COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. No. 86. WEST INDIES. REPORT ON THE WORKING OF THE IMPERIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR THE WEST INDIES. ¢ ee Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty. April, 1900, LONDON: PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE, Br DARLING & SON, Lrp., 34-40, Bacon Srzuzr, E. And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from WYMAN anp SONS, Lop., Ferrer Lanz, E.C., and 32, Anrnepon Strezt, WESTMINSTER, S.W. ; or OLIVER & BOYD, Enprinpurcs ; or E. PONSONBY, 116, Grarron Srrzeat, Dustin. 1906. [Od. 2901.] Price 1s. 4d. 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Binnio. oes JOURNALS OF THE Hovsr or Commons, Year 1905. eee ae ENDOWED CHARITIES, ENGLAND AND WALES. in course of issue. Mines. Reports of H.M. Inspectors for 1904. wi ee ae : dedoy, thedpeovisiona/ oe tha Coal Mins’ with Summaries of the Statistica! portion SEPARATE Parisnus. Reports thereon ; : egulation Act, 1887; Metalliferous Mines Regulat Acts, 1872- - Si ‘ ; ines : tel i Goat : 872 ee ; Slate Mines (Gunpowder) Act, 1882, Hyisteicte ee Re in the United pec and the Isle of Man. List of, for 1904 Bae a Bak UARRIES _ itto. ditto, ditt i 6d. Mines ABANDONED, Plans of, List of the. Corrected to Stet Denes 1904. Opa a COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. No. 86. WEST INDIES. REPORT ON THE WORKING OF THE IMPERIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR THE WEST INDIES. Presented to both FHouses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty. April, 1906. BOSTONCOLLEGELIBRARY | HILL, MASS. LONDON: MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE, By DARLING & SON, Lrv., 34-40, Bacon Srrzzt, BE. PRINTED FOR HIS And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from WYMAN anv SONS, Lrp., FErrer Lanz, E.C., and 32, ABINGDON STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W. ; or OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH 5 or E. PONSONBY, 116, Grarron Srreet, DUBLIN, 1906, [Ca, 2901.) Price 1s, 4d. ~y CY ve 7 awWOODE, Hast Hasouia S™BEAT) ES, BYRE AND SPOTTi CONTENTS. 14¢ REPORT OF THE IMPERIAL eos ft oe FoR THE vest INDIES. 0 we SUGAR-CANE. RESULTS OF RECENT EXPERIMENTS WITH SEEDLING CANES AND MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS IN THE WEST INDIES :— Britisu GUIANA, by J. B. Harrison, C.M.G., M.A.... BarBabos, by J. P. p' ALBUQUERQUE, M.A., F.LC., F.C.S. ... LEEWARD IsLANpDs, by Francis Warts, C.M.G., D.Sc. SEEDLING CANES IN TRINIDAD, by A. Unica, Ph.D., F.LC.... CANE FARMING IN BritTisH GUIANA, by B. HOWELL JONES ... Do. TRINIDAD, by P. Carmopy, F.I.C., F.C.S. Do. TRINIDAD, by P. ABEL and 8. HENDERSON Do. Figi, by Sir H. M. Jackson, K.C.M.G. ... REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL FUNGOID DISEASES OF THE SUGAK- CANE, by L. LewrTon-Braln, B.A., F.LS. Review or THE INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE SUGAR-CANE, by H. A Battou, BSc. ... FIELD TREATMENT OF CANE TOPS FOR PLANTING PURPOSES-- LEEWARD IsLanps, by FRAxcis Warts, C.M.G., D.Sc. BarsBanos, by J. R. BoveLL, F.L.S., F.C.S. THe PoOLARIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF SUCROSE, by FRANCIS Warts, C.M.G., D.Sc., and H. A. Tempany, B.Sc., A.C. THe CentrRAL SuGAR Facrory IN ANTIGUA, by FRANCIS WATTS, O.M.G., D.Sc. ate CACAO. EXPERIMENTS IN IMPROVING THE HEALTH OF Cacao TREES, by J. H. Hart, F.L.S. (TRinmDAD) Report by J. G. LE GANNES:( TRINIDAD) Do. © by T. L. Smita (GRENADA) ‘Do. by G. Hupson (Sr. Luctra) fe Do. by H. A. A. NicHoLts, C.M.G., MD. (Domnas Lae Cacao OULTIVATION AND GREEN Dressinc, by FRANcIs WATTS, C.M.G., D.Sc. (LEEWARD ISLANDS) .. ‘ap IMMORTEL AS A SHADE TREE FOR os by P. Carmopy (TRINIDAD) eee eee rer ore Fe gee sre. N Vv MS PAGE 25 38 56 61 63 74 76 80 84 95 97 99 107 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. Funcoip Diseases or Cacao, by L. LEwron-Bratn, B.A., F.LS. Witcu Broom Disease IN SURINAM, by C. J. J. vAN Hat, Ph.D. Insects ATTACKING Cacao IN THE West Inp1Es, by H. A. BALLou, B.Sc. — a aes a “Et : , is THE Frurr INptstry at Barpapos, by J. R. Bovett, F.LS,, Fruit Inpustry IN OTHER CoLonrrs; information given by -H. A. A. Nicwotts, C.M.G., M.D. (Dominica) COTTON. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON IN THE WEST INDIES :— BARBADOS, by J. R. Bove tt, F.LS., F.C.S. ... oes eee LEEWARD ISLANDS, by FrANcIS WATTS, C.M.G., D.Sc. St. VINCENT, by W. N. SANrs ... wae oe ise Funcoip Diseases oF Corron, by L. LEwron-Bratn, B.A., F.LS. Tue Insect Pests oF Corron, by H. A. BAuLou, B.Sc. ... aes AGRICULTURAL BANKS. RAIFFEISEN AGRICULTURAL Banks, by W. FAwceTT, B.Sc., F.L.S.... AGRICULTURAL BANKS IN BRITISH GUIANA, by B. HOWELL JONES... RUBBER. CASTILLOA RUBBER IN ToBAGO, by M. SHORT see eis ee EXPERIMENTS WITH RUBBER TREES IN TRINIDAD, by J. H. Hart, CASTILLOA AS A SHADE TREE FOR CACAO... one a vee Tue Coco-Nut InpUsTRY OF TRINIDAD, by W. GREIG ... oes AnTHrax, by H. A. BALLov, B.Sc. eve He obs ove ove Do. IN Sr. VincENT, by C. W. Brancu, M.B., C.M. Do. IN TRINIDAD, by D. MILLAR a uss cer ili PAGE. 125 132 134 146 151 153 155 162 169 178 180 186 188 190 198 203 209) 1125 Wt 23907 4/066 D&S 5 23011 A 2 iv COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. RICE CULTIVATION IN THE WEST INDIES :— British Guiana, by B. HowELL JONES TRINIDAD, by the Rev. Dr. Morton MEMoRANDUM ON InsEcY Pasrs, by H. A. BALLou, B.Sc. ... Tue SprcraL. QuaLities or Puants, J. H. Harr, F.LS. (TRINIDAD)... wet A ote sat ate oes cae Tur IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION IN VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION, by W. R. Butrensuaw, M.A., B.Sc. = mae =e ee Soe BurreR MakinG 1n TRINIDAD, by C. W. MEADEN Barpapos Woouiess SHEEP, by W. R. BuTrensnaw, M.A., B.Sc... TEACHING THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, IN COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS IN THE WEST INDIES :— Barpapos, by Horace DetcuTon, M.A. és by J. P. n’' ALBUQUERQUE, M.A., F.LC., F. C. s. LreEWArD Isvanps, by Francis Warts, C. MG _D Sc. TRINIDAD, by P. Carmopy, F.LC., F.C.S. ScuooL GarRDENS AND ScuooL SHows iN TrinIDAD, by J. H. COLLENS ose ase oes oe eee oes eee eee AGRICULTURE IN THE BLEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF GRENADA AND Sr. Vincent, 1902-4, by JoHn HaRBIN PorpuULAR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN Jamatca, by J. R. Wiuiams, M.A. : AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN JAMAICA, by W. Fawcett, B.Sc., Do. do. Str. Lucia, by G. 8. Hupson Do. do. LEEWARD IsLANDS, by FRANCIS Watts, 0.M.G., D.Sc. : Do. do. TRINIDAD, by J. H. Hart, F.LS.... ARBOR DAY IN THE WEsT INDIES 216 229 238 240 254 256 260 266 271 278 278 279 280 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. No. 86. WEST INDIES. REPORT ON THE WORKING OF THE IMPERIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR THE WEST INDIES. Sir D. Morris to Cotontat OFFICE. Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, Barbados, dlst January, 1906. Str, i uAveE the honour to submit a Report on the working of the Imperial Department of Agriculture in the West Indies. The Department was created in 1898, on the recommendation of the West India Royal Commission. This Commission con- sisted of Sir Henry Norman, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., C.I.E., Sir Edward Grey, Bart., and Sir David Barbour, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G. It was charged to inquire into the condition and prospects of the sugar-growing Colonies in the West Indies, and to suggest such measures as would appear best calculated to restore and maintain the prosperity of those Colonies and their inhabitants. A further subject of inquiry was whether, in the event of the production of sugar being discontinued or considerably diminished, other industries, and what, could replace it and be carried on profitably and supply employment for the labouring population. In their report, presented in August, 1897, the Commissioners stated that, “In most of the West Indies the products of the sugar-cane, though they are now valued at prices which are much below those which prevailed a few years ago, still form by far the larger portion of the total exports of native produce. “The gravity of the immediate danger to the welfare of each Colony which would arise from a failure of the sugar-cane industry may, for practical purposes, be measured by the proportion which the exports of sugar, rum, and molasses bear to the total exports of that Colony. In such an event, the welfare of each Colony would, in the long run, however, depend vi GOLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. on the extent to which it might be found possible to establish other industries.” : The funds for the maintenance of the Department have been provided since 1898 by a yearly grant by Parliament. The average amount expended has been at the rate of £17,400 per annum, allotted approximately as follows:—Salaries and incidental expenses (Head Office), £5,000; grants-in-aid, £12,400. At Barbados and in the Windward Islands (Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent) and the Leeward Islands (Dominica, Montserrat, Antigua, St. Kitts-Nevis, Anguilla, and the Virgin Islands) the grants-in-aid have been expended in the mainten- ance of botanic and experiment stations and agricultural educa- tion; at Jamaica, in providing the services of an agricultural lecturer; at British Guiana, in assisting experiments in improv- ing the sugar industry; and at Trinidad (for Tobago), in main- taining a botanic and experiment station.* The Imperial Commissioner is directly in charge of the ad- ministration of the agricultural grants at Barbados and in the Windward and Leeward Islands, and is consulting officer in agricultural matters to the Governments of Jamaica, British Guiana, and Trinidad. The duties entrusted to the Department were the general improvement of the sugar industry and the encouragement of a system of subsidiary industries in localities where sugar can not be grown, or where the conditions are more favourable for the production of cacao, coffee, bananas, limes, cotton, rubber, coco-nuts, sisal hemp, rice, nutmegs, pine-apples, and other crops. In addition it was proposed that it should devote attention to the improvement of the breed and condition of cattle, horses, and small stock, and to the extension of bee-keeping for the production of honey and bees’-wax.t As it was realized that substantial progress was impossible until the mass of the people (wholly dependent on the products of the soil) were brought into sympathy with agriculture and * The grants-in-aid of Jamaica, British Guiana, and Trinidad (for Tobago) will be withdrawn on March 31, 1906. {+ The annual value of the bee-keeping industry in Jamaica is about £17,000. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. vil trained to regard the successful treatment of crops as the basis upon which to build, not only their own welfare, but the general prosperity of these Colonies, a prominent position has been given to teaching the principles of elementary science and agriculture, both in the primary and secondary schools. Associated with this policy was the increased attention devoted to. object lessons, the encouragement of growing specimen plants in pots and boxes, and the establishment of school gardens. Arbor days for the public planting of ornamental and other trees have also been organized and assisted by the Department. The details of the working of the Department have been regu- larly presented and discussed at the several West Indian Agri- cultural Conferences, at which the officers of the Department and the representatives of the Agricultural and Commercial Societies and of the several Educational ‘Bodies in the West Indies have taken an active part. The proceedings of these Conferences have been published in full in the “ West Indian Bulletin” and the “‘ Agricultural News.’’* SucaR InpustTRY. In British Guiana, Barbados, Antigua, St. Kitts, and Nevis sugar is the staple industry, and upon its success depends the welfare of the inhabitants and the resources of the Governments. In Trinidad and Jamaica sugar, it is true, occupies a secondary position, but it would seriously affect both these Colonies if the industry were further reduced or abandoned. Other islands in which sugar is grown to a greater or less extent are Tobago, St. Vincent, and Montserrat. In Grenada and Dominica practically little or no sugar‘is produced. The Imperial Department of Agriculture has devoted special attention to the scientific investigation of questions affecting the sugar industry. The'average expenditure in this direction in Barbados, Antigua, St. Kitts, and British Guiana has been at the rate of nearly £4,000 per annum. The investigations have been mainly directed to raising new seedling varieties of “ West Indian Bulletin, a quarterly journal (Vols. I-V1); and the Agricultural News, the fortnightly review of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies (Vols. I-IV). London agents: Dulau & Co., 37, Soho Square, W. City agents: West India Committee, 15, Seething Lane, E.C. Viii COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS, sugar-canes, capable of withstanding diseases that rendered the continued cultivation of the Bourbon and allied canes impos- sible, and raising standard varieties capable of producing a larger yield of sugar per acre. Valuable experiments have also been carried on, over considerable areas, in testing the relative value of pen and artificial manures and in ascertaining, by a continuous series of trials under skilled supervision, in what quantities and at what stages of growth of the canes such manures can be applied to the best advantage. In addition, investigations have been carried on in the chemical selection of the sugar-cane, in the treatment with germicides of cane tops, and as to the effect of planting at different distances and tillage operations. In all these directions the results already to hand are of a striking character. The following is a brief summary, in con- tinuation of the valuable information presented by the several officers directly in charge of experiments at the Agricultural Conference held at Trinidad in January, 1904 :—(See pp. 1-106.) British ‘Guiana. The total area under cultivation in sugar-cane in British Guiana is 78,003 acres, including 2,500 acres cultivated by small farmers. ‘This is an increase of 11,095 acres as compared with 1896. The average cost of producing 1 ton of first centrifugal sugar, including 14 per cent. second sugar and 25 gallons of rum, was £10 9s. 2d. in 1903, as compared with £11 9s. 2d. in 1896. In 1897 only small areas of land were occupied with canes of other varieties than Bourbon, while at the present time about 14,000 acres are planted with them. ‘The result of experi- ments on a large scale with seedling and other canes than Bour- ce bon recorded during the last three years ‘‘ indicate an increased yield per acre of from 12 to 20 per cent. over that of the Bourbon.” The Sugar-cane Committee of the Board of Agri- culture states that this increase has been obtained by the sub- 6 stitution of certain new varieties for the Bourbon cane “ without increase in the cost of cultivation and possibly with a lessened outlay for manure.” It is added that “in many of the experi- ments the varieties, other than Bourbon, have been cultivated on land on which the latter cane does not flourish, while the WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1X Bourbon returns are, as a rule, from land of average fertility, upon which it gives satisfactory returns.” The following are the principal varieties of canes other than Bourbon cultivated in British Guiana:—D. 109 (3,338 acres), White Transparent (2,876 acres), B. 147 (1,138 acres), D. 625 (537 acres), and B. 208 (417 acres). As confirming what is stated by the Sugar-cane Committee, and as showing what has been done with seedling canes on a large scale at the Diamond Estate, in British Guiana, the manager states, as the result of. experiments carried on for four years (1901-4 inclusive), that seedling canes grown on an aver- age area of 1,537°918 acres, as compared with Bourbon canes grown on an average area of 2,824°352 acres, have proved better than the Bourbon to the average extent of 24 per cent. The average crop reaped during the period under review was 10,560 tons of sugar. Further information in regard to the sugar industry in British Guiana and the interesting results obtained in that Colony under the direction of Professor J. B. Harrison, C.M.G., is contained in pp. 1-23. Barbados. In Barbados, during the last five years, 20,407 varieties of seedling canes have been raised. Less than 1 per cent. of these have stood the stringent tests of field and chemical selection applied to them. The seedling experiments in hand up to De- cember 31st, 1903, consisted of 8,120 plots covering 143°294 acres. Experiments with manures consisted of 106 plots, covering an area of 14°196 acres, while another set of manurial experiments consisted of eighteen plots covering an area of 16°02 acres. The general results are favourable, and indicate that the efforts that are being made are in the right direction and justify the opinion that the raising of seedling canes affords special promise, as in British Guiana, of increasing the yield and diminishing the cost of cane sugar production in this island. About 35,000 acres of canes are reaped annually in Barbados. According to a return prepared by Mr. Bovell in 1903, the Bourbon cane, owing to the prevalence of disease, has been almost entirely discarded of late years. The area under culti- x COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. vation in this cane in 1903 was 328 acres. The area under other canes in 1903 was approximately as follows:-—White Transpar- ent, 18,566 acres; Rappoe, 3,089 acres; Caledonian Queen, 1,661 acres; B. 147, 1,642 acres; B. 208, 342 acres. The area under seedling canes is gradually extending. ‘The figures for 1904 are not yet available. Of the newer canes, the most promising is B. 1,529. The cultivation of this cane (on account of the large yield per acre and the purity of its juice) is being ex- tended to as many experiment plots as possible during the present planting season. (See pp. 25-37.) In presenting the report on the experiments carried on at Barbados during the crop seasons 1903-5, Messrs. d’ Albuquerque and Bovell called attention to new seedling canes, still under trial, such as B. 1,753, which had given saccharose at the rate of 11,516 lbs. per acre; B. 3,289, at the rate of 10,706 lbs. per acre; B. 1,030, at the rate of 10,485 Ibs. per acre; B. 1,399, at the rate of 10,302 lbs. per acre; B. 6,048, at the rate of 10,102 lbs. per acre; B. 3,696, at the rate of 9,828 lbs. per _ acre; while the White Transparent (the cane now generally cultivated in the island) for the same two years had given 6,452 lbs. of saccharose per acre only. The glucose per gallon of the new canes was also satisfactory. Referring to B. 147, it was stated that on one estate during the crop season 1903-5 this cane, as a plant cane, had given 320 Ibs. per acre of merchantable sugar more than the White Transparent. On the same estate there had been reaped as ratoons during two years an average of 44 acres of B. 147, and this cane had given 599 lbs. more saccharose per acre than the White Transparent. In regard to the manurial experiments at Barbados, the results confirmed those obtained in previous years. They indicated that an ordinary application of farmyard manure, together with arti- ficial manure, was more effective than a very large application of farmyard manure without artificial manure; also that the application of nitrogen, both to plant canes and to ratoons, was followed by a profitable increase in the yield. The application of sulphate of potash was generally profitable. On the other hand, phosphatic fertilizers either had no effect upon the yield or caused a diminution. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. x1 Leeward Islands. In the Leeward Islands Dr. Francis Watts has recently pre- sented the results obtained during the last five years in regard to the introduction of seedling canes and manurial experiments in Antigua and St. Kitts. In Antigua there are about 8,000 acres under cane cultiva- tion. ‘The principal varieties are the White Transparent (under which is included Naga B., Mont Blanc, and Caledonian Queen), B. 147, D. 95, and 'B. 208. ‘The area under Bourbon is reduced to about 204 acres. By means of the introduction of new varie- ties of canes, Dr. Watts states, “the planter has now an oppor- tunity of selecting his canes for particular soils and situations or for early or late planting. In this way he may not neces- sarily select that cane which has done best on the average of the whole of the experiments, but his own observation may have led him to see that some particular cane will prove suitable for some special conditions, and he selects suitable canes accordingly.” In St. Kitts the total area under canes is estimated at 7,000 acres. The principal canes cultivated are what are known as the “‘ Jamaica,’ Caledonian Queen, and White Transparent. The area under seedling cane B. 147 is about 1,700 acres, and under > B. 208, 180 acres. The area under Bourbon is about 340 acres. At one time cane diseases in this island “invaded one area after another until fears were entertained that some estates must be abandoned, and sugar-growing cease upon them. Fol- lowing the advice of the Department of Agriculture, those planters whose canes were being destroyed by the ravages of disease introduced other varieties, notably B. 147, with the happiest results; plantations which were in danger of abandon- ment are now bearing luxuriant crops, to the great relief and satisfaction of their owners.” In summing up, Dr. Watts states: —‘“It will be seen that the newly-introduced varieties of canes, including some of the newly-discovered seedlings, have already played an important part in the sugar industry of the Leeward Islands. The work of their introduction is highly regarded by planters, who freely express their appreciation of the advantages they have derived, Xll COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. and the feeling is now engendered that in the selection of varie- ties of cane they are in possession of a powerful defence against many forms of cane diseases.” (See also pp. 38-55.) In a report on the condition of the sugar industry in Antigua and St. Kitts during the period 1881-1905* (dated November 29th, 1905), Dr. Watts states: — “The stability given to the sugar industry by the abolition of bounties by the operation of the Brussels Convention has already led to a considerable amount of development in the sugar in- dustry in Antigua in the past two years. The erection and successful operation of the Central Sugar Factory at Gun- thorpe’s, at a cost of £52,400, the conversion of Bendal’s sugar factory into a small but well-equipped modern factory at a cost of some £12,000, together with the extensive substitution of railway and tramway haulage for less perfect methods at both these factories, indicate a desire for progress such as has not been seen in the smaller islands for a generation or more, and is good evidence of a determination to do the best to make the industry successful. “Nor does the tendency towards progress end here. Two sets of steam-ploughing plant are expected to arrive in Antigua within the next few weeks, one set being imported for working the lands associated with each of the above-mentioned fac- tories ; these, by deeper cultivation of the soil, are calculated to minimize the effects of drought. Concurrently with this we may expect other improvements, all of which must have their effect on the production of sugar and upon the welfare of the island. “We are therefore justified, I think, in making some forecast of the future, and may reasonably hope to see the sugar crop in Antigua, not only reaching to, but, by virtue of the improve- ments now introduced, exceeding, the crops of the period 1881-94; that is, exceeding, on the average, 13,000 tons. The price of sugar will doubtless be low, but at £8 per ton, at which price in an average year sugar can be produced at a small profit, this is worth £104,000, while doubtless there will be a steady increase in the amount of crystal (vacuum pan) sugar produced * See Colonial Reports, Miscellaneous, No. 35 [Cd. 2878]. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. xill . and a diminution of muscovado, thus increasing the value of the output. In addition to this, we may look forward to those developments which are sure to arise when the planting body is stimulated to a degree of activity exceeding anything which has existed in the past. Increased areas and improved methods of cultivation, improved varieties of canes, and various other improvements, such as may be anticipated from the intelligent working of a well-equipped Department of Agriculture and active and alert planters, cannot fail to result in beneficial changes.” Trinidad. In Trinidad the Otaheite or Bourbon cane is generally culti- vated. Owing to the absence of serious disease and to the generally good results obtained from the present canes, sys- tematic experiments on a large estate scale with seedlings and manures have apparently not been regarded as a necessity, as in the other Colonies. ‘Seedlings raised locally, or obtained from elsewhere, have been grown on a small scale at the St. Clair Experiment Station, and the canes analysed by the Government Chemist. The results have been published in the “ Proceed- ings” of the Agricultural Society and the ‘“ Annual Reports ” issued by the Botanical Department. As a result of an experiment with a seedling cane (D. 95), as compared with the Bourbon and White Transparent canes, carried on by the Trinidad Estates Company under the direction of Dr. A. Urich, the following figures may be of interest : — Recapitulation (Tons of Cane per Acre). Ist. 2nd. Average, | Acres Plants. | patcons, | Batoons: |. achual cut. Bourbon White Transparent... DaJ0 ace X1V COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. At Caroni Estate, Trinidad, what is known as the Naudet patent process of extracting and purifying cane juice was on trial during the season 1904-5. The results were short of ex- pectations, owing to the defects in the first milling, the cane not being opened up sufficiently to give good diffusion results. It is, however, claimed that there was a gain over double milling. At Porto Rico the results were more favourable: “The extraction was 96 per cent. of the total juice in the cane, with a dilution of 9 per cent. on the weight of the cane, and the density of the juice from the diffusion battery was only 0°7° ‘Beaumé less than the juice from the mill. This juice was also of equal purity to the juice from the mill.” Jamaica. A law was passed by the Legislature of Jamaica in August, 1903, by which the Imperial grant-in-aid of the sugar industry (£10,000) was appropriated for the maintenance, under the direction of Mr. Cousins, of experimental stations, with special reference to the chemistry and mycology of sugar andrum. A Fermentation Chemist has been appointed in connection with the rum investigations. The grant is estimated to provide for research and experiment work for six years. In regard to seedling canes, Mr. Cousins states that the best of the seedlings from Demerara and ‘Barbados have been care- fully tested in Jamaica. ‘Two of these stand out in a prominent manner. “ Barbados seedling No. 208 appears well suited to all parts of Jamaica, and is probably the best cane now avail- able. At the Hope Experiment Station in 1905 a crop of this variety was harvested, yielding over 70 tons of cane, capable of yielding 7 tons of sugar per acre. Upon light soils in season- able or irrigable districts, Demerara seedling No. 95 has proved a great success. This cane has given double the yield of crystallized sugar per acre as compared with the Jamaica cane, and upon a commercial scale under these conditions.” Further, “there are districts in the island where the seedling canes already at our disposal are capable of giving a return of at least 80 per cent. more sugar per acre than the Jamaica WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XV certainty from carefully controlled trials of the most promising seedling canes now in cultivation. Estate trials of ten varieties, specially selected for local conditions, have been arranged on twelve estates.” As to experiments in manuring canes, Mr. Cousins states : — “Results already obtained show that considerable agricultural returns can be obtained in the cultivation of canes by the use of lime or marl on soils not deficient in humus and nitrogen, by the judicious use of fertilizers where the water supply enables large crops to be grown with some certainty, and lastly, of the great effect of drainage upon stiff, flat areas of land. It is proposed to extend these experiments, to carry them out with stricter oversight and control, and to aim at the financial demonstration of the results of the operations under test.” Proposals are in hand for establishing two central sugar fac- tories in the district of Vere, and another in the neighbourhood of Montego Bay. ‘There is also a prospect of improving the rum industry in Jamaica, based on recent investigations carried on by Mr. Cousins. PEDIGREE SUGAR-CANES. An important step in advance was made by the Department in 1902 in the hybridization of the sugar-cane and in raising new seedling varieties by artificial cross-pollination. The details are given in the “ West Indian Bulletin” (Vol. VI., pp. 394- 402) and in an article under the heading “ Raising Pedigree Sugar-canes ” in the ‘“‘ Agricultural News” (Vol. V., pp. 17-18). Some of the new pedigree canes thus obtained are now under cultivation. If, as anticipated, the results of the new method of breeding sugar-canes above referred to are still further ex- tended during the next few years, the prospects of the sugar | industry in these Colonies should be still further improved. There are now no good reasons why we should not be in a position to produce pedigree sugar-canes as well as pedigree wheat and oats. The work carried on by the Department in raising new seedling canes is closely followed in all sugar-pro- ducing countries. According to the Director of Sugar-cane Ex- periments at Hawaii, the Demerara seedling No, 117 yields Xvi COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. from a ton to a ton and a half more sugar to the acre than any other variety under trial. In Louisiana the best canes in ex- periments carried on by Dr. Stubbs were seedling canes D. 95 and D. 74. The Barbados cane, ‘B. 147, has given excellent results in Queensland, while another Barbados cane (B. 208) is reported to have given 69 tons of canes per acre, with 22°2 per cent. of sucrose. In Jamaica, according to Mr. Cousins, the same cane under irrigation gave 66°5 tons of canes per acre. It may be added, as an instance of what takes place in one island, that over 20,000 plants (tops and portions of stems) of new seedling canes are annually exported from Barbados to other parts of the West Indies. The area under seedling canes 18 steadily extending, and it is hoped that a general improvement of the sugar industry will thus result from the conjoined efforts of the Department and members of the planting community. In concluding this summary of the efforts that have been made to improve the condition of the sugar industry in the West Indies, I desire to place on record my deep appreciation of the valuable assistance that has been afforded to the Department by the proprietors, attorneys, and managers of estates. Tt was laid down as an essential feature of the experiments with sugar-cane that the canes should be cultivated on the experiment stations in exactly the same manner as the ordinary crop on the estate, so as to institute a close comparison on the most practical basis between the new seedling canes and those ordinarily grown. In Barbados, Antigua, St. Kitts, and Nevis about 200 acres of cane land have been placed at the disposal of the Depart- ment for the purpose of experiments, and all expenses of culti- vation, and, in some cases, of manures also, have been borne by the estates. A similar co-operation between the officers in charge of experiments and the planters has also obtained at Jamaica and British Guiana. Whilst steady progress is being made in raising new canes WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XVll been adopted for extracting the juice and manufacturing the sugar, except in a few instances at Jamaica, Barbados, Antigua, Montserrat, St. Kitts, and Nevis, are still far from satisfactory. Up to 1903, owing to the existence of the Continental. boun- ties, the sugar industry in the West Indies had lost its credit, and since the bounties were abolished, sufficient time has not elapsed to enable capitalists to estimate what the effects are likely to be. It is evident, however, that the work of raising new canes, capable of withstanding disease and of yielding an increased amount of sugar, does not cover the whole ground, as until improved machinery for extracting the juice and manu- facturing the sugar is in general use in the islands named, it will be impossible for them to compete successfully with other sugar-producing areas. In the evidence placed before the West India Royal Commis- sion at Barbados, it was stated that there was “an average loss of over 2,000 lbs. of sugar per acre left in the canes after crushing, which was burnt in the megass’’; and again “ for every 100 lbs. of crystallizable sugar contained in the juice, not more than an average of 75 lbs. of ordinary muscovado sugar was recovered.” At present it takes about 134 tons of canes to produce a ton of muscovado sugar of the value of £8; while in a well-equipped factory it would only take about 94 tons of canes to produce a ton of grey crystals, of the value of about £10 10s. It is also to be borne in mind that muscovado sugar is only in limited demand in the United States and Canada, while grey crystals are readily sold in any quantity. The establishment of a central factory in Antigua and the publication of the results of working during the first year (1905) have already produced a favourable impression in favour of central factories. The opinion is becoming general that the sugar industry in the West Indies cannot be maintained under the existing conditions, and the only possible means of improv- ing it is by the establishment of central factories. The Royal Commission recommended that, in the case of Barbados, money should be lent by the Home Government for 23011 B XVill COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS, the purpose of establishing central factories, and that “if the scheme succeeded it might be extended in Barbados and _ pos- sibly in the other islands.” The circumstances in most of the other islands referred to are very similar to those in Barbados. The Hon. F. J. Clarke, ‘President of the (Barbados Agricultural Society, in a paper read before the West Indian Agricultural Conference in 1900, ex- pressed his opinion as follows:—‘‘:'Not only must we have central factories in order to avoid the enormous loss attending the present system of manufacture by means of small and imper- fect crushing machinery and open tayches, but to be able to manufacture any class of sugar that may be in demand in the markets of the world.” Further, he stated :—‘ It is absolutely essential to our existence that central factories should be erected here.” Professor Harrison, with his long experience of Bar- bados and his more recent acquaintance with the working of central factories in British Guiana, at the same Conference stated: —“ There is not the slightest doubt in my mind that, if this Colony of Barbados is to continue to exist as a sugar- producing Colony, it must adopt the principle of central fac- tories.’ And further:—‘ All I can say is, that I believe the erection of central factories in Barbados would be a means of raising the Colony out of its present difficult position, and, in fact, prove its salvation.” Exactly similar remarks apply to Jamaica, St. Vincent, Antigua, Montserrat, St. Kitts, and Nevis, in all of which the sugar industry might be greatly extended and improved. Cacao INDUSTRY. A review of the Cacao Industry in the West Indies was pub- lished in the “ West Indian Bulletin” (Vol. V., pp. 172-7). It would appear that the total exports of cacao from these Colonies have risen from 335,817 cwts. in 1898 to 494,873 cwts. in 1902. These figures indicate that cacao plantations are being very considerably extended throughout the West Indies. The exports of cacao from Trinidad are of the annual value of £1,000,000. Those of Grenada are of the annual value of £250,000. Jamaica comes next with exports of the annual WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. X1x value of £80,000. It is estimated that about 80,000 plants, besides large quantities of pods, are being distributed from the Botanic Gardens and Experiment Stations every year. The diseases affecting cacao continue to receive careful attention, and planters are kept fully informed as to their character and treatment. So far the “ Witch Broom” disease, that has so seriously crippled cacao estates in Surinam, has not reached the West Indies. _ Experiments in manuring cacao plantations and in dealing with the various diseases affecting cacao trees have been carried on in Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, and ‘Dominica. Mr. Hart reports that recommendations for burying diseased pods are being adopted in Trinidad, with the result that in one instance ‘““a proprietor expected to obtain 25 per cent. more cacao than he otherwise would have done.” Mr. J. G. de Gannes, an authority on cacao cultivation, reports that cacao planters in Trinidad are realizing the necessity for higher cultivation, and manuring, where tried, has proved successful. ‘“ Basic slag is the manure more generally applied. Some very good results are obtained by the use of pen manure prepared with gypsum, and on some old properties its use, with that of sheep manure forked in, has been remarkable in improving the health and productiveness of cacao trees.” In Grenada, on an experimental plot at Nianganfoix estate, the yield of cacao has been increased, by judicious manuring, from 5 bags per acre to 8 bags per acre in the four years 1900- 1904. In St. Lucia, as the result of the establishment of ex- periment plots, Mr. Hudson reports that the “ planters in that island are now importing basic slag and sulphate of ammonia, and pruning and forking have now become a recognized part of cacao cultivation.” Experiments with manures carried on in Dominica during the years 1900-1905 are summarized by Dr. Watts as follows : — “Five plots were treated as follows:—(1) no manure; (2) basic phosphate and sulphate of potash; (8) dried blood; (4) basic phosphate, sulphate of potash, and dried blood; (5) mulched with grass and leaves. All the manures used proved beneficial. In 1905 the no-manure plot yielded 19? Ibs. of wet cacao per 23011 B 2 xX COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. tree; the addition of phosphate and potash resulted in an in- crease of 24 lbs. per tree. With dried blood the yield was 244 lbs., while the combination of dried blood with phosphate and potash brought the yield to 28% lbs. per tree, being a gain of 9 lbs. over the no-manure plot. This points to the necessity for general manuring in cacao cultivation.” Careful investigations have been made by the Department - officers into the fungoid and insect pests affecting cacao. Two papers on this subject read before the Agricultural Conference at Trinidad are attached. (See pp. 125-137.) Fruit Inpustry. The very considerable fruit trade of Jamaica has been gradu- ally built up during the last twenty-five years. | Numerous difficulties had to be overcome, but the nearness of the New York market was an important factor in favour of the industry. Latterly, by means of the Direct Line of steamers, a fruit trade has been established between Jamaica and the United Kingdom. The total value of the fruit trade of Jamaica, in bananas, oranges, and other fruits, is about £1,000,000 annually. Naturally the success of Jamaica has led to efforts being made to establish a similar fruit trade in other parts of the West Indies. The Windward and Leeward Islands and Trinidad are 1,000 miles nearer Europe, and several of them are favourably situated for the production of fruit. The only difficulty is in obtaining ships, fitted with cool chambers, which can be de- pended upon to call on definite dates. During the last three years the Department has established a trade in shipping bananas by the Royal Mail steamers from Barbados. The kind grown is the Chinese or dwarf banana. Each bunch is packed in a crate, in the same way as is the fruit shipped from the Canary Islands. The prices obtained in the United Kingdom have been uniformly good, and a good demand has arisen for Barbados bananas, which are preferred in the English market to any other. Ata conference of banana growers, held on October 13th last, it was stated that in the year 1902 18 bunches only were shipped; in 1903 there were shipped 6,693 WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SKE bunches; in 1904 the shipments amounted to 15,3826 bunches; while in 1905 the total shipments amounted to over 40,000 bunches. ‘The first crop may be reaped within fifteen months from the time of planting. Thereafter, a banana field will yield from 300 to 500 bunches per acre, depending on the soil and rainfall. It is stated that the net returns from banana cultivation at Barbados are likely to be from £12 to £20 per acre. (See pp. 138-144.) If suitable facilities could be provided for carrying the fruit, it is probable that fresh tropical fruit, such as bananas, oranges, mangos, avocado pears, and papaws, could be regularly shipped to Europe from British Guiana, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Vincent, Barbados, St. Lucia, and Dominica; also pine-apples from Antigua. At Trinidad the British West Indian Fruit Company, in which the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has a controlling interest, was started in 1905. Regular shipments of fruit are now being made from that island. With the view of developing the fruit industry in the West Indies, the Chairman of the Royal Mail Company gave an under- taking at Barbados on November 13th last that the company was prepared at once to fit Hall’s cold storage system in the re- maining mail steamers connecting with these Colonies; also on three new cargo boats within six months or less. In each of the latter the company would provide from 1,000 to 1,500 tons of refrigerated space. Corton INDUSTRY. The first of the recent experiments in cotton-growing were started at St. Lucia in 1900. In the following year these ex- periments were extended to Barbados and the northern islands. In 1902 Messrs. Sendall and Wade began the cultivation of cotton on a commercial scale at St. Kitts and Montserrat. The total area planted in all the islands in 1902 was 500 acres. This was increased in 1903 to 4,000 acres. During the year 1904 the area planted in Sea Island cotton was 7,243 acres, and in other varieties 4,438 acres, making a XX1i COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. total of 11,681 acres. Valuable assistance was rendered by the British Cotton-Growing Association, in making grants of money and machinery; also in taking charge of the shipments of cotton and finding the best market for them. More recently the Association arranged for a visit to the West Indies by Mr. EK. Lomas Oliver, who rendered great service by explaining in detail the requirements of spinners in regard to uniformity in length of staple, colour, and fineness. The Imperial Depart- ment of Agriculture supplied at cost price 35,700 lbs. of seed of the best variety of Sea Island cotton. At present there are fifteen well-equipped cotton ginneries in working order. ‘The prices obtained for West Indian Sea Island cotton during the past season have ranged from 12d. to 18d. per lb. The aver- age price was 141d. per lb. It is now recognized that West Indian Sea Island cotton is an article in good demand, and the industry shows every promise of being established on remunera- ‘tive lines. The following is taken from the annual report of the. British Cotton-Growing Association for the year ending August 3lst, 1905 : — “Fixcellent as were the results obtained in 1904, the cotton produced in 1905 is still more successful. The Imperial Com- missioner of the West Indian Department of Agriculture took especial pains to obtain a good supply of a first-class quality of Sea Island seed, and those planters who used this seed have every reason to be satisfied, for the cotton produced is even superior to that grown on most of the best Sea Island planta- tions in South Carolina, and has realized 2d. to 3d. per lb. more than American-grown cotton.” Further, it is stated :—‘ The prospects for the coming season are equally good, for there will probably be an increase in the area under cultivation of from 30 per cent. to 50 per cent., and as most of the planters have now realized the importance of the use of carefully selected seed, there is every reason to look to a still further improvement in quality. St. Vincent and Bar- bados have been the most successful islands; the climate in the latter is more suitable, but the soil in the former is very much superior. Good results have also been obtained in Montserrat, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. xxiil St. Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, and other islands, but in Jamaica very little has been done. In addition to advantages for our spinners, the re-introduction of cotton cultivation has conferred an undoubted benefit on the West Indies, as it will enable planters to be less dependent on one single article of produce, viz., sugar.” Three fully-equipped cotton-ginning factories have been erected and worked under the auspices of the Department in St. Vincent, Antigua, and Barbados. In the last-named island the factory has been taken over by the Barbados Co-operative Cotton Factory, Limited, to be worked on co-operative lines. Similar arrangements are under consideration for the disposal of the factories in Antigua and St. Vincent. In December, 1904, the British Cotton-Growing Association made a grant to provide the services of a Travelling Inspector, to be attached to this Department, in connection with cotton investigations. This grant has since been renewed for the year 1906. In addition, in order to encourage the production of cotton of the best qualities, the President of the Association (Sir Alfred L. Jones, K.C.M.G.) has offered 11 gold and 17 silver medals for competition amongst cotton growers during 1906 and 1907. The following is a statement showing the amount and esti- mated value (furnished by the Customs Department in each case) of Sea Island cotton exported from the various West Indian Colonies (in order of output) for the year ending De- cember 31st, 1905. Weight Estimated Colony. Bales. in pounds. Value. £ Barbados ... pee oe Gee 967 344,232 17,212 Nevis “e ave ve es 724 144,721 7,236 St. Vincent ae ae oe 298 97,152 4,858 Carried forward ie 1,989 : 586,105 29,306 - XXIV COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS. Amount and Estimated Value of Sea Island Cotton Exported—cont. Weight Colony. Bales. Maat oes pounds. £ Brought forward 1,989 586,105 29,306 St. Kitts ... 296 87,080 4,354 Montserrat 170 82,287 4,114 Grenada (Marie Galante) 704 212022 2,693 Antigua 296 52,656 2,633 Jamaica ... 24 4,823 225 Anguilla ... 163 31,977 1,599 Trinidad (and Tobago) ... 42 12,981 386 Virgin Islands 21 4,100 205 British Guiana 10 1,453 38 St. Lucia ... nae Ses ee 40) 1,388 32 Totals oa ue 3,755 1,077,572 45,585 Ricr Inpustry. During the four years (1897-1901) there were produced in British Guiana a total of 46,747 tons of paddy (unhusked rice), equivalent to 34,141 tons of clean rice, of the approximate value of £370,000.* In the report of the Board of Agriculture for the year 1904-5 it was stated that the area under rice cultivation had undergone a large increase. The total area in 1904-5 was 21,920 acres, as against 16,670 acres in the previous year. The yield of paddy had increased from 17,701 tons to 22,597 tons. The average yield of paddy in British Guiana on lands properly irrigated and properly drained was stated to be about 28 bags (of 120 lbs. each) to the acre. Such yields, when obtainable, would be exceedingly remunerative to the grower. At the * In January, 1905, Creole rice (ex store) was selling in British Guiana at the rate of $4°25 per bag of 177 Ibs. In January, 1906, it was selling at the rate of $4:10 per bag of 177 lbs, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XXV Botanic Gardens crops of selected rice ranged from 15 to 20 bags of paddy per acre. The industry is evidently destined to become an important one. (See pp. 211-215.) At Trinidad the cultivation of swamp rice has grown rapidly in recent years. According to the Reverend Dr. Morton (p. 213): — ‘The first favourite is a long-grained rice, called by the East Indians ‘ Joyiya,’ which seems identical with ‘ Nagra’ rice. It is usual to plant all swamp rice in nurseries early in June, and to plant out into the field early in July, but this variety has a tendency in good land to grow very tall and suffer from lodging. To prevent this it is sown more widely in the nursery and kept longer there before replanting. This dwarfs the straw and thus prevents loss of crop by lodging. The next favourite is called ‘Mutmuriya,’ which is short-grained, like ‘Chitigong.’ It is less prolific than ‘Nagra.’ These two are reaped in October, and spoken of as five months’ rice. A third variety (‘ Jarahar ’) takes six months to mature. ‘This has a longer grain than ‘Nagra.’ It is very prolific, but the top leaf almost surrounds the heavy ear which it helps to support, and, being necessarily cut along with it, gives trouble in cleaning the rice. Other varieties are sweet rice, which smells sweet in the field, in the bag, and on the table; black rice and red rice (two varieties), large Upland rice, twelve weeks’ rice, and bearded rice. This last has a long awn, somewhat like bearded barley, which is very useful in defending the grain from the attacks of birds. Thirty barrels of ‘Nagra’ rice in the husk per acre may be taken as a good crop; 24 of ‘Chitigong’ and 15 of Upland rice, which is equal to about half that number of bags when cleaned. In Trinidad native rice is generally sold in the husk. The price at present is $2°00 per barrel, but it varies with the price of imported rice.” Rice is also being grown to some extent in Jamaica and St. Lucia. At the prison farm in Jamaica three acres in rice were expected to yield at the rate of 70 bushels per acre. In other districts of the island 145 acres were returned as under rice. XxXvl COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. Lime InpustTRY. The exports of limes, concentrated lime juice, and essential oils of limes (obtained from the West Indian lime tree, Citrus Limetia) from Dominica are of the annual value of £45,370. Lime juice and oils are exported from Montserrat of the value of £8,090; limes and lime juice from Jamaica of the annual value of about £6,000. Trinidad also exports some lime juice. This industry has occasionally been threatened by the attacks of scale insects, chiefly the purple scale (/ytilasprs citricola) and the orange snow scale (Chionaspis citrt), both in Dominica and in Montserrat. It has been shown at Dominica that these insects can be kept in check by careful cultivation, including pruning and manuring the trees, and the use of insecticides. A small steam outfit for spraying lime trees has been introduced on one estate in Dominica, with satisfactory results. The manufacture of commercial citrate of lime has been in- vestigated by Dr. Watts, and the results have been published in the “ West Indian Bulletin” (Vol. II., p. 308, and Vol. III., p. 112). The lime shipments from Dominica are as follows : — Total shipments converted into barrels of fruit, on the bases of a concentration 11 to 1, and of 8 gallons of juice per barrel of fruit — Year. | Barrels. Year. Barrels. 1895... ce se 78,182 1900... Sot we 164,806 1896 ... See See 88,624 1901... aa oa 147,705 Repco Tees Grtan ek!) ass 90,837 (OOO hie sheesh eee TA6 WISH Bs as ace 125,816 1903... See 38s 107,883* 1899 ... te ee 127,556 1904... eee wee 153,523 * Blight and gale. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XXVil Shipments of Essential Oil of Limes. 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. 1903. | 194 Gals. Gals. Gals. Gals. Gals. | Gals. Distilled oil of limes | 3,315 3,990 y209 4,761 2,740 | 2,261 Otto of limes wee 272 456 608 948 310 543 There is a steady demand for West Indian limes in the United Kingdom. The late Colonial and Indian Exhibition, held at the Crystal Palace, proved of considerable service in bringing limes under the notice of the British public and encouraging their more general use instead of lemons. Tosacco InpustTRY. Increased interest is being taken in this industry, especially in Jamaica, where, in addition to the considerable local con- sumption, the exports of tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes are of the annual value of £20,000. Experiments in tobacco-growing have been carried on for some years in Trinidad and also in St. Kitts, Antigua, and St. Lucia. Shade-grown tobacco for wrappers has latterly been grown in Jamaica and St. Kitts. The experiments that have been carried on for some years at the Hope Experiment Station, Jamaica, have shown that cigar wrapper tobacco, equal, if not superior, to Sumatra, can be grown in Jamaica. The cost of production has been placed at 2s. to 2s. 25d. per lb. Samples of the leaf were estimated by an expert to be worth 6s. per |b. Although these figures are liable to revision, with-wider experi- ence in Jamaica and elsewhere, it is evident that the cultivation of this type of tobacco would leave a good margin for profit. . In regard to pipe tobacco, in a letter addressed to the Under- Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated October 21st, 1905, the Secretary to the Admiralty states that with the assistance of Mr. F. V. Chalmers, the Admiralty obtained a supply (1,508 XXVill COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. Ibs.) of leaf tobacco from Jamaica for trial in the Navy; but, as it transpired that this tobacco by itself was not suitable for pipe-smoking, and that there is not, at the present time, any Colonial-grown tobacco suitable for blending with it, arrange- ments were made for it to be blended and manufactured with a quantity of Virginian-grown tobacco, the proportion being 1,508 lbs. of Jamaica to 5,075 Ibs. of Virginian. This preparation is now undergoing trial in the Fleet, and the results of the experiment will be watched with interest. Russer Inpustry. During the last seven years the possibility of establishing rubber plantations in the West Indies has received attention. The first systematic attempts in that direction have been made in Trinidad and Tobago. It is estimated that in the latter island there are about 90,000 trees of the Central American rubber (Castiéloa elastica) already planted. (See pp. 180-187.) Small numbers of similar trees exist also in Jamaica, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia and Dominica, in all of which favourable conditions exist for a rubber industry. In some localities the trees are being used as shade for cacao. Specimens of rubber produced in Dominica and St. Lucia have been favourably re- ported on, and there is every probability that in districts suited to the growth of the trees large numbers will be planted during the next few years. Neither the Para rubber (Hevea braziliensis) nor the Lagos rubber (F'untumia elastica) has yet been tried on a large scale. In British Guiana an industry is being carried on in rubber obtained from the indigenous trees of Sapium biglandulosum and species of Hevea. SisaL Hemp Inpustry. Full information in regard to the requirements of this in- dustry has been published in the ‘‘ West Indian Bulletin ” (Vol. V., pp. 150-72). There are large stretches of land in the Lee- ward Islands well adapted for growing sisal hemp, and the industry would be likely to prove remunerative. ‘The true sisal hemp plant (Agave stsalana) is under experimental cultivation in several islands, and the fibre produced has been reported to WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XXix be of good quality and equal to that produced in Yucatan, Bahamas, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. The value of the sisal hemp exported from the Bahamas in 1902-3 was £37,574; im 1904-5, £29,557. The value exported from the Turks and Caicos Islands in 1900 was £5,080; in 1901, £6,551; and in 1902, £7,100. REARING OF STOCK. Considerable sums have been expended during the last six years by the Imperial Department of Agriculture in the pur- chase of pedigree animals for the purpose of improving local breeds in the smaller islands. Already there is a distinct-im- provement noticeable in some localities, especially in small stock, such as sheep, goats, rabbits, and poultry. Dominica has taken up the improvement of riding ponies, and a small stock farm is attached to the Agricultural School in that island. Two fine horses and a’ Maltese Jack have been maintained for several years. Berkshire pigs and poultry have also been introduced. In St. Vineent a stock farm is in course of being established. In the meantime a pedigree Hereford bull and improved breeds of sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, and rabbits have been introduced to replace, in part, those destroyed by the volcanic eruptions. In Barbados two stud goats, one presented by Baroness Burdett- Coutts, were introduced two years ago. Antigua, the small island of Nevis, and the Virgin Islands have also greatly bene- fitted by the introduction of new stock. At Barbuda the Government of Antigua is proposing to establish a stock-raising farm, and to utilize the large areas of good grass-land hitherto lying waste in that interesting island. What is known as the Woolless Sheep of Barbados (probably of African origin) has been distributed to the other Colonies, where it is regarded as very hardy and profitable. It is not uncommon for well-fed wethers to weigh 120 lbs. to 130 Ibs. (live weight) when about 15 months old. A number of these sheep have been supplied to the United States Department of Agriculture for trial in the Southern States. Further informa- tion is contained on pp. 229-237, XXX COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS, The appearance of anthrax in certain parts of the West Indies has caused keen interest to be taken in the subject. Trinidad is peculiarly liable to be infected, on account of the regular im- portation of animals from the adjoining coasts of Venezuela. Recently a serious outbreak of anthrax has appeared in some districts in British Guiana. . Sporadic cases have occurred in St. Vincent and Grenada. As shown on pp. 198-210, full informa- tion has been published as to the nature and treatment of anthrax, and it is hoped that effectual measures will be adopted in all these Colonies to keep the disease in check. TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES OF PLANTS. One of the earliest services rendered by the Department to the sugar industry in the West Indies was the discovery of the life-history of the moth borer of the sugar-cane. In some islands and in some years the loss in rotten canes caused by this insect amounted in value to several thousand pounds. Mr. Maxwell-Lefroy, Entomologist on the staff of this Department, discovered the eggs of the moth borer in 1900. These were de- posited in greenish clusters on the under side of the leaf of the sugar-cane, but in such a manner that they had hitherto escaped notice. Afterwards, Mr. Maxwell-Lefroy gave such valuable hints in regard to the manner of dealing with the pest that the sugar-cane borer is now capable of being kept under com- plete control; as also the weevil borer, root borer, cane fly, and shot borer. A new insect pest affecting sugar-cane is the large moth borer of British Guiana. It appeared on one estate only, and its attacks have fortunately not been repeated. Other diseases of the sugar-cane dealt with have been rind fungus, pine-apple disease, and the root fungus, all of which have been closely studied and described, so that the planters are favourably placed in dealing with them wherever they make their appear- ance. Further information in regard to these diseases is given on pp. 80-94. Similar investigation has been carried on in regard to the fungoid and insect pests affecting cacao trees in Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica, and Jamaica. “Canker” and “ die-back,” ‘“‘ brown rot” and “ pod rot,” “ thread blight,” and the Witch broom disease of Surinam are some of the fungoid WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. xx XE diseases dealt with. The chief insects that have been found to affect cacao trees are the cacao beetle and cacao thrips. The former is generally distributed throughout the West Indies and the northern parts of South America. ‘The latter was first re- ported as a serious pest to cacao at Grenada in 1898. (See pp. 125-137.) Cotton is seriously attacked by such fungoid diseases as rust, leaf spot, leaf mildew, anthracnose, and black boll. The chief insect pest is the cotton worm, sometimes causing serious dam- age, and if neglected causing the entire destruction of the crop. It has been conclusively proved that prompt treatment with Paris green is an effective protection against the cotton worm. Other insect pests are the cotton stainer, red maggot, leaf-blister mite, and boll weevil. The beneficial insects found on cotton are two kinds of lady-birds that prey on the cotton aphis, and the “wild bees” and “cow bees” (Poldstes) and other wasps which prey on the caterpillar of the cotton worm. (See pp. 155- 168.) The cocoa-nut palms in the West Indies have lately been attacked by a serious disease known as “ Bud-rot.” This came into prominence in Cuba in 1891, and it has since caused anxiety at Jamaica, Trinidad, and British Guiana. Owing to the pre- valence of this and other diseases, the prospects of the coco-nut industry in the West Indies, at present, are not so favourable as could be desired, but, provided that energetic and concerted action is taken by those concerned, and the directions issued by the Department are closely followed, serious apprehension need not be felt as to the ultimate results. With the view of preventing the introduction of further in- sect and other pests into the West Indies, the Department has taken an active part in securing the fumigation of all imported plants. The practice is now general in all the leading Colonies. No difficulty is experienced in carrying this out, as public opinion had already been educated in its favour, so that with the hearty co-operation of the planting community there has now been established an important means for keeping out insect and other pests, and thus protecting agricultural] interests in the West Indies, XXX COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. AGRICULTURAL 'FEACHING. Some of the results of the considerable attention that has been devoted by the Department to encouraging the teaching of the principles of agriculture in the colleges and schools in the West Indies are on record on pp. 238-280. In regard to the work carried on at Harrison College, Barbados, the late Head-master (Mr. Horace Deighton, M.A., F.R.A.5.), in a paper read before the Agricultural Conference at ‘Trinidad (p. 238), stated very fully the advantages that are being derived from the systematic teaching of science at this and similar col- leges. Mention might also be made of the successful working of the Agricultural Schools maintained by the Department at St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Dominica for training boys in the details of garden and field work, so as to fit them to start life as settlers on Crown lands and as foremen, overseers, or assistant managers of sugar, cacao, rubber, and cotton estates. There is also the testimony of the Inspectors of Primary Schools, com- menting on the success of the steps taken to train the teachers in agricultural subjects and the general advance that has taken place, of late years, in introducing such subjects into the curri- culum of the schools and in securing practical agricultural work by means of school gardens. There arealso to be noticed the popular agricultural knowledge that has been disseminated among all classes of the community by means of the travelling agricultural instructors, and the efforts of the Department in its relations with the agricultural societies and in promoting agricultural shows, at which prizes and diplomas are offered for competition. AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. The Imperial Department of Agriculture issues a popular fortnightly review entitled the ‘“ Agricultural News,” and a quarterly scientific journal, the “ West Indian Bulletin.” Both these publications have a wide circulation amongst mem- WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. xxxiil bers of the planting community. In addition, there are issued pamphlets on special subjects and annual progress reports on the several Botanic and Experiment Stations, the Agricultural Schools, and Agricultural Education. The total number of copies of publications issued by the Department during the year 1904 amounted to 76,200. ImperRraL VaLur or DEPARTMENT. Recent experience has shown that the Imperial Department of Agriculture is serving a useful purpose as a leading school of tropical agriculture. It issues, as already stated, from 50,000 to 70,000 copies of publications every year, and these are widely circulated in the West Indian Colonies and in other British possessions in the tropics of both the Old andthe New World. It is acknowledged that there is no other organization in any part of the tropics where such diversified work is carried on over so large an area and under such varying conditions of soil and climate. The total area of the British possessions in this part of the world in which the Department is interested is 116,451 square miles, with total exports of the annual value of £6,102,000. Hence it is possible to afford a sound scientific and practical training to students in the cultivation of crops suited to nearly all tropical conditions. Experimental stations are maintained for practically testing crops at different eleva- tions, as wel! as in dry and wet districts. Further, the results are tabulated year by year, reviewed, as compared with the results in previous years and in other countries, and placed within reach of those interested in such a manner as to be readily understood and acted upon. Amongst the capable scientific men who have been trained under the Imperial Department of Agriculture during the last seven years, and holding appointments elsewhere, are the fol- lowing :— Entomologist to the Government of India, Mycologist to the Government of India, Assistant-Director of Agriculture in "93011 C XXXIV COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. British East Africa, Superintendent of Agriculture in Fiji, Assistant Director of Vegetable Pathology, Hawaiian Islands, Superintendent of Economic Collections at the Imperial Insti- tute, London. Arrangements are also under consideration for supplying cotton experts, assistant chemists for sugar factories, and fore- men in charge of cacao, rubber, and other plantations. It is anticipated that the demand for such specially trained men will steadily increase. Every effort is therefore being made to supply them. The diversified character of the cultivations carried on in the West Indies affords ready means for training such men. In fact, the resources of the Department in this respect have been declared by a competent authority to be unique. InDIRECT VALUE OF THE DEPARTMENT. One of the most gratifying features connected with the work of the Department is the steady growth of appreciation of its value “in uplifting the several Colonies into the view of one another and into the view of the Mother Country and new mar- kets and capabilities.” This is particularly shown on such occa- sions as the West Indian Agricultural Conferences, where leading men, possessing a direct interest in the welfare of these Colonies and representing the practical side of agriculture, cordially co- operate with the officers of the Department in solving the com- plex and often difficult problems submitted for their con- sideration. The success of these Conferences has probably done more than anything else to bring the Department into sympathy with all sections of the community. As well stated by Dr. Watts: ‘‘ Of more importance than all are the changes induced insensibly in the members of the com- munity generally. The work of the trained officers of the De- partment, by its constant, steady operation, has a wider and deeper influence than an uninterested observer may imagine, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, XXXV Under this influence ideas are stimulated, good ones encouraged and faulty ones corrected or disposed of, so that there results a general progressive tendency, the origin of which cannot be readily or definitely traced, but which in its result upon the welfare of a community is perhaps of equal, or even greater, importance than the conscious, definite efforts of the Depart- ment.” I have, &e., 1). Morris. 23011 C2 RESULTS OF RECENT EXPERIMENTS WITH SEEDLING CANES AND MANURIAL EXPERI- MENTS IN THE WEST INDIES. BRITISH GUIANA.* By Professor J. B. Harrison, C.M.G., M.A. BoaRD OF AGRICULTURE EXPERIMENTS. (a.) Older Varieties of Sugar-cane. Experiments with these have been practically discontinued. The results of fifteen years’ continuous experiments showed that, taking the yield of the Bourbon variety as 100, the values of the better kinds were ag follows: — White Transparent ... in He ee) Mani ve ae eo pee Po-a-ole a mate aie sa 98°5 Red Ribbon ... vee ne ea 94°4 Tamarind __.... ne + me 84°9 Bois-rouge.... ae tis * 81°9 Chigaca ERY ake ae aN 81°2 Kamba-Kamba-vati ae Te 80°9 Sacuri ee me Bui ear 80°0 Purple Transparent m7 oa 79°4 Elephant a Pe ee ay. 75°7 Few of these varieties are now to be found in the cane fields of this Colony. About 1,800 acres are occupied by White Transparent canes, but this area will be largely reduced in the near future. Canes of this variety are also found spar- ingly scattered through the fields of Bourbon canes. A few acres are occupied by Red Ribbon and Purple Transparent canes grown for experimental purposes, while scattered canes * This paper covers the period January 1, 1900, to December 31, 1904, and contains the most recent information available 2 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. of these varieties may be found in the fields of Bourbon, as a rule more sparingly than are White Transparent. Here and there a few canes of other varieties may be found, remnants of varieties distributed in the eighties. None of these varieties on the large scale have equalled in productiveness the Bourbon variety, and every one of them has defects, either from the cultural or the manufactur- ing point of view, and frequently from both, which effectually prevent them from competing for the planters’ favour with the Bourbon as “all-round” canes. The following table shows the number of sugar plantations in British Guiana on which the older varieties are being cultivated and the acreage occupied by them :— No. of Plantations. Acreage. = nN e6 + 1S a os COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. Apparently our newer method is the more successful in producing what may be termed the raw material for our re- searches—new varieties of canes which have passed the first cultural and been placed in classes 1 to 3 by the chemical selection. EXPERIMENTS ON SuGAR ESTATES. Practically every sugar estate in the colony has carried on small-scale experiments with varieties of canes, but as it had been long recognised in British Guiana that the results of small-scale experiments, and especially of small-scale experiments conducted on sugar estates where it is impossible to give the minute care and attention which such experiments require and receive at the experiment station, are frequently unreliable in their indications for guidance in the selection of varieties for cultivation on the manufacturing scale, no notice is taken of their results except perhaps by the Manager of the estate. But we have established a system of large-scale experi- ments under which only results obtained on areas of not less than one acre and repeated on not less than six estates are recognised. These give more reliable results, especially in cases where the area under cultivation is relatively large and the trials are numerous. The following table shows the results of these field trials between 1900 and 1905, giving the mean yields of commercial sugar reported as obtained per acre by each variety during six crops and the proportion of the yield compared with those of the Bourbon and of the White Trans- parent taken, respectively, as 100: | | Tons of com- | White mercial Sugar oe 5p | Transparent ei per acre. oe | = 100: D. 625 ... 2°50 135°8 150°6 De So xcs 2°02 109°7 1216 Sealy ... 1°96 106°1 118°0 D. 145 ... 1°95 105°9 117°4 De 109.003 1-93 104°3 116°2 Bete 556 1°86 101°6 112°0 Bourbon 1°84 100-0 110°8 D. 74... ke 1-72 93°5 103 6 White Transparent 1°66 90:2 100°0 DATS =i4 aos 1-49 80:9 89°9 ee Certain estates have not found it feasible to give returns of the yield of each variety, but have supplied comparative WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 returns of the yields of the Bourbon and of seedling varieties. The following are examples of this:— Bourbon. Seedlings. oe S oe oS a & ro Se eller) Oem beg eee & | | aess| & | baeee S rio On ONES 3 = og Ds 2 | & fees See 9° ° g o 2 Ue . 4 |e x | | | Estate No.1 (a) ... | 703 [1,588 296 | 151 884] 255 Gresko) ota | wees [Lome 280 146} 431] 2-94 Estate No.2 (a)... | 1,578 [3,263 | 2:07 881 |2,340 | 265 f (b) ~ ... | 1,120 }2,800 | 250 |1,001 /3,180] 3:18 Estate No.3 (a)... | 1,494 | 2,347 1:57 793 |1,448 | 1°82 ‘ (b) ... | 956 | 1,280 1:30 | 1,003 | 1,711 1-70 This is an average increase of °35 tons of sugar per acre or of 17 per cent. in favour of the seedling varieties. The field and factory results obtained in the large-scale experiments are of high value, as, apart from the actual yields per acre of canes and of commercial sugars, the various difficulties which arise with the new varieties, especially in crushing and in the value of their megass for fuel purposes, are recorded. During the earlier periods of the large-scale experiments it appeared that these difficulties might have proved sufficiently formidable in practice to prevent the adop- tion of new varieties on the commercial scale, but now they have been largely overcome, and probably in the course of time our planters will succeed either in eliminating them or in obtaining new varieties of canes in which these defects do not occur. During the crop of September-December, 1904, the areas occupied by the principal varieties reported upon in the large- scale experiments were: —D. 625, 174 acres; D. 95, 74 acres; Sealy, 41 acres; D. 145, 105 acres; D. 109, 882 acres; B. 147, 355 acres; Bourbon, 11,900 acres; and White Transparent, 1,725 acres. L estimate that at present an area of about 14,800 acres is occupied in British Guiana with varieties other than the Bourbon, and of these about 18,000 acres are cultivated in new seedling varieties. The favourite varieties with our planters are D. 109, B. 147, D. 145, D. 625, and B. 208. The following tables show the number of plantations raising seedling canes on the large scale, and the areas occupied on 8 SOLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. them by various varieties during recent years, and will illus- trate the gradually increasing favour in which certain of the new kinds are held: — Number of Plantations. Cane. 1901-2. | 1902-38.| 1903-4.) 1904-5. Dots... 20 26 | 32 33 Des 15 214 20 11 B. 147 19 20 | 22 21 D. 145 14 19>] 28 27 D.. 95 9 Ao 11 10 D. 74 10 14 12 11 D. 625 11 16 24 28 D. 115 8 10 | 12 11 B. 208 1 ae 6 8 B. 109 3 4 | 8 7 Sealy 8 Gola elt 12 D. 116 4 10 | il 7 Dr ig 1 ie 6 3 D.1S0.*:.. 3 3144 5 4 B.: £56- <0: a5 ] 5) o— 2 Green Transparent 3 aa 3 2 B. 41 ; 2 By 4 | 6 B. 386 — 4 | 2 1 D. 1,897 — Be ack 2 -— D. 4,191 ~ 1 1 1 Burke ... 1 1 1 f D. 1,087 — 1 2 2 De 1,959 - 1 1 2 D. 4,415 oo 1 — o— D. 2,468 Se a aon ae 1 4 3 Mixed and not enumerated varieties. 33 42 41* 38* * Amalgamation of estates. Acreage. Cane. | 1901-2. | i902-3.} 1903-4.| 1904-5 | | | [ DET se. a 2797 1 2583.3 3.9ad 5,491 PaO Po a620ea1, - S8Gon4 4cG 277 B. 147 ... sia) ee | (25.77 tol 1,325 De 145. 3 ne «orp eee 3 G44 902 1,316 Ds ieee ose Me fe heey, he el nia LG 231 Demeo els . | 216 | (925 | 262 | 187 D625 i.33 TH Oe PP S542 1,445 DD. L184: 2s 84 | 80 58 B. 208. 35 43, 151 713 1,437 B. 109 ... 41 | 66 70 91 Sealy . 40 | 93 177 221 WEST XNDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 9 Acreage—cont. Cane; 1901-2. | 1902-3. | 1903-4.) 1904-5. DraltiGes 36 58 80 150 DFALT. 9 17 111 21 Dal SOR «- 8 38 41 20 Be 1665.5. ‘ee 6 10 — — Green Transparent 5 20 31 54 B. 4l oe ba ae 4 8 38 36 B. 386 si Me A 10 51 55 25 D. 1,897 ‘ — 32 37 — D. 4,191 — 30 34 22 Burke ... 28 28 28 24 D. 1,087 a 10 13 11 D. 1,959 = 9 9 10 D. 4,415 — 5 15 5 D. 2,468 ae ae ae eee — 5 13 idl Mixed and not enumerated varieties. —_ 364 714 500 otal css Bec ae 4,329 6,321 9,285 | 12,942 Our experience, as far as it goes, indicates that in the selection of seedling varieties more attention should be given to the size of the cane, and the number of shoots each stool produces, and to its ratooning power, which is, in the majority of canes, dependent upon its resistant power to disease and to drought, than to its high saccharine contents. We have found that while the tendency is for decrease in the course of culti- vation in the first-named qualities, the sugar contents, in many instances, tend in an opposite direction. Our experiments with quickly maturing, relatively small- sized canes, such as Nos. 74 and 95, with high saccharine con- tents have not been altogether satisfactory. A medium to large-sized cane with well-marked tillering and ratooning powers, and of fairly high saccharine content, say, equal to that of the Bourbon, appears to be of higher value to us in British Guiana than are smaller, relatively rich varieties. Fortunately, we have indications that among our latest selection of seedlings are large-sized varieties of very high saccharine contents. Perhaps the advantage of the seedling varieties which is most appreciated by the planters is that several kinds are cap- able of yielding large and remunerative crops of canes on land on which the Bourbon will not now thrive. Some varieties will flourish on the heavy clay front lands of the plantations, others on the somewhat lighter soils at the back of the culti- vations. On some estates the result of this is that the cane cultivation using seedling varieties is being extended at the 10 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. back of the estates on soils that the Bourbon cannot flourish upon, while land set free from cane cultivation on the front lands is being planted in rice. ManvurRIAL EXPERIMENTS. Systematic manurial experiments have been carried on in British Guiana for the past twenty-four years, and much information has gradually accrued. During the eighties many experiments were carried on on sugar estates in a manner closely’ resembling that at present in use in Barbados, Antigua, and St. Kitts. Under conditions existent in British Guiana, it was recognised early in the nineties that these small-plot estate manurial.experiments did not give authoritative results, being subject to the same dis- abilities as are all small-plot experiments on sugar estates. The land devoted to sugar-cane in British Guiana is of fairly uniform nature and consists of sea-borne clay and sand in varying proportions. In places this alluvial soil is covered by more or less deep layers of a vegetable or peaty soil known locally as “ pegass.” From the uniform mode of origin of the soils it follows that, subject to modifications due to the various proportions of clay and sand present and to climatic conditions, results obtained on a station under well-planned arrangements should be applicable throughout the sugar-cane belt of the Colony. Hence it is not considered desirable to multiply in the Colony manurial experiment stations, but to leave it to every manager to use his skilled agricultural knowledge in making the modifications from the methods found advisable on the station on his estate and on the fields under his charge which his experience shows to be desirable to meet their varying conditions of soils, &c. In 1890 part of the land now occupied by the Board of Agriculture’s experimental fields was put under tillage, and experiments. with manures were commenced in 1891. The experiments were arranged according to a plan which I had prepared, and which had been submitted to the ‘“* Masters,” Sir John Bennet Lawes and Sir Joseph Gilbert, of Rothamsted, for criticism and suggestions. They approved of it without alteration. This plan has been closely adhered to since. At the commencement of the work we kept two objects in view: first, the determination of the effects of the manurial constituents of plant-food upon the yield of the sugar-cane; second, the determination, if feasible, of the effect of tillage, manuring, and cropping on the proportion of the readily assimilable manurial constituents of plant food in the soil. The results of the last few years show how far we have succeeded, WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1] Lime.