in 
 yards, after the liquid food is withdrawn, and give them, 
 during the first summer, green food (such as vetches, 
 corn, or grass), with some hay and cake. . This system 
 answers very well, when the farmer has good offices 
 ^nd plenty of capital ; but there are few small farmers 
 in Ireland who possess these advantages. When calves 
 are weaned from liquid food, they should be allowed to 
 run into a clean, well -sheltered paddock in which there 
 are hanging trees to shade them from the sun ; and pro- 
 vided with suitable feeding, such as vetches, clover, hay, 
 =cake, and ground corn, according to the season and the 
 quality of the grass. 
 
 179. As winter approaches, calves require to be care- 
 fully housed, and generously fed on good oat straw or 
 hay, with a little roots. If the farmer should be short 
 of roots, a pound of ground corn given to each daily, 
 with a little flax-seed meal, during the winter months, 
 v/ill aid him in bringing his stores to grass in good 
 
58 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 condition next season. In the second summer they are 
 put to grass ; in the second winter they are put on fodder 
 and roots, as before. 
 
 150. Short-horns, or good half-bred stock intended 
 for the butcher, are at this age put on a fair allow- 
 ance of food for fattening. Those which are not forward 
 enough for this purpose, are to be regarded as stores. 
 
 IV. THE FEEDING OF MILCH COWS. 
 
 151. The small farmers of Ireland own nearly a mil- 
 lion of milch cows, and derive a very considerable part 
 of their income from these animals. For want of proper 
 shelter in winter, and of proper care and skill in feeding 
 throughout the year, as well as for want of skill in breed- 
 ing, the average return from these cows is upwards of ^5 
 less than it should be. 
 
 182. Milch cows should be fed principally in the 
 house during winter, being allowed the run of a paddock 
 every fine day. In the house they should get some roots, 
 the quantity depending on the quantity of milk they 
 give. House-fed cows in full milk should get three feeds 
 of roots in the day — one in the morning, a second at 
 mid-day, and a third in the evening. In the morning 
 they should get a little more than at any other feed, 
 owing to the long interval between the evening and 
 morning feeds. When the daily allowance is eight 
 stones^ three stones may be given in the morning, and 
 two and a-half at the mid-day and evening feeds. The 
 cow requires straw or hay at night, and also between 
 the meals. Chopped furze, given to cows during winter, 
 increases the flow of milk, and renders it richer and of 
 better colour than when the cows are fed even on roots 
 and hay. Only the tender part of the plant is used. 
 
 183- The troughs of all cattle should be kept clean, 
 and free from the taint of stale food. 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 59 
 
 184. In summer, dairy cows are house-fed or pas- 
 tured, or a mixed system of grazing and house-feeding 
 is adopted. 
 
 185. A great deal has been said on the merits of house- 
 feeding. We beheve that there is no system which gives 
 so great an income to the small farmer, so long as the 
 extra labour which it involves comes from his family ; but 
 when all the extra labour of cutting and carrying the grass, 
 and feeding the cows, has to be paid for, the farmer finds 
 a mixed system of soiling and grazing more profitable. 
 
 186. The house-feeding or "soiling" system has been 
 followed with great success by the small farmers of 
 several European countries. It is peculiarly well adapted 
 to the circumstances of the small farmers of this country, 
 more particularly those small holders who have within 
 their own families the labour for carrying it out. It 
 takes from an acre and a half to three acres of the 
 pasture in the hands of the small farmers of Ireland 
 to feed a cow during the summer season ; say from 
 the I St of May to the ist of November. By putting 
 the same land under a judicious rotation of crops, and 
 growing artificial grasses, a far greater return is obtained. 
 On good land, a statute acre of one-year-old artificial 
 grass — rye-grass or clover, or a mixture of both — will 
 give three cuttings, w^eighing about twenty tons, in the 
 year ; and this will supply green grass or " soil " to two 
 house-fed cows for about six months. If there is a piece 
 of vetches for summer use, part of the grass can be 
 made into hay for winter use. 
 
 187. Milch cows, house-fed, should get three feeds of 
 grass in the day. The morning feed in summer should 
 be given at an earlier hour than in winter. The hour 
 for feeding in the evening may also vary with circum- 
 stances. From eight to ten stones of grass in the day 
 are given, according to the size of the cows. This would 
 
^o INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 keep them in good milking condition, and if it is desired 
 to fatten them, a few pounds of cake or ground oats and 
 some hay may also be given. 
 
 188. Cattle, house-fed in summer, may get exercise 
 for an hour or two daily. If they have access to a piece 
 of pasture, they will eat less grass in the house. The 
 five or six acre farmer who wants to make the most 
 of his holding, should have as little permanent pasture 
 as possible ; but a small enclosure in which to exercise 
 his cows is very useful. The farmer who holds ten or 
 twelve acres of arable land, should have a piece of per- 
 manent pasture for the same purpose, say half an acre 
 to each cow. When the five-course rotation is adopted, 
 the cattle could be fed in the house on the first year's 
 grass, and let out to graze on the second year's grass, 
 if there are fences. A partial system of house-feeding, 
 or a mixed system of house-feeding and grazing, is 
 the best for farmers holding twenty acres of land and 
 upwards. 
 
 189. Under a mixed system of this kind, the cattle 
 could be fed in the house morning and evening in the 
 early part of summer and autumn. At midsummer it 
 would be better to confine them to the house during the 
 heat of day ; and to put them out on pasture in the even- 
 ing, and bring them into the house next morning. 
 
 ISO. The small |^ farmer who house-feeds in summer 
 should have some vetches, lucern, sanfoin, rape, or cab- 
 bages, or all five, to suppleijient the grass, and to enable 
 him to make hay for winter use. Milch cows like a change 
 of food ; and besides, in bad seasons, or at particular 
 periods even in good seasons, the grass becomes scarce. 
 This often occurs between the first and second cutting of 
 the grass, at which juncture it would be well to have a 
 plot of vetches. Whenever cattle are suddenly changed 
 from one kind of soft food to another, as, for example, 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 6i 
 
 from grass to roots, they are liable to scour. The obvious 
 means of preventing this is to change the food gradually, 
 and to give a sufficient quantity of straw or hay. 
 
 191. Mashed or cooked food increases the flow of mill<:y 
 but it does not increase the yield of butter in the same 
 degree ; and the butter from this sort of food is generally 
 pale in colour and deficient in flavour. Any deficiency in 
 the quahty of milk or butter from cooked food, or from 
 what is commonly called " hand feeding," is generally 
 counterbalanced by the increased quantity obtained. 
 Owing to a scarcity of grass or roots, the cottager and 
 small farmer must often resort to hand feeding, and 
 we know more than one instance in which a milch 
 cow is maintained throughout the year principally on 
 this sort of food. Near large towns and cities, distillery 
 or brewery grains are used for feeding milch cows, 
 and are found to produce a great flow of thin milk. 
 In the winter season grains often cost 2s. a barrel, or 
 6d. a bushel, in Dublin, Kilkenny, and Belfast. In 
 the summer season they are sometimes sold at i^d. a 
 bushel, and at this price there is no cheaper feeding. As, 
 however, cows fed exclusively on grains milk freely and 
 are apt to lose condition, it is necessary to use along with 
 them some other feeding materials. When stored in pits, 
 and the air excluded, grains keep a long time. 
 
 192. Bran is good food for milch cows. It is made 
 into a mash by mixing it with hot water in a bucket, 
 breaking any lumps that may collect, and allowing it to 
 remain in the bucket, covered with an old sack, for a 
 couple of hours. Used alone, however, it is not sub- 
 stantial enough ; hence, cabbages, or vetches, chopped 
 into small bits, should be mixed with the bran before add- 
 ing the hot water. If nothing else is available, cut hay 
 or straw, and a little oil-cake, or Indian-meal stirabout, 
 broken fiine, may be mashed up with the bran. The 
 
62 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 mixture may be allowed to remain in the vat until it 
 TDegins to ferment, when it should be used. A friend of 
 ours who resides in the city of Dublin keeps a cow on 
 mashes of cotton-cake, and hay, throughout the year. 
 
 193. In October we occasionally feed the cows on the 
 small farm at Glasnevin, twice a-day, on a mixture com- 
 posed of 3 lbs. bran, i lb. oil-cake, 2 lbs. chopped straw, 
 2 stone mangold leaves. This mixture is divided into two 
 feeds, and given morning and evening, the mid-day feed 
 consisting of three stones of mangold leaves. 
 
 194. In summer, chopped cabbages, lucern, or vetches, 
 may be used in place of the mangold leaves. 
 
 195. The utmost regularity should be observed in the 
 hours of feeding house-fed milch cows. When the hour 
 of feeding arrives they become anxious, and if. not fed 
 then they become restless, and go back in their milk. 
 House-fed cows require also to be cleaned and wisped 
 once a-day. In order to keep the air pure, and the cows 
 themselves clean, the byre should be cleaned at least 
 twice a day. 
 
 196. Soft succulent grass ©r clover is apt to produce 
 swelling or hoove. Cattle have frequently died from the 
 effects of eating a full feed of wet clover ; and we have 
 seen cattle in very great danger from a large feed of soft 
 Italian rye-grass. To prevent this, the grass should be 
 cut some hours before it is required for use. In the heat 
 of summer, the evening's feed should be cut in the fore- 
 noon, and the forenoon's feed, the evening before. The 
 necessity for this precaution is greatest after rain. When 
 grass, fresh from the scythe, is thrown into a heap, as it 
 frequently is, near the byre, it soon heats, and its feeding 
 value is thereby diminished. Partly for the purpose of 
 preventing this, and partly also for keeping the grass 
 clean, it should be spread on a platform of wooden spars, 
 so as to raise it a few inches above the ground. 
 
.III.] IRISH FARMING. 63 
 
 V. ON DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 197. There are in Ireland a million and a half of milch 
 cows, which produce annually about a million and a half 
 cwts. of butter. From want of proper accommodation, 
 and of skill and care, one-third of this does not bring the 
 top price in the market, the remainder ranging in quality 
 from seconds to sixths. 
 
 198. By a good system of dairy management, all the 
 butter produced in the country might rank first or second, 
 and never should be lower than third. It is difficult to 
 arrive at an accurate measure of the improvement that 
 might be effected in this branch of industry ; but we are 
 quite safe in saying, that if the dairy were well managed 
 in all parts of Ireland, it would increase the average value 
 of the butter produced at least ^i a cwt., and add to the 
 wealth of the country ^1,500,000 a year. 
 
 199. A dairy usually consists of two apartments ; 
 namely, the kitchen or working-room, and the milk-room, 
 or dairy proper ; but inasmuch as the majority of the 
 tenant-farmers, to whom we address ourselves, have the 
 dairy attached to their dwelling, the common-kitchen 
 answers for the dairy-kitchen, or working-room ; and if, 
 in addition to this, a suitable apartment were provided for 
 the milk, first-class butter could be easily made. In this 
 country the milk is too frequently kept in a bedroom, or 
 some other apartment equally unsuited for the purpose. 
 It is well known that milk is easily tainted. The foul air 
 of a bedroom is sure to prove injurious to it, and so is 
 the damp which exists in the air, where the house is badly 
 drained, or where the floor is made of clay, or of material 
 which absorbs and retains a large quantity of water. 
 When we bear in mind the state of the apartments in 
 which milk, cream, and butter are kept by the small 
 farmers of this country, we need not be surprised at the 
 quantity of inferior butter produced. 
 
64 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 200. It is found by experience that the best tempe- 
 rature for a dairy is from 56°. to 58° F. It is difficult to 
 keep the temperature of a dairy which faces the south, 
 and is exposed to the influence of the sun's rays, down to 
 this degree during the heat of summer. It is usual, there- 
 fore, to give the milk-room or dairy a northern aspect j 
 but if the situation be exposed, it should be protected by 
 trees from the winter's blasts. The small farmer's house 
 and offices are usually thatched, and when a thatched 
 dairy is ceiled, it answers admirably. As straw is a worse 
 conductor of heat than slates or tiles, it keeps the dairy 
 warm in winter, and cool in summer ; but unless the 
 house is lofted or ceiled, pieces of straw, and the dirt 
 which collects in the thatch, are continually falling into 
 the milk. The floor of the dairy is made of clay, bricks, 
 tiles, wood, and flags. Clay is most objectionable, because 
 it absorbs and retains moisture. Tiles are expensive ; 
 they are also too porous, and absorb and retain wet. 
 Bricks are still worse. Wood is also expensive, and 
 retains milk and wet in its pores, which predisposes it to 
 rot ; and no sooner does it rot than it contaminates the 
 air and taints the milk. Good, hard flags, carefully set, 
 and made plane on the surface, make the best floor for 
 the farmer's dairy. Flags are to be had within reasonable 
 distance everywhere. They do not absorb much wet, and 
 if well set they are very durable. Whatever material is 
 used, the floor should be well drained, and raised a few 
 inches above the level of the ground outside. 
 
 201. Milk is greatly injured by the least impurity in 
 the air. The milk-room should, therefore, be well venti- 
 lated. It is found that strong currents of air are injurious 
 
 ^'''-^ to milk ; and these are prevented by making the milk- 
 room as lofty as possible, and by admitting fresh air as 
 high up as can conveniently be done. The small farmer, 
 whose means are limited, may, at first, ventilate his milk- 
 
HI.] IRISH FARMING. 65 
 
 room by having one or more of the window panes on 
 hinges, 
 
 202. To make good butter, it is necessary to have not 
 only a suitable dairy but also proper dairy utensils. Of 
 these, the pans or " coolers," in which the milk is set, first 
 require attention. They are made of different materials. 
 Wood is the most common. It is also the most durable, 
 and, on the whole, the cheapest. The staves are usually 
 made of oak ; and they are bound by iron hoops, which 
 should be galvanized, so as not to require scrubbing. 
 Whatever material is used, the vessel in which milk is set 
 for cream should be shallow, because if there is a con- 
 siderable depth- of milk,. the cream takes a longer time to 
 rise than is desirable. From our own observation wc 
 should say the depth of milk in the cooler should not 
 exceed four inches, and the depth of the cooler itself 
 should not exceed five and a half inches. 
 
 203. An objection to wooden coolers is the difficulty of 
 cleaning them. Milk adheres to the pores of the wood, 
 and is also liable to lodge at the juncture of the sides and 
 bottom ; and if this is not most carefully removed, the 
 butter will suffer. In everything connected with the dairy, 
 cleanliness should be most rigidly observed ; and this 
 applies to the floor, walls, and ceihng of the dairy, and to 
 the milk-vessels and other utensils, as well as to the 
 dairymaid herself. All tainting matter is removed from 
 wooden milk-vessels, by washing them with warm water, 
 and cleaning out the sides of the bottom with a sharp- 
 pointed piece of wood. After being partially dried the 
 sides and bottom should be rubbed very hard with a hair 
 brush, then rinsed, afterwards boiling water is put into 
 them, and they are rinsed again in cold water before 
 being used. 
 
 20^^. Milk is also set in vessels made of common 
 earthenware, which are cheap and easily cleaned. They 
 
 F 
 
66 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 are generally glazed inside ; and if the glazing be well 
 done they answer very well ; but, as in the case of Scotch 
 ware, it is often put on so badly that it peels off under the 
 action of hot water, and injures the milk ; Staffordshire 
 ware is usually free from this objection. 
 
 205. White enamelled ware is sometimes used ; it is 
 easily kept clean, the enamelling or glazing does not usually 
 give way, but it is rather costly for small farmers : a pan 
 about sixteen inches diameter, and of the proper height, 
 costs 45". 6^., being about twice the cost of wood. 
 
 206. Glass has been recommended by amateur farmers. 
 It has all the advantages of white-ware, looks remarkably 
 nice and clean, but for ordinary use it is too dear and 
 easily broken. 
 
 207. Milk pans are also made of metal. Lead is too 
 dear ; and it unites with the acid of milk, forming a 
 poisonous salt. This objection applies, though in a less 
 degree, to zinc. When the milk is skimmed at the proper 
 time, little or no acid exists in it, but as other materials 
 answer every purpose, it is needless to run any risk by 
 using these metals. Metallic milk-vessels are sometimes 
 enamelled on the inside to obviate the danger arising from 
 the use of metal. We have used milk-pans prepared in 
 this way, and nothing could be better as long as the 
 enamelling lasted ; but when hot water is used in cleans- 
 ing them, the enamelling soon cracks, owing to the ex- 
 pansion and contraction of the metal. Galvanized iron 
 answers very well ; and tinned iron is also unobjectionable. 
 Coolers of the latter material, made in Birmingham, and 
 capable of containing four gallons of milk, can be had at 
 present for about 3J. each. On the whole, we think the 
 small farmers of this country need use no more costly 
 material than wood and common earthenware. 
 
 208. In these countries butter is obtained from milk 
 by churning either the cream or whole milk. The quality 
 
J II.] IRISH FARMING. 67 
 
 of the butter is influenced more or less by the kind of 
 churn used, and the time occupied in churning. In order 
 to know the merits of the several churns in use, as well 
 as to be able to direct the operation of churning, it 
 is necessary to understand the nature of milk and 
 cream. 
 
 209. Milk newly drawn from the cow has a tempera- 
 ture of about 90° F., which is reduced before it reaches 
 the dairy. It has almost always a slightly alkaline taste, 
 which it gradually loses on exposure to air. It contains, in 
 every 100 parts, about 87 parts of water, 4 parts of fatty 
 matter or butter, 5 parts of a peculiar kind of sugar, called 
 milk-sugar, 3I parts of cheesy matter or curd, and f of a 
 part of mineral matter. " Butter gives it an oily richness, 
 sugar its sweetness, curd its thickness, water its refreshing 
 properties as a drink, and salt its peculiar flavour." 
 
 210. When we examine milk with a microscope we 
 And a vast number of fatty globules or little sacs floating 
 in it. Some of these are cheesy, but the great bulk of 
 them contain fatty matter, or butter. When milk is 
 allowed to stand (as in coolers), the fatty sacs or globules 
 rise to the surface, forming cream. " Some of the cheesy 
 globules have a tendency to descend, but some of them 
 adhere to and rise with the others, so that cream does not 
 consist solely of fatty matter. A portion of the sugar of 
 the milk rises also with the cream. It is owing to the 
 presence of this sugar that cream soon becomes sour. 
 The proportion of cheesy matter in cream depends on the 
 richness of the milk and the temperature at which the 
 milk is, kept during the rising of the cream. In cool 
 weather the fatty matter will bring up a larger quantity of 
 curd and form a cream richer in cheesy matter." 
 
 211. Churning consists in breaking up the coats of the 
 fatty globules, and setting the fat or butter free ; and this 
 is effected by the combined effect of friction, heat, and 
 
 F 2 
 
68 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 air. It is in the proper combination of these three agents 
 that the perfection of churning consists. When the fric- 
 tion is too violent the butter is produced too speedily, is 
 deficient in colour, and does not keep well. Heat facili- 
 tates the process of churning. If the temperature is too 
 low the time and friction consumed in churning are so 
 great that the butter becomes soft, is deficient in colour 
 and flavour, and does not keep well. We have found from 
 56° to 58° the best temperature at which to put cream 
 into the churn, and during churning it rises from 2° to 4". 
 Milk is kept at the proper temperature in summer by 
 placing the vessels in a cool place, or in cold water ; and 
 in winter the temperature is raised by some special con- 
 trivance. Large dairies are often heated by hot-water 
 pipes the same as hot-houses. 
 
 21s. The influence of air on the time consumed in 
 churning, as well as on the quality of the butter, is not as 
 well understood as it should be. The oxygen of. the air 
 oxidizes the coats of the fatty globules, and thus acts in 
 setting the butter free. In the atmospheric churn, the 
 butter is produced by pumping air into the milk. What- 
 ever churn is used, it should not, therefore, be filled with 
 cream or milk. In the barrel churn, it is necessary to 
 leave one-third of it for air. When the churn is quite 
 filled it is almost impossible to produce butter. W^e have 
 known ignorant people who, having filled the churn with 
 cream, and finding that the butter could not be pro- 
 duced, ascribed the result to some evil influence exercised 
 over them by a neighbour I 
 
 213. The churn most commonly used by small farmers 
 is thQ plunge or up?'ight churn. The friction is produced 
 in this churn by a dashy which is moved down (plunged) 
 and up by a vertical rod to which it is attached. There 
 is a lid (through which the rod passes) for preventing the 
 miik or cream, as the rase may be, from splashing. It is 
 
in.] IRISH FARMING. 69 
 
 worked by hand on small farms, and often by horse, water, 
 or steam power, on large holdings, 
 
 214. The plunge churn is cheap, and the quality of 
 butter produced by it is excellent. The time and labour 
 consumed, however, are considerable, especially when, 
 as in the north of Ireland, the whole milk is churned. 
 
 215. The barrel churn is, on the whole, in greater 
 favour with the dairy farmers in the south of Ireland, 
 who mostly churn cream. At the proper temperature, 
 and with the proper quantity of air, it will churn cream 
 in about half an hour. The ends of the barrel rest 
 upon a frame, and the barrel is made to revolve by a 
 handle which is fixed at either end. The wheel should 
 be heavy, so that by its weight or momentum it would 
 (like the fly-wheel of a steam-engine) steady the motion. 
 Barrel churns can be had in all the towns and cities 
 of Ireland. One of the best barrel churns in use is 
 Tinkler's, which is made of well-seasoned oak ; the axis 
 rests on " friction rollers," by which the friction or labour 
 of turning it is reduced very much ; the plug for admit- 
 ting air has a strong elastic spring, by pressing which 
 air is admitted without the necessity of completely stop- 
 ping the motion.^ There is, in the middle of the barrel, 
 an opening for putting in the cream or milk, for taking 
 out the butter and buttermilk, and cleaning the churn. 
 This opening must be large enough to admit the 
 hand. 
 
 216. The barrel churn is sometimes objected to on 
 the ground that it is difficult to clean ; but in practice 
 the difficulty is not so great as may appear. By pouring 
 warm water into it, and turning it in opposite directions 
 for a short time, the rinsing of it is greatly facilitated. It 
 
 ' Mr. Tinkler recommends to press this spring or air-valve once for every 
 five or six revolutions of the barrel, for a few^ minutes at first ; and aiterwards 
 the valve is pressed at somewhat longer intervals. 
 
^o INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 is durable, not liable to go out of order, and is, on the 
 whole, a very good sort of churn. 
 
 217. A churn which, from its shape, is called the box 
 churn, is also used. The inside of the bottom of the 
 box is semi-cylindrical, the axis is horizontal, and carries 
 the beaters, which revolve with it. Improvements have 
 been made in the box churn in America, where it is 
 used very much. The beaters consist of two pieces of 
 wood placed at right angles. Sometimes they are all 
 perforated ; sometimes only one-half is perforated. Some- 
 times, again, one side of the dasher contains a number 
 of cells, presenting the appearance of a honeycomb. In 
 this case, and indeed in all box churns, butter is pro- 
 duced in ten minutes, and occasionally in less time. 
 The churn is filled to the axis, and air passes freely 
 through openings in the lid. A great objection to 
 this churn for general use is, that the work is done 
 so speedily that the butter does not keep long. When 
 the butter is used fresh, it answers remarkably well. 
 Hence, we recommend it to those who keep a cow or two 
 for family use. 
 
 218. Various methods have been proposed for deter- 
 mining the quality of milk, some of which are too refined 
 for ordinary farmers. A very simple instrument, called 
 a lactometer, enables us to determine the percentage ot 
 cream in milk. This instrument is a narrow glass tube, 
 graduated from the top downwards to about one-fifth 
 the entire depth. By allowing the milk to rest a suffi- 
 cient time in this instrument, the percentage of cream 
 is shown on the graduated part of the tube. The com- 
 parative quantity of cream in the milk of different cows, 
 or of the same cow under different treatment, is shown 
 in this way ; but it is not safe to rely on the lacto- 
 meter as an absolute test of milk. 
 
 219. Another instrument which is found useful in 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 71 
 
 testing the quality of milk, is tlie hyd7'omeier, which is 
 dipped in the milk, and depends on the principle that 
 as milk is heavier than water in the proportion of 103 
 to 100, the poorer the milk the deeper the instrument 
 sinks in it. This instrument is^ then, to some extent, a 
 test of the extent to which milk is adulterated with 
 water. It is not, however, a satisfactory test of the qua- 
 lity of milk. Thus, as cream is lighter than milk, it is 
 evident that milk deprived of its cream is heavier, and 
 would give a higher specific gravity than pure milk. By 
 the use of both lactometer and hydrometer, we can judge 
 very fairly of the quality of milk. 
 
