'm M<. %S^) . V) 6-v^^ /^' i'Oll'^ PAPERS AND ADDRESSES LOPtD EE7^SSEY PAPERS AND ADDRESSES By LORD BRASSEY, K.CB., D.C.L. NAVAL AND MAEITIME, 1871 to 1893. Arranged and Edited by Captain S. Earhley- WiLMOT, E.N. 2 vols, crown 8vo. lO^'. WORK AND WAGES. Edited by J. PoTTEE, and with Introduction by Geokge Howell, M.P. 1 vol. crown 8vo. 5s. London : LONGMANS, GKEEN, & CO. Kcw yoxk ; 15 East IB"" Street. PAPERS AND ADDRESSES BY LORD BRASSEY, K.C.B., D.C.L. MERCANTILE 3IAEINE AND NAVIGATION FROM 1871 TO 1894 AKKAXGEU AND EDITED BY _ Q CAPTAIN S. EAEDLEY-WILMOT, E.N. LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. AND NEW YORK : 15 EAST lG»i> STKEET 1894 All !-i^iits r-eft;rKed 806TO« COLLEGE U8RAW CMfiSTNOt H'LL. MASS. Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2011 witii funding from Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries littp://www.arcliive.org/details/papersaddresses1894bras EDITOR'S PEEFACE This volume comprises a further selection of Lord Brassey's Papers and Addresses on Maritime Affairs from 1871 to the present time. It deals specially with questions relating to the Mercantile Marine and to Navigation ; subjects in which the author has always taken a lively interest, and in which, as regards navigation, he has had great practical experience. This compilation usefully supplements the two volumes of Naval Papers already published. S. E.-W. November 1894. CONTENTS PART I. MERCANTILE MARINE. P.VO E I. OUE MEKCHAXT NAVY. LECTURE AT HASTINGS, NOVEMBER 1873 1 II. OUR SEAMEN. REPRINT, 'CONTEMPORARY RE- VIEW,' SEPTEMBER 1874 1 III. THE ADVANCE NOTE— WHAT IT IS, AND WHY IT OUGHT TO BE ABOLISHED. REPRINT, • CON- TEMPORARY REVIEW,' AUGUST 1875 ... 50 IV. THE LAW OF MARINE INSURANCE. SPEECH, HOUSE OP COMMONS, MARCH 20, 1875. . . 60 V. A PENSION FUND FOR SEAMEN. SPEECH, HOUSE OP COMMONS, MARCH 10, 1876 .... 66 VI. THE MERCHANT SHIPPING BILL. SPEECH, HOUSE OF COMMONS, MARCH 27, 1876 . . . . 77 VII. seamen's dietary. SPEECH, HOUSE OF COM- MONS, MAY 4, 1876 82 VIII. OFFICERS OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE. SPEECH, HOUSE OF COMMONS, MAY 16, 1876 . . . 85 IX. THE SEA AS A CALLING. ADDRESS TO THE CADETS OP THE ' WORCESTER', JUNE 22, 1877 90 X. A SEA CAREER. ADDRESS TO THE CADETS OP THE 'CONWAY,' JUNE 24, 1880 . . .97 XI. SHIP INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA. ' NINETEENTH CENTURY,' MARCH 1884 . 103 XII. TYRANTS OF THE SEA. ' CONTEMPORARY RE- VIEW,' MARCH 1881) 114 Vni CONTENTS xiii. me:ichant ships and seamen, address at seamen's conference, CARDIFF, OCTOBER 8, 1889 125 XIV. CHOICE OF A PROFESSION— THE SEA. ' PALL MALL GAZETTE,' JULY 25, 1890 . . . 132 XV. SAILING SHIPS. SPEECH AT LAUNCH OP 'LORD BRASSEY ' AT ALLOA, SEPTEMBER 20, 1891 . . 139 XVI. NAUTICAL EDUCATION. ADDRESS AT OPENING OI^ LIVERPOOL NAUTICAL COLLEGE, 1892 . . 143 SVII. THE ROYAL NAVAL RESERVE. SPEECH AS CHAIR- MAN AT ANNUAL DINNER, ROYAL NAVAL RE- SERVE ASSOCIATION, MAY 1, 1894 . . . 148 VIII. EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR THE SEA. SPEECH AT ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OP PRIZES, SCHOOL SHIP ' CONWAY,' LIVERPOOL, JULY 19, 1894 1.53 XIX. PROGRESS OP SHIPBUILDING. OPENING ADDRESS AT SUMMER MEETING, INSTITUTION OP NAVAL AliCHITBCTS, SOUTHAMPTON, JULY 1894 . . 157 PART II. NAVIGATION. THE EXAMINATION OP ADJUSTERS OF COM- PASSES. PAPER READ AT INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS, MARCH 31, 1871 . . . 185 THE CHANNEL LIGHTS. SPEECH, HOUSE OF COMMONS, MAY 1873 194 ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES. SPEECH, HOUSE OF COMMONS, MARCH 4, 1880 199 HARBOUR WORKS, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. AD- DRESS AS PRESIDENT OF THE SECOND INTER- NATIONAL MARITIME CONGRESS, JULY 18, 1893 206 THE LOSS OF THE ' VICTORIA ' AND THE NEW PROGRAMME OP SHIPBUILDING. LETTERS TO « TIMES,' JULY 7 AND DECEMBER 29, 1893 . 212 INDEX 219 PART I MEEOANTIIjE makine OUB MEECHANT NAVY Lecture at Hastings, November 1873 It is to me a real relief to address you on maritime affairs. When speaking from this platform of the con- cerns of our ships and oar sailors, I forget the contro- versies of political life — controversies of which I may frankly confess that, with increasing experience, I do nofc grow more heartily enamoured. It is far more agreeable to me to contend with an adverse breeze than to endeavour to overcome the scruples of the reluctant elector. I would say, with the poet : How happy they Who from the toil and t umult of their lives Steal to look down wliere nought but ocean strives. I commence my lecture by calling your attention to some figures which will illustrate the immense import- ance of our shipping as an element of the power and prosperity of our country, and which will equally serve to show our pre-eminence, as a maritime nation, over every other people in the world. The gross total tonnage of the shipping entered and B -if OUE MERCHANT NAVY 1873 Increase of shipping entered and cleared since 1838 Shipping of different nations Increase of steam tonnage Xumber of peamen em- ployed The prin- cipal tiades 01 onr mercantile marine cleared, with cargoes only, in the United Kingdom, in 1838, was 6,417,000 tons, of which British ships consti- tuted 70-5 per cent. The gross total in 1871 was 35,502,000 tons, of which British shipping constituted 69'4 per cent. The aggregate tonnage of the merchant navy of the British Empire is 7,143,000 tons. The tonnage of the mercantile marine of the United States, registei^ed for over-sea foreign trade, is 1,425,000 tons ; that of France, 1,000,000 tons ; that of Holland, 500,000 tons ; that of Norway, 1,000,000 tons. The tonnage of the British Empire in 1815 was 2,681,000. The tonnage in 1854 was 5,115,000 tons; in 1862, 6,041,000; in 1864, 7,103,000. There has been no increase in the tonnage of late years, partly because the register has been cleared of the names of many ships which had been retained through previous want of care, and partly because steam has gradually superseded sail. The steam tonnage of the British Empire was, in 1838, 83,000 tons; in 1860, 500,000 tons ; in 1869, 1,033,000 tons ; and in 1871, 1,411,000 tons. The steam tonnage of the United States, registered for over-sea trade, is 181,000, tons ; that of France, 143,000 tons. The tonnage built in the United Kingdom in 1864 was 433,000 tons; in 1867, 270,000 tons ; in 1871, 354,000 tons. The num- ber of seamen employed in 1867 was 196,000, with a percentage of 12*8 of foreign seamen. The number in 1871 was 200,000, with 9-76 per cent, of foreigners. The number of seamen employed to 100 tons in 1869 was, in sailing ships, 2*83 ; in steam vessels, 4*68. In 1871 the corresponding numbers were, in sailing vessels, 2"72 ; in steam vessels, 4-30. I pass on to give some account of the principal trades in which the British mercantile marine is engaged, and shall take the figures for 1871. If I place each foreign 1873 OUR MEKCHANT NAVY country in a series, commencing with that country with which our maritime intercourse is most active, they will come in the following order : First, the United States, then Russia, Germany, France, North American Pro- vinces, Sweden, Spain, Norway, India, Holland, Bel- gium, and the West Indies. The value of the trade carried on with these countries does not vary in propor- tion to the amount of shipping employed. The most important branch of our foreign trade is carried on with the United States ; and the value of our imports from, and exports to, that country in 1871 attained the enor- mous total of 100,000,000^. Next in importance comes the trade with France, amounting to a total value of 62,000,000^. Then follows Germany, 57,000,000/.; India, 50,000,000/. ; Russia, 22,000,000/. ; North Ameri- can Provinces, 18,000,000/. ; Sweden and Norway bring up the rear. In the great trade with the United States, the sailing steam re- clippers of ten or fifteen years ago are gradually giving in traffic way to the magnificent fleets of steamers which have states been established by the enterprising shipowners of Liverpool. To show how great a change has taken place in the class of ships engaged in the North American trade, I will take from the tables recently published by the Board of Trade the corresponding figures for 1854 and 1871. In 1854 the total tonnage of British and foreign ships entered with cargoes from the United States amounted to 926,504 tons. Of these, the tonnage of British sailing vessels was 275,000 tons ; that of steam vessels 89,000 tons. The tonnage of foi-eign sailing vessels amounted to 894,000 ; that of steam vessels was 33,000 tons. In 1871 the tonnage of British sailing vessels was 787,000 tons ; that of foreign sailing vessels 723,000 tons ; thus showing a slight B 2 OUE MERCHANT NAVY 1873 Increasing commerce with India Influence of the Suez Canal on ocean trafEc decrease. Meanwhile the tonnage of British steam vessels had increased to 1,000,000 tons, showing an in- crease of 911,000 tons. The foreign steam vessels engaged in the trade with the United States had in- creased by 7 only in number, with an augmentation of 10,000 tons. I will take another great branch of our foreign trade — that with British India — and again, comparing the years 1854 and 1871 together, we see a splendid devel- opment of commerce, and the employment of steam vessels increased in a much higher ratio than that of the sailing vessels, great as the increase in the number of the latter has actually been. In 1854 the total tonnage of British vessels entered with cargoes from the East Indies and Singapore was 329,000 tons, of which the sailing ships represented 319,000 tons. The total tonnage in 1871 was 829,000 tons —viz. 681,000 tons in sailing ships, and about 150,000 tons in steamers. The opening of the Suez Canal has produced a great change in the communications by sea with the East. When ships bound for the East Indies were compelled to circumnavigate Africa, the distance to be traversed without any intermediate coaling ports was such that the carrying capacity of the ships was scarcely sufficient to convey the coals consumed on the voyage. The trans- port of merchandise in addition was impracticable. The opening of the Canal has altered the conditions in favour of steamers, which not only have a much shorter distance to traverse, but can also obtain conveniently whatever supply of coal they may require at Gibraltar, Malta, Port Said, and Aden. In view of these advan- tages, an opinion was entertained that, after the opening of the Canal, it would be impossible for sailing vessels 1873 OVli MERCHANT NAVY to compete successfully with steamers. An immense capital was accordingly invested in the construction of steamers adapted for the passage of the Suez Canal. Subsequent experience has not altogether verified the expectations of the shipowners. The tonnage-dues paid by vessels using the canal have been doubled ; the cost of coals has been enormously increased, and the shippers have not found it worth while to pay a corre- sponding increase of rates in order to secure the advan- tages of the quicker transit by means of the Canal. In many descriptions of goods speedy conveyance offers no commercial advantages. For example, cotton can be sold on the market to arrive, as readily, and on as favourable terms, as if actually warehoused in Liverpool or London. Indeed, if all the cotton were to be brought Advantage _ _ of sailing home by steamer as soon as the crop is picked, the ships for "^ 1 • 1 1 • 1 cotton trade markets would be glutted, and prices unduly depreciated. On the other hand, if, in order to avoid this inconve- nience, the cotton is warehoused in Bombay until the merchant judges that the happy moment has arrived to make an advantageous bargain, then an outlay must be incurred in the hiring of warehouse accommodation, and in the various incidental expenses. Hence it has been found more convenient, in many such cases, to employ sailing vessels. The greater duration of the voyage, in this case, is in itself an advantage, as the ship serves both as a conveyance and a warehouse for the cotton. The recent enormous increase in the cultivation of corn in California has been equally conducive to the prosperity of the owners of sailing vessels. When I was in America last year, I read in the Californian newspapers fabulous accounts of the quantity of wheat grown in that State. The grain had accumulated to Wiieat in California 6 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 1873 such an extent that the resources of the Pacific Rail- way Company were insufficient to deal with the traffic brought to the line ; and the freights of sailing vessels from San Francisco to England were almost enough, in some cases, to pay for ships purchased a short time before at the extremely depreciated rates at that time prevailing. Employment The better opinion would therefore seem to be that hig ships'^ the days of sailing ships are not yet numbered, and that there is a prospect for many years to come of the contiiiued nse, for the purposes of maritime loco- motion, of the motive power which is of all others the cheapest and most readily available. As a lover of sailing, I should be sorry indeed to contemplate the time when those splendid clippers which sweep across the ocean, and the less majestic but even more pic- turesque shipping which creeps along our coasts, shall have disappeared. There is something peculiarly fasci- nating in the sailors' art ; in the constant and triumph- ant battle with the adverse gale ; and in the infinite variety of life at sea, as contrary winds and more pro- pitious breezes in turn succeed each other. In a sailing Superior ship the Seaman is constantly called upon to meet the a saiiiog sudden and unforeseen exigencies of the moment with '^ some new and skilful manoeuvre, or to repair or avert an accident by ready and ingenious seamanship. In a steamer, where the propulsion is derived from a power which never fails nor varies, with the development of which the officer on deck has no concern, there is not the same necessity for watchfulness or alacrity. There is less occasion and less opportunity for the display of the nerve and the professional skill of the experienced sailor. I need not insist, in dull and tiresome prose, on the aesthetic charms of ships propelled by canvas. Mr. 1873 OUR MERCHANT NAVY Ruskin has told us that, of all the curves known in Thepontiy nature or in art, none are so exquisitely graceiul as tliose ships. of the full sail swelling to the breeze. May we not, then, with the poet Cowper say : Heaven speed the canvas, gallantly unfarlecl, To furnish and accommodate the world ; To give the poles the produce of the sun, And knit the unsocial climates into one ? And in this place I may appropriately remind you of Byron that familiar quotation from Lord Byron, one of the most beautiful passages in a poem which, with all its faults, has many gems. You remember he exclaims in * The Corsair ' — How glorious her gallant course she goes ! Her white wings flying — never from her foes : She walks the waters like a thing of life, And seems to dare the elements to strife. Who would nob brave the battle-fire — the wreck — To move the monarch of her pc-pled deck ? Few among the inhabitants of our coasts are favoured Scene at with more charming views of shipping than those which Countless are from time to time witnessed from our own beach passing at Hastings. In fine weather, the wind drawing off the land, the sailing vessels passing up and down the Channel cling closely to the shore. At such a time the ships in view may be counted by many hundreds. Within a limit of fifteen miles from our coast a mari- time commerce of almost incalculable value and extent is constantly maintained. Those ships you see on the horizon are coming and going to and from every quarter of the globe. You have before you not merely the shipping bound to London and our own ports on the east coast, but the vast commerce between the German and Baltic ports, and the Far East and America. My 8 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 1878 seafaring experience has taken me to the estuaries of the Thames, the Mersey and the Clyde, the Straits of Gibraltar, the St. Lawrence, and the approaches to New York ; and in these waters the aggregation of shipping is at times immense. But the most travelled does not enjoy a better opportunity than the good people of Hastings of realising that marvellous development of human enterprise and ingenuity which has taken place upon the ocean. Dangers of There is, alas ! another side to this bright picture of WrMk'*^^" national greatness and prosperity. The vast commerce ior''tU(f'^ of this country involves much danger to life. Upwards Khig^dom ^^ 2,000 of our brave seamen perish every year ; and though there is a certain danger in a sea life which no precautions can entirely remove, it is only too true that many lives have been sacrificed from the negligence, ignorance, and cupidity of certain shipowners, and from the want of proper care on the part of the officers and seamen themselves. I will take the Wreck Register for 1871, and give you an analysis of the melancholy story which it relates. I will ask your attention, in the first place, to the wrecks which occur on the coasts of the United Kingdom. The tables show the following as the annual average number of wrecks since 1852, divided into four periods of five years. In the first period, 1,045 ; in the second, 1,320 ; in the third, 1,611 ; in the fourth, 1,805, constituted the annual average number of wrecks. Of these casualties, in 1871, about one in twelve resulted in loss of life. The Marine Department of the Board of Trade express an opinion that the number of wrecks, casualties, and collisions may increase from year to year, owing to the increase in the number of ships frequenting our coasts and the narrow seas adjoining ; whilst the particular number XJeriod.s 1873 OUE MERCHANT NAVY 9 for any one year will be increased or diminished accord ing to the prevalence or absence of gales of remarkable violence and duration. In October, 1859, there was the ' Royal Charter ' gale, Number of wrocks at and a loss of 343 ships. In January, February, and different November, 1861, there were IST.E. and S.E. gales, which added 340 to the number of wrecks. In January, October, and December, 1862, thei^e were westerly gales, with upwards of 540 wrecks. In the first and the last three months of 1863 there wei-e westerly gales, with 930 wrecks. Owing to the absence of any gales of especial violence and duration in 1864 the number of wrecks was 274 below the number in 1863. The gales of the six winter months of 1865 gave 766 wrecks ; those of 1866, 793 wrecks. Of this number 279 oc- curred in January. On the 11th of the month 61 vessels in Torquay Bay alone were either totally lost or seriously damaged, and 35 seamen perished. The eompilers of the Wreck Register proceed as follows : ' In 1867 the heavy gales experienced in the months of January, March, April, October, November, and De cember added 980 casualties to the list ; and the whole number of wrecks reported in these months exceeded, by about 400, the number reported during the same months of the previous year. Nine hundred and two, or about three-sevenths, of the wrecks of 1867 occurred in January and December, and 251 occurred in March. With the exception of December, 1863, when 466 wrecks and casualties took place, the numbers for each of the three months stated above are far higher than for the corresponding months of the previous year. The most serious gale of the year 1867 was that which com- menced on December 1, and continued until the 3rd. During the continuance of this gale 319 lives were lost. 10 OlUl MEECHANT NAVY 1873 and 326 vessels were wrecked or damaged. Of these disasters 146 occurred on December 2. From the direc- tion of the wind, which blew principally from the N. and N.N.E., this gale proved most disastrous to the vessels on the East coast, and to fishing-smacks on the Dogger Bank and other fishing grounds in the North Sea. In the year 1868 tlie most serious gales occurred on August 22 and 23, a month in which our coasts are seldom visited by heavy gales, and the number of wi'ecks and casualties reported during that month more than doubled the number recorded during the same month in any previous year. Losses from It must not be Supposed that gales are the only cause ''of the too numerous disasters at sea. Of the 328 losses from causes other than collisions, on or near the coasts of the United Kingdom in 1871, 137 happened during a strong gale, from stress of weather ; 44 arose from defects in the ship or her equipments, and 99 were caused by inattention, carelessness, or neglect. Of the 82.6 casual- ties, 372 happened during a strong gale, 163 arose from carelessness, and 125 from defects in the ship or her equipments. During 1871, 155 wrecks or casualties happened to nearly new ships, and 302 to ships of from three to seven years of age ; 361 to ships of from seven to fourteen years old, and 554 to ships from fifteen to thirty years old. Of the 1,927 vessels lost or damaged on the coasts of the United Kingdom in 1871, 223 were steamers, and 806 did not exceed 100 tons burthen. Only 155 were above 600 tons burthen. Of the 17,086 wrecks and casualties which occurred in the ten years from 1862 to 1871 inclusive, about one-half occurred in very fine weather. It is impossible to detail these disasters without asking ourselves whether this number does not convey 1873 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 11 a grave reflection on the Government, the shipowners, Action of and the seamen of this country. The case has been His praise- taken up with zeal and indomitable earnestness by Mr. ^ort7 Plimsoll, and though he may have been guilty of exag- gerations, though ; in the intensity of his sympathy for the unfortunate sailors, he may have directed unjustifi able attacks on the Board of Trade and the shipowners ; though his remedies may not be calculated to effect the object in view ; yet it must be remembered, on the other hand, that the man who is capable of taking up a neg- lected cause with that degree of earnestness which is necessary to arouse the apathy of a great public, is rarely distinguished for the virtue of prudence and self-restraint. Peter the Hermit, if he had been a very prudent man, would not have persuaded our ancestors to make a crusade to the Holy Land ; and all must admit that Mr. Plimsoll has done a work which deserves the cordial acknowledgments of the country. Everybody who has been much at sea has witnessed innumerable illustra- tions of that recklessness and cupidity to which Mr. Plimsoll has succeeded in directing the public attention. The law, it seemed to him, should be amended, so Manj' losses that the overloading of a steamer to a dangerous extent loading should, ipso facto, vitiate the insurance. Mr. Pry, Pre- sident of the Canadian Board of Trade, says that a close acquaintance with the North American trade for thirty- three years had convinced him that fully three-fourths of the losses of wood-laden ships in the Atlantic in the fall of the year ai-e attributable to deck loads. An enactment passed by the Canadian Board of Trade, thirty-three years ago, prohibited all vessels, clearing at ports in British North America for ports in the United Kingdom, from carrying deck loads from December 1 to May 1 j but unfortunately this law was repealed in 12 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 1873 Unsea- wortliy ships 1862 by England in a Customs Consolidation Act. Mr. Fry proposes that the law should be revived by the Dominion Parliament. Seven vessels, laden with grain, Overloading were lost by overloading. A regulation is enforced at Montreal which requires all ships taking in cargoes of grain to be laden under the supervision of a Government official. But the penalty for infringement of this enact- ment is only forty dollars, and accordingly every one of the steamers that were lost paid the penalty, with the melancholy result which has been already stated. I have recently been much in contact with the Naval Reserve of the port of London, and I have repeatedly asked the seamen whether the practice of overloading commonly prevails. I have been assured that such un- happily is their experience. Overloading is not the only source of danger. Vessels are allowed to go to sea, in some branches of trade, until they fall to pieces. At Quebec, last autumn, I was surprised to find that the condition of the ships engaged in the timber trade was, in so many cases, most unsatisfactory. Almost every ship is now fitted with a windmill for pumping ; and even in still water, when in their lightest trim, the pumps are generally discharging a continuous stream of water whenever there is wind enough to keep them in motion. How terribly leaky must such ships be when deeply laden, and labouring heavily in stormy weather at sea ! Again, cargoes, both of timber and grain, are extremely dangerous unless due pi^ecautions are taken to prevent them from shifting. Now bulkheads and other necessary precautions for that object, and cai-eful stow- age, are all sources of expense, and the parsimonious and reckless will ever persist in neglecting every means of securing safety unless they are compelled by law to adopt them. The principal source of danger is, as has Inefficient equipment 1873 OUE MlilKCIIANT NAVY 13 already been pointed out, the excessive facility for insuring Danger of against every kind of maritime risk. It wei-e much to faci'ut^Tor be desired that some means should be found of determin- '"^"""^ ing for every ship the maximum value, beyond which the owners should not be permitted to insure. While the objections to excessive insurance well deserve considera- tion, it is most difficult to discover any means by which the practice can be checked by legal enactment. It is quite clear, as a matter of principle, that every owner should stand to lose, and not to gain, by the loss of his vessel, and any system of insurance is faulty under which it is worth nobody's while to inquire into the charactei' of the ships insured, or the circumstances which led to their loss. In considering the various causes of loss at sea, we incapacity must not omit to notice the carelessnes3 and incapacity and seamen of masters, and sometimes of seamen. For ofiences of penalty this character the law has not been sufficiently severe. The suspension of certificate for twelve months is the maximum penalty known to law for cases which, in an engine-driver on a railway, would have been pro- nounced to be manslaughter. The investigation which is now being conducted by a Royal Commission cannot be otherwise than acceptable to the owners of good ships, who suffer from the competition with worn-out vessels, bought at the lowest prices, and sailed at small e> - pense, because so miserably found. The freight which owners of these vile ships are content to take cannot be remunerative to those who conduct a legitimate busi- ness. Again, the owners of sound ships suffer injustice because they are compelled to pay higher rates of insur- ance, in order to compensate the underwriters for the losses they sustain from more hazardous risks. It must not be supposed that nothing has been done 14 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 187-3 Improve- for the protection of the sailor. ' Already his food,' food and says a well-informed writer in the ' Nautical Magazine,' tion of^ea-^" ' is the Subject of statutory enactment, as also his sleep- ""^" ing accommodation, lime and lemon juice, the medicine, conduct afloat, the boats, the anchors, and cables.' By a recent Act it has been made a misdemeanour for a ship- owner to send an unseaworthy ship to sea. Sailors can leave their ship if they believe her to be unseaworthy, and complain before leaving her ; and they can call in a sur- veyor of the Board of Trade to survey the ship. By the Survey by Act of last session the master of a ship about to sail is Board of Trade on bound to furnish particulars of the draught of water of unseaworthy . . . ■, rr- p -r-. it-mi ships his ship to the appointed officer of the Board of Trade. Restrictions have been placed on the re-registration of ships until they have been certified to be seaworthy. Compensation is now payable to a seaman detained on a charge of desertion, if it shall be found on survey that his ship is not seaworthy. When the Board of Trade have received a complaint that a ship is unseaworthy they may make a survey. If it be found that the ship is not sea- worthy, the expenses of the survey are to be paid by the shipowners. If the ship is found to be in good order, the Board of Trade is liable to pay compensation for the detention of the ship, and these expenses are re- coverable from the complainant. In case of collision, the master of each vessel is bound to stay by the other. If he fails to do so, he is punishable for a misde meanour. Work of the The Roval Commission now sittins'is engasfed in the ]?o>al Com- •' ^ o o & mission endeavour to discover what further securities it is pos- sible to provide. Their report, which has lately been published, is not intended to set forth their final con- clusions ; and, as one of the Royal Commissioners, I have been disappointed to observe in many journals a 1873 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 15 disposition to treat that which was never intended to be more than a mere analysis of evidence as a final statement of our conclusion. We have endeavoured to place before the public the general bearing of the evi- dence which we have received. We show how great are the difficulties in the way if some of Mr. Plimsoli's pro- posals be adopted. It does not follow that nothing effectual can be done. There are measures which would tend to give additional security to the sailors. But if we give greater power to the Board of Trade, and ap- point on the staff of the office competent lawyers, and additional surveyors of experience and high professional standing, there must be increased expenditure, and for that inevitable consequence the British taxpayer — that most patient and lavish individual — must be prepared. The condition of our seamen has been the subject of Complaints much complaint. It has been urged that their numbers men un- . are not sufficient, and that they have deteriorated in skill, character, and discipline. It is said that the change is due to the abolition of compulsory apprenticeship. I am not satisfied that these complaints are altogether well founded. The sailor of former days was proverbial for reck- smaller lessness ; and as far as the efficiency of the crews mav quIJker" be tested by results, it is a fact that the number of sea- P'^^^^^^® men employed, in proportion to the tonnage, has dimin- ished, and that ships now perform their voyages in a much shorter period than in the days when apprentice- ship was universal. I have been informed that the average duration of a voyage to Australia by sailing ships is now little more than half the average of forty years ago. Some share in this improvement may fairly be claimed for the seamen, though doubtless the gain is principally due to the progress of naval architecture, to 16 OUR MEECHANT NAVY 1873 Privations of seamen. Moral and social con- ditions Solitude of a seafaring: life the addition since made to our knowledge of meteoro- logy, and to the improved skill of the officer in the art of navigation. The subject of the Mercantile Marine of England should not be dismissed without a few words as to the moral and social condition of our sailors. Let us endeavour to realise in how great a degree the seaman's life is passed in solitude and privation. Under the most favourable conditions the seaman, from the necessity of his calling, is deprived of many pleasures and advantages which those who live on shore can enjoy without restraint. He well deserves the sympathising interest of those whose lot is more favoured than his own. For him there is no genial fireside where he may take his evening's rest at the close of a day of toil. The loving welcome of wife and children must often seem a remote and uncertain prospect to husbands and fathei^s far away from home upon the distant seas. And yet the sailor may find his consolations in the thought of those he loves and in the hopes of happy meetings. M. Bersier, one of the most eloquent among the many great preachers whom the French Protestant Church has produced, has developed this thought in a touching passage. ' There are,' he says, ' two kinds of solitude — the visible and the inwardly felt solitude. When we are neither seen, touched, nor heard by anyone, we say that we are alone ; and yet we are not always, at such a time, in a true sense, solitary. The fisherman, who must pass his nights on the mighty ocean, does not feel himself alone. If he hears no other sound than the monotonous moaning of the sea and wind — if no human voice reaches his ear — he thinks of his family sheltered in comfort, of his children peacefully slumbering. It is for them he toils ; for them his heart is full of love ; and thus he does not feel himself alone.' 1873 OUR MERCHANT NAVY 17 The sailors whom I have employed now for many years have all come from the same village, Rowed ge, on the river Colne. I cannot speak in terms too favourable of their conduct in a moral point of view, and of their skill as seamen. The arrival of a budget of letters is the Pleasure of great pleasure of their lives when absent from home, home '^*"" Every man among them has a wife or a mother, or one whom he loves and hopes to marry. Each has some dear one to care for, whom he delights to think he is making happy by his honest toil. On a fine night at sea, in the tranquillity of the middle watch, the conver- sations before the mast are all of home life, home plea- sui^es, home anxieties. Many among us who live on shore unfriendly and unsympathetic lives are more truly iso- lated than these warm-hearted sailors. Amidst the crowd, the hum, the shock of men, To hear, to see, to feel, and to possess, And roam along, the world's tired denizens, With none who bless us, none whom we can bless ; Minions of splendour, shrinking from distress I None that with kindred consciousness endued. If we were not would seem to smile the less : Of all that flattered, followed, sought and sued. This is to be alone ; this, this is solitude ! Again, the sailor is cut off from those sjDiritual privi- leges which cannot be extended to him when at sea. For him no church bells ring on Sunday morning ; and although, in a well regulated ship, the services are duly held, in too many cases the seaman is entirely cut off from religious influences. The sailor's life should not be devoid of religious impressions. In constant conflict with the greatest force of nature, man feels his own littleness, and the omnipotence of the Creator. ' They that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in c Absence oJl spiritual ministra- tions 18 OUE MERCHANT NAVY 1873 great waters, these men see the wonder of the Lord, and the marvels in the deep.' I must now draw to a conclusion. If, in the hour which you have devoted to the study of the condition of our merchant navy, you have gathered some valuable information ; if, above all, you have learned to feel a more earnest sympathy for our sailors, I shall have been abundantly rewarded. I have endeavoured to bring before you some of those deep thoughts and meditations which a sea life should inspire in a susceptible nature. And I can find no more appropriate peroration to an address on such a subject than those magnificent stanzas in which, the story of his pilgrimage ended, Childe Harold is brought at last to the borders of the Great Deep : There is a pleasnre in the pathless woods. There is a rapture on the lonely shore, There is society, where none intrudes, By the deep sea, and music in its roar. Thou glorious mirror, where the Almighty's form Glasses itself in tempests ; in all time, Calm or convulsed — in-breeze, or gale, or storm. Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime Dark heaving ; — boundless, endless, and sublime. The image of Eternity — the throne Of the Invisible : even from out thy slime The monsters of the deep are made ; each zone Obeys thee ; thou goest forth, dread, fathomless, alone I 1874 19 II OTJB SEAMEN Reprinted by permission from the ' Contemporary Eeview,' September 1874 For many generations English statesmen have been engaged in the attempt to alleviate the grievances and wrongs of the people. Such is the frailty of human nature, that a field will always be open for similar phi- lanthropic labours, though its limits have been consider- ably narrowed by the successful efforts of the past — -efforts which an honourable rivalry has made the more vigorous and persistent. Hence it is that, in our age of advanced civilisation, it can seldom fall to the lot of an individual to find the opportunity of evoking the sym- pathies of the public in a good cause which has never been taken up before. Such, however, is the distin- guished position of Mr. Plimsoll. True it is that, when all that it is practicable to do iir. PlimsoU has been done the sailor must still remain subjected to hai'dship, exposure, and danger. These, indeed, are inevitable conditions for which there are compensations to men of an adventurous spirit in the various incidents of a life at sea. But until Mr. Plimsoll stood forth to assert the claims of ' Our seamen ' to the protecting care of the State, they were exposed to many needless perils and privations. c 2 20 OUE SEAMEN 1874 Case over- stated His zeal and enthu- siasm What can be done to remedy the evil It is to be regretted that a strong case has been somewhat overstated. Mr. Plimsoll has been too eager to level his lance at all comers ; too prone to listen to the inventions of idle tale-bearers ; too prejudiced against the shipowners ; too reluctant to acknowledge the honest intentions of the Board of Trade, and to recognise the wise direction in which it has been their endeavour to guide the course of legislation. In short, his judgment has been overpowered by his absorbing interest in a noble cause. On the other hand, it will be generally allowed that, by his successful appeal to popular sympathy on behalf of the British seaman, Mr. Plimsoll has well earned the acknowledgments he has received. His assertions may have been too sensational, and not always accurate. A perfectly temperate and carefully measured statement would not have produced the great effect which has been wrought by the passionate harangues of the member for Derby. In olden days men were first moved to under- take the crusades by the exhortations of an enthusiast, who had never cared to examine the dangers before taking upon himself the responsibility of inviting the 'chivalry of Christendom to the task of recovering Jeru- salem from the Saracens. Enthusiasm made Peter the Hermit insensible to difficulties ; and enthusiasm makes the modern champion of our seamen incapable of appre- ciating the honest purpose of those who are bound by their convictions to stand forward in opposition to the adoption of his proposals. It must not be supposed that, because his own suggestions are impracticable, there is no remedy for the evils so effectively exposed by Mr. Plimsoll. It is the duty of the executive Government, of the committees of Lloyd's, the Liverpool Ptegistry of Iron Ships, and 1874 OUE SEAMEN 21 other insurance societies — it is, above all, the duty of that vast majority of our shipowners who do their busi- ness honestly, and, by their successful enterprise, confer so much distinction on their country, to make use of the opportunity aflbrded by the state of public opinion on this question. The practice of sending overladen and unseaworthy ships to sea is wrong both in a moral and mercantile point of view. Something may be done by stricter laws, and Parliament is eager to enact them. More may be accomplished by an improvement of the habits and customs of trade. Meanwhile, Mr. PlimsoU may justly congratulate Board of himself on the results already achieved by his persistent greatef'^^" efforts. He has caused the Board of Trade to be armed 5°^®"^^ with powers which, without external aid, they could not have obtained. The Department is in truth in a difficult position, standing as it does midway between the con- tending forces of the shipowning interest on the one side, and the humanitarian agitation on the other. The ex- cellent judgment, rare knowledge of the varied business of his office, and devoted zeal of Mr. Farrer, will be fully Mr. Farrer recognised by all who have in any capacity been brought into communication with him. The British public is eminently just, and cannot but appreciate his services highly. It would be unfair to the Board to doubt their sincere desire to afford all the legal protection to the seamen which the circumstances of the case permit, and they have not been slow to avail themselves of the sym- pathies aroused by the energy and zeal of Mr. Plimsoll. Relying upon the support thus opportunely afforded to them, they have introduced manifold improvements in the law, and made some progress in strengthening their staff of nautical advisers and surveyors. The system of inquiry into the causes of maritime 22 OUE SEAMEN 1874 Inquiries into mari- time dis- asters Changes in tlie ship- ping laws Merchant Shipping Amenrlment Act of 1871 disasters, than which nothing can be conceived more calculated to promote the security of life at sea, has been developed considerably during the last three years. Prior to 1872 the average number of such inquiries, held under the direction of the Board of Trade, was thirty- seven a year. The number was increased to fifty in 1872, and to 193 (of which, however, thirty-four were abandoned) in 1873. The Department, meanwhile, has not neglected other equally important remedial measures. Powers have been gradually obtained from Parliament, which will materially increase the authority of the Government whenever it is necessary to interfere, to protect the seaman from the danger caused by want of caution, by inexperience, or by the culpable recklessness of ship- owners. Under the auspices of Lord Carlingford, who was greatly assisted by the diligent inquiry, and by the preparation of measures, conducted under the direction of Mr. Shaw Lefevre, several important changes in the law were effected. According to the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, as expounded by the Law Officers of the Crown in an opinion given in 1856, owners were bound to keep their ships in seaworthy condition, and seamen had a right to complain if they believed that the ship for which they were engaged was unsafe. As, however, the burden of proof lay upon the seamen, and they were not allowed to give evidence themselves, it was practically impossible for them to prove their case. To meet this legal difficulty the law was amended in a sense highly f avovirable to the seaman by the Merchant Shipping Amendment Act of 1871. Under that Act the Board of Trade obtained power to hold an inquiry as to the condition of any merchant ship, upon receiving 1874 OUR SEAMEN 23 a comjjlaint from a quarter of the crew, they being not less than five in number. The Board further obtained power to detain any ship suspected of being unseaworthy ; but overloading was not expressly specified as a cause of unseaworthiness. Lastly, the n?agistrates were directed to receive evidence volunteered by the seamen with whom the complaint had originated. In 1873, a further Act was passed, in which overloading was separately defined to be a cause of unseaworthiness. Furnished with the great powers conferred upon them under the recent Acts, the authorities of the Board of Trade may interfere whenever they have reason to believe that it is the intention of a shipowner to send an unseaworthy ship to sea. That they are duly sensible of their increased responsibility is manifest from the course of action they have thought it their duty to pursue. Within the space of a few months after the passing of the Act of 1873, 245 ships, suspected of being unseaworthy, were detained and surveyed by the Go- vernment surveyors. Of these 190 were condemned for unseaworthiness, and eighteen for being overladen. The power of detaining ships, and compelling the owners to execute necessary repairs, or reduce excessive cargoes, is indeed amply sufficient to accomplish all that it is possible for the Government to do in the management of the mercantile marine of the British Empire. The weak point of our administration will be found, not so much in the want of the necessary powers for the repression of malpractices on the part of unscrupulous shipowners, as in the insufficiency, not the inefficiency, of the per- sonnel of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade, and in the want of a legal adviser. The law is strong enough. It has been suffered, in too many cases, to remain a dead letter, because there has been no law Board of Trade may detain un- seaworthy essels Present powers of &overnment sufficient Increased staff of Marine Department required 24 OUR SEAMEN 1874 More pro- fessional advisers to Board of Trade necessary Duties of Captain Murray officer to perform the duties of a public prosecutor. The Board of Trade have hitherto been dependent for the management of legal proceedings on the solicitors act- ing for the Home Office or the Treasury. The pressure of the business more immediately belonging to their own Departments has caused delays, sometimes extending to months, in prosecuting the cases referred to them from another office. In the interval the essential witnesses, the shipmasters or the seamen, have gone to sea in other vessels, and prosecutions which ought to have been insti- tuted have been abandoned. While the Board of Trade has no proper legal staff, the Marine Department is not at present so constituted as to exercise the needful authority, or to command the confidence it is so desirable to inspire both in shipowners and seamen. The Secretary of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade has no personal experience of nautical affairs. In the discharge of his multifarious duties, in many of which the knowledge of a sailor is required at every turn, he has one professional adviser only. While the energy, experience, and capacity of Captain Murray, whose services the Board of Trade had been fortunate enough to secure, are universally acknow- ledged, it is quite impossible for a single individual to get through all the work assigned to him under existing arrangements. It is his duty to report upon nautical inventions ; to advise as to the working of the Chain Cables and Anchors Acts ; to consider the many sug- gestions, continually brought forward both in England and abroad, for modifications in the rule of the road at sea ; to inspect periodically the life-saving apparatus supplied by the Board of Trade to every Coastguard division ; and to visit the ports where the Board have reason to believe that the practice of overloading, or the 806T0N COLLEGE LIBRARY CHESTNOT HIU. M^SS. 1874 OUR SEAMEN 25 unseaworthy condition or faulty construction of the ships, call for special activity on the part of their sur- veyors. Besides these and other similar important duties, involving the necessity for frequent journeys and absences from London, the examination of the reports of the receivers of wrecks upon the circum- stances which have led to maritime disasters within their districts, is in itself a sufficiently onerous task to occupy a special officer. It has been the practice care- fully to consider these reports before arriving at a final conclusion as to the expediency of a further inquiry or prosecution. In forming such a decision the circum- stances to be taken into view cannot be duly appreciated without the aid of nautical advisers. The non-pro- fessional officers of the Board of Trade depend at present chiefly on Captain Murray, who may be absent from London in the discharge of his other duties at the moment when his advice is needed. It has been already pointed out that delay is particularly to be avoided when the testimony of seafaring men is necessary. A sea officer of experience should be attached to the Board of Trade, to attend exclusively to the examination of re- ports relating to wrecks and collisions. The measures recently passed by Parliament, and Representa- ... , . . , ,. . , . tives of the those still m contemplation, give additional responsi- Board of bility to the local officers of the Board of Trade. It is the principal now more than ever necessary that at the great seaports the Board should have for its principal representative an individual of high position and wide experience, superior to personal influence of every kind, and charged specially with the duty of doing equal justice as between the sailor and shipowner. The presence of such an officer would have more effect in checking the practice of overloading, and in preventing unseaworthy ships seaports 26 OUE SEyVMEN 1874 OfiBcial inquiries into iosses at sea, ■defects of from being sent to sea, than minute regulations, care- fully framed at the central office of the Board of Trade, but enforced at the ports by officials having no personal claims to exercise authority over the mercantile com- munity. The Board should not be deterred from giving adequate salaries for these superior appointments by the groundless apprehension that Parliament or the country would view with dissatisfaction an augmentation of the public charge if required for such a purpose. The mode of conducting official inquiries into the cause of losses at sea was severely criticised by the most experienced witnesses who gave evidence before the Koyal Commission on Unseaworthy Ships. Found- ing their remarks on this subject upon the general tenor of the information obtained from the officers of the Board of Trade and the solicitors of the Customs, the Commissioners have pointed out in their Report that ' the present mode of conducting these inquiries assumes the shape of a criminal proceeding against the captain, rather than a careful investigation into the cause of the disaster. The chief point at issue seems to be whether the captain is to be acquitted or punished ; and, inas- much as he is on his trial, he may, if he pleases, volun- teer a statement, but cannot be examined. The Court, again, has no power over the shipowner ; he may be culpable, but he is altogether beyond the jurisdiction of the Court.' The Commissioners have accordingly recom- mended that ' the preliminary inquiry by the Receiver of Wrecks should be limited to such a narrative statement as would enable the Board of Trade, with the aid of their legal adviser, to decide upon the propriety of an official inquiry.' If such an inquiry is deemed advisable, with the view of ascertaining the cause of the disaster, and 1874 OUR SEAMEN 27 thereby guarding against future casualties, they have recommended that ' there should be a complete sever- ance between this inquiry and any proceedings of a penal character. It should be a mere inquest into the cause of a loss or casualty. The result should be re- ported to the Board of Trade, and the Board should have power to proceed criminally against the master, mate, or other member of the crew, whose neglect of duty may have occasioned the disaster.' Under the 11th section of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1871, it was declared to be a misdemeanour in a shipowner to send his ship to sea in an unseaworthy condition. The Commissioners thought that the master, like the shipowner, should be made amenable to the criminal law, if guilty of a similar offence, by leaving port in command of a ship which he knows to be un- seaworthy. Mr, Plimsoll has described with dramatic power the reluctance of shipmasters and seamen to face the charge of cowardice, which they fear may be brought against them if they honestly admit that they are afraid of going to sea in an unseaworthy vessel ; and he has insisted, not without justification, doubtless, in many ( cases, on the pressure owners can bring to bear upon shipmasters, by threatening to employ other persons if there be any hesitation as to going to sea. The sugges- tion of the Royal Commission will have the effect of protecting shipmasters in a dependent position. Neither officers nor seamen should be compelled to undertake a voyage which not only involved them in personal danger, but exposed them to the risk of imprisonment, perhaps for a long term of years. In all the debates that have taken place on the losses of British shipping the blame for disasters has Inquiry- should deal only with cause of casualty Liability of 'Shipowner Eeluctauce of masters ami seamen to refuse service in an unsea- worthy vessel 28 OUK SEAMEN 1874 Masters aud seamen should share responsi- bility with owners for losses Suggestions to the Royal Commission by Messrs. S'arrer, O'Dowd, and Hamel been laid upon the shipowners. Public opinion on this subject is not just. The masters and the seamen are responsible for many disasters laid to the charge of their employers, who have been heavy losers by the carelessness of their servants. Whenever an accident occurs upon a railway, the whole machinery of the law is set in motion to punish the responsible persons. The public who, from constant travel, can appreciate the facts of the case, are, from motives of self-interest, resolved to do all that can be done to promote the security of railway travellers, by the terrors of criminal punishment, and by the im- position of heavy damages on the companies. Much has been accomplished by making use, in the most stringent manner, of the remedies provided by the common law. The same legal means exist for the punishment of similar offences at sea ; and yet, while the drivers of locomotive engines ' have been found guilty of manslaughter where it has been shown that by their carelessness they have caused the occurrence of a fatal accident, there is scarcely a single instance of a px'osecution of a master, a mate, or a man on the look-out, or at the helm of a vessel,' although the cases have undoubtedly been numerous in which vessels have been lost by the negligence of the master or crew. The Commissioners were of opinion that ' enactments relating to the punishment of the master or crew, whose negligence has occasioned loss of life or property, should be framed, of a more definite and stringent character than those now in existence.' As to the constitution of the Court of Inquiry, valuable suggestions were offered to the Royal Com- mission by Mr. Farrer, Mr. O'Dowd, and Mr. Hamel. The opinion of the latter gentleman, from his long ex- perience of twenty-eight years in the capacity of Solicitor to the Board of Customs, will be likely to carry especial 1874 OUR SEAMEN 29 weight. He pointed out graA^e objections to the courts objections 1 T I 1 mi J- T • J J to existing as at present estabhshed. ihe stipendiary magistrates courts of in the great ports, such as Liverpool or Hull, are lawyers "^^^^""^ of high standing and unquestionable independence ; but their time is already so fully occupied in the daily busi- ness of their courts, which must be first disposed of every morning before a nautical inquiry can be taken, that there is often considerable delay in the hearing of such cases. There are objections of a still more serious nature to a court composed of the borough magistrates of a seaport. They may be, as at Glasgow, in the case cited in his evidence by Mr. Burns, tradesmen of the town, who, however respectable and capable of dealing with the usual police cases, are without the peculiar experience which is necessary to enable them to give a judgment upon an intricate nautical question. They may be, on the other hand, shipowners with considerable knowledge of maritime affairs ; but their interests may be so closely involved, that they are unable to pronounce an impartial verdict. It was, therefore, proposed by Mr. Hamel, and his views are in close accord with those Propopais of of Mr. O'Dowd, that the coasts of Great Britain should be divided into three districts, and that a barrister should be appointed to each for the purpose of holding all the inquiries ordered by the Board of Trade. It was advised that two nautical assessors should be ap- pointed for every court of inquiry, one to be acquainted with navigation and seamanship, and the other with shipbuilding. The cost of holding the 195 inquiries of 1873 was not less than 15,000Z. ; and Mr. Hamel ex- pressed a firm conviction that with that expenditure he should be able to defray the costs and charges which would be imposed upon the Treasury by the adoption of his scheme in its entirety. 30 OUR SEAMEN 1874 Survey and marking of ships Evidence of Mr. Farrer and ilr. Gray A court of appeal The opinion of the Royal Commission, as it is now well known, was distinctly adverse to the principles of Mr. Pliuisoirs Bill ' for the periodical survey of mer- chant ships, and for so marking ships as to diminish the practice of overloading.' The Commissioners have even thought it their duty to characterise the powers already entrusted to the Government under recent en- actments as stringent and arbitrary. Their view has been that, as regards the survey of merchant ships, the main point for consideration is the more perfect organi- sation of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade. In giving evidence befoi'e the Commission, Mr. Farrer and Mr. Gray have been equally reluctant to accept any additional duties, powers, or responsibilities. They have insisted on the practical difficulties of deter- mining the exact depth to which a vessel may be safely loaded, and on the impossibility of obtaining a sufficient staff of surveyors competent to undertake the task of keeping the entire mercantile marine under constant and thorough inspection. They have not attempted to conceal the fact that they have sometimes been misled, and that they are apprehensive that the same mistakes may be made in the future. To meet the contingency of a complaint being brought by a shipowner against the adverse decision of a surveyor, it has been suggested by Sir James Hope, with the concurrence of his colleagues on the Commis- sion, that a prompt and efficient court of appeal might be constituted by giving the principal officer of Customs in the port the power of summoning three experienced shipmasters, who should be empowered summarily to determine whether an appeal by the owner or master of a ship, condemned as unseaworthy, is or is not well founded. 1874 OUR SEAMEN 31 The difficulty of fixing a uniform rule for the load- Difficulty . . , _, of fixing a ing of merchant ships is insuperable, ihe rule that vimformmie there should be three inches of clear side to every foot immersed has been adopted for the long voyage trades by the most experienced shipowners. If every ship for which legislation was required were uniform in type, and employed in the same trade, no objection could be urged to a law compelling the loading of ships to be in all cases limited in accordance with a general and salu- tary usage of trade. The mercantile marine is com- posed of ships of an infinite diversity of types, employed in the most varied branches of commerce ; and over- loading must, therefore, be regarded as a relative ques- tion. The nature of the voyage, the season of the year, the description of cargo, the stowage, the mode of con- struction of the ship — all these points must be taken into account in determining to what depth a vessel may be safely loaded. For the particular trade in which they are engaged, there can be no reasonable objection to the limited freeboard and peculiar stowage of the cargo observable in a Thames hay barge. These vessels creep along the coast to Maldon, and other parts of Essex, at some distance from the mouth of the Thames ; and it is difficult to draw an exact line of demarcation between a mere river voyage, where the rules of freeboard would not apply, and a coasting voyage, where they should be insisted upon. In the summer months it is no uncommon sight to see half a dozen barges from the Thames at anchor in the port of Portsmouth. When fully laden, their decks are almost level with the water. Their safety depends on the mode in which the hatches are secured, and even more on the judgment exercised by their crews in the selection of favourable weather for the prosecution of the voyage, 32 OUE SEAMEN 1874 and on their prudence in running for a harbour upon the first indication of an approaching storm. By special arrangements in the construction of a ship, a much deeper immersion may be made consistent with safety than that allowed under Mr. Plimsoll's Bill, which 'requires for a ship not being spar-decked, that there should be a spare buoyancy equal to one-fourth part of the displacement, and for a spar-decked ship, that there should be a surplus buoyancy of one-eighth part of the displacement, reckoning in each case from the main deck downwards. Support of Among the experts wlio have supported the remedial byMr. Eeed legislation pi"oposed by Mr. Plimsoll, Mr. Reed is per- haps the most distinguished ; and he would, of course, decline to allow any such rule to be applied to vessels of his owm design, constructed, like the ' Devastation,' with a special view to combine complete safety with exceptionally low freeboard. But, as in the construc- tion of the ' Devastation,' so in the deck fittings of steam colliers. These vessels may be safe, even when deeply laden, and driven against heavy head seas, which completely sweep the decks. The coamings are of iron. The hatches are of the same material, and secured in such a manner by iron bars and screws that it is impossible for water to break through the hatch- ways into the holds. How is it possible to apply rules of freeboard, laid down for modern sailing ships, navi- gating from England round the Horn or the Cape, to coasting steamers of the special construction here described ? It would be tedious to multiply illustrations of the difficulty of applying fixed rules for determining the load line of merchant ships. The ownei's of small vessels in the coasting trades unanimously declare that 1874 OUR SEAMEN 38 they would be deprived of their scanty livelihood if compelled to sail under the rules proposed by Mr. Plimsoll. It should not be forgotten, in considering the subject of overloading, that there is serious danger in under- loading. When vessels are despatched from port to port seeking a cargo, there is a temptation to limit the amount of ballast to the smallest quantity possible. Yet a vessel in ballast, if too light, is in danger of being capsized in a squall ; or, if caught in bad weather on a lee shore, she cannot ply to windward. Cases have even been known of colliers in ballast being driven by an ofF-shore gale from the English coast, and wrecked on the coast of Denmark. These objections to any regulations as to load line are urged with the greatest regret, because it must be acknowledged that the malpractice of overloading pre- vails to a lamentable extent in some English joorts. No vessels are so frequently overladen as our own ; and it is probable that in this circumstance, taken together with the carelessness which leads to so many collisions, the explanation will be found for the fact that the percent- age of casualties at sea is probably greater in the British mercantile marine than in any other. The prohibition of deck loads at certain seasons has been insisted upon by Mr. Plimsoll, A distinction should be drawn between a deck load of timber and the stowage of carriages and agricultural machinery on deck. It is at all times undesirable, and in the stormy season extremely perilous, to carry timber on deck across the North Atlantic. It is not equally necessary to prohibit deck cargoes of deals on vessels trading between the Baltic and England. It has been said that the Norwegians buy cur worn- Dangei- of underloud- iiiS ships ill ballast Prevalence of over- loading in some Bnglisk ports Prohibition of deck load- ing 34 OUK SEAMEN 1874 Disposal of old vessels. Few bought iu Norway Norwegian practice Canadian law as to deck car- goes out vessels, and that the otherwise mysterious circum- stance that a ship is so rarely broken up in our own ports, because no longer fit for sea service, may thus be explained. From inquiry in Norway, I am satisfied that comparatively few English-built ships are trans- ferred to the Norwegian flag, and that any old vessels purchased from us are employed in the timber trade from the southern ports of Norway. In the export trade in salt fish and oil from Bergen, Aalesund, Chris- tiansund, Tromso, and Hammerfest, to Spain, the West Indies, and Brazil, conducted with equal activity both in winter and summer, vrhere the voyages are long, and the cargoes perishable, the vessels, although small in tonnage, are excellent in quality. There is no super- vision over the Norwegian merchant shipping by Government surveyors. The nautical experience and mercantile instinct of the shipowners have established a proper distinction between the different trades, and led owners to provide suitable vessels for each. One would hope that equal confidence might be reposed in the discretion of British shipowners. It must be acknowledged, not without humiliation, that with us commercial rivalry is so keen that unjustifiable risks might be run, unless the desire to reduce expenses to the lowest limit were- controlled by the power, now conferred upon the Government, of detaining a ship in port. The subject of deck cargoes in the North Atlantic timber trade has been vigorously attacked by the Par- liament of the Canadian Dominion. They have revived the law first enacted by the British Parliament. Deck cargoes of timber on ships crossing the Atlantic between October 1 and March 16 are now prohibited. An ex- ception in favour of deals has been reluctantly conceded 1874 OUR SEAMEN 35 to the representatives of the ports of New Brunswick. The Royal Commission has recommended ' a similar enactment by the British Parliament, as being calculated to give the sanction of the mother country to the views of the Canadian Legislature, and as an inducement to other timber-exporting countries to consider favourably the propriety of similar legislation.' The rules of several mutual insurance clubs, managed by committees of thoroughly practical men, many of whom have been masters of vessels, prohibit such cargoes during the winter months. The effect of such a restriction on the price of timber to the consumer would be inappreciable. It may be confidently assumed that, while much danger to life would be avoided, the trade would not be inju- riously affected by the proposed law. Whenever the attention of Parliament has been Action of directed to the prevention of losses at sea, the prohibi- parliament. tion of deck cargoes of timber has been recommended, of timber on -Such was the conclusion of the Committee of 1839. At hibited°" their suggestion, an Act was passed in 1840, prohibiting the carrying of timber on deck between September 1 and May 1. The Committee of 1843 expressed the same views, and declared that no ship could be sea- worthy when her upper deck was lumbered with a large cargo. A law, proposed by one Committee of Parlia- ment, sanctioned by another, and highly approved by shipowners possessing the wide experience of Mr. Rankin, would have been allowed to remain in force, unless some changes had taken place in the conditions under which the trade was conducted. Such a change occurred when, in 1850, the Navigation Laws were repealed, and when, in 1860, the differential duties on foreign timber were abolished. These alterations were in strict accordance with the 36 OUE SEAMEN 1874 Evasions of the law Its refieal in 1862 Further actiou of Board of Trade Carriage of machinery ou deck principles of free trade ; but they led to many abuses. To avoid the payment of proportionate tonnage dues, timber was carried in lengthened poops and under spar decks, thereby imposing a gi^eat strain upon the ships, and entailing considerable danger to the seamen. The deck law was further evaded by sending ships across the river St. Croix, which divides New Brunswick from the United States, in order that a deck cargo might be taken on board, and a final clearance obtained from a port in Maine. The difficulty of enforcing a law so easily evaded induced the Board of Trade to introduce' a clause for its repeal into the Customs Act of 1862. The clause escaped the observation of shipowners in this country, and it received the sanction of Parliament. It must not be supposed that the Board of Trade have viewed with indiflerence the practice of carrying cargoes on deck. Though they deemed it expedient to repeal a law which it was impracticable to enforce, they have endeavoured in other ways to discourage deck cargoes. The Merchant Shipping Code, brought in by Mr. Shaw Lefevi^e in 1869, and only laid aside owing to the pressure of more urgent political controversies, contained a provision for imposing tonnage dues on deck cargoes. The stowage of agricultural machinery and carriages on deck would equally fall within the prohibition of Mr. Plimsoll's Bill ; and here the restriction would be productive of serious injury to trade. If it were neces- sary that threshing machines should be taken to pieces in order to be despatched from Hull to Hamburg, our manufacturers would no longer be able to compete with foreign makers for the supply of implements to the German farmers. It would indeed be far better that we should lose our trade than that the lives of our seamen 1874 OUR SEAMEN 37 should be imperilled ; but there is no recessity for absolutely prohibiting steamers from carrying machinery on deck. Free circulation on deck is not so necessary on a steamer, where the sails are only auxiliary to the steam-power, as it is in a full-rigged sailing ship. Even in a steamer, however, it is dangerous to encumber the decks too much. It is a question of degree. Where four threshing-machines may be safely carried, it might be dangerous to carry twelve. The proper limit must be considered, in the first instance, by the shipowner, upon his undivided responsibility. If he fails to do his duty, the Government has now the power to step in, to compel him to restrict the loading of his vessel ; and he may be punished, as for a misdemeanour, for obvious imprudence. Mr. Plimsoll proposes that there should be special special licences from the Board of Trade, authorising the carry- ing on the deck of the licensed ship of any specified goods or any particular class of goods. There is a merely nominal distinction between the system of special licences and the power of detaining any vessel in port if laden beyond the amount which, if licences were required, she would be authorised to carry. In either case the Board of Trade may effectually prohibit the practice of overloading. In closing this branch of the subject, I cannot but Difficulty of express once more a sincere regret that it is impracticable regulations to lay down some positive regulations for the prevention loadiDg^' of excessive loading. Numerous ships are sent to sea overladen, and some are lost in consequence ; but no regulations can be framed, for the purpose of securing a, sufficient freeboard, which would not inflict grave injustice, more especially affecting owners of vessels of small tonnage, engaged in the coasting trade. 38 OUR SEAMEN 1874 Objection to Mr. Plim- soU's i)ro- posal for survey Would hamper shipbuilders The other proposal contained in Mr. PHmsoll's Bill is to the effect that every British ship shall be surveyed, unless provided with a certificate of survey, and classed at Lloyd's, in the Liverpool books, or by some other British or foreign corporation approved by the Board of Trade. A certificate of seaworthiness from a Govern- ment official tends to remove responsibility from those persons on whom it ought to rest, and to deprive the Board of Trade, as the public prosecutor of blameworthy shipowners, of the right to bring home to them their proper share of blame for avoidable disasters. The official survey, which all ships sailing under the French, Belgian, and Italian flags are compelled to undergo, has become a mere formality. The underwriters and mer- chants entirely disregard the certificates thus obtained, and refuse to accept them as a guarantee either for sea- worthiness or fitness to carry a dry and perishable cargo. It would follow as a necessary consequence of the introduction of a Government survey, and the .accept- ance of certificates granted by private associations as of equal authority with those issued by the Government, that the regulations of the private associations must be approved by the Board of Trade. Immense evils would undoubtedly follow from the exercise of such a control over the genius and invention of our shipbuilders. The proportions of length to breadth, of steam-power to tonnage, involve considerations of the most serious and subtle character in regard to the form and construction of ships. These, indeed, are problems which cannot be solved without much experiment at sea ; and this practical experience will be first accumulated by those engaged in the merchant service, and be derived from them by the Board of Trade, under whose authority it has been proposed that they should work. 1874 OUR SEAMEN 39 It is further to be observed that the survey of a ship Frequent must be minute and thorough, and repeated at frequent would be intervals, or it will be impossible to graijt an honest certificjite of seaworthiness. A shipowner whose only motive for keeping his ship in seaworthy condition is his fear of the surveyor, will probably be negligent or parsimonious in many details of essential importance to safety at sea, but which cannot be regulated by Govern- ment inspection. The present writer has fitted out yachts of various classes, ranging from the smallest dimensions to considerable tonnage, and he can testify, from experience, how impossible it is to secure that ships shall be perfectly equipped in every respect by the mere inspection of surveyors, which, however conscientious, must be cursory and incomplete in many ways. 'It is,' said Mr. Farrer, 'utterly impossible for any Mr. Faner surveyor to form an accurate judgment about a ship and cuitiesof her machinery when she is presented to him completely finished, painted, and cemented. ... In my position, I perhaps see more of the difficulties of a survey than of its benefits ; but I do see that it may produce some very great evils, and I am the more afraid of it, because the difficulties are insidious evils — they do not appear on the surface. Last week, a very competent surveyor sent up to say, " Ought you not to require that every ship shall have a double crank to her pump, in case one breaks ; and ought not every ship to be provided with a cold-chisel axe, to cut metal in case of danger 1 " Captain Murray says, "I should never think of going to sea without these things." Bvit where are you to stop ? If we were to lay down strict rules, every shijDOwner or builder would build down to our rules, and that is the danger of which I am afraid.' Under the present rules, the Board of Trade require surveyors 40 OUR SEAMEN 1874 Adjustment of com- passes. Qualilica- tion of examisierB Kesponsi- bility of shi]'0\vner Opposition to Govern- ment sur- vey by small shipowners that the compasses of every sea-going passenger-ship shall be properly adjusted. There are no means of ascertaining the competency of the persons whose certifi- cates as to adjustment are accejoted by the Board. I called attention to this inconsistency in a paper read before the Institute of Naval Architects ; and the Council of that body called the attention of the Govern- ment to the importance of giving a definite professional status to the adjusters of compasses. If the present rules lemain in force, it is desirable that the qualifi- cations of adjusters should be ascertained by an appro- priate examination. The objections urged to the system of a Government survey are not taken from a shipowner's point of view. They rest on the essential principle that complete responsibility for sending his ship to sea in a seaworthy condition should lie with the shipowner ; that negli- gence of duty in this regard should be punished as a grave offence ; and that it cannot be so punished if the shipowner is shielded from the consequences of his neglect by being furnished with a Government cer- tificate. The opposition to the proposal for a Government survey has been represented by fervid declamation as likely to come from wealthy shipowners, rich in gains ill-gotten by risking the lives of honest seamen, compelled by necessity to go to sea in rotten ships. The wealthier shipowners are almost universally owners of ships classed in a high grade at Lloyd's or elsewhere, with a view to insurance on the most favourable terms. If their ships, like those of the Cunard and some other famous lines, do not happen to bo classed, it is not because they are not kept up in such a manner as to satisfy the most exacting reqviirements. The outcry 1874 OUR SEAMEN 41 which would follow the imposition of severe conditions as to equipment and repairs by Government surveyors would come from poor mariners and their families, who have passed their lives in the too crazy ships of which they are the owners. When vessels of this class, how- ever unfit to pass a rigorous survey, have been safely navigated from port to port along the coast for a quarter of a century and more, would it not be esteemed an arbitrary thing that an official of the Government should at last swoop down on these unfortunate people, and,- by prohibiting their vessels from again proceeding to sea, unless repaired at a cost entirely beyond the means of the owners, deprive them of their only means of earning a livelihood ? It will be remembered that a vessel in the Effect on coasting trade, having almost always a harbour under ing vessels her lee, and being manned by a crew familiar, from their long local experience, with every sign of the coming weather, with every available creek and harbour, and all -the sets of tide and every danger of the navigation, may, if great caution be used, be safely conducted from port to port ; although if entrusted to a less experienced crew, the danger would be so great that the surveyors would be under an obligation to detain the ship in port. With these considerations before us, it is obviously impracticable to di-aw the line equitably between the vessels that should be detained, and those which, although equally unsea worthy, may be allowed to go to sea in reliance on the discretion and special experience of their masters and crews. It would be an injustice, which the Legislature would never sanction, to deprive pocr men of the only means of earning their bread, for the sake of restraining a few nefarious shipowners who can already be reached through the existing laws. It seems clear that a proposal for a general and continual 42 OUE SEAMEN 1874 Collisions and insur- ance Penalty for bad look out Limitation of insurance Opinion of Mr. Harper survey of our merchant shipping by the Government ought not to be adopted. It were needless to continue further discussion of the specilic proposals referred to the considei-ation of the recent Royal Commission. It will, however, be remarked that no attempt has been made in Mr. Plimsoll's Bill to deal with two other principal causes of loss of life at sea. I refer to collisions and to the ill effects of our laws relating to insurance, under the operation of which it may, under certain circumstances, be a pecuniary benefit to the shipowner to lose his ship. As to collisions, the suggestion offered by the Royal Commission, that officers and look-out men should be more severely punished for neglect of duty, will pro- bably be found to be the best practicable means of securing greater watchfulness. The limitation of insurance upon ships is a more important and a far more complicated problem. In- surance lies at the very root of the question of security of life at sea ; and the Legislature ought not to be de- terred by an appreciation of the inherent difficulty from making an earnest effort to grapple with the question. As it was plainly put by Mr. Harper, the able secretary of the Salvage Association at Lloyd's, ' It is in the very nature of things, and in human nature, that a rule of law which enables the assured to recover more than the value of the property insured must have a tendency to make the shipowner or master negligent. If a man is in this position, that if he keeps his ship it is worth 8,000?. to him, and if she is lost it is worth 10,000?. or 12,000/. to him, what other deduction can you possibly draw but that he must have a bias in the direction of trying to get the 10,000/. or 12,000/.? ... If you were to do away with insurance altogether, 1874 OUE SEAMEN 43 I think the business of this Commission would be at an shipowner ,. . , . , p s)i(iulil not end directly. . . . The care or a ship divides itself gainhyio.s 1 1 1 . 