1 
 
The Ancient Lowly 
 
 J 
 
 A History of the Ancient Working People from the 
 Earliest Known Period to the Adoption 
 of Christianity by Constantine 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
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 BY 
 
 C. OSBORNE WARD 
 
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 CHICAGO 
 
 CHARLES H. KERR & COMPANY 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE 
 
Copyright, 1888 
 By C. Osborne Ward 
 FIFTH EDITION 
 
 PEESS OF 
 
 JOHN F. HIGGINS 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
Publisher’s Note to Fourth Edition 
 
 The first editions of Osborne Ward’s great work were 
 printed and circulated privately, because no capitalist 
 publishing house would take the responsibility for so 
 revolutionary a book, and no socialist publishing house 
 existed. 
 
 Now, nearly twenty years after the first publication of 
 the book, its publication has been taken over by a co¬ 
 operative publishing house owned by sixteen hundred so¬ 
 cialist clubs and individual socialists. A systematic effort 
 will now for the first time be made to give this author’s 
 works the wide circulation they deserve. 
 
 Osborne Ward’s contribution to the history of the 
 working class movement is unique, and its tremendous 
 value is only beginning to be appreciated. In his chosen 
 field, the period of ancient civilization covered by histories 
 and inscriptions, he speaks with an authority based on a 
 minute and comprehensive knowledge of his subject. 
 
 The case is different when he comments on another 
 field of investigation, and it is only fair to warn the read r 
 that the author’s statements on page 38, which reappear 
 in various forms elsewhere in the book, are now known 
 to bq erroneous. The researches of Lewis H. Morgan in 
 “Ancient Society,” popularized by Frederick Engels in his 
 “Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” 
 have stood the test of a generation of criticism, and they 
 show conclusively that a communist form of society ex¬ 
 isted for ages before the beginning of the era described 
 so graphically in the present work. 
 
 CHARLES H. KERR. 
 
 January, 1907. 
 
PBEFACB. 
 
 Hie author of this volume is aware that a strong 
 opposition may set in and perhaps for a time, ob¬ 
 ject to the thoughts and the facts which it portrays. 
 
 Much of its contents is new. The ideas that lay 
 at the bottom of the ancient competitive system, 
 though in their day thoroughly understood, have been 
 so systematically attacked and gnawed away during 
 our nearly 2,000 years’ trial of the new institution, 
 that men now, no longer comprehend them. The 
 whole may strike the reader as news. Much of it 
 indeed, reads like a revelation from a sealed book; 
 and we may not at first be able to comprehend it as 
 a natural effect of a cause. 
 
 The introduction of Christianity was fought, and 
 for a long time resisted by the laboring element it¬ 
 self ; solely on the ground that it seriously interfered 
 with idol, amulet, palladium and temple drapery 
 manufacture. As shown in the chapter on “Image- 
 makers,” there were organized trades, whose labor 
 and means of obtaining a living were entirely confined 
 to their skill in producing for the pagan priesthood 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 these innumerable images and paraphernalia of wor¬ 
 ship. Indeed, the ultimate introduction of certain 
 unmistakable forms of idol worship to be found lin¬ 
 gering in the so-called Christianity to-day, must be 
 considered as having been partly motived by the re¬ 
 sistance of trades unions against any change which 
 would result in depriving themselves and their babes 
 of bread. This has been a potent hindrance to the 
 ever growing but imperceptible realization of the 
 social revolution. 
 
 The great strikes and uprisings of the working 
 people of the ancient world are almost unknown to 
 the living age. It matters little how accounts of five 
 immense strike-wars, involving destruction of prop¬ 
 erty and mutual slaughter of millions of people have 
 been suppressed, or have otherwise failed to reach 
 us;—the fact remains that people are absolutely ig¬ 
 norant of those great events. A meagre sketch of 
 Spartacus may be seen in the encyclopedias, but it is 
 always ruined and its interest pinched and blighted 
 by being classed with crime, its heroes with crimi¬ 
 nals, its theme with desecration. Yet Spartacus was 
 one of the great generals of history; fully equal to 
 Hannibal and Napoleon, while his cause was much 
 more just and infinitely nobler, his life a model of 
 the beautiful and virtuous, his death an episode of 
 surpassing grandeur. 
 
 Still more strange is it, that the great ten-years’ 
 war of Eunus should be unknown. He martialed at 
 one time, an army of two hundred thousand soldiers. 
 He manoeuvred them and fought for ten full years for 
 liberty, defeating army after army of Rome. Why is 
 the world ignorant of this fierce, epochal rebellion! 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Ix 
 
 Almost the whole matter is passed over in silence by 
 our histories of Rome. In these pages it will be read 
 as news; yet should a similar war rage in our day, 
 against a similar condition of slavery, its cause would 
 not only be considered just, but the combatants would 
 have the sympathy and moral support of the civilized 
 world. The story of this wonderful workman is news. 
 
 The great system of labor organization explained in 
 these pages must likewise be regarded as a chapter of 
 news. The portentous fact has lain in abeyance cen¬ 
 tury after century, with the human family in profound 
 ignorance of an organization of trades and other labor 
 unions so powerful that for hundreds of years they un¬ 
 dertook and successfully conducted the business of 
 manufacture, of distribution, of purveying provisions to 
 armies, of feeding the inhabitants of the largest cities 
 in the world, of inventing, supplying and working the 
 huge engines of war, and of collecting customs and 
 taxes—tasks confided to their care by the state. 
 
 Our civilization has a blushingly poor excuse for its 
 profound ignorance of these facts; for the evidences 
 have existed from much before the beginning of our 
 era—indeed the fragments of the ravaged history were 
 far less broken and the recorded annals much fresher, 
 more numerous and less mutilated than the relics 
 which the author with arduous labor and pains-taking, 
 has had at command in bringing them to the surface. 
 Besides the records that have come to us thus broken 
 and distorted by the wreckers who feared the moral 
 blaze of literature, there were, in all probability, thou¬ 
 sands of inscriptions then, where but dozens remain 
 now to be consulted; and they are growing fewer and 
 dimmer as their value rises higher in the estimation 
 
X 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 of a thinking, appreciative, gradually awakening world. 
 
 The author is keenly aware that certain critics will 
 complain of his dragging religion so prominently for¬ 
 ward that the work is spoiled. The defense is, that 
 though our charming histories from a point of view 
 of brilliant events, such as daring deeds of heroes, bat¬ 
 tles and bloodshed, may be found among the ancients 
 without encountering much of a religious nature, yet 
 such is not the case in the lesser affairs of ancient so¬ 
 cial and political life. The state, city and family were 
 themselves a part of the ancient religion and were a 
 part of its property. Priests were public officers. 
 Home life of the nobles was in constant conformity 
 with the ritual. The organizations of labor were so 
 closely watched by the jealous law that they were 
 obliged to assume a religious attitude they did not feel 
 in order to escape being suppressed. A long list of 
 what we in our time consider honorable, business-like 
 doings, was rated as blasphemy against the gods and 
 punished with death. 
 
 Nearly all of the idolatry, with its attendant super¬ 
 stition and nympholepsy, its giants and prodigies, its 
 notions of elysium and tartar us , its quaking genuflex¬ 
 ions, its bloody sacrifices and its gladiatorial wakes, 
 had their real origin in the torture of the menials who 
 delved, and in the rewards of the favored ones who 
 banqueted on the riches which flowed from unpaid la¬ 
 bor; and nearly all the iconoclasm of the later soph¬ 
 ists may perhaps be traced to an organized resistance 
 of the working people of pre-christian days. These 
 seemingly curious, if not extraordinary truths will, we 
 are confident, be made clear to the intelligent, careful 
 reader of these pages; and in this humble hope, the 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 it 
 
 author has set them forth as an indispensable begin¬ 
 ning to those who would logically and correctly under¬ 
 stand the great problem of labor as it is to-day. 
 
 As rightly mentioned by Bancroft and others occu¬ 
 pied in the collection and study of monumental archae¬ 
 ology, there is often a readiness among the degenerate 
 natives to ingeniously imitate and palm off for genu¬ 
 ine, numbers of fraudulent counterfeit relics upon the 
 unsuspecting and credulous wonder-hunters. This, 
 however, is with us, in our scope of research, placed 
 beyond suspicion. Most of the slabs we mention have 
 already been lying unobserved, on their original sites 
 or in by-nooks of the museums of their own countries, 
 for hundreds of years ; but they have long since been 
 recorded, catalogued and even numbered in dingy old 
 books and manuscripts, the importance of their grim 
 inscriptions having been little understood by the capa¬ 
 ble epigraphists themselves. Besides, no interest hav¬ 
 ing ever been elicited on subjects of which they are so 
 suggestive, there has been no lively demand for them, 
 even as curiosities. They are genuine. 
 
 The author may sum up these prefatory remarks with 
 a word on the general lesson taught by this volume; it 
 being one of the first histories yet compiled and written 
 exclusively from a standpoint of social science. That 
 the u still small voice” meant the ever suppressed yet ever 
 living, struggling, co-operating and mutually support¬ 
 ing majorities, is made self-suggestive without forsaking 
 history. The phenomenal fact is moreover brought out, 
 that the present movement whose most radical wing 
 loudly disclaims Christianity, is nevertheless building 
 exactly upon the precepts of that faith, as it was told to 
 us and taught us by Jesus Christ; whatever may or may 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 • • 
 
 Xll 
 
 nut have been borrowed by His school from the immense 
 social organization of His own and preceeding ages. 
 
 Modern greed with its class hatreds, individualisms. 
 aristocracy, its struggle for personal wealth, dangerous, 
 defiant in our faith and in our political economy, is not 
 Christianity at all; it is the ancient evil still lingering 
 in the roots of the gradually decaying paganism that ap¬ 
 pears to remain for the labor movement to smother and 
 at last uproot and completely annihilate. 
 
 One thing must be solemnly set forth as a very sug¬ 
 gestive hint to modern anarchists, however honest their 
 impulses. The historical facts are that the great strikes, 
 rebellions and social wars—if we are permitted to except 
 those of Drimakos and the strike of the 20,000 from the 
 silver mines of Laurium in Attica—all turned out disas¬ 
 trously for the general cause. The punishments meted 
 out to the strikers and insurgents of the working class 
 after their overthrow by the Homans, as in the rebellions 
 of Eunus, of Athenion, of Spartacus, of every one we 
 have treated in this book, with but the above exceptions, 
 was bloody, revengeful and exterminatory to the last de¬ 
 gree. An ancient author whom we quote, gives the aggre¬ 
 gate number crucified at something more than a million. 
 Crassus and Pompey alone crucified over 6,000 working¬ 
 men on the Appian Way as examples of the awful blood- 
 wreaking to be expected from Roman military justice. 
 Twenty thousand were similarly massacred at Enna and 
 Tauromanion. These unscrupulous deeds of retribution 
 that went far toward annihilating the ancient civilization 
 by stimulating a blood-thirsting craze in a long succes¬ 
 sion of Roman emperors, completely extinguished all 
 hopes of the workingmen for the achievement of liberty 
 by violent means. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The author of the Ancient Lowly, on presenting to 
 the public his first and incomplete edition, felt that it 
 was an experiment. It was a mass of facts, withheld for 
 many ages from the human race—some that had been 
 suppressed—and his natural conjecture that there is still 
 a desire to cover and conceal them was verified by a gen¬ 
 eral refusal on the part of publishing firms, to touch it. 
 He published it himself. Large numbers of letters flow¬ 
 ing in from kind-hearted readers at every quarter, and 
 a delightful, perhaps overwrought expression of thanks 
 and sympathy in form of sermons, newspaper reviews and 
 lecture themes has been a consolation that cannot be 
 measured by this poor expression of gratitude. Let his 
 loving answer and assurance to them all be, that the book 
 shall not fall into vandal hands for money or for price; 
 but the naked truth shall be unstintedly offered to its 
 generous and appreciative readers who thus announce 
 themselves, after ages of agitation, fully prepared to 
 accept. 
 
 Considerable disappointment has been gently hinted, 
 that the author broke off abruptly without writing a chap¬ 
 ter of conclusions. The actually written twenty-fourth 
 chapter promised in the table of contents, was prudential- 
 ly omitted in the first edition. Conclusions are deviations 
 from the historian’s compass—this is one explanation. 
 A stronger one is, that the general conviction which over¬ 
 takes the student, on studying the ancient working people, 
 is of a nature so radical as to be distasteful to many readers. 
 
 One curious conclusion is, that the modern and correct 
 doctrine of nationalizing the tools of labor was actually 
 carried out, almost to perfection, especially in the cele¬ 
 brated Spartan state. But alas! the awful incongruity of 
 its system was, that human beings as slaves, were them¬ 
 selves bodily those nationalized tools! though treated with 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 xiv 
 
 worse contempt of feeling than we have for machines pro¬ 
 pelled by motors instead of whips; and the demand of the 
 nationalists or socialists to-day is in some points of princi¬ 
 ple, to return to the nationalization of Lycurgus, only with 
 the chattel-slave tools and wage-slave tools substituted, 01 
 supplanted by the inanimate labor-saving implements this 
 much-abused workman has invented, constructed and re 
 duplicated for a higher civilization. When this shall havfc 
 been accomplished there will be an exact social equality 
 and a status of positive equities—a vast and beneficent rev 
 olution! Surely, under these considerations, the working 
 masses, the "two-thirds majority,” can afford to crowd on¬ 
 ward until they reach the ambrosial gardens, become them- 
 lelves masters and re-enjoy the symposium, in a region of 
 equitable distribution and plentitude, the "mansion of the 
 blessed,” longed for in those earlier ages. 
 
 Another conclusion arrived at from the facts in history, 
 and explained in this terminal chapter is, that the ancient 
 rebellions, although fearfully disastrous, as mentioned by 
 way of warning in our preface to the first edition, were, 
 under the circumstances, j ust. Workingmen who rebelled 
 and bravely fought and lost, had no other friend to appeal 
 to but their own strong arms; and looking back upon their 
 sufferings and their magnificent resistance, we clearly see 
 that they did not lose after all. They won, though they 
 fell in myriads—a martyrdom, nobler and happier than 
 was their crucial life from which such a death was triumph¬ 
 ant relief—for by their fall they taught a lesson to an in¬ 
 experienced world that is to this day exerting its influence 
 In creating a better era. We may be thankful for their 
 having lived and fought and died; for they were the true 
 forefathers of these struggling wage-slaves, now making 
 themselves felt and feared in these, though still cruel and 
 hatctu!, yet brighter and more hopeful surroundings. 
 
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 Ovid (Publius Naso), Fastorum Libri qui snpersunt. Merkel 
 and Riese, 1857. 
 
 Pandects Justiniani , Samuel Petit in Thesaurus Grcevii et 
 Gronovii , Utrecht, 1699. 
 
 Pausanias, Rellados Periegesis (Descriptio Groeeice), Teubner 
 Series , Leipzic, Schubart, 1850. 
 
 Peiresc (Nicholas Claude), Dionis Cassii Excerpta Vaticana 
 Aix, 1635 
 
 Petit (Samuel), *Studies of the Arundelian Inscription , Paris, 
 1640; also Several other Criticisms. 
 
 Philo (Judaeus), Quod Omnis Probus Liber , ♦Turnebus Paris, 
 1552; Legarde, Onomastica Sacra , Paris, 1870-, 
 
 Plato, Apology of Socrates , 
 
 Bekker, London ed., 1S28, 
 Stallbaum, Leipzic, 1825, 
 
 Orell., Winkelmann, Baiter 1840 
 Burges, Cary, Davis, trs. 
 
 Plato, Menexenos } 
 
 Plato, Minos, 
 
 Plato, PhoedOy 
 Plato, Phoedrus , 
 
 Plato, Protagoras , 
 
 Plato, De Republican 
 Plato, Statesman , 
 
 Plato, Thecetetus , 
 
 Plutarch, Lives of Illustrious Men , Teubner Series, Leipzic, 
 1850 ; English Translation of Langhorne, London, n. d. 
 Polybius, Historia Katholike , Leipzic, 1843. 
 
 Pomponius-Mela, De Orbis Situ , Tzschucke, Leipzic, 1807. 
 Porter, (G-eorge Richardson), Progress of the Nation , Lon. 1836. 
 Preller (Ludwig), Mithologie: Demeter und Persephone , Leip¬ 
 zic, 1854. 
 
 Prudentius (Aurelius) Hymni , *Arvali, Roma, 1790. 
 PsEUDo-Plutarch, De Nobilitate , in the Teubner Series , 1845. 
 Rangabe-Rhizo, Antiquites Helleniques, 2 vols. Paris, 1855. 
 Real Fncyclopcedie, Pauly. 
 
 Reinesius (Thomas), Inscriptionum Antiquarum Syntagma, 
 Leipzic, 1682, Oracles: Sibylline BooJcs , 1704. 
 
 Renan (Ernest), Vie de J£sus, Paris, 1863. 
 
 Rinaldo, Memorie Istoriche della Citta di Capua , Napoli, 1755. 
 Ritschl (Friedrich Wilhelm), Plautus, Bonn, 1848. 
 
 Rodbertus (von Jagetzow), Der Normal Arbeitstag , Berlin, 1871. 
 Roscher (Wilhelm), Principes d ’ Economic Politique , French 
 Edition, Paris, 1872. 
 
 Rogers (J. E. Thorold), Six Centuries of Work and Wages, 
 New York, 1884. 
 
SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 xxi 
 
 Rohden, Johannis der Taufer , Brochure; A Dissertation. 
 
 Romanelli (Domenico), Topografia: Viaggio a Pompej. 
 
 Rose (H. J.), Inscriptions Grcecce Vetustissimoe, Cantabrid- 
 gise,, 1825. 
 
 Ross (Ludwig), Voyages dans Is Ils; Les Inscriptions de Scio, 
 Halle, 1842. 
 
 Rossi (Giovanni Bernardo de), Inscriptions Christianas Urbis 
 Romos , Roma, 1853. 
 
 Saint-Edme (M. B.) Didionnaire de la Penalite, Paris, 1825. 
 
 Sallustius (Cams Crispus), Historiarum Libri Quinque, Vatican 
 Fragments; Schambach’s Sklavenaufstand. 
 
 Sanger (William W.), History of Prostitution, New York, 1876. 
 
 Schambach, Der Italische SMavenaufstand, n. d., n. p., 4to. 
 
 Schliemann (Henry), The Tiryns, New York, 1885. 
 
 SchOmann (F. G.), Assemblis of the Athenians , English Uni¬ 
 versity Translation of Cambridge, 1837. 
 
 ♦Servius, On the JEneid of Virgil , Fabricins, Meissen, 1551. 
 
 Siefert (Otto), Sicilische Sklavenkriege, Altona, 1860. 
 
 Smith (William), Dictionary of the Bible, Boston, 1886. 
 
 Smith (William), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, 
 London, 1849. 
 
 Solon, Code, in Plutarch, Gaius and others. 
 
 Stobseus, Quoting Lost Works of Florilus, mentioned by Bticher. 
 
 Strabo, Geographica , Tzsehucke, Leipzic, 1812. 
 
 Suetonius (Claudius), Vitos Duodecim Ccesarum, Burmann, 
 Amsterdam, 1743. 
 
 Syncellus, Quoting Africanus, in Chronica . 
 
 Tarrentenus (Paternus), De Re Militari, Quoted by Drumann, 
 
 Terence (Publius Afer), Heauton-timorumanos, London, 1857. 
 
 Tertulian (Quintus [Septimius Florens), Apologeticus and De 
 Idololatria , (Ehler, Leip. 1857; Dr. March, Douglass 
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 Theophrastus, Ethikoi Karakters (Moral Characters ), Ast, 
 
 Munich, 1825. 
 
 Theopompus, In *Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride , 
 
 Thiersch (Henry W.) Christian Commonwealth, Edinburgh, 1877. 
 
 Thucydides, Polemon ton Peloponnesion (De Bello Pelloponnes- 
 iaco ), Leipzic, Bibliotheca Teubneriana , Bohme, 1857. 
 
 Tompkins (Henry), Friendly Societies of Antiquity , Lon., 1867. 
 
 Tompkins (Henry, Acting Secretary to Registry, of Friendly 
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 Hlpian (Domitius), De Officio Proconsulis; Vatican MS. & Fx- 
 cerpta Digstorum; De Dominorum Scevitia , Bonn, 1840. 
 
 Uwaroff, Essai sur Is Mysters d ’ Eleusis, 
 
 Valerius Maximus, Factorum Dictorumque MemorabiUum Libri 
 IX. Leipzic, 1836. 
 
xxii 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 Varro (Marcus Terentius), De Re Rustica Libri Tt'es, ♦Schnei¬ 
 der, Leipzic. 1796. 
 
 Velleius (Paterculus), Historice Romance , Orelli, Leipzic, 1835. 
 Virgil (Publius Maro), FEneid, Teubner Series , Leipzic, 1840. 
 W all ace, (Robert), Numbers of Mankind , Edinburgh, 1753. 
 Weissenborn, Comments on Livy , Leipzic, 1871. 
 
 Wesseling (Peter) Veterum Romanorum ltineraria } Utr’t, 1750. 
 Wescher-Foucart, Inscriptions recueiUies d Delphes , Paris, 1863. 
 Wescher (C.), In Revue Archeologique, Paris, 1864. 
 Westermann (Anton), Nymphodorus , In Real-Encyclopaedia 
 Wiener -Jahrbuch, XX. 
 
 Wilkinson (Sir Gardner), Ancient Egyptians , Boston, 1883. 
 Wordsworth (Christopher), Fragments of Early Latin , London. 
 Wright (Carroll D.), Industrial Depressions, Report of the Unit¬ 
 ed States Bureau of Labor, Washington, 1886. 
 
 Xenophon, Connersationes, ~ 
 
 Xenophon, Memorabilia , 
 Xenophon, CEconomicus , 
 Xenophon, De Repvblica , 
 Xenophon, De Vectigali , 
 
 Leipzic, 1859. 
 
 •The Asterisks refe. ^orks that were consulted, by the author 
 during his researches abroad. 
 
 SYMBOLS OF ANCIENT PERFUMERS’ UNIOVa 
 
 F.onj an Inscriptit 
 
 • jasper.-See Chapter xix 
 
COM TEXTS OF THE VOLUME. 
 
 4 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 TAINT OF LABOR. 
 
 TRAITS AND PECULIARITIES OE RACES. 
 
 Grievances of the Working Classes—The Competitive System 
 among the Ancients—Growing Change of Taste in Head¬ 
 ers of History—Inscriptions and suppressed Fragments 
 more recently becoming Incentives to reflecting Headers 
 who seek Them as a means to secure Facts—No true De¬ 
 mocracy—No primeval Middle Class known to the Aryan 
 Family—The Taint of Labor an Inheritance through the 
 Pagan Religio-Political Economy. Page 37 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 
 
 THEIR COMPETITIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 Religion and Politics of the Indo-Europeans Identical—Reason 
 for Religion mixing with the Movements of Labor—The 
 Father the Original Slaveholder—His Children the Orig¬ 
 inal Slaves—Both Law and Religion empowered him to kill 
 them—Work of Conscience in the Labor Problem. 47 
 
*xir 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 LOST MSS. ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 TRUE HISTORY OF LABOR FOUND ONLY IN 
 
 INSCRIPTIONS AND MUTILATED ANNALa 
 
 § 
 
 Prototypes of Industrial Life to be found in the Aryan and 
 Semitic Branches—Era of Slavery—Dawn of Manumission 
 —Patriarchal Form too advanced a Type of Government 
 possible to primitive Man—Religious Superstition fatal to 
 Independent Labor—Labor, Government and Religion in¬ 
 dissolubly mixed—Concupiscence, Acquisitiveness and Iras¬ 
 cibility a Consequence ol the archaic Bully or Boss, with un¬ 
 limited Powers—Right of the ancient Father to enslave, 
 sell, torture or kill his Children—Abundant Proofs quoted— 
 Origin of the greater and more humane Impulses—Sym¬ 
 pathy beyond mere Self preservation, the Result of Ed¬ 
 ucation—Education originated from Discussion—Discussion 
 the Result of Grievances against the Outcast Work-people— 
 Too rapid Increase of their hi umbers notwithstanding the 
 Sufferings—Means Organized by Owners for decimating them 
 by Murder—Ample proof—The great Amphyotyonic League 
 —Glimpses of a once sullen Combination of the Desperate 
 Slaves—Incipient Organization of the Nobles. Page 67 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES 
 
 ANCIENT GRIEVANCES OF THE WORKERS. 
 
 Working People destitute of Souls—Original popular Beliefs— 
 Plato finally gives them half a Soul—Modern Ignorance on 
 the true Causes of certain Developments in History—Sym¬ 
 pathy, the Third Great Emotion developed out of growing 
 Reason, through mutual Commiseration of the Outcasts— 
 A new Cult—The Unsolved Problem of the great Eleusinian 
 Mysteries—Their wonderful Story—Grievances of slighted 
 Workingmen—Organization impossible to Slaves except in 
 their Strikes and Rebellions—The Aristocrats’ Politics and 
 Religion barred the Doors against Work-people—Extraor- 
 
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS 
 
 dinary Whims and Antics at the Eleusinian Mysteries—The 
 Causes of Grievances endured by the Castaway Laborers— 
 Their Motives for Secret Organization—The Terrible Cryp- 
 tia—The horrible Murders of Workingmen for Sport—Dark 
 Deeds Unveiled—Story of the Massacre of 2,000 Working* 
 men—Evidence—The Grievances in Sparta—In Athens—- 
 Free Outcast Builders, Sculptors, Teachers, Priests, Dancers, 
 Musicians, Artisans, Diggers, all more or less Organized—Re¬ 
 turn to the Eleusinian Mysteries—Conclusion. Page 83 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 STRIKES AN D UPRISINGS. 
 
 GRIEVANCES CONTINUED. PLANS OF ESCAPE. 
 
 First Known and First Tried Plan of Salvation was that of Retal¬ 
 iation—The Slaves test the Ordeal of Armed Force—Irasci¬ 
 bility of the Working Classes at length arrayed against their 
 Masters—Typical Strikes of the ancient Workingmen—Their 
 Inhuman Treatment—Famous Strike at the Silver Diggings 
 of Laurium—20,000 Artisans and Laborers quit Work in ft 
 Body and go over to the Foes of their own Countrymen— 
 The Great Peloponnesian War Decided for the Spartans, 
 •gainst the Athenians by this Fatal Strike. Page 133 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 GRIEVANCES. 
 
 LABOR TROUBLES AMONG THE ROMANS. 
 MORE BLOODY PLANS OF SALVATION TRIED. 
 
 The Irascible Plan in Italy—Epidemic Uprisings—Attempt to 
 Fire the City of Rome and have Things common—Conspir¬ 
 acy of Slaves at the Metropolis—Two Traitors—Betrayal— 
 Deaths on the Roman Gibbet—Another Great Uprising at Se- 
 tia—Expected Capture of the World—Land of Wine and 
 Delight—Again the Traitor, the Betrayal and Gibbet—The 
 Irascible Plan a Failure—Strike of the Agricultural Laborers 
 in Etruria—Slave Labor—Character of the Etruscans— Expo- 
 
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 
 
 KXVi 
 
 dition of Glabro—Fighting—Slaves Worsted—Punishment 
 on the dreadful Cross, the ancient Block for the Low-born— 
 Enormous Strike in the Land of Labor Organizations—One 
 Glimpse at the Cause and Origin of Italian Brigandage—La¬ 
 borers, Mechanics and Agriculturers Driven to Despair— 
 The great Uprising in Apulia—Fierce Fighting to the Dag¬ 
 ger’s Hilt—The Overthrow, the Dungeon and the Cross — 
 Proof Dug from Fragments of Lost History. Page 145 
 
 CHAPTER VH 
 
 DR1MAKOS. 
 
 , \ 
 
 A QUEER OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Strikk of Drimakos, the Chian Slave—Co-operation of the 
 Irascible with the Sympathetic—A Desperate Greek Bonds¬ 
 man at Large—Labor Grievances of the ancient Scio—Tem¬ 
 perament-and Character of Drimakos—Vast Number of un¬ 
 fortunate Slaves—Revolt and Escape to the Mountains— 
 Old Ruler of tbe Mountain Crags—Rigid Master and loving 
 Friend—Great Successes—Price offered for his Head — How 
 he lost it—The Reaction—Rich and Poor all mourn his Loss 
 as a Calamity—The Brigands infest the Island afresh since 
 the Demise of Drimakos — The Heroon at his Tomb — An Al¬ 
 tar of Pagan Worship at which this Labor Hero becomes the 
 God, reversing the Order of the ancient Rights—Ruins of 
 his Temple still extant—Athenaeus—Nymphodorus—Archae¬ 
 ology — Views of modern Philologists. Page 16H 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VIRIATHUS. 
 
 A GREAT REBELLION IN SPAIN. 
 
 The Roman Slave System in Spain—Tyranny in Lusitania— 
 Massacre of the People—Condition before the Outbreak— 
 First Appearance of Viriathus—A Shepherd on his Native 
 
CONTEXTS OF CHATTERS . 
 
 XXVI) 
 
 Hills—A Giant in Stature and Intellect—He takes Com¬ 
 mand—Vetillius Outwitted—Captured and vSlain—Confliot 
 in Tartessus—Romans again Beaten—Battle of the Hill of 
 Venus—Viriatlius Slaughters another army and Humiliates 
 Rome—Segobria Captured—Arrival of iEmilianus—He is 
 Out-generaled and at last Beaten by Viriathus—More Bat¬ 
 tles and Victories for the Farmers—Arrival of Plautius 
 with Fresh Roman Soldiers—Viriathus made King—More 
 Victories—Treason, Conspiracy and Treachery Lurking in 
 his Oamps—Murdered by his own Perfidious Officers— 
 Pomp at His Funeral—Relentless Vengeance of the Romans 
 —Crucifixion and worse Slavery than before—The Cause 
 Lott. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 GRIEVANCES. MORE SALVATION ON 
 THE VINDICTIVE PLAN. 
 
 The Irascible Impulse in its Highest Development and most 
 enormous Organization—Greatest of all Strikes found onRec 
 ord —Gigantic Growth of Slavery—General View of Sicilian 
 Landlordism and Servitude before the Outbreak—Great In¬ 
 crease of Bondsmen and Women—Enna, Home of the God¬ 
 dess Ceres, becomes the Stronghold of the Great Uprising— 
 Eunus; his Pedigree—He is made King of the Slaves—His¬ 
 tory o. hislO Years’ Reign—Somebody, ashamed to confess it, 
 has mangled the Histories-—The Fragments of Diodorus and 
 other Noble Authors Reveal the Facts—Cruelties of Damo- 
 philus and Megallis, the immediate Cause of the Grievance— 
 Eunus, Slave, Fire-spitter, Leader, Messiah, King—Venge¬ 
 ance—The innocent Daughter—Sympathy hand-in-hand with 
 Irascibility against Avarice—Wise Selection by Eunus, of 
 Achseus as Lieutenant—Council of War—Mass-meeting—A 
 Plan agreed to—Cruelty of the Slaves—Their Army—The 
 War begun—Prisons broken open and 60,000 Convicts work¬ 
 ing in the Ergastula set free—Quotations—Sweeping Extinc¬ 
 tion of the Rich—Large Numbers of Free Tramps join—An¬ 
 other prodigious Uprising in Southern Sicily—Cleon—Con¬ 
 jectures regarding this Obscure Military Genius—Union of 
 Eunus, Acbaeus and Cleon—Harmony—Victories over the 
 Romans—Insurgent Force rises to 200.000 Men—Proof-- 
 
XX 7111 
 
 CONTENTS OF OB AFTERS. 
 
 Overthrow and Extinction of the Armies of Hypsseus—Man¬ 
 lius—Lentulus—The Victorious Workingmen give no Quarter 
 —Eunus as Mimic, taunts his Enemies by Mock Theatrical, 
 Open-Air Plays in the Sieges—Cities fall into his Hands— 
 His Speeches—Moral Aid through the Social Struggle with 
 Gracchus at Borne—Arrival of a Roman Army under Piso— 
 Beginning of Reverses—Crucifixions—Demoralization—Fall 
 of Messana—Siege of Enna—Inscriptions verifying History 
 —Romans Repulsed—Arrival of Rupilius—Siege of Tauroma- 
 nion—Wonderful Death of Comanus—Cannibalism—The 
 City falls—Awful Crucifixions—SecondSiege of Enna—Its 
 20,000 People are crucified on the Gibbet—Eunus captured 
 and Devoured by Lice in a Roman Dungeon—Disastrous 
 End of the Rebellion or so-called Servile War. Page 101 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ARISTONICUS. 
 
 A BLOODY STRIKE IN ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Fbeedmen, Bondsmen, Teamps and Illegitimates Rise against Op¬ 
 pression—Contagion of monster Strikes—Again the Irasci¬ 
 ble Plan of Rescue tried—Aristonicus of Pergamus—Story 
 of the Murder of Titus Gracchus and of 300 Land Reformers 
 by a Mob of Nobles at Rome—Blossius, a Noble, Espouses 
 the Cause of the Workingmen—He goes to Pergamus—The 
 Heliopolitai —The Commander of the Labor Army overpow¬ 
 ers all Resistance—Battle of Leuca—Overthrow of the Rom¬ 
 ans—Death of Crassus—Arrival of the ConsulPaperna—De¬ 
 feat of the Insurgents—Their Punishment—Discouragement 
 and Suicide—Aristonicus strangled, Thousands crucified and 
 the Cause Lost—Old Authors Quoted. Page 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 ENORMOUS STRIKE AND UPRISING IN SICILY. 
 
 Ssoond Sicilian Labor-War— Tryphon and Athenion — Greed 
 and Irascibility Again Grapple—The War Plan ol Salvation 
 Repeated by Slaves and Tramps—Athenion, another remark¬ 
 able General Steps Forth—Castle of the Twins in a Hideous 
 Forest—Slaves goaded to Revolt by Treachery and Intrigue 
 
of a Politician — Rebellion and the Clangor of War — Battle 
 In the Mountains—A Victory for the Slaves at the Heights 
 of Engyon—Treachery of Gaddaeus the Freebooter—Decoy 
 and Crucifixions—Others cast Headlong over a Precipice— 
 The Strike starts up Afresh at Heraclea Minoa—Murder of 
 Clonius a rich Roman Knight—Escape of Slaves from his 
 Ehrgastulum —Sharp Battles under the Generalship of Salyius 
 —Strife rekindles in the West—Battle of Alaba—The Pro- 
 praetor punished for his bad Administration—Victory Again 
 Wreathes a Laurel for the Lowly—A vast Uprising in West 
 ern Sicily—Athenion the Slave Shepherd—Another Fanatical 
 Crank of Deeds—Rushing the Struggle for Existence—Fierce 
 Battles and Blood-spilling—What Ordinary Readers of His¬ 
 tory have not heard of—Fourth Battle; Triokala—Meek 
 Sacrifices by the Slaves, to the Twins of Jupiter and Tha¬ 
 lia—March to Triokala—Jealousy—Groat Battle and Car¬ 
 nage—Athenion Wounded—He escapes to Triokala and re¬ 
 covers—Fifth Battle—Lucullus marches to the Working¬ 
 men’s Fortifications—Battle of Triokala—The Outcasts Vic¬ 
 torious—Lucullus is lost from View—Sixth Battle—Servili- 
 us, another Roman General Overthrown—The Terrible 
 Athenion Master of Sicily and King over all the Working- 
 People—Seventh and Final Field Conflict—Battle of Macel- 
 la—Death of Athenion—Victor this Time for the Romans- 
 End of the Rebellion—Satyros, a powerful Greek Slave es¬ 
 capes to the Mountains with a Force of Insurgents—They 
 are finally lured to a Capitulation by Aquillius who treacher¬ 
 ously turns upon, and consigns them as Gladiators to Rome 
 —They fight the Eighth and last Battle in the Roman Am¬ 
 phitheatre among wild Beasts—A ghastly mutual Suicide— 
 The Reaction—Treachery of Aquillius Punished—The Gold- 
 Workers pour melted Gold down his Throat. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 THE IRASCIBLE PLAN TESTED ON AN 
 ENORMOUS SCALE. 
 
 Risk, Vicissitudes and Fall of a Great General—The Strike of 
 the Gladiators—Grievances that led to the Trouble—Growth 
 of Slavery through Usurpation of the Lund by the arrogant 
 Optimates—What is known of Spartacu* before being Sold 
 
XXX 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS . 
 
 into Slavery—Bolt of the 78 Gladiators from the Ergastulum 
 of Lentulus at Capua—Escape of the Ranavvays—How they 
 seized Weapons—Vesuvius—First Battle—Battle of the Cliffs 
 —Rout of Clodius—Second Battle—Destruction of a Pneio* 
 rian Army—Battle of the Mineral Baths—Great Increase of 
 the Rebel Force—From a petty Strike it assumes the Propor¬ 
 tions of Revolution—Fourth Battle; Hilt to Hilt with Var- 
 inius—Destruction of the Main Army of the Romans—Win¬ 
 ter Quarters of Spartacus at Metapontem—Honor, Discipline 
 and Temperance of the Workingmen—Proofs by Pliny and 
 Plutarch—Coalision with the Organized Laborers of Italy— 
 Uses of Gold and other Ornaments Forbidden—Wine Ban¬ 
 ished—Great Numbers Employed in the Armories of Sparta¬ 
 cus—Fifth Battle—Battle of Mt. Garganus—Ambuscade of 
 Arrius—Overthrow and Death of Orixus—Sixth Battle— 
 Spartacus Destroys the Consular Army of Poplicola—Sev¬ 
 enth Battle—Great Conflict of the River Po—Overthrow of 
 Cassius and Defeat of the 10,000 Romans—Spartacus, now 
 Master, assumes the Offensive—Eighth Battle—Lentulus De¬ 
 feated ; Great Army nearly annihilated—Mortification and 
 Terror of the Romans—Ninth Battle—Mutina—Proconsul 
 Ca ssius again Routed in a Disastrous Conflict with the wary 
 Gladiator—Spartacus now obliged to contend with the De¬ 
 mon of Insubordination—Crassus elected Consul—Reverses 
 Begin—On down to Rhegium—Sedition, Treachery Betray¬ 
 als—Workingmen’s own Jealousies, Insubordination and Lack 
 of Diplomacy cause their final Ruin—Tenth Battle—Scaling 
 of the Six-Mile Ramparts by Spartacus—Battle of Croton— 
 Destruction of the Seceders, Granicus and Castus—Obstinate 
 Fighting—Spartacus arrives and checks the Carnage—Pe- 
 telia, the Eleventh Battle—Victory—Twelfth Battle; Silarus 
 —Last and most Bloody Encounter—Spartacus, stabbing his 
 Horse, Rushes sword drawn, in search of Crassus—Heaps 
 of the slain—Dying like a King—End of the War—The great 
 Supplicium —Pompey and Crassus, emulous of meagre Hon¬ 
 ors—Inhuman Cruelties—Awful Wreaking of Vengeance on 
 the Cross—Dangling Bodies of 6,000 Crucified Workingmen 
 along the Appian Way—Thousands of Others crucified—Ut¬ 
 ter Failure of tL# Irascible Plan of Deliverance Pag* 27o 
 
 CHAPTER XH J - 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 ROME’S ORGANIZED WORKINGMEN AND WOMEN 
 
 (>Roajraci.noN OP the Fbeedmem—T he Jus Coeundi —Roman Du- 
 
XXX l 
 
 CO V TL V T ,8 07 (1 17/ i PTE PR. 
 
 ions—The Collegium —Its Power and Influence—What the 
 Poor did with their Dead—Cremation—Burial a Divine Right 
 which they were too Lowly to Practice—Worship of bor¬ 
 rowed Cods—Incineration or Burial and Trade Unions com¬ 
 bined—Proofs—Clance at the Inner social Life of the ancient 
 Brotherhoods—State Ownership and Management—Nation¬ 
 alized Lands—Number and Variety of Trade Unions—Strug¬ 
 gles—Numa Pompilius First to Recognize and Uphold Trade 
 Unions—Law of the 12 Tables taken from Solon—Harmony, 
 Peace, Ease, steady Work, Prosperity and Plenty Lasting 
 with little Interruption for 500 Years—Bondmen fared worse. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Page 333 
 
 LAWS AGAINST COMMUNES. 
 
 THE GREAT ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 Ancient Federations of Labor— How they were Employed by 
 the Government— Nomenclature of the Brotherhoods—Cat¬ 
 egories of King Numa—Varieties and Ramifications -The 
 Masons, Stonecutters and Bricklayers—Federation for Mu¬ 
 tual Advantages—List of the 35 Trade Unions, under the 
 Jus Coeundi. Page 359 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 ORGANIZED ARMOR-MAKERS OF ANTIQUITY. 
 
 Trade Unions Turned to the Manufacture of Arms and Muni¬ 
 tions of War—How it came about—The Iron and Metal 
 Workers—Artists in the Alloys—How Belligerent Rome 
 was Furnished with Weapons, Shoes and Other Necessa¬ 
 ries for Her Warriors—The Shieldmakers, Arrowsmiths. 
 Daggermakers, War-Gun and Slingmakers, Battering-Ram- 
 makers etc.—Bootmakers who Cobbled for the Roman Troops 
 —Wine Men, Bakers aud Sutlers—All Organized—Unions 
 of Oil Grinders; of Pork Butchers; even of Cattle Fodderers 
 —The Haymakers—Organized Fishermen—Ancient Labor 
 brought charmingly ^ear by Inscriptions. Page 372 
 
rxxii 
 
 CONTENTS OE CHAPTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 •e 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 THE GREAT TRADES VICTUALING SYSTEM. 
 
 How Rome Was Fed— Unions of Fishermen— Discovery of a 
 Strange Inscription at Pompeii, Proving the Political Power 
 and Organization of the Workingmen and Women’s Unions 
 —Female Suffrage in Italy—The Fish Salters—Wine Smok¬ 
 ers—Union of Spicemen—The Game-Hunters’ Organizations 
 —Unions of Amphitheatre-Sweepers—Unions of Wagoners, 
 Ox-Drivers, Muleteers, Cooks,Weighers, Tasters and Milkmen 
 —The Cooking Utensil-Makers—Unions of Stewards—Old 
 Familiar Latin Names, with Familiar English Meanings Re¬ 
 produced—Gaius aud the Twelve Tables—Numerous Notes 
 with References to Archaeological Collections and to Histories 
 Giving Pages and many Necessary Renderings, of the Ob- 
 scure Curiosities Described. Page 38° 
 
 CHAPTER XVIP 
 
 INDUSTRIAL COMMUNES 
 
 AMUSEMENTS OF OLD. UNIONS OF PLAYERS 
 
 The Collegia Sc^nicorum —Unions of Mimics—Horrible Mim¬ 
 ic Performances in Sicily—Bloody Origin of Wakes—Unions 
 of Dancers, Trumpeters, Bagpipers, and Hornblowers—The 
 Flute Players—Roman Games—Unions of Circus Performers 
 
 _Oi Gladiators—Of Actors—Murdering Robust Wrestlers 
 
 for Holiday Pastimes—Unions of Fortunetellers—Proofs in 
 the Inscriptions—Ferocious Gladiatorial Scenes between the 
 Workingmen and Tigers, Lions, Bears, and Other Wild Beasts 
 made compulsory by Roman Law. Pag* 401 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 THE ANCIENT CXOTHING-CUTTERS. 
 
 How the ancients W ERE olothed —The Unions of Fullers—Of 
 
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS 
 
 xxxiii 
 
 Linen Weavers, Wool-carders. Cloth-combers—Inscriptions 
 as Proof—Later Laws of Theodosius and Justinian Revised 
 —Government Cloth Mills—What was Meant by Public 
 Works—WHio managed Manufactures—The Dyers—Old- 
 fashioned Shoes of the Forefathers—How made—Origin of 
 the Crispins—The Furriers’ Union—Roman Ladies and 
 Fineries of Fur—The great Ragamuffin Trade—Their In¬ 
 numerable Unions—Ragpickers of Antiquity—Origin of 
 the Cenciajuole—Organization of the Real Tatterdemalions 
 Origin of the Gypsies—Hypothesis. 415 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 THE PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN IMAGE-MAKERS. 
 
 Organizations of People who worked for the Gods— Big and 
 little Godsmiths—Their Unions object to the New Religion 
 of Christianity because this, originally Repudiating Idol¬ 
 atry, Ruined their Business—Compromise which Originated 
 the Idolatry in the Church of to-day—The Cabatores— 
 Unions of Ivory Workers—Of Bisellarii or Deity-Sedan- 
 Makers—Of Imagemakers in Plaster—The Unguentarii or 
 Unions of Perfumemakers—Holy Ointments and the Unions 
 that manufactured them—Etruscan Trinketmakers— Book¬ 
 binders— No Proof yet found of their Organization.Page428 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 TRADE UNIONS CONCLUDED. 
 
 THE TAX-GATHERERS. FINAL REFLECTIONS. 
 
 Unions of Collectors—A Vast Organized System with a Uni¬ 
 form and Harmoniously Working Business—Trade Unions 
 under Government Aid and Security—The Ager Publicus 
 of Rome—True Golden Age of Organized Labor—Govern¬ 
 ment Land—A prodigious Slave System their Enemy— 
 Victims of the Slave System—Premonitions on the Coming 
 of Jesus —Demand by His Teachings for Absolute Equality. 
 
 Page 437 
 
«xIt 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 ROMANS AND GREEKS. 
 
 THE COUNTLESS CO] 
 
 
 [UNE& 
 
 Unions Of Romans and Greeks compared—Miscellaneous Soci¬ 
 eties of Tradesmen—Shipcarpenters—Boatmen—Vesselmak- 
 ers—Millers—Organization of the LwpanaHi —Of the Anci¬ 
 ent Firemen—Description of the Greek Fraternities— The 
 Eranoi and Thiasoi —Strange Mixture of Fiety and Business 
 —Trade Unions of Syria and North Palestine — Their Offi¬ 
 cers— Membership and Influence of Women —Large Num¬ 
 bers of Communes in the Islands of the Eastern Mediterra¬ 
 nean— Their Organizations Known and Described From their 
 Inscriptions. Pag* 
 
 CHAPTER HE 
 
 THE ANCIENT BANNER. 
 
 INCALCULABLE AGED FLAG OF LABOR. 
 
 Tn Old, Old Crimson Ensign — An Emblem of Peace and Good 
 Will to Man—Strange Power of Human Habit—Deseent ef 
 the Red Banner through Primitive Culture—White and Azure 
 the Colors of Mythical Angels, Grandees and Aristocrats— 
 Colors for the Lowly without Family, Souls or other Serapbie 
 Attributes—How the Red Vexillum was Stolen from Labor 
 —Tricks which Compromised Peace Tenets of the Flag—Tho 
 Flag at the Dawn ot Labor’s Power—Testimony of Polybius 
 —Of Livy—Of Plutarch—Causes of Working People’s Affec¬ 
 tion for Red—The Emblem of Health and the Fruits of Toil 
 —Ceres and Minerva their Protectresses and Mother-God¬ 
 desses Wore the Flaming Red—Emblem of Strength and Vi¬ 
 tality—Archaeology in Proof—Their Color First Borrowed 
 from Crimson Sun-Beams —More Light and less Darkness— 
 White and Pale Hues for the Priests—Origin of the Word 
 “ FLAG*—It is the Word-Root of M Flame” a Red Color- 
 Proofs Quoted—Mediaeval Banner in France and England— 
 The Red of All Modern Flags Borrowed from that of the An¬ 
 cient Unions—Disgraceful Ignorance if Mederm Prejudice 
 end Censure. 
 
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 
 
 m? 
 
 Evidenc« showing that the Early Christians were Members 
 —Testimony of Philo—Of Eusebius—Facts Belated by One 
 of the Fathers—A Full Rendering—Numbers and Ways oi 
 the Secret Orders in and about Canaan at the Time of Christ 
 —The Secret Order of Eranists—Inscriptions deciphered by 
 Bockh and other Masters—Tertulian’s Evidence—Community 
 of Goods—The Eranistes and Thiasotes —Great Numbers of 
 Secret Societies in Asia Minor and Syria. Page 276 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 PALE STI N E; 
 
 HER PRE-CHRISTIAN COMMUNES. 
 
 Cradle of a Mighty Reform — Acquisitiveness and Concupiscence 
 in open Conflict with Irascibility and Sympathy—A new An¬ 
 alysis of the Origin of the celebrated Movement in Judaea— 
 Communes of Palestine—Boundaries between the Lowly of 
 Phoenicia, Judaea, Greece and Rome, Unrecognized—Num¬ 
 bers of the Organized About the Cradle of the Saviour-Diffi¬ 
 culty of comprehending the true Import of the Judaic Idea 
 in that Movement—Argument and Inscriptions Showing it 
 to have been the Result of a long Line of Culture, Organiz¬ 
 ation and Experiment Page 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE FINAL REVIEW. 
 
 ANCIENT PLANS OP “ BLESSED” GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Why tee Facts were Suppressed and the Books Mangled—Did 
 our Era rise out of the Great Labor Struggles—An Aston¬ 
 ishing Probability Unmasked—Plants and Plans of the Dis¬ 
 tant Past—Lycurgus—Reverential Criticism—His Funda¬ 
 mental Error—The Citizens were the Nobles—Public Lands, 
 Meals, Schools and Games—The Grotto of Taygetus—“Hell 
 Paved with Infants’ Bones”—A Model Young Gentleman— 
 
exxvi 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 
 
 His Introduction to the Ladies—An Earthquake believed to 
 have been the Spartans ’ Punishment for Cruelty to the 
 Working People—The Poor and Lowly were called “Slave 
 Souls**-—The Great Aristotle’s Curse—Lucian’s Choice of a 
 Trade—Even Plutarch Lampoons Them—Kings Planting 
 °oisons with which to Destroy Them—Prophets and Mes- 
 iahs—Eunus the Prophet of Antioch—His Plan of Salvation 
 —No Quarters—Wholesale Extinction of theWealthy—What 
 Succeeding Ages Learned from the Outcome of this Ordeal 
 of Carnage—Plans of the Anarchists Taught Needful Lessons 
 on Future Political Economy—Drimakos—His Home of Run¬ 
 away Angels in the Skies—How his Plan Worked—Desper¬ 
 ate Plan of Aristonicus in Asia Minor which offers the Toilers 
 the Beatitude of being “ Citizens of the Sun *—Sad Outcome 
 —Innocent Plan of Spartacus—His Ideal ‘ ‘ Salvation” was 
 his Emancipation Proclamation and Armed Power to Enforce 
 It—He Wanted to Go Home to the Green Hills of His Boy¬ 
 hood—All these Plan-Makers were Messiahs and Prophets— 
 “The Kings Kill the Prophets”—The Great Messiah at Last 
 —Long-Smothered Authors Dragged forth—Their own Ut¬ 
 terances Quoted in the Living Tongue—Numerous Excerpts 
 from their Books—Men Growing Wise in Their Understand¬ 
 ing—The Yastness of the Revolution from the Pagan Cult 
 which Denied the Majority Both Soul and Liberty, threw the 
 Race into Bewilderment of Two Thousand Years of Trial 
 and Doubt—Plans of the Founders of Government Reviewed 
 ■—Resemblance of Socrates and Jesus—Paralellisms Drawn 
 —One Agitates by Simile the other, Allegory—Proof that 
 they were Both Great Orators—Their Eloquence—Teaching 
 Precepts that are just Becoming Applicable—The Intellect¬ 
 ual Stagnation in after Ages a Natural Consequence upon a 
 Revolution that Overturned the Great Pagan Cult—The Mo¬ 
 hammedan Rescue—London’s Socialism from Same Old Plant 
 —What two Men Did in Twenty-five Centuries—Pagan Self¬ 
 ishness Exhibited in Prayers—Very Ancient Prayers off Our 
 Germano-Ary an Mothers and Fathers—Specimens Quoted— 
 Prayer of Alcestis—Of Other honest Pagans—All Based upon 
 Self and Family—Prayer of Socrates to Pan for More Wisdom 
 and Humility—Prayer of Juvenal for the Poor Slave’s De- 
 live?’ance—Finally, after many Centuries, the Dying Prayer 
 Begged the Pan of Socrates or Universal Father for Universal 
 Cancellation, to fit the World for a New Era—The Relation 
 of tho Jews to the Labor Movement—The Romans, Mad at 
 the Spread of the Christian Doctrines of Universal Equality 
 Take Vengeance in the Slaughter of the Jews—Progress o£ 
 Ancient Invention—The Labor-saving Reaper -Conclusion 
 
THE ANCIENT LOWLY. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 TAINT OF LABOR 
 
 TRAITS AND PECULIARITIES OE RACES. 
 
 Gbievance of the Working Classes—The Competitive System 
 among the Ancients—Growing Change of Taste in Readers 
 of History—Inscriptions and Suppressed Fragments more re¬ 
 cently becoming Incentives to Reflecting Readers who Seek 
 them as a Means to secure Facts—No true Democracy - No 
 primeval Middle Class known to the Aryan Family—The 
 Taint of Labor an Inheritance through the Pagan Religio- 
 Political Economy. 
 
 Students of history appear to be of three distinct 
 classes: first, those who examine it to enjoy the stir¬ 
 ring scenes of war and the exhibit that it makes of pop¬ 
 ular pageant, pomp and military genius; secondly, those 
 who examine it with an object of gleaning facts regard¬ 
 ing spiritual, ecclesiastical and other matters of reli¬ 
 gion; and lastly those who search for recounted deeds as 
 well as clues to tenets of social movements among man¬ 
 kind. In this last, there has been an increasing interest 
 since the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Among the precious obscurities sought by our genera¬ 
 tion are historical fragments, obscure hints and allusions 
 and queer palatographs on tablets of bronze, stone, earth¬ 
 enware and other objects, containing inscriptions, symbols 
 and emblems, even rules showing the existence of labor so¬ 
 cieties all through the past civilization. Especially is re¬ 
 search quickened in the hearts of a certain class of anti¬ 
 quaries who are interested in the search of history, for its 
 social phases. 
 
88 
 
 RAGE PECULIARITIES. 
 
 It is evident from all clues obtainable that in the open 
 world there has never existed a social government. Ef¬ 
 forts have been made to prove that mankind at various 
 intervals and at various points, once enjoyed conditions 
 of life based so radically upon democratic laws as to re¬ 
 semble those now advocated; but such examples do not 
 bear the test of rigid investigation. Although there have 
 existed republics and paternal governments they have 
 been so tinged with patrician leadership on the one hand 
 and patriarchal dictatorship on the other, as to render it 
 impossible to compare them with the socialism now advo¬ 
 cated, where the lowly ascend and the lordly descend, to 
 unite on a common level. The deep aim of these great 
 struggles of our age known as the labor movement is to 
 acquire and to enjoy complete and lasting co-operation. 
 This co-operation, or brotherhood of life economies is ex¬ 
 pected to be not only political but economical, changing 
 both the government and the methods of creating ana 
 dispensing the means of life, from the competitive into 
 the purely democratic or co-operative. A practical adop¬ 
 tion of this mutualism by any tribe or branch of the hu¬ 
 man family has probably never yet occurred and never 
 has such a state of things existed except among those se¬ 
 cretly organized, of whom we propose to treat 
 
 All the evidences combine to prove that the only meth¬ 
 od societies have ever yet used, either in political or in 
 economic life, is the competitive one; and as the change 
 from the purely competitive into the purely co-operative 
 involves little less than revolution, or to say the least, in¬ 
 troversion, it becomes a study of gravest importance. 
 In the remote past so meagre was the co-operative and 
 so potent the competitive that there existed no interme¬ 
 diary classes and conflicts were common in consequence. 
 Roscher thinks that middlemen are an indispensable el¬ 
 ement to peace; and it seems evident that his opinions 
 are not without grounds, when applied to every stage of 
 the competitive system in all known ages of the world. * 
 
 i Principes cT ficomomit politique, Paris, 1867, pp. 1T6-6. ”Tant qa 1 !! exis ts 
 ent re las riches et lea paavres one clsse interm6dlalre considerable, l’lnflusoof 
 
 morale qu’elle exerce suflit pour empecher une collis ou”. 
 
TA WNING ABYSS BETWEEN RICE AND POOR . 39 
 
 Glimpses of evidence reward tlie researchers into the 
 early history of the laboring masses by establishing the 
 fact that there primarily existed no middle class. But 
 we find great numbers of freedmen or plebeians as early 
 as 700 years before Christ. Men were originally divided 
 into lords and servants. There were masters and there 
 were slaves. The chasm between these two was an emp¬ 
 ty pit so wide that no leap from one class to the other 
 was considered either practicable or imaginable. As late 
 as the sophists there appears a pronounced aversion to 
 wage taking, especially in all business having for its ob¬ 
 ject educational results. Plato abhorred a sophist who 
 would work for wages. Public servants in the instruc¬ 
 tion of philosophy and other branches of what was then 
 an ordinary education, ,were despised when they allowed 
 themselves to belittle their manhood and their calling by 
 this ignoble pay. Plato received gifts from the rich but 
 refused pay. He was a patrician or peer. A statesman 
 of to-day who receives gifts and is not content with his 
 salary is regarded with distrust and aversion, almost as 
 great as that against wages in ancient times. One can ac¬ 
 count for this metamorphosis of ethics only in the com¬ 
 parative absence in those days of labor among patricians 
 or managers. Although free mercenary soldiers were 
 common who took wages for their recompense, and free 
 hucksters and other petty dealers were known to exist, 
 yet most labor of cultivation, of building, of housekeep¬ 
 ing and a considerable amount of the labor of mechanics 
 was performed by slaves. 
 
 The law of Moses had partly abolished slavery among 
 the Hebrews as early as B. 0. 1400, probably on account 
 of the contempt for that degradation which the Hebrews 
 felt, after the deliverance from their protracted slavery 
 in Egypt. It appears that the Hebrews were the chief 
 originators and conservators of what is now known and 
 advocated in the name of socialism; and their weird life, 
 peculiar language, laws, struggles and inextinguishable 
 nationality scintillate through many of the obcurities of 
 history in a manner to command the wonder if not the 
 awe of all lovers of democratic society. Especially does 
 this remark apply when we consider the intensely and 
 
40 
 
 ANCIENT GRIEVANCES OF LABOR. 
 
 bitterly opposite character of every other community or 
 nationality with which the Hebrew race has ever come in 
 contact. 
 
 The Hebrew people were the Congregation and the 
 place where they assembled was called the Tabernacle. 
 The Pentateuch that records the great Jewish law, quite 
 sufficiently explains that absolute liberty, or relative soci¬ 
 alization was the law of Moses. 2 Under no other code of 
 laws have equal rights of man with man been possible 
 among other contemporaneous nations or tribes; because 
 the ethics of the family, the city or state, were grounded 
 upon the competitive rather than the co-operative or mu¬ 
 tual principle. 3 Nearly all the ancients were fighters. 
 The Hebrew branch of the great Semitic family stems to 
 have been a partial exception. It is true that they had 
 wars and competed with outsiders; but their peace-lov¬ 
 ing traits within their own ranks, prevailed over warlike 
 ones, probably somewhat as a result of their long captiv¬ 
 ity in Egypt, but principally from the peaceful and hu¬ 
 mane code of laws which they received from Moses. But 
 it appears very certain that J ewish monotheism, together 
 with the social or mutually protective habits of this peo¬ 
 ple and their comparatively mild laws made them the ob¬ 
 ject of hatred among the more competitive and conse¬ 
 quently fiercer nations with whom they came in contact. 
 
 It is not then, from this Semitic branch of the human 
 family that our struggling, warlike and competitive char¬ 
 acteristics are derived. A close observation of the He¬ 
 brews discloses that although they were often engaged 
 in strifes it was generally because attacked. The aggress¬ 
 iveness which characterizes mankind springs not from 
 the Semitic so much as from the Aryan germ. 4 Two dis¬ 
 tinct ideas have been contended for from the dimmest re¬ 
 moteness either of the provable or the conjectural history. 
 One is the co-operative, which means the mutually pro¬ 
 tective or socialistic, the other the competitive or warlike 
 and aggressive. 
 
 * Leviticus, xlx. Mann’s History of Ancient and Mediaeval Republics, pp. 
 
 a Fustel de Coulanges. Cit6 Antique, Chap. i. Crovances sur l’arne et sm 
 la mort. 
 
 4 The Phoenicians are excepted frcm this remark. 
 
A GREAT POWER UNRECOGNIZED. 
 
 41 
 
 Through thousands of ages men have vigorously con¬ 
 tended for these antipodal results, especially in Europe. 
 They have contended for them through religious beliefs, 
 through social inculcation and philosophy, through rig¬ 
 id scholastic training, and through the most implacable 
 hatreds, bloody persecutions and race-wars ever recorded 
 in the annals of mankind. Until we become better ac¬ 
 quainted with the history of the poor classes and divest 
 ourselves of clouds that have hitherto obscured the vision 
 of all historians; until we study the past especially the som¬ 
 ber life and strange career of the Semitic family, from a 
 standpoint of development or evolution, and analyze their 
 strangely tenacious and persistent views unbiased by 
 the views through which we are still taught to regard 
 others; until we can catch the practical advantages of co¬ 
 operation, mutually one with another and thoroughly see 
 the savage nature of competitive life, must we remain 
 blind to the true object which inspired the greatest ad¬ 
 vent of this world;—the visit and labors at Palestine and 
 the movement whose undying germs there planted the 
 world still loves and cultivates. 
 
 These words are expressed preliminarily to announcing 
 facts which have perhaps never before been observed 
 and certainly never enough considered:—that the Ary¬ 
 an or Indo-European branch of the human race has al¬ 
 ways, in private and in public life, in religion, in soci¬ 
 ety conventionalism, in methods of reasoning and in its 
 political economy, been competitive , whilst the Semitic 
 branch has ever been co-operative. For thousands of 
 years these two great families have lived over against 
 each other, sometimes mixed, sometimes by themselves, 
 have struggled and fought, have built up and tori) down, 
 each with its own inexorably fixed notions; and never 
 as we shall prove, did they show anything like a fusion 
 or even a conciliation of the two systems until three 
 hundred years after the death of Christ. They are war¬ 
 ring still; and the direct causes of this warfare as well 
 as its direct results are the great labor movements of to¬ 
 day. We hope in these pages to show that the natural 
 bent of the lowly majority of mankind is toward co-op- 
 
42 
 
 HA CE PECULIARITIES. 
 
 eration; that race hatreds ran so high that it became 
 necessary to have an Intercessor or mediator to act be¬ 
 tween the two races and their two ideas, in order to 
 bring about a mutually co-operative system under which 
 the large majorities, including working people could bet¬ 
 ter subsist. It became necessary to have this Interces¬ 
 sor not merely to arrange a religion based upon salvation 
 of the soul or immortal principle, but more likely, as our 
 train of evidence goes to prove, to introduce an organiz- 
 ahle method for the economic salvation of the downtrod¬ 
 den and realize practically the promised “Heaven on 
 earth.” 
 
 We mean by this that from the days of Moses, dating 
 something above fourteen hundred years before Christ, 
 there have existed two distinctly opposite sets of ideas or 
 of thought upon which mankind—the arrogant blooded 
 family with its competition on the one hand and the slave 
 with his rebellions, and freedman with his formidable un¬ 
 ions on the other—have been struggling to build up civil¬ 
 izations. The transition from a completely competitive 
 to a mutually co-operative system involved complete rev¬ 
 olution. The channels in which human thought has run 
 since man has been a mere animal, occupying as the the¬ 
 ory of evolution daringly asserts, a hundred thousand or 
 more of years, have, except in the case of the persecuted 
 and sometimes almost exterminated unions, been purely 
 competitive. 
 
 The competitive is the oldest system known. It is pro¬ 
 foundly aged. It is the system employed by all living be¬ 
 ings by which to procure for individuals, each for itself and 
 its species, the means wherewith to subsist. It is, with¬ 
 out the least shadow of doubt, the original. It consists 
 in methods of the individual, whether a weed, a tree, fox, 
 reptile, hawk or human being, of subsisting, as an isola¬ 
 ted creature or ego, independently of others. It has recog¬ 
 nized self as uppermost and taken upon its own respon¬ 
 sibility for others’ sake their care only for gratification of 
 self, as that manifested in preservation of species. 
 
 Back in the remote past, as reason began to dawn upon 
 creeping cave-dwellers or troglodytes of our race, when 
 
TWO ANTAGONISTICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 43 
 
 thought was inspired by suspicion and methods of subsist¬ 
 ence were based upon cunning, nature, in the vagueness 
 of his understanding was full of terrors. As he began to 
 realize the certainty of death, man established the first re¬ 
 ligion ; but it was purely upon the competitive basis, al¬ 
 ways with this aristocratical ego uppermost. 
 
 Not until uncounted ages had passed, nor until this pa¬ 
 gan religion was inconceivably old did another appear, 
 arising from the mutually protective or co-operative idea. 
 This was at so late a period that by groping back into the 
 misty past, we are enabled to know its founder and trace 
 its history. That it was an innovation, intolerably anti¬ 
 thetical to this more aged, original competition or brute- 
 force underlying and inspiring both business and religion is 
 proved by the hatreds borne against it, which have so 
 stamped themselves, not so much upon the religion as up¬ 
 on the whole race that kindled its flame, spoke its tongue 
 and cherished its ideas. 
 
 The great struggle going on to-day seems best under¬ 
 stood by the laborer. 6 Persons brought up under the 
 purely competitive system which governs human affairs, 
 see with difficulty the idea of true socialism; but the Jews 
 even of our day, grasp it with ease. We are at a loss to 
 comprehend this. Why should the two founders of the 
 labor party in Germany have arrived while young, at the 
 same conception of a method which involves a revolution 
 from the prevailing ideas of political economy ? Marx and 
 Lasselle had been born and educated under the Mosaic 
 law. Ricardo, a Jewish speculator in stocks, was brought 
 up in strict obedience to the Jewish law by his father; but 
 finding the Hebrew doctrine very adverse to his specula¬ 
 tive tendencies, notions of wages and political economy, he 
 withdrew or seceded from his ancestral religion and join¬ 
 ed the more numerous ranks of the competitive one. 6 
 
 The Mosaic Law, divested of its idiosyncracies such as 
 
 > 8m Prof. Ely’s French and German Socialisms; Chan. xIL pp. 189-203; 
 Lassalle’s Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiter Verein. Ferdinand Lassalle and Karl 
 Marx were Jews; and it is conjectured that their ease in comprehending the 
 true theories of the working people eminated from their early training. 
 
 • McCulloch, Introduction to The Life of lticardo; London, 187g. 
 
RACE PECULIARITIES, 
 
 *4 
 
 thirty-two hundred years ago, when men were simpler, 
 were suitable enough, condensed into fair English, reads 
 about as follows: 
 
 It is compulsory upon every man to stand in awe and 
 obedience before father and mother and to keep the sab¬ 
 bath. Do not turn in favor of idols nor make molten 
 gods for your worship. All sacrifice of a peace offering 
 must be offered of your own free will, and eaten the same 
 day and the next; for if any of it remain until the third, 
 it must be burned as unhallowed and abominable. 
 
 When you reap the harvests of your land, leave some 
 in the corners of the field and do not gather the glean¬ 
 ings of the harvest nor glean the vineyards. Leave some¬ 
 thing for the poor and the stranger.'* All stealing, false 
 dealing and lying, one to another are forbidden. You 
 must not swear by my name falsely nor profane it. You 
 are forbidden to defraud or rob your neighbor. Pay with¬ 
 out delay the wages agreed upon, to those whom you en¬ 
 gage to labor for you. Never ill-treat the deaf nor put a 
 stumbling block before the blind. Be careful and dis¬ 
 creet in your judgment and your word of honor, treating 
 neighbors with righteous equality. Never go about tale¬ 
 bearing among the people, nor stir feuds with neighbors. 
 To hate your brother is forbidden and to prevent him 
 from falling into error you should call his attention to 
 his fault. Abstain from revenges and grudges against 
 the people and love your neighbor as yourself. Cultivate 
 your stock after the natural law of selection. Let the 
 seed of your fields be pure. Let your garments be un¬ 
 mixed; if linen, let them be of pure linen; if wool, let 
 them be all wool. 
 
 Then follow many details minutely describing what 
 constitutes crime and what the punishment. Many of 
 the punishments, while probably in very good keeping 
 with an early and semi-barbarous age, appear to us bru - 
 tal .md distasteful in the extreme. The severe punishment 
 of death 8 visited upon all who defiled the peculiar people 
 by mixing their blood with Moloch, 9 has gone far toward 
 preserving the Hebrew stock from admixture with other 
 races of mankind. The purity with which the Jews have 
 
 1 Leviticus, xxiii. 22. 
 
 • Leviticus, xx. 2. 7. 
 
 » Leviticus, xxL 14. 
 
RELIGION AND TOIL UNAVOIDABLY MIXED. 46 
 
 thud maintained themselves amid vicissitudes, such as 
 would have swallowed up and annihilated any other fam¬ 
 ily of the human race, is readily pronounced one of the 
 most remarkable phenomena encountered in the study of 
 ethnology. The command is severe against witch, wiz- 
 zard and spirit-worship. 10 This must be partly accounted 
 for by the fact that the Egyptians, under whose domina¬ 
 tion the Jews had chafed for 400 years as slaves, were 
 among the most superstitious in their belief in, and wor¬ 
 ship of all sorts of prestigiation. Charms, incantations, 
 witchcraft and all the sleights of the wand were so pop¬ 
 ular that the art was for ages interwoven with their reli¬ 
 gion. However much we may desire to ignore all men¬ 
 tion of religion in this history of the ancient lowly, we 
 find this impossible because of the prevalence of priest- 
 power and dictum in political economy. The Hebrews 
 were the only ancients who worshiped one deity; 11 and 
 as that deity is represented to be the very one who 
 dictated the law of Moses, he would naturally be severe 
 against false gods. “I am a jealous God,” is an expression 
 often repeated in the bible; 12 and such a one in giving a 
 code of laws for the government of men would scarcely do 
 otherwise than make idolatry a crime. Immodesty also 
 receives a full share of condemnation from the great He¬ 
 brew law, which thoroughly defines 13 what constitutes 
 unrefined or immodest actions. 
 
 It is thus seen that a lofty spirit of chastity and of mor¬ 
 al purity is inculcated into all the Mosaic law. There is 
 nothing in it that binds the Jews to the practice of any¬ 
 thing Kke close community of goods. The law of Moses 
 is not communistical. Competitive methods then as now, 
 were the reigning ones. But the law was mutually pro¬ 
 tective. The condition of society to-day is toned in a 
 great measure by the practice of the demands of this aged 
 code. Nearly all of the above cited paragraphs are now 
 being obeyed by us; and they act alike, among Jew and 
 
 io Leviticus, xx. 6. Witch hanging by ©nr fore-fathers originates here. 
 
 nBy this is meant; one animate, all-powerfnl being. Ancient Heliotry and 
 other I’agan forms, most of which treated the working class with contempt 
 and cruelty as we shall show, paid homage to inanimate, representative gods. 
 
 1 2 Exodus, xx. 6. 13 Leviticus, XX. 17. 
 
RACE PECULIARITIES. 
 
 16 
 
 gentile, an effective part in keeping our civilization pure. 
 The command 14 that the people when harvesting their 
 grain and grapes, should not forget those who are less 
 fortunate, but should leave some for them, is a touching 
 rebuke to the niggardly system of these more enlighten¬ 
 ed times. One remarkable habit, that of buying and sell¬ 
 ing, owning and profiting upon slaves, even of their own 
 kindred , 16 seems inconsistent and cannot again enter into 
 practice. It also, to our critical understanding, brings 
 into severe reproach and doubt the sacred or divine au¬ 
 thorship of the law of Moses. Jesus rectified all this. 
 
 Most of the customs of the Hebrews are fixed. The 
 same rules established in Palestine thirty-two hundred 
 years ago are still adhered to. It is true that at that time 
 Judaea was a farming or pastoral country; and that the 
 Jews of to-day, having been separated by defeat and per¬ 
 secution, scattered and distributed to all portions of the 
 world, cannot continue their original pastoral and agricul¬ 
 tural vocations and so have become merchants and mon¬ 
 ey-lenders and have assumed the various methods of ob¬ 
 taining a living similarly to other people. It is also true 
 that being thus isolated, having no country, and obliged 
 to exist in the competitive world, under the competitive 
 idea, they act among outsiders competitively . 16 This they 
 do; and they do it thoroughly. 
 
 uLeviticus xix. 9, 10. is Exodus xxi. 2—8. Our object in brings 
 
 ing the Jewish question in here, is to arrange the groundwork before bringing 
 forward the great movements of the lowly, enslaved working people, who, as 
 will be seen, had not only their grievance but their distinct Plant of Salvation 
 from trouble, which they for ages followed. 
 ltiSee Millman, 'History qf the Jews. 
 
CHAPTER IL 
 
 THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 
 
 THEIR COMPETITIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 Religion and Politics of the Indo-Europeans Identical—Reason 
 for Religion mixing with Movements of Labor—The father 
 the Original Slaveholder—His Children the Original Slaves 
 —Both the Law and Religion empowered him to Kill them 
 —Work of Conscience in the Labor Problem. 
 
 History began to register facts and to throw its ear¬ 
 liest light on the actions of the human race about the 
 time that slavery began to take its leave. But enough of 
 the slave system always remained to cast its dark shad¬ 
 ows upon life. There had, previously to the historic rec¬ 
 ord and ages before the breaking up of slavery, been an 
 immense, an immeasurable period of time through whose 
 trackless swamps humanity had trod; for the weak, uncer¬ 
 tain story of a once happy reign of Neptune , 1 we are for¬ 
 ced to ignore for want of evidence. When we reflect that 
 there were freedmen or emancipated slaves two thousand 
 years before the beginning of the Christian era, and that 
 consequently the laboring classes have been struggling 
 for four thousand years, writhing out from their slave fet- 
 
 i Plato says (Laws, iv. 0, Bekk., L. ed.), that a great while before 
 cities were ever built, as is told, and daring the reign of Saturn, there ex¬ 
 isted a certain extremely happy mode of government to regnlatethe dwell¬ 
 ing of men It had all things unrestrained, yielding spontaneously It 
 
 was governed by Daemons of a diviner, more perfect race. Plutarch (Nu- 
 ma Pompilius), also speaks of such a time and states that Numa desired to 
 bring back those happy days to men. Plutarch (De Definitione Oraculonm 
 18,),' also says that Saturn slept on an island of the blessed. But it was 
 in ancient Italy, Ct. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, (Antiquitates Romance, 
 i., 34,). that the mythical Saturn and Janus chained down the god of war 
 and closed the temples against belligerency and want. The conclusion, af¬ 
 ter all our research is, that the whole story is a myth based upon the well 
 know i longings which gave shape to thousand* of Utopias and Messiahs 
 
49 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR. 
 
 ters without having yet fully succeeded, we may at least, 
 establish a basis of conjecture as to the time it required 
 for the laboring denizens of the ancient slave system to 
 grow to a conception of manhood and womanhood, suffi¬ 
 cient to break their first bonds. Of the purely slave epoch 
 which preceded the art of annals we have little but con¬ 
 jecture. There must have been a comparatively high civ¬ 
 ilization at the dawn of manumissions, where history and 
 archaeology find human society and begin gracefully to 
 transmit to us its deeds. An inconceivable space of time 
 must have intervened. Let us attempt to make history 
 for the laboring classes from conjectural data in order 
 to connect the link binding the known with those dark 
 abysses of the unknown in antiquity. 
 
 The supposed original cradle of the Aryan family from 
 which comes the Caucasian or Indo-European type, is 
 Central Asia. Greeks and Romans were Aryan Europe¬ 
 ans; Arabs or Ishmaelites, Jews or Hebrews, and Phoeni¬ 
 cians belonged to the Semitic family. We have already 
 seen that the Semitic races, especially the Jews, were us¬ 
 ing a low and very imperfect and unsatisfactory form of 
 the co-operative ideal in place of the Pagan or purely 
 competitive one, as a basis upon which to build their so¬ 
 ciety and their civilization. The Aryans, especially the 
 Greeks and Romans on the contrary, built their society 
 and their civilization upon the extreme competitive idea. 
 The one ever was and is, mutual, interacting, loving, char¬ 
 itable, rigidly reverential and non-destructive; the other 
 fierce, warlike, excessively egoistic, combative and destruc¬ 
 tive. Both brave, lofty, intelligent, capable, and suscep¬ 
 tible of a higher development of physical type and of 
 intellectual culture than any other branches of the hu¬ 
 man race . 2 
 
 It appears from all the evidences that the first form of 
 society was that of masters and slaves.* The extreme 
 
 2 Under the ancient idea, religion which governed political aa well aa 
 private habits, was exclusively based upon man-worship. Zeus or Jupiter 
 was a man god. Daemons or Lares were dead men, imagined, all through 
 Pagan times to be still influential for good or evil. Cf. Pausaniaa, Descip - 
 lio Grcecice, v. 14. At Olympia the first two prayers were offered at the 
 focal lire, always burning in honor of these dead men and of Zeus. 
 
 sGranier de Cassagnac, Histoire des Classes Ouvribrss et des Classes 
 Bourgeoises, Chaps, iii. iv. V. 
 
ORIGIN OF BONDAGE. 
 
 49 
 
 lowliness of the laboring man’s condition at that remote 
 period can easily be imagined when we consider that all 
 the children of the aristocratic household except the old¬ 
 est son bom of the real wife and legal mother, were to¬ 
 tally unrecognized by law. All except this heir, were 
 originally slaves. In fact this was the origin of slavery. 
 The first human law was, long before being written, a law 
 of entailment upon primogeniture. When the patrician 
 or owner of the property, which in those times, mostly 
 consisted of lands, died, the property did not fall to the 
 children or by testament, as is now the case. It fell to 
 the oldest male child. No other person of that house¬ 
 hold had any claim upon it. The deceased father may 
 have had many other children, but these became subjects 
 to the manor; and frequently they were very numerous . 4 
 
 This eldest son and inheritor was, by usage of that 
 day, obliged to bury his father within the house or court 
 and worship him as a god. The original workingman was 
 not even a citizen . 6 There is no lack of testimony regard¬ 
 ing this curious custom which was really the religion 
 and the rule or groundwork upon which stood the anci¬ 
 ent competitive regulation of labor. Let us now trace 
 this new family in order to get at the origin and perpet¬ 
 uation of human slavery. 
 
 There being in primitive ages no power as now exists, 
 behind this new heir and administrator or despot of the 
 paternity, he easily becomes an absolute lord or monarch. 
 To make this unjust and wonderful civilization appear 
 more comprehensible and home-like, we may assume fa¬ 
 miliar names. A rich farmer, one who has inherited his 
 property from his father, dies, leaving many children, 
 
 4 Fustel de Coulange, Citi Antique, c. vii. pp. 76—89 Droit de Success¬ 
 ion. Granier, Hist, des Classes Ouvrieres, p. 69: u Ainsi, nous pouvons 
 dire maintenant que nous avons trouv6 les premiers enclaves qui furent; 
 c 5 tstaient les enfants.” As to the great numbers in families, see Iliad, 
 XXIV. v. 496. 6. 7 ; 
 
 Ilej'Trj/covTa fioi rjaau, or’ rjhvOov vies A’^aiAr 
 EVvea/cai'Se/ca p.ev /not i^s ea vriSvo s r/ixap, 
 
 Toils aAAovs /not erucTov ivl fx.eyapoi.an yvvatKes. 
 
 So also Plutarch. Theseus, 3, says that Pallas had 60 children. Gideon 
 had 70, according to Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book V. Chapter ix. 
 Apson had 60; Jair 30 children. 
 
 & Bucher, Aufstande der unfreien Arheiter, S. 11. ‘Ter beste (antike) 
 Staat schliesst die Arheiter vom Biirgerrechte aus; und wo sie dassclbe er- 
 halten konnten, blieben sie stets eine misachtete und eindusslose Klasse.” 
 
60 
 
 INDG-EUROPEAN LABOR. 
 
 boys and girls. There may be several daughters senior 
 to his oldest son. This latter, however, because the first¬ 
 born male, comes into sole possession of the paternal es¬ 
 tate. The girls are of a sympathetic, unsuspecting na¬ 
 ture and being also less physically powerful, they make 
 little or no resistance. The boys are young; and being 
 in this tender age are, after a certain amount of struggle, 
 in shape of battles, with words and other weapons, also 
 compelled to yield. This bully moreover to accomplish 
 his purpose, also draws upon the superstition of the un¬ 
 fortunate children and hides the wickedness of his avar¬ 
 ice behind the sanctuary of religious rites over their dead 
 father who practiced the same cunning, force and craft 
 before. The bully thus originated the great law of en- 
 tailment upon primogeniture, and has never once loosen¬ 
 ed his grip to this day. 
 
 To resume our home-drawn, practical illustration of the 
 origin of this ancient law of usurpation, it may be said, 
 that not a penny can possibly fall to one of the many sis¬ 
 ters and brothers thus cast out, although they had con¬ 
 tributed their labor toward the creation of the estate. He 
 becomes the supreme ruler over the property. By vir¬ 
 tue of the arrogant law of primogeniture, ancient and 
 hallowed as the adoration of the vestal fires, this unique 
 successor becomes, without formality, the monarch. But 
 his possessorship is not confined to the ownership of the 
 real estate of the paternity. He also owns the stock and 
 fixtures thereto belonging. Among the rest of the stock 
 and fixtures are the brothers and sisters; both those who 
 are pure, or born of his own mother whose character and 
 chastity, especially in ancient times, were always beyond 
 reproach, and also those more numerous children other¬ 
 wise born.* These all fall to him also, as part of the in¬ 
 heritance ! He is monarch absolute . 1 He has become a 
 pater familias ; and as such, has the power of his father 
 before him. No law exists that can restrict his will. 
 
 «In ancient days, as shown in note 4, they were often very numerous 
 For the law giving license to concubinage, see Galas, Twelve Table*. 
 
 7 Dionysius of Halcarnassus, Archoeologia Romana, or Roman Antiquities, 
 liber II. cap. 25; Seven Essays on Ancient Greece, Oxford. 1852, p. 
 62*. “The state grave parents the power, atrocious and unnatural, to 
 kill them; he—the father—could refuse to preserve and rear hi* own off¬ 
 spring.” See likewise Aristotle, Politic, 4. 
 
THE ANCIENT COULD KILL HIS CHILD . 57 
 
 He cannot liberate bis poor slaves;—for it is an assum¬ 
 ed episode in prehistoric conditions that we are describ¬ 
 ing; it antedates the era of manumissions, although the 
 same wrongs existed long afterwards. But he can pun¬ 
 ish his own slaves—his brother, sister or his child—with 
 death. He can sell them. He can whip them and im¬ 
 pose upon them the most cruel of tortures. Tiger or 
 lamb is his option. 
 
 His religion is as aristocratical, as brutal and exclusive 
 as his economic and social policy. Unlike the mild dem¬ 
 ocracy infused into the worship of present civilizations, 
 his religion cannot tolerate even the thought that all may 
 do homage at a common shrine or adore a common Fath¬ 
 er. To allow this would be to cancel the distinction be¬ 
 tween master and slave . 8 The father of this autocrat, 
 buried under the hearthstone, has himself become the 
 only god whom this man may worship. Thus every nerve 
 is active in perpetuating, glorifying and rendering aristo¬ 
 cratic and lordly the prestige of his house . 9 The sacred 
 altar is his father’s grave over which is kept a fire that 
 is never allowed to be extinguished . 10 His own father 
 thus becomes his tutelary god and guardian, watching, 
 like a veritable spook, with a jealous eye over his inter¬ 
 ests. Should this sacred fire be extinguished, the acci¬ 
 dent is punished with an ignominious death . 11 This par¬ 
 ent-god, like the man when walking on this earth, is be¬ 
 lieved to be subject to hunger and thirst. He must con¬ 
 sequently be fed with actual food; with bread and wine, 
 butter, honey and the purest delicacies of the table. If 
 this be neglected, the propitious smiles and favors which 
 
 sFustel de Coulanges, CM Antique, chap. iv. p. 83. Here this student 
 explains the Pagan modo of sacrifice, including the whimsical old su¬ 
 perstition of the Lares, or the remains of said parent after burial, to 
 which this living heir gave offerings of food, such as milk, clarified 
 butter, wine, ect. 
 
 9 In Greek, this altar was called Bw/uo? and 'E<m'a; in Latin, Ara, 
 Focus— the focus of all thoughts, prayer, moral concern; the shrine. 
 
 10 This statement is not absolutely exact; for the fir*s were, on cer¬ 
 tain rare occasions, renovated. See Fustel, Cite Antique, p. 23, Feu sacre. 
 
 11 Centuries afterwards, when there had become many such aristocratic 
 houses, such masters as were friendly with each other, found it necessary for 
 mutual protection largely from the wrath of these very outcasts, to form 
 a city of aristocratic houses. A central city-altar or focus was adopted, 
 a central city-fire kindled and a Vigil or maiden watcher was stationed, 
 to keep its fires glowing forever. Punishment of a most horrible death was 
 i.ifiicted upon her for letting these sacred fires die out. 
 
52 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR. ' 
 
 prayer invokes, are turned, by the slighted and angry 
 ghost against the perpetrators of the negligence The 
 law of agnation or descent in the male line, rules severe¬ 
 ly in this family; and consequently the female portions 
 of it are the especial objects of the master’s power. The 
 lord himself being supreme, may commit acts of libertin¬ 
 ism such as would consign others to the punishment of 
 death. Should his wife, the mater familias, vary from 
 the rules of family regularity, it would place in doubt 
 the descent of the paternity. It would cause it to be¬ 
 come a question whether her first-born son, the inheritor, 
 were really his own and of the pure blood—the agnate. 
 Should the deception be so veiled as to escape the mas¬ 
 ter’s knowledge, there yet remains a still more terrible 
 source of disclosure. The buried gods themselves, om¬ 
 nipotent and omniscient, jealous and disturbed, feeling the 
 dignity of their noble line defiled , 12 their august preroga¬ 
 tives encroached upon by a pretender who might in turn 
 at death usurp the beatitudes of the penates 13 and the 
 holy altar, are aroused. Conscience in the guilty mother 
 becomes too galling to permit of life’s longer endurance 
 and death must be the consequence after the confession, 
 and the error rectified by the destruction of the intruder. 
 Here is the key to that extraordinary tenacity of ancient 
 ladies in wedlock with the noble or gens families, to vir¬ 
 tue . 14 The Lares , or redoubtable ghosts, are, as we now 
 begin to understand, charged with the office of chastizing 
 such criminals ; also of watching all the thoughts, words 
 and deeds going on in the sacred penetralia— penates —of 
 the living lord’s household. So egotistical and selfish is 
 this religious culture that none but the family can pray 
 at that altar and no one can be prayed for except mem¬ 
 bers who have been in high standing. A thing so degrad¬ 
 ed as a being compelled to subsist by labor has no place 
 there, no family, no shrine. Family initiation made it worse. 
 
 But we have only entered upon the description of this 
 despot. His most revolting attributes are yet to be put 
 into history. All the creatures of his household, with 
 
 12 Prom this maybe traced the origin of blood-distinctions still boasted 
 of and tenaciously cultivated; in dynasties, as divine right • in families, as pres¬ 
 tige. The horror against this sin was inexpressible; and a liason with one 
 of the outcasts rendered the crime trebly hepions. 
 
 is See Livy’s Lay of Lua-etia. 14 Plutarch, Qucestiones Romance, 51. 
 
ORIGIN OF FRIESTCRAFT. 
 
 53 
 
 the exception of the noble mother and her first-born male 
 child, are slaves . 16 They may be, as we have said, broth¬ 
 ers and sisters, or even children born to amorous coercion 10 
 of this thus privileged despot; yet they have no claim to 
 anything but his sympathies. Having no legalized rights 
 they are menials; left without education they become 
 sycophantic and unmanly. Their food is coarse. Only 
 the lord and lady of the house are entitled to wheat bread. 
 They are glad to get peas and second-rate bread . 11 Should 
 too many infants be born, a council is called and it is de¬ 
 liberated whether the little innocents shall be saved or 
 killed . 18 The children being slaves, are not supposed to 
 be supplied with a thing so dignifying as a soul . 19 The 
 most abject superstition reigns. For a slave or a strang¬ 
 er to enter the apartments of this lord, is an offense, impi¬ 
 ous and unpardonable. The lord’s own parents and an¬ 
 cestors before them for generations back, are buried un¬ 
 der this enclosure soul and body; and their jealous manes 
 or ghosts , 20 are believed to be omnipresent and on guard, 
 with power to repel or punish the sacrilege. The man¬ 
 or house is situated within the holy court. The common 
 slaves and the children constituting the true laboring ele¬ 
 ment, are taught the most extreme reverence. Should 
 they violate any of the rigorous rules they are subject to 
 punishment; if the lord of the manor wills it, with death. 
 Thus deep superstition, hard, unpaid labor, hard fare and 
 degradation are enforced by the cunning wiles of priest¬ 
 craft ; for love of profits from labor seems to originate or 
 urge ancient priest-power. This superstition is the more 
 necessarily rigorous, since lack of faith is known to be 
 dangerous, leading to sedition and rebellion. 
 
 is Fustel de Coulanges, CM Antique, I. c. i.-iv. Antiques Ci-oyances. From 
 these phenomena of the ancient family may be traced the origin of the belief 
 in ghosts, spooks, spectres, haunted abodes etc.; idem, pp. 127-30 
 
 16 Plutarch, Solon, xiii. n Horace, Epistolce, lib. II. Epist. i. v. 123; 
 “Vivit siiiquis et pane secundo ” Poor fare for labor continued late. Of 
 course, where much harmony and love existed the despot could be generous. 
 
 is This practice held good among the Dorians even after Greeks began 
 to acquire the art of making historical records. See Plutarch, Lycurgm, xvi. 
 
 i9IIomer, Odyssey, lib, XVII, The passage here alluded to refers to a 
 comparatively enlightened period. As late as Plato, when emancipations 
 and resistance had created a middle class, it was doubted whether working- 
 people had all of the attributes recognized in true members of the human 
 family. Of. Plato, Rep. vi. 9; Ixxi. Laws, vi ; Homer, Odyssey, xvii. 332. 
 Plato wanted slaves and believed in the inferiority of all laborers 
 
 20 Cicero, Fro Domo ; Tusculanarum Disputatiovum Libri, I. 16; “Sub terra 
 censetant le'iquiam vitam agi mortuorum.” Eurij ides, Alcestis, 163; Hecuba. 
 
64 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR . 
 
 The lord of the estate permits of no social or religious 
 mixtures with other people or other estates. There are no 
 tenants, no neighbors, and consequently few sociabilities. 
 Egoism is so severe that little of the kind can be tolerated. 
 It is master and slave; no intermediaries. Communities 
 are unknown. Promiscuity which makes the village , 21 the 
 community, the social gathering, the free sports of chil¬ 
 dren and general merriment are interdicted by this pro¬ 
 found solemnity based upon an adoration of, and implicit 
 obedience in one central ruler; a man who is the inherit¬ 
 or; who, by virtue of this inheritance giving him power, 
 and of this egoism giving him will, assumes, as through 
 the countless ages his ancestors assumed, to be the sole 
 owner in life, and the immortal to be worshiped, caressed, 
 entreated, propitiated, glorified, after death ! 22 
 
 We have thus described, as if actually existing among 
 us at present, a scene whose stage was once this earth ; 23 
 whose unhappy actors were workingmen and women and 
 whose managers were then as now, the capitalists; a scene 
 which mankind, grace to an eternal resistance, in turmoils, 
 servile wars, and innumerable social communes, has largely 
 outgrown. It is a scene which no civilized society could 
 at present tolerate. Yet it was the almost all-prevailing one 
 among mankind of the distant past in Greece and Italy. 
 
 Lordship, therefore, was the very first condition in the 
 establishment of society; slavery its antithesis, the sec¬ 
 ond. Of the middle class occupying the great gap wide¬ 
 ly separating the lord from the slave there was none. 
 
 «i The ancient house was situated within the sacred enclosure. This enclos¬ 
 ure was divided, among the Greeks, into two parts; the first being the court. 
 The house was in the second part The sacred focus was placed near the cen¬ 
 ter of the enclosure. It was consequently at the foot of the court, near the 
 entrance of the house. The Romans had it differently, though essentially the 
 same The focus remained, as in Greeoe, in the center of the enclosure, but the 
 build ings were placed around it leaving an inner court; the walls of the houses 
 rising around it on all sides. The Greeks used to say that religion taught them 
 how to build houses. Fustel de Coulanges, Gift Antique, pp. 62—85. 
 
 22 In Greek the earia Secrnoiva, in Latin the Lar familiaris, were key-words 
 of the ancient pagan family. Etymologically this is the origin of the term despot. 
 
 23 We have not space to make copious quotations from the numerous au¬ 
 thors whose descriptions and hints we have ransacked in search of the proof 
 of this condition of ancient affairs; but recommend the doubtful to the following 
 commentators and original writers: Granier de Csssaguac, Histoire des Classes 
 Ouvri'eres dec. Chapters lii. iv v. De Coulanges, Cite Antique, passim ; to the po¬ 
 ems of Ilomer; to almost any of the voluminous works of Cicero; to the Ora- 
 tions of Demosthenes: to Orelli's Inscriptionum Collectio ; to Bockh’s Corpus Jn- 
 scriplionum Grcecarum ; to Euripides, Alcestis and especially Hecuba, passim; tc 
 Plato’s Creatiom, Protag. 30-4, Thecel. 30-2, Rep. 21 ; to Pausanias. Descriptiu Gra> 
 me ; to Macrobius, Somnium Scipionis & Saturnaliorum Libri and many others. 
 
ON THE ORIGINAL STRIKE. 
 
 55 
 
 That came later. For fully six thousand years it has been 
 growing more and more numerous until in the nineteenth 
 century it may be said to have almost filled the great cav¬ 
 ity and is now pressing in all directions to force the ex¬ 
 tinction of both those aged originals. 
 
 Theoretically, this middle or intermediary class betwixt 
 lord and menial, owner and outcast, immortal and perish¬ 
 able, is perfect; occupying the ambrosial vales of Utopia 
 where men are no longer struggling for existence against 
 despotism, ignorance and death. In theory we should sup¬ 
 pose it an altruistic state in which men looking upward to 
 wisdom and mutual love, and backward to past ignorance 
 and competitive greed and hatreds, would erect their so¬ 
 ciety and their government upon a plan wherein neither 
 lords nor menials could have law or foothold. Such would 
 be the revolution realized—the revolution that began with 
 manumissions. But practically—although many are dream¬ 
 ing of this ultimatum—we are far from it. Lords still 
 exist though with milder domination and slaves yet remain 
 though on a higher plain. 
 
 M. de Laveleye informs us that communities held lands 
 in common for the people in times past 24 and cites an 
 abundance of instances in proof; but while this may all be 
 true, it is none the less true that the original condition was 
 that of masters and slaves. Particularly was this the case 
 with the people from whose records we extract these data 
 —the Aryan race. It is the perfectly natural condition, 
 explainable in the theory of development. In the Aryan, 
 especially its Indo-European type, we see the original the¬ 
 ory of development verified; and it comes to us from pre¬ 
 historic data which philology, archaeology and reason har¬ 
 moniously combine to verify. What would man, primi¬ 
 tively a wild animal, naturally do? Would he not be just 
 like all animals? It wants only the observation of an hour 
 to note that a group of barnyard fowls, soon after being 
 put into a yard begin fighting for mastery or lordship; 
 and this conflict will not stop until the strongest, clever¬ 
 est chanticleer has mastered every adversary. This also 
 
 2 * De Laveleye, Primitve Property, pp. 137. In attempting to prove these no¬ 
 tions about primitive property, this author is confronted at the outset, with the 
 fact that he is seeking to rebut the principle of development; his village com¬ 
 munities are a late, not a “ primitive” condition. 
 
INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR. 
 
 56 
 
 must be said of a herd of cattle grazing on a common. 
 The strongest steer, after a full test of its muscular 
 forces, becomes master of the flock and remains so. 
 With perfect truth it might be further remarked that 
 should no individual of the herd be of the male gender, 
 the contest for mastery will be between the heifers ; thus 
 seeming to prove the principle of the survival of the fittest 
 without any reference to the instinct of perpetuation of 
 species. Even plants, in their struggle for existence are 
 constantly in the competitive field, warring with each 
 other—the tares rooting out the wheat—until the hand 
 of the reasoning cultivator lays low the obnoxious weeds. 
 Thus it is shown that the principle of individual ascend¬ 
 ency with its acknowledgement, is the original and nat¬ 
 ural one. It is the quiritare dominium. The law of nat¬ 
 ural selections and survival of the fittest applies without 
 the aid of reason. Naturalists who have lavished great 
 care and honest pains in search of proof of this philosophy 
 in plants, animals and men , 26 have scarcely brought their in¬ 
 vestigations to bear upon that new, almost supernal power 
 of reason, which some admit to have come later, as a re¬ 
 sult of evolution. 
 
 If we are allowed to tread the penetralia of this philos¬ 
 ophy with the eye and ear of a critic we shall find in the 
 law of natural selections the bed rock of brute competi¬ 
 tion. While beholding this with the conviction of its 
 truth and forced to admit it as the fiat of growth, we 
 shall see that it rests upon the toppling trestles of brute 
 force. We shall find that the superstructure resting 
 upon these abutments is time-worn and rotton. Its spans 
 are becoming unsafe; its planking hoof-worn; its string¬ 
 ers sway with the winds of newer things and we find our¬ 
 selves dizzy peering into the angry foam of progress be¬ 
 low. As long as there are only masters and slaves the 
 strongest brutes may survive; but when the new idea of 
 manumission arrived which was forced upon the masters 
 by the growth of population, the survival of the fittest 
 changed hands. If we accept the doctrine of natural 
 
 as We here Incorrectly place man above animals In deference to t he egoism 
 he has not outgrown. Especially is man to be considered and classed among 
 animals under the philosophy of the Attest, since this very survival la mostly 
 the result of the competitive straggle, akin to brute force and antedating tbs 
 milder forces of reason. 
 
ORIGIN OF HUMAN SYMPATHY. 
 
 57 
 
 selection based upon brute force we accept the survival oi 
 the fittest as its corollary. So long as the doctrine is so 
 based it remains undeniably true. Reason is not there. 
 
 But with the advent of reason there came also sym¬ 
 pathy, civilization, enlightenment; and these have already 
 so filled the world with mutual or altruistic sentiment that 
 the working classes of both Europe and America are now 
 combining with a determination to drive from the world 
 the whole brute force upon which the old theory is based. 
 They will not longer hear to the competitive principle 
 which holds up the shrewdest and strongest as fittest to 
 survive. They demand the extinction of competitory 
 force and insist upon equal opportunities for co-operation 
 such as will result in the survival of all. They are thus 
 ushering in the era of reason. In disenthralling their 
 species from the competitive system of the isolated in¬ 
 dividual and establishing them on the co-operative or al¬ 
 truistic system they procure the revolution. They usher 
 in the era of the survival of all and banish from the world 
 the culture of darlings, the reign of partiality, the pres¬ 
 tige of masters and the servility of slaves. But as force 
 lies at the bottom of the law of natural selections and the 
 survival of the fittest, so reason, its moral antithesis, must 
 be the bottom rock upon which the new mutualism is 
 founded. 
 
 We cannot leave this theoretical dissertation without 
 some reflections upon the ghastly immorality and the re¬ 
 turn to insatiate selfishness which this new philosophy of 
 the survival of the fittest inculcates; and must submit 
 that it not only logically inculcates an arid dreariness of 
 w ords, but has already produced and is producing wither¬ 
 ing and demoralizing effects. We shall submit that the 
 religion of Jesus, planted by a manual laborer and form¬ 
 ing the basis of hope upon which stands the great labor 
 movement of our own time has been severely attacked, 
 stamped as a calamity and trodden under foot, notwith¬ 
 standing the fact that this plan of faith has been the power 
 that openly struck the first well organized blow at the 
 system of masters and slaves and boldly championed it 
 as a principle; and in essence it has never since shrunk 
 from its prodigious task toward realizing the much con¬ 
 tested doctrine of human equality. 
 
58 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR. 
 
 Viewed from a standpoint of mere comparative strength 
 of organized muscle and brain, or of the low cunning and 
 prowess which wrench from the weak and unwary what 
 they do not contribute to produce, this theory of survival 
 is undeniably logical. But these forces are the old, orig¬ 
 inal ones and strictly belong to a period prior to the ad¬ 
 vent of a society enlightened and refined by reason. They 
 are animal and are of the ages of bullies and of clubs. 
 Why we confront such theorists is that this philosophy 
 does not keep march with the very power that gives them 
 insight into it—reason. The original state was egotist¬ 
 ical, with brutal force—forcible possession. The next was 
 arbitration, discussion, conciliation—all the struggles of 
 reason. The former occupied an immense, unmeasured 
 period of time, the latter has also had its vista of tedious, 
 unhappy ages; for since the first glimmerings of history 
 and archaeology it has numbered between four and five 
 thousand years and its millennium is still far away. It is 
 the transition period; the passage from pure brute force 
 and labor ordered by masters and performed by slaves 
 with survival of the fittest, to the pure era of reason, mut¬ 
 ual love and mutual care, with the survival of all. Such 
 is the revolution. 
 
 Whoever, therefore, at this enlightened day, forgetting 
 his reason, the very weapon he wields with which to grasp 
 his inspirations, allows this aged original, because it is 
 yet true of the beast or the plant, to usurp the domain of 
 reason self-won in the struggle of ages , 26 returns to the 
 dogma that because the survival of the fittest has been 
 true of snarling beasts, of the plants and of the club-and- 
 weapon age of men, it is also true of men in a state of rea¬ 
 son and refinement, is going backward dragging reason 
 with him into the caves of the troglodyte. 
 
 Let us glance at the moral effect upon the mind, of 
 persons in search of wealth and other means of happiness 
 natural to our lot in the competitive world. A student of 
 evolution is constrained by perusing the pages of Lucre - 
 
 26 Mr. Darwin, a thoughtful and thoroughly careful writer refrained from 
 pushing his argument on thi- subject farther than it applies to energy without 
 reason. A careful student of Darwin will perceive that he always uses the low¬ 
 er order of life as proof; such as plants, birds, fishes, and the other animals. He 
 clings to this, not venturing into the domain of the reasoning power, which is 
 alone capable to grasp the labor problem. 
 
ANNIHILATION OF CONSCIENCE. 
 
 tius, Vogt, Spencer, Darwin and others, to view man as a 
 creature without an immortal soul. Through the doctrine 
 of development as explained by Darwin, men are taught 
 to understand this perishability merely as a logical corol¬ 
 lary of the premise itself. 27 The theory carries with it 
 the irrepressible deduction that if man has an immortal 
 soul he has, himself, been the maker of it. The theory 
 from the first, assumes that he is a creature grown from a 
 long line of consequents, each an effect of causes natural 
 to this world. This is evolution. It holds that motion 
 and heat acting upon the material spread out upon this 
 earth will of themselves, generate life; and that from 
 cells or matrices of slime it calls protoplasm—the assumed 
 earliest forms of life—come shape, growth and variety, 
 some of which in time have reached as high a develop¬ 
 ment as reasoning men, Nor are these ideas confined to, 
 or the work of, the benighted and superstitious. They 
 are gaining ground among the most thoroughly respect¬ 
 able and learned ; so much so that it is already danger¬ 
 ous for the followers of the old belief upheld by Plato and 
 Moses, to criticize or compare arguments against the 
 ponderous weight and increasing multiplicity of proof in 
 its support. So irrefutable is the evidence which our in¬ 
 defatigable diggers in science have accumlated, that from 
 the timorous Hspings of a few years ago it has become 
 a creed for the army of science; and is claimed by nat¬ 
 uralists, by comparative philologists and historiographers, 
 by archaeologists and others in the field of ethnical re¬ 
 search, to be the key of the new discovery. 
 
 What then can science do for the immortal soul. ? Man, 
 certainly, away back in that night of time of which we 
 are going to write a history, while yet an animal and brute, 
 a homo troglodyticus, not yet knowing how to build a fire 
 or hardly to wield a club, could not have possessed so 
 noble and highly . developed a thing as an immortal soul l 
 Or if we can conceive this to be possible, what shall we 
 think of him during the still earlier cycles of his existence 
 in forms yet cruder and more remote 1 Further than this 
 
 a' In making these reflections we do not set up a disclaimer against the the¬ 
 ory of development. The object is to show the pernicious effect upon the mind 
 of masses, should this theory become universally acknowledged, and taught, 
 before the competitive system is superseded by the co-operative or socialistic. 
 
6v 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR . 
 
 we may in our play of fancy measure him at the dawn of 
 his development of reason, which is a faculty higher but 
 less unerring than instinct. Reason is a gift which must 
 be guided by social laws. Not having these, man must 
 have been a maniac ; either thus, or he preserved enough 
 of instinct to guide reason. The reason of a madman 
 turns to cunning. 28 Cunning, we are told, is the weapon 
 this ferocious, selfish, competing, primeval being first 
 used to work his title clear to the realms of immortality! 
 
 Thus in reading rare records of the ancient lowly we 
 cannot be too thoughtful or too careful when contemplat¬ 
 ing the subject of immortality. Though old in life’s 
 ephemeral sjian, the human race is still in the dawn of its 
 day; and the sun has yet to rise higher and illume many 
 a still dark chasm of our belief. The great aphorism of 
 Lucretius: 
 
 “Proinde licet quotvis viven lo condere saecla: 
 
 Mors fflterna tamen nilo minus ilia mane bit,” 29 
 
 though it has been parried and fought in darkness, is like 
 that of Proudhon—“La propriety c’est le vol,’’ still respect¬ 
 able ; and so long as our standard cyclopedias speak of 
 the Rerum Natura of Lucretius as the “ greatest of didactic 
 poems ” 80 even now, when the grand sun of man’s morning 
 of life has lit up all the grottoes but that of fate and ren¬ 
 dered radiant many a dark belief, just so long is it wisest 
 in us to withdraw cavil, polemic and concern from a post 
 mortem future and throw our whole religion into practical 
 doings for the improvement of ourselves upon the mortal 
 stage. But most especially are these words wise counsel 
 to all engaged in a study of the labor problem. 
 
 Such is this wonderful man, says the theorist, developed 
 from a protoplasm of slimy earth. Then up to this stage 
 he was lvithout a soul—an animal. He further developed 
 to the stage of reason—mind. Cunning must then have 
 secured foi him the boon of an immortal soul; a thing 
 
 28 Plato, Laws, vii. 14. “The boy, without being fitted by education, be¬ 
 comes ctrafty and cunning and of all wild beasts the most insolent.” Plato 
 knew the fierce nature of men and his seventh book of laws is a thoughtful code 
 of precepts for equalizing habits among the people, and punishing with means 
 in use for doing so. Plato even doubts the possibility of a soul In such wild 
 creatures. 
 
 29 Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, lib. III. 1088-9. 
 
 so American Cyclopaedia, vol. X. p. 717, ed. of 1867. 
 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SURVIVAL. 
 
 61 
 
 which most people agree in believing that the reasonless 
 animals do not possess! 
 
 This sort of speculation may appear quite innocent, even 
 popular; for such is the freedom of thought in these days 
 that men delight in catching at the gossamers of skepti¬ 
 cism. Where the danger to the moral sense arises on this 
 new philosophy, is in the fact that the revolution is not 
 yet realized. The world is still in its competitive stage. 
 Man is still combating with his blind egoism in the strug¬ 
 gle for existence, It is not altruism or mutual love and 
 care that governs his career. He is yet fighting against 
 odds for survival; and if his fitness to win the means of 
 life prove insufficient he does not survive, but perishes. 
 Knowing this, he is too ready to apply his reason in the 
 direction of selfishly actuated cunning, and thus wring out 
 a living recklessly. One thing however, has always barred 
 him from the exercise of dishonest cunning. It is con¬ 
 science. From the earliest data we find man building 
 upon conscience as the foundation of ethics. As we have 
 shown, it began with the mother’s virtue. True, it was 
 absurdly imaginative, figuring the rage of the lar famili- 
 aris in case that weird omnipotent was offended by an 
 evil deed of the living. Thus to commit an evil deed 
 used to cause conscience to fill the imaginations of men 
 with horrid appearances rising from the grave. Goblins 
 and spectres of a thousand shapes. Elfins and haunting 
 terrors appeared. Conscience was thus the origin of 
 ghosts. Conscience, even under the most aristocratic and 
 tyrannical religion, held base actions in check. Under the 
 prevailing religions of the world conscience at this day 
 holds evil doing in check. Ethics is now, as in ancient 
 times, based upon conscience. All laws are largely the 
 outcome of it. It is the inner counselor of outward 
 actions and conscience of the individual must never give 
 up its scepter so long as the competitive, egotistical state 
 dominates. When the revolution has been accomplished, 
 when society shall have arranged the getting of the means 
 of life on the mutual or co-operative plan, when it shall no 
 longer be the survival of the fittest but the survival of all, 
 when it no longer becomes necessary to fight in the cruel, 
 dreary old field of competition and the struggle for exis¬ 
 tence ceases, then we may find some vague grounds foi 
 
62 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR. 
 
 imagining our pelves no longer compelled to apply the check 
 of conscience; since wrong doing will have lost its incen¬ 
 tive. 
 
 But now, in the height of the great competitive struggle 
 when working people, goaded at the sight of their own 
 labor products falling into the rapacious hands of monop¬ 
 olies, are again on the rally and are forming the most com¬ 
 pact and extensive organizations that have yet existed; 
 just at this moment when the restraining counsels of con¬ 
 science are most needed to check and withhold what else 
 may become mobocracy, with results more furious and 
 sanguinary than the deeds of Eunus and Cleon or of 
 Spartacus and Crixius which we are going to relate, and 
 at the very moment the moral world seems riven and 
 quads before the swelling legions of aggrieved labor or¬ 
 ganizing in the struggle for existence with the multifold 
 weapons of an advanced enlightenment at their command, 
 what do we see ? 
 
 A new thing in the world. A stranger in form of a phi¬ 
 losophy which denies the immortality of the soul. A codex 
 which seeks its precedents back of religion or law, beckon¬ 
 ing into the world a totally new scheme of dialectics. In 
 denying the old belief in immortality it stamps the ancient 
 conscience; 81 for what further use has ethics or morality 
 for conscience, after the cherished hope of earning some 
 longed-for compensation in the hereafter, has been lost ? 
 
 The only conscience left to man would be that based on 
 cunning! This invites him back to the law of Lycurgus, 
 which made stealing a virtue but being caught, a crime. 
 Conscience the foundation rock of religion, ancient and 
 modern, is ground to powder by this new giant philoso¬ 
 phy 83 whose arguments seem fortified by the chemist, the 
 archaeologist, the comparative philologist, the palaeonto¬ 
 logist, the geologist and all naturalists now devoting them¬ 
 selves to labors which are to prepare for a study of etlmi- 
 
 31 We refer mostly to that moral side of conscience which has hitherto so 
 powerfully actuated and restrained men by force of belief in awards and pun¬ 
 ishments. 
 
 32 Arnobins was in great doubt on the question of immortality. Lucretius, 
 author of the celebrated didactic poem on nature, believed that the soul perishes 
 with the body. Aristotle, now known as the greatest of teachers, could never 
 promise anything to those inquiring of him on the problem of immortality- 
 Uarwin was equally silent on the subject. 
 
RELIGION A HANDMAID OF CONSCIENCE. 63 
 
 cal science. The boldest of these claim, as we liave shown, 
 that when in the long course of evolution, man, then a 
 brute but with a stature more erect and a cranial organism 
 more capacious than other creatures with which the for¬ 
 est teemed, began to experience the first scintillations of 
 reason, he exercised this new and growing gift for his own 
 advantage and to secure his own personal survival; sacri¬ 
 ficing all others for himself through prowess and strategem 
 or cunning. Conscience came later and established ethics 
 which has developed society, law and order and kept him 
 somewhat restrained. Religion is the handmaid of con¬ 
 science and both groped together up to the present time 
 inseparable—neither able to exist without the other. 
 
 Thus the new philosophy finds man. Religion rests 
 upon assumed immortality; conscience upon religion. The 
 philosophy, by proving that belief in immortality is an il¬ 
 lusion, that the soul is an etherial delusion, that with the 
 decease of body comes our eternal quietus, proves also 
 that there is no religion. The great bulwark of human¬ 
 ity, moral law, order, hope, restraint, is annihilated at one 
 stroke. Conscience, resting upon religion, 88 is also shat¬ 
 tered with it, and man goes back to his primeval cunning 
 and brutal instincts. 
 
 Now, in coloring our description of the revolution in a 
 history of the lowly, let us select an average workingman 
 who has been converted to the new philosophy as thous¬ 
 ands are—and picture the effect upon him as an agitator 
 of the labor question. 
 
 Belief in the doctrine of development is belief either 
 that man is without an immortal spirit or that through 
 his own genius and cunning he has evolved or developed 
 one out of his original beasthood, independently of an al¬ 
 mighty power. The latter is not even pretended. Con¬ 
 sequently immortality is denied. The belief also stamps 
 out religious conscience ; leaving in him the conscious¬ 
 ness that, as there is no responsibility before God—there 
 being none except insentient law which regulates the uni¬ 
 verse, the only thing to consider before the commission 
 
 •ettonscience resting on punishments and rewards for actions in the phys¬ 
 ical woiM. as effects of causes, is not here taken into consideration. 
 
64 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR . 
 
 of a deed, is caution , for safety's sake; first that the act 
 may not recoil upon himself, and second, that he be not 
 caught in it and discovered. These are affairs of cold 
 reason. Concience with its compunctious concomitants, 
 is ruled out of the affair; and rigid experimental know¬ 
 ledge, aptitude, tact, adaptiveness take its place. No mat¬ 
 ter how horrible the work to be undertaken, he is totally 
 absolved from danger of punishment if cunning enough 
 to elude the natural and the statute laws and succeed. 
 With cold reason and in cold blood he fearlessly under¬ 
 takes the deed, knowing that to succeed is to survive his 
 victim and be happy. 
 
 Lions, dogs, wolves, hyenas, vultures are constantly do¬ 
 ing this for they are in the world of competition and have 
 no conscience ; and he is not a whit above them morally. 
 Had he the restraint of religious conscience in the same 
 field of competition, he would be lifted by it above these 
 brutes. It teaches him the survival of the fittest and in¬ 
 flates his egotism with presumption that he is superior to 
 his victim. It thus unhinges the little enlightenment 
 which mutual co-operation and social interaction have by 
 great agonies of effort and with the labors of conscience, 
 sympathy and belief in immortality, brought into the 
 world. Does it indeed, threaten our civilization ? 
 
 One will say this shocking description may apply to the 
 workingman; but we think it too often applies practically 
 to the most educated. It especially applies to them; for 
 such revolting immorality seldom penetrates the ranks of 
 laborers who from remote ages of the past have been re¬ 
 ligiously inclined and rather prejudiced in favor of reli¬ 
 gion. No tale of ancient labo • can ignore its religion. 
 
 But admitting the workingman and agitator to have 
 become a convert to this philosophy, we stil] have the same 
 revolting consequences. Such consequences are now con¬ 
 stantly transpiring. The present cent iry is producing 
 some reformers who are believers in the doctrine of de¬ 
 velopment and are scoffers of religion. Few of them ex¬ 
 pect to live beyond their grave. Many have no conscience 
 regarding a future punishment, and are two honei it in 
 their earnestness when they conspire against great wrongs 
 and argue to destroy this civilization. Any person 
 
BASIS INTRODUCING THE LABOR WARS. 65 
 
 shielded from restraints of conscience by a logic which 
 poses on the dignity and grandeur of science, may guard 
 himself and his legions from detection by buckling on the 
 life-preserver of cold reason, and boxing himself into some 
 sequestered laboratory and with recondite presumption, 
 construct infernal machines. He may sally out with these 
 and if there come conflicts between him and unjust juris¬ 
 prudence or even tornadoes of destruction, it is but the 
 recoil of a philosophy that is driving men’s conscience 
 from the earth. 
 
 This lack of conscience is seen in the brutal treatment 
 of poor slaves by Damophilus to which we devote a long 
 chapter of this book. It is a want of feeling that marks 
 the social ages of the past and rightly does not belong to 
 modem days. 
 
 It were difficult to describe the terrible depression of 
 moral sentiments to which a man naturally sinks under 
 this doctrine, if really convinced by it that his own cun¬ 
 ning, aptitude and ambidexterity are legitimate forces 
 upon which he must depend for success and survival. 
 Freed from the fear of punishment beyond this life, he 
 finds that the conscience within his breast has fled. There 
 is no overliving, responsible soul and consequently no re¬ 
 sponsibility. He finds himself completely absolved from 
 any danger except that of failing in the attempt. He de¬ 
 pends entirely upon adroitness or cunning. Egotism 
 lends him faith in this; for men are enterprising and glad 
 to undertake innocent adventures and in this philosophy 
 every act is innocent which does not recoil upon its author. 
 Thus stimulated and shielded he goes back to brigand¬ 
 age and hardened to fratricide, is willing to do devil work 
 of whatever manner that promises to gratify greed, whim 
 or caprice, in cajoling the transient hour. In the com¬ 
 petitive struggle for existence, it is true, every one has 
 the same chances but the survival falls to him who pos¬ 
 sesses the most of force, tact and cunning. Keason has 
 not yet changed the moral aspects of tilings from this 
 fighting, competitive state, to the mutually co-operative 
 condition wherein all harmoniously agree to care for each 
 other as the best means of caring for themselves. This 
 great epoch is fast coming. Until its arrival men are in 
 
66 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LABOR. 
 
 the competitive, transitionary state whose progress de¬ 
 pends upon every possible advantage known in civiliza¬ 
 tion; and one of the most powerful agents for transform¬ 
 ing such into noble, sympathetic beings, and quickening 
 them into the sweet emotions of love and care, is and al¬ 
 ways has been conscience. When the time arrives that 
 reason shall have become wise, shall have massed its way¬ 
 ward individualism into collective solidarity, pruned off its 
 egotism, dressed itself in robes of charity and mutual love, 
 outgrown its benighted gropings and adapted itself to a 
 seat in the Christian temple of equality, then there will be 
 £ime for further and more scientifically investigating the 
 crowning problem of immortality. 
 
 SYWBOLS OF THE ANCIENT FARM. 
 
 From an Inscription at Ravenna; age of Caesar. 
 
CHAPTER ELL 
 
 LOST MSS. ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 TRUE HISTORY OF LABOR FOUND ONLY IN 
 INSCRIPTIONS AND MUTILATED ANNALS. 
 
 Prototypes op Industrial Life to be found in the Aryan and 
 Semitic Branches—Era of Slavery—Dawn of Manumission 
 —Patriarchal Form too advanced a Type of Government 
 possible to primitive Man—Religious Superstition fatal to 
 Independent Labor—Labor, Government and Religion in¬ 
 dissolubly mixed—Concupiscence, Acquisitiveness and Iras¬ 
 cibility a Consequence of the archaic Bully or Boss, with un¬ 
 limited Powers—Right of the ancient Father to enslave, 
 sell, torture or kill his Children—Abundant Proofs quoted— 
 Origin of the greater and more humane Impulses—Sym¬ 
 pathy beyond mere Self-preservation, the Result of Ed¬ 
 ucation—Education originated from Discussion—Discussion 
 the Result of Grievances against the Outcast Work-people— 
 Too rapid Increase of their Numbers notwithstanding the 
 Sufferings—Means Organized by Owners for decimating them 
 by Murder—Ample proof—The great Amphyctyonic League 
 —Glimpses of a once sullen Combination of the Desperate 
 Slaves —Incipient Organization of the Nobles. 
 
 The history of the lowly classes of ancient society must 
 begin with manumissions, 1 although slave labor seems the 
 most ancient. There have come to us very few traces or 
 accounts of the slaves of high antiquity. Except some 
 relics which have been found in caves, some hieroglyphs 
 carved not perhaps by themselves but by masters portray¬ 
 ing their low condition,’ we have no landmarks to guide 
 
 i Granier de Cassagnac, Hist, d/% douses Ouvrikres, Chap. v. 
 
 2 The typical strikes and uprisings of slaves do not come to ns in their dreaded 
 form except through vague, uncertain evidence, until about 600 year* befor* 
 Christ. See chapters on Strikes and Uprisings; infra. 
 
68 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR . 
 
 our groping inquiry through the long night of time which 
 lasted till the dawn of manumissions. Unlike the African 
 slaves of modern times who were the property of a class 
 of masters not of their own race or kindred, the ancient 
 slaves were, in race and consanguinity, the equals of their 
 masters; and there can be little doubt that the causes of 
 their emancipation were in many instances, their own 
 resistance to slavery. At present the laboring classes of 
 the same races we are describing—the Semitic and Indo- 
 European—are organizing in immense numbers and with 
 skill to resist the forces which modern wage servitude in¬ 
 flicts ; and it is therefore very similar to the great struggle 
 humanity passed through in ancient times, to resist the op¬ 
 pressive system under which nearly all were born. The 
 difference between the two struggles however, lies in the 
 fact that the ancient one had to deal with the lowest, most 
 debased and cruel species of subjugation which the ancient 
 religion stamped into its tenets. Both these great strug¬ 
 gles are of long duration. When the first was partly won 
 Christianity came with its doctrine of equality * and 
 brought the struggle into the open world. It went hand in 
 hand with the emancipation movement until chattel slavery 
 and its vast, aged system may now be pronounced extinct 
 throughout the civilized world. The struggle has contin¬ 
 ued ; but from emancipating chattel slavery it has shifted 
 to the enfranchisement of competitive labor. 
 
 Notwithstanding the profound learning and research de¬ 
 voted by M. de LaveleyeMn proof that the primitive con¬ 
 dition of mankind was of patriarchal form, we find that the 
 great slave system always prevailed among the Aryans from 
 whom we are the immediate descendants; and indeed he 
 sets out 5 with a confession at least that the early Greeks 
 and Romans never had any institutions of the communal or 
 patriarchal nature. Prof. Denis Eustel de Coulanges makes 
 
 « Granier, Hist, des Clasess Ouvritres, pp. 392-4; Lareleye, Primitive Prop¬ 
 erty. Introduc. to 1st ed., pp. xxvi., xxvii. xxx.. xxxl, Here M. de Laveleye 
 egain admits slavery to have been earlier than communism. 
 
 i Primitive Property, Eng. trans., pp. 7-25, chap. ii. 
 
 Idem , p. 6 . “From the earliest times the Greeks and Romans recognized 
 private property as applied to the soil and traces of ancient tribal community 
 were already so indistinct as not to be discoverable without careful study.” AI. 
 de Laveleye might better have said such traces are not discoverable at all; and 
 iudeed, the most of the instances he cites are of a comparatively recent era, the 
 probable development of resistance, thousand of years after the manumission of 
 slaves had set in as a result of their strikes and uprisings, of which we get claes. 
 
LAW OF ENTAIL AND ITS DANGERS. 
 
 69 
 
 no hesitation in saying that the Aryan religion, as already 
 described, made the first born son, by the law of entail, the 
 owner of his own children who thus became slaves. 6 Ref 
 erences to this old custom are very numerous in the an 
 cient writings. 1 Under Lycurgus 8 the Spartans tried the 
 system of communal proprietorship from the year 825 to 
 371 B, C. Although every deference was paid to the ten¬ 
 ets of the Pagan religion that this celebrated code of laws 
 established by the great lawgiver should not interfere with 
 worship, yet worship itself being interwoven with pro¬ 
 perty was seriously disturbed; because to divide amoDg 
 the people, the rabble, the profane, that which fell to the 
 god who sh pt under the sacred hearth, or to his living 
 son, seemed to be a sacrilege too blasphemous to endure. 
 The scheme fell to naught. The probable fact is, that the 
 ancient 'paterfamilias , perceiving himself robbed of his pa¬ 
 ternity, united with other patricians in similar trouble and 
 succeeded in working the overthrow of the innovation. 
 We propose to establish that these great innovations, like 
 the laws of Lycurgus and many similar attempts at reform, 
 the detailed causes of whose mighty commotions some¬ 
 times shook Rome and Greece like the eruption of a vol¬ 
 cano, were often caused by the multitudes of secret trades 
 and other social organizations existing in those ancient 
 
 davs 
 
 •/ 
 
 Historians seldom mention them. The reason for this 
 is quite clear. This disturbing element was made up of the 
 outcasts of society. How did it come about that there were 
 such outcasts? The answer to this involves a detour of 
 discovery into phenomana of evolution. Of a family of say 
 thirty persons—there exists abundance of evidence that 
 there were ofttn thirty and more persons born to one patri¬ 
 cian or lord 9 —there is but a single owner or director, the 
 first-born son. The other children and servants by pur¬ 
 chase or otherwise, are slaves. It was a crime to leave the 
 paternal estate. They might be clubbed to death for dis- 
 
 6 La Cite Antique; Leviticus, li. 4. 
 
 ■» Plato, Minos, also Servius In jEneid, v. 84, vl. 152. 
 
 sRoscher, Histoire de l’ ficonomie Politique, French tr. Paris, p. 192. “H ? 
 adopted a common property; education in common, eating in common, steal¬ 
 ing authorized, commerce interdicted, precious metals p r oscribed, land divided 
 equally among the citizens etc.” 
 
 « Granicr do L'assagnac, Hist, des Classes Ouvrilres, p. 70 
 
70 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR . 
 
 satisfaction with their lot but they must not leave or desert 
 it. That entailed certain death. In extraordinary circum¬ 
 stances they actually did leave the bondage of the paternal 
 estate and become wanderers or nomads. This was the 
 probable origin of the second estate. We mean by this 
 the freed man. Whether they obtained their freedom by 
 revolt and bloodshed, by running away from their masters, 
 or by emancipation as per agreement, makes little difference. 
 In the Asiatic races of later times mentioned by Le Play, 1 * 
 they seem to have never relinquished their allegiance to 
 some lord, patriarch or ruler. By a tenacity of habit to 
 which we shall refer, the very most ancient customs thus 
 sometimes come down to us. The power of human habit is 
 astonishing. There linger to this day, in the religion wor¬ 
 shiped by the most enlightened of mankind, many rites and 
 forms common in remote antiquity; for although the tenets 
 and the sentiment are no longer the same, the old rites 
 befit themselves to the new ideas. 
 
 Desertion from this bondage is known to have been a 
 very risky affair; because the deserter or runaway slave 
 had not only the perils of the act of desertion to run but he 
 also forfeited his right and title to the small hope of bliss 
 accorded him by the gods after death. Even at emanci¬ 
 pation the right of worship ceased, 11 and a new altar had to 
 be erected. This was in case of marriage of a daughter 
 when no one was injured or offended. But a deserter was 
 treated with terrible malignity both by the father or owner 
 and by the injured deity whose relationship in pedigree 
 or consanguinity he severed, desecrated, disgraced by the 
 blasphemous act. They had curious opinions on death ; 
 and religion to those ancient working people, was a part of 
 life. 1 * The fear of not being buried with the right of sepul¬ 
 ture was greater than the fear of death itself. 13 Although 
 comparatively no consequence was attached to a slave, yet 
 the slave himself being by lineage and byentailment a chat¬ 
 tel, evidently had some right to sepulture. Of what kind 
 
 10 Le Play, Organization of Labor, chap. i. §.9, Eng. trans., assures ns that 
 among the nomads, the direct descendants of one father generally remained 
 grouped together. They lived under the absolute authority of the mad of the 
 family, in a system of community. Some of them are living in this method still. 
 
 u Fustel de Coulanges, Cit£ Antique, chap. iii. 
 
 « Idem. chap. i. p. 12 “L'opinion premiere dcs antiques g6n6rations fnt 
 qne l’fttre homain vfvait dans le tombeau ; que 1’ &me ne se separait pas dn 
 corps «t qa’ site rsstalt flx6« 4 cette partie du sol od les ossements 6 talent sn- 
 tertfs.” 
 
CIVILIZATION OUTGROWS SLAVERY. 
 
 n 
 
 it is difficult to determine, 14 because historians who recorded 
 military deeds and legal transactions which in later days 
 were considered work for noblemen, were themselves al¬ 
 most always of noble blood and would not mention so mean 
 a thing as a slave who performed labor. This fact accounts 
 largely for the scarcity of written record in regard to labor 
 in ancient times. 
 
 Compelled by the darkness of this unwritten age of slav¬ 
 ery which must have lasted infinitely longer than seven 
 thousand years of whose events we catch an occasional 
 glimpse, we first find the great philosopher Aristotle ac¬ 
 knowledging, 16 in his startling prediction that “ slave labor 
 may become obsolete.” So again Rodbertus of our own 
 times, looking at and judging from the organized resistance 
 of laboring men, predicts that society will outgrow wages or 
 competitive slavery. 16 Here are two seemingly parallel 
 cases ; the one representing a condition of aflairs 350 years 
 before Christ, the other taken from actual conditions before 
 our own eyes, in both cases, given against the stubborn will 
 of the ruling wealthy by two of the profoundest and most 
 daringly honest philosophers the world has produced. At 
 the time Rodbertus von Jagetzow made this startling pre¬ 
 diction, Germany under Bismarck, was stifling every ef¬ 
 fort of press, legislation, trade-unions and socialists, to give 
 the dreaded fact to the world. The freedmen at the time 
 of Aristotle were forming an innumerable phalanx of com¬ 
 bined strength. It is not hard for students of sociology to 
 understand why in ancient times no mention was made by 
 historians of the wonderful organizations which then existed. 
 But for laws necessarily recorded for the use of government 
 and for the habit which labor unions of those times enter¬ 
 tained, compulsorily perhaps, of inscribing their name, fes¬ 
 tivities, the tutelary saint they worshiped and the handi¬ 
 craft they belonged to, upon slabs of stone, there would be 
 no means of knowing or even conjecturing the history of 
 a transition period which launched mankind, after long cen¬ 
 turies of struggle, out of a passive submission to abject ser- 
 
 13 Idem, Chap. i. Antiques Croyances. 
 
 14 Later we find cremation; but only the poor who possessed no ground 
 burned their dead. These were the outcasts supposed to nave no souls. 
 
 is Aristotle, Politics, i. 4. u> Rodbertus, Normal Arbeitstag ; Ely, Hist. 
 
 French and German Socialisms, pp. 176-7. 
 
n 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR. 
 
 vitude into the true competitive system. We shall farther 
 on have more to say in detail of the hatred and contempt 
 which the ancient slave masters held toward their poor 
 working chattels. 
 
 There was a taint upon labor. So there is now. Thus 
 far then, there is no progress. We shall attempt to ana¬ 
 lyze the original cause of this taint upon labor and prove 
 that the progress of to-day consists in its diminution, 
 
 Admitting the theory of development we go back to man 
 at the dawn of reason, when he was still a beast. We even 
 imagine a group, such as Professor Oswald Heer has pic¬ 
 tured in the frontispiece of his masterly scientific work on 
 the fossils of Switzerland. 17 Prowling around this group ot 
 naked human forms—some upon trees, others crawling, 
 others walking plantigrade, or gorilla-like—we see wild 
 animals, birds and reptiles, all in search of food. Just as 
 the steer after a desperate encounter with its rival comes 
 out the victor and ever holds the mastery over the rest of 
 a herd, so the most powerful and ferocious of this group of 
 primeval men wins with his club, his fingers, or fists the 
 mastery over the rest. These are first impulses. They are 
 entirely animal in character. Wild geese and ducks seek 
 in conflict the means of knowing which of their flock shall 
 be leader in their flight; and him of the most magnetic or 
 muscular or intellectual powers they follow. The purely 
 animal, then, is the form which primitive, animal man as¬ 
 sumes. This strong master of the group is the prototype of 
 the patrician and inheritor of the estate as thousands of 
 years afterwards we find him lord of the manor with his 
 slaves about him. It would be absurd to suppose that im¬ 
 mediately at the dawn of reason, this wild animal actually 
 assumed one of the highest types of civilization. The com¬ 
 munistic or even the patriarchal is one of the highest forms 
 which human beings have attempted. They have, it is true, 
 been attempted but mostly to prove failures; simply be¬ 
 cause they were of a type even in their crudest state, too 
 far progressed for others to appreciate and apply. The 
 master or as we may better characterize him, the bully has 
 always been too jealous. That Abraham and Moses tried 
 & very low form of it, and isolated themselves so as not to 
 
 w Dr. Oswald Hecr, UrwcU dor SchwcU, 
 
EVIDENCE OF INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 n 
 
 interfere with others, is true. But it is too well known that 
 the Hebrews were not appreciated in their good work. 
 Their very attempt to institute the patriarchal system even 
 in its imperfect, half competitive form, brought against them 
 the jealousy of the world of heathendom. It was an intol¬ 
 erable innovation upon the more ancient, aristocratic, brutal 
 system of masters and slaves. And it was no mere indi¬ 
 vidual, but this gigantic system which massed its powers to 
 drive the presumptious Hebrews from the face of the earth. 
 
 The mere animal form of government must have come 
 first. This reasoning, says the law of evolution, must have 
 born very brutal forms. Surely enough, so we find it at the 
 dawn of history and at the highest discernible antiquity not 
 only in Greece and Rome but in Egypt. It was the slave 
 system under which the Egyptian monuments were built; 
 and no thinking person can doubt that thousands of years of 
 this slavery must have elapsed before the Egyptians arrived 
 at the art of architecture in which recorded history finds 
 them. Advancing reason had already been of millennial date 
 ere those people could have known how to carve their hiero¬ 
 glyphs with nice precision upon the monuments. Again, 
 we fail to see that these inscriptions mention any mode of 
 a more ancient communal or patriarchal government. 
 The simplest form of governing the primeval race must 
 have been the one adopted; and the simplest was the one 
 common among the animals of to-day. There was at the 
 head of every group, or tribe, or family, a master; and him 
 the rest obeyed, afterwards adored. 
 
 It next seems natural that surrounded by wild and fierce 
 creatures of the waters, glades and forests, the first rea¬ 
 sonable thing to protect this master would be to select some 
 place of security—some rock or cave or height, whence he 
 might go or send forth into the forests, the swamps and 
 shores in search of fruit, roots, shellfish and game. An¬ 
 other thing; it is natural for man to settle permanently 
 somewhere. This is peculiarly the case with the Aryan 
 races. It is the form of life almost universally adopted by 
 the Indo Europeans. They select a seat and conquer and 
 subjugate in all directions. This also corresponds with 
 our proposition that the first idea was to obtain a home. 
 With the growth of experience iu the application of reason 
 eame egoism which it is said the brute does not often man- 
 
74 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR. 
 
 ifest. Now with animal prowess, a little reason and a large 
 egoism, we have what the present labor movement calls a 
 “1)088.” He is endowed with the three great attributes 
 which our modern authorities on moral philosophy denom¬ 
 inate irascibility and concupiscence. 
 
 Given the right of proprietorship wrung through supe¬ 
 riority in physical power from his tribe and his children, 
 and he unhesitatingly uses them as slaves. This the true 
 beast cannot do, since it requires reason. The first impulse, 
 that of cupidity, makes him a tyrant and the second, that of 
 irascibility, fills him with cruel ferocity, accounting for the 
 well known fact that the ancient slave-holder could and often 
 did kill his own children. 18 The first impulse, that of concu¬ 
 piscence and acquisitiveness combined into one, makes him 
 desirous to enjoy and accumulate. So his children are nu¬ 
 merous. These two nearly allied sources of human desire or 
 greed filled him with a rivalry to accumulate and often to se¬ 
 quester the stores which the toil of his slaves produced. 
 
 A third impulse, that of sympathy, being yet mostly want¬ 
 ing, man reasonably was thus filled with pomp and greed. 
 These whetted his yet unbridled passions, making him 
 ambitious to embellish his estate, caused the land to be fruit¬ 
 ful, inspired him to build better houses, select and multiply 
 his concubines and otherwise adorn the paternity. But the 
 original parent-aristocrat or paterfamilias never until much 
 later, desisted from the enforcement of absolute virtue of 
 the parent-aristocrat mother or materfamilias. 
 
 Sympathy, it would seem came to him but tardily. Sym¬ 
 pathy was inspired later;—brought into the world through 
 the cult of the organizations of freedmen, after the begin¬ 
 ning of the era of manumissions. Socrates and Aristotle 
 recognized their powerful school of fraternal coherence and 
 mutual love which it seems almost certain culminated in the 
 wonderful institution known as Chistianity, destroying the 
 old Paganism or, at least, laying the foundation for its final 
 eradication from the world. 
 
 This picture presents a poor outlook for the slaves, who 
 w T ere obliged to perform the master’s drudgery. They how¬ 
 ever, always had two advantages: being to the family born, 
 
 is Terentins, Heauton Timorumenos, Act III. 5 ; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 
 Antiquitates Roviance, lib. II. cap. xxvi.; Codex Juttiniani, lib. VII. tit. xlvli. 
 PandecUE, (DigestJ, lib. XXVIII. leg. xi. 
 
THE IGNOMINIOUS CREMATION. 
 
 75 
 
 they owned a meagre right to some kind of burial; whereas 
 it is known that later, the freed man could only expect cre¬ 
 mation. To have the remains refused the noble rite of bur¬ 
 ial was a disgrace. It was a virtual acknowledgement 
 that the person had no soul. Malefactors, runaways or de¬ 
 serters and freedmen so lowly as to be without protection, 
 in other words all whom God spurned to recognize as hav¬ 
 ing an immortal life, were burned or cast out to rot without 
 honors. 19 The other advantage was that their owners were 
 their supporters which freed slaves from the responsibilities 
 of the struggle for bread. Still the whole picture presents 
 a poor outlook for the slaves who were obliged to perform 
 his drudgery. But as if they might be inclined to desert 
 him the religious belief was so riveted upon their benighted 
 minds that for thousands of years they did not doubt that 
 the punishment for desertion would be a species of damna¬ 
 tion. The slaves were taught that the most hallowed of all 
 places was the central focus or alter of worship of the manes 
 of their master. The holy and awful funeral repast had al¬ 
 ways to be partaken upon the same spot w r here the family 
 ancestors lay. Thus for generations families worshiped each 
 other at the same tomb. 20 We have already quoted from 
 Dr. Fustel that the dread of being deprived of sepulture 
 was greater than the fear of death itself. So fearful were 
 the ancients, even the ancient laborers, of arousing the ire 
 of their tutelary deities that they worshiped them by sacri¬ 
 fices. They even fed 21 these disengaged souls 22 and period¬ 
 ically furnished them with wine, milk, fruit, honey and other 
 table delicacies which in life they had been known to pre¬ 
 fer. These strange beliefs which were by no means con¬ 
 fined to the Indo-European, but as Fustel de Coulanges has 
 made clear, embraced the entire Aryan family, 28 were the 
 
 19Cicero, De Legibus , 2, 23, “Hominem mortuum, inquit lex XII., 
 
 (meaning the Twelve Tables,) in Urbe ne sepelito neve urito.Quid? qui 
 
 post XIl. in Urbe sepulti, sunt clari viri.” 
 
 20 Euripides. Trojans, 381. 
 
 21 Virgil, jtEneid, III. 300: Euripides, Iphigenia, 476, “Behold, I pout 
 upon the earth of the tomb milk, honey and wine; for it is with these that we 
 revivify the dead;” Cf. also, Ovid, Fastus, II. 540. 
 
 22 Critically, this expression is incorrect; for the ancients believed that the 
 soul was never disengaged, but remained buried with the body in bliss. Con¬ 
 sult Fustel de Coulanges, Citi Antique, liv. I. chap. ,iv. 
 
 23 In substance Dr. Fustel, Idem. p. 26 says: Ces croyances ne sont pas 
 asurement empruntGes ni par les Grecs des Dindous ni paries Hindous dca 
 Grecs ; mais elles appartenaient 4 toutes les leux races, de loin recul6es et du 
 milieu de 1’ Asie. 
 
w 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR 
 
 prevailing ones and formed the basis of the great Pagan re¬ 
 ligion. The superstition worked so powerfully upon the 
 benighted conscience of slaves that however severe their lot, 
 they required, a higher scale of enlightenment than could be 
 had in these low forms of slavery before they could see their 
 way clear to revolt. This, however came in the course of 
 time. There is no doubt that discussion among the numer¬ 
 ous organizations of freedmen did much toward bringing 
 this about. The increasing number of slaves also gave them 
 opportunity to meet and interchange opinions. In the deep 
 gloom of abject slavery men seldom revolt. Revolt is es¬ 
 pecially rare where there is no contact with public opinion 
 adverse to it. It is not probable, therefore, that the slaves, 
 however bad their treatment, found themselves in a condi¬ 
 tion enough advanced in the scale of manhood to organize 
 revolt until thousands of years of their abject servitude had 
 elapsed. But it appears certain that revolts had been going 
 on for a long time before w r e catch the earliest clues to 
 their history. 
 
 When language had become perfected and means of 
 mutual comprehension had come into their grasp, so that 
 an intelligent interchange of each others feelings was had, 
 and it became easy to express their grievances and suffer¬ 
 ings one with another, they began to revolt. If a lord or 
 capitalist in a paroxysm of unbridled rage, ordered one slave 
 for a trivial offense to be strangled by the others, 34 they 
 were compelled to be the executioners of their comrade. 
 If his majesty raised his hand and dashed out the brains of 
 his own child, the other children, 26 though by no means 
 so keenly sensitive to the horror as we of our own time, 
 would feel a common sympathy and perhaps lay up the in¬ 
 fanticide for a futuie day of vengeance. When the right of 
 sepulture was taken from them and they found that even 
 the consolation of religion was gone, they went desperate 
 and reckless over the imagined withdrawal, by the God 
 they worshiped, of his blessing. In this state of mind they 
 
 *4 See story of Damophilos In chapter viii., on the revolt of Ennus. 
 
 as We have, in the ancient records, many allusions to the murder of chil¬ 
 dren by the lords of the estate. See Dionyssius of Halicarnassus, Archiologia 
 Rhomana, lib. II. cap. xxvi. 'O Si Ttav 'Pco/uaicoi' vopoJeTqi diroaav, eirnuv, <eS~ 
 toKeu e£ov<riav irarpi icaO’ vtou, Ka'i napa navra r ov tov fiiov \povov ,...» edvre anon- 
 
 TtVi'vi'ai npoaipriTai' Also Code of Justinian, lib. VIII. tit xlvii. leg. X., where 
 this right is mentioned as having once existed ; “Jug (patrbus) vit» in liberot 
 necisque potegtas olim erat permissa.” 
 
THE FIRST MERCENARY SOLDIERS. 
 
 77 
 
 must have frequently plotted together and concocted insur- 
 rections. 28 They however, did not co-operate with each 
 other for the accumulation of wealth. This is a phenome¬ 
 non of which we shall hereafter speak more lengthily. But 
 the principle cause of the rebellions which in course of time 
 became very common, was their increase among themselves. 
 It must not be supposed because the master who owned all 
 at their expense and degradation, that he could and did live 
 in unbridled libertinism among his human chattels, who by 
 reason of the taint on labor never had recognized family al¬ 
 liances among each other. However stringent the rules of 
 tyrants over the oppressed they were never known to en¬ 
 tirely prevail over nature. What the form of alliance be¬ 
 tween the sexes of the very ancient sla ves may have been 
 is not fully known ;—whether free of formality or by the 
 ligature of accorded right. 27 Be that as it may, the fact re¬ 
 mains that the human race was by no means dependent for 
 its increase upon the heads of optimate families. As was 
 the case with the negro slaves in the Southern States of the 
 American Republic, so in Greece and Italy the slaves mul¬ 
 tiplied among themselves. In course of time they grew 
 very numerous. Of course, as their number increased they 
 outgrew the actual requirements of the landed estate to 
 which they were enfeoffed. Then they were sold to other 
 estates or killed. 28 Later when wars occurred they become 
 mercenaries, 29 in earlier times, under their owners, as im¬ 
 pedimenta of the army; not as combatants, because they 
 were of too ignoble birth to engage in the aristocratic vo¬ 
 cation of war. Still later we find them assuming the dig¬ 
 nity of combatants. Of this latter period we find clearer 
 traces, and shall show that these mercenaries were none 
 other than the supernumeraries from the estates, who had 
 run away to take into their own hands the struggle for ex- 
 
 26 undeniable evidence of thi9 is fonnd in the great servile wars of Sicily, 
 where Demeter or Ceres, goddess of that region was complained of by the slaves 
 as having deserted them. See Bucher, Aufstdnde der unfreien Arbeiler, S. 53 
 and 54, Siefert, Sicilischc Sklavenkriege, S. 17-18 
 
 2" See chapters xiii. to xx. on the Collegia and Sodalicia of Italy and the 
 Eranoi and Thiasoi of the Greek-speaking labor unions, which produce plenty of 
 proof that from before 11. C. 600, the freedmen had their laws of marriage. 
 The more ancient slavery is obscure in records of the social habits of the poor. 
 
 28 Granier de Cassagnac, Hist, des Classes Ouvri'eres, p. 61. 
 
 2 tGrote, History of Greece,—Dionysius the Eider. Dionysius, Tyrant of Syra¬ 
 cuse employed mercenaries, and Dion’s conquest of Syracuse against Dionysius 
 the Younger was begun with mercenary troops in B. 0 . 359. 
 
78 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR. 
 
 istence. It is very easy to prove that there were organiza 
 tions or unions of mercenaries who sold their services to 
 princes and their generals, undertaking to accomplish cer¬ 
 tain military feats for a recompense. 
 
 But we are still treating of the workingman as a slave. 
 The father of the family was one individual. But the family 
 itself often consisted of fifty. Now as the only one of all 
 these eligible to the blooded dignity of nobility was the 
 father, what became of the rest? 80 They were not only 
 slaves but they formed, as it were, another race. They 
 were the plebeians, the proletariat; “ hewers of wood and 
 drawers of water.” It was impossible under the extremes 
 of this social divergence, for any communication or sympa¬ 
 thy to be recognized between them. Even though the 
 master was the father and the child legitimate though a 
 Blave, by the deadly inheritance of his bondage riveted upon 
 him through immemorial usage, he dared not look up into 
 his parent’s face with the sweet, tender love of our modern 
 consanguinity ! It was a sacrilege. Equality was impossi¬ 
 ble. The number therefore, of the slave race compared 
 with the noble, was as fifty to one. Even as late as the 
 beginning of that powerful reform known as Christianity 
 which may be characterized as an emancipation proclama¬ 
 tion, the slave system was in full operation and the num¬ 
 ber of slaves enormous. 
 
 It is through that long night of slavery for the working 
 people, that humanity received its almost indelible stamp 
 of reproach and contempt which lingers to-day in the 
 “ taint ” of labor. During the struggle of strikes and up¬ 
 risings that set in after the slaves became numerous and 
 colonies of them, either as marauders or adventurers ap¬ 
 peared, the slave race developed many men and women of 
 extraordinary genius and ability. We shall present an 
 elaborate history of these as landmarks in our biography of 
 the lowly while groping through the barren void which 
 the historians and the literary wreckers have left us, torn in 
 fragments or quite unchronicled in their short sighted con¬ 
 tempt and eagerness to set forth only exploits which the 
 ambition of their noble masters inspired. So poor was the 
 food doled out by the masters to their slaves that they may 
 
 *o The Materfamilias or married mother kept herself in severe seclusion so 
 41 to be above suspicion. 
 
branded and fed HUSKS AND PODS. 79 
 
 be said to have been fed like animals from the crib. Horace, 
 Herodotus, Lucanus, Livy, Pliny and many others give tes¬ 
 timony of the wretched food these poor slaves received in 
 Greece, Egypt and Rome. Peas, 81 nuts, roots, pods, 
 skimmed milk, very poor bread, and none made of white 
 wheat flour. 92 Great suffering from want is mentioned in 
 Pliny’s Natural History, among the slaves of Italy. An epi¬ 
 demic like the black death twice broke out among them. 
 He also states that this disease did not attack the noble or 
 well-to do people.** These great sufferings and privations 
 caused the death rate to be so high as to decimate the 
 ranks of the slaves thus reducing the danger always feared 
 by the masters, of revolt and of plottings for insurrection. 
 Aside from the curse which their lowly condition stamped 
 upon the slaves, they were treated with ignominy and gen¬ 
 erally marked with the stichun 84 on their faces. The word 
 8tigma among the Greeks was full of reproach, not only 
 because the scars were on the faces and bodies of these poor 
 white men and women 88 doomed to perpetual servitude, 
 but because it was also indelibly stamped upon their social 
 life. Granier who produced a gem in his great work ** for 
 which the subsequent labor movement acknowledges its in¬ 
 debtedness, says of this ancient slavery: “ This curse of 
 blood is implacable. Yentidius Bassus was so fortunate as 
 to become a consul. They said to him, you were a boot- 
 black. Galerius, Diocletian, Probus, Pertinax, Vitellius, 
 even Augustus had the good fortune to become emperors. 
 They said to Galerius: You were a swineherd; to Diocle¬ 
 tian : You were a slave; to Probus: Your father was a 
 gardener; to Pertinax: Your father was a freedman ; to 
 Vitellius: Your father was a cobbler; and they went so 
 
 » Horace, Ad Pisonem, v. 249. 
 
 *> Homer, Odessey, lib. VIII. c. v. 221, 222. The earth-born multitudes : 
 
 “T !av 5’ akkdiv ifjii <f>gpu vo\v npocfrepearepov etvai, 
 
 ’OaaoL vvv flporoi eicrtp «wi \6ovl airor eSorre?.” 
 
 ** Pliny, Natural History, XXVI. c. iii. “Non fuerat haec lues apud ma* 
 Joies patresque nostros.” 
 
 s4 See Comcedioe of Plautus: Stichus, “The marked Slave also Plutarch.. 
 NLcias, 29; Xenophon, De Vectigal., c. iv ; Diod XXXIV. Fragment, Dindori 
 
 35 Homer, Iliad, I. 233 “The earth-born multitude.” 
 
 36 Granier de Cassagnac, Hist, des Classes Ouvri'eres; especially in chap. v. 
 Ill; McCullaeh, Industrial History of Free Nations;—The Greeks . This scholar 
 quotes from Hesiod’s *Epya <ai 'Hp-epai, v. 186., where tho great poet appeals 
 to the lords for amelioration of the people’s sufferings: “Hesiod lived for many 
 years in Boetia where the oppression and exclusiveness of the dominant classes 
 was as unrelenting as in Lacedeemon.” Greek Industries, pp. 6-7. 
 
80 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE POOR. 
 
 far as to write on the marble of the statue of Augustus, in 
 the lifetime of this master of the world: Your grandfather 
 was a merchant, and your father a usurer.” The same keen 
 observer in his investigation of these ancient phenomena of 
 slavery, makes a very important suggestion, the result, he 
 says, of his own personal reading of the Iliad of Homer : 
 that as there is in the whole of that celebrated poem, not 
 one allusion to freedmen, or to the subject of emancipation; 
 whereas in the Odyssey there appear many allusions thereto 
 it is therefore, following the line of reason adopted by com¬ 
 parative philologists and historiographers in search of facts 
 in ethnography, very reasonable to suppose that the Iliad 
 is the oldest, and that the Odyssey came afterwards.*’ 
 Here is a suggestion worth much to anthropologists in gen¬ 
 eral ; and it is to be hoped it may be cleared so as to become 
 useful to the study of Sociology. We hear of no great spasm 
 like that of the war of the rebellion of our own day, which 
 produced the emancipation of the slaves. If nothing of 
 that kind occurred between the composition of those two 
 poems, so ancient and obscure, then it is reasonable to 
 imagine that the emancipation was gradual; and if gradual, 
 an unlimited time must have elapsed—perhaps thousands 
 of years—between their composition. This alone seems 
 capable of solving the incongruity. But it tends forcibly to 
 show the astonishing age of slavery which may well be 
 called the long night of suffering of our progenitors. Cer¬ 
 tain it is, however that the Iliad treats of the extremes; 
 the lords upon the one hand and on the other the slaves. 
 The want of an intermediary class shows its high an¬ 
 tiquity. 
 
 At anv rate, all these researches accumulate evidence 
 showing the absurdity of a communistic or nomadic form 
 of society having been possible among the Indo-Europeans 
 from whom we are descended unless that tendency su¬ 
 pervened upon the ancient system of land tenure in sub¬ 
 sequent times. There crops out one curious association 
 in very ancient history which, to the reader wishing to 
 gratify his military or ecclesiastical taste is totally unac¬ 
 countable ; but which appears quite plain to those who 
 study history to enjoy glimpses of the social life of the 
 past. We refer to the aristocratic Amphictyonic Council 
 
 in Granler de Casaagnac, Hut. da Clouet OuvrQrtt, chap. v. p. 10® 
 
THE AMPHICTTONIC LEAGUE 
 
 81 
 
 The student of the great slave system sees the absurdity 
 of attributing this ancient series of protective organiza¬ 
 tions either to ambitious military schemes or to pure 
 piety, although they are given to us by historians, as a sys¬ 
 tem of neighbors organized to protect and perpetuate 
 the worship of the Gods. They come down to us from 
 the gloomy tradition of high antiquity ; and to the two 
 first mentioned classes they are utterly incomprehensible. 
 The sociologist however, who sees the slaves growing in 
 numbers while the gens 88 remained stationary in num¬ 
 bers, can easily picture the causes and spirit of these 
 leagues. They were confederations of the lords or indi¬ 
 vidual owners of the patrimonies or estates. These es¬ 
 tates, as we have seen, fell to the lords, by entail in pri¬ 
 mogeniture. The Amphictyony 89 was simply a co-opera¬ 
 tive association of the lords to defend their estates; and 
 they most naturally, as customary with ail Pagan ancients, 
 held forth first and foremost the horrors of irreligion, 
 knowing that the superstition of the slaves was their true 
 stronghold, since by making it appear that attack upon 
 or contemptuousness of the holy property was an unpar¬ 
 donable misdemeanor or even to utter words of conspiracy 
 against that property remaining in the hands of the first 
 bom son, was blasphemy. This superstition thus incul¬ 
 cated was always, in ancient times, the bulwark of pro¬ 
 tection to the nobles. Ihe Amphictyony existed 2,000 
 years before Christ, probably even much prior to that 
 time, and grew more and more powerful, until about B. 
 C. 700 it had grown in numeric strength and in the sub¬ 
 tle art of self-protection so that it assumed the dignity of 
 * the Amphictyonic Council, seated itself in the holy tem¬ 
 ples of Apollo and Demeter, and had delegates who met 
 there spring and autumn, representing twelve tribes or 
 states of Greece and the Archipelago. Some 600 years 
 before Christ the Amphictyonic Council had misundei- 
 standings with its delegates and wars of extermination 
 began. These troubles were called the holy wars. It is 
 known that for many centuries these corporations pro¬ 
 tected themselves mutually. If one of the small neighbor - 
 
 8 «Latin “Gens,” whence the “gentry.” See Mann’s Ancient and Mediaeval 
 Republics, chapter vi. 
 
 i»Fiske. American Political Ideas, d. 72. 
 
TREATMENT OF TEE POOR 
 
 n 
 
 hoods represented in and protected by the federation was 
 attacked or threatened, the entire power of all the others 
 was thrown together in its defense. The article of agree¬ 
 ment between them ran as follows: Not to destroy or al 
 low to be destroyed or cut off from water, in peace or 
 war, any town in the Amphictyonic brotherhood; not to 
 plunder 40 the property of the god or treacherously ex¬ 
 tract valuables from the sanctum. Now in face of the 
 fact that there were by this time great numbers of sup¬ 
 ernumerary slaves who had, on account of their servitude 
 and the abuses they suffered, become reckless, fierce and 
 ready to enter upon a life of desperate revolt, still we find 
 writers denying that this brotherhood had any other idea 
 than a purely religious one. To the searching sociologist 
 it is quite clear that this organization must have been one 
 of the very first efforts of the Indo-Europeans to form a 
 government for the protection of property, 
 
 From incipiency this must have been the earliest form 
 of government. But it was an aristocratic government 
 which cast a taint on labor. It perpetuated the holi¬ 
 ness of property which has ever since upheld the dogma 
 of divine right of the fathers and of kings and is prob¬ 
 ably the originator of that dogma. Away back in the 
 past, before the country had become thickly peopled and 
 while superstition combined with rigid rules of the 
 masters, kept down all danger of revolt among the slaves, 
 there were no cities. 41 We have not space in this work 
 to explain the phenomenon of the ancient city, but refer 
 the curious to Dr. Fustel, whose work 42 cannot be perused 
 without profit. Modern scholars are making valuable com¬ 
 pilations of evidence showing that cities, like nearly ev¬ 
 erything else, were a natural and gradual growth. 
 
 The great Hesiod, himself a poor freedman if not a slave, 
 may have had the Amphictyonic league and its wars in 
 min d when he wrote : 
 
 “Men's right arm in law ; for spoils they wait 
 And lay tlaeir mutual cities desolate.” « 
 
 4# The custom was to bury with the deceased father many precious articles 
 of which he was fond in life. See Funck-Brentano, La Civilisation et set Lois, 
 on this Fetish custom and his evidence that the favorite wife was often buried 
 alive along with the other trinkets; livre II. c. iL pp. 114-116. 
 
 41 Fustel de Coulanges, Citt Antique, liv. III. c. ii. etliL *2 Id. III. c. 1 
 43 Hesiod, 'Epy« *ai 'H nepai, V. 161. 
 
CHAPTER IV, 
 
 ELEUS1NIAN MYSTERIES 
 
 ANCIENT GRIEVANCES OF THE WORKERS. 
 
 Working People destitute of Souls — Original popular Beliefs— 
 Plato finally gives them half a Soul—Modern Ignorance on 
 the true Causes of certain Developments in History—Sym¬ 
 pathy, the Third G-reat Emotion developed out of growing 
 Reason, through mutual Commiseration of the Outcasts— 
 A new Cult—The Unsolved Problem of the great Eleusinian 
 Mysteries—-Their wonderful Story—Grievances of slighted 
 Workingmen—Organization impossible to Slaves except in 
 their Strikes and Rebellions—The Aristocrats’ Politics and 
 Religion barred the Doors against Work-people—Extraor¬ 
 dinary Whims and Antics at the Eleusinian Mysteries—The 
 Causes of Grievances endured by the Castaway Laborers— 
 Their Motives for Secret Organization—The Terrible Cryp- 
 tia— The horrible Murders of Workingmen for Sport—Dark 
 Deeds Unveiled—Story of the Massacre of 2,000 Working¬ 
 men—Evidence—The Grievances in Sparta—In Athens— 
 Free Outcast Builders, Sculptors, Teachers, Priests, Dancers, 
 Musicians, Artisans, Diggers, all more or less Organized—Re¬ 
 turn to the Eleusinian Mysteries—Conclusion. 
 
 Boeing the long period occupying—in the case of the 
 Indo-European race from which most of us are derived, 
 several thousand years, there came about a differentia¬ 
 tion in favor of the slaves. Granier in his bright exposi¬ 
 tion of this great social subject, declares slavery to have 
 been the natural outcome of the Pagan, or family religion. 1 
 Fustel de Coulanges in his instructive and extraordinarily 
 lucid work has proved every word written by Graniei 
 
 * Hist, des C asses Ouvri'eres, pp. 39-41. Vide chap. lii. passim. 
 
u 
 
 TEE MYSTERIES. 
 
 upon this daring theme, to be true.* Philosophers of our 
 age, catching at written and unwritten obscurities which 
 saliently obtrude upon the path of researchers groping in 
 sociology, are getting down to real causes of events which 
 for 2,000 years remained phenomena undeciphered. Ages 
 upon ages have rolled and the mouldering stones and tab¬ 
 lets, invaluable with their begrimed inscriptions, have sau¬ 
 cily stared at science, unheeded. Furtive hints by anci¬ 
 ent historians for centuries have mocked the lore of uni¬ 
 versities, bearing their inuendos which failed to insult 
 the professorial sticklers to our darling notes and emen¬ 
 dations. Great Social wars with ominous wing have been 
 flopping and airing our ignorance as to their deep, sup¬ 
 pressed causes. Then the downfall of the Roman empire 
 —that of all others most inexplicable wonder—has been 
 for twenty centuries chopped up into indigestible morsels 
 and administered to students of history searching after 
 great events and ecclesiastical lore. At last the student 
 of sociology enters the field. He is philosopher enough 
 to divest himself of the crusty film in which prejudice is 
 encysted and manly enough to step out of the contumeli¬ 
 ous state and like a Murillo go down among the tatterde¬ 
 malions and give them credit for what they were. 
 
 Society began with the bully.* It began with unbridled 
 irascibility, concupiscence and egoism. This creature, 
 man, having killed or clubbed away the others, sought 
 among the females the handsomest mate and in the best 
 cave or hut began the family. The Aryan is not a nomad. 
 He wants a home, a permanent residence. He is brigand 
 enough to launch forth into all the enterprizes of plunder, 
 but he returns to his home. This home remained his fast¬ 
 ness which be -would not quit. The land around it be¬ 
 came his. When children came they were also his. 
 When they grew strong and could work, his concupiscence 
 differentiated into cupidity; and begetting many, he forced 
 them to work. They became his slaves. If the little ones 
 refused or otherwise displeased him his irascible impulses 
 prevailed and he killed them. Those whom he could 
 not spare he only punished. His irascibility made him a 
 
 %La Cite Antique, pp. 76-89; See also Iliad. xxL, Odyssey, xxlL r I^viUous. 
 XXV. 40, 41, 44, 47, 48. 
 
 * W© are forced to employ this homely term u there exist© In Engl’sh no 
 ether which so nearly conveys onr idea. 
 
OHIO IN OF THE PROLETARIAT. 
 
 85 
 
 tyrant, while his acquisitiveness made him rich. He be¬ 
 came a lord. Sympathy was a stranger to his bosom 
 though no doubt it worked an influence at an early day 
 in moulding the nature of the family, as we know there 
 were favorites. 
 
 He lived in the wonder-world. The phenomena of na¬ 
 ture he could not understand. There were thunders and 
 lightnings, but electricity was a terror which shaped a 
 god. When this god of nature grew into shape upon his 
 imagination his egoism coveted its glory and immortality 
 and the bully came to imagine himself a god; and assumed 
 for himself power and immortality deifying himself at 
 death and ordaining his first-born son his worshiper and 
 the sole inheritor of his fortune. The remuneration de¬ 
 manded of the son for this succession was the paternal 
 worship and the deification and adoration of the dead fa¬ 
 ther, now a saint. Egoism was thus the originator of the 
 Pagan religion, of immortality and of the sainthood. 4 
 
 It was a part of the genius of this cult to be aristocratic 
 and exclusive. It inculcated divine rights of masters, of 
 noble lords and afterwards of kings. On the other hand 
 it was a part of the genius of paganism to have slaves. 
 It was so exclusively aristocratic that only a very few could 
 possibly enjoy its beatitudes. The rest were obliged to be 
 castaways. The castaways who were debarred the favorit¬ 
 ism of eternal life through the aristocratic burial and dei¬ 
 fication were slaves, doomed by an inheritance of expro¬ 
 priation and of poverty, to slavery. When they became 
 numerous, although wretched, there now and then devel¬ 
 oped a man or woman of genius. Bereft of everything 
 tangible, they still had minds. With minds they consid¬ 
 ered and discussed their lowly condition; with strength 
 and ingenuity some worked themselves out of bondage and 
 became freedmen. As freedmen they began to organize 
 into protective associations and trade unions. Thus two 
 distinct parties were formed. 
 
 Meantime the power of the lords or property owners 
 increased but not so rapidly in numeric strength as the 
 power of the outcast, and the grandees, seeing the bondmen, 
 runaways and freedmen forming into communes, some as 
 
 « Latin piganui, of, or belonging to the country, pagus. There were then 
 no town a or citiei These came later. Cf. La Cite Antique, patsim. 
 
86 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 tradesmen, some as brigands, all dissatisfied, some very 
 dangerous, also betook themselves to organization. Thus 
 there were two distinct classes. Which of these two clas¬ 
 ses began earliest to organize for self defense we cannot un¬ 
 dertake to prove but reason conjectures that it must have 
 been the outcasts. But certain it is 6 they formed into power¬ 
 ful phrotries 6 or curies for mutual assistance, sometimes un¬ 
 der religious pretenses, as in the case of the Italian collegia . 
 
 All along, parallel with eacii other through time, these 
 two systems, the grandees or gentes on the one hand and 
 the outcasts or disinherited on the other, have existed, se¬ 
 curing themselves by mutual organization. We do not see 
 in history much of the working classes. The principal men¬ 
 tion made of them is in connection with slavery and the 
 concomitant degradation of servitude. We know from 
 certain passages in history that insurrections or slave re¬ 
 bellions occurred. Some of them were on a prodigious 
 scale. Plutarch mentions instances where the masters by 
 decree of the phratries sometimes allured large numbers of 
 the slaves on plea of a festival or bunt and when at a con¬ 
 venient spot fell upon and murdered them by hundreds, 
 merely to get rid of a dangerous element. 7 That the ser¬ 
 vile element keenly felt the contempt in which they were re¬ 
 garded, crops out in the records of the remote past. We 
 propose to give many instances. 
 
 The exclusion of slaves, freedinen and afterwards Christ¬ 
 ians from the Eleusinian mysteries gives the student of so¬ 
 ciology an important hint to pages of the unwritten labor 
 question; showing the reasons why the outcasts resorted to 
 co-operation among themselves, as an only practical court 
 of appeals to any power against oppression when aggrieved. 
 All writers who have spoken of this celebrated and myste¬ 
 rious organization agree that it was very ancient. As we 
 have found irrefutable evidences of numerous trade unions 
 so early as the eighth and ninth century before Christ, we 
 
 8 Fustel de Oonlanges, CiU Antique, lib. II. pp. 89-89, LaFamille; Mann’s 
 
 Ancient and Media cal Republics, pp. *22-27. 
 
 •Morgan, Ancient Societies, p. 88: “The tiparpla is a brotherhood, as the term 
 Imports; and a natural growth from the organization into gentes. It is an organic 
 union or association of two or more gentes of the saine tribe for certain connnoD 
 objects, 'those gentes were usually such as had been formed by the segmenta 
 tion of an original gens.” i bis author sees some analogy between the undent 
 Greek and Roman gens and certain tribes of North American Indians ; notably 
 the Iroquois. Consult chapters ii. and iii. 
 
 7 Plutarch, Lycurgus\ also Lycurgus and Numa compared. 
 
THE ORIGINAL CRUS ADR 
 
 87 
 
 need not trace the Eleusinian band back of that time. It 
 is however, worthy of remark that this organization existed 
 at a much earlier date and that, although the societies of the 
 workmen do not as luminously come to the front on oc- 
 count of this stigma which made them secret and prevented 
 their recognition, it is no proof whatever that they did not 
 also exist. The organization known as the Eleusinians, 8 ac¬ 
 cording to ancient authors was in full force 1,500 years be¬ 
 fore Christ. Cicero who was an admirer of all the Pagan 
 forms that tended to hand down the exclusive splendor and 
 dignity of the aristocratic stock, believed these feasts to 
 have belonged to the remotest antiquity and that they 
 lasted the longest of almost any institution.* Like the great 
 trade-union move nent they transmit unwritten records 
 through an occasional slab, bearing inscriptions. 10 
 
 The Eleusinian crusade was a celebrated and exclusively 
 aristocratic religious festival in honor of the goddess Dem¬ 
 eter or Ceres, 11 held at Eleusis, a large town some ten miles 
 from Athens, in Attic Greece. It was a great outpouring 
 from Athens, every 5 years in the mouth Boedromion , ia last¬ 
 ing nine days, The great preparations made before the fes¬ 
 tival began, the extraordinary solemnity of the affair, the 
 manner in which the Athenians attended it in a drome or 
 chanting caravansary, gave it the appearance of a crusade. 
 It was the origin of all well known crusades. The attend¬ 
 ance at this crusade was a trial of one’s eligibility to the 
 blessings of life eternal. Eleusis means a trysting place; 
 consequently it is probable that the great games suggested 
 the name of the place, and once established upon a project¬ 
 ing rock of the sea, the city afterward grew around it and in 
 course of time held a large population. There are some 
 touching mementoes which may be gleaned from this cele¬ 
 brated name. Whoever rea ls the bible in Greek finds fre¬ 
 quent mention of this word in the signification of the com¬ 
 ing of the Saviour. It is a symbolic word. Emblems in 
 
 »In later centuries the little Mysteries continued though they were not con¬ 
 futed to Eleusis. 
 
 * Cicero, De Legibus, II. cap. XVI.; Panegyricus of Isocrates , 6. 
 
 • ■! udging from the slab of Paros they began in the fifteenth century before 
 ChrM, Larousse, Didionnaire Universe!, Art Les pjgasiniens. 
 
 ,! Ceres, like the Pelasglc Hermes was theithyi hallicdeity, having power 
 over reproduction and the supplies of life. Cf. n.ucyc. lint. vol. XI. p. 67o. 
 
 "i B<jr)Spofjuwv, the space of time from September 15th to October 15th ; 
 from ^otjpofjLeu), I chase with a shout Tiie-mus in the battle with the Amazons, 
 cIn-e d them with cries It is a word of great antiquity Plutarch, Theses «, 
 
88 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 those days were common; and much that is unexplained or 
 that may yet be explained—unexplained through ignorance 
 or neglect—comes out, by a proper interpretation of em¬ 
 blems. 
 
 But the Eleusinian mysteries were too absurdly exclusive 
 to stand the erosions of what is known as progress. In per¬ 
 fect agreement with what we have said regarding the ex¬ 
 clusive character of their worship, centering it upon the 
 egoistic household name, forcing a puffed aristocracy by 
 dint of glorifying a human creature and cutting off that 
 glory from the many, especially those who toil, it had made 
 itself odious and intolerable long before the advent of Christ. 
 Yet the antiquity and greatness of the try sting scenes at 
 Eleusis had become renowned in every well-known part of 
 the world. All over Palestine, long afterwards the cradle 
 of another but infinitely more democratic plan of worship, 
 this curious practice was well-known. In Italy and Africa 
 its fame had gone forth. 
 
 We are not speaking of the Eleusinian mysteries merely 
 to recount a paltry historico-ecclesiastical fact. We are 
 making a point in sociologic research. We therefore ask 
 our reader’s indulgence in comparing the social life of home- 
 spun work-people through a metaphor as opposite as the 
 Eleusinian emblems. Yet it is no metaphor. It bears with 
 it a bone of contention which raged for centuries, split and 
 divided, founded heresies, sophistries, philosophies, provoked 
 labor unions, involved work-people in communism, drew out 
 discussion and laid the foundation of the religion of Jesus 
 in after years. We now proceed to explain how this was 
 done. In ancient mythology Proserpine, or as some write it, 
 Persephone, was the beautiful daughter of Ceres the Demeter, 
 and of Jupiter. Pluto the god of the infernal regions fell 
 in love with Proserpine and while she was in the act of 
 gathering flowers in a vale of Enna in Sicily, stole her from 
 her mother, carrying her off to his nether-world home. 1 * 
 The mother though an immortal and living on the heights 
 of Enna the Sicilian Olympus, was so grieved at the loss of 
 her child that she came down from heaven, betook to her¬ 
 self the garb of mortals, became an old woman, assumed 
 the duties of a nurse and wandered through the country, 
 
 is/a/V-o, chap vilL, containing the story of Bonus and the great servile war 
 
THE LOST CHILD FOUND. 
 
 89 
 
 ptying her profession for a subsistance from place to place. 
 She went to Eleusis and there got employment. It was a 
 job of nursing a child of the king of the place. The child’s 
 name was Demophon and under the celestial solicitude of 
 this goddess in disguise, Metanira, the mother, beheld with 
 astonishment and curiosity the marvelous thrift of her boy, 
 Ceres breathed upon him the breath of life, dressed him 
 with ambrosial ointment and at night used to purge the 
 dross of mortality from him by immersing him in a bath of 
 mysterious fire, with an object of making him also immor¬ 
 tal. But one night the fond and curious mother peeped 
 through the veil screening the immortalizing process of 
 trans-substantiation and seeing the boy pendent in a halo of 
 flame screamed with affright, causing the haggard old nurse 
 to let the youngster drop deep into the consuming pit 
 where he instantly perished. The hag then, to save herself, 
 threw off her disguise became rehabilitated and forced the 
 people of Eleuses to build her a temple to dwell in while still 
 continuing her search for the lost Proserpine. Now the 
 professional business of Jupiter was to watch the interests 
 of mortal men. But Ceres unable to endure the loss of her 
 stolen child and remembering the details of her husband’s 
 escape when a babe from the ferocious Saturn, struck the 
 earth with her wand of famine. She rebelled energetically 
 against the shape of things, and at last Jupiter came to the 
 rescue of the innocent denizens of the earth as a profes¬ 
 sional duty. This led to the discovery of Proserpine. From 
 her temple at Eleusis, Demeter who was the protectress of 
 the products of labor made things uncomfortable for the peo¬ 
 ple who were in her husband’s care. They were stricken 
 with malaria. Contagion spread. The ground ceased to 
 produce and the horrors of famine engulfed them. Men 
 prayed, sacrificed, and besought their patron gods, each 
 gens for itself, and urged the further combination of gentile 
 tribes into phratries to no effect until great Jove at last got 
 Mercury to visit Erebus who went down into the pagan in¬ 
 ferno where Pluto was enjoying the charms of the beautiful 
 stolen prize. Thus the sly god got found out. This pagan 
 inferno was Hades where Pluto was king. He, like Satan 
 was cunning. He knew that by tempting her, as the devil 
 a time before had tempted Eve, he could induce her to eat 
 the forbidden fruit;—this time a pomegranite seed. Un« 
 
00 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 warily she was lured into the temptation which cost her a 
 fourth part of each year, for the rest of her immortal exis¬ 
 tence, in the infernal abode with Pluto. The other three- 
 fourths of the year, however, she was permitted to pass 
 upon earth. 
 
 Such is the ridiculous story which among the ancients, 
 was believed at the point of the poniard or under penalty 
 of the hemlock for at least two thousand years. To cavil 
 with its austere sanctity was a heresy costing the blasphem- 
 ist his life and every hope of immortality. 
 
 Some palliation of the absurdity of this sub-terrestrial 
 abode is furnished by the qualification that in ancient belie! 
 the world was flat, not round; and between the two 
 flat surfaces there flowed a river with whose murky waters 
 Erebus had something to do. On the other side, once 
 there, the journeying immortals were ushered into view of 
 the indescribable beatitudes of the elysium. This gorgeous 
 terra incognita was not to be reached without passing the 
 terrible cynocephalous or many-headed watchdog named 
 Cerberus. But heaven was on the other side. Passage 
 from this to that was the agony. 
 
 Now Ceres, the wife of the mighty Jupiter and mother 
 of the lovely Proserpine, was the goddess of the harvests. 
 She represented the cereals. She rode on a jagatnatha drawn 
 by dragons. Her brow was coronated with wreaths of 
 wheat. This rape of Proserpine by Pluto on the ragged 
 edge, between our world of mortals and heaven became em¬ 
 blematic of the agonies of winter ;—from autumn when the 
 the wheat was sown, then the cold hyemal gloom of gesta¬ 
 tion in the dark borderlands, the trysting place, the hyper¬ 
 borean domain of hades; thence over the half congelated 
 Styx was ferried the elastic imagination by the money get¬ 
 ting Charon, and behold, the vernal raptures of heaven 
 and its elysian fields appear, full of springing verdure, the 
 land of exquisite delight! 
 
 Such was the Mythic origin of the Eleusinian Mysteries. 
 They were weird forms of imagination, assimilating things 
 real with things unreal and working them up into maxims, 
 emblems and creeds, until they assumed a priesthood and 
 became an organization of men and women knit by the tie 
 of secrecy which nothing but the long fluctuations of pro¬ 
 gress could unbind. 
 
THE MYSTERIOUS RITES. 
 
 91 
 
 What the actual performance was at the penetralia of the 
 Eleusinian mysteries nobody knows. We know that they 
 were, in their prime, symbolic of the procreative ernergy of 
 nature. But they were attended with certain extraordinary 
 rites. What were these rites? They were also conducive 
 to the science of eternal bliss. 
 
 Who secured that bliss ? In answering these two ques¬ 
 tions we must return to the kernel of our theme—the labor 
 element. To the first one of them, the answer is vague. 
 This we know, that the rites consisted of dramatic repre¬ 
 sentations of the rape of Proserpine, daughter of Ceres, 
 goddess of the vegetable kingdom, of the fields, and labor, 
 who was supposed to preside over the cereals and other 
 alimentation of man. This rape was performed by Pluto ; 
 and in its emblematic mysticisms conveys the idea not only 
 of procreation but also of immortality of the human soul. 14 
 Whether more may still be contributed by science to these 
 strange and intensely interesting rites is yet to be seen. As 
 late as 1858 an important addition to our knowledge of the 
 Eleusinian mysteries has been contributed in the discovery 
 by Ylastos, at a village named Hagi-Constantios, of a mar¬ 
 ble slab containing an inscription including rules and regu¬ 
 lations of the society. 
 
 The first day of the nine was celebrated perhaps partly 
 in Athens or before the arrival at Eleusis. On the march 
 from Athens to Eleusis the jealous outcasts who were ex¬ 
 cluded from the raptures of the scene, always ranged them¬ 
 selves in hostile array and belabored the marchers with 
 stones and clubs, until the arrival of the procession at the 
 temple of Megaron. 15 
 
 The second day was called alade mustae. It was the 
 16th of Boedromion. It was the day of the baptism, being 
 a march in phalanx to the sea. The procession here received 
 their baptism and purification. The third was the day of 
 the feasting. On the fourth day the poppey seeds were ad- 
 
 n Uwaroff, Essai sur lesmysQres d' tlleusis, 3rd. edition, Paris, 1810; Creu- 
 zer’u Syinbolik urul Mithologie der alien Volker ; Preller, Demeter und Persephone 
 Hamburg, 1837. 
 
 ie For a description of the temple of Megaron at Eleusis, see Guhl and Ko* 
 ner. Life of the Greeks and Romans, translated by Iluetl er, pp. 48-9. The dark 
 crypt where the mysteries were performed by the Mvo-Taywyoi also the initia¬ 
 tions, was under ground. From Aristophanes (Piato, Bekk. L. ed. Repub. in cap. 
 xvii.), we learn that at the initiations they sacrificed a hog. Aristophanes, Pax, 
 v. 373 5, has the passage hinted at. 
 
THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 n 
 
 ministered. This rite represented the stupefying influence 
 of the narcissus under which the maiden Persephone was 
 stolen away. Orpheus was the hi&'ophant or priest whose 
 duty it was to initiate eligible candidates into the mysteries. 
 He was assisted by Erechtheis daughter of Erechtheus the 
 smasher. It is quite likely that this initiating ceremony was 
 some kind of violent struggle. It must have been attended 
 by oaths of fidelity under punishment of death to any one 
 who divulged the secret. The initiation took place in the 
 night or in the dark crypt of the temple, as the daclouchos or 
 torch-bearer was in attendance and his torch-procession rep¬ 
 resented the search for the lost daughter of Ceres. This 
 dadouchos was a priest holding, as Xenophon tells us, the 
 office hereditarily for life; and at his decease it fell to an¬ 
 other of the same family, the Callidae . There was also a 
 great sacrificial rite performed, who or what the victim, is 
 not very clear; but the herald of the sacrifice, the hiero~ 
 ceryx was always there. 16 The new initiates were not per¬ 
 mitted to eat flesh. Even the hierophant or initiating 
 priest was required to live on low diet that passion might 
 be restrained during the ordeal. 11 He drank a decoction of 
 hemlock which had the effect to benumb the sensibilities, a 
 thing exceedingly appropriate at the moment of this ex 
 tatic enjoyment, where, if we are to believe Maury, a critic 
 well credited and much quoted on this subject, all around, 
 the voluptuous nobles of both sexes take their turns. The 
 unscrupulus dictionnaire universel , 18 quoting from the above 
 
 l* Creuzer, Synibolik und Mylhologie der aXtm VOUcer, 
 
 11 Larousse, Dictionnaire Universel, Art. Lee Kleusinient. 
 
 is “On repreeentait dans une sorte de drame hieratiqne le raptde la fllle Pro¬ 
 serpine. On passait par le veritable rencontre du Bacrament.” Art. Myst'eres 
 Eleusiniens. For an account of this extraordinary symbolism among the abor¬ 
 iginal Americans see Bancroft’s Native Races, III. p 607. Is it not a 
 possible thing that this symbolism may have come to the Aleuts and Pepiies 
 from custom as and nt and original as the Eleusinlan mysteries? Ban¬ 
 croft says: “The Pep ies abstained from the r w ves * * * * previous to 
 Bowing, in order to indulge * * * * to the fullest extent on the eve of that 
 day, e' idently with a v ew to initiate or urge he fecundating powers of na¬ 
 ture. It is even said that certain persons were appointed to periorm the 
 sexual act at the moment of planting the first seed. During the b tter 
 cold nights of the Hyperborean winter, the Aleuts, both men and women 
 joined hands n the open air and whirled per ectly naked round certain 
 1 ols, lighted only by the pale moon. The spirit was supposed to hallow 
 the dance with hi prt sence. There certainly could have been no licentious 
 element in this ceremony, :or Betting aside the d.soomfort of dancing naked 
 with the thermometer at zero, we read that the danoei-s were blindfolded, 
 and that decorum was strictly enforced. In Nicaragua, maize sprinkled 
 with blood drawn from the genitals was regarded as sacred food.” Addi¬ 
 tionally to this fact, Bancroft says, (III. p. 606, quoting Palacio, Corta, p. 84] 
 
WILD SCRAMBLE OF INITIATION. 
 
 93 
 
 author has no hesitation in hinting that the great secret 
 which in this case was a veritable sanctum sanctorum , was 
 nothing less than a wild scrambling and voluptuous ero¬ 
 tomania, such as might happen after a feast of wine. 
 Within these penetralia are thus said to have happened an 
 exuberance of voluptuousness, a struggle to feign escape, an 
 agony and a glory of fullest effulgence emblematically rep¬ 
 resenting each, in turn, the process of nature from the time 
 seed is sown in autumn, through the gloom and struggle of 
 winter to the genial spring when the new cereals burst from 
 their first verdure, to their harvest for the nourishment of 
 man. At any rate it is ascertained as certain that there 
 were the course errante, the thalamos or fiastos, the veil of 
 the epoptai , M and all solemnly conducted under the eye of 
 the hierophant and Erechtheis, the priest and priestess of 
 the mysteries. Maury* 0 declares that an entrance into the 
 fourth degree of the Eleusinian mysteries not only secured 
 to the initiate a positive guaranty against the dreaded sup- 
 plicium of Tartarus, or the lower hell, but it insured his 
 felicity in this life also.* 1 
 
 This sketch of the great Eleusinian games may appear to 
 the reader an aberration from our theme, the history of the 
 laborers of ancient times. Not so; for it prepares the way 
 to the student of history from a sociologic point of view, to 
 become acquainted with the grievances the poor were forced 
 to submit to. To be born a degraded wretch, a mere in¬ 
 strument, usable by a master owning one as a thing and 
 handling that thing, its labor, its destiny as an earthy tool, 
 is to a being possessed of sensibilitv and reason, a grievance. 
 It is slavery. When this slave grows into the reasoning 
 being he inwardly rebels against the men and the institu¬ 
 tion by which he is held in bondage. He is wise enough 
 to foresee that his only chances of wriggling out of bond¬ 
 age and of securing riddance from its grievances is by some 
 
 of the aboriginal inhabitants of Honduras and Mexico: “The frequent occur¬ 
 rence of the cross, which has served in ao many and such widely separated 
 parts of the eartn a* the symbol of the life-giving, creative, and fertilizing 
 principle in nature, is, perhaps one of the most striking evidences of the for¬ 
 mer recognition of the reciprocal principles of nature by the Americans: es 
 pectally wnen we remember that the Mexican name for the emblem tonaca- 
 quahuitl, signifies ‘tree of one life or flesh. ’ ” 
 
 19 Plato, Phcedrus, 250, c.; Bbckh, Inzer. 1. 
 
 20 Maury, Histoirc des Religions de la Orhx Antique. 
 
 ® Plato tells us of the Bufferings of those who fail to obtain purgation at the 
 mysteries. Republic, lib. II. cap. 7. L. edition. 
 
04 
 
 TEE MYSTERIES ,. 
 
 institution of liis own ; some court of appeal. Political in 
 stitutions have never given the workingman a court of ap. 
 peals. The workingman has never yet had a hearing ; 22 
 and his reason and experience both point to the terrible fact 
 that no hearing is possible except before his own court of 
 appeals. The trade union is, per se, a true court of appeals. 
 We have seen that the isolated gens or family of nobles, 
 when threatened by the dangers of a growing population, 
 by pirates, by slave insurrections and feuds, organized them¬ 
 selves into phratries, curias, kingdoms, empires and thus 
 found means of submitting their grievances to courts of jus¬ 
 tice for settlement. We have also means of knowing that 
 the laboring element had, on the other hand, commenced the 
 organization of their forces. Of the former there is suffi¬ 
 cient proof; of the latter, as students in the phenomena of 
 ancient social life, we glean here and there fresh proof from 
 inscriptions on tablets of stone which have survived the 
 heedless ages, enabling us to search anew the hitherto 
 vaguely deciphered meanings of expressions of the ancient 
 chroniclers, finding here and there trophies of inestimable 
 worth ; all going to show that the ancient laborers, although 
 hated and hunted everywhere and very early, also formed 
 unions and other courts of appeal against grievances. We 
 find evidence too, that these organizations commenced very 
 early—perhaps coeval with the political organization of the 
 nobles, or even before. 
 
 But the labor movement of this nineteenth century sur¬ 
 rounded by an infinitely more luminous moral atmosphere, 
 is little likely to understand what could possibly have been 
 the grievance of the ancient working people against the 
 Eleusinian games. What objections men will say, couM 
 working people, ignorant as they were in those times, have 
 had to any means of salvation soul and body, from suffer¬ 
 ing. 23 This brings the matter pertinently before us ! The 
 Eleusinian mysteries were simply a religious rite, founded 
 amid the ignorance of an ancient period of our forefathers’ 
 existence. For that era it was enlightened. What then, 
 
 22 See Bristed, Resources of the United States, p. 103, ed. 1818 and hie ref¬ 
 erence to the dismal failure of Lycurgns in sapping the family of its loves and 
 in encouraging cruelty. 
 
 23 Bristed, Idem, p. 392, declares that all nations that have given themselvee 
 up to erratic irregularities, “every species of profligacy” have done so ae a con. 
 sequence of irrelfgion. 
 
CONFLICT OF CLASSES AT THE CRUSADE. 95 
 
 could the lowly who performed the world’s drudgery, have 
 encouraged, in opposition to it? 
 
 Those who thus interrogate, do bo in the absence of an 
 understanding of the question. The laboring classes, though 
 socially degraded, had sensitive feelings. They, like their 
 masters, were believers in the common religion and its 
 forms. They cannot be blamed for that. But while they 
 saw their masters favored with what they thought to be 
 glories of religion, they found themselves utterly excluded. 
 No one at Athens who was a slave, or his descendant could 
 secure admittance. In fir later times even Christians who 
 were the descendants of slaves and consequently mostly of 
 the laboring element, were denied admittance. The gates, 
 from the remotest era were arbitrarily closed against the 
 workers who labored to produce the means of subsistence 
 for the rich. The gorgeous telesteria, and pilasters of the 
 great temple of Megaron, were, by the outcasts, only to be 
 gazed upon and marveled at from a distance. The Calliades 
 who inherited the priesthood were all of noble blood. The 
 common rabble might get into the caravan and through the 
 dust and din march unobserved from Athens to Eleusis. 
 They might, as in the procession of our modern camp¬ 
 meeting, become inspired with the occasion and imbued 
 with the frenzy of faith, or even dare to picture themselves 
 worthy to participate. But the order of such a man’s rank 
 was soon manifestsd by the missiles, hisses, jeers and attacks 
 against the throng, himself included, by his own people who 
 gathered on the wayside and threw derision and vented 
 spite in turbulence and often force against all the crusaders 
 alike. On his arrival his case became hopeless, for a rigid 
 examination by officers of the law soon detected his meaner 
 rank and caused his expulsion. None but the darlings of 
 the family constituted gentea were deemed fit for admission 
 to the holy altar. 
 
 We mean by this that the working man was too low in 
 the estimation of the devotees of the Pagan temple to be 
 the possessor of an immortal soul. 84 Now let the questioner 
 
 24 Plato, Laws, vi; Homer, Odessey . XVII. c. 322, 323; Horace, Sermo, I 
 The ancient idea was that those who failed to get through the flat earth from 
 this, the mortal side, to the other which was heaven, Elysium, perished. Plato 
 the great idealist wrote (Gorgias, 168 73; Phcedo , 77, 139; Rep. c 13), several 
 Intensely interesting details on the wahderings and gropings of the Boal on whose 
 waxen tablet is indelibly stamped virtues and sins for Khadamanthas and th« 
 
THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 consider that these outcasts were human beings of the same 
 natural stock, against whom natural laws of heredity had 
 made no discrimination; that they were as bright, as clear, 
 as conscious, as well developed and intelligent as their mas¬ 
 ters, were often their masters’ children ; that they some¬ 
 times rose supremely to eminence despite the pitiless con¬ 
 tempt and mountain-like obstacles they had to contend with 
 —let the objector observe these things in a practical way 
 and he will be furnished a true key to one cause of the dis¬ 
 satisfaction and counter organization of laborers of ancient 
 times, for securing a court that might hear their appeals. 
 The world at that period was divided into two classes, the 
 pious and the impious , 26 which means the nobles, born of the 
 
 g ods and entitled to go back to the gods, and the earth- 
 orns, doomed to delve for their masters and at death go 
 back to the earth. But although this was recognized as an 
 old belief coming from the institution of slavery in which 
 the most liberal of men could only acknowledge them to 
 be more than half furnished with an immortal principle , 26 
 yet the intelligence of the outcasts rebelled against it. 
 Would not men under such circumstances naturally consider 
 this a great grievance ? In our own times, when all men 
 are admitted to be born equal—times compared with those 
 old days being as the dazzle of noonday to the obscurity of 
 morning twilight—in our own free civilization the working 
 people combine upon economic issues, their equality of 
 right to heaven unquestioned; but those people imagined 
 themselves suffering a humiliating grievance when the 
 haughty disclaimer was flung into their face that they 
 were too mean to expect either a present or a future. If 
 then, they gnashed with anguish, or even vengeance or se¬ 
 cretly took measures to get even with this oppression, it 
 was but an effort to express a grievance. 
 
 We make these statements to show why in ancient times 
 the labor movement took different phases from these we see 
 on every hand about us. We do this because we are about 
 to bring forward proof that there existed an opposition to 
 
 other post mortem judges to examine. Those, each as slaves supposed to have 
 no souls, were denied even a burial. They were burned. 
 
 25 Consult chapter 3 of Granier’s Hist, des Classes Ouvribres , pp. 48-71. The 
 sritic should carefully study his magnificent array of notes. 
 
 2 « Plato, Laws, ix. half a soul; Tim, xviii.; IxxL, Homer, Odessey, lib XVII; 
 Aristotle declared that the children of the noble masters, w ho were born slaves' 
 aonld be only animated beings. 
 
CLUES OF COMPARATIVE TESTIMONY. 
 
 97 
 
 the whole philosophy based on the slave code and to the 
 religion that denied the equality of man. The first thing 
 is to produce proof that the working people resented 
 their exclusion from the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 
 To do this it will be necessary to indulge in a little cir¬ 
 cumlocution, as the evidence is very vague and indirect. It 
 is in fact, new ground. However much there may lie con¬ 
 cealed in support of this important fact which we propose 
 to establish, it must be confessed that such evidence lies in 
 moldering inappreciation and neglect. Did the laboring 
 or outcast element of that ancient era resent and combine 
 against the system that ignored them soul and body? 
 
 We have proof that they did; but in adducing this proof 
 hold claim to the right to draw inferences from the exist¬ 
 ence and career of as many different forms of labor and 
 socialistic organizations as we can hunt out from the gloom 
 of tyranny and oblivion. With this range of the whole 
 field assumed to be conceded, we shall produce before the 
 critic what we can find of all sorts of organizations bearing 
 upon the point, and where the link of evidence becomes 
 broken in the chain of chronology, shall feel perfectly ex¬ 
 onerated for drawing upon the plausibly imaginative in 
 order to restore that link. The fact that, as an anthropol¬ 
 ogist we are undertaking to write a history of ethics from 
 a standpoint of sociology, entitles us to a right to scientifi¬ 
 cally use all the strategy of comparative testimony. By 
 these remarks is meant the trade union, the co-operative so¬ 
 ciety, the burial society, the society for social amusement 
 among the lowly, the agrarian foment, the social wars, 
 even to some extent the sophist and Pythagorean social¬ 
 ism, the ascetic Essenianism and finally the grand culmi¬ 
 nation of all, Christianity. All these strictly belong to 
 the true social history of the ancient lowly; for all their 
 membership was originally of freedmen and slave origin. 
 
 In order to answer the question properly it is necessary 
 to glance a moment at the social history of the Grecian 
 peninsula. As early as 1055 B. C. there had been a hor¬ 
 rible murder or massacre of the Helots or slaves and their 
 descendants at Sparta. It was in the mythical ages; but 
 great events even among the poor and ignorant have a 
 certain faculty of transmitting their history through tradi¬ 
 tion. It has come down to us through poetry and song, 
 
98 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 through hints of ancient history, through honest Plutarch, 
 and we are assured as to the assassinations which were 
 from time to time perpetrated upon the defenseless work¬ 
 ing people of that time. We also know that these poor crea¬ 
 tures who were to the body politic of those people what the 
 bones are to the body, had unions for self protection. 
 Still further it is known that they enjoyed the right to 
 organize. It has been ascertained that the slaves them¬ 
 selves actually possessed protective societies 2 ’ and consid¬ 
 ering the free and intelligent classes whence they were 
 derived it is quite natural that they should have possessed 
 them. Especially is this possible among the helots or 
 slaves of Lacedaemon. They were, as we have seen, slaves 
 by inheritance, often their wealthy masters* own children. 
 They were prisoners of war, forcibly reduced to that 
 wretched condition by being beaten in the war with 
 Helos ; and later in the great Messenian war, when Sparta 
 became the victor in that conflict, those brave, proud, in¬ 
 genius Greeks along with all of the two above mentioned 
 classes, were humiliated, subjugated, degraded to the 
 
 27 It is known that they did at a later period; Cf. Liiders, Die Dionysischen 
 Kfinztler, S. 22 & 47. This author mentions a very interest ng inscription 
 (Bockh, Corpus Infer ip tionum Grcecarum. I. p. 417), that lias come to lLht, 
 at or near Pergamus, which shows that slaves belonged to the eranoi or union 
 of mechanics. On page 46, Liiders says “Bezeichnend fiir den Charakter 
 des Vereinswesens der spateren Zeit ist es, dafs auch Sclaven nicht allein 
 an einem Eranos sich betheiligen, sondern auchunter sich ein religiose* Col¬ 
 legium mit Unterstiitzungscasse bilden druften. Fiir den von Sclaven benutz- 
 ten Eranos bieten zablreiche Beispiele die unlangst in Delphi ge undenen 
 Freilassungsurkunden. Das Collegium Rhodischer Sclaven zu Ehren des 
 Zeus Atabyrios (Aio? ’Ara/SapiairTai 7(ov ras jtoAios Sov\<av”). So also in p. 47, 
 Liiders further corroborates the facts that slaves belonged to the unions: ”Dass 
 ab< r Vereine von einiger Bedeutung auch Sclaven zur Bedienuna hatten, ist 
 natiirlich; Kraton hatte als Prie-ter des von ihm gestifteten Collegiums der 
 Attalisten testamentarisc*' xlem Thiasos unter anderem Tempel- nnd Haus- 
 gerath auch Sclaven vermacht. Auf den Reliefs aus Nicaa haben w r in den 
 nm das Mahl bes liaftigten und in den Mnsicirenden Personen Sclaven er- 
 kannt.” On page 22, Liiders has already mentioned this Kraton, in proof of 
 the membership as slaves: “Kraton, giinstling der Attalen und hochansre- 
 sehnes M tglied und Priester der grossen Synodus Dionysischer Techniten in 
 Teos, hatte nach seiner glazenden Aufnahme an dem Hofe von Pergemos dort 
 aus dem Verbande derKiinstler einen Verein von Tliiasoten zu Ehreu der 
 Pervamenischen Konige gestiftet, dessen Mitglieder sich AttoAic rrai nennen.” 
 Farther on in he same page, he shows that Kraton made the union a present 
 of his own slaves when he died; probably, as Foucart shows that they some¬ 
 times did, (Mem. sur I’affranchissement des esclaves par forme de vente a une divinity 
 p. 28), m order to set them free. “In seinem Testamente endlich. von dem 
 uns, so wie von jenem Briefe, ein Fragment erhalten ist, verma< ht er dem 
 verbande eine ansehnli he Geldsumme, damit sie aus den Zinsen ihre Op- 
 fer und lestlichen Znsammenkiinfte bestritten den Statuten gemafs 
 iv TTi vo/xodecria npos eKaaru)!' SiaTeTa\ev). Das Mobiliar des Verein hausi S, da* 
 Geschirr zu den Opfern und Mahlzeiten und der feierlichen Pompe, da- in 
 dem erhaltenen Theile des Testament aufgeziihlt wird, hinterliess er dem 
 Verein nebst einer Anzahl Sclaven zu dauerndem Bbsitz. 
 
PROOF THAT SLAVES WERE ORGANIZED. 99 
 
 same servile condition. But although the body was 
 bowed down to servitude, the mind remained to play its 
 fancies, to plot and plan, to concoct in secret; and lan¬ 
 guage was also theirs—a facile tongue—rich in versatility 
 of idiom; full of thrilling nuance and touching charm. 
 The powerful physique was tbere, the love of adventure, 
 the Greek cravings for a better lot, with fortitude, dash 
 and intrepidity which form the gallant characteristics of 
 that grand people—all these the workingmen of high an¬ 
 tiquity possessed. More than this, they had intelligence 
 enough to know that the cruelties they suffered were un¬ 
 just. If then, we hear through the scintillations of the 
 fragments that there were uprisings, social turmoils and 
 wars, we know them to have been the natural outcome of 
 such a state of things, and nothing to be wondered at. 
 
 N ow we have promised to adduce proof that there were 
 unions of Greeks who resisted the public insult of the 
 great Eleusinian mysteries which denied to the slaves and 
 their descendants, the freedmen, all hope of happiness 
 here and hereafter. 28 We simply desire, in order to clear 
 up the vagaries, to consider, in our inquiry, the whole of 
 Greece at a time. 
 
 Scanning the social condition of the slaves from evidence, 
 we find plenty of assurance that they belonged to the 
 state. The state leased them out. The state, from the 
 primitive family, was organized for purposes of defense. 2 * 
 The family first possessed the slave. Slaves became more 
 numerous than families. They did all the labor and were 
 allowed no privileges. So they rebelled. Some ran away, 
 hid in fastnesses, became dangerous brigands. They be¬ 
 came organized. Then the rich families organized them¬ 
 selves into fratries and other forms. As the slaves had 
 belonged to the families, so now they belonged to the fra¬ 
 tries. This means that as the slaves were before private 
 property, so now they, or some of them, became public 
 
 28 Plutarch, Theseus, speaks of the demagogue Menestheus who, about 1180 
 before Christ rose up against the tyranny of the aristocrats at Athens, with the 
 claim that the people also had a right to be initiated into the Eleusinian myster¬ 
 ies. Even at that remote periocfthere must have been between the poor and 
 lowly and the rich and lordly, great struggles regarding this grievance. 
 
 29 Morgan. Ancient Society, chap, ii : Drumann, Arbeiter und Communislen 
 in GHeclientand und Rom , S. 24; “In Epidamnis gab es keine Hanwerker als die 
 ofTentlichen Sklaven.” ; “Das Handwork ist daher verrufen und verachtet,” Sl 
 26; Aristotle, Politic, ii. 4, § 13. 
 
too 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 property, This was a political sequence upon the organ¬ 
 ization of the families into fratries and the consolidation 
 of the fratries into the state. Of course the rich family 
 still kept as many servants as it needed; but large num¬ 
 bers remained with the public domain. These state slaves 
 formed into organizations. 30 From the earliest mythical 
 accounts down to 58 years before Christ we find evidences 
 abundantly proving that the law gave work-people the 
 especial right to organize not only in Rome but also in 
 Greece. The celebrated Law of the Twelve Tables which 
 specified the manner of organization of workingmen, is 
 declared by the commentators to be a translation from the 
 Greek laws of Solon. 81 
 
 The Twelve Tables clearly set down the arrangement, 
 ordaining that the trade unions should remain in obedi¬ 
 ence to the law of the state. The unions fellow, d the law, 
 and Gaiiis wrote the law thus fixed, so plainly that Justi- 
 nian incorporated it into the digest. A fragment of the 
 law of Solon 32 shows plainly that trades unions were com¬ 
 mon and tolerated by that lawgiver. A strong cumulative 
 evidence that the slaves belonging to the state were enor¬ 
 mously organized into protective association, is found in 
 the fact that they succeeded in their insurrections against 
 the masters. An important example of these slave in¬ 
 surrections is given of the miners. 83 In Attica they once 
 rebelled, and marched upon the town near the silver 
 mines, occupying the castle of Sunion. These people 
 were called “ tlietes” or “ demoes .” 
 
 In Athens the fact of their manumission did not make 
 them anything above mere earth-borns. They could de¬ 
 velop genius, become teachers, philosophers, poets and 
 bus.,mss men. Sometimes they rose to positions of wealth, 
 even themselves becoming master-builders, and some of 
 them were the greatest sculptors and painters the world 
 ever produced; but the taint of servility was born in their 
 blood. Phidias the most celebrated sculptor, ancient 
 or modern, was a descendant of the slaves. He was 
 
 soLlldere, Dionyschischen Kunstler. S. 46; Wescher-Foucart Inscriptions da 
 Delphes, pp S9, 107, 139, 244, giving abundant evidence 
 
 si Gains, Digest, lib XLVII. tit. xsii leg. 4; Plutarch, Numa 
 
 32 Granier, Histoire des Clssses Ouvribres <£c pp. 283-7. 
 
 33 Consult the E ncyclopedias, Articles on Slavery ; also for instances of 
 Asiatic slaves joining the rebellion of Aristonicus, see Infra, chapter ix. 
 
GENIUS OF THE FOREFATHERS. 
 
 101 
 
 really a freedman. He built the propylae of the Parthe¬ 
 non, and with his skillful hand made the beautiful and co¬ 
 lossal statues of Athena and the wonderful chryselephan¬ 
 tine statue of the Olympian Zeus. Parrhasius, one of the 
 finest painters, who transmitted to the Italian schools the 
 art of delineations, was, in all probability a freedman. 
 Demosthenes in his terrible vehemence pronounced 
 .ZEschines a son of a freedman. That alone probably had 
 a strong tendency toward deciding the great case against 
 iEschines, whose mighty genius, though the outcome of 
 lowly parentage, well-nigh brought to the scaffold the 
 greatest orator of ancient or modern days. In these 
 bright years of our nineteenth century, such scurrile slurs 
 as Demosthenes hurled against his enemy, which were 
 used to incite contempt, would be thought an insult upon 
 the act of labor. Innumerable were the marvels of genius 
 among the Greeks, and as innumerable the deprecatory 
 innuendoes, the cowardly jealousies, the surreptitious re¬ 
 venges that were seated and sealed in the accident of 
 birth. Much of the greater and lesser broils may be at¬ 
 tributed to it. 
 
 Our object in this divergence is to give, from a reading of 
 the past, in the spirit of sociological research, the fact that 
 the lowly of the Greek population were organized to a large 
 extent, against this scathing grievance, the taint of labor. 
 
 That the slaves belonged in great numbers to the state 
 is seen by any one who consults the law of Lycurgus. 84 
 It must be most distinctly understood that the great law 
 of Lycurgus was intended only for the development and 
 enjoyment of the two favored classes of Lacedaemonian 
 society—the Spartans and Periceci. He belonged to the 
 Eurystheneid line of Spartan kings. An aristocrat by 
 birth and according to Herodotus, living about a thous¬ 
 and years before our era, he would not permit the third 
 class or working people even to taste of the advantages 
 of his system—otherwise almost a perfect socialism if we 
 except its heathenish immodesty and blood-thirst. The 
 land he divided into 9,000 lots for the Spartans who were 
 
 MPlutarcn, Lycurgus ; “It is not worth while to take much painias to riches 
 since (hey are of no account; ami the Helots (slaves) who tilled the ground, 
 were answerable for the produce mentioned 5 And a few lines farther on: “So 
 much ben< a h them they estimated every thought of mechanic arts as well as 
 wish for ricties.’’ 
 
102 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 fewest in numbers, 30,000 lots for the Periceci or Laconic 
 ans who were more numerous in proportion. The poor 
 Helots or work-people and descendants from slaves got 
 nothing although their proportionate numbers were three 
 to one. This hegemony of Greece incorporated into it¬ 
 self the most degrading slavery to be found in the world’s 
 history. Lycurgus although to his favorite people per¬ 
 haps in many respects a model, was towards those he ar¬ 
 rogantly assumed to be beneath him—the laboring class— 
 the model of a monster. His system of the ambuscade “ 
 disgusted even Plato, who was a believer in slavery. 
 Plato’s great heart turned away in loathing from such a 
 stupendous abomination. The ambuscade, a diabolism 
 that should blacken any age, could exist only in a country 
 where calm, cold-blooded contempt gets the better of the 
 warmer emotions. In looking over the lofty but ghastly 
 eloquence of Cicero, whose implacable contempt for the 
 working people in later times cost him his life, we have 
 the nearest parallel to inveterate hate. 
 
 No historigrapher can hereafter afford to neglect the 
 inhuman butcheries perpetrated by the ambuscade; since 
 they differed from the massacres of Stone Henge, of Saint 
 Bartholomew, of the Incas, of the Mamelukes, of Wyoming, 
 in being consummated at moments of profoundest peace; 
 at moments when the innocent victims were wrapt in the 
 fiendish assassins’ service, sweating in the fields, at the 
 mill, with the flocks, on the provision market, producing, 
 garnering and distributing the food, the clothing, the 
 shelter which their heartless butchers were consuming 
 without gratitude, to invigorate their veins whereby to 
 accomplish such treacheries! 
 
 Just before reciting these horrors let us revert to the 
 victim. He was primarily the slave by the ancient family 
 law of entail and primogeniture. The shackles of abject 
 servitude were first inherited through the humiliating law 
 of entails which fixed the heir of the patrimony, the first 
 born son, as a lord to be served, worshiped, immortalized, 
 and blessed; his children to be chattels, subjected, forced 
 to labor, distrusted, branded and cursed." 
 
 35 For more on the Cfryptia, eee Plutarch, Lycurgut. 
 
 ae Fustel de Coulanges, Cite Antique, tivre 2, La J-'amUU ; Otmaigr 4* Gtofc* 
 tgnac. Histloire ties Classes Ouvri'eres, chap 3, 
 
FLOGGED ONCE A DAY 
 
 103 
 
 Next, after this primary calamity came the slaves of war; 
 whole communities taken, carried off by the captors and 
 degraded to slavery and its concomitant curse , 37 as in the 
 case of the Messenian war with Sparta. Lastly the slave 
 trade;—three great ancient systems. Under these he 
 suffered torments which no pen of mortal will ever por¬ 
 tray. He was known by his dress, sometimes going in 
 rags equivalent to nudity, in gangs under a brutal boss. 
 Sometimes, in this condition, man along with woman, 
 destitute of means of being decent, dragging the long 
 day among the fields and flocks; dogskin hats and sheep¬ 
 skin breeches, which survive longest the wear of the 
 wearer, and often totally nude. They were each flogged 
 once a day as an admonition, though having committed 
 no offence and forbidden to learn the manly arts. They 
 were obliged to stoop and crouch in piteous obsequious¬ 
 ness to these drivers lest jealous tyranny interpret their 
 upright posture to be an assumption of the estate of man¬ 
 hood . 88 Such was the condition of the workingman of 
 Sparta which, above all other countries whereof we dis¬ 
 cover a historic trace, was the most pitiless toward the 
 slave. And the most shameful phase of this confession is 
 the cruel fact that all this was precept of the Lycurgan 
 law! 
 
 We must return to the cryptia or ambuscade of the law 
 of Lycurgus. These Helots or working people, state-slaves 
 of Lacedaemon, lived and performed much of their labor 
 in the rural districts. The law of Lycurgus provided for 
 the election, annually, of five magistrates or overseers, 
 called ephori, whose function was to strengthen and 
 heighten the principles of democracy that the happiness 
 of the people might be equalized. Plutarch’s doubts as to 
 whether Lycurgus instituted the ephori seem to be dis¬ 
 pelled by his acknowledgment that both Plato and Aris¬ 
 totle thought so . 89 One of the functions of this institu- 
 
 JElian, HUtoria Varia. I. i.; Athenaeus. Deipnosophistce. vl; Xenophon 
 Memorabilia , 8, 6. § 2 ; Bticher. Aufstdnde der unfreien Arbeiter S. 36 ; All 
 of these authors also Livy give evidence on the enslavraent of men taken in war, 
 
 as “The Ephori indeed, declared war against them! Against whom? Why 
 poor, naked slaves who tilled their lands, dressed their food and did all those 
 offices for them which they were too proud to do for themselves.” Cf. Piutarch, 
 Lycurgus , note in Laughome’s tr. 
 
 3» Plato, Republic , Dissertation on Lacedcemon; Aristotle, Politic , v. ascribes 
 their origin to a later period of the law’s existence than that of the 1 awsriver'* 
 'f.>t hn >. Movertheless they are the outcome of the great law of Lycurgus. 
 
104 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 tion for the promotion of popular democracy was to see 
 that the ambuscade was well carried out. All that was 
 meant by the term people was the people who owned the 
 land, either by parcel or as government property together 
 with the slaves and other chattels of that property. This 
 means that the really worthless and indolent non-pro¬ 
 ducers were the people. The useful majority of the in¬ 
 habitants, the working population, were entirely ignored, 
 contemptously denied every vestige of participation in 
 this much boasted government, although there exists abun¬ 
 dance of evidence that they were naturally intelligent and 
 as worthy as their masters, of enjoying the product of 
 their labor in this state of democracy. 
 
 Instead of this, the ephori ordained that a certain num¬ 
 ber of young men from among the aristocrats should, at 
 their command, arm themselves with daggers, and pro¬ 
 vided with a sort of knapsack with provisions, secretly 
 sneak off into the mountains and jungles. 40 The distances 
 these legalized assassins were required to go varied very 
 much. These youths had governors who had the power 
 to order them to do as the ephori should determine. The 
 governors, whenever the ephori voted a new slaughter ol 
 the working people, called together the smartest and most 
 able bodied of these young men, armed them with dag¬ 
 gers, sharpened and gleaming for the occasion." At the 
 same time the inhuman overseers whom we may with due 
 propriety call bosses, in accord with a technical significa¬ 
 tion fully adopted by the prevailing labor movement of 
 to-day, were ordered to see to it that the toilers should 
 be without arms or means of any kind with which to de¬ 
 fend themselves when suddenly set upon by the amateur 
 Spartan soldier, dagger in hand. With all these odds 
 against them the poor, unsuspecting, half naked working 
 people were driven by the bosses, as usual into the field, 
 the mill, the kitchen and the various places of service 
 wherever required to eke the drudgery of a sun-and-sun 
 summer day of toil. Meantime the assassins were laying 
 in wait in the vicinity for their prey. It was a manly 
 sport! The law of Lycurgus made more compulsory 
 than any other code on earth, the provisions of manly 
 
 <0 Plutarch Lycurgus , whore these horror* are nUtai 
 
 « Thucydides. Dc BeUo Peloponnesiaoo, liber IV. 80. 
 
THE ASSASSINS' SPORT. 
 
 105 
 
 gymnastics. This was one of them. It was sport!" By 
 the exercise of this manly sport the youth’s blood flowed 
 stronger, his muscles grew, his body waxed athletic; he 
 digested with a better relish the food his blood-begrimed 
 victim had in the morning prepared for him before liis 
 murderous weapon slashed and pierced her gentle heart. 
 We quote from Plutarch. No one ever speaks illy of Plu¬ 
 tarch. His means of knowing facts were better than ours, 
 and his kind nature even in the barbarous age in which 
 he lived, revolted against the consistency of such a democ¬ 
 racy. He says: 4 * 
 
 “ The governors of the youth ordered the shrewdest of 
 them from time to time to disperse themselves in the 
 country, provided only with daggers and some necessary 
 provisions. In the day time they hid themselves and rested 
 in the most private places they could find; but at night 
 they sallied out into the roads and killed all the Helots 
 they could meet with. Nay, sometimes by day, they fell 
 upon them in the fields and murdered the ablest and 
 strongest of them .” 44 
 
 These are specimens of authentic history of the lowly 
 as they have passed through a transition period of un¬ 
 numbered centuries, from abject slavery to a Christian 
 democracy which recognizes all men as equal and provides 
 for them precepts for equal enjoyment. But before quit¬ 
 ting these chambers of cruelty and carnage it remains our 
 sad duty to recount what modern hisWinns well know, 
 but seldom divulge—the great assassination. It happened 
 during the Peloponnesian war. This account comes from 
 the trusted and reliable historian Thucydides, who lived 
 at the time and made it his business for many years to 
 keenly observe what transpired, during that long and 
 tedious struggle of seven and twenty years. The story is 
 briefly told by him. Dressed and reflected upon in our 
 own way it appears in substance as follows: 
 
 During the great Peloponnesian war, one of the most 
 renowned in antiquity, the forces of the army sometimes 
 became decimated and it was necessary to recruit them 
 
 *»K. O. Mfiller In DU Dorier, denies this; but the evidence is too strong 
 against him. Again, Mllller’s opinion regarding their “aboriginal descent” has 
 been completely overturned. 
 
 « Plutarch s Lycurgus. 
 
 *<Idem; Cf. tr. of the Langhornes Vol T. op. 63 4. 
 
106 
 
 THE MYSTERIES l 
 
 from whatever source possible. When, therefore, there 
 were no more soldiers to be had from among the Spartans 
 and Perioeci or recognized citizens, the military authori¬ 
 ties were obliged to call out the laboring men who, at the 
 time of the Peloponnesian war, were three to four times 
 more numerous than the non-laboring class. This in an¬ 
 cient times was always a humiliation. War was the noble 
 occupation, labor the ignoble one. To ask a person in 
 disgrace to assist the nobles out of trouble was equivalent 
 to humiliating confession. If then, the laborer, in a great 
 emergency was marshaled to the rescue, the only way to 
 blot out the stain such a humiliation entailed was to en¬ 
 franchize this warrior from social thraldom and thus 
 stanch the blot by elevating him from the fetters of bond¬ 
 age. If further, the bondsman after performing the ser¬ 
 vice manfully, redeeming his masters by bravery and valor, 
 earning his liberty by saving their lives and preserving 
 their realm from wreck, could be secretly murdered after 
 such decree of manumission was administered, it would 
 save the proud masters many a disagreeable jeer, painful 
 wince and blush of shame when reminded that their ex¬ 
 istence and happiness was due to the daring and fidelity 
 of a hated menial who still shocked their pride with his 
 presence. 
 
 It came to pass that this humiliating expedient was in- 
 dispensible to save the nation from irretrievable ruin and 
 thousands of the enslaved laborers were marshaled and 
 drilled into the army. They were not allowed to bear 
 heavy arms; that would have been a still greater disgrace. 
 So they bore light arms and bore them gallantly. After 
 serving through many a tedious campaign probably of 
 years’ duration, after winning victories in many a skirm¬ 
 ish and in many a field and earning the full measure of their 
 promised reward, after seeing the Lacedaemonian armies 
 victorious at every hand and the great war prosperously 
 advancing toward triumph for the southern Greeks, there 
 were brought before the military tribunal for dismissal 
 over two thousand workingmen who had proved truest 
 in arms and been adjudged worthiest of liberty. Their 
 faithful hands had valiantly borne the standard of an un¬ 
 grateful country. Their strong hearts had never flinched 
 either before their sullen discipline or the cleaving blades 
 
MURDER OF 2,000 FIELD-HANDS 
 
 107 
 
 of the combatants. Their fiery zeal and fearless blows 
 had won the victory and earned the liberty which, before 
 this august council, proudly they heard pronounced. Over 
 2,000 slaves who toiled for masters were thus regularly 
 enfranchised and marched into a temple or other enclo¬ 
 sure or field—no mortal knows or ever will know what— 
 to take the oath of freedom. 
 
 But the anxious wives and children waited and wept 
 long before these brave men came to gladden their hovel 
 homes. For here we come to the recital of one of the 
 darkest pages of history. Still more painful is this page 
 because blotted. Too foully blotted for perusal; since, 
 aside from a ghastly blood-stain that smirches its story in 
 mysterious gloom, it is written in the almost undecipher¬ 
 able hieroglyphs of reticent shame. Thucydides blushes 
 for this lurid page; 45 but unlike the unmanly historians of 
 the past who have cringed in the presence of truth which 
 could not port the flattery of lords and masters of high 
 degree, he bravely told us all he knew. And what he 
 knew is enough to make the blood run cold. 46 Besides, 
 it comes to us subscribed to by Plato, 47 Aristotle 48 and 
 Plutarch, 49 on whose minds, if we catch aright their words, 
 this massacre we are going to relate made an impression 
 bo strong as to waver the tone of these great philosophers’ 
 belief in slavery 47 and seriously color their dialectics. 
 
 « Thucydides during the Peloponnesian war for the hegemony of Greece, 
 commanded a division of the Athenian marine force; but being out-generaled 
 at Amphipolis by Braidas went for twenty years into exile and du ring that 
 time used his wealth and talent writing the celebrated history which has 
 
 come down to us. 
 
 46 Thucydides, De Bello Peloponnesiaco, liber IV. cap. 80. “Kal S.pa twi/ 
 EiAwTcij/ /SovAopeVois Tjv «ttI irpo<$>d<ret eKnep\ljai t prj ti 7rpos ra napovra rijs IIvAov 
 «X°M e Vjjs ^'ec^>T<fpc<^w(Ttl/ , iirel Kai Tofie enpafeav, (f>oflovpevot avriov rrjv veorrjTa Kai 
 to v\y0os (del vap ra 7roAAd Aa/ceSaipoiaot? 7rpos rows ElAwras rfjs <f>v\aKrjs nepi 
 paAtara Ka0e<^TJ}K€l)• npoetnov avruv o<roi a£tovotv ev rols woAejuiois yeyevqada 
 <r<f>l<riv aptoroi, Kptveadat, u>s eAevDepcoaovres, iretpav noi.ovp.evot Kai riyovpevot 
 tovtovs aiptatv virb (f>povrjpaTOi, o'inep Kai ij£uo<rav irpSiros e/cacrros eAvdepovadai 
 pdAtara av Kai entdecrdat. Kal irpoKpivavres is bur^iAiovs oi pev icrre^avijjaavTo 
 r« Kal ra iepa ireptriAOov <!>s i)Aev6epopevoi- Oi be ov iroAAy vartpov r)<j)dvtadv 
 T« avrovs Kai oi)8eis -qaOeTO or<f rpontp tKaaros 5ie<f>dapij. M 
 
 47 Plato, De Republica, Dissertation on Model State. 
 
 48 Aristotle, Politic, V. 
 
 49 Plutarch, Lycurgus, cap. 28. This massacre occurred under Brasidas, 
 in B. C. 424. iElian, Hlstoria Varia, I. 1, says that in Greece the supersti¬ 
 tious belief everywhere prevailed that these cruelties to the poor slaves caused 
 a judgment from heaven upon the Spartans, in form of an earthquake, B. C. 
 467, by which 20,000 people lost their lives. This must have been before the 
 massacre described and proves the frequency of those horrible deeds of the 
 Ephori and their tutored and organized assassins. For later comments on this 
 earthquake at Sparta and the superstitious terrors believed to come from their 
 cruelty to slaves, see McCullagh, Industrial History of Free Nations, I. p. 6. 
 
THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 lot 
 
 This much is known that during the time these 2,000 
 or more soldiers were going through the ordeal of being 
 garlanded, crowned, distinguished and conducted to the 
 temple of the gods to receive their first beatitude, their 
 blessing and reward for bravery, the ephori were busily 
 and secretly making out a declaration of war, arming the 
 valorous young men and giving them instructions to crawl 
 cat-like upon them with the assassin’s daggers ! No more 
 is known; for here the page is torn beyond recovery. But 
 enough is known. The happy braves all disappear for¬ 
 ever. Naught but a dark and spectral mystery broods 
 over this page of history. The workingmen had received 
 the emoluments of their hire at the hand of an assassin 
 democracy! 
 
 The careful student of history from a standpoint of so¬ 
 cial science may pick up evidence that to some extent even 
 the Helots were organized. Facts continually crop out in 
 the records showing that these degraded doers of Spartan 
 labor under the law of Lycurgus, unable to resist the ex¬ 
 actions, raised insurrections against their tormentors, and 
 that thev sometimes got the better of them. In almost 
 every other part of Greece they are known to have been 
 organized into many forms of associative self-support by 
 which they were able to command more respect. We re¬ 
 turn to Athens. 
 