 220. The business of the person who has charge of 
 the dairy begins in the cow-house. She should milk 
 the cows quite dry twice a day, morning and evening. 
 
 If any milk is left in the udder, it will be absorbed into 
 the system, lessen the secretion of milk, and cause the 
 cow to go dry. Cows should be milked at the same hours 
 every day ; if milked at irregular hours, they become rest- 
 less, refuse to give the full quantity of milk, and go dry 
 sooner than they otherwise would. Another reason for 
 milking cows quite clean is, that the " strippings," or milk 
 last drawn, is the richest. 
 
 221. Before commencing to milk, any dirt which may 
 have collected on the udder should be removed. 
 
 222. As soon as the cows are milked, the milk is 
 carried to the dairy ; and the less it is stirred in con- 
 veying it the better, as milk which is agitated much is 
 injured in quality. 
 
 223. As milk newly drawn from the cow usually 
 contains hairs, it is passed through a fine strainer before 
 using or setting it for cream. In the latter case the 
 strainer should be held over the cooler as the milk is 
 poured into it. When set for cream, the milk remains 
 undisturbed till all the cream rises to the surface ; the 
 
72 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 time required for this varies with the temperature and 
 the depth of the cooler. At a temperature of 56° milk 
 is fully creamed in twenty-four to thirty hours. At a 
 higher temperature it takes a shorter, and at a lower 
 temperature a longer time. "At 34° to 37° milk may 
 be kept three weeks without throwing up any notable 
 quantity of cream ; but at a temperature of 65° and 
 upwards, it throws up its cream freely and sours rapidly." 
 
 224. The cream having risen to the surface, is re- 
 moved by a skimmer, which is a hollow scoop of wood 
 or metal ; and poured into a deep vessel called a cream 
 jar. The greatest possible care should be taken to re- 
 move the cream before the milk sours, for "cream off 
 sour milk always makes bad butter." The cream is 
 alloAved to ripen, or acquire a slight degree of sourness 
 in the jar, which facilitates the churning, and does no 
 harm to the butter if not permitted- to go too far. The 
 time the cream takes to ripen depends on the tempera- 
 ture ; in well-managed dairies it is allowed to remain two 
 or three days, the temperature being 56°. The dairymaid 
 knows when the cream is ripe for churning by its becom- 
 ing thick throughout its entire mass. 
 
 225. If the cream of one meal or milking is enough 
 to make a churning, it is kept separate ; if not, the 
 cream of several meals is put into one jar ; and after 
 fresh cream is put into the jar the whole should be 
 stirred with a clean wooden stick. 
 
 226. When the cream is ripe it is put into the churn. 
 The motion of the churn oj dash should be somewhat 
 slow at first, say thirty-five revolutions per minute, in a 
 barrel churn of average size ; it should be gradually in- 
 creased till the cream is slightly broken or gets thinner, 
 when it is increased to about forty or forty-five revolutions 
 per minute, at which it is continued till the globules are 
 well broken, and this is known by the unequal resistance 
 
HI.] IRISH FARMING. 73 
 
 offered to the dash or beaters ; the motion is then slackened 
 to collect the butter. The collection of the butter is, 
 in a barrel churn, facilitated by turning the churn back- 
 wards and forwards for a few minutes. When the butter 
 is all collected, the buttermilk is drawn off, cold clean 
 water is put into the churn, and the barrel is turned 
 round to wash it out. 
 
 227. Where whole milk is churned, it is allowed to 
 remain in coolers till it acquires the temperature of the 
 dairy, which requires twelve hours, and sometimes twenty- 
 four. Two or three meals or milkings are then put into 
 a large vessel, where it remains till the whole acquires 
 a slight degree of acidity, without which it could not 
 be churned. The precise stage at which to churn is 
 known by the appearance of a stiff h-at upon the surface 
 of the milk, which becomes uneven. This takes place in 
 about thirty-six hours, more in winter, and something less 
 in summer. The circumstance of all the milk not being 
 of the same age does not affect the quality of the butter. 
 The brat should not, on any account, be broken till the 
 milk is put into the churn, as the admission of air would, 
 by producing too much acidity, prove highly injurious. 
 We require a higher temperature for churning whole milk 
 than cream. The best temperature at which to commence 
 churning the former is 65° F. ; and this temperature is 
 easily attained in summer by immersing the vessels that 
 contain the milk in cold water, and in winter by placing 
 them in hot water. 
 
 228. As soon as the butter is fully formed it is taken 
 out of the churn and dressed. The dressing of butter 
 requires great care and skill. It is done in a cooler or 
 butter-tub specially made for the purpose, which requires 
 to be kept most scrupulously cle^n. It is washed with 
 the purest water that is to be had, and cut up with a 
 butter-spade, or broken by the hand, to facilitate the 
 
74 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 escape of the milk. When the water becomes milky 
 it is removed, and fresh water added ; and this is re- 
 peated until the water comes away quite free from colour, 
 for if every particle of the butter-milk is not removed, the 
 butter soon becomes rancid. The inferior quality of an 
 enormous quantity of our salted butter arises from want of 
 care in washing it. Buttermilk, particularly that obtained 
 from whole milk, contains caseine or cheesy matter, and 
 if much of this remains in the butter, it soon engenders 
 rancidity. 
 
 229. After the butter is thoroughly washed, common 
 salt is added to it. Salt has the valuable property of 
 preserving animal substances from putrefaction. The 
 quantity of salt added to butter depends on the length 
 of time it is intended to be kept before using it. Butter, 
 used in the fresh state, or within a short time, requires 
 very little salt. For the London market our best dairy 
 farmers use three-quarters of an ounce of salt to every 
 pound of butter. Many people prefer a mixture of half 
 an ounce of salt, a quarter of an ounce of yellow Jamaica 
 sugar, and one-eighth of an ounce of nitre, to salt alone. 
 Butter intended for the Colonies or long keeping requires 
 about an ounce of salt to every pound of butter ; and, in 
 addition, sugar and nitre in the above "proportions are 
 sometimes added. The butter called mild-ctired is made 
 by mixing a pint of salt to every quarter cwt. of butter. 
 
 230. Cattle fed on roots, more particularly swedes, 
 yield butter of which the taste and flavour are disagree- 
 able. By giving the turnips to the cattle immediately 
 after milking, the substance which imparts the bad 
 flavour to the butter is removed out of the system, or 
 reduced in quantity, before the next milking ; and any 
 that remains is destroyed by putting a little nitre in the 
 milk pail ; and, in this case, no nitre need be added to 
 the butter in salting i<^. 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 75 
 
 231. The salt, or mixture of salt and sugar, or of 
 salt, sugar, and nitre, requires to be thoroughly mixed 
 with the butter. The hand is usually employed in doing 
 this, as well as in working the milk out of the butter. 
 Some object to the hand, alleging that the oily matter 
 secreted from it injures the butter. The secretion of 
 this matter is so copious in some persons that their 
 hands should not be used in dressing butter ; and if 
 they have to be employed at all they should be called 
 on to use the butter-spade. The female hand is, how- 
 ever, usually very delicate, and as dairymaids should 
 be persons of cleanly habits, the hand may, in most 
 cases, be safely used. At the same time, we think the 
 cleanest dairymaid may partly use the spade, no matter 
 how delicate her hands ; and, while dressing butter, she 
 should occasionally dip her hands in clean cold water. 
 
 232. As the quality of the salt affects the quality of 
 the butter, it should be procured from a respectable 
 vendor, who is known to keep a fine article fit for the 
 dairy. It should be free from the soluble salts of mag- 
 nesia and lime, and other impurities. " Salt is rid of 
 its impurities by pouring boiling water upon it, in the 
 proportion of one quart of water to from half a stone 
 to a stone of salt, stirring the whole occasionally for 
 a couple of hours, and then straining it through a fine 
 clean cloth. The water which passes through contains 
 all the impurities, and may be used for ordinary culinary 
 purposes, or mixed with the food of live stock. The salt 
 which remains on the cloth is free from the soluble salts 
 of magnesia and lime, and may be hung up in the cloth 
 till required for use." 
 
 233. When salted, butter which is to be used fresh 
 is made into prints or rolls, and if required for long 
 keeping or export, it is packed in kegs, firkins, or casks. 
 The firkin should be made of well-seasoned wood, and 
 
76 INTRO D UCTION TO [chap. 
 
 as staunch and air-tight as possible. It should also be 
 subjected to boiling water, and afterwards immersed in 
 cold clean water for 48 hours. This prevents the wood 
 from absorbing the pickle which it is desirable to keep 
 about the butter. The extensive dairy-farmer makes as 
 much butter at a time as fills the firkin or cask. The 
 butter is packed tightly into the vessel, is made level 
 on the top, a piece of clean muslin is laid carefully over 
 it, and the whole covered with a tight-fitting lid. The 
 small farmer requires the butter of several churnings to 
 fill a firkin ; and from want of care and skill in washing, 
 dressing, and salting the butter, the contents of the firkin, 
 when bored through by the butter-buyer, ofteii present 
 shades of colour and quahty as numerous as the churnings 
 from which it was made up. This lessens the value of the 
 whole; and there is also a heavy loss from want of care 
 in packing the butter. Sometimes a quantity of brine, 
 or a strong solution of salt in water, is poured over the 
 butter, which makes part [of it too salt. Again, some 
 people merely cover the butter by putting on the lid ; 
 and, as a matter of course, the butter is soon* tainted 
 by the air between the lid and the butter. Now, the 
 butter of each churning should be stored compactly in 
 the firkin, and it should be covered on the top with a fine 
 piece of clean muslin, over which an air-tight or close- 
 fitting covering of wood, pasteboard, or parchment, should 
 be carefully fixed. When the produce of another churn- 
 ing is to be added, the covering is removed, the butter 
 on the surface scraped away and used in the house, the 
 fresh surface is made uneven, the newly-dressed butter 
 added, and the whole covered as before. 
 
 234-. It may be well to state, for the information of 
 beginners, that it takes from ten to twelve quarts of 
 good milk to produce a quart of good cream or a pound 
 of butter. 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 77 
 
 VI. ON THE FATTENING OF CATTLE. 
 
 235. We slaughter annually in Ireland about half a 
 million of beasts, and export to Great Britain about a third 
 of a million. A large number of them are sent to market 
 in very good condition by the graziers, large farmers, and 
 landed gentry of Ireland. It is well known, however, to 
 those who attend the Dublin and provincial markets, or 
 witness the shipments of cattle from the Irish ports, that 
 a great many beasts are sold either in a half-finished state 
 or sent to England as stores. The loss on the former is 
 very considerable ; for, as every practical man knows, 
 beasts pay better for their keep in the more advanced 
 than in the early stage of fattening. And, as we shall show 
 further on, our climate being on the whole better adapted 
 for roots than that of England, we see no reason why a 
 large number of the store cattle now exported should not 
 be fattened in Ireland. It would increase the profit of 
 the farmer and the gross produce of the country ; the 
 large quantity of valuable manure obtained would put 
 the land into better condition for other crops, and the 
 labouring class would receive more employment. 
 
 236. The fattening of cattle divides itself into two 
 great divisions, grazing and stall-feeding. The former of 
 these is practised principally upon what, by way of dis- 
 tinction, is called fattening land ; and we think that this 
 is a profitable way of managing this class of land. As a 
 rule one-third of the animals are put on the land in 
 October, one-third at the great May fairs, and the remain- 
 ing third during summer. The land usually fattens at the 
 rate of one beast per Irish acre. By stocking first-class 
 land less closely it often fattens two sets in the year. 
 Some graziers give cake in troughs on the grass at the 
 rate of two pounds and upwards per head daily. Crushed 
 oats is also used for the same purposes ; and, considering 
 
^^ ' ^ INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 the prevailing low price of oats and the high price of meat^ 
 and the improvement which is effected in the land by the 
 dung of the animals so fed, it pays very well. 
 
 237. The grazier shifts his cattle from field to field, so 
 that they may always have a good fresh bite. For this 
 purpose his land may be divided into three or four sec- 
 tions. One is kept free from stock until the most forward 
 beasts need it. The cattle are grazing on section two 
 until section one is ready for them. Section three receives 
 the less forward beasts or dairy stock ; and store cattle 
 and sheep may occupy a fourth section. The animals are 
 regularly shifted from one division to another. Thus, 
 when the stock in section four is transferred to section 
 three, the former is cleared and closed up till it is ready 
 for the most forward beasts ; and so on of the other divi- 
 sions. It is worthy of remark that as fattening animals 
 approach ripeness they require better keep, which, in the 
 case of grazing cattle, means more succulent pasture. 
 Grazing cattle also require a plentiful supply of water. 
 It is found beneficial, as already stated, to place rock-salt 
 within their reach so that they may lick it. The passages 
 leading from field to field should be kept clean to prevent 
 disease of the feet, which keeps up irritation and wastes 
 food. 
 
 238. The fattening of the cattle in houses, commonly 
 called stall-feeding, is carried on during winter and spring. 
 The animals are withdrawn from grass at the approach of 
 winter, and put under shelter. For about ten days after 
 the animals are put up, they should get soft turnips, which 
 prepare them for the more nutritive sorts. From the very 
 commencement the strictest regularity should be observed 
 in the hours of feeding, and the beasts should be kept 
 clean and comfortable all through. Some farmers curry 
 them once a day, and we have no doubt this extra trouble 
 pays remarkably well, as it promotes the healthy action of 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 79 
 
 the skin. The house should be warm, but not so close 
 as to cause sweating which is injurious. The greatest 
 attention should be paid to the dung, which should 
 be neither too soft nor too hard. When -the beasts 
 are put up to fatten, the soft turnips generally scour 
 them ; but, if not allowed to go too far, this brings about 
 a healthier action of the entire system, and by providing 
 dry fodder the excrements are soon restored to their 
 proper consistence. The animals may now receive more 
 fattening food, the kinds and quantities of which vary with 
 the size of the beasts and the views of the farmer. The 
 kinds of food most commonly given to stall-fed cattle are 
 roots, straw, and hay, and oil-cake or corn. The state in 
 which it is best to give these substances to cattle is a 
 subject on which opinions differ widely. Some (but we 
 believe they are few in number) cook the roots. It is the 
 general opinion, however, that this does not pay. The 
 advocates of the system say the animals can digest their 
 food with less exertion (which means less waste of tissue) 
 when it is cooked for them. Roots are, however, easily 
 digested ; and, besides, the large quantity of saliva 
 secreted during the mastication of the raw roots pro- 
 motes digestion. We, therefore, consider that it is a 
 waste of food and labour to steam or boil roots. To 
 prevent choking, the roots should be cut into slices not 
 exceeding an inch in thickness. 
 
 239. Some again reduce the roots to shreds by what is 
 called a pulping machine, which is serviceable in the 
 feeding of cattle, when the farmer wants them to con- 
 sume and assimilate a large quantity of straw ; that is, 
 for example, when roots are scarce and straw and fodder 
 abundant. By mixing the pulped roots with straw cut 
 into what is called "chaff," by a chaff-cutting machine, 
 cattle can be made to eat a great deal of straw. By 
 allowir.g the mixture to stand a short time, the fodder is 
 
So INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 sweetened by the juice of the roots. For milch cows the 
 mixture ought to undergo a slight degree of acidity, 
 which promotes the secretion of milk. For fattening 
 animals this is not desirable. 
 
 S4-0. When oil-cake is given to fattening beasts it 
 should be broken very fine, and given by itself, or strewed 
 upon the turnips. We have found the latter plan to 
 answer very well. Some people who cut the straw or hay 
 into chaff, make the oil-cake into a mucilage, and pour it 
 upon the former. Or the cake or corn may be added 
 to the mixture of prepared roots and chaffed fodder to 
 which we have referred. For feeding purposes corn should 
 be crushed either at the nearest mill, or by a machine 
 specially constructed for the purpose. The farmer who 
 feeds horses and cattle on oats should have an oat 
 " crusher/' to be worked by hand on small and moderate- 
 sized farms, and by water or steam power on large hold- 
 ings. Every cwt. of oats given to thriving animals (along 
 with roots and good oat straw) produces at least twelve 
 lbs. of beef and tallow. If given to ill-shaped and badly 
 reared cattle it would not produce this ; but we are 
 clearly of opinion that the beef and manure obtained from 
 the judicious use of oats in cattle feeding would amount 
 to more than the price at which immense quantities of 
 it have been sold by the small farmers of Ireland of late 
 years. 
 
 241. Stall-fed cattle should receive three feeds of roots, 
 of roots and cake or corn, in the day, — one in the morning, 
 one at noon, and one in the evening. They should also 
 receive some good oat straw or hay at night. If fed 
 oftener they are disturbed more than is desirable. 
 
 242. The question, what are the proper quantities of 
 the various kinds of food whichought to be given to stall- 
 fed cattle, has never been fully answered. The usual 
 practice is to give them. as much roots and fodder as the)' 
 
111.] IRISH FARMING, 8i 
 
 can eat. This system often causes waste and loss. From 
 eight to twelve stones of roots in the day, according to the 
 size and condition of the beasts, may be given to each, 
 together with good straw or hay, and some corn or cake. 
 For the first ten days or a fortnight, that is, while the 
 animals are on soft turnips, no artificial food is needed, 
 but when put on Swedish turnips, one lb. or two lbs. of 
 corn or cake may be given daily to each, and the allowance 
 may be increased to four lbs. as the period advances. 
 
 VII. THE FARM HORSE, 
 
 24-3. There are in Ireland upwards of 500,000 horses, 
 of which two-thirds are used for agricultural purposes. 
 A large proportion of these do not give an adequate 
 amount of work for the food they consume. They are 
 badly shaped and ill-adapted for farm work. Little or no 
 care is bestowed on their breeding, and their feeding, 
 especially while young, is also neglected. It is well to 
 impress on the minds of the future farmers of Ireland, 
 that a horse should not be kept on a farm of live or 
 even of ten or twelve acres, unless in special cases. 
 We know small farmers who are extremely poor, and one 
 cause of their poverty is that the horse eats up all the 
 profit. In going through the country lately, we saw a 
 ludicrous instance of the loss by employing horse labour 
 where the spade should be used. In passing through one 
 of the midland counties, early in the forenoon, we saw a 
 small farmer and his son, a stout fellow of eighteen, 
 putting an old plough and a horse into a plot whose area 
 did not exceed one rood. In passing by the same place 
 in the evening, wo. found that the horse and two men 
 (the two were actually engaged at the work) had ploughed, 
 indifferently, thirty statute perches of potato ground in 
 seven hours. Had the farmer and his son gone to work 
 vigorously with two good digging forks, or even spades, 
 
 G 
 
82 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 they would have gone over more ground, and tilled the 
 soil much better. This farmer rented thirteen acres of 
 poor land, and his own appearance, and the state of his 
 holding, afforded unmistakeable evidence of poverty. 
 
 244. The best breeds of agricultural horses are the 
 Clydesdale and Suffolk Punch. 
 
 245. The first care the horse requires in the morning 
 is to water him, after which he gets his first feed ; and 
 when this is eaten the harness is put on, and the day's 
 work begins. 
 
 246. When brought home 9.fter his day's work, the 
 horse requires careful grooming, more especially in wet 
 weather. If the legs are dirty it is usual to wash them 
 down by the hand or to walk the horse through a shallow 
 stream of water. The legs should not be wetted above 
 the knees and hocks ; and we should be particularly care- 
 ful not to wet the belly, for if not well dried afterwards 
 the horse is apt to get inflammation of the bowels. When 
 the horse is watered and groomed he gets his feed. He 
 should be cooled from the heat of the day's work before 
 he is put into the stable ; and the necessity for taking 
 this precaution becomes all the greater when the stable 
 is small and badly ventilated. Horses very frequently 
 take cold from sudden changes of temperature. Colic 
 often follows injudicious feeding, such as a sudden change 
 to green food, or taking too much cold water after hard 
 work. 
 
 247. The horse's feet should be carefully picked every 
 evening before he is put into the stable. He should also 
 be carefully wisped all over to dry the coat and remove 
 dirt, and afterwards curried and brushed. The farmer 
 who is trusting to others should visit the stable every 
 night after the servants have finished their work. He 
 should see that the animals are properly littered ; pass 
 his hand over them to see that they are quite dry, and 
 
m.] IRISH FARMING. 83 
 
 give them a slap with his hand on one or two points to 
 see if the dirt and dust have been removed. 
 
 248. Oats and hay may be said to form the staple food 
 of horses. A working horse should not be fed solely on 
 hay, as the quantity which would afford the necessary 
 nutriment is too bulky. Hay is sometimes so badly saved 
 that it is little better than straw ; and working horses fed 
 on this kind of hay lose condition. ( Mouldy hay often 
 produces the disease known as broken wind. This 
 disease is often known to be produced by giving too 
 much hay to horses.) Our usual daily allowance of food 
 for farm horses is 12 lbs. oats, 21 lbs. hay, with occasional 
 mashes. 
 
 249. Ground Indian corn is now very generally used 
 in the feeding of hard-WTought horses, such as those 
 employed in omnibuses. When it forms the staple' food 
 of animals which are not in full work the disease known 
 as "grease" almost invariably occurs. It should there- 
 fore form only part of the food of farm horses unless 
 they are actively employed. As the work slackens the 
 quantity ought to be reduced. 
 
 250. In summer horses get green food, such as cut 
 grass and vetches ; and many farmers put th^ir horses 
 out to grass at night during that season. 
 
 251. When farm work is slack during the winter 
 months, good oat straw is often substituted, partially or 
 wholly for hay. When it is intended to use a mixture of 
 hay and straw, it is a very good plan to mix them together 
 in the rick. The dry straw prevents the hay from heating, 
 and the hay improves the taste and flavour of the straw. 
 We should always select the nicest, cleanest, and shortest 
 straw for horses. 
 
 252. Of root crops the carrot is the best for horse 
 feeding. It is almost invariably given raw. It imparts 
 a nice glossy coat to the animal. The carrot is, however, 
 
 G 2 
 
g4 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 too innutritious to be solely depended upon as the food of 
 the working horse. 
 
 253. Boiled potatoes are very good for horses ; but 
 they are now too dear to be used in this way. Swedish 
 turnips and mangold-wurzel have been also used. The> 
 are too watery to enter largely into the diet of working 
 animals ; but a mash of boiled Swedish turnips, or man- 
 golds, mixed with a little salt, may be given at night, 
 twice a week, with great advantage. 
 
 254-. In many parts of Ireland, and elsewhere, horses 
 are fed on furze from October till spring. Only the tender 
 shoots of the plant are used, and they are prepared by 
 being chopped and bruised. A daily allowance of three 
 stone of furze prepared in this way will keep a horse in a 
 sleek and fair working condition throughout winter. Furze 
 alone is not adequate food for a farm horse at full work in 
 autumn or spring. Furze is not grown except on poor 
 land which refuses to give more valuable crops, on the 
 sides of steep and craggy hills, or when it is planted in 
 the fences. It is estimated that an acre of furze will feed 
 four or five horses for four months. Furze is heating 
 food ; this property is readily counteracted by mixing 
 with it hay, straw, or roots. When the horse is fed 
 principally on furze he passes too much urine ; but this is 
 prevented by mixing a little common salt with the food, 
 
 VIII. ON SHEEP, 
 
 255. We have in Ireland about 4,000,000 of sheep. 
 It is no exaggeration to say that by improvement in 
 breeding and management the average value of at least 
 2,000,000 of these could be increased to the extent of 10 
 shillings a head. 
 
 256. It is in regard to the sheep in the hands of the 
 small fatmers that the greatest improvement remains to 
 be effected. They are frequently ill-shaped, require three 
 
HI.] IRISH FARMING, 85 
 
 or four years to come to market, and do not weigh as 
 heavily as well-bred and well-fed sheep at the age of 
 fifteen or sixteen months. Food is thus wasted, the 
 farmer's capital is turned slowly, and the profit is ex- 
 tremely small, or, as sometimes happens, there is none 
 at all. 
 