1 -1 • p '^^ ship into a hundred particulars — care in the appointment oi a master, care in the selection of a crew, care in the condition of the ship when she leaves, and general watchfulness ; and I say that it is certainly likely to be relaxed in the case of an owner who knows that if his ship goes to the bottom, perhaps from the very cir- cumstance that he has not paid sufficient attention to her, he not only gets the whole of his money invested in the ship, but a large profit besides, into his pocket.' The dangers arising from the anomalous condition of the law and from the complete indemnity from loss which, in any case, it should still be permitted to the assured to secure, have been further aggravated by the keen competition for business of this description, both on the part of rival insurance companies, and from the excessive number of private underwriters at Lloyd's. The owner of a ship may, as is explained in the Gain to the owner bv report of the Commission, ' insure his ship for her full fuuinsuV- value ; he can also insure his cargo, he can insure the freight, and, beyond these insurances, he can insure ten per cent, profit on the cargo.' If a ship bound to Cal- cutta, via the Suez Canal, be lost on the outward voyage, the whole of the amount insured will be recovered, although the owner will have saved, owing to the loss of the ship at the inception of the voyage, a large pro- portion of the seamen's wages, the dues for the Suez Canal, port charges in Calcutta, and expenses in London on the ship's return. Here the owner is a clear gainer by the loss. Again, a ship is said to have sustained a construe- Damage tive total loss if she has been damaged to such an ex- value of tent that the cost of repairs would exceed the value of ^ '^ 44 OUR SEAMEN 1874 Partial ro rata contribution to the institution established in the port from which he sails. The Scuola di San Marco, at Venice, is an institution very similar to that of the Invalides de la Marine in Paris. In Holland there is an institution called the Seamen's Hope, on a somewhat similar plan to those established in Norway and Sweden. In our own country a Seamen's Pension Fund formerly existed. It was established by Act of Parlia ment in 1747, in compliance with a petition from mer- chant seamen. Its object was to give to the merchant service the same advantages which the Navy enjoyed at Greenwich. It was supported by a contribution of \s. a month, which was stopped from each man's wages ; and the fund received liberal contributions from great merchants and shipowners. It worked extremely well until the year 1820, when our great merchants unfortu- nately withdrew from the shipping trade. Prom that period their voluntary contributions rapidly fell off. In the meanwhile a fatal laxity had crept into the manage- ment, the results of which were described by Admiral Denman in his evidence before the Manning Commis- sion of 1859. While the State was responsible for the management of the fund, its administration was en- trusted to a local committee at each port. There was no general system, and no effectual audit was provided. Hence arose jobbery, confusion, and eventual bank- ruptcy. At one port pensions of 13/. were paid ; at others the amount was 2Z. or 3/. ; and again at others it was as low as 1 Os. A widow at Sunderland, aged 84-, received 2s. a month ; while a widow at Liverpool, aged 24, received 14s. for herself, and 12s. each for her 1876 A PENSION FUND FOR SEAMEN 69 children. Such inequality justly created discontent, and the fund being bankrupt, a Winding up Act was passed in 1851. The process hasalready cost 1,000,000/., and will probably cost 500,000/. more. But no objection has ever been taken to the prin- a pension ciple of a compulsory self-supporting Pension Fund by by many ihose Mdio are best acquainted with the condition of our seamen. The Select Committee on Lighthouses, in 1845, strongly insisted on the necessity for such a fund. The Royal Commission on Pensions, appointed in 1848,. made a report, which is still the best authority on this subject, and which was entirely in favour of con- tinuing the Pension Fund, under improved regulations. In 1853 the Prince Consort, as Master of the Trinity House, addressed a letter to Lord Cardwell, then Presi- dent of the Board of Trade, in which he urged, on behalf of the Elder Brethren, the importance of substituting >for the Corporation's charities a more comprehensive scheme, such as should do honour to the great maritime and commercial character of the United Kingdom. The Manning Commission of 1859 gave great prominence to TheMan- this subject in their report. They said that, among mission of' the many suggestions which had been offered to them, none had been so ably advocated as the re-establishment of the Merchant Seamen's Pension Fund ; and that such a provision would be a great inducement to youths to join, and to seamen to remain in, our merchant service. The Committee on Merchant Shipping of 1860 concurred in this view, and pointed out the great faci- lities afforded for the administration of the fund through the shipping offices, which had recently been established. Passing over an interval of several years, I may Liverpool quote as the latest authority on this subject the Report of ship- owners 70 A PENSION FUND FOR SExVMEN 1876 of the Liverpool Committee of Shipowners on the con- dition of our merchant seamen. They were strongly of opinion that, both in the general interests of commerce and the nation, as well as of our merchant seamen, a compulsory benefit fund should be established, there being at present no provision for old or disabled seamen, except the woi^khouse. The existence of such a fund would serve to bind the sailor both to his ship and his country by the consideration, now almost unknown to him, of having something to lose by deserting his ship Royal Com- when abroad. Lastly, the Royal Commission on Un- missiou on m • i i • • • Uiisea- seaworthy Ships expressed their opinion that a self- siiips. supporting Pension Fund for Seamen might prove of great value, in creating a tie to bind the British sea- man to the merchant service of his own country. The subject, they said, well deserved the attention of the Government. The concurrence of these eminent author- ities supplies a conclusive argument in favour of a Seamen's Pension Fund ; and a calm consideration of the proposal on its merits cannot fail to satisfy the House that it is both reasonable and necessary. Sea- men are a scattered body. Their lives are spent far away from home, and when they return it may often happen that they are not paid off at the port at which they originally shipped. They cannot, therefore, organise a machinery for collecting contributions or administer-/ ing the funds required to provide sufficient pensions.-. The task, in short, is so extensive in its scope, and im- portant in a national point of view, that it can only be Fund shpuia carried out by the Government, and this is the con- tereiiby clusion at wliich every Commission and Committee, GoTcrnment -, . ■• ^ , . , • i during the last thirty years, has arrived. The necessity of making the contributions compul- sory is the only point on which doubt has been felt. 1876 A PENSION TUND FOE SEAMEN 71 The majority of the Manning Coipmissioners proposed Doubt as to that the Pension Fund should be self-supporting but tributitms voluntary. The contribution for the Naval Reserve was °°"^^P" """^ to be paid by the State ; but they wished to admit to the benefit of the fund every seaman, whether in the Navy or the merchant service, who might think proper to contribute. Mr. Lindsay difi'ered from the other Commissioners ; and his o]Dinion, which is of the greatest value, was that any pension fund on the voluntary principle would be a failure. These views were shared by all the professional officers of the Board of Trade. The late Mr. Graves told the Merchant Shipping Com- mittee of 1860 that, although he did not like compulsory measures, yet he thought in the case of the Seamen's Pension Fund compulsion would be a necessity. The same opinion was expressed by Captain Ballantyne, who was specially appointed to represent the views of the Mercantile Marine Association of Liverpool before the Royal Commission on Unseaworthy Ships. The views of those who are in favour of compulsory contributions Evidence in , . favour of were very ably summed up m the memorandum pre- compulsory pared for the Manning Commission by Captain Peirce, tions. Superintendent of the Sailors' Home, in London. ' Sea- peFrca- men,' he said, ' were an exceptional class.' What other description of men required their agreements for labour and service, the correction of their accounts, and the payment of their wages to be watched over by a public officer ? This arose from their habits, and their peculiar duties. From youth to manhood they were exposed to temptations and dangers, by sea and land, which sur- rounded no other class ; and they therefore required more than others the protecting arm of a kind and bene- ficent Government to do for them what they could not and would not do for themselves. Why is it that the 72 A PENSION FUND FOR SEAMEN 1876 Board of 'J'rade in- quiries in 1845 Persona', inquiry How the Vund should l)e raised seaman does not calculate ? It is because the universal feeling among seamen is that they will not live to be old. They see so many die around them, they so seldom meet with an old sailor at sea, that they consider it quite unnecessary to prepare, as other people do, for the con- tingency of old age. But, it may be asked, M'hat are the views entertained by the seamen themselves 1 In- quiries were made in 1845, on behalf of the Board of Trade, by Captain Brown, who reported, as the result of conversations with many hundreds of seamen, that there was scarcely any objection to contribute, provided a substantial pension were guaranteed by Parliament. Again, when the Winding-up Act was passed, a petitioii was presented to this House, signed by 400 mastei'S and mates and 700 seamen, stating that any attempt to raise a pension fund on a voluntary principle would be pre- carious and inefficient. I have recently made an effort to ascertain the feel- ings of the seamen by personal inquiry. I addressed a meeting at the Liverpool Sailors' Home in December last on this subject, when a resolution was unanimously passed in favour of the plan. I have subsequently been in correspondence with the Secretary of the Seamen's Protective Society, of Liverpool, which numbers several thousand members, all able seamen ; and I am informed that since the date of the meeting the subject has been repeatedly considered by the Society, and that the general principle of compulsion has been invariably approved. Ten days ago I attended a meeting of seamen at the Shipping Office in the East India Road, when the plan was also received with the warmest approval. But the main point we have to consider is whetlier the thing proposed is right in itself ; for if the House be satisfied that a particular measure is calculated to do 1876 A PENSION FUND TOR SEAMEN 73 good, they will probably be prepared to exert, in case of Dieferent , , , . , . , . ■ 1 J. suggestions need, a gentle pressure on prejucliced or improvident men whom it might be necessary to train up in habits of prudence. Any objection which might b3 raised on the part of the seamen to a forced contribution would be removed if the shipowners were prepared to take a share of the burden. Lord EUenborough suggested a tonnage contribution of Is. a ton, arguing that it was but just that the shipowner should relieve those who would otherwise become chargeable with the maintenance of the seamen by whose labour the shipowner himself had specially benefited. Mr. Young, the chairman of the London Shipowners' Society, proposed that the necessary sum should be raised in three equal amounts — by contributions from the State, the seaman, and the shipowner. With these views Mr. Green and Mr. Dunbar concurred. More recently the Committee of Liverpool Shipowners have proposed that a benevolent Liverpool r> T • 1 1 T 1 1 • 1 Shipowners due or one larthmg a ton should be levied upon all shipping entering our ports, by which means a consider- able amount would be raised. It has been calculated by an officer of the Cunard service that the Liverpool proposal for a tonnage contribution would produce 60,000Z. a year. Coasters would pay an annual contri- bution, in lieu of dues for every voyage. Mr. Lindsay Mr. Lindsay expressed an opinion that even though the payment required from the seamen should, in point of fact, fall absolutely on the shipowners, they would be gainers thereby ; for the seaman would by this means be bound to the English flag, and less easily tempted to desertion by the higher wages in America. Wages from Liverpool for a voyage to Callao and back, in a sailing ship, average 60s. a month. The wages at Callao and the Colonial ports are almost double that amount. The 74 A PENSION FUND FOE SEAMEN 187G The State as adminis trator Amount of pensions feasible Calculations by Mr. Fin- layson result is that the seainan, having nothing to lose by desertion, is easily tempted to leave his ship, and the shipowner must engage a substitute for the voyage home, at double the amount originally agreed upon. Two months' wages must be paid — the proceeds of the advance note passing, as a matter of course, into the hands of the crimp. The administration of the fund must be in the hands of the State, and, with proper regulations, there should be no deficiency. But even if there were an occasional small deficit, it is to be remem- bered that under the Winding-up Act the State took possession of 200,000/., and that the Government now receives an unclaimed surplus of 9,000/. a year from the wages and effects of deceased seamen, which are admin- istered by the Board of Trade. With the aid of these supplementary resources we have next to consider what amount of pension it will be possible to guarantee to the seamen without loss to the State. The calculations made by Mr. Finlayson for Mr. Labouchere in 1850 and for the Manning Commission in 1859 were based upon the Northampton tables, which gave a more unfavourable view of the expectations of human life than almost any other published experience, and which, it was ascertained by communication with the seamen's benefit societies, accurately represent the duration of the lives of mariners. Mr. Finlayson was asked by the Manning Commission to state what amount of pension, commencing at the age of 50, would be secured by an annual payment of 11. from the age of 14. The amount, according to the Northampton tables, payable at the age of 50 would be 8/., and at 55 12/. a year. In this calculation, however, no allowance was made for the secession of some of those who had been contributors to the fund. When, however, allowance 1876 A PENSION' FUND FOR SEAMEN 75 was made for the probable number o£ sececlers, which, in order to make a safe calculation, was taken at 3 per cent, per annum, it appeared that the pension, commencing at 50, would be increased to 111. 5s., and that it would be 18/. commencing at 55. The number of seceders was taken at the most moderate amount. In the Royal Navy desertion took place to the extent of 8 per cent. per annum of the whole number of men employed ; and in the merchant service there were fev/er obstacles in the way of desertion. Had Mr. Finlayson calculated iipon a secession to the extent of 8 per cent., the amount of pension at the age of 50 would have been raised to at least 171. a year. It will be observed with regret that no proposal has been made with respect to widows. The Commission on Pensions were of opinion that it would be impossible to require the payment of a contribution sufficient to provide for this object. They therefore pro- posed a voluntary benefit society for seamen's widows, to which the State should contribute 5,000/. a year. I opened my statement by asserting the importance of a Seamen's Pension Fund on national grounds. I conclude by pointing out that it has always been asso- ciated by its warmest advocates with the organisation of the Naval Reserve. Mr. Lindsay was of opinion that, in lieu of the annual retainer, it would be far wiser to pass men for a year tferougli the Navy, and, instead of giving the yearly fee and an imperfect training, as at present, to offer to the men enrolled in the Reserve the prospect of a pension of 20/. a year, to commence at the age of 50, provided they had in the meantime always followed the sea and held themselves in readiness to serve in the Navy, He calculated that, supposing a Reserve of 60,000 men were obtained, not more than 7,000 would live through their precarious and hazardous AUowanr'e for seceJei> No propostil as to widows Effect of a Pension Fund on Naval Reserve Mr. Lindsay on the Reserve 76 A PENSION FUND FOE SEAMEN 1870 career to claim their pension. Thus, for 140,000/. a year we should have, as he believed, a far more effective Reserve than we could command by a payment of 720,000/. a year under our present system. I appeal once more to the example of every maritime State, and to the repeated recommendations of the highest authori- ties in the country, as furnishing a conclusive argument in favour of the proposal I now make. Why should we longer hesitate to adopt a course which wise statesman- ship and enlightened charity alike i-ecommend 1 I beg, Sir, to move — ' That, in the opinion of the House, it is expedient to establish a compulsory, self-supporting Pension Fuiul for Seamen.' 1870 77 VI THE MEBCHANT SHIPPING BILL Speech in the House of Commons, Monday, Maech 27, 1876 As this amendment raises one of the two main questions referred to the Royal Commission, I wish to explain why I cannot vote with the hon. gentleman, the member for Derby, whose humane exertions on behalf of our seamen I appreciate highly. The Commission made Reports of two reports on this subject, in both of which they laid commission special stress on the fact that the Act of 1873 was of so new and tentative a character that it was impossible to pronounce a definite opinion as to the effect it would ultimately produce in preventing unseaworthy ships from being sent to sea. I advert to this point at the outset of my observations, because I, for one, should not have been prepared to sign the Report of the Com- mission unless I had anticipated that, under vigorous administration, the Act of 1873 would produce all the results that could be expected from the proposals of the hon. member for Derby. The evidence taken by the Commission was most conflicting, the witnesses generally Conflicting inclining to those remedial measures with which their own personal experience made them most familiar. All the surveyors were in favour of Government surveys. All the officials connected with Lloyd's and other similar 78 THE MERCHANT SHIPPING BILL 1876 Difficulty of Govern- ment sm^vey exaggerated Power of complaint by seamen of no value Mr. Gray's opinion Penal legis- lation Views in 1873 and 1874 institutions in an administrative capacity were against surveys. For my own part, I entertain the conviction that the practical difficulty of a survey by the Govern- ment of unclassed ships has been rcuch exaggerated. The number of vessels to be dealt with would be com- paratively limited, and, if necessary, the assistance of Lloyd's surveyors could be obtained. I am equally convinced, by our experience of the Act of 1873, that the power of complaint which has been given to the seamen is of no practical value. These are considerations which incline my judgment in favour of the proposals of the hon. member for Derby. On the other hand, I think it a most serious innovation for the Government to give certificates of seaworthiness, and thus to become directly responsible for the safety of any ship not good enough to class at Lloyd's. In practice, I believe that there would be little difference between the system proposed by Mr. PlimsoU and the vigorous supervision now carried out by the Government. The hon. member for Derby says that the Government should survey all unclassed ships. Practically the Board of Trade survey these ships under the existing regula- tions. Mr. Gray told the Commission that he knew that ships were sent to sea which ought not to be sent to sea ; and he asked for power to break up an unsea- worthy ship. He believed in a survey of suspicious oases, and in the punishment of men who disregarded the life of the sailor. What he wanted was legislation which would help them to bring home punishment to the offender. That was the language of Mr. Gray in 1873. And what did he say in 1874 ? He was asked by the Duke of Somerset the following question : — 'We were told last year by Mr. Farrer, or by your- self, that you knew pretty well, throughout the country^ 187C THE MERCHANT SHIPPING BILL 79 where the bad and unseaworthy ships were, and that all you wanted was power in order to lay your hand upon them.' ' Yes, ' he replied, ' I said so ; and my experi- ence in the working of the Act of 1873 has satisfied me that the Act, as it now stands, is sufficient for the pur- poses of the Board of Trade in preventing unseaworthy ships from being sent to sea. I should be sorry to see any further power given to the Board of Trade to inter- fere with the shipping of the country.' If the Act of 1873 had been administered from the Tiie Aciof 1873 first with the vigour to which the Board stood pledged by the statements made on their behalf by Mr. Gray, I do not believe that the temporary Act passed last session, or the Bill we are now discussing, would have been introduced to Parliament. Both the Board of Trade and the hon. member for Derby agree that all unseaworthy ships should be stopped by the Govern- ment ; but the Board of Trade object to give certifi- cates, while the hon. member for Derby says that all ships which are not unseaworthy should be certificated. For the security of the shipowner, I should prefer ^e°tf™at™* the system of Government certificates. For the security objection to of life, I should object to them. Unclassed ships are of two kinds. They are either in such high repute with shipowners that they can be insured at the most favour- able rates ; or they belong to poor men, who cannot afford, or to negligent or unscrupulous people, who are unwilling, to pay the cost of proper repairs. The powers of the Board of Trade, under the Act of 1873, after too long a delay in the commencement of operations, are now brought to bear on these inferior ships. The result must be that all vessels will be kept in sufficient repair to class at Lloyd's, or else they will be broken up. If these anticipations are fulfilled, would it not be 80 THE MERCHANT SHIPPING BILL 1876 Shipowners responsi- bility Should not rest witli surveyors Argument in favour of inspection by Mr. Keed No more legislation wanted better that shipowners should protect themselves by classing their ships, rather than seek to obtain a Govern- ment certificate, which will relieve them of further re- sponsibility 1 I object to relieve a shipowner of the highest standing from responsibility ; but I object still more to relieve from responsibility struggling or unscru- pulous people, who, instead of making an effort to keep their ships seaworthy, will use all their cunning to hide defects, and to obtain certificates at the smallest possible expense. If such a system as this be introduced, the seaworthiness of the inferior ships will depend entirely on the vigilance of the surveyors, and we have no reason to suppose they will not sometimes make a mistake. Surveyors are not infallible. A few ships are now lost from the carelessness of their owners. Under the pro- posed rules a few ships will be lost from the careless- ness of surveyors. But whei'eas now, when an uncerti- fied ship is lost, the shij)owner is responsible, he will be held blameless in every case of disaster to a ship certi- fied by the Government. The hon. member for Pembroke (Mr. E. J. E,eed) has adduced the Government inspection of railways as an argument in favour of the proposal of the hon. member for Derby. My railway experience has taught me a very different lesson. If we had trusted to minute Government inspection, rather than to the effect of liability to pay heavy damages in case of accident, the safety of the travelling public would not have been so well secured as under the system actually adopted. I entertain no sanguine belief in the possibility of in- creasing the safety of life at sea by further legislation. We do not want legislation so much as good administra- tion of the laws we have lately passed, and under which such ample powers have been already entrusted to the 1876 THE MERCHANT SHIPPING BILL 81 Government. I was greatly impressed by the strong opinion on this subject expressed to the E,oyal Com- mission by Mr. Burns, the leading proprietor in the Mr. Bums Cunard line. He told us that, in his opinion, there Government 1 • n PI 1 Ail! interfereacc had been too much mterierence oi late by Act or Parliament, and that that interference had had no effect in diminishing loss of life at sea. Such an opinion deserves the respectful attention of this House, coming as it does from the owner of a fleet of steamers vyhich have made nearly 3,000 passages across the Atlantic, and whose happy fortune it has been never to lose a life entrusted to his care. In conclusion, I desire to express my conviction that Tribute to the general condition of our shipping does great honour to this country. The success of our shipowners, in com- petition with the whole world, affords the best proof of the quality of their ships. And spending, as I do, no inconsiderable part of my life afloat, and comparing the shipping of the present day with my recollections of twenty years ago^ I see a progressive development of speed, power and safety which I should hesitate to inter- rupt by novel legislation, wJiich, however laudable in in- tention, I believe to be framed on a total misconception of the proper functions of a Government department. shipowners 82 1876 Dr. Leeoli's lleport Admiral Kyder's Committee VII SEAMEN'S DIETABY Speech in the House of Commons, Thursday, May 4, 1876 Mr. Brassey said : — As a general desire had been ex- pressed that all legislation relating to seamen should be postponed until the nest session, it was not his in- tention to move the clause on the subject of dietary of which he had given notice. He would, therefore, take advantage of the motion of the hon. member for Derby to make a short statement on the subject. He must, in the first place, complain of the delay in the publication of a valuable report, which the Board of Trade had lately received from Dr. Leech, who had been employed by the Government to inquire into some recent and painful cases of scurvy. Being unable to refer to the latest information which had been collected, he must avail himself of the report, published in 1867, by Admiral Ryder, as chairman of the Committee of the Society for Improving the Condition of Merchant Sea- men. We had another important official report, made in 1872 by the surgeon to the Seamen's Hospital at Callao. Scurvy had been for years unknown in the Navy. It was a disease which could be effectually pre- vented, and great progress had been made in that direc- tion under recent legislation. In the last repoi-t from the 'Dreadnought' Hospital, it was stated that, in 1855, 1876 SEAMEN'S DIETARY 83 189 cases of scurvy were admitted, and that 601 were Scurvy oases treated from 1856 to 1860 inclusive. During the past nought' eight years only 219 cases had been admitted. Un- °''P^ "^ happily there had been of late a melancholy increase in scurvy in British ships. He would now turn to the reports by Dr. Roe, surgeon to the British Seamen's Dr. Roe ami Hospital at Callao, which had been prepared in reply to Hospitar the circular letter of inquiry as to the condition of mer- chant seamen, issued by the Board of Trade in 1872. No medical man had a larger personal experience than Dr. Roe. In the four years from 1865 to 1869, 251 cases of scurvy were received from 57 vessels, 13 ships sending 9 cases and upwards. The inquiries at Callao had established the inadequacy of the ordinary diet on board ship to maintain the health of the seamen, even when supplemented by the anti- scorbutics enforced by the Merchant Shipping Act of 1867. Dr. Roe said the salt beef and pork constituted the main articles of a seaman's food, and were supposed to represent an amount Seamen's n-ii (.(. •• foodinsuffi- of nourishment which they were far from containing, cient Scurvy was essentially starvation. He recommended, Anti-seorbu- as the most powerful anti-scorbutics, fresh juicy vege- quirei tables, such as potatoes. The cost of such an addition to the seaman's dietary was insignificant. He had examined the dietary scale adopted by Mr. Beageley, of Liverpool, and by Mr. Wigram, of London, and he found that potatoes were regularly issued. He was not anxious for legislation in the details of the shipowner's business. Admiral Ryder had suggested that the Board of Trade Arimirai should not allow a scale of rations to be printed with gestfons^"' fixed quantities ; but that they should insist that, in every scale of dietary, headings should be inserted, in- cluding those articles of food which experience had proved to be the most effective anti- scorbutics. He G 2 84 SEAMEN'S DIETAEY 1876 Inefficient cooking Supply of Iresb water ventured to hope that this suggestion would be adopted, and that an intimation would be made, on the part of the Board of Trade, that a shipowner would be held responsible if it were proved, before any future court of inquiry into cases of scurvy, that he had failed to supply the necessary amount of preserved vegetables, in addition to the salt meat and lime-juice already in- sisted upon. He inight mention that the art of cooking was probably at its very lowest ebb in the merchant service, and that some of our Consuls had recommended that none but certificated men should be allowed to be shipped as cooks. Certain recent cases of scurvy had occurred on board ships in which the suj)ply of water had been proved to be bad. All large ships in the foreign trade should be supplied, like the ships of the Royal Navy, with a condensing apparatus. He did not desire to encumber the Bill with irrelevant matter, but he knew that an opportunity might not soon recur for securing to the seaman improvements in his dietary which, though they might appear of small consequence to the committee, were of almost vital importance, to men who might have to spend 150 dreary days con- secutively at sea. 1876 85 VIIT OFFICE BS OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE Speech in the House op Commons, May 16, 187r. Mr. Brassey rose to call attention to the recent Con- sular reports relating to the officers of the merchant service, and the falling off in the British trade in the Baltic. He said that while the causes of shipwreck had been frequently debated this session, the efficiency of the officers of the merchant service had never been called in question. He gladly acknowledged that the examination Board of for masters and mates, conducted under the Board of Jmlnatlous Trade, had produced excellent results ; but it was ob- vious from Consular reports that the condition of the merchant service as to officers still left much to be de- sired. He would insist chiefly on the defects of the inferior class of ship masters. He desired, however, not to be misunderstood as intending to draw a general indictment against our merchant officers. The state of the profession might still be accurately described in the language of Lord EUenborough, in the rej)ort of the Committee on Pensions : — ' Masters of merchant vessels differ widely in their Loni EUcn- , . 11 1 !• • borough on qualmcations and character, and are or many various masters ot grades in society. While some may be little superior to chant ser- seamen, there are others not only distinguished by the 8P> OFFICERS OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE IS76 A higher ftandard of jii-ofes-?ional knowledge necessary British Con- i-ul at Mar- seilles Sir J. E. Crowe on Is omegian masters higliest acquirements in the practice and science of navi- gation, but as gentlemen of the best education and manners.' He wished to induce the Government to make further efforts to raise tlie standard of professional knowledge among the merchant officers, and in order to show how necessary it was that something should be done he re- ferred first to the report of the Commission on Unsea- worthy Ships, wherein it was stated that while from 1856 to 1872 inclusive only 60 ships were known to have been lost from defects in the vessels, 711 Avere lost from neglect and bad navigation. He next referred to the replies of Her Majesty's Consuls to the letter of the lion, member for Reading, calling for their opinion as to the condition of the merchant service. Similar inquiries had been made in 184.3 and 1847, and a comparison of the earlier reports with those of 1872 showed a marked improvement. As a rule, steamers and first-class sailing ships were well commanded, though it was proved there was a necessity for improvement in the officers of inferior ships. He quoted from the report of Mr. Mark, British Consul at Marseilles, who stated that ' England is not fairly represented by the men who command her ships on the ocean. The grossest ignorance is seen, and drunkenness largely prevails among them.' Sir J. R. Crowe, our Consul-General at Christiania, said : — ' In cases of competition between British and ISTor - wegian ships, when the master of the latter accepts the same rate of freight as his British competitor, he will generally be preferred, as the Bi-itish sailing ships visit- ing Norway are commanded by third and fourth class masters, who frequently have neither education nor sobriety to x-ecommend them.' Mr. Ward, Yice-Consul at Memel, and Mr. Doyle, 1876 OFFICERS OF THE JIERCILlNT SERVICE 87 Consul at Pernambuco, made similar reports. Mr. Gould, our Secretaiy of Legation at Stockholm, reporting on the British shipping trade with the Baltic, said : — 'In 1872 1,714,000 tons of shipping were employed Tonnage in in the direct trade between Sweden and Great Britain, s'^eden^ Only 25 per cent, of this tonnage was British.' cen^e"' Our shipmasters were totally ignorant of the Swedish Defective language, while the Swedish and Norwegian masters ^^^^^"^^ were as much at home in England as in their own coun- laast^rs try. It was not difficult to show that in British mer- chant vessels many officers were to be found who were badly educated. It was not equally easy to provide a legislative remedy for the evils which had been described. As a rule, only the ill-paid were ill-conducted ; and it was impracticable for the Legislature to regulate the private bargains between needy shipmasters and parsi- monious shipowners. This statement would be incom- plete without some reference to this aspect of the question. Mr. Mark, our Consul at Marseilles, said that British shipowners should give better remuneration to their captains and oblige them, to hold a share in their vessels. Captain Toynbee pointed out that there insufficient . salaries of were masters or ships oi 800 tons whose salaries were miLnets only 10/. a month. The institutions set up for the reKef of merchant seamen were chiefly used for the benefit of the officers. Of the 1,200 orphans who had been in- mates of the Merchant Seamen's Orphan Asylum at Snaresbrook, the children of captains numbered 637 ; of noates, 230 ; and of seamen, only 77. While he ad- mitted that the question of remuneration must be settled by the shipowners, he hoped that an expres- sion of opinion in that House might tend to establish a more just view of the reward which was due to the masters of merchant ships responsible for the safety OFFICEKS OF THE MERCflANT SEEVICE 1876 A greater kiiowleilge of languages desirable Sj-stems abroad Sir Charles Kapler on Reserve of oflBcers of valuable cargoes, and sometimes hundreds of human lives. Turning to professional education, the examinations already established had done good, and the Board of Trade would do well to proceed further in the same direction. It was sviggested by Mr. Gould that voluntary examinations should be held in modern languages and the elements of a commercial education. An honorary certi- ficate might be given for proficiency in the new subjects, as it was already gi-antecl for mathematics. In the mer- chant sei-vice a knowledge of languages was at least as essential as a high standard of mathematical attainments. You might make a good landfall without trigonometry ; you could not trade with people whose language you did not understand. In adopting these suggestions he might say thsy would be but following the long-established regulations of the principal maritime nations. In Nor- way and Sweden masters passed a general examination in shipping affairs, in the customs and navigation laws, and in the foreign exchanges. In Russia and Prussia some knowledge of French and English was required. In France a professor, paid by the Government, resided at the principal ports to give instruction in navigation free of charge, and he claimed the example of France as an argument in support of his second proposal. In the debate on the manning of the Navy in 1860 Sir Charles Napier said truly, ' Suppose you have obtained your Naval Reserve. Where would you get ofiicers to command them ? You would find it absolutely necessary to come to the merchant service.' He would not enter into the question of the organisation of the Naval Re- serve, but would urge the importance of making the University at Greenwich a connecting link between the Royal Navy and the mercantile marine. Not until its 1876 OFFICERS OF TUE MERCHANT SERVICE 89 benefits were extended to officers of the merchant ser- vice could the College claim to be regarded as a truly- national institution. The lectures were already accessible to merchant officers, but that was not enough. The majority of masters and mates were too poor to be able to give up a year to study. He would therefore propose that a few studentships for officers of the Reserve should Greenwich be established at Greenwich. Students should be ad- should he mitted to the College for twelve months free of charge, officers of and should receive a sum of not less than 60^. a year, merchant The gradual introduction into the merchant service of officers of higher attainments who had had associations with the Royal Navy must be a mutual benefit to the two services, and therefore a public advantage. We might look to the Greenwich students as men well quali- fied to serve in the Navy in time of war, and expect that their example and influence in time of peace would tend to raise the general tone of their profession. He begged to move — 'That it is expedient that voluntary examinations should be held under the Board of Trade in modern languages and commercial law, and that fur- ther inducements should be given to merchant officers to study at the Naval University at Greenwich.' service 90 1877 IX THE SEA AS A CALLING Address to the Cadets op the Thames Nautical Teainikg College ' Woecestee,' at the Distributioin' OF Prizes, Friday, Ju^'E 22, 1877 I EXPRESS a sentiment deeply felt by all the company on this platform when I say that we experience great satisfaction in being present on such an occasion as this. Ko character can be more attractive than that of a brave, true-hearted British seaman ; and no institutioli can so largely command the very best sympathies of the British nation as that established on board the ' Worcester,' the object of which is to train young gentlemen for a naval career. It is not necessary, I am glad to say, to have made a distinguished career in the Navy, like many gallant officers whom I now see around me, nor is it necessary to have been in the merchant service, in order to understand that the object of this Naixtical Training College is a most desirable one. One need be no more Difficulties than an amateur in order to appreciate the difficulties of a sea life i • i i , , a i i« which seamen have to encounter. And tor my own part, having just returned from an extensive sea voyage, I cannot but feel the greatest sympathy with you young gentlemen when I think of the difficulties you will have to encounter. I return from a long voyage more im- 1877 THE SEA AS A CALLING 91 pressed than ever by a sense of the importance and the usefulness of the nautical profession. It is a life of noble enterprise, and well fitted to strengthen true dig- nity of character. An officer commanding a ship comes perpetually into contact with the grandest forces of nature, and he learns to place liis dependence upon that Almighty Power by whom those forces are directed, while at the same time he endeavours, to the utmost of his ability, by professional skill and fertility of re- source, so to steer his course that these forces shall not overwhelm him. Young gentlemen, if your profession is one of danger and difficulty, it is certain that on this account it demands special training. And, so far as I under- stand the state of the case, the opportunities you possess here give the kind of training that you will find most serviceable when you enter upon a seaman's career. In my opinion, therefore, for the good of the merchant service, and for the country generally, it is most advantageous that such institutions as the ' Con- way ' and the ■ Worcester ' should have been created. I sincerely hope. Cadets of the ' Worcester,' you will rightly .appreciate the opportunities afforded to you while on board this ship. There are many considera- tions which ought to convince you of the value of the two years' training you receive here. In recent years we have witnessed a remarkable revolution in the merchant service. The very extensive introduction of steam power, while it has facilitated our commercial in- tercourse, has nevertheless tended to lessen the oppor- tunities of professional instruction. It is impossible to train a naval officer on board a full-powered steamship in the same way as on a vessel dependent entirely on the winds for locomotion. You must remember that in Usefulnes's of a nautical profession Special training requirel Advantages of course in ' Worcestei ' 92 THE SEA AS A CALLINQ 1877 Subjects acquired in training ships Value of swimming The ' Wor- cester ' self- supporting the keen competition of the merchant service no more hands can be employed than are absolutely necessary to work the ship. The consequence is that there cannot be provided a sufficient number of instructors whose special duty it shall be to teach young officers the details of their profession. Hence it is of immense importance and advantage to have been on board a ship like this to learn your work under the superintendence of those well qtxalified to teach you every part of it. There are many things which can be taught and learnt in the ' Worcester ' which you will have little or no oppor- tunity to learn when you go to sea. There is, for example, the use of the lead. A vessel constantly em- ployed in deep waters is one in which the use of the lead is not resorted to ; and hei'e you can have daily practice in its use. Again, there is practice in boating ; and that cannot be learnt in deep seas. Here, however, you may learn that art, which is invaluable to men engaged in your profession. Deep-water seamen are out of their element in small boats, and therefore we fre- quently hear of disastrous accidents. I venture to hope, that you who have had your training here will be safe in squally weather and avoid the accidents which have sometimes proved fatal to others. I was pleased to distribute the prizes for swim- ming. It is only on board a ship like this that you can learn the art ; and when we reflect how many lives are annually sacrificed because people have been finable to swim, the instruction given in this subject is exceedingly valuable. There is another feature in this institution which must tend very much to recommend it to any representa- tive of a tax-paying public. I refer to