—Upon heavy clay land the action of lime in accen- tuating its fertility is frequently most marked. We treated every alternate bed in the field with slaked lime obtained from Barbados in the proportion of 5 tons per acre and costing for its purchase and application $30. The excess-yields upon limed plots have been as follows : — Tons of Cane per acre. Crop reaped in Non-manured Manured plots. plots. 1892 Plants 6°4 7°05 1893 Ratoons 8°15 TA 1894 ‘s eo 3°45 1895 #3 3°6 2°40 1896 Fallow — — 1897 Plants 4°3 5-4 1898 Ratoons Baa) 4] 1899 nt a me uae Crop failed* Crop failed* 1900 Fallow a ae ae — =< 1901 Plants ? 1902 Ratoons 1903 :, 1904 5 Total increase in 10 crops ... * 1899 crop failed from drought. Thus in the ten crops, the results of which are recorded, the lime has on land not manured produced an increase of 33 tons of canes, and on manured land one of 37 tons. Or, in round figures, 5 tons of lime have produced 3 tons of commercial sugar. Phosphates.—Phosphates have as a rule exerted some effects. With superphosphates these have been most marked when the manure was applied to plant canes; little, if any, beneficial results having followed its application to ratoons. The appli- cations have not, therefore, been invariably followed by financially profitable increases of produce. The experiments have indicated that the mode of application of superphosphate to the sugar-cane on the clay soils of Demerara most likely to prove profitable is to apply it in fairly heavy dressings, say, up to 3 cwt. per acre, to the plant canes, and to trust to obtain the benefit of the phosphates not utilized by that crop during the successive crops of ratoons. Comparative experi- ments made by applying superphosphates and slag-phosphates showed that heavy applications of slag-phosphates, say, of 12 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. 5 to 6 ewt. per acre, to plant canes, have been more remune- rative than dressings of superphosphates of equal cost, either when applied in heavy dressings to the plant canes or in lighter ones to successive crops of plant and ratoon canes. Our present system is to apply slag-phosphates at the rate of 600 Ibs. per acre to the young plant canes, repeating the application each successive series of plants and ratoons. It is a point requiring investigation as to whether it is necessary to apply slag-phosphates in our system of agriculture as fre- quently as once in every five years. We have some indications that it may not always be necessary to do so. Potash—We have experimented with the use of sulphate and of nitrate of potash as constituents of cane manures, and have obtained results with both of them indicating that, on our heavy clay soils and under our system of agriculture, potash is not required as a manure for the sugar-cane- under the usual conditions of agricultural practice. Nitrogen —(a.) Bourbon variety.—Experiments have been carried on to ascertain the effects of nitrogenous manures upon the Bourbon cane, the White Transparent cane, Nos. eee) et 0, 1 109, DD. 115,\D. 116, D. 1380- Be 147; 625, D: 2,190, and D: 3956. The results with the Bourbon show that between 1892 and 1902 the average increased yields over unmanured crops where the plots received applications, without phosphates and potash, of sulphate of ammonia and of nitrate of soda, supplying 40 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, were 39°8 and 33 per cent. respectively, the average increase in canes due to the sulphate of ammonia being 6 tons, and to nitrate of soda, 5°6 tons. Experiments have also been made by applying sulphate of ammonia without mineral manures in higher proportions, but only over four crops with the Bourbon cane, the indications being that using quantities of sulphate of ammonia up to 300 Ibs. per acre, the addition of phosphates and potash was not necessary ta ensure their satisfactory manurial effects. As a rule, the plots manured with phosphates and potash have given higher returns than those not so manured, the increase being 5°9 per cent. or 1°3 tons of canes per acre. It is noteworthy that the increased yields were highest during the earlier years of the experiments, and that during the last few years the tendency has been for the crops on the land which has received the purely mineral manuring to be less than those on the unmanured land. Plots that have been manured with phosphates and potash have also been manured with sulphate of ammonia and with nitrate of soda in increasing proportions. The following shows WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 13 the increase. in tons per acre due to the nitrogenous applica- tions and the percentage increases as compared with the plots without nitrogen taken as 100:— | | Sulphate of Ammonia.} Nitrate of Soda. Nitrogen per acre. | Le i at i | Tons Per cent. Tons Per cent. | of canes. | increase of canes. | increase. | 40 lb 7! aes tah 52 32°6 5°6 | 3t2 O05; ae see eae kl 76 47°6 7:0 | 46°5 80 ,, ee a cass 9-6 60-2 ok | 48°4 | These results obtained over ten crops in thirteen years in- © dicate that 10 lbs. of nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia, when added in proportions up to 300 lbs. per acre, give approximately 1°3 tdns of canes or, say, 9 per cent. re- covery, 24 cwts. of commercial (96 per cent.) sugar. It is an, easy matter to estimate, knowing the prices of sulphate of ammonia and of sugar respectively, if manurings on land in good heart with sulphate of ammonia are likely or not to prove profitable. Similarly, as higher applications than 300 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia will probably result in 1 ton of canes or 1°8 cwt. of commercial sugar for each 10 Ibs. of nitrogen applied, the advisability of higher manurings than 300 lbs. can readily be determined. Similarly with nitrate of soda. Up to 250 lbs. of nitrate of soda, each 10 lbs. of nitrogen will probably give 1°4 tons of canes or 24 cwts. of commercial (96 per cent.) sugar. But it is evident from the figures that it is not wise to apply more than 250 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre at one ‘dressing. Experiments have also been made in which dried blood has been the source of nitrogen, and the indications were, over a period of eight crops, that the relative value of the nitrogen in dried blood for use with sugar-canes was, in round figures, 73 per cent. of that of the nitrogen in sulphate ot ammonia. The effects of mixtures of nitrate of soda and of sulphate of ammonia used in place of sulphate of ammonia have been determined experimentally, but the results have not been more satisfactory than the use of either sulphate of ammonia or of nitrate of soda alone. Possibly, where heavier manurings than about 60 lbs. of nitrogen per acre are used, the mixture may prove advantageous, but I have not tried it. During two seasons, when the yields were adversely affected by drought and fungoid disease, comparisons were undertaken | of the manurial value of nitrogen in raw guano, in sulphate 23011 D 14 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. of ammonia, and in nitrate of soda. The more readily available forms of nitrogen gave the better results. (6.) Seedling varieties—D. 145.—Experiments were com- menced with this promising seedling variety in 1900, and the results may be summarised as follows :— Tons of canes per acre per crop. No Manure eee Soi ae aoe 17-0 Farm manure 20 tons in 1900... 19-1 Nitrate of soda 40 lb. nitrogen 26°2 = ne Z 5 One Sulphate of ammonia " . - aa Mean247 tone. ” ” D9 ” a ” ” 80 ” ” 22°5 Phosphates and potash... ; aan 22°0 Phosphates, potash, and anil OLE sulphate of ammonia 40 ap perroges ae Ak can 9957 tons ” ” 60 ,, 9 30°5 =m d Phosphates, potash, and pee oe osphates, potash, an OR: nitrate of soda ” 40 v a Be Moan'27°8 tone ” ” 60 ” ” 25°7 : ” ” 80 ”) ” 31:3 Another series laid down in 1901 on new land has given the following : — Tons of canes per acre per crop. No nitrogen aon 20 eh aoe 48 40:0 10 lb. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia es 43:1 ao » " ” ae _~ Mean 47-0 tons. 60 ” ” ” ” eee 44-9 80 ” ” ” ” wee | 49°3 These results indicate that on the older long-cultivated land D. 145 required manurings with phosphates and potash to enable nitrogen in quantities beyond 40 lbs. per acre to exert its full effect, and that when applied in the quantity supplied by 400 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia per acre, each 10 lbs. of nitrogen produced 1°5 tons of canes or, say, 2% ewts. of com- mercial (96 per cent.) sugar. Nitrate of soda when applied in quantities of less than 250 lbs. per acre was more efficacious than were equivalent amounts of sulphate of ammonia, but with higher dressings the reverse was the result, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 15 Apparently D. 145 requires a larger proportion of available phosphates and potash for its full development than does the Bourbon. On the new land D. 145 appears to have been able largely to utilise the stores of soil nitrogen, but, although the results of the manurings with nitrogen are not at all regular, it is evident that it has utilised applications of sulphate of ammonia to some extent. An average application of 50 lbs. of nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia has given 5°3 tons of canes, that is, an application of 10 lbs. of nitrogen has resulted in 1°06 tons of canes or in 1°9 cwts. of commercial (96 per cent.) sugar per acre. i D. 78.—A cane originally of very high promise but which has fallen off in vigour and productiveness for several years past. The results with it may be summarised as follows: — Tons of canes per acre per crop. No manure “at ise es £3:5 Stable manure 20 tons in 1900 17-1 Nitrate of soda 40 lb. nitrogen 20:0 Sulphate of ammonia 40 ,, 4 18°9 * si 9 26°5 > Mean 23-2 tons. ” ” 80 ” ” 27°6 Phosphates and potash... : 14°6 us apaates, POUe ang t 40 lb. nitrogen 19-2 sulphate of ammonie : Moan: 1aegdons: ” ” 0 ” ” 16°6 ” ” 80 ,, ” 17-2 y eee ie ees : Mean 19°5 tons. 19 ” 60 ”? ” 19°6 ” ye 80 ” ” 21°4 es The series laid down in 1901 on new land has given the following : — | Tons of canes per acre per crop. | No nitrogen rc es eae aa yon 30°6 20 lb. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia _... ook 40 ,, ie e fe tee 43°4 ALG 60 5 ‘ : ae 40-0 Mean 41-6 tons. 80 ,, use 48-1 On the old land the only deduction that can be drawn is that the yields of D. 78 have been increased by manurings with nitrogen, and this is accentuated by the results obtained on the new land, The very irregular nature of the records 2301] D2 16 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. is due to the highly unsatisfactory mode of growth of this variety, a defect that has compelled us to cease its cultivation. D. 625.—Two series of manurial experiments are being carried on with this important variety, the earlier on new land’ planted in 1901, the latter on longer cultivated land planted in 1902. The results are summarised in the follow- ing :— Tons of canes per acre per crop. No nitrogen ans wes ove ae ais 38°0 20 lb. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia o 42°6 40 ,, is a AZT a J 60 . i i ie te 45°5 Mean 44°6 tons. 80 ” ” ” ” sai5 Coe 47°6 Here again we have an example of a variety that has marked powers of utilising soil nitrogen. D. 109.—This is the most widely planted seedling variety in British Guiana; like D. 625, it has been experimented on both in the new and the old land with the following results : — | Tons of canes per acre per crop. No nitrogen eile ers nae use 29°8 20 lb. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia 52°90 a » 2 2 ay fs ao Mean 36°2 tons. ” ” ” ” Ss betid : 80 yy i 2 ge eae Sik a Rae Another variety with marked powers of utilising soil nitrogen. D. 116.—This kind has been grown only on the new land. The following are its indications : — Tons of canes per acre per crop. No nitrogen wale ars aes a3a si 40:4 20 Ib. nitrogen as sulphate ot ammonia... a 46:0 40 ‘ a Re Maes be 45:0 F \; 60 2 i i Baa Ei 53:6 Mean 48-4 tons. 80 ,, ¥ N Sra ras ae 49-1 The demand of this cane for nitrogenous manures and its power of utilising them appear to be similar to that of the Bourbon, WEST -INDIES——DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a D. 3,956.—This has been experimented with only in the new land. Its results ¢ are as s follows: — Tons of canes per acre | per crop. No nitrogen a ve ae 37°6 a lb. nitrogen as sulphate ‘of ammonia. cor eto ” ” ” ” eee coe 37:9 a ; 60 ,, e) i es Re 43:8 Mean 41:4 tons. 80 ” ” ” ” eee eee 47°4 When the manurial experiments with varieties were started, it was thought that the following four varieties were not likely to be of commercial importance as sources of sugar in this Colony, and nitrogenous manures were applied to them only in low dressings : — D. 74.—Only grown on the new land where it has given the following results :— Tons of canes per acre per crop. No nitrogen ne : ate 30°2 20 Ib. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia ae 37°2 40 ,, ee 40°1 D. 95.—Grown similarly to D. 74. No nitrogen : ne 32°0 20 Ib. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia cae 33°0 40 ,, cs vot 34°9 D. 130.—Also as D. 74. No nitrogen q “Ae 36°9 20 Ib. nitr ogen as sulphate of ammonia i 42°8 40 ” ” ” ” 47°5 ‘These rapidly maturing varieties show, with the exception of D. 95, a marked demand for manurial nitrogen and great powers of utilising it to advantage. D. 115—This variety has been grown experimentally on both the new and the old land, and -has given the following results :— | ‘Tons of canes per acre per crop. | ( No nitrogen di tos 28°6 20 lb. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia wae 33°5 40 ,, ” ” ” sais sa 36°4 18 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. and apparently its nitrogen requirements are very similar to those of D. 74 and D. 1380. Experiments on the new land are also being carried on with 'D. 2,190 and B. 147, and with Bourbon and White Transparent for purposes of comparison. Only two crops of these have been reaped with the following results : — es Bourbons. White Transparent. | No nitrogen .. ree Re 24:5 235.41 40 lb. nitrogen as sulphate of 29-0 29°) | ammonia Mean | ( Mean 60 ,, nitrogen as sulphate of |: 27°5 31°3 30°8 | 30°9 ammonia tons | ( tons. 80 ,, nitrogen as sulphate of 36°3 329) ammonia. B. 147. D. 2,190. | No nitrogen waa aie 23°5 17-9 40 Ib. nitrogen as sulphate of 26°7 18-5 | ammonia. | Mean | ( Mean 60 ,, nitrogen as sulphate of 28:2 Zod 26°9\ |4 25:3 + ammonia. tons. | ( tons. J 8) ,, nitrogen as sulphate of 34:3 305. | ammonia. | These experiments supply us with ample proofs that every one of our new varieties requires manuring with nitrogen to give really satisfactory results. hey indicate also that some of the varieties have higher powers of utilising soil nitrogen than the Bourbon has, and that, while certain of them appear not to utilise manuring with nitrogen to as great advantage as does the Bourbon, others, on the contrary, may utilise it to greater advantage. Errrcts oF MANURES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SoIL. At the commencement of the experiments in 1891 the soil of the field was most carefully sampled and an analysis made. The sample was preserved so as to enable future reference to it if desirable. At the termination of the series of experiments in 1902, samples were drawn with the utmost care from the plots which had been variously manured. The proportions of total nitrogen, and of phosphoric anhydride and potash soluble in 1 per cent. aqueous citric acid solution, during five hours constant shaking in a mechanical (Wagner’s rotating) shaker, were determined in these samples and in the original one. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. i9 The analytical figures obtained have enabled us to form the following conclusions : — (1) That the growth of the sugar-cane without nitro- genous manure is accompanied by a considerable loss of the nitrogen in the soil, amounting in ten years to 18°6 per cent. on not-limed land and to 26°7 per cent. on lhimed land. These are equivalent to losses from the soil to a depth of 8 inches of 880 lbs. and 1,250 lbs. respec- tively, per acre. (2) Repeated heavy dressings with farmyard manure have resulted in an increase in the total nitrogen of the soil. In ten years the increase was 20°3 per cent., equal to 960 lbs. of nitrogen per acre added to the soil to a depth of 8 inches. (3) The growth of the sugar-cane on plots receiving only nitrogenous manures has resulted in losses of soil nitrogen; where sulphate of ammonia was applied the loss amounted to 14°7 per cent. or to 670 lbs. of nitrogen, and where nitrate of soda was used, to 16°3 per cent. or to 775 lbs. of nitrogen per acre in the soil to a depth of 8 inches. (4) On soils manured with phosphates, potash, and nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia the loss of soil nitrogen in the top 8 inches amounted to 14°7 per cent. or to 700 lbs. per acre, while where nitrate of soda was the source of nitrogen the loss was far higher, amounting to 26°5 per cent. or to 1,250 lbs. per acre. The above show that the nitrogen which accumulates in the upper layers of the soil during long periods of forest growth or of fallowing, while the land is covered by dense growths of sedges, grasses, and leguminous plants, suffers great and rapid losses when the soil is put under intensive sugar-cane cultivation, and it is to the loss of the accumulated stores of readily available nitrogen that the marked falling off in the yield of canes per acre, which is almost invariably noticed when successive crops are taken off from either new or from long-rested soils, is due. This loss is greatly diminished where heavy dressings of farmyard or pen manure are regularly used, and upon very heavy clay soils the loss may be reduced to a minimum and an actual gain ensue. The loss of nitrogen is greater on soils manured with nitrate of soda than on soils manured with sulphate of ammonia, and this may be due to the well-known action of the former salt in loosening and rendering the ground more permeable and hence more liable to losses by drainage. COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. The loss of nitrogen, as would be expected, is greater on limed soils than on not-limed ones. (5) The soil in 1891, at the commencement of the ex- periments, yielded “0142 per cent. of phosphoric anhy- dride to a 1 per cent. aqueous solution of citric acid. After ten years’ cropping without manure it yielded ‘0086 per cent., which shows a loss of nearly 40 per cent. of the probably available phosphoric anhydride or of, in round figures, 170 lbs. per acre. (6) Where the soil received manures not containing phosphates, the proportion of probably available phos- phoric anhydride was reduced to ‘0096 per cent., equal to a loss of 32°4 per cent. or to one of, in round figures, 140 lbs. per acre. (7) Where superphosphates were used in addition to nitro- genous manures the proportion of the probably available phosphoric anhydride was reduced to ‘0182 per cent., indicating a loss of 7 per cent. or of 30 lbs. per acre. (8) Where slag-phosphates had been applied, the pro- bably available phosphoric anhydride has been reduced to ‘0102 per cent. equal to a loss of 28°1 per cent. or to one of 120 lbs. per acre. It is worthy of note that in our more recent experiments, while manuring with slag-phosphates produced, on the plots which had received superphosphates during the earlier years of the experiments, mean in- creases of only 2°3 per cent., they produced, on those which had been manured with slag-phosphates, a mean increase of 5°8 per cent. (9) The determinations of potash soluble in 1 per cent. citric acid solution and in 200th normal hydrochloric acid showed that cultural operations have made probably avail- able more potash each year than is required for the ‘growth of the sugar-cane, the original samples yielding potash at the rates of 262 lbs. and 278 lbs. per acre to a depth of 8 inches, those not manured with potash salts during ten years at the rates of 376 lbs. and 500 !bs., and those which received potash salts in addition to nitro- genous manures at the rates of 357 lbs. and 530 lbs. (10) Judging from the solubility of the lime in the soil in 200th normal hydrochloric acid, cultural operations set free in a soluble form more lime than the crops utilised, the original soil yielding lime to the solvent at the ‘rate of, in round figures, 3,400 lbs. per acre to a depth of 8 inches, while the samples taken after ten years’ cultivation yielded at the mean rate of 3,800 lbs. The soils which received in July, 1891, slaked lime, supplying, in round figures, 6,700 lbs. of actual lime per acre, yielded to the WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT -OF AGRICULTURE. 21 acid in 1902 a mean of 5,000 lbs. per acre, thus indicating after ten years’ cultural operations a retention. in the uppermost layer of the soil of only 1,200 lbs. of the added lime in a readily soluble form. (11) The action of the lime on the solubility of the potash in the uppermost layer of the soil appeared well- marked, the samples from the not-limed land yielding to 200th normal hydrochloric acid at a mean rate of 460 lbs. of potash per acre to a depth of 8 inches, while those from the limed land yielded at a mean rate of 640 lbs. It has always been a matter of great difficulty to form an opinion from the analytical examination of a sugar-cane soil as to the desirability or not of manuring it with potash, phos- phates, or lime. We cannot, even now, definitely state more than that such manurings on a soil containing more than a certain minimum (not yet accurately known) of these con- stituents will not result in increased yields, but the experi- ments which have been carried on in the experimental fields and the numerous analyses which have been made of our sugar-cane soils have enabled us to come to the conclusion that a British Guiana sugar-cane soil containing more than ‘007 per cent. of phosphoric anhydride soluble in 1 per cent. citric acid solution by five hours’ continuous shaking will not, as a rule, respond to manurings with phosphates, and that it is doubtful if soils yielding, under similar conditions, from ‘005 to ‘007 per cent. of phosphoric anhydride, will, as a rule, benefit by phosphatic manurings. If the soil yields less than ‘005 per cent. of phosphoric anhydride, it is advisable to apply heavy dressings of slag-phosphates, or lighter ones of super- phosphates, or of so-called basic superphosphates. British Guiana soils, yielding ‘008 per cent. of potash to the citric acid solution, can be regarded as containing, under the usual system of cultivation, sufficient available potash for the needs of the sugar-cane. If the soil yields from ‘005 to °008, it is doubtful if the application of potash salts will result in remunerative returns, and where the yield falls below -005 it is advisable to add potash salts in the manures. The demand of the sugar-cane for lime as a plant-food 1s low, and if the toil gives up more than ‘006 per cent. to the 1 per cent. citric acid, it probably will yield sufficient for plant food for ordinary crops of sugar-cane. The following are the general deductions arrived at during these experiments :— (1) Nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia, of nitrate of soda, or raw guano, and of dried blood exerted a favourable influence upon the yield of the sugar-cane, COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. and is without doubt the manurial constituent the supply of which mainly governs the yield of the plant. (2) When used in quantities capable of supplying not more than 40 lbs.of nitrogen per acre, there was prac- tically no difference in the effects of sulphate of ammonia and of nitrate of soda, but, on the whole, the former is, in my opinion, the preferable salt to apply. (3) Where applied in quantities supplying more than 40 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, sulphate of ammonia is the best source of nitrogen for the sugar-cane on the alluvial soils of British Guiana. (4) The sugar-cane made more effectual use of the nitrogen supplied by 200 Ibs. per acre of sulphate of ammonia and by 250 lbs. of nitrate of soda than it did of that supplied in heavier dressings. On the whole, dressings of from 2 to 8 ewts. of sulphate of ammonia per acre appear to be the most certainly profitable applica- tions of nitrogen, although in favourable seasons the use of higher proportions has proved successful. (5) The application of superphosphate of lime to plant canes may give increased yields when added to manurings of nitrogen and potash. But little, if any, advantage has been gained by the use of phosphates with ratoon crops, and I am of opinion that manurings with superphosphate of lime or with other manures containing phosphates should be restricted to plant canes, the ratoons being manured with nitrogen only. (6) As far as the experiments indicate, Thomas-phos- phate-powder (slag-phosphate) is the preferable source of phosphoric acid for application to plant canes in lieu of superphosphate of lime. But the use of basic super- phosphate appears to be of much promise. (7) The use of lime has resulted in largely increased yields. Whether or not it results in profitable increases depends on the price of sugar. Its action appears to have been principally mechanical in improving the texture of the land, and it is a question of much importance whether this effect could not be obtained at a lower cost, and hence more profitably, by the use of hght ploughs or other cultivators. Up to the present, experiments in this direction made on sugar plantations in British Guiana have not been quite satisfactory. (8) The results confirm those of previous experiments that neither the addition of phosphoric acid, of potash, or of lime to the manures affects the sugar contents of the juice of the canes. The effects of nitrogenous manurings WEST INDIES—~DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 23 appear to be somewhat to retard the maturation of. the canes, and thus the juice of canes manured with them is, as a rule, not quite so rich in saccharose as is that of canes grown without manure. But this effect is far more than offset by the larger yields of produce resulting from the application of nitrogenous manures and to the fact that the increases produced by the nitrogen are principally due to the development of the stalk in length and in bulk and not to abnormal increases in the amounts of tops and leaves or the production of new shoots to the stool. In- this the effect of nitrogenous manures on the sugar-cane are very similar to those on others of the Graminacee. (9) Mineral phosphates, to give increased yields, must be applied to the soil in such heavy dressings as to render their use unprofitable. (10) The addition of potash, when applied either as sulphate or as nitrate of potash, exerts little or no effect. The normal weathering of the constituents of the soil while under good tillage sets free for each crop potash in excess of the quantity necessary for the requirements for the plants. This holds good under the conditions existent in British Guiana, where the greater proportion of the potash taken up by the plants is directly returned to the soil, but where practically the whole of the produce is removed from the land it is probable that partial potash exhaustion may take place in the course of a succession of crops of sugar-cane. These general principles appear to be applicable not only to the Bourbon variety but to the majority of, and probably to all, the new varieties I have submitted to experiment. Several of these latter appear to be able to utilise the nitrogen in the deeper layers of the soil to better advantage than the Bourbon cane does, and this is a matter of great importance with regard to the economical production of sugar from the sugar-cane. APPENDIX. SEEDLING CANES AT DIAMOND PLANTATION, BRITISH GUIANA. The following interesting information in regard to the experimental cultivation of seedling canes at Diamond plantation is taken from a letter received from the manager, Mr. John M. Fleming, dated March 24, 1904, which was published in the Agricultural News, Vol..III., p. 180. Later 24 -- COLONIAL REPORTS—-MISCELLANEOUS. information, ‘relating to the year 1904, was contained in a letter dated December 14, 1904 :— ‘‘ For the short grinding just completed here last week, 605 acres of Bourbon and 104 acres of B. 208 were reaped. All of these canes suffered from a deficiency of rain in January to the middle of March, when they were young, and later on, from the middle of April to the middle ‘of J uly. from excessive wet. This made them stunted, and in the arrowing season almost every individual Bourbon cane flowered ; B. 208 arrowed more than in the previous year, but still not nearly to the same extent as Bourbon. It exhibits, however, a marked tendency to sprout at the eyes after the arrowing period. “The Bourbon cane yielded an average of 1:91 tons sugar per acre; the B. 208, 3 tons per acre, or about 57 per cent. more. This is a very much greater difference than [I have hitherto observed, and is due to the stunted crop of Bourbon. Ié is an interesting record, but by no means expresses the comparative values of the two varieties ina year more suited to the Bourbon. The quality of cane juice from each was excellent, and far better than is usual in Demerara. “ The following table gives the results of growing Bourbon and seedlings, for the years 1901, 1902, 1903, and 1904 on this plantation :— 1901. 1902. Acres. Tons. | Average.| Acres. Tons. | Average. | Bourbon wt) yee] 2,912/208- | 6,733 2-31 | 2,791-:062 | 6,464 2-31 Seedlings ve eee: | 1,073°082 | 3,215 2:99 | 1317-277 | 3,706 2°81 Total ... $8 ... | 3,985°290 | 9,950 2°49 4,109:039 | 10,170 2°47 Seedlings better by... 29 per cent. 21 per cent. 1903. 1904. 7 Bs Acres, | Tons. | Average.| Acres. | Tons. | Average. Bourbon: =.) ... vo | 2,895°067 | 7,194 2°48 2,699°072 | 6,050 2°24 Seedlings ao wae) PLO cos200 | p.3al 2°83 | _1,882°047 | 5,550 — 2°95 Total... .. «| 4,775°084 | 12,545 262 | 4,581°119 | 11,600 2°53 Seedlings better by ... 14 per cent. 31 per cent. The following is a further expression of opinion from Mr. Fleming in regard to cane B. 208 :— ‘“‘'B, 208 is in my opinion the best cane you have given us so far. I have just finished reaping nearly 100 acres of it, and notwithstanding the fact that after they were planted in January, 1903, they encountered a severe drought and.some months later an exceptionally heavy .rainy-season, and were in consequence not a heavy crop, they were still a long way better than Bourbons grown under similar conditions. An objectionable feature of this variety is a marked tendency to sprout at the eyes after the arrowing season, or when its growth has from any cause been temporarily checked. A very strong point in its favour is that in every trial I have made of it I have invariably found the juice of excellent quality.’ WEST INDIES-—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 25 With regard to the results for 1904, Mr. Fleming writes :— “Taken with the results for the three preceding years, this goes a long way to prove that in the propagation of cane from seed lies a ready means of obtaining varieties superior to the Bourbon, hitherto generally grown in Demerara.” BARBADOS. By Professor J. P. p’AusuquEerquz, M.A., F.1.C., F.C.S. I think that most of those interested in sugar-cane experi- ments have already been able to read on more than one occasion the methods that we adopt for carrying out our work. I shall, therefore, proceed at once to summarise as briefly as possible the results of the experiments carried on in recent years. . These experiments have been directed mainly towards two ends, the raising of improved varieties, and the improvement - of the methods of manuring and cultivation of existing varieties. Under the first heading come the raising of im- proved varieties from seed and the attempted improvement of existing varieties by chemical selection of the seed-cane. Under the last heading come manurial experiments and ex- periments upon tillage. Including the two central experi- mental stations, Dodds and Waterford, eighteen estates have, from time to time, been used for experimental purposes. SEEDLING CANES. During the six years ending December, 1904, over 20,000 varieties of cane have been raised from seed and planted out. In accordance with the systematic plan decided on at the beginning, they have been, or are being, in the first place, subjected to a process of field selection with the object of eliminating from further cultivation all but those that possess field characters more favourable than the average. Early in 1904 about 6,000 of these varieties reached a second or third stage at which each variety is crushed and the juice analysed. These may be called the stages of chemical selec- tion, and their object is to eliminate all varieties except those possessing juice sufficiently rich and pure, from the point of view of the manufacturer, to justify further cultivation. Only a few “stools” of each variety can be reaped at these stages, and the results can therefore be regarded only as relative indications of the value of the varieties tested, 26 COLONIAL REPORTS—-MISCELLANEOUS. Favourable examples of these stages reaped in 1903 and 1904 are given below: — TaBLE I—1903., Tons per Juice acre. 5 dy .° BG > - ~e|2s| = = ‘ ae Ds S — Name of Variety. s On| >| & a P2O | oo} Sd 5 Si} fal = 3 2 se eae Ss ll ee us" | ne White Transparent | — | 2968 | 2:52 |1-855 | 86-40 Series A Bei si6. i. ase — | 32-22 | 3:08 | 2°113 | 91:91 White re — |19:05 | 1:55 | 1°738 | 85°62 Series B ea ORGD. sche - — |19°05 | 1°73 | 1-869 | 91°53 (1st ratoons. ) B. 1,607 — | 26°18 | 2°13 | 1-680 | 81°36 White Transparent — |17-37 | 1:51 |2,095 | 91:13 Beettt — |20:45 | 1-71 | 1,844 | 86°37 Series C BBO ss we | — |20°61 | 2°03 | 2,406 | 92°68 B. 1,753 — |24:03 | 1°92 | 1,993 | 88°07 White Transparent — | 20°67 | 1°73 |1,939 | 88-42 Series D B. 147 we | — | 24:52 | 2:14 | 1,866 | 85°52 B. 1,143 — |31°94 | 2°53 | 1,955 | 88°66 TaBLe II—1904. | Tons per Juice | acre. | 2 : ww | | ws : | | eee) aS | S \Sej|ae| & — | Name of Variety. = Sm dg Og i 2 ss & | “ eG a © TO 8 N a One a3 S 3 a 5 Sis8/ 2 g Flee hee |S EMO de Oo |S | White Transparent 30 | 40°88 | 3:48 | 1:886 | 87-40 Series A WeDo a24y sis econ SO }41-23 | B77 11-994 | 90°68 100 ... | White ven e 30 | 39°22 | 3°42 | 1,928 | 89:09 Polos. (irs. L.O80'A449, .- | 30 | 53°04 | 4°48 | 1,931 | 88:98 126 . B. 11528 Sek 30 | 48°42 | 4°31 | 1,947 | 89°72 Series B 145 ... | B. 1,529 30 | 47-42 | 4:96 | 2,321 | 92°80 TOR ECO: ss meet oO 1OCoL | 4°68") 1879 aeol LAO eee caj2O0 cas we | 30 15769 | 5:09 | 1,895 | 88°51 WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at It will be seen from Table II. that in 1904 six varieties, including the White Transparent, were cultivated in small plots in a very fertile field. The estimated relative yields, taking the White Transparent at 100 as the standard, are:— White Transparent ... ee ane 100 B. 1,528 ig Ene ee =e 126 B. 1,080 | us es ae se 131 B. 1,753 _ ee ae a 137 B. 1,529 bf 3) oe sh 145 Be 8,289 es et: ie a 149 These results are favourable, but at this stage the figures can be employed only to point out what varieties are deserving of trial in the following stages. In the fourth stage a few of the best varieties of preceding stages, together with the standard White Transparent variety, are cultivated in duplicate plots of 100 stools in each of the typical localities of the Island. These experiments are carried out on sugar plantations, and in all respects the cultivation is that of the plantation itself. At this stage, therefore, the experiments, in so far as the small scale will allow, come under ordinary agricultural conditions. Some of the earlier seedlings, such as B. 147 and B. 208, have undergone some years of trial in such plots, and as a result are now in success- ful cultivation in various of the West Indian Colonies, as well as in other parts of the world. The following table, taken from p. 35 of Pamphlet No. 32 of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, “Seedling and other Canes at Barbados, 1904,” gives the average results during 1900-4 of some of the best of the earlier varieties cultivated as selected seedlings on small estate plots: — TasBLE IITI—1900-1904. pounds per acre. Biante Variety. BELLY; © Yield of Saccharose in Juice. | Plants. “Plante Tes) aes Ratoons. | Average. ] | oes Black Soils :— | | B. 208 6,989 3,626 5,307 | high B. 147 eee | 6.941 3, °500 5,220 | fair White Transparent... [Leer 3 040 4,857 | high Sealy are des w. | 6,447 — — | low B. 376 is eh anti 6,353 — = | high RB. 645 re at oes) Viarely§ Od oe — fair D. 95 Re TOs) ee Tt re ae mee sp ame Gi | high BOS79 1 Ose ORE) ea aan ee eam aoe 28 COLONIAL REPORTS—-MISCELLANEOUS. TaBLE ILI—1900-1904—continued. ] Yield of Saccharose in | pounds per acre. | Variety. a . ag Plants. | Ratoons. Pane | aon | Avo Red Soils :— B. 208 wre Gen waa 1 GOEL 4, ee by) 916 | very high B. 376 Bee le 3) VG 886 fair Sealy Seedling us Sea teOp 349 low Dep hs 5, 693 5, 611 | 5, 652 high White Transparent . a 5,373 4, 386 4, 879 high B.. 147 i tit dal eH090 2/870 | 3 980 fair very high B. 379 one oa ee _— 5,557 | In black soils at Barbados for the most part plant canes are alone cultivated. The following, therefore, are the relative results during these four years of some of the best selected seedlings grown as plant canes in black soils, taking the White Transparent variety at 100 as the standard : — White Transparent ... cap a 100 B. 147 he LA i OM 104 B. 208 oe ae a an 105 In red soils the following were the corresponding average results for plants and ratoons :— White Transparent ... Me Bh. 100 D. 95 mle ee ee his 116 B. 208 bi i fe xe 121 The average results of B. 147 in red soils place that variety below the White Transparent. It should be pointed out, and reference to the above- mentioned pamphlet will show, that the best variety judged by the average of all localities is not necessarily the variety that will give the best results on a particular estate. The planter should ascertain from the reports the varieties that give the best results in his locality, and in the first place give them a trial. In this w way he will adapt the results to the circumstance of his own cultivation. This conclusion is well pointed by the results obtained with B. 147, which are much better in one or two parishes of Barbados than elsewhere in that Island. In these parishes the increased yield is far beyond the average quoted above, and has been such as to justify one large proprietor in planting it on a large scale on several estates. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 29 The reports upon selected seedling plots afford planters the means of selecting seedlings for trial on a small estate scale and full advantage is taken of the opportunity. To aid in this the Government Laboratory undertakes the analysis of samples of the juice of such varieties sent from the estate mills. The results are published in the annual reports and serve as a further means of estimating the value of the varieties. Arrangements have recently been made with the Govern- ment of Barbados to supply water for the limited irrigation of the first growth of seedling canes during the dry months when so many die off for want of moisture. This will enable, as in British Guiana, the original seedling stool to come to maturity and be reaped and analysed, and its relative value ascertained. In this way, the process of selection and elimina- tion will be greatly accelerated, and it is hoped that thereby there will be a saving of at least two years in the testing of new varieties. ARTIFICIAL CROSS-FERTILISATION. In a paper on this subject in the “ West Indian Bulletin ” (Vol. I., pp. 185-7) one of us suggested various ways in which an attempt might be made to raise seedlings of which both parents were known, in place of the present methods in which only the mother variety is known with certainty. One sug- gestion was that the anthers should be removed from the immature flowers of one variety, which should be subsequently protected by a fine muslin bag from wind-borne pollen, and when ripe fertilised by pollen from the flowers of another and known variety. This experiment was successfully carried out in November, 1904, by Mr. Lewton-Brain, then Mycologist on the staff of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, who worked with some of the most promising varieties of Barbados seedlings. A very small proportion of the seed germinated, but sufficient to justify a continuation of the experiment next season on a much larger scale. The method of carrying out this experiment is described by Mr. Lewton-Brain as follows: — “The attempt made in November, 1904, to raise hybrid sugar-cane seedlings by artificially cross-pollinating the flowers was undertaken rather with a view to determining whether such a process were practicable, than with the hope of obtaining any present results. “The experiment was carried out in the experimental field at the Ridge plantation, Christ Church, Barbados. The canes operated on were some of one of the newer 23011 - E 30 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. seedling varieties B. 1,529 which had given the best results in the previous year’s experiments, ‘“A strong, moveable platform was constructed, 8 feet high, the top being 6 feet by 4 feet. On this there were boxes of different sizes, which served as tables and stools of varying height. The stamens were removed under the dissecting microscope, and the chief difficulty was found to be that of keeping the spikelets steady under the lens, while the work was going on. “ Arrows which were just beginning to emerge from the upper leaf-sheath were always selected. The cane was bent over carefully to the table and tied firmly to neigh- bouring canes and to the platform. The lower part of the arrow was placed in a clamp, the foot of which was then screwed into the top of the platform. All this had, of course, to be done with the greatest care, so that no undue strain was put upon any part of the cane. “The table and dissecting microscope were then shifted into as convenient a position as possible, and the stamens were removed from about a dozen to twenty spikelets, preferably on several branches of the arrow. This opera- tion proved to be one of some difficulty and delicacy under field conditions; frequently the stigmatic plumes were removed or injured before the third stamen could be got out. It was found necessary to work with one’s back to the sun to avoid the glitter from the glumes and hairs. “The remaining spikelets on the arrow, including, of course, all those that had emerged into the air before the operation, were then removed. ‘Meanwhile a strong pole, 10 feet high from the ground, had been fixed near the base of the cane. To this, near the top, was fixed a wire cage sufficiently large to include easily the whole arrow, the cage was made in two halves which were left sufficiently apart to admit the arrow. The cane was now gently and gradually released, and the arrow brought into the cage: this was then closed and covered with fine, strong muslin. The whole was sewn up carefully, and the cane and arrow tied up to the pole, in some cases too great strain was put upon the upper part of the cane. in the tying, and the arrow dried up. A few days later, when the stigmatic plumes were seen to be turning red and opening out, pollination was performed, and the muslin again sewn up. “The whole process is tedious and one that requires great care and delicacy at every point. Under the con- ditions this is not always easy. Even then a sudden gust of wind or a sudden shower of rain may spoil a morning’s work, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 31 “The result has been that four seeds germinated. Con- sidering that normally the percentage of germination among sugar-cane seeds is extremely low, this may be considered fairly satisfactory. At any rate it is proved that the raising of hybrid sugar-caneg by artificial cross- fertilisation is not impossible, but it is also. evident that, to get sufficient seedlings to work with and select from, experiments must he carried out on a much larger scale than was the present one. “ At the same time that the above work was in process, other arrows were enclosed in similar fashion without emasculation. When the spikelets were opening other arrows from the same variety of cane were introduced into the bags for their pollination. A number of seedlings have been raised from them, and these will be the first seedling canes raised in the West Indies whose parentage is a matter of certainty.” The authors of this summary regard the results of this attempt as affording important means of accelerating the work with seedling canes, since it is thereby possible to ensure that the parents of the seedling are both varieties of known and favourable characters. ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE EXISTING VARIETIES BY CHEMICAL SELECTION OF THE “Spep-Canpg.” During the period 1900-4 a continuous series of experiments has been carried on with the object of ascertaining whether it is possible, by repeatedly selecting plants from the richest plants of a given variety, gradually to increase the average richness of the variety. The difficulties in carrying out such an attempt were pointed out by one of us in the “ West Indian Bulletin,” Vok.& pp. 185-7, The following is a brief account of the experiments and the results : — Irrigated fields were used in order that the planting could take place at the same time as the reaping. The ordinary reaping season in Barbados (March-May) is too dry for plant- ing unless irrigation is available. The variety planted was B. 147. The lower half of each cane was analysed, and the upper half divided up into “top” and portions containing two or three joints for plants. The stools and the canes were num- bered. The richest stools formed one class, called high stools, the poorest another, called low stools, and the intermediate stools were rejected. The richest canes of the richest stools 23011 B2 32 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. were planted, the other canes of the rich stools being rejected. The poorest canes of the poorest stools were planted and the other canes of the poor stools were rejected. Thus the “high plots” were planted with the richest canes of the richest stools, and the “low plots” with the poorest canes of the poorest stools. This process has been repeated for four consecutive plant- ings. In the second and subsequent plantings, the highest canes of the highest stools of the “high plot” were taken for replanting the “high plots,” and the lowest canes of the lowest stools of the “low plot” were taken for the “low plots.” In this way it was hoped that at each reaping the crop canes of the high plots would be somewhat richer than those of the low plots, and that at each successive crop the difference between the high and low plots would become greater and greater, since the effect of each year’s selection would be to make the high plot richer and the low plot poorer. The results up to the reaping of 1904 are given below : — | — Year. Average. | 1900-2. ; Seed-canes average lb. per gall. saccharose 2:12 ete cs, gh oh coe eo 1-93 Seed-canes ___,, antes ‘ 1:90 ow pees e | Crop-canes ” ” ” . ” 1°84 1902-3. a Seed-canes average lb. per gall. saccharose 2°12 High plots me Crop-canes ___,, x ee r ‘ 4 1°84 Seed-canes ‘ ; 1:45 Low plots {| Gropemnes 2 7 7 2S | 140 1903-4. ‘ Seed-canes average lb. per gall. saccharose 1-93 High plots re | Crop-canes __,, Gales AA 1°94 H : Seed-canes _,, ee a 1°65 Low plots ‘| Crop-canes _,, i i F i 1-96 1904-5. High plots } Seed-canes average lb. per gall. saccharose Bit Crop-canes ” ” "9 ” ” aye Low plots i } Seed-canes __,, Le Rae ck < 1°59 Crop-canes__,, a seo ags ” Sin WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 33 In our opinion, taking into account the necessary errors of the experiment, these results fail to show any difference between the richness of the juice of the high plots and the iow plots. In other words, it appears that, with a given variety, the richness or poorness of the seed-cane does not affect the quality of the juice of the resulting crop. If these results are confirmed by subsequent experiments, one of two conclusions seems inevitable. Hither it is impossible, on account of dis- turbing influences, to ascertain the relative potential richness of individual canes of the same variety, or the average richness of a given variety is a constant property of the variety, and not capable, under ordinary conditions, of being influenced by making use of the ordinary variations, such as are found in seed-cane. The latter seems to us the more probable con- clusion, a conclusion which is in harmony with the results in British Guiana of Professor Harrison, who concludes that the relative richness of seedlings is qualitatively, if not quantita- tively, constant. MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS. During the period 1899-1904 experiments have been carried on at eight typical plantations, and a total of 2,738 plots have been reaped. These experiments, which have comprised plant canes and Ist and 2nd ratoons, have occupied the following areas :— | Season. | Area in acres. | 1898-1900 ... ar sate | 12°6 | | 1899-1901 ... aes oe 20:0 | 1900-2 : ae | 175 | | 1901-3 asl 62:0 res | 49-0 | : | 1902-4 | The results have shown considerable differences in different seasons and different localities. They may be stated in the following general terms : — (1) Land that received no farmyard manure showed substantial increase in yield as the result of the applica- tion of artificial manures, containing nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash. (2) In the case of land that had received large applica- tions of farmyard manure, nitrogen as a rule was the most important ingredient of artificial manures applied either to plant canes or ratoons. (3) The application of phosphoric acid in the form of 34 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. superphosphate or of basic slag in a few instances was followed by moderate or large increase of the returns, but in the majority of cases it had either a very small effect or no effect. (4) Potash in the form of sulphate of potash produced in many cases increased returns. (5) Sulphate of ammonia appears in many cases to be slightly superior to nitrate of soda. (6) At Dodds the early application of dried blood has, in some seasons, given better results than other forms of nitrogen. (7) The application of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash appears to have no direct effect upon the composi- tion of the cane juice. The beneficial effect of such appli- cations apparently depends upon increase of cane growth. If, however, the nitrogen is applied too late, it retards or prevents the ripening of the cane, and so may lead to comparatively poor and impure juice. (8) The application of slaked lime to the extent of half a ton per acre was followed, even in land that was rich in carbonate of lime, by substantial increase in the crop: a result apparently due to an improvement in the physical condition of heavy clay soils. (9) The monetary result of the application of one or other constituent of artificial manures is so greatly dependent upon the market price of sugar that it is difficult to make a simple statement of general utility for Barbados. The profit on manuring is the value of the increase of canes less the cost of the manure, and less the cost of manufacture. A manuring which, in one year at one market price, gives a profit, may, in other years, result in loss. The following recommendations appear to be those most generally applicable : — (1) Where early cane manure is to be applied, the farmyard manure should be applied to the land at an interval of two or three months before the early cane manure. (2) In the case of land that has been well manured with farmyard manure, apply soon after planting the canes 1 cwt. of sulphate of potash per acre. (3) To the land that has received insufficient farmyard manure, or that is known to be deficient in available phosphoric acid, apply soon after planting the canes WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 35 14 ewt. of superphosphate (containing 40 per cent. avail- able phosphate) or 24 cwt. of good basic slag. (4) In June, that is at the beginning of the period of most active growth, apply 2 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia. In July or August, if, after heavy rains, the canes turn pale in colour, apply a further 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia. (5) To ratoons, soon after the stumps begin to spring, apply 1 ecwt. of nitrate of soda, 1 cwt. of sulphate of potash with or without 14 cwt. of superphosphate according to the land. In June, apply 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia. A further application not later than August of 1 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia should only be made, if, after heavy rains, the pale colour of the canes renders it likely that more nitrogen would be beneficial. EXPERIMENTS ON TILLAGE. A series of duplicate experiments was carried out during the season 1901-3 at Hampton plantation with a view of com- paring the results of ordinary hand tillage, such as is practised in Barbados, with those of tillage with ordinary ploughs, sub- soilers, American disc ploughs and cultivators. The results were in favour of hand tillage to the extent of about 500 lbs. sugar per acre, an amount that, in Barbados, would more than cover the extra cost of hand labour. The following additional information respecting the results of experiments with varieties of seedling and other canes at Barbados is taken from the ‘‘ Agricultural News,” the fort- nightly review of the Imperial Department of Agriculture (IV., pp. 386-7) :— “In the course of the statement read at the meeting of the Agricultural Society, held at the Planters’ Hall, Barbados, on Friday, November 17th, 1905, in continuation of the Report on the Sugar-cane Experiments for the season 1903-5, read at the meeting of the society held on Friday, November 3rd, 1905, Mr. Bovell, addressing the meeting, said he would like to make a few remarks with reference to the figures Mr. Cameron had been good enough to give him at the meeting that day fortnight. He had on that occasion mentioned the results obtained on an estate which he would designate as ‘ A.,’ both as plant canes for three years and ratoons for two years, and he had shown that, on the average for the three years as plants and two years as ratoons, B. 147 had given 431 lbs. of sugar 36 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. per acre more than the White Transparent. The estate to which he referred reaped something like 480 acres annually. At $2°25 per 100 lbs. for dark crystals (about the average price for the past three years) the value of the sugar obtained from, say, 4380 acres of the B. 147, after deducting £2 10s. as the cost of manufacture, over the White Transparent, would have been about £520 per annum. In other words, it would mean that, under the conditions which prevailed, an estate reaping about 430 acres would make an extra profit of £520 per annum, if the estate were planted in B. 147 instead of White Transparent. Mr. Cameron had also been so good as to furnish him with figures from other estates, which confirmed those just given. On one estate, which he would refer to as ‘B.,’ plant canes of B. 147 had, on the average of the past two years, given 5,029 lbs. of sugar, while the White Transparent had given 5,023 lbs. As ratoons on the same estate for the same two years, on the average, B. 147 had given 4,245 lbs. and the White Transparent 3,635 lbs. of sugar per acre. So there was a difference in favour of B. 147 over the White Trans- parent of 616 lbs. of sugar per acre on the average as plants and ratoons. On another estate, ‘C.,’ on the average for two years as plants and two years as ratoons, B. 147 had given 179 lbs. sugar more than the White Transparent. On a third estate, ‘D.,’ on the average for two years as plants and two years as ratoons, B. 147 had given 383 lbs. sugar more per acre than the White Transparent. He was very grateful, and he was sure his colleagues also were, to Mr. Cameron for these figures, which confirmed on an estate scale what was found on the small experiment plots. “He would like to supplement what he had mentioned at the last meeting with regard to the good results obtained from the B. 208. As no doubt some of the members present knew, this cane was at present being cultivated in, amongst other countries, Jamaica and Queensland. Mr. Cousins, in his Report on the Sugar-cane Experiments at Jamaica for the last year, says: ‘B. 208 on a much larger area gave a return of 66°5 tons canes. The Bourbon gave 39°5 tons canes and Mont Blane 33°8 tons per acre.’ Further on in the report, he says: ‘The outstanding features of the year’s trials are the splendid qualities of B. 208 and the promising nature of the selected Jamaica seedlings.’ In Queensland, Mr. Edward Grimley, in a paper on the ‘ Improvement of Plants’ read before the Agri- cultural Conference held in Queensland last May, referring to B. 208, says: “We have now a report from Messrs. Gibson, of Bingera, which gives a return of 69 tons, 6 cwt. of cane per acre, with 22°2 per cent. of sucrose and Brix. 23°9, or 21°46 per cent. of possible obtainable cane sugar, or over 14 tons to the acre. These results were obtained under irrigation, and the experiment plot was well manured. The average yield in Queensland per acre for the last seven years was 13°16 tons, so that B. 208 gave more sugar per acre than the average tons WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a4 of canes per acre in Queensland.’ In conclusion, Mr. Bovell said that planters in the red soils should cultivate more of the B. 208, so as to ascertain whether this cane is an acquisition or not. To do this, what was necessary was for a planter to grow, say, an acre of B. 208 in the same field with the White Transparent, or even half a field of each variety, taking care that the conditions in which the canes were planted were the same for both varieties. Each acre or half field could be reaped by itself, crushed separately, the juice measured, and a sample of each sent to the Government Laboratory, as he was quite sure Professor d’Albuquerque would be only too pleased to supply them with ready-prepared bottles for the samples, and to furnish them with analyses of their samples. “Tn reply to a question from the President as to whether any one present desired to ask Mr. Bovell anything, Mr. Cameron said that for many years past, under the advice, and with the assistance, of Professor d’Albuquerque and Mr. Bovell, a system had been started on his estates for recording results of each day’s work. At the end of the crop these daily records were tabulated, and the figures consequently were in no way estimates—they were absolute concrete facts— nothing less, nothing more. He had much pleasure in handing Mr. Bovell statements from three estates, giving records of results obtained for the last three years from each variety of cane planted on these three estates. At the same time he wished to make it absolutely clear that he was only giving his own experience of certain canes, as grown on the estates under his charge; he was in no way telling any one what canes they were to plant or not to plant. Before sitting down, he would like, on behalf of himself and of the proprietors of the estates he represented, to express publicly the sense of deep obligation which they all felt to Sir Daniel Morris and his Department, and more especially to Professor d’Albuquerque and Mr. Bovell, for the very great and valuable assistance and help he had received from their hands for so many years past, and for the kindness and courtesy with which they had invariably received all his applications for information. Personally he was of opinion that the whole sugar-growing community was under a deep obligation to Professor d’Albuquerque and Mr. Bovell for the light their valuable work had thrown on the matter of selection and cultivation of the sugar-cane.” 38 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. LEEWARD ISLANDS. By the Hon. Francis Warts, C.M.G., D.Sc. ‘These experiments may be classed in two periods. In 1891 experiments were instituted in Antigua to ascertain the manurial requirements of the sugar-cane and also to discover suitable canes for cultivation in that Presidency. These were carried on until 1898. This period covered the anxious time when cane diseases were rampant, and it seemed quite possible that the sugar industry would be seriously crippled or ruined. It was difficult to draw reliable conclusions from the results of the manurial experiments of that period, for the canes on the various plots were so badly attacked by disease, principally “vind fungus” (Trichospheria), as to make the results un- certain or contradictory, still by careful scrutiny we were able to arrive at some general conclusions. These experiments, however, had a distinct value and served to settle some points in the public mind. It was seen that there was no relationship between the manures used and the occurrence of the cane disease, that manures neither caused it, nor could cure it. The canes of the plots being under close observation aftorded useful information concern- ing the disease in a general way. Under these circumstances, the experiments with varieties of sugar-cane at once assumed considerable importance, for on our experiment plots planters could see for themselves that certain varieties of canes were highly resistant, if not quite immune. I well remember an excellent demonstration where a plot of Bourbon canes grew side by side with a plot of White Transparent, so that the canes on the boundary interlaced; on the Bourbon side it was difficult to find a sound cane, while among the White Transparent it was equally difficult to find a diseased one. This was convincing, and the lesson was speedily applied in practice. Upon the formation of the Imperial Department of Agri- culture for the West Indies the experiments were placed upon a broader basis and extended to the neighbouring Presidency of St. Kitts. Instead of being carried on at only one station, the plan was now followed of having in each Island a central station, and also a number of secondary stations on various estates, both for manurial experiments and for the cultivation of varieties. The wisdom of this has been questioned by some of our critics, who urge that more good would be done by having WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 39 one well-equipped central station where there could be care- fully applied scientific control, and experiments of a higher order would be carried out. I admit that this is most attractive to the scientific worker, and personally—so far as doing the work is concerned—I should prefer it, but I feel perfectly assured that results, however accurate, obtained at such a station would fail to carry conviction to the mind of ‘the ordinary planter. He would regard such a scientific station as a thing apart, having very little bearing upon him or his work. Perhaps in time, and largely as the outcome of the science teaching now available in our secondary schools, and of the introduction of improved methods of manufacture, we may hope for good ground on which to proceed to higher Matai of which a scientific central station of high order may e one. At present it is our chief concern to bring our experiments and their results under the notice of every practical planter; this, I think, we best secure by obtaining the co-operation of the planters themselves. Under existing conditions the planters grow the canes in fields of their own preparing, they cultivate them in the same manner as their ordinary canes, and—knowing their history from start to finish—while par- ticipating generally in the work, their interest is stimulated, and they can, and do, draw their own conclusions and apply the results of their observations directly to their daily practice. I am pleased to be able to say that the planters welcome this line of work and co-operate gladly. I take this oppor- tunity of thanking them and also of urging them to continue with even more interest as tending to their own immediate advantage. EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIETIES OF SUGAR-CANE. Working in this way we have in Antigua a central station and seven secondary stations. At the latter experiments with selected varieties both as plants and ratoons are carried on. In St. Kitts we have also a central station with seven secondary stations. In judging our results it has been our custom to base our conclusions largely upon the quantity of sugar which the canes will yield when crushed. While observing the peculiarities of any cane and its suitability, or otherwise, we base our general conclusions on the average results of all the plots in each Island. It has been our custom to take into account the record of the cane in previous seasons and to, calculate the average yield of sugar over periods covering the experiments of several vears. For example, in Antigua in our latest report, we give the mean results with plant canes for three years, 40 COLONIAL REPORTS——MISCELLANEOUS. wherein cach cane has been experimented with forty-four times. The experience thus gained should be of considerable value, both as eliminating errors and giving the results of different seasons, the latter being of the greatest importance, for it is for average conditions that the planter must provide. In the report for last season, now in the press, I have also instituted another method of comparison which appears to yield useful and interesting results. The canes at each station are arranged in the order of the yield of sugar, the list is then divided into three sections, those in the upper section are regarded as above the average, those in the middle section as of average merit, and those in the lowest section as below the average. By noting which canes come in the first section at the various stations and selecting those which occur in this portion at the largest number of stations, we can ascertain which canes are best suited for general distribution in a given district, such as is presented by one of our small Islands. TasBLE I.—ANntTIGguUA.—PLANT CANES. Means for three years— Deduced from 44 Plots of each variety of Cane. Means of sucrose No. Name of Cane. in pounds per acre for three years. Meets Ween ciate ee LL ug 10,828 Bae.) TG Kk: wi a 34 Oo a S os S 2 2 = 2 - Bd S| og ob Balad, fae vey 2, ey Qy a 2 sy a Ay faa} Qu faa} Ay pS Ay 64 High canes* ... | 2°296 | 1:925 |2°113 | 2-011 | 2°290 2:128 | 2°304 | 2°136 Low canes* ... | 1°699 | 1:905 {1°587 | 1°793 | 1°305 | 2°035 | 1-841 | 1:937 Difference on | °597 — 526 — 985 — 463 — canes planted. Difference on == “020 — 218 — "093 — "199 canes reaped. ® “ High” canes are those in the experiments seeking for increased saccharine content, while “ low”’ canes are those in which decreased saccharine richness is sought. We are well aware of the difficulties and uncertainties of experiments along these lines, still, regarding the results with all due caution, it would appear that some difference is induced by the process of selection and, while this method of work is not likely to be followed by practical planters as a means of improving their canes, yet the fact is interesting 44 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. from its scientific aspect as indicating that plants propagated by cuttings are subject to slight alterations. MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS. We are of opinion that it is only by the manifold repetition of a series of experiments carried on year after year that results of any value can be obtained in connection with the important questions involved in the manurial experiments of the sugar-cane. Consequently, soon after the formation of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies we laid down an extensive series of experiments to be carried out on plant and ratoon canes. Table V. shows the mean results from 38 plots for four years (1900-4). The same results are indicated in diagram- matic form in Diagram I. In this diagram, as in Diagram 2, a black line is produced opposite to each of a series of numbers. Each number refers to a manurial experiment. The black line by its length represents the amount of cane sugar per acre obtained in the juice of the plots on which the experiment in question was carried out. The diagrams, however, indicate more than this. The lines are broken by a thin white space. The small portion of the line thus broken off is proportional to the amount of sugar corresponding to the cost per acre of the manure applied to each plot. The Jength of black line to the white space, therefore, indicates the net result per acre obtained on the plot after deducting the cost of the manure, thus giving the information of most importance to the planter. These experiments are some 36 in number and they are laid out in duplicate on three stations in Antigua with plant canes and either on two or three stations with ratoons, and on two stations in St. Kitts with plant canes and on two with ratoons. We have accumulated these results over four years with plant canes and three years with ratoons. Consequently, each plant cane experiment has been repeated 38 times and each ratoon experiment 23 times, thus affording a wide and, we believe, an adequate basis for useful comparisons. Those interested in these researches are referred to our annual reports or to the annual pamphlets; in the latter the information is put forward in brief manner, as far as possible divested of technicalities. There are, however, some salient points to which we may direct attention. We can only claim that our results are applicable to the conditions of the Leeward Islands. The peculiar features of other countries may render these conclusions inapplicable. The first point of considerable interest which we think is demonstrated is that, if the soil is properly prepared and in its preparation an adequate quantity of good pen manure, or its equivalent, is used (about 20 tons of pen manure per acre), then artificial manures are neither necessary nor remunerative, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 45 This is a generalisation of great importance to planters, par- ticularly as it appears reasonable to urge that the use of pen manure, or its equivalent, is necessary in the Leeward Islands in order to maintain in the soil a sufficient supply of humus. With ratoon cultivation the conditions are very different. There we find nitrogenous manures of great importance and necessary in order to obtain remunerative results. _ The results of manurial experiments with ratoon are shown in Table VI. and the corresponding diagram (No. 2). List oF MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS. 1. No manure plots. 2. Pen manure plots, each receiving 20 tons of pen manure per acre. NITROGEN SERIES. (a.) With Potash and Phosphate. Each plot received a dressing of basic phosphate conveying 40 lbs. of phosphoric acid (P,O,), and sulphate of potash con- veying 60 lbs. of potash (IK,O), per acre. On these the follow- ing experiments were conducted :— . No nitrogen. . 40 lbs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in one appli- cation. 5. 40 lbs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in two appli- cations—(i) 20 lbs., Gi) 20 lbs. . 6. 60 Ibs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in one appli- cation. 7. 60 lbs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in two appli- cations—(i) 20 Ibs., (ii) 40 lbs. 8. 40 lbs. nitrogen as nitrate of soda in one application. 9. 40 lbs. nitrogen as nitrate of soda in two applications— (1) 20 lbs., Gi) 20 Ibs. 10. 60 lbs. nitrogen as nitrate of soda in one application. 11. 60 lbs. nitrogen as nitrate of soda in two applications— (i) 20 Ibs., Gi) 40 Ibs. 12. 60 lbs. nitrogen as dried blood in one application. H CoO (b.) With Potash only. 13. 60 lbs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in two appli- cations—(i) 20 lbs., (i) 40 lbs. (c.) Without Potash and Phosphate. 14. 60 Ibs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in one appli- cation. 15. 60 lbs. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia in two appli- cations—(i) 20 lbs., (ii) 40 lbs. 16. 60 lbs, nitrogen as nitrate of soda in one application 23011 F 46 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS, 17. 60 Ibs. nitrogen as nitrate of soda in two applications— (i) 20 lbs., (ii) 40 Ibs. PHOSPHATE SERIES, Each plot, save one, received a dressing of sulphate of ammonia supplying nitrogen, and a sulphate of potash, supplying 60 lbs. of potash, per acre. The following experi- ments were conducted : — | 18. No phosphate. | 19. No phosphate: with potash and nitrogen, the latter in | two applcations—(i) 20 lbs., (11) 40 Ibs. | 20. 40 lbs. phosphoric acid as basic phosphate. | 21. 60 lbs. phosphoric acid as basic phosphate. | 22. 80 lbs. phosphoric acid as basic phosphate. | 23. 40 lbs. phosphoric acid as basic phosphate without nitro- gen and potash. ' 24. 40 Ibs. phosphoric acid as superphosphate. 25. 60 lbs. phosphoric acid as superphosphate. PorasH SERIES. Each plot, save one, received a dressing of sulphate of ammonia conveying 60 lbs. nitrogen, and of basic phosphate conveying 40 lbs. of phosphoric acid, per acre. The following experiments were conducted :— 26. No potash. 27. 20 lbs. potash as sulphate. 28. 40 lbs. potash as sulphate. 29. 60 lbs. potash as sulphate. 30. 60 Ibs. potash without nitrogen and phosphate. GUANO SERIES. Ohlendorf’s Dissolved Peruvian Guano. dl. 2 cwts. guano in one application. dz. 4 cwts. guano in one application. ov. 4 cwts. guano in two applications— (i) 2 ewts., (ii) 2 ewts. Limr Series. These plots received a dressing of sulphate of ammonia con- veying 60 lbs. nitrogen, and of basic slag conveying 40 lbs. phosphoric acid, and of sulphate of potash conveying 60 lbs. potash : — 34. No hme. 35. 150 lbs. lime (oxide) in one application. 36. 300 lbs. lime (oxide) in one application. WESI INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 47 Dracram I.—Corresponding with TaBLy V. Manurial EKeperiments with Plant Canes. Means of 38 Plots Jor four years (1900-4), er Nitrogen Series. 48 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. TasBLE V.—MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS WITH PLANT CANES. Means of 38 Plots for four years (1900-4). No. of Tons of Cane Difference on Experiment. per acre. No Nitrogen. ry 25-4 = 1:9 2 27°4 + 01 3 27:3 — 4 29-0 +17 5 28-3 + 1:0 6 29°6 + 2:3 7 29°6 + 23 8 28°9 + 16 9 28°8 + 1:5 10 28°5 +12 11 29°8 +25 12 27-9 + 6 13 | Bio + -0 14 | 27'5 ae 2 15 are + 4 16 | 2152. — ‘1 17 | 27-7 ad 18 30°5 | No Phosphate 19 27°3 — 32 Boe th 29-6 sei 21 | 30°4 Pal Nak 22 | 29:8 — 7 23 | 25:4 — 51 24 29:7 — 8 Oh as 29:9 as 6 277 | No Poth ae 28°3 + ‘6 28 29°3 + 1°6 29 29°6 + 1:9 30 Bot — 2°6 31 26°6 _— 32 28'1 — 33 27°5 — re Difference on No Manure. + 2:0 +19 + 36 4+ 29 + 42 + 4:2 +35 +34 a 4 4-4 + 25 +19 oot + 2:3 +158 42:3 + 5:1 +19 + 4-2 + 5:0 + 4-4 + ‘0 +43 + 45 4 23 +29 + 3-9 42 + 1:2 +27 + 21 WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 49 Taste VI.—ManurRiIAL EXPERIMENTS WITH RATOONS. Means of 20 Plots for three years (1901-4). a age et eee g-| og 82 g5 8 a a] owe 5 5 a a3 uw § Profit or Loss on 68 Niceages Be 5S oa OF Manuring. cA 82 | Be) Be | aa | Bs 20) eee eae ae pm ore Tons. Tons $e $c $- c. Seatne iL ee — 19 — a a — — 2 14:0 +04 +- 2:3 5°98 — _ — 3 13:6 — +19 4-94 5°18 —0:24/;— 1 0 4 ed => 4) + 6:0 | 15°60 11°36 +424!4+ 17 8 5 16°3 tO, +46] 11°96 11°36 +060|;+ 2 6 6 18°9 Blot er) See 2a Onto 14°45 +-4:27;}+ 17 9 id 17:0 Oe on onl 14°45 — (67 | —72)°9 8 18:1 4-5 +64] 16°64 10°94 5370 1 2ben9 9 lie? + 3°6 See mle 10°94 + 3:36 |+ 14 0 10 18°38 + 52 (tell os 46 13°82 + 4:64 |)+ 19. 4 11 18:0 + 4:4 + 6:3 | 16°38 13°82 +256;+10 8 12 16:2 + 2°6 serAn ty eental iG 16°33 4-658 Ones 13 1b] + 1°5 aE. 8°84 L2:57 Ctl 14 18-0 + 4-4 “63 | 16°38 9:27 So de 29a 15 ei + 3°5 + 54 | 14:04 9:27 +2 4:77 | 19" 10 16 18-4 + 4°8 +67} 17°42 8°64 +878 |+ 36 7 17 16°8 + 3:2 UEP | USE 8:64 =A On til Olney Difference on No Phosphate. 18 18:3 a == G:0n ju lidelo 12:51 +459/;+19 I 19 15°1 — 32 aero 8°84 12°57 —373 |—15 6 20 18°9 + 6 lene feelomies 1445 + 4°27 | 4- 17 9 21 19:0 + °7 Seon melOEgo 15 39 +2°59/+ 10 9 22 18°4 eal sla Gedenjeuledade 16°33 +109/+ 4 6 25 12e5 — 5°8 SS 2°08 1°88 + 0:20 /+ 0 10 24 17°9 At He G2 ore 15°29 =3()°83) |s-= onee DD) 19:3 + 1:0 + 7:6 | 19°76 16°65 + 3:11 | + 12 il Difference on No Potash. 26 18:0 — + 6:3 | 16°38 1015 +523 |+ 21 9 27 Wee ae + 6:0 | 15°60 12°25 + 3°35 | + 13 11 28 18:1 + i +64] 16°64 13°35 +3:29|/+13 8 29 18°9 + 9 serdee Wiligvee 14°45 +427;+17 9 30 223 — 57 + ‘6 1°56 3°30 —174)— 7 3 31 IB¥7/ — + 2°0 5°20 6°50 —1:30|;— 5 5 32 16°4 — AT Ala aeD2 13:00 —078|— 3 °3 33 L537 — +40] 10°40 13°00 — 2:60 |—10 0O Some interesting points arise in connection with the manner of applying nitrogenous manures. We find it more profitable to use all the nitrogenous manure in one application. A division of the dose into two always gives a smaller return, and sometimes to such an extent as to convert a possible profit 0 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. DiaGram 2.—Corresponding with Tasir VI. Manurial Experiments with Ratoon Canes. for three years (1901-4). omonntnm ore Ww WY Fe Nitrogen Series. Phosphate Series. | monwmmMm nw ne one © © on sg Potash erie bo CoO Means of 20 Plots Tons. of Cane per (eons th eos ibs hee 20) acke: ee aria ty in ae fae WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 51 into an actual loss. In our report for 1902-3 we put forward a hypothesis in an attempt to explain this circumstance. Phosphatic manures are found to be unnecessary if an adequate supply of pen manure is used. This applies to plant canes and to ratoon canes. This result was unexpected, for the soils of the Leeward Islands are, generally speaking, deficient in phosphates; many additional experiments have been made in order to check this conclusion, which we now think is definitely established. Potash is found to increase the yield somewhat, but in a doubtfully remunerative degree. It sometimes happens that a particular field in good con- dition requires to be planted, but that no pen manure or green dressing is available; under those circumstances the use of (to the plant canes) artificial manure containing nitrogen, either as sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda, together with a fair amount of potash and a small quantity of phosphate may be recommended. These conclusions, though admitting of this brief statement, by way of summary, have not been reached except through a laborious amount of work. The information is, we think, sufficiently definite and conclusive to be of service to planters who are, by that means, enabled to direct their expenditure with considerable precision—a matter of great importance when competition is keen. Our experiments over the three seasons 1900-3 afforded data whereby we could ascertain whether the nitrogen, phosphate, and potash exercised any marked influence upon the saccharine richness of the sugar-cane. As the result of the study of the data thus furnished, we arrived at the conclusion that the saccharine richness of the cane is not affected in any marked degree by the manures used, and that when any form of manure, in quantities likely to be used in actual practice, increases the weight of cane per acre, it increases, in the same proportion, the weight of sucrose. This leads to the conclu- sion, important to the planter and sugarmaker, that while it is useless to look for increased saccharine richness as the result of any form of manuring, it is, on the other hand, unnecessary to fear injury or falling off in quality from the use of such quantities of manures as can be profitably employed. This study of our figures led to another important con- clusion, namely, that we should have arrived at the same con- clusions for the information of planters concerning the effects of artificial manures, had we used as our basis of comparison the weight of canes instead of the weight of cane-sugar in the juice expressed. From this it follows that in future we can greatly simplify our work by putting aside as unnecessary the 52: COLONIAL REFORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. laborious analyses of hundreds of samples of cane juice and using the weight of cane produced as the basis of comparison between our various plots. The following additional information respecting the results of the sugar-cane experiments carried on in the Leeward Islands under the direction of the Imperial Department of Agriculture is taken from the Annual Report submitted by Dr. Francis Watts for the season 1903-5:— — “Tt may be taken as indicating in some degree the nature of the progress being made if we point out that in the season 1901-2 (see Report for that year, part I., p. 6) nine new canes were introduced into the series of canes cultivated at various stations in Antigua. These canes were:—B. 208, B. 156, B. 306, D. 74, Sealy Seedling, B. 176, D. 180, D. 145, and D. 78. It is highly significant that the first five out of this list of nine are amongst the seven canes which our experiments pick out as worthy of special attention; another cane, D. 109, which is amongst the selected seven, was not introduced until the season under review. We thus see six canes, which, after preliminary trials, are introduced into the general scheme of experiments, surpassing in merit the canes previously grown ; this fact may be taken as indicative of the progress which is being made in this work, showing how the preliminary selec- tion picks out canes of merit which speedily pass into the hands of planters and so increase the productiveness of the fields. It is reasonable to suppose, and observation supports the suppo- sition, that a somewhat similar course of events is taking place in the fields, as is observed in the experiment plots, that canes yielding increased returns are already taking possession of the estates; this cannot fail to be of advantage to planters who are thus placed in possession of good selected varieties from which they can further select those canes which best suit the peculiar conditions of their own fields. In this connection it may be pointed out that so small an increase as 1 per cent. would ee the outlay expended in this work; the increase is assuredly far greater than that, and the Island must have benefited proportionately. “It is important to place on record the fact that not only among the canes under experimental cultivation is there an almost complete absence of rotten canes, but that the same condition prevails in most of the fields throughout the Colony, when the fields are reaped very few rotten canes are to be found. What this means to these islands only those can form an adequate opinion who had personal experience of the damage and loss resulting from disease in the ‘nineties.’ At the present moment cane diseases cause the sugar planter very little anxiety. The relief thus experienced, together with the WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 53 monetary saving which results, are directly traceable to the introduction of new varieties of cane, and these introductions have been rendered possible, and materially hastened, by the experiments of the kind here recorded, which have been sys- tematically carried on for many years in several West Indian Colonies. The work of the various Experiment Stations has been mutually helpful, while each local station has served to direct the attention of the local planter to those varieties which are most likely to serve his purpose. With this assistance the planter is able to select, from a large number of canes, those in which confidence may be reposed, and avoid much haphazard experimenting and disappointment. So quietly, steadily, and effectively have these beneficial changes been wrought that 1t 1s possible many planters hardly recognize how they have come about.” 54 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. GENERAL SUMMARY OF MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR-CANES IN THE LEEWARD ISLANDS. The present series of manurial experiments with sugar- canes has been carried on for five years with plant canes, during which time each experiment has been repeated forty- eight times, and for four years with ratoon canes, each experi- ment having been repeated thirty-eight times. The following conclusions are arrived at:— PLANT CANES. (1) When, in the preparation of the soil for planting, about 15 to 20 tons per acre of good pen manure are used, artificial manures do not prove remunerative. In the thirty-three expe- riments, many times repeated, no artificial manure, or com- bination of artificial manures, has, on the average, so increased. the yield of cane as to compensate for the cost of the manure. (2) The use of pen manure, or of some equivalent substance, is necessary to maintain the proper degree of tilth, and, under the conditions prevailing in the Leeward Islands, it is adequate for the production of good crops of sugar-cane. RATOON CANES. (a) Nitrogen. (1) The use of nitrogenous manure increases the yield of ratoon canes in a remunerative degree. (2) When employed in conjunction with phosphate and potash the yields produced by nitrogenous manures are slightly greater than when nitrogenous manures are used alone; the increase is, however, insufficient to compensate for the cost of the phosphate and potash. (3) Rapidly-acting forms of nitrogen, such as sulphate of ammonia, or nitrate of soda, are remunerative. Slow-acting forms, such as dried blood or guano are not remunerative. (4) The difference in effect between sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda has been but small; the advantage is very slightly in favour of nitrate of soda. (5) Forty pounds of nitrogen per acre appear to have been the most profitable quantity, whether given in the form of WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 55 sulphate of ammonia or of nitrate of soda. Sixty pounds proved less remunerative. (Further experiments on this point are desirable.) (6) It has been found preferable to give the nitrogen in one early application rather than to divide it into two doses. cb) Phosphates. (7) The use of phosphates, as basic phosphate, without nitrogen and potash, has been without effect on the yield of canes. (8) Phosphate, either as basic phosphate, or as superphos- phate, when applied in combination with nitrogen and potash, has slightly increased the yield, but not in a remunerative degree. Neither large nor small applications are remunerative. (c) Potash. (9) The use of potash, as sulphate, without nitrogen and phosphate, has been without effect on the yield of cane. (10) When potash is used in conjunction with nitrogen and phosphate, it increases the yield of cane slightly, but not remuneratively. (d) Guano. (11) Guano, although it has slightly increased the yield of cane, has not proved profitable. : GENERAL. (12) From the above, it follows that ratoon canes, derived from plant canes adequately manured with pen manure, may, in the Leeward Islands, be most profitably grown with the aid of about 40 lbs. of nitrogen alone, 2.e., without phosphate or potash. That is to say, with the aid of about 200 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia, or of about 250 Ibs. of nitrate of soda per acre. 56 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. SEEDLING CANES IN TRINIDAD. By A. Uricu, Ph.D., F.I.C., Analyst and Technical Chemist to the Trinidad Estates Company, Limited. The remarkable falling off of the favourite Bourbon cane on some estates in Trinidad makes its replacing by another variety a matter of such importance that the results obtained on one of the leading estates on a large scale with the White Transparent and the D. 95 are the more interesting, as they comprise an’area of 1,762 acres and are, therefore, more reliable than if obtained on mere experiment plots. Brechin Castle Estate, the property of the Trinidad Estates Company, Limited, is situated on the flat banks near Couva and was always known for the heavy crops of cane. Returns of 23 tons (long tons) cane per acre, all Bourbon, were frequent. The mean yield from 1895 to 1899 was 22 tons, which is com- paratively high, considering the limited dose of 2 cwts. of fertilisers per acre. But since that time the yield sunk to 19 and 18°5 tons per acre, whilst an ever-increasing area practically refused to grow Bourbon. There was nothing wrong in the chemical composition of the soil, neither could fungus, root disease, neglected drainage or tillage be made responsible for the failure, neither was it lack of fertilising, for a dose of 3 cwts.* had been applied per acre. But it became imperative to replace the Bourbon by another variety. Frequent previous trials with White Trans- parent and D. 95 had given such encouraging results as regards tonnage that in 1904 the area cropped under Bourbon was reduced to 603 acres, whilst that under White Transparent had risen to 934 and that under D. 95 to 225 acres. The Brechin Castle Usine is supplied with canes from three groups of estates which we will call A, B, and C. The differ- ence of-the soil is shown by the following analyses :— | Light | Medium Heavy ie Souk os) Soil: Clay. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Organic matter and combined water ... 4:30 | 760 10°35 Containing nitrogen ae au as: Orts o9 vOray "350 Sand and insoluble silicates... bee 81:40 | 72:30 61:00 Moisture se a au on 290) li, SO 6°20 Lime Ap < =. eee aie 07325) atx 0:269 0°857 Potash Vos. as $33 att im 0°433 0:439 0:762 Phosphoric acid 0140 | 0°120 0-209 Available potash ... as Sepa 0°027 | 0:020 0-022 Available phosphoric acid (soluble in 1 0-021 0:010 0:017 per cent. citric acid). Rainfall in 1903 — 59 inches. * The fertilizer was composed of 3:4 per cent. nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia, 2°5 per cent. nitrogen as nitrate of soda, 11 per cent. phosphoric acid from superphosphate, and 4°3 potash, costing $6 per acre. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OF In sections A and B medium and occasionally light soils prevail, whilst section C is a heavy clay. The annexed statement was compiled from data kindly supplied by Mr. T. Arbuckle, the manager of the estate. It shows the yield in plant canes, first and second ratoons for each section of the estate. The term “true average’? means the calculated yield in cane per acre, had exactly the same area (one-third) been planted in plant canes, first and second ratoons. The falling off of the Bourbon cane was noticed most in section A: Section B still gave an average return of 17 tons, but the rich lands of C only gave 15°7 tons. In former years some fields of this section used to give a return of 40 tons (plant canes) per acre. The purple cane D. 95 proved to be equally prominent as plant canes, first and second ratoons in section A, the very satisfactory return being 32°8, 21:2, and 20°9 tons respectively, equal to an average of 24 tons. White Transparent shows a somewhat inferior but still satisfactory record in section A with 30°5 tons for plant canes, 20°7 for first and 14°3 for second ratoons. Average 23 tons. For sections B and C the average is 22°8 and 20°2 tons respec- tively. Taken as a whole, the 603 acres in Bourbon gave an average return of 16°43 tons per acre; 935 acres White Trans- parent, 22°35 tons per acre; and 225 acres D. 95, 23°65 tons per acre. Thus far we have only considered the merits of the new varieties as regards tonnage, but an equally important item is their sugar contents. I regret not being able to supplement the above statement by the exact sucrose contents for each variety, much less the results obtained in manufacture. This was impossible owing to the bad milling qualities of the White Transparent, which made it compulsory to grind it together with a certain amount of Bourbon. But frequent single tests of the three varieties proved that even in normal dry seasons the White Transparent is a ‘slow ripener” and of inferior sucrose contents to the Bourbon. In a very favourable season like 1903, however, it surpassed the Bourbon in this respect in April and May. The reverse appears to be the case with D. 95, which reaches maturity earlier than the Bourbon, surpassing it always in sucrose contents. At several times, however, a deterioration in sucrose was noticed when once maturity was attained. 'D. 95 and White Transparent contain much less glucose than the Bourbon. Thus, on March Ist, 1901, the juice from the Bourbon con- tained 1°58 lbs, sugar per gallon, the White Transparent only Sn SE 58 COLONIAL REPORTS-—MISCELLANEOUS. 1°29 lbs., but D. 95, 1°96 lbs., a value never noticed again during that crop. Two months later, on May 7th, the Bourbon contained 1°70 lbs., the White Transparent had risen to 1°90 Ibs., but D. 95 had retrograded to 1°68 lbs. sucrose per gallon. Again in 1902, on February 21st, the White Transparent indicated only 1°27 lbs., as against 1°50 lbs. for the Bourbon. On April 4th we had 1°69 lbs. for Bourbon, 1°58 lbs. for White Transparent, and 1°79 lbs. for D. 95. On May 4th the Bourbon contained 1°77 Ibs., but the White Transparent had risen to 1:92 lbs. In the favourable dry season of 1903 Bourbon started on February 26th with 1°69 lbs. sucrose per gallon and White Transparent with 1°56 lbs. On May 6th we find 1°88 lbs. for Bourbon and 1°74 lbs. for White Trans- parent. D. 95 standing at 1°75 lbs., which was the richest sample noticed for this cane in 1903. In the unfavourable season of 1904 neither Bourbon nor White Transparent reached maturity. On March 9th the Bourbon indicated 1°62 Ibs. sucrose, but the White Transparent only 1°29 Ibs. D. 95, however, contained 1°73 Ibs. sucrose per gallon. After the rains in the beginning of April a retrogression in sucrose contents had already set in, for the Bourbon contained only 1°55 Ibs., White Transparent 1°45 lbs., and D. 95 1°67 lbs. All samples examined were taken from the mill juice as obtained in the factory, which explains that not so many could be taken as would have been desirable. For the grinding of the White Transparent canes unmixed with other canes was avoided as much as possible, not only on account of the difficulty to keep up a regular feed of the mills, but also on account of the poor quality of the megass as fuel. Thus, there are three serious drawbacks preventing the White Transparent from being a successful competitor with the Bourbon, viz., poor sugar contents during the earlier period of the grinding season, difficulty in milling, and poor quality of the megass as fuel. The promising seedling D. 95 is free from these drawbacks. It is only fair to state that another Usine of the Trinidad Histate Company, “Caroni,” succeeded in overcoming the difficulty experienced in milling the White Transparent with the help of a cane slicer and double crushing, and the satis- factory extraction of 72°5 per cent. from the weight of the cane was secured. Maceration of the megass was used. The question, which cane is to replace the Bourbon where the latter has failed, is a very difficult one, for I believe the WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 59 majority of our planters still share the opinion expressed two years ago in Demerara, that so far no seedling cane has been grown which, in all-round good qualities, is equal to the Bourbon. At the same time, nobody will deny that the seedling canes have special merits peculiar to them, as is fully shown in the results published by the investigators connected with the Imperial Department of Agriculture. ANALYSIS OF JUICE FROM WHITE TRANSPARENT AND D. 95 COMPARED WITH BOURBON GROUND AT THE SAME PERIOD. | Bourbon. ‘White Transparent., D. 95. aan | ae as 3 Soo. eo tae oe oe ee a Date © a : | : : . S es u : S a |2a/ 2) 2128) 8) sae 18 2 3°22 1887 352 3 3 3°07 1888 | if PiAzbe il 3 3°10 1889 | . 2,082 0 0 3°07 1890 2,165 0 2 2°97 1891 1,887 9 3 4-00 1892 | 1,081 8 0 3°19 1893 392 0 2 3°29 1894 377 5 0 3°76 1895 318 4 1 3°36 1896 1,866 14 1 3°05 1897 132277 12 0 2°82 1898 1,360 7 0 2°63 1899 965. 12 3 2°93 1900 689 0 0 3°31 1901 2,234 0 3 3°07 1902 | 3,020 7 0 2°64 1903 | 9,235 5 0 2°85 1904 7,886 3 3 3°44 70 COLONIAL REPORTS——MISCELLANEOUS. Dairy Receipts or Farmers’ CANES AT 14 LOADING PLACES ON 7 Estates For Crop 1904, SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE DELIVERIES AT THE INDIVIDUAL STATIONS AND AT THE Facrory. | | Estate Number 1 | 2 3. | 4 | Bey settle pete = og Total. 2 Sie A i ) 1904. Tons.| Tons.) Tons. | Tons.| Tons.) Tons. Fons! Tons. February 15| — — -— — 6 — — 6 5 16 6 22 | — — | 6 | — o— 34 i es oh gl At ee Serpe | a OS gd 3 18 | 87 53 | — | — | 26 60 _ 226 es BA 05 5A 19 — | 44 51 — 262 AS 201-118 39 34 — | 57 34 —_ 282 * 22 | 134 | 127 | -81 — | 140 54 44 | 580 $5 23°; 191° {| 102 a 6 | 182 | 65 aa 695 ; 24 | 307 BS Se) Laer eg 123 78 918 i, 25 | 256 90° 14044 6.1 295 95 | 127 919 i 26 | 297 85°) 40684 12 | 125 85 Sy ee 808 % BEF 127 Bo tee 30 =) 44>") 150-4 583 | | 29.4115 79 65245 = 24 134). (5 49. 208: | 646 March £37109 SO: 18a 7). 45°: 146 73 «| 240 | 888 x. 2} 82 B21 e se) 14: 189 66 | 154 | 720 i 3} 129 56 | 133 Bt =206 02: to 5 845 = 4 | 132 98 | 101 13 | 163 7 | 204 | 788 . 5 |. 94 67 | 40 a yelde |.68 a2 | 428 } | } 3 th o-8o 96 | 68 Of op tet*|- 56. | 192% 666 _ 8 | 192 54 | 64 20 | 174 20-4 204} 779 ‘ 25 172 14-2) 92 23° | 174 isa e 820 y LORI 1S G07) 65 2A doe 31 85 | 522 = The 173 82 |. 62 34 | 173 bl 3123 698 - 12 | 119 GPO baal n 141 39 | 245 688 , 14 | 134 28 | 24 7} 20 77 Loon 437 5 15 | 162 71— 1°46 412. 30 55 45 | 148 552 - 16 | 166 Ta) }s 40 36 | 214 36 82 | 654 5 17) 137 72 | 88 48 | 163 47 | 206 762 - 18 | 325 68 | 65 DiS 0) 60") 259 900 - 19 | 165 69 | 48 34 | 117 OL 4-270 769 ‘ 21 | 214 | 107 bo 28 ASE S113 Zo, | 1D¢ 679 Pa 22 | 180° | 110° | 56 ES 103 75 68 | 610 a 23 | 224 | 119 | 68 23 | 247 54 | 258 | 993 5 4) 227) 192) 19°60 8 — 8h 179.1 69 | 2842). 911 | ‘3 25 | 201 69 51 | — 78 63 82 545 | n 26; 57 | 45 | — | 22 18 10 _ 153 | 283; — | — | 6 — _ 9 — | 15 a Bois AOS | 52 24 6 POs eo — 148 Z 30 | 114 86 | 37 19 41 | 40 _ 337 6 Suit On 692) adi-ey = Bo 27 43 27 312 April 1 | Good) Friday. i Es ae = as . 2} 80 -— 205) 31 29 46 205 WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 71 Daily Receipts of Farmers’ Canes, §¢.—cont. Estate Number.) 1 2 3 4 5a | +6 Scl- eis etal | | | | | 1904. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons.} Tons. April 42 |Ss00-¢-41 2605. bol 19 Shani; aes Oo 293 3 5 | 138 50 | 56 15 =f Sires AO ier at 466 . 6 | 199 80 48) (81 | 918a<| 7 40a] aa 888 : 7 | 361 68 48 63...) 150--| 2441078 907 é 8 | 312 g3-.]--38i!| 8791} Lhd) (Sit 190 896 “ 9 | 263 99 | 30 | 54 | 183 | 54 | 183 867 # 11 | 341 94 19 | 251 90 | 49 | 135 976 - 12 | 302 | 74 68 | 175 | 166 60 | 278 1,122 3 13 | 129 78-1 38-1) 107) 1584)" 6h) 250 810 -5 14 | 405 87 AG |: 15157) 128 ecliotoareaoe 1,324 . 15 | 332 68 | 35 67. | 114 | 53 | 145 813 . 16 | 197 69> | AO Oe 0S ere 664 a 18 | 205 | 70 | 33 | 96 83 | 46 | 201 734 19 | 169 WT AO | Ox. 102e | oeeibe 677 ‘ 90 | 258 | 74 | 35 | 78 | 183 | 43 | 426 1,047 “i 91 | 266 | 93 | 48 | 150° | 105 | -68 | 187 916 2 92 | 202 | 68 B91 18) G07 | 0 sees 888 5 23 | 104 | 48 20° 166 106: | a2) ae 374 95 | 88 | 59 Teas TOs 22-9. $09 476 z 26 | 38 30 6 6 SNCs 74 248 , Peel = Ze EU Gslee 154 = 98 | 142 |p 43 26 10 | 129 | 20 | 96 325 z 29 | 113 45 48 OA. 166°) 81h bo 489 . 30] 197. (= 88- |) Toba tee Iie ates 463 | | | ~ May Q| 42 89 ln“ SclllseGauk 8Gaet a aeene = 211 a SeiAo ote 61 ss e129 30 | 31 398 i 4| 85 94 | 37 31) 1385 98 e o10 621 e 5 | 14 59 | 19 43 | 126 | 28 13 459 - 6. | 1GSiaIer2 at 18 38 94 18 | 165 568 7 | cba Seat ae 92 | 100 19 | 148 410 : G | hd) as 12 12 78 12 81 297 ’ 10 | 103 | 76 12 7 51 16 | 133 398 11: |. 9bcehe-58 6 24 | 36.| 16 83 311 - 12.|- 90 f.t8 Bool ice ease 15 | 146 387 é 1B le BT 98 ene) DON 2a ee 205 e 44052) bho = 11 Ral aee 73 211 3 16} = 66 13 23 Pap 110 is 171° 2ABin ke GO sho Pathe Oro gee 121 ie 18 | 64 80 | — | 33 | 82 ; 8 | 39 256 s 192 AASro l= 20 eee 1314298. | 3 153 i 20 | 84 71 =e 6 14 Oyj sie 185 : 21 | 35 ORT | 4 | — 5 | 42 111 .: 93 | 19 964) 19°) 13 | ae 76 : 24| 46 POSE) ee he aka eee oe 64 . 25 | 24 | 61 a a DB Nisan |= 153 - 96 | 11 BS. | ee a ee ee 69 : 27 Bt 6t. | Seo Serb i eee 124 28 |. 22 10. | + | ee 20. | 5 72 : COLONIAL REPORTS——MISCELLANEOUS. Daily Receipts of Farmers’ Canes, &c.—cont. Estate Number.| 1 2 | 3 | 4 5 | 6 7 Total. 1904. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons Tons. May Pig opengl eee ea ie). 9 22 3 Si a — ao — — a 10 10 June 1 20 — — — = — — 20 : 2k ts) a aoa = ie 3 = — 12 14 _— — ae 26 if Aa 162 — — — oe = 62 Normal de- a a se 120 58 34 27 79 Boe LOZ 453 Range of De- liveries— Hrom ice. | 405 127 185 251 247 123 4435 1,324 To Kee 5 10 6 4 5 5 10 297 Number of complete 8 2 6 6 4 4 15 45 failures. FARMERS ON ESTATES’ LANDS. No. I 1896. | East Indians. Creoles. NA aR oneal AN ef ; Number of farmers ... Ses aos ese 18 | 16 Acres of land held ... a3 be ae 56 48 Cane grown ... _ ws sa Oe oh 79 tons. | 220 tons. ye tes ye ApOF acre... gs 0 bs eo: leisy. 3 » price paid in field... Fe os $1°50 } ‘ 1904. East Indians. | Creoles. | Number of farmers ... one ane nee 160 105 Acres of land held ... ne ae er 761 4921 Cane grown ... sag aes Sas 2 8,924 tons. 4,256 tons. . » per acre... wee aes ii LARS Say LO »» price in field $174 . », at factory $3°16 | | WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. do In 1902 estates’ canes fell below those of farmers’ by 23 per cent., and the time lost by the factory waiting for canes was 6 per cent. In 1903 estates’ canes were less than farmers’ by 76 per cent., and the time lost by the factory was 19 per cent. Between 1900 and 1904 a large sum was spent in enlarging the factory to enable it to deal with farmers’ canes. In 1904 there were no estates’ canes, and irregularity of supply lost the factory 40 per cent. of time and added that to its working expenses. The crop of 1905 is not expected to be over one-half of the crop of 1902, and cultivation by the estate and further importations of immigrants have been resumed. No. II. cht gee a ae ie a a ie ee 1884-5 for Crop 1886. East Indians. Creoles. Number of farmers .. 3 38 Acres of land held 3 125 Cane grown ... as 0 tons. 508 tons. = 5, tons per acre Ome foe's » price in field (all taken in field) ... $216 a AY 1904. East Indians. Creoles. Number of farmers... 164 | 235 UW ——_—-~, -—_ ——_—~ Acres of land held ... ate Sa Se 1,753 Canes grown ... aia mat a ash 8,906 tons. 5 5, tons per acre «.. ae te 5:0 Sia » price in field ... : aos aes $1°68 ie » at loading stations... fe $2°16 Total number of farmers from 1885 to 20,327 1904 inclusive. Total number of acres held for 20 years ... 9,650 acres. 53 a ,, tons of cane delivered in 55,638 tons. 20) years. Average weight delivered per annim per 5 tons 15 ewt. 1 qr.* acre held. y Mr. Abel, it must be borne in n the number of acres held by ily the whole, is * In considering the figures supplied b mind that the calculations are based upo farmers, the greater part of which, but not necessar cultivated in sugar-cane, 74 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. The Hon. S. Henperson, of Trinidad, has furnished the following additional information in reference to cane farming in Trinidad : — fn 1894, that is about ten years ago, when cane farming in this Island was in its infancy, the Agricultural Society of Trinidad appointed a committee to inquire into and report upon the best means for encouraging the then struggling sugar industry. I had the honour to be the chairman of that committee. I convened a meeting of all the sugar planters in the Island and one or two gentlemen who represented the interests of the cane farmers. At that meeting it was unanimously agreed that, as a means of encouraging the cane- farming industry, the sum of 6s. a ton should be paid to the farmers for standing canes, and 9s. a ton for canes delivered at the mill. The report was adopted by the Agricultural Society, and the scale of payment recommended became the current prices in the Colony. That these prices were re- munerative to the farmer was distincly proved by the rapid increase in the area cultivated, which resulted last year in the cane farmers producing fully one-third of the entire sugar production of the Colony. This, on the surface, would appear to be a satisfactory state of things, but underlying it is a serious question which will affect not only the farmers but the sugar industry of the Colony, and that is the question of an adequate supply of labour. In this direction the situation has been rendered more acute year by year with the increase of cane farming. Cane farming cannot now be considered as an adjunct, but as a large competitor in the labour market with the estate owner. Mr. Abel, who represents the largest interest in the sugar industry of this Island, has prepared a paper on the question which will be submitted for publication in the “ West Indian Bulletin.” From this it will be clearly seen what effect this competition in labour is likely to produce on the sugar estates in Trinidad. Up to 1896 a district in which I am interested produced 5,000 tons of sugar as the average output; from that year up to the present time the output has fallen to 3,000 tons, and I confidently state that under the existing labour conditions it will scarcely be possible to raise more than that crop. Indeed, the area of sugar culti- vation in this district has decreased not less than 25 per cent. On the other hand, there has been an increase in the quantity of land held by farmers. Over 1,700 acres of land belonging to the Colonial Company, Limited, are in the hands of farmers, and Mr. Abel’s return, which covers a period of 20 years, shows that the average return from those lands is only 5 tons 15 cwts. of canes per acre. It must be evident, therefore, that the prospect of successful carrying on of cane farming in Trinidad is not encouraging. No one regrets that more than I do. Two conditions are requisite for the successful cultiva- tion of sugar, namely, labour and an intelligent knowledge of the treatment of soil. The first affects sugar estates more WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 75 than cane farming, but both are sadly wanting among the farmers. With regard to the second I might remark that education is a force which cannot be kept under. The Govern- ment has shown a good deal of interest by introducing into the primary schools the teaching of agriculture, and I have not the least doubt that, as years go by and people come to recognise that there is something in the treatment of the soil and that it is wrong to reap crops every year without replacing in the soil what those crops take out of it, better results will be obtained. In conclusion I must endorse the sentiments of the Hon. Mr. Howell Jones, namely, that extensive cane farming is pregnant with danger in the future unless steps are taken to provide an adequate supply of labour. To make cane farming successful in Trinidad two things are necessary labour and an intelligent treatment of the soil—and I may add a third, and that is the rescue of the cane farmer from the rapacious moneylender, who is not satisfied with lending at less than 10 per cent. interest. 76 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. CANE FARMING IN FUJI. By His Excellency Sir Henry M. Jackson, K.C.M.G., Governor of Trinidad. Among my duties in the last Colony to which I was attached was the management of native affairs, which the Governor 1s always required to keep in his own hands. In Fiji there is native taxation amounting in round numbers to £20,000 a year, which is paid in kind, and the cultivation of cane was the easiest and best way for many of the natives to pay that tax. The fields were cultivated by the natives themselves, under the superintendence of Government Overseers, and the produce of the fields was handed over to the Government, who contracted with the mills for its purchase. Hence it became necessary for the Governor to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the systems obtaining throughout the country, so as to secure the best results for the people depen- dent on him. In Fiji cane farming is carried on to a very considerable and rapidly increasing extent. Three systems exist there: First, the free coolies plant on their own small lots, as they do here, and sell the canes to the mill. That has not been found altogether satisfactory, for the same reasons that have made it a partial failure in Trinidad. It has led to a certain extent of overproduction, and the coolies have been unable sometimes to sell their produce, with the result of much loss and of a dangerous amount of discontent. The second system is that carried on by the large cane farmers, among whom are included the native proprietors. There are a very fair number of white settlers who grow canes on areas of from 1,200 to as much as 7,000, up to nearly 10,000 acres in extent, by the use of indentured labour, and these sell their canes to the mills under contracts extending over a term of years. This system is succeeding admirably; the land is being worked to the very best advantage, and considerable fortunes are being made. The other system, which I shall briefly describe, is called the share system or the cane com- pany system, and not only removes these drawbacks, but also provides for labour on the estates. This sytem was first intro- duced, I believe, in Hawaii, where it has practically taken possession of the entire community. In 1902 the Commis- sioner of Labour of Hawaii in his annual report stated that there was only one large plantation in the Hawaiian Tslands where the cane company system was not in use, and that was close to a large town, and enjoyed special advantages in the way of local labour. From Hawaii that system has spread to Mauritius, where, I am told, it is in considerable use, but I do not know precisely to what extent. The information at WEST INDIES-——-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at my disposal, however, shows that it has succeeded very well, and, although it met with a great deal of opposition at first from some estate owners, they are now rapidly adopting it. It was introduced into Fiji in 1901. The figures which I shall give you were drawn up at the end of 1903, when three crops had been taken off the land and the result of the system could be fairly judged. I may mention here that the sugar industry in Fiji is practically entirely in the hands of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company of Sydney—a very large corporation which has immense refineries in Queensland, in New South Wales, and in New Zealand. It has large estates in Queens- land and New South Wales, and has an output from the Fiji Islands alone which this year should reach over 60,000 tons. Every effort is being made by that company to extend the share system throughout the whole of their Fiji estates. The system consists in the division of the estate into blocks, a block of 60 acres having been found a convenient size. That is put into the hands of a cane company, which as a rule numbers one man to every 5 acres of the block. The estate prepares the land and plants it before handing it over to the company, which then does the whole work of cultivation that is subsequently required until the cane is fit for cutting, their work being carried on under the direction and supervision of the estate. During that time they receive an advance of Is. a day each, with which they are duly debited. When the cane is fit to be cut, it is reaped by a cane-gang, the transport being done by the mill by means of a system of light railways, but the cane company is debited with the cost of cutting and transport. When cut, the cane is paid for at the rate of 4s. a ton. I have here the actual return of a block on an estate a few miles from where I lived in Fiji, and which I know very well. The block consisted of 60 acres, and the cane com- pany of ten men, the yield per acre was 30°7 tons. Those 30°7 tons per acre gave 1,843 tons to the block, and were paid for at the rate of 4s. per ton, giving £368 to the cane company. That was the gross payment by the mill to the cane company, but the latter were debited with the advances made them during cultivation, which amounted to £141 19s. lld.; for cutting and carting the cane to the mill they were charged £66; and £8 8s. 11d. for loading and other work done by the mill. So that from their total of £368 the three preceding debits, amounting to £216 18s. 10d., were deducted, leaving a net profit to the coolies of £151 18s. 2d., which worked out at 1s. 2d. per diem for every day they had worked, in addition to the 1s. a day which they had already received. Therefore, they made 2s. 2d. a day besides what they earned in cane- gangs or as mill hands or by private work. The preparation and planting of the land by the estate worked out at 3s. a ton. Therefore, these 1,843 tons were put into the mill at a total cost of 7s. per ton—-a result highly satisfactory both to the labourers and the estate. I have here a return showing ela H | ! { | 78 COLONIAL REPORTS—-MISCELLANEOUS. the cost of each operation, but I am unable to give you the exact figures in this return, as it was given me for private use. But you who know well what the cultivation of cane means will thoroughly understand how -carefully the items are worked out, when I say that in that return all the items incident to the preparation and planting of canes, such as ploughing, ridging, replanting, manuring, cost of laying tram line, transport, and cost of scoops, &c., are included. In the total cost of 7s. per ton, there is also included a charge for the wages advanced to the cane company, the cost of horse labour, mule labour and bullock labour; a charge of 30s. an acre is made for maintenance and supervision; and there is also included a charge of 5d. per ton to cover cost of introduction and hospital expenses of the indentured labourers, and finally the cost of cutting and transport. It works out that the whole cost of that 60 acres to the estate was £645 7s. 3d., and from it they got 1,843 tons of cane at 7s. per ton. The system was taken up by the Sugar Refining Company because they believed, from the results which it had already given, that in course of time they would be able to work estates without indentured labour. At the expiration of two years after the introduction of the system they were able to reduce the in- dentured labour on one estate by more than 10 per cent. I omitted to mention that when the cane companies are formed, both free and indentured coolies are employed in them, and the experience on this particular estate to which I have referred was that the indentured coolies having once taken up the share system and found it so profitable, remained on the estate when their time had expired; they were accustomed to the work, and there was every inducement for them to settle, and the Government was applied to for grants of land for villages for these people, close to the estate, which they were glad to make because this system kept the coolie labourers in the Island as contented and prosperous settlers after their term of engagement had expired. So satisfactorily has the system worked that the General Manager of the company in a recent letter stated that he looked forward to a time, not immeasur- ably distant, when they would be able to reduce very largely, if not entirely dispense with, indentured labour. The system has been pushed with all the strength of this great company which has never paid less than 10 per cent. dividend, and at the last meeting of the shareholders, after payment of the dividend and writing off of depreciation on the machinery, they were able to carry over £90,000 to the reserve fund. I think, therefore, that if a company of that magnitude has succeeded with a system of that sort, and when it has met with even greater success throughout Hawaii, and to a large measure in Mauritius, it is worthy of consideration whether a similar system might not to be usefully tried elsewhere. At first it was not altogether popular in Fiji, as, since the whole of the work of the cane companies is carried on under the WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 79 direction and supervision of the estate, the overseers con- sidered it gave them extra trouble, but they very soon found that the not having to measure up the tasks daily and not having to be continually driving the people to complete them made their work much easier and pleasanter. To the conten- tion that the cane company might idle, I can only reply that the reverse has been found to be the case, as the magic of working for his own profit leads the Indian to bestir himself. A report on the working of the cane companies in Fiji by the Chief Manager of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company states that the coolies were doing nearly double the task per day that any indentured man ever attempts to perform. 23011 H 2 80) COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL FUNGOID DISEASES OF THE SUGAR-CANE. By L. Lewrton-Brar, B.A., F.LS., Late Mycologist on the Staff of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. I intend merely to give a brief summary of the chief facts known with regard to these diseases. Rinp DiIskase. The rind disease is one which has caused great loss in previous years to sugar-cane planters; so great was the damage in Barbados that practically every estate was obliged to abandon their then favourite cane—the Bourbon. The fungus causing the disease (7'richosphaeria sacchart) gains entrance to the stem of its host by wounds—principally those caused by boring insects. It attacks and destroys the parenchymatous cells of the stem, it then passes on to the wood vessels ‘and chokes up their cavities, so reducing the water current and causing the leaves to droop and wither. Finally, it produces spores in chambers just within the rind of the cane. The spores break through the rind and appear as small pustules on the surface of the canes. Canes badly attacked are practically valueless, while always the sugar content is reduced. Among remedial measures there is the destruction of diseased canes. These were often separated from the healthy ones and left on one side in the estate yard, there to produce spores ready to infect the new crop. They should, of course, be burnt immediately they are brought in. The use of only healthy canes for planting is a point on which I need not insist. The folly of planting “seed” that is already infected with the disease is obvious. The fungus is a wound parasite; consequently, if we keep in check the insects which are the principal cause of wounds, a good deal will be done to prevent the attacks of the fungus. Finally, we have the raising of sugar-cane varieties which are resistant to the disease. This I may say has been done, and in those Islands which have abandoned the Bourbon cane, certainly in Barbados and the Northern Islands, the rind disease is no longer feared. The White Transparent is one of the best known of the resistant varieties, besides this there are several seedling canes recommended for trial on estates. In all the selection experiments resistance to rind diseases is one of the points insisted upon, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 81 PINE-APPLE DISEASE. The pine-apple disease is caused by a fungus (T'hielaviopses ethaceticus) which attacks cane cuttings and prevents their growth. The fungus gains access at the cut ends or at wounds. The interior of diseased stems is found filled with a black mass of hyphae and spores of the fungus and has a distinct odour of pine-apple. The disease is one that does little damage in a good planting season, when germination and growth are rapid. During a dry season the disease does considerable harm and causes a good many cuttings to fail to germinate. The last two planting seasons in Barbados have been very favour- able, consequently I have seen little of the disease. The first means of preventing the disease is to select only sound cuttings for planting; by this I mean cuttings not only free from disease but also free from borer holes and other wounds where the fungus can gain entrance. One other method of treatment is to soak the cuttings in some fungicide, by this means protecting the cut ends from . infection. As this is a subject which is to come up for separate discussion I will not say anything of the experiments which have been carried out on these lines. Root D1sEAsE. Root disease of the sugar-cane is caused by a Bacidiomy- cetous fungus (Varasmius sacchari); the same fungus attacks sugar-cane in Java, while another species of the genus attacks bananas in the West Indies (M. semzustus). The disease is one that has caused great loss in Barbados, especially in the season before last when weather conditions were unfavourable to the growth of the cane. The symptoms are first those of a deficient water supply. The leaves roll up and finally become dry and wither, the tips and edges showing the effect first. Fewer leaves, also, are developed. The lower leaf-sheaths, instead of falling off leaving the stem clean, remain attached, and when examined are found to be matted together by a white mycelium, and the whole has a characteristic musty smell. The young roots whén examined are seen not to be developing properly, the tips are red and black, and they remain short. The stools, generally, are dwarfed and easily uprooted. The last stage is the development of toad-stools; these are found, usually in rainy weather and in the early morning, at the base of the attacked stools; they are small, white, delicate structures, bearing the spores on gills on the under side of the cap. They 82 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. may spring direct from diseased roots or from the matted leaf- sheaths. The following is a technical description of the genus Marasmius and the species MW. sacchari: — “ Marasmius, Fries—Tough, thin, dry, reviving their form when moistened (not putrescent). Veil absent (except in one sp.); stem cartilaginous or horny; gills tough, sub-distant or distant, often connected by veins, edge acute; spores white or pallid. “ Marasmius sacchari, Wakker, ‘De Ziekten van het Suikerriet op Java,’ p. 194, pl. V. (1898).—Gregarious or fasciculate at the base, variable, flesh membranaceous, persistent; pileus white, broadly campanulate, then dingy white and plane or cup-shaped, 15 mm. diam.; gills white, simple, or bifurcate; stem central, white, 15 mm. long, apex tubiform, base villous, hyphae white; spores hyaline, continuous, irregularly. oblong, ends attenuated, rounded, 16-20 x 4-5 micro millimetres.’ (Massee: “Text Book of Plant Diseases,” p. 387.) The fungus is a facultative saprophyte and its mycelium is capable of living indefinitely on decaying cane-stumps, so long as conditions are favourable, that is, in the absence of much air and light. It attacks the cane plant indirectly, first developing on the dead leaves, dead roots, &c., and finally attacking the root tips. Here it destroys the growing region and so prevents root development. Under favourable conditions the sugar-cane is capable, to a great extent, of overcoming the attacks of Marasmius. It is only when root development is checked that great damage is done. The fungus spreads by its spores but mainly by its under- ground mycelium, spreading thus from diseased plants to healthy ones in the neighbourhood. This gives us one way of checking its spread, namely, by digging a trench around an attacked area. The trench should be about 18 inches deep and should include one or two rows of apparently healthy canes. Good cultivation, by promoting root development and admitting light and air, will also check the growth of the fungus. Diseased canes should not be allowed to ratoon, for it is as ratoons that canes are most severely attacked. When- ever possible infected land should be rested from cane culti- vation for at least two years. Cotton forms a good rotation crop. Old cane stumps infested with the mycelium of Marasmius are a frequent source of infection. These should be dug out and destroyed. Another point is to use only very healthy, vigorous cuttings, to give the plants a good start. Sometimes, even now, cuttings are taken from plants which are too poor to be crushed; the folly of this, in giving the fungus a good start with the new crop, is obvious. Great care should also be taken in supplying to use only healthy plants. WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bovell: Field Treatment of the Diseases of the Sugar- cane in the West Indies: ‘‘ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol ap. sos Howard: Fungoid Diseases of Sugar-cane: ‘“‘ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. II., p. 46. Thiselton-Dyer: Note on the Sugar-cane Diseases of the West Indies: “ West Indian Bulletin,’ Vol. IL., pe eats Howard: The Field Treatment of Cane Cuttings in reference to Fungoid Diseases: ‘‘ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. III:,-p. 78. Wakker and Went: “ De Ziekten van het Suikerriet op Java”: Leiden, 1898. Lewton-Brain: ‘Lectures on the Diseases of the Sugar- cane”: Pamphlet No. 29, Barbados, 1904. 84 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS, REVIEW OF THE INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE SUGAR-CANE. By H. A. Batzov, B.Sc., Entomologist on the staff of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. This paper is intended to furnish a concise summary of what has already been published, together with an account of a borer in canes (Castnia licus) which has recently appeared in British Guiana. Toe Mots Borer. (LDiatraea saccharalis.) Lafe-history—The egg is laid on the leaf; the larva lies about ten days in the outer leaf-sheath and then bores into the heart of the plant which, later, withers and dies. These withered shoots are known as dead hearts, and are an indica- tion of the presence of the larve in a stool of canes. The larve in a shoot may become well developed before the shoot withers; they also penetrate the stem of the cane, and may go from one shoot to another in the same stool. The larval life lasts from thirty to thirty-five days. The pupa is formed in the tunnel made by the larva, near the surface of the cane, protected by a slight web across the ‘mouth of the tunnel. The pupal period lasts about six days. The imago has a short existence, living but a few days. It is not a strong flyer, and remains inactive by day, flying at night. The female lays from 100 to 300 eggs. Description—tThe egg is flattened, oval, slightly convex, upper surface finely reticulate. The eggs are laid in clusters averaging about 19 to.a cluster, the range being from 4 to 57, usually between 10 and 30. When first laid they are light- yellow, becoming orange-brown later, and just before hatching the centres become very dark. The egg is about 1 mm. (5, inch) in length. The larva is about 2 mm. (,5 inch) in length when first hatched, of a light orange colour, with numerous short, black hairs. The mature larva is about 14 inches in length, the head is dark brown or black, with a V-shaped mark lighter than the rest of the head. The pronotum is dark brown or black. The remainder of the body whitish with stigmata black,. and with a few dark hairs scattered over the body. The head and pronotum are hard, the remainder of the body being soft. The pupa is naked, shiny brown, 4 to ? inch in length, with short spines and callosities on abdominal segments. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 85 _ The imago or moth is of a dull straw colour on upper surface of fore wings, with a few dark spots; the hind wings are whitish, under surface of wings uniformly light, the body brownish. The expanse of wings is 14 to 12 inches, length of body 2 to ? inch. Parasites—The eggs are attacked by a small hymenop- terous parasite (T'rechogramma pretiesa), and the larve are sometimes attacked by a fungus (Cordyceps barber?). Injury to Canes—The moth borer injures the cane in several ways: by killing the young shoots, by eating out the sugar-containing portion of the stem, and by affording easy access to fungoid diseases, especially the rind disease (T'richos- pheria sacchari). Prevention.—Canes that show borer holes should not be planted, nor should such canes be sent from one estate or from one colony to another. Remedies Cutting out the dead hearts seems to be the most generally practised of all remedial measures. These should be cut as low as possible to ensure getting below the larve. The dead hearts are burned or fed to stock, and the larvee are thus destroyed. The collecting of eggs has been practised, but does not seem to be generally carried out in the West Indies. Care should be taken to distinguish those eggs containing parasites; parasitised eggs should not be burned with the others, but should be kept to give the para- sites an opportunity of emerging. Harp Back. (Ligyrus tumulosus.) This is the common black hard back, the larva of which is a white grub living in the ground feeding on vegetable matter. There seems to be no evidence that this is a serious pest to sugar-cane, but a closely related species, digyrus rugiceps, is a pest of canes in Louisiana, and the West Indian form may do more harm than has been realised. Tue Weevit Borer. (Sphenophorus sericeus.) Life-history—The eggs are laid singly, embedded in the cane to a depth of 4 inch. The egg hatches in four days, and the larva or grub eats its way into the cane, forming a small tunnel which increases in size as the larva grows larger. The larval period or grub stage lasts about seven weeks. During this period the larva destroys most of the interior of a joint of cane. The pupa is formed in the tunnel made by the larva, 86 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. and is covered with a large, rough cocoon made of the fibres of the cane. The pupal period lasts about ten days, and at the end of that time the adult beetle emerges from one end of the cocoon. The beetle is active, flying about at night. The female, after mating, begins egg-laying which continues for some time. The beetles may be kept alive several weeks. Deseription—The egg is oval, about +; inch in length, and is nearly transparent. The larva is a small white grub when first hatched. It has no legs, but has a hump near the hind end of the body, by means of which it pushes itself along the tunnel. When full- grown the larva is about 4-2 inch in length and 3 inch in thickness at the swollen part of the hind body. The pupa is soft, whitish, enclosed in a rough cocoon of coarse fibres in the rotten cane where the larva has lived. The adult beetle is reddish-brown with black markings. There are three longitudinal black marks on the throax, and the wing covers are edged with black, and on each wing cover there is a black line and black spot. The front of the head is produced to form a stout beak or snout. The length is about + inch, the width about ,*; inch. Injury to Canes —The damage caused by this insect consists in the destruction of canes growing in the field, injury to young canes springing from cane plants, and possible injury to young canes springing from cane stumps. Remedies and Prevention.—Destroy all infested canes, cover cut ends of cane plants, cane tops, and ratoon stumps with mould as soon as possible, or plant so that no ends shall be left exposed above ground, and destroy all stumps not intended for ratooning as soon as possible after canes are cut. Tarring the ends of cane plants, as recommended for pre- venting fungoid attack, would probably be useful. Tue Roor Borer. (Diaprepes abbreviatus.) Infe-history—Eggs are laid in clusters ranging in number from 8 to 180 on upper side of leaf, not necessarily that of a food plant. When first laid, the eggs are white, later they become tinged with yellowish-brown. The eggs hatch in ten days. The newly hatched larva is about +4 inch in length, pale yellowish-brown in colour. There are no legs, and the body is not swollen to form a hump like that seen in the larva of the weevil borer. The larve or grubs fall to the ground and burrow beneath the surface. They begin feeding almost immediately on the roots of plants. They attack the canes first at the soft ends of the adventitious roots, the root stock WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 87 being attacked later. The larva enters the cane about 9 to Il inches below the surface of the ground, works its way upward several inches, then turns and descends and enters another cane. “One grub is often responsible for the death of a whole stool of canes.” The larval period extends over 300 to 312 days, and the mature larva measures § to 1 inch in length, and 73 to % inch in diameter. The pupa is formed in the ground where it is enclosed in an earthen cell, 6 or 8 inches below the surface or in the cane, in which case it is enclosed in a cocoon similar to, but rougher than, that of the weevil borer, or in a nest of decay- ing leaves. The pupal period is about 15 days. The imago or adult beetle is at first soft and brownish- white. In two or three days it becomes hard and assumes its characteristic colours. The thorax is brownish with fine white pubescence, which gives a spotted appearance, wing covers greenish white with longitudinal brownish or bronze stripes, head brownish with stout snout or beak, the legs brownish, femora somewhat swollen. The length of life of the adult is about 20 days, during which time mating and egg-laying occur. The female lays about 240 to 270 eggs. Food Plants —This insect is probably a very general feeder. It is known to feed on sugar-cane, sweet potato, guinea corn, imphee, and ground nut, and has been found eating the roots of cacao trees in St. Lucia. (See “ Agricultural News,” Vol. III., p. 264.) Remedies —Sweet potatoes and imphee should not follow canes in field culture, nor should these be followed by canes. A crop not attacked by the root borer would be advisable, or no crop, with the removal of the cane stumps. The larvee of the root borer can live only about 15 days without food, and to deprive them of food will be greatly to reduce their num- bers. The following plants do not seem to be attacked by the root borer:—Ochro, cassava, yams, and eddoes, woolly pyrol, pigeon peas, bonavist, rouncival pea, bean. Tue Cane ELy. (Delphax saccharivora.) This small insect, although at one time believed to be a very severe pest, is not now considered as such, though generally present in small numbers each year. It appears to be well controlled by the lady-bird beetles (Coccinellide) and 1 tbreaks the lace wings (Chrysopa sp.) except for. occasional outh on smali areas. The presence of Delphas 1s generally indicated by black blight. 8 8 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUDS. ScatE InsEcts. _ Three species of scale insects are known to attack canes in the West Indies, viz., Dactylopius sacchari, Dacetylopius calceolarve, and Aspidiotus sacchari. These species of Dactylopius are “ mealy bugs,” soft-bodied insects covered with mealy wax. They attack the stems and are protected by the leaf-sheaths. Aspidiotus sacchari is a small, rounded, straw-coloured scale insect. These insects do but little harm, probably, and in the time ordinarily required for the growth of the crop would not become very numerous. No treatment is practicable except the exercise of great care not to plant infested canes. Tue Suor Borer. (Xyleborus perforans.) This is a small brownish beetle about 7, inch in length. The greatest injury to canes from the boring of this insect is that the holes in the hard rind of the cane furnish an easy entrance for fungoid diseases such as the rind disease. As the species of Xyleborus readily attack dead and dying plants and multiply in them rapidly, the prompt destruction of dead and dying canes will have the effect of reducing the number of shot borer and checking its development and spread. The shot borer has not been prevalent in the West Indies for the past two years. THE LARGER Motu Borer. (Castnia licus, Drury.) This insect was first reported to the Imperial Department of Agriculture in October, 1904, from plantation Enmore, British Guiana, where 1t was then causing serious injury to the canes. Mr. Bethune, Manager at Enmore, sent specimens of the larval and adult forms of the insect as well as pieces of cane and a stool of cane stumps showing the damage done, accom- panied by statements as to its destructiveness. The Executive Secretary of the British Guiana Board of Agriculture for- warded a report by Mr. Ward, Agricultural Instructor, and further specimens accompanied this report. From such correspondence and reports, and the specimens and material received, this paper has been prepared, the writer having had no opportunity of studying the insect in che field. The egg is about 4 mm. (2% inch) in length and 1 mm. (7, inch) in width, spindle shaped, tapering to a point at WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 89 either end, with five prominent longitudinal ribs from end to end. The colour ranges from a light grey (nearly white) to a dark grey. Eggs laid in captivity hatch in three or four days. Eggs have not been found in the field, and it is not known where they are laid. In captivity the eggs are laid singly and unattached. The newly hatched larva (in captivity) is large in com- parison with the size of the egg. Full-grown larve are about 23 inches long and 4 inch in diameter. The head is large, reddish-brown in colour, with large powerful mandibles, with which it eats its way through the canes. The mandibles are shiny-black. The segments of the thorax are the largest, thus giving the body its greatest ‘size just behind the head. The abdominal segments are nearly uniform in size, decreasing gradually posteriorly, the last one being the smallest. The thoracic legs are small, brownish, situated on the large fleshy swellings of the three segments of the thorax. The abdominal legs are soft protuberances on the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and last abdominal segments. All the body segments are swollen and prominent. The colour of the larva is whitish, the spiracles are very prominent—being large and brown in colour. There are a few pale hairs most plainly seen on the head, on the last abdominal segment, and on each segment below the line of the spiracles. The skin is shiny and slightly transparent. On the dorsal surface of each of the second and third thoracic and the first seven abdominal segments, there is a small area set with short brown spines or callosities, which serve to assist the larva in travelling along the tunnel in the cane. The pupa is formed either in the canes at the base of the stool or in the ground near the canes. The pupa is brown 1n colour, about 14 inches in length. The wing pads, antenne, and proboscis are very plainly visible. On the dorsal area of each of the abdominal segments, except the last, are spines and thickened processes. On the first six segments there are two rows, and on the seventh and eighth there is one row across the segment. These spines are short, sharp and directed backward, and assist the pupa in wriggling its way either through the tunnel in the cane toward the top of the stump or through the ground toward the surface when the adult or imago is about to emerge. The pupa is sometimes enclosed in a rough cocoon formed of the fibres of the cane and sometimes in an earthen cell. (I have not seen a cocoon and only one pupa—that one, an imperfect one.) The imago has a spread or wings of 3 to 34 inches. The body is 14 to 12 inches long. The colour is dark, brownish- gray, lighter beneath. ; The fore wing is crossed on the upper surface by a broad white band just within the middle; outside this and nearly 90: EOLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. parallel with it a short white band extends from the front margin about half-way across. These white bands are seen on the under side of the fore wing also. Along the outer margin is a row of small, light spots which are not conspicuous. The hind wing has a white band on the upper surface running across it near the middle. This is interrupted, near the front margin, making two distinct spots, behind which the band gradually increases in width until near the hind margin, where it is at its widest. A corresponding white band is seen on the under surface of the hind wing, but it is narrower, and the two spots near its beginning are less dis- tinctly separated. Along the outer margin of the hind wing above are six spots of pale orange, the first three smaller and less distinct than the last three. The head is large, with large, prominent eyes of a dark, velvety-brown colour. The antenne are slender, swollen toward the end, tipped with a small, slightly curved point, dark-brown in colour, lighter at the tip. The proboscis is slender, light-brown in colour, about 4 inch in length, coiled under the head when not extended for feeding, &c. The body is robust, clothed with coarse scales which are long and hair-like at the anal end. Colour, similar to the wings, dark-brown above, paler below. Habits—The eggs are laid (in captivity) singly and not attached. It is not known where they are deposited in the field, but it 1s suggested that they may be laid in the axils of the leaves, or in the ground at the base of the plant. The larva enters the cane at the base of the plant and tunnels upwards about 2 feet and then turns and goes back through the same tunnel and bores its way into the under- ground part of the plant. Canes have been found in which the larve evidently entered high up on the plant and worked their way downward, but such exceptions are rare. It is not known how long a time is required for the growth of the larva from the hatching of the egg to the formmg of the pupa. Only one larva has been found in a cane, and it is likely that one larva attacks more than one cane, perhaps all the canes in a stool, as in some cases the underground stems are all tunnelled through, so that all the tunnels in the stems of a stool are connected. In some cases, too, the under- ground stems are eaten through at the sides, so that the tunnels connect with the soil around the plant. It is not known whether the larva tunnels underground from one stool of canes to another, but it seems likely. Larve in captivity in the laboratory of the Imperial Department of Agriculture tunnel- led through and through the soil in a glass dish in which they were kept. The soil was 6 inches deep and the larve went to the bottom of the dish, and the tunnels penetrated in all directions through the soil, WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 91 The duration of the pupal stage is not known, nor is it known whether the adult feeds at all after emerging from the pupa. The adult or imago is a day-flying moth, greatly resembling a butterfly in its general appearance. The damage to the canes is of two kinds. The larva eats out a large amount of the sugar-containing portion of the cane, and so thoroughly tunnels the stumps and underground portions that it is impossible to get ratoons from them. Occurrence.—The larger moth borer has been known at plantation Enmore for the past three years, but has not occurred in seriously large numbers until the present season (1904). The moths have been most abundant in J anuary and February in previous years, and a few have been seen in May or June, following a mid-year cutting of canes. As the specimens received from British Guiana appeared to be identical with some large caterpillars received some years ago from Marienburg estate in Surinam, a letter of enquiry was sent to Dr. C. J. van Hall, Director of Agriculture for the Dutch West Indies, asking for particulars as to the out- break in Surinam. Dr. van Hall wrote that the description of the pest corresponded with a pest of canes known at Marienburg some five or six years previously. “The pest appeared suddenly and assumed a dangerous character, but very soon the borers disappeared, and, so far as we know, they have not been seen here any more.” Karly in 1903 a large lepidopterous insect was sent to the Head Office from Trinidad, which was said to be a borer in bananas. The specimen was very badly injured and was not identified, but it is believed to be the same as the one under discussion. Remedies._Several remedies have been suggested, but only two have been tried. These are (1) catching the adult, while flying, with nets, and (2) plugging the borer holes in the top of the cane stumps with clay to prevent the emergence of the adult. By the first of these methods large numbers of the moths were caught by coolie children at plantation Enmore. The second seems not to be very efficient, as the clay crumbles in the sun and opportunity is thus provided for the escape of the moths. Carbon bisulphide is not available in British Guiana, or it might be possible to make use of this valuable insecticide. The moths have not been observed to feed on any flowers, nor will they feed on sweets provided them in cap- tivity. If they were attracted to any food, use might be made of poisoned baits. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Maxwell-Lefroy: Moth Borer in Sugar-cane: “ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. I., p. 327. Maxwell-Lefroy: Weevil Borer of Sugar-Cane: ‘“ West Indian Bulletin,’ Vol. III., p. 88, 92 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. Watson: Root Borer of Sugar-cane: ‘“‘ West Indian | Bulletin,” Vol. IV., p. 37. Maxwell-Lefroy: Insect Pests of Sugar-cane: ‘ West Indian Bulletin,” V. I1., p. 41. ADDENDA. Since the preparation of the foregoing account of the cane borer at plantation HKnmore, British Guiana, for the Agri- cultural Conference, the following additional information has been obtained : — Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., writing under date of December 17th, 1904, to the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture, with reference to the specimens sent to him, says:——‘‘ This is Castnia licus, Drury, which has been reported as being bred from Orchidearum on the Upper Orinoco. It has been collected in Brazil, Ecuador, Demerara, Surinam, Trinidad, Upper Orinoco, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and is described and figured (in part) in Westwood’s ‘Monograph of the Castniide,’ Transactions of the Linnean Society.” The “Journal of the Trinidad Field Naturalists’ Club,” Vol. I., No. 6, p. 141, February, 18938, contains an article, entitled “ Castnia Licus: A Banana Pest,” by Mr. Thomas J. Potter, which is quoted here in full: — ‘When the peasant cultivators in my district see a banana tree backward in growth, they say that it is the worm which always attacks the banana sucker when planted at a ‘bad moon.’ On May 15th I resolved to find out what this worm was, and examining a sucker that was in a backward state I discovered traces of a boring insect which had entered at the base of the sucker and almost on a level with the soil. It had bored upwards almost into the heart of the plant, and the channels it had made were filled with decomposed vegetable matter. I did not succeed in finding the insect, but traces of its recent presence were unmistakable. A few days after this I inspected another plant in a condition similar to the last one. Again I was unsuccessful in discovering’ the culprit, for it had evidently bored through the root stock and emerged from the plant. On a more recent occasion I examined another affected plant and this time was successful in capturing a specimen of the borer. I found it was the larva of some lepidopterous insect, about 3 inches long and about % inch in diameter. Its head was light-brown, with darker- brown mandibles, and its body was whitish with a trans- parent skin. Its presence in the plant is readily indicated in the early stages of its attack by an exudation of a WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 93 transparent mucilaginous fluid from the hole through which it effects an entrance. The only cure I have tried is to destroy the insect and to cut out the affected part when the enemy makes its first attack, but nothing can save a plant which has been affected for some time. On July 10th, 1892, 1 found a caterpillar boring into a banana sucker, on August 18th it spun a cocoon and changed into a mahogany-brown chrysalis, and on September 24th a fine specimen of the Castnia licus emerged. This moth flies in the day, and I have often caught it in banana patches, but I little dreamt that it did such harm to the plants in its early stages. A short time afterwards I observed one of these moths depositing itseggs. It selected the base of a banana sucker for this purpose, and laid a single egg just inside a dry and withered leaf-stalk. The local name of this moth is ‘ cane-sucker.’ ” Mr. A. W. Bartlett, Executive Secretary of the British Guiana Board of Agriculture, writing under date of Feb- ruary 4th, 1905, furnishes the following additional infor- mation : — “In reply to your questions with regard to certain points in the life-history and habits of this insect, the following additional information has been obtained :— “(a.) The eggs are laid singly on the cut surface of a cane stump apparently almost immediately after the emergence of the insect from the cane stool, and it would seem probable that the larva bores its way into the cane stool within three days after the egg is deposited. : “(b.) The length of time spent in the larval state is un- known. The grubs hatched out in captivity have lived but a few hours, and most of the larvee found at this season are practically fully fed. “(c.) Some cocoons are found in the underground portion of the cane while a few make earthen cocoons below the cane stool. The duration of pupation remains undetermined. The pupa works its way up the hole bored in the stump preparatory to the emergence of the imago by means of a fringe of sharp spines round its posterior segments. In one instance the insect emerged from a piece of cane stool planted in a pot of damp cocoa-nut fibre, not by means of the top end of the cane stump, but from below through the fibre. “(d.) The length of life of the adult is unknown. “(e.) With regard to the feeding habits of the adult, it does not appear that it is attracted by any shrub or flower, and it is seldom seen to alight on any of the grasses. 23011 I 94 COLONIAL REPORTS—-MISCELLANEOUS. “(f.) It has been recorded that, so far as it is known, the larve feed chiefly on Orchidacee and Brome- lracee. ““(g.) As many as three fully-fed larve are sometimes found in one cane stool which is seldom forsaken until it is completely riddled. Owing to the com- paratively short distance between the cane stools in the rows it is quite possible that the grubs work their way from one to another. “(h.) The borer cannot be detected by the appearance of the cane in the early stages of the attack. In most cases it is not destroyed by cutting out the young canes, as is the moth borer, for when the leaves begin to wither the insect has again descended to the stool to extend its tunnelling into another cane. Hence it is difficult to combat successfully with this grub. “The remedy of plugging the holes in the cane stools suggested by the Entomologist of the Imperial Depart- ment appeared at first to be attended with partial success as the number of the adults flying in the plots treated after this manner was reduced. Clay, however, crumbles when exposed to the weather and egress is again per- mitted. “As many as possible of the adults are still being captured. The insects appeared during the first week in November and since then there has been a steady increase in the number collected weekly, rising to close upon 17,000 during the week ending December 31st, 1904. “When supplying gaps in the cane fields the dead stools are removed and in this manner a good many grubs are taken. “The insect has since been identified in London as one of the day-flying moths belonging to the family Castniidee and known as Castnia Berbece. So far as is known the larvee feed chiefly on Orchidacee and Bromeliacea.” WEST INDIES--DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 95 FIELD TREATMENT OF CANE TOPS FOR PLANTING PURPOSES. LEEWARD ISLANDS. -By the Hon. Francis Warts, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. Acting on the suggestion of Mr. A. Howard, late Mycologist of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the Ww est Indies, we have treated plant tops and cuttings with germi- cides before planting. The germicides used have been Bordeaux mixture and tar, separately and combined. Experi- ments have been conducted on tops and on-cuttings; by the latter we mean the lower joints of the cane not usually used for planting. The results of the experiments carried out during the season 1902-3 have already been published in the ‘West Indian Bulletin” (Vol. V., pp. 96-103). The results go to show that the treatment with germicides prevents the decay of the top or cutting prior to the formation of roots and the development of the shoot from the bud. When tops are used and the planting season is propitious, the loss from this decay is but small, and germicides have but little influence: but when the season is unpropitious, or when cuttings are used, the loss from this cause may be very great, so that germicides are particularly useful when cuttings are used or when the planting season is a bad one. Of the two germicides, Bordeaux mixture is both the better and the easier to apply. Tar* is less efficacious, and when used in conjunction with Bordeaux mixture it does not appreciably improve the results. In our experiments we obtained the following results, the numbers being the percentage growing :— 1902-3. | 1903-4. | ! } { | } Tops. | Cuttings. | Tops. Cuttings Untreated ... ae soe €0 | 18 95 48:2 Bordeaux mixture ... Pea 96 | 75 98 78 Ends tarred . E 63 al 99 63 Bordeaux gactare ord ee 96 | 57 100 79°5 The season 1903-4 was much more propitious for planting than that of 1902-3. ee a phe ee eee * The ends of the canes planted were tarred. si 23011 96 COLONIAT, REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. The results for 1903-4 are shown in diagrammatic form, as follows : — Tops. | | | | of three experi- ments. Untreated, ent [RoR ene “Sinordiyeye | ea EEE Ends tarred nee Bordeaux mixture and tar. CUTTINGS. Untreated meat) of three experi- { ments. SASS creed esas Uae UNE LT Ends tarred ee Bordeaux mixture and tar. The use of Bordeaux mixture is cordially commended to planters; it is cheap, simple, and efficacious and may prove decidedly useful when endeavouring to plant canes in districts liable to fungoid diseases. It is not necessary, as at first suggested, that the tops or cuttings should be soaked for two hours. Bordeaux mixture is best prepared by the following formula : — Copper sulphate (blue stone) ... Janeen ick ns. Unslaked lime ... ae a sede) ead 8: Water... bs Nie vn ... 60 gallons. The G lbs. of copper sulphate (blue stone) are dissolved in 25 gallons of water in a wooden tub or barrel. It is best to tie the crystals of blue stone in a piece of sacking and suspend it in the water from a stick laid across the top of the barrel. At the same time 4 lbs. of freshly-burnt unslaked lime are Percentage of plants growing. 2() 4() 60 80 100 a Se Fn eS aS | $$$ | WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 97 slowly slaked, and the resulting paste made up to 25 gallons with water and well stirred. Next, the lime wash and solution of blue stone are slowly poured together into a third tub or barrel holding from 50 to 60 gallons. When the mixing is complete, the blue liquid is stirred for a minute and tested by placing therein a clean, bright knife-blade for one minute. If the knife-blade remains bright, the Bordeaux mixture is safe; but if it becomes covered with a deposit of copper, more hme milk must be added until this deposit ceases to form. Prepared in this way the blue substance in the mixture does not settle readily nor does the mixture require much stirring before use. BARBADOS. By. .J.. RB. -Boversy lS. eee: In Barbados, so far, two experiments have been conducted with the object of ascertaining, first, whether the treatment of cane cuttings by tarring the ends prevented fungus spores germinating and infecting them; and, secondly, whether soaking them in Bordeaux mixture had the same effect. In December, 1902, experiments were conducted to answer the first question. ‘Ten series of experiments were carried out on four estates and five on another. On each of the first four estates 100 holes were planted for each experiment, on the fifth 2,820 holes were planted. In the first and sixth series the cuttings were planted in the usual estate way, that, is, soaked in water for twelve hours and planted, leaving the top ends uncovered. In the second and seventh series the cuttings were soaked in water for 12 hours and planted, the top ends being covered with soil to a depth of } inch. This, it was hoped, would prevent fungus spores reaching the top ends and also prevent insect attack. In the third. and eighth series after soaking in water for 12 hours the top ends of the cuttings were tarred. In these series the top ends were left uncovered. In the fourth and ninth series the cuttings were treated as in the third and eighth, but on planting the cuttings were covered with + inch of soil. In the fifth and tenth series both ends of the cuttings were tarred and the top end was covered with } inch of soil. The results of these series of experiments have so far proved inconclusive; the percentage of cuttings which germinated 98 COLONIAL REPORTS—-MISCELLANEOUS. being practically the same throughout the experiments, vary- ing from 72 per cent. to 81 per cent. The average in the first series being 80, in the second 73, in the third 81, in the fourth 74, in the fifth 81, in the sixth 76, in the seventh 72, in the eighth 80, in the ninth 73, and in the tenth 79 per cent. The experiments with Bordeaux mixture were carried out in six fields attached to the Government Industrial School (Dodds) between November 17th and the end of December last. In these fields 9,900 holes were planted in the usual manner in which the seedling canes are planted, te. by cutting and taking them from the plots in which they are growing direct to the plots in which they are to be planted, thus avoiding any likelihood of the cuttings becoming mixed. At the same time 4,660 holes were planted with ¢uttings that had first been soaked for two hours in Bordeaux mixture made according to the directions given in the “ West Indian Ballet ~ (Vol. @1:;: p:-210). During the time the cuttings were germinating the weather conditions were favourable to their growth, showers falling at short intervals. In the case of the untreated cuttings 81°6 per cent. germinated, and in the case of the cuttings soaked in Bordeaux mixture 91°8 per cent. germinated. The average difference in favour of the cuttings soaked in Bordeaux mixture was 10 per cent., the maximum in the case of the non-treated cuttings being 86 per cent., and the minimum 77 per cent. In that of the cuttings soaked in Bordeaux mixture the maximum was 97 per cent., and the minimum 89 per cent. SE RS SS SED MOE WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 99 THE POLARIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF SUCROSE. By the Hon. Francis Warts, C.M.G., D-Sc., F.1.C., F.CS., and H. A. Tempany, B.Sc., A.L.C. For several years a keen controversy has been waged con- cerning the influence of temperature upon the polarimetric determination of sucrose. Alteration of temperature affects the determination in several ways; by causing changes in the volumes of the measuring vessels and polarimeter tubes, by altering the optical activity of the quartz which forms an essential part of some forms of polarimeter, and possibly by affecting the optical activity of sucrose itself. Concerning all these points, except the last, there is absolute agreement between all the workers in this field; the last has, however, given rise to very warm discussion. This has been reviewed by Dr. Wiechman in a paper presented to the Inter- national Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis* in which he reviews the work of different observers, whom he classifies in two lists, namely, (a) those who maintain that change of temperature bas no perceptible effect on the optical activity of sucrose, and (6) those who maintain that the effect is perceptible, and measurable, and of sufficient magnitude to be taken into account in laboratories working at tropical tem- peratures. The question is of considerable commercial importance owing to the fact that large quantities of sugar are produced and sold in countries having a tropical climate and are then transferred to, and refined in, countries possessing a tem- perate climate. Should temperature affect the optical activity of sucrose to such an extent as to alter it even by ‘3 per cent. for a range of some 12° C., as some observers claim, then the seller in the tropics may be claiming payment on a basis which is in error by ‘3 per cent. This may appear small in itself, but when applied to some 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 tons of cane sugar produced in the tropics it means a sum in dispute of £120,000 to £150,000 a year. The subject has assumed great importance from the fact that the United States Government has decided that in deter- mining the polariscopic test of sugar for Customs purposes, the alleged change in the optical activity of sucrose with change of temperature shall be taken into account and a corresponding correction made, thus giving important official sanction to the views of one party. This has the effect of increasing the revenue by some $100,000 or more a year over the amount that would be levied, were the polariscopic test made in the tropical countries in which the sugar 1s grown, * Reprinted in the International Sugar Journal, Vol TI. (1900), p. 491 te seq. 100 ~ -€OLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. ~~~ a sum sufficiently large to attract the attention both of revenue authorities and those dealing in sugar. In view of the statements contained in the interesting paper by Wiechman, already referred to, we set ourselves to inquire into the question with a good deal of care. Pure sugar from Khalbaum was used in the work, this was carefully dried before use. As a result we found that the standard weight of 26°048 grammes of sucrose dissolved in 100 trwe cubic centimetres of distilled water at 30° C. and read at a temperature of 29°3° C. gave a reading of 99°765, and in a second case when observed at 29°7° C. a reading of 99°79 on the Ventzke scale.* Intro- ducing a correction of ‘034 per degree C. for the slight con- traction due to change of temperature during the polarimetric observations, these readings become 99°745 and 99°78 respec- tively. The readings are the means of a series taken by two observers; they are in close agreement and are within the limit of accuracy obtainable on our instrument (a triple-field Schmidt and Haensch ‘‘ white light” polarimeter). This instrument was checked by means of quartz plates which had been carefully standardised, both at the Reichanstalt Char- lottenburg, and by Dr. H. W. Wiley at Washington. These readings, however, are not true percentages of sucrose in the sample of cane sugar. The following points require to be taken into consideration. (a) The Ventzke scale is based upon the solution of 26°048 grammes of sugar in 100 Mohr cubic centimetres equal to 100°228 true cubic centimetres. Hence our readings must be corrected by multiplying by ress, as our solution was too concentrated for proper observation on the Ventzke scale.* (b) It is well known that the optical activity of quartz itself and, therefore, of the quartze wedge of the Schmidt and Haensch polarimeter is affected by temperature; this has been carefully studied by Jobin (‘‘ Zeitschrift des Vereins fiir Riiben Zucker Industrie,” 1898, p. 835), who finds that the cor- rection to be applied to Schmidt and Haensch in- struments may be expressed by the formula, Pola- risation + (00016t) N, where t is the difference of temperature of observation from that at which the instrument was standarised, and N is the scale reading. * Note.