 257. The Leicester is the breed of sheep which has con- 
 tributed most to the improvement of the sheep of Ireland. 
 The fine race of sheep known in the West of Ireland as 
 the Roscommv7t was originally produced by crossing the 
 native sheep with imported Leicester rams. Many flocks 
 of Roscommon sheep of the present day have not, how- 
 ever, had any mixture of Leicester or other blood for 
 twenty years, during which period the intelligent breeders 
 of the West of Ireland have been using skill and judgment 
 in the selection of parents as practised by the Bakewell 
 and others in the formation of the Leicester breed. 
 
 358. We are of opinion that the Roscommon is on the 
 whole the best sheep for the open plains in the West of 
 Ireland. In well-sheltered districts a cross of the Leicester 
 is found to afford satisfactory results. 
 
 259. On low damp soil the Shropshire sheep answer 
 well. Rams of this breed crossed with common ewes 
 produce good " market " lambs. 
 
 260. As a mountain breed the Cheviot is the best we 
 possess. When the situation is too elevated or exposed 
 for the Cheviot the black-faced sheep of Scotland pays 
 better. There is great room for improvement of the 
 mountain sheep of Ireland by the exercise of care and 
 skill in the selection of parents. 
 
 261. Ewes should be made to yean when there is good 
 grass for the lambs. When the farm is exposed, or the 
 climate cold and cutting in spring, lambs should not be 
 dropped early. "Thousands of lambs," says Mr. Youatt, 
 " die every year from the cold to which they are exposed 
 
86 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 by being dropped too soon. And on the other hand thei e 
 may be danger and inconvenience if the period of lambing 
 is too late. Hot weather is as fatal to the mother as cold 
 is to the young. It frequently induces a dangerous state 
 of fever ; and both the mother and the lamb may then be 
 injured by the luxuriance of the grass. If the lamb falls 
 late in the season, it will be longer ere the ewe can be got 
 ready for the butcher, if she is a draft ewe ; and the early 
 lambs become larger and stronger and better able to resist 
 the cold of the succeeding winter. The weaning time 
 will, therefore, be regulated by the situation of the farm, 
 the nature of the pasture, and the demand from the neigh- 
 bouring markets." 
 
 262. As soon as the lambs are weaned, and the ewes 
 quite dry the shepherd goes through his flock very carefully, 
 and " culls " or drafts from it as many of the worst of the 
 old ewes as he can replace from the young flock. 
 
 263. Pasture is the most natural, as it is the most uni- 
 versal food of sheep. In Ireland thousands of sheep 
 never get anything else. 
 
 264. In England and Scotland, and on several farms in 
 Ireland, sheep are fattened on roots in winter and spring. 
 In a country so favourable to the production of roots as 
 Ireland the extension of the system is most desirable. 
 
 265. Average-sized sheep fed exclusively on roots con- 
 sume about a stone and a half of swedes daily. On this 
 keep a sheep will increase about 5lbs. a quarter in from 
 four to five months. The increase of the wool in the same 
 period would be about a pound. Roots should be cut 
 and given to fattening sheep in troughs. In this way 
 none of the roots are wasted. By cutting the roots sheep 
 cat more of them and fatten quicker. Roots are not 
 usually cut for store sheep. 
 
 266. In addition to roots, sheep, when intended for 
 fattening, get some hay in racks. 
 
]ir.] IRISH FARMING. 87 
 
 267. Most farmers give a little cake or corn in addition. 
 At the present prices of meat and wool we believe it pays 
 fully as well to give artificial food to sheep as to cattle. 
 When given, the cake should be broken very fine, and the 
 oats crushed or " cracked." About half a pound of oil- 
 cake or a pound of oats per sheep per day may be given 
 with advantage ; and when this is given, along with a good 
 allowance of roots, the period of fattening is shortened 
 about a month, and the sheep turned out in better condi- 
 tion. In this way roots are saved ; a greater number of 
 sheep can be fed, more manure is obtained, and as a mat- 
 ter of course the land improves in quality ; and so long as 
 the farmer does all this judiciously, his own circumstances 
 must improve. 
 
 268. In severe winter and spring weather store sheep 
 and breeding ewes should get hay or roots, or a little of 
 both, if they can be spared. Some farmers give artificial 
 food when hay or roots are not available. It is certainly 
 a mistake not to provide sheep with adequate keep at those 
 seasons. 
 
 269. Ewes which yean before there is a good growth of 
 grass should also have some roots. Mangold-wurzel is 
 excellent for this purpose. The allowance of roots must 
 vary with the state of the grass. 
 
 IX. ON SWINE. 
 
 270. In 1870, Ireland contained near a million and a 
 half of pigs. It has been observed that about as many 
 pigs are annually sold in Ireland as the country contains 
 at the time of taking the Government returns ; of these 
 about one-third is exported alive, the remaining two-thirds 
 being killed for the home provision trade. 
 
 271. Assuming the average value of each pig sold to 
 bs from ^3 iqs. to ^4, the agricultural classes derive from 
 
88 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 five to six millions sterling from the sale of swine, which 
 is a most important item in our national wealth. That 
 this could be increased without any extra feeding is well 
 known to everybody who is acquainted with the state of 
 Ireland ; for while it is true that a great improvement has 
 been effected in the quality of our pigs, much remains yet 
 to be done. One of the most noted pig breeders in 
 England has expressed the opinion, that by bestowing 
 proper attention on the breeding, rearing, and feeding of 
 swine, the quantity of meat could be doubled at little 
 more than the present cost. If this be true of England, 
 it is certainly not less so of Ireland. 
 
 272. The greater portion of the wealth to be derived 
 from improving the pigs of this country would accrue to 
 the cottagers and small farmers, not only because it is 
 their pigs which are most in need of improvement, but 
 also because the cottiers and farmers whose holdings do 
 not exceed fifty statute acres own about two-thirds of the 
 pigs in the country, 
 
 273. The pig has often been called the poor man's 
 savings' bank„ and the poor man's friend. It is beyond 
 all doubt that this animal is of immense advantage to the 
 cottager. A store pig can be purchased at sums varying 
 from a pound upwards. It consumes the offal of the 
 table ; and by a small weekly outlay, which might other- 
 wise be spent on tobacco or intoxicating drinks, that 
 weaken mind and body, the animal in a short time becomes 
 worth from ^-^ to ^5, and often more. It is in this sense 
 that the pig can be correctly regarded as a savings' bank ; 
 and when the animal is fairly managed, the poor man 
 cannot invest his savings in any other way that would pay 
 him as well. But besides the profit of the animal, we hold 
 that the feeding of pigs in this way is, in other respects, 
 most beneficial to the people of Ireland. It engenders 
 habits of forethought and of thrift. The working man, 
 
iii.J IRISH FARMING. 89 
 
 who saves a small sum weekly out of his limited income, 
 and skilfully invests it in feeding a pig or two, is pretty 
 sure to improve his own condition, and to impress the 
 best of all lessons on the minds of his children. We 
 should, therefore, like to see every cottager in Ireland in 
 possession of a pig. 
 
 274. Pigs cannot be profitably fed without proper shel- 
 ter, as every Irish peasant knows. In too many cases he 
 has been known to share a corner of his cottage with his 
 pig. The owners of Irish cottages should prevent this by 
 attaching a pig-sty to every cottage. It is their own 
 interest to do so ; for, in the first place, a cottager who 
 has a pig is almost always a better mark for the rent than 
 one who does not possess one. And again, it is the in- 
 terest of the employers of labourers to encourage thrift 
 in the labourer. And the highest and most agreeable 
 duty of the rich is to promote the well-being of the poor. 
 
 275. Pigs may be classed in various ways. Thus, ac- 
 cording to colour, we have black and white ; according to 
 size, small, large, and intermediate. As regards size, the 
 farmer must be guided by the demand. A moderate-sized 
 pig suits a cottager best. It should be of healthy parents, 
 of a good description, and the sire, at least, should be 
 pure-bred. 
 
 276. Of pure breeds, the Yorkshire and the Berkshire 
 are the kinds principally used in Ireland. The Yorkshire 
 breed is white, and may be had of small, middle, or large 
 size. The Berkshire is black, with a little white on the 
 feet and snout. 
 
 277. All the improved breeds of pigs possess many 
 points in common ; and the more of these points any pig, 
 whether purely bred or otherwise, possesses, the better he 
 is likely to pay. The head is small ; the eye small and 
 quick, denoting docihty, v/hich is essential for profitable 
 feeding. The neck is broad, rises well from behind the 
 
90 INTRODUCTION TO [chap, 
 
 ears, and swells out as it joins the shoulders and breasts 
 The breast is wide and deep. The back should be 
 straight or with a slight curve, broad, and covered with 
 flesh of good quality ; the ribs should spring at right 
 angles to the chine. The shoulders are thick, broad, 
 and well covered ; and the thighs thick and well covered 
 within and without, and carrying flesh well to the hock. 
 The legs are short, the feet short and round, and furnished 
 with clean claws. The hair is pretty long, fine and silky, 
 and contains few bristles. The skin is thin and supple — 
 neither tight nor loose. The tail is small, curled, and set 
 so that it is not seen at the top when the animal is fat. 
 When viewed from the side, from behind, before, or when 
 a bird's-eye view is taken, the carcase should present the 
 outline of a rectangle. 
 
 278. The sow goes in young about 113 days. Making 
 allowance for the time she is suckling her young, she can 
 produce two litters in the year, and when it is thought 
 desirable, she will give five litters in two years. The first 
 litter is rarely as numerous or vigorous as subsequent 
 ones. Good breeders, who wish to keep up first-class 
 pigs, do not usually breed from pigs of the first litter. A 
 profitable sow has from eight to twelve young ones at a 
 time, ten being a good average. A sow which does not 
 give a fair average number of young ones should be dis- 
 posed of. A bad nurse, or a sow which eats her young, 
 should also be fattened off as soon as possible. 
 
 279. Sows farrow at all seasons of the year. It is, 
 however, difficult to rear young pigs in cold, harsh 
 weather. It appears to us that for the ordinary farmers 
 of this country, spring, and towards the end of summer 
 or beginning of autumn, are good periods for farrowing. 
 In the former case there will be plenty of milk to spare 
 for the young pigs at the time of weaning, and in the latter 
 case they will be strong before the hard weather sets in. 
 
111.] IRISH FARMING. 9 1 
 
 280. The sow requires great care for some time before 
 farrowing. As the critical period approaches she should 
 be placed in a sty by herself, if she has not had one 
 already ; and the sty for this purpose should be roomy, 
 say eight to ten feet square. Short straw should be 
 used for litter, as young pigs are liable to be smothered 
 in long straw. As many young pigs are also crushed by 
 their dam against the wall, it is a very good plan to fix a 
 piece of wood all round the sty, at a height of about eight 
 or ten inches from the ground, and projecting about the 
 same distance from the wall, so that the young ones may 
 be forced under it rather than crushed against the wall. 
 
 281. For twenty-four hours after farrowing, the sow 
 should be fed on soft food or slops, which should be given i^ 
 in a warm (not a hot) state. A mash of bran or meal 
 answers very well. 
 
 282. A sow giving suck to a good average litter of 
 young pigs requires to be fed generously. For a time 
 they live on her milk altogether, and if this be deficient 
 they cannot grow big or healthy. Her food ought, if 
 possible, to be given in a cooked state. Should she leave 
 any food in the trough, it is to be removed and given to 
 store pigs. Boiled vegetables, mixed with barley-meal or 
 Indian corn, are very good, and a little bean-meal increases 
 the quantity and improves the quality of the milk. 
 
 283. Young pigs are weaned at the age of two months. 
 They should be weaned gradually, and not separated from 
 the dam all at once. At this age they suck her very often. 
 When we begin to wean they should be allowed to suck 
 her six times a day, then four times, three times, twice, , 
 and once a day, after which they may be withdrawn alto- 
 gether. In this way we avoid sudden changes of food, 
 which are injurious to young pigs, and gradually dry up 
 the sow's milk. Buttermilk is very good for newly-weaned 
 pigs ', and is much used for the purpose. Boiled roots 
 
92 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 and cabbages and steamed or boiled potatoes^ to which 
 they were accustomed before weaning may be now given 
 to them. No matter what system of feeding is adopted 
 afterwards, any roots and vegetables given for a fortnight 
 after weaning should be cooked. [ Immediately after wean- 
 ing, young pigs must be fed oftek, say six times a day, the 
 number of feeds being gradually diminished to three, ~ 
 which is the proper number for stores and fattening pigs.) 
 
 £84. Young pigs should also have access for a few 
 hours daily to a paddock or field, as moderate exercise 
 promotes health and vigour ; and a plentiful supply of 
 good clean water should be within the reach of both 
 young and old pigs. 
 
 285. From this time till the pigs are put on fattening 
 food they are called stores. The management of store 
 pigs varies with circumstances. When intended for pork 
 they are kept almost constantly in the sties and yards, so 
 that by gaining condition rapidly rather than size, they 
 become fit for sale at the age of nine months or there- 
 abouts. Stores intended for bacon usually get more exercise. 
 Many farmers feed them principally out of doors during 
 summer. It happens veiy frequently that this class of 
 store pigs is sadly neglected. They have to subsist on 
 such offal and refuse materials as they can pick up. In 
 this state they may be called the " natural scavengers of 
 the farm." Pigs eat offal and refuse material which would 
 otherwise, perhaps, go to waste, and they pay the ordinary 
 farmer best when they consume the refuse of the farm 
 and garden, of the kitchen, dairy, barn, and corn-fields. 
 It is even doubtful if it is profitable to feed ordinary stores 
 on high or expensive feeding. Offal and refuse substances 
 are not, however, always adequate ; and when this happens 
 store pigs require other keep. In the v\^inter months, say 
 from the end of October to the beginning of May, some 
 roots, cabbages, and small or damaged potatoes may be 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING, 93 
 
 given to them ; and in summer they are kept economically 
 on clover, vetches, and cabbages, which may be given to 
 them in yards, or on grass. To prevent the grass from 
 being injured pigs are ringed. 
 
 286. In fattening pigs we ought to be guided greatly 
 by the principles of animal nutrition already explained, 
 There are, however, points of difference between the food 
 and feeding of swine and of ruminants (cattle and sheep). 
 The latter have a set of four stomachs, which enable them 
 to digest straw and hay, and other bulky substances con- 
 taining a large quantity of woody fibre. The pig, on the 
 other hand, has only one stomach, and requires more con- 
 centrated food, that is food containing less fibre. 
 
 287. Again, the ratio which the dead weight bears to 
 the live weight, is much higher in pigs than in cattle or 
 sheep ; and a fat pig contains a higher percentage of fat 
 than a fat cow or a fat sheep. Thus, while 90 per cent, of 
 the live weight of a fat pig may be pork, a fat cow rarely 
 gives 70 per cent, of beef from its live weight, and it is 
 considered very good for a sheep to give 70 per cent, of 
 mutton. 
 
 288. It is evident, therefore, that fattening pigs require 
 food richer in farinaceous, or starchy, material than cattle 
 or sheep. 
 
 289. The economy of cooking the food of fattening 
 swine is, at the present day, universally admitted. 
 
 290. Omitting offal and refuse substances, the staple 
 food of fattening pigs, at all events in England, is fur- 
 nished by the grain crops, Indian corn, and the leguminous 
 seeds. 
 
 2©1. We know farmers who have fattened pigs on 
 ground grain alone, and others who have used Indian 
 meal alone. Many farmers give along with these some 
 boiled roots, small and damaged potatoes, bran, pollard 
 ground barley, and other materials. 
 
94 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 292. There are few substances richer in farinaceous 
 matter, or better adapted for pig feeding, than Indian 
 corn ; and, accordingly, a great quantity of it is now used 
 for this purpose both in America and in the British 
 Islands. It is supposed to be one of the most economical 
 kinds of food we can buy for the purpose. According to 
 experiments, 112 lbs. of Indian meal produces 22| lbs. in 
 the live weight of pigs. 
 
 293. Of late years potatoes have become too dear to 
 be given to pigs. Diseased and small potatoes may, how- 
 ever, be used for this purpose. They should be steamed 
 or boiled ; and the water which collects in the steaming 
 vat, as well as that in which potatoes are boiled, should 
 never be given to animals of any kind. Potatoes do not 
 fatten pigs rapidly, and the fat of the pork fed on them is 
 said to be rather soft ; hence it is usual to give some 
 harder feeding along with them. 
 
 294. Fattening pigs are fed three times a day,— in the 
 morning, at noon, and in the evening. They should be 
 fed at the same hours day after day, and get as much food 
 as they will eat up clean and no more. If at any time a 
 little food is left, it should be g'iven to stores. The troughs 
 should be washed quite clean at regular intei-vals, for if 
 any food is allowed to remain long in the comers of them 
 it is sure to taint the fresh food. Metal or stone troughs 
 are preferable to wooden ones, as they are more easily 
 cleaned, and not only is the food more likely to stick to 
 the wood, but the wood itself rots and taints the food. 
 
 295. The pig is, in the minds of a great many people, 
 associated with dirt and filth ; but the truth is, he is, in 
 many respects, cleanly in his habits. For instance, he 
 does not usually foul his litter, but retires to the yard. It 
 is quite certain that the fattening of swine is eminently 
 promoted by cleanliness. The most careful feeders wash 
 them once a week. If this is considered too troublesome 
 
lii.J IRISH FARMING. 95 
 
 they ought to be rubbed with a good brush or wisp of 
 straw. 
 
 296. Fattening pigs, like other fattening animals, eat 
 more at first than afterwards. When they have put on a 
 good deal of fat the appetite becomes less voracious, and 
 better-flavoured food is required. It is for this reason 
 that when pigs are put up to fatten they often get more of 
 bulky and succulent food, and as the fattening advances 
 they get more of the richer and. more palatable grains. 
 Pigs are fattened on less food in summer than in winter. 
 
 X. ON POULTRY. 
 
 297. The value of eggs and poultry imported into 
 England from the Continent has been estimated at a 
 million and a quarter sterling per annum. Of eggs, 
 the imports, one day with another, have been upwards 
 of a million a day ! Ireland, with its half a million of 
 farmers, could supply a large part of this demand, and 
 at the same time increase the quantity for home use. 
 There is at present in some parts of Ireland, such as 
 Dundalk, Wexford, and Derry, a brisk business done in 
 the exportation of eggs and poultry, and it is desirable 
 to extend it to every part of the country. The people 
 have every facility for increasing this species of produce 
 in great abundance. Neither expensive houses nor large 
 capital are required for poultry. Profitable poultry rearing 
 requires a good deal of personal care, which the house- 
 wives of Ireland could give to it. The birds in many parts 
 of the country are very fair, and everywhere they could be 
 improved by crossing, in the same way as cattle, sheep, 
 and pigs are improved. 
 
 298. The pure breeds most in favour in this country 
 are the Dorking, Spanish, and Brahmas. 
 
 The Dorking is one of the best pure breeds. A 
 
96 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 bird of this variety is large, has a square, well-set body, 
 short, whitish legs, and short neck. The flesh is excel- 
 lent, and the eggs are of good size and flavour. The 
 colour varies, dark grey being preferred. There are five 
 toes to each foot. The Dorking does not bear close 
 breeding as well as other varieties ; a fresh cock must, 
 therefore, be procured every second year, or every year 
 where a large number of hens are kept. The average 
 weight of the cock is 8 lbs., and of the hen 6 lbs. The 
 hen makes a good nurse ; but she is slow in sitting. It 
 is, therefore, necessary to entrust eggs for early birds to 
 foster-mothers, and for this special duty the game hen is 
 the best. 
 
 300. The Spanish is a noble-looking bird, of different 
 hues of colour, black being the most fashionable. There 
 is a large red single comb, which in the cock is quite erect, 
 and in the hen turns a little to one side. The breed is 
 further known by a lobe of white flesh behind the ear, 
 and by its white face. The hen lays a large, well-flavoured 
 ^•g%, which tapers at both ends, and weighs from 2.\ oz. 
 to 3j oz., and sometimes more. She belongs to the class 
 of everlasting layers ; that is, she continues laying, and 
 does not feel inclined to hatch, a property that enhances 
 the value of the breed for producing eggs : hatching can 
 be done by common hens. 
 
 301. The Bi^ahma is a larger bird than either the 
 Dorking or Spanish, the cock weighing lo lbs., and the 
 hen about 8 lbs. The flesh is not so delicate as that of 
 the Dorking or Spanish ; but when young it is very good, 
 and it is abundant in quantity. The ^gg is small, weigh- 
 ing not more than 2 oz., and, in common with the eggs of 
 all fowl of Asiatic origin, it has a bufl" colour. The hens 
 are great layers, and, being hardy, they give eggs in 
 winter, when neither the Dorking nor Spanish lay. They 
 also make excellent nurses, and by crossing with common 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 97 
 
 fowl give good birds for general use. Being heavy, they 
 are easily confined ; and, for the same reason, the roosts 
 require to be within a foot of the ground. The pullets 
 are fully grown at six months, when they begin to lay. 
 For confined places and general usefulness this is one of 
 the best breeds we know. There are two kinds of 
 Brahmas in the country, the white and the dark. We 
 prefer the latter. 
 
 302. A poultry house consists of one or more rooms, 
 according to the number of birds kept. Any apartment 
 may be fitted up for the purpose ; but if a poultry house 
 is specially built, each room may be six or eight feet long 
 by four feet wide, and not less than twelve feet high, as 
 the air in a low house soon becomes tainted, and bad air 
 is sure to cause delicacy and disease in poultry. Each 
 compartment should have a door about twenty-one inches 
 wide in one corner, and a yard ten feet wide, facing the 
 south. If distinct breeds are kept, the yards require to 
 be covered with wire. 
 
 303. As damp is most injurious to poultry, the house 
 and yards should be thoroughly drained. The best floor 
 is a layer of broken stones, over which is placed two inches 
 of clay, well pressed down, and the whole covered with 
 fine sand, or with the fine part of well-sifted ashes. The 
 floor should be carefully cleaned every day, and the manure 
 removed two or three times a week. 
 
 304. Thatch is preferable to slates for poultry houses, 
 as it keeps them warm in winter. It is a good plan to line 
 the walls in winter with a thin layer of long, clean wheat 
 straw. This is done by fastening it at top and bottom 
 with nails and listing. All the straw used in poultry 
 houses should be sprinkled with sulphur, to prevent fleas 
 from being generated in it. Roosting-spars, consisting of 
 the one-half of larch poles, about three or four inches in 
 diameter, divested of the bark, and with the semicircular 
 
 H 
 
98 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 side upwards, should be placed the entire length of each 
 compartment, and at a height of two feet from the ground 
 for common poultry, and a foot for heavy birds, such as 
 Brahmas. Nests for laying should be placed along the 
 end farthest from the door, and not over each other. 
 There should, if possible, be a separate room for hatch- 
 ing ; and if the poultry be valuable, and early birds 
 required, it should be heated. 
 
 305. A quantity of ashes should be placed within 
 reach of fowl. In this they roll themselves about, by 
 which, it is found, they are kept free from vermin. If 
 ashes be not present, they will scoop out the clay with 
 their toes, which are thereby frequently disfigured. The 
 clay, too, does not destroy vermin as well as ashes. 
 • 306. Many persons place broken shells or lime rubbish 
 in poultry yards, under the belief that it supphes material 
 to build up the egg-shell. Poultry take up a little fine 
 gravel to assist the action of the gizzard. 
 
 307. Hens and forward pullets, well cared in winter, lay 
 before Christmas, or at latest, in January, and to keep 
 them laying at this season, they require liberal feeding 
 and as much Vv^armth as possible. Corn is the best food 
 for this purpose. Some farmers give all the tail corn to 
 the hens, and it answers very well. 
 
 30S. For ordinary purposes, it is not desirable to hatch 
 eggs before the opening of mild weather in spring. The 
 general brood is hatched in March, April, and May. A 
 second brood is hatched in July, August, and September, 
 after which hatching is not safe. Very early hatching in 
 January or February is not practised, except for show 
 purposes, or in the neighbourhood of cities or large towns, 
 where early chickens bring 5^-. a piece and upwards. 
 Early chickens require very careful nursing. 
 