its being a self- supporting institution. Let me here observe that the THE SEA AS A CALLING 93 more I have studied the merchant service, both as re- gards ships and seamen, the more convinced I am that it is not by ' Minute Resolutions,' not by crude legisla- tion, not by the interposition of the Board of Trade, of Parliament or the Admiralty, but by self-organisation that we shall be able to improve the merchant service. It is, therefore, in this connection that I wish to recom- mend the ' Worcester ' to the approval of the British public. I have spoken of the institution as very valuable for How to the purpose of teaching you seamanship and the profes- iSure^at sional part of your duty. But there is yet another ^^^ aspect in which I should like you to look at your future profession. I am reminded by my voyage that the life of a sailor is a solitary life. Now, the way to prevent such a life having a deteriorating effect upon character is to be prepared to fill up intervals of leisure in a satis- factory manner. The culture which you receive here, not only in seamanship but in science and literature, will enable you wisely to fill up these intervals on the broad ocean, in a manner satisfactory to yourself and to those around you. In a life at sea, physical subjects and astronomical subjects, the study of marine archi- tecture and other things will be found exceedingly useful, and these studies can only be followed to any practical end by those who by previous reading have prepared to make their observations at sea. Let me remind you of another point ; the crew of influence of . example of a merchant vessel on a long voyage are by the circum- officers ou stances of their occupation deprived of some of the best influences of religion and civilisation. It is for the officers of the ship to supply influences which are of unquestionable value, and which can only be derived from their personal example. If it would not tire you 94 THE SEA AS A CALLING 1877 Mr. Lind- say's career His remarks on the in- flaience of the master I should like to put before you a few lines written by Mr, Lindsay, who is one of those men whose names are an honour to the seagoing life of England, a man who began life as a cabin boy, but who worked his way up to become the owner of many a good ship. Mr. Lindsay's words are very valuable. He was cut off, so to speak, by illness from his Parliamentary career, but he has published a series of letters that do him great honour. He says : — ' On the character of the master, and the course of conduct he pursues, depend in a great measure the character and success of the ship and the conduct of the other officers and of the men. He has to exert an influence both direct and indirect, and it may be an influence of much good or of much evil. If he is brave, true, and temperate, some of these good qualities will be seen among his officers and men which would have been otherwise absent had the captain been a man of indifferent character.' When you go to sea remember this advice. Your moral responsibility ex- tends far beyond your own ship. You are constantly placed in the very van of civilisation, visiting distant and comparatively unknown shores, where you will be regarded as representatives for the time of the character and honour of England. When you are placed in such circumstances of responsibility, may your conduct be worthy of your responsibilities ! If your conduct is worthy and noble, then you will enhance the dignity and glory of the country. If it is the reverse of this, you may bring a stain upon the honour of our dear old England. I have referred to your training here, to your con- nection with the merchant service and its responsibili- ties ; and let me now refer to the recent encouraging evidences of the solicitude on vour behalf which is felt 1877 THE SEA AS A CALLING 95 by the Government and the country. It is most grati- Action of fying to find that the Admiralty have recognised the in appoint- intimate dependence between the Royal Navy and the Naval merchant service by appointing as midshipmen to the Royal Naval Reserve ten cadets from the ' Worcester ' each year. As you have heard from the Hon. Secretary, four of the young gentlemen of this ship have been appointed to the Hooghly Pilot Service. I may further refer to the appointment of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales as captain in the Naval Reserve as a most grati- h.r.h. the fying compliment to every officer connected with the waiesan merchant service. I take this to be a most important Naval "' step, and one which will tend to make the Royal Naval ^'^^*^'^^® Reserve more popular than ever. I trust this step will be followed up by a yet larger measure of encourage- ment. I cannot doubt that some scheme might be framed by which, in consideration of special services rendered to the Royal Naval Reserve, the rank of Com- mander might be conferred on officers in the merchant service. There are other appointments in the Government consniar gift that I should like to see filled by well qualified ^euis officers. There are, for example, hundreds of Consular appointments, which so far as I know are tolerably well paid; The duties of the Consuls are chiefly connected with the merchant service, and I see no reason why such appointments should not be held by merchant officers. And I may say the same of the appointments of the Board of Trade. I wish most of these good berths were given to seamen. Too often when there is a good thing going a landsman seems to intrude himself, to the disadvantage of those who have served at sea. Lastly, as a means of raising the character of the merchant service and its officers, I would hope that the 96 THE SEA AS A CALLING 1877 A central professional institution required for mer- chant ser- vice Popularity of Com- mander of ' Worcester ' day is not far distant when the profession will in a collective capacity have an institution similar to those professional institutions which have been established for many years in connection with other professions. Whether I speak of architects, mechanical engineers, or any other profession, I find that there is a central professional institution where members can be received, where professional subjects can be discussed, and the profession to which they belong be greatly advanced. It would be a great thing if we could have an institu- tion of this kind in connection with the merchant service. I desire to express, not only for myself, but for Mrs. Brassey and all on this platform, our great satisfaction in being able to take part in these prc- ceedings. We rejoice to believe that this ship is con- ducted in a most satisfactory manner. It was with the greatest pleasure we observed the enthusiasm mani- fested on the mere mention of the name of Captain Smith, the Commander of the ' Worcester.' I. regarc. that enthusiasm as proof of Captain Smith's great and deserved popularity. I have reason to know that the Committee very highly appreciate the gallant Captain's services, and the high tone of character with which he discharges his most responsible duties. Now, Cadets, let me say from my heart how delighted I am to be with you to-day, and I trust your future career in a most noble profession will be both honourable and suc- cessful. 1880 97 X A SEA CAREEB Address to the Cadets of the Training Ship 'Conway,' AT THE DiSTEIBUTION OF PEIZES, JUNE 24, 1880 It now becomes my duty to ofi'er a few observations on the occasion which has brought us together. And, first of all, let me thank the committee of management of the ' Conway ' for inviting me to distribute the prizes to the successful cadets. The admirable work which has been done on board the ' Conway ' well merits the sanction and the encouragement of the Admiralty, of which I am the humble representative. To me personally this scene is one of the deepest interest. It was on the waters of the Mersey that I first began in my personal early boyhood to indulge that love for sailors, shipping, the Mersey and the sea which has never since left me. It needs no personal associations with the sea to realise the deep interest which attaches to an occasion such as that which has brought us together. The greatness, and, indeed, the very existence of our country rests upon her maritime enterprise. It v/as thought that steam would be a great leveller ; that the peculiar seamanlike qualities of our race would be less felt when a mechanical motive power was substituted for the old ■ fashioned seamanship as it was practised when all depended on the winds. All such apprehensions, how- H 98 A SEA CAEEER 1880 Increase of British tonnage Hardships of a sea life ever, have proved to be groundless. The tonnage under the British flag has grown with a marvellous and cease- less growth, until it now exceeds in the aggregate the united tonnage of all the other merchant navies of the world. Our steam shipping is absolutely unrivalled. To what causes shall we attribute our success 1 It is due in part to the geographical position of this country, in part to the material resources of coal and iron we possess, in part to the skill of our shipbuilders, partly to the commercial ability of our shipowners. All these resources would be of little avail unless the country could furnish, as it does, a band of brave, true-hearted, and skilful officers to command the goodly fleets that we have created. The young gentlemen who have to-day received prizes, and their comrades who, though less successful, will, I trust, look forward with buoyant hope to the future, are about to join a profession to whose services the whole nation owes a large debt of gratitude. Let us all remember that, while a sea life presents irresistible attractions to adventurous natures, it is also a life of privation and hardship. It means long separa- tions from home; it cannot be free from danger. There are trying vicissitudes of climate, and exhausting watchfulness must be maintained as night succeeds to night. Let us, I say, be thankful that it has pleased God to encourage some gallant spirits to make choice of a calling which exposes those who follow it to such experiences. Let us wish well to the w^ork undertaken on board the ' Conway,' the work of preparation for the arduous profession of a sea officer in the mercantile marine. The training received on board the ' Conway ' is im- portant primarily for the safe conduct of vessels ; but it is not less important in a moral point of \'iew that our 1880 A SEA CAREER 99 young sea ofificers should receive a thoroughly sound and goo-i train- good education. No class of men have more direct "afy'"^*'^^ means of influencing those around them than the officers who command our merchant ships. The best mode of training our seamen is a subject Advantage which has received the most anxious consideration both i'n*saiiing^ at the Admiralty and in the mercantile marine in recent '^'"^^ years. The ISTavy has sustained an irreparable misfortune in the loss, within little more than twelve months, of two training ships with their crews of 600 fine young sea- men. Whatever may be the future arrangements for the training of the seamen in the Royal Navy, certain it is that the former boards of the Admiralty were acting in conformity with the advice of the finest seamen of our day, both in the Royal Navy and in the mercantile marine, in sending the young seamen to sea in sailing vessels for training purposes. Every youth who leaves the ' Conway ' should join a sailing ship. The 'Eurydice' was lost, among other reasons, because her ports wei'e open when it Avould have been more prudent to have kept them closed. As to the causes of the loss of the ' Atalanta ' we cannot presume to offer an opinion. We know that the ship encountered weather of fearful severity, and every seaman knows the tremendous in- terval which separates ordinary bad weather at sea from those violent tempests which may be encountered only once or twice in the lifetime of the most experienced voyagers. It will be our duty to take every precaution which science and experience can suggest ; but the r aval administration of the country cannot suffer themselves to be deterred by the apprehension of clanger from sending our young seamen afloat to learn the duties of their calling where alone they can be acquired — that is to say, in the school of practical experience, and in h2 ' Eurydice and ' Atalanta ' 100 A SEA CAREEE 1880 Priicticiil experience essential Time spent by Nelson and Coiling-, wood at sea Couneutiou between Boyal Navy and mer- cantile marine perpetual contact with the winds and the waves. The great commanders of past times attained to the highest degree of excellence as seamen and naval tacticians by incessant cruising. When Nelson landed in Gibraltar, in June, 1805, on his return from the famous pursuit of Villeneuve from the Mediterranean to the West Indies, and from the West Indies back to the shores of Europe, he made the following entry in his diary : — 'I went on shore to-day for the first time since June, 1803, and from having my foot out of the " Victory " two yearsy wanting ten days.' In fifty years' service. Lord Colling- wood was actively employed forty -four years, and was once twenty-three months at sea without dropi^ing anchor. It was by their constant practice at sea, stimu- lated, no doubt, by the perpetual anticipation of battle, that the illustrious officers of that great era in our Navy became such incomparable seamen. Nothing could be more fatal to the future of the British Navy than to keep our officers and men for long years in the shelter of hai'bours and snug roadsteads, and to allow them to acquire their first exjDeriences of the perils and hardships of the sea when engaged in active service against the enemy. An occasion like the present naturally leads us to consider the intimate dej)endence of the Hoyal Navy on the mercantile marine. With me it has always seemed to be a great and cardinal principle of naval administra- tion that we should I'egard all the maritime resources of the country as available for the defence of our shores and our commerce. I do not wish to use laii'^uace which might excite alarm, but I am bound to say that I should not be altogether satisfied with the recent progi-ess in naval construction in our dockyards unless I looked behind the Royal Navy to the resources the 1880 A SEA CAREER 101 country possesses in its meiv.antile marine and private shipbuilding yards. Having considered the question of a reserve of ships, we are naturally led to the kindred topic of our reserves of men. The ISTaval Reserve has now been established long enough to test its value. The report of Admiral Phillimore, on resigning his command as Admiral Superintendent of the reserves in November last, is highly satisfactory. The numbers have been maintained for some years past at 17,000. The second class could be increased without difficulty from the north of Scotland and other places in which the great sea fisheries are carried on, and the first class reserve is spoken of by Admiral Phillinaore as composed of a very fine body of seamen, the leading and best men in our merchant service. Probably no incident could have done more to encourage the Naval Reser\'e than the appointment of the Duke of Edinburgh to the command. The Admiralty have lately taken a wise step by giving cadetships in the Reserve to the young gentlemen edu- cated in the ' Conway ' and ' Worcester.' The newest ele- ment in the Naval Reserve — the Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers — has been spoken of in the warmest terms both by Sir Walter Tarleton and Admiral Phillimore. The present strength is 1,002 ; the LiverjDOol brigade, with 502 members, to which I have recently had the honour of being appointed as honorary commander, being the strongest brigade. I regard the Royal Naval Artillery Volunteer movement as the connecting link between the Navy and the civil population. In the ordinary duties of the service the Navy is necessarily kept apart from the main stream, of the national life. The Navy wants the sympathy of the country. It gives us in return a share in its traditions and high examples of self-sacrifice, patriotism, and devotion, which we shall The Naval Iteserve Niimbers and quality Royal !Naval Artillery Volunteers. A connect- ing link with civil population and Navy 102 A SEA CAREEK 1880 Emulate ileeds of great com- manders do well to follow. Read the introduction to Alston's 'Seamanship'; read Southey's ' Life of Nelson'; read the Memoirs of Collingwood and Goodenough. Re- member that some of the greatest deeds of naval daring- were done by members of your own branch of the naval profession — by Raleigh and Drake — in vessels poor and contemptible indeed in comparison with the powerful shij^s of the present day. In bidding farewell to the cadets on board the ' Conway,' I cannot give them any better counsel, I can desire for them no richer blessing, than that they should be able to imitate in their career the courage and the constancy of these great sea officers of our past history. 1884 103 XI SHIP INSUBANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA Reprinted by Pbemission feom the 'Nineteenth Century,' March 1884 The speeches delivered by Mr. Chamberlain, and the administrative measures which he has taken as Presi- dent of the Board of Trade, have once more aroused the public interest in the anxious question of the preserva- tion of the lives of our seamen in the mercantile marine. It is a melancholy fact that the philanthropic efforts of Mr. PlimsoU, and the legislation which followed, have hitherto proved wholly ineflfectual. The average annual loss among British seamen in the five years 1877 to Lossofufe 1881, was 1,692 lives. That number increased in 1882 to 3,118, and it had reached 3,500 at the date of the latest returns. Much of this loss is preventible. Care- less shipmasters and mates are responsible for many collisions and sti-andings ; and hitherto the punishment awarded by the temporary suspension of certificates has erred on the side of leniency. For the reckless over- loading of ships, for undermanning, in many cases to a dangerous degree, and for negligence in regard to re- pairs, shipowners and underwriters are mainly respon- sible. The Royal Commission on Unseav\-orthy Ships hesi- at sea 104 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 1884 Difficulties of Board of Trade Committee on load lines Precluded from criti- cism tated to recommend a universal inspection of ships by the Government. They were unwilling to relieve the shipowner of responsibility ; and they thought it would be more effectual to give the Board of Trade power to detain ships, and to institute criminal prosecutions. In practice, it is most difficult to bring liome a direct per- sonal responsibility to the shipowner. Even when the charge has been proved, it is said, ' The Board of Trade were authorised to detain the ship ; and why did they not exercise the powers with which they have been invested 1 ' Where, again, the Boai'd of Trade has de- tained vessels on the ground that they were overladen, the shipowner has complained that he ought to have been informed beforehand of the limitations of load which the Board of Trade was determined to enforce. Undeterred by the acknowledged difficulty of the task, the Board of Trade, assisted by a most able depart- mental committee, with Sir Edward Reed as chairman, is engaged in the preparation of rules for the determina- tion of load lines ; and a proposal has been made to enforce more effectually the personal responsibility of shipowners, by the establishment in the principal sea- ports of courts of first instance, in the constitution of which the interests and the experience of the ship- owners and the controlling and superintending authority of the Board of Trade shall be jointly represented. As a subordinate member of the Government in the department of the Admiralty, I am precluded, even if I were disposed to do so, from offering any public criti- cisms on the policy of the Board of Trade ; but my present official position is not incompatible with the limited purpose of the present paper. At a time when the country is full of anxiety for the lives of our sea- men, and information is eagerly sought on the subject, 1884 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 105 I feel it my duty as a member of the Commission on Unseaworthy Ships, to whom the most recent inquiry on the preservation of life at sea was entrusted, to bring together in a connected form the valuable evidence pre- sented to us, together with those portions of the Report of the Commission which deal with marine insurance. The law on this subject presents problems of extreme Complexity intricacy, and it affects commercial interests of enor- on marine ., 1 T 1 J T •j_ • insurance mous magnitude. In a large trading community marine insurance is a necessity, and the very anomalies which a layman is disposed to criticise most severely have grown up with the express sanction of our legal tribu- nals, and indeed had their origin in the decisions of judges of great eminence and authority. It would be rash and imprudent in the highest degree on the part of a private individual to press for changes in the law as it is at the present laid down, without a deliberate and exhaustive examination of the whole subject. The necessity for such a revision will have been sufficiently established if it can be shown that the facility for insur- ing to the full, and sometimes to an exaggerated value, leads to carelessness and recklessness in the manage- ment of shipping, and is therefore a primary cause of the deplorable loss of life at sea. The witnesses on the subject of marine insurance, Duke of who appeared before the Duke of Somerset's Commis- commission sion, comprised barristers and solicitors largely engaged on commercial cases, and officials of Lloyd's and the Board of Trade. They were selected for their special knowledge, their high character, and freedom from bias and self-interest. Sir Thomas Farrer being asked whether, in his view of sir • • , p • IT ii- j_ Thomas opinion, our system or insurance had any efiect upon Farrer the safety or danger of property and lives at sea, he. 106 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 1881 Other testimony Mr. INIcIver cm oYer- iusurance replied that ' it was obvious that it must have the greatest possible effect. It was quite clear that even if you put the shipowner in as good a position by insur- ance in case of loss as he would occupy if the voyage were successfully completed, you to that extent dimin- ished the motives which otherwise would actuate him in taking care that the vessel was seaworthy. If insurance went beyond that, and gave considerable profit in case of loss, which he would not have had if the voyage had been successfully completed, you gave a motive, lie would not say for fraud, for he believed cases of fraud to be rare, but you gave a motive for great reckless- ness.' Mr. Butt, who has since been elevated to the Bench ; Mr. Hollams, the eminent commercial solicitor ; Mr. Walton, another eminent London solicitor ; Mr. Squarey, solicitor to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and Mr. Lamport, gave similar testimony. Speaking in the House of Commons in the debate on marine insurance in 1875, Mr. Mclver said that over- insurance in regard to cargo happened to be the rule , rather than the exception. It was the custom of the trade to insure a ten per cent, profit on bulky cargoes of coals, grain, or iron. Vessels so laden were those which most frequently went to the bottom. The merchant, broker, or charterer, were all insured, and their profits were secured, provided only the vessel was lost. It was not a question of only one, but frequently of two profits, because if one cargo was lost there was another to re- place it. Nobody meant the vessel to be lost, but prac- tically it was not the interest of those persons to see that the vessel was not overladen. It would certainly occur to them to do so if the loss of the vessel meant a loss of money. 1884 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 107 Having referred to the opinions expressed by com- Thevain«i petent authorities as to the effect of insurance in in- creasing marine disaster, Ave may proceed to consider the various poHcies of marine insurance. Let us take first the case of the valued policy. In a valued policy the agreed value of the subject insured is expressed on the face of the policy. It might reasonably have been supposed that where the value expressed in the policy exceeds the real value of the property insured, the courts M^ould have refused to sanction the over- valuation. Such, however, is not the doctrine of our law. The underwriter is not allowed to set aside the value, as stated in the valued policy, except upon plea and proof of fraud. It may be presumed that the decisions of the courts Memoran- had their origin, as explained by Mr. Justice Willes in Justice WIUgs his memorandum written in the year 1867, first in the desire to avoid the inconvenience of protracted inquiries as to value, which, in many cases of total loss, would be difficult of proof. Secondly, it was thought expedient to allow the assured to insure to the full extent of his interest, though exceeding what he could get for the ship if put up to sale, because in certain cases expenses may have been incurred with i-eference to a special use of the ship, as in the case of a ship fitted like the ' Great Eastern ' or the ' Faraday ' for laying an electric cable. When we turn from the commercial aspects of the question to consider the effect of these insurances in relation to the loss of life at sea, we must admit, with Mr. Justice Willes, that the system of valued policies, whatever its conveniences, does encourage fraudulently disposed people to put high values on comparatively worthless vessels, and gives them an interest in the loss of their property. 108 INSUEANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 1884 The open policy Example of over- insurance The voyage policy Observa- tions of Mr. Harper "We may now pass on to consider the open policy, or that in wliicli the value is not fixed either for ship, freight, or goods. According to the law as it is now laid down, the value of goods is the invoiced price, together with the charges for loading and insurance. The value of a ship is held to be the sum she is worth to her owner at the port where the voyage commences, including outfit and premium and costs of insurance. The amount recoverable on an open policy on freight is the gross freight paid by the shipper. The effect of the present rules can be most easily understood by an example quoted by Sir John Lubbock in a speech delivered in the House of Commons in 1875. A vessel sailed from Quebec for Liverpool. The freight, as per charter party, amounted to 3,500/., but was in- sured for 6,000/. The ship was lost in the river St. Lawrence. If the voyage had been completed success- fully the net receipt of the owner would not have exceeded 3,500/. By the loss of the ship he .realised 6,000/. It has been suggested, as a remedy for this strange inconsistency of the law, that the underwriter should be entitled to deduct from the amount payable to the ship- owner on an open policy on the freight all expenses actually saved by the loss of the ship. We may now turn to the voyage policy, or that in which the limits of the voyage are designated in the policy by specifying a given place at which it is to begin, and another at which it is to end. The anomalous state of the law in its relation to voyage policies will be most readily shown by quoting from the observations of Mr. Harper. ' In the case of a voyage policy the law steps in again with its eternal vigilance on the owner's behalf. At the inception of the risk the ship must be seaworthy. 1884 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 109 There is an implied warranty, as it is called, of sea- worthiness. But it has been held that the voyage out and the voyage home are one voyage ; and it frequently happens, and it has happened to my knowledge, that a ship has gone out from one port to another, say from London to Shanghai, has been damaged on the way, has delivered her cai^go, and taken in a cargo for the voyage home, had not been repaired at Shanghai, and had left in so bad a condition that there was every probability of her foundering. She had foundered, and yet, as there was no warranty of seaworthiness for the voyage from Shanghai, the assured had recovered the whole of his money from the underwriter.' The last policy to which allusion is necessary is the The time . . . . , policy time policy, or that in which the limits or risks are designated only by certain fixed periods of time. The courts of law hold that there is no contract in time policies that the ships should be seaworthy, even at the commencement of the risk. This rule has been sustained on the ground that a shipowner may not have had any intelligence from his ship for a lengthened period, and cannot give a warranty for her seaworthy condition. Mr. Shaw Lefevre, in his evidence before the Com- mission, suggested that there should be an implied and continuing warranty of seaworthiness in all time poli- cies, as is now the case in voyage policies. The distinction between time and voyage policies, in Distinctiou 1 • I 1 J. XT- • between respect to the warranty or seaworthiness, leads to this time and strange anomaly. The owner of a ship insured under a poHcfes time policy is allowed to recover his insurance, even though the vessel were unsea worthy. Shippers of goods must insure under a voyage policy, and they cannot i-ecover if the vessel is not seaworthy. Thus the ship- owner, who has the power to regulate the condition ox 110 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 1884 Compensa- tion for shippers Anomaly in law of constructive total loss Supgestion of Mr. Shaw Leievre his ship as to repairs and equipments, and neglects to do his duty, recovers his insurance, while the proprietor of the goods, who is an innocent sufferer, loses all claim on the underwriters. True it is that shipjoers of goods, though they cannot recover their insurance from the underwriters, have a claim for compensation against the shipowner. But, by the bill of lading usually employed, shipowners have succeeded in contracting themselves entirely out of this obligation. It has therefore been proposed that no words introduced into the bill of lading shall exonerate the shipowner from the obligation to make and keep his vessel in safe condition, and that the underwriter shall not be liable for loss, whether under the time or the voyage policy, unless it can be proved that the ship- owner and shipmaster had used all reasonable efforts to make and keep the ship seaworthy. In this connection an anomaly may be pointed out in the law relating to constructive total loss. There is, says Mr. Arnould, a constructive total loss of a ship when by the perils of the sea she is converted into such a wreck that it would cost more money to restore her than she would afterwards sell for. The assured may, under these circumstances, give notice to the under- writers that he abandons the wreck and claims for the total loss. But, for the purpose of deciding the claim of the shipowner, the value taken into consideration by the courts is not the value as agreed in the policy, but the actual estimated value of the ship ; and this may often be a much less amount than the valuation in the policy. Mr, Shaw Lefevre suggested that in determining the question whether a shipowner is justified in abandoning his vessel to the underwriters, the value at which he has himself valued his ship in the policy ought to be taken 1884 JNSUIIANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 111 as decisive. Where a vessel is over-insured the present state of the law offers a great inducement to the ship- owner to abandon the underwriters and not to do his best to save the ship. It is unnecessary to enter into further details as to Co-operation the law of insurance. It may indeed be questioned, as writers Mr. Justice Willes remarks, whether any alteration in "'^^'^''^•'^'"y the English law would be operative, unless the under- writers were sincerely disposed to aid in giving it effect. The insurance companies and underwriters who do busi- ness of the highest class rely chiefly on the character of their clients, and care little for the protection afforded by the law. Among people in a less fortunate position, the competition for bvisiness is such that no risk is refused if only a sufBciently tempting premium be offered. Under- writers have hitherto had little encouragement to seek redress for injustice in courts of law. The partiality to shipowners generally shown by juries fully justifies the Partiality observation of Mr. Shaw Lefevre, ' If they would only owners by enforce the law a little more strictly in cases where there was an implied warranty of seaworthiness as between the shipowner and the merchant, there would be a much greater security that vessels would be sent to sea in a seaworthy state.' Impressed with the weight of evi- dence as to the unsatisfactory system under which such cases are tried before a judge and jury, our Commission recommended a judge and two assessors as a far better tribunal. The law of marine insurance is an elaborate edifice, Hasty If. i_-ii i- ii J i> alterations composed or materials drawn irom the custom ot mer- in the law chants, the statutes of the realm, and the decisions of "we ^*^'' able and impartial judges. Such a law should not be altered hastily, nor without the most careful considera- tion of the probable effect of the changes proposed in 112 INSURANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA li Value of intirine iusurauce Aim of future legis- lation relation to the seaworthiness of our shipping. Because abuses have grown up in the law, marine insurance must not on that account be condemned. Its value has indeed been recognised from very early times. It was introduced into England by the Lombards, together with the art of bookkeeping, the institution of banking, and other equally valuable aids to commerce. Rich men may, indeed, be independent of the protection it affords. The poorest class of shipowners, who navigate their own ships, do not insure, because they cannot afford to bear any exj)ense not absolutely necessary to enable them to take their vessels from port to port. These men live from hand to mouth, from voyage to voyage ; and, as they do not entrust their pro23erty to the care of others, they are free from the anxiety of those who have to bear unknown risks. But that great middle class who must constitute the majority of every trading community are in a different position. They have too much at stake to be able to bear the risks of maritime adventure without the protection of insurance ; and, on the other hand, their interest in shipping is not distributed so widely as to justify them in becoming their own insurers. The work to be done is of the utmost importance. Those who are opposed to load lines and surveys say truly that the commercial instinct of the shipowner and the experience of the shipmaster are the most reliable guarantee for the seaworthiness of shipping ; and that Government surveyors cannot have the same practical knowledge as persons actually engaged in the trade. But that commercial instinct on which we are invited to rely must be less keen and less acute when by the over-valuation of the ship and freight the shipowner stands to win and not to lose by the loss of his ship. the law 1884 INSUEANCES AND LOSS OF LIFE AT SEA 113 The aim of future legislation must be to confine marine insurance to a simple contract of indemnity. We should not allow ourselves to be deterred from Advantages dealing with abuses by ill-founded apprehensions. The a reform of marvellous development of our mercantile marine has been brought about by general efficiency of administra- tion on the part of our shipowners, by the skill of our shipbuilders in the use of great natural advantages, and by the personal qualities for which our seamen are re- nowned. Such a reasonable reform of the law as it has been sought to indicate in these pages will but secure a more ample reward for well-conducted enterprise. The recurrence of preventible disaster entails high rates of premijiuijl If half the money now lavished on insurance were applied in repairs and maintenance, in strengthen- ing crews, in improving equipments, and in reducing the cargoes of the ships which are overladen, the seamen of our mercantile marine would be spared untold suffering and anxiety. The charges imposed on the community at large for freight would be lightened, and the dis- credit would be removed which reckless shipowners have brought on a branch of enterprise in which it is the pride and boast of this country that she holds a foremost place. 114 XII SufEeriugs from other causes than unseaworthi- ness TYBANTS OF THE SEA : SHOWING SOME TALES OF SUF FEEING IN THE ME B CHANT SEBVICE Kbprinted by Permission from the Review,' March 1886 Contemporary In recent years great efforts have Leen made to improve the lot of seamen, and a Commission is now once more conducting an inquiry into the causes of the loss of life at sea. In the present short paper it is not proposed to deal with the seaworthiness of ships. The object is to call attention to the suffering seamen endure from other causes. Mr. Matthews, the secretary to the British and Foreign Sailors' Society, has been devoting himself lately to an inquiry into some of the terrible incidents which have recently occurred. As the President of the Society, I deem it my duty to give publicity to the harrowing narratives which have been brought to our knowledge. The incidents to which it is proposed to call attention are, as we confidently believe, of an ex- ceptional nature ; but the public will be justly indig- nant that such cruelties should from time to time take place, and they will demand that an effort shall be made to provide a remedy. Tales of ci'uelty at sea are not new. They have been described with moving eloquence by powerful 1886 TYEANTS OF THE SEA 115 writers. The floo-fjino; scene in Dana's ' Two Years before the Mast ' must be vividly impressed upon the minds of many I'saders. The sufferings endured in ships sailing under the flag of the United States at- tracted the attention of another gifted American writer. Mr. Nathaniel Hawthorne, when serving as United States Consul at Liverpool, in a despatch addressed to the Secretary of State on June 17, 1857, expressed him- self as follows : — 'The instances of cruel treatment that have come under my notice include a great mass of petty outrage, unjustifiable assault, shameful indignities, and nameless cruelty, demoralising alike to those who perpetrate and to those who suffer.' The crews he de- scribed as being generally foreigners, who, from their I'oving habits, seldom remain long under the jurisdiction of the United States. Hence a difficulty was expe- rienced in securing the offenders, and in inflicting the punishments which they deserved. We have a more recent contribution to the Ameri- can literature on this subject from the pen of Mr. Gray Jewel, M.D., for some years United States Consul at Singapore. In 1873 he published a book entitled ' Among our Sailors.' A copy of this work was placed in my hands by Mr. Wodehouse, the British Consul- General at Honolulu. Its pages are full of tales as heartrending as the narrative of Mr. Dana. While Mr. Hawthorne was moved with pity by the incidents which came under his observation at Liverpool in connection with American shipping, in the British service the suffei'ings of the seamen were not less cruel. A debate took place in the House of Commons on August 2, 1859, upon cruelty to merchant seamen on the high seas. Mr. Miliies introduced the question, and in his speech s]3oke more particularly of the minor Tales of cruelty at Mr. Haw- thorne on cruel treat- ment Mr. Jewel, ' Amona: our Sailors Debate in House of Commons, 1859 116 TYEANTS OF THE SEA 1886 Times ' leading article Mr. Mat- thews, ' Belaying- pin Gospel ' brutalities, or Consuls' cases. The number of sufferers in these cases who had been in hospital in Liverpool from June, 1857, to June, 1858, had been no less than 135, while from the latter month to January, 1869, the number had been 80 ; and the number in the workhouse from June, 1858, to March, 1859, had been no less than 23. Commenting on the instances of barbarous treat- ment of merchant seamen which had been brought to light, and on the difficulty of dealing with the question, the 'Times,' in a leading article, said : — ' Suppose a ship to leave one of the most distant ports of the world for Liverpool or New York ; suppose it to toss on the ocean for some four months, now beaten by storms off Cape Horn, now becalmed, with the pitch seething in its crevices, on the Equator ; suppose the master to be an ill-conditioned, passionate, illiterate brute, with just mind enough to work the reckoning when he is sober, and totally unrestrainable when drunk ; suppose this person, under impulses generated by a despotic power and brandy, to take a violent dis- like to a particular seaman ; what is likely to be the life of this unhappy man while his tyrant is on blue water, without any control but fear of mutiny, or an indirect prospect of an inquiry after reaching port 1 ' The annals of the Liverpool Police Court and hospitals will answer the question. In a volume just published, entitled ' Belaying-pin Gospel,' ^ Mr. Matthews describes his own experiences at sea, and whilst serving as British chaplain in the port of Antwerp. His volume contains some other narratives of recent date which must make the reader's blood boil with indignation. The first which I shall ' Sailors' Institute, Shadwell, London ; S. W. Partridge & Co., 9 Paternoster Row. Price 1«. 