—The true cubic centimetre is taken as being the volume of one gramme of water weighed in vacuo at 4° C., while 100 ¢.c. Mohr are defined in thie case as being 100 grammes of water at 17°5° C. in air, no correction being made for the effect of the displacement of air ; under these conditions 100 c.c. Mohr become equal to 100:228 c.c. true ; see Wiley, Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, Vol. III., p. 99. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 101 In the case of our observations this correction is— (a) ‘00016 x 11°8 x 99°745 or ‘188 degrees Ventzke. (6) ‘00016 x 12°2 x 99°78 or °195 Our readings in the two series of experiments thus become— 99°745 + 188 = 99°983 and 99°78 + °195 = 99°975 And when corrected for the relationship between Mohr and true cubic centimetres— 99°933 x 100 99°975 x 100 “L228; Haase ue ne 393 9) = 99°748 In the first instance we, therefore, observe a difference ot ‘294 per cent., and in the second one of °202 per cent. We believe that we are correct in attributing this difference to the effect of temperature upon the optical activity of sucrose. These results are in as close agreement with those of Wiley and Harrison as can be expected when the observations are made with a polarimeter. From the above observations we conclude that changes of temperature (up to about 30° C.) cause a lowering of the reading on the Ventzke scale which may be corrected by the formula Polarisation + (‘00283t) N, where t is the difference of temperature of observation from that at which the instru- ment was standardised, and N is the scale reading observed. For solutions requiring no clarifying reagents we recom- mend the following : — The solution of 26 grammes of sugar in 100 true cubic centimetres. (This is equivalent to 26°048 in 100 Mohr cubic centmetres.) The correction quartz change by Jobin’s formula, and the correction “ Sucrose change” by the above formula, Polarisa- tion + ('00023t) N, or combining the two, Polarisation + -(00039t) N. ERROR DUE TO THE VOLUME OF THE LEAD PRECIPITATE. The foregoing method will give correct determinations when working with solutions requiring no clarification, but a serious error is introduced when the ordinary method of clarification is used—consisting in adding a solution of basic acetate of lead to the sugar solution and subsequently making up to 100 c.c.-due to the volume occupied by the lead precipitate, which results in the sugar being dissolved in less than 100 c.c. of solvent. 102 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. The question of the effect of the volume occupied by the lead precipitate has been treated by several writers, but does not appear to have received the general attention it demands. This lack of attention is probably due to the difficulty experienced in measuring it, and as it varies with each class of sugar dealt with, observers have found great difficulty in satisfying themselves of the appropriate correction to apply. The method usually suggested for measuring this volume is that of Scheibler. In this method the sugar is dissolved in water, a measured quantity of solution of basic acetate of lead is added, the volume made up to 100 c.c., the solution filtered and the polarimetric determination made in the usual way. | 1,036 | 58 | 868 | 43 | 808 | 43 |1,184] 63 © | May, 1902— | | = Ditto CSE ae este ee ee Ss [Extra drains dug, August, 1902.) August, 1900— \ B. Basic slag,8 cwt. per acre .. ae ee | f February, 1901— i A g Meee ammonia, 14 cwt. per acre >| Lag 6 | 1,572 | 83 1,512 | 84 | 1,648] 9 « Basic slag, 8 cwt. per acre .. cs Boll | |) August, 1902— Sulphate of ammonia, 14 cwt. per acre / | C. | August, 1900— \ Basic slag, 8 cwt. per acre .. | February, 1901— : | gum ee > 888 | 43 [1,824 | 7§]1309) 7 |1,492| 8 = Basic slag, 8 ewt. per acre.. ys eet we | August, 1902 — | ‘ Nitrate of soda, 14 cwt. per acre .. J D. | August, 1900— ) = Basic slag, 8 cwt. per acre, and sulphate | A 2 of potash, 1 cwt. per acre (mixed). S| 960 | 42 }1,472 | 8 |1,488| 8 |1,612| 8% 8 | May, 1902— | | ie Ditto. as ee x fa és 24 Mr. G. 8. Hupson, Agricultural Instructor, St. Lucia, has reported on experiments at St. Lucia as follows :— Experiments in improving the health and productiveness of cazsao trees have been carried on in St. Lucia under the WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1 15 Imperial Department of Agriculture now for five years. Our method, as Sir Daniel Morris has said, has been that of taking up the most unhealthy portions of cacao we can find adjoining the main roads, so as to bring our work as much as possible before passers by. The results have been exceedingly satis- factory. In many cases the trees had actually stopped bear- ing; in others the yield was only 56 Ibs. of dry cacao per acre when the plots were taken over. In three years the yield had © been increased to 7 bags. The policy is, as soon as we attain that standard of improvement, to hand the plot over to the owner and take a new plot in the same or another district. In our five years’ experience we find we get the best results from the following methods:—Forking throughout the plan- tation in January, then applying broadcast 8 ecwts. of basic slag between January and April, that is followed by draining where necessary, and then thorough pruning. We find pruning to be of very great importance as it admits sunlight. After this thorough cleanliness throughout the year. Three to four weedings are usually sufficient, but sometimes as many as six have been found necessary. In August or September we apply sulphate of ammonia to each tree. I observe from the results of the experiments in Grenada that the best results there have been obtained from an application of sulphate of potash. In 1902 we applied nothing but potash to a 6- or 7-acre plot, and the results were negative in every case. I may mention, however, that, in combination with basic slag, the experiment has proved very valuable, but the best results were obtained from a combination of slag and nitrogen. We have also tried superphosphate, but have not found it advantageous. We have obtained good results from ground bone, but that is rather expensive. Pen manure is undoubtedly the best system of manuring, but the difficulties of transportation prevent its general use. Chemical manures yielded as good results and at less cost. The only fear in the application of chemical manures is that too much nitrogen may be applied to certain soils, but in light soils there is nothing to fear. Many planters seemed to fear forking, on the ground that it injured the trees, but I have never seen any bad results from careful forking. On the contrary, the results have been excellent. As the result of the experiment plots, planters in St. Lucia are now importing basic slag and sulphate of ammonia—a thing un- heard of before—and pruning and forking have now become a recognised part of cacao cultivation. As a rule, we do not find it necessary to use tar or cement, except in cases where a fungus disease is affecting the trees. Dr. H. A. A. Nicholls, C.M.G., has furnished the following account of the progress of the cacao industry nm Dominica:— Until the last quarter of a century the exports of cacao from Dominica were very small, as it was produced only by peasant proprietors. When, however, the crisis overtook the 1 1 6 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. sugar industry, many of the sugar planters, feeling the effects of the hard times, planted up portions of their estates in cacao and limes, and so from that time the exports of cacao began to increase. The Treasurer of the Island has very kindly furnished me with certain returns which include the exports of cacao for the last ten years, which are as follows : — Exports oF Cacao FROM DoMINICA. Year. Exports. | Lbs. | 1894-5 851,334 | 1895-6 « | 499,113 | 1896-7 946,393 | 1897-8 885,024 | 1898-9 | 1,082,851 1899-1900 | 968,740 | 1900-1 | 992,586 | 1901-2 | 1,052,693 | 1902-3 | 1,309,577 1903-4 | 1}285,245* | * Gale in August and partial failure of crops. From this return 1 observe that in 1895-6 there were half a million pounds of cacao exported, but when we come to 1902-3 it is found that the exports had increased to one and a third million pounds. Last year, that is, 1903-4, there was a decrease owing to the hurricane, which, although not directly striking Dominica, seriously afiected the crop. But notwithstanding this the exports of cacao reached one and a quarter million pounds. During the last few years a good deal of attention has been directed to Dominica; a new road, opening up the rich land of the interior, has been made with money granted by the Imperial Parliament, and it has appro- priately been called the Imperial Road. We have young Englishmen with moderate capital constantly coming out, and some of them have gone into the interior, cut down forest and created estates, and in many instances they have planted eacao. It must, however, be borne in mind that the increase in exports to which I have referred is not due to the new planters, but entirely to the older planters, who, seeing that sugar had failed, set their energies to work in another direc- tion; therefore, it is the industry and enterprise of the older planters—the men who have borne the heat and burden of the hard times—that have brought about the dawning prosperity of ‘Dominica. When, however, the new settlers’ estates begin to bear, then it will be found: that Dominica will make a sudden leap forward along the path of progress. The more intelligent planters in Dominica use tar, and also fill up with WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at? clay any holes, or deep depressions that may be found in the tree whereby water might collect or insects get shelter. As regards manure, in days gone by the greater part of the exports of Dominica came from the peasant proprietors who had not the advantage of having brought before them, as is the case now, the scientific and technical knowledge of the Imperial Department of Agriculture; they allowed their trees to grow as they might, and did not manure them, with the result that the trees have deteriorated very considerably. The manure that is found most useful in regard to cacao cultiva- tion is exactly the same that is found most useful in cane, and, indeed, in almost any cultivation, that is farmyard manure. There can be no better manure, not only from its chemical constituents, but also its mechanical effect; it improves the soil, whilst it provides food for the trees. But where you have estates far in the interior or on steep hillsides, and with a few animals, it is almost impossible to obtain sufficient farmyard manure, and in such instances it is neces- sary that artificial manure should be used. Hence the Domi- nica estates use basic slag, which contains phosphate and some free lime,:and nitrogenous manures in the form of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. But in regard to nitrogenous manures it must be remembered that in Dominica, St. Lucia, and other such islands an immense quantity can be got in the forest lands by using dead leaves, lopped shrubs, and grass as a mulch for trees, and afterwards by forking this decayed vegetation into the soil. There is also a loss of nitrogen attendant on the cultivation of land in the tropics, and it must be restored by the use of farmyard manure, by green dressing, or in some other way. In removing the pod from a cacao tree it is necessary that a portion of the stem attached should be left on the tree, but the ignorant peasant, instead of cutting the pods, wrings it off, with the result that the little bud at the end of the stem which will supply the future pod is torn off, so that in time the bearing portions of the stem are materially reduced in number. This is a matter to which Agricultural Instructors in Dominica and other islands should call the attention of peasant proprietors. 118 : COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. CACAO CULTIVATION AND GREEN DRESSING. By the Hon. FRANCIS Wagre OM (G., D.Se., 2.0, H.C.S. The question of the treatment of orchard soils was brought up at the previous Conference, when I put forward views urging in substitution for excessive tillage and keeping the land clean in orchards, the adoption of a system of green dressing, or the use of weeds and shrubs for manures. This has all along existed in Dominica. The weeds are allowed to grow, and at intervals these are cut down without materially disturbing the surface soil; the cuttings are either used as a mulch, or they are treated as a green dressing and bedded in. The crop that has been found most useful so far appears to have been woolly pyrol. I have had some experiments made with other plants, but not to a very great extent. I have recently put forward some analyses which I believe will appear in the next issue of the ‘West Indian Bulletin,” (Vol. V., pp. 287-8), showing the proportion of manurial con- stituents which may be returned to the soil on each cutting. This is very largely practised in Dominica especially where it is shown that the amount returned is very considerable. I have had occasion at certain times to examine soils. I will take one case, namely, Frenches, where Mr. Scully follows this system of cultivation. Around each tree he keeps a space of about 10 feet perfectly free from weeds; the remainder of the land remains largely untilled; the weeds are cut down and either are left as a mulch to find their way into the soil, or are at once dug in. I think it would be wrong to allow the formation of anything approaching a permanent grass sod; and perhaps that is the point where I find the greatest conflict of opinion. I think all agree that the surface of the soil must be light, loose, and free—nothing like a definite grass sod. There are some places in Dominica where in cutting down into the soil one finds the conditions of natural virgin soil; the condition of tilth is maintained thoroughly. The great point is draining. On that subject I may have more to say at a future period. In Dominica it is a recognised method of cultivation, a cheap one, and a very thorough one, and I think it would be found better in practice, and tend to solve some of the difficulties, than keeping the soil absolutely clean. I have seen many cases where attempts have been made to keep the land perfectly clean and where the highest perfection used to be the absence of every weed, but in most cases I think that has been found to be most disastrous; the soil bakes hard and then a system of forking has to be restored to. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 119 ARTIFICIAL DRyING oF CACAO. The desirability of drying cacao by artificial heat, thereby rendering the planter more or less independent of atmospheric conditions, has long been realised in the West Indies. During wet seasons and in certain elevated districts of some of the cacao-producing islands considerable loss is frequently occa- sioned by “ mildew.” Mr. G. Whitfield Smith, then Travelling Superintendent of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, gave a brief sketch in the “ West Indian Bulletin” (Vol. II., pp. 171-4) of the efforts that had been made in Grenada to dry cacao by artificial heat, and gave also a description of a cacao drier since erected by the Department at the Botanic Station, Dominica. ‘A further description of this drier will be found in the “ Agri- cultural News” (Vol. I., p. 19) where it is stated :— “The essential feature of this drier is the arrangement by which the hot air, on entering the drying box, is conducted along an air-tight flue or channel, and is compelled to pass over and around the trays in succession, beginning with the lowest. In this respect it is a great improvement on driers of a similar pattern used in Grenada and elsewhere, which have no interior divisions. In such driers it is found that the hot air on entering the single drying chamber naturally rises to the top, with the result that the beans on the upper tray were too quickly dried, while those on the lower tiers were only partially dried, or, in some cases, remained moist. ‘“The drier above described is capable of dealing with 5 bags of cacao at a time, and its original cost, including shed, stove, and fan, was £127. Where, however, the planter is able to utilise a spare building in which to place the drying box and stove, the cost might be reduced by about one-half. ‘‘For the information of those desirous of erecting a similar drier, it may be mentioned that the fan (18 inches) with belt and driving wheel might be obtained from the Blackman Ventilating Company, Limited, Head Office, 63, Fore Street, London, E.C., at a cost of £9 6s., and the stove (Motts’ Comet, No. 28) from the I. L. Mott Iron Works, New York and Chicago, at a cost of £10 17s. 3d. The latter is surrounded by a galvanised iron jacket to confine the hot air and to discharge it through the cowl into the drying box. The tuel may be wood, coke, or coal, as found most convenient.” Subsequent trials have shown that cacao can be dried within 24 hours of being placed in the drier without the fan being worked after 9 o’clock at night. The best results were 120 SOLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. obtained by maintaining a temperature of 110° to 120° F., with a good draught passing over the beans. Similar driers have been erected on private estates and have proved thoroughly successful. As many as 9 bags have been cured in 24 hours. The members of the West Indian Agricultural Conference of 1905 had an opportunity of inspecting a patent cacao- drying apparatus erected by the late Mr. Hoadley at Chagu- anas, Trinidad. The following is a description of this drier : — The cacao-drying apparatus consists of an ordinary room 34 feet square, with 25 feet perforated circular drying floor, upon which cacao is placed direct from the fermenting box. In the centre of the drying tray is a vertical axle from which project four arms which are revolved once in ten minutes. To each arm are attached six ploughs, the operation of which are equal to the work of twelve coolies in keeping the cacao in constant motion. Hot air is generated by exhaust steam, which is passed into 1,100 feet of piping enclosed in a box, over which cold air is drawn by a powerful fan which makes from 600 to 700 revolutions per minute. The Air in its passage becomes heated to any desired point up to 150° and is forced up through the drying floor. The machine will dry from 12 to 15 bags of cacao in 30 to 36 hours. The cost of installing the system is said to be between £300 and £400. After drying the cacao is passed through a machine which clays and polishes, or merely polishes to suit the markets, and thereby saves the costly process of dancing. The cacao is fermented in cylindrical drums,-which are partially turned every night and morning for ten to eleven days. WEST INDIES—-DEPARIMENT OF AGRICULTURE. J21 THE IMMORTEL AS A SHADE TREE FOR CACAO. By Professor P. Carmopy, F.I.C., F.C.S. I have the honour to report that an analysis of the flowers of Krythrina umbrosa shows them to contain a remarkably high proportion of nitrogen, viz., 6 per cent., and to be, therefore, of considerable manurial value. My attention has been drawn to this tree by various proposals made from time to time to replace it by other shade trees, the timber or other product from which would be saleable and, therefore, presumably more profitable to estate owners. It would be contrary to usual experience to find that successive generations of planters would cheerfully incur the additional expense of cultivating these trees unless there were some compensating advantages discernible in practice, but hitherto incapable of being estimated on any definite basis. It appeared to me remarkable that a shade tree should have been chosen differing so strikingly from the majority of tropical trees, in the luxuriant profusion of its annual harvest of flowers, and that, possibly, its inherent value could be traced to this difference. This led to the analysis of the flowers. Flowers decay so much more rapidly than leaves that the organic nitrogen they contain is readily converted into an assimilable form. It is probable that all the nitrogen in the flowers is derived from the soil. But in collecting the nitrogen from the subsoil, and by means of the flowers bringing it annually to the surface, the action of the Immortel would clearly be beneficial in this climate. There is also the possibility that the decomposing flowers may renew or assist soil nitrification. So far as I know the flowers of the Immortel have not hitherto been analysed for their manurial value. The results of this analysis have confirmed my opinion in favour of retaining the Immortel as a shade tree for cacao which requires an abundance of nitrogen in the soil. A later report runs as follows :— Last year in “ Agricultural Society Paper,’ No. 155, it was shown that Immortel flowers were particularly rich in nitrogen, and it was estimated that they contributed to the soil a larger amount of this substance than was permanently withdrawn by the cacao bean. This year the investigation has been continued, and, through the kind co-operation of Mr. J. G. de Gannes, we are able to give a more accurate estimate of the nitrogen supply from these flowers, Mr. de Gannes’ valuable report is attached. 122 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. This year we have not found any of the samples to contain more than 4°03 per cent. of nitrogen, which is considerably less than the 6 per cent. found in last year’s samples. Taking Mr. de Gannes’ figures and ours (reduced to 3 per cent. to be within safe limits) the following calculation is made :— 50 Immortel trees = 800 lbs. dry flowers at 3 per cent. of nitrogen = 24 lbs. per acre. 200 Cacao trees = 500 lbs. cured cacao at 24 per cent. of nitrogen = 124 lbs. per acre. This shows an excess of about 12 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Apart from the question of the retention of the Immortel as a shade tree, which we submit these figures fully justify, the results of this investigation suggest that flowering trees may be utilised to keep the nitrogen of the soil in circulation, and to conserve it by bringing it from lower depths in a soluble form and periodically spreading it in a less soluble but easily decomposable form on the surface of the soil. It will be remembered that last year it was stated that the amount of nitrogen in the flowers rapidly diminishes. We now find that this depends on the methods of storing the samples, and that if the flowers are spread out thinly, instead of in heaps, there is no loss of nitrogen even when freely exposed for several days to the air. We now wish to bring to the notice of the members of the Society another point which appears to us to be in favour of the retention of the Immortel in preference to other shade trees. It has long been observed that the Immortel drops its leaves during the dry season, and it has been stated to its discredit that it ceases to give the necessary shade at the time when the cacao trees most require it. It should not be over- looked that one of the functions of the leaf is to evaporate water in large quantities, and in the absence of leaf there must be absence of evaporation. The water evaporated is drawn from the soil by means of the roots, and it follows as a natural consequence that a leafless Immortel tree does not absorb from the soil that large amount of water which its leaves, if present, would have evaporated, and that this water remains available for the cacao trees which are never entirely leafless. The value of this self-denial on the part of the Immortel during the dry season, when for four or five months the rainfall is very low, has, we think, not been fully appreciated. With reference to the previous paper on. this subject Professor Carmody has been reminded that he cannot claim to be the first to point to the flower as the special and most valuable feature of the Immortel as a cacao shade tree. At the time of writing the paper he believed he was alone in giving expression to such an advanced opinion; but he is WEST INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 123 glad to find that one of the most astute observers-among our cacao planters, viz., Mr. J. P. Bain, has long held and expressed the same view. Mr. de Gannes’ report, dated April 7th, 1902, is as follows : — The Immortel tree (“Anauca”’), from which I collected the flowers, is an isolated tree and was profusely laden with healthy flowers at the time, but its size is rather below the average full-grown trees. I must here remark that the “Anauca” does not thrive its best in the Vegas. I had the land underneath the tree properly cleaned, and the flowers were collected carefully and weighed twice a day. The quantity collected amounted to 130 lbs., but a good many were blown away by the wind outside of the area cleaned, and I think by adding 30 lbs. to the quantity collected, making 160 lbs., would be as nearly as possible correct. JI regret I did not collect flowers from the “ Bocare,” it escaped my memory to do so when the trees were flowering, but it is my impression that, as they do not bear so profusely as the ‘‘Anauca,” the weight per tree is less, notwithstanding the size of the flowers being larger. NITROGEN ContTENT OF IMMORTEL IFLOWERS, 1901. [aac Percentage of 50 OE | BBvS Flowers. Fs 2S Organic | aSEa Water. | Ash. | wetter. ees |e | | Per cent. Immortel leaves. Anauca ... woe fy d2°44..,| 12:48 slee M08 1 oe 2287 Anauca flowers wes oe w» | 14:44 | 10-12 7544 | 4:05 . nf oa = aan te Cleo 1:48 | 17-20 | 6:30 5 Fa (Botanic Gardens) | 77°44 _— _ | 4:21 . x Anauca. (Cascade | 84°84 — — 4°81 Valley.) | i 5 Anauca. (Tortuga, | 89°88 1:00 9°22 6°32 fresh.) i 43 Anauca. (Tortuga, | 83°36 — | — | 516 two days old.) | ‘3 a Anauca. (Tortuga, | 14°44 — | — | 414 five days old.) | B » Anauca. (Tortuga, | 14-04 ee ee) six days old.) 5s . Bocare. (Cunupia, | 83°58 1:36 | 15:06 | 4°94 two days old.) | % Bocare. (Caroni, | 91:16 | = — | 3°84 fresh.) | 5 ‘s Anauca. (Caroni, | 86°18 — | — | 38:25 fresh.) | 124 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. NITROGEN CONTENT OF IMMORTEL FLoweERrs, 1902. Percentage of Total | Nitrogen Flowers. calculated on Organic flowers dried Water. | Ash. | Matter. | at 100° 0. Per cent Anauca (Chaguanas) . | 86°20 — — 2°46 » (Tacarigua) 86°16 — — 320 » (Santa Cruz) 89-99 1-06 8-95 3°25 » (Belmont) 91°19 0-85 7°96 3°52 » (Cascade) 3 «| 90°59 1-12 8:29 2°65 2. GSiparia) .:. ave att ROOD Te cath of, 4:03 Le OOl) : seu] sere O94 | 7-92 3°29 » (Tortuga) | 88°22 ie 3°25 Bocare (Chaguanas) 2 491:06 — | 3°13 »» (Maraval) : . | 90°83 1:03 | 814 3°92 ai = CSiparay..s aes | 91-42 3°61 Buds. Anauca (Santa Cruz) ... ve | 87°17 1:57 11:26 3°74 » (Tortuga) ose «| 87°10 _- — 3:21 SUMMARY. Nitrogen calculated on 1901. flowers dried at 100° C. Per cent. Lowest results 3°25 Mean ... 4-63 Highest 6°32 1902. Lowest results 2°46 Mean ... 3°40 Highest 4:03 WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 125 FUNGOID DISEASES OF CACAO. By L. Lewton-Brarn, B.A., F.LS., Late Mycologist on the Staff of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. Stem DISEASES. Among stem diseases the two most important are the “canker” due to Nectria, and the “ die-back ” due to Diplodia cacaoicola. Canker.—Canker is certainly met with in Trinidad, Grenada, and Dominica. I have not seen specimens from St. Lucia, though it may occur there. The disease is first recognised by a gummy exudation from the bark at the point attacked. The underlying tissues are discoloured and soft. The canker may spread quickly round the tree or may extend in all directions, in which case the death of the tree is slower. The fungus causing the disease is a wound parasite. The first point then in dealing with it is to care for wounds, both those made in pruning and accidental ones; knives or cut- lasses, that have been used in cutting out diseased wood, should be cleaned before being used for pruning other trees. Wounds should be thoroughly tarred over. In pruning, care should be taken to cut close to the main stem and to leave a smooth, sloping surface. Dead trees should be cut down to the ground and the wood burnt. All dead branches and twigs should be removed and destroyed, not allowed to lie about on the ground and rot there. If taken in the earliest stages, the diseased bark and wood may be cut out with a sharp knife, taking care to get rid of all the diseased tissue. The wound should, of course,- be tarred over. I should like to see a trial made of treating the cut surface first with Bordeaux mixture and, when this is dry, tarring. Die-back.—The die-back disease is also extremely common in some, at least, of the islands. It certainly occurs in Dominica, St. Lucia, and Grenada. The disease starts in the younger twigs and spreads from these to the larger branches, the fungus advancing in front of the dying bark. The spores of the fungus are formed in chambers in the bark and break through as black pustules. The fungus is a saprophyte and can live on dead cacac wood. To remove this source of infection should be our first care. 23011] L 126 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. The disease does not readily attack healthy vigorous trees. Perhaps this is the reason why it is not recorded in Trinidad, though the fungus occurs here. Every effort should, there- fore, be made to attend to the health of trees. Cultivation of the soil, manuring, and drainage should all be seen to. Dr. Watts, I know, regards the question of subsoil drainage as of the greatest importance in Dominica, and I regard it as certainly most important as regards this disease. Diseased twigs and branches should be cut out and burned. All wounds, as in dealing with canker, should be tarred; in fact careful treatment of wounds and careful pruning are of the utmost importance to the cacao planter. I quite agree with Mr. Hart’s and Dr. Nicholls’ remarks on this point. Pop DISEASEs. There are two principal pod diseases of cacao in the West Indies. One is the brown rot caused by the same fungus as the die-back disease of the stem, the other is the rot caused by Phytophthora omnwora. Brown Rot.—The brown rot due to Diplodia occurs in, | believe, all the cacao-producing islands of the West Indies. It starts as a brown, circular spot, usually either at the basal end of the pod, or at the free end; it may, however, start at any point where the pod has rubbed against a branch and so caused an abrasion. The decay rapidly spreads to the interior of the pood and this dries up altogether. Finally, the whole pod becomes black from the numerous pustules of spores, which break through the surface. As I have already mentioned, Diplodia is a facultative saprophyte. Great care should, therefore, be taken to bury all husks and shells as soon as possible. Ripe pods showing the small, brown, diseased areas shouty be picked at once to save as many beans as possible. Badly diseased pods and any refuse showing the Diplodia fruits should be removed and burnt. Phytophthora.—The pod rot due to Phytophthora occurs certainly in Trinidad and St. Lucia, and is reported from British Guiana. The attacked pods are covered with the white mycelium of the fungus, which produces abundance of conidia. These are carried by wind and rain to other pods which they quickly attack. ‘The mycelium spreads also to the interior of the pod which turns black and decays. Inside the pod are found the resting spores of the fungus, the oospores, which are only liberated with the decay of the fruit, WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 127 All diseased pods should be collected and buried as soon as possible in order to destroy the resting spores of the fungus. Too moist and shaded an atmosphere should not be pro- vided for the developing pods, as this favours the growth of the fungus. A severe epidemic of the disease could be checked by spraying the unattacked pods with Bordeaux mixture after the removal of those showing the disease. As has been already stated, these methods have been adopted with great success in Trinidad. THREAD BLIGHT. Occurrence—Up to December, 1904, this disease had only appeared on, or rather been reported from, one estate—the Fond Estate in St. Lucia. Since that time Mr. Leslie, Agri- cultural Instructor in Trinidad, has forwarded specimens of cacao from Perseverance Estate, near Sangre Grande, in that Island, which were attacked by the same disease. It was first noted in May and June last year when specimens were for- warded from St. Lucia for examination by Mr. John F. Branch, the Manager of Fond Estate. I have not seen the disease zm s2tw, and my remarks on its field characters must be taken as second-hand. Mr. Branch considers that he has two diseases, but whether this is so or not I cannot definitely state at present; in many respects the two are alike, and they appeared at the same time and in the same locality. I intend to deal primarily with the more serious disease or form, which I label the “thread blight.” The other disease I may call the “ horse-hair blight.” On the receipt of these specimens inquiries were at once made in all the other cacao-producing islands of the West Indies, to find out whether the disease occurred in any of these. A note on the disease, also inquiring for information as to its occurrence, was published in the “ Agricultural News.” The answer were, in every case, negative.* Similar diseases, on tea, occur both in India and Ceylon. The ‘thread blight” in India is said to be caused by Stelbum nanum, the “horse-hair blight” by Marasmius sarmentosus. The “thread blight” has been known for many years, but it is only recently that the fungus has been identified. Both diseases are regarded as being of very serious effect. The only information I have on the effects of the disease is contained in letters from Mr. Branch. I quote the following * Quite recently Mr. A. W. Bartlett, Government Botanist in British Guiana, has reported the discovery of this disease on a neglected estate on the Demerara river. Here also, as in Trinidad, the disease is not regarded as being very dangerous. 23011 L 2 128 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. with regard to the “ thread blight ” : —“ It is of a very serious nature, as it destroys the whole tree and is very difficult to get rid of. It runs along at the back of the branch and destroys every leaf and young shoot it touches. I believe it is the most serious cacao disease we have to deal with.” In Trinidad the disease is said to have appeared on only a few, unhealthy trees; whether they were unhealthy before being attacked, or on account of the disease, is not stated. Symptoms.—The appearance of the disease is very char- acteristic and there is no chance of mistaking it for anything else. The fungus appears as dark-brown threads or strands, closely adpressed to the bark. These strands run an irregular course up and down the twigs, branching irregularly, but especially when they come near a leaf or a bud; the general course of the strands is along the twigs and branches. So closely are the strands attached to the bark that they cannot be removed without tearing this away. When young the threads are white and thin, thickening up and darkening after they have attained a good hold on the bark. Occasional swellings on the threads were found in the Trinidad specimens. These were at first taken for reproductive bodies, but on examination were found to be simply masses of mycelium. When a thread touches a bud it spreads out and branches, so that the bud becomes covered with a white felt. The thread also passes along the short petioles of the leaves, and when it reaches the base of the lamina, branches and spreads, at least at first, along the main ribs. On the leaves it grows on the under side, where it is shaded. I have not received advanced stages of the fungus on the leaves, but I judge that, like the Indian “thread blight” of tea, it expands over the under surface and causes the leaves to turn brown and ultimately to decay. Certainly, according to Mr. Branch and others who have seen the disease in the field, it kills the leaves fairly quickly. The “horse-hair blight” is pretty well described by its name. Its appearance resembles nothing so much as a tuft of horse hair caught in the twigs. Closer examination, of course, shows that the apparently single hairs are really all branched and interwoven together in a very complex manner. Here, also, some of the threads are closely attached to the bark. The hairs have much the same structure as the strands of the “thread blight.” Microscopic Examination—Microscopic examination of the strands shows at once that they are composed of closely woven, but, for the most part, parallel-running, hyphe. The hyphe are narrow and septate. In the young strands the hyphe are white and delicate and not 80 closely united. As they become WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 129 older, the hyphz, and especially the outer ones, become darker and thicken their walls. Vrom the under side of these strands numerous single hyphz run off into the bark of the cacao twigs. In the first place these hyphz serve the same purpose as the adventitious roots of the ivy, namely, act as holdfasts; by growing in the crevices of the bark they attach the strands so firmly that, as I have said before, the strands cannot be removed without tearing the bark. In an old branch with a well-developed secondary cortex and cork layer this is all I have been able to see these hyphez doing. They do not seem able to penetrate through a well- developed cork. The hyphe in this case live and attach them- selves to the dead tissues outside the cork. The case is different when we come to young, green twigs without a good cork layer. In this case the hyphe pass through into the living cortex, and branch and interweave there in all directions until the cortical tissues are completely destroyed. We then find in their place a closely interwoven web of fungal hyphe. Not only so, but hyphz also pass into the medullary ray cells and even into the wood. In the main, however, the fungus is a parasite of the cortex and does not injure, to any great extent, the internal tissues. This resistant power of the cork explains the point on which Mr. Branch lays stress, in the letter I have already quoted, that it is the young shoots that are killed by the fungus. The hyphe also penerate into the interior of leaves and into the tissues of the buds. Both leaves and buds are killed out by the fungus. The damage done by the ‘‘ thread blight” is thus pretty severe. It can destroy all the growing points and young twigs, and more than this, can reduce assimilation by killing off the leaves. Origin——The next point to be considered is the origin of the parasite, but I have not yet been able to get any definite information as to this. In all probability the fungus is parasitic on wild plants, in the bush, and I understand that the part of the estate where the disease first appeared is near wild forest or bush land. The following is taken from a letter from Mr. Branch answering a question of mine with regard to the position and conditions of the diseased area: “The diseased trees are growing in very healthy field about 500 to 600 feet above the sea-level. The field is not quite flat, but gets a good rainfall, and is frequently pretty damp. There are no forest trees overhanging or very close to the diseased trees. These are limited in number.” Tn India the “thread blight” is known to occur on several wild trees, and spread from these to the tea bushes. It will 130 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. probably be found that the same is the case in St. Lucia, and that the fungus is not at all particular in its choice of a host plant. Spread—The fungus spreads by means of its mycelium attached to bits of dead twigs, leaves, &e. In all probability the leaves are the most important in this connection. When they are dead and covered with the fungus mycelium, they will easily be blown or otherwise carried about. If then they are caught on the branch of a healthy tree, especially in a moist locality, this will soon be infected. Other pieces of infected material will act in the same way. In the case of the “ horse-hair” disease it is probable that birds, using the strands for nest-building, may carry the disease from one plant to another. T'reatment.—By means of thorough and constant pruning and the destruction of diseased material, I am informed that Mr. Branch has kept the disease under. When the disease is noticed in time, this treatment, if thoroughly carried out, will probably be sufficient to eradicate the disease. When pruning to this extent would have to be too severe, I have recommended the use of a lime-sulphur wash. This is prepared by shaking 74 lbs. of quick lime, mixing with 24 lbs. of sulphur, making up to 10 gallons with water, and boiling until the mixture turns orange in colour, and takes on a strong smell of rotten eggs. This mixture is well rubbed into the affected parts with a brush. I have no information as_ to whether this wash would be successful with cacao “ thread blight,” nor as to its effect on the bark of the tree itself. It has been used on tea in India with very good results. Identity of F'ungus.—lt is impossible at present to identify the fungus causing the “thread blight.” This, of course, can be done only when reproductive organs of the fungus are found. This may be a matter of years, as it is probable that the fungus will go on growing vegetatively indefinitely with- out ever forming spores. From the characters of the mycelium I should say that the fungus is a Basidiomycete, that is, one of the toad-stool-bearing fungi. Danger of Neglect—Yhe last point I wish to touch on is the danger of neglect. The disease is a serious one, and once established would be difficult to deal with. Had Mr. Branch not noticed the disease when it first appeared, it might easily have spread over his whole estate, and he is certainly to be commended for his promptness. It is of the utmost import- ance that the blight should be taken in hand as soon as it appears, in which case it can be dealt with. The following quotation from Watt and Mann’s book on ‘‘ The Pests and Blights of the Tea Plant” will emphasise this: —‘‘ Thread blight has been one of the most common and perhaps one of WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 131 the most destructive blights of the tea plant. Until recently it was usually neglected and laughed at as doing little or no harm. The result of this is seen in the fact that 20 to 50 per cent. of the bushes in a block were not infrequently affected, thus reducing the yield and ruining bushes.” BIBLIOGRAPHY, Hart: “Some Fungi of the Cacao Tree.’ ‘ West Indian Bulletin,” Volo, hp. 422 Howard: “The Fungoid Diseases of Cacao in the West Indies.” “ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. IZ., p. 190. “The ‘Witch Broom’ Disease on Cacao in Surinam.” “West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. II., p. 289. Watt and Mann: “The Pests and Blights of the Tea Plant,” Calcutta, 1903. Carruthers: ‘‘ Cacao Canker in Ceylon.” “ Cireular,” No. 238, Vol. I., Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, 1901. Wright: “Cacao Canker and Spraying in Ceylon.” “ Circular,” No. 21, Vol. II., Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, 1904. 132 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. ADDENDA. WITCH BROOM DISEASE IN SURINAM. By C. J. J. van Hatz, Ph.D., Director of Agriculture for the Dutch West Indies. The “witch broom” disease is very widely spread in Surinam. It began with estates lying near the coast; estates in the interior suffer much less. The disease is a very serious one, inasmuch as it attacks not only the twigs, but also the pods. Black spots appear on the pod, they soon spread, and the pod remains small. That form of the disease is the worst, because sometimes 50 per cent. of the pods are diseased. The disease of the twigs does not seem to be so serious, and if we can keep the pods in a healthy condition, I think we shall have gone some way in the direction of checking the disease. The soil in Surinam is very fertile, and when the diseased branches die in the dry season the tree soon makes new branches, therefore I do not think the damage of the twig disease is very great. To get rid of the disease we are now making experiments in two directions. First, pruning the trees thoroughly, and in that way removing all diseased branches, because we find that the mycelium is not only in these hypertrophied branches that are called diseased, but also in the bigger branches to which the small twigs are attached, and also through the wood, so that the measures formerly adopted by the planters, of only removing the twigs which seemed to be diseased, were not enough. The branches and twigs so removed are carried out of the plantation and burnt. At the same time good tillage of the soil, digging in the dry leaves, is also a measure that must be practised. The second series of experiments was spraying with Bordeaux mixture. That had been adopted by the planters, but not in a proper way; they began to spray too late, and so spraying has had no beneficial result. The infection of the buds begins earlier than was thought. When you see the black spots appear on the pod, the pod has been infected for a long time. It seems to me that the pod is liable to be infected when very young, therefore in the experiments now being carried out we begin to spray before flowering when the buds first appear; and it does not seem to affect the pods. The first spraying is done before or when the pods appear, and afterwards we spray two, three, or four times. We do not know how often spraying must be done to prevent infection reaching the pods. These experiments were only begun this year, and therefore we shall not have any results until March or April, which is the time when the disease appears on the pods. I anticipate good results however, because, although spraying in the last season was commenced too late, I may mention that the percentage WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 133 of diseased pods on trees which were sprayed was 17 per cent., while on unsprayed trees it was from 40 to 50 per cent. The first experiments on a large scale as well as the laboratory work, were started in September last; we have therefore been actually working only for about eight months, and - is not surprising that as yet we have obtained no definite results. Symptoms of the Disease—These are well known now. The branches and the fruits are affected. The twigs are without doubt affected when in the bud state; the result is:—(a) a hypertrophied growth; (6) a tendency towards making many side branches (‘‘ Witch broom ”). When the young fruits are affected they frequently show a small hunch, but often the trained eye only of the planter is able to detect it. In other cases the fruits keep their normal form, but show at first a discoloured spot, which later (when the tissue dies) becomes black. When the disease first appeared in Surinam there was much confusion between the “black rot” disease—well known in every cacao-growing country—and the new disease; by cutting the fruit it is easy to decide whether it is ‘‘ black rot’ or the new disease. Fruits attacked by the former are soft, those attacked by the latter are as hard as a stone; therefore the planters call this symptom ‘“ petrifaction ” of the fruits (Dutch ‘‘ Versteening ”’). The witch broom disease of the twigs is caused by the same fungus as the “ petrifaction ” of the fruits. Cause of the Disease—The mycelium of the fungus is easily found both in diseased twigs and diseased fruits. It is characterised by its rather thick hyphe with granular contents. The fungus is easily studied in pure cultures on all sorts of nutrient media. The simplest one is a decoction of ripe or unripe cacao seeds or fruits, with or without $+ per cent. peptone plus 1 per cent. cane sugar. I am not yet quite decided about fructification, and it would be imprudent to say anything about it. We have found a conidial fructification, the same both on diseased fruits and in our cultures, which we consider pure, but I want to see the whole development before I declare it to be the fructification of the parasite. Treatment.—The first experiments consisted of spraying. The result showed that with spraying alone we could not succeed in keeping the disease sufficiently in check. We, therefore, began a new series of experiments, consisting of a combination of drastic pruning of all the infected parts and spraying. These experiments were started at the end of 1904 and extended to March, 1905. Although these experiments appear to have been successful, we must wait till the end of the dry season before drawing any conclusions. 134 COLONIAL REPORTS——-MISCELLANEOUS. INSECTS ATTACKING CACAO IN THE WEST INDIES. By Henry A. Batuov, B.Sc., Imntomologist on the Staff of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. Cacao BEETLE. (Stetrastoma depressum.) The cacao beetle is a very serious pest to cacao, sometimes causing the death of the trees. It is quite generally distributed throughout the West Indies and northern South America, where it is usually known as a pest when cacao is cultivated on a large scale. The egg is laid in or on the bark of the cacao tree. The larva or grub of the cacao beetle when full-grown is about 14 inch in length and 3 inch in width at its largest part. It is whitish in colour. The head is dark-brown, small and equipped with powerful jaws or mandibles with which it tunnels its way through the wood. The segments of the body are prominent, giving the larva a wrinkled appearance. There are no legs or feet, but on the dorsal and on the ventral surface of each segment there is a small area, slightly roughened, which being pressed against the sides of the tunnel enables the larva to work its way along. The pupa is formed in the tunnel made by the larva. The adult is a black and grey beetle, about 2 to § inch in length, and 7s to # inch in width. The antenne are longer than the body, the segments swollen at their apical ends, the basal segment quite stout, the others slender. The head is broad, the thorax broad, flat above, with short, stout projec- tions on each side. The wing covers are strongly ribbed longitudinally, and each is tipped with a short spine. The legs are long, the femora much swollen, the tibie slender, the tarsal joints broad, flattened, and fringed with fine hairs. The ground colour is black, the grey being due to fine whitish scales which are easily abraded; a fresh specimen, con- sequently, is much lighter in colour than one that has been rubbed. Lafe-history—No observations seem to have been made as to the length of time spent in the egg, larval, and pupal stages, nor as to the season of egg-laying, and greatest abundance of adults. Remedies—The larve and pupx may be dug out of the tree when their presence is known, or they may be killed by WEST. INDIES—-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 135 probing the tunnels with a stout wire. When any wounds are made in the tree, however, they should be promptly tarred over to prevent the entrance of fungi. The adult beetles are active by night, and may be found resting on the trunks and larger branches of the cacao tree in the early morning. At this time they may be collected, and if thrown into tins of water, to which a small amount of kerosene has been added, they will be quickly killed. In Surinam it is the common practice to tie large pieces of the bark of the silk cotton tree on the trunks of the cacao to furnish a hiding place for the Pee They may be collected from these places during the day. It would seem likely that strips of burlap (bagging) tied round the cacao trunks would have the same effect and furnish convenient places for collecting these beetles. The cacao beetle is recorded from Venezuela, Colombia, Surinam, British Guiana, Trinidad, Grenada, and Guade- loupe. Cacao THrips. (Physopus rubrocincta.) Cacao thrips was first reported as a serious pest in 1898, when it attracted the attention of cacao growers in Grenada. Since that time there have been several reports of damage due to thrips in Grenada, and it has been reported from other islands. While thrips is, without doubt, a pest of cacao and responsible for damage, it does not yet appear how serious a pest it must be considered, nor has any complete account of its life-history been worked out. In the matter of remedies and treatment also much remains to be done. In December, 1900, and in March, 1901, Mr. Maxwell- Lefroy, then Entomologist on the Staff of the Department of Agriculture, visited Grenada to investigate the thrips which was reported to be causing serious damage to cacao in that Colony. Certain estates were also reported to be seriously affected by thrips in November and December, 1903, some of which I visited in May, 1904. As the results of these reported attacks, and the consequent investigation by the officers of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, the situation seems to be as follows :— Thrips is a pest of cacao, but the amount of damage that it may be able to do is not fully established. Spraying with rosin wash or other contact insecticide will serve to keep the insect in check, but there is still some doubt as to whether the amount of damage from this pest is sufficient to. warrant the expense of a general campaign against it. 136 COLONIAL REPORTS—MiSCELLANEOUS. The insects known as thrips are members of the Thysanop- tera, one of the primitive orders of insects. The cacao thrips is small, the adult being about 75 inch in length. Seen with the naked eye, the adult appears as a dark-coloured narrow insect, very pointed behind; the legs and wings being hardly distinguishable. The younger stages are lighter in colour; that next the adult being a pale yellow with a bright-red transverse band across the base of the abdomen. The next younger stage is of a pale-greenish colour without the red eross-band. No observations seem to have been made as to the place where the eggs are laid, but the cacao thrips is pro- bably similar in habit to closely related forms, which deposit the eggs singly under the surface of the food plants. The young thrips are active, and may be seen running about, usually with a large drop of dark-coloured fluid attached to the tip of the abdomen, which is deposited from time to time on the leaves, pods, and branches. The adults have small delicate wings fringed with fine hairs, by means of which they fly actively. Both young and adult thrips feed by sucking up their food from a puncture or slit made in the surface of the food substance by the large piercing mandible. The damage to the cacao plant from the presence of thrips results from the loss of sap and from the numerous small incisions in the leaves, buds, pods, and tender branches. But perhaps the greatest loss to the cacao grower results from the staining occasioned by the dark-coloured excrementitious fluid already mentioned, and the discoloration which follows the puncturing of the pod. The immense numbers of fine punctures all over the surface of the pod, cause it, while still unripe, to take on almost the same colour as a ripe pod, and the labourers have difficulty in distinguishing between the ripe and the unripe. The discoloration of the.cacao pod caused by the thrips is in the skin-of the pod, but by scraping away a bit of the skin the labourer should be able to distinguish between ripe pods and those unripe ones that have coloured up from the attacks of thrips. Remedies.—As already stated in this paper, the use of any of the contact insecticides as a spray would probably keep the cacao thrips in check and the trials of spraying in Grenada in 1900 and 1901 indicate very beneficial results from that mode of treatment. Thrips, however, is a difficult pest to deal with, because of its habits of depositing the eggs inside the tissue of the plant, and because also the adult insects have the power of flight. The eggs and the adults, therefore, escape, to a large extent, the effects of spraying, and only the young (larve) are killed. From this it will be seen that spraying must be thoroughly done, and the first application must be followed, as soon as the young are seen again, by a second spraying. WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 137 Other plants than the cacao which are liable to attack by the cacao thrips ought to be destroyed if they occur as weeds or useless growths; or they should be given the same treat- ment as the cacao if they are valuable enough to make it worth while. The secondary food plants of the cacao thrips are cashew, guava, and Liberian coffee. OtTHer InNSEcTs. The cacao beetle and thrips are the insects most frequently reported attacking cacao, but several others have been observed in various places at different times. As their occurrence is not general, nor the damage done serious, they are merely mentioned. Aphis is sometimes found in considerable numbers on the very young and tender leaves and shoots, sucking the juice of the plant. It is a plant louse or green fly, of which there are different kinds attacking different plants. Plant lice are preyed upon by several species of lady-birds, and they may be easily controlled by the use of whale oil soap or kerosene emulsion used as a wash or spray. The root borer of the sugar-cane (Diaprepes abbreviatus) has been known in St. Lucia to attack the roots of cacao trees. (See “‘ Agricultural News,’ Vol. II., p. 264.) The cacao in which this attack occurred was growing on the site of an old sugar estate. No further attacks have been reported, and as only a few trees suffered at that time, the root borer cannot yet be regarded as a serious pest to cacao. The account of the root borer of the cane on pp. 84-5 of this report will serve to indicate the lines on which treatment may be applied if the root borer appears in any cacao plantation. In August, 1903, specimens were received from St. Lucia and St. Vincent of a small, brown beetle which was reported to be attacking the leaves of young cacao plants. The beetles were found in the early morning clinging,to the plant, having apparently been feeding during the night. It was suggested that Paris green and lime might be dusted on the plants to kill the beetles, and hand-picking was also suggested. The attack, however, was of short duration, and as no later attack has been reported, it is not possible to say what success attended the trial of these methods. 138 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. THE FRUIT INDUSTRY AT BARBADOS. By d> Ro Boveri, 1.08. F.C3S.; Agricultural Superintendent, Barbados. Within the last three years an effort has been made to establish a fruit industry between Barbados and the United Kingdom, and it is my intention to give a short account of how this industry was started. how it has progressed, and what likelihood there is of its being successfully established. BANANAS. As up to the present time the banana is, of all the fruits grown in Barbados, the one most exported, I propose to deal with it first. In May, 1902, the Local Superintendent of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company invited the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture to test a new banana carrier, in which it was pro- posed to convey bananas from the West Indies to England. The inventor, who had had considerable experience in shipping fruit from the Canary Islands, was anxious, to devise a plan whereby West Indian bananas could be taken to England and arrive in as good condition as those from the Canaries. In order to ascertain whether the new carrier was any im- provement on the method adopted by the banana growers in the Canary Islands, a bunch of bananas was at the same time packed in the usual Canary Islands’ fashion by wrapping it in cotton wadding, paper, and, in the first case, wood-wool. Both bunches of bananas arrived in England in fairly good condition, and the following report was communicated to Captain Owen, who forwarded it to the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture. The writer stated as follows :— “The two bunches of bananas which I saw at your office this afternoon, just in from the West Indies, were in excellent condition. From their freshness and good, green colour they might have come merely from the Canaries. The bunch packed in ‘ Canary fashion’ had a ' particularly fine and clean appearance, but I fear the packing will be found rather too hot as a general rule. Owing to a mistake in the way of placing the bunch in the new carrier, this one was slightly less good. But what particularly impressed me was the fact that both bunches are not the usual West Indian kind of banana (the Gros Michel), but are the Chinese or Cavendish banana, which is the variety imported so largely from the Canaries. If the Cavendish banana proves on trial to carry better than the other, an impetus in the West Indian fruit trade should follow, because this is the kind which is preferred in the English market,” WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 139 Soon after this report was received, 7.e., in the following July, two bunches of Cavendish or dwarf bananas packed like those sent from the Canary Islands were forwarded to Covent Garden. These arrived in good condition and sold for 18s. 10d. From then on, with the help of Messrs. W. Pink & Sons and the Royal Mail Company (the latter at first taking the bananas freight free) an effort has been made to establish a banana trade between Barbados and England. At first, either from want of knowledge as to the best time to cut the fruit, or from the fact that it was during the hot season, When subsequent results have shown that bananas are apt to spoil if carried in the ordinary hold, several of the shipments arrived over-ripe. Since then, however, the diffi- culty has, to a great extent, been overcome, and in the cool season the bananas almost invariably arrive in good condition. I regret, however, to say that both last year and this year during the summer months a number of bunches reached Iingland rotten, and a large percentage of the remaining ones were over-ripe, the consequence being that in many instances the amount realised for the fruit hardly paid the freight and expenses. From July, 1902, to ‘December 31st of that year, 18 bunches of bananas were shipped, and for the year 1903 6,691 bunches were shipped. As this was practically the first year in which planters packed the bananas themselves, and as they had had no experience in shipping or packing fruit, the results of the whole year’s shipments were looked upon as more or less experimental, and no return was therefore prepared of the average results of each shipment. Since the beginning of this year, however, a careful account has been kept of the results of each shipment. (See tables at end of this paper.) As will be seen by referring thereto, the average net amount paid to the planters for the bananas shipped from the beginning of January to those by the Royal Mail steamer “Atrato,” which left here on June 4th, was for single bunches 8s. 104d., and for bunches packed in double crates 3s. 43d. Since then, however, owing to the hot weather, a number of bunches have arrived in England rotten, and a much larger number over-ripe. The result has been that from then until the end of October the average amount paid to planters for single bunches was 2s. 2°4d., and for double bunches ls. 10°75d. IT am glad, however, to report that, owing to the weather being cooler, the bananas are again arriving in Hngland in fairly good condition and realising better prices. In Barbados the bananas are usually planted in rows 10 feet apart and 10 feet apart in the rows, consequently there are 435 clumps to the acre. Assuming that after the first year 140 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. two bunches only are obtained from each clump per annum, this would be 870 bunches per acre per annum. In the Canary Tslands, where the same banana is grown, the yield is from 800 to 1,000 bunches per acre per annum. Let us assume that in Barbados, owing to various causes, including the predial thief, only 600 bunches are obtained per acre (I may mention that one grower has had from January lst to the end of November 136 bunches stolen from 2 acres of bananas); if the bananas shipped during the hot months had arrived in England in as good condition as those from the beginning of the year to the middle of June, the average price for the year to date would have been at least 8s. per bunch for single bunches, and 2s. 9d. per bunch for those packed in double crates; as the cost of the crate, packing, &c., is, on the aver- age, about 1s. 6d. per single bunch and ls. 3d. per bunch for bunches packed in double crates, the net value to the planter for a single bunch would be ls. 6d. per bunch, and for those packed in double crates the same, viz., 1s. 6d. To be on the safe side, however, I will assume that the planter only received ls. per bunch net; at 600 bunches per acre, this would be £30 per acre per annum. According to the Hon. W. Fawcett’s paper on the banana industry in Jamaica (see “ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. EE: ; p. 166), the cost of bringing a non-irrigated estate on the north side of that Island into bearing is £10, and the main- tenance £7 10s. per acre. ‘This includes carriage to the shipping port. Assuming that the cost in Barbados is £10 per acre per annum, the net profit derived from an acre of bananas would amount to £20 per annum. It will, therefore, be seen that, if the bananas are carried to England in good condition, there is no crop at present grown in Barbados likely to be as remunerative. As it may be of interest to those who have had no experience in packing and shipping bananas, I may mention that they are cut about 15 days before they would be ripe. At this stage the bananas are still slightly angular and of a green colour. If there is any doubt. about the right age at which the bananas should be cut, the best way definitely to settle the matter is to take off an individual fruit or finger from the lowest hand of the bunch. Cut this fruit diagonally across, and if there is a faint yellow tinge in the centre of the fruit around the black specks, which are the unfertilised ovules, the bunch is in the right condition for shipment. et the entire cut surface is white, the bunch is too green, and <£ the whole of the cut surface is yellow, the fruit is too ripe. The bunch of bananas should also have the small end of the spike cut off, leaving not less than 4 inches for the bunch to be hung up by in the fruiterer’s shop. This should be done some weeks before the bunch is shipped, as, if it is done at the same time the bunch is cut, the cut end of the spike WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 141 usually decays to such an extent as to affect the lowest hand of the bunch. In packing the bananas great care should be taken that the fruits have not even the slightest bruise. Bunches containing fruit that is bruised, however slightly, should not be shipped. Kach bunch should first be wrapped in cotton wadding and then in paper. Strings of shag (the sheaf of the banana leaf) should be lightly wrapped around the sheets of paper to keep them in position while the bunch is being put into the crate. Having wrapped the bunch of bananas, put into a crate, on which only half of the slats have been nailed, a sufficient quantity of dried banana leaves (the blades or thin portions of the leaf on each side of the mid-rib) to form a bed about one inch thick when pressed by the weight of the bunch. This will protect the under side of the bunch from coming into contact with the crate. Having placed the bunch in the crate, gradually stuff the dried leaves round it, until sufficient have been put in to prevent the paper from unwrapping. Now cut the shag string and draw it out, and continue the packing until the bunch is firmly fixed in the crate. The remainder of the slats should be nailed on as they are needed to keep the packing in its place. In Barbados, where a large number of growers ship their bananas through the Imperial Department of Agriculture, great care has to be taken in marking the crates so that no confusion shall arise when they arrive’ in England. Each estate is assigned a number, and the consignee’s initials and the estate’s number are stencilled on one end of the crate. On the centre piece of the same end there should be one or more X’s stencilled to indicate the quality of the fruit. A bunch weighing, when ready packed in the crate, from 40 Ibs. to 49 lbs. gross, should have X; one weighing from 50 lbs. to 59 lbs., XX; one weighing from 60 lbs. to 69 Ibs., XXX; one weighing from 70 lbs. to 79 lbs., XX XX; and so on up to 100 lbs. or more. On the side of the crate should be marked the consignee’s initials, the estate’s number, and the port of consignment. As the crates are stored on the end in which the stem or thick end of the bunch is placed, it is necessary, for the marks to be clearly seen, that they be stencilled on the end of the crate containing the small end of the bunch. When a bunch of bananas ready packed will weigh less than 60 lbs., two bunches may be packed in one crate side by side; in this case the cross pieces of the end of the crate are made longer and about two or three slats more are required on each side. When two bunches are put in one crate the figure 2 is put after the X’s. Thus a crate containing two bunches which together weighed 75 lbs. should be marked 23011 M 142 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. on the cross piece XX XX 2. Bunches which will weigh more than 60 lbs. when packed should be shipped by themselves; in fact, as a rule, it is found that it is more remunerative to ship in single than in double crates. In Barbados bananas are grown at present practically all over the Island; but it appears probable that, owing to the small size of the bunches in the dry districts, their growth will, to a certain extent, have to be restricted to the parts of the Island where the rainfall is about 80 inches per annum, or where it is possible for the land to be irrigated. MaNGos. The fruit of which most have been shipped next to bananas is the mango, and I will now deal with this. From June 6th, 1908, to the end of October, 1904, 17,411 mangos were shipped. Owing to the number that arrived in England in bad condition, only 8,269 were sold, and after paying all expenses they netted the shippers about 1°88c. each. To show what good mangos are likely to fetch at the right season, I might mention that on one occasion Messrs. W. Pink & Sons wrote to tell me that a few of the best mangos packed in fancy baskets and sent to London were sold for ls. 6d. each. In some instances the mangos arrived in England in splendid condition, and in others practically the whole consignment rotted. I trust, however, that later on, when we know more about the right temperature at which to carry them, their shipment will be as remunerative as that of bananas. AVOCADO PEARS. The next fruit to deal with is the avocado pear. From time to time small lots of avocado pears have been shipped, amounting in the aggregate to 88, of which I have received account sales for 80. Of these 80, 67 arrived in good con- dition and netted the shippers 12°4c. each. Cirrus FRUIT. The quantity of citrus fruit I have shipped as yet is so small that it is hardly worth saying anything about. One shipment consisting of three dozen shaddocks and three dozen grape fruit was made on December 12th, 1903. These were sent at the same time as some mangos belonging to the same shipper, and the account sale received did not show the amount realised for each kind of fruit. Assuming, however, that the mangos sold on the average for the same as those mentioned above, viz., 1°88c. each, the six dozen shaddocks and grape fruit netted to the shipper 96c. (GFOLDEN APPLES. The only other fruit shipped, of which I have received an account sale, is the golden apple. Fifty-four of these fruits WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 143 have been shipped; all arrived in good condition and netted to the shipper 15c. In conclusion I may say, first, that if the bananas grown in Barbados, which are reported to be some of the best sent to the United Kingdom, can only be landed regularly in good condition, there is every likelihood of a successful and very remunerative industry being established—an industry which will give in the suitable districts a net profit of about £20 per acre per annum, a return not likely to be reached by any other crop grown at present in those districts. Secondly, that as soon as the right temperature at which to carry mangos and avocado pears can be ascertained, there is every likelihood of the shipment of these fruits proving, to a limited extent, remunerative. With regard to the shaddocks, grape fruit, and golden apples, the quantity shipped to the present time is so small that I am unable to say whether there is any likelihood of an industry in these fruits being established. Account oF SINGLE BUNCHES OF BANANAS SHIPPED FROM JANUARY 1ST TO OCTOBER 31ST, 1904 (INCLUSIVE). n n 5 os SS ae a aus Amount oe Date. Steamer. One 1A 9 Sele cS A | received for Bes oa 5s sas shipment. | 2 2 q = fo a < 2 8,0. $0. Jan. 2 ... | Tagus vine 123 7 116 20 +16.-7 3.7 pr AGE ca eon Abrahojpedisdehieet OL 3 98 18 7 4 3.8 99 OU cece tp ITED OCO Tete, 7 0 72 18°16. -4 3 10 Feb. 13 ... | Trent ect de 0 113 23 18 23 | 4 23 WR De stn | lac t ANAS eae oS 3 105 2217 OR ae Mars 12... | Tagus een) 2k 00 5 95 22° 3 10F |, 428 Steel AOS naan LOER LOO eereay 85 3 82 1716 44 | 4 4 April 97-35: Ormoco aos. 0.2109 4 105 22:2 8 (so aera 9) oe BO ane Ll pe POEL soe hep hos 0 138 QO tae 4 33 May 7... | La Plata ... | 154 1 153 82°10" SF) |= 43 jr al ieee al agus wEhiees 0 299 50 4 72] 3 42 June.4.—,...)) Atrato yt ecslae000 2 306 50.19 O02 | 3 33 a) AS sss, | OFMMOCOn, axesizs00 26 330 50 3 O08] 3 Of July 2 ... | Trent ... | 426 7 419 64 3 93) 3. 0% » 16... | La Plata-...{-512 19 493 89: 2ST EP ohare ie 0° sp agua veal fu DLE 0 514 95 10° Bk |° 3 84 Angi 13: 0) Atrato 2s seg 200 62 503 6) F9F ease OT ieee fy OFEROCO!) 7 .cn'9}cn000 49 459 58 15.8% | 2.64 Sept. 10 ... | Trent wea PUEA LO 20 690 AO ee pe pm oa ee | lia Plata tse) 00a: |e toe 763 5210 43 | 1 44 Ochi eau sso fe OLS 60 858 BL = QF Se a] 22} yl AQ eave | A EDO a te seine aoa 80 761 Glo seit Lacs Total ... {8,012 | 549 | 7,472 | 962 9 6 2. 16°0™ poet oe EEA a ee #* Average amount received per single bunch for one year. 28011 M 2 ———— = ——————— = : — ee 144 ACCOUNT OF COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. DousLE BuncHES OF BANANAS SHIPPED FROM JANUARY IsT TO OcroBER 31st, 1904 (INCLUSIVE). Date. Steamer. Tagus Atrato Orinoco Trent La Plata Tagus Atrato Orinoco Trent La Plata ‘agus Atrato Orinoco Trent La Plata Tagus Atrato Orinoco Trent La Plata Tagus Atrato Total Bunches shipped. 92 272 234 290 386 356 358 282 198 i56 144 3,656 Bunches bad. oe ODFOROCNNDOCOOCOSCSO u > woo H CO O> CO bY CO 216 ox 28 gis Amount 24 ie : received for 5 ord seo shipment. a5q A 5; 5 7) type aoe OR, Minimgtiiens 5. sy <5 3 a tube pee Od. Sa Average quantity of seed obtained per acre... 553 ,, Maximum ,, syauints me easier: xt Obes Minimum _se~o, 39 33 33 3? 3) = ie 388 >> WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average total revenue per acre for lint and seed (the seed valued at ljc. per lb., the price at which it is sold in Barbados for stock feed) = es Average amount realised for cotton per acre=— a ee $638°53—(£138 4s. 11d.) Maximum amount realised for cotton per acre Minimum amount realised for cotton per-acre | 2. o $70°59—(£14 14s. 14d.) $84°00—(£17 10s. 0 d.) s ... $45°61—(£9 10s. 03d.) Average cost of growing cotton, in- cluding manure on certain of the estates, but excluding cost of supervision, taxes and interest on capital ... ee: ae ... $20°59—(£4 5s. 94d.) Maximum cost of growing cotton, SCs Se ae i ... $28°39—(£5 18s. 34d.) Minimum cost of growing cotton, ers. oe sk se ... $10°45—(£2 3s. 64d.) Average profit per acre... ... $50°00—(£10 8s.4 d.) Maxmarrni’: 5. shaes so eee ... $77 30—(£16 2s.1 d.) Gari mate ste ee eee ... $85°89—(£7 9s. 64d.) From the above it will be seen that the cost of growing cotton in Barbados compares very favourably with that of the Sea Islands. The average returns there on 14 representative estates in the counties of Beaufort, Berkley, and Charleston in South Carolina for 1896 are given in the “ West Indian Bulletin,” Vol. IV., p. 314, from which it will be seen that the total cost of production per acre was $35'°40 (£7 7s. 6d.), and the profit $23°47 (£4 17s. 94d.). In this case the average yield of lint per acre was 204 lbs. and seed 14°3 bushels, equal, at 42 Ibs. to the bushel, to 600 Ibs. per acre. Assuming that the cost of supervision, watchman’s wages, taxes, and other expenses incidental to the production of cotton, the carriage, &c., to be $4°78 (19s. lle.) per acre, the amount which it actually cost one of the growers who kept a careful account of the cost of producing his cotton, the average net profit per acre for 95} acres is $45°22 (£9 8s. 5d.). As the average yield was 235 lbs. per acre, the cost of growing the cotton, ginning, and shipping, &c., including supervision, taxes, &c., was 12°3c. per lb.— excluding super- vision, &c., 10°3c. per |b. As the grower’s statement just referred to is of much interest, I have given it an eatenso in Table ITI. COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. 148 00 0¢ 6¢ 0z 69 OL 10) P-69G gg 9 G0-98% x ‘++ ere aod ofes0a'y O TONP>| Gh: 196K lS 1S BOL 9e |} AOE S99 6Gr'EG Tz 9¢0°9 68E'GS a Se RBOMORE TES ue | ee: 8L 96F 00 €6T 8L 689 16 49 ELGG 18 €29 ELE‘S pees Se ree eee ee 16 1&@ 6h 8F Or 08% OF 8% BLES 00 3g 006 pa tT Ok SF Ga) a ee a €6 69 GB OPE Gf POT cg IT 806 08 %6 0ZE ri Et ee eee. Sl sah le eee Sec OL Gz 00 LF OL Le G8 9% 9F1% 86 SP 0F8 mete eae try ee eee ees eet 70 LE GL FI 6L I¢ Le g OS Ch OF 097, ep Sire 1S ie Sais | ream eee 7 689 OF 40% t9 T6L hae LIO'L €6 902 G67 ei eG Palace, Or ees nay 9€ 906 99 ITT ZO 8Tg. 26. LG PES.G OL 062 016 PAE WD gt Re Sie ee tee eee v6 PLLT | SZ S96 Ly 68L% | F6 992 GGE' 1G 6G ZLV% PEs .6 PY oN 2 oy OB aes ie ee ee cae ane ae a) 18 ga¢ C6. PIT 9L €L9 06 9Gx'¢ 9¢ 009 9G7'% edi copes. Te Sea [citer ca ncea te ate ane Gh ZLg GL 986 0% 66L 8h PL 896'¢ Gli VG 849% Bh, Leg Iges Se Aes oun eet eed ae "9 ¢ "9 ¢ "9 ¢ "9 ¢ “) & | Fert ‘peddigs | *poatoooyy "103400 ; “poeg “peog OF pedadiqs | ,unOouLy SULMOLY) eo 10340 10340) pest[Vo yy FULT W030) | “Coly | ‘978487 JO OUUN JON JO 4809 yd jo onjeA | Jo spunog qunowYy cae spunog 1 JON i "POGL UVAA THL YOd SOGVAUVG NI SULVISY NAT, NO NMOUD NOLLOG fo sauoy fog WOU GANIVIEO SLINSAY ‘[ adv 149 WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a 03 4g PY “1G 79 OL GE Re Gy ORG Ze 69 $E96 peas Ri Is FEO te ae eae 0€ LL 91 9T Ly &6 dpe Gee cs 220) 00 8 00g spe tee IG ot. or ea r6 G9 8E Lz SE 8 80 6 VBL bL 996 ee) ay Tay Pe ca ey Ss ee €0 GL 19 GI OL 06 v6 8 GIL 9L 18 08% oe” a ee ee oe eee) 8& 6P 99 61 GO 69 Ot of €L¢ 68 19 TE1B Syd ee ‘peep 72, aa ZO 8e GZ ST toe SRG S| SSGP 19 GP TOT pS a PEIN aces Cee ene ai 68 && oF 6I 1g 4g EoUrpe el, TORE GP 0g 691 ‘eomaee REGe te’ escon he to pees gieeGl 8I Gg 6E 8 LG 08 GBD =| 869 Gh Sh ZLB Ty Tee as Pg a Ae oo em 08 0g Gh OL Go 19 GOr.9 Ele -cEG 09 . 79 $26 oe ueena lor SUAD tig ae - =. ig oan ea OL LP 06 8st 09 99 [ade = eS LOK 6E 09 T0GS PCROROC SE vis tir ihn. 88S Set ae og ‘pres Ongar: a Ghende per< 5 ‘gaoe red ‘que Tad ‘oroe rad ‘gr0v 10d ‘o10r red 910% 10d . : : 104409 eine rod p20g pe09g 4uly Loz peddrys gee SUTMOLD ONUdAOYY 109409 u044072 pasiyVoy qu] 109909 “"BOlYV ‘oVe4S JO omeNy ie ook JO [849], 30 jo JUNOWY jo 4ONT : 5 5 : ‘ " * 4809 On]vA spunog JON! spunog “SOdVdIAV|E NI SaALV LS NOT, NO NOLLO‘) TO HAY NV INIMOUL) TO LSOr) ‘AaslIvay INOOWY LAN 1 Fa GAOVaAnA YT ‘T] fav EG 150 COLONIAL REPORTS—MISCELLANEOUS. TaspLEe Ll. Aivciwsyess Plantation in... Parish, a 3-acre field of Sea Island cotton was planted August 18,1903. The first picking was made the first weck in January, 1904, aad the last picking wn May, 1904. $ Total quantity of seed-cotton obtained ad ... 2,869 Ibs. Total quantity of pure lint obtained ... 840 lbs. at 33c. per lb. ... 227°20 EXPENSES. $ A crop of Bengal beans was grown and turned under as a green manuring ata cost of... 1°66 All cultivation, including forking, hoeing, levelling the surface, and weeding van adi2°08 Chopping for sowing and ae cotton at o0c. per acre a3 “+ "80 Cost of seed, 5 Ibs. per acre, ‘16 Ibs. ait Te. per lb. ee 1°05 Cost of eal tin asa manure given... 9°00 Carting and applying of same . é: ; “21 Singling and moulding up ee wie at 60c. per acre na a : 1°80 Picking and cleaning aaa at 80c. per 100 Ibs. gross 3 22°95 Bagging, sewing up, ae ee Li “30 Carting same to the Bee at 10c. per 1,000 Rose? ac8 aS 23 °20 Directing, supervising, Serna and watching at $c. per lb. gross of seed- cotton so ... 14°34 All taxes at $1°00 per acre, or Stee 4c. per 100 lbs. of lint am re OU Factory expenses, ginning Fen baling at 26. per lb. of lint ae £5 L680 Freight to England and stiles expenses of wales cartage, marine insurance, lighter- age, and 14 per cent. discount at 1°8c. per lb. of lint He es: oe sre 12 —— 96°26 Net profit on 3 acres... Bi BS he $180°94 Net profit per acre oh an a “e $60°31 WEST INDIES—DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 151 LEEWARD ISLANDS. By the Hon. Francis Warts, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.1.C., F.C.S. iixperiments in the Leeward Islands were begun simulta- neously by the Department of Agriculture and Messrs. Sendall and Wade, of St. Kitts. The Experiment Stations in the neighbouring island had small plots which produced useful results, in that at an early stage they enabled us to discriminate between the different cottons. It was obvious from these early experiments that Sea Island was the variety to which we should direct our attention, and subsequent experiments have confirmed this. In 1902 Messrs. Sendall and Wade erected a steam ginnery on one of their properties, following this, in 1903, by the erection of a steam ginnery in Montserrat, while the Department of Agriculture provided a hand gin for the conduct of small Botanic Station experiments. In the follow- ing year, 1904, aided by the British Cotton Growing