 309. A good-sized hen, fully grown, will hatch thirteen 
 eggs ; for pullets, eight are quite enough. Those who 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING, •99 
 
 breed for show purposes, never expect a hen to hatch 
 more than this number. The period of incubation is 
 twenty-one days, 
 
 310. Pieces of bread from the kitchen, soaked in water, 
 and dried and grated, is excellent food for young chicks. 
 Refuse stirabout, broken fine, is also good ; and after a 
 short time they may get small but clean tail corn. 
 Chopped cabbage or lettuce shold also be provided for 
 them. Kitchen refuse, especially dripping, dried and 
 broken fine, is found to be beneficial. Like other animals 
 they are greatly benefited by a mixed diet. 
 
 311. For ten days or a fortnight, they should, if pos- 
 sible, be fed once an hour during the day ; and after- 
 wards, they may have the run of a piece of grass, in which 
 shrubs should be grown for shelter.. Wholesome water 
 should also be supplied and renewed every day. They 
 will pick up insects for themselves. 
 
 ,312. The staple food of fowl is grain. Many give the 
 preference to oats, which is recommended to be ground. 
 Tail corn does very well, especially for common fowl. In 
 whatever state it is given, the corn should be scattered 
 thinly on the ground, so as to give the birds exercise in 
 looking for it. They should never get, at a time, more 
 than they will eat clean. A very good way of fattening 
 poultry is to confine them in cages for a few weeks, and 
 to feed them on corn or meal (which is preferred by most 
 people) made into a paste. They are put up at the age of 
 three or three and a half months in summer, and from 
 four to five months in winter. Birds of an improved de- 
 scription and of this age, will fatten in a fortnight ; older 
 birds may take an additional week. If confined for a 
 longer time, they go backwards. It has been found that 
 five pounds of barley increase the live weight of poultry 
 by one pound. 
 
 313. The fattening of fowl is forced by a process 
 
 H 2 
 
lOo INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 called cramming, which consists in pressing more food 
 into the animals than they would otherwise take. The 
 food is generally made into pellets. Birds fattened in 
 •this way are called crammed fowl. 
 
 314. As it is found that all animals fatten best in the 
 dark, some persons resort to the barbarous practice of 
 depriving birds of their eyes. 
 
 315. Before being killed, fowls should be fasting for 
 twelve hours ; and, in order to soften the fibre of the 
 'flesh, it is necessary to allow young birds to remain killed 
 for a day or two before using them, and old birds require 
 three or four days. 
 
 316. When a fowl is fat, the breast is plump, and fat is 
 easily discovered under the wings ; and all over the body 
 :ilesh and fat are felt on gently pressing it with the finger. 
 
 317. If a good description of fowl be kept, the hens 
 will lay, on an average, 120 eggs each, at successive 
 periods during the year; at ninepence a dozen, this would 
 amount to ']s. 6d. If fed principally on grain, they will 
 require corn at the rate of half a stone per week for every 
 
 ^^ix birds, with a little chopped vegetables and such kitchen 
 refuse and worms as they* can pick up ; this gives 4^ 
 -stones per annum per bird. Using inferior corn, worth, 
 say, about lo^d. per stone, the cost per hen is 3^-. 6d., 
 which leaves a handsome margin to pay for kitchen refuse 
 and attendance. In many districts the average price of 
 eggs is fully one shilling per dozen. 
 
 318. The Goose is the most profitable of the large 
 poultry birds. She is not so difHcult or expensive to rear 
 as the turkey, and brings nearly as much money. She 
 requires plenty of ground to roam over in search of food. 
 
 31®. The common geese of the country are capable of 
 being improved by care in selecting the parents, and by 
 crossing with a Toulouse gander, which is large, well 
 ■shaped, and of a grey colour. 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. loi 
 
 320. Geese well fed in winter will begin to lay in 
 January, and a good goose lays from fifteen to twenty 
 eggs in the season, and sometimes thirty and upwards. 
 
 •*-"Toulouse geese lay from forty to sixty. In her first season 
 a goose does not lay so many, and her eggs are small. 
 She is in prime laying condition in her third season. 
 
 321. A goose that begins to lay early in January, will 
 show a desire to sit in February. She will hatch from 
 ten to twelve eggs, and the period of incubation is thirty 
 days. A turkey hen is often preferred to a goose for 
 hatching ; and a common hen is often put on four or five 
 eggs. 
 
 322. Goslings receive no food for twelve hours after 
 they appear. Their first food consists of pieces of bread 
 soaked in milk, stirabout, and chopped cabbage. They 
 should have access to a plot of grass and to a limited 
 supply of water at first. A tub sunk in the ground 
 and the water frequently renewed, or a pond, answers- 
 better than running water for this purpose ; and we 
 have found that ducks and geese fatten rather better on 
 a limited supply of water, renewed sufficiently often, than 
 when they have access to a running stream. 
 
 323. A gosling well fed is fit for table in three months. 
 A goose put up to fatten takes from three to five weeks^ 
 according to its condition at the time, and the degree of 
 fatness required. It consumes at first i lb. of corn per 
 day, and | of a lb, afterwards. Young geese are benefited 
 by a run on stubble. A large-sized goose gives i lb. of 
 feathers in the year, which, instead of being plucked 
 all at once, are removed at two or three separate 
 periods. 
 
 324. The Duck is prized for its savoury flesh, and 
 gives a large ^gg, which is not so delicate as that of the 
 hen. It requires little care, thrives everywhere, eats up 
 shigs and insect pests in the garden and in the field, 
 
I02 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 without injury to any crop ; hence it is remarkably well 
 suited to cottagers. 
 
 325. The two pure breeds most esteemed in these 
 countries are the Aylesbury, which is large in size, and 
 white in colour, and has a flesh-coloured or pale bill; and 
 the Rouen, which differs from the common brown duck, 
 in being much larger. 
 
 326. Ducks well fed in winter will begin to lay in 
 January or February. 
 
 327. When early ducklings are wanted, the first laid 
 eggs are put under a hen. The period of incubation is 
 30 days, and the birds should be breaking through the 
 shell at the opening of the first mild weather in spring, 
 before which it is difficult to rear poultry of any kind. 
 In spring, the ducklings are confined in a yard with their 
 nurse for about ten days, and in summer for about three 
 days ; while young they are fed on soft sloppy food, with 
 a little meal, and are provided with water in shallow 
 vessels. After this they are allowed to run into water. 
 After three weeks they may be separated from their 
 nurse. When a month old they are found very useful in 
 the garden in destroying the grubs of insects. Ducks 
 are fattened on meal and water ; some milk, when avail- 
 able, may be substituted for the water. 
 
 328. The Turkey is a valuable bird, but while young 
 it is tender and difficult to rear. In addition to the 
 common kind, there are three pure breeds deserving of 
 notice, namely the Norfolk, Cambridge, and American. 
 The Norfolk is the smallest, the hen when fat weighing 
 from 5 lbs. to 6 lbs. The plumage has a rusty jet-black 
 hue. The Cambridge is of various shades of colour, 
 such as black and white, grey and copper-colour, the 
 latter being mostly preferred. The hen when fat weighs 
 15 lbs., and the cock 25 to 30 lbs. It is fast superseding 
 the Norfolk, which is now reared chiefly for use in small 
 
III.] IRISH FARMING. 103 
 
 families. The American is the most reccntl3' domesticated. 
 •It is smaller than the Cambridge. Its flesh is well flavoured, 
 and the brilliant lustre of its plumage gives it a splendid 
 appearance. When generously fed and skilfully cared, 
 the turkey lays at two and sometimes at three periods in 
 the year ; first in spring, second in July, and lastly 
 between Michaelmas and Christmas. The eggs are 
 dropped at intervals of about thirty hours. 
 ( 329. An average-sized turkey hen will cover thirteen 
 eggs, and the young birds appear after four weeks' in- 
 cubation. The eggs laid in spring may be hatched as 
 soon as the turkey hen shows a desire to sit, and are 
 found to give stronger birds for breeding than those laid 
 at any other season. They also give full-sized birds for 
 table at Christmas, when the demand is greatest. 
 
 330. For twenty-four hours after the birds break through 
 the shells they require no food, and should be left to 
 receive the warmth of their nurse. After that they 
 should be encouraged to eat crumbs of bread off the hand. 
 Afterwards they get hard boiled eggs broken fine and 
 mixed with chopped nettles, lettuce, or cabbage. Sprigs 
 of onion leaves or leeks are particularly good for them. 
 
 331. Turkeys are fast-growing birds and dainty feeders. 
 Their food, therefore, requires to be abundant, nutritious, 
 and offered to them very frequently. While they are 
 young it cannot be given too often. Some give it every 
 half-hour during the day, but it is not convenient to give 
 
 it oftener than once an hour, and even this is troublesome ; , ^ 
 but any person who is not prepared to bestow time and 
 trouble on young turkeys should never attempt to rear 
 them at all. They require great care and shelter for 
 eight or ten weeks. The most critical time of all is when 
 they begin to throw out the rough scales and plumage that 
 distinguish the sexes. These absorb a large amount 
 nourishment, and if adequa.te food be not supplied the 
 
104 INTRODUCTION TO [CHAP. 
 
 system, becomes so much reduced that disease is pretty 
 sure to set in and carry off a large number of the birds. 
 
 332. Turkeys are fattened on grain and water, or 
 grain and milk if it can be spared, with an occasional, 
 piece of green food. Small birds in fair condition will 
 fatten in three or four weeks, but large birds may take 
 twice this time. Turkeys which did not receive adequate 
 food while young are seldom capable of being fattened 
 with advantage. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 
 
 333. Having in the foregoing pages given an outline 
 of the modes of raising crops as well as of managing 
 live stock, we proceed to explain the systems of farming 
 best suited to Ireland. We shall begin with small 
 farms. 
 
 334. Small farms may be divided into several classes. 
 First of all, there is a vast fiumber of cottier holdings^ 
 not one of which is capable of giving continuous employ- 
 ment throughout the year to an able-bodied man, and 
 which should not, in strictness, be called farms at all. 
 The occupiers of these little holdings are neither farmers 
 nor labourers, but occupy a sort of intermediate place. 
 In times of distress they suifer great privations. As 
 farming improves and society progresses ; as the wages of 
 farm-labourers rise, and their houses become more com- 
 fortable, a number of this class will elect to live by hired 
 labour. In some parts of the country they still form, 
 however, a numerous class. Each holding consists of a 
 few acres of arable land, which, in many cases, has been 
 reclaimed from a state of nature. Potatoes are raised for 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 105 
 
 home use ; a patch of oats is also grown, the produce 
 being either ground into meal, or sold to buy other neces- 
 saries ; and the remainder is in pasture generally of the 
 worst description, for grazing a cow. The sales Consist 
 of some oats, eggs, and poultry, and a pig or two, and 
 occasionally of a little butter, which, owing to the way it 
 is made up, rarely brings more than two-thirds the price 
 of first-class butter. To these poor people the pig is a 
 valuable savings-bank ; and out of his price the rent is 
 almost invariably paid. Whenever any violent contagious 
 disease, such as the hog-cholera, attacks the pigs of a 
 district, cottier- farmers suffer heavy losses, and require 
 time to pay their rents. The possession of a cow is 
 a great boon to persons of this class, her milk being 
 nutritious and wholesome. 
 
 335. Any holding large enough to give continuous 
 employment" to an able-bodied man all the year round 
 may be called a farm. Small farms would begin at this 
 standard, and end with a class on each of which one 
 horse must be kept, but which is not large enough to 
 employ a pair of horses all through the year. 
 
 336. In improving the condition of both cottier-holders 
 and small farmers, a few leading ideas are applicable. 
 In the present management of the vast majority of them, 
 we find the same absence of any correct mode of crop- 
 ping ; the same injudicious system of raising grain after 
 grain ; and the same want of roots and of artificial grass.- 
 By the application of more skill, they could live much 
 better than they do. The prevailing system is to sow 
 oats after potatoes, and to repeat the oat-crop until the 
 land gives little more than the seed. The ground is then 
 put under potatoes again, and the same round of oat- 
 crops repeated ; or the land, when unable to bear corn, is 
 put under permanent grass. In very many cases no 
 grass-seeds are sown, the land being left to cover itself 
 
io6 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 naturally. As a rule, no root-crop is raised, nor is there 
 any artificial grass for meadow. A cow, when kept, is 
 half-starved in winter, having nothing but the run of 
 the pasture, and a little straw in severe weather. 
 
 337. In place of this, we would suggest, as a beginning, 
 that the grain-crop after the potatoes should be laid down 
 with artificial grass. In the following year, at least two 
 cuttings of grass will be obtained off this part of the 
 farm. The ground under oats this year should be cropped 
 next year with potatoes and turnips, or mangolds, or some 
 of each, according to circumstances. The potatoes will 
 probably require all the farm-yard manure available ; the 
 turnips and mangolds may be raised with the aid of 
 artificial manure. The poorest part of the oat-ground 
 should be reserved for the crop or crops to which farm- 
 yard manure is to be applied. 
 
 338. The small farmer need not raise at first more 
 than half a rood of roots for every cow he keeps. He will 
 soon learn to appreciate the value of these crops, not 
 ■only for cows, but for his pigs. 
 
 339. If, from any cause, the small farmer is compelled 
 to sow grain after grain on part of the farm, care should 
 be taken to select for this purpose the best of the stubble, 
 and to top-dress it with artificial manure. 
 
 340. It is very likely nothing will be done to improve the 
 pasture-land the first year. A great deal of this kind of 
 pasture is on shallow or rocky soil, which would not admit 
 of tillage. In the ensuing autumn or spring it should be 
 top-dressed with a good compost of clay and lime. For 
 this purpose clay can be taken from old ditches or from 
 headlands. If lime cannot be had conveniently, a good 
 grass manure, at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, may be 
 mixed with the clay. If an abundant supply of clay can 
 be had, some permanent grass-seeds may be sown and 
 liarrowed in at the approach of mild weather in spring. 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 107 
 
 Land now bearing bad grass, and which is deep enough for 
 tillage, should be broken up piece by piece, as the means 
 of the farmer will admit, put through a course of tillage, 
 and, if desirable, re-laid down with suitable permanent 
 grasses. By pursuing the system thus briefly sketched, 
 the small farmer can raise as much potatoes as before, 
 and fully as much oats ; and, by the use of roots and 
 hay, and hand-feeding, he can have milk from his cow 
 during the winter, and also be able to keep, during winter, 
 a heifer and an extra pig or two. It is useless to expect 
 these small farmers to establish a rotation of crops on 
 their holdings at once ; they could not do it for want of 
 capital. But, by pursuing the course pointed out, the 
 main principle of the rotations of crops is put into prac- 
 tice at once, and the small farmer is not asked to do 
 anything beyond his reach. 
 
 341. It is necessary to make a few remarks on the 
 extra capital required to carry out this system. It has 
 been often remarked that small farmers have no capital 
 to adopt any new or improved system of management. 
 This objection is invariably made by writers and others 
 who have no practical experience. The author has, in 
 numerous instances, seen the system he describes followed 
 by small farmers of very slender means. There is no 
 small farm.er of good character who cannot get reasonable 
 time to pay for the seeds and artificial manures required 
 to begin with. When the root-crops become fit for use, 
 it may be necessary to buy a cow to consume them. 
 Where is the money to come from ? We answer, and 
 say, that a great many small farmers, even of those who 
 do not farm in a skilful manner, have, by great frugality 
 and thrift, saved a little money, which is often either lying 
 idle, or is in banks at a very low rate of interest. If laid 
 out in the way suggested above, it would pay a high 
 profit ; in some cases as high as a pound for every pound 
 
io8 INTRODUCTION TO [CHAP. 
 
 invested. On the other hand, there is a vast number of 
 small farmers who have not saved money. Some of 
 them may, however, be able to borrow the whole or part 
 of the price of the cow. When this could not be done, 
 we have more than once induced the farmer to sell part 
 of the roots the first year, and with the money so obtained 
 to buy a heifer, which will grow and increase in value : 
 and with the money realized by her sale, a milch cow can 
 be purchased afterwards. 
 
 342. It will be seen that at first we do not urge on 
 small farmers to pursue any rotation of crops, experience 
 having taught us that many of the essays and treatises 
 hitherto written on the subject have failed, because they 
 required too much. A notable instance of this has come 
 under the author's notice, in a district in which several of 
 the landed gentry were interested in trying a system of 
 small farm management suggested in a prize essay. The 
 system advocated in the essay referred to is so complica- 
 ted, that it has not been followed by a single farmer, not 
 even by its author. The rotation suggested would extend 
 over twelve years ; the farmers most in need of advice 
 would forget all about the beginning of it before they 
 should come to the end. To be successful, any system 
 proposed for improving the agricultural practices of small 
 farmers must be simple. From the outset, however, every 
 change made should be sound, as far as it goes ; and it 
 should tend, as far as practicable, towards the course 
 which would ultimately be permanently established as 
 the best on any given farm. How are we to determine 
 this course ? 
 
 343. It is not possible to explain what is best to be 
 done in every case that will occur ; all we can do in this 
 treatise is to give a few general directions, and to illustrate 
 them afterwards by examples. As a rule, it may be stated, 
 that a spade-labour farm should be all under tillage, 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 109 
 
 except a paddock in which the stock could get exercise. 
 The cows should be fed in the house throughout the 
 year : in summer, with grass and a little hay or straw ; in 
 winter they should get roots and fodder, the quantity of 
 roots varying with the quantity of milk the animals give. 
 Cows in full milk get about eight stones of roots per 
 day, with fodder ; dry cows should be fed on straw and 
 hay ; and as the yield of milk decreases, so should the 
 supply of roots, until they are withdrawn altogether ; 
 because it does not pay to give roots to dry cows, or to 
 give them in large quantity to cows' yielding only a small 
 quantity of milk. An occasional feed of roots is, how- 
 ever, useful to cows in calf, as it helps to keep their 
 system in a healthy state. 
 
 344. The house-feeding of milch cows all the year 
 round is one of the best means of improving the condi- 
 tion of our small farmers. It has been one of the main- 
 stays of the small farmers of Belgium. A house-fed cow 
 of average size and of fair quality will give from 500 to 
 600 gallons of milk in the year ; or, say, 550 gallons. If 
 the dairy were managed skilfully, the milk would realize 
 on an average y\d. per gallon, or ^17 per cow. A 
 cow of the same description, under the prevailing mode 
 of treatment, does not give over 300 gallons of milk. 
 The house-feeding of cows all through the year involves 
 a good deal of labour ; and when, as on large farms, the 
 whole of the labour has to be paid for, house-feeding 
 in summer does not pay. And as we advance from 
 spade-labour farms to the larger class of small farms, it 
 may be stated that, generally speaking, a modified system 
 of grazing and house-feeding in summer answers better 
 than feeding altogether in the house. 
 
 345. The four-course rotation or a modification to be 
 explained further on may be pursued by small farmers of 
 this class. From six to eight acres of arable land put 
 
no INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 under this rotation is as much as an ordinary family can 
 cultivate with the spade. What they cannot till suffi- 
 ciently may be put into pasture for the cows and young 
 stock. The areas to be kept in tillage and grass, respec- 
 tively, depend on a variety of circumstances, such as the 
 nature of the soil, the extent of the holding, and the 
 quantity of labour available in the family. 
 
 346. According to the classification we have adopted, 
 a cottier farm is intermediate in size between a cottage 
 garden and a small farm, and is not large enough to give 
 continuous employment throughout the year to an able- 
 bodied man. 
 
 347. As every cottager who has a piece of land should, 
 if possible, keep one cow, the question at once arises, 
 what is the smallest area on which she can be maintained 
 all the year round ? As this question possesses the 
 deepest interest for the mass of the people of this coun- 
 try, we shall answer it pretty fully. In the first place, 
 it may be remarked that a cow can be house-fed all 
 through the year on purchased feeding. A gentleman of 
 our acquaintance feeds a small cow in his stable all 
 the year round. Her daily allowance of food consists 
 of two-and-a-half pounds of cotton-cake, one pound 
 linseed-cake, and four pounds bran, with hay and 
 water. The cake and bran are prepared in the way 
 to be afterwards described, and divided into three feeds. 
 The animal gets exercise for ten minutes every morning in 
 a lane at the back of the house, and is well groomed with 
 currycomb and brush. Last year her milk averaged eight 
 quarts a day, and supplied the wants of a family of fifteen, 
 including servants. The cost of the cake and bran 
 averaged ^d. a day. 
 
 348. Let us now take the case of a cottager in a re- 
 mote district who wants to feed his cow principally on 
 crops raised on his holding. We find that on two acres 
 
iv.J IRISH FARMING. 1 1 1 
 
 of ordinary arable land put under the four-course rota- 
 tion, a cow can be kept. The two-acre farm would be 
 cropped as follows : — 
 
 1st— Two roods of roots. 
 
 2nd — Two roods of grain laid down with grass-seeds. 
 
 3rd — Two roods of grass, the greater part of which 
 should be cut with the scythe, and given to the cow in 
 the house ; and the remainder made into hay for winter 
 use. 
 
 4th — After the grass we may plant the main crop of 
 potatoes, say one rood ; and the remaining rood may be 
 put under oats. 
 
 The half-acre of roots (turnips and mangolds), if pro- 
 perly managed, will yield ten tons, and afford i cwt. of 
 roots per day, for six months, which, with suitable hand- 
 feeding, is quite sufficient for a cow in full milk. By 
 top-dressing, and with the aid of a stolen crop of vetcheSy 
 the half-acre of artificial grass will not only feed the cow 
 in the house for the six months of summer, but give a 
 little hay for winter use. 
 
 349. The rotation may be varied according to cir- 
 cumstances. When the family is large, the whole of 
 the grass field may be put under potatoes, giving this 
 rotation : — 
 
 1st year — Turnip and mangolds, 
 ^nd year — Grain, with grass seeds. 
 
 3rd year — Grass for soiling, and hay. 
 
 4th year — Potatoes. 
 
 Roots, after potatoes, require less manure than after 
 lea oats. 
 
 In a good climate, potatoes are ripe in the end of 
 September, when they may be dug, and succeeded by 
 Italian rye-grass. On a small farm of deep, sound land, 
 we have pursued the following rotation with great 
 success : — 
 
112 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 1st year — Turnips and mangolds. 
 
 2nd year — Potatoes taken out before the end of Sep- 
 tember ; the ground being then cleared and sown with 
 Italian rye-grass. 
 
 3rd year — Italian rye-grass. 
 
 4th year — Oats. 
 
 Under the circumstances stated, this is a most profit- 
 able course of cropping. In one year we fed, from the 
 4th April until the end of September, four cows on the 
 produce of five (statute) roods of artificial grass raised in 
 this way. To guard against disappointment, it is well to 
 state, for the information of any person who may be dis- 
 posed to adopt this system, that the grass seed must be 
 sown not later than September, so that the young plants 
 would be strong enough to resist the winter ; and that 
 plenty of seeds must be sown, say not less than four 
 bushels of pure seed per statute acre ; and if there is 
 any reason for doubting the purity of the seed, an extra 
 bushel or two may be used. 
 
 350. On light land, Italian rye-grass is so stunted, that 
 the produce of half an acre is not enough to feed a cow 
 during summer. In such a case we have found a planta- 
 tion of lucerne invaluable ; and when the ground is very 
 light and poor, sanfoin answers better than lucerne. On 
 land of this description we have, in other cases, dispensed 
 with artificial grass altogether, and put in its place occa- 
 sional sowings of both winter and spring vetches for the 
 summer feeding of the cow. 
 
 351. On several cottier holdings the following three- 
 course rotation has been followed at our suggestion with 
 great success : — 
 
 1st year — Mangolds. 
 2nd year — Potatoes. 
 3rd year — A^etches, viz : 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 1 1 ^ 
 
 (a) Winter vetches, sown in September and October 
 of the previous year, after the potatoes. These 
 vetches will be fit for use in May, and may be 
 succeeded by Swedish turnips. 
 {b) Spring vetches, sown in succession, as already 
 explained. Vetches sown in January and Feb- 
 ruary may be followed by turnips. Vetches 
 sown as late as May will not be out of the 
 ground in time to obtain another crop within 
 the year ; but will afford food for the cow 
 until the mangold leaves become available. 
 With the aid of cabbages from the cottage garden.. 
 and of the produce of the plantation of lucerne, and of 
 cake and bran, when necessary, the cottier farmer will 
 not find any difficulty in feeding his cow from April tilL 
 November, when the roots become available. 
 