1886 SUFFERINGS IN THE MERCHANT SERVICE 117 select is taken from the ' Sailors' Magazine,' published by the American Seaman's Friend Society. The number for September, 1883, contains the following narrative, copied from the ' San Francisco Daily Repository ' of March 5, 1882. The barbarities described occurred on board the ship ' Gatherer ' on her passage from Antwerp to Wilmington, California : — ' The testimony showed that the first mate, Watts, Barbarities knocked down Adling, a sailor, and blinded him with a ' Gatherer" kick in the eye as he la.y on the deck ; that the second mate, Curtis, knocked down Jacques de Bayrer with a belaying-pin, splitting open his head and breaking his nose, and, while his shrieks rang through the ship, Curtis made him clean up his own blood ; that Peterson was beaten by the first and second mates till his blood ran about the deck ; that Thomassen was never without scars on his face from the day of leaving Antwerp ; that McKew was dragged round the deck with a watch tackle ; that Rasmussen was struck in the face with brass knuckles till he sought to end the torture by committing suicide ; that Hansen drowned himself to escape the cruelties of the mates ; that Boucher^ a hoy, was beaten and worked till he fell overboard ; that Tommy, the steward, was beaten on the head until he became a maniac, and is now in an asylum. Two sentences were inflicted upon Watts — four years for putting out the eye of Gustavo Adling, and two years for beating Rasmussen with brass knuckles, the latter sentence to begin on the expiration of the former. The following story of the miseries which are some- Case of boy times endured at sea is of quite recent occurrence. Mr. on board Matthews quotes the case before the North Shields uains*^' Police Court, of which a brief account was given in the 'Newcastle Daily Journal' of April 30, 1885. The per- 118 TYEANTS OF THE SEA 1886 Continual ill-treat- ment Kicked and struck daily sons charged were the master of the vessel, aged twenty- six ; his brother, the chief officer, aged twenty-one ; and the second officer of the ship. From the opening state- ment of the prosecuting counsel, ' it appeared that, in the beginning of March last, the brigantine " J. Williams " was at Wilmington, where the lad whom the prisoners were charged with having murdered, together with several others of the crew, who would be called as wit- nesses, were shipped on board for the purpose of coming to England. The lad, as far as could be ascertained, signed articles on March 9 last. After the crew had gone or been put on board the vessel, she lay in the river at Wilmington for three or four days, when the A^essel crossed the bar and went to sea. The charge against the prisoners was that they, one and all, almost from the time of the lad going on board up to the day of his death, on March 25, ill-treated him brutally, and it would be within the province of their worships to decide whether the entry in the log-book signed by the captain, which said that Limborg died from heart disease, or the evidence which he would produce pointed to the cause of death. The witnesses whom he would call would conclusively prove that from the day of Limborg going on board the brigantine up to the day of his death, he was not only kicked and struck by these men, but that the clothes were taken from his back, and he was made to stand on the deck and carry out his watch in a semi-nude condition, in weather which their worships could imagine would prevail in the Atlantic at that time of the year. When the lad went on board he was strong and well. His health gradually gave way. It would be for the magistrates to say whether his weakness and ultimately his death were caused by the ill-treatment of the prisoners. It would appear in the evidence that 1886 SUFFERINGS IN THE MERCHANT SERVICE 119 while the lad was at the pump it was the habit of the Brutality of -,.,,. . , , . the captain captain to go behind him and kick him m the leg just behind the knee, which made him fall forward, when the handle of the pump came upon his head. Coming up to the day of his death, on March 25, he should be able to prove that on the morning of that day the lad was violently assaulted by the captain and the mate. They afterwards watched him to see if he could eat, the remark being made that if he was well enough to eat he was well enough to work. He believed the lad did en- deavour to take a little soup, which he could hardly swallow, as his mouth was swollen to a tremendous size, and he was otherwise in a very bad condition. One of the crew was then ordered to tie a rope round his body, which he did ultimately, after at first refusing. He was then dragged about with the rope and beaten. The lad ultimately died, and the body was committed to the Death of deep in a brutal manner.' ^ °^ The prisoners were sentenced to seven years' penal Sentence servitude. Such are the sufferings which under brutal officers Helplessness , • 1 1 1 1 xi • j_i of seamen may sometimes be endured by the seaman m the course of his employment afloat. When he returns to port he becomes in too many cases the helpless, and perhaps the willing, victim of the crimps and boarding-house masters, who live by plundering the seaman. If the seaman suffers much from the harpies who fasten upon him in our home ports, where the proceedings are restrained by the efforts of the Board of Trade and the water police, it will readily be believed that in foreign ports, where such protection cannot be extended to him, the condition of the seaman is far more sad and more helpless. It is thus described in a communication recently addressed to Mr. Matthews by Her Majesty's Consul, Mr. F. Bernal. 120 TYEANTS OF THE SEA 1886 Robbery of sailors at Havre. Report of British Consul Aftei' twenty-six years' consular experience, he writes as follows : — ' Thei-e entered the port of Havre each year (on an average of three years) 28,596 sailors on board British ships. At no port in the whole world is the British seaman more beset by temptations of every kind, or more injured or swindled and robbed by a certain nuio- ber of people, unfortunately almost without an exception his own countrymen, whose sole profession it is to live by and on him, than at Havre. The fact that these frauds and robberies take place in a foreign land, the language of which is unknown to the victims, and the difficulty of making their complaints understood by the authorities very great, and that care is almost always taken to intoxicate, and sometimes even drug, the sailor before robbing him, makes it in nearly every case a matter of impossibility to obtain sufficient evidence to convict the perpetrators of these heartless robberies. There is yet another phase of this gloomy picture. England has ever justly prided herself on being among the foremost of those nations who have waged war against slavery, and yet there are hundreds of men sail- ing under her flag who are nothing else but white slaves. I allude to that class of men who pass their lives afloat, going principally to and fro between the ports of the United States and those of this continent. The majority of these men having originally spent or squandered their wages, have nothing to receive at the end of a voyage, and have nothing to look to but the advance they will get on reshipment — a very pernicious system, but one which it is impossible to do away with by law in foreign ports. They are accordingly taken possession of by boarding-house keepers, who provide them with lodging, food, and drink, and sell them as soon as they can to 1886 vSUFFERlNGS IN THE MEECHANT SERVICE 121 vessels requiring new crews. Tiiis goes on, in many cases, voyage after voyage and year after year. It is not to be wondered at that such a system should lead to very evil results, so that on such vessels the boot and the belaying-pin are too often used to drive these men. Nay, I know of my own experience of more than one case where the loss of a vessel may in all probability be attributed to this state of things.' It would indeed be an unprofitable task to bring Temptations to light tales of atrocity without endeavouring to suggest after a long remedies. And first we must look to the seamen them- ^°^ ° selves. They have it in their power to do much, to better their condition. Seamen are too often guilty of reckless improvidence. In bringing this charge against them due allowance will be made for temptations which specially belong to their hard calling. After a long- voyage at sea, after being kept in close confinement on board ship, subjected to great personal discomfort, and weary with a monotonous existence, the sailor on landing surrenders himself a jOO ready victim into the hands of harpies whose corrupting influence upon our seamen is one of the dark blots in our civilisation. Those whose occupation takes them fi'equently to the vicinity of the docks are familiar with the painful spectacle of a ship, just returned home from India or China or the Antipodes, surrounded, even before she has been moored to the quay, by a band of jackals, ready to pounce upon the seamen as they come ashore, and to lead them away to some miserable haunt where the hard earnings of many months are consumed in a few days, or hours, of vicious indulgence. It is creditable to the seamen that so many of their number resist the temptations to which they are exposed, and, after having been knocked about in their younger days at sea, settle down in later life in 122 TYRANTS OF THE SEA: 1886 Generous nature of seamen Tlieir im- providence and its effect Supptstions hy Mr. Mat- thews homes which they maintain in decent comfort. No in- considerable proportion of the men who serve before the mast acquire a sufficient education to enable them to pass the Board of Trade examinations and to become certificated officers in the merchant service. At the present time, when the port of London is crowded with men pinched with poverty and hunger, it would be unjust to pass over in silence the noble generosity of our brave, true-hearted seamen. So long as he has a shilling in his pocket, the sailor is ever ready to divide it with any old shipmate whose condition is even moi^e desperate and destitute than his own. Let us, therefore, make allowance for the improvidence which is found amongst seafaring men. But, while making this allowance, it will be obvious that the first remedy for the destitution into which many have fallen is a remedy which the sailor alone can apply by the exercise of greater prudence and self-restraint.. The crimp would be powerless if the sailor were not impro- vident. It is because the earnings of the previous voyage have been squandered that the sailor is driven to pawn the wages to which he may be entitled for his next voyage at usurious rates of discount in order to procure the few miserable garments included in his sea-kit. This is scarcely the time to insist further on the failings of seamen. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience To those that wring under the load of sorrow. But no man's virtue nor sufficiency To be so moral when he shall endure The like himself. Mr. Matthews concludes his work with several sug- gestions of a practical character. Space will only per- mit me to give the followin£c : — 1886 SUFFERINGS IN THE MERCHANT SERVICE 123 (a) That it should be a punishable offence, both in the shipping master and the captain of the ship, on responsible representation, for a sailor to be put on board a ship drugged or drunk. (b) That, seeing that we have almost as many of our ships in foreign ports as in our home ports, our Govern- ment be encouraged not only to use the services of our Consuls more effectively, but to open a serious inter- change of A'iews with foreign Governments for the removal of abuses and the better protection and im- provement of seamen. (c) That as an officer's certificate is either suspended or cancelled for incompetency, so convictions for in- humanity should carry with them the cancelling of certificates. I would conclude by urging strongly the establish- A state ment of a Pension Fund for seamen. On a late occa- Fund sion it was my duty to assist at the midday meal which has recently been given to destitute seamen by the British and Foreign Sailors' Society. It was pain- ful to see so many grey-headed men in the receipt of our scanty benevolence. When shipping is depressed, and the number of seamen offering themselves for em- ployment is in excess of the demand, it is natural that captains prefer to take young and able-bodied men rather than those who have reached a less vigorous age. For these men the prospect is sad indeed. The Seamen's Pension Fund should be supplemented by contributing How it the balance representing the value of the unclaimed suppiemen- effects of deceased seamen, which is at present handed over to the Exchequer. This unclaimed balance may be estimated at 8,000Z. a year. Such a sum would con- stitute a most valuable subsidy, and minister effectual relief to many a starving old seaman. As an element 124 TYEANTS OF THE SEA 1886 Unpleasant duty calliug attention to these abuses ill the national income it is infinitesimal in amount, and it is not worthy of this great empire to retain for public purposes a sum derived from such a source. The E-oyal Commission of 1874 expressed the opinion that a self-supporting Pension Fund for the benefit of sea- men, as suggested by the Manning Commission of 1859, might prove of great value in creating a tie to bind the seamen of Great Britain to the merchant service of their own country, and thus indirectly strengthen the naval power of the empire. It has been an ungrateful task to call attention to abuses of authority on board ship, of rare occurrence, save in a certain class of the mercantile marine. All my personal associations with the officers of the merchant service have been most pleasant. The standard of pro- fessional ability in the service is worthy of the tradi- tional fame of England. The general moral tone is admirable. Our best officers not only denounce* these cruelties, but deplore the power of the crimp in many seajaorts to degrade our seamen. They do more, they co-operate with the agents of the Society of which I am President, and, when far out upon the sea, often act the part of chaplains and ]3ut forth noble effijrts to educate and elevate the crews committed to their care. It is the more painful, therefore, that their noble profession should be damaged by such cruelties as those of which some instances have been given. These crimes should be kej)t in check by vigorous action on the part of Con- suls, and by more severe punishment. 125 XIII MERCHANT SHIPS AND SEAMEN Addeess at the Seamen's Conference, Caediff, Tuesday, Octobbe 8, 1889 Before dealing with other subjects, I desire to express my gratitude for the privilege of being invited to attend the first representative assembly of the seamen and fire- men of the British mercantile marine. It is not easy for one so closely connected as I am with the class of employers to command the confidence of the employed. If I enjoy that confidence in the present instance it is an honour which I highly appreciate, and a responsibility of which I am fully sensible. The occasion is one of no slight importance. To importance improve the condition and to raise the etnciency or the ject merchant seamen and firemen are objects of the greatest moment to a nation long pre-eminent for maritime enterprise, and which is gaining on all competitors in yearly increasing proportions. It is not going too far to say that some prime elements of Our national great- ness are in the keeping of the important body whose representatives I have the privilege to address. We have won our position at sea by their skill and courage. We shall lose it if they deteriorate. Let us now turn to the main object of the present improved ■^ ■■■ security for Conference— the improvement of the condition of the li'eatsea 126 MEECPIANT SHIPS AND SEAMEN 1889 Loss of life in missing vessels Maritime Conference at Vasliing- ton seaman. And first let us consider the loss of life at sea, and the means for its diminution. Spurred forward by Mr. Plimsoll, we have made great efforts in recent years to increase the security for life at sea. "What has been the practical result ? The latest statistics as to the loss of life by wreck and casualty are summarised in a sentence by Mr. Gray. The loss in ships belonging to the United Kingdom was 1,543 in 1887-88, being 382 less than in the preceding year, and 489 less than the average for the previous ten years. The improve- ment is due to many beneficent causes. To no indi- vidual is honour due in the same degree as to Mr. Plimsoll. Something, as we see, has already been accomplished. Can we not do more 1 Mr. Gray points out that, of the 1,543 lives lost in 1887-88, no less than 789 were lost in missing vessels. And when we look to the cases scheduled by the Board of Trade, in many instances — and notably in large steamers trading between British ports and the Mediterranean — it is difficult to resist the conclusion that disaster was due to overloading or to other prevent- ible causes. It is satisfactory to know that an international marine Conference is now assembled at Washington, which is to take into consideration the whole subject of the loss of life at sea and the means for its prevention. The rule of the road, the regulations to determine the seaworthiness of vessels, and the load line, will be in- cluded within the wide scope of the deliberations. We may look forward to good practical results from the in- quiry. Bu.t when all that regulations can accomplish shall have been done, we must remain dependent on the agency of men. Every seafarer is daily and nightly made sensible of the risks caused by recklessness mul 1889 MERCHANT SHIPS AND SEAMEN 127 stupidity on the part of those placed in charge of life and property at sea. The punishment for gross instances of neglect is not sufficiently severe. An injustice is done to good men by the impunity which others enjoy who have grievously failed in the discharge of their duty. In the consideration of measures for the improvement increase of of the condition of the seamen, I have dealt first with Beserve' the ships in which they sail. Let us pass from the ships to the men. As a means to raise the condition and qualifications of the British merchant seaman no step would be so effective as the enrolment of increased numbers in the ranks of the Royal Naval Reserve. Additional strength is needed for the defence of the Em- pire. The Act of Parliament sanctions 30,000 men. We are 10,000 short of the numbers recommended twenty- nine years ago. It can hardly be contended that our responsibilities or our national commerce have diminished in the interval. While the Reserve would give valuable support to the Navy, the service ofiers great benefits to the seamen enrolled. The discipline, the annual re- tainer, the pension in old age, are boons which every thoughtful man should appreciate. My hearers would, I doubt not, be unanimously of Wages of opinion that a general rise of wages would be the most Piecework direct and practical means of improving their condition. ^^ ^ Speaking generally, there is a fairly even proportion be - tween wages and work all over the world. Low pay generally means ineffective labour, and good pay effective. Having enunciated a broad principle, I hesitate to ofier advice on its practical application. It is preferable, when practicable, to make wages dependent on work -to pay by the piece rather than by the day. In the fisheries and in coasting voyages the seaman can be paid on this plan. In other branches of the shipping trade it is not 128 MERCHANT SHIPS AND SEAMEN 1889 Wages of seamen compared with arti- sans and labourers I'roVision "for advanc- ing years Little pros- pect in an advance of possible ; and here the scale of pay becomes a question of competition, or, in other words, of demand and supply. Taking the weekly wages of unskilled labour, at an average for the whole community, at 17s., and the weekly wages of skilled artisans at 34s., and comparing these rates with the wages of firemen, ranging from 60s. to 80s. a month, and with the wages of able seamen, rang- ing from 55s. to 60s. per month for sailing ships, and 70s. to 80s. per month for steamers, and adding to the sura received in cash the value of the provisions sup- plied, it will be seen that the seaman is rather better paid than the ordinary labourer, but receives consider- ably less than the skilled trades on shore. Taking into view the conditions of a seaman's life — the dangers to which he is exjDosed, and his long separations from home ■ — it is evident that he is but poorly compensated for the privations and hardships to which he is subjected — - O'er the wild waters, labouring far from home, For some Dleak pittance e'er compelled to roam, Few hearts to cheer him through his dangerous life. It is only the spirit of adventure which can carry men into such a vocation, and that spirit is naturally strongest in youth. Before he has passed the middle term of life, the sailor should have established himself in some more desirable occupation than that of an able seaman before the mast in the foreign trade. He should have settled ashore as stevedore or rigger. Some have done better than this. They have become shipowners in a large way of business. I wish that I could feel myself justified in holding out to the seamen any immediate prospect of higher wages. It is my duty to express the conviction that some improvement in shipping must precede an advance in wages. The position of the seaman can be readily gauged 18S9 MERCHANT SliirS AND SEAMEN 129 by looking to the quoted prices of shares in shipping companies. Unfortunately they offer few indications of even modei-ate prosperity. The majority of the great steam companies are at a discount. The shares of the Peninsular and Oriental Company are alone quoted at a handsome premium. This comjoany occupies an excep- tional position in conducting the great postal service to all our Eastern possessions. In considering the position of the seaman, the opportunities of advancement open to any man with some elementary education should certainly be taken into account. A large proportion of the certifi- cated officers of the merchant service have begun their career before the mast. While I hesitate to offer an opinion as to the rate of wages, it is more easy to advise the seaman as to his duty in taking care of the money which he earns. Among the practical services which the Board of Trade have recently rendered, perhaps nothing has been so successful as the system introduced for the transmission success of of wages due to seamen on their arrival in port. Many transmission a wife and child has reason to bless the agency which ° "•'^^^^^ has protected the earnings of the breadwinner, on whom they are dependent, from dissipation. It is most de- sirable that a system which has already effected so much good should be established more effectively than hitherto in foreign ports. As a remedy for improvidence, it is much to be ^ Pension , , Fund (lesir- desired that an organisation should be established under able the Board of Trade for providing a Pension Fund for British seamen. The proposal is beset with practical difficulties. It would certainly be premature to call for any final expression of opinion from the present Con- ference. The seamen of the Naval Reserve, as I have already reminded you, enjoy the advantage of a pension K 130 MEKCHANT SHIPS AXD SEAMEN A TTnion for seamen and firemen Combina- tion nfices- sary for pro- tection of interests in old age. For others it is open to take advantage of the facilities provided by the Government for the pur- chase of annuities, or to become members of a benefit society. The cautious language which I have used in dealing with the question of wages may not have given un- mixed satisfaction to my audience, I shall probably please them better in approving the establishment of a Union for seamen and fii^emen. If our trade could be carried on in vessels of small tonnage, owned and worked on the co-operative system by their officers and crews, no contentions could arise, and no special organ- isations would be required to protect the interests of labour. In the actual conditions of commerce the identity of interests, which is the ideal of the co- operator, cannot exist. The constant tendency to in- crease the size of ships renders it more and more im- possible that the capital necessary to build and maintain them can be provided by the seamen. In all industries concentration of effort has been found advantageous. Companies have taken the places of individuals. The coach has given place to the train, the foi'ge to the foundry, the hand-loom to the factory. The cost of production has been reduced, but the employers and employed have been drawn further apart. Trades Unions have been the natural outgrowth of the new order of things, and if combination has been necessary for protection of the interests of other classes of workmen, it is especially necessary for the protection of the interests of seamen. Their character has been drawn with faithful and graphic touches by Sir Cornewall Lewis : — ' The seamen are a nation by themselve:!, a humorous and fantastic people, fierce and rude in wliatsoever they 1889 MERCHANT SHIPS AND SEAMEN 131 leaders resolve or are inclined to, unsteady and inconstant in pursuing it.' A more than ordinary responsibility will lie upon Duty nf the officials of the Seamen and Firemen's Union. Their clients for the most part are not conspicuous for com- mercial sagacity. It will be the duty of the leaders to keep themselves informed of the state of trade, to watch the fluctuations in freights, to note the dividends and other indications of the varying prospects of the ship- ping trade. They should know when to press and when to restrict their demands. Above all, their influence should be used to raise the moral tone and seamanlike efficiency of those Avho look to them for guidance. k2 132 1890 CHOICE OF A PROFESSION— THE SEA 'Pall Mall Gazette,' July 25, 1890 an interview with lord brassey In looking at the mercantile marine as a profession, my view is infltlenced favourably by the fact that I have deeply rooted in my nature a love of the sea. To me the sea is a passion. I feel the Byz^onic sentiment, as Childe Harold expresses it — In all time, Calm or convulsed — in breeze, or gale, or storm, Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime Dark-heaving — boundless, endless, and sublime — The image of eternity. To me it is elevating to be on the sea. That sense, no doubt, exists in other men. I never could understand what you hear voyageurs and non-professional men speak of — that is, the monotony of the sea. No doubt to the passeng-er with no duties and no responsibilities — with nothing to do from the early coifee to the over- loaded British breakfast, from the unnecessary lunch to the heavy dinner and supper — the sea is dull and dispiriting ; it is a gross life without aim or purpose ; No niono- but to the man who looks at the sea as a profession it is caiuug quite otherwise. Navigation demands unceasing care ; 1890 CHOICE OF A PROFESSION — THE SEA 133 the heavenly bodies must be observed at frequent intervals ; in the case of a steamer the deck officer is riot called upon to pay so much attention to the method of propulsion, but even in a steamship the captain and engineer must work together to get the best results out of the motive power. When you come to a sailing vessel there is need for the most unceasing vio;ilance ; to trim Vigilance '-''-' ' required iu every sail, to take off sail before a squall catches you asaiuugr and you are deprived of your canvas by the forces of nature ; to set evexy sail as soon as a falling breeze demands it — all this requires perpetual watchfulness, so as to get the vessel along to the very best advantage. Then there is the perpetual alternation of fine weather and storm ; and the battle with the storm is one of the noblest efforts to which human skill can address itself. An infinitude of things must be done, and done well and with good nei-ve. The spirit must not be overpowered by the circumstances. And it is remarkable in the handling of ships in heavy weather how one sail more or one sail less makes all the difference between their falling off into the trough of the sea and riding over every sea like a thing of grace and beauty. Then if you consider the profession from the point of Usefulness '' '■ _ ■■^ of the sea view of usefulness, you can conceive no position of more profession, practical utility than the command of our great merchant vessels. We Britishers belong to a nation which is nothing if not a great maritime nation, and by virtue of her maritime power perhaps the greatest of the nations. And it is something to be associated with the greatest industry of the country, and to be engaged in a service which brings to the gloomy Noi-th the products of the sunny South, and takes away in exchange the manufactures which our northern energy has produced. The mercantile marine is the foundation of the naval 134 CHOICE OF A PROFESSION— THE SEA 1890 Naval power based on mercantile marine Other pro- fessions crowded Greater cost of entering other profes- sions power of the country. Take away the mercantile marine and naval power is an artificial plant. It has no basis, nothing to support it. Whether you look at the materiel or the 2^&'>'sonnel of the fleet, the mercantile marine is its foundation. You have to look at the mercantile marine from an- other point of view. In these days the better recognised professions, those to which attention has hitherto been almost confined — Law, Medicine, and the Church — ai'e so crowded that men have to wait long before an opening comes. It is very weary work, and men often ask whether there are not other professions or employments where the conditions are more favourable to early success. From that point of view I think the profession of the mercantile marine has some decided advantages. The cost of the professional education is much less than in the case of Medicine, or the Bar, or even the Church. The Church takes four years — three years at a university and one at a theological college, with a long course at some school prior to that. You cannot be ordained until some years are spent in costly education, and when ordained you may have to accept a curacy of 50/. to 60/. a year. For the Bar you have to go through a course of study after completing your university course, and pay high fees to a barrister for the privilege of reading in his chambers. That has to be continued for two years, and after having left the barrister's chambers you Jiave to sit in court for many more years, and nothing comes until you have reached middle age. Medicine, again, requires a long preliminary training and mucli waiting before a position is secured. In the case of the officer in the merchant service, if he approaches it through the most expensive channels and receives the best kind of education that can be given for the profession, he 1890 CHOICE OF A PEOFESSION — THE SEA 135 begins by going to the ' Conway ' on the IVIersey, or the fiood ami -_ . cheap educu,- ' VVoixester on the ihames, staying there tor two years, tion in tiie He has all the advantages of a good public school for a sidps '*'' comparatively moderate sum. He gets his education and his board and lodging at something less than cost price. These vessels have been established by shipowners with- out any notion of profit, and therefore the education is provided on the most favourable terms. On leaving the stationary training ship and going to sea the young officer enters himself in some suitable vessel as an apprentice. If he commences upon the terms which have hitherto Costoftecii- been usual, he would pay a premium of 601. to 100^. for ing- afloat four years, and during that time no expenses have to be borne by his parents or friends except for his clothes. Perhaps in the latter part of his term he will earn a small wage. At the end of the four years he is qualified to pass the Board of Trade examination, ami he can join a ship. All the expenses of education are OA'er, and at eighteen, nineteen, or twenty he is earning some emolument in his profession. If the system of apprenticeship which I have in- Apprentice- augurated in two ships of an Australian line, one of ^ ^ ''•^'^ "^ which has sailed and the other is about to proceed to sea, should be chosen, the education of the young man will cost his friends 150?. more than the sum I have named ; but in that case he will liave completed his professional education for, say, 350?., beginning at thirteen years of age and end- ing at nineteen, by which time he will be an officer earning a small professional income. Having put his foot upon the first rung of the ladder, the prospects of advancement are good. You will find in the mercantile marine many men in command of the finest ships at a comparatively early age. They may have had the advantage of influence and friends to back them, but even without influence they 136 CHOICE OF A PR0FES3I0X — THE SEA iseo Emoluments of captains in the ineroliunt hervice Other em- ployments open are qualified to earn, and do obtain, the best emoluments of the profession early in life. As to the emoluments, I believe in the case of the very finest ships of the mercantile marine they are not less than 1,500/'. a year. The captain of the ' Teutonic ' has as much as that. In the Peninsular and Oriental it would be under 1,000/. a year. In other steam services not so distinguished it would be less, and in the case of the finest sailing ships it would amount to 300?. or 400/. a year. Besides that, you are housed, if you may use that term of a life afloat, and you are not at any expense for table. What you earn is to a large extent put by. The captain may have a few turns in trade, or he may have the letting of his cabin, for v/hich he may get 50/. a voyage. In connection with the professional prospects it should be borne in mind that, in the case of men v^ith commercial aptitude, there are opportunities of leaving the sea and entering upon a commercial career on shore. Many of our most successful shipowners have risen through the various gi-ades of apprentice, officer, and captain to become the owners of great lines of vessels. In other cases men may not become the owners, but may secure a very de- sirable billet in the superintending of shipping on behalf of shipowners. They are also eligible for many appoint- ments in connection with docks and other undertakings connected with the sea. Then the man who follows the sea ranges over the world and touches at many ports and places where the openings are more numerous than in this over-joeopled country, and he sees his way, if he has an aptitude to embrace opportunities, of entering life, under very favourable conditions, as a colonist or as a man of business at one of the great ports abroad. There is much promotion going on from the mercantile marine 1890 CHOICE OF A PROFESSION — THE SEA 137 zo cognate professions, and these opportunities should not be put out of view by those who are considering what the pi'ospects are that the sea offers in endeavouiing to make the choice of a profession. I would say that tlie great drawback to the sea is the Drawback^* separation from home. If the duties of the seaman began every morning at a convenient hour and terminated in the evening at another convenient hour, and he could return daily to his happy home and fii-eside, I should say it was the most perfect employment. Unfortunately that is not the case. In following the profession you Absence 1 J. 1 1 J. 1 1 J. • I! from home have naturally to endure many long separations from home. If there is a:iy compensation, it is that when you do return home your presence is greatly valued, and the days on shore are serenely happy. Putting that compensation at its highest value, it remains that in a profession which offers many attractions this necessary separation from home is a hai^d and cruel drawback. All that has to be weighed. I do not consider that there is an undue risk of life ko undue in well-found aiid well-appointed ships. There are certainly branches of trade in which there is danger. If a man proceeds to the Oil Rivers of Africa or to the coast of Rio in the yellow fever season he runs a fearful risk ; but that is a small part of the trade, and if he pleases he can a.void those regions. As to the age up to which the sea can be followed as Age to give a profession, much depends upon the measure of health "^ ^ that a man enjoys. Captain Cook was in command of the Cunard steamer, the ' Etruria,' up to the age of seventy- three or seventy-four. It is desirable for most men to leave the sea before they attain the age of sixty, but there are many who go beyond that time. The profession involves exposure at night, and long vigils, which are 138 CHOICE OF A PKOFESBION — THE SEA 1890 very trying in advancing years ; but old age comes so differently to difterent men that you cannot lay down any rule. It is, however, not an old man's profession. There are no prospects of pensions in the merchant service, so that a man must provide for himself out of his income. To sum up, I consider that to the sons of professional men and gentlemen, to whom the great cost involved in entering other professions is an insuperable barrier, the mercantile marine offers great advantages. If they select to go ill the ships I am sending, or in other ships which I hope may be similarly equipped, there are no hardships to be endured which should he repugnant to the sense of poor gentlemen. 