 The fact must not be lost sight of that at Athens as 
 everywhere among the Aryans, there were two distinct 
 classes by birth—the nobles, claiming to be descended 
 from the gods, and the earth-borns who went back to 
 earth. The first would not work if they could possibly 
 avoid it; at least this may be said of the men. The lat¬ 
 ter did most of the work; not only the menial drudgery 
 but the skilled labor of building the magnificent temples 
 and other public edifices whose imposing ruins are still a 
 wonder of the now living age. To the credit, of we man 
 in high life be it said that sometimes the mater/amilias 
 spun and wove, according to some testimony of Plato. 
 There are two important facts to be considered: In 
 Greece, Borne and elsewhere in Kurope and western Asia, 
 northern Africa and the islands, the working people 
 greatly outnumbered the non-workers. In Greece they 
 wore three and four times more numerous. Again, they 
 
LAND AND WORK-HANDS P UBLIC GOODS , 109 
 
 were often chatties of that state. The land belonged to 
 the state and the laborers who tilled the land went with 
 it. This as we shall see. became in Italy, under the gen¬ 
 erous laws of Numa, a great benefit for them which they 
 enjoyed for about 500 years. In Greece the land also 
 belonged to the state ; but the cruel law of Lycurgus 
 which was instituted 1,000 years before Ciirist and held 
 good, as Plutarch tells us for 500 years, treated the poor 
 creatures with such flagitious absolutism that they could 
 never enjoy so well as did the Roman laborers, the boon 
 of their own organization. 
 
 The law of Lycurgus was pernicious in its inculcation 
 of the two moral elements of Plato; those of irascibility 
 and concupiscence without sympathy. When a master 
 owns a slave from whom he expects to receive labor pro¬ 
 duct, he finds it for his own advantage to treat him well; 
 otherwise he would not receive the full product of the 
 man’s labor; but when the land belonged to the state and 
 the slaves also, this personal responsibility was smothered 
 with it. Thus hatred and contempt, attributes of Plato’s 
 irascible impulse, constituting one of the bases of moral 
 philosophy, were for ages allowed to develope in the 
 breast of the Spartan. Again, concupiscence or desire, 
 being common or national under the Lycurgan law, was 
 averted from its natural competitive corn’se by a commun¬ 
 ism of gratification without responsibilities and a commun¬ 
 ism of participation; and these with idleness and all the 
 depravity which such deteriorating influences entail, low¬ 
 ered Spartan morality below the plain of sympathy. This 
 unfeeling and inhuman condition of the public mind be¬ 
 came a natural result ultimately destroying the otherwise 
 unhindered plan of Lycurgus. 
 
 Had the law of Lycurgus provided for absolute equality 
 of all men, slave and noble alike, had its communism ap¬ 
 plied to all on exactly equal footing, the common owner¬ 
 ship could have been carried out by the state with greater 
 general happiness and all the cruelty which depraved 
 Spartan life would have been saved to the credit of a splen¬ 
 did people. But that would have been a death blow to 
 the Pagan religion, itself based upon egoism and possible 
 only under a s} r stem of lords and slaves. Thus, with the 
 exception of the taint of labor and its concomitant wrongs 
 
110 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 to the human race, the ancients began radically. They 
 began by having the family egoism of the primordial 
 hearthstone—the first ownership—subdued into common 
 ownership of land and even of children; and had they 
 banished that hideous curse, the taint of labor and added 
 to their other and truly virtuous methods of self culture, 
 the enobling, healthful and thrift-bearing practice of im¬ 
 partial economical labor as a necessary requisite to sanity 
 and wealth they would have taught the world a lesson 
 of advancement instead of one in degeneracy and shame. 
 The same must be said of Athens and the other Grecian 
 states except that none of them are known to have been 
 so cruel and heartless as the Spartans under the Lycur- 
 gan law. 
 
 We have thus sufficiently shown the grievance borne 
 by the ancient working people inciting and goading them 
 to organization. It now remains to be proved that the 
 Greeks of this class, were actually in a substantial state 
 of combination, especially the Athenians, during the ex¬ 
 istence of the Eleusmian games near Athens; a point which 
 throughout the chapter has been the subject in kernel, of 
 our inquiry. This substantiated, we have a startling clue 
 to the causes from a sociological standpoint, of two histor¬ 
 ical phenomena: the social wars and the advent of our era. 
 
 Every recent investigation reveals fresh slabs or drags 
 from the depths of time, earth and oblivion something in 
 proof. Dr. Schliemann, quotes a passage of Homer which 
 shows an explanation comprehensible to us in no other 
 way than that there existed an understanding at that an¬ 
 cient day, between the lower people. A peddler came to 
 the palace with a gold collar set with amber beads, and 
 Homer sang a beautiful verse describing the knowing look 
 that the young prince saw exchanged between the man and 
 the servant woman in the hall while the queen was admir¬ 
 ing the amber necklace. 60 These were the nods and winks 
 
 60 Schliemann, Ttryns; The Pre-historlc Palace, p. 868, containing the 
 passage from Homer. This also suggests that the working people, including 
 house servants, were secretly In league at Mycen® and that the league reached 
 as far as Phoenicia. 
 
 r]\v0' ai’rip jroAiuSpis epov npo c 5o6p.at.Ta irarpos, 
 
 Xpvaeov bpp.ov i\(t)v, /xera 5’ rj A«/cr pouriv iepro • 
 rbv p.iy ap’ iv p.e\apu> Spatial teal jt orvoa prj-njp 
 
 J tpaLv T apaf>a4>olavro, <al 64>0a\pioZa’iv opuiVTOy 
 ror vnii\6pitvaL‘ it Si rjj Karivtvat truoirp* 
 
 $ret o Kavvev4Taf Koi\r)V iwl vr)a 
 
GREAT ANTIQUITY OF LABOR UNIONS. Ill 
 
 of the secret society which were observed but could not 
 be read by the lad. This was in the second millennium 
 before Christ. 
 
 Granier, who must have been a great hunter of facts, ob¬ 
 serves that slavery was originally of the family; not of vio¬ 
 lent origin, 81 precisely what Dr. Fustel de Coulanges has 
 since proved beyond refutation of the most probing com¬ 
 mentators seeking contrary evidence. 53 Of course history 
 gives ponderous testimony that violence was a source of 
 enslavement; but that was not the origin. When our era 
 opened it brought with it an inestimable boon; a pearl 
 of great price; the utter extinction of social class 68 —noth¬ 
 ing less than the long sought revolution. Dr. Cliffe Leslie 
 in an introduction to M. De Laveleye’s “ Primitive Prop¬ 
 erty,” observing the progress of this greatest of all the 
 revolutions which he rightly sees is yet far from being 
 realized though nearly all civilized races have repudiated 
 the curse of slavery, takes the entirely correct view with 
 regard to ownership after the momentous but gradual 
 revolution is past. 64 
 
 It is known that in early Greece the hetairai and the 
 hetairoi were female and male associates of the laboring 
 class, and that they had their legalized association for 
 mutual benefit. From very early times they used their 
 associations, not only for mutual protection against op¬ 
 pression but also for mutual improvement and pleasure. 66 
 
 The celebrated jugglers were mostly members of an or¬ 
 ganization under whose auspices they used their jugglery 
 ad a trade wherewith to gain a living. These are of al¬ 
 most incredibly ancient origin and in Greece many of them 
 were descendants of Egyptian slaves. It is not difficult to 
 prove that at an epoch since which an aeon of time has 
 
 si HUtoire des Classic OuvrtZres, p. 83: **In conclusion, everything leads in 
 the plainest manner to the belief that slavery had no other beginning than that 
 •l Che family entailment of which it constituted an economic part.’* 
 
 $%La Citt Antique, liv. II. chap. vii. pp. 76-89. 
 
 “Paul, Epistle to the Gallalions, chap. iii. verse 28; “There is neither Jew 
 M Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female; for 
 ye are all one in Jesus Christ." 
 
 *4 Primitive Property , Introduction, p. xxi. “The owners of property are on 
 fc~,e eve of becoming a powerless minority ; for the many, to whom the whole 
 p<»wer of the state is of necessity gravitating, see all the means of subsistence 
 aid enjoyment afforded by nature in the possession of the few.” Gliffe Leslie. 
 
 65 Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greelcs and Romans, pp. 268-269, showing 
 Gkeek customs and manners at a symposion. Other evidence testifies to there be¬ 
 ing a secret organization at these l'easts,which conducted the ceremonies. See 
 also Lttders, DU Dionytischen Kumller, passim. 
 
112 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 rolled over the human race, those jugglers were plying 
 their profession the same as at a much later era in which 
 we find them at Athens. 66 The professional business of 
 these jugglers and tumblers was to amuspthe people; and 
 there are abundant inscriptions and pictures to be found 
 on vases and other pieces of pottery which show that they 
 worked hard to earn their money. These were specimens 
 of the slave system which marks the despotic rule, and ex¬ 
 isted first. All remote antiquity bears evidence, in pre¬ 
 historic inscriptions and inkings of different nature, of 
 many slaves, and that labor was degraded. 67 The slaves 
 being first, there came about an era of manumissions. 
 Freedmen entered upon the scene bearing the taint of 
 slave labor and were obliged to resort to all sorts of in¬ 
 dustry and wit to make a living; and among other methods 
 adopted to secure that end, they entered into mutual 
 alliances with each other for common assistance through 
 trade organizations. There were great numbers also of 
 the communia mimorum 58 or unions of comic actors who 
 in a similar manner got a living by amusing the people. 
 Strabo speaks of them 69 and Bockh gives the Greek of 
 an interesting institution of this kind. 60 Mommsen gives 
 the law recorded in the digest from Gaius, which after¬ 
 wards suppressed most of these societies. 61 
 
 A curious union was that of the Urinatores , men whose 
 business at Rome was to dive in the Tiber and probably 
 
 6« “An attempt has been made to mathematically measure this vast eriod 
 of time by calculating from the depth of mud of the alluvial Nile, at wh ch ob 
 Jects have been found, by L. Horner, on The Alluvial Land of Egypt, and result*" 
 published in the Phil. Transactions, 1858, p. 75, which gives 12,000 years, at the 
 assumed rate of deposit of three and five tenths inches per 100 years at Mem 
 phis, from the fragments of vases found 70 feet under ground.” Sir Gardne* 
 Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vol. I. pp. 8-9., note, paraphrased. 
 
 67Cf. Bancroft, Native Races, vol. IV. Antiquities, pp. 305-6, showln that i 
 the remote past of Central America, inscriptions exhibiting the most despotio 
 conditions were produced, probably thousands of years before the discovery of 
 the present nomadic races who were found in a semi-communal state. At Pr 
 lenque are inscriptions on the ancient walls showing conditions coeval with th< 
 earliest European monarchism. A king garbed in fine military attire, and the 
 everlasting slaves on bended knees and in humble suppliance. They a e freely 
 drawn, with art superior to Egyptian, being in has reliefs, in stucco on the wall' 
 of the palace. 
 
 ss Mommsen, De Collegiis et Sodahciis Romanorum. p. 83; “Commm 'a mim¬ 
 orum Romanorum et in nomina et in institutis ra koiv a t £>v wtpi rbv ovvav 
 TtviTuv referunt, qu® apud (ircecos ampla et plurima fuerunt.” 
 
 69 Strabo, Geographica, X IV. 643,28. 
 
 60 Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecarum , nos. 349 and 2931. 
 
 si Mommsen ; De Coll, et Sodal. Romanorum, p. 84. Great numbers of 
 locieties existed about the Hellespont and among the Ionian Islands. 
 
SOLON'S LABOR LAW8 . 
 
 113 
 
 also into the public baths in search of things lost by the 
 grandees while boating or bathing. 63 At Naples, Nice and 
 other places on the sea these divers had unions and no 
 doubt possessed skilled men who succeeded in restoring the 
 valuables after the wrecks of triremes, and other craft. 02 
 Especially were these unions a benefit to community at Sy¬ 
 racuse, the Piraeus and Byzantium, where these and other 
 unions abounded in great numbers. Mommsen on the 
 law of Solon also declares that there were both sacred and 
 civil communes, 68 and he further states that all such soci¬ 
 eties were not only permitted, but they possessed at that 
 early period (B. C. 600), the right of perpetual organiza¬ 
 tion. The probability is that these organizations had ex¬ 
 isted from a much earlier epoch than that of Solon; but 
 having never done any harm at Athens and the Athenians 
 being a much more sympathic people than the Spartans, 
 they were never molested. So long as the trade unions 
 of the world, ancient and modern, have restricted them¬ 
 selves to mere pleasure, religion, and frugality, they do 
 not appear to have been harshly dealt with; but so soon 
 as they ventured to consider and act upon the subject of 
 politics, which of all others, was most necessary to their 
 welfare, they became objects of hate and of repression. 
 Especially was this the case in ancient times; because pol¬ 
 itics like war, was a noble calling. Petty frugality, and 
 crude convivial, as well as burial ordeals were too trifling 
 and mean in the eyes of the nobles to attract attention. 
 
 There was at Athens a class of public servants. 64 They 
 were not real slaves although public property, and treated 
 as menials; never being allowed to participate in the 
 slightest degree in the principle of government and yet 
 they actually performed all the routine labor of the gov¬ 
 ernment. At the time we hear of them through public 
 records and through inadvertent mention by historians, 
 they seem to resemble freedmen. They received a small 
 salary to keep them alive, and their business was to keep 
 
 os Orelllus, In&criptionum Latinarum Selectarum Ampllssima Collectio, No. 4115 : 
 
 “Ti. Claudio Esquil. Severo Decuriali lictore..sportulas viritim 
 
 dividantur praesertim cum navigatio scapharum diligentia ejus adquisita et con 
 firmata sit. Ex decreto ordinis corporis piscatorum et urinatorum totius alvei 
 Tiberis quibus ex SC. coire licet.” The inscription was found in Rome. 
 
 e 3 ‘‘Notabilis est hoc loco lex Solonis, ex qua sacra civiliaque communia non 
 alio jure fuerunt quam quo societates ad negotiationem prreditionemve const! 
 tut®.” Mommsen, Dc CoIIegils et SodaUc.Hn Romanorum, p. 39. 
 
 6i Consult Dr. Hermann, Political Antiquities of Greece, paragraph 117, 
 
114 
 
 TEE MYSTERIES. 
 
 the books and do the various duties of a public office un¬ 
 der government. 
 
 They had their protective unions. Being clerks, and 
 constantly in presence of polite people, they made a gen¬ 
 teel appearance and were apt in the civilities of court. 
 But like all their class they also had a grievance. They 
 were treated as menials because they were not “blooded;” 
 and consequently could not pit their natural genius and 
 ability against that of their masters who conducted the 
 public offices and who belonged to noble stock. “ It was 
 required that Archons and priests should prove the purity 
 of their descent as citizens for three generations.” 66 The 
 business of the Pagan temple was a part of the state af¬ 
 fairs; and consequently priests in those times were pub¬ 
 lic officers. Priests were politicians. One of the quali¬ 
 fications of the Archons or rulers was to have a good rec¬ 
 ord that they attended to religious ceremonies. Ostracism, 
 banishment and death were among the punishme nts de¬ 
 signated by the law for neglecting these duties of citizen¬ 
 ship; and the least whisper against any of the gods or the 
 regulations of the Pagan religion was blasphemy. This 
 explains the causes of that great difference in station 
 which existed without regard to the business qualifications 
 of the men. Smart workingmen without rights, or any 
 claim to rights, were often required on a mean salary to 
 do all the work of both departments of governments with¬ 
 out being entitled to the least benefit in either, while a 
 tyrant and sensualist held all control and honor like some 
 modern sinecurists of our offices. There is evidence that 
 this exclusivism was regarded by the poor workmen as a 
 great grievance; but their exclusion from free participa¬ 
 tion in religious rights and especially from membership in 
 and access to the Eleusinian mysteries was the greatest one. 
 Against these grievances they were organized in secret. 
 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions a society of the 
 Thiasotes or Greek labor unions, the members of which 
 had for their patron deity the goddess Minerva through 
 the noble family of the N autii, who brought the image of 
 Minerva away from the Trojans to Italy. 68 Here it ap¬ 
 
 es Idem, §. 148. The Soxi/ua <xCa, or scrutiny Into the antecedante of candi¬ 
 dates, is here explained. 
 
 Sf. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Romana, VI. 69. 
 
REMOTELY ANCIENT STRIKE AND MASSACRE. 115 
 
 pears that the union was not permitted to worship their 
 goddess directly hut had to approach her through a noble 
 family. By worshiping the borrowed proxy they got ac¬ 
 cess indirectly to the object of their reverence. This 
 statement is valuable as it sheds light upon what in those 
 early times is thus proved to have been felt as a grievance; 
 and shows that it was imperative on the part of the un¬ 
 recognized working people to organize and take counsel 
 with each other on what they considered a most important 
 matter, the right of worship, from which they were ex¬ 
 cluded on account of their reputed meanness of birth. 
 The existence or non-existence of the soul depended upon 
 it. Dirksen in his Twelve Tables points to Gaius in proof 
 that the hetairai and the sodales were one and the same 
 organization; 67 the former being in Greece and the latter 
 in Italy. He further states that a comparison with the 
 law of Solon proves that they were tolerated and their ac¬ 
 tions encouraged, if not regulated by him. The Twelve 
 Tables are now known to be contemporaneous with, if not 
 a translation from the law of Solon; and the law of Solon 
 was a paraphrase of the still more ancient law of Amasis 
 an Egyptian king. 
 
 Nor was this organization common to Rome and Greece. 
 Granier says: “ Trades Unions existed since the time of 
 Solomon, and among the Greeks from the time of The¬ 
 seus.” 68 In the time of Joshua, B. C. 1537-1427, they are 
 spoken of. We have evidence regarding an organization 
 that attempted a resistance to the overbearing nobles, in 
 time of Agis I. These were Helots. The insurrection 
 did not succeed, for it appears that the king caused their 
 murder in large numbers. Agis I, was one of the mythi¬ 
 cal Spartan kings and is believed to have reigned more 
 than a thousand years before Christ. This great massa¬ 
 cre of the helots took place 1055 years before Christ. 
 Traditionally the event came down to the era of writing 
 as something mysterious and terrible. When at last, it 
 entered the chronicles of historians it was dim in detail 
 and being a subject which gave pain instead of pleasure 
 —one of those servile episodes which early history appears 
 
 67They had in Greece the avo-cnroi (communists), who ate at the common 
 table, the oja oraQoi (burial societies), the tfiao-wrcu (disciples of the doctrine a/ 
 mutual love). 
 
 68 Granier de Cassagnac. Histoire des Classes Ouvribres, chap. xii. 
 
118 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 to have preferred to leave unwritten—we unfortunately 
 have only a few faint records which have struggled through 
 the mists of high antiquity and gleam darkly through sul¬ 
 len tradition and venturesome historic jottings upon us. 
 But the murder of the helots by order of Agis I. is spoken 
 of by many authors as having occurred B. C. 1,055 or * 
 thereabout. After that event they became adscripti 
 glebcie , public property attached to the soil. 
 
 The student of history from a standpoint of sociology, 
 would, however, be glad to obtain more light upon that 
 event; because we want to know what was the origin of 
 the Aristotelian philosophy and the surroundings that 
 motived it. 
 
 Of all the philosophies or systems of arrangement as a 
 basis of enduring polity, the chrematistics of Aristotle, 
 properly understood, is sure to be that which any and all 
 great labor movements cannot but adopt. The sociolo¬ 
 gist, who intelligently scans the evolution of our race on the 
 enormous scale in which things are presented to him by the 
 vicissitudes of the lowly and downtrodden poor who have 
 fed and enriched the non-laboring few from earliest ages, 
 cannot but wonder how a rich and fortunate man, an aris¬ 
 tocrat, a believer in slavery, a dialectician, and one who 
 spurned the menial, who council ed and advised the might¬ 
 iest of monarchs, could have settled down in the conclu¬ 
 sion that there is only one way of getting at truth and 
 that is by beginning at small things and through them, in 
 tireless investigation and experiment, learn to know and 
 improve. Yet all who study the logic of this man, as laid 
 down by him, are irresistibly led to traverse the very path 
 which he opened with the keen edge of his slashing knife 
 of reason. He “ discriminated between the several facul¬ 
 ties;—the nourishing, feeling, concupiscent, moving and 
 reasoning powers of animal organism and attempted to 
 explain the origin of these powers within the body, and 
 build his morals and politics on the peculiarities of human 
 organization.” 69 Everything according to Aristotle, if we 
 would positively know, must be founded on close obser¬ 
 vation of facts. His eudaimonia was attained only through 
 the bliss that rewards mind or reason when it achieves 
 
 69 American Encyclopaedia, Art. Aristotle 
 
LABOR A SOURCE OF A THINKER*S SUCCESS. 117 
 
 truth by indefatigable experiment and experience. He 
 would have men acquire all knowledge by study of hum¬ 
 ble facts, and lay down therefrom a true basis of political 
 economy. Nothing, not even the servile race, the slaves, 
 the freedmen, the workingmen, was so mean but Aristotle 
 could enrich his mind by studying it. 
 
 Here lies concealed from all eyes except those of the 
 student of man from the standpoint of sociology, a phe¬ 
 nomenon. Why did Aristotle adopt opposite conclusions 
 from Plato, his old master ? Plato believed largely in the 
 theory that only the unseen gods dwelling in the etherial 
 abodes, could impart to man absolute knowledge. Aris¬ 
 totle dared believe and teach that knowledge could only 
 be had by observation and experiment with little things; 
 for they were the beginnings. The poor workingman, 
 then infinitessimally little as Aristotle believed him, was 
 the beginning, being the author of labor product and con¬ 
 sequently worthy of observation and study. This was the 
 first encouragement the unappreciated maker and pro¬ 
 ducer of all means of life ever received from a philoso¬ 
 pher. 70 In all ages the workingman has been an unob¬ 
 served factor. He is of the earth; this he has himself 
 acknowledged, whatever claims the idler may have filed 
 in his own behalf to the contrary. Being of earth, he 
 digs and cultivates it and from his labor springs the fruit 
 which when ripe and harvested is eaten and enjoyed by 
 the idler. He built edifices which have survived the de¬ 
 compositions of time and his master enjoyed them. But 
 more important and more obscure are the fine details he 
 performed which, though often considered too mean to 
 mention, were in reality as now, the very bulwark of human 
 existence and though too obscure to attract attention were 
 in reality the foundation of all nourishment, achievement, 
 history and knowledge. The great philosopher saw this. 
 He studied nature; and the workingman, recognized as 
 an element of nature, was watched by him. The numer¬ 
 ous mutual societies and unions of resistance existing about 
 the philosopher came in for a share of investigation and 
 
 io It has been stated that Aristotle plagiarized Kapila and certain other East 
 Indian teachers and authors of great learning, having obtained their books while 
 on his celebrated scientific journey of researches with the emperor Alexander 
 the Great. The question is however, obscure. He certainly followed some ol 
 the Ideas ol Anaxagoraa, Kapila and others. 
 
118 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 were seen to be the deeply underlying fundament oi all 
 whence the whole superstructure of society rose. With¬ 
 out the little, and humble, too unappreciated producer the 
 world would be a wilderness of forests and wild beasts 
 Hence, as all came from humble toil, so the toil of inves¬ 
 tigation and experiment, however mean and unworthy the 
 rich might esteem it, was the very most necessary of all 
 things to resort to in order to arrive at truth, improve¬ 
 ment and correct government. This is the basis of the 
 philosophy of Aristotle. The world is following it to-day, 
 led by labor; and the myriad links of invention, and dis¬ 
 covery in experimental progress, are in exact harmony 
 with the recommendations of the Stage rite of the Nym- 
 phaeum. 
 
 There are some curious episodes in the life of Plato, 
 which the ordinary reader, without system and without 
 knowledge of the little details of life of the age he lived 
 in, overlooks. What was the trouble with him at Syra¬ 
 cuse? Nearly four hundred years before Christ, Plato, 
 after varied travels, after he had written his " Tlieaetetus,” 
 and his “ Statesman,” and was well-known to have decided 
 against the workingmen, to have pronounced them too 
 vile to merit a better fate than bondage, and to have de¬ 
 clared that the proper form of government was that of 
 aristocrats and slaves, we find him at Syracuse, spurned 
 by Dionysius, waived from his presence, and consigned to 
 the billingsgate that fed the great city with fish. n To be 
 sent away from the tyrant’s presence when his sole mission 
 was to teach his majesty the honeyed sweets n of his then 
 famous philosophy, was bad; but to be relegated to the 
 city’s ban-limes , among the brobdagnagians, and hear 
 their ridicule, was worse. But they must have been especi¬ 
 ally disagreeable to him since he well knew that their 
 raillery was directed against him.. They were of the low¬ 
 born, with little education and no urbanity; he was of 
 the great gens family, a very Ariston, of pure stock, 
 boasted of, among all Athenians. But they had wit and 
 sufficient means of knowing facts, to be informed that he 
 was the proud teacher of aristocrats, that he did not teach 
 
 n Grote, Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. 
 
 72 “At Platoni quurn in cunis parvulodormienti apes In labellis conssediseal 
 responsum est, singulari ilium suavitate orationis fore; ita futura eloquent!# 
 pvovisa in infante est.” Cicero, De Divinatu-ie, I. 36. 
 
PLATO CAUGHT BY FISHMONGERS 
 
 119 
 
 the lowest of the people but that he believed with the cit¬ 
 izens of Sparta and of Athens that their slavery and 
 humiliation were just. We also have found some evidence 
 that these people were organized. They belonged to the 
 four trade unions, viz: the mercenaries, 73 the caudicarii or 
 boatmen and sailors, the piscatorii, fisherman and the 
 fabri, artisans. There must also have been unions of the 
 tax gatherers; at any rate in later times, for Cicero men¬ 
 tions vectigalia in connection with Yerres who was gov¬ 
 ernor in Sicily. 74 
 
 This last fact is one very interesting to know; for it 
 sheds fresh fight upon that memorable episode in the life 
 of Plato. The unions, finding that the tyrant Dionysius had 
 taken an affront at Plato, and hating him themselves, were 
 willing to col spire with the king against his life. It was 
 probably an organization of the caudicarii whom Dionysius 
 engaged to carry him off to Italy and their greed to make 
 a living out of the affair was probably what saved his life. 
 Instead of killing him as they were probably paid to do, they 
 received an offer in Italy for him alive, which they ac¬ 
 cepted and sold Plato as a slave. He was afterwards ran¬ 
 somed by his friend Dion and returned to Athens a wiser 
 man. We are not informed as to what influence this ex¬ 
 perience had upon the great philosopher; but there are 
 gleamings which illume our conjecture that his illustri¬ 
 ous disciple, Aristotle, who always opposed his theories, 
 took care to enrich his store of wisdom from the circum¬ 
 stance. 
 
 In early times, while the world was yet too ignorant and 
 inexperienced to understand the advantages of arbitration 
 and of subsisting upon peaceful rather than warlike meas¬ 
 ures, brigandage was common. It existed by interna¬ 
 tional permission or common consent. The only indus¬ 
 trial system then known was that conducted by the trade 
 unions; for according to the regulations of Solon and king 
 Numa, even the slaves were many times managed by over- 
 Beers who were under pay of the unions. The rich citi- 
 
 wGrote, Hitt. p. 79. The mercenary soldiers especially hated Plato who 
 had acted the friend of Dionysius. The latter had cut down their pay, p. 86 ). 
 In consequence of which they had struck. They were all organized. Cf. also, 
 Grote’s Plato, and Livy, XXV. 33. 
 
 n Cicero, Verres. II. 3, 7 : “Quoniam quasi quicdam prsedia populi Ro¬ 
 mani sunt vectigalia nostra atque provinci®.” 
 
120 
 
 THE MYSTERIES, 
 
 zen believed it a disgrace to labor. He made his wealth 
 or cap work for him. Among other chattels were his 
 slaves. But he was too high to personally conduct the 
 labor of slaves. This was done, to a large extent, by those 
 who were not ashamed to perform labor. Of course, 
 then, these overseers were descendants of slaves. They 
 were the freedmen, who on receiving their manumission 
 struck out for themselves; and for safety and success 
 formed themselves into unions for mutual assistance and 
 resistance against competition, danger and abuse. Among 
 the multitudes of occupations they assumed are found, 
 especially with the Grecians and Syracusians, the Phoe¬ 
 nicians and the people inhabiting the Grecian Archipel¬ 
 ago, that of brigands and the mercenaries. Both the 
 brigands and mercenary systems were closely leagued 
 into unions which upheld each other in the vicissitudes 
 of the struggle for life. The whole system of the warlike 
 patrician families both in Greece and Home may be said 
 to be one of brigandage. What is arming a multitude of 
 idle men, disciplining them to the use of weapons and 
 marching them into a neighboring country to destroy the 
 products of industry but brigandage ? Yet ancient his¬ 
 tory is a constant repetition of this predatory and cruel 
 system. It was brigandage. 
 
 Among the sufferers from this system were oftentimes 
 the working people; some of them slaves, but many also 
 freedmen, belonging to unions. They were thus torn 
 from their peaceful occupation. Possessing the long ex¬ 
 perience of association they naturally utilized this their 
 only means of gaining a living, by becoming brigands. 
 They turned their trade unions into bandities and learned 
 to estrange themselves from habits of industrious peace and 
 assume the fierce modes of marauders. They exchanged 
 the workshop for the jungles, the mountain fastnesses, the 
 caves and thus became fighters and guerrillas. A remark¬ 
 able case of this desperation is seen in that extraordinary 
 man Spartacus, the gladiator, of whom we shall give, in a 
 future chapter, a complete and exhaustive history, in in¬ 
 vestigating the terrible results of Roman repression of 
 trade unions by the conspiracy laws. It is enough here 
 merely to mention that this tendency of ancient labor or¬ 
 ganization to reverse their habits, forsake the peaceful in- 
 
THE TRADE UNION A STATE INSTITUTION. 121 
 
 dustries which they loved, and wander away in organized 
 clubs seeking subsistence through plunder, was by no 
 means a fault as such actions are now considered; for 
 otherwise they would have immediately been seized by 
 the conquering legions and sold into slavery. In those 
 precarious times, therefore, brigandage was no crime, al¬ 
 though to be caught was slavery or death. But it added 
 a fierceness to the social aspect of the human race. 
 
 The Eleusinian mysteries caused a great deal of dissat¬ 
 isfaction and feud by reason of their severe, aristocratic 
 exclusiveness which often wounded the pride even of the 
 haughty patrician families of Attica, and we now return 
 to them as our legitimate theme. In our chapter on the 
 system of trade unions farther on we give a detailed de¬ 
 scription of the ancient labor unions and evidences of 
 their immense number which we have collected, partly by 
 our own travel and observation, partly by personal inter¬ 
 views with the great authors of Archaeological works and 
 partly by ransacking with much patience and labor every 
 written statement which original law and history, together 
 with the criticism of modern and ancient authors thereon, 
 have contributed to illume this dark page of the social 
 past. 
 
 The ancient trade union, both under the law of Solon 
 and of Numa Pompilius, was a state institution! The 
 land taken by conquest "belonged to the state, together 
 with the family religion and all its magnificent temples of 
 worship. The great buildings of the cities were property 
 of the state; most of the slaves who cultivated the soil 
 under the direction, exclusively, of the trade union, were 
 also property of the state. This made a social state—an 
 almost socialistic state—and in many respects more social 
 than political; but entirely spoiled by the terrible social 
 distinctions of rank. 16 The religion, based upon heredity 
 and superstition combined, was an. extraordinary tissue 
 of errors, greatly increasing the common misery of the 
 people by flaunting in their faces the insult that none but 
 
 75 Millar, Origin of Ranks, Basil. 1793. chap, vi.; Granier, Hist. de< C! asset 
 Ouvri'eret, pp. 484-493. In his 18th chapter, Granier cites the rescript of An¬ 
 toninus Pius : “Dominorum quidem potestatem m servos suos inlibiium etse 
 oportet, nec cuiquam hominum jus suuxn detrahi.' Ulpian, De Officio Procon- 
 tulis. lib VIII; De Dominorum Saevitia. This power of the masters over their 
 slaves was thus lat«*r tmiis "erred to the .state. 
 
122 
 
 THE MYSTERIES .. 
 
 the high-horn citizen, eligible to the Eleusinian mysteries, 
 could be sure of heaven. There could be no peace of 
 mind while such a grievance existed; for it not only 
 goaded the greater part of the people as an insult but 
 distracted them with fears. It is a prominent character¬ 
 istic of the Aryan race to believe in religion and build up 
 institutions of a religious nature; and it will probably re¬ 
 main so unless some physical discovery be made throwing 
 positive light against the theory of immortality. At the 
 same time the Indo-Europeans were—precisely as they 
 still are—an extremely democratic people by nature. A 
 religion, then, based upon the most absurdly aristocratic 
 dogmas could not, without great conflict maintain itself 
 among the equality-loving Indo-Europeans. Jesus Christ 
 during his visit among us established the remarkable idea 
 that God was no respecter of persons; that all men were 
 created equal; that although the elysion and tartar os or 
 the heaven and hell were the same, the eligibility to gain 
 the one and fly the other depended not upon stock, birth, 
 fortune, but behavior. The revolution was then begun. 
 When we understand from a standpoint of scientific so¬ 
 ciology the phenomena of the past thus connected with 
 the ancient struggles of the lowly, there bursts forth be¬ 
 fore our vision a glory of light sweeping away hitherto 
 insurmountable difficulties to the analysis of certain vague 
 and obscure points in history. 
 
 It is now, after having opened these facts thus far, in 
 order to set down two theorems: The first is, that the 
 greater the organization of the working classes for mutual 
 'protection and resistance the higher the standard of en¬ 
 lightenment in the communities they inhabit. In other 
 words the intensity of enlightenment in civilization may 
 be measured and compared by the numeric proportion of 
 the laboring people arrayed in organized resistance against 
 ignorance and oppression. The second theorem may be 
 construed to read that the higher the enlightenment , the 
 more complete is the extinction of social ranks. 
 
 We are also now ready to make an announcement 
 which no person can consistently deny, to wit : that the 
 era covered by the ancient trade unions is that known, 
 sung and celebrated as the “Golden Age.” It is not only 
 the era of military, but pre-eminently of social, and iu 
 
TEE ANCIENT SOCIAL STATE. 
 
 123 
 
 Greece, of intellectual prosperity. The great literary era 
 of the Romans occupies the latter half of the celebrated 
 golden era. It lasted from the days of Numa Pompilius 
 who encouraged the free organization of Roman trade 
 unions which was about 690 years before Christ, until the 
 year 58 B. C. when Csesar ordered the conspiracy laws. 76 
 In Greece from the time of Solon about 592 years before 
 Christ it continued down to her conquest by the Romans. 
 
 Thus the economical prosperity of both Greece and 
 Rome is proved to have covered those centuries which 
 were favored with the right of free organization. We 
 shall now proceed to touch upon the actual deeds of these 
 unions and show as we have the evidences that the su¬ 
 perb architectural works whose august ruins still amaze 
 the beholder were, to some extent at least, the handiwork 
 of those trade unions, backed by that phenomenal, and to 
 the present age, incomprehensible social state which never 
 sold its lands, religion, jurisprudence or ornaments to 
 others, nor allowed them to be overridden by monopolies. 
 The labor of land culture—which produced and distributed 
 among all people their food—of manufacturing arms and 
 equipments for the armies, of provisioning the armies 
 while on the march and at rest, of manufacturing and re¬ 
 pairing the household furniture, of image-making, which 
 appears to have been a considerable industry and of con¬ 
 structing architectural works, was largely assigned to the 
 labor unions during the golden age. 77 Numa discouraged 
 warfare, but made specific arrangements governing the 
 artisan class; 78 and at the Saturnalia obliterated the lines 
 of distinction between the nobles and the common born. 
 He distributed the artisans into nine great mechanical 
 fraternities. Flavius Josephus 79 gives an elaborate and 
 highly interesting account of the building of the temple 
 of Jerusalem by Solomon. Suffice it to say here, that the 
 employer, Hiram, who was engaged by Solomon to come 
 with his skill and skilled force all the way from Tyre a 
 distance of about 100 miles, to design and construct this 
 
 T « Suetonius, Ccesar, 42: “Ceesar cuncta collegia praeter antiquitus con- 
 
 ■tltuta distraxt.” 
 
 nGranier, pp. 284-323, all through. 
 
 ■»* Plutarch, Numa, cap. xvii.; also Lycurgus, and Numa Compared. 
 is Josephus, Antiquities o* the Jews book XII. cap. ii. ; also Hitt, o/the Jews, 
 book VT1X. 
 
124 
 
 TEE MYSTERIES. 
 
 magnificent edifice, was, so to speak, a boss or chief over 
 a trade union, which through him, took one of the largest 
 and most imposing contracts known in ancient or 
 modern times; and it is a very interesting example of the 
 intelligence and extraordinary enterprise of the Phoenici¬ 
 ans. We are not among those eager creduli who jump 
 at conclusions, and ready to suppose that this Hiram was 
 the founder of the celebrated ancient fraternity of “ Free 
 Masons.” On the contrary, the institution was old when 
 Hiram brought to Solomon the 3,200 foremen and the 
 40,000 artificers who built this gorgeous temple of which 
 Josephus so glowingly speaks. But this immense work 
 being a religious undertaking, conducted by a political 
 decree and under state control, and furthermore being a 
 Semitic, not an Aryan enterprise and consequently free 
 from the mean, rank exclusivism characterizing and belit¬ 
 tling the source-history of all their great works, was able 
 to rise and carry with it some lucid scintillae as to the 
 manner of its erection. The great temple of Solomon 
 furnished posterity a slight glimpse at the order of Free 
 Masons; being a landmark merely observable in an ob¬ 
 scure night of time. Its ruins may, therefore, be truth¬ 
 fully classed, by the student of sociology, as archaeological 
 proof of the ancient trade union movement. By this, the 
 mind of the general reader may better understand the 
 source of that all-pervading cloud which so unfortunately 
 shuts us off from the clues—to say nothing of the history 
 —regarding the construction of one of the most magnifi¬ 
 cent works of sculptured masonary ever produced. The 
 religio-political institutions, based on the antithetic origin 
 of birth and its entailments of rank, prevented the work¬ 
 ingmen from rising into recognition, or transmitting be¬ 
 yond their own generation any detailed knowledge as to 
 bow those structures rose. The powerful archon Pericles, 
 of Athens, furnished us an illustration of this. He wanted 
 to build the Parthenon. Now Pericles, the statesman, 
 building a church, shows that no difference existed be¬ 
 tween church and state, since belief was compulsory un¬ 
 der law. The Parthenon was the grandest edifice of either 
 the ancient or modern world. 8 * Although Pericles was a 
 
 80 On hi and Koner, L\fe of the Ghseks and Romans, pp. 25-28. 
 
THE BRILLIANT LOW-BORNS. 
 
 12t 
 
 noble, of the family of the Pisistrati&fe, yet we know that 
 he was the intimate friend of Phidias. So we are informed 
 that Solomon enjoyed the acquaintance of Hiram. This 
 might be, though Phidias and Hiram were both of mean 
 extraction, according to the estimation of ranks. But 
 their superiors admired them for their genius alone. A 
 wonderful contrast projects from a coincidence of the late 
 mediaeval age, consisting in Raphael’s intimacy with Pope 
 Leo X., for at the time of Raphael, Christianity with its 
 inexorable moral erosions had gnawed away much of the 
 ancient ranks, and had begun to invite an absolute equal¬ 
 ity ; whereas, in the more ancient times, under the domin¬ 
 ion of the Pagan faith, it could not be more than admira¬ 
 tion and acquaintance. In the same manner, Pericles, who 
 was the master political genius of his age, could admire 
 and keep an acquaintance with Aspasia, a lad}^ of the 
 lower rank, but he could not raise her by any gift of title 
 to a higher one than that in which she was born. 
 
 It is almost certain that in the construction of the Par¬ 
 thenon, Ictinus was to Pericles what Hiram 81 was to Solo¬ 
 mon. Ictinus, 82 we are told, was chief architect, and with 
 the assistance of Callicrates and Phidias who worked on 
 the chryselephantine statue of Athena, had charge, as 
 chief architect, of the Parthenon. It appears 83 that Phi¬ 
 dias took the entire control of all the building enterprises 
 of Athens and also, probably of the temple of Eleusis: for 
 Ictinus built the fane of this temple. We are now cen¬ 
 tering upon the interesting point of our investigation. It 
 took Phidias, Ictinus and Callicrates ten years to design 
 and complete the new Parthenon, the most magnificent 
 and imposing structure of ancient or modern times. More 
 fortunate are we in having Josephus and other authority 
 for the temple of Solomon whereon not only the chief 
 architect, but 3,200 foremen and 40,000 masons of the 
 great “ body” or masons’ fraternity were engaged. 84 
 
 At the Piraeus there existed, at the time of the building 
 of the Parthenon, great numbers of trade unions, 86 under 
 
 81 Care should be taken not to confound Hiram the artificer with his friend 
 Hiram the king. 83Guhl and Koner, Idem, p. 25. 
 
 83 Pausanias, Hellados Periegesis, (Description of Greece). 
 
 84 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, book VII. chap, ii. In latin the “body" 
 torpus, was a legalized workingmen’s society, the same as collegium. See Drelli, 
 Tnscr. Vol. III. Henzen, p. 170, of supplement index. 
 
 86 See Chapter I. of Lttders Dionysische Kunstler, pp. 14-18. 
 
128 
 
 T'jlE mysjejufs. 
 
 a provision of Solon engraved on wooden scrolls and kept 
 in the Acropolis rnd the Prytaneum, which were legalized 
 organizations and whose recognized business was to wort’ 
 for the state. Now with the multitudes of trade unions 
 existing all around, at Athens, at the Piraeus, at Eleusis- 
 is it supposable that the three directors built the parthe. 
 non in ten years? Instead of the 3,200 foremen and 40- 
 000 men as at Jerusalem, there were probably at Athens 
 4,000 foremen and 50,000 masons, sculptors, draftsmen, 
 hod carriers, laborers and others too numerous to detail 
 We find that this great public work was finished 438 years 
 before Christ, just at the time when the golden age of 
 labor was at its zenith of glory both in Greece and Rome. 
 
 It was the golden age of art and economic thrift. It 
 also corresponds exactly with the stretch of time during 
 which the trade unions under the laws of Solon at Athens 
 and of Numa at Rome were in fullest force, granting and 
 encouraging organization of the working people, which 
 was used by them for protection and for resistance to all 
 dangers that might beset them. 
 
 It is thus shown that while a serious grievance existed 
 among the working people of ancient Greece, in form of 
 an exclusivism denying them the right to save their souls 
 by becoming members on equal footing in the Eleusinian 
 order, there also existed a vast organization or confrater¬ 
 nity which, then as now, afforded them opportunities for 
 meeting in secret and discussing this grievance. It is 
 scarcely necessary even to conjecture whether they did or 
 did not use these advantages for such discussion. Human 
 nature is alike in all ages. When the conspiracy law, or 
 law of Elizabeth, was annulled in 1824, 88 permitting the 
 people to organize in England, they immediately took ad¬ 
 vantage of every opportunity trade unionism afforded, 
 wherewith to discuss their grievances. The growth and 
 intelligence of the ponderous labor movement in the 
 United States is largely due to the discussion which is 
 constantly taking place in their secret unions. We ven¬ 
 ture that the same thing occurred in the times we are de¬ 
 scribing; because it could not well have been otherwise. 
 Where the grievance exists and the opportunity to meet 
 
 aeThorold Rogers, Six Centuries of Work and Wages, p. 438 As to the nature 
 9 f the act of Elizabeth, see idem, pp. 398* 9. Cf. Porter’s Progress of the Nation, 
 
THE LAW OF ORGANIZATION\ 
 
 137 
 
 and discuss it exists, it is not in the order of nature among 
 intelligent beings, to resist it. We are fortunate enough 
 to have found statements upon the subjects of trade unions 
 transmitted to us through great authority. Gaius, who 
 wrote a digest of law on the Twelve Tables, has a passage 
 which has been preserved and so important is it that 
 both Granier and Mommsen refer to it as conclusive evi¬ 
 dence that the law of the Twelve Tables providing for the 
 right among working people to organize and enjoy trade 
 unions, was to some extent a translation from Greek tables 
 of the code of Solon . 87 In this passage are mentioned many 
 organizations taken from the Greek text inscribed on 
 the scroll of the law of Solon and also on the tablet of the 
 Twelve Tables. The Thiasotai then were precisely in 
 Greek what the Collegia were in Latin. The sailors’ 
 unions here mentioned were the same which we speak of 
 elsewhere as existing in large numbers at the Piraeus or sea¬ 
 port of Athens which was distant from the metropolis only 
 five miles. The organizations of the stone masons, the 
 marble cutters, the carvers, the image makers of wood 
 mineral and ivory, and others, were located within the 
 city. Some of these unions, probably .the image makers, 
 pretended more religious piety than others; but the fact 
 is , 88 that all of them were combined for mutual aid and re¬ 
 sistance against grievances. Under the law, so long 
 as they did not corrupt the statutes of the country (*dum 
 ne quid ex publica lege corrumpant ”) they were not only 
 allowed to career unmolested but were even protected by 
 this provision of the great lawgivers. 
 
 This brings us face to face with two proven facts: that 
 
 m Digest, lib. XLVII. tit. xxiL leg. 4: “Sodales surrt qoi ejusdem collegil 
 stmt quam Grseci krapiav vocant.” Again: “Sodallbus,” ait Gains, “potestatera 
 facit lex (duodecim Tabularum) pactionem quam velint eibi ferre. dum ne quid 
 ex publica lege corrumpant.” Sedhaec lex videtur ex lege Solonis translata 
 esse; nam illuc ita est: “E’AvM Sjpto?, r j <f>pixTpoes, f/ ieputr opyitov, r] i >avrai f 
 aiivaiTOL, ij op.6Ta<f>oi, tj diacrwrai, r) eirt Ai'av ot'xop.evoi, fj its tpitopiav. (f ri ravroiv 
 StaSwvrac irpos aAAijAovs, Kvptov elrat, Up p.r) airayopev<nj Sr)P-6(ria ypap.fia.Ta.' 
 Both Mommsen (De Cottegils et Sodaliciis Romanorum, p. 3o,) and Granier, Hist, 
 des Classes Ouvrieres, p. 291, quote this remarkable passage from the Digest. 
 The unions here mentioned in the Solonic law are the Brotherhood the Priests of 
 the Communes, the Sailors, the Co-operators, the Burial Fraternities; and the reg¬ 
 ular trade unions or ^iWutu such as were organized in the categories of Numa 
 
 88 Mommsen, De Collegiit et Sodaliciis Romanorum, p. 35, “Ut igitur de in* 
 terpretatione verb! a XTT . Tabulis adhibiti non constet, Gaii verba ad omnia col¬ 
 legia pertinere certum est neque ulla ratio reddi videtur posse, cur collegia opi- 
 flcum legum ferendarum jure caruerint sacris sodalitatibus concesso.” See also 
 Ltlders, Die Dinoysischen Kunstler, passim. These points are overwhelming in 
 proof that the Greek and Roman trade union systems were nearly identical. 
 
m 
 
 TEE MYSTERIES. 
 
 daring the renowned era of Grecian architecture, belles-let¬ 
 tres , philosophy, sculpture, paintings—all work of labor¬ 
 ers—there also flourished a great labor movement; just as 
 now in England, in Germany, in France, in the TJnited 
 States and Canada, during the most brilliant period of all 
 human enlightenment, ancient or modem, there flour¬ 
 ishes an enormous social organization for self-help and 
 for resistance against grievance endured by working peo¬ 
 ple. It also proves the correctness of our theorems that 
 the greater the organization of the laboring people against 
 grievances the higher the enlightenment, and the higher 
 the enlightenment the more complete the extinction of so¬ 
 cial rank; consequently the intensity of human civiliza¬ 
 tion viewed on the largest scale, is, under the competitive 
 system, to be ascertained by the prevalence or non-pre¬ 
 valence of these organizations, acting as mutually self-aid¬ 
 ing forces and as tribunals or courts of appeal from the 
 grievances their members are liable to suffer. How inef¬ 
 fable, then, the arrogance of a paltry few! What must 
 have been the character of resistance during the times of 
 which we speak ? Evidently very crude. At the present 
 day there is much system; a general interlinking of union 
 with union, no matter how wide apart, for a quite clearly 
 expressed common cause. Not so anciently, although we 
 have an inscription at Pompeii to prove that in B. C. 79 
 there existed an international union. Their grievances 
 were greater than now, because social equality was con- 
 temptously and most openly put down. The law recog¬ 
 nized them as having no more claim to citizenship than 
 dogs. Now, in Germany, France, almost everywhere, the 
 working people are voting. 
 
 Whoever, in reading the * Ancient Assemblies,” 89 for a 
 moment imagines that those celebrated gatherings in¬ 
 cluded the slaves orfreedmen, should read more carefully. 
 It is \hz freemen who are meant, not freedmen. The differ¬ 
 ence was simply infinite, even in enlightened Attica; for 
 freedmen were descendants of the ancient slaves. They 
 never were citizens, could not vote, could not hope, except 
 in cases of great genius like that of Phidias, to be decently 
 
 **8ch8mann, Hist. Assemblies of the Athenians, passim. This book will cleai 
 ftp any error readers may entertain who doubts whether the working class was 
 allowed a vclce in legislation. 
 
NATURE OF DISL'USSION AMONG TIIE LOWLY. 129 
 
 spoken to; and even as such they were obliged to obtain 
 some special decree from the Areopagus in order to detach 
 themselves from this scathing odium of rank. Being so 
 mean, so lowly, while the patricians, the grandees, the free¬ 
 men were descendants of the nobility in the direct lineage 
 of the gods, it followed that the gods also contemned them. 
 Consequently two-thirds of the population of Greece were 
 without a soul. If they claimed to have souls they knew 
 that the only place for them was Tartarus or hell; certainly 
 not heaven; for that was the abode of the gods who spurned 
 them on account of their lowly birth. Better cultivate the 
 belief that they had no souls at all! This to them, terrible 
 reflection, was probably the origin of the ancient philosophy 
 of annihilation. 90 The philosophy of extinction of the sou 1 
 must have consumed a share of the discussions of those an¬ 
 cient mechanics in their secret meetings. They built the 
 magnificent temples which glowed with genial warmth of 
 the solemn and haughty religion, only for the heaven-born, 
 repelling with sullen frowns the earth-born designers and 
 finishers of their collonades, vaults and sculptured images. 
 N o merely political institution could possibly separate so 
 widely one class from another as did that arrogant religion 
 which not only instituted slavery of the laboring people but 
 denied them an immortal soul and the beatitudes of 
 heaven. 91 There is now no grievance of this kind in civil¬ 
 ized existence—although economical and social dissatis¬ 
 faction remains. The new religion is rapidly extinguishing 
 the dogma of distinctions in birth, as well as the dogma 
 that “ the earth-bom have no immortal existence.” w 
 
 Narrowing the array of evidence into our legitimate field, 
 we find in Eleusis a target at which millions are peering 
 with a mingling of longing, of envy and of hate. They are 
 
 90 Consult Lucretius, Dt Rerum Natura; also Arnobius, who wrote the fa¬ 
 mous Adversus Oentes. Arnobius was not fully convinced of Christianity ; and 
 at the same time his mind was evidently so enlarged by it that he could not 
 reconcile it with the older Pagan belief in the nether post-mortem abodes. He 
 was however, religiously inclined and was reluctantly drawn to Christianity 
 which obliterated all lines by declaring the equality of aU mankind. Between 
 these awful doubts Arnobius seems never to have come to a belief in an immortal 
 existence. Pliny the celebrated naturalist was a believer in the doctrine of Lu¬ 
 cretius that there is no existence hereafter. Cf. Cuvier in Bibliog. Universelle. 
 
 91 Granier, Hist. Whole argument; Fustel deCoulanges.CWe Antique. No intelli¬ 
 gent person can read these invaluable works without understanding our meaning. 
 
 92 Whatever science may or may not devolop regarding these debatable 
 theories is not the part of this disquisition to consider. We simply give the 
 facta at command, as to the difference between the grievances discussed b| 
 the organizations of then and now. 
 
130 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 the two-thirds of the population of the country—the labor¬ 
 ing ranks. There, upon a lovely range of rock and lawn 
 stands the old Pelasgian city of'Eleusis, populous and thick- 
 studded with their own eranoi and thiasoi , labor unions 
 whose members are the strong-muscled men of Greece. It 
 is the eve of autumn, the great quinquennial Boedromion 
 which from traditions brought mystic meanings picturing 
 the fierce amazons in flight before the conquering giants of 
 Theseus. It is the last half of shimmering September 
 whose delicious zephyrs float the gossamers above the sea. 
 
 All the world knows that on the morrow thousands upon 
 thousands of people are to leave the Athenian metropolis 
 behind them and commence their crusade to the Eleusinian 
 feast. They are the eligibles, the citizeus, the freemen. 
 Not a being from among the laboring and lowly class can 
 be permitted hardly to join the great procession. Fond of 
 privilege but barred its enjoyment they gather in their best 
 rags, upon the scene and form in a standing multitude along 
 the fine of march. No care has ever been bestowed upon 
 their education and they are in consequence, rough, per¬ 
 haps boisterous and insulting. As the procession moves 
 along they pelt the crusaders with sticks and stones. 9 * They 
 feel the deep disgrace of their exclusion and are animated 
 with unhappy feelings and hatred and revenge. They 
 turn their eyes toward the magnificent temple of Megaron, 
 built 94 by their own hands, of marble quarried from the 
 rock near by. 95 It is pre-eminently the most majestio work 
 of their handicraft, standing solemn and alone like a myster¬ 
 ious winged creature, stinking awe by its very presence 
 and as though a ghostly apparition which had surged from 
 the dark pits of the sea. 9 * To the left loomed up a view of 
 
 *3 When, as the fable goes, Ceres left king Celeus and went to the old temple, 
 Iarube, her female slave, ridiculed her. Ever afterwards at the ayvppos or da/ 
 of march at the crusades, the lower or excluded classes met on the wayside with 
 stones, clubs and ridicule. 
 
 94 Consult Eose, Inscriptions Grcecce Vetustissimoe, pp. 187-190. 
 
 95 Idem, p. 187, note ; “E duro quodam marmoris genere (quale prope Elea- 
 siniem invenitur.”) likewise the description of the great temple, by Guhl 
 and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, pp. 47-49. 
 
 e« “Prope oleam erat puteus aquae salsac (OaXacraa EptxOyU) quam sub da¬ 
 tum noti sui’do murmore fluctuum instar strepere, narrabant Athenienses. 
 Ipse silicet Neptunus hanc voraginom aperuerat tridente, cujus adhuo vestig¬ 
 ium in eaxo vivo expressum restabat. De fonte salso noli dubitare. Nam et 
 alius in arce fons aquae amarae qui etesiarum flatu — sttb ortum > aniculae — 
 impleri, postea considers solebat, Clepsydra dictus.” Istcr. Ap. Schol. Aria- 
 ophania, Av. 1693, p. 63. Though this superstition may have been based at 
 the acropolis, it is evident that the horrors of it came from old Eleusis: bo¬ 
 lides Erechtheia was the priestess in charge of the Eleusinian Initiations. 
 
CRUSADERS CLUBBED AND STONED. 131 
 
 the noble pronaos whose fluted columns towered high, hold¬ 
 ing their graceful architraves, and culminating in those ex¬ 
 quisite Corinthian capitals of the pilasters, celebrated 
 throughout the world for the beauty and richness of their 
 carvings. Their own Ictinus, guiding their own, or their 
 ancestors’ toil had built the huge, but forbidding telesterium 
 and conclave where those mysterious initiations and de¬ 
 grees were conferred; not upon them, but upon those born 
 worthy of the honor. Their own Xenocles was the master 
 mason who had led them through a labyrinth of toil which 
 produced the lordly, throne-like anactoron were dwelt the 
 immortal Ceres. Their own master sculptor, Metagenes had 
 directed their skillful hands through the mazes of sculpture 
 which produced those soft and charming friezes, and reared 
 the upper columns on which rest the vast entablatures with 
 their architraves and frettings. Led by such masters who 
 have come down to fame as the genius of classic architec¬ 
 ture, wage-earners had delved for more than a decade of 
 years to fashion the home of the Mystagogoi , those fav¬ 
 ored priests who repulsed them with bitterest scorn and all 
 others who could not bring proof that for three generations 
 at least, they had never disgraced themselves by the social 
 blight of labor. These were the thanks the ancient lowly 
 received for building those enduring and exquisite monu¬ 
 ments of art. 
 
 No wonder then, that as the procession moved down from 
 the acropolis to the sea, the outcasts, uncultured, unrefined, 
 enslaved, treated the haughty initiates with brickbats and 
 jeers. There were quarrels about this grievance; but so 
 dark has the historian been upon the subject that we are 
 unable to obtain further positive data than these we quote. 
 But what we do know sheds light upon the causes of a 
 great change which in course of time came into the world; 
 a change that planted the seed of revolution. It was a re- 
 ligio-political state based upon legalized pretentions, and 
 assumed absolute rights of less than one-third of the entire 
 population of the Indo European world and the absolute non¬ 
 recognition and social, political and hierarchical ostracism 
 of the other two-thirds of the population on whose labor 
 they depended for their food, clothing, shelter and worship. 
 
 A word more may suffice to close this chapter. Our ob¬ 
 ject in saying so much has been to exhibit the double griev- 
 
182 
 
 THE MYSTERIES. 
 
 ance suffered by the religious as well as the social and eco¬ 
 nomic tyranny of ancient society over the laboring people. 
 From the time labor organizations began, until the era of 
 the sophists, no one can tell the ages that elapsed. The so¬ 
 phists and philosophers began their work in Greece five 
 centuries before Christ. They were revolutionists so far as 
 they dared go. The general movement of Plato and Aris¬ 
 totle must though conflicting, certainly be regarded as one 
 of the most remarkable of the world. It worked enorm¬ 
 ously in the direction of preparing mankind for the revolu¬ 
 tion—the change from a condition of slavery of the useful 
 laboring masses to one of complete social, political and 
 spiritual recognition and equality. Plato was a slave 
 owner. He was so proud that he disdained to accept 
 money for his services as a teacher, preferring to accept 
 presents from the wealthy young students under his charge 
 —the reverse of what in our own times is considered pro¬ 
 per. Had Plato thus lived and acted just before our mod¬ 
 ern war of the rebellion he would have been called a slave¬ 
 driving hypocrite by abolitionists at the North, and a cant 
 ing moralist by the people at the South. He was of neither 
 party. Even the workingmen of his own times hated him. 
 What he did was probably equilibrated both between sym¬ 
 pathy and diplomacy, largely tempered by sympathy and 
 conscience and on the whole, working all the radical good 
 which the times would permit. The world is better for 
 this celebrated advocate of slavery having lived; for on the 
 whole, though he could not see any way possible of ex¬ 
 punging this horrid social ulcer of slavery from his republic, 
 his sympathy got the better of acquisitiveness and like all 
 1 lie teachers of that era, he melted the brutal spirit which 
 in Sparta instigated such inhuman cruelties toward the la¬ 
 boring class. All over Attica they were treated with com¬ 
 parative tenderness and consideration and though they suf¬ 
 fered the grievances we have described, yet they shared the 
 age of philosophy and art as an age peculiarly their own 
 in organization and plenty. It was their Golden age of 
 equality. We do not mean exact equality or similarity in 
 the physical and intellectual sense; for nothing could be more 
 absurd. We mean by it the extinction of those aristocratic 
 lines which pride, egoism and greed had so long held as a 
 basis of religion and of state. 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 STRIKES ANDUPRISINGS. 
 
 GRIEVANCES CONTINUED. PLANS OF ESCAPE. 
 
 First Known and First Tried Plan of Salvation was that of Retal¬ 
 iation—The Slaves test the Ordeal of Armed Force—Irasci¬ 
 bility of the Working Classes at length arrayed against their 
 Masters—Typical Strikes of the ancient Workingmen—Their 
 Inhuman Treatment—Famous Strike at the Silver Diggings 
 of Laurium—20,000 Artisans and Laborers quit Work in a 
 Body and go over to the Foes of their own Countrymen— 
 The G-reat Peloponnesian War Decided for the Spartans, 
 against the Athenians by this Fatal Strike. 
 
 In ancient Greece, Sicily and Rome there occurred great 
 and disastrous strikes. The character of the elements caus¬ 
 ing these disturbances varied greatly from that of the mod¬ 
 ern strikers. Quite the reverse of our modern, the ancient 
 strikers were either slaves or freedmen descended from 
 such, and in a condition of extreme lowliness but often so 
 intelligent that notwithstanding the odds against them they 
 sometimes out-generaled their masters and obtained for a 
 long period of time, even years, against wealth, priesthood 
 and military force. The reasons for this we have already 
 explained but may appropriately repeat. The slaves and 
 freedmen were mostly men of their masters’ own blood. 
 They were of the same race, color and natural intelligence. 
 They used the same languages, were accustomed to the 
 same roads and fields, knew the cliffs, grottoes, forests and 
 jungles; and there being no firearms or other instruments 
 of destruction which in our modem warfare throw the bal¬ 
 ance of power into the hands of the most disciplined rather 
 
184 
 
 STRIKE OF THE ANCIENT MINERS. 
 
 than the most numerous, they sometimes triumphed for a 
 time by dint of numbers. 
 
 During the Peloponnesian war a great strike of the work¬ 
 ing people occurred in and about the silver mines of Laur- 
 ium, 1 B. C. 413. It may be well here to enumerate some 
 of the grievances inciting them to this desperate resolve 
 which they knew perfectly well beforehand, would, unless 
 they succeeded, terminate in their death by tortures of the 
 most inhuman artifices the maddened cruelty of greedy 
 money-getters could invent. Nearly all the slaves and other 
 working people, laborers and artificers engaged in this enor¬ 
 mous strike, were intelligent people. Some were persons 
 who were slaves by the misfortune of birth ; 1 * others were 
 prisoners of war reduced by violence to slavery. Still 
 others were slaves as merchandise brought to the mines by 
 the vicissitudes of traffic ; and lastly and worst, there were 
 large numbers who were convicts, condemned to work in 
 the mines under the lash of brutal hireling overseers of con¬ 
 tractors* who worked these mines on leases from the gov¬ 
 ernment to which they paid one twentieth of the proceeds. 
 It was a great grievance to the intelligent workingmen to 
 be goaded by the knowledge that he was a social monstros¬ 
 ity. 4 Men now recoil at the sight of a slave because he is 
 the rare relic of an institution which human wisdom and 
 sympathy have outstripped, outlived, outgrown in theglori- 
 
 l Thucydides De Bello-Peloponesiaco, VII. 27: “A*«ovro Si Kal ®paicup rup 
 paxaipo^opup rot) Ata/cov yevovs es ra? Adrji'as ne\raoTal ip tu axny &epei to vrcf 
 Tpta/cocrtot Kal xt'Aiot, ovf iSeL tu Arj/aocrderei es rrjv 2t/ceAi'av (vfX7r\eiP- oi S’ 'A&qp- 
 mlot, o>s varepop J)kop , Supoovpto avrovt iraAcp odep JjAdop es ©p/j/ojv airoirefiireiv. 
 r b yap ex*<-v wpos top si c Trj? Ae/ceAetas woAe/xov avrou? 7roAvT*A«s etpcuVero - Spa\- 
 firjp yap T/js rj/aepas «/cacrros eA ap-fiapep. eneiSi) yap r) Ae/ce'Aeta Tb pep irpUTOP vno 
 iracrrjs Trjs arpanas r<j> de'pet toi/t<}> rei^iodelVa, vcrrepop 8e opovpats a7rb tup 
 w6\tuv Kara SiaSo\h t ' XP° V0V enLOVcra is rp x.upt} enuKelTO, 7roAAa e^Aairre rows ’Adr) 
 patois? Kal iv rots irptoTots xP r IP-°- T0>v ^ T> ohedpu /cat apdpunup tfdop$ i/ca/twcre Ta 
 wpayp-ara. nporepop p-ev yap jSpa^elat ytyi'opeat ai «o-|3oAai top aAAov xP^vov 
 Tys yr}? airohavsip ov/c ski bKvov tots 8s £vpexup eniKaih)p.epuv, /cat ore pep /cat 
 irkeopup emoprup, ore 8’ avay/oj? tijs icnjs ^povpas Karadeovoris re Tr\p 
 /cat Afltrreias noiovp.eprjs, /3a<rtAeto? re 7rapOTO? row tup AaKeSaipopiup *Ayt8os, o? 
 ovk i k irapeyov top no\epop eirotetTO, ueyaAa oi ’ Adr/paloi e&XamovTO' ttjs t« yap 
 X<opas aTracr/js etTTeprjPTO /cat auSpocnoSup n\eop f/ 8vo p-vpiaSc? ^vTop.oAsj/ceoat', /cat 
 tov'tov to 7roAi> /typos' xetpoTe^vat, npojZaTa. re napra a7roAwAet /cat VTrotJvyia- i7riri 
 re, oo’ijp.epat e£e\avPOPTo)P tup inneup Jrpos tc ty)p Ae/ceActat' KaraSpouas noiovpepup 
 Kal Kara tyjp x^P av pvAacooPTuy, oi pep anexuhovpro ep yfj awo/cpoTy T« ica- 
 ^t//'«x«bs TaXainupouPTei , ot 8’ eTiTptoa'/cot'TO. 
 
 Xenophon De Vectigal. IV. 25. 
 
 fiOranier de Cassagaac, Illstotre des Clastes Ouvrxires , chap. ilL 
 
 * Plutarch Nvcias and Crassus Compared , 1. 
 
 4 Drumann, Arbeiler und Communislen in Griechenland und Rom, S. 24; 
 Bhckh. Public Economies of the Athenians, ;». 263, ior instances of men own-' 
 lAg great numbers of slaves; See h o Bhokh s Laurische Silberbergwerke in At- 
 
 ttka, passim. 
 
NO SUNDAY FOR WORKINGMEN . 
 
 135 
 
 ous race of enlightenment. Even at that early age the 
 slave’s servitude was the source of his own intelligent dis¬ 
 gust ; for covered as he was with the indelible brands and 
 scars of S}Stematic mutilation, and decrepit in premature 
 age through blows and strains of violence and overwork, his 
 mind remained unimpaired, often edged to consciousness of 
 its own incompatibility with this state of degradation. The 
 poor creatures were never allowed to eat white bread.* 
 There were no Sundays for them. Of the 365 days they 
 were forced to delve 360. Sometimes the government 
 owned them and subbed them with the mines themselves to 
 the contractors, following the plan of Xenophon, 7 who some¬ 
 times thus worked great numbers at a time. Often, how¬ 
 ever, the rich contractor himself owned laboring men with 
 whom to operate the mines. Thus Nicias owned a thou¬ 
 sand slaves, 8 Mnason also owned a thousand.* The ancients 
 appear to have had a species of passion for seeing acts of 
 brutality and cruelty. 
 
 Wakes are of great antiquity. Originally they were pub¬ 
 lic fights on the occasion of the death of an important mem¬ 
 ber of a gens family, in which the combatants were his 
 sl&ves so unfortunate as to have survived him. All the fam¬ 
 ily, its slaves and their children, perhaps also the community 
 not allied by blood, were summond to see what in our re¬ 
 fined age would not only be repellent cruelties, but intol¬ 
 erable ones—a fight to the death, of slaves of the deceased, 
 with daggers and clubs. 10 The first combat on record of 
 this kind occurred in B. C. 264, arranged by the brothers 
 Brutus. 11 But authors agree that the practice comes from 
 much more remote antiquity; and mention of it is made 
 here to prepare the reader to understand some of the causes 
 
 » Granier, de Cass. Hist. Ouvri'eres, p. 98,wlio gives references. 
 
 « Bficher Aufstands der unfreien Arbeiter, S. 96; Xenoph. Memorab. 111. 0, 12. 
 For 360 days in the year those poor working people male and female, had 
 to drudge. Xenophon 4, 16; Bdokh, Silberbergwerke, S. 125. 
 
 "Xenophon, De Vedigal. cap. iv. 
 
 8 Bucher, Aufsldnde, etc. S. 96; Drumann Arbeiter und Communisten, §3. 
 11-23. 
 
 9 Bbckh, Public Economies of the Athenians, p. 263. The celebrated plan of 
 Xenophon for replenishing the Athenian treasury {De Vedigal. cap, iv.) was 
 to have the state put 60 000 of its own slaves on the state silver mines of 
 Laurium. to be !eu>ed to contractors. He even gives figures on the prestun 
 able inc ome frofn this p >in of relief to the state. 
 
 Jo Frie llander, Darstellungen au der Sitlengeschichte Roms, II. 216. 
 
 u Gulvi and Koaer, Life of Vie Greeks and Romans. We give references to 
 modern authors so that readers not conversant with the original languages 
 may get them and satisfy themselves 
 
136 
 
 STRIKE AT THE SILVER MINES. 
 
 lurking at the bottom of the evil of ancient strikes and up¬ 
 risings. Gibbon relates the horrible story of the Syracusian, 
 L. Domitius. 13 One of the poor, innocent slaves during hia 
 prsetorship, one day while assisting in the chase, killed a 
 wild boar of enormous size and very dangerous. The dar¬ 
 ing deed got noised about until it reached the ear of Dom- 
 itius who ordered the slave to be brought to him as he de¬ 
 sired to see so brave a man. The poor creature appeared 
 before this fellow, humbly expecting a trifle of praise so sel¬ 
 dom the lot of the Syracusian slave. To his horror, how¬ 
 ever, this monster’s first question was, what kind of weapon 
 or means were employed by him in performing the deed. 
 The answer was a javelin. “Are you not aware that the jave¬ 
 lin is a weapon for gentlemen ; and that for so mean a crea¬ 
 ture as a slave to use the weapons of men, is death ? ” Turn¬ 
 ing to his soldiers he said, “ take this slave away and crucify 
 him.” The trembling wretch was actually crucified upon 
 the spot. The heart sickens at the contemplation of our 
 descent from such a type of monsters! 
 
 Bucher notes 13 that single contractors often worked 300 
 to 600 slaves in the silver mines of Laurium and that con¬ 
 victs who were government property were sometimes sold 
 to the contractors who exploited their labor in their own 
 name. 14 Sometimes intelligent men in those days were half 
 slaves and half free, being enfeoffed by livery of seizin, no 
 doubt, if unambitious of freedom, enjoying thereby some 
 advantages over those entirely out in the competitive world. 
 Such men were paid a per diem, varying from 3 to 7 oboli , 
 or from 10 to 19 cents for their labor. 16 
 
 Callias the friend of Cimon, B. C. 460, became wealthy, 
 managing mines. All or nearly all the mines were, with 
 the ancients, the property of the state. The state contracted 
 the working of the mines to enterprising business men who 
 often hired slaves to do the work. These contractors were 
 often men of noble blood. The sen«e of the social structure 
 being against conducting or managing one’s own business. 
 
 12 Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I. p. 48. N.T., I860: 
 Bbckh, Silberbergwerke, S. 122-3, adds testimony to this hardheartedness of 
 the ancients, referring to Plato who, for his perfect state, wanted only Greeks 
 exempt from slavery. 
 
 13 Aufstdnde etc., S. 90. 
 
 m Bobkh, Abhandlimg der Historisch-Philologischen Classe der Preussischae 
 Akademie der Wiessenchaften, 1814-15. 
 
 16 Id. Public Econ. of Athenians, p. 164. 
 
STATISTICS OF ANCIENT WAGES. 
 
 137 
 
 Only the slaves and other workmen, those who actually per* 
 formed the work, were doomed to suffer the odium of labor. 
 Any business man who could get a bond, could take from 
 the state a portion or the whole of a mine; and sometimes 
 even the slaves themselves were to be had of the state. In 
 this case, the complete outfit was contracted for by the in¬ 
 dividual, who had no further care than to manipulate pro¬ 
 ducts and gains. Callias and Cimon had either contracts 
 for or ownership in the mines of silver at Laurium, located 
 to the southeastward of Athens about 30 miles. 16 Their 
 names appear also, but vaguely in connection with the 
 Pangaeus mines in Thrace. It is known that Thucidydes 
 the celebrated historian owned mining property in Mace¬ 
 donia. He was a rich slave owner and optimate. One 
 Sosias a Thracian contractor hired from Nicias a thousand 
 slaves, at an obolus per day each. 17 Hyponicus rented or 
 hired as many as 600 slaves to these contractors and re¬ 
 ceived, as Xenophon tells us, a mina daily for their labor. 
 Philemonides for 300 slaves got half a mina. 18 
 
 Public servants were not always free. Wages in the time 
 of Pericles stood about as follows: 19 for a common laborer 
 who carried dirt, 3 oboli , 20 or 10 J cents per day. A gar¬ 
 dener got 14 cents; a sawyer of wood, one drachm, or 19 
 cents; a carpenter received sometimes as high as 17J cents 
 while millers in the grain mills received 15 to 18 cents. 
 Scribes or copyists no more. The architect of the temple 
 of Minerva got no more than the stone sawyer and others 
 only as much as the common laborer. His name was Polias. 
 Boeckh says he received one drachm or exactly 17^ cents. 
 The hypogrammateus or secretary to the superintendent of 
 public buildings got only 5 oboli or about 15 cents. 
 
 The fares for traveling conveyances were also very low. 
 In fact, the clerks and public officials of every kind were 
 government subjects who received low salaries and worked 
 long hours. Their life was a constant drudgery. The su¬ 
 perintendents themselves were officers of family or blood. 
 They were citizens; but the dignity of their position re¬ 
 strained them from receiving any recompense. 
 
 Plutarch, Cimon . Cornelius Nepos. Cimon; “non tam generosua quam 
 pecuniosus, qui magnas pecunias ex metal lis fecerat.” 
 
 17 Xenophon, De Vectgal. §. 4, 14; Plutarch, Nicias , 4. 
 
 18 Xenophon. Id. 1, c. § 16. inBbokh, Pub. Econ. Aihen. p, 1®4. 
 
 50 An obolus was cts, a drachma 10. 
 
138 
 
 STRIKE AT THE SILVER MINES. 
 
 Thus in Greece, Rome and everywhere throughout an¬ 
 tiquity, such were the oppressive conditions that the intelli¬ 
 gent among the working classes, goaded by their sufferings, 
 w*ere on the alert, sometimes for revenge, sometimes for 
 objects of amelioration, but oftener from sheer, reckless 
 despair, and ready to strike out in bloody rebellion against 
 their master. 
 
 With this statement on general causes of strikes we pro¬ 
 ceed with the story of the greatest of all, belonging purely 
 to this category of human resistance, to be found either in 
 ancient or modern times. 21 It may be plausibly conjectured 
 that this great strike in turning the tables against the Athe¬ 
 nians and thus deciding the celebrated Peloponnesian war 
 against them and the little democracy that had grown up 
 in the Athenian civilization and refinement, went far toward 
 suppressing the true progress of the human race.” 
 
 The silver mines of Laurium, 30 miles south from the 
 city of Athens, were among the resources of Athenian wealth. 
 They belonged to the government. The methods of ob¬ 
 taining the precious metal was by arduous labor, without 
 much of the modern machinery. Diodorus describing the 
 Egyptian mines between Captos and Cosseir, pictures the 
 sufferings of the poor convicts and barbarians working 
 there; 23 and Bucher says that was also the case with those 
 working the Laurian mines. 24 According to this, men and 
 women in great numbers who had committed some crime” 
 against the state or otherwise, were dragged into the subter¬ 
 ranean cavern, stripped entirely of their clothing, their 
 bodies painted, their legs loaded with chains and in this 
 frightful condition, set at work drilling the rock, breaking 
 it in pieces and carrying it to the mouth of the shaft. Out¬ 
 side the mine were smitheries, machine shops for making 
 stamping mills, water tanks and courses for washing the 
 metal, wagon shops for making and repairing vehicles of 
 conveyance and other conveniences necessary for so great 
 an industry, employing great numbers of slaves and freed- 
 men for carrying on the works. 
 
 n The greater uprisings are known, not as strikes but as servile wars; al¬ 
 though we sometimes confound them with strikes 
 
 22 Drumann, Arbeiter und Cummunisten in Griechenland und Rom, S. 64. 
 
 23Diodorus Bibliotheca Historica, V. 38. 
 
 24 Bucher, Aufstdnde der unfveien Arb. S. 96. 
 
 a® Compare Plutarch. Nicias and Crassus Comp. Init. Plutarch here avers 
 that the workmen under Nicias were often malefactors and convicts. 
 
BOTE SEXES WORKED NAKED IN THE MINES. 13 $ 
 
 These mines of Laurium were in operation when the Pe¬ 
 loponnesian war broke oat, B. C. 432, between the Spartans 
 and Athenians, which lasted 27 years, Thucidydes speaks 
 as though the offer held out to the workmen employed as 
 Blaves by the Athenians, of 18 cents per day uniformly, was 
 a very tempting one. 26 They were poor dependents, some 
 slaves, some freedmen, some convicts, subjected to abuse, 
 thrown pell-mell together, driven to hard work, poorly fed, 
 those within the mines, naked and suffering, and utterly 
 destitute of that feeling known to us as patriotism, although 
 many of them were Athenians. 27 Daring this obstinate 
 struggle the Lacedsemonian forces, B. C. 413, approached 
 as near to Athens as Decelea, a garrisoned frontier town 
 in Bcetia held by them, where they established themselves 
 over against the Athenian lines. The distance between 
 Decelea on the borders of Boetia and Athens is only about 
 20 miles. The Athenian ergasteria or workshops were 
 manned in part by slaves. 28 So, whether in the shops and 
 arsenals at Athens, or in the silver mines of Laurium, both 
 of which, during war time, were indispensable for supply¬ 
 ing money and arms, the sinews of production were not 
 quickened by that peculiarly inspiriting urgent known to us 
 as patriotism. Labor hated alike home, fatherland and em¬ 
 ployer. When war broke out the laborer, instead of turn¬ 
 ing his power and genius to swift production of engines for 
 hurling missiles of destruction among the invaders of his 
 country, sought in the vortex of fierce disturbance, some 
 fissure of retreat from the monstrous cruelties of bondage. 
 
 Thus in this pivotal contest between the Spartans and 
 Athenians, compared with the Spartans’ treatment of the 
 Helots or Lacedaemonian slaves, the Athenians with all the 
 horrors that have been pictured, were mild, we find the 
 grievance intensified beyond endurance. Compared with 
 Spartan suavity, philosophy and moral advancement, the 
 Athenians were as civilization to barbarism; for Sparta had 
 never questioned the claims of Pagan aristocracy and Ly- 
 curgus had built upon it in all its austere presumptiveness a 
 ring or community of about one-third the population and 
 damned the remaining two-thirds to a stage of slavery 
 
 26 Thucydides. De Bello Peloponnesiaco, VII. 27, already quoted, p. 107. 
 
 27 Biicher. Aufstdnde d. unfreien Arb. S. 21. 
 
 28 Drumann; Arb. u. Communisten in Griechenland u. Rom, S. 64j “Aucb 
 In den Fabriken, epyaerrepia, sah man *ur Solaven,” 
 
140 
 
 STRIKE AT THE STLVER MINES. 
 
 very little better than that of naked convicts described by 
 Diodorus in the gold mines of Egypt. 29 Yet notwithstand* 
 ing the brutal example the poor slaves had just witnessed, 
 of Spartan treachery, in assassinating 2,000 brave helots 
 a few years before, 80 some knowledge of which they must 
 certainly have possessed 81 we find the poor Athenian work¬ 
 men readily accepting an offer by the Spartans and joining 
 them in great numbers against their own fatherland. 
 
 Undoubtedly this was a very dangerous exploit of the 
 strikers and could not have succeeded without some organ¬ 
 ization. But w r e are left in the dark regarding most of the 
 details. No doubt the near approach of the Lacedaemonian 
 forces and the demoralization of the Athenians as well as 
 their ingratitude, together with the arrogance of Cimon 
 and the revenges of Alcibiades, might have had much to 
 do with it. 
 
 This great strike must have been plotted by the men 
 themselves. We are, through the two or three brief refer¬ 
 ences to it, given us by the historians, 32 left to infer that it 
 must have been well concerted, violent and swift. The in¬ 
 ference is unequivocal that in 413, B. C. 20,000 miners, me¬ 
 chanics, teamsters and laborers suddenly struck work; and 
 at a moment of Athens’ greatest peril, fought themselves 
 loose from their masters and their chains. These 20,000 
 workmen made a desperate bolt for the Spartan garrison 
 newly established at Decelea on the borders of Bcetia. The 
 strike must have been the more desperate on account of 
 the offers held out to them by the enemy. One of the offers 
 was that they should be provided with work which they 
 should perform on their own reckoning; but that they 
 should pay only a part of it to their masters or employers. 
 At this lay, by industry and patience they could not only 
 live better but could lay by a certain sum with which to 
 
 29 Diodorus, Bib. Hist. III. 11, V, 38 
 
 so Thucydides, IV. 80, massacre of the Helots, B. C. 424, tit supr, p. 106 sq 
 
 31 Witne s the intimate undercunen; oi u; ephony uuiing the great up- 
 rh'ngs ol Eunus, Arisonicus, Athenion and Spartaius; and the same wai 
 :Cp ated during the anti-slavery rebellion in the United States, with same 
 u y terion lv a’Qurate information. 
 
 32 Thucydides, De Bello Pel. VI. 91. VIII. 4, VII. 27; Xenophon, D• 
 Vecligal. 4 25; Drumann, Arb. u. Comm. S. 64; Biicher, AufstcL/lde. un- 
 fre en Aibeiter, S. 21: “Im Jahre vor Chr. 413 schlugen sioh 20,000 A hen- 
 isehe Fabrikarbeiter zu den Lakedaimoniern, ein schwerer Schlag fiir den 
 L u is he a Bergbau.” Bockh, Laurische Silberbtrgwerke, S. 90-1, ftlgo men- 
 tiuUB it. 
 
THE STRIKE A RECOGNIZED SUCCESS. 
 
 141 
 
 bay themselves free. Unaccustomed to plenty and sud¬ 
 denly thus provided with enough to eat and drink, they 
 naturally gave themselves up to indulgence to some extent 
 for Dr. Drumann tells us that many of the slaves lived bet¬ 
 ter than the freedmen themselves, though we have no ac- 
 count of their dissipating. 88 The statement of Dr. Bucher, 
 that this strike of the workmen of Athens was a heavy blow 
 to the mining operations of the Laurian silver diggings, con¬ 
 firms the importance of this immense uprising in Attica. 
 The sudden loss of 20,000 workmen, inured to the hard¬ 
 ships of mining life, and drilled to the mechanical nice¬ 
 ties of the assays for the money supply, of the wagon 
 works, and of the armories at Athens where most of the 
 sabers, slings, daggers, javelins, campaign wagons and 
 other impedimenta of war were constructed, is known 
 to have been a serious set-back to the progress of the Pe¬ 
 loponnesian conflict. But while it disheartened the Athen¬ 
 ians it proportionately encouraged and delighted the Lace¬ 
 daemonians ; and as the latter were not of the party of pro¬ 
 gress but engaged in invidious activity against the Athen¬ 
 ians, at that time the most democratic and advanced peo¬ 
 ple in the world, it acted directly against the evolution of 
 mankind. No one pretends to deny that the Spartans, 
 boasting of the hegemony of their youth and their conse¬ 
 quent warlike prowess, were mad with jealousy against the 
 wondrous work of Athenian philosophy, letters, fine art and 
 polish ;—the very adornments, theoretical and mechanical, 
 
 ** Drumann, Arbeiter und Communisten in Griechenland und Rom, S. 64. “Der 
 grbsste Theil der 20,000, welche im peloponnesischen Kriege in Attica zu der 
 Bpartanischen Besatzung in Decelia entliefen, kam aus Fabriken. Mitunter 
 wurde ihnen gestattet, fllr eigene Kechnung zu arbeiten, und ein Gewisses tlieil an 
 ibre Herren abzugeben; so konnten fleissige und sparsame eine Summe eriibrigen 
 und sich loskaufen; manche machten mekr Aufwand als die Freien.” Bucher 
 ■ays, S. 21: “ Wo viele Sklaven derselben Nationalist in einer Stadt zusammen 
 lebten, sagt Platon, (legg. VI. p. 777), geschahe grosses Unheil, wasdoch nur auf 
 wirliche Aufstande mit all ihren Graueln zu deuten ist.” So also at Rome 
 the feeling was against the poorest class and aggravated by a fear of their muti¬ 
 nies. Cato the elder was a hard-hearted slave-driver as Livy, (XXXIX. 40), 
 coolly hints, without seeming to imagine that brutal treatment of a menial 
 was inhumanity. Macrobius, (Satumaliorum Libri, I, xi. 2, 25-30,) says that in 
 Borne so great was the cruelty of citizens to the laboring class that God himself 
 protested: “Audi igitnr quanta indignatio de serui supplicio caelum pene- 
 trauerit. anno enim post Romam conditam quadringentesimo septuagesimo 
 quarto Autranius quidam Maximus seruuin suum ueberatum patibuloque con- 
 ■trictum ante spetaculi commissionem per circum egit: ob quam causamindig- 
 natus Iuppiter Annio cuidam per quietem imperauit ut senatui nuntiaret non 
 ■ibi placuisse plenum crudelitatis admissum.” Thus cruelty with other griev¬ 
 ances caused them to revolt. Of course, those who were already free wei’e still 
 more fortunate. It is curious that the law was such that the slaves remained 
 •laves even after winning the strike. 
 
142 
 
 STRIKE AT THE SILVER MINES. 
 
 which have in course of subsequent ages succeeded in rid¬ 
 ding the world of slavery. Yet we find in this great strike 
 20,000 workingmen revolting and turning their muscle 
 against their own comparatively progressive institutions, 
 thus doing all in their power to aid the Spartans in subdu¬ 
 ing this growing Athenian intelligence. Of course we can¬ 
 not blame them for resistance ; for it raised them, although 
 it doomed their cause. The brilliant Athenians were, after 
 a struggle of 27 years, defeated and the Spartans succeeded 
 in re-establishing the old, jealous, conservative paganism— 
 that deadliest enemy of freedom, the nursery of slavery, the 
 home of priestcraft and of aristocracy, ever inculcating 
 belief in divine right of few against many. 
 
 Not far from Decilea on the Athenian seacoast, about five 
 miles to the southeastward of the Laurian silver mines, was 
 the little mining city of Sunion. There was an old castle 
 at this place, which, like that in the forest of Sicily, 84 was 
 under the aegis of a powerful divinity who recognized the 
 workingman and protected him, whatever his deeds or his 
 guilt, so long as he could hold himself within its walls. 
 
 It was about the close of the first Labor war of Eunus of 
 Sicily that another enormous and horribly bloody strike oc¬ 
 curred in the mines of Laurium. 85 The men undertook and 
 carried out the same plan as that of J)ecelia, and struck work 
 to the number of more than a thousand. 88 It must have 
 been a memorable and shockingly sanguinary event. Sun- 
 ion was the stronghold of the silver mines. 81 By the ap¬ 
 pearance of things as presented to us in the meagre details 
 given, no improvement for the comfort of the miners had 
 ever been introduced since the great strike of Decelea. The 
 poor creatures were still suffering under the lash, delving 
 360 out of the 365 days in the year, naked, men and women in¬ 
 discriminately tugging under the clubs of heartless foremen 
 and directors, the same as ages before, 88 That these poor 
 
 84 See Second Sicilian Labor War, chap. xi. where it lfl related that the strikers 
 were actually shielded by the god of the castle, and no one dared to disturb them 
 until they had organized that mighty rebellion. 
 
 86 A full account of this strike-war occurs in chap. x. pp. 201-241 q. v. 
 
 88 Augustin d* civ. d. in. 26, tells us also of a great uprising of the miners 
 In Macedonia. 
 
 37 Bockh, Lawische Silberhergwerk, 8, 90. 
 
 38 Athenaeus, Deipnosophistce, VI. p. 271: quoting E. Poseidonius, the contin- 
 nator of the Histories of Polybius says: “ Kai ai rroAAai 51 airai ’Am/cai fivpiaSet 
 rwv oik«t«p SeSepevcu eipya^ovro ra ju.eVa.AAa. noaetSumoi yovv o’ <tn\6aro<l>ot Kai 
 anooravTaf <t>fia\.v air ous KaTO.<J)oyevaat p.iv roiif ivi ru»y p-tra^Awy <£i>Aa/cas, tcaraAa- 
 
BLOODY MUTINY AT SUNION. 
 
 143 
 
 people, many of whom were freedmen had their labor or¬ 
 ganizations is proved beyond a shadow of doubt. Bockh 
 comments upon the passage of Demosthenes against Pan- 
 taetus, 89 showing a quarrel of the contractors in the mines 
 with the trade unions. These quarrels were frequent occur¬ 
 rences in th ose days. It might have been some similar trouble 
 that caused the uprisings we are describing, although it oc¬ 
 curred in later times. 
 
 More than a thousand of the miners one day simultane¬ 
 ously struck work and proceeded in a body to the protect¬ 
 ing castle of Sunion where they claimed and secured pro¬ 
 tection from the divine guardian that watched over this holy 
 institution. 40 
 
 Should any one complain of us for dragging religion into 
 our history of the ancient lowly, their folly will here be 
 seen. It is another of the numerous instances showing that 
 labor, politics and religion were all institutions of govern- 
 
 picrd at M ttjv ini Zoim dip axpbi toXiv *ai ini no\vv \povov nopdr/aai r^p 'Arrni^. 
 Ovro?, STiv 6 Kcupos, ore tcai iv ’S.meXiqr) Seyrepa rtav SovXutv anoaracrif iyivt to. Sm 
 also Bbckh, S. 123. 
 
 «* See Demosth, Agt. Pant. 966-7. The eranoi mentioned were the veritable 
 trade unions, corresponding with the Roman collegia, the French jurandee and the 
 English trade unions. The thiasoi, as we persistently explain, were that branch 
 of the eranoi which had in charge the entertainments and solemnities. We have 
 already shown that slaves often belonged to the unions. Foucart, (Association* Ro- 
 ligieusues Chez Lei Greet, p. 121 and 219, inscription No. 38), mentions an important 
 inscription showing that one Xanthos a Lycian slave belonging to a Roman 
 named Caius Orbius, founded a temple at the mines and consecrated it to the 
 moon god. This moon god in return for the favor protected the slave*. The 
 al&b bears evidence from which we quote the first six lineB as follows; 
 
 EavOos Avkios Tacov ’Opdiou KaOeiSpvoa rb iep oyrov M 171/05 
 Tvpavi'ov, aiptriarayrof rod ffeov, in’ ayadij rvxjft Kaiprfdiva 
 ijcaOapTov irpocayeiv, KaOapi^iarot Si an 6 onopOutv teai^otpimp 
 teal yvyaucbf, Xovoa/ieyovs Se KaraxetpaXa avffrj/aepby tianoptv^ 
 te0ai f tea i e/c t <av yvvaiKttiov Si a inra rjp.epu)V kov<TO.p.ivqvxaTa- 
 tciwaXa eianopeveaOai avdr)p.ep'ov t ica'i anb vtKpov Sia qntpibvSeicmt 
 
 The remarks of Foucart in the text, p. 121 are: “ Celui qui, vers le denxtftme 
 sidcle apres notre ere, introduisit dans l’Attiquele culte de Men, 6tait un esclave 
 lycien, employ^ par un proprietaire romain aux travaux des mines. C’dtalt le 
 dieu lui-meme qui, dans une apparition ou dans un songe, l’avait invitA & (le¬ 
 ver le temple. Aussi le fondateur a-t-il pris soin de rdpeter, dans les deux in¬ 
 scriptions, qu'il ex6cutait le d6sir de M§n; c’6tait mettre ainsi sous sa protection 
 le reglement qu’il (dictait: Moi, Xanthos, Lycien, appartenant a Caius Orbius, 
 j’ai consacr6 le temple de M8n Tyrannos, pour me conformer a la volont6 du 
 dieu." We would like to ask how a poor slave working in the mines could found, 
 erect and consecrate a great temple so solid that its ruinB and inscriptions re¬ 
 main as testimony to this day ? Foucart in his desire to prove that all those in¬ 
 scriptions were purely religious and nothing more, forgets that a slave so lowly 
 could do no such thing. He was simply managing officer of a great trade union 
 so Democratic that social distinctions were unknown to it. This eranos erected 
 the temple. 
 
 40 Bchambach, Der Ilalischc Selavenaujland, S. 6 : “ Um 620 a. U.-184 v. Chr. 
 emporten sich die in deu LaurischenSilberberkenarbeitendenSklaven, tddtetea 
 
 ikre Wachter, nabmen das Kastell von bunion ein und verwtiateten Attika lange 
 Zeit. 
 
144 
 
 STRIKE AT THE SILVER MINES 
 
 ment. Let the reader imagine a thousand workingmen 
 safely protected from the most deadly enemies, by a god! 
 But not only for a day or two were they thus screened from 
 the wrath of armed soldiers who had orders to spear every 
 one of the strikers the instant he was seen outside the 
 sacred pale, but for months this continued and there were 
 battles fought and frequent and successful sallies made by 
 the workingmen all under the protecting arm of the god. 
 
 The strikers killed their overseers, rushed into the town, 
 took possession, got the temple to sleep in, organized them¬ 
 selves for combat, took the arms from the armories, and 
 for a long time laid waste the country on every side, re¬ 
 maining masters of the stronghold within. The mayor of 
 the city, one Heraklitos, 41 after their rage was probably spent, 
 succeeded in defeating them when in all probability the 
 usual brutalities of wholesale crucifixion were enacted and 
 nearly every one put to death. This is the more certain 
 because at this time, B. C. 133, the Romans were not only 
 masters of all Greece, but their contractors were operating 
 the silver mines at Laurium, for which kind of employment 
 they had a peculiar fondness. 
 
 Another strike and bloody stampede of a similar kind 
 took place at the gold mines of Pangaetus in Macedonia, 
 which was of sufficient magnitude to get into the history 
 of Augustin, and Schambach mentions it as another import¬ 
 ant occurrence. 42 
 
 « Orosins, V. 9: “In metallis quoque Athenlenslum idem tnmnltiu iervllii 
 
 ab Heraclito prastore discussua est.’’ 
 
 42 Schambach, Der Italische Sklavenaufstand, S. 5: ‘'Auch die griechsche Welt 
 wurde in ahnlicher weise, wenn auch in geringerer Ausdehnung, helmgesnoht. 
 Nach Augustin de civ. in, 26 verwiisteten kurz vor dem Auabruche des ereten 
 sicilischen Sklavenkrieges empdrte Sklarenbanden Macedonian and die anstoa* 
 unden Gebiete. 
 
CHAPTER VL 
 
 GRIEVANCES. 
 
 LABOR TROUBLES AMONG THE ROMANS. 
 MORE BLOODY PLANS OF SALVATION TRIED. 
 
 Thk Irascible Plan in Italy — Epidemic Uprisings — Attempt to 
 Fire the City of Rome and have Things common—Conspir¬ 
 acy of Slaves at the Metropolis—Two Traitors—Betrayal— 
 Deaths on the Roman Gibbet—Another Great Uprising at Se- 
 tia—Expected Capture of the World—Land of Wine and 
 Delight—Again the Traitor, the Betrayal and Gibbet—The 
 Irascible Plan a Failure—Strike of the Agricultural Laborers 
 in Etruria—Slave Labor—Character of the Etruscans—Expe¬ 
 dition of Glabro—Fighting—Slaves Worsted—Punishment 
 on the dreadful Cross, the ancient Block for the Low-born— 
 Enormous Strike in the Land of Labor Organizations— One 
 Glimpse at the Cause and Origin of Italian Brigandage—La¬ 
 borers, Mechanics and Agriculturers Driven to Despair— 
 The gr eat Uprising in Apulia—Fierce Fighting to the Dag- 
 
 f er’s Eilt—The Overthrow, the Dungeon and the Cross.— 
 *roof Dug from Fragments of Lost History. 
 
 Strikes and labor mutinies are known to have occurred at 
 Rome. There was one of a desperate nature in the year 
 417, B. C., while Lanatus, P. Lucretius and Spurius Rutilus 
 were tribunes under the consuls Vibulanus and Capitolinus. 1 
 This was during the Peloponnesian war and the fact that it 
 occurred about the same time with the great strike of the 
 20,000 a miners and artisans at Athens, shows that the asser¬ 
 tion made by the investigation of the United States Bureau 
 
 / 
 
 iLlvy, Annales, lib. IV. 45. 
 
 * Authors differ a little as to dates, The different Is agreed to within 
 three years: i. e. B. C. 418 for the Athenian and 417 for the Roman strike. 
 
14 * 
 
 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 of Labor, that panics and depressions are simultaneous and 
 somewhat epidemic in character, is true.* This remarka¬ 
 ble phenomenon will repeatedly exhibit itself as we proceed. 
 Livy states that in the same year the city of Cumae in Cam¬ 
 pania, long inhabited by the Greeks, but located only a 
 short distance to the southward of Rome, had been taken. 4 
 Undoubtedly some of the conspirators whose story we are 
 about to recount, were Greeks. Syracuse, a Greek-speaking 
 city, being brought into contact at the same time by the 
 novel adventures of Nicias and Cimon, must have afforded 
 the slaves an opportunity of hearing the news of the great 
 strike pending at Decelea. On the whole, judging from 
 the established fact that strikes and uprisings among work¬ 
 ingmen are nearly always contagious, it may safely be set 
 down as probable that these historical events were simul¬ 
 taneous. At any rate, the warning words of Macrobius, 
 that “ the more slaves the more enemies ” * would have been 
 applicable to both Greeks and Romans; for though deliv¬ 
 ered subsequently, they were always true. 
 
 Enthused by some subtile agency, whether of emissaries 
 from secret societies, or straggling travelers or pirates bring¬ 
 ing exaggerated accounts from Greece, or whether goaded 
 to the act by their own misery neither of which will ever be 
 explained, we know that in the night, in the year 417, ac¬ 
 cording to our own reckoning, or 419 according to Bucher,* 
 the slaves in a conjuration they had previously concocted, 
 arose and attempted to fire the city of Rome. Their hatred 
 was not only against their bonds per se, but also extremely 
 intense against the aristocracy who, ever since the time of 
 their beloved king Servius Tullius, B. C. 578-534, had op¬ 
 pressed them through both fear and jealousy. Tullius was 
 the 6th Roman king; and of all others since the great 
 Numa the most friendly to the poor and lowly. His sym- 
 
 E athy was the stronger for his having once been a slave 
 imself. He restored the arrangement of Numa that had 
 regulated their trades and economic relations. He upheld 
 the old trade organization. As to the slaves, it is probable 
 
 »Consult First Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Labor, 168C, 
 
 pp. 15 and 290 referlnsr to panics and depre siona. 
 
 * Liv. lib. IV. cap 44. hn. CunisB w .s also the birthplao* of W o— ln i ttf 
 rich labor agitator, q. v. chapter on Aristonicu*. 
 
 6 Macrobius, Saturnaliorum Libri, I. H. 
 
 « Bucher, Aufstdnde der unfreien Arbeiter, S. 44. 
 
THE GOOD OLD TIME 
 
 147 
 
 that he also greatly assisted them. All who could count 
 upon enough freedom, he organized. He added to the 
 first class of Numa’s system two centuries. 7 This was rec¬ 
 ognizing in them some power of defence and an element of 
 dignity. When this good man died, the nobility, mad with 
 jealousy, overturned some of the laws and regulations he 
 had established. Even during his life, such was their hatred 
 that they plotted an indiscriminate slaughter in which 
 many poor working people fell victims. Before he died, 
 he caused to be engraved or otherwise chronicled, a consti¬ 
 tution which greatly favored the slave population and the 
 freedmen; but it was swept out of existence by those who 
 succeeded him. 
 
 To clearly exhibit the state of human credulity in ancient 
 times as well as to trace the origin of the proletarian the¬ 
 ory of Saviors and the prevalent beliefs in immaculate con¬ 
 ceptions, it may here be stated that Servius Tullius was 
 imagined a descendant of a slave on bis mother’s side and 
 of a god on his father’s. This may really and consistently 
 with the Pagan faith have been perfectly true; because ac¬ 
 cording to that religion any paterfamilias, or head of a 
 noble gens family was a god and there was a law giving 
 him privilege to have children by his female slaves. 8 All 
 strikes and uprisings had been easily subdued under Ser¬ 
 vius Tullius. The massacre of the slaves alluded to was 
 not in the least, so far as we have information, instigated 
 by him, but by the jealous nobility who could not bear to 
 see a favor shown the poor whom they despised. After 
 King Tarquin acceded to the throne and the good work of 
 Tullius was destroyed, they seem to have revived their old 
 uneasiness; and no doubt many uprisings actually took 
 place which have never been mentioned in history. Thus, 
 143 years elapsed before the occurrence of the scene we 
 have introduced. The intelligence regarding this horror 
 is exceedingly meagre. Livy simply relates that the hap¬ 
 piness of the Roman people was this year disturbed, not 
 by a defeat of the army this time, but by “a great dan- 
 
 » Orelli, Jnscriptionum Latinamm Colleciio, nos. 1803, 2443, 4105; Livy, 
 1 . 43 ; Drumann, S, 154; Plutarch, Nurna. 17. 
 
 • Granier, Hist . des Classes Ouvrih es, p. 70, But the best proof of this 
 is Dionysius of Halicarn <s‘us, ih I. Consult also Bombardini, De Car- 
 cere tt antique ejus Urn, quotiny: the law: ‘Romulus pennissit maratls jus 
 vit» ac necessitudinis in uxores suas indulgere.” 
 
148 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 ger.” He characterizes it indeed, as prodigious* Thug 
 though all the particulars are not given the probabilities 
 are, that it was a memorable affair. 
 
 A certain number of slaves of Rome formed a conspir¬ 
 acy to secretly set fire to the city in the night. The plan 
 was to fire the houses in many places at once. Then, 
 when the buildings were ablaze, they expected a stampede 
 of the people as sometimes occurs at a burning theatre or 
 church, on which occasion there settles a horror and a 
 craze, the people losing their wits and thus falling an easy 
 prey to a few well organized ruffians who, with a stern 
 leader are able so shrewdly to command and manage as 
 to demolish, plunder and make off with much that the 
 flames leave unconsumed. This was the intention of the 
 Roman slave conspiracy. They made their plans to throw 
 the city into a vast confusion and at a point when flames 
 and fright combined to perfect the moral chaos, to seize 
 the arms from the armories and whatever else was avail¬ 
 able, put the citizens to the sword, set their fellow slaves 
 free, and having completed the work of devastation, take 
 possession of the property, occupy the citadels and the 
 capitol and settle down in the enjoyment of the women 
 whom they did not propose to hurt in their general mas¬ 
 sacre of the men. In the act of carrying out this prodig¬ 
 ious carnage they where betrayed by two of the conspira¬ 
 tors as is commonly the case in such attempts. As a re¬ 
 sult the ringleaders were seized by the officers of justice 
 and crucified. 10 
 
 It is very singular that Livy, usually elaborate when 
 dwelling upon an important event, should so peremptorily 
 dismiss this subject which he introduces as one of the his¬ 
 torical events of Rome in which the Roman people, as it 
 were, through the protecting power of their god Jupiter, 
 narrowly escaped. How many or how many thousands 
 were crucified, excepting the two who exposed the con¬ 
 spiracy to Jupiter, 11 is not stated. We recall this to mind 
 with the more interest, since later uprisings like those of 
 Eunus, Aristonicus and Spartacus were followed by the 
 
 »Liv. lib. IV. 45: •’ Annus felicitate populi Romani perlculo potius in- 
 genti quam clade insignia ’’ Cf. Dionys. Halicar, excerpt xi. 
 
 10 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Acechceol. Rhomaike, xii. 6. 
 
 u Idem, IV. 45: “Avertit ne and i consilia Jupiter, indecisque dnc- 
 rum comprhenea i sonte* \ ce as declerunt.” 
 
RUNAWAYS IN THE SWAMPS . 
 
 149 
 
 execution of thousands upon the cross. The two traitors 
 were richly rewarded with money and freedom. 13 
 
 Btlcher reckons the year in which occurred another 
 uprising in the heart of Latium, Italy, to have been B. C. 
 194. It was a very dangerous strike of slaves. The old 
 Pomptine swamps in ancient times near the mountain city 
 of Setia were infested with the runaway slaves, who to 
 exist, were obliged to sally out from their glades where 
 they hid by day, and played a role of brigands. All about 
 the swamps on the higher levels, the soil was celebrated 
 for productiveness. Setan wines were renowned for their 
 relish. The city itself was between these marshes and the 
 mountain cliffs, affording the brigands an immense range 
 of forests, rocks, acclivities and jungles, which could be 
 used as fastnesses when the pursuers or the weather 
 would not permit the fugitives to live in the marshes be¬ 
 low. Of course the little fortified Setia full of good things, 
 but maintained by the labor of slaves, was an object of 
 envy and a moral stumbling block to this order of submis¬ 
 sion within, and their cupidity or vengeance without. 
 There were also numbers of other small cities and towns 
 in this region. The encroachments of the rich gens fam¬ 
 ilies upon the ager publicus or public lands, which under 
 the laws of Numa and Servius Tullius had been cultivated 
 by the small farmers, sometimes by unions of farmers and 
 as it were, in a socialistic way, had driven out the happj' 
 olden days and flogged into their places the horrid slave 
 system of cultivation. Here, at the foot of this spur of 
 the Appenines, as in the valley of the Guicus about Per- 
 gamum and the exquisite plateau of Enna, 13 the greedy 
 slave owner had fastened upon the limbs of his human 
 chattels the clanking chains of enforced bondage and de¬ 
 clared a lockout of the former guilds who worked the 
 government lands on shares. That they had no other 
 right to these lands than that of lawless might we shall in 
 our chapter on Spartacus, sufficiently portray. 14 
 
 These landlords, it is conceded by every one who has 
 given attention to the subject, 15 acted in every way the 
 
 mI dem: “Indicibus dena milla gravis teris, qure turn divlti® habeban- 
 tur, ex eerario tnamerata et libertas prsemium iuit.” 
 
 18 See detailel accounts o: the great uprising's of the workiagmen at 
 these places chapters, vii.—x. 
 
 M Chapter xif. 16 Drum. Arb. u. Comm. 8. 152-8. 
 
150 
 
 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 part of high-handed land pirates, in seizing the farms 
 from the former lessees of the government of Rome. 
 Without doubt these, maddened by their outrageous de¬ 
 privations, instigated many a revolt of the slaves who 
 had, as chattels, and under the bitterest urgents of lash 
 and threat, been forced to take their places. It was 
 a time when a third of the honest, hard working popula¬ 
 tion were being literally choked away from their means 
 of earning a living for their families . 18 There is no lack 
 of information regarding the grievances of either the 
 slaves impressed into the labor they hated, or the former 
 tillers, locked out from the labor they loved. It is there¬ 
 fore without wonder that we hear of the outbreak or 
 strike of B. C. 198 . The numerous bands of slave ban¬ 
 dits prowling among the swamps and mountain fast¬ 
 nesses formed an alliance 1T with the slaves within the 
 city, who were as dissatisfied with their shackles as 
 were the degraded agricultural wretches delving out¬ 
 side. The collusion spread from Setia to Prseneste 
 .35 miles to the north and to Circeji a few miles be¬ 
 yond. About the time the conjurators were ready to 
 make their deadly dash, was the moment when the peo¬ 
 ple of Setia were to have a gala-day. What sort of 
 festivity is not exactly clear. But judging from the 
 popularity of the gladiatorial games not only at Rome 
 but at that time, also in most of the provincial cities, 
 it perhaps may be plausibly conjectured that the plays 
 alluded to by Livy were the horrible butcheries of the 
 arena. This public event afforded the conspirators an 
 opportunity. Their plan was to take advantage of the 
 enthusiasm of the games when least the populace were 
 on the alert, crash upon the people, plunder the town, 
 seize weapons and munitions necessary; then striking 
 for the town of Norba, commit the same violence there, 
 murder the masters and most of the other patricians 
 and proceed to other cities in the vicinity repeating 
 the carnage at each place until they gained the mas¬ 
 tery of the world! Under the allowance of instruc- 
 
 19 Plut. “Tiberius Gracchus,” makes a plaintive comment on their sufferings. 
 
 17 Riichner, “Aufstlnde d. unf. Arb.” S. 28. 
 
AGAIN THE TRAITOR . 
 
 161 
 
 tfon the slaves of that period enjoyed, this impossible 
 scheme should not seem absurd; since they doubtless had 
 little knowledge or conception of a world stretching be¬ 
 yond their vision and experience. 
 
 Again the traitor. Setia was under the praetor ship of 
 C. Cornelius Lentulus. Just at the outbreak of the strike, 
 but whether during the tumult of a bloody fray we are 
 uninformed, two of the conspirators lost courage and be¬ 
 trayed the plot. Livy says: “The object was, when Setia 
 was once in their hands, by the combined result of mur¬ 
 der and sudden tumult to first seize and similarly serve 
 the cities of Norba and Circeji. Information of this ter¬ 
 rible plot was carried to Rome and laid before the Prae¬ 
 tor, L. Cornelius Merula, by two slaves who arrived from 
 the scene before daybreak and in systematic order ex¬ 
 posed the anticipated operations of the insurrectionists.” 18 
 
 Instantaneous action was now necessary at Rome. The 
 Senate was in a few minutes convoked. The two Roman 
 eonsuls for that year, (B. C. 198), Sextus iElius Psetus and 
 T. Quinetius Flam minus, were absent with their com¬ 
 mands in Gaul and elsewhere; so Merula one of the four 
 ttdiles or tribunes of the people, was called to the task of 
 
 i*Ut. XXXTI. 26. “ Quern ad modum Gallia proeter epem quiet* eo anno 
 fait, it* circa urbem servilis prope tumultus est excitatus. Obsides Carthagi- 
 nienslum Setiffi eustodiebantur. Cum iis, ut principum liberis, magna vis ser- 
 Yorum erat. Augebant eorum numerum, ut ab recenti Africo bello, et ab ipsis 
 Setinis captiva aliquot nationis eius empta ex praeda mancipia. Cum conjura- 
 tionem fecissent, missis ex eo numero primum qui in Setino agro, deinde circa 
 Norbam et Circeios servitia sollicitarent, satis iam omnibus prreparatis ludis qui 
 Setiae prope diem futuri erant, spectaculo intentum populum adgredi statuerant, 
 Setia per c®dem et repentinum tumultum capta, Norbam et Circeios occupare. 
 Hujus rei tarn feed® indicium Homan ad L. Cornelium Merulam praetorem ur- 
 bie delatum est. Servi duo ante lucem ad eum venerunt, atque ordine omnia 
 quae acta futuraque erant exposuerunt. Quibus domi custodiri iussis, praetor 
 aen&tu vocato edoctoque, quae indices adferrent, proficisci ad earn conjurationem 
 quacrendam atque opprimendam iussus, cum quinque legatis profectus obvios 
 m agris sacramento rogatos arma capere et sequicogebat. Hoc tumultuario de¬ 
 jecta duobus milibus ferme hominum armatis Setiam, omnibus quo pergeret 
 Ignaris, venit. n>i raptim principibus conjurationis comprehensis fuga servorum 
 •x oppido facta est Dimissis deinde per agros qui vestigarent *********. 
 Egregia duorum opera servorum indicum et unius liberi fuit. Ei centum milia 
 gravis aeris dari patres iusserunt, servis vicena quina milia aeris et libertatem; 
 pretium eorum ex aerario solutiim est dominis. Haud ita multo post ex eiusdem 
 conjurationis reUquiis nuntiatum est servitia Praeneste occupatura. Eo L. Cor¬ 
 nelius praetor profectus de quingentis fere hominibus, qui in ea noxa erant, sup- 
 nlicium sumpsit. In timore civitas fuit obsides captivosque Poenorum ea mo- 
 liri. Itaque et Rom® vigiliae per vicos servat®, iussique circumire eas minores 
 magistratus; et triumviri carceris lautumiarum intentiorem custodiam habere 
 lux si; et circa nomen Latinum a praetore litter® miss®, ut et obsides in privato 
 ■ervarentur, neque in publicum prodeundi facultas daretur, et captivi ne minus 
 decern pondo compedibus vincti iu nulla alia quam in carceris publici custodia 
 esaent." 
 
MARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 16* 
 
 suppressing the conspiracy. At this impromptu meeting 
 of the Roman Senate it was ordered that Merula should 
 take the field in person. There being at that instant very 
 few regular troops at command, no time was lost in wait¬ 
 ing orders to mass them, and it appears that he set out 
 immediately with few, gathering militia as he proceeded 
 on his way to Setia; for it appears that before reaching 
 the scene of the danger the number of his forces reached 
 2,000 men. No particulars are given regarding the at¬ 
 tack on the conspirators. We have no information as to 
 whether there occurred a conflict. We are informed that 
 the ring leaders of the conspiracy were arrested; also that 
 the slaves were thrown into great confusion. Livy states 
 that the town of Setia was the place where many hostages 
 from the Carthagenian army were kept. The battle of 
 Zama between Scipio and Hannibal, B. 0. 202, had re¬ 
 sulted disastrously to those old enemies of Rome and these 
 hostages were kept by the conqueror as a pledge against 
 further hostilities. Being penned in together, they also 
 naturally joined the conspiracy and the ring-leaders re¬ 
 ferred to by Bucher, may have been some of the veritable 
 warriors of the great Hannibal now pining in custody as 
 hostages around the barracks of Setia. 
 
 But here again, as in the story of Spartacus, the excel¬ 
 lent history of Livy is broken off and lost. How much of 
 the real story is missing may never be known. But for 
 the epitome or heading of this book we should be left in 
 the dark entirely as to the results; but there is a passage 
 in this which states that 2,000 of the conspirators were 
 arrested and slaughtered. 20 Judging from the usual 
 method of servile executions, it might be inferred that the 
 captured like those of Spartacus, Eunus and Aristonicus. 
 were crucified upon the gibbet. It is more probable how¬ 
 ever, since some of them were Carthagenian veterans, 
 that part of them were crucified and the remainder butch¬ 
 ered; because it was against the Roman code of honor to 
 hang veteran soldiers or others than those of the servile 
 race, upon the ignominious cross. Jesus a religio-politi- 
 cal offender was crucified by the Romans in a Roman pro- 
 
 VAufttdnde d tinfreien Arb. S. 29. 
 
 Liv. lib. XXXII. Epitomy: “Conjuratio servorum, facta de solvendia 
 Carthageniesium obsidibns oppressa est; duo milia necati aunt. 
 
CRUCIFIXION .: 
 
 153 
 
 vince, not because of his offence, which might have re¬ 
 ceived a nobler or less ignominious punishment, but be¬ 
 cause he was a workingman, not a soldier; and conse¬ 
 quently ranked with the servile class in contradistinction 
 to the noble class of the gens family, of the Pagan religion. 
 
 The uprising was suppressed after a struggle, the dura- 
 ation and the particulars of which are left for our curiosity 
 to surmise. But the causes of the grievances among the 
 slaves were too profound to be easily stamped out. Mer- 
 ula and his legions, their reeking sabers and victory-boast¬ 
 ing tongues, their tales of gibbet and dagger-to-the-hilt, 
 the agony of woe and death, had scarcely had time to set¬ 
 tle into the first lull; the perpetrators of the treachery 
 which discovered the plot had but received their reward 21 
 by order of the Roman Senate, when news came that from 
 the direction of Prseneste the spirit of insurrection was 
 again rife—this time in and about that city—and that a 
 plot had been disclosed among the slaves who again in 
 great numbers were caught m airing a singular spring in 
 hopes of making themselves masters of it. Again their 
 design was baffled. The Roman forces were once more 
 sent out with orders to exterminate the slaves. The same 
 praetor, L. Cornelius Merula, was soon on the warpath and 
 as before, the inexperienced proletaries, among whom 
 were many Punic hostages with their slender preparations 
 and want of arms, could stand no ground with their pow¬ 
 erful enemy. A battle must have been fought of consid¬ 
 erable importance, and the result was certainly a disaster 
 to the slaves and Carthagenian hostages and prisoners to 
 whose secret machinations the blame is principally attri¬ 
 buted by Dr. Bucher, also Livy himself by implication. 22 
 The number of poor wretches who suffered on the scaffold 
 reached 500, making 2,500 public executions, besides the 
 number not given in either case who were killed in the 
 conflicts before being overcome. A great turbulence was 
 caused thoughout the community. 
 
 Strong vigilance was now instituted at Rome to protect 
 the smaller places from a recurrence of those dangers 
 which had stamped their terror upon the inhabitants. 
 The triumvirs ordered a closer guard to be kept over the 
 
 *i'‘Egregia duorum” <fec. Liv. XXXII. pap. 26. 
 
 22 Livy, Idem; Biioh. Afifstande dec. 29: Allgemein mass man geheim- 
 en Umtrieben der punischeu GeiSaeln und Gefangenen die ScbuldbeL” 
 
164 
 
 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 great underground prison called career lautumiae, n where 
 those taken prisoners were placed. It was ordered that 
 the Carthagenian hostages be degraded to the condition 
 of slaves to work for private individuals and disallowed 
 further privilege of being seen any more in public or hav¬ 
 ing any more enjoyment in the open world. The shackles 
 in which the prisoners were chained, were ordered to weigh 
 not less than 10 pounds. The prison in which they were 
 thenceforth to be forever kept was the public career , a de¬ 
 scription of which may now be interesting. 
 
 “ There was a place ” says the Italian jurist Bombardini, 14 
 * in the ancient Roman prison, called the Tullian cell, 
 whither you descend by a ladder to the distance of 12 
 feet, into a damp hole, excavated in the earth. It was 
 walled in on all sides and vaulted overhead having the 
 sections adjoined. It had a putrid odor and a frightful 
 outlook.” But this is but the beginning, (B. 0. 650 -500,) 
 of what it had developed into, by the time of which we speak. 
 (B.C. 198). L ong before this the prisoners here were at 
 work. "Their masters saw them but rarely; their food 
 was lowered to them through breathing holes, also their 
 straw and scanty clothing.” 3 * Yarro likewise tells of the 
 latomia or quarry and the ergastulum called the prison 
 TuUianaS* At any rate the public prison still to be seen, 
 was a deep and spacious excavation under the Capitoline 
 Hill, which had been made by prison labor. The object 
 of the ancients in setting prisoners at work was twofold. 
 First, vengeance rather than correction, as in our days of 
 comparative enlightenment. Secondly, economy; for the 
 ancients had the contract system with all its brutalities 
 and horrors. The stone quarried out of these diggings 
 furnished good building material and the holes thus left 
 made prisons for the workmen who quarried it. Thus, in 
 course of ages Rome became what Pliny called the Urbs 
 pensilis ” or city hanging in the air. Most of these stu- 
 
 ** Bombardini, De Carztre et antiquo eju-. Usu, cap. Ill, 
 
 * Idem, Cap. iii, p. 746 of Thesaurus Grcevii et Gronovii , Supplement. 
 
 » Maurice Hist Politique et Anecdotique des Prisons de la Seine , pp. 1-4. 
 
 seVarro, De Re Rustica, cap. iii. 8 speaks of them and of the popular, 
 opinion that these holes were nurseries of serpents. Cf. Prudentius, Hymn V. 
 
 ^ Nat. Hist. Speaking in another place (lib XXVIII 4,), Pllnv thinks 
 thev were dug by Tullue Hostilius: “L. Piso primo annalium auctor est, 
 
 Tullum Hostiliurn regem ex Numaa libris eodera...multi vero, mama- 
 
 rum rerum fata et ostenta verbis permutari. Cura in Tarpeio fodientes de* 
 lubro fundament i, cap it humanum inveniseent, missis ob id ad se legati? 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE DUNGEONS. 
 
 155 
 
 pendous catacombs are still to bo seen in a more or less 
 perfect state of preservation. Like the vast catacombs of 
 Paris, they were originally stone quarries; then some of 
 them differentiated into sewers, cloacae , some into public 
 prisons, some into subterranean workshops, ergastula. 
 The person condemned, if of low rank without family or 
 money, was sent ad opus publicum , to the public works. 
 “ It w'as a place into which people were snatched; exca¬ 
 vated from sharp rocks, immensely deep; a huge cutting 
 or grotto quarried in the depths with passages interrupted 
 by great, sharp-cornered rocks between which the victims’ 
 bodies squeezed. Projecting crags bristled as they sprang 
 forth from the walls in darkness of midnight and frowned 
 horribly over the abyss—a place of all others, from which 
 the person doomed, when once thrown in, never after¬ 
 wards saw the light of day.” 28 Of course the convicts 
 were furnished with lamps to light their steps and hands 
 at work. 
 
 The reader is now left to judge for himself as to the 
 justice or injustice of the causes lurking at the bottom of 
 all ancient strikes. 
 
 We are again grateful to Dr. Karl Bucher, who reminds 
 us of the account sparingly given by Livy, of another great 
 uprising, B. C. 196, among the agricultural laborers of 
 Etruria. 29 This noble country stretched from the Tiber 
 on the south to the Ticino on the north. The rapturous 
 landscapes of the Arno, the many beautiful Appenine lakes 
 and mountains were Etruscan. No land ever subjugated 
 by Rome possessed more, agricultural or mineral wealth. 
 Its original inhabitants possessed the refined civilization 
 whence Rome took most of her prosperity. Bold, inven¬ 
 tive, mechanical, progressive, the Etruscans ill-brooked the 
 fetters of slavery fastened upon them like gyves by the 
 greedy land grabbers who took possession of the soil, 
 somewhat in the manner of the land owners of Great 
 Britain and Ireland at the present time. The descend¬ 
 ants of the ancient Etruscan stock held much of the land, 
 
 Etrur £e celeberrimus vates Olenns Calenus praBC’arnvn id fortunatumque 
 cernens, intercom., tione in suam gentem transferretentavit,” eto. For a <ie- 
 tcrij t on see Prude: t Us. Hymn V. 
 
 ~ E itrope? Epit. Rom. Hist. Era of Tarquin . 
 
 20 Aufstdnde d. unf. Arb S. ‘29. 
 
 GraniOr, de Cas Hist. Glasses Ouv . chaps, xiii. xiv. ; Orell. noj. 3346; 3347, 
 6673, 1239, qf Inter, Eat Col, See also withxn account of the Vtcligalaia 
 
156 
 
 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY . 
 
 as free agrieulturers and to them the government had long 
 farmed it on shares, thus securing to the laborers a good 
 living from the proceeds and to the government a good 
 revenue which was paid, not in money but in kind, the 
 rent tax being collected through the celebrated system of 
 the vectigalia. 80 The slave system of the rich lords, who, 
 without a tittle of right by law, and indeed in direct defi¬ 
 ance of the precedents established by Numa and Servius 
 Tullius, as well as the Licinian law, which, through the in¬ 
 trigues of the great proprietors had, from its passage, re¬ 
 mained a dead letter, was now becoming a terrible scourge. 
 Indeed, in after days, Tiberius Gracchus on his way to 
 Spain, passed through Etruria and found to his horror 
 that once populous land in the hands of a few lordly mas¬ 
 ters who had completely locked the original agrieulturers 
 out and supplanted them with slaves. The scene of slavery 
 and woe so stirred the blood of this noble Roman that he 
 devoted his remaining life to the great agitation which is 
 famous to this day as the agrarian movement with the 
 bloody commotions that attended them, resulting in his 
 own assassination. Such was the terrible condition of 
 human slavery at that time, B. 0. 196. In fact the slave 
 system had to a large extent, driven out the once free and 
 prosperous labor not only of Etruria but also of lower 
 Italy, Sicily, Asia Minor, large parts of Greece, Spain and 
 the smaller islands; and Rome was becoming the fatten¬ 
 ing pen of the arrogant grandees who lived in degenerate 
 profligacy upon the lash-enforced drudgery of millions of 
 slaves. Perhaps in telling these portentous truths to the 
 world in the light of a social historiographer, we are among 
 the first to discover the germ of a deeply hidden virtue in 
 the revolt whose history occupies but eight poverty-solem¬ 
 nized lines in the great history of Livy. But to the stu¬ 
 dent of sociology even this poor sketch brings back to us 
 the profound wisdom of Anaxagoras and Aristotle who 
 taught that all knowledge, all virtue and all progress emi- 
 nate from humblest origin and that we can have nothing 
 permanent or perfect except through investigation and 
 experiment involving the severest trials. And although 
 the poor slaves fell in thousands by the lash, the dungeon 
 
 30 Ahfst, d. unf. Arb. "Trotzdem gelling es ihm nioht ohne heftigen K»mpi 
 
 die einzelen Haufen zn zerepringen.” 
 
GREAT STRIKE IN ETRURIA. 
 
 157 
 
 Ihe cross and although hundreds of years elapsed before 
 the bonds of their slavery were broken yet who shall say 
 their dying agonies here did not contribute to the cumu- 
 lous of forces which at last swept their fetters away ? 
 
 L. Furius and Claudius Marcellus were consuls at Rome 
 when this agrarian uprising occurred. Their offices of 
 state requiring their attention, the praetor, M. Acilius 
 Glabro had in charge the * peace of the community.” Lit¬ 
 tle is known of the details of this uprising. The slaves 
 were inhumanly oppressed and ready to accept desperate 
 conditions if they held out the least promise of success in 
 freeing them of their sufferings. On the other hand, the 
 old cultivators had for centuries lived in ease upon the 
 public lands and their organizations interlinked with those 
 of the collegia and sodalicia which were just then being 
 treated with severe censure and even threat by the Roman 
 citizens who managed legislation. Efforts were begun 
 about this time to suppress most of the labor organiza¬ 
 tions. The wealthy who were engaged in driving out free 
 agricultural labor and supplanting it by that of slaves on 
 the plantations, were particularly bitter against free labor, 
 both in city and country. 
 
 When the news of the uprising reached Rome, Glabro 
 immediately set out with one of the two legions of soldiers 
 at command. By the appearance of things, the organiza¬ 
 tion was not complete among the insurgents. The slaves, 
 as Livy calls them in his sweeping terms, but more prob¬ 
 ably also the disaffected part of community generally and 
 now locked out—those who formerly tilled the land on 
 shares and also the slaves themselves—all of whose cause 
 was common, met Glabro hilt to hilt and in a bloody bat¬ 
 tle were overcome. Bucher surmises that though the 
 Romans were victorious, it was not without a heavy battle . 31 
 Great was the number of fallen workingmen and the num¬ 
 ber of those of their ranks taken prisoners was still greater. 
 The leaders of the revolt were scourged and hung upon 
 the cross. The remaining slaves were given up to their 
 merciless masters to receive at their hands a double por¬ 
 tion of hardships in the future. The freedmen engaged 
 in this insurrection would, under the Roman custom of 
 
 11 Livy, XXXm. cbv. 36; "Ex his (tlie sinkers) multi occisl multi c&pti: 
 alios verbratos crueibus adflxit, qux principle coujurationis fuerant, alio* dom 
 luis restituii." 
 
158 
 
 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 treating enemies taken in battle, be sold as slaves or held 
 as criminals and sent to the quarries and mines to linger 
 for life at hard labor; for Bucher here correctly states 
 that only under extraordinary circumstances did the 
 Romans ever treat with lenity their captured enemies and 
 the slave insurgents of all others, are known to have re¬ 
 ceived the most relentless measure of malignity at their 
 hands. 83 
 
 One of the countries in which Spartacus was best re¬ 
 ceived and from among whose people he obtained the 
 largest number and the best volunteers who accepted with 
 gratitude his offers of freedom, was Apulia. It was that 
 rich, well watered, pastoral tract lying to the north and 
 bordering on the Tarentine gulf. About 120 years before 
 the great and memorable war of Spartacus broke out, 
 these fine lands lying between the eastern slope of the 
 Appenines and the Adriatic, were prey of the slave sys¬ 
 tem. “ Where earlier, the industrious farmers had thrived 
 in happiness and plenty, herdsmen now in lonliness drove 
 and herded countless flocks of cattle and sheep belong¬ 
 ing to Roman Senators and knights.” 88 Apulia being on 
 the opposite side of the mountains from Rome and most 
 of the opulent cities of Italy, was a region topographi¬ 
 cally suitable for robbers, both of land and sea. To the 
 west were the mountains, whose rocks and forests afforded 
 shelter for men of desperate nerve. The introduction of 
 servile hands through the slave trade which had driven 
 free labor from the agricultural and pastoral regions of 
 Italy had naturally been followed by a variety of desper¬ 
 adoes whose bands at the time of our story, infested the 
 whole stretch. He also surmises with much intelligence 
 that these organized gangs were not without a distinct 
 purpose in working for their fellow men, and our own in¬ 
 spection satisfies us that a philosophy or culture Lad from 
 high antiquity existed for the redemption of the pool 
 everywhere. 
 
 In another chapter we shall show the relationship be 
 tween the societies of Dionysoi and those of the Bac¬ 
 chantes. Indeed there appears little difference between 
 them. In both words, oneLatin, the other 3.reek, we have 
 
 *2 Btlch. Auftt. d. tin/. Arb. S. 81. 
 
 Liiders, Dionyt. Kuatt. passim. 
 
BACCHANTES COMING TO THE LIGHT. 15fi 
 
 the same meaning. They were in Greece, in the islands, 
 in Asia Minor and Palestine, mostly organizations of arti¬ 
 ficers or skilled mechanics; 54 but because they held fes¬ 
 tivities and conducted them on methods peculiar to them¬ 
 selves as well as because they were working people, they 
 were looked upon with suspicion. No author of antiquity 
 or orator could speak with respect of the bacchanals. We 
 know by the inscriptions that they had many societies at 
 Rome and in the provincial cities. Cicero and Livy spurn 
 them. No doubt the obloquy the) 7- suffered drove them ' 
 into these fastnesses and made them, by sheer compulsion, 
 assume suspicious attitudes. However this may be, we 
 find Livy associating them with another great strike or 
 uprising of the workingmen which occurred B. C. 185-184, 
 in Apulia and along the coast between there and Bruttium. 
 
 It was during the days of the stern Cato’s power, in the 
 consulship of Appius Claudius Pulcher and M. Sempronius 
 Tnditanus. 36 The so-called province of Apulia was in the 
 care of the praetor, L. Postumius. This man’s watch- 
 ground was Apulia and the shores of the gulf of Tarentum. 
 
 1. few years afterwards the famous Spartacus led his army 
 c rebel workingmen, consisting of volunteer gladiators, 
 shepherds, bacchantes and slaves, to Metapontem, where 
 be spent the memorable winter of B. C. V3-72. 36 Too just 
 to allow disorder, too wise to permit even a draught of 
 w'ne to be drank in carousal, too good to give his loved 
 sol Tiers the bridle, this modest gladiator here proved him¬ 
 self the terror of the haughty Romans and a prototype of 
 modern military virtue, genius and discipline. And this 
 town was in the very valleys of the scenes of our present 
 story. 87 Livy, as is usual with ancient historians, when 
 speaking of the uprisings of the oppressed working classes 
 n ;akes short work of his story. We linger upon his 
 stingy descant because of the peculiarly interesting asso¬ 
 ciations connected with the mightier revolt of the great 
 gladiator chieftain, one hundred and ten years afterwards 
 upon the same spot. 
 
 There had been many cases of dissatisfaction, some of 
 which had reached the ears of the vigilant Romans. 
 
 WLivy, XXXIX. cap. 29. 
 
 M Consult chapter xii of this work. M Blich Aufst. de.8 31. 
 
 Livy, XXXIX. 29, ami 41. 
 
160 
 
 EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 Great organizations among the enslaved shepherds and 
 drovers were heard of. A case was reported in which de¬ 
 tachments of half starved cowboys and ploughmen threw 
 away their bondage, knocked down and garroted their 
 overseer, seized his knife, his sword and club and made 
 their way to the mountain caves and jungles whence with 
 desperate revenge and want, they returned reinforced to 
 plunder and sack their master’s goods. It got so that the 
 government highways were unsafe; and in ten years from 
 the time of our last story of the strike in Etruria, 192-182, 
 another enormous “ slave conspiracy ” had been found to 
 exist. 
 
 As soon as reliable news of this reached Borne, L. Post- 
 umius 88 the prsetor, or as the same informant names him 
 “ propraetor ” in another place, 89 instantly marched with 
 a large force of troops to the scene. 40 The prsetor had 
 previously had charge of all Apulia and Bruttium. He 
 had the watch of all the Adriatic coast from Rhegium to 
 Mt. Garganus, east of the Appenine range and most likely 
 also a considerable force of troops stationed at different 
 points where Roman praesidia or garrisons existed." This 
 is self evident; since the senators and knights owning the 
 lands and the slaves who worked them were also military 
 officers as well as lawgivers and it was easy for them to 
 legislate for placing the standing army where it should 
 best protect their gluttonous acquirement of wealth. 
 
 The details of the manoeuvres, skirmishes and battles 
 gone through with before the climax was reached, are left 
 unwritten. But there can be no doubt that a battle was 
 fought; because, of the total number of the insurgents 
 taken, no less than 7,000 were condemned to the mines 
 and of the great number who were captured many were 
 executed which means, of course, crucified. 41 Those who 
 were caught were certainly sent either to the mines, ad 
 metallum , to the Roman prison, career TuUianus , or to the 
 quarries, lapicidinae. But the most probable thing is, 
 
 88Livy, XXXIX. 41, ad fin: “L. Posttimitm propraetor, oni Tarentum 
 
 provincia evenerat, magnas pastormn coujugationes vlnaicavit et raliqaas Bao- 
 clianalium qu£B8tioni3 cum onini ett cura.” 
 
 :t9 Buclier. Aufstdnde der unfieien Arbelter, 8, 81, Dote 2, 
 
 40 WeisseNbom. Com on IAvy, xxxv. 20 
 
 «Livy XYYIY. 29, * De multis eumptum est suppliclum.'* 
 
 <2 idem, cep. 41: “Partim comprehenaoB, Romani ad senatum mlssii, In 
 earcerem omnes a P. Cornelio conjecti sunt.” 
 
IDLE SLANDER OF THE BACCHANALS. 161 
 
 that there being so many, they were distributed according 
 to tli« ir adjudged guilt, in the three prisons. 43 The horrors 
 of either of these three places have been described. But 
 this awful retribution inflicted upon the poor struggling 
 workingmen and their suffering families by the military 
 arm of Rome, protecting slavery the most brutal and de¬ 
 moralizing institution that ever cursed the nations oL the 
 earth or whetted the appetites of the greedy by locking 
 out honest laborers from their natural employ, failed to 
 stifle the hopes of those hardy mountaineer farmers whom 
 tyranny had turned into brigands. Bucher renders a 
 word of comment on Livy’s short-cut information, to the 
 effect that those who escaped, re-organized their banditti 
 in a distant point and began anew their work of pillage, 
 which he characterizes as having become the plague of the 
 times—a plague which was in effect, the foundation of that 
 terrible brigandage, never suppressed in Italy until in re¬ 
 cent years. This, then is the origin of those terrible 
 “ bacchanalian orgies ”—the innocent workingmen, long 
 organized in the unions or guilds 44 for self-protection and 
 co-operation entirely under the laws and sanction of Numa 
 and Tullius in the old, happy days of Rome’s golden econ¬ 
 omies, now driven and dispersed to the wailing winds of 
 her night of slavery! 
 
 Noble writers of the very ancient past have spoken 
 kindly of the Bacchantes both of the Greek and Latin¬ 
 speaking races of mankind, and lately Bockh, the archse- 
 ologist w r ho has done more than any other man to reveal 
 the true status of ancient life and has uncovered many 
 errors which policy and prejudice have cultivated, openly 
 acknowledges that he finds no element of harm or of wrong 
 intention in the bacchanalian organizatian among Greek- 
 writing Societies of Asia Minor, and his invaluable evi¬ 
 dence we shall bring forward in a subsequent chapter, be¬ 
 cause he fixes his opinion from the unerring evidence of 
 the stones bearing inscriptions from their own hands. 
 
 Hesiod the poet and celebrated master who lived prob¬ 
 ably more than a thousand years before Christ and came 
 of the lowly stock, was the first known labor agitator. His 
 greatest poem, “ Works and Days,” full of pleadings for the 
 
 « For an elaborate description of the trade unions under Numa, also 
 on Serrius Tullius and Clodius, see chapters xiii. —xix. of this work. 
 
EARLY MUTINEERS OF ITALY. 
 
 iG 2 
 
 poor, is the first book on the labor question. He may be 
 styled the father of the emotions of pure sympathy, be¬ 
 cause the earliest witness. 
 
 But already at his time there were thousands of labor 
 societies that were discussing wbh him this great prob¬ 
 lem and with him practically building a cult of co-opera¬ 
 tion full of the tender sympathies of human brotherhood 
 and of mutual support. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DRIMAKOS. 
 
 i 
 
 A QUEER OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Strike of Drimakos, the Chian slave—Co-operation of the 
 Irascible with the Sympathetic—A Desperate Greek Bonds¬ 
 man at Large—Labor Grievances of the ancient Scio—Tem¬ 
 perament and Character of Drimakos—Vast Number of un¬ 
 fortunate Slaves—Revolt and Escape to the Mountains—■ 
 Old Ruler of the Mountain Crags—Rigid Master and loving 
 Friend—Great Successes—Price offered for his Head— 
 How he lost it—The Reaction—Rich and Poor all mourn 
 his Loss as a Calamity—The Brigands infest the Island 
 afresh since the Demise of Drimakos—The Heroon at his 
 Tomb—An Altar of Pagan Worship at which this Labor 
 Hero becomes the God, reversing the Order of the Ancient 
 Rights—Ruins of his Temple still extant—Athenseus— 
 Nymphodorus—Archaeology—Views of modern Philologists. 
 
 We are indebted to the geographer and historian Nym¬ 
 phodorus Siculus for an account of a very remarkable 
 strike and maroon-like revolt of slaves in the island of 
 Scio. This island—the ancient Chios—which lies in the 
 Greek archipelago at a distance of 7 miles from the coast 
 of Asia Minor, contains an area of little more than 500 
 square miles. It has, from high antiquity, been celebrated 
 for the ever varying beauty of its scenery, its perpetual 
 verdure, its forests that are inaccessible to civilized life, 
 its countless streams and streamlets whose pure waters 
 rush from calcarious steeps and fall into the tiny rivers 
 or the sea. 
 
 Chios is aged as the primeval home of the Pelasgians 
 and the Leleges of Cyclopean fame and antiquity, and 
 
 163 
 
1G4 
 
 DRIMAKOS. 
 
 consequently is Greek in its remotest sense. It was of 
 all lands most accursed with slavery. 1 While the Pelopon¬ 
 nesus and Attica recruited their slave ranks with their 
 own sons and daughters and their prisoners of war, Chios 
 betook herself to the disgraceful slave traffic to secure her 
 recruits—a custom undoubtedly borrowed from her 
 neighbors, the Phoenicians. What the tale of startling 
 uprisings and shocking cruelties of these struggling peo¬ 
 ple would be if told, we know not; 2 for we are obliged to 
 let all knowledge lapse in the aeons of an unwritten past 
 and patiently wait until the era of our story, accidentally 
 recorded by Nymphodorus, a geographer, as having tran¬ 
 spired a short time before his day. 
 
 Judging from this we are able to fix its date,* not at 
 about 250 years after the birth of Christ as surmised by 
 Dr. Bucher, but at a very much earlier period. We fol¬ 
 low the story of Nymphodorus, who received this informa- 
 
 1 All over Greece and especially in Chios in Ionia there was constant tear of 
 slave rebellions. Plato (Republic ix. 5 fin. and in very many other passages), 
 mentions this fact as a constant terror in those days. 
 
 a The indications are that there constantly occurred in those times mutinies 
 among the working people. Many of them were prodigious. Dim information 
 of one in Southern Greece is found, which occurred between 300 and 400 years 
 before Christ. The cruelty of masters was so great that when an earthquake de¬ 
 stroyed 20,000 people it was believed to be their punishment for cruelty. The 
 all-prevailing fear of being murdered by slaves is frequently hinted at by Plato. 
 To read the eleventh chapter of the first book of Macro'bius is really worth the 
 attention of the thoughtful. It is replete with evidence that anciently there was 
 a strong anti-slavery movement. Macrobius, (Saturnationm, I. xi. 7-9, Eyssen- 
 hardt), says: “ Vi^ tu cogitare eos quos ius tuum uocas isdem seminibus ortos 
 feodem frui cselo, deque uiuere, aeque mori? Serui sunt: immo homines. Serui 
 sunt: immo conserui, si cogitaueris tantundem in utrosque licere fortunae. Tam 
 tu ilium uidere liberum potes quam ille te seruum. Neecis qua setate Hecuba 
 seruire cceperit, qua Croesus, qua Darei mater, qua Diogenes, qua Plato ipse ? 
 Postremo quid ita nomen seruitutis hori’emus ? seruus est quidem, sed neces¬ 
 sitate, sed lortasse libero animo seruus est. Hoc iUi nocebit si ostenderis quU 
 non sit. Alius libidini seruit, alius auaritise, alius ambitioni, omnesspei, omnes 
 timori.” Again (Idem 13-14; come the prophetic words: " Non potest amor cum 
 timore misceri. Unde pntas adrogantissimum illud manasse prouerbium quo 
 iactatur totidem hostes nobis esse quot seruos ? Non habemus illos hostes sed 
 facimus, cum in illos superbissimi contumeliosissimi crudelissimi sumus et ad 
 rabiem nos cogunt peruenire deliciae, ut quicquid non ex uoluntate respondit 
 iram furoremque euocet.” But it was fear rather than compassion that forced 
 our hard-hearted forefathers to talk in this strain. . 
 
 3 Schambach, Italische Sclavenaufstand, I., S. 5; refers to this slave insurrec¬ 
 tion in the following clearly expressed language: “ Auch das riche Chios war zu 
 derselben Zeit B. C. 134, der Schauplatz einer wilden Sclavenenrnbrung, die erst 
 nach mehreren Jahren unterdriickt wurde. Athenaeus VI. He seems to have 
 no doubt as to the era of the story of Drimakos being identical with that of the 
 great servile wars. But what time did it begin ? This is the important ques¬ 
 tion. Athenians says or intimates that Drimakos was in the vigor of manhood 
 when he began the revolt; but he was an old man when he died and up to the last 
 the malcontents held their ground. Now if we agree with Schambach that his 
 “ zu derselben Zeit ” meant the end of the period, or thereabout, we must add at 
 least 30 years to allow him to become and old man which makes the rebellion tu 
 have begun about the year B. C. 304. 
 
HOW WE COME TO KNOW THE FACTS. 
 
 165 
 
 tion directly from the Chians themselves, from whom he 
 must have received his data while visiting the island and 
 its inhabitants in search of information for his book which 
 was a description of the coast of Asia minor and the mul¬ 
 titude of islands, large and small, that stud the Archi¬ 
 pelago. 
 
 The islanders recounted to Nymphodorus that a slave 
 named Drimakos had lived and died in those parts, whose 
 history was remarkable. Consequently this Sicilian Greek, 
 whose errand was knowledge, became curious to know 
 about the strange man Drimakos and all the particulars, 
 in order to embellish the chapter of his “ Nomima Asias” 
 or customs and habits of the Asians—in other words, his 
 descriptive geography. And now that our attention is 
 fastened upon so weird an object as a runaway slave 
 with drawn dagger, bolting from his pursuing owner and 
 climbing a crag to a mountain den with a dozen abolition¬ 
 ists as desperate as he, we pause to ask, who is this Nym- 
 phodorus? 
 
 Alas such curiosity is rewarded with the aggravation of 
 a mystery! We know nothing of Nymphodorus. We 
 only know that he lived and wrote in his geography a de¬ 
 scription, not only of the island of Scio as it was before 
 the time of Christ, but also of the customs and usuages 
 that were practiced by its inhabitants; and interspersed 
 in his work there was many an incident, description 
 and story, one of which was this tale of Drimakos, the 
 runaway slave. We know that this priceless literary gem, 
 like the noble but lost chapters of Diodorus, and Sallust, 
 of Livy, of Fenestella, Dion Cassius, Theophanes, Nicolaus 
 Damascenus, Csecilius Calactenus and a wealth of others 
 with their flood of facts, come to us only in the second¬ 
 hand and oblique mention of others who read them before 
 they were destroyed; or sometimes in multilated frag¬ 
 ments of the originals which escaped the vandals who 
 perhaps thought that by robbing posterity of facts that 
 disclosed the beastliness of their institutions they might 
 confer a favor upon the sin as well as the sinners whose 
 power they fawned upon and flattered. At any rate the 
 work of Nymphodorus is lost; and the question remains: 
 who is Nymphodorus and what about Drimakos the Chian 
 runaway slave? 
 
16G 
 
 DRIMAKOS. 
 
 The fact is, Athenseus, 4 an Egyptian of antiquity, saw 
 and read this book of Nymphodorus the geographer, and 
 in his “ Deipnosophistae or Banquet of the Learned,” a 
 pot pourri or hodge-podge of science, history and anec¬ 
 dote, reproduced for us the essential facts concerning this 
 affair of Drimakos, which was no little incident to make 
 light of, but a vast insurrection of slaves, like that of Eunus 
 and Spartacus, involving a lifetime, with bloody wars and a 
 great and terrible and successful struggle of “ outlaws ” 
 against society. It is Athenseus, the middlem an then, not 
 Nymphodorus, whom we must follow and carefully scan, 
 picking every word down to the bone, to get the meat of 
 his language; always suspicious enough of translations to 
 avoid them entirely, especially when exhuming such liter¬ 
 ary mummies as those wrapped and preserved in chemicals 
 musty with the taint of labor. 
 
 Nymphodorus in his lost work on the customs and usa¬ 
 ges of the Asians, 6 says it was not long before his time 
 that the facts concerning Drimakos occurred. But al¬ 
 though no doubts exist regarding the truth of the general 
 facts, nobody is clear as to the exact time of N ymphodorus. 
 Whether the insurrection of the Chian slaves was a spas¬ 
 modic affair, belonging to one lifetime, or whether the 
 episode of Drimakos was simply one incident distinguished 
 for its magnitude and duration among many that for ages 
 were constantly occurring, is a problem. 6 W e shall pre¬ 
 sent the facts as given in the Deipnosophistae of Athenseus 
 carefully adhering to the points in the text and seasoning 
 the story only to befit the character of our pages for the 
 general reader. But there seems to be no evidence to 
 confute our theory that Nymphodorus wrote his story at 
 least a century before Christ, and that the true age of 
 Drimakos was that of the other great slave rebellions which 
 began to rage about a century and a half before Christ. 
 
 4 Most chronologists make Athenseos to have lived about A. D. 250. Dr. 
 Bhcher, therefore, must certainly be entirely incorrect in putting the date of the 
 work of Nymphodorus at “Mitte des dritten Jahrhundertes nack Christo; Auf- 
 stade der unfi-eien Arbeiter, S. 22, since Athenaeus himself lived before that time. 
 We are fully confirmed in the opinion that Drimakos’ uprising was contem¬ 
 poraneous with that of Eunus of Sicily and Aristonicus of Pergamus, and was an 
 outcrop of that great agitation. 
 
 fi Nojaijaa Acn'a?. The island of Chios was only separated from the continent 
 of Asia by a strait 7 miles wide, and easily visible from the main shore. For a 
 good description of this island, see Eckenbreeher: Die Insel Chios, Berlin, 1845. 
 
 c Pauly’s Real Encyclopaedia. Vol. V, S. 193, contains an article from Wester* 
 mann, discussing the probable time of Nymphodorus, q. v. 
 
HIS DESPERATE FLIGHT,\ 
 
 167 
 
 From the story as related by Athenseus it does not ap¬ 
 pear that Drimakos escaped from his master amid scenes 
 of blood-shedding, but that those horrors were reserved 
 for the immediate future. He was then a young man of 
 great sternness and determination, shrinking from noth¬ 
 ing he had set his mind upon, and too nervous and sensi¬ 
 tive to bear the galling humiliations of slavery. He was 
 also a man of sympathies, and felt for his fellow slaves as 
 well as himself. In such a frame of mind he could not 
 but have felt deeply for the thousands of poor creatures 
 who had been bought or kidnapped from their native 
 homes and brought to this island to be sold like animals 
 and here forced to delve under the merciless lash. Most 
 of the labor of land culture and mechanics, all the house¬ 
 hold drudgery, as well as the attendance upon arrogant 
 lords and ladies, and the office work of the government, 
 was performed in those days by slaves; and Chios was no 
 exception. 
 
 Like Achseos, Cleon, Athenion and Spartacus, the des¬ 
 perate young man broke his bonds by some violent effort. 
 It may have been the immediate result of a quarrel with 
 his master or his overseer, or perhaps a conspiracy of a 
 handful of fellow bondsmen as in the case of Athenion 
 or Spartacus; perhaps a stampede after a battle with clubs 
 and butcher-knives. One thing we know upon such points 
 in general: masters were on the alert at all times, having 
 little confidence in their human chattels, and kept them 
 under guard, often chained at night and in many places, 
 branded. 
 
 When Drimakos arrived in the mountains with his band 
 of runaways, he found in the clefts of rock and among the 
 sun-warmed ledges, suitable fastnesses wherein not only 
 to hide in safety but to sleep, and obtain repose. Hunt¬ 
 ers and other mountaineers had been there before them 
 and built an occasional cabin. With the rocks and frag¬ 
 ments they erected more, and with axes and perhaps saws 
 and other tools, covered them and constructed for them¬ 
 selves rough seats and tables. But food was only to be 
 had in the granaries and houses below, in the richly cul¬ 
 tivated valleys, and in the distant city they had left. 
 
 Here the masters were up in arms, ready for an expedi¬ 
 tion in pursuit of their escaped bondsmen. The word 
 
168 
 
 D RIM A 1C OS. 
 
 went vigorously forth that they must be retaken, either 
 dead or alive. On the other hand while preparations were 
 making for a grand pursuit, other slaves took flight and 
 centered to the mountain fissures of Drimakos, now their 
 acknowledged leader. 
 
 How they got their first supply of provisions we are 
 unaware, hut they certainly did not starve. The same 
 question might in the absence of these particulars also be 
 asked as to how they were supplied with arms with which 
 to do battle with their pursuers. What we know is that 
 they were the recipients of good luck; partly through 
 their own courage and partly through a combination of 
 circumstances which favored them from the start. 
 
 The whole truth is, they, like Eunus and the smiling 
 goddess Demeter, or Spartacus and his fortune-telling 
 wife, who foretold prodigies of happiness, had also their 
 Messiah, soothsayer, prophet and warrior in the person 
 of Drimakos, whom they implicitly obeyed and worshiped 
 with a superstitious awe; and so long as the enthusiasm 
 of this belief in him as a Savior remained untarnished, 
 their heaven-inspired dash and valor were insurmounta¬ 
 ble and their prowess was unscathed. Moreover there 
 prevailed a superstition among the slave-owning Chians 
 themselves, against slavery and especially this class of 
 slave-holding practiced on the island of Chios. In proof 
 of this we quote from Athenseus the following: 
 
 “Nymphodorus, it is thus seen, has furnished us with 
 the account; but I find that in manv copies of his history 
 Drimakos is not spoken of by name. Yet I cannot imag¬ 
 ine that any of you are ignorant of what Herodotus, that 
 prince of historians, said regarding the Chian, Panionios, 
 and what righteous punishment he underwent for having 
 castrated three boys and sold them. 7 Then again Nicol- 
 
 T Herodotus, Historian , viii. Urania, 105-106. The horrible story of revenge 
 is thus told by Herodotus and tersely illustrates the almost inconceivable bra* 
 tality and cruelty of slavery or of the greed which inspired ifc. “ Eie rovTeW Si; 
 IlTjSacreuji/ 6 'EpMOTi/aos Jfv t<j* fieyianj riait fjSri aSu cqOevri eyevero navroav tuv rjfieit 
 18/xev. aAoi/ra yap air ov viro nokefiCuv ical no»\e6fievov taveerai Hc-vicSvios, avr/p 
 XIos, 6s T7)v £6i]v Karetrrqaaro air* epytov avoautiTarutv, o/cws yap Krqaaxro iraiSas 
 «iSfos inafifiev ovs, eKrdp.vu>v, ayiveuv eirwAee t ! s 2ap5is re koX 'Ejteaov jq>T)fidTOiV 
 fityak i»v. nap a. yap roicri /3apj8apoi<rt Tiputorepot eiai oi cvvov^ot niaTtot eivaca tt;s 
 vaat]% Twv evoo\(*av» aAAous re St) 6 Kavidaviot c£erap.e 7toAAovs, are jrocev/tevos << 
 rowr«wv Tr)v ^ot)v, km Sr) Kal tovtov. <al ov yip ri rrivra. iSyarv^ee 6 'Epfioripot, 
 iviKVeerai e/< rd>v SapSiwv nap'x fiaat\rja pter’ aXAtuv Stipwy vpovov Si npoiovrot 
 namDV roiv evvov\mv irifiijifcr) pidAtara napi 3ep£jj. 106. '(It Si rb <rrpirtvp.a rb 
 (ItfHTutbv Sofia 6 £aaiAcv« ini rat ’A^jjvas «uv iv SapSioi, ivOav ra Caracas Kara fiij 
 
ANCIENT ANTI-SLAVERY DISCUSSION . 1(59 
 
 aus the peripatetic as well as Poseidonius the stoic both 
 wrote in their histories that the Chians were afterwards 
 enslaved by Methridates, tyrant of Cappadocia, and bound 
 hand and foot, were given over to their own slaves. Surely 
 the gods were angry with the Chians .” 8 
 
 Nor was this superstition against all kinds of chattel 
 slavery confined to the island of Chios. The people of 
 Attica and different parts of Greece were tormented with 
 conscience on account of their unjust system of slavery 
 and the ever-recurring revolts of their slaves; and the 
 Lockrians, who never to lerated slavery, taunted them for 
 their wickedness . 9 But the revolts of the slaves them¬ 
 selves, and the growing number of the psomokolaphoi or 
 runaways and the consequent loss to their masters, to¬ 
 gether with the desperate, often bloody deeds of these 
 runaways whetted their sins and inflamed their fears lest 
 the gods should frown upon them as the upholders of this 
 national abomination. Add to all this the further and 
 significant fact that the freedmen all around them were in 
 sympathy with the slaves and were often organized into 
 powerful unions which sometimes even permitted the 
 slaves to membership . 10 Especially was this the case 
 
 Tt vprjypa 6 "Eppbnpos «s yyv rr\v Mvertijv, ryv Xtoi pev vepovrat, f Arapvevs be 
 KaXitrai, evpiaxet rbv Uavuitviov evOavra. emyvovs be eheye npos avrov 7roAAov? /cat 
 AiAlov? Aoyovs* irpStra pev oi Karakeywv baa avros fii’ exeivov e\oi aya0a' bevrepa 
 oi oi itvia^yevpevos avri rovreotv baa piv ayaOa noirjaei , rjv Kopiadgev 05 tow? o iteras 
 oiKeji eKeivj) • Stare vnobe£apevov aapevov rovs Aoyovs rbv tlavtiaviov Kopiaai ra 
 ri/cva Kai ryv y vvaiKa- us be apa navoucifl ptv irepteAajSe, eAey* o ’Epponpos rdbe % 
 *‘*0 navrav avbpuv fjbri \pd\iara air ’ epyuv avoaiuraruv rbv fiiov Krrjaapeve, ri ai 
 eyit Katcov y\ avrbs y rS>v eputv ns epyaaaro, rj ae, ij rStv aStv nva , on pe avr y avbpos 
 eiroCtjaas rb pybev elvat; eboicees re Oeovs Krjaeiv 01 a ipnxavSt rore‘ ol ae irouj aavra 
 avoata, voptp Sixaitp xP f(0 f JLel ’ 0l i vnrjyayov is X*P a? T *S epa?, Stare ae pr) pep\j/aa0ai 
 ttjv air* epeo rot iaopevqv fi^/clJl^ ,, 'Os fie oi ravra uveibiae, axOevruv rStv naibutv is 
 bipiv, rjvayKa^ero 6 IlavLuvios rStv iotvrov iraibuv reaaepotv iovrutv ra atfiota onrorap- 
 veiv avayxa£6pevos fie eiroiee ravra’ avrov re , ws ravra epyaaaro, oi naibes avay «a- 
 £opevot aitirapvov. Uavuoviov pev vvv ovrut irepirjhOe rj re riats xai o ’Epponpos' ’ 
 
 8 Athenaeus Dcipnosophistas, Lib. VI. cap. vii. 
 
 • Athenaeus, idem,; Bockh, Public Economy of the Athenians, mentions it. 
 
 10 See Lliderg, Die Dionysischen KunsUer S. 46-47, also S. 22. We have how¬ 
 ever given Liiders’ views and proof (seep. 98 and note 27) in full in another chap¬ 
 ter, q. v. The evidence as to slaves being sometimes members is overwhelming. 
 Foucart, Associations Religiemes Chez Les Grecs, pp. 6-6 says: “II en 6tait tout au- 
 trement pour les thiases et les branes. Non-seulement ils 6taient ouverts aux 
 femmes mais encore les Strangers, les personnes de condition ou d’origine ser¬ 
 vile y avaient acces. Ce dernier point est d’une grande importance, fort heur- 
 eusement, les tSmoignages des monuments Spigraphiques sont assez precis pour 
 l’Stablir avec une entiere Evidence. B serait inutile de citer toutes les inscrip¬ 
 tions qui en donnent la preuve; j’en ai eeulement choisi quelques-unes, pour 
 montrer que cette composition Stait la m§me dans les diffSrents pays. Les ex- 
 emples sont assez nombreux pour qu il soit permis d’btendre la conclusion aux 
 cas mSmes od la preuve directs fait defaut, et de regarder l’admission des tem- 
 mes, des strangers, des affranchis et des esclaves, comme un caractbre commur. 
 de toutes ces associations.” Foucart further shows that freedmen and freed- 
 
170 
 
 LRJMAKOS. 
 
 among the Greek-speaking slaves—far more so than among 
 the Romans—and in these society meetings they all, 
 bondsmen and freedmen alike, under protection of their 
 secret eranos or union, discussed their sufferings and per¬ 
 haps also concocted their plots of salvation. Thus, from 
 all sources—the inner-consciences, the frowning gods, the 
 slaves’ own grievances and the constantly recurring strikes 
 maintained by runaways and bloody battles—greedy cap¬ 
 italists were reminded of this abomination which they were 
 hugging, even in ancient days. 
 
 The words of Nymphodorus plainly tell us that in the 
 Island of Chios revolts and escape to the mountains were 
 of common occurrence. His words reproduced in the 
 banquet of the learned by Athenseus make the matter 
 plain. We give them below in a note from the old scholi¬ 
 ast latin version of 1557, as they introduce the story in 
 plain words. 11 The reader is now fully prepared by this 
 description of the surroundings to comprehend the story 
 of Drimakos whom we left in the mountains with his fol¬ 
 lowers, busily at work with saws and axes building rough 
 cabins and meditating a desperate swoop upon the city 
 they had left, that they might seize a part of the grain 
 and stores which their own former labor and that of their 
 fellow bondsmen had created. This expedition was well 
 planned. Of this we have assurance in the words of 
 
 woman got their freedom many times through their organization. Under the 
 head “AfErar.chis ou esclaves,” p. 7, he cites inscriptions whose epigraphs clearly 
 explain that slaves were members in Eh odes. We have elsewhere shown that 
 the ancient states owned slaves. They were known as public servants. “ Une 
 inscription de l’ile de Khodes mentionne une societe religieuse compose des 
 esclaves publics de la ville (voyez p. 112, note 4). La mutilation du monument 
 enleve a ce temoignage une partie de sa valeur. Mais l’examen des noms pro- 
 pres qui se renconti'ent dans les autres inscriptions prouve que ces associations 
 admettaint les aft'ranchis et probablement meme les esclaves." On page 112, 
 cited by Foucart occur the words: “Un fragment description, regtitulpar Keil 
 d’une maniere bardie, mais, a tout prendre, vraisemblable, montferait la com¬ 
 position particuliere de la soci6te qui se placalt. sousle patronage de Zeus Atabv- 
 rios. File aurait ete formee des esclaves publics de la ville de Rhodes, et c’est 
 1 un d eux qui aurait exerce le sacerdoce. 'Ynep Aioaaradvpi. aarav tuv ras irtfAios 
 tSovAam, Euai. .eco? ypap.pa.Tevs Sap oaios i eparev eras Aio? ’ATadvpi'ov . . . rcor 
 icvaiuiv ‘PoSiW av eQpxe A tl ’A radvpia».... PhilologUS, 2d suppl., p. 612.*' It 
 seems exceedingly strange that this learned author should lack the power of 
 penetration so far as to continually make a hack of a pet idiosyncrasy regarding 
 these innumerable organizations having been strictly religious orders. The fact 
 is, as we continually show, braced also by epigraphists like Mommsen and Bockh 
 that they were bona fide labor societies compelled under vigorous laws to cover 
 their real object with the shield of the Pagan faith. 
 
 11 “Haec igitur de lllis scripsit Nymphodorus in Asise Navigatione, Chiormn 
 servi ab ipsis dominis aufugientes in moutes sublimioraque, ipsorum devastantes 
 multi simul coacti sunt. Est enim ipsa insula aspera multisque arboribus re 
 ferts.” Athenseus. VI., chap, vii., (Natalis de Comisibus, Veneto, 15561. 
 
BLOODY AND DECISIVE BATTLES. 
 
 171 
 
 Athemeus wlio says that Drimakos was not really the ag¬ 
 gressor hut that the Chians sent an expedition into the 
 fugitives’ retreat, and that the latter being favored and 
 well generaled, came off victorious. This means that the 
 Chians were decoyed into ambush by Drimakos, attacked, 
 cut to pieces, their arms captured and the slaves left com¬ 
 plete masters of the field. In other words, there was 
 fought a bloody battle, even a succession of battles, and of 
 such terrible cruelty that even the heart of the stem Dri¬ 
 makos was melted with sympathy and he soon sought a 
 council of arbitration to put a stop to the ruthless effusion 
 of blood. But this did not occur until sometime after the 
 first decisive contest with the masters was fought. 
 
 When, by this and other victories, the slaves found 
 themselves in full possession of their caverns, and their 
 new home supplied with provisions, their soldiers with 
 arms captured from the defeated masters, and their num¬ 
 bers much augmented by incoming detachments of runa¬ 
 ways from all parts of the island, they began to think of 
 discipline and order. Drimakos was made king, com¬ 
 mander-in-chief and despot; and he began to exercise an 
 iron rule over his subjects nearly as severe, but more just 
 than that of their former masters . 12 Having vanquished 
 the armies of the masters in repeated and bloody battles, 
 causing a state of things which may have lasted for years 
 —since both the duration and dates are forgotten by our 
 historian—the slaves continued to get their provisions 
 from the granaries, barns, farms and stores, in the follow¬ 
 ing extraordinary manner: 
 
 A council or conference was called by this victorious 
 man of the mountains, whereat the Chian masters were 
 invited to participate with him and his victorious legions 
 on equal terms, under a flag of truce. When the gener¬ 
 als and magistrates of the city and the rebels met, king 
 Drimakos made a speech which contained a covenant of 
 arbitration, perhaps unheard of before or since. We give 
 
 12 Thelatin version Athen, VI. chap. viii. Natal, de Com, Ven. 1556, tells it in 
 these words: “ Paulo ante nostra tempora famulum quendam, narrantipsi Chii, 
 profugisse atque in ipsis montibus habitasse, qui cum esset bellicosus animoque 
 virili fugitivoruru servorum Dux ac imperator declaratus erat, non aliter atque 
 reges solet exercitus cum sepius postea Chii copias in eum eduxissent, nihilque 
 facere possent, ubi eos Primacus (sic enim servus nominatur) frustra interior 
 conspexit, sic ad ilios locutus eet.” The gist ol his speech we give in full, Vide 
 Supra. 
 
DRIMAKOS. 
 
 173 
 
 the substance of his proposition in his own words, in order 
 to show that singular examples of co-operation and arbi¬ 
 tration have been tried in the remote past: 
 
 “An oracle has been consulted and our revolt has, from 
 the start, been upheld by the gods. We shell never lay 
 down our arms. We shall never again submit to the 
 drudgery of bondage. We are fixed in our own minds 
 and act under counsel of the Almighty. Nevertheless if 
 you follow my advice and adhere to it in the strictest faith, 
 after signing this pledge and contract, the war may be 
 terminated and the further effusion of blood dispensed 
 with; then we can mutually live in peace and enjoy tran¬ 
 quility on terms which wall be full of prosperity to the 
 whole state of which we all are members.” 
 
 The Chians who had been humbled by their defeats and 
 losses consented to an armistice of war, thus recogniz¬ 
 ing for the slaves the dignity of a public enemy. They found 
 it a convenience, doubtless against their will, to submit to 
 propositions of reason. Drimakos then explained his plan: 
 
 “ What we want is enough to subsist upon;—no more. 
 In future, when hunger and need inspire us, we shall visit 
 your granaries, flocks and stores and take what we require 
 but always by weight and measure. The weights and 
 measures are to be these which we have brought you and 
 exhibit before your eyes. Here also is a signet 1 * with 
 which w r e propose to seal up your storehouses and grana¬ 
 ries after taking from them what we require, rs by this 
 means you will be able to distinguish our work from that 
 of common robbers. Regarding the slaves who in future 
 shall escape from you to our camp, I shall rigidly investi¬ 
 gate the causes of each man’s running away, weigh his 
 story carefully, and after submitting his case to an unbi¬ 
 ased examination, if he be found to have suffered injustice 
 at your hand, proving that he has been treated wrongly 
 by you, I shall protect him. If on the contrary, the run¬ 
 away slave bo found not to have had a sufficient cause, I 
 shall return him to his master.” 
 
 Drimakos, it is seen, thus recognized and upheld slavery 
 as an institution, only punishing its abuses. This fact 
 
 ™ Tty the word used in Athenaens meaning signet or seal we are probably to 
 mv'o and i contrivance of some kind for locking up the -houses and 
 i>; .ai.-.Uts— locks aud keys 
 
HIS METHOD OF INTERPROTECTION. 173 
 
 corresponds with the ancient opinion that slavery was 
 right; a thing not at all to be wondered at, considering 
 the prevalence of this aged institution and the inculcation 
 of the competitive system through its massive religious 
 and political machinery, based upon an unscrupulous 
 ownership alike of men and things, by the ancient law of 
 entailment and primogeniture. We do not find that the 
 slave system was ever publicly and boldly and philosophi¬ 
 cally denounced as an institution. But it is certain that 
 t was fought in the secret unions and communes until 
 'esus daringly came out in open discourse against it and 
 founded Christianity upon the new basis of absolute 
 equality of man, which was essentially, as the results have 
 proved, a revolution or upturning of the entire system of 
 paganism and its heathenish discrimination between the 
 grandee and his human chattels; and to him must be 
 ascribed the authorship of the idea of unconditional eman¬ 
 cipation. But while Drimakos could not unscrupulously 
 war with slavery as an institution his course is exactly in 
 ine with the great movement of his day which in other 
 chapters we are describing 14 in these arguments. He be¬ 
 trays himself in the foregoing speech to have been, like 
 Eunus, a soothsayer, or prophet, or Messiah, such as the 
 innumerable sodalicia and thiasoi, or labor unions every¬ 
 where possessed . 16 He, like Spartacus, Blossius, Eunus, 
 
 and the rest, was infused with this strange, everywhere- 
 
 prevailing idea of some Messiah coming to the redemption 
 of the poor slave. All the slave runaways were supersti¬ 
 tious, and used in good faith and in harmonious consis¬ 
 tency with their creed, this nympholepsy of the Messiah, 
 long before the real Messiah came . 16 
 
 These conditions of Drimakos were readily agreed to 
 by the Chian capitalists, who were not in a condition to 
 refuse. In consequence, so soon as the stipulations were 
 formally signed they went into effect and the slave-king 
 for many years had only to send his troops boldly and 
 openly on their strange marauding adventures, always tak- 
 
 w See chapter xxii and elsewhere, on Trade Unions which adduces proof that 
 the freedmen arose ont cf slavery through their own efforts and argued up the 
 Idea from their own narrower basis. 
 
 15 Consult Lilders. Die Dionysischen Kims tier, Foil carts, Associations Religieuses 
 for the Greek, and Yi n^insen. dt Collegii et SodaUciis Romanorwtx for the la tin 
 anions, passim. 16 Hee BiScher, Aufst. d. unf. Arb. S, 79. 
 
174 
 
 PRIM AK 05. 
 
 ing quantities by weight and measure as agreed upon, and 
 always locking up the storehouses and granaries when they 
 left them. The result was a mercy to the whole island 
 which had been hitherto infested with robbers. It is not 
 stated, but left to be inferred from the sequel, that Dri- 
 makos drove all other robbers from the island; for we 
 know that his armed force, now legalized, acted as a sort 
 of police to the whole personality and property of the 
 people, slaves included. He adhered with severity to the 
 stipulation of the agreement and when runaways appealed 
 to him for protection he instituted a strict investigation 
 of their case; those not having been maltreated being al¬ 
 ways sent back to their owners. This of course had the 
 effect to .cause masters to treat their slaves with kindness 
 and never to overwork or otherwise abuse them, lest they 
 incur the terrible wrath of the god-favored umpire seated 
 on his throne among the crags and eagles-nests of the 
 mountains. On the other hand the would-be runaways 
 were surer to reflect cautiously before making the attempt, 
 being in deadly fear at the just judgment of the despot 
 before whom they were to be arraigned for trial imme¬ 
 diately after their suit before him for protection. Thus 
 the revolted slave became not only an absolute ruler, king 
 and general-in-chief of the slave population, but also, in 
 some respects, a judge in a court of justice with a stand¬ 
 ing army at command to enforce his decisions—an umpire 
 over the whole population, bond and free. 
 
 Years rolled by and Drimakos felt old age approaching, 
 yet did not flinch from what he considered the dignity 
 and honor of his plan of justice. He remained at the 
 helm, punishing or rewarding like a czar, until he was old 
 and feeble and weary of a lengthier existence. He had a 
 friend in the person of a young man, also a psomokolo- 
 phos or runaway, who probably deserved this appellative 
 for being pliant and perhaps a little parasitical and given 
 to the recipiency of tit-bits in payment for flatteries in¬ 
 geniously brought to the old man’s ear. He, like many 
 of the other slaves, was a native of a distant land, having 
 when very young been kidnapped or taken a prisoner of 
 war, and as a victim to the vicious slave-trade, sold to the 
 planters of Chios. He was one of those young fugitive 
 slaves who had proved his grievance under the iavestiga- 
 
HIS ASTONISHING DEATH. 
 
 175 
 
 tion, been accepted, retained and trusted. Drimakos 
 loved him and confided in his youthful honesty. 
 
 Meantime the Chians, unsatisfied with what they re¬ 
 garded as their burden, offered a large reward in gold to 
 whomsoever should bring them the head of Drimakos. 
 This they did against their true interests; since at that 
 moment while under the eagle-eyed justice of this weird 
 old judge in the mountain cliffs, their true interests were 
 being more reasonably and economically subserved than 
 ever before or afterwards, as the sequel of this story bears 
 record. Perhaps the old man in his peevishness was 
 grieved by their ingratitude in offering a bounty on his 
 head. At any rate, we are told that he grew weary of his 
 hoary hairs and enfeebling senectitude, and resolved that 
 the ungrateful masters should pay the bounty and take the 
 consequences whether of pleasure or of regret. In other 
 words he resolved to send them his head and make it 
 bring its price in gold! 
 
 In our own days of comparative sympathies and sensi¬ 
 bilities a resolution like this could scarcely emanate from 
 any person other than a madman; and our first judgment, 
 shocked at the bare conception, is that no horror so ap¬ 
 palling could have been devised by anything saner than 
 some idiocracy of an errant brain. But 2,000 years have 
 softened the human mind which, though yet cruel and 
 sometimes even savage, is so comparatively tender that it 
 pronely misjudges the motives and the drastic will which 
 impelled some acts of our progenitors. 
 
 Drimakos resolved to shuffle off his mortal coil. Call¬ 
 ing to him the friend whose name our informants have 
 not transmitted to us, he spoke to him in the following 
 characteristic words: 
 
 “Boy, I have brought thee up nearest to me, ever with 
 the emotions of confidence and love more than that felt 
 for all others of mankind. Thou art child and son and 
 all that to me is dear. I have lived out my span. I have 
 lived long enough; but thou art still young and hast blood 
 and hope and sprightliness, and there is much before 
 thee. Thou shalt become a good and brave man. 
 
 “Son, the city of the Chians is offering to him that bring- 
 eth them my head a sum of money and promising him his 
 freedom. Therefore thy duty is to cut off my head, take 
 
176 
 
 DRIMAKOS. 
 
 it to them, receive thy reward, return home to thy father- 
 land and be happy.” 
 
 The innocent youth at the thought of such an ungrate¬ 
 ful and sickening atrocity, refused for the first time to 
 obey his benefactor, and struggled hard to change the 
 old man’s determination, but in vain. Having resolved, 
 he was inexorable. When the youth found him fixed in 
 his horrible resolution and knew by long acquaintance 
 with him that it was unalterable, he allowed himself to be 
 persuaded. 
 
 The slave-king laid his head upon the block and the 
 youth cleft it with the axe of the executioner! 
 
 Having buried the body of his friend and patron, the 
 youth took the head to the city, received its price, his free¬ 
 dom and an amnesty and departed for his home with 
 wealth and distinction. 
 
 The Chians did not long rejoice over their boasted cap¬ 
 ture of the head of the land-pirate. Soon after he was 
 dead the runaway slaves with whom the rocks and forests 
 of that rugged country was infested, being no longer un¬ 
 der the restraint of the ever vigilant Drimakos, returned 
 to their wonted habits of pillage by land and piracy by 
 sea. The Chians w r ere poignantly reminded of the error 
 they had committed in their harsh measures against the 
 powerful but just chieftain, who, for many years had held 
 the discontented and warlike freebooters under control. 
 The fugitive slaves re-began their work of robbery and 
 devastation. Readopting their former habits of plunder 
 based on revenge as well as want, they ceased to be an or¬ 
 ganized body following a stipulated arrangement like that 
 which so long had existed between Drimakos and the 
 Chian people, and became a desperate gang of land pirates 
 and outlaws. 
 
 The treachery of the Chians in securing the removal of 
 Drimakos thus recoiled upon themselves in shape of a 
 calamity. They remembered the prophetic words of the 
 martyred chieftain, that the gods had espoused the cause 
 of the poor slaves and w ere angry with their masters. A 
 feeling remembrance, kindling a high degree of respect 
 for him now set in, and both combined to produce a ven¬ 
 eration which caused them to erect a tomb or mausoleum 
 Over his grave, which the Greeks called a heroon % and he be- 
 
A MAUSOLEUM TO THE CHIEF. 
 
 177 
 
 came the object of hero worship. This was no less a struct¬ 
 ure than a temple dedicated to Drimakos, the now deified 
 hero. 
 
 Such was the sublimity of the subject that this heroon 
 or temple arose so splendid and enduring that its ruins 17 
 remain to this day and have been the object of study by 
 archaeologists and other students from more than a dozen 
 points of view. 18 The superstitions of the times no w came 
 in play in the flexible imaginations of these people. They 
 persuaded themselves that they often saw in the gloom of 
 night the ghost of Drimakos, now as before their friend, 
 as, bony-fingered and spectral, it appeared to warn the 
 Chians of some foul plot his fellow runaways and brigands 
 were concocting against their lives and property. And 
 many a time were the lurking filibusters thus checkmated 
 in their manoeuvres, ambuscades and sallies, and many a 
 time defeated in their bloody designs by the wan and 
 stalking ghost of Drimakos. Curiously enough this super¬ 
 stition was mutual between bond and free; for the brig¬ 
 ands themselves worshipped the manes of Drimakos as 
 their hero also; and always first brought to his mausoleum 
 the richest trophies of their marauding expeditions before 
 dispersing to their caverns with the rest. 
 
 So weird and romantic does this tale of the wild men of 
 ancient Scio sound that we have hesitated before allowing 
 it to contribute its enriching lessons and charms, lest it 
 prove unable to bear the criticism of our learned but 
 skeptic readers. But when our eye at last caught the 
 smiling assurances of its trustworthiness from savants like 
 Dr. Karl Bticher, and other learned teachers of philology, 
 and from their pen we obtained the bracing words that not 
 the slightest doubt 1 * exists as to the credibility of the story, 
 we ventured to bring it forth upon its merits as another 
 instance of labor’s hardships and struggles for existence. 
 
 W Consult Stark bei Hermann, S. 40,16. 
 
 u See Ross Travels in the islands; Inscription de Scio, No. 72.. 
 
 *• Bticher Aufstdnde der Unfrcien Arbeiter, S. 28. “Mag man elnzelne Zi'nie 
 dioser Geschichte romanhaft flnden, es bietet sich anch nicht der '“isiete Grand 
 an ihrer Echtheit zu zweifeln, und selbst wenn die klugen chiischeu Kanfiante 
 sie anr Erklarung des Heroons und ale Abschreckungsmittel fur lure Sclaven er 
 funden hatten, bliebe sie darum weniger ein treues Spiegelbiid voihandenci 
 Zost&nde.’’ 
 
CHAPTER VUL 
 
 VIRIATHUS. 
 
 A GREAT REBELLION IN SPAIN. 
 
 Th* Roman Slave System in Spain—Tyranny in Lusitania — 
 Massacre of the People—Condition before the Outbreak— 
 First Appearance of Yiriathus—A Shepherd on his Native 
 Hills—A Giant in Stature and Intellect—He takes Com¬ 
 mand—Vetillius Outwitted—Captured and Slain—Conflict 
 in Tartessus—Romans again Beaten—Battle of the Hill of 
 Venus—Viriathus Slaughters another army and Humiliates 
 Rome—Segobria Captured—Arrival of JEmilianus—He is 
 Out-generaled and at last Beaten by Viriathus—More Bat¬ 
 tles and Victories for the Farmers—Arrival of Plautius 
 with Fresh Roman Soldiers—Viriathus made King—More 
 Victories—Treason, Conspiracy and Treachery Lurking in 
 his Camps—Murdered by his own Perfidious Officers— 
 Pomp at His Funeral—Relentless Vengeance of the Romans 
 —Crucifixion and worse Slavery than before—The Cause 
 Lost. 
 
 The successful issue to Rome, of the third Punic war 
 by which Carthage, agreeably to the inveterate apothegm 
 of Cato: “delenda est Carthago the land of the terrible 
 Hannibal was chopped to pieces and its inhabitants butch¬ 
 ered or sold into slavery, caused an enormous amount of 
 suffering to the human race. 
 
 Not only did the spirit of greed cause Roman land spec¬ 
 ulators to press the enforcement of the slave laws which 
 seized prisoners and consigned them to the most cruel 
 wholesale bondage in Asia-Minor, Italy and Sicily, but it 
 extended this mischief also into sunny Spain. 
 
ENFORCED BONDAGE AND REBELLION. 179 
 
 One of the main causes of the rebellion of inner emo¬ 
 tions of the celebrated Tiberius Gracchus against Home, 
 goading him to become the champion of a reform in favor 
 of the poor, was the wretchedly enslaved condition of the 
 working people in all countries under Roman domination. 
 Their terrible condition in Etruria was no worse than in 
 Numantia in Spain. He had seen the indescribable suffer¬ 
 ing at Carthage, when nearly the entire population were 
 either put to the sword or sold in slavery. Spain was on 
 the verge of rebellion everywhere. Roman conquest had 
 but a few years before, stricken Epirus a fruitful land 
 eastward from Italy. Paulus iEmilius tore from the farm¬ 
 ers of this region upwards of £2,000,000 of their savings 
 in gold, and after the battle of Pydna, seized no less than 
 150,000 people by order of the Roman senate. These 
 people, nearly all farmers and other workers, were dragged 
 from their homes and sold for slaves. Seventy cities were 
 sacked and destroyed. 
 
 Towns, villages, cities on every side, as well as farms 
 and small industries, with their unions and communes, 
 were reduced to a desolate waste, and the people, who 
 were still alive, whether suffering under the lash of mas¬ 
 ters in a foreign land, or gasping under tyranny at home, 
 were burning with bitterness, revengefulness, hatred and 
 other lurking passions, and sinking into degeneracy, reck¬ 
 lessness and poverty. 1 
 
 Such was also the miserable status of affairs in Spain 
 in the year B. C. 149, when our story of Viriathus begins. 
 Old Lusitania before the Roman conquests, was a popu¬ 
 lous and enterprising country. There were associations, 
 of the Lusitanian laboring people, which under some favor¬ 
 able rules had existed so long that they had become rich. 
 Traces of their enterprise are still to be seen in form of 
 temples, bridges and roads. It appears to have been in 
 their days of highest glory that Rome, with a blackening 
 curse of human slavery, struck this beautiful, sunny clime 
 and its contented, happy and prosperous people. 
 
 Our story begins with a perfidious piece of treachery of 
 oim Servius Sulpicius Galba, who commanded the Roman 
 army of invasion in Spain. lake Yerres in Sicily, Galba 
 
 lutaich, Paulus s&milius; Livy, XL. 25-28; Wallace, Numbers of Mankind. 
 
180 
 
 VIRIATHUS. 
 
 seemed to have no moral respect for humanity. He 
 
 worked his plans to secure the confidence of these people 
 and when the opportunity arrived, perfidiously murdered 
 them in great numbers, seized and dragged others into 
 slavery and robbed their country of its gold with which 
 he afterwards, in spite of old Cato’s efforts to have him 
 punished, bought himself free from the sentence of the 
 law at Rome. Soon after these outrages of Galba, Rome 
 withdrew many of the soldiers from Spain and the peo¬ 
 ple rallied with greater determination than ever, to re¬ 
 trieve their losses. They were mostly farmers and me¬ 
 chanics, and men of strong, well established principles. 
 
 Among those who had the fortune to escape from the 
 last massacre of Galba was a young man named Viriathus. 
 He is represented by Diodorus as almost a giant in stat¬ 
 ure 2 and a person born to command, He was endowed 
 by nature with the rare faculties of honor and truthful¬ 
 ness, while at the same time leading the life of a hunter, a 
 shepherd and finally of a border warrior in defense of 
 himself and his kindred. An excellent description of 
 Viriathus is left us by Diodorus in a short fragment of 
 his histories which have been fortunately preserved. This 
 fragment, while it represents him to have been a robber, 
 extols at the same breath his honor for distributing the 
 plunder among his men,* Livy speaks of him as a man of 
 warlike qualifications, having had experience as a moun¬ 
 taineer. 4 
 
 The charge against him, of being a lawless bandit is no 
 longer maintained by authors, since the the circumstances 
 under which he careered, show of themselves, that he did 
 
 * Diodorus, Bibliotheca Historica.Ub. XXXIII. Eclog. V. of fragmenta*, “ Ou- 
 
 piardov /cvpijcravres, p.eyaAa 'Pco/aalot/? efikaxf/av- J)V pev oZv ovro s to>v n apa top 
 ooxeavov oikovvtcjv Aver iraviov, iroLpaivtov e/c naiB'os, opeiio f3 up xarecnj (rvvrjih)s, 
 avvepyov /cal rr\v tou erw/xaros <t>v<rw /cal yap pcop. 77 , /cal ra^ei, ijal rrj tmv AoiJUt>*< 
 
 pepebv ev/ctvrjaia, 7 toAv Strjvey/ce ribv IjSjjpa/v. truveiihae Be avrov Tpocf>jj pev okiyi), 
 yvpvacriois Be ttoAAois xpi /cal vnvto pexpi- povov rod avay/catov. /ca#bAou Be 
 <riBrjpo<$>opu>v ervve^w?, /cal Ararat? eis dycopa? Kad-urrapevos, weptjSoijro? eyevero napa 
 roi; 7rA>)i9ecrt, /cal rjyepuiv aurol? rjpe&rp /cal ra^w <rvamipa irepl eaurov AjjaTwv fi&poicre 
 /cal npoxoTTTitiv ev rols JroAepois, ov povov id-avpaorui&i) Bi aA/crjp, aAAd /cai arparif 
 yelv e8o£e Biaffrepovrias.” 
 
 8 Idem, Excerpt de Virt. et Vlt. pag. 591: "'On Oviptanfo? o kjjarapxot b 
 Avenravos xal Sl/cato? yv ev rais SiavopaZs ru>v kafyvpwv, /cal /car’ a£ia.v npibv row « 
 ai'Spayadjjcrai'Ta? e£aipero is 5wpoi?, er 1 Be ovSev ajrAa/s e/e rS>v kolvuiv vo<r<f>i£bpevof, 
 Sto /cal <rvvej Satve rob? Avcriravov^ irpo&vporara <ruyKivSvvevetv avrip, rtpcovrai 
 olovtl riva koivov evepyerrjv /cal acor/jpa*’' 
 
 4 Livy, Epitom, of Historiarum, Libri, LIT. "Viriathus in Hiepania primuzn 
 ex pastore venator, ex venatore latro, mox justl quoque exercitua dux factaa, 
 totam Lusitaniam occupavit.” 
 
MASSACRES OF GALBA. 
 
 181 
 
 nothing which any patriot would not be bound to do in 
 defense of home, family and friends. What the ancient 
 authors seem to be prejudiced against him for, is the fact 
 that, like Athenion and Spartacus, he was poor and that 
 he belonged to the lowly and strictly laboring class. But 
 even with the excusable charge against him that he was 
 a robber, we find very few who do not speak highly of him 
 as a great leader and a man of uncommon justice. 
 
 The only thing Galba and Lucullus seem to have been 
 able to think of, when sent from Rome into Spain, was to 
 plunder at an unlimited cost of suffering and blood. Cheat¬ 
 ing, deceiving, working deeds of treachery against the 
 people and amassing gold was their single object; and to 
 get the gold from Spain and carry it as their own per¬ 
 sonal property to Rome, was their bent and determina¬ 
 tion.* 
 
 Among the few Lusitanians who escaped from the last 
 massacre of Galba,was Viriathus. He adroitly forewarned 
 himself and a few friends, of a treacherous plot, just at 
 the moment of its consummation and with difficulty extri¬ 
 cated himself, although great numbers of innocent people 
 were murdered or enslaved. His opportunity was now 
 at hand, and he informed the shattered remnant of the 
 band, of which it appears he was at the time, little above 
 the rank and file, that if they would entrust the future 
 command of their forces to him, he would lead them out 
 in safety. In a speech he told them that they were too 
 confiding; that the Romans were utterly devoid of all in¬ 
 stincts of truthfulness or honor, and that the only tactics 
 in future to be pursued must be based upon the idea of 
 treating them as enemies; that whatever the hypocritical 
 pretence of either the Roman senate, or its inhuman emis¬ 
 saries that Spain was in need of protection, the truth at 
 the bottom was, that Rome wanted the whole of this fair 
 and fruitful land, its productive mines, its waving grain 
 fields, its fisheries, timber forests and gems, for her great 
 
 5 Appian, Iberia, 60; Livy, Epitome . XLIX. remarks that Cato was stern 
 enough to have Galba punished but the trial came to naught; the infamous 
 traitor had too much gold at command: “QuumL. Scribonius tribunus plebis 
 rogationcm promuigasset, ut Lusitani, qui, in fldem populi Romani dediti, a er. 
 Galba in Galliam venissent, in libertatem restitueremur, M. Cato acerrim ? sua- 
 sit. Exstat oratio in Annalibus eius inclusa. Q. Fulvius Nobilior, et s lepe ab 
 eo in sonata laceraius respondit pro Galba. Ipse quoqup Galba, qnum se (iMtii- 
 nnri videi it. complexns duos filios praetextatos, et Sulpicii Galli filmm, cuius 
 tutor i -at. .;s m>er:ibi!iter pro se locutus est, ut r'ga'io antiqunr •tur ” 
 
182 
 
 VIRIATHUS. 
 
 lords; and she only wanted these inestimable resources 
 worked for such arrogant darlings of her aristocracy, not 
 by free labor but by that of slaves, subjugated through 
 plots and systematized perfidy. Give me, said Viriathus, 
 the unlimited command of your brave warriors and I will 
 rid the land of our fathers of these mortal foes. 
 
 The speech won the distinguished sympathy of the 
 governors. The tall mountaineer received the full com¬ 
 mand of the army; and now begins one of the most re¬ 
 markable series of successes, wrought amid difficulties, 
 cruelties and transient triumphs, to be found in the his¬ 
 tory of Rome. These extraordinary contests lasted, ac¬ 
 cording to various authors from eight to twenty years.® 
 
 After the departure to Rome of Galba and Lucullus, 
 with their gold, a praetor or governor, named Gaius Vet- 
 ilius was entrusted by the Romans, with the care of the 
 Spanish possessions; and Viriathus thus left the flocks 
 under his care in the mountains and valleys of his home 
 to take permanent charge of the broken and disheartened 
 army which had regained some spirit, however, on account 
 of the evacuation of their territory by Galba, and began 
 marching down into the fertile valleys of Turdetania. 
 
 Vetilius met them promptly, and before the new com¬ 
 mander could organize his troops, or perhaps before he 
 really got command, gained a victory, driving them back 
 and forced them to agree to, and almost conclude an un¬ 
 conditional surrender. This was perhaps the auspicious 
 
 « We here give the several authorities for the duration of these wars, from 
 
 the massacres of Galba to the assassination of Viriathus consecutively as follows: 
 
 Appian, Historia Bomoma, Iberia, 63, put it at about 8 years: "'O es o/crw 
 irq Tw/xat'ots «jroAep.«i* <cai /xoi SontZ r'ov Ovpiardov irdAeuov, a<f)68pa. re evo^A rjcrarra 
 ‘Pa>p.aiois teal Svaepyorarov auTOi? y«vop.evov , <rvvayayeiy , aya.dep.cyoy ci n rod avrov 
 Xpovov nepl 'ljir)piay aAAo iyiyvero.’’ 
 
 Livy, Historiarum, Liber, LII. Epitom. “C. Vetilium praetorem, fuso eius 
 exercitu, cepit: post quem C. Plautins praetor nihilo felicius rem gessit: tan- 
 tumque terroris is hostis intulit, ut adversus eum consulari opus esset et duee, 
 et exercitu.” This mention is found by a careful study of the different com¬ 
 mands, to make the duration to have been about 14 years. 
 
 Justin, XLIV. 2, says 10 years; while Diordorus makes it to appear about 
 11 years, and Orosius, Histories Adversus Paganos, V, 4, about 8 to 10 years. 
 
 Eutrope, Breviarium Rerum Romanorum. IV. 16, evidently takes his state¬ 
 ment from Livy; for aside from putting the wars of Virathus at 14 years, he 
 uses almost the same language in describing the man ; “Quo metu Viriathus a 
 suis interfectus est, cum quatuordecim annis Ilispanlas adversum Romanos mo- 
 visset. Pastor primo fuit, mox latronum dux, postreino tantos ad bellum popu- 
 los concitavit, ut assertor contra Romanos Hispaniae putaretur.” 
 
 Vallejus Paterculus, Breviarium Histories Romance , lib. II. cap. 90 declares 
 the duration of the wars with Viriathus to have been 20 years and undoubtedly 
 Mommsen .u putting it at 8 with Appian, is entirely wrong. 
 
A TRIUMPHANT RETREAT. 
 
 183 
 
 * 
 
 moment at winch. Viriathus first showed himself and made 
 his speech, as we have just recounted. 
 
 This hardy Spaniard, on getting the reins firmly into 
 his hands, introduced a method of tactics little understood 
 or anticipated by the Romans. He made an unexpected 
 revolt against the stipulations of capitulation then being 
 drawn up, accompanying the same with a dash of his 
 troops, and by a series of twists and turns in which the 
 swiftest of the Spanish cavalry were brought into play, 
 succeeded in extricating the little army so entirely from 
 the grasp of Vetilius that he effected a retreat into a rocky 
 woodland, and there safely spent the night in rest and 
 needed refreshment, and the following day in religious 
 purifications according to the Spanish creed. 7 The flight, 
 according to Appian, and others, was accomplished by 
 dividing the army into several parts, each under the com¬ 
 mand of a trusted leader, with orders to reunite at a given 
 point, and with 1,000 horses under his own command he 
 covered their retreat, first galloping to the rescue of one 
 and then the other. .In this manner they all reached Tri- 
 bola in safety, after holding their pursuers in check for 
 two days by means of various expedients of consummate 
 ingenuity in which he took advantage of the wild and 
 rugged shape of the land.® 
 
 All this time he was marching southward toward the 
 strait of Gades, to the ancient Carteia. Vetilius could illy 
 brook the escape of his game which so short a time be¬ 
 fore he believed to be in his hand. He made a desperate 
 effort to frustrate the splendid retreat of the Spanish army, 
 but Viriathus decoyed him into an ambush at the foot of 
 the Hill of Venus where a celebrated battle was fought, 
 which Appian and others graphically describe.* 
 
 It was a deep gorge, thick-set with briars, rocks, forest 
 trees and other obstructions, which puzzled the best army 
 
 1 Appian, Historia Romana, Hispania , 62: Frontin, Strategematon, lib. Ill, xi. 
 g 4: ‘‘Viriathus, cum triduiiter diseedensconfecisset, idem illud nno die remen- 
 «us securos Segobrigenses et sacnficio cum maxime occupatos oppressit/’ 
 
 8 Appian, 62, 20-25, of Mendelsohn: “ '12? S’ einaatv a<r</> aAw? e\etv tjj? <f>vyr)% 
 
 tot)? CTcpov?, Tore vvktos op/xijaa? Si’ oSuv arpi|3u)v /cov^orarots airdSpapev it 
 
 Tpt /3oAav, *Pta>/aata>» avrvv StuKtiv 6 pottos ou Svvapiviav Sia re /3apo? ottAwi' /cai 
 airtipiav oStov <al lirirotv avoixotorgra.’’ 
 
 9 Consult also Dion Cassius, Histories, LXXVIII. p. 33, Wess. ; Frontin, 
 Strategematon, lib. III. cap. 10, refers to this as one of the great strokes of strate- 
 gem: “Viriathus disposito per occulta milite paucos misit, qui abigerent pecora 
 Segobrigensium: ad quae illi vindicanda cum frequentes procurrissent simulan- 
 tesque fugam praedatores persequerentur, deducti in insidias caesique sunt." 
 
184 
 
 VIRIATHUS. 
 
 unaccustomed to mountain life but which least tormented 
 a man like Yiriathus, whose life had been that of a hunter 
 and shepherd among glens and precipices. 10 It was about 
 the time when Viriathus, after his three days retreat, was 
 entering the town of Tribola, that Yetilius and his men 
 made a desperate effort to sei2e him. Some of the Span¬ 
 ish detachments were out reconnoitring when they were 
 set upon by a heavy body of Romans in the ledge, and 
 after many hours of severe fighting the Romans lost their 
 general and gave way with a loss in killed of about 5,000 
 soldiers—a half of their entire force. It was soon after¬ 
 wards discovered that Vetilius had met one of the hardy 
 mountaineers, and in a hand to hand encounter had been 
 taken prisoner by him. 11 Most writers agree that the 
 Roman general was mortally wounded in this encounter. 
 It was a great and bloody victory. 
 
 Immediately after the triumph of Yiriathus at the Hill 
 of Yenus, an immense number of slaves and free tramps 
 whose condition was worse than that of slaves, came into 
 the camp from all quarters, to offer themselves as soldiers; 
 and although we do not find much in the fragments of 
 history left us on this rebellion, yet it cannot be doubted 
 that a very large army was called into being; and this was 
 probably the prime secret of the continued train of suc¬ 
 cesses attending the career of the insurgents. 
 
 There was another army in Spain, subject to Rome, con¬ 
 sisting of Spanish militia and mercenaries, or perhaps 
 freedmen who had been impressed into the Roman ser¬ 
 vice. These, 6,000 strong, on the arrival of the news of 
 the disaster to Vetilius, struck out in a rapid march from 
 their quarters on the river Ebro. 
 
 The eye of Viriathus was however on the lookout for 
 them. He marched a large force to waylay, and prevent 
 them from joining the enemy who had by this time so 
 far recovered as to show an army of 16,000 men, now 
 marching toward Gades the old Tartesssus. He met them 
 at some convenient place and in a second battle destroyed 
 them so completely that nothing was left of the force 
 
 io Diodorus, Bibliotheca Historica , XXXIII, Eclog. V. " 'S.wti&tat Si ainbv 
 rao<f>jj p.iv oAi-yjj, yvpvaaiOLt Si troAAots icai virv<p povov ava.yna.LOV «ca#oAow 
 
 fi* o’c£i)po(/>opd>(' avve^ojif tea i tfrjpi'ois /cat Ararat? <t? ayuivat Kadiardpcvot, nepL^oif 
 rot iyevero napa rots JrAjjtfcat, Ha i riyepiov avrolt tcai t a\i> avari/pa ntpi 
 
 iavrov yj/ariov yd potcre 
 
 u Appian, Historia Romana, idem, 68. 
 
BAT LE OF THE HILL OF VENUS . 186 
 
 worthy of being henceforth considered an auxiliary to the 
 Romans. 
 
 All these manoeuvres, victories, and vicissitudes occu¬ 
 pied the year; and by the time the Romans were snugly 
 fortifying themselves in Tartessus, news of the defeat 
 of the armies and death of the governor arrived at Rome. 
 Gaius Plautius was dispatched to the scene with a large 
 reinforcement of 13,000 men, consisting of 10,000 foot 
 and 3,000 horse. 
 
 But in the meantime, Yiriathus was realizing his high¬ 
 est glory socially and politically, among his own people. 
 He redeemed from its bondage, and reoccupied, the whole 
 province of Karpetania; and large as the Roman army was, 
 they dared not make an attempt against him. He was 
 made a king and given powers and position which be¬ 
 came princely but not magnificent; for he refused to ac¬ 
 cept anything but his wonted frugal fare. Ho only claimed 
 to be an honest shepherd and workingman. They mar¬ 
 ried him to a lady of high estate and wealth but all he 
 would accept was herself, leaving to those who were flat¬ 
 tered by gew-gaws, the shallow pleasures of jewels and 
 gold. His only ambition was to divert his natural gifts 
 from a profession of intrinsic value in the field of labor, 
 to that of the military camp, until he should redeem his 
 people from slavery and danger into which they had been 
 forced by # the Roman conquests. He was witty and bright, 
 and he surpassed his fellows in physical stature. An in¬ 
 defatigable worker, he always slept in full armor and 
 fought in the front ranks; and even at the moment of 
 highest triumph ever refused to indulge in intemperance 
 of any kind. 13 
 
 After the arrival of Plautius, as praetor or governor from 
 Rome, with the large force of 13,000 men, as we have 
 mentioned, and time had been taken to reorganize the 
 broken remnants stated by Appian to number 16,000 men, 
 an expedition was arranged to bring the daring revoiter to 
 punishment. But in the first dash, Yiriathus attacked his 
 detachment of 4,000 and almost exterminated them. In a 
 succession of engagements and strategems Plautius was so 
 
 l.XWTU. So also. Diodorus, BibHlheca Romana 
 i -'i excellent points of character of the great Lu- 
 i.u. ^0 ancient authors; consult also Bekker, 
 
186 
 
 V1HIA THUS. 
 
 completely hacked to pieces that he retired in midsummer 
 into winter quarters, at a safe distance from the now dreaded 
 Spaniard. This disaster to the Roman praetor was so com¬ 
 plete that he never recovered from it, and was afterwards 
 driven into exile and disgrace. 
 
 The next general sent out from Rome against Viriathus 
 was the son of Paulus iEmilius, who a few years before had 
 dragged into slavery 150,000 people, after the battle of 
 Pydna, in Epirus. His full name was Quintus Fabius Max¬ 
 imus iEmilianus. He brought with him an army of 15,000 
 foot soldiers and a cavalry force of 2,000, which added to 
 those already in Spain but now in a demoralized condition 
 must have aggregated a force of little less than 50,000. 11 
 Fabius Maximus pitched his camp at Orsona, not far from 
 where the city of Seville now stands, and remained there 
 until the next year, closely watched by Viriathus. 
 
 This Roman governor seems to have left the command to a 
 person less capable than himself whose name was Quinctius; 
 for the Spaniard lured him into some conflict which seems 
 to have been deadly. Appian is not clear as to what it 
 was, but speaks of the shrewd manoeuvres of Viriathus, and 
 of a battle, the results of which were the loss of many, by 
 hard fighting. The inference is, that both iEmilianus and 
 Quinctius were defeated and destroyed ; for we next hear 
 of the arrival from Rome, of another general, Quintus Ser- 
 vilianus, a near relative of the same iEmilius Paulus. 
 
 This general brought with him two whole legions and ten 
 elephants from Utica, a town northward from Carthage in 
 Africa. This new force, in addition to the elephants, con¬ 
 sisted of 18,000 foot and 1,600 horse. 14 Servilianus had lit¬ 
 tle difficulty in marching with this army through several of 
 the districts which had been reconquered by Viriathus. He 
 took many of the leaders of the rebellion, and had at one 
 time as many as 500 killed for taking part in the revolt. 
 Great numbers were sold into slavery. Those caught, who 
 were found to have turned against the Romans, were 
 cruelly treated by having their hands cut off. 
 
 18 Appian, Historta Romana, Iberia, 65: “Kal napa t£>v <rvfj.fxd\aiv arparop 
 aAAov ainjcras, rj/cey es 'O pau)va tj)s ’I/Jrjpias a vnnavras ex<av ne^ovt /xvpcovs ica'i 
 7rt»>TaKicrxiA.tovs Kai inneas es Sia^iXtou?.” 
 
 H Appian, Historia Romana, idem, 67 : ,,r Anavras c’s fivpiovs kiI oxraKicryiAi- 
 ous tti Vivs Kal inneas efaxocnous eni \iAtois- enurreiKas Se Kal MiKi'1^17 ru> Nop.a8tui> 
 $acnAi Tc/v'-ai oi ra^icrra cAc^at'Tas, ’Itukkij*' rjnetytTO, r'r |i> oTpaTiat’ ayon- Kara 
 
 M«POS. ' 
 
ASSASSINATED BY HIS OWN MEN, \ 187 
 
 At length Viriathus, who was watching his opportunity, 
 caught the old Roman at the siege of the town of Erisane, 
 and after ? severe contest defeated him. Driven to a rocky 
 ledge in an angle from which it was impossible to escape, the 
 victorious Spaniards had him completely in their power. 
 
 Here, at the zenith of a long list of brilliant successes, 
 virtually closes the glory of Viriathus. He was so foolish 
 as to let his sympathies get the better of his judgment. 
 
 So complete was this victory over Servilianus that he was 
 glad to treat on any terms; and the surprising sequel is, that 
 the terms offered by Viriathus and accepted at Rome were 
 so mild. The Spaniard was to be acknowledged king over 
 his native country of Lusitania, and henceforward to be re¬ 
 garded as a brother or ally to the Romans! 
 
 Of course this furnished Rome another period of time to 
 recuperate and concoct new schemes of treachery. This 
 she did, by sending the perfidious Csepio to take the place 
 of Servilianus, aud he was not long in bribing the friends 
 of Viriathus to turn against their long trusted master and 
 murder him in his sleep. 
 
 An enormous, far-sounding wake accompanied by gladia¬ 
 torial orgies of shocking ferocity, was held over his remains. 
 The date of this great revolt in Spain is fixed at 149 years 
 before Christ. This disgraceful triumph of Csepio was fol¬ 
 lowed by the enslavement of innumerable peasants, traders 
 and working people, and the end was worse than the be¬ 
 ginning. 
 
 If we are to believe Vellejus Paterculus, the great wars 
 of Viriathus against the Roman slave trade—for it was 
 nothing les§—lasted about 20 years; and taking all things 
 into consideration, it could not have been a shorter time, 
 although belittled by the historians. Mommsen is anx¬ 
 ious to make it appear but 8 years, agreeing with Appian. 
 In the account of Spartacus, written by Vellejus, we found 
 this historian’s statement as to the great numbers of that 
 general’s men, to perfectly agree with the circumstances 
 in the case, although it throws a flood of light, clearing up 
 and making perfectly reasonable, the details of that great 
 war; and showing it to have been one of the most pro¬ 
 digious conflicts ever known. Yet great efforts seem to 
 have been made to suppress the history of Spartacus, and 
 modern authors appear surprisingly anxious to perpet¬ 
 uate the suppression of it. 
 
18S 
 
 VIRIA THUS, 
 
 tr 
 
 The whole affair of Viriathus was caused by a treacher¬ 
 ous, wholesale effort on the part of the Roman gens, or 
 lords, to reduce Spain to slavery, to choke her liberty-lov¬ 
 ing people down to chains, unpaid, enforced labor, turn 
 her fruitful lands into slave-worked plantations and stock- 
 farms, latifundici , as in Sicily, and thus build up an arro¬ 
 gant landed aristocracy. The immense and long-contin¬ 
 ued resistance of this humble workingman held that pow¬ 
 erful race of optimates in check; and it proved one of 
 the principal reasons of their having never succeeded in 
 brutalizing the Spaniards as they did the less fortunate 
 people of Sicily. 
 
 The great gladiatorial wake given in the honor of the 
 murdered Viriathus adds no glory to his name that can 
 descend to an age of sympathy, such as would now em¬ 
 brace his cause; nor could such a scene have been sanc¬ 
 tioned, even at that comparatively feelingless era, by the 
 hero himself, could his noble spirit have looked clown 
 upon it. It was simply an expression of contemptible 
 hypocrisy that lay concealed in Roman politicians of that 
 day. They often took this hideous method of diverting 
 the human mind from plans of salvation which had been 
 adopted by the murdered heroes. 
 
 We have no adequately extended accounts of this spe¬ 
 cial scene, but know those horrors to have been popular 
 among Romans at that time; and we are safe in taking, 
 as a basis of description, the steel engraving of such a 
 gladiatorial event drawn by Heck for the German Ency¬ 
 clopedia. 15 
 
 Circling round on the raised seats of an nmpliiiheatre, 
 appears the vast, applauding multitude, as is still seen in 
 the bull-rings of Spain. To the extreme right is an Afri¬ 
 can horned-horse (gnu), in a spasmodic plunge to un¬ 
 seat his athletic rider, a man who is being dragged to the 
 ground by a tiger, its teeth fastened in the wretch’s back. 
 
 Away back amid the dust and smoke of the conflict are 
 discerned forms of animals and men swirling in the vor¬ 
 tex of rage, fear and death. A leopard has killed a naked 
 man and floored another; and farther on, a hippopotamus 
 is crashing through an indistinguishable heap of womeu, 
 
 is Bxhltr Atlas zum Konversations-Lexikon. IIL A. 2, 'Intel 15, Fie. lj 
 Leipze 1849-1851. 
 
Til hi G LABIA 10 RIAL SA Gill LICE. 
 
 18b 
 
 men, dogs, panthers, dead or dying, some lighting to the 
 last. Closer by, a nude Goliath, his arrows now useless, 
 is wrenching the jaws of some wild beast with his sinewy 
 hands while his other victim, a wild, ox-like monster twice 
 his size, lies underneath the struggling fighters in the 
 final agony. 
 
 A little to the left and fairly out in the arena, is seen 
 a ferocious lion rearing high his expressive face to the 
 beholder—a face beaming with daemoniacal intelligence, 
 as if mingling a malignant laugh with rage—holding his 
 full main erect and one huge paw raised to strike a Ben¬ 
 gal tiger whose wreaking teeth and lips are thereby, and 
 with apparent reluctance, forced from sating hunger on 
 the quivering flesh of a beautiful, half-naked woman, prone 
 and dying in the awful qualms of pain and terror. 
 
 Above her, half dead with horror, her tiny bare arms 
 extended toward the dying friend, her sweet face fraught 
 with agonies of despairing love and suppliance and fright, 
 but with not the slightest signs of resistance—true to that 
 pleading womanhood that has ever been the controlling 
 power of preservation with our race—stands, in a flow¬ 
 ing chlamys , an exquisite female form confronting these 
 frenzied monsters ogling, and ready to grapple each other 
 over the expiring body of her friend. And all this time 
 the hilarious shouts of the half-crazed betters and wine- 
 bibbers—“the people”—seem to be made audible, by the 
 visible outward signs of hand-clapping and the waving of 
 handkerchiefs and banners. 
 
 But these are mere features of this appalling scene. At 
 the feet of the terrorized woman lie the vanquished forms 
 of two stalwart men in total nudity, and as if fallen in the 
 desperately chivalrous acts of defending the now dying one. 
 Between their bodies, sprawling on his back, lies a man¬ 
 gled lion; and on the loins of the man at the left, an Afri¬ 
 can tiger of proportions huge and with maw distended, 
 is cufling off a hideous python as though, by some death- 
 instinct, to prevent itself from being throttled in the ser¬ 
 pent’s squeeze. 
 
 A score of the more innocent animals now encounter 
 the eye; some are zebras, some gazelles, and a number 
 : re of the ursine brood, dead and dying, as if marked out 
 for the first prey to this sanguinary conflict. Then, be¬ 
 tween an ugly rhinoceros and a behemoth whose ghastly 
 
190 
 
 TIR1ATHU& 
 
 t eeth part 10 M the light into his cavernous mouth, fight, 
 as if in mutual compact for some reciprocal benefit, a 
 muscular human champion and a Bengal tiger, the one 
 with the rhinoceros, the other, the river-horse; while high 
 h ove them all dart the forked tongues of two jungle ser- 
 lents- —boas or pythons— of mouths and coils so huge that 
 . i byrinth-like, their lengths are lost in the whirl of the 
 dust and confusion. Above this chaotic cyclone towers 
 a gigantic elephant which, having parried by a final blow 
 with his proboscis, a panther that is slipping lifeless from 
 his back, re-engages with his immense tusks an attacking 
 lioness, and by murdering the two, succeeds in saving 
 lor a transitory moment, his rider, a large, nude, human 
 creature who, ghoul-like, seems wrestling betwixt the ex¬ 
 hilarations of a fleeting triumph and the horrors of a por 
 tentous foreknowledge. 
 
 With tail erect, horns poised, and with fierce, blood¬ 
 shot eye impatient for the onslaught, is seen a bull rush¬ 
 ing at a brace of wild beasts in deadly grapple farther to 
 the left; and a coil of snakes in the angle closes the furi¬ 
 ous excitement. 
 
 There does not exist the flimsiest argument to support 
 the idea that these human victims were not working peo¬ 
 ple. Most of them were prisoners taken by the Homans 
 during the wars of Viriathus and held for vengeance until 
 this ghastly opportunity to wreak it arrived. The women 
 too who defencelessly, as we have described, shared the 
 horrible game whose moral effect upon the sight-seers 
 was more to madden their blood-thirst than melt the 
 heart into an anguish of pity and of chivalrous indigna¬ 
 tion, were often—in this case wholly—faithful creatures 
 who, like many grand female characters of our modern 
 days, had, along with Viriathus and his followers, seized 
 Me noble cause of human liberty. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 GRIEVANCES. MORE SALVATION OK 
 THE VINDICTIVE PLAN. 
 
 Tab Irascible Impulse in its Highest Development and moat 
 enormous Organization—Greatest of all Strikes found on Reo- 
 ord—Gigantic Growth of Slavery—General View of Sicilian 
 Landlordism and Servitude before the Outbreak—Great In¬ 
 crease of Bondsmen and Women—Enna, Home of the God¬ 
 dess Ceres, becomes the Stronghold of the Great Uprising— 
 Eunus; his Pedigree—He is made King of the Slaves—Story 
 of his 10 Years* Reign—Somebody, ashamed to confess iL 
 has mangled the Histories—The Fragments of Diodorus and 
 other Noble Authors Reveal the Facts—Cruelties of Damo- 
 philus and Megallis, the immediate Cause of the Grievance— 
 Eunus, Slave, Fire-spitter, Leader, Messiah, King— Venge¬ 
 ance—The innocent Daughter—Sympathy hand-in-hand with 
 Irascibility against Avarice—Wise Selection by Eunus, of 
 Acliseus as Lieutenant—Council of War—Mass-meeting—A 
 Plan agreed to—Cruelty of the Slaves—Their Army—The 
 War begun—Prisons broken open and 60,000 Convicts work¬ 
 ing in the Ergastvla set free—Quotations—Sweeping Extinc¬ 
 tion of the Rich—Large Numbers of Free Tramps join—An¬ 
 other prodigious Uprising in Southern Sicily—Cleon—Con¬ 
 jectures regarding this Obscure Military Genius—Union of 
 Eunus, Achasus and Cleon—Harmony—Victories over the 
 Romans—Insurgent Force rises to 200,000 Men—Proof— 
 Overthrow and Extinction of the Armies of Hypsseus—Man¬ 
 lius—Lentulus—The Victorious Workingmen give no Quarter 
 —Eunus as Mimic, taunts his Enemies by Mock Theatrical, 
 Open-Air Plays in the Sieges—Cities fall into his Hands— 
 His Speeches—Moral Aid through the Social Struggle with 
 
EUNUS. 
 
 192 
 
 Gracchus at Borne—Arrival of a Roman Army under Piso— 
 Beginning of Reverses—Crucifixions—Demoralization—Fall 
 of Messana—Siege of Enna—Inscriptions verifying History 
 —Romans Repulsed—Arrival of Rupilius—Siege of Tauroma* 
 nion—Wonderful Death of 0 Oman us—Cannibalism—The 
 City falls —Awful C rucifixions—Second Siege of Enna—Its 
 20,000 People are crucified on the Gibbet—Eunus captured 
 and Devoured by Lice in a Roman Dungeon—Disastrous 
 End of the Rebellion or so-called Servile War. * 
 
 The enormous growth of slavery just before the begin¬ 
 ning of the Christian era was the cause of several of the 
 most gigantic and bloody uprisings the world has ever 
 known. Those convulsive episodes invariably arose from 
 maltreatment of workingmen and women. Dr. Biicher, 
 whose delineations we so often quote, shows that the 
 necessary workmen for supplying slave material to man 
 the great estates which the Roman lords, about this time 
 were grasping from the original cultivators who farmed 
 the government land on shares thus turning them out of 
 house and home, were bought and sold as common goods 
 at ridiculously low prices. 1 
 
 In B. C. 103 there were at Rome scarcely 2,000 persons 
 owning property considered taxable; such was the enor¬ 
 mous monopoly of the public lands and of other property 
 by a few. * These few property owners were proportion¬ 
 ally richer and their management of the army and of the 
 legislature, for suppressing uprisings of the outcasts and 
 the enslaved proletaries was so much the more unlimited. 
 The freedmen who had many organizations for protection 
 which for centuries they had enjoyed when slaves were 
 comparatively few, now found their unions, their busi¬ 
 ness, their homes and freedom undermined and supplanted 
 by countless hordes of slaves as prisoners of war, victims 
 of the prodigious slave trade going on between Rome and 
 foreign markets. When Tarentem was captured, B. C. 209, 
 there were sold 30,000 war prisoners. * In B. C. 207, af- 
 
 ] Hlicher, Aufgtdnde der u\frrtcn A^beiter, S. 85-86; “Tit. LiV. XLI. 28: 
 Sop pronii Gruecli cousulis p per o ausi-icioque legio exerci usque popiili 
 Ron a li Sardtniam sub g t In ea provincia AOstium cajsa aut ca| ta surra 
 octoginta milia.” Wo elsewhere quote ! n our copious footnotes the sources 
 whence modem authors derive he r figures. 
 
 * Strabo Geographic a, xiv. 668; A pul'jus. IX 
 
TEE ANCIENT SLAVE CENSUS 
 
 193 
 
 ter the battle of Metaurus, 5,400 were captured and sold. 
 In B. C. 200 at least 15,000 were siezed and sold. In B. C. 
 137, the event of the return of Tiberius Gracchus from 
 Sardinia, the fact that 80,000 men, women and children 
 had been either killed or sold into perpetual slavery, was 
 brought to light. Because Gracchus, w T hose grand nature, 
 though a military commander, revolted against such atroc¬ 
 ities and sought reform, he was set upon by a mob of in- 
 uriated legislators and wealth-owners, and murdered in 
 he streets of Rome. Such was the enormous mass of the 
 Sardinian slaves that prices fell to a ridiculously low ebb 
 becoming a laughing stock and the proverb got abroad: 
 “cheap as a Sardinian.” After the siege of Perseus there 
 were 70 cities destroyed and 150,000 people sold at the 
 different slave markets. 4 
 
 This fearful condition of human slavery set into Greece 
 still earlier. By a similar monopoly of land and of other 
 property by the few, it came to pass that in the great city 
 of Athens of 515,000 souls, only 9,000 (B. O. 300) could be 
 allowed political rights graded and franchised by family 
 and property. 6 Other mention puts it at 21,000 souls or 
 citizens. 6 At the same time, when there were 21,000 prop¬ 
 ertied or blooded citizens and 10,000 strangers under pro¬ 
 tection of the city, there were 400,000 slaves .' But as 
 Athens at that time (B. C. 309,) counted 515,000 persons, 
 we come into a knowledge of the fact that the remaining 
 84,000 were the plebeian or freedmen population. 
 
 The great city of Corinth whose census B. C. 300, gave 
 only 40,000 “souls” had a slave population of 640,000 who 
 of course, according to Plato 8 and other aristocrats, could 
 
 *Liv. XXVII. 16 1 “Milia trigen ta servillum oapittun dicuntur capta. 
 
 • Liv. XLV. 24; Plutarch, Mmclins Paulus, 29. 
 
 • Diodorus Siculus, XVIII, 18; Plutarch’s Fluxion, 88. 
 
 • Biicher. Aufst&nde, S. 84. 
 
 TAthenseus, Deipnosophistai, quoting Ctesicles. 
 
 • Plato. De Legibus vi. in dissertation on the Immortality of tho soul; 
 Phcedo passim; especially 74, 126, T, 8, 9, Bekk.: Phcedrus, 61-86; Rtpublis, 
 vii. 1-4, where the working-people are allotted half a soul, vi. 9 : deformed 
 by their craft and servile; So Timceus, xvii. shows now souls are a 
 growth, lxxi. ad Jin; Laws, ix. 8, Jin; Statesman, 46: Yoking those who 
 wallow in ignorance to a race of servile beings. The meaning here is that 
 such as labor are tmdivinc; i. e. not fully furnished with souls. Soul is in 
 two parts, mortal and immortal, Statesman, 46, Timceus, 71, Laws, vi- 19; 
 Nothing healthy in a slave’s soul, says Plato, and quotes the Odyssey , XVII. 
 832-333. where far-thundering, aristocratic Jove deprives the slave of half 
 his mind, soul or upper nature. 
 
194 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 not possess souls because too mean to be honored by the 
 gods with a thing so noble; and this accounts for their 
 not being enumerated in the census of the city. They ap¬ 
 pear to have been too lowly to belong to the numbers of 
 mankind. * 
 
 Notwithstanding this fearful condition of despotism we 
 find that the Locrians in south Italy had no slaves, being 
 organized communists. From the first settlement of this 
 rich country by the Pythagoreans no slaves are known to 
 have existed until after the Roman conquests; 10 and con¬ 
 sequently the culture among them of equal rights when it 
 came to clash against the enormous spread of slavery by 
 the cruel conquests of Rome, no doubt urged the great 
 epidemic of uprisings which form the subject of this and 
 other chapters of the present work. 
 
 It is somewhat surprising, in the full face of these facts 
 and the agonizing struggles of competitive warfare upon 
 which these brutalities existed, that men still ask in won¬ 
 der regarding the causes of downfall of the Greek and Rom¬ 
 an empires! Another veritable renaissance , this time 
 comprising sociologic research and comparative history, 
 is at our threshold, destined to clear up many a point that 
 for want of a true knowledge of the problem of labor has, 
 through the ages, lain obscured midst the shortcomings 
 of scorn and the musty vellum of histories and of laws. 
 
 In Sicily the condition of affairs was shocking. This 
 fruitful island, which as early as B. 0. 210, had been con¬ 
 quered by Rome and turned into a Roman province, waa 
 an especial offering to that hideously cruel system of slav¬ 
 ery which Roman character, above all others, seemed by 
 nature most suited to develop with the blind attributes of 
 barbarity. As an instance of their grasping concentra¬ 
 tion of Sicilian property into few hands we quote author¬ 
 ities to the effect that Leontini had but 88 landed prop¬ 
 erty holders; Mutice but 188; Herbita 257; Agyrium 
 230. The property owners of whole cities could be counted 
 by the dozen. 11 All Sicily was overrun with slaves by birth 
 
 9 Xenophon, De Vectig. IV. 14; Athen®us V.; Bhckh, Laurische Stl- 
 berb. 122-4, all give accounts of great slave owners. 
 
 10 Tiie Locrians had no slaves which seems to be regarded by Plato as 
 something phenomenal: Timaeus , ii. Bekk.; Bbckh, Pub.QSkon, Athn . also 
 declares that they had no slaves. Not only did the ancients have vast 
 numbers of slaves (see Encyc. Bril. vol. xx. p. 140), but there were many 
 freedmon at a very early age. See Homer, 0d«M«y, XI. 440. 
 
 u Bttcher, Aufst . d. unf. Arb. 8. 89. 
 