 352. On cottier farms, horse labour is inadmissible, - 
 except for taking out the manmre, and bringing home, 
 the crops ; and even this can be done with the aid of a . 
 donkey. 
 
 ,353. The essential implements consist of spade, steel- 
 digging-fork, hoe, and shovel, for field-work ; bucket, and . 
 wheelbarrow ; and, when they can be afforded, a root- 
 cutter, a hand-cart, and a machine for cutting straw into- 
 chaff. A good sized metal pot is also necessary to pre- 
 pare hand-feeding for the cow ; but this can be done in. 
 the kitchen. There should be a strong wooden or stone 
 trough for mixing and preparing food. A few other small 
 articles will also be necessary. 
 
 354. The offices required are a cow-house, pig- sty, a 
 store-room, and places for poultry and ducks. 
 
 355. The dairy utensils would consist of a milking- 
 pail, a couple of milk-pans, a strainer, a skimmer, and a 
 small churn. The pail should be made of wood, with 
 galvanized iron hoops. A cooler made of tinned iron is 
 
 I 
 
114 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 very suitable for cottier farms. It is cleaned by dipping 
 it in cold water, and rubbing it lightly with a piece of 
 sponge or fine cloth. When hot water is used, and the 
 vessel roughly scrubbed, the tin wears off. A good churn 
 for this class of occupiers is the atmospheric, described 
 at pp. 70 and 71, and which is generally made of thick 
 block-tin, and in which the butter is produced by pump- 
 ing air into the milk. The whole milk is put into the 
 ehurn, at a temperature of 60°; the butter is obtained 
 in five or six minutes ; the buttermilk is not sour, and 
 the butter itself is sweet ; but, like all butter rapidly 
 made, it does not keep long. For churning cream in 
 small quantity, the American box-churn is the best. On 
 cottier farms there is generally great want of proper dairy 
 accommodation ; even when a separate apartment is built 
 as a dairy it is so cold in winter that it is difficult to 
 make good butter. The atmospheric churn, by admitting 
 of being placed in a tub of hot water during the process 
 af churning, obviates this difficulty to a great extent. 
 In summer, again, it almost invariably happens that 
 the apartments used as dairies by cottagers are; too 
 warm; and in this case the' atmospheric churn may be 
 plunged in cold water. When there are no proper means 
 of keeping down the heat of the dairy in summer, we 
 have found that sweet cream and good butter can be pro- 
 duced by raising the new milk to a temperature of 170° 
 before settingat in the coolers. 
 
 I. A FARM OF FIVE AND A HALF ACRES. 
 
 056. We now proceed to detail the cropping and 
 management of a spade-labour farm at Glasnevin. The 
 soil is deep, and above an average in point of natural 
 fertility. The farm consists of 5 acres, 2 roods, and 16 
 perches, within a ring fence, a small paddock (recently 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 1 1 5 
 
 added), and a bye-corner containing 2 1 perches, cropped 
 with lucerne, which is most uscfid in helping to keep up 
 a supply of green food for the cows. In severe seasons, 
 for instance, grass is later than usual ; and lucerne, which 
 becomes fit to cut early in April, and fully a fortnight 
 before the grass, is invaluable. The second cutting of 
 grass is also often late, and the second crop of lucerne 
 again comes in opportunely between the last of the first, 
 and the beginning of the second cutting of artificial grass. 
 A stolen crop of vetches is also useful at this period. 
 
 357. In the spring of 1862, this piece of land was in 
 permanent grass, and having been used for several years 
 previously as a paddock for young stock, the building up 
 of their frame reduced it so much in condition that it 
 was the poorest part of the land at Glasnevin. It was 
 divided into four equal parts, put under rotation, the first 
 year's crops being :— 
 
 I St. Root crops — turnips and mangolds, for which the 
 ground was dug to the full depth of a spading, at a cost 
 of 3^. per square perch (statute). 
 
 2nd. One-fourth was put under potatoes, which were 
 grown in lazy beds ; these were followed early in October 
 by Italian rye-grass, which was fit for use next April. 
 
 3rd. One-fourth was put under lea oats. 
 
 4th. The remaining fourth was left in grass. In Feb- 
 ruary it received a top-dressing, at the rate of 2 cwt. 
 per statute acre of Peruvian guano ; and some Italian 
 rye-grass seed was harrowed in at the opening of mild 
 weather in spring. In consequence of this treatment, the 
 grass was fit to cut for house-feeding in midsummer, when 
 a cheap cow was purchased, and with the proceeds of her 
 milk, a second was bought. Before the end of the year 
 the capital had increased threefold. As soon as the roots 
 become fit for use, towards the end of autumn, the cattle 
 were increased to three, which number is now maintained 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 all the year round. The result of the first year's operations 
 was, that after charging a rent of ^3 iSj-. 3^. per statute 
 acre, and ^24 \os. lod. for hired labour, there was a 
 balance of ^33 13J. ^d. in favour of management. 
 
 358. This farm has been worked on the four-course 
 rotations since 1862, and it is at present the cleanest, the 
 richest, and one of the best tilled pieces of land in Ire- 
 land. Its condition is now better by ^8 an acre than it 
 was then, and this increase is the result of deep and 
 efficient tillage and of liberal manuring. Its improved 
 condition may be described as floating capital put into it 
 by the tenant ; and it is the interest of the landlords, and 
 of the community at large, that the amount of this 
 capital in the soil should be as high as possible. It is 
 a most powerful instrument of production, and it is the 
 best guarantee the landord can have for the punctual 
 payment of his rent. In Belgium, and on the well- 
 managed farms of the United Kingdom, the amount of 
 this floating capital sunk in the soil is enorm.ous. There 
 are in Ireland close on ten millions of acres capable of 
 cultivation ; and if all were tilled and manured as well as 
 the piece of land we are describing, the tenants' floating 
 capital in it, of which we are now speaking, would be 
 increased to an average of £s an acre, or ^50,000,000 
 before ten years. 
 
 359. It is unnecessary to describe every step taken 
 during the past twelve years to bring this little farm into 
 its present state. It is enough to give a concise account 
 of its working. With the view of exhibiting as simple a 
 system as is consistent with the object in view, the crops 
 raised are few. The roots are confined to mangolds and 
 turnips ; oats is the only grain crop raised ; the artificial 
 grasses consist of Italian rye-grass and a little red clover, 
 together with a patch of lucerne. The small farmer 
 must have potatoes, and in many parts of the country 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 117 
 
 flax is a valuable adjunct ; accordingly, we have shown 
 where these crops can be introduced into the rotation. 
 As regards flax, the author wishes it to be distinctly 
 understood that its cultivation is not an essential part 
 of a system of management for improving the condi- 
 tion of small farmers. It is, in its own proper place, 
 a most valuable and profitable crop ; but there are many 
 instances in which the small farmer would do better 
 without it. 
 
 360. We have now to make some observations on each 
 of the crops raised. The common four-course rotation is, 
 as already explained, the basis of the systems of modern 
 husbandry most extensively practised ; it is sound in 
 principle, easily understood, and admits of very general 
 application. We have therefore modified this rotation 
 into the following scheme, which gives the cropping of 
 ■one field for four years in succession : — 
 
 1st year — Root crops— mangolds and turnips. 
 2nd year — Oats, with seeds. The ground being now 
 rich, a strong growing variety of oats is used, so that it 
 may not lodge and rot. It has been already stated, that 
 on rich land no artificial grass is equal, in a moist climate, 
 to Italian rye-grass, both as regards certainty and pro- 
 duce ; but on light, dry ground, or in a warm climate, red 
 clover, which has deep roots, and is more independent 
 of surface-moisture, gives a better return. To prevent 
 clover-sickness, one-half the field may be put under rye- 
 grass and the other half under a mixture of rye-grass and 
 clover ; and four years afterwards the places of these 
 crops should be changed. 
 
 3rd year — Artificial grass for house-feeding cows during 
 summer, and for hay. 
 
 In the 4th year, the crop, in the ordinary course, would 
 be oats, commonly called lea oats ; but the field may be 
 sub-divided into three parts, and cropped thus : — 
 
ii8 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 {a) One part lea oats, which illustrates the original 
 rotation. 
 
 ip) One part may be put under flax, the ground being 
 dug deeply and early. 
 
 {c) The remaining part may be devoted to potatoes. 
 
 When, four years afterwards, the same crops come 
 round on this field again, the flax should be put where 
 the potatoes are now ; lea oats should be sown where flax 
 is now, and the potatoes where we have now lea oats. 
 Four years later, the crops are again shifted in the same 
 way, so that flax would occur only once in twelve years, 
 by which fibre of good quality is obtained. Flax should 
 not be grown where a good market for it does not exist. 
 
 361. With the exception of mangolds, all these crops 
 can be successfully raised in every part of the country ; 
 and where, as in mountain districts, the climate is too 
 wet or cold for the mangold crop, turnips can be substi- 
 tuted for it. 
 
 362. One half of the farm is devoted to crops for cattle- 
 feeding — namely, one-fourth to roots for winter, and one- 
 fourth to grass for summer, us,e. The cows ara house-fed 
 throughout the year. A small paddock, containing half 
 an acre of ground, has been recently added to the farm, 
 so that henceforward they can be let out morning and 
 evening for exercise. If the farm were larger, we should 
 increase the paddock, so as to give the animals more 
 exercise. Our experience at home, coupled with observa- 
 tion in Belgium, go to prove that much exercise is not 
 essential for the secretion of milk, or even for the health 
 of full-grown animals ; but a paddock is necessary when 
 the small farmer rears stock. 
 
 363. Many persons are astonished when they are told 
 that three cows are maintained all the year round on this 
 little farm, or rather on the produce of one-half of it. The 
 following facts will make the matter very simple : — 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 119 
 
 The roots are fit for use in October, and continue sound 
 and good up to April, and longer if required — say, in all, 
 six months, or 182^ days. The quantity of roots given to 
 the cows varies from six to eight stones each daily, accord- 
 ing to the condition of the beasts. Taking the average at 
 7 stones a day, we require for each beast 8 tons for 
 the half-year, or for the three beasts, 24 tons. Any 
 practical man knows that an acre of good land, tilled and 
 manured as it ought to be, must produce upwards of 20 
 tons per statute acre ; even at this average, the yield of 
 the field of roots would exceed the wants of the animals. 
 In addition to roots, each cow gets from 3^ to 7 lb. of 
 hay, and from 2 to 4 lb. of what is called concentrated 
 food, in the day ; the kind and quantity of this food 
 depending on the condition of the animal For the pro- 
 duction of milk, a mixture of bran and cotton-cake is the 
 best artificial food. The cake is broken very fine, and 
 then mixed with the bran ; the mixture is steeped over- 
 night in cold water, and in the morning a little warm 
 water added to reduce it to a lukewarm mash. For 
 strippers intended to be fattened off, linseed oil-cake 
 broken fine is the very best food. Good rape-cake may 
 also be used with advantage ; when broken, boiling water 
 should be poured on it, to dissipate a peculiar pungent 
 substance it contains, and which makes it distasteful to 
 animals. Oats, when cheap, should be crushed and made 
 into mashes, the same as bran ; judiciously used in this 
 way, it is worth anywhere lod. a stone. 
 
 364. Italian rye-grass is fit for use in April, or early in 
 May. It invariably produces two crops or cuttings ; in 
 average good seasons it yields three, and when the season 
 is particularly favourable we obtain as many as four 
 crops. For obvious reasons, it should not all come in at 
 once. Accordingly, a third of it is top-dressed with Peru- 
 vian guano early in February, at the rate of i^ cwt. per 
 
5 20 INTRODUCTION TO [cHAP. 
 
 statute acre, and the remaining two-thirds at intervals of 
 a fortnight.* The result of the top-dressing is, that we 
 •soon perceive three distinct divisions in the field ; and 
 these divisions can be used in regular succession. After 
 'each cutting, a top-dressing of the same manure is used : 
 "the last work done every day being to top-dress the part 
 "mown that day ; the manure being broken very fine, and 
 ^applied at the rate of i lb. or i^lb. per square perch. iThe 
 night's dew helps to wash it into the soil before the heat 
 of next day's sun could do it any harm. By this mode of 
 treatment, the artificial grass yields a somewhat heavier 
 produce per acre than the roots ; and as the daily allow- 
 ance of grass is about the same as of roots, we find that, 
 with the aid of the plot of lucerne and some purchased or 
 concentrated food, the field of grass not only supports 
 three cows for the summer half-year (April to October), 
 but yields hay enough for the whole year. 
 
 365. When either roots or artificial grass are scarce, 
 the cattle can be made to keep up their milk and condi- 
 tion on hay and artificial food, or on what may be called 
 hand-feeding. In the middle of July, for instance, in a 
 dry year, when the grass is very backward, we have 
 provided the following feeding for a number of cows on 
 -another farm : — 
 
 6 o'clock, a.m. — 3|lb. of bran in mash, with hay after- 
 wards. 
 12 noon. — 2 lb. of bran, 2 lb. oil-cake made into muci- 
 lage, mixed with 5 lb. chaffed hay, and the whole 
 given in a moist state. 
 6 o'clock, p.m. — Same as morning feed. 
 9 o'clock, p.m. — A small quantity of hay. 
 Water ad libitu?n. 
 
 '"* We have, of late, used sulphate of ammonia, owing to the difficulty of 
 getting good Peruvian guano. In hot weather we find nitrate of soda rather 
 ' better than either, as a top-dressing for grass. 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 121 
 
 On this feeding cows milk freely, and put on flesh and 
 fat. When a chaff-cutter is used, and particularly in time 
 of scarcity, it is useful to mix cut cabbages, rape, or green 
 food of any kind with cut hay or straw. 
 
 366. We are continually asked if the straw produced 
 on the farm is enough for bedding the cattle all the year 
 round, and the answer is in the affirmative. Owing to the 
 treatment the land receives, the yield of straw is very 
 heavy : sometimes it is so rank as to be liable to lodge, 
 which injures the grain ; to prevent this, we clip off, with 
 a sickle, the tops of the plants before the ears begin to 
 appear. In the driest season, the produce of straw on 
 this farm is upwards of two tons per statute acre, and the 
 total quantity produced is enough to litter the animals 
 comfortably for twelve months. In summer, we have 
 limited the amount of bedding to a quarter of a stone 
 of chaffed straw per day for every beast. When necessary 
 we do the same in winter. The scouring of ditches, and 
 sawdust, may be used if the straw should run short. 
 
 367. The manure produced from the three cows is 
 enough for the field of roots and the plot of potatoes. 
 A house-fed cow produces, as already stated, at least one 
 ton of manure per month : by our management more is 
 obtained. If the manure should at any time run short, 
 the deficiency can be readily supplied by using artificial 
 manure for the turnips. 
 
 368. It is well to consider the capital required to start 
 this little farm. We must not overlook the buildings, 
 without which the experiment could not have succeeded. 
 Then, as regards labour, it is to be borne in mind that, 
 excepting horse labour, the greater part, if not the whole 
 of it, would be supplied by the small farmer and his 
 family. Seeds and manures are very generally suppned 
 on credit for three or six months by the most respectable 
 houses ; and the small farmer, when he requires it, will 
 
122 INTRODUCTION TO [CHAP. 
 
 be able to procure reasonable credit for the purchase of 
 these necessaries. Excluding buildings, the capital 
 with which the farm was commenced consisted of : — 
 
 1st — An outlay for hand implements of . ^i loj-. 
 
 2nd — The price of a cow ^13 oj. 
 
 3rd — The small farmer would, in addition, require as 
 much money in hand as would support himself and his 
 family, until the produce should become available. This 
 item will vary with circumstances, such as the time of 
 entry on the farm. In discussions on small farms, the 
 word capital has often been used in a way which has 
 caused misconception. Capital is necessary to every 
 employer of labour ; and no man should start in the 
 management of a farm, however small, without a suit- 
 able amount of it. The defective state of our small 
 farms is not, however, owing to want of capital, as is 
 evidenced by the fact that many of them have been in 
 the habit of investing money in banks at a very low rate 
 of interest, or allowing it to lie idle in their houses. 
 Labour is the great agent which produces capital ; and 
 there is in all small farm districts an enormous amount of 
 agricultural labour which is not producing anything like 
 the wealth of which it is capable. 
 
 369. We have now to consider the income derivable 
 from our small farm. The labour represents the work of 
 a man and a boy. They find continuous employment on 
 it throughout the year. While, in summer and winter, 
 small farmers are idle, the hands on this farm are as busy as 
 in spring or harvest. As our markets are exceptionally 
 favourable, we shall give the results in a remote district. 
 An ordinary cow, fed and treated as we have suggested, 
 produces upwards of 600 gallons of milk in the year. 
 Let us take it at 500. In any part of the kingdom milk 
 is worth at least (i\d. a gallon for butter-making, and 
 for the feeding of pigs and calves. The value of the 
 
iv.] IRISH FARMING. 123. 
 
 calves when dropped may be put down as a set-off against 
 casualties. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Three cows would produce 1,500 gallons at 6|c^. per gallon , . 4012 6 
 The oats, after roots, produce on an average more than 160 
 
 stones, which are worth, say loc/. a stone, or for the field . 968 
 Assuming that one-third of the stubble ground is cropped with 
 
 flax, wehave iR. 34J p. at 5cwt. peracre= i8| stonesat 7^. 6c?'. 6 18 9 
 
 Value of flax seed, say for feeding 200 
 
 Lea oats— I R. 34 A?, at 140 stones per acre = 65 stones at loc/. . 2 14 2 
 Potatoes — I R. 34-i- p. at 6 tons per acre = 2 tons 16 cwt., at ^\d. 
 
 per stone 8 8 ©■ 
 
 Profit on pigs (a very low estimate) 500 
 
 Profit on poultry 200 
 
 Total value of produce ^77 o i 
 
 From this we must deduct rent, at ;^2 an acre 11 9 3 
 
 Seeds — 
 
 Green crops 076 
 
 Potatoes 150 
 
 Oats 100 
 
 Flax 100 
 
 Artificial grass i 10 o 
 
 526- 
 
 Wear and tear of implements 200 
 
 Cost of artifical manure, 6 cwt. Peruvian guano, at 13J. 6d. , or its 
 
 equivalent of sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda ... 410 
 
 Cost of artificial cattle food . 600 
 
 Hired horse labour, &c 3 10 o 
 
 Total of out-goings ;^32 2 9 
 
 Deducting this from the value of the produce, there 
 remains a balance of £44. ijs. \d., or a fraction above 
 17J. 6d. per week, which is available for the mainten- 
 ance of the farmer and his family. These figures may 
 appear to prove too much to persons who have had no 
 practical experience themselves of the capabilities of small 
 farmers. We beg to assure those persons that the case has 
 been advisedly understated. There are several small farms 
 under the author's inspection on which the results con- 
 siderably exceed those given above. The whole secret may 
 be summed up in one short sentence : The tillage is deep,. 
 
124 INTRODUCTION TO [CHAP. 
 
 clean, and efficient ; and the cattle are fed with care and 
 skill. 
 
 370. It is not to be inferred that farms of five and 
 a half or of six-and-a-half acres, are recommended in 
 preference to larger ones. A discussion on the minimum 
 number of acres which a farm should contain is foreign 
 to this work. Vast numbers of people are planted on 
 ■small farms throughout the country ; and the great ques- 
 tion is, how best to improve their condition. Without 
 offering any opinion of a controversial character, we 
 would take leave to say, that when a holding is large 
 enough to give continuous employment to an able-bodied 
 man, and occasional employment to members of his family, 
 its skilful cultivation is sure to enable them to pay their 
 way and to live comfortably, 
 
 II. ONE-HORSE FARMS. 
 
 371 A holding which cannot be properly tilled without 
 the use of horse-power, but which is not large enough to 
 -employ a pair of horses, may be called a one-horse farm. 
 All operations that require' a pair of horses, such as 
 ploughing, are performed by hiring a second horse, or by 
 co-operation ; that is, two neighbouring farmers agree to 
 make up a team, which is employed first upon one and 
 next upon the other farm. A difference must occasionally 
 arise as to who shall get the first turn ; but by mutual 
 forbearance the work progresses in a satisfactory manner. 
 The ploughing of land in autumn, in preparing it for roots 
 and potatoes, is better done by three than by two horses 
 where the ground is sufficiently deep to permit of deep 
 ploughing ; but there is no reason why farmers, each 
 owning one horse, could not combine to make up a team 
 of three, or even four horses. The author has had ex- 
 perience of several one-horse farms ; and he can now say 
 
IV.] IRISH FA RMING. 1 2 5 
 
 that by a system such as has been explained, excellent 
 crops have been obtained. It is not to be inferred from 
 this remark that the author favours this class of farms. 
 The truth is, if called upon to subdivide an unoccupied 
 estate, he would avoid them, partly because the second 
 horse cannot always be procured when work is urgent, 
 and partly because they require a relatively large amount 
 of capital. Thus, for example, those essential implements 
 of tillage— the plough, harrow, roller, and grubber — will 
 cost as much on a one-horse, as on a two-horse farm. In 
 Ireland this class of farms is very numerous ; and in 
 England, many of our villa farms may be said to belong- 
 to the same category. 
 
 372. A one-horse farm may contain from ten to thirty 
 acres, or more, according to the quality of the ground. 
 Part of the farm will be in permanent pasture. Farms 
 of this size rarely afford a sufficient run for sheep. 
 The best plan is to depasture the permanent grass with 
 milch cows or young cattle. Pasture land, which is low- 
 lying and cool, answers best for milch cows, and should 
 be used for the production of butter. There should be a 
 good-sized paddock for calves, and, if possible, a smaller 
 one for pigs. The remaining portion of the farm should 
 be cropped in accordance with some established principle. 
 The simplest rotation in use is the four-course already 
 described. On medium land, such as the greater part of 
 the soil resting on the mountain limestone in the central 
 parts of Ireland, a rotation known as the five-course, 
 answers very well. The crops follow each other in the 
 following order : — 
 
 1st year — Turnips, mangolds, and potatoes. 
 
 2nd year — Grain, with grass seeds. 
 
 3rd year — Grass, which may be partly made into hay 
 for winter use, and partly used for feeding milch cows in 
 the house, during the hottest part of the day, in summer. 
 
126 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 4th year — Grass for pasture. 
 
 5th year-^Lea oats. 
 
 The second year's grass is never as productive as the 
 iirst. It is rarely heavy enough for meadow. Hence it 
 is depastured, and this presupposes the existence of fences 
 to coiifine the animals. 
 
 373. On upland or mountain ground, the following six- 
 course rotation answers still better. 
 
 1st year — Turnips (mangolds when the climate is suit- 
 able) and potatoes. 
 
 2nd year — Grain, with grass seeds. The oat-crop is 
 generally selected, being the most certain in upland 
 districts. 
 
 3rd year — Grass for meadow ; part may be given green 
 to the milch cows in the house in hot weather. 
 
 4th year — Grass the second year, which is depastured. 
 
 5th year — Grass the third year, also depastured. 
 
 6th year — Lea oats. 
 
 In many cases it will be found better to break up a field 
 of lea just as it wants it, irrespective of the number of 
 years it is in grass, as we shall more fully explain further 
 on. 
 
 ^74. A calf may be reared for every milch cow kept.- 
 Should the farmer be so unfortunate as to have cows of a 
 bad description, he should not rear his own calves, as it is a 
 mistake to waste good food and labour on animals of an 
 inferior description, while good ones can be had every- 
 where at a moderate price. After a few years, it is quite 
 possible for every farmer to come into possession of a 
 ^ood class of cows, after which he may rear all the calves. 
 By this rotation, a large quantity of straw, and a fair 
 share of hay, can be produced for winter feeding. There 
 will be on the farm a number of dairy cows, of three- 
 year-old heifers, of two-year olds, and of yearlings. A 
 breeding sow may be kept, and when young pigs are in 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 127 
 
 good demand, it would pay to keep a second. Each sow 
 should be so managed as to give two litters in the year. 
 One litter should be fit for weaning when the buttermilk 
 begins to be plenty in May ; and the second litter should 
 be forward enough to consume the small potatoes. 
 