1891 139 XY SAILING SHIPS Speech at Launch op the ' Loed Beasset,' at Alloa, Sbptembbe 20, 1891 Lord Brassey, in returning thanks for the kind manner in which the toast was proposed and received, said he felt proud to see his name inscribed upon the bows of the noble ship which had just been launched. He took the deepest interest in the shipping enterprise of the country, and he most sincerely wished it success. All lovers of the sea — and he might claim to be a lover of the sea — must feel a deep interest in the merchant shipping of the country. Tiiey all admired the great steamships of modern creation as perhaps the most remarkable monuments of human skill and contrivance, yet every old sailor had a warm corner in his heart for the sailing ship, and would be sorry to see that form of maritime enterprise abandoned. Comparing the sailing ship with the steamship, they must all feel that in some respects the life of the man who went aloft or did his work on the deck was more to be desired than that of the man who laboured and toiled in the stokehole. There was a beauty in the sailing ship, with her canvas expanded to Beauty of the breeze, which they looked for in vain in the smoky ship discharge from the funnel of the steamship, and there 140 SAILING SHIPS 1891 Wind a cheap form of power Time not always im- portant rroductiou of sailing ships still maintained was a particular development of nautical skill in the management of a ship propelled by canvas alone for which they found no precise counterpart in the management of the steamship. These were perhaps leather sentimental arguments in favour of the development of maritime enterprise ill the form of sailing ships. There were other cir- cumstances of, perhaps, a more prosaic character, but which were substantial circumstances to be taken into consideration, and which seemed to give to sailing ships the prospect of a long continuance. The wind, though an uncertain power, was a very cheap power ; and there were many important descriptions of goods in regard to which it was not of consequence that the speed at which they were conveyed across the ocean should be the quickest possible. So long as they knew within a moderate range at what date the goods would be delivered, he did not know that it mattered very much whether a cargo of wool coming from Australia took fifty or' seventy clays, or whether a cargo of corn from 'Frisco took seventy or ninety days. The sailing ship was sometimes a convenient warehouse to the merchant. Provided she delivered her cargo in good condition, for many descrip- tions of goods the sailing ship was a convenient form of conveyance. These circumstances, which made in favour of the sailing vessel, had brought about the satisfactory result that they saw no diminution from year to year in the amount of the sailing tonnage in this country. Of sailing ships over 300 tons they had something like a tonnage of 2^ millions, and the aggregate tonnage had been maintained at that total for a considerable time. While the amount of steam tonnage building for some years was, no doubt, considerably larger than the amount 1891 SAILING SHIPS 141 now built Mr. Plimsoll and the Royal Com- mission of sailing tonnage, still the amount of sailing tonnage was being kept up at the tolerably level average of some thing like 100,000 tons yearly. As to the types that were built, they had just seen Better types launched a noble specimen of design in its application to the sailing ship, and while he earnestly hoped that the most favourable anticipations of Mr. Herron, and those who shared with him, might be fulfilled in regard to the pecuniary returns of the ship, he felt also satisfied that in the type of ship that they had just seen, and in the types of sailing ships generally which were now being produced, they had arrived at a higher degree of security and safety than had ever before been attained in the construction of ships for the purposes of commerce. The loss of life was now about half what it was ten years ago. They would all remember the time when Mr. Plimsoll was an active and enthusiastic worker in the cause of safety of life at sea. His ener- getic action led to the appointment of a Royal Com- mission to consider the whole subject. He had the honour of sitting on that Commission, and as the result of two years of taking of evidence, of careful considera- tion and deliberation, the Commission came to the conclusion that it would not be for the advantage of the sailor to substitute the responsibility of a public depart- ment for that responsibility which should never be taken from the owner and the builder and the captain of the ship. In making that recommendation they were not altogether supported by the sympathetic but uninstructed public opinion of the day, and he was therefore glad to see how experience had told in favour of their report. While the Board of Trade had exercised a due diligence in watching what was going on, yet the shipowner and the builder and the officers in command, on whom the 142 SAILING SHIPS 1891 responsibility had been allowed, in the first instance, to rest, had not proved unskilful, and had not proved un- worthy of the public confidence. Scotch He would like to say that, comino; there as an enterprise i" . . . j ^ o ^ shipping English visitor to a Scottish seaport town, it was a pleasant duty to acknowledge the importance, indeed, he might say the leading part, Scotsmen had played in the development of the maritime enterprise of the country. Whether as builders or captains in command on the deck, or as engineers in charge of the machinery of the steamships, Scotsmen seemed to take a leading part in all that was going forward in regard to shipping. While they owed so much of the success of their maritime enterprise to Scotsmen, they owed at least an equal debt of gratitude to Scottish enterprise and Scottish energy, and the general national characteristics of Scotsmen for the development and creation of that trade which the ships were built to carry on. ]892 143 XVI NAUTICAL EDUCATION Address at thk Opening of the Liverpool Nautical College, 1892 I HIGHLY appreciate the honour of beincf invited to take Need of \^ _ =>_ _ Nautical part in opening the Nautical College which, by the wise Coiiegea liberality of the Coi-poi-ation, is to-day provided for the port of Liverpool. Having navigated some 230,000 miles in yachts, and traversed every ocean, I know the value of the work which it is proposed to carry out. Such a college as you have given to Liverpool was much wanted, and similar colleges are needed elsewhere. I hope that your example maybe followed by other seaports. In the tonnage of her shipping England has a con- spicuous pre-eminence. In facilities for acquiring a good nautical education we are behind rather than ahead of other nations. For the manning of our ships, for the education of the officers who are to command them, we insufficient have made no satisfactory provision. We pay heavily nautical for the neglect. No structure of man's contriving, no skill or valour on the part of seamen, can resist those tempests which sometimes sweep the seas. Fog and darkness may baffle the most careful navigator, but we have a large percentage of avoidable loss through care- lessness or incapacity. Captain Methven was one of the most expei-ienced witnesses called by the Royal Com- 144 NAUTICAL EDUCATION 1892 limited facilities now existing Scope pro- posed for Nautical College mission on the Loss of Life at Sea. He said, ' As an assessor I have felt that tlie mode in which navigation was conducted in a portion of our merchant service has been discreditable to the country.' I might quote much from the reports of our Consuls abroad in the same sense. Premiums of insurance are a heavy charge on our shipowners. With the extension of professional education losses should be fewer and premiums lower. In order to appreciate the necessity for the establish- ment of your College, let us look for a moment at the early training of the nautical profession as at present conducted. For the first stage in the education of officers of the mercantile marine we have in the ' Conway ' in the Mersey and the ' Worcester ' in the Thames admi- rable institutions, but taking only a limited number of boys, while the cost, moderate as it is considering the advantages offered, falls heavily on professional men of narrow means, and especially on clergymen and on officers of the mercantile marine. For the educational requirements of cadets and apprentices when first sent to sea, and for the later stages when preparing themselves to pass their examination for the cei'tificate of the Board of Trade, nothing, so far as I know, has been done, save by the ' crammers,' who are the inevitable outgrowth of compulsory examinations. I now turn to the regulations and the syllabus of studies as proposed for the Nautical College. You begin by providing a school for boys who are looking to a career on the quarter-deck. The fees are fixed at the moderate sum of 7^. a year. For boys who are to serve before the mast you offer a course of instruction for the small charge of H. A third department of the College is designed to afford to candidates for Board of Trade certificates special facilities, both scholastic and technical. 1892 NAUTICAL EDUCATION 145 You furnish all the necessary appliances for int) traction in seamanship. Another subject not inferior in import- ance, the study of steam, is comparatively neglected. Later I hope to see your College fitted with such machinery and models in motion as are used for instruc- tion in steam at the American Naval College at Annapolis and on board the 'Britannia' at Dartmouth. The Grovernment should help you in this matter. Much is being done by the Government for technical education in all its .branches. The training of the sailor should not be excluded in the appropriation of public funds, The higher school which completes your scheme of The higher education will, I hope, be largely used. It will afford cciirso'° ' opportunities to masters and mates to study mathematics and the theory of navigation, and such practical subjects as magnetism, electricity, surveying, and meteorology. I see with satisfaction that you propose to give attention to the art of correspondence. Many deserving sea officers, with a thorough practical knowledge of their profession, are deficient in English scholarship. To know the capabilities of our mother tongue is of the greatest advantage in every profession and every walk of life. The study oE modern languages is the last subject in your syllabus. I earnestly hope that its position on your list need not be accepted as evidence that it will be comparatively neglected. Oar Consuls in foreign ports have again and again reported that British shipmasters are lamentably inferior as linguists to the shipmasters of other nations. Ignorance of languages may sometimes lead to the loss of profitable business. And now, having taken a brief survey of the work Examina- which you propose to carry out, it seems appropriate to standaids refer to a few kindred subjects. It is an obvious 146 NAUTICAL EDUCATION 1892. remark that it is useless to set up colleges and schools unless we take the necessary steps to secure their efficiency. Much of that efficiency will certainly depend on the standard set up in the examinations for which students are called upon to prepare themselves. Board of Trade examinations have not advanced and developed with the general progress of education. The compulsory examinations enforced since 1854 under Mr. Cardwell's Act are much inferior to the voluntary examinations Masters' and which preceded them. The late Mr, Gray, who was so saptains' certificates long at the head of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade, and did such excellent service, recommended an entire revision of the present classification of masters and mates. He considered that those only should be styled captains who could pass in the subjects of the extra examination. There is always an official defence for everything, and the official defence for the retrograde policy which has been adopted is that a compulsory ex- amination must be a minimum, and that where the range of duties extends from the command of an Atlantic liner to that of a collier brig no one standard can fit them all. It does not seem difficult to mieet this objection. Certi- ficates of efficiency to command should be graded. The standard of examination should bear a more direct rela- tion than it does at present to the importance of the command for which the officer is certified. It is for the Government to take the lead in this matter by giving a preference when chartering to vessels commanded by extra masters, and by requiring that they should be employed in command of subsidised merchant cruisers. The policy of giving subsidies to merchant cruisers, so far from being abandoned, should receive further development. The fast steamships of the mercantile marine, if internal subdivision and protection of Subsidies to fast siteaniers 1892 NAUTICAL EDUCATION 147 machinery are duly considered in the original design, must be a most valuable reserve of cruisers for the Navy. I would now refer to another aspect in which the work of this College may justly be regarded as of national importance. We have made great efibrts of late to strengthen the Navy. We have been building ships ; we have now to provide the crews. To maintain in Maimini,' , . , . , - . the Navy peace the 2)ersonnel, required m war would cast an mtoler- able burden upon the taxpayers ; and if we had the men we could not, except at an enormous cost, employ them sufficiently at sea to secure efficiency. If in any respect the Reserve is not efficient, let us make good what is wanting. The most perfect force of reserve men would cost less than three or four times the number on the active list. It never has been and it never will be pos- Number ot . . men in peace sible to maintain the personnel of the Navy in peace at and war a war standard. In 1764-70 we had 11,760 seamen and 4,300 marines. In 1783 the force afloat numbered 84,700 seamen and 25,300 marines. In the peace years, 1784-91, the number of seamen fell to 14,000 and the marines to 4,000. In 1811-12-13 we had 113,600 sea- men afloat and 31,400 marines. During the struggle with the Southern States the United States Navy increased in proportions quite equal to those indicated in the figures which I have read. Viewed in this con- nection, the Liverpool Nautical College will doubtless become an institution of national importance by assisting to furnish men, and especially officers, for service in the fleet in case of war. h2 148 1894 XVII THE BOYAL NAVAL BESEBVE Speech as Chairman at Annual Dinner of the Royal Naval Eeserve Association, May 1, 1894 I KNOW it will not be necessary for me to trouble you with many words in order to establish the claims — the signal and splendid claims — of the Navy and the Army upon the recognition of their countrymen. We all know what brilliant and glorious services they have rendered in the past, and we are confident that if they are called upon in the future the same service will be repeated. It is not every day that T have the opportunity, which I greatly value, of meeting representatives of the Royal Naval Reserve. I appreciate it as a great honour to be invited once more to take the chair at this annual dinner. You have many distinguished members, and many powerful fi^iends of your service to whom you might have turned. For myself, I can only say that I yield to none in strength of conviction that the Royal Naval Reserve can and ought to be made a most power- ful auxiliary to the permanent service for the manning of the Navy. Of the ordinary duties of your profession, its usefulness, its difficulties and anxieties, and the skill and courage required to meet the varied exigencies of a sea life, I have had the opportunity of forming an appreciation perhaps in a greater degree than can be 1894 THE EOYAL NAVAL EESERVE 149 possible for landsmen with no personal experiences of the sea. And now I turn to the subject which naturally Necessity of occupies us most particularly on such an occasion as the present. What can best be done to advance the Royal Naval Reserve, to improve the position of its members, and to render the service more thoroughly efficient as an auxiliary to the permanent Navy ? With continuous reinforcement of the Navy in ships the subject is becom- ing more and more important. It is useless to build ships unless we are prepared to man them. To provide for the entire demands of the manning of the Navy in war by means of the permanent force would involve an enormous expenditure which might be more advantage- ously applied, and the like of which has never yet been borne by any maritime Power in time of peace. I A dose con- can conceive of nothing which can so effectually promote the Navy the advancement of the Royal Naval Reserve, and the cream of the merchant service from which the Reserve is recruited, as a close connection with the Royal Navy, What we have to do is to establish in the Navy a thorough confidence in the Royal Naval Reserve as the second line of our naval force. We may appropriately ask ourselves this evening whether everything is being done which it is desirable to do to attain this end. I will refer only to the reserve of officers. Under recent regulations much has been done to bind the Royal Naval Reserve and the Royal Navy together. I would refer particularly to the regulations affording an opportunity to the officers of the Reserve to serve a year in the Navy. In my view, this term of service should in future be com- pulsory. It should at least be insisted upon as a qualifica- tion for promotion. In order that a year of service may be put in, without interfering with the career and prospects desirable 150 THE EOYAL NAVAL RESEEVE 1S94 Recomieu-e to the Reser\ e officer Selection of competent men for the Keservc! of a Reserve officer, it is desirable that he should join the Navy at as early an age as possible. The remuneration of the Reserve officer must be sufficiently liberal on the part of the Admiralty. The shipowners should do their part, by giving the prefer- ence to Reserve officers in making selections for appoint- ments. When an officer leaves bis service in the mer- cantile marine to do duty in the Navy, his employers should stand ready to restore him to at least as good a position on his return. In this connection the only point which seems open to doubt is whether a year is enough to give the Reserve officer that thorough training in na,val duties which we want to secure. There is another question on which I should wish to say a few words. The efficiency of the Reserve depends essentially on the judicious selection of competent men. No profession is more unequal than that to which you belong. The designation "master" covers the widest conceivable range, both of qualifications and of duties. The best men are wanted for the Reserve. We have got a large number of the best. Are the Admiralty in all cases sufficiently exclusive 1 It is most difficult to make a judicious selection. The Admiralty are not in close touch with the mercantile marine. They rarely have any personal knowledge of the young officers of the Reserve to whom they give commissions. It is, perhaps, desirable that some more effective guarantee should be given that the appointments are in all cases the best that can be made. It may also be desirable that future appointments to the Reserve should not be confirmed as permanent until officers have served six months in the Navy and have been favourably reported upon. In any case promotion should depend on a favourable report. I must not detain you longer on this social occasion 1894 THE ROYAL NAVAL RESERA^E 151 ■vvith administrative details. I began by expressing my Good ser- ' perfect personal confidence in the merchant service as the mercantiir nursery for an efficient Reserve. I conclude my reference ^^^^^^ to this subject with a reiteration of the same opinion. Many voyages and journeys by sea have brought me into close contact with the mercantile marine. I have in the profession some of my most valued friends. I have seen the Reserve officers at their work, and I know with what untiring devotion and zeal that work is done. The inter- change of commerce and the safe and punctual convey- ance of mails and passengers from our island home to the furthest limits of the globe depend on you ; and for your splendid and indispensable services your fellow-country- men, one and all, are glad at all times to acknowledge their deep debt of g^-atitude. Before I sit down I should like to allude to one or two a profes- other points. It has always seemed to me to be ex- tution for tremely desirable that we should, if possible, establish chant ser- for the advancement of the mercantile marine, for the discussion of professional subjects, and for the promotion of professional interests, as there has been established. in every other profession, some sort of professional in- stitution at which all matters affecting your profession might be discussed, and under the auspices of which joint, effective, and powerful action could from time to time be taken when circumstances required it. There have been some attempts made to establish an institution of that kind. There is one in London, and there is one in Liverpool. I do not wish to speak in disparaging terms of those institutions, but this I do say, that they do not present to my mind that kind of organisa- tion which I have endeavoured to indicate, and which I hope may some day be established and do that good work which I think lies before it. vice 152 THE EOYAL NAVAL EESERVE 1894 facilities There is another desideratum of real practical im- tbe s\. ^ portance which I am glad to know, by the kind assist- ^eorge s ance of the St. George's Club, and especially by the help given by my friend on my left (Captain Angove), and by the greatly respected and deeply lamented Captain Halpin, we have at last provided for gentlemen connected with the mercantile marine. Here in the St. George's Club you are ail welcomed members, and I believe that the facilities which have been offered under the roof of the St. George's Club for the officers of the mercantile marine will be appreciated by them. It is something to have accomplished during the past twelve months, and if in the course of the ensuing twelve months we should see practical and effective steps taken for the constitution of such a professional institution as all other professions have established, and as you ought to establish, then I say that during the next twelve months something very valuable will have been carried out. 1894 153 XVIII EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR THE SEA Speech at Annual Disteibution op Prizes, School Ship 'Conway,' Liveepool, July 19, 1894 In coniing among you to-clay I am performing a labour Pleasure of of love. The sea, snips, and sailors have been from my youth onwards subjects of undying interest. In a fine passage that great master of English prose, Mr. Froude, tells us that the flying years had not stolen from him the delight of finding himself once more upon the sea ; the sea which is eternally young, and which gives one back one's own youth and buoyancy. For the young fellows whom we have come here to-day to encourage and cheer on at the outset of their career, we all earnestly wish that they may find, not only a successful, but a happy career upon the breezy ocean. It is a dull imagination which can find nothing but weary monotony in a life afloat. The sea is the most impressive emblem which the great Creator has presented to the contemplation of man of the infinite in power, in space, and in time. I turn from the poetry of the subject to considerations importance of a more practical character. And, first, I desire to Session impress the cadets of the ' Conway ' with a due sense of the importance and the usefulness of the profession on which they are about to enter. As members of the mercantile marine they will be charged with the duty 154 EDUCATION AND TEAINING FOR THE SEA 1894 Qualities re luirai of a sea (ifficer Kilucation Seamanship slioiild be learnt in sailing ship.- of carrying on with safety and despatch that enormous commerce on which the prosperity of our country mainly depends. They will be responsible to the shipowners and the merchants ; but, above all, they will be respon- sible to the seamen under their command, whose safety, and whose moral and religious tone, will largely depend upon the example and the influence exercised by their officers. Great qualities are needed to adequately dis- charge such difficult and varied duties. The sea officer requires not only moral but physical courage. He must be brave when face to face with danger. He must be much-enduring when exposed to privation. He must be able to bear long periods of isolation without mental or moral deterioration. He must be a seaman, a navigator, and an engineer. He must possess some knowledge of medicine, surgery, and sanitation. In one of his admi- rable histories, Captain Mahan pays a deserved tribute to the care bestowed by Jervis, Nelson, and Collingwood upon the health and well-being of their crews. . Having described the ideal sea officer, let us consider his education and training, taking first the scholastic stage, through which the cadets of the ' Conway ' are passing. The future sea commander must be instructed at school in mathematics, in physics, in geography, astronomy, pilotage, and naval architecture. A know- ledge of foreign languages is particularly desii-able. In this regard the officers of other merchant services are generally in advance of our own countrymen. The practice of seamanship can only be learned at sea, and it is highly desirable that the first year's afloat should be passed in sailing ships. 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CD OJ t^ fc; ra tc In S & Q bo bCs ai Iz; 5 S t3 c 170 PROGRESS OF SHlPBUILDINa 1894 Tonnage and Cebws or British Sailing Ships Port of Liverpool — Year 1892 Under 200 tons Inwards Outwards Inwards Outwards Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men 156 8 156 8 182 8 115 6 168 7 182 8 73 5 59 4 177 7 107 7 194 7 187 9 98 5 93 4 190 8 90 5 182 8 184 8 84 4 97 5 110 5 19 3 59 4 182 7 165 7 59 5 111 6 182 6 153 6 73 5 73 5 170 7 99 5 163 6 92 5 119 5 184 9 159 6 95 5 36 3 179 7 178 7 59 4 — — 99 6 180 8 116 6 — — 177 7 168 7 172 7 — — 59 5 148 5 182 6 -^ 86 6 196 8 94 4 — 89 5 118 5 148 6 . — — 73 5 59 4 199 9 — _. 159 6 182 8 179 7 — — 58 5 73 5 170 7 — 165 rt i 138 5 149 6 — — 146 8 59 4 45 3 — — 178 7 133 6 148 7 — — 180 8 73 5 96 5 — _ 97 7 92 5 68 4 — — 99 59 5 4 95 62 6 5 6,353 303 4,386 210 200-300 tons 243 8 249 10 246 10 220 8 261 8 294 9 296 11 296 12 286 9 297 8 210 9 297 9 293 9 286 9 209 7 210 9 253 10 278 9 215 9 215 9 248 9 293 9 219 8 219 10 220 8 248 9 255 9 255 8 189-t PEOGRESS OF SHIPBUILDING 171 Tonnage and Crews, kc— continued 200-300 tons— continued Inwards Outwards Inwards Outwards Tous Men Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men 235 7 235 7 215 9 246 9 20i 9 204 9 299 10 248 9 260 10 260 10 248 10 296 8 299 221 9 7 215 299 9 10 296 8 — — 5,731 203 5,660 199 300-400 tons 387 11 387 11 358 14 329 9 302 9 302 12 398 12 310 11 334 10 302 10 346 10 302 12 302 10 303 10 310 12 323 15 350 11 350 11 399 11 . — — 363 10 372 10 346 10 — — 324 329 10 10 363 324 10 10 351 11 — — 1 5,199 161 3,96/ 131 400-500 tons 491 13 491 13 420 9 499 14 499 10 499 10 448 11 498 12 499 14 499 14 498 11 498 11 499 12 499 12 498 10 — — 421 499 9 10 421 420 10 9 415 9 — — 5,187 ilS 4,3ii4 105 500-750 tons 670 16 609 10 713 19 586 13 747 11 670 17 658 18 540 11 692 15 747 12 740 14 695 13 599 10 697 15 652 16 725 17 718 17 638 14 586 13 699 10 736 16 692 15 555 12 590 15 586 14 747 15 684 17 749 18 725 17 718 17 594 11 744 20 590 13 561 16 672 17 691 18 744 18 553 15 724 16 677 17 691 13 716 19 513 14 730 19 730 14 736 14 634 16 638 15 638 11 708 16 642 12 717 21 749 14 658 17 596 17 740 15 172 PKOGRESS OF SHIPBUILDINa 18D'l Tonnage and Crews, kc— -confin, (ed 500-750 tons — continued Iinva ■(Is Outwards Inwards Outwi rds Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men 721 15 594 ]5 _ _ 699 10 569 13 652 15 — — 719 14 593 16 586 13 — — 586 13 572 16 555 12 — — 598 14 H70 19 684 17 — — 721 15 741 IB 594 11 — 593 16 528 17 724 16 — 741 15 739 12 718 1() _..■ — 739 13 586 13 634 16 — 719 16 717 20 595 15 — — 696 16 — — 599 663 17 11 — — 731 19 25,014 565 34,011 779 750-1,000 tons 830 16 764 18 941 14 941 14 989 18 830 18 978 18 878 17 802 16 786 20 863 12 797 17 976 15 802 19 797 14 899 19 941 14 778 13 875 16 812 17 960 29 941 14 899 13 884 15 773 18 949 15 812 14 797 16 849 20 811 19 797 16 874 16 969 18 770 16 896 20 893 17 794 16 949 14 874 16 958 15 929 16 940 13 893 17 799 12 752 17 794 19 958 14 761 17 929 21 929 18 799 12 761 17 794 14 752 12 764 19 880 20 799 15 794 16 761 16 786 18 944 16 832 16 880 17 924 20 799 15 799 16 835 17 887 19 769 12 944 19 786 16 994 13 956 14 799 16 994 14 832 16 993 13 769 12 862 20 799 16 768 14 993 15 832 14 794 16 978 16 768 18 799 16 799 16 778 11 778 13 794 16 786 13 767 16 767 18 833 18 907 22 793 18 793 19 966 13 833 18 1894 riiOGRESS OF SHIPBUILDING 173 Tonnage and Crews, &c. — cimUmied 750-1,000 tous — continued Tous 797 999 915 1,312 1,387 1,476 1,450 1,165 1,245 1,002 1,376 1,016 1,457 1,250 1,043 1,032 1,022 1,291 1,197 1,463 1,456 1,197 1,112 1,042 1,022 1,399 1,390 1,038 1,248 1,310 1,063 1,071 1.292 l,4fil 1,327 1,349 16 17 17 Tons 807 980 794 978 15 19 17 21 Inwards 45,830 850 1,000-1,500 tous Outwards Tons Men W54 753 47,372 14 17 24 1,137 23 1,328 17 1,463 23 1,113 20 1,048 13 1,197 27 1,467 21 1,440 27 1,112 23 1,435 29 1,334 23 1,042 23 1,498 20 1,187 11 1,397 22 1,361 25 1,392 17 1,408 20 1,386 17 1,172 23 1,022 17 1,246 18 1,409 20 1,399 21 1,312 25 1,2.'{4 21 1,038 20 1,337 22 1,026 12 1,063 23 1,450 25 1,012 14 1,292 16 1,158 34 1,179 23 1,461 21 1,047 25 1,391 20 1,327 28 1,249 20 1,185 17 1,083 19 1,054 20 1,346 20 1,349 24 1,072 18 1,311 18 1,328 20 1,165 19 1,456 20 1,219 24 1,245 25 1,184 17 1,055 22 1,317 24 1,189 23 1,263 22 1,066 20 1,070 20 1,370 15 1,154 22 1,237 17 1,236 19 1,023 21 1,399 20 1,373 12 1,376 18 1,291 19 1,440 22 1,198 30 1,283 14 1,490 14 1.356 29 1,123 15 1,172 17 1,257 21 1,125 17 1,234 21 1,457 25 1,457 20 1,026 14 1,043 15 1,075 31 1,012 21 1,168 22 1,175 18 1,046 21 1,479 26 1,363 19 1,429 20 1,291 19 1,055 14 1,163 19 1,197 24 1,049 14 1,076 15 1,443 29 1,136 18 1,474 925 25 21 26 19 31 25 19 24 24 15 21 23 20 19 24 19 34 20 26 23 21 22 26 23 23 24 21 14 20 28 20 23 28 174 PKOaRESS OF SHIPBUILDING 1894 Tonnage and Crews, kc— continued l.OOC -1,500 tona^contiiticed Inwards Outw; rds Inwards Outwf rds Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men 1,481 26 1.268 20 1,397 28 1,481 28 1,443 22 1,391 25 1,400 18 1,407 28 1,399 24 1,185 17 1.399 19 1,263 17 1,099 17 1,346 21 1,418 24 1,308 25 1,373 18 1,230 24 1,327 21 1,296 25 1,221 15 1,311 17 1,195 14 1,309 22 l,4fi5 27 1,456 20 _._ — 1,221 15 1,435 27 1,189 26 — — 1,049 14 1,040 19 1,237 17 — — 1,151 24 ],424 21 1,399 20 — 1,435 32 1 ,295 20 1,123 18 — — 1,2«9 22 1,105 16 1,125 17 — 1,428 24 1,462 20 1,248 26 ■ — — 1,404 18 1,480 29 1,345 24 — — 1,359 23 1,403 19 1,075 28 — 1,154 21 1,289 18 1,055 15 1,164 15 1.200 22 1,500-2, 112,286 000 tons 1,758 123,743 2,197 1,797 37 1,842 28 1,684 31 1,934 28 1,943 30 1,521 24 1,774 20 1,666 40 1,809 23 1,727 18 1,653 40 1,624 28 1,743 26 ■ 1,573 23 1,578 20 1,598 38 1,696 22 1,677 32 1,674 19 1,597 27 1,608 30 1,919 23 1,550 30 1,942 32 1,965 28 1,820 28 1,578 28 1,667 28 1,640 28 1,545 25 1,548 26 1,799 29 1,990 26 1.775 22 1,623 26 1.684 32 1,788 17 1,804 28 1,596 31 1,728 24 1,558 28 1,809 30 1,991 22 1,774 23 1,673 25 1,743 26 1,625 25 1,653 26 1,666 40 1,614 28 1,618 35 1,674 22 1,769 15 1,702 29 1,668 30 1.548 26 1,624 22 1,696 32 1,602 17 1,835 29 1,598 28 1,880 28 1,798 28 1,592 26 1,779 30 1,611 30 1,648 22 1 ,623 26 1,532 28 1,966 30 1,680 21 1,692 28 1 ,667 15 1,788 32 1,957 24 1,991 30 1,799 19 1,783 26 1,730 29 1,602 17 1894 PROGRESS OF SHIPBUILDINCr 175 Tonnage and Crews, kc—contimied 1,500-2,000 tons — continued Tons Men 1,529 ] ,952 1.754 1,673 1,612 1,923 21 23 18 25 24 29 Tons 1,551 1,559 1,957 1,796 1,529 1,799 22 26 22 32 23 33 Tons 1,577 1,962 1,686 83,887 27 30 20 1.258 Outwards Tons 1,614 1,739 1,885 1,612 1,730 87,688 Over 2,000 tons Men 20 29 24 27 17 1,376 2,148 19 2,461 32 — — 2,198 I 35 2,345 23 2,517 35 — — 2,561 38 2,050 30 2,148 32 — — 2,358 32 2,586 36 2,268 37 — — 2,153 30 2,374 34 2,193 33 — — 2,281 30 2,415 35 2,038 24 — — 2,467 34 2,873 34 2,986 36 — — 2,127 33 2,381 36 2,270 34 — 2,062 33 2,075 32 2,166 30 — — 3,163 29 2,358 31 2,220 32 — — 2,074 32 2,163 27 2,157 31 — — 2,203 39 2,043 26 2,107 3] — — 2,286 30 2,467 34 2,586 36 — _ 2,089 31 2,127 30 2,305 34 — — 2,463 30 2,599 28 2,374 34 — — 2,265 30 2,399 31 2,947 42 — — 2,355 31 2,355 20 2,415 34 ^~ — 2,603 32 2,636 33 2,873 36 — — 2,398 35 2,239 22 2,381 36 — — 2,929 39 2,449 2,723 12 — 40 44,633 561 95,619 1,314 176 PEOGRESS OF SHIPBUILDING 1894 a) ig be 5j > <1 6 C5>OOOI^CO-Ht— CO (» -+I CO i>l CO M CO tf> 1;- OrloOrHCOr^CDOOif) (^^ cq 00 ■* ■* lo in o t~ '3 M 20-96 28-28 32-30 43-98 44-29 53-94 6}-88 66 69 79-57 CD =^ bo's g •-; J3 5 5-83 9-04 10-91 11-66 15-27 16-51 22-41 27-0 32-85 6-06 8-81 10-73 1072 14-86 16-03 19-75 25-67 29-52 b-; a H bo > 1 6 121-83 257-27 330-58 480-44 GGG88 815-92 1262-68 1719-37 2390-47 M 127-06 24917 346-60 471-51 G58-2G 864-71 1261-64 .1712-0 2349-10 o 1 1 1 6 ■-0 M q oa «s CO HI u oo z^ i ^ ^ c o 1, } CO ^ p CO CI c-l CO C3 1 ci l>1 ,—4 CO CO o 6 C". ii i CO ^ C* CO DO -* in o CO i~ l^ l^ '"' ^ ^^ s lO CI lO CO t^ (M (>) 1 i o '^ o <» o 6 ^ -+i 1— I 1 o ^ 3 r-1 J-4 ' 1— t CO O tn §3 GJ m 00 -^ ■CO q3 fi 00 o CO CO 00 o o ^ o 00 o ^3 ,1h ~iri r^ o CO. Q f-4 1—* T— 1 1— f CM (M CO *^ -3 CO o CO M O t~ f-. o to o 00 Ci o OD CO to IQ lO -* o •o C2 1 o bJO 3 o *"* O) CO TiH o CO ^ 1 1 cc_ « H bo f 'Jfl 00 CO (M CI to CD CO -+i lO 00 o ■* lO !0 -* CS l-O C5 «o O) o >- CM CO -*l 13 00 "v CJ^ co_ <1 t— t *"* i-H r-? oT rS QJ J- 1 *^ Cfi C2 ^ t^ C5 r~ C^l CO 1 1 ,-^ -p ^ CO to -* (Xj ^J< CO 1 1 s 3 o s-t O ry: 3 'P g ^ GO o CC 'X •^ ^ 00 f-H 1— J -^ S > (—4 CO •o ■^ GO -an CO Iz; & to to to 00 If. c fl (3 to u: o o O c c o 00 UD OC m -ks -u o '2 ID 1 o c o c o o o o o c o o o o CD O O o o c o o o o o o o f c-f of o CO rri o i^ '-; o o c? t^ o o o o c o 1 o c f o o o 6 (M CO ■^ lO t- i-T *■' ■"■ 1894 PROGRESS OF SHIPBUILDING 183 Gbeman Sailing Ships. Port op LivERrooL, Ypjae 1892 Under 200 tons 500-750 tons InwarJs Outwards Inwards Outwards Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men Tons Men 174 6 134 5 563 9 677 15 119 5 174 6 533 14 532 12 620 14 691 15 200-300 tons 668 14 563 9 504 16 533 14 222 12 280 9 724 13 504 13 275 9 275 9 619 14 277 9 — — , 522 12 225 7 — — — 668 14 — 724 13 300-400 tons — — 542 15 303 9 384 10 — — 571 12 891 10 891 10 750-1,000 tons 334 9 334 9 811 17 841 17 397 11 352 9 841 16 842 16 315 10 321 9 997 18 841 17 — — 897 11 764 14 764 14 956 15 400-500 tons 1,000-1,500 tons 433 11 445 11 1,224 18 1,240 21 470 11 469 12 1.120 17 1,427 20 419 11 423 12 1,058 17 1,033 16 411 9 485 12 . 1,040 17 436 10 496 11 1,281 25 402 10 419 11 1,089 20 — — 436 11 1,249 19 — — 470 11 1,224 18 — — 494 12 — — 419 11 1,500-2,000 tons — — 411 9 1,695 23 1,695 23 — — 436 10 1,655 24 — — 184 PROGEESS OF SHIPEUILDINa 1894 Averages. German Sailing Ships. Liverpool, 1892 Total Number of Ships (Inwards and Outwards) Average Tonnage Average Crew Tons per Man Under 200 tons . 4 150-25 5-50 27-31 200-300 tons 6 259 9-16 28-27 300-400 tons 11 35fi-27 9-72 36-65 400-500 tons 18 443 10-83 40-90 500-750 tons 18 597 66 13-22 45-20 750-1,000 Lons . 9 854-11 16 53-38 1,000-1,500 tons . 11 1180-45 18-9 62-45 1,500-2,000 tons . 3 168166 23-33 72-08 Table op Percentages of Sailing and Steam Ships Los'i BY Abandonment, Foundering, and Missing Vessels under 100 tons excluded Under 1,000 tons 1,000-1,999 tons Over 2,000 tons 1891-93 Average Percentage Lost of Number Owned Average Percentage Lost of Number Owned Average Percentage Lost of Number Owned Sail Steam Sail Steam Sail Steam United Kingdom British Colonies Foreign Countries (as per list be- low ' ; . 1-51 1-15 1-36 -32 •10 •15 146 1-96 1-54 -45 -29 -46 1-14 2-20 -26 •74 •09 ' Foreign countries included : America, Austro-Hungary, Denmark, Holland, France, German}', Italy, Norway, Sweden, Spain. 1871 18^ PART II ITAYIG-ATION ETC. THE EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTERS OF COMPASSES Papee read at the Institution of Naval Architects March 31, 1871 I SHOULD be guilty of presumption if I were to bring before this Association original views and suggestions of my own upon the highly difficult and important question of compass adjustment. Speaking on this subject as an amateur sailor, my object is to befriend, as far as I can, our seafaring population, a class for whom I have ever felt a most hearty sympathy. I need scarcely remind the Institution of Naval Architects that cases of total loss or partial damage to shipping from the local attrac- Lessor tion or defects in their compasses are not unfrequent ; defective^ ^ and that cases are continually occurring in which, from ''o^P'^*^'^^ the same cause, the greatest danger is incurred. No skilful navigator, as I am well aware, will neglect the duty of perpetually testing, when at sea, the accuracy of his compasses by azimuths and other astronomical obser- vations ; but the difficulty with which we have to deal arises from the impossibility of testing compass errors in 186 EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTERS OF COMPASSES 1871 Board of Trade re- quirements Opinion of the Royal Society Admiralty Keport to Board of Trade the cloudy and thick weather which so frequently pre- vails in our own latitudes. To provide the navigator, as far as possible, with the best means of safely navigating an iron ship until he has had an opportunity of making an independent verifica- tion of the errors of his compass, the Board of Trade re- quires that the compasses of all iron ships shall be properly adjusted before they proceed to sea. With strange inconsistency, however, they have hitherto accepted as evidence that that adjustment has been properly made the certificates of persons for whose com- petency to undertake a very difficult and important task they have no guarantee. In the year 1865 the Royal Society entered into an interesting and valuable correspondence on this subject with the Board of Trade. The Royal Society stated that an organised department of skilful men, under able supervision, would probably be of much advantage, not merely in laying down rules, but in giving advice and suggestions to naval constructors, compass makers and adjusters, and in producing a uniform system of adjust- ment. In support of their recommendation, they ]')ointed to the fact that almost all the advances which have hitherto been made in the science, and which have placed England at the head of the science, are due to there having been for the last twenty-five years one officer, appointed by the Admiralty, to attend to this duty almost exclusively. In September, 1865, the Admiralty, at the instance of the Royal Society, addressed a communication to the Board of Trade on this subject. They pointed out that in the mercantile marine there is no guarantee for the competency of the adjuster, and that regulations for the adjustment of their compasses are thereby rendered in 1871 EXAMINxiTION OF ADJUSTEES OF COMPASSES 187 many cases inoperative, or nearly so. They admit that by constant practice, but without any very clear know- ledge of the principles of magnetism, several skilful adjusters of compasses are to be found at some of the great mercantile ports ; but they declare that no sys- tem can be expected to be satisfactory which does not gradually develop itself under proper supervision. ^Notwithstanding this concurrence on the part of the authoi-ities at the Admiralty in the views originally put forth by the Royal Society, the Board of Trade declined to accept the recommendation which had been made. I have made inquiry on the subject, and have reason to believe that no change has taken place in the views represented to the Board of Trade in 1865, both by the Hoyal Society and by the authorities at the Admiralty. A similar opinion is entertained by the Astronomer Opinion of -_ . Astronomer Koyal, who informs me that he assents most strongly to Royal and the requirements that, as a condition of seaworthiness, the adjustment of compasses shall be carried out by a certified adjuster. 'A condition equivalent to this,' he says, ' was urged by me on the Admiralty in 1839. All people who have at later times entered carefully into the matter have expressed the same opinion. I may cite particularly Captain Evans, Mr. E,undell, and Mr. Towson, the examiner of the local Marine Board of Liverpool.' I have consulted the Committee of Lloyd's and the Committee of the Liverpool Shipowners' Asso- ciation. Both of these associations are in favour of requiring that all adjusters of compasses shall possess a certificate of competency. Such being the views entertained by men of science, by shipowners, and by insurance associations, I will now turn to one of the most interesting communications which I have received on this matter ; interesting, others 188 EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTERS OF COMPASSES 1871 Letter from Sir James Anderson Laws of magnetism affecting ships and compasses, present ignorance because it comes from a highly distinguished officer of the mercantile marine, whose practical experience of the difficulties of navigating iron ships gives the greatest possible weight to the opinion which he expresses. In a letter from Sir James Anderson, he says : — ' The compass is of all other essentials the most im- portant part in the equipment of an iron vessel. It is of all others the least understood, either by those who build ships, sail ships, or make the compasses that are used in the mercantile marine. You will of course under- stand me at once as admitting that there are exceptions to all those cases. A very little attention to the books published by Captain Evans of the Hydrographical Department will illustrate what I mean as to the im- portance to be attached to the position in which the ship is built. ' It will also be admitted that magnetism has only recently become a well-defined science, and the majority of those now employed in commanding the ships of the of mercantile marine cannot be expected to be thoroughly conversant with all its laws, which so far have only engaged the attention of a very few of the clear intellects of the scientific world. My opinion is that there are not fifty officers now afloat, either in the Royal Navy or the mercantile marine, who are conversant with the laws of magnetism, as affecting ships and compasses, as they should be understood. The rising generation of officers no doubt will become more proficient in the science ; but it has required the special knowledge and great applica- tion of Captain Evans, with all the opportunities that the Royal and private building yards of this country have affi)rded, to reduce it to well-defined principles, and those principles still require an expert to apply them. ' The gn ater number of casualties to iron ships may be 1871 EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTEES OF COMPASSES 189 traced, in my judgment, to errors of the compass and lee-way. When you reflect that a quarter of a point will Effect of cause about 2^ miles of error upon a hundred miles of dis- compass tance run, and that after the usual observations about noon, or even during the afternoon, the steamers of the present day may easily run a distance of 200 miles before there is an opportunity of obtaining another observation, this would give an error of five miles in a ship's position. Or with an eighth of a point, which is still smaller, and a degree of accuracy no one can pretend to arrive at in steering, you may be 2^ miles out, and in approaching a coast at right angles, or nearly so, such as Cape Race, in the voyage to America, or the coast of Ireland coming from America, you will see at once how important it is that the compass should be made as reliable as possible — an error of even 2^ miles is just as fatal as twenty miles. ' I do affirm that neither in Liverpool nor London, insufficient so far as I have ever seen, is there a compass adjuster cf^adjirsters 1 J. 1 J. J.1 1 1 • 1 of compasses who can pretend to more than a merely mechanical knowledge of the compass, with a minimum of the know- ledge of the science of magnetism as applied to it. In Liverpool, especially, the facilities for adjusting ships' compasses are meagre and unsatisfactory. I have very seldom during all my experience had an opportunity of getting my ship removed any reasonable distance from the influence of either iron ships, or iron pillars support- ing the dock sheds, or iron lighters alongside the ship. 