ENORMOUS SLAVE AND FREEDMEN'S WAR. 
 
 and slaves of the auction eh arables. The original inhab¬ 
 itants were dispossessed and driven from the land or re¬ 
 mained as slaves. The small farmers had been either an¬ 
 nihilated or crowded together in little towns to eke out a 
 wretched existence under the terrors of intimidation, or 
 had been dragged down to bondage. 13 Great numbers of 
 Syrians who from their mountain homes where they were 
 inured to brisk physical activities, were brought overby the 
 Romans in chains, to till the lands as slaves. Such was 
 the extent of slavery everywhere. 18 Greece at that time 
 was being conquered and her hardy ‘warriors humbled to 
 slavery, sent in great numbers in chains to Syracuse to be 
 transported to the fruitful lands which in the days of Ver- 
 res were styled the granary of Rome. 14 The Roman con¬ 
 quests of the Carthagenians and the victories over Hanni¬ 
 bal were followed by the greater cruelties for their having 
 been dearly won. Thousands of Africans hardened to ar¬ 
 my life in the Punic wars, were sent into Sicily as slaves 
 to dig the soil for the proud Roman occupants of that 
 land. “ Only the fattest portions of land were cared for, 
 the new possessors’ idea being only gain. Strabo declares 
 that so far as the aesthetic was concerned all was a barren 
 waste. There were many beautiful and fruitful valleys 
 and some plateaus which had long been celebrated for fer¬ 
 tility and fine landscape. 
 
 Among the wonderfully fertile and paradisaical plateaus 
 of Sicily was that of Enna, the seat of the greatest prole¬ 
 tarian strike, insurrection or bond and free labor war of 
 of which history, tradition or inscriptions give an account 
 in any country of the globe. 
 
 This great strike or labor mutiny of Enna in Sicily took 
 place, according to the conclusions of Dr. Bucher, 16 be¬ 
 tween the years 143 and 133 before Christ, lasting 10 full 
 years. During a period of three years the Syrian slave- 
 king Eunus, from Apamea near Antioch but a few leagues 
 
 “Diodorus S’culus, XXXIV. fragment il. 3, 4 and elsewhere, Dind. 
 “Drnmann, Arb. u. Komm. S. 24; “In Epidamnos gab ts keine lland- 
 werkerals dieoflentl chen Sklaven.’ 
 
 “Diod. i. 1,2; i.27; Columella, Dt Re Ruatica, I. 6, 3, 8,15,16, 
 i&Strabo, Geog. VI.; Bitch. S. 40. 
 
 Au/st&nde d. unf. Arb. S. 121-128, Exeurs. As to the name, notwith 
 standing Dr. Slefert. we follow the Givek E'vva, though some [tomans 
 wrote “Henna.” 
 
196 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 to the northward of Nazareth, held sway oyer all of the 
 central districts of Sicily; and from the most reliable evi¬ 
 dence he reigned, after his coalition with Cleon in B. C. 
 140, for seven more years, over the whole island of Sicily. 
 
 Introductorily to this extraordinary fact, proving the 
 great power and vigorous leadership of some of the an¬ 
 cient labor agitations, it will he necessary to bring upon 
 the scene a brief description of the place, the prevailing 
 social conditions and an outline of the character of the 
 men. 
 
 The three leading men who originated and managed 
 this great servile war, were Eunus, Achaeus, and Cleon. 
 Their two enormous armies, aggregating 200,000 soldiers 
 were united in B. C. 140, when Eunus was proclaimed the 
 monarch over Sicily entire. 
 
 We thus introduce these three branded, enslaved work¬ 
 ingmen to the reader. We say branded and mean in the 
 expression by no means a figure. They were not only 
 branded, as at the moment we write, leaders of this labor 
 movement are branded, with obloquy, black-list and stig¬ 
 ma of men at the helm of public literature. They were 
 literally and indelibly branded with hot irons. 17 Large 
 numbers of quotations from the authors most explicitly 
 prove that all slaves were branded; and the field workers 
 were not only branded on the forehead and limbs, but 
 often on the body; and since they were obliged, like the 
 helots of Sparta, to go mostly naked, these disfigurations 
 were summer and winter exposed to view and not only 
 was their disgrace stamped upon them forever but their 
 chances of escape from bondage utterly destroyed. 
 
 Once on the very spot where this great outbreak of the 
 slaves and freedmen occurred, the plateau valley of Enna, 
 there lived a very rich man named Damophilus. He pos¬ 
 sessed legions of slaves whom he forced under sting of the 
 lash, to work naked upon his farms. His wealth of acre¬ 
 age, “latifundium/’ consisted in part of stock farms. These 
 teemed with herds of cattle and other animals which in 
 those times throughout Europe were a large source of 
 
 17 Biich. S. 42, “Dass Alle gebrandmarkt, nur die Feldarbeiter auch ge- 
 fesselt waren.” Consult the following ancient and modem works: Die- 
 dorus, XXXIV. frag. ii. 1 , 27, 82, 36; Florus, III. 19; Mafquardt, V. i. 186* 
 Mom. “Romische Geschichte;” Mom. “G. I.” no. 845; Siefert, "Erst. Sieilisch 
 Sklavenkrieg,” S. 12: Plato. 
 
THE SAVAGv SLAVE-HOLDER ,. 
 
 107 
 
 Roman wealth. One day a few of his poor, naked slaves, 
 shivering in the chill winds of the mountain height upon 
 which Enna stood, came to him and beseechingly implored 
 a few rags to cover their bodies and shut out the cold which 
 added to their sufferings. Their daring plea was an¬ 
 swered by this cold-hearted capitalist with something like 
 the following cutting leer: “Don’t wandering tax-gath¬ 
 erers tramp the country naked and must’nt they give their 
 clothes to those who want them ? Would’nt I be taxed a 
 customs duty on the rags I gave you?” 18 With that Da- 
 mophilus ordered the shivering wretches to be tied to the 
 whipping post and warmed up with a sound hogging, then 
 sent back naked to their labor of caring for their master’ 
 flocks of a thousand animals. 
 
 Under such intense aggravations what else could be ex¬ 
 pected than a secret organization of the thus abused and 
 degraded laborers who worked the lands ? This question 
 comes the more cogently as we realize that large num¬ 
 bers of them were as intelligent or more so than their own 
 masters. Just at this epoch, as already shown, 19 all over 
 Greece, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor and the islands of 
 the Archipelago vast numbers of trade unions and social 
 societies existed among the freedmen and some among 
 the slaves. We also know that when the Romans seized 
 upon newly conquered countries they likewise seized the 
 people, bond and free and sold them into slavery. Large 
 numbers of these unfortunates were organized unionists, 
 accustomed at home to the art and secret of practiced com¬ 
 bination. 20 Another still more important cause of the ter¬ 
 rible strike which resulted from such ill-treatment was a 
 similarity of language. All Sicily was Greek. The Greek 
 was the principal tongue spoken in Syria and even Phoe¬ 
 nicia and other portions of Palestine at and before the 
 time of Christ; although a bad Hebrew was the popular 
 idiom. All the island inhabitants near by spoke the pure 
 Greek. It also was spoken in Magna Grsecia or Lower 
 
 18 Diod. frag. ii. 38, Dind. 
 
 19 Chapter xx. Infra, on trade unions citing inscriptions, laws &c. in 
 evidence. Diodorus, XXXVI. frag. 6 Dind. tells us that not only slaves but 
 many freedmen were engaged in these mutinies and strikes causing great 
 tumults and confusions. 
 
 29 Compare Liiclers, Dimysische Runs tier ,; Also Foucart, Associations Rel. 
 throws much light upon the subject of their religious beliefs. 
 
BOMB OF CERES, GODDESS OF LABOR . 
 
 Italy. Thus with intelligence, with a practiced knowledge 
 of social combinations, with a sense of their wrongs made 
 keen by the memory of happier days, w r ith the true blood 
 of the proud Greeks coursing more or less through their 
 veins and finally but most practically, with the powerful 
 Greek tongue uniformly at their command, they under¬ 
 took that immense strike-rebellion amidst certain advan¬ 
 tages which must go far toward clearing away the phe¬ 
 nomena of its transient success. 
 
 The slave grievance rapidly grew into a movement for 
 resistance in and around Enna, the little pastoral city, fa¬ 
 mous for its temple of Ceres whence Plato had carried 
 Proserpine, the daughter of that goddess to whom shep¬ 
 herds, planters and especially working people had from a 
 high antiquity looked, for her gifts of prosperity. 31 Thus 
 here we find the link completing the chain of curious in¬ 
 terest connecting the history of the Eleusinian mysteries 
 with that of the ancient labor movement. Those labor¬ 
 ing people were religious; but about this time they were 
 bitterly complaining that Ceres their favorite goddess had 
 forsaken them. 33 Enna was the original, ancient seat and 
 citadel or throne of the great goddess Demeter, called in 
 Latin Ceres. She was the protecting immortal who in the 
 Pagan mjdhology, seated in her temple on the heights of 
 Enna in the island’s center, shielded all Sicily from fam¬ 
 ine. Her name had spread to foreign lands and she was 
 worshiped in Attica and Syria. Thousands came on an¬ 
 nual pilgrimages to Enna to worship at the temple of Ceres; 
 and great feasts to her were here regularly celebrated, be¬ 
 cause she -was believed the mother of the world and the 
 fructifying goddess of all nutritious, fruit-bearing seeds 
 t of agriculture, especially the cereals. Near that city lay, 
 at the time of our story the meadow and by it the stream 
 and the spring and grottoed rock where her beautiful 
 daughter 3 * Persephone or Proserpine, whilst gathering 
 ‘lowers, was stolen by Pluto and long hidden from her dis¬ 
 tracted mother. The meadow was bedecked with a grand 
 carpeting of roses, hyacinths aud violets and the soft zeph- 
 
 81 See chapt< r Iv. on the mythical legend of Proserpine’s abduction, the 
 Eleusinian mysteries and the grit". ance of the proletarian outcasts. 
 
 22 Bit her, Aufst&nde, S. 62. 
 
 28Consult E 7 ,eye. Brit. Art. Ceres; La Rousse, Did. Unit. Art. pr^scsfAn*. 
 Much litciature is ytant confirming these statements. 
 
THE SLA VE KING. 
 
 199 
 
 yrs of summer were aromatic with their odors. All the 
 landscape was adorned with nature’s tempting vegetation. 
 Many a tiny lake with pure, clear waters peeped from be¬ 
 tween the hills and hillocks of Enna and rich, well culti¬ 
 vated lands on every side were, and had for centuries been 
 the pride of Sicily. 84 Wheat and other cereals had long- 
 prospered with such success that the place had obtained a 
 celebrity. And yet, midst all these magnificent offerings 
 of nature we see this region a scene of the most brutal 
 and greed-cursed slavery to be found in the annals of that 
 insatiate institution. 
 
 Antigenes is the name of one of a joint stock company 
 whose business at that time was traffic in human beings. 
 He certainly owned a city residence at Enna and kept his 
 slaves about the house. 25 Among these was a man who, 
 bom and brought up in Apamea near Antioch, Syria, had 
 more than probably been a leader of an “eranos” 2a or a 
 “thiasos’’ in his native home. This is made the more prob¬ 
 able by his being a pretentious prophet and Messiah while 
 in a state of bondage at Enna. It was the wonderful Eunus; 
 the magician, fire-spitter, wonder-worker, prophet and the 
 plotter of the hugest slave insurrection of ancient or mod¬ 
 ern times; slave-king of Enna, then king of all Sicily and 
 commander in chief at one time of over 200,000 soldiers; 
 —the man who, -with his sagacious generals, faithful and 
 true, beat army after army of the Romans, sent years in 
 succession, to meet his slave and freedmen troops and who 
 in the teeth, as it were, of Syracuse and of prouder Rome, 
 actually reigned in humane splendor, apparently beloved 
 and respected, for a period of ten years; constituting a 
 veritable epoch of history, though nearly lost and quite 
 unrecognized through the taint of labor. We shall confine 
 ourselves to a relation of all the facts and particulars to 
 be had, based upon the evidence quoted and which per- 
 
 u Strabo, “Geog.” VI.: Consult tne exquisite picture of the landscape 
 gives by Dr. Bticher, “Aufstttnde” etc. S. 62. 
 
 ** Diod. XXXIV frag. ii. 6, Dind. 
 
 w “Id.” frag. ii. I, 6, “seq.” For fuller description of these trade or labor 
 unions see chapters xiid.—xx. Eunus, Cleon and Athenioa were all born 
 near the home of Jesus. 
 
 27 Bflch. S. 64: "Er war ein grosser Magier und Wunderthater, der zu 
 den GUttern in nftchster Bezieung stand xmd nicht nur im Traume von 
 ihnen die Zukunft erfurh, sondern auch in wachendem Zustande sie leib 
 haftig vor sich gah.” 
 
900 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 haps, no person on thorough criticism, will be able to con¬ 
 trovert. Eunus was a prophet. He pretended to work 
 miracles, 27 and was one of the ancient Messiahs. 
 
 But we must not suppose that he was a weak minded 
 man because he knew how to blow fire from his mouth or 
 because he vaunted presages which often came true. He 
 was in all probability an extraordinary man, full of shrewd 
 wisdom, endowed with almost superhuman courage and 
 certainly with great judgment and patience in selecting 
 his generals and in giving and indulging, to keep them in 
 place and power while holding to himself supreme con¬ 
 trol. 28 When a slave he foretold that although the god¬ 
 dess Demeter or Ceres had apparently forsaken the poor, 
 yet she was revealing herself in dreams to him and prom¬ 
 ising her might to their deliverance. 29 So certain was he 
 of theocratic interference that he told of his mediatorial 
 powers not only to his fellow working people but even to 
 his master and to all the lords and ladies, who, to beguile 
 their evening hours, used to invite or more probably, or¬ 
 der him to recount the results of his nightly interviews 
 with the august goddess. Pretending that as she was also 
 the patron deity of Syria his native land, he maintained 
 that she revealed herself to him with an assurance that he 
 was to become a king and deliverer. Even these super¬ 
 natural things he told to Antigenes at these banquets amid 
 the laughter and derision of the skeptical guests. His in¬ 
 genuousness worked upon their curiosity and their invita¬ 
 tions were apparently made with a purpose of amusement 
 during their orgies of wine and gluttony. Their sport, he 
 however, seems to have overlooked, taking their vein of 
 merriment or ridicule in a manner peculiar to himself 
 
 From what followed, it cannot be imputed to Eunus that 
 he was weak minded. He promised Antigenes to except 
 and spare him trn the day of wrath—an obligation which 
 he religiously kept and faithfully carried out. 
 
 The cruelties of Pamopliilus, 30 who caused his working 
 hands to be whipped, struck deeply into the sensitive feel¬ 
 ings of thousands of other men. They were able to come 
 together, secretly or otherwise to discuss their sufferings 
 
 Died. Idem, fragment ii. 5, fl. 
 
 » Diod. XXXIV. 5, 6 7, and 8 of frag, tk 
 w Idem, XXXIV. frag. ii. 34, 96. Dind. 
 
A GRUEL WOMAN. THE COMPLOT. 
 
 201 
 
 and form their plot. Dr. Btlcher understands from glean¬ 
 ings of the Vatican and other fragments that the plot orig¬ 
 inated with the slaves of Damophilus. 81 It is however, 
 quite certain that what came to pass was spontaneous re¬ 
 sulting from a combination of grievances and a strong re¬ 
 ligious belief in Eunus. The other slaves of Antigenes 
 also took part. 
 
 Damophilus and his yet more cruel wife Megallis, appeal 
 to have been models of ferocity. Their young and beau¬ 
 tiful daughter was the exception. Megallis was in the 
 habit of whipping her female slaves to death with her own 
 hand. It was like a mania people sometimes possess, for 
 delighting in scenes of suffering. Endowed with unlim¬ 
 ited power through the Roman laws and usages, to do as 
 she pleased, she suited any action to fancy and gloried in 
 tearing the poor life from her helpless victims. Nor was 
 the ferocity of her husband much less. The incident we 
 have recited was probably one of leniency compared with 
 many that remain untold, Certain it is, that his atroci¬ 
 ties together with those of his wife toward her defence¬ 
 less female slaves are what decided this great uprising. 
 
 But we have the extremely pleasing assurance that the 
 feeling which those slaves entertained toward the kind- 
 hearted daughter of this ferocious pair—a young maiden 
 whom they all loved—proved her palladium ; for with the 
 greatest tenderness they guarded and spared her through 
 the scenes of blood. ” 
 
 Plans of a great revolutionary revolt were soon decided 
 upon, and collusion with Eunus secured the sympathy of 
 the city slaves. These arrangements were then commu¬ 
 nicated to those in the country. 
 
 The plot was thus completed and the moment set. All 
 had enthusiastically determined to break loose by a desper¬ 
 ate struggle, from their unendurable tortures and daimt- 
 lessly brave the storm with all the consequences this per¬ 
 ilous action entailed. They had worked themselves up to 
 believe that their goddess would be propitious. 
 
 By preconcerted arrangement, four hundred slaves as¬ 
 sembled at the setting in of night, in a field near the cita- 
 
 n Bttch«r Anfst&ndt dc. S. 55. 
 
 •*Diod. XXXIV. il. 89: ‘‘"Oti Kara, rrjv SiKiXiav tov &anQ<t>i\ov #vy<£r»)/i 
 .'SpuMAt, iurtfyaycv Kara r*}*' nfios tikis otKtious.” 
 
202 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 
 del of Elina. They quickly organized a meeting. They 
 then each took a sacred oath to persevere in their enter¬ 
 prise and hold fast together. The little multitude came 
 armed. Their weapons each had obtained as best he could. 
 All were armed with courage and with anger; and each 
 determined to defend his new liberty to the death. They 
 marched up to the Enna heights under a leader who used 
 all his prodigious arts and legerdemain, gesture, and fire¬ 
 spitting, to encourage them and prevent a panic. With¬ 
 out meeting resistance they gained admission through the 
 gates, into the city. 
 
 There were the millionaires with the ladies, the tem¬ 
 ple of the goddess, the theatre, the place of entertainment. 
 The insurgents instantly took possession of the streets 
 and as they marched, singled out their well known victims. 
 Rich men and women who long had held unbridled power 
 over hitherto helpless slaves, now saw the danger as they 
 felt their guilt. Pitiless was the retributive reaction of 
 the enraged and surging mass. They brained their own¬ 
 ers ; and those who had made sport of their leader Eunus, 
 likewise bit the dust. All slaves and prisoners found in 
 dungeous and in irons were set free. 38 A terrible scene 
 followed. Children were torn from their mothers’ arms, 
 and women ravished in presence of their husbands, who, 
 bound in cords, could make no resistance to this fiendish¬ 
 ness. Scenes of death were everywhere enacted; for from 
 the onset of this bloody work, the slaves, stinging with a 
 keen memory of their sufferings, 34 enjoyed with a peculiar 
 glee which fills the savage, the opportunity, each with cuts 
 and gashes to cross out his ghastly account. To a thus 
 quickened lust of vengeance, there rushed a remembrance 
 of the cruelties of Damophilus who gloated on the bruises 
 of his clubs and the sting of his whips, and of Megallis, 
 his wife, who had whipped to death her female servants. 
 It was an hour of vengeance. All centered upon this sweet¬ 
 est morsel of the savage;—summary retribution. Blood 
 of the now helpless rich flowed freely amid the yells of 
 the naked slaves whose brands and scars gleamed hide¬ 
 ously by the fires of the burning houses of their fallen 
 masters. Great numbers of slave-holders paid their for¬ 
 mer acts of indiscretion with their lives. 
 
 ’» I Mod. XXXIV. fra- ii. 12. Id. Sec. 49 
 
A TERRIBLE SCENE * OF CARNAGE . 
 
 ZU3 
 
 Large numbers of slaves who were kept in service within 
 the city and who had previously been prepared for the cri¬ 
 sis, now joined the insurgents, swelling their forces and 
 making the capture of the city complete. 
 
 We have in other pages 35 shown that in nearly all trade 
 unions, especially the branch of them known as the thiasoi , 
 they seem to have had an officer whose duty it was to fore¬ 
 tell, work miracles and do other sage things, such as in 
 those early ages of the world were not only common, but 
 were thought necessary. The idea of a Messiah or deliv¬ 
 erer sent from heaven to ransom the lowly from their ev¬ 
 erywhere prevailing misery permeated all their organiza¬ 
 tions. 86 Eunus therefore, in his pretentions, but copied 
 from thousands. 
 
 The hours of grateful vengeance sped on the breezes 
 of that truculent lullaby. Object after object of their de¬ 
 testation and hatred was dragged forth and amid screams 
 for mercy, relentlessly silenced with knife, flames and blud¬ 
 geon until before the fury waned the pitiful wails of the 
 slaughtered grew faint through sheer extermination. 
 
 But one there w r as who yet remained uncaptured and 
 unpunished. This was Damophilus. On consultation it 
 was ascertained that he vvas cowering in his pavillion, a 
 little distance from the city. The insurgents sent thither 
 a detachment with orders to bring him in alive. By this 
 time the rage of the slaves had begun to assuage. They 
 brought their great abuser before Eunus in the auditori¬ 
 um of the theatre, whither they adjourned to hold a trial 
 of his case, Damophilus, covered with wounds and bleed¬ 
 ing, his anus pinioned, his fine dress torn and soiled, was 
 dragged before the stfT maddened crowd, his wife Meg- 
 allis with him, both trembling in fateful expectancy of their 
 doom. 
 
 The rich man was granted an opportunity to answer 
 and spar the scathin g accusations that were heaped upon 
 him—bitter reminders of his mercilessness to them when 
 the power was his to abuse them. But Damophilus coyly 
 and cunningly met each accusation with words clothed in 
 ambiguity and dazzle and parried off their bitter bluntness 
 by his affected utterances of honeyed words. He was 
 
 Chapter xvi'l. and elsewhere. 
 
 *« Foucart, Associations Rtl 
 
204 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 making inroads upon their sympathies when Zeuxes and 
 Hermias, two powerful Greek slaves, who had themselves, 
 in other days been victims of his cruelty, rushed between 
 him and hope, one with a dagger and the other an axe. 
 These men were keenly sensible to the progress Damo- 
 philus was making on the susceptibilities of his tatterde¬ 
 malion jury; and fearing lest his mellifluous explanations 
 should overcome them and that they might thus commit 
 the absurdity of punishing thousands less stamped with 
 cruelties and turn loose the deep-dyed monsters whose 
 atrocities were the immediate cause of the revolt, 87 they 
 crashed down the aisle of the theatre, advanced upon him 
 weapons drawn and put a violent end to this mock trial 
 of their foe by beating out his brains upon the spot. Di¬ 
 odorus relates that one of them stabbed him with a knife 
 in the side and the other chopped off his head with the 
 axe. Nor was this all. The terrified Megallis, who must 
 have seen the reeking knife and the merciless guillotine by 
 which her husband had fallen, heard his pleadings for an 
 extension of life and with horror beheld his ghastly pun¬ 
 ishment, was delivered up, bound hand and foot, to the 
 tender mercies of her female slaves little less instinctively 
 savage than their male companions frenzied with woman’s 
 hatred and still goaded by memory’s spectres of their 
 own mothers and daughters perishing under the lash once 
 wielded by this most pitiless enemj 7 , the now supplicating 
 Megallis’ own hand. Little could be hoped for under such 
 circumstances. Mercy was impossible. The horrified and 
 shrieking lady was, like Damophilus, arraigned for mock 
 trial before a horde of nude and blood-grimed women, 
 taunted until each imbittered one requited herself with cen¬ 
 sure and derision, with dallying flings and a satiety of jeers 
 such as only wild women avenging a wounded love, pos¬ 
 sess the genius to consummate. When all these prelim¬ 
 inaries were ended, Megallis was seized by a dozen mus¬ 
 cular females, stripped of her finery and undoubtedly her 
 clothes, dragged to the pinacle of a lofty crag in which the 
 mountain city of Enna abounds. All effort of the shriek¬ 
 ing, fainting woman to writhe out of their clutching fin¬ 
 gers fast fixed upon her throat and body were unavailing 
 
 S7 Diod. frag, ii 14, DIndort'. 
 
THE FRIGHTFUL EXECUTION. 
 
 205 
 
 and fruitless. They drew her out upon the projecting ' 
 prominence yawning over the abyss well known to the 
 shuddering unfortunate as the Golgotha of miscreants and 
 recalcitrant slaves. From these frowning crags eagles and 
 ominous night-birds were wont to startle the listener with 
 their screams. Legends of horrors of this fatal rock were 
 told by mothers as early inculcations to their babes. Tins 
 wretched victim may have also more than once contributed 
 her ingenuity descanting upon its boding gloom and ter¬ 
 rors as she lavished it on the torture of her now avenging 
 chattels. 
 
 But all this sentimentalism suffices nothing in presence 
 of so ghastly a reality as the death that now frowned, and 
 stared this quivering mother in the face. The unimpress- 
 ible avengers were not to be frustrated by the moans and 
 sobs which formed a part of the solace of their grievances. 
 When they had dragged her to the very brink they no 
 doubt made her undergo some of the prevailing formulas 
 of death and then plunged her headlong down the preci¬ 
 pice where she was battered to a jelly upon the sharp flints 
 of the dell below. Such, according to Diodorus, Strabo, 
 the modern critics and some tale-telling inscriptions, was 
 the fate of an ancient millionaire and his wife whom great 
 prosperity had rendered void of all the amenities and 
 lovliness of civilized life. 
 
 There yet remained one member of that fate-stricken 
 family—the daughter already alluded to; a young lady of 
 both tender age and heart. 88 This damsel had from her 
 babyhood shown exceeding sympathy and kindness to¬ 
 ward the female slaves in their misfortunes. Never had 
 she taken part in her mother’s cruelties. She had, on the 
 contrary, shown them the tenderest commiseration; and 
 her many little offerings during their sufferings, had often 
 gone far in the direction of healing a breach between fate 
 and despair. Those whom the master’s love of vengeance 
 had left bound and often chained in dungeons of the er- 
 gastulum , with which ancient slave farms were cursed, she 
 had comforted and administered to. Could such kindness 
 be now forgotten? Gould the remembiv: ce of this child- 
 benefactress, even in that awful vortex oi ‘a iolence, be over¬ 
 looked? Could conscience be stifled even midst butcheries 
 
 •• Dlod. fray;. 80. 
 
206 
 
 A'UNUS. 
 
 whose mocking carnival made death a satire upon empty 
 ideas of right and wrong? Or could such a pretty thin> 
 as sympathy wedge itself in amongst the howls and tur¬ 
 bulence that shook this scene of oblivion and of death ? 
 Yes. A love which was stamped into their fierce, rough 
 natures still lived and warmed them like a sunbeam, for¬ 
 cing itself foremost, even into this terrible qualm reacting 
 against morality. Not a ruthless hand was laid upon her 
 trembling form. Speechless unanimity prevailed on the 
 question of sparing her life. All would spare and protect 
 a faithful friend. On consultation Hermias, one of her 
 father’s executioners, wa^ chosen leader of a picked band 
 who soon after performed the perilous task of escorting 
 her safely to the distant city of Catana, the home of some 
 relatives near the sea. 
 
 Wo have in this episode another instance substantiat¬ 
 ing the opinion heretofore expressed, that the emotion of 
 sympathy has been a growth in the breast of the crushed 
 and humiliated classes, fledged from their schools of mu¬ 
 tual love or commiseration and common support. Poor 
 people are themselves the makers of most of the sympa¬ 
 thies which they enjoy. Even the daughter of Damoph- 
 ilus grew in sympathy at the sight of misery. However 
 rude the crust screening from view our inner nature, that 
 nature never had, under Pagan control, much sympathy 
 allowed it. Sympathy seems clearly to have been a growth 
 out of a vast association in many parts of ancient Greek 
 and Roman states and did not thrive among the opulent. 
 Concupiscence with its cupidity and irascibility were the 
 pillars on wiiich rested the ancient paganism and its aged 
 competitive system; and though the majorities who were 
 of the working class possessed enough of the latter in its 
 crudest form, yet they had little greed or avarice. They 
 in fact, developed sentiments of a reverse nature. They 
 longed for a socialism that would breed sympathy with its 
 mutual love and care. Diodorus, one of our informants 
 on this subject of the slaves of Enna, in referring to their 
 treatment of the daughter of Damophilus and Megallis, 
 says: “These slaves on strike demonstrated, in showing 
 no sympathy or mercy to those who had been their mas¬ 
 ters and in delivering themselves up to their own violence 
 and wrath, that what they did was not the mean prompt- 
 
THE ORDEAL OF VENGEANCE ABATES. 207 
 
 mgs of barbarity, but a just retribution or punishment for 
 the injustice which had been done to them ;” 39 bold words 
 indeed, but just and true; and the student of sociology 
 may now divine the reasons why that brave publicist has 
 lain for 2,000 years in obloquy, with his wonderful tales 
 and descriptions in tatters among the rubbish of the vaults, 
 or later, in the literary sepulchres of the Vatican. 
 
 It appears that this theatre which had been the scene 
 of the fury we have described became the focus of delib¬ 
 eration after the frenzy cf their vengeance had subsided 
 and the more serious matters connected with the future 
 began to force themselves upon their reflection. They 
 saw that as soon as the news of their action reached Rome, 
 the scornful power which for ages had thrived by con¬ 
 quest and its booty of lands and slaves, there would spring 
 up an immense army to suppress them. They had the sa¬ 
 gacity to foresee that their only hope was in a strong army 
 well equipped and disciplined, powerful enough to cope, 
 even with the forces of Rome. It further appears from 
 the evidence that so deep had been the foresight and so 
 long the communings on this matter, so secretly had the 
 whole uprising been concocted, that all things necessary 
 to this resistance were well-nigh prepared beforehand; 
 and the general appearance with its sequel demonstrate 
 that the central idea of a tumultuous feast of blood and 
 dissipation and of subsequent demoralization and gluttony 
 was far from them. But it cannot be denied that they 
 had already determined to throw down the slave system 
 of which they were victims and upon its ruins build up a 
 social fabric which should deal equitably and humanely by 
 all. To one acquainted with the vast and inexhaustable 
 power of Rome, this dream of the poor slave socialists 
 would have seemed an absurd maohination of the fancy. 
 But on the other hand they were on an island with whose 
 rocky cliffs, caverns, forests and by-paths they were well 
 acquainted. They wanted to build up a kingdom of men 
 and women emancipated from slavery and economic want 
 with their leader Eunus, on the throne. They held good 
 to this resolution. 
 
 Eunus was elected king. 40 It does not appear that their 
 
 w Diod. XXXIV. iragment ii. 39. 
 
 Idem. frag. il. 14. 
 
208 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 choice of him was on account of any military tact which 
 he had shown as their leader nor on account of his supe¬ 
 rior capacities of any kind, unless it was that of working 
 wonders. This however, was extremely necessary in the 
 mind of superstitious men, as were most of the ancients, 
 especially the laboring class who, in their unions among 
 the freedmen, often kept a sorcerer who knew how to spit 
 fire, dawdle with the little oracles and pronounce proph¬ 
 ecies. Even the rich had their magi or fortune-tellers and 
 their haruspices, as well as higher priests who often de¬ 
 cided the turn of conquests by the simple consultation of 
 an oracle. Eunus could blow fire, tell wonders, pretend 
 and prophecy; and Eunus was elected king. Again, the 
 name Eunous , the benificent, was considered a harbinger 
 of deeds certain to bring forth good. 
 
 King Eunus, on receiving his crown, rose equal to the 
 majesty of his new estate. He assumed all the oriental 
 bearing of kingly dignity. He established the offices of 
 state with such splendors as he could command. There 
 was given him for a queen a female slave who like him¬ 
 self, hailed from Apamea in Syria—probably old play¬ 
 mates. Such was the happy one to be raised to the queen- 
 ship. To crown himself in still more royal imitation of 
 the dignities of his fatherland he named himself Antioch. 
 
 From the moment Eunus began his reign he appears 
 to have been successful. Full details are wanting. From 
 Cicero we have hints 41 that the temple of Ceres or Dem¬ 
 eter was preserved with scrupulous care, as well as all the 
 property belonging to it. No doubt however, he changed 
 the officers of the temple from high priests to vestal vir¬ 
 gins, supplanting the old by a choice of his own people. 
 
 Biicher thinks 43 that his administration from first to last, 
 considering all circumstances peculiarly connected with 
 the character and notions of the Semitic and Aryan races 
 with whom he had to deal, showed more than usual fit¬ 
 ness. He understood the theory of government. It is 
 certain that at Enna there was one of those cavern pris¬ 
 ons, such as had been dug by Dionysius the tyrant at Syr¬ 
 acuse. We know that those pestilential subterranean 
 
 41 Cicero, Vtrrti . iv. 50, 112 
 
 u Aufst. S. 59: “Melir als gewblinllche Befahigung Slefert. 18; 
 ‘Mau wiihlte ihu zuin kdnig ....weil er den Aufatand begouuen katte.* 
 
BUNU8 PROVES TRUE TO HIS WORD . 209 
 
 dungeons existed in great numbers, called by the Romans 
 ergastula , in many parts of Italy and Sicily. They were 
 often underground workshops like the quarries—the hor¬ 
 ror of the ancient slave. Florus and Diodorus combine in 
 the statement that more than 60,000 fighting soldiers 
 of the great rebel army were convicts turned loose from 
 these prisons 4 * during the war. Eunus incarcerated a 
 large number of the rich in the holes at Enna and it may 
 be presumed that the old prisoners were first discharged 
 to give room for the new. A council of war was held and 
 it was decided to put all these many prisoners to death. 
 This was the result of a mass meeting of the faithful and 
 unfaltering to Eunus, as a forewarning of the certain re¬ 
 sult of taking part in any effort to escape, or of mixing 
 and intriguing to restore the old government. Few of 
 the old rule people were left alive except the free mechan¬ 
 ics who could make arms; and even they were compelled 
 to work in fetters. To those who had invited Eunus to a 
 seat of mock honor on account of his pretended powers 
 in legerdemain and gifts of divination at their sympo¬ 
 siums and for the amusement of guests, and whom he had 
 promised their lives in case he realized his heaven-offered 
 kingdom, he held good his word. He also saved them their 
 fortunes. 44 They were spared by a royal decree and the 
 mandate was sent them in true regal form. He also saved 
 the temples and other holy property. 44 
 
 At length Eunus called a council of permanent govern¬ 
 ment. First of all was chosen Achseus. “He was, in a 
 formal manner made consiliarius of the faithful.The 
 ancient author who leaves us these choice fragments of 
 history 44 suffixes his opinion that Eunus in making choice 
 of him as lieutenant and counselor general, showed won¬ 
 derful ability and prudence. This man understood and 
 deeply sympathized with the Syrian element of which 
 the slave population of Enna by conquest was largely com¬ 
 posed. But he was moreover endowed with extraordi 
 
 « Floras, Epit. Hist Bom. III. 19, fi 8 ; “Hoc mlraculum primurn due 
 millia ex obvlis, mox jure belli refractis ergastulis. sexaglnta amplius miilia 
 fecit exeroitum ’’ 
 
 44 Diod. XXXIV. frag, li . 42 ; “Twr o\tov fie rots awooraTau na t auras 
 rdpios.”; Bftcher, AufsU S. 59; Siefert, Sklavenk. S. 17. 
 
 *&Cic. Vtrr, iv. 60, 112, 
 
 * Diod. Id. frag. 51. 42. 
 
210 
 
 EVNUS, 
 
 nary wisdom and unscrupulous will-power in expedients! 
 
 where emergencies required it. He was capable of fear¬ 
 lessly organizing, on the inspection of a circumstance, a 
 resistance powerful enough to shatter the peril whatever it 
 might be ; and he had the judgment and force of char¬ 
 acter to push it to its immediate and successful results. 
 He was bold enough to plainly tell to Eunus his misgiv¬ 
 ings and impart to him the truth ; and that dignitary 
 had wisdom and a sufficient amount of common sense to 
 hear him with composure and acquiesce in his views. A 
 perfect agreement was the result. 
 
 Dr. Bttcher gives it as his opinion that Acheeus was one 
 of the thousands of unfortunates who had been reduced to 
 slavery through the Roman conquest of Aohaia, B. C.146, or 
 about 3 years before. 47 Achaia being in the heart of the 
 Greek Peninsula, on the gulf of Corinth, near and includ¬ 
 ing the great city of that name, was of purest Greek; and 
 Greeks in those days were mighty men. But the brutal 
 fiat of Roman conquest had recently swept over the whole 
 Grecian territory and buzzard-like, swallowed up her fa¬ 
 mous provinces and cities and sold her braves into slav¬ 
 ery. We thus find circumstantial evidence that Achaius 
 had the sagacity, acumen and intrepidity of his race. So 
 well pleased was the slave-king with Achseus that he made 
 him a present of one of the fine houses of his former 
 millionaire masters. 
 
 The success of the great insurrection from henceforth 
 is to be attributed in large measure to Achseus, general- 
 in-chief. In three days he had armed and equipped no 
 less than 6,000 soldiers and had them ready for the ex¬ 
 pected armies from Rome which all well knew would soon 
 arrive by forced marches to put down the rebellion. As 
 all these slaves knew the awful consequences of defeat, we 
 may imagine the incentives which prompted their activity 
 in making ready for coming conflicts. 
 
 The outside agricultural places soon began to be heard 
 from. They consisted of heterogeneous ranks—a motly 
 mass, who, rushing from their work on hearing the news 
 of tile revolt, straggled into the new head-quarters from 
 far and near. They streamed into the town, each with t 
 
 17 Au/st. d. unf. Arb. 8. 60 . 
 
&BQAN12IN& THE SOCIALIST ARMY. 211 
 
 butcher-knife, an axe, a sickle, a pitchfork of iron or wood. 
 Slings were weapons with wnick the numerous shepherds 
 were "best practiced ; and they knew their use with fatal 
 effect. Inspired with a hope of liberty at any price or ag¬ 
 ony of effort, they were ready to stake their lives under 
 perilous odds for a chance at winning it. 
 
 There were at that moment no troops of the Roman le¬ 
 gions in Sicily. The only immediate forces to be feared 
 by the workingmen were the militia from the different 
 cities. There had occurred no dangerous strikes among 
 the slaves for many years here, and in consequence, Rome 
 had not, as in Etruria, on the Tarantine gulf and else¬ 
 where, provided a standing army kept stationary under a 
 pnetor for the express purpose of suppressing the ever- 
 recurring rebellions of labor 48 which w T ere not only in this 
 nation troublesome but had proved themselves at Sparta 
 and Athens a great source of danger. Besides this, Rome 
 was busy quelling similar disorders nearer home. The 
 only available force at hand was the militia. 
 
 Meanwhile the insurgents were recruiting a powerful 
 force by tapping every resource that offered a promise of 
 strength. Among others, as already noticed, the great 
 cavern jails were full. 48 All through the country these 
 workhouses whether underground, in towns or out on the 
 farms, were broken into and emptied, the prisoners ran¬ 
 somed and those able to bear arms welcomed to the army 
 of resistance. 50 Our principal resource whence we extract 
 these facts is Diodorus Siculus, who wrote elaborately on 
 the subject, often giving minute details; but being an hon¬ 
 est man and writing of his own native country, committed 
 what in his times seems to have been the error—though no 
 fault of his conscience—of telling the truth. We in conse¬ 
 quence, as students of sociology must charge against that 
 slave-holding aristocrcy, 61 all mutilation of his history, 
 especially those paragraphs delineating the Roman disaster 
 
 «L1V. XXTX. 17. 41, XXXII. 26 XXXIII, 36. 
 
 «®Diod. XXXIV. frag. ii. 36 : “Kai tovtuv touj /xev ir«?Sai? dea/xtvui 
 
 •if raj (rwepyaeriat ive|ia\\e• }, Dauiophiius had algo made them work la the 
 fields while chained. 
 
 6u L>iOd. frag. ii. 26 26. 
 
 A rimilar outrage has been committed epon Livy’s history ofSpar- 
 tacuM proved by the ei'itomies or bn, er headings XCV, XCVJ. & XCVII 
 which have survr od the wreck We ive further details Oi th s disa&ui 
 together w th that of Sallust, farther on. 
 
212 
 
 BUNU8. 
 
 which followed; for although some clauses are left com¬ 
 plete others are bereft of their treasures of priceless infor¬ 
 mation. A large portion of the details, amounting in all, to 
 chapters, has apparently been sequestered through the van¬ 
 dalism of contemporaneous censorship and the inestimable 
 manuscripts disrupted from their historical chain covering 
 at least ten years of this eventful rebellion which went far 
 toward shaping the actions of men and preparing the world 
 for the advent of a different culture. 
 
 At any rate we have a statement that not less than 60,000 
 prisoners were delivered from the ergastula” and we know 
 that these also joined the rebellion. Everywhere were 
 the slave-holders murdered, and in proportion as the more 
 desperate ones were delivered from bondage and fetters, the 
 search all over the island to find and exterminate them be¬ 
 came more industrious. On the eastern side of Sicily were 
 magnificent fields of wheat and different grains and a large 
 amount of pasture lands stocked with cattle and sheep and 
 bearing prodigious quantities of wine and olive oil. The 
 slave hordes now free, swept over this country, murdering 
 and destroying all before them, notwithstanding the efforts 
 of Achseus at restraint. The story of Cambalus, a wealthy 
 citizen of Morgantion in the upper districts of Symaethus, 
 is told 6 * as an exception to the usual prudence of this com¬ 
 mander : This nobleman while on a hunting excursion came 
 across a band of these prowlers. Alarmed at his close prox¬ 
 imity to the dangerous men he turned and ran toward the 
 city, following the high road. When near his own home 
 he met his father on horseback going toward the danger, 
 who immediately dismounted and begged the son to mount 
 and save himself by flight. While thus in filial and pater¬ 
 nal- love, tarrying, neither deciding to take to flight, the free¬ 
 booters came up and killed them both. 64 But Achaeus gen¬ 
 erally forbade such strong measures. Wherever he heard 
 
 62 Florus, Epit. III. 15, elsewhere quoted. 
 
 •^Manner!, Oeog. IX. 2; Cato, De Re Rustica. ft; Columella, Dt R* 
 Ruztica III. 2. 
 
 MDr. Bucher, Anfstaade der unfreien Arbeiter, S. 61, extracts the story in 
 full: “Gorgos, mit dem Beinahmen Kambalos, ©in durch seinen Reichthum 
 und Edelmuth bekannter Burger von Morgantion im Gebiete des oberen Sym- 
 kthus zog auf die Jagd aus und stiess auf eiue Sklavenbande. Er floh die Strasse 
 zur ritadt zuriick und begegnete baldseiuem Vater der zu Pferdedes Weges kani 
 Dieser stieg sofort ab und flehte den Sohn sein Le 3n zu retten. Der Sohn bin- 
 wieder den Vater; und wahrend sie so in dem Wettstreite kindlicher Liebe und 
 vaterlicher Zartlichkeit sich erschbpiten, ersokienen die Anfrillier und er- 
 echlugen beide.” 
 
THE TRAMPS AND FREEDMEN. 
 
 213 
 
 of atrocities committed by his men he is said to have ex¬ 
 erted every energy to prevent their recurrence, appealing to 
 the danger should the Romans gain the upper hand. The 
 rebels began to comprehend that something nobler than 
 mere rage was wanted. They soon began to be more care¬ 
 ful of the stores of grain and other necessaries. They 
 also spared a large number of the small cultivators who 
 had not been active in injuring them. 
 
 There were also great numbers of freedmen, now little 
 better than beggars; for as most farm labor since the new 
 impetus of the Roman slave system had set in, was per¬ 
 formed by slaves, they were obliged to beg because they 
 had no work. These wretched tramps, perceiving their 
 opportunity, soon began to organize in secrecy. “ The 
 great war now raged in earnest. The new force of beg¬ 
 gars who hitherto had been roaming in a demoralized con¬ 
 dition do not seem to have done credit to the slaves; for 
 while they turned their hands to destruction of property 
 and delivered themselves up to gluttony, their faults were 
 all laid to the slaves. By this circumstance we are made 
 aware that the actual status of intelligence was higher 
 among the slave population than the tramps, who had be¬ 
 come demoralized and degraded through discouragement 
 and suffering. 
 
 It was a long time before the Romans, tormented with 
 the terrible struggles of the proletaries at that moment 
 raging in Italy over the agrarian question, could awaken 
 to a full sense of the situation. There was certainly some 
 provincial government at the time, for mention is made to 
 the effect that Roman praetors 66 then had the province in 
 charge; but they were both too much enfeebled by their 
 enormous wealth at Syracuse or the dissipation concom¬ 
 itant to it and by their being practically without a force 
 sufficient to the emergency. The insurrection seems not 
 to have been uniform in different parts. In those days it 
 took some time for slaves to communicate with each other; 
 and when that was accomplished there must be time to 
 ponder over the dangerous experiment and prepare for 
 action; but it is known that almost everywhere in, and 
 
 6 ? T)io(l. XXXVI. frag, v. speaking of the second war (see chapter xi.) 
 expressly states that it was not the slaves alone but also freedmen. So alsr 
 Floras 111 19: Cum libe ris (nelas I) etin^enuis, cl i mica turn est.” 
 
 u jiii ht-r. Aujsi S. Gl-62. 
 
214 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 close about the cities, the uprising was general; for ev¬ 
 erywhere the slaves ran away from their masters and hur¬ 
 ried to join the Ennian army. 
 
 Achaeus in a short time found himself master of a well 
 equipped army of 10,000 men. He devoted his energies 
 to drilling these raw troops and teaching them their new 
 business. We are wanting details for showing the exact 
 dates, but the events of which we speak, according to the 
 close examination of all material by Dr. Biicher, make it 
 between B. C. 143 and 140. 67 Repeated skirmishing took 
 place between Achseus and the advance guards of the Ro¬ 
 man prsetors but as often the latter were totally overthrown. 
 Undoubtedly many great and terribly bloody battles were 
 fought. 88 Certainly the results were disastrous to the Ro¬ 
 mans; for tne territory of Eunus’ kingdom gradually en¬ 
 larged stretching over upper Symaethus and eastward down 
 to the sea. It also struck northward and extended for a 
 considerable distance to the west. But we hear of noth¬ 
 ing having occurred in the south, up to this point. 6 * There 
 was however, a great uprising there, soon to be heard of 
 The signal successes of Aclneus had become noised abroad. 
 Slaves everywhere were waiting for a leader. A new and 
 almost distinct strike was preparing to burst forth south¬ 
 ward near the coast, among the productive fields and pas¬ 
 tures long celebrated for stock-breeding, especially that of 
 draft animals and fine horses. Along this seaboard no 
 harbors appear. The land lies in plateaus, with precip¬ 
 itous steeps overhanging the Mediterranean; but the 
 levels above and the occasional valleys, are exceedingly 
 fruitful. 60 It was the celebrated Agrigentum. Along the 
 southern coast of Sicily at that time few inhabitants ex¬ 
 isted. The old places which had once been occupied by 
 the colonists from Megara and Rhodes had been long de¬ 
 populated. 
 
 Acragus, well remembered by the Romans as having 
 
 67 idem ,, Excurt, “liber die Chronologic des s.cilischen Bclarenkriege und 
 Verwnndtog ” S 121-129. Here Biicher gives data (which we follow.) show, 
 ing that it must have been B C 143-140 or the first two yean before the 
 army of Achseus amounted to 10,000 men. 
 
 mD tod. XXXIV, frag. ii. Dind. 
 
 6 ° Biiclrfcr, Aufot S. 62. We mostly follow Bucher's admirable tracing* 
 of the \ ar from this point. 
 
 6u Strabo, Gtog. VI.; Cicero. Verr II. i. 28; D'OroiUe, Stcula. p, 289 
 Plin. B. A r . VIII. 64. 
 
CLEON. 
 
 215 
 
 withstood, during the Punic wars all those terrible vicissi¬ 
 tudes and had long been inured to hardships, still main¬ 
 tained itself and a good share of its population. It was 
 a rich portion of the island and large numbers of the land 
 owners possessed and exploited slaves who became so nu¬ 
 merous that they performed all the labor leaving none for 
 the freedmen who were thus reduced to the condition of 
 roaming tramps and beggars. Some men owned 500 61 in 
 the earlier days and there still existed very rich men in the 
 city, holding large portions of land and many human crea¬ 
 tures as chattels. Here w as the seat of a recorded instance 
 of the prevailing cruelties: One Polias, having invited to 
 dinner an equally heartless slaveholder, who was unwill¬ 
 ing to allow his slaves rest long enough to sleep, called to¬ 
 gether his own, especially the women and children, and like 
 the animals, fed them nuts and dried figs—the only nour¬ 
 ishment they were allowed for supper. 6 * 
 
 It is not to be wondered at then, if the slaves whenever 
 opportunity offered, ran away from such masters and some¬ 
 times became cunning and dangerous brigands. 
 
 Another desperate character of this war was Cleon, called 
 in Livy, “Gleon,” a Cilician by birth, 65 from the town of 
 Comana in the Taurian region of southern Asia Minor. It 
 appears that he and his brother, called “Coma” by Valerius 
 Maximus in his Memorabilia , M were runaway slaves who, 
 having betaken themselves to the mountains drove a maraud¬ 
 ing business in the general interest of their fellows still in 
 bonds. Here they plied the arts of the latrocinia or high¬ 
 way robbery, and stood ready to espouse the rebellion of 
 Eunus which was now creeping toward their confines. An¬ 
 other theory of Cleon is that like Spartacus, he had else¬ 
 where learned to be a robber but had been seized by a Sicil- 
 
 •i Slefert, Sidlische Sklavcnkrieat. S. 88. 
 
 «Stob®us, Floril, LX1I. 48; Cf. Blldier. 84. 
 
 «»!u hit note 2. S. 64. Dr. Bttoher re era to Cleon’s birthplace, u follows 
 **D)Od. fr. 2, 43: i\ r wv nepi rov T aOpov tottwi/. Nach 8 20 hies* geinBra- 
 der Komnnoa (Coma bei Valer. Max. IX, 12, lext. istofl'enbareinSchrelb- 
 febler statt Comanus), woraus mit zlemlicher Sicherl'eit zu schiessen, 
 dat*a Komana die Vaterstadt der beiden Brlider war. Ob aber an die 
 paniphylieclie Oder on die kappadokiche Stadt dieses Namens in denken 
 »ui. raus* neentschieilen gelassen werden. I,et 2 tere, inmitten dee Anti- 
 tauros am Saros gelegen. war eine Ilaupslatte dcs den eyrisehen Diene- 
 i.en ve>wandtin C"!tus der Ma (Artemis Taurfea) Strabo XII. p. 585; man 
 winds drum den Beweggrund (ur dtn raschen Anschlus- Kieons an E« 
 uu9 >n *• ligibser Superstition zu «uclien hahvn 
 
 MJU.od XXXIV. frag. il. 20 & 43,; Valerius Maxumis, IX. 1-; Sleb n. lfc 
 
EUNUS* 
 
 nt 
 
 ian corsair and brought over to this place where he was sold 
 in slavery and set to work herding horses in the pastures, 
 whence he escaped and made himself the terror of the re¬ 
 gion, playing his old pranks with success. But this theory 
 fails to account for his brother. 
 
 By some means Cleon, who had a strong band ever on 
 the alert, heard of the great movement of Eunus at Enna. 
 The distance was certainly not so great but that they could 
 have held correspondence; especially after the forces of 
 Acheeus had, by victory after victory over the praetorian 
 militia, cleared the obstacles away. 
 
 Cleon on hearing the particulars of the insurrection, 
 ran up the flag of open rebellion and offered freedom to 
 all slaves who should espouse his cause. The mighty 
 name he had already won went far toward deciding in¬ 
 numerable slaves. Everywhere these Agrigentine bonds¬ 
 men responded to the shrill bugles of Cleon. As fast as 
 they came into camp he armed and drilled them for ser¬ 
 vice. Battles must have followed for we find him in pos¬ 
 session of the city. The two most powerful captains of 
 the rebellion now stood over-against each other, both hav¬ 
 ing won battles, undoubtedly important ones; for as our 
 details are missing and the leading points preserved, we 
 are left to our imagination in making up the links in the 
 chain of history. It was now the hope of the rich own¬ 
 ers that these rough commanders would, though at first 
 victorious, soon have a falling out; that jealousy would 
 prove a quicker means of ridding them of their now ter¬ 
 rible enemy than their own opposition; for such were the 
 proportions of this uprising that Cleon soon counted up¬ 
 wards of 70,000 men. 86 With such an army it was reason¬ 
 ably conjectured that he would not long submit to a sub¬ 
 ordinate position under Eunus. Bucher in assuring us 
 that the reverse was the case, “ suggests that the cause 
 of the perfect harmony known to have existed may have 
 been Cleon’s superstitious faith in the infallibilty of Eunus 
 as a mediator for poor humanity between God and man ; 
 
 •*Livy, LVL ”C. Fulvio Consul! mandatum eet, hajus belli lnttium 
 fait Eunas eervu?, nation© Syru9; qui contracts ^grestium servorum man* 
 et solutis ergastulis justi exerctus numerum implevit. Gleon quoque, altef 
 eervus, ad septuaginta millia servorum contraxit, ot oopiis junotis advsr- 
 bus populi Romani exercitum bellum s»pe gtesermnt.” 
 
 WBiicher, Aufst, S. 65. 
 
CLEON'S SEVENTY THOUSAND. COALITION tlf 
 
 it being fully believed that he was a Messiah. 67 This 
 might have done much, but the fact that they knew that 
 in the absence of perfect harmony their own lives would 
 certainly be speedily lost, together with their cause, is the 
 more probable solution to this problem. Cleon accepted a 
 position of what, in our military terms, may be called a 
 brigadier, general, of the grand army under Eunus, or ra¬ 
 ther under Achseus, lieutenant-general to Eunus; and the 
 force assigned him was only 5,000 men. 
 
 The two armies of the great mutiny against capital be¬ 
 came thus consolidated into one. It is stated by Livy 
 that in Agrigentum alone there were 70,000 men under 
 arms;** and we have seen that Achseus already had a 
 large, victorious force. Thus the combined armies stead¬ 
 ily grew in numbers and discipline. This immense force 
 was divided up between many leaders ; Eunus being the 
 commander-in-chief with Achseus and soon afterwards Cle¬ 
 on, the two principal lieutenants. 
 
 The armies stretched from Enna to Agrigentum and a 
 wing extended south and eastward to the sea—perhaps as 
 far eastward as Syracuse. Soon after these arrangements 
 were accomplished the new prsetor arrived in Sicily with 
 an army of well equipped Roman soldiers consisting of 
 8,000 men. How many stragglers of those demoralized 
 forces whom Achseus had often punished and dispersed, 
 came to swell the freshly landed army of this prsetor, L. 
 Plautius Hypsseus, 68 does not appear. But Dr. Siefert, 
 on the strength of a statement of a fragment, says that no 
 regular troops accompanied Hypsaeus from Rome. 
 
 Hostilities south now became general. The Roman did 
 not have long to wait. A force of 20,000 slaves probably 
 of both Achseus and Cleon met him, fully inspired with 
 the supernatural powers of their fire-spitting king, as well 
 as burning with old hatred and a desire to settle accounts 
 with their enemies. A great battle was fought. Hyp- 
 sseus was utterly routed and ruined; and the rebels were 
 left masters of the field. 
 
 «t Floras, III. 19, 4 s *’Syrus quldam nomine Eunus fanatico furore 
 aimulaio dum Syriwdeaa comas jactat, ad libertatem et arraas serros, quasi 
 nnmerum mperium concitavit; idque lit divinitus fieri probaret. In ore 
 abdita nuce, quam sulphure et igno stipaverat, icniter inspirans, flam main 
 fundebat.” 
 
 • 8 Liv. LVI. EpU. ad Jin.: See quotation id note 65. 
 
 «»Diod. frag, ii. 18. This >3 probably a remnant of a full statement 
 to mostly lost. 
 
218 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 The news of this additional victory spread rapidly and 
 those slaves who had hitherto hesitated, now flocked to the 
 insurgent army, soon swelling it to the almost incredible 
 magnitude of 200,000 men. The language of our infor¬ 
 mation is, however, too assuring towarrant us in dallying 
 over doubts; for not only do the ancient authorities give 
 these figures but we also find the strong reinforcement of 
 the modern philological critics who make no hesitation in 
 pronouncing it to be true. ” The people at Rome enter¬ 
 tained hopes that the force under Hypsseus would be of 
 sufficient strength to put down the rebellion; but as time 
 wore by, straggling remnants of the shattered army ver¬ 
 ified a dismal fear that great disasters had befallen them; 
 otherwise the gloomy news of the expedition was lost. 
 
 Other expeditions soon followed the sad one just men¬ 
 tioned. As we know that in a similar rebellion by Sparta* 
 cus some 70 years later, the armies of Rome were large, 
 so in reason, we cannot imagine them to have been small 
 in Sicily. Time and other despoilers have deprived us, it 
 is true, of many details, in histories we know to have been 
 written. But enough remains to attest the enormous pro¬ 
 portions of the Sicilian labor rebellion and the success that 
 everywhere attended the arms of the workingmen. C. 
 Fulvius Flaccus, consul, appears next to have come to the 
 scene; his colleague Scipio Africanus going to Numantia. 
 This commander was however, preceded by a certain Man¬ 
 lius, mentioned in the fragments of Diodorus referred to. 
 He, like his predecessors was annihilated. There can be 
 no doubt that this word applies here in its literal sense. 
 So complete was the extinction that scarcely a human be¬ 
 ing ever returned to convey intelligence of the disaster to 
 Rome. Then followed Lentulus, afterwards Piso and Ru- 
 pillius. Whenever the Romans gained an advantage by 
 dint of superior military skill they lost it through the over¬ 
 whelming and ever increasing numbers of the slaves, who 
 in addition to their own manufacture of arms and muni¬ 
 tions of war which they forced the freedmen-mechanics n 
 of Sicily to accomplish for them, turned all the splen- 
 
 it Bil *h S. 65 : ’’Bald betrog B'ti eregen 20o,ooo Leutealso S. 12fl- 
 "Nicht lanpe nachher beiauft e! ch die Zahl der Anfstandlachen ins STOPPryi it t, 
 Boldaten. senaennranner, and Un^erustote, aui' 200,000, ‘and in vieien Krie- 
 gon k amp fen &ie irU'.ckKh. m* 1 tenor crieiden sic Niederlagen.’>’ 
 
THE FEROCIOUS NECESSITY 
 
 &19 
 
 did weapons wrested from the defeated warriors of the 
 Roman nobility to their own uses and grew invincible. 78 
 
 No prisoners were spared. Eunus had undoubtedly re¬ 
 solved upon this plan from the first. He killed Antigenes 
 his owner, also Python, with his own hand, both of whom 
 he had promised a “cheap deal,” and spared the friends of 
 the festivities as we have related, only as a mater of faith 
 with his word. He had opened all the dungeons of the 
 ergastula which confined many who labored in those grot¬ 
 toes. What more could they want of those disgusting 
 holes? No. With them there was no lingering prisoner. 
 To be taken prisoner was to die—a ferocious necessity! 
 Besides these barbarous economics, they possessed the 
 remarkable negligence of the Romans which had struck 
 into Sicily at the time of the defeat and final evacuation 
 of the island by the Carthagenians, in B. C. 210 . Every¬ 
 where the walls of cities and other fortified places were 
 battered down, and left mouldering in disuse and every¬ 
 
 where was found unhindered admission to the cities, the 
 storehouses and the citadels. 73 Much of the success of their 
 phenomenal marches was attributed to the supernatural pow¬ 
 ers of king Eunus. 
 
 They believed themselves invincible; and as time wore 
 on, year after year of undiminished prosperity apparently 
 fortified this belief. Eunus once led his victorious forces 
 before one of the few fortified places that attempetd to 
 
 withstand him and to the besieged inhabitants spoke with 
 bitter irony, denying that he was even the cause of the 
 trouble, or his men in rebellion. On the contrary, they 
 
 themselves by their former atrocities, had driven them to 
 a compulsory step which they little desired to take. In 
 full consciousness of their enemy’s helplessness and the 
 stinging remembrance of their former sufferings, they 
 made a great show of their triumphs, parading the now 
 
 emancipated revolutionists in pompous formality and for- 
 
 71 This fact must be considered as applying to a certain 
 number of freedmen denominated by the modern labor organi¬ 
 zations Scabs, who had made themselves obnoxious by an obse¬ 
 quious catering to masters; for we find that a few years later 
 (see Athenion, chapter x.) there were great numbers of free 
 artisans who espoused the cause of the slaves and took up 
 arms gladly in the defense of a common cause. 
 
 72 Bucher, Aufst. S. 66 “Wurde auch einen kleinen Erfolg 
 errungen im nachsten Augenblicke raffte sich der Aufstand 
 mit doppeltor Wuth zusamen and drang unaufhaltsam und 
 grausam, wie alle socialeu Kriege, weiter.” 
 
 78 Consult Diod. XXXIV. frag ii. 45. 
 
BUNUS. 
 
 cing the reluctant to hear the history of the causes of it , u 
 through mock theatrical representations in mimic compo¬ 
 sition, as was practiced in Syria the fatherland of Eunus. 
 This practice referred to by Diodorus, 75 no doubt has ref¬ 
 erence to the great labor unions called the eranoi, or bet¬ 
 ter, their branch, the thiasoi, 78 a part of whose duty was 
 to provide entertainment for the members. It is known 
 that mimic entertainments of a histrionic character were 
 frequently among the programs of amusement. “There 
 was” says Dr. Biicher, “more than one bitter drop spilled 
 into the bowl of misery at such seiges; since overturned 
 riches, unbridled rapine, purposeless power, appeared to 
 gentlemen to be the cause of tneir destruction; it was 
 in fact, a practical lesson against the will of these compul¬ 
 sory listeners to mimic tragedies, which, like every other 
 lesson where the spirit is against its learning, is fruitless 
 and unheeded.” 77 
 
 The bitter and bloody conflict of this great mutiny of 
 the working people of Sicily had now been raging about 
 6 years with the prophet of Antioch at its head. The mil¬ 
 itary force of Rome such as she could spare, had been ex¬ 
 hausted again and again in efforts to regain her foothold 
 in Sicily, but in vain. The slaves were at last masters of 
 the island. Here, by a most fortunate circumstance, the 
 lacerated history of Diodorus remains so unbroken in this 
 particular link as to explicitly transmit this truth; and in 
 words which cannot well be misunderstood. 78 Diodorus, 
 though his veracity has long lain in abeyance, has outlived 
 his calumniators, and great savants, having proved the 
 truth of statements by his pen which for many centuries 
 lay in ridicule, are now searching for them as being those 
 most valuable in critical use. 
 
 Besides the cities mentioned, there were many on the 
 east coast of the island which also, one by one, joined the 
 army of the revolutionists. Some of them, it is known, 
 were taken by force. Others offered themselves to the 
 conquerors, partly through their own wish, partly from a 
 
 T< Id. frag. li. ™Id. 84. 
 
 See Lildera, Die Dionys. K&nttXer, Tafeln I-IL Also Infra, chap. xvli. 
 
 D Aufut. d. unfueien A.ibelter, S. 67. 
 
 w Diod. XXXlV. frag. 11. § 26, “OvSenore iyevtro avrif SovAwv 
 
 ^Ack >7 avvia ttj ev T7) 2U<eAi'(j, Si r)v jroAAal p.iv 7roAeis Seivais nepiintaov <rv/u<£opais, 
 ivapt'0/xrjrot Se 'avSpe? Kai yvvauce? p. era. rinvwv iireipaOrjaav rwv /ieyi'orwv a- 
 rv\r\p.iri»v, natra St i) tnjiroe imvSvvevcr» ir*<relv tit i(ov<rtav SpairerUap-' 1 
 
ALL SICILY CAPTURED BY THE SLAVES. 
 
 dread of sack and pillage. w Among these were Tauro- 
 manion and Catana, the place of refuge for the daughter 
 of Damophilus and Megallis. As to Syracuse, 80 the great 
 and long celebrated capital of Sicily, seat of the former 
 proud tyrants, home of Dion, Plato's friend, and center 
 of the mechanical sciences of Archimides, the city whose 
 hills were quarried and pierced into horrid dungeons—the 
 suffocating latomies, where workingmen by thousands, un¬ 
 comforted and forgotten, had worked and smothered for 
 painful centuries to the delight of monsters such as Di¬ 
 onysius ;—as to this formidable theatre of the lapicidinae , 
 we are so far informed as to be able to say with a degree 
 of certainty, that also this haughty mistress of the Med¬ 
 iterranean fell before the rebel arms. 81 
 
 Messana to the north, had been least abusive to these 
 people when in bondage, and in consequence was spared. 
 Yet even Messana made a strong resistance ; for situated 
 on the strait separating Sicily from Italy, an important 
 pivotal position by being almost as much Italian as Sicil¬ 
 ian, it at last gave way. w 
 
 The capture of this important seaport and stronghold 
 was the immediate cause of the uprising or strike of the 
 slaves and other working people, in large numbers, over 
 on the Italian side, of which we give an account in another 
 place. “ 
 
 Strabo. Q*og. VI; Diod. frag. il. 20, Orosius, V. 9. 
 
 wFrom Diodorus we have one tattered fragment (ii. 9.) which makes 
 it probable that Syracuse also fell into the rebels* grasp. 
 
 81 Elsewhere we have endeavored to show that there existed some un¬ 
 explained reason for Plato’s strange experience among the fishermen of 
 Syracuse and the motives of Dionysius in banishing him thither. P.ato was 
 hated by the workingmen. The fishermen among whom he was relegated 
 certainly were organized; and they were in sympathy with the mercenary 
 sold ers on strike because Dionysius reduced their pay. We herewith re¬ 
 produce the words of Dr. Bticher in his text pp. 66-9 and footnote 4 : “Eunu3 
 war zuletz fast Herr der ganzen Insel geworden * * * wahrscheinlich selbst Sy ra- 
 kus &C. Diod. frag. 9: Tols Kara(f>ayovai rovf 'tepw/aeVov? ix#6s ovk yr vrxuAa 
 fiv KOKtav. t6 yap Satpovior wmp ijrtTTjies etc napa.Seiytxo.Ticrp.bi' to!? aAAoi? 
 ii ravras rows airovevor\p.evovT irtpielSev a/SorjjTjrov?. ovrot p.ev ovv aicoAov&uis rfj 
 wapa deuv KoAaarei k at rljs ita Trp; tcrropta? /3Aa<r<f>T)/uuas TeTevxore? airekavrrav 
 Tij? it xatas eiriTi/mjaews. Das Bruchstuck gehort hierher schon wegen < er in 
 eemer Nachbarsctiaft stehenden i'ragm. der Exc. vatic., welcne sammt- 
 lich auf den Sklavenkrieg B6zug haben. Beiden “hexliegn Fisnen" kaiin 
 nur an die der Arethusa anf Ortnygi* gedacht werden. von welchen Diod. 
 V, 3 Fol^endes erzahlt: ravryv (Tri* ’Api&ovaav) ov p.6vov Kara rovs ap\aiovt 
 Xpovov s e\eiv fieyakovt *at jtoAAou? ixi>0«, akka tea t Kara ti\v ^peripav riktKlav 
 <Tvp.fSai.vei Siapertiv TOVTOVf, 'tepovs ovrat Kai adiKTOu? avJpcoiroi?. ef w» iroAAa/cc? 
 TLVtav Kara Ta? rroAepuKa? irepioTaaev; 'payoi'TUi'. irapadogias eireorjp-qvi to tieiov 
 «ai peyaAais avpifiopais irepiefSaAeio Toy? roApijoavras npoatvsynaadai. wept Stf 
 aKpti Sou? avaypa\ljopev iv too? oiKeiot? XP®^ 01 ? 
 
 b2 Or os i us, JFHstoriurum Libri Adverjtus Faganos, V. 6, 9; Julias Ob*» 
 quens, Dt Piodigii^ I. 1. 81 Consult chapter lx. Infra, 
 
EUNUS. 
 
 222 
 
 The terrible scuffle into which Rome was drawn, during 
 these momentous times, together with the murder of Ti¬ 
 berius Gracchus, 84 in B. C. 133, show how this mighty peo¬ 
 ple were paralyzed by the labor problem of that century. 
 But with the death of this powerful tribune and faithful 
 friend of the poor, the fortunes of the victorious Eunus 
 crumbled. The real but hidden cause of the compara¬ 
 tively unobstructed career which had now held him king 
 of Sicily fully 10 years, was probably not Rome’s inability 
 to cope with him in military force and tactics; it was her 
 social and political demoralization. It was an interreg¬ 
 num of wills;—whether paganism should continue its reck¬ 
 less course against nature, against justice, against human 
 development, and cover the earth with slaves, or whether 
 a revolution against it should, in defiance of its haughty 
 and despotic predilections and unbridled greed, be sub¬ 
 mitted to. When we look back at the astonishing con¬ 
 quest of Eunus and of his generals and men from this 
 point of view we shall see the waves of the phenomena of 
 Rome’s final downfall then and there begun, roll back, 
 together with many another dark political obscurity. 
 
 Gracchus was not yet dead, but still in the vortex of 
 his anti-slavery land agitation, spurred on by Blossius his 
 devoted friend. C. Calpurnius Piso was one of the con¬ 
 suls chosen for that year. On him devolved the command 
 in Sicily. He arrived at Messana with a large force and 
 finding it in possession of the slaves, laid siege to the city. 
 After a severe storming the place fell into the hands of 
 the Romans. As many as 8,000 slaves were slain and the 
 prisoners captured were all crucified. Piso w as a man of 
 much nerve and business energy, combined with judg- 
 
 M Plutarch. Tib. Gracchus, 9-14; Appian, De Beilis Civilibus, lib. I. 9: 
 ‘M^pi TcjSe'pio? Sepwpwvios rpa/cxos, avrjp em.<f)avr)s, /cal Aapn-po? « <£iAoTipi'av, 
 •liretv re fiurarwraros, /cal e/c Twvbe op.ov wav roiv yrtopipciraTOs awacri Si)papx<bv, 
 i<repvo\oyt](xe wepl tov ’iTaAi/cov yevovs, ws evwoAepa/TaTov re /cal avyyevovs, (ptJeipo- 
 pevov Se tear oAlyov if anopiav /cal oAiyavbplav, /cal ovSe eAwt’Sa exovTos e? Stop- 
 tftocriv. ’Ewl be r<p Sov\lk<2 Svax^pa-vas, tbs acrrparevriM, /cal ovnore e? Seanorai ir<.$rui, 
 to evay^o? ew/jvey/cev iv 2i/ceyl<y SeanoTu>v iraOos iiiro Oepanovruiv yevopevov, rj>>£>)- 
 peviov /ca/cetvu>v awo yewpylas. /cal tov en’ avrov<! ‘Pupaitov woAepov, ov pu.bi.ov, 
 ovSe Ppa.\vv, aAA’es Te prj/cos XP®*' 01 ’* K0Ll Tpowas /civSvva/v woi/clAas e/cTpawc./ra, 
 TauTa Se liniov, ave/catvi^e tov vopov* Mr/Seva twv wevTa/cosuov jrAtPpa/v /rAfoi 
 ixetv. Uaial S’ avTtbv, virep tov waAaiov vopov npocreriftei ra rjpiata. vovtujv’ kou rrjv 
 Aotwijv, t ptlv aiperovi avSpvi, evaWaacropevovs icixr’cros, Siavepeiv voic irevnon*” 
 Wordsworth. Fragments of Early Larin. p. 221. We have in the preceding 
 chapter, giving an account of the preat epedemic of strikes and u; risings 
 which were occurring almost everywhere in the Roman territory, caused 
 entirely by a profound atul lionesl dissatisfaction amo: g the laboring i eoplo. 
 
TIBERIUS SEMPR0N1US GRACCHUS. 
 
 22;l 
 
 men t In addition to this, he must have had a large army. 
 All we possess of the facts are hints touching the main 
 events; the particulars are left to be drawn by inference. 
 Certain it is that his force was large enough to assure him 
 in the bold adventure of attacking Enna; and judging by 
 comparison with the magnitude of the Roman armies af¬ 
 terwards sent to subdue Spartacus, * R he could not have 
 had fewer than 75,000 or 100,000 men. Considering the 
 results positively known, it may 7 be no boldness to pre¬ 
 sume that his army was at least 80,000 strong. 
 
 The insurrectionary armies on the other hand, were, 
 without doubt, greatly demoralized by their hitherto un¬ 
 failing successes. They were now no longer slaves, but a 
 host of ignorant and superstitious freedmen regaling un¬ 
 hindered in wantonness and luxury, having had 10 years 
 of security, constantly under the delusion that king Eu- 
 nus, if not himself an immortal, was at least in daily inter¬ 
 course with Ceres, whom nobody dared imagine to be less 
 than the powerful protecting goddess of that island. 
 Thus fortified in delusions confirmed, they had in course of 
 these ten years of good fortune, begun to relax their \ig- 
 ilance, leaving to the supernatural, the power which alone 
 their own strong, well-directed arms could accomplish. 
 Things were in consequence, now in perfect readiness for 
 Rome to triumph over the rebellion. 
 
 Piso, instead of waiting to skirmish with the generals 
 of Eunus, marched directly to his stronghold. It was a 
 bold strike; and affords us an excellent exhibit of his cour¬ 
 age and judgment. He was no communist; and an in¬ 
 stance proving this is recorded which clearly shows that 
 socialistic theories were being discussed in those ancient 
 days, by rich and poor: In the fierce struggle which re¬ 
 sulted in the murder of the Gracchi, this same Piso said to 
 one of these stanch advocate s of the rights of labor, as lie 
 railed against the growing spirit of equality threatening 
 extinction to the proud Roman gens and making inroads 
 upon the tribunes and the senate: “It is not with my will 
 and consent that you desire to divide your property; but 
 should you do so I shall demand my share.” " The slaves 
 were socialists, enjoying their booty in common; and it 
 
 •6 See chapter xi. below. 
 
 •# Cicero Tusculanarum Di putationm L\bri III. 59, 48. 
 
EUNUS. 
 
 could not be expected that any leniency ■would be shown 
 them by Piso. 
 
 According to our authority, Piso, after the capture of 
 M essana, turned his campaign directly toward Eunus’ 
 jitadel on the heights of Enna. A captain of cavalry led 
 his force too incautiously and got into an ambush laid by 
 the mutineers where he met with some loss in arms, men 
 and horses. Piso singled him out as a coward. He was 
 humiliated, and barefoot and almost naked, obliged to 
 star d before the tent as a watch, forbidden to speak with 
 his comrades or to enjoy his baths. Those left of the 
 defeated cavalry were ordered to give up their horses and 
 go into the company of slingers. 81 The object of this se¬ 
 vere measure was to thoroughly impress the Roman sol¬ 
 diers with the almost deadly results to them, of a failure 
 through disobedience or lack of bravery. On the other 
 hand, boih leaders and rank and file were rewarded for an 
 act of valor. Valerius Maximus 88 also tells a story of Pi- 
 so’s own son, who for having performed some meritorious 
 act in this campaign, was awarded a gold cross weighing 
 three pounds, which he was requested by his father to pre¬ 
 serve and wear after he had returned to Rome and it had 
 been publicly presented. This had the effect to fill the 
 minds of all with emulation, adding dash and intrepidity 
 while doubtless dispelling a superstitious fear of the long 
 victorious slaves. 
 
 At last the Roman legions arrived before the walls of 
 Enna and immediately laid siege. We are indebted to 
 Er. Bucher’s invaluable dissertation, referring us to Dr. 
 Bockh’6 inscriptions often used by us; for without his 
 mention we might have missed certain pallographs that 
 shed light upon the otherwise unwritten pages of Piso’s 
 siege of Enna," On the northern steep of the city is a 
 great rock from which the slave women flung headlong 
 the living form of Megallis, wife of Damophilus." To 
 
 87 Valerius Maximus, Fad. Did. Mem. II. 7. 9. nid. IV. 8,10 
 
 8y Bilcl). AvJsUlvde. S.74, note 1 reads: ‘Ritcbl. P. L. M. VIII. 1 :Corpi 
 Intcriptionum Latinarum. (Eockh) [no. 642 so. vgl. Kitsch a. a. O. Seiie 
 849. Aus dem zw« iten Sicilifchen Aufstande : Corp. Inter. Orase. Bbckh 
 No. 6870, 6687, 5748, z. Th. mit dem Namen des Athenion. No. 6748aas 
 Leontinimit aer Aufscbrift APAMEO geht vielleicht auf dem APAMEER 
 Eunus. Corp. Inue . Lat No 646. Sq. stammen wohl aus dem Fechter- 
 krieg.” We however subjoin the remark that Diodorus mentions Athenion 
 as having likewise been of Apamea— a point which the learned phile 
 Wrist may have overlooked. 
 
 “«-«irrent chaDter, page 216 
 
TEE SIEGE OF ENNA. '21S 
 
 this day there are occasionally found, on and about this 
 rock, balls from the Homan catapults which were hurled 
 at the walls of the beleaguered city during that siege, 91 
 These relics of Roman projectiles have the name, L. Piso 
 inscribed upon them ; as they are found in quantities, 92 
 the circumstance goes far to attest the prodigious mag¬ 
 nitude of the siege, as well as the great length of time 
 that must have been consumed before the place fell into 
 the Roman consul’s hands. In fact, it did not fall before 
 the sword of Piso. He was, in some mysterious manner,re¬ 
 pulsed; being probably many times attacked and repelled 
 by the sorties of Cleon. At last he is found in the nar¬ 
 rative back on the east coast having without a shadow of 
 doubt, been driven there by the slave-king. 
 
 In B. C. 132, P. Rupilius was chosen consul at Rome. As 
 just hinted, Piso had met with some unchronicled disaster 
 at the hands of the stubborn rebels of Eunus, who had in 
 their turn, taken the offensive and surged him back to 
 the sea. “ Rupilius had already held office in Sicily under 
 a joint stock company and had made a large fortune in 
 the capacity of a land speculator. During his official life 
 there he had acquired a good knowledge of the roads and 
 principal objective points of the island. 94 It was this same 
 Rupilius who, with Popilejus Lsenus, urged and in some 
 degree consummated the persecutions of Gracchus, whose 
 revival of the ancient Licinian law and whose socialistic 
 oratory had enraged the land and slave-holding aristocracy 
 
 /. L. nw. <43, a 646? C . I. a. 6670,6687,6738; RltefcL 
 /■Uufcis, VUL Tl Bookh, C. I. L. 6748 gives the word Amoco i. e: "Bonos 
 of Apameo ’* It may mean Athenian of Apamea, however; but both were 
 powerful tabor agitators. 
 
 •» Pliny, If.B. VII. 86; Clo. Tus*. IV. 17,46; Lai. 10, 30, 73,6* 
 
 •» Bdch. A%J*. D. unfr. Art. 8. 73. 
 
 M Valerius Maximus, Fkttor*m DieOrumqm Mtmorabitia, lib. VI. 9, 8; 
 Stefert Erster siciliteh. SkUivmlcruf 8.86, note 67, "Pseudoascon, in Verr. 
 Dp. 212: P. Rupilius quondam ox publicano factus consul. Valer. Max. VI, 
 9, 8 erzKhlt aogar, dass er ursprtinsnch, oin Dlener der Staatspachter eewesen 
 sei : P. Rupilius uon publicancm in Sieilia egit. sed operas publican!* dedlt 
 Idem ultimam inoplam snam, auctorato ooclis officio, susteniavit — Er war oin 
 Freund des JUngem Scipio Cic. Lael 19. Als Consul fiihrte er eu Anfang 
 solnos Amtsiahrea mit seinem Collegen Popillius Laenas die Untersuchung 
 gegen die Mltschuldigen des Tib. Graechu* (Cic. Lael. 11, Val. Max. IV. 7, 1) 
 Fach Vellei. Pat II, 7 vrurde or wegen der Strengo, mit welcher diese Unter- 
 suchang geftlhrt wurde, gloich Popillius vor Gericht gezogen, wahrcnd andere 
 Schrlfstouer nur von der Verfolgung des Letztem durch C. Graccus sprechen. 
 Vgl. FniUy’t RE. V. 1900. Er endete eplter pldtzlich aus Aerger uud Schreck 
 •her die mlsslungene Bewerbuug seines Bruaers um das Consulat. Cic. Tnsc, 
 IV, 17. Irrthilmilch noant ttfcrigons Fiorus III, 19 den Perperna als don Bt 
 Sieger dor Sklavoa.’' . 
 
220 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 of Feme to a high pitch and caused his murder by a mob 
 of the nobility the year before, while Piso was vainly be¬ 
 sieging Eunus at Enna. Such a man would therefore, 
 naturally be selected by them as a proper person to con¬ 
 fide in, if sent to quell the great uprising of their chattels 
 in Sicily, It does not appear however, that Rupilius as¬ 
 sumed command of Piso’s army immediately on his elec¬ 
 tion to the consulship. But that he superseded him 96 is 
 certain; for his trouble with the unreliableness of his own 
 troops is spoken of by a number of the old writers. 90 A 
 son-in-law of Rupilius, Q. Fabius, commander-in-chief of 
 a division of Piso’s army, had been defeated at Tauroma- 
 nion on the eastern coast of Sicily, losing the citadel, a 
 stronghold of much value. This had proved a triumph to 
 the revolutionists. But it appears to have been re-taken 
 by Piso in some subsequent struggle. 91 
 
 Rupilius on assuming command, found Tauromanion 
 again in the possession of Cleon and Eunus. As a pun¬ 
 ishment, Fabius was deprived of his command and com¬ 
 pelled to quit the island. Rupilius then resolved to lay 
 siege to Tauromanion. The besieged fought desperately 
 and by an exhibit of courage and impetuosity threw back 
 the Roman forces, driving them into a corner. Still Ru¬ 
 pilius was not overcome. Rallying, he attacked the de¬ 
 fenses of the slaves and checked their opportunity to do 
 great damage. He then closed them in and began the 
 process of starvation with all the malignant obstinacy of a 
 Roman warrior. How long the siege lasted is not quite 
 apparent; but in time, the provisions began to disappear. 
 Hunger at last made its gaunt and ghastly tread into the 
 abodes of the besieged, turning brave men into cannibals 
 and making life a lottery by adding a horror of the car¬ 
 nivore to the pang of death. The poor wretches first at¬ 
 tacked their own children and devoured their flesh; and 
 then with the true beastliness of the gunaecophage, they 
 
 88 Btich. S. 74. MValer. Max. VI 9, S. 
 
 • 6 Diod. frag. ii. § 20. *> Valer.Max. IX. 12; Oros. V. 9 ; Flor. III. 19. 
 
 w Id V. 11, 7, 3 ;Flor. III. 19. 
 
 Diod. XXXIV, frag. 1L 20. Kara SiKeAiav ijvfero to KaKiv, teai woA«is qAtaxovra 
 avravSpoL Kal iroAAa arpaToneSa vno ru>v anoaraTOiv KareKonrjaav, 'PovrtAtoy 
 6 Pui fjLaidiv <TTpa.T7)yb<> to Tavpop.evtov aveau>aaTO 'Pa>/aatoi?, xaprepws fxiv aurb 
 rroAiopKrjo-a?, Kal et? itfrarov avay/erjv /tai \ip.'ov too? airosraras crv-yfcAeiVaf, <Z>;r« 
 dp£aptVov? e/c ttolSuv popa y Kal SieAflovras Sia yvvaiKu>v nySe rrjf avrijv oAArjAo^av 
 i a i p-fS' oAaif (frtiaacrdai. 
 
CANNIBALISM; WONDERFUL DEATH OF COMA. 227 
 
 sated their wolfish appetites on the flesh and the innocent 
 blood of women and other adults who could not fight. 98 
 
 Tauromanion was commanded by Cleon’s brother, Co- 
 manus. In a moment of extreme desperation the latter, 
 half dead with the grip of famine made an attempt to es¬ 
 cape. He was however, detected issuing from the walls 
 of the doomed city. Arrested and led before his hated 
 enemy, the inexorable Rupilius, he was questioned regard¬ 
 ing the power of his comrades within the fortifications, 
 their objects and hopes of escape. The hour of the bold 
 man of terrors had come. Never deigning an answer, with 
 an almost unheard-of force of will, the man, after a wild 
 moment’s pause and a withering stare, covered his head 
 with his mantle, drew in his breath, and by a superhuman 
 struggle at self-command, refused to breathe again, dying 
 amidst and before the astonished gaze of, Rupilius and 
 his guards! 89 
 
 Finally the Romans succeeded in battering through 
 the lower wall a gap and thus forced an entrance. But 
 there }^et remained an excellent and almost impregnable 
 citadel into which the besieged took refuge as the Romans 
 entered the breach. Here again they safely held them¬ 
 selves for a time, until through a treachery of one of the 
 commanders, the Romans were admitted. 
 
 The scene which followed must be imagined; it cannot 
 be described, With a spirit of relentless vengeance Ru¬ 
 pilius tied the helpless, writhing prisoners fast, until his 
 soldiers could have time to erect a multitude of gibbets ; 
 then in the frightful manner of all Roman criminals nd 
 the proletarian outcasts, they were hung upon the igno¬ 
 minious cross. Afterwards their bodies were hurled down 
 all precipices which formed an escarpment of the cita¬ 
 del. 100 Little indeed is preserved of this awful martyrdom 
 but a variety of broken gems corresponding with \ he main 
 body of our narrative, are extant, which leave us the con¬ 
 jecture that its language falls short of the ghastly truth. 
 
 It is fair here to state on the other hand that a similar 
 cruelty and want of feeling characterized the men in re¬ 
 bellion. Their vote at the first deliberative council de* 
 
 w Diod. frag. ii. §20; Oros. V. 9. 
 
 *®Val. Max. IX. 12, exc- l- 
 
 looCompar* Sxefert, S. 22 with Bucher, S. 75, 
 
228 
 
 EUNUS. 
 
 daring for the butcher-knife policy was an edict inhuman 
 
 and unworthy of a cause so exalted as that of freedom. 
 Nor do we, except under the sagacious Achseus, find that 
 they once deviated from this cruel and almost internecine 
 policy which may have tended to harden the spirit in Ru- 
 pilius, of revenge, retaliation aud ferocity. 
 
 Rupilius, having now partially quenched a blood-thirst¬ 
 ing spirit on these victims, marched directly for Enna. On 
 his arrival he found the place an almost natural fortress, as 
 difficult to storm as Tauromanion. Upon one side a sim¬ 
 ilar precipice formed a natural wall, impregnable under 
 any assault. The only thing practicable was to besiege 
 the place, wait until the enemy’s stores gave out and ap¬ 
 ply for a second time, the process of starvation. Cleon, 
 the hitherto unconquerable commander-in chief, held the 
 fort. Eunus and his retinue had also gone back thither, 
 before the siege of Tauromanion opened. Achseus is lost 
 sight of. He is mentioned as dead; but from what cause 
 is unknown. Comanus had fallen at Tauromanion. At 
 the siege, there frequently occurred sorties of bodies of 
 volunteers who would sometimes dash with precipitation 
 from within the walls, cutting, wounding and taking pris¬ 
 oners, numbers often of the consul’s best mem In one of 
 these sallies Cleon, the intrepid chief, now mainstay of the 
 already worn out and fainting slaves, was the leader in 
 person. The number of the party this time proved in¬ 
 sufficient to cope with the force which Rupilius detailed 
 against them and in an effort to extricate them from the 
 peril Cleon himself, in a hand to hand conflict, fell mor¬ 
 tally wounded, a prisoner of the Romans, and expired. 
 
 When the news of the death of this loved and trusted 
 leader came to the ears of Eunus and l)is people, a gen¬ 
 eral gloom overspread the city. Courage was shattered. 
 The king himself lost hope. His faith forsook him and 
 he shrank in horror and despair. X ow followed the work 
 of that perfidious, cruel, with ancient workingmen’s or¬ 
 ganizations, ever-present pest, the traitor. As at Setia, at 
 Sunion, at Tauromanion, so here at Enna, this dangerous 
 gorgon of insidiousness and villainy was at his post with 
 fair words and foul intrigue ready to work his deadly poi¬ 
 son for the enemy and against a friend and thus the keys 
 to the gates of the city were soon after the death of Cleon, 
 
DEATH OF CLEON. THE IGNOBLE CROSS. 229 
 
 delivered to the workingmen’s implaoable foe. Enna fell 
 into the hands of the Romans. 
 
 The wholesale slaughter of the people, all of whom were 
 captured, is an untraced horror. All that we are told by 
 the hints left in fragments of its historians and seen in later 
 commentaries, is that 20,000 of them, including the catas¬ 
 trophe of Tauromanion, bit the dust. The multitude of 
 soldiers, of the aged, of women and children who suffered 
 by sword and cross in other parts of Sicily, may be easily 
 imagined. But at Enna the crucifix for weeks was a busy 
 demon of retribution. A sullen gleam of joy seems to 
 have lit the workers of revenge and to have made the 
 glare of the firebrands of torture and the sobs and moans 
 of the helpless in their hour of agony so cruelly prolonged, 
 moments of a true elysium to the maddened aristocracy 
 with souls steeped in competition whose glaives wreaked 
 as they slashed from heart to heart of these vanquished 
 representatives of labor. 101 
 
 Eunus who had, during his day of fortune, given him¬ 
 self up to luxury and perhaps gluttony, had probably be¬ 
 come demoralized and with him many others. loa A whole 
 people, suddenly changed from abject slavery and degra¬ 
 dation into affluence, becomes in turn, the arrogant mas¬ 
 ter, the owner, lord; and enters and occupies a condition 
 utterly unnatural to their expectations, however well it 
 may conform to their tastes. The result is voluptuous¬ 
 ness and degeneracy. The ten years’ uninterrupted reign 
 of Eunus may have resulted in jealousies and internal dis¬ 
 tempers. How Achseus came to his end is unknown; but 
 suspicion points to some fatal feud between him and Cleon, 
 
 Tne great army of 200,000 soldiers 101 at the time of the 
 junction of Achseus and Cleon is no longer in view upon 
 the arrival of Piso and the first siege of Enna. Where 
 were these legions, invincible at the outbreak of the war ? 
 What Jaad occurred internally ? 
 
 Eunus lost all hope and courage at the death of Cleon; 
 and as Rupilius entered, shrank from his kingly seat and 
 fled with a thousand guards, equally bereft of courage 9 
 
 101 Siefert, 22: “ Die Sklaven wurden unter Martern getfidtet, melst von 
 den liohen FeDen gesturzt. Auch hier (bei Henna) wurden Taueende nieder 
 geliauen ; die Gealiinitzalil der In TaurO in onion und Henna getddtdten Sklaven 
 betrug liber zwanzigtausend,” 102 Buck. S. 76, 
 
 loa Diod. XXXIV. frag, ii; Siefet t, S. 29 ; Btich. S. 66. Bucher and 
 Siefert are agreed in putting the number at 200,000. Livy, Cleon alone, 70,000. 
 
23ft 
 
 EUMJ8. 
 
 hoping to escape to an inaccessible oleft or hiding place 
 in the mountain. This rift of rocks wth its trembling con¬ 
 tents was soon discovered by a straggling party of Roman 
 troops. Physical force was at an end and the omnipotent 
 powers of the humiliated prophet were now all that his ad¬ 
 herents had to fall back upon for succor. The Romans 
 approached and commenced furiously the work of arrest 
 Seeing that the goddess had withdrawn her arm of pro¬ 
 tection, the guards of Eunus, rather than suffer the hor¬ 
 rors of the cruel and ignominious crucifixion, fell to mu¬ 
 tual extermination and by a desperate inter-suicide, rob¬ 
 bed the gibbet of its prey. Eunus with his cook, his baker, 
 his bath attendant and “king’s fool,” 104 having no courage 
 for mutual self-destruction, hid in a deep crevice of the 
 crag. Thither the inexorable Romans followed and drag¬ 
 ged them out. They then hung his kitchen mates upon 
 a cross. 
 
 As to Eunus, he was first taken to the dungeon of Mor- 
 gantion, under guard; afterwards, according to Plutarch, 
 to Rome, (probably the career Tullianus , or one of the 
 underground Mamertine caves) where in excruciating mis¬ 
 ery, covered with vermin and seething in filth, darkness 
 and terror, he ended his extraordinary life. 106 
 
 Rupilius was a man too thorough to leave his work un¬ 
 finished. He sent powerful detachments into every part 
 of Sicily wherever his scouts brought intelligence of any 
 group of rebels still at large. Great numbers of them 
 were seized, brought into head-quarters and thence taken 
 
 m DIod. XXXIV. frag. ii. 22. 
 
 'O&Diod.^ XXXIV. frag. il. 23. Dind. ’*Kai wapaSofleif tit f vAaxrjy, *ai row 
 rttfiarotavTov 8taAu0e>ro? tit 00 eipSiv jrArjflo?, once itat T7js7repi avrov paSiovpyiat 
 KaTtarrpe\]/t tov fttov iv r>j Mopyaurlve Livy. Eplt. XC : “Capitar, carcdre a 
 pediculis devoratur;” Plutarch, in Life of Sylla. 37, says; '‘This 
 aheess,” speaking of Sylla, “corrupted his flesh turning it all into li. e.” ** * 
 “We are told that among the an lents, Acastus, son oi Pelias, died of this 
 sickness; and oi those that come nearer our times, Airmen the poet, Pher- 
 e ydes the divine, Callisthenes t e Olynthian who was kept in close prison, 
 and Mucius the lawyer. And after these we may take noti e of a man who 
 did not distinguish himself by anything laudable, but was noted in another 
 way, it may be mentioned that the fugitive slave Eunus, who kindled up the 
 servile war in Sicily and was afterwards ta en and carried to Home, died 
 there of this disease:” Siefert 22 “Mit 4 seiner Dieufer, dem Koch, dem Backer, 
 dem Badesklaven und dem Lustigrnacner ward er in einer ilolhe geiangeu 
 Er start) im Gefangniss an derL&usekrankheit entweder zn Morgantion Oder 
 Rom." According to Prudontins (Hymn V,) the ancient cavern riso ns 
 were constructed with an object to roduce as much torture a' possible. 
 Other ancuiii authors agree in conveying the idea that human ingenuity was 
 taxed ! n eut si ch hedls. 
 
ZMM AJAiSAXiJiUUiS MUNJJ. 
 
 231 
 
 to the many Dionysian quarries or lapicidinae , dungeons 
 for which Sicily was famous, and those found guilty of di¬ 
 rect participation in the uprising were crucified. But 
 these latter were the most numerous share. All the rest 
 tvere re-delivered to their masters to receive worse treat¬ 
 ment than before. 
 
 Such was the first servile war in Sicily; the greatest 
 labor rebellion or strike, on record in any country or at 
 any time. It was a most suggestive matter; being in¬ 
 spired by, based upon, animated, from its inception and 
 all through by grievances against the conditions regulating 
 labor and relying upon the superstitious idea of a Mes¬ 
 siah, fervently believed, among the ancient poor, to be 
 their promised deliverer. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 ARISTONICUS. 
 
 A BLOODY STRIKE IN ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Fbebdmen, Bondsmen, Tramps and Illegitimates Rise against 0]> 
 pression—Oontagion of monster Strikes—Again the Irasci¬ 
 ble Plan of Rescue tried—Aristonicus of Pergamus—Story 
 of the Murder of Titus Gracchus and of 300 Land Reformers 
 by » Mob of Nobles at Rome—Blossius, a Noble, Espouses 
 the Cause of the Workingmen—He goes to Pergamus—The 
 Heliopolitai —The Commander of tbe Labor Army overpow¬ 
 ers all Resistance—Battle of Leuca—Overthrow of the Rom¬ 
 ans —Death of Orassus—Arrival of the ConsulPaperna—De¬ 
 feat of the Insurgents—Their Punishment—Discouragement 
 and Suicide—Aristonicus strangled, Thousands crucified and 
 the 0 ause Lost—Old Authors Quoted. 
 
 The great uprising or strike, partly of slaves and partly 
 of freedmen, artisans and farmers at Pergamus and in its 
 vicinity, was to some extent the result of the abortive slave 
 revolution in Sicily just described. It is interesting to 
 the student of sociology, but especially so to the student 
 of social life in antiquity, in many respects, if for no other 
 reason than that it occurred but a short distance from 
 Palestine with its Nazareth, its Jerusalem, its thousand 
 memorable scenes that 163-166 years afterwards cradled 
 and founded the mightier, more imperishable revolu¬ 
 tion of Christianity which aimed the final blow at slavery. 
 
 Pergamus, on the river Guicus, was, at the time of tins 
 story, a beautiful city, already ancient in years and vicis¬ 
 situdes. Attalus III., a son of Eumenes, a freaky, cruel 
 and jealous monarch, ruled the place from B. 0. 138 to 
 133, when at his death he transferred it without a con- 
 
RESULTS OF GRACCHUS' ASSASSINATION. *33 
 
 eet to the Romans; so that it was a Roman possession 
 when our story begins. The official news of this testa¬ 
 ment of Attalus was delivered to the delighted Roman 
 Senate in the early fall of B. 0. 183. There had been a 
 great turmoil in Rome, occasioned by the abortive attempt 
 of Titus Gracchus to restore the Lieinian law, making it 
 s crime for any person to hold moi e than 500 acres of 
 land. The entire aristocracy had combined with the 
 most unscrupulous and desperate resistance against Grac¬ 
 chus ; and that same year had murdered him for daring 
 to propose a measure which might curtail their arrogant 
 and altogether illegal seizure and appropriation of the 
 public domain, ager publicus; thus building up a landed 
 aristocracy. The poor people, freedmen and slaves, had 
 been intensely interested in the results of the commotion, 
 which in the assassination of Gracchus by the lords and the 
 overthrow of his noble measure, had been a disaster to 
 them. Finally the defeat of Eunus and his army of revo¬ 
 lutionists in Sicily, at that moment accomplished by Rupil- 
 ius, added to the woe of the entire plebeian class. But 
 now, as if this misfortune was not enough o till their 
 cup of bitterness, the news arrives from Asia Minor, a 
 country in which the trade and labor unions were mo 'o 
 splendidly organized than almost any other part of tne 
 world, 1 that Pergamus and the whole rich province of 
 Eumenes and his successors, was, without a struggle, 
 turned over to the greedy Romans, with its beautiful and 
 fertile valleys of the Guicus and tributaries, to become 
 the scene of human slavery and its extended horrors. Al¬ 
 ready this terrible institution was planted there, compet¬ 
 ing with free labor. But this free labor is proved by the 
 inscriptions to have been so well organized and so self- 
 sustaining that it could exist under almost any government 
 except that of the conquering, trampling Romans. The 
 news, then, that Pergamus had been deeded to Rome, 
 without even consulting her people, was a mournful shadow 
 which the proletarian class, if we judge by what followed, 
 oertainly interpreted to mean the doom of liberty and or¬ 
 ganization. Plutarch thinks that human slavery and its 
 booty had much to do with this strange transaction, which 
 afforded Gracchus a chance to argue for an immediate 
 
 1 tupUi* xlx. Miii XXL 
 
234 
 
 ARISTONICUS. 
 
 distribution of money and lands, left in the testament oi 
 
 the dead king, among the poor, under this new agrarian 
 
 measure which had actually passed and become a law.* 
 
 Of course such a proposition only exasperated the Roman 
 
 lords to the frenzy which burst into a tumultuous mob 
 
 and ended in that eloquent, well-meaning tribune’s violent 
 
 death, followed by a great insurrection or mob of the 
 
 Roman lords and the murder of over 300 work people at 
 
 Rome. There has been considerable comment by the his- 
 
 %/ 
 
 torians and others, as to the legality of the testament of 
 Attalus,® who at the time of his death is thought by his 
 strange conduct to have been insane. 
 
 Attains had a half brother named Aristonicus, a natural 
 son of E umenes by a woman of the place who was a daughter 
 of a musician whom probably the royal family had em¬ 
 ployed. According to a clause in the law of succession it 
 appears that this person, now a strong, ambitious and vig¬ 
 orous man, was the real heir apparent to the throne, al¬ 
 though only half noble and the other half plebeian by 
 birth. He certainly submitted with a bad grace to the 
 arbitrary testament of the dead king, which, it was sus¬ 
 pected, had been accomplished through intriguing Roman 
 lawyers often seen hovering about the palace. 4 Aristoni¬ 
 cus entered his claim to the throne immediately after the 
 tyrant’s death. He entered into the new project with 
 energy. Nor was he without friends. The largest part oi 
 the kingdom favored his pretention. There were many 
 cities of some dimensions lying in the valleys of the river 
 Gaicus and its tributaries, nearly all of which determined 
 for him from the start as their future king. By the ap¬ 
 pearance of things Aristonicus was not only one of the 
 common people but very popular among them. Like the 
 
 * Plntarch, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, 14, Oros. V. 8. Gracchus had not 
 met his fate when Eudamus delivered the testament, of Attalus to the Romans. 
 
 8 Livy, Epitom. LVIII., LVIX. which give us enough to show that Livy also 
 wrote the history of this great mutiny which he calls a helium servile. Oros. V. 
 8. 10. Strabo, XIII. Sallust, IV, Historiarum PopulA Romani Libri, fragments 
 4 Fumenem, cujus amicitiam gloriose ostentant initio prodidere Antiocho paci. 
 nercedem; post Attalum custodem agri captivi sumtibus et contumeliis ex 
 ege miserrumnm servornm effecere: simulatoqne Impio testamento, fllium ejns 
 Aristonicum, quia patrium reguum petiverat. hostium more per triumphant 
 luxere: Asiaab ipsls obsessa est: postremototamBithyniam, Nicomede mortuo, 
 iiripuere, cum filing Nusaj, nuam reginam appellaverant. genitns baud dubis 
 sset.” Filch. Aujti. S. 108. 
 
 ^Dlod. XXXIV,, frags, iu and 111, Oros. V. 10. Strabo, XIV. p. 646 Polyl 
 
CITIZENS OF THE SUN. 
 
 235 
 
 rest, he was a castaway. Rome haughtily refused to re¬ 
 cognize his claim. A number of cities like Colophon, 
 Myndum, and thickly populated places as Samos, even if 
 they wished to side with him, were afraid of the Romans. 
 To secure them it was necessary to use armed force. 
 Aristonicus soon found himself at the head of a consider¬ 
 able army and also a little navy consisting of a number 
 of ships. From the palace he had obtained some money 
 and with it he hired Thracian freedmen as mercenaries, a 
 common practice of those times. Besides these, many of 
 the soldiers were those who formerly had done duty for 
 his brother. 
 
 The Ephesians, seeing the turn things were taking sent 
 a fleet against him which completely destroyed his little 
 squadron near the coast opposite Cyme. Aristonicus now 
 determined to depend upon trying his fortunes by land. 
 
 Great numbers of slaves having heard of the success of 
 Eunus in Sicily, and fearing, as well they might, that the 
 occupation of Pergamus by the Romans would result in 
 their worse degradation, were ready to welcome the new 
 adventurer. The organized freedmen had cause for still 
 greater fears. It was at the commencement of those days 
 of persecution of trade unions by the Romans which cul¬ 
 minated B. C. 58, in a law for their suppression. 6 The 
 workingmen of antiquity possessed means of conveying 
 intelligence of their hopes, fears and methods from one 
 center or post to another; and it is ascertained that in 
 this war of the pretender to the throne of Pergamus, large 
 numbers, not only of slaves, but also of freedmen joined 
 his army, although it was always known as the servile war. 
 
 In the interior he found the slaves already in rebellion. 
 They had raised in a great insurrection, murdered their 
 masters, taken possession of their estates 6 and were or¬ 
 ganizing an army when Aristonicus appeared before them 
 making overtures for their mutual assistance. He offered 
 them their freedom and a respectable place in the army. 
 He promised them that on the result of success he would 
 build up a state based on their ideal of freedom and equal¬ 
 ity as had been advocated in the meetings of the unions. 
 
 » See chaps, xii to xviii, containing full accounts with foot notes of proof 
 reference. 
 
 «D od. XXXIV. frag . iiL 
 
286 
 
 ARISTONICUS. 
 
 The eranoi and thiasoi' existed in great numbers on this 
 coast of Asia Minor, especially at Cyme, Pergamos and 
 Samos. These, in common with those in Greece, Syria, and 
 the islands, had established a culture of democracy. The 
 promise made to these confiding people was that they should 
 have the enjoyment of their rights guaranteed them and 
 should be made full citizens; their state which the new 
 monarch was to govern for them was to be the “ sun ” among 
 nations and they were to be the ennobled, dazzling citizens 
 of the sun, Heliopolitai. Such a condition bespoke almost 
 the opposite of what they had ever seen in human govern¬ 
 ment. The old groundwork of Greek government was one 
 of lordship and bondsmen, dividing mankind by a gap so 
 wide that it could scarcely be passed by leaps of fortune or 
 aptitude. Yet they seem to have been able to comprehend 
 the force of these promises. The discussions they had pre¬ 
 viously had in their societies had prepared them to receive 
 and appreciate the promise. On the other hand they were 
 to work with an obedient will and help the new king to estab¬ 
 lish himself on the throne. Dr. Bucher 8 points out that 
 the dazzling idea of becoming such citizens of the sun was 
 what enraptured and won the slaves of Enna and all Sicily 
 over to Emms during the great servile war. The more 
 ancient Syrian religion had been that of sun-worship, and 
 their sun-god was equivalent in power and importance to 
 the Greek Jove.® The Syrians had an idea that their sun- 
 worship was done to a sun-god and goddess; the god being 
 equal to Jupiter and the goddess to Deineter or Ceres. So 
 we hear of Emms pretending to be the chosen represent a¬ 
 tive of Ceres, who made the sun warm the fruits of the 
 earth. Like the Greek gods who dwelt on the height of 
 Olympus the ouranos or vaulted dome of heaven, so Adad 
 and Atargatis, the sun-god and goddess of the Syrians, 10 had 
 their celestial home on the plateau eminence between the 
 twin mountains of Lebanon, at the source of the Orontes, 
 whose waters swept the foot of Antioch. Sun and earth 
 
 t For eranos and thiasos , the ancient Greek-speaking labor onions, see chap. 
 
 xlx. infra. 
 
 s A ufst&nde der Unfreien Arbeiter , S. 106. Der name der Ilellopoliten weist 
 darauf bin, (lass es derselbe war darch welchen Ennns seine Syrer fanatisirte.” 
 
 * Macrobius Salunialioruin Libri, 1,13,10, Eyssenhardt, l»6b: “*A8»ymquoque 
 solem sub nomine Jovis, quem Aia 'HAiou7roA.tTm'Cognominant, maxiwis cerimo- 
 uiia celebrant in civitate quae Heliopolis nunc ipatur ” 
 
 iu Strabo Xll. 
 
BIS FIRST VICTORIES . 
 
 237 
 
 ire within their power which is all that is glory, goodness 
 and light. Thus these poor enslaved beings, stunted by 
 hard labor and sufferings, either as slaves under the master’s 
 lash or as freedmen whose organizations are threatened or 
 broken up, and whose business is lost—they being already 
 in a state of insurrection—quickly grasped the offer of Aris- 
 tonicus and became his soldiers. 
 
 Thus began another great strike or uprising of the labor- 
 class ; this time in far off Asia Minor, that was destined to 
 add one more link to the already immense concatenation of 
 circumstances leading to the great revolution of Jesus. But 
 it may be looked upon as a most necessary thing in the 
 stubborn logic of a fiat , in order that mankind might be 
 taught the utter fallacy of any vengeful policy based upon 
 the purely irascible, combating the acquisitive or concupis¬ 
 cent impulses of human nature. 
 
 Aristouicus began the war with slaves and freedmen as 
 soldiers, in a manner similar to that of Eutius. His object 
 was to become a king over a socialistic state. We are not 
 aware of the number of cities that refused him, but it must 
 have been considerable. 11 These he stormed and on forcing 
 an entrance, plundered and treated with cruelty. The first 
 city taken was Thyratira; the next Apollonis—large towns 
 built by the Atalse and Seleucidm. 
 
 Conquest followed and city after city fell into the hands 
 of the pretender and his rebel army. This successful cam¬ 
 paign continued until we find them in possession of the en¬ 
 tire kingdom. Nothing is imparted to us in regard to 
 whether the neighboring slaves rebelled against their mas¬ 
 ters, in imitation of these proceedings at Pergamus. 
 
 At Rome, little or nothing was clone during the year B, 
 C. 133-132, to quell the new uprising in Asia. The great 
 city was still trembling midst the cyclonic billows of the 
 Gracchan revolt. Thenew servile wars atRome and Capua, 
 excited to a high pitch by the affair of Gracchus and his 
 agrarian law was a dangerous rekindling of the war of Eunus. 
 Titus Gracchus during this period was assassinated, as we 
 shall soon relate, and a large detachment of the Roman army 
 was still absent in Sicily under Rupilius, putting down th^ 
 
 \ 
 
 11 Sallust wrote a full history of the war but his detail* are all gone. Noth¬ 
 ing of his valuable history remains except fragment*, some of them so broken 
 as to contain only half a line. 
 
238 
 
 AMSTON1CUS. 
 
 immense social upheaval recounted in the preceding chapter. 
 
 Thus, for a short time Rome had no time to turn atten¬ 
 tion toward her new territory' of Pergamus bequeathed her 
 by Attalus III. When the news, however, reached the city 
 that the pretender was earnestly and successfully making 
 headway and with the armed proletaries, rapidly achieving 
 their object, the Romans awoke to a realization of the truth. 
 But wherever the promise of booty showed itself they were 
 seldom known to lie negligent or apathetic. 
 
 The two consuls for the year 131 were P. Licinius Cras- 
 sus Mucianus and L. Valerius Flaccus. According to an 
 old usage, Licinius Orassus was the Pontifix Maximus, and 
 as such, through a religious superstition, could not leave 
 Italy. Pagan religion also interposed against the other con¬ 
 sul taking the field ; he being Flamen Martialis to his col¬ 
 league There arose a dispute among the senators, and the 
 illustrious name of Scipio Africanus was brought up for the 
 general command of the expedition. But this plan was re¬ 
 jected and it was at last resolved to send Orassus, who had 
 been one of the ardent friends of Gracchus and his land re¬ 
 form, and for this reason was beloved by the common peo¬ 
 ple. Another reason for preferring him for the command 
 of the expedition was, that he was not only master of the 
 Greek but also spoke its Asiatic dialects; and having ex¬ 
 hibited talent as an orator, he was believed to possess a 
 variety of abilities necessary to insure success. 1 * 
 
 He set sail from Rome during the early part of the year, 
 with his whole army and the navy constituting in all a large 
 force, and with a prosperous voyage on the Mediterranean 
 arrived safely in the harbor of Pergamus. 1 * He had no 
 other idea than to make himself master of the new legacy 
 of Pergamus; for it does not appear, because he sympa¬ 
 thized with Gracchus and the Italian proletariat, that he 
 even understood or cared in the least, for an almost exactly 
 similar state of suffering and somewhat similar movement 
 in Asia. The question of sympathy with the poor seems to 
 illy befit the objects of the commander of the expedition 
 
 12 Valerius Maximus VIII. 7, 0: “Jam P, Orassus, cum In Asiarn ad Aria- 
 tonicum regem Sebellaudum conBiil venisset. tanta cura (Irrocae linguae notltlam 
 animo comprehendit, ut earn in quinqne divisam genera per omnes partes an 
 uumeros penitus cognosceret- Quaeres maximum ei sociorum amorem concl- 
 liavit. qna quis eorum lingua apud tribaral illiug postulaverat, eadem lecreU 
 reddenti.” Cic. Phil. XI, 8,18. 
 
 Cell. I. 13. 11. 
 
ARRIVAL OF B LOS Si US 
 
 233 
 
 against Aristonicus. It would seem that the impulses of 
 tenderness he had manifested for Gracchus and the Italian 
 poor and his rising power shown by his election might have 
 played a deal in deciding upon Crassus against Scipio to 
 get him out of the way. 
 
 On landing, Crassus had interviews with Nicomedes, king 
 of Bithynia; Mithradates, king of Pontus; Ariarthes, king of 
 Cappadocia and Pylaemenes of Paphlagonia; all of whom 
 were seriously alarmed about the labor agitation, expect¬ 
 ing similar uprisings would take place in their own terri¬ 
 tories ; and they were probably trembling in view of the 
 danger. They all eagerly joined with the Romans in their 
 effort to put down the rebels. Each pledged himself to 
 contribute a strong force of troops. 
 
 On the other hand, Aristonicus, in addition to his prole¬ 
 taries, had also engaged another body of soldiers, consisting, 
 of Thracian mercenaries. Phocsea, one of the finest cities 
 supported him and many others staked their interests in him. 
 But his best piece of fortune was meeting with Blossius of 
 Cumae, a stoic, who infused with the spirit of the movement 
 of Gracchus and also of Eunus of Sicily, had risen in Asia 
 Minor as advocate of the rights of mankind and become a 
 social reformer. 14 Plutarch tells the full story of Blossius, 
 We reproduce his and other points. 
 
 A man named Blossius from the Italian municipium of 
 Cumae, subject to Rome, who, it appears, was an educated 
 patrician, for some cause unexplained became greatly 
 charmed by the majestic eloquence of Gracchus and his ex¬ 
 traordinary defense of the poor working population of Italy. 
 What inspired him to it may be conjectured to have existed 
 in some degree independently of an enthusiasm for one man. 
 The city of Cumae was itself a home of labor unions. 1 * It 
 was about that time also that persecutions, frowns and 
 threats had set in against labor organizations of every kind. 
 Roman aristocracy had lived to see the steady growth of 
 human liberty and was shrewd enough to perceive that trade 
 unionism was a potent factor in its promotion. Labor 
 unions took a political shape notwithstanding the severe 
 
 14 Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, 17, 20; Valerius Maximus, IV. 7, 1; Cicero, 
 Latl., 11, 37. 
 
 16 Orellius, Inscritionum Latinai~um Collectio, Nos. 2,263, 6,422, 6,463, 6,158, 
 131. These figures refer to slabs of stone on which are found inscribed the reg- 
 istsrs of collegii or trade unions < umm must have been a hive of unions at that 
 time. 
 
240 
 
 ARISTON1CUS. 
 
 laws against them. To head off these tendencies of organ¬ 
 ized labor, existing not only in Cumse but everywhere, the 
 Roman lords were combined almost to a man, heart and 
 soul and with malignant determination, to destrov them. 
 To do this the more effectually they appealed to the avari¬ 
 cious instincts of the so-called citizen class, portraying the 
 immense individual wealth which might be developed from 
 the great accessions of stock and farm lands falling to the 
 Roman arms through conquest. This wealth was already 
 in many places being realized and the power to be used for 
 its development was human slavery. The slave power was 
 the muscle of the subjugated tillers of the land. But to 
 accomplish this there must be rigorous laws for suppressing 
 free labor. Gracchus, who had seen the horrors of slavery 
 in Etruria while once traveling through that country on 
 business, had determined to devote his life to the rescue of 
 the slaves and threatened freedmen. Blossius saw him and 
 they became intimate friends. 
 
 On the morning of the fatal patrician mob, “ Gracchus,” 
 says Plutarch, “who was a grandson of Scipio African us, 
 set off for the Forum of Rome when he heard that the pop¬ 
 ulace were gathering there ; but not without a presentiment 
 of ill omen. A brace of snakes had laid eggs in his highly 
 ornamented helmet. The chickens from whose entrails the 
 aruspex was to forshadow his augury, refused to come from 
 their coop and eat. Two black ravens were seen fighting 
 on the roof of a house and one of them rattled a stone down 
 at his feet.” 16 All these were bad omens 11 which to those 
 superstitious people proved so disastrous by prostrating their 
 faith, hopes and consciences in many an hour of trial and 
 caused disasters more terrible than their enemies themselves. 
 The boldest of the comrades of Gracchus were staggered. 
 Further than this, when he left the threshold of his home, 
 Gracchus had stumbled and hurt his toe so badly that it bled 
 profusely. Blossius was with him, and it seems was the 
 spokesman of the train. 
 
 Gracchus, like many anot her leader among the ancients, 
 shrank at this array of ill omens, but Blossius dissuaded him 
 from his timid design of returning by the following per- 
 
 18 Plutarch, Titus Gracchus. 
 
 17 Fustel de Coulanges, Cit£ Antique, is the beat work we can refer to for an 
 explanation of the influence of superstitions in ancient times. For tho supersti¬ 
 tions themselves, see Julias Obsequens, de Prodiffiis, passim. 
 
BLOSSIUS GOES TO ASIA . 
 
 241 
 
 Buasive speech: “For Tiberias Gracchus, grandson of 
 Scipio African us and tribune of the Bomans, to be scared at 
 a crow, and disappoint the people who are assembled to re¬ 
 ceive his aid,would bean unendurable disgrace. His enemies 
 would not alone laugh at such a blunder but they would 
 malign him to the common people as an insolent tyrant.” 
 Friends also now came to herald the fact that a great num¬ 
 ber of people were gathering and were impatient of his ar¬ 
 rival and that all was calm. 
 
 The outcome of it was that Gracchus yielded, but was 
 soon beset by one of those terrible mobs of Boman nobles 
 and their hirelings, denounced as an ambitious schemer who 
 wanted nothing but the votes and support of the rabble and 
 intended to make himself tyrant of Koine. They set upon 
 the defenceless man and murdered him with kicksand clubs. 
 
 So great was the faith of Blossius in Gracchus that when 
 afterwards asked if he would have burned the capitol had 
 he been commanded by him to do so, he replied that Grac¬ 
 chus was too wise to have made such a command, but sup¬ 
 plemented it when pressed with the daring answer that he 
 should have obeyed, 18 Blossius, notwithstanding the trea¬ 
 son, escaped and was not pursued, probably because he was 
 thought to be infatuated. He now bent his course toward 
 Asia Minor 19 and joined his learning and influence to the 
 insurrection of the freedmen and slaves, under the leader¬ 
 ship of Aristonicus. 
 
 We now return to the career of Publius Crassus, a rela¬ 
 tive of the Gracchi—Cuius, the brother of Tiberius Gracchus, 
 having married his daughter Licinia. As mentioned, he had 
 no sympathy whatever with the emancipation movement 
 which was then raging over the known world, excepting 
 
 18 Cicero, Lcelius. 11. makes this account almost exactly simiiar with that of 
 Plutarch, or of Valerius Maximus Lit Amictiia, VIII vii 1; k Nam cum senates 
 Rupilta a- Lteuati consulibus mandasaet, ut in eos qui cum Gracchooonsenser- 
 ant, more majormn an .mail verterent: et ad Laslium, cujus consi.io p:ajcique 
 consules u’ebantur, pro se Blossius deprecatum venisset, familiaritatisque ex- 
 cusatione uteretur, atque is dixisset. Quid site Gracchus templo Jovis Opt. 
 Max faces subdere jussisset; obsecutnruene volontat il'.ius, propter istam quam 
 iactas familiaritatem, fusses? Nuuquam isted, inquit. Gracchus imperii:-set. 
 Satis, imo etiam nimium ; totius namque senatus.consensu damnatos mores <ie- 
 fendere ausus est Veram quod sequitur. multoandacius, muitoque peiiculosiua; 
 compresses cnim } erseveranti interrogatione Laeli, in eodem con si an tiro grade 
 stetlt: seque ctiam hoc, si modo t-racchus anmrsset. 'acturum respondit. 
 
 19 Valerius Maximus, idem note of Tbyss. “'libe ium et Caiun),fratircs,ob 
 gravissimas seditioncs, quas ia podulo suis legibus e citabant nostes a Sccatu 
 ruisse jndicatos. et ut/»umque a nobiiitate ccesum, aiterum a Nasico, alterum ab 
 Opimid. Quo tandem caeso. Blossius ad Arietonicum regem confugit. Brolii 
 gatis deinde rebus Aristonici, mortem sibi comivit.” 
 
242 
 
 ARIS TONIC US. 
 
 bo far as that of Koine proper was concerned. He landed 
 at or near Pergamus and formed an alliance with the princes 
 of the Pergamenian kingdom and the kings of Bithynia, 
 Pontus, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, engaged as many na¬ 
 tive soldiers as possible and with his own army and the 
 auxiliaries, made an assault upon Leucae, a strongly fortified 
 city. A protracted siege must have followed; for he was 
 there fighting in the following winter, when his consulship 
 had nearly expired. He was laying his plans to leave for 
 Borne when entrapped and surprised by the arrival of heavy 
 reinforcements for Aristonicus. Crassus was forced to give 
 battle and was totally defeated. He was himself surrounded 
 by the enemy and taken prisoner. Treated no doubt, with 
 severity, and discouraged if not distracted, he sought death 
 rather than disgrace; and one day, infuriating one of the 
 Thracian mercenaries by a punch in the eye with his riding 
 whip, the latter plunged his sword through his body and 
 killed him on the spot. 20 The head of the dead Roman 
 general was cut off and the body taken to Smyrna and 
 buried. 
 
 In the meantime, at the comitia at Rome, M. Paperna 
 had been elected one of the new consuls for the year 130. 
 The news of the turn of military things in Asia Minor cast 
 an alarm at the home government and Paperna was fitted 
 out and soon on his way with an army large enough to 
 crush the forces of Aristonicus at a blow. Arrived in Mysia 
 and receiving the particulars of the disaster of Crassus at 
 Leucae he betook himself to the spot where the slaughter 
 occurred. The time of year when he arrived must have 
 been March or late in February; for Aristonicus was yet at 
 winter quarters. 
 
 Before the latter could prepare himself for resistance, 
 Paperna fell upon him by surprise. A great battle ensued 
 in which Aristonicus was totally overthrown. With the 
 
 20 Valerius Maximus, HL.H. 12, De Fortitudine: “Militia hujus in adverso 
 oasu tam egregius tainque virilis animus, quarn relaturus sum imperatoris. P. 
 enim Crassus cum Anstonico bellum in Asia gerens, a Thracibus, quorum is 
 magnum in prassidio habebat, inter Eleam et Smyrnam exceptus, ne in ditionem 
 ejus perveniret; dedecus, accersita ratione mortis, effugit. Virgam enim, qua 
 ad regendum equum usus fuerat, in unius barbari oculum direxit. Qui vi doloria 
 accensus, latus Crassi sica confodit: dumque se uloiscitur, Romanum impera- 
 torem majestatis amisste turpitudine liberavit. Ostendit fortunae Crassus, quam 
 indignum virum tam gravi contumelia afficere voluisset; quoniam quidem in- 
 lectos ab ea libertati suae miserabiles laqucos prudenter partier aclortiter rupit, 
 datumque se jam Avistonico, digmtati suie reddidit.’’ Cic. Legg. III. 19, 4'2: 
 Strabo XII. 
 
BATTLES OF LEUC^E AND S TRA TONIC AS. 24:: 
 
 shattered remnant of his army he fled to Stratoniose but 
 was doggedly followed by the Romans who surrounded 
 the place and starved him to a capitulation. With most of 
 the slaves he fell a prisoner to the Romans. 
 
 Paperna’s time being about to expire—the manoeuvres, 
 cross marching and other vicissitudes of the campaign hav¬ 
 ing absorbed the summer—Aristonicus, with a portion of 
 his rebel soldiers and officers, was conveyed back in irons 
 to Pergamus. Paperna pressed his design to take his 
 distinguished prisoner, as well as the Pergamenian treasure 
 bequeathed by Attalus III, back to Rome, before the arrival 
 of the new consul should deprive him of his laurels; since 
 it was often the habit in such cases, where the counsulship 
 lasted but a year, for the new comer who had done nothing, 
 to bereave the real winner of his honors, if the latter’s works 
 were incomplete. Just before Aquilius the new counsul ap¬ 
 peared on the stage, Paperna was taken sick at Pergamus, 
 and died. 21 
 
 A word remains to be said as to the probable fate of the 
 poor slaves and freedmen who formed the principle part of 
 the army of revolution. Almost nothing is left us on this 
 point. Aristonicus it is known, was taken by sea to Rome 
 in chains and strangled in the cell of his prison, B. C. 129. 
 His ardent and faithful friend Blossius of Cumae, seeing his 
 cause, and lifework, thus ground to powder between the 
 millstones of Roman power, desired no longer to live. In 
 his philosophy of human equality which this defeat had 
 praciically extinguished, death seemed preferable to a lonely 
 existence and he put an end to himself. 
 
 But what of the rank and file? It would seem by the 
 silence itself of historians and the otherwise unaccountable 
 delay of Paperna at the scene of his victory—delay which 
 brought his departure for Pergamus late into the following 
 fall although the battle was fought in the early spring— 
 nearly the entire summer had been consumed in the horri¬ 
 ble work of crucifying the unfortunate working-people who, 
 
 « Valerius Maximus, III. iv, 5: De Humili Loco Natis. *• Non parvus consul- 
 atus rubor M. Perperna, utpote qui consul ante quam civis; sed in bello gerendo 
 utilioraliquantoreipub. Varroneimperatore. Regem euim Aristonicum cepit, 
 Cuassianaeque stragis punitor extitit. Cum interim cujus vitatriumpliavit, mora 
 Papia lege damnata est. Namque patrem illiu?. nihil adse pertinentia civis Rom¬ 
 ani jura complexum,Sabelli judicio petitum, redire in pristinas sedes coegerunt. 
 ita M. Perpernse nomen adumbratum, falsus consulatus, caliginis simile imper- 
 ium, caducus triumphus, alieua in urbe improbe peregrinatus est.” 
 
244 
 
 ARISTONIQUtk 
 
 through that battle, had lost their cause.” Could there 
 have remained to us one faithful copy describing the scenes 
 of vengeance 23 and the dangling corpses left rotting on the 
 gibbets of Stratonicse in Carea, we should then have a chron¬ 
 icle of things perfectly harmonious wiih the brutal nature 
 
 22 Plato, Laws, book IX. chap. 9, in giving bis directions regarding the treat- 
 ment of a slave who is a murderer or accessory to the crime, lays down the rule 
 that if a freeman or citizen commit homicide he shall be turned over to the mur¬ 
 dered man’s relatives, who have the power to redeem him for money, for good 
 previous conduct, or through the intercession of his friends. If however, the 
 crime be committed upon a citizen by a slave, such offender is to be handed 
 over to the relatives who are to torture or otherwise punish him without limit, 
 as they please: the only proviso being that the torture or punishment shall not 
 stop short of death. This is Plato’s state of the “Blessed”—lenient in comparison 
 with the existing laws—and as the customs of the Greek-speaking Asians and 
 islanders were fully as severe as those ol the Athenians and fellow countrymen of 
 Plato, it cannot be supposed that anything less than death could have befallen 
 the victims of Paperna. The following is Plato’s law; which we give in English: 
 “ If a slave kills his master in a passion, let the kindred of the deceased use the 
 murderer in whatever manner they please, and be clean of the acts, so long aa 
 they do not by any means preserve the life of the slave.” But in the same law 
 Plato rules that this happy republic shall “ let him who kills his owu slave, un¬ 
 dergo a purification.” (Translation of Burges). Surely a human low-born was 
 considered inferior to a dog, for that animal was often exempt by reason of his 
 irresponsibility! 
 
 2S That this was a genuine labor rebellion there seem to be no grounds for 
 doubt. Dr. Bucher, Anjstdnde der Unfreien Arbeiter, S. 107-8, iu the following 
 significant language bi’ings forward the question of the prevailing ideas of those 
 people, especially the laboring class, whose organizations were being seriously 
 threatened by these events; These Altalic societies had always hitherto 
 been not only befriended but protected by the Pergamenian kings. Wa 
 quote the words of Dr. Bucher on the Dionysian Communists: “Di&letztere 
 bestand darin, das sich die Feiernden durch Weihen nnd Siihnungen. durch Up- 
 pige Tiinze unter dem Klang der Flote und der Handpauke in sinnheriickenden 
 Taumel und wilde Begeisterung versetzten, in der sie sich zur Gottheit empor- 
 zuschwingen, Wunder selien und verrichten zu konnfcn meinten. Wenn gerade 
 damals diese Kulte aucli im eigentlichen Grieclienland in einer grossen Zahl von 
 geschlossenen Vereinen undfrommen Bruderschaften gepflegt wurdeu (S. 34. 92), 
 so istdas, was ihnen Verbreitung verscliaffte, nicht sowolil das Zaubermeereinea 
 schrankenlosen Sinnenrausches, in das sich ein unbefriedigtes, iiberreiites Ge~ 
 schlechtso gern versenkt, als vielmehrdie diosen Genossenschaften eigenthum- 
 liche, der socialen Anschaungsweise der Hellenen fremde Gleichstellung aller 
 Mitglieder, mochten sie Grieclien odor Barbaren, Manner Oder Frauen, Freid 
 Oder Sklaven sein. Darnach ist die Bezeichnung, BUrger der Sonnenstadt, zu 
 beurtheilen; sie schied die Anhanger des Aristonikos als die gliiubige Gemeinds 
 des Adad von den Unglaubigen, die verbriiderten Armen und Elenden von Ihrea 
 feindlichen Bedrangern, wiewirden von Eunns auf den Schild gehobenen Namcit 
 der ‘ Syrer ’ demzufolge aucli nach der religiosen fjeite werdeu zu nelimen haben, 
 als das Kennzeiclien der Anhanger der Atargatis.” This Atargatis was the ver¬ 
 itable goddess Ceres, protectress of labor, of whom we have already spoken so 
 much in our chapters on the Eleusinian Mysteries, and on Eunus and Athenion 
 of Sicily. Several coincident circumstances crowd themselves into this connec¬ 
 tion, to-wit: This Is the prolific, original soil of the early Christian church. Thu 
 apostles must have used the.-e half-smothered communes, ready in advance, per* 
 force their own previous cult, to embrace any new idea that promised relief; 
 for the rebellion having failed, all the free farmers, mechanics and laborers were 
 dragged down to slavery; and their condition was, at the beginning of our era 
 infinitely worse than it had ever been before. Again, this very spot together 
 with the adjacent islands, is to this day the repository of innumerable inscrip¬ 
 tions—the marvel of Archaeologists—which begin tube the subject ol coatentio. 
 among scholors who are averse to recognizing euch a tiling an a labor move 
 Uient, and who are consequently nonplussed regarding anything other than thab 
 
AGAIN THE GIBBET. 
 
 245 
 
 of the Homans and bearing the reflex of probability, in the 
 similar pictures of horrors which, in every other case we 
 have described, were painted by the historians’ pen, as in 
 letters of blood, warning all workingmen of the ghastly 
 wages of rebellion. We are left no personal description 
 even of the hero of this great uprising which involved 3 
 years of savage fighting, many drawn battles with the 
 Asians, the siege and taking of several fortified cities, and 
 the defeat and disastrous overthrow of one large, well-gen- 
 eraled and thoroughly equipped consular army of Rome. 
 All we know is the short but numerous and fully corrobo¬ 
 rated statements given as cold and feelingless facts, by 
 chroniclers of different periods, different nationality, senti¬ 
 ment and language. To suppose this to have been an ex¬ 
 ception to the deeply fixed habit of intimidation and con¬ 
 dign vengeance of the Romans, or that these rebel work¬ 
 men were treated with more lenity than those who had es¬ 
 poused the cause of Eunus and Cleon, or were to esnmse 
 in the coming struggles of Trypkon and Athenion or of 
 Spartacus and Crixus, would be to admit that unheard of 
 departure of the Romans from a fixed principle. No; the 
 scenes of blood-spilling which followed the downfall of Aris- 
 tonicus were appalling. Bat that very blood was the seed 
 of a sect which soon afterwards, near that very region, bore 
 fruits destined to destroy the Pagan system of slavery and 
 to rear a new one based upon kindness, forbearance, mutual 
 love, brotherhood and recognized equality of the human 
 race. 
 
 • 
 
 own debatable grounds regarding their origin as well as their immense numbers. 
 What were they; who were they; whence are they V Our answer is that they 
 were nothing other than labor societies, which lor hundreds of years had been 
 legalized at home, in Greece, in Egypt. (See Herodotus, H. 164-8 and 177, which 
 makes it almost certain that Solon earned his law from Eygpt), everywhere: 
 but which the then existing anti-labor hostility at Pome, caused by the re- d 
 of Roman land and slave speculators and their politicians, was in a desperate 
 struggle to subdue, by a measure (which they finally passed), known in modern 
 times as conspiracy laws. Alter this hostility set in, the poor creatures were 
 obliged iu conformity to some law, to shield themselves by the cloak of ostenta¬ 
 tions religions rites, graved into their’ inscriptions; and it is here that the arch 
 geologists are misled. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 ENORMOUS STRIKE AND UPRISING IN SICILY. 
 
 Second Sicilian Labor-War— Tryphon and Athenion—Greed 
 and Irascibility Again Grapple—The War Plan of Salvation 
 Repeated by Slaves and Tramps—Athenion, another remark¬ 
 able General Steps Forth—Castle of the Twins in a Hideou* 
 Forest—Slaves goaded to Revolt by Treachery and Intrigue 
 of a Politician—Rebellion and the Clangor of War—Battle 
 in the Mountains—A Victory for the Slaves at the Height* 
 of Engyon—Treachery of Gaddseus the Freebooter—Decoy 
 and Crucifixions—Others cast Headlong over a Precipice— 
 The Strike starts up Afresh at Heraclea Minoa—Murder of 
 Cloni us a rich Roman Knight—Escape of Slaves from his 
 Ergastulum —Sharp Battles under the Generalship of Salyius 
 —Strife rekindles in the West—Battle of Alaba—The Pro¬ 
 prietor punished for his bad Administration—Victory Again 
 Wreathes a Laural for the Lowly—A vast Uprising in West¬ 
 ern Sicily—Athenion the Slave Shepherd—Another Fanatical 
 Crank of Deeds—Rushing the Struggle for Existence—Fierce 
 Battles and Blood-spilling—What Ordinary Readers of His¬ 
 tory have not heard of—Fourth Battle; Triokala—Meek 
 Sacrifices by the Slaves, to the Twins of Jupiter and Tha¬ 
 lia—March to Triokala—Jealousy—Great Battle and Car¬ 
 nage—Athenion Wounded—He escapes to Triokala and re¬ 
 covers—Fifth Battle—Lucullus marches to the Working- 
 men’s Fortifications—Batte of Triokala—The Outcasts Vic¬ 
 torious—Lucullus is lost from View—Sixth Battle—Servil- 
 ius, another Roman General Overthrown—The Terrible 
 Athenion Master of Sicily and King over all the Working- 
 People—Seventh and Final Field Conflict—Battle of Macella 
 —Death of Athenion—Victory this Time for the Romans— 
 End of the Rebellion—Satyros, a powerful Greek Slave es¬ 
 capes to the Mountains with a Force of Insurgent*— They 
 
A CONGRESS OF RUNAWAY SLA VES 
 
 S47 
 
 are finally lured co a Capitulation by Aquillius who treacher¬ 
 ously breaks Faith and consigns them as Gladiators to Rome 
 —They fight the Eighth and last Battle in the Roman Am¬ 
 phitheatre among wild Beasts—A ghastly mutual Suicide— 
 The Reaction—Treachery of Aquillius Punished—The Gold- 
 Workers pour melted Gold down his Throat. 
 
 An enormous and memorable uprising or strike, both of 
 slaves and wage workers of antiquity, occurred in Sicily, be¬ 
 ginning 29 years after the close of the war of Eunus, which 
 ended B. 0. 133, bringing the date at B. C. 104. 
 
 As in the account we have given of the first servile war 
 of Eunus, Achseus and Cleon we have followed the ad¬ 
 mirable chronology and other points of Dr. Karl Bucher, 
 so in this second war, we follow the splendid elaboration 
 of Prof. Otto Siefert, the learned doctor-professor at the 
 college-gymnasiun of Altona. 1 
 
 It has already been observed that there existed among 
 the ancients, an occasional asylum where slaves and 
 freedmen driven to straits by the cruelty of others, could 
 in emergencies, flee and hide in security, under the pro¬ 
 tecting aegis of a certain divinity. There existed such an 
 asylum in Sicily. It was located on the sombre shores of 
 two small lakes westward from Syracuse in the interior. 
 The asylum was built in honor of the Palikoi, twin child¬ 
 ren of Jupiter and the nymph Thalia. The legend is, that 
 out from the surface of one of the lakes a hideous column 
 of sulphurous waters sprang high into the air like a foun¬ 
 tain, causing an unendurable smell and a deafening roar. 2 
 Here stood a temple or Pagan convent and asylum. All 
 around was the hideous forest. In view near by was a 
 craggy mountain-steep where dwelt elves and urchins, 
 
 1 Siefert, Sklavtnkritgt auf Sicilien, Altona, 1860, S. 24-40, Brochure. We quote 
 his note 69, S. 36, on the sources of information whence we derive our knowledge 
 of this uprising, and the duration of time it occupied, as follows : “ Quellen 
 deeses zweiten Sklavenkrieges sind: Florus, Epilom. Hlstoriarum Romanarum, 
 lib. HI. cap. 19; Dion. Cass. Exc. Peiresc. 101, 104; Diodor XXXVI. Liv. LXIX. 
 Die Dauer: 6 piv oiv Kara Si/ceAi'ay tup oi/ctrioi' Trohepos Sia/xetVa? err] cr\e86u nov 
 TiTTapa. TpayucTjv eax e rr l v Karaarpo^riv. M.’Aquillius beendigte ihn im J. 99, 
 naohdem er 101 bis Consul den Oberbetehl iibernommen hatte ; als der Kriegaus- 
 brach, war Llcinius Nerva Propraetor, nach ihm kommaudierteu L. Lucullus and 
 C. Servilius: also begann die Empbrung im Laufedes Jahres 104. Euseb. Arm. 
 setzt irrthhmlicb das Ende um 4 Jahre spater an auf Olympiad. 171, 2, (95).” 
 The events being obscure though thrilling and often highly romantic, we shall 
 reproduce verbalum many of the paragraphs of these and several other highly 
 respectable contributors to the history. 
 
 2 Aristotle on Wonders, 57. Diod. Sic. XI. 88-90. IlaAiKiov Ai/a^jj. It seems to 
 h*ve been a forest marsh or swamp 
 
m 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 demons of the mountain and of the wailing woods. Satyrs 
 and wizzards danced the mad antics of fury to the seolian 
 strain of their harps; while Thalia, mother-goddess of the 
 twins, smiled on them as their idyllic muse; and her guard¬ 
 ian command hushed the frenzied winds and waters, and 
 balmed their sulphurous odors with the breath of encour¬ 
 agement. * 
 
 This was the spook and goblin-taunted asylum where, in 
 the summer of B. C. 104, a large number of naked, hard- 
 worked and sweat-begrimed slaves gathered together for 
 the protection of the institution. They were stragglers 
 from Syracuse who had undergone an examination of their 
 eligibility to life and liberty. 
 
 What was the deep motive which inspired so strange a 
 visitation as this, coming unheralded to the old castle at the 
 swamps of the twins ? 4 The workingmen had, as it were, of 
 their own spontaneous instincts, centered there for safety! 
 A full explanation of this is a history of one of the most 
 desperate and sanguinary rebellions recorded in history. 
 
 Marius was one of the two consuls of Rome in B. C. 
 104. In order to help him carry out the war measures 
 which had been determined upon, the Roman Senate had 
 authorized him to secure troops by conscription from 
 the conquered provinces. Sicily, ever since the Punic 
 
 > Diod. XI. 89 ’Ewei fie wepi r wv 0ewv towtwv ipvr/aOrjptv, ovk d£iov tan vxpakmeiv 
 Ttfr wepi to tepov apx aion/rd re Kai tijv amariav Kai to crwvoAov to wepi too? bvopa£- 
 opiv ows Kpartfpai iSiwpa. MvOokoyovat yap to Tepevos towto fiia^epeiv twv aAAwv 
 apXaiOTT) ti koi aefiaapy, woAAwv ev avnZ wapafiofwv yeyevrjpevwv. IJpwTov pev yap 
 Kparfipes eitri T«j> peyeffei piv ov Kara wav peyaAoi, ainvOiipas S' e£aiotows avajSaAAov- 
 Tts e£ apvOijrov fivOov teal wapawArjatov IxovTes rijv <f>vcnv rot? Ae/3rj<ri tois wrrb irvpbt 
 WoAAov Ka tope'vois «cai ( TO vfiwp fiiawwpov avafiakkovaiv. 'Ep^aoiv pev owv e\ei to 
 ava/3a kkoptvov vfiwp wwapyei Sianvpov, ov prjv a/cpt/3^ tt)v ewtyvw<riv eye t Sia to 
 prjdevarokpav a\paa0ai tovtov TrjAiKavTrjv yap exet Karankr)£iv ij twv wypwvava/3oArj, 
 &?T€ fioxetv wwb fleias tivos avayKris yiveaQai to awp/3atvov. T6 pev yap vStop Oeiov 
 icaraKopov ri)v o<T<f>pr)<riv «X* l t to fie xa<rpa /3popov woAwv Kai < frofSepbv eftrjen, rb Si 
 fir) towtwv wapafio£oTepov, ovre vireptKxeirai to vypov oot« airoAetwei, nivrjaiv fie Kai 
 /Biav pevpaTOs eis v\f/os e£aipoplvwv ex« Oavpaatov ToiavTrjs fie fleowperreias ovcrrjt 
 wepi to Te'pevos, oi peyiaroi twv opxwv evravOa ovvTtkovvrai, Kai tois imopKrjaaai 
 crvvTopos i) tow fiaipoviov Kokaaif aKoAowflel* Tives yap Tijs opdaews OTeprjflevTes ttjv 
 Ik tow Tepevow* a«/>ofiov woiovvrai.. MeAaArjs fi’ overrjs fieurifiaipovias, oi Tas apQisfSif- 
 rrjtreis exoi'Tes, OTav wwo tivos wwepox^s KaTiaxvwvTai, rjj Sia twv op/<wv towtwv 
 avmpeati npiv ovtoi. "Eari fie towto rb Ttpevos Ik tivwv XP°vwv aavkov Terr)pr]pevov t 
 Kai tois aTwxoucriw otKeTats Kai Kwpiots ayvwpooi weptwcrrTWKOcri wokkrjv rrapex«rai 
 florjOeiav. Tows yap eis towto Karafyvybvras ovk ex^vaiv efovtrt'aw oi fieawoTai /Stat'wf 
 anaytiv, Kai p^XP 1 towtow Siaptvovaiv acrireis pexpi av ewt Suopurpev ois <fnkai'0p<*~ 
 wots weioawres oi Kvpioi Kai fiowres fiia twv opxwv Tas wepi twv opoAoyiwv iriareit 
 KarakkayOxTi’ Kai ovfieis iaropeirai twv fiefiwKOTwv Tois OtKeVais vionv iravryh 
 wapa/3as* owtw yap ^ twv flewv SeiaiSaipovia tows opooavTas wpfis tows fiovAows wioTowt 
 woiec. ’E<rT4 fie Kai tJ> Tep.evos ev wefiiw dfnptirtl aeiptvov xai oroais Kai Tals aAAaif 
 KaTaAvoecriv tKavws KtKoapy)pivov. 
 
 4 id. See not© above. “MvfloAoyowon yap tA rip evos towto Siatfttpttv twv 
 aAAwvdpxaifiTr)Ti xat ae^aerpw, troAAwv ev awT<p, wapafio^wv yeyerjjue'wwv. ” 
 
CAUSES OF THE TROUBLE 
 
 249 
 
 wars had “been one of these provinces. Almost every 
 human creature not possessing the blood of a gens family 
 in this palaestra of suffering was now a slave. 6 The con¬ 
 dition, bad enough before, was rendered worse if possible, 
 by the ghastly defeat of the 200,000 slaves, in their up¬ 
 rising and war of rebellion under Eunus a generation be • 
 fore.® But it was for Nicomides, ting of Bithynia, in far 
 off Asia Minor, to kindle the war-fagots. Bithynia though 
 a kingdom of some independence was nevertheless a sat¬ 
 rapy of Rome; and the order of Marius the consul, that 
 Nicomides should levy troops out of his dependency, for 
 the Roman army, could not be carried out for the reason 
 that the rapacious Roman tax-gatherers known as publi¬ 
 cans 7 had sold almost everybody into slavery and it was 
 degrading, and contrary to all law and rule of antiquity 
 except in the severest emergencies, to make soldiers of 
 slaves. This made the senates consulti a dead letter. 
 Rome was vast in actual dominion at this time and any 
 law touching one part, generally held good also for any 
 other. It was found on test that also in Sicily, the major¬ 
 ities were slaves and that, like Nicomides, so also Nerva, 
 proprietor over Sicily under Marius, was cut off from the 
 tope of supplying his quota of troops for the Roman army. 
 
 What was to be done ? On an investigation it was found 
 that most of the workingmen best able to bear arms, were 
 slaves. Again, their owners were unwilling to hear to 
 their being set free. It would be a loss of property. 
 These clubbed together and pooled their money, being 
 politicians enough to know that an offer of a bribe would 
 
 » Diodorus Siculus, Bibliothecas Hittorica Reliance, XXXVI. Hi. 1, 3, 8: “ Kari 
 ttjv ewi roil? Kififipovs row Maptov arparetav ebuttcev rj <rvy*cATjTOS i£ov<rlav t< 3 
 M -n ck to)v rrepav 0aAarrrjs i0vutv perarceiintvBat <rvnii.axia.v- *0/u^voCv Mapio? 
 i£incp. «Jr« wpo* NucopijSrii' rbv Biflvvia? /SacrtAe'a wept |ior)^eia*• 6 awo/cpum' 
 tcwKe tous irkeiovt r in' Bi0u vu»v vjto jutv St)uooiujvu)V iiapirayevras Sovkevetv if rai? 
 <ircp\tai?. T»j? Si ctvykAjjtov \J/y j<f>urap«VTjs oirco? pr)&eis <rvfi/iax os «Aev0epos iv 
 twapxla (ovkevj) teal Trie rovrutr ektvffepiatreutt oi arparriyoi wporoiav iroiutvrcu, tot* 
 •card rijv £uceAiar uk VTpaniybs Atxivio? Nepovas «xoAov0«>s tw S6yp.an <n>xvoiis rw v 
 Ioi'Aojv ykevOepotae, xpureis irpipei? irpoBeif, w? iv oAfyai? ripepate nkeiove toiv 
 btcraKoaititv rvyeiv ttj« iktvdepiae. Kai ijcrav trdvrtf *i tear* ttjv vijaov fiovAtwovre? 
 p.ebiutpo i trpos ttjv i\fw9tpiav. ,t 
 
 6 Diodorus, XXXIV. frag. ii. 18. 
 
 • The publicani must not be confounded with the vcctigalarii as tax collectors. 
 The latter were workingmen with a plebeian society. The publicans were 
 blooded, grasping aristocrats, belonging to the equites and were, according to 
 Cicero, the "floe equitum Romanorum, ornamentum civitatis, firmamentum 
 rei public® ” (Pro Plano.), words characteristic of this boasting aristocrat. The 
 publicans scattered horror and destruction everywhere. See New Testament, also 
 smith's Dictionary of the Bible, art. "Publicans.” 
 
250 
 
 AT HEN ION. 
 
 have th e desired effect upon the propraetor Nerva. 1 Nerva, 
 it appears, took the bribe; but in doing so, performed 
 some queer diplomat]cal gymnastics in order to glide 
 away from a semblance of blame and thus unintentionally 
 set the whole island into an uproar. He had first pub¬ 
 lished a proclamation requiring all slaves who believed 
 themselves entitled to emancipation, to come and receive 
 their liberty. This was under a new law just enacted by 
 the senate at Rome. The law was suited to the emergency 
 and was indited to read that subjects must no longer be 
 seized by the publicans and sold for taxes; and that those 
 who had been thus sold should be entitled to appear be¬ 
 fore city officials of their vicinity and receive their liberty. 9 
 
 Now what was the governor to do? The slaves to the 
 number of 800, having become aware of this by the pro¬ 
 clamation actually calling them in and eager for liberty, 
 had escaped from their masters, probably by running 
 away and were already thronging around the propraetor 
 in impatient expectancy of the promised papers of eman¬ 
 cipation, hoping to join the Roman army and thus become 
 free and honored men. Alas! No such happiness was 
 in reserve for them. The miserable liar, ready to grasp 
 his bribe even at the expense of sullying conscience with 
 malfeasance in office, when the banded slave owners 
 thickened around him pressing on all sides, issued another 
 edict to the slaves advising them to go back to their mas¬ 
 ters with the treacherously perfidious supplement that he 
 would stand between them and all harm. 
 
 Struck down with horror, the poor wretches, feeling that 
 in their surreptitious escape they had partly taken the 
 initiative in procuring their own freedom and knowing 
 the dreadful extent of vengeance which awaited them on 
 their returning to the now exasperated masters, betook 
 themselves as stated, to the citadel of the twins at the 
 lakes of the Palikoi. And well they might; if we may be¬ 
 lieve the words of Florus who of all other writers had the 
 least sympathy for the slaves in rebellion. 10 Yet Florus 
 
 s This Btatemsnt is made on the strength of Dion Cassius (frag. 101), who in¬ 
 timates as much in speaking of the sums pooled by the slave owners. 
 
 'J Diod. Sic. Billiotheca XXXVI, frag. iii. 2. as quoted in note 5, q. v. 
 
 10 Florus, Epit. Ret urn Romano-rum, lib. III. cap. XIX. S. 1, speaking of Wie 
 first servile war says: Utcuiuque etsi cum sociis (nefasl) cum liberis tamen et 
 ingenuis dimicatum est. This word nefus characterizes the struggle as a blas¬ 
 phemy. 
 
THE SLA VES BREAK LOOSE. FIRST FIGHT. 251 
 
 describes them as prisoners in chains. All oyer Sicily 
 there existed prisons called in Latin er gas tula, in Greek 
 ergasteria, where slaves were kept in custody over night in 
 irons. Some were forced to work in these dens; but 
 most of them were marched out in the early morning to 
 their grinding labors on the farms. 11 Diming the servile 
 war 20 years before, Eunus attacked these horrid slave- 
 pens and set fully 60,000 of the manacled slaves at liberty. 11 
 These immediately joined his great army of revolution, 
 swelling it to such an extent that the slaves were victori¬ 
 ous in many battles. 
 
 What took place at the asylum in the forest of Jupiter’s 
 twins we are but imperfectly told. They conspired; 11 
 though as in the case of every strike of the ancient slaves, 
 so also here, our histories are riddled to fragments. But 
 enough has been preserved from the ruthless vandal’s 
 hand to make clear what we shall with confidence relate. 
 A most bloody and devastating war soon burst forth, 
 spreading, in a few days over nearly all of Sicily. 
 
 There is a town now called Scillato but in those days 
 the Sicilian Greeks knew the place by the name of Ancyle. 14 
 Here a massacre announced and kindled the first flames 
 of war. Thirty slaves organized under a leader named 
 Oarius, broke chains in the night, set upon their masters 
 and murdered them in their sleep. Later in the same 
 night, probably through the action of the first thirty, 200 
 more slaves were delivered from their shackles, or at least 
 from bondage, and the whole neighborhood was made 
 hideous by scenes of terror which they enacted. It was 
 at the slopes of the Nebrode heights not far from the town 
 of Engyion. A fastness crowned the height which, like 
 
 11 Flor. 19, “ Hie ad cultum agri frequenta ergastula, catenatique cultores.” 
 
 12 Idem. c. 0 “Hoc miraculum primum duo miilia ex obviis, mox jure belli 
 refractis ergastulie, sexaginta amplius millium fecit exercitum.” See war of 
 Eunus chap. IX. 
 
 1 3 Diod. XXXVI. frag. ill. 3. Dind. says: Oi 5’ «V a£i<«>paa-i crwSpap.6vT«% 
 wapeKaAovp top <TTparr]ybv airoar^vai Tavrrjs tjjs err tfioAqs. 'O S' elre xprjp.a<rt 
 neiaOeis etT« \apm SovAevaar, p.iv tuv Kpenjpiux' tovt<ov anovSijs awe<7T7j, nal 
 rove irpofiovraf eirl ru> Tv\tlv ttjs eAevOepias iirurAijTrwv sis tow? iSiov s Kvpiovs 
 rrpoieraTTep eiravanrTpe<t>ei.v. Oi Si SovAoi <7i/a , Tpa</>ei'Tes, itai to >v 2vpaKOV<ru>u a.7raA- 
 AayeVrt?, /cai Kara$vyderes eis to tu>v IIo.AlkCoi/ reperos, SitAtLAovv irpos aAAtjAovf 
 vnep d7ro<7Tao-ea>s. Nothing however, can be clearer than this fragment of Dio¬ 
 dorus. The slaves, screened from harm by the hospitable old temple, had lei¬ 
 sure to organize their rebellion on a piodigious scale, which they accomplished 
 with effect. 
 
 14 Siefert, Slciliscke Sklavenauptdnde, S. 80, note 71, point* to Cicero, Terras, 
 Ill. 45, who writes it “ Incihenses," and concludes: “die St*dt 1st an t dam Ns- 
 brodengebirge in der Nahe von Enjorion su sucheu/’ 
 
A TEENION. 
 
 *52 
 
 tlm asylum of the Pa : ?Jcoi offered the slaves seountv. Here 
 they for tilled themselves, received allies, sent strong and 
 fearless scouts to cut the bands and set their fellows free 
 and thus in a few days so augmented their force that by 
 the time the Roman praetor made his appearance with an 
 army to put down the emeut, they were strong enough to 
 offer front. 
 
 This first organized resistance of the slaves was how¬ 
 ever, destined to meet with disaster through treachery. 
 A man named 0. Titinius Gaddseus probably of Roman 
 and possibly of noble stock, prowled, in those days, about 
 this country, in the capacity of a marauder. He was an 
 escaped convict, having a considerable time before been 
 condemned to death for certain crimes. With a banditti 
 of freebooters of Ins ilk, he stole about at night, hiding by 
 day in the inaccessible fastnesses of the mountain and thus 
 by robbery and deceit, gained a precarious living, always 
 on the alert tor an opportunity and always destitute of 
 conscience. The proprietor, Licinius Nerva who was the 
 cause of the disaffection among the slaves, sought, and 
 probably by promises of exoneration secured, the alliance 
 of this freebooter who subtly set about making the friend¬ 
 ship of the slaves then watching an opportunity to de¬ 
 stroy the militia which Nerva had levied to put down the 
 trouble. Gaddyeus succeeded in decoying the slaves into 
 an ambush and by arrangement turned the poor wretches 
 over to the Roman governor who crucified some of them 
 and others he killed by casting headlong from a high 
 precipice to be dashed to jelly upon the rocks. 16 
 
 Nerva now believed the trouble to be over. He was 
 even foolish enough to disband his forces, consisting 
 mostly of militia whom he discharged from further ser¬ 
 vice and sent to their homes. But the slaves seem to 
 have been on the alert; perhaps encouraged by the utter 
 want of generalship shown by Nerva. The question now 
 arises in the mind of the reader how poor, enslaved, ignor¬ 
 ant creatures many of whom were in fetters, could have been 
 able to rebel at all; much less keep a correspondence with 
 others sufficiently to know what was going on at different 
 points. The answer must be, that they felt themselves in 
 
 14 Diod XXXVI. lit 6^ Jin. Dind. rutv S' anoarariov 61 juiv u.a\6n.tv oi Kara- 
 ot Se rt)y airo rijf aAtucr«u>$ SeSiores Tipwpi'av eavrovs icaTaKpiJpvurav. 
 
THROWN HEADLONG FROM A PRECIPICE. 2ot 
 
 a desperate condition and combined their entire energy 
 and intelligence to greater effect than may be naturally 
 imagined. Men engaged in such desperate adventures 
 think nothing of turning night into day; and like the 
 similar case with us in recent days, they may have had 
 secret outposts and means of communication. 
 
 At any rate, the Roman general had hardly disbanded 
 his force when the war-cloud gathered in another part of 
 the island. A rich Roman knight named P. Clonius, 19 
 who possessed estates, such as were celebrated in history 
 as the latifundid , was murdered by his slaves near Hera- 
 clea Minoa on the southeastern coast of Sicily. This mur¬ 
 der was perpetrated by a band of 80 desperate men who 
 concocted tin ir conspiracy during the lull aud broke from 
 the ergastida helping each other by signal, to free them¬ 
 selves. The number in the revolt rapidly increased. The 
 governor, Licinius Nerva, was now in a helpless condition, 
 without an army. The slaves rushed in every direction, 
 freeing each other, and pitched tent on the banks of the 
 river Alaba ” coursing at the foot of the Lions Caprianus, 
 to the number of over 2,000 men. This, however, occu¬ 
 pied some time, during which Nerva succeeded in mus¬ 
 tering a considerable force which ho marched or trans¬ 
 ported by water to the scene of war. 
 
 The distance from Syracuse to Heraclea Minoa is not 
 far from 95 miles in a straight line westward but follow¬ 
 ing the road or the shortest route by sea around the 
 Portus Odysseao and past Agrigentum, it could not be 
 less than 130 miles. 1 * To convey his army and impedimen ta 
 thither and fix his headquarters at Heraeleia, occupied so 
 much time that it must have been toward the spring of 
 B. C. 103, before anything serious transpired. 
 
 On a favorable position, the two adversaries drew up 
 in line of battle. The name of the Roman commander 
 was M. Titinius, w whose forces summed up the hugest 
 
 18 Plod. XXXVI. iv. 1, init: “T oir 5$ <npnTuaTu>v np'os to oiroAv- 
 
 9«vt(ov, f/i <ot> rive? airayyeWoi'Tes on lloirAtoi' KAdmov, yevG/ouKH' iarrea ’Pw/Aauor, 
 e/ravacrravre? oi SouboL /caTecr<f>a£av oyScuJ/coi'Ta oi're?. koI bn ir\i]6o<> dyetpov<n. M 
 
 17 Diod XXXVI 4. “ f<be£y)<; S’ eycorro ra>v dia\t\LU>v ovk «Aar row.” This 
 force of 2.i'no men was collected within 7 days. 
 
 ltf In reiat on to Nervn’s route Diodorus says nothing. 
 
 '« 1 iod. XXXVi. 4. 3. Dind. says: Map-voe Tm,-;<n. Nevertheless we ar» 
 constrained to thiuk Titinius the same person who had betrayed them , i. «. TUitt 
 lus Guduu us 
 
254 
 
 A THENION. 
 
 number that the Roman praetor, with the addition of 600 
 men drawn from the fortress of Enna, was able to muster. 
 On the whole, relying on the superior armor and other 
 equipments of his own men, compared with the destitute 
 condition of the workingmen, who depended upon butch¬ 
 er-knives, sickles, clubs, slings and whatever they could 
 grasp, the Romans seem to have had the advantage. But 
 the rebels besides being full of that courage which des¬ 
 peration inspires and anxious to meet a hated foe, had 
 also the most advantageous position. No details of this 
 battle have come to us further than that it was a fierce 
 and bloody encounter; the slaves fighting desperately fol¬ 
 lowing charge with charge, dealing such ponderous blows 
 against their adversary, composed partly of raw militia, 
 that the latter gave way, or were killed on the spot. The 
 rout of the Romans now became general. A panic seized 
 them. They cast away their arms and ran for life. The 
 slaves grasping their weapons, pursued and hacked those 
 whom they could to pieces, scoring a signal victory. 
 
 The strike which hitherto had manifested itself in mur¬ 
 muring and an occasional outburst, now assumed warlike 
 proportions. Section after section of the island broke 
 away from their masters and joined the gathering army. 
 The force under drill, soon after the battle at the Alaba 
 river is reported to have been 6,000 20 strong; all well 
 equipped with the best of arms which, they had taken from 
 the enemy. Greatly encouraged by this first victory, they 
 set about organizing in earnest. More fettered slaves who 
 were working in chains were cut loose from the ergas tula 
 or work-prisons. These glad to escape, joined the rank 
 and file, and being the most desperate and brave made 
 reliable soldiers in the insurrection. 
 
 A mass meeting was now called for the election of a 
 leader. There was a certain character who had signalized 
 himself as a man of great energy, named Salvius; This man 
 had been the principal in the movement which had con¬ 
 summated the assassination of the Roman knight Clonius, 
 at Heracleia Minoa ending in the defeat of the proprietor 
 
 20 Diod. XXXVI. iv. 4: "Kai no\\S>v ko. 6’ f^p.ipav d<f>i<xrapi«»'toi/, crvvTOfxov 
 <ai napd8o£ov e\ai udai'ov avfcrjcrLv, <«>? ev oAiyais »jp.e'pais jrAeious yevea&iu 
 
 ’Ore 5rj Kai eis «(c/cArjcrtav avveKdovref Kai /3ovA rjs irpOTe^etVtj? irpwro» 
 
 et'Aavro /SacriAea t'ov bvop.a$6p.evov SaAoinov Sokovvto. rijs tepoaKoru'a? e/urrcipo* 
 ii-at Kai Tai? yvvaiKeiait deais avAop.ai'Ovi'Ta.” 
 
BATTLE OF THE A LA BA. SAL VI US. 
 
 255 
 
 Licinius* 1 Nerva at the battle of the Alaba river Like 
 Eunus, the slave-king of Enna in the war of the strikers, 
 which had ended 29 years before, he was a prophet, a 
 worker of incantations, a flute-player, and dispensed super¬ 
 natural and wonderful doings among the credulous slaves 
 and freedmen. A slave himself, of superior bearing and 
 gift of command, he was elected by acclamation as king 22 
 King Salvius immediately on assuming power, turned his 
 attention to organization and order. He taught his wild 
 and often gross-mannered men that success does not come 
 from savagery and rapine nor from destruction of property 
 by laying waste the country and its fruits; and brought 
 them to understand that an unbridled career is danger¬ 
 ous. The army was divided into three divisions, under 
 his three picked warriors as commanders, and marched 
 off at different angles into the country with the order to 
 reunite at a given point, at a given time, bringing with 
 them provisions. The plan succeeded exactly. At the 
 appointed time and place the three divisions again united, 
 having collected from the dairy and stock farms so large 
 a quantity of sheep, cattle, horses, grain and other sup¬ 
 plies that the question of want for the army w T hioh had 
 also greatly increased, was settled for a long time to come. 
 
 Great numbers of horses had come into the hands of 
 Salvius. A force of cavalry was organized 2,000 strong, 
 undoubtedly well equipped The army grew to the ma¬ 
 jestic proportions of 20,000 foot besides the cavalry—in 
 all 22,000 combatants.** With activity this force was 
 drilled to discipline and fitted for receiving the approach¬ 
 ing Roman army. King Salvius after completing prepa¬ 
 rations for a campaign, set off on a march toward Mor- 
 gantion situated on the coast of Sicily, near the mouth of 
 the river Symethus. Morgantion was a fortified city with 
 a citadel; and had been the seat of a terrible conflict be¬ 
 tween the slaves and the Romans in the war of Ennus.* 4 
 The rebel chieftain hurriedly conveyed his large army 
 
 ® Diodorus, IV. 4. characterizes Salvias as a Slave who knew the arts ol 
 prophecy and could play the flute or horn. He was a favorite with women and 
 possessed the mysterious arts of slight of hand. See note 20, Jin. 
 
 22 Siefert, Sicilische SklavenJceiege , S. 27. ‘ Indess zeigte Salvius tk-ch eine 
 grhssere Befahignng fur seine Stellung. als sich nach seinem friihe»*v Lebe» 
 erwarten leiss.” 
 
 23 Diod XXXVI. frag, iv, §§ 7, 7. 8. Dind. 
 
 *4 ee chap ix,, on the Servile war or Eunus. 
 
256 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 thither, a distance from Heracleia Minoa of about one 
 
 hundred miles. 
 
 The Roman praetor knowing that greater mischief was 
 meant, had in the meantime collected an army, partly from 
 Italy, partly from Sicily, as well as of stragglers who had 
 survived the last disaster—in all, amounting to 10,000 
 men. With this force he marched day and night in or¬ 
 der to arrive at Morgantion before the rebels could reach 
 the place. This he appears to have succeeded in doing 
 but found nobody but the women and children of the 
 slaves; for the men, aware of the near approach of Salvius 
 and his army had escaped to a hiding haunt which they 
 frequented, by a gate or other means of egress through the 
 walls, during a dark night. Salvius now determined to 
 give his enemy battle. He led his troops in solid phalanx 
 and good order against the praetorian army, making the 
 attack with such a shock as to stagger him by the onset. 
 It appears from a remark made by Diodorus that the praetor 
 must have had slaves as a part of his force; for Salvius, 
 taking advantage of some opportunity, gave the soldiers 
 of the Roman army to understand that they would be freed 
 if they threw down their arms. As a result the Roman 
 troops began to throw away their weapons and save them¬ 
 selves by flight. A panic was thus created and the rout 
 became general. Salvius pursued and succeeded in tak¬ 
 ing 4,000 Italians and Sicilian Greeks, while 600 were 
 killed on the spot. 28 Large quantities of arms fell into the 
 hands of the again victorious rebels, together with all the 
 munitions of war that were stored in the magazines. The 
 victory before Morgantion was complete. Quantities of 
 armor and campaign equipments were taken, together 
 with provisions for maintaining the siege of the city itself. 
 Certain it is, that after the battle, the Roman praetor re¬ 
 tired within the fortress of Morgantion with his remain¬ 
 ing troops, and by promising the slaves the boon of lib- 
 
 26 Diod, XXXVI. iv. 7 . Oi S' avoordrai i£aC<f>vi)s dvrm&ip.iyoi, xd vvtp- 
 fiefioi' rrjv aTaaiv e\0VTe^ <f)vrjs avTemdefjLeyoi., Kai vnepSefioy tt\v <rrdatv e^owTef, 
 /3tcu'w? re enippa£ avres, eitdvs ejri rrpoTeprjp.aTO? ^<rav oi Si tow <rrparr)yov irpamjaa* 
 wp'os <$>vyr\v, Tow Se fiaaiKeM? tui' anoaraTobv Ktjpvyp.a rroir)<rap.eyov /xijSera Kreiveur 
 tcov to. ojrAa ptirroui'Twi', oi 7rAetoroi pinTouvres e<f>evyov. Kai tovtio t<£ t^ottco xa* 
 Ta<rrpaTjjyj}<ras row? jroAepuous 6 2aAovios tjjw Te Trape/u./BoArjw awe/cTij<raro xcu iropifid- 
 tjrov wixrjv aireyeyKafieyoi, jroAAu<v Sn\i>}y e/cvptevaev, ‘AireOavov Si ey tjj /tag}? t£>w 
 ’iTaAiwTwt' re Kai £t./eeAa>i' 0 v jrAeiovs e£ axoaiuy Sia rrjy tow Kijpvy/xaros 0iA«»^pwria.«, 
 idXuHray Se rrepi TeTpaxisxtAiov?,’’ 
 
BATTLE BEFORE MORGA NT I ON. 
 
 257 
 
 erty, which indeed all those poor creatures were lighting 
 for without really knowing how, inspired them to such 
 valiant resistance against their fellow slaves outside, that 
 for a long time no progress was made by Salvius in get¬ 
 ting possession of the city and Dr. Siefert is in doubt 
 whether he accomplished it at all. 26 But this doubt pro¬ 
 ceeds from a misunderstanding of the historical fragment 
 of Diodorus, from the point of view of the actual genius 
 of this theme. Diodorus who so long has been misun¬ 
 derstood, knew perfectly well what he was saying when 
 he told us that Salvius when his army had grown to be 
 80,000 strong sacrificed, after the conquest of Morgantion, 
 to the twin heroes—the very immortals who had protected 
 him a short time before, at a short distance from there, in 
 the Asylum of the poor and unprotected slaves. At their 
 forest asylum, amid the roar of waters and the fumes of 
 sulphur and gloom and loneliness, these twin sons of Ju¬ 
 piter and Thalia had entertained and protected them with 
 the a?gis of divinity and it was now in order, at the mo¬ 
 ment of conquest and victory to sacrifice to them in pur¬ 
 ple and splendors, in repayment. 2 ’ 
 
 Another reason why the Boman praetor lost Morgan¬ 
 tion is that he had been treacherous to the slaves under 
 his command, promising them, as we have stated, that if 
 they fought bravely against their fellows outside, they 
 should have their freedom. This they did valiantly but 
 the perfidious governor again lied them out of this much 
 longed for and expected boon. Whereupon accepting the 
 offer of Salvius to spare all who would throw down their 
 arms, they joined their fellow rebels. 28 Thus again the 
 Homans were forced to open their eyes and behold Sicily, 
 
 Siefert, Sicilische Sklavenkricgc, S. 27, “Morgantion aber zu nehmengo- 
 lang ihm vorerst doch nicht.” “ Ob in Folge dessen die Stadt fiel, ist au« der er- 
 haltenen Berichten night mit zuverlSssigkeit ersichtlich.’’ 
 
 27Diod. XXXVI. vii. 1. naAucot.” The exact words which seem to have 
 been misunderstood, are; “ ‘O Si ttjv MopyavTiviji/ noXiopKriaat XaAouiov, iirtSpapav 
 rr]v x<t>pav pixpi tov Aeovrivov neSiov, f)&poi<rev avrov rb avpirav arjtArevpa, 
 imXenTOVt at/Spa? ovk eAarrovs to>v rpispvpitav, /cai dvtras rois naAwcoif ijpcocri, 
 tovtoiv piv avi&r]Kt piav rtov akovpytav nepinop<f>vpu>v <ttoAtji' xapuroypia Tiff ritcijt, 
 avrb? S’ a yayopeveras iavrbv /3a<riAe'a Tpycfrtov pev vn'o tu>v anocrTaTtbv nposyyopevtTO. 
 
 The lauguage is unmistakable. Still Dr. Siefert thus muses: Dochkonnen sich 
 diese Worte auch auf den Sieg iiber Licinius Nerva bezlehen, und so Jste3 wohL 
 da iroAcoptoj<ras nicht fuglich fur cKjroAiopKrjaa? genommen werden kann,” But 
 the whole phrase reads plainly that Salvius was master of the situation 
 
 28 Siefert, Slcilishe SklavenJcriege , S. 27. “ Unbegreiflicher Weiso vereagte 
 der Praetor diesen Versprechen die Bestatigung und' trieb dadurch den grbsstea 
 Thell dieser Tapferen in das Lager der Aufriihrer.” 
 
258 
 
 A THEN1 ON. 
 
 their “ granary of the world,’’ south and east, in the hands of 
 surging, pitiless slaves in the terrible attitude of rebellion. 
 
 Lilybmum and Segesta or the old iEgesta stood on the 
 Mediterranean sea; the former at the western extremity, 
 the latter northward in the sinus Segestanus , 25 miles 
 apart. This new scene of the slave rebellion opens 150 
 miles or more from that of the battle grounds of Morgan- 
 tion. No newspapers, no railroads, no telegraphs to con¬ 
 vey news particulars or rumors of events. How then, 
 in a reign of suppression and terror among maddened 
 masters with their whips, chains, ergastula and crucifixion- 
 gibbits and their optional use, could all the slaves of Sicily, 
 even those of the farthest extreme, have known, under¬ 
 stood, reciprocated with each other, midst these awful 
 tumults of self-enfranchisement? 
 
 On one of those western farms of Sicily there writhed 
 in the fetters of compulsory labor, a man named Athenion 
 —a slave, yet born with all the proud and lofty impulses 
 of manhood. Floras who, unlike Diodorus, spoils his his¬ 
 tories with unkind allusions, 29 unmindful of the desperate 
 acts he himself might have resorted to under similar treat¬ 
 ment, speaks bitterly of him but in his words of vitupera¬ 
 tion gives us valuable facts. This man’s name was Athe¬ 
 nion. He was a Cilician by birth; 30 but having a supe¬ 
 rior bearing and faculty of command, had charge of 200 
 herdsmen on one of the great stock farms of that produc¬ 
 tive region of Sicily. His family and those of his men and 
 fellow slaves were kept at work in the slave pens or ergas¬ 
 tula, as distinctly stated by Floras. Athenion and his 
 men over whom he officiated as boss or overseer, feeling 
 that a time had come to strike the blow for liberty and, 
 as we are obliged to surmise, posted regarding the doings 
 of King Salvius, far to the other extremity of Sicily, de¬ 
 termined to make a desperate trial to obtain freedom from 
 servility and degradation.* 1 He imparted his plan to a 
 
 29 Ep'torn ITT. 19. ‘‘ Athenlo pastor, interfecto domino, familiam ergastulo 
 liberatam sub signis ordinat. Ipse yeste purpurea, argenteoque baculo et regium 
 in morem fronte redimita, non minorem, quam iile fanaticus prior, conflat exen* 
 citum; acriusque niulto, quasi et ilium vindicaret, vicos, castella, oppida diripl- 
 ens, in dominos, in servos infestius, quasi in transfugas sgeviebat.” 
 
 30 “Athenio Oilex ” See Dind. paraphrase of Diod. XXXVI. v. 1. Cilicia 
 was on the borders of Syria in Asia Minor but a few mlies from Palestine. He 
 bailed from near the stage of the greater movemeat 100 years later. 
 
 « Diod. XXXVI. y. 1-4. 
 
WARS KINDLE IN WEST SICILY. 
 
 few of his men. The result was that at an appointed time 
 the 200 slaves attacked their owners—two millionaire 
 brothers—killed them, ran and cut the fetters from their 
 families in the slave-prison, set them free, everywhere 
 sounding the bugles of rebellion, and set about arming 
 and drilling the men who came running into the quarters 
 from all directions, begging for enrollment. In five days 
 there were more than a thousand slaves under arms, with 
 Athenion as leader. 
 
 Athenion was another man of wonders, and he now be¬ 
 gan to assume the unnatural powers of Messiah, king, for¬ 
 tuneteller, star-gazer and prophet. The result of such 
 manoeuvres of course, was to confirm the ignorant slaves at 
 his command, in the belief that he was initiated into the 
 favors of the gods. They elected him king of the rebel 
 government Apparently aware of the methods of Eunus 
 and of Salvius; and judging in his own way the errors of 
 their plans, Athenion blocked out a plan of his own, 
 unique and farsighted. He refused to except all the slaves 
 who came flocking into his army, mad with the delirium 
 of revenge, desperate in risks, and eager for war to the 
 knife. He examined them and accepted only those whom 
 he judged most powerful, obedient and fearless. All the 
 rest he sent back to their old employment with orders to 
 cultivate the land and multiply the stock and other land 
 products, 82 lest there come a famine which would be more 
 destructive to the army than an enemy from Rome. He 
 set himself up as a star-gazer and proclaimed to his men 
 that he read in the stars how he w r as to be the king over 
 all the Sicilians. Ur der these auspices the army had swol¬ 
 len to 10,000 men. We are distinctly informed that he 
 was vain enough to strut about considerably, with fine 
 purple and sporting a silver cane; 33 but the kind-hearted 
 reader, in view of the shrewd policy of this conduct, may 
 see fit to forgive a poor branded slave, whose only clothes 
 probably had hitherto been his naked skin. 34 
 
 The first campaign of Athenion was against the forti- 
 
 83 Many of these farms however were now entirely in their own hands, the 
 owners having been killed. 
 
 43 Flor , Epitom. III. 19. “Ipse vesta pupurea. argenteoque baculo ” 
 
 34 Dlod. XXXIV. frag. ii. 88, tells the story of the slaves of Sicily branded 
 to the bone, whipped because they dared ask for a few rags to protect them from 
 winter. 
 
no 
 
 A THENTON. 
 
 fied city of Lilybseum which he attacked with his 10,000 
 men. The siege continued for some time without suc¬ 
 cess; and he concluded, with much wisdom, Dr. Siefert 
 says, 35 to raise the siege, »ayiug that the gods were so un¬ 
 favorable to the taking of Lilybaeum that a disaster was 
 about as certain as a victory. The wisdom of thus desist¬ 
 ing from this attempt to carry the city by siege, Dr. Siefert 
 does not state. Still it is self-evident, resting upon Athe- 
 nion’s probable information of the arrival from Mauritania 
 of a large detachment of men which king Bocchus, a de¬ 
 pendent of Rome, had dispatched to the rescue of Lily- 
 baeum. Even as it was, the shrewd slave-king with all his 
 efforts to vacate did not succeed without his being attacked 
 on the night of their landing, by the Moors and suffering 
 considerably. Athenion who seems to have depended 
 upon his gifts of imbibing counsel from supernatural 
 sources, 36 did not expect so much from the foriified cities 
 as did Emms and Cleon, whose terrible starvation when 
 hemmed in and besieged by the Romans at Morgantion 
 and Enna, was still fresh in the memory of many. Here 
 he seems to have been wise. He afterwards found that 
 those fortresses if left to themselves, conquered them¬ 
 selves, as it were, by strifes and turmoils of the citizens 
 with their slaves who were plotting to get away and join 
 the insurge uts under arms. In consequence, the rebels 
 had no fear of the cities joining the Roman forces; since 
 they had all they could attend to, keeping mischief in quell 
 at home. The whole country, however, was soon in pos¬ 
 session of the strikers. 
 
 A new source of the insurgents’ strength now devel- 
 
 35 Sie'ert, Sicilische Sklavenkriege, S. 27-28; “ Der Sterndeuterei kundig, 
 uatle ei in den Sternen ge esen dass er Konig liber ganz Sicilien scm vverde; 
 deshalb suchte er den geoi dueten Zustand aut der ln$el, die er schon als etein 
 Kigenthum ansah, aufrecht zn crhalten Ein Angriff auf das feste Lilybaeon, 
 den er init. zehntausend Mann unternalim gelang zwar nicht, diente aber docti 
 da/.u, den Oluuben an seine Sehergabe zn bestarken. Als erniimlich mitgroszer 
 Klngheii die Belagerung aufzuhemen beschloss, unter dem Vorgeb n, den e.oi.- 
 tern ge aile diese Unternehmung nicht and man konnfe eine Niederlage nnr 
 durch raschen Abzng vermeiden, trat schon das Verkundete ein. e.in Korpe 
 maurischer Hiilfstruppen, welches der neue Bundesgenosse der Romer, Konig 
 Bocchus von Mauretanien unter Anfiilirnng dcs o onion den bedriingten Lily 
 betanern zngesendet hai te, machte sofoi t nach seiner Landung einen nachtlichdi 
 AngriiT mid tugte den schon irn Abmarsch begrilTenen Truppen dos Athenion 
 nicht uubedeutenden Sstaden zu.” 
 
 30 Cl. Bucher. Aufstande der (Jnfreinen Arbeiter, S. 78. “"Man darf sich dis 
 3chwierigkeiten, welche den FUhrer einer Sklavenbewegung erwarteten, ja nlchl 
 ils gering vorstellen.’' 
 
CHEAP LABOR, TRAMPS , VIOLENCE 
 
 261 
 
 oped itself. The poor free people, whose condition was 
 oftentimes worse than that of the slaves themselves, came 
 in great numbers and joined the phalanx of the slaves. 31 
 They were ground to powder between the masters and 
 the slaves. Not unfrequently their miserable condition 
 was such that they resorted to violence of themselves; and 
 many being organized in unions as we have shown, they 
 were a source of turmoil. 38 Thus these combined sources 
 of power made up a large army which Dr. Siefert, shrewdly 
 catching a most important statement of Florus and care¬ 
 fully paraphrasing the torn fragments of Diodorus and Dion 
 Cassius, sets aside the contradictory statement of Cicero, 
 thus resuscitating and making tangible what must clearly 
 have been two terrible battles involving the acknowledged 
 overthrow of two Roman praetors, one after the other. 39 
 
 Dlod. XXXVI frag. vi. D:nd. There is materital extant sufficient for an 
 Interesting and instructive essay on the ancient tramps of Sicily and other coun¬ 
 tries. So interesting is this account of the ancient tramps that we present Din- 
 dorf’s paraphrase of Diodorus in full on the tramp question: “ lngeus vero turn 
 rerum confusio, et malorum quod dicitur. Ilias s-iciliam universam occuparat. 
 Non enim servi tantum, sed etiam ex liberis egestate altlicti omne rapinarum et 
 flagitiorum genus committebant, et quicunque offerrentur, servi aut ingenui, ne 
 quis perditam illorum malitiam enuntiaret omnes impndenter trnciddbant. Ideo 
 quotquot in urbibus se continebant, vix ilia qum intra pomeria essent,, pro suis 
 habebant: quae vero extra aliena exiegique violentice mancipata judicabant. 
 Multa insuper alia a multis contra normam aequitatis et humanitatis per Siciliam 
 audacter peragebantur.” But this historian does not stop here. The tramps who 
 were freeamen who. on account of the newly imported cheap labor of the slaves, 
 were suffering from want of means, unable longer to find employment, had grown 
 desperate to the mst degree, and tearfully dangerous. Fragment xi. continues the 
 description of those terrible days and desperate men as follows: “Non enim 
 servi dumtaxat rebelles Siciliam vastabant, sed etiam ingenni, quotquot nec prco- 
 dia uec agros possidebant, ad latrocinia et rapinas conversi, catervatim per re- 
 gionem discursabant, et, paupertate simul et mala mente impnlsi, armenta et 
 pe ora abigebant, fruges in villis conditas diripiebant, et obvium quemque nullo 
 discrimine, Bervum an iugenum, obtruncabant ne quis eseet qui eorum furor; m 
 ac facinora indicaret. Quumque in Sicilia justitum esset eo quod nullus priotor 
 populi Komani jus dicebat. cuncti liberrimam licentiam nacti impune debaccha- 
 oantur: proinde nullus non locus infamis erat rapinis ac latrociniis ac vi perdito- 
 rumhominuin In ditissimicujusquefortunas secure invadentlum. Atii, qui p-iullp 
 ante fama atque opibus clarissimi inter cives suos fueraut. tunc fortuna sui ito 
 coramutata non modo a fugitivis per summam contumeliam compilabaut ur, -cd 
 pjmtera injurias et insolentiam hominum ingenuorum perferre cog bantur. 
 Quocirca universi vix ilia, quae intra pomcerium erant, pro suis habebant: quee- 
 cunque vero extra urbium rnuros erant posita, ea aliena et praadonum violentiae 
 ob ioxia exist imabant Denique per singulas urbes atque oppida ingens conf'u- 
 sio ac perturbatio juris judiciorumque erat. Nam perauelles, quum agrum om- 
 uam agminibus sufs occuparent infensi dominis suis atquainexplebili cupiditate 
 flagrantes, itinera omnia intercludebant. Qui vero in urbibussupereranladhuc 
 servi, ®gri ac defectionem aniinis spirantes, terrori dominis erant.” 
 
 88 Siefert, idem, S. 28: “ Diese besitzlosen Freien iibten oft nach are ere Ge- 
 waltthaten aus a!s die Sklaven. Es hersohte eine masslose Verwirmng and 
 Gesetzlosigkeit eine Ka<ur lAias, wie Diodor sagt.” See Diod. XXXVI. frag 
 *1. init. : also our note 37 above. 
 
 »h Cicero, Verres, II. 54, gives it as follows : “ Athenionem qui nullum oppl* 
 dumcepit.” Of course: for he had determined wisely from tne start, not to 
 molest the towns Siefert however, idem, S. 36. remarks in note 76; •• Bei 
 
262 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 The truth as to the lost histories of this bloody war is 
 
 made up by a short but clear statement in Floras* Epitome 
 of Roman history, and for perfect fairness we propose to 
 use the old recensio and notes of Fischer and Duker. 
 Floras, being an aristocrat of an exalted gens family, either 
 of the proud Julian or of the Anneean stock, enjoying the 
 family prestige of the Caesars, whose instincts, true to the 
 genius of the Pagan world could muster no sympathy and 
 hardly a contemptuous pity for so mean and degraded a 
 creature as a slave, would surely not have confessed, in 
 writing his epigrammatical story of Athenion, to more 
 than the truth. His sense of humiliation as he confesses 
 the terrible flagellations which his country received dur¬ 
 ing the servile wars, comes repeatedly to the surface in 
 his pages, betraying the feelings of moral nausea; and he 
 confesses no more humiliations of his family and race than 
 truth compels. Yet Floras distinctly tells us that Athe¬ 
 nion utterly destroyed two Roman praetors, or at least 
 their armies and camps. 40 This is perfectly consistent 
 with the general contour of the story. A Roman leader 
 possibly Lucullus, who afterwards fought Salvius, with a 
 probable force of Moors under some commander sent out 
 by King Bocchus, had arrived in time to save Lilybseum 
 from the assault of Athenion. When their fleet unex¬ 
 pectedly appeared, Athenion retired at night but was at¬ 
 tacked and somewhat damaged before making good his 
 escape. The rebel commander now prepared himself for 
 a general engagement with the allied armies of Lucullus 
 and Bocchus. 
 
 It is, therefore, not until after the battle of Triocala that 
 we can apply the statement of Floras regarding Athenion: 
 
 Cicero 1st der Zweck der Erwahnung wohl ins Ange zu fassen.” See Supra. 
 
 40 Florue, Epit. Rerum Romanarnm, lib III. cap. 19, §. 11. “ Athenio pastor 
 .ssevlebat. Ab hoc, quoque Praetorii exercitus easel, capta Servilii cas¬ 
 tra, capta Lucuiii ” (castra). In note h. Fischer explains as follows: ‘ Servilii 
 Castra, Capta Lucuiii. Alios Annales habuit Florae; nam ex uostris, C. Servilii 
 et O. Licinii Lucuiii castra non modo uon capta luisse, contra vero. et a Luculle 
 victore semel, et a Kerviiio tantum non represses fuisse servos manifestum est.’’ 
 This is as we surmised Floras had at his command at the time he wrote, works 
 of history which at present do not exist at all as here suggested by Fischer. By 
 the defeats of Athenion are only meant those occurring at Triocala anti the pre¬ 
 vious repulse though not a deteat which he had suffered on his withdrawal from 
 Liiybseurn. We now turn to the Duker comments §. 11. p. 919 Delphine clas¬ 
 sics. and this; “Ab hoc quoque Diodorus, lib. XXXVI. trlbuit hsec Salvio cui- 
 dam. cui Atbenio, velut imperator rigi, audieu'. fuerlt.” True, Diodorus says 
 Salvius was victorious over a prator but it was on the extreme east coast and 
 the praetor was neither Servilius nor Lucullus but the propraetor, P. Licini is 
 Vierva Nothing is safer titan to iotlow feitfert, q. v. delta SO. 
 
SALVIUS AND ATHEN10N MEET. 
 
 263 
 
 “ This man putting on raiment of purple, sporting a silver 
 oane, his forehead coronated in the manner of kings, not 
 less fanatical than the fellow Eunus before him, inflamed 
 his army and melted together their sympathies so that 
 they were even far more bitter; and then, as if to vindi¬ 
 cate this predecessor’s actions, raved over towns, castles, 
 villages, tearing them to pieces, inciting the slaves against 
 their masters and causing them to turn traitors and join 
 his hordes. Thus he met and captured the camps of Ser- 
 vilius and likewise those of Lucullus.” These are the 
 
 E lain words of Florus, who though whimsically proud, was 
 onest. Accepting them we proceed; for he framed this 
 statement from historical sources now not extant. 
 
 We now return to the movements of Salvius, the slave- 
 king of Sicily, whom we left after the battle before Mor- 
 gantion, in possession of the whole country, having beaten 
 the propraetor, Licinius Nerva, and consummated a great 
 Bacrificial solemnity to the honor of the twins of Jupiter 
 in whose asylum they had from the first been protected. 
 This worthy flute-player, Messiah and prophet, had in the 
 meantime not been idle. The army of picked men was 
 now augmented to a force of 30,000, and by direction of 
 Salvius, concentrated into one solid army-corps. The 
 union of these men was effected at or in the vicinity of 
 Leontini, in the fruitful valley of one of the many beau¬ 
 tiful rivers which fall into the Mediterranean from the 
 mountains. Here on the occasion of another ovation in 
 thanks and honor to the Palikoi or twins, for propitiating 
 the victories, the slave-king assumed the robes of royalty 
 and the more resounding name of Tryphon;" ordering 
 that henceforth he should be known by that name. The 
 next thing was to select a situation whereat to establish 
 himself. With this intention he now resumed his maroh 
 back to the spot where the first decisive battle had been 
 won. 
 
 Salvius, alias Triphon, appeared at the stronghold of 
 Triocala on the upper waters of the Alaba river where 
 were combined sweet waters, fruit, wine, oil and all the 
 profusion of vegetable and animal plentitude. Here was 
 improvised for him a palace. Athenion, the rival slave- 
 
 « Btich. Aufit S. 78, Bays his real name was Diodotus Tryphon and cius 
 vVesBeling. 
 
264 
 
 AT HEN ION 
 
 king was summoned' to appear, and brought with him 
 3,000 men, leaving 7,000 or more in the field, under proper 
 leaders. Siefert thinks the object of Tryphon in sending 
 for Athenion was to put him in chains through impulses 
 of jealousy. 42 At any rate, Athenion was arrested and for 
 this treachery Tryphon afterwards paid with bitterness; 
 for retribution was at hand. Nevertheless, the fortifica* 
 tions which had been designed went on to completion. 
 The place was surrounded by a wall and dykes 5,000 feet 
 in length and became a large market place. Triphon chose 
 for himself a council and. lictors in the manner of the 
 Romans. These strode about on guard with their bun¬ 
 dles of whips and their hatchets in hand, attired in jewels 
 and purple. 43 While this was going on Athenion, the brav¬ 
 est and wisest of the two slave-kings, lay in chains, waiting 
 for his opportunity. It came. 
 
 The year B. C. 103 witnessed in Rome the fitting out 
 of the propraetor L. Licinius Lucullus who with an army 
 of Romans and Italians 14,000 strong arrived in Sicily. 
 On landing the force was augmented by 800 Bithynians, 
 Thessalians and Acarnanians, 600 Lucanians led by the 
 bold Cleptius and 600 others of different extraction. This 
 formed a total of 16,000 men. But it must by no means 
 be reasoned from this statement that there was no con¬ 
 siderable army of the defeated and scattered ranks of 
 Nerva and the Moors, to be collected by Lucullus where¬ 
 with largely to augment his army in Sicily itself. Un¬ 
 doubtedly the combined army of Lucullus when in readi¬ 
 ness for the great battle which we are going to recount, 
 numbered 25,000, many of whom were experienced veter¬ 
 ans. With this large army, many of whom were Romans, 
 the governor boldly marched across to within a mile and 
 a half from Triocala which he intended to besiege and take 
 by storm. Like Rupillius before, he was provided with 
 thongs and gibbet-makers, to crucify the slaves who should 
 fall into his hands 
 
 42 Siefert. SictUsche Sklavenkriege, S. 29 “ Welcho Grunde ihn hierzu b«- 
 
 wogeu batten, ist nicht klar: sicher jedoch, dass Triphon in ihm einen heim’ichen 
 Nebenbuhler sah den er sobald sich cine gunstige Gelegenheit bot, verhaftco 
 and in Gewahrsam bringen leiss.” 
 
 43 Diod. idem, vii. 4; ’E£eAe£a.TO Se tea l ratv 4>povrjaet Sia(f>ep6vT(ov avSpa rowt 
 i/cai'oa?. oi)? a.7roSet£as avp[ 3ovAovs exp^To avveSpois avrois ’ t rifievvav re nept,nop(f>vpov 
 ir«pie/3aAAeTO icai nAaTvaiqpov eSv xiTau'a k aru tovs \pT)paTi.apovs, Kai pafidovxovs 
 ptTa ntAeKeiov rovs npoi\yovpivov<;, icai raAAa navra baa noiovai t« /cat inu<oap.ov• 
 aiv (mTqbfve PaaiAeiav. 
 
BATTLE OF SCIRTHJEA. 
 
 265 
 
 But Tryphon whom we left in a fit of narrow jealousy 
 putting Athenion, the best of the rebel generals, in chains 
 and behind bars, hearing through scouts of the near ap¬ 
 proach of a great army of Romans and their allies, made 
 haste to consult this rival king and ascertain his views. 
 Athenion advised him not to risk a siege but to confront 
 the Roman in the open field and offer battle. 
 
 Tryphon who well knew the judgment of Athenion as 
 a commander and the great influences he possessed over 
 his troops, of whom he had in his own right fully 10,000, 
 acquiesced; and the combined armies of the two kings, 
 in all 40,000 men, marched northward to a place called 
 Scirthaea 44 and there pitched in line of battle. Opposite 
 at a distance of a mile and a half lay the Roman legions. 
 The offer of battle seems mutually to have been accepted; 
 but which of the two antagonists gave the onset cannot be 
 clearly ascertained. Here stood on the one hand, a 
 great army of 40,000 desperate slaves, flushed with half a 
 dozen victories, burning with the memory of their previ¬ 
 ous sufferings and anxious for revenge. Their command¬ 
 ers had a sufficient taste of the luxuries of freedom to 
 make them desperate and they were not wanting in the 
 certain knowledge of the terrible fate which awaited de¬ 
 feat. To them and their braves alike, this murderous con¬ 
 flict meant liberty and continued luxury, or else death in 
 the battle-field or upon the ignominious cross. On the 
 side of the Romans, every man knew that defeat by a base 
 legion of runaway slaves was of itself a scandal which re¬ 
 flected alike upon the general and the soldier. The proud 
 senate made it dangerous for him who could not return 
 to the capital with the blood and, as it were, the scalp of 
 the last slave who had dared to defy its arrogant and 
 overbearing prowess. Besides this, there yet remain 
 untold the incentives for the praetors to enrich themselves 
 by plunder—a boon which defeat would deprive them of. 
 
 With these contrasting urgents, involving hopes and 
 plans which were to furnish the foundations of history of 
 progress or retrogression for the human race, the two 
 great armies fell into mortal grapple. After a certain 
 amount of sparring and skirmish between the outskirts, 
 
 ** Dirai. XXX Vi. frag. vili. 2, 3, 4 and 5. l J aragraphs 3 and 4 contain the 
 lodcription of ;he battle as we give it. q. v. 
 
266 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 the main body of each army closed in with an unwavering 
 clash of arms under which the combatants fell in thous¬ 
 ands. 46 Amid the battle, while the terrible plunges of 
 maddened men with thrusts and din were at their height 
 of fury, Athenion, mounted on a prancing steed, rushed, 
 at the head of a detachment of his cavalry 200 strong, with 
 a certain frenzy which sometimes characterizes life ener¬ 
 gies when wrought to a tension of reckless excitement. He 
 lunged into the enemy’s center, striking down everything 
 before him. No doubt this was a rash action, however 
 magnificent it may seem to the critic of military exploits ; 
 for although he made his hated foe tremble with the shock, 
 he received three blows so stunning, though not fatal, that 
 his fellow slaves on seeing him fall, feeling that in him as 
 in a god, resides alone the genius of victory, fell into a panic. 
 When the soldiers of Athenion shrank back the cry of vic¬ 
 tory must have been raised by the Romans ; for Diodorus 
 tells us that half the slaves, in number 20,000, were either 
 killed or taken prisoners, but that the remaining 20,000 fled 
 back to their defences at Triokala under command of Try- 
 phou who survived. Siefert’s suggestion that the rebels 
 lost courage scarcely appears well founded. 4 ® We not only 
 find the slaves again in possessing of their fortress of Trio- 
 cala with Try phon, but we are told that the rebels kept it; 
 and we are without assurances that they were either cap¬ 
 tured or driven away. Nor was the gallant Athenion lost 
 to them; for after the catastrophe which may have closed 
 with the sunset, on this great and bloody battle, this hero, 
 taking shelter from harm under cover of night, arose and 
 so far returned to reason and strength that he crawled safely 
 back to the fortress of Triocala with the rest. Thus, con¬ 
 sidering the severe punishment suffered by the Romans, 
 the fact that they did not pursue, that it was nine days be¬ 
 fore they arrived before the fortifications of Tryphon and 
 Athenion, and ventured, battered and shattered up to the 
 
 « Nacn einlgem Geplankel kam es zum geordneten AngrifE, dessen Erfolg 
 range herhber und hinuber echwankte.” Diodorus, XXXVI, frag, 8 3, says t 
 “To /. i.ev ovv npu)rov eyivouro (rvi'e^els cucpofiokicrpLoi. etc.” This skirmishing with 
 lighi armed troops introduced the general battle. 
 
 •' Siefert, Italitch. Sklavenkriege, S. 29: “ Da untemahm Athenion mit zwei- 
 hundert auserwahlten Kcitern etnen Angriil, durchden er Alles vor sich nieder- 
 warf. Ungltlcklielicrwclse ahcr wnrde cr mitten in dieaem Erfolge durch drei 
 Wunden kampfunfahjg gemncht v ornuf die Sklavcn,ninthloe gemacht, flohen,” 
 Diod XXXVi. frag. viii. 4, who i ioims us that Athenion when struck down 
 'eigned death until night, when he capul. 
 
BATTLE OF TRIOCALA. 
 
 267 
 
 gates of the rebel fortress, in fine, that they failed altogether 
 of taking the place and experienced thereafter nothing but 
 defeat, is strong circumstantial evidence that Scirthsea was 
 a drawn battle on both sides. 
 
 Nine days after the Battle of Scirthaea the army of Lu- 
 cullus appeared in front of the town of Triocala. How 
 many men his army now mustered or how many of the 
 former officers like Cleptius still adorned his ranks, is not 
 definitely given. But they had within the nine days so far 
 recovered from the severe punishment they had received, 
 as to be at least endowed with the boldness to altogether 
 underrate the strength and spirit of their adversary. 47 
 
 Meanwhile Atbenion was rapidly recovering from his in¬ 
 juries received at the battle of Scirthsea and was, as we are 
 led to understand by the evidence left us, so far restored 
 that he appeared with all his former valor and vigor. Dr. 
 Siefert who talks about the lost courage of the working 
 men, 48 naturally enough catching the idea fromFlorus, says 
 that they now mustered courage to attack the Romans. 49 
 Our opinion is, reasoning from appearances which confirm 
 the valiant fighting force, such as must appear to every 
 candid, unbiased reasoner, shows the rebels to have crippled 
 the Romans at the great battle of Scirthaea 9 days before; 
 and that they did not lose courage, but doggedly held their 
 own throughout. Certain it is that another obstinate battle 
 was fought before the fortifications of Triocala. The Rom- 
 ans made the first attack but were received apparently 
 in open field by the rebels. A conflict followed in which 
 the entire strength of both armies was brought to bear. 
 The loss on both sides was very serious. But in this second 
 scene of blood the victory was with the workingmen. Lu- 
 cullus was completely driven from the field, his camps taken 
 by storm “ and his army so scattered from place to place 
 that he seems never to have recovered, but fell to plunder¬ 
 ing like the slaves and freed men themselves, appropriating 
 
 47 Dlod. frag, vlii. 5. 
 
 48 We can no longer say slaves. A large proportion of the rebel army was 
 cow composed of freed men, mechar'.cs, laborers, etc. 
 
 iiefert, Sicilische SM ive^kriege, S. 29. “Als Lucullus endlich 9 Tage 
 aach der Schlacht zur Belageruag der Veste schritt, war der ershiitterte Mulh 
 schon wieder be.estigt.” 
 
 so Florus, lib. III. cap. XIX. “ Lucullo capta castia—vicos, oppida, castella 
 diripiens,” referring to Athenion. Siefert, S. 29, speaking of lucullus, says; 
 “ ja szin I ager soli sognr von den Sklaven ersturmt worden sein " See note 76 
 Trbore ■-efert defers to Clc. Verr. II. £-i; "Atlwaionem nullum op.duta 
 '*P f V # ko: “Pal Cic>-“:o is d»r Zweck 'PS Auge zu fassen.’’ 
 
208 
 
 A TEEN I ON, 
 
 the funds entrusted to him, to his own nee and with defeat* 
 avarice and demoralization was rendered hors de combat al¬ 
 together. 
 
 What had in the mean time been going ou between the 
 two rival slave-kings, Tryphon and Athenion, no one can 
 tell. We only know that the former, after the battle of Tri- 
 ocala had died 61 and that Athenion had been elected king 
 over all the rebels, including slaves and freedmen. Per¬ 
 haps a dark deed of revenge or of jealousy may have been 
 committed; more humanely let us foster the conjecture that 
 Tryphon had lost his life in some valorous charge which 
 secured the victory to the slaves, in the desperate battle we 
 have just recounted. 
 
 The year B. C, 102 had thus rolled by and not only was 
 another large prgetorean army of the Romans annihilated 
 but the rebels with Athenion, their veteran general at their 
 head, were complete masters of Sicily. 
 
 Rome under this extraordinary condition of things, sent 
 0. Servilius, B. C. 102, with another praetorian army under 
 orders from the senate to leave no menus untried whereby 
 to stamp out the rebellion. This Roman commander and 
 praetor mu>t have landed his army at Massana on the so- 
 called Etruscum jreturn , now the Straits of Messina; and 
 judging from appearances the first battle may not have oc¬ 
 curred at a long distance from there. It is not certain but that 
 the Romans marched in a southwesterly direction for many 
 miles into the interior before the two'armies met. We 
 only know that the combatants sought and found each 
 other and that there was another encounter; of course, one 
 of those fierce and internecine struggles in which great 
 numbers of brave men are occasionally mowed down, but 
 whose numbers, memory and place are, for shame, pitched 
 into the dark grottoes of oblivion. Fiorus shuffles the fact 
 over to posterity with language provokingly crisp and in - 
 dh alive of mortification and distaste; 62 Cicero denies; 53 
 Dion Cassius 54 is in tatters at the Vatican; Diodorus lies 
 
 61 l)iod. XXXVI. 1. “ T«Aeur>jaai'TOS Se Tpv<f>iovot, 8(.dSox<>{ rrjs 5 
 
 viutv KadiarTa.Ta. 1 ., Kai tovto pev rroAeis «7roAt6p/cet,” etc. 
 
 52 Flor. Epitom. Populi Romani . III. 19. “ Aihenio—vicoe, oppida, castcHa 
 diripiens ” 
 
 53 Cic. Verrcs, II. 54, “Athenion qui uuiluin oppiduui cepit.” This how¬ 
 ever, we think innocently refers to ti e fact that Athenion’s policy was from th6 
 first, not to take the fortified towns: since Funus and Cleon in taking this coursi 
 had lost their cause. 
 
BATTLE OF FLORUS. 
 
 269 
 
 contorted into the tell-tale mutterings of his fragments; 84 
 Livy leaves only the paltry exordium of his epitomies." 
 But enough of these is still extant, together with the cir¬ 
 cumstantial evidence such as the disgrace by the Roman 
 Senate, of the defeated praetors and their exile for life, and 
 continued ravages of the war for years; all these verified 
 facts prove the words of Florus, to the effect that Servilius 
 and Athenion met in some undescribed and mortal fray; 
 that the proud slave-king won a complete victory; and that 
 labor from its points of irascibility and vengeance was once 
 more vindicated. Such is not only our own rendering of 
 the real meaning of the vague words left us but they are 
 as conscientiously read by others. 66 
 
 After this important and probably great battle which 
 was the fifth in number since the outbreak of the war and 
 which from our authority we may call the battle of Florus, 
 the Roman general, either disheartened or prone to enrich 
 himself like his predecessors, with plunder and malfeasance, 
 or still more probably, being utterly annihilated, left the 
 strikers with Athenion at their head, complete masters of 
 the field. They ravaged and laid waste the country on 
 every side, destroying castles, towns and cities. Athenion 
 next turned his wrath toward Messana. Reaching it by 
 forced marches, he stealthily at night surprised the inhabit¬ 
 ants of that city as they were engaged in its outskirts cele¬ 
 brating the sacrifices to their gods, and cut them to pieces, 
 taking quantities of plunder which he made off with. But 
 he steered shy of the city itself, keeping apparently in mind 
 the danger of being hemmed in, and the dreadful results 
 which, in the previous rebellion under Eunus, had caused 
 the great catastrophe. 
 
 Athenion after marching through the northeastern portions 
 of Sicily 67 gathering wealth by plunder, struck a westerly 
 tack and the next we hear from him, is at the ancient walled 
 
 * 4 Dion Cassius, excerpt, 101. Peiresc; Diod. XXXVI. ix. 1 and 2. 
 
 65 Livy, Eirttomc, LXIX. fin. “M. Aquillius proconsul excitatnm confecit.” 
 
 68 Sieiert, Italische Sklavenkrlege, S. 30. “ Athenion, der nach dem inzwischen 
 erfolgten Tode dee Tryphon, Konig der Sklaven geworden war, tratihm (Servilius) 
 mit grosser Kiihnheit entgegen und schlug ihn aus dem Felde; nachdem auch 
 das Lager des Servilius einmal genommen war, wagte dieser sich nicht mehr zum 
 Kainpfe hervor, und Athenion konnle ungelundert das land durchstreifen, kast- 
 elle und kleinere Stadte einnehmen.” 
 
 67 Much obscurity enshrouds both the history and topography of this place 
 Livy, lib. XXVI. 21, speaks oi the place as being obscure. “Secutfe defectionem 
 earum Hybla e* Maced# sunt ignublioresque qnaedam alia).” This mention 
 lers to B 0 . . 
 
270 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 town of Macella supplied with a castle or citadel. It is 
 situated southeastward of Segesta and not more than 40 
 miles to the eastward of LiJybaeum. Here he established 
 and fortified himself, B. 0. 101, the third year of the war; 
 supplying his army with the products of the fruitful country 
 around him. 68 
 
 During this time C. Marius and M. Aquillius had been 
 elected consuls at Rome, and it was resolved to send a full 
 consular army to Sicily and thus put an end to the war at 
 once. Accordingly Aquillius, during the year 101, arrived 
 in the island with a consular army consisting of a large force 
 of veteran Romans and other soldiers. The terrible hand¬ 
 ling which the people of Sicily who had remained hostile 
 to Athenion, had received, made them eager to grasp this 
 new offer of succor; and it cannot be doubted that large 
 numbers of the defeated fragments of the armies of Lucullus 
 and Servilius were mustered in, swelling the consular army 
 to a host. Aquillius proved, for the first time, a match for 
 the redoubtable strikers. 
 
 Whether the Romans landed at Messana or at the port of 
 iEgesta in the vicinity of Macella where the army of Athe¬ 
 nion lay, is not easy to determine. The distance from the 
 Ostia or port of Rome by water, direct to iEgesta, or to 
 Messana is by fifty miles in favor of a landing at iEgesta} 
 and to have gone by way of Messana would have cost the 
 consul a march of 150 miles from there to Macella, on the 
 head waters of the Scamander, over a country already laid 
 waste by the army of his foe. We cannot but assume that 
 these two desperate generals met at, or near Macella; for 
 Diodorus tells us that Athenion, true to his old resolution 
 never to let the Romans hem him into a walled town, 
 marched out in full force to meet him. 69 
 
 A great battle was fought. When the two chiefs espied 
 each other, they rushed together in mortal duel. 60 Athenion, 
 
 68 Ptolemy the ancient geographer mentions it as being in the interior of the 
 island. See Universal Geography, III. 4, 14. Whereas Polybius, I. 24: Kara r« rijr 
 e< rijs AiyecrTTjj dvaxwp’Jtriv ManeWav irdA.iv Kara Kpdros ei'Aov. This puts the 
 place far to the west near Athenion’s possible birthplace; Dion Cassius, Exc. 104; 
 Xajpiov Se ti MdxeAAav evepicei reixicra/aevos, etc. Siefert imagines this to refer 
 to the town in the neighborhood of Messana. Polybius is however right; in proof 
 of which we refer the critic to Arrowsmitli’s Or bis Terr arum, Vetcrum Descriptio. 
 Lond. 1822. 
 
 59 "Athenion stellte sich dem Aquillius in offener Feldschlacht entgegen.” 
 Siefert, S. 30. Floras, III. 19, but he may have referred to the successful siege* 
 by Aquillius, of the fugitives after their defeat. 
 
 so Dion Cassius. Iraq. 104. 
 
BATTLE OF MA CELL A. 
 
 271 
 
 almost exactly like Spartacus at his last and great battle of 
 Silaius, struck out for his illustrious antagonist, determined 
 with his own hand, to wreak vengeance and thus cross out 
 accounts with Rome’s highest and proudest source of power. 
 The men were equally brave and gifted in the sabre’s use. 
 How longr the duel lasted is not told; but we are distinctly 
 informed that this time it was the slave-king’s turn to re¬ 
 ceive the mortal thrust. 81 Aquillius was a tiger in combat 
 and though he received heavy blows on the head and in his 
 breast he was the fortunate of the two combatants. 62 Athe- 
 nion, pierced and dying, fell bleeding at the consul’s feet. 
 
 Again, as at the battle of Scirt.hsea, the warriors of Athe- 
 nion lost courage at the fall of their beloved leader, who 
 this time was finished and never rose to their rescue as be¬ 
 fore. All but a fragment of 20,000 workingmen were killed 
 or taken prisoners. These fled to the mountains close at 
 hand, but were followed by Aquillius with so much energy 
 that in two years time they were nearly exterminated. 
 
 Manius Aquillius afterwards wrote at Capua an inscrip¬ 
 tion which is still extant and quoted in the archaeological 
 collection of Orelli, to the effect that when he was praetor 
 in Sicily he had busied himself hunting down runaway 
 slaves and had returned to their masters as many as 917 of 
 them. 8 * This very interesting inscription sheds a flame of 
 corroboratory light upon that immense uprising and sub¬ 
 stantiates the history of the affair, as we have extracted it 
 from the fragments. It also adds to history the statement 
 that the Sicilian slaves had reinforcements from Italy. 84 
 
 The awful scenes of crucifixion 88 as in the case of the re- 
 
 61 Diod., XXXVT. x. 1. which corresponds with Siefert. S. 30, '* Athenion stelite 
 elch dem Aquillius in offener Feldschlacht eutgegen, fiel aber in derselben darcb 
 die Hand des Consuls, der selbst an Kopf und Brust verwundet wurde.” 
 
 62 Diod. XXXVI. X. 1. Kai wpo? axnuv Se tov /3aaiA«a twv ano<rTa.T<i>v 'A.0rfvctava 
 Wfi^aKiav, jjpauKov ayowa tfwcr rjaaro. Kai ravrou fit ¥ m.vtlktv, avrbf S’ tis tt)* 
 Ke<j>a\r]V Tpwfleis eOepanevOrf. 
 
 68 Orellius, Inscriptionum, Latinarum, Collectio, No. 3, 308. •* Eidem praetor in 
 
 Sicilia fugivos Italicorum conquaeisivei redideique dominis DCCCCXVH.” 
 
 64 Shortly after this war another broke out in Italy which lasted some timo; 
 but although it was of bo much importance that several of the historians wrote 
 valuable descriptions of it in their books, the vandals succeeded in destroying 
 the pages and we have only some fragments left in an almost Ulegible form. We 
 have however, in chapter viii. succeeded in picking out many of the prominent 
 •vents of the Italian slave and freedmen or tramp war of this era, q. v. 
 
 66 The evidences lor this are indeed vague except by inference. Florus, III. 
 19, says Supplicium,” which with him and Livy always implies the worst. But 
 that almost every one of the captured rebels was crucified, must, by implication 
 be accepted even almost without evidence, other than the well-known, implaca¬ 
 ble, inexorable Homan Law. which hung such malefactors of the servile r* 04 
 upon the ignominious cross. 
 
272 
 
 A THEN ION. 
 
 bellion 30 years before, were now rehearsed and many a 
 captured slave perished on the cross. 
 
 But there still remained at least one strong man named 
 Satyros who, with the other bold lieutenants of Athenion, 
 fell to marauding and in spite of the efforts of the procon¬ 
 sul prolonged the struggle 66 for two years. Satyros and 
 his men were however, in B. C. 99, all captured and taken 
 to Rome, under the promise solemnly conferred by the 
 Roman general, that as a condition of capitulation they 
 should be exempt from punishment and treated with honor 
 as prisoners of war. The perfidious wretch had no sooner 
 gotten the prisoners in safety to Rome, than he offered them 
 to the aristocracy as the basis of a great triumph or ovation 
 which he claimed, as an honor to the hero who had sup¬ 
 pressed the rebellion. The poor creatures were dragged 
 into the arena on a given day, and told that instead of lib¬ 
 erty, their horrible doom was to amuse the ladies of Rome 
 and others, who for love of show frequented the amphi¬ 
 theatre to view the bloody contests of gladiators. Not 
 only were they destined to this but they must fight wild 
 beasts like slaves. The great auditorium was crowded with 
 spectators, among whom beat true hearts for humanity and 
 fairness. A characteristic of the great gladiatorial games 
 always had been and still was at that time, that of demo¬ 
 cracy. All classes, rich, poor, the eminent and the lowly 
 alike had seats; and as there was at that moment a fierce 
 war of tactics raging between the labor organizations and 
 the aristocracy and as a strong partisanship existed against 
 Aquillius and every one of the praetors who had been sent 
 out against the slaves and freedmen fighting for liberty in 
 Sicily, it was very natural that such a party would numer¬ 
 ously attend the great ovation, if for nothing more than to 
 pick up points against Ibis aristocrat whom they hated. 
 
 When the convicts arrived in chains, trembling with 
 disappointment and broken hearts and like the wild lions, 
 tigers and hyenas they were to fight, found themselves 
 
 se Livy, LXIX. EpiL ad fin. “M. Aquillius proconsul in Sicilia helium civil* 
 excitatum confecit. Marius was one oi the consuls of this year, and Diodorus 
 tells us that Aquillius was the other. This looks doubtful. Rome was at that 
 moment involved in the fierce agrarian agitations: Cf. id, “ et cum legem agra- 
 riam per vim tullisset,” etc. True, Livy may refer to his proconsulship as being 
 the extension of his service in Sicily through the next two years, (B. C. 99), as 
 the war did not close for 2 years alter the battle. Again this ma;i rectify the 
 duerepancy in Aquillius’ inscription, See note 61. 
 
LAST BATTLE IN THE AMPHITHEATRE. 273 
 
 thrust loose and suddenly given knives and other weapons, 
 they all mutually, in presence of the great throng frenzied 
 with wine, nervously betting, many in anticipation of behold¬ 
 ing blood spurting from their naked forms, solemnly agreed 
 to become each others’ mutual exterminators. 
 
 Satyros led the mutual fratricide. Seizing their weapons 
 they rushed upon each other with all the fury to which they 
 had for 5 years been wont. The audience were thrilled 
 and astonished. The heroic fellows, one after another, 
 fell, gashed and pierced with their own daggers; while 
 the remaining warriors, girding their courage by the ex¬ 
 citement and din, drove the knife deep into each others* 
 brave hearts. All had fallen and lay gasping, the hot blood 
 draining their bodies of both spirit and vitality. Satyros, 
 the powerful Greek, was still upon his feet. Without fal¬ 
 tering he drove his w r eapon deep into his own breast and thus 
 triumphantly expired. 
 
 This magnificent stroke of courage recoiled badly against 
 the perfidious Aqnillius who had treacherously lied them 
 out of their lives. The word rang out that the glory of 
 these brave men’s fall was infinitely grander than that of 
 the wretch whose vanity was to be puffed by an ovation.* 1 
 A reaction then and there set in against the fellow and one 
 L. Fufius, soon afterwards brought suit against him for ex¬ 
 tortion and malfeasance which was so energetically pressed 
 that the great orator Antonius had to be engaged to save 
 his life. He was retained for the trial and succeeded only 
 by seizing Aquillius, and tearing open his clothing during 
 an impassioned gush of eloquence, and exhibiting to the peo¬ 
 ple the wounds which he had actually received in the duel 
 with Athenion at the battle before Macella. 68 But even this 
 did not save the fellow’s life; for where there lurks an enemy 
 in public opinion there also lurks a means. Aquillius who 
 afterwards fell a prisoner to Mithridates w T as taken to Per- 
 gamus and in a horrible manner was tied back down upon 
 a stone and held there while the gold melters poured a la¬ 
 dle full of melted gold down his throat. 6 ® 
 
 67 Viele meinten, grosser sei der Ruhm der Gefallenen ala der Ruhm dec 
 
 tlberlebenden Siegers.” Sicittsche Sklavenkriege, S. 31. 
 
 63 Livy, Epitome to book LXX. “ cum M. Aquilliils de pecuniis repetundis 
 cauam diceret, ipse judices rogare noluit. M. Antonius, qui pro eo perorabat, 
 tunicam a pectore ejus discidit, ut lionestas cicatrices ostenderet, indubitantui 
 abeolutbB est.” 
 
 69 Pliny, Nat. Hist. XXXIII. 14. ‘‘Nec jam Quiritium aliquo, sed universe 
 nomine Romano infami, rax Mithridates Aqtiilio duci capto. aurumiu o- 1 iivudii 
 
274 
 
 ATHENION. 
 
 LaouIHu and Servilius, the praetors whom Athenion had 
 
 defeated and driven from Sicily, as we have related, were 
 also both accused of robbery and malfeasance in office and 
 banished from Rome into perpetual exile. 1 * 
 
 to It is hardly to be wondered at that early commentators misunderstand Hu 
 true principles involved in this great war, or that they misapply the true facts 
 in the case. Both Granier and O’Brien fail to comprehend at all that there ex¬ 
 isted a socialistic cult of great but secret influence which had a powerful effect 
 upon the minds of the men involved in all those troubles. Granier, HisUAre det 
 Classes Ouvrilres, p. 496, characterizes them as “ bandits,” as follows: “ Un trait 
 fort ceractei'istique, et qui fut commun a Eunus et a Athenion, o’est qu’en se r6* 
 voltant ils n’eurent ni l’un ni l’autre l’idee d'abolir l’esclavage et d’6tablir l’6galit4. 
 A peine au milieu de leurs armies, ils se haterent d’oublier qu’ils avaient le cou 
 pele par la chaine, et de pouter avec delices les prerogatives de la seigneurie, 
 D’abord, ce qui est facile a croire, les chateaux, les villages, les villes, furent mis 
 au pillage.” So Mr. James Bronterre O’Brien, an honest and kind-hearted writer 
 who devoted nis life to his fellow-men, amid persecutions, likewise misunder¬ 
 stands the ancients. He says (Rise, Progress and Phases of Human Slavery, p. 31), 
 speaking of upholding the dignity of human nature, that in these conflicts “there 
 was nothing of the sort. The harsh conduct of masters and the violation of 
 workhouse rules were the motive power of each revolt.” The fact is that the 
 workhouses he mentions were, as we have shown, dungeons, often underground 
 and intolerable hells ; and those poor people were chained down in them, and 
 in the morning marched in chains to the fields. The systematised workhouses 
 with which these writars become confounded, were those of the later Augustan 
 age. To get into the ergasltdum of Sicily or Italy before the emperors, was a ser¬ 
 ious thing, and we know oi no rules whatever in Sicily restricting the master’s 
 will. He could kill his slave or keep him without rule. Mr. O’Brien and M. 
 Granier de Cassagnac are both entirely w rong in saying that there was neither 
 premeditation nor purpose in these great revolts. They charge against Eunus 
 and Athenion that “ they began forthwith to ap e the pomp and the circumstance 
 of their oppressors.” Every action of Eunus and of Athenion on the contrary, 
 was incontestably pre-det named; and the fire-spit ting prestigiation of Eunus 
 and Satyros, as well as the purple and silver staff of Athenion, were indispensa¬ 
 ble to inspire their uncouth, uperstitious soldiers with feelings of awe and rev¬ 
 erence. necessary to order and discipline. In fact this was the key to thflr sua 
 cess. 
 
 0 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 THE IRASCIBLE PLAN TESTED ON AH 
 ENORMOUS SCALE 
 
 Ruw, Vicissitudes and Fall of a Great General—The Strike of 
 the Gladiators—Grievances that led to the Trouble—Growth 
 of Slavery through Usurpation of the Land by the arrogant 
 Optimates—What is known of Spartacus before being Sold 
 into Slavery—Bolt of the 78 Gladiators from the Ergastulum 
 of Lentulus at Capua—Escape of the Runaways—How they 
 seized Weapons—Vesuvius—First Battle—Battle of the Cliffs 
 —Rout of Clodius—Second Battle—Destruction of a Praeto¬ 
 rian Army—Battle of the Mineral Baths—Great Increase of 
 the Rebel Force—From a petty Strike it assumes the Propor¬ 
 tions of Revolution—Fourth Battle; Hilt to Hilt with Va- 
 rinius—Destruction of the Main Army of the Romans—Win¬ 
 ter Quarters of Spartacus at Metapontem—Honor, Discipline 
 and Temperance of the Workingmen—Proofs by Pliny and 
 Plutarch—Coalition with the Organized Laborers of Italy— 
 Uses of Gold and other Ornaments Forbidden--Wine Ban¬ 
 ished—Great Numbers Employed in the Armories of Sparta¬ 
 cus—Fifth Battle—Battle of Mt. Garganus—Ambuscade of 
 Arrius—Overthrow and Death of Crixus—Sixth Battle— 
 Spartacus Destroys the Consular Army of Poplicola—Sev¬ 
 enth Battle—Great Conflict of the River Po—Overthrow of 
 Cassius and Defeat of the 10,000 Romans—Spartacus, now 
 Master, assumes the Offensive—Eighth Battle—Lentulus De¬ 
 feated; Great Army nearly annihilated—Mortification and 
 Terror of the Romans—Ninth Battle—ALutina—Proconsul 
 Ca3sius again Routed in a Disastrous Convict with the wary 
 Gladiator—Spartacus now obliged to contend with the De¬ 
 mon of Insubordination—Crassus elected Consul—Reverses 
 Begin—On down to Rhegium—Sedition, Treachery, Betrayal 
 —Workingmen's own Jealousies, Insubordination and Lack 
 
276 
 
 S PART AC US. 
 
 of Diplomacy cause their final Ruin—Tenth Battle—Scaling 
 of the Six-Mile Ramparts by Spartacus—Battle of Croton— 
 Destruction of the Seceders, G-ranicus and Castus—Obstinate 
 Fighting—Spartacus arrives and checks the Carnage—Pe- 
 telia, the Eleventh Battle—Victory—Twelfth Battle; Silarus 
 —Last and most Bloody Encounter—Spartacus, stabbing his 
 Horse, Rushes sword drawn, in search of Grassns—Heaps 
 of the slain—Dying like a King—End of the War—The great 
 Supplicium —Pompey and Crassus, emulous of meagre Hon¬ 
 ors—Inhuman Cruelties—Awful Wreaking of Vengeance on 
 the Cross—Dangling Bodies of 6.000 Crucified Workingmen 
 along the Appian Way—Thousands of Others crucified—Ut¬ 
 ter Failure of the Irascible Plan of Deliverance. 
 