 375. It may be useful to give some details of the work- 
 ing of a well-managed one-horse farm. It is situated 
 near a town, and contains 23 acres, 2 roods, 2 perches of 
 arable land, of fair quality. Buildings and roads occupy 
 3 roods, 37 perches ; the garden contains i rood, 5 perches ; 
 an area of 7 acres, 3 roods, 26 perches is in permanent 
 pasture for dairy cows ; and 14 acres, i rood, 10 perches 
 are under rotation. One horse is kept ; and all work, 
 such as ploughing, which requires more than one horse, 
 is done with the aid of a hired horse, or one is employed 
 on the co-operative principle explained. The implements 
 are as few as possible ; and a system of tillage and stock 
 feeding is pursued, suited to the great bulk of the working 
 tenant farmers. The live stock consists of one horse, six 
 milch cows, a bull, two breeding sows, and a boar. There 
 is good demand for new milk, at 2d. a quart ; and it is 
 more convenient to sell it at this price than to rear 
 calves, A couple of the calves from the best milkers 
 are, however, reared. 
 
 376. The crops raised, and the returns obtained from 
 them, are as follows : — 
 
 I. Turnips and mangolds, 3 a. 3 R. 10 p.; the produce is consumed 
 
 by the stock. ' 
 z. Artificial Grass, 3 a. 3 r. 10 p. Of the produce, part is used in a 
 
 green state, and part made into hay. 
 3. Oats, 6 a. or. 30 p. ; the yield is fully 75 barrels, at 145-. per £ s. d. 
 
 barrel 52 10 o 
 
 Deduct for horse feeding ;^io o o 
 
 ,, seed 3 ID o 
 
 13 10 o 
 
 Carried forward 39 o o 
 
128 INTRODUCTION TO [CHAP, 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Brought forward . . 39 o o 
 
 4. Potatoes, 2 R 1500 
 
 5. Garden produce, i R. 9 r 10 o o 
 
 6. Hire of bull and boar 20 o o 
 
 7. Pigs 20 o o 
 
 8. Poultry 500 
 
 9. Dairy produce, 6 cows at £iZ 108 o o 
 
 ^217 o o 
 
 The value of the calves is more than an equivalent for 
 deterioration in the value of the cows arising from age 
 or other casualties. 
 
 377. By keeping a young horse, and by the exercise of 
 skill in his purchase, he is often sold at a good profit 
 after the season's work ; but as all farmers could not do 
 so, it has been left out of the receipts. 
 
 378. The expenses consist of — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Seeds of root crops i 10 o 
 
 ,, grasses 290 
 
 Artificial manure 5 10 o 
 
 Feeding stuffs 12 o o 
 
 Repairs of implements, and horse-shoeing 500 
 
 Sundries 500 
 
 Rent 52 18 o 
 
 Balance in favour of labour, skill, and captital .... 132 13 o 
 
 ;^2I7 O O 
 
 379. An industrious farmer, with the aid of two or three 
 
 sons, according to age, could perform all the manual labour 
 
 of this farm. Under the present management the payment 
 
 for labour is — ■ 
 
 £ s. d 
 
 A permanent labourer, 10^. a-week, or, per year ... 26 o o 
 A permanent woman, 5^. ,, ,, ,, . . . 13 o o 
 Extra hands, 150 days, at li'. 6</. 11 5 o 
 
 £so 5 o 
 leaving a balance of ^82 %s. in favour of capital and 
 management ; this income, in the case of a working 
 farmer, would be increased by the amount of the labour 
 performed by himself and his family. 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 129 
 
 III. TWO-HORSE FARMS. 
 
 380. A two-horse is larger than a one-horse farm. The 
 main features of the management of both are the same. 
 As a rule, the occupiers of this class of farms, which 
 vary in size from 40 to 60 acres of arable land, put their 
 own hands to the plough, live frugally, pay high rents, 
 and are well able to meet their engagements. 
 
 IV. A FARM OF 140 ACRES OF GOOD DEEP LAND. 
 
 381. The size of this volume precludes us from giving 
 many illustrations of large farm management. A few 
 typical examples will, however, be useful. Our first is a 
 farm, which contains 140 acres of deep sound land, and 
 which has been under our direction for several years. The 
 soil is a moderately rich friable loam, resting on a deep 
 clayey subsoil. The greater part of the land has been 
 drained ; the drains being 24 feet apart, and from 3^ to 
 4 feet deep. 
 
 382. The farm is an irregular strip of land, about three- 
 quarters of a mile in length. Both ends are in permanent 
 pasture, and, together with a few paddocks adjoining the 
 buildings, comprise an area of 56 statute acres. The 
 remainder is under a systematic course of cropping, 
 which may be described as a modified four-course ex- 
 panded into an eight years' shift. The order of succession 
 is as follows : — 
 
 ist year — Mangolds raised with farmyard manure. 
 2nd year — Wheat or oats, laid down with rye-grasses. 
 3rd year — Hay. The after-grass is fed off with sheep. 
 4th year — Potatoes raised with farmyard manure. 
 
 Part of the field may be cropped with 
 
 oats, beans, &c. 
 5th year — Turnips : When this crop follows potatoes, 
 
 it is raised with artificial manure. 
 
 K 
 
I30 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 6th year — Barley laid down with a mixture of rye- 
 grasses and clovers. 
 
 yth year — Grass for hay. The aftergrass is fed off 
 with sheep. 
 
 8th year — Lea oats. 
 
 383. The field intended for mangolds is scarified with 
 Clay's cultivator as soon as the lea oats is removed ; 
 and all scutch and other root-weeds picked off. It is 
 then deeply ploughed with a strong plough fitted with a 
 high mould-board. Three strong horses work abreast, 
 and turn over a furrow to the depth of ten or twelve 
 inches. A little of the subsoil (about an inch, some- 
 times less, seldom more) is brought to the surface by 
 this operation. The succeeding frosts and thaws of win- 
 ter liberate a quantity of plant food before spring. 
 
 384. Wheat succeeds mangolds when the season admits 
 of its being sown in time. As soon as the mangolds are 
 removed the soil is ploughed, six inches deep, across the 
 direction of the drills. A few strokes of the harrow pre- 
 pare it for the ribbing-plough, which is generally used for 
 putting in the wheat. The wheat is sown broadcast over 
 the ribbed surface, at the rate of ten stones to the acre. 
 A stroke of the harrow along, and another across the ribs, 
 cover the seed. 
 
 385. The grass-seeds sown in this division consist 
 of one bushel perennial, and two bushels of Italian rye- 
 grass per statute acre. The rye-grasses are surface-rooted 
 plants, and thrive best when there is plenty of manure in 
 the surface, which is the case after the liberal application 
 of dung used for the mangolds. 
 
 386. The preparation of the lea land for potatoes is as 
 follows : — 
 
 Two ploughs are made to follow each other ; the first, 
 drawn by one horse, takes off two or three inches of the 
 surface and throws it into the furrow ; the other plough, 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 131 
 
 drawn by two and sometimes three horses, turns the sod 
 on top of this ; both together stir the soil to a depth 
 varying from ten to twelve inches. The land treated in 
 this way is, in the following spring, easily prepared for 
 drilling with the grubber and harrow. The drills, for both 
 potatoes and mangolds, are made thirty inches apart 
 those for turnips being twenty-seven inches wide. As soon 
 as the potatoes are stored, the land is deeply ploughed 
 for turnips, which, as before mentioned, are raised with 
 artificial manure, the supply of home-«.nade manure being 
 all used for the potatoes and mangolds. Two cwts. of 
 Peruvian guano, four of bone superphosphate, and two or 
 three of kainit, per English acre, are found to be an excel- 
 lent artificial mixture. 
 
 387. It will be seen that turnips do not recur on the 
 land, in this rotation, oftener than once in eight years. 
 When raised on the same land every fourth year, the crop 
 is liable to " aubury " and " finger and toe ; " but by ex- 
 tending the period to eight years, turnips do not suffer 
 from either of these affections. It will also be seen that 
 the clover plant is introduced into the rotation only once 
 in eight years. Previous to this arrangement it was im- 
 possible to get a uniformly healthy crop of clover to grow. 
 A good plant is now always secured. The deep cultiva- 
 tion has, no doubt, helped to bring about this result ; but 
 it is mainly due to the extension of the period of the 
 recurrence of the plant on the land. 
 
 388. The wire-worm, as is well known, destroys a very 
 considerable part of oats raised on lea. The farm we are 
 now describing was no exception to this rule, until it 
 occurred to the writer to prepare the land in the way 
 above described for potatoes. — The grass is skimmed off 
 and completely buried in the last-made furrow by the 
 furrow-slice taken by the plough which follows. Instead 
 of using two ploughs for doing this work, we have occa- 
 
 K 2 
 
132 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 sionally done it with one plough, fitted with a strong and 
 specially-made skim coulter, and drawn by three horses. 
 The grass must be buried to the depth of at least six 
 inches. 
 
 389. All grain-crops, except wheat, are put in with the 
 corn-drill in rows seven inches apart ; oats at the rate of 
 eight stones per season after manured crops, and ten stones 
 after lea ; and barley at the rate of eight stones per acre. 
 
 390. The extent of land under rotation is about 80 acres : 
 a fourth of this is under roots, three-eighths under grain, a 
 fourth in artificial grass, and an eighth under potatoes. 
 A few acres of winter vetches are grown for the use of 
 horses and milch cows. 
 
 391. The live stock consist of three farm horses, thirty 
 milch cows, ten yearlings, ten two-year-olds, one bull, a 
 number of well-bred pigs, fifty breeding ewes, and a flying 
 flock of fifty or sixty sheep to eat down the after-grass. 
 
 392. The farm horses get, in addition to hay, two feeds 
 of oats of six pounds each, and a mash of steamed food, 
 or a feed of carrots at night, for about eight months of 
 the year. During the four summer months, they get one 
 feed of oats daily, with grass or vetches. The winter's 
 mash is made up of steamed mangolds or turnips, of 
 chaff, and concentrated food. 
 
 393. The greater number of the dairy cows have 
 several crosses of pure shorthorn blood in them. There 
 are a few pedigree animals in the herd which have been 
 purchased at favourable opportunities at a trifle above 
 the price of common stock. 
 
 394. Ten of the heifer calves from the best cows are 
 reared every year ; and the bull calves as well as the 
 surplus heifer calves are sold to farmers at remunerative 
 prices. The cows are pastured during the summer and 
 autumn. In the warm weather of June and July, they are 
 put into a shed for three or four hours, in the hottest 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 133 
 
 part of the day, and supplied with vetches or rye-grass. 
 Towards the end of autumn, when the nights get long 
 and cold, and the ground wet, they are housed at night, 
 and fed on hay and white turnips. From the first of 
 November, when the grass gets bare, they are fed in the 
 house both day and night ; and receive daily two feeds of 
 prepared food and one feed of raw roots. The prepared 
 food consists of a mixture of pulped roots, and chaffed 
 or cut straw, and a little concentrated food, such as 
 cake or corn. This feeding is continued throughout the 
 winter season. As regards the roots, the turnips are used 
 first, and the mangolds afterwards. The cows in full 
 milk get, in this way, about seven stones of roots daily in 
 addition to the other substances named. Cows forward 
 in calf, or dry cows, get only one feed of roots daily to- 
 gether with hay. Springers are let out to exercise every 
 mild day. Some of the old or indifferent milkers are 
 fattened off towards spring, when beef is dear; and 
 their place is filled up by some of the young stock. 
 
 395. Calves are reared from the pail. They get new 
 milk for two weeks : after that age, it is gradually with- 
 drawn, and a mixture of skim-milk and linseed-meal 
 mucilage supplied in its place. The skim-milk and meal 
 are given until the animals are four months old, and 
 sometimes longer. They are mixed in the proportion of 
 six quarts of skim-milk to a pound of linseed-meal, and 
 given in two feeds daily. When the nights get cold, the 
 calves are taken into the house, and supplied with pulped 
 roots, oil-cake, and hay. This feeding is continued 
 throughout the winter. One pound of cake, two stones of 
 roots, and as much hay as they eat, constitute their daily 
 keep in winter. In the following summer they are put out 
 on grass ; and in the succeeding winter they have access 
 to an open shed, into which they go at night, and where 
 they are supplied with plenty of good straw in the early 
 
134 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 part of the season, and with hay later on. No roots are 
 given, but the pasture is well stocked with old grass which, 
 together with the straw, keeps them in good condition. 
 
 396. All the well-bred heifers are served at the age of 
 eighteen months, and the others when a few months 
 older ; the former come into the dairy stock at the age of 
 two years and three months. Being highly bred, and 
 well fed from birth, they are as big at the age of two 
 years as ordinary cattle are at three ; and, if older when 
 served, fertihty would not be so certain. It is also 
 found that by early service their milking properties are 
 developed. 
 
 V. A FEW GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CLIMATE 
 AND OTHER MATTERS AFFECTING IRISH AGRICUL- 
 TURE. 
 
 397. That climate influences the agriculture of a country 
 or district is well known to all intelligent persons. A 
 good illustration is afforded by English agriculture. A 
 range of mountains running from north to south, divide 
 England into two agricultural sections ; a greater propor- 
 tion of corn is raised in the eastern, which is the warmer 
 and drier section, while in the western, which is the colder 
 and more moist, there is a larger proportion of permanent 
 pasture. Ireland has a climate which approaches more 
 to that of the western than the eastern section of Eng- 
 land. As compared with the corn-growing districts 
 of England there are two defects in the Irish climate ; 
 namely, a low summer temperature and a high degree of 
 humidity. Both these defects are overcome to a certain 
 extent by drainage. The thorough drainage of the whole 
 of Ireland could not however make the climate equal to 
 that of the east and south-east of England for the 
 growth of grain. This proposition admits of no contro- 
 versy. It is true as any law of Nature. Some persons, 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 135 
 
 who take a superficial view of this principle, carry it so 
 far as to say that the chmate renders Ireland wholly 
 unsuited for tillage farming — a proposition which cannot 
 be maintained. 
 
 398. The climatic phenomena which mainly influence 
 the agriculture of a country or district are the rainfall 
 and temperature. 
 
 399. The fullest record of the rainfall in the United 
 Kingdom is given in Mr. Symon's annual publication, 
 according to which the average rainfall of England, 
 Scotland and Ireland, for a period of sixteen years, is 
 represented by the following figures : — 
 
 England 3377 inches.^ 
 
 Scotland 34'02 „ 
 
 Ireland 31 '98 „ 
 
 400. As these figures are too general, we shall compare 
 the rainfall in a few well-known stations in England and 
 Ireland. It is impossible to select places similarly cir- 
 cumstanced as regards the local causes that influence the 
 rainfall ; but the following table will explain the matter 
 sufficiently. 
 
 AVERAGE RAINFALL. 
 
 England. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 I. Exeter, in a southern 
 
 
 I. Cork, in a southern 
 
 
 county and westward 
 
 3i'i 
 
 county and west- 
 
 
 2. No-rwich, in an east- 
 
 
 ward 
 
 34'4 
 
 ern county .... 
 
 267 
 
 2. Dublin, in an eastern 
 
 
 3. Oxford, in a midland 
 
 
 county 
 
 29'I 
 
 county . . . . . 
 
 257 
 
 3. Tullamore, in a mid- 
 
 
 4. Nottingham, in a mid- 
 
 
 land county . . . 
 
 257 
 
 land county and 
 
 
 4. Armagh, in a midland 
 
 
 northward . . 
 
 26-5 
 
 county and northward 
 
 29-8 
 
 401. A glance at the map of the British Islands will 
 
 ^ Symon's "British Rainfall for 1872," p. 137. 
 
136 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 show that these stations have not been selected so as to 
 make out a case for the Irish climate. The advantage is 
 rather the other way. Yet the table does not go to 
 support the opinion of those who maintain that the 
 climate of Ireland is too wet for tillage farming. An 
 ardent supporter of this theory has recently contributed 
 a paper to one of the leading agricultural journals, in 
 which he seeks to show that owing to the humidity of 
 the climate of Ireland the area under grass ought to be 
 increased. His style of reasoning is peculiar to say the 
 least of it. He gives elaborate tables of the rainfall at 
 Valencia, County Kerry, for five years ; and finding it to 
 be 53 inches, he would lead us to conclude that our 
 climate is too wet for arable farming ! 
 
 402. It would be quite as logical for him to maintain 
 that because the average rainfall at Seawaite in Cumber- 
 land, for the same five years was 151 inches, tillage ought 
 to be abandoned in England. 
 
 403. In order to afford a full exposition of the influence 
 of the rainfall on agriculture, it would be necessary to 
 give the quantity of it which falls in the several months, as 
 well as the number of days on which it falls. The size 
 of this volume precludes us from entering upon an ex- 
 position of the kind. Our object is to afford sufficient 
 evidence of the fact that the rainfall in Ireland does not 
 offer any insuperable obstacle to the success of a system 
 of mixed husbandry such as we expound in this treatise. 
 
 404. The same may be said of the temperature, the 
 average of which throughout the year is rather higher in 
 Ireland than in England. At Dublin, for example, the 
 average is higher than at Norwich ; and at Cork it is 
 higher than at Exeter. In the summer months the tem- 
 perature is higher in England than in Ireland ; ^nd thi^ 
 gives the English farmer an advantage in the growth qf 
 wheat and barley ; but in the winter months the tempera. 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 137 
 
 ture in Ireland is higher than in England ; and this gives 
 the Irish farmer an advantage in the fattening animals, 
 as well as in the feeding of milch cows and store 
 stock. 
 
 4-05. Tillage, as practised in the best farmed districts 
 of England and Scotland, consists in the growth of roots, 
 of grain, and of grass, in a certain order which we call 
 the succession or rotation of crops. Now, it is notorious 
 that Ireland is better adapted for the growth of turnips 
 than England. The mangold crop does better in the 
 east and south-east of England than in Ireland ; but, 
 on the whole, a considerable portion of Ireland is fa- 
 vourable to this crop, as regards soil and climate. 
 
 406. Again, the soil and climate of Ireland are pro- 
 verbially favourable to the growth of grasses ; and quite 
 as much so to the growth of thel grasses of tillage as to 
 the grasses of permanent pasture. The chief grasses 
 of tillage farming are red clovers and rye grasses. 
 In Ireland heavy crops of red clover are raised ; and 
 far weightier crops of Italian rye-grass are obtained in 
 Ireland than in England. Nay more, the heaviest crops 
 of this valuable grass are produced in the wettest parts of 
 Ireland. 
 
 407. To complete the succession of crops we require 
 grain. It will be remembered that the order of succession 
 in the common four course is : — 
 
 1st year — Roots. 
 
 2nd year — Grain with seeds. 
 
 In England barley is usually selected for this place 
 m the succession. In the greater part of Irelai^d and 
 af the sputh of Scotland barley can b§ successfully 
 grown. 
 
 In the remaiiiing parts of the arable land of Ireland^ 
 pats can be sown. 
 
 3rd year — Artificial grass, of y/hich ft heavier 
 
138 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 return is capable of being obtained in Ireland than in 
 England. 
 
 4th year — Grain. 
 
 In the drier parts of England wheat succeeds artificial 
 grass, which, as already observed, is generally red clover. 
 In Scotland and Ireland oats takes this place in the 
 rotation. 
 
 408. On most well-managed farms of good land lea oats 
 pays in Ireland. When the ground is dry or poor, lea 
 oats is however a precarious crop. But lea oats or lea 
 corn of any kind, is not an essential part of tillage farm- 
 ing. In other words, we can pursue a judicious system 
 of tillage without it. In several places we have, in our 
 own practice, abandoned lea oats altogether ; and substi- 
 tuted what we call convertible husbandry, for alternate 
 husbandry or the ordinary rotation of crops. 
 
 409. What is convertible husbandry? It is the alterna- 
 tion of grass and tillage. A field or fields of grass are 
 broken up according as they show signs of poverty, 
 cropped with roots and potatoes, for one or two years 
 according to circumstances ; after which barley or oats 
 is grown, and the land laid down, with suitable grasses. 
 The land is meadowed or grazed the year after, and 
 continued in grass until it again shows signs of poverty. 
 
 410. In pursuing this system all the principles of 
 improved agriculture can be observed, and the land 
 maintained in a productive state. 
 
 411. To persons accustomed to raise roots after lea 
 oats, the preparation of grass land for turnips or mangolds 
 may appear an objection to the new system; but the 
 simple mode of management described in paragraph 386 
 meets this objection. 
 
 412. It follows from the foregoing facts that nature doer 
 not put any insurmountable difficulty in the way of carry- 
 ing out a suitable system of tillage farming in Ireland. 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. i39 
 
 4.13. How comes it then that so much of the arable 
 land of Ireland has been put out of tillage and converted 
 into permanent pasture ? 
 
 414. The famine of 1847 followed immediately after 
 the adoption of free trade in corn. Each of these was 
 an event of great magnitude. Both, happening together, 
 acted with a force which must have given new directions 
 to the agricultural industry of any country. Owing 
 to the operation, for centuries, of causes of various 
 kinds (the very mention of which would be out of 
 place in this treatise), agriculture was practised in 
 Ireland at the time referred to with less skill than in 
 any civilized country in Europe. The staple crops were 
 potatoes and grain. The potato crop was raised on 
 the old ruinous con-acre system. And then followed 
 grain after grain until the land failed to pay even at the 
 high price which grain fetched before the adoption of 
 free trade. 
 
 415. The reader can see the inevitable effects of such 
 potent combined causes as free trade and famine in a 
 country so circumstanced. Panic and chaos ensued. 
 Of capital the supply was scanty ; of skilled know- 
 ledge of agriculture the supply was still more scanty. 
 The price of grain on which the Irish tillage farm of 
 the period mainly relied, fell, never to rise to its 
 former level. The price of beef and mutton, and of 
 milk and butter, which are produced principally from 
 pasture, rose very considerably. Had the farmers 
 been pursuing their art with skill for a generation or 
 two previously, like their English and Scotch brethren, - 
 they would have been able to adapt themselves to the 
 new order of things. But unfortunately the influence 
 of the past had driven skilled agricultural knowledge out 
 of the country. 
 
 416. Under such circumstances the land went back, 
 
MO INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 year after year, to the primitive state of pastoral fanning. 
 The change was inevitable. It was encouraged and 
 promoted in a variety of ways which cannot be discussed 
 in this treatise. 
 
 417. The result is that, excluding lakes and rivers, the 
 percentage of the surface of Ireland in pasture is . 50*6 
 
 In Great Britain it is 22*5 
 
 /In Belgium 11 '2 
 
 ^ In France 21 '8' 
 
 4-18. The proportion of the surface of Ireland in 
 permanent grass is excessive. 
 
 4.19. We wish, however, to state most distinctly that 
 we do not suggest to any individual to convert his grass 
 land into tillage. Our duty is to point out the systems of 
 agriculture best calculated to promote the public good, 
 leaving to time the development of the principles we 
 expound. 
 
 420. As a practical commentary on the existing state 
 of things we may mention that we see every year vast 
 numbers of store cattle sent over from grass land in 
 Ireland, wellj suited for tillage, to be fattened on roots 
 and hay raised on the brashy and light soils of England, 
 where the climate is less favourable to the production of 
 these crops than that of Ireland. 
 
 421. Speaking in round numbers, the surface of 
 Ireland contains twenty millions of acres ; of which one 
 fourth is under water and waste, one fourth under crops, 
 including meadow, and one half in pasture. Of the ten 
 millions of acres in grass, there are at least four miUions 
 now bearing indifferent pasture which would pay far better 
 In tillage. If these four millions of acres were put under a 
 gystem of mixed husbandry such as we have described, 
 
 I It is not intended to be conveyed that these figures are absolutely correct. 
 They are, however, sufficiently accurate for a general comparison such as that 
 instituted in the text ; and are taken from the Government Returns. 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 141 
 
 the annual wealth of the country would be increased 
 to the extent of ^3 an acre, or a total of ;,^i 2,000,000 
 which would be available for distribution among labour- 
 ers, farmers, shopkeepers, manure and seed merchants, 
 implement makers, and shopkeepers of all kinds.' In 
 due time the landlords would obtain an increase of rent ; 
 for everything which increases the profits of farming 
 tends to increase the demand for land, and this leads 
 to an increase of rent. 
 
 422. Among the obstacles to the extension of tillage 
 farming at present, a prominent place must be assigned to 
 the change that has taken place in the labour market. The 
 tide of emigration from Ireland having greatly reduced the 
 supply of Irish labour, and the growth of manufacturing 
 industry in Great Britain having increased the demand 
 for labour at home, the wages of labour have risen very 
 considerably. The employers complain that the men do 
 not give anything like an equivalent return for the increase. 
 We pointed out some years ago that when properly 
 directed the well-paid and well-fed labourer gives as high 
 a return for every shilling paid to him as the ill-paid and 
 ill-fed labourer. This is our own experience of labour 
 in different parts of Ireland. It is the experience of 
 intelligent and skilful farmers of our acquaintance. In the 
 recent work of Mr. Brassey, M.P., on " Work and Wages," 
 it is conclusively shown that the cost of labour is not 
 determined by the rate of wages — that it is quite possible 
 that work may be more cheaply executed by the same 
 men, notwithstanding that their daily wages may be largely 
 increased, — and that there is a most remarkable tendency 
 to equality in the cost of work in different countries as 
 well as in different parts of the same country. In a 
 
 ' The average annual gross return from the six millions of acres that would 
 remain in grass, could by the application of correct knowledge^ be increased 
 to the extent of at least lOJ. an acre, or ^3,000,000 a year. 
 
142 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 period of transition, however, it will be found that 
 when labour is not directed by persons of adequate 
 skill and experience, a rise in the rate of daily wages 
 increases the cost of production and lessens the profit of 
 the producer. And this is the position of many employers 
 of farm labour in Ireland just now. It is, however, tem- 
 porary. The labour market will in due time settle down 
 into a healthy state ; and we may hope that employers 
 will at no distant day, derive at least as large a return 
 from every shilling expended on labour as before. It is 
 even possible that the rise of wages may excite the inven- 
 tive power of man so far that by the introduction of 
 improved mechanical appliances the cost of producing 
 crops would ultimately be very sensibly reduced. 
 
 VI. EXAMPLES ON A LARGE SCALE OF THE FOREGOING 
 ARGUMENT. 
 
 423. The examples of farm management described in 
 the foregoing pages being under our own immediate 
 direction, we now propose to jdraw a few illustrations of 
 the principles we have advocated from other sources. We 
 have carefully inspected a great many farms in each of 
 the four provinces of Ireland ; and, omitting the fattening 
 lands, which are used for grazing purposes, and upland 
 farms devoted to raising stock, have invariably observed 
 that when adequate skill and capital are possessed by 
 the farmer, a mixed system of tillage and grazing, such as 
 we recommend, has been pursued. The system requires, 
 however, more capital, acre per acre, than mere grazing. 
 It also involves more varied knowledge, a great deal 
 more skill, and more constant and active supervision on 
 the part of the occupier than pastoral farming. But it 
 is beyond all controversy that a man with a fixed capital 
 who possesses the necessary skill, energy and industry, 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 143 
 
 will realize a higher percentage by investing that capital in 
 arable or mixed farming than in grazing. It is, however, 
 great folly for any person to embark extensively in 
 tillage farming who does not possess the qualifications we 
 have named, and who above all does not possess adequate 
 skill. A man may succeed as a grazier whose knowledge 
 of land is very limited ; but the chances are that a man 
 who attempts tillage without having acquired a good 
 deal of agricultural knowledge and experience will fai 
 to realize satisfactory returns. 
 
 VII. A FARM OF 2,200 ACRES IN COUNTY MAYO. 
 
 424. In 1872 we had the pleasure of inspecting the 
 farm of Cloona Castle, County Mayo, which contains 
 2,200 statute acres and is rented from the Earl of Lucan, 
 by James Simson, Esq., a native of Roxburghshire, 
 Scotland. We gave a very brief description of the 
 management pursued on this large holding very soon 
 after. Since then a very full report on it has been 
 furnished to the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 of England, by Mr. R. O. Pringle. 
 
 425. The history of the farm possesses great public 
 interest. The average rainfall is 37 inches ; in 1872 it was 
 as high as 52^ inches. Mr. Simson has aimed at making 
 the largest profit on his capital. He is a man of great 
 intelligence. He has been eighteen years in occupation. 
 
 426. Of the entire area, 1,800 acres are arable, and 
 400 acres consist of "bottom" land or cut-away bog. Of 
 the 1,800 acres of arable land, 300 are kept in permanent 
 pasture for sheep, and 1,500 under a system of convertible 
 husbandry. Turnips are often raised after grass, the 
 surface being skimmed and buried by a deep furrow, as 
 already explained. 
 
 427. In this case turnips are followed by wheat with 
 
144 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 which grass-seeds 'are sown. Sometimes again the suc- 
 cession of crops, after lea, is — 
 
 1st, — Oats. 
 
 2nd. — Turnips. 
 
 3rd. — Barley, or oats, with seeds ; followed by grass for 
 two or three years. 
 
 428. The variety of wheat sown is Grace's Champion. 
 The mixture of grass is — 2 lbs. Alsike clover, 2 lbs. yellow 
 clover, 4 lbs. white clover, 4 lbs. American red clover, 4 lbs. 
 Timothy, 6 lbs. cocksfoot ; with 5 lbs. Italian and 8 lbs. of 
 Pacey's perennial rye-grass. 
 
 429. There are generally 220 acres of turnips, and 
 about twice as many acres of grain. 
 
 430. Twenty-six working horses are kept. A cross 
 of the Suffolk Punch with the Clydesdale is highly 
 esteemed for draught. 
 
 431. Sheep form the main sources of income. A 
 breeding flock of 1,000 ewes is kept ; and about 1,000 
 head of sheep of all ages are annually sold. The tups are 
 put to the ewes about the loth October. Two hundred 
 tons of turnips are stored for the use of the ewes from 
 the 1st January to the lambing season. In severe seasons 
 they get a little hand-feeding in addition. Last year, for 
 instance, each ewe got a mixture of 4 lb. bran and i lb. 
 oats daily from the 15th January to the loth March. 
 
 432. In autumn, 350 of the best of the ewe lambs are 
 selected, to take the place, next year, of old ewes ; the rest 
 are sold. Mr. Simson weans his lambs in the second 
 week of July ; after which he puts them on the second or 
 third year's grass. In common with many others, he 
 finds that calves or lambs are liable to suffer from worms 
 in the bronchial tubes if fed on first yeai-'s grass. About 
 one third of the old ewes are " culled " out of the flock 
 every year. Some of these are sold to Leinster farmers 
 and graziers, who obtain from them a crop of " market " 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 145 
 
 lambs for the butcher, and sell them fat soon after the 
 lambs. 
 
 433. The wether lambs, and a number of sheep are 
 fattened during winter on turnips. As a preparation for 
 the turnips they are fed on cabbage, of which about eight 
 acres of the Drumhead variety are raised. The crop is 
 consumed on the land, the sheep being folded by nets 
 and getting hay in moveable racks. When the cabbage 
 is consumed the sheep are fed on turnips ; the animals 
 which are forward in condition get each, in addition, 
 I lb. of a mixture of linseed cake and crushed oats and 
 barley, together with hay. 
 
 434. Of black cattle, 120 are fattened every year. 
 These consist of twenty animals reared on the farm. 
 Being of good quality, and liberally fed from the com- 
 mencement, they become fit for the butcher at the age 
 of two years and a half : some of them under this age. 
 We advocate an extension of this system as one of the 
 means of meeting the increasing demand for flesh 
 meat. 
 
 435. One hundred bullocks are purchased in October 
 each year, at two and a half years old. They are put 
 on the coarse bottoms till February, when they are 
 housed, and fed on oat-straw, together with an allowance 
 of 3 lbs. per beast daily of a mixture of crushed oats and 
 barley. In fine weather they get a run on the bottom 
 lands, and in May they are put out altogether on these 
 lands, and kept there till October, when they are again 
 housed and stall-fed. The usual daily allowance for each 
 animal is eleven stone of turnips, together with artificial 
 food. The turnips are given twice a day, namely at 5.30 
 A.M. and 2 P.M. At ii A.M the artificial food is given. 
 At first, it consists of i lb. cake, and 2 lbs. of a mix- 
 ture of crushed oats and barley and light wheat. 
 After Christmas the quantity of cake is increased to 
 
 L 
 
146 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 3 lbs. A little hay is given to them for the first six 
 weeks ; and they are supplied with good oat or wheat 
 straw throughout. 
 
 436. These animals are sent to market from January 
 till March. They pay at the rate of ;^i a month for their 
 keep from the date of purchase. 
 
 437. The arable portion of this farm, under the pre- 
 sent management, produces four and a half times the rent ; 
 if kept in permanent pasture it would not produce more 
 than twice the rent. This simple fact is very suggestive. 
 It clearly indicates the way in which the agricultural 
 wealth of the country could be increased. If all the 
 arable land of Ireland were farmed with the same skill 
 as the farm of Cloona Castle, what an improved aspect 
 the country would present ! 
 
 438. The contrast between this farm, and any grass 
 farm of the same extent in the same county or in any 
 other part of Ireland, is most striking. On a large grass 
 farm we find a few herds or shepherds. At Cloona Castle 
 we have a little army of labourers, who have constant 
 employment, and who are as contented and happy as 
 persons of the same class' in England and Scotland, 
 The undertaking could not succeed without skilled 
 labour, and faithful servants ; and both have been secured 
 by a just and wise course of treatment. 
 
 VIII. ON THE RECLAMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A 
 LARGE TRACT OF LAND. 
 
 439. "We shall now describe the system of management 
 pursued on a portion of his estate in the Co. Galway, 
 by J. D. Meldon, Esq., of Dublin. The whole extent in 
 hand is 1,700 statute acres, divided into three holdings : 
 namely, Coolarne and Cahertimore, situated five miles 
 north-west of Athenry, containing 1,450 statute acres, of 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. . 147 
 
 which 1,250 are always in pasture, and the remaining 2Co 
 acres are under a course of tillage, Oranmore, containing 
 100 acres of good land, all in grass, is situated four miles 
 to the east of Galway town ; and Belgard, situated near 
 Kilcock, Co. Kiidare, within twenty minutes' drive by rail 
 of Dublin, contains 150 statute acres of very rich fat- 
 tening land. Both Oranmore and Belgard are mainly 
 used for fattening the sheep bred and reared at Coolarne. 
 440. The lands of Coolarne and Cahertimore, origi- 
 nally the estate of a nobleman, had been formerly let to 
 small tenants under the Court of Chancery, and were badly 
 farmed. The famine years and the Chancery eject- 
 ments left the lands tenantless. Mr. Meldon then 
 purchased the property in the Landed Estates Court. 
 The greater part of it was covered with heather. Im- 
 mediately after obtaining possession he commenced to 
 reclaim the coarse and inferior ground. The heather 
 was cut away with the scythe or hook, and carted 
 into the yard for bedding cattle, or for being put under 
 manure heaps. A piece was fenced in at once, all 
 rough stones removed from the surface, and then let 
 in small plots of an acre or half-acre to the labourers 
 of the surrounding districts, the rent being the cost price 
 of the Peruvian guano with which it was manured, at 
 the rate of 6 cwt. per statute acre. The owners of these 
 plots turned over with the " log " (or long spade) the tough 
 sods which would have resisted any of the ordinary 
 implements of cultivation. On this sod they planted 
 the potatoes, and covered them with clay from the furrows. 
 The proprietor supplied those that had not good seed 
 of their own with all they required, at market price, 
 giving them till November for payment. The furrows 
 were deeply trenched in moulding the potatoes. After 
 the crop was dug, the land got a good ploughing, but 
 not so deep as to bring up the sub-soil ; and it was left 
 
 L 2 
 
148 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 in this state during winter. In spring it was harrowed 
 and cross-ploughed, and sown with rape and turnips, 
 which were raised with the aid of a good dressing of arti- 
 ficial manure. In the following winter it was ploughed 
 much deeper than the previous year, and a crop of oats 
 was put in and laid down with clover and rye-grasses. 
 With the addition of a little top-dressing of bone super- 
 phosphate, which was manufactured on the farm, the oat 
 crop generally gave a very good yield. In the follow- 
 ing season, with a little additional top-dressing, a good 
 crop of meadow was obtained. The following year it 
 was fed with sheep ; and early in winter it was sub-soiled, 
 and quick-lime spread on the surface during the winter, 
 at the rate of 60 barrels per acre. This was harrowed 
 down in spring ; the land was then cross-ploughed, and 
 a crop of mangolds and turnips taken off the entire field. 
 The following year it was sown with oats, and laid down 
 to permanent pasture. An area varying from 40 to 70 
 acres was reclaimed in this way every year. 
 
 441. Notwithstanding that several fields have not 
 been stirred since the land was laid down to grass after 
 reclamation, they show no signs of returning to the 
 heather. Part of the land thus improved is capable of 
 carrying four sheep to the statute acre. 
 
 442. We may state that parts of these lands, which 
 were originally worth not more than 5^., are now let on 
 lease to solvent tenants at 45J. an acre. 
 
 443. The system pursued at present on the tillage land 
 is well adapted to the circumstances. The permanent 
 grass is never abundant until the middle of May or ist of 
 June. A large area of roots and other green food is 
 absolutely necessary to carry the store and breeding stock 
 through the spring until the grass comes round. 
 
 444. The course of cropping may be understood from 
 the following statement. As soon as a field of grass shows 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 149 
 
 symptoms of deterioration, it is broken up, irrespective of 
 the time it has been laid down, and put through a course 
 of cropping which, in the main, corresponds with the 
 system pursued in reclaiming the land at first. It may be 
 stated as follows : 
 
 ist year — Potatoes. 
 
 2nd year — Rape and turnips, raised with artificial 
 manure. 
 
 3rd year — Oats and grass seeds. 
 
 4th year — Part hay, and part pasture. 
 
 5th year — Pasture. 
 
 6th year — Mangolds and turnips, raised with farm-yard 
 dung and artificial manure. 
 
 7th year — Oats laid down with permanent grass seeds. 
 The grass is not again broken up until it becomes in- 
 ferior. 
 
 445. The potato ground and the field, broken up after 
 two years' grass, are devoted to green crops, which consist 
 of 25 acres of turnips, 10 acres of mangolds, 20 of rape, 
 
 4 of carrots, and 4 of cabbages. The turnips and rape, 
 which are put down after potatoes, are manured with a 
 mixture of equal parts of Peruvian guano, mineral super- 
 phosphate, and kainit. The mangolds and turnips, which 
 are sown after two years' grass, are manured with farm- 
 yard dung and artificial manure. The mangolds get 25 
 tons per English acre, turnips 15 tons of manure, and 
 
 5 cwt. of the artificial mixture just described, which is 
 spread on the top of the dung with a broadcast distri- 
 butor. A very strong plough is used for ploughing the 
 grass, and is fitted with a strong subsoil tine, which 
 breaks up the subsoil to the depth of five or six inches. 
 The implement (plough and subsoiler) is worked by three 
 strong horses pulling abreast, and stirs the whole soil to 
 the depth of fourteen or fifteen inches. A man follows and 
 removes loose stones, and marks those that are too firm 
 
ISO INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 or weighty for him. These are subsequently removed, 
 Rape is used for feeding the lambs in October, when the 
 grass begins to run short. Any check to their growth at 
 that season, or, indeed, at any other, would be a great 
 loss ; for the stronger they are before winter the better. 
 Twenty acres of this crop are usually sown, and some- 
 times more. The crop is put down at different parts of 
 the farm, and sometimes different parts of the same field, 
 in order to keep the lambs while on it separated into small 
 lots. White turnip seed is sown in every sixth drill ; 
 and this trains the lambs to eat the rape. Four acres of 
 carrots are sown for the use of the horses in winter, and 
 four acres of spring vetches for summer feeding. The 
 vetches are followed by winter cabbages, which are found 
 to be very useful for the ewes at the lambing season. 
 Borecale, put down a fortnight later than usual, is the 
 best variety. Two acres of large York and drum- 
 head cabbages are planted in spring for the use of the 
 rams and backward ewes at the tupping season. Six 
 acres of furze meadow afford a large quantity of feeding 
 for the horses in winter. Oats is the principal grain crop 
 grown on the farm. It follows the two divisions of roots. 
 As soon as the roots are removed, the land is ploughed to 
 a depth of seven or eight inches. Before sowing, the 
 ground is grubbed and harrowed as often as is necessary, 
 to reduce it to a proper seed-bed. A corn-drill is used, 
 the width between the rows being seven inches ; but as 
 one drill could not get over all the land in time, the 
 ribbing plough is also used. Eight stones of seed are 
 used with the drill, and ten or twelve on the ribbed sur- 
 face. The drilled crop is generally better than the ribbed 
 portion. Black Tartary is the variety sown. About 40 
 acres of the " seeds " are cut for hay, and the remainder 
 and all the after-grass fed off with sheep, lambs, and 
 calves. On about 20 acres of the best pasture sheep 
 
IV.] IRISH FARMING. 151 
 
 are folded and provided with turnips, meal, and cake until 
 about the ist of April, when it is closed up for hay. In 
 the end of July this land gives a heavy cutting of short, 
 sweet hay, which is very valuable for feeding the flock. 
 The fields vary in size from 14 to 20 acres ; and arc 
 all well fenced with double stone walls, and at the 
 angles facing the prevailing winds, where there are no 
 plantations to give shelter, the walls are raised to the 
 height or nine or ten feet. 
 
 44-6. Immediately after purchasing this property (which 
 was very bleak, and greatly exposed to westerly winds) 
 the proprietor commenced the formation of belts of plant- 
 ing, not unlike the Scotch stells. The work was done 
 during the winter months, when labour could be spared. 
 There are now 80 acres of healthy plantations scattered 
 over the farm ; the trees are doing well, and affording 
 great shelter during the winter months. In 1873 ^ 
 sum of ^100 was received for the mere thinning of these 
 plantations. 
 
 447. The live stock, as may be well supposed, form 
 the principal feature in the management. The regular 
 breeding stock of sheep consists of 500 ewes of superior 
 quality, produced by several crosses of the border Leicester 
 and Cotswold rams on the native ewes. The Cotswold 
 cross had a great effect in impressing on his present 
 flock many of their best points. The ewe flock is examined 
 carefully in August, and 130 or 140 of the oldest or worst 
 culled out ; these are put on good keep, and served by 
 Shropshire rams in the middle of September. They are 
 the first to lamb, and are fed liberally on cabbages, 
 barley-meal, and the best grass the farm can afford, until 
 they are shorn ; after which both ewes and lambs are 
 conveyed by rail to Belgard farm. The lambs, being early 
 and of superior quality, soon become fat, and realize in 
 the Dublin market very remunerative prices. The ewes 
 
152 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 are fattened and sold off the grass during the summer. 
 The remaining ewe flock is carefully gone over, and 
 divided into lots — each lot being as even in quality as pos- 
 sible. The best lot is set apart for ram-breeding, having, of 
 course, the best rams to run with them ; the other lots 
 have the service of rams which are calculated to correct 
 any defects which may be in the ewes — long-woolled rams 
 being put to short-woolled ewes, and vice versd. The 
 rams are put to the ewes the first week of October, and 
 are fed during the tupping season on peas, cabbages, and 
 ground oats, in small sheds constructed for the purpose. 
 A plentiful crop of strong, healthy lambs is always the 
 result. Each ram serves between 60 and 70 ewes. All 
 ewes served in the first week are branded No. i, those 
 served in the second week being branded No. 2, and 
 those in the third week No. 3. At the end of the third 
 week the marking colour is changed, the lots served each 
 week being numbered as before. This simple precaution 
 enables the shepherd to take in the ewes about to lamb at 
 the proper time, and, no doubt, saves many a lamb from 
 death owing to exposure to cold in the open fields. The 
 ewes get very little turnips during winter, grass and hay 
 being sufficient to keep them in good condition during 
 pregnancy. After lambing, they are supplied with winter 
 cabbages, pulped turnips, and meal, as given to the 
 lambs, but increased to one pound for each animal ; and 
 hay is provided until the grass is sufficient to keep them. 
 A number of fields are always kept closed, and the sheep 
 are changed on these about once a fortnight ; the ewes 
 while suckling their lambs, and the lambs after being 
 weaned, are always put on the best grass. After being 
 shorn, the animals are branded and dressed with sheep- 
 wash. The lambs are weaned about the ist of July, 
 and put on old, dry, short grass for about three weeks. 
 Fresh water is given during very warm weather in troughs, 
 
.IV.] IRISH FARMING. 153 
 
 and the pasture is frequently changed. In October they 
 are netted on rape. Soft turnips are supplied to them as 
 soon as the rape is all consumed ; the few roots which 
 were sown with the rape having trained them for living 
 on turnips, as soon as they get them. When they begin 
 to shed their teeth in spring, they are supplied with 
 plenty of pulped roots, hay, and a mixture of barley, 
 linseed meal, and locust-bean meal : the latter is rehshed 
 very much. 
 
 448. The roots, chaffed-hay, and meal are mixed to- 
 gether and put into a peculiar kind of rack, with a trough 
 underneath. As the trough is emptied, more of the food 
 falls in from the rack above. This is boarded over, and 
 down the sides, to prevent the rain from wetting the food, 
 or the wind from carrying away the chaffed-hay or meal. 
 There is only a very small quantity of food at any time 
 in the trough, which is constantly suppHed as fast as 
 eaten. Fresh food is put into the racks every morning, 
 and any that has not been eaten is taken away and given 
 to the store stock. About half a pound of meal is given to 
 each lamb, and is made up of a mixture of palm-nut, 
 locust-bean, and barley-meal, and sometimes Indian meal 
 and oil-cake are added so as to vary the food. 
 
 449. About two hundred of the most forward of 
 the wether hoggets are sent to Oranmore farm, in the 
 middle of April, and are there put into improved con- 
 dition. They are then sent to Belgard to be finished, 
 and are sold in Dublin in August and September. The 
 others follow, and are sold off before winter, except a few 
 scores which are fattened at Coolarne on turnips, and sold 
 during the spring. They weigh on an average 25 to 28 lbs. 
 per quarter. It will be seen that the fattening of these 
 animals commences immediately after weaning, and that 
 it is continued, without interruption, until they are sent to 
 market. 
 
154 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 450. The best ot :he ewe hoggets are retained in the 
 breeding flock to take the place of the culled ewes, the 
 remainder being sold in the neighbouring fairs, for breed- 
 ing purposes, at remunerative prices. In 1872, a large 
 number was sold at ^3 \os. per head. 
 
 451. The stock of cattle consists of 60 weanling 
 calves, which are purchased in September at Hospital, 
 Co. Limerick ; and fifty store animals — some two-and-a- 
 half, others three-and-a-half years old — purchased in fairs 
 nearer home in July and August. The most forward 
 are fattened off in the stalls, and the remainder are 
 sent in good condition to Belgard, and finished. The 
 calves are fed on the after-grass until October, when 
 they are brought into the straw-yard, divided into 
 small lots, and supplied with soft turnips and hay. They 
 get a run on the grass every day. In winter they have 
 pulped turnips, hay, and palm-nut meal. They are fed 
 on the coarsest of the grass on the Coolarne farm during 
 the following summer ; in the succeeding winter they 
 are sent to the upper farm, where there are sheds and 
 coarse grass, and supplied . with good oat-straw. In 
 spring they get a little hay. Some of these are fattened 
 on the grass at Belgard, and the remainder in the stalls, 
 and all sold off before they are three years old. 
 
 452. The work of reclamation and the ordinary opera- 
 tions render it necessary to keep a large number of horses ; 
 as many as fourteen, and often sixteen, are employed. A 
 few of the mares are occasionally used for breeding ; 
 and some of the young horses are put into the working 
 stock to replace old broken-down ones, but are more 
 usually sold for farm or harness purposes, after being 
 trained. 
 
 453. The yearly consumption 01 artificial food at 
 Coolarne is 10 tons of palm-nut meal, 4 tons of linseed- 
 cakes, I ton of locust-bean meal, 2 tons of Indian meal, 
 
v.] IRISH FARMING. 155 
 
 5 tons of malt combs, 10 cwt. of linseed meal, and 
 8 tons of oats, purchased from the neighbouring small 
 farmers. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 COTTAGE GARDENING. 
 
 454. There are in Ireland upwards of 400,000 house- 
 holders who have plots of ground set apart as gardens, but 
 who do not grow any vegetables except cabbage ; and even 
 this is inadequate in supply, and often of the coarsest 
 description. Now, a cottage garden, well managed, not 
 only supplies wholesome, nutritious food, but is a source 
 of profit. 
 
 455. The garden of the small farmer may contain 
 about twenty statute perches, the main crop of potatoes 
 being raised in the field. If larger than this, it will not 
 be well cropped. The garden of the cottager who has no 
 other ground may contain from a rood to half an acre or 
 more. 
 
 456. It is a mistake to propose a complicated style of 
 gardening to the classes for whom we write ; and the 
 failure of the attempts hitherto made to extend cottage 
 gardening in this country is owing greatly to the circum- 
 stance that the systems described would involve too much 
 labour and expense. 
 
 457. How is the plot of twenty perches to be divided } 
 If enclosed with a good fence so much the better. If 
 not, the site should, for the present, be marked out or 
 lined with sods or large stones, and a proper fence after- 
 wards provided as opportunity offers. The walk or walks 
 should be three feet wide. At first it is enough to lay out 
 and level the site of the walk, as the making of good walks 
 
156 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 is too expensive to be undertaken all at once, except by 
 the rich. The essential qualities of a good garden walk 
 are, that it should be dry, firm to bear a wheelbarrow, and 
 somewhat elastic under foot. To secure those qualities, 
 it should be drained, the surface soil removed and re- 
 placed by a coat of coarse stones or shingle, over which 
 is placed a layer of gravel, and over this again is placed 
 a layer of fine sand. If this should be too expensive for 
 cottagers and small farmers, they can remove a little of 
 the surface-soil and put in its place a layer of broken 
 stones, which can gradually be covered with fine gravel, 
 sand, or coal ashes. 
 
 458. Walks are edged with a great variety of substances. 
 The box-plant is very commonly used for the purpose, and, 
 when properly dressed, it looks very nice. This plant 
 grows freely, and is easily propagated by slips or cuttings, 
 or by separating its roots. In the gardens of the gentry 
 ornamental tiles, ornamental castings, and other costly 
 materials, are sometimes used as edgings. In a very neat 
 and well-cropped garden, we have seen the walks lined 
 with white stones, placed a foot asunder. Strawberries 
 appear to us to make the best edging in the cottage garden. 
 It is not absolutely necessary to have any edging, but it 
 gives a degree of completeness to the appearance of the 
 garden. 
 
 459. We have now to consider the crops to grow in 
 cottage gardens. Assuming that the main crop of Pota- 
 toes is raised on the farm, in the garden we should merely 
 grow the earlier and more tender sorts, such as a few 
 drills of kidneys, which may be planted in January, and 
 of kemps, planted in February. Both should be well 
 manured. They can be used in July, and be followed by 
 York cabbage without manure. 
 
 460. The Cabbage is a most nutritious and wholesome 
 vegetable. It is hardy, and, with a little care, every cot- 
 
v.] IRISH FARMING. 157 
 
 tager can have a supply for his table throughout the year; 
 and any which is not required for this purpose can be 
 given to cows and pigs. 
 
 461. In order to have successive supplies of cabbage 
 throughout the year, it is only necessary to make three 
 sowings ; namely, first, in the third week of July ; second, 
 in the middle of August ; and third, in April. 
 
 4-62. Plants from the July sowing are put into the ground 
 in September, October, and November, and are fit for use 
 in spring ; those from the August sowing are transplanted 
 in March, April, and May, and are fit for use in summer ; 
 and plants of the April sowing are put out in June, July, 
 and August, for winter use. 
 
 463. In making the July and August sowings, it is 
 sufficient for cottagers to use Enfield Market, which is the 
 best variety of York cabbage ; and in April, the same sort 
 and Savoy should be sown. 
 
 464. The Cauliflower belongs to the cabbage tribe of 
 plants, and is raised for the flower that grows in the heart 
 of the head, which is a most delicious vegetable. At the 
 table of the cottager it is regarded as a luxury. This 
 crop requires rich ground, plenty of manure, and good 
 treatment. It is planted early in spring, and is fit for 
 use in July. 
 
 465. Broccoli is very like cauliflower, but is a hardier 
 crop, and stands the winter. The seed is sown in April ; 
 and by putting out the plants (transplanting) in succession 
 from the middle of May to the middle of July, supplies of 
 the crop are available for table from Christmas till May. 
 
 466. In the neighbourhood of large towns and cities 
 both cauliflower and broccoli pay well. The cottager or 
 small farmer may grow for his own use from a dozen to 
 two dozen plants of each. 
 
 467. The Tto'nip is also a useful garden vegetable. Of 
 all varieties of turnips the swede is by far the most 
 
IS8 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 nutritious, and is, therefore, the best for the cottager, who 
 should confine his attention chiefly to the production of 
 crops which are capable of affording nourishment to him- 
 self and his family. White stone turnips contain very 
 little nutriment, and are used chiefly with boiled mutton. 
 A drill or two of the orange jelly turnip, a yellow-fleshed 
 variety, may be raised. 
 
 468. The Omo7i requires rich ground and plenty of 
 manure, which is applied in autumn, when the ground 
 should be deeply dug in preparation for this crop. The 
 seed is generally sown in the middle of March, the ground 
 being made into beds of about four and a half feet wide, 
 with alleys about a foot in width. The surface of the beds 
 is broken very fine ; drills are opened six to eight inches 
 apart, and about one inch in depth, and the seed sown 
 and covered in with a rake. 
 
 469. The Parsnip is an excellent vegetable, and can be 
 sold at a high price in most parts of the country. It is a 
 hardy crop, admitting of being sown as soon as the ground 
 can be got ready for it in spring. In no case should it be 
 sown later than Patrick's Day. If the soil be trenched or 
 dug deeply before winter, and a liberal supply of well- 
 rotted manure applied, every square perch will yield about 
 two cwt. of this crop. 
 
 470. The Carrot is not so valuable for human use, nor 
 so saleable, as the parsnip, and, consequently, is not so 
 suitable a crop for cottage gardens. Like the parsnip, the 
 carrot requires a deep soil, which, for both, should be 
 trenched or deeply dug before winter. The best soil for 
 the carrot is a deep, rich, sandy loam. On loamy clays 
 the crop is uncertain. The Altringham green-top is the 
 best variety, and it is sown from the middle of March to 
 the middle of April, according to climate and soil. 
 
 471. For parsnips and carrots, the ground is, before 
 sowing, marked off into beds, four feet in width, the 
 
v.] IRISH FARMING. 159 
 
 alleys being one foot wide ; the surface is broken fine, 
 and the seeds sown in ruts made with a hoe, and covered 
 in with a rake : for carrots four, and for parsnips three 
 ruts are made in the bed. 
 
 472. The Bean is an excellent crop for the working man, 
 being both nutritious and easily grown. It is rich in 
 flesh-forming material ; but being deficient in heat-giving 
 and fat-forming matters, it should be used with potatoes, 
 which contain an abundance of this constituent, or with 
 bacon, which contains a good deal of fat. Dwarf prolific 
 is one of the best sorts for cottage gardens. 
 
 473. Peas and beans belong to the same natural order 
 of plants. The pea is one of the most favourite crops in 
 the kitchen-gardens of the gentry, who require it for 
 dinner in regular succession throughout summer and 
 autumn ; and who, during this period, scarcely use any 
 cabbage. To provide a continuous supply of green peas, 
 it is necessary to make successive sowings from February 
 to the middle of July. In the neighbourhood of large 
 towns, it would pay cottagers to grow peas for market. 
 For home use, a row of a dwarf variety, such as Early 
 Emperor, which grows three feet high, may be sown 
 in February, and a row of a late variety, such as 
 Dickson's Favourite, or Harrison's Glory, which grows 
 four feet high, may be sown in March. If more than 
 one row is required, the lines should be six feet apart, 
 lettuce and spinach being sown in the alleys. 
 
 474. Some Lettuce should be grown in every garden. 
 It is wholesome food for man, and any not required for 
 human use, can be used with great advantage for pigs 
 and poultry, which are very fond of it. The seed is sown 
 in spring ; the plants put into the ground intended for 
 them in May, and the crop is ready for use throughout 
 June, July, and August. For domestic use, a single line 
 of it along any side of the plots would be quite enough. 
 
i6o INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 The best variety for cottagers is Victoria cabbage lettuce, 
 which is sown in succession, during March and April, for 
 summer use ; and in July, for use in winter and spring, 
 
 475. Spinach is invariably grown in large gardens. Its 
 use is not well understood by the mass of the people ; 
 but as it has very useful properties we would like to see 
 a line, or half a line, of it in the smallest garden. There 
 are two kinds commonly raised, namely, the prickly^ 
 which is sown in August and September, and used in 
 winter ; and the round, which is sown at intervals, from 
 April to June, for summer use. Spinach-beet is pre- 
 ferable to the ordinary spinach for cottagers, as it is 
 hardier and less liable to run to seed. The white spinach- 
 beet answers both the purposes of sea-kale and spinach : the 
 foot-stalk of the leaf being used as a substitute for sea- kale 
 in summer, and the leaf itself as a substitute for spinach. 
 
 476. Celery requires so much manure, that it belongs to 
 the luxuries rather than to the necessaries of the table. 
 If the cottager would wish to grow a line of it, he can do 
 so by sowing in March a few pinches of seed in a well- 
 prepared bed. In the end of May or the beginning of June 
 a trench should be dug to the' depth of eighteen inches ; in 
 the bottom of this trench a layer of well-rotted dung is 
 placed ; over this a layer of clay is placed, and the young 
 plants carefully pricked in six inches apart. As they grow 
 up they require to be earthed, so as to keep the stalks 
 blanched. If this be not done they are unwholesome. 
 
 477. We would like to see at least half a dozen stools 
 of Rhubarb in every cottage garden. It is easily 
 propagated, either by sowing the seed in spring, or by 
 separating the roots of old plants, the latter mode being 
 usually practised. The ground requires to be trenched 
 and well manured. The roots are planted three or four 
 feet asunder. Myatfs Victoria and Myatfs Li7incEus arc 
 good varieties. ' 
 
T.] IRISH FARMING. i6r 
 
 4-78. Pot Hei'bs are permanent crops ; and used for 
 flavouring soups, and for giving to certain dishes a savoury 
 relish. On either side of the entrance walks, or in any 
 corner of the garden, may be planted, in April, a line of 
 thyme, of sage, of marjoram, and of savory. A few tufts 
 of chives would also be useful, and are usually propagated 
 by seed or by dividing the roots. 
 
 479. Havingnoticed the more useful vegetables we shall 
 say something of hardy fruit trees suited to farmers and 
 cottagers. 
 
 430. Of all fruit ^h^ Apple is for them the most generally 
 useful. We would suggest the planting of an apple tree in 
 the centre of each plot of the garden. If a greater number 
 of trees is required they should be planted in rows parallel 
 with the walks, the trees being at least six feet asunder, 
 and three feet from the walks. Apple trees should be kept 
 dwarf by pruning, so as not to interfere too much with 
 other crops. The flavour of the fruit of dwarf trees is 
 better than that of large unpruned trees. A good tree 
 will yield a couple of dozen apples the first year, five dozen 
 the year after ; in the third year it will give 300 or 400 
 apples, and in the fourth year it will be capable of bearing 
 the full quantity, which may amount to or exceed 800. 
 At the lowest estimate these would be worth \s. a hundred, 
 and they often bring 'is. 6d. and 3^. wholesale. Two- 
 pence a piece have been paid for American apples in 
 the retail shops of Dublin of late. 
 
 4B1. For making pies, Hawthornden is a most excel- 
 lent variety. It is a large, white, juicy apple, and gives 
 a heavy crop. A variety called Eclean Vale is another 
 good baking apple, but it is also used at the table. Fir 
 eating purposes, we can recommend the following sorts. — 
 Ribston Pippin is a dark brown colour, which changes to 
 a speckled yellow as it ripens, and it keeps up to Christ- 
 mas. Cox's Orange Pippin keeps all the year round, and 
 
 M 
 
i62 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 is a great favourite. Irish Peach apple is an early kind, 
 and will have been all consumed in August when the 
 pippin becomes fit for use. Brown Russet keeps all the 
 year round, and is a very good variety. 
 
 482. The Pear is not well adapted to cottage gardens, 
 being precarious without good shelter. 
 
 483. Of bush-fruit, the Gooseberry is the best. A Single 
 bush occupies about one square yard, and, if manured 
 every second or third year, will yield a gallon of fruit 
 (worth 6^/,), annually for about twenty years, after which it 
 should be renewed. Yellow A7nber is a good sort for 
 early use ; Red Warringto7i is one of the best for general 
 use. 
 
 484. Of Currants, we prefer the red sorts. A bush oc- 
 cupies the same space as the gooseberry, and gives about 
 5 lbs. of fruit per annum, worth 3^. a pound. If the bushes 
 bear freely the ground should get a little manure every 
 year ; if not, the manure may be applied every second or 
 third year, as in the case of the gooseberry. Red Cham- 
 pagne and Red Dutch are two good varieties. The bushes 
 should be kept open in the .centre. 
 
 485. Oi Raspberries the yield is at the rate of about 12 
 lbs. per square perch. With a fair allowance of manure 
 they continue to bear for twenty years. Of red varieties 
 Antwerp 2.iidi i^^/^-Z^T^ may be recommended to the cot- 
 tager ; and Magnuin Bomim gives a heavy crop of yellow 
 fruit, which is not, however, fit for preserving. 
 
 486. November is the best time for planting apple trees, 
 as well as currant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes. 
 
 487. It will be useful to give a few simple directions on 
 planting, pinning, and training. The apple tree thrives 
 well on any moderately good soil, which is neither too dry 
 nor too wet ; but it lives longest and produces the heaviest 
 crops on rich loams. An excess of iron in the soil or 
 subsoil is injurious to it. The trees are very liable to 
 
v.] IRISH FARMING. 163 
 
 canker in sandy soils ; while on heavy soils, with cold 
 subsoil, they become diseased and covered with moss. 
 
 488. Before planting, the ground should be properly 
 prepared ; and, when necessary, thoroughly drained. 
 Whether the trees be many or few, it always pays to 
 trench the ground. In wet ground it has been recom- 
 mended to plant the trees on raised ridges ; but as the 
 roots would eventually go down to the moisture it is 
 better to remove it by drainage. If the soil is not 
 very rich, it should be well manured at the time of 
 trenching. The manure should be well rotted, or, what is 
 better, formed into a compost with turfy or fibrous loam. 
 The compost should be worked in as the trenching pro- 
 ceeds, and covered to the depth of a foot or more. Before 
 commencing to plant, the proper distance between the 
 trees will have to be determined. Wall trees and espaliers 
 should be planted twenty feet apart ; for dwarf standards 
 trained in the pyramidal form, ten feet is enough ; full 
 standards will require twenty-five or thirty feet between the 
 rows, and the same distance between the trees. 
 
 489. The best season for planting is the beginning of 
 November, or as soon as the greater portion of the leaves 
 has dropped off. When circumstances do not admit of 
 planting so early, it can be done with safety, in mild 
 weather, at any time before the sap commences to circti- 
 late, which in forward trees generally happens in Februgfy. 
 The work cannot be safely performed afterwards. 
 
 490. The spots where the trees are to be planted ought 
 to be marked ; the holes made large enough to enable 
 the roots to be stretched to their full length ; and the 
 compost applied at the rate of one or two barrowfuls 
 for each tree according to the soil. The tree is then 
 planted to the same depth as it was before removal. The 
 hole should be deeper at the sides than in the middle, 
 so as to allow the roots to slope gently downwards from 
 
 M 2 
 
1 64 INTRODUCTION TO [char 
 
 the stem to the extremity. The tree should be taken up 
 with all its roots uninjured ; and any roots that are un- 
 avoidably broken should be cut clean off. In planting, 
 the roots should be spread out evenly over the bottom of 
 the hole. When the roots are properly placed, fine soil 
 should be put over them, taking care to scatter it in the 
 direction of the fibres or small roots, as they might be 
 reversed and injured when the soil is thrown carelessly 
 against them, as is frequently done. When the hole is 
 about half filled give a gentle treading to the soil about 
 the roots; then finish the filling, and support the tree 
 with a few stakes. The roots should be protected by 
 " mulching " the ground over with litter as far as the roots 
 extend. 
 
 4-©l. In planting against walls, the hole should gradually 
 incline downwards so as to give the roots the same dip 
 into the soil as before. The tree should be planted nine 
 inches from the wall, to give the stem room to thicken 
 without danger of pressure against the wall. Much of 
 the success of fruit trees depends on the way .they are 
 planted. If the simple suggestions above given are 
 strictly followed, satisfactory results will be obtained. 
 
 4.©2. The rules laid down for planting the apple are 
 equally applicable to all kinds of hardy fruit trees. 
 
 4©3. There are many dift'erent methods of training. 
 The open dwarf, or as it is commonly called, the "punch 
 bowl" method is well adapted to the production of a 
 large crop of fruit, and is especially suitable where the 
 space is limited. Apples, cherries, and plums do remark- 
 ably well when trained in this way. Pears do better when 
 trained in the pyramidal shape. In order to bring a tree 
 to the desired form as an open dwarf, the following points 
 must be attended to : — A tree planted out of a nursery in 
 November should be cut down to within nine inches of 
 the gr'^und the following autumn. The tree will afterwards 
 
v.] IRISH FARMING. 165 
 
 produce vigorous shoots, three of which should be se- 
 lected and encouraged to make vigorous growth during 
 the summer ; this can be done by pinching out the tops 
 of the most forward shoots. These shoots must be cut 
 back the following winter to within nine inches of the 
 stem. During summer of the succeeding year six shoots 
 are allowed to grow freely. These six branches should 
 now be tied to a hoop six feet in circumference, the 
 branches being secured at equal distances. When the 
 branches are tied to the hoop they should be shortened 
 to within a few inches beyond it. The desired form 
 being obtained, the after-pruning consists of spurring, 
 or cutting in the annual summer's growth to one or two 
 eyes or buds, and shortening the leader or young annual 
 shoot on each branch to six eyes. Care should be taken 
 to keep the centre of all fruit trees open to the sun and 
 air. The branches should never cross or even touch 
 each other. 
 
 494. Dwarf pyramids. — Allow the tree to establish 
 itself for a year, then cut it down to within eighteen 
 inches of the ground. Train a shoot from the upper- 
 most bud upright, and all below this one should turn 
 outwards. In the following winter, the leader is again 
 to be cut back to within eighteen inches of where it was 
 cut the previous year. Proceed in this way until the tree 
 attains the desired height, which should never be greater 
 than ten or twelve feet. The side shoots should be trained 
 in regular tiers one above the other, and lessening in 
 circumference as they get higher. 
 
 495. Espaliers, — This mode of training is well adapted 
 for either large or small gardens. Of all modes of training 
 it occupies the least space, and the ground between the 
 rows can be cropped to within a foot of the trees. When 
 the tree has been a year established it should be cut down 
 to within eighteen inches of the ground. In summer train 
 
1 66 INTRODUCTION TO [chap. 
 
 the leading shoot upright, and one to the right and another 
 to the left hprizontally. The following winter cut back 
 the leader to within a foot of where it was previously cut, 
 and train two additional shoots to the right and left as 
 before ; and continue the same system of pruning year 
 after year until the tree has filled the space allotted to it. 
 The horizontal branch€S are cut back every year, leaving 
 only six buds. This mode of pruning applies to wall 
 trees as well as espaliers. 
 
 496. The Strawberry is the best small fruit for the 
 cottager. It is easily propagated, grows freely, and gives 
 an abundant crop of delicious fruit. In June and July 
 the plants produce runners, and, at certain points, each 
 runner throws out a number of bunches of roots, which 
 soon become independent of the main stem, and may be 
 cut off and put out as separate plants. A fresh plantation, 
 made in this way, will bear fruit the subsequent year. It 
 requires to be renewed every third year, as the old plants 
 wear out after three seasons, 
 
 497. Strawberries are planted in rows eighteen inches 
 apart, the plants being placed the same distance asunder 
 in the rows. The ground is hoed in autumn, and farm- 
 yard manure pointed in before winter. A square perch 
 of strawberries treated in this way will yield about 15 
 lbs. of fruit annually for three years ; the price is not less 
 than 4/^. per lb., and it is often a great deal more. 
 
 498. There are a great many varieties of this favourite 
 fruit. Trollops s Victoria and Myatfs Eliza are the best 
 for general use. KeerHs Seedling is, in the opinion of 
 Sir Joseph Paxton, the best for cottagers. Sir Harry is 
 an excellent strawberry, and of late kinds British Queen 
 is one of the best. 
 
 499. The crops in the garden, as in the field, should 
 succeed in regular rotation, and in accordance with certain 
 scientific principles. It is impossible to lay down rules 
 
v.] 
 
 IRISH FARMING. 
 
 167 
 
 applicable to all cases. The same crop should not be 
 repeated in the same ground, nor should plants of the 
 same family succeed each other. Strawberries should 
 never follow strawberries, nor should peas succeed beans. 
 
 500. Potatoes may be followed by cabbage ; onions by 
 parsnips and carrots ; or onions, parsnips, and carrots 
 may come, in the same division, after cabbage. Potatoes 
 may follow cabbage with advantage. As soon as the 
 cabbage is removed in autumn and winter, the ground 
 should be dug deeply and left exposed till spring ; and as 
 the cabbage is always heavily manured, only a small 
 quantity of manure will be required for the potatoes. 
 Again, if celery is grown, it requires to be heavily manured, 
 and may be followed by onions, which require rich soil. 
 
 501. Deep-rooted plants, such as parsnips, should be 
 followed by plants which grow chiefly in the surface soil. 
 A summer crop like pease is followed by broccoli or winter 
 cabbage, and so on. 
 
 502. It may be useful to give one or two sketches illus- 
 trating simple plans of laying out cottage gardens. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 In No. I the entrance is at ^ : the small o's in the 
 
1 68 
 
 INTRODUCTIOiM lU 
 
 [chap. 
 
 centres of the plots represent apple trees. The walks are 
 lined with strawberries ; the dotted line at the top of 
 the garden is intended for bush fruit trees. 
 
 503. The walks may be lined with strawberries, 
 except one line on the east, or most shaded part of 
 the walk, to be reserved for parsley, which should be 
 sown in March, in a rut, made one inch deep, and three 
 inches from the walk. 
 
 504. In fig. 2 the entrance is at a, as before ; there is 
 only one walk running straight through the garden, and it 
 is edged with strawberries ; a row of red currant bushes, 
 b c, is planted across the middle of the garden, dividing 
 it into four squares; in the centre of each square an 
 apple tree is planted ; in the dotted line in the east, or 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 shaded side of the garden, a row of raspberries may be 
 planted, and in the corresponding line to the west, we 
 may have gooseberries. Pot herbs may be planted at 
 the top or bottom of the garden. 
 
 505. The crops grown and the rotation should vary 
 with the wants of the family and with the markets. 
 
v.] 
 
 IRISH FARMING. 
 
 169 
 
 In the accompanying diagram is explained a system of 
 cropping cottage gardens well suited to the people of 
 this country. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Kemp potatoes, plated in Feb- 
 ruary ; the ground cleared in July, 
 and planted with Savoy cabbage 
 of the April sowing. This cab- 
 bage will be fit for vise in Novem- 
 ber ; so that two crops are obtained 
 in the year. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Enfield- Market cabbage, 
 planted in February, which will 
 be fit for use in June, and may be 
 succeeded \,\t Swede and Orange 
 Jelly turnips, giving two crops 
 within the twelve months. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Carrots. 
 Parsnips. 
 Onions. 
 
 The parsnips and onions to be 
 sown in March ; the carrots in 
 April. A second crop cannot be 
 obtained within the year after any 
 of these. The ground should be 
 ridged up in winter. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Peas, beans, and white turnips, 
 sown in March ; removed oflf the 
 ground in July, and succeeded by 
 lettuce, caaliflower, and celery. 
 The lettuce seed should be sown 
 in the last week of May, so as to 
 be fit for transplanting after peas 
 and beans. The celery and cauli- 
 flower seed should be sown in 
 May. . 
 
 506. By shifting the crops from one plot to another for 
 four years, a four-course rotation wquld be established. 
 
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