'For my part, I used to fear the adjustment of com- Anxiety passes by some of the men employed, and preferred captains trusting to such azimuths as I could obtain at sea, always keeping at the same time the errors of the compass given me by the compass adjuster, but as a rule leaning 190 EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTERS OF COMPASSES 1871 Great know- ledge of Captain Evans and Admiralty Hydi-o- graphic Staff to my own azimuths. These azimuths, however, are o£ little value unless obtained in considerable numbers — the rolling of a screw steamer, or the careening over under canvas, frequently making considerable dis- crepancies in observation upon the same point of the compass. I need scarcely point out to you how much anxiety this throws upon the captains navigating those fast steamers. There can be no reason for objecting to a law which shall require that all compass adjusters at the seaports shall be men who have passed a strict exami- nation, and that they must be properly certified by the Compass Department of the Admiralty. ' I had a good deal of experience of this department during my command of the " Great Eastern." I con- sidered myself, previous to that appointment, a careful and industrious observer of azimuths, and had read all that had come to my notice affecting the compass. But in going to the fountain-head of this special science, in order to leave nothing undone that could be done, I am bound to say that neither I nor any of my colleagues, nor any officer of Her Majesty's Ssrvice that I have met since,, knew more than the mere outline of the science of magnetism, as affecting ships and compasses, compared with Captain Evans and his staff. All maritime nations reproduce every word he writes on the subject; and not to adopt the supervision of this department, either directly over the compasses, or at least over all compass adjusters, is a direct omission to avail ourselves of a power not yet equally possessed by any other nation that I am aware of, and is a distinct injustice to the officers of the mercantile marine.' I now proceed to consider the best mode of con- ducting the proposed system of examination. If it should be thought impracticable to entrust the 1871 EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTEKS OF COMPASSE.S 191 proposed duty to a department of the Admiralty, I would suggest that the Astronomer Royal, Captain E\'ans, the President of the Royal Society, an eminent representative of the shipowners, a representative of the insui'ance interests, and a practical nautical instrument maker of repute, would constitute a council which, Proposed under the authority of the Board of Trade, could under tho readily consider the subjects in which candidates should Trade" be examined. Examiners could be appointed to act under the direction of the local Marine Boards, and con- duct the examinations in the same manner in which the examination of masters and mates is now conducted in the principal ports. ' It should be borne in mind,' observes Mr. Archibald views of Mi .' Archibald Smith, ' that the recommendations of the Royal Society Smith centred in and hinged upon the assumption that there sliould be on the staff of the Board of Trade an officer thoroughly instructed in the subject, the whole or the greater part of whose time should be devoted to it, and with sufficient assistance. Without this I am satisfied that little, if anything, of value can be accomplished by the department ; with this, much, I have no doubt, may be done in each of the three branches into which the subject has been divided, viz. : — '1. The correction of compasses in particular ships. ' 2. The advancement of the science in the deviation of the compass. ' 3. The education of masters and mates, and that even without compulsory legislation. Indeed, the verdict in the case of the " Carnatic " will probably do more than compulsion to draw the attention of shipowners to this subject.' Mr. Rundell, from whom I have so often quoted, 192 EXAMINATION OF ADJUSTEKS OF COMPASSES 1871 Opiuion of Mr. Eundell Government supervision avoided expresses the belief that when adjusters shall have passed an examination, and have been certified by the Board as competent, it would be reasonable to require that they should be called upon to make a formal declaration that their work had been done in the best manner. ' This,' be says, ' would tend to make an adjuster of compasses more particular, from the fear of the effect which any accident to a ship, which could be traceable to the compasses, might have upon his personal reputation as the holder of a certificate from the Board. It would also give him a more independent standing with shipowners.' One merit which belongs to the proposals now made is, that while it would afford to all interested parties reasonable security that all iron ships, holding a character from Lloyd's and the Liverpool registries, would be sufficiently and satisfactorily equipped as re- gards compasses, it would avoid any necessity for Government supervision, or, as it would probably be termed by the mercantile community, ' Government interference.' To some, indeed, it may appear unneces- sary that the Board of Trade should interfere in this matter ; but, as Sir Frederick Arrow observes, though to the intelligent and scientifically disposed officer the state of the law may be comparatively unimportant, in this, as in all other matters, we should legislate for the stupid. Having now stated my case, I am anxious to obtain from the Institution of Naval Architects an expression of their opinion. Public opinion on this subject is un- scientific, and therefore of little value ; but the opinion of this Institution, being the opinion of a body of scientific men, would, I believe, be regarded as authoritative. I can only say in conclusion that, in my humble 1871 EXAMINATION OV ADJUSTERS OF COMPASSES 193 iudgmeiit, it is quite as necessary to secure a sfuarantee Necessity of c X ^ £ xu T / £ 1 • ' Board of or the competency of the adjuster or a ship s compasses Trade certi- as it is to require the possession of a certificate of the adjusters ot knowledge of seamanship and navigation in the officer's responsible for the duties of navigation. The inter- ference of the Board of Trade is too much resented by interested parties. The commercial instinct is no doubt a reliable guarantee where pecuniary interests are alone concerned ; but when we have to deal with the much graver question of human life, we reasonably require — whether in medicine, in mining, or in the navigation of the seas — that those who are responsible for the lives of others shall be able to prove that they are qualified for their important duties. This principle should be ex- tended to the adjustment of compasses, the most important instrument of navigation on board a ship. compasses 194 II Object of uiction only to get fog sigaals placed on coast EfBciency of the Triuity House lighthouses, lightships, and buoys THE CHANNEL LIGHTS Speech in the House op Commons, May 1873 In seconding the motion of iny honourable friend, I shall proceed on the assumption that his principal object is to attract the attention of the House to the important matter which he has so ably handled in his speech, and that he has no intention of pressing his motion to a division if he receives satisfactory assurances from the Board of Trade. All that we ask is that there shall be no unnecessary delay in carrying out the recommenda- tions of the Trinity Brethren in favour of placing fog signals of the most powerful description on points of the coast which are at present most imperfectly guarded. I am confident that the President of the Board of Trade, and his able advisers on nautical subjects, must welcome the motion as a justification to themselves for adopting the suggestions of the Trinity House. It is not my intention, in supporting this motion, to criticise the Trinity House. On the contrary, I am con- vinced that the administration of its important and ex- tensive business leaves little to be desired. Our lights are quite as powerful as the French lights. They are superior to those of every other nation. The outlay of the foreign Grovernments in the construction of light- houses has been greater than the outlay in England. 1873 THE CHANNEL LIGHTS 195 The lightships, which have been placed in numerous exposed situations on the coast, have maintained their positions in the most tempestuous weather, and have very rarely been driven off' their stations. Again, the coasts of the United Kingdom are, according to the report of the Royal Commission of 1861, better supplied with buoys than any foreign coasts, and these buoys are maintained in admirable order. In short, the Trinity system would appear to be as nearly perfect as possible, and worthy of the greatest maritime nation in the world in every respect, except in that which forms the subject of the pi'esent motion. In the matter of fog signals, the coasts of the Cana- dian Dominion and the United States are infinitely better guarded than our own. The superiority of the American system of fog signals over our own is due to the extra- ordinaiy difficulties with which those ^vV>o navigate in American waters have to contend. While the days on which fog prevails on our coast do not exceed sixty or seventy in the year, the American coasts are enveloped in fog for one-lialf of the year or more. The result is that, since the organisation of the Lighthouse Board in 1852, there have been established on the coasts of the United States thirty-three powerful whistles or trumpets, which are sounded by machinery during fog. But if we have fortunately less fog than the American mariners, it does not follow that it is not worth while to provide the best description of fog signals, in order to secure the greatest possible safety for those who navigate in British waters. The Royal Commission to which I have referred lecommended the more frequent adoption of guns, or what- ever other means might be found more efficient, for in- dicating the locality of lighthouses during fog ; and, referring to the gongs which are provided in all the light- o 2 Superiority of American system of fo^ signals Recommen- dations of tlie Royal Commission 196 THE CHANNEL LIGHTS 1873 ships of the Trinity House and the Ballast Board in Ireland, they said they were satisfied that they were not sufficiently powerful, and recommended the provision of a more efficient warning in fog as a subject of investiga- tion. The uselessness of bells has been pointed out by Mr. Beazely, in a lecture recently delivered before the United Service Institution, in which he says that a bell weighing 2-j tons has been heard only one mile to Inefficiency whidward against a liijht breeze. If then, he says, of bells .... . a bell of that size is effective in a light breeze to a range of only one mile, what, under similar circumstances, may be expected to be the range of the comparatively light bells of from 3 cwt. to 7 cwt. employed as fog signals in our rock lighthouses and lightships 1 Mean- while, the fog signals in use on the American coast have been carried to a very high degree of perfection. The Ti'inity Brethren say that all the horns and whistles they heard on the American coast may be safely relied upon, when care and attention are used, to a range of from two to eight miles. Sometimes the sound will penetrate to much greater distances. I am informed by my constituents, the fishermen of Hastings, that the steam fog horn at Dungeness can be heard at a distance of fourteen miles with a light breeze off the land. As fog signals, guns are equal to the aj)- paratus in use in America ; but the original cost of their Greater cost establishment is not less than 1,000/., as compared with siguais an expenditure of from 600/. to 1,400/. for the horns and whistles worked by machinery ; while the working expenses are considerably greater. Whatever the precise amount may be, certain it is that the cost of establishing the improved signals would be an utterly insignificant item compared with the importance of rendering the navigation around our coasts as secure as, in the nature 1873 THE CHANNEL LIGHTS 1*)7 of things, it can possibly be made. To establish a light- f^man aii- vessel, at an original cost, on the average, ot" 5,000^., of a fog , .,, 1 • 1 • i! • sigiialto a manned with a numerous crew, and involving tor main- HghtUous* tenance an annual expenditure of 1,200?., and then to hesitate to sanction an additional outlay of 6001. for providing the light-vessel with an effective fog signal, is an absurdity so glaring that I am confident that this House will not hesitate to sanction the policy of provid- ing the most perfect apparatus to every lighthouse and lightship on our coasts. I observe that the recommendations of Sir Frederick Arrow are limited to a few points on the coast. I ap- prehend that he and his colleagues have refrained from making more extensive proposals lest some opposition should be raised on the part of the Board of Trade on financial grounds. Foreign Governments do not hesitate to incur a large expenditure for such objects when their necessity has been proved. Until 1825 the French lights Lighthouse ,. . A !• 1 1 in system on were tew in number. After that date a grand and com- French prehensive plan was undertaken of erecting a large immber of additional lighthouses in what were considered the best positions, and the whole system was remodelled. Allusion has been made to the large number of fog signals recently established on the coasts of the United States. From time to time there is reason to apprehend that the Board of Trade, the guardian of the public purse, has not been bold enough. The Royal Commissioners Paise«eo- of 1861 say : — 'The Board of Trade has steadily kepo Board of economy, rather than progress, in view ; but the saving they have thus effected has been represented as sometimes a false economy, and it has unquestionably led to much unsatisfactory corres230}.idence, and, in some instances, to prejudicial delay.' The recent correspondence relative to Turnberry Head is a case in point. My right hon. Trade 198 THE CITA^'NEL LIGHTS 1873 Tublic revenue should bear expense of lialithouscs friend, now at the head of the Board of Trade, lias shown his zeal for the welfare of our mariners in many ways, and I trust that he will not adopt a course which would expose him to the criticism applied by the E,oyal Com- mission to his predecessors in office. In conclusion, I may mention that the Royal Com- mission, though it was not within their instructions to make a distinct recommendation on the incidence of the light dues, referred with marked apjoroval to the reports of four Special Committees, who had been authorised to deal directly with that important question, and who had recommended that the expense of erecting and maintain- ing our lighthouses should be defrayed out of the public revenue. That is the system which prevails in America, and I feel confident that its adoption in this country would be for the public advantage. 1880 199 III ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES Speech ix the House of Commons, March 4, 1880 Mr. T. Brassey rose to call attention to the necessity for additional ligh+houses on the island of Galita, in the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aden. After showing that a great and rapidly-increasing proportion of our trade to the East was carried by the route of the Suez Canal, and mentioning that in 1878 no less than 1,217 British vessels passed through the Canal, he said it was needless to say more in order to show how deeply interested we were in everything which could add to the safety of navigation on this main route from Europe to the East. Of the various aids to the navigator, lighthouses were important the most important, not only as a means of saving life houses and property, but as a means of shortening the passage. With the growth of commerce, tlie number of lighthouses on our own shores had been rapidly increased. We had now one light for every 10 5 miles of coast. The illu- mination of the French coasts was equally perfect. While, however, the coasts of the great maritime Powers were now efficiently lighted, lighthouses had been seriously neglected in the hands of Governments with exhausted treasuries ; and the coasts of barbarous or half-civilised countries, in the absence of concerted action on the part of the maritime PoAvers, must remain 200 ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES 1880 Insufficient lighting on the Spanish coast Coast of Tunis AVant of a light on Island of (ialita in total darkness. Hitherto, with one notable and praiseworthy exception, no attempt had been made to organise such concerted action. Cape Einisterre was the first point on the route to the East to which he de- sired to call attention. It was one of the most important land-falls in the world. A first-class light was exhi- bited from Einisterre ; but the position was badly chosen, and the light itself was not in good order. He was within range of Cape Einisterre for several hours during the night of the 27th of January, and on that occasion the light did not revolve. Another first-class light was urgently required on Cape Villano, 25 miles north-east of Eijiisterre. The range of the existing light was only eight miles. In consequence of the insufficient lighting of this coast, vessels were compelled to steer many miles further to the westward than would be necessary if a powerful light were exhibited on Villano. Continuing eastwards and entering the Mediterra- nean, the southern shores of Spain, and the long range of the north coast of Africa in the hands of the Erench Government, were well protected with lights. But when we reached the coast of Tunis the lighthouses were too few in number. The island of Galita, which was under the jurisdiction of the Bey of Tunis, was one of the most important pivot points on the voyage to the East. Ships navigating the Mediterranean made a straight run of 690 miles from Gibraltar, until they arrived ofi" the north end of Galita, when they altered their covirse two points and steered for the Malta Channel. In the night, or in the thick weather prevailing near Galita in the winter, the prudent navigator would pass the island at a dis- tance of from 10 to 15 miles. With a first-class light a margin of five miles would be ample. If the passage to the south of the island were taken, which would be 1880 ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES 201 perfectly practicable in clear weather, the saving of dis- tance would be still )iiore considerable. The necessity that existed for such a light on Galita had been repeat- edly urged by the Comniittee of Lloyd's. On this point Captain Angove, the commander of the Peninsular and Oriental steamer ' Poonah,' had written as follows : — ' The absence of a light on the island of Galita has often caused me great anxiety. In the winter months the weather is frequently dirty in that vicinity, and the currents are strong.' Passing onwards on the voyage to the East the navi- gator was assisted by an adequate number of lights until he emerged from the Gulf of Suez into the Red Sea. At The Red Sea a distance of 95 miles north of the light on the Disdalus shoal, which was the southernmost light at present shown in this part of the Red Sea, the track of steamers ran close to two rocks called 'The Brothers,' only 20 feet Danger of above water. They were invisible at night, and the Brothers' current in that part of the Red Sea was strong and un- certain. A few years ago the Dutch steamer ' Prinz Hendrik,' carrying troops to Batavia, was totally wrecked on these rocks. A light of the second or third order, visible at a distance of, say, ten miles, was very necessary at this point. Proceeding clown the Reel Sea for a dis- tance of 720 miles no lights were absolutely required until a point within one hundred miles of the island of Perim. At its southern end the shores of the Red Sea were fringed with reefs, which ran out seawards for some distance on each side of the channel, and here the experienced commanders m the Peninsular and Oriental service urgently asked for two additional lights — a light Lights with a range of 20 miles on the islet of Aboo-Ail, off Y?:"*®',^?'^ ° ' Aboo-Ail the north end of the island of Jebel-Zuker, and a light f^"^ "^ ' c Mocha on the bank oS Mocha. The Peninsular and Oriental 202 ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES ISSO steamer ' Alma ' was wrecked on Jebel-Zuker, and the steamer ' Penguin ' was quite recently lost on the same spot. The value of lighthouses as a means of saving time might be illustrated by a statement lately made to him by Captain White, a commander in the Peninsular and Oriental service. On a recent occasion, arriving off Aboo-Ail in the evening, he was obliged to close the- Arabian shore, and to navigate the vessel by the lead, until he arrived off the island of Perim, a distance of 90 miles. With a light on Aboo-Ail he might have run boldly on and have made the passage in eight hours. Not having the assistance of the light, the time actually occupied was eighteen hours. The detention in these intricate spots in the case of vessels commanded by masters not intimately acquainted with the Red Sea must necessarily be more serious. Captain Symons, in an interesting letter on this subject, Large verv iustlv said that the Red Sea was now the highway amouut of " '' "^ o ./ traffic in of the world for Eastern traffic. On his last, homeward Reil Sea voyage he had passed nine large steamers in one watch of four hours. Ten years ago an equal number would not have been seen in a month. Considering the value of the property, mostly carried in English ships, that now passed through the E,ed Sea, it was imperatively necessary that the coasts should be properly lighted. The mail steamers, especially, were called upon to main- tain a high rate of speed, were timed to arrive to the hour, and were liable to heavy penalties if late. They certainly ought to have the benefit of any modern inven- tion for facilitating navigation on a dangerous coast. Cape Continuing an imaginary voyage to the East, the Wrecks ot£ next important point on which a lighthouse was required * '^ '^^^'^ was Cape Guardafui. Here twelve large steamers had gone ashore within the last six years. The list included ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES 203 the ' Meikong,' of the French Messageries service, and the ' Garonne,' a steamer of the Orient line ' recently esta- blished between London and Australia. Ten of these ships were totally wrecked. Among the shipowners interested in the trade to the East avIio had strongly re- commended the establishment of a light on Cape Guar- dafui, he might more particularly refer to the General Shipowners' Association, and the owners of the Glen, the Castle, and the Ducal lines. The directors of the British Indian Company, while expressing a strong opinion as to the desirability of establishing a light on Cape Guard afui, recommended that it should be erected by the British Government, under international arrange- ment, and not by the Egyptian Government. It might be necessary to explain that the Egyptian Government had contemplated the erection of two lighthouses — the one on Ras-Hafoon, the other on Guardafui, in com- pliance with suggestions from the British Government. The objections of the British Indian ComjDany were fully shared by Captain Roberts, the superintendent of the Peninsular. and Oriental Company at Suez. The expen- diture for the two lights, as estimated by the Egyptian Government, was £48,000, and they proposed to levy an additional tax upon passing ships of 2d. per ton. Efficient lighthouses could be erected at a much more moderate cost. He was unwilling to trouble the House with nautical details, and would not, therefore, enter into the various considerations which had been urged by those who doubted the utility of a light on Guardafui during the period when the south-west monsoon was at its height. Opinions were unanimous as to the value of the light through at least eight months of the year. A light on Ras-Hafoon, ninety miles south of Guardafui, would be valuable at all seasons to ships engaged in the A lig-lithottse wanted Should be erected by British G-overnmeiit and plaoeiT under inter- national control 204 ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES 1880 Liglits required on islands of Socotra and Minicoy Concerted action of maritime Powers desirable How the light on Cape Sfjartel is main- tained important trade with the Mauritius and the east coast of Africa. He had only to mention two other points on the route to the East on which lights were required. One was the east end of the island of Socotra, which was passed by all vessels bound to and from Bombay, and in the south- west monsoon also by vessels navigating to and froai Galle. The other point to which he referred was Minicoy, a small island of the Laccadive group, upon which some years ago the Peninsular and Oriental steamer ' Colombo ' was totally lost, and which must be passed by every vessel bound from the Red Sea to Ceylon, the Bay of Bengal, the Eastern Archipelago, China, and Japan. All the lights which he had enumerated would, if esta- blished, be of the greatest advantage to navigation. At Cape Guardafui it might be necessary to erect a fort and to provide a small garrison for the protection of the light. In the other cases nothing more than an ordinaiy lighthouse was required. None of these lights,_however, could be erected except under international agreement, and in bringing the subject under the notice of the House his desire was to urge the Government, without delay, to secure the concerted action of the maritime Powers. Sir Travers Twiss, in a paper read at the Guild) lall in August last, had suggested that the convention signed at Tangier between the Sultan of Morocco and the representatives of the European Powers furnished a pre- cedent that might be conveniently followed. Under the terms of this convention the Sultan of Morocco had erected a lighthouse on Cape Spartel and made over the entire administration to the contracting Powers, each of whom contributed ±'60 a year towards the maintenance of the light. The light on Cape Spartel afforded the U'reatest assistance in the navioation of the Straits of 1880 ADDITIONAL LIGHTHOUSES 205 Gibraltar ; and it belonged to England, as having by far the deepest interest in the trade with the East, to take the initiative in negotiating similar arrangements with reference to the additional lights required on the voyage from Europe to the East. The House would doubtless share the hope expressed by Sir Travers Tvviss, that hereafter international light- inter- !•(■ 1-11 national houses would be among the trophies of peace which the lighthouse-? civilisation of Europe would set up in the islands of the far East. The aggregate expenditure on the lighthouses would be small, it would be readily shared by other nations, and it was absolutely trifling in comparison with the loss of perhaps a quarter of a million in a single steamer. When the lighthouses which he had enumer- ated were completed, premiums of insurance would be reduced, voyages would be accelerated, the dangers to life would be diminished, and the anxieties of harassed commanders would be relieved. 206 189J IV HABBOUB W0BK8, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. Address as President of the Skcond International Maritime Congress, July 18, 1898 As the son of a contractor for public works whose expe- rience extended to almost every country in Europe and every quarter of the globe, it is an acceptable duty to offer a cordial welcome here in London to the members of this Maritime Congress. To our foreign colleagues, especially, I desire to give an assurance that their pre- sence among us is highly appreciated. Advantac'e It is hardly necessary to justify the holding of the meetings present conference. The occasional meetings of the members of a profession, to exchange experiences and discuss unsolved problems, must always be for the mutual advantage of all concerned. Not addressing you as an engineer, I shall not be justified in detaining you at any length. I am not competent to enter in detail into professional questions. I may, however, refer to the part which this country has taken in the execution of works for the safety and convenience of maritime trade. As a nation we have been forced by geographical conditions to take the lead in shipping enterpiise. But while nature has compelled us to be seamen, she has not made that calling less hazardous for ourselves than for 1893 HARBOUR WORKS, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. 207 Break- waters. Plymouth the mariners of other nations. Without the aid of the wiiat tiio GD'^'illGGl' llfiS engineer we should have been possessed of few ports iione tor accessible for vessels of size ; and nowhere have the aids to navigation by lighting and buoyage been more valu- able than on our mist-bound and tempestuous shores. I may briefly, under two heads, review what has been done ; and first I will deal with breakwaters. No expenditure of public money has been more beneficial than that which has been applied to the con- struction of the splendid works which I will mention. We began in 1812 with Plymouth. Tliis noble break- water gives shelter to the whole area of Plymouth Bay from the billows of the broad Atlantic. In 1842 three breakwaters of a similar character were commenced, at Portland, Holyhead, and Dover. Under Portland Portland breakwater the sheltered area is 2,130 acres. For naval purposes the work has proved of the greatest advantage. Holyhead breakwater was completed in 1873. The Hoijiiead sheltered roadstead is too limited in extent. The pro- tection afforded has, however, been of the utmost service in facilitating the intercourse between England and Ireland. The existing pier at Dover was completed at ^°'^'^^ the same date as that at Holyhead. The works were attended with considerable difficulty from the tides, the depth of water, and the want of materials on the spot. To give shelter to Dover as a roadstead, an eastern arm is needed. The western arin, which has alone been completed, has been a work of the greatest public utility. At Alderney a breakwater designed essentially for Aiderney strategical objects has cost as much as the structure at Plymouth. From an engineering point of view it is an admitted failure, owing to the destructive action of seas and tides. The area of sheltered water, limited as it is, might be of great value to a torpedo flotilla. 208 HARBOUE WORKS, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. 18£ Poterlicad Kingstown Tynemouth Colonies. Kurracliee Madras and Colombo Table Bay, extent ana cost of breakwater Turning northwards, mention should be made of Peterhead. That important centre for the fisherman is to be protected by a breakwater, now in course of exe- cution by convict labour. In Ireland we have a fine artificial harbour at Kingstown, protected by two con- A'erging breakwaters. The sheltered area is 250 acres. The harbours of our busy north-east coast, as formed by nature, were shallow rivers with no protection at the mouth from the easterly gales which sometimes sweep across the North Sea with great violence. The local harbour authorities at Tynemouth and in the Tees have succeeded in effecting great improvements at an unpre- cedentedly low cost, using as the material for construc- tion the refuse slag from ironworks. The labours of our engineers in the construction of breakwaters have naturally been extended to the colonies. Four works merit special mention. At the moderate cost of 110,000^. Kurrachee has been made an admirable harbour and the principal outlet for the Scinde Valley and the trade of the Punjaub. Strategically the position is of the highest importance. The valuable commerce of Madras and Colombo was formerly carried on in roadsteads completely exposed to the fiery winds of the south-west monsoon, and occa- sionally to cyclones. They are now well protected. At Madras, two converging arms, each of some 3,900 feet in length, have been formed. Colombo is protected by a single breakwater, which gives shelter to 502 acres of water space. The breakwater at Table Bay is perhaps even more valuable than either of the works already mentioned. Before its construction the bay was completely exposed to gales from the north, which sometimes blew with irresistible fury and were in vaiiably fatal to sailing ships 1893 HARBOUR WORKS, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. 209 overtaken at anchor. These dangers have been com- pletely overcome by the formation of a breakwater 3,700 feet in length. The cost of this noble work, with an inner harbour and graving-dock, has exceeded 2,000,000/. I now turn to works of another class, namely, those undertaken for the improvement of the entrances to ports. Allusion has already been made to the break- waters at the mouths of the Tyne and the Tees. In the former river dredging operations have been cari'ied out Dredging on a vast scale. No less than 60,000,000 cubic yards TyLand have been excavated. A channel, with a minimum ^^ depth of 20 feet at low water, has now been formed right up to Newcastle. Before 1860 steamers drawing 3 to 4 feet used to ground for hours. In 1852 the depth of the Tees up to Middlesbrough was 3^ feet at low water. The channel is now being deepened to 20 feet. Improvements not less remarkable have been carried out in the Clyde. In the middle of the last The Clyde century the river was fordable twelve miles below Glas- gow. To-day 24 feet at high water and 15 feet at low water are carried right up to the quay walls of Glasgow. Crossing to Ireland, in the early part of this century Ireland the channel of the river Logan only allowed vessels of 10 feet draught to reach Belfast. By dredging opera- Belfast tions, and the construction of walls and straight cuts, a depth of 20 feet is now carried at high water. It is proposed to increase it to 24 feet. I have now to refer to a most important work not yet completed. At the mouth of the Mersey, which will, I hope, be visited by The Mersey. , „ , . „ . . Deepeniug many members or this Congress, operations are m pro- the bar gress on a large scale. The powerful dredgers employed were constructed at Barrow from the designs of Mr. Blechyngden. Tiie deepening of the bar of the Mersey p 210 HAEBOUR WORKS, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. 1893 Lifrlitin.s aud buoyiug (if coasts Inter- national system of buoyage Ailvanta;io (if sailing ships for long voyages is a work of urgent necessity. At low water the avail- able depth is 10 feet, and steamers which have crossed the Atlantic at speeds only obtainable by enormous ex- penditure, both on building and on working, are occa- sionally detained outside for hours. I cannot conclude these remarks without expressing the acknowledgments of those concerned in organising this Congress for the courteous invitations which have been received from the harbour authorities at all our principal ports, where works of interest to the engineer are to be seen. The lighting of the coasts and the buoyage of navi- gable channels will properly receive considerable atten- tion in the section which deals with those subjects. An immense advance has been made in recent years, both in extending the range of lights, and in giving them a dis- tinctive character. While France and England have been leaders in the work of improvement, I do not know where to look for more perfect lighting than we find in the Gulf of Finland. In the United States, frequent fogs have given a stimulus to the inventive genius of- the nation in perfecting steam whistles, sirens, and bells, and other danger-indicating appliances. The desirability of an international agreement in relation to buoyage cannot be too strongly insisted upon. To the mariner it would be a real boon if all channels were marked by buoys upon a uniform system, both as to colour and shape. In the sections dealing with shipping we are likely to hear more about steamers than sailing ships. The day is, however, probably far distant when the use of sails will have become altogether a thing of the past. For long ocean voyages, sailing vessels are capable of doing efficient work, even in competition with steamers. 1893 HARBOUR WORKS, LIGHTS, SHIPPING, ETC. 211 They carry goods of the same class for which the canal can compete with the railway. The ships of recent construction have never been surpassed for symmetry, carrying-power, speed, and economy. I desire to raise the question whether in many cases economy has not been carried too far. Among the very finest of the modern sailing-ships numerous losses have lately occurred. There is some reason to fear that undermanning has umier- been a frequent cause of disaster. When we find that '^^"'""' complements, including officers, are considerably below one man for every hundred tons of cargo, it is evident that there is no available force for dealing with a sudden squall or shift of wind. May it not be the case that our shipowners sometimes spend too much on insurance, and too little on the manning of their ships 1 To frame a scale of manning is as desirable as it is difficult. In conclusion, when all that the skill and energy of man can accomplish has been done, the sea must remain an element on which there are many dangers to be found- That so much has been done to mitigate its perils is largely due to the profession whose members I once Engineer?; more warmly welcome to-day. If, in the course of our dangers of^' deliberations, some further progress may be made in the same beneficent cause, all will agree that this Congress will not have been called together in vain. I hope — nay, feel assured — it will be a successful Congress. If successful, the chief credit will be due to our able Chair- man of Committee, Mr. Yernon Harcourt, and a col- league whom all who know him love, our old friend, Mr. Forrest. For the privilege of meeting in this hall we are greatly indebted to the Institution of Civil Engineers. Their President, Mr. Giles, has been ever ready to help us with his valuable counsel and co-operation. p 2 the sea 212 1893 Y THE LOSS OF THE ' VICTORIA ' AND THE NEW PROGRAMME OF SHIPBUILDING Letters to the ' Times,' July 7 and December 2\), 1893 ' Disarlvan- tage of very large ships The ' Army ami Navy Journal' on tlie 'Grosser Kurfiirst ' disaster The loss of the ' Victoria ' raises many questions. The personal responsibilities of those concerned will form the subject of a judicial inquiry. On technical and adminis- trative points it is possible to pronounce judgment with- out waiting for further information. The stranding of the ' Howe ' and the foundering of the ' Victoria ' must confirm the doubts of those who have accepted with hesitation the steady advance in dimensions of our recent warships. When a disaster such as we have recently experienced occurs, the same lesson is always brought home to us. In its number of June 8, 1878, the ' Army and Navy Journal,' of New York, com- menting on the loss of the ' Grosser Kurfiirst ' iu the English Channel the previous week, observed : — ' Henceforth, instead of trying to build enormous, unwieldy craft, whose only merit is thickness of armour, greater attention must be paid to speed and mobility. If, with all efforts to avoid an impending collision, the result of ramming this great ironclad was instantaneous ruin, the same feat can be performed with equal ease ' These letters were not received in time to be included in vol. i.of 'Naval Papers,' to which they more properly belong. — Ed. 1893 THE NEW PROGRAMME OF SHIPBUILDING- 21B intentionally in battle. Thickness of armour only pro- vides against one of the dangers to which a warship is liable, and the one which is steadily decreasing in rela- tive importance — namely, attack by guns. The ram must hereafter play an important part in naval warfare.' In the construction of battleships of vast dimensions Italy has led the way. The policy pursued has not commanded unanimous approval. It has been con- demned by Admiral Acton, a former Minister of Marine, and by Admiral Racchia, who now holds that office. Italy has at length abandoned the construction of mon- present ster ironclads. The new battleship, ' Admiral San Bon,' poucy is of 9,800 tons displacement. In France the Administration has, with reluctance, France followed us in a great and rapid increase of dimensions. Kaval officers and constructors and M. Weyl, the most active of contemporary writers on professional subjects, have been strong advocates for moderate displacements. In the United States the first three ships of the new United programme ranged from 4,000 to 8,000 tons. The argu- ments for increasing numbers by insisting on some limits of dimensions and cost, as against the policy of building fewer ships of greater individual power, were admirably put together in a paper issued from the Naval Depart- ment at Washington in 1891 : — ' The process of reaching perfection is an experi- '^iew of mental one, and is accompanied by many mistakes. The Depart- , , p . ,11- 1 "1®°* ^* lack or important naval battles in recent years stands Washinaion in marked contrast to the desperate efibrts of European Powers to equip extraordinary vessels, designed to com- bine the invulnerable and the irresistible. To the rarity of great sea fights may be indirectly attributed, the superabundance of types. A war between first-class naval Powers would doubtless demonstrate that the 214 THE LOSS OF THE 'VICTORIA' AND 1893 Dimensions of l)iittle- shiiis 1 mill line Lord Arai- ?tiong on the ilisad- vantages of ainiom-ed Vessels elaborate schemes of fleet tactics, which have been the theme of many essays by naval officers, have been chiefly A'aluable as a mental exercise ; and that, although much importance may attach to a skilful disposition of forces in the beginning of an engagement, yet, in view of the rapidity with which vessels would be disabled by the tremendous means of offence antagonised, and the in- ability to see or obey signals amid the confusion and obstructing smoke, it is evident that such an engagement must presently become a pell-mell scrimmage. Such a war, or one such battle, would prove what has long been the apprehension of intelligent officers, that the warship of our day has become far too complicated for the people who may be called upon to work her, and that a balance of advantage, unsuspected by many, rests with that vessel which has comparative simplicity.' Taking the armoured ships built andbuixling for the leading naval Powers we find a large majority, especially in foreign countries, of less than 11,000 tons. Over 11,000 tons England has ten ships, France six, Italy three, Russia one, and the United States one — a total of 21. Under 11,000 tons England has two ships, France four, Germany nine, Russia eight, and the United States six — a total of 29. While, we have witnessed a steady growth of dis- placement in British ships built for the line-of-battle, the policy has been disapproved by many capable experts. In his paper, published in the ' Nineteenth Century ' for May, 1889, Lord Armstrong wrote as follows : — 'Although I am ready to commend the designs for the new first-class battleships, my distrust of the efficacy of all vessels of the armoured class in relation to their cost remains unchanged. All the advantage they possess in point of defence is a partial and imperfect protection 1893 THE NEW PROGRAMME OF SHIPBUILDINCx 215 against artillery fire. As regards rams and torpedoes, they are as vulnerable as ships without armour at all, and they are as liable to perish by the perils of the sea as any other kind of warship, while their cost is so great that the loss of any one of them from any cause amounts to a national calamity. Mr. White, in his paper on these designs, refers to what he calls the "too many eggs in one basket " argument ; but he wisely adds that he leaves that ai'gument to be dealt with by the Board of Admiralty, who are responsible on matters of policy.' The fatal power of the ram has been shown on many Torpedo occasions. In circumstances favourable to the use of the aaugOTous to weapon the torpedo is not less deadly. To go forth to eeet'^'^'^'"' meet the enemy and to blockade him in his own ports, to take at once the offensive, has been proclaimed the proper system of defence for the Power which claims to comma.nd the sea. The position of a fleet of ironclads off a blockaded port full of torpedo boats on a dark night or in thick weather must be critical in the extreme. Admiral Hobart, who had practical experience in the Black Sea, and Admiral Aube were strong on this point. The destruction of the ' Blanco Encalada ' is the most recent illustration of the power of the torpedo. ' Never,, perhaps,' says the ' Engineer,' ' was so signal a victory more cheaply gained. The torpedo is a weapon of im- mense possibilities.' In considering what should be the displacement of increase of our modern ships the experience of the hard naval in ow warT^ struggles of the past, though fought in wooden ships and under sail, will not be uninstructive. Admiral Colomb has given us a list of the ships in commission in 1796 and in 1813. In 1796 the ships in commission with 80 guns and over numbered 27, those of 74 guns 54. In 1813 we had in commission only 14 ships of over 80 216 THE LOSS OF THE 'VICTORIA' AND 1893 15 ii; sliips slioulii luiye atteuilaiit satellites Proportion of rams and ti)rpedo vessels to each battle- ship guns, while those of 74 guns had increased in numher to 85. In order to maintain fighting efficiency, while impos- ing a closer resti'iction upon dimensions, we must pro- ceed upon the principle laid down by the late Sir Spencer Robinson. In his view ' no single ship alone could be adapted for naval warfare under the circumstances of the development of science and the means of destruction that now exist. Every ship must act in combination with other ships. She must be the unit round which other ships congregate. When we have got the ship and her satellites in attendance upon her of the right size, sort, and stamp, then we have got the one unit of force capable of doing its duty.' The ' E-arfleur' and ' Centurion ' may be accepted as the type for the line-of-battle. Around them should be grouped rams and torpedo vessels. ' I entirely disbelieve,' says Lord Armstrong, 'in the power of a battleship to prevent a surrounding force from closing upon her with ram and torpedo. The difficulty of hitting a rapidly advancing object, the range of which varies at every instant, is enormous, especially with heavy guns.' In the British Navy the 'Polyphemus' is the only ship specially designed for the use of the ram. Ships of this type should be multiplied. The armour should be stouter, the internal dispositions less complicated, the cost reduced. The policy here recommended cannot be carried out by halting measures. We must have at least two rams and two to four torpedo vessels for each line- of-battle ship. It is with sincere reluctance that I trouble you at this juncture with any observations. Sorrow for the loss of Sir George Tryon and the brave men under his com- mand is fhe feeling uppermost with all. I write because 1893 THE NEW PROGRAMME OF SHIPBUILDINCr 217 public attention has been drawn by the recent lament- able disaster to a difficult yet most important problem. 