 As physical science informs ns of convulsions in nature 
 called by geologists, the Permian age which brought the 
 pakeo2oic era to an end and left, after its prodigious up¬ 
 heavals, the calm in which we live, so historical fragments 
 and palatographs inform us of great social cataclysms im¬ 
 mediately preceding the immense calm that began to en¬ 
 velop human society during the reign of Augustus, rooted 
 into it by the visit and labors of Jesus. The desperate so¬ 
 cial upheaval here referred to—the last in the line—was 
 that of the gladiators under Spartacus, B. C. 74-70. 
 
 In introducing this mighty conflict of Spartacus—the 
 greatest and last of all the ancient struggles coming into 
 our categories of the “ irascible ” against the “ concupis¬ 
 cent,” and undertaken by labor, in its plan of salvation 
 from the horrors of slavery and suffering—we find it nec¬ 
 essary to sketch an outline of the condition which matters 
 were in during tl;e century preceding the advent of Jesus, 
 who was the next reformer in chronological order. 
 
 Of all the methods of systematic cruelty practiced upon 
 the ancient lowly, that of the gladiatorial games excelled; 
 and it is our duty, in order that the reader may see the 
 whole truth laid bare, which actuated this rebellion, to 
 quote a few specimen descriptions of that ferocious 
 amusement, from the authors and the slabs. Athenseus, 
 quoting the lost work of Nicolaus Damascenus, describes 
 in unmistakable language, the horrible custom common 
 at that time. He says it was a common thing for rich 
 men to invite guests to dinner and after the wine and 
 other intoxicating stimulants began to madden them, to 
 
HORRORS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE. 277 
 
 introduce gladiators into some ring or private amphithe¬ 
 atre. As these poor creatures, driven by the foreman to 
 fight, cut each others’ throats, boisterous applause and 
 laughter at the scene were indulged in. Sometimes beau¬ 
 tiful women were thus forced to attack and butcher 
 each other in the same manner as the men. Large 
 sums of money were paid for these innocent victims, for 
 no other purpose than to toy with this inhuman passion 
 in the male and female guests, for beholding atrocities of 
 this ghastly nature while they wallowed in inebriate and 
 lascivious beastliness. Often small children were driven 
 naked into the arena, given knives, and forced, for the 
 amusement of these truculent nobles, to struggle in the 
 iwful qualms of danger and death until the little innocents, 
 one or more, fell dying in their bath of blood. 1 
 
 Gladiatorial games, as we have shown in our chapter, 
 on amusements, were the real origin of wakes; and of this 
 we possess the evidence of Valerius Maximus. Some 264 
 years before Christ, two brothers named Marcus and 
 Decimus Brutus, on the deatli of their father, a lord of a 
 gens, possessing slaves, held in his honor and at his fun¬ 
 eral, a gladiatorial combat. There being no amphitheatre 
 at that early date, the Forum Boarium was used, and a 
 permit was granted by the city. Appius Claudius and 
 M. Fulvius were the consuls. 2 One need not wonder that 
 x license was granted to butcher workingmen by a mons- 
 ser like Appius Claudius. He hated them and was strug- 
 
 i Scharabach, Der Italische Sclavenaufstand, S. 7-8, quotes In proof of thU, 
 Nicolaus Damascenus, indirectly as follows: “In dem gewaltigen Geschlchts- 
 jverke des Nicolaus Damascenus warde dor Sklavenkrieg' in 110, Bnche gehan- 
 delt, aus dem uns bei A then, IV, pag. 153 F. (fragm. 84 bei Miiller fragm. hist. 
 graec. Ill, pag. 417) elnFragment erkalten 1st, welches in der von M. gegebenen 
 fatelnischen Uebersetzung, die ich der Allgemainverstandlichkeit. wegen statt dea 
 
 f ;riechischen Textes bier gebe, folgendermassen lantet: Nicolaus Damascenus. 
 'eripateticae eectae philosophus, libro historiaruin decimo supra centesimum 
 Romanos ecribit inter coenandum giadiatorum paria committere solitos, his ver 
 bis: giadiatorum autem spectacula non solum in publicie couventibus et amphi- 
 theatris edunt Romani, invecto ab Etruecis more, sed etiaru inter epulas. Itaque 
 amicos adcoenarn iuvitant Interdnm. turn ut alia, turn ut duo triave giadiatorum 
 paria dimicantia iis exhibeant. Igitar postquam vino ac dapibus sese mgurgita- 
 runt. introduci jubent gladiatores; quorum ubi qnis jngulatur, universi cunvivao 
 plaulunt eo spectaculo exhilarati. Quidem etiaui in testameuto jussit mu bores 
 foriiiosas, qnas emerat, ferro inter se dimicare; alius item puoros impuberos, 
 quos in delicits habuerat. Sedpopulusearn atrocitatein deteatatns testameutoiu 
 eorum irritnin esse jussit. l>as Ganze macht den Eindruck, als babe es zur A!o 
 tivirung des Aufstandee gedient.'’ 
 
 2 Valerius Maximus. De Sfioctaculit, 7; “ Gladiatorium mumis primum Roma* 
 datum est in foro boario, An < "audio, M. FulvioCoss. dederuut M. & D. It nit i, 
 funebri memoria pairis ciueiee iouorando. Alhleiarum eertamen a M Souij 
 Vactum est muniticentia." 
 
278 
 
 SPAliTACUS. 
 
 piling to suppress them and their unions even at that early 
 time. Thyse, who arranged the Lugdunum edition of 
 Valerius Maximus, adds that slaves were sacrificed on fu¬ 
 neral occasions of such men. 8 The origin then is fetish 
 and belongs to, and must, like many other inhuman rites, 
 and practices, be charged to religion. 
 
 As an instance that gladiators were the game of priests 
 and priestcraft not only at Rome, but even in North 
 America among the less ancient Aztecs, we may cite Ban¬ 
 croft, on the Nahuas. He says, speaking of the feast of 
 Xipe: “The next day another batch of prisoners called 
 oavanti , whose top hair had been shaved, were brought 
 out for sacrifice. In the meantime a number of young 
 men also named tototecti, began a gladiatorial game, a bur¬ 
 lesque on the real combat to follow, dressing themselves 
 in the skins of the flayed (human) victims.” 
 
 The story of these victims is told on the preceding page 
 as follows: “Let us now proceed with the feast of Xipe. 
 We left a part of the doomed victims on their way to 
 death. Arrived at the summit of the temple each one is 
 led in turn to the alter of sacrifice, seized by the grim, 
 merciless priests, and thrown upon the stone; the high- 
 priest draws near, the knife is lifted, there is one great 
 cry of agony, a shuffle of feet as the assistants are swayed 
 to and fro by the death-struggles of their victim, then all 
 is silent save the mutterings of the high-priest as high in 
 air he holds the smoking heart, while from far down be¬ 
 neath comes a low hum of admiration from the thousands 
 of upturned faces.” 4 
 
 This picture almost exactly corresponds with the glad¬ 
 iatorial horrors of the time of Spartacus at Rome, Capua 
 
 s Thysii, Recensionova Lvgd, Batavorum , 1651: “Gladiatorum inunus. Origo 
 Glad ; atorum a re funebri: exemplum ab Hetrnscis, At fortasse Hetrusci ipsi £ 
 GrticCis Undecunque exempltrhi, causa tameii and origo lunus. Nam quoniam 
 olim animat* ctefunctorum humano sanguine propitian creditam erat, captivoa 
 vel alto ingenio servos mercati in exsequiis immolabant. Fostea placuit lmpie- 
 tatem vo.nptate adumbrate: itaque duos paraverant. armis quibus tnnc et qual* 
 iter poterant eruditos, mox edicto die feriarum, apud tumulos erogabant. I'mc 
 muneris origo. Atque Gladiatores illi a busti cineribus Bustnarii dicti. Lips tut 
 Gladiatorium inunus. Yulgo, glndiatorum, quod gladiatorium Livio aliisque di- 
 citur . non enim gladiatorum munus illud erat, sed ejue qui gladiatores pngnantes 
 populo exhibebat.” pp. 170-171. 
 
 r Bancroft, Native Races, Vol. II, pp. 358-359. These horrors were extracted 
 from the histories of Las Casas, c'lavigero, Gomorra and others. The Christians 
 were furious against the practice and broke it up, for which they have been 
 maligned. There seeniB indeed no doubt that in breaking it up they committed 
 faults ; but the great anti-slavery movement of Las Casas, which ”varred against 
 every cruelty, freed Mexico from these two pests long ago. 
 
WAKING THE DEAD WITH BLOOD. 
 
 27 9 
 
 and hundreds of provincial towns all over Italy. Where 
 history fails the inscriptions come to the front with their 
 irrepressible language, making up the gaps. These are 
 seemingly innumerable. A peculiar character resembling 
 the Greek theta expresses the violent death of the gladia¬ 
 tor mentioned on the slab. Orelli’s catalogue entitled Res 
 Scenica teems with them. 8 As a rule they may be consid¬ 
 ered epitaphs; for after the dead gladiator had been 
 dragged off the sands his body was generally given up to 
 his friends, some of whom were organized in the numer¬ 
 ous unions, and hence the occasional laudatory words on 
 his character, his affection for his family, his skill in the 
 use of weapons. 
 
 But nothing is more certain than that these poor peo¬ 
 ple had a mutual or reciprocatory terror of these scenes 
 which were almost sure to terminate only with their lives. 
 
 When M. Valerius Lsevinus died B. C, 200, his sons 
 forced fifty of the old man’s slaves to begore his grave 
 with their blood. Flaminius, 25 years later, on the occa¬ 
 sion of his father’s death, caused 74 gladiators who had 
 been hired for the service, to balm with their blood his 
 ghost about to be deposited under the sacred hearth. The 
 emperor Trajan once ordered a vast gladiatorial orgie 
 lasting 123 days. Not less than 10,000 gladiators were 
 
 6 Orellius, Inscriptionum Latinarium Selectarum Collectio, Noe. 2,551. “ Poet- 
 
 elius, Syrus lanista ad Aram Forinarum. ubi negotiatorem familias 
 
 gladiatorire habes; 2,552 is a slab on wnich are lettered certain data about one 
 Cornelius Froutin ; how he won liberty at the great games and liberty for his 
 children. It was found on the Appian Way and catalogued by Mur. No. 620, 4; 
 2,554; 2,555 is one of which considerable mention has been made; “Inscrip- 
 tiones gladiatoriaa in Opere musivo Romce nsservato apud Marini, Atti. 1, p. 
 165.” It is two inscriptions In one, recording the death by the steel of both, 
 “Astianax. vicit. Kalendio death), Astianax, Kalendio (death or killed). Quibus 
 pugnantibus Simmachus ferrum Maternus habilis misit.” So No. 2,556, remark¬ 
 able inscriptions discovered at Pompeii, showing that gladiators fought with 
 wild beasts Romenelli, Viaggio a Pompeii. Rome, I, p. 82. Another (No. 2,645), 
 tells in the words of an epitaph, moro than a chapter of history. A gladiator had 
 fought eight times in these games Defore he fell, and so skillfully had he des¬ 
 patched his fellow adversaries whom the betters had pitted against him that he 
 received floral decorations and much applause. But we have not space to men¬ 
 tion more than a few of the extremely numerous specimens As to the average 
 years which gladiators lived we find these data carefully figured by Schambach 
 from the inscriptions of Orelli as follows: “ Ueber sein Alter ” (meaning the age 
 of Spartacus) “ ist uns zwar von den Alten nichts berichtet; trotzdem maent 
 dicser Punct noch nicht die grozten Schwierigkeiten. Das man zu Fechtern 
 vorwiegend Leute in jungen oder mittleren Lebensjahren wahlie, ist nattirlich; 
 die erhaltenen Sepulcralinschriften auf gefallenen Fechter bestiitigen dies. Wit 
 linden in den Inscr. lat. ed Hagenb. et Orelli folgende Todesjahre verzeichnet j 
 22 (nr. 2,572), 27 (nr. 2,592), 3<> (nr. 2.571). 46 (nr. 2,590) und schwerlich 
 wird das zuletzt angegebene Lebensjahr offers Tberschritten sein Wir werden 
 also nicht weit fehl gehen, wenn wir uns fipanacus als einen Mann zwischen 
 30 und 40 vorstellen,” Italischer Sklavenaufstand , S. 15-16, 
 
SPARTACUS. 
 
 *80 
 
 obliged to fight and die in the combat for the worse than 
 beastly gratification of that degenerate humanity. 
 
 At Capua, Pompeii, Prseneste, Ravenna, Alexandria in 
 upper Etruria, even in Gaul and among the Germans, 
 these games of gladiatorial carnage were fashionable. 
 Commodus upheld them, Domitian extended them, and 
 finally, and to their shame be it said, even the Christians 
 themselves left the noble principles and precepts of their 
 master and for the paltry baubles of adulation and of im¬ 
 perial favor, fell back into the ghastly heathenism of the 
 amphitheatre . 6 7 But fortunately for future civilization, 
 this did not occur until the cult of the so-called early 
 Christians had firmly taken root among workingmen, the 
 terrible system’s victims; and even to this day it is this 
 element that alone is manfully fighting an d resisting cruelty. 
 
 De Quincey, in his characteristic language, tells the 
 story of Caligula who took delight in feeding the wild ani¬ 
 mals of the amphitheatres with the quivering flesh of hu¬ 
 man beings. He brings his story in, incidentally, as an 
 instance as follows: 
 
 * On some occasion it happened that a dearth prevailed, 
 either generally of cattle, or of such cattle as were used 
 for feeding the wild beasts reserved for the bloody exhibi¬ 
 tions of the amphitheatre. Food could be had and per¬ 
 haps at no very exorbitant price, but on terms somewhat 
 higher than the ordinary market price. A slight excuse 
 served with Caligula for acts the most monstrous. In¬ 
 stantly repairing to the public jails and causing all the 
 prisoners to pass in review before him custodiarum seriem 
 recognoscens , he pointed to two bald-headed men, and or¬ 
 dered that the whole file of the intermediate persons should 
 be marched off to the dens of the wild beasts. ‘ Tell them 
 off ’ said he, ‘from the bald man to the bald man.’ Yet 
 these were prisoners committed, not for punishment, but 
 trial .”' 
 
 From the earliest times of which history gives any record, 
 brigandage or marauding was not only common but in 
 many countries quite popular . 8 It was the natural outcome 
 
 6 Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans , pp. 554-680. 
 
 7 De Quincy, Ancient Histories and Antiquities , pp 88-9. 
 
 8 Carey, Principles of Social Science, Vol. I p. 189. Kent is original brigand¬ 
 age differentiated by refinement. “ Opportunity makes the robbfl\, ar.d the most 
 (ferine among them becomes the leader of the band. One bf one, the people 
 
THE FIRST BRIGANDS. 
 
 281 
 
 of the competitive system, forcing the patricians or gent 
 families of high-born rank, to co-operate with each other, 
 and in Greece, to form interprotective fratries, in home, 
 curies* which may be regarded as first evidences of that 
 differentiation that made nations out of isolated families . 10 
 Much of this marauding spirit was the result of their 
 abuse practiced against slaves whose intelligent sensibili¬ 
 ties to maltreatment they little understood. Although 
 those slaves had neither social or political liberty they 
 bad minds and strong physical vitality . 11 These they of¬ 
 ten used in self defense. It was not uncommon for them 
 to take control of their own lives, escape into the mount¬ 
 ains whose caverns and jungles afforded them protection, 
 and organize nightly expeditions against those whom they 
 considered their common foe. Some of them became bold 
 and chivalrous bandits. Only on extremely rare occasions 
 does their history appear in the writings of the chroni¬ 
 clers of their times probably because of the contempt for 
 them as being mere property, which was entertained by 
 the ruling society, whose interests the historians were of¬ 
 ten forced to serve. 
 
 Historians were mostly of the aristocratic or noble 
 stock; because, as their business was to record the deeds 
 of heroes, the laboring race was considered too insignifi¬ 
 cant to do that work. So in earlier times soldiers were 
 of nobler stock than workingmen, for the same reason. 
 Thus we find in almost every instance, that historians 
 were of noble blood, while sculptors, architects, poets and 
 teachers were descendants from the slaves . 18 
 
 who desire to live by their own labor are plundered; and thus are they who pre¬ 
 fer the work of plunder enabled to pass their time in dissipation. The leader 
 divides the spoil, and with its help is enabled to augment the number of bis fol¬ 
 lowers, and thus to enlarge the sphere or his depredations. With the gradual In¬ 
 crease of the little community, he is led, however, to commute with them fora 
 certain share of their produce, which he calls rent, or tax or tattle” 
 
 8 For an interesting discussion of the gentes or gentiles which we designate 
 the gens families, see Morgan’s Ancient Society, Chapter II, pp. 62-70. 
 
 10 Florus, lib. Ill, cap. 20. §1, (Fisher) denies this, unable to understand the 
 possibility of equality by merit. “Nam etsi ipsl (meaning slaves as compared 
 with gladiators) per foitunam in omnia obnoxii; tamen quasi secundum homi- 
 num genus sunt.'’ ( NoteC). 
 
 11 Fustel de Coulanges, La CM Antique, p. 118, chap. X. “La signification 
 vrale defamilia est propriety-, elle designe le champ, la maison, l’argent. les es- 
 claves, etc.” The word thus developed politically and covered cities and nations 
 
 u Granier, Histoiredes Classes Ouvri'eres, chap. XVI. Also chap. XI, pp. 243- 
 244; Lucian, Somniwn, §. 6-9; Consult Drumann s remarks Arbeiler und Coni- 
 nunistenin Griechenland und Rom., S. 29-30. Miller, Origin oj Ranks, chap. VI, 
 T\ 243; “The ancient institution by which every one who is able to bear arms 
 
SPARTACU& 
 
 Among the most remarkable of the workingmen of an¬ 
 cient days whose genius revolted into rebellion against 
 the servile condition, was Spartacus. Judging from piece¬ 
 meal evidence, scantily, and we might also say, stingily 
 announced by the historians of his time, the deeds of 
 Spartacus, for valor, for success, for magnitude, and for 
 the terror they struck into the hearts of the proud Hom¬ 
 ans, were equal if not superior to those of Hannibal. The 
 more our investigation of the darkened facts reveals the 
 sagacity and purity of this man, the more profound be¬ 
 comes the respect and the more intense the admiration 
 for him by all true lovers of gallantry and freedom. In 
 fact, there are interests astir in the human breast which 
 must lead to a more searching acquaintance with the 
 fountains at the social penetralia of the times, that bubbled 
 forth under his terrible hand and shook the social and po¬ 
 litical world from center to surface, paling the senators 
 and tribunes at Home. 
 
 Spartacus was, in all respects a workingman. He had 
 no ornamental initials attached to his name, such as be¬ 
 token any claim to privileged ancestry. It was simply 
 Spartacus. ,, 
 
 to required to appear in the field at his own charge.” This of Itself precludes 
 the lowly who nave no such economical means, from being soldiers, and shows 
 the entire absence in the early ages, of the now prevailing socialistic mode of 
 ’evying and supporting armies by the state. See also Guhl and Koner, Lift of 
 the Greek* and Roman* : “The contempt against trades expressed by Cicero is fur¬ 
 ther illustrated by the fact of tradesmen being with few exceptions debarred from 
 serving in the legions; ” Drumann, Idem Romischer Abschnitt, 8.108, sq. DicMer, 
 confirms the statements that poets, artists and other workers were of the lowly 
 class. 
 
 13 Flor.,III, 20,1. “ Bellum Spartaco duce concitatum quo nomine appel- 
 lem nescio.” Mommsen, History of Rome, vol. IV, p. 102, Harpers’ ed., tries, 
 because his deeds were of so prodigious a magnitude, to make him a member or 
 a noble family of the Spartocids; but the name he trumps up to serve this silly 
 conceit is not Spartacus all; it was Spardokos, and the family was far from the 
 home of our hero while the time of their career was equally distant. Mommsen’s 
 exact words translated are: “ Spartacus, perhaps a scion of the noble family of 
 the Spartocids which attained even to royal honors in its Thracian home and in 
 Panticapsenm, had served among the Thracian auxiliaries in the Roman army, 
 had deserted and gone as a brigand to the mountains, and had been there recap¬ 
 tured and destined for the gladiatorial games.*’ Schambach makes this vaguely 
 conjectural, and succeeds only in repeating the well-known fact that In Thrace 
 the name Sportox, Sportokos and Spardokas was about as common as our name 
 Smith. He says, ( Italische Sklavenaufstand, S. 15): “ Dass Spartacus von Geburt 
 ein Thraker gewesen, darin stimmen alle Nachrichten tiberein; Plutarch fttgt 
 noch hinzu, er habe einem Nomadenstamme angehort. Eine thrakische Staut 
 
 5 1eichen Namens wird von Stephanus von Byzanz, s. v. erwiihnt : aus Thuc. II, 
 01 lernen wir einen Glied des odrystschen Konighauses kennen, das den Namen 
 STrapSoKo? fiihrt. Durch Inschriften und Mtinzen ist uns bezeugt, das In dem 
 bosporanischen Herrscherhause der name liraproKo^ ofters vorkam. Vgl. B5ckh 
 corp. inscr. gr. IT, 91. Moglieh, das auch unser Spartacus in seiner Heimat daa 
 Kang eiiiis llauutlinus schon bekleidet hat.” 
 
CAUSES LEADING TO TEE REVOLT. 283 
 
 Like all other prominent persons without the prestige 
 of high rank to build from, Spartacus rose by his own 
 genius. He arose amongst his fellow slaves in the year 
 74 before Christ. This was precisely the time correspond¬ 
 ing with the movement of the Roman Senate to suppress 
 the right of organization; 14 and serves as additional evi¬ 
 dence that the suppression of organization among work- 
 ing people was followed by a great struggle. The first ap¬ 
 pearance of Spartacus appears to have been sixteen years 
 before the law was passed suppressing the ancient right 
 of organization. 15 It seems evident, that threats against 
 the Jus coeundi, or law permitting free organization, were, 
 at the time Spartacus makes his appearance, being pushed, 
 with great fury by the nobility, on the 3lim pretext that 
 they were corrupting the politics as well as the general 
 morals of Rome. 16 But we know from the accounts of 
 the Gracchi that a furious dissention was all along, rag- 
 ing against the unions and in favor of the suppression of 
 the law engraved upon the Twelve Tables which permitted 
 free organization; and the fierco hatred of the patrician 
 minority of the Roman people, who were assuming and 
 monopolizing the public lands contrary to the Licinian 
 law—a dead letter—had by no means died out. 17 The 
 fact is, that although this great social feud had not 
 cropped out in the time of the appearance of Spartacus so 
 as to be much mentioned in any record of the time, yet 
 
 u See account of this suppression together with the efforts of Clodius anl 
 Cicero for and against it. in chapter xiii. Trade Unions. 
 
 16 Mommsen, De CoUegius el Sodalicils Roma norum, p. 73. Dc tegibus contra 
 collega latis. “Usque ad finem saeculi septimi liberum jus coeundi mansit.” 
 The year Ab Urbe Condita 700. Steculum septinium, was B. C, 58. 
 
 16 Mommsen says that Aseonicus refers to the year 65 beforo Christ in the 
 following words: “ Frequenter turn etiam emtus factiosorum hominum sine 
 
 publica auctoritate malo publico flebant.propter quod postea collegia 
 
 pluribus legibus sublata sunt,” Of course these “societies of pretentious men 
 without authority’’ to which Asconius refers, are the trade and other labor 
 unions. (Asoon., In Cornel, p. 76.) 
 
 i" Centralization of wealth upon individuals was at this time about av its 
 highest pitcii. Formerly even the lords sometimes worked on these far* is. 
 Pliny can hardly believe it, though t he enumerates many. Nat. Hist. XVin 8. 
 Plutarch, Solon, also speaks of it. But working with one’s own hands in Agri¬ 
 culture had disappeared by the time of Spartacus and everything was now d r ne 
 by slaves and free dm en See Wallace, Number of Mankind, p. 123, referring to 
 Plutarch, Solon, Solon finding that the very poorest freedmen who, if they lid 
 not get work, were seized and sold, took their part and must, therefore be chused 
 among the earliest labor reformers on record. Aot only Spartacus but g oat 
 i d era at his time and before were seized and sold into slavery. See Encyclo¬ 
 paedia Itrilannica ,, Vol. XXI p.653, 9th edition. Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse 
 after murdering 10,000 of the people of Segeeta had sold thr Wet into slavery. B. 
 0.807. tichambach, 8. 1-2, Zahl dor Skiaven. 
 
284 
 
 SPARTA CHS. 
 
 it was there, ready to be kindled into flame at any mo¬ 
 ment and by any daring adventurer. 
 
 The most terrible enemy of the plebeians, or, as we 
 prefer to call them, the working classes, was Cicero, 1 ' 
 whose sense of justice was confined to his own interpre¬ 
 tation of laws favoring the privileged class, or gens fami¬ 
 lies. Strange to say, in the year 70 B. C., he was in the 
 act of prosecuting Yerres, the praetor of Sicily, for acts of 
 rapacity which it was feared would again cause the ser¬ 
 vile war to flame forth in that island; a subject concern¬ 
 ing which we shall soon have more to say ; but a short 
 time afterwards we find him violently lampooning the 
 workingmen at Rome in his defense of the laws restrict¬ 
 ing their organization. We also find him slurring Clodius, 
 whose powerful eloquence succeeded in vindicating them 
 for a time and in bringing odium upon his name. Study¬ 
 ing the causes of the servile war of this period from a 
 consultation of the changes which occurred in the Roman 
 law, and bearing, at the same time, a close scrutiny of the 
 chronicled events such as are sparingly afforded by his¬ 
 torians, together with such as we find engraved on the 
 tablets of the unions before and after the promulgation 
 of the restrictions to labor organizations, we cannot but 
 see that the wide-spread disaffection called the servile war 
 of Spartacus 19 must have been largely caused by the law 
 prohibiting and threatening to prohibit free right of com¬ 
 bination. 
 
 Though little is known of the birth of Spartacus, the 
 legend goes that his father whom he much loved was also 
 a captive slave; and that the young son of 15 years, as he 
 held the head of his dying parent, chained and nailed to 
 the trunk of a tree, is conjured by the old man to avenge his 
 death 30 and that, like Hannibal, he then and there vowed 
 vengeance upon his powerful enemies, 31 and in consequence 
 his terrible spring at Rome in riper years was in obedi¬ 
 ence to promise. All this must, for want of proof, be re- 
 
 18 As evidence that Cicero hated the plebeians we have in many places, quoted 
 his own words in our copious annotations, q. v. in chapters on Trade Unions. 
 
 is Florus, III, 20, init, ennobles it with the appellation, “ Belluw Sparta- 
 
 oium.” 
 
 *** Vela, the Italian sculptor exocuted a group of statues portraying this seen# 
 which was set up in London in 1862. Dictionnaire Universel, Art. Spartacus. 
 
 21 “Serment do Spartacus; groupe de marbre de M. Barrias, Solon de 1872. 
 Spartacus aine euchainS et cloue a un tronc d'arbre vieit d’expirwr eto." bet 
 L/idionnaire Universel, Art Spartacus. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TEE GREAT GLADIATOR. 285 
 
 garded as romance. But we come to the recital of more 
 solid facts. 
 
 Spartacus, in the year B. C. 74, was a man of giant frame, 
 handsome, of white complexion with an abundance of 
 dark ringlets, and possessed of an affable bearing, win¬ 
 ning and yet severe in its magnetic aptitude for com¬ 
 mand. He was young for one of his experience, knowl¬ 
 edge and judgment of the world. He had been a shep¬ 
 herd on his native plains in Thracian Greece. 22 While 
 engaged at this bucolic calling he made companionship 
 with other young men unfitted for this dreamy life. They 
 attached themselves to habits of the numerous mountain¬ 
 eers who sallied from their cabins at convenient times and 
 attacked Roman soldiers who often marched through the 
 country during those days of war and invasion. At any 
 rate, we first find him at Capua, a city situated about 
 twenty miles north from Naples. We also have evidence 28 
 that he had been captured in Thrace, taken forcibly to 
 Capua as a prisoner and on account of his powerful phy¬ 
 sique and peculiarly fine appearance, was trained in a 
 school of gladiators by the master teacher of athletic 
 games, Lentulus Batiatus. Capua was then a consider¬ 
 able city of Italy. It was celebrated for its extravagance 
 and luxury. In the heart of an exceedingly fertile re¬ 
 gion, its indolent patrician inhabitants had usurped the 
 ager publicus which during the happier days of the gol¬ 
 den age of Rome had been farmed by labor unions or 
 colleges under the celebrated provisions of Numa Pom- 
 pilius and Solon. 24 The ager publicus was the public land. 
 It was property in common which belonged to the State. 28 
 The Licinian Law, or the memory of the defunct statute 
 having this title, was at that moment a bone of conten¬ 
 tion. Spurius Cassius long before the Twelve Tables were 
 engraved or the decemvirate created, had made a strong 
 effort in behalf of the unions, or order of the united la- 
 
 22 See International Encyclopaedia: La Rousse, Dictionaire Univcrsel, Articles, 
 *' Spartacus; ” Schambach, Italische Sklavenaufstand. V. 15. “ Dass Spartacus von 
 Geburt ein Thraker gewesen, darin stimmen alle Naehrichten iiberein.” Con¬ 
 sult also Floras, ELI, 20; Appian, I. 116-121. Orosius, HUtoriarum, Adversus Pag- 
 anos, VII. 
 
 .’3 Plutarch, Crassus, 8. 
 
 24 Digest, lib. xlvii. tit. 22, leg. 4, and the law of the Twelve Tables there 
 spoken of by Plut., Numa, xviii. 
 
 25 See Licinian law and the Agrarian conflicts, Plut., Titus Gracchus. Also 
 the Encyclopaedias, Art. Agrarian Law 
 
286 
 
 SPAKTACU8 L 
 
 borers, one of the great branches of that labor organiza 
 tion indirectly provided for by Nima. The co-operators 
 or amalgamated societies for victualing the inhabitants of 
 Rome were necessary to the life of the state. 28 Their 
 business had been to attend to the farming of the ager 
 publicus or lands belonging to the state. It is an unhappy 
 characteristic of individual wealth, however, to love the 
 boasted social gulf separating them from labor; and as 
 certain individuals grew enormously rich and politically 
 powerful they committed encroachments upon the ancient 
 system of supplying the people with provisions as it w ere, 
 by communistic means. The trade unionists or socialists 
 were gradually encroached upon by these wealthy gentes, 
 or patricians who pushed slaves out upon the ager pub- 
 licrn, driving off the unionists and their system by slow 
 degrees, substituting for them abject and degraded toil, 
 and maddening the collegia or unions who took advantage 
 of their organizations to discuss this grievance, a political 
 as well as a social one. 27 There were at Rome good men 
 as well as bad among the rulers in power. At all times 
 these are to be seen in Roman history. Spurius Cassius, 
 a consul, got a law passed restoring these lands, which 
 had been arbitrarily taken possession of, because he found 
 that the wrong had already begun, in his early time to 
 produce poverty. But the patricians arrogantly ignored 
 the measure, or rather fought it down. Great estates 
 manned by slaves appeared on the public domain to which 
 the optimates had no right whatever, except that of su¬ 
 perior force, prestige and tact. Thus, on the one hand, 
 in many places, especially in the particular territory south 
 
 See “ Vidualert” In chap, xvi, pp. 899-400. Also consult Granier, Hittoir* 
 des Classes Ouvri'eret, chap, xii, explaining how the trade unions were employed 
 by the Roman government. 
 
 2T In addition to our own copious figures on the importation of slave—In 
 other words cheap labor, we quote Schambach as follows; “ Von diesen ruck- 
 weisen Ueberschwemmung mit frischen Menschenki aften abgesehen, wurde der 
 regelmaszige Bedarf auf dem Wege des Handels gedeckt. Tort und fort 
 wurden aus dem Norden, aus den Gegenden am schwarzen Meere, aus Syrien 
 und Libyen eine Menge von Sklaven durch Handler nach Italien importirt. 
 Lange Zeit war Delos der Haupsitz dieses Handels; zur Zeit der hochsten 
 Bliite (um 100 v. Chr.) sollen an einem Tageoft 10,000 Sklaven hier abgesetz sein. 
 Selbstverstandlich war auch Rom ein wiclitiger Platz fiir den Sklavenhandel. 
 Auf welche Weise der Handler in dem besitz seiner Waare gekommen, darnach 
 fragte man nicht; Menschenraub zu Wasser und zu Lande, selbst Menschenjag- 
 den, wie sie heutzutage noch in Afrika an der Tagesordnung sind, waren uichts 
 TJngewbhnliches, wenn such die grosze Masse gebrachten, als ein Opfer heimi- 
 •cber Feliden, durch Tausch oder Kau. in dem Besitz ihrer derzeitigen Herr*n 
 gakoiumou sein muchteu.” Der Sklavenaiij'sLand, S 8. 
 
IMPORTED CHEAP LABOR THE CAUSE 
 
 287 
 
 and east of Rome, of which Capua was a fruitful center, 
 the ancient collegia or labor organizations were gradually 
 driven together into cities, and the slaves of conquest 
 and slaves of birth from the gem who were everywhere 
 numerous, were forced M to delve for rapacious masters, 
 without remuneration, under the tyrannical lash of foreign 
 mercenary drivers.” 
 
 The same state of things continued until the time of 
 Appius Claudius, one of the Roman decemvirs, whose 
 business as a decemvir was, per se to carry out the law of 
 Cassius, restoring the public domain to the people. What 
 was this decemvirate created for ? History is exceedingly 
 explicit and unanimous in stating the functions of the de¬ 
 cemvirate— decemviri legibus scribendis .*° They were cre¬ 
 ated for the express purpose of carrying out the law of 
 the Twelve Tables, one special provision in which was to 
 encourage the organization of the free labor element; 
 which organization, as a business compact, was to till the 
 ager publicus on shares and furnish the people food and 
 other necessities therefrom. 
 
 Appius Claudius must, especially from a standpoint of 
 sociology, ever be regarded as one of those black and 
 morally nauseating buzzards at which an occasional 
 glimpse is had by the disgusted sensibilities of the vir¬ 
 tuous as they climb down the ladder of time. He was, 
 in a most strangely surreptitious manner, the arch enemy 
 of the very measure he was elected to defend ! In war, 
 his best soldiers the mercenarii, forsook him. In morals, 
 he was a cruel and villainous libertine and his rape of 
 Virginia ,* 1 under pretense that she was one of the “ mis¬ 
 erable proletaries ” who bore the taint of labor and that 
 therefore, the laws of chivalry and of common decency 
 did not reach her case, together with the terrible death 
 of the poor girl at her father’s hand, ended in bringing 
 the tryant to prison and a violent end.** 
 
 *8 Consult Strabo, VI. p. 260, see also Ltlders’ Dionysische KUnstter: ** Der von. 
 den Tarentinern gegen die Rbmer zu Hiill'e gerufene Pyrrhus hatte, tun den ver- 
 welchlichten Burgern anzuhelfen, nichts Eiligeies zu than als die Syssiten in 
 zukunft zu verbieten, (page 12). Also Schambach’s Italischer Sklavenattfatand, VI, 
 S. 17. 
 
 29 For accounts of the enormous slave populations of different erae, see 
 Schambach, Italischer Sklavenaufstand, 1,1-4. Biicher, A ufstdnde der Unfreien Ar - 
 beitcr, S. 26, 36, 65, 64. Drum aim. Arbiter und CommunitUn, S. 24,166, 64 and 
 our own chapters. 
 
 so Livy, III. 33. « Livy, m, 66, 56, 87. Dlonys. of Harlicarn. 
 
 ** Livy, IAbri Historiarvm, HI. 57, Et illi carcerem sedifleatum esse, quod 
 
SPARTACUS. 
 
 m 
 
 The inimical inroads upon the ager publicus, and the 
 consequent ruin of the common people instigated by Ap- 
 pius Claudius and his band of patrician adherents created 
 so great a defection among the plebeians that in B. C. 
 366, the famous Licinian law, de modo agri was called into 
 being by Stolo a low-born himself. It was, in reality, a 
 regulation instituting a system of small holdings; for un¬ 
 der it one of the consuls was to be a man of the people 
 and no one rich or poor could be allowed more than 500 
 acres of the public land. This celebrated law, of Licinius 
 Stolo, a plebeian, which may be regarded as one of the 
 primitive causes of those great social wars and agrarian 
 contentions such as brought Rome to her phenomenal de¬ 
 cline, was also doomed to defeat. By the time of the re¬ 
 volt of Spartacus we find, on every side of the metropolis, 
 the grandees occupying the land, living in luxury, while 
 the land which for many centuries had been cultivated 
 by the comparatively free laborers or freedmen, was now 
 laboriously worked by degraded slaves, ready to revolt 
 and watching their opportunities for revenge. 
 
 We are now prepared to resume the thread of our nar¬ 
 rative. Young Spartacus, a workingman, in every sense,** 
 by birth from an earth-born family, by accident of capture 
 and by sale as a slave, was assigned to the exciting and 
 dangerous labors of a gladiator. His task was the revolt¬ 
 ing one of amusing the non-laboring grandees, their la¬ 
 dies and fashionable pets, the indolent and proud, who 
 languidly sought in the game, the wager, the bagnio, the 
 amphitheatre and its bloody combats, a gratification of 
 their passion for these scenes of ancient life. The ruins of 
 the great marble-faced amphitheatre of Capua where Spar- 
 taous is supposed to have killed many of his own comrades 
 in misfortune, are still an object of attraction to travelers.* 4 
 Capua was at that time a large city. It lay on the Vol- 
 turnus, a beautiful river of Campania flowing from the 
 Samnian Appenines westward into the Mediterranean 
 
 lomlcillmmplebta Romance vocarealt solitus. Proinde, ut ille iterum ac eaepiui 
 provocet, ale se Iterum ac Baepius iudicem illi ferre, ni vindlcias ab libertate in 
 wnritutem dederlt: si ad iadic«m non eat, pro damnato in vinonla duel iubere. 
 Dt hand qnoqnam improbante sic magno motu animorum, quum tantl yiri gup. 
 plicio euamet plebi lam nlmia llbertas videretur, in carcerem est coniectus,” 
 
 43 Dr. Schambach’s effort to prove him to have had a recognised family, le 
 without foundation in fact. 
 
 44 See Binaldo, Memoria Intoriche Della Cilia di Capua. 
 
CAPVAN SCHOOL OF GLADIATORS. 
 
 through, mountain gorges, valleys and plains, watering 
 some of the most fruitful lands of that magnificent penin¬ 
 sula. These delightful and fruitful fields had been the 
 ager publicus since 363 years before Christ; but like many 
 of the vast estates of the republic, had by the time of our 
 hero, become private manorial grounds tilled by slaves. 
 
 Spartacus had previously had some military experience 
 of a low order; 36 for it is certain that he was a prisoner, 
 having deserted the alliance in which he was treated as a 
 servant—a humiliation his spirit was too proud to bear— 
 and being recaptured, was sold into slavery. 
 
 There was at Capua, in addition to the amphitheatre, 
 a school, probably of importance enough to secure for its 
 enterprising proprietor, Lentulus Batiatus, a considera¬ 
 ble income. Plutarch expressly states that most of the 
 gladiators were Thracian Gauls, and further exonerates' 
 Spartacus from having come to this fate, by any crimes 
 he had committed. 86 He was forced there by the injus¬ 
 tice of his master. It seems to have been the opinion of 
 Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, that Roman gladiators were 
 superior to the Gaul or other imported contestants at the 
 Pompeian, and of course, the Capuan amphitheatres; and 
 we are to infer from him that Roman vigor and strength 
 were superior to all other even at the metropolis of Rome. 
 But we must ever bear in mind that this Roman blood 
 was native; that although it was servile by heredity through 
 long generations from plebeian parentage as the element 
 of outcasts, yet it was actually Roman blood; while the 
 Thracian element was actually of Greek blood, and that 
 in consequence a gladiatorial fight between a Thracian 
 Greek and a Roman stirred up the Roman spirit of emu¬ 
 lation on grounds of national pride; since they fancied 
 
 86 “ n avait servi dans les 16gions comme auxiliaire, mais trop Her pour ac¬ 
 cepter une servitude <36guis6e sous le nom d’alliance, il avait dSserte ala tSte d’ 
 une troupe de ses conpatriots, mais repris et vendu son courage et sa force 
 6taient employ6s en quality de gladiateur.” La Kousse, Didionnaire Universel. 
 
 8* Plutarch, Marcus Crassus , 8; “AeVruAov tivos Baridrov novoixaxov s ir 
 Kairvjj t pe<f>ovTO<;, <Lv oi 7roAAoi TaAdrai /cat ©pa/ce? J)<rav.” Florus Annales, III. 20: 
 
 .“ quippe cum servi militaverint, gladiatores imperaverint, illi inflmcB 
 
 sortis homines, hi pessimro. auxere ludibrio calamitatem." So also Schambach, 
 Italische Sklavenaufstand. VI, S. 18-19, who puts the proportion one third Thraci¬ 
 ans and two-thirds Gauls in the armies of Spartacus; “ Zum Oberaniiihrer wahl- 
 ten sie jetzt den Thraker Spartacus, zu Unteranliihrern die beiden Gallier Crixus 
 und (Enomaus. Mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit diirfen wir aus diesen Wahlen 
 in Bezug auf die Zusammensetzung des Haufens den Schlnss ziehfen. das etwa 
 ein-drittel Thraker zwei-drittel Galliern gegeniiberstanden, ein Verhaltnis, wel¬ 
 ches sich auch in weiteren Verlauf der Ereignisse uicht wesentlich andert,” 
 
290 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 tliey beheld in the bloody duel a recapitulation of the 
 more serious conflicts with Pyrrhus or Mithridates. We 
 know that on occasions of the games at the amphitheatres, 
 when Romans were to meet Gauls or Greeks, the adver¬ 
 tisements were more pronounced and the betting ran 
 ruinously high among the rich frequenters of the ring. 
 Undoubtedly Spartacus, who spoke Greek and Latin with 
 facility, was aware of this. B e had, as a scholar under 
 Lentulus Batiatus, either in the open functions or at re¬ 
 hearsals, severely punished, by his giant muscular force 
 and mastership of the art of swordsmanship and pugilism, 
 many wretches whose lot like his own was to measure 
 strength and science alike with friend and foe. 
 
 But although of prodigious courage, aptness and phys¬ 
 ical energy, Spartacus was humane and generous; and 
 bis nature revolted against the hideous character of his 
 employment. He loved the memory of his native hills 
 and valleys. His central desire was to reach home and 
 spend in quiet the remainder of his eventful life. Be¬ 
 sides, his wife, also a Thracian Greek, was ever at his side 
 with her loving tones of encouragement. Plutarch says 
 that she was possessed of the gift of divination. He relates 
 that Spartacus when taken prisoner was first brought to 
 Rome to be sold. While there, a serpent was once, as 
 he slumbered, discovered twinning caressingly about his 
 head and locks ; whereupon on inquiry by superstitious 
 people, as to the import of this strange action of the 
 gods, she answered in her public capacity as retainer to 
 the orgies of Bacchus, that this conduct of the friendly 
 reptile betokened that her husband would rise to be great 
 and formidable, and die happy! 81 Unfortunately for the 
 Romans he rose to be formidable to say the least. 
 
 87 Plutarch, Marcus Crassus , 8; “It is said when he was first brought to Borne 
 to he sold, a serpent was seen twisted aboxit his face as he slept. His wife, who 
 svas of the same tribe, having the gift of divination, and being a retainer beside* 
 to the orgies of Bacchus, said, it was a sign that he would rise to something 
 eery great and formidable, the result of which would be happy. This woman 
 still lived with him, and was the companion of his flight.’’ According to Taci¬ 
 tus, however, she was a German; for in his Germanifc, a curious chapter occurs 
 in her praise setting her forth as an example of the heroism of the ancient Ger¬ 
 man women. We qu ote the excellent statement of Scham* 
 
 bach on this point; Italische Sktavenaufstand, V, S. 16; “Was des Spartacus 
 friihero Lebenssehicksale anlangt, so steht fest, dass er eine Zeit lang unter den 
 Hilfstruppen im romischen Solde gestanden hat, vielleicht in dem Heere des 
 Proconsul P. Claudius, der die noch freien Stamme dfer makedonisehen Thrakei 
 unterwerfeu sollte. Hier hat er sich wahrscheinlich jene genaue Keuntniss dos 
 rduuschen Herrwesens erworben, welche die uaerliissliche Vorbediugung zi) 
 
THE CAPUAN U BUTCHER-MA STER." 
 
 291 
 
 But whatever the vicissitudes of Spartaeus at Rome, it 
 is certainly at Capua, many miles from the eternal city, 
 that we must introduce him. He must have been sent to 
 the Capuan school of gladiators to be trained in the 
 science of those ferocious combats with an object of being 
 sent back to Rome prepared ad gladium or ad ludum , 38 
 for the amphitheatre which afterwards, at the Coliseum 
 became the scenes of brutalities and abominations, such 
 as the world has seldom witnessed. Neither are we pre¬ 
 pared to state whether Batiatus the lanista or “ butcher- 
 master” of Capua, was to prepare him for the full-armor 
 games of the hoplomachi or for the deadly Thracian dag¬ 
 ger duels M to promote the pleasure of gentlemen.” 89 But 
 for whatever exact purpose he was designed at the arena 
 they were doomed to disappointment. 
 
 At Capua there was at that moment an organization of 
 the unguentarii 40 who furnished, it is said, all Italy with 
 perfumes of the richest quality and who in carrying on 
 this trade under the rules of their collegium or labor union 
 realized, so long as the ancient law applied in their case, 
 a good living as wage earners. Considering the amount 
 
 seinen zukiiftigen Siegen war. Nach Fionas ist er sodann desertirta. Strassen* 
 rauber geworden, als soldier get'angen und unter die Gladiatoren verurtheilt. 
 Mit dieser Ueberlieferung stiramte indessen Appian I, 116, e/c Se aixjaaAwo-ta? xat 
 7rpa(jea)s iv to?? /xoyo/j.dxois cov nicht iiberein, und auch ein Fragment Varro’s bei 
 Charis. I,p. 108, Innocente Varro de rebus nrbanis tertio, Spartaco innocente 
 conjecto ad gladium spricbt. gegen Florus. Dass er mebrmals seinen Herrn ge- 
 wechselt, ehe er in des Cn. Lentulus Batiatus Fechterschule nacb Capua kam, 
 sohcint aus Pint. Crass. 8; 6t€ npOjTov ei? 'Puj/atji' oinos vx^ 7 ! bervorzugelien. Plu¬ 
 tarch erzahlt auch noch die Sage, dass nach seiner Ankunft in Bom sich eine 
 fichlange im Scblaf um sein Haupt gewunden und dass eine thrakische Wahr- 
 sagerin dies daliin gedeutet habe, * er werde gross und furchtbar und bis an sem 
 ungiiicklicbes Elide gliicklich sein,’ eine Propliezeiung, die in ihrem letzten 
 Theile an Allgemeinheit nichts zu wiinschen iibrig lasst. 
 
 ss To be killed by decree of law, or to be saved after three years of service, 
 in successful competitive lights. Very few ad ludum, gladiators, ever came out 
 alive. 
 
 3«Florus, Annales, HI, 20, §8; “Nee abnuit, ille de stipendario Tliracae miles, 
 de milite desertor; inde latro, dein in honore virorum gladiator.” 
 
 40 Unguentarii-, see chapter xix, on Trade Unions, Capua is also the seat of the 
 curious historical inscription of Aquillius, (Orelli, Inscriptionum Latinarum Colleo 
 tio, No. 3, 308), which speaks ol the 917 runaway slaves restored by him to their 
 masters, during the great Sicikm Slave war (chap, xi., Athenion), which could 
 not have been inscribed more than about 17 years before. We therefore quote 
 the inscription entire as it furnishes evidence of what must have been the state 
 of feeling with working people at the time the war with Spartacus broke out at 
 Capua: “ M Aquillius, M. F. Gailus. procos viam fecei ab regio ad Capuam et in 
 ea via Ponteis omneis meiliarios tabelluriosque poseiuei hince sunt Nouceriam 
 media Captuam XXCIII, Muramxm IXXI1I coscntiaan CXXI1I Valentiam CLXXX. 
 ad Fretum ad statuam COXXXI regium CCXXXVII, suma Af Capua regium 
 meihaCCCXXI. Et eidem praetor in Sicilia fngiteivos. Italicorum conquaesiuei 
 redeiqnc homines DCCCCXVU eidemque primus fecei. Ut de agro poblico ara 
 toribus cederent paastorea forum aedisqua poblicas heic fecei." 
 
SPARTACUS 
 
 292 
 
 demand for such an article in the most extravagant 
 
 and luxurious era of Roman wealth, we must infer that 
 the business employed a large number of people. But 
 just at this moment the senate at Rome was seriously 
 contemplating the suppression of the trade unions. We 
 know that this contemplated suppression was desperately 
 resisted both by the unions and some of the tribunes of 
 the people and other men of power; and if we are to sup¬ 
 pose that the men were as keenly on the alert in those 
 days as they now are, we cannot but imagine that their 
 influence if not their numbers, were lent toward kindling 
 this servile war. For this reason if for no other, it is 
 highly important that we should know this story. 
 
 The auspices were all favorable to Spartacus while at 
 Capua, who, together with 200 of the Thracian, Gallic and 
 Roman gladiators, plotted a measure for escape. The 
 plan was to stealthily secure the knives and other arti¬ 
 cles to be found in the kitchens and eating rooms of the 
 institution, and with these, make a rush in a body for the 
 principal doorway which was guarded by Roman sol¬ 
 diers. 42 Just before the appointed moment arrived, how¬ 
 ever, a certain person enrolled in the conspiracy let his 
 courage forsake him; or it may be, was bribed by secret 
 detectives to reveal the truth. However this may have 
 been, a dash by the officers of the law was suddenly made 
 for the arrest of the insurrectionists, which would have 
 succeeded had not Spartacus put his utmost efforts forth 
 to prevent it—being actually ahead of time. As it was, 
 78 of the most trustworthy and daring burst through 
 the door into the street and thence out of town. The 78 
 men 43 had succeeded in providing themselves with long 
 
 41 Appian Historia Rowland. f. 116; ‘‘Toil S‘ avrov \p6vov ntpi ti)f ’IraAiap 
 lovopax^v 6? t^eas ev Kcurvrj rpeijyopeviDv, 27rapra/co; ©p<*£ ai'ijPj eaTparevpivot nori 
 Pwpaioif, e/c Se at^p.aAwcrtas xal 7rpacreco? ev rofs povopo-xoti inv, eneiaev avrutv ef 
 epSopyKOVTa avSpag padurra KivSvvevcrai nepl eAevtfepi'as paWov rf &eas ejrtA*i£en>s, 
 Kal fiiacrdpevos, <ri>v avrois root <j)v\d.(TcrovTai e^eSpape, Kal nvuv oSomoptov £vAoif 
 reai £i0iSioi? ondurapevos e? to Beaftiov opos aveijivyev.” Plutarch, Crassus, 8, 
 (Langhorne,) says.. “OneLentulus Batiatus kept at Capua a number of gladJ- 
 tors, the greatest part of which were Gauls and Thracians; men not reduced to 
 that employment for any crimes they had committed, but forced upon it by their 
 master. Two hundred of them, therefore, agreed to make their escape. Though 
 the plot was discovered, threescore andei hteen of them, by their extreme vig¬ 
 ilance, were beforehand with their master, and sallied out or town, having first 
 seized all the long knives and spits in a cook’s shop.” 
 
 42 Floras, Annales, III. 20 , puts it at 30: “Cum triginta hand amplius 
 ejusdem iortunaa viris, erumperunt Capua.” Plutarch says 78; and this best 
 agrees with others. 
 
FIRST BATTLE. 
 
 293 
 
 knives and any other things they could lay hands on 
 which could be used as weapons. 43 
 
 The first battle was fought with the troops of the gar¬ 
 rison at Capua, and if we are to credit the hints of Plu¬ 
 tarch the confiict must be considered both the opening 
 battle and victory of Spartacus. The Capuan troops, af¬ 
 ter the escape of the seventy-four, attacked them, as they 
 gained the gates and passages into the open road; but 
 by some dexterous charge were defeated by the gladia¬ 
 tors and compelled to return empty-handed to the gar¬ 
 rison. They took the main road, presumably the Appian 
 Way, which, leading from Rome through the city of 
 Capua, joins the Via Aquilia about five miles to the south 
 of this place. The Via Aquilia, parting from the Appian 
 Way to the right, leads almost directly to the foot of 
 Mount Vesuvius, a distance from Capua of nineteen or 
 twenty miles. It was on this march that the fugitives met 
 some wagons loaded with a quantity of daggers, swords 
 and knives which they were taking to the city. These 
 weapons were to be used by gladiators in the arena; and 
 it is not unlikely that they were intended for these fugi¬ 
 tives’ own use at the Capuan amphitheatre. Implements 
 so much needed were, of course, instantly seized, though 
 not without a fight. Thus equipped they reached a 
 mountain ledge in safety. On personal inspection of the 
 place we are inclined to conjecture that Spartacus and 
 his friends first reached the northeasterly base of Vesu¬ 
 vius, or that part which is now the fragment of the volcano 44 
 and known as the “ Somma,” whose separate peak five 
 miles eastward from the crater is called the “Punta del 
 Nasone” and is nearly 4,000 feet above the sea which is 
 visible to the westward. At that time, before the erup¬ 
 tion, it must have been 5,000 or 6,000 feet high. 
 
 * 3 Plutarch, Marcus Crassus, 9, in relating these things speaks very bitterly 
 against them, as being mere barbarians: “ Kai jrpwroj' pev roi>s e/c Kavvy/s eA 6ov~ 
 ras uxjdfxevoi, /cat ttoAAwi' ottKiov e7riAa/3op.evot 7roAep.icrr>7piio»', aaptrot, ravra. p.ere- 
 Aa.p./3ai'oi\ anoppi^ai'ies, ws artp-a kcu jSapjSapa, Ta rdtv /j-ovoixa-x^v.” Florus and 
 Cicero put the number of the first gladiators down as low as possible : “ Cum 
 Spartaco minus multi prima fuerunt. Quid tandem isti mali in tarn tenera in- 
 Bula non fecissent ? Cicero, AdAtticum, Liber VI. Epistola, 2. Florus, Annates, 
 HI. 20, §. 1, declares there were scarcely more than 30 who escaped with Sparta¬ 
 cus: “ Spartacus, Crixus, iEnomaus, effracto Lentuli ludo, cum triginta baud 
 amplius ejusdem l'ortun® viris eruperunt Capua.” Consult also Frontin, LXXIV. 
 1, 5, 21; Yellejus Paterculus, II, 30, 6. 
 
 Vesuvius was not known to have ever had an eruption at that time. Ap. 
 piau, HLstoria Humana, 1 .116, only says; “ ev to BiarfiLoi/ opos dve<f>vyey.” Plutarch 
 
294 
 
 SPAMTACUS. 
 
 Here the fugitives took refuge among the crags and 
 wild vines that overhung the mountain side. It was at a 
 point where there was but one approach, that they fixed 
 their first resting place. This was a projecting table-rock 
 which shelved forward over a craggy precipice embowered 
 in the foliage of wild grape vines. 46 Here, on a crag ris¬ 
 ing perpendicularly over an immense chasm, the little 
 band pitched their tents. They held a council of war and 
 elected Spartacus commander-in-chief and Crixus and 
 CEnomaus, 46 his lieutenants. Spartacus, now in full com¬ 
 mand, immediately began to exercise those gifts of genius, 
 foresight and power which have covered one of the most 
 brilliant military pages in the history of either ancient or 
 modern times. 41 
 
 As might be expected, the people of Capua were filled 
 with terror at the escape of the gladiators. 48 There was 
 a feeling of shame and humiliation based upon the fact 
 that the rebels were slaves. To combat with equals had 
 ever been the pride of Rome; but to bring her noble arms 
 to bear against a thing so low and hateful in the scale of 
 being as a servile revolt was, from a social point of view, a 
 national degradation and a disgrace. 
 
 Nevertheless, the report reached Rome that the gladia¬ 
 tors under Spartacus, the prophetic giant, had revolted 
 and escaped to the mountains, and a large detachment of 
 troops, who w r ere probably stationed at Capua, was sent 
 
 who must have borrowed from Sallust (See Schambach, 8. 9), is our principal 
 source for these details 
 
 46 La Rousse, Dictionnalre Universd, Art. Sparlacut, see also Plutarch, liarcut 
 Crassus, VIII., IX. 
 
 <0 Flor., m, 20, §. 1. “ Spartacus, Crixus, (Enomsus, effracto Lentuli ludo, 
 
 cum triginta baud amplius ejusdem fortunas viria," 
 
 47 Schambach, Der Ualische SJclavenaufstand, V, 8.15: “Plutarch sagt in» 
 Leben des Crassus cap. 8: oi iroAAot ’S.napTo.Kfiov 7roA«/u.o»> bvopa^ovm und Floru*, 
 der die sicilischen S'klavenkriege ‘bellum servile’ nennt, setzt uber das matt- 
 zlgste Capital desdritten Buclies die Ueberscimft ‘ bellum Spartactum.' bringt den 
 Italischen Shlavenkrieg also in eine Katagorie mit den andern gross'n Kriegen 
 (wie dem bHum Hanuibalicum, Sertorianum Mithridaticum), in deneu eia 
 Mann so vorwiegeud als die Seele des Kamies erscheint, dass dieser nach ihm 
 benannt zu werden verdieut. Zwar finden wir bei den rbmischen Antoren vor- 
 wiegend andere Bezeichnungen, z. B. bellum servile (Augustin de c d. Ill, 25, 
 Ampel c. 41, 45), servilis tumultus (Caes. b. G. I, 40), bellum fugitivorura 
 (Front), ‘ hoc fugitivormn et ut verius dieain gladiatorum helium ’ (thus.); a her 
 alien diesen Benennungen liegt die Absicht zu Grunde, den verbassten Fttbrer 
 der Aufstiindischen nicht wider Willen zu Nachruhni zu verhelien." 
 
 48 In further proof that originally the paUrfamiliat had the right to enslaw 
 or even kill his children, see Canon Lightfoot, on The Collossiant % p. 312, quoting 
 the Digest, i. 6. “In potestate sunt servi domiiiorum : quae quidem potestM 
 juris gentium est: uam apud oaines peraeque gentes animadvertar* pottutuo# 
 dcmimia m servos vitae necisque potestatem iuisstj.’' 
 
SECOND BATTLE. 
 
 295 
 
 oat under the command of the Roman preetor, Clodius 
 Glaber, to subduo them 19 One account gives the number 
 of this force at just 3,000 men. Olodius appeared at the 
 base of the precipice during the day, knowing that the 
 rebels were on the height above him. The army, how¬ 
 ever, took up its quarters at one side of the acclivity tc 
 the ascent of which there was but one approach. This 
 they guarded to prevent the gladiators from escape in the 
 night. 
 
 Now was the time for the wily Spartacus, whose band 
 was without suitable arms for a contest. The duel was 
 to consist in the measure of comparative wit. When 
 evening came Spartacus and his men who during the day 
 had taken vines and of them woven ladders sufficiently 
 strong to hold the heaviest man and long enough to reach 
 the foot of the overhanging precipice back of whose cap¬ 
 stone the band lay intrenched, let themselves down in 
 such silence as not to awaken the suspicion of the slum¬ 
 bering army. All descended the ladder empty-handed 
 in this manner, except one man who remained to lower 
 the arms; after which he also climbed down and thus all 
 succeeded uninjured, in reaching the plain below, at a 
 point least suspected by the Romans, 60 Profound silence 
 reigned. The proud praetor and his 3,000 men were now 
 but a few steps from where stood those desperate slaves 
 who w r ell knew that one slip or false action might end 
 their lives. 
 
 Spartacus, ranged his men in a manner to surround 
 the Roman encampment. When all was ready the start¬ 
 ling whoop of onset was given and the gladiators centering 
 in, apparently in large numbers, with their terrifying war- 
 cry and death-dealing weapons, completely routed those 
 whom they did not kill upon the spot. The rout of the 
 Romans was complete and the rebels remained masters 
 of their baggage and arms, 74 Roman cohorts being killed 
 on the spot. 51 
 
 Compare Florins, III. 20, 4. “ Clodio Glabro, per fauces moutis vitigineas.” 
 See Scliambach, Itnlisd-er Sk'auenoujstand, VJ. S. 19. Also International Encyc. 
 Art Spartacus, Livy, Epitome, XCV., gives the name of the Roman legate as 
 Claudius l uleher.” Appian says Variuivis Glabrus, 1.116. . . “/cal n-pwros 
 avroi' eKirep<f>deis ’Ovapuaos rAa;3po<r.” Rut he gives us very little of this first 
 strategical manoeuvre and battle, and payees on to the greater conflicts which 
 followed, 
 
 5" Plutarch, Marcus Orassus. 8; Frontinus. I. o, 22. 
 
 m iivatiuus, I. 3, 21. “Oohurtes gladiatoribus qualuor et lieptuagiuta ces- 
 
SPART AC US. 
 
 The result of this second success was electrifying. On 
 the part of the Romans, public sentiment was filled with 
 humiliation and disgust. Arrangements were immedi¬ 
 ately made at Rome to send a powerful force, under a 
 leader in whom they had confidence; and Publius Varinius, 
 a praetor, w T as sent south at the command of a large body 
 of troops ably sujiported by two lieutenants, Furius and 
 Cossinius. The praetor had so much faith in Cossinius 
 that he made him his assistant and chief counselor. 
 
 Spartacus, who had gained this decisive victory at the 
 precipice of Vesuvius, was cool and calm, full of the sense 
 of his responsibility and still unwavering in the child-like 
 desire to reach safely his native home, far to the north¬ 
 ward, across the Adriatic. He had the ripe judgment to 
 foreknow that the Romans when aroused were invincible. 
 
 But resolutely suiting the opportunity to the circum¬ 
 stances, he issued a proclamation of emancipation and pro¬ 
 tection to all the slaves who should join his force. Mul¬ 
 titudes of cattle-drivers, shepherds, herdsmen and others 
 whose condition had been degraded by the land-holders 
 to slavery, ajipeared before him offering their allegi¬ 
 ance. They were accepted and armed with implements 
 wrested from Clodius, at the ambuscade of Vesuvius. 
 The entire force under Clodius Glaber, being only given 
 at 3,000 there could not have been arms enough for more 
 than that number, unless some of the volunteers furnished 
 their own weapons. This might have been the case; but 
 to offset the argument that the servile auxiliaries used 
 other than the dignified military armor, we have a passage 
 in Plutarch, declaring that at the first skirmish against a 
 detachment from Capua where the gladiators were victor¬ 
 ious they threw away their knives as things ‘‘disgraceful, 
 dishonorable and barbarous.” 
 
 His wish was constantly to secure arms, and naturally; 
 for immediately on the defeat of Clodius Glaber, the ren¬ 
 egade force of 78 gladiators from Capua swelled into an 
 
 uorintSee also Flor., m. 20: *• Nihil tale opinantls duels, snbitoimpetu ea*- 
 
 tra rapuere.” Scliambach, Jtalischer Sklaverikritg, S. 20, says: “ Alle Nachrich- 
 tcu stimtuen nemlich darin tiberein, dasa die Feehter an Zahl unendlich viel go- 
 ringer waren, Frontin 1, 5, 21 gibt sogar an, es seien noch die 74 allein gewesen: 
 verum etiam ex alio latere Clodium ita terruit, ut aliquot coliortes gladiatoribus 
 quatuor et septuaginta cesserint. Der Angriff gelang vollstandig, die rbmischen 
 ‘ unlites tumultuarii ’ raumten iiiehend das Feld und liessen ihr Lager mit aliens 
 Gepaek im Sticli, das erne Iieute der Empover wurde.” 
 
THIRD AND FOURTH BATTLER 
 
 29Y 
 
 army of 10,000 w men of great vigor and very swift run¬ 
 ners.” and Spartaeus “ covered them with armor, some 
 heavy, some light for picket duty,” M As the cities of 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii were but a few miles distant 
 to the south and west, it is quite possible that he realized 
 not only arms but many volunteers from that quarter. 
 The indomitable rebel now set himself about drilling his 
 men into military service. The wretched ergastuli were 
 changed into free men who assumed military dignity, 63 
 from the moment of their desertion from their masters thus 
 realizing immediate participation, without having to linger 
 upon the anticipations of promise. With 10,000 desperate 
 soldiers under rigid drill he soon felt himself capable to 
 oope with a praetorian army. Nor had he long to wait. 
 
 The Roman praetor, Publius Varinius, as already stated, 
 was in the same year, B. C. 74, sent with a large army to 
 put an end to the trouble. 44 He had two lieutenants, 
 Furius and Cossinius. Varinius placed much confidence 
 la Cossinius as a man of uncommon judgment. But the 
 combined wisdom of both was not enough to induce the 
 Roman army to keep together; for Furius was sent with 
 a strong detachment of 2,000 men against the “ common 
 robber.” “ Spartaeus, perceiving the Roman army divided 
 into two columns, fell upon the weakest line, that of Fu- 
 
 ••Plntarch, Marcus Crassus ; Floras, III. 20, 3, also speaks of the 10,000 as fol¬ 
 low*: “ Servisque ad vexillum yocatis, cum etatim decern amplius millia cois- 
 •ent horuinum.” Plutarch, Marcus Crassus, correctly applies this estimate after 
 father than before the battle of the ambuscade. 
 
 68 Smith’s DicHonairy of Greek and Roman Antiquities , Art. Spartaeus, The 
 runaways resorted to all sorts of expedients to obtain arms and munitions. See 
 Floras, III. 20, 6. “ Afliueutibus in diem copiis, quurn jam esset justus exercitns 
 e yimlnibus pecndumque tegumentis, ineonditos sibi clipeos; e !erro ex’gastulo- 
 rum recocto gladxoe ac tela fecerunt.” So also Appian, De Beilis Civilibus, I. 
 116-117: ** M*rd Se tovto Siraprasio per en paWov woAAoi avre&eov, sai (irra pvpia- 
 
 Jjaar ijA if oTparov , sat 07rAa e\a\xtve, cat vapacrKivtfv <rvve\eyt», ot S’ ev daret 
 TOVf vwarovt i£entpnov pera Svo reAwv." 
 
 M Appian, Be Beilis Civilibus , I. 116. “ Mept£op«i'w i’ avTp ra x4pSr) tear 
 Ivopoipiav ra^v tta jjdos J\v arSpuv, sat nploTOf in’ avrbv esirept^deU ’Ovapii'ios rAa/3- 
 pov, ini i’ imirtp IidtrAto? ’OvaAe'pto?, ou jroAtrtsrjv arpanav ayovres 6 AA ocrou? iv 
 «r»sal nap66tf> <rvre\t(av (ou yap nut 'Potpaloi n6\epor, dAA J eniSpoprji' riva sai 
 t6 ipycr opotor rjyovrro elvai), <rvp/3a\6vTes t/ttoIh'to. 'Ovapinov Se sai rbv 
 avrds Sirdprasos nepeai ratre" napa tooovtov JjAde kivSvvov ‘F<upaiu>v 6 arpa- 
 r yy fct awr*t aixpakurrot bird povopavov yevladai.” 
 
 •* Horace, Carnino, liber III. Carmen. 14, lines 18-20] 
 
 “ Et cadern Marsi memorem c’.uelli, 
 
 Bpartacum ei qua potuit yagaiitam 
 Fallere testa.” 
 
 Cornelias Tacitas, Annates , lib. III. cap. 73, speaks of the successes of Spartaeus 
 
 as shameful applying the epithets “robberand deserter.” “Non alias magis 
 sua populiqae Romani contumelia indoluisse Caesarem ferunt, quam quod de- 
 sertor et praedo hostium more ageret. ne Spartaco quidern post tot consularium 
 •Xercituum clades inultam ] tali am urenti.” 
 
298 
 
 SFAliTACUS. 
 
 rius, and with an impetous dash, broke through his main 
 body, routing and destroying nearly the entire detach¬ 
 ment. The larger force however remained, commanded 
 by Cossinius, the legate and confidential adviser of the 
 commander-in-chief. That worthy, doubtless, incredulous 
 regarding the abilities of the man he was to cope with, so 
 far forgot the rigorous vigilance of war as to indulge in 
 the tempting baths of Salenae. The eagle-eye of Sparta- 
 cus bent upon the prey. While the Roman was thus 
 luxuriating, the gladiators rushed with fierce rapidity and 
 like a thunderbolt struck the spot, and very nearly suc¬ 
 ceeded in seizing Cossinus in the bath. Lie escaped, how¬ 
 ever, with precipitation, but his arm} 7 was attacked by 
 surprise, routed, large numbers killed and Cossinus him¬ 
 self in attempting to restore order was slain in battle 
 which covered the field with the dead. The conquering 
 legions followed up the victory and made themselves mas¬ 
 ters of the camps of the Roman army. 
 
 The report of this victory at the Baths of Saleme spread 
 like wildfire through the land. Slaves rushed into the 
 camp of the rebels, offering then services in exchange 
 for freedom. The newly gotten arms were transferred 
 from the Romans to the sun-baked and brawny hands of 
 the rebels. The drill and military manoeuvre went rigor¬ 
 ously and with great system forward in their camp; and 
 while the hopes of the unsophisticated bondmen beat 
 high the pride of the Roman nobility and citizens was 
 mortified and crushed. 
 
 Varinius 66 with the remnant of his army, consisting of 
 the greater fraction of the original force, was in the vicin¬ 
 ity, or at least, not very far from the scene of the last dis¬ 
 aster in which Cossinius met his fate. There are no data 
 extant which give the full accounts of this encounter. To 
 the student of sociology it must Le announced with keen 
 regrets that the entire three books of Livy covering the 
 space of time between 74 and 71 B. C., are, with the ex¬ 
 ception of the epitome of books, XCY., XCVI. and 
 XCVIL, completely lost. A discovery of the lost author¬ 
 ities would indeed be a rich legacy to the science of so¬ 
 ciology. Exactly similar is the fate of the great 7./AW Ills'- 
 
 60 Publius Varimus according to l'lutarou, aitiiougii xppiaa says Varimos 
 tflabros. 
 
FIFTH BATTLE. VARINIUS DEFEATED. 
 
 20 !) - 
 
 loriarum, of Sallust. 81 Of all writers on ancient history, 
 Sallust and Livy rank among the most plain-spoken and 
 manly. By the epitomies and fragments still extant we 
 know that these missing histories of the servile war ware 
 elaborately written; and judging from the careful study 
 and insertion of figures, speeches and other literary con¬ 
 diments which spice their narrations we should, had they 
 not perished, be supplied with a flood of new details re¬ 
 garding this servile war. Those inestimable jewels are, 
 however, lost, unless some Niebuhr arises to rescue them 
 from their dusty shadows. The triumphs of Spartacus 
 were an unendurable stigma upon the Roman name, and 
 the shame which the successes of gladiators and slaves 
 inflicted, though it could not be effaced from memory, 
 could be expunged or obliterated by destroying the books 
 and by acts as barbarous as that which afterwards lined 
 the drives for miles both sides of the Appian Way with 
 the crucified followers of this general. 
 
 Spartacus soon after made a formidable onset upon 
 Varinius, who was overthrown, showing this to have been 
 a great battle. Much obscurity hangs over this engage¬ 
 ment. 68 Could the whole truth be revealed we should 
 perhaps be presented with one of the world’s bloodiest 
 struggles; for we are informed by Plutarch that about 
 this time the army of Spartacus had greatly swollen, and 
 Appian declares it to have reached 70,000 men. The 
 Roman general was overthrown. He lost all his troops, 
 his horses, baggage, and his praetorian fasces. In fact he 
 was annihilated; for we hear no more of him. 
 
 w See Schambacli’s Ilalischer Sklavcnaufstand. II. S. 6. This been observer 
 and critic considers Sallust’s history to have been far the most authentic and 
 complete of all. He says: "Am meisten zu bedauern haben wir den V erlust 
 des grossten Werkes des Salustius, welches den Titel fiihrte libri historiarum 
 populi Romani. Salustius war von den romischen Autoren, die eine ieschichte 
 jenes Krieges gegeben haben, derjenige, welclier den Ereiguissfen selbst nicht 
 nur zeitlich am niichsten stand, sondern aucii die meiste histonache Glaubwur- 
 digkeit hat. Vermoge seiner Stellung im Staate und seiner weitreichendcu Ver- 
 bindungen war er im Stande die besten Naohrichten zu geben, undmit einer an- 
 ziehenden charakteristisclien Darstelluug verband or Mfctliode und Kritik. Seine 
 Historien waren sehr ausfiihrlich.” 
 
 “ Dans uncombat desastreux il (Varinius)perdit sestroupes, ses baggages, 
 son cheval, et jusqu’ aux faiseeaux pretoriena ” (La Rousse, Art, Spartacus). See 
 also Michaud, Bibliographic Universelle, Vol. 40, pp. 18-21, wherein we are re¬ 
 minded ol' the extraordinary allusion by Tacitus (Germaniae. cap. 8), of the wife 
 of Spartacus having been a fortune-teller. She accompanied her husband 
 through Ids remarkable career. Her name was Aurinia and Tacitus supposes 
 her to have been a German, bee Infra, ] . 318 note 73 Appian, ] 10, Jin., con¬ 
 firms tbs statement that Varinius lost many of his troops and his colors. 
 
800 
 
 SPARTA CUS. 
 
 Spartacus from this time was adoroed with the regular 
 accompaniments of a Roman pro-consul. With a great 
 army he overran the territory of Campania, ravaging and 
 sacking Nola, Nuceria and Cora; then crossing the Sam- 
 nian line into the province of Hirpinius he seized what he 
 wanted from Compsa on the Via Numicia. Crossing the 
 Appenines he marched his army southward into the rich 
 peninsular division of Lucania. Here in the great fertile 
 plains, between the mountains and the Tarantine Gulf, he 
 was absolute master. His arms extended still farther 
 southward over the domain of Bruttium in Magna Grse- 
 cia. 59 In fact the destruction of the Varinian army had 
 placed the rebels in complete possession of this whole 
 portion of Italy. Here were pitched the winter quarters, 
 B. C. 74-73. 60 " 
 
 But Spartacus well knew that he must not follow the 
 voluptuous plan 61 of Hannibal who, one hundred and forty 
 years before at Capua, among the same valleys of which 
 he was now master, and after the strikingly similar bat¬ 
 tle of Cannm, had allowed his Carthagenian braves to be 
 spoiled by luxury and wealth. Fixing his quarters at or 
 not far from the city of Metapontum, 62 which lay on the 
 Tarantine gulf between the rivers Acalandrus and Casu- 
 entus, where the alluvial bottoms filled those parts of Italy 
 with harvests of the cereals and the vine, Spartacus estab- 
 
 69 Appian, Historia Romana, I. 117, Td 5’ opr) ra nepi &ovpiov<> **1 
 
 rroXiv avrriv /caTe'Aa/3e, /cat \puabv p.ev ij ipyvpov roi’s e’/utropous ia<i>ipfw c'ku/Av*, xa\ 
 KeKTTjadcn rou? eavrov, p-6voi> Se criSypov /cal \a\Kuu ewfovno noWov, icai rave 
 i<r(t>epovTa.i ovk ySiKovv. odev adpoa? i/Arjs evtropyaau'Tt-'t *£ napeoKe.va.crai'-ro, tea .i 
 dapiva eiri AerjAacrt'a? ef-rjeoav. 'Pw,uatot? re na.\iv <rvvtv«x&ivret *$ X'*? 4 * e«pa* 
 tow /cat Tore, /cat Aeta? 7roAA-»js “ye'p. 0 vtct) kiravyecrav.' > 
 
 6o Schambaeh, Italischer Slclavenaufstand. III, S. 13, makes the war to have 
 commenced in the summer of B. C. 74, which we follow, Idem, S. 20, Sohatnbach 
 draws from the Vatican fragments of Sallust as follows ; “ Nachdem Spartacus 
 alle Elemente der empdrung, welche Campanien darbot, an slch gezogen v. andte 
 er sieh in anclere gegcnden. Leider sind wir uber die lloute, die er einschlug, 
 niciit genau unterrichtet; doch durien wir an der Hand der vatikaniselieii Frag¬ 
 ments des Salust mit denen Orosius iibereinstimmt, aunehmen, dass er sich zu- 
 nachst quer (lurch die Halbinsel an die K listen des adriatiechen Meeres wandte, 
 von wo er dann die Bichtungnach Suden einschlugund u&ch Lukanien gelangte. 
 Wenigstens berechtigen uns die Fragmente dcs Salust zu der Annalime, da«# 
 Varinius, von dem weitex’hin die Bede aein wird, in Piceuum den Aufstiimliscben 
 gegenbber gestanden babe. Auf diesen Marscbe eroberten sie Annii Forum and 
 vielleicbt auch Avellae, dessen Einwobnerscbaft sich ilinen wenigstens tnm 
 Schutze ibrer Mark entgegenstellte. Bass aucb bier die Sklaven ibren Weg mit 
 Mord und Brand bezeichnet haben, iet wohl gewiss.” 
 
 Plutarch, Marcus Crassus, 9-10, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Homan Bio¬ 
 graphy. Art. Spartacus, Sallust, Fragm. Historiarum, III, <de/n,Gerlaeh ed., p. 254 
 Pliny Nat. Hist,, XXXIII. 14. 
 
 Cf. La P.ousse, Dictionnaire Vviversel, accoi’ding to which the camp of 
 
 6p, x tacus was near Tbui’ium, q, v, , 
 
SPARTACUS AND THE COMMUNES. 
 
 SOI 
 
 fished himself for the winter, astonishing liis historians 
 by an ordeal of tactics and a discretion which the wisest 
 and most virtuous might follow at the present day. 
 
 As explained in our account of the Roman collegia or 
 social organizations, all Italy was at this period covered 
 with social societies of protection, of resistance and for 
 convivial and burial purposes. 63 To make coincidence 
 more striking to the student of sociology, it may be ex¬ 
 plained that it was at just this critical moment that the 
 Roman politicians who for centuries had been invidiously 
 watching the rise and progress of the social movement 
 rrnder the law of Numa Pompilius, were busily discussing 
 a measure for the wholesale suppression of the great so¬ 
 cial movement, root and branch. This law for their sup¬ 
 pression did not succeed, on account of the powerful in¬ 
 terference of the tribune Clodius, until the year 58 B. 0. 
 But we are not without evidence that everywhere the 
 unions of labor were all this time on the alert, expecting 
 the calamity and preparing for revolt. These unions were 
 innumerable. 64 Italy and Greece were honeycombed with 
 them. 66 Another proof 66 that this remarkable conquest 
 of Spartacus in the industrial centers of Italy actually 
 revived the organizations or turned their membership to 
 his use, is seen from a slur in Cicero, the bitter hater of 
 everybody who was too poor to live without manual toil. 
 Speaking of them he says: .... “ not only those ancient 
 labor unions have had their right of organization restored 
 to them, but, by one gladiator, innumerable others, and 
 new ones, have been instituted.” These words from such 
 high authority, shed a blaze of light upon our conjecture 
 that Spartacus was working in collusion with the disaf¬ 
 fected labor unions w r kich had either been suppressed or 
 their existence threatened, as is plainly proved, at that 
 time. 67 Thus Cicero becomes our most valuable and re- 
 
 63 Cf. chaps xiii, to xix., Infra, on Trade and other labor organizations among 
 
 the ancients. 
 
 64 Cicero who was incensed at the enccess of Clodius whose eloquence re¬ 
 stored the right of organization to the workingmen, says: ‘‘Collegia non ea so¬ 
 lum quae senatus sustulerat restituta, sed innumerabilia quaedam nova ex omul 
 Itece Urbis ac servitio concitata.” Cic. In Pisonem, 4,9. 
 
 65 “ L. Julio C. Mario Coss, quos et ipsi Cicero memoravit SCto collegia sub- 
 lata cunt," Ct. Mommsen, De Collegiis el Sodaliciis Romano-rum, p. 73. 
 
 60 Cic.. Pro Sesto , 25, 55. “ Ut collegia non modo ilia vetera restiturentur sed 
 ab uno giadiatore innumerabilia allia nova constituerenter.” This inimitable 
 satire, was, in all probability hung at Spartacus who had then been dead only a 
 few years. 
 
f 
 
 SP ART AC US. 
 
 liable historian by his utterances at the bar, in the senate 
 and his epistles. We must make the importance of this 
 matter excuse prolixity and repetition. Speaking of these 
 very times but apparently not suspecting the extraordi¬ 
 nary concatenation of circumstances which we use in evi- 
 
 %j 
 
 dence of our conjecture, the great archaeologist Momm¬ 
 sen, explicitly states, concerning the ancient conspiracy 
 laws of this period which we conjecture contributed much 
 to the so-called servile wars, that they were of two sorts. 
 “ Thus I have two points to note here: In the first, I do 
 not think that the Clodian trade unions contained slaves 
 as members; for I think the pure trade organization of 
 skilled workmen did not admit slaves. They were socie¬ 
 ties for religious purposes. 68 Then the law of Clodius 
 must be looked upon as touching only the city of Rome; 
 as Cicero says: ‘ex urbis faece *—out of the slums of the 
 city of Rome. It was of such that Clodius would con- 
 scribe and classify. The fact is, innumerable unions of 
 the servile race, as their relics show, were scattered over 
 all Italy, derived from ancient times, under the protection 
 of the provincial cities.” 69 
 
 We are told that the young general after fixing his 
 quarters snugly for the winter, instituted a rigorous drill 
 of his troops. According to Pliny he denied them the 
 use of gold and silver lest they should become demoral¬ 
 ized by handling these vitiating treasures. 70 
 
 One thing is certain during his sojourn in Lucania: he 
 set all the slaves free and declared such work to be his 
 mission. 71 He also garrisoned the cities, although it is 
 claimed that some of them he plundered. He committed 
 no acts of brutality. He forced his soldiers to abstain 
 from intemperance. 7 * He was humane to his prisoners. 
 
 w See Ascon, L. C’., speaking of Clodius; " De collegilsrestituendisnovisque 
 Institnendis qure ait ex servitiorura faece eonstituta.” 
 
 88 Here Mommsen is mistaken, and he later on admits that they used relig¬ 
 ion as a cloak to screen them from the rigid laws. 
 
 09 Mommsen , De Collegiis et Solaliciis Romanorum, pp. 77-78. The text is as 
 follows: “Qua ratione conscriptio instituta sit et ad quaenam collegia haec lex 
 maxime pertinuerit, iam exposui. Itaque duo tantum habeo adbuc adnotanda; 
 primum cum servi in collegiis Clodianis essent, non esse cogitandum de collegiis 
 opiflcum, quae servos admisisse non arbitror, sed de sacris tantum; deinde 
 Clodii legem ad Urbem tantum spectavisse, cum Cicero cellegia et ex urbis faece 
 eonstituta dicat et Cloclium in foro conseripeisse et decuriavPse.” 
 
 <o “ Quibus deliciie veneunt tam aurea quam aurata, cum st iamns interdixiss* 
 castriB suis Spartacuni, ne quis aui um haberet aut argentum. Tantofoit plus 
 animi fugitivis nostris ” Pliny, Nat. Hist. XXXIII. 14. 
 
 71 Cf. International Encyclopaedia^ Art. Spartacus. 
 
FAITHFUL WIFE OF SP ART AC US. SOS 
 
 For once we have a record of a skillful soldier, a loving 
 husband, a humble workingman and a gentleman. 
 
 We are in possession of several very reliable evidences 
 that Spartacus was married and that his wife shared his 
 prison and military life. Plutarch is our authority for 
 the first and Cornelius Tacitus for the latter. Not only 
 was she faithful to him but she certainly became a cele¬ 
 brated pattern of fidelity, making herself by deeds of a 
 true heroine, an object of praise to so great an extent 
 that Tacitus holds her up as an example of the heroic 
 character of German women. Her name was Varinia. 1 * 
 “ The most terrible guerilla chieftain recorded in history 
 was unstained by the vices of his conquerors.” 74 
 
 Spartacus had among his men, a large number of 
 skilled workmen who belonged to unions. Among them 
 were members of the Fabricenses , 76 armor makers; of the 
 Castrensiarii y sutlers who took contracts under the old 
 rule of Numa to supply the soldiers with provisions; fabri , 
 workers in hard metals; caligularii , soldiers’ boot makers 
 or army cobblers and many other mechanics whom he en¬ 
 gaged and employed in the manufacture of arms and 
 other details of supplying his army. There was the great 
 order of the VectigalariV 8 which had been created by 
 Numa, upheld by the Twelve Tables, and for 600 years 
 employed by the Roman government and all the Muni- 
 cipia of Italy as collectors of the revenues from the in¬ 
 comes of the public domain, but which had lost their em¬ 
 ployment through the usurpation of the ager publicm by 
 land monopolists and their system of slave labor. 
 
 72 Plutarch, Marcus Crasstis, (Langhorne,) says: " Bat they (meaning the ob¬ 
 stinate slaves against the orders of Spartacus) relying upon their numbers, and 
 elated with success, would not listen to his proposal. Instead of that, they laid 
 Italy waste as they traversed It.*’ 
 
 78 Tacitns, Germanice, 8. “Memoriae proditur quasdam acles inclinatas iam 
 et labantes a feminis restitutas constantia precum et objectu pectorum et mon- 
 strata comminus captivitate, qnam longe impatientius feminarum 6uarnm nomine 
 timent, adeo ut eflicacius obligentur animi civitatum, quibus 'nter obsides puel- 
 lae quoque nobiles imperantur inesse quin etiam sanctum aliquid et providum 
 putant, nec aut consilla earr.m aspernantur aut responsa neglegunt. vidimus sub 
 aivo Vespasiano Veledam diu apud plerosque numiuis loco habitam. sed et olim 
 Auriniam et compluris alias vonerati sunt, non adulatione, neque tamquam 
 racerent deas ’’ It is said that this “Aurinia ’’ was the wife of Spartacus. 
 
 7 Smith’s Dictionary of Hainan Biography, Art, Spartacus. 
 
 76 Orell., Inscriptioncm Lalinarum Colledio, Nos. 4.079, 4,083, and infra Arm 
 orers, chapter XV. pp. 872-88, Trade unions. There are many inscriptions show 
 ing that the blacksmiths, armorers and other iron and metal workers existed ai 
 that time in lower Italy, under the collegia or trade organizations. 
 
 78 Orell., Inscr, Lat Colledio, Vol. 11. of Collegia, Corpora, Sodalicia et cet, pp. 
 
 24tt Also index, Vol. III. 
 
904 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 These he furnished -with, work and wages, by sending 
 them en revanche , to collect from the rich who had usurped 
 the lands, the provisions and money for his army and its 
 expenses. Thus Spartacus, in the granary of Italy be¬ 
 came the master workman of all the secret unions of 
 trades and laborers; and we have no evidence disprov¬ 
 ing the immense popularity to which he unquestionably 
 arose among the wage earners. 
 
 The army by this time, which must have been the early 
 spring of B. 0. 73, was swollen to 120,000 77 men, armed 
 and well equipped, in readiness to battle with the mighti¬ 
 est force Borne could muster. With this splendid force 
 he now meditated a daring attempt on Rome. 
 
 But one great misfortune now began insidiously to ex¬ 
 hibit itself. His army, especially that division of the 
 Gauls under Crixus, his hitherto faithful lieutenant, began 
 to show signs of jealousy. Of all the fratricidal passions 
 that curse and wither the hopes and career of the organ¬ 
 izations of labor, jealousy is the most venomous and 
 deadly. Born of the human spirit, it runs in lurid juices 
 as of the cobra’s fangs, and strikes death under cover of 
 fascination. With the adder’s blindness it envenoms the 
 atmosphere by puffs, mistaken for zephyrs and balm, and 
 to the innocent like Spartacus it throttles the spirit with 
 the dark moral shadows of doom. 
 
 Had this insidious spectre not appeared, the army of 
 the gladiators and workingmen might perhaps have suc¬ 
 ceeded, to some extent, in a desperate march on Rome 
 and thereby—although its conquest was out of the ques¬ 
 tion—some wise negotiation might have succeeded in 
 much permanent good to the proletaries. But the exact 
 opposite was in the end the result. The plan of this 
 campaign was not carried out. 
 
 The camp at Metapontum was constantly visited by 
 
 n Cf. Smith’s Dictionary of Roman Biography , Art. Spartacus ; Schambacb, Dtr 
 Italische Sklavenaufstand. Appian makes it to have beenl20,000: avid Spartacus 
 •eriously contemplated an invasion of Home, he says, cap. 117, lib. I: “O Si 
 SirapraKOf rpiaKoariovf ’Ptvp.auov at^/maAoiTOVS ivayiaaq Kpi£(i>, Siodexa ju.vpid.cn 
 »e£(Lv if ’Paijur)!' ij»r«i'yeTo, rd a^pijara tOjv <r«evwv /rara/cavaas Kai tov? ai^juaAujrovf 
 ndrraf di'eAcdv k ai «jri<r</>d£a$ Ta inro^vyia, iva KOv<t>ot tit]" avro/uoAcov re 7roAAa>i> 
 ai’Ttf npoaiorruv ovSira rrpocrifTO. Kai tu>v vj rdrwv ovrov avdi$ ;repi rqu TUKyviTida 
 v»i!< vjroo-rdvTcvv, fieyaf ayiov erepof oSe ylyvtrai, Kai fieyahr/ Kai Tore r\<rcra ’Pwjuatwv.’* 
 
 This was after the battle of Garganoa and the death of Crixus. See infra. So 
 Julius Obsequena, vide Lycostbens, De Prodigiis, 118: “Armorum borrendoclam- 
 ore"’ (from Capua) “centum ruillia homlnum conaumpta Itallco civilique belle 
 
 reiato est.” 
 
MODESTY OF HIS AMBITIONS. 
 
 305 
 
 merchants who purchased brass and iron and other goods 
 on a large scale. We are told that it presented the spec¬ 
 tacle of a great fair. 
 
 Spring came and it was learned that three const^ar 
 armies, fully equipped, were on their way to meet the 
 forces of the rebels; and Spartacus took up his line of 
 march northward, keeping the shores of the Adriatic. 
 The object of this movement was to reach the Alps, cross 
 them and disperse the army at the point where the Gauls 
 might return in safety to their homes to the northward 
 and the Thracians might take to the right and thus reach 
 their homes in Thrace. 18 It appears that Crixus and 
 CEnomans had remained with Spartacus at the winter 
 quarters but that there was a quarrel. The evidences 
 
 78 No writer disagrees from the main statement that the central and longing 
 idea of Spartacus was to reach his native home and again enjoy the occupations 
 of peace Plutarch, Marcus Crassus, 9, says : “Dy this time he (Spartacus) was 
 become great and formidable. Nevertheless his views were moderate. He had too 
 much understanding to hope the conquest of the Romans, and therefore led his 
 army to the Alps, with an intention to cross them, and then dismiss his troops, 
 that they might retire to their respective countries, some to Thrace and some to 
 Gaul,” Granier, next to Florus and the English Encyclopaedists, the most mer¬ 
 ciless of the commentators, says: Histoire ties Classes Ouvri'eres et des Classes Bour¬ 
 geoises: " Spartacus, qui 6tait un homme doni le cceur valait mieux que la condi¬ 
 tion, n’avait au’une id6e; il voulait qu’on franchit les Alpes, qu’on gagnat les 
 Gaules, et qu’ane fois la, chacun reprit le chemin de son pays. La strategie des 
 consuls et la mutinerie de ses compagnons l’empbcherent de rSaliser sen projet. 
 Schambach defends Spartacus against the generally accepted libels and sland¬ 
 ers afloat in Rome and which acted as a palliative subduing the galling fact that 
 the haughty nation was humbled by a low-lived gladiator: “ Halt es doch Florus 
 fiir nothig sich mit den Worten ‘maguitudo cladium facit, nt meminerimus ’ zu 
 entschuldigen, ala er den Namen des Anfiihrers in einem der sicilischen Auf- 
 fitiinde anfuhrt! Aber mit der ansicht, den Mann einfach todt zu schweigen, 
 begniigte man sich nicht; man beheckte sein Andenken durch erfundene Ver- 
 brechen und machte seinen Namen zu einem Schimpfworte, und selbst Manner 
 wie Cicero and der altere Plinius habeu sich von den stimmen des grossen Hauf- 
 ens hierln nicht zu emanciniren vermocht. Uns, die wir keinen Grund haben, 
 Spartacus als grimmigen Feind zu verabscheuen, lkgt die Verpflichtung ob, 
 eeine Person in das richtige Licht zu stellen und gegen unverdienten Tadel zu 
 vertheidigen,” (Schambacn, Der Italische Sklavenaufstand, S. 15, Dr, Drumann 
 in Vol. IV. S. 74, gq, of his great History of Rome (Romische Oeschichte) gives 
 Spartacus this just tribute: “DieNatur hatte lhn zum Helden und Ilerrscher 
 geschaffen, durch klugheit, Muth Freiheitsiiebe und Massigung ragte er uber 
 seine Gefahrten hervor; er braebte das allmachtige Rom zum Zittern als er die 
 Ketten zerbrach. und besjehrte auch jetzt nichts, als i'rei zu sein ; die Grausam- 
 keiten seiner zugelloseu Schaaren kommen nicht auf seine Rechnung, sofern sie 
 nicht gegen die Unterdriicker gerichtet wnren: nur gegen die Rotner, in den n 
 Spielen or sich und die Menscliheit entehrt fiihlte, die ihm nicht einmal die 
 Flucht gestatteten, ihn und die Uebrigen einzufangen suchten, um sie an das 
 Krenz zu nageln, kannte er kein Erba men. Auch auf einer Hohe, wo Alies um 
 ihn her den Schwindel befiel, blieb er besonnen ; er wollte Rom nicht zerstbren, 
 weil er nichts Unmbgliches wollte; die Vorhersagungen seiner thrakischen Gattin 
 Uber die ihm beschiedene Grosse verblendeten ihn nicht; aber die Sklaven ver- 
 wirrten und vereitelten seinen Plan ” '1 he inquisitive student of Spartacus maj 
 al o consult a fragment of Varro, Charis. I. p. 108: “Spartaco innocente con 
 jecto ad gladinm.” American Encyclopaedia, Vol. XIV. p. 8.19. acknowledges 
 that: “ iiis own desire was to secure riie freedom of the slaves by taking them 
 bejond the Alps; but they, eager for plunder, refused to leave Italy.’’ 
 
SPARTAC US. 
 
 3QG 
 
 also tend to prove that Crixus and a large detachment of 
 the Gauls separated from the main army on the march 
 northward. CEnomans also had a falling out; for it 
 seems he undertook an expedition to the westward of the 
 main army under Spartacus on the march through Pice- 
 num near the Adriatic Sea. This expedition of CEnomaus 
 was undertaken contrary to the wishes of Spartacus and 
 to gratify a desire for plunder. This lieutenant was met 
 by Gellius 19 commanding one of the three consular arm¬ 
 ies sent out by the Romans, and in the battle which fol¬ 
 lowed, he was killed, his army routed and those soldiers 
 who escaped were glad to get safely back to their general- 
 in-chief who never ventured a battle without knowing 
 beforehand that he had some chances in his favor. 
 
 But Crixus who was weak enough to be jealous in such 
 a dangerous emergency was too weak to be victorious 
 over the Bomans. He rashly ventured a battle at the 
 foot of Mount Garganus in Picenum, with his large de¬ 
 tachment of the army, amounting to 35,000 men. 80 It is 
 likely that he was drawn into an ambuscade by Arrius 
 who commanded the third consular army of the Romans. 
 Crixus in his speech to the soldiers before the battle 
 braced his men with assurance that it was “ better to die 
 manfully in the attempt of freedom than to be butchered 
 
 7» Orosius, Historiarum Adversus Paganos Libri,V. “CEnomaus enim jam 
 euperiore bello fuerat occisus.” Schambach, Itcilischer Sklavenaufstand, S. 19, 
 acknowledges the obscurity in which the facts regarding this lieutenant of Spar¬ 
 tacus are enveloped: “ Jener CEnomaus muss bald gefauen sein: Crixus, der ala 
 der erste nach Spartacus erscheint, spielte seine Rolle lunger.” 
 
 so Livy, Liber, XCVI. Epitome, gives the number destroyed at 20,000 includ¬ 
 ing Crixus “Q. Arrius, praetor Crixura fugitivorum ducem cum viginti niili- 
 bus hominum cecidit.” Appian, Historia Romana, 117, init. " Kai tovtiov virb 
 pev darepov Kpi£og, riyov pevog Tpiap-vpiutv avbpibv, irepi to Fapyavov opog rjTTaTOf 
 Kai bvo pepr) rou arparov Kai avr'og avvambkeTO aureus* 2irapra/coi' be bid rur 
 'An evvivoiv bpcov eiri ra 'AAjreia Kai eg KeArous ano rwv ’AKireiuiv eireiyop-evov 6 irepog 
 iinarog npobafObv Aue rijs <f>vyrjg, Kai 6 erepog ebioiKeu. 6 be e(j>' eKdrepov avTwr 
 eniarpe^ogevog i rapa gepog eviKa. Kai ot juev < ruv dopvfiio to ajro rovbe vtt e^wpouv’' 
 
 Sallust, Frag, Historiarum. We quote the following fragment to snow the des¬ 
 perate fighting of the slaves presumbly at this battle with Crixus--'* ingre, tante 
 setui debacchoratur, nefandum in modum perverso vulnere et interdum lacerum 
 corpus semianimum omittentes, alii in tecta jaciebant ignes, multique ex loco 
 eervi, quos ingenium soeios debat, abdita a dominis aut lpsos trahebant ex oc- 
 culto, neque sanctum aut nefandum quicquam fuit irse burbarorum ac servili 
 ingenio; qute Spartacu* nequiens prohibere, multis precibus cum oraret, celeri- 
 tate nuntios.” In thejiext fragment we see the plans of Spartacus thwarted and 
 Crixus on the eve of his overthrow and death: Aliquot dies contra morem fidu* 
 cia augeri nostris caepit, et » romi lingua. Qua Varinius contra spectatam rem 
 mcaute motus novos inccgnitosque et aliorum casibus percussos indite* jam, 
 neque tarn magnifice fumeutes prgelium, qaam postulaverant. Atque illi certa- 
 miui conscii inter se juxta seditionem erant. Crixo et gentis ejusdem Gallis at 
 que Germania obviam ire et ultro ofi’erre pugnam cupientibus contra Sparta* 
 
 Ulll ’• • 
 
BATTLE OF GARQANXJS. DEATH OF CM XUS. *07 
 
 for a Roman holiday." The unfortunate Crixus, less dis¬ 
 creet than intrepid rushed into the din of strife and in a 
 furious battle which occupied the day was slain and his 
 army defeated with great loss. 
 
 The routed soldiers, however, had one comfort. They 
 could go back to their general better qualified through 
 the lesson, with confidence in their sagacious chieftain 
 whom they had deserted. Even this rebuke did not en¬ 
 tirely quell the terribly revolutionary character of his in¬ 
 subordinate troops. 
 
 Spartacus now started over the Appennines in forced 
 marches northward toward the river Ro, dogged every 
 inch of the route by the large consular armies of Rome 
 under C. Cornelius Lentuius and Gellius Poplicola, the 
 two consuls and Q. Arrius the praetor, who commanded 
 the third consular army. But he sustained no losses. 
 Every time the enemy ventured a battle he was sure to 
 be hacked and punished by the terrible columns of the 
 now veteran proletaries. 81 
 
 Spartacus appears to have bent every energy toward 
 making a permanent escape from Itah'. In the struggle 
 to make headway, the sallies of the enemy in flank and 
 rear were always met by the wary gladiator with a shock 
 which stupefied and annihilated them; and in this man¬ 
 ner he contested every attack, watching with a judicious 
 eye every movement of the several Roman armies, for op¬ 
 portunities to inflict the heaviest blows. 
 
 At last, in one of his wily manoeuvres he succeeded in 
 alluring Poplicola and his large army into a place suita¬ 
 ble, as he believed, to make a general attack. We are a 
 little undecided as to where this bloody battle took place. 
 There are data to the effect that Spartacus now had 70- 
 000 men in solid column. 82 But most of the great histor¬ 
 ies being lost, the lesser writers of those times perhaps 
 
 81 Flor., III. 20,10. “Inde jam consulates quoque aggresstis, in Appenino 
 Lentuli exercitum percecidit: apud Mutinam Caii < assii castra delevit.” 
 
 82 It is probable that the rebel loice was still stronger than this; for Appian 
 puts it at 120,000 while yet in Thuria, Vallejus Paterculus, however, seems to 
 carry the idea that it was less: “ quorum numerus in tantum adolevit utque ul¬ 
 timo dimicavcrc acie XL millia homilium ee Romano exercitui opposuerint.” 
 But his scholiast edition finds fault with these figures, as absurd and refers to 
 Eutropiue who says 60 UOO. Orosius and Livy, who make the rebel force about 
 this time to have been a medium between 12‘ .000 (A ppian s statement) and 40, 
 000 (that of Vallejus), concluding that the “ C-” of the latier author must have 
 been changed in vicissitudes of so mauj ages into an “L,” and that it originully 
 read XC. millia or 20,000. 
 
SPARTACUS. 
 
 m 
 
 ashamed of wliat they considered a humiliation and dis¬ 
 grace, rush over the less prominent events, mentioning 
 only in an obscure manner, certain points. 
 
 The tactics of Poplicola were to harass the flank while 
 Lentnlus kept his army in the front of Spartacus who 
 took no further notice of the latter than to keep him from 
 doing mischief. When at last, Spartacus saw his oppor¬ 
 tunity, burning with a desire to avenge Crixus, who had 
 fallen at Mt. Garganus, he gave his men the long coveted 
 order of attack. 
 
 A great and bloody battle was fought. All day the glitter 
 of helmets and the clash of swords told the horrid tale of 
 death. It was a rencounter of Greek and Gaul and Roman 
 —representatives of the bravest lands of ancient days. 
 
 Phalanx by phalanx, the proud army of Poplicola gave 
 way before the intrepid assaults of the laborers. No 
 sooner did the Romans begin to weaken and bend than 
 the carnage redoubled. Spartacus made good every op¬ 
 portunity and crashed upon the now broken columns of 
 his adversary. Thousands of the Romans fell dead and 
 dying. A few escaped. Night brought the slaughter to 
 a sullen close. 81 The victorious legions of Spartacus re¬ 
 turned to their tents to rest. Large numbers of prisoners 
 had fallen into their hands, among whom were many 
 haughty Roman knights. Spartacus with bitter irony 
 soon afterwards forced them to fight as gladiators in the 
 funeral games which he celebrated with pomp to the 
 manes of Crixus. 85 
 
 Thus we have an account of the fifth battle won by this 
 
 ® 3 Florus, III. 20, 12, is greatly grieved at this humiliation; “aquopulsi, 
 fagatique (pudet dicere) hostes in extrema It alias rel'ugerunt.” 
 
 84 “ Sur la route il rencontra et ecrasa deux armees consulaires, deux autres 
 pretoriennes et arriva enfiu tout combatant et toujours victorieux sur les rives 
 du Po, dont les eaux debordees lui barrerent le chemin.” La Eousse, Art. Spar¬ 
 tacus. Plutarch, Crassus, tr. Langhorne, IX. says: “ Lentulus, the other con¬ 
 sul, endeavoured to surround Spartacus, with his forces, which were very con¬ 
 siderable. Spartacus met him fairly in the held, beat bis lieutenants, and 
 stripped them of their baggage.” Scraps from the earliest and best authors serve 
 where the thread of the story is lost; and indicate the truthfulness of the his¬ 
 tory. Sallust has one as follows, which though badly mangled, seems to relate 
 to this severe contest: * * * “M or Trequii praeter s r ciem necessariam Laud 
 multo secus quam lerro noceri poterat. At Varinius, dutn liaec aguntur u lugi- 
 tivis, mgra parte militum autumni gravitate, neque ex postrema luga, cum se- 
 vero edieto juberentur, ullis ad signa redcuntibus, et qui relinqui erant per 
 surnnaa flgitiadetrectantibus militiam. Quaestorem suum C. Thoranium ex quo 
 praesente vera facilime noscerunt, * * * commiserant, et tamen interim quuin 
 volentibus numero quatuor.” 
 
 86 Florus, III. 20. • ‘ Qui defunctornm quoque prmlio ducum funera impera 
 
FIFTH BATTLE. RETALIATION\ 
 
 309 
 
 extraordinary genius. The episode of his avenging the 
 death of Crixus by forcing the proud Roman leaders to 
 descend to the debasing ergastulum and meet in gladia¬ 
 torial combat and with the weapons of dishonor they had 
 previously forced Crixus and Spartacus to wear, bears at 
 once a tinge of melancholy and perhaps of gratification 
 even to the most enlarged minds. 
 
 Not only the consuls but also two praetorian armies 
 were completely routed by the tiger-like springs of Spar¬ 
 tacus 86 during this phenomenal march northward in quest 
 of his boyhood’s home. It is indeed interesting to know 
 that his wife accompanied him in his wanderings.* 1 There 
 seems to be a simplicity and tenderness which contrasts 
 with the magnitude and the ferocity of his adventurers; 
 something unique and almost enchanting is felt as one 
 follows him step by step along his thorny path. 
 
 After routing and annihilatingthese praetorian armies,” 
 we next find him face to face with the large army of Len- 
 tulus near the river Po. 
 
 Spartacus seems now to have assumed the character of 
 a fugitive, so desirous was he to make his escape. Time 
 had been given for the remnants of the Romans, shattered 
 but not destroyed at the battle with Poplicola, to join the 
 army of Lentulus, now augmented to huger numbers than 
 any body of troops Spartacus had yet encountered. 
 
 There was a praetorian, or “ third consular army ” men¬ 
 tioned by Plutarch. Livy mentions Cassius as a pro-con¬ 
 sul and C. Manlius as the praetor. 89 This would imply 
 that two battles were fought between the two great 
 pitched battles of Poplicola and of Lentulus, the regular 
 
 toriis celebravit exequiis, captivosque circa rogum jussit arm 1 b depognare. quasi 
 plane expiaturus ornne praaterituin dedecus,si de gladiator* numerator fuisset” 
 So also modern commentaries; Se6 Smiths Dictionary oj Greek and Roman Bio¬ 
 graphy, Art. Spartacus , The American Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV. 1867, page S28. 
 makes no hesitation in placing this humiliating episode as an event of the war, 
 “ At the head of 70 000 men he triumphed over two consular armies in 72, and 
 forced his Roman captives to fight as gladiators at the funeral games which ho 
 celebrated.” 
 
 86 See Pomponius Mela. 21; Livy. Epitcmies, XCV. XOVT. XCVII; Diod. 
 XXXVIII. 21. Orosius, V. 24, 25. Cf. also considerable in the writings of Cicero, 
 and in the various English and German Encyclopaedias; these however, with lew 
 exceptions are childishly erroneous, contradictory and lamentably incomplete. 
 
 87 Plutarch, Crassus, where we find this assurance. 
 
 88 Cf. Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography; La Roussa, Diction- 
 aire Universel, Art. Spartacus, and Tacitus, Germanui 6, wheie we find that her 
 name was Aurinia, 
 
 ^ Livy, Epitom. XCVI. “C. Cassiua pro-con»ui et Cn. Mauliuj preetor mai* 
 #<1 versus Spartacum pugnavorunt.” 
 
310 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 consuls. Cassius who was praetor in the northern por¬ 
 tions along the Po, with a large army of at least 10,000 
 men, gave battle to Spartacus just before the latter reached 
 this river. It was a deadly encounter, and though the 
 conflict raged with fierce determination on the part of the 
 Romans, they were no match for the now invincible glad¬ 
 iator and his veterans who gained one of the most telling 
 triumphs of the war. 90 It was between these two bloody 
 engagements and in this region that Spartacus spent the 
 winter of B. C. 72-71. 
 
 The army of the gladiator now increased. 91 We should 
 be almost totally confounded without Livy’s Epitomies of 
 wrecked history at this juncture of the war, and could 
 scarcely proceed. It is through these made clear, that 
 after the defeat of Cassius and his 10,000 near the Po, as 
 related by Plutarch, the really great battle spoken of, 
 where Spartacus met Lentulus “fairly,” was Livy’s great 
 carnage, 92 told in words too plain to admit of misunder¬ 
 standing. 98 Plutarch says: “ the two consuls having con¬ 
 solidated their troops in the country of Picenum, fell 
 upon Spartacus in full force. He, however, gave them 
 battle and with great slaughter nearly annihilated them.” 
 This fills two missing data. We are all along told that 
 Spartacus, while near the river Po, before these “ great 
 defeats ” of the “ two consuls and their two praetorian 
 armies,” was a fugitive, anxiously striving with all his mil¬ 
 itary tact, to escape from Roman territory. Now, how¬ 
 ever, we have authors augmenting the army of Spartacus. 94 
 We fmd him with a vast and well drilled, well disciplined, 
 well fed and highly elated army of 120,000 men. 
 
 A march upon Rome was frustrated by the desire of 
 plunder; although it is stated that Spartacus did not dare 
 to make the attempt. 98 
 
 ao Plutarch, Crassus, 10. “ He (Spartacus) then continued his route toward* 
 the Alp.’, but was opposed by Cassius, who commanded in that part of Ganl 
 which lay about the Po, and came against him at the head of 10,000 men. A bat¬ 
 tle ensued, in which Cassius was defeated, with great loss, and saved himself 
 not without difficulty.’ So Livy, Epitome of liber, XCVI. et supra, note 90. 
 
 '■>i Plutarch, Crassus , 10 
 
 82 Livy, Epitome , XCVI. “ Idcirco duo consoles, junctis copiis in agro Piceno 
 ei concurreruut. Sed ilia (Spartacus licet eas magna clade profligasset.” 
 
 93 Scliambach, Italischer Sklavenaufstand, S. 8, concedes the scholiast view. 
 I ivy did not write the epitomies to his books, but thinks that they are iaithftd 
 to the original contems. 
 
 w Livy, XCVI. of Epitomies, of the lost books. Appian, I. 117. 
 
 “ Livy. Epitome, XCVI. “ Ad Urbem ducre non est auem.** 
 
SIXTH AND SEVENTH BATTLES . 
 
 911 
 
 This great battle between Spartacus and the combined 
 armies of the two consuls, Lentulus and Poplicola, took 
 place a long distance south of the Po, near where Sparta¬ 
 cus had defeated the first consular army under Poplicola; 
 for it was in the territory of Picenum, nearly 200 miles 
 from the river. The army of the proletaries was now 
 about 100 miles northeastward from Rome and was 
 marching southward. This arrangement of data brings 
 the statement of Plutarch in line and clears up the whole 
 jumble. The story of Cassius and his defeated army of 
 10,000 was Pirn arch’s battle of the Po. Spartacus then 
 taking the offensive, marched southward into Picenum, 
 where he fought the great battle of Picenum—the magna 
 cladis of Livy. 
 
 Great consternation now prevailed at Rome. The news 
 of the disaster to Lentulus and Poplicola and their splendid 
 armies was regarded as a calamity. Indignation raised 
 to its highest pitch and was only equalled by mortifica¬ 
 tion and shame. A gladiator, 96 and slave, who, all his life¬ 
 time had been a poor man, earning a scanty living by 
 manual toil, had combined audacity with genius, gathered 
 the menial hordes 97 that worked the estates of haughty 
 landlords and in eight battles, at hand-to-hand combat 
 and at the test of st rategem, endurance, valor and prowess 
 had worsted, overthrown and annihilated the patrician 
 gentry of Rome. 98 
 
 Lentulus was recalled and disgraced. His humiliation 
 has alwaj r s been a mystery to readers of history. The 
 true light of the affair has been shut out—so dark was 
 the history of this matter kept for ages from the reader’s 
 mind. 
 
 Spartacus was maligned by everybody; and public sen¬ 
 timent turned a smile in his favor into a heresy and in¬ 
 timidated the favorable opinions and conversation of the 
 people as well as blockaded the will and the pen of his¬ 
 torians. 
 
 Spartacus, everywhere victorious was, after the great 
 
 •• Floras, III, 20. Tandem etiam totis imperii viribus contra mirmillionem 
 oonsurgitur. ” • 
 
 w Livy, Epitome, XCV. ‘ Res proserae, et assolet. statim inveuerunt socios. 
 maltosque pastures, durum et pernix genus.” 
 
 »» Cicero, Ad Atticum, VI. 22. “Cum Spar taco—dr. ce fugitivorum, qui bel- 
 Jnm servile commovit, et vel cum quiugeutis pnedombus jam satis mab facers 
 
 potuit.” 
 
812 
 
 SPARTACUS, 
 
 battle in Picenum, forced to proceed southward by his 
 foolish soldiers who, puffed" with success, were wanting 
 in obedience and could not participate in the dream of 
 Spartacus to retire to the pastoral charms of his native 
 land. We next find him marching to Thuria, with a vast 
 army and great quantities of plunder, with the intention 
 of passing the winter of 72-71, B. G. But another victory 
 was yet to be won before the army could reach its winter 
 quarters—the battle withMummius in Picenum. 100 
 
 It was now nearing the time of the Roman Comitias, or 
 the assembly of Roman citizens for voting for new officers. 
 Among these officers consuls were to be elected. But so 
 great was the terror which Spartacus had inspired that 
 no candidates were to be found. This phenomenon is ex¬ 
 plained by the fact that whoever should be elected consul 
 would have to go in person to meet the dreaded gladia¬ 
 tor. Finally, after much hesitation, Marcus Licinius 
 Crassus, consented to be nominated and of course, received 
 the full vote and confidence of the people. 
 
 Accordingly, Crassus, prepared for the campaign against 
 the great guerrilla chieftain with eight full legions of 
 Roman soldiers mustered for the occasion. But the frag¬ 
 ments of the defeated armies of Poplicola and Lentulus, 
 together with the praetorian forces, also shattered by 
 Spartacus, were now returning to the metropolis in a 
 straggling, demoralized condition. All these were soon 
 joined to the new army of Crassus. 101 
 
 The new confidence which this election of Crassus in¬ 
 spired caused a great number of young Roman gentry 
 to volunteer, and we may be certain that the eight legions 
 were full. A full Roman legion of that era consisted of 
 6,000 men which makes 48,000 for the new army of eight 
 legions. 
 
 99 Cf. Smith’s, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. 
 
 100 This account is given in Plutarch’s Life of Crassus. Mommsen, History 
 rtf Rome, here breaks the story of Spartacus and his victories into a tangle of un¬ 
 intelligible data, although its thread is seen to be quite clear, with a little pains. 
 
 101 Appian, Historia Romana, I, 118: “ Tpte'rrj? re rjv jjfirj /cal </>o^epo? avroZy 6 
 
 ?r<$Aejuoy, yeAtiijuevoy ev ap^rj * at Kara^/povovjuevoy wy ju.ovoju.axwv. lTporedeiVijy re 
 crparriyitv aAAwv ^eipoTOvtay o/cvoy en-et^ev an-avray, Kai napijyyeWer ovSeiy, jue^pi 
 Autivtoy Kpacrcroy', yevei itai n\ovry ’Pwjxaiwv Sia^avryy, aveSe^aro arparriy^aeiVy 
 «ai T«'Ae«riv aAAoiy>)Aavv«v«iriT6v2irapTaKov.” Plutarch says; “ No sooner were 
 the senate informed of these miserable proceedings, than they expressed the 
 greatest indignation against the consuls, and gave orders that they should be 
 superseded in the command, Crassus was the person they pitched upon as a 
 euccessor, and many of the nobility served under lnra, as volunteers, as well on 
 account of his political influence and from personal regard.” 
 
NINTH BATTLE. MU TINA. 
 
 313 
 
 From the start, there must have been at least 100,000 
 men sent out under Crassus against the rebels, which 
 force kept constantly increasing to the end. 
 
 Returning to Spartacus, we find evidence 102 that while 
 at the zenith of his popularity between the Po—which he 
 did not cross—and Picenum, he offered inducements to 
 all who would cast off the yoke of despotism, to join. 
 That the slaves took the offer of freedom is evident from 
 the number, which commentators venture to put at 120- 
 GOO, and which we positively know soon greatly augmented. 
 Many of the higher classes spurned offers to co-operate 
 because they “disdained to join slaves;” although they 
 hated the Romans. 103 
 
 When Crassus arrived in Cis-Alpine Gaul, near the city 
 of Mutina, where the army of Spartacus lay, he studied 
 closely the traits of his antagonist and concluded to adopt 
 the tactics of Fabius who had previously been successful 
 over Hannibal, by worrying him and not giving battle. 
 After harassing Spartacus in rear and flank for some 
 time he sent the pro-consul, C. Cassius Longinus, around 
 on the other side with orders to be watchful and goad 
 the enemy, without hazarding an engagement; but the 
 fox-witted gladiator, with apparent indifference, allured 
 this Roman into an idea that he could safely go beyond 
 his orders, and attack a wing of the workingmen who 
 were in reality, impatient for the fray. 
 
 At a weak moment, least suspected and least watched, 
 Spartacus gave the welcome order of battle. The shout 
 went up and with it came the force of the onset. Cassius 
 was crushed by the unexpected blow and completely 
 routed. The field of Mutina covered with the slain, re¬ 
 mained with the workingmen. 
 
 Spartacus, slowly continuing his march southward, har¬ 
 assed and tormented by Crassus who was too good a com¬ 
 mander to venture a general engagement, studied every 
 opportunity to catch the Roman at a weak point. 104 Op- 
 
 102 Cf. Larousse, Dictionaire Universel, Art. Spartaeus, baaed on the remarks 
 of Plutarch. 
 
 103 These gems giving the finishing touches of the story, are talren from iso¬ 
 lated fragments of the broken histories so badly mutilated indeed, that we 
 should be loth to pass upon them, did not our inferences coincide with those of 
 others who have taken great pains to get the kernel of the theme. 
 
 104 “Le general Rouiain se borna de couvnr le Latium, n’ osant hasarder 
 battaille coutra le tenable gladiate sr et se contenta & le harceler et le faire mis¬ 
 erable, par ces lieutenants, invariablement battus quand ils avaient la t6m6rit$ 
 
814 
 
 S PART AC US. 
 
 jportunity soon came. The propraetor, Cn. Manlius, wan 
 caught at an unguarded moment and in a terribly bloody 
 conflict of which we have only a sullen and lugubrious 
 mention by historians, was torn to atoms by the charge 
 of a heavy detachment of Spartacus. 
 
 The condition of the Roman army was now that of ter¬ 
 ror. After the defeat of Cassius at the city of Mutina 
 and of Manlius at a point southward, we find Spartacus, 
 still harassed by Crassus, in the rich valleys of Picenum, 
 the scenes of the next and ninth battle in which the glad¬ 
 iator chieftain was conqueror. Crassus posted himself 
 here, in advance of the workingmen, for the purpose of 
 intercepting their march southward. 
 
 Mummius, one of the most trustworthy lieutenants of 
 Crasus, w r as sent round to the flank of the enemy, with or¬ 
 ders to continue strategical manoeuvres; and was strictly 
 charged to follow him, but not to hazard a battle. Mum¬ 
 mius had more courage and conceit than discretion or 
 obedience. II e proved to be precisely the man whom Spar¬ 
 tacus wanted. The foxy gladiator now dallied with ruse 
 and incantation and finally decoyed the whole force, con¬ 
 sisting of 12,000 men into an assailable point. This whole 
 manoeuvre seems to have been deeply laid inasmuch as it 
 contained an admixture of flattery. At any rate, how¬ 
 ever ambidextrous the incentive, the decoy on the one 
 hand and the ambition on the other, prevailed. 
 
 Just when Mummius believed he was in the act of rid¬ 
 ding his country of a loathsome foe, a wild war-whoop of 
 the mirmillions burst out along the lines. Spartacus at 
 the enemy’s vulnerable points gave the order of attack. 
 This time it was many against few. Mummius was over¬ 
 slaughed. “ His whole army completely routed. Many 
 were killed upon the battle field. Others terrified, cast 
 away their arms and saved their lives by flight.” 106 
 
 Again the arms of Spartacus were victorious. Mum¬ 
 mius was annihilated. 101 Disaster again convulsed the 
 aegis of slaveholding, degenerate Rome, whose haughty 
 men, many of whom owned at that moment from 1,000 to 
 
 do livi'er combat.” La Kousse, Dictionaire Universel. Art. Spartacus. 
 
 ioii Plutarch, Idem; Appian ; Mommsen and tome ol the Encyclopedias. 
 io' Cf. International Encyclopedia, Art. Spartacus. Although we give re tore nee 
 to original authority there is a variety ol readings and oi opinions; and we tber**- 
 t'ore cite contemporaneous writers and recommend them to the reader. 
 
TENTH BATTLE. MUMM1US RUINED. $15 
 
 10,000 slaves each, were freshly reminded by every victory 
 of Spartacus, of the doom of their crumbling institution, 
 sacred, as one of the pillars of the paganism they wor¬ 
 shiped for a religion. 
 
 Crassus had cause to be severe. Plutarch adds that: 
 “ He severely reprimanded Mummius who had escaped 
 unhurt. He armed the few survivors anew, insisting upon 
 their giving bond of fidelity to the new arms given them. 
 He took 500 of the most cowardly, divided them into 50 
 platoons and these into decades, one of whom was by 
 lot, put to death; in this way recalling an ancient military 
 usage of punishment. This kind of punishment in fact, 
 is the mark of the greatest infamy; for as the execution 
 is public, in sight of the whole army, circumstances that 
 are awful and affecting follow.” 108 But this horrible 
 chastisement came late. Spartacus had again been vic¬ 
 torious. 
 
 But two causes now set in to cast shadows over the 
 glory of the conquering gladiator. His own ignorant 
 and foolish soldiers began again to show signs of insub¬ 
 ordination, elated by their never failing successes. They 
 wanted to plunder and feast upon the fat of the land; 
 and while they were actually becoming demoralized and 
 dissolute in their extraordinary experience of victory, 
 their new enemy Crassus was growing wiser and surer 
 in his harrowing experience of defeat. These two causes 
 combined to bring the terrible lion to his end. 
 
 Crassus, after this ferocious specimen of the cruelty of 
 war, attacked Spartacus, and drove him to the sea. 109 But 
 
 108 Plutarch, idem; Appian, Historia Romana , 1. 118. “ Kal rwi'Se p.kv a^rtxa 
 
 Sta/cA^pujaa?, poAAa/a? rjTTJjp.evan', e7ri iJavarw p/epos StKarov Siefy&eipev. Ol S’ 
 ov\ ovrut vop.i(,ovmv, a AAa navrl tu> crrpaT<Z avp-fHaKovra Kal rovSe, Kal r\TTr\p.evov^ 
 ■ray-riot' Sta/cA^puxrai to 6««aror, Kal avekelv es TerpaKio^tAiovs, ovSev Sea to 7rAr}dos 
 tj'Soiaaai'TO. orrorepws S’ e7rpa£e, <po/3epu>repos avrols tijs T<av no\eu.L(av rjTrr/? Ravels 
 aifTiKa avplu>v InapraKcioiv e<f>’ eavTutv nov crTpaToireSevoyrdiV e/cparei, Kal Svo avra >v 
 pepil KaraKaviov sir’ axnbv rjAawe tov XnapraKOV ervv KaratftpovrioeL.” Sallust, His- 
 toriarum Populi Romani , Ubri. Recensio of Anton. Tliysius, old Lugdunum edi¬ 
 tion, p. 502, lias a sadly mutilated scrap; “Sorte ductos fusti necat:” and the 
 learned editcr in a note explains as follows: “ Sorte ductos fusti necat , Puto legen- 
 dum, eductos, accipiendumq; de severa ac militari Crassi disciplina, qua idem 
 in fugitoribus eoercendis usus, ex duabus Mummianis Legionibus contraedictum 
 lmperatoris in hostexn (Spartacum) pugnare ausis, profligatisque; quingenpit 
 primos, unde initium lugae factum fuerat, sorte eductos decimari preecetos. 
 Quod vetus supplied genus intermortuuni, ac desitum jampridem, postlimiuio 
 In castra Romana reductum a Crasso.” According to Sallust they were killed 
 with clubs. 
 
 lOP Appian 1. 118, fin: “ NiKTjcras Se «ai tovSc Aapirpto? eSiuiKC (ftevyovra cm 
 tt,* daAaacraj/ <o? StanXivaov/J-evou e; St/ceAtai', Kal /caraAajSuji' a7reTa<i>peve koj 
 <ai i n’zoTavpov.'’ Mommsen, Hhlory of Rome , Vol. IV. p. 106. 
 
SPARTACUS. 
 
 tin's signal victory mentioned by Appian, is denied by 
 Plutarch in the following terms: “ After thus chastising 
 his men, he (Crassus) led them against the enemy. But 
 Spartacus turned back and retired through Lucania to 
 the sea.” 110 
 
 Spartacus marched his army southward along the Ad¬ 
 riatic to embark for Sicily across the straits of Messina. 
 There is strong circumstantial evidence that privateers of 
 the Mediterranean assisted Spartacus; and if we judge from 
 this point of view, a new light is thrown upon the history 
 of his career. No written records, however, exist prov¬ 
 ing this, and for want of it we follow the story as it is told. 
 
 If the pirates, so-called, refused to help him, thus clearly 
 working in the interest of Koine, as Mommsen suggests, 
 why should Rome have immediately instituted a man-hunt 
 against them ? Tacitus has some remarks favoring our 
 theory that the pirates were faithful to Spartacus. An¬ 
 other potent question is, how did the gladiator get the 
 great army of 300,000 men ? Did not the privateers ship 
 them over from Sicily? We shall refer to these things 
 later. 
 
 This new move of Spartacus to reach Sicily is called by 
 some, his last stroke of genius. It was an original one. 
 There had been, some 27 years before, a great rebellion 
 of the slaves in Sicily 111 and at this moment, when Spar¬ 
 tacus approached that fair isle—the granary of Home— 
 it was suffering from the most inhuman exactions, by or¬ 
 der of Verres, the insatiate and avaricious despoiler, whose 
 greedy havoc was soon afterwards opposed by Cicero. 
 The slaves and property owners alike, were goaded by 
 this man’s rapacity to the verge of rebellion against Home. 
 Had Spartacus succeeded in crossing safely with his army 
 the chances are that the goaded people would have gladly 
 
 no Plutarch, Life of Crassut. 
 
 mi See chapter xi supra. The strange words of Cornelius Tacitus, Annaliuin, 
 liher, XV. cap. 46; referring to Spartaous and the Roman flotilla against the pi¬ 
 rates, show how fearful was the danger, and they seem to advert to the link of 
 friendship existing between them and Spartacus: “ Per idem tempos gladiatores 
 spud oppidum PraaneBte temptata eruptione praesidio militis, qui custos ades- 
 set, coerciti sunt, iam Spartacum et vetera mala rumoribus ferente populo, ut 
 est novarum rerum cupiens pavidusque. Nec multo post clades rei navalis acci- 
 pitur, non belio (quippe haud alias tam immota pax), sed certum ad diem in 
 Campaniam redire classem Nero jusserat,non exceptis maris casibus. Ergo gui>- 
 urnatores, quamvis saeviente pelago, a Formiis rnovere; et gravi Africo, dum 
 promunturium Miseni superare contendunt, Cumanis litoribus Impacti trire- 
 miurn plerasquo et minora navigia passim amiievunt.” 
 
THE PRIVATEERS LEND A HAND. 
 
 317 
 
 joined him in overwhelming numbers, if for nothing else 
 than to rid themselves of this insatiable Roman governor 
 whose exactions, to satisfy personal greed, well-nigh 
 brought Sicily to bankruptcy and ruin. 112 
 
 On his arrival at the sea opposite the Sicilian shore, 
 Spartacus who had formed this plan of crossing over with 
 his entire army for the purpose of recruiting from the 
 ranks of the slaves, negotiated with the freebooters or 
 brigand mariners, as they are mercilessly called in the his¬ 
 tories, who from ancient times ransacked the coasts for 
 plunder. 118 
 
 They exhibited a quality of perfidy, perhaps against 
 Rome—although the historians show that it was against 
 Spartacus—which actually resulted in their being swept 
 from their trade; for soon after the suppression of the 
 servile war which they are represented to have been too 
 treacherous and disingenuous to sustain, the Romans sent 
 an expedition against them which certainly was a contin¬ 
 uation of the great man-hunt ending in their own exter¬ 
 mination. 114 If Spartacus could have accomplished this 
 magnificent strategical feat and realized his scheme of pas¬ 
 sing the winter in Sicily where the terribly-oppressed and 
 down-trodden slaves would have deserted in vast num¬ 
 bers and extricated themselves from their otherwise hope¬ 
 less servitude, he might, allowing him his wonted success, 
 not only have beaten Crassus, but also the armies of 
 Pompey and Lucullus when they afterwards arrived. 
 
 In fact, we know not what would have been the final 
 result upon the human race—indeed, we are loth to spec¬ 
 ulate ; for under the humane management of Spartacus it 
 might have resulted in a permanent recognition of the 
 honor and merit of human labor which was in those times 
 denied. 
 
 It is enough to repeat what history relates, that the self¬ 
 ish, dishonest and treacherous pirates took the proffered 
 gold of Spartacus but failed to land him in Sicily; for 
 though his army enormously increased, yet his failing to 
 
 112 Cicero, Verves, passim. Here Cicero gives au eloquent account of thin 
 man’s extortious. Cicero assumed the causa of the people vs. Verres and suc¬ 
 ceeded in obtaining a verdict. 
 
 ns Beeren, Peuplede l* Antiquity, Vol. II. pp. 170—170 of the From h translation. 
 
 in Liv., XCVIII. “L. Metellus prsator in Sicilia adverse,s piratos prospero 
 re® gessit." (Epitome) ; Vellejus Paterculus, Abridgment oj Latin JJistory, Boofi. 
 11. c. 31. 
 
318 
 
 SPARTA 0U& 
 
 get there probably disconcerted and squeezed him betwixt 
 the mill-stones of peril and hope, leaving him heart-broken 
 and defeated. It was the knell of Spartacus. What fur¬ 
 ther the historian can trace of this great general and most 
 marvelous genius is but the description of prodigious 
 spasms and writhings of a dying giant. 
 
 Crassus, watching from a distance these defeated man¬ 
 oeuvres of the gladiator, conceived the idea of imprisoning 
 him in the narrow neck or point of the promontory of 
 Bruttium or Rhegium, by throwing up a line of circum- 
 vaUation across this miniature isthmus with an object of 
 hemming the proletarian army in and besieging it during 
 the winter. The writer of the article in the Great French 
 Universel Dictionary declares that Crassus was positively 
 afraid to give the enemy an honorable battle. 116 Sparta¬ 
 cus, regarded this enormous line of retrenchments with 
 contempt. It was an earthwork reaching from sea to 
 sea, being, as Plutarch tells us, “ 36 miles long, fifteen feet 
 high and a wall above this of considerable height— a work 
 great and difficult.” 
 
 It was now the winter of B. C. 71-70. The supplies 
 for the army of the proletaries were disappearing. Some¬ 
 thing must be done. Spartacus watched his opportunity, 
 bent on retreat which involved an escape from this trap. 
 One dark wintry night amid the roar of a storm, while the 
 forces of Crassus lay chilled, and torpid, least alert and 
 fitted for surprise, the army of the slaves, at the command 
 of their leader, burst from the bivouacs and sword in hand 
 scaled the intrenchment, filling it with earth and wood, 
 and in spite of all resistance passed over and gained the 
 free plains beyond. 116 Thus commenced the admirable re- 
 
 116 Speaking of Spartacus he says: “Telle 6tait, cependant la terreur qu’ U 
 inspirait encore, que Crassus entreprit de 1’ enfermer dans la presq’ tie de Khe- 
 ginrn, par une l'osse d’un retranchment de 15 lieus de longeur ! Le chef des ea- 
 Claves temoigna son profond m6pris pour cet immense travaille 6t pour des en- 
 nemis qui n’osaient plus 1’ attaquer en face; puis quand les vivres oommen- 
 ceraient de lui manquer, 11 combla une partio de la tranches pendant une unit 
 orageuse, iorca les lignes der Remains et manouvra libroment dans la Lncanie, 
 on il extermina encore les troupes des deux leutbnants de Crassus qui oseraient 
 P in quieter dans saretraite/' La liousse, Dxctionaire Univertel^ Art. Spartacus. 
 
 116 Appian, Historia Romana, 1.119: 'SnapTaKos 8e Innias jrodei< a.vriL n-pocn-ofro* 
 nepip.ei'ui', ovksti per es paxrjv yfei rtf arparw iravri, iroAAa S’ ro<<: n tpijca^- 
 
 rj/xevois ava pepos, a(frvu> re Kal av avroi? iirntinruiv, (frame Aov« Te f i/Awi- rif* 
 rdcfrpoy epfiaiWiov jcareaaie, sal rov novov avrol s Svcrepyov eiroui. Ai\p.aA<«>T(>»' r« 
 'Pto/xatov eKpepairev er tco peron-xP-iVi Seiievv? rot* i&iois tt/v o\friv iv ntiaovr<x\ p* 
 •cpaTov^res.” Mommsen, History of Rome , IV. p. 107; “but in a dark winter 
 night Spartacus broke through the lines of the enemy, and In the spring of 71 
 
GREAT BATTLE OF CROTON. 
 
 
 treat of Sparkle us—a retreat which for fine generalship 
 combining fertility of expedient, quelling insubordination 
 within, and overcoming obstacles without, may yet, when 
 more carefully studied and better known, come to be re¬ 
 garded as one of the true models in warfare. The Roman 
 general now thoroughly frightened, wrote to Rome for 
 more help. 117 
 
 It appears that after the failure of Spartacus to reach 
 Sicily, a revolt of prodigious extent took place in his army. 
 A body of probably over 50,000 men separated from the 
 main army. They vaunted that Spartacus was a coward; 
 dared not meet the Roman general; that they would not 
 longer be restrained from giving the hated enemy battle. 
 They accordingly appointed as their commanders two of 
 the most boasting of the malcontents, Gannicusand Cas- 
 tus, and demanded of these inexperienced captains to be 
 led to battle, 111 They then provoked the army of Crassus 
 to an engagement. When Spartacus, whose wearying sym- 
 
 wm once more in Lucania." Plutarch, Crassus, tells the same story, while 
 Schambach, clearly shows it to have been the spring of 70. 
 
 117 Appian, I. 119-120: “ Oi S’ ip acrei 'Pa)p.ouoi r>js noAiopjcias nwdavopevoi., 
 Kai aSofouvres ei xpovios avrols iarai nbXepos povopaxup, irpodtariKeyop «iri rij v 
 arpareiap Dopiripop apn d$nc6ptpop e£ *Ij3pi'a?, maTtvopres r)8i) Sv<r\«pts elvai *ai 
 peya to SnapTaKnov ipyov- Ata 8e t rjp ^eipo70viav r>ji'6e nal Kpacxaos, Iva prj TO 
 icAeos -yevoiro TIopnrjLov, ndvra rponov eneiyopevos inextipei r<Z '2na.pTa.Kut, teal 6 
 2napTaKOS, top Tlopnrpov npo\afieip d(t ojv, es avudr/Kas top Kpdaaop wpocKaAetTO.” 
 Crassus much frightened, certainly sent for and obtained Doth the army under 
 Pompey, victorious in Spain and that, of I.ucnllos from Asia Minor, victorious in 
 the Mithridatic war. See also La Ilousse, Vidioriairc Unlversel, Art. Spartacus: 
 “Crassus ecrlvait an senat afiln qu’on envoyat jiour le seconder, PornpSe alors de 
 retour d’ Eepagne, et Lucnllus qui revenait d’ Asie. Mais il repentait bientSt de 
 cette demarche et reclierehat les occasions de terminer la guerre afln d’ avoir 
 eeule 1’ honneur.” 
 
 ns Plutarch, idem, is oue of our best witnesses on this great battle: “He 
 resolved, therefore, in the first place, to attack the troops which had revolted, 
 and formed a separate body, under the command oft woolncers named Canniciug 
 and Castus. With this view, he sent » corps ol six thousand men before to seize 
 an eminence which he thought would be of service to him but ordered them to 
 conduct their enterprise with all imaginable secrecy. They observed his direc¬ 
 tions; and, to oonceal tlieir march the better, covered their helmets and the rest 
 of their arms. Two women, however, who were sacrificing before the enemy's 
 camp, discovered them, and they would probably have met their fate, had not 
 Crassus advanced immediately, and given the enemy battle This was the most 
 obstinate action in the whole war. Twelve thousand three hundred of the enemy 
 were killed, of which number there were only two found wounded in the back; 
 the rest died in their ranks, after the bravest exertions of valour ’’ Livy, whose 
 valuable history of this great war is lost is fortunately quoted by Frontinus, 
 Strategematon, II. 5, 34, out of the 97th, the book of the Annates Ab Urbe Condxta, as 
 follows: “ Trigintaquinqnemillia armatorum (fugitivorum a Crassodevictorum) 
 eo proelio interfecta cum ipsis ducibus (Casto et Gannico) Livins tradit, recep- 
 tas quinque Komanorum aquilas, signa sex et viginti. multa spolia, inter quae 
 fasces cvim securibus.” This makes the numbers actually killed to have been 
 35,000. Undoubtedly this is the more accurate estimate; it also shows the enor- 
 raerss magnitude of the arm.v of Srartacn« 
 
320 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 pathies echoed his foreknowledge of the certain result, per¬ 
 ceived this movement, he evidently gave up all for lost and 
 resolved to die, bravely combating for his cause. Crassus 
 met the seceders and a terribly bloody battle took place 
 near Croton, on the banks of a lake in lower Lucania, 
 whose waters, Plutarch says, are “ sometimes pure and 
 sometimes salt.” The contest was extremely severe. 
 Plutarch wrongly describes it as the greatest of the war. 
 It was long before the army of the seceders gave way. 
 Not a man flinched. Of the heaps of slain none were 
 wounded in the back; all falling in the ranks performing 
 the bravest acts of valor. At last, overcome by numbers 
 they were forced to yield a little, giving the Romans an 
 advantage which they took and killed 12,300, or as Livy, 
 quoted by Frontin, probably more correctly puts it, 35, 
 000, 1,9 of the seceders, on the spot; nor would any of the 
 proletaries have survived the slaughter had not Sparta- 
 cus, by a forced march, arrived in season to interfere and 
 put an end to the bloody work. But Ganicusand Castus 
 were among the slain, 
 
 Crassus on the whole, had made little to be proud of 
 by this last encounter; for his forces were much more 
 numerous than the seceders. Besides he certainly lost a 
 large number of men in the contest, and perceiving that 
 its effect was only to heal the mutiny and knit the rebels 
 together into an indissoluble brotherhood by teaching the 
 dangers of their temerity, he began to fear that Sparta- 
 eus, now rapidly marching northward, was earnestly med¬ 
 itating an attack on Rome. 
 
 The army of the proletaries, still hugging the shores 
 of the sea, was now nearing the Tarentine gulf on its 
 march northward toward the port of Brundusium in its 
 second attempt to reach Sicily by sea. Just after cross- 
 
 119 Frontin, in his Strategematon, or Military Science, liber IT. cap. ▼. 34, TH 
 Jnsidiis, instances this battle as one of the prominent examples of military tac¬ 
 tics; and gives the great conflict in a new and interesting dress: “Crassus, 
 Bello Fug'tivormn apud Cantennam (Catanam) bina castra comminns cum hoa- 
 tium castria vallavit. Node deinde commotis copiis, manente praetorio in 
 mnioribus castris, ut fallerenuir hostes, ipse omnes copias eduxit et m radicibas 
 praedidi montis cons'ituit; divisoqne cquitatu praecepit L. Qnintio, partem 
 •Sparlaco obiceret pugnaque eum frustraretnr, parte alia Gallos Cermanosque ex 
 factionc t'asti et Cannici eliceret ad pugnam et fuga simulata deduceret, ubi ipse 
 aclem indruxerat: qnoscumbarbariinsecuti essent equite recedente in cornua, 
 eubiio ac es Romana adaperta cum clamore procurrlt. XXXV milia armatorum 
 «o proelio hiterfecta cum ipsis ducibus Livins tradit, receptas quinque Ro nanas 
 aquilas, sigi:a sex et XX, multaspolia, inter quae quinque fasces cum securibus/- 
 
BATTLE OF PET ELI A. RUINED BY SUCCESS. 321 
 
 ing the river Strongoli, or Nesethus of the ancients, and in the 
 very ancient town of Petelia, the Roman forces under the 
 command of L Quintius, one of the officers of Crassus and the 
 quaestor, Tremellius Scrofa, came up with the intention only 
 of harrassing him in rear and flank, according to the express 
 orders of Crassus who adhered to the Fabian tactics. Spar- 
 tacus on being attacked by a few skirmishers in the rear, 
 suddenly wheeled a large detachment upon the Romans who 
 were not prepared, and succeeding in routing them so com¬ 
 pletely that the quaestor who was wounded, barely escaped 
 with his ljfe. It was another great victory. 
 
 But Crassus, who was a good judge of effects, soon per¬ 
 ceived that it was the cause of reviving among the slaves 
 the malignant spirit of insubordination. They were again 
 so inflated with success that they threatened to rebel; and 
 their miserable conduct forced Spartacus to take an op¬ 
 posite direction from that which he chose to march, caus¬ 
 ing a disaster by hurrying them onward to final downfall. 
 Plutarch declares that the insurgents after this victory 
 became so arrogant and mutinous that they drew swords 
 and insisted upon being led against Crassus’ army in open 
 field. They demanded to be marched through Campania 
 to Kome; and Spartacus was not long afterwards forced 
 to give orders to march toward the now trembling capital. 
 Yet notwithstanding this insubordination he could but 
 admire their bravery and knew their impetuosity when led 
 to battle. Plutarch in speaking of their valor at the bat¬ 
 tle of the seceders where, according to Livy, no less than 
 35,000 of the rebels were slain, says that they died man¬ 
 fully, only two of the killed being found wounded in the 
 back. “ The rest had died in the ranks, after the grand¬ 
 est exhibit of bravery.” Spartacus, aware of the ap¬ 
 proach of Pompey from the direction of Borne, on the one 
 hand, and of the expected landing of Lucullus at Brundu- 
 sium, on the other, and knowing the folly of hope against 
 these three great veteran armies combined, struck a forced 
 march for Brundusium, thinking still to secure the co¬ 
 operation of the privateers in transporting him to Sicily, 
 before Lucullus hove in view. Though he could rely upon 
 his soldiers’ bravery he foresaw that a general engagement 
 must be fatal. 
 
322 
 
 SPARTA CUB 
 
 Thus we begin to conrpreliend the strange reticence of 
 the historians regarding the fresh allies of Crassus, now 
 actually centering together. The old stigma upon the 
 touch of a creature of lowly condition by an optimate of 
 Rome is apparently the cause of the suppression of all 
 histories which gave the details. There is one authority, 
 however, which brings some of these marvels to light. 
 This is Yellejus Paterculus whose History of Rome was 
 early mutilated in all the manuscripts except one, which 
 survived until it was printed late in the Middle Ages. 
 Armed with this, we see better to follow the thread of this 
 great rebellion to its close, and can thus correct some very 
 misleading errors of modern writers. 
 
 The whole army of the proletaries moved to the sea¬ 
 port of Erundusium, where it was hoped to obtain ships 
 and sail to Sicily. But here Spartacus was met and as¬ 
 sailed by Lucullus at that moment in the act of landing 
 his whole army, recalled b}^ the senate of Rome to help 
 Crassus. Whether much fighting took place we are not in¬ 
 formed; but foiled again in his designs by sea, he turned 
 northward, harassed and goaded by the veteran army 
 from Asia in full force. 
 
 In these returning legions of Lucullus, was a man who 
 was soon afterwards destined to play an extraordinary 
 role, in favor of the proletaries, and to lose his life in 
 their defense. It was Clodius, a brother-in-law of Lucul- 
 1ns, general-in-chief. Wealthy, of noble blood, educated, 
 and one of the most eloquent lawyers of those days—a 
 man who restored to the poor workingmen their right of 
 organization, and who in doing this, crippled the mighty 
 Cicero and brought him to disgrace, exile and final death. 
 But we leave his extraordinary story for other pages of 
 our history to recount. Suffice it here to say that the in¬ 
 describable scenes of suffering and of horror which he 
 was eye witness to in this campaign shaped his life-course 
 ever afterwards, in favor of the lowly. 120 
 
 i2or*ul)lius Clodius was of patrician blood. See Lippincott’s Biographical 
 Dictionary, Vol. I, art. Clodius. “ Demagogue of a very profligate character of the 
 patrician house of Appius Claudius Pulcher; served in Asia under Lucullus hi* 
 brother-in-law; became a violent enemy of Cicero who had appeared in evidence 
 against him ; raised several bloody riots against the friends of Cicero when they 
 proposed and passed a decree for his restoration B. C. 57’* (see Cicero, Pro Milone ; 
 Lu'umann, Geschiclde Earns. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, refusing to mention 
 him under a special article-heading, calls Clodius “ a worthless demagogue," 
 
LAST EFFORT TO ESCAPE 
 
 323 
 
 Lucullus, according to good authority, drove the gladi¬ 
 ator from the shipping and dogged him in the rear at 
 every step. 181 Pompey was present with the whole of the 
 large army which he had successfully commanded in 
 Spain. These facts we know; for if we do not find men¬ 
 tion of actual participation of these two freshly-arrived 
 Roman generals and their veteran legions, as being en¬ 
 gaged in the great and final battle of Silarus, we certainly 
 find them engaged in the man-hunt which was instituted 
 on the same day. Plutarch also hints at the fact. 
 
 In apparent deference to Crassus,who was the real com¬ 
 mander of the three combined armies, the history-man- 
 glers have evidently seen fit to trifle with the truth in 
 leaving no mention of Pompey or of Lucullus in the last 
 great conflict. And especially pointed does this sugges¬ 
 tion become when we take into consideration that neither 
 of these two generals was desirous of having his name 
 mixed up with so disgraceful a thing as a victory over 
 what went current under the name of a mob of gladiators. 
 
 It is thus made certain that the workingmen were 
 hemmed in between these three experienced consular and 
 veteran armies of Rome, in a mountain pass at the head 
 
 while acknowledging that he “ assailed Cicero with a formal charge of patting 
 Oitizens to death summarily without appeal to the people,” obtaining a decree 
 from the people for his banishment 400 miles from the city. Under the title 
 “ Milothe Pugilist and murderer of Clodius, the Encyclopaedia Britann. says: 
 “P. Clodius, the leader of the ruffians who professed the democratic canse was 
 his personal enemy, and their brawls in the streets and their mutual accusations 
 In the law courts lasted for several years ’’ Thus Clodius, the champion of trade 
 unions and organized labor is called “leader of the ruffians ” who were the work¬ 
 ing people of Rome. The Lippencott Biographical Dictionary, Art, Cicero, saya 
 of Cicero: “His enemy, Clodius, who became tribune of the people in B. C. 58, 
 and who was supported by Caesar and Pompey, now manifested his vindictive 
 malice against Cicero by a law which he proposed: that whoever has put to death 
 a Roman citizen without form of trial shall be interdicted from fire and water.’* 
 The fact that Cicero had committed such murders is proved by the actual pas¬ 
 sage of this law and his being sent into exile and his house on the Palitinate Hill 
 publicly burned, thus consummating his terrible disgrace. We fail to see in 
 these stem measures of Clodius in punishing murder, and in upholding the 
 aged and respectable law permitting the organization of the working people, 
 anything that would not be considered humane and respectable in the highest 
 degree, if repeated rightin our own blazing civilization. 
 
 121 Appian, 120, of book I. says :....“ Honngiov, irdvra rpoirov fjretydpevcK 
 iirexeipei t<Z hnapraKco, hull 6 X/rapra/cos, tov Ho/urijcor irpoXa/8eZv a£iiov, if trvr&rjicat 
 top Kpacrcov npovKaKelro- xnrepopd>p.evof 6’ vn’ avrov 8ta/civSvveveiv re eyvw, koX 
 wapovrcov oi tS)v imreiav rjSr) djeraro jravri rtZ o-TpartZ Sta row jreptretxto'/xaTos, teat e<f>vyer 
 ini BpevTe'crtov Kpacraov Siuncovrof. uif Se icai Aev/coAAov epaSev 6 X/rapra/cos es t 4 
 Bpevre'crtov, ano r^s ini MidpiSaTjj vt/cijs eTravtovra, etvat, ndvrinv a7royvovs if \eipat 
 pet T<p Kpacrcrtp peTa ttoAAov /ca t tots nXg-dovf yevo/te'vijs 8e rrjf pdxrjf pa/epas r« 
 icai /caprepas cos ev d7royvcocret ToatovSe pvptaScov, Ttrpcocr/ceTai es tov p.rjpbu 6 'Snap- 
 ra/cos Soparup, /cat <n/y/capi//as to yovu /cat 7rpo/3aAu/v tijiv daniSa irpog tovs int-ovras 
 awepaxeTO, pe'xot /cat avrof /cat iro\i> nhrj&Of apt/)’ avrov /cv/cAwdeVres ineaov," 
 
524 
 
 SP ART AC US. 
 
 waters of the river Silarus. It is also certain that Spar* 
 tacus, if not his whole army, now knew perfectly well that 
 the doom was near; they had by this time all become fren¬ 
 zied for the approaching butchery. 
 
 As one of the most bloody and terrible battles the world 
 has ever known was fought here, it is fitting to pause in 
 order to minutely describe the scenes and to array our 
 evidence, obtained with great difficulty, regarding the 
 numbers of the contestants, the date of the battle and the 
 carnage during its rage, and afterwards during the man¬ 
 hunt instituted by the Romans—the whole constituting 
 a cruel and awfully bloody page not to be found in the 
 annals of history, and which to the people at large, and 
 even to the students of our universities, must be regarded 
 as a chapter of news. 
 
 There were in the combined armies of Crassus, Pom- 
 pey and Lucullus, undoubtedly more than 400,000 men, 
 most of whom were experienced veterans, thoroughly 
 hardened to the combat and to all the rigors of the mili¬ 
 tary camp. 122 
 
 In addition to the significant words of Florus regard¬ 
 ing Rome and her massing the entire force against the in¬ 
 surgents, we have the auxiliary argument of reason 
 which shows that it could not possibly have been other¬ 
 wise ; for evidence is not wanting that the force of Spar- 
 tacus at the battle of Silarus, was no less than 300,000 
 strong. His army which at the battle of Picenum is ac¬ 
 knowledged by Appian to have been 120,000 in number, 
 by some unrecorded means which we conjecture to have 
 been the collusion and co-operation of the privateers 
 bringing men from Sicily, had grown to the imposing 
 total of 300,000. Vellejus tells us this, in 128 honest fig- 
 
 122 The conjecture that there were 400,COO soldiers in the combined Reman 
 army at the battle of Silarus is not based upon circumstantial evidence. Florus, 
 whose words are never regarded with distrust, tells us distinctly that alter the 
 destruction of Lentulus and Poplicoia, and the humiliating retaliation by Sparta- 
 cur, of the gladiatorial combat in honor of Crixus, the fallen comrade, these 
 words: “Then, indeed they (the Romans), with their entire powers massed, 
 bore down upon the gladiator. Tandem etiarn totis imperii viribus contra mir- 
 millionem eonsurgetur.’’ Accordingly we find the Romans soon sending post¬ 
 haste for all the old veteran armies; one of which was in Spain victorious over 
 the powerful Sertori us, and the other in Asia, equally triumphant over Mith- 
 radtes. All surged together against Spartacus. See Florus, Annales, III. 20. 
 
 iaa Our accident al discovery of this invaluable information may be worth re¬ 
 lating: The unreasouable figure ol 40,000 given in our own version of Vellejus, 
 in view of the great combiued forces admitted by Plutarch, Appian and Fiona 
 
TEE GARBLED HISTORY, 
 
 325 
 
 ares; although they have been garbled by a merciless 
 translator and made to read 40,000. This cheat would 
 have actually prevailed but for the accident already men¬ 
 tioned, of the preservation of a MSS. copy from which the 
 editio prineeps was printed soon after the invention of 
 that art, and a copy of which is still to be seen at the 
 Vatican. 124 
 
 Supplied with these important figures, so long held back, 
 but so perfectly reasonable—since they straighten out the 
 incongruities which meet the reader who sees the vast 
 multitudes of the Roman legions positively known to be 
 now centering in—we find ourselves in a condition, other¬ 
 wise crippled in absurdities and discrepancies, to make a 
 better description of the contest. 
 
 Time was given for the army of Spartacus to make long 
 
 •gainst Spartacus led us to suspect that an immense error lurked in the history 
 of the battle of Silarus. Ransacking for more light we ran against the reference 
 to Dr. Schambach’s Italischer Sklavenkrieg, which we procured from Europe after 
 much delay. Page 11, Quellen zur Geschichte has the following: “ Vellejus ist fur 
 nns wenig wichtig. Wir erfahren durcli ihu nichts, das uns nicht auch sonat be- 
 kannt ware, mit Ausnahme der Zahlenangabe, dass von 300,000 Sklaven in deni 
 letzten Kampi'e noch 40,000 iibrig gewesen eeien. In dem Wenigen, was er gibt. 
 liisst sich ihm eine Unricktigkeit nicht nachweisen.” This not only explained 
 the reasonable facts, but also vouched for the truthfulness of Vallejus. Setting 
 out afresh on the hunt for the exact words of the editioprineeps, we at last found 
 • copy of the Lugdunum edition containing the MSS. text in a note. 
 
 124 During and before the renaissance there appears to have been a not in¬ 
 considerable dispute among scholars over the figure CCC, millia , to be seen in 
 the editioprineeps of Vallejus, on account of this figure having been altered to 
 XL. millia. We therefore give the rendering with its falsified figure, and follow 
 it with the remarks of the Lugdunum editor written some 2Qp years ago, together 
 with the perfectly trustworthy quotation from the editio prineeps Vellejus, in¬ 
 terpolated by a fraud, is currently made to say these words about Spartacus. 
 
 “ Fugitivi e ludo gladiatorio Capua profugientes, duce Spartaco, raptis ex ea 
 urbe gladiis; mox, crescente in dies multitudiue, gravibus variisque casibus ad- 
 fecere Italiam quorum numerus in tantum adolevit, ut qua ultimo (limicavere 
 acie, XL. millia (in the original manuscript written by Vallejus himself CCC. 
 millia) horn in um se Romano exercitui opposuerunt.” 
 
 The remarks of John Campbell upon this interpolation are given in a note, 
 very guardedly, as follows: 
 
 “ Ut nihil hie mutandumputem, facit maximascriptorum dissentio. Quorum 
 In hoc numero diversitatem scire qui desideret adeat eruditissium Treinshemium 
 ad Flori liberum III. cap. 20, Vossiug.” Farther on, same note: “ XL. Alii hunc 
 numerum plurimum augent. Inter quos is qui minimum est Eutropius. Hie 
 sexaginta millia virornm abiiscollectafuissescribit. Apianns vero ad C. ac XX. 
 millia extendit. Orosius, Livii epitomator, medium tenuisse videntur. Itaque 
 vix ambigo, quin in Vellejio fit XC. Millia hominum Vossius. Nimis exiguus 
 numerus, in quo variant scriptOreB, Prineeps Editio , CCO. millia homnum “ Signed 
 Heinaiua. 
 
 In the Hudson edition (Oxanise), the text is the same as above; but the note 
 regarding Heins is quoted as follows: Note 5; “ XC. legendum esse non ambiguit 
 Voss. An XC. ant C. millia hominum scribendum dubitat Heins, QUIA EDITIO 
 PRINCEPS CCC. MILLIA HAJSET HOMINUM.” 
 
 This is sufficiently positive to settle the number of the army of Spartacus at 
 the battle of Silarus, at 300 000 men. because it is the same wording of Vellejus 
 hlmse.lt who lived near the very spot aud whose father probably commanded e 
 division of cavalry at th ■ battle. 
 
826 
 
 SPAMT AC US. 
 
 marches westward toward Rome, in obedience to the de¬ 
 mands of liis mutinous soldiers. A straight cut from 
 Brundusium to the battle-field could not have been less 
 than 100 miles; as it waa on the head waters of the Si- 
 larus in a nearly direct line from that seaport and Rome. 
 As we have evidence of his ha\ing been repulsed by Lu- 
 cullus at Brundusium, we can understand how he was 
 followed by him all along this march. Crassus likewise, 
 if not in the act of constantly provoking him , as we are 
 inclined to suspect, was in the mountain pass of the Si- 
 larus when he arrived and pitched camp by its side. 
 
 The combined hostile armies now lay over against each 
 other for a considerable time. Fortifications were drawn 
 by both and the activities on the Roman side, of center¬ 
 ing in, were given both time and force. We now find 
 the two contestants face to face, each tempting the other 
 to make the first dash. It was, according to Dr. Scham- 
 bach’s estimate—which we adopt as the most accurate—as 
 late as February of the year 70 before Christ. The war 
 had been raging about four years. But although winter, 
 it is not in our power to know whether it was cold weather. 
 Probably not; for the winters are generally mild in these 
 portions of Italy. 125 
 
 One day Crassus ordered his soldiers to dig a trench 
 and while thus engaged the gladiators made an advance, 
 upon them. It proved the commencement of the great 
 battle. 126 From a simple skirmish both armies gradually 
 closed into the deadly fray and the combat became more 
 and more furious. They eagerly welcomed the battle with 
 reckless feelings of despair, knowing that their hour had 
 come, yet staking their hopes upon another great and de¬ 
 cisive victoiy. 127 
 
 Heroism, love of conflict, intrepidity and fearlessness 
 
 125 Plutarch, Crassus, mentions severe coldness a month or two before when 
 Spartaeus ran the blockade in Bhegium. But that was a night squall. Besides 
 the battle of Silarus occurred near the opening spring. This agrees with Scham- 
 bach, S. 13. 
 
 126 Plutarch, idem, 12. * Crassus therefore hastened to give that stroke him¬ 
 self, and with the same view, encamped very near the enemy. One day, when 
 he had ordered his soldiers to dig a french, the gladiators attacked them as they 
 were at work. Numbers came up continually on both sides to support the com¬ 
 batants; and at last Spartaeus seeing what the case necessarily required, drew 
 out his whole army.” Trans, of Langhome. 
 
 127 La Rousse, Dic^'nnaire Universtl, speaking of the gladiator says: 
 troupe 6tait afl'ol6e d*. siicce^e.” 
 
TWELFTH BATTLE. SILARUS. 
 
 327 
 
 of death were frenziedly seated on their hearts; but until 
 now, recklessness had been a stranger in the camps of 
 Spartacus; and when this came, foreknelling the desper¬ 
 ate ultimatum, all mutually realized the approach of dis¬ 
 solution and were ready to drink the intoxicating potion 
 which brave men taste midst the furious lunge of steel. 
 
 Thus a skirmish between the advance guards of both 
 armies brought on the general engagement. Spartacus 
 who was goaded by a hatred of the Roman leader, for 
 some time stood off at a distance, eyeing the contest. 
 Brigade after brigade fell into the murderous vortex. At 
 length Spartacus issued his general order of battle and at 
 the ring of his war clarions the two angry armies closed 
 up bringing on the ferocious conflict. 128 They brought 
 their chieftain his horse ; but the gladiator, like Warwick, 
 drew from its sheath his sword and with one blow of his 
 strong arm, killed the excited steed; then shouting on¬ 
 ward to his men, uttered the farewell speech of Spartacus 
 to his soldiers. w Victorious I shall find horses in plenty 
 among the enemy; defeated I shall no longer want one.” 
 Then poising himself he rushed for Crassus with his steel 
 high in air and fell upon the ranks of his adversary in 
 personal combat. “ It was a fierce struggle. Long after 
 the victory was hopeless Spartacus was traced by heaps 
 of the slain who had fallen by his hand, and his body was 
 lost completely in the awful carnage which closed that 
 day of blood.” 129 Plutarch says that he aimed to kill 13 * 
 Crassus ; and toward this mark through darts and jave¬ 
 lins he pressed, and over windrows of the dead, rushing 
 in quest of his foe, whom, indeed he did not reach, but 
 he killed two of his centurians. When all who made with 
 him this mad and desperate plunge had fled or fallen, the 
 terrible gladiator remained fighting with unflinching gal¬ 
 lantry until he fell, covered with many wounds and so 
 completely cut to pieces that his body was never found. 
 Even Florus who had no language sufficiently bitter with 
 which to malign him. says “ he died like a Roman em- 
 
 128 Appian, T. 120; “ Tevop.errj<; Se r/j? Max 7 ?? /aa/epa? re «cai /caprcpac ip awvy 
 TUKret. Toawi'Se iJ.vptd.8mv, nTpci/T/cerai e? iov p.t)p'ovo IndpraKOS Soparitp, *ai crvy/cap.. 
 i//a? to yovv /cal irpoiSatymv Tt)v acrni&a 7rpos rovs eirtovrag direp.d\fTO, fie\pi /cal avr&C 
 icai 7roAu 7rA*)t?oc a/u<f>’ av/rbi' /cv/cAwi^ei/re? eireo’ov.” 
 
 129 Smith s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Art. Spartacus. 
 
 130 Plutarch, Crassus, 12. 
 
328 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 ^eror.” 181 His forces appear to have fought manfully un¬ 
 til the death of their leader, when the lines gave way and 
 a hideous carnage followed. The Romans gave no 
 quarter. Sixty thousand workingmen fell in this glorious 
 defeat—glorious in the appreciation of all who admire 
 feats of sublimest valor; but alas, a defeat which for cen¬ 
 turies riveted the chains of the servile race. 
 
 We paraphrase Appian for the following, on the close 
 and consequence of this terrible scene: The butchery by 
 the Romans surpassed the power of counting, for it cov¬ 
 ered many thousands. The body of Spartacus lay dead 
 on the field. Great numbers fled to the mountains after 
 the battle, and Crassus pursued them. They, however, 
 reorganizing themselves into four divisions fought back, 
 until all were destroyed except 6,000 who were crucified 
 upon the high-road from Capua to Rome. 
 
 These w many thousands ” slaves who escape d to the 
 mountains as here reported by Appian were the 40,000 of 
 Vellejus, in his editio princeps which we have used on the 
 assurance of Dr. Schambach. 132 This would make the num¬ 
 ber of men who fell in the battle after and before the 
 death of their leader and including the carnage of the 
 route, when no man was spared and no quarter given, to 
 foot up 260,000—an immense number—but when we re¬ 
 flect that there raged an internecine spirit breathing only 
 vengeance and void of feeling throughout the great Roman 
 army, and contemplate the possible strokes of such swords¬ 
 men, under orders to exterminate their now defenseless 
 victims, these numbers are not surprising. 
 
 A few more words and the tragedy is told. Such were 
 the numbers of the brave veterans of this great revolt who 
 fell in the gigantic contest on the banks of the river Si- 
 larus. 133 In the mountains, during the pursuit great num- 
 
 181 “ Spartacus ipse in primo agmine fortissime dimicans, quasi Imperator. 
 occisus est.” (Floras, liber III. cap. 20). 
 
 132 Heinsius distinctly says that Vellejus put the number of the army of 
 Spartacus at 300,000, from which total 40 000 escaped; “ qua editio princeps habet 
 XL. e CCC. millia hominum.” So Schambach in Der Italische Sklavenaufstand, S. 
 
 11, Quellen zur Cfeschichte, says: “ Wirerfahren von Vellejus-dass von 300,000 
 
 Bklaven in dem letzten Kampfe noch 40,000 ilbrig gewesen seien.” The two ac¬ 
 counts of Appian and Vellejus Paterculus do not at all disagree. Appian, I. idevr. 
 ** *0 re A.oi7rds avrov arparos cucocrpurs rjdnj KareKOirrovTO Kara irAfjilos, <*>s <j>6rov yevt- 
 vdai Tali' per ovS’ evapidpgrov ‘Pwjaatwv 8$ is avSpas, nal rbv Sirapraicov 
 
 vinvv ov\ evpidyvai. no\v S’ ere jrAljilo? 7jV iv rols opeaiv, in Tys pix 1 !* 6ia<f>vy6v 
 
 ovs o Kpaaoos avefiaivet'-” 
 
 133 For a description of the Silaras and the snrroonding region see Strabo, 
 
 Geographic a, V. cap 4. 
 
BATTLE OF SILARUS. THE MAN-HUNT. 329 
 
 bers more fell, and 6,000 were taken prisoners of war. 
 The remainder of the great army who after the defeat, 
 and the death of their beloved and faithful leader, en¬ 
 deavored to escape, was indeed small. 
 
 According to Appian, the pursuit was made by Pompey 
 who must have participated in the battle. This grasping 
 egotist easily finished the massacre and then vaunted that 
 he had been the principle in putting down the rebellion; 
 thus adding to the proof that all the three Roman armies 
 were massed. Great numbers of the fugitives were over¬ 
 taken and crucified. Every one of the 6,000 who fell pris¬ 
 oners at the battle of Silarus and in the mountains was 
 hung on the cross along the Appian way; and for months 
 their bodies dangled there to delight the vengeance-lov¬ 
 ing gentry who, on their drives to and from the cities of 
 Rome and Capua, rejoiced to behold such sights as in our 
 time would provoke the shame and contempt of the world. 
 
 Slavery from the downfall of Spartacus, the last eman¬ 
 cipator, had an unhindered sweep in Rome and her prov¬ 
 inces until Jesus, 100 years later, founded or brought into 
 the open world the culture of the communes hitherto 
 compulsorily secret, that mankind at birth are naturally 
 free and equal—a culture which is based upon peace and 
 submission; the antithesis of the plans of Eunus, Athe- 
 nion, Spartacus and all revolters. This plan was original 
 in Jesus, and it has prevailed; for chattel ownership of 
 man by man has, under his open culture, disappeared from 
 the earth. Rome became u a model of rapacity, dishonesty 
 and fraud; having in her period—almost a thousand 
 years, produced scarcely a dozen men whose names have 
 descended to posterity with an untarnished fame.” 134 
 
 But if Spartacus, whose acts were in Italy, might be 
 called a Roman, he certainly may be included in the list 
 of names of the untarnished famous; for his nature was 
 gentle though his character was marked and equal to the 
 dignity of grander victories than came into the list of the 
 Scipios or the Caesars—since he fought entirely for a prin¬ 
 ciple, dying as his wife had predicted of him, happy in 
 the enthusiasm of an exuberant, manly swoop of nerve 
 and muscle, grand, if not gigantic, amid the dismaying 
 fury of enemies of liberty and of law. 
 
 13< Carey, Principles of Political Economy , Vol. I. p. 247. 
 
330 
 
 SPAR TAG US. 
 
 Immediately after the destruction of Spartacns and his 
 army, another great man-hunt was instituted, similar to 
 those we have described in the chapters on Viriathus, 
 Eunus and Athenion. It lasted six months, raged with 
 merciless atrocities and was followed by another exter¬ 
 minatory man-hunt against ihe pirates who, if we are to 
 believe the histories which have been permitted to survive, 
 were the true friends of the Romans, because they treach¬ 
 erously refused to assist the insurgent army to" cross into 
 Sicily. But as we have already stated, this story looks ex¬ 
 tremely flimsy and must be considered with caution; as 
 the fact remains well vouched for that Rome fell upon the 
 pirates and privateers with a powerful fleet commanded by 
 Pompey himself and succeeded in less than a year, in anni¬ 
 hilating them so completely that ever afterwards the Med¬ 
 iterranean was cleared of these maritime desperadoes. 1 * 8 
 
 No fewer than 1,000,000 slaves are reported by Caecilius 
 Calactenus to have been crucified and otherwise slain in 
 the combined wars of the slaves who rebelled against the 
 huge and inhuman slave system of the Romans. This es¬ 
 timate, repeated with reserve by Dr. Schambach, 1 * 6 comes 
 to us not from Calactenus direct, for his valuable histor¬ 
 ies are, like the others, lost; but it is transmitted indirectly 
 by Athenaeus, whose quotations from the lost books are 
 more and more highly prized. 
 
 But alas! Of what utility were all these outbreaks of 
 human irascibility with their awful details of blood and 
 extermination? True, one comfort clings: To die in the 
 desperate attempt for freedom was better than to live in 
 the griping coils of slavery. But “ an eye for an eye and 
 a tooth for a tooth ” brought no relief for downtrodden 
 humanity. It never has, it never can, it never will. The 
 still lingering idea of a semi-belligerent force organized on 
 the strike plan, so long as it does not choose the weapons 
 
 13& For the law commissioning Pompey to the work of exterminating the pi 
 rates, see Vellejus, Historia Rtmana, liber II. cap. xxxi.; and for a description 
 of the work itself, Appian, I. 121 ; Pliny, Historia Naturalis, VII. 26; Tacitus, 
 Annales, XII. 62; XV. 25, Bcllum Piraticum. 
 
 136 Schambach, ItaLischer Sklavenaufstand. S. 6. “Die Zahl allerindiesen und 
 anderen minder bedeutenden Oder uns zufallig nicht iiberlieferten Aufstanden 
 getodteteu Sklaven giebt Athen., wahrsoheinlich nacli der ubertriebenen Berech- 
 nung dos Cacilius von Kalakteauf etwa eine Million an. 5 ’ These doubts regard* 
 Ing the number would have been dispelled had the learned doctor reflected that 
 the number cf lives lost in the war of Spartacus alone exceeded half that sum, 
 A quarter of a million of slaves were killed in the last battle and in the man-hunt 
 which followed. No doubt several millions were killed in all 
 
TEE LESSON TO HUMANITY. 
 
 331 
 
 of overt war, and sedulously abstains from military or 
 other violent means of resistance and self-defense, may be 
 in conformity with the reasonable methods of relief; it is 
 unquestionably consistent with the modern age and yields 
 the rough polemic and the intellectual jar wdiieh surges 
 and jostles men into a conception of arbitration and poli¬ 
 tical unanimity. But humanity in the awful and relent¬ 
 less conflicts we have described, of which this revolt of 
 Spartacus was the last and the typical example, has had 
 enough of the destructive, enough of the irascible, enough 
 of extermination. Let us profit by these examples, and no 
 longer remain regardless of the better and more promis¬ 
 ing plan of another master, and the next to succeed. 
 This great preceptor constantly taught the working peo¬ 
 ple “that they resist not evil;” and his are the precepts 
 prevailing all through the civilizing inculcation of tt good 
 for evil,” until, after a bi-millennial trial of the brutal in- 
 st'ncts, the oppressor now perceives and is being con¬ 
 strained to acknowledge that “an injury to one is the 
 concern of all.” 
 
 Whoever has the curiosity to observe the results of 
 these defeats upon the Roman people will find that all the 
 blood that was shed had no influence wdiatever toward 
 refining human feelings. About this time the amphithe¬ 
 atre began in earnest to supersede the older games of the 
 Roman circus. The revolts had kindled up a fresh spirit 
 of vengeance, and popular conversation inflamed the hid¬ 
 eous passion for sights in the gladiatorial ring. 
 
 These revolts had moreover taught the Roman politic¬ 
 ians and all those who catered to power, that the slave 
 system which made bondsmen of prisoners of war taken by 
 tens of thousands in the great conquests of the past hun¬ 
 dred years, were a desperate and dangerous element in 
 the land. But a people filled with grudges as were the 
 Romans, after this terrible succession of revolts which 
 have been described, could think of no mild, humane 
 methods of getting rid of the dangerous slaves. 
 
 To see them thrown to the wild beasts and eaten alive 
 or to train them for the ghastly habit of cutting each 
 others’ throats u on the sands of an amphitheatre, was 
 to their truly ferocious character tbe natural way of get¬ 
 ting rid of them. This in part answers the inquirer a 
 
332 
 
 SPARTACUS. 
 
 question as to the cause of the rapid and phenomenal de¬ 
 cline of morals at Rome. 
 
 The comparatively innocent circus waned in favor of 
 the arena. Vast amphitheatres were constructed in towns 
 and cities everywhere. Blood-money reigned triumphant. 
 
CHAPTER XTTT. 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 ROME’S ORGANIZED WORKING MEN AND WOMEN. 
 
 Organization of the Fkeedmen— The Jus Coeundi — Roman Unions 
 — The Collegium —Its Power and Influence—What the 
 Poor did with their Dead—Cremation—Burial a Divine Right 
 which they were too Lowly to Practice—Worship of bor¬ 
 rowed Gods —Incineration or Burial and Trade Unions com¬ 
 bined—Proofs—Glance at the Inner social Life of the ancient 
 Brotherhoods—State Ownership and Management—Nation¬ 
 alized Lands—Number and Variety of Trade Unions—Strug¬ 
 gles—Numa Pompilius First to Recognize and Uphold Trade 
 Unions— Law of the 12 Tables taken from Solon—Harmony, 
 Peace, Ease, steady Work, Prosperity and Plenty Lasting 
 with little Interruption for 500 Years—Bondmen fared worse. 
 
 We have spoken of certain organizations among the work¬ 
 ing people of ancient times. That these existed is no longer 
 denied. In Rome they were mostly freedmen. But what 
 inspired their combination into secret orders does not ap¬ 
 pear plain to those who study the past for the sake of grati¬ 
 fying a taste for great events. Neither do those who study 
 it for purposes of gleaning points in philosophy and religion 
 as commonly understood, obtain any correct idea of them. 
 The ancient contempt rooted in the taint of labor which 
 slavery inspired is yet too strong; and there still lingers 
 too much of the old spirit of paganism to allow of interest, 
 or hardly of curiosity. This must answer the astonished 
 student of sociology who asks why so much ignorance on 
 the subject of those ancient societies. 
 
 Agaiu, we have alluded, in a previous chapter, to the fact 
 that writers and speakers of those days were extremely 
 
334 
 
 OROANIZA T10N. 
 
 cLfiry of information regarding them. The cause of this 
 was identical with that which inspires the same thing here 
 amongst us now—disdain. From 1870 until 1886, a pe¬ 
 riod of sixteen years, little was known to the masses of society 
 of the vast organization amidst us, down in society’s core, 
 except that now and then a strike, like a volcanic eruption, 
 shook the moral and financial surface. Yet in that period 
 the most splendid vehicles of knowledge ever before known, 
 existed. There was an organized policy, mixed with con¬ 
 tempt, silently preventing even a wayside mention of these 
 phenomena. When m 1886, a decided stand taken by Mr. 
 Powderly, pleasing the press which may have expected to 
 see defeat and disaster of the great collectivity, flung the 
 door of the mighty dungeon ajar, and a knowledge of their 
 numbers and power burst out, the people were overwhelmed 
 with surprise. How much easier then, was it, in that bar¬ 
 baric age, without mechanical means of transmitting truth, 
 even had historians, poets and philosophers been inclined 
 to do so, to close the doors against curiosity and the love of 
 learning. 1 
 
 We begin by the broad statement that from the earliest 
 times at wnich anything is known of them, although they 
 were sunk in ineffable contumely, they yet enjoyed one boon 
 —the right of combination. Strange to say, no conspiracy 
 laws are to be found; at any rate among the Romans, 8 un¬ 
 til about the time of the emperors.* These rights of organ¬ 
 ization in very ancient times, extended all over Europe so 
 far as is known, 4 Some of the first gleamings of this may 
 be gotten from the authors. As early as Numa Pompilius* 
 
 1 Mommsen, De Collegiis et Sodalidis Romanorum, p. 31. “ Si qumrimus da 
 loco collegiis opificum in rebus pubiicis apud Romanos concesso. Sed id ipsum 
 queeritur, an quserere liceat: est enim altissimum de hac re apud auctores silen- 
 tiurn.” Here Mommsen admits that the profoundest silence reigns among 
 authors, in regard to these unions, and refers for his proof to a stone (videOrell. 
 Inscr. 4,105) bearing an insription of a union. This was a union of musicians that 
 existed at Rome. The inscription runs thus: “M. Julius Victor, ex collegio 
 Liticinum Cornicinum.” Mommsen alludes to this find in proof of tha fact that 
 working people had organized Unions'of musicians. 
 
 8 In page 52 of the Consular report ol Mr. James T. Dubois, U. 8. Consul at 
 Leipzig, published by the State Department in 1885, at Washington, there U a 
 reference to the attempted suppression by TuRius Hostilius of the Collegia Opi¬ 
 ficum ; but that they continued to thrive he acknowleges in the next paragraph. 
 A close inspection shows that they were by no means stippressed. 
 
 * Mommsen, De Col. el Sodal. Ramanorum, cap. iv. §10, p. 73. 
 
 * Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquce Totius Orbis Romenorum , 399,4. 431,1. "On*, 
 nia corpora Lugduni licite coeuntia.” Cicero, Pro Sexto , 14, 32, says: “ Thert 
 was no town in Italy, no colony, no prefecture, no board of tax collectors at Rome, 
 no trade union, not holding common cause with one another.” This was during 
 his struggle to suppress them. 
 
NUMA'S TRADE UNION CATEGORIES. 335 
 
 time, perhaps 700 years before Christ, they are known to 
 have existed in great numbers. This king tolerated them ; 
 and there exist some curious data respecting the system 
 which he invented for their regulation. 5 6 He ordered that 
 the eutire people including the working classes, be distri¬ 
 buted into eleven guilds. This statement of Plutarch is 
 however regarded by Mommsen as incorrect. The latter, 
 after investigating the data given anterior to Plutarch, con¬ 
 cludes that it must have been eight classes instead of eleven. 
 At that time there were distinct trades, embracing all the 
 arts of remote antiquity. While this may be true that eight 
 was the number of categories there certainly is agreement 
 among authors as to about that number. 6 It would appear 
 by their complete privilege of combination and their ap¬ 
 parently perfect recognition by this wise king who reigned 
 probably 700 years before Christ, that at times there must 
 have been a great deal of skill among the artisans. Skilled 
 mechanics were needed to make all the armor of those war¬ 
 like times. During the reign of Numa Pompilius which 
 lasted thirty-nine years the trade unions must have made 
 great advancement. 7 * Indeed, considering the harsh treat¬ 
 ment they afterwards received at the hands of the Roman 
 emperors in later years, beginning B. C. 58, we are left to in¬ 
 fer that for nearly 700 years of the best life of Rome these 
 labor organizations flourished uninterruptedly. 1 According 
 to Plutarch, this ancient king so favored the idea of labor 
 organizations that he made their particular case the very 
 basis of a great reform. Plutarch tells us that he closed 
 the temple of Janus for forty-three years, 9 and all this time 
 there was perpetual peace. The working people are known 
 
 5 Monnnsen, Be Coll, et S odal. Rom,, p. 78, says: The relics of innumerable 
 communal associations of ancient times, are seen scattered all through Italy, as 
 found among the inscriptions of the Italian towns. See also Plutarch’s lAje oj 
 Numa, much quoted by writers. 
 
 e Pliny, Naturalis Ilistoi'ia, XXXIV. 1. “ JEqualem Urbi auctoritatem ejus 
 
 declarat, a rege Numa Collegio tertio eerariorum fabrum institute.’’ Again 
 XXXV. 12. “Numa rex septimum collegium figulorum instituit.” 
 
 * Dirksen, Zwolf Tafeln, says; “ Der romische Staat vergonnte urspriing- 
 lich lediglich den Gewerben, die den Bediirl'nissen des Krieges unci des gottes- 
 dienstes zuniichst friJhnten, seinen unmittelbaren Schutz und eine selbstiindige 
 Communalverfassung.” 
 
 a Mommsen, Dt Coll, et Sodal. Rom. p. 33. “Jus coeundi fuit antiquis tem- 
 poribus omnibus concessum.” 
 
 9 I’lut., Numa and Lycurgus compared. “ The primary view of Numa’s gov¬ 
 ernment which was to settle the Romans in lasting peace and tranquility, im¬ 
 mediately vanished with him; for alter his death, the temple of Janus, which 
 he had kept shut as if it had really held war in prison and subjection, was set wide 
 vpen, and Italy was filled with blood.” 
 
ORGANIZATION. 
 
 m 
 
 to havj had their golden era during the reign of this great 
 lawgiver. 1 * If for no other reason than this, the reign of 
 Numa Pompilius must ever be regarded as one of the most 
 valuable, and fraught with richest lessons to the human race. 
 It is true that this is not so considered bv students of history 
 from a standpoint of great historic events, or of religion and 
 philosophy as ordinarily understood, but the student of 
 history from the purely sociological basis may justly regard 
 this reign as one of the marvels of the world. We are at a 
 loss to understand how Plutarch, with his clear mind and 
 honest motives, could have compared Numa with Lycurgns. 
 But Plutarch was not a socialist. He did not understand 
 the immense world of meaning rolled up in the mystic deeds 
 of Numa, whose reign, had it proved a failure, he himself 
 would not have praised. 
 
 But Numa’s reign was by no means arfailure. It was a 
 decided departure from the customs of those ancient days, 
 because it completely discountenanced the warlike ambi¬ 
 tions of other rulers and cultivated the arts of peace. To 
 carry out such a policy it was necessary to have industry 
 made respectable and stand boldly to the front, and be in 
 every way protected. 
 
 But the trades were already organized. He did not or¬ 
 ganize them that we know of, but simply accorded them 
 free privileges to organize themselves. He classed his peo¬ 
 ple of all grades by a method of his own and in that classi¬ 
 fication made a place for the workers whom he w T as wise 
 and manly enough to recognize. Before the time of Numa 
 the working people had never been recognized that we are 
 aware of. His distribution of the entire industrial class 
 into eight or nine grand divisions or trades, 11 does not prob¬ 
 ably imply that there was no greater variety than this, but 
 it was probably merely for the sake of convenience. 
 
 We are not to suppose, because the free right of combi¬ 
 nation was given the working people by king Numa, that 
 
 t# K Er Si i) Siavofiri tcard rot rexvat, avXijTwr (Ante players'), xpv<roxo<ov 
 
 (gold workers), t tKrbvuv (carpenters), /3 a<ptuv (dyers), vkvtot6[xihv (shoemakers), 
 ff»cuTo5e »pity (tanners and carriers), j^oAKew*' (braziers), Ktpa/xeuv (potters), rat <5« 
 
 Aoiira? ri\vai «it Tavrb avvayuyitv tv avrutv ix iraauv ave84i£e avo-nj^a.” (Plut. 
 Num. 17). 
 
 11 Mommsen, idem, p. 29. Hroc si expendimus, videmus Plutarchum for- 
 tas.'-e etiam Florum totumpopulum non opifices tantum in IX classes distribuere, 
 quod etsi absurdum est, notandnm tamen, cum inde nonum collegium ortiun 
 *s«e videatur. ” 
 
TRADE UNION LA W OF THE XII TABLES. 337 
 
 this carried with it all the immunities belonging to other 
 people. Caste remained. They were still looked upon as 
 degraded creatures. It was for the Christian era to declare 
 the absolute equality of men. But this right of free com¬ 
 bination, jus coeundi , was certainly used to an enormous 
 extent as a means of working up a state of things and a 
 spirit of freedom or self-constituted public opinion among 
 working people, fitting them by slow degrees, to consider 
 themselves equal to others. The right of combination 
 during this remarkable reign, having been prominently 
 and thoroughly established, it remained so for over 600 
 years; and we are told explicitly that no interruption oc¬ 
 curred until 58 years before Christ, for both the efforts 
 of Claudius and Tarquin to suppress them entirely failed. 
 
 At that date much of the outcast and industrial popula¬ 
 tion of Borne had become well organized and workingmen 
 were, as we shall see, beginning to exercise a powerful 
 political influence. They had been violently attacked by 
 Cicero and other proud aristocrats and nobly and success¬ 
 fully defended by Clodius and a number of other Boman 
 officers of high rank; and a fierce and terrible hatred at¬ 
 tended with clearly discernible political manoeuvres, was 
 growing into an issue on the advent of the Caesars. 
 
 Lord Mackenzie 12 says that “ the earliest legislation 
 deserving of notice was the celebrated code of laws called 
 the Twelve Tables. 0 Yet so far as the treatment of our 
 special subject—that of the strictly laboring people—is 
 concerned, these were but the simple recording of the old 
 rules of Numa Pompilius and of Solon. In our opinion 
 Numa hal borrowed inis notions regarding the organiza¬ 
 tion of the working population mostly from the then 
 existing state of labor organization in Egypt, Asia Minor 
 and Attica. 13 We have repeatedly shown every develop¬ 
 ment among them to have been a traceable growth. 
 Monarchs and lawgivers when clothed with power could 
 arrange these habits of their subjects into words and forms 
 but the people themselves had already been using them 
 from immemorial times. 
 
 Solon, as early as B. C. 580 established laws permitting 
 
 w Roman Law, pp. 5-8. 
 
 18 Gains, XII. Tables explained by Dirksen. Mom. decoll. etc., p. 3!). ' 
 abilis esi hoc loco lex Solouis, ex qua tacia civili&que communia etc. 
 
838 
 
 TRADE ORGANIZATION . 
 
 laboring people to organize; and made it compulsory 
 upon boys to learn a trade. 14 If the father of a family of 
 working people neglected to do this he could not compel 
 his sons to support him in his old age. Both Solon and 
 Numa legalized the organizations of working people and 
 gave them the full right of combination. Lycurgus, on 
 the contrary, 16 as we have seen, wanted no emancipated 
 slaves. He was an upholder of military despotism. All 
 labor being a degraded and disgraceful entailment, must, 
 under the laws of Lycurgus be performed by the abject, 
 groveling slaves. Thus in the Peloponnesus, trade unions 
 got no encouragement whatever, which accounts for the 
 paucity of stone tablets found in lower Greece, bearing 
 inscriptions commemorative of the labor unions. North¬ 
 ern Greece, the islands, Asia Minor and Italy, on the con¬ 
 trary, abound in these suggestive mementos of ancient 
 labor organization, an account of which the historians of 
 those periods have sedulously left barren. 
 
 All this proves that while labor was grudgingly toler¬ 
 ated as a necessary means of life to the gentile classes of 
 both Greece and Borne, it was never recognized by either 
 as respectable or hardly decent; if we except that of agri¬ 
 culture and the nearest it ever came to any recognition 
 was during the wise and happy reign of king Numa Pom- 
 pilius who extended every encouragement to its organi¬ 
 zation and died leaving it a veritably abiding institution 
 as his laws intended. 
 
 He actually took salient and very suggestive steps 
 toward filling up the social gap separating the high-boms 
 from the low-boms of Rome. He instituted that at the 
 Satumalian feasts which occurred every December as a 
 harvest thanksgiving or carnival, all ranks of a social char¬ 
 acter should be forgotten; that figuratively no slave, no 
 social distinction, no arrogance should exist. Thus labor, 
 for a moment each year, was raised up and the social ar¬ 
 rogance of wealth and birth leveled down, to a par with 
 each other. But it must not for a moment be imagined 
 that the working people of either Greece or Rome ever 
 
 51 Pint. Solon; Herodotus, Euterpe, cap. 177, give* os a hint making it prob¬ 
 able that trade unionism existed in Egypt in the timo of Amasis who upheld it: 
 * N6/ao»» Aiyvjrrioicr*. roi'Se 'Afiatrif e<m 6 KarcurTqaar awa&eucvvvat «t«os «*a<rrov 
 rtf vonapxil iravra noa Aiyvirriuv, odev /3couT*r fitf to vouvvra Taira, pr)Se awtxfiai- 
 tvra SiKiLfiv jOiji', iQoi’todat. davariZ. 
 
 14 Fiat. Lycurgos and Numa compared. 
 
THE WRITTEN LAW. 
 
 339 
 
 arose to be considered by the gens, or patrician stock as 
 anything more than plebians who were outcasts by birth, 
 and though often the children of patrician fathers, yet 
 through the ancient religio-political law of primogeniture, 
 or the sacred law of inheritance, were relegated into bond¬ 
 age whence they never escaped except through gradual 
 development by manumissions, and finally through the 
 mighty all-levelling proclamations of Jesus which theoret¬ 
 ically and at last practically overthrew every distinction. 
 
 But we shall more elaborately treat this grand and ex¬ 
 traordinary episode in human development in our sketch 
 of Jesus, from a business-like or secular point of consider¬ 
 ation, as a subject of inquiry into sociological phenomena. 
 
 We now return to Lord Mackenzie’s statement that 
 the decemviral code ”—meaning the Twelve Tables—“ the 
 plebeians gained a considerable step toward the adjust¬ 
 ment of their differences with the patricians, but it was 
 nearly 80 years before these differences were settled by 
 the admission of the plebeians to the supreme offices of 
 the state.” 16 
 
 In the first place, this “ considerable step toward the 
 adjustment of differences” was taken under king Numa, 
 118 years before the Twelve Tables were engraved upon 
 the slabs. In the .second, the very first decemvirs were 
 composed of such tyrannical usurpers and aristocrats as 
 Appius Claudius, who, although they had the laws adjust¬ 
 ing the differences between patricians and plebians en¬ 
 graved upon eleven Tables, yet they prevented the latter 
 from realizing their benefits. Another thing must be con¬ 
 tinually borne in mind, that under the sway of the Pagan 
 or competitive religion, which was the foundation of law 
 and social order, any absolute equality between patricians 
 and plebians was impossible from beginning to end; and 
 no assertion that the adjustment of differences was ever 
 gained by any means can be considered correct. The dif¬ 
 ference between them always remained; but under the 
 gracious adjustment of Numa and of Solon, afterwards 
 inscribed in Latin from a Greek translation, in a formal 
 law upon the Twelve Tables at Rome, the right of organ¬ 
 ization first came to the freedmen, in letters. Nor does 
 this right of organization apply to the slaves, who still 
 
 W Mackenzie, Roman Law, p 7. 
 
S40 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 existed in great numbers. On the contrary we show, ir 
 our sketch of Spartacus and repeatedly elsewhere, that 
 the rapacity of the Roman lords and middlemen finally 
 became so great that they bought up slaves, redoubled 
 their numbers, encroached upon the common farm lands 
 and upon manufactures with cheap slave labor, each own¬ 
 ing great numbers of slaves, 17 and finally under Csesar, 
 succeeded in procuring conspiracy laws which suppressed 
 the trade and many other species of organization, open¬ 
 ing the way by sheer aggravations, for the advent of a 
 completely new order of things in the repudiation of 
 paganism entirely, and the embrace, mostly by these 
 wretched slaves and persecuted freedmen, of a totally new 
 religion which built upon the workingmen’s fundamental 
 principle that all are born free and equal. 
 
 Thus it becomes evident that writers who speak of the 
 three forms of Roman law afterwards known as the leges 
 populi, the plebiscita and the senatus consulti , must, if from 
 a standpoint of social science, be very careful not to count 
 the two-thirds of the entire Roman population, who were 
 abject slaves, 18 enjoying neither freedom, respect, right of 
 resistance or organization whatsoever. 
 
 The great trade organization received their first serious 
 blew through the law which suppressed open work and 
 drove them into secret conclave, counter manoeuvres and 
 diplomacy. We have said that historians carefully avoided 
 any mention of these troubles. This is true; but the labor 
 turmoils open to the students of sociology the true mean¬ 
 ing of certain slurs occurring in the speeches and epistles 
 of Cicero and others, the import of which can be explained 
 in no other way. 19 We must constantly hold uppermost the 
 
 u Crassus owned 500 slaves, see Plut. Crassns, 2. C. CsbIIus Claudius owned 
 according to Pliny, no fewer than 4,116 at a time, . . . quamvis multa civili 
 bello perdidisset, tarnen relinquere servorum quatuor millia centum sedecim.” 
 Nat. Hist. XXXIII. 47. Great numbers of slaves existed in antiquity. See Wal¬ 
 lace, Numbers of Mankind p. 54, sq. Immense population during the slave era, 
 pp. 294-303. Also pp. 91 and 97; Athenteus V. 20. Ancient Census and re¬ 
 marks of Hume, Ancient Populousness declaring that Athenseus does not reckon 
 the children. iEmilius Paulus after the battle of Pydna, B. C. 167, destroyed 
 70 cities of Epirus taking the value of 10,000,000 dollars in gold and 160,000 peo¬ 
 ple as war-slaves to Home and the provinces, Wallace p. 300 and Livy, XLV, c. 
 14. See Seneca, De Tranquilitate, 8; Vast numbers in Crete see Lippincott, 
 Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World art. Crete. They were mostly slaves and freed¬ 
 men; Plato Laws vii. 11. Countless Myriads of Women they call Sauromatides. 
 
 18 Cf. Wallace.IVambcrs of Mankind, p. 61. Liv. lib. 6, cap. 12. 
 
 19 Cicero, Pro Sesto, 25 ; “ Collegia non modo ilia vetera contra SC. restitu- 
 erentiir sed ab uno gladiatore innumerubilia alia nova conscriberentur." Thil 
 
THE ANCIENT COLLEGIUM.\ 
 
 341 
 
 causes of tlie Christian idea skipping southern Greece in 
 its westward course and planting itself at Rome and every¬ 
 where among the already existing communes, with a view 
 of determining a soluticnto this phenomenon in the great 
 social field already prepared there by these organizations. 
 
 King Numa by no means originated the union of the 
 trades at Rome. He simply permitted and encouraged 
 what already existed. We now proceed to give some facts 
 in regard to them. Although the king distributed the 
 working people into eight or nine classes we are not to 
 suppose that there was no greater variety of handicraft in 
 his time. There are still extant slabs and stones found in 
 different places in Italy, notably at Rome and what were 
 ancieut towns and cities south and east of Rome, bearing 
 inscriptions which indicate that large numbers of trades 
 were plied in very ancient times. 
 
 The Collegium a veritable trade union was originally an 
 organization of working people for mutual aid and protec¬ 
 tion. During the 39, or as Plutarch puts it, 43 years of 
 Numa’s reign we hear of no contortion or prevarication 
 of this word from that correct and original sense. But 
 after his death, when the temple of Janus was reopened 
 and wars and their harvests of brutality and repression 
 disturbed the serenity of labor making the mechanics watch¬ 
 ful of their interests, they somewhat changed their out¬ 
 ward appearance but not their character. For instance, 
 a trade union of to-day is often a protective, an insurance 
 and a burial society. So it was then; but amid the tur¬ 
 moils, suspicions and dangers of war it often became 
 convenient, in order to suit appearances to be exclusively 
 religious. The Pagan religion was at that time popular. 
 Each of the great popular, aristocratic families or geiis 
 had a tutelary saint or other object of worship, and it 
 was very convenient for the trade union to dedicate itself 
 to one of these tutelary deities; not only to elicit favor 
 from the great patrons but also because they were them¬ 
 selves religiously inclined. Thus the colleges, although 
 they maintained their practical economic or trade union 
 object of mutual advantage in a business sense, oiten 
 passed for religious institutions; and we have abundant 
 
 fling; was probably hurled at ('Iodine with a bitter reference to Spartacus. 
 sketch of Spartacus, chapter XI 
 
m 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 evidence of this, not in the written histories but in the 
 inscriptions which now begin to exhibit in a new and sig¬ 
 nificant manner, their character and career. 
 
 The ancient collegia or working people’s fraternities in 
 Italy were not confined to the male sex. In later eras of 
 the empire they existed in great numbers as the inscrip¬ 
 tions show. Some of them were composed partly, and a 
 few are known to have been composed entirely of women. 
 
 The learned archaeologist, Johann Casper Orelli, has de¬ 
 voted 89 octavo Latin pages 20 to the enumeration of a col¬ 
 lection of stone inscription-bearing tablets on which in 
 ancient days,’ were engraved the wills of the deceased, the 
 tutelary gods worshipped by the members, sometimes 
 even the manner in w r hicli they came to their death, the 
 degree of conjugal affection in which they had mutually 
 lived together and many other little particulars shedding 
 important and interesting light upon their mode of liv¬ 
 ing n in those ancient days—events left almost totally 
 blank on the pages of history. 
 
 Gruter, another archaeologist of great patience and 
 erudition, has given us an immense collection M of ancient 
 inscriptions, many of which are accompanied by his own 
 readings; thus laying the foundations for simplifying the 
 keys to the study of sociology, and enriching the mind by 
 a knowledge of ancient customs. 
 
 The archaeological works of Raffaello Fabretti have also 
 furnished us a large amount of material, while Theodore 
 Mommsen has applied his usual care and judgment in 
 making clear much of that which otherwise we might have 
 overlooked. 
 
 The collegium funerarium was the burial society. After 
 gathering all the information at our command, we are con¬ 
 strained to conclude that it much resembled the great 
 system of friendly or burial societies of Great Britain at 
 tne present day. They existed in large numbers, especi¬ 
 ally at Rome; and in later times, after the passage of the 
 laws of repression they were mostly exempt, because re- 
 hgious. Of this we shall speak later. 
 
 20 Oreliius, Incriptionum Latinarum Sdtctarum Ampliuima CollecUc, pp. 274 - 
 
 860 of Vol. II. Sepulcralia, 
 
 No 4,352 Oreil. reads: “ Numisin® conjapl caetlsslmw et incomparabill 
 ndfeciiona leinimaj cum qua vlxit aun. XVII., .Mena. XI., D;eb. XVII.” 
 
 22 Gruteriua, Inscription*! Antiques Totius Orbit Rcrmanorut ». 
 
SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 843 
 
 From the prodigious labors of Muratori we also obtain 
 several valuable contributions, 23 especially so on account 
 of examples he gives, of genuine trade unions, inscriptions 
 of which he took from Cis-Alpine Gaul, that were written 
 early in the Christian era. 
 
 Rose, a learned Greek scholar 24 and antiquarian, wrote 
 a work from which we find much evidence in support of 
 our theme, especially regarding the high status in skill of 
 workmen in ancient days; and the splendid work of Guhl 
 and Koner entitled “The Life of the Greeks and Romans,” 
 fortunately well translated into English further intensi¬ 
 fies our wonder at the high perfection to which the labor 
 of antiquity had brought the arts and architecture. 
 
 From the analytical works of August Bdckh, w r e have 
 deduced considerable, proving that the organizations of the 
 proletaries were by no means confined to Italy. 25 If Cicero 
 could say they were “ innumerable in all Italy,” Athe- 
 nagaros might also have said they were equally abundant 
 throughout the peninsula of Greece and the Ionian Isles. 
 The writers we refer to find tablets of stone in all these 
 countries, some of them, excusably enough, engraved with 
 words often wrongly spelled, sometims in words suggest¬ 
 ive of the prevailing lingo, perhaps even slang language 
 which slaves and their descendants, the freedmen, almost 
 always without education, w 7 ould naturally make use of, 
 which is of itself exceedingly interesting, bringing the 
 working people of ancient Rome, Greece and Asia freshly 
 down to us, as it were, in their work clothes, their tools in 
 hand, and their careless vernacular exactly as used in 
 every day life. 
 
 In announcing our remarks on the ancient Sepulcralia 
 or burial societies, we cannot do better than refer to the 
 popular scientific research on the origin of the plebians, 
 by Prof. Fustel de Coulanges. This author, while not ap¬ 
 pearing to understand that they might have been partly 
 derived from the outcasts of the patrician family, rele¬ 
 gated by the paterfamilias into slavery, admits fully as 
 much.” Every student of the facts recognizes that the 
 
 83 Muratoias, Antiquitates Ilalicce, Medii JEvi, 6 vole. Milan, 1,744. 
 
 *' Kose, Insmptiones Grcecce Vetuslissimce 
 
 * s Itockh, Corpus InscripUonvm Grcecarvm , 3 vois Perlin, 1853, folio. 
 
 1 Nous sonimes ponrtant frappede voir dan? Tito-Live, <)ui connaiseait’ lea 
 ▼tellies tr« Itions, que les patricu up n prochaient aux plebeions non pas d etre 
 l*8us des populations vaincues, inais de manquer ue religion et m&me de faxniiie. 
 
344 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 great plebeian class of the ancient population was origin* 
 ally derived from the outcasts of the family and that they 
 were, as a religio-political consequence, without a religion, 
 without a home, without even a recognition or count among 
 the citizen population 27 and without marriage rites. They 
 were consequently all illegitimates. 38 These are stupend¬ 
 ous facts, little understood by people of this day. 
 
 These were great grievances which they had to bear. 
 They built up among themselves a religion of their own, 
 had secret organizations and burial societies which often 
 served as a shield to their trade unions, from the law.” 
 They were regarded by Cicero as wild beasts; 80 and he 
 invariably speaks of the organized proletaries with scath¬ 
 ing contempt. Just after the death of Spartacus, while 
 the senate was endeavoring to pass a law for the suppres¬ 
 sion of labor organizations, Claudius Pulcher, who to 
 “ curry favor with the plebeians,” 81 changed his name to 
 Clodius, and boldly came to the front in defense of the 
 labor unions. In spite of all the efforts of Cicero against 
 him Clodius actually succeeded not only in preventing 
 the passage of restrictive laws against the trade and other 
 organizations, but secured the enactment of several others, 
 greatly favoring the proletaries who had been covertly 
 using their secret burial societies and mutual aid com¬ 
 munes as organizations of resistance. Cicero was greatly 
 
 Or, ce reproche qni 6tait d6ja imm6rit6 an temps de Liclnius Stolon et que les 
 contemporains de Tite-Live, comprenaient i peine, devait remonter & une 6poque 
 trSs ancienne et nous reporte aux premiers temps de la cit6. 5 ’ (Fustel de Cou- 
 langes, Cite Antique , p. 278). 
 
 27 La Cits Antique, p. 322: “ Les homines de la classe inf6rieure form&rent 
 entre eux un corps,” and again p. 278: “Le people comprenait les patriciens et 
 leurs clients; la plebs 6tait en dehor.” 
 
 28 idem, p. 278-9: “O’ etait renoncer a une religion. Ajoutons encore qu« 
 le fils nS d’ un marriage sans rites, etait reput6 b&tard, comme celui qui 6tait n4 
 de Padultere, et la religion domestique n’ existait pas pour eux.” So with the 
 ancients religion and citizenship were one and the same thing. 
 
 29 Mommsen, De Collegiis et Sodalicus Romanorum , p. 4. “ Tanta vero fult 
 sodalitatis religio, ut publicis etiam legibus sodales prohiberentur, quominos 
 earn lsederent.” 
 
 so “ Fera quaedam sodalitas et plane pastoritia atque agrestis Germanorum 
 lupercorum: quorum coitio ilia eylvestris ante est instituta, quam humanitaa 
 atque leges.’* Cicero, Pro Marco Coelio, 11. 
 
 81 See American Encyclopcedle, Article Clodius. Were it not that this article 
 was written in the same spirit of aristocratic bias of patrician history, it would 
 have to be pronounced by the student of sociology as scurrilous. The truth is, 
 Clodius was at heart, a noble, wise and exceedingly able tribune He was one 
 of those in the army of Lucullus, who took part in the suppression of Spartaous. 
 After his overthrow 6,000 of the proletaries were brutally crucified on the Ap- 
 pian way lining that avenue for miles with this horrid spectacle From that time 
 Clodius was the staunch lawyer of organized labor. 
 
CICERO THE WORKINGMAN'S TOE. 
 
 343 
 
 incensed at this. 81 It is clear that Cicero, who was intensely 
 aristocratic, drew down upon him, in his prodigious de¬ 
 fense of the gentes and the correspondingly aggravating 
 raillery against the organized workers, the hatred and re¬ 
 venge of the laboring element of Rome, who, driven to 
 straits, took up the political issue and even took up arms. 
 These studies are exceedingly interesting, inasmuch as 
 they reveal to us that Rome at that time—less than 100 
 years before Christ, was very populous, that much the 
 larger share of her population consisted of the proletaries 
 both slaves and freedmen, and that the freedmen and some 
 of the slaves were organized; and finally that this organi¬ 
 zation, whether in shape of burial or of trade unions, was 
 the cause of political contention, which grew rapidly into 
 vast commotions and a civil duel between the gentiles and 
 the proletaries. Cicero, the mortal foe of the latter, was 
 constantly inveighing a gainst them 88 until his death. In 
 fact, it will be easily shown that the great orator came to 
 his death directly in consequence of his bitter complicity 
 in th ese labor convulsions, always taking sides against’them. 
 
 A curious fact is observed, in looking over Orelli and 
 Grater’s list of inscriptions of the burial societies, show¬ 
 ing that among the poorest the practice of cremation was 
 common. The order had niches or recesses attached to 
 the grounds frequented by them for their meetings; and 
 being too poor, in fact disallowed the noble rite of burial 
 and its attendant family worship, they were obliged to 
 burn the bodies of the deceased and preserve their ashes 
 in pots called ollx cinerarix .“ The poor fellows, having 
 no religion of their own, denied that honor by the privi¬ 
 leged classes who lived upon their labor, and often being 
 
 82 Cic., Pro Sexto We render as follows: ‘-This Clodias has chosen this 
 name instead of Aurelias for his tribunal labors to curry favor with the organ¬ 
 ized slaves -men enlisted from the streets arranged in companies, cheered on by 
 his moral stimulus to arms, to pillage.” 
 
 88 Mommsen says: “ Compluribus locis Cicero invehitur In P. Clodinm resti- 
 tntis, lege sua collegiis ann. 58 ante Christ, nova collegia ordlnantem.” (De 
 Coll, et Sodal. Rom. p 57.) 
 
 84 Rg. Orelli, Inscr. No. 4,358. Scpulcralia , reads: “ D M. M. Herennius a 
 plowman and Herennia Lacena writ en in their son’s own handwriting. The 
 pot coi.taining the ashes stnnds on left side of the monument,” etc., etc. 8o 
 agaiu » alii and Koner, Life of the Greeks and womans, pp. 378-9, figs 401, 
 402 and oibers with descriptions. These represent the celebrated C&mlumbaria 
 Of which Gorius wrote an elaborate work, illustrated with engravings. Fig. 403 
 shows not only the niches in which stand to this day the cinerary urns, but also 
 the urns themselves. One columbarium, the Vigna Codim, has425 such niches in 
 nine rows, n 479. A small marble over each urn gives the name. These are 
 the burial places (see p. 377; of the slaves and freedmen. 
 
346 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 of the same original stock and consequently of religious 
 tendency, were in the habit of borrowing from the ge?is 
 families some tutelary deity in whose name to worship. 
 This, it appears, they had always maintained the right to 
 do. When Christianity came a few years afterwards, with 
 its new and absolutely democratic religion and its mutual 
 co-operation more nearly fitted to their case, they em¬ 
 braced it in great numbers. 
 
 Mommsen mentions some regulations in the laws gov¬ 
 erning the burial societies; among others is one against 
 suicide. 86 It was a law for preventing suicide by appeal¬ 
 ing to their pride in a decent burial; and prohibited any 
 money being taken from the communal fund wherewith 
 to defray the funeral expenses of the suicide. 
 
 After the passage of the conspiracy laws, B. 0. 58, the 
 unions continued to exercise their wonted habits in defi¬ 
 ance of the laws of suppression. Two causes lie at the 
 base of this fact; there were by this time wealthy business 
 men in the organizations who controlled social and polit¬ 
 ical influence, although themselves of plebeian stock. 
 This is one cause. Another is, that the organizations, 
 when they felt the knife of persecution, withdrew them¬ 
 selves from public view and became intensely secret. 
 Where the organizations were for religious purposes they 
 were not suppressed; but there was a special regulation 
 fixing it so that they could simulate, or use religion as a 
 cloak.** It is very unfortunate that the ancient laws of the 
 Twelve Tables were not preserved so as to have come 
 down to us as engraved. They are known to have been 
 placed in the most conspicuous part of the Roman forum. 
 It was the oldest of the three written systems of Roman 
 Law 87 having been established B. C. 452. It is, moreover, 
 now supposed to have been almost identical with the 
 Greek law; the provisions, so far as the labor communes 
 are concerned, being alike for the Greeks and Romans. 
 It appeared to Gaius to be a translation, and seems to have 
 
 *5 Item placnit, qnlsquls ex qnacumque causa mortem sibi adsciverit, q)na 
 ratio funeris non habebitur.” (fie Coll, and Sodal. Rom. p. 100.) 
 
 36 Mommsen Idem, p. 87 ; “Ipsa ilia siinulata religio senatum promovit nt 
 jus coeundi tollerat.” The clause of the law appears to e ce t or exempt those 
 aged associations known to be beyond suspicion : “ Sub prauextn religionis vcl 
 sub specie solveudi voti ccetus iliic tos'nec a veteranis tentari oportet.” (Le * 'i. 
 Dig, dt extr. crim. xlvii, ii. 
 
 < Mackenzie, Roman Laws, p. 5 7 . 
 
BURIAL ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 847 
 
 been the identical law of Solon who is known to have 
 given the free right of organization to the proletaries of 
 Athens,” Oar opinion is that these Tables of laws favor¬ 
 ing the laboring classes, had become so obnoxious to the 
 Roman gentes that they determined to rid the forum of its 
 presence, thus virtually annulling the laws. 
 
 Large numbers of burial associations existed and it is 
 repeatedly acknowledged that they often acted as a shield 
 to the real trade unions under the garb of religion, not¬ 
 withstanding the law. Mommsen describes a burial soci¬ 
 ety at Alburnum in Lucania the notice of which was found 
 inscribed on a libellus with some words spelled wrongly: 
 “ Artimidorus Apollonii, magister collegii Iovis Cernani et 
 Valerius Niconis et Ohas Menofili, qusestores collegii ejus- 
 dem, posito hoc libello publice testantur.” Then follow 
 the laws of the society prescribing the use of the common 
 fund. Mommsen, however remarks: 89 “It is clear that 
 this mutual relief society of Cernanus, although bearing 
 or holding up the name of a god, was nevertheless insti¬ 
 tuted, in order to give the funeral benefit, collected within 
 a certain time and under the law, to the heirs of the de¬ 
 ceased” This means that under the semblance of the 
 burial society, they substantially met as a mutual aid com¬ 
 mune—perhaps a trade organization. Again, aside from 
 the opinion of Mommsen, always reliable, we have Ascon- 
 ius for positive testimony that frequently the sacred soci- 
 ties, of which the burial societies were a part, were sup¬ 
 pressed on suspicion that they were discovered by the 
 police to be engaged in carrying out the business of those 
 trade or other organizations on which the conspiracy law 
 had laid its hand. 49 
 
 ** Cf. Grander, Uistoire des Classes Ouvritoret, p. 325. “ Noug avons fait voir 
 
 <S’ ailleurs que la loi romaine des Douze-T&bles Bur lea corpora;ious contcnait leg 
 luSmes dispositions que la ioi grecque, a ce point qu’ elles out paru a Gaius etre 
 la traduction 1’ une de l’ autre.” The words of Gaius ( vide Digest , lib. XLVII, 
 tit. xxii. leg. 4, will be found quoted in our note 87, page 127, On page 290, 
 note 1, Granier speaks of the intimate relations between Athenian and toman 
 trade unions as follows; “Du reste, si le texte de I'lutarque pouvait laisser 
 quelque doute sur le fait des jurandes at.h6niennes, un fragment de Gaius sur 
 les itouzes Tables, conserve par le Digeste, ditque la loi sur les corps des metiers 
 parait avoir ete empruntee aux lois de Soion sur la meiue matiere; et la dess us 
 Gan s cite le texte meme de la loi de Solon, dans lequel il est statue que lea 
 raembreg des metiers peuvent s eriger eux-memes en corporations en t espectaut 
 les lois de l’fitat.” 
 
 8« Mommsen, De Collegii* et Seddlicila Romanorum, p. 94. 
 
 40 “ Frequenter turn etiarn coetus factiosorum hominum, sine publica aucto* 
 ritate, malo publico flebant ... propter quod postea collegia sancta et pluri> 
 bus legibus, sunt subiata.” (Ascon. in Cornet, p. 7, r > 
 
q 48 
 
 ORGANIZATION . 
 
 By far the most numerous and powerful of the organi¬ 
 zations of proletaries or outcasts among the ancients were 
 the genuine trade unions. 41 Had it not been for the an¬ 
 cient habit, probably established by the lost law of the 
 Twelve Tables, of inscribing 42 more or less of the objects, 
 dates, names of leaders or organizers, and name of the 
 tutelary deity under which they chose to worship—being 
 proscribed from the privilege of worship of their own— 
 we should be altogether without data regarding the vast 
 trade societies which from immemorial times existed in 
 Greece and Rome and in the provinces over which those 
 nations ruled. We have sufficiently explained the causes 
 of this organization. It may be well, however to sum 
 them up in this manner: 
 
 First in ancient times all lands not belonging to the 
 gens estates but achieved by conquest, were common pro¬ 
 perty of the state. The people relied upon the products 
 of these lands for their subsistence. This was true of 
 people of all ranks, whether the haughty gentes or the 
 degraded slaves. Many subsisted upon the fruits of tbe 
 common lands. King Numa, admitting this, was wise 
 enough to,create, or rather recognize an already existing 
 system of trade or business-unions, the special function 
 of which was to till the lands and divide and distribute 
 the products. Nothing could be more sensible and noth¬ 
 ing more practical than to give the soil-tillers their or¬ 
 ganizations under protection of the state—and this means 
 under a species of subvention or common guarantee. It 
 must not be forgotten that by a law of ancient religion 
 there were two distinct classes—workers and non-workers 
 or the privileged and the non-privileged classes. They 
 were so distinct that Dionysius of Halicarnassus declares 
 that the latter were not even counted with the people or enu¬ 
 merated in the census as human beings; a fact which has 
 caused much astonishment to the writers on ancient pop¬ 
 ulousness; some counting them in and some not; thus 
 producing figures so ridiculously at variance and contra¬ 
 dictory that nobody pretends except approximately, even 
 to conjecture what the ancient population was! 4 * 
 
 41 The more numerous slaves are here excepted. 
 
 42 We are, aB yet, without the words of the law rendering it binding npon th« 
 communes to set up and inscribe a marble, or other stone slab. It was probably 
 lost with the Twelve Tables. Also the similar law of Solon. 
 
 43 Of. Wallace on the “Numbeas of Mankind.’* Edmburg, 1753, p. 38 
 
GOVERNMENT OWNED THE LAND. 
 
 349 
 
 Thus for many centuries, the lands of the ancient Rom¬ 
 ans, called ager publicus was common or public property, 
 tilled by the proletaries, many of whom were organized 
 into unions legalized by the arrangements of the Twelve 
 Tables which was merely a literal ratification of the plan 
 of Numa Pompilius, dividing the workers into nine spe¬ 
 cies of craft and allowing each the autonomy of an organ¬ 
 ization. This shifted from the shoulders of the state or 
 land-owner the care and responsibility of cultivation, while 
 it elevated the proletaries to the practical dignity of that 
 work. It was not the plan of small holdings by isolated 
 families but of small holdings by isolated communes, 
 which in turn, were amenable to, and under the general 
 direction of the state, or common proprietor. 
 
 It cannot be said that this really great and wise system 
 ever attained to a wide extent. The idea seems to have 
 been clear to the workingmen and they carried it into force 
 to some extent, but were always met with fierce opposition. 
 The manner in which the state obtained its share of the 
 proceeds or usufruct of these lands was by the Vec - 
 tigalarii, the celebrated union of tax collectors who, in¬ 
 stead of using money, took the tax “ in kind; ’’ which 
 means that they went to the farmers, agricolas , after the 
 harvests and with wagons, brought to the Municipium or 
 town in whichever district they were stationed, the share 
 of the proceeds of the common land due the city people 
 —grain, wool, fruits, pease, beans and whatever the land 
 produced. The grain thus collected was turned over to 
 the organization of the united pistorea or millers, to be 
 ground; thence to the united bakers, panifices to be made 
 mtfo bread. So with regard to everything. The almost 
 phenomenal simplicity and universality of this great plan 
 of the ancients is accounted for only by the fact that there 
 were two classes so widely separated that the very toutch 
 of a proletary was supposed to pollute. In consequence 
 of this wide distinction the merchant, who was also a work¬ 
 ingman, could not become a monopolist because he was 
 obliged to be a unionist which naturally recognized him 
 at a par with his peers. This was a direct result of the 
 crude communism which legalized trade unionism had 
 
 “ Slaves who were of so little account under the ancient governments.”—“Free 
 citizens who alone had a voice in the public councils.” 
 
360 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 created and upheld for many centimes not only at Rome 
 but all over Italy and in many parts of Greece. 
 
 Very gradually however, some merchants succeeded in 
 becoming rich/ 4 On the other hand, as we prove in our 
 sketch of Spartacus, the older slave system which still 
 continued under the law of Lycurgus in Sparta, un¬ 
 derwent a revival in Italy. By the plan of Niima Pompil- 
 ious, which was the true ancient trade union system, there 
 was no way for an aristocrat to conduct business of 
 any kind without polluting himself by contract with the 
 proletaries. He could, by owning the slaves, job them to 
 managers of genius, themselves of the laboring class, some 
 to a boss farmer, some to a miller, some to a wagoner, some 
 to a manufacturer, and thus, without himself touching his 
 own property, gratify his desire of profit, indirectly, 
 through the labor of his slaves. We are told that Craa- 
 sus bought up as great a number as 500 slaves at a time; 
 that Nicias owned 1,000; that Claudius owned as many as 
 4,116 and Athens owned and hired out no less than 100- 
 000 slaves! 46 But these things did not occur in Italy until 
 the decline through Roman lr istility, of the seven centur¬ 
 ies of trade unionism, which began in high antiquity, and 
 which had been acknowledged and incorporated as an in¬ 
 dustrial system of the state under Numa, nearly 700 years 
 before Christ and did not give up its foothold without one 
 of the most terrible and protected agrarian and servile 
 struggles recorded or unrecorded in the vicissitudes of 
 the world. Nor must the remark be forgotten that dur¬ 
 ing all the centuries through which this trade unionism 
 existed the golden era of prosperity and general happiness 
 was at its highest so far as labor was concerned. 
 
 But this prosperity and happiness will be better under¬ 
 stood as we enumerate, one by one, the links of trada 
 unions which formed the great chain of industrial weaL 
 While we are doing this it may be well to keep constantly 
 in mind the suggestion, together with its proofs, that la¬ 
 bor organization for protection, co-operation, resistance 
 and mutual improvement is always the best standard by 
 
 44 Consult Drnmann, A r belter und Communistm m Oruchenland und »*. 
 31: “ Es verminderte die geringscbammg nicht mit welcher mar* euf die Arbeit*! 
 sah, dass mehrere beriihmte Manner do rch ibre lie bur; Oder dare* lire tr&toro 
 Beschaftigung diesein Stande an^ehorten.” 
 
 For these statistics, see Bucher, S. 35-0. Sch&cite&cfe, ita&edU 
 au/stcuid , S. 1-3. Siefert, Sicilitdic SklavcnkrieQc, S. 10-15- 
 
THE “ OTHER SIDE*' 
 
 36 ] 
 
 which to measure the intensity of true civilization. When 
 the law forbidding these organizations struck the prole¬ 
 taries, one-half a century before Christ, their decline be¬ 
 gan ; and this decline was a powerful cause of the fall of 
 the Roman empire. 
 
 The old system of abject slavery pre-existing in the 
 higher antiquity, gradually reappeared with the great 
 Roman Conquests and usurped the foundations of the 
 happier unions with its malignant concomitants of de¬ 
 graded labor under the lash of an overseer on the one 
 hand, and with its millionare politicians, schemers and 
 voluptuaries on the other. Corruption followed. Hope 
 fled with liberty. Thrift disintegrated into pestilential 
 reservoirs of vice. Rome fell into a mass of corruption. 
 
 It is not at all strange, nor to be wondered at that the 
 poor who constituted the laboring class, should keenly 
 feel their degrading exclusion from the Eleusinian Mys¬ 
 teries. Nor is it at all to be wondered at if we find Plu¬ 
 tarch reciting to us his account of what must have been 
 a gigantic uprising of these people 1,180 years before 
 Christ, under Menestheus, as under Aristonicus in Asia 
 Minor, 1,047 years afterward they rose against similar so¬ 
 cial degradations. Heaven to those poor people was a 
 boon much nearer and more visible than at the present 
 day. They imagined the earth to be flat. On this side 
 all were mortal; on the other immortal. Some of the im¬ 
 mortal happy had power to come from the other side to 
 this. Here from Mount Olympus they assumed charge of 
 the welfare of mortals. Many believed the flat earth so 
 thin that rivers meandered from one to the other. Be¬ 
 tween the two surfaces there were surging floods of hor¬ 
 rid smoke and steaming, lurid waters or pits of fiery as- 
 phaltum for the wicked, as well as bright, purling streams 
 sparkling and cool for the just, leaving the banks and 
 plains that were covered with verdure and peopled with 
 enchanting birds and game. 
 
 Let the mover of the modern labor agitation who treats 
 with scorn the author who mixes religion with a history 
 of the ancient, reconsider. He must go back to them as 
 they really were, poor down-trodden, superstitious, cred¬ 
 ulous and ignorant of facts while misled by priests. They 
 believed heaven was so near by lineal measure that they 
 
352 
 
 ORGANIZATION .. 
 
 often imagined they cm 11 hear the melodious voices of the 
 blessed on the other sides; yet while they had nothing on 
 this side to live for and their grasping imagination over¬ 
 heard and dwelt upon a future world beyond this “vale 
 of tears,” they found themselve shut out from all hope. The 
 workman in the modern field of labor agitation certainly 
 has but a gloomy foretaste in anything further than his 
 future natural life. His predecessors have gone before 
 with the axe and sickle of reason and past experience, 
 tools of the thus intellectual pioneer. Their incomput¬ 
 able toil has, with investigation and experiment, with re¬ 
 peated millions of practical works, cleared away the mythic 
 film of priestcraft and superstitious belief. The earth 
 is now a globe. The miner knows this; for the deeper he 
 descends the more unendurable the heat. Who wants now 
 to descend to heaven ? Who wishes to go to the other 
 side, to China—a race groveling, mortal and inferior, rather 
 than that of the ancients, beautiful seraphic, melodious, 
 immortal. Who now wants to visit the ouranus of old 
 Plato in the vaulted dome of heaven ? Who wants to rise 
 when everybody knows that instead of a region of the im¬ 
 mortal happy the farther one mounts the more uninhabit¬ 
 able, more frigid more stifling the ethers of space ? La¬ 
 bor’s own skillful hand has caused all this metamorphosis 
 in the human mind and forced it and is still forcing it out 
 of its ignorant soarings and credence-ravings down to a 
 cognizance of the earthly things that are. 
 
 No, we must picture the life of the ancient lowly as it 
 really was in all its cushioned imagination, in all its yearn¬ 
 ings to get there by the beautiful river, its green carpets 
 on the other side where the wicked ceased from troubling 
 and the weary were at rest; and those otherwise incom¬ 
 prehensible, religio-practical associations can be under¬ 
 stood and their full function appreciated only by our 
 throwing off our own prejudice and contemplating them 
 as they really were. This we propose to do. 
 
INSCRIPTION AT LANUV1VM. 
 
 353 
 
 L- CEIONIO. COMMODO. SEX. 
 VETULENO. CIVICA. POMPE- 
 IANO. COS. A. D. V. IDUS. IUN. 
 
 Lanuvi in Municipio in Templo Antinoi in Quo L. Caesennius Rufus 
 
 tn the temple of Antince, city of Lavinia, where L. Csesennius RufuB 
 
 Diet. III. et patronus Municipi conventum haberi jusserat 
 
 spokesman and guardian of the town, ordered an association formed, through 
 
 £ er. L. Porapeium 
 
 i. Pompey 
 
 F.am. QQ. Cultorom Dianae,et Antinoi, Pol¬ 
 and F .under tutelary eare of Diana and Antinoe, promising to con* 
 
 licitus est se 
 
 tribute towards it 
 
 in annum daturum eis ex liberalitate sua Hs. Xv. M. N. usum 
 
 ont of his pnrse within a given year a sum of ffiOO for use of the union. 
 
 Die natalis Dianae Idib. Aug. Hs. COCO. N. et die natalis An- 
 
 On Diana’s birthday, the Ida of August, and birthday of Antinoe, $16 more. 
 
 tinoi V. K. 
 
 Decemb. Hs. OCCC. N. Et praecepit legem ab ipais con- 
 
 In the month of December^ flft. He also prescribes a law regulating the 
 
 stitutam sub tetra- 
 
 the union which is 
 
 stilo Antinoi parte interiori perscribi in verba infra soripta. 
 
 written on the inside of the 4 columned pillar in words as recorded beam: 
 
 M. Antonio Hibero P. Mummio Sisenna Cos. X. Ian. Collegium 
 
 During the consulship of M. Antonias Hiberas and P. Mummint the 
 
 Salutare Dianae 
 
 Et Antinoi constitutum, L. Caesennio L. F. Quir. 
 
 mutual benefit society of Diana and Antinm was organised bar 
 
 Rufo Diet III. IDEMQ. PATR. 
 
 L. Ceesennius Rufus, its recognised patron. 
 
 KAPUT- EX. S. C. P.R. 
 
 Designation. Written by order of the Prefect. 
 
 Qnibns coire convenire collegiumqne hebere liceat. Qui stipem 
 
 It is permitted that all wishing to organise themselves, may do so. 
 
 menstruam conferre volent in Funera II in collegium coeant neq. 
 
 Any one desiring to pay monthly dues of 8 cents to the Funeral fund may 
 
 snb specie eius collegi nisi semel inmense coeant conferendi causa, 
 
 attend the meetings twice a month if the objects of such meetings be th« 
 
354 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 unde defunct! sepeliantur 
 
 burying of the dead. 
 
 Quod faustum felix salutareq. sit imp. Caesari Traiano Hadriano 
 
 Whatsoever is favorable, happy and healthful for the emperors, Trojan, Adrian 
 
 Aug. totiusqne 
 
 and the whole house of the Caesars, 
 
 domus August nostris eollegioq. nostro; et bene adque in¬ 
 will also be good for us and our society; and we should perform well and 
 
 dustrie contraxerimus, nt 
 
 industriously our duty that we may 
 
 exitus eoruir. honeste prosequamur. Itaq. bene conferendo 
 
 honestly reach the end. So ought we universally to agree, that we may 
 
 universi consentire 
 
 grow old in union. 
 
 debemus, ut longo tempore inveterescere possimus. 
 
 Tuqui novos in boo collogio intrare voles, prius legem perlegeeteic 
 
 O thou who wouldst bring initiates into this union, read well these rules, that 
 
 intra, ne postmodum queraris aut controversiam relinquas. 
 
 thouleavest no controversy with thy heirs! 
 
 LEX COLLEGE 
 
 Law of the Union. 
 
 Placuit universis, ut quisquis in hoc collegium intrare voluerit, 
 
 Be it ordered in presence of all men: That whosoever may desire to Join this 
 
 dabit kapitulari nomine. 
 
 union shall give to the Secretary-Treasurer 
 
 HS. C. X. et vini boni amphoram; item in menses sing. A. 
 his address, an initiation fee of $4, and a flagon of good vine; ana like 
 
 V. Item placuit, ut quisquis mensib. 
 
 wise 4 cents monthly dues. It lb ordered that 
 
 contin enter non pariaverit et ei humanitus accident, eius ra 
 
 whoever fails to settle dues continuously for months, remaining a member 
 
 t.io funeris non habebitur, 
 
 by graca, will not have the right of burial, even 
 
 etiam si testamentum factum habuerit. 
 
 though he may have willed to the association his property. 
 
 'tern placuit quisquis ex hoc corpore N. pariatus eum decesserit 
 
 Be it ordered that whoever dies, not in arrears to the order let his $4, be ro- 
 
 sequentur ex area HS. CCCC. N. ex qua summa decedent 
 
 turned from the treasury as expenses of burial. 
 
 exequiari nomine HS. I. N. qui ad Rogus dividentur. Exe- 
 
 One sesterce shall be divided at the funeral pile. But the ceremony must 
 
 qmae autom pedihus fungentur. 
 
 be performed on foot. 
 
INSCRIPTION AT LANUVIUM. 
 
 855 
 
 Item placuit, quisquis a munioipio ultra miliar. XX. decesserit 
 
 Be it ordered, that whenever a member dies at a distance of 20 miles from the 
 
 et nuntiatum fuerit, eo exire debebunt elec Li ex corpore N. 
 
 city, it shall be reported, a permit taken and 3, elected from among the 
 
 homines tres, qui funeris ejus curam agant et rationem po- 
 
 members, be sent to see to it. Should it be found that there was any de- 
 
 pnlo reddere debebunt, sine dolo malo. Si quit in eis fraudis 
 ception, then as much as four-fold the amount shall be exacted as a fine. 
 
 Causa, inventum fuerit, eis multa esto qnadruplum. 
 
 by reason of such injustice. 
 
 Quibus sing, minimus dabitur; hoc amplius viatici nomine citro 
 
 Those to whom money is given, are to receive it as follows: If it be more 
 
 sing. HS. XX. N. quod longius quam intra mill. XX. de- 
 than the 20 miles, the sum shall be for each, 20 sesterces. But if tbe 
 
 cesserit et nuntiari non potuerit, turn is qui eum funeraverit 
 member dies at a greater di>tanc j than 20 miles, and it cannot be an- 
 
 testato tabulis signati sigillis civium Romanorum ¥11. et 
 
 nounced, then whoever attends to the funeral must send an account, 
 
 probata causa, funeraticium ejus; satio dato ab eis nemenem 
 
 signed and bearing the seal of 7 Roman citizens; and when the case 
 
 petiturum, deduct is commodis et exequiano, e lege collegh 
 has been proved, and the funeral expenses found reasonable, no one 
 
 dari sibi petat. 
 
 objecting, hn pay shall be disbursed from the treasury if he asks Vt. 
 
 A nostro collegio dolus malus abesto neque patrono neque patro- 
 
 Let there bo nocraftiness in our union. Neither patron nor patroness mag* 
 
 nae, neque domino neque dominie neque creditor! ex hoc col¬ 
 
 ter nor mistress, nor even ciedi tor, shall make any demand, account 
 
 legio ulla petitio esto nisi qui testamento heres nominatus est. 
 
 or claim whatever, or anybody else, except him who is elected heir. 
 
 Si quis intestatus deeesserit, is, arbitrio quinq. et populi funerab 
 
 If any one die without children, five sesterces shall be given & all attend. 
 
 Item placuit, quisquis ex hoc collegio servus defunctus fuerit, et 
 Be it ordered that whoever dies a member, being a slave, and his body io 
 
 corpus ejus a domino dominave inquietate sepulturae datum 
 
 unwillingly given up for sepulture by master or mistress who will not 
 
 non fuerit neque tabella, ei funus imaginarium fiet. 
 permit a registration, an imaginary funeral shall beheld. 
 
 Item nlacuit, quisquis ex quacumque causa mortem sibi adsciverit, 
 
 Be it ordered that whoever commits suicide from any cause, for this reason 
 
 ejus ratio funeris non habebitur. 
 
 no uneral can be held. 
 
350 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Item placait, ut quisqnis Fcrvus ex hoc oollegio liber factus fneril 
 Be it ordereo that whatever slave is set free by this union, he shall contrib- 
 
 / is dare debebit vini boni amphoram. 
 ute a flagon of good wine. 
 
 Item placuit, quisqnis macrister suo anno erit ex ordine fllbi ad 
 It is ordered that whatever manager who during his year, shall not attend the 
 
 csenam faciendam, etnon observaverifc neque fecerit, is arose 
 ceremony nor observe, nor perform functions, shall pay a fine of 80 gee- 
 
 inferet HS. XXX. N. et insequens ejus dare debebit et ia 
 terces Into the treasury and the place shall be forfeited to his atv> 
 
 ejns loco restituere debebit. 
 cessor. 
 
 ORDO CENARUM VIII. ID MAR. 
 
 Order of the feasts, on the 8th., Ides of March : 
 
 NATALI CgESENNI.PATRIS Y. K DEO. 
 
 NAT. ANTONOI IDIB. AUG NATALI DIANNE ET OOL- 
 
 LEGII XIII. K. SEPT. JAN. NATALI L. 0A5SENNJ 
 EUEI PATE. MUNIO. 
 
 Masristri cffinarum ox ordine albi facta quo ordine homines qua- 
 The managers of the feasts established by the order, will place the men, 4 at a 
 
 terni ponere debebunt: vini boni amphoras singulas, et 
 time, in their order: each contributing a flask of good wine and a loaf of 
 
 pane? A. Ii qui numerus collegi fuerit et sardas numero 
 best broad, and each, four pickled sardines eervod hot In proper 
 
 quatuor strationem ealdam cum ministerio. 
 dishes. 
 
INSCRIPTION AT LANUVIUM. 
 
 357 
 
 [tem placuit, ut quisquis quinquennalis in hoc collegio factus 
 
 fuerit, a sigillis eius temporis, quo quinquennalis erit, irn- 
 munis esse debebit, et ei ex omnibus divisonibus partes 
 duplas dari. Item seribae et viatori a sigillis vacantibus par¬ 
 tes ex omni divisione sesquiplas dari placuit 
 
 Item placuit, ut quisquis quinquennalitatem gesserit integre, et 
 
 ob honorem partes sesquiplas ex omni re dari, ut et reliqui 
 recte faciendo idem sperent. 
 
 Item placuit, si quis quid queri aut referre volet, in conventu re- 
 ferant, ut quieti et hilares diebus sollemnibus epulemnr. 
 
 Item placuit, ut quisquis seditionis causa de loco in alium locum 
 transient, ei multa esto HS. I III. N. Si quis autem in ob- 
 probrium alteralterius dixerit, aut tumultuatus fuerit, ei 
 multa esto HS. N. Si quis quinquennali inter epulas obpro- 
 briurn aut quid contumeliose dixerit, ei multa esto HS. XX. 
 N. 
 
 Item placuit, ut quinquennalis sui cuiusque temporis diebus sol¬ 
 lemnibus ture et vino supplicet et ceteris officiis albatus 
 fungatur, et diebus natalium Dianae et Antinoi oleum col- 
 
 legio in balineo publico ponat antequam epulentur. 
 
 The remarkable features of this college are that under 
 
 the guise of piety, and of being a burial and mutual bene¬ 
 fit society, it was used to emancipate slaves. That it was 
 
358 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 
 
 sas^rjo -ip. 
 
 FiMAHCUS • ANTONI LJ a. 
 
 lsho wingvtheir= <5wm 
 
 & trade or labor anion is shown by its being devoted to 
 securing good places to work. 
 
 Everywhere the severity of the law is apparent. Rome 
 had a mortal fear of labor riot3 and uprisings and hence the 
 many fines which stood as a coustant menace, acting as a 
 check against insubordination. It was difficult to obtain a 
 privilege or charter to organize one of these labor unions, 
 and consequently where they possessed one, it was prized 
 as a gem of great value; which may account for their great 
 age, found in some cases to have been four or five hundred 
 years. 
 
 The love of the Latin race for pleasures is observable all 
 through. They used this great union or commune for that 
 purpose ; but they are seen in these rules and regulations, 
 to have held uppermost a peculiar system of culture tend¬ 
 ing toward ultimate emancipation from the lowly and re¬ 
 stricted condition in which they were held by the law and 
 the police. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE CATEGORIES. 
 
 THE GREAT ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 Ancient Fedeeations of Labor — How they were Employed by 
 the Government—Nomenclature of the Brotherhoods—Cat¬ 
 egories of King Numa—Varieties and Ramifications—The 
 Masons, Stonecutters and Bricklayers—Federation for Mu¬ 
 tual Advantages—List of the 35 Trade Unions, under the 
 Jus Coeundi. 
 
 Ntjma Pompilius, the first king after Romulus, reoog 
 nized trade unions even before Solon of Athens, who fol¬ 
 lowed rather than led in this scheme as a measure of po¬ 
 litical economy. 1 They had, however, already existed, per¬ 
 haps thousands of years before receiving any recognition 
 at all. One of the first of importance legalized by these 
 lawgivers was the fraternity of builders. 
 
 They were called in Greek, the technical and in Latin 
 tignarii. It is evident from Plutarch, that he intended 
 this word to include also the mason. 2 If, however, all the 
 building trades were organized into one body or union, 
 they were verv different from trade unions of our day. 
 Besides, had Plutarch intended to convey the idea that 
 all the building trades were united into one under Numa 
 he would, it seems to us, have used the still morti compre¬ 
 hensive Greek term technites which expresses it. Again 
 its Latin synonym found by Mommsen, proves that Numa’a 
 
 1 Plutarch, Numal. Numa followed Romulus to the throne, about 690 years 
 before Christ Plutarch's surest ion that he might have personally known Py- 
 thagorus and that he had been brought up among the Pythagorean Greek settle¬ 
 ments of Italy which were coinmunL-tical in character looks exceedingly plausi 
 ble. 
 
 - See Wm. Laughorne’s tr. of Plutarch, in Numa. 
 
3G0 
 
 ANCIENT FEDERATION OF LABOR . 
 
 union was that of workers in metal and wood.* In those 
 times the mountains back of Rome produced dense for¬ 
 ests, which were not swept away by machinery with the 
 rapidity of modeijn art. The people, on account of wars, 
 want of medical science, comparative abstinence from 
 marriage, dissoluteness of the rich, hardships of the poor, 
 did not multiply rapidly. In consequence the forests pro¬ 
 duced new trees as fast as they were cut away by the 
 workmen. Rome was mostly built of wooden houses; and 
 no doubt there was an abundance of work for the carpen¬ 
 ters. All the great public buildings were constructed by 
 trade unions for the state, direct—that is, with contract¬ 
 ors or middlemen, and the carpenters’ union used to take 
 charge of the woodwork. The Ager public us 4 had to be 
 furnished with houses for the Gentry. Honorary seats 
 were made by these fabri tignariorum, such as the splendid 
 bisellia 8 or cushions of the gods. The fine villas of wealthy 
 gentlemen 8 who had a custom of turning public moneys 
 and lands to their own account were work of their art. 
 In fact this was common from the highest antiquity before 
 the division of the gentes into curse and 'tribes. Thus 
 it was not considered a breach of political rule to divert 
 the public funds, to a certain extent, to the building or re¬ 
 pairing of their own fine residences; And this work was 
 performed by the builders’ unions. 
 
 There were two names under which the wood-workers 
 of the building trades were known. These were the 
 dendrophori, mentioned in the code of Theodosius 7 as 
 
 8 Mommsen, De Collegiis et Sodaliciit Romanorwn, pp. 29 80, “Inter classes 
 nrimam et seenndam interject® erant centuria fabrum tignariorum et centurla 
 fabrum torariorum, sive, ut Dionysium (VII. 59) seqnamnr: Svo \6\oi. re *rorotv 
 
 K*i xa\KOTVTTu>i> Ka 1 ocroi aAAot noKepuicinv epytav J]aav \eipoTeyva i. 
 
 4 We prefer to use this Latin term because it saves explanatory words neces¬ 
 sary to qualify the meaning of the English word “land.” It means common 
 lands belonging to the government, on which the workingmen had no claim as 
 citizens. The propensity of the Roman building trades to organize in protec¬ 
 tive societ'es is richly illustrate! in an article written by Mr. Rogers ana form¬ 
 ing a chapter in a large work on labor edited by Mr. Geo. E. McNeill, Boat. 1887, 
 entitled • The Building Trades,'” Mr. Rogers, (pp. 335 -7), shows that this pro¬ 
 clivity of the ancient Romans for organizing into communes was never lost even 
 in far oil Kent, sticking to the English people to this day, furnishes a formid¬ 
 able argument against the assumption that the Saxon Role absolutely superseded 
 that of the earlier inhabitants. 
 
 5 Fabretti Inscriptiones Antiques ExpUccMc, p. 170, 824. p. 227, 604. Grot- 
 675,3. Also Orel!, No. 4,055. 
 
 e Our own word “gentleman ” is directly derived from the Latin word g*na, 
 or high and respectable family. If we call the human race an 4 Order,” the gentes 
 
 may be considered a “ genus.” 
 
 T Codex Theodosii, 14, 8 Also Orell, IncrlpUcnes Latinarum CoUectio, Nos. 
 
TRADE UNIONS SUPPRESSED. 
 
 U\ 
 
 veritable trade unions, and the tignarii who were the true 
 carpenters and joiners. As we construe the signification 
 of these two terms from the stone monuments and slabs 
 on which they are found engraved and not as found in the 
 dictionaries, we conclude that the dendrophori must have 
 been the heavy lumbermen and framers. They cut and 
 hewed the heavy timbers both for buildings and ships; 
 while the tignarii did the lighter work. One thing is cer¬ 
 tain ; they both occur together in many of the inscriptions.' 
 This class of trade unions was considered necessary to the 
 welfare of the state; and was exempted from being sup¬ 
 pressed when, in B. C. 58, the conspiracy laws were put 
 in operation by Csesar; although so much suspicion rested 
 upon them that they were watched with a jealous eye by 
 the officers of the law and as appears, much of their former 
 vitality was crushed out. They had existed from the time 
 of Numa in Rome, and of Solon at Athens, in full strength 
 and vigor. At the time of their suppression by restrictive 
 laws nearly all the Grecian territory, especially that of At¬ 
 tica, including Athens, the Piraeus, Eleusis and all the pop¬ 
 ulous towns where they are known to have existed in great 
 numbers, belonged to Rome, then mistress of the world. 
 
 It must have been a very strange experience for a great 
 people to undergo. Here was a system of manufacture 
 and repairs of immemorable age, authorized by the most 
 highly esteemed lawgivers, one of whom was one of the 
 seven wise men of Greece. It had been known by the 
 chronicles for fully 600 years, and, though it performed 
 duties which by the haughty and foolish were considered 
 degrading, and upon which there rested a taint, yet it was 
 an important institution, taking charge of indispensable 
 affairs of public as well as of private life. All at once it 
 was suppressed. That the result was a dangerous con¬ 
 vulsion cannot be wondered at. 
 
 Gruter cites a college of dendrophori 9 who used to build 
 
 8,741, 4,082, 8,349, 7,330, 7,145, 3,888, 5,118,4,055, 0,037, 7018, 7,018, 0,031, 
 6,073, 0,590, 911, 4,109, 7,194, 7,197, 4,069, Each of these 19 number#, repre¬ 
 sents a collegium or trade union of wood-workers The inscriptions were found 
 In as many places nearly as there are numbers. 
 
 s Orell. 4,084, “Collegium Fabrorum Navalium.Tune e*lp*a con- 
 
 ditione fabr. Tig. Pisaurensium.” Pisaurnm was an Umbrian town at the tnoatlj 
 of the navigable Pisaurus, Inscr. 4,160 Faber Tignariorum and Coll. Dendru- 
 phorum are nored together. 
 
 a Gruterius, Inscrlption.es Antigua Totius Orbis liomanorum, 175, & 
 
562 CATEGORIES OF TRADE FEDERATIONS. 
 
 houses and ships or boats for the society of freight boat¬ 
 men located at Rome. He also gives one which Orelli 
 quotes, taken on a stone slab in times as late as J ustinian. 10 
 The word epulantur conveying the idea of entertainment, 
 shows that these schools of the workingmen sometimes 
 used their organization as a means of mutual enjoyment. 
 Especially was this the case among the Greek fraternities 
 which we describe in their place. After the great strug¬ 
 gle with Spartacus, the right of organization was severely 
 restricted by the Roman law; and it became necessary 
 for the uni ms, in order to exist at all, to assume two forms 
 oi dissimulation by which to parry the attacks of enemies 
 who had recourse to these conspiracy laws in order to 
 gratify their whims of revenge, or to fortify their own 
 schemes of making money through the cheap labor of the 
 slave system which Rome in the later days had revived, 
 and which such enemies of organized labor as Cicero or 
 Crassus, were pushing with an almost fierce determination, 
 on pretense of restoring the ancient purity of religion, 
 family and vested rights. We have noted that certain 
 kinds of organizations were permitted. 11 Among these 
 were collegia sancta, or those unions and fraternities given 
 to holy or pious purposes. So some of these were shrewd 
 enough to combine business with holiness and thus shield 
 themselves from their pursuers. 12 Mommsen speaks of 
 them in clearest terms which leave no doubt whatever re¬ 
 garding the mysterious procedure 13 of those old Roman 
 lawyers who were determined to suppress the trade unions, 
 root and branch, in order to reinstitute slavery, the most 
 ancient form of labor known to their religion, which had 
 
 10 We quote the Latin as given by Orell., No. 4,088. “ Ex S. C. Schola Aug. 
 Collegii Fabrorum Tignariorum impendiis ipsorum ab inckoato exstructo, solo 
 dato ab T. Fnrio pritnogeuio qui et dsd'C. ejus US. X. N. ded. ex cujns summ. 
 redit, omnibus annis X. 1. iv. August die uatalis sui, epulautur.” Gruter, 169, 0 
 
 11 DiOU. XXXVIII. 13, Antiquitates, says: “ Ta eraifjiKa . oi/Ta /Aev 
 
 rov apx.a.Lov /cara.Audej'Ta Se \Pbvov ru'd.” Asconius 1. C. Comrnent, says: “Col¬ 
 legia sunt sublata printer pauca atquc ceria ou® utilitas civitatis desiderassit 
 qum sint fabrorum fictorumque.’’ These saved were Pagan image makers who 
 wrought ihe religious devices, q. v. 
 
 ™ Couiulures autem ob finei ejusmodi instituebantur collegia: religionis ante 
 omnia causa , ut, qui idem vitae genus essent amplexi, iisdem quoque sacris uter- 
 uuter.” etc., etc. Oreil. VII. p, 244- Imci\ Latin Collectio. 
 
 18 Mommsen. De Coll, et Sodal. Rom., pp. 87-88, says: “Ipsa ilia simulata 
 (referring to lex. 3, Digest, de extr. crim. XLVII, 11.) religio senatum piomovit 
 tu jus coeuudi tolleret Explicanda sunt ilia verba de coitionibus in templis ad 
 rein dtvinam faciendum, quae etsi neutiquam contra SOtum erant, facile tamen 
 in I'raudeai SCti usurpari poterant ’ 
 
CONFLICT AGAINST CHEAP LABOR. 363 
 
 founded their patrimony, their law of entailment through 
 primogeniture and their system of grandees and of slaves. 
 Numa and Solon had been these fellows’ enemies; Lycur- 
 gus their friend. Trade unionism the child of wills and 
 manumissions, had first come among them, a spontaneous 
 growth. It cradled and matured human sympathy. It 
 had proved itself innocent, enterprising and good. It had 
 succeeded in becoming legalized by those two powerful 
 princes—a mighty stride. But it had, as the gens families 
 fancied, usurped the ancient and holy system of slavery 
 and thus interfered—by substituting communism—with 
 their vested individual rights. 14 On account, probably, of 
 their superstition, Cicero, Caesar and the rest, after they 
 had put down Clodius the intrepid orator and tribune who 
 had restored the old and created new, 16 excepted such of 
 the carpenters and joiners or cabinet-makers’ unions as 
 confined their labor to manufacturing all sorts of wooden 
 idols, which in those days, were sometimes very large, and 
 built for the temples, the fanes and the family altars. It 
 it also quite likely that a few unions devoted to the car¬ 
 penter work on the temples and the aedes sanctae , were 
 saved. But we ascend from these cruel days of moribund 
 Rome to an earlier and brighter age. 
 
 14 We have repeatedly mentioned the impossibility, among the Indo-Euro • 
 pean Greeks and Italians, of there ever having existed in those peninsulas a com¬ 
 munistic, or even patriarchal form of government. The bent of labor communes 
 was towards it but they never succeeded in breaking down the power of the com¬ 
 petitive system : and it rules to this day. The oldest records of any kind shedding 
 light, confirm the idea that originally the despotic form of government prevailed; 
 the father paterfamilies as king, whh his sons and daughters and others as slaves 
 around his fixed abiding place, must have been the primitive government behind 
 which there is neither record nor philosophy—no philosophy without overturn¬ 
 ing the theory of development. IVtan has grown into refinement through reason 
 and experience and it is altogether inconsistent with reason to suppose that he 
 ever tried so high a form of government as the communistic one, or that he ever 
 had in those times other than selfish, cruel, beast-government in which all re¬ 
 search into antiquity finds him. Mommsen, History of Rome, Vol I, p. 44. in cor¬ 
 roboration says : “ Hut there can be no doubt that, with the Graeco-Italians as 
 with all other nations, agriculture became, and in the mind of the people re¬ 
 mained the germ and core of their national and of their private life, The house 
 and the fixed hearth, which the husbandman constructs instead of the lipht hut 
 and shifting fireplace of the shepherd and represented in the spiritual domain 
 and idealized in the goddess Vesta or 'E aria, almost the only divinity not indo- 
 Germauic yet from the first common to both nations.” So again (p. 48). “ 'J he 
 Hellenic character, which sacrificed the whole to its individual elements, the 
 nation to the township and the township to the citizen.” This exactly expressee 
 our idea, viz; that everything from the first, was subordinate to the unlimited, 
 despotic control of the “father.” For valuable information. See Funck Bren- 
 tan o La Civilisation et ses Lois, IV, I, p. 311,: quoting Plutarch Numa, VII) ‘ II 
 en fut de meme dans les cites de la Grece; ce fut une condition de leur progress* 
 
 15 Ascon, Ad h. L. “ Diximus, L Pisone et A. Gabieno consulibus P. Clo- 
 dium tribunum plebis—tuiisse—de collegiis restituendis, novisquc instituendi*, 
 qu® ait ex servitiorum fince constituta.’’ 
 
864 CATEGORIES OF TRADE FEDERATIONS. 
 
 Fabretti gives us another union of carpenters and join¬ 
 ers whose inscription was found at Leprignani. It reads 
 very plainly and shows that they had a federation of the 
 trades. 16 Another collegium fabrorum tignariorum or car¬ 
 penters’ trade union is reported by Muratori. 17 The tab¬ 
 let was found at Ravelli in the province of Naples, show¬ 
 ing that the unions of those days were not confined to 
 Rome or any of the other large cities but were as fre¬ 
 quent proportionately to population in any small town. 
 
 An inscription is reported by Gruter, 18 bearing evidence 
 of another interesting school, schola , of the bona fide car¬ 
 penters’ unions, found in the Tolentine temple of Cathar- 
 ina—religious, of course, and of a later date. Orelli 19 
 quotes the learned Muratori of Modena as the authority 
 if not the finder of an inscription which describes a college 
 ium together with a sodalicium —another Roman name for 
 trade union, in which the president or Magister, and the 
 secretary are mentioned. It is a union of the skilled wood¬ 
 workers. It was found in the town of Falaria, and ap¬ 
 pears to be very old. It is not unusual for the inscrip¬ 
 tions engraved in the time of the emperors, to state an ap¬ 
 proximate of their date by noting the names of the con¬ 
 suls, or of the monarch who then occupied the throne. 
 Unfortunately for the more ancient ones this is not so 
 strictly done; probably owing more to the fact that, as 
 the law at earlier dates fully protected them, they were 
 not forced to inscribe the dates by little points or con¬ 
 structions such as characterized the laws after the restrict¬ 
 ive acts were promulgated. 
 
 No less than eighteen of the genuine carpenters and 
 joiners’ unions are found in the work of Orelli. 20 As these 
 working people used their unions as means whereby to 
 parry off the many dangers that beset them on every 
 hand, such as slavery, starvation, slurs of contempt and 
 in later times conscription, we cannot too well understand 
 how keenly alive they must have been to their welfare. 
 
 16 Fabretti, C. IV, 529, of Inscrlptiones Antiques Explicatio. 
 
 li Muratorius, Thesaurus Veterum Incriptionum, 521. 
 
 18 Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiques Totius Orbis Romanorum, 169. 6 . 
 
 Orell., No. 4,o56, Muratori, Thesaur. Yet. Inscr. 523. We give it with the 
 abbreviations: “ D. M. T. Siliio T. Lib. Frisco mag, cplleg. Fabr. et q mag. et 
 q. sodal fullonum Clavidice lib. uxori ejus matri sodali. C. Tullon, T Silliua 
 Karus et Ti. Claudius Phillippus mag. e' Q. Coileg. fabr. ftliiparentib. piissimis.” 
 
 2-Sdtolias Artificum et Opijicum , Yol. II. pp. 227-240, aud Aites et Oplfida, 
 idem, pp. 247-266, of Orelli’s great work on the Latin Inscriptions. 
 
GOVERNMENT EMPLOY. 
 
 866 
 
 On the other hand, the power of organization which kept 
 them in a position to supply the orders given them by the 
 state, was ever a great encouragement. 
 
 Among the many interesting monuments or schools of 
 ancient trade unionism, where mutual love and care were 
 taught and the noble element of sympathy was grafted 
 upon the selfish, competitive body of irascible and acquis¬ 
 itive paganism which animated the Lycurgan rule at Sparta 
 and the purely archaic slave code everywhere, are those to 
 be found in the Order of masons, stonecutters and brick¬ 
 layers. These with the painters, glaziers, roofers and 
 plumbers, were indispensable to complete the building 
 trades. They too, felt the necessity of organization, es¬ 
 pecially in the later time of Ceesar and the emperors, on 
 account of the awful treatment of slaves by their ferocious 
 masters. There existed no law by which the slave mas¬ 
 ters could be brought to account for savage acts of bar¬ 
 barity toward their slaves. 
 
 This distressing state of things was not 11 relieved until 
 the emperor Adrian withdrew the slaves from the domes¬ 
 tic tribunals and transferred them to the tribunal of the 
 magistrates; in other words gave them government pro¬ 
 tection. But this was 200 years after the "war of Sparta- 
 cus. The fear of being relegated back to slavery was a 
 constant urgent to ancient trade unionism; and this ex¬ 
 plains one reason at least, why they so tenaciously hugged 
 their fraternities notwithstanding the conspiracy laws 
 against trade and other organizations of the working peo¬ 
 ple. It must not be forgotten that according to the law 
 of B. C. 58, 22 all the new unions were suppressed. Conse¬ 
 quently, we are to infer that those we find in the inscrip¬ 
 tions are those belonging to the ancient plan of Numa and 
 Solon which were spared on account of their veteran age 
 and respectability. 23 Another thing requiring the nicest 
 discrimination is the fact that it will not do to mention all 
 the examples set down in the works of the arch ail o gists. 
 We only mention those where the labor organization is 
 clearly defined. Many of these queer inscriptions appear 
 
 21 See Granier, IlisLotre des Classes Ouvri'eres , pp. 401-487. 
 
 22 See Mommsen, De Coliegiis et Sodaliciis Romanorum, cap. IV, pp. 78-78, 
 Ve Ligibus ConUa Collegia Lulls. 
 
 2:s Suetonius. Coes. 4n “ Cajsar cuncta collegio praetor autiquitue constitute 
 Uifttraxit.'’ 
 
m CATEGORIES OF TRADE FEDERATIONS 
 
 to us to be only private signs and hare nothing to do with 
 our theme. Slavery was everywhere prevalent and many 
 of the slaves were as ingenious as the freedmen. We are 
 told by Drumann and others that it was customary for 
 masters to keep their slaves at work and obtain profit from 
 their labor by letting it out to enterprising foreigners who 
 contracted building repairs and other work on private 
 houses and grounds. But the government was the true 
 employer of the unions because they, possessing of them¬ 
 selves as it were, in a unit, all the men in organization, 
 always ready, money, tools, raw material, skill and even 
 the designs requisite to turning out a good job promptly, 
 were dangerous competitors of slavery on large works. 1 * 
 From the time of Numa the government of Rome had al¬ 
 ways patronized the trade unions. Thus it would appear 
 that some of the inscriptions may have been private signs 
 used by slave employers who carried on private work upon 
 a small scale, hiring their laboring force of the rich slave 
 owning patricians; and it will not do to count the arch¬ 
 aeologists’ lists of artes et opificia ; while it is almost always 
 safe to enumerate their specimens of the Corpora , Sodal- 
 icia or Collegia 25 in our list of trade unions and communes. 
 Trade unionism in its highest form is the reverse of slavery. 
 The true trade union of all ages takes care of its mem¬ 
 bers who are co-owners of equal shares, on equal foot¬ 
 ing. Slavery then, is the exact antithesis of trade union¬ 
 ism in principle; but although it is certain that the prin¬ 
 ciple on which slavery is based was, especially among the 
 Spartans and Romans, carried out with all its repugnant 
 and appalling brutalities, 28 yet it is, as a recognized sys¬ 
 tem in the religio-social economy of the world, incom- 
 putably the oldest of the two. Trade unionism was a 
 deadly rival to the slave system all through the antiquity 
 of the Indo-European stock; and since slavery was a graft 
 of the ancient religion—the natural child of its law of 
 
 24 Granler, Hist, des Classes Ouvrihres, p. 808, epeaking of the Insignificance 
 of Individuals when compared with the immense force of organized trades, says: 
 “ Ici les nombreux ouvrieres de Caton (slaves),les 500 ouvners (slaves) de Cras- 
 sus n’ auraient pn rien faire; il fallait des corporations, (trade unions) des ool- 
 6gesl do travailleurs.” 
 
 25 Cf. Orell. lib. II. pp. 227-246, Collegia Corpora el Sodilida. Sc holes ArtA ficum 
 et Opificum. See also lib. Ill, Sup Henzen Index to Collegia, init. 
 
 26 Granier, Hist des Classes Ouvrib-es, chap. Ill and IV., also Plut. Lycurgm 
 and Numa - ompared . 
 
organization a foe to slavery. 
 
 3G? 
 
 primogeniture and the fostered fruit of entailment in the 
 social, political and economic development of those semi- 
 barbarous families, phratries, curies and tribes which came 
 to be nations and empires, it must not be wondered at 
 that this hideous fledgling, before giving up the ghost, 
 made a terrific struggle to regain what it had lost through 
 the mild but determined enterprise of its great competitor 
 trade unionism. 
 
 It was this that constituted the mighty struggle of the 
 revolution in the social economy of the lowly and it so re¬ 
 mains to this day; although in this comparatively gorgeous 
 and brilliant hour the spirit of human slavery, resting 
 upon absolute, merchantable ownership of man by man, 
 seems to have forever fled. Nothing now remains of 
 slavery but its skeleton—individual competism—hanging 
 betwixt peace and war over the vortex of revolution and 
 swinging to and fro at every fresh attack from the same 
 trade unionism which, although of prehistoric longevity 
 grows more youthful, enterprising and belligerent with 
 every invention and discovery and every stride of litera¬ 
 ture, of science and of Christianity. 
 
 The unions of the masons at Rome do not appear so 
 numerous as those of the framers among the building 
 trades. Still we find tablets whose inscriptions show their 
 existence. 27 We have already mentioned the fact that 
 among the true workmen’s organizations the slabs which 
 appear to have been inscribed independently by themselves 
 and without the correctional inspection of masters, often 
 puzzle the experts on account of the sometimes ludicrously 
 bad spelling and misplacement of words. Sometimes also 
 there appear words belonging to the peculiar slang or 
 patois monenclature, their trade’s vernacular. But while 
 this is somewhat troublesome to archaeologists it is ex¬ 
 ceedingly interesting to students of ethnology and soci¬ 
 ology; since it shows otherwise unrecorded proof that the 
 freedmen, only one step above the slaves, were utterly 
 negleoted in all matters of education. The presumption 
 must be that the reason they executed their inscriptions 
 so well is that they had, in their mutual federation a trade 
 
 ** Orell. Arte* et Opificia, Vol. II, p. 258 of Inscr. Lat. Select Colic* tio. N©. 
 4,239. It is a broken fragment. “Quadratariorum opus Augurius Catullinu* 
 Ursar.” We read: “ Quadratariorum Corpus.” He thus rank© It as a union. 
 
368 CATEGORIES OF TRADE FEDERATIONS. 
 
 union of carvers and gravers cxlatores whose business was 
 to work in letters. It was consequently a part of their 
 trade to study sufficiently the Roman and Greek literature 
 to do their work well. Grater mentions several of them. 2 * 
 Orelli tells us of the sculptor, signarius artifex , who worked 
 in signs. 29 Any of these could make their signs or their 
 monuments and tombstones by being called upon at any 
 time; but we are reminded that then as now, economy was 
 everything and that consequently they themselves might 
 often have depended upon their own inexperienced self- 
 confidence and thus have committed these literary faults 
 which as amateurs they were too unlettered to rectify. 
 
 The quadratarii were the true stone cutters’ unions and 
 the probable reason why they are not numerous is that 
 most of the work of the stone cutters was done by the 
 marmorarii , marble cutters or marble masons. Of these 
 we find inscriptions of genuine trade unions in consider¬ 
 able numbers. Now this paucity of hard stone-cutters and 
 abundance of marble cutters is easily accounted for. The 
 Geological formation of the Italian, Hellenic and Spanish 
 peninsulas is largely of carbonates of lime. A great share 
 of the Appenine range is composed of fine white marble. 
 Many of the springs and even mountain rivers of Italy, 
 Greece and the Archipelago deposit pure marble. Paros 
 in the iEgian Sea was long a rival in pure white marbles 
 of Pentelicus; and Mount Marpessa the seat of its quar¬ 
 ries, may be considered an isolated spur of the Iltyrian 
 Alps, lit. Olympus and the Cambunian range. All through 
 these regions exist the characteristic marbles used in an¬ 
 tiquity before the superior powers of duration of sand¬ 
 stone and granites were known. The splendid marble 
 quarries of Luna in Etruria were near at hand and others 
 as celebrated in history were always available to the mar¬ 
 ble cutters’ unions who made the wonderful temples of 
 Ceres at Eleusis, of the Parthenon at Athens and many 
 of the great public structures at Rome. It is therefore, 
 very natural that the marble cutters’ unions predominated 
 over the sandstone and granite-cutters in point of num- 
 
 m Grut. laser. Ant. Tot. Orb. Rom., 5S3, 5. This, Gruter mentions as a sign 
 of some emancipated slave — ‘libertus qui post manumissionem vel argentarii 
 ve. cailatoris artem exercuerit. ’ But it often happened that a trade union was 
 inscribed under the name of its magister or director. 
 
 as Orell, laser. Lat, Select, No. 4,282. 
 
LIST OF THE THIRTY-FIVE TRADE UNIONS. 3G9 
 
 bers; and this explanation we accept for the fewness of 
 trade unions found among the inscriptions under the 
 name quadratarii or stone-cutters. At Borne, even 
 though perhaps many worked in stone harder than mar¬ 
 ble, the name quadratarius was merged; because even 
 the marble workers hewed and shaped large square 
 blocks. We have, even as it is, enough evidence to as¬ 
 sure us that the quadratarii existed and that they were 
 organized into unions; for this is distinctly stated in the 
 law of Constantine of the year 337. These, with the 
 8tructores and other builders, were enumerated in the list 
 of 35 trade unions recognized at that time. These 35 
 unions are permitted by this law to exist; although we 
 have found inscriptions and other references giving evi¬ 
 dence that at one time more than 50 trade unions existed 
 in Italy, representing as many organized trades, and mem¬ 
 bers innumerable. These will be exhibited as we proceed 
 with the subject. The law of Constantine gives the 35 
 trade unions existing at one time as follows: 
 
 1. Albarii™ plasterers; 2. Architecti, architects; 3. Auri- 
 flees, goldsmiths; 4. Blatiarii, workers in mosaic; 5. Car¬ 
 pentaria, wagon-makers; 6. JErarii, brass and copper¬ 
 smiths ; 7 . Argentarii , silversmiths; 8. Barbaricarii, gold 
 gilders; 9. Diatritarii, pearl and fillgree-workers; 10. 
 Aquae libratores , waterers; 11. Deauratores , aura tores or 
 bractearii, gold gilders, beaters; 12. Eburarii , ivory work¬ 
 ers; 13. Figuli, potters; 14. Fu Hones, fullers; 15. Fer - 
 ram, blacksmiths; 16. Fusores, founders; 17. Intestina- 
 rii, joiners; 18. Lapidarii , lapidaries; 19. Laquearii, plas¬ 
 terers; 20. Medici, doctors; 21. Mulo medici, horse doc¬ 
 tors, veternary surgeons; 22. Musivarii, decorators; 23. 
 Marmorarii, marble-cutters; 24. Pelliones , furriers; 25. 
 Pictores, painters; 26. Plumb arii, plumbers; 27. Quad¬ 
 ratarii, stone-cutters; 28. Specularii, looking-glass makers; 
 29 . Statuarii , staturies; 30. Scasores or Pavimentarii, pav¬ 
 ers ; 31. Sculptores, sculptors; 32. Structores, masons; 33. 
 Tessellarii, pavers in mosaic; 34. Tignarii , carpenters; 35. 
 Vitriarii, glaziers. 81 
 
 Here we have the building trades represented in Com 
 
 so Codex Justiniani , 10, 64. 1. 
 
 81 Mentioned once in Orell Inscr, 4 277; whereas the more correctly T atin 
 term ip given by him as an organized union, Idem 4,112. 
 
870 CATEGORIES OF TRADE UNIONS . 
 
 stantine’s more human law for the post-Christian organi¬ 
 zation. It is well here to state that Constantine 32 became 
 a Christian, being the first who threw off the yoke of pag¬ 
 anism. He evidently did not understand its true ideas 
 and was far from being a Christian at heart; but he was 
 a politician, and Christian enough to be unbiased by the 
 old Pagan belief in the divine aristocracy of the gens fam¬ 
 ily, in which ratiocination Cicero had believingly fought 
 the unions of working people on the ground of their un¬ 
 fitness to aspire to freedom and manhood. This stereo¬ 
 typed logic of the Pagan faith based on the divinity of the 
 slave code, had been overthrown and completely annihil¬ 
 ated by the new doctrine of Jesus, which did not war 
 against slavery but subverted it by a new idea of equality 
 —a plan which, at the time of Constantine, was already 
 300 years old. 
 
 Of the artizans in the building trades we find sufficient 
 mention in history; but very little reference to their or¬ 
 ganization into trade unions. Plutarch 33 and others state 
 most clearly that the builders were all ranked into a class 
 by themselves under the wise distribution of King Numa 
 and he applies for them the Greek term technitai. So in 
 Latin, artifices. They held this organization uninterrupt¬ 
 edly for 600 years at Rome and under the much praised 
 laws of Solon, nearly as many years in Attica and other 
 parts of Greece, In the year 58 before Christ the con¬ 
 spiracy laws struck them a hard blow, which like an earth¬ 
 quake severely shook them as far as the Greek provinces, 
 their primitive cradle; but they became more secret and 
 political, rallied and outlived their persecutors. 
 
 Among the other builders’ unions were the architects. 
 These interlinked with the masons, carpenters, joiners and 
 others whenever a building was ordered by the govern¬ 
 ment, and contracted to do the work at prices agreed 
 upon. The intestinarii , M or as we call them, the joiners, 
 or inside finishers of buildings, had also their trade or- 
 
 38 See De Excusationibus Artificum ,, In Codex Theodosii, lib. 18, tit, 4, lex. 2. 
 
 88 Plutarch Life of Numa. Numa and Lycurgus Compared. 
 
 8 + Muratori, Thesaurus Vcterum Tnscriptionum . 937, 7. mentions a fine incrip 
 tion found at Capua which is interesting, as it shows the plausibility of our con¬ 
 jecture. in the sketch of: partacus, as to ihe causes of the immense multitude of 
 Freedmen who joined his army “ Fa’ori intestinarii . secundum Budseum, ei 
 ligno opera confeciebant minutiorisartifieii, quibus tan turn locus est intra tedes.’’ 
 S 'qu, Mur. 929, 6. 
 
 € 
 
UNIONS USED AS PEACEMAKERS. 
 
 371 
 
 ganizations and appear to have been in the federation in 
 undertaking contracts to erect and finish temples or other 
 public edifices. 
 
 An organization of plasterers is also recognized in the 
 law of J ustianian and exempted from persecution, by the 
 code of Theodosius, These unions are not mentioned in 
 Plutarch’s list of Numa’s trades because the latter consol¬ 
 idated the building trades into one general fraternity with 
 an object, as Plutarch explicitly recounts, of conciliating 
 the jealousies of nationality well-known to have been a 
 cause of contention and turmoil between the Albans and 
 Sabines. By w breaking them up into powder,” to use his 
 own words, Numa taught them to mix and the contact of 
 the particles produced a perfectly conciliatory effect. In 
 other words, throw off the question of boundary lines 
 which disturb workingmen and they instantly see that 
 “ an injury to one is the concern of alL” 
 
 THE, STONE CHEST CONTAINED THE URNS. 
 IT WAS LOWERED INTO THE SEPULCHRE.. 
 
 BURIAL FIXTURE OF STONE-CUTTERS' UNION; 
 
 B.C. 100, 3 ** 368. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 ORGANIZED ARMOR-MAKERS OF ANTIQUITY. 
 
 Trade Unions Turned to the Manufacture of Arms and Muni¬ 
 tions of War—How it came about—The Iron and Metal 
 Workers—Artists in the Alloys—How Belligerent Rome 
 was Furnished with Weapons, Shoes and Other Necessa¬ 
 ries for Her Warriors—The Shieldmakers, Arrowsmiths, 
 Daggermakers, War-G-un and Slingmakers, Battering-Ram- 
 makers etc.—Bootmakers who Cobbled for the Roman Troops 
 —Wine Men, Bakers aud Sutlers—All Organized—Unions 
 of Oil Grinders; of Pork Butchers; even of Cattle Fodderers 
 —The Haymakers—Organized Fishermen—Ancient Labor 
 brought charmingly near by Inscriptions. 
 
 Of the nine regular trade unions authorized by Numa 
 Pompilius, one was that of the metal workers. They were 
 all incorporated into a community, as workers of hard 
 metals, before iron came to be much in use. 1 Writers 
 who lived in ancient times often treat the subject of use¬ 
 ful metals in the light that iron and steel did not come 
 into use until after the foundation of Home, or 758 years 
 anterior to the Christian era. At that early time how¬ 
 ever, the serarii or metal workers melted copper with the 
 ores of zink and knew how to sprinkle the zink with pow¬ 
 dered charcoal during the process of its fusion with cop¬ 
 per to prevent it from escaping in fumes of the oxide. It 
 may also be stated that little improvement has ever been 
 made in the manufacture of brass; and even the ancient 
 process of using zink ore instead of the refined article did 
 not come into use until A. D. 1781. It would not be sur- 
 
 i Lucretius, speaking of brass, says:“ Et prior erat eeris quam ferricognitu? 
 neus.‘ J 
 
TRADE UNIONS BUILT SOLOMON’S TEMPLE. 373 
 
 prising if further investigations should lead to the dis¬ 
 covery that it was the enterprise of trade unions which led 
 to this and other inventions and discoveries in the arts; 
 for the purely slave system did little or nothing for art 
 or science and the earliest forms of industry outside of 
 slavery seems to have been those of workmen combined 
 for mutual aid. Flavius Josephus in his history of the 
 Jews makes elaborate mention of Solomon’s temple, as hav¬ 
 ing been built in a large degree by the trade unions un¬ 
 der Hiram a man of extraordinary skill in the building 
 crafts. Not willing to accept our own interpretation of 
 Josephus, we refer the reader to the remarks of Granier 
 upon this subject; 8 as he seems to have settled it that 
 they were organized trades. 
 
 Little doubt can be entertained that iron, at the time of 
 Numa, was also in use at Rome. 3 Yet there is no men¬ 
 tion made in proof that Numa organized the ferrarii or 
 iron workers of whom Orelli furnishes two inscriptions, 4 
 one of which represents a genuine trade union, -which 
 proves beyond any counter evidence that the iron work¬ 
 ers were organized. But abundant evidence exists in the 
 later laws restricting organization, and these clubs stand 
 among the excused, in the list of 35 unions of the code of 
 Theodosius. If any further doubt can possibly remain as 
 to the use of iron by blacksmiths, forgers and finishers at 
 the time of Numa, we have only to refer the critic to 
 Homer, and the celebrated historic inscription called the 
 Arundelian slab, also to the bible.‘ 
 
 a Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, book VII, chap. 11, noticed by Granier. 
 Hlstore des Classes Ouvribres, p. 289, note: “ Ce que Flavins Joseph raconte ces 
 travaux qni fnrent, 4 plusieursreprise*, ex6cut6s a Jerusalem, soit pour batir ie 
 •emple. soit pour le refever oa le reparer, ne pennet pas de douter que les ouv- 
 rlers, tant juifs que sldoniens, qu’on y employa, ne fnssent organises en corpo - 
 ations, D’ailleurs toute espece de doute est lev6 par le passage suivant, od il est 
 clairement parl6 de la hi6rarchie qui r6gnait parnu ces ouvriers, et des trois mills 
 deux cents maithes qu’avaient les quatre-vingt mille masons occupfis aux mu- 
 
 railles du temple: Haav 6* in rutv napoinMV oiif AaviSnt Karahehoir ,«t.. rwv 
 
 Si harofjiovvrMV OKTaiax; /xvptoi* rourwv S’ em(,drai rp tvt'Xtot ttai rpiaKoaioL.” 
 
 * Pliny, Nat. Hist., XXXIV, 89 says: “ Proximoindicaridebentmetalla ferri, 
 optimo pessimoque vitae instrumento.” 
 
 * Orell., Inscriptionum Latinarum Seleclarum, Nos. 4,060 and 1,239. The 
 first of these is a union of sling makers who constructed out of iron the formid¬ 
 able balistte which threw with deadly effect stones and other missiles into the 
 ranks of an enemy, it reads as follows: “Volcano sacr. T. Flavius Florus 
 Sacerdos Dei Solis Statua Marmoris Collegii balistariorum et Collegii lerrario- 
 rum.” It was found at Rome and catalogued by Donati, II, p. 225, §. We til 
 out the abbreviated words. 
 
 6 Homer, Iliad. XXIII, 261, * ’HSe ywalag ev|dvovs, jroAidv r’ <jiSr]pov’ ,> Sam 
 Pettit’s Studies of the Arundelian Inscription: Bible, Genesis, chap. IV Job, chap, 
 IX VIJ 
 
374 
 
 HOME'S ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 The silver and gold workers did not confederate with 
 these metal workers. We reserve mention of them for a 
 place farther on. Orelli, among his inscriptions gives 
 sufficient specimens carved upon marble and other slabs, 
 some of which have stood the grim erosions of the ages of 
 time that have seen all things else crumble into dust since 
 hey were fresh from the chisel of the caelatores.* 
 
 After the death of Numa the doors of the temple of 
 Janus were again flung open, which meant that Rome was 
 again ready for war. This king had closed them as was 
 customary in time of peace. He desired peace with the 
 world in order that the nation might develop upon its own 
 resources, and by its own labor. The 43 years of his 
 peaceful reign gave the artisans time to organize, forget 
 their petty disagreements and settle down upon a basis of 
 fraternity and thrift. And they not only developed their 
 skill but organized it so that after the king's death, when 
 war again broke out, the nation found these metal workers 
 ready to turn their skilled labor to manufacturing swords, 
 shields and all the arms and munitions of the contests 
 which followed. 
 
 Thus labor at Rome did not suffer by war, because the 
 Roman arms were successful through a long period of 
 *>00 years. During this time the Romans conquered the 
 world with arms manufactured to some extent and we are 
 inclined to think, to a very great extent, by the iron and 
 metal workers organized by Numa. They loved their trade 
 anions and remained organized, working in fraternal bond, 
 in common enjoyment of the fruits of their united labor 
 in spite of several attempts on the part of the senate to 
 put them down. The system, as we have already shown, 
 was to manufacture arms and other munitions of war 
 directly for the government out of raw material which be¬ 
 longed to and was produced from, the mines of the gov- 
 ( rnment. 
 
 We have seen that the land belonged to the Roman 
 3tate; that it was farmed by the proletaries on shares and 
 that these shares were collected mostly “ in kind,” by an 
 organization of unions. These customs-collectors distri¬ 
 buted the products of the land each year among the citi- 
 
 6 Orell. in his Latin Inscriptions , numbers the cselatores as follows: Nos- 
 4 133, 4,030. 4,066, 4,140, 4.061, 1,239. 361 and 946. Each of these numbers 
 chronicles a genuine trade union. 
 
IRON AND METAL WORKERS. 
 
 87ft 
 
 zen class who virtually possessed and comprised the govern¬ 
 ment So also with regard to the mines which produced 
 raw material for the iron and other metal workers to con¬ 
 vert into lances, darts, swords and all sorts of armor for 
 the Roman army. With the land, the mines also belonged 
 to the government. There consequently had to be a trade 
 union of miners whom the Romans called ferrariarii,' 1 if 
 miners of iron, and senfodinarii, if miners of copper. 
 
 These miners of Copper and iron were naturally feder¬ 
 ated together. Neither the union of forgers and smiths 
 nor of the copper and brass or bronze workers could buy 
 and exploit their own mining works in order to supply the 
 workmen and fulfill their contracts with the government, 
 because they did not own the mines. Noi could the work¬ 
 men at the mines accomplish such an end. The govern¬ 
 ment possessed the mines and in many cases let them to 
 contractors. It remained, therefore, for the workmen 
 whose managers were often the contractors, to preserve 
 a close federation of their trades, no matter how distant 
 they were located apart. We are told 8 that at the winter 
 quarters of the rebel army of Spartacus at Thuria, he es¬ 
 tablished an armory of large proportions. It was near 
 the mountains and probably near mines of iron and cop¬ 
 per ; and as his army was composed of workingmen, many 
 of whom were skilful artisans they co-operated as by com¬ 
 mon consent, and practically used their federation at both 
 tbe mines and the forge. The iron and metal workers, 
 who were thus confederated or “ distributed ” by Numa 
 into unions for the purpose of harmony in the arts of 
 peace, were, after his death, thus kept in the same bond 
 of union many hundred years, helping Rome to practice 
 her arts of war. The plan of Government employment 
 directly, without middlemen was a happy one and the long 
 vista of time from the trade union laws of Numa to the 
 conspiracy laws of Cicero and Caesar was the true golden 
 age of Rome. 
 
 Immediately after the death of Numa Pompillius, that 
 wisest of monarchs, perhaps, of whom the world’s history 
 makes mention, the doors of the celebrated temple of 
 Janus were thrown open and Mars, the bellicose myth 
 
 " Muratori Thesaurus Velerum Inscriptionum, 972, 10. also idem, 963, 2. 
 
 8 Plutarch, Crassus, VIII, XII. Seo also Florus, III. 20, 6, speaking of impro- 
 rising weapons. “ E ferro egastulorura recocto glailios ac tela* faceiunt.” 
 
876 
 
 ROME'S ARMY SUPPLIES . 
 
 war-god rushed out with trumpets, javelins and the clangoi 
 of contention. We are going to recount one seemingly 
 phenomenal instance in human history where labor and 
 war existed harmoniously and thrived together. The king 
 in instructing his people in the arts of peace had actually 
 laid the foundation for the most gigantic successes ever 
 before known in the arts of war! He had taught the 
 state to employ the labor of trade unions direct. He had 
 taught how to do this without the complications, individual 
 emulations, avaricious ambitions and failures which, in 
 wars often break up great schemes through the jealousy 
 and incompetence of individual rule. He had simplified 
 the labor of production, distribution, consumption by 
 himself employing all the artisans of his realm and direct¬ 
 ing them to husband the resources of the state which was 
 then the owner of the lands, mines and the waters. The 
 workers being themselves exempt from serving in war by 
 reason of their supposed ignoble origin and rank, had no 
 fear of the tedious campaign nor dread of the carnage of 
 battle. They knew how to make the steel that was to 
 pierce the bodies of those they loved not, and whom when 
 they were enslaved, their ancestors had hated as mortal 
 foes. They were happy. Home was turned into a vast 
 armory. The members of the well organized unions were 
 the first to receive employment from the government 
 which was not theirs and for 500 years were the last to be 
 maltreated or discharged. 
 
 Had it been possible for king Numa to live and reign 
 with his peace measures during those 500 years we know 
 not what would have been the consequence but it would 
 have probably resulted in a far different destiny for the 
 human race. His scheme was to cultivate the elements 
 of peace and he was wise enough to understand that la¬ 
 bor was a respectable factor. Under him it was indeed 
 becoming a cult; and could he have lived long enough to 
 engraft his peace system, with all its civilizing and sooth¬ 
 ing effects, until the people far and near had endorsed it 
 as a second nature, the irascible and grasping as well as 
 the concupiscent ingredients of our nature which domi¬ 
 nate warlike tribes must have absorbed enough of the 
 great refining gem of sympathy, to have started the Indo- 
 Europeans in quite a different direction from the murder- 
 
TRADE UNIONS MADE THE WEAPONS. 877 
 
 ous warpath of conquest which they actually took, leading 
 to ignorance and brutality. It might have been better for 
 the trade unions to contine manufacturing the implements 
 of peace as Numa ordered. But so long as the Roman 
 arms prevailed, Roman trade organizations under the war 
 system were safe; and the workmen doubtless cared little 
 for the refinements of peace, although the neutral posi¬ 
 tion they assumed as workingmen and their educational 
 discussions among themselves certainly developed more of 
 sympathy and far less of cupidity and irascibility than 
 was possessed by the optimates who managed and fought 
 out the brutal orgies of warfare. 
 
 From the foregoing we know that no great amount of 
 work was done by the iron and metal workers in the line 
 of armor manufacture during the lifetime of Numa. Af¬ 
 ter his death, when the warring spirit of the patrician 
 class was aroused to anticipations of the ancient scenes of 
 valor and blood, it was found that Rome was without arms 
 and munitions of war. The helmets and shields, the sa¬ 
 bres and javelins had been forged into mattocks, spades 
 and cutlery of domestic use. It was necessary to make a 
 new beginning. That the ferrarii or iron workers pos¬ 
 sessed a federation with the sword cutlers is certain, al¬ 
 though the exact date of that co-operation is difficult to 
 ascertain. It must have been old, however. A number 
 of inscriptions bearing evidence of this are recorded by 
 Orolli; 8 and we have distinct mention in the digest 10 —- 
 showing that these unions or fraternities of workmen were 
 fixed by law. The trade unions had then in their federa¬ 
 tion the gladiarii or sword cutlers, the sagitarii or arrow- 
 smiths, the scutarii or elliptical shield makers who, how¬ 
 ever, made this armor of wood and sometimes covered it 
 with thick rawhide, sometimes with plate metal; and the 
 clipearii or round shield makers who made them of copper 
 or bronze; the telarii or manufacturers of darts and jave¬ 
 lins ; the 8calperiiy knife makers, and the hastarii or spear 
 makers. There was another trade union, the collegium 
 ballistariorum , u mentioned also in the digest, 1 * the special 
 
 9 Orell., Inter. Lot. Select. CoU. Nos. 4,197, 4,247, Artes el Opificia. 
 
 10 Tarrant60, 6, 6, dig. “gladiarii, eagittarii, Carpentaria, aquflcee, scandn- 
 l&rii, etc. ** 
 
 11 Orell,, idem , No. 4,066, Donati, 2, p. 225. 
 
 12 Tarrant, dig. 50, 6, 6, This was a genuine trade union which had a con 
 
ROME'S ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 378 
 
 business of whose numbers was to manufacture the cele¬ 
 brated ballista , a hind of mitrailleuse, or stone thrower, 
 which with great force and deadly effect flung large peb¬ 
 bles or small stones and other projectiles into the ranks 
 of an enemy. Much engineering skill was required to 
 operate this engine of war. Doubtless the unions were 
 obliged to send their own mechanics to adjust and manip¬ 
 ulate these huge engines. But it is more probable 13 that 
 they were federated with the great trade union now 
 known by numerous very interesting and unmistakable 
 inscriptions as the collegium mensorum machinariorum 14 
 or trade union of machine adjusters and setters, whose 
 business was to oversee the work of transporting any 
 finished machinery to the place of its destination and 
 supervise or perform the work of setting it in operation. 
 The body or union 16 which is referred to in the inscrip¬ 
 tion given in the foot-note below evidently combined the 
 two functions of trade union and burial society. Furius 
 and Lollius were officers, being both members of the 
 society of machinists; and were buried at the expense 
 of the funeral branch and out of the funeral fund. The 
 amount of 25 denarii 16 was mentioned for the funeral 
 expenses. Roses costing 5 more were to be put upon 
 the coffin. For the funeral expenses of their aged par¬ 
 ents one-half this amount wag to be appropriated. In 
 case these requirements were not conformed to, there 
 would be a forfeiture on the part of the trade union of 
 double this sum annually, which forfeiture should be 
 covered into the treasury of the funeral branch. 
 
 siderable membership, as the construction of these hnge engines required mncb 
 labor and skill. 
 
 1 3 Mommsen constantly bemoans the silence of historians on these extremely 
 interesting subjects We render for our readers some of his own lamentations: 
 “The deep silence of the stones containing the inscribed constitutions and re¬ 
 strictions, prevents us from determining which (meaning the trade unions were 
 under the law and which adverse to the privileges granted by the senate).” D« 
 Coll et Sodal. Romanoi'um, p. 80.) 
 
 14 Gruterius. Inscriptiones Antiquce Totius Orbis Romdnorum, 91,1. Murator- 
 ius, Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptlonum, 523, 3. Orellius I nscnptionum Latinarum 
 Collectio, No. 4,107. The inscription reads: “D. M. C, Turius, C. T. Lollius 
 quitquit. ex corpore mensorum machinariorum funeraticii nomine sequetur, re- 
 llqum penes Rempublicam super scriptam remanere volo ex cujus usuris peto a 
 vobis college uti suscipere dignemini VI diebus solemnibus sacrificium mihi 
 faciatis Id est IIII id. mart, die natalis mei usque ad XXV ^denarios i, Paren- 
 talis XII semis. Flos rosa V. Si facta non fuerint, tunc, tisco stacionis ami on® 
 duplum funeraticium dare debebetis ” 
 
 15 See Orell., Inscr. Lat. Coll., Vol III, p. 170. Varia collegiorum nomina 
 
 16 A Homan denarius of the period of Cicero was worth 16J4 cents. Bockh. 
 
ANCIENT BATTERING RAMS. 
 
 879 
 
 This strange, progressive co-operation of the lowly, 
 industrious, ingenious but despised moiety of the anci¬ 
 ent people may justly be regarded as a lost lesson. Un¬ 
 til now it has rested in profoundest darkness. So utterly 
 ignored was labor by the ancient historians 1T that even 
 the nominal terminations affixed to nouns and particles 
 in the Lai in tongue, giving the technical forms that were 
 in commonest use for artizans of every kind, do not ap¬ 
 pear, if we except a very few in Pliny and one or two 
 other writers on art. On account of this extraordinary 
 neglect our lexicographers are obliged to have constant 
 recourse to modern archaeologists in whose works ap¬ 
 pear inscriptions verbatim , from the time-crumbled 
 stones! From no other source can they with classic 
 authority complete the vocabularies of the language! 
 But this authority is justly considered good. These 
 stones tell tales which the prevaricating, mellifluous sy¬ 
 cophants at the court of the Caesars dared not smirch 
 their parchment with. 
 
 The arietarii or battering ram makers do not appear 
 as belonging to a union by themselves. If this was ever 
 the case we have not been able to discover any inscrip¬ 
 tion bearing record of the fact. But they existed. Livy 
 repeatedly speaks of the aries or battering ram; and it is 
 known to have been at first a simple device, consisting of 
 a huge beam sometimes 150 feet long which a large force 
 of men held on their shoulders and by repeated back¬ 
 ward and forward runs, the • bronze-plated ram or head, 
 striking against the wall of an enemy’s town, broke or 
 rammed down the masonry so that the soldiers rushed 
 through the breaches and sacked the place. It is quite 
 probable that these ram makers were merged into the 
 membership of the catapultarii or balistarii 18 who manu¬ 
 factured these huge machines, in connection with the 
 catapults or stone slings. However this may have been, 
 it was certainly due to the ingenuity and industry of the 
 machinists that the battering ram developed from this 
 simple form until, in its state of perfection, it was hung 
 by chains to the boom of a tripod fastened by guys ; and 
 
 11 Dfimmaim, Arb. u. Comn., p. 165. “ Befriodlgeude Nacbrichten eucht 
 
 mau ver>. r aben8.” 
 
 i* Ureil. No. 4,066, Balistariorum Collegium 
 
ROME'S ARMY SUPPLIES 
 
 iso 
 
 thus swaj^ed forward and backward by human or mule 
 power so as to beat down the strongest walls. 
 
 Then among others of the armor makers were the jac- 
 ulatorii or slingers. Darts, jacula , were in common use 
 with the ancients. They were easily broken, were of 
 short duration and consequently had to be manufactured 
 in large quantities; and we are told they were manufac¬ 
 tured along with other armaments in home and other 
 industrial centers, by the unions who found in the gov¬ 
 ernment a reliable employer that paid well for the work. 19 
 
 The Collegium Caligariorum (soldiers’ boot makers or 
 cobblers), was a trade union of shoemakers who manu¬ 
 factured and supplied shoes for the army. 30 During the 
 warlike ages which intervened between the reign of 
 Numa Pompilius and the first emperors, a large army 
 was almost constantly employed by the Roman govern¬ 
 ment. These had to be supplied with food, clothing, 
 barracks, tents and impedimenta and all the parajoherna- 
 lia of war. In those times, to be a soldier was a grace; 
 to be a cobbler a disgrace; and as the membership of 
 the collegia was always composed of freedmen or emanci¬ 
 pated slaves, with their children and their children’s 
 children who constituted the great proletariat of Rome, 
 the labor which their poor fathers performed as slaves, 
 came down with them in disgrace. This is the real origin 
 of the taint of labor—Ihe social degradation of the poor 
 who performed it. It is the blackened obloquy, flinging 
 its attendant odium and fastening its stain alike on him 
 who performs and on his performance. These corvine 
 haters of those who fed them, painted social rank festooned 
 in contumety which fastened upon and clung tight to the 
 heart and soul of both rich and poor, cowing the work¬ 
 men into the unmanly belief that both labor and the la¬ 
 borer were as mean as they were believed to be. Thus 
 contempt for labor had descended from generation to 
 generation with an ignoble belief in the lowliness of so- 
 
 J 4 Granier, Histoire dcs Classes Ouvrikrcs, chap, xii, pp. 302-304. “Dans son 
 cote, le gouvernement avait besoin de trouver tonjours un norabre et une vari¬ 
 ety d’ouvriers euffisants pour executer ses ouvrages: et quels ouvrages que ceux 
 <ju' a fait executer le gouvernement Romain I Que de temples et quels temples! 
 Que d’ aqueduos et quels acjueducs! Que de pouts et quels pouts 1 ” 
 
 2 u Gruter, Inscr. Ant. Rom., 649, 1. See also Drumaun, Arbeiter und Ccmmu 
 msten in Rom , who, quoting Ciciro, Pro Flacc. 7, says: “Eben bo die Schuster 
 sutores, welche Cicero mit den Glirtlern, zonariis, ala veriichtliohe Volksklaase 
 Uoimt, bildeten eine besondere Zunft nach Numas Einrichtung.” 
 
STATE EMPLOY OF TRADE UNIONS . 881 
 
 rial grade. But the work of the soldier was honorable. 
 At first, only the patrician and his sons, the grandees of 
 the realm, could enjoy the honor of a soldier’s life. But 
 times had changed. The slave who became a freedman 
 had organized himself into the union of resistance against 
 oppression and we find him now a member of the soldier’s 
 shoemaking union, by far the happier man of the two, pur¬ 
 veying boots and shoes to the comparatively useless ranks 
 of the Roman army whose trade, like that of the brigands, 
 was to. rob and destroy, not to produce. Especially must 
 this great truth have gladdened him, since by reason of 
 his organization which at that time there was no law to 
 forbid, he realized easier times. There were then tio or¬ 
 ganized, competing industries, monopolizing his busi¬ 
 ness. In the certitude of employment and its remuner¬ 
 ation, though there was little hope of afiluance, he wa s 
 content. 21 This was certainly the Golden era. The in¬ 
 scriptions bear witness that the society became the in¬ 
 strument of much social pleasure and probably instruc¬ 
 tion. Indeed, this could not have been otherwise as all 
 the testimony of experience in the scale of social pleas¬ 
 ures and means of advancement were similar to those of 
 exactly similar unions of our own times. Working peo¬ 
 ple were not honored by any of the noble or heroic pro¬ 
 fessions ; such as the pursuits of war, which were not 
 considered ignoble, or of writing the history of war." 
 
 ** The whole truth Is, government patronized, employed and protected the 
 trade unions for more than 500 years. Granier in correctly denying that either 
 the very rich or the indignant individuals upheld the unions, says: “ Restatt 
 enfin le gouvernment. C’ etait la le vrai client des jurandes, et les travaux en- 
 trepris par lui formait le seul atelier permanent od les ouvriers pussent gagner. 
 chaque jour leur salaire.” Granier, Histore des Classes Ouvriers, p. 303. Again.. 
 idem, pp. 303-4, Granier says: ‘‘De son cote, le gouvernement avait besoin de 
 trouver toujours un nombre et une variete d’ouvi’iers sufilsants pour executor 
 ses ouvrages; et quels ouvrages que ceux qu’a fait ex6cuter le gouvernement 
 romain! Que de temples et quels temples I Que d’aqueducs, et quels aque- 
 dues I Que de pouts, et quels ponts ! lei les nombreaux ouvriers de Caton, les 
 cinq cents ouvriers de Crassus n’auraient pu rien laire; il fallait des corpora¬ 
 tions, des colleges de travailleurs; et e’est parce qu’ilsse brent perpetuellement 
 leurs patrons et leurs commanditaires, que le senat et les empereurs s’immis- 
 cerent dans leurs statuts. La loi des Douze Tables, qui ordonne a touts corpet 
 ation de se conformer aux iois generates de l’Etat, est done en reality le premier 
 privilege etabli en favour des classes ouvriere deja organisees regulierement & 
 cette epoque.” According to this, the Roman government was the employer of 
 the trade unions to an enormous extent; and this explains the cause of the ter¬ 
 rible conflicts reaching from the time of Viriathus to the suppression of the 
 unions, B, C, 58. 
 
 22 So proud was the gens family that even convicts, condemned to the Roman 
 prisons lor li e, if of noble extraction, could not be put to hard labor because it 
 would tarnish, not the man, but the family or gens name. This could not be sul- 
 
382 
 
 ROME'S ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 Very few pursuits involving labor were looked upon aa 
 fitting a gentleman in ancient days; and any admixture 
 however indifferent in these pursuits, sullied the proud ' 
 claims to aristocracy and family prestige. 
 
 The trade union system therefore, which assumed the 
 entire care and responsiblity of all labor both in produc¬ 
 tion and distribution, except that performed by the slaves 
 who always lingered upon the gens estates, was an econ¬ 
 omy to the ruling minority; for it relieved them from 
 the real perplexities of toil, and it gratified their pride 
 by absolving them from the stigma which attached to all 
 manipulations of producing and distributing that, with¬ 
 out which they must have starved. 
 
 We propose to devote a few pages to a consideration 
 of the great trade union method of victualing not only 
 this non-working minority and the army but the entire 
 population of Rome. In the closely allied branch of this 
 great system—that of the customs collectors—we have 
 already approximately shown what may be called this sys¬ 
 tem in outline; we shall soon give the system itself. 
 
 The use of wine was very common in those countries 
 in ancient times and was an important article of food. 
 There were two communes of wine dealers, one at Rome 
 and one at the mouth of the Tiber. Maffeus cites an in¬ 
 scription, which was found at Verona. 28 Its date is that 
 of the emperors, as it has the name of Augustus, and it 
 portrays a genuine union of the wine men who furnished 
 Rome with that beverage. These organizations were in 
 communication with the productive interior of Italy and 
 may have had wagons and boats, either of their own, or 
 engaged and paid by them to bring the wine to their 
 storehouses; if wagons, direct to the city ; and if ships 
 or boats, to the port of Ostia where it was stored and 
 cured, often smoked as we shall describe, and at the pro¬ 
 per time distributed to consumers. Not only the wine 
 produced from the government lands and accruing to the 
 citizens in form of rent payable in kind as noticed in the 
 remarks on the Vectigalarii or customs collectors, but 
 also all the remainder that the farmers did not need for 
 
 lied, even by crime until a later period. See Bombardini, De Careere et A ntique 
 Ejus Usu, cap. VIII, p. 763 of Thesaurus Grcemi et Gronovii. 
 
 2:’> Maffeus. Museum Veronense, 114, 2. * ‘ Quinquennalis corporura vinariornm 
 urbanorum et Osteusium. 
 
UNIONS OF WINE SMOKERS 
 
 Ml 
 
 their own use was sent to market; and of course, in the 
 absence of competing lines of transportation such as now 
 exist, the wine was sent to Rome by the same watermen 
 who took the rent. The most of it, however, went overland 
 by wagons and we have reason to believe, in a crude state; 
 for there existed at Rome more than one union oi/uma- 
 tores , or wine curers who matured their wines with smoke. 
 This was done by an apparatus in shape of a hogshead con¬ 
 taining wine, through which smoke was forced by means 
 of force pipes. At Tarentum, was found an inscription 
 which plainly mentions the collegiem fumaiorum . It was 
 sketched by Miinter, and incorporated as a regular trade 
 union into the great collection of Orelli.* 4 The wines of the 
 ancients were rich and excellent. The task of the unions 
 was to finish the taste and color so that they constituted the 
 richest and healthiest beverage to be found. To this day 
 the wines of Italy are counted among the most delicious; 
 but it is questionable whether they are as well cured as in 
 ancient times or whether they are as plenty. 
 
 There was a union of cultivators and dealers in table or 
 olive oils, collegium oleariorum * whose business in part, 
 was to grind and prepare the oils from the fruit of the olive 
 tree which grows luxuriantly in southern Europe. The 
 great entrepot of Rome, 28 was Ostia, at the mouth of the 
 riverTiber 18 miles from Rome. The quantity of work 
 carried on by the waterman between Ostia and Riome must 
 have been enormons considering the slow, toilsome method 
 
 24 Orell., Analecta Nonnulla, No. 6,044; “ D. M. Fedt, Collegium Fumatorani 
 bene merente.” It was found at Tarentum. Orelli adds: *• Novum mihi acci.lit 
 Collegium Fumatorum.” 
 
 25 Fabretti, Inscriptionum Artiquarum Explicate, 781-760, citing the incriptiott, 
 originally found at Ostia, but now in Florence, 
 
 26 Orell, Inscr. Lat. Coll., vol. II, 238, remarks: 44 In magno Colleglorum et 
 artium numero, notandum in primis, decurias, non corpora vel Collegia consti- 
 tuisse Ostiae.” In proof of this see Orell. Inscr., No. 4,109, which enumerates 19 
 trade unions in one tablet, which we produce for the curious critic. The great 
 epigraphist reminds us in a note that these are not mere corporations but trade 
 unions, (s eo ante). The incription runs thus; “Cneo Sentio On. fil. ter. felici 
 Dec. eedilicio adl. Decurionum decreto adlecto Quaestor! Aedili ostiens II, vir. 
 Q. juvenum. 
 
 Hie primus omnium quo anno decimo adlectus est et qul a facto est et in prox- 
 tmum duo vires designat. Est quinque curatorom naviuni marinariorum 
 gratis adlect. inter (sic) novicular. Maris Hadriatici. Et ad quadrigam fori vin- 
 ariorum. Patrono decuria scribar. praeconum et—et argentarioi am, et negotia- 
 torum. vinariorum. Ab TJrbe item mensorum, /rumentariorum cereris. Aug, 
 item collegia scaphariorum et lenunculariorum. Traject. Luoulli et dendro- 
 phorum et lege Rogatorum. A faro et de sacomar ; et libertormn et serrorum 
 publicorum. Oleariorum et juvenum cisianorum et veteranorum. Aug. item 
 benificiariorum. Aug, et piscatorum. propolaricrum curatori lusus juvenalis. 
 
 Cneus Sentius Lucullus Gamala. Clodianus. F. Patri indulgentdssemo.” 
 
384 
 
 ROME'S ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 of propelling little boats. In those days of crude method 
 and meagre facility the functions of a trade union appear 
 not to have been confined to this simple business. It ap¬ 
 pears from the inscriptions and other data that the manu¬ 
 facturers of an article were often the distributers of it. 
 Thus in the case of the wine smokers, the same union that 
 bought the crude grape juice which arrived through the la¬ 
 bors of the unions of coasters, lenuncularii , plying between 
 the Adriatic or Mediterranean landings and the chief depots 
 as Ostia and Pisae or Tarentum, or that w r hich arrived on 
 board the larger ships of the navicularii ir om greater dis¬ 
 tances, as Spain or from Gaul via Arles, assumed also the 
 duty of curing these wines and of putting them into the 
 hands of consumers. This explains the phenomenon as to 
 there being comparatively few middlemen or petty shop¬ 
 keepers among the Romans although there were many even 
 of these.’ 1 It also leads to an explanation of the curious 
 fact that merchants were considered nearly as low and un¬ 
 worthy the respect of the high-born class as the mechanics 
 and laborers. In those early days, before the development 
 of the vast commerce which belongs to the Christian era, 
 business of any kind whether mechanical, mercantile or 
 agricultural was held under ban and men did not espouse 
 it except as a necessity. This contempt, an inculcation of 
 the aristocratic religion, lived as long as that religion reigned; 
 but when Christianity established itself upon its revolution¬ 
 ary basis of exact equality of all men, the contempt fell to 
 the ground; and gradually the aristocracy of w’ealth rose 
 in the place of the ancient aristocracy of birth. But as it 
 was not inherent in manual labor to produce much more 
 than the individual laborer consumes, and perfectly possible 
 for the mercantile system to amass—sometimes enormously 
 —the mechanic and laborer continue to be poor and consid¬ 
 ered with contempt w r hile the speculators on their products 
 rise to the loftiest respectability. But all this is because 
 Christianity is only in its theoretical condition, having not 
 yet, on account of the stupendous magnitude of the revolu¬ 
 tion it has undertaken, acquired and put in operation the 
 mechanical instrumentalities for the practical realization of 
 its scheme. 
 
 So also the oil grinders union was in the habit of buying 
 
 4-1 See Orell., Noe. 4,139-4,300, Arttset Opljicia, 
 
OIL GRINDERS' UNIONS. 
 
 S 85 
 
 crude oils or impressed olives on board the ships arid boats 
 at Ostia, conveying them to their storehouses, running them 
 through their presses or grinders, purifying, curing and 
 boitling them in ollas, even placing them at the command 
 of the triclinarch himself. To do this required a large 
 number of members in the commune or union; but this fur¬ 
 nished steady employ in which each member fell himself a 
 co-operator or co-owner which not only secured him or her 
 from the dangers of dismissal but must also have been a 
 great comfort; since members felt the dignity of their 
 position, low ly of course, compared with the rich non-work¬ 
 ers who looked upon labor with disdain, yet independent 
 in comparison with the dispropertied and maltreated slaves. 
 
 Bread was another commodity the supply of which became 
 largely the task of the trade unions from very early times. 
 The ancient method of baking differed little from that of the 
 present day. The ancient bakers* unions, then, were in 
 nearly all respects, identical with the bakers* unions in New 
 York city to-day. We have abundance of testimony re¬ 
 garding the unions of bakers. A corpus pastillariorum 
 mentioned by Muratori, 28 was one of the post-Christian com¬ 
 munes. The pastillarii were manufacturers of dainty loaves, 
 biscuits, cakes and bon-bons. 
 
 Then there were the regular bread bakers, panfices or pis- 
 tores who also, as part of their task, ground or beat grain 
 into flour or meal with a pestle. 29 One can at a glance con¬ 
 ceive that the amount of this work was enormous. The 
 method of making bread was the same as now; for very lit¬ 
 tle has ever been added for facilitating its rapid manufac¬ 
 ture ; but the method of grinding has been so greatly im¬ 
 proved as to admit of scarcely a comparison. It required 
 8 large force of workmen in those times to pound up and 
 bake the three different kinds of bread consumed by the 
 whole people rich and poor, of Rome.* 0 But these men dur- 
 
 *8 Cf. Mur. Thesaur. Veterum Inscriptionum, 527, 6. Anno post Chr. 435. 
 
 29 Cod. Theod., lib. XIV, tit. 3. The bakers were among the unions which en¬ 
 joyed the jus coeundi or right of organization. See Codex TheodosU , dt Excusa- 
 tAonibus ArtiJLcuvi, lib. XIII, tit. IV, leg. 2. The organized bakers and boatmen 
 were among the most numerous and powerful in Italy. 
 
 so We have shown in our chapters on strikes and uprisings that the slave 
 portion of the proletaries were fed on pease and nuts. See Granier Hisloire da 
 Classes Ouvri'eres, pp. 96-97. “ Des les premiers temps, avons-nous dit, les esclaves 
 se trouverent separAs des hommes libres et flrent race a part; ils allerent nourris 
 et vStus d’une fagon propre et spAciale, Les juifs leur pergaient l’oreille, les 
 Grecs et les Romains les marquaient au front, d’ou lo nom de Stichus Atait restA 
 commun et general parmi les esclaves. DAs le temp* (VHomAre, leur rAgime ali- 
 
HOME'S ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 380 
 
 ing a cycle of 700 years were organized and they enjoyed a 
 trade union in all probability from iong before the time of 
 Numa, Their scope was wide, their members large, their 
 business steady, their work guaranteed; and they had the 
 balmy satisfaction of knowing that they were safe. 
 
 Another great and very important organization of the la¬ 
 boring people was that of the butchers. A considerable 
 branch of this business was performed by the suarii or pork 
 butchers. It is stated that the wealthy repudiated pork 
 and confined their diet of meat to fish, venison and mutton. 
 But it must not be forgotten that there were organized 
 unions of suarii or pork butchers, and we have evidence 
 that they drove a heavy business. What did Rome want of 
 pork butchers if her citizen population refused to use pork 
 and her slave population w 7 as not allowed to use meat of any 
 kind ? This is a troublesome question, to be solved only 
 by the student of history aud archaeology, from a standpoint 
 of social science. By the student of social science it is 
 seen, that there existed a very large class of the poor, but 
 manly, better fed, self-sustaining, hard working element of 
 the pioletaries who were freedmen and always organized; 
 and as we are assured by abundant evidence from their own 
 inscriptions, always capable of living well. This is the class 
 which consumed the products of the suarii. The animals 
 were raised in southern parts of the peninsula, in great 
 numbers and probably were of an excellent breed. Ac¬ 
 cording to Granier they were driven or conveyed in wagons 
 to Rome alive. The work of the pork butchers was not 
 confined to killing and dressing them. In the etymology 
 of the word “ confection ” w e have a history of a part of 
 their business. The ancient confectioner was a slaughterer 
 of swine; but in addition to this work he prepared his pork 
 in a great number of ways. He made sausage meats of 
 several varieties, corned pork, smoked bacon and ham, very 
 much as we do now. From data which we have observed, 
 there seems to be little difference between the ancient and 
 
 mentaire 6tait r6glS et ils ne mangeaient pas de pain fait de froment.” Bo Gnhl 
 and Koner, Life of the Greek* and Homans, pp. 501-2, after describing the ■nmptn- 
 oue dishes of the Homans of rank, conclude with the remark on the poor, that 
 they “ at all periods chiefly fed on porridge (puls), made of a farinaceous sub¬ 
 stance (far, ador), which served them as bread, besides vegetables, such as cab¬ 
 bage (brassica), turnips and raddishes, leek (porrum), garUc (allium), onions (eepa) 
 pulse (legumina), cucumber (cucumis), pumpkins, melons, etc.” They bad no 
 meat except on occasions such as the entertainments of the Uieato* and the *o- 
 dalicium. 
 
HONOR PAID TO PORK AND SAUSAGE. 387 
 
 the modern methods of preserving and using the flesh of the 
 swine. But there is one observation which cannot well be 
 avoided here. 
 
 Pork, according to the ancient religions, both of the Indo- 
 Europeans and Jews, was always repudiated. It was strictly 
 a proletarian aliment. The reason why it became popular 
 on the table of the Christians and lost its ancient stigma is, 
 that the early Christians were themselves proletaries and 
 did not belong to the nobles who fed on fish, fat venison 
 and mutton. Christianity in boldly proclaiming the revo¬ 
 lution on a basis of equality of all men, was not ashamed to 
 live up to its professions. By far the largest number of its 
 membership were poor. The poor freedmen were glad to 
 get pork to eat. The Saviour himself was one of them, 
 without an atom of aristocracy in his veins and consequently 
 unhampered by old religious prejudices, restrictions or 
 usages. This new sect, poor and persecuted, struggling 
 for the existence of its tenets and its members, began life 
 at Home in earnest, although born in Judea. Its first mem¬ 
 bers were the poor work people—freedmen and slaves—all 
 of whom were not above a plate of ham and eggs; and to 
 say the least, the new sect exhibited much sound sense in 
 calmly adopting the usages of the diet and clothing of the 
 commons. 
 
 Its tenets expressed and inculcated the new idea that by 
 birth one was as good as another; and it also logically and 
 by implication defended the dignity of pork and sausage as 
 it did the makers of pork and sausage and every other food 
 available which was found palatable and nutritious. 
 
 We do not find mention either in the inscriptions or else- 
 where of butchers located at Ostia, the port of Rome. This, 
 however, is accounted for by the supply of hogs, sheep and 
 cattle being in an opposite direction from the emporium. 
 There is an abundant mention of the pecuarii , or cattle 
 breeders and their greges or herds. They took the gov¬ 
 ernment pasture lands on shares, and at the close of the 
 year paid to the tax collectors the share agreed upon. 
 What remained over this amount, which was paid in cattle, 
 sheep and hogs more frequently than in money, was their 
 own ; and they sold it to the butchers at the market. 
 
 "When the rich gentry made their encroachment upon the 
 public land and drove these pecuarii from the pastures, thus 
 
HOME'S ARMY SUPPLIES. 
 
 588 
 
 usurped, as we have already shown,* 1 the slaves were forced 
 to do this work; and in many parts of Italy this ancient 
 system was at an end. Very little mention is made of true 
 trade unions of butchers in the inscriptions thus far discov¬ 
 ered except those of the suarii or pork butchers. Granier 
 suggests that these conducted the whole butcher business of 
 Rome; 32 but this is a matter which we leave in abeyance, 
 in the absence of more exact data. 
 
 There were unions of workmen whose task was to fodder 
 cattle and other animals of the stock farms, One of these a 
 collegium pabulariorum is given us by Donati. 83 They were 
 allied to the haymakers; for hay is one kind of pabulum or 
 fodder. It is an inscription of a genuine labor union, and 
 is curious, showing how systematic they must have been in 
 getting down to nice distinctions, something like the division 
 of labor of the present day. 
 
 We have, however, an instance which comes near making 
 up the missing link connecting the cattle breeders with the 
 unions, in shape of a genuine collegium faenariorum** or 
 union of mowers who prepared the hay for the cattle and 
 sheep. The inscriptions, of which there are several, are the 
 result of the labors of Gruter, one of the most learned aud 
 reliable archaeologists, who is constantly quoted and con¬ 
 sulted by both Mommsen and Orel 1 i. B it the discovery of 
 a union of mowers which once <*x ed at a fashionable 
 watering place like the Puteoli, whe < this was found, does 
 not sufficiently attest. Orelli suppli.-.- the gap with several 
 other unions of hay-makers 35 
 
 si See chapters on Spartacus, Eunus, Athenian and Aristoniau. 
 
 32 See Histoire des Classes Ouvri'e^es, chap. xii. 
 
 33 Don. Cl. 9, n. 3 and 20. 
 
 si Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiques Tot us Orhis Romano rum,, 175, 9. 
 
 35 Orel!., Inscriptionum Latinarum, Co ectio. Nos. 45, 4,187 which la QtatarX 
 
 and No. 4,194 which is Gruter’s inscription 264. 
 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 THE GREAT TRADES VICTUALING SYSTEM. 
 
 How Rome Was Fed— Unions of Fishermen—Discovery of a 
 Strange Inscription at Pompeii, Proving the Political Power 
 and Organization of the Workingmen and Women’s Unions 
 —Female Suffrage in Italy—The Fish Salters—Wine Smok¬ 
 ers—Union of Spicemen—The G-ame-Hunters’ Organizations 
 —Unions of Amphitheatre Sweepers—Unions of Wagoners, 
 Ox-Drivers, Muleteers, Cooks,Weighers, Tasters and Milkmen 
 —The Cooking Utensil-Makers—Unions of Stewards—Old 
 Familiar Latin Names, with Familiar English Meanings Re¬ 
 produced—Gaius and the Twelve Tables—Numerous Notes 
 with References to Arcbteological Collections and to Histories 
 Giving Pages and many Necessary Renderings, of the Ob¬ 
 scure Curiosities Described. 
 
 Unions of fisherman, piscatores , l existed in numbers at 
 Rome, Ostia, Pisse and other points on the sea and the 
 mouths of the Italian streams. Considering the fact that 
 fish were in high regard with the wealthy people, the fish¬ 
 ing business was extensive. An account of a union of the 
 piscicapii , published in the Wiener Jahrbiicher, 2 causes 
 Orelli to remark that before elections for the aediles and 
 duumvirs in the municipal cities, the unions furnished 
 
 i Orell.. Scholce Artifieum et Opijicwn, No. 4,115. The inscription of this pair 
 of trade unions—the fishermen and divers—reads: “Ti. Claudio Esquil Severe 
 decnriali lietori, patrono corporis piscatorum et urinator. QQ. III. eiusdem 
 eorporis ob merita eius quod hie primus statuas duas, unam Antonini Aug. dom- 
 ini N. aliam lul Augustae dominae nosti. S. P. P. unacum Claudio Poutiano filio 
 fuo eq Rom. et hoc amplius eidem ccrpori donaverit HS. X. Milia N. ut ex usu- 
 ris eorum quodannis natali suo xvi. kal, Febr. sportulae viritim dividautur prae- 
 Bertam cum navigatio scapharum diligentia eius adquisita et confirmata sit. ex 
 decreto ordinis corporis piscatorum et urinatorum totius alv Tiber quibus ex SC. 
 coire licet S. P. P.—Romae. Grut. 391, 1. 
 o XX. p. 12-15, des Weiner Ja/trbuchs, 
 
390 
 
 ROME'S VICTUALING SYSTEM. 
 
 members to be voted for as candidates to the municipal 
 offices; and wliat is more strange, women, if it happened 
 that there were any thought proper for the places. The 
 inscription which records this fact was found among the 
 ruins of Pompeii. 
 
 The discovery of this ancient city has been of incalcu¬ 
 lable value to the students of sociology, in affording mod¬ 
 ern science an opportunity to compare ancient with mod¬ 
 ern life placed in juxtaposition. It brings to our vision 
 in realistic form, such as no human being can for an in¬ 
 stant doubt, the social and political life and habits of a 
 great people concerning which the surface historiogra¬ 
 phers have been profoundly, painfully silent! Who can 
 doubt the veracity of words inscribed on a tablet of mar¬ 
 ble, scrawled upon a wall and having been, perhaps, al¬ 
 ready a hundred years or more in use, and at last, in the 
 awful eruption of Vesuvius, at whose foot it stood, over¬ 
 whelmed, buried and lost to view under a thick stratum of 
 lava for one thousand seven hundred years; then all at 
 once dug out, delivered and held up to the gaze of men 
 now living, fresh as though just from the chisel of the 
 artifex signorum who graved it for his brother unionist? 
 Yet there it stands, its own monument for our blazing en¬ 
 lightenment to decipher. In modern political English it 
 reads like some very cranky caucus slate of a New York 
 ward Tammany club. Freely translated the inscription 
 reads as follows: 
 
 (а) “ Phoebus, together with his buyers, ask3 the peo¬ 
 ple to vote for Holcon, who was formerly president of the 
 union and for C. G. Rufus—two men nominated by ue." 
 (Meaning two of our men.) 
 
 (б) “Licinius Roman nominates and calls for the ballot* 
 of constituents in favor of Julius Polybius for superinten¬ 
 dent of public works.” 
 
 ( c ) w The members of the fishermen’s union (nominated 
 make choice of Popidius Rufus, for member of the board 
 of public works.” 
 
 (d) “ The international gold workers association of the 
 city of Pompeii demand for member of the board of pub- 
 works, Cuspis Pansa.” 
 
 (e) “ Serna, with her boys, ask that you work with a will 
 at the election and secure success, for the office of magi*- 
 
WOMEN IN ANCIENT POLITICS. 
 
 391 
 
 fcrate, to Julius Simple. He is a man in the fullest sense 
 of the word; a faithful servant of the people of Pompeii; 
 a good man; worthy of assuming public affairs.” 
 
 (/) “ Verna, the home-born, with her pupils in all right, 
 and good faith, put Miss or Mrs. Capella 8 to the front for 
 a seat in the board of magistrates.” 
 
 (g) “ It is worthy of you that you work for P. Popid for 
 member of the board of public works, with might and 
 will.” 
 
 (A) “Fortune (probably a female member) desires the 
 election of Marcellus.” 
 
 This is all very simple and homely. But it must be clear 
 to every one that such talk was confined to those who 
 were federated together and intimately acquainted with 
 one another; not that we would arbitrarily construe the 
 vernacular of a Roman municipal town, but there is a pe¬ 
 culiarly quaint air of familiarity which savors so remark¬ 
 ably of what is taking place in the unions of our own 
 cities and towns that it seems like a mirroring of the an¬ 
 cient upon modern brotherhoods. 4 
 
 This remarkable find goes far toward clearing up points 
 which otherwise might leave doubts upon our statements. 
 
 Orelli himself expresses surprise, especially upon the 
 phases of woman’s suffrage. 6 Whatever may have been 
 the actuating power at the bottom of general elections, it 
 is certainly proved by this inscription that in the labor 
 unions, women had not only accorded right but also a 
 practical hand in securing the choice of their unions 
 toward building up a democracy among the ancients. 
 
 > We read this feminine because the context shows it to be so. Duumvir has 
 no feminine termination and they could not alter the word as a political term. 
 
 4 The Latin of the inscription is as follows: 
 
 fa) “ M. Holconium priscum, C. Gaium Rufum Q. Viros, Phoebus cum emptorl- 
 bus suis rogat.” (i. e. eis suifragium fert). 
 
 fb) “Iulium Polybium aartilem, Licinius Romans rogat et tacit.” 
 
 (c) ‘‘ Popidium Rufum iEdilem Piscicapi faciunt ’’ 
 
 (d) 0. Cuspium Pansam aecilem, Auriflces universi rogant.” 
 
 ft) Junium Simplicem aedilem. Virum amplissimum, servatorem Populi Pom- 
 peiani, virum bonum, dignum republica, omni voluntate i'aciatis, Sema cum 
 pueris rogat.” 
 
 ff) “ Capellam duumvirum juri dicundo omni vel optima voluntate facit Verna 
 cum discentibus.’’ 
 
 (a) “P. Popidium Secundum iEdilum Omni Voluntate Facere dignus est. 
 fh) “ Marcellum Fortunata Cupit.” 
 
 5 Orell., Inscriptionum Latinorum Collectio, No. 3,700. " Ante comitia duum* 
 viralia et sedilicia in Municipiis Collegia, municipes, et, quod maxirne rnirum, 
 feminas quoque, ut iis, quibus favebant, apud alios suffragarentur, hujuscemodi 
 tabellas pubhce proposuxsse, ex Pompejiorum parietinis nuper compertum eat.”' 
 
392 
 
 ROME'S VICTUALING SYSTEM. 
 
 In this inscription we have not only a full verification of 
 our oonjecture that the trade unions were well organized 
 about the time of the labors of Christ but that they were 
 federated with similar communes all over the known 
 world, in universo and also that they achieved so great a 
 progress as to have actually been voting their own mem¬ 
 bers into municipal offices at or probably long before the 
 earthquake in A. D. 79. This does not, however, by any 
 means show that they were in the majority. We have 
 never claimed this. Far from it. The number of slaves 
 was always far in excess of the freedmen; and then, there 
 always were great numbers of freedmen who would not 
 organize and who were two indolent to work either for 
 themselves or for masters. 6 
 
 In addition to the fish catchers there were numerous 
 craftsmen who made it their business to dress, season and 
 put up the fish in barrels, casks and packages. These 
 were the ancient salarii ,’ of the Romans. It seems to be 
 an established term. Salarius applies in the inscriptions 
 to the fish salters; although it may apply to the salting of 
 any flesh for food. Used much in early England it differ¬ 
 entiated into the w T ord “ salary.” The salarii cur a tores 
 should be rendered fish curers, 8 instead of superintendents 
 of the business of fish salting as Orelii imagines, in at least 
 one case. 9 We have, in the inscriptions found in different 
 places, evidence enough to settle the question about their 
 being organized into unions. Sometimes they are called 
 corpores , bodies; sometimes collegia,™ unions. They were 
 all engaged in the vast work of victualing the people. 
 
 There were societies of fruit-purveyors of several differ¬ 
 ent sorts. We have already spoken of a queer inscription 
 at Rome, noted by Odenc, 11 showing that one Julius Kpo- 
 phra, once a cabinet maker, changed this business to that 
 of apple-man and with his wife Helen made a living near 
 the Roman Circus. They seem to have kept an apple 
 
 « Dr. Bucher. Aufstdnde der Unfrcien Arbelter. 
 
 T Marini, Atti, 2, p. 294. Corpus ealariorum. Orell., Inscriptions Latinarum 
 CoU., No. 1092. 
 
 8 This is the origin of the modem word “ salary.” In England, at other fish¬ 
 eries and salt woi’ks, workmen were paid in cakes of salt by the Romans. See 
 Pliny, Nat. Hist., XXXI. 7, and XLI. fin; Dion Cassius, lex. viii. 22, and hi, 93. 
 Digest, 2 lex. 15, tit. 8. 
 
 a Orell., Inscr. No. 3,464, note, also No. 1,092. 
 
 10 Supplement to Orelli’s Collcctio, by G. Henzfin, Vol. Ill, p. 170 of index sub 
 caption: • • Varia eollegiorum nomina. The several synonyms are herd explained. 
 
 11 Oderic, Inscriptiones, p. 74. 
 
UNIONS OF SPICE AND WINE MEN , HUNTERS 393 
 
 stand. So trivial a circumstance would scarcely have been 
 worth the labor of graving upon a tablet of stone to be 
 wondered at by their fellow men 20 centuries afterwards. 
 The more probable solution is that he belonged to the 
 cabinet makers* union, and from infirmity or other disa¬ 
 bility was pensioned off and allowed to pick up an occa¬ 
 sional denarius by selling apples in the open air. In that 
 case the union would naturally put his case on record. 
 
 The vinarii , u or vine dressers, and the vmitores often 
 
 brought wagon loads of grapes to the city. We are not 
 
 informed as to the exact manner of supplying the people 
 
 with these grapes. They were fruit of a season and were 
 
 probably disposed of somewhat as at present in any Italian 
 
 city. Many of the houses of the rich had slaves of their 
 
 own who went to the open market places and procured 
 
 these fruits in their season. The fruit of the olive tree 
 
 was sometimes used in the familv. 
 
 «/ 
 
 Rome had its mercatores, wholesale and retail, who al¬ 
 ways kept a supply of every kind of fruit in season. There 
 was a strong union of the wine dealers vini susceptores 
 legalized in the code of Theodosius; 18 and they are evi¬ 
 dently the same as the vinarii quoted above. 
 
 We may class the spice dealers’ unions also among the 
 purveyors of fruit; as these people had a strong organiza¬ 
 tion called the collegium aromatoriorum . M An inscription 
 proving this, has been discovered at Rome and cited by 
 Muratori. 
 
 The lords of the land were often too dainty to eat the 
 common products we have enumerated and were fond of 
 indulging in what they considered the nobler fruits of the 
 chase, venatio. Some 15 inscriptions have been discov¬ 
 ered portraying different phases of this sport and its pro¬ 
 ducts. At least one genuine union of hunters lias been 
 found; the collegium venatorum brought out by Muratori, 
 found in the vicinity of the fortified town of Corfinium of 
 the Peligni and not far from Sulmo. Doubtless there was 
 game in abundance at the time those hunters were there. 
 
 It would certainly be interesting to know more than an 
 inscription on a slab of stone can tell, in regard to the 
 
 M Orell., Inscr. Nos. 3,921, 4,302, 6,430. 
 
 » Cod. Theodosii, lib. XVI., tit. IV, leg. 4. 
 
 14 Muratori. Thesaurvis Veterum Inscnptionum, 811, 4 - 
 
394 
 
 ROME'S VICTUALING SYSTEM 
 
 exact object of these hunters, away in the wilds of the Ap 
 penines; especially as they might have been runaway 
 slaves who, under the protecting shield of some law regu¬ 
 lating hunting fraternities, carried on business here. 14 
 Another inscription cited by Orelli 18 under his “ critical 
 observations of Hagenbuch, portrays a commune consist¬ 
 ing of a number of persons, some of whose names are 
 given, hunting, apparently for other than live game; per¬ 
 haps for the ores of copper. It is credited to Cardinali 
 and was found at Velitres. A still more singular one is 
 that cited by Gruter and found at Naples. Orelli places 
 it in his Nes Scenica —scenes in nature. Were it not too 
 long we would give its rendering, as it speaks of wild 
 animals and scenes. Singularly enough its words vena - 
 tione passerum, sparrow hunting, is insisted on by the great 
 master 16 as meaning struthionum , of ostriches. We know 
 that the venator passerum sometimes applies to turbot fish¬ 
 ing ; and we are inclined to think, notwithstanding the 
 great respect we entertain for this expounder of abbrevi¬ 
 ations and hieroglyths in his practices in archaeology, that 
 he may be mistaken. 
 
 Another family or union of hunters; collegium venatorum 
 is given by Gruter, 17 as coming from Monselice which is 
 quoted by this author not as a business union but as a 
 family because the words jamilia venatoria occur upon 
 the stone. Orelli, however calls it a collegium in his in¬ 
 dex to Artes et Opijicia. 
 
 A beautiful specimen of a genuine hunting club, colleg¬ 
 ium venatorum, was picked up at Beaufort in France 18 
 which verifies our suspicion, that some of the hunters* 
 unions were escaped slaves who, without losing their or¬ 
 ganization or parting company, fled to the far distant for¬ 
 ests and there established themselves in the new art of hunt¬ 
 ing, thus maintaining their existence in the wilderness. 
 This is one theory. We shall presently speak of another. 
 The inscription reads rather strangely. 19 There was a 
 union of hunters who used to fight wild beasts in the am¬ 
 phitheatre, or the arena, but who broke away through 
 
 i* Mur,, Thesaw ., 531, 2. 
 
 H Orell., No. 4,895. 
 
 17 Gruter, Ins*r. Toiius Orbis Rom., 484. 0. 
 
 is Gruter, Inscr. rot. Orb. 331, 11. 
 
 l# Me moires Preseutes a I’Aoud., d. b, livre IT. p. 399. 
 
GLADIATORS FIGHTING WILD BEASTS. 395 
 
 conspiracy. It is well-known that gladiators most of whom 
 were slaves were compelled to fight and kill each other or 
 fight and be killed by wild beasts on the sands of the am¬ 
 phitheatre, enacting scenes of the most terrible and bloody 
 character known either to the past or present history of 
 the human race. They often had a horror and sometimes 
 were repelled by their own conscientious scruples, against 
 these ghastly scenes enacted in presence of thousands of 
 spectators shouting, gloating and betting on their bloody 
 exercise of muscle and wit. This seems to have been a 
 union of them who, apparently in good faith, had formed 
 a conspiracy to escape and remain together in the frater¬ 
 nal bond. At any rate this is the opinion of Orelli-Hen- 
 zen. 20 This second theory, then, although somewhat in 
 contradiction to the reading of the inscription quoted, 
 suggests that the “ collegium venatorum qui ministerio are - 
 nano fungunt” was no other than a union of servants of 
 the ring, a part of whose duties, in addition to what we 
 have mentioned, was to undertake long journeys officially 
 in quest of the wild beasts that were used in the amphi¬ 
 theatres, during the emperors. These fierce beasts are 
 known to have been sought, and highly prized by the 
 spectators who delighted to witness a gladiator fighting 
 an enraged lion, tiger, leopard, wolf or bear. Beaufort is 
 at the foot of the mountains of Savoy where to this day, 
 bears of a large size give the farmers and herdsmen 
 trouble. Wolves also still linger among the great forests 
 of the inaccessible mountain slopes; and although we are 
 not aware of panthers or tigers or any of the largest feline 
 animals being found in modern Italy or France, yet they 
 might have existed there in ancient times. But there 
 was game enough to have attracted the hunters for the 
 great games of Borne. 
 
 The archseologists have found as many as five inscrip¬ 
 tions of these unions of the arena. On one of them is 
 written “ arenae gladiatorium purganclae.” A union of 
 gladiators who clean the amphitheatre—giving incontest¬ 
 able evidence of a union of amphitheatre cleaners. 21 The 
 unionists were not slaves. Slaves had no privileges. 
 
 2u “ Collegium Venatorum Deensium, qui ministerio arenario fungent. Ded. 
 Kx. deereto Soluto voto.” 
 
 21 OrelL, Collegia Corpora Sodalicia, No. 7,209. I riser. Lat. Coll., Vol III, p. 
 456. Cf. Mtmoires PrtsenU a V Academic, Vol. 2, p. 399, 1854. 
 
39 G 
 
 ROME'S VICTUALING SYSTEM. 
 
 They were freedmen, and those we mention were char¬ 
 tered and existed according to law. 
 
 But whatever might have been the special object of the 
 hunters, their general object was, of course, to supply the 
 table of those who could pay, with the delicacies of the 
 chase. The unions had wagon transports to the stations 
 in the forests, communicating with the cities. The diffi¬ 
 culty of taking game must have been very great, consider¬ 
 ing that gunpowder was not in use. Bows and arrows 
 were used and for the manufacture of such implements 
 they had unions of workingmen making devices for trap¬ 
 ping, for archery and harpooning. There being a great 
 demand for them, not only for hunting purposes but for 
 war, these weapons were of the best quality; and archery 
 won a high station in ancient times as an accomplishment. 
 
 In the great system of victualing the people of ancient 
 Rome and its almost innumerable provincial towns and 
 cities, some of which were fully as aristocratical and fas¬ 
 tidious as the Romans themselves, the teamsters’ numer¬ 
 ous associations played a no inconsiderable role. We find 
 numerous evidences in the inscriptions, that they were at 
 one time organized. There were the ox drivers jumenta- 
 rii 22 who worked at the port of Rome conveying grain, oil, 
 wine and other commodities to the storehouses of the 
 weighers’ and measurers’ association, men sores portuenses ." 
 
 These and the unions of muleteers, coll mulionum et asi- 
 nariorum 2 * that existed everywhere in Rome and out of 
 it, did most of the work of conveying provisions from pro¬ 
 ducers to consumers. Perhaps, in making this remark -we 
 are exaggerating somewhat on the amount of work ex¬ 
 pected of them. Their system was such that they could 
 have performed it all; but there seems never to have been 
 a time when the trade unions obtained a complete control 
 of this w r ork. The large class of capitalists 26 were in con¬ 
 stant competition with organized labor and always had a 
 large force of mules or oxen at work. Nor must it be 
 
 o 
 
 82 One was found or observed by Muratori, Thesaur. Inzer. 511, 3. The second 
 by Conuegietur, Nom. Eat. p. 219. A (hird by Cardmali, Iseriz. Velit, p. 41, found 
 "t Veletri. A fourth, that at Beaufort and a filth, prob. at Pisa by Marini, XIII. 
 
 Gxorn. di Pi si, p. 25. 
 
 83 Oreil., laser. Lat. Coltectio, No. 4,093. Momm. De Coll, et Sodal. Rom. p. 97. 
 
 2-i Gran, de Cassagn., Hist, des Classes Ouvrilres. p. 510, Grut, 462, 1. Orel}., 
 
 Coll. Pubiica et Privata, No. 7,194. 
 
 2 D Idem No. 7,206, coll, muiionum et asinariorum. 
 
UNIONS CHAMPIONED BY C LODI US. 397 
 
 understood that anything like all the work of any kind, 
 was a great length of time, ever performed by the unions 
 alone. The competition between the unions and the spec¬ 
 ulators must have raged with activity for at least 200 
 years, and finally the hatred of the speculating oligarchy 
 went into legislation. 
 
 After endless turmoils, among which the unions, cham¬ 
 pioned by Clodius, not only restored their old rights of 
 organizations but gained many more, the struggle culmi¬ 
 nated in Csesar suppressing nearly all of them. But the 
 unionists were strong and influential and in course of time, 
 after the death of Cicero, Caesar and other enemies, they 
 reassumed most of their fallen power. Nothing was able 
 to grind them out entirely. 
 
 History gives us little in regard to the methods by 
 which the armies of the ever victorious Romans were sup¬ 
 plied with provisions. If there is any mention by histor¬ 
 ians of a union or association of sutlers who made it their 
 business to supply the armies stationed upon Roman ter¬ 
 ritory, we have failed to find it. There are inscriptions, 
 however, which are beginning to reveal a subject pregnant 
 of importance in solving misty queries regarding the phe¬ 
 nomenal successes of Roman arms. We have already 
 shown that from the end of Numa’s reign the Roman arm¬ 
 ies were supplied with arms in a great degree by the 
 unions of armorers. 
 
 It is here relevant to prove, if possible, that they were 
 also supplied by them with provisions. For at least 500 
 years the armies used union made wagons, union made 
 swords, union made javelins, bows and arrows, helmets 
 and shields, wore union made shoes, trowsers, hats and 
 coats, and tore down the walls and battlements of their 
 enemies with union made catapults and battering rams. 
 Did they not eat union made bread, union cured meat and 
 drink the delicious wines and beverages prepared by the 
 organized victualers? True, when far away in their for¬ 
 eign conquests the Roman soldiers depended much upon 
 the pillage and plunder of their unfortunate victims; but 
 at home, when the armies were at quarters this question 
 sharply applies. The student of sociology is particularly 
 interested in this subject, because this matter of union 
 labor in supplying the legions goes far in settling the long 
 
m 
 
 ROME'S VICTUALING ST ST EM. 
 
 mooted problem hanging over the decline and fall of 
 Rome. 
 
 Rome prospered in peace and in arms, until the glut of 
 conquest changed her statesmen from the wise tolerance 
 of Numa and Servius Tullius to the rapacious slave-hold¬ 
 ing policy which sought to destroy the unions that made 
 possible her unparalleled success. But when gorged with 
 enormous wealth, she lost her manhood and swine-like 
 fell upon and devoured her own nurslings and friends. 
 The sin struck back upon herself like the fangs of the 
 tortured crotalus and poisoned her own blood with a 
 reacting plague of ingratitude and pollution. 
 
 The stones have already revealed to us that there ex¬ 
 isted unions of victualers who made a business of supply¬ 
 ing the armies. They were called “collegia castrensiari- 
 orum,” 28 sutlers. We are not informed of the exact rela¬ 
 tion they had with the armies; whether like our sutlers 
 they hung around the flanks and peddled with the sold¬ 
 iers, or whether they supplied the armies by contract with 
 the senate or consular generals. 
 
 In addition to the unions already mentioned we find 
 that the cooks and waiters also had their organization of 
 self-help. They may all be classed as one family or com¬ 
 mune, although in some cases at least, the cooks and the 
 waiters were apart. In the inscriptions there are three 
 unions of cooks; one a “collegium coctorum” 27 who took 
 charge of the stately business of cookery in the palace of 
 Augustus Csesar, at Borne. Another is mentioned on the 
 slab as “cocus,” 28 a cook which was found at Rome and is 
 cited by Marini, 29 and the third also speaks of a man who 
 was an Alban cook, evidently president of the society. It 
 
 was found on the site of the ancient citv of Alba. 
 
 %/ 
 
 Mommsen cites the “collegium praegustatorum’’ 30 men¬ 
 tioned by Gruter as a genuine trade union of waiters, who, 
 as this designation implies, were foretasters as well as 
 waiters. The rich in Rome were ever beset with fears of 
 being poisoned. They were obliged to have their food tasted 
 
 28 See Bucher, “Aufstiinde der Unfreien Arbeiter,” pp. 3-10. Geldoligarkie, 
 
 Pauperismus, Sklaventhum. 
 
 27 Orell., Nos. 7,189, 6,314 and elsewhere. Also Gruter, “Inscriptionea An¬ 
 tique Totius Orbis Romanorum,” 649, 5. and several others. 
 
 28 Cardinali, “Dipl.” 410. 29 Marini, “Atti,” 2, p. 610. 
 
 29 Romanelli, “Topog.” I, 3, p. 213. 81 Grut., “Inscr., Antiqu.,” 681, IS 
 
 80 Momra., “De Coll, et Sodal. Rom.,” p. 78, note 25. 
 
SPLENDID WORK OF TEE UNIONS, 
 
 399 
 
 of by the waiter in their presence. If the waiter ate it 
 with impunity they need have no fears. The waiters be¬ 
 ing in constant communication with the cooks were sup¬ 
 posed to know all the dangerous designs that might origi¬ 
 nate among the kitchen people, to be consummated in the 
 dining rooms ; and were thus held responsible for the 
 honesty of both themselves and the cooks. They were 
 required to taste the milk they served to the gentry direct 
 from the jugs or pots, ampullae of the milk men, or the 
 collegium lacticariorum a milkman’s union mentioned by 
 Mommsen* 1 as a corpus or labor union. This interlinking 
 of many trades, whose sympathies and contact sometimes 
 fitted them for carrying out cunningly concocted plots 
 with the waiter thus became practically a sort of key to 
 the treachery. Even the manufacturers of these milk jars 
 had unions, one of which, in the collection of Gruter was 
 found inscribed on a slab of slate or stone discovered 
 at Narbonne. 32 
 
 A stone has been dug up bearing the inscription colleg¬ 
 ium vasulariorum. It exhibits the relics of a union of 
 manufacturers of cooking utensils. Most of their produc¬ 
 tions were of copper or bronze. The vascula were of vari¬ 
 ous shapes; spits, ladles, cups, bowls, soup spoons and 
 many other implements of cookery. Hammer work with 
 the ancient artisans was a fine art. Sometimes the best 
 workmen, if not slaves, had organizations, which were 
 called the malleatores , hammerers and are mentioned by 
 Orelli as inscribed on a stone. 83 
 
 There also were the basket makers’ unions the products 
 of whom, sportulae, figure in the decree of laws governing 
 sacred unions as found in the Roman temple of Barber- 
 inis and given in full by Orelli in No. 2,417 of his great 
 collection, which is in itself a curiosity. Other dishes 
 used by the cooks were two-eared flagons or flasks for 
 wine and other liquors, amphorae, besides a number of 
 others, for nearly all of which we have proof of unions hav¬ 
 ing existed, who conducted their manufacture. 
 
 Finally the tricliniarchs or stewards who had the su¬ 
 preme charge of kitchen and dining room. Their name 
 
 ** Gruter, Inscription** Totiu* Orbit Romanorum, 643.10. 
 
 ** Orell , Insbriptionum Latinorum Col lectio, No. 3,220. 
 
 *3 Fabrett, p. 724. 443. 
 
400 
 
 ROME'S VICTUALING SYSTEM. 
 
 was derived from the celebrated triclinium or dining-couch 
 of the ancients. It was a seat, generally cushioned, which 
 extended around three sides of the table, upon which 
 people did not sit, but reclined —a practice so demonstra¬ 
 tive of exuberant luxury, if not of lasciviousness that it 
 was abolished as one of the abominations by the Chris¬ 
 tians and seems to have completely disappeared from the 
 earth. There is extant at least one monument giving clear 
 evidence of a society of this kind, called in the inscrip¬ 
 tion 34 tricliniarum socii. It is in the museum of Rome and 
 bears a very queer, unpolished style of Latin. 
 
 84 Fabett, 448. 60. 
 
CHAPTER XVn. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL COMMUNES 
 
 AMUSEMENTS OF OLD. UNIONS OF PLAYERS. 
 
 The Collegia Sclenicorum —Unions of Mimics—Horrible Mimic 
 Performances in Sicily—Bloody Origin of Wakes—Unions 
 of Dancers, Trumpeters, Bagpipers, and Hornblowers—The 
 Flute-Players—Roman Games—Unions of Circus Performers 
 —Ot Gladiators—Of Actors—Murdering Robust Wrestlers 
 for Holiday Pastimes—Unions of Fortune-tellers—Proofs in 
 the Inscriptions—Ferocious Gladiatorial Scenes between the 
 Workingmen and Tigers, Lions, Bears, and Other Wild Beasts 
 made compulsory by Roman Law. 
 
 The Greeks and Homans are known to have given at an 
 early period much attention to amusements, in which it 
 appears there was a larger admixture of the lowly, with 
 the noble class than occurred in other pursuits. The 
 theatre with the Greeks, was quite a democratic affair. 
 The earliest theratres were rude; but during the heroic 
 ages immense buildings were constructed. That of Me- 
 gapolis in Arcadia was of gigantic size. Their size was 
 such that roofs were out of the question, and people sat 
 on stone seats for from four to eight hours in daytime 
 exposed to sun and rain, during the performances, listen¬ 
 ing to, and bound up in enthusiastic delight over the ini¬ 
 mitable sallies of Aristophanes in the “Babylonians,” s a tyr¬ 
 ing the tyrant Cleon, or thrilled by the sublime grandeur 
 of tragedy and mimic of Sophocles and Euripides at 
 Athens. Some of the great theatres were capable of hold¬ 
 ing 60,000 spectators. The great theatre at Ephesus was 
 660 feet in diameter and one in Syracuse 440 feet. An 
 immense wooden theatre, built by Scaurus at Rome, 55 
 
ORGANIZED AMU SEDA 
 
 yean before Christ, and at the moment when intolerance 
 to the labor unions and profligacy among the grandees 
 were beginning to crumble the proud Romans into de¬ 
 moralization and decay, was capable of accommodating 
 80,000 people. 
 
 We find no fewer than six genuine trade unions; called, 
 on the stones, collegia scaenicorum. 1 They are coeval with 
 the age of the Roman theatres. Their members of course, 
 fared better than the gladiators,* another class who con¬ 
 tributed to the Roman pastimes; but they were hard- 
 worked people and all belonged to the proletaries. 
 
 We shall bring to view as illustrative of our object, 
 principally the Roman life in this section of the ancient 
 trade unions, not because we are wanting of archaeologi¬ 
 cal specimens; for there are very many profoundly in¬ 
 teresting relics of the life of ancient labor now being dis¬ 
 covered among the ruins of the Greeks. Renan, Wescher, 
 Foucart and Bockh have eloquently told the story and 
 the solemn silence of crumbling marbles, like skeletons 
 seem to be speaking in incoherent phrase of a day when 
 the whole Greek world was ablaze with labor communes, 
 whose secrecy was suggestive of a smouldering social 
 volcano. But if we gave them all it would make this 
 work tediously voluminous. Besides, the inscriptions in 
 the Latin tongue seem to bring the matter under inves¬ 
 tigation more conspicuously before us, not only because 
 they are topographically less remote but because the lan- 
 gauge in which they come to us is smoother and more in¬ 
 telligible to the readers of the western world. 
 
 In the Wiener Jahrbuch for 1829 there appeared a de¬ 
 ciphering of an inscription on a plate of bronze containing 
 an epitaph of the president of a union of mimic actors. 
 It is written in the second person. He had lived to be 
 nearly a hundred years old; had never aspired above his 
 fellows and had died bidding them farewell It is in the 
 Museum at Pesth. Several others have been found in 
 Austrian territory. Orelli* describes several anaglyphs 
 
 i One found at Wasserstadt, Aqucemtum , a suburb of Bud*, by Labus sad 
 
 S nblished at Milan, 1827 reads: “ Genio Collegio Soaaniariortun Felan, Seoundus 
 
 lonitor Decreto Decurionum. 
 
 - Chapter xii., Spartacus, init. 
 
 8 Orelli, Inscriptionum Latinorum Coilectio, In hi* QMt gt a Cbrporu, dri a Md l 
 
 No. 7,188. Vol. Ill, Henzen. 
 
A CURIOUS STONE. 
 
 403 
 
 in stone and metal composition, which have withstood the 
 erosions of nature fully 2,000 years. In the Res Scaenica 
 and ImcU , one is quoted from Muratori, 4 hearing uncer¬ 
 tain evidence that it was a union of histrionic artists. It 
 was from Prseneste. Two remarkable tablets bearing 
 record of the year 112 A. D. are noted by Gorins. 5 They 
 were preserved in the museum at Florence, and unless 
 recently removed, are there still. Upon these slabs are 
 inscribed the names of soldiers of the seven Roman co¬ 
 horts, of the praetorian force of Misenum ever on the alert 
 conducting the scenic plays. Claudius Gnorimus is be¬ 
 ing made an aedile or superintendent of public works by 
 the battalion; plays are going on by the acting comrades 
 with their buffoons. Among all these are to be observed: 
 1st. The head mimic actor; 2d. The mimic Greek lead¬ 
 ers; 3d. The clowns; 4th. The Greek clowns; 5th. The 
 Greek actors; 6th. The jesting dandies; 7th. A working¬ 
 man. All the names of the soldiers are given in the vo¬ 
 cative case. Consequently the inscription is too lohg to 
 be given entire in any work which we have seen. It 
 portrays the kind of military theatrical scene which used 
 to be enacted 200 years after the beginning of the Chris¬ 
 tian era, or about 1,700 years ago and of course, much 
 earlier. 6 Another inscription appears among the Res 
 Scaenica in Orelli’s catalogue which still more clearly rep¬ 
 resents a mutually protective union of actors. It was 
 found at the French city of Vienne, a few miles from Ly¬ 
 ons, on the Rhone, by Millin. 7 It is also very ancient 
 and shows that in that far off country of the Allobroges 
 there was a great population long before Caesar’s inva¬ 
 sion. 
 
 Although we are endeavoring to give the facts consec- 
 
 * Muratori, Thesaur., G59, 1; Gruter, laser. Tot. Orb. Rom., 330,3. 
 
 6 Cf. Etruscan laser.. I. p. 125 and II, p. 447 and Mur., S86-887, 
 
 6 Consult Orellius, Inscriptionum Latmarum Collectio, No. 2,603. Muratori, 
 Thesaur, 886-7. Gorius Etr. , I. p, 128. “ Meinorabiles sunt tabulae anni p. Chr. 
 212, duae a Gorio Etr. 1. p. 125 (2,447). et Mur. 8b6 et 887 editae, Florent.iae nunc 
 adsertae, in quibus referuntur nomina militum ex Coliortibus VII. Vigiliun et 
 Classis praetoriae Misenatis, qui Ludos scenicos egerunt, quuna Claudius Gnori¬ 
 mus aedilis factus easet a vexillatione, ludosque ederet, ‘ agentibus commilitoni- 
 bus cum suis acroamatibus ’ In liis notandi: 1. Arcliimimus. 2. Archimiml 
 Graeci. 3. Stupidi. 4 Stupidi Graeci. 5. Scaenici Graeci. 6. Scurra. 7. Oper 
 arius. Omnia militum nomina vocativo efferuntur,” For more on then exillum. 
 red flag, and vexillatio , consult our chapter on the ancient red flag oi the work 
 ingman. 
 
 7 Voyage, 2, p. 21. 
 
404 
 
 ORGANIZED AMU SEES. 
 
 utively, we shall here be compelled, for want of data, to 
 mention in an anacoluthical manner, some of the most 
 interesting of these unions known to have existed coeval 
 with those times, or approximately so. 
 
 The communiones mimorum , one of which 8 was dis¬ 
 covered in the ruins of the theatre Bovillensis, and others 
 in great numbers in Greece 9 and elsewhere, were unions 
 of mimic actors. They constituted an order by them 
 selves. It appears that they marched around in the cities 
 and took from their friends and the public whatever gifts 
 were offered. We mention these data to exhibit to our 
 readers the collossal scale on which amusements were 
 conducted, that the mind may be prepared to compre¬ 
 hend the vast amount of labor of the lowly, which the evo¬ 
 lutions of this business entailed. 
 
 Following up our scheme of inquiry into the dark chasms 
 and gaps of history, from a standpoint of sociological in¬ 
 vestigation, our point of intensest interest is the question 
 whether these purveyors of pastimes were organized. Of 
 this there is abundance of evidence in the inscriptions. 
 In the catalogue of the archaeologist Orelli, there appear 
 no less than 12 tolerably well preserved slabs which show 
 not less than a hundred unions ! 
 
 At Rome there is an inscription, much broken and de¬ 
 faced by time and neglect, 10 which bears positive proof 
 that the theatre players were not only organized but that 
 they, like the gladiators belonged to the plebeian stock. 
 Caput VI., of Orelli’s work, headed Ludi , Res Scaeniea et 
 cet., has no less than 116 inscriptions, a large number 
 of which are seen at a glance to be either genuine unions 
 or corporate communes. But as some of these unions 
 were those of gladiators, we reserve their description for 
 that more tragical and brutal class of amusement. 
 
 A very remarkable mimic performance for enjoyment 
 was once in vogue during the insurrection of the Sicilian 
 slaves B. C. 143-134. It may not be generally known 
 that in addition to accredited kings and t} r rants of Sicily 
 there once reigned a king of the slaves. The extraordi- 
 
 8 Orell., laser.. No. 2,625, also Nos. 4,094.4,101. 
 
 9 Mommsen, De Coliegiis et Sodaliciis Romunorum, p. 83. “Communia mim¬ 
 orum Romanorum, et in nomine et in institutis rd *pivd tui> nepi r'ov Aiorvaoi 
 rexviTMi> referent, quae apud Graacos ampla et plurima fuerunt.” Idem, note 6, 
 
 ** Communia Mimorum multa inveniuntur,” etc., etc. 
 
 U Orell., No. 2,619; Marini, Atti. 2, p. 488. 
 
FOOD OF TEE WORK PEOPLE. 
 
 405 
 
 nary history of king Eunus is so interesting and so re¬ 
 plete with passages which enlighten the student of so¬ 
 ciology on points that we have reserved for it a separate 
 chapter as a special illustration of our theme. 11 It is 
 enough here to bring forward the episode alluded to in 
 evidence of the fact that in ancient times theatrical per¬ 
 formances were sometimes conducted in presence of ene¬ 
 mies whereby to tantalize and to wreak revenge. The 
 Sicilian capitalists, landlords and slaveholders had for a 
 long time been growing niggardly and cruel. It was a 
 common thing for a slave master owning from 500 to 
 1,000 slaves, to call their poor little children together 
 precisely as the herder calls his swine, and feed them 
 nuts, pods and dried figs 12 because the helpless, enslaved 
 and horribly cruelized beings were considered no better 
 than hogs. One Polias, an enormously wealthy Agrigen- 
 tine not only thus abused his slaves but often whipped 
 large numbers of them at the post at night, to prepare 
 them for obedience the following day. Pamophilus, who 
 owned 500 slaves at Enna in Sicily, was another extremely 
 rich planter. He starved his human chattels, while at 
 the same time driving them beyond their powers. One 
 day several of them ventured to ask him for more cloth¬ 
 ing ; for the place is many feet above the sea and chilly 
 during some seasons of the year. Their supplication 
 though given in a respectful manner was treated not 
 only with refusal but with a severe castigation. His wife, 
 Megallis, was, if possible, the most heartless and brutal of 
 the two. She, with her own hand stabbed and whipped 
 to death several of her female slaves, first torturing them 
 with her knife and her stiletto or needle. 13 Unable to en¬ 
 dure their inhuman tortures the infuriated slaves sud¬ 
 denly arose in rebellion and seizing their tormentors 
 murdered them in great numbers. Pamophilus was blud¬ 
 geoned in the theatre of Enna in presence of his wife, 
 Megallis. A council was held on her case, before her 
 husband’s dead body, in the theatre. Our authority does 
 
 11 8ee Chap. VII. An account of the Mimic plays at the sieges, pp. 229-230. 
 
 12 See Dr. Biicher, Aufst&nde der Unfreien Arbeiter , p. 63-64, quoting Stot*na 
 cm Florilus, LXII, 48. We have also in many places given quotations proving 
 inis by other authors. See index. Food oj the Slaves and Frtedmen. 
 
 is Consult chapter *v On Eunus. and the first Sicilian war, where quota¬ 
 tions explaining these b;utalities, taken from the fragments of Diodorus, are 
 given, together with excerpts from Bucher and others. 
 
406 
 
 ORGANIZED AM USERS, 
 
 not establish that the mimic performance was gone 
 through with during the wild gloatings of that bloody 
 night; but no doubt the tables were turned upon the 
 trembling millionaires who before were wont to shout 
 with almost equal savagery at the mutual murder of their 
 myrmidons acting as their slaves. The result of the trial 
 of Megallis, was her condemnation and sentence to death. 
 She was dragged to a rock and plunged headlong into 
 the hideous abyss by the women themselves. Their 
 daughter, a tender girl who had many times remonstrated 
 against her mother’s cruelty, was treated with respectful 
 courtesy, guarded from danger and under escort sent to 
 a place of safety. This uprising lasted 10 years; during 
 which time many places were captured by siege. The 
 slaves who, according to history, 14 at length arose to the 
 number of 200,000 in Sicily, inaugurated the system of 
 holding histrionic mimes composed in their own rude 
 vehicles of thought and represented by performers who 
 could best reproduce, in presence of their previous tor* 
 mentors, scenes which they and their children had suf¬ 
 fered when they were chattels. In this manner they 
 doubtless wreaked a rude and gloating satisfaction too 
 malignant for true humanity, but certainly not surpris¬ 
 ing, considering their former misery. 14 
 
 Spartacus, the celebrated gladiator, after the battle of 
 Picenum, when he held in his hands the officers and men 
 of the Roman army as prisoners of war, although a 
 humane and kind-hearted general, delighted his soldiers 
 by compelling those proud and high-born gentiles to re¬ 
 enact upon the field of battle and in honor of the manes 
 of Crixus their fallen hero, the same gladiatorial scenes 
 which he and his comrades when slaves, were destined 
 to perform on the arena. In the captive’s hand was put 
 the gladium and in the humiliating garb of an ergastular- 
 ius, or convict, condemned to fight in the mock amphi¬ 
 theatre and for his audience the vast army of victorious 
 rebel slaves and gladiators, many a haughty Roman knight 
 with his unspeakable contempt for the very condition of 
 
 14 For all known particulars of this great servile war, »« BQcher, Auijtdndt 
 
 der Unfreien Arbeiter. 
 
 15 Bucher, Aufst., S. 66-67. Dlod. XXXIV., frag. 34. LBdara. DU Du/nynjun 
 Kiinstler, pp. 105-131, where are explained the numerous theatrical habits to which 
 
 the Greek artisans were addicted. 
 
ORIGIN OF WAKES. 
 
 407 
 
 slavery, was forced to make the runs and re-enact the 
 bloody work it had been the now victorious rebels’ own 
 undignified misfortune to perform upon the Roman sands. 
 Surely, the knights of Lentulus, Poplicola and the other 
 captured soldiers could now have a practical insight into 
 the causes of the great insurrection, when, under sting¬ 
 ing urgents of their mock scliolae praecep tores, they 
 punched each other, to the music of jeer and of derision 
 from 70,000 vengeance-wreaking infuriates! 
 
 Wakes 16 held over the deceased bodies of friends are 
 not of Christian origin but of a much higher Pagan an¬ 
 tiquity. Again, where history is silent, the inscriptions 
 —those whispering chroniclers like grinning skeletons 
 of the murdered—survive to lisp their testimony be¬ 
 fore our courts of science. This subject of the origin and 
 practice of holding wakes, supposed by some to belong 
 to the Christianized races, is really to be sought among 
 the stones which tell the savage tales of haughty masters’ 
 funeral feasts whereat poor workingmen were forced to 
 fight as gladiators; and when they fell by mutually inflicted 
 gashes, were buried beside the great dead hero with the 
 object of remaining guard to him as they had done in life. 
 This is the true origin of wakes. They were originally, 
 extremely bloody, and should be classed among other 
 specimens of moribund or fading heathen customs, that 
 are gradually disappearing from the earth. 
 
 Scholars reading the Latin classics, are sometimes puz¬ 
 zled to comprehend the reason why Cicero, Suetonius, 
 Florus and the rest, so unexceptionally speak of the dan¬ 
 cer, saltator; the female dancer, saltatrix , and the little girl 
 dancer, saltalricula, with a species of contumely. Of 
 everything not human, however humble, they could speak 
 in praise. Their favorite horses, dogs, cats, even cows 
 could earn a good word and a caress; and all things ger¬ 
 mane to their household were worthy of a feeling thought. 
 But it is a seemingly strange fact that dancers who worked 
 so hard to amuse the ancients, get only a reproachful 
 mention. 
 
 Among amusements it may be best to class the various 
 kinds of musical instrument players. There was a regular 
 union of the trumpeters, aenatoresN Another sort of 
 
 o Friedlander, Da-tlcUungcn aua der Sittcngeschich'.c Hums. II, 16. 
 
408 
 
 ORGANIZED AMUSERS. 
 
 trumpeter was the buccinator , who played the sh«j)*ar^fs 
 horn which had a long range of sound. 18 These trumpet¬ 
 ers also accompanied the army. Usually the home* were 
 crooked. Mommsen who has worked out the evidences 
 in regard to the Roman arrangement of centurians, in ac¬ 
 cordance with the military notions which distributed the 
 trade unions into squads of tens and hundreds, thinks that 
 another trumpeter, the liticen 19 also had his union, prob¬ 
 ably a mutually protective association like the musicians* 
 unions of the present time. The liticenes , were clarion 
 blowers and their music was shrill and exciting. Still an¬ 
 other kind of trumpeters were the tubicenes 20 who are like¬ 
 wise known to have been an organized profession or trade. 
 They played the tuba. It is difficult to understand how 
 a separate society was necessary for each instrument. If 
 there were a number of different instruments in each, 
 corresponding to a band of music organized for self-sup¬ 
 port, as in our times, it would not appear remarkable. 
 
 The union of scabillarii 21 does not appear so inconsist¬ 
 ent ; since the ancient scabellium was an awkward instru¬ 
 ment played upon by the feet, while very probably the 
 hands were also employed thrumming another instrument 
 whose harmonies combined, made a band of themselves. 
 The bagpipe is known to be an ancientinstrument-—so old 
 that its invention is ascribed to a god of the mythical an¬ 
 tiquity. Whether the old tibia utricularis was the identi¬ 
 cal bagpipe of the Scotch Highlanders is a question; but 
 judging from the derivation of the word there is a strong 
 reason to suppose that no great change has taken place in 
 its construction. The bagpipers had an association called 
 the collegium utricularium 22 and there are several inscrip¬ 
 tions to that effect. In addition to the one found by Do- 
 nati, we have one described in Gruter’s collection and cat¬ 
 alogued by Orelli.” It was found at Lyons. It is some¬ 
 thing like an epitaph and the work bears the marks of 
 having been dedicated to the name of the president, mag - 
 
 17 Of this we have assurance In the work of Grater, Inscriptiones Totiut OHA 
 Rcmmorum, No. 201, 4; a marble slab giving unmistakable evidenoe. 
 
 Idem, 1,116, 4. x» Orell., Inter., No. 4,106. 
 
 * Idem, Nos. 2,448 and 1,808 both were collegia or onions. 
 
 8i Orell. Inter . 4,117; 2,648. 
 
 *2 Orell., Nos. 4,119, 4,120, 4,121, all were unions, also Donat!, 2, p. 470, •, 
 cites a stone found at Oabelli, wnich has merited considerable comment. The 
 Inscription registers a genuine union 
 
 » Orell., Inter. Lai Coll. No. 4,244. Nos. 9.208 and 6,803 are also unions. 
 
WIND INSTRUMENT PLAYERS. 
 
 409 
 
 ister , of the organization; although, in this case no men¬ 
 tion is made of the usual word collegium or corpus. 
 
 The cornicen or horn player was another musician 34 who 
 is found mentioned on the same marble with a liticen at 
 Rome. But the music of the horn blowers and that of the 
 clarion players was so similar that it may, in this case, be 
 a confusion of the two in one. 
 
 The flute players deserve a more particular mention. 
 Among the Romans they wore called tibicenes, and among 
 the Greeks auletrides. In very remote antiquity the latter 
 existed at Athens and other cities of Attica. They were 
 poor girls of lowly origin who went about playing their , 
 flutes and earning here and there a little coin, sufficient 
 to keep them from suffering. Some of them were very 
 beautiful; and as this natural accomplishment was some¬ 
 times more charming even than their music, there goes up 
 a charge against their character. 26 It is now known that 
 these flute players were organized in a trade union or some 
 kind of a labor federation. In order to carry on their 
 business they were required to pay a small tax to the gov¬ 
 ernment as a license, which tax was collected by the vec- 
 tigalarii as stated in our chapter on the customs collect¬ 
 ors. This was another union whose members were re¬ 
 quired by the state to collect the last denarius , even if 
 they had to torture, imprison or sell the poor, impecuni¬ 
 ous creatures as slaves. It may therefore have happened 
 that a beautiful auletrid, before surrendering her life as a 
 slave and legalized concubine of the wealthy Roman or 
 Athenian who bought her at the shambles, would some¬ 
 times procure the inveterate tax money by accepting the 
 best available offers which promised life and liberty. 
 
 At Rome a genuine flute players’ union, collegium tibi- 
 cenum Romanorum existed 26 during the emperors which 
 was shielded from the repressive laws against organiza¬ 
 tion by being a sacred commune. Probably the girls 
 played sacred music on occasions. 21 That there were 
 male members in this commune is certain. The wording 
 of the inscription shows this one name taking the mascu¬ 
 line termination. There were also at Athens and the Pi- 
 
 *4 Idem, No. 4,105. 
 
 *5 Of. Sangei'’s History of Prostitution, chap, iii, p. 46. 
 
 * 6 Relnes, pp. 184-167. 
 
 *7 ** Qui sacria publicis praesto sunt. ” Orell., Inscr. No. 1,803. 
 
ORGANIZED AMUSERS. 
 
 410 
 
 raeus many of the aulitrides or Greek flutists who lived 
 under protection of their gallant unions. A study of the 
 excellent work of Guhl and Koner 28 will afford the reader 
 much additional knowledge upon the subject of ancient 
 music. 
 
 The great ludi cercenses which, although in point of his¬ 
 tory, treatment of performers and other features, were 
 very different from the gladiatorial style of amusement, 
 so resemble these latter in many other respects that it 
 seems consistent to treat of them as belonging to one 
 variety. The Roman circus was not the only institution 
 of its kind. There was evidently a circus at Lyons. An 
 inscription mentioning a union of players, speaks of the 
 right of organization at Lyons, for all who wish. 29 
 
 Everything built to entertain amusement seekers among 
 the Romans, whether at Rome, Pompeii or elsewhere, if 
 public, took the amphitheatrical shape. There were 
 numerous race-courses at Rome, some of which were of 
 prodigious extent. The circus Maximus 80 was enormous. 
 “According to the latest calculations, in late imperial 
 times, it must have contained 480,000 seats. It is about 
 21,000 feet long by 400 wide.” 31 It is very old, having 
 been begun by Tarquinius Priscus. These figures are 
 sufficient proof of themselves, that Rome once contained 
 an immense population. Large numbers of slaves were 
 necessary to supply the labor of these enormous public 
 works. The many scenes of hippodromes, chariot-run¬ 
 ning, foot-racing, of archery, mock manoeuvres, and sham 
 battles were observable from a great distance. They 
 thrilled vast audiences. 
 
 But the inner life of the poor who were to manage and 
 carry out the innumerable features of those games is a 
 subject which the reader of history learns little. They 
 were all of the lowly class and eked out a living under 
 many difficulties and humiliations; and many of those 
 who were not slaves but existed in the capacity of freed- 
 men, took refuge from abuse and overtoil under the mea¬ 
 gre privilege left them to unite in mutual self aid. 
 
 * Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and, Romans, Tr. F. Hueffer, (Lon. Ohatto 
 and Windus.) 
 
 22 Glut., 431, 1. Inscr. Tot. Orbis Rom. 
 
 so Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, Tr. pp. 422-428. 
 
 M Guhl and Koner, pp. 423-4 note. See fig. 431 note. 
 
CARNAGE OF THE SANDS. 
 
 411 
 
 But the celebrated gladiatorial amusements are more 
 generally known to us at this day, although the circus 
 performance has outlived them, being yet common on a 
 much smaller scale. . There was no mockerv about the 
 amphitheatre. The combats were real. We have already 
 spoken of the large traffic in lions, tigers, leopards and 
 other wild animals for the combats. Not only did the 
 Romans pit Hon with tiger, panther with bear, lynxes and 
 leopards with serpents, but they matched tigers, lions 
 and serpents of terrible ferocity with men. When at the 
 great games the stock of fierce wild animals was killed off 
 they sent hunters in quest of more Romanelli 33 pre¬ 
 serves an inscription which for clearness has been re¬ 
 garded by the archaeologists as an object of much value. 
 The inscription commemorates a family (probably a com¬ 
 munity) of hunters of Pompeii, who procured noble game 
 from the forests, and mentions Popidius Rufus as the 
 manager of the familia gladiatorum. 
 
 We have elsewhere seen that there were unions of 
 sweepers of the amphitheatres, collegia arenariorum. They 
 were not required to fight in the arena. They dragged 
 the dead gladiators off the sands, shoveled up the blood, 
 new-sprinkled the floor with sand, sharpened the gladia 
 or swords as well as the javelins and other tools, stood 
 ready to perform any service; even perhaps that of cut¬ 
 ting off the heads of vanquished gladiators who heroically, 
 when hors de combat , bleeding and dying with their gaping 
 gashes, impatient of death, bent the head to receive the 
 severing stroke of the broadsword. 3 * 
 
 Marini found two queer inscriptions, graved on one 
 stone, of gladiators who “fell fighting, steel in hand. 84 
 
 82 Romanelli, Viaggio a Pompel. tome I, p. 82; Marini, Atti, T, p. 165. It la 
 clear that there must have been lions in the forests of Mt Olympus for Polyda- 
 raus the wrestler (B. C. 404, see Plato, Bekk. Lond. chap. XII note) killed a huge 
 lion there. Lions are known to have lived in Germany and hyenas in Eng. See 
 Buckland, Reliquoe Diluvfance, Lond., 1822 because their bones are now being 
 found in the Pleistocene caves. 
 
 33 BulwerLytton’s.Zcwf Days of Pompeii, where these awful scenes are graph¬ 
 ically set forth. 
 
 Marini, Atti, 1, p. 165. The modern ages are actively studying ont the 
 horrors of the gladiatorial combats. We refer the reader who may doubt as to 
 whether those people fought under the most intense humiliations, to the cuts of 
 Guhl and Koner, pp. 562-3, trans. .showing the distressing scenes of these flUits 
 with the wild animals, also to Carey, Principles of Political Economy , Part Ill. p. 
 123: “The great mass having sunk to barbarous rudeness, bloody gladiatorial 
 games and combats of wild beasts took the place of dramatic representations 
 while the few were becoming more refined and fastidious.” To the Icoaograpkic 
 Cyclopaedia, Division IV, New York. 1851, R, Garrigue. Tafel 15, magnificon 
 
412 
 
 ORGANIZED AM USERS. 
 
 Inscription No. 2,552 of Orelli’s Res Scaenica is designated 
 by him as representing gladiatorial combats in the colis¬ 
 eum. It is a horrible thought for an age like this to en¬ 
 dure; yet there was a time when killing men for sport 
 was so popular that crowned heads were turned from 
 meditation to convulsions of delight by the sight; and 
 ladies dressed in the costliest attire of fashion could sit 
 for hours bewitched with the whirl, the charge, the lunge 
 of steel and shrieks of pain, the spurt of blood from the 
 wounds of naked men, the roar of lions and screech and 
 growl of tigers, bears and wolves, the murderous hand-to- 
 hand fights of the hoplomachi with heavy swords and the 
 whole swirling, mazy, gory labyrinth of the Roman arena! 
 Surely, forced as we are to admit that such scenes of cru¬ 
 elty really once existed, as it were, among our forefathers, 
 we feel almost constrained to admit that the many thous¬ 
 ands of years which had flown before the present era, had 
 produced little better than savages to people the world. 
 Those awful brutalities were the product of the slave sys¬ 
 tem. They could not have taken place where men were 
 free. 
 
 The gladiators had several different names. Some were 
 called gladiators, some mirmillions, some agitators, some 
 •pugnatores, some ergastularii , according to their social 
 rank and the kind of weapons with which they were al¬ 
 lowed to consummate their murderous tasks. But slaves 
 though they were, they found means to accomplish frater¬ 
 nal unions. That there were unions of gladiators inscriptions 
 exist so plentifully to prove, that the most skeptical can no 
 longer doubt. There are several inscriptions, evidently 
 signs of gladiator brokers, 88 showing that there were specu¬ 
 lators in this species of human flesh. Being slaves and not 
 freedmen, except in cases where they won freedom by kill¬ 
 ing their adversary, human or wild beast, thus achieving 
 their manumission, they could only with difficulty organize 
 for mutual help. 
 
 Orelli, in Res Scaenica , No. 2,066 reproduces the remark¬ 
 able inscription of Donati, found in Rome, which is acknow- 
 
 steel engraving of the arena, where are seen fighting men, women, elephants, 
 tigers, lions, pauthers and serpents, for the amusements of myriads in the seats 
 above! 'l hat they fought naked see Idem Hecht, Section IX, Tafel 7, Vol. II. 
 Plates, showing men killing men. 
 
 35 Orell., Inscr. 4,197 and 4,247 of Aria et Opificia. 
 
ORGANIZED FORTUNE-TELLERS. 
 
 413 
 
 ledged to have served a union. Of itself it is an object of 
 surprise; aud has not yet been studied enough to shed all 
 the light that was latent in its curious palaeograph. There 
 are recorded in the Res Scaenica of Orelli not less than a 
 dozen genuine trade unions of the gladiatorial art. This of 
 itself makes it conjectural whether there was not some law 
 relative to the organization of slaves. 
 
 Fortune-telling was so common that there is a law in the 
 code of Theodosius providing for a union of fortune-tellers, 
 c orpus Kiemesiacorum .“ They had a secret order whose 
 members worshipped the goddess of fortune, called Dea 
 Nemesi. They were something like our clairvoyants; some 
 of them like our psycologists but more nearly resembling 
 the aruspices and diviners of oracles. Such was the super¬ 
 stition among all classes that they were held in high esteem 
 by rich and poor and probably patronized a good deal, thus 
 affording an opportunity to combine profit with mysterious 
 wisdom. 
 
 There are some great stories connected with superstition. 
 Eunus the slave king of Enna in Sicily was a fortune-teller. 
 The poor downtrodden slaves, crushed to the lowest condi¬ 
 tion which left breath and animation in their tortured 
 frames, when they heard of his wise sayings—some of which, 
 like those of our weather prophets, came true—and when 
 .they were informed by him that he was destined to quit 
 the servile post of waiter in his master’s family and assume 
 the royal robes of a monarch, they believed him; and this 
 superstitious credulity actually wrought the fact. He w T as 
 fortune-teller, fire-eater, prestidigitator and stump speaker; 
 and combined with all this a bluff managerial talent and a 
 rollicking good nature and winsomeness which determined 
 and cast the die to the greatest insurrection known in history 
 unless we except that of Spartacus. If he had no organ¬ 
 ization at the start he soon effected one. He also showed 
 much shrewd resignation of his prerogatives of kingship 
 when he gave to the terrible Achaeos, and the impetuous 
 Cleon the command of the armies. He showed a wisdom 
 akin to revelation when he decided not to take arms per¬ 
 sonally but to stay in his palace and blow fire out of nis 
 mouth, dawdle with the trinkets of his throne and let these 
 
 a6 Nemesclaci, a dea Nemesi, quae eadem est cum bona Fcrtana. CoO 
 Theod lib, XIV, Nat. ad leg. 2, tit VI1 
 
414 
 
 ORGANIZED AM USERS. 
 
 generals fight his battles with a soldiery of slaves who be¬ 
 lieved that every word he uttered was dropped from the 
 Almighty. 
 
 Witchcraft aud fortune-telling have been twin trades 
 from the earliest times and were well worth organizing for; 
 and as they were intimately allied to the mysteries of early 
 religions the membership had less difficulty in procuring 
 laws exempting them from suppression. But they carried 
 it to intrigue and machination, so that oftentimes it did not 
 restrict itself to simple amusement. It gained a strong foot¬ 
 hold upon the solemnity of religion and exercised so power¬ 
 ful a control of men’s consciences that the hints and pre¬ 
 sages of the soothsayer sometime sdecided the fortunes of 
 battle. 
 
 Great numbers of unions of mimic actors existed among 
 the Greeks and Romans. 87 We have especially noticed that 
 part of the ancient world inhabited by the Roman stock of 
 the Indo-European race; but this was merely for the pur¬ 
 pose of making the fact perspicuous that the ancient work¬ 
 ing people had a labor movement and that the freedmen 
 were organized. In Greece, Syria Phoenicia, Gaul, Germany 
 and the regions of the Danube are also found inscriptions 
 and other evidences that once a great trade aud labor move¬ 
 ment existed covering most of the then Roman world.** 
 
 *7 Mommsen, De Coli . et Sodal Romanorum, p. 83, note 6. “ Communia mem 
 ornm multa inveniuntur/’ 
 
 88 Wallace, Numbers of Mankind, p. 142, makes some remarks which, though 
 written a century ago. are applicable to the study which engages these pages: 
 lie says: “ As the riches and luxury of the great men in Rome increased so pro¬ 
 digiously, this must have occasioned a vast circulation, and a general plenty 
 of gold aud silver; nor was it possible to coniine the money to a few hands: 
 however, the necessaries of life continued at a moderate price, and did not rise 
 in their value in proportion to the high rates which were set on the materials of 
 luxury.” This shows that yearning, at least, for the socialistic system largely 
 prevailed among the ancient lowly. 
 
CHAPTER XYHL 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 THE ANCIENT CLOTHING-CUTTERS. 
 
 How the ancients were olothed— The Unions of Fullers — Of 
 Linen Weavers, Wool-carders, Cloth-combers—Inscriptions 
 as Proof—Later Laws of Theodosius and Justinian Revised 
 —Government Cloth Mills—What was Meant by Public 
 Works—Who managed Manufactures—The Dyers—Old- 
 fashioned Shoes of the Forefathers—How made—Origin of 
 the Crispins—The Furriers’ Union—Roman Ladies and Fin¬ 
 eries of Fur—The great Ragamuffin Trade—Their Innumer* 
 able Unions—Ragpickers of Antiquity—Origin of the Cen- 
 ciafuole —Organization of the Real T atterdemaliona — Ori gin 
 of the Gypsies—Hypothesis. 
 
 It is quite possible to establish the fact that the clothing 
 trades were organized. Woollen goods in those times were 
 uot manufactured in large mills with costly machinery. 
 Weaving was done on small hand looms, and the fulling of 
 cloth was a trade by itself. Cotton was used for tents, thea¬ 
 tres and also to some extent for clothing at an early date; 
 yet our limited data will not permit us to state that cotton 
 manufacturers were organized. But the workers in wool 
 had societies, some of which were screened from the restric¬ 
 tions imposed on many other trades, on account of their in¬ 
 nocent usefulness. There is a law of the Theodosian code 1 
 providing for the right or privilege of mutual organization 
 to the fullers, fullonea. We consequently have a fullers’ union 
 fullonum sodalicium * commemorated on a marble slab, found 
 
 t Cod. Tkeod., Dt Excusationibus Artijicum, lib. XIII, tit. IV, lex. 2. 
 
 • Murator, Thesaurus Veterum Incriptionum, 951, 9. Found at Spoleto among 
 the Appeninee. It is an Inscription in marble. Cult of the union, Minerva. 
 
41(5 
 
 UNIONS OF CLOTHES MAKERS, 
 
 at Spoleto; another, picked up at Falaria, inscribed with 
 lette \s so well preserved that no hesitation is indulged in 
 by the critics in pronouncing it a genuine trade union of the 
 fullers, as the word “ collegium ” appears three times and 
 “ sodalicium ” twice;* both terms convey the meaning of 
 mutual union or organization; and as both these inscriptions 
 appear to be of the era of the republic, they are probably 
 very old. If, however, the two tablets above cited are not 
 sufficient as evidence of the union of fullers, we have a gem 
 from Pompeii in the from of an inscription of the fullers who 
 worked in some public establishment. These artisans, as 
 Mommsen observed in his disquisition on labor unions, evi¬ 
 dently shielded themselves from the severity of the law sup¬ 
 pressing the colleges, by having recourse to a certain amount 
 of piety 4 which they scarcely felt in their hearts. A society 
 of sacred fullers sounds ridiculous! * Yet this inscription 
 commemorating a fraternity, or at any rate, a force of work¬ 
 men fulling cloth for the use of the people, bears pious words 
 which would incline one to imagine that some of their wages 
 was devoted, like a collection at church, towards defraying 
 the expenses of the holy temples instead of providing for 
 the earners’ hungry babes. This inscription is one of the 
 many contributions to ethnological science which the exhu¬ 
 mations from Pompeii have produced. Of course then no 
 one can question its greater antiquity than the earthquake 
 of Vesuvius, A. D. 79; and it might have existed many 
 hundreds of years anterior to that event. 
 
 The linen weavers during the emperors, enjoyed the free 
 right of organization, according to a provision in the codex 
 Theodosiif and we accordingly have an inscription quoted 
 in Orelli/of the linen weavers, lintearii, found at Nemausum, 
 by Muratori. But the stone is in a bad condition. It 
 might have been a private sign, in which case it proves 
 nothing to our purpose.* 
 
 The wool carders, lanarii pectinarii , used to card and 
 
 « Cf. Orelliue, Inscriptionum Latinarwn Collection No». 4,066, 4,091, 8,291 all 
 of which were fullers. 
 
 * Mommsen, De Collegiis et Sodaliciis Romanorum. Cap. V. passim. 
 
 6 Vide Orell, Inscr. Lat. Coll „ No. 3,291, Opera Publica. “Eumachl® flliii In* 
 genui Sacred, pub. Fullones.” Pompeii 
 
 6 Cod. Theod., lib. XXX, 6. 8. 16. 
 
 * O ell., Inscr Latinar-um Collectio, No. 4,216also Cod. Theod., lib. X, 20,16. 
 
 * For futher information on linen weavers, see Granler Hittoirc des Classes 
 Ouvrfcn, p. 310; ■ Lee principalis corporations marchandes de 1’ empire 6taient 
 cel es des tisserands. linteonet etc.” 
 
THE STATE EMPLOYED TRADE UNIONS. 415 
 
 weave with similar cards and hand-looms as were used by 
 the colonists of the United States. In all probability the 
 teasel was used in dressing and combing the cloth the same 
 as now; since no application of mechanical invention and 
 science has ever superseded the use of the teasel in combing 
 cloth, although new experiments of great ingenuity are con¬ 
 stantly being made. 
 
 The weavers and carders were also organized. Of this 
 we also have proof in the inscriptions. Gruter found at 
 Brixia* a fragment of a slab on which were engraved a few 
 words signifying that the sodalicium or union had added 
 another emancipated slave to their numbers, either as ap¬ 
 prentice or otherwise. The organization was one of wool 
 carders. The same author records several others, one of 
 them discovered in the village of Rummel agri Silvaedu- 
 censia. 10 At Rome there were several others discovered. 11 
 
 Inscription No. 2,303 of Orelli is placed by him among 
 Opera publiea, public works, which is very strong evidence 
 that the state fanned out the manufacture of wollen goods 
 to the unions, who produced the goods for the government 
 in its own mills. Did the Roman state own woollen mills? 
 It would be well for political economists to consider this 
 important question before proceeding to accuse the labor 
 movement of this day of making demands which are * un¬ 
 precedented ” in the methods of manufacture and distribu¬ 
 tion of the means of human life and comfort. The evidences 
 which are coming to light through the labors of archaeolog¬ 
 ists, who dig up, interpret and record the tell-tale palaeo- 
 graphs of an ancient civilization are accumulating proof 
 of the conjecture that once in Rome, at Athens and elsewnere, 
 the governments were owners of woollen factories; and that 
 they were run for government by trade unions, watched, 
 curtailed, hampered and restricted of course, by the jealous 
 optimate politicians lest the immense advantages natural to 
 such a method should conduce to the liberty and social 
 emancipation of the proletaries. The student of sociology 
 may dimly discern some obscure light from great writers to 
 the effect that not only the woollen mills were counted as 
 public works but also many other establishments of a nature 
 to supply food, clothing and shelter to the population. 
 
 • Grattr, Jn t ortf Umm 1WM Orbit Komanorum, 648. 2 , 967, S. 
 
 U Mm, 067, 8. u idem, 648, 4. 
 
418 
 
 UNIONS OF CLOTHES MAKERS 
 
 When the linen or wool was carded, spun, woven into 
 cloth and fulled, it was necessary to have it dyed. It is 
 however probable that then, as now, the goods were dyed 
 in the yarn. This required another trade—that of dyers. 
 
 There was a class of dyers, those who colored the cele¬ 
 brated purple hues, who were especially provided by 
 law; 12 the blattearii. They enjoyed the free privilege of 
 organizing their numbers and possessed trade unions, be¬ 
 ing exempt from the restrictions which so curtailed and 
 embarassed some of the unions of other trades. 
 
 Another class of dyers were the murileguli who fished 
 for shells and purple-fish that secreted an ink used for 
 coloring silk and probably other materials. No inscrip¬ 
 tions have been discovered that we are aware of which 
 describe them, but frequent mention in the Roman law 
 in connection with the franchise extended to some unions, 
 corroborates the assurance that they possessed organiza¬ 
 tions. In fact their fraternity was mentioned and pro¬ 
 vided for in the codes both of Theodosus and of Jus¬ 
 tinian. 18 These workmen colored the exquisite red and 
 purple of the ancient red banner. 14 
 
 Thus we have the cloth ready for the tailor. The an¬ 
 cients wore a sort of loose cloak or flowing mantle called 
 sagum. It was usually of long wool and colored. Tailors 
 who made them were called sagarii 15 and they were or¬ 
 ganized ; but as they were a branch of the tailors* pro¬ 
 fession there appear no special inscriptions of them ex¬ 
 cept in the lists of epitaphs. 16 There was a union of tail¬ 
 ors provided for by a law in the code of Theodosius, un¬ 
 der the designation given them, of gynaeciarii 17 which is 
 a warping of a Greek word and a Greek custom into the 
 Roman tongue. At Athens the gynaeceum was that por¬ 
 tion of any house where the women lived. They also 
 worked there for their masters; and by this we know 
 they were often slaves. But in Rome it served as a man¬ 
 ufactory of clothing in addition to being the harem of 
 the lord. Under the emperors there was a man to over¬ 
 see this work. 18 As the emperor was the head of the 
 
 12 Cod. Theod., Be Excusationibus Artificum, lib. XIII, tit. IV, leg. 2. 
 
 13 Cod. Justimani , IX. 7. 14 See chapter on the Ancient Red Flag, infra. 
 
 16 Cod. Theodosii, lib. X, tit. 5 leg, 12, alsoX, 20. 
 
 16 Orellug, Inscriptionum Latinarum, Collectio, Nos. 4,251 and 4,723, Sepul • 
 irdHa. i" Cod. Theodosii, lib, X, leg. 2, 8, 7 and X. 20, 2. 
 
 is Cod. Justimani, lib. XI, 7, 8. 
 
IMPERIAL WORKSHOPS. 
 
 419 
 
 people lie was considered the government and his palace 
 like the residence of the president of the United States, 
 was government property; so that it seems to be a fact 
 easily proven that certain manufacturing establishments 
 were carried on by the ancient governments; since it is 
 well known that the spinners’, weavers’, dyers’ and tail¬ 
 ors’ overseers who were called gynaeciarii , had shops in 
 the emperors’ palaces and conducted the manufacture of 
 mantles, togas and other articles of clothing on quite an 
 extensive scale for the household of his majesty, includ¬ 
 ing family and retinue. These female clothiers worked 
 in the same manner for others of the great gentes or lordly 
 families. This prepares us for a distinct comprehension 
 of the desire of ancient labor to be organized. It lifted 
 the member one step higher than the slave and placed 
 him or her in the co-operative supervision and care of 
 the fraternity. The Roman gynaeciarius was generally 
 a man who had charge of the workshop. 
 
 On account of a misapprehension of this word’s true 
 meaning, lexicographers define the gynaeciarius as an 
 overseer of a harem ! This is a cheap way of degrading 
 the character of hundreds and even thousands of poor 
 working women who plied the honest needle wherewith 
 to eke out a wretched living. But it is the inscriptions— 
 a late study—which bring out the original home-mean¬ 
 ing, otherwise lost. Not only the code of Theodosius 
 but that of Justinian contain well worded provisions for 
 the organization of tailors into trade unions. This asso¬ 
 ciation was taken advantage of by the women as well as 
 their chivalrous male companions in poverty and lowli¬ 
 ness and they were only too glad to enjoy the patronage 
 of their emperors, and work in their houses and those of 
 the grandees, under a foreman, doubtless also a member 
 of the union. The gens family thus furnished shop, tools 
 and stock and the workers here performed the work. 
 But family and state were identical terms. 
 
 We now come to the shoemakers. If the reader, in ad¬ 
 miring the pictures of the ancients, will carefully observe 
 the apparel in which their feet are shod he will notice 
 that the shoe has the form of a sandal; and that it is 
 laced to the foot like a modern half-slipper. That is to 
 say, it is mostly sole; there being very little upper-leather, 
 
420 
 
 UNIONS OF CLOTHES MAKERS 
 
 especially about the instep. This was the principal art¬ 
 icle of foot clothing manufactured by the ancients for 
 popular use. Italy, Greece, Spain, Phoenicia, hTorth- 
 . ern Africa, are almost semi-tropical countries. It is the 
 pinching cold of Central Europe that has forced differ¬ 
 entiation in the shape of shoes and boots. The Roman 
 sandal, solea, was manufactured in enormous quantities 
 largely, no doubt, by slaves. But as we have positive 
 evidence of unions of shoemakers, solearii, we know that 
 they were also produced by free labor. The archaeologist 
 Marini, found at Rome a beautiful tablet 19 on which is 
 engraved in unmistakable terms the name of the union 
 and states that it was a collegium saliarium baxearum. 
 This means that the members manufactured one particu¬ 
 lar kind of sandal or shoe—the baxea which was of a cer¬ 
 tain Greek pattern. In the Vatican is another mentioned 
 by various authors, 20 which, however, does not so unmis¬ 
 takably represent a trade union. The Crispins, it is well- 
 known, were a very powerful trade union of a later date, 
 whose members carried with them a bigoted species of 
 priestcraft. But as their existence is of so curious a 
 character and their organization so secret, we have failed 
 to find any genuine inscriptions. Their identity however 
 has come down to us in history, and marks an era in the 
 Christian religion, connecting it with labor and practically 
 verifying its precepts by its commingling of the nobility 
 with the proletariat, thus leveling all to one plane. 
 
 Diocletian was the tyrant who persecuted the early 
 Christians. Under his reign two brothers—noblemen be¬ 
 longing to a gens family—were converted to religion. 
 Their names, as the story goes, were Crispin and Crispin- 
 ian. For a poor slave or freedman to embrace Christian¬ 
 ity was not so much of an offense because he had no rec¬ 
 ognition, no family; but for a nobleman to forsake the 
 worship of his ancestral manes and tutelary saints, abjure 
 faith in the miraculous gods and goddesses who for un¬ 
 accounted ages, by sea and land had presided over the 
 destinies of men and had been believed in with an iron 
 bound confidence and a terrorizing authority that left not 
 a shimmering of option wherein to plant an independent 
 
 19 Marini, Atti , I, p. 12 
 
 to See Orelli, Insaipliouum Latinanm Colltctio, No. 4, US, Arts* St •pllCRS 
 
THE FIRST CRISPINS. 
 
 
 thought—such an offender was thought to deserve the 
 punishment of death! These Crispins, therefore, having 
 thus offended by embracing the new faith, were obliged 
 to fly to Gaul, where, according to vague tradition, they 
 settled at Soissons, preaching by day and shoemaking 
 evenings, until in A. D. 287, they were executed by order 
 of Maximian. They had first founded the order of Cris¬ 
 pins which exists to this day. Many centuries afterwards, 
 1645, Crispins were chosen as the patron saints of a re- 
 ligio-industrial community at Paris—a secret order called 
 the freres cordonniers —brother shoemakers. This secret 
 order has had a varied experience. It was suppressed 
 several times but grew again; and to-day the order of 
 Crispins exists in the United States, and many other 
 countries of the world, as a regular and genuine trade 
 union of shoemakers. 
 
 There was also a union of soldiers’ boot makers, caligarii , 
 spoken of by Lampridius. 21 The archaeologist Gruter 2 * 
 brought to light an inscription which may serve as proof. 
 It commemorates the existence of a family of shoemakers 
 who made such shoes, sutores caligarii , but is too brief, or 
 at least the section of it which we have seen is too incom¬ 
 plete for a specimen to fix judgment upon. Another stone 
 from Auximum is more elaborate but rendered vague by 
 the endless abbreviations which the Latins seem to have 
 been so fond of. 28 
 
 Mommsen gives a long account of the Roman manner 
 of dividing the unions into deourians, centurians 24 and other 
 numbers, somewhat in the manner prescribed by king Niuna, 
 more than 600 years before Christ. This inscription alluded 
 to refers to the centurians, and the division to which the 
 union was allotted. Of the ordinary shoemakers, sutores , 
 we do not find any inscriptions proving that they possessed 
 trade organizations. Perhaps they were all slaves, as was 
 the case with some trades. There are hopes, however, that 
 more inscriptions may yet be discovered to prove that the 
 sutores had their organization. 
 
 In Rome, as at the present time, it was fashionable to 
 wear furs; and we also know that the furriers were Organ- 
 
 si Lampridius, Alexander Severus, 33. 
 
 *2 Gruter, Inscriptioncs Totius Or bis Rornanornm , 649, 1. 
 
 28 OrelL , Inscr. Lat. Cull., No. 3,868. 
 
 *4 Momm , De CoU. et Sodal. Rom,., Cap. II, p. 27-32. 
 
UNIONS OF CLOTHES MAKERS . 
 
 ized into trade unions. The furriers were called pelliones. 
 They were classed as innocent, and allowed the privilege of 
 combination by a special clause in the code of Theodosius 2 * 
 and had numerous unions of the trade. Among other 
 branches of the furriers were the fringe and border makers, 
 limbolarii , 26 who trimmed ladies’ dresses with furs or costly 
 silk or laces. The limbolarii or fringers were connected 
 with the ladies’ bead dressers on the one hand and textores 
 and textrices , male and female weavers on the other. That 
 they worked in the head dress or hat business is certain; 
 but we are in the dark about the method and personnel of 
 the hat manufacture for either sex. 
 
 A very remarkable and numerous trade union called cen- 
 tonarii, patch workers and junkmen or ragpickers, crops out 
 everywhere among the inscriptions. Near the ancient town 
 of Come in Curia, Gruter 27 observed many queer inscrip¬ 
 tions, among which are several which clearly indicate that 
 at this municipium of Rome the rag pickers were numer¬ 
 ous enough to get elected into the municipal offices. In¬ 
 deed this is his own comment upon the matter. There is 
 no ground for doubt about their being genuine trade unions, 
 as the wording of the stone distinctly says: “ collegium cen - 
 tonariorum. ,y At Milan, the same great pioneer of the re¬ 
 naissance dragged forth another of these long forgotten 
 witnesses of the ancient mode of living, to shed its light 
 upon social science. 28 This led to further investigation, and 
 Fabretti 22 from the same field brought out two other tab¬ 
 lets of centonarii bearing equally good testimony. The 
 centurian legion is mentioned upon one of them, and by this 
 we are apprised of the fact that the law dividing the unions 
 into tens, hundreds, etc., held good as far away as Milan 
 in the extreme north of Italy. 
 
 Another, found at the ancient Mevaniola, is quoted by 
 Orelli. 80 It is a slab of stone on which is inscribed the name 
 of the president of the association. It is quite evident that 
 these institutions had something to do with manufacture of 
 r^ugh articles of clothing if not also of any and everything 
 they could pick up the makings for. If among all their coE 
 
 M Code Theod., lib. XIII, tit. Iv, leg. 2, De ExcutatUmibtis Artificum. 
 
 Orell., Jnscr., No. 4,213. 
 
 87 Gruter, Inter. Totixu Orbit Romanonm, Nos. 471. 5, 358. 6 and others 
 
 » Gruter, Inter. Totius Orbit Rom.. 477, 1. 
 
 ** Fabrett .ExplicaLio, p. 73, 72. 
 
 *• Orell., inter.. No. 5,122, Collegium centonarirum Municipii Mevaniolas. 
 
RAGPICKERS AND PIECE-PATCHERS 423 . 
 
 lections of rags picked up in the streets or obtained by beg¬ 
 gary or otherwise in their wanderiugs by day, they found 
 in their culling and sorting, material of mixed colors and 
 qualities sufficient to make a coat, no matter how versicol¬ 
 ored and bizarre it looked when finished, they set about 
 cutting, patching and putting together the pieces, and of 
 them creating a garment readily disposed of among the 
 poor slaves and outcasts whose wretched lot it was often to 
 work in sun and storm, heat and cold, without clothing, as 
 naked as the gladiators who fought on the sands of the am¬ 
 phitheatres. 
 
 The immense number of inscriptions bearing record of 
 these facts, affords proof of the formidable misery which 
 poor despised humanity were obliged to suffer in ancient 
 days. In proof of the position above stated, we have from 
 Regium in Cisalpine Gaul a splendid stone containing 
 over 100 words showing that the membership was allied to 
 manufacturers, but of what sort is not given; that they had 
 a temple of some kind of their own; and that they took an 
 active part in public affairs by force of their organized num¬ 
 bers.* 1 
 
 We are inclined to the opinion that whoever investigates 
 the subject of the ancient ragpickers from the numerous 
 and unmistakable data already at command, will arrive at 
 our conclusion that they were a sort of social jack-at-all- 
 trades, undertaking in poverty, with limited means, and un¬ 
 der many checks of social humiliation and contempt, any job 
 that fell in their way by which they could make a living. 
 Muratori exhibits in his enormous folio collection Nos. 563 
 2 and 564 1, of his Thesaurus , 82 two others, found at the 
 town of Sentinum, a place in ancient Umbria, which, on the 
 whole, adds little to the points already given. 
 
 In the Neapolitan museum is, or was a collection of bronze 
 butuiics, statuettes, plaques and tablets, all conveying 
 thoughts valuable to the study of ethnology—the Heraclian 
 or Herculanean museum. Stored there is another interest¬ 
 ing tablet of these centonarii or ragpickers. It was found 
 by Fabretti, directly or indirectly, at Patavium. 83 Accord¬ 
 ing to Heineck it is very old.* 4 Another from the ager Co- 
 
 81 Orel]., No. 4,183; Grater, 1,101,1 and Murator, 563, 1, 
 
 *2 Vide Orell., 4,134: “Similia decreta, neo minus verbosa, adulationlsque 
 plena ’’ 
 
 33 Fabretti. Explicatio, p. 485, 160. S4 Heinec, Antiqu, p. 236. 
 
494 
 
 CLOTHES MAKERS. 
 
 mentis, classed by Orelli, among the societies of artisans is 
 equally suggestive.” It is ascribed to Muratori, and is from 
 Torcellum. Mommsen’s great collection 86 contains another 
 stcne bearing an inscription of an iEsernian rag pickers’ or¬ 
 ganization and Orelli gives a very fine specimen from 
 Brixia, which he arranges with his collegia, corpora et so- 
 dalicia One that Orelli mixed up with his DU Immor- 
 tales seems to commemorate one of those unions, combining 
 several kinds of labor under one set of rules.* 8 When the 
 monument was lettered the union had already existed 151 
 years. It is at Milan. 
 
 These things show how dear the union was to freedmen. 
 We have already cited twelve of the evidences of a power¬ 
 ful organization of freedmen on Roman soil. There are 
 over 40 more good specimens in the museums and other 
 collections, and their record is made good for all time in the 
 voluminous catalogues of Archaeologists. The great num¬ 
 ber of inscriptions of the centonarii, or rag and old junk 
 gatherers, in comparison with most other organized trades 
 may be accounted for if we reflect that very many of the 
 ancient lowly obtained their manumission late in life, after 
 they had been worn out in toil, whose products had gone 
 to their masters. 
 
 Manumissions were easily obtained at an advanced age 
 because the owner of a man would be glad to free himself 
 from the expense of maintaining him after he became old, 
 decrepit and useless. Doubtless the owner often killed his 
 ultra-aged slaves rather than accord them the boon called 
 liberty to die in possession of. But we may be sure that 
 such was ever the longing for freedom when offered the 
 slave under whatsoever motive that he seldom refused to 
 accept the gift, though its acceptance entailed c } \ the anxi¬ 
 eties and dangers of the precarious competitive struggle tor 
 existence. Assuming at an advanced age the responsibili¬ 
 ties of life, he drifted into any labor, no matter how grovel* 
 ling, and became the junk-man, rag-picker and patch-piecer; 
 and with the mutual aid of his union succeeded in living 
 happier in responsible independence than he was before in 
 his irresponsible thraldom. 
 
 A second reason for their large numbers may be, that 
 
 m Orell., Inter., No. 4070: Mur. Tkceuaur, 518, S. See also Orell., No. 4071. 
 
 « Momm., Inter., No. 5,060. Orell., Inter „ No. 7,201. 
 
 »* Orell., Inter., No. 1702. 
 
ANCIENT GYPSIES. 
 
 425 
 
 many times no work could be found; consequently to ob¬ 
 tain enough to live upon they took to picking what others 
 threw away and found that by scouring the streets and 
 alleys they could bring to their rag and junk markets suffi¬ 
 cient to relieve the pinch of hunger, and with the otherwise 
 unusable stuff, make fires to cook their food and warm 
 themselves in winter. 
 
 The fact that these centonarii are found to have existed 
 not only in Europe but throughout Asia, is a matter deeply 
 suggestive to the student of ethnology. That they had al¬ 
 ready had their bands, and their bodies or corpores at the 
 dawn of manumission from this primeval state of slavery 
 there seems little doubt. The inscription that we cite from 
 Orelli’s catalogue** shows by its own words—the identical 
 ones engraved in antiquity upon a piece of stone—that the 
 union had existed de facto already 151 years. Further 
 light is suggestively shed here, to the effect that the union 
 had been able, traditionally or otherwise, to count the years 
 of its age with precision. 
 
 These seemingly phenomenal things are cleared up when 
 we come to discover that when the great wave of political 
 antagonism to the growth and influence of organized labor 
 struck backward and overwhelmed the unions which, as we 
 have clearly shown by the inscription from the ruins of 
 Pompeii, were able in some municipalities to elect their own 
 superintendents of public works, a few were excepted with 
 the proviso that they should keep themselves piously sub¬ 
 ject to the rules of the ancient religion, should fear and 
 honor the lares of the gentile immortals and preserve their 
 identity and their habitat by an inscription or register of 
 each union in perfect accordance with the law. Provided 
 with this inscription whereon was registered their habitat, 
 the name of the deity they had chosen as their tutelary 
 guardian, and the business which they professed as a means 
 of existence, the law accorded them the right to organize, 
 jus coeundi. But these regulations they must strictly ob¬ 
 serve ; because they made it very convenient for the police 
 whose duty it was to watch over them and report their be¬ 
 havior to senate and tribunes of the people. 
 
 Under the more ancient jus coeundi or right of combina- 
 
 » Orell., Truer., No. 1702, note 2 of explanation: “ Collegii supra scriptl anni 
 181, ex quo collegium lsthoc constitatum fuerat." 
 
426 
 
 UNIONS OF CLOTHES MAKERS. 
 
 tion into unions of trades and professions, it certainly, as 
 proved by many inscriptions of the period of the emperors 
 of Rome, could not have been obligatory that the unions 
 should chisel out these lithoglyphs, so precious to us now. 
 So when the law came, some of them searched back for 
 their chronology and pedigree and bad them inserted with 
 the rest of the inscription. We know from abundant evi¬ 
 dence that the oldest societies stood the best chance of es¬ 
 caping suppression. They were especially exempted by 
 law. This exemption was based upon the respect for the 
 laws and traditions of Nutria, Solon and Tullius. The new 
 societies, however, were looked upon with distrust; and it 
 logically follows that if a collegium, corpus or sodalicium 
 could prove its age by tracing its record back to a time an¬ 
 terior to the agrarian or servile troubles, it would have an 
 almost certain chance of remaining unmolested. 
 
 We have enlarged upon this curious subject of the rag 
 pickers with a view of preparing the mind of the reader 
 with facts in regard to our theory—which we will admit to 
 be original and unique—upon the origin of gypsies. 
 
 It is admitted that history has failed to record the origin, 
 life and migrations of the gypsies. Of course everybody 
 agrees both that they are a caste and that they are, so to 
 speak, the pariah dogs of these later days; but everybody, 
 upon reflection, also admits that they always were and still 
 are organized. The fact is, their organization has always 
 been exclusive and severe. Another fact always was and 
 is, namely, that their language is Latin although mixed with 
 Sanscrit and Greek; and this is the most incontrovertible 
 stronghold to our suggestion that gypies are the still linger¬ 
 ing, self-constituted, tribal relics of the archaic children of 
 the great gens families of the Aryan race, both Asiatic and 
 Indo-European. 
 
 We suggest that being outcasts of the domua or paternal 
 home through the law of primogeniture, they served for 
 unknown ages as slaves on the paternal estate; and at the 
 dawn of the period of manumissions were among the first 
 to form self-supporting, or mutually protective unions out 
 of which the least qualified, most cunning and romantic 
 never developed, but continued to pick up a living by petty 
 theft, rag, junk and slop-gathering, horse-jockeying and 
 piece-patching, warping their tongues to fit localities, and 
 
ORIGIN OF THE GYPSIES. 
 
 427 
 
 their ingenuity to all the cunning quibbles which character¬ 
 ize the competitive system. These vve conjecture were the 
 centonarii or rag pickers, whose compulsory inscriptions we 
 study with wondering surprise, They are simply the fruit 
 of the cruel condition of ancient society ; and the unique 
 monument their name and shame have built must arrest the 
 gaze of man, imparting to him a mournful lesson as he toils 
 onward to the revolution. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 TRADE UNIONS. 
 
 THE PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN IMAGE-MAKERS. 
 
 Organizations op People who worked tor the Gods—Big and litue 
 God-Smiths—Their Unions object to the New Religion of 
 Christianity because this, originally Repudiating Idolatry, 
 Ruined their Business—Compromise which Originated the 
 Idolatry in the Church of to-day—The Cabatores —Unions 
 of Ivory Workers—Of Bisellarii or Deity-Sedan-Makers—Of 
 Image-makers in Plaster—The Unguentani or Unions of Per- 
 fumemakers — Holy Ointments and the Unions that manu¬ 
 factured them—Etruscan Trinketmakers—Bookbinders— 
 No Proof yet found of their Organization. 
 
 Directly connected with and a component part of the 
 ancient state, particularly that of the Indo-Europeans, 
 was the great subject of the gods, deorurn immortalium. 
 This with them was no wild fancy but an institution so 
 closely interwoven in all the affairs of public and private 
 life that no person of patrician birth who could lay claim 
 to a family 1 could possibly, without heresy often punish¬ 
 able with death, disregard or question. The worship of 
 the manes at the domestic altar, and of th epe?iates, the 
 mysterious home of the lares and all the holy immortals 
 was compulsory. All paganism was excessively, tyranni¬ 
 cally, inexorably, cruelly, religious. It ignored the whole 
 proletarian class; and most logically, according to its 
 tenets; for they, possessing no family, no property, no 
 paternity, could have no tutelary saint except by proxy 
 and in an eleemosynary way, used by them superficially 
 
 1 The proletaries or working people had no recognized family. To be bons 
 into an ancient tarnily was to belong to a great and noble pent. 
 
AN IND USTR T IN HOL T FURNITURE, 429 
 
 to flatter conscience, 4 and in all cases borrowed by them 
 from the grandees, who sometimes permitted the loan of 
 a family god® to act the sham of tutelary protector, and 
 this sometimes out of mere contemptuous pity. But this 
 archaic, aristocratic worship was in practice mechanical. 
 Its temples, the work of the proletaries, were massive, 
 often magnificent structures. Idols were numerous, some 
 of them specimens of the finest sculptures the world ever 
 produced. Its altars were solemn, massive and awful; 
 its sepulchres, sarcophagi and mausoleums, striking in 
 the solemnity of their incidents and surroundings; its 
 little images and deities were visitants of every respecta¬ 
 ble household; its sacerdotal and sacrificial paraphernalia 
 numerous and indispensable and the oracles and shrines 
 of the aruspex and soothsayer had each to be adorned 
 with furniture which best convenienced the cunning, flat¬ 
 tery, superstition and makeshift of priestcraft. 
 
 All these things required tools to make them and were 
 the product of skill and industry of the proletaries. Great 
 numbers of these emblems of Pagan piety are preserved 
 in the collections; and by them we know how to appreci¬ 
 ate the methods of mechanics who produced them. 
 
 The cabatores had a union that made images of the 
 greater gods. By this is probably to be understood, the 
 most powerful immortals, Jupiter, Ceres, Vulcan and the 
 like. They had their shops in Borne and Athens. If 
 they were numerous we are without evidence of the fact; 
 although their skill covered a considerable range. The 
 cabator and the imaginifex made images of many kinds 
 but the manner of their operations is obscure. We know 
 more of their extent. The business of the former was to 
 make the less elegant statues, reliefs, and perhaps pic¬ 
 tures of the great deities; while the latter busied himself 
 with the manufacture of the household and toy gods for 
 which there was always a steady demand. In this man¬ 
 ufacture of deities there was from the most ancient epoch 
 of which we have data, enough demand to keep large 
 
 • Fustel, CM Antique, livre n, passim, 
 
 •Mommsen, Di Collegiis et Sodaliciis Romanorwn, p. 80: “Leglbus collegii 
 Dianes et Antinoi et collegii iEsculapii et Hygi» ” Note 13, Idem, p. 78. “In 
 familia Augustali multa collegia opfioum fuisse.” Idem, p. 10, D* Cultu Minerva 
 “ Nautes quidem accepit simulacrum, . . . Nautiorum lamilia sacra Minervw 
 retinebat.” 
 
430 
 
 IMAGE-MAKERS. 
 
 numbers of mechanics employed. It grew with the num¬ 
 bers of the human race, and increased as human taste for 
 luxury increased. Belief did not perceptibly change. 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, even Anaxagoras and Diogenes 
 worshiped the immortal gods whose emblems, statuettes, 
 and profiles adorned not only the temples but the resi¬ 
 dences of all respectable citizens. Such images, liable to 
 accident and decay, had to be replenished or repaired, and 
 the labor required to do this gave the incentive of organ¬ 
 ization. 
 
 We shall show in another chapter, that on the intro¬ 
 duction of the Christian faith at Rome in after years, one 
 of the objections most vigorously raised against the new 
 doctrine was, not that it would interfere with them in 
 point of conscience, but that it would interfere adversely 
 to their means of earning bread! It threatened to sap the 
 fountain of economic existence. The early Christians 
 wanted no idols. The image-makers who wrought holy 
 emblems out of wood, brass, gold, pearl and sometimes 
 of amber and the precious gems, gained a living by their 
 trade; and consequently, Christianity, however it might 
 otherwise please their sense of mutual love, of equality, 
 fraternity and freedom, yet so long as it threatened their 
 means of livelihood in the slightest degree they opposed 
 it with every effort within their reach; whereupon a share 
 of the Pagan idolatry was bargained for, sufficient to re¬ 
 store the manufacture of images and idols. Then working 
 people, always prone to accept, threw away their objec¬ 
 tions and embraced the new religion in such numbers 
 and with such zeal that the old religion began to dissolve, 
 and in course of a few centuries crumbled to the dust, 
 while the workman’s craft of image-making continues to 
 this day. 
 
 Of the most celebrated idol manufacturers, Phidias, 
 perhaps stands foremost. Like all proletaries his fam¬ 
 ily is unknown. No blooded historian could taint the 
 noble prestige with a line enlightening mankind upon his 
 pedigree; and writers of his own class, there were none. 
 His superlative genius, however, wrote his history in the 
 exquisite images of Athena, in the great works on the 
 Propylsea of the acropolis and the Parthenon, wrought 
 by his combined imagination and chisel. Ivory and gold 
 
GENIUS IN SHRINE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 431 
 
 entered into this last chryselephantine colossus; and his 
 adornment of Olympia with the statue of Jupiter as a vir¬ 
 gin goddess signalized his age by an exhibit of the me¬ 
 chanical in the most exquisite and costly details. Pericles 
 the renowned optimate and politician, stood in astonish¬ 
 ment and admiration before this workingman’s genius and 
 originality. 
 
 Myron, the cotemporary and celebrated rival of Phidias, 
 could sculpture a quoit-player, a cow or a god with equal 
 perfection. His Hercules, his Jupiter and his Minerva 
 were so perfect that Roman warriors in capturing them 
 were captured by them. When, afterwards, Lysippus, 
 Praxiteles, Scopas and a great many others adorned this 
 art with perfection it never had before or since, it became 
 a trade at which many thousands earned a living, 
 
 Great schools of image-making flourished in Greece and 
 Rome from times long anterior to Phidias. The Etrus¬ 
 cans had schools of idol manufacture conducted, as in 
 Greece, by the proletaries or working people. Once 
 when the Romans beat them in battle and at the siege 
 took Yolsinii nearly 300 years before Christ, about 2,000 
 holy images and statues were a part of the trophies of vic¬ 
 tory. The Etruscans were hard working, faithful people 
 who had trade unions in great numbers. Some of these 
 were image-makers; and they well knew how to live and 
 profit upon the superstitions which thus attached to the 
 Pagan faith. 
 
 While Rome produced few image-makers of brilliancy 
 she patronized enormously the manufacture of all sorts 
 of holy trinkets. The household from the earliest times 
 was the true patron, and ladies bought many little imita¬ 
 tions of gods and goddesses together with an endless 
 variety of sacerdotal paraphernalia, such as suited their 
 fancy as to merit and price. 
 
 Orelli gives us an inscription of a genuine union of the 
 bisellarii , who manufactured the great sacerdotal seat or 
 chair; a splendidly finished and richly upholstered t&te 
 k tete for the gods. 4 There were also signs either of 
 unions or private business of persons working ivory, ebu- 
 
 * Inscriptionum, Latinarum Collectio, No. 4,137, note 1, also Gruter, Inscrip- 
 tionnm Totius Orbit Romanorum, 12, 8, and Muratori, Thesaurus Veterum Inscrith 
 tirmum, 544, 1. r 
 
432 
 
 IMAGE-MAKERS. 
 
 rarii. The inscriptions are given by Orelli.® But we have 
 more positive evidence of a trade union of ivory workers 
 in a direct mention of them as such in the Justinian code 
 which provided for them the right to organize and labor 
 in the holy cause.® 
 
 The evidences indicate that the tectoriolae or little plaster 
 images of which Cicero 7 and others have made mention, 
 were the work of the albarii .® An inscription found at 
 Home and published by Grater,® appears to signify by its 
 reading that the business was managed by one C. Ateius 
 Philadelphus but gives no clue to warrant that he was 
 managing officer of a trade union of the plasterers’ craft. 
 
 Besides the wonderful chryselphantine ivory workers 
 belonging to the great school of Phidias, already men¬ 
 tioned, there were the eburarii , who, as we have already 
 stated, were fortified by a law in the code of Justinian, 
 and were excepted in the late statutes on trade unions. 1 ® 
 These craftsmen made little statuettes, symbols, ivory 
 chains, variously shaped charms and talismans propitiatory 
 of the gods. They for this purpose carried on a consid¬ 
 erable trade with the Africans and Phoenicians whereby 
 to obtain pure and delicate ivory. Indeed, the supersti¬ 
 tion inculcated by the ancient religion led to a veritable 
 industry which through many a long century furnished 
 bread to these mechanics and their families. 
 
 Orelli, 11 gives an inscription of an association or genu¬ 
 ine trade union of the gods’ bed makers, or pulvinarii. n 
 They were organized under the society name of sodalicium 
 which Cicero characterized as low and mean; but we pre¬ 
 sume that as in this case their calling was to manufacture 
 the elegantly upholstered couches and silk embroidered 
 sleeping furniture of the mighty immortals, the piety and 
 solemnity which enveloped their workshops rescued them 
 from the rigors of the conspiracy laws which Cicero and 
 
 • Orell., idem. Nos. 4,180 and 4,SOS. 
 
 6 Cod., Justiniani, x, 64,1. 
 
 7 Cic., Fam.y 9, 22, 3. 
 
 » Tertulian, De Idololatria, cap. viil. This author, however, admits that be¬ 
 sides images placed In the walls, the albarii did several other kinds of plaster 
 work. 
 
 9 Grnter, Inter. Tot. Orb., 642,11. 
 
 V Orell., Nos. 4.180, 4,302. 
 
 11 Inscriptionum Latinarum Collectio, No. 4,061. 
 
 '2 We say “ genuine ” incases where we find full approval as to their gen- 
 caneness. Orelli, Fabretti, Muratorius, etc,, are high authority. 
 
ROME'S VOLUPTUOUS HOUSE OF LORDS . 438 
 
 Caesar instituted for their extinction. Another inscrip¬ 
 tion was registered by Oderic, of these couch makers. 18 
 It says that one Julius Epaphra was a fruit seller, form¬ 
 erly pulvinarius who worked at the couch makers’ trade 
 furnishing them for the great circus; and Orelli cites 
 Suetonius to show that such seats or couches were com¬ 
 mon at the games although their usurpation by the gran¬ 
 dees did not please. 14 
 
 We close our section on the image-makers with the un - 
 guentarii or perfumers. The reader by this time begins 
 to see that in reality all these fine things “ fit for the 
 gods,” which were manufactured by the unions in such 
 quantities, were appropriated and used by the rich who 
 in thus usurping or assuming what was destined for im¬ 
 mortals, substituted themselves therefor; and in that way 
 threw a halo of glory around themselves and their great, 
 inapproachable gem families. The whole of it was a sort 
 of self-deification, using political priestcraft to puff their 
 vanity, inflame their egoism, and widen the chasm which 
 forbiddingly yawned between them and the proletarian 
 classes. 
 
 These fine things, so pleasing to the sense of feeling 
 and vision were not enough. They also required some¬ 
 thing to gratify the olfactory sense; and perfumes of the 
 richest kind were manufactured for them. There were 
 unions in considerable numbers who did this work. At 
 Capua before and during the servile war of Spartacus, 
 there were perfumery factories which were celebrated 
 all over Italy. The perfumers can scarcely be called 
 image-makers, but their art completed the category of 
 delicacies and amplified the means of satisfying the vo¬ 
 luptuous cravings of the enormously wealthy. Their per¬ 
 fumes were used in the temples, and at the sacrifices. 
 They were esteemed at feasts and were used in dress. 
 At the great circus, and afterwards the coliseum, the re¬ 
 served seats of the grandees were known by their aroma. 
 
 The perfumers were not only workers but also mer¬ 
 chants; and necessarily, because they had to carry on a 
 considerable traffic with the east and south to obtain 
 
 18 Oderic, Inscriptiones, p. 74. 
 
 14 “ Spectare com circensea ex pulvinari non placet nobis.” Snetonloa, 
 Claudius, 4. 
 
IMAGE-MAKERS. 
 
 gums, spices, nuts, seeds and other raw material for their 
 products. The perfumers or unguentarii also had similar 
 unions in Athens and Corinth where they carried on 
 a considerable business. There are found quite a num¬ 
 ber of inscriptions of different kinds of these workmen 
 and their societies. One archaeologist cites an inscription 
 found in Rome, upon which there has been some com¬ 
 ment made, arising from a disagreement about its exact 
 meaning. 16 Publicius Nicanor, was a perfumer on the 
 Via Sacra, and one Maximus Accensus, was one of the 
 members of the union whose duty was to do up the 
 goods. Most probably it was a union of perfumers chart¬ 
 ered under the names of two foremen, or one foreman 
 and one director as was customary in order to comply 
 with the law. Marini 1 * cites another inscription showing 
 that these prominent officers were females, or at least one 
 of them. The slab was found in Naples. Orelli 11 has an 
 inscription found by Gruter at Venusia in Lucania, which 
 celebrates the setting free of a bondsman and family, by 
 the father, out of the money obtained as proceeds of the 
 perfumery business. His name was Philargyrus, a per¬ 
 fumer. This was probably a private business of the Au¬ 
 gustine period. The marble is broken here, leaving us 
 with this conjecture. 
 
 All the image-makers and perfumers’ trades were 
 countenanced and provided for by King Numa who be¬ 
 lieved that religion was a thing most proper to cultivate. 
 He further believed that it was impious to wage war; or 
 at anv rate, to risk the chances of war lest the sacred 
 temples and altajs be desecrated by its ravages. Thus 
 from a high antiquity, and largely out of respect to the 
 memory and works of this king, the image-makers were 
 classed as the futherers of the holy cause and exempted 
 from many of the restrictions and persecutions which in 
 later times became the source of bloodshed. 
 
 There was a regular trade society of the pearl fishers, 
 margaritarii , w who, it appears, communicated with the 
 
 is Donatl, Roma, Vetus et Recent, p. 827,51. It Is also mentioned by Muratorl, 
 
 Thesaurus, Veterum Imcrtptionum. 
 
 16 Alti. 2, p. 516. De Unguentarils. 17 Orell., 2,988. 
 
 18 Orell., InsoripHonum, Latinarum Collectio, Nos. 1,602, 4,076, 4,218. One of 
 these. No. 4,076 is a genuine trade union. No. 4,218 comes under the title of 
 dries et Opifica , leaving it questionable as to its having been a private business. 
 
 f 
 
BOOKBINDERS. 
 
 435 
 
 workshops in the cities, which their labor supplied with 
 pearls in the rough. Diving* and scraping in the distant 
 waters for pearls was, at the starting point of this preca¬ 
 rious business, a trade which to render successful, nee led 
 to be fortified by a federation with the inlayers and other 
 pearl finishers working at home. Much of this pearl was 
 used in decorating the images which the demands of an 
 idolatrous faith places upon the market; and by thus fur¬ 
 nishing labor, gave bread to the working people. On a 
 superficial view, the fact that the great artists, such a 
 Phidias, Myron, Polycletus, Alcamenes of the heroic school 
 of Ageladas, or the still more versatile school of a few 
 years later of which Lysippas, Praxiteles and Scopas were 
 the heroes, we do not find the pearl industry to have ex¬ 
 tensively entered into the composition of the great sculp¬ 
 tures. But we must remember first, that the descriptions 
 are defective, and next, that the originals are lost . 19 We 
 know that pearls were used in archaic times. If they en¬ 
 tered into the composition of idols—and there seems to 
 be no ground for doubt of this—it must probably have 
 been by inla; kg. 
 
 Great skill was required in the whole pearl business. 
 Among the Etruscans and Romans the art turned rather 
 toward the trinket manufacture. Many of the little gods 
 of the household, emblems, talismans, mementos and 
 charms w~ere gemmed with pearls. Of course, these 
 things, at this late period, if dug from the ruins, would 
 fail to discover the perishable pearls; because the delicate 
 carbonate crumbles with moisture, neglect and time. 
 
 We find a few dim accounts of book-gluers mixed up 
 with the amanuenses or scribes. They acted the part, so 
 to speak, of the modern printers. These, together with 
 poets, teachers and persons engaged in medicine and sur¬ 
 gery, were always, or nearly always, of lowly birth . 20 
 
 19 A more thorough ransacking of this subject may bring to light much of 
 value regarding the onions of image-makers who inscribed their record in the 
 
 Greek tongue. 
 
 20 Guhl and Kohner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, p 526. “Three classes 
 amongst the slaves and freedmen, held a distinguished position by their intel¬ 
 lectual accomplishments, viz: the medici, chirurgi and literati.” ' s to f lie lite - ati, 
 idem, p. 529 we quote as follows: “ We have already mentioned the literati , cul¬ 
 tivated slaves, generally of Greek origin, who had to copy books or write from 
 dictation. By these slaves manuscripts we e copied with astounding celerity, 
 with the aid of abbreviations called, from their inventor, Ti . a freed man of 
 Cicero, Tironian notes. These copies, sometimes f I. of mistakes went to the 
 shops of the bookseller ( billiopotaj , unless these kept copyists in their own 
 
436 
 
 IMAGE-MAKERS. 
 
 Glners, glutinatores , are spolren of by Cicero.® That they 
 were numerous is evident from the large amount of work 
 required of this kind. The great histories of ancient 
 writers were copied times without number and some of 
 them were bound in boards or leather or cloth with much 
 art and taste. It is, however, beyond our power, as yet 
 to discover whether the book-binders possessed a trade 
 organization. The fact that most of the other trades had 
 unions renders it probable that they also were organized, 
 and it is possible that inscriptions may yet be discovered 
 revealing the fact. 
 
 shops. Numerous copies were thus produced in little time. The satirical writ* 
 ings of Ovidus, Propertius and Tdartialis were in everybody’s hands, as were also 
 the works of Homer and Virgil, the odes of Horace, and the speeches of Cicero; 
 grammars, anthologies, etc.i lor schools, were reproduced in the same manner; 
 indeed, the antique book-trade was carried on on a scale hardly surpassed by 
 modern times." Much is taken from Pliny, Natural History, lib. XXIX. init. 
 
 21 Cicero, Ad Atticum, liber, IV. c. iv. 1. See also Orell., InscriptMnumLatin- 
 arum Collertio, No. 2,925, 4,198. Glutinarius , the inscription is on an elegant 
 tomb inside of a vault, according to Gruter, copied by (Orell., Artes et Opificia, 
 Voi. Ti. p. 293), See bookbinding, Ed. Bevan. Series of British Manufactory 
 Industries, (Article by Freeman Wood, pp. 70-94). 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 TRADE UNIONS CONCLUDED. 
 
 THE TAX-GATHERERS. FINAL REFLECTIONS. 
 
 Unions op Collectors —A Vast Organized System with a Uni¬ 
 form and Harmoniously Working Business—Trade Unions 
 under Government Aid and Security —The Ager Publicus of 
 Rome—True Golden Age of Organized Labor—Government 
 Land— A prodigious Slave System their Enemy—Victims of 
 the Slave System—Premonitions on the Coming of Jesus — 
 Demand by His Teachings for Absolute Equality. 
 
 Judging from all the records within our reach, it was 
 Numa who first recognized the necessity of regularly or¬ 
 ganized trades unions for express purposes of purveying 
 goods of every kind, in a systematic manner. He was a 
 strictly business man; and the most important business 
 has ever been that of getting the means of life. In ad¬ 
 dition to the federated trades there had to be the tax 
 collectors; otherwise the expenses of the government 
 could not be defrayed. For this, there was a set of work¬ 
 men, whose express business was to traverse city and 
 country with their credentials from the regularly chart¬ 
 ered union of the Vectigalaria or tax collectors. There 
 were, at that early time, no such arrangements as now ex¬ 
 ist, by which the government did its own work of this 
 kind. A labor guild or union did this work. We have 
 evidence showing that the men going on their rounds col¬ 
 lecting the taxes, were sometimes severe, even brutal to 
 the poor farmers, forcing them to comply with the re¬ 
 quirements of the law. 
 
 Of the branches into which king Numa distributed the 
 
 
438 
 
 TAX-GA THERERS. 
 
 working people wc have already spoken elsewhere, rep¬ 
 resenting them as they appear to us from evidence, 
 through a long vista covering what we, for our own 
 scheme of reasoning, term the golden age because the 
 workmen thrived. Meantime we are well aware that the 
 so-called Golden Age of Rome, is reckoned between the 
 years 250 and 14 before Christ; but this calculation is 
 made by historians of the competitive system, and befits 
 itself to conquest and literature, not to the progress of so¬ 
 cial prosperity. It actually begins about the time this so¬ 
 cial and economical prosperity had reached its zenith. 
 We cannot admit the Golden Age of Rome to have begun 
 at so late a date. From a well sought point of view of 
 sociology this era began with the recognition, by the law 
 of Numa, of the right of free organization; and the la¬ 
 borers’ methodical assumption of the business of supply¬ 
 ing the people with the means of life. This was the true 
 golden age of Rome; and as it also covers the largest 
 part of the era ordinarily admitted to have been the 
 golden age, including the great period of Roman conquest 
 and the splendid era of literature, it only varies in hav¬ 
 ing commenced 670, instead of 250 years before Christ. 
 
 If it was necessary for the scheme of Numa to have the 
 public lands formed by the guilds or societies of practi¬ 
 cal agriculture it was also as necessary for him to institute 
 some reliable means of collecting the fruits of this labor 
 and distributing them among those whom the law recog¬ 
 nized as the true owners. We have had abundant evi¬ 
 dence that among the ancient Indo-European Aryans, no 
 persons except those born to an inheritance possessed the 
 right of owning the public domain. Even the patricians 
 who were the privileged class, and the makers of the laws, 
 did not, until a comparatively late date, attempt to get per- 
 s nal possession of the ager publicus of Italy. The plebei¬ 
 ans who were the only workers, never owned any land. 
 The slate owned the land and the proletaries worked it. 
 The fruits of the lands had to be brought to the people. 
 What is meant by the state ownership, in ancient law, is 
 citizen ownership—the state holding it in common for the 
 citizens. But who were the citizens ? It certainly was 
 not the working people, who were the outcasts, the de¬ 
 scendants of the slaves, or the slaves themselves. They 
 
ANCIENT PLAN OF TAXATION 
 
 439 
 
 owned nothing and could own nothing. But their func¬ 
 tion was to do the work ; and N uma permitted them to 
 organize and do the work socially or in common. 
 
 After the harvest the grain had to be distributed 
 among the citizens who, according to the law, were the 
 owners of the land, the state holding it for them in trust. 
 The workers were always obliged to recognize their lowly 
 condition, and were always glad to get enough of what 
 they produced to keep them alive. 
 
 The plan instituted whereby to collect these products 
 and distribute them among the privileged citizens and 
 others, was organization of the vedigalarii or collectors of 
 incomes, who did this work through a system of societies. 
 The society had a manager or principal overseer, procu¬ 
 rator, and was also supplied'with a quaestor or inspector, 
 who was perhaps the chief clerk. Then came sometimes 
 a secretary, a treasurer and foremen and the working 
 hands, all of whom constituted the membership of the 
 union or commune. The old name of the secretary was 
 sometimes set down in the inscriptions found by the an¬ 
 tiquaries, as cornicularius, 1 * which signified that the secre¬ 
 tary had risen to the place by promotion. It appears 
 from the numerous inscriptions cut in stones, that these 
 customs collectors had societies or unions all over the 
 provinces under Roman domination. 3 At Lyons, after 
 the conquest of Caesar, there were several of them.* Their 
 work was to collect the proceeds of the harvests. 
 Others collected the products of the manufactories: others 
 the proceeds of the fisheries. Even the proceeds of the 
 brothels were collected and distributed in money. 4 * 6 All 
 the multiform labor of collecting had to be done, and the 
 state made it obligatory upon the customs-unions to do 
 
 their work well. This accounts for Granier’s ‘ remark 
 
 % / 
 
 1 Later an assistant secretary. Cod. Theodosii, VII. 4, 82. 
 
 1 See Orell., Inscriplionum Colleclio, 6,642. Vectigalia and many others. 
 
 8 Boissean, Inscription dc Lyon, VII. 25, p. 272, found one which reads as 
 follows: “ Memoriae AureliiCeciliani preepositus. Vectigaliumposuit Epictatus 
 
 Alumnus—Lugduni.” Meaning that Epic the apprentice inscribed the slab to 
 the honor of the director one Aurelius Cecil, in Lyons, 
 
 < Sanger, History of Prostitution; Rome , p. 68: “The Prostibulce (strangers 
 not organized) paid no tax to the state; while their registered rivals (organized 
 meretrices , seep. 66 idem), contributed largely to the municipal treasury.” Greece, 
 48. " Any speculator had a right to set up a dicteriou by paying the tax to the 
 state.” 
 
 6 Histoire des Classes Ouvritres, chap. xiv. Anc ienZ Trad* Unions and Their De¬ 
 velopment. 
 
440 
 
 TAX- OA THERERS. 
 
 that these customs collectors were sometimes brutal to 
 the poor farmers whose unions failed to garner as much 
 as the law required.® It is evident that the collectors had 
 to put themselves in direct business relation with the 
 union of vectuarii or teamsters; as they more frequently 
 took the produce itself than the money. Their practice 
 was to supply the citizens, not so much with the money 
 these proceeds of labor were worth, but with the proceeds 
 themselves. 7 
 
 The trade unions were recognized by the state and held 
 responsible to the state for their work. If in conveying 
 the grain from the farms to Rome, the wagon was attacked 
 by mountaineer brigands and the goods lost, the citizens, 
 who were the state, held, not the teamsters but the whole 
 union responsible. In almost all cases, however, the pro¬ 
 duce of the ager pubiicus was transmitted to Rome by sea. 
 
 For instance; a certain quota of the province of Aquit- 
 ania, or the neighboring province of Lugdunensis, where 
 are found many relics of these societies, is claimed at Rome. 
 Lugdunum or Lyons was connected by water every step 
 of the way to Rome. The society at Lyons sent the grain 
 down the river Rhone by barges to the Mediterranean. At 
 Arles, a ship took it on board and consigned it to Ostia, the 
 mouth of the Tiber and port of Rome. Now the barges of 
 the Tiber had to belong to a union. So there were unions 
 of bargers, caudicarii. The first society guaranteed the 
 safe arrival of the grain as far as the mouths of the Rhone, 
 Ora Rhodani. Here were the ships of another society 
 to further convey it to the port of Rome, so hither it had 
 to be conveyed on board a ship. Thus is seen why the sea< 
 faring men also must have an organization; otherwise, if the 
 ship was lost, captain, crew and cargo, there would remain 
 nobody responsible; and the citizens would be the sole suf¬ 
 ferers. It became necessary therefore, since the govern¬ 
 ment had jobbed out one part of this business to a commune, 
 that it do the same thing in their case, because the rich citi¬ 
 zens who were to be fed by labor, though, personifying 
 government, could legislate or conduct war, could not work; 
 because upon it there was a taint. So the order of the navi- 
 
 • Dionysius of Halicarnassus, book V chap, 43, explains t.je power of the 
 law permitting and furthering these organizations 
 
 * Granier. Histoire des Classes Ouvrurs , chap. xiv. MuiMi a hlit ' nal informa¬ 
 tion may be obtained by reading this valuable chapter of 31. v.ranier s work. 
 
THE RESPONSIBLE ONIONS. 
 
 44i 
 
 cularti existed; and being chartered by government, was 
 made responsible for the loss of any cargo. When the cargo 
 arrived at Ostia, the mouth of the Tiber, sixteen miles from 
 Rome, it was conveyed to the granaries of the city by the 
 societies of boatmen, known as caudicarii, bargemen, under 
 guarantee, precisely in the same manner as in former cases. 
 Thus for the least possible trouble and with utmost security, 
 the government or non-laboring citizens got the greatest 
 possible amount of produce from the ager publicus , or com¬ 
 mon land. Yet the people who labored were satisfied and 
 thrived better than they were ever known to thrive under 
 any system, because their industry produced enormously 
 and their strong arms made labor easy, agreeable and safe. 
 
 Now the customs collectors or vectigalarii were interested 
 in all these details of supply ; because the government looked 
 to them directly or indirectly for everything the citizen 
 population had to live upon from year to year. 
 
 But the supply of grain, wine, oil and other agricultural 
 products was not all these tax collectors bad to attend to. 
 There were many artisan societies. These we have treated 
 separately and in regular order, according to their import¬ 
 ance. They all had more or less to do with the tax or cus¬ 
 toms collectors, with whom they were interlinked in the 
 great social bond. Sometimes, as in the case of the pork 
 butchers union,* there were officers appointed whose busi¬ 
 ness was to go personally, or send, into the stock farm 
 country and collect the tax either in money or in kind. 
 This would, of course, entail an immense amount more labor 
 than that attached to butchery. It would entail the whole 
 business of the d rover. Weighing would require much at¬ 
 tention and an inspection of all the various operations of 
 several vocations. 
 
 Slabs have been found to the number of 262, bearing in¬ 
 scriptions of the vectigalia , of different dates, ranging mostly 
 from the time of the first Csesars to that of the emperor 
 Constantine. These 262 include only those registered by 
 Orelli in his work on the Roman Antiquities. Great num¬ 
 bers of those unions probably existed of which no record 
 
 » Granier, whose researches into these societies and the laws governing them 
 reveal an astonishing versatility and accuracy, says that very many, if not all the 
 commercial trades had officers. whose work was to oversee the customs collec¬ 
 tions. See idem, pp. 310-315. There was a Boatmen's insurance mentioned by 
 Livy rxlil. cap. 44. Beckmann, Hist, of Invention*, (Bohn) L p. 284. (Caudica- 
 ril> 
 
442 
 
 TAX- GA THERERS. 
 
 was kept, and antiquaries of the future may yet reveal more. 
 On the whole these facts regarding inner workings of the 
 ancient human family present a picture of deep interest, re¬ 
 vealing as they do a system of industry unique in its method 
 of supplying the great population of Rome at that time con¬ 
 taining probably about 2,000,000 inhabitants 9 and its nu¬ 
 merous municipia or provincial cities and town with me^ns 
 of life. The vectigalia evidently covered more of the im¬ 
 mense business of those times than the ordinary reader 
 would ascribe to them. Orelli, 10 speaks of iron miners who 
 sometimes interlinked with the mines situated at great dis¬ 
 tances from the city ; yet it would appear by this mention 
 that the miners far away in the mountains and perfectly or¬ 
 ganized, were in close and systematic, if not happy mutual 
 communication with the forgers’ association stationed at 
 Rome. 
 
 The most remarkable part of the system was that it was 
 government work; that the work was performed by trade 
 unions instead of isolated individuals as in the competitive 
 system; and that during many centuries through which this 
 system existed, both in war and peace, the ancient working 
 people were prosperous and happy. Of course, this organ¬ 
 ization does not apply in any form to slaves. This terrible 
 scourge of the human race still existed; but there are strong 
 proofs that the trade unions were at one time making in¬ 
 roads upon the slave system which required care by the 
 masters and slave owners in order to conduct business; 
 whereas the trade union system endorsed bykingNuma 
 lifted all the troublesome details and responsibilities from 
 the shoulders of the patricians who regarded individual la¬ 
 bor as a disgrace. Labor being a humiliation to the pro¬ 
 pertied class who managed the government land but did not 
 perform the actual work, it was a matter of convenience for 
 them to have trade unions. The state, then, was their great 
 patron and protector. Rich individual slave owners like 
 Crassus or Cicero or Nicias could job out their slaves’ labor 
 to persons of enterprise, but the very pride of their blood 
 prevented them from undertaking any except the noble en- 
 
 » Consult Dr. Beloch. Bulletin de Statisque tte I’lnstitute International , tome. 
 I. ann&e 1886, p. 62 sqq. Roma. 
 
 10 Roman antiquities. No. 1,239 vectigalia ferrariorum also ferrifodinariL 
 See also Mur; 972, 10. The inscr. reads: “D. M. I’rimonU ferrariariorum vital!* 
 eontuber.” Found at the mines of Niinea. 
 
NO REVOLUTION. 
 
 448 
 
 tcrprises of war and politics. There was nobody to com 
 pete with the unions and the state became their great em¬ 
 ployer. But we have seen in our account of strikes and up¬ 
 risings that human cupidity, taking advantage of the slave 
 system and by means of it, grasping, holding and tilling the 
 ager publicus, finally destroyed the public trade unions. 
 
 That the trade union or social system was good there 
 seems to be no ground for doubt; but the workman being 
 stamped by the old religio-political jealousy of paganism 
 which branded him as a wretch, preventing him from taking 
 political action, whereby to secure and fortify his system, 
 gave the grandees all the advantage because they made the 
 laws. When, therefore, the unions found that they must 
 exercise their political power, which they did in later times, 
 it was too late. They were themselves too deeply tinged 
 with the deadly, unmanly sense that their masters were 
 superior to them by birth. There had been no Christ to 
 boldly declare a new state of things based upon absolute 
 equality by birth and natural rights of all men. Seeing the 
 encroachments upon themselves as well as upon the public 
 lands their sole source of raw material, the trade unions 
 tardily fell into the struggle, learned to wrestle valiantly, 
 suffered a more pronounced hatred of their masters, grew 
 in self-dignity but gradually lost in vested rights, forced up 
 a great social struggle but incurred the deep-rooted hatred 
 of Cicero and Csesar, grew poorer, more numerous, more 
 secret, vindictive and conniving and wrought up a spirit all 
 over Greece, Rome, Judea and the provinces, which ren¬ 
 dered possible the kindling of that marvelous revolution that 
 destroyed the identity of ancient paganism. 
 
 But there is one thing our researches fail to discover, 
 do not find clear and sufficient evidences of a system 
 ot agricultural communes. These may have existed. We 
 are in doubt. Everything else was organized. Where is 
 this missing link? Had it existed, would not the great trade 
 nnion system have grown so complete as to gradually ob¬ 
 tain the ascendency, political as well as industrial and thus 
 been able to realize thousands of years ago, the revolution ? 
 
CHAPTER XXL 
 
 ROMANS AND GREEKS. 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES. 
 
 Unions Or Romans and Greeks compared— Miscellaneous Soci¬ 
 eties of Tradesmen—Sbipcarpenters—Boatmen—Vesselmak- 
 ers—Millers—Organization of the Lupanarii —Of the Anci¬ 
 ent Firemen—Description of the Greek Fraternities—The 
 Eh anoi and Thiasoi —Strange Mixture of Fiety and Business 
 —Trade Unions of Svria and North Palestine—Their Offi- 
 eers—Membership and Influence of Women—Large Num¬ 
 bers of Communes in the islands of the Eastern Mediterra¬ 
 nean—Their Organizations Known and Described From their 
 Inscriptions. 
 
 All antiquity was at one time a hive of trade unions. 
 
 Nearly every species of business was organized. Especially 
 was this the case in southern Italy, where Plato found a 
 system of communism extensively prevailing, supposed by 
 some to have been planted there by Pythagoras. 1 The early 
 inhabitants of the Italian peninsula were well acquainted 
 with trade unionism; and traces of it, if not mentioned are 
 discernable in history and this fact stands as the funda¬ 
 mental solution to many of the otherwise incomprehensible 
 things which have puzzled modern historians. Neverthe¬ 
 less the nobility and its laws of primogeniture reigned in 
 circles of politics and power. Plato is known to have vis¬ 
 ited Italy several times in search of material for his ideal 
 state. lie was, however, so much of an aristocrat, or so 
 enslaved by his environments that he signally failed to give 
 
 * Drumann, Arlexter und Communisten in Griechenland und Ron i. somewhere 
 remarks that Pythagoras ancl Numa were not only contemporaries hut personal 
 friends. If go, we cannot wonder that Numa bejriended the trade uniong. 
 
ORGANIZED SAILORS, 
 
 445 
 
 the world the benefit of his comm uni stical lucubrations. The 
 nearest he could possibly get to a decent governmi nt was 
 to one of bosses, policemen and slaves, and the sociologist 
 of our day is forced to drop Plato with a species of chagrin 
 or disgust. Aristotle did better; but both were aristocrats, 
 enslaved to great men of wealth. Both Solon and Numa, 
 long before them had planted the real, practical government 
 which the world is at this moment following. Though Aris- 
 totle could analyze the course the world should and does 
 take, yet he was too Pagan-bound to see beyond the galling 
 bands of slavery. 
 
 The Fabri navalium, ship carpenters and boat makers, of 
 the Tiber had well regulated unions which were considered 
 among the most respectable of the organizations. These 
 Associations were found along the banks of the navigable 
 rivers and the coasts of the sea on both sides of the penin¬ 
 sula and also in Sicily. 
 
 Of the boatmen’s unions, collegia naviculariorum , the 
 greater number, according to our evidence, were to be found 
 in the country. There could not have been many boatmen 
 at Rome; but we have a mention, among others, by the 
 great jurist Gaius, who speaks of them in discriminating the 
 right of organization in later times. 2 The unions of boatmen 
 were naturally confined to the sea shores. We might speak 
 of them as possibly connected directly or indirectly with 
 the lawless noatmen who swarmed the sea from Naples to 
 Syracuse, and whom Plutarch says Spnrtacus found to be 
 treacherous, without principles and looking only for grain. 
 Even to this day the Mediterranean is lined with them from 
 Gibralter to Barcelona and thence to Toronto. At Genoa 
 and Nice and on the Baltic, they are still well organized 
 and take advantage of every opportunity to gain a lira by 
 fair means and in all their methods to attain this end are 
 thoroughly sustained by one another, as they enjoy all the 
 mutually assisting quirks known to their union. 
 
 The collegium vasculariorum 8 (metal vessel makers), was, 
 of course, a union of potters; but it appears their art was 
 mostly, if not quite confined to manufacturing vessels in 
 
 * Gaius, Digest, 1, III. 4. “ Item collegia Romae certa sunt, quorum corpus 
 aanctis eoll. atque constltutionibus principalibus confirmatum est, veluti pis- 
 torum et quorundam aliorum et naviculariorum et inprovinciis sunt.” 
 
 ; An old inscription mutilated by age and ill usage reads: •*P. Monetius so¬ 
 ciorum libert 3 1‘bilogenes vasculari s VeturiaC. 1. fc-alviasibei et sueis.” (Sei 
 Fabx*etti, Inscriptionum Antiquarian Explicate, 632, 276.) 
 
446 
 
 TEE COUNTLESS COMMUNES 
 
 metals. The vascularii were ski!led workmen. They ofteD 
 wrought beautiful urns in bronze and other material. Some 
 of the delicately chiseled amphorae having two handles were 
 of their lvorkmanship, although most amphorae were made 
 of potters’ clay. Many vessels in gold were the work of 
 their hands. They are knowD to have realized well by vir¬ 
 tue of their trade union; because their patrons were largely 
 the proud gens who were not stingy about the amount of 
 cost, if they could have their aesthetic tastes gratified. 
 
 The collegium pistorum , union of millers, who ground 
 grain in mortars and afterwards in mills, was also a trade 
 organization. This trade was a very important one, as it 
 furnished the farmed for the family use of all who could af- 
 fored to eat wheat flour or any of the cereals, course or fine. 
 When we further take into account that it required at least 
 seventy men to grind as much grain in a given time as is 
 now ground in a steam mill by a single man, we may realize 
 that in Rome and vicinity there must have been several 
 thousand workmen constantly employed at this handicraft 
 in order to produce enough to supply the demand. It 
 must not be forgotten, however, that there were many people 
 at Rome and everywhere, and from the earliest times, too 
 poor to enjoy bread and who were obliged to subsist on 
 peas, roots and other cheap food . 4 Nevertheless the mil¬ 
 lers were numerous, and being organized, they succeeded 
 in competing with slave labor and got considerable of the 
 work to do as a free industry. 
 
 Originally or in the remotest antiquity, all such work was 
 done by slaves on the paternal estate, under the eye of the 
 paterfamilies or head of the family; but when those de¬ 
 graded slaves became numerous and began to think for 
 themselves, as we have previously seen, they secured manu- 
 
 * Feeding the laboring class poor food Is of early record. Herodotus lEutrrp 
 125) expressly tells how cheap fed were laborers who built the great Egyptian 
 monuments. They were glad to get onions, garlic and roots. The same para¬ 
 graph explains the cost of their living: “ 2e< Trjp.avrax Si Sid ypappdTmv Aiy vmmm 
 ev Tjj nvpa.iJ.iSt ,, oaa is re <rvpp.atT)v nai Kpop.p.va teal cncopoSa a^auruu i&rj roitm 
 ipya^opevoicri' xal tot e/xi tv pepivijcrOaird 6 ipp.svevsp.oi iwiAe\6ptvos rd ypdpuur* 
 e<f>T] e£a/co <ria teal ^lAia raAavra apyvpi ov T«TeA*<r0ai. M Still earlier, Homer, 
 iOdyssy , XIV. 414, 415^ 416,) says ; 
 
 “'A£e0’ vtov rbv apiorov , leva (eivtft iepevar o* 
 
 T-q^eSanw irpos S’ auToi bvrjcropeO’, otirep oifvr 
 Arji' e\op.tv ndcr\ovTe c viav even' apyurS6vrtor. ,t 
 Shows that the poor led on pork. See Quhl and Honor, lAfs of Ok* Orteks mod 
 Romans, p. 601 for the later Roman food. Virgil, Eclogue, II. ▼ 9 10, pars*’? 
 smallage and onions; So Horace, Ad Eisonem; V. 249; “ Nac si quid frictl ciceri 
 probat et nucis emptor.” Pliny, XXVI. 3. 
 
advantages of organization 
 
 447 
 
 missions and thus the trade unionists were mostly freedmen 
 who had the sagacity to organize. The advantages in those 
 days, of a good, sound, business-like union for each trade 
 must have been very great; especially so, as their unions 
 were communistical, and used as means of convivial enjoy¬ 
 ment, as well as for economic ends. 
 
 Of the collegiumincendarium, or firemen’s association men¬ 
 tion is made by Mommsen, who wonders why they should 
 be suppressed; since burial and firemen’s societies were 
 among those saved . 1 
 
 The collegium Vinariorwm , (wine dealers and wine vault- 
 ers) was an institution of later date than Numa, who did not 
 encourage wine drinking. If there are data extant regard¬ 
 ing them at so early a time, we have failed to find them. 
 During the time of the emperors, however, they were the 
 subject of discussion as to whether they should be sup¬ 
 pressed or exempted.* The collegium lupanariorum (bro¬ 
 thel keepers), as is seen in the passage here cited, was an 
 institution well known in the later ages of the Roman em¬ 
 pire and two centuries before Christ there were secret asso¬ 
 ciations of the lupanarii , 7 of which an account has gone 
 into * history. These were curious products of the mania 
 for organization that must have existed at Rome. But it 
 must be remembered that the whole plebeian class of inhab¬ 
 itants were out in the cold, competitive world, and de¬ 
 pending each upon his or her trade or profession which he 
 or she considered right, so long as it was patronized by the 
 elegant people of the other class who had social as welf aa 
 political institutions upon which they could base a guaranty 
 of safety. 
 
 During a visit in Europe we became indebted to Mr. 
 Henry Tompkins of the Friendly Societies’ Registration at 
 London, from whose hand was first received a copy of his 
 pamphlet on the Friendly Societies of Antiquity. We also 
 made the personal acquaintance of Professors Vogt, Errera, 
 Huber. Yigano and many others who referred us to volumes 
 
 6 “Ut enlm eenatus e. g. et fi-nerum causa jgb>in©endiorum jus coeundi re- 
 
 Bquerit, qua ratione vetiti sunt, ii qui funernrtecS^isiointererant incendiorum 
 causa societatem inire? ” (Mommsen, De CV’%ye« et+Sodaliciis Romano rum, p. 
 *9 J. . 
 
 *> Corpora omnium constitult vinariorum iupntvafiorum caligariorum et om- 
 aio omnium artium bisque ex sese de ensores dedit etjussit quid ad quos judices 
 pertinent (Lamprid, Alex. Severas, c. 33). 
 
 7 See Sanger’s Hist, of Prostitution, p. <5d. 
 
 • Livy, XXXIX. 8-19. 
 
448 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES. 
 
 of Drumann, Foucart, Wescher, Liiders, Mommsen, De 
 Broglie and others. It is through the great labors of such 
 men that the modern students of the labor movements are 
 made aware of what wonders in the social problem were 
 wrought in antiquity. But their evidence is nearly all de¬ 
 rived from the silent inscriptions upon slabs, urns and sar¬ 
 cophagi that survive the corroding vicissitudes of the sad 
 centuries. In fact the industry of the archaeologists may 
 yet reveal as valuable contributions to the science of soci¬ 
 ology as the fossil diggers have revealed to their branch of 
 paleontology. It is now made certain from multitudes of 
 inscriptions which have weathered the storms of more than 
 two thousand years, that great numbers of social organiza¬ 
 tions of the laboring classes existed simultaneously in Asia 
 Minor, Egypt, Greece and Italy. 
 
 The variety of names for them found on the relics are 
 more attributable to epochs and languages than to differ¬ 
 ences in their character and tenets of association. Where 
 the Greek was spoken they were called after the term eranos y 
 meaning a meal of victuals in common, or food for which 
 a common assessment was made upon members who enjoyed 
 it by mutual consent. Thus it came to be a method of pro¬ 
 curing or earning the meal—a trade union. Hence the 
 eranoi were organizations or co-operations for the purposes 
 of self-support; and partook more of the character of the 
 community method, such as in our day exhibits itself at the 
 Soci6t6 de Conde sur Vesgre, than of the more prevalent 
 co-operative associations,® like the Equitables. 
 
 This term Eranos is unmistakable in meaning. An oblo¬ 
 quy attaches to it, pretty much the same as to our word 
 communism, wherever it is used in the classics; because 
 the societies existed during that period of the world’s career 
 in which the sovereignty of the individual was more fierce 
 and intolerant toward the meeker spirit of mutual help than 
 it is now; for the eranoi were the Greek guilds. Yet evi¬ 
 dences are abundant that such communities existed in large 
 numbers; that they obtained no little moral and pecuniary 
 aid from outside; that they were persecuted by the politi¬ 
 cians, hated by the optimates, and were obliged to assume 
 
 * Consult LQders, Die Dionysischen K&nstler, Einleitende UebertichL, S. 1-49. 
 Versehledenheit nnd Auebreltung der Organisatlonen. 
 
GREEK LABOR UNIONS. 
 
 449 
 
 a good drill of veneration for the gods, and play other so¬ 
 cial as wed as political counter-tactics to exist. 
 
 Another name, that of Thiasos , was given to a similar, 
 and it would appear cotemporaneous class of organization. 
 In fact so far as we are able to determine, the thiasoi and 
 the eranoi were pretty much one and the same thing. But 
 as the term thiasos with the various forms of verb and sub¬ 
 stantive, refers to demonstrations of joy, such as marching, 
 dancing, singing and the like, in the open streets, it appears 
 they were one kind of organization with two names—that 
 of eranoi , the secret union which met twice and sometimes 
 four times a month ; and of the more generally known thiasoi 
 whose members sometimes paraded in large numbers in the 
 open air. 10 
 
 Mr. Tompkins, who has devoted his very useful life to 
 statistical matters regarding the Friendly Societies of Great 
 Britain, is prone to picture analogies between the ancient 
 and the modern form. Studying the former from the light 
 he and others have rendered, we are strongly suspicious, 
 because they were distinct from the bacchanalia and the 
 more ancient erotiae, that they were unions of trades whose 
 tenets involved nearly all the elements of the socialists of 
 to-day, rather than of the present standard of liberty and de¬ 
 velopment to be found in the Friendly Societies of Great 
 Britain. According to Mr. Tompkins’ list, which was al¬ 
 ways official, the Friendly Societies in 1868 numbered 23, 
 000, with an aggregate membership of 1,700,000, and a 
 capital of nearly 50,000,000 dollars. 11 The comparison 
 therefore is at least respectable. We quote from his pamph¬ 
 let on Friendly Societies of Antiquity: 
 
 “Let us now consider whsrt these companies were which 
 are called by the names of eranos and t/iiasos, and of which 
 the following and other inscriptions have revealed the num¬ 
 ber and importance. These companies were formed of 
 members who met together to sacrifice to certain divinities 
 and to celebrate their festivals in common ; besides this they 
 assisted those membei3 who fell into necessitous circum¬ 
 stances, and provided for their funerals. They were at once 
 religious associations and friendly societies. 1 * Sometimes 
 
 10 See further on these distinctions in subsequent chapters, also much re¬ 
 specting them and the Jewish and Egyptian cummunes. 
 
 11 Keport of the Registrar of Friendly Societies of Gieat Britain , for the year 1868- 
 
 u This author might have here said “ trade unions;" for numbers of the 
 
450 
 
 THE COUXTLESS COMMUNES ,. 
 
 they daringly partook of a political and commercial character* 
 These private corporations (recognized by the state), had 
 their presiding and other officers, their priests, their funds 
 supplied by the contributions of members and the liberality 
 of benefactors. They assembled in their sanctuary and 
 made decrees. They were found in great numbers in the 
 important cities, and especially in the maritine ODes. At 
 Rhodes, for example, there were the Companions of the 
 Sun, the Sons of Bacchus, of Minerva Lindienne, of Jupiter 
 Atabyrius, of Jupiter the Savior. At Athens (or rather at 
 the Pi rams), there were the Heroistes, the Serapiste9 or 
 company of the worshipers of the god Serapis, theEranstes 
 the Orgeons and lastly the tliiasotes.” 18 
 
 Many of these were trade unions possessing a common 
 fund, the amount of which depended upon the number of 
 members who paid regular contributions, and the amount 
 of the donations that were given from wealthier people who 
 were in sympathy with them. There is plenty of evidence 
 that women as well as men formed the membership of these 
 societies. Woman took her stand with all the dignity and 
 the honors of the man; and there are several slabs of stone 
 and other relics on which are inscribed some of the particu¬ 
 lars in regard to the kind and importance of the honors 
 awarded her for faithfulness and ability in performing the 
 duties of an executive officer. The monthly meetings or so¬ 
 ciables held in enclosed gardens and groves were largely 
 conducted by the women who gave the attractive convivial 
 feature, which may account for their long existence and 
 extraordinary status and power, that enabled them to do 
 what no social society of our more enlightened age is doing 
 —write their record as the dinotherium and the trilobite 
 have done, in the irrefutable argument of their stone remains 
 and inprints. There are at present very few societies of so¬ 
 cialists of which we have any knowledge that are in the 
 habit of chiseling out their archives with such a degree of 
 minuteness and upon such imperishable material as was 
 habitual with the ancient eranoi and sodalicia. 
 
 It is true, we are making so profound an impression that 
 
 friendly societies of Great Britain have become since the repeal of the consoir 
 acy laws in 1824, genuine trade unions of the best pattern. During the exist 
 »nce of the cruel law of Elizabeth they maintained the title of friendly and 
 burial societies almost exactly like the colleges and eranes. 
 
 18 Mr. H. Thompkins’ pamphlet on the Friendly Societies of Antiquity. Lon¬ 
 don, 1867, 
 
WROTE THEIR HISTOR T ON THE STONES ,. 451 
 
 the histories and printed records of our existence and of our 
 important transactions are slowly becoming a possible thing; 
 and such records may possibly save us from oblivion; but 
 the true and thorough histriographer of the labor move¬ 
 ments of the world has a broad and attractive field—not 
 yet all laid open—in the study, and interpretation of the 
 multitudes of reliefs, anaglyphs, and other queer paleographs 
 upon slabs, urns, amphorae and such objects of those by-gone 
 ages; a work which falls to the lot of the archaeologist to 
 develop and complete. The truth is, the history of labor 
 has been neglected ; and there is reason to believe that very 
 nearly all of that which in this more propitious age is at¬ 
 tracting profound consideration by the wise and benevolent, 
 has been gone over and tried, amid the vicissitudes of wars 
 and other antagonisms of the outside competitive world, more 
 than two thousand years ago. 
 
 But the fact that their non- competitive plan failed of gen¬ 
 eral adoption need not be adduced as an argument against 
 them. They seem to have been very successful so far as 
 they were intended to apply. They were trade unions for 
 the most part among the mechanics and laboring people; 
 and so far as their societies concerned them, they succeeded. 
 It had not become particularly a broad question. When, 
 however, Christ took up the principle of community of in¬ 
 terests involved in their tenets, and organized his system of 
 advocacy, there immediately arose upon it a world-wide 
 culture and an opposition; because this threatened the over¬ 
 throw of the competism which has always been the basis of 
 both social and political economy. 
 
 That the communes, called the ercinoi in Greece, the Gre¬ 
 cian Archipelago, Asia Minor and Egypt, in the Greek 
 tongue, and the collegia, sodalicia or coetus in the Latin, 
 were the chief cause and originators of Christendom, we 
 can, after mature reflection, entertain little doubt. 
 
 Already faint glimpses of proof are extant that the prin¬ 
 ciple or thesis of our modern community of interests, “no 
 excellence without unity in labor,” and that “endless toil 
 in collecting good, both by experiment and observation,” 
 which is now giving preponderance to Aristotle’s philosophy 
 over that of Plato, is significantly crowding Christianity 
 out from the impractical self-denying school of St. Jerome, 
 back into its primeval socialism, or non-eompetism, in the 
 
452 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES, 
 
 defense of which Jesus, Nestor, and a thousand others have 
 suffered. 
 
 Fortunately for us, the ancient trade unions were in the 
 habit not only of writing their minutes and preserving them 
 in their own archives, in each state where they existed but 
 many of the great events were further inscribed either in 
 alto, demi or basso-relievo; and many times this was done 
 on marble or good blue or sand-stone, which has withstood 
 all the erosions of time. 
 
 In some places, as at the Piraeus the ancient seaport of 
 Athens, in the Isle of Sautorin, in Rhodes and in Asia Minor, 
 the societies were very numerous. It is a well known fact 
 that during the period of the existence of these nations, 
 ranging about 58 years before Christ down to the destruc¬ 
 tion of the Alexandrian archives by Theophilus and St. 
 Cyril, about A. D. 414, the laws against these poor people 
 and their organizations where almost whimsically severe. 
 M. Renan says of the Roman communes, that there was 
 still less favor here given the disinherited classes than in 
 other countries. During the Roman Republic, in the “ af¬ 
 fair of the Bacchanales,” 186 years before Christ, the policy 
 of Rome on the subject of these associations had first been 
 proclaimed. 14 
 
 It was the nature of the Roman people to cleave to fra¬ 
 ternizing organizations, and especially to those of a religi¬ 
 ous character. This kind of association, however, was hate¬ 
 ful to tho patricians—the dispensers of the political power 
 —who recognized the family and the state in actual force, 
 as the correct social group. These patricians took the 
 minutest precautions against allowing the plebians the scope 
 of developing into a counter power. They had to be scru¬ 
 pulously authorized before they could become an associa¬ 
 tion—probably by charter. They could not appoint a per¬ 
 manent president or magister eacrorum. The number of 
 their members had to be limited. The meanest restrictions 
 were enacted against their accumulating too large a fund 
 for their commune. Similar peevishness continued against 
 the disinherited classes during the existence of the Roman 
 Empire. The archives of the law contained every imagin¬ 
 able provision for the repression of their growth 
 
 14 So we find the great social wars or tne reoellions of slaves, assisted by thu 
 unemployed original inhabitants, to have raged from about this same period. 
 
NAMES AND DUTIES OF OFFICERS . 
 
 463 
 
 M. Renan further asserts that the Syrians gathered into 
 these societies inoculating them with opinions which the 
 patricians vainly sought to destroy. The Revue Archeolo- 
 gique says that there was a w contest of opinions between 
 the communes and the patricians,’’ which is very natural; 
 since the whole gist of the former was to do away with 
 competism and the system of intermediary commission men 
 depended upon, by the patricians, as a principle for their 
 very existence. 
 
 The Greek societies are known by inscriptions now in the 
 Archaeological Museum at Athens, to have had the follow¬ 
 ing officers: 
 
 1. Three presiding officers—of both sexes: (a) the presi¬ 
 dent (prostates), male; and ( b ) the guardian in charge ( pro- 
 eranistria ), female. They had also, (c) a president of finance 
 (archeranistes). 
 
 2. A stewardess or housewife ( tamia ). 
 
 3. A manager or trustee; of whom, doubtless each era- 
 nos or union had more than one ( epimeletes ). There are 
 evidences that the functions of this important office were 
 divided among the men and women of the union. 
 
 4. The recording secretary or scribe who wrote the min¬ 
 utes for the archives ( grammateus ). 
 
 5. Lawyers (sundikoi), whose exclusive business was to 
 watch and defend the society and its members, individually 
 as well as collectively, against the persecution of the outside 
 competitive world which was always too prone to enforce 
 any one of the many repressive and intolerant laws and 
 measures above referred to, against them. 
 
 6. The manager of religious rites ( hieropoios ). 
 
 7 . Priest, one who attended to the religious ceremonies 
 or rites ( hierokeryx ). 
 
 A glance at ancient mythology will show that a great 
 many isms, creeds or denominations existed in hierarchical 
 affairs; and that the power of each was nearly coequal so 
 far as political and social status or respectability was con¬ 
 cerned. All seem to have been shielded by the law of the 
 land. So the communes took refuge under the favors 
 of religious discipline, and are known to have been obliged 
 to do so to keep themselves reconciled to their persecutors. 
 By these tactics and by the smartness of their own lawyers, 
 who gave their time to the labor of love, they kept the hoa- 
 
454 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES. 
 
 tile and restringent, clauses of the law a “ dead lettei," in 
 spite of the patricians and optimales. M. Renan and 
 others declare that there were radical “ differences of opin¬ 
 ion ” on the part of the unions all through those centuries. 
 The truth is, that then, as now* their very existence was an 
 organized socialistic state, though of a low order. 
 
 We find that some of the eranoi or Greek-speaking com¬ 
 munities worshiped, and even dedicated themselves to one 
 god w ith its peculiar litany, some to another. Here is a 
 translation from the very slab or “ stone tablet ” referred to 
 in the command of the decree, which strangely enough, has 
 survived all the ages since the beginning of the third cen¬ 
 tury before Christ. On looking it over, who shall doubt that 
 this was a great and perhaps wealthy community, in every 
 way respectable? It was dedicated to the mythical god, 
 Jupiter, and chronicles the fact clearer than the recusant 
 historian could have done upon papyrus, that it was an 
 honorable and responsible body, and in nowise allied to 
 the bawdy erotomania that inspired the orgies of earlier 
 origin and that formed the subject matter of Anacreon’s 
 dithyrambics and the voluptuous bacchanalian ditties of 
 Pindar. This translation is clipped verbatim from Mr. 
 Henry Tompkin’s pamphlet. 15 “ It has been proposed: 
 seeing that Menis, son of Mnistheus, of Heraclea, is full 
 of good will toward the thiasotes, and of zeal for the tem¬ 
 ple, that at present, being treasurer, appointed under the 
 
 archontate of-he has fulfilled that charge with zeal 
 
 and honesty; that he has finished the portico and the front 
 of the temple of Jupiter Lebraundos in a manner worthy 
 of the god; that he has managed the common funds with 
 honesty and justice, and that to all the thiasotes he has 
 been irreproachable both before and after taking office as 
 treasurer; that he has not hesitated to add his own money 
 toward the expenses of the temple, showing thus, in an 
 evident manner the good will that he has for the thiasotes, 
 and that he has fulfilled the sacerdotal office in a manner 
 worthy of the god. For all these things the thiasotes 
 have decreed to award a vote of thanks ( euloaium) to 
 Menis, son of Mnistheus, of Heraclea ; to crown him with 
 a chaplet of foliage; to consecrate, in a part of the tem¬ 
 ple where it will be best seen, his likeness, painted on » 
 
 u For the original See Rev Atrheologique Paper by M. Weecher. 
 
SPECIMENS OF GREEK COMMUNES 
 
 piece of wood, according to law, in order to show to all 
 those who wish to prove their zeal toward the temple what 
 honors they may obtain, each one according to the good 
 he may be able to do for the thiasotes; and to engrave 
 this decree on a stone tablet, and to place it in the tem¬ 
 ple of the god.” 
 
 We have proved in our own mind that the thiasoi whose 
 members, the thiasotes , paraded in the open streets, “ danc¬ 
 ing in honor of the gods,” were identical with the secret 
 eranoi who met much oftener to enjoy their meals, con- 
 vivials, discussions and social pleasures in common and to 
 contrive for each other situations to work. The eranoi 
 were much less known, though their purpose was far 
 more significant. 16 They met from two to four times a 
 month to transact business and to discuss their “ differ¬ 
 ence of opinion.” It was here that the above mentioned 
 officers felt the responsibility of their functions. The 
 treasurer was of so much importance that he was called 
 president of finance. Doubtless the male president (pros¬ 
 trates) was considered to outrank the female president 
 (; proeranistia ), if indeed the aristocratic idea of ranks was 
 permitted to enter the commune. The number and im¬ 
 portance of the offices seem to have resembled those of 
 the Patrons of Husbandry, or Knights of Labor. 
 
 We are unable, as yet, to determine exactly what class 
 of women it was who shared the communistic proletarian 
 societies of Greece and the Greek-speaking inhabitants 
 under trade union laws during the power of the Greek 
 philosophies, but are of opinion that they were of the two 
 most respectable classes recognized by law. It is quite 
 certain that their movements at Athens were watched by 
 the Areopagus or court of Mars, whose jurisdiction was 
 over criminal cases and public order and decency. The 
 two classes were the wives of mechanics, their daughters, 
 and the aulitrides who made their living by playing the 
 flute. It is almost certain that the wonderful, coexistant 
 class of women known as the hetairai also participated in 
 these Eranoi as members. But to prove that the oule- 
 trides frequented them we give a translation of a Greek 
 
 w Athenaeue, Deipnosophistai, VIII. “ Epavoi Si ciciv ai anb rwr cn n$a\\on*- 
 imv fiaayujyai, an6 tov avvepav Kal avp-cfrepeiv fKacrTov* k oAelrtt 6 au*o< «ui (pavo) 
 r ai dLaaos «ai oi avviovres epavurrai /eat avydcaa^roie 
 
456 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES 
 
 inscription cut in marble, edged with bas reliefs. It is of 
 the Roman epoch and is from the Isle of Santorin in the 
 Grecian Archipelago, not far from Nio. As Santorinwas 
 an agricultural country they might have been mostly cul¬ 
 tivators. No matter how repressive and intolerant the 
 laws, they could not disband. It is a slab first observed 
 at Athens by the Archaeologist M. Wescher, in which the 
 eranoi fairly unveil their secrecy and come out in their 
 own name. Before giving the rendering of the inscrip¬ 
 tion, however, we beg to paint as we conceive it, a picture 
 of ancient competitive life which formed the basis of 
 Greek society. It ran to the extent of gambling; and the 
 ethics of society may be said to have been fixed by law and 
 public opinion at little higher than the gamblers’ code. 
 Society outside the eranoi and the thiasoi was a vast 
 gambling hell; and the long existence of the associations, 
 we can account for in no other way than that they in their 
 secret recesses possessed a charmed circle. It was the 
 infinite love that emanates from the infinite difference 
 marked by the gulf yawning between competitive frater¬ 
 nal life. ” The poor Greek working people must have felt 
 all this difference. 
 
 Let anyone imagine himself obliged to contemplate the 
 fashionable logic of a gambling den: A number of peo¬ 
 ple sit round a table, each with his pile of gold, the sum 
 of which is the stake involved. There is skill there. 
 There is also genuine talent. Brilliant aptitudes in one, 
 in the choice of cards or dice; intuition in another, to 
 catch and forestall a niggling thought and checkmate a 
 winning deal; shrewdness in a third at the study of fea¬ 
 tures and in the reading of their inadvertent language; 
 and in a fourth, tact to swoop in the sum of the aces 
 against the competitors. There is no mutual adaptation 
 of these natural gifts to a common good. These are the 
 non-productive adornments in the “code’s ” diplomacy. In 
 the usages of the gambler opinion has fixed a sort of 
 reckless general law that acts as each gambler’s guide; 
 and to obey this law is to conform to the ethics of a code 
 which is the competitor’s idea of duty. The duty of each, 
 
 17 Aristotle lived apparently in daily contact witn these communes and seems 
 to have been influenced by them . . . eviot Si kowuvmv Si t/Sov Soxovai ytv * 
 3ai, dLaauiTuiv <ai epai'icrrcov avrai yap &v<rias evttca /cai auvoveriat. Ethics, VIII. II 
 
GAMBLING HELLS OF COMPETITION. 457 
 
 whether in the exigency of the winning, or of the losing 
 game, is to behave with decency. Such are the ethics at 
 the gambling stakes and each must conform. 
 
 The excitement of the competitive game goes on. The 
 lookers-on forget self, home and duty in their admiration 
 of the contestants’ skill. Their variety of method, their 
 quivering versatility, their genius, bold of one, delicate of 
 another, exhilarate as they amaze. But when the one 
 more skilled in gaming or more favored in fortuity, sweeps 
 the stakes and stalks off in triumph with the gold of his 
 helpless neighbors, there must come a reaction of feeling, 
 though the rules of the gambling table require resigna¬ 
 tion. The defeated need not try to hide discomfiture. A 
 hungry wife and children, blighted hopes, baffled plans 
 and chagrin, beget despair. They are the conjurers of dis¬ 
 trust, jealousy, vengeance, hate, suicide Even the winner 
 dies in misery; for a little selfish ecstasy adds nothing 
 to the sum of a life’s possibilities and joys. He is often 
 the next victim in the shifting vicissitudes of the trade. 
 
 Now this is a fair picture of that hell which constituted 
 ancient society. The household, the shambles of volup¬ 
 tuous commerce and of deal, the judiciary and the war- 
 spirit were so many sheols of licensed competism recking 
 with a virus of the gambler’s code and intolerant of this 
 socialism of the poor. Unfortunately it is too exact a pic¬ 
 ture of the maudlin present; but the present we are not 
 dealing with. 
 
 Society was a vast concern in which fashions, means 
 and fine things were huckstered and raffled from hand to 
 hand; and then as now, the working classes or proletariat 
 were the sensitive target which every club of misguided 
 genius bruised and imbruted. 
 
 The discovery, then, of unquestionable proof that there 
 existed comtemporaneously with this outside state of 
 things an order of human association whose code of ethics, 
 or whose accepted opinion of duty, one to another, was 
 the antithesis of this; whose rule of home and labor was 
 based deep in that love and mutual protection which af¬ 
 terwards became the doctrine of salvation as proclaimed 
 by a greater teacher, 18 is a triumph glorius and incalcula- 
 
 18 Plato, Aristotle and Socrates were all deeply touched by the brotherly love 
 of the innumerable eranists whose works though humble were followed by them 
 
468 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES. 
 
 ble to the struggling, disjointed love of the labor move¬ 
 ment to-day. The fragment at Athens referred to is a 
 piece of bine Hymettian marble with little border work. 
 The inscription is in plain Attic Greek of the Aristotelian 
 epoch, and its translation from the Revue Arch6ologique, 
 is ns follows: 
 
 “ By a rulable and just administration of the common 
 fund of money belonging to the community of eranistai, 
 and having ever conducted himself with kindness and 
 with honesty; and as he has righteously husbanded the 
 funds successively paid by the eranistai themselves, as 
 well as the annual subscription, according to the law of 
 the eranos; and in view of the fact that in everything 
 else he still continues to show integrity to the oath which 
 he swore to the eranistai, therefore Hail Alcmeon! 
 
 u The community of the eranistai rejoice to praise 
 Alcmeon, son of Iheon, a stranger who has been natur¬ 
 alized—their president of finance (archeranistes); and do 
 crown him with a chaplet of foliage because of his faith¬ 
 fulness and good will to them. They are moreover re¬ 
 joiced and praise the trustees (epimaletai ) and also the 
 hieropoioi of Jupiter the Savior, and of Hercules, and of 
 the Savior of the gods. And they crown each of them 
 with the wreath of honor because of their virtue and their 
 lively interest in the community of the eranistai” 
 
 The stone is here broken, leaving us in the dark as to 
 the exact date of this interesting relic. The principle 
 however, upon which this eranos was conducted, accept¬ 
 ing the signification given this word by lexicographers 
 and writers of the adverse school, was communism—means 
 taxed from a common membership for mutual support. 
 This settled, we next ask: did such an experiment thrive ? 
 The above inscription is full of praises and rejoicing over 
 its success. Then if it did succeed, and if in conjunction 
 with it, it is made clear that the less secret jubilees of the 
 thiasoi furnished means out of the same well-husbanded 
 fund, for the sweet convivials, and the dance, to the fam¬ 
 ous music of the female flute-players, did not this “ com¬ 
 munity of the eranistai *' greatly augment for the “ disin¬ 
 herited classes,” the means of happiness and virtue? 
 
 all Liiders commenting, quotes Socrates from Xenophon, Conversationes VUI. 
 “ Wir siuil ja alle Thiasoten deses gottes.’’ This passage gives stong evidence 
 that Socrates was a member of a commune. 
 
SOCRATES A MEMBER OF A COMMUNE. 459 
 
 These are important conjectures coming from the un¬ 
 written mists of the finest of the world’s ages of antiquity. 
 Let the ethnologist and the paleontologist divest them¬ 
 selves of bias, and with these new skeletons of ancient 
 history remodel and reproduce an ethologic anatomy of 
 these two great rivals for power—individualism and com¬ 
 munal love. For if the desired means of happiness was 
 procured through this one experiment of whose relics we 
 have given a rendering, then it is evident by the many 
 other similar inscriptions that a thousand such microcosms 
 embellished the morals and gladdened the hearts of slaves 
 and outcasts. 
 
 These microcosms of a far future society must not, how¬ 
 ever, be supposed to have been as sweeping or as pure in 
 their radicalism as some that are developing at the present 
 time; for it must be remembered that though the ignor¬ 
 ance of the present age is averse to the implanting of a 
 system which means introversion and revolution of com¬ 
 petitive disassociation, yet we possess at least the boon of 
 tolerance which was almost utterly denied the struggling 
 poor of those times. 
 
 According to the best information to be had regarding 
 inscriptions that are resuscitating the history of the an¬ 
 cient proletaries, the societies called the eranoi and the 
 thiasoi were by no means confined to the Hellenic Penin¬ 
 sula and the Ionian and Grecian Archipelagoes. Similar 
 societies are known to have existed both on the continent 
 of Asia and of Africa. Mommsen, Orelli, Bockh and other 
 archaeologists, in their Latin works of Descriptiones Re - 
 liquarum, have filled thousands of folio pages with sketches 
 of all sorts of paleographs which are fac-similes of inscrip¬ 
 tions, monograms, escutcheons and many kinds of hiero¬ 
 glyphic and anaglypliic gravery and embossing in stone 
 and metal. These curious things are being dug up in 
 different parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, wherever an¬ 
 cient history speaks of the doings of men. 
 
 Great numbers are described that have come from Dal¬ 
 matia, the rivers and plains of Austria, Hungary and the 
 Kranish provinces. They exist in countries once occu¬ 
 pied by the Armenians, Phoenicians and Chaldeans; and 
 as it is now becoming apparent that the most correct phi¬ 
 losophies of the Alexandrians and Athenians were first 
 
460 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES. 
 
 inspired by Indians of the east, it is possible that great 
 revelations are yet forthcoming from the Hindoo school, 
 of which the Sankhya Kapila was the inspiring oracle. 
 But however this mav be—whether Buddhism was, or was 
 not the idiosyncrasy that germinated the every-growing 
 schism among dialecticians of all succeeding ages, it mat¬ 
 ters little. 
 
 One thing is certain in our mind: that the societies of 
 self-help among the proletaries have uniformly followed 
 the grouping, self-teaching, perpiatetic method of Aristo¬ 
 tle and Kapila, while their competitive enemies and per¬ 
 secutors have followed the dreamy, non-practical Olym¬ 
 pus-beclouded generalities of Plato. The communities 
 always worked well under Numa, Solon, Jesus and Nestor, 
 but always suffered under Lycurgus, Appius Claudius, 
 Caesar and Cyril. If the strange and newly unearthed 
 library of Asshurbanipal, who was emperor of the Assyr¬ 
 ians a thousand years before Christ, is ever scanned in 
 a non-prejudicial spirit, its ideographs and its history of 
 their systems of nomenclature, computation and collec¬ 
 tion may be found suggestive of similar doings. 
 
 We have already said something concerning the rules 
 and by-laws of the societies, which by the marble tablet 
 whereon their records are graven, are known to have 
 existed. Asa general thing these decrees and regulations 
 are made on the stones that still honor some of the offi¬ 
 cers. Although the evident object of each of these or¬ 
 ganizations was to enlarge the means of happiness of the 
 members by providing liberties for them through the as¬ 
 sociative sphere of the collectivity, and may be said on 
 this account to have been temporal in their objects, yet 
 they all partook strongly of some religious faith incul¬ 
 cated at the services of the gods in the temples. 
 
 Some writers upon the subject are convinced that they 
 resembled the old semi-religious guilds of trade in Eng¬ 
 land. They also intimate that like the continental guilds 
 for a similar object, connected with the Roman Catholic 
 Church, they seem to have been under the patronage of 
 a tutelary saint, and that under this tutelage they some¬ 
 times founded industrial, commercial and maratime cor¬ 
 porations. Sometimes they made it a specialty to aid each 
 other in acquiring a profession. Our own opinion is, that 
 
FORM OF THE MEETINGS. 
 
 401 
 
 they were a genuine type of the trade union. 19 The evi¬ 
 dences of this are many; and it is no argument against 
 the position if they are found to have been religious. 
 
 The objections will be, that they opened their sessions 
 with prayer, and that they admitted women in large num¬ 
 bers. But some of our own trade unions undergo forms 
 similar to prayer and Bible reading. As to their having 
 had women as members it only proves that they were 
 trade unions of a higher, more long-lived and a more suc¬ 
 cessful development than these of the present day; and 
 this brings us to the sad reflection that with all the boast 
 of modern trade unionists and all the good they are do¬ 
 ing, and with all their philosophy and practical forcing of 
 the true political economy upon governments, they still 
 fail to equal the judgment of the trade unionists of Greece, 
 who based their associations upon co-operation for peace 
 ful, rather than co-operation for aggressive self help. 
 Another resemblance to the trade unions is seen in their 
 extreme secrecy. 
 
 “ The meetings of these pre-Christian societies opened 
 with prayer; after which came the general business. The 
 place at which they were held was called the synod, or 
 sometimes the Synagogue, and the assembly was abso¬ 
 lutely secret—no stranger could be admitted, and a severe 
 code maintained order thereat. They were held, it ap¬ 
 pears, in enclosed gardens surrounded with porticos, or 
 piazzas or little arbors, in the middle of which the altar 
 of sacrifice was erected. The officers made the candidates 
 3or membership submit to a sort of examination, and they 
 had to certify that they were ‘holy, pious and good.’ 
 There was in these little confraternities, during the two 
 or three centuries that preceded the Christian era, a 
 movement which was almost as varied as that which pro¬ 
 duced in the middle ages so many religious orders and 
 so many sub-divisions of these orders. Very many have 
 been counted in the single island of Rhodes, of which 
 several bear the names of their founders or of their re¬ 
 formers. Several of these confraternities, especially that 
 of Bacchus, had sublime and elevated doctrines; and en¬ 
 deavored with a good will to give to mankind some oon- 
 
 i# The reasons for their being often religious and borrowing gods or tuto 
 •arj deities are explained in our chapter ou the Roman trade anions, q. v. 
 
462 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES, 
 
 eolation. If there still remained in the Greek world any 
 love, any piety, any religious morality, it was ,owing to 
 the liberty granted to such private religious doctrines. 
 The doctrines competed in some measure with the official 
 religion, the decline of which became more evident day 
 by day.” 80 
 
 But it must not be inferred because the eranoi, or Greek¬ 
 speaking unions took the name of the particular god they 
 venerated, that they were exclusively religious. 
 
 The archaeologist, Hamilton, has produced fac-similes 
 of inscriptions on slabs that were found on the shores of 
 the Gulf of Symi. The translation of one runs thus: 
 
 “Alexander, of Cephalonia, has been honored with the 
 gift of a crown of gold, and also Nisa, his virtuous wife, 
 of Cos. This honor is given by the Adoniastes, Aphro- 
 diastes and the Asclepiastes. Epaphrodite and his wife, 
 by wish of the Heroistes and of the Aeaciastes, have also 
 been honored with a golden crown.” 
 
 These Adoniastes, Aphrodiastes, Asclepiastes, etc., were 
 eranoi , whose union was, on account of the peculiar religi¬ 
 ous notions of the members and of the country, dedicated 
 respectively to the gods Adonis, Aphrodite, Esculapia, 
 etc. Another inscription taken from Ross’s Inscriptiones 
 Greques , 21 is also very interesting as proof that these so¬ 
 cieties were usually dedicated to the popular gods of the 
 mythic hierarchy of Mount Olympus. 
 
 It is valuable as a proof of the general position assumed, 
 on account of its bold mention of union and confraternity 
 thus showing that it belonged to the eranian and thiasian 
 school of co-operation or trade unionism. It is from Rhodes, 
 and is somewhat defaced. Here is the rendering as given 
 in Mr. Tompkins’ review: “* * * crowned with a crown of 
 gold by the community of Jupiter Xenos, the Dionysiates 
 Chaeremoniens, as well as by the Panatheniastes and the 
 ****** crowned with a crown of gold by the Soteri- 
 astes (w r orshipers of the Soter, or Messiah, the confraternity 
 of Jupiter Xenos, and that of Minerva Lindienne, followers 
 of Caius, crowned with a crown of foliage by the commu¬ 
 nity of Jupiter Atabyrien and the Agathodaemoniastes Phi- 
 Loniens, as well as by the community of Dionysiastes Cluere- 
 moeiens and by that of Appollo.” 
 
 M Tompkins, Friendly Societies of Antiquity. * Researches in Asia Minor 
 
MANAGED BY WOMEN . 
 
 463 
 
 This date M in the year 178 v is supposed to mean the 
 178th year of the existence of this union. Here we have, 
 in the midst of the lady members of this old and probably 
 rich and respectable eranos , or union and at the public feast 
 or monthly sociable in the enclosed garden that always dis¬ 
 tinguished the open thiasoi from the secret business meet¬ 
 ing of the eranoiy a flute-player; in all probability one of the 
 famous auletrides whose charms are celebrated by Alciphron, 
 Athenams and Theopompus; and of whom a writer in his 
 work on prostitution, unconsciously intimates that they 
 were abandons 22 and would doubtless construe it so as to 
 make this feast no nobler than the callipygian games, which 
 though unfrequented by men must have been, of course, 
 * scandalous.’* May not anything be scandalous when re¬ 
 garded in a censorious and uncharitable light. But this 
 feast of the Communists described was nothing of the sort. 
 
 This invaluable memento is in good care and preservation 
 in the museum at Athens. On the bas-relief are these sug¬ 
 gestive figures: A god and a goddess in an enclosed garden. 
 It is Cybile the Phrygian goddess who sits with her head 
 crowned. In front of her crouches a lion ? The god is 
 Apollo in a flowing robe and in a standing attitude. He 
 has a salver ( patera) in one hand and a l^re in the other. 
 There is a priestess or proeanistria standing, and a musi¬ 
 cian or auletrid is playing the flute.” A lamb for the feast 
 is in the arms of a young man. Under this is the inscrip¬ 
 tion of which the following is the translation. 
 
 “ Stratonice, daughter of Menecrates, is crowned by the 
 members, men and women, of this thiasos. In the year 178 
 she (Stratonice) was female president of the club ( proeran - 
 t stria), a crown of foliage is decreed her and a marble tablet 
 ornamented with banderoles to honor her publio proclama¬ 
 tion in the assembly of Jupiter in houor of ner virtue.” 
 
 It is not only interesting but extremely useful as an ex¬ 
 ample for the guidance of future society, that we be made 
 acquainted with some of the inner and unrecorded life of 
 antiquity. The same turbulent warlike millions swarmed 
 the cities and thoroughfares then, as now. The same unor¬ 
 ganized and inequitable methods of production and appor- 
 
 ® Stingers, History of Prostitution, p. 46. 
 
 •2 See also Tafel 11. Luders, Die Ditmytimhm KOusi^r. Explanation of the 
 plates, S. 10-11. 
 
464 
 
 THE COUNTLESS COMMUNES. 
 
 tionment. The same egoism and sacrifice of neighbor for 
 aggrandizement of self, and the same intolerance and big¬ 
 otry in prevailing fait hs that inspire the competing Muscovite 
 Russians against the Rural Solidarities, the Mennonities and 
 the Dutchobors to day—the same selfishness that makes 
 man hate man, and church bate church wherever we go. 
 In this prodigious whirlpool of self-serving negativeness and 
 ignorance—the painful, tiresome desert through which all 
 proletarian humanity plods, it is gratifying to discover that 
 a great counter element once existed with organizations 
 based upon that community of equal interests which is fund¬ 
 amentally revolutionizing the policies of our own brilliant, 
 but depraved and selfish century. 
 
 The specimen adduced was a festival of an eranos —it was 
 the thiasos itself, and a glance at Liddell will satisfy the 
 skeptic that it was a society of poor, persecuted people, who 
 agreed to assess each other in common for their daily food 
 and their monthly convivials; and the proof that these poor 
 girls were sometimes members greatly intensifies the inter¬ 
 est in them. Besides, it is a known fact that among these 
 musical trades unionists were some of the most beautiful and 
 intelligent people the world ever produced. It was not 
 considered prostitution in those days to do what they did. 
 The stei n philosopher Zeno, hero of Stoicism, fell desper¬ 
 ately in love with one; and if we are to believe Athenceus 
 was ready to defend his love with the antics of a madman. 
 This was after he had vainly insulted her beoau-e she came 
 to him for protection. 
 
 
CHAPTER XXTL 
 
 THE ANCIENT BANNER. 
 
 INCALCULABLY AGED FLAG OF LABOR. 
 
 The Old, Old Crimson Ensign — An Emblem of Peace and Good 
 Will to Man—Strange Power of Human Habit—Descent of 
 the Red Banner through Primitive Culture—White and Azure 
 the Colors of Mythical Angels, Grandees and Aristocrats— 
 Colors for the Lowly without Family, Souls or other Seraphic 
 Attributes—How the Red Vexilluin was Stolen from Labor 
 —Tricks which Compromised Peace Tenets of the Flag—The 
 Flag at the Dawn ot Labor’s Power—Testimony of Polybius 
 —Of Livy—Of Plutarch—Causes of Working People’s Affec¬ 
 tion for Red—The Emblem of Health and the Fruits of Toil 
 —Ceres and Minerva their Protectresses and Mother-God¬ 
 desses Wore the Flaming Red—Emblem of Strength and Vi¬ 
 tality—Archaeology in Proof-—Their Color First Borrowed 
 from Crimson Sun-Beams—More Light and less Darkness— 
 White and Pale Hues for the Priests—Origin of the Word 
 “ FLAG”—It is the Word-Root of “ Flame” a Red Color— 
 Proofs Quoted—Mediaeval Banner in France and England— 
 The Red of All Modern Flags Borrowed from that of the An¬ 
 cient Unions—Disgraceful Ignorance of Modem Prejudice 
 and Censure. 
 
 The typical color of the great non-laboring classes in an¬ 
 cient times was white and azure blue; while that of the 
 strictly laboring element was red. This phenomenon ha t 
 come down to us by the power of habit, from high antiquity . 1 
 
 1 Consult Tylor, Primitive Culture, (Vol. T pp. 70, sq, N. \. 1888, Survival, 
 for illustrations on the power of habit: “The saying that marriages in May are 
 unlucky—believed so 18 centuries a: o and more, tee Ovid, Fastus, V.— survives 
 to this day in England, a striking example how an idea, the meaning of which 
 has perished for ages, may continue to exist simply because it has existed 
 There are thousand* of cases of this kind which have become, so to speak, iand- 
 
THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 White, in heathen mythology, was thought to be emblem¬ 
 atical of degree. It was the color used by the gens families 
 and by the priesthood. Very often a beautiful azure of var¬ 
 ious shades accompanied the pure white. Following this 
 habit of the optimates and their hierarchy, we still imagine 
 white to be the color of the robes of angels, and still make 
 it a holy color. 2 All people, ancient or modern, having a 
 history and a priesthood with concomitant crafts, have re¬ 
 garded white as the adumbration of holiness, of purity, of 
 aristocracy. It is the color which befits itself to supersti¬ 
 tion a"d to property; therefore the gens or the gentle, who 
 do not work, who are unsoiled, who eat up the products of 
 labor, who robe themselves in white and ascend throne, see, 
 chancel, pulpit or patriarchal seat, and who talk of their 
 * subjects ” whom they spurn and absorb, are of all others 
 most certain to flaunt the robes of white and azure and shin¬ 
 ing purple. These colors date from a dim era of antiquity, 
 and like the etymon they were self-suggestive as the anti¬ 
 thesis of sweat and toil and grime. They embellished and 
 decked the bodies of the “ washed,” and could not go hand 
 in hand with creatures smoked and smeared at the furnace 
 and the anvil. Hence a contempt of labor.* The idea of 
 Plato which he copied from the Pagan religion and which 
 Christianity unfortunately afterwards copied from him, un¬ 
 der the name of Neo-Platonism was that of white robes, 
 white wings, white banners—a mysterious power in the 
 clouds, a home at Mount Olympus, and the vaulted dome 
 of heaven—and myriads of slaves and menials in red, brown, 
 dun and murk who were to plod without souls, liberties 
 
 marks in the course of culture.” This author hereupon cite* many instances 
 showing the extreme age of oar paltriest habits, some of which are really aston¬ 
 ishing, One of the most striking instances which might have been enumerated 
 by Mr. Tylor, along with the many that he here adduces, is the red banner, which 
 for antiquity and pith of antecedent meaning has perhaps no rival in the tale of 
 primitive culture. We have another remark illustrative of the power of habit 
 and one which may be regarded as cunons and far-fetched, made by Rogers, So¬ 
 cial Life in Scotland, Vol. I. p. 6, in speaking of the giants and cave-dwellers of 
 the stone period; “In popular euperstitlon there still linger memories ofths 
 Neolithic age.” This is really wonderful. 
 
 Revelations , vii. 9,14. So idem, xix. 8; “ And to her was granted that she 
 should be arrayed in fine linen, clean and white, for the fine linen is the right- 
 eousness of saints.” So again xix. 14, “ And the armies which were in heaven 
 followed him upon white horses, clothed in fine linen, white and clean.'' 
 
 3 <;uhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, tr. Hlifter, p. 485, speaking 
 or the ancients says: “ The usual color of the dress was originally white for the 
 toga this was prescribed by law), only poor people, slaves andfreedmen wore 
 dress of the natural brown or black colors.” lied, a “color,” was always consid- 
 •red liner than brown or black, though all were labor colors, 
 
WHITE IS HIGH, COLOR LOW; RED, A COLOR, 467 
 
 honors or rewards, in the degrading service of keeping them 
 white, clean-washed and fat. The idea of Aristotle, the 
 practical, was, that labor itself was pure, worthy, and the 
 only thing which could possibly lead men to knowledge and 
 good; yet even his great mind could not at that eariy day 
 discern a method of ridding the world of slaves, although 
 Socrates, a member of a commune that waved the red ban¬ 
 ner, had told them that manual labor was a virtue . 4 
 
 Again, white was the color of the ancient aristocratic 
 flag or military banner, both of the Romans and Greeks. 
 This is distinctly told to us in an elaborate description of all 
 the phases of the subject, by Polybius , 6 who wrote just at 
 the time when the greater slave rebellions were beginning 
 fiercely to rage. 
 
 As long as the ancient military ranks remained undefiled 
 by the presence of slaves and freedmen, or persons of lowly 
 condition, the semeion or vexillum , that is, the flags and 
 banners were white, azure and gray. But we find that 
 curiously enough, the red vexillum comes temptingly into 
 the Roman tent at the very time when the workingmen be¬ 
 gan to assume military and political importance. It was 
 evidently introduced as a means for inspiring this class of 
 soldiers to desperate acts of valor ; 6 because the red banner 
 of the communes was so sacred to them that they would 
 recklessly cast their lives into the jaws of death in the act 
 of recapturing it from an enemy. Multitudes of instances 
 are on record proving that the Roman generals cunningly 
 managed to toss the vexillum or red banner, in some surrep¬ 
 titious manner over into the enemy’s camp at a moment of 
 onset, thereby enthusing the soldiers with a reckless oblivion 
 of danger, as they crushed into it in desperate haste and de¬ 
 termination to seize from the polluted fingers of the bar¬ 
 barian their endeared and cherished flag . 7 
 
 * For more on this great man’s philosophy, see chapters iv. on the Eleusinian 
 Mysteries, and xxiv. on the Plans of the Ancient Benefactors. 
 
 6 Polybius Megal, IJistoria, VII. c. 39, pp. 676-677, ed. Gronovii. Amstelo- 
 dami, 1670: 'Os airiwTWW dpicrpevuiv Kai avvriOo) v ovTmv Siaar^paTuiv pera Se Taira 
 ernpaca v enr](ar peiav pev ttjv npu>Tr)r ev <L Set t6ttu> ttjv tow arparriyov aKr\vT)v Sovrepay 
 li t< ewi ttjs npeadei.crq<; wAowpas, rpirov eni pea r/? T7js ypapprp; e<f>’ ijs oL xiAtapxoi 
 Tpe(f>ovacv rerpa.Tr\v nap ’ noQev ra arparoneSa. Kai rawras per noiovaai <f)oii/u<af 
 rt Se Kai arparriyov Aow/aow. Ta Se em dclrepa nori per \f/r)\a Sopara nrjyrvovai, 
 more Se or/palas £k roir aAAtov \piopd 
 
 6 In earlier times the plebeian class were refused admission to armies as sol¬ 
 diers solely on the ground that military work is aristocratic. They finally over¬ 
 came this prejudice to some extent 
 
 t llutarch, Paulus iEmilius. “ The Romans who engaged the phalanx, be- 
 
468 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 The curiosity of the reader may by this time be aroused 
 to understand what may have been the cause of this strange 
 affection. We shall attempt to bring out, so far as authen¬ 
 tic evidence can be had, the facts lying at the bottom of the 
 ineffaceable love in the strictly proletarian class, for the 
 beautiful and incomputably aged red banner; and in doing 
 so, we may help the inquirer in the effort to discern the 
 causes of this emblem having so successively breasted the 
 storms of adversity and time and come down to us embalmed 
 in the same love and veneration that shrouded and shielded 
 it in deep antiquity, when it knew and comforted men only 
 as poor and lowly slaves. 
 
 In the heathen mythology two great and celebrated de¬ 
 ities presided overlabor—Minerva and Ceres. The Greek 
 names of these celebrated and much adored mythic deities 
 were Demeter for Ceres, goddess of agriculture and fruit¬ 
 fulness of the earth, and Athena for Minerva, goddess of 
 manual labor and protectress of working women and work¬ 
 ingmen. These two great deities wore flaming red . 8 
 
 Bacchus of the Romans and Dionysus were the same 
 myths with Ceres and Athena; that is, they seem to have 
 personified in the male what these goddesses did in the 
 female; and their vesture, like that of the goddesses, was 
 flaming red. So Apollo, who was none other than the sun, 
 w as allied to them in functions. The reason of this is, that 
 both genders of these imaginary beings represented the an¬ 
 cient sun-worship. The brilliant, flaming light of the sun is 
 
 ing nnable to break it. Saline, a Pelignian officer snatched the ensign of the 
 company, and threw it among the enemy. Hereupon the Pelignians, rushed for¬ 
 ward to recover it. for the Italians look upon it as a great crime and disgrace ;o 
 abandon their standard. A dreadful conflict and slaughter on both sides en 
 sued.'’ Caesar, Be Bello Gallico, often speaks of incidents of this kind. 
 
 s The state robe of Athena was generally of a flaming red. Abundance of 
 evidence also shows the colors of these two patrons of labor to have been red. 
 Red was also the color of Proserpine, the daughter of Demeter or Ceres: This 
 v^tis not confined to Greece and Rome. The same myths wore red in Asia, Airica 
 and even in Britain, See Hughes, Horce Britannicce, Vol. I. p 294, Bond. 1818: 
 “ The British Ked or Ceridwen , is in many respects the same character as the 
 Ceres of the Greek mythology and the Isis of the Egyptians. * * * * ■« She was 
 arrayed in a vesture of flaming silk; a strong wreath of ruddy gold was about 
 the neck, wherein was set a precious pearl, and rows of coral; yellower was her 
 hair than the blossoms of the broom ; her skin was whiter than the loam of the 
 wave ; her hands and fingers were fairer than the opening buds of the water lily, 
 amid the small ripplings of the fountain of waters; or the sight of the hawk af¬ 
 ter mewing, or the sight of the falcon of three mews: no brighter eyes than hers 
 were seen ; whiter was her bosom than the breast of the fair swan ; redder her 
 checks than the rose of the mountain; whoever saw her was filled with love; 
 four white trefoils were seen to rise in her way wherever she came, and there- 
 ore was she named Olwen or the fair lady.” 
 
RED AS 2HE EVENING SUNBEAMS. 
 
 4G9 
 
 thought to have been the first object of awe and wonder be¬ 
 fore which primitive man bowed himself down in ador¬ 
 ation. It was the great and magnificent orb of day that in 
 spring warmed the first sprigs of vegetable life. To the 
 grand monarch of the day, the ancient laboring man first 
 gave homage for light and heat which caused the fruits of 
 his planting to grow and ripen. As this wondrous being, 
 always believed to be alive and rational, immense in bulk, 
 exquisite in beauty, radiant with heat and life, rose out of 
 the sea and skimmed over their heads, he shed forth his 
 crimson flames upon their labor and his color was likened 
 to the fluid that coursed in their veins. The Dionysus thus 
 became the protective principle for the Greek-speaking and 
 the Bacchus for the Latin-speaking world, on which the vast 
 system of labor organizations we have described was founded, 
 cultivated and perpetuated for thousands of years; and their 
 natural color was red, or color refined. 
 
 This accounts for the high-born or optimate class repre¬ 
 sented in the priesthood, the military, the non-laboring ele¬ 
 ment—in other words, the pretended pure, clean-washed 
 and unsoiled—having a contempt for color and for labor that 
 soiled ; and it also accounts for all the low-born, represented 
 in occupations of agriculture and mechanics like the labor¬ 
 ing element, or the tainted, tarnished, sweat-begrimed, hav¬ 
 ing a natural love of color, whose highest type is red. 
 
 It was a thiug most natural that the emblems of Ceres 
 should be of a red color. She was of herself a majesty of 
 no inferior sort. The products of her care were wheat and 
 other grain, the supply of which from the earth, furnished 
 the red blood always known to be the animating and strength¬ 
 giving fluid of life; although the exact action of blood from 
 heart to lungs and thence through arteries, and its return 
 through veins was a more recent discovery. It is thus very 
 natural that we should find among the organizations which 
 chose Ceres as their patron divinity, the strictest adherence 
 to her coat of arms and her emblems and escutcheons, the 
 same colors that she was known to prefer. 
 
 Accordingly the inscriptions contain representations of 
 the ancient banner, so well known to have been carried at 
 the innocent and legalized parades of the t/iiasotes and or- 
 glasses in Greece, Palestine, Asia Minor and the islands, and 
 by the saddles and collegia in almost every town, little or 
 
470 
 
 TEE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 large, in Italy.® Even at Carthage and all along the const 
 of North Africa remains of tiiese organizations are being 
 found. 
 
 A powerful natural reason for their preferring this color 
 was probably its beauty. The color red is known in optics 
 to be the first one on the list. Then come orange, yellow, 
 green, blue, indigo and violet. 10 White is not a color. Azure 
 is a hue. Red of a brilliant hue may be seen at a greater dis¬ 
 tance than any other color and it is of all gifts of nature one 
 of the most beautiful and inspiring. Many have dubbed 
 Ceres the tutelary patroness of the United States. 11 The 
 flag adopted by the American Union is, scientifically con¬ 
 sidered, a very perfect one; the metaphorical meaning of the 
 red which is placed in the stripes, being the same as that 
 involved in the ancient, which has a wonderful history in 
 the past of labor. If the modern republic has any divinity 
 at all, it is Ceres, Rhea, Cybele, Isis, the proiectress of the 
 farmers, and Minerva the guardian of mechanics and inven¬ 
 tions. The red means the stripes; not the revengeful, 
 bloody red with the present meaning trumped up against it 
 in some wilfully ignorant minds, covering with obloquy 
 which present society, unable to disabuse itself of the an¬ 
 cient grudge and contempt of labor, still uses against the red 
 flag, but the exact reverse—the stripes represent the blows 
 which labor in her great conflict to free herself from enslave¬ 
 ment, poverty and oppression, has received upon her back 
 from the lash of aristocracy and brutal force. Unwittingly^ 
 perhaps, the United States adopted these stripes as a com¬ 
 ponent part of its beautiful and suggestive national banner*, 
 and this act was a strictly scientific one; for it exactly con¬ 
 forms with the ancient symbol red, enormously used by 
 Roman and Greek organizations expressive and significant 
 of the scourge, the stripes and the lines of blood which 
 
 9 Consult chapter xxi. supra, also Ltiders, DU Dionysischen Knottier; Encyclo¬ 
 pedic lech. 
 
 10 The Encyclopaedia Brittannica, in an exhaustive article on Light , (Vol. XIV. 
 p. 582), reduces the primitive colors to three—red, green and violet. This makes 
 red to be the monarch of colors, as the oak is the monarch of trees, the lion the 
 monarch of quadrupeds, or man the monarch of mortals A respectable authority 
 foi modern colors, the Encyclopedia Technologiquc, Tome. I. Art. Couleur, init, 
 says: "Ces couleurs fondainentales sont: Le rouge-I’orangfi, le jaune, le bleu, 
 l’indigo et le violet.” Here also the red is the first m ntiom d of all colors. Tha 
 Encyclopaedia Brttannica. Vol’ VII. p. 495, says; the red holds the highest po¬ 
 sition among all dyed colors.” 
 
 11 Carnegie, Triumphant Democracy, p. 180. “ Ceres the prime divinity of 
 the United state#.” 
 
ITS HISTORY AS AM EMBLEM. 
 
 471 
 
 streaked the naked backs of the poor and lowly of ancient 
 labor. 12 
 
 We now proceed to give a history of the red emblem as 
 used against labor by the rich and strong, for the seeming 
 purpose of making capital out of the reverence and affection 
 always clinging in the organizations, which from more an¬ 
 cient times they had inherited as the chosen color of their 
 divinities, Ceres, Minerva, Saturn and perhaps Apollo. 
 
 In the first place it is necessary to enter into an analysis 
 of the word “ flag.” A glance at a Latin dictionary will 
 explain that flag is the root of the word w flamma ”—a cir¬ 
 cumstance altogether extraordinary. Andrews for instance, 
 defines flamma as follows: “Flamma, se. (archaicgenitive 
 singular flammai, used by Lucretius, I. 726; 899; V. 1088) 
 feminine (flagtna from FLAG; whence flagro and flagito, 
 Greek phlegma, from phlego). A blazing fire, blaze, 
 flame.” 
 
 This is an aged word and has its real origin in the red 
 beams of the sun which almost all men in primitive ages 
 adored under the religion of the sun-worshipers. Without 
 the slightest doubt this original flag was one of the names 
 of the ancient banner which was red. Because it was red 
 and carried by the secret organizations on which the ruling 
 minority cast a taint, it never attained to enough popularity 
 to be used by ancient writers, and consequently failed to 
 come down to us in form of an emblem, or with the signifi¬ 
 cance of a banner or flag, although it never lost its original 
 meaning; and its many variations of form appear in history 
 times without number. The innocent original changed in 
 time to a multitude of instruments of torture. It got to be 
 flagitium, a shameful act, then flagrum a whip, and as such 
 was stuck in bundles (fasces), along with an axe and carried 
 in threatening pomp by the august prgetors to scourge slaves 
 with. How could the old red flag differentiate into a whip? 
 
 It was simply the work of hate and prejudice. The or¬ 
 ganizations would never give up their red banners; they are 
 carrying them still by the power of habit, although the be- 
 
 13 Slaves and freedmen sometimes composed a part of the forces of armiea 
 In the time of Polybius . This author who wrote as early as B. C. 145, describes 
 the arrangement in the camps, of both slaves and freedmen, as well as their du¬ 
 ties: “Mrra 8err)v <rraTonSiiai> avvaOpoiOevres oi ^lAiap^ot, tovs ck tov arpaTonfSov 
 navTCf e\ovQepovs opov rj SovAov? opKt£ovo c, ko. 0' eva noto’ /aei or re ipmapov. 'O 
 opKos iaiv prjSev ex tt )>> napipfiohr)'; /cAet/zen'- aAAa. «a»' evpij t?/s tout’ aroicret' twl 
 rois xtAtap^oic." Polybius, Historia, Vi. 31, inti. 
 
472 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 lief in the power of the once omnipotent Ceres and Minerva 
 has long since faded from the earth. 18 The prejudice against 
 their banner and the innumerable communes was based upon 
 their supposed meanness, which is also fast being outgrown. 
 This prejudice was also heightened 14 by the fact that the or¬ 
 ganizations grew powerful, sometimes rich and influential, 
 always preaching a cult opposed to the despotism of capital 
 and often and especially in Italy, as we have seen, becoming 
 a potent factor in politics, which was a crime against the 
 aristocracy of ownership and military and political power 
 held by the great gens families and their slave-based religion. 
 
 It is thus plainly seen that in ancient days, the red ban¬ 
 ner was an emblem among the labor societies, of blood- 
 making , not of blood-letting; while among the grandees it 
 was emblematical of blood -spilling and torture; never indi¬ 
 cative of building up, either the human body or the body 
 politic. The system upon which the ancient aristocracy 
 rested was cruelly and ferociously competitive and its pro¬ 
 duct was slavery while its instruments of creating as well as 
 perpetuating this thankless institution were legalized lascivi¬ 
 ousness of its lords, and whips and scourges dyed red in the 
 blood of laborers whose backs streaked with crimson which 
 flowed from the furrows made by thongs, that their own 
 greatness and their victims* littleness might be more widely 
 contrasted. 15 
 
 Let ns now turn to the working people and their flag. 
 In the first place the primitive mind of man conceives a 
 fondness for flaming colors, and red, which is the champion 
 of tints, attracted their delight by its beauty. One may 
 stretch the imagination to conceive that this fact originated 
 its adoption by his protecting divinities; for he would nat¬ 
 urally incline to fix their favorite colors in harmony with his 
 own tastes or fancies. We have as a result, of the natural 
 and innocent fancy of primitive mind for this beautiful 
 ground-color, all the lowly estate of antiquity, fixing their 
 institutions in blazoned red, and nailing virtue, peace, social- 
 
 18 See Bomllet, Hi&toire des Community des Arts *< deg Mltlers de P Auvergne, 
 passim. Text and plates, representing the “ ban nitres *’ as were need In middle 
 ages. 
 
 14 Juvenal,, Satires. 
 
 18 Lycurgus, whose slave system in Lacedemon we have described, laid down 
 a rale by which slaves were whipped at night without having committed an of¬ 
 fense after having worked all day. This punishment was to humiliate them for 
 submissiveness next day. They must also crouch lest should they stand aveot 
 they be compared with men. See Flutaxch Lycurgtu. 
 
ITS ORIGIN IN SUN-WORSHIP. 
 
 ism, poverty and resignation, to their unobtrusive banner— 
 a bi diant red. We find them, too, irrevocable in the belief 
 that Ood, dressed in the crimson glories of the sun and in 
 awful justice, threw light and warmth and glory upon the 
 crops of their sowing and the mechanical products of their 
 handicraft; while the power of habit—that second law of 
 perpetuation of being—has transmitted, even to this day, 
 an ineffaceable love in the poor, for those endeared and 
 cherished emblems. 1 * 
 
 The celebrated red himation 17 and chiton were for a long 
 time the principal article of clothing. The dancing girls 
 and flute-players wore them during the voluptuous age of 
 Athens, They were worn at the feasts of Dionysus by the 
 communists of the thiasoi. Of this we have the positive 
 evidence of numerous inscriptions, some of which, although 
 engraved on stone, are very good pictures of the feasters re¬ 
 turning from their march through the streets. 
 
 At Rome this love of the red banner among the plebeians 
 was often turned to profit by the rich. After the overthrow 
 of the Roman kings (B. C. 510), two officers little less in 
 power than the kings themselves, were installed as supreme 
 rulers in their place. These were the consuls. A great 
 growth of the power of the laboring element, as we have 
 shown in preceding chapters on Trade Unions, very gradu¬ 
 ally oame into the world; and this new force immediately 
 began to make incursions upon and against the consular 
 authority. The red flag is involved in this quarrel. It had 
 been the kings who upheld the unions; the consuls, who 
 
 w Examples proving red to have been the primeval color among the servant 
 class are being constantly discovered in the Inscriptions. Dr. Scnliemann, in 
 Tiryns, pp. 303-307, gives Prof. Fabricins’ descriptions of the “mighty bull,” 
 recently discovered in a wall-painting of that pre-Homeric city. The animal, 
 mostly red, is leaping and bounding at the games, while an acrobat upon his 
 back is girding him in the dangerous scene. These actors, always of the slave 
 race (see chap. xvii. Amusements of Antiquity , pp. 401-414), were tugging and 
 sweating without pay, for masters, a thousand years before Christ. Inis scene 
 is represented in Plate XIII. while fig. 142 gives another proof of the remarka¬ 
 ble proclivity in days before Homer, for red. ‘‘ Whilst the lower broad stripe is 
 .-ed, the ground of the ornament shows a bright red colour; the two strokes of 
 the scale - like ornament are black, the little circles and lines within the scales, 
 white. Very noteworthy is the simultaneous occurrence of two different shades 
 of the red color ” 
 
 n Guhl and Koner. Life of the Greeks and Romans, p. 160, sqq. These gar¬ 
 ments are here minutely described. “Men also appear in these pictures with 
 the cherry coloured chlamys and the red himation.’ But we remark that the 
 same authors assure ns in both their descriptions of the Greeks, and of the Hom¬ 
 ans, that colors were only for the common people. In course of time the hima¬ 
 tion, originally white and worn by the rich, became popular and look on the 
 *»ioheian hue. 
 
474 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG 
 
 from the very first, endeavored to suppress them. These 
 magnates were the natural enemies of the working class; the 
 kings their natural friends. This seeming phenomenon is 
 a suggestive fact of history. The kings wanted and recog¬ 
 nized their systematic, organized labor; the consuls, who 
 where sure to be rich grandees of blood and family, were 
 jealous as well as afraid of this new and growing power 
 which the mild and favorable laws of the kings had made it 
 possible for labor to develop under. 
 
 This was the origin of the greatest intestine contest Rome 
 ever had. It was a death-grapple of lordship with labor, in 
 which consular power aped the banner and color of com¬ 
 munes, 18 and even bent all energy to involve Rome in Great 
 wars of conquest for the express object of wriggling out of 
 the terrible plebeian grip. 19 
 
 The patrician consuls fought the hated workingmen, ac¬ 
 cording to Livy, with such an unabating determination for 
 about five years (B. C. 375-370), as to cause a soiitudomag - 
 istratuum *° or vacancy, in which there occurred what is now 
 called an interregnum—neither the lords nor the people, 
 holding the helm of power. This was under the plebeian, 
 Licinus Stolo, author of the agrarian law, the most renowned 
 statute of antiquity—a germ of the same contention which 
 cost the Gracchi, Blossius and Clodius their lives, as cham¬ 
 pions for the poor in the memorable agrarian and labor tur¬ 
 moils, and finally brought Rome, with her Cicero and Csesar 
 to an ignominious end, because she purloined the aegis of 
 laborers on whom she glutted herself while maintaining 
 slavery as a fundament of her religion and government. 
 
 18 See Encyclopcedia Brittanica, 9th edition, Stoddart, Phil. Vol. VI. p. 279, 
 describing the consuls: “ A cloak with a scarlet border and an ivory staff were 
 badges of their office.’ 5 For more than 600 years thereafter the scarlet which 
 darkened into purple became a state color The consuls stole the red vexillum 
 by a similar species of trick, from the communes—a blasphemy against the an¬ 
 cient peace-color of Ceres and Minerva the protecting divinit. es or laborers and 
 the fruits of labor. The following modern criticism admits this: If the consuls 
 “wished to subdue any outbreak of the plebeians, they feigned that some 
 powerful enemy was marching against the city, and thus succeeded In obtaining 
 extraordinary powers.” Enqjclopcedia Britannic a, Vol. VI. p. 280. 
 
 19 Speaking of those patrician consuls, the same author in idem, column 2, 
 says: ‘‘ Having once begun the struggle (against the plebeians), however, they 
 maintained it for the space of 80 years, with a spirit and resolution which made 
 even a foreign war desirable as a relief from internal contests.’ 5 
 
 20 Livy, VI. 35, Jin. “ Haud irritaa cecedere minae: comitia, prater aedilium 
 tribunorumque plebis, nulla sunt habita. Licinius Sextlusque, tribuni plebls re- 
 fecti, nnllos curnles magistratus creari passi sunt: eaqne solxtudd vuigistratum, et 
 plebe reflclente duos trlbunos, ct his comitia tribunorum militum tollentibus, 
 per qninquennium urbem tenuit.” Such was the tremendous power of the outr 
 c ist element thai Rome lost her aristocratic hold for 5 whole years. 
 
PRAETORS WITH WHIPS ANT) AXES. 
 
 475 
 
 Iu this aristocratic consular arrangement, next after the 
 consuls themselves, were many praetors, lieutenants of the 
 consuls and lord mayors of the provincial cities. These 
 with the Romans were also generally the grandees who dis¬ 
 pensed military force. 21 M The insignia of the praetor were 
 those common to the higher Roman magistrates—the pur¬ 
 ple-edged robe (toga praetexta ), and t he ivory chair ( sella 
 curulis). In Rome he was attended by two lictors, in the 
 provinces by six.’’ The curules or ivory sedans, were from 
 the state four and six horse chariots and represent extraor¬ 
 dinary power. 
 
 An example of the power exercised by the praetor over 
 the poor slave, is given by us in another page, where a 
 brave man in Sicily, for killing a dangerous wild boar, so 
 excited his lordship’s jealousy, that, taking advantage of 
 an ancient law prohibiting persons of lowly birth from the 
 use of the javelin, he ordered the trembling man to be 
 crucified upon the spot. These praetors made use of the 
 red color of labor for the brutal purposes of war, and it 
 looks seriously as though this was a sort of cunning ruse 
 or dodge, played upon the credulous, whereby to curry 
 favor with the already powerfully organized numbers of 
 labor. 
 
 Next after the consuls and praetors in the military pag¬ 
 eant came the lictors. They wore the blue and azure 
 cloak when in the field, which was the sagum caeruleum , 
 epithet of death, darkness, night. In this garb the lie- 
 tor’s fierce military characteristics were personified. The 
 grand magistrate’s attendant, he strutted at the pageant 
 in line of march, with a bundle of rods in his hand and 
 held on high the formidable axe of execution, that the 
 people might understand the presence of a sublime power 
 and bow their heads in respect. If a criminal or malefactor 
 was caught, his duty was to whip him with the scourges 
 and cleave his head from his body with the axe. 22 
 
 Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Vol. XIX. p 675 
 22 Livy, I. 26. “Horatius cui goror virgo, quae desponsa i ni ex Curiatils 
 fnerat.ob via ante port am Capenam fuit: cognitoque super humeros paludamento 
 epcnsl. quod ipsa confecerat, solvit crines. et fiebilitcr nomine sponsion mortmain 
 appellat. .Movet feroci juveni animnm comploratio sororis in victoria Mia tan- 
 toque gaudio publico, i- tricto iiaque gladio, simul verbis inerepans. trsnsugit 
 puellum: ‘Abi hinc cum immaturo amore ad sponsion, inquit * * * * } lictor 
 colliga manos quae paullo ante armatae imperiuni populo Komano pepererunt.” 
 The same ferocious order wa> given the lictor by the father of Manlius. Livy. X 
 liber VIII. cap. 7( ; *‘I. lictor deliga ad | alum.” A consul, praetor or other su 
 perior officers had the right to order a lictor to perform any execution. 
 
m 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG . 
 
 But when there was peace and while they were in 
 Rome, the lictors wore the toga, purple or purple-bor¬ 
 dered, because the lictors must be of high-born stock; al¬ 
 though the toga of the unions was red, brown or dark 
 red. It corresponded in Italy to the himation in Greece; 
 and was the color of the lowly class everywhere, repre¬ 
 senting peace, not war, 23 as seen in any Latin dictionary. 
 This remarkable fact reveals itself more and more plainly 
 as the arguments and material evidences upon which it 
 is based, receive investigation. Full attention to the an¬ 
 cient communal inscriptions has not yet been given, partly 
 on account of the fact that colors do not often survive 
 even where they were painted on the tablets; but princi¬ 
 pally, because ensigns and emblems whose colors, being 
 sacred were at all times universally conceded were never 
 painted at all, but simply engraved on the stone or cast¬ 
 ing in the natural color of the material on which they 
 were cut. But it must be borne in mind that the lictors 
 who were required to be of the optimate class, wore only 
 a purple-red, not the labor-red. This was a mixture of 
 the genuine with the azure (cseruleus) or the white. 
 
 Thus color in ancient days, socially speaking, was a line 
 of demarcation separating optimates from plebeians. 34 
 We have thus shown how in war the sagum and the vexil- 
 
 ** See note — supra , on the red himation, 
 
 ** See Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greelcs and Romans, pp. 485-0: 11 The usual 
 colour of the dress was originally white (for the toga this was required by law): 
 only poor people, slaves and freedmen wore dresses of the natural brown or 
 black colour of the wool.” “In imperial times, however, even men adopted 
 dresses of scarlet etc.” * * * “The bride wears a reddish violet stola. adorned 
 with an embroidered instita of darker hue.” These are the poorer class, as they 
 seem to come under the general remark quoted, viz: that only poor people, slaves 
 and freedmen wore colors. Then (page 486 , occurs this remark; The outside of 
 Perseus’ dress is reddish brown, the inside white,’’ as if to coax with the great 
 rising element, while taking care to keep “ pure ” within, in difference to this 
 fabulous royal potentate, son of the great crorulean Zeus. Speaking of the toga 
 of Italy, or the himation of Greece, the same authors, p. 486 remark, that 
 “ Looked at straight, the blood-red dresa thus prepared had a blackish tint: 
 looked at from underneath, it showed a bright red color ” Thus the toga no 
 matt r by whom worn, was red when it represented peace—a fact which remaims 
 good for all antiquity; while the regular war-colors were azure and blue or whte 
 and azure-blue. So again idem, p- 168, speaking of the Greek robes and other 
 articles of apparel, and the pictures whence 'the information is taken, says; 
 ‘ Men also appear in these pictures, with the cherry-coloured chlamys and the 
 red himation; ’ and speakingof the Mu-pa or ancient turban, used also sometimea 
 as a zone-belt, which was red, the same authors add: The Oriental turban is 
 undoubtedly a remnant of this custom.” Here again we have an exampleof the 
 power of habit, to transmit itself through indefinite periods of time. In another 
 phrase, idem, p. 168, speaking of the plebeian class, 1> the expression: “The 
 original colors, although (particular the reds) slightly altered by the burning pro¬ 
 cess, may still be distinctly recognized.” 
 
ANCIENT COLOR LINK 
 
 477 
 
 lum in its original tints, were white, cterulean or azure 
 and blue, in the field of war, 28 while the peace toga which 
 was red and the vexillum when seen among the com¬ 
 munes, were of a brilliant crimson, Bo also we have ex¬ 
 plained somewhat the manner in which in later ages of 
 the republic the phenomenal love and reverence of the 
 lowly class, so soon as they exhibted a political and mili¬ 
 tary weight was taken advantage of and even adopted in 
 sham in the Roman camp, seemingly to curry favor with 
 this rising class. It now remains to further proceed in 
 explanation of the Roman military pageant. 
 
 The next officers in rank after the lictor were sometimes 
 the equites or knights on horseback; and their military 
 pomp, when preceded by consuls, praetors and their lictors, 
 as the latter bore aloft their praetorian bundles of whips 
 and their hatchets and axes when going out of the gates 
 to war, or returning in triumph from it, was a spectacle 
 anything but flattering to the poor, to whose backs and 
 necks the scourges and the axes were too often applied. 
 
 Another powerful argument substantiating the preva¬ 
 lence of red as an adopted color of the gods of industry, 
 where peace and not war was intended, is seen in the typi¬ 
 cal goddess Pomona, another name perhaps for Ceres or 
 Demeter, Isis, Oybele and other guardians of agricultural 
 labor. She presided over the orchard fruits and the gar¬ 
 dens, and her emblem, symbol or sign was a flaming 
 red. This old Roman divinity had charge of fruit- 
 orchards. In the deep forests she was adored by satyrs 
 and other sylvan fairies. 28 
 
 Pomona stands out as an excellent corroboration to the 
 argument that from the most ancient conceivable times 
 red was the typical color for the symbols, emblems or ban¬ 
 ners of the strictly working people and shows furthermore, 
 that to carry out the original idea of Pomona, a priest 
 or priestess of a Pomona of to-day must be attired in a 
 flaming red and must not represent strife; as her function 
 is that of peace. 27 It was even forbidden on high penalty 
 that her attendant servant or priest should look upon an 
 
 26 Cicero. In Pisonem, 23Xogulge lictoribus ad portam preeeto fuernnt, 
 luibus illi acceptis, sagula rejecerunt et catervam imperatori suo novam praebae- 
 'unt.’’ 
 
 20 Ovid. Metamorphoses, XIV. 623 seqq 
 
 Gnhl and Konor, Life of the Greeks and Romans, p, 686 
 
478 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 army; strife being to her a.terrible sin. He must even 
 turn his head from the sight of soldiers. 
 
 This divinity chose “ from the plebs ” “ a priest called 
 the Flamen Pomonalis. He was allowed to take a wife but 
 could never bo divorced from her; for that would be sug¬ 
 gestive of strife. True to the typical color of the labor 
 she represented, she was called flaminica, and she held in 
 her hand a pruning knife, although this instrument is 
 represented to have also been intended for sacrificing the 
 lamb at the feasts of Pomona. She was robed in a chiton 
 or himation, which in Rome was called a toga. It was 
 made of wool, and was screened from the vulgar by a 
 long veil, ( flammeum ), of a flaming red color or Phoenician 
 glow, 29 typical of her plebeian estate. This tlaminica not 
 only represented and presided over, but also performed, 
 labor; for she busied herself in the toils of her husband, 
 the flamen, in the work of the feasts and entertainments. 
 The collegia were fond of celebrating by parading with 
 flaming streamers and flags. 
 
 The worship of the sacred ibis has also something to 
 do in this connection. It is mentioned in company with 
 Pomona and was probably the sacred scarlet ibis, of the 
 Egyptians, whose red colors have ever been unscientifically 
 mixed or confounded with the flamingo. This bird, 
 agreeably to its name, flamen, flaminica, flamingo was, es¬ 
 pecially all the wing part, of a fiery red ( phoenicopteros ). 
 The imagination of the ancients pictured the red to be 
 emblematic of love, 80 ardency and warmth; all of which 
 were portrayed in the beams of the sun, and Buck impres¬ 
 sions crystalized into a red color. But the aristocratic 
 
 28 See Johnson’s, Univcrsel Oyclopcedia , Vol. III. p. 1,328, Art. Pomona ; 
 
 Ovid, Metamorphoses, XIV. 023,says that she was courted by Puemunus another 
 d vinity of the Italian forests and gained her by a trick. It is also stated that 
 Pomona had a citadel or seat among sacred groves near Ostia called the Pomonal 
 and that she had a vicegerent or sacerdos —a man or perhaps woman chosen from 
 among the laboring element, who had to rank last and lowest of the 15 flames 
 of Rome, From Varro, Lingua Latina, V. 15, 25 ; flamines, quod in 
 
 Latio, capite velato, erant semper ac caput cinctumhabebant ftlo, flamines dicti.” 
 
 29 Consult Fkimineus , sq. in any good Latin Lexicon; Gubl and Koner, p, 537 
 
 so So in Greek we have'EpwSio? for the heron presumably applied to both 
 
 these birds the scarlet ibis and the flamingo sometimes adored for the scarlet or 
 sacred ibis. But the ’ep<o5id? was a form of 'epms signifying the flame of love. 
 So Ardea , the Latin for heron the self- ame bird, has its etymology in ardeo to 
 burn and blaze. It may therefore be strongly suspected that Pomona and he 
 flnmens had something to do with the temple at Ardea near Rome burned by 
 iEneas, and from whose ashes, phoenix like, arose the wonierful red heron or 
 phoenix. Nothing can gainsay this, for both ardea and 4>criv£ are the flaming 
 reds of Latin and Greek. 
 
RED THE MONARCH OF COLORS. 
 
 475 
 
 idea of the ego as known in the noble, opposed to the ig¬ 
 noble or plebeian, was always of an awe-striking or im¬ 
 posing hue, such as the white, azure, blue and gray. 
 
 Curiously enough the celebrated sacred scarlet ibis of 
 the ancients is found more frequently in the Americas than 
 on the Nile, which leads to a plausible conjecture that this 
 heron was the flamingo, another red heron, migratory 
 and common on the Nile. These well-known, gregarious 
 red birds, “ when feeding, or at rest, owing to their red 
 plumage, have often been likened to a body of British 
 soldiers. 31 
 
 It is thus shown that red was the crystalization of all 
 dark hues, while white, in primitive notions, was a state, 
 purified altogether from color; and thus the true aristo¬ 
 cratic symbol. Labor’s warm, serum-reddened currents 
 of love and life and manly vigor, together with its vast af¬ 
 fixture of paraphernalia, which from the mythical ages 
 clustered around this central color, was always based 
 upon the opposite of those formidable, repellent hues re¬ 
 siding in the awe-inspiring idea of nobility. 
 
 Persons inclined to doubt may here conceive an objec¬ 
 tion based in the fact that there was, common among the 
 optimates, an aristocratic or imperial purple and that this 
 purple was not only of a reddish hue but also an august 
 color; so costly and grand that it could not be permitted 
 by law to be worn, except by great dignitaries. 
 
 The answer to this objection is, however, easily met. 
 In very ancient times owing to the popularity of the com¬ 
 munal cult, an enormous trade and manufacture of the 
 Tyrian red and purple was carried on. That nobody but 
 the great masses dealt in this trade is evident from the 
 fact that after the rise of the proletarian power, Rome 
 began a conquest ending only in the massacre, subjuga¬ 
 tion and enslavement of these millions who had sustained 
 the trade. Rome, probably to curry favor with her “ dan¬ 
 gerous class” at home, and after she had reduced the 
 world by conquest, passed a law making it a crime for 
 anybody to use the red except the nobles. After this law 
 went into force in Phoenicia the workingmen engaged in 
 the great and wide-spread trade of dyeing, so completely 
 lost their business, that even the secret of their ancient 
 
 81 Eneyclopcedia Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 250. 
 
480 
 
 TEE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 and beautiful hues was lost and it has never been recov¬ 
 ered to this day. 82 Now this all proves that, agreeably to 
 our views previously expressed, the purple came in vogue 
 with the power of the plebs, who had this beautiful color; 
 since these great conquests abroad commenced less than 
 *200 years before Christ. All agree with Polybius 88 who, 
 himself one of the victims of these conquests, devotes 
 pages to an account of the origin of Roman degeneracy. 
 When Rome suppressed the manufacture of the hated 
 red color of the organized communes she herself adroitly 
 donned the purple of labor’s goddess—“ the brilliantly 
 tinted garments ” of the priests of Isis and Osiris, of Ceres 
 and Demeter, of Pomona and her flaminica, for u a man¬ 
 tle of a Roman emperor.” So that while it is easy to show 
 that in later times, when Rome was tumbling into that 
 great slave-holding period which brought degeneracy and 
 death, she intriguingly filched the beautiful color, and after 
 streaking it with the old aristocratic gray and adulterat¬ 
 ing it with blue or white or azure, she gave it to her lords 
 and ladies; its makers with their aged secret, she gave to 
 the wild beasts of the gladiatorial games to be “ butchered 
 for a Roman holiday.” But it is not easy to prove that 
 the purple containing the red was used by the impera- 
 tores before the conquests. True, it is so mentioned; 
 but it was not the red-purple—only the azure-blue which 
 received this name. 
 
 It is not in the scheme of these arguments to attempt 
 a polemic for or against the primitive notions of mankind 
 in regard to the choice of colors. We find species of in¬ 
 nocent consistency all through. As white was the essence 
 or crystal of ^'scolor, symbolizing purity, aristocracy — 
 to agatAoteron, the better part, while its nuances of beau¬ 
 tiful blue, its silvered gray and azure, all pointed to the 
 etherial sky, lofty, forbidding and sublime, so red, among 
 the divinities of a yielding or producing race, was the es¬ 
 sence, or crystallization of all color, from the murky smut 
 of earth to brown and dun, at last reaching the gorgeous 
 
 a* Consult Encyclopaedia Britannlca, VoL VII. D. 498. 
 
 3s Polybius, in his Histories, distinctly states tnat the decline of the Bomu 
 honor and virtue began wit h these conquests. For modern opinion on the date 
 of Roman decline see Bucher Au/stdnde der Unfrcivn Ar better, where numerous 
 valuable quotations are made from Polybius, Atnenseus and others will be found 
 of much interest, shedding a new light upon the subject. 
 
CHRISTIANS ADOPTED THE RED. 
 
 481 
 
 scarlet and the crimson coma of Apollo, 84 or the flaming 
 chiton , chlamys, himation or toga , believed to be the trail¬ 
 ing robes of Demeter and her red silk, flame-clad daughter 
 Proserpine and all the other protecting goddesses of labor 
 and its products. This consistency, in harmony with 
 Plato on the one hand and Aristotle on the other, is borne 
 out alike by science, and by trial of an immemorial du¬ 
 ration. 
 
 The Christians when they afterwards came, adopted 
 the red, wherever they planted among the communes; and 
 in our next chapter we shall show this to have been the 
 case at almost every instance, in their earlier career. So 
 soon as priest-power showed itself the old white came 
 back; and accordingly we find the white standard at Rome, 
 while the red banner remains at Auvergne, Paris and 
 London, with its gules in England and its gueules in 
 France. Everything throwing light upon the subject, 
 shows the same preference of mediaeval guilds, for red 
 among the poorer or working class who learned to adopt 
 Christianity because unlike the old Paganism, it declared 
 for the gradual emancipation of slaves. And they have 
 never to this day, given up their pristime banner. 
 
 "We have mentioned the extreme antiquity of the red 
 color as applied to ensigns, symbols, signs and types of 
 the plebeian classes. These curious facts came down to 
 us through the industry-protecting priesthood when they 
 appear in histones and geographies, and through inscrip¬ 
 tions, when they appear as relics of the proletaries them¬ 
 selves. This priesthood which transmits the records of 
 the red color is, so far as we have been able to ascertain, 
 only that of Minerva, goddess of mechanical labor and la¬ 
 borers, and Ceres, goddess, or tutelary divinity who con¬ 
 trolled agriculture. 36 These great mythical powers, im¬ 
 plicitly believed in for so many ages, had different name 
 in different countries; but preserved with a wonderfu 
 uniformity the same functions everywhere. 
 
 We carry the investigation to England, the ancient 
 Britannia, now known through cumulative evidence of 
 
 M There "has been found (see Encyclopaedia Britannic a, Vol. II. Art. Apollo\ a 
 fine round bronze head of Apollo stamped on the silver coin of Clazomen®, 
 preserved in the British Museum. This venerable midget is a curiosity. 
 
 35 See Gerhard, Antike Denkmaler with Tafel> CXX. 1, showing image of Cy- 
 bele in her chariot with lions and two figures clad in the toga, 
 
482 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 comparative history, to be as ancient as Greece or Egypt* 
 and centuries older than Rome. 
 
 Exactly as in the case of Greece and Rome, the aristo¬ 
 cratic and Druidical priests were clothed in white, 36 so 
 likewise the Druids of the aristocratic religion, like the 
 southern European, are found to have been the most 
 cruel and bloodthirsty of the ancients, nurturing the prac¬ 
 tice of slavery and the sacrifice of human beings. In fact 
 these abominable atrocities were found later by the 
 Romans to so far surpass their own spirit of cruelty 87 that 
 they sent x\gricola to their fastness in the island of Mona 
 with an army, wlio so completely destroyed them that they 
 never again arose to become a great power. The account 
 of the ferocity of this ancient aristocratic priest-power of 
 the Druids, in their methods of human sacrifice is too 
 shocking to be recounted. 38 
 
 But notwithstanding the fact that priests of the state 
 religion of ancient England were clad in white, the com¬ 
 mon or popular faith was that of sun-worship. Apollo, 
 with all his relationship by similarity of functions, to 
 Ceres, on the one hand, and Minerva on the other, was a 
 protector and patron of industry by reason of his being 
 the sun himself. He blazed forth with wondrous beams 
 of crimson over old England as well as Europe and Asia, 
 and was early the myth of that land and its people. 8 * 
 Perhaps there were two sets of opinions, one opposing the 
 other among the Druids. 
 
 This blazing Phoebus, with his transcendental effulgence 
 had to be imitated in the symbols of human labor; and 
 how to make the crimson dyes of his train of deities was 
 no small matter. But here the land of the Britons comes 
 
 36 Hughes. Horae Britannicae , Vol. I. p. 158 : “ The Druid priest wore a white 
 robe, and the bard sky-blue but the Ovati, green. These different colours, were, 
 the first, the emblem of purity and peace; the other, of truth, and the lact, the 
 verdent dress of nature, in the meads and woods.” They sacrificed human beings 
 and white bulls 
 
 87 Campbell, Political Survey , I. p. 525 ; III. p. 292 ; IV. pp. 476, 480, Wm. 
 Camden, Britannia, Druidts; Borlase, Cornwall. 
 
 38 We refer the reader to Hughes, Horat Britannicae, Vol. I. pp. 232-250, who 
 derives the facts contained in his dissertation, from Tacitus, Annales, XIV. cap. 
 29, for the Ilritons and Lucan, for the grove of sacrifice at Marseilles in Gaul, 
 
 39 Consult Idem , p. 261. The Stonehenge Britons were sun-worshipers; that 
 is, they deitied the god of blaze. Minerva was their protectress of invention and 
 manual labor. Stonehenge appears to have been an enormous temple, built of 
 heavy rocks and fashioned in a simi-circle, having no roof. For a full descrip¬ 
 tion of Stonehenge, its structure and its surrounding influences, see idem, pp 
 258-26:. 
 
RED DYES MADE OF BRITISH TIN. 483 
 
 in for a share of our observation; for it furnished the tin 
 of which the dye was made. After the Phoenicians found 
 the tin mines of Cornwall and the Scilly Isles (the cas-si- 
 terides), red colors were mostly produced in Sidon and 
 Tyre, their southern home. 
 
 Now, without enlarging upon this matter as touching 
 the earlier use of the red colors of England and the origin 
 of the British gules , let us look at the phenomenal mam 
 ner in which the habit of red colors has clung to these 
 people. Every one familiar with the heraldic symbols 
 has observed the frequent mention of the gules. 40 This, 
 during the mediaeval age, was a favorite color with the 
 common people. 
 
 It would be well to show, in company with the English 
 guilds, those also of the French, who are derived from 
 the ancient Gauls. The reason of this is, that the trade 
 union system of the Homans, elsewhere elaborately de¬ 
 scribed, struck into England about the same time that 
 it was popular in Gaul; and as the unions used the ban¬ 
 ner at Rome, the practice extended to Britain and Gaul. 
 
 The Crispins, who founded the order of shoemakers at 
 Soissons, are the first unions we know of in the north of 
 France. The story of the brothers Crispin and Crispinius 
 belongs to the bloody days of Diocletian 41 whose terrible 
 persecution of the early Christians added them as victims 
 of martyrdom; and they have ever since been the tutelary 
 divinities or patrons, guarding the shoemakers’ art—an¬ 
 other example of the power of superstition to perpetuate 
 itself through the generations. So the shoemakers took 
 the red fiag; for we have a beautiful illustration of the 
 color of the shoemakers’ flag in the province of Auvergne, 
 given us by Bouillet, in which are massed numbers of 
 banners that were used by many trade organizations dar¬ 
 ing the middie ages down to their suppression in 178'.’*. 43 
 
 <o See Encyclopaedia Britannica , Vol. XI p. 616, 9th edition, Art Hera-dry; 
 Here, in a cut (fig. 3), in which 9 escutcheons are represented, 3 are of a red 
 color, one being a genuine gules. The art of dyeing brilliant colors is very an¬ 
 cient. The chasuble or red mummy cloth found A. 1). 1295 now in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral, London, which is ‘■‘purpureo aliquantulum sun guinea,’’ proves that the 
 oiler Phoenix purple was blood red. Comp idem, Vol. XVIII. p. 817. The 
 celebrated tin dyes of the Phoenicians owed much to Britain. Consult Hughes, 
 Horce Britannicce, Vol. I p. 47. It colored the finest textiles a pure red This 
 was going on long before Abraham or the Trojan war; and Britain yielded the 
 tin for the scarlet dyes. 
 
 41 Consult chapter xi. pp. 372 388, of our History of the Ancient TradeUnicns. 
 
 42 Histoire d** Communites des Arts et Metiers de l’ Auvergne, Accompap*** *** 
 
484 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 The cordonniers or shoemakers, of the middle ages and 
 down to their suppression, were in all respects the same 
 as in A. D. 280, when founded by St. Crispin and his 
 brother, who are said to have stolen the leather or raw 
 material in their zeal to make shoes for the poor. They 
 even retain the same name. They held the same day of 
 the same year (October 25th), for their feasts, parades 
 and conventional jubilees, and carried the same red ban¬ 
 ner. This is the flag which the law of Theodosius excused 
 on account of the men having been guilty of no wrong, 
 and having always been “ found peaceful, pious and up¬ 
 right.” 43 The French called the flag or standard-bearei 
 of these unions a porte-banniere , the Romans a signifer ; 
 These banner-bearers or more probably banner makers 
 had a union by themselves; for a magistrate or president is 
 found in an old inscription, 44 bearing words to that effect. 
 Returning to the trustworthy member of the Legion of 
 Honor and of the Institute, M. Bouillet, we find him pre¬ 
 senting the red flag of the shoemakers of the middle ages 
 and later, categorically somewhat as follows: 
 
 In Auvergne, city of Brioude with its antique social 
 curiosities and its communal college, the shoemakers had 
 their union amalgamated with the tanners, glove makers, 
 furriers and cobblers. 45 Their banner, alike for these 
 four trades, was all blood red, except a border of gold and 
 a gilt fox’s pelt hanging in the center. The staff was 
 gilt and hung with beautiful tassels. An exquisite pic¬ 
 ture of this banner is given in plate 33, fig. 2. 
 
 In the old town of Ambert, department of Puy de 
 Dome, the shoemakers were amalgamated with the saddle 
 
 Bwnnibres que portaient cts Communautts avant 1789. Par J. B. Boniliet, Parte, 
 1857. 
 
 43 Codex Tkeodosii, Notul. Gothof. leg. 2, tit. viL lib. XIV. De Excusationibua 
 
 Anificum. “ Signiferi,.qui scilicet signa, et in his deorum, ferebant in 
 
 pompis, festis, ludicris gentiiiciis.” etc. 
 
 44 Murat orius, Thnowrus Veterum Inscriptionum, 25, 50; Granier Uistolre det 
 Ckma Ouvri'eres, p. 823; “ Venerable corps des ro.aitres porte-bannieres aux 
 fetes, et de leurs nonbreux vari6tes, depute les signiferi , qui sont le genre jnsqu’ 
 anx CG.nto.brarii qui sont 1* espdce.” Comp. Orel!. Incriptionum Latinarum, Cob 
 lectio. No. 4,282. 
 
 45 Bouillet, Comrnunantts, p. 109. describes the relations of the shoemakers 
 *>ftli the cobblers as follows: ‘‘On comprendra facilement qu’il a du arnver do 
 vives contestations entre les deux corua de metiers, de cordonniers et de save- 
 tiers; les uns achetaient des bottes on lies souliera vieux, les autres confection- 
 naient certains articles de leur 6tat, hors des conditions prescrites par lenr r&gle- 
 ment, aus 3 i les cours et tribunanx entendirent sonvent leurs griefs pour ces faits 
 
 ponr les visites des uns cliez les autres.’’ 
 
CRIMSON, THE SHOEMAKERS' COLOR. 485 
 
 and bridle makers. 48 Their ensign, shown in plate 12, fig. 
 1, was of the same shape as that of Brioude ; about one- 
 half of the surface of the canvass within the border was 
 of a brilliant red color. The whole banner was red, blue 
 and gold. 
 
 An exquisite red banner was that of the shoemakers of 
 Clermont. In the center of a similarly escutcheon-shaped 
 canvass is a shoe-knife witli gilt handle and steel colored 
 blade of nearly the same shape that we see to-day in any 
 shoeshop. A gold border shiningly fringed the whole, 
 except the top and like the others, the standard and tas¬ 
 sels were gilt. All the canvass is a flaming red. It pre¬ 
 sents, indeed a beautiful exhibit of the old French ori- 
 jiamme and the older, pre-Christian FLAG and flamma 
 which we have described as the ensign hues of the work¬ 
 men’s goddesses, so familiar and so endeared to the Latin 
 lowly race. 47 
 
 The ancient city of Nemetum and seat of the Caesars, 
 Augustonemetum , which was one of the early Christian 
 centers (A. D. 250), became the Clermont-Ferrand of the 
 present day. Here the collegia and communes of the 
 early Christians long ago planted and always maintained 
 themselves even through the persecutions of Diocletian 
 and Maximian. No place seems to have more warmly 
 cultivated the ancient, or rejected the innovations of mod¬ 
 ern life, than Clermont. The foregoing description of 
 the shoemakers of Clermont is given by Bouillet. 48 Momm¬ 
 sen, in his history of Rome, makes this volcanic and ster- 
 
 ** Idem, p. 110, and plate 12 lie 1, “ Lear bannidre portal*: 
 
 “ Tierce cn pal: a bordure de gueules, a 
 nn comeau a ptea d’orgent, einmanckd 
 d’ or etc., ?.t vz 3 3’ or, a une bride 
 de cheval de gueules 
 
 n It may be weil here to quote some of the definition of the English gules , 
 French gueules, Latin, ou?ae b°caxise though somewhat rare, they appear in an¬ 
 cient and mediaeval heraldry: Stormouth, English Dictionary: Gules, noun, 
 plural, pronounced gulz. [French gueules, red or sanguine in blazon— lrom 
 gueule, mouth, the throat.', in heraldry, a term denoting red, represented in en¬ 
 gravings in upright lines.’’ 
 
 \\ orcester, English v^uioaa.-y. (Unabridged), defines it thus: Gules, (gulz, 
 n. Fr. gueules.—- L, gula the threat: or the Ar. gula, a rose, Fairholt—“ Corrup¬ 
 tion of gueules. red Fr, which is probably from the Pers. guhl, a rose.” 
 
 Webster. English Diniojiary , (Unabridged ; “Gules, (gulz), n. [Fr. gueules, 
 from Lac. gula, reddened skin]. (Her.) A red color—intended, perhaps, to rep¬ 
 resent courage, animation .‘.iidinood, and indicated in engraved figures of 
 escutcheons and the like, uy straight perpendicular lines.” 
 
 48 Doublet, Communautis d’Auvergne, plate 11, fig. 3. On p. 110, is the de¬ 
 scription as follows; “ A Clermont: De gueules, a uh tranchet a lame d* argent 
 emmanene d’ or.” 
 
486 
 
 TEE OLD RED FLAG 
 
 ile region of Auvergne an example in proof that the intro¬ 
 duction of modern innovations would result in the place 
 becoming uninhabitable/* although it has withstood many 
 misfortunes, natural and ecclesiastical, and is yet a pop¬ 
 ulous and thriving region. Here, where ancient customs 
 have so tenaciously clung, we find them near the close of 
 the last century, still with their flaming red banner; and 
 no amount of prejudice could change the working people 
 from its use at the feasts and parades, just as they were 
 doing in the days of Socrates or Tiberius Gracchus. 
 
 One banner was a flaming red without a spot or blemish 
 of any other color except in the center, where stood the 
 Virgin Mary, dressed in silver gray, holding in her arms 
 the naked infant. It symbolizes the peaceful handicraft of 
 the shoemakers, carders, weavers and several others. 
 This central picture of the Madonna or Notre Dame, hold¬ 
 ing the new-born child, as represented on the plate, is artis¬ 
 tic; and standing upon a background of gorgeous red, pre¬ 
 sents with its gold fringes, its slender staff and its tassels, 
 an admirable piece of art. 60 Among the various unions 
 amalgamated under this banner were the masons; thus 
 showing the red banner to have been an emblem of that 
 trade. 
 
 We do not pretend to say that all the shoemakers of 
 the mediaeval ages used the red flag. Notable exceptions 
 are given in plates 9, fig. 2, of the city of Maringues, and 
 plate 11, fig. 4, of Riom, but nearly all of those given re¬ 
 tain this color. Out of the eight shoemakers’ unions rep¬ 
 resented on the plates no less than five sported the red 
 color, some of them retaining the peace hues of the di¬ 
 vinities unalloyed by anything except the device of the 
 craft, generally placed in the center of the canvass. 
 
 In England we likewise find the gules upon thousands 
 of escutcheons from as early as Constantine the Great. 
 It is there yet. The habit of holding up the red as a 
 
 *9 History of Rome, (Eng. trans.), Vol I. p. 62, qnotee Dureau de la Malle, 
 Economie Politigue des Remains, II. p. 226. In this passage it is mentioned that 
 such sights as a woman yoked or harnessed by the side of a cow, are still of 
 common occurrence. 
 
 50 See plate 12, fig. 2, of Bouillet, Histoire des Communautis des. Arts et Metiers. 
 The description of the plate is on pages 110-111, as follows : *‘A Montferrand, 
 les cordonniers, reunis aux cardeurs, aux tisserands aux marchands revendeurs 
 aux hoteliers, aux masons, etc., porta'ent une banniere: He gueules, a Notre 
 Dame d’ argent, courounee d’ or.’' 
 
THE PEACE-BANNER STILL WAVING 487 
 
 symbol of some tutelary divinity—nobody knows wliat 
 because everybody has forgotten—clings to the British 
 Isles with a stubborn tenacity to this dav. How comes 
 it that the military coat is red ? That French soldiers in 
 parade look like a prairie on fire? That in blazonry the 
 standards, and in shipping, the streamers, pennons, jacks 
 and merchant-standards, 61 especially those representing 
 peace, so many are of this color? The reasons for it are 
 two-fold. First, they are the most conspicuous and beau¬ 
 tiful and consequently the best. As proof of this we 
 find in America and elsewhere the blood-red storm sig¬ 
 nals, in Switzerland the red arms, in Denmark, Great 
 Britain, Norway, Turkey, Morocco, Peru, Chili, Bolivia 
 and many other countries, the red merchants flags and 
 ensigns; red occupying almost the entire surface of the 
 canvass. So also, the British jack. 
 
 In the next place, these were the colors originally em¬ 
 ployed to represent the same object in ancient times when, 
 in the imagination of men, red was believed to be holy 
 like the gorgeous streams of light from the rising or setting 
 sun, which shaped itself on the simple, primeval mind, into 
 an omnipotent being with human form, like Apollo and 
 Ceres, who were believed to be guardians of labor and 
 its products. If then, it is the best, is still used because 
 best, and if, after a trial of an aeon of time it be found 
 that the lowly class thus symbolized by it, judged rightly 
 ten thousand years ago, and have preserved it in their 
 unions and hearts through this long period, can there be 
 any consistency in a paltrj", time-serving-prejudice or its 
 tricks and intolerant schemes against it? We leave this 
 question to science. 
 
 We are told by antiquarians that when the Romans 
 settled Kent, called by them Cantiopolis, large numbers of 
 the trade unionists came from Italy and there established 
 themselves; and engaging with the natives in the arts of 
 brass and woodwork, taught them the use of the turning 
 lathe and other machinery. So we find this section the 
 chosen nucleus of several trade unions at this day; and 
 right here and in London an hour’s walk up the Thames 
 
 61 See Encyclopaedia Britannic a, Vol. JX pp. 241-245 Art. Flag. Let the 
 reader open a late edition of Webber or Worcester’s Unabridged Dictionary to 
 the word flag, and his eye will meet as it were, a flame of lire. 
 
488 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG . 
 
 is where the typical British gules is found in greatest 
 abundance; for the same phenomenon of transmission 
 makes London the bed-rock of modern socialism. Previ¬ 
 ously to the introduction of the mechanic arts this terri¬ 
 tory was a wilderness; and the people lived in tents, hovels, 
 huts and caves, in the rudest state, almost without clothes 
 or houses. Romans taught and helped them to construct 
 habitations, married with them and mixed, as is now be¬ 
 coming known, planting among them all their home habits 
 and customs. 62 Many of these Romans on their long 
 journey through Gaul to Britain, lingered on the way; 
 and those were the workingmen who planted the flag in 
 such places as Auvergne; for Romans were in England 
 55 years before Christ. We will therefore suppose that 
 if they planted it in Auvergne they did so in Kent, and 
 having less positive evidence from the latter we allow our¬ 
 selves to draw comparisons by what we positively know 
 of the former, which was a way-station of the Italian emi¬ 
 grants. 
 
 As we have spoken of carpenters, let us take this track 
 in evidence. Drawing from Bouillet wdio has so faithfully 
 worked this territory, we find the red banner to have been 
 used by them as follows: Carpenters with patron Saint 
 Joseph and with day of celebrations, the 19tli of March, 
 (March was the natal month of Ceres, Minerva and Apollo).* 1 
 
 Taking all the principal trades we might suppose to have 
 been introduced into Kent and London at the same time 
 that they existed in Auvergne, we find that in the latter 
 place, the bakers’ annual feast days were in the spring oi 
 the year, corresponding to the festival days of Ceres, god¬ 
 dess of grain-growing, and Dionysus and the other labor 
 gods. Here we have in Bouillet’s portrayal of the trades 
 
 6 2 Comp. E. H. Rogers’ correct and able statement In McNeill’s Labor Problem 
 qf to-day, p. 335, drawing from Coote, Romans of Britain. “Rome held posses- 
 Bion of the Island more than 400 years, and it was never abandoned by those de- 
 ecended from the Romans.” Mr. Rogers speaks of the mechanics who early 
 emigrated to Massachusetts, as the ‘ ‘Men of Kent.” 
 
 » 3 Histoire des Communautes des Arts et Metiers <f Auvergne, pp. 80-83: “ On 
 
 F >eut faire une 6tude tres curieuse du role qne joua la charpenterie milltaire, dans 
 a seconde expfidition de P6pin-le-Bref, en 761. contre Gaifre, due d’Aquitaine. 
 Ail si&ge qu’i fit subir a la ville de Clermont, profltant de l'expSrience des Lorn* 
 bards, il fit dresser contre les murs de formidables beliers, des poutres 6norme& 
 
 a ui, mises en mouvement par des leviers et des cordages et roulant sur des cy- 
 ndres, par l’impolsion que lenr donnaient les charpentiers et leurs habiles ouv. 
 riers, heurtaient de leur front de fer les murailles et les mettaient en pieces. On 
 peut le voir encore dane ,pautrea ui6gea qne soutinrent Clermont et Montferrand 
 on 1121 et 1126.” 
 
COPIED INTO MEDIAEVAL TIMES . 
 
 489 
 
 anions of Auvergne, six banners in red out of eleven 
 mentioned for the bakers, and the six red flags were for 
 the towns of Ambert, Brioude, Issoire and Thiers, where 
 the flag was all red except the central device; and Rio in 
 and Saint-Flour, where they painted a part only of its sur¬ 
 face in red. 
 
 Turning to Depping, 64 and Shepheai d who wrote a curi¬ 
 ous statement on guild laws in 1650, at London, we find 
 that there were unions in both London and Paris during 
 the same period, or from the time of Constantine the 
 Great; and if so, the habits of the people of Auvergne 
 must have been about the same as those of the Parisians 
 and Londoners because France was the territory of the 
 overland emigration from Italy. The red banner appears 
 to have been colored after the tutelary divinities or pa¬ 
 tron saints whose feast days still corresponded with those 
 of the proto-divinities, tenaciously conserved through the 
 ages, from the myths by the power of habit. 
 
 But we may follow this interesting subject farther, tak¬ 
 ing the various other trades together. Beginning with 
 towns that adopted a banner as their device for arts and 
 trades in general, we find at Langheac, the flag half red; 
 Chaudesaigues, half red; Pont du Chateau, half red; Yic, 
 Vic-le-Comte and Saint Germain, largely red; while many 
 of the trades residing in these towns had all red for their 
 banner. 
 
 In Mont-Ferrand, the carders, masons, weavers, small 
 dealers and tavern keepers had blood red. In Aurillac 
 and Riom, the saddle and bridle makers, confectioners, 
 cheese handlers, locksmiths, shoemakers, cutlers and silk 
 workers all had red and a number a bright fiery color all 
 over except the device. 
 
 At Theirs, the marble cutters, glaziers and cutters had 
 all red. At Ambert, besides the shoemakers, already men¬ 
 tioned, the saddle and bridle makers and weavers had a 
 red banner, or one with more or less red on it. 
 
 Clermont de Cournieres and Saint Germain-Lembron 
 bad total red except central device. So Saint Germain, 
 the celebrated industrial suburb of Paris named, as it ap- 
 
 54 G. B. Depping. Riglement tur les Arts et Mttlers de Paris, this author quotes 
 4 state regulation covering the same period, which is curious as showing the hon- 
 e»ty of freednaen from tricks such as characterize the present competitive sys¬ 
 tem, causing much adulteration of manufactures. 
 
490 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 pears from this more aged labor-hive of southwest France, 
 still clings to, and fights for, its ideal red as a tutelary or 
 
 patron color. 
 
 The tutelary banner of Pierrefort, had the top red far 
 enough down to cover more than one third of its surface, 
 the rest having several common colors but no white. 
 
 At Clermont-Ferrand the joiners had a red plane, and 
 the marble-cutters other similar red objects for a device, 
 while at Brioude, shoemakers, tavern keepers, tanners, 
 glove makers, furriers and cobblers, had each all flaming 
 red, and their parades, which used to be celebrated on 
 the 11th of November, must have been a sightly spectacle 
 indeed, all through the middle ages. They were devout 
 Christians although their worship had differentiated in 
 course of time from that of Minerva whose feast day was 
 the same time of the year, whose colors were the same, 
 and whose cult had only changed from that of a tulelary 
 heathen divinty, to that of a Christian patron. 
 
 The banner of the painters of Montaigut was entirely 
 of a blazing red. Hatters and glaziers of Saint Flour had 
 their banner red at the top; and the hatters, saddlers, 
 tinners, butchers and tavern keepers of Issoire had a great 
 red ring like the sun’s corona. Surgeons and apotheca- 
 caries, so well-known to have been classed among the plebs 
 in former times, had all red banners in Aurillac. The 
 tanners, glove makers and curriers of this place also 
 flamed in the same color. 66 
 
 Abundance of other evidence might be here brought 
 forward; for the immense field of Europe is scarcely yet 
 entered upon. 
 
 If any one should still contend that the red flag or the 
 red color was warlike and ant agonistic al to life and its 
 peaceful pursuits and labors, let him further observe the 
 fact that in those lands where the communes left their 
 traces most plentifully on their inscriptions, will be found 
 the red banner to this day. Modern Turkey occupies one 
 of these localties. And what is the merchant standard of 
 modern Turkey? A blood red color tinges every shred 
 of the canvass except an exiguous star and a tiny crescent 
 
 66 See Index and plates of Bouillet, Ifistoire cUs CommunauUs des Arteset Mi- 
 tiers dt L'Auvergne, where still more material may be found to confirm these 
 statements. 
 
SAME COLOR STILL, FOR MERCHANTMEN. 491 
 
 moon, tne wife of the flaming Apollo! Certainly no war¬ 
 fare is symbolized in the peaceful standard of a merchant 
 vessel. 
 
 Morocco, Algiers and Tunis, the north coast of Africa, 
 once occupied by the Carthagenians and other colonies 
 of Phoenicians, still have a flag which is totally red. When 
 the origin of this habit is traced, it will be revealed that 
 Baal ? the great divinity of the Phoenicians, whose attri¬ 
 butes were the same as Ceres, whose colors were red, 
 whose home was that of the inventive and in genius dyers, 
 and who was the tutelary divinity or patron of labor, was 
 the huge sun-god that inspired the color by his glowing 
 beams. 
 
 The northern coast of Africa was colonized by the 
 Punic race whose name both in Greek and Latin is the 
 every day word for red. Both Turkey, which succeeded 
 to Graeco-Phaenician domination in Asia, and Morocco, 
 Tunis and Algiers, which succeeded to Carthagenian rule 
 and influence, still retain for this peace-color the red in its 
 altogether unadulterated state. 
 
 Spain, the ancient Iberia, a colony of Phoenicia which 
 also planted the red banner in the land of Viriathus, con¬ 
 veyed this habit to Peru, where we still find the banner 
 and merchant standard all red, except a white stripe 
 through the middle. In Eygpt the peace-standard is 
 blood red with the exception of a cresent of the moon. 
 
 Great Britain, likewise a colon} r of Phoenicia so ancient 
 that the records descend to us only in the tin tincture 
 f urnished by her mines, of which the red dyes were made, 
 preserves to this day an otherwise unaccountable habit ol 
 displaying the red gules, and her merchant standard is all 
 red except a corner and even this is partly red. The 
 Romans who later settled Britain only confirmed the same 
 habit; since the labor communes of Rome had borrowed 
 their tutelary divinities from Asia. 
 
 Thus Phoenicia whose seons of antiquity make her the 
 proto-nursery of man along with central Asia, is alike, the 
 home of Baal w the sun-god, conceived as the male princi¬ 
 pal of life and reproduction in nature,” 56 and the mother 
 of almost all the colonies where sunbeams paint the fu¬ 
 ture flags and banners of the myriads of toil whose com 
 
 EncycluitUfrltu b> Uunnwu, Yol. lli. y. 
 
492 
 
 THE OLD RED FLAG. 
 
 munal culture was one of peace, equality and good will to 
 man. 
 
 Very much more evidence might be adduced in proof 
 of the red banner having descended to the working fam¬ 
 ily of man, as a legacy from ancient usages religions 
 and beliefs; and showing that while memory and use have 
 traditionally adhered, the superstitious reasons for much, 
 have long been forgotten, though the economical reasons 
 have remained. We submit these curious points to fur¬ 
 ther study by antiquaries with the remark that the most 
 striking feature of these phenomena is, that feast-days of 
 the middle ages correspond for the peculiar crafts, very 
 nearly with those of the same crafts and same divinities 
 in the remotest antiquity of which we have been able to 
 trace traditional and paleographic records. 
 
 We have constantly found the red banner to have pre¬ 
 dominated only in paths of peace; and never outside that 
 domain except when the peculiar and well-known attach¬ 
 ment of the lowly to it, was taken advantage of, do we 
 find it in war. So it was used and so it careered in the 
 early colonies of the United States. The early flag, true 
 to the traditions of the past, was of a blazing red color in 
 Massachusetts, 57 in New York, and probably in everyone 
 of the thirteen original states. It was the flag used by 
 General Washington at the onset. When the war of the 
 revolution broke out it was a beautiful red, with the old 
 merchantman's ensign of the union jack—a peace-token— 
 and men of peace suddenly found themselves compelled, 
 in the absence of a war-flag, to float the red ensign amid 
 the clank and din of cruel strife. It was the flag of Lex¬ 
 ington, of Bunker Hill, of Ticonderoga; and in its center 
 shone the patriotic motto “Liberty and union.” A glance 
 at the newspapers of those days best reveals these data 
 But those men were struggling for the right of free laboi 
 like the men of old. These facts rather stultify the pre¬ 
 vailing notions against the old red banner. 
 
 67 See American Cyclopaedia, 1883, Vol. VII., pp. 250-S51 : “In the ba¬ 
 ginning of the revolution a variety of flags was displayed in the revolted 
 "domes. The ‘union flags' mentioned so frequently in the newspapers of 
 1774 were the ordinary English red ensigns bearing the union jaok." The 
 tug “displayed by Putnam on J uly 18th .following the battle of Bunker Hill), 
 was red, with ‘Qui tranatullit sustinet’ on one side and on the other; 'An 
 % l peal to tteaven.' ” 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE TRUE MESSIAH. 
 
 FOUNDERS OF GREAT INSTITUTIONS COMPARED 
 
 How the Real Messiah found Things at His Advent on Earth— 
 Palestine—Syria—Rhodes and the Islands—Suffering Con¬ 
 dition of Labor—Seeds of the Revolution already Sown— 
 Further Analysis of the Condit ions—The Eranoi and Thiasoi 
 — Orgeons and Essenes —Falsehoods regarding the Bacchantes. 
 
 After 417 years, from the strike of the 20,000 miners 
 and artisans at the Laurian mines in Greece, and 70 years 
 from the last strike-war—that of the gladiators under 
 Spartacus in Italy—there arose an orator out of the labor¬ 
 ing class, who in Judea in an open air meeting, probably 
 before a great assemblage, told the world that resistance 
 to evil by means of bloody uprisings, was fraught with 
 failure. Undoubtedly having in mind those terrible 
 scenes we have pictured in these chapters, this foremost 
 of orators and teachers proclaimed at the mass meeting 
 these words: 
 
 “ Ye have heard that it hath been said (by them of old 
 time), an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth; but I say 
 unto you that ye resist not evil but whosoever shall smite 
 thee on thy right cheek, turn him the other also.” 1 
 Strange words! Inapplicable to this seething world. 
 They were intended for some microcosm; some perfected 
 state—the realized heaven on earth. In the competitive 
 world to-day, Christian as it pretends to be, the old fight¬ 
 ing eye for eye and tooth for tooth prevails, ever will pre- 
 
 t Matthew, V. 88-89. 
 
494 
 
 PA LESTINE. 
 
 vail; to talk otherwise is absurd except in the deep pene¬ 
 tralia where that heaven is realized. 
 
 By taking these strange words in the light of true so¬ 
 cial science and reasoning upon their meaning from the 
 point of view in which these pages are written, we may 
 perhaps understand their import. Otherwise the task 
 is difficult. Nations continue to demand an eye for an 
 eye. Communities do the same. Even families, despite 
 their consanguine ties, cannot but continue to enslave 
 and often destroy each other. Individuals stand over- 
 against each other in mocking and bitter competition, 
 the shrewdest or most favored survive while the majori¬ 
 ties languish and fail. 
 
 Jesus when he said these words was in the act of creat¬ 
 ing an association; and that association actually contin¬ 
 ued for 300 years practicing the precepts of its founder. 
 It was no new thing. It had existed for centuries before; 
 it existed then. What he did was to bring out into the 
 open world that which had so long been secret. 
 
 It was at a moment when such doctrines were compre¬ 
 hensible to the masses. Notions of the Messiah existed 
 everywhere and the deep religious tinge was indispen¬ 
 sable. The irascible world had many a tilt with the ter¬ 
 rible monster of competition whose religion had been 
 deeply based upon human slavery and the grasp for acqui¬ 
 sition was still so strong that although the principle of 
 equality and hence of emancipation of labor from its de¬ 
 gradation, has never even to this day been relinquished, 
 it did not obtain for many ages. Through this great 
 movement a ponderous, revolutionary blow certainly fell 
 upon the old competitive system. But that blow though 
 ultimately fatal, did not kill the monster on the spot. He 
 still lingers and is to-day struggling in a temporary hope 
 and exultation although nearly 2,000 jears have elapsed 
 since the word went forth against him. 
 
 It cannot be considered in any other light than that 
 the revolutionary events treated in foregoing chapters, 
 followed by the enormous wave of reform of the early 
 Christians, produced a tremendous syncope or swoon; 
 that an atrophy supervened; and that they benumbed the 
 whole social organism of the great Indo-European race. 
 The dark ages into which our race sank, after the adop- 
 
THE WORLD'S GREAT FAINTING SPELL. 495 
 
 tion of Christianity and its ratification and legalization 
 by Constantine must ever be considered a phenomenon 
 under any other reasoning than that this task it under¬ 
 took was too prodigious for its powers. AEons of time 
 were necessary to accomplish so vast a revolution. To 
 overwhelm the great aristocratic Pagan religion with its 
 array of traditions; to engulf and annihilate its obstinate 
 cult; to emancipate the two-thirds majority on whose ill- 
 paid labor it had feasted, glutted itself and grown mon¬ 
 strous in bulk and arrogance, was a task so profound that 
 although actually undertaken, it caused a reaction, rolling 
 up moral and intellectual billows so high that the ages 
 and the nations were swept into a terrible jargon of dog¬ 
 mas tyrannies and bloody, inquisitorial intolerance which 
 destroyed the virility of the race for more than a thousand 
 years. And even now, after so many centuries, the end 
 of the convulsions is far off, though hopefully approach- 
 ing. 
 
 All struggles embracing deep principles are attended 
 by qualms, swoons and upheavals. The numberless com¬ 
 batants who fell back in the swooning period that settled 
 upon the human race after the Council of Nice with its 
 mongrel Christianity, its idolatry, priestcraft and despot¬ 
 ism, are emerging with higher hopes and broader views; 
 their armor, the mechanics of their own invention, redu¬ 
 plicated by their own labor, wielded by their own hands 
 and brain and their manhood cleared of doubts and su¬ 
 perstitions—those deadly misgivings of the ancients. No 
 one to-day asks more than Jesus did; for equal liberty, 
 universal freedom and common ownership, with his sub¬ 
 lime love and inter-care are quite enough. Squadrons 
 innumerable thus armed and outfitted are, in our bright, 
 regenerate century, returning to the conflict against the 
 aged, competitive and long successful enemy of equal ad¬ 
 vantages and equal care. The conflict in this second com¬ 
 ing may be long, hopefully in our own land bloodless, be¬ 
 cause fought with arguments, organization, diplomacy and 
 law. 
 
 We have sketched several of the most renowned govern¬ 
 ments and ideal governments of the ancients. They all, 
 having their foundation upon competition and its natural 
 partiality, turned against the laboring people on whom 
 
496 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 they fed. They failed and came to naught. What there 
 was in them of good could not obtain because they insulted 
 and disrespected labor and degraded the working people 
 on whom they existed from day to day. Nature toler¬ 
 ated some of them for a fair trial but they have disap¬ 
 peared and are no more. Jesus came and advocated an¬ 
 other form based upon equality and brotherhood. 
 
 But before further considering the form established 
 by the lowly workingman let us look honestly and squarely 
 at the condition in which he found things. 
 
 All Asia Minor was the scene of labor organizations, 
 Canaan by no means excepted. The Phoenicians who 
 boasted an antiquity of 30,000 years,* occupied the land 
 of Canaan on the Mediterranean Sea, in which country 
 Jesus lived and'passed the greater part of his life. These 
 Canaanites appear before the researches of modern archae¬ 
 ologists and historians to have been among the first who 
 possessed labor organizations. In giving a sketch of 
 several ancient forms of government, we have simply de¬ 
 scribed the competitive system, ancient and modern. 
 Even the plans of Lycurgus and Numa failed altogther of 
 affecting the revolution by which we mean the complete 
 change from the old Pagan central idea of slavery to one 
 of social and economic equality. There was no socialism 
 beyond that of the family, in the government instituted 
 in the idea of common ownership, communal intercourse, 
 common tables and impartial distribution of land, as ar¬ 
 ranged by Lycurgus and afterwards shadowed by Plato 
 and Aristotle. Every idea of true socialism was utterly 
 neutralized by their hostility to laborers. The gymnas¬ 
 tics which took the place of physical energy supplied by 
 well regulated labor, and no better for the bodily health 
 and development, was less natural, more straining and 
 far less satisfactory. 
 
 In point of true national economy, government and la¬ 
 bor cannot remain separate. By the governments men¬ 
 tioned, labor was disgraced, the laborer denied instruction, 
 enslaved. Who then, were the citizens ? Who the peo¬ 
 ple ? An oligarchy consisting of one-third of the popu¬ 
 lation. An imperious, oligarchy of landlords. The con¬ 
 dition of Ireland or England, wherever worst overrun and 
 
 * Africanos, In Syncdlns, p. 31. 
 
HIGH MORALS OF TEE WORKERS 
 
 497 
 
 monopolized by landlords to-day, is better. Again, so far 
 as the family socialism is concerned it was still more per¬ 
 nicious; for it was hypocritically an acquiescence in the 
 ancient aristocracy existing among the highest class, 
 everywhere in theright of the first-born son. Lycurgus 
 recognized this arch aristocracy in forbidding kings and 
 a few select individuals from indulging in the voluptuous 
 interchange of loves. As in the traditional Pagan family, 
 the king like the paterfamilias , was the breeder of kings. 
 The mass of the people were left without sacred or holy 
 honors. By people we mean the citizens and favored own¬ 
 ers, or rather the protected, recognized and favored of 
 the state. What lien, shall be said of the workers? 
 Summing it all up, these governments were exactly what 
 they turned out to be—the quintessence of competitive 
 forms, breeding disunion and corruption, thus coaxing on 
 their own dissolution. 
 
 But seeds of the true revolution were, from the earliest 
 antiquity inherent in the labor organizations, which dur¬ 
 ing these abortive efforts of aristocratic lawgivers and 
 teachers, quietly existed in the midst of them. Had there 
 existed only a few of these societies there would be no need 
 here of pressing our subject. It would be allowed to slum¬ 
 ber forever unmentioned. But they were innumerable. 
 Comparative palseography indeed finds a new theme 
 amongst them for the dignity of the labor problem; for it 
 casts a fresh and charming color into the hitherto dry read¬ 
 ing of annals. 
 
 But the fact that they were so numerous as to exist in 
 thousands and perhaps millions and that their quiet exis¬ 
 tence covered unknown ages of time, is far less significant 
 than the fact that they all seem to have possessed the ker¬ 
 nel, not of the dishonest and hypocritical, but of the hon¬ 
 est and real socialism, such as Jesus and the early Chris¬ 
 tians struggled to plant as the ultimate plan for all men 
 to follow. They were all certainly alike in helping each 
 other, in respecting and honoring labor and laborers, in 
 co-operating for mutual aid, in a perfectly democratic 
 form of religion though they were, in their credulous sim¬ 
 plicity, constantly borrowing from the great grandees, 
 ti eir tutelary deities or patron saints. Whatever or 
 wherever their tutelary god, one thing is universally ob- 
 
498 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 served—an uncompromising belief in, and a practical de¬ 
 votion to, the rougher forms of brotherhood. They had 
 lived the revolution for unnumbered generations before 
 Jesus came to sweep it, by one magnetic and amazingly 
 omnipotent stroke, out of its modest secrecy into the open 
 blaze of maddened, gnashing public opinion and fling it 
 upon the warring tempests of the aged competitive sys¬ 
 tem, the foundation rock of paganism. 
 
 It is a significant fact that Jesus should appear to the 
 world in Phoenicia or Canaan which was at that time the 
 wreck of the greatest nation of freebooters, buccaneers 
 and kidnappers the world has ever known. From the 
 earliest record these people were marauders and their 
 world-wide successes legalized their daring and made 
 them powerful pirates by sea and brigands by land. 
 
 But there was an inner history of these people which 
 the pen of chroniclers has left unsketched. Great num¬ 
 bers of persons from all parts of the known world were 
 kidnapped by their cruising corsairs, brought to the 
 Phoenician shores and sold to the wealthy for slaves. 
 These slaves, shortly before the advent of Christ, formed 
 over two-thirds of the population. They were maltreated, 
 made to do menial work, forced to till the lands, especi¬ 
 ally detailed to perform all the severe bodily toil in and 
 out of the cities, their handsomest youths were made eu- 
 nochs and apportioned to the service of the ladies of high 
 estate, and their young girls, disallowed an education and 
 brought up in slavery and dirt, yielded not only to labor 
 but became susceptible to the offers of the unprincipled 
 and voluptuous among the rich. The condition of the 
 ancient Phoenician slaves was indeed a degraded one. In 
 nearly all the towns of Canaan or Phoenicia, Syria and 
 Asia Minor, as well as in the islands, slaves were the rule; 
 the free working people * the exception. The cruel taint 
 which blasted the toiler extended its devil-fingers beyond 
 Greece over the iEgean sea and pointed at the Asiatic 
 workman as a mark for its curse. 4 
 
 In Egypt,* Greece,* Rome, Judea, 1 Syria,' Syracuse 
 
 * Drumann, Arbeiter und Communisten, p. 24. “ In Epidamnos gab es koine 
 Handworker als die offentlichen Sclaven. Das Handwerk is dabar verrufen und 
 verachtet u, in mancben Stadten den Biirgern verboten.” 
 
 * Plato, Econ., 4 and 6. 
 
 b Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, book II. Chap. v. 8. 
 
HOW CICERO HATED THEM. 
 
 499 
 
 and Spain the ignominious punishment of the cross was 
 inflicted only on felons and working people, often for the 
 most trivial, or merely imagined, or trumped up offences, 
 while the arch criminals of “ family ” were allowed the 
 noble supplicium. This state of things had come to such 
 a pass since the conquest of the countries above mentioned 
 that the utmost misery prevailed everywhere. The land 
 was grasped by speculating Romans of court favor, who 
 were at that time not only numerous but extremely enter¬ 
 prising. Being of the privileged or citizen stock they 
 siezed the beautiful farms formerly worked by the indus¬ 
 trious inhabitants, but now under the yoke of voracious 
 conquerors, and assumed them to be their own. Instead 
 of free labor, slaves performed the work. 
 
 But labor had been in sackcloth and ashes 8 for many 
 ages, and it required no additional weight to make it bad 
 enough. 10 Even Geliius who wrote laws to decide their fate, 
 seems to speak with contempt of labor as though it were 
 some noxious reptile to be hurled from his pen in dis¬ 
 gust. 11 It is almost amusing to read over the queer 
 whimsicalities of our ancestors whose opera quae super sunt 
 often project expressions of petulency and of irritibility 
 in view of some necessary but to them, ignominious men¬ 
 tion of a class of people on whose toil they depended for 
 their very existence from day to day. Cicero, sneeringly 
 said, when describing his enemy Clodius, ranking him 
 with those laboring men, that he was “ without credit, 
 without hope, without home, without goods.” 12 This in 
 
 * Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, p. 518. "In crucem figerc.' 
 
 I Cf. Inscription, recently found at Naples containing the death warrant ol 
 
 Jesus. 
 
 8 Blicher, Aufstandc der Unfreien Arleiter, S. 69, and elsewhere. 
 
 » Vide Sallust, Jugurtha , 73, Also Dionysius, B. C. 476 made it lowly enough; 
 Livy, X. 31. “Quinam sit ille, quem non pigeat longinquitatis bellorum scrib- 
 endo legendoqne, quae gerentes non fatigaverunt.” 
 
 10 Pliny, Natural History , IX. 25; EL. 28. 
 
 II Quod genus Graecii axdoQopovs vocant, latine bajulosappellamus.” Geliius 
 
 6 , 3 , §. 2 . 
 
 ls Pro Marco Coelio, 32. “ Quare oro obtestorve vos, judices, ut qua in civi- 
 
 tate panels his diebus Sextus Clodius absolutus sit, quem vos per biennium aut 
 ministrum seditionis, aut ducem vidistis: qui aedes sacras, qui censum populi 
 Romani, qui memoriam publicam suis manibus incendit, hominem sine re, sine 
 flde, sine spe, sine sede, sine fortunis, ore, lingua, manu, vita omni inquinatum: 
 qui Catuli monumentum attiixit, meam domum diruit, mei fratris incendit.” Ci¬ 
 cero here had not the magnanimity to give Clodius credit for voluntarily cast¬ 
 ing aside his noble family and his wealth. Cicero, when he said that Clodius 
 had no family, well knew that he was a brother of Appius Claudius, that he was 
 one of the very most powerful representatives Of the great gens “ Claudia”—the 
 lime stock which afterwards produced emperors. We find little in the family tc 
 
600 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 his haughty mind was sufficient to damn them to oblivion. 
 Occasionally there rose a character, so sympathetic and 
 exalted, even in immoral Rome, as to be able to dispel 
 this almost universal contempt and to give expression to 
 the grandest and most truthful sentiments. Of such was 
 the excellent Tiberius Gracchus, who a hundred and forty 
 years before Christ was born, declared that w wild game 
 have holes; and for eveything there is some shelter, some 
 retreat; but the poor who struggle and die for Italy, 
 though they have air and light, have nothing more. 
 Houseless and homeless they wander with their wives and 
 little ones. Those military gentlemen lie, who admonish sol¬ 
 diers against permitting workingmen’s graves and sacred 
 things to be desecrated by enemies; for not one has a 
 family altar of his own; not one among all these Romans 
 a burial place. The poor must struggle and die for the 
 blustering drunkenness and the corrupted wealthy called 
 nobility whom their labors create and sustain.” “ We 
 have hitherto made reference to Mommsen who constantly 
 bewails the paucity of mention by great authors, of the 
 poor and lowly; 14 but Mommsen is not the only savant 
 who in rummaging among the musty relics, after such rare 
 gems in vain, sends up his moan of regret. Dr. Drumann 
 repeats the same thing and in blunter and terser terms, 
 “ One searches in vain for satisfactory intelligence,” re¬ 
 garding the producing class. 16 
 
 Such are the difficulties the historian of the ancient 
 lowly has to encounter; and were it not for the tell-tale 
 inscriptions and the musty old rescripts of law, the task 
 could never be performed. But while the most valuable 
 records of bold writers have been left us in fragments and 
 the more time-serving historians have shrugged themselves 
 into silence fearing to face the storms of public opinion, 
 the workers themselves were carving their own history in 
 lines of amazing legibility for the far future students of 
 ethnology and social science. 
 
 E raise; for he was descended from the same gens with Appins Claudius; but if 
 e turned into a friend of the unions, restored them, fought Cicero on tkesA 
 grounds, and if he comes down to us as their champion and martyr, then the 
 
 whole labor movement must acknowledge it. 
 
 !* Plutarch, Tiberus Gracchus. 
 
 n De Collegiis cl SodalicUs Komanorum, p. 41. “ Quoniam exignam tantum 
 notitiam earum ad nos pervenisse admodum dolendum est.” 
 
 15 Arbeiter und Communisten in Griechenlnnd und Rom, 8.15,5, “ BeiriedigencU 
 Nach/ichten sucht man vergebens.” 
 
THE SECRET CULT IN CANAAN. 
 
 501 
 
 We now turn to the labors of Jesus whom, in order to 
 be consistent with our study of sociology, we must pre¬ 
 sume to have been what some of the great commentators 
 and even some of the encyclopaedists now consider him, an 
 Essene or at any rate, a member of one of the great orders 
 of secret associations so numerous in his day. Lest this 
 announcement appear untenable in the minds of many, 
 we present our proof in consistent detail; inviting further 
 investigation on the part of critics, in rebuttal. Certainly, 
 no harm can accrue from an honest comparison of facts 
 as applied to lessons in anthropology. In proceeding to 
 do this difficult task we must acquaint our readers with 
 things as we find them and reason, like the physicist, from 
 the premises. 
 
 We have already stated that there existed along the 
 Mediterranean great numbers of palaeographs mostly un¬ 
 earthed within the present century. There is still a dis¬ 
 pute as to what they represented. That they are stone 
 slabs, often handsomely graved in relievo , commemorating 
 social societies, all archaeologists are agreed. But until 
 lately it has not occurred to their learned expounders that 
 they were genuine labor societies. This however, is the 
 fact. 
 
 But while these innumerable palseographs are really the 
 work of labor organizations and economic advantages to 
 manual toil being then, as now, the incentive, because labor 
 then, as now, was the members’ only capital or means of 
 support, yet this labor, on account of the taint and disgrace 
 as well as the ruffianlv attacks it had in those davs to sub- 
 mit to, was for many ages the cause of the societies and 
 their inscriptions; and the thing that lies constantly con¬ 
 cealed. But the more popular and trivial issues, like the 
 paliatory flattery of idol worship, the vain-boasting of 
 prophets, the popular flute music, dances, processions, and 
 burial ceremonies, covered up the view of labor; a palliative 
 which secured their permission by law, to exist in Palestine 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 The common name of all the ancient societies of these 
 regions, is koinon , and the most important of them, accord¬ 
 ing to Jjttders, 16 are the synocloi or synods. Then especially 
 among the Canaanites are found the traders, also known as 
 
 10 Liiders, Die Dionyuuchtn Kuna tier, p, 12. 
 
502 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 synodoi plethoi and symbiosis philia. But of course in the 
 widest sense the general name of phratry stood uppermost; 
 since whatever applied to it means “ union.” 
 
 But the name under which the most of them are known 
 in Ihe inscriptions is eranos and thiasos, a description ol 
 ■which we have already given. The eranos, in the Greek 
 was a labor or trade union. From the Greek, all the social 
 societies of the iEgean sea, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor 
 borrowed this name. The same explanation applies to the 
 thiasos. This was an association for common enjoyment, 
 and is consequently considered by the modern archaeolog¬ 
 ists as a branch of the dionysia or the bacchantes. But 
 there is great misapprehension regarding the province and 
 functions of the celebrated god Bacchus. While people of 
 our day associate him with wine and drunkenness the great 
 Numa Pompilius provided for the working people once a 
 year at the Saturnalian festivals of the harvests, 17 and dur¬ 
 ing his wise and much honored reign they were encouraged 
 to indulge in festal recreations. The Saturnalia was a great 
 harvest festival. Belaxation, merry-making and even wine 
 conviviality were so far indulged in as to almost sink, pend¬ 
 ing its duration, the inequalities of rich and poor. Being 
 in December, it was to the ancient Romans, what Christmas 
 is to the Christians, 
 
 Now, considered as identified with the manners of the 
 labor organizations, there is a similarity touching the satur - 
 nalia sanctioned by Numa. Tullus Hostilius and even the 
 emperors, and the bacchanalia which were breathing mo¬ 
 ments of the secret labor societies. But the bacchanalia 
 were common in all countries and the bacchantes had their 
 feast at any time during the year. The true cause of their 
 disreputable taint is not that the feasters drank wine All 
 drank wine, when they were able to pay for it; it was a 
 healthy beverage. The obloquy comes entirely from their 
 being all lowly working people. They were attacked in a 
 ferocious and brutal manner and threatened with extinction 
 because they dared to have an evening dance once a month. 
 
 Unorganized, the ancient workingmen were powerless to 
 enjoy even this; but the force of co-operation or confrater¬ 
 nity bore its fruits; and by it they could enjoy their con¬ 
 vivial s. 
 
 M Plutarch, Lycurffut and Numa Compand. 
 
OPINION OF MODERN SAVANTS. • 603 
 
 The thiasos 18 was this community gathering, which in 
 their marches and dances used to wear beautiful wreaths 18 
 and sport red flags and banners. Tracing these societies 
 farther and clearing them of moral mud and slime with 
 which yilifiers of the ancient quill have so bespattered them 
 that the word bacchanal appears in our vocabularies like a 
 synonym of sottishness, we have a decent, well ordered as¬ 
 sociation or union of poor people who work for their living; 
 such as existed all over the country about where Jesus lived. 
 Bookh, cites an inscription of one found at Tyre about 20 
 miles from Nazareth and after deciphering its epigraph, ar¬ 
 rives at the conclusion that although it was a thiasos , it 
 was not a wine bibbing institution at all. 88 
 
 From Phrygia among the celebrated Phrygian slaves 
 there comes a stone slab which Liiders, in his excellent 
 work, • The skilled mechanic of the bacchanal,” has lucidly 
 described. We translate one of his descriptions. 20 
 
 •Above the lettering appears a general picture of the 
 scene. On the right sits a goddess in a long chiton (flow¬ 
 ing robe), holding a large shell in the right hand. In the 
 left she holds a tympanum , the bottom resting upon her 
 knee which, together with a modius upon her head, repre¬ 
 sents her as the goddess Cybele. Near here sits the lion 
 which is known to be the favorite animal of the Phrygian 
 goddess. Besides the goddess, also robed in a long flowing 
 chiton , stands a man holding a cithara on the left arm. 
 Over the altar erected on his right he holds also a shell. A 
 tree shades the altar. A girl leads in a lamb for the sacri¬ 
 fice upon the altar, and another is playing the flote. An 
 aged female figure is finally represented at the extremity of 
 the room in the attitude of worship. Beneath this holy per- 
 sonifiation is represented another scene, presenting a sym¬ 
 posium of 10 persons. With the left arm on the lap, they 
 sit on their pillows eating and drinking, and in front of them 
 
 1« " oawtp w n> if airb rov irivctr •wavco-yi}.” Phot. 82. 
 
 w w Polybius erzihlt (XX. 6), dass dlese Kranzchen in Bdotien in grosser 
 Bltlthe gewesen seien.’* (Liiders, Die Dionysischen Kilns tier, S. 11). Cf. Droysen. 
 HtUenismus, 11, 83, f. 
 
 so Bbckh, Corpus Inscriptwnum Grcecanm. No. 2271. “ Thiasos non bacchl- 
 ous est.” 
 
 si Liiders, Die Dionysischen Kunstler, S. 9, Tafel II. 
 
 22 The word “ zechen ” here used for drinking by the learned philologist, 
 might have been well enough for the date at which it was written: but it is entirely 
 un.iist now; tor it perpetuates the insults upon the po >r. This word is evi¬ 
 dently meant to convey to us the idea that they were eating and “ tippling,” 
 
604 
 
 PALESTINE, 
 
 on one side, Ante players while the time with mnsic, and on 
 the other side waiters are busy bringing the viands of the 
 table and wine for the members. Two batons stand leaning 
 against the wall on the right, on whose pointed ends, as we 
 may safely surmise, the bread is toasted and the meat broiled. 
 The inscription reads that the thiasotes, male and female, 
 are in the act of honoring Stratonica their priestess with 
 wreaths; and this for honest service she has rendered their 
 saints or deities, Apollo and Cybele. 
 
 Such were the eranists and thiasotes. To onr mind, rea¬ 
 soning from the now provable fact that these societies were 
 numerous in the land of Canaan in the days of Christ, it is 
 quite certain that he was a member of an eranos, or of some 
 other secret association like an Eleusinian brotherhood; as 
 by his time, these had assumed a cult" which was both 
 practical and religious. His religion was monotheistic but 
 he could not have been more devout 
 
 But we have promised to thread the eranoi farther, that 
 there may remain no doubt regarding their influence or 
 their age and numbers. Having stripped the bacchic thiasos 
 of its traditional terrors, we come to inquire, with Liiders, 
 
 whereM the solemnity of the particular occasion forbids any such rendering to 
 the inscription. The real oause of the fling is the innocent lexicographer; not 
 the faithful epigraphist. “ Thiasotai ” is made to mean revellers or tipplers. It 
 means no such thing. The lexicographers are obliged to give definitions such as 
 the sense implied in the historian’s account, suggests. Where the fault, if any, 
 resides, is at the door of the historian who throughout the literature of antiquity 
 has signalized himself as the toadying accomplice of the aristocracy. 
 
 While therefore, we profoundly respect the carefnl philologist who, years 
 ago gave us these treasured scraps, yet, from a standpoint of sociology, future 
 archaeologists must come to judge of the meaning of words from their self-evi¬ 
 dent premises. Indeed, the direct discovery of Bbckh, whose authority stands 
 pre-eminent, is that “ thiasos is not baochic,” “ Thiasos non bacchicus esL” He 
 makes this plain declaration, evidently not from the common definition at all; 
 but because, on studying his inscription, he sees by its general appearance that 
 though confessedly a thiasos it is far too serious to be a band of tipplers. 
 
 8* Eusebius says boldly, quoting Philo (see chap, xviii.), that these Essenes 
 or Therapeut* were very numerous in all parts of the world. Eccles. lib. II. 
 cap. 17. Muoh more may be learnod from Philo Judaeus, De Vita Contemplativa 
 and Quod Omnis Probus Liber, 12; Lightfoot, The Epistle of St. Paul; Collossians 
 mnd Philemon. This last author’s strioture against the essenes being the order to 
 which the early Christians belonged, brings even more proof of our theory that 
 Kssene, Essenoi, is only a phase of eranoi, suitably changed to fit the Judean dia¬ 
 lects, of the Greek, and that also it took on phases to conform with the Mosaic 
 code in Palestine and Egypt. A careful reading of Dr. Lightfoot’s Essenes, idem , 
 p. 347, sqq. may serve to convince many of this anology. “ While the Pharasees 
 were the sect, the Essanes were the order,” (p. 354). We say however, that while 
 the thiasoi were the sect the eranoi were the order. Lightfoot (same pages), 
 speaks of their tenets being “of foreign origin.’> This is still further proof. 
 The grammatical structure, and how changed, is clearly seen on page 355, 
 Eowaio?, Eacrrji'o? resemble 0i«<ro?, Oiacrrivos. Again, they were baptists. This 
 they got from the venerable custom among the unions, of the constant use of the 
 baths. 
 
AN ANCIENT SLANDER EXPL ODED. 605 
 
 more about the Dionysiscfien Kuenstler , or Bacchic skilled 
 workmen. The Dionysia at Athens were of four sorts, but 
 not necessarily connected with these social communes. In 
 that country, in early times, the Dionysia were feasts, or 
 autumnal jubilees at the vintage. They were amusements 
 at which the boys and girls hopped and caroused. Some¬ 
 times they danced upon sacks or ollas filled with water, or 
 climbed the greased pole, or jumped and climbed on bowl¬ 
 ders smeared with oil which by their slipping and awkward¬ 
 ness caused great merriment. Undoubtedly the farmers at a 
 bee of this kind sometimes drank wine to excess. The 
 second Dionysia were feasts of the wine presses. It was 
 almost exactly equivalent to our Thanksgiving; fully as re¬ 
 ligious but less sedate and reverential. It was a series of 
 banquets and festivities at which the meats and dainties were 
 paid for from the public purse. Then there were drinking 
 festivities called anthesteria at which in the spring of the year 
 the citizens gathered and indulged in enjoyments. But we 
 are not quite certain whether the working part of the popula¬ 
 tion were allowed to attend; since citizens in Athens, as 
 elsewhere, in the Hellenic peninsula and, in fact, wherever 
 Greek was spoken, were regarded as above labor. Lastly, 
 the great Dionysia held mostly within the city. They 
 consisted principally of theatrical entertainments at the cost 
 of the state. These again were aristocratical and had little 
 to do with workingmen’s organizations. 
 
 The anthesteria in the month of February and the great 
 Dionysia held in Elaphebolion , month of March, strikingly 
 resembled the Eleusinian Mysteries, to the description of 
 which we have devoted a chapter. They had secret sacrifi¬ 
 ces at which the wife of the archon was symbolically mar¬ 
 ried to Bacchus, the celebrated god of plenty. It is quite 
 probable that the poor working people and the slaves, in 
 their longings to rise to enjoyment and esteem, aped these 
 great aristocratic orgies of the citizens, which sometimes 
 were performed—especially at Eleusis—with a display of 
 magnificence only equalled by their mysterious secrecy and 
 their religious pomp. Thus, the labor unions had nothing 
 in common with those orgies and must not be mixed up 
 with them. 
 
 In 1364, there appeared an article in the Revue Archeo- 
 logique, on the eranoi and thiasoi of the inscriptions. The 
 
PALESTINE. 
 
 them* maintained that these unions tended towards a cult, 
 and that the result of their humble existence for a period of 
 many ages was an upward and civilizing tendency. The 
 writer, M. Wesoher, an archaeologist who had devoted much 
 time to deciphering the meaning of relics so curious, took the 
 ground similar to that maintained in these chapters, although 
 he does not pre-suppose that the unionists had anything to 
 do with labor. This is the strongest of all the phenomena 
 which beset the pen of scholars. Granier de Gassagnac 
 wrote his history of the ancient laboring men from that 
 point of view; and although his exceedingly scientific and 
 rare penetration was for 30 years talked down by the sav¬ 
 ants of Germany and France, they are now maintained by 
 greater ones who acknowledged that they were taught by 
 him. Such was also the fate of M. Wescher, who ventured 
 to suggest that the eranoi, very nearly identical with the 
 Roman collegia or trade unions of which Granier had made 
 his magnificent expos£, were something more than mere re¬ 
 ligious sects; for we find M. P. Foucart denying the truth 
 of M. Wescher’s remarks* 4 and in his preface, express¬ 
 ing his sensation of pleasure at imagining himself able to 
 disprove Wescher’s hypothesis.” One would suppose that 
 any discovery that they were labor societies would be hailed 
 with pleasure by the most critical; but the contrary is hurled 
 in his old friend’s face with scorn. 
 
 We feel an interest lively enough in the little polemic of 
 Foucart and Wescher to reproduce an example: Wescher 
 examines the fraternal character of the Associations 88 in 
 these words: “ Now is it not natural that, at an epoch of in¬ 
 quietude and of religious agitation like that of the great 
 Alexandrian school, the number of these societies should 
 be considerable? Ought we to be astonished that many 
 men and women abandoned the official religion which had 
 long proved itself ineffectual to free culture, arid to the de¬ 
 velopment of spontaneous, fraternal goodness such as re¬ 
 sponds to the innermost aspirations of the heart? The 
 Greek soil must be considered the veritable cradle of this 
 religious movement. It will redound to the inextinguish¬ 
 able honor of Greece for having planted such examples in 
 
 ■» Auociationt Religiemet dex let Greet, pp. 139-153. 
 
 as Idem , Preface, p, 14. “ Une certaine satisfaction et one certains conflance .' 
 
 ** Revue ArdUolnpique, 18(56, II. pp. 2'20 and 227. 
 
607 
 
 OPINIONS OF SCHOLARS. 
 
 n 
 
 the world, before the appearance of Christianity." M 
 Wescher continues: “ The common fund of the societies was 
 devoted to mutual assistance and assurance, destined to fur¬ 
 nish advances to members in need, 2 ’ to provide for them in 
 cases of sickness and defray the expenses of a decent 
 burial.” 2 * Farther along he says: “The members were a 
 mutual community, one with another; the well-to-do paid, 
 the indigent received, in rotatory form, as the case happened. 
 Poverty was no motive of exclusion.” This last declaration 
 is stoutly met by M. Foucart who says it is based solely 
 upon an expression of Rangabe. In point of fact this com¬ 
 munistic mutuality is the only definition ever attached to 
 either the Greek words eranos or Latin collegium / He fur¬ 
 ther quotes from Theaphrastus, 2 ® a passage in rebuttal which 
 substantially acknowledges not only, that the eranoi were 
 mutual sharers, but also that the celebrated successor to 
 Plato knew all about them. Not discomfited with this in¬ 
 consistency he drags up the case of one Lseocrates, an Athe¬ 
 nian, who being about to move to Megara sells his house 
 and his slaves, charging one of his friendt with the task of 
 paying and settling up with his creditors, money he owes 
 and to straighten accounts with his eranos. It does not 
 follow from this, that this rich man was even a member, any 
 more than was Augustus Caesar a member of the many col¬ 
 legia at Rome which he patronized under the well known 
 name of Collegia Domus Augustalis .“ 
 
 The whole of the matter is, that these were poor working 
 people’s societies for mutual aid. They corresponded very 
 closely indeed to our trade unions. They had existed from 
 immemorial times as trade and labor societies for mutual 
 support and were almost indentical with the Roman 
 colegia on which we have devoted a chapter, and regard¬ 
 ing which evidences in inscriptions and otherwise, are over¬ 
 whelming. Those poor people did not work all day at 
 wearying drudgery and then labor at night in their unions 
 merely for religion’s sake as M. Foucart imagines. 21 They 
 
 « Here Wescher himself Is unable to understand that the fund was for mem¬ 
 bers out of employment, which places labor at the bottom of their organization. 
 
 28 Revue ArcMologique, idem , p. 226. 
 
 28 Theophrastus, Ethikoi Karakteres, 17. 
 
 •"o Mommsen, De Collegiis et Sodaliciis Romanorvm, Cap. V., Le Collegiit lafit 
 mb Iniperiloribus. The emperor Augustus was of course, not a member of the 
 trade unions but he befriended, protected and patronized some of their labors 
 while a great many of them he suppressed. 
 
503 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 had to combine as the men are now combining, to take 
 measures regarding the best advantage at which they might 
 on the morrow, exchange the only goods they possessed— 
 their labor—for their daily bread. Even slaves, when ah 
 lowed, sometimes joined, to better their condition. 
 
 So much for the eranoi. The thiasoi were, as we have 
 described them, simply clubs of the eranoi who arranged 
 and conducted the little banquets and social amenities which 
 throughout antiquity seem to have made life worth living. 
 These thiasoi corresponded to the sodalicia of the Romans. 
 
 We have, however, in our description of the Roman trade 
 unions, shown that ovvingto the severely restrictive and cen¬ 
 sorious laws, the unions, toward the commencement of the 
 Christian era were compelled to assume a strongly religious 
 and pious aspect in order to prevent being suppressed by 
 these rigors, after the servile wars. Precisely the same in 
 Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine and the Islands of the iEgean 
 Sea; because all these provinces from about B. C. 200 had 
 become Roman territory by conquest. Any law touching 
 them at Rome in the Latin tongue was as rigorous against 
 them in Greece, Asia Minor or Canaan in the Greek or He¬ 
 brew. These are the points which the learned Foucart seems 
 to have forgotten. He is an expert as an epigraphist but 
 lacks the aptitude of the comparative sociologist. The 
 keen perception of Mommsen detected and cleared up the 
 mystery in his laws on the Roman trade unions.” 
 
 These are things which seem strongly to support our 
 argument that a spontaneous, genuine secret movement per¬ 
 vaded the Greek, Latin and Hebrew-speaking countries far 
 and wide at this particular epoch of the advent of Christ. 
 The unity and brotherhood shown to have existed among 
 the secret societies is almost touching. The more the upper 
 stratum of society was distracted by the consequences of 
 the competitive system having failed, on a trial of thousands 
 of generations, the more completely did the brotherly love 
 system of the labor unions grow into usefulness, through 
 accord and mutual support. 
 
 There is an example of this seen at the Pirseus. The 
 Phrygians were considered barbarians by Greeks and Ro¬ 
 mans. Their patron goddess was Cybele. Liiders reports 
 
 11 Assoc, Relig. Chet. Let. Greet., passim. One comparison of them with the 
 collegia of the Romans M. Foucart finds this error clearly proved. 
 
 De Collegiis el Sodalicils Romanorum. Passim. 
 
EQUALITY AND FRATERNITY. 
 
 609 
 
 that in the Piraeus alone, such was the harmony among the 
 orgeons and thiasoi, who represented, apparently without 
 the least jealousy or dispute, many nationalities there, that 
 the Phrygians had an especial temple standing close by the 
 great temple of the goddess Metroon, where she was wor¬ 
 shiped by the members of a society whose members called 
 themselves orgeones and thiasotes on the inscription. 
 
 It reads that the decrees 15 and 19 provide that strangers 
 be admitted to the society. One of the officers is himself a 
 stranger. In the list of officers, one is a tutelary soter, or 
 savior from Troezen, and one, Cephalion, from Heraclia. So 
 also women officiated in responsible functions in the same 
 societyAt the Pirseus was the thiasos embracing the cult 
 of Serapis; of Zeus Labraundos, Metroon and Cybele; of 
 Heroistes, Demos Oollyte, Apollo, Nymph Lycia and others. 
 Some of the inscriptions bear date of B. C. 324. M The fact 
 of their having lived in their quiet fraternal way so many ages 
 organizing, living in common, teaching as they went, and 
 constantly inculcating the spirit of fraternity as it were, un¬ 
 derground, while overhead in the great competitive world, 
 kings, nobles, money-changers, and politicians were fighting 
 and dashing each other against the competitory rocks of the 
 Pagan aristocracy, is of itself, strong evidence that they 
 were the real planters of a future state which could not ob¬ 
 tain in the open world without a revolution. 
 
 Our maxim that the greater the organization of the la¬ 
 boring poor into a brotherhood for common help the higher 
 will be the pitch of human enlightenment, certainly holds 
 good so far as it was able to proceed in ancient times. Its 
 corollary; the higher the enlightenment the more complete 
 the extinction of social and economical grades, cannot be 
 demonstrated until the associative energy expressed in the 
 premises has been carried far enough against the competi¬ 
 tive system to reach a majority. When this comes to pass 
 the conclusion will be reached that the intensity of human 
 enlightenment can be tested and measured by the quantity 
 of social organization of this hitherto degraded stratum of 
 Bociety. 
 
 The whole story looks as if the offering of ignominy, (A 
 Bethlehem, foresaw these three great truths 20 centuries 
 
 aa LUders, Die Dionysichen KUustler. pp. 14, 15. 
 
 »4 Idem , p. Id. 
 
510 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 ahead, when he boldly took up the unionist's, culture of a 
 dozen deities, their social methods, their fraternal, interact¬ 
 ing love, their meek, silent humility and secret work, brought 
 them grandly forth from their obscurity, proclaimed with 
 an irresistible eloquence and pathos the obsolute equality 
 of man and succeeded before the quarrelsome competitive sys¬ 
 tem, its toadies and obsequious devotees, could bring him, 
 like all the rest to the gibbet, in unifying all their gods into 
 one god and forcing the vast movement upward into view 
 and final adoption by the world. The failure of royalty and 
 empire which at his time began to be seen in the states ol 
 Greece, Italy and western Asia, proved his words that “ a 
 house divided against itself cannot stand;" and this cele¬ 
 brated apothegm from his lips is now being used, perhaps 
 more than any other by the labor organizations of the 19th 
 century. Mutual fraternity and arbitration of difficulties 
 without resort to violence or other overt, unchristian acts 
 is proved by unions of trades to be everywhere productive 
 of the most satisfactory results. 
 
 The lines between the followers of the movement and its 
 opponents were definitely and very distinctly drawn. He 
 that is not for us is against us." This again has become a 
 common maxim among the trade and labor societies of mod¬ 
 ern times; so much so, that the investigation of the charac¬ 
 ter of applicants for membership is found necessary before 
 admission. 
 
 The law of Solon had provided for the free organization 
 of burial societies among the Athenian poor. He called 
 them homotaphoi. There were the communists who en¬ 
 joyed their meals at a common table. The law and the 
 language knew them as sussitoi. These also were numer¬ 
 ous in Palestine and elsewhere along the coast of the 
 Mediterranean. But it is certain that they were labor 
 unions; for Liiders,* 7 speaking in general terms says that 
 the brotherhood who partook with each other at the com¬ 
 mon table did this as a moral custom and that the custom 
 was common throughout the ancient world; and in the 
 larger societies received an especial character. There 
 were even societies of privateers, of Phoenician or Canaan- 
 
 85 Luke, XI. 17: Mathew , XII. 25 ; Mark, III. 25. 
 
 8fi Mathew, xii. BO; Mark , ix. 40. 
 
 37 Dionysch, Kunstler , S 4, 5. “ Ausser diesen kleineren,aii8schliesslich prl 
 r&ten Zwecken dienonden Genosseuschalten gab es Schiffrr— n TTandelevereine.” 
 
HOW PALESTINE BORROWED THE CULT 511 
 
 fte origin of course ; for these were the most formidable of 
 ancient brigands and freebooters. But Solon also per¬ 
 mitted such secret organization at Athens.** 
 
 Liiders expressly states that there existed universally 
 an organization called by the Greeks deipna apo symboles . 
 It was an eranos or labor union; and “ stretched from 
 high antiquity into the second half of the 4th century of 
 our era, when at the Council of Laodicea it was forbid¬ 
 den.” 89 Our statement that the eranoi and thiasoi were 
 in reality one and the same thing, 40 the eranos being the 
 labor or business part of the administration, and the thia- 
 sos that part attending to the entertainments, is fully con¬ 
 firmed by Liiders, 41 who expressly says their identity as 
 well as functions were mixed; and necessarily, since the 
 eranos not only paid the expenses of its own business with 
 the members, attending to the procurement of situations 
 for members out of employment and to the burial and 
 other expenses, but also helped pay the costs of the con¬ 
 vivialities. 
 
 Thus, the self-evident fact that the eranoi and the thi¬ 
 asoi which were one and the same everywhere, being 
 made apparent, we come to the further proof of their ex¬ 
 istence in great numbers in Asia Minor, Palestine and 
 Syria. Liiders remarks that from the Hellenic peninsula 
 the organizations there planted, spread into the islands 
 and Asia Minor where their relics are found still more 
 numerous than in Greece. 41 Still it is well known that at 
 the Piraeus or seaport of Athens, at Eleusis and many 
 other places, including the Laurian silver mines in Attica 
 they must also have flourished in large numbers; although 
 their tendency to cultivate the principle of universal 
 brotherhood was frowned upon by the outside world. 
 
 We must introduce here the quite singular but perfectly 
 natural fact that wherever the unions were thoroughly 
 established and, so to speak, nested together, the Christian 
 church was sure to first plant itself. Thus Pergamus, the 
 •eat of the great uprising of workingmen under Aristoni- 
 
 » Vide B8ckb, Staatshaushalt , I. 762. Lobeck, Aglaoph, p. 306. 
 
 M Liiders. Dionysch. Kunstler, S. 7. 
 
 « Consult p. 455, chapter xxi. 
 
 « Dionysch. KUnst., S. 7. “ Beide Arten von eranos scheinen schon In seln 
 Wh er Zeit mit den thiasoten Vereinen vermisoht worden zu Bein. 
 
 Die Dionysichen Kitnstsr, S. 13 . 
 
PALESTINE. 
 
 cusinB. 0. 133-129, 44 became the mellow ground wherein 
 the early Christians planted and on which they reared 
 one of their most celebrated churches. The laboring 
 people were in trouble at the time of this uprising—one 
 of the bloodiest on record. They possessed organizations 
 throughout the country which they were enjoying in ap¬ 
 parent peace, when they were startled by that paltroon 
 act of Attains IV. deeding at his death, the whole king¬ 
 dom to the Romans. Fearing lest they be seized by the 
 hated Romans and reduced to slavery, they unanimously 
 joined the pretender. But there were inscriptions 
 showing that the Pergamenian working people were en¬ 
 joying a thrifty organization dating from high antiquity 
 down to the coming of the Messiah. 
 
 Cappadocia which did not fall into Roman hands until 
 A. D. 17, was also one of the early posts of the Christians. 
 The first epistle of St. Peter bears this name. Here too 
 the labor brotherhoods had a strong foothold. This is 
 rendered certain by the recent discovery of several of 
 their slabs and monuments bearing inscriptions. Laodi- 
 cia was also a stronghold of both the unions and the 
 early Christians. This place, together with Ephesus and 
 Hieropolis, is where were founded the seven Apocalyptic 
 churches. 44 The early church found mellow soil among 
 the brotherhoods of the eranoi and thiasoL 
 
 Apamea near Antioch, the birthplace of Eunus, insti¬ 
 gator of the greatest of all the slave uprisings, was also 
 the cradle of one of the early churches. 44 We have, in 
 our account of this great strike shown that Eunus and 
 his men seemed both to be deeply imbued with the every¬ 
 where present idea of the Messiah, who was to redeem the 
 w >rld, and also thoroughly acquainted with the methods 
 of secret organization. His knowledge of the auspices, 
 and plan of organization were really at the base of his suc¬ 
 cess, These things, added to inscriptions found in the 
 vicinity of labor unions of an antiquity coeval with this 
 great servile war, show very plainly why Christianity took 
 root so readily in those regions of Asia. 
 
 <2 See chap. x. p. 242. AHstonieus, giving a full sketch of the event. 
 
 « St. Paul, Collossiant, IV. 15, alludes to it where he asks that hie letter be 
 shown to the brethren in the church of Laodicia. 
 
 46 Revelations, i. II. John here also speaks of the church of Pergamus as 
 
 one of the seven. 
 
NAZARETH. 
 
 613 
 
 Rhodes was also one of the places where Christianity 
 established itself, although its successes there have been 
 sad. But of all spots in the world Rhodes seems to have 
 been one of the most prolific in those queer inscriptions 
 indicating a great labor organization in ancient times. 
 They existed in great numbers on this island. 43 The 
 abundance of these inscriptions found in Rhodes and at 
 Piraeus, have attracted much attention from the archaeolo¬ 
 gists of late. The fact is, the societies being mostly era- 
 noi or labor unions and enjoying in common brotherhood, 
 the scanty proceeds of their toil, had for many ages, pre¬ 
 pared the ground for the new plant; consequently it was 
 found mellow and in readiness for the greater Messiah 
 when at last he really arrived. 
 
 But one of the most interesting centers of the early 
 church was Apamea, the birthplace of Eunus, the great 
 slave-king of Sicily, Athenion, hero of the second Sicilian 
 strike-war, and Saint Paul the most famous of the apostles 
 of Jesus. This city, not far from Nazareth, was a hive of 
 free labor organizations until stricken by the Roman con¬ 
 quest. It gave birth to three of the most wonderful char¬ 
 acters of the history of the lowly and being warmed up 
 in the old cult of the communes, easily became the seat 
 of an early Christian church. 
 
 Another significant fact may here by mentioned that 
 Plato takes Socrates down to the Piraeus among the com¬ 
 munal fraternities of the working people where he and 
 his friends remained for days, as it were, in this socialis¬ 
 tic atmosphere. They there discussed and drew up the 
 whole of Plato’s most celebrated work—the Republic. 
 Socrates was himself a member and this may account for 
 Plato’s notion. 47 
 
 Summing up the mass, we find five great revolutionary 
 
 <6 See Ltidere, Die Dionysitcheu Ktinttlcr, 8. 87*42 and elsewhere. Foucart, 
 Let Astociaiiont Religieuses chet let Greet, chap. xii. “ Les associations religieusea 
 n’ Staient pas moins nombreuses qu’ an Pir6e.” They were worshipers of num* 
 erous deities. M. Wescher in 4he Revue Archiologtqne , 1864, tome II. p. 478, saya 
 he collected a list of 19 ineoripCons representing as many organizations in the 
 island of Rhodes. 
 
 47 Plato, Republic , 1.1, Socrates says: “Yesterday I went down to the Piraeus 
 along with Glaukon, Ariston’s son, to worship the divinity and attend the festi¬ 
 val.” This tutelary patroness was Artemis, sister to Apollo, central figure of the 
 sun-worship (see chapter on Red Banner ). She ranked with the group of labor 
 protectresses, Cybele, Ceres, Minerva, under whom so many organizations were 
 founded. 
 
514 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 characters, aside from kings, and men in absolute power, 
 like Lycurgus, Numa and Solon. These five men repre¬ 
 sent the labor of five active lives devoted to the improve¬ 
 ment of human conditions on a large scale. They are 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Spartacus and Jesus. 
 
 Socrates and Jesus, the first and the last, seem like an 
 incarnation of two great goodnesses in one. The analogy 
 from beginning to end is wonderful. Both were sons of 
 humble mechanics—one a marble-cutter, the other a car¬ 
 penter. Both were surrounded by communes of the se¬ 
 cret eranoi , and probably both were members. Both 
 prenclied quietly to their disciples, occasionally addressing 
 open-air mass meetings. Both were betrayed by the per¬ 
 fidy of their own pretended converts and suffered death 
 on the plea of corrupting the morals which the ethics of 
 the same Pagan faith had fostered and grown, out of the 
 hideous philosophy of human slavery. The result to the 
 human race, of these parallel lives and martyrdoms has 
 been altogether incalculable. 
 
 Plato, the admirer of Socrates, dared not follow his 
 master. 
 
 Aristotle, borrowing from Anaxagoras and Kapila, laid 
 the foundation of human improvement, with great pre¬ 
 cision, upon the scientific ground-work of mechanics. His 
 ideas, restored by Bacon, are those which the world is 
 now following. 
 
 Spartacus, the greatest representative of the purely iras¬ 
 cible, the most sublime character and type of the lower 
 philosophy of resistance, who careered on the ground of 
 “ an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,” last, and just 
 anterior to the great carpenter, was a shepherd, humble 
 and without ambitions, but because implicated with an 
 age of injustice wherein u opportunity makes the man,” 
 magnetized, split asunder, almost conquered the world, 
 which in his day was Rome. 
 
 Jesus, who before coming to proper age, is said to have 
 studied diligently, seems to have shaped his life-course 
 from the results of lessons gained by these predecessors. 
 He accepted the acceptable and sternly refused that which 
 bore no promise of contributing to the establishment of 
 a heaven on earth. He gained his great triumph over 
 slavery by adjusting the three moral impulses of Plato 
 
COMPARATIVE WORK OF GREAT MASTERS, 515 
 
 and the dialecticians—irascibility, concupiscence, sympa¬ 
 thy. He soothed the jarring bitterness of the first by 
 coaxing concupiscence from its ancient realm and bring¬ 
 ing it down to “want;” and married them together by 
 the tie of sympathy, the impulse most matured by the so¬ 
 cial unions; and there formed the stronghold of his doc¬ 
 trine from beginning to end. 
 
 Plato, the ancient mouth-piece of them all, as he is 
 resurrected in Neo-Platonism, after a test of 7,000 gener¬ 
 ations, must be placed, by those engaged in the labor 
 problem of to-day, as an extraordinary tissue of harmony 
 and absurdity. He wanted the better (or individual), to 
 overcome the multitude (or worse).* 6 
 
 The experience of these 7,000 generations since Plato, 
 forces the now living family of mankind to pronounce an 
 opposite opinion. It is the masses who are “ beautiful,” 
 (as Plato used that word); while the individual proves 
 himself constantly to be the lying, bribe-taking, merchant¬ 
 able “ sell-out ” and under-dealer; ready as a rule, under the 
 competitive system, for any trade, seditiously corrupt, 
 planning schemes of jobbery; and he has actually to be 
 watched by the honest masses. 
 
 Plato wanted slaves. His slave system, large already, 
 during his life-time was small compared with its huge¬ 
 ness after his philosophy was promulgated and its influ¬ 
 ence extended to the Roman conquests. Before his time, 
 slaves were the children of the citizens. Soon after him, 
 Rome in her enormous conquests, turned the vast popu¬ 
 lations of that age into rebellious slaves, and the world 
 became almost depopulated. This master not only wanted 
 degraded slaves, but he laid down laws for them, consign¬ 
 ing them to death by torture for unpremeditated homicide 
 ■while the master was allowed, if he murdered a slave, to 
 be tried by his friends, acquitted and no stigma inflicted 
 upon his name ; and Plato lays down a law to that effect. 49 
 
 The entire enlightenment of our modern age repudiates 
 
 <8 Laws, I. 8, 4, Bekker, Lond. ed. 
 
 « Laws, IX. 9, More on Plato’s views of Slavery will be found as follows: 
 Breeding mean with mean and best with best. Republic. V. 8, Great fear of slave 
 uprising in consequence of the system, acknowledged, IX. 5, Id .; “Abject 
 race;” Statesmen, 46 • Xecessary to possess slaves Laws, VI. 19; Agricultural 
 slaves, Laws, VII. 13; For homicide the slave must invariably die: preferably by 
 torture, Laws, IX. 9; Such punishment must be “clean,” ie, vengeance, Laws . 
 XI 2, 10, fin. 
 
616 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 this as unfairness, relegating the slave system to a realm 
 of low barbarity. On human slavery, the subsequent world 
 has emphatically pronounced against Plato’s views ; and 
 the little investigating mites of Aristotle, and the work¬ 
 ing elements of Jesus, are banishing it from the earth. 
 
 Plato wanted war. 60 He laid many plans and laws upon 
 his theory of external strife, wishing only education and 
 mutuality within. Neo-Platonism took it up, and in blas¬ 
 phemous contradiction to the teacher, endorsed it, and 
 actually engrafted this Pagan precept into the mild and 
 peaceful system of Jesus. 
 
 Things have not turned out to substantiate these coun¬ 
 sels of the great philosopher. Wars the people had; and 
 the wars killed a million slaves. Eunus, Athenion and 
 Spartacus resented by warring back; and when the world, 
 devastated by combined horrors of war and slavery, got 
 time to breathe and recruit, another slave-war struck man¬ 
 kind even in our civil rebellion, with the final result to fix 
 the conviction that the peace plan of Jesus was correct. 
 
 Plato wanted it understood and implicitly believed that 
 all things spring from the most high, the mythical and 
 invisible inhabitants of Ouranos; and that men derived 
 existence, and were watched over from those heights 
 in the vaulted dome of heaven, the Olympian abodes— 
 whence an endless chain of priestcraft. 
 
 Neo-Platonism engrafted these absurdities into a Chris¬ 
 tian dogma. 
 
 Modern common sense, backed by science, with its in¬ 
 numerable tools proving the true laws of nature, finds 
 the facts to be the exact reverse of the Platonic dogma, 
 and is wheeling us back to the physicism of Aristotle, that 
 it is the little things and the little men and women who 
 perform all works, who produce all that is produced; 
 that it is not the great, conjured to be so in the elastio 
 imagination, who accomplish anything, but the infinites- 
 simals that do it alL 
 
 60 Republic, vii. viil. Polemarch Is made to say that Justice consists in do¬ 
 ing good to friends and evil to enemies. Socrates however, in an ironical sally 
 of moral reasoning demolishes Polemarch’s logic, wheeling him unto the great 
 thesis of Jesus which now proves to be the idea that alone can prevail: See 
 Matthevj , v. 43,44, 24; John, xv. 17. First Epistle of John, ii. 10, 11. The 
 anti-war teachings of Jesus are actively forcing these horrors from the earth 
 just as chattel slavery has been forced out of existence and wages slavery is fast 
 following. 
 
SYMPATHY ; IRASCIBILITY , OONCUPISENCE. 517 
 
 Jesus, if we read him rightly, appears to have been less 
 a Platonist than an Aristotelian and when he comes to be 
 preached in our pulpits from labor points of view, there 
 will be found hundreds of texts whose meanings, long 
 smothered, will furnish substance enough to solve the 
 problem. 61 
 
 Emancipation came from Christianity. 63 The great 
 principle of mutual love among all men was the really 
 original idea and practical work of Jesus. He taught a 
 new doctrine—a peaceful plan of salvation. 
 
 Spartacus, who represented the old method of allevia¬ 
 tion from suffering, based upon the irascible principle 
 with its wars and bloodshed, was, beyond all cavil, the 
 highest type of that culture. He was evidently informed 
 on the great wars of Viriathus, Eunus, Athenion and per¬ 
 haps Drimakos. But in both opportunity and military 
 aptitude Spartacus surpassed them all. He lost. But 
 after the million crucifixions of his own and a few gener¬ 
 ations preceding him, and the enormous lessons which his 
 own and his predecessors’ blows had administered to 
 cruel, concupiscent Itome, who shall have the temerity to 
 say that these blows, crucifixions, bloody scenes and awful 
 lessons did not go far, very far, toward shaping the convic¬ 
 tions of Jesus, who but continued the great conflict with 
 his milder leadership % 
 
 Modern progress, which has almost outgrown chattel 
 slavery, still seems quite undecided in regard to the plan 
 of Spartacus; and might even yet swing back upon it, were 
 it not for the stern, inexorable hold which Jesus main¬ 
 tains in the w T reck of his tortured, priest-ridden temples 
 —and this hold is the hope of the future; for his plan ap¬ 
 plies with wonderful harmony to the investigations and 
 experiments of Aristotle. 
 
 Plato wanted the unequivocal mingling of religion and 
 politics. 68 
 
 There are many expressions recorded in the New Testament which are vague 
 In meaning and must remain so until better understood. After this they u ay 
 be used by ministers of the gospei, in the labor movement. 
 
 6 - Compare Canon Lightfoot, On the Collossians, p. 3zl ; Bockh, Die Laurischen 
 Silberbergwerke Hundreds of the most candid authors acknowledge that it was 
 the Christian cult which finally fought down this terrible institution. In going, 
 paganism had also to go. But as we study the origin and course of events v/o 
 ninst acknowledge that the blow against slavery had been struck before the ad¬ 
 vent of Christ. lie it was, who killed slavery by tempering the spirit of human 
 kinuness. 
 
513 
 
 PALESTINE. 
 
 Modern statesmen, notwithstanding the almost desper¬ 
 ate struggles of priest-power to hold firm this Pagan grip, 
 are now steadily disestablishing state and church; and 
 the verdict of enlightenment both in the realm of science 
 and sociology, is to cast overboard, as worthless and per¬ 
 nicious, this old idea of Plato and let religion and politics 
 each take their course alone. Jesus not only separated 
 church from state by admonishing the typical money¬ 
 changers, but he said: “Render unto Caesar” etc. The 
 Caesar here referred to, was the mild Augustus, whose 
 reign was, in political respects, a model, and a glory to 
 Rome. 
 
 Plato wanted an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. M 
 He encouraged hatreds even in his “ city of the Blessed,” 
 and trained an army of both women and men to the science 
 of fierce contention. 
 
 “ Resist not evil,” the law of the mechanic of Nazareth, 
 has so far supplanted these savage docirines, that already 
 the trade unions and other social and labor organizations 
 in many countries, are discussing and planning to resist 
 against men of Plato’s class, on grounds that they them¬ 
 selves are forced to become innocent victims of a hateful 
 idea which pits them, like Spartaeus and the gladiators, 
 against their fellow men, who have given them no cause 
 for oftense. 
 
 Yet all things considered, the world cannot afford to 
 belittle Plato, the father of idealism; even though many 
 oi his time-serving thoughts are passing away. His mind 
 was too great for his age and his weaknesses were but 
 subterfuges which saved him to a good old age while 
 bolder men were martyred in comparative youth. 
 
 But Aristotle who began with microscopic things, whose 
 mind, a consension of Kapila, of Anaxagoras, of Empedo- 
 eic3, of Parmenides, of Zeno, of Plato himself, is, as the 
 world grows old and wise, and as light gleams in upon 
 intelligence, beaming more brilliantly with each decade; 
 and this great man’s thoughts are laying bare the in- 
 crusted truth and leading to the final, perfected philoso¬ 
 phy. Aristotle’s is the mind which draws ever nearer as 
 
 bi Laws, book VI. cap. 7, Bekk. It was always so in the ancient code. Neo- 
 Platonism and the Nicinc Decrees afterward succeeded in getting this old Pagan 
 thing back into ike Christian cnurch where it still remains, in some countries. 
 
 i>* Plato, Jusliss, 5 ; Republic , passim ; Laws, in many places. 
 
THE GREAT ARISTOTLE 
 
 519 
 
 the ages waft him farther away among the satellites of an 
 awful forever. 
 
 Jesus, who planted among the communes and laborers 
 all that was good and pure, but whose beautiful works 
 have been almost banished by the proud old paganism 
 still adhering in his temples, departed only to return; for 
 these growing squadrons of the modern mites foretell that 
 he is deeting back to assume command of a great army 
 of unreconciled but longing intelligences, which the an¬ 
 cient working people quickened, and which the suns of two 
 thousand years have mellowed for the harvest. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE FINAL REVIEW. 
 
 ANCIENT PLANS OP “BLESSED” GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Why the Facts were Suppressed and the Books Mangled—Did 
 our Era rise out of the Great Labor Struggles—An Aston¬ 
 ishing Probability Unmasked—Plants and Plans of the Dis¬ 
 tant Past—Lycurgus—Reverential Criticism—His Funda¬ 
 mental Error—The Citizens were the Nobles—Public Lands, 
 Meals, Schools and Games—The Grotto of Taygetus—“Hell 
 Paved with Infants’ Bones”—A Model Young Gentleman— 
 His Introduction to the Ladies—An Earthquake believed to 
 have been the Spartans * Punishment for Cruelty to the 
 Working People—The Poor and Lowly were called “Slave 
 Souls’* — The Great Aristotle’s Curse—Lucian’s Choice of a 
 Trade—Even Plutarch Lampoons Them—Kings Planting 
 Poisons with which to Destroy Them—Prophets and Mes¬ 
 siahs—Eunus the Prophet of Antioch—His Plan of Salvation 
 —No Quarters—Wholesale Extinction of the Wealthy—What 
 Succeeding Ages Learned from the Outcome of this Ordeal 
 of Carnage—Plans of the Anarchists Taught Needful Lessons 
 on Future Political Economy—Drimakos—His Home of Run¬ 
 away Angels in the Skies—How his Plan Worked—Desper¬ 
 ate Plan of Aristonicus in Asia Minor which offers the Toilers 
 the Beatitude of being il Citizens of the Sun ’*—Sad Outcome 
 —Innocent Plan of Spartacus—His Ideal * * Salvation” was 
 his Emancipation Proclamation and Armed Power to Enforce 
 It—He Wanted to Go Home to the Green Hills of His Boy¬ 
 hood—All these Plan-Makers were Messiahs and Prophets — 
 “The Kings Kill the Prophets ”—The Great Messiah at Last 
 —Long-Smothered Authors Dragged forth—Their own Ut¬ 
 terances Quoted in the Living Tongue— Numerous Excerpts 
 from their Books—Men Growing Wise in Their Understand¬ 
 ing—The Vastness of the Revolution from the Pagan Cult 
 which Denied the Majority Both Soul and Liberty, threw the 
 Race into Bewilderment of Two Thousand Years of Trial 
 
WHY THE FA CIS WERE SUPPRESSED. 521 
 
 and Donbt—Plans of the Founders of Government Reviewed 
 —Resemblance of Socrates and Jesus—Paralellisms Drawn 
 —One Agitates by Simile the other, Allegory—Proof that 
 they were Both Great Orators—Their Eloquence—Teaching 
 Precepts that are just Becoming Applicable—The Intellect¬ 
 ual Stagnation in after Ages a Natural Consequence upon a 
 Revolution that Overturned the Great Pagan Cult—The Mo¬ 
 hammedan Rescue—London’s Socialism from Same Old Plant 
 —What two Men Did in Twenty-five Centuries—Pagan Self¬ 
 ishness Exhibited in Prayers—Very Ancient Prayers of Our 
 Germano-Aryan Mothers and Fathers—Specimens Quoted— 
 Prayer of Alcestis—Of Other honest Pagans—All Based upon 
 Self and Family-j-Prayer of Socrates to Pan for More Wisdom 
 and Humility—Prayer of Juvenal for the Poor Slave’s De¬ 
 liverance—Finally, after many Centuries, the Dying Prayer 
 Begged the Pan of Socrates or Universal Father for Universal 
 Cancellation, to fit the World for a New Era—The Relation 
 of the Jews to the Labor Movement—The Romans, Mad at 
 the Spread of the Christian Doctrines of Universal Equality, 
 Take Vengeance in the Slaughter of the Jews—Progress of 
 Ancient Invention—The Labor-saving Reaper—Conclusion. 
 
 In looking thoughtfully over the evidences given in 
 the preceding chapters, especially those detailing ancient 
 plans of relief, through the irascible or war spirit which, 
 though it wrought prodigious good, did not prevail, and 
 those of the communal or co-sympathetic spirit which is 
 the successful one, we cannot forbear an expression of our 
 conviction that the phenomenal movement of which Judea 
 afterwards became the theatre, rested upon and emerged 
 from, the vast and altogether misunderstood and under¬ 
 rated communes; an underground civilization whose cul¬ 
 ture Socrates was not a stranger to, and whose influence, 
 social, numerical and moral, has, until exposed in these 
 pages, lain almost utterly unknown, buried as they were, 
 amid the horrors which befel Christianity through the 
 political trade of Constantine the Great. This man suc¬ 
 ceeded in turning the movement when it was three hun¬ 
 dred years old into a Pagan faith hedged about with iron- 
 bound creeds and enforced by the inexorable despotism 
 which characterized the military and the priest-power of 
 the ancient Pagan rule. 
 
 It will be asked why these important facts we have set 
 forth have been so persistently kept concealed. The an¬ 
 swer to this must be, that information was not the policy 
 
522 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 of priest-power. To acknowledge that the poor and hu¬ 
 miliated laborers of the world had, through centuries of 
 organization in secret, and centuries of resistance and 
 persecution, at last overcome the proud old religion so 
 far as to boldly martial a champion and bring their unique 
 culture of human equality into recognition, so as to build 
 up a new era, would destroy the aged prestige of the priest¬ 
 hood. This is the only theory furnishing a solution for 
 the studied deception that has mutilated the books. Plato 
 wanted distinction as to members of his communal state. 
 He wanted prie st-power aiid its concomitant, slavery. As 
 the new era came with its practical putting into effect of 
 the socialism of Plato, but applying it to everybody with - 
 out distinction, thus emancipating Plato’s slaves, 1 .ifting up 
 the freedmen and doing good to all , paganism was stabbed. 
 Its aged priest-power then arose and, in revenge, killed 
 Jesus, the last Messiah who in the philosophy and tra¬ 
 dition of the poor and suffering, had been their hope and 
 promise from immemorial antiquity. Having kmed him 
 it set to work to destroy his plan which he planted among 
 the communes, “ the vineyard of the Lord.” The weap¬ 
 ons used were assassination, dungeons, worse slavery 
 than before—Neo-Platonism. But the great work of eman¬ 
 cipation had made too much progress to be cut sh ort by 
 any power on earth. 
 
 We ask our readers to indulge us in this closing chap¬ 
 ter, in a general review of the whole scene, covering the 
 the various plans of great men, their trial and their con¬ 
 sequences upon the subsequent human race. 
 
 1 See Dr. Lightfoot, Saint Pauls Epistle to Philemon , pp. 821-2; “With this 
 wide-spread institution” ( meaning slavery,) “ Christianity found itself in con¬ 
 flict. How was the evil to be met? Slavery was interwoven into the texture 
 of society; and to prohibit slavery was to tear society into shreds. Nothing 
 less than a servile war with its certain horroi's and doubtful issues must have 
 been the consequence. Such a mode of operations was altogether alien to the 
 spirit ol the Gospel. ‘ The New Testament,’ it has been truly said, ‘ is not con¬ 
 cerned with any political or social institutions; for political and social institu¬ 
 tions belong to particular nations and particular phases of society.’ ‘Nothing 
 marks the divine character of the Gospel more than its periect freedom from 
 any appeal to the spirit of political revolution.’ It belci'gs to all time; and 
 therefore instead of attacking special abuses it lays down universal principles 
 which shall undermine the evil. 
 
 “ Hence the Gospel never directly attacks slavery as an institution. In 
 
 fact, he (Paul) tells him to do very much more than emancipate his slave Sim¬ 
 ilar also is his language elsewhere. Wx'iting to the Corinthiatir, he declares the 
 absolute equality of (he freeman and the alave in the sight of God. Firs 
 Corinthians, vii. 21. 
 
DID 0 UR ERA RISE 0 UT OF LABOR STR UQ GLES ? 523 
 
 Under a careful and thorough investigation of the evi¬ 
 dence it will henceforth be found in order for students 
 of sociology to place the origin of this wonderful era in 
 which we are living, where it properly belongs. It is in 
 order to come forth boldly with a new advocacy; an ad- 
 vocacy of the fact that the Christianity on which the pres¬ 
 ent institutions rest and which, as we divest it of its me- 
 diieval excrescences century by century, is leading to the 
 final and correct solution of the economic problem, is pri- 
 mevally that which emerged from the great, but little- 
 known because throttled and unheard-of labor movements 
 of the ancients—their numberless Messiahs, their perse¬ 
 cutions and crucifixions, their plaintive “still small voice” 
 groaning above the grime and din of lash-driven labor 
 in sun and storm, in mines, dungeons, gladiatorial havoc, 
 their sad but bravely-fought “eye-for-eye and tooth-for- 
 tooth” policy, and finally their majestic, long-suffering, 
 but all-conquering “fattier forgive them” policy wrought 
 in the crucible of a thousand traditions, communes, blood¬ 
 wringing rebellions, derascinating cyclones of retributive 
 vengeance already explained, which had been previously 
 experienced by the forefathers of this great era-making 
 representative of the ancient lowly. 
 
 To those who are appalled by these sentiments, prefer¬ 
 ring to coax with a superstitious faith still lingering on 
 the background of a struggling, on-coming fact-period, 
 and still, like Arnobius, troubled with doubts and predi¬ 
 lections regarding the sacredness of the conception and 
 birth of this great founder, we must simply say that the 
 labor movement, especially that phase of it dealing with 
 the economic questions of the humble majorities, is, and 
 must come to be regarded , as the most sacred of all questions; 
 and iis solution or non-solution involves a release of man¬ 
 kind from sin, or their compulsory and perpetual sub¬ 
 mergence under sin. The enormous sin of our era is its 
 apostasy from the early economic plan laid down at its 
 beginning and for three hundred and fourteen years ear¬ 
 ned out under persecutions, on the economic basis; and 
 its wdbstitution under emperors and prelate-politicians, 
 by the very most unscientific plan conceivable—that of 
 the ancient faith, which deceived and dfegr&fod the chat- 
 to* cjud wretch of old, end still deceives and degrades, the 
 
PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 victims of wage-vassalage the world over. This sin ruled* 
 raged and devastated for over a thousand years through 
 ignorance and dogma and cheat and inquisition, such as 
 characterize the dreary annals of the dark ages and now 
 looms up portentously in view; for we behold million! of 
 men again organized, more determined, wiser by their 
 experience, better equipped for the fray. And this huge 
 sin, of apostasy we hope, will be discerned by the student 
 of these pages to be freighted with a virus the more ma¬ 
 lignant as he observes that preacher and priest are still 
 tenaciously hugging the slave-locked policy of Plato the 
 immortal aristocrat, while backsliding farther and farther 
 away from the sweet and loving brotherhood of the thi - 
 asotes and the eranoi of Socrates and of Jesus. They 
 still cling to an old policy which was the meanest upon the 
 Pagan schedule—that of the competitive system, with 
 its economic slaves. Although in another form and bias- 
 phemously under another name it was a return to pagan¬ 
 ism, yet we shall attempt to show in this review that the 
 apostasy from the original policy could never succeed in 
 eliminating the bold ground-principles of equality which 
 was ever the prodigious, the immovable, blood-bought 
 rock-reef, on which those drifting stragglers founded and 
 built this era. Despite the protracted spasms of the mor¬ 
 ibund beast 2 to wriggle back into its breathing element, 
 these ground principles clung; they still cling; are now 
 steadily developing a polity and men are, in some places, 
 beginning to reap their fruits. 
 
 It must by no means be inferred, because the rebellions 
 of the ancient working people failed in establishing the 
 desired end that they were not a useful factor or that their 
 efforts were lost. They failed because their military force 
 was less than that of their enemies. They succeeded be¬ 
 cause through their defeat, furnishing necessary and in¬ 
 dispensable experience, the world was taught that it must 
 adopt another method—that of reason, diplomacy, arbi¬ 
 tration, peace. Never was there a time when the world 
 was drifting into these so rapidly as now. Two thousand 
 Nears may seem a long time to impatient, fleeting man; 
 but in the destinies of peoples and of nations, their slow 
 
 • * iiewlotions X Vll., 4, S(jq. 
 
REVERENTIAL CRITICISM. 
 
 52 . f > 
 
 development through creeping differentiation by trial 
 and experiment,it is but a scroll. 
 
 The review, then, which we propose to make in this chap¬ 
 ter, is that of man in the broadest sense; covering the entire 
 stretch, from a time when he was but an animal—the weaker 
 driven by the stronger—through the long period of family - 
 breeding when the father, destitute of sympathy, enslaved, 
 often killed his children in building up the established gens 
 aristocracy of paganism; the rebellion of the children who 
 multiplied, struck back, and built up counter organizations 
 in self-defense, fought and resisted the paternal injustice 
 based in the monarchical idea, and in their turn, after count¬ 
 less ages of trial by systems rebellious, systems patriarchal, 
 systems predatory and systems communal, finally hit the 
 system of inter-communal love, forgiveness, brotherhood, 
 peace and ballot-democracy, which, though it has had an 
 open trial of only 2,000 years—a short period compared 
 with the duration of the others—has already brought him 
 out upon the plane of acknosvledged equality, in the sup¬ 
 planting of violence by arbitration, of aristocracy dy dem¬ 
 ocracy, of competition to some extent, by socialism. We shall 
 show that all of these blessings were sought by the great 
 and good men: Lycurgus, Numa, Solon, Socrates, Plato, 
 Aristotle—even the contemned Eunus, Athenion, Sparta- 
 cus—and finally Jesus, who is yet on trial. If we severely 
 criticize Lycurgus, let it be done under an almost reveren¬ 
 tial respect; for he could not conceive of a state without 
 slaves; if Plato, be it uppermost in our minds that he was 
 unimpeachably pure; if we dare to reflect against Aristotle, 
 let it be with homage, as if approaching the sepulchre of the 
 mighty ; for this great founder of technical science is the 
 model from which the world still builds, and he even dared 
 foretell a society in which there might be no slavery. Had 
 these lawgivers been perfect their works would have been 
 cut off by the same martyrdom that was suffered by the 
 bolder Socrates and Jesus. 
 
 In making this review it is neither possible nur necessary 
 to attempt any chronological system This has been done 
 Strictly in the preceding chapters. We promise only a crit¬ 
 ical comparison of different systems and hope to deal fairly 
 with all, gi v:iig the ooirirs, S&ynaga, prayers, struggles and 
 models of each one, as hid particular plan; and we likewise 
 
PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 626 
 
 may find it to our profit to compare these with the plans 
 and the men and their movements and demands of to-day, 
 in order to amplify the comparison and honestly find out 
 which of the ancient methods the modern age is follow¬ 
 ing. One extremely important fact must be held upper¬ 
 most to view: the leaders who form the subjects of these 
 pages had each a very clearly defined plan. Even Sparta- 
 cus was not without hope of emancipating the slaves of 
 Italy and the rest of the world. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary, after our elaborate presentation 
 of the history of the lowly and their ancient works, to pre¬ 
 mise in this review, that the whole array of deeds and plans 
 of relief shows an undeniable harmony with, and corrobora¬ 
 tion of the modern theory of development upon the largest 
 scale, and from a cold and secular, rather than an imagin¬ 
 ative and religious or superstitious point of view. 
 
 Our history, true to its original scheme, covers only the 
 great Aryan family and we shall let the Bible, the Zend and 
 other Oriental records tell of its cruelties among the Sem¬ 
 itic and other branches, referring to them only as collateral 
 evidence. 
 
 Although many plans of law-making were tried during the 
 great era covered by manumission, yet we have no history 
 until we come to Lycurgus, and must consequently devote 
 our first remarks to him and his wonderful and on the whole 
 beneficent work. 
 
 Of the three classes of citizens in the sy&tem of Lycurgus 
 the first was the governing, the second the police or mili¬ 
 tary, and the third the burgher or business class 8 —that which 
 Saint Simon denominates the bourgeosie. The mechanics 
 and farmers were considered mean and unworthy. To the 
 agricultural laborers, was given the task of producing, at 
 what is now considered “starvation wages,” that w 7 hich 
 the citizens used for their daily nourishment and comfort; 
 yet so ungrateful were the arrangements deliberately estab¬ 
 lished by this lawgiver, that to be a good farmer, a skilled 
 mechanic, an inventor, a discoverer of the new in nature, 
 v r as to be a most degraded and abject mortal, denied all citi¬ 
 zenship and hopelessly doomed by “imperishable laws.”* 
 
 No humane person of our age can peruse these accounts 
 given by Zenophon, Plutarch and others, without feelings 
 
 •Plutarch, Lycurffut,!, 17. * Idem, passim. 
 
THE MISTAKE OF LYCURGUS. 
 
 52? 
 
 of sorrow if not of anger. The progress and purity of hu¬ 
 man society may safely he said to have suffered a disaste? 
 in this inhuman feature of the otherwise generous Lycurgait 
 law. It was self-defeating, contradictory and inconsistent 
 with the principle intended by the lawgiver himself. Ly- 
 curgus the most ancient of the three great lawgivers of an¬ 
 tiquity belonging to the Aryan stock, seeing the feuds and 
 other inter-destructive effects of the competitive system at 
 his time raging with great fierceness among the gens fami¬ 
 lies, drew up a system of laws and got them adopted so as 
 to go into practical operation. It was a system embracing 
 the revolution from the competitive to the socialistic meth¬ 
 ods. It was based in the idea so quaintly and wonderfully 
 developed nearly a thousand years afterwards hy another 
 inspired lawgiver—the workingman of Nazareth. Its very 
 fundament was social love, forgiveness, tolerance, instruc¬ 
 tion. Lycurgus was attacked by the optimate party who 
 rebelled against his equal distribution of nationalized lands, 
 his nationalization of other property, his common table, his 
 compulsory education of all alike, his athletic trainings, in 
 fine, his extinction of property and of the competitive sys¬ 
 tem so far as all internal policy of his people was concerned. 
 One young man once pursued him and with a missile tore 
 out one of his eyes. He turned about and faced his irate 
 pursuer with the eye that had offended plucked out, and his 
 face bleeding with the wound. The argument was eloquent 
 and effective. The maddened mob of rich men were over¬ 
 come and Lycurgus was allowed to go on with his work, 
 unmolested. 6 His system of socialism was more detailed 
 than has ever since been aspired to by any class except an 
 occasional small community; for he added thereto a com¬ 
 munity of men and women which instead of being a com¬ 
 plex method was a system of compulsory marriage, with a 
 law permitting the finest and most beautiful to borrow and 
 mutually inter-employ each other in cases of likings or of 
 compatibility. 6 This was the Lycurgan law of mutual acqui¬ 
 escence, and it obtained to an enormous extent for over a 
 thousand years and was made a strong and scathing point 
 in favor of Christianity by Tertullian in defending the early 
 Christians from attacks of the intolerant Pagans.* Tertul- 
 
 * Plutarch, Lycurgus. 
 
 6 Idem, Lycurgus and Numa compared. 
 
528 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS, 
 
 lian in this celebrate*! apology gives us invaluable proofs 
 of the purity of the Christians, and shows that they had 
 repudiated it. 1 
 
 But these strange features were well intended by the 
 great lawgiver. It was not to promote voluptuousness but 
 to cultivate a principle—and scientifically enough—of human 
 stock-breeding. At any rate, it was a feature greatly 
 recommended among the ancients, and it lay at the base 
 of the celebrated race-culture which made Spartans the 
 most splendid men so far as stature,, health and beauty 
 are concerned, the world ever produced, and gave to the 
 nation that mental and physical vigor which enabled it 
 to overcome the mighty prowess of the Athenians and to 
 finally transplant a branch of these curious features into 
 the whole Hellenic peninsula, Phoenicia, Asia Minor and 
 Sicily. The openly established object of this branch of 
 the law Plutarch declares to have been the ownership of 
 children by the state—not by the parents 8 —which is a 
 step much in advance of anything ever advocated by any 
 purely labor movement of modern days. But these en¬ 
 joyments and privileges were only to be participated in 
 by the citizens, the state police or military element and 
 the burghers. The strictly working people were left out. 
 
 How Lycurgus, capable of coollv devoting a life-time, 
 mostly in privations and hardships and without reward, 
 to what he considered the redemption of the human race, 
 could at the same time institute for those on whom he 
 knowingly depended for his bread and every other ele¬ 
 ment of existence as well as that of the people for whose 
 happiness he lived, and consign the working people to 
 the terrible fate left them by that law, is a problem that 
 must startle puzzle-guessers amomg students of modern 
 sociology. Only one method can possibly be pursued to 
 unravel this mystery - -the utterly demoralized and false 
 estimate of the value of labor. 
 
 In this saddest feature of the law of Lycurgus we are 
 brought back to our account of the Helots or slaves, in 
 another chapter, 9 where figures the story of the assas¬ 
 sination by a trained band of young Spartans, of 2,000 
 innocent prize winners of the Helot or laboring stock. It 
 
 i Tertullian, Apology, XXXIX. • Plutarch, Lycurgus, 
 
 * Chapter lv., page 109 aq.; also pp. 97—102, of this work. 
 
HIS CITIZENS WERE THE NOBLES . 
 
 629 
 
 is not maintained that Lycurgus was the originator of 
 the slave system. We find it spoken of in the hooks of 
 Homer which are thought to cover a period commencing 
 at least 300 years earlier; and we are entirely satisfied of 
 the correctness of Granier’s declaration that slavery ex¬ 
 isted even many thousand years previously to Homer. 10 
 Lycurgus only perpetuated the miseries of the working 
 majority by fastening the odium already existing, upon 
 slaves and legalizing their burdens. 
 
 No citizen, under Lycurgus, could be a laboring man 
 so far as to personally perform the work of production or 
 of distribution. By his “free citizen” he did not mean 
 any person who was obliged to work for a living. To he 
 a soldier was respectable. But the soldier produces noth¬ 
 ing. He destroys. So also does the governing class. These 
 the Spartan lawgiver made very numerous. The modern 
 movement of labor all over civilization is struggling to 
 diminish their numbers, not to increase them. Lycurgus 
 also, among his favored class, allowed many of the trad¬ 
 ing or business men; although practically, if his commun¬ 
 istic theory obtained, they could not have prospered be¬ 
 cause the state operated the evolutions of business with 
 the labor of its slaves which was conducted or managed 
 by the governing class. Nobody really owned anything 
 in his theory, if perfected. All citizens were, however, 
 rich in their “collective” wealth. 
 
 Coming to Lycurgus as a factor in the history of labor, 
 we find his arrangement regarding working people to 
 have been barbarous and horrible. The latter constituted 
 two-thirds of the entire population. Yet so mean were 
 they supposed to be that they could not be legally counted 
 in the census as men, or in other words, human beings. 
 The true population of the city of Sparta consisted of 
 citizens. They were divided into three classes: the rul¬ 
 ing class, the military or protecting class, and the busi¬ 
 ness men. The nhole three covered one-third of the ex¬ 
 isting population. All *he others were working people, 
 who, as slaves or artisan freedmen, were obliged to live 
 in an abject condition, feeding on the poorest food; 11 go- 
 
 1# Granier de Cassagnac, “Histoire des Classes Ouvridres,” Chap. iii. 
 
 11 For food of slaves, see Homer, “Odyssey,” XIX., v., 414-416; Horace, “Ars 
 Poetica” (“Ad Pisonem”), V., 249; Pliny, “Natural History,” XVIII., XXIX, 
 In addition to these consult “Index” of this volume. 
 
130 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 ing almost, often quite, naked; living in caves, the mean¬ 
 est of huts, or in the open air, sometimes at the verge of 
 starvation; if slaves, whipped every day to be reminded 
 of their cringing humility; horribly brutalized with clubs 
 whenever they dared stretch themselves at full height, 
 lest they be taken to ape the human stature and the atti¬ 
 tudes of manhood; 1 * chained to the side of mules and 
 oxen to draw loads like beasts of burden; waylaid by the 
 trained assassins of state, equipped with daggers, and 
 murdered for mere wanton sport, on a pretext that they 
 were dangerous; 1 * forced to work fourteen to eighth n 
 hours preparing food and clothing for the citizen/ ; o 
 expressed their gratitude by kicks and terms of h 
 and contempt—such was the practical effect of th* 
 brated and of all others, most renowned law of Lycurg-.- 
 Such, through numberless ages have been the sufferings 
 from that cruel competition that is based upon ownership 
 by a privileged few. 
 
 The legislation of Lycurgus upon which Plato, making 
 Socrates responsible, principally formed his ideal state, 
 may be summed up about as follows: The whole king¬ 
 dom was divided into 39,000 lots for the optimates, who 
 were the heaven-born or the divine class, related to the 
 gods*—nothing for the earth-born class who possessed 
 neither family nor soul. A branch of education given the 
 young gentlemen was the teaching them how to murder 
 the earth-born or working people, with daggers, as we 
 have already related, by slyly crawling upon them while 
 they were at work.” Another branch was that of the 
 gymnastic games, shared by both sexes and according to 
 Plutarch, in a dirty and utterly nude condition, together; 
 with an object, as that great biographer declares, of toning 
 and moralizing the passions. The optimates were never 
 allowed to work except in the aristocratic pursuit of war. 
 Commerce with other nations was disallowed. No money 
 
 1S Plutarch, “Lycurgus;” Granier, “Hist.,” Chap. v. 
 
 11 Thucydides, “De Bello Peloponnesiaco,” IV., 80; V., 84. 
 
 14 For the ancient idea of divine rights, see “Roman Law,” 4n the “En¬ 
 cyclopaedia Britannica,” Vol. XX., pp. 688-692. It was the same in Greece. 
 
 15 Consult Drumann, “Arbeiter und Communisten in Griechenland und 
 Rom,” S. 130-134. Whatever may have been Plato's own notions, his partial¬ 
 ity to the plan of Lycurgus, which Dr. Drumann, author of the great history 
 of Rome, admits, It is certain that he could not accept that lawgiver’s plan 
 as perfect. Ob the contrary he is believed by this author and many otherf 
 to have borrowed considerably from the Pythagorean brotherhoods. 
 
PUBLIC LANDS, MEALS , SCHOOLS AND GAMES . 581 
 
 was permitted except that made of iron—a hundred and 
 fifty dollars’ worth of it being a cart-load. The people 
 of citizen blood ate at the common table, waited upon by 
 slaves. What became of it? 
 
 Sparta, in B. C. about 600, had 39,000 parcels or small 
 holdings for all in the kingdom. In B. C. 360 there were 
 only 2,000. In B. C. 290 the outside speculators and land 
 grabbers had all but 1,000. At the time of Agis IV., B. C. 
 240, there were only 700 or really, but 100—as the hold¬ 
 ings of 600 were annihilated by debts—and this great 
 scheme of political economy of Lycurgus was gone. 18 
 
 The historian, to flatter the vain theory of divine right 
 is loud in bringing Lycurgus to us, as having descended 
 from the gods to mortals, not only as a link in the royal 
 lineage under Eurysteneid stock, but even as a distant 
 relative of Hercules. Thus the Pagan religion is sub¬ 
 stantially pandered to and the monocratic idea estab¬ 
 lished. A prince of almost unlimited powers by family 
 prestige, he in youth became regent by inheritance, of the 
 Spartans. But he was both a wise and good prince; and 
 considering the age, much is to be overlooked. When the 
 true heir was born Lycurgus named him Charilaus, and 
 although he had an offer to take the crown himself he 
 refused, preferring to be an adviser. Thus one of the 
 first acts of Lycurgus was to establish a kingdom, after 
 having himself reigned eight months. His next great 
 edict created a powerful senate or council of the old and 
 wise—a body seldom elected even to this day; and a re¬ 
 cent expression to abolish them has gained popularity 
 among labor organizations. 17 
 
 These senators, twenty-eight in number, some repre¬ 
 senting the Spartans or Dorians, some the Laconians or 
 Perioeci, formed another class and another institution, 
 soon causing concomitant class enmities that fanned the 
 final ruin. The senatorial government proved a failure. 
 Afterwards they had to create the Ephori. 18 These ty¬ 
 rants were five in number and their function was to keep 
 
 18 Drumann, “Arbeiter und Communisten in Griechenland und Rom,” 6 . 
 130-184; Bflcher, “AnfstSnde der unfreien Arbeiter,” S. 8fl; Plutarch, “Ly¬ 
 curgus. 
 
 17 The senate is thus seen to be an aged institution. Being seldom of the 
 plebeian stock it has earned a bad record, as against itself; and is conse¬ 
 quently still regarded by that element with distrust. 
 
 18 Xenophon, “De Republics Lacedamonia,” say® Lycurgus himself created 
 the ephon. 
 
PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 peace between the two kings and twenty-eight senators. 
 Thus Lycurgus fastened upon the Peloponnesus the two 
 kings, twenty-eight senators, five peace-makers, but gave 
 them no house of commons—three institutions. 
 
 His fourth celebrated measure was the apportionment 
 of the 39,000 lots. ‘The size of each lot was sufficiently 
 large to yield eighty-two bushels of wheat as a yearly av¬ 
 erage, besides other produce sufficient for the families. 
 
 A fifth measure struck at common ownership of all mov¬ 
 able goods and chattels. To do this it was found neces¬ 
 sary to institute the famous iron money. It was wrought 
 in the blacksmith’s forge and stamped in the government 
 dies. The result was, nobody would steal such a huge 
 and ponderous thing. Foreign countries could not trade 
 and commerce stopped. An ox cart-load of the Spartan 
 money was equal only to a few dollars. The gewgaws of 
 fashion were self-banished, luxury ceased and primitive 
 simplicity revived. These innovations could obtain, so 
 long as the overawing magnetism and command of Lycur¬ 
 gus was there to persuade by bland patriarchal smiles or 
 austere commands, prevailing through suavity, intimida¬ 
 tion and reverence. But before the majestic tread of hu¬ 
 man enlightenment already in Athens and knocking at 
 the very portals of these haughty Spartans themselves, 
 such simplicity was, in the terms of the shrewd Aristotle, 
 simply “childish.” It was ridiculous from within and with¬ 
 out. It flourished for a time and perished, leaving a stigma 
 which time has failed to efface and a denunciation so pro¬ 
 found as to have forever prevented its resuscitation. 
 
 The sixth institution of Lycurgus was his public tables. 
 It presents a sweet and touching reminiscence to us, still 
 struggling in the awful vortex of competing interests. It 
 seems indeed beautiful to look back and see our ancient 
 fathers and mothers of whom we may feel justly proud, 
 sitting on their rough stools around a great oaken or deal 
 table loaded with good things from a common oven, every 
 slice of the hot, steaming cutlets of veal or mutton and 
 every savory morsel, recognized as the public property. 
 The citizens were public property; the houses, tables and 
 stools, tho public property. 
 
 But who are those nude, suffering, half-starved, crouch- 
 
HELL PA VED WITH INFANTS' BONES . 
 
 63S 
 
 ing forms noiselessly gliding to and fro, bringing these 
 delicious fruits of labor to the happy partakers? They 
 are the waiters, the cooks, the working people and their 
 little ones—all under the curse of the Spartan law. This 
 is what the magnanimous communistic rule of Lycurgus 
 never provided for except to damn Plutarch informs 
 us that at the public tables these people were all obliged 
 by law to eat together, and in common. Although they 
 had homes the law forbade them taking their meals there 
 lest with the labor of the skilled butchers and cooks, they 
 should fatten like voracious animals and become corrupt, 
 sensual and dissolute. 1 * 
 
 This arrangement resembled the co-operative kitchens 
 of our own times, only established upon a vast scale by 
 government and universally enforced by the law and po¬ 
 lice of the land. Its principal object was to level the hith¬ 
 erto existing conditions of wealth and poverty in which 
 Lycurgus had found his people; and according to the best 
 account, the plan worked well, with the one exception 
 that the healthful exercise of the citizens in labor was en¬ 
 tirely left out, all work of every kind belonging to the 
 economic class being performed by freedmen and slaves. 
 Thus labor, so sacred to the prosperity of modern lands, 
 was disgraceful in this “region of the blessed.” 
 
 When a newly born babe on examination was found to 
 be strong and without corporeal blemish, an order was 
 published to have it educated by and at the cost of the 
 state. It then received, if of the Dorian stock, one of the 
 9,000, or if of the Laconian, one of the 30,000 parcels of 
 land. But should it prove weakly, malformed, marked or 
 unseemly, the horrid death warrant was signed and the 
 poor little innocent was pitched down a cavernous pit 
 called “Apothetae,” from a crag of the Mount Taygetus; 
 and dashed to a jelly upon the rocks. So stern were 
 mothers in their obedience to this law that they washed 
 their little ones with wine instead of water; because this 
 strong ablution best tested their innate powers. If the 
 babe proved too weak to outgrow this treatment, it was 
 ruthlessly thrown into the rock-lined maw of this Tay- 
 getan grotto. Surely, under the dispensation of Lycur^ 
 gus “hell was paved with infants 1 bones.” 
 
 ** Plutarch, “Lycurgus.” 
 
534 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 A child when saved was educated. At seven years of 
 age it was martialed into a species of military company 
 and brought up under the rigors of obedience as under 
 military discipline. The hair was cropped short, the body 
 kept dirty, and all play was in a state of perfect naked¬ 
 ness. The children slept on beds made of reed tops which, 
 without knives, they were obliged to gather for them¬ 
 selves. They were required to go barefoot at all seasons 
 of the year. At the age of fifteen to twenty they had 
 military manoeuvres or sham battles. They were also re¬ 
 quired to perform such military duty as making soldiers* 
 campaign outfits. The material for this they were re¬ 
 quired to steal. They were taught to crawl into the gar¬ 
 dens and steal the melons and other fruits; if caught they 
 were mercilessly flogged for the fault of being found out. 
 The act itself was not a crime—logically too—for all 
 things being common and there being no ownership, it 
 followed that there was absolutely no incentive to steal, 
 any more than a man has to steal his own property. Let 
 the critic he cautious about reflecting against Lycurgus 
 for this, as one is apt to do through the medium of a com¬ 
 petitive or ownership system such as this in which he ex¬ 
 ists and from which stand-point he judges. The old law¬ 
 giver certainly had the best of us on this score. But one 
 is still at a loss to analyze his motives for teaching young¬ 
 sters to steal. This he did, however, and methodically.** 
 
 We now have the Spartan young gentleman before us, 
 in perfect health, inured to excessive hardships, perfect 
 of form, perfectly naked, unwashed, an adept at stealing 
 —the glory of the great Lycurgus. In this most pefect 
 condition he is intoduced to the ladies—those celebrated 
 Spartan maidens. 
 
 This brings us to the next ordinance of Lycurgus—that 
 of the calisthenics and games. It must not be forgotten 
 that we are treating only of citizens, or the privileged 
 class. They were a species of nobles and being born with 
 the blood and lineage of aristocracy they disdained to 
 work for their living. All ordinary labor was performed 
 by helots or slaves. But Lycurgus, although he, like Plato 
 and Aristotle, disdained labor, well knew its necessity 
 as a bodily exercise. Thus in lieu of labor he instituted 
 
 *• Plutarch, “Lycuryua.” 
 
INTRODUCTION TO THE LADIES . 
 
 585 
 
 his gymnasium. Good, hearty, honest labor in these mod¬ 
 ern days, with the ancient taint effaced and thus made 
 respectable, is quite sufficient exercise; and consequently 
 the gymnasium has fallen into disuse. But with Lycur- 
 gus labor was a disgrace; and the demand of nature for 
 exercise was supplied by the calisthenic games. 
 
 Lycurgus, therefore, ordered that not only the young 
 men but also the maidens should be vigorously exercised 
 at the dances, games and races. Every girl was a pro¬ 
 fessional tumbler; and the extent to which they carried 
 their acrobatic sports may be judged from Plutarch’s 
 positive statement that the young maidens performed 
 them in presence of the ephori (the judges of excellence 
 in symmetrical beauty of body and of limb as well as of 
 their winning powers), and before the admiring people 
 in that innocent raiment, which we are told, decked the 
 bodies of Adam and of Eve in the garden of Eden.* 1 
 “Lycurgus commanded the maidens to exercise their 
 forms running, wrestling, quoit-pitching and hurling 
 darts, with an object to make themselves vigorous so that 
 their children might afterwards be strong. To assuage the 
 natural tenderness of their sex, he taught them the habit 
 of being seen in company with their young male compan¬ 
 ions and together dance and sing at the festivals. At these 
 they practiced raillery and intellectual sparring, criti¬ 
 cizing each other’s propriety of behavior which in the 
 young men excited useful emulations, while their sallies 
 and satires often made them smart; since the kings, the 
 senate and citizens were present. So far as the disrobed 
 appearance of the virgins was concerned it was thought 
 
 nothing of, because the utmost decorum prevailed. 
 
 It even inculcates a simplicity in manners and an ambi¬ 
 tion to present the finest contour of the body.” ” 
 
 Marriage was compulsory in the Spartan state; but of 
 its details we refrain from the particulars, with the re¬ 
 mark that the closest critic, however much our modern 
 habits have varied from those of our forefathers, certainly 
 
 n Dr. Drumann, as if unable to comprehend how this could be possible, 
 cites a story told by Herodotus “Euterpe., viii. But on examination we 
 find that there is no argument here presented rebutting Plutarch. Besides, 
 this story refers to the habits of persons of roj'al degree, whereas our account 
 treats only of common estate. 
 
 23 Plutarch, “Lycurgus;” also “Lycurgus and Numa Compared.*' 
 
586 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 cannot boast of any improved virtue, if purity of intention 
 and strict obedience to law are the basis of virtue. But 
 Lycurgus was probably the only practical stirpiculturist 
 who ever enforced the scientific theory. The law of Mo¬ 
 ses may be honorably regarded as an exception from this 
 remark. 23 The Spartan lawgiver had been a great trav¬ 
 eler and there appears no conclusive evidence rebutting 
 the possibility that he borrowed much of it from the law 
 of Moses instituted four or five hundred years before. 
 The law of Lycurgus like the ideal republic of Plato re¬ 
 quired marriage. But the connubial tie once fastened, 
 the community idea struck all the married couples of the 
 military classes and they were at perfect liberty to bor¬ 
 row and lend each other according to the passions and 
 caprices of the married lovers. This system of hymeneal 
 reciprocity which never gave offense, was sanctioned by 
 law and was certainly recommended by physicians and 
 judges who attended to the business of replenishing the 
 state with excellent offspring. Indeed, though the law 
 of Lycurgus was never written, it is very probable from 
 the accounts of the ancient authors themselves, that this 
 reciprocal interchange of marital passions was arbitrarily 
 required. 24 If so, the apparent discrepancy in Plato’s re¬ 
 public which Aristotle criticizes, is made clear and logi¬ 
 cal. But it certainly makes a sham of marriage; and pre¬ 
 sents about as great an apparent absurdity as teaching the 
 young to steal when their goods had no value, being owned 
 and enjoyed in common. 
 
 It has already been our sad duty to sketch the last fin¬ 
 ishing touch of this far-famed government of Lycurgus 
 in our chapter on the Eleusinian Mysteries. We have there 
 recorded the assassination of those 2,000 workingmen. 
 Perhaps what we now say in description of the system of 
 Spartan government may unriddle the subtle philosophy 
 which lurked at the bottom of that and of innumerable 
 other mysteries and shocking murders which blot the 
 pages of Thucydides, Plato, Aristotle, Diodorus, Plutarch 
 and all who have attempted to perpetuate a knowledge of 
 the deeds of this extraordinary people. 
 
 21 Bible, “Leviticus,” xix., xx., xxi. 
 
 J1 Not only Plutarch, Plato and Aristotle, but also Tertullian, ('“ApaJogy” 
 XXXIX.), confirm this statement. 
 
PUNISHED FOR CRUELTY. 
 
 537 
 
 The laboring class of that day were Greeks. Some of 
 them were the sons and daughters of the Lacedaemonian 
 citizens; some were Helots, descendants of a great tribe 
 previously taken as prisoners of war and reduced to slav¬ 
 ery. The remainder were slaves purchased from the Phoe¬ 
 nicians. These poor creatures did all the drudgery, pre¬ 
 pared their food and performed all those offices for them 
 which they were too proud to do for themselves. Great 
 strikes occurred, as related by H£lian,” and the inhuman¬ 
 ity of these arrogant slaveholders when the reaction came, 
 self-accused them; for taking advantage of a destructive 
 earthquake in B. C. 467, the poor creatures revolted or 
 engaged in a strike of great proportions; and probably, 
 as in the strikes of Eunus of Enna 2 * and of Spartacus at 
 Rome, they wreaked redress through the fury of armed 
 force first joining the Messenians. At any rate, amid the 
 earthquake and the strike more than 20,000 Spartans 
 perished, and the survivors for a long period of time held 
 a self-accusing superstition that the calamity was their 
 punishment for their cruelty to the working class. 
 
 Thus, for the plan of Lycurgus, we have the following 
 synopsis: Planted, according to Herodotus, B. C. about 
 990; according to Thucydides, 830; equality recognized; 
 communism of goods and children; kings maintained; 
 labor disgraced; taint of labor, and the working popula¬ 
 tion damned. 
 
 Results as follows: The secret Cryptia; constant fear 
 of the dangerous outcasts; final downfall of the system 
 after a trial of 500 years. 
 
 Of the plant of Numa Pompilius we have already suffi¬ 
 ciently spoken.* 1 This system began something like B. C. 
 690; a non-warfare kingdom; labor recognized; workmen 
 highly esteemed; trade unionism established by law; 
 nomenclature of their organizations made by Numa him¬ 
 self; the members of the unions employed by the state; 
 peace, tranquility and great prosperity of Rome for 43 
 years, or until Numa’s death and after that event, wars; 
 but the unions now turn their energies to the manufac¬ 
 ture of the implements of war greatly facilitating the Ro- 
 
 25 ^lian, “Historia Varia,” I. 
 
 *• See supra. Chapter VI. 
 
 ** Consult “Index” to this volume; points on Numa Pompiliu*. 
 
538 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 mail arms; so the state continues, and encourages the unions 
 for over 500 years. 
 
 Among the ancient Indo-Europeans there were from the 
 time of Aristotle, 331-322 B. C. two distinct lines of reasoning; 
 those of Aristotle and those of Plato. We are not at all un¬ 
 aware that neither of these great men was the originator of the 
 doctrine he taught; for both are known to have borrowed for 
 their celebrated states, from others more ancient and less known. 
 But for our purpose we must recognize them as they are recog¬ 
 nized by the world. 
 
 Plato believed that all good came from a supernatural source. 
 Every thing good was, as it were, handed down from on high. 
 This pleased the manipulators of the priestcraft of his age; for 
 it sanctioned their mysticism. It permitted and continued the 
 lordly power of the gods whose abodes were high on the Olym¬ 
 pian thrones. Power was seated in heaven, the vaulted firmament, 
 the “ouranos.” The manipulators of this power were the great 
 immortals such as Jupiter and other celestials—all the great 
 gods and goddesses whose names and fame have come down to 
 us enshrined in classic majesty and mystified in a vesture of 
 inimitable, captivating beauty. The marvels of that ancient 
 political religion are made more awfully supernal by this great 
 and good teacher having lived and labored. Nor must we spurn 
 Plato’s views because our age has outgrown them. In the bigotry 
 and empiricism to which many ardent and honest persons cleave, 28 
 they are apt ^o treat with unforgiving frowns, his earnest belief 
 in practices which we, in having tried, have found impracticable, 
 sometimes abominable. We translate expressly for these pages 
 from Plato’s Gorgias, what he makes Socrates say about work¬ 
 ingmen : “There exists a two-fold employment; it creates food, 
 beverages, clothes and such other things as the body needs. We 
 get such things from shop-keepers and from country folks and 
 they have them prepared for them by the cook, baker, weaver, 
 shoemaker and tanner. But the healing art and the knowledge 
 of gymnastics necessarily preside over many of these trades be¬ 
 cause they foretell what the body wants. The working people, 
 therefore, are slavish and unworthy to associate with free peo- 
 
 28 Dr. Bucher, “Aufstande der unfrein Arbeiter,” S. 132, pointedly 
 puts it as: “Wust von Halbwisserei und Phrasenthum.” 
 
WORKING PEOPLE CALLED “SLAVE-SOULS .” 530 
 
 pie.” 29 In another of Plato’s writings is the remark that the 
 laboring population, who produce what the body requires are, 
 notwithstanding their servility “indispensable; and for this rea¬ 
 son, they must be admitted into the republic.” 30 
 
 Again, Plato acknowledges that workingmen and women who 
 understand these mysteries of art “know what others do not 
 know. They are educated so far as their peculiar art requires. 
 They know how to build houses, ships, and to do other work 
 and in consequence, must sometimes be admitted into the as¬ 
 sembly meetings even though the Athenians laugh when ignorant 
 people take the floor to explain. 31 In matters of the state where 
 such is needed, this right of explanation is given to every one. 
 Now these workingmen, “demiourgoi,” because they know the 
 mysteries of their art, like the poets, imagine they know every¬ 
 thing, being clever at their mechanic arts. But they are sadly 
 wanting in manners, mostly, of course, from lack of leisure time 
 without which a good education is impossible. All they learn 
 is what their calling requires; for knowledge of its intrinsic 
 self they have no appreciation, it having no charm for them.” 32 
 They busy themselves with mathematics only so far as it has 
 practical contact with their business—not to enjoy a pleasure in 
 the knowledge of the nature of numbers. In themselves they 
 have not the power to strive for higher things, for mechanical 
 craftsmanship brutifies them. The business man, “chrematistikos,” 
 declares that pleasure in honors and learning is valueless in com¬ 
 parison with money-getting. 33 Ambition for honors considers the 
 pleasure of amassing lucre to be mean, and also ambition for 
 learning if it fail to produce honors. Vapors and tricks bring the 
 philosopher no such pleasure and joy as the knowledge of truth. 34 
 Be the smiths, carpenters, shoemakers ever so skilled in their 
 work as artificers, the most of them are but slave-souls not able 
 to comprehend what is good and just. 35 Lofty-heartedness and 
 
 29 Plato, “Gorgias,” 155, 517-518. 
 
 30 Idem, “Republic,” 369-372. 
 
 31 “Apology of Socrates,” 22. 
 
 82 Plato, “Protagoras,” 319. Consult Xenophon, “Memorabilia of 
 Socrates,” II., 7. 
 
 33 Xenophon, Public Economics of Athens,” IV., 6. 
 
 34 Plato, “Republic,” IX., 581. 
 
 35 Compare Xenophon, “Memorabilia,” IV., ii., 22. 
 
540 
 
 PLANS 
 
 LS . 
 
 heartedness and nobleness <■; impulse are in vain to be 
 sought for among them. It is quite another thing, this 
 learning a trade and educating an honest man. 
 
 We elsewhere show by producing his own words what 
 Cicero thought of the poor working people. His con¬ 
 tempt for them is still greater. 
 
 Aristotle in most respects is in perfect accord with 
 Plato in this kind of talk against the working people. 
 Here is what he thinks: 
 
 Humanity must be divided into several classes: citizen 
 cultivators, and artisans, busied with the arts necessary 
 to the welfare of the state. These two great classes are 
 acknowledged to come first; not from the respect he en¬ 
 tertains for them, but probably on account of the fact 
 well known in Aristotle’s time, that they were very numer¬ 
 ous everywhere. 
 
 Then comes, as the third class, the dealers. These are 
 designated to be the shop-keepers and merchants. 
 
 The day laborers or wage-earners constitute the fourth 
 class. They have some slight independence, being no 
 longer slaves, but freedmen. 
 
 Soldiers constitute the fifth class. They do the fight¬ 
 ing; and agreeably to the nature of ancient civilization 
 this fighting material that obtains nourishment without 
 producing, is what modern enlightenment begins to rec¬ 
 ognize as plunderers and robbers. 
 
 The sixth class is that of the judges. 
 
 The seventh class undertakes the duties of the prac¬ 
 tical work of the state. It consists of rich men. 
 
 To the eighth belong the optimates or men of blood of 
 still higher quality, such as hail from an exalted family 
 or race, as a “gens”—gentlemen or aristocrats, born of 
 God with that supernal gift, the immortal soul. These, 
 according to this teacher of Alexander the Great, were 
 fitted to be the advising statesmen. They are the finish¬ 
 ing class, coming highest above all. 
 
 “Many times several of these different callings can be 
 united into one; but occupations uniting poor and rich 
 into one person cannot be allowed.” 88 
 
 The artisans and skilled mechanics whom Aristotle de- 
 
 u Aristotle, “Politics,” IV., li., 11-16. 
 
THE GREAT ARISTOTLE'S CURSE 
 
 541 
 
 nominates "technitai,” or “banausoi technitai,” are next to 
 the slaves in lowliness and meanness. Aristotle makes their 
 existence a sort of servitude. But some writers think 
 that this philosopher places them a little more distant 
 or farther from abject servitude than the slaves; for they 
 are beyond the reach of the lash, except in aggravated 
 cases. The difference is that the slave proper serves the 
 collective individual or state, while the artisan serves the 
 person who employs him; and thus the inference is that 
 the ideal political state of Aristotle gets the labor of 
 skilled workmen by contract, or in a second-hand fashion.* 7 
 
 Aristotle says that in former times the skilled artisans, 
 or the class embracing all mechanics, were slaves; and 
 even at his day (B. C. 330), there were skilled slaves in 
 many of the Greek states.** This statement is valuable, 
 as it shows the immense progress of abolition; and if we 
 take notice of his other equally important hint, that all 
 sorts of precautions had to be resorted to for preventing 
 those dangerous revolts, and couple this with the fact that 
 there were great anti-slave organizations, as shown by the 
 numerous inscriptions still extant, and which have been 
 described in our previous chapters, we may better un¬ 
 derstand the importance of history wriften from a social 
 standpoint. 
 
 Aristotle teaches that inasmuch as the largest part of 
 the working class must be allotted to attend to agricul¬ 
 ture and the flocks, their life inuring them to out-of-door 
 employments, they were for the ideal state best fitted for 
 the muscular work of warfare. Their spiritual and bodily 
 powers naturally develop more than those of persons en¬ 
 gaged in business of the market or of the city who press 
 among the crowds." 
 
 Aristotle thinks that for his perfect government it is 
 advisable to have slaves work as agricultural laborers; and 
 especially those who have no yearnings for a home they 
 have been deprived of, and so no foremost desires. Such 
 laborers would be more useful, and would have no incen¬ 
 tives to revolt." 
 
 Aristotle makes the execution of work, for the artisans 
 
 47 Aristotle, “Politics," Ill., iii., § 3. 
 
 ** rdom, III., ii., §9. “ Td., VI., fi.. § fl-7. 
 
 « Idt-iii, “Politics,” VTI., lx., $ 9. « Id., iv. t $ ft. 
 
648 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 to be that which bruises the body worst; the task set for 
 slaves, to be that which the body is in greatest need of; 
 and for the most ignoble, that in which the least amount 
 of intellectual force is required." This is exactly what 
 would most effectively belittle a man and develop beast¬ 
 liness within him. 
 
 The farmers, mechanics and day laborers cannot be 
 dispensed with; but the management of warfare and the 
 giving advice and legal counsel belong strictly to the citi¬ 
 zen class who do not work. The laboring class coming 
 under the categories mentioned cannot become either 
 office-holders or priests." They must not be admitted to 
 hold office; for in well regulated communities they are 
 not citizens as they have no duty of citizenship to fulfill 
 and their incapable condition prevents it, the same as in 
 children, slaves, free communers under protection, and 
 strangers." 
 
 This philosopher further degrades the despised work¬ 
 ers by his opinion that labor stupefies and deteriorates 
 both mind and body. It creates roughness and makes 
 people hoyden “phortikoi,” or uncouth, depriving them of 
 their dignity. Neither the good statesman nor the good 
 citizen can tolerate labor. 44 
 
 Labor also leaves no time for public business. Only 
 land-owners and well-to-do people who are citizens can 
 rejoice ia leisure time." 
 
 If the optimates or better people wish to remain faith¬ 
 ful to their destiny and their dignity they learn nothing 
 of skill for the sake of earning from it, neither do they 
 learn music superabundantly, as sometimes is the case 
 now where people engage in emulous contest in it for the 
 profits accruing from out-doing one another; they only 
 learn it so far as necessary to enjoy its delicious melody 
 and rhythm. 4 * This most detestable clause in Aristotle's 
 politics has long since crumbled away before Christianity’s 
 well tried precept. “The laborer is worthy of his hire” 47 
 —one of our bulwarks of democratical government. 
 
 Aristotle's oligarchy emphatically forbids work people 
 the right of citizenship, especially the day wage earners. 
 
 " Id., “Pol.,” VII., viii., § 0; III., ill., *, “ Id., IH., ill., 2, 7. 
 
 44 Id., “Pol.,” m., iii., 9. 44 Id., VII., viii., 5, 8. 
 
 44 Id., “Pol.,” VIII., vi., 4. • Hew Testament, “Luke,” 7. 
 
MS 
 
 Lucian's run ice nr a tea nn. 
 
 Where a skilled artisan attains to wealth he may, in 
 the ideal state, become a citizen. 48 Under the Pagan re¬ 
 gime this narrow and contemptuous ruling is thought fit 
 for an oligarchy based on optimates and slaves. 
 
 Theophrastus who, after Aristotle’s withdrawal, suc¬ 
 ceeded to the Lyceum, described the wage-earning class as 
 domestics or slaves at large—that of “people who shame¬ 
 lessly drive taverns and brothels. They are also known 
 as mercenaries and hucksters who live on the gains of 
 gambling, lottery-booths and cook-shops, gulping up the 
 dishonorable winnings and letting their own mothers 
 starve/’ 4 * 
 
 Demosthenes, still considered high authority in many 
 things, is not much milder. He railed at /Eschines be¬ 
 cause he was the son of a sausage man in very poor cir¬ 
 cumstances." 
 
 Demosthenes like Cicero despised the lowly. <f He who 
 carries on low and despisable business must not be ex¬ 
 pected to exhibit deeds of moral quality; for men are al¬ 
 ways in reality, in thought and in deed, what their call¬ 
 ing in life designates. This is a logical necessity.” 81 
 
 Lucian the satyrist of the second century of our era, 
 who spoke and wrote the best classic Greek although of 
 Samosata 350 miles to the north of Nazareth, was poor 
 and undertook to learn sculpture. Breaking a partly fin¬ 
 ished slab of marble and getting soundly punished for it, 
 he left his master and went home where he dreamed out 
 his ideal of the relative merits of art and science. The 
 dream was, that two young females, one called Art and 
 the other Learning, were in love with a certain young 
 man. Each sought to win him by the comparative merit 
 of her trade. Art, as Lucian portrays it, appears before 
 him clad' in the dirty overalls of the workingman, specked 
 with marble-dust, hands calloused with hard work. She 
 promised him a good income, a strong healthy physique, 
 and reminded him of the glory of Phidias, Polycletus and 
 other great masters. 
 
 Science on the other hand, advanced the argument: 
 
 « Aristotle, “Politics,” HI., ii., 8; iii., 3. 
 
 m Theophrastus, “Ethical Characters,” vi., B. C. about 290. 
 
 •• Diogenes Laertes, II., 7; I. 
 
 Demosthenes, “Olynth., Orationes Attic®,” T., 4. 
 
544 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 “As a sculptor thou art but an artisan, without celebrity, 
 of mean low mental status; one only of a vast mass of 
 humanity. Shouldst thou become a Phidias or a Poly- 
 cletus and build for the world wonderful and admirable 
 productions, then indeed would every one admire thy art; 
 but no reasonable creature desires thy part; for however 
 cunning thou mayest become, thou thyself art forever 
 doomed to remain only a mere laborer/’ 82 This ancient 
 taint received its death blow under the rules of Jesus; so 
 much so that no such contempt attaches to Raphael, Leon¬ 
 ardo da Vinci or Michael Angelo. Work, from the very 
 first has been not only honorable, but correctly considered, 
 a means of measuring honor and worth. Thus a complete 
 revolution. 
 
 Plutarch, styled the honorable, just and fair critic of 
 human character and its dealings with the ethics of men, 
 is equally severe against the laboring class. He writes, 
 about A.D. 75-80: “Virtuous dealings only allure imita¬ 
 tions, morally considered; quite different with other, and 
 often more material things, for these we may admire 
 without desiring to ourselves do similarly. On the con¬ 
 trary we despise the authors of works we are delighted 
 with. People love unguents and purple raiment but per¬ 
 fumers and dyers are considered to be mean handicrafts¬ 
 men, nothing more. Antisthenes the cynic most wisely 
 said, when they were applauding Ismenias for the deli¬ 
 cious tones of his flute: ‘Very fine music’ said the philos~ 
 opher. ‘He belongs to the meaner sort, otherwise he 
 could not play so finely.’ 
 
 “Philip of Macedon reproached his son Alexander who 
 learned to play the cithara at a neighboring inn, with the 
 words. “Art thou not ashamed to play so well? Honor 
 enough for the muses when a king dignifies them by 
 becoming their audience. But whoever degrades him¬ 
 self by making it a mean, low business betrays his indif¬ 
 ference toward the beautiful and good. No young man 
 with preferred natural gifts wishes, under the eye of Ju¬ 
 piter in Pisa, or of Heres in Argos, to become a Phidias 
 or a Polycletus; nor an Anacreon, Philemon or Archi¬ 
 lochus because delighted by their poetry. It follows not 
 that we should treasure him whose works do excite our 
 
 M Luciaa, “Somnium, 6-9. 
 
EVEN PLUTARCH LAMPOONS THEM. 545 
 
 odmiration and joy” 58 We have here given our own ren¬ 
 dering. The sense is so imperfectly brought out by any 
 translation that we are unable to use it. 64 Though the 
 labor product was admired, the creator of it was despised. 
 To us moderns this is almost incomprehensible. Quite so. 
 except we recognize the gradual inroads upon the ancient 
 family blood, and its ultimate uprooting, through the 
 resistance to the insult by labor itself, backed by the 
 new regime. 
 
 Again, Plutarch, writing on education, cares nothing 
 for any one but the rich ; the remainder might as well be 
 resigned to their fate which had not favored them. 65 
 
 The brother-in-law of Phocion, that is, brother of his 
 first wife, Cephisotodus by name, lived by his art as sculp¬ 
 tor, and the family were not considered first citizens of 
 th* city. Phocion was one of the very few generals of an¬ 
 cient times who rose from the ranks. His own father 
 was a pestle-maker by trade. 66 Yet he himself always had 
 an openly expressed contempt for the working people. 
 
 Alexander was initiated into the study of natural history 
 by Aristotle. He was of opinion that he could perform' 
 useful services at healing; and actually performed heal¬ 
 ing acts in his empire. 67 The news that the father of Eu- 
 menes had for a profession that of flute-playing at fu¬ 
 nerals in the Thracian Cheronesus by which to make a liv¬ 
 ing for himself and family 7 , was trumped up by the Mac¬ 
 edonian dignitaries who were loth to permit Grecians in 
 their territory, Eumenes being a stranger. The father 
 was a respectable man; at any rate he was a table-mate 
 of Philip the king. 58 But the whole affair shows the con¬ 
 tempt that was universally felt against labor. Agathocles, 
 Tyrant of Syracuse, began his career as a potter in the 
 middle of the fourth century before Christ. In commem¬ 
 oration of his former calling he used to put earthen pots 
 and jugs beside golden ones. 69 But the native pride of 
 the Greeks seldom permitted them to humiliate them- 
 
 ** Plutarch, Pericles , 1-3. 
 
 M For much that is valuable on the whimsical contempt felt by the anoien| 
 aristocrats against labor, see Drumann’s magnificent researches, in Arbcite? 
 und Communitten in Griechenland und Rom, passim, 
 
 « Plutarch, De Fuerum Educations, il. Mid., Phocion, 4 and 19, 
 
 67 Id. Alexander, 8 . ' 
 
 «8Cornelius Nepos, Eumenes, 1; .Elian, 1; Plutarch, Eumenes. 
 
 59Plutarch, Apothegms, reg. et imp.; Atheneeue, Deipnosophista 11, 18j 
 Polybius, Histories, 12, 18; 15, 35. 
 
64 0 
 
 PLAN'S AND MODELS, 
 
 selves in this manner, or to pull men up out of the dark 
 pits of disgrace, like that of labor, to a place of recognized 
 honor. 
 
 But notwithstanding all the influence of the taint there 
 were strong men who, knowing within their hearts that 
 labor was honorable, dared to be brave. Thus in the third 
 century before Christ it was not expected of Cleanthes the 
 follower of Zeno in the Stoa, that he should seek to con¬ 
 ceal the night-work on which, at his trade, he earned his 
 living to strengthen him for delivering his lectures be¬ 
 fore the A reopagi or in the more private school-work con¬ 
 nected with his useful life . 60 
 
 Iphicrates was a low-born man; according to some the 
 son of a shoemaker. When Harmodius whose kinsman 
 Pisistratides the hipparch, treated Iphicrates with contu¬ 
 mely on account of it, the latter replied: “My race begins 
 with me, thine ceases with thee .” 61 This is another scin¬ 
 tillation giving light to the dark chasms of contempt into 
 which honest industry was sunk. 
 
 Attalus HI., whose crazy tricks caused a great deal of 
 unnecessary persecution of the slaves and freedmen of 
 Pergamos and vicinity over -which he reigned, seems to 
 have had the labor question uppermost in his brain. He 
 was the last of the Pergamenian monarchs. There ap¬ 
 pears reason to conjecture that he feared an insurrection 
 of the slaves, which caused him to bargain away to the 
 Romans his inheritance; presumably to get their protec¬ 
 tion from his dreaded enemies at home. He was in the 
 habit of putting to torture his suspects; and to perfect 
 his art in cruelty became a practical gardener, taking les¬ 
 sons in the chemistry of gardening in order to produce'his 
 own poisons with which to kill numbers of imaginary foes. 
 With these poisonous plants he practiced and toyed until 
 his death. Immediately after that event a great insur¬ 
 rection broke out for the succession, in which the slaves 
 and free organized workingmen sided with the preten¬ 
 der, a bana,us or laborer and an illegitimate, against the 
 legitimate successor. This was the Aristonicus whose 
 great slave rebellion—one of the hugest of ancient times 
 —we have already described in our chapter on ancient 
 
 «Diogenas >, £>. 
 
 #> Aristotle, Rkrtunc, >, j, the Utio, ih w %ba. i a* # Do c* t >. Jl, 
 
POISONING THE WORKINGMEN. 
 
 547 
 
 slave rebellions. 62 Diocletian planted upon grounds of his 
 private estate at Salona, poisonous and other noxious 
 plants. For what exact purpose we are not properly in¬ 
 formed. But he wrote a work on horticulture. We make 
 these remarks to remind our readers of the rapidly on¬ 
 ward marching strides of Christianity and the social rev¬ 
 olution already in Diocletian’s time beginning to be felt. 
 
 When a boy, Alexander who was swift at the races, was 
 asked if he would match hin self with the competitors. 
 “Yes” he retorted : “I would had I kings to race with/* 
 Plutarch relates this story fs an illustration of the con¬ 
 querors virtues. 63 The facts are that at the races the fleet¬ 
 est men were matched sometimes irrespective of birth or 
 trade ; but the future corqueror of the world was too 
 proud to humble himself by setting a democratic example. 
 \Ye may remark that little progress has since been made 
 by way of extinguishing this foolish pride. 
 
 m the manufactories, ergasteric, most of the ancient 
 workmen were s 1 aves, and the states of Greece sometimes, 
 ( specially in war in which the poor creatures had no pa¬ 
 triotic interest, lost heavily by their running away to find 
 work, more liberty and better fare. During the Pelopon¬ 
 nesian war 20,000 slaves decamped from Attica where 
 they were, as property of the state, at work making the 
 machinery clothing and equipments of that celebrated and 
 prolonged conflict. But whither? Directly over to the 
 Spartan garrison at Decelea, the armories of the deadly 
 and jealous enemies of Athenians who were hilt to hilt 
 in the fierce fray for the hegemony of the Hellenic Pen¬ 
 insula ! Here the 20,000 workmen wheeled their brawn 
 and brain into arms and munitions which undoubtedly de¬ 
 cided the great struggle against the Athenians, 64 
 
 The orator Lysias owned a shield factory, aspidopegeion , 
 in which he had 120 slaves, property of the estate, and 
 probably in company with his brother Polemarch. Thirty 
 of the slaves fell upon and murdered Polemarch for his 
 money, Slaves were verv dangerous in ancient days. 65 
 
 If the student of sociology is at a loss to understand the 
 causes of Demosthenes’ slurs at iEsehines, and the bitter. 
 
 *° Bucher, Aufstam.de der unfreien Arbeiler S. 100-114. 
 
 68 Plutarch. Alexander. 
 
 Thucydides, De Bello Feloponnesiaco, Vil., 27; chap. in this work. 
 
 “ KratoathtiDCH, OrcUio, Lys. 
 
548 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 ness of his eloquence twitting him of mean "birth, let him 
 read Xenophen and others of his own period. Demos¬ 
 thenes was owner by inheritance of two manufactories; 
 one, a butcherknife and the other a bedstead factory. 
 The knife shop netted him a sum of 30 mi?tae, $541.50 an¬ 
 nually, and the mechanics, 32 in number who performed 
 the labor, were slaves, and his own property. The bed¬ 
 stead factory turned out goods yielding 12 minae net, or 
 $ 216.60 of earnings with the labor of 20 slaves. But the 
 relative value of money was enormous compared with to¬ 
 day. The total net income from the labor of these 52 slaves 
 working for him in the two factories amounted to 42 minae , 
 $ 758.10. After the death of his father and a settling of 
 all indebtedness, an inventory disclosed the fact that the 
 business was prosperous and a large stock of manufac¬ 
 tured articles and also of raw material was left clear. 66 
 
 Eunus the slave was a prophet. He foretold to his fol¬ 
 lowers at Enna in Sicily, the fact that he, being a Syrian, 
 a prophet of Antioch, was to become a king ; and that hie 
 work should be the seed of an all-spreading revolution 
 which should break the bondsmen’s cords. 
 
 This is sufficient to show that Eunus had also his plan 
 of salvation, like all the reformers of ancient days. Hia 
 method, however, of realizing it varied from that of Ly* 
 curgus and Plato and Aristotle, about in proportion with 
 his comparative condition. The aristocrats were edu¬ 
 cated and refined men ; whereas, Eunus was a poor slave, 
 without letters. And what was this plan ? It was based 
 on, and carried out, entirely from the central idea of ex¬ 
 tinction, by an almost complete extermination of the ruling 
 and possessing class, and the rebuilding of an empire oi 
 government upon the same ground, but out of the purely 
 laboring element—in other words, the exact equality of 
 all men. It is perhaps the first purely anarchical idea 
 ever put in full force and practically carried out upon a 
 vast scale. Furthermore— : and logically too—it struck 
 the world just at the time when, according to Polybius, 
 Pome commenced to decay. It succeeded, and logically 
 enough, to the slave-crammed populations in Plato’s ideal 
 republic of the “Blessedfor it is natural to suppose that 
 through his immensely popular philosophy, he had indoc- 
 
 *6Xenophon, Memorabilia, II., T; Demosthenes, Oratto, V., 106, 9. 
 
PLAN OF ANAR CHISTS TA UGHT A LESSON. 549 
 
 trinated all Rome—and her naturally savage military dis¬ 
 position—with the needful excuse for spreading this 
 beastly institution of slavery. Eunus with his cataclysmal 
 arms in Sicily, and Gracchus with his magnificent powers 
 of family prestige, wealth and natural manhood, at Rome, 
 fought a contest against Plato and the insolent lords for 
 just 10 years, such as, search the records as we will, are 
 not elsewhere to be found in the annals of history, ancient 
 or modern. Eunus began by an extermination of his en¬ 
 emies, the slave-holding rich. He marched his first force 
 into Enna, as related in our ninth chapter and began his 
 work of blood and devastation the same hour, without 
 giving either forewarning or quarter. As his masters had 
 been merciless to the slave, so his plan of salvation was 
 merciless to them. To stamp out the entire race of op- 
 timates was his bent and determination, leaving none even 
 to tell the tale of woe. 67 It was the “eye-for-eve and tooth- 
 for-tooth ” referred to by a later Messiah in his great ser¬ 
 mon on the Mount, after the unfortunate but indispen- 
 . sable experience of these “men of old time” had proved 
 to him the futility of the plan of Eunus. 
 
 Plato had been dead but a couple of centuries. Rome 
 had grasped his popular idea of government embracing 
 an aristocracy grounded in human slavery. She had 
 surged into the great waves of warfare with the exact ad¬ 
 vice of Plato in his “Republic of the Blessed!” and she 
 was working to the master’s lines. Slaves innumerable 
 thronged into the marts as Rome’s prisoners of war. 
 Eunus, one of them, was a prophet and his beloved god¬ 
 dess, as he frankly believed, was directing him through 
 this storm of vengeance and of blood. It was anarchy— 
 a chaos of human life among a vast population; for Sic¬ 
 ily at that time was populous. Dionysius the tyrant had 
 built his yawning prison-workshops and these ergastula 
 had been copied into every city and hamlet. Eunus set 
 at liberty from these horrid slave-dens 60,000 workmen, 
 who swelled his ranks to a vast army of 200,000 warriors, 
 all of whom by his edict of emancipation, became des¬ 
 troyers of Sicilian and Roman life. Devastation! 
 
 #I We And in Diodorus, Histories , the statement, quoted supra, p. 200, 
 that Antigenes, one of the rich men, was exempted from his vengeance on ac¬ 
 count of a previous promise; as was also the case with the kind-hearted daugh¬ 
 ter of Damophilua (p. 206). 
 
PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 m 
 
 But who, when he calmly looks at the general condi¬ 
 tions, after the brave words of Diodorus in his noble 
 but tattered fragments of history of this terrible episode 
 of retribution, will say that even the scourging, adminis¬ 
 tered to those haughty millionaires, did not work an al¬ 
 most inestimable good? Were not these lessons neces¬ 
 sary ? Did not the world, in its tardy development out 
 of barbarism, learn by the sorriest experience the deeper, 
 more fundamental expression of reason, incrusted in the 
 then, and for ages afterwards, unfathomable words of ad¬ 
 vice vouchsafed us by the last of the prophets and Mes¬ 
 siah’s to wit: that kindly treatment was as coals of fire 
 upon their hard masters’ heads ? 
 
 Drimakos had his plan. It was a plan as fine in its de¬ 
 tails as it was strange in its conception. He set up an ab¬ 
 solute monarchy in the lofty jungles of his mountain crag. 
 He emancipated all slaves after their having passed ex¬ 
 amination as of a civil service. When once a runaway had 
 passed this rigorous test he made him or her a member of 
 his Blessed government upon an equality as severe as it 
 was democratic. He forced the rich citizens of the green 
 valleys below, to support him and his chosen angels of this 
 aerial paradise; and for long decades of time had but to 
 go down with his bands of warriors, armed to the teeth, 
 and get from the barns, cellars and orchards the richest 
 of nature’s gifts. And the plan worked charmingly even 
 to his tottering old age. 
 
 A very clearly designed plan was that of Aristonicus of 
 Pergamus, whose anti-slavery rebellion followed that of 
 Eunus. He promised the working people who were in 
 great fear of being sold into slavery—a thing which ac¬ 
 tually came to pass after their defeat—that if they would 
 take up arms with him, they should have a kingdom of 
 the “Blessed;’’ that they should be made equal with all 
 men, and become citizens of the sun, heliopolitai , which 
 in their minds, since they worshiped the sun as their re¬ 
 ligion, -was to be inhabitants of a heaven on earth, a dem¬ 
 ocracy yearned for even to our day. With remarkable 
 faith and energy they took up arms, fighting for their 
 earthly paradise and when defeated, suffered like mar¬ 
 tyrs, many of them upon the cross. 
 
 Spartacus, the last of the ancient ’abor revolters, whose 
 
PLAN OF JESUS, THAT OF BROTHERHOOD. 551 
 
 enormous defeat went far toward convincing future phi¬ 
 losophers and agitators that a halt must be called to the 
 destructive havoc of reform, had a clearly traced plan. 
 He wished to set the bondsmen free. For himself and 
 his Thracians and Gauls he wanted freedom to return to 
 his native hills, thinking, in his seemingly innocent sim¬ 
 plicity, that this was the highest liberty—the enjoyment 
 of his boyhood’s home. 
 
 The mightiness of this man is seen in the two great 
 facts: First, that his life was, as it were, a prodigious 
 blast of unparalleled military power against the wrongs 
 which despots, backed by military machinery, inflicted 
 upon labor ; and secondly, that through this awful and 
 exterminatory blast, and by dint of its mightiness, the 
 wondering, inquisitive and learning world was taught 
 that the horrors of military despotism cannot be cured, 
 but must ever be aggravated, by the application of mili¬ 
 tary means. Through Spartacus, mankind awakened to 
 realize that other means than that of “an eye for an eye 
 and a tooth for a tooth” must be tried before the lowly 
 millions of toil could*be lifted to the dignity and equality 
 of their calling. 
 
 Let these remarks suffice then, to introduce one who 
 came next in the order of the prophets and messiahs; but 
 this time with a statesmanship whose plan did not prove 
 a failure. And what was this plan ? 
 
 Jesus, a tradesman, messiah and prophet, coming just 
 one hundred years after Spartacus, was obliged to labor 
 and struggle during the greater part of his lifetime, to 
 support himself, father, mother, brothers and sisters. Min¬ 
 isters of his Gospel, who preach it from any other stand¬ 
 point, do so only because they have been imposed upon 
 by the ruling of prelates who, since Constantine’s politi¬ 
 cal amalgamation with Neo-Platonism which upheld both 
 chattel and wage-slavery and was no ingredient of the 
 original precept, forsook the master and backslid into 
 paganism. 
 
 He did not deny his lowly condition. 68 Right at the 
 close of the Augustan or Golden Age, after the communes 
 
 ••N.T, Mark, vi., 8 : "Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary, and are not 
 his sisters here with us ? ” Aping the aristocracy of paganism which this work¬ 
 ingman dethroned, the subsequent priesthood has vainly endeavored to trace his 
 
 genealogy back to Abraham. 
 
MS 
 
 PLANS ANJD MODELS . 
 
 and trade unions, with Clodius at their head in Rome, had 
 stormed lawyer Cicero out of his life, while that great 
 tempest of agitations was yet surging on, shaping those 
 memorable utterances of great jurists like Ulpian, to the 
 effect that all men are born equal; 69 at that epoch-making 
 period, himself born to the stigma of labor, Jesus was able 
 to plant seed which has reared a system so democratical 
 that it has already virtually overcome the terrible slave 
 By stem and with it the contempt of labor; and his whole 
 plan, though extremely revolutionary, is rapidly prevail¬ 
 ing as people become wise in their understanding. 
 
 In the incipiency of his “state” of a perfect society which 
 Tertullian calls a coetus (meaning a union), 70 Jesus con¬ 
 siders working people regardless of trade or calling, to 
 be the best element from which to choose his advisers. 
 Among them were four fishermen, 71 one custom house 
 clerk, 73 designated in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible as 
 one of the publicans, who were at that time hated by the 
 poor people as the meanest of men. The other seven were 
 of various trades or professional callings. There is ap¬ 
 parently no claim extant that any one of the twelve apos¬ 
 tles whose names have become more renowned in the 
 world than any others in the annals of our common race 
 with the exception of the Master himself, of Paul, and a 
 few others, were anything but poor workmen—a valuable 
 assurance to any at the present day who languish in doubt 
 lest the venture of their powers upon the labor movement 
 may result in no glory to themselves and their names. 
 
 The organization of the early Christians, as we have con¬ 
 stantly shown, was based purely upon the principle always 
 advocated by all labor organizations, yearned for by the 
 
 69 Ulpian, Digest, L., xvii., 32: “Quod attinet ad jus civile, servi pro 
 uullis haberentur, non tamen et jure naturali: quia quod ad Jus naturale attinet, 
 omnes homines sequales sunt." Thus Ulpian who, some 160 years alter Christ’s 
 labors closed, convinced of the justice of the already great liberating movement 
 of the early Christian all around him, wrote these words, terrible to the Roman 
 optimates. Justinian afterwards embodied them in his Pandects. Who shall 
 say that Ulpian’s brutal assassination by a mob of soldiers was not his punish¬ 
 ment for righteous judgment? Again, Florentinus, not long after the time of 
 Gaius, wrote: “ Servitus est constitutio juris gentium qua quis dominio alieno 
 contra naturam subicitur. ” Digest, I., v., 4; Bockh, Laurische Silberberg- 
 %oerke, S. 123, declares that the Christians of these parts extinguished the 
 ■lave system entirely. 
 
 m Tertullian, Apology, XXXIX., 1: “Coimus in coetum et congregationem 
 at ad deum quasi manu facta, precationibus ambiamus.” 
 
 7i Matthew, iv., 18, 21; Mark, i., 19, 20. 
 
 n MaWiew: lx. 9; MarJfc, ii., 14. 
 
RESEMBLANCE OF SOCRATES AND JESUS. 553 
 
 myriad slaves, and emphatically demanded by Christ, its 
 founder and his followers, to the effect that all men are 
 created equal, whatever the social inequality unjustly im¬ 
 posed upon some by licensed managers of the products of 
 their toil. 78 The original fathers struck out openly for 
 all that promised equality and democratical ends. 
 
 Jesus forbids, in his ideal state, and even the approaches 
 to it, that men should engage in war or conflict of any kind. 
 “Whosoever smite thee on thy right cheek turn to him the 
 other also. 74 He certainly modeled his plan from the or¬ 
 ganizations, the brotherhoods which discarded hatreds, 
 and with them the competitive system entirely. Instead 
 of hatred one for another, it was love one for another. 74 
 Socrates who says, “We are all thiasotes of this god,” 76 
 comes nearest to Christianity of all the more ancient ad¬ 
 vocates of reform; and this of course accounts for their 
 killing him. Plato went through unscathed, and like him 
 Aristotle. But both believed in slavery and were of gens 
 blood; while Socrates was a born workingman. So like¬ 
 wise Jesus was killed for loving labor and laborers and 
 denouncing hatreds together with the system on which 
 they are based. He ruled that these working people 
 were fully equal to any other class—a most pronounced 
 advancement of matters in the ethics of the social, econ¬ 
 omic and political world. 77 
 
 Socrates, if we believerhis own words, was a member of 
 an eranos, or a thiasos; for Xenophen quotes him as 
 saying so, inasmuch as he declares to his friends and dis¬ 
 ciples gathered about him, that “under this god we are all 
 thiasotes.” He was not an Essene. His last words, as he 
 lay dying, reminded his disciples that they (the thiasotai, 
 or brethren), owed their cook for a chicken on which they 
 
 78 Justin Martyr, Dialogue, xxxvi. 4; Varro, De Re Rustica, Proem. 
 
 74 Matthew, v., 39. ibidem, v., 44. 
 
 7« Xenophon, Convivii, viii., 2, speaking of Eros, the god of love, says 
 that at the symposium, in all probability of a thiasos club, he made the following 
 speech : “’A p‘, e/f/jj, w arSpeg, eiiebs rj/nag irapovrog baipovog /oteyaAov /cai rai pev 
 Xpov<i> icnjAi/cos Tots aeiyevecri deolg, t9) fie p,op<£jf vea/TaTOi/, /cal p.eye'dei per narra 
 €7re'vot'TOS, if/vyf fie av&pwirov iSpvp.4vov, *Eporoj, /xij ap.vrjp.ovT}crat, aAAws re /cat 
 ejreifirj navreg ecrper tov &eov tovtov dta<rwTai ....." Among the disciples of 
 Socrates was Xenophon himself. The subject of discussion was Love, and the 
 duty of men to love one another, just as Jesus, at similar symposiums, used to 
 teach the great philosophy of love nearly 500 years afterwards. 
 
 77 First Oorinihiant, iv., 7. The church got an early foothold in Corinth. 
 This great city was overrun with slaves. Of 080,000 inhabitants, 640,000 were 
 slaves. Yet Paul, speaking against the distinctions which “puff” men up, one 
 above another, asks them : “Who maketh thee to differ from another?” 
 
554 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 had banqueted, and entreated them not to forget to pay 
 it. These communes drank wine, sacrificed lambs, had for¬ 
 tune-tellers, messiahs, prophets, married and brought up 
 children, and within their sacred pale had “all things 
 common.” This is what the early Christians organized 
 their first communities upon; and it certainly seems, con¬ 
 sidering their lowliness and the fact that they were mostly 
 workingmen and women, that Christianity was the organ¬ 
 ization invented to “PROCLAIM’ the cult which the secret 
 commune so long and so inveterately had in secret prac¬ 
 tised. In a word, the revolution of Jesus rose from a deep 
 meaning, thoroughly digested, long tried and powerful 
 culture, already inculcating, already impregnating the opin¬ 
 ion . and bias of that great working majority, the down¬ 
 trodden lowly of mankind. 
 
 The idea—ignored by Plato, “the father of idealism,” 
 and hinted at in Aristotle’s strange prediction 78 —of a so¬ 
 ciety without slaves where all are equal, was original in 
 the secret labor communes ; but so far as its open propa¬ 
 gation was concerned, it was original with Jesus, totally 
 and definitively. That idea could not mix with the old pa¬ 
 ganism. 79 Otherwise the ancient culture, philosophy and 
 great-mindedness, had many magnificent virtues, which 
 prevail to-day and which farther on, we shall show to 
 nave belonged not to paganism but to labor. The repu¬ 
 diation of paganism by the culture of Jesus, took on, in 
 the ignorant, bigoted world, an enormous excrescence of 
 supernumerary whims arising from infantile speculations 
 of men, which were condensed through edicts, by the 
 councils of different ages, into tyrannical faith-cures, in¬ 
 quisitions and superstitious “standard philosophies,” and 
 theological regulations which arbitrarily, building on suoh 
 edicts, destroyed for a thousand years, the culture of in¬ 
 quiry founded by men like Aristotle and Socrates. But 
 this very spirit of inquiry belongs to the plan of Jesus. 89 
 
 They could not see the way clear to mix. The age w« 
 live in is that of mixture of the two great and immortal 
 
 78 Aristotle, in (Economics, predicted, foreshadowed that there might arrive 
 a atate of development in which there would be no slaves. Cf. id., Pol., I., 4. 
 
 79 Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, I., chap, xlll., Ea stage of At 
 Age of Reason , has shown, by a cutting array of facts, that the inquieitiv*, «f 
 Investigating spirit and its culture of the Greek Progressists sohool would b*f* 
 been extirpated altogether, hut for Mohammed and the Arabians and SpaAtfa 
 Moora. 
 
 to Thestaloniatu, 21 : “ Prove all things and hold feet that whieh is ml ** 
 
THE MOHAMMEDAN RESCUE. 
 
 555 
 
 plans.. It is the culture of inquisitive reason on the basic 
 of equality of all mankind. This equality paganism did 
 not allow. 
 
 The revolution accomplished by the efforts of the pool 
 through their long succession of revolts, their messiahs, 
 secret organizations, and at last their early Christianity, 
 though it was perverted by Constantine and a long suc¬ 
 cession of prelates in the false garb of faith and priest¬ 
 craft during the dark ages, never for a moment relin¬ 
 quished its hold on its real revolutionary idea. That 
 idea was the equality of man, the teaching by the poor, 
 of the poor; the building-up of a vast civilization with¬ 
 out slaves, with one God, one father for all and salvation 
 of all, economically. 
 
 When Christians concentrated priest-power into despot¬ 
 ism there arose another vast and similar order—the Mo¬ 
 hammedan—which resumed the same idea and in Spain 
 went on for centuries with the plan based upon equality, 
 carrying it out as well as could be done at that low age. 
 This Mohammedanism appears to have saved mankind 
 from sinking forever. 
 
 It took a thousand years for the world to learn and prop¬ 
 erly apply the new system. The relapses and swoons of 
 the early centuries, when men were guided by ambitious 
 demagogues, were, if we learn to reason upon them aright, 
 most natural things. The world had, throughout all the 
 previous ages, been cultivating a civilization based upon 
 the system of masters and slaves. It was a civilization 
 competitive in all respects. It had never known a moment 
 of socialistic life. If its lowly millions had built up and 
 tried a socialism, it was in the dense penumbra of secrecy. 
 Whenever their socialism reached the light it had always 
 been put down by the monster power of slavery and its 
 military legions, as a loathsome and filthy thing; for it rec¬ 
 ognized equality. 
 
 Foolish then and short-sighted are the men who won¬ 
 der at the vast tumble-down ages of demolition that super¬ 
 vened over the immortal revolution of Jesus and the work¬ 
 ing people, who, prying their socialistic civilization up 
 through this despotism, at a choice moment when aristoc¬ 
 racy was rotting by its own loathsome gangrene, sent their 
 orators out, and with superhuman struggles urged it forth 
 upon the broad plane of day where, for once and for all. 
 
656 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS . 
 
 the resplcn&ant stm of uumasked«utelligence shone upon 
 it with beams so bright that, although since beclouded, 
 it now rolls onward to a final day. 
 
 The new ages had to be built, but in their building 
 their architects fell, times without number and nearly two 
 thousand years rolled over the world before all things 
 became adjusted to this civilization they have erected 
 upon those great precepts which contain and set forth the 
 economic equality of mankind. 
 
 This emergence of the culture of the great commune 
 system of the ancient lowly out of the secret, into the open, 
 out of the irascible, destructive, the bloody and warlike, 
 into the peaceful world, which took place at Palestine 
 after the great and last disaster under Spartacus, gave to 
 humanity a set of immortal principles to accomplish their 
 economic salvation. So inconceivably great was the 
 change or revolution embodied in these principles that 
 our race in applying them, sank into a swoon and well- 
 nigh lost them forever. But after a struggle of nearly 
 1,900 years the World is at last re-emerging from its 
 thrall and is now in the very act of applying them as a 
 permanent principle to its political economy. 
 
 One of the greatest and fiercest struggles the Christians 
 ever had was motived by the working people’s demand 
 for bread. The new sect, being largely of the labor ele¬ 
 ment, its monks naturally were in their sympathy and al¬ 
 lowed vast numbers of images, palladiums, amulets, tal¬ 
 ismans and incantations to be manufactured for the uses 
 of every conceivable phase of priestcraft. There came, 
 during the middle ages a protest against it, and for 120 
 years the war of the iconoclasts raged against the working 
 people who in turn were savagely upheld by the monks. 
 Thus, as ever before, the aristocracy were against labor, 
 rightly, perhaps, for in course of ages, industry has, in the 
 finer civilizations, given up its hold on image-making; but 
 the truth is, the laboring classes would not accept Chris¬ 
 tianity at the cost of their means of life. That this does 
 not apply to the early Christians is explained by the fact 
 that they were co-operators who “had all things common.” 
 
 “In the present world only evil reigns. Satan is the king 
 of the earth, or prince of this world. All obey him.” " 
 
 41 Consult Intellectual Development of Europe, vol. II., for a full discussion. 
 
 *2 Renan, Vie de Jesus, p. 116; N. T. John, xli., 31, xir., 30, xvi., 11; 
 Second Corinthians, iv., 4. 
 
A X Cl EXT AGITATION BY ALLEGORY. 657 
 
 Now working people, even those engaged in the great ad¬ 
 vocacy of labor, and the absolute equality of the rights of 
 man, may possibly be misled by their honest belief that 
 J esus, in talking as he did meant only the world to come. 
 He meant the present, just as he said: “The kings kill 
 the prophets:” 63 “The just are persecuted :* f “Thy will 
 be done on earth as it is in heaven.” 84 
 
 But whoever thoroughly understands the ancients, well 
 knows that among all the numerous turmoils of slaves, of 
 gladiators, of agrarianism, of trade unionists, there have 
 been prophets. The kings, according to this speech of 
 Christ, killed them. We have sufficiently shown that the 
 kings and rulers were not satisfied with their ordinary 
 death ; they hung them and their followers upon the 
 ignominious cross. 85 “The world as it is, is the enemy of 
 God.” 86 The great master, speaking in his exquisitely 
 perfect style of allegory, always represented God as the 
 principle of goodness—nature. 
 
 Jesus preached openly a plan or system of absolute jus¬ 
 tice ; and he, in establishing a foothold for it, also per¬ 
 ished on the cross. The kings killed the prophets. They 
 had just killed his friend and forerunner, the vigorous 
 agitator and member of the order of free masons, John 
 the Baptist, because his pure character and love of virtue 
 forbade him from permitting unattacked, the voluptu¬ 
 ousness and fornication going on in palaces and assigna¬ 
 tion houses of Herod and 87 intimates, over whom reigned 
 the beautiful but silly Herodias by whose machinations 
 Antipas had become the cunning ingrate whom Jesus de¬ 
 nominated the“ fox.” 88 John and Jesus owe their death 
 to this bloodthirsty female libertine. Very few know or 
 even seek to know the real, human, home-vie wed causes 
 of these renowned events; they being mixed up in the 
 mysticism of supernatural predilection and bigotry. When 
 this labor movement comes to be regarded as a sort of 
 “second coming,” which it really is, we shall behold the 
 amazing analogy of that mighty agitation of A. D. 31-33, 
 in juxtaposition with ours of 1886-’ 96, our eyes opened, 
 
 •3 Renan, Id., pp. 116, 117 84 MaUXrm, vi., 10. 
 
 85 See supra, the chapters on Strikes and Uprisings. 
 
 90 Renan, Vie de Jisus, p. 117. 
 
 87 Renan, idem, p. Ill: “ L’union presq' incestueuse d’Antipas etd’Hi- 
 rodiale s’accomplit alors.” Leviticus , viii.. 16 ; Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 
 VII., 6. 7 and elsewhere: Antiquities , XVII., 13. 
 
 •* See Encyclopaedia Britannica, Article Antipas. 
 
658 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 our hearts gladdened in an inexpressably glorious normal 
 growth of 18 centuries which have shorn it of mysticism 
 and theosophy. 
 
 Prophets and healers were everywhere. The wife of 
 Spartacus was both. She foretold that the deeds of this 
 gladiator should be great, by divining the causes of the 
 serpent being found coiled around her husband’s neck and 
 face during his sleep. She was a sorceress; and her pre¬ 
 monitory words all turned out too true to the cruel capi¬ 
 talists, for whose work of enslaving the people Spartacus 
 punished them with some of the most disastrous mili¬ 
 tary defeats and humiliating slaughters to be found in the 
 annals of war. 89 
 
 The Essenes had their prophets, some of whom turned 
 off such excellent examples of foretelling that they be¬ 
 came known far and near. 90 All antiquity was full of 
 prophets; and they had the advantage of us modern mor¬ 
 tals, in that they met an openly expressed belief in prog¬ 
 nostication; whereas the people of modern times are on 
 the alert for what they incredulously and correctly char¬ 
 acterize as humbugs. When the true social history of the 
 past shall have been written, and all its available phases 
 presented from a point of view of the anti-slavery or anti¬ 
 competitive movement, we shall come to a common sense 
 understanding of this whole mesh, linked together, event 
 with event. 
 
 Paganism by its law of entailment upon primogeniture 
 logically made every child, except the first-born, or “an¬ 
 ointed, v a menial, a chattel, a slave, 01 
 
 Jesus with a majestic swoop, hurled this cruelty from 
 his state and turning to all the innocents, with an ineffa¬ 
 ble sweetness, uttered the irresistible command: “ Suffer 
 little children to come unto me for of such is the kingdom 
 of heaven 92 and though Plato hove the consideration of 
 the working class from him with a contempt that denied 
 them even citizenship, the eloquence of Jesus rang out: 
 “The laborer is worthy of his hire.” 98 
 
 Messiahships and prophetic lore, all through the sup- 
 
 •* Consult supra, chapter ix. 
 
 so Smith’s Oyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, Article, Essenes; Bellermaun, 
 Nadirichten aus dem AUerthum. 
 
 1,1 See supra, chapter on Eleusinian Mysteries, touching the cryptia, and 
 secret wholesale murder of the laboring element. 
 
 ^ N- T. Mark, x., 14. Matthew, n, 10; Luke, n* T. 
 
LONDON'S SOCIALISM FROM SAME OLD PLAN7 odU 
 
 erstitious ages have been strategical strongholds of econ¬ 
 omic philosophy. They have entered with immaculate 
 conceptions, prophetic powers, voodooisms and fetichs. 
 They have entered into all the efforts of the poor, strug¬ 
 gling for economic emancipation. But they have acted a 
 potent part in building and deeply rooting a philosophy 
 whose slow and steady culture is terminating in the rea¬ 
 sonable belief that such monstrous things are worthless 
 and that the purified economic philosophy needs no mas¬ 
 ters, leaders or messiahs. 
 
 A thousand years after Lycurgus, Jesus denied that the 
 estate of birth and family, as understood by the Pagans, 
 was of any account whatever. He laid the axe at the root 
 of this most egregious evil; and his doctrines have been 
 quietly destroying it ever since. 
 
 From B. C. 55, the date of Julius Caesar’s invasion of 
 the British shores, the Homan organizations began. It 
 is well known that the Romans mixed freely with the peo¬ 
 ple whom they found living on these islands. Settling in 
 Kent, Middlesex and other places, they taught the Brit¬ 
 ons as we have elsewhere explained, the mechanic arts. 
 They also taught them the principle of combination 
 against oppression which existed there in all its rigors. 
 They planted the burial societies which to this day have 
 never died out; communes, which smothered for thous¬ 
 ands of years, still exist; trade unions, which, though 
 often stifled into guilds and perhaps, in appearance, sup¬ 
 pressed, smouldered through long generations until finally 
 allowed to resume. Their burial associations were in 
 Kent, Middlesex and London, the same as they were at 
 Rome—-practically more trade union than burial society. 
 
 We behold with astonishment, unable to comprehend 
 because ignorant of the powers of transmission through 
 habit, the tendency of the working people of London, to 
 grasp the social problem. Yet here is the explanation. 
 Their omnipresent burial societies are at heart both trade 
 unions and socialist communes, just as were those of their 
 ancestors. And now London crops out, the very leader 
 of the great labor movement of the world. It has been 
 so all along. A glance at the history of the social turmoils 
 of Jack Cade, of Wickliff, will show that London and its 
 vicinity have ever been as it were, the nucleus of a great 
 
560 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon cult of fraternity borrowed from the Greet 
 and Roman Brotherhoods. 
 
 Our inference from evidence given in preceding chap¬ 
 ters, that land was not primevally held as common prop¬ 
 erty will be challenged. The opposite opinion is the prp- 
 ular one. But we have all through, insisted that we < o 
 not claim to prove it only in connection with the Indc- 
 European stock, whatever may be hereafter ascertained 
 as to others, the historic evidence shows more and more 
 conclusively as we investigate, that the original settler was 
 the paterfamilias, the low bully who took the land, and 
 built about him like a sovereign, using his family as his 
 slaves. The Aryan, we insist, was not a nomad. Nomads 
 were the first runaway sons and daughters w r ho, unable 
 to endure the treatment they were subjected to, organ¬ 
 ized, revolted, took to the woods and built up sympathies 
 and self-help coalitions which finally developed into the 
 numerous social unions we have described, and gave ori¬ 
 gin to the nomadic life of the patriarchal system. In 
 other words, the earliest of our forefathers were the mon¬ 
 archical stock, and the democratic stock followed. So we 
 find also, true to the principle of development, that the 
 older, or monarchical stock is gradually dying out while 
 the democratic stock is growing little by little, century 
 by century, all over the world alike. The first are the 
 aristocracy the latter the working people. 
 
 We have stated before that there exists a similarity 
 between Socrates and Jesus. The more this fact is stud¬ 
 ied the more beautiful the paralellisms appear. Both 
 were workingmen by birth. Both preached the labor 
 question. Both were guided throughout their lives by a 
 daemon; that is, by some invisible power for good; for 
 the Greek daemon was God. Both were betrayed by 
 their own disciples. Both were orators of the most super¬ 
 nal eloquence, powers of magnetism and genius, the one 
 with simile the other, allegory. Neither wrote, but both 
 like the true workingman, were indefatigable in deeds 
 and left their followers to do their writing. Both were 
 prophets and messiahs and both died martyrs to their 
 cause. To carry the similitude farther, both were sur¬ 
 rounded to their dying hour, by friends who in after life, 
 rose from their masters’ seemingly inspired teachings, to 
 
TWO MEN AND TWENTY-FIVE CENTURIES. 661 
 
 the very pinnacle of fame—a fame which, in both cases, 
 based clearly on the economic question, has been greater, 
 more lasting and far more glorious than that of any other 
 men. 
 
 But Socrates in less than 600 years, could only block 
 out, and crudely present what Jesus, in 2,000 years, 
 brings to perfection. From the great sayings of the rea¬ 
 soning Soorates arose the axiom of Aristotle, to be up and 
 be doing, for nothing would come of itself, and Jesus in 
 similar manner taught Paul to prove all things; hold fast 
 that which is good — the basis since laid down by Des¬ 
 cartes and Bacon, and spontaneously adopted as the 
 ground-principle upon which our mechanico-progressive 
 enlightenment thrives. No nation, no people that will 
 not accept and pattern from it can proceed. They must 
 languish like the Mongolian, in conservatism. 
 
 Let us first compare the prayers of these two masters 
 with those of others. The prayer of Socrates ran as fol¬ 
 lows : 
 
 “O beloved God of nature, Guardian of many a clime! 
 Let me become beautiful within; for whatever I have 
 outward, I should be at peace within. Let me be wise 
 enough to consider him rich who hath wisdom. May I 
 be endowed with but enough of riches as no one except 
 a prudent man can use and bear without pride.”* 4 
 
 There was a dignified and honest humiliation about 
 Socrates. He must have been a most heroic character. 
 A poor workingman, bom to a trade, and never owning 
 more than a third class house to live in, he was able— 
 though he went barefoot through the streets of Athens 
 and some say, almost ragged and filthy—to attract and 
 captivate, and actually convert into thinkers and philoso¬ 
 phers, some of the wealthiest young aristocrats of that 
 high-toned city. He constantly declared that he was 
 guided by some unknown spirit. Jesus was also thus 
 guided. Socrates was certain of nothing until he had 
 reasoned the objection away and always thought that he 
 himself knew little or nothing. The same unassuming 
 sweetness and self-distrust is what makes the character oi 
 Jesus so lovelv and captivating that all the ascerbity of 
 his critics melts with the progress of their arguments 
 
 M Plato, Pfuxdrxa, Jtru 
 
562 
 
 PLANS AMD MODELS. 
 
 The last scenes of Socrates as described by Plato in hia 
 Crito and his Phsedo, are, for their wonderfully affecting 
 simplicity, and their astonishing disclosure of the power 
 of human resignation and of spirit over the flesh, unpar- 
 alelled by anything that exists in story, unless we except 
 the story of Jesus, his last supper and exquisite fortitude 
 in the hour and agony of death. 
 
 The most celebrated and oft-repeated prayer of Jesus 
 is that regarding his mission in favor of the poor—the 
 Lord’s prayer—in which, being one of them, he uses the 
 second person: “Give us this day our daily bread.” 96 It 
 was a great problem among the poor of his time, how to 
 get enough to eat. But for an example of his power to 
 subjugate the hateful spirit of intimidation and vengeance, 
 of conceit and shallow egoism which debased his age, 
 nothing can equal the great prayer as he hung, dying in 
 awful agony, upon the cross. This torture had been the 
 invention of fiends of the prehistoric ages; by creatures 
 who imagined that pain was the crystalized term embody¬ 
 ing both vengeance and threat. They so framed both 
 their law and their gibbet, foreknelling to the subjects, by 
 cramming the imagination with the horror of pain. Yet 
 even in this incomparable agony, with the spirit at the 
 verge of departure, and the body writhing in qualms such 
 as none can suffer so poignantly as a young man of his 
 physical courage and vigor in the sensitive prime of life’s 
 hopes and joys, we see this person capable of casting up 
 his eyes to heaven and meekly, touchingly, begging the 
 Pan of Socrates; the Isis of the therapeut; the Palla9 
 Athene of Phidias, the Cybele of the thiasote, the Ceres 
 of Eunus, the God of Abraham and universal Father, to 
 forgive them—the cruel mob—for they knew not what 
 they did. 96 
 
 Now let us look at some other celebrated prayers, study 
 their exact meaning and ask ourselves how these two un¬ 
 selfish and self-sacrificing prayers of Socrates and of 
 Jesus, differed in point of view of the plan of salvation for 
 the poor and laboring lowly. 
 
 One of the oldest that we have is that of Alcestis, 
 the faithful wife of Admetus, who was about to die that 
 her husband might live. She invoked the altar of her 
 
 M Matthew, vi., 11. •• N. T., Luke , xxiii., 54. 
 
 #r 
 
SPECIMENS OF SELF] SUN EPS IN PRA TER. 5G3 
 
 family, the tomb of her fathers, the fire-eternal of her 
 hearth : “0 holy divinity, mistress of my gens and pater¬ 
 nity ! This is the last time that I bow myself before thee, 
 and address thee my prayers; for I am about to descend 
 into the regions of the dead. Watch I pray thee, over 
 my children, who are to know no more a mother. Give 
 to my son a tender wife, and to my daughter a noble hus¬ 
 band. Permit that they may not die, like myself before 
 their time, but let them, in the bosom of happiness and 
 riches, find a protracted existence.” 91 
 
 All is selfishness. The family, the individual, the ego¬ 
 ist, the concentrated wealth of slave labor, a'one to be 
 blessed, but not a word for the suffering world outside. 
 
 So again, another ancient aristocrat, approaching the 
 tomb of a rich man believed to be happy in the abodes 
 below, prays: “O thou who art an aristocrat under the 
 sod.” 98 Another prayer of a selfish son, concerned only in 
 the welfare of his family and the wealth he has inherited, 
 in the language of Euripides likewise invoking his dead 
 father now a god in the beatitude of an underground 
 paradise, reads : “O thou, who art a god under the 
 ground, preserve me.” 
 
 But Juvenal, the great satirist, a freedman s son ana a 
 low-born, had the kindness of Socrates. In one of his 
 satires Juvenal prays. His praj^es is for the poor slave, 
 in bondage; and good old Juvenal died in exile, on the 
 scorching plains of an African desert. 
 
 Xenophon who wrote the (Economics, a treatise on the 
 habits of life, makes Isomachus say to Socrates : “I open 
 the day, each morning, by saying my prayers, like a gen¬ 
 tleman well brought up.” 99 The philosophers among the 
 Greeks always said their prayers, and even at the sympo¬ 
 siums of the thiasotes and other communes, prayers and 
 paeans were regularly offered. 100 But all the prayers of 
 the ancient rich, were for the rich and noble. iEchylus 
 makes Orestes pray to the great God of the Greek the- 
 ogony of his age, as follows: “O Zeus! If thou lettest 
 the race of the eagle perish, who shall hereafter bear the 
 
564 
 
 auguries to mortal men ?” 101 Nobody but the aristocrat, 
 allied by blood to the God himself, could carry the mes¬ 
 sages from the high to the low, of mankind; and by this 
 culture the aristocracy was maintained while the outcasts, 
 the low-born who labored, were kept down, even by the 
 prayers and entreaties of those in power. 
 
 An instance of the kind of prayer that was expected by 
 a gathering of ancients before the beginning of our era, 
 is told of Ptolemy Philadelphus, at a convention of guests 
 called to examine the Septuagint at Alexandria, about 
 B. 0. 265. An old Pagan priest w r as called on to offer an 
 extemporaneous prayer, and he made it with such show, 
 and rhetorical eloquence that it caused a tumultuous out¬ 
 burst of applause. 102 How different from the command 
 we have from the workingman. 103 
 
 Far better than this have the simple aborigines of Amer¬ 
 ica done. The prayer of the Quiche race in their wander¬ 
 ings to find a fixed habitation was: “Hail! O Creator, O 
 Former! thou that art in heaven and on the earth, O 
 Heart of Heaven, O Heart of Earth! give us descendants 
 and a posterity as long as the light endures. Give us to 
 walk always in an open road, in a path without snares; 
 to lead happy, quiet, peaceable lives, free of reproach.” 104 
 The Aztec prayers preserved from the mouldering anti¬ 
 quities of Mexico, touch the heart as if they might be 
 labor supplications; and they make us think of the wan¬ 
 dering family outcasts of the ancient Aryan race. 106 
 
 Socrates and Jesus pray with a similar humiliation, foi 
 improvement, liberty and modest emancipation from want 
 while the others prayed for a continuation of the powers 
 and riches already in their possession; and the farther 
 we investigate these two characters the finer and more 
 beautiful appears the paralellism between them, while 
 their natures diverge more and more widely from the 
 great class outside the social pale, buffeting, and vaunt¬ 
 ing in the competitive billows of pride and arrogance. 
 
 Not a few men of distinction of our age are awakening 
 to a sense of the great modern truth, that it is noble to 
 
 uji zEschilus, Choephori, 248-249; De Casyaguac Histoire dts Classes Noble* 
 
 U Ues Classes Annoblies, p 569. 
 
 Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe , Vol. I., p. 89. 
 
 Matthew, vi , 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Bancroft, Native Races , vol. III., p. 49. 
 
 106 Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. XVII., p. 220 (Stoddart). 
 
PR 0 VE HIM OF LABOR, AND JE WS CAN A CCEPT. 505 
 
 acknowledge. When nations, or families, or individuals 
 discover that they have been hugging an error, it is not 
 disgraceful, it is noble, even grand, to come boldly out 
 and acknowledge it. 106 
 
 We premise this statement as a prologue to w T hat we 
 would say of the Jew's who still despise, almost ignore the 
 modern era. There is a solemn history in their case tiiat 
 ought to furnish a full excuse for this. But viewed from 
 our standpoint of true sociology which treats man in his 
 normal relation to the economic means of existence, there 
 is no longer an excuse for schism, dissention and misun¬ 
 derstanding as to the acceptance by Jew or Gentile, of 
 the present civilization, so far as it has been able to jostle 
 into the plans of salvation laid dow r n by Moses, Socrates, 
 Aristotle and Jesus. When correctly understood by the 
 Hebrew working man, he himself will acknowledge that 
 no grounds for quarrel exists with these legislators—not 
 even with the plan of Jesus. That he lived, is true beyond 
 cavil ; 107 and the Jew 7 does not deny it; he only denies 
 that he Was the great aristocrat whom his own proud race 
 expected. Here lies the trouble. Let it be remembered 
 that those ancient Jews of whom we read, were at this 
 time very proud people and that they had no sympathy 
 whatever w r ith persons who would stoop to an agitation 
 in the cause of the slaves, or the working classes. This 
 phase of the life and labors of Jesus, they were themselves 
 the very first to condemn and reject. It was they who 
 were maddened at his w 7 ork, and they who betrayed and 
 killed him. Had he come as a great prince, robed in 
 
 ice Hewitt, Speech in the House of Representatives, on the Em an cipat ion 
 of Labor : “I have no apologies to make for having progressed out o: the night of 
 darkness into the open sunshine of truth. Exit I should have apologies to make 
 if, having reached conclusions which contradict those that I held years ago, I 
 should fail in this House and everywhere to announce them with that frankness 
 which bel ongs to an honest man and a faithful representative.” As the new era 
 advances, we see more and more frequent exhibits of lofty acknowledgment like 
 the specimen here quoted. 
 
 107 The profane evidences that such a person actually lived aremanyand mul¬ 
 tiform; Consult Josephus, Antiquities, cap. xviii. As regards the authenticity 
 of Josephus, we refer the reader to Tacitus, Annalcs, Xv., 44; Origen, Com- 
 mentatio in Matth.; Eusebius, Evangeliorum Demonstratio, III. ; Idem, .Eccles¬ 
 iastic us, I., cap. xi.; Hieronymus, De Vij-is lllustribus, In Josepho; Sozoraen, 
 Hisloria Ecclesiastica, I., 1; Justin Martyr, Dial, cum Tryphone: Georgius Syrv- 
 cellus. Chronica ; Scaligcr, Prolegomena, De Emendatione Temporum and many 
 others. A curious book, purporting to be a copy of an ancient MS. of the Se< i et 
 Order of Essenes, now iu the possession of Mr. G. L. W r iid, the piano merchant 
 of Washington, D. C., and which we have carefully perused, bears the follow- 
 ing suggestive title: “Wie ist Jesus wirklich gestorben? — Beantwortet.’ Ila.ti- 
 xnore, 1850. 
 
PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 506 
 
 gorgeous and shining attire, with lofty tread and lordly 
 mein, and had he preached the^ philosophy of property, 
 the sanctity of priesthood and the vengeance of Jehovah, 
 tilings to-day would have been different. The J ews would 
 have acknowledged him. 
 
 But his work launched incomparably above that level, 
 in that, while it in no sense, attacked the Pagan science 
 or any of its powerful steps in development, it resulted 
 completely in breaking up the hideous system of slavery. 
 It built up what had ever before been a stranger even 
 among the Jews, the free family; legalizing that institution 
 on a completely democratic basis, such as makes every one, 
 no matter how poor, a noble. In this it has excelled every¬ 
 thing hitherto known among either Pagans or Hebrews; 
 for Moses provided the ghastly institution of slavery. 
 
 This aged stamp of slavery removed, nothing remains 
 to hinder Hebrew working people from rising in science 
 and the scientific adjustment or application of the inven¬ 
 tions, manufactures and all other products of their hands 
 and working harmoniously with all others of the indus¬ 
 trial class. 
 
 The Jews are easily convinced of any truth when it is 
 reasonably explained; for they are logically and scienti¬ 
 fically disposed. It is well known that while they were 
 living peacefully in Spain, during the Middle ages, under 
 the then excellent Mohammedan rule which cultivated the 
 sciences and arts, great numbers of Jews embraced the 
 Mohammedan faith. Among others was the great Mai- 
 monides. 108 
 
 But Jerusalem at that time being a grand, beautiful 
 and proud city, ruled over by an aristocratic stock who 
 numbered many priests among them, the Hebrew's natu¬ 
 rally wanted and expected a man of noble extraction, as 
 their Messiah. 
 
 Another point must here connectedly be borne in mind— 
 the destruction of Jerusalem. Early Christians are known 
 lo have ioohed unconcerned upon this awful scene under 
 Titus, A. A). 70. This again maddened the Hebrews; for 
 they found themseivos if possible, worse persecuted than 
 the new brotherhood 
 
 Josephus gives the number of Jtw r s, men, women and 
 
 ‘“•S*® InUlUclu&i Vco<«rpiMul oj JCuropt, il., pp. 122-11 .. 
 
GOOD CAUSE FOR THE HEBREW DISBELIEF. 567 
 
 children destroyed, at 1.100,000, and Tacitus gives it at 
 600, 000. Considering the almost unparalelled massacres 
 to which they were subjected, after the new brotherhood 
 began to take root, and that they naturally thought these 
 brotherhoods were the real cause of it, we cannot wonder 
 that they consider them and their organizer and cham¬ 
 pion as at the bottom of many of their disasters. 
 
 It is only when they begin to look upon this Jesus from 
 the point of view of social science, that the brilliant He¬ 
 brew race can ever see and persuade themselves to admit 
 that there was no imposture ; for the labor movement is 
 at this moment without a tincture of class hatred or of na¬ 
 tional prejudice. It is slowly working for the improve¬ 
 ment of all mankind; and any one plan that succeeds must 
 logically be the one accepted by both Jew and Gentile. 
 
 The knowledge of these facts leads to the review of an¬ 
 cient plans, in a light that contrasts them with the mod¬ 
 ern. In extreme brevity it is as follows: 
 
 The planjof Lycurgus was this of our modern socialists 
 who desire that society or government possess, operate, 
 distribute with mathematical accuracy, the product of 
 labor. The state of Lycurgus did as much for a period 
 of 500 years. 
 
 The plan of the moderns is, that the state shall own all 
 land and all implements of labor. But the Spartans did 
 exactly this, under a test of 1,500 generations. What, 
 then, is this political economy that has not been tried? 
 
 The answ r er to this gives a mirror in which is reflected 
 the vast progress under the new era. It is simply that the 
 tools of labor were originally the slaves; the human, animate, 
 quickened things , that thought, resented, rebelled, fought 
 organized, wrote their record upon the slabs and finally 
 brought out their great culture and master; these were the 
 tools of the ancient Pagan state ! And in Sparta, in Crete 
 and in Plato’s Republic, they had them in common. 
 
 The laborer then, as the subjugated tool of the ancients 
 did right, we claim, no matter how destructive his methods 
 or bow disastrous for the moment, their outcome; he 
 did right under the circumstances, terrible and irrepressi¬ 
 ble in his slavery-cursed ages; he did right to rebel and 
 teach those cruel optimates who owned and whipped and 
 strangled him, the first stern lessons in democracy. 
 
568 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 Men and women then, were the tools, the implements 
 of labor owned in common by the state ; and they were 
 worked and whipped for the “blessed” of “God’s chosen 
 people.” The change from the human tools to the labor- 
 saving tools ; from the servile state to the democratic; 
 from the groans of ignorance to the joys of equality in en¬ 
 lightenment, is the revolution in which the advocates of 
 modern labor reform desire to have “all things common,” 
 as Jesus arranged through his followers. It was the eco¬ 
 nomic part to be accomplished, which he presaged and 
 ordered for adoption on the vast scale, at his “second 
 coming”—the Labor Movement of to-day. 
 
 We have now arrived at our closing remarks on these 
 implements of labor. We have already shown that the 
 economic problem of the ancients was never Pagan. It 
 was then, just what it is now—Christian, or that which 
 afterwards became Christian. Paganism never could 
 endure any mechanical progress. It was conservative. 
 When mechanical genius of the industrial earth-borns 
 wrought at Athens, and in Asia Minor and the islands of 
 the Archipelago, wonderful works, they were aggressive 
 against paganism and its sullen culture. 
 
 What was the mechanical progress of the ancient low- 
 borns, then, despite the contempt of a system based on 
 slavery that has always, even to this day, made them as 
 slaves and poor wage-earners, the tools of an aristocracy ? 
 
 We reply, basing each word carefully upon history, that 
 it was labor —labor degraded, but labor. Nothing else. 
 No nation ever made an iota of progress without it. The 
 bully in a spirit of brigandage could seize the product of 
 labor and use it; but not without first forcing a laborer 
 to perform the task. 
 
 But a curious fact is here opened to view. Not only is 
 labor the origin of all things among mankind which make 
 life and enlightenment, but it is the poor little infinitesi¬ 
 mal creature, the laborer, that makes language. No power 
 can withstand or overcome that of the proletarian iuroads. 
 A desperate effort was once made in England to intro¬ 
 duce and perpetuate the Latin tongue. High-priests and 
 prelates, university doctors, kings robed in majesty, and 
 governmental powers, were almost unanimous in the up¬ 
 per atmosphere of rule, in pressing the subjection of the 
 
ANCIENT INVENTIONS. 
 
 669 
 
 Longue of the proletarian million. For centuries their powes 
 imperfectly succeeded. But a Chaucer, and a Shakespeare 
 rose from the ranks to the rescue and backed by the rough 
 and heedless populace, teeming in the by-ways already the 
 proud old classic is dead. It is this little, insignificant mite, 
 so long in the swaddlings and sackcloth of contempt, who 
 adds almost every new word, as he adds every new thing, 
 by the unrecognized toil of his invention, contrivance, dis¬ 
 covery, in industry; and the multitude of mechanical as 
 well as literary plagiarisms, ancient and modern, practiced at 
 his expense to aggrandize others, will be the subject of some 
 future treasure-hunter, for an invaluable book. 
 
 The ancient world before the Roman conquests, was not 
 onlv full of inhabitants, but full of inventions. They had 
 a reaper among the Cauls, the operations of which are trace¬ 
 able for hundreds of years. It was a real reaping machine 
 or harvester. Pliny tells us that it was pushed by an ox 
 harnessed in thills behind it and that it had some sort of 
 reel which threw the heads of the grain over so that some¬ 
 how they were severed—or as he erroneously states, torn, 
 —from the stalks . 109 The reaper mentioned by Pliny is 
 again found much more perfectly described by Palladius, 
 400 years afterwards. It is perfectly obvious to any me¬ 
 chanic or farmer who has tried a reaping machine that no 
 grain, however ripe or brittle, will admit for a moment, of 
 having its ears “torn off” and dropped into a trough. On 
 the contrary, the greatest precaution in the construction of 
 cutters that sever the heads from the stalks must be ob¬ 
 served. Here was the secret of the recent inventions. 
 
 109 Pliny, Nat. Hist.. IS, 30, describing the messor. or harvester, speaks as fol¬ 
 lows : “ Messis ipsius ratio varia. Galliarum latifundiis valli prsegrandes den- 
 tibus in margine mfestis, dnabns rotis persegetem impelluntar, jumento in con- 
 trarinm junclo ; ita direptse in vallnrn caduut spicse. Stlpulae alibi mediae falce 
 precidunt, atque inter dims mergites spica distringitur.” This same machine i® 
 more fully described by Palladius, in his De Re Rustica. for June, lib. VII., cap. 
 ii., as follows: “Pars Galliarum planior hoc coinpendio utitur ad metendum, 
 et praeter hominum labores, unius bovis opera spatium totius messis absumit. 
 Fit itaque vehiculum quod duabus rotis brevlbus tertur. Hujus quadrata super¬ 
 ficies tabulis munitur, quae forinsecus reclines in summo reddant spatio largi- 
 ora. Ab ejus fronte carpenti brevior est altitudo tabularum. Ibi denticuli plu- 
 rimi ac rari adspicarum mensuram constituuntur in ordinem, ad superiorem par¬ 
 tem recurvi. A tergo vero ejusdem vehiculi duo brevissimi temones figurantur, 
 velut amites basternarum. Ibi bos capite in vehiculum verso jugo aptatur et vin- 
 culis mansuetus sine, qui non modum compulsoris excedat. Hie ubi vehicu¬ 
 lum per messes coopit Irapellere omnis spica in carpentem denticulis compre- 
 hensacumulatur, abrupt is acrelictis paleis; altitudinem vel humilitatem plerum- 
 que bubuculo moderante, qui seiuitur. Kt ita per paucos itus ac reditus brevi 
 hornrum spatio tota invssis mipletur. Hoc campestribus locis vel eequalibu® 
 utile est, et iis, quibus uoceesana paics non habetur,” 
 
570 
 
 PLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 Pliny was a superficial observer and knew little about me¬ 
 chanical niceties. But he could correct I v inform us that 
 this labor-saving machine worked so well that it was uni¬ 
 versally employed by the farmers of the great valleys of 
 what is now France; and the fact that it worked, shows 
 that the ancients used the reciprocating shears. No doubt 
 this machine had been in use hundreds of years before Pliny 
 saw it. Palladius tells us that it economized labor so greatly 
 that one man with a strong, gentle ox could reap an entire 
 canton in a day. 
 
 Thus, while Caesar, a military noble of aristocratic stock 
 was attacking the defenseless people of Gaul, and killing 
 his million 110 —the harvest of his brutal invasions—the work¬ 
 ing people were quietly inventing the invaluable implements 
 of labor, which afterwards were to be exchanged for the 
 animate tools of labor in form of slaves and w age-bondmen 
 of the ancient oligarchy. 
 
 So long as the enslavement of man remained at so low a 
 level that man himself was the tool or implement of labor, 
 there appears to be no fierce exhibits of the competitive sys¬ 
 tem, such as prevails to-day. When slaves, as tools of labor, 
 were emancipated, the true competitive business era ap¬ 
 peared, and nourished by its corollary, the wage-slave sys¬ 
 tem, will continue, until the inanimate tools or implements 
 of labor—the inventions or labor-saving machines, have be¬ 
 come nationalized just as the animate tools, the human ma¬ 
 chines were nationalized, in the plans of Lycurgus and 
 Plato. This difference between the kind of tools to be na¬ 
 tionalized, from those of Lycurgus to those which make our 
 wonderful civilization, is in reality, exactly what working¬ 
 men of to-day are organizing and struggling to create. 
 Labor wants Lycurgus’ nationalization of the implements 
 of production and distribution on a basis in which all may 
 enjoy their product equally. 
 
 But reasoning from the point of view of social science, it 
 is worth while to recur to the actual mechanical advance¬ 
 ment attained to, in spite of the hatred borne by the ancient 
 cult, for any kind of laboring machines except the slave. 
 
 no Something on the destruction of the Gauls may be found in Caesar, Ds 
 Hello Gallico, VI., cap. 24. Wallace, Numbers of Mankind, p. 70-75, shows that 
 thore were 09,000,000 people in Gaul. Caesar killed 1,000,000, and took as many 
 more prisoners, many of whom were consigned to slavery. See Plutarch, I’om- 
 pry, showing that he siezed a thousand cities ; Id., Casar, 
 
BRITONS BORROW THE ROMAN CULT. 571 
 
 Long before Christ the Alatri had nsed the inverted siphon 111 
 and Pliny informs us of enormous hydraulic mining plants . 111 
 Wallace has collected a great number of references to au¬ 
 thors showing the height of perfection to which art had ar¬ 
 rived before the opening of the present era . 118 Fine porce¬ 
 lain was manufactured in high antiquity . 114 The building 
 art outstripped all others, even those of destruction in the 
 military line. The cause of this, is that more solemnity and 
 reverence existed among the Pagan temples than in any other 
 realm, and consequently more time, energy, genius and money 
 were expended in this sphere, than elsewhere; consequently 
 the building trade and the manufacture of images excelled 
 all other industries for exquisite workman ship . 114 
 
 Long before the Roman invasion of Britain, there existed 
 considerable art among the mechanics; but it is well estab¬ 
 lished that the friendly Roman Brotherhoods brought and 
 taught the art of lathe-work in pottery into a town which 
 h;.s since become the great London . 114 
 
 The whole subject sums up in the grave conclusion that 
 the plants and the plans of the ancient brotherhoods how¬ 
 ever ancient—even thousands of years before the coming of 
 the last Messiah—were really the plant and plan which, un¬ 
 der the Christian civilization, the modern world is following. 
 
 Pure paganism was that of the idea of an aristocratic re¬ 
 ligion whose priesthood was a part of the state government. 
 It denied the equality of men. It strenuously upheld and 
 stubbornly contended for the divinity of rights—a divinity 
 that was based upon the august power of the paternal des¬ 
 pot, and still adheres in form of the aged law of inheritance 
 and the rule of entailments upon primogeniture, or a species 
 of godhead for the first-born son, and in the inheritance of 
 living monarchs. Pure paganism exalted this first-born, 
 who was believed to have relationship by blood and family, 
 with the immortals. It was a despotism of masters over 
 slaves, which despised the laborers, originally its own chil¬ 
 dren, while it feasted upon their works. 
 
 111 Bowie, Hydraulic Mining, pp. 158-9. 
 
 112 Pliny, Natural History, XXXIII., cap. 4. 
 
 118 Wallace, Numbers of Mankind, p. 141; Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks 
 and Romans, p. 490, sqq. 
 
 114 Pliny, Natural History , XXXVI., cap. 26. 
 
 116 A fine specimen of building art was the temple of Jerusalem ; Campbell, 
 Political Survey , I., p. 23. note ; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historian , XVI.} 
 Dionysius, Periegesis, v. 109; Pliny, Natural History, VII., W. 
 
 118 Hughes, Horae Britannica. 
 
572 
 
 FLANS AND MODELS. 
 
 The laborers and the products of labor were therefore nec-w 
 Pagan. The beautiful chiselings of Phidias belonged, not 
 to the ancient, but to the modern civilization; for pure pa¬ 
 ganism despised these makers. They were before their age. 
 
 All the great industrial triumphs therefore, were, by an¬ 
 ticipation, though unrealized, germane to the modern era. As 
 they were a source of contention, and were innovations 
 against paganism in ancient days, so they are crystals of the 
 pure, in philosophy and political economy of modern days ; 
 since by the dissolution of the old order of things the eco¬ 
 nomic problem slowly triumphs over the old warring cult of 
 the competitive system, and is already showing signs of a tend¬ 
 ency to reconsider, and upon a vast scale, re-adopt the ancient 
 germ—long suppressed—of having “all things in common.” 
 
 Judging from the evidence, we could almost infer that the 
 modern labor movement is not only a genuine revival of the 
 ancient one, but the surprising appearance presents itself 
 that with all its vastly greater advantages, on account of 
 mechanical developments and the filling of the world with 
 inventions and implements of progress which the ancients 
 lacked, yet it has not become much purer in the true method 
 of realizing needful equality than the Italian trade unions had 
 grown to, before the Christian era; for we find their organ¬ 
 izations in the use of the ballot shown on the inscriptions at 
 Pompeii , 117 and many other such evidences, that they actu¬ 
 ally used their ballot; whereas modern trade unions still 
 refuse this mighty instrument of power. The remarkable 
 fact is seen uppermost, that the ancients have discussed 
 every sort of socialism now being forced to the front by the 
 returning labor associations, such as lay at the bottom, in¬ 
 spiring these world-renowned plans. Everyone of the great 
 schemes, from that of the Cretans, borrowed by Lycurgus, 
 to those of Numa, Solon, then Socrates—spoiled by aristo¬ 
 cratic Plato—then Aristotle and the others, down to, and 
 including Jesus, was a plant of socialism. Every one that 
 treated or even tried to treat working people as equal with 
 the rest of mankind, like the plans of Numa, Solon, after¬ 
 wards of Jesus, proved successful; and we challenge the 
 critical world to prove it otherwise. But every one, like 
 those of Crete, borrowed by Lycurgus, and those of Plato, 
 Aristotle, -Agis, the Roman gens and all succeeding ones 
 
 See supra, p. 390-391, quoting the Pompeian Inscription. 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 673 
 
 that have been based upon the competitive, or slave, and 
 wage-slave systems, failed. 
 
 MORAL. 
 
 Let all men take warning from the past, that the plans of 
 those great aristocrats based on the social idea, failed because 
 they left the laborer out; denied him liberty, soul and an enu¬ 
 meration in the census, as a man. He rebelled; and in his 
 crude numeric might, broke them up and killed them. Ho 
 destroyed their governments at last, and is building a new era 
 upon their ruins. Let then, the world accept this new era, 
 expunge every lingering heathenism, recognize and acknowl¬ 
 edge that equality means justice meted out to all—not a “di¬ 
 vine” few who use the outcast as a mere implement of labor; 
 himself, his toils, his products nationalized, only for their mi¬ 
 nority. Let now, this rallying hero’s inventions be national¬ 
 ized instead; his products nationalized; his body freed. Then 
 all —not a presumptuous few—become divine, and all enjoy 
 the plentitude which the ancient plan of nationalization is well 
 known to have brought forth. 
 
 What shall the gilded pulpit say when arraigned for derelic¬ 
 tion, in Pagan-like, forgetting the millions whose toil still sup¬ 
 plies its luxuries ? 
 
 Many years since, the earliest step of the writer of these 
 pages—on determining to devote his life to the advocacy of 
 labor’s rights—was to visit the monarchs of the pulpit, in his 
 simple, mistaken supposition that the Church was Christian; 
 with ready welcome, ready-made halls; with ready-made ora¬ 
 tors, precepts, directions and a ready-made system of practical 
 benevolence—in fine, the natural place to appeal fora solution 
 of the problem. 
 
 Like one in mentis gratissimo errore , he eagerly presented 
 himself before the learned doctors, pleading that theirs was the 
 task to study such turmoils and uneasiness as exhibit themselves 
 awry. To his surprise his cause was spurned. He was driven 
 from the temples to lower zones; to truer Christianity; places of 
 human sympathy; into dingy beer halls—and it was here, not in 
 the churches, that open hearts, and hands of welcome gave re¬ 
 ception and incipiency to a great movement. The “low” beer 
 hall still proves a welcome, mellow garden for the first sow¬ 
 ings; and if the fruits of the harvests be crude and bitter, let 
 the Pagan temple that spurns its mission, accuse itself. 
 

 \ 
 
 1 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 A TRANSLATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Page 38, _ Note 1: “ So long as there exists among the rich 
 
 and the poor an intermediate class of considerable propor¬ 
 tions, the moral influence which that class exercises will be 
 sufficient to prevent any collision.” 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Page 49, Note 4: “It is thus we may now announce that 
 we have discovered the first slaves that existed—they were 
 the children.” The Iliad says: “I had fifty sons born to 
 me of the Achseans—nineteen through wedlock, and the 
 rest were brought into the world for me by the women of 
 Megara. ” 
 
 Page 49, Note 5: “ The best (ancient) state excluded work¬ 
 
 ing people from the right ol citizenship; and whenever they 
 succeeded in obtaining it, they still remained a class, under 
 contempt and devoid of influence.” 
 
 Page 53, Note 16: “ He lives on pods and second-rate bread.’ 
 
 Page 53, Note 20: “They used to believe that the remains 
 
 of the dead were still alive o,nd doing active duty. ” 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Page 70, Note 12: “The original belief among the genera¬ 
 tions of antiquity was, that human beings still lived in the 
 tomb; that the soul did not separate from the body, and that 
 it remained fixed to that part of the ground in which the re¬ 
 mains were buried.” 
 
576 
 
 APPENDIX . 
 
 Rage 75, Note 19? “'The dead person,’ says the law of 
 the Twelve Tables, ‘ shall be neither buried nor burned 
 within the city of Rome.’ How could that be ? The fact is, 
 all who now are buried within the city are of noble stock. ” 
 Page 75, Note 23, Dr. Fustel says: * ‘ These beliefs are cer¬ 
 tainly not borrowed either by the Greeks from the Hindoos 
 nor by the Hindoos from the Greeks; but they belong to 
 both races, far apart and are derived from Central Asia.” 
 Page 76, Note 25: 1 ‘ The lawgiver of the Romans ” (mean¬ 
 
 ing Romulus) 1 ‘ is reputed to have given great power to the 
 father to exercise over his son; and for all causes whatsoever 
 he could kill him. He even possessed the choice of murder¬ 
 ing him himself.” The Code of Justinian has it, that “the 
 right of life and death was once permitted to fathers over 
 their children. ” 
 
 Page 79, Note 32: “ I declare myself much better than the 
 
 earth-born multitude—mere porridge-eating mortals. ” 
 
 Page 79, Note 33 : “ This distemper did not trouble the well- 
 to-do among our forefathers. ” 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Page 92, Note 18: “ They played the rape of Proserpine in 
 
 a sort of hieratic or religious drama. They went through the 
 veritable rencounter of the nuptials. ” 
 
 P8,ge 98, Note 27 , Ltiders says : “One thing indicating the 
 character of the unions, especially of later date is, that slaves 
 too, could not only take part in an eranos but were even per¬ 
 mitted to share in a religious mutual aid fund. As proof of 
 the fact that the eranos was thus used there have been found 
 in the vicinity of Delphos, very many specimens. There 
 was a union of slaves at Rhodes who worshiped under the 
 protection of Jupiter Atabyrius. ” Again Ltiders says: 
 “Naturally enough, there were societies that had slaves ir 
 their service. Kraton, who organized an eranos and was ita 
 priest, under the arrangement made by the will of Attila had 
 among other things belonging to the temple and parsonage, 
 also some slaves ” And farther on: “ Kraton, who was in 
 the favor of Attila, and who was a member and a priest in 
 high standing, of the great synod of the Dionysian mechan¬ 
 ics of Taos, had organized an association of thiasotes , com¬ 
 posed of mechanics, and had consecrated it to the honor of 
 the rergamenian king, Attila, as he possessed some brilliancy 
 at the court. The members were called ‘ Attalists. ’ ” Still 
 farther on: “In his will at last, according to evidence that 
 is preserved for us in a fragment, he gives to the union a re¬ 
 spectable sum of money that they may be able to indulge in 
 proper festivities out of its interest, according to a clause in 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 577 
 
 their rules and by-laws. He left them, among other things 
 necessary to this purpose—such as furniture of the meet¬ 
 inghouse, tools used in the lamb-sacrifice and pomp of their 
 festivities—also a number of slaves.” 
 
 Page 99, Note 29: “In Epidamnus there were no mechanics 
 other than the public slaves. The mechanic arts were for 
 thiil reason, forbidden and despised.” 
 
 Page 101 , Note 46: “Among the Helots who had a claim 
 ancJ desire to be sent home, there appeared at the town of 
 Pylos a multitude who had served the Lacedaemonians as 
 faithful soldiers and guards. On an investigation a large 
 number of these men had been adjudged worthy, by their 
 conduct, of being set free. A process of honorable dis¬ 
 charge in which they were to be crowned with wreaths, was 
 to be gone through with as soon as the number deemed 
 worthy were chosen. Some two thousand of them were ac¬ 
 cordingly selected from the multitude to be adorned with 
 wreaths of honor and led to the altar for sacred consecra¬ 
 tion. Not long afterwards they mysteriously disappeared, 
 every one of them, from the place; and nobody ever could 
 conjecture whither they had vanished.” 
 
 Page 110, -Note 50: “There came to my father’s mansion a 
 very wise man having a golden chain, or collar studded 
 with amber beads. In the hall the female servant and my 
 noble mother were toying with, and admiring it while in 
 the act of bartering for its possession. Secretly he nodded 
 to the woman and disappeared to his ship.” 
 
 Page 112, Note 58: “Communes of Roman mimic actors are 
 referred to, both by name and institution, as the Greek 
 communists (mutual aid associations) of the Dionysian 
 mechanics that were very numerous among the Greeks.” 
 
 Page 113, Note 62: “Ti. Claudius, consul, and Severus his 
 lictor in the divisions,... .presents are distributed among 
 the members, man by man; especially where the manning 
 of the boats shows by his actual work that he has been 
 diligent. Done by degree of the order of fishermen and 
 divers of the whole valley of the Tiber, who are granted 
 permission to keep an organization by a law of the Roman 
 senate.” 
 
 Page 113, Note 63: “It is here worthy of observation that 
 the law of Solon so constitutes that the sacred and civil 
 communes possessed no other legal right than as associa¬ 
 tions organized for purposes of business or plunder.” 
 
 Page 118, Note 72: “And Plato, when a babe sleeping in 
 his cradle, the honey-bees used to come and alight upon 
 his lips. The interpretation of this was, that it foretold 
 the remarkable sweetness of the future eloquence with 
 which nature had gifted the infant.” 
 
578 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Page 119, Note 74: “Seeing that certain landed estates un¬ 
 der mortgage, being provinces of the Roman people, are, 
 so to speak, our revenues (vectigalia).” 
 
 Page 121, Note 75: “It being not in the province of man to 
 curtail the unlimited power which it is necessary that mas¬ 
 ters should have over their slaves.” 
 
 Page 123, Note 76: “Caesar broke up all the unions except 
 those which were very ancient.” 
 
 Page 127, Note 87: “The sodales are those who are of the 
 same union as that which the Greek call hetairse.” Again: 
 “ ‘The Law of the Twelve Tables/ says Gaius, ‘gives to the 
 sodales unlimited right to combine for any business they 
 require for themselves, so long as they do not rupture the 
 law of the land. But this law appears to be a translation of 
 the law of Solon; which is as follows (speaking of societies 
 understood): ‘whether they be the people, or brotherhoods, 
 or priests and priestesses, or boatmen, or communists who 
 eat at the common table, or burial societies (including those 
 who prepare the feasts and holiday festivities of the mem¬ 
 bers), or those occupying houses in common, or engaged in 
 traffic at sea; in fine all those living for one another, here¬ 
 by are publicly proclaimed in writing, free to unite them¬ 
 selves/ ” 
 
 Page 127, Note 88: “The words of Gaius it is clear, do not 
 admit of being construed as those of the Twelve Tables, so 
 as exactly to make them include all of the unions; nor does 
 there appear any reason why the unions of handicraftsmen 
 should be deprived of the right of making rules, which was 
 granted to those organized for religion’s sake.” 
 
 Page 130, Note 95: “Out of a kind of hard marble found in 
 the vicinity of Eleusis.” 
 
 Page 130, Note 96: “Near an olive tree was a well—the 
 Erecthian spring—which, when the south wind blew, gave 
 an indistinct murmur like the terrible roar of waves—so the 
 Athenians used to relate. This was believed to be Neptune 
 when he opened the abysses with his trident; and his track 
 is impressed in the living rock even to this day. No man 
 desires to question the story of this briny fountain; for in 
 the citadel there was another whose waters were bitter 
 when the dog-day winds were blowing, at the time that 
 Sirius rose; and its floods would rise and afterwards fall, 
 giving to the well the name of Clepsydra.” 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Page 134, Note 1: “From Thrace there arrived, during the 
 same summer, one thousand three hundred light-armed sol¬ 
 diers with shields, being related to Jupiter, who came to Ath¬ 
 ens, and who had been with Demosthenes, the Athenian 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 579 
 
 general, in his naval expedition against Sicily. The Athen¬ 
 ians, as it afterwards became known (after the disaster of 
 Demosthenes), had been sent to Thrace from Syracuse. The 
 war at Decelea had become expensive, as each one received 
 a full drachm or seventeen and a half cents a day for his 
 services. Decelea, during this summer, was the first place 
 fortified by the forces of the Lacedaemonians. Afterwards 
 guards were placed about the towns with relays, as relief 
 guards; so that a man occupied a station as watcher, con¬ 
 stantly and without intermission and thus the Athenians 
 suffered severe losses by seizures of many things, and also 
 by the ruin of their means of producing money, thus spoil¬ 
 ing their sinews of war. At first these tactics were mild, 
 but grew with time, and the Lacedaemonians were unhinder¬ 
 ed from enjoying their position on the land. Following the 
 example of their king Agis they placed guards everywhere 
 to further the advantages of war, thus badly perplexing and 
 entangling the Athenians. Everv place was lost. Even the 
 force of hands in the silver mines, consisting of more than 
 half of the laborers and skilled mechanics, amounting to 
 upwards of twenty thousand men, together with the flocks 
 and the draft oxen and horses, ran away and escaped over 
 to Decelea by aid of the guards, doing much damage day 
 by day to the Athenians by this conduct, but freeing them¬ 
 selves from many of their hardships.” 
 
 Page 137, Note 16: “Cimon was not so generous as rich; 
 for he had amassed a large fortune in the mines.” 
 
 Page 139, Note 28, Drpmann says: “Also in the workshops 
 called ergasteria, slaves only were to be seen.” 
 
 Page 140, Note 32, Bucher remarks that: “In the year B. C. 
 413, some twenty thousand Athenian mechanics struck 
 work and went over to the Lacedaemonians—a severe blow 
 to the silver mining business at Laurium.” 
 
 Page 141, Note 34, Drumann says: “The greatest part of 
 the twenty thousand who, during the Peloponnesean war 
 ran away and went over to the Spartan garrison in the town 
 of Decelea in Attica, were from the workshops. Among 
 other things it was stipulated that each would have the ad¬ 
 vantage of working for himself, giving a certain part to the 
 master. By this arrangement industrious and frugal work¬ 
 men could lay up something over and above expenses and 
 thus buy themselves free. Many lived more sumptuously 
 than those who were free.” Same note, quoting Bucher: 
 " ‘Where many slaves of the same nationality lived together 
 in the same city’ (so says Plato, Laws, vi., 777), ‘great mis¬ 
 fortunes will occur; and this is something to be attributed 
 as the true cause of insurrections with all their cruelties.’ ” 
 Again; same note, quoting Macrobius: “I have heard of 
 the great indignation of heaven caused by the punishment 
 
580 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 of slaves. Once, in the 474th year from the foundation of 
 Rome one Autranius Maximus fastened his slave to a forked 
 gibbet and in this condition whipped him around the ring in 
 the circus before the spectators. On account of this cruelty 
 Jupiter was so incensed that he ordered a certain Annius to 
 inform the senate that he should withdraw his heavenly 
 protection if such cruelties were not put an end to.” 
 
 Page 142, Note 38: “Tens of thousands of the slaves of 
 Attica worked in the mines. Poseidon the philosopher de¬ 
 clares that they rebelled, formed themselves into a com¬ 
 pact body with a guard and marched to the acropolis of 
 Sunion where for a long time they held themselves, sending 
 out forces to ransack the country. This was at the very 
 point when the second slave insurrection began in Sicily.” 
 
 Page 143, Note 39: “I, Xanthos, the Lycian slave belong¬ 
 ing to Gains Orbius, working to the glory of the God who, 
 as tutelary protector of men and women, is our star of for¬ 
 tune, have consecrated this temple of Men Tyrannus, as God 
 desired.” In same note Foucart proceeds: “The person 
 who, towards the second century of our era introduced the 
 cult of Men, was a slave from Lycia and was employed by a 
 Roman property owner in the mines. The god himself, either 
 in a day-dream or by apparition had signaled to him to con¬ 
 struct the temple. Thus the founder took care to repeat in 
 two inscriptions that he had executed the behest of Men.” 
 
 Page 143, Note 40: “In the six hundred and twentieth year 
 of Rome, or before Christ 134, the slaves working in the 
 silver mines of Laurium arose, killed their guards, took the 
 citadel of Sunion and laid Attica waste for a long time.” 
 
 Page 144, Note 41: “In the mines of the Athenians, also, 
 there occurred a tumult of slaves which was subdued by 
 Heraclitus the praetor.” 
 
 Page 144, Note 42: “In a similar manner the Greek world 
 was subjected to a visitation, although of less proportions. 
 According to Augustin (De Civ., Ill, 26), insurgent slave 
 bands just prior to the first Sicilian insurrection, laid waste 
 Macedonia and the neighboring districts.” 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Page 14T, Note 8: “Romulus gave to married men the right 
 to take the life of, and the right of intimate indulgence 
 with, their female slaves.” 
 
 Page 149, Note 12: “The award given out of the public treas¬ 
 ury to the informants who were slaves, was a wealth of ten 
 thousand standard coins each, besides their liberty.” 
 
 Page 151, Note 18: “At this time, when Gaul was quiet ex¬ 
 cepting in her hopes, there arose an insurrection of the 
 slaves near the city of Rome. There were some Carthagen- 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES . 
 
 581 
 
 tan hostages held in custody at Setia. In addition to these 
 who were free men, there was also a great host of slaves. 
 The number of these was increased from different nation¬ 
 alities by the recent African war in which they had been 
 taken prisoners and sold to masters in and about the city of 
 Setia, as captive bondsmen. Forming a conspiracy, they sent 
 men of their number, first into the farm country of Setia it¬ 
 self, and afterwards to Norba and Circijus to stir up auxil¬ 
 iaries. It happened that there was soon to take place a pas¬ 
 time (the games); and they arranged to have all prepara¬ 
 tions ready on the event of those games; so that at an 
 auspicious moment when the people were engrossed in the 
 enjoyment and excitement, they should rise in sudden insur¬ 
 rection, seize the cities of Setia, afterwards Norba and then 
 Circeji, and take possession. Intelligence of this terrible 
 thing was transmitted to M. Cornelius Merula at Rome. 
 Two slaves, before daybreak approached Merula and ex¬ 
 posed all the plans and intentions of the insurgents. When 
 the praetor had ordered these 'slaves to stay and guard his 
 house he called the senate together and told them what the 
 informants had said and how they had come to ask that he 
 should hasten to suppress the conspiracy. The result was 
 that he was set on the march with but five lieutenants (and 
 their divisions), giving orders along the road for reinforce¬ 
 ments to follow. With these troops, hurriedly collected as 
 they marched, amounting in all to about 2,000 armed men, 
 he fell upon the unsuspecting mutineers. The ringleaders 
 of the conspiracy being seized, the slaves took to flight 
 
 from the town, the soldiers following on their track. 
 
 The two informers were rewarded on an enormous scale and 
 their freedom given them. The fathers ordered that each 
 should receive 25,000 standard coins and his liberty; while 
 one—Merula perhaps—received 100,000 coins. The masters 
 received also the price of their slaves lost in the affray.” 
 
 “Not long after the quelling of this insurrection it was an¬ 
 nounced that the remainder of the conspirators were stir¬ 
 ring up the same tumults afresh and were preparing to take 
 the town of Prseneste in the same manner. Thither Corne¬ 
 lius (Merula) marched with a force of about 500 men; and 
 as a result, those who were engaged in the trouble were 
 punished. The country being plunged into fears, it was nec¬ 
 essary to remove the Carthagenian hostages and prisoners. 
 At Rome and among the towns and villages, guards were 
 ordered to be stationed and a more vigilant watch was 
 established over the great prison and the prison quarries, 
 which work was consummated by the triumvirs. The praetor 
 caused a written circular to be published throughout Lati- 
 um saying that henceforth the prisoners were to labor in 
 solitude and that they should be deprived of the privilege 
 
582 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 of appearing in public and those not Carthagenian hos* 
 tages should wear shackles of no less than ten pounds 
 weight, and be confined in any, except the public prison." 
 
 Page 152, Note 20, From Livy’s Epitome: “A conspiracy 
 of slaves attempted for liberating the Carthagenian hos¬ 
 tages is suppressed." 
 
 Page 153, Note 22: “On the whole, it was conjectured that 
 the blame rested with some secret doings of the Punic hos¬ 
 tages and prisoners." 
 
 Page 154, Note 27, Pliny says: “L. Piso is the author who 
 first gave an account of it and says that Tullus Hostilius 
 the king who succeeded Numa, constructed at the same 
 place many and great changes in the city. While excavating 
 the earth under the Tarpeian rock the workmen unearthed 
 a human head. Tullus sent ambassadors to Olenus Calenus, 
 a celebrated Etruscan soothsayer, or prophet and fortune¬ 
 teller to know what he and his tribe thought about it." 
 
 Page 155, Note 30: “In spite of this he did not succeed 
 without the greatest difficulty.” 
 
 Page 157, Note 31: “Of these (the insurgents), many were 
 killed and many taken prisoners; others were scourged and 
 hung upon the cross." 
 
 Page 160, Note 38: “L. Postumius, to whom the care as 
 propraetor of the province of Tarentum fell, made resist¬ 
 ance against a conspiracy of farmers and shepherds and the 
 rest of those bacchanalian creatures." 
 
 Page 160, Note 42: “Those seized were sent to the Roman 
 senate which ordered P. Cornelius to cast them into prison.” 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Page 164, Note 2, Macrobius says: “Would you call to 
 mind those who come of the same seed? who live under 
 the same skies and who, like you, must live and die? Slaves 
 though they be, they are nevertheless human; though only 
 poor slaves, yet they all have some rights if you would 
 but reflect. Even if you could see that the slave were free, 
 he would still serve you just as well. Do you not know 
 that Hecuba was once during her lifetime a slave? that 
 Croesus, that the mother of Darius, that Diogenes, even 
 Plato were all of them slaves? And why, in the light of 
 all these examples should we hold in horror the name of 
 servitude? Slave he is, indeed, but because forced to it; 
 only a slave, but perhaps he wears the soul of a freeman. 
 What will he not do for you even though it be wrong? 
 This one administers to lusts, that one to avarice, another 
 to your ambitions? All are objects of your hopes and all 
 are causes of your fear.” Continuing: “It is impossible to 
 mix love and fear together. Whence, think you, emanates 
 
TRAJS/ S LA riON O F NO TES. 
 
 583 
 
 the proverb: ‘just as many enemies as there are slaves?’ 
 We may not think we have those enemies, but it is true; we 
 make them when with our superb, contemptuous cruelty we 
 force them to submit to our voluptuous frenzy, is it other¬ 
 wise possible than that it should evoke their anger and fury?” 
 
 Page 164, Note 3: “So also, the wealthy island of Chios was 
 at the same time (B. C. 134), the theatre of a wild slave 
 uprising which was not put down until many years after¬ 
 wards.” 
 
 Page 166, Note 4: “In the middle of the third century of 
 the Christian era.” 
 
 Pages 168-169, Note 7: “Hermotius who was of the Ped- 
 asian race, was a man who meted out the severest venge¬ 
 ance for any injury. When taken by an enemy and sold in 
 slavery, he was bought by a man named Panionius, a Chian 
 —a person who got his living by the practice of the most 
 iniquitous vices. Boys of remarkable beauty whenever 
 purchased by him, he caused to be castrated; and he was 
 in the habit of selling them in Ephesus and Sardis at a 
 high price; since those barbarians valued eunuchs more 
 than other servants on account of their being more reliable. 
 So Panionius among many others, had this Hermotius 
 emasculated, as he made his living by that business. The 
 man, however, was not in all respects, unfortunate. He was 
 given to the king at Sardis, as a present. In the course of 
 time he became the most highly regarded by Xerxes, of 
 any of his numerous eunuchs. As the king was making 
 preparations to march with his expedition upon Athens, 
 and while at Sardis—having gone to the Mysian country 
 with the Chians—Panionius was met at Atarneus. Herm¬ 
 otius became acquainted with Panionius by recognition, 
 and induced Him to come over to Asia with his family and 
 settle there, offering him many advantages. He accepted 
 the plan with cheer and brought his family. Hermotius 
 thus succeeding in getting him into his power together with 
 his whole family, uttered to him the following words: ‘You, 
 who, meanest of mankind by trade and deeds of infamy! 
 To your face I demand to know what I have ever done, ol 
 what harm any of my race have done to you that from a 
 man I should be made into nothing? You thought, perhaps, 
 that your tricks should be passed over by the Almighty, 
 unheeded, unavenged. But you have been allured into my 
 grasp by your dastardly deeds. You cannot, therefore, com¬ 
 plain of the retribution I am going to inflict upon you.’ 
 After upbraiding him in this strain his sons were also 
 brought into the place and Panionius was forced to com¬ 
 mit the act of castration upon his own sons, four in num¬ 
 ber. He did it; and then in reverse order, these very sons 
 
584 
 
 APPENDIX . 
 
 were driven to emasculate their father on the spot. Suck 
 was the vengeance of Hermotius, the Chian.” 
 
 Page 169, Note 10: “It was quite the reverse with the thi- 
 asotes and eranists. Not only were their doors open to 
 women but also to strangers. Persons who were well-to-do 
 or even slaves had access. This last point is very import¬ 
 ant; and fortunately the witnesses of their epigraphic monu¬ 
 ments are sufficiently explicit and precise in language to 
 establish the evidence completely. It would be useless to 
 cite all the inscriptions in proof; and I have chosen a few 
 only, and of those which show this to have been the cause 
 in the different countries. The specimens are numerous 
 enough to warrant the conclusions; for where one fails, 
 another makes the point good, that the admission of wo¬ 
 men, of strangers, of freedmen and of slaves was a uni¬ 
 versal characteristic of all these associations.” Same note, 
 page 170, Foucart further explains: “One inscription in the 
 island of Rhodes mentions a religious society composed of 
 slaves belonging to the state or public. Part of its value 
 is diminished by a mutilation which detracts from its testi¬ 
 mony. But an examination of the proper names to be found 
 in other inscriptions proves that these Rhodian associa¬ 
 tions were in the common habit of admitting freedmen and 
 probably, also slaves.” Farther on: “A fragment of an 
 inscription restored by Keil, by great perseverance and to 
 all appearance, with correctness, shows the composition of 
 the society in the particular membership which placed it 
 there that it was under the patronage of Jupiter Atabyrius 
 (or the Jove that dwelt in the tallest mountain of Rhodes). 
 It appears to have been composed of the public slaves of 
 the city of Rhodes, and is one of those which exercised the 
 priesthood. It reads: ‘Under the god of Atabyrius is the 
 union of the slaves of the city. Inscribed in letters, by or¬ 
 der of the holy priest of Zeus, and governed by the rul¬ 
 ing authorities of the Rhodians, in obedience to Jupiter 
 Atabyrius.’ ” 
 
 Page 170, Note 11: “These things wrote Nymphodorus in 
 his voyage to Asia. He described how the slaves of the 
 Chians ran away from their masters and how they escaped 
 to the mountains and the highest summits, and how these 
 masters were devastated by their combined forces.” 
 
 Page 171, Note 12: “A little before our own time—so the 
 Chians tell us—there was a certain slave, who having es¬ 
 caped, lived in the mountains; and being endowed with a 
 warlike spirit, was declared the commander and king of the 
 fugitive slaves, and following the habits of other kings, 
 gathered an army, against whom the Chians afterwards 
 sent military expeditions. But they could make no headway 
 against him. Drimakos (Primacus), as this slave was called, 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 585 
 
 when he saw his masters overcome, made a speech in their 
 presence as follows:” 
 
 Page 177, Note 19: “Should any of the features of this story 
 appear doubtful and fictitious it may be said that there ex¬ 
 ists not the least ground for uncertainty as to its genuine¬ 
 ness; and even if the shrewd Chian merchants put up the 
 temple for the object of awing down their slaves, the lesson 
 still remains as a true mirror, showing the condition of 
 things at that time.” 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Page 180, Note 2: “Viriathus, who took the command, and 
 many times broke the Romans to pieces, was himself, one 
 of the Spanish (Lusitanian) workpeople who lived in the 
 place. From boyhood he had worked and passed his life 
 in the mountains and came up with energy, strength and 
 spirit. He excelled in bodily forces, swiftness and agility 
 all the rest of his associates and was much thought of in 
 Spain. He used to abstain from luxuries, even getting along 
 with just enough food to barely answer his necessities. 
 He had with him many strong-hearted friends, and became 
 widely known among lawless mountaineers, settling their 
 quarrels; and at length assuming their leadership he estab¬ 
 lished a sharp discipline about him and thrived with the 
 success of his combats with the brigands. He was looked 
 upon as a superior; not only in personal strength but also 
 for his tactics.” 
 
 Page 180, Note 3: “Viriathus, the commander of the guil- 
 leras, was a Lusitanian Spaniard who was just in his dis¬ 
 tribution and sharing of the spoils, and had sufficient honor 
 and humanity to make a just choice in distributing pres¬ 
 ents; for he gave them simply a division in common, and 
 was the right person to be regarded by them as a common 
 benefactor and savior.” 
 
 Page 180, Note 4: “Viriathus in Spain, who was originally 
 a shepherd, turned from a shepherd to a hunter, and from 
 a hunter to a robber, and from that, was even created 
 general of the army and took possession of all Lusitania.” 
 
 Page 181, Note 5, Livy says: “When L. Scribonius the 
 tribune of the people, brought in a bill, taking back into 
 the confidence of the Romans, all the Lusitanians whom 
 Galba had brought as slaves with him into Gaul, restoring 
 them to liberty, M. Cato made a strong speech in its favor. 
 His oration is still extant in the histories. Q. Fulvius 
 Noble, who had often been excoriated by Cato, defended 
 Galba. When Galba saw that he was going to be con¬ 
 demned, or that the case was going against him, he threw 
 his arms around his two sons already young men, and also 
 embraced the young son of Sulpicius Gallus, of whom he 
 
586 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 was the guardian; and in this miserable and pitiable condi- 
 tion so pleaded that the decree was not sustained.” 
 
 Page 182, Note 6, Appian says: “This man fought the Rom¬ 
 ans for about eight years; and it appears to me that Viri- 
 athus made it exceedingly uncomfortable for them; for 
 things became so entangled in that time that even the loss 
 of Spain was threatened.” Livy says: “Viriathus broke 
 up the army of Vetillius and seized also that general him¬ 
 self; after him C. Plautius the praetor, continued the strug¬ 
 gle with no better success. So great was the terror caused 
 by this enemy that it was necessary to send both a consul 
 and a consular army.” Eutrope says: “Instigated by terror, 
 Viriathus was killed by his own men, after having waged 
 war for a period of fourteen years against the Romans. He 
 was first a shepherd, afterwards a robber and then a gen¬ 
 eral and roused all the population of the land against the 
 Romans, being regarded as the emancipator of Spain.” 
 
 Page 183, Note 7: “Viriathus, after performing a three- 
 days’ march, took sure possession of Segobria and there 
 devoted a day to religious sacrifices,” 
 
 Page 183, Note 8: “It seemed advisable to get away to the 
 others; and in the night he escaped through pathless ways 
 with fleet horses and arrived at Tribola, the Romans fol¬ 
 lowing; but they had not the power to overtake him on 
 account of the weight of their armor, their ignorance of 
 the roads and the inexperience of the horses.” 
 
 Page 183, Note 9, Frontin remarks: “Viriathus, placing some 
 of his soldiers in secret localities, sent a few of them out 
 foraging for the cattle of the Segobrians. These retaliated 
 by frequent sorties against the pickets, pretending to es¬ 
 cape, drew them into an ambush where they were cut to 
 pieces by the army.” 
 
 Page 184, Note 10; This remark of Diodorus is but a cut¬ 
 ting from his more complete sentences given in note 2, 
 page 180, of which see translation. 
 
 Page 186, Note 13: “At the request of the allied army, an¬ 
 other general arrived with a force of 15,000 foot soldiers and 
 2,000 horse. They marched into Orsena, a city of Spain.” 
 
 Page 186, Note 14: “In all, about 18,000 foot and 1,600 horse. 
 He sent letters to Mikipse, the Numidian king, ordering 
 him to send the strongest and swiftest elephants from Af¬ 
 rica, into Itycca, to augment the army in those parts of the 
 Spanish peninsula.” 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Page 192, Note 1: “During the power and under the com¬ 
 mand of Sempronius Gracchus, the army of Rome subdued 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 587 
 
 the Sardinians. In this province the number of the enemy 
 taken orisoners or killed, amounted to upwards of 80,000.” 
 
 Page 193, Note 3: “We are informed that 30,000 were cap¬ 
 tured and reduced to slavery.” 
 
 Page 195, Note 13: “In Epidamnus there were no mechan¬ 
 ics except the public slaves.” 
 
 Page 196, Note 17: “They were all branded. Only the field 
 workers were fettered.” 
 
 Page 199, Note 27: “He was a great magician and per¬ 
 former of miracles and stood in close communion with the 
 gods, receiving inspirations from tiiem not only by dreams, 
 but actually seeing them in open day, as in life.” 
 
 Page 201, Note 32: “It should be understood that in Sicily 
 
 there was a daughter of Damophilus,.Hermias took 
 
 her to Catana and left her in the care of some relatives.” 
 
 Page 208, Note 42: “More than ordinary capability.” Sie- 
 fert also says: “They elected nim their king because he 
 had originated the outbreak.” 
 
 Page 209, Note 43: “This was the first strange thing done; 
 he gathered 2,000 as he moved along, and then breaking 
 open the prisons made soldiers of more than 60,000 in¬ 
 mates.” 
 
 Page 211, Note 49: “And he sent those who were bound 
 in chains and fettered, into the prison workshops.” 
 
 Page 212, Note 54: “One Gorgos with the surname of Cam- 
 balos, who on account of his wealth was a well-known citi¬ 
 zen of Morgantion in the upper districts of Symsethus, was 
 out on a hunting excursion and fell in with a band of the 
 slaves belonging to the insurrection. He fled back home¬ 
 ward, following the main road to the city, but soon met his 
 father on horseback riding along the same road. The father 
 immediately dismounted and begged his son to save him¬ 
 self by the use of his own horse. Father and son thus in 
 tender solicitude for each other’s safety squandered the 
 precious moments and whilst in the strife of filial love and 
 parental tenderness they were exhausting their time, the 
 insurgents arrived and killed them both.” 
 
 Page 214, Note 57: “Regarding the chronology of the Si¬ 
 cilian slave war and other matters thereto related, consult 
 the Excurz.” 
 
 Page 215, Note 64: “‘Out of those places situated about 
 Taurus.’ According to paragraph 20, his brother was 
 named Comanus (C.oma in Valerius Maximus); and it is 
 tolerably safe to conclude from this that Comana was the 
 birthplace of the two brothers. But whether this was the 
 Coma of Pamphylia or that of Cappadocia, whence this 
 name is derived is a question impossible to answer. The 
 
588 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Cappadocian Comana was situated among the Anti-Taurian 
 hills, upon the river Saros, and was a capital city of Syria, 
 where the cult of Ma (Artemis Taurica), according to 
 Strabo, XII., p. 535, was encouraged. If this be so, it 
 serves as a cause for the bold turn of Cleon when he came 
 in juxtaposition with the religious superstition of Emms.” 
 
 Page 216, Note 66: “At the time C. Fulvius was consul, this 
 war of Eunus began. Eunus. was a slave who was by race 
 a Syrian and who gathered a force of agricultural slaves. 
 Breaking open the workhouse prisons, he raised his army 
 to 70,000 strong and massing them, fought many battles 
 with the Roman people.” 
 
 Page 217, Note 67: “A certain Syrian named Eunus, pre¬ 
 tending like a fanatic, to be in the good graces of the god¬ 
 dess by throwing forth fiery scintillations resembling her 
 hair, aroused a multitude of slaves as great as an imperial 
 army, and these he emancipated and supplied with arms. 
 To prove that he was divine, he would place a nut in his 
 mouth, in which was hidden sulphur and fire, and draw¬ 
 ing the breath gently, would blow forth flames.” 
 
 Page 218, Note 70: “The army amounted to about 200,000 
 men.” Again: “Not long afterwards the number of the 
 insurgents is found to rise to 200,000 men including in all, 
 the soldiers, sythe-armed militia and raw troops; and they 
 fight successfully, seldom suffering defeats.” 
 
 Page 219, Note 72: “Whenever the slightest victory was won 
 the strike towered with redoubled fierceness and pressed 
 onward without cessation in all the cruelty of social wars.” 
 
 Page 220, Note 78: “Never was there such a condition or 
 such an assembling of the slaves in Sicily. There were 
 many powerful cities which came to grief: and innumer¬ 
 able were the men, the women and the works of art that 
 were hurled into direst misfortune; in fact the whole island 
 fell into the power of the runaway slaves.” 
 
 Page 221, Note 81, quoting Bucher: “Eunus at length be¬ 
 came master of almost the entire island of Sicily **** prob¬ 
 ably even of Syracuse. Diodorus (fragment 9), says: ‘To 
 these gluttons even the sanctity of the Holy Fish did not 
 cause a pause to the evils which the gods used, making 
 an example of everybody to show their desperate condi¬ 
 tion; for the gods used these dreadful methods to teach 
 against the blasphemy of the people of the age and to show 
 men better ways. This fragment of Diodorus is found in 
 close proximity to the Vatican excerpt which is entirely 
 on the slave uprising. It is impossible to consider this ‘Holy 
 Fish’ as any other than the Arethusa of which Diodorus 
 speaks in book V., 3, as follows‘This Arethusa was not. 
 only regarded from very ancient times as having many and 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 589 
 
 large fishes but even the same reverence is handed down 
 to this day, ascribing to these fishes a sacredness to men; 
 since men eating of them are strong in war and are en¬ 
 dowed with the faculty of combined physical force and 
 vigor of understanding great things. So also in our time 
 these virtues we seek in our youth.’ ” 
 
 Page 222, Note 84, “Tiberius Gracchus was a famous man, 
 brilliant in his love of honor and it may be said, exceed¬ 
 ingly powerful in his gift of language; and was everywhere 
 known by all the officers of the government. He told in 
 solemn words to the Italians, how the want of means for 
 the people and the depopulation of the country were caused 
 by destruction perpetrated by.the military powers, and how 
 hopeless was the condition of the inhabitants. With this 
 servile element, never having any confidence with their 
 masters, the feeling rose high against despotism and made 
 them comrades. The evil augmented among the agricul¬ 
 tural districts and the war of the Romans against them was 
 not slight nor easily quelled. Things assumed a venture¬ 
 some phase both many colored and huge. Gracchus declared 
 his intention to re-establish the old law of Licinius Stolo, 
 according to which no person could possess more than 500 
 acres of land—a law which though many years old, re¬ 
 mained unchanged.” 
 
 Page 224, Note 89, The reading of these words is: “Ritchl, 
 P. L. M. VIII, 1, Body of Latin Inscriptions, by Theodore 
 Mommsen, no. 042 and others. Compare Nitsch. in another 
 place, p. 249. Evidence regarding the second Sicilian in¬ 
 surrection is to be had in Dr. Bockh’s Body of Greek In¬ 
 scriptions, nos. 5,570, 5,687, 5748, z. Th., where occurs the 
 name of Athenion. No. 5,748 is a stone slab coming from 
 Leontini on which is inscribed the word APAMEO, and it 
 is probable that this refers to Eunus of Apamea. In the 
 Body of Latin Inscriptions, no. 646 and others following, 
 are certainly inscriptions which were designed to represent 
 the wars of Eunus.” 
 
 Page 224, Note 94, Siefert in his First Sicilian Servile War, 
 Says: “Pseudo Asconius comments on Cicero’s Verres, II, 
 p. 212: ‘A certain Rupilius, one of the aristocratic tax- 
 gatherers, was made consul.’ Again, Valerius Maximus, 
 vi., 9, 8, narrates that he was even an employe at an earlier 
 date, of the government service as follows: ‘P. Rupilius did 
 not collect the taxes in Sicily but gave out the work to the 
 equestrian taxgatherers. In fact he upheld the frauds com¬ 
 mitted in cheating the government out of the revenues, by 
 the authority of office, colluding with his associates.’ He 
 was a friend of Scipio the Younger, according to Cicero 
 (Laelius, 19,). When consul he conducted, during the first 
 part of his consulate year, an investigation of the so-re- 
 
590 
 
 APPENDIX . 
 
 puted misdeeds of Tiberius Gracchus and was aided by his 
 colleague, Popilius Lsenas (Cicero, Lselius, 11; Valerius 
 Maximus, iv., 7, 1). According to Vellejus Paterculus, (II., 
 vii.), he was, on account of the pressure with which this 
 investigation was urged, driven, like Popilius, before the 
 tribunal; and other writers on the subject only mention 
 Popilius as the object of the persecution. Compare Pauly, 
 R. E., V., 1900. Later, Rupilius in indignation and horror, 
 came to his end for fraudulently intriguing to get his 
 brother elected consul/’ 
 
 Page 226, Note 97: “Throughout Sicily misfortune prevailed. 
 Cities, together with their inhabitants, indiscriminately fell 
 into the hands of their conquerors and many were the 
 armies that were hacked to pieces, until Rupilius, the gen¬ 
 eral of the Romans, saved Tauromanion to Rome in the 
 stanch blockade and siege which he conducted against this 
 city. He starved the rebels into indescribable want and 
 famine to such extent, that in their enclosure they fell 
 to killing children and then their helpless women, and even 
 devoured one another to gratify the cravings of hunger.” 
 
 Page 229, Note 101: “The slaves were delivered to torment 
 and butchery, most of them being thrown from steep prec¬ 
 ipices of rocks. So also here at Enna, thousands were 
 chopped down. The total number of the slaves killed at 
 Enna and Tauromanion exceeded 20,000.” 
 
 Page 230, Note 105, Diodorus says: “Secured and under 
 guard, his body devoured by lice, he passed a life of 
 wretched indolence at Morgantion.” Livy says: “He was 
 caught, and was devoured by lice in prison.” Farther on 
 (same note), Siefert: “With four of his servants, one of 
 whom was the cook, the others the bath attendant, the 
 baker and the king’s fool, he was caught in a hole. He 
 died in prison of the lousy sickness, either in Morgantion 
 or in Rome.” 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Page 234, Note 3: “Eumenes, for whom they pompously 
 exhibited their friendship, advancing the idea of peace for 
 Antioch, by means of bribes, was held in check. After 
 the death of Eumenes, a guard was kept at the cost of the 
 state, and the agricultural captives were held in pitiable- 
 slavery and contempt by Attains, the king. He made, un¬ 
 der deception, an impious will by which his son Aristonicus 
 was ignored because he had asked for the succession. This 
 being a triumph for the latter’s enemies, the combined 
 power of the slaves laid Asia under siege. All Bithynia 
 soon fell and Nicomides dying, this son of Nusa whom 
 they called the queen, created havoc.” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES , 
 
 591 
 
 Page 236, Note 8: “The term ‘Heliopolitan’ calls to mind 
 that it was the same that Eunus used in fanaticizing his 
 Syrians.” 
 
 Page 236, Note 9: “Likewise the Syrians celebrate and wor¬ 
 ship the sun in the name of Jupiter whom they call a ‘Sun- 
 God’ in their greatest ceremonies, and the country where 
 it is done is termed ‘Heliopolis.’” 
 
 Page 238, Note 12: “P. Crassus who came as consul to Asia 
 for the purpose of waging war against Aristonicus, had ac¬ 
 quired such perfection in the Greek language that he could 
 speak five different dialects of it so as to be thoroughly 
 ready in all parts. This was a thing necessary in obtaining 
 the love of the allies through the persuasive force of con¬ 
 ciliation; as it gave him the advantage of making known 
 and demanding the enforcement of the decrees.” 
 
 Page 241, Note 18: “When the senate called the consuls, 
 Rupilia and Laenatus, to demand of them what Gracch.us 
 really wished to do, and they referred the matter to Laelius 
 whose prayers and counsels they were in the habit of con¬ 
 sulting, an accusation was found against Rlossius who had 
 been familiar with Gracchus. Blossius was brought before 
 them and the following question put: ‘What would you 
 have done if Gracchus had ordered you to destroy the tem¬ 
 ple of the great Jupiter? Would you not have executed the 
 wish of that man?’ ‘Gracchus would have never given me 
 such an order,’ said Blossius, ‘because he was too wise a 
 man to do that; but he was not afraid of demanding the 
 right, even in the teeth of the whole Roman senate.’ But 
 what followed was much more daring and dangerous; for 
 on being pressed further by the question of Laelius who 
 persevered in obtaining the answer, Blossius acknowledged 
 that if Gracchus had given him the order he would have 
 obeyed.’ ” 
 
 Page 241, Note 19: “The brothers Tiberius and Caius Grac¬ 
 chus had been adjudged guilty of grave seditions by the 
 senate in forcing their laws against the Roman people and 
 both had been killed by the nobles—one by Nasicus and 
 the other by Opimius. When Tiberius Gracchus fell, Blos¬ 
 sius escaped to king Aristonicus. The affairs of Aristoni¬ 
 cus having gone wrong, Blossius committed suicide. 
 
 Page 242, Note 20, Speaking of the strength and fortitude 
 of the soldier’s soul when in a great misfortune, I will tell 
 the story of a Roman consul: P. Crassus, when directing 
 the war against Aristonicus in Asia was, after his defeat, 
 in custody of Thracians at a prison between Elea and 
 Smyrna. But he would not surrender, and resented in¬ 
 decent actions against him to obtain a coveted death. One 
 day he thrust his horsewhip which he used when riding, 
 into the eye of his barbarian guard. So great was the pain 
 
692 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 inflicted that this guard drew his sword and plunged it into 
 his side. But in taking vengeance upon a Roman soldier 
 he liberated a consul from disgrace. This shows that Cras- 
 sus in a broil with an unworthy man, wished the good 
 fortune of escaping graver humiliations' since by the act 
 he prudently, valiantly, courageously, broke awav from the 
 miserable condition he was held in by mean persons, and 
 was free. Aristonicus had reduced him but .he had gained 
 his own liberty.” 
 
 Page 243, Note 21: “Not slight was the shamelessness of 
 M. Paperna in his disgrace of the consulship which he held 
 after he got to be consul before becoming a Roman citizen; 
 though he was more serviceable in war than Varro. He 
 conquered king Aristonicus, becoming the punisher and 
 avenger of the disaster of Crassus. While he was tri¬ 
 umphing, he was condemned to death under a clause of the 
 Papian law; since as his father was not a Roman, the peo¬ 
 ple demanded his return to his original estate because he 
 had no right to rise according to decision of the Sabelline 
 judgment. In this manner the good name of Paperna fell 
 because he had obtained his consulship under false pre¬ 
 tences. The glory of his victory fell away and he wandered 
 about for the rest of his life in exile.” 
 
 Page 244, Note 22, From Bucher: “The latter consisted in 
 celebrations on the part of those enjoying their holidays, 
 in fasting and expiation, also in luxurious dances amid the 
 music of flute and drum and the wild tumult which they 
 imagined would call up and propitiate their divinities, and 
 bring to pass wondrous things. If at that time, this cult 
 was in practice in Greece by great numbers of secret soci¬ 
 eties and upright brotherhoods (see pp. 34, 92), then it be¬ 
 comes obvious how they spread their advocacy, not so 
 much through the smoother waters of mere turbulent 
 thought in which they expressed the dizzy dissatisfaction 
 of their race, as through the more suggestive suasion of 
 their peculiar communist fraternization and the natural so¬ 
 cial system of propaganda of the Greeks whose organiza¬ 
 tions admitted and accepted all members from foreign parts 
 whether Greek or barbarian, male or female, free or en¬ 
 slaved. Thence comes the designation ‘citizens of the sun.’ 
 This term drew the line between the followers of Aristoni¬ 
 cus who were the anointed of the congregation of Adad, 
 and the unbelievers; thus separating the poor and wretched 
 from enemies who persecuted them, as already shown in 
 the case of Eunus, who was called a Syrian to distinguish 
 him in religious matters—he being a representative fol 
 lower of Atargatis.” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES . 
 
 593 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Page 247, Notel: “Sources of our knowledge regarding the 
 second Sicilian slave-war are as follows: Florus, Condensed 
 Roman History, book III, chapter 19; Dion Cassius, Ex¬ 
 cerpts by Piresc, nos. 101, 104; Diodorus the Sicilian, book 
 XXXVI; Livy, book XLIX. The length of the time that it 
 lasted, according to the following paragraph, was about 
 four years: ‘The slave-insurgents’ war, as I say, therefore 
 lasted nearly four years and was a stately and majestic up¬ 
 heaval.’ M. Aquilliu's brought it to an end iin the year B. C. 
 99, after having taken supreme command which was at the 
 beginning of his term as consul, B. C. 101. The war broke 
 out at the time Licinius Nerva was propraetor. L. Lucullus 
 succeeded him in the command, and after him came C. Ser- 
 vilius. Thus the rebellion rose during the year B. C. 104. 
 Eusebius erroneously makes the end to have occurred four 
 years later, or at the 171st Olympiad, that is, B. C. 95.” 
 
 Page 247, Note 2: “The pool of the twins.” 
 
 Page 248, Note 3: “Speaking of all the divinities it is not 
 worth while to leave unmentioned, notwithstanding the 
 want of* faith which we remember, on the whole, attaches 
 to the very ancient temple of peculiar surroundings, called 
 the pool or crater. The tradition is, that this temple and 
 place of refuge is of awe-inspiring origin and in the minds 
 of many it is strange and marvelous. To begin with, there 
 are craters out of which spout monstrous sparks from the 
 unspeakable depths. Along side these is the cauldron 
 heated by great fires which throw red-hot flames and wa¬ 
 ters high into the air above. This seething fluid tossed up 
 into the sky, presents a whitish appearance, and nobody 
 has the force of determination to venture to touch it; for 
 the moments of quell are succeeded by other spoutings of 
 the foaming and boiling waters. This water which has 
 escaped from the abyss has the smell of brimstone; and 
 the yawning hole roars with loud, frequent and frightful 
 bellowings. But the most marvelous of all these things is, 
 that the waters neither overflow nor vary in volume 
 though there is a motion as of life in the water that floods 
 and sinks and rises again in a manner wonderful to relate. 
 So strong is the sacred essence surrounding this temple 
 that the greatest of the earth assemble there to have the 
 gods bear solemn witness to their deal; for they administer 
 condign punishment upon those who have used falsehood 
 and perjury. Some who have been deprived of sight re¬ 
 ceive it back by visiting this temple. Regarding the 
 superstition as to these great properties, there are 
 men who dispute the exceeding merits of the temple, 
 and doubt its superhuman attributes as a witness be¬ 
 tween right and wrong. This holy place is sometimes an 
 
m 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 asylum for watching over and preserving the unfortunates 
 and slaves, from their unreasonable masters, affording them 
 refuge in which to conceal themselves, and furnishing them 
 aid to deliverance. The despots are here without power to 
 exercise against fugitives, so that they can remain unhurt 
 until, through the holy witnesses and mediation of the sacred 
 power, an arbitration can be adjusted between them by means 
 of reason and persuasion. Here all are on an equal footing, 
 masters and slaves alike; and the poor and faithful are no 
 more pursued under this awe-inspiring fiat of the divinities. 
 This temple stands in august magnificence in an open, neg¬ 
 lected spot, and is furnished with porches and other befitting 
 places for repose.” 
 
 Page 248, Note 4: “The weird legend is abroad that this 
 temple is among the most awe-inspiring and ancient of all 
 the wonders of the world. ” 
 
 Page 249, Note 5: “Marius gave orders that an allied army 
 should be summoned from the outstanding nations bordering 
 on the sea. Following these orders they were sent for. He 
 also sent to Nicomides, king of Bithynia for aid. Nicomides 
 however, sent backsword that most of the people of his realm 
 were slaves reduced to that condition by conquest. Bat as 
 nobody of such as would answer the summons could be made 
 soldiers while slaves, it would be necessary to enact emanci¬ 
 pation decrees touching their case. So in consequence of 
 this law, Licinius Nerva would have to set the slaves free be¬ 
 fore they could become recruits. Thus in a few days, more 
 than 800 of the strongest slaves were assembled to receive 
 their liberty. All the slaves on the island held hopes of de¬ 
 liverance. ” 
 
 Page 249, Note 7: “Flower of the Roman cavalry, orna¬ 
 ment of the state, the very fundament of government. ” 
 
 Page 250, Note 10: “ Drove the war in every possible man¬ 
 ner, in blasphemy against gods and law and order, with allied 
 armies, made up of freedmen and freemen whether of domes¬ 
 tic or of foreign birth. ” 
 
 Page 251, Note 11: “ Here abounded prisons where the 
 
 agricultural hands were chained. ” 
 
 Page 251, Note 12: “ What marvelous work! First 2,000, 
 
 gathered from the wayside and then, as by the customs and 
 rights of war, after breaking open the prisons, he constructed 
 an army from over 60,000 prisoners.” 
 
 Page 251, Note 13: “ When called together to be made sol¬ 
 
 diers of the army and they beheld their danger, they revolted; 
 but Nerva, incited to it either through desire of gain, or in 
 compassion for the masters, accommodated himself to the 
 situation, and breaking faith in his haste, with the forms of 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 595 
 
 law before a tribunal, advised the slaves to go back to their 
 masters again, as the circumstances did not at present ad¬ 
 mit of their emancipation. Hereupon the slaves, after hold¬ 
 ing a conference, got away from Syracuse and escaped to the 
 temple of the Twins at the brimstone lake and resolved with 
 each other, upon rebellion. ” 
 
 Page 251, Note 14: “ The city is to be sought for among 
 
 the hills of Nebrode, in the neighborhood of Engyon.” 
 
 Page 252, Note 15 “ The soldiers butchered the insurgent 
 
 rebels, and those who had been captured and proved to have 
 acted as leaders, were hanged (crucified). ” 
 
 Page 253, Note 16 : “Among the soldiers who had quit their 
 huts and liberated themselves were some belonging to a man 
 named Poplius Clonius, a Roman cavalier or knight. The 
 slaves murdered him and collected a force of 80 men. ” 
 
 Page 253, Note 17: “The rebellion rose to not less than 
 2,000 persons. ” 
 
 Page 254, Note 20: “And the many insurgents who, aug¬ 
 menting day by day in secret, amounted in a short time to 
 more than 6,000, who acted a scene truly wonderful. When 
 they had called a general council, their first step was to elect 
 a king named Salvius, believed by them to be in the good 
 graces of the gods and sacred things—a fluteplayer, skilled in 
 sleight of hand, fond of women, and held choice by the god¬ 
 desses, Ceres and Proserpine.” 
 
 Page 255, Note 22 : “ Nevertheless Salvius showed greater 
 
 ability in his command than might have been expected, judg¬ 
 ing by the station he rose out of. ” 
 
 Page 256, Note 25 “The insurgents suddenly made an at¬ 
 tack and having the advantage of position to aid them violently 
 burst upon their enemy quickly gaining a victory, taking the 
 place and driving some of the army to flight. The proclama¬ 
 tion of the general that he would hurt none of the rebelling 
 slaves who should throw down their arms had its effect; for 
 most of them did so and fled. Salvius by this turn of things, 
 gained a strategical point over his enemy, took the citadel, 
 turned the battle into a victory and seized a large quantity 
 of arms. The number killed outright in this battle was not 
 above 600. These were Italians and Sicilians. They had 
 felt sympathy with the strikers and used the general’s proc¬ 
 lamation favorably. The number taken prisoners amounted 
 to about 4,000. ” 
 
 Page 257, Note 26 : “ But he did not at first succeed in tak¬ 
 ing Morgantion. Whether he ever took the city in conse¬ 
 quence of this victory is not fully apparent from the informa¬ 
 tion that has come down to us. ” 
 
 Page 257, Note 27 : “ Salvius laid siege to Morgantion over- 
 
APPENDIX : 
 
 596 
 
 running the country, to the base of the Leontine range, and 
 gathering a large army of select men not less than 30,000 in 
 number. With these he gave sacrifice and offerings to the 
 hero Twins, allotting one of the choicest purple robes as an 
 offering of gratitude for the victory. He proclaimed himself 
 king. His name among the insurgent soldiers was henceforth 
 Tryphon. ” The language is unmistakable. Still Dr. Siefert 
 muses: “ However, these words of Diodorus may have ref¬ 
 
 erence to the victory over Licinius Nerva; and indeed, it 
 must be so, for ‘ poliorkesas ’ (laying siege to a city ), can¬ 
 not be construed to comprehend as much as ‘ ekpoliorkesas ’ 
 (taking a city by siege. ” 
 
 Page 257, "Note 28: “In some incomprehensible manner 
 the praetor proved treacherous to these promises, and by the 
 means, drove the larger part of these valiant men into the 
 camp of the insurgents. ” 
 
 Page 258, Note 29: “ Atheriion, a shepherd, having mur¬ 
 
 dered his owner, and set his family at liberty from the work 
 prison, put himself in martial order. This man dressed him¬ 
 self in purple, assumed a silver cane and adorned his head with 
 regal trappings in no less sumptuous taste than did that fan¬ 
 atical fellow (Eunus) before him, bugled his army together 
 and even much more bitterly than Eunus for whom he seems 
 to have fought in vindication, overthrew towns, castles and 
 cities, raving and raging against masters and slaves more and 
 more violently as deserters (from the slave owners) swelled 
 the ranks.” 
 
 Fage 259, Note 33: “This man, clothed in purple, sporting 
 a silver cane. ” 
 
 Page 260, Note 35: “ Being conversant with the star-gazers’ 
 art he had read in the heavens that he was to become king 
 over all Sicily ; and to this end he looked about him for a 
 place that would seem most suitable on the island —which he 
 considered his own property—whereat to locate himself. He 
 made an attack upon the fortified town of Lilybaeum which 
 did not succeed. This was with a force of 10,000 men. It 
 however, served to strengthen his powers of foresight; for 
 he resolved, with great wisdom, to abandon the siege, actu¬ 
 ated by the impression that the gods were against the enter¬ 
 prise and consequently a disaster could be avoided only with 
 a miracle. This foreknowledge soon verified itself. A body 
 of Moorish troops auxiliary to the Romans, sent by Bocchus 
 of Mauritania under the new treaty, and commanded by Go- 
 mon, for the relief of the besieged city of Lilybaeum, imme¬ 
 diately on their arrival made in the night, an attack on Athe- 
 nion and before he could withdraw to a place of safety, suc¬ 
 ceeded in inflicting upon him a considerable damage.” 
 Page 260 , Note 36: “ One can scarcely estimate the diflicul- 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 597 
 
 ties which were to be expected by the leaders of an insurrec¬ 
 tion of slaves.” 
 
 Page 261, Note 37, Diodorus says regarding tramps: “ An 
 
 immense confusion of things took place and we are told that 
 all worked badly. Vast multitudes got possession of Sicily 
 entire. Not only slaves but also freedmen in a state of great 
 poverty were committing every sort of rapine and flagitious 
 deed. And whoever interfered, whether bond or free, or 
 spoke against their wrong-doing, they shamelessly murdered. 
 Scarcely could people venture into the open spaces in cities 
 which belonged to them; and as for matters outside, these 
 freedmen and emancipated slaves judged themselves unre¬ 
 strained by any law from committing acts of violence. More 
 than this, many others, forgetting their natural instincts of 
 humanity and right, audaciously wandered throughout Sicily 
 on their course of destruction. ” Continuing, Diodorus says 
 in fragment 11: “Not alone were the rebels who devastated 
 Sicily, slaves, but often free people; and all persons who pos¬ 
 sessed neither home nor lands were converted into robl 3 ers 
 and bandits who ranged up and down the country, impelled 
 alike by their poverty and their evil-mindedness, carrying off 
 horses and cattle, tearing into the granaries of the towns and 
 indiscriminately beheading slaves or free men, or whomso¬ 
 ever they met, so that none should remain alive to inform on 
 their deeds of deviltry. And when all sources of justice in 
 Sicily had been uprooted—not even a Roman prastor left to 
 demand law and order—they all fell into an unrestrained de¬ 
 bauchery and with impunity carried on a horrible licentious¬ 
 ness. There was no place free from the hordes who ravaged 
 and robbed, particularly where the wealthier ones had prem¬ 
 ises to invade. And those who, a little before, were sur¬ 
 rounded by fortune and fame as being the richest among the 
 citizens, suddenly found themselves not only reduced to mis¬ 
 ery and poverty, but cudgeled and hacked in the most con¬ 
 temptuous manner by slaves, and subjected to all sorts of in¬ 
 solence. Everywhere were the robbers stationed, ready to 
 commit outrage in the free places of cities, outside their walls 
 or wherever they thought they could do violence Great 
 was the confusion in each one of the large towns and cities; 
 for no law of justice remained. The insurgents, when they 
 had beleaguered all with their army, and the land of their 
 masters whom they hated with ungovernable rage, marched 
 up and down the highways with fire and sword, motived by 
 some inexplicable cupidity. Whoever remained in the cities, 
 such as slaves, the sick, and those sympathizing with the re¬ 
 bellion became a terror to their masters. ” 
 
 age 261, Note 38: “ These free people often practiced more 
 henious acts of power than the slaves. A reign of confusion 
 
598 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 —an enormity of troubles, as Diodorus calls it—fell upon 
 them. ” 
 
 Page 261, Note 39 : “ Athenion, who did not take a city. ” 
 
 Siefert however, remarks : “ Cicero must here be interpreted 
 with circumspection as having had an object in making this 
 mention. ” 
 
 Page 262, Note 40: “ £ Atlieniopastor, ’ the shepherd. 
 
 laid waste the country. By this man the praetorian army 
 also, was cut to pieces and the camps of Servilius as well as 
 Lucullus were seized.” Note h. of Fisher: “ The camps of 
 Servilius and of Lucullus were seized. ’ Florus had other 
 histories which we do not possess; for in these that we still 
 have, it appears that not only was Servilius not captured 
 but that Lucullus also, was not driven by the slaves.” Du- 
 ker’s comments read: “ From this too, Diodorus in his 36th 
 book, charges these things to a certain Salvius, to whom 
 Athenion was like a commander to a king.” 
 
 Page 264, Note 42, “ What were the motives inspiring him 
 
 to this conduct is not clear; it is nevertheless apparent that 
 Tryphon suspected him as a secret rival; for so soon as fa¬ 
 vorable opportunity presented itself he had him arrested and 
 put where he could do no harm.” 
 
 Page 264, Note 43 : “ Having by the exercise of judgment 
 
 gotten rid of certain powerful persons and established his 
 councils around him, he put on the Greek robes of rank and 
 donned the mantle of purple with the broad-bordered tunic 
 and chiton to denote great name and style, he surrounded 
 himself with a guard of lictors having their whips and sac¬ 
 rificial axe, and all other such things as seem to befit them¬ 
 selves to the kingly estate. ” 
 
 Page 266, Note 45 : “ After some skirmishing, they closed 
 
 in upon each other in regular conflict, which swayed to and 
 fro for a long time ere its results were decided.” Same note 
 quoting Diodorus : “ They closed together, but not until 
 
 they had been drawn in by the skirmishing. ” 
 
 Page 266, Note 46: “ Athenion with 200 picked cavalry¬ 
 
 men undertook an assault and struck down every one in his 
 way; but unfortunately he received three wounds as a result 
 which rendered him helpless. The slaves seeing this, lost 
 courage and ran. ” 
 
 Page 267, Note 49 : “ When at last, after nine days from 
 
 the date of the battle, Lucullus arrived before the fortifica¬ 
 tions to commence a siege, the wavering courage of the 
 insurgents had again been restored. ” 
 
 Page 267, Note 50: “The camps of Lucullus having been 
 taken, Athenion overturned villages, cities and castles.” Sie¬ 
 fert, same note: “Certainly, the camps of Lucullus must 
 have been stormed. ” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 509 
 
 Page 268, Note 51: “ Tryphon dying, the command of the 
 
 army fell to Athenion who laid siege to cities. ” 
 
 Page 269, Note 55: “ M. Aquillius the proconsul, contended 
 
 vigorously. ” 
 
 Page 269, Note 56: “Athenion who, after the death of Try¬ 
 phon which had occurred in the meantime, had become king 
 of the slaves, met Servilius with great boldness and drove 
 him from the field. After his camps were taken, Servilius 
 dared not again venture into battle, and the slave-king was 
 able to ransack, the country unhindered and got into his grasp 
 the castles and small cities. ” 
 
 Page 269, Note 57: “ The revolted cities followed, among 
 
 which were Hybla and Macella and some others of less im¬ 
 portance. ” 
 
 Page 270, Note 58: “ By force he seized Macella, a city sit¬ 
 uated in the neighborhood of iEgesta, ” 
 
 Page 270, Note 59: “Athenion threw himself against him 
 in open conflict and drove him from the field. ” 
 
 Page 271, Note 61: “ Athenion threw himself against him 
 
 etc., but fell while thus engaged, at the hands of the consul, 
 who himself received wounds upon the head and breast.” 
 
 Page 271, Note 62: “ Athenion the king of the rebelling 
 
 slaves, throwing together his forces, fought heroically. Ru- 
 
 E illius killed him, although he himself received a wound in his 
 ead. ” 
 
 Page 271, Note 63: “Whilst praetor in Sicily, I pursued and 
 captured runaway Italian slaves and restored 817 of them to 
 to their masters. ” 
 
 Page 272, Note 66, Same as note 55. 
 
 Page 273, Note 68: “Many thought that the glory of the 
 
 fallen ones was greater than that of the surviving victors. ” 
 Page 273, Note 69: “ When M. Aqnillius, accused of mal¬ 
 
 feasance in office, was defending himself, he was unwilling 
 to question the umpires (witnesses) and M. Antonius acted 
 as his lawyer. While making a powerful speech in his de¬ 
 fense Antonius tore the garment from his client’s breast, re¬ 
 vealing the honest scars. The judges no longer remaining in 
 doubt, Aquillius was adjudged innocent.” 
 
 Page 274, Note 70, Granier says: “ A very characteristic 
 trait existed, which was the same in Eunus and in Athenion; 
 and this was, that in revolting, neither one of them had any 
 idea of abolishing slavery and of establishing conditions of 
 equality. Hardly did they see themselves in command of force 
 than they forthwith forgot that they ever had their own necks 
 skinned with chains. They tasted with delicate relish the pre¬ 
 rogatives of masters. It is thus easy to understand how cas¬ 
 tles, villages and cities were delivered over to pillage. ” 
 
600 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 
 Page 277, Note 1: “In the great work of Nicholas of Da¬ 
 mascus the slave war was recounted in the 110th book, from 
 which we have a fragment that appears in Athenieus, IV., 
 153, F. This fragment is given by Muller, in a Latin trans¬ 
 lation which I here give, on account of the Latin being gen¬ 
 erally more easy to read than the Greek. It is as follows: 
 ‘Nicholas of Damascus, a philosopher of the peripatetic sect, 
 writes in his 110th book of histories these words, describing 
 how they used to pair gladiators at their dinners: The Ro¬ 
 mans not only hold gladiatorial spectacles in the assemblages 
 and amphitheatres, such as were borrowed from the Etruscan 
 customs, but they also do it while at their banquets of guests. 
 The way they do it is this: They invite their friends to a 
 dinner; and between the courses they introduce, sometimes 
 one, sometimes two, or sometimes three pairs of gladiators 
 whom they exhibit to the guests in battle. In this manner 
 after they have been gorged with wine and are full of sumpt¬ 
 uous hilarity, the gladiators are ordered on the scene; and 
 when one of them falls with his throat cut, the whole com¬ 
 pany of feasters fall to applauding, exhilarated by the spec¬ 
 tacle. Indeed, there is proof that sometimes beautiful wo¬ 
 men whom the master has bought for the occasion, fight each 
 other with steel. There are others also who say that even 
 little boys below the age of puberty, contribute to the grati¬ 
 fication of this delicious passion. But the public who held 
 such atrocities in detestation, ordered a law to stop it.’ The 
 whole looks as if these dreadful things might have given a 
 motive to the revolt of Spartacus. ” 
 
 Page 277, Note 2: “ The first gladiatorial function ever per¬ 
 formed at Rome was in the Forum Boarium at the time Ap- 
 pius Claudius and M. Fulvius were consuls. It was given by 
 M. and D. Brutus, in honor of their deceased father who was 
 incinerated. A battle of athletes was arranged through the 
 munificence of M. Scaurus. ” 
 
 Page 278, Note 3 : “ ‘ Function of gladiators. ’ The origin 
 
 of the gladiatorial combats is in the funeral and comes from 
 the Etruscans, although the Etruscans may possibly have de¬ 
 rived it from the Greeks. But from whatsoever the source, 
 the cause was the funeral, or burial. For inasmuch as it was 
 formerly believed that the souls of dead men were propiti¬ 
 ated by human blood, they used to immolate their captives 
 of war and even slaves of their own hearth and nourishment, 
 to the funeral rites. After having been customary in placat¬ 
 ing the avengers of impiety, it differentiated into a source of 
 voluptuousness; and thus the praotice operated in two ways 
 to propitiate the wise and great, and afterwards for Mineral 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 601 
 
 solemnities where feasts or banquets were given. Such is 
 the gladiatorial function. So from this the fighters are called 
 funereal or sepulchral gladiators. The gladiators, or, as Livy 
 and others have it, ‘ gladiatorial function,’ did not necesses- 
 sarily mean the function in this sense, but was the common 
 or popular term in use when speaking of the amphitheatre. ” 
 
 Page 279, Note 5, No. 2,551 reads: “ Poetelius, a Syrian 
 who teaches a gladiatorial school at Forina where you can buy 
 or sell a lot for the ring.” No. 2,555 is: “ Inscriptions repre¬ 
 senting gladiators, that have been preserved in the museum 
 at Rome and catalogued by Marini in his Records, vol. I., p. 
 165. ” The inscription itself reads: “ Astianax came out 
 
 victorious on the first day of the ninth month of the Roman 
 year; although he lost his own life. One antagonist was 
 Symmachus Maternus (or perhaps, a relative of Astianax on 
 his mother’s side), who was skillful in the use of weapons.” 
 Scliambach, studying the probable age of Spartacus from 
 data given in various inscriptions, says: “ Regarding his 
 
 age, we have no historical reports from the ancients; yet in 
 spite of this fact the age of Spartacus is by no means hard to 
 get at. It is natural that people should have chosen young 
 men; at any rate those not above middle age. The tomb-^ 
 stones for gladiators that have come to our knowledge show¬ 
 ing ages at the time they fell in battle, establish this fact. We 
 find in Hegenbuch’s edition of Orell’s Inscriptions the fol¬ 
 lowing data of deaths of gladiators: No. 2,572 gives the age 
 of the gladiator, at 22 years. No. 2,592 shows one who fell 
 at 27 years. No. 2,571, one who fell at 30. No 2,590 gives 
 the age at 46 . Very rarely does the age of the gladiator rise 
 above this latter figure. We shall consequently not miss far 
 from the mark by setting the age of gladiators at something 
 between 30 and 40 years. ” 
 
 Page 281 Note 10: “For although slaves are low in estate 
 of manhood and fortune, and liable to punishment, yet they 
 are a species of mankind,” 
 
 Page 281, Note 11: “ The true meaning of family is prop¬ 
 
 erty. It comprehends the land, the house, the money, the 
 slaves, etc.” 
 
 Page 282, Note 13: “ The war that was instigated by Spar¬ 
 
 tacus the general, I am at a loss to find a name for. ” Scham- 
 bach, same note, says: “ That Spartacus was a Thracian by 
 birth is a matter on which all information agrees. Plutarch 
 even adds that he was of a nomadic tribe. Steven of Byzan¬ 
 tium mentions a Thracian city of the same name From 
 Thucydides, II., 101, we learn that there was a royal dynasty 
 of the Thracian house of Odrysae, bearing the name Spardo- 
 kos. We are shown by the inscriptions and coins that the 
 name Spartokos was common among the rulers along the 
 
602 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Bosphorus. Compare Bockh, Body of Greek Inscriptions, 
 vol. II., 91. It is possible, therefore, that our Spartacus, in 
 his own country, might have been clothed with the rank of 
 nobility. 
 
 Page 283, Note 15: “On the laws that were enacted against 
 the unions: ‘Frequently they organized communistic socie¬ 
 ties without authority of the public statutes, out of the quar¬ 
 relsome elements of the people, who thus became a public 
 
 nuisance.and on this account many of the unions w r ere 
 
 afterwards suppressed by law.’ ” 
 
 Page 284, Note 21: “ Speech of Spartacus: A group sculpt¬ 
 ured in marble by Barrias, /1872; Spartacus the father of the 
 hero, appears chained and nailed to the trunk of a tree, about 
 to expire, etc. ” 
 
 Page 285, Note 22: “That Spartacus was a Thracian by 
 birth, is agreed to by all accounts of him.” 
 
 Page 286, Note 27: “From this reflex of humanity as one 
 views it in the light of a fresh power overwhelming the work!, 
 the regular demand of business enterprise was satisfied. All 
 the tilne there were multitudes of slaves imported to Italy 
 from the north, from the regions of the Black Sea, from Syria 
 and Lybia through slave merchants. For a long time Delos 
 was the head-quarters of this business. At the time of its 
 highest success, which was about b. c. 100, no less than 10,000 
 slaves are said to have been landed here in a single day. It 
 is self-evident that Rome was an important center of the slave 
 trade. How the slave dealers came in possession of their 
 wares was never questioned. Kidnaping by land and sea 
 constituted the man-hunt such as is to-day being carried on 
 in Africa. It was no uncommon thing to see a great multi¬ 
 tude brought in who had been victimized through secret 
 machinations and private feuds as well as those coming into 
 possession of traders by exchange and barter.” 
 
 Page 287, Note 28: “Pyrrhus, who had been called by the 
 people of Tarentum as an aid against the Romans, in order 
 to lrelp the effeminate citizens, forbade the communistic table 
 or Greek system of taking their meals in common, as one of 
 his first regulations.” 
 
 Page 287, Note 32: “And they built the prison which is 
 said to have been called the ‘home of the Roman proletaries.’ 
 Thus, in order that he might call out at any time, and often, 
 that is, in order that he might frequently, and again and 
 again be her judge and lest she should resist him, and vindi¬ 
 cate herself through the law, he took away her liberty and 
 reduced her to a slave. If she did not succumb, he could in 
 this case, order her to prison and in chains. Seldom was 
 there ever such a commotion of human feelings, or such a 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 603 
 
 power of the people, determined to bring him to punishment; 
 for they saw by this, how easily their own liberty might be 
 taken away. So Appius Claudius was thrown into prison.’' 
 
 Page 289, Note 35: “He had served in the legions as an 
 auxiliary; but being too proud to accept a species of servitude 
 disguised in the name of the ‘alliance/ he had deserted at 
 the head of a company of his fellow citizens. But being 
 caught and sold, his courage and physical powers were forced 
 into play as a gladiator. ” 
 
 Page 289, Note 36: “ He met with some gladiators belong¬ 
 
 ing to a certain Lentulus Batiatus at Capua, many of whom 
 were Gauls and Thracians.” Remark of Floras: “Since 
 they had already done menial work in the army, they were 
 ordered to act as gladiators—a sort of infamous human crea¬ 
 ture of the meanest quality and a butt of derision; yet they 
 brought on a calamity. ” Schambach’s remark: “ They 
 now elected the Thracian, Spartacus, general-in-chief, and 
 the two Gauls, Crixus and (Enomaus, as generals of the sec¬ 
 ond degree. It is with extreme probability, judging from 
 the vote which decided this result, that we can set down the 
 proportion of the Thracians as one-third, and that of the Gauls 
 as two-thirds—a proportion which does not materially vary 
 in the coming course of events. ” 
 
 Page 290, Note 37, Schambach’s remark: “ So far as the pre¬ 
 vious vicissitudes in the life of Spartacus are concerned, this 
 holds good: that he had for a time been a soldier in the Ro¬ 
 man militia, with pay; probably in the force of the procon¬ 
 sul P. Claudius, who had been assigned to the work of break¬ 
 ing down what remained of the free ranks of the Macedonian 
 Thracians. He had in this service probably acquired that ex¬ 
 act knowledge of Roman military tactics which was an indis¬ 
 pensable condition to his future victories. According to Flo¬ 
 ras, he then deserted and became a marauding guerrilla. He 
 was taken prisoner while in this capacity. Appian does not 
 coincide with this view where ( book I., 116), he says: ‘ Be¬ 
 ing sold as a prisoner of war to be one of the gladiators.’ Nei¬ 
 ther does Yarro’s fragment (Charis, I., 108), where he says: 
 ‘Spartacus, who was innocent, was thrown as a gladiator, to 
 be killed with steel; ’ since they speak against the testimony 
 of Floras. We are informed by Plutarch (Crassus. 8), that 
 ‘ he first came into Rome on sale; ’ that he had many a time 
 changed owners before he came to the Capuan fighting school 
 of Lentulus Batiatus. Plutarch also relates an anecdote of 
 him after his arrival in Rome, to the effect that a snake once 
 coiled itself about him in his sleep and that a female Thracian 
 fortune-teller interpreted the circumstance to mean that ‘he 
 was to become great and feared, and even to his unhappy 
 end, happy.’—a prophecy which, especially in its last part, 
 leaves nothing more to wish for.” 
 
604 
 
 APPENDIX : 
 
 Page 291, Note 39 : “ Nor did he decline his pay, as a sol¬ 
 
 dier of Thrace. From a soldier, he became a deserter ; from 
 that, a robber and then a gladiator, doing duty to the amuse¬ 
 ment of gentlemen.” 
 
 Page 291, Note 40, The inscription reads: “ M. Aquillius 
 and M. F. G-ailus were proconsuls at the time I was marching 
 from South Italy to Capua. Along the highway of Pontis I 
 put registers showing the number captured, as follows: 2 
 at Nuceria; 123 at Capua; 73 at Murianum; 123 at Cosa- 
 num; 180 at Valencia On the strait were put 231, and at 
 Rhegium 237. In the stretch from Capua to Rhegium, 1,321. 
 And also at the time I was praetor in Sicily, I captured 917 
 Italian slaves and returned them (to their owners ), to culti¬ 
 vate the land. ” 
 
 Page 292, Note 41: “ About this time gladiators were brought 
 
 to Italy and lodged at Capua to be trained for the show. Spar- 
 tacus a Thracian by race, who had been a soldier in the Ro¬ 
 man army, and who, as a prisoner of war, was sold for a glad¬ 
 iator, being one of them, persuaded some 70 of the most dar¬ 
 ing to make an escape, pleading that a forceable attempt at 
 liberty was better than to be butchered at the amphitheatri- 
 cal spectacle; and arming his fellow adventurers with cud¬ 
 gels of wood and knives, they forced the guards and escaped 
 to Mt. Vesuvius.” 
 
 Page 292, Note 42: “With scarcely more than 30 men of 
 his own fortune they forced themselves out of Capua.” 
 
 Page 293, Note 43 : “They first compelled their best com¬ 
 rades to leave Capua and seizing weapons suitable for fight¬ 
 ing, safely got away; and luckily, as they got hold of mores, 
 they threw away their old weapons as barbarous, unworthy 
 the dignity of gladiators. ” Cicero says, speaking of Sicily: 
 “ In the insurrection of Spartacus there were very few at 
 first. But what evil would those fellows not have done in so 
 small an island 1 ” Floras, speaking of their numbers, says 
 Spartacus, Crixus and (Enomaus broke out of the ring school 
 of Lentulus and with scarcely more than 30 men of their own 
 sort, escaped from Capua. ” 
 
 Page 294, Note 46, Same as note 43 at the close. 
 
 Page 294, Note 47: “Plutarch says: ‘People generally 
 
 call it the Spartacan war' and Floras, who designates the 
 Sicilian labor war the war of the slaves, sets the caption 
 ‘ Spartacan war, ’ which brings this Italian insurrection like¬ 
 wise among the great wars of Rome, like the Hannibalic, the 
 Sertorian and the Mithridatic wars, in which a single pesron 
 exhibits such superior qualities as to constitute the soul of 
 the conflict, that it takes its name from him. In fact, we 
 find other weighty references to this, among the Roman au¬ 
 thors. Augustin, in De Civitate Dei, III., 26; Ampelius, 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES . 
 
 605 
 
 Book of Memory, chapters 41 & 45, calling it the servile war: 
 Caesar, Gallic Wars, book I., 40, calling it the slave insurrec¬ 
 tionary war; Frontin ; Orosius: ‘ This war of the runaways 
 or as I may more correctly call it, war of the gladiators.’ 
 But in all these appellations the main idea is expressed, that 
 the glory of the strikers, or insurrectionists, must not come 
 down to posterity except as the hated and despised leaders.” 
 
 Page 294, Note 48 : “ Slaves are held subject to the power 
 of their masters, and this is in fact tlie power recognized by 
 the jus gentium, (law common to nations); for we are to un¬ 
 derstand that with all citizen and respectable classes, owners 
 of slaves have the power either to kill them or permit their 
 existence.” 
 
 Page 295, Note 51: “Seventy-four companies were killed 
 by the gladiators.” Florus remarks that: “The general 
 thought nothing of what was going to happen, when all at 
 once his camp was burst into by a sudden onset. ” Scham- 
 bach remarks: “All information agrees that the fighters 
 were immensely inferior in numbers. Frontin even bears 
 witness (I., v., 21), that there were onty 74 in the battle, 
 lie says : ‘ But he also from the other side, so terrified Clo- 
 dius that his gladators killed some 74 companies of his sol¬ 
 diers. ’ The attack succeeded perfectly. The Roman soldiers 
 who had been hastily gathered, fled from the battle ground 
 leaving their camp with all their baggage, which became the 
 booty of the insurgents. ” 
 
 Page 297, Note 53, Florus says : “ His force gathering in 
 
 numbers every day until it assumed the proportion of a real 
 army; and he made shields from the vines and the skins of 
 the cattle, and forged swords and javelins out of the iron of 
 workhouse prisons. ” Appian adds: “ Spartacus gathered 
 very many soldiers and soon had an army of 70,000. He forged 
 arms and collected the implements of war. On the other hand, 
 the inhabitants of the cities sent against him two consuls with 
 an army of two complete legions.” 
 
 Page 297, Note 54: “As he shared the spoils of battle equally, 
 his army became numerous; and the first commander sent 
 against him was Varinius Glabros, and with him one Publius 
 Valerius. They did not carry out the tactics of a regular 
 army but thought only to proceed with all haste possible, the 
 Romans not looking upon it as a war but thought they were 
 merely dealing with a robber and his unorganized hordes. 
 They were allured into a weak spot and defeated. The horse 
 of Varinius was seized by Spartacus himself, Varinius escap¬ 
 ing, although the Roman general was well-nigh taken pris¬ 
 oner by the gladiator.” 
 
 Page 297, Note 55: “And I may drop a thought upon that 
 Mars-like warrior, Spartacus ; though every scrap plies its de- 
 
800 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ceptive art in making him a vagrant.” Tacitus says: “Never 
 contumely toward the Roman people brought Caesar greater 
 pain than did this deserter and robber—not even Spartacus, 
 after so many disasters of Rome’s consular armies, who raged 
 and burned up Italy with impunity.” 
 
 Page 399, Note 57, Remarks of Schambach: “We have 
 most of all to regret the loss of the greatest work—that of 
 Sallust—bearing the title of 1 Books of History of the Roman 
 People.’ Sallust was not only the person nearest in date to 
 the events, among Roman authors who wrote a history of 
 this war, but he was also the most trustworthy in his histori¬ 
 cal tracings. On account of his position in the state and his 
 far-reaching communications he was in condition to give the 
 best information; and he combined a characteristic for de¬ 
 scription, with method and criticism. His histories were 
 very thorough.” 
 
 Page 299, Note 58: “ In a disastrous conflict Varinius lost 
 
 his troops, his baggage and his horse, even his praetorian bun¬ 
 dles with the rods and battle-axe.” 
 
 Page 300, Note 59: “He not only seized the mountains 
 around Thuria but the city of Thuria itself; and forbade mer¬ 
 chants bringing gold and silver into camp, using only iron 
 and bronze and discountenencing other things. Piles of wood 
 were brought and worked up for the coming expedition and 
 large quantities of plunder were accumulated. By exchange 
 among the outstanding Romans, and with the booty which 
 came into their hands, they became a power.” 
 
 Page 300, Note 60: “ After Spartacus had drawn to himself 
 
 all the elements of revolt offered by Campania, he turned to¬ 
 ward other regions. We are unforunately, not instructed 
 with exactness regarding the route he took; nevertheless by 
 employing the Vatican fragments of Sallust which agree with 
 Orosius, we may conclude that he first marched toward the 
 peninsula, on the coast of the Adriatic, whence he turned in 
 southerly direction and came to Lucania. At any rate the 
 fragments show that Varinius of whom we shall speak more 
 as we proceed, confronted the revolters at Picenum. On 
 this march he took Annii Forum and perhaps Avella, whose 
 inhabitants displayed a feeling against his offer of protection. 
 It is perfectly certain that the slaves pursued their course 
 with fire and murder.” 
 
 Page 301, Note 64: “Not only are unions restored which 
 the senate suppressed, but others, new and innumerable, are 
 trumped up out of all the dregs of the city.” 
 
 Page 301, Note 65: “ During the consulate of L. Julius and 
 
 M. Marius, noted by Cicero, the unions were suppressed by a 
 law of the senate.” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 607 
 
 Page 301, Note 66: “That not only the ancient unions, but 
 others, innumerable, and entirely new ones, should be created 
 by a gladiator.” 
 
 Page 302, Note 67 : “ Concerning the restoration of the old 
 
 and the institution of new unions, which he (Cicero) says, are 
 created out of the dregs of the city.” 
 
 Page 302, Note 69 : “ For which cause the conscription may 
 
 be instituted; and I have already explained as to which unions 
 this law applied. In this matter I ought to observe two points: 
 first that when slaves belonged to the unions they should not 
 be considered as being in the unions of mechanics; since I do 
 not think that these admitted slaves. But it was those de¬ 
 voted to religion. Therefore, the law of Clodius must be re¬ 
 garded as having effect only in the city of Rome, as Cicero 
 says : ‘Also unions created out of the dregs of the city’— 
 those which Clodius conscribed and organized into companies 
 in the forum.” 
 
 Page 302, Note 70, “ Golden and gilded things are luxuries 
 
 which we know Spartacus prohibited from his camps; for no 
 soldier was allowed either gold or silver. This shows how 
 much nobler than ours were the souls of our runaway slaves.” 
 
 Page 303, Note 72 : “ Certain feeble glances are brought to 
 
 mind upon the constancy of women, the inter cession of their 
 prayers and the fine sentiment of the breast in cases of im¬ 
 prisonment. Sometimes the tedium of long and impatient 
 confinement is thus assuaged ; and it comes to great use in 
 binding together the souls of states, as in cases where girls, 
 even of noble parentage are wanted to comfort those held as 
 hostages. Nor do men put aside their counsel or neglect 
 their answers. We have as examples, Veleda, who was held 
 high for her predictions and her method of worship among 
 the G-ermans. But there were also Aurinia and very many 
 others who long ago were venerated. They did not fawn or 
 descend to superficial adulation before the goddesses.” 
 
 Page 304, Note 77: “Spartacus made an avenging sacri¬ 
 fice of 400 of the Roman prisoners, to the ghost of the dead 
 Crixus. Having 120,000 foot soldiers he thought to march 
 on Rome. Making a bonfire of all unserviceable things of the 
 expedition, tying all of the prisoners and slaughtering the 
 beasts of draft in order to render the army light and easy to 
 manage, and many deserters from the Romans offering them¬ 
 selves, he took them in. The consuls straightway coming 
 to the rescue against him in the country of Picenum, he 
 fought and beat them in great battles at every hand.” Julius 
 Obsequens says: * ‘ From Capua, they tell us, comes a hor¬ 
 rifying clamor—a hundred thousand men destroyed in the 
 Italian civil war! ” 
 
 Page 305, Note 78. Granier’s remarks: “Spartacus who 
 
608 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 was a man whose heart was above his condition had only one 
 idea: he wanted to get to Gaul, on the other side of the Alps, 
 and once there, his wish was to have every one return to his 
 own country. The military manoeuvres of the consuls and 
 the insubordination of his comrades prevented the realization 
 of his desire ” Schambach says : “Floras however, can be 
 excused, as giving a useful tinge to the subject, where he says, 
 speaking of the leaders of one of the Sicilian wars: ‘We 
 should hold in mind that the disasters were great.’ But peo¬ 
 ple were not content with simply making silence cast oblivion 
 over Spartacus; they even smeared public opinion of him by 
 means of invented misdeeds, and brought his name down as 
 a term of contempt and abuse. And even men like Cicero 
 and the elder Pliny are not entitled to remain free from this 
 opinion regarding them. But we, who have no cause to re¬ 
 gard Spartacus as a terrible enemy to be held in dismay, 
 have a duty to perform in exhibiting his personality in its 
 correct light and thus redeem it from an undeserved blame. 
 Drumann says: “ Nature had created him to be a hero and 
 a ruler by endowing him with wisdom, courage, love of lib¬ 
 erty and moderation. These caused him to stride in advance 
 of his companions. He brought unconquerable Rome to fear 
 and trembling when he broke his chains; though all he de¬ 
 sired was freedom. The cruelty of his unbridled hordes is 
 not to be attributed to him, nor charged to his reckoning, so 
 far as it was not directed against their oppressors; it was only 
 to the Romans who played their part against his manhood, 
 those whom he prevented from nailing him to the cross, that 
 he knew no mercy. He also remained in the resolve to act a 3 
 for himself, for those who fell victims of Rome. He did not 
 wish to destroy Rome, because he desired nothing that was 
 impossible. The prophecy of his Thracian wife regarding his 
 forthcoming greatness did not dazzle him. But the slaves 
 confused, frustrated and baffled his plan.” 
 
 Page 306, Note 79 : “ (Enomaus had already fallen in bat¬ 
 tle.” Schambach says: “This (Enomaus must have been 
 killed early. Crixus, who appears as the next in command 
 after Spartacus, played his part for a longer time.” 
 
 Page 306, Note 80 : “ Q. Arrius, the praetor, killed Crixus 
 
 the general, together with 20,000 of his troops.” Appian 
 says : “ Crixus who was the other commander, having un¬ 
 
 der him 30,000 men, was met (by Arrius), at the foot of Mt. 
 Garganus and defeated; himself and two-thirds of his army 
 being destroyed. Spartacus, the other commander, was in 
 consequence hindered from carrying out his intention of cross¬ 
 ing the Appenine mountains, and so moved toward the Alps 
 in the direction of Gaul, pursued by the Roman consul.” Sal¬ 
 lust so far as can be made out of the broken scrap, says • 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 609 
 
 “ The rage of the conflict was powerful. Forgetting the body 
 lacerated with gashes, and half-alive, some of them fought 
 wickedly while others on the house tops hurled down fire 
 upon the enemy. Many slaves of the place who had enrolled 
 themselves in the love of liberty as allies, secretly stole things 
 from their masters as they set themselves at liberty and no¬ 
 body, holy or wicked, was spared the anger and servile re¬ 
 vengefulness of the barbarians; deeds were these which Spar- 
 tacus was unable to hinder though he sent messengers in haste 
 and with many entreaties.” Again Sallust says: “In a few 
 days the faith of our troops began to augment and the force 
 to increase unexpectedly. Varinius moved incautiously on 
 his prey which was in view, and fell into a new ambush like 
 the others, and his soldiers suffered a shock. He however, 
 led them up to the camps of the revolters. With quick step 
 they silently advanced but not in such self-conscious splen¬ 
 dor as they had hitherto assumed. Again on the other hand, 
 the slaves, it was perceived, were quarreling among them¬ 
 selves and were at the point of sedition; for Crixus and his 
 Gauls, together with the Germans were anxious to offer battle 
 while Spartacus opposed it.” 
 
 Page 307, Note 81: “ He also tore to shreds the consular 
 
 forces under Lentulus, in the Appenines; and under Oaius 
 Cassius at Mutina.” 
 
 Page 307, Note 82: “ Their numbers rose so that at last he 
 brought to bear against the Romans as many as 40,000 men.” 
 Note of translator: This absurd remark attributed to Velle- 
 jus Paterculus is a false statement of an early amanuensis; 
 for the real, and undeniably correct figure actually given by 
 Paterculus was 300,000; see pp. 324-5,-and notes 122, 124. 
 
 Page 308, Note 83: “ Being driven by him and dispersed hi 
 
 flight—be it said to our shame—the enemy retired to the far¬ 
 ther side of Italy.” 
 
 Page 308, Note 84: “ On the route he met and crushed two 
 consular, and two praetorian armies and arrived, fighting and 
 always victorious, at the Po, whose waters overflowing its 
 banks, debarred his progress.” Sallust remarks: u M. Tre- 
 quius, having scarcely enough troops, could hardly escape 
 being injured. But Varinius, so long as his force was pressed 
 upon by the insurgents and rendered weak-spirited by the 
 odds against him, ordered his men with a severe threat, not 
 to fall back and encouraged them to rally by means of sig¬ 
 nals ; and those who lagged he lowered to the rank of militia 
 with anathemas of disgrace. His commissary C. Thoranius” 
 ( Here the scrap is so broken as to be no further intelligible). 
 
 Page 308, Note 85: “ He ordered the prisoners (Roman) 
 
 to fight each other as gladiators with weapons, in celebration 
 of the funeral and to the honor of the immortal spirits of the 
 
610 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 dead leaders; plainly as if to resuscitate a gone-by abomina¬ 
 tion and revive the old funereal function of the gladiatorial 
 wake.” 
 
 Page 309, Note 89: “0. Cassius the proconsul, and the 
 
 praetor Cneus Manlius, continued the war against Spartacus 
 but were defeated.” 
 
 Page 310 Note 92: “ Therefore the two consuls joined their 
 forces on the plains of Piceno, and attacked him both to¬ 
 gether. But here again Spartacus raged against them and 
 defeated them with great loss.” 
 
 Page 310, Note 95: “ He did not dare to march to the city.” 
 
 Page 311, Note 96: “ At last with all the forces at his com¬ 
 
 mand he marched against the Thracian gladiator.” Transla¬ 
 tor’s note. According to law, Crassus, being the consul was 
 commander-in-chief of all the forces recently returned from 
 Spain and Asia. 
 
 Page 311, Note 97: “ There happened an affair on a gigan¬ 
 tic scale. Steadily they found allies of their own class, be¬ 
 sides many farmers—men of a tough and pernicious sort.” 
 
 Page 311, Note 98: “ Spartacus the leader of the runaway 
 slaves, was able with his 500 robbers to perpetrate enough 
 of evil.” 
 
 Page 312, Note 101: “ The war had already been raging 
 three years and was becoming more fearful and the gladia¬ 
 tors more disdainful in power and spirit. When the vote for 
 new consuls was about to be taken candidates were tardy 
 in coming to hand, as they would have to be commanders. 
 At length Licinius Orassus, well known by family and wealth 
 among the Romans, manifested a willingness to assume com¬ 
 mand and with six fresh legions bore away against Sparta¬ 
 cus.” 
 
 Page 313, Note 104: “ The Roman general only intended to 
 invade Latium, not daring to risk a battle with the terrible 
 gladiator, and was content to harass and rendor him misera¬ 
 ble, with his lieutenants, who were invariably beaten when¬ 
 ever they ventured to come to battle.” 
 
 Page 315, Note 108: “Immediately choosing one out of 
 every ten from the whole lot of those who had been defeated 
 they were condemned to death and destroyed. This was re¬ 
 gardless as to which one the lot fell upon; for every soldier 
 in the army who was beaten was called up and the tenth of 
 the whole number chosen. The total number enrolled was 
 about 4,000, no one escaping. No matter how this was con¬ 
 sidered, the thought of defeat became one of terror and 
 straightway Crassus fell upon the myriads under Spartacus 
 and his disdainful gladiators, with these newly invigorated 
 men, and drove them.” Remarks of the commentator Thir- 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 611 
 
 sins: “ ‘ He kills those who were chosen by lot. with clubs. 
 
 I think it should read: ‘He kills those led out. 5 Concern¬ 
 ing the severe military discipline of Crassus, we must reflect 
 that it was in the case of the two legions of Mummius who, 
 contrary to the orders of the consul, had dared to attack the 
 enemy under Spartacus and who had been defeated. Four 
 hundred of those who had been the first to take to their heels 
 were led forth, after being drawn by lot. This ancient man¬ 
 ner of punishment by making them kill each other, and which 
 had long since fallen into disuse, was resuscitated by Crassus.” 
 
 Page 315, Note 109 : “ Defeating him, he smartly followed 
 
 him to the sea, where he (Spartacus) was to cross over into 
 Sicily. Here Crassus set to work and threw up a breastwork 
 and an intrenchment.” 
 
 Page 316 Note 111: “About the same time the gladiators 
 forced themselves into the town of Praeneste and endeavored 
 to break into the garrison of the army which here held the 
 munitions of war, and spread terror among the people; for 
 it started amidst these a desire to reenact the old scenes of 
 Spartacus; and not much later a naval defeat was sustained. 
 It was not a war, for all this was in a time of profound peace 
 but Nero had ordered the fleet to return to Campania on a 
 certain day, taking no notice of the nets of the sea. The 
 governors therefore, inasmuch as the sea thronged with pi¬ 
 rates who had their head-quarters in Formiae (Mola de G-aeta), 
 and were strong in Africa as well as in Miseni, which they 
 had taken, sent war boats with three pairs of oars and a large 
 number of smaller vessels everywhere along the Cumanian 
 shores.” 
 
 Page 317, Note 113: “ L. Metallus the praetor, prosperously 
 carried on a warfare in Sicily.” 
 
 Page 318, Note 115: “ So great was the terror which he 
 
 (Spartacus) had inspired, that Crassus undertook to shut him 
 up in the peninsula of Rhegium by a breastwork and ditch 
 some 45 miles long! The chief of the slaves manifested pro¬ 
 found contempt for this immense work, as well as for his en¬ 
 emies, who did not dare to attack him in the front. There¬ 
 fore, when the provisions began to fail, he broke down a part 
 of the breastwork during a stormy night, forced the lines of 
 the Romans and manoeuvred freely in Lucania where he ex¬ 
 terminated the troops of the two lieutenants of Crassus who 
 had the temerity to molest him in his retreat.” 
 
 Page 318, Note 116: “Spartacus, relinquishing his inten¬ 
 tion to give battle with his entire command, ordered his cav¬ 
 alry to harass and teaze the besiegers as much as possible, 
 by continually attacking them of a sudden. He broke into the 
 defenses of Crassus and burned them, accomplishing the de* 
 struction of much difficult work. He hung a Roman prisoner 
 
612 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 in the open space between the two armies, showing his owr. 
 jnen by plain view that they were not to disobey orders. He 
 threw fagots and wood bundles into the ditch and escaped.” 
 
 Pag^ 319, Note 117 : “ The people in the city of Rome, on 
 
 inquiry, learning the escape of Spartacus from the blockade 
 and reflecting upon the length of this war with the gladiator, 
 sent word to Pompey to return with his army, from Spain, 
 writing him that the affair had become a great and difficult 
 work. Since the election which created Crassus consul, he 
 had kept back the rumors of the war with Spartacus from 
 the knowledge of Pompey and made every possible turn to 
 get Spartacus into his hands. Spartacus knew that negoti¬ 
 ations were going on for the assistance of Pompey.” The 
 French Dictionary says : “Crassus wrote to the senate ask¬ 
 ing that Pompey, then about to return from Spain, be sent 
 to his assistance; likewise for the aid of Lucullus, who was 
 about to return from Asia. He however, soon regretted 
 this step, and sought every measure possible to terminate the 
 war himself, so that he might enjoy all the honor.” 
 
 Page 319, Note 118, Remarks of Frontin, quoting Livy: 
 “ ‘ Thirty-five thousand armed soldiers of the insurgent slaves 
 who were defeated by Crassus were killed in this battle, to¬ 
 gether with their generals, Castus and Gannicus,’ so says Livy 
 and the Romans recaptured 5 eagles, 26 ensigns and much 
 plunder, among which were the praetorian fasces.” 
 
 Page 320, Note 119: “Crassus had in the war of the glad¬ 
 iators, at Catana, built a couple of palisade-like intrenchments 
 that walled the camps of Spartacus from his own army. In 
 the night, Spartacus set his army in motion while the prae¬ 
 torian guards remained on high ground in their camps, in or¬ 
 der to deceive the Romans. He thus led out all his force and 
 going to the foot of the mountains they all met at a place in¬ 
 dicated in advance. The cavalry was attacked by L. Quinc- 
 tio and the part under Spartacus was drawn off so as to frus¬ 
 trate a battle with him. The other part consisting of Gauls 
 and Germans who had been in a faction against their head 
 leader and who were commanded by Castus and Gannicus, 
 were allured into an attack (upon Quinctio), by his pretend¬ 
 ing to escape. In this way the Roman drew up his forces 
 against them and when the barbarians came up he formed 
 his cavalry in squares and suddenly throwing off the mask, 
 fell upon them with a clamor. Thirty-five thousand armed 
 men, Livy tells us, fell in this battle, together with both the 
 leaders, Castus and Gannicus.” See also last words of Fron¬ 
 tin, above. 
 
 Rage 323, Note 121: “ Pompey was bending his energies 
 
 to reach and seize Spartacus; and the latter believed him tc 
 be bearing down upon him—even then, summoned to a con- 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES . 
 
 613 
 
 sultation with Crassus. Disdaining to find out by inquiries 
 what was going on, he had the cavalry brought up, forced 
 his entire army through the barriers of the intrenchment and 
 escaped to Brundusium, followed by Crassus. Spartacus how¬ 
 ever, learned that Lucullus had arrived in Brundusium, hav¬ 
 ing; finished his defeat of Mithridates. He now became des- 
 perate; for he knew that he was about to fall into the hands 
 of Crassus, with all of his great army of so many times ten 
 thousand in number. Spartacus received a wound in the 
 thigh by a dart, in the great battle that took place. Bend¬ 
 ing the knee to the fight and throwing away his shield, he 
 stood out upon the approaching enemy and in single, hand-to 
 hand conflict, fell, covered with wounds, leaving many, in a 
 circle around him, dead.” 
 
 Page 325, Note 123, Schambach says: “ Vellejus is of little 
 value to us. We get nothing through him that is not already 
 known, except this statement regarding the numbers, that ‘ of 
 the 300,000 slaves engaged in the last battle, only 40,000 
 were left.’ ” 
 
 Page 325, Note 124, What Vellejus, interpolated by some¬ 
 body, is wrongfully made to say: “ Runaways from the train¬ 
 ing school for gladiators, at Capua with a leader named Spar¬ 
 tacus, escaped, and having seized swords in the city, grew in 
 numbers day by day until they became a multitude. With 
 traps and tricks they inflicted great damage to Italy and their 
 numbers rose so that at the last battle there were 40,000 in 
 line” (the original MSS. written by Vellejus himself, had it 
 300,000, the number 40,000surviving) “who arrayed them¬ 
 selves against the Roman army.” John Campbell’s note is 
 as follows: “ Although I do not think that I ought to alter 
 
 anything myself, I will say that there is a great dispute here, 
 among writers. Among those known to hold a diversity of 
 opinion is Vossius, the exceedingly learned author of a dis¬ 
 sertation on translations, in his edition of Florus, book III., 
 chapter 20.” Again: “Forty; Some others augment this 
 number by a great deal. Eutrope is among those who make 
 it smallest of all. He writes it down as 60,000 men who 
 were collected by Spartacus. But Appian extends the num¬ 
 ber to 120,000. Orosius who continued the histories of Livy 
 is observed to hold a medium between these. Thus I shall 
 scarcely go wide of the truth by stating it, with Vossius, at 
 90,000. This is but a paltry pivotal number from which 
 the writers vary one way or the other; since the real edition 
 of Vellejus gives it at 300,000 men.” Signed by Heinsius. 
 Remarks from the Hudson edition, note 5: “Vossius does 
 not dispute that the number should be read 90,000 or 100,000, 
 because the original edition of Vellejus reads 300,000 men.” 
 
 Page 327, Note 128: “The battle became great and obsti- 
 
614 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 nate as so many times ten thousand men grew desperate 
 Spartacus was wounded in the thigh by a javelin (dart) and 
 bending his knee, threw off his shield and plunged in upon 
 the approaching columns of the enemy until he himself and 
 many more, fighting in a circle around him, fell.” 
 
 Page 328, Note 132, Words of Heinsius on the number of 
 men under Spartacus who fell in the last battle: “ Since 
 
 the main edition (ofVellejus) says ‘40,000 out of the 300, 
 000 men.’” Words of Schambach, the best modern critic, 
 see note 123; Words of Appian: “The rest of the army 
 fell into disorder and the men were cut down in great num¬ 
 bers while the loss on the part of the Romans was not very 
 great, reaching only to a few thousand men. The dead body 
 of Spartacus could not be found.” 
 
 Page 330, Note 136: “ The number of killed, according to 
 
 Athenaeus, in this and other less important slave uprisings 
 which peradventure have, or have not come down to us, rose 
 to something like a million. He probably got his figures 
 out of the exaggerated calculations of Ctecilius Calactenus.” 
 
 CHAPTER Xm. 
 
 Page 334, Note 1: “We search for the place and the na¬ 
 ture of the skilled workmen in trade union's engaged in pub¬ 
 lic affairs and government work, who were tolerated by law 
 —and this is being examined into so far as may be—although 
 among authors this thing is kept very dark.” 
 
 Page 335, Note 6: “Declares that Numa the king, created 
 the third union, that of the bronze-workers, in the city of 
 
 Rome.Numa the king, instituted the seventh union— 
 
 that of the potters.” 
 
 Page 335, Note 7 : “ The Roman state originally granted 
 
 the trade organizations, such as did service to its religious 
 functions and its military, complete privileges and its imme 
 diate protection, together with a code of self-sustaining rules 
 on the communal plan.” 
 
 Page 335, Note 8: “In very ancient times the right of com¬ 
 bining into organized form was allowed to everybody.” 
 
 Page 336, Note 10: “ In the divisions of the trades and pro¬ 
 
 fessions there were included along with the skilled arts, the 
 flute-players, gold-workers, dyers, shoemakers, tanners cur¬ 
 riers, braziers, potters and all the others instructed to operate 
 under the same system.” 
 
 Page 337: Note 13 : “ It is worthy of remark here that this 
 
 is the law of Solon, as it relates to the sacred and civil com¬ 
 munes.” 
 
 Page 338, Note 14 : “Amasis made a law for the Egyptians 
 which made it compulsory upon all to inform the governors 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 615 
 
 of their districts as to how they maintained themselves, on 
 pain of death. Solon brought this law to Athens and estab¬ 
 lished it there.” 
 
 Page 340, Note 17: “Although much was destroyed in 
 the civil war, yet there were in his possessson, 4,116 slaves.” 
 
 Page 340, Note 19: “ Not only those ancient unions were 
 
 restored in spite of the senate, but new ones, too numerous to 
 count were enrolled by a gladiator.” 
 
 Page 342, Note 21: “To his most virtuous wife Numisia, 
 with her incomparable love, with whom he lived 17 years, 11 
 months and 17 days.” 
 
 Page 343, Note 26 : “We are nevertheless surprised to see 
 in Livy who knew the old traditions, that the optimate class 
 denied the admission of plebeians as citizens, not because 
 they were from conquered countries, but because they were 
 without religion and without family. Now this reproach, un¬ 
 merited at the time of Licinius Stolo and which those living 
 contemporaneously to Livy, could scarcely understand, com¬ 
 ing down from a high antiquity, reminds us of the ancient 
 organization of cities.” 
 
 Page 344, Note 27: “Men of the inferior class formed a 
 body or union among themselves. What was meant by the 
 people was the patrician class and their clients. The plebei¬ 
 ans were outside of this.” 
 
 Page 344, Note 28: “This was a renunciation of religion. 
 Let us again remark that a son born without the regular cer¬ 
 emonies and rites, was recognized an illegitimate, the same 
 as one born of an adultery; and the domestic, or home reli¬ 
 gion was not for him at all.” 
 
 Page 344, Note 29 : “ But such, and of such a sort was the 
 
 religion of the unions called the sodality that they were pro¬ 
 hibited by the public laws in order to be rid of annoyances.” 
 
 Page 344 Note 30 : “ The sodalis (union of a pretended re¬ 
 ligious nature), is a species of wild thing, evidently derived 
 from the stock farms and farms of the Germans, and addicted 
 to their lupercalian orgies, whose meetings in the forest were 
 instituted before the laws that govern mankind.” 
 
 Page 345, Note 33: “ In a great many places Cicero inveighs 
 against P. Clodius who by his law, restored the unions, 58 
 years before Christ, and even caused the creation of new ” 
 
 Page 346, Note 35: “Be it known that whoever commits 
 suicide for whatsoever cause, shall for that offense, be denied 
 a burial.” 
 
 Page 346, Note 36: “This deceit which used religion as a 
 cloak caused the senate to withdraw the right of combina- 
 ion.” Again: “Under pretext of religion, those forming 
 illicit combinations for purposes of political power by vote 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 He 
 
 (the ballot), are not to be included among ancient organiza* 
 
 tions.” 
 
 Page 347, Note 38: “We have elsewhere shown that the 
 Roman law of the Twelve Tables touching the corporations, 
 continued the same dispensations as the Greek law, to such 
 an extent that they appeared to G-aius to be a translation from 
 the Greek to the Latin.” 
 
 Page 347, Note 40: “ Combinations also of quarrelsome peo¬ 
 ple without legal authority, often commit mischief,.on 
 
 account of which the religious unions were suppressed by va¬ 
 rious laws.” 
 
 Page 350, Note 44: “ It did not ameliorate the low estima¬ 
 tion in which the laboring people were held; even though 
 quite a number of celebrated men belonged by birth or busi¬ 
 ness to this class.” 
 
 Page 357, INSCRIPTION AT LANUYIUM Completed. 
 
 “ Be it ordained that whoever shall be created a five-years’ 
 magistrate in this union, shall, from the date at which he so 
 became, as appears stamped on the records, be free and ex¬ 
 empt from the duties of the other members ; and double as 
 much shall be given him out of all the resources, as to the 
 others. So also to the scribe or amanuensis as well as to the 
 traveling agent, once and a half as much is to be paid, out 
 of the revenues, from the time he takes the office.” 
 
 “ Be it ordered that whoever conducts the office of the quinquen- 
 nal or five-years’ magistrate faithfully and honorably, shall 
 receive one and a half times that of an ordinary member, out 
 of every revenue; that those behind may be imbued with an 
 emulation and a hope, by following in his footsteps.” 
 
 “ Be it ordered that if any one wishes to bring complaint or 
 to make any demands, let the same be done in a session of 
 the union, that it may be done quietly and in the good feel¬ 
 ing that prevails when we are enjoying our banquet on stated 
 occasions.” 
 
 “ Be it ordered, that if any one go from his place over to another, 
 for the purpose of sedition (disturbance), let him be fined 
 the sum of 4 sesterces (17 cents U. S. money). But if any 
 one speak against another, using opprobrious language, or 
 become tumultuous, let him be fined and disgraced. If any 
 person during his term of the five-years’ magistracy behave 
 indecently, using contumelious language during the festivi¬ 
 ties, let him be fined 20 sesterces ( about 82 cents), and be 
 disgraced.” 
 
 “ Be it ordered that the five-years’ magistrate of the union shall, 
 during his term, behave himself with holiness on the solemn 
 days of the feasts, by offerings of frankincense and wine and 
 through other offices, himself performing the funotien of lord- 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 617 
 
 priest, robed in white; and on the birth-day of the goddess 
 AntincB, he shall put oil before the union and in the public 
 bath, before the banqueting begins.” 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Page 360, Note 3: “The Order of Wood-workers, divided 
 into bodies of 100 to each union, was put between the first 
 and second categories; or if we follow Dionysius of Halicar¬ 
 nassus ( VII., 59), we shall have: 4 two bodies of 100 me¬ 
 chanics each, who are wood and brass workers, engaged in 
 making the armaments of war.” 
 
 Page 361, Note 8 : “ The union of ship carpenters,.'. . .and 
 
 in the same manner there were the mechanics in wood, of 
 the city of Pisaurum.” 
 
 Page 362, Note 10: “By the law (senatus consult), there 
 was the school of the unions of wood-workers under Augusta 
 which was maintained at their own expense, founded by T. 
 Furius, the first son who, at its dedication, gave 10 sesterces 
 (about 42 cents) out of his own purse, so that they might 
 enjoy a banquet every year in honor of his birth-day which 
 occurred on the 12th of August.” 
 
 Page 362, Note 11: “All the unions were suppressed, ex¬ 
 cept a few particular ones, such as he considered useful; and 
 these were the wood-workers and the image-makers.” Note 
 of Dion Cassius : “ The ancient brotherhoods... .being reg¬ 
 
 ularly recorded and known to have existed for a long time.” 
 
 Page 362, Note 12: “But a great many unions had been 
 created before. The first cause for this was religion ; some 
 thinking this a matter essential to their lives and they used 
 these associations for sacred purposes.” 
 
 Page 362, Note 13: “Feigning religion and making a false 
 show is what caused the senate to suppress their privilege 
 of combination. These words must be explained as touch¬ 
 ing their meetings in the temples on pious pretenses, which, 
 however, was in no wise against the law; though they could 
 fraudulently use this clause of the law.” 
 
 Page 363, Note 14, at bottom, Funck Brentano says: “ It 
 
 was the same in the cities of Greece; this was a condition of 
 their progress.” 
 
 Page 363, Note 15: “ We have said that during the time L. 
 
 Piso and A. Gabienus were consuls, P. Clodius who was a 
 tribune of the people, strove to restore thermions and to cre¬ 
 ate new ones which Cicero says were organized out of the 
 dregs of the city of Rome.” 
 
 Page 364, Note 19: “Sacred to the holy ashes of T. Sillius 
 & T. Liberius Priscus, president of the union of wood-workers 
 
618 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 and five-years’ magistrate with the brotherhood of cloth* 
 fullers; and also sacred to the memory of Clavidia his free 
 wife, who was matron of the brotherhood. Signed by C. 
 Tullanis, T. Sillius Caris and Tiberius Claudius Phillippus, 
 who were presidents and five-years’ magistrates (quinquen- 
 nals), sons of these most pious parents.” 
 
 Page 365, Note 23: “ Csesar suppressed all the unions ex¬ 
 
 cept those of ancient origin. 
 
 Page 366, Note 24: “In this case the many workmen be¬ 
 longing to Cato, or the 500 belonging to Crassus, would not 
 have been able to do anything; it was necessary for govern¬ 
 ment to have corporations of trade unions of the workmen.” 
 
 Page 367, Note 27: “The union of stonecutters, organized 
 by (or perhaps presided over by) Augurius Catalinus Usar,” 
 
 Page 368, Note 28: “ An emancipated slave who, after his 
 
 manumission, became either a silversmith or an engraver and 
 die-sinker.” 
 
 Page 370, Note 34: “According to Budrous, the joiners or 
 inside finishers (house finishers etc.), worked in wood of a 
 smaller sort, and consequently they used to work finishing 
 dwellings, temples, etc.” 
 
 CHAPTER XY. 
 
 Page 373, Note 2: ‘‘What Flavius Josephus tells us about 
 those works which were several times executed at Jerusalem, 
 either in building the temple or repairing it, does not leave a 
 chance for doubt, that the workingmen, whether Jew or Si- 
 donian, were organized into trade unions. Furthermore every 
 particle of doubt is removed by the following passage where 
 he clearly speaks of the hierarchy which prevailed among 
 the workmen and their 3,200 foremen who had 80,000 ma¬ 
 sons at work on the walls of the temple, to wit: “ Of the 
 
 neighbor workingmen employed by David, there were eight 
 times ten thousand hewing ?tone, whose work was directed 
 by three thousand and two hundred foremen.” 
 
 Page 373, Note 3: “It should be stated at the start that 
 the mines of iron come first; although it is both the best and 
 the basest commodity in human use.” 
 
 Page 373, Note 4: “ Statue to the honor of the most pious 
 
 Volcanus, erected by (or at the instance of) T. Flavius 
 Florus, who was priest of the Sun-god. It is of marble, 
 for the union of sling-makers and the union of iron-workers.” 
 
 Page 373, Note 5. The Arundelian slab is not so old asNuma 
 but it embraces time remotely anterior to him. Its authen¬ 
 ticity is subscribed to by Bockh. The passage quoted seems 
 to speak of women who combed their hair with toothed in¬ 
 struments made of iron. 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 619 
 
 Page 375, Note 8: “ They forged swords and javelins out 
 
 of the iron of their prisons.” 
 
 Page 377, Note 10: “The sword-makers, arrow-makers, 
 wagon-makers, water-wheel-makers and shinglers.” 
 
 Page 378, Note 14: “To the honor of my remains 1 C. Fu- 
 rius and C. F. Lollius, chief officers of the union of machine- 
 makers ; let this be enregistered that I desire and ask of you 
 a sacrifice; and that the union consider me worthy of a six- 
 do,y s’ solemnity—this to take place from the Ides of March, 
 the fourth and on my birth-day; and that as much as four 
 dollars and thirty-five cents be expended for that purpose. 
 Let the finest flowers be used, at a cost of eighty-seven and a 
 half cents. If this request be not punctually fulfilled, then 
 you shall forfeit double that sum for funeral uses, collected 
 by subscription ” ( not from the treasury of the union ). 
 
 Page 379, Note 17: “ One searches in vain for satisfactory 
 
 information.” 
 
 Page 380, Note 19: “ The government on its own part, had 
 
 need, all the time, of a number and variety of workmen suf¬ 
 ficiently large to execute its works. And what mighty works 
 were those performed by the Romans! What temples, and 
 such splendid temples! What aqueducts and such mighty 
 aqueducts! What bridges and they were magnificent 1 
 
 Page 380, Note 20: “ Just so the shoemakers, whom Cicero 
 
 calls the girdlers, to express his contempt, as being no better 
 than common people, formed, under Numa’s categories, an 
 especial trade organization.” 
 
 Page 381, Note 21: “ There was, m fact, the government. 
 
 It was the true supporter of the trade unions. And the en¬ 
 terprises undertaken by it formed the only permanent man¬ 
 ufacture in which the laboring people could obtain their liv¬ 
 ing, or wages day by day.” Again, G-ranier says : “ On the 
 
 part of the government” etc. (see note 19 above), “it was 
 indispensable to have unions of workingmen; and this is be¬ 
 cause they were constantly under the service and pay of gov¬ 
 ernment that the senate and the emperors had them provided 
 for by laws. The law of the Twelve Tables which ordained 
 that the unions should conform to the general statutes of the 
 state, is therefore, in reality the first established privilege in 
 favor of the working class already organized at the time.” 
 
 Page 382, Note 23 : “A five-years’ magistrate of the unions 
 of wine-curers of the city of Rome and the port of Ostia.” 
 
 Page 383, Note 24: “The union of wine-smokers put the 
 epitaph : ‘ sacred to the memory of ’ ”.. and Orelli Adds: “ I 
 have found another union of wine-smokers.” 
 
 Page 383, Note 2G : “It must be observed that among the 
 great numbers of unions and organizations of the arts at the 
 
020 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 port of Rome, the decurians (those of the category of 10, by 
 law ) were not simply corporations, but real trade unions.” 
 
 . Text of the inscription : “Sacred to the memory of Cneus 
 Sentius, son of Cneus senior, three times the successful can¬ 
 didate for superintendent of works and buildings, and twice 
 elected captain and secretary-treasurer of the company at 
 Ostia the port of Rome ; a man who died while yet a youth.” 
 “ This person is the first who is known to have been received 
 as a member of a union at ten years of age; and he in fact, 
 designates two men. He appears five times admitted during 
 his youth, through the good nature of managers of the order 
 of boatmen, and he belonged to the good-fellowship in the 
 order of wine-men. He was secretary’s accounting clerk un¬ 
 der the patronage of the company and herald or crier to the 
 unions of silversmiths, traders and wine-men. So also, he of¬ 
 ficiates in the bread supplies for the city of Rome, for unions 
 of measurers and fruiterers, and also for the unions of light 
 and heavy boatmen, split and corn-grits unions for furnishing 
 food to freedmen as well as the slaves belonging to the city, 
 for the cabriolet-drivers young and old, the oil-drivers’ unions, 
 and was youth of the plays for the fish-hucksters. Cneus Sen¬ 
 tius Lucullus Gfamala, a Clodian, beloved of his father.” 
 
 Page 385, Note 30, Granier says: “ From the earliest times 
 the slaves are found to be apart from free people, forming a 
 race by themselves. They were fed and clothed in a manner 
 special and appropriate. The Jews used to pierce their ears 
 while the Greeks and Romans branded them on the forehead 
 whence the name ‘Stichus’ which became common and gen¬ 
 eral among the slaves. From Homer’s time their mode of 
 living was regulated and they never ate bread made of 
 wheat flour.” 
 
 CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 Page 389, Note 1: “ To Titus Claudius Esquilius Severus, 
 
 lictor to the company of ten, under the patronage of the union 
 of fishermen and divers and who was three times a five years’ 
 magistrate of the same. On account of his meritorious ac¬ 
 tions two statues are placed to his honor—one through the 
 gift of money made by Aug. Antonius at Rome and the other 
 costing more, donated by the union itself, in the sum of 10- 
 000 sesterces, which is placed at interest, the earnings to be 
 expended every year on the 15th calends of Feb., his birth¬ 
 day, in a banquet at which eacli member shall have a flagon 
 of wine apportioned to him accordingly as he shall have dili¬ 
 gently behaved in the work of the society’s business with 
 the boats under the rules of the order of fishermen and divert 
 ot the whole length of the Tiber, to whom the right of or¬ 
 ganization has been decreed by a law of Rome,” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 621 
 
 Page 391, Note 5: “At the elections of duumvirs and the 
 board of public works of provincial cities, the trade unions, 
 the public, and what is wonderful, women also, when they 
 favored the candidates, voted for them. For this purpose 
 they placarded the place as seen on the walls of Pom¬ 
 peii through a recent discovery.” 
 
 Page 395, Note 20: “Union of hunters of Deens who fur¬ 
 nished the amphitheatres with wild beasts.” 
 
 Page 398, Note 26: “Oligarchy of money, with its concom¬ 
 itants of pauperism and slavery.” 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Page 403, Note 1: “In mirth and jollity to the union of play 
 actors at Felan; second prompter of the companies of 10.” 
 
 Page 403, Note 6: “The two inscriptions are remarkable 
 which Gorius (Etruscans, I., p. 125, which is the same as 
 Orelli’s no. 2,447, and Muratorius’ nos. 886 and 887), thinks 
 dates from A. D. 212. In these they hold that by the word¬ 
 ing, it is to be understood that the names of the soldiers 
 are taken from 7 cohorts (or from the 7th cohort). They 
 are now in the collection at Florence. An inhabitant of the 
 seaport of Misenum arranged theatrical plays, making actors 
 of the guards in the praetorian fleet. When Claudius Gno- 
 rimus was made a superintendent of the board of works he 
 organized a division under one flag, and had entertainments 
 and diversions performed by the military companions them¬ 
 selves. Among them are to be mentioned these names and 
 epithets: archimimus (first mimic) ; archimimi Graeci (Greek 
 mimics); the clowns, the Greek clowns, the Greek perform¬ 
 ers, the jesting dandies and the machinist or scene-adjuster. 
 All the names of the soldiers appear.” 
 
 Page 404, Note 9: “The unions of mimics, both in name 
 and kind of association are the same in arrangement as the 
 Greek communes of skilled workmen of the Dionysian or¬ 
 der, which were exceedingly numerous among the Greeks.” 
 
 Page 413, Note 36: “The fortune-tellers whose tutelary di¬ 
 vinity is the goddess of justice Nemesis (sun-worship), the 
 same as good fortune.” 
 
 Page 414, Note 37: “Very many unions of comic actors are 
 being discovered.” 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Page 416, Note 5: “The freeborn sons of Eumachia, of the 
 sacred union of cloth-fullers, who worked for the state (or 
 public).” 
 
 Page 416, Note 8: “The principal corporations of the em« 
 
622 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 pire of Rome were those of the weavers and drapers.” 
 
 Page 422, Note 30: “Union of the rag-pickers and patch- 
 pie cers of the provincial city of Mevaniola.” 
 
 Page 423, Note 32: “Similar laws which were neither less 
 wordy nor less stuffed with fawning language.” 
 
 Page 425, Note 39: “ The date, 251 years of the union, was 
 
 written above, showing that it must have been founded at 
 that time.” 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Page 429, Note 3: “In the rules of Diana and Antince and 
 of Esculapius and Hygsea.” Also: “ In the domestic estab¬ 
 lishments of the Caesars (from Caesar Augustus), there were 
 many unions of skilled mechanics.” Again: “The appear¬ 
 ance is that there were also sailors. They dedicated the ‘fam¬ 
 ily ’ of sailors as sacred to Minerva.” 
 
 Page 433, Note 14: “ We do not like to look at the circus 
 
 performance from cushioned seats.” 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Page 439, Note 3: “ Placed to the memory of Aurelius Ce- 
 
 cilius. Epictatus the student or apprentice, placed it to his 
 honor at Lyons.” This is an inscription commemorating the 
 union of collectors. 
 
 Page 442, Note 10: “ Tax collection of the iron forgers and 
 iron ore miners.” Also: “ Sacred to the memory of Primon 
 the tent associate, comrade of the forgers in the iron mines.” 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Page 445, Note 2: “Again, there are certain unions at Rome 
 defined under the law as sacred, with regular rules and by¬ 
 laws; such as the millers and bakers; and certain others, as 
 the boatmen in the provinces.” 
 
 Page 445, Note 3: “ P. Monetius a freedman member, and 
 Philogenes, a worker in metals. 
 
 Page 446, N ote 4: “ There is shown on the pyramid, by let¬ 
 
 ters engraved in the Egyptian style, the statistics of living for 
 the workmen. If I remember the interpreter rightly, the ex¬ 
 pense for eatables for them alone was, for radishes, onions, 
 and garlic, no less than $1,690,000. 
 
 Page 447, Note 5: “For both on account of the necessity 
 of burials and their usefulness in putting out fires, the senate 
 continued their right to organize. For this reason, those only 
 were prohibited who had ostensibly gone into a burial associ¬ 
 ation with the real purpose of forming one of incendiaries.” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 623 
 
 Page 447, Note 6: “He (or the senate) gave permission to 
 organize, to all the wine-men, brothel keepers, shoemakers 
 and the artisans generally; and ordered that the magistrates 
 should keep an eye upon them, seeing to it that they main¬ 
 tained their proper relations one to another.” 
 
 Page 448, Note 9: “ The variety, extent and propagation 
 of the organizations.” 
 
 Page 455, Note 16 : “ There are unions of brotherhoods of 
 
 eranoi, allowed to combine by the consent of the magistrates 
 of Athens, with their help, good will and indulgence toward 
 those that were called, sometimes the eranos, sometimes the 
 thiasos, and by others, the commune or union of the broth¬ 
 erhood, and the union of the thiasotes.” 
 
 Page 456, Note 17: “ Some of the communistic societies 
 
 are thought to be for pleasures or enjoyment, among which 
 are the thiasotes and eranists. Some are combined for the 
 purpose of performing sacrifice to the gods.” 
 
 Page 458, Note 18: “We are all a brotherhood (thiasotes) 
 under this divinity” (meaning the god of love). 
 
 CHAPTER XXn. 
 
 Page 467, Note 5: “ Of late, in order to make thearrang- 
 
 ments easy, all the between-distances are designated, and so 
 well learned as to be in familiar use. So the custom is to 
 drive down the staff of the banners (vexilla). One of them, 
 and in fact the first one, must be put at the place where the 
 general’s tent stands; another is fixed at one side and the 
 third at a central point between the lines toward which the 
 tribunes march. A fourth is put in a position at which the 
 legions are to be stationed. Then certain other flags which 
 are red, although the consul’s banner is white, are placed as 
 follows: Among these red flags some are placed on the side 
 opposite the praetorian guards. Sometimes they are fixed to 
 naked spears or lances driven into the ground, the banners 
 being frequently of more than one color.” 
 
 Page 470, Note 10 “These rudimental colors are the red, 
 the orange, the yellow, the blue, the indigo and the violet.” 
 
 Page 471, Note 12: “ To finish the arrangements of the camp, 
 tribunes find it necessary to exact an oath from all, whether 
 freedmen or slaves, and this is done in the following manner: 
 ‘ You solemnly swear that you will not steal anything from 
 the camp; and moreover, if any one finds anything, that he 
 will bring the same to the general.” 
 
 Page 474, Note 20: “Nor could the angry and threaten¬ 
 ing aspect of things be assuaged. There was no election ex¬ 
 cept for members of the board of public works and for trib- 
 
624 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 unes of the common people. Licinius and Sextius were re¬ 
 elected tribunes and it was impossible to fill the aristocratic 
 chair of consul; so that there was an interregnum during ^ 
 period of five years; for as the plebeian party succeeded in 
 restoring the two tribunes, these broke up the election of 
 military tribunes or commanders, and thus held the city 
 for five years.” 
 
 Page 475, Note 22: “Horatius had an unmarried sister, in 
 love with, and engaged to, one of the three Curiatii (antag¬ 
 onists whom he killed). When he observed herein front of 
 the gate of Capua, in tears and rending her hair knowing 
 by the military cloak over his shoulder that it was her dead 
 lover he became aroused by her weeping, being worse ag¬ 
 gravated by the congratulation of the public at his moment 
 of victory. These awakened the ferocity of the young 
 
 man’s soul. Drawing his sword and at the same time 
 shouting, he stabbed the girl through the body, crying: 
 ‘Hence with your love! Get you gone to your lover! Go 
 down with the dead men into oblivion! Be done with life 
 and fogret the land of your fathers! Hello, hangman! bind 
 together the hands which but now were in arms against 
 the power of the Roman people!’ ” The words of the father 
 of Manlius were: “Heigh there, executioner, tie him to 
 the post!” 
 
 Page 477, Note 25: “The little toga was put on the lictor 
 near the city gate and when he took it he cast off his saga 
 and went again into the service of the consul.” 
 
 Page 484, Note 43: “Flag-bearers who carried banners and 
 colors in honor of the gods, at the pageants, the festivities 
 and the games.” 
 
 Page 484, Note 44: “Ancient and revered union of master 
 flag-bearers at the banquets and their numerous varieties 
 extending from the image and ensign-bearers who are the 
 genus to the standard-bearers who are the species.” 
 
 Page 484, Note 45: “One will easily understand that there 
 might have been lively quarrels or differences among these 
 unions of shoemakers and cobblers—the one selling old 
 boots and shoes, the other bartering certain articles of its 
 trade but in doing so, trenching upon the conditions pre¬ 
 scribed by the rules and regulations. Indeed, oftentimes 
 the courts and tribunals of justice heard their grievances 
 and interfered against acts which they often committed, or 
 prevented their combats.” 
 
 Page 485, Note 46: “Their banner was in three colors di¬ 
 vided from each other by a pale blue strip, the first divi¬ 
 sion being red, with a gilt-handled knife; the third part 
 was gold with a horse bit in red.” 
 
 Page 485. Note 48: “At Clermont, blood-red with a blade 
 of silver and a gilt handle.” 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES 
 
 625 
 
 Page 486, Note 50: “At Montferrand the shoemakers, in 
 union with the carders, weavers, dealers in old junk, tavern- 
 
 - keepers and masons carried a banner the color of which was 
 red and in the center was the virgin in silver, with the infant. 
 It was margined with gold.” 
 
 Page 488, Note 53 : “ One may make a very curiosity-grat¬ 
 
 ifying study of the part which the military carpentry played 
 in the second expedition of Pepin-le Bref in the year 761 
 against G-aifre, duke of Aquitania. At the siege in which he 
 took the city of Clermont he profited by the experience of the 
 Lombards, and caused formidable battering-rams to be slung 
 against the walls. These consisted of beams of enormous size 
 set swinging by levers, and rolling upon cylinders made to 
 oscillate backwards and forwards by ropes, the impulse being 
 given by carpenters and skilled men who hurled iron-headed 
 ends against the walls and stove them to pieces. To this day 
 one may observe the marks of damage thus sustained at other 
 sieges of Clermont and Montferrand, A. D. 1121 and 1126.” 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Page 498, Note 3 “ In Epidamnus there were no artisans ex¬ 
 cept public slaves. Manual skilled labor was in consequence 
 condemned and despised, and in many cities even forbidden 
 the citizens.” 
 
 Page 499, Note 9: “Who is he that is not tired and dis¬ 
 gusted with reading and writing of long and irksome wars 
 and the motives that propel them.” 
 
 Page 499, Note 11: “ That sort which the Greeks call bur- 
 
 den-bearers, but which we in Latin denominate drudges.” 
 
 Page 499, Note 12: “ Wherefore I plead and beseech, O 
 
 judges, that you see in the true light this work which Sextus 
 Clodiushas, within these few days accomplished. I demand 
 that you look after this man whom you for two years, have 
 seen as the minister or leader of sedition—the man who is 
 burning the holy altars and the wealth of the Roman people, 
 blotting them from public memory by his own hand; a man 
 without condition, without a faith, without hope, without a 
 home, without fortune, mouth, tongue, hand or even life that 
 be not smirched and polluted ; the man who brought to dis¬ 
 grace the name of Catulus, who consummated the ruin of my 
 house and burned the home of my brother.” 
 
 Page 500, Note 14: ‘‘It is very much to be regretted that 
 so slender details of them have come down to us.” 
 
 Page 500, Note 15: “ One seeks in vain for satisfactory 
 
 information.” 
 
 Page 503, Note 18 : “ Relating to a thiasos which is an as¬ 
 
 semblage of people for purposes of drinking.” 
 
826 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Page 503, Note 19: “Polybius recounts in his Histories, 
 (book 20, chapter 6), that these garlands and wreaths were 
 in their finest stage of effusion in Boetia.” 
 
 Page 503, Note 20: “ The thiasos is not an association for 
 
 wine and drunkenness.” 
 
 Page 506, Note 25: u A certain degree of satisfaction and 
 of confidence.” 
 
 Page 510, Note 37: “ Besides these smaller unions devoted 
 
 exclusively to private objects, there were also boatmen and 
 dealers who had their unions ” 
 
 Page 511, Note 41: “ Both sorts of eranos appear to have 
 
 been mixed with the thiasotes at a very early time.” 
 
 Page 513, Note 46: “ Nowhere were the religious societies 
 
 more numerous than at the Piraeus.” 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Page 552 Note 69: “So far as the civil right is concerned, 
 slaves are not considered anything; not so however, the nat¬ 
 ural right, for in the natural right,all men are equal.” Again, 
 Florentine says: “ The condition of slavery is provided for 
 
 by a code of rights for high-born citizens, by which a man 
 may be subjected to an outside owner or master contrary 
 to nature.” 
 
 Page 553, Note 70: “We come together in our brother¬ 
 hood and our congregation in order that we may walk and 
 work together as it were in prayers and deeds.” 
 
 Page 552, Note 76: “So it seems, said he (Socrates), O 
 comrades; in all likelihood we ourselves resemble the great 
 spirit; and in the realm of time, the mortal probation, our 
 life is the same in stature and shape as the immortal divini¬ 
 ties, but when once fixed in our seats in the newer form and 
 shape, forget not that then, we are all thiasotes and mem¬ 
 bers of the brotherhood, under Eros, the God of Love.” 
 
 Page 557, Note 87 “ The well-nigh incestuous liason of An- 
 
 tipas and Herodias was then and there accomplished.” 
 
 Page 569, Note 109: “ The harvesting was accomplished in 
 
 the following manner : In the great estates occupying the 
 larger valleys and level tracts of land, a machine is used hav¬ 
 ing its outer margin full of teeth and this they force through 
 by means of two wheels, and the power of an ox harnessed 
 in thills behind (and pushing the machine). In this way the 
 heads of the grain are torn off and fall into a trough attached 
 to the vehicle. The stalks which are left below the heads 
 thus harvested, they afterwards cut with a sickle.” Palla- 
 dius says : “In the more level parts of Gaul the following 
 apparatus is in use for harvesting, which does away with the 
 labor of man to such an extent that an ox performs the er.- 
 
TRANSLATION OF NOTES. 
 
 627 
 
 tire task of harvesting. A cart or carriage is constructed 
 furnished with two small wheels. On this carriage is mounted 
 a square box made of planks, with the top larger in size than 
 the bottom. The height of this cart-box is less in front than 
 in rear. Here are fixed many email teeth, curved backwards, 
 not so thickly set but that the grain can get between them, 
 and arranged in such an order that the heads may enter above. 
 Behind this cart are two small tongues or thills, as if the ani¬ 
 mal were harnessed in a chair. Here the ox is fastened, his 
 head towards the machine, by means of a yoke and chains; 
 and when all is ready, he begins to push the cart forward, 
 into the grain. Thus every head is caught between these 
 teeth and torn from its stalk—which is left standing—and 
 falls into the box. The machine is generally about the height 
 of an ordinary small ox that propels it from behind. Thus 
 by a few bouts and in a very short space of time, the entire 
 harvest is accomplished. This machine is useful in valleys 
 aiid level fields, and in those places where straw and chaff 
 are necessary for manure.” 
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTION 
 
 CORONATION AT SYMPOSIUM OP A THIASOS, 
 
 (FACING AND INCLUDING PAGE 463). 
 
 s Thk male and female members of this thiasos crown Sratonice, 
 daughter of Menecrates, who was presiding officer for proph¬ 
 ecy and predictions of the eranos, in the one hundred and 
 and seventy-eighth year of its existence; since she was loyal 
 to the great mother Ceres, and to the sun-god, Apollo. An 
 upright tablet of stone is engraved to her honor and orna¬ 
 mented with wreaths and ribbons, and she is further honored 
 by a public proclamation at the meeting in the temple of 
 Jupiter.” 
 
4 . 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abolition, Aristotle’s day, 541. 
 
 Abomination, a certain practice. 
 538. 
 
 Abraham, tried low form of pa- 
 triarchisra, 72; the God of, 562. 
 
 Abyss, or crater of the brimstone 
 lake, 248, note 3. 
 
 Achaeus, compared, 167; chosen 
 by Eunus as his adviser, 209 ; 
 his character, 210 ; organizes 
 an army of slaves, 210; beats 
 the Romans often, 214; lieu¬ 
 tenant general to Eunus, 217; 
 with Cleon, defeats Hypsaeus, 
 217; mysterous death of, 228. 
 
 Achaia, Roman conquest of, 210. 
 
 Acknowledgment honorable, 565 
 and note 106. 
 
 Acragus, a state in Sicily 214. 
 
 Acrobatic sports (Spartan), 535. 
 
 Acropolis, of Athens, 126; of 
 Sunion, 142, note 38. 
 
 Actors, unions of comic, 112; at 
 seaport, Misenum, 403, note 6. 
 
 Adad, Syrian sun-god, 236. 
 
 Adam and Eve, 535. 
 
 Admission, of women, freedmen, 
 strangers and slaves to the thi- 
 
 asos and eranos, 169, note 10. 
 
 Adrian, withdrew slaves from 
 the old domestic tribunal, 365. 
 
 Adoniastes, a divinity, 462. 
 
 Adultery, what its equivalents 
 were, 344, and note 28. 
 
 Advent, of Jesus, 493. 
 
 iEdile, superintendent of pub¬ 
 lic works, 403. 
 
 iEgesta or Segesta, a city, 258. 
 
 JEgis, protector of labor, 474. 
 
 -Elian, what he says of the in¬ 
 human slave-holders, 537. 
 
 AEnator , buccinator, played the 
 shepherd’s horn, 407, 408. 
 
 2Eon, great period of time 495. 
 
 iEschines, orator of low birth, 
 101; railed at by Demosthenes 
 in consequence, 543. 
 
 Affection, strange tenacity of, 
 for the red flag, 468. 
 
 Africa, modern slavery of, 68 ; 
 fame of the ancient mysteries 
 in, 88; comparative numbers 
 in northern parts, 195. 
 
 African, slave trade, 280, note 27. 
 
 Africans enslaved by the ancient 
 Roman and Greek traders, 195. 
 
 Agathodaemoniastes, 462. 
 
 Age, of gladiators, 279, note 5; 
 
630 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of ragpickers inscription, 425. 
 
 Aged word, “red,” 471. 
 
 Ager Comensis, 423, 424. 
 
 Agtrpublicus, explained, 285-8; 
 how tilled, 287, 443 ; inimical 
 inroads upon, 288; usurpation 
 of, 285; further explained, 360 
 note 4; cultivated by the pro¬ 
 letaries, 349; products of, car¬ 
 ried to Rome by sea, 440; when 
 seized by the landlords, 438. 
 
 Ages, the new, 556. 
 
 Agis, an ancient king of Sparta, 
 115; labor insurrection in the 
 time of, 115; vast murder of 
 Helots by, 116. 
 
 Agis, the Fourth, 531. 
 
 Agitation, ancient, against the 
 slave institution, 141, note 33. 
 
 Agitator, a gladiator, 412 ; John 
 the Baptist, 557. 
 
 Agony, of the crucifixion, 562. 
 
 Agriculture, Ceres, its protect¬ 
 ing divinity, 469, see Ceres. 
 
 Agrarianism, 557; see Gracchus. 
 
 Agrarian, trouble, 213; law, 474. 
 
 Ag ricultural, organizations rare, 
 443; laborers, how treated 526. 
 
 Agriculturists, found organized 
 in the isle of Santorin, 456. 
 
 Agiigcntum, state of, in Sicily, 
 214; slave owners of, 405. 
 
 Agyrium, number of its prop¬ 
 erty owners, 194. 
 
 Alaba, river, 253 ; the battle of, 
 255 ; Tryphon’s camps, 263. 
 
 Alatri, invented the siphon, 571. 
 
 Albarius, one who made plaster 
 images, 432. 
 
 Alcestis, prayer of, 562, 563. 
 
 Alcibiades, 140. 
 
 Aleuts, an American tribe, 92. 
 
 Alexander, the Great, 117. 
 
 Alexandrian, school, the many 
 communes, 506. 
 
 All things common, 572. 
 
 Alliance, with Crassus in Asia 
 Minor, 241, 242. 
 
 Allobroges, an inscription at Vi¬ 
 
 enne, in the country of, 403. 
 
 Allegory—agitation by, 557. 
 
 Altars, the domestic, 428; mass* 
 ive and awful, 429 
 
 Altruistic system, see co-opera¬ 
 tive system. 
 
 Amalgamated societies for vict¬ 
 ualing the Roman people, 286. 
 
 Amalgamation, the political, of 
 Constantine, 551. 
 
 Amanuensis, 435. 
 
 Amasis, king of Egypt, 115; his 
 Solon’s labor law, 338, note 14. 
 
 Amazons, 87, note 12; Theseus 
 and his battle with, 130. 
 
 Amber, beads of, 110, note 50. 
 
 Ambert, town in Auvergne, 484. 
 
 Ambition, of Spartacus, 305; Pla¬ 
 to’s idea of, 539. 
 
 Ambuscade, of Lycurgus, 102; 
 the Spartan, 104; Crixus al¬ 
 lured into, 306. 
 
 Americans, the aboriginal, 92; 
 working classes, 57 ; republic, 
 slaves of, 77. 
 
 Amphictyonic council, 80; ex¬ 
 terminating wars, 81; article 
 of agreement of the brother¬ 
 hood, 82. 
 
 Ampliipolis, battle of, 107. 
 
 Amphitheatre, butchered at the, 
 292 note 41, 332; cleaners of, 
 395; wild beast hunters for, 
 395 and note 20. 
 
 Amphorae, showing fine work¬ 
 manship, 446 
 
 Amusers, the whole of chapter 
 xvii.; of gentlemen, 291, and 
 note 39. 
 
 Anacreon, Plutarch’s compari¬ 
 son, 544; dithyrambics of, 454 
 
 Anaglyphs that have survived for 
 2,000 years, 403. 
 
 Analogy, of experience between 
 Socrates and Jesus, 553, 560. 
 
 Anaxagoras, Aristotle followed 
 the ideas of, 117 ; wisdom of, 
 156; laid the foundation, 514. 
 
 Ancient competitive system, the 
 
INDEX . 
 
 631 
 
 ideas of, being dispersed, vii.; 
 unions spared, 123, note 7G; 
 lowly, their longings to cross 
 over to the beautiful river, 353. 
 
 Ancyle, a city of ancient Sicily, 
 251 and note 14. 
 
 Anecdote, of wild boar, 475. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon cult, London the 
 nucleus, 560. 
 
 Anii Forum, 300, note 60. 
 
 Animal, form of primitive man, 
 72; man but a high type, 525, 
 voracious and cruel, 533. 
 
 Animate vs. inanimate tools, 567. 
 
 Annihilation, 495. 
 
 Anthesteria, spring sports, 505. 
 
 Anthropologist,suggestion to, 80. 
 
 Antigenes and Python, 219; a 
 dealer in slaves, 199; owner 
 of Eunus, 200. 
 
 Antioch, prophet of, 199; Eu¬ 
 nus assumes the name of, 208; 
 cradleof the brotherhoods, 512. 
 
 Anti-slave organization, 541. 
 
 Antipas and Herodias, 557 ; the 
 machinations of, 557, note 87. 
 
 Antiquaries, question of the red 
 color submitted to, 492. 
 
 Antiquities of the Phoenicians, 
 496; of Mexico. 564. 
 
 Antisthenes the cynic, 544. 
 
 Antonius defends Aquillius, 273. 
 
 Apamea, birthplace of Eunus, 
 199; cradle of many brother¬ 
 hoods, 224, note 89; 512. 
 
 Aped the pomp of circumstances, 
 274 and note 70. 
 
 Aphrodiastes, 462. 
 
 Apocalyptic church, 512. 
 
 Apollo, community of, 462; with 
 other deities, 468; chosen col¬ 
 or of, 471; human form, 487; 
 Apollo, Ceres, Minerva, 481. 
 
 Apology, of Tertullian, 527.. 
 
 Apollonis is taken by Ariston- 
 icus, 237. 
 
 Apostasy, the sin of, 524. 
 
 Apothetae, cavernous pit of, 533 
 
 Appian Way, lined with the cru¬ 
 cified men of Spartacus, 299. 
 
 Appius Claudius got a license to 
 butcher the plebeians, 277 ; is 
 cast into prison, 287, note 32; 
 mention of, 339, 500, note 12. 
 
 Apportionment of land by Ly- 
 curgus, 532. 
 
 Apprenticeships, 439, note 3. 
 
 Apulia, bandits of, 158, revolts 
 of slaves in, 159, 
 
 Aqueducts, constructed under a 
 plan of socialism, 380, note 19. 
 
 Aquillius, kills Athenion, 271, 
 and notes 61, 62 ; inscription 
 of, showing records, 271. 
 
 Arabs or Tshmaelites of the Sem¬ 
 itic family, 48 
 
 Arbitration, 510, 525 ; supplant¬ 
 ing violence by, 525. 
 
 Arcadia, 401. 
 
 Archaeologist, future work that 
 awaits him, 451, 501; what 
 he is accomplishing 496. 
 
 Archaeology telling of the deeds 
 of human society, 48. 
 
 Archaic children of the yens fam¬ 
 ilies, 426; genitive of, 471. 
 
 Archery, trapping, spearing, 396. 
 
 Archilochus and Philemon, 544. 
 
 Archipelago, the G-reek, 81; the 
 communes of the, 451, 459. 
 
 Architecture among Egyptians, 
 74; great era of Grecian, 128. 
 
 Archives chiseled out, 450 ; Al¬ 
 exandrian, destroyed, 452. 
 
 Archons, 114. 
 
 Ardency, from ardea, the red 
 bird, 478, note 30. 
 
 Arenariorum collegia, 411. 
 
 Areopagus, the Greek, 129; Cle- 
 anthus and his lectures, 546. 
 
 Aretliusa, Holy Fish, 221, n. 81. 
 
 Anstonicus, his rebellion, 100; 
 uprising at Pergamus, 140, 31, 
 150; huge mutiny of slaves, 
 546; Natural son of Eumenes 
 234; comparison, 351; chap.x. 
 
632 
 
 INDEX ; 
 
 Aristotle, on immortality, 62; ac- 
 knowlegment regarding slav¬ 
 ery, 71, 96; recognized labor 
 brotherhoods, 74; his philoso¬ 
 phy, 116; his idea of the work 
 people, 117; remarkable move¬ 
 ment of, 132; his wisdom, 156; 
 classifies the workers, 540; too 
 pagan-bound to see beyond the 
 chains of slavery, 445; one of 
 five remarkable men, 514; de¬ 
 scribed, 518-19; criticism, 525. 
 
 Armory, of Spartacus, 375. 
 
 Army, of Athenion, how organ¬ 
 ized, 259; of Spartacus, num¬ 
 bers of, 310, 313; of Spartacus 
 and Crassus campared, 324-5; 
 strength of, at Silarus, 324 sq. 
 
 Arno, its fine landscapes, 155. 
 
 Arnobius, his doubts regarding 
 immortality, 62, 129, 523. 
 
 Aroma for reserved seats of the 
 grandees, 433. 
 
 Armoratorium collegium, 393. 
 
 Arrangement, of Roman camp, 
 467, note 5; 471, note 12. 
 
 Arrius, Q., in a battle at Mount 
 Garganus beats Crixus, 306-7. 
 
 Arrow-makers, 377, note 10. 
 
 Art, architechtural, in Egypt 73. 
 
 Art and Learning, two females 
 in Lucian’s dream, 543. 
 
 Artemis Taurica, 215, note 63. 
 
 Artes et opificia, 366. 
 
 Art and industry not pagan, 572. 
 
 Article of agreement, in the am- 
 phictyonic league, 82. 
 
 Artisans, organization of, 119; 
 all slaves in remote times, ac¬ 
 cording to Aristotle, 541. 
 
 Artificers, Plato’s opinion, 539. 
 
 Arundelian slab, 373, note 5. 
 
 Aruspices, divined oracles, 413. 
 
 Aryan race, aggressiveness of, 
 40; struggles with the Sem¬ 
 itic, 41; always competitive, 
 41; original home of, 48, 55; 
 their slave system, 68; religion, 
 
 69; they settle permanently in 
 one place, 73 ; strange beliefs 
 of, 75; not nomadic, 84; two 
 classes of society, 108; an an¬ 
 cient stock, 526-7. 
 
 Asconius, testifies that the reli¬ 
 gious union secretly continued 
 the trade union tactics, 347. 
 
 Ashes, the holy, 364, note 19. 
 
 Asia Minor, free labor driven out 
 of, by slavery, 156 ; effect of 
 third Punic war in, 178; the 
 field of labor organization, 496; 
 more relics found there than 
 in Greece, 511. 
 
 Asiatic races, 70; workmen, 489. 
 
 Aspasia, a beautiful Greek, 125 
 
 Aspidopegeion, a shield factory, 
 547. 
 
 Assassination, in ancient Greece 
 98; later, of 2,000 men, 107, 
 note 46; of'Viriathus, 187; of 
 Clonius by Salvius, 254; by 
 Horatius, of a sister, 475, note 
 22 ; of Polemarch by his own 
 slaves, 547. 
 
 Assassins, of the Gracchi, 241, 
 note 19. 
 
 Assignation houses, 557. 
 
 Asshurbanipal, library of, newly 
 unearthed, 460. 
 
 Associations, protective, formed 
 by freedmen, 85; for protec¬ 
 tion and pleasure, 111. 
 
 Asylum, of the Palikoi Twins, 
 247, 257; of the castle of Su- 
 nion, 143-4 and note 34. 
 
 Atabyrius (Jupiter), 450. 
 
 Atargatis, the sun-goddess, 236. 
 
 Athena, statues of, 101; her im¬ 
 age, 430 ; Greek Minerva, 468. 
 
 Athenseus, the Egyptian author, 
 166 ; quotes Nymphodorus, 
 Zeno, 168. 
 
 Athenian, marine force, 107; de¬ 
 feated by a strike, 138; com¬ 
 pared with the Spartans, 139; 
 census, 193; slaves desert, 140. 
 
INDEX . 
 
 633 
 
 Athenio Pastor, the farmer-slave 
 who revolted, 262 and note 40. 
 
 Athenion, terribly punished in his 
 rebellion, xii.; the under cur¬ 
 rent of news, 140; a poor mao, 
 181; born in Syria, 199; was a 
 Cilician, 258; described, 258, 
 note 29, also 263 ; in chains, 
 264; wounded, 266; recovers, 
 267; still victorious, 269; at 
 last killed, 271, note 61; Saint 
 Paul, 513; influence of, as well 
 as of Drimakos, 517. 
 
 Athens, two classes at, 108; tol¬ 
 eration of the brotherhoods at, 
 113; the jugglers, 112; cen¬ 
 sus of, 193; dangerous slaves, 
 211; numerous communes at, 
 452; magistrates encouraged 
 the brotherhoods, 455, note 16. 
 
 Atrocities, that caused Gracchus 
 to revolt, 193. 
 
 Atrophy, benumbing the social 
 organism, 494. 
 
 Attalists, members of an eranos, 
 98, note 27. 
 
 Attalus III., deeded his kingdom 
 to the Romans, 232, 233, 512; 
 his crazy tricks, 222, 546. 
 
 Attica, rebellion of miners, 100; 
 Ceres worshiped in, 198. 
 
 Augury, foreshadowing death of 
 Gracchus, 240; how conveyed 
 and understood, 564. 
 
 Augustalis, domus collegia , 507. 
 
 Augustan unions, 429, note 3. 
 
 Augustonemetum, 485. 
 
 Augustus, emperor of Rome, 80; 
 mild reign of, 518. 
 
 Auletrid, female flute-player, 463. 
 
 Auletrides—they were members 
 of the brotherhoods, 455. 
 
 Auvergne, red banner at, 481. 
 
 Autranius Maximus, cruelty of, 
 to his slave, 141, note 34. 
 
 Aurinia, wife of Spartacus, 290 
 and note 37; what Tacitus says 
 regarding her, 303, note 73; 
 
 her prophecy, 305, note 78. 
 
 Avella, 300, note 60. 
 
 Avenger, of the disaster of Cras- 
 sus, 243, note 21. 
 
 Avenging sacrifice, of Sparta¬ 
 cus, 304, note 77. 
 
 Awe-inspiring divinities of the 
 Thalian temple, 248, note 3; 
 reverence necessary to ancient 
 leaders of revolts, 274, note 70; 
 striking hues, 479. 
 
 Axe, sacrificial, of Triphon, 264, 
 note 43; lictor’s instrument of 
 execution, 475. 
 
 Axiom, of Aristotle, 561; a con¬ 
 clusion from this research, 509. 
 
 Aztecs, gladiatorial feast of the 
 Mexican Xipe, 276; a speci¬ 
 men prayer of the, 564. 
 
 Azure, 466. 
 
 B 
 
 Baal, attributes of, 491. 
 
 Babe, Plato when a, 118, note 72. 
 
 Babylonians, 401. 
 
 Bacchanalia, ill-founded preju¬ 
 dice against, 502; ditties, 454; 
 slander of the, 161; affair of 
 the, 452, 
 
 Bacchantes, societies of the, 158, 
 493. 
 
 Bacchic, not the characteristics 
 of the thiasos, 503 note 20. 
 
 Bacchus, sons of, 450; protective 
 principle, 469. 
 
 Backsliding, 524, 551.’ 
 
 Bagpipe, age of the, 408. 
 
 Bagpipers’ union, 408. 
 
 Baker, bath attendant and king’s 
 fool, of Eunus, 230. 
 
 Bakers, 349; six out of eleven 
 of their banners red, 489. 
 
 Ballista, or stone-thrower, 378. 
 
 Ballot, democracy of the, 525; 
 the ancient, as shown in the 
 inscriptions of Pompeii, 572. 
 
 Banausoi technitai, of Aristotle, 
 
634 
 
 INDEX . 
 
 541; uncouth and hoyden, 542. 
 
 Bancroft, on monumental archae¬ 
 ology, xi.; quotation from, 278. 
 
 Banderoles (ribbons), 463 & cut. 
 
 Banner, makers of the ancient 
 red. 418, 471; bearer or signi- 
 fer, 484; color of, note 46. 
 
 Banquets, gladiatorial spectacles 
 at, 277 and note 1. 
 
 Baptism, day of, at Eleusis, 91 ; 
 it was the form of the bathing- 
 custom of thiasotes, 504, n. 23. 
 
 Bastardy, of what it was consti¬ 
 tuted, 344 note 28. 
 
 Batons, with ends pointed for 
 cooking, 504. 
 
 Battering down the walls of Tau- 
 romanion, 227. 
 
 Battering-ram, 379; described p. 
 378 & note 12; makers’ unions 
 demolished -walls, 488, note 53. 
 
 Battle, of Zama, 152; between 
 slaves and Romans, 157; the 
 Hill of Venus, 183, sq.; of Dri- 
 makos, 171; of Fydna, 186; 
 of Erisane, 187; of Cleon and 
 Achasus with Hypsaeus, 217 ; 
 ofAlaba, 254; bofore Morgan - 
 tion,256; of Triocala, 262, 266; 
 of Scirthaea, 265-6; of Mes- 
 sana, 269; of Macella, 270; of 
 Silarus, 327, note 128; of Lu- 
 cte, 242; of Morgantion, Sal- 
 vius,256, note 25; of Scirthsea, 
 265-6, note 45, of Macella— 
 Athenion killed, 271, note 61; 
 first, of Spartacus, 293; Ves¬ 
 uvius, 295, note 51; victories 
 of Spartacus, 308, note 84; of 
 Mt. Garganus, 306-7, note 80; 
 of Picenum, 310, note 92: of 
 Silarus, 323 sqq. and note 121 ; 
 in Epirus, 340, note 17. 
 
 Battle-axe, and praetorian bun¬ 
 dles, 299, note 58. 
 
 Baxea, ancient shoe, 420. 
 
 Beasts, wild, for the amphithea¬ 
 tres. 395, note 20, 
 
 Beaufort, a hunters’union found 
 
 there, 394. 
 
 Beautiful, under Plato’s meaning 
 or as he interpreted it, 515. 
 
 Beatitudes of the underground 
 paradise, 563. 
 
 Beauty, of the boys emasculated 
 by slave merchants, 168-69, 
 note 7; of the red color, mak¬ 
 ing it prefered, 470. 
 
 Bedstead factory, owned by De¬ 
 mosthenes, 548. 
 
 Beer halls, rather than churches 
 welcomed the agitators, 573. 
 
 Beggary, ragpickers’ unions, 422. 
 
 Behavior, criticism of, 535. 
 
 Beleaguered, by tramps, 261 and 
 note 37. 
 
 Belles-lettres, of Greece, 128. 
 
 Bellowings, the frightful, of the 
 brimstone lake, 248, note 3. 
 
 Berberinis, temple of, 399. 
 
 Bethlehem, offering of ignominy 
 of, 509. 
 
 Betrayal, both of Socrates and 
 Jesus, 514. 
 
 Bible, in Greek, 87; Zend and 
 other oriental records, 526. 
 
 Bigotry, and empiricism, 538. 
 
 Bird, a new analysis of the red 
 bird, 478 and note 30. 
 
 Birth and standing of Spartacus, 
 282, note 13, 285, note 22. 
 
 Birthday, of the goddess Antinoe, 
 357; of the patron saint Jo¬ 
 seph, 488. 
 
 Birthplace, of Athenion, 258; of 
 Eunus, 512; it was a cradle of 
 the brotherhoods, 512; of sev¬ 
 eral wonderful characters, 513. 
 
 Bisellarii, union of the, 431. 
 
 Bismarck, 71. 
 
 Bithynia, 249, note 5. 
 
 Bitter waters, 130, note 96. 
 
 Black sea slave traffic, 286, 
 note 27. 
 
 Blasphemy, 250, note 10. 
 
 Blat.tearii, or dyers, 418. 
 
INDEX ; 
 
 635 
 
 BJaze, analysis of, 471. 
 
 Blazoned in red, 472. 
 
 Blemish, infants with a, 533. 
 
 Blessed, kingdom, government of 
 the, 550; the, of Plato’s ideal 
 republic, 548. 
 
 Blind, cured by visiting the tem¬ 
 ple of the Twins, 248, note 3. 
 
 Blockade, and siege of Tauroma- 
 nion, 226, note 07. 
 
 Blood-making, not blood-letting- 
 472 ; spilling, what was em¬ 
 blematic of, 472; red banners, 
 484; red storm signals, 487 ; 
 blood and lineage, 534. 
 
 Bloody uprisings, 403. 
 
 Blossius, the labor agitator, 173; 
 in Asia Minor, 239; friend of 
 Gracchus, 222, 240; story of 
 Cicero, 241. note 18; commits 
 suicide, 243. 
 
 Blotting the page of history, 536. 
 
 Blue and azure, 479. 
 
 Board of public works, election 
 of, by plebeians, 474, note 20. 
 
 Boatmen’s unions, an inscription, 
 113, note 62; trade union of, 
 119, 383, note 26, 384; in the 
 provinces, 445, note 2; colle¬ 
 gium naviculariorum, 445. 
 
 Bocchus, the Moor, 260, note 35. 
 
 Boeckh, 112, 161; his analytical 
 works, 343. 
 
 Bodies, of mechanics, 360, note 3. 
 
 Bodily powers, of Viriathus, 180, 
 
 Body, or union, 378. 
 
 Boedromion, Greek month em¬ 
 bracing September, 87, 130. 
 
 Boetia, a state in Greece, 79, n. 32. 
 
 Bombardini, Italian jurist, 154. 
 
 Bonfire, of Spartacus, 304, note 
 
 77. 
 
 Book-gluers, 435. 
 
 Boot-makers’ unions (caligari- 
 orum), 380, 421, 
 
 Booty, of Spartacus, 300, note 
 59; of Crassus by recapture, 
 319 note 118, 
 
 Borrowed, and lent, sexual loves 
 in Spartan state 527; Lycur- 
 gus, from the Cretans, 572. 
 
 Bouillet cited, on red colors, 483. 
 
 Bounty, given informants, on 
 slave strikes, 151, note 18. 
 
 Bourgeoisie, so called by Saint 
 Simon, 526. 
 
 Bows, javelins, arrows, helmets, 
 shields, 397. 
 
 Boys, forced to fight at gladia¬ 
 torial spectacles, 277, note 1. 
 
 Boyhood of Viriathus, 180, n. 2. 
 
 Branded, all slaves, 196, note 17; 
 and ears pierced, 385, note 30. 
 
 Brasidas, a Spartan general, 107. 
 
 Brass-workers, 360, note 3. 
 
 Bravery, grand exhibits of, 321. 
 
 Bread, slaves not allowed to eat 
 the white kind, 135. 
 
 Breastwork, of Crassus, 315, the 
 note 109. 
 
 Bribe, offered Nerva, 249; bribe 
 taking, 515. 
 
 Bridle-makers, 485, note 46. 
 
 Brigandage, common in early 
 times, 119 ; was no crime in 
 ancient days, 121 ; the origin 
 of Italian, 161 ; existed in ex¬ 
 tremely early ages, 280 ; once 
 very- formidable, 511. 
 
 Bridges, constructed under the 
 state control, 380, note 19. 
 
 Brilliant red hue, 470. 
 
 Brimstone lake, 248, note 3, 
 251, and note 13. 
 
 Brioude, unions of, 484. 
 
 British soldiers, likened to a flock 
 of red-birds, 479; the signal 
 jack, 487. 
 
 Brixia, weavers’ and carders’ 
 union found at, 417. 
 
 Broadsword, 411. 
 
 Broil, of Crassus, with the Thra¬ 
 cian soldier, 242, note 20. 
 
 Broker—gladiator, 412. 
 
 Bronterre O’Bryan, on the slave- 
 wars, 274, note 70. 
 
636 
 
 INDEX . 
 
 Bronze workers, 335. n. 6, 375. 
 
 Brotliels, a comparison made by 
 Theophrastus, 543. 
 
 Brotherhoods, 127, note 87; the 
 ancient, 362, note 11; of the 
 eranoi, 455, note 16, and 458, 
 note 18; they had already 
 lived the revolution, 498,; the 
 greatEleusinian, 504; frowned 
 upon, 511; of the thiasotes, 
 524; Christianity modeled,553. 
 
 Brundusium, Spartacus marches 
 to, 320; he again attempts to 
 cross over to Sicily from, 321-2; 
 arrival of Lucullus prevents it, 
 323, note 121. 
 
 Brutal conduct, of the customs 
 collectors, 440. 
 
 Brutus, the brothers, 135. 
 
 Buccinator, who played the shep¬ 
 herd’s horn, 408. 
 
 Budaeus, 370, note 34. 
 
 Buddhism, 4G0. 
 
 Buecher, 136, 138, 157, 177. 
 
 Buffoons, 403. 
 
 Building, performed by slaves, 
 without pay, 39;-trades under 
 two names, 360, 369, 370, 380. 
 
 Bunker Hill, flag of, 492. 
 
 Bully, society began with the, 
 84; the first slaves were liis 
 children, 84; the low original 
 bully, 560. 
 
 Bulwark, of democratic rule, the 
 reverse of slavery, 542. 
 
 Bundles, fasces and axe, 471. 
 
 Burden-bearers, 499, note 11. 
 
 Burial, the rite refused the slave, 
 75; this stamped his disgrace, 
 75, 85; society for, 97; soci- 
 ties for, in Greece, 115, 127; 
 in Rome, 278, 342, 347, 353, 
 gladiatorial, 278, note 3; of 
 Lanuvium, with entire inscrip¬ 
 tion, 353-8; associations, 559. 
 
 Business tenets, of the Greek sa¬ 
 cred and civil communes, 113, 
 note 63; chrematistikos or bu¬ 
 
 siness man of Plato and Aris- 
 totel, 539. 
 
 Butchered, at the amphitheatre, 
 292, note 41. 
 
 Butcher-knife policy, of Eunus, 
 228. 
 
 Butchers—where their unions 
 were located, 388, 490; for a 
 Roman holiday, 307. 
 
 Butchery, of rebel slaves, 252, 
 note 15. 
 
 By-laws, of the millers and ba¬ 
 kers, 445, note 2. 
 
 Byzantium, unions at, 113. 
 
 c 
 
 0 ab-drivers, unions of, 383 and 
 note 26. 
 
 Cade, Jack, 559. 
 
 Cecilius, Oalectenus, words of, 
 165; on the statistics of cruci- 
 fiixions, 330. 
 
 Oaepio, causes Yiriathus to be 
 murdered, 187; fifth general 
 sent against Yiriathus, 187. 
 
 Caeruleum, (sagum), 475; the 
 caerulean Zeus, 476, note 24. 
 
 Caesar, 123; suppressed all the 
 unions, 365, note 23, 397; con¬ 
 quest, 439; kills a million, 570. 
 
 Caius, confraternities that fol¬ 
 lowed, 462. 
 
 Caligarii, soldiers’ boot-makers’ 
 union, 421. 
 
 Caligula, despotism of, xiii.; his 
 cruelty, 280. 
 
 Calistlienic games, 535. 
 
 Calliades, they were nobles, 95. 
 
 Callias, manager of the mines of 
 Laurium, 136, 137. 
 
 Callicrates, one of the architects 
 of the Parthenon, 125. 
 
 Calumniators, of Diodorus, 220. 
 
 Cambalus, a wealthy citizen of 
 Morgantion, 212; death, 212; 
 the story told, 212, note 54 
 
 Camps of Servilius and Lucullus i 
 
INDEX . 
 
 637 
 
 262, note 40; 267, note 50. 
 Canada, organized labor in, 128. 
 Canaan,496,498; numerous com¬ 
 munes in, 504; rigorous law 
 against the brotherhoods, 508. 
 Canaanites, the first among the 
 brotherhoods, 496. 
 
 Candidate, for membership, 461. 
 Cannibalism, 226, note 97. 
 Cantiopolis, or our Kent, and its 
 trade unions, 487. 
 
 Capitalists, 54, wealth. 
 
 Capitoline Hill, prison under, 154 
 Capitolinus, a Roman consul, 145, 
 Cappadocia, 239;Comana of, 215, 
 note 63 ; an early post of the 
 brotherhoods, 512. 
 
 Captos, mines near, 138. 
 Capture, of Syracuse, 221. 
 Capua, description of, 285, 288, 
 289; amphitheatre at, 289. 
 Career Tullianus, 230. 
 
 Carders, their flag, 486. 
 Caroused, the Spartan boys and 
 girls, 530. 
 
 Carpenters, wages paid to, 137, 
 361 n. 8; unions of, 364; patron 
 saint Joseph, 488; their bat¬ 
 tering-rams, 488, note 53. 
 Cart-load of iron money, 531. 
 Carthage, destruction of, 178; 
 
 horrible bloodshed, 179. 
 Carthagenian hostages, join the 
 slave uprising, 152-4; these, 
 and the other Phoenician col¬ 
 onies still have red, 491. 
 Carvers organized at Athens, 127. 
 Cassiterides, or tin islands, 483. 
 Cassius, at Mutina, 307, note 
 81; defeated by Sparteaus,313, 
 
 314. 
 
 Castle, of Sunion, 100. _ 
 Oastrensiariorum collegia, 398. 
 Castus and Gannicus, 319, note 
 118. 
 
 Catacombs, of Paris, 155; those 
 of Rome, 155. 
 
 Catana, daughter of Damophilus 
 
 taken by Hermias, to, 206. 
 Catastrophe, of Tauromanion, 
 229; being hemmed in caused 
 the dire disaster, 269. 
 Categories, of hTuma, 335, note 
 6; of Dionysius of Halicarnas¬ 
 sus, 360; of the federations, 
 368-9; Numa’s shoemakers, 
 380, note 20; of Aristotle, 541. 
 Cato the Elder, a slave driver, 
 141, 159, 178; tried to punish 
 Galba, 181. 
 
 Catulus, deplored by Cicero, 499, 
 note 12. 
 
 Caucasian, an Aryan race, 48. 
 Caudicarii, (bargers) on the Ti¬ 
 ber, belonged to the unions, 
 440. 
 
 Cauldron, of the brimstone lake, 
 248, note 3. 
 
 Cave-dwellers, 42. 
 
 Caves, relics found in, 67; men 
 living in, 530. 
 
 Celeus, king, 130. 
 
 Census, of Corinth, 193; of Ath¬ 
 ens, 193; of antiquity, slaves, 
 freedmen and children were 
 not counted, 340, note 17; the 
 workers and non-workers so 
 distinct that the former were 
 not counted as human, 348. 
 Centers, of the early church, 513. 
 Centonarii, or ragpickers, 422. 
 Central America, the inscriptions 
 found in, 112, note 57. 
 Centralization of wealth, upon 
 individuals, at highest stage, 
 283, note 17. 
 
 Cephalion—a savior from, 509, 
 Cephalonia, Alexander of, 462. 
 Cephistodus, a brother-in-law to 
 Phocion, 545. 
 
 Cercenses (Ludi), 410. 
 Cerberus, watch-dog of the infer¬ 
 nal regions, 90. 
 
 Ceres, or Demeter, 77, 87; story 
 of her daughter, Proserpine, 
 88, 89; represented the cereal 
 
038 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 products of farm labor, 90; rid¬ 
 iculed by a slave, 130; temple 
 of, at Enna, 198; she shielded 
 Sicily from famine, 198; was 
 believed to be the mother of 
 the world, 198; revealed her¬ 
 self in dreams to Eunus, 200; 
 temple to her honor, 208; god¬ 
 dess of Sicily, 223; she was 
 related to their great sun-god, 
 Apollo, 463 and plate; god¬ 
 dess of agriculture, 469; she is 
 identical with many other di¬ 
 vinities of farms and gardens, 
 470-1; see Minerva and Apollo, 
 and 488; for further details of, 
 consult chapter iv., Eleusinian 
 Mysteries. 
 
 Chained, the father of Spartacus, 
 to a log of wood, 284 and note 
 20; to mules, 530. 
 
 Chair, see bisella, sacerdotal seat, 
 431; honorary, 360; ivory, 575. 
 
 Chaldeans, 459. 
 
 Champion colors, 472; boldly 
 marshaling a, 522. 
 
 Change, of systems, what was 
 meant by, 496; from human 
 tools to labor-saving machan- 
 ical tools, 568. 
 
 Character, of Spartacus, 305, and 
 note 78. 
 
 Characteristics, competitive, not 
 derived from Hebrews, 40; of 
 the Aryan and Semitic fam¬ 
 ilies, 48. 
 
 Charilaus, Spartan king 531. 
 
 Charon, 90. 
 
 Chasuble, or the red mummy, 
 483, note 40. 
 
 Chattel slavery extinct, 68; con¬ 
 tempt of masters for, 72. 
 
 Chaucer and Shakespeare, res¬ 
 cued a language, 569. 
 
 Chaudesaigues, its half-red ban¬ 
 ner, 489. 
 
 Cheap deal, of Eunus, 219. 
 
 Cheek, smite, 553. 
 
 Chemists fortify the arguments, 
 of the new philosophy, 62. 
 
 Chians, superstition of the, 169; 
 their vices, 168-9 and note 7; 
 Drimakos, see chapter viii., pp. 
 163-177; horrible story told by 
 Herodotus, of the vengeance 
 of Hermotius, 168 note 7. 
 
 Chicken, entrails of the, for the 
 aruspex, 240; the, which Soc¬ 
 rates and his companions owed 
 for, 553. 
 
 Children, numbers of, by Pallas 
 Gideon, Apson, Jair, 49; kill¬ 
 ing of, among the ancients, 53; 
 the first-born son, 69; canni¬ 
 balism which devoured them 
 at Tauromanion,/226; forced 
 to fight each other with knives, 
 277; not reckoned, in the cen¬ 
 sus, 340, note 17; enslaved and 
 killed, 525; communism of, 
 537. 
 
 Chiton, and toga, or himation, 
 478; chlamys, himation, toga, 
 481; at the feast, 503. 
 
 Chlamys, was red, 476, note 24; 
 chiton, toga, 481. 
 
 Choice of a trade, Lucian’s, 543. 
 
 Christianity, its introduction, re¬ 
 sisted by the image-makers, 
 vii.; account of, 41, 42, 46; 
 strifes about idol worship, viii.; 
 present movement is building 
 upon it, xi.; modern greed not, 
 xii. 68, 74, 78,97; first planted 
 among the communes, 341-9; 
 exclusion of the brotherhood 
 from Eleusinian mysteries, 86; 
 era of, based upon absolute 
 equality of all mankind, 337; 
 took up the community prin¬ 
 ciple, 451; why it so readily 
 took root, 512; by whom per¬ 
 verted, 555; true functions of, 
 yet hopefully returning, 519, 
 and 573. 
 
 Christmas compared to the Sa* 
 
INDEX. 
 
 639 
 
 urnalia, for relaxation, 502. 
 
 Chroniclers, what they left un¬ 
 written, 498. 
 
 Chronology, of the Sicilian slave 
 war, of Eunus, 214, note 57. 
 
 Church, celebrated plant, upon 
 grounds mellow r ed by the com¬ 
 munes, 512; based upon the 
 ancient brotherhoods, 509 and 
 the whole argument contained 
 in chapter xxiv., pp. 520-573. 
 
 Cicero, an admirer of Paganism, 
 87; on the vectigalia, 119; his 
 contempt for the workingmen, 
 102; spurned and cast obloquy 
 upon the bacchanals, 159; en¬ 
 emy of the plebeians, 284; as 
 a valuable historian, 301, 302; 
 an aristocrat, 345; the mortal 
 foe to the ancient brotherhoods, 
 345; his tirades against Glo- 
 dius who befriended them, 499, 
 note 12; his opinions as he ex-' 
 pressed them, 540; the lowly 
 despised, 543. 
 
 Cimon, riches of, 137, note 16; 
 a mine contractor, 136-7, 140; 
 and Nicias, 146. 
 
 Oircumvallation, line of/at Rhe- 
 gium, 318. 
 
 Circus, 332, 411. 
 
 Citadel, of Sunion taken by slaves, 
 143, & note 40; of Morgantion 
 in which Comanawas besieged, 
 257, note 27; of Macella, 270. 
 
 Cithara, Alexander played, 544. 
 
 Cities, did not exist in the earlier 
 ages, 82-85, note 4. 
 
 Citizens, of the sun, 244, note 22 ; 
 what constituted a, 344, note 
 27; who he was, 496; stock, 
 and what they seized, 498; 
 the three classes of Lycurgus, 
 526; those of Sparta, 529; in 
 collective goods they were rich, 
 529; citizens of the sun, 550. 
 
 Civilization, outgrew slavery, 71. 
 
 Clairvoyant, 413. 
 
 Classes, two among the ancients, 
 96; the distinction defined, 
 344, note 27; of the working 
 people, 540. 
 
 Classic, the old Latin, dead, 569. 
 
 Claudius, Appius, 277, 287, see 
 Appius; Marcellus, a Roman 
 consul, 157; another consul at 
 the time of the first gladiato¬ 
 rial spectacle, 277, note 2; Pul- 
 cher, who curried favor with 
 the plebeians, 344. 
 
 Clazomense, silver coin from, 481, 
 note 34. 
 
 Clean-washed, and fat, 467, 469, 
 
 Cleaners, of the blood in the am¬ 
 phitheatres—a union of, 395. 
 
 Cleft, hiding place of the moun¬ 
 tain, 230. 
 
 Cleon, 62, 167, 196, 413; a Sili- 
 cian brigand, 215; his rebell¬ 
 ion in southern Sicily, 216; he 
 defeats, assisted by Achieus, 
 the Roman, Hypsseus, 217; his 
 death, 228. 
 
 Clepsydra, 130, note 96. 
 
 Cleptius, the bold, 264. 
 
 Clerk, to unions, 383, note 26. 
 
 Clermont, exquisite red banner 
 of, 485; color of its flag, 485, 
 note 48. 
 
 Clients, their relation to the citi¬ 
 zen class, 344, note 27. 
 
 Cloak, religion as a, 346 note 36; 
 of blue and azure, 475. 
 
 Glodian Gamala, the precocious 
 youth, 383, note 26. 
 
 Olodius, 161; Glaber, defeat of, 
 by the gladiators, 295; his ter¬ 
 ror, 295, note 51; law of, 302, 
 note 69 ; brother-in-law to Lu- 
 oullus, 322 ; prevents the en¬ 
 actment of conspiracy laws to 
 suppress the unions, 344; Cic¬ 
 ero inveighs against, 345, note 
 33; intrepid orator and trib¬ 
 une, 363; compared with Blos- 
 sius and Gracchus, 474; speech 
 
640 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of CJicero against, 499, note 12; 
 in favor with the trade unions, 
 552. 
 
 Clonius, murder of, 253, note 16. 
 
 Cloth-fullers’ brotherhoods, who 
 worked for the state, 416, n. 5. 
 
 Clothes, manner of ancient, 415; 
 of the slaves, 385, note 30. 
 
 Clowns, 403, and note 6. 
 
 Clubs, soldiers of the defeated 
 Mummius killed with, 315 and 
 note 108; of the eranoi, 508; 
 brutalized with, 530. 
 
 Cneus Sentius’. inscription, 383, 
 note 26. 
 
 Coarse bread, for slaves, 385 and 
 note 30. 
 
 Coat of arms, 469. 
 
 Coctorum collegium—union of 
 the cooks, 398. 
 
 Code, of Lycurgus, 69; of Solon, 
 127; communal, of self-sustain¬ 
 ing rules, 335, note 7; of The¬ 
 odosius, 373; of the gamblers 
 with methods, 456. 
 
 Collective, wealth, 529. 
 
 Collectors, of tax, 382; the vec- 
 tigalia, 437; unions of, at Ly¬ 
 ons, 439 and note 3. 
 
 College-G-ymnasium, of Altona, 
 247; of ancient collegium of 
 working people in the guise of 
 piety, 357; of Italy, 77; the 
 sancta and their tactics, 362; 
 naviculariorum, 445; they were 
 fond of parading in red, 477; 
 the collegium was a veritable 
 trade union, 341; of the rag¬ 
 pickers (centonariorum), 422; 
 identical with eranos, 506. 
 
 Coliseum, reserved seats of the 
 grandees known by the aroma 
 at the, 433. 
 
 Colophon, in the labor war, 235. 
 
 Colors, what were the true rudi- 
 mentalones, 470, note 10; tu¬ 
 telary patron of, 490; a charm 
 to season the dry annals, 497; 
 
 their enumeration, 470. 
 
 Colossus, the cryselephantine, ol 
 Athena, 431. 
 
 Coma, of Pamphylia, 215, note 
 64; a brother of Cleon, an es¬ 
 caped slave, 215. 
 
 Comana, what Valerius Maximus 
 says, 215, note 64; a town in 
 Asia Minor, 215. 
 
 Comanus, extraordinary suicide 
 of, 227. 
 
 Combats, at wakes, 135 ; gladi¬ 
 atorial, 278, note 3; no mock¬ 
 ery in the arena, 411. 
 
 Combine, for economic purposes, 
 508. 
 
 Come, in Italy, 422. 
 
 Comic actors’ unions and inscrip¬ 
 tions of, very many found, 414 
 and note 37. 
 
 Commerce, under Lycurgus, 69, 
 disallowed, 530. 
 
 Common table, abolished by Pyr¬ 
 rhus, 287, note 28; robber, a 
 cognomen for Spartacus, 297; 
 fund, how distributed, 507, 
 and note 27; eating in, 510; 
 table of Sparta, 533. 
 
 Commotions, caused by attempts 
 at reform, 69. 
 
 Communal, institutions, 68; pro¬ 
 prietorship, 69;. government, 
 not mentioned by inscriptions, 
 73; organizations, at 'Rome, 
 335, note 7; culture, what it 
 was, 492; state of Plato, 522. 
 
 Communes, formed by freedmen 
 and slaves, 85; the civil and 
 the sacred, 113; the countless, 
 chapter xxi., pp. 444-464; the 
 Greek world ablaze with, 402, 
 of the early Christians, at Fer- 
 rand in Auvergne 485. 
 
 Communism, slavery earlier than, 
 67; in Sparta, 109; of Piso, 
 223; of the Roman trade union 
 system, 335, note 7: see also 
 363; what it was, 458; that of 
 
INDEX. 
 
 641 
 
 the isle of Crete and Sparta, 567. 
 
 Communistic form, the highest 
 attempted, 72; of a social gov¬ 
 ernment, 80. 
 
 Communists, in Greece, 115; con¬ 
 templated in an uncharitable 
 light, 463; under what aus¬ 
 pices they did or did not work 
 well, 460; ancient tribal kind, 
 68; their ancient system, 70; 
 participation of both the sexes. 
 527. 
 
 Companies, unions organized in, 
 302, note 69; arranged in cat¬ 
 egories of ten, 389, note 1; the 
 companions of the sun, 450. 
 
 Comparative palaeology, 497. 
 
 Comparison of the last battles of 
 Athenion and Spartacus, 271; 
 of commentary on numbers in 
 the army of Spartacus, 325 ,n. 
 124; of various plans tried by 
 the great men, 526. 
 
 Competition, no conscience in the 
 world of, 64; of capitalists, 
 396; none among the unions, 
 442. 
 
 Competitive, system, 38, 40; de¬ 
 fined, 40-42; struggles to be 
 extricated from the, 41; oldest 
 system known, 42; the idea 
 among the Greeks and Romans 
 48; prevalent with all the an¬ 
 imals, 55-6; world still strug¬ 
 gling in it, 61; competitive la¬ 
 bor, 68; slavery, 71;—system 
 based in concupiscence, 206; 
 a description, 494; ancient and 
 modern, 496; comparison, 510; 
 more about it, 524; system 
 has nearly always proved itself 
 a failure, 573. 
 
 Compulsory, the law of Amasis, 
 338, note 14; inscriptions, 427; 
 education, 527; marriage, 527, 
 535. 
 
 Concatenation, linking the labor 
 wars, 237. 
 
 Conceptions, immaculate, 559. 
 
 Conclusions—axioms reached by 
 investigation, 122, 509, 561. 
 
 Concupiscence, 74; underLycur- 
 gus, 109; Paganism rested on 
 it, 206; moral impulses, 515; 
 of Rome, 517. 
 
 Conde sur Vesgre, (society of), 
 448. 
 
 Condition, of working people in 
 ancient times, lowliness of, 49. 
 
 Conference, of slaves about to 
 revolt, 251, note 13. 
 
 Conflict, of Triocala, 267. 
 
 Confraternities, 461, 502. 
 
 Confusion, Diodorus on tramps, 
 261 and note 37. 
 
 Congregation, of the Hebrews, 
 40; Tertullian on the, 552, 
 and note 70. 
 
 Connubial, tie opened free inter¬ 
 course, 536. 
 
 Conquest, the Roman, 480, 499. 
 
 Conscience, annihilation of, 59; 
 the origin of ghosts, 61; ani¬ 
 mals have little, 64; it may be 
 based in cunning, 62 ; a pow¬ 
 erful agent in bringing about 
 good, 66; the foundation of 
 religion, 62; ethical custom* 
 and habits built upon it, 61. 
 
 Conscription, 302, note 69. 
 
 Conspiracy, against Plato’s life, 
 119; laws to curtail liberties, 
 120; those of Roman Caesars, 
 123 and note 76; law of Eliz¬ 
 abeth,. 126; of slaves to burn 
 Rome, 148 ; laws to suppress, 
 283, note 15; laws passed b. o. 
 58, 346; crucifixion the pen¬ 
 alty and punishment, 152. 
 
 Constancy, of woman, 303, note 
 72. 
 
 Constantine, customs and habits 
 at the time of, 486, 489; the 
 Great, 521. 
 
 Consternation, at Rome, after the 
 victories of Spartacus, 311. 
 
642 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Contempt, for the workers fell 
 with the establishment of the 
 new era, 384; of the low-born 
 people, 407; of labor, 544; a 
 specimen shown, 545, also the 
 note 54. 
 
 Contour, fine, of the body, 535. 
 
 Contractors, at Laurium, 135. 
 
 Convent, Pagan temple of the 
 Twins, 247. 
 
 Convicts, working in the mines, 
 138. 
 
 Convivialities, ancient, 502. 
 
 Convulsion, in nature, 276; that 
 caused by introduction of the 
 new principles, 495. 
 
 Cooks, of Eunus, 230 and note 
 105; unions of, 398; shops— 
 ideas of Theophrastus, 543. 
 
 Co-operation, aim of the ancient 
 labor movement, 38; it under¬ 
 mines the incentives to crime, 
 61; reasons why slaves were 
 partial toward it, 86; its good 
 works, 379; peaceful rather 
 than aggressive, 461; co-op¬ 
 erative system defined, 40; its 
 struggles to bring about much 
 wanted changes, 41; used by 
 the Semitic races, 48; the har¬ 
 monious system, 56, 57; asso¬ 
 ciations of the lords to obtain 
 the benefits which it offers, in 
 protection, 81. 
 
 Copied (writings of the ancients), 
 times without number, 436. 
 
 Copyists, wages paid to, 137. 
 
 Oordonniers, of the Middle Ages, 
 
 484. 
 
 Oorfinium, the union of hunters 
 found at, 393. 
 
 Corinth, census of, 193; gulf of, 
 210; population in b. o. 300, 
 193; its slavery, 522, note 1. 
 
 Corn grits, for slaves and freed- 
 men, 383, note 26. 
 
 Oornicularius, an old term for a 
 secretary, 439. 
 
 Corporations, of trade unions, 
 366, note 24; of the Roman 
 empire, 416, note 8. 
 
 Corporos, sodalicia and collegia, 
 implied the same meaning as 
 unions, 366 and note 10. 
 
 Corsair, for kidnaping, 498, 
 
 Cos, inscription at, 462. 
 
 Cosseir, mines near, 138. 
 
 Oossinus, a man of uncommon 
 judgment, his defeat, 297-8. 
 
 Cost, of living, engraved on the 
 Egyptian pyramid, 446, note 4. 
 
 Cotton, how used, 415. 
 
 Couch, celebrated dining couch, 
 400; makers, registered by the 
 archaeologist Oderic, 433. 
 
 Countless myriads of women in 
 the island of Crete, 340 vide 
 note 17. 
 
 Cournieres, had a nearly totally 
 red banner, 489. 
 
 Court, of appeals, 94. 
 
 Coward, Spartacus given that 
 epithet by his insubordinate 
 soldiers, 319. 
 
 Cradle, of Plato, 118, note 72. 
 
 Crafts, of workmen, 430; divin¬ 
 ities, of remote antiquity, 492; 
 -manship brutifies the indi¬ 
 vidual, 539. 
 
 Crassus, xii.; spoke Greek and 
 its Asiatic dialects, 238, note 
 12; Publius, his character, 241; 
 L., made consul, 312; loses the 
 battle of Mutina, 313; his tac¬ 
 tics, 313; adheres to the Fab¬ 
 ian mode of warfare, 321; he 
 becomes the legal commander 
 of the combined armies of Lu- 
 cullus and Pompey, 323. 
 
 Crater, of the brimstone pool of 
 the Twins, 248, note 3. 
 
 Credentials, of regular chartered 
 unions, 437. 
 
 Cremation, 75, note 19; in an¬ 
 cient times, 71; was the usual 
 form of interment among the 
 
INDEX. 
 
 643 
 
 freedmen, 75; the working 
 people were too poor to bury, 
 they were obliged to burn 
 their dead, 345. 
 
 Orescent moon, wife of the flam¬ 
 ing Apollo, 491. 
 
 Crete, great schemes, 572; count¬ 
 less myriads of women, 340, 
 
 note 17. 
 
 Crier, for traders and winemen’s 
 unions, 383, note 26. 
 
 Criminals or malefactors’ punish¬ 
 ment, 475. 
 
 Crispin, the unions first organ¬ 
 ized by, 483; account of him 
 and of his brother Orispinian, 
 420, 421. 
 
 Criticism, of Lycurgus, 525; of 
 Aristotle, 536. 
 
 Crito, scenes of Socrates, 562. 
 
 Crixus, actions of, 62; his com¬ 
 patriot, (Enomaus, 289, note 
 36; elected lieutenants, under 
 Spartacus, 294; death of, 307; 
 retaliation of Spartacus for the 
 fallen hero, 308-9, 332, 406. 
 
 Cross, see crucifixion. 
 
 Croton, battle of, 320. 
 
 Grouching, nude and suffering, 
 532-3. 
 
 Crown, of foliage, 462; of Stra- 
 tonice, 463 and plate. 
 
 Crucible, of a thousand tradi¬ 
 tions, 523. 
 
 Crucifixion, of 8,000 slaves, 222; 
 of the kitchen mates of Eunus, 
 230; at Enna, 229; of slaves, 
 252; of the devoted fanners 
 of Aristonicus, 243; after the 
 defeat of Athenion, 271; esti¬ 
 mated total number of the la¬ 
 boring people who so perished, 
 330; in what countries this ig¬ 
 nominious punishment was in¬ 
 flicted, 499; a million crucified, 
 517; invention of, and its ori¬ 
 gin described, 562. 
 
 Crude grape juice, 384. 
 
 Cruelty, of the forked gibbet, 
 141, note 33 ; of Damophilus, 
 Polias, Megallis, 201, 405 ; of 
 the Pagan religion, 428; of re¬ 
 ligion, 482. 
 
 Crusades, origin of ; 87; the Eleu- 
 sinian, 87; conflict of classes at 
 the, 95; march to Eleusis, 130. 
 
 Cryptia, secret, of Sparta, 537. 
 
 Crystalization, of all dark hues, 
 478. 
 
 Cudgeled, by tramps, 261, n. 37. 
 
 Cudgels, 292, note 41. 
 
 Cult, of Men-Tyrannus, 143, note 
 39; of Ma, (Artemis Taurica), 
 215, note 63; a world-wide, 
 451, secret, in Canaan, 501; 
 of Zeus Labraundos, 509; of 
 Serapis, 509; of the great com¬ 
 mune system, emerging, 556. 
 
 Cumse, home of Blossius, 239; a 
 city near Rome, 186. 
 
 Cumanian shores, pirates of the, 
 316, note 111. 
 
 Cunning, the weapon of primi¬ 
 tive man, 60. 
 
 Cup, of bitterness, 233. 
 
 Curias, 94. 
 
 Curiatii, story of Horatius, 475, 
 note 22. 
 
 Curies, the outcasts converted 
 into, 86. 
 
 Curiosity-gratifying study of mil¬ 
 itary carpentry, 488, note 53. 
 
 Curry, to obtain favors, 475. 
 
 Cushioned seats, 433, note 14. 
 
 Customs unions, or collectors, 
 439. 
 
 Cutting each others’ throats, 277, 
 note 1. 
 
 Cybele, the Phrygian goddess, 
 463; also, 470, 471; image of, 
 481, note 35; goddess of farm¬ 
 ing, in Palestine, 503; tenets 
 of,562. 
 
 Cyclones, of retributive justice, 
 523. 
 
 Cyme, in the labor war, 235. 
 
644 
 
 INDEX . 
 
 Cyril, St., burnt the archives, 452. 
 
 • D 
 
 Dadouchos, the priest and torch- 
 bearer at the Mysteries, 92. 
 Daemons, governors during Sat¬ 
 urn’s reign, 47; afterwards the 
 lares or ghosts, 48; of the wail¬ 
 ing wood 248; of Socrates, 560. 
 Dagger-duels, 291. 
 
 Damophilus, his treatment of his 
 slaves, 65; a rich slave owner 
 of Sicily, 196; cruelties of, 197, 
 200; his wife, Megallis, and 
 their tender-hearted daughter, 
 204-6, 221; owned 500 slaves, 
 405; murdered by them, 203-4. 
 Dances, of the members, 503, 
 note 22; under a species of con¬ 
 tumely, 407; among wreaths, 
 red flags and banners, 503; the 
 races and tumbling, 535. 
 Dandies, the jesting, 403, note 6. 
 Dangerous slave element, 331. 
 Dared not march to the city of 
 Rome, 310, note 95, 
 
 Dark Ages, by what caused, 494. 
 Darwin, views man as an animal 
 destitute of an immortal prin¬ 
 ciple, 59; on immortality, 62. 
 Data, of ages of gladiators given 
 in the inscriptions, 279, note 5. 
 Date, of the wars of Eunus, 214, 
 note 57. 
 
 Daughter, of Damophilus, 201, 
 note 32. 
 
 Da Yinci, 544. 
 
 Dawn, of manumission, 425. 
 Day, of the feasts, 484. 
 
 Dea Nemesi, 413. 
 
 Dead letter, the Licinian law, 222 
 and note 84; that of the con¬ 
 spiracy laws, 454. 
 
 Deal tables of Spartan state, 532. 
 Death, ancient opinions on, 70: 
 of Viriathus, 187; of Cleon 
 228, of Eunus, 230; of Eumenes 
 234, note 3; of Attalus III. 
 
 234; of Blossius, 241, note 19, 
 of Gracchus, 241; of Orassus 
 242; of Aristonicus, 243; of 
 Athenion, 271; of Tryphon— 
 Athenion made king—269 and 
 note 56; of Athenion, note 61 
 of page 271; of Aquillius, 273; 
 of Spartacus, 327, note 128; 
 death grapple, 374; warrant, 
 533; of Socrates, 553,562; of 
 Jesus, 562; of Juvenal, 563. 
 Debts, of Sparta, 531. 
 
 Decay of Rome, date of begin¬ 
 ning, according to Polybius, 
 548. 
 
 Deceit, which used religion as 
 a cloak, 346, note 36. 
 
 Decelea, strike of silver miners, 
 134, note 1, and 146; a town 
 in Boetia, 139; Spartan garri¬ 
 son at, 140. 
 
 Declaration, regarding slavery, 
 made by Granier, 529. 
 
 Decline, of the Roman honor and 
 virtue, 480 note 33. 
 
 Deeded his kingdom to the Ro¬ 
 mans, 512. 
 
 Deeds, of the Spartans, 536. 
 Deens, unions of hunters, 395, 
 note 20. 
 
 Deep-rooted hatred, 443. 
 
 Defeat, of Aristonicus, 242; of 
 Lentulus, 308, note 81; Spar¬ 
 tacus, 327-30. 
 
 Defense, of Aquillius, 273. 
 Deification (self), by using po¬ 
 litical priestcraft, 433. 
 
 Deipna apo symboles, old eranos 
 forbidden by council of Lao- 
 dicia, 511. 
 
 Deities, fed by slaves, 75; wor¬ 
 shiped through sacrifices, 75; 
 their sacred cult, 510. 
 Deliverance, of slaves, 249, and 
 note 5. 
 
 ; Delos, the great slave mart, 286, 
 , note 27. 
 
 , Demand, emphatical, of Christ, 
 , 553. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 646 
 
 Demeter, and Eunua, 168; her- 1,100,000 persons massacred, 
 self, Cybele, Isis and others, according to Josephus, 566. 
 for Ceres, 477. Deterioration, of mind by labor, 
 
 Demiourgoi, workingmen, 539. 542. 
 
 Democracy, laws of the, 38; in Devastation, of Sicily by tramps, 
 worship, 51; a Christian basis, 261 and note 37. 
 
 165; the Spartan, 104. an element of the plan of Eu- 
 
 Demon. see daemon. nus, 549. 
 
 Demophon, nursed by Ceres, 88. 
 
 Demos Collyte, 509. 
 
 Demosthenes, the great orator, 
 101; oration against Pantaetus 
 the mine contractor, 143; he 
 despised men of humble birth, 
 543; knife factory of, 548. 
 
 Den, description of the gambling 
 of competitive life, 456-8. 
 
 Dendrophori, 360, 361. 
 
 Deorum immortalium, 428. 
 
 Depping, 489 and note 54. 
 
 Depths unspeakable, 248, note 3. 
 
 De Quincey, quoted, 280. 
 
 Descent, of the red color as a 
 legacy of the ancient usages, 
 492. 
 
 Descriptiones reliquarum, books 
 of the archaeologists, 459. 
 
 Deserters, how treated, 70; es¬ 
 caped from slave owners, 258, 
 note 29. 
 
 Desperadoes, the maratime, 330. 
 
 Desperation, of the slave soldiers 
 of Tryphon and of Athenion, 
 265 ; of the fight of Athenion, 
 266; of the slaves, 306 and 
 note 80; of Spartacus, at the 
 last battle, 326-7 and the notes 
 128, 131, 132. 
 
 Despised humanity, in formidable 
 misery, 423. 
 
 Despotism, military, of Nero and 
 of the Caesars, xiii. 
 
 Destinies, of peoples, 524. 
 
 Destroyed by lice, 230 and note 
 
 105. 
 
 Destruction, work of the soldiers, 
 229; was the basis of the plan 
 of Eunus, 549; of Jerusalem, 
 
 Development, theory of, 55; of 
 the growth of the soul, 59; 
 theory, of believers in an im¬ 
 mortal life, 59, 63, 64, 72. 
 
 Devices invented and constructed 
 by the unionists, for weapons, 
 396; of banners, 489. 
 
 Deviltry, deeds of, by tramps as 
 reported by Diodorus, 261, in 
 note 37. 
 
 Dialecticians, moral impulses of 
 three, 514, 515. 
 
 Dictionnaire Universel, quoting 
 Maury, 92 and note 18; used 
 further on Spartacus, 326. 
 
 Differentiation, of gladiatorial 
 functions, 278, note 3; which 
 made nations out of isolated 
 families, 281; of worship, from 
 Minerva to Jesus, 490; the 
 creeping, 525. 
 
 Difficulties, in the way of the his¬ 
 torian of labor, 500. 
 
 Dinner, gladiatorial combats at, 
 277, and note 1. 
 
 Dining room, 399. 
 
 Dinotherium and trilobite, 450. 
 
 Diocletian, empires of, 79; his 
 persecution of the early Chris¬ 
 tians, 483; planted poisons in 
 his garden, 547. 
 
 Diodorus, 138, 180; lost chapters 
 of, 165; quotation from, 206 ; 
 mutilated scraps of, 211; ver¬ 
 acity of, 220 ; on the temple 
 of the Twins, 248, note 3. 
 
 Dion, his conquest of Syracuse, 
 77; a friend of Plato, 119; Cas¬ 
 sius, lost books of, 165. 
 
 Dionysia, what they were, 502 ; 
 
646 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of four sorts, at Athens, 505. 
 
 Dionysiates Ch&eremoniens, a 
 sacred divinity, 462. 
 
 Dionysian skilled workmen, 503, 
 and the notes. 
 
 Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, 47, 
 114, the tyrant of Syracuse, 
 77; spurned Plato, 118; he en¬ 
 gaged the caudicarii to put him 
 out of the way, 119; dug the 
 cavern prisons of Syracuse, 
 208; built the prison work¬ 
 shops, 549. 
 
 Dionysoi, societies of the, 158. 
 
 Dionysus, a god—protective es¬ 
 sence presiding over skilled la¬ 
 bor, 468; god of the mechan¬ 
 ics, 488. 
 
 Dirksen, on the hetairse and so- 
 dalicia, 115; on the Twelve 
 Tables—says the Roman trade 
 unions were communists, 335, 
 note 7. 
 
 Disaster, of Demosthenes (the 
 Athenian general), 134, note 
 1; unchronicled, of Piso, 225; 
 entailed in the law of Lycur- 
 gus, 527; under Spartacus, 556, 
 
 Disbelief, good cause for, 565. 
 
 Disciples, of Socrates and Jesus, 
 514. 
 
 Discipline, of Orassus, 315, note 
 108. 
 
 Discovery, of the first slaves, 49, 
 note 4. 
 
 Discrepancy, in Plato’s republic, 
 536. 
 
 Discussion', among the lowly, 129; 
 caused the formation of a pub¬ 
 lic opinion, 236. 
 
 Disdain, of Spartacus, 312, note 
 101, and 323, note 121. 
 
 Disgusted with wars, 499, note 9. 
 
 Disinherited classes, 458. 
 
 Dismal, the fear, regarding Eu- 
 nus, 218. 
 
 Dispensation, of Lycurgus, 533 
 
 Distaste, of Plorus, 268. 
 
 Distemper, spoken of, by Pliny, 
 79, note 33. 
 
 Distinction, the basis of Plato’s 
 slave state, 522. 
 
 Divers, a fishermen’s union of 
 the Tiber, 389, note 1; search¬ 
 ing for pearls, 435. 
 
 Divine right, theory of, 531. 
 
 Divinities, of the brimstone pool, 
 248, note 3; of love, of Soc¬ 
 rates, 458, note 18; of a yield¬ 
 ing race, 480. 
 
 Divisions, of the trades and pro¬ 
 fessions, 336 and note 10. 
 
 Dog-day winds, 130, note 96. 
 
 Dodge, for the credulous, 475. 
 
 Dogmas, and inquisitorial intol¬ 
 erance, 495. 
 
 Dome, the vaulted, of heaven, 
 236. 
 
 Domestic establishment, of the 
 Caesars, 429, note 3. 
 
 Domus Augustalis, 507. 
 
 Doom, of liberty, 233; of Spar¬ 
 tacus, 324; as a consequence 
 of the law of Lycurgus, 526. 
 
 Dorians, killed their imperfect 
 children, 53 and note 18; they 
 were the Spartan stock, 531, 
 
 Downfall, of Rome begun by Eu- 
 nus and Gracchus, 222 ; of the 
 Spartan system, 537. 
 
 Drama, religious, of the mys¬ 
 teries, 92, note 18. 
 
 Drawn by lot, 315 and n. 108. 
 
 Dream of Lucian, 543. 
 
 Dregs, of the city, 302, notes 67, 
 69; of the city of Rome, quot¬ 
 ing from Asconius, 363, note 
 15. 
 
 Drimakos, strike of, did not turn 
 out disastrous to his cause, xii.; 
 his prolonged resistance, 164, 
 note 3; bloody wars of, 166; 
 regarded as a savior, by his 
 friends, 168; his speech, 172; 
 the young friend of, 174; re¬ 
 ward offered for his head, 175, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 647 
 
 his death, 176; Chians render 
 homage to his ghost, 177 ; in¬ 
 fluence felt, after his decease, 
 
 517. 
 
 Drinking festivals, called anthes- 
 teria, 505 ; beer halls wherein 
 was first planted the modern 
 movement of labor, 573. 
 Droysen, Hellenismus, 503 and 
 note 19. 
 
 Drudgery of the Helots, 537. 
 Drudges, 499, note 11. 
 
 Druids, their colors, 482 sqq. 
 Drumann, the author, 141 and 
 elsewhere much referred to. 
 Drunkenness, not a habit of the 
 thiasos, 503, note 20. 
 
 Duel, fought between Athenion 
 and Aquillius, 270, 271. 
 Dungeons, of the Sicilian quarry 
 prisons, 231; opened by Eu- 
 nus, 219; more about, 523. 
 Duration, of wars of Yiriathus, 
 182, note 6; of the great slave 
 war, 195; comparison of time 
 with progress, 525. 
 Dutchobers, 464. 
 
 Dyers, of the woollen and linen 
 cloth, 418, note 40. 
 
 Dyes, how made, 483. 
 
 E 
 
 Eagle, the race of the, 563, 564. 
 Early Christians, what they were 
 struggling for, 497; their or¬ 
 ganization, 552, 553. 
 Earth-born multitudes, 79, and 
 note 32, 530. 
 
 Earthquake, at Sparta, 107, n. 49 
 &164, note 2; of Vesuvius, 416. 
 Ebb and flow, of the brimstone 
 lake, 248, note 3. 
 
 Eburarii, ivory workers, inscrip¬ 
 tion of, 431, 432. 
 
 Economic unions, proof of, 511. 
 Eden, garden of, 535. 
 
 Edict, of Lycurgus, 531. 
 
 Editio princeps of Vellejus Pa¬ 
 terculus, 325, note 124. 
 
 Education, under Lycurgus, 69, 
 note 8; Plato’s view of, 539; 
 Plutarch on, 545. 
 
 Egoism, 479 ; originated saint 
 hood and notions of religion 
 and of immortality, 85. 
 
 Egyptians, superstition of, 45; 
 their gold mines, 138-40 ; en¬ 
 slavement of the Hebrews, 39, 
 40; form of their government, 
 73; food of their slaves, 79. 
 
 Elaphebolion, 505. 
 
 Election, of Aquilius and Mar¬ 
 ius, 270; of Licinius Orassus, 
 312; of officers hindered five 
 years, 474, note 20. 
 
 Elephants, used by the Romans 
 against Viriathus, 186, note 14. 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries, 86;‘their 
 too absurd exclusiveness, 88 ; 
 origin of, 88, 89, 90 ; grievance 
 against, 94; a popular resent¬ 
 ment, 97; the sting of insult, 
 99; peculiar games, 93; ac¬ 
 cess to membership, 114 the; 
 cause of dissatisfaction, 121; 
 interwoven with the ancient 
 labor troubles, 198; humili¬ 
 ating exclusion from, 351; a 
 brotherhood 504. 
 
 Eleusis, a town in Attica, near 
 Athens, 87; scenes at, 89; the 
 crusade to, 95; ancient city of 
 the Pelasgiahs, 130; its orgies 
 not those of proletaries, 505. 
 
 Elizabeth, queen, 126. 
 
 Eloquence, of Plato, 118, note 
 72; of Gracchus, 239. 
 
 Elves, and urchins at the brim¬ 
 stone lake, 247. 
 
 Emancipation, the movement of, 
 68; by running away, 70; the 
 cause of Christianity a procla¬ 
 mation of, 78; no mention of, 
 in the Iliad, 80; movement of, 
 164; note 2; the agitation for, 
 
948 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 raging over the world, 241; of Ensign, of the saddle and bridle 
 labor, 494. makers, 485; the popular one 
 
 Emancipator, of Spain, 182. was red, 492. 
 
 Emblems, of the mysteries, 87, Entail, law of, 69 ; entailment 
 
 88; talismans, mementos and 
 charms, 435; of Oeres were red ; 
 469; of Pomona, a flaming red, 
 477. 
 
 Emergence, of the culture of the 
 great commune system, 556. 
 
 Empedocles, 518. 
 
 Emperor, considered as the gov¬ 
 ernment, 419. 
 
 Employment, of the unions by 
 the state direct, 376; through 
 Plato’s two-fold method, 538. 
 
 Emulation, Aristotle’s plan based 
 upon, 542; useful, 535. 
 
 Enfranchisement, the treachery 
 in, 107, note 46. 
 
 Engine of war, 378. 
 
 Engineering skill, 378. 
 
 England, oligarchy of landlords, 
 in, 496. 
 
 Engravers and carvers’ federa¬ 
 tion (caelatores),367-8; aunion 
 of die-sinkers, 368, note 28. 
 
 Engyon, slaves broke chains at, 
 251. 
 
 Enjoyment, system of, 455 with 
 note 16. 
 
 Enlightenment, it repudiates un¬ 
 fairness, 515, 516. 
 
 Enna, number of the laboring 
 class massacred at, xii.; a city 
 built upon a height, in Sicily, 
 88; the plateau of, 149, 195; 
 labor organized at, 198 ; tem¬ 
 ple in honor of Ceres at, 198; 
 the scene of a horribly bloody 
 murder, 202; captured by the 
 slaves of the resident owners, 
 203-4; attempted recapture by 
 Piso, 224; his protracted siege 
 of, 224; at last taken by Ru- 
 pillius. Crucifixion and ex¬ 
 termination of the inhabitants, 
 228-30. 
 
 upon primogeniture, 558. 
 
 Enumeration, see census; of the 
 unions allowed to combine, 127 
 note 87; of the unions of Numa, 
 336, note 10; of trade unions 
 of Constantine, 369. 
 
 Environments, Plato entangled 
 in his, 444. 
 
 Epaphrodite, 462. 
 
 Ephesus and inhabitants in the 
 labor war, 235; theatre at, 401; 
 it, and Hieropolis were strong¬ 
 holds of the brotherhoods, 512. 
 
 Ephori, the despots of Sparta, 
 103; their trained assassins, 
 104; under-dealing tyrants of 
 the state, 531-2. 
 
 Epidamnus, no workmen except 
 slaves, 99, note 29, 498, note 
 3. 
 
 Epidemics, among the ancient 
 slaves, 79, of strikes, 146. 
 
 Epigraph, one near Nazareth de¬ 
 ciphered, 503. 
 
 Epimelites, a manager or trustee 
 in a Greek brotherhood, 453. 
 
 Epirus, destruction of life and 
 property in, 179; Paulus M- 
 milius by order of Rome, en¬ 
 slaved 150,000 of the inhab¬ 
 itants, 186. 
 
 Epistle, of Saint Peter dated at 
 Cappadocia 512. 
 
 Epitaph, of wine-smokers, 383, 
 note 24; of the president of a 
 bagpipers’ union, 408-9; of 
 the man who died while yet a 
 youth, 383, note 26; of gladi¬ 
 ators killed in combat showing 
 their ages, 279, note 5. 
 
 Epitomies, of Livy, 269. 
 
 Epoch-making period, 552. 
 
 Equality, social, a law of Moses, 
 40; Christian temple of, 66; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 649 
 
 how indoctrinated,68; perfect 
 at the temple of the Twins, 
 248, note 3; of birth, 443; of 
 the rights of man, 652, with 
 note 69. 
 
 Equites, or knights on horseback, 
 477. 
 
 Era-making period, 523. 
 
 Eranos, of Greece, 77; together 
 with its thiasos existed in great 
 numbers in Asia Minor, 236; 
 a term unmistakable in mean¬ 
 ing, 448; took the name and 
 inspiration of particular divin¬ 
 ities, 462; festivals of thiasos 
 and, 464; analysis of both of 
 them, 502, 3, 4 and notes; of 
 it, and essene, the same word, 
 504, note 23; eranos and thi¬ 
 asos one and the same associ¬ 
 ation, 511, note 41. 
 
 Erebus, descends to Hades, 89; 
 and the dark river, 90. 
 
 Erechtheis, priestess-assistant to 
 Orpheus in the initiations, 92. 
 
 Erecthian spring, 130, note 96. 
 
 Ergastula, the Greek ergasteria, 
 prisons, mostly underground, 
 139, note 28; how used in Sic¬ 
 ily, 209; further account, 219 
 the Greek and Latin distinc¬ 
 tions in Sicily, 251; how ap¬ 
 plied in Italy to gladiators, see 
 prisons, also cf. chapter xii., 
 on Spartacus; copied from Di¬ 
 onysius into every city, 549; a 
 serious thing, 274, note 70. 
 
 Ergastularius, convict condemned 
 to fight in the amphitheatres, 
 406; a kind of gladiator, 412; 
 something like the ergastulus, 
 ergastuli, gladiators changed to 
 freemen, 297. 
 
 Erisane, siege of the town of, 187. 
 
 Eros, Socrates on the god of love, 
 253 and note 76. 
 
 Escape, of Spartacus, 290, note 
 37; of the people from Mor- 
 
 gantion, 256, of Athenion,259. 
 
 Esculapia, 462. 
 
 Escutcheons, monograms etc., 
 459; in red, 483, note 40; on 
 some of them are found gules 
 in Great Britain, 486. 
 
 Essence, the sacred, of the brim¬ 
 stone lake, 248, note 3. 
 
 Essenes, and the Orgeons, 493; 
 conjectures regarding the, 501; 
 proved to be identical with the 
 thiasotes, 504, note 23, their 
 prophecies, 558. 
 
 Estate, the paternal, it was made 
 criminal for the slave to leave 
 it, 69. 
 
 Ethics, based upon conscience, 
 61; a history of, 97. 
 
 Ethnologist, and paleontologist, 
 future duties of, 459; student 
 of ethnology, 500. 
 
 Etruria, strike of the laborers in, 
 155; in the hands of the mas¬ 
 ters, 156; Roman standing ar¬ 
 mies in, 211. 
 
 Etruscan, soothsayer, Olenus Ca- 
 lenus, 154, note 27; people the 
 first who introduced gladiato¬ 
 rial fights, 278 n. 3; a hard¬ 
 working and faithful race, 431; 
 trinket manufacture, 435. 
 
 Etruscum Fretum, 268. 
 
 Etymology, of red flag, 485. 
 
 Etymon, of essenes, is eranos, 
 504, note 23. 
 
 Eumenes, and Nusa, 234, note 3. 
 
 Eunuch, revenge of, 168-9, and 
 note 7. 
 
 Eunus, ten years war of. viii; 
 punishment for the rebellions, 
 xii.; deeds of, 62; enormous 
 servile war, 89, note 13; an ac¬ 
 count given, 140-166; Syrian 
 slave-king, 195; how elected, 
 208; the cause of the insurrec¬ 
 tion related, 198; was both a 
 magician and messiah, also a 
 prophet, 199; meeting of him- 
 
650 
 
 INDEX ,; 
 
 self and his followers, 202; a 
 popular choice for leader, 207; 
 turns 60,000 prisoners loose, 
 209; great victories enlarge his 
 territory, 214; joins with the 
 the revolter Cleon, 216; their 
 union creates an immense army 
 of slaves, 217; his supernatural 
 powers, 219; various successes 
 and eventual reverses, 220-31; 
 
 • hope lost, 229; perishes in the 
 filth of a Roman prison, of the 
 lousy sickness, 230 and note 
 105: interesting history, 405; 
 his plan that of extermination, 
 548-9; plan of, followed by 
 Aristonicus, 550; Ceres as his 
 goddess, see entire chapter ix. 
 and 562. 
 
 Euripides, language of, in prayer, 
 563. 
 
 Europe, working classes of 57. 
 
 Euristheneid line of the Spartan 
 kings, 101; Lycurgus of that 
 stock, 531. 
 
 Eusebius, on dates, 247, note 1. 
 
 Eve, the temptation of 89. 
 
 Evolution, phenomena of, 69; 
 law of, 73. 
 
 Examination, of infants, 533. 
 
 Excerpts, Peiresc quoted, 247, 
 note 1. 
 
 Executioner, same as the Roman 
 lictor, 475, and note 22. 
 
 Exercise, the gymnastic, 534-5. 
 
 Exiguous star, 490. 
 
 Exile, Paperna dies in, 243, and 
 note 41; of Juvenal, 563. 
 
 Experiment, trial by, 525. 
 
 Extermination, plan of Eunus, 
 219; of 20,000 workingmen, 
 271; it was the plan of slaves, 
 549,; extinction and, the cen¬ 
 tral idea of the great slave- 
 king, 548. 
 
 Eye for eye and tooth for tooth, 
 514; what Plato wanted, 518; 
 sermon on the mount, 549. 
 
 F 
 
 Fabius, Q. deprived of command, 
 226. 
 
 Fabretti, 364. 
 
 Fagots, used in escaping block¬ 
 ade of Orassus, 318. 
 
 Failure, of ancient governments, 
 496; of the Spartans, 531; of 
 tbe great plans, 573. 
 
 Faith, importance of a, 499 and 
 note 12. 
 
 False translation, of Yellejus Pa¬ 
 terculus, 325, note 124. 
 
 Falsehoods regarding bacchantes 
 and bacchanals, 493. 
 
 Family, great numbers of them, 
 49; size of a patrician’s 69 ; 
 a term substituted for “union” 
 from the time of Augusta, 429, 
 note 3; the word property 
 conveys the true meaning of, 
 281, note 11; under the com¬ 
 petitive system its members 
 will sometimes destroy each 
 other, 494; the Pagan, 497. 
 
 Fanatic, Eunus, 217, note 67. 
 
 Fanaticizing his Syrians, 236, 
 note 8. 
 
 Farmer, sons of a rich, 49; and 
 shepherd, called by Livy the 
 bacchanalian creature, 160 note 
 38; sufferings of the, 179; or 
 shepherd, Viriathus, 180, note 
 4; of Asia Minor as a people, 
 233; chained in prisons, 251, 
 note 11; as a slave, 240; Athe- 
 nion, first mentioned, 258; or¬ 
 ganized to cultivate the ager 
 publicus, 286; lupercalian or¬ 
 gies, a vile oomparison made 
 by Cicero, 344, note 30; an in¬ 
 scription of a farmers’ organ¬ 
 ization translated, 453, 454; 
 at the Dionysian sports, 505; 
 how looked upon by Lycurgus, 
 526; he is Aristotle’s soldier, 
 541, 542 ; inventor of the an- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 651 
 
 cient reaper, 569, note 109; as- 
 a free and organized agricul¬ 
 turist in Etruria, 156. 
 
 Fasces, bundles, 471. 
 
 Father, worshiped as a god after 
 death, 49. 
 
 Fatherland, of Eunus, 220. 
 Fawning language of the unions, 
 423, note 32. 
 
 Fear, of slave insurrections, 141, 
 note 33; all-prevailing, of be¬ 
 ing murdered, 164, note 2; su¬ 
 perstitions, of the victorious 
 slaves, 224; of Romans, 355. 
 Feasters, applause of the, at the 
 gladiatorial spectacles, 277, 
 note 1. 
 
 Federations of trades, 375, 377 ; 
 in politics at Pompeii, 391; all 
 over the land at the time of 
 Christ, 392. 
 
 Fenestella, lost works of, 165. 
 Ferocious necessity, 219. 
 Festival, in honor of Ceres, 87; 
 
 days of the, 488. 
 
 Fetichs, 659. 
 
 Fighting school, 289 and notes 
 36 and 37. 
 
 Fines, 356, 357, 358. 
 
 Fire, the sacred, 51; and murder 
 300, note 60; spitting, of Eu¬ 
 nus described, 217 and note 
 67; brands of torture, 229. 
 Firemen, unions of, 447, note 5. 
 First, Sicilian servile war, 224, 
 note 94; born son, right of the, 
 497; born—his allotments by 
 paganism, 571. 
 
 Fish, the Holy, of Diodorus, the 
 Arethusa, 221, note 81; fish, 
 venison and mutton, the aris¬ 
 tocratic food, 386. 
 Fishermen’s unions, inscription 
 of, 113, note 62; their organ¬ 
 ization, 119; combined with a 
 divers’ union, 389, note 1. 
 Fittest, survival of the, 56 ; this 
 theory of the survival creates a 
 
 new philosophy iu reason, 57. 
 
 Five years’ magistrate, 389, note 
 1 ; years’interregnum at Rome 
 474, note 20 ; men, who they 
 were, 514. 
 
 Flag, of theatrical company, 403, 
 note 6 ; the ancient red, 418; 
 origin of the word, 465; it was 
 excused by a law of Theodo¬ 
 sius, 484 ; bearers, 484, notes 
 43 and 44. 
 
 Flagitium, a derivitive from flag, 
 471. 
 
 Flame, flamma, 471; of fire, 487 
 and note 51. 
 
 Flamen Pomonalis, 478. 
 
 Flaming red canvass, 485. 
 
 Flamingo, 478. 
 
 Flaminica, 478. 
 
 Flogged once a day, 103. 
 
 Florentine, on the natural rights 
 of man, 552, note 69. 
 
 Florus, quotation from as to the 
 battle of Silarus, 324; also else¬ 
 where much quoted. 
 
 Flower of the Roman army, 249 
 and note 7; use of, at funeral 
 ceremony, 378, note 14. 
 
 Flute, drum and wild tumult, 244 
 and note 23; player, Salvius 
 the slave-king, 254, note 20, 
 255; players, the famous, 458; 
 another mentioned, 463; in¬ 
 scription showing ancient play¬ 
 ing, 503, 504; player at court 
 of Eumenes, 545; players of 
 the Romans and Greeks, 409, 
 410. 
 
 Foaming, waters of the brimstone 
 lake, 248, note 3. 
 
 Focus, part of Roman and Greek 
 dwelling, 54, note 21. 
 
 Food, poor quality of, for slaves, 
 78; corn-grits union for feed¬ 
 ing freedmen and slaves, 383, 
 note 26; 385, note 30; of slave 
 386; of working people, 529, 
 530 ; and clothing, 530. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Foothold, of the brotherhoods, 
 
 512. 
 
 Forbidden, warfare, by the plan 
 of Numa, 335; later, by the 
 plan of Jesus, 553. 
 
 Forefathers, our genuine, 101, 
 525. 
 
 Foremen, of the masons, at Je¬ 
 rusalem, 373, note 2; of the 
 ancient government cloth fac¬ 
 tories, called gynseciarii, 419. 
 
 Forests Pomona in the, 477. 
 
 Forfeiture, case of a union, 378, 
 note 14. 
 
 Forger of the armor for slaves in 
 rebellion, 297, note 53; union 
 of, 442, note 10; of swords and 
 javelins, 375, note 8. 
 
 Forgiveness, 525. 
 
 Forked gibbet, 141, note 31. 
 
 Form of government advocated 
 by the Messiah, 496, 
 
 Fortifications, of Triocala, 264; 
 of Rhegium, 318. 
 
 Fortitude, story by Valerius Max¬ 
 imus, of Orassus, 242, note 20, 
 of Christ in the hour of trial, 
 562. 
 
 Fortune, teller, Olenus Oalenus, 
 154, note 27; tellers in Rome, 
 208; teller, Atlienion as a, 259/ 
 teller, Aurinia as a, 290, note 
 37; telling and witchcraft, 414; 
 Nemesis, the goddess of, 413. 
 
 Forum Boarium, where was en¬ 
 acted thefirst gladiatorial trag¬ 
 edy, 277 and note 1. 
 
 Foucart, denies the statements 
 of Wescher, 506; erroneously 
 imagines the communes tohave 
 had no other object than reli¬ 
 gion, 507; expert epigraphist, 
 
 , 508 . 
 
 Foundation, of paganism was the 
 competitive systems 497. 
 
 Fragments, of 1st books in illegi¬ 
 ble form, 271, note 64 ; of Sal¬ 
 lust quoted, 306, 308, note 84. 
 
 France, organized labor in, 128. 
 
 Frankincense, offerings of, 357. 
 
 Fratrv, consolidated into a state, 
 100. See phratry. 
 
 Fratricide, the mutual, 273. 
 
 Free masons, antiquity of the or¬ 
 der, 124/ John the Baptist one 
 of them, 557. 
 
 Freebooter, Gaddaeusof the Ne- 
 brode, 252; negotiated with, 
 by Spartacus to land his army 
 in Sicily, 317. 
 
 Freedmen, 39, 47, 70; of Aris¬ 
 totle’s time, 71; cremated, 75; 
 not mentioned in the Iliad, 80; 
 a class at Athens, 113; arose 
 out of slavery, 173; numbers 
 of, in Athens, 193 organiza¬ 
 tions of, in Greece, Syria etc., 
 197; compelled to beg in Sic¬ 
 ily, 213 ; raved in great and 
 murderous revolt, 261, note 37; 
 of Asia Minor, 233; Thracian, 
 in Pergamenian labor war 235. 
 as tramps in rebellion, 261; in 
 Rome, as members of the un¬ 
 ions generally, 333 ; their en¬ 
 franchisement a blow to pa¬ 
 ganism, 522; working without 
 clothing, 530; ring cleaners, 396 
 
 Freedom, desire of Spartacus, 551 
 
 Freres cordonniers, 421. 
 
 Friendly societies of antiquity, 
 447. 
 
 Fringe-makers, (the limbolarii), 
 422; in gold, 486. 
 
 Fruit purveyors, 392. 
 
 Fruiterers’ union, 383, note 26, 
 also 393. 
 
 Fullers, unions of, 415; worked 
 for the state, 416, note 5. 
 
 Fulvius Flaccus, second general 
 sent against Eunus, 218. 
 
 Funck Brentano, 363, note 14. 
 
 Funeral, ancient, 75; origin of 
 gladiatorial combats, and why, 
 278, note 3; 378. 
 
 Furius and Cossirus, defeat of. 
 
IND EX. 
 
 653 
 
 by the forces of Spartacus, 297. 
 Furniture, of a thiasos, 98, note 
 27 ; of the mighty immortals, 
 432. 
 
 Furrows made with thongs, 472. 
 Fustel, de Coulanges, 68, 75, 82; 
 proves the statement of Gran- 
 ier, 83; other proof by, 111, 
 on origin of the plebs, 343. 
 
 G 
 
 Gaddaeus, treachery of, 252. 
 Grades, the strait of, 183. 
 
 Gaius, who wrote the original 
 of the Justinian law, 100; was 
 of opinion that the Roman xii 
 Tables were a translation from 
 the Greek, 127, 346; Digest 
 from, 112; Orbius, the owner 
 of Xanthos, 143 and note 39; 
 Plautius, sent to Spain, 185/ 
 the jurist, discriminates on the 
 rights of organization, 445. 
 Galba, his treachery in Spain, 
 180; aceused byOato, 181 and 
 note 5; the trial and cause of 
 acquital, 181; greedy objects, 
 in Spain, 181; departure for 
 Rome, 182. 
 
 Galerius, emperor of Rome, 79. 
 Gallantry, of Athenion, 266. 
 Gambling, the ancient system de¬ 
 scribed, 456-7. 
 
 Games, the Eleusinian, 93 ; of 
 the Spartans, both sexes were 
 engaged in, 530. 
 
 Gannicusand Oastus, 319, n. 118. 
 Garganus, Mount, battle of, 306, 
 307. 
 
 Garlands and wreaths—where 
 they flourished, 503, note 19. 
 Gauls their ancient reaper, 569. 
 Gellius, beats thelieutenantCEno- 
 maus, in battle, 306. 
 
 Gens, ancient lands belonged to, 
 348; aristocracy of paganism, 
 525; families, their fierceness, 
 
 527 ; Aristotle’s eighth clas.j 
 540. 
 
 Gentiles, and proletaries, a civil 
 duel between the, 345. 
 Germany, 43, 71, 303; organiz- 
 tions of labor in, 128. 
 
 Ghosts, origin of, and beliefs in, 
 53 ; conscience the originator 
 of, 61; ghost of the dead lieu¬ 
 tenant, Crixus, 304, note 77. 
 Giant, Spartacus, the prophetic, 
 294. 
 
 Gibbet, the forked, on which to 
 crucify slaves, 141, note 33; of 
 Stratonicae, 244; and thongs 
 of Lucullus, 264; a description 
 of its invention as a means of 
 torture, 562. 
 
 Girdlers, Cicero’s term of con¬ 
 tempt for shoemakers, 380, 
 note 20. 
 
 Gladiatorial, scene with Satyros, 
 272; games, their cruelty, 276; 
 origin in the funeral, 577, note 
 3; ad gladium and ad ludum, 
 explanation made, 291; busi¬ 
 ness, its growth, 332. 
 Gladiators, bloody pairing of, 
 277, note 1; ascertained age 
 of, 279, note 5; fighting wild 
 beasts in the amphitheatres, 
 395; enumeration of the dif- 
 erent kinds, 412 ; Spartacus, 
 as a, pitted against his fellow 
 men, 518. 
 
 Gladium, ad, kind of fight, 406. 
 Gluers (glutinatores), 435, 436; 
 bookbinders, not found organ¬ 
 ized, 435. 
 
 Gluttons, that devoured the Holy 
 Fish, 221, note 81. 
 
 G oblins, that haunted the asylum 
 of the Twins, 248. 
 
 God, that slept under the hearth 
 of the heir, 69; of nature, 85; 
 of love, 457, note 18; of Abra¬ 
 ham, and universal Father, 560; 
 Gold, mines of Egypt, 138-142. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 654 
 
 melters poured gold down the 
 throat of Aquillius, 273; and 
 silver forbidden by Spartacus, 
 300 and note 59; border, 485; 
 golden chain, 110, note 50; 
 4i Age” 122; Age, of prosperity; 
 and happiness, 376; era, of a 
 high stage of plentitude, pur¬ 
 veying for the Roman state, 
 381; age, at Rome covering 
 a long vista, 438. 
 
 Gorgias, quoted, 538. 
 
 Government, social, it did not 
 exist, 38; a legendary but ex¬ 
 tremely improbable social form 
 during the reign of Saturn, 
 47 and note 1; animal form 
 of, 73; earliest known plan of, 
 82; public servants, or slaves 
 belonging to the state did the 
 work of, 113; the ancients em¬ 
 ployed and patronized unions 
 of labor, 381 and note; slaves 
 shown in note 26 by inscrip¬ 
 tions; employ, by law of the 
 Twelve Tables, 381, note 21; 
 state workshops, the fullers, 
 416, notes 5, 8; ownership of 
 mills, 417; system that of gov¬ 
 ernment, 442; ideals of, cur¬ 
 sorily sketched, 495; form of, 
 adopted by Lycurgus, 536. 
 
 Gracchus, as described by Appian, 
 222, note 84; struggles of, 222; 
 desperate resistance against, 
 333 : ; his proposal to distribute 
 the will of Attalus among the 
 needy of Rome, 233-4; furi¬ 
 ous dissontions at his time, to 
 break up the unions, 283; his 
 friend Blossius, 239, 474; his 
 noble speech, 500. 
 
 Greased pole, merriment at the 
 Dionysian sports, 505. 
 
 Great Spirit—speech of Socra¬ 
 tes, 553, note 76. 
 
 Granary, of the world, 258; torn 
 into by tramps, 261, note 37 ; 
 
 of Italy, Spartacus in the, 304. 
 
 Granier, 79, 83, 111; quotation 
 from, 115; for thirty years is 
 talked down, 506. 
 
 Granite-cutters, 368. 
 
 Greece, ancient, prevailing scene 
 in, 54; incidental mention, 69, 
 73; slaves of, multiplied within 
 their own rank, 77; manner of 
 food for the slaves of, 79; the 
 twelve tribes of the Amphict- 
 yonic council, 81; prehistoric 
 assassination of slaves, 97; a 
 majority of the people were of 
 the laboring class, 108; the 
 true golden Age of prosperit} r 
 of, lasted about four hundred 
 years, 123; disastrous strikes 
 of, varied in character from 
 these of modern days, 133; 
 oppressive conditions in, 138; 
 fear of slave rebellions, 141, 
 note 33, 164, note 2, 224. 
 
 Greeks, were of Aryan stock and 
 used the competitive idea, but 
 Hebrews and other Semitic 
 races used the co-operative, 
 48; early recognized private 
 property, and no patriarchism 
 found—de Laveleye refuted, 
 68 and note 5; and their or¬ 
 ganized trades, 98, 99, 106; 
 their clerks enjoyed protective 
 unions but they also had their 
 grievance, 111; language was 
 spoken in Sicily, Lower Italy 
 the Archipelago and Asia Mi¬ 
 nor, 198; great and mighty 
 men before the Roman con¬ 
 quest, 210 ; much in chapters 
 xxiii. and xxiv. 
 
 Grievances, of working people at 
 Athens, 131; of the strikers or 
 revolters, 134. 
 
 Grinders, with morters, 446. 
 
 Groves, meetings held at, 450; 
 see Pomona. 
 
 Grater, an archaeologist of great 
 
INDEX . 
 
 655 
 
 patience and erudition, 342. 
 
 9-uardian, of mechanics, 470; of 
 labor, 487. 
 
 Guests, invited to banquets with 
 gladiatorial spectacles, 277 and 
 note 1. 
 
 Gueules, in France, was the red 
 color, 481. 
 
 Guicus, river of Pergamus, 149; 
 
 Guilds, the mediaeval, 481. 
 
 Gules, in England and gueules in 
 France, 481, 483; on English 
 escutcheons, 486. 
 
 Gulf, of Symi—the inscriptions 
 around it, 462. 
 
 Gulping up dishonorable win¬ 
 nings, 543. 
 
 Gunpowder, not in use, 396. 
 
 Gymnastics, took the place of in¬ 
 dustrial exercise, 496, 535. 
 
 Gynaeciarii, overseers of the gov¬ 
 ernment cloth factories^ 419. 
 
 Gypsies, theory on the origin of, 
 
 426, 427. 
 
 H 
 
 Habit, tenacity and phenomena 
 of, 483 ; power of, 489. 
 
 Had all things common, 556. 
 
 Hagi Constantios, slab discovered 
 there by Vlastos, 91. 
 
 Hair cropped and body dirty, 534. 
 
 Hamilton, archaeologist, 462. 
 
 Hammerers, their organizations, 
 399. 
 
 Hand-looms, 417. 
 
 Handicraftsmen, Greek unions 
 of, 127, note 88. 
 
 Hangman, same thing as lictor, 
 475, note 22. 
 
 Hannibal & Napoleon compared 
 with Spartacus, viii.; &Scipio, 
 152, 178. 
 
 Harmodius and Iphicrates, 546. 
 
 Harvester, of the ancient Gauls, 
 569, note 109. 
 
 Hatters and glaziers of Montai- 
 
 gut and St Flour, 490. 
 
 Head-quarters of ancient slave 
 traffic, 286, note 27. 
 
 Headlong, down the rocks, 252. 
 
 Healers, 558. 
 
 Heaven on earth, 493; born, 530. 
 
 Hebrew, different from other na¬ 
 tionalities, 39; slavery partly 
 abolished, 39 ; originator of so¬ 
 cialism, 39; fights only when 
 attacked, 40; the only ancient 
 with but one deity, 45; fixed 
 customs of, 46; his excellent 
 qualities not appreciated, 73; 
 secret association always char¬ 
 acterized the race, 508; willing 
 to accept any truth of sociol- 
 ogy, even a recognition of his 
 celebrated kinsman, 566-7; 
 
 Heer, Prof; Oswald, 72. 
 
 Heights, of Enna stormedby Piso, 
 224; of Engyon, 251; of the 
 Mount Taygetus,533. 
 
 Heinesius, quoted 325, note 124. 
 
 Heliopolis, why so called, 236, 
 note 9. 
 
 Heliopolitai, the workmen-Sun- 
 worshipers, 236; farmer war¬ 
 riors of Aristonicus, 550. 
 
 Heliotry, the ancient. 45, note 11. 
 
 Hell, paved with infants’ bones, 
 533. 
 
 Hellenic peninsula, organizations 
 of, 511. 
 
 Helots, war with, 98; great and 
 first known massacre of, 97; as 
 to their numbers, 102; how 
 murdered by nobles’ sons, 105; 
 their systematic assassination, 
 107, note 46; laboring stock of 
 Lacedaemon, 106, 528; a pen 
 picture of their hideous misery, 
 107-8 and notes; their descent, 
 587. 
 
 Heracleia ,Minoa, slave rebellion 
 at, 254; and Trcezen, —soters 
 or saviors from, 509; museum 
 named from, 423. 
 
m 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Heraclitus, who subdued G-reek 
 slave strike, 144, note 41. 
 
 Heraldic symbols, 483. 
 
 Herbita, numbers of property 
 owners in, 194. 
 
 Herculaneum, museum, 423. 
 
 Hermes, the Pelasgic, 87. 
 
 Hermias, a slave of Enna—kills 
 Damophilus, 204; escorts the 
 kind-hearted daughter to place 
 of safety, 201, note 32, 206. 
 
 Heres in Argos, 544. 
 
 Hermotius the eunuch, the re¬ 
 venge of, 168-9, note 7. 
 
 Herodias the beautiful but silly, 
 557; and Antipas, id., note 87. 
 
 Heroic professions, not belonging 
 to workers, 381. 
 
 Herodotus, 79, 101; his rank as 
 a historian, 168. 
 
 Heroism, mutual suicide of Sat- 
 yros and companions, 273; of 
 Spartacus and his men at their 
 trying hour, 326. 
 
 Heroistes, 462, 509. 
 
 Heron, the ancient sacred red- 
 bird, 478, notes and 479. 
 
 Heroon (temple), to Drimakos, 
 built by the Chians, 176-7. 
 
 Hesiod, Greek poet, 79; quoted, 
 82 •, was the first known labor 
 agitator and writer, 161. 
 
 Hetairae or hetaerae, same as the 
 sodales, 127, note 87. 
 
 Hideous forest, of the brimstone 
 lake, 247. 
 
 Hierarchy, of masons, 373, and 
 note 2.. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, 67, 73. 
 
 Hierokeryx, a priest, 453. 
 
 Hieropoios, manager of religious 
 rites, 453. 
 
 Highlanders’ bagpipe, 408. 
 
 Hill of Venus, the battle of, 183. 
 
 Himation and chiton, 473, 476; 
 with ehlamys, toga, 481 
 
 llippareh, Pisistratides the, 546. 
 
 Hippodrome, chariot - running, 
 
 foot-racing etc. 408. 
 
 Hiram, architect of Solomon’s 
 temple, 123-5; chief of trade 
 union, 124; another, king of 
 Tyre, 125, note 81; the archi¬ 
 tect, skilled in building crafts, 
 373. 
 
 Historian, seldom mentions the 
 efforts at reform, 69, 71; his 
 praise of royal lineage, 531. 
 
 History, students of, divided into 
 three classes, 37; of labor be¬ 
 gins with manumissions, 67; 
 the great ones copied, times 
 without number, 436; from a 
 sociologic standpoint, 541, 
 
 Histrionic entertainments, 220; 
 tablet found at Prseneste, 403; 
 unions, 402, 403, notes 1, 6. 
 
 Hive, of trade unions—all antiq¬ 
 uity, 444; of labor, 490; of 
 free labor organizations, Naz¬ 
 areth, 513. 
 
 Holdings, of the Spartan lands, 
 a summary, 531. 
 
 Holy Wars, the, 81; Fish, Are- 
 thusa, 221, note 81. 
 
 Homotaphoi, common table com¬ 
 munes, 510. 
 
 Homer, quotation from, 110; the 
 slave system of his time, 529. 
 
 Hondurus aborigines of, 93 n. 18. 
 
 Honey-bees, Cicero on Plato, 
 118, note 72. 
 
 Honorable, discharge of soldiers, 
 107, note 46; to acknowledge 
 an error, 564-5 and note 106. 
 
 Hoplomachi, 412. 
 
 Horse, of Spartacus, 327. 
 
 Hors de combat, 268, 411. 
 
 Horticulture, Diocletian’s work 
 on, 547. 
 
 Hostages, Oarthagenian, and the 
 slaves, revolt of, 151, note 18. 
 
 Hours, of labor, 530. 
 
 Houses, of the ancient Greeks 
 and Romans, 54; house finish¬ 
 ers’ union, 370, note 34; house 
 
INDEX. 
 
 657 
 
 of Oicero burned 499, note 12; 
 of Socrates, 561; -hold and 
 toy-gods, 429. 
 
 Hudson edition, of Yellejus, on 
 Spartacus, quoted, 325, note 
 124. 
 
 Hues, 486. 
 
 Human equality, doctrine of 57; 
 beings, as tools, 567. 
 
 Hunger, and cannibalism at Tau- 
 roman ion, 226. 
 
 Hunter, Viriathus styled a, 180, 
 note 4 ; of ostriches, sparrows 
 etc., 393, 294; of Pompeii, 411, 
 of wild animals, 411. 
 
 Hurled down the precipice, 227. 
 
 Huts, hovels and tents of the 
 Britons, 488 
 
 Hybla and Macella, 269, and the 
 notes 57, 58. 
 
 Hydra, 519. 
 
 Hymeneal reciprocity, 536. 
 
 Hyponicus, slave owner, 137. 
 
 Hypothesis of Weseher, 506. 
 
 Hypsseus, defeated by Achaeus 
 and Cleon, 217; was a Roman 
 general, destroyed by Eunus 
 in the slave war, 218. 
 
 I 
 
 Iambe, slave of Ceres, 130 n. 93. 
 
 Iconoclasm, traced back to or¬ 
 ganized resistance, x. 
 
 Ideal, 518; state of Plato, 530; 
 of Jesus, 553; Plato the father 
 of the ideal state, 554. 
 
 Idol worship, introduction into 
 Christianity, viii.; origin of, x ; 
 the idols, 44, and 428-36. 
 
 Ignominious cross, 265; punish¬ 
 ment-in what countries, 498-9. 
 
 Incas, massacres of the, 102. 
 
 Iliad, antiquity of the, 80. 
 
 Ilias. or period of calamity, 261, 
 note 37. 
 
 Illegitimacy, what constituted, 
 344. note 28. 
 
 Image worship, viii.; making by 
 trade unions, 123; makers, un¬ 
 ions of, in Athens, 127; mak¬ 
 ing elsewhere, 362 and n. 11; 
 makers, their business and or¬ 
 ganization, 429; 2,000 images 
 and statues taken at siege of 
 Volsini, 431; makers, chapter 
 xix., pp. 428-36; sculptured, 
 of a female, 436; palladiums, 
 amulets, talismans incantations 
 etc., 556. 
 
 Imaginifex, 429. 
 
 Immaculate conception, 147,559. 
 
 Immolation, of gladiators, 278, 
 note 3. 
 
 Immortality, theory concerning, 
 59, 60, 90; opinions of Aristo¬ 
 tle, Lucretius, Darwin on, 62; 
 of the soul denied by a philos¬ 
 ophy, 62; crowning problem, 
 66; originated by egoism, 85; 
 further opinions, 90, 91; the 
 working classes too mean to 
 possess a soul, 95. 
 
 Immortals, the most powerful of 
 whom were Jupiter, Ceres, 
 Vulcan etc., 429. 
 
 Imperishable laws, 526. 
 
 Imprints, as best arguments, 450. 
 
 Incantations, 556. 
 
 Incendiorum collegium or fire¬ 
 men’s union, 447, note 5. 
 
 Incentive to steal does not exist 
 in communism, 534. 
 
 Incestuous liason of Antipas and 
 Herodias, 557, note 87. 
 
 Indo-Europeans, original home 
 of, 48, 55; their laboring class 
 organized. 68, 73, 82; strange 
 beliefs of, 75; communism of 
 property among, 80; a demo¬ 
 cratic people, 122; an atrophy 
 that benumbed the race, 494. 
 
 Indulgence, masters ’ accorded 
 right of, with female slaves, 
 147, note 8; in voluptuousness 
 and interchange of loves, 497. 
 
•68 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Initiation, into the Mysteries, 92, 
 of Alexander, 545. 
 
 Innocence of Spartacus, 290 and 
 note 37. 
 
 Innovation, of Lycurgus etc., 69; 
 introduction of, would make 
 Clermont uninhabitable, 485-6. 
 
 Innumerable new unions created, 
 301, note 66. 
 
 Inscriptions, the genuine , men¬ 
 tioned in book, xi.; evidence 
 of the, 73; of the Eleusinians, 
 87; an interesting one, 98; ev¬ 
 idence of, 112, 205; specimen 
 by Aquillius, 271; the same, 
 with inscription verbatim, 291, 
 note 39; true history revealed 
 by, 342; one found at Lanu- 
 vium, showing rules, 353-58; 
 at Pompeii, 390-2; law com¬ 
 pelling their registration, 426; 
 they prove the red color not 
 to have been warlike, 490; one 
 found twenty miles from Naz¬ 
 areth, 503. 
 
 Inspection of candidates, 510. 
 
 Insubordination of the soldiers 
 of Spartacus, 306, note 80, 315; 
 malignant spirit of, 321. 
 
 Insurrection, 86; of slaves which 
 frightened the masters, 94; a 
 great cause of fear, 141, note 
 33; of Oarthagenian hostages 
 and the slaves, 151, note 18; 
 at Praeneste, 153; in the inte¬ 
 rior of Asia Minor, 235; great¬ 
 est known in history, 413; of 
 Sicilian slaves, 404, see chap¬ 
 ters ix. and xi.; of slaves, that 
 was feared by Attalus, 546. 
 
 Intrenchment, of Crassus, 315, 
 note 109. 
 
 Intrigues that filched the beau¬ 
 tiful color, 480. 
 
 Inventions, 372 ; the serarii un¬ 
 derstood alloys. 372; the car¬ 
 penters made the battering- 
 ram, 379, 488, note 53; Mi¬ 
 
 nerva, the protecting divinity 
 of, 470; discovery of the now 
 in nature, 526 ; implements of 
 torture, 562; other doings, 569; 
 of the ancient farmers, their 
 reaper, 569 and note 109; let 
 them be nationalized, 573. 
 
 Inventory, of Demosthenes, 548. 
 
 Invincible, force of Eunus, 219. 
 
 Iphicrates, a low-born, 546. 
 
 Irascible world, 494; a war spirit, 
 521; destructive and bloody, 
 556. 
 
 Irascibility, 74; and vengeance, 
 269; coupled with concupis¬ 
 cence and sympathy, 515. 
 
 Iron workers, 373; miners fed¬ 
 erated with the forgers, at far 
 distant Rome, 442; the fam¬ 
 ous money made of, 532. 
 
 Ishmaelites, belonging to the 
 Semitic family, 48. 
 
 Isis, of the therapeut, 562. 
 
 Ismenias, and Antisthenes the 
 cynic, 544. 
 
 Isomachus, on prayer, 563. 
 
 Italian, schools of painting, 101; 
 insurrection, 294, note 47. 
 
 Italy, ancient, prevailing scenes 
 in, 54; slaves of, 77; Greek 
 was spoken in lower part, 197. 
 
 Ivory, and gold in the crysele- 
 phantine colossus, 431; the 
 ivory-workers, 431, 432. 
 
 J 
 
 Jack-at-all-trades, the ragpicker 
 of Italy, 423. 
 
 Jack Cade 559. 
 
 Janus, temple of, closed by king 
 Numa, 335; same thrown open 
 after his death, 375. 
 
 Jagatnatha. 90. 
 
 Jargon, of dogmas and inquisito¬ 
 rial intolerance, 495. 
 
 Javelin, only allowed to nobles* 
 475. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 659 
 
 Jealousies, among the revolters, 
 229; of Tryphon, 264, note 42; 
 and revenge, 268; of Orixus, 
 against Spartacus, 304; see in¬ 
 subordination. 
 
 Jerusalem, temple of, 123; trade 
 unions at, 373, note 2 ; its de¬ 
 struction, 566-7. 
 
 Jesting dandies, 403, note 6. 
 
 Jesus, his plan a basis of hope, 
 57, 122; a workingman, 152—3' 
 openly preached against slavery 
 though indirectly, 173; revo¬ 
 lution of, 237; in the act of 
 creating an association, 494; 
 nobody asks more than he did, 
 495; the labors of, 501; one 
 of five remarkable, personages, 
 514; not a Platonist, 517; his 
 rules, 544; yet on trial, 525; 
 planted the successful seed, 
 552. 
 
 Jews, easily grasp socialism, 43; 
 their purity, 44, 45; without 
 a land of their own, 46; a race 
 of the Semitic family, 48 ; the 
 mechanics, 373, Sidonian, 373 
 and note 2; pierced the ears 
 of their slaves, 385, note 30; 
 must eventually become proud 
 of Christ, 566-7. 
 
 John the Baptist, 557. 
 
 Joiners, (intestinarii), 370. 
 
 Josephus, and his account of the 
 tradesmen, 373 and note 2. 
 
 Journey through Gaul to Britain, 
 488. 
 
 Jove, see Zeus and Jupiter. 
 
 Jubilee, a coronation, 463 and 
 plate ; parades, feasts and red 
 flags at, 484. 
 
 Judea (Judaea), a farming coun¬ 
 try in ancient times, 46; ora¬ 
 tor of, sprung from the laboring 
 class, 493. 
 
 Jugglers organized, 111. 
 
 Jugs, or pots of milk, 399; made 
 by the tyrant Agathocles. 545. 
 
 Julius, Obsequens quoted, 304, 
 Epaphra, 433; see Caesar. 
 
 Junkmen, 422, 425. 
 
 Jupiter, the father of Proserpine. 
 88; exposed a conspiracy o 
 rebels, 148; A'tabyrius, whe 
 he was, 169, note 10, 462; sec 
 Zeus. 
 
 Jus coeundi, or law permitting 
 free organization, 283, 425; 
 jus gentium, 294, note 48. 
 
 Justinian, emperor, 100; see also 
 Digest. 
 
 K 
 
 Kapila, plagiarized by Aristotle, 
 117; laid the foundation, 514. 
 
 Karpetania, redeemed by Viri- 
 athus, 185. 
 
 Kent, (Oantiopolis), 487; Mid¬ 
 dlesex, and London, 559. 
 
 Key, to the success of Athenion, 
 Eunus, Tryphon and others, 
 274, note 70. 
 
 Kind, taxes collected in, 441. 
 
 King’s fool, of Eunus, 230 ana 
 403, note 6. 
 
 Kitchen, presided over by the 
 triclinarch, 399; co-operative, 
 533. 
 
 Knives and cudgels, 292, note 41. 
 
 Knights, on horseback, 477. 
 
 Koinon, and other names for the 
 communes, 501. 
 
 Kicks, as an expression of thanks, 
 530. 
 
 Kidnapers, 286, note 27; were 
 the buccaneer freebooters of 
 Canaan, 498. 
 
 Kraton, inscription by, 98, n. 27 
 priest of a labor commune, 98. 
 
 L 
 
 Labor, movement, its aims, 38; 
 no manual, among patricians of 
 
 early days, 39; j :: ty, founder* 
 
6C0 
 
 INDEX ,; 
 
 of. 43; inculcations degrading, 
 52; problem, 001111361*40 those 
 studying the, 60; swelling le¬ 
 gions of, 62; its products are 
 in the hands of monopolies, 62; 
 ancient, generally interlinked 
 with religion, 64 ; history of, 
 begins with man umissions, 67; 
 Semitic classes of, organized, 
 68; unions of, their laws re¬ 
 corded on slabs of stone, 71; 
 scarcity of records of ancient, 
 71; taint upon, 72, 101, 110; 
 unions recognized by Socrates 
 and Aristotle, 74; movement, 
 unions and agitations, 77, 79, 
 80, 96; Ceres protected its pro¬ 
 ducts, 89; socially degraded, 95 ; 
 unions of great antiquity, 111; 
 how debased, 112; laws of So¬ 
 lon, 113; the Greek brother¬ 
 hoods, 114, 130; source of a 
 thinking success, 117; leading 
 the world, 118; a reputed dis¬ 
 grace, 120; efforts to suppress 
 the organizations of, 157; so¬ 
 cieties of, in Hesiod’s time, 
 162, the first war of, 142; bu¬ 
 reau of labor of the U. S. and 
 its report, 146; brotherhoods, 
 not strictly religious societies, 
 170; had prophets and messi- 
 ahs, 173; organization in Spain 
 shown by her antiquities, 179; 
 connected with the mysteries, 
 198; as a problem in the time 
 of the Gracchi, 222 ; unions, 
 did the work of collecting the 
 taxes for the state, 437; wor¬ 
 thy of pay—the laborer worthy 
 of his hire—558. 
 
 Laborer, wages paid the ancient, 
 137; all the products were not 
 Pagan, 572; left out 340, note 
 17, 348; and he rebelled and 
 killed them, 573. 
 
 Lacedaemon, or Sparta, 79, 103; 
 slaves of, 98. 
 
 Laconians, or Perioeci, 102, 531, 
 the Spartan branch, 533. 
 
 Ladies, the youths introduced to 
 the, 534. 
 
 Laenatus, story of Cicero, 241, 
 note 18. 
 
 Laenus and Rupilius, who perse¬ 
 cuted the Gracchi, 225. 
 
 Laeocrates, his interest in a com¬ 
 mune, 507. 
 
 Lake, of brimstone, 248, note 3; 
 near Croton, whose waters are 
 sometimes pure and sometimes 
 salt, 320. 
 
 Lamb, of sacrifice for the thiasos, 
 98, note 27; 463, 503. 
 
 Lanatus, a Roman tribune, 145. 
 
 Land, equally divided by Lycur- 
 gus, 69'; tenure, ancient sys¬ 
 tems, 80; division of, by Ly- 
 curgus, 101, 532; belonged to 
 the state in Greece, 109; own¬ 
 ers, the number of, in Rome, 
 192 ; in Athens, 193; Sparta, 
 101, 532; the Land of Canaan, 
 496; speculation, after the Ro¬ 
 man conquests, 499; -lords, an 
 imperious oligarchy of, 496; 
 still holding the monopoly of, 
 497. 
 
 Language, of Hebrews, 39; the 
 product of the low-boras, 568. 
 
 Lanuvium, the inscription of, 357. 
 
 Laodicia, stronghold of the broth¬ 
 erhoods, 511-12. 
 
 Lapicklinae, 221. 
 
 Lares, or daemons, 48; supersti¬ 
 tion, 51; remains of the dead 
 still alive and active, 53, note 
 20, and 70, note 12; lar famil- 
 iaris, 61; fear and honor of 
 the, 425. 
 
 Lassalle, 43. 
 
 Last supper, 562. 
 
 Latifundia, of Clonius, 253, 
 
 Latium, in Italy, 149. 
 
 Laurium, in Attica, strike not 
 unsuccessful, xii.; strike at 
 
INDEX. 
 
 661 
 
 the silver mines, 134; contrac¬ 
 tors at, 136 ; Athenian silver 
 works, 134, 138, 493. 
 
 Laveleye, M. de, 55, 68. 
 
 Laws, of Moses, 39, 40, 43, 44; 
 the Jewish, recorded in the 
 Pentateuch, 40 ; ancient laws 
 of usurpation, 50; the laws 
 of marriage among freedmen, 
 77; of entail, 69, 102; those 
 recorded on slabs of stone, 71; 
 of heredity, 96; of the Twelve 
 Tables, 100; of Solon, 100, 
 113, 127 and note 87; of Ly- 
 curgus, 101, 104, 109, 525 and 
 full account, 530, sqq., of pri¬ 
 mogeniture, 102; of Numa 
 Pompilius, 109, 126; of Ama- 
 sis 115; the conspiracy, 120, 
 see conspiracy; of organization 
 generally, 127; Roman enforce¬ 
 ment of the slave laws, 178; 
 of Solon borrowed from Egypt 
 245, note 23; of suppression, 
 283, note 15; law of lust, 147; 
 compelling inscriptions, 425-6. 
 
 Lawgiver, 497, 529. 
 
 Learning and Art, two young 
 females of Lucian’s dream, 543. 
 
 Lebanon, mountains of, 236. 
 
 Legality, of will of Attalus, 234. 
 
 Legend, weird, of the brimstone 
 lake, 248, note 4. 
 
 Legerdemain, of Eunus, 217 and 
 note 67. 
 
 Leges populi, 340. 
 
 Legion, number of soldiers in a, 
 312; of Honor, 484. 
 
 Leisure, the necessity of, accord¬ 
 ing to Aristotle, 542. 
 
 Leleges, Chios a primeval home 
 of the 163. 
 
 Lentulus, 0. Cornelius, praetor in 
 Setia, 151; Piso, Rupillins,218; 
 third man sent against Eunus, 
 218; Batiatus, teacher of the 
 games, 285; proprietor of, in¬ 
 comes to, 289 and note 36; 
 
 the consul, dogging Spartacus, 
 307; disaster of, 311; mystery 
 as to fate of, 311; and Pop- 
 licola, 407. 
 
 Leo X., Pope, 125. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 544. 
 
 Leontini, number of land owners 
 at, 194. 
 
 Le Play, 70. 
 
 Leslie, Dr. Cliffe, his opinion,111. 
 
 Lexicographers, obliged to con¬ 
 sult the inscriptions, 379. 
 
 Lexington, flag of, 492 
 
 Liason, of Antipas and Herodias 
 in Judea, 557, note 87. 
 
 Lice, Eunus devoured by, 230, 
 note 105. 
 
 Licinian law, 156, 222, note 84; 
 Stolo, 474. 
 
 Lictor, of Tryphon, 264, note 43; 
 same as executioner, 475, note 
 22; fierce military pageant of, 
 475; his functions, 475. 
 
 Lightf oot, quoting Digest on the , 
 power of life and death, 294, 
 note 48; on the Essenes, 504, 
 note 23. 
 
 Lilybseum, where situated, 258; 
 attacked by Athenion, 260 and 
 note 35. 
 
 Line of circumvallation, against 
 Spartacus, 318. 
 
 Linen weavers’ union, 416. 
 
 Lions, tigers, leopards, wolves, 
 bears in the ring, 188-90 and 
 plate, 395 ; and other wild an¬ 
 imals, 411; crouching in front 
 of Cybele, 463. 
 
 List, of trade unions 369. 
 
 Liticen, or clarion, 408. 
 
 Livy, account of Spartacus by, 
 but lost, 211; other mention, 
 79, 146, 148, 152; he spurned 
 the bacchanals, 159. 
 
 L. Domitius, horrible cruelty of, 
 13G; Furius, a Roman consul, 
 157; Postumius, a praetor in 
 charge of Apulia, 159. 
 
662 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lokrians, did not tolerate slav¬ 
 ery, 1G9; were the commun¬ 
 ists of Italy, 194. 
 
 London, the bed-rock of modern 
 socialism, 488; leader of the la¬ 
 bor movement, 559. 
 
 Long-lived unions, 461. 
 
 Lord’s prayer, 562. 
 
 Lords, forced to fight as gladia¬ 
 tors, 308, note 85. 
 
 Lordship, and slavery, first estab¬ 
 lished condition of society, 54. 
 
 Loss, of the books, 262,268, 269; 
 of Livy, 298; of Sallust, 299; 
 how the art of dyeing was lost, 
 479-80, 
 
 Lots, the Spartan division of, 
 101, 102, 530. 
 
 Lottery, booths, taverns etc., of 
 Theophrastus, 543. 
 
 Lousy sickness, 230, note 105. 
 
 Love, incomparable, inscription, 
 342, note 21; Eros the god of, 
 whom Socrates worshiped, 553 
 note 76. 
 
 Low-born, inferior to a dog, 244, 
 note 22, see slave, slavery. 
 
 Lowly, ancient, 60; nature of 
 discussion among the, 129; 
 socialistic atmosphere of, 513. 
 
 Lucanians, under Cleptius, 264. 
 
 Lucanus, 79. 
 
 Lucian, dream of, 543. 
 
 Lucretius, compared with Vogt, 
 Spencer and Darwin, 59; his 
 celebrated apothegm, 60; his 
 belief regarding the soul, 62 ; 
 the doctrine of, 129 ; a Roman 
 tribune, 145 ; an etymological 
 reference, 471. 
 
 Lucullus, object of, in Spain, 181; 
 leaves Spain, 182; L. Lioinius, 
 sent to Sicily, 264; routed by 
 Athenion, 267; a third, of the 
 same name, in war with the 
 gladiator, 319, uote 117 ; ap¬ 
 proaches Spartacus from one 
 side and Rompey from another, 
 
 321; drives Spartacus from th« 
 port of Brundusium, 323. 
 
 Lueders’ Skilled Mechanics of the 
 Bacchanals, 503. 
 
 Ludi, and the incorporated com¬ 
 munes, 404; cercenses, 410. 
 
 Lugdunum, (Lyons), shipping 
 produce from, 440. 
 
 Luna, marble, 368. 
 
 Lupanariorum collegium, 447. 
 
 Lupercalia, 344, note 30. 
 
 Lusitania, prosperity of, before 
 the Roman conquests, 179 
 see chapter viii., pp. 178-190, 
 Viriathus. 
 
 Luxuries, prohibited by Sparta¬ 
 cus, 302, not© 70. 
 
 Lybian, slave traffic, 286, note 
 27. 
 
 Lycurgus, law of, 62, 69, 94, 101. 
 103, 139 ; a model and a mon¬ 
 ster, 102; recognized aristoc¬ 
 racy, 497; a review of him 
 526, sqq.; was attacked and 
 blinded, 527 ; what he accom¬ 
 plished, 532; his doctrines de¬ 
 tailed, 559. 
 
 Lyons, unions of collectors, 439, 
 note 3 ; connected with Rome 
 by water, 440. 
 
 Lysias, his shield factory, 547. 
 
 Lytton, Sir Edward Bulwer, his 
 opinion as to gladiators, 289. 
 
 M 
 
 M. Acilius Glabro, Roman prae¬ 
 tor, 157. 
 
 Ma, a divinity, the cult of, 215, 
 note 63. 
 
 Macedonia, mines in, 137; an 
 uprising in, 142. 
 
 Macella, a great battle between 
 Athenion and Rupillius, 270 
 its castle, conjectures as to its 
 geographical situation, 270. 
 
 Machinists, union of, shown by 
 an inscription, 378, note 14; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 663 
 
 machine adjusters, 378; oth¬ 
 ers, of the plays, 403, note 6; 
 at the theatres, 570. 
 
 Mackenzie, and the Twelve Ta¬ 
 bles, 337, 339. 
 
 Macrobius, his arguments against 
 slavery, 141, note 34; quota¬ 
 tion from, 146, 164, note 2. 
 
 Madonna, or Notre dame, 486. 
 
 Magician, Eunus the, 199, and 
 note 27. 
 
 Magister sacrorum, 452. 
 
 Magnetism, of Lycurgus, 532. 
 
 Maidens, the celebrated Spartan, 
 530, 534; before the ephori, 
 
 535. 
 
 Malfeasance, 225, note 94; of 
 Nerva, in office, 250-51, note 
 13; of Lucullus, 274. 
 
 Mamelukes, massacre of the, 102. 
 
 Mamertine caves, 230. 
 
 Man, original division of, into 
 classes, 39. 
 
 Manes, jealous, omniscient and 
 on guard 53 ,of Crixus-Sparta- 
 cus’ revenge by forcing his vic¬ 
 tims to fight as gladiators, 308, 
 309, 406; as tutelary saints, 
 420. 
 
 Man-hunt, after Silarus, 286, note 
 27; for remnants of routed 
 army of the gladiators, als o for 
 the pirates, 330. 
 
 Mania, for organization, 447. 
 
 Manlius (Cneus ), defeat of, by 
 Spartacus, 314. 
 
 Mantle, the purple, of Trypbon, 
 264, note 43. 
 
 Manufactories, their wares and 
 the collectors, 439; of arms of 
 war operated by the brother¬ 
 hoods, 123; by the freedmen, 
 218; establishments in the em¬ 
 perors’ palaces, 419; of colors 
 in red, how suppressed, 480; 
 others, of the armaments of 
 warfare, 537. 
 
 Manumissions, the dawn of, 48; 
 
 era of, 51; idea of, 56, 67-9, 
 74,112, 526; history of labor 
 begins with, 67-8; movement 
 and progress of, 541. 
 
 Manure, straw for, 569, note 109. 
 
 Manuscript, the original of Vel- 
 lejus Paterculus, 325, note 124. 
 
 Maringues, 486. 
 
 Marauder, of the Nebrode, Gad- 
 dseus, 252. 
 
 Marble, cutters’ organizations, 
 127; quarries, 368; of Brioude 
 had red devices, 490. 
 
 Marius, 0. election of, consul at 
 outbreak of second Sicilian la¬ 
 bor war, 248; and Julius, un¬ 
 ions suppressed, 301, note 65. 
 
 Markets, of the slave traffic, 286 
 and note 27. 
 
 Marriage, under the Lycurgan 
 law, 527; form of, in Sparta, 
 535. 
 
 Mars-like warrior Spartacus, 297, 
 note 55. 
 
 Martyrdom, at Tauromanion, 
 227; and incalculable results, 
 514, 525. 
 
 Marx, 43. 
 
 Masons, of the organized build¬ 
 ing trades at Rome, 367; stone 
 masons of Rome, 368, 369; at 
 Jerusalem, 373, note 2. 
 
 Massachusetts, its early flag was 
 red, 492. 
 
 Massacre, of Stone Henge, and 
 others, 102; of the Helots, 115; 
 at Ancyle, 251; and crucifix¬ 
 ion of the slaves, 299; of the 
 Hebrews at Jerusalem, 567. 
 
 Materfamilias, conduct of the, 
 52, her virtue beyond suspi¬ 
 cion, 74; kept herself secluded 
 at home, 78 note 30; worked 
 at the spinning wheel, 108. 
 
 Mauritania, sends a force to fight 
 A then ion, 260, note 35. 
 
 Maury, critic on Eleusinian mys¬ 
 teries, 92. 
 
664 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mausoleums and sarcophagi, 429. 
 
 Maw, the rock-lined, of Tayge- 
 tus, 533. 
 
 Maxim, theorem, axiom, 509-10; 
 saying, eye for eye etc., 493. 
 
 Maximian, kills Crispin aad Cris- 
 pinian, 421; persecutions, 485. 
 
 Meals, in common at Tarentum, 
 287, note 28; see table. 
 
 Measures, of Lycurgus, 532. 
 
 Mechanics, 39; progress in, was 
 unendurable to the pagan sys¬ 
 tem, 568; skilled, of the bac¬ 
 chanals, see Lueders’ Minerva. 
 
 Megallis, wife of Damophilus and 
 the cruel slaveholder, 201; her 
 fearful death, 204-5; plunged 
 headlong over a precipice, 405 
 and 406. 
 
 Megapolis, theatre of, 401. 
 
 Megaron, temple of, 91; 95; 130. 
 
 Mellow garden for the first sow¬ 
 ings, 573. 
 
 Membership, granted the slaves, 
 98 ; note 27, 169, 355. 
 
 Memento, talisman, incantation, 
 charms, palladiums, 463; 556 ; 
 
 Memphis, Egypt, 112, note 56. 
 
 Men-Tyrannus, a god, 143; note 
 39; men great and good, 525 ; 
 and women the tools of labor, 
 568. 
 
 Menecrates, 463. 
 
 Menestheus, the demagogue of 
 Athens, 99, note 28. 
 
 Menial work, 498. 
 
 Menis, son of Menistheus of Her¬ 
 aclitus, 454. 
 
 Mercenaries, slaves used as, 77; 
 a trade union of, 119; Thracian 
 freedmen as, 235; and huck¬ 
 sters, of Theophrastus, 542, 
 
 Merchants, unions of, 98; 393; 
 flags, 487. 
 
 Mercury, his visit to Erebus, 89. 
 
 Merula, praetor and tribune, 151; 
 suppressed the slave revolt id. 
 and note 18; defeats a second 
 
 and similar insurrection, 153. 
 
 Messana, spared by slaves, 221. 
 
 Messenian war with Sparta, 98; 
 103. 
 
 Messiah, slaves believed in a, 173; 
 Eunus a, 199 ; also Athenion, 
 259 ; and Salvius or Tryphon, 
 263; soters, worshipers of the, 
 462; the greater one, how He 
 found things, 493; mellowed 
 and in readiness for the, 513; 
 Eunus the, acquainted with 
 secret organization, 512. 
 
 Messiahships, 558. 
 
 Metagenes, Greek sculptor, 131. 
 
 Metal, vessel-makers, 445 ; pro¬ 
 scribed by Lycurgus, 69, n. 8. 
 
 Metanira, mother of Demophon, 
 89. 
 
 Metaurus, battle of, 193. 
 
 Metroon, temple of Cybele, also 
 goddess of the Piraeus, 509. 
 
 Mevaniola, where a ragpickers' 
 union was found, 422. 
 
 Mexico, ancient people of, 93. 
 
 Microcosms, of a far-future state, 
 459; inapplicable except for 
 the, 493. 
 
 Middle, men, the first of Rome, 
 340; ages, 461. 
 
 Milk, and milk-tasters, 399; the 
 ancient milkmen, 399. 
 
 Millers, wages paid the, 137; they 
 were called pistores, 349; and 
 bakers’ union (sacred), 445; 
 other brotherhoods of, 446. 
 
 Mills, did the Roman state own 
 woolen mills? 417. 
 
 Milo, the pugilist, 323; note 120. 
 
 Mimics, communes of Roman, 
 112, note 58; the unions of, 
 see chapter 18; pp. 401; sqq., 
 220; inscription of, 403; n. 6, 
 
 Miners, insurrection of, 100; of 
 copper, 375; their unions, 442, 
 note 10. 
 
 Minerva, goddess of the thiasote, 
 114; temple of, 137 ; statue 
 
INDEX. 
 
 665 
 
 431; the Lindienne, 450, 482; 
 the Athena, goddess of man¬ 
 ual labor, 468; with Apollo, 
 etc., 488; feast-days and colors 
 of, and when, 490. 
 
 Mines, belonged to the state, 136; 
 sufferings of the workers in, 
 138; rebellious slaves sent to 
 the, 158; of iron, 373, note 3. 
 Mirmillion, a kind of gladiator, 
 311, note 96, 412. 
 
 Missing link, connecting the cat¬ 
 tle-breeders with the unions, 
 388. 
 
 Mithridates, tyrant of Cappado¬ 
 cia, 169; his punishment of 
 Aquillius, 273 ; his defeat by 
 Lucullus. 323, note 121. 
 
 Mixing, Numa taught them to 
 mix, 371. 
 
 Mnason, a great slave owner, 135. 
 Mnistheus, 454. 
 
 Mob, of Roman lords, 234; of no¬ 
 bles who assassinated Grac¬ 
 chus, 241; of gladiators, 323 ; 
 of young men set upon Lycur- 
 gus, 527; cruel, that murdered 
 Jesus, 562. 
 
 Mock, theatricals, 220; manoeu¬ 
 vres and sham battles, 410 ; 
 combats in the arena, 411. 
 Mohammedan rescue, 555. 
 
 Mola de Gaeta, 316, note 111. 
 Moloch, 44. 
 
 Mommsen, 112,127,187; on the 
 law of Solon, 113; always re¬ 
 liable, clears up the doubt, 508. 
 Mona, Isle of, and the Druids, 
 482. 
 
 Monarchism, earliest European, 
 112; that of Numa a wise, 375. 
 Money, changers, 509, 518; the 
 iron, of the Spartans, 531. 
 Monks, what upheld by, 556. 
 Monotheism, Jewish, 40, 504. 
 Monselice, union of hunters dis¬ 
 covered at, 394. 
 
 Mont Ferrand, carders, masons, 
 
 weavers of, had blood-red, 489 
 
 Moors, in Sicily against Athe- 
 nion, 262. 
 
 Morgantion, 255 sq. 
 
 Morocco, Peru, Bolivia, red, 487. 
 
 Mortars, for grinding, 446. 
 
 Mortgages, on landed estates, 
 119, note 74, 531. 
 
 Mosaic law, 43-5. 
 
 Moses, 39-45; Pentateuch con¬ 
 taining the law of, 40; other 
 59, 72; divine authorship of 
 his law, 46; provided for slav¬ 
 ery, 566. 
 
 MountGarganus,battle of, 306-8; 
 Taygetus, 533; see Olympus. 
 
 Muenter, who sketched a wine- 
 smokers’ society, 383. 
 
 Muleteers, a union of, 396. 
 
 Mummius, disastrous defeat of, 
 314; frightful punishment of 
 his men for cowardice, 315 and 
 note 108. 
 
 Munitions, the manufacture of, 
 by trade unions, 443. 
 
 Murder, of the Gracchi, 233; of 
 Clonius, 253, many shocking, 
 536. 
 
 Murileguli, who fished for shells 
 and purple fish, 418. 
 
 Murillo, 84. 
 
 Muscovite, 464. 
 
 Musical instruments, 408; see 
 chapter on organized amusers, 
 
 Museum, 400; at Pesth, 402; of 
 Athens, 453. 
 
 Mutice, number of property own¬ 
 ers at, 194. 
 
 Mutina, battle of, 313. 
 
 Mutilation, of the books, 268-9; 
 also 299, note 57 ; of slaves, 
 385, note 30; of Hermotius, 
 168-9 note 7; of the valuable 
 literature, 522. 
 
 Mutiny, of the soldiers of Spar- 
 tacus, 320. 
 
 Mutton, fish and venison, the ar¬ 
 istocratic food. 386. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 666 
 
 Mycaenee, servant in the league 
 at, 110, note 50. 
 
 Myndum, in the labor war, 235. 
 
 Myron, rival of Phidias, 431. 
 
 Mysteries, the little, 87; their re¬ 
 ligious rites, 94; Eleusinian, 
 see chaper iv. pp. 83-132, 536; 
 of skilled art, 539. 
 
 Mythology, Saturn and Janus 
 chained the god of war, 47; 
 the ancient, 88, sq. 
 
 N 
 
 Nahuas, gladiatorial sacrifices of, 
 278. 
 
 Naked, both sexes worked so to¬ 
 gether in the mines, 138-9; 
 sweat-begrimed slaves, 248; 
 maidens practiced gymnastics 
 with the young men,534, 535; 
 lowly and living in caves, 530, 
 532. 
 
 Naples, divers’ unions at, 113 n. 61. 
 
 Napoleon, compared with Spar- 
 cus, viii. 
 
 Narbonne, inscription of milk-jar 
 makers at, 399. 
 
 Narcissus, stupefying influence 
 of the, at the mysteries, 92. 
 
 Nassicus, assassin of Gracchus, 
 241, note 19. 
 
 Natal months, of Geres, Minerva, 
 Apollo, 488. 
 
 Nationalization, of implements 
 of labor, 570. 
 
 Native Races, Bancroft’s 278, n. 4. 
 
 Naturalists, and the new philos¬ 
 ophy, 62. 
 
 Nautii, family of the, 114. 
 
 Nazareth, the unions around, see 
 chapter xxiii.; 503. 
 
 Nemesis, goddess of justice, 413, 
 note 36. 
 
 Nemetum and Augu&tonemetum, 
 485. 
 
 Neo-Platonism, 466; engrafted 
 as a Christian dogma, 516, 551; 
 
 amalgamation, 522, 551. 
 
 Neptune, the reign of, 47; and 
 his trident at the Clepsydrae, 
 130, note 96. 
 
 Nero, despot, xiii. 
 
 Nerva, 247, note 1. 
 
 Nestor, 452. 
 
 Nets of the seas, 316, note 111. 
 
 New England states and their 
 colors, 492. 
 
 Nicanor, a perfumer, 434. 
 
 Nicaragua, 92, note 18. 
 
 Nice, unions of divers at, 113. 
 
 Nicias, a slave owner, 135; had 
 also convicts working for him 
 in the mines, 138, note 25; and 
 Oimon, 146. 
 
 Nicholas, of Damascus, 165,168, 
 277, note 1. 
 
 Nicomides, king of Bithynia, 249, 
 note 5. 
 
 Niebuhr, 299. 
 
 Nile, 112, red-birds of the, 479. 
 
 Nio, 456. 
 
 Nomads, 70; see gypsy; Sparta- 
 cus a, 282, note 13; not Ar¬ 
 yan, 560; the first runaways, 
 560. 
 
 Nomenclature, of the Greek com¬ 
 munes, 455, note 16. 
 
 Non-laboring class preferred the 
 white color, 466 ; non-warfare 
 of Numa’s system, 537, 
 
 Norba, Circijus, Praeneste, 151, 
 
 North Americau Indians, anal¬ 
 ogy between gens and, 86, n. 6. 
 
 Nuisance, communes declared a 
 283, note 16. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, 146 ; laws of, 
 109, 119; encouraged trades 
 unions, 123, 146, 156. 161; his 
 celebrated provision, 285; up¬ 
 held the labor societies, 303; 
 promoted trade and labor un¬ 
 ions and the brotherhoods 700 
 years before Christ, 335; the 
 first king that recognized, be¬ 
 friended <fc legalized labor, 336; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 667 
 
 538; reigned 43 years 338; 
 his greatness, 339; death of, 
 375; compared with Solon and 
 Tullius, 426 ; sanctions the bac¬ 
 chanals, 502. 
 
 Numantia in Spain, bad condition 
 of slaves, 179. 
 
 Numbers, of children of the rich, 
 49, note 5; of slaves at Greek 
 mines, 143, note 38 ; of cap¬ 
 tive slaves in the conquests, 
 193, note 1; in the armies of 
 Eunus, viii., 218, note 70; of 
 Piso’s army, 223; crucified at 
 Enna, 229; slaves in rebellion, 
 254, note 20; of the army of 
 Salvius, 255, 363; of army of 
 Lucullus, 264; combined force 
 of slaves at battle of Scirthaea, 
 of imported slaves for cheap 
 labor, 286, note 27; killed in 
 battle with Spartacus at-Vesu¬ 
 vius, 297, note 93 ; of army of 
 Spartacus after Garganus. 304, 
 note 77; Appian’s estimate in 
 Thuria, 306, note 82 ; killed, 
 according to statementof Fron- 
 tin, 319, note 118; total force 
 of Spartacus at Silarus accord¬ 
 ing to Vellejus Paterculus, 
 324-8, notes 123-4, 132; also 
 of combined Roman armies at 
 same battle, 424, note 122; of 
 slaves estimated killed in all 
 uprisings, 330, note 136, of 
 slaves owned by Claudius, 340, 
 note 17; of the Dionysian com¬ 
 munes, 404, note 9; of war¬ 
 riors of Eunus, 549; of Jews 
 murdered by the Romans, 567; 
 comparative, of mankind, 570. 
 
 Mymph, Thalia, 247; Lycia, 569. 
 
 Nymphodorus, little known of, 
 165; a Sicilian geographer and 
 historian, 163-4; his lost book, 
 165, note 10; his remarkable 
 story of Drimakos preserved 
 by Athenseus, chapter vii. 
 
 O 
 
 Oaken tables, of our forefathers, 
 the communal, 532. 
 
 Oath, exacted from freedmen & 
 slaves in camp, 471, note 12. 
 
 Obligatory rule, compelling the 
 unions to chisel out their lith¬ 
 ographs, 426. 
 
 Obloquy, falsely attaching to the 
 ancient bacchantes, 502. 
 
 O’Bryan, on slave leaders, 274, 
 note 70. 
 
 Oderic, 392. 
 
 Odium, attaching to slave rebell¬ 
 ions, 294, note 47; attaching 
 to labor, 502, 529 
 
 Odyssey, shown to be younger 
 than the Iliad, 80. 
 
 (Enomaus, 289, note 36; elected 
 a lieutenant under Spartacus, 
 294; his defeat and death, 306 
 and note 77. 
 
 Offerings of frankincense, 357. 
 
 Officers of the brotherhoods enu¬ 
 merated, 357, translation 617 
 Greek, 453. 
 
 Offspring, replenishing the Spar¬ 
 tan state with good, 536. 
 
 Oil-grinders, 364. 
 
 Olenus Oalenus, soothsayer, 154, 
 note 27. 
 
 Oligarchy, of money, 398, note 
 26; of one-third of the popula¬ 
 tion, 496; Aristotle’s 542, 543. 
 
 Ollas, jumping and tumbling on, 
 505. a 
 
 Olympiad, 247, note 1. 
 
 Olympian Zeus, statue of, 101; 
 heights, 236; abodes, 516; & 
 thrones, 548; mount, home of 
 the gods in charge of the wel¬ 
 fare of mortals, 351. 
 
 Opimius, the murderer of Grac¬ 
 chus, 241, note 19. 
 
 Oppression, ancient resistance to, 
 68; of the dominant class. 79; 
 of ancient slaves, 96. 
 
0G8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Optimate class, 409; lictors re¬ 
 quired to be of the, 476; did 
 not work, 530 of Aristotle’s 
 state, 542. 
 
 Ora Rhodana (the mouths of the 
 Rhone), and modes of an¬ 
 cient commerce, 440. 
 
 Oracles, diviners of, 413. 
 
 Oration, of Cato against Galba, 
 181, note 5. 
 
 Order of the wood-workers, 360, 
 note 3; of the masons, stone 
 and bricklayers, 365; tax-men, 
 440, 441; see trade unions. 
 
 Organization, ancient secret, 69, 
 71; of freedmen, 74; of mer¬ 
 cenaries, 78; the Eleusinian, 
 87; secret, 90, see communes; 
 antiquity of labor, 94; of fam¬ 
 ilies and fratries, 101, of the 
 Helots, 108; people driven to, 
 110; of fish-mongers at Syra¬ 
 cuse, 119; encouraged by Nu- 
 ma, 123; grievances discussed 
 by, 129; of slaves in Sicily, 
 197; of the laboring class, 
 333; see chapters on organi¬ 
 zation p. 333, sqq.; of trade 
 unions, index of them; of 
 farmers, see farmers. 
 
 Orgeons and Essenes, 450, 493; 
 and the orgiastes, 469. 
 
 Orgies lupercalian, of the Ger¬ 
 man farmers, 344, note 30; of 
 Eleusis not belonging to the 
 labor question, 505. 
 
 Oriflamme, 485. 
 
 Origin of the gladiatorial games, 
 278, note 3; of conscience, see 
 chapter ii.; of life, 59; of cun¬ 
 ning, 60; of ghosts, 61; of 
 the word flag, 485; of Chris¬ 
 tianity, Wescher quoted, 506. 
 
 Orpheus, the priest, 92. 
 
 Orsona, iEmilius’ camp at, 186. 
 
 Ostia, port of Rome, unions at, 
 382, note 23; inscription show¬ 
 ing the political action at, 383, 
 note 20; its business, 440. 
 
 Ouranos, the vaulted dome, 236; 
 its invisible inhabitants, 516, 
 352. 
 
 Outcasts and descendants of the 
 slaves, 438; the plebeian pop¬ 
 ulation, 344; the dangerous, 
 437; victimized by prayer, 464. 
 
 Ovation, to the Palakoi, 263; to 
 Aquillius, 272. 
 
 Overseer, of collectors’union,439. 
 
 Overturned villages, cities and 
 castles, 267, note 50. 
 
 Ownership, by the government, 
 of mills, 417. 
 
 Ox, harnessed to Pliny’s reaper, 
 569, note 109; car-load of Ly- 
 curgus’ iron money, 532. 
 
 P 
 
 Paeans and prayers of thiasotes, 
 536. 
 
 Pagan, religion, 69; was over¬ 
 turned by the labor unions, its 
 true basis, 76; religio-slavery 
 the outcome of it, 83, 495; its 
 temple, 114; traditional fam¬ 
 ily, 497; Pagan law of entail- 
 ment upon primogeniture, 
 558; prayers, specimens 
 brought forward, 561-64; in¬ 
 stitutions and adherents, and 
 what became of them, see the 
 chapter xxiv, and pp. 513- 
 520; final, 315. 
 
 Painting, a master of, 101; era 
 of Grecian, 128. 
 
 Palaeozoic era, 276. 
 
 Pala;stra, of suffering, 249. 
 
 Pialaeographic and tradional 
 records, 492; anaglyphs 
 etc., 451; unearthed during 
 thie 19th century, 501; 
 showing a microcosm of a 
 far future state, 459. 
 
 Palenque, inscriptions at, 112. 
 
 Palestine, 41, 40, 88, 444; se¬ 
 cret commune* of, 001, th« 
 
INDEX. 
 
 699 
 
 entire chapter xxiii., pp. 
 493-519. 
 
 Palkoi, 247; asylum of the 
 252; twins of Thalia and 
 Jupiter, 247. 
 
 Palisade-like intrenchments or 
 fortifications against Sparta- 
 cus 320 and note 119; 318. 
 
 Palladiums, etc., 556. 
 
 Palladius and his account of 
 the ancient reaper, 569, note 
 109. 
 
 Pallas, children of, 49; Athene 
 562. 
 
 Panatheniastes, 462. 
 
 Pangaetus, strikes in the mines 
 of gold at, 144. 
 
 Pangaeus, mines in Thrace, 137. 
 
 Panifices, or bakers, 349. 
 
 Panionius, revenge of Hermo- 
 tius, 168-9, note 7. 
 
 Pantaetus, 143. 
 
 Paperna, campaign against Ar- 
 istonicus, 242, 243. 
 
 Paphlagonia, 239. 
 
 Papian law, 243, note 21. 
 
 Parallelisms, of Socrates and 
 Jesus, 514, 560. 
 
 Paraphrase, Dindorf’s, on 
 tramps, 261, note 37; Dio 
 Cassius, and Diodorus, 261. 
 
 Paris, vast catacombs at, 155. 
 
 Parmenides, 518. 
 
 Paros, the slab of, 87, note Id. 
 
 Parrhasius, great painter, 101. 
 
 Parthenon, 101, 124, 126, built 
 under Pericles, 124, its mar¬ 
 bles and material, 368; made 
 by the genius and chisel of 
 the sculptor Phidias, 125. 
 
 Passions, toning and moraliz¬ 
 ing, 530. 
 
 Patavium, inscription of the 
 ragpickers found at, 423. 
 
 Patch-workers, 422; piecers, 
 424, how they drifted into 
 the business, 425. 
 
 Paterfamilias, 69, 74, 497; his 
 power over brothers and sis¬ 
 
 ters, 50, 51; worships his 
 dead father as a god, 51; be¬ 
 comes saint and god after 
 death, 85. 
 
 Patriarchal, government un¬ 
 mentioned by inscriptions, 73. 
 
 Patrician, 39, 72; Plato a, 39; 
 disposal of property of, 49-50; 
 contest of opinion between 
 the, and the communes, 493; 
 consuls fought the working¬ 
 men, 474; smiles of the, 532. 
 
 Patron, saint or divinity, 469. 
 
 Paul, Paulus, Aemilius in Epir¬ 
 us, another, defeated by 
 Viriathus, 186; Aemilius, hav¬ 
 oc of, 340, note 17; Saint, 
 552. 
 
 Peace, hues were red, 486; 
 standard of Egypt is still red, 
 491; banner, of American 
 colonies, red, 492; makers, of 
 Lycurgus, 532. 
 
 Pearl, brass, gold and amber en¬ 
 tered into manufacture of im¬ 
 ages, 430; fishers (margarit- 
 arii), 434; used in decorating 
 images, 435. 
 
 Pelasgians, Chios, primeval 
 home of the, 163. 
 
 Peligni, union of hunters found 
 at, 393, 394. 
 
 Peloponnesian war, 105, 134; 
 decided by a strike, 138; 
 breaking out of, 139. 
 
 Penates, the home of the lares, 
 52. 
 
 Penetralia, 52, 494. 
 
 Pennons, jacks, and merchants’ 
 standards, 487. 
 
 Pentateuch, 40. 
 
 Pentelicus marble quarries, 368. 
 
 Pepiles, an aboriginal American 
 tribe, 92, note 18. 
 
 Pepin le Bref, 488, note 53. 
 
 Perfidy, of the workingmen to 
 each other, 228; of Nerva, 
 250; of Aquillius, 272; & be¬ 
 trayal, 514. 
 
070 
 
 IVDBX. 
 
 Perfumers’ society at Capua, 
 291; unguentarii, who made 
 things “fit for the gods,” 433; 
 had unions in Athens and Co¬ 
 rinth, 434. 
 
 Pergamus, see all of chapter x., 
 pp. 232-45, Aristonicus; in¬ 
 scription from, 98; insurrec¬ 
 tion at, 150; seat of the up¬ 
 rising of Aristonicus and the 
 farmers, 511; become mellow 
 ground for Christianity, 512. 
 
 Pericles, archon of Athens, 124; 
 wages in the time of, 137; 
 an admirer of Phidias, 431. 
 
 Perioeci, a favored class of Lac¬ 
 edaemon, 101, 106. 
 
 Permian age, 276. 
 
 Persecutions, of Diocletian, 
 483; of the centuries, 523. 
 
 Perseus, the siege of, 193. 
 
 Petinax, emperor of Rome, 79. 
 
 Petelia, battle of, and victory 
 of Spartacus, 321. 
 
 Phidias, a descendant of slaves, 
 160; great sculptor, 100; a 
 friend of Pericles, 125; trans¬ 
 cendent genius of, 128; mag¬ 
 nificent works, 101; with My¬ 
 ron, Polycletiis, Alcamines, 
 435; in Lucian’ dream, 543. 
 
 Philemon and Archilochus, 544. 
 
 Philip of Macedon, 544. 
 
 Philo Judaeus quoted, 504, n. 
 23. 
 
 Philosopher, Aristotle’s predic¬ 
 tion, 71; is discovering won¬ 
 derful things, 84; Nicholas of 
 Damascus, quoted, 277, note 
 1; what his greatest pleas¬ 
 ure 539, 542. 
 
 Philosophy, 39; one that de¬ 
 nies the immortality of the 
 soul, 52; effect of such, on a 
 workingman, 63-4; the Aris¬ 
 totelian, 116, 118; great era 
 of Greek, 128; of annihila¬ 
 tion, 129, n. 90; see Plato 
 and Aristotle. 
 
 Phocaea,favors Aristonicus,239. 
 
 Phoebus, 390; in Britian, 482. 
 
 Phoeion, 545. 
 
 Phoenicia, 110; Greek spoken, 
 197, its lost art of red dyes, 
 479, 480; see Palestine. 
 
 Phoenicians, see Palestine, chap¬ 
 ter xxiii., pp. 493-519; were 
 not an aggressive race, 40 and 
 notes; belonged to the Se¬ 
 mitic family, 48, 120; enter¬ 
 prise of the, 124; were slave 
 traders, 164; and their trade 
 with the Africans, 432; dyes, 
 483; kidnapers, 498. 
 
 Phcenicepteros, 478. 
 
 Phoenix, Greek and ardea Latin 
 were the flaming reds, 478, 
 note 30, fin. 
 
 Phratries, 86, 94, 99, 367; 
 outcasts formed into, 86; 
 name uppermost for Greek 
 organizations, 502. 
 
 Phrygia, stone slabs from 503. 
 
 Physicism, of Aristotle, 516. 
 
 Picenum, 311. 
 battle Mummius at, 312. 
 
 Piraeus, the unions at the, 113; 
 trade unions at the, 125; or¬ 
 ganizations of workers in 
 great numbers, 361; unions 
 of Greek flute players at, 
 410; at the unions of the 
 Heroistes, Serapistes, etc., 
 450; examol at, 508; a 
 thiasos mentioned, 505. 
 
 Pirates, in Chios after the 
 death of Drimakos, 176; sup¬ 
 posed to have assisted Spar¬ 
 tacus, 316; account given by 
 Tacitus, 316, note 111; more 
 about, 498. 
 
 Pi8aurum, wood-workers of. 361 
 and note 8. 
 
 Piscicapii, 389. 
 
 Pisistratidae, an Athenian fam¬ 
 ily of high estate, 125. 
 
 Piso, fourth general against 
 Eunus, 218. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 671 
 
 Plans, of salvation, of working- 
 people, 46 and note 14; of 
 Eunus, extermination, 219; 
 of slaves in rebellion are ex¬ 
 posed, 151, note 18; a peace¬ 
 ful, of salvation, 517; of the 
 various leaders, 525; of 
 Lycurgus, a summary, 537; 
 of Eunus, 548; of Aristoni- 
 cus, 550; of Drimakos, 550; 
 of Spartacus, 551; of Salvius, 
 255; the two immortal, now 
 mixing, 555; of salvation, of 
 Moses, etc., 565; of the 
 moderns, 567. 
 
 Plant, the new, how prepared, 
 513; of Lycurgus, 537; of 
 the great men who figured 
 for the cause of humanity, 
 see chapter xxiv., pp. 520- 
 573. 
 
 Planted, the red, all along, be¬ 
 tween Auvergne and Kent, 
 488. 
 
 Plaster images (tectoriolae), 
 mentioned by Cicero. 432. 
 
 Plato, 39, 53, 59. 107, 109; was 
 willing to take gifts from the 
 wealthy, but refused pay, 39; 
 on the soul, 60; reference to 
 his Phaedrus, 93, note 19; 
 was an advocate of slavery, 
 102; the two moral elements 
 of, 109; Aristotle against, 
 117; his episode at Syracuse, 
 118; sold as a slave in Italy, 
 119; general movement of, 
 132; hardheartedness in some 
 things, 136; on immortality, 
 193; his visit to Italy, 444; 
 ideas copied from the Pagan 
 religion, 466; takes Socrates 
 down to the Piraeus, 513; one 
 of the five remarkable men, 
 514. 
 
 Plautius, defeated by Viriathus, 
 185; Hypsaeus, his arrival, to 
 fight Eunus, 217. 
 
 Plebiscita, 340, 
 
 Plebeians, 39; not citizens, 344, 
 note 27; were the theatre 
 actors, 404; their love of the 
 red color, 473; Licinius a, 
 474; the power of, 474, 
 note 20. 
 
 Pliny, his natural history, 79, 
 154; celebrated naturalist, 
 129; on ancient reaper, 569, 
 note 109. 
 
 Plumage, of the red-bird, 479. 
 
 Plutarch, 98, 103; evidence of 
 concerning the murder of the 
 slaves, 86; quoted, 105; bat¬ 
 tle of the Po, 311; q .oted as 
 to, 311; as to Silarus, 327; 
 lampoons the workers, 544. 
 
 Pluto and Proserpine, story of, 
 88, 198. 
 
 Poison, for the working classes, 
 546, 547. 
 
 Polemarch and Lysias, shield- 
 makers, 547. 
 
 Polemic, Wescher-Foucart, 506; 
 
 Polias, architect of the temple 
 of Minerva, his wages, 137, 
 cruel slave owner, 215, 405. 
 
 Policy, of priest-power to cur-~ 
 tail information, 522; a, 
 which is the meanest on the 
 pagan schedule, 524. 
 
 Political economy, 43; economy, 
 prevalence of priest-power in, 
 45; institutions and the work 
 people, 94; actio * of unions 
 at Ostia, 383, note 26; of fed¬ 
 erated trade unions of Pom¬ 
 peii, 390-91 and notes 3, 4, 5. 
 
 Politics, a noble calling, 113; 
 forbidden the ancient unions, 
 113; Politics, title of Aris¬ 
 totle’s celebrated book, see 
 Aristotle; politicians, or the 
 upper class were wrangling 
 while the communes were 
 harmonious, 509. 
 
 Polution, the touch of a work¬ 
 ingman supposed to polute, 
 349. 
 
672 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Polybius, on the red flag, 467 & 
 note 5. 
 
 Polycletus, in Lucian’s dream, 
 543. 
 
 Polyglot, P. Crassus, who spoke 
 many Greek dialects, 238, and 
 note 12. 
 
 Pomona, presided over the or¬ 
 chards, 477; herself, Isis, Osi¬ 
 ris and her flaminica, 480. 
 
 Pompey, xii., 317; in war of the 
 gladiators, 319 sqq., note 117; 
 arrives from Spain, 323; 
 bears down upon Spartacus, 
 323 and note 121. 
 
 Pompeii, an important inscrip¬ 
 tion found at, i28; volunteers 
 to Spartacus from, 297; wo¬ 
 men in the labor politics of, 
 390, 391 and note 5; inscrip¬ 
 tion of cloth-fullers who were 
 employed by the state, 416, 
 note 5. 
 
 Pumptine swamps, the, 149. 
 
 Pont du Chateau, half-red ban¬ 
 ners, 489. 
 
 Po, Spartacus marches to the, 
 307, 309; his arrival at, 308, 
 note 84. 
 
 Pool of the Twins, 247, note 2. 
 
 Pooling, of sums to bribe Nerva, 
 249„ 250 and note 8. 
 
 Poor food, for the slaves, 43, 
 note 16; there were unions 
 for furnishing its supply, 
 383, note 26. 
 
 Popidius (Rufus), manager of 
 the family of gladiators, 411. 
 
 Poplicola, tactics of, 308; great 
 battle with and defeat of, 308. 
 
 Poplius Clonius, murder of, 
 253, note 16. 
 
 Population, of Corinth, 193; in 
 the slave era, enormous, 340, 
 note 17; of Sparta, 529; see 
 census. 
 
 Porcelain, ancient invention, 
 571. 
 
 Pork butchers’ unions, 386. 441; 
 see food 
 
 Port, of Ostia, unions of, 382, 
 note 23; of the Rhone (Ora 
 Rhodani), 440; of Athens, or 
 the Piraeus, 361; see Piraeus. 
 
 Porte banni^res, 484, note 44. 
 
 Poseidonius, the stoic, 169. 
 
 Postumius, defeats the strikers 
 at Apulia, 160. 
 
 Potters, Numa’s union of, 335, 
 note 6; ampulae or jugs, of the 
 milkmens’ union, 399; an¬ 
 other union of, 445; the ty¬ 
 rant Agathocles a, 545. 
 
 Powderly, stand taken by him, 
 disclosing the power of or¬ 
 ganization, 334. 
 
 Power, of the ancient father 
 over his children, 76, note 25; 
 of masters over slaves, 121, 
 note 75; of married man over 
 his female slaves, 49 and note 
 4, 147 and note 8; of Eunus, 
 221, note 81; of life and 
 death, 294, note 48; of habit, 
 465-6, 483, 489; of the ple- 
 bians in Roman elections, 
 474, note 20. 
 
 Prsegustatorum collegium, union 
 of tasters, 398. 
 
 Praeneste, 150; slave insurrec¬ 
 tion at, 151, note 18; inscrip¬ 
 tion at, 403. 
 
 Prairie on fire, 487. 
 
 Praxiteles, Lysippus, Scopas, 
 435. 
 
 Prayer of woman, 303, note 73; 
 the unions opened their ses¬ 
 sions with, 461; sayings and 
 doings compared, 525, sqq.; 
 and deeds, of Tertullian, 552, 
 note 70; of Socrates, 561; of 
 Jesus, 562; of Alcestis, 562-3; 
 of a selfish son, 563; of Ores¬ 
 tes, 563; paeans and, of the 
 thiasotes, 563; of the QuechS, 
 tribe, 564; of ancient Pagan 
 priest, 564. 
 
 Pre-Christian societies, 461. 
 
 Precipices, hurled down the, by 
 Rupillui, 227; cast headlong, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 673 
 
 from the Ncbrode, 2.52. 
 
 Precocious trade unionist, 383, 
 note 26. 
 
 Prediction, of the wife of Spar- 
 tacus, 558. 
 
 Presses, 386. 
 
 Prestigiation, 45, 274, note 70. 
 
 Pretox of religion, 346, note 36. 
 
 Priest, power in political econ¬ 
 omy, 45; was a public officer, 
 114; the Druid, 482;—craft, 
 origin of, 53, superstitious be¬ 
 lief in, 352; his sacerdotal 
 and sacrificial paraphernalia, 
 429; of Aristotle's age, 538; 
 priesthood, bound in the 
 secret mysteries, 90. 
 
 Primeval, men. 72; race, 73; 
 colors, 473. note 16; mind, 
 472. 487. 
 
 Primogeniture, law of, 50: en- 
 tailment upon, 558; laws of 
 inheritance and rules of en¬ 
 tail upon, 571. 
 
 Prince of this world, 556. 
 
 Prison, description of the ’Ro¬ 
 man. 154; the public, 151 and 
 note 18; description, by Bom- 
 bardini, 154; the strikers cast 
 into, 160. note 42; broken 
 open and 60,000 prisoners set 
 free: 251, note 12. 254; was 
 called the home of the prole¬ 
 taries. 287, note 32. 
 
 Private union, 510, note 37. 
 
 Privateers, societies of. 510. 
 
 Probus, emperor of Rome, 79. 
 
 Proclaim the cult, 554. 
 
 Procurators with their qiues- 
 tors, 439. 
 
 Proeranistria. female guardian, 
 453. 455. 463. 
 
 Proletarian class, ignored by 
 paganism. 428; origin of the, 
 85; the army of. 320. 
 
 Prompter, at the theatre. 402, 
 note 1. 
 
 Propaganda, system of, 244, 
 and note 23; of organization, 
 
 448, note 9. 
 
 Property, see family; common, 
 under Lycurgus, 69; owners 
 of, organized for protection, 
 property and family original¬ 
 ly one and the same thing, 
 281, note 11; comprehends 
 money, land, house, slaves, 
 281, n. 11. 
 
 Prophecy, of Aurinia, 290, note 
 37, 305, note 78. 
 
 Prophet, Athenicn a, 259; also 
 Eunus, 548; were in all tur¬ 
 moils, 557: thev existed thro 
 all antiquity, 558. 
 
 Propitiation of the divinities by 
 wild tumult, 244, note 23. 
 
 Proportion of Gauls to Thra¬ 
 cians of Spartacus, 289. note 
 36. 
 
 Proprietorship, system of com¬ 
 munal, 69. 
 
 Propylse, of the Parthenon, 101. 
 
 Propylsea, 430. 
 
 Proserpine, or Persephone, the 
 story of. 88-9, 92; rape of, 
 90; carried to Enna, 198. 
 
 Prostates, a. president, 453. 
 
 Prostitution, 463, 464. 
 
 Proto-divinities, 489. 
 
 Protoplasm, 59. 
 
 Proudhon, 60. 
 
 Provisions, and who furnished 
 them, 396; see chapters xv. & 
 xvi., Rome’s army supplies, & 
 victualing system. 
 
 Prytaneum, the, 126. 
 
 Pseudo-Asconius. 225; note 94. 
 
 Psomokolophos, or runaway, 
 boy friend of Drimakos, 174. 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 564. 
 
 Public works, 403. 
 
 Publicans, Cicero’s praise of 
 the, 249, note 7. 
 
 Publishing, how done, 436. 
 
 Publius Varinius, defeat of, 
 207. 
 
 Pulvinaria, inscription by an 
 association of. 432. 
 
 Punic hostages, 153, note 22; 
 war, the third, 178, 215. 
 
(374 
 
 ixdex. 
 
 Punishment, of slaves, 244, note 
 22; for falsehood and per¬ 
 jury, 248, note 3; inflicted 
 upon the Romans, 26G; by 
 Crassus, of cowards, 315, 
 note 108; of the soldiers of 
 Mummius by Spartacns, 315. 
 
 Putnam, red flag displayed by, 
 at battle of Bunker Hill, 492. 
 
 Purple, clothed in, 258, note 29; 
 why a mixed color, 476. 
 
 Purveying, systematic method 
 of, 437. 
 
 Puv de Dome, 484, note 46. 
 
 Puzzle-guessing, 528, 558. 
 
 Pydna, the battle of, in Epirus, 
 179, 186. 
 
 Pyrrhus, in Tarentum abolished 
 common tables, 287, note 28. 
 
 Pythagoras, thought to have 
 known Numa, who through 
 him w r as a communist, 359, 
 note 1; plants communism in 
 Italy, 444; and the sect, 194. 
 
 Q 
 
 Qualms, swoons and upheavals, 
 494, 495. 
 
 Quarrels, between Crixus, JEn- 
 omaus and Spartacns, 305. 
 306; involved in the red flag, 
 473; of the mediteval shoe¬ 
 makers and cobblers. 484, 
 note 45. 
 
 Quarries, 368. 
 
 Question, of Laelius to Blossius, 
 241, note 1C. 
 
 Quinquennial, five years’ magis¬ 
 trate, 357. 
 
 Quinquennium, city of Rome 
 held 5 years from electing an 
 aristocrat, 474, note 20. 
 
 Quinctio L. in battle with Cas- 
 tus, 320. note 119. 
 
 Quinctius, defeated by Viria- 
 thus, 186; and Tremellius 
 Scrofa defeated by Sparta- 
 cus, at Petelia, 321. 
 
 R 
 
 Race, Asiatic, 70; culture, 528; 
 
 of the Spartans, 535; of the 
 Eagle, or aristocracy, in the 
 prayer of Orestes 563; the 
 Hebrew, 567; • 
 
 Rag-pickers and patch-piecers 
 unions, 422, note 30; see 
 
 gypsy- 
 
 Rangabe, quoted 507. 
 
 Rape of Proserpine, performed 
 as a drama at Elausis, 91, 92, 
 note 18; of Virginia, 287 and 
 note 32. 
 
 Raphael's intimacy with Pope 
 Leo, 125; taint of labor, 544. 
 
 Ravelli, a place where inscrip¬ 
 tions are found, 364. 
 
 Reaper, of ancient Gaul, 569, 
 note 109; of Pliny and Palla- 
 dius, 569. 
 
 Reason, guided by social laws, 
 60; dawn of, 72; the world 
 to adopt, 524; used on two 
 distinct lines, 538. 
 
 Rebellion, slaves in prodigious, 
 86; in the United States, 
 140; other, 405; see insur¬ 
 rections, strikes,* turmoils, 
 xii.; of the children, 525; of 
 the animate tools of labor, 
 567, 573. 
 
 Reciprocating shears, in ai cient 
 reaper, 570. 
 
 Records, scarcity of, on ancient 
 labor, 71; tracing back to 
 prove their age, 426. 
 
 Red, flames, 248, note 3; ban¬ 
 ner, see chapter 22, pp. 465- 
 92; flag, an account given by 
 Polybius, 467, note 5; the 
 champion of tints, 472; pre¬ 
 valence of, in industry, 477; 
 prohibition law killed out the 
 invention of red dyeing, 479- 
 80; red and white the es¬ 
 sences of color. 480; adopted 
 by the Christians. 481; the 
 early flag in the United 
 States,. 492. 
 
 Redemption, 528, 
 
INDUX. 
 
 675 
 
 Regent, Lycurgus a, by inherit¬ 
 ance, 531. 
 
 Registration, of friendly socie¬ 
 ties, 447. 
 
 Rehabilitation, of ancient labor, 
 and the harvest, 519, 572. 
 
 Religion, bringing of, into this 
 history, a necessity, x.; was 
 arranged by an Intercessor, 
 42; the original or first, 43; 
 its omission impossible, 45; 
 it governed political habits, 
 48; was based upon con¬ 
 science, 62; the handmaid of, 
 63; the working people were 
 religious, 64; of the slaves of 
 antiquity, 53; of Jesus, was 
 planted by a laborer, 57; 
 ancient, 60, 68; Pagan, 69; 
 Aryan, 69; a part of an 
 ancient workingman’s life, 
 70; ancient forms exist in 
 modern, 70; belief of slaves, 
 75; basis of Pagan. 76; 
 slavery the outcome of the 
 Pagan, 83; origin of the 
 Pagan, 85; slaves organized 
 under pretenses of, 86; of 
 Jesus, 88; slaves debarred 
 from the glories of, 95 ; 
 denying the equality of men, 
 97; Pagan, 109; belonged to 
 the state, 121; in this his¬ 
 tory, 143; of Sicilian slaves. 
 197; used as a cloak. 346; 
 note 36; working people had 
 none, 345; communes numer¬ 
 ous in the Piraeus. 513, note 
 46. 
 
 Remains, honored, 378, note 14. 
 
 Renaissance, a new, 194. 
 
 Renan, Wescher, Foucart, 402; 
 asserts the power of the socie¬ 
 ties, 453; on the ancient dis¬ 
 cussions, 454. 
 
 Rencountre, of the nuptials, 92. 
 note 18. 
 
 Render unto Caesar, 518. 
 
 Rent, 382, 383. 
 
 Republic, of Plato drawn among 
 
 the communes of the Piraeus, 
 513; of the blessed, 549. 
 
 Rerum Natura, greatest of 
 didactic poems, 60. 
 
 Rescue, of Lilybaeum, 260. 
 
 Res Seaenica, 403; 412. 
 
 Rescue, the Mohammedan, 555; 
 events of the, 494; of rank, 
 264, note 43. 
 
 Resemblance, of Socrates and 
 Jesus, 553. 
 
 Resignation, power of, 562. 
 
 Resistance, unions of, 381; 522. 
 
 Restoration, of old unions, 303, 
 note 67. 
 
 Restrictive laws, compelled un¬ 
 ions to appear religious, 508. 
 
 Resuscitation, of harsh old lawl 
 315, note 108; prevented, 532. 
 
 Retaliation, 332; of Spartacus, 
 by forcing the Romans to 
 fight as gladiators, 308, 309; 
 and cut showing the scene, 
 332; of Eunus, 549. 
 
 Retribution, to Aquillius, Lu- 
 cullus & Servilius, 273-4; ter¬ 
 rible, of Spartacus, 308; of 
 Eunus. 550; of Mithridates, 
 273. 
 
 Revenge, of Hennotius, 168-69, 
 note 7; of Spartacus, 332. 
 
 Revival, of the old funereal 
 wake, 308, note 85; the 
 present labor movement a. 
 510, 572. 
 
 Revolt, prevented b; supersti¬ 
 tion 76; always feared by the 
 masters, 79; was common in 
 Chios 170; at Syracuse, of 
 slaves, 251, note 13; of pro¬ 
 digious extent against Spar¬ 
 tacus, 319; and vengeance, 
 331. 
 
 Revolution, not involved in any 
 change from competitive to 
 co-operative systems, 38; 
 great social; 57; description 
 of the, 63; begun by Christ, 
 122; the magnitude of, 384; 
 that destroved the idcntitv 
 
 v 
 
G7G 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 of paganism, 443; the war, 
 the red flag at the outbreak, 
 492; events of the, 494. 
 
 Revue Archeologique, 453; arti¬ 
 cle quoted from, 505, 506, 567. 
 
 Reward, given to slave inform¬ 
 ants, 149; note 12. 
 
 Rhadamanthus, 95, note 24. 
 
 Rhea, Ceres, Isis, 'ybele, one 
 and the same, 470, 471. 
 
 Rhegium in Cisalpine Gaul, 423. 
 
 Rhodes, 461; communes at 493; 
 one of the early Christian 
 seats, 513; the inscriptions 
 of, 169, note 10. 
 
 Ricardo, Jewish speculator, 43. 
 
 Rich men, Cimon, 137, note 16. 
 
 Rights, equal, 40; Spartacus, 
 297, note 54. , 
 
 Robes, Greek, of ram.:, 264. note 
 43. 
 
 Rock, lined maw of Tavgetus, 
 533. 
 
 Rodbertus, 71. 
 
 Rogers, Social Life of Scotland, 
 466, note 1. 
 
 Romans, were Aryans, 48 ; used 
 competitive idea, 48; private 
 property early recognized, 
 68; downfall of their empire, 
 84; literary era. of the, 123; 
 for social and servile wars 
 see chapters under those 
 heads; conspira^ , 148; 
 
 treachery of, LSI; attempt to 
 enslave all Spain, 188; con- 
 question of Achia by the, 210; 
 depended on the militia to 
 crush Eunus, 211; armies of 
 organized to quell rebellions, 
 211; slow to realize t e power 
 of Eunus, 213; armies of. de¬ 
 feated by Eunus and his gen¬ 
 erals, 218; cities of the, built 
 of wood. 360. 
 
 Romanelli’s inscription of gladi¬ 
 atorial fight with wild beasts, 
 411. 
 
 Romulus, gives to married men 
 power over female slaves, 
 
 147, note 8. 
 
 Roscher, 38. 
 
 Rose, learned Greek scholar, 343. 
 
 Ross’ Inscriptions Greques, 462. 
 
 Rotatory form of mutual com¬ 
 munity, 507. 
 
 Ri dimental colors, 470, note 10. 
 
 Runaways etc., cremated, 75; 
 slaves called psomokolaphoi 
 among the Chians, 169, 174; 
 slaves, inscription, 291, note 
 40; slaves, C94. 
 
 Runs, forced to make the runs 
 of gladiators, 407. 
 
 Rupillius, , fth man sent 
 against Eunus, 218; malfeas 
 ance, 225, note 94; consul at¬ 
 tacks Eunus, 228. 
 
 Rhythm, of Aristotle, 542. 
 
 S 
 
 Sabelline judgment, 342, note 
 
 21 . 
 
 Sacerdotal seat or chair, 431. 
 
 Sackcloth and ashes, 499. 
 
 Sacred, hearth, 69; and civil 
 communes, 113, note 63; as¬ 
 sociations, 362, note 12; 
 which unions, 445, note 2; 
 unions so defined under the 
 law 445, not-: 2; questions, 
 523. 
 
 Sacrifice, Pagan mode of, 51; 
 rites of, 92; given by Viria- 
 thus, 183, note 7; of" Salvius 
 to the Twins, 257 263 n. 8; 
 at Messana, 269; human, 
 278; avenging of Spartacus, 
 304, n 77, asked by Lollius, 
 378, note 14; Archon, 505. 
 
 Saddle and bridle-makers, 484-5 
 
 Saga and toga, when used, 477, 
 note 25. 
 
 Sngum and vexillum, 476, 477. 
 
 Sailors, a trade union Of. 119, 
 127. 
 
 Sailors’ union, sacred to Min¬ 
 erva, 429, note 3. 
 
 Saint, Bartholomew massacre 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 G77 
 
 of, 102; originated by egoism, 
 85; Cyril, 452; Flour, 489; 
 Germain-Lembi on, industrial 
 suburb of Paris, 489; Simon, 
 the originator of the term 
 “bourgeoisie” 526. 
 
 Salarius, 392; origin of the 
 word “salary,” 392, note 8. 
 
 Sallust, 165; mutilated works 
 of, 211; regretable loss, 299, 
 note 57; describes the battle 
 of Mt. Garganus, 306, note 
 80. 
 
 Salona, estate of Dioletian at, 
 547. 
 
 Salt works, 392. 
 
 Saltatrix, saltatricula, 407. 
 
 Salvation, doctrine of, taught 
 by Christ, 517; in the plan of 
 Eunus and others 548, sqq. 
 
 Salvius, first mention of, 254; 
 elected slave-king, 254, note 
 20; a flute player, messiah 
 and prophet, 263; his history 
 finished, 263, sq. 
 
 Samos, in the labor war, 235. 
 
 Sandal, (solea), how made, 420. 
 
 Sagum caeruleum, 475. 
 
 Sankhaya Kapila, 460. 
 
 Sanscrit language, mixed by 
 the gypsies with Latin, 426. 
 
 Santorin, isle of, where the so¬ 
 cieties were very numerous, 
 452. 
 
 Sardinia, va>t numbers of 
 slaves from, 193. 
 
 Satan, 89; king of the earth, 
 556. 
 
 Satirical writings of Ovid, Pro¬ 
 pertius, Martialis, were in 
 evervbody’s hands. 436, note 
 20 . 
 
 Satrapy of Rome, 243. 
 
 Saturn, his government, spoken 
 of by Plato, 47, note 1; -Jupi¬ 
 ter’s escape from, 89. 
 
 Saturnalia, 123; the feats dur¬ 
 ing which all mankind were 
 equal, 338; a great harvest 
 festival, 502. 
 
 Satyrs, 248; Ceres adored by, 
 477. 
 
 Satyros, and the mutual fratri¬ 
 cide, 273. 
 
 Sauromatides, countless women 
 of ancient Crete, 340, note 17. 
 
 Sausage -maker, ^Eschines son 
 of a, 543. 
 
 Sayings, doings, prayers, com¬ 
 pared, 525; sayings of Socra¬ 
 tes, 561. 
 
 Scamander, scene of great bat¬ 
 tle, 270. 
 
 Scars, of Aquillius, 273, note 68. 
 
 Scaurus, built theatre at Rome, 
 401, 402. 
 
 Scene, of vengeance, 227; ad¬ 
 juster, 403, note 6. 
 
 Seenicorum collegium, 402. 
 
 Schambach, quotations from, 
 277 to 330 notes. 
 
 Schliemann, 110. 
 
 School, of gladiators, 289 and 
 notes 36, 37; of mutual love 
 and care, 365; scholae praecep- 
 tores, 407; of idol manufac¬ 
 ture, 431 of Ageladas, 435. 
 
 Science, evidence accumulated 
 by diggers in, 59 ; heeds not 
 the tablets and inscriptions, 
 84; a young female seen by 
 Lucian in a dream, 543. 
 
 Scillato, ancient Ancyle, 251. 
 
 Scilly Isles, 483. 
 
 Scio or Chios, strike in the isl¬ 
 and of, 163. 
 
 Scipio and Hannibal, 153; Afri- 
 canus, 218; Africanus, Grac¬ 
 chus his grandson. 241. 
 
 Scirtheaea, a drawn battle, 267. 
 
 Scopas and other great artists, 
 435. 
 
 Scourges, scourged c. hung upon 
 the cross, 154. note 27, 475; 
 for lictors, 477. 
 
 Scroll, 2.000 years are but a, 
 525. 
 
 Sculptor, (signarius artifex), 
 p. 368; Lucian’s dream, 544. 
 
 Sculpture, a great era of Gre- 
 
678 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 cian, 128 ; of Spartaeus, 284, 
 note 21; the great master of, 
 101 . 
 
 Seaport of Athens, see Piraeus. 
 
 Seats, cushioned seats of the 
 gods, 3G0. 
 
 Second coming, the labor move¬ 
 ment, 557. 
 
 Secret and secrecy of the 
 unions, 4C1; recognition, 110, 
 note 50; societies in Homer’s 
 time, 111; intense secrecy of 
 the unions, 346; organiza¬ 
 tions carried red banners, 
 471; of red dyes lost, how, 
 479, 480; cult secret in 
 
 Canaan, 501; communes, and 
 great men who knew of them, 
 514; commune, and its 
 ancient cult, 554. 
 
 Sedition, of soldiers of Sparta- 
 cus, 306, note 80. 
 
 Seething, fluid, 248, note 3. 
 
 Self-command, superhuman of 
 Oomanus, 227; aid, 410; de¬ 
 fense, counter organizations 
 in, 525; defeating, 527. 
 
 Selfishness, of prayers, 563. 
 
 Semeion, or vexillum, 467. 
 
 Semetic family, Hebrew branch, 
 40; race-struggles with the 
 Arvans, 4l; racelcharacteris- 
 tics, 48; laboring classes or¬ 
 ganized, 68; enterprise. 124 ; 
 used in collateral evidence, 
 526. 
 
 Senatus consulti, 340. 
 
 Sentinum, inscription of the 
 rag-pickers found at, 423. 
 
 Sentius (Cneus), the man who 
 died while yet a youth, 383, 
 note 26. 
 
 Septuagint convention, 564. 
 
 Sepulcralia, or Roman burial 
 societies, 343. 
 
 Sepulchres, sarcophagi and 
 mausoleums. 429. 
 
 Sepulture, right of, 7ft: dread 
 of being deprived of, 75. 
 
 Sermon on the Mount, 549. 
 
 Servile wars, 54; of Sicily, 77; 
 of Spartaeus, what caused by, 
 284; revolt, considered a na¬ 
 tional degradation, 294; also 
 433, 508, and see chapters on 
 the war-strikes of the ancient 
 workingmen. 
 
 vServilianus, defeated by Viri- 
 athus at Erisane, 187. 
 
 Servilius, reduced to disgrace, 
 274. 
 
 Servius Tullius, king of Rome, 
 146, 156. 161; Suipicius Gal- 
 ba, a Roman commander, 
 179; Tullius and Numa, suc¬ 
 ceeded by a rapacious slave¬ 
 holding policy, 398. 
 
 Setia, a city in Italy, 149; the 
 revolt of slaves at, 150, 151, 
 note 18; traitors, 228. 
 
 Seven Apocalvptic churches, 
 512. 
 
 Sexes, relation between, among 
 the ancient slaves, 77; work¬ 
 ing together naked in the 
 various mines, 138; both like¬ 
 wise in same condition at the 
 games, 530. 
 
 Sharpeners, of swords and jav¬ 
 elins, 411. 
 
 Shepherd, see Athenion, Aris- 
 tonicus, Cleon and the word, 
 farmer; and farmer, nick¬ 
 named bacchanal, 160, note 
 '38; humble and without am¬ 
 bitions, 514. 
 
 Shinglers, 377, note 10. 
 
 Shoemakers, Cicero’s contempt, 
 and nickname of, 380. note 
 20; quarrels of, 484, note 45; 
 Order of Crispins took the 
 red flag, 483. 
 
 Shop-keepers, of Aristotle, 540. 
 
 Sicilian Olympus, the, 88; ser¬ 
 vile war, 513. 
 
 Sicily, disastrous strike in. 133, 
 142; effects of third Punic 
 war. 178; shocking condition 
 of slaves. 194; Eunus made 
 king of, 196; Gfeek language 
 spoken, 197; the granary of 
 
INDEX. 
 
 the world, 258, 304; tramps 
 of, torn open by tramps, 261 
 and note 37. 
 
 Sickle, 569, note 109. 
 
 Sidon and Tyre, home of all the 
 Phicenicians, 488. 
 
 Siege, of Enna by Piso, 224; 
 second of Enna, 228; of 
 Leucse, 242; of Lilybaeum, 
 260; by Lucullus of Triocala, 
 267, note 49. 
 
 Signs (private) not inscrip¬ 
 tions of the societies, 366,368. 
 
 Silarus, and Macella, great bat¬ 
 tles, 271; head waters of, 
 324; battle of 324-5, 327 
 note 128. 
 
 Silver, mines of Attica, 100; 
 the Laurian, 134; cane of 
 Athenion, 259 and note 33; 
 and gold workers, 374; 
 smiths, 383 note 26, and see 
 strike. 
 
 Similarity between Socrates 
 and Jesus, 560. 
 
 Sin, a terrible, 478, 523. 524. 
 
 Sinus Sejestanus, 258. 
 
 Siphon, in use before Christ. 
 571. 
 
 Sister of Horatius murdered by 
 him, 475, note 22. 
 
 Situations, procured by the un¬ 
 ions, 511; see co-operation. 
 
 Size of army of Eunus, 218; of 
 Spartacus, 324-5; see army. 
 
 Skinned, human beings, 278. 
 
 Slabs, the ancient, lying unob¬ 
 served, in their original places 
 or in museums, xi; are being 
 constantly unearthed, 110; 
 the law record d on, 71. 
 
 Slave, relics of the ancient, 67; 
 equals of their masters, 68; 
 system among Aryans, 68; 
 African, 68; a rich man’s 
 children became, 69; run¬ 
 away. 70. 175 to 177; not 
 mentioned by the very 
 ancient writers, 71; the con¬ 
 tempt of masters for, 72; 
 poor outlook in ancient times 
 
 679' 
 
 for the, 74; slaveholders used 
 to kill their children, 74; the 
 fear of, 75; superstition at 
 first prevented his revolt, 76; 
 he multiplied within his own 
 estate, 77; branded and 
 marked on face and else¬ 
 where, 79, 196, note 17, 385, 
 note 30; poorly fed, 46, note 
 16, 79, 385, note 30; emanci¬ 
 pation of, 80; system, 81; dif¬ 
 ferentiation in his favor, 83; 
 self-enfranchised, 85; denied 
 the right of burial, 85; but 
 his body burned, 86; or hung 
 up to rot, 299; murdered by 
 his masters, 86; was ad¬ 
 mitted into the brotherhood, 
 98, note 27, 169, 355; social 
 condition in Greece, 99; of 
 war, 103; trade, 103, 266, 
 note 27; prices paid for his 
 hire, 137; of Athens deserts, 
 140; one man sometimes 
 owned a great many, 135, see 
 numbers; his attempt to 
 burn Rome, 146; assisted by 
 king Servius Tullius, 147; 
 insurrection of Scio, 163, see 
 Drimakos; fear of his rebel¬ 
 lions, 141, 164; citizens • of 
 Enna massacred by, 202; 
 system, Eunus attempts to 
 destroy the, 207; vengeance 
 of the, at Enna, 209; often 
 became brigands, 215; many 
 a Roman general in Sicily 
 was defeated by the, 218; 
 slaves of Eunus were social¬ 
 ists, 223; Piso defeated and 
 driven by a, 225; in the ma¬ 
 jority, 249; set free by Spar¬ 
 tacus, 302; numbers that 
 were crucified, 330: system, 
 inroads upon by the trade 
 unions, 442; had a religion, 
 472; his condition in Phoeni¬ 
 cia, 498; crammed popula¬ 
 tions of Plato, 548-9; dens of 
 Sicily, 549. 
 
680 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Slavery, partly abolished 
 among the Hebrews, 39; 
 origin of, 49; a second con¬ 
 dition in the establishment 
 of society, 54; earlier than 
 communism, 68; resistance 
 of slaves to, 68; at present, 
 that of chattels is extinct, 
 68; unwritten age of, 71; 
 society outgrowing, 71; long 
 night of, 78; phenomena of, 
 93; degradation of Spartan, 
 102; the curse of, 111; Plato 
 believed it just, 119; hideous 
 conditions, 156; supersti¬ 
 tions against, 168, 169; 
 
 Viriathus’ fight against, 188; 
 immense growth of, just be¬ 
 fore Christ’s time, 192; in 
 Asia Minor, 233; reviewed, 
 286, note 27, 141, note 37, 
 146, 164, note 2; the anti¬ 
 thesis of trade unionism, 
 366; Romans grasped Plato’s 
 fashionable idea of, and ca¬ 
 lamities which resulted, 549. 
 
 Saveholders, wealth and num¬ 
 bers, 314-5; see numbers. 
 
 Sleight of hand, 254, note 20. 
 
 Slings, 378, 379, 380. 
 
 Slipper, half-slipper, 419. 
 
 Smart, in sallies and satire, 
 535. 
 
 Smokers of wine, 382. 
 
 Smyrna, burial place of Cras- 
 sus, 242. 
 
 Snakes, superstition of Grac¬ 
 chus, 240. 
 
 Social wars, nearly all turn out 
 disastrously for cause, xii.; 
 ages of past, marked by a 
 want of feeling, 65; organi¬ 
 zations, ancient, 69; habits 
 of poor, 77; wars, 84, 97; 
 life of working people, 88; 
 condition of slaves in Greece, 
 99; wars, 99, 110; organiza¬ 
 tions that helped Spartacus, 
 to almost achieve a remark¬ 
 able conquest, 301. 
 
 Socialism, 38; not easily seen 
 through competitive system, 
 43; the perfect, 101; employ¬ 
 ment by the state, 380, note 
 19; 381, n. 21; none beyond 
 the family, 496; of Jesus, 
 497; in the festivities, state 
 paid the bills, 505; the radi¬ 
 cal of Lycurgus, 527. 
 
 Socialistic system, 59; organi¬ 
 zations, 97; a state, 121; 
 Germany stifled the efforts 
 of, 71; enjoying their booty 
 in common, 223. 
 
 Society, present condition of, 
 toned by Mosaic law, 45; its 
 deeds of, transmitted by his¬ 
 tory and archaeology, 48; first 
 form of, 48; conditions in 
 the establishment of, 54; an¬ 
 cient, 113; middle condition 
 of, 55; developed by ethics, 
 63; history of ancient, 67; 
 outcasts of, 69; will outgrow 
 slavery, 71; began with the 
 bully, 84; two ancient classes 
 of, 96; two great classes of 
 Lacedaemonian, 101. 
 
 Sociology, students of, 71, 80, 
 97; students of, are forced 
 to drop Plato, 445; consis¬ 
 tency with the study of, 501. 
 
 Socrates, recognized the labor 
 unions, 74; Plato, Aristotle, 
 Anaxagoras and Diogenes, 
 worshiped immortal gods, 
 430, 486, at the Piraeus, 513; 
 one of 5 remarkable charac¬ 
 ters, 514; on the God of 
 love, 553, note 76; Crito & 
 Phaedo, 562; a member of 
 the brotherhood, 553. 
 
 Sodales, what they were, 127, 
 n. 87; of Italy, 77, 364; ful- 
 lonum, 415; corresponded to 
 the thiasotes, 508; unions of 
 the, suppressed, 344, note, 29. 
 
 Soissons, Crispins ■ settled at, 
 421; seat of the Crispins, 
 483. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 681 
 
 Soldier of high stock, 381. 
 
 Solemnities of labor unions, 
 378, note 14. 
 
 Solidarities, rural, 464. 
 
 Solitudo Magistratuum, 474, 
 and note 20. 
 
 Solomon, trade unions as early 
 as, 115; King of the Jews, 
 123; the temple, 373. 
 
 Solon, laws of, 100, 113; regu¬ 
 lations of, 119, 123; trade 
 unions under laws of, 126; 
 Solon and Numa’s law the 
 same, 337, n. 13; law of Solon 
 and of the Twelve Tables 
 identical, 347; Solon of 
 Athens, followed Numa’s 
 trade union scheme, 359; his 
 homotaphoi or common ta¬ 
 bles, 510. 
 
 Solution, the natural of the 
 problems, 573. 
 
 Sons born to the gods, 49, note 4. 
 
 Soothsayers, Etruscan, 154, 
 
 note 27. 
 
 Sophists, 39, 132. 
 
 Sophocles and Euripides, 401. 
 
 Sorties, of Cleon, 225. 
 
 Sosias, a Thracian contractor, 
 
 137. 
 
 Soter, or Messiah, 462. 
 
 Sottishness, false opinion, 503. 
 
 Soul, see immortality; consult 
 chapter iv., Eleusinian Mys¬ 
 teries; apothegm of Lucre¬ 
 tius, 60: a philosophy which 
 denies the immortality of 
 the, 62; origin of and belief 
 in, 47-66; fed the disengaged, 
 75 and note ^ 2 ; of states, 303, 
 note 73; who plod without, 
 466; slave-souls of Plato, 
 539; of Aristotle’s theory, 
 540. 
 
 Soup spoons, spits, ladles, 
 bowls, cups, 399. 
 
 Southern states, slavery of, 77. 
 
 Spain, slavery drove free labor 
 from, 156; see wars of'Viri- 
 athus in, pp. 178-90. 
 
 Sparta, massacres of, 97; its 
 war with Messenia, 98, 103; 
 brutal spirit and unfeeling- 
 ness, 132; jealous of Athens, 
 141; slaves dangerous, 211. 
 
 Spartacus, great general; is 
 compared with Hannibal and 
 Napoleon, viii.; punishment 
 for rebellion, xii.; allusions 
 to, 62, 120, 148, 149; upris¬ 
 ing of, 140, note 3; well re¬ 
 ceived in Apulia and Meta- 
 pontem, 158-9; his fortune¬ 
 telling wife, 168; was a poor 
 man, 181; the prodigious 
 conflict, 187; in* winter quar¬ 
 ters he disallowed gold and 
 silver, 202; was called a rob¬ 
 ber, 215; a Thracian, but 
 family unknown, 282, note 
 13; in nil respects a working¬ 
 man, 282; legends of, 284; a 
 man of giant frame, further 
 description of, 285, 288, 290; 
 a serpent coils about his 
 head, 290, note 37; escape of, 
 292; elected commander-in¬ 
 chief, 294 ; line of march and 
 tactics, 300’; humane quali¬ 
 ties and character, 302-3, 
 305, 311; required to march 
 through Campania to Rome, 
 321; after the death of 
 Crixus, lie marches to the Po, 
 507; and his army hemmed 
 in, 323: his death, 324-332; 
 70 years after him, Christ 
 came, 493 ; one of the 5 re¬ 
 markable men, 514; his 
 mightiness, 551. 
 
 Spartans, under Lycurgus. 69; 
 a favored class, 101; com¬ 
 pared to the Athenians, 139; 
 an unsympathetic people, 
 103; believed slavery was 
 right, 119, division of land, 
 530; senators, 531. 
 
 Species, preservation of, 42. 
 
 Spectacles, gladiatorial, 277, 
 and note 1. 
 
682 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 t 
 
 Speculators in human flesh, 412. 
 
 Speech, of Drimakos, 169, note, 
 172; of Christ, 557. 
 
 Spencer, 59. 
 
 Spice unions, 393; gums, nuts, 
 seeds and other raw materials 
 of the perfumers, 434. 
 
 Spinners’, weavers’, dyers’ and 
 tailors’ overseers had charge 
 of the state work shops, 419. 
 
 Spirit-worship, command 
 against in Mosaic law, 54. 
 
 Split-corn grits for slaves, 383, 
 note 26. 
 
 Spoleto, inscription of fullers’ 
 union found at, 416. 
 
 Spooks and goblins, 248, note 
 3; see asylum, also goblin. 
 
 Sportula, figures in the laws 
 governing sacred unions, 399. 
 
 Spouting monstrous sparks, 
 248, note 3. 
 
 Spurius Rutilus, a Roman trib¬ 
 une, 145. 
 
 Squares, of the Roman army, 
 320, note 119. 
 
 Standard, white at Rome, 481. 
 
 Star-gazer, Athenion, 259, 260, 
 note 35. 
 
 Starvation of human chattels, 
 405; of Morgantion, 227; of 
 Cleon, 260; wages, 526. 
 
 State, ancient social, 123; 
 slaves owmed by the, 383, 
 note 26; factories, 416, note 
 5; control of works, 417-19; 
 without distinction is with¬ 
 out slaves, 522; paid the fes¬ 
 tive bills, at Anthesteria, 505; 
 the celebrated, 538; owner¬ 
 ship, 567. 
 
 Statesman, a work by Plato, 
 118; of Aristotle, 540. 
 
 Statistics, of gladiators, 279, 
 note 5; of slaves’ living, in¬ 
 scribed on the Egyptian 
 pyramid, 446, note 4; of cru¬ 
 cifixions, 330, 517. 
 
 Statue, of Augustus, 80; of the 
 Greek Athena, 101 „ 125. 
 
 Statute, the most renowned of 
 antiquity, 474. 
 
 Stealing, authorized by Lycur- 
 gus, 69, note 8; even taught 
 the children, 532. 
 
 Stichus, on the faces of slaves, 
 79; their brands, 385, n. 30. 
 
 Still small voice, 523. 
 
 Stoa, of Zeno, 543. 
 
 Stock-farms, the German, 344, 
 note 30; breeding, 528. 
 
 Stoicism, 464. 
 
 Stolo (Licinius), law of, 222, 
 note 84; see Gracchus. 
 
 Stonehenge, massacre of, 102. 
 
 Stone masons, of Athens, 127; 
 cutters, 369, 369, remains, 
 450. 
 
 Strabo, 112, 205. 
 
 Strangers, admitted to the 
 membership, 509. 
 
 Stratonice, crowning of, 463, 
 and plate; honored l’ubilee, 
 463, 504. 
 
 Strikes, ancient, unknown to 
 the living age, viii.; turned 
 out to be disastrous in most 
 cases, xii.; evidence regard¬ 
 ing them, 67, 1; the ancient 
 
 and modern, 133; in Greece, 
 Rome and Sicily, 133; of the 
 20,000, at Declea, 134, note 
 1, 140, 473; one that decided 
 the Peloponnesian war, 138; 
 the servile wars, 140, note 32. 
 155; one at Sunion, 142, 144, 
 of slaves in Macedonian 
 mines, 144, note 42; of slaves 
 at Rome, 146; of Setia, 149, 
 note 12; in Etruria, 155, 157; 
 in Apulia, 159; at Enna in 
 Sicily, 195; causes of rup¬ 
 ture of Eunus, 198, see Eunus; 
 in Asia Minor outlined, 237; 
 a match for, 270; strife-war, 
 hero of the, 513; see Eunus, 
 Spartacus and Drimakos. 
 
 Strongoli or Nsethus, 326. 
 
 Struggle, going on, 43; human¬ 
 ity’s ancient, 68; an early, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 683 
 
 between rich and poor, 99; 
 did our era rise from labor 
 struggles? 523, sq. 
 
 Styx, flowing between Hades 
 and Elysium, 90. 
 
 Suffrage, woman, 391, and 
 notes. 
 
 Suicide, of Comanus, 227; of 
 Blossius, 241 and note 19; 
 the mutual, of Satyr os and 
 braves, 273; forbidden by a 
 rule and penalty of burial 
 society, 355. 
 
 Sun-god, Syrian, 236; worship, 
 in Asia Minor, 236 and note 
 9, 373, note 4; worship of 
 Nemesis, 413, note 36, 450, 
 471; god Apollo, 463, 491; 
 brilliant and flaming color of, 
 469, 69; worship, the com¬ 
 mon, or popular faith, in 
 England, 482; heliopolitai or 
 farmer-warriors of Aristoni- 
 cus, 550. 
 
 Sundays, none for workers, 135. 
 
 Sundikoi, lawyers, 453. 
 
 Sunion, castle of, 100, 143; the 
 miners’ strike at, 142, note 
 38; an Athenian mining city, 
 145; bloody mutiny of slaves, 
 143. 
 
 Superintendent, of public works, 
 inscription showing political 
 action of unions, 383, n. 26. 
 
 Superstition, of Egyptians, 45; 
 of slaves checked their revolt, 
 76; was the masters’ bulwark 
 of protection, 81; among the 
 Greeks, 107, note 49; of the 
 Chians about Drimakos, 177: 
 in favor of Eunus, 216; and 
 of Gracchus, 240. 
 
 Supplicium, the noble, 499. 
 
 Suppression of the unions, 301, 
 note 65; of religious unions, 
 347, note 40; of all unions, 
 362, note 11; union of eran- 
 ists, bv council of Laodicia, 
 511. 
 
 Survival, man fighting for, 61; 
 
 of Trvphon and Athenion, 
 266. 
 
 Sussitoi, common table com¬ 
 munes, 510. 
 
 Sutlers, union of, 397. 
 
 Sutores, or shoemakers, 421. 
 
 Sweeping extermination, 219. 
 
 Switzerland, fossils of, 72. 
 
 Swoon that fell over mankind, 
 494, 495. 
 
 Sword-makers, 377, not 10. 
 
 Symbiosis philia, name of Greek 
 commune, 502. 
 
 Symbols of the ancient farm, 
 66; of human labor, 482; her¬ 
 aldic, 483. 
 
 Symethus, river, 212, 255. 
 
 Sympathy, see irascibility, con¬ 
 cupiscence; growth of, 206; 
 there arose an occasional 
 character, 500; irascibility, 
 concupiscence, 515; how 
 formed, 560. 
 
 Symposiums, see cuts and illus¬ 
 trations representing various 
 ancient; customs and man¬ 
 ners at a, 111, note 55; pray¬ 
 ers and paeans of, 363, 461. 
 
 Syncope, that fell upon man¬ 
 kind, 494. 
 
 Synod, or sometimes called the 
 synagogue, 461. 
 
 Synodoi, Greek, the synods, 501. 
 
 Syracuse, unions at, 1 13; 
 Plato’s experience at, 118; 
 and the great strike, 146, 
 213; proof that it was taken 
 by Eunus, 221; slaves strag¬ 
 gling from, 248; theatre at, 
 401. 
 
 Syria, great numbers brought 
 from, as slaves, to Rome, 
 195; slaves organized in, 
 197; Greek Spoken in, 197; 
 Ceres worshiped in, 198; 
 IGreek speaking unions of, 
 502. 
 
 System, slave, 87; of common 
 proprietorship, 69; patriarch- 
 ship, 73. 
 
684 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 T 
 
 Tabernacle, 40. 
 
 Table, the common, 115, note 
 67, see Roscher; meals in 
 common suppressed by Pyrr¬ 
 hus, 287, note 28; mate of 
 Philip the kin£, 545; see 
 communism or triclinium; 
 the Twelve, see the Twelve 
 Tables. 
 
 Tablets, unheeded by science, 
 84, 367; see inscription. 
 
 Tactics of Eunus, extermina¬ 
 tion, 219; of Athenion, 259, 
 260 and 274, note 70; against 
 enclosure in sieges, 269, 274, 
 note 70; military, of Rome 
 adopted by Spartacus, 290, 
 note 37; of Crassus u> teaze, 
 313. 
 
 Taint, upon labor, 72, 78, 466, 
 533 and 537; some strong 
 men dared be brave, 546. 
 
 Talismans, emblems, mementos 
 and charms, 435, 556. 
 
 Tamia, a stewardess or house¬ 
 wife, 453. 
 
 Tarentine gulf, 158, 211; city, 
 the slaves captured at, 192, 
 and 300. 
 
 Tarpeian rock, 154, note 27. 
 
 Tarquin, king of Rome, 147. 
 
 Tartarus, 93, 123. 
 
 Tartessus, Romans fortify them¬ 
 selves at, 185. 
 
 Tassels, of banners, 484, 486. 
 
 Tasters, union of, 398. 
 
 Tauromanion, number of work¬ 
 ingmen massacred at, xii.; 
 taken by Eunus, but recap¬ 
 tured 226. 
 
 Tax gatherers, unions of, 119, 
 349, 382; slabs showing great 
 numbers of such, 440, 441, & 
 442; gatherers, chap, xx., pp. 
 437, 443; of forgers and min¬ 
 ers, 442, note 10. 
 
 Taygetus, dashed to jelly on the 
 rocks of, 533. 
 
 Teamsters (veetuarii* and the 
 collectors, 440. 
 
 Technitai, of Aristotle, 541. 
 
 Tectoriolse, little plaster images, 
 432. 
 
 Temple, of Demeter, 81; Apollo, 
 81; of Megaron, 91, 95; built 
 by the outcasts, ^8; of Jeru¬ 
 salem, how built, 123; of Sol¬ 
 omon and Hiram, 124; Eleusis 
 125; of Minerva, 137; of the 
 horoon, dedicated by the Chi¬ 
 ans to the manes o- Drimakos, 
 176-177, note 19; of Ceres at 
 Enna, 198; of Thalia, 248 and 
 note 3; great, erected through 
 government employ, 380, note 
 19; of Jupiter, 463. 
 
 Tenets, business of sacred com¬ 
 munes, 113, note 63; of Syr¬ 
 ian theogony, 236-7; of the 
 thiasos, 503, note 18. 
 
 Tents, of Roman military sys¬ 
 tem, 467, note 5. 
 
 Tertullian, in defense of the 
 early Christians, 527. 
 
 Testament, of Attalus, 233. 
 
 Textores, and textrices, 422. 
 
 Thalia, nymph, 247; the tem¬ 
 ple to her Twins, 248 note 3. 
 
 Thames river, 487. 
 
 Thaetetus, of Plato, 118. 
 
 Theatres, their size, 401; see 
 circus, amphitheatre. 
 
 Tlieophanes, 165. 
 
 Theophilus, 452. 
 
 Theophrastus, knew of the com¬ 
 munities, 507. 
 
 Theseus, battle with the Ama¬ 
 zons, 87, note 12, 130; unions 
 as early as, 1 15. 
 
 Theta, Greek letter, meaning 
 on the inscription, “death,” 
 279. 
 
 Thiasos, of the Greeks, 114; the 
 prophets of the, 203; transla¬ 
 tion from stone tablets, 454; 
 defined. 449, 493, and shown 
 in plate facing page 451; also 
 463, 493; “non bacchicus- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 685 
 
 cst,” 504, note 22; became 
 mellow soil, 511. 
 
 Theirs, 489. 
 
 Thrace, mines in, 137; Sparta¬ 
 cus’ home, 285, note 22; wife 
 of Spartacus also from, 290. 
 
 Thucydides, 105, 139, 536; 
 
 wrote whiie in exile, 107; he 
 owned mines in Macedonia, 
 137. 
 
 Thuria seized by Spartacus, 
 300, note 59; where he estab¬ 
 lished a large armory, 375. 
 
 Thyratira, taken by Aristoni- 
 cus, 237. 
 
 'liber river, 112, 1 55; valley, 
 unions of, 133, note 62, 38*9, 
 note 1. 
 
 Tibicenes, Roman and Aule- 
 trids, Greek flute-players, 409. 
 
 Tigers, panthers, bears, etc., 
 411. 
 
 Tin islands, or Cassiterides, 
 483. 
 
 Titinus Gaddaeus’ treachery, 
 252. 
 
 Toga, peace garment, .476; 
 peace garment, red, 477; and 
 saga, when used, 477, note 
 25; chiton, chlamys, hima- 
 tion, 481. 
 
 Tombstones, of gladiators, 279, 
 note 5. 
 
 Tompkins, Mr. Henry, 447, 449, 
 454, 462. 
 
 Tools, for sacrifice, 98, note 57; 
 of labor, a difference be¬ 
 tween ancient and modern, 
 567; men and women, the an¬ 
 cient, 568, 570; as tools men 
 were nationalized, 570; and 
 they rebelled and killed their 
 masters, 573. 
 
 Torcellum, slab of, inscribed by 
 the ragpickers union, 424. 
 
 Toy-gods, manufacture of, 429. 
 
 Trades, organized in ancient 
 days, vii.; multitude of an¬ 
 cient secret, 69; unions, 
 
 formed bv freed slaves, 85; 
 
 •/ 
 
 existed early, 86; are courts 
 of appeal, 94, 96, 100, 113; 
 organizations of freedmen, 
 112; as early as Solomon 
 and Theseus, 115 ; unions in 
 Sicily, 119; unions, a state 
 institution, 121; during the 
 Golden Age, 122; at the 
 Piraeus, 125; organization, 
 upheld by king Servius, 147 ; 
 unions, crowded out, in 
 Rome, 192; unions, search 
 for, 334, note 1; union genu¬ 
 ine of shoemakers, 421; 
 unions under aid and guar¬ 
 anty of government, 437; 
 unions the most powerful an¬ 
 cient proletarian societies, 
 348; unions recognized and 
 employed by the state, 440; 
 unions of Greece, 461; unions 
 the same as the eranoi, 507; 
 Lucian’s choice of a, 543; of 
 Jesus, 521. 
 
 Traders, of Canaan, 501, 502. 
 
 Training school of gladiators, 
 292, note 41; 325, note 124. 
 
 Traitor, perfidy and treachery 
 of the workingmen to each 
 other, 151, note 18, pp. 187, 
 228, 272, 304. 
 
 Tramps, and freedmen, 213; be¬ 
 tween masters and slaves 
 were ground to powder, 261, 
 note 37. 
 
 Transition, period, 71. 
 
 Translation, of Solon’s law for 
 the Twelve Tables, 127, notes 
 87, 88. 
 
 Trans-substantiation, 89. 
 
 Traps and tricks of Spartacus, 
 325, note 124. 
 
 ‘ Treachery, of workmen against 
 themselves, 227; of Nerva, 
 251, note 13; and 257, note 
 28; of Tryphon, 264; of 
 Aquilius, 273; against Spar¬ 
 tacus, 304. 
 
 Tribal community, ancient, 68, 
 note 5. 
 
686 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tribunal, slaves withdrawn by 
 Adrian from the domestic tri¬ 
 bunal, 365. 
 
 Tribunes, elected by the plebe¬ 
 ians, 474, and note 20; Clo- 
 dius, 363, note 15. 
 
 Triclinarchs or stewards, 399, 
 400. 
 
 Triclinium, abolished by Chris¬ 
 tians as an abomination, 400. 
 
 Trident, of Neptune, 130, note 
 96. 
 
 Trinkets, of the throne, 413; 
 the holy, as enormously 
 manufactured, 431. 
 
 Trcezen, tutelary soter or savior 
 from, 509. 
 
 Trojans, 114. 
 
 Trumpeter, 408. 
 
 Tryphon, assumed name of 
 Salvius, 263; sends for 
 Athenion, 264; his fear, 265; 
 death of, 269, note 56. 
 
 Tubicen, 408. 
 
 Tull us Hostilius, 154 and note 
 27. 
 
 Tumbler, every girl was a pro¬ 
 fessional, 535. 
 
 Turkey and its red, 490. 
 
 Turning-lathe, use of, taught 
 the Britons, by the Romans, 
 485. 
 
 Tutelary, divinity of the for¬ 
 tune tellers, 413, note 36; 
 saints, 420; which controlled 
 labor, 481, 487; banner of 
 Pierrefort, 490; soters, 509. 
 
 Twelve Tables, law of, 100, 283, 
 285; Dirksen, on hetserse and 
 sodales, 115; Gaius on right 
 to combine, 127, notes 87, 88; 
 they permitted labor organi¬ 
 zation, 303; celebrated an¬ 
 cient code, 337; engraved on 
 eleven slabs, 339; same laws 
 as the Greek, 347, note 38. 
 
 Twins, pool of the, 248, note 3; 
 of Jupiter and Thalia, 247, 
 263. 
 
 Tyrannus, Men, 143, note 39. 
 
 Tyrant, of Sicily, king of 
 slaves, 404; the ephori, 531, 
 532, see ephori; Agathocles, 
 a potter, 545. 
 
 Tyre, Phoenician city, 123. 
 
 Tyrian red, 479. 
 
 U 
 
 Ulpian, on natural rights, 552, 
 note 69. 
 
 Unions, of mercenaries, 77, 78; 
 of slaves, 98, see slave; of la¬ 
 borers (Greek), 99; of clerks, 
 114; of workingmen for re¬ 
 sistance, 117; turned into 
 banditti, 120; discussion in 
 secret, 126; dangerous com¬ 
 petitors of slavery, 366; of 
 farmers rare, 443; synonyms, 
 for different countries, 502; 
 see organization. 
 
 United States, growth of la¬ 
 bor movements in the, 126; 
 the great civil war, 140, note 
 31; bureau of labor, 146; 
 note 3; appropriately adopted 
 the stars and stripes, 470. 
 
 Unwashed, the Spartan youth, 
 534. 
 
 Uprisings, the ancient, almost 
 unknown to the living age, 
 vii.; vague evidence of their 
 antiquity, 67, note 2; ancient 
 strugles and strikes, 78; in 
 Attica, 141; contagious, 146, 
 and note 3; of Eunus, imme¬ 
 diate cause, 201; at Per- 
 gamus, 232-245; see slave, 
 wars of the. 
 
 Urinatores (divers), 112, 389, 
 note 1, 435. 
 
 Utica, near Carthage, furnished 
 elephants against Viriathus, 
 186 and plate. 
 
 Utopia, 47, note 1, 55. 
 
 Utricularis (bagpipe), 408. 
 
 V 
 
 Vacancy, 474 and note 20. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 687 
 
 Vale of tears, 352. 
 
 Varinius, defeat of, 297, note 
 54; great battle, 299; and of 
 Pieenum, 300, note 60. 
 
 Varro (Charis) quoted, 291 
 and note 37. 
 
 Vascula, spits, ladles, cups, 
 soup-spoons, and bowls, 399. 
 
 Vascularii (metal vessel mak¬ 
 ers), were skilled workmen, 
 399, and 446. 
 
 Vatican, the ancient works lost 
 in, 201, 207; fragments, 300, 
 note 60; where is a baxea or 
 ancient shoe, 420. 
 
 Vaulted dome, 466; firmament, 
 538. 
 
 Vectigalia, means, revenues, 
 119 and note 74; system of 
 the, 156, 409; see tax col¬ 
 lection. 
 
 V leda, 303, note 73. 
 
 Vellejus Paterculus, his ac¬ 
 count of the wars of Viria- 
 thus and Spartacus, 187; 
 Paterculus on numbers of 
 army of gladiators, 325, note 
 123. 
 
 Vengeance, of Hermotius, 168- 
 9, note 7; of Rupillius, 227; 
 intimidation and, of Plato, 
 244, note 22; irascibility 
 and, once more vindicated, 
 269; wreaking infuriates. 
 407; 549, note 67; of Je¬ 
 hovah, 566. 
 
 Venison, fish and mutton the 
 aristocratic food, 386. 
 
 Ventidius Bassus, consul, 79. 
 
 Venus, battle of the hill of, 183. 
 
 Venusia in Lucania, inscription 
 of perfumers found at, 434. 
 
 Verna or home-born, 391. 
 
 Verona, inscription of wine 
 commune, 382. 
 
 Verres, a praetor or governor of 
 Sicily, 119, note 74, 195,284; 
 had no respect for humanity, 
 1 79-80. 
 
 Vesuvius, the then peak of, 293; 
 
 height of, before the erup¬ 
 tion, 293. 
 
 Vessel-makers (Vascularii), 
 445. 
 
 Vetilus, overthrown and killed 
 by Viriathus, 182, note 6, 
 184. 
 
 Vexillum or semeion, 467; was 
 a her flag, 467, note 5,476-7. 
 
 Via, the Appian, or Appian 
 Way, 293; Way, scene of the 
 crucifixion of six thousand 
 working people, 329; Aquil- 
 lia, join the Appian Way, 
 was taken by Spartacus, 293; 
 Sacra, P. Nicanor the per¬ 
 fumer, on the, 434. 
 
 Vic, Vic-le Comte, its half-red 
 banner, 489. 
 
 Victualing system, 389, 400. 
 
 Vigano, Prof. Francesco, 447. 
 
 Vineyard of the Lord, 522. 
 
 Vini Susceptores, 393. 
 
 Virgin Mary shown on red flag, 
 486. 
 
 Virginia, rape of, 287, note 32. 
 
 Viriathus, chapter viii.; story 
 of, commenced, 179; personal 
 appearance of, 180, and notes 
 2, 3, 4; was a poor man, 
 180; collects his band, 181; 
 speech of, 182; governor of 
 Spain, 182; successful re¬ 
 treat to Tribola, 183; defeats 
 a Roman auxiliary force and 
 Vetilius killed, 184; made 
 king, 185; destroys the forces 
 of Quinctius and iEmilius, 
 186; and defats Plautius, 
 186; defeats Servilianus at 
 at Eresane, 187; makes a 
 treaty of peace with Rome, 
 187; held Rome in check, 
 188; murdered by his own 
 men, 187; great gladiatorial 
 wake, 188-9; red banner 
 planted in the land of, 491; 
 influence of: 517. 
 
 Vitellius, emperor of Rome, 
 79. 
 
688 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vlastos, recent discovery by, 
 91. 
 
 Vogt, Professor, mentioned, 59, 
 447. 
 
 Y r oice, plaintive, still small 
 523. 
 
 Y^olsinii, siege of, where 2,000 
 statues and images were 
 taken, 431. 
 
 Voodooism, 559. 
 
 W 
 
 Wages, early aversion to, 39; 
 slavery, 71; in time of Peri¬ 
 cles, 124, 137; slavery fast 
 going, 516, note 50; earners, 
 as Aristotle’s 4th class, 540. 
 
 Wagon-makers, 377, note 10. 
 
 Waiters were also tasters, 399; 
 and cooks of Sparta, 533. 
 
 Wakes, antiquity of, 135; origin 
 of, 277; gladiatorial in honor 
 of Crixius’ ghost, 308, note 
 85. 
 
 Wallace, numbers of mankind, 
 
 283, note 17; on the ancient 
 census, 340, note 17. 
 
 Wanderers, what Gracchus 
 said, 500. 
 
 Want, tie that married irasci¬ 
 bility with sympathy, 515. 
 
 Wars, slaves used as mercena¬ 
 ries in, 77, and note 29; the 
 Holy, 81; causes of the so¬ 
 cial or servile, 77, 84. 99; be¬ 
 tween Messenia and Sparta, 
 103; Peloponnesian, 105; dis¬ 
 couraged by Numa, 123; 
 strike during the Pelopon¬ 
 nesian, 134, 138, 142; third 
 Punic, 178; of Eunus— 
 evidence of the stones, 224, 
 note 89; brutal purposes of, 
 475; forbidden in the plan 
 of Jesus, 563; farmers best 
 fitted for, 541, 542. 
 
 Warning, 573. 
 
 Warwick and Spartacus com¬ 
 pared, 327. 
 
 Waterm m, 383. 
 
 Wealth, of Crassus, 340, note 
 17; of Cseliu3 Claudius, 340, 
 note 17; number of slaves 
 owned by different persons, 
 350; of Damophilus, 196, 
 sqq.; of Demosthenes, 548; 
 see slave. 
 
 Weavers and drapers, 416, note 
 8; carders, etc., and their 
 red flag, 486. 
 
 Wescher, archaeologist, 506; his 
 theory now maintained, 506. 
 
 Whips, and sacrificial axe, of 
 Salvius, 264, and note 43; 
 horsewhip of P. Crassus, 242, 
 note 20; original derivations, 
 471. 
 
 Whipped every night, 472, note 
 15; and strangled, 567; men 
 and women, for the “blessed” 
 of a chosen people, 568. 
 
 White, in heathen mythology, 
 emblematic of degree, 466; 
 essence of non-color, 480; 
 and red were essences of 
 color, 480; see chapter on 
 red flag. 
 
 W 7 ickliffe, 559. 
 
 Wiener Jahrbiicher, article on 
 union of piscicapii, 389. 
 
 Wife, the favorite, often buried 
 alive with head of tne house, 
 82, note 40; of Spartacus, 
 558. 
 
 Wild, Mr. <x. L., piano mer¬ 
 chant of Washington, posses¬ 
 sor of a curious book on 
 Jesus and the Essenes, 565, 
 note 107; slave insurrection 
 in Chios, 164, note 3; beasts, 
 men thrown into dens of, 
 280; beasts i n the amphi¬ 
 theatres, 394, 395; beasts, 
 
 lions, tigers, leopards, etc., 
 for the combats, 411; boar, 
 story of L. Domitius and the 
 slave who killed a, 136, 475. 
 
 Will, of Kraton, 98, note 27: 
 of Attalus III. 232, 333, see 
 testament. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 689 
 
 Wine-curers, unions of, 382, 
 note 23; smokers’ unions, 
 383, note 24, 384; vaulters, 
 447; drinking, false notions 
 regarding, 502; presses, 
 feasts, 505. 
 
 Winter quarters of Spartacus, 
 300, 375. 
 
 Witchcraft, among Egyptians, 
 45; and fortune telling, 414. 
 
 Women, paired as gladiators, 
 277, note 1; constancy of, 
 303, note 73; in politics at 
 Pompeii, 390-91, and notes 3, 
 4, 5; were prominent officers 
 in the unions, 434; took their 
 stand in the unions with 
 dignity, 450; as members, 
 461; in the thiasos, 463. 
 
 Wonder world, primitive man 
 in the, 85; of the ancient 
 world, 248, note 4; and awe 
 caused adoration of the sun, 
 469. 
 
 Woodworkers under two names, 
 360; workers under Augusta, 
 362, note 10. 
 
 Work, procured by the unions, 
 511. 
 
 Workhouse, 274, note 70; pris¬ 
 ons, iron of, for armor, 297, 
 note 53. 
 
 Workingmen, number massa¬ 
 cred at Enna and Tauro- 
 manian, xii.; number cru¬ 
 cified by Crassus, and Pom- 
 pey, xii.; not originally 
 citizens, 49; condition, low¬ 
 liness of, in ancient times, 
 49; of America and Europe 
 combine against brute force, 
 57; as a slave, 78; figures 
 little in history, 86; societies 
 of, 87; political institutions, 
 no court of appeals, 94; as¬ 
 sassinated, 98; had the right 
 to organize, 100; excluded 
 by Lycurgus, 101; condition 
 of, in Sparta, 103; fought 
 for Sparta, 106: murder of 
 
 2,000, 107, note 46; worked 
 directly for the government. 
 114; littleness of the ancient, 
 117; Plato against the, 118; 
 driven from the crusade, 
 131; hated Plato, 132; pro¬ 
 tected by gods, 142, note 34; 
 terrible condition of, in 
 Rome, 179; cruel treatment 
 of, causing great wars, 192; 
 had no souls, 193; as a class, 
 how formed, 528; Jesus in 
 all respects one, 153, 514, 
 551, 552, and 560. 
 
 Works and Days, a book by 
 Hesiod, on labor question, 
 161. 
 
 Workshops in the emperor’s 
 palaces, 419. 
 
 Worship, in raws of Lycurgus, 
 69; right of, 70; by sacri¬ 
 fice, 75; of gods, 81; of the 
 Lord by his children; charac¬ 
 ter of, at Eleusis, 88; im¬ 
 portant right of, 115. 
 
 WAeaths and ribbons, 463. 
 
 Wyoming, massacre at, 102. 
 
 X 
 
 Xanthos, a slave, builds a tem¬ 
 ple, 143, note 39. 
 
 Xenocles, a master mason, 131. 
 
 Xenophon, 92, 135, note 9; and 
 the “imperishable laws,” 
 526; quotes Socrates, 553, 
 note 76; on prayer, 563. 
 
 Xipe, gladiatorial feasts of, 278. 
 
 Z 
 
 Zama, battle, of, 152. 
 
 Zend, 526. 
 
 Zenoa, in love with the girl 
 trade unionist, 464; Aristotle 
 borrowed from, 518; the 
 stoic, 546. 
 
 Zeus, man-god, 48, note 2; 
 great statue of the Olym¬ 
 pian, 101. 
 
 Zeuxes, and Hermias, slayers 
 of Damophilus, 204. 
 

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