2-1 Park Lane, W., July 7. Having undertaken a public duty requiring an ab- sence of some months in India, it has not been possible for me to co-operate in pressing the popular demand for an inci'ease of the Navy. While it is satisfactory to know that the necessity for a new proajramme of ship A new ship "^ . . programmo building has been accepted, the discussion cannot be necessary considered as closed until a decision has been announced with reference to the amount of expenditure and the types of ships to be proposed by the Government. Dealing first with expenditure, the standard laid down by the late Administration and approved by Par- liament cannot safely be lowered. We must make such a provision as will insure that our rate of progress in shipbuilding shall be at least equal to the combined should keep efforts of France and Russia. To keep pace with those building- PoAvers we cannot spend a less sum than has been recom- and Russia mended by Mr. Forwood and Lord Charles Beresford. This involves an outlay of not less than five to six mil- lions a year for the next four or five yeai's. In the new programme of shipbuilding it should be the first object to increase our strength in the line of battle. Lord Charles Beresford asks for eighteen ships, Number of (,,.,..,, ,. , -r-, TO . p battleships 01 which SIX miglit be of the ' Koyal bovereign type, of required 11,000 tons, and twelve of the 'Centurion' type, of 10,600 tons. The preponderance of authority, British and foreign, is against the concentration of our whole expen- diture on ships of the largest type. The most costly structures can neither be invulnerable in action nor secure against the many risks of the seas. 218 THE NEW PROGrvAJIilE OF SITIPBUILDIxNG 189; Une for small iron- cladi Our position ill the Mediter raueau Turning to cruisers, it is satisfactory to know that we are well provided with vessels suitable for service as auxiliaries to line-of-battle ships. For the protection of the mercantile marine ten additional large cruisers of the ' Blake ' type would not be too many. For the defence of our trade in distant seas our older ironclads would be effective if fitted with modern engines. I concur with Lord Charles Beresford as to the necessity for a new class of ironclad to form the inshore squadron. A fleet of heavy ships blockading an enemy's port must be protected from torpedo attack by swift armoured torpedo-catchers and rams. This point has been frequently urged in later numbers of the ' Naval Annual.' A few words in conclusion on the position in the Mediterranean. A visit of a Russian squadron called public attention to the relative inferiority of the British fleet to the French, and still more to the French supple- mented by their Russian allies. Any steps are to be deprecated which, while adding nothing to our effective strength in case of war, would certainly excite emulation in naval preparations. It should be our policy to make good any deficiency in the Mediteri-anean by an ample reinforcement of our Channel Squadron. The number of ironclads should be increased, and the ironclads should be accompanied by a due proportion of auxiliary cruisers. Government House, Calcutta, December 20. INDE AcTox, Admiral, 213 Adjusters of compasses : the exami- nation of, 185 ; no guarantee for their competency, 186 ; corre- spondence between the Royal Society and the Board of Trade in 1865, 186, 187 ; action of the Admiralty, 186 ; technical and scientific opinion, 187; ignorance of the effects of magnetism on ships and compasses, 188 ; in- suificient knowledge of adjusters, 189 ; consequent anxiety to cap- tains, 189 ; adjusters should pass a strict examination and be piroperly certified, 190 ; mode of conducting the proposed exami- nation, 190, 191 ; a formal de- claration should be required that the adjustment had been pro- perly done, 192 ; the necessity for a guarantee of competency, 193 ' Admiral San Bon,' the, 213 Admiralty, the, appointment by, of cadets from the ' Worcester ' and the ' Conway ' to the Eoyal Naval Reserve, 95, 101 ; and the mer- cantile marine, 150 ; communi- cation to Board of Trade on compass adjusters, 186, 187 Advance note, tlie : why it ought to be abolished, 50 ; opposition to its abolition, 50, 51, 56 ; what an advance note is, 50, 51 ; a sample. 51 ; the system condemned by the Royal Commission, 51, 52 ; how it works : evidence of Col. Hill and Mr. Munro, 52 ; of Mr. Lindsay, 53; of Mr. Duncan, 54; other authorities condemning it, 55 ; may sometimes benefit ship- wrecked seamen, 56 ; unneces- sary for married seamen, 57 ; its gradual abolition would be to the interest of the sailor, 57 ; the crimps the real opponents of its abolition, 58 Africa, French north coast of, well protected with lights, 200 Alderney breakwater, 207 Allan, Mr., 55 Allotment notes, 57 ' Alma,' the, wreck of, on the island of Jebel-Zuker, 202 'America,' the, 168 American naval college, Anna- polis, 145 American Seamen's Friend Society, case of cruelty at sea published by, 117 Anderson, Sir James, on the ad- justment of compasses, 188-190 Angove, Capt., 152, 201 Anti-scorbutics, need of, in the dietary of seamen, 83, 84 Armstrong, Lord, on the disad- vantages of armoured vessels. 214 ; on modern naval warfare, 216 220 IXDEX ' Army and Navy Journal ' of N ew York, on the loss of the ' Grosser Kurfiirst,' 212 Arnould, Mr., on constructive total loss, 110 Arrow, Sir Frederick, on legislation as to compass adjustment, 192 ; on channel lights, 197 ' Atalanta,' loss of the, 99 Aube, Admiral, 215 Azimuths, adjustment of compass by, 189,190 Balfoue, Mr., 55 Ballantine, Capt., 55, 71 Baltic, British trade in the, ad- versely affected by the inferiority of British shipmasters, 85-88 ' Barlleur,' the, cost, speed, and coal capacity, 158, 21(3 Beazeley, Mr., 55, 83, 196 Bells, uselessness of, as fog-signals, 196 Beresford, Lord Charles, 217, 218 Bernal, F. (British consul), on the robbery of seamen in the port of Havre, 119-121 Bersier, M., 16 Biles, Professor, on the cost of working steam and sailing ves- sels, 162 ; on the increase in number of large sailing vessels, 163; on the manning of ships, 164 ' Blanco Encalado,' the, destruction of, by a torpedo, 215 Board of Trade : right of survey of supposed unseaworthy ships, 14, 78, 79 ; powers increased as a result of Mr. PlimsoU's agita- tion, 21, 47, 48 ; inquiry by into causes of maritime disasters, 21 et scq. ; power to detain unsea- worthy ships, 23, 104 ; need of more professional advisers, 24, 25 ; responsibility of its local officers, 25 ; mode of conducting official inquiries, 26; rules as to adjustment of compasses, 39, 40 ; and the establishment of a Sea- men's Pension Fund, 72, 74 ; and seamen's dietary, 82-84 ; excellent results of its examina- tions tor masters and mates, 85, 88 ; and the determination of load lines, 104 ; transmission of seamen's wages by, 129 ; in- fluence on nautical education, 155, 156; and the adjustment of compasses of iron ships, 186, 187, 191, 192, 193 ; its policy as to coast signals, 197, 198 ; other references, 126, 141, 146, 166 Boarding-house keepers and ad- vance notes, 53, 57, 120 ; treat- ment of sailors when in port, 119, 120 Brassey, Mrs., 96 Breakwaters. See Harbour works ' Britannia,' the (Prince of Wales's yacht), 167, 168 ' Britannia ' training ship, 145 British and Foreign Sailors' So- ciety, 123 British Indian Company, 203 Brocklebank, Messrs., 162 Brown, Capt., 72 Buoys : the coasts of the United Kingdom better supplied than foreign coasts, 195 ; desirability of an international agreement in relation to, 210 Burns, Mr., 29 Burns, Mr. (Cunard Line), on Go- vernment supervision, 81 Butt, Mr. (afterwards Mr. Justice Butt), 106 Byron, quoted, 7, 18, 132 Cadets : appointment of, from the ' Worcester ' to the Royal Naval Eeserve and the Hooghly Pilot Service, 95 Californian wheat trade, advan- tages of sailing ships for, 5 Canada : law as to deck cargoes of timber, 34 ; efficiency of the coast fog- signals, 195 INDEX 221 Canadian Board of Trade, prohi- bition of deck-loading by, 11 Captains' certificates, 146 Card well. Lord, (J9 Cardwell, Mr., 14G Centreboard yachts, 168 ' Centurion,' the, 158, 216 ' Ceric,' the (White Star Line), 163 Chamberlain, Mr., 103 Channel lights, 194 ; efficiency of Trinity House lights, 194, 195 Charles XL, Christ's Hospital Nau- tical School founded by, 156 Clyde, the, deepening of the chan- nel up to Glasgo.w, 209 Coasting vessels, small, effect of compulsory survey on, 41 Cohen, Mr., on the anomalies of marine insurance, 60 Colbert, M., founder of the In valides de la Marine, 67 Collingwood, Lord, 100, 102, 154 Co'lisions, duty of masters in case of, 14 ; penalty for bad look-out suggested by Eoyal Commission, 42 Colomb, Admiral, 215 Colombo breakwater, 208 ' Colombo,' the (P. and 0. steamer), wreck of, on Minicoy, one of the Laccadives, 204 Colonial harbour works, 208 Compasses : Board of Trade rules as to adjustment of, 39, 40, 186 ; loss or damage from defective, not infrequent, 185, 189 ; difficulty of testing errors in our climate, 185; a uniform system of adjustment advocated by the Royal Society, 186 ; its views supported by scien- tific and expert opinion, 187, 188 ; effect of magnetism on, 188; ad- justment by azimuths, 189-190 ' Conway ' training ship : address to the cadets, 1)7; the dependence of our country on its maritime enterprise, 97 ; hardships of a sea life, 98 ; the ' Conway' course of training, 98; advantage of train- ing in sailing ships, 99 ; loss of the ' Eurydice ' and the ' Ata- lanta,' 99 ; necessity of practical experience, 100 ; Lords Nelson and Collingwood, 100 ; connec- tion between the Royal Navy and the mercantile marine, 100 ; the Royal Naval Reserve: cadets of the ' Conway ' promoted to, 101 ; the Royal Naval Artillery Volun- teers, 101 ; address on distribu- tion of prizes, 1894, 153-156 Cook, Captain (Cunard steamer 'Etruria'), 137 Cooking in the merchant service, inefficiency of, 84 Cotton trade, advantages of sailing- ships for, 5 Court of Appeal, Sir James Hope's suggestion for constitution of, 30 Court of Inquiry into maritime disasters, comjDosition of, 29 ; cost of, 29 Cowpei', quoted, 7 Crimps : advantages derived by from the advance note system, 54, 56 ; its evil influence on our seamen, 64 ; plundering by of seamen returning to port, 119 ; prevalence of crimps in the port of Havre, 120 Crowe, Sir J. R. (Consul-General at Christiania), on British and Norwegian shipmasters, 86 Cruelties at sea, 114 ; English and American consular reports on the subject, 115 ; Mr. Milne on the number of lesser brutalities, 115, 116 ; the ' Times ' on the helplessness of seamen, 116 ; Mr. Matthews's work, 'Belay- ing-pin Gospel,' 116 ; barbari- ties on board the ' Gatherer.' 117 ; ill-treatment and death of the boy Limborg on board the 'J. WiUiams,' 117-119; suggestions for the protection of seamen, 122, 123 ; co-operation 222 INDEX of the better class of officers in efforts for the suppression of cruelty, 124 D/"Ei>ALus shoal light, 201 Dana's ' Two Years Before the Mast,' cited, 115 'Daring,' the (torpedo-boat de- stroyer), ICO Deck loading : many losses due to, 11 ; prohibition of by Canadian Board of Trade, 11 ; Mr. Plini- soU's demand for prohibition of, 33; Canadian law as to timber cargoes, 34 ; recommendations of the Eoyal Commissions of 1839 and 1843, 35 ; the Act of 1840, 35 ; systematic evasions of : its repeal, 36 ; action of the Board of Trade, 36, 37 ; carriage of machinery on deck, 36 ; of less importance on steam- ships, 37 ; Mr. Plimsoll's pro- posal for special licenses, 37 Dennian, Admiral, 68 Denny & Thompson, Messrs., 163 ' Devastation,' the, exceptionally low freeboard of, 32 Devitt & Moore, Messrs., 155 Diet of seamen : improvement in, 14 ; delay in publication of departmental reports, 82 ; fluc- tuation of scurvy in the Navy, 82 ; food insufficient : anti- scorbutics required, 83 ; ship- owners should be held respon- sible for, 84 ; low ebb of the art of cooking, 84 ; the sujjply of fresh water, 84 Dover pier, 207 Doyle, Mr. (Consulat Pernambuco), on the officers of British mer- chant vessels, 86 Drapers' Company, revival of the Greenwich Nautical ydiool by, 156 ' Dreadnought ' Hospital, scurvy cases in, 82, 83 Dunbar, Mr., 73 Duncan, Mr. (Glasgow Shipping Master), on the system of advance notes, 54 Edinburgh, Duke of, appointed to the command of the Eoyal Naval Eeserve, 101 Education. See Nautical educa- tion EUenborough, Lord, on a compul- sory fund for seamen's pensions, 73 ; on masters of merchant vessels, 85 'Etruria,' the, 137 ' Eurydice,' loss of the, 99 Evans, Capt., 187, 188, 190, 191 'Faraday,' the, 107 Parrer, Mr., 14 ; his evidence before the Eoyal Commission on Unseaworthy 'Ships, 28, 30, 62, 78 ; on the difficulties of marine surveyors, 39 Farrer, Sir Thomas, on marine insurance, 105, 106 ' Ferret,' the (torpedo-boat), 160 Finisterre, Cane, lighthouse, 200 Finland, Gulf' of, lighting of, 210 Finlayson, Mr., on the amount of pensions to seamen feasible under a compulsory system, 74, 75 Firemen, wages of, 128 Fog-horn at Dungeness, distance at which it can be heard, 196 Fog signals : need of increased number on our coasts, 194 ; the American and Canadian coasts better protected than our own, 195, 196, 197, 210; advantage of powerful whistles or trumpets and guns, 195, 196 ; gongs and bells comparatively useless, 196 ; fog-horns, 196 ; cost of esta- blishing and working guns, 196 ; provision of to light-vessels, 197 Forrest, Mr., 211 Forwood, Mr., 55, 217 INDEX 22B France : shipping engaged in foreign trade in 1871. 2; pro- portion of steam tonnage, 2 ; value of British trade with in 1871, 3; the Invalides de la Marine, 67 ; how the fund main- tained and administered, 07 ; system of instruction for officers of the merchant service, 88 ; percentage of wrecks of sailing vessels in 1891-93, 166; the coast lighthouse system, 197, 199 ; recent additions to the Navy, 213, 214 Freeboard, 31 ; difficulty of apply- ing a rule to steam colliers, 32 Fresh water, the supply of, 84 Fry, Mr. (President of Canadian Board of Trade), on deck loads and overloading, 11, 12 Galita, the island of, 200, 201 'Garonne,' the (Orient Line), wreck of, 203 ' Gatherer,' barbarities on board the, 117 General Shipowners' Association, 203 Germany, Emperor of, his yacht ' Meteor,' 167 Germany : value of British trade with in 1871, 3 ; a knowledge of French and English required of Prussian merchant officers, 88 ; • manning of ships contrasted withBritish, 164 ; jDercentage of wrecks, 165,166; tonnage and crews of sailing ships leaving the port of Liverpool in 1892, 183, 184 ; battleships construct- ing, 214 Gibson, Milner, quoted, 48 Giles, Mr. (President of Institution of Civil Engineers), 211 ' Gothic,' the (White Star Line), speed, cargo capacity, &c., 163 Gould, Mr. (Secretary of Legation at Stockholm), on the British shipping trade with the Baltic, 87, 88 Gould, Mr. (owner of the yacht ' Vigilant '), 168 Government certificates, objection to the system, 79, 80 Grain trade: regulations at Mel- bourne as to loading, 12 ; neces- sity of preventing cargo shifting, 12 Graves, Mr., on a compulsory Pension Fund for seamen, 71 Gray, Mr., his evidence before the Eoyal Commission on unsea- worthy ships, 30, 78, 79 ; on loss of life by wreck and casu- alty at sea, 126 ; on the classifi- cation of masters and mates, 146 ' Great Eastern,' the, 137, 190 Green, Mr., 73 Greenwich Nautical School, 156 ' Grosser Kurfiirst,' loss of the, 212 Guardafui, Cape, 202-204 Guns as fog-signals, cost of esta- blishing and working, 196 Halpin, Capt., 152 Hamel, Mr. (solicitor to the Board of Customs), his suggestions to the Eoyal Commission on un- seaworthy ships, 28, 29 ' Harbinger,' the, training of mid- shipmen in, 155 Harbour works, 206 ; breakwaters : Plymouth, Portland, Holyhead, Dover, and Alderney, 207 ; Peterhead, Kingstown, Tyne- mouth, the colonies, 20S; dredging at the mouths of the Tyne, the Tees, and the Clyde, 209 ; improvement of the river Logan to Belfast, 209 ; deepen- ing the bar of the Mersey, 209 Harcourt, Vernon, 211 Harper, Mr. (secretary to Salvage Association at Lloyd's), on in- surance of ships, 42, 108 224 INDEX Hawthorne, Nathaniel (United States Consul), on cruelty at sea, 115 Herroo, Mr., on sailing ships as an investment, 141 ' Hesperus,' the, training of mid- shipmen in, 155 Hill, Colonel (President of the Bristol Chamber of Commerce), on advance notes, 52 Hobart, Admiral, 215 HoUanis, Mr., 106 Holland : shipping engaged in foreign trade in 1871. 2; the Seamen's Hope, charitable in- stitution, 68 Holyhead breakwater, 207 ' Hood,' the, cost of, 158 Hooghly Pilot Service, appoint- ment of cadets from the ' Wor- cester ' to the, 95 Hope, Sir James, his suggestion for a court of appeal, 30 ' Hornet,' the (torpedo-boat de- stroyer), 160 ' Howe,' stranding of the, 212 India, value of British trade with in 1871, 3; tonnage employed in, 4 Institute of Naval Architects, 40, 185, 192 Institution of Civil Engineers, 211 Insurance : danger of excessive facility for, 13 ; limitation of, 42 ; tendency of unlimited insurance to make shijDowners or masters negligent, 42 ; shipowner should not gain by loss of ship, 43 ; gain to owner by full insurance when ship lost, 48 ; constructive total loss, 43, 110 ; partial dam- age, 44 ; objections to valued policies, 44, 61, 107 ; points un- fair to shipowners, 44 ; recom- mendations of the Royal Com- mission, 44-47 ; the law of, 45, 46, 64, 105 ; an international code desirable, 46 ; evils of the present system, 60 ; case of the ' Sir Wihiam Eyre,' 60 ; anomalies of, 61 ; the question of freight, 62 ; open policies, 62, 108 ; voy- age and time policies, 63, 108, 109 ; relations of shipowner and underwriter, 63 ; should be simply a contract of indemnity, 65 ; effect of on safety of life and pro- perty at sea, 105, 106 ; prevalence of over-insurance, 106 ; example of, 108 ; co-operation of under- writers necessary. 111 ; hasty alterations in the law undesirable, 111 ; value of marine insurance, 112 ; aim of further legislation, 112 ; advantages of reasonable reform, 113 Ireland, harbour works in, 208, 209 Iron ships : navigation of, 186 ; adjustment of compasses before sailing, 186 ; effects of magnet- ism, 188, 189 ; the greater number of casualties due to errors of compass, 189 Ismay, Mr., 55 Italy: the Scuola di San Marco, Venice, a system of pensions for seamen, 68; vast dimensions. of recent battleships, 213, 214 Jebel-Zukek, the island of, 201 ; wreck of the ' Alma ' and the 'Penguin ' on, 202 Jervis, Admiral, 154 Jewell, Gray, M.D. (United States Consul), Iris work, ' Among our Sailors,' 115 Judkins, Capt., 55 ' J. Williams,' ill-treatment and death of a boy on board the, 117-119 ' Kensington,' the, 163 Kingstown breakwaters, 208 Kurrachee harbour, 208 INDEX 225 Labouchere, Mr., 74 Laird, Messrs., torpedo-boat, the ' Ferret,' built by, IGO, IGl Lamport, Mr., on marine insurance, Gl, 62, 106 Leech, Dr., 82 Lewis, Sir Cornowall, 130 Lighthouses : efficiency of the French coast system, 197, 199 ; need of concerted action for lighting the coasts of barbarous countries, 199 ; the coasts of Spain, 200 ; lights of Capes Finisterre and Villano, 200 ; paucity of Hghts on the coast of Tunis, 200 ; the island of Galita, 200; lighting of the Eed Sea, 201, 202 ; lights proposed on Eas-Hafoon and Cape Guardafui by the Egyptian Government, 20.3 ; lighting of Socotra and the Laccadives, 204 ; lighthouse erected on Cape Spartel by the Sultan of Morocco, 204; lighting of the Gulf of Finland, 210. See also Channel lights Lighthouses, Koyal Commission on, of 1861, report cited, 195, 197, 198 Lightships, stability of those placed on our coasts, 195 Lindsay, Mr., on the system of advance notes, 53 : on a Pension Fund for seamen, 71, 73, 75 ; on the influence of the character of the officers on crews, 94 Liverpool Committee of Inquiry into the Condition of our Mer- chant Seamen, eport of cited, 55, 56 .57 Liverpool Committee of Ship- owners, 70, 73 Liverpool Mercantile Marine Asso- ciation, 71 LiverpoolNautical College, 143-145 Liverpool Seamen's Protective Society, 72 Liverpool Shipowners' Association, 187 Liverpool : tonnage and crews of sailing vessels leaving the port of, 169-184 Lloyd's, excessive number of pri- vate underwriters at, 43 ; on the adjustment of compasses, 187 Load lines, action of the lioard of Trade, 104 Loading, difficulty of fixing a uni- form rule for, 31, 32. See also Deck loading Logan, the, improvement of the channel, 209 ' Lord Brassey,' the, 139 Loss of life at sea, statistics of, 8-10, 103, 126; from overloading, 12; relation of insurance to, lOf, 107 ; in sailing ships, 141 ; rela- tion of manning of ships to, 164 Loss of Life at Sea, Royal Com- mission on, report cited, 144 Lubbock, Sir John, 108 Machinery, carriage of on deck, 36 Maclver, Mr., 55 ; on over-insur- ance, 106 Madras breakwater, 208 Magnetism, effects of on iron ships and on compasses, 188, 189 Mahan, Capt., 154 Manning of ships : in the Navy, 147 ; British and foreign contrasted, 164 ; tonnage and crews of sailing ships leaving the port of Liver- pool, 169-184 ; connection be- tween manning and safety of life and property, 164 ; under- manning, 211 Manning of the Navy, Royal Com- mission on, report cited, 68, 69, 71, 74, 124 Marine surveyors, difficulties of, 39 ; responsibility of, 80 Maritime Congress of 1893, 206- 211 Mark, Mr. (Consul at Marseilles), on the officers of our merchant ships, 8 , 87 Matthews, Mr. (secretary of the 226 INDEX British and Foreign Sailors' Society), 114, 119 ; his book, •Belayinfj-pin Gospel,' 116; case of cruel treatment at sea quoted hy, 117 ; suggestions by, for the protection of seamen, 122, 12iJ Mediterranean, the, hghting of the coasts of, 200 ' Medway ' training ship, 135, 144 ' Meikong,' the, wreck of, 203 Mercantile marine, the, 1 ; increase in gross and steam tonnage, be- tween 1838 and 1871, 2 ; seamen employed, and percentage of foreigne 2 ; principal foreign trades in which employed, 2 ; steam replacing sail in traffic with the United States, 3 ; de- velopment of trade with British ■India, 4 ; influence of the Suez Canal, 4 ; advantages of sailing vessels for cotton and Califor- nian wheat trades, 5 ; statistics of wrtcks and loss of life, 8-10, 126, 165. 166 ; various causes of losses, 10 ; deck loading, 11 ; overloading, 12 ; unseaworthy ships, 12, 14, 27, 28, 40, 80 ; ineffi- cient equipment, 12 ; facility for insuring, 13 ; penalty for inca- pacity of masters insufficient, 13 ; the Eoyal Commission on Unsea- worthy Ships, 13. 14, 26 et seq. ; survey by Boaid of Trade, 14 ; alleged deterioration of seamen, 15 ; crews smaller and passages quicker, 15 ; Mr. Plimsolls ap- peal to the nation, 20 ; adoption of measures to secure greater safety of life at sea, 23 et seq. ; official inquiries into losses at sea. 26 ; freeboard, 31 ; deck loading. 33-37 ; surveying, 38-41, 77-80 ; insurance, 42-47, 60-65, 103-113 ; excessive Government supervision detrimental to enter- prise, 48, 81 ; the Merchant Shipping Bill of 1876. 77 ; diet of seamen, 82 (6xe Diet); officers of, 85 {see ficers) ; marvellous increase of t jnnage. 98 ; its con- nection with the Koyal Navy, 100 ; instances of cruel treat- ment of seamen by officers, 114-121 ; constant tendency to increase size of ships, 130 ; our naval power founded on the, 134 ; relations of the Admiralty with, 150; good services of, 151; professional institutions for, 151, 152 ; recent progress in shipbuild- ing, 161 ; rapid advance in ton- nage, 161, 163; advantages of large displacement, 162, 165; the White Star liner ' Gothic,' 162, 163 ; ships constructed for the American trade, 163 ; manning of ships : comparison with those of other nationalities, 164, 169- 184 ; percentage of wrecks, British and foreign, contrasted, 165, 166 ; diminution of losses, 166 ; State subsidies, 167 ; per- centage of British and foreign losses by abandonment, founder- ing, and missing. 184 Merchant Seamen's 'Orphan Asy- lum, Snaresbrook, 87 Merchant Shipping Acts Amend- ment Bill, 1875, 50 Merchant Shipping Code (Mr. Shaw Lefevre's) of 1869, 36 Merchant Sh'pping. leg'slation on : the Bill of 1876, 77 ; tentative character of the Act of 1873, 77 ; conflicting evidence before the Eoyal Commission, 77 ; Govern- ment survey, 77, 78 ; complaint by seani?n of no practical value, 78 ; the Act of 1873 sufficient if vigorously administered, 79 ; ob- jections to Government certifi- cates, 79 ; the responsibility for unseaworthy ships, 80 ; good administration needed rather than more legislation, 80 Merse .', the, deepening of the bar, 209 INDEX 227 'Meteor,' the (Emperor of Ger- many's yacht), 1(J7 Methven, Capt., 144 Midshipmen, training of, in the ' Harbinger ' and the ' Hesperus,' 155 Milnes, Mr., on barbarities at sea, 115, 116 Minicoy (one of the Laccadives), ■svreck of the P. and 0. steamer ' Colombo ' on, 204 Missing vessels, loss of life in, 126, 184 Montreal, regulation as to loading grain at, 12 Morocco, the Sultan of, erection of an international lighthouse on Cape Spartel b\ , 204 Munro, Mr. (Chairman of the General Shipowners' Society of London), on advance notes, 52 Murray, Capt., 24, 25 Napiee, Sik Chaeles, on the officer- ing of the is aval Eeserve, 88 Nautical education : less costly than that for other professions, 134, 135 ; technical training afloat, 135; the apprenticeship system, 135 ; openine of the Liverpool Nautical College, 143 ; need of further jDrovision for, 143 ; limited facilities at present existing, 144 ; syllabus of the Liverpool College, 144, 145 ; examination standards, 145 ; masters' and captains' ceitili- cates, 146 ; training of officers, 154 ; education of midshipmen in the ' Hesperus ' and the ■ Har- binger,' 155 ; influence of the Board of Trade, 155, 156; assist- ance given by the State, 156 ; greater liberality evinced on the Continent, 156 Navy, manning of the, 147 Navy, the : recent progress in ship- building, 157 ; the Spencer pro- gramme, 157 ; great displacement of new battleships, 157,214 : the ' Bartleur,' the • Centurion,' and the ' Hood,' 158 : the cru-sers ' Powerful ' and ' Tarritde,' 159 ; the torpedo flotilla. 15.); dis- advantage of very large shirs, 212; proportion of ram=; and torpedo vessels to each '■'a*,Me- ship, 216 ; the expendilure on shipbuilding, 217 ; necessity of keeping pace with France • nd Kussia, 217 ; number o': bptt e- ships required, 217 ; cruisers, 218 ; use for small ironclads, 218 ; our naval position in the Mediterranean, 21S Navy, the, scurvy in, 82-84. (.SV-" Scurvv) Nelson, Lord, 101, 154 Normand, Messrs. (of Havre), 161 North American Provinces, value of British trade -^-ith in 1871. 3 Norway : shipping engaged in foreign trade in 1871, 'I ; euiploy- ment of old Englisn-built vessels in timber trade ot southern ports, 34 ; the export salt fish and oil trade, excellence of tJie vessels engaged in. 34 ; absence of super- vis. on over merchant shipping, 34 ; charitable institutions for seamen founded in tae principal ports, 67, 68 ; superior education of masters of mercnant vessels, 86, 87 ; the system of examina- tion for officers, 88 ; manning of sbips contrasted witJi ochercoun- tries, 164 ; percentage of wrecKS ^1876-92), 165, 166; tonnage and crews of sailing vesseis leading the port ot Liverpool la 1892, 177-162 O'DowD, Mr., his suggestions to the Eoydl Commission on Un- seaworthy Snips, 2d, 29, 51, 55 Officers of the merchant service, 85 ; Board of Trade examina- tions, ^b ; defects of the inferior 228 INJjEX class of shipmasters, 85, 87 ; need of a higher standard of pro- fessional knowledge, 8(i ; com- parison of British and Norwegian shipmasters, 86, 87 ; insuffi- ciency of masters' salaries, 87 ; a knowledge of languages desir- able, 88 ; foreign sj^stems of in- struction and examination, 88 ; proposal to open the Greenwich Naval Univerir-ity to the mer- chant service, 88 ; influence of example of on crews, 98, 94 ; in- stances of cruel treatment of seamen by, 114-121 ; co-ojjera- tion of the better class in efforts for the suppression of cruelty, 124 ; qualities required in, 154 ; education and training, 154 Officers of the Eeserve, 150 Old vessels, disposal of, 34 Open policy of insurance : the question of freight, 62 ; the law with regard to, 108 Overloading : losses from, 12 ; pre- valence of in some English ports, 33 ; difficulty of framing regula- tions for the prevention of, 37. See also Deck loading Peirce, Capt. (superintendent of the Sailors' Home, London), on a compulsory Pension Fund for seamen, 71 ' Penguin,' the, wreck of, 202 Peninsular and Oriental Comnany, 129, 201 ; emoluments of cap- tains, 136 Pensions to Seamen, Eoyal Com- mission on, 66, (i9, 75, 85, 124 Peterhead breakwater, 208 PhilJimore, Admiral, on the Eoyal Navnl Eeserve and Eoyal Naval Artillery Volunteers, 101 PI msoU, Mr., his efforts for the protection of our seamen, 11, 15, 19, 59, 67, 103, 126, 141; the case overstated, 20 ; benefits re- sulting from the agitation, 21 et seq. ; on the reluctance of mas- ters and seamen to refuse service in unseaworthy vessels, 27 ; opinion of the Eoyal Commission opposed to his demand for periodical survey, 30 ; his pro- posals as to depth of immersion, 32 ; suggestion for the pro- hibition of deck loading, 33 ; proposal for special licenses for deck loads, 37 ; and for the survey of every British ship, 38, 39, 77, 78 ; his action iDroductive of important results, 47 Plymouth breakwater, 207 ' Polyphemus,' the, 216 ' Poonah,' the (P. and 0. steamer), 201 Portland breakwater, 207 ' Powerful,' the, 159 Prince Consort, the, 69 ' Prinz Hendrik,' the (Dutch stea- mer), wreck of, 201 Eacchia, Admiral, 213 Eams, fatal power of, 212, 215 ; proportion of, to each battleship, 216 Bed Sea, the lighting of, 201 Eeed, E. J., and freeboard legisla- tion, 32 ; on government inspec- tion, 80 ; Load-line Committee, 104 Ee-registration, restrictions on, 14 Eobeits, Capt., 203 Eobinson, Sir Spencer, 216 Eoe, Dr. (surgeon to Seamen's Hospital, Callao), his report on the dietary of merchant seamen cited, 83 Eoyal Naval Artillery Volunteers, 101 Eoyal Naval Eeserve : effect of a Pension Fund on. 71, 75 ; Sir Charles Napier on the obtaining of ofKcers for, 88 ; appointment of cadets from the ' Worcester ' and the ' Conway ' to the, 95, 101 ; appointment of the Prince INDEX 229 of Wales as captain, 95 ; the Duke of Edinburgh appointed to the command, 101 ; desirabiHty of increase in, 127 ; annual dinner, 1894, 148 ; necessity of, 149 ; close connection with the Navy desirable, 149 ; selection and recompense of officers, 150 Eoyal Naval University, Green- wich, proposal to extend its advantages to officers of the Eeserve, 88, 89 Eoyal Society, the, on compass adjustment, 186, 187, 191 Eundell, Mr., 187, 191, 192 'Eurik,' the (Eussian cruiser), 159 Eussia : value of British trade with in 1871, 3 ; a knowledge of French and English required of officers of merchant vessels, 88; dimensions of the 'Eurik,' cruiser, 159 ; battleships of large displacement constructing, 214 Eyder, Admiral, 82, 83 Sailing ships : advantages of in the cotton and Californian wheat trades, 5 ; superiority of for training, 6, 91, 99, 154 ; need of unceasing vigilance, 133 ; pre- ferable in some respects to steamships, 139 ; wind a cheap form of power, 140, 162 ; the time question, 140; the tonnage maintains a steady average, 140 ; improved types now built, 141 ; loss of life in, 141 ; cost of working, compared with that of steamers, 162, 163 ; economy of large displacement, 163 ; man- ning of, 164 ; percentage of wrecks, 165, 166, 184 ; tonnage and crews of ships leaving the port of Liverpool, 169-184 ; ad- vantages of, for long voyages, 210 St. George's Club, 152 ' Satanita,' the, 167 Scurvy, in the Navy, 82 ; its fluc- tuations, 82, 83 ; inadequacy of the ordinary diet to prevent, 83 ; effective anti-scorbutics, 83, 84 Sea, the, as a profession, 132 ; unceasing care and vigilance demanded, 132, 133 ; its practi- cal utility, 133, 153 ; the mer- cantile marine the foundation of our naval greatness, 134 ; less costly than other professions, 134 ; advantages of the educa- tion in the training ships, 135 ; technical training afloat, 135 ; the system of apprenticeship, 135 ; emoluments of captains in the merchant service, 136 ; op- portunities of entering upon a commercial career, 136 ; draw- backs of a sea life, 137 ; the risk to life, 137 ; age up to which it may be followed, 137 ; rewards in the merchant service, 155. S'>e also under ' Conway ' and ' Worcester ' Seamen : numbers employed in 1867, 1869, and 1871, 2; dan- gers and hardships of their calling, 8-10, 98 ; improvement in food and accommodation, 14 ; alleged deterioration of, 15 ; moral and social conditions of, 16-18; Mr. Plimsoll's efforts in their behalf, 19 ; public sym- pathy aroused, 20 ; result of the agitation : remedial legislation, 21 et scq. ; reluctance of to refuse service in unseaworthy vessels, 27 ; should share responsibility with owners for losses, 28 ; and advance notes, 50-59 ; treatment by crimps and boarding-house keepers, 54-57, 119, 120; pro- posed Pension Fund for, 66, 123 ; the question of compulsory con- tributions, 70 ; views of the seamen thereon, 72 ; power of complaint by, of no practical value, 78 ; dietary of, 82 (se6 Diet of seamen) ; instances of 230 INDEX cruel treatment of at sea, 114- 121 ; temptations on landing after a long voyage, 121 ; their generous nature and improvi- dence, 122 ; the Cardiff con- ference (1889), 125; wages of, 127-129 ; provision for old age, 128, 129 ; combination necessary for their protection, 130 ; duty of leaders of Seamen and Fire- men's Union, 131 Seamen, foreign : percentage of in British merchant ships in 1867, 1869, and 1871, 2 Seamen and Firemen's Union, 130, 131 Seamen's Hospital, Callao, 82, 83 Seamen's Pension Fund : iDroposal to re-establish, 66 ; frequently recommended by Koyal Com- missions and Parliamentary Committees, 66 ; foreign systems of pension, 67, 68 ; the Pension Fund of 1747, 68, 69 ; advocates of a compulsory self-supporting fund, 69 ; should be adminis- tered by Government, 70, 74 ; the question of compulsory con- tributions, 71 ; views of the seamen, 72 ; how the fund should be raised and supple- mented, 72, 123 ; amount of pensions feasible, 74 ; allowance to seceders, 75 ; absence of pro- posals as to widows, 75 ; effect of fund on Naval Eeserve, 75 Shaw Lefevre, his Merchant Ship- ping Code of 1869, 36 ; on marine insurance, 109-111 Shipbuilding (British), recent pro- gress of, 157 et seq. See Mer- cantile marine and Navy Shipmasters : penalty for inca- pacity and carelessness insuffi- cient, 13, 103 ; to report draught of water to Board of Trade before sailing, 14 ; duty of in case of collision, 14; reluctance of to refuse service in unsea- worthy vessels, 27 ; should share responsibility with owners for losses, 28 ; examination of, 85 ; low standard of j)rofessional knowledge, 86-88 ; insufficient salaries of, 89 ; classification of, 146 ; certificates, 146. See also under Officers Shipowners : liability of, for send- ing unseaworthy ships to sea, 27 ; responsibility of, 40, 80, 104 ; temptation offered to by unlimited insurance, 42, 43. 106 ; and the law of insurance, 42-47, 60-65, 105, 113 ; should be held responsible for the supply of anti-scorbutics, 84 ; partiality of juries to. 111 Ships in ballast, danger of under- loading, 33 ' Sir William Eyre,' the, a typical case of the anomalies of marine insurance, 60 Smith, Archibald, 191 Smith, Capt., 96 Socotra, the lighting of. 204 Somerset, Duke of, 55, 78, 105 ' Southwark,' the, 163 Spain, lighting of the coast, 200 Spartel, Cape, erection of an inter- national lighthouse on, 204 Squarey, Mr., 61, 106 State subsidies to merchant steamers, 146, 167 Steam colliers, difficulty of apply- ing rules as to freeboard to, 32 Steamships, tonnage of British mercantile in 1838, 1860, 1869, and 1871, 2 ; number of wrecks on coasts of the United King- dom in 1871, 10 ; Government subsidies to, 146, 167 Stevenson, Mr., 61 Suez Canal : influence of on ocean traffic, 4 ; British vessels pass- ing through in 1878, 199 Surveying : right of Board of Trade to survey supposed unseaworthy ships, 14 ; Mr. PlimsoU's pro- INDEX 231 posals, their impracticability, 38, ;J9 ; clitliculties of surveyors, 39 ; opposition to Government sur- vey, 40, 77, 78 ; effect of com- pulsory survey on small coasting vessels, 41 Sweden : proportion of British tonnage employed in the direct trade with, 87 ; superior educa- tion of merchant shipmasters, 87 ; the system of examination for officers, 88 ; manning of ships contrasted with other countries, 164 ; percentage of wrecks (1876- 92), 165, 166 ; tonnage and crews of sailing vessels leaving the port of Liverpool in 1892, 177- 182 Swimming, value of the art to seamen, 92 Symonds, Capt., on navigation in the lied Sea, 202 Table Bay breakwater, 208 Tarleton, Sir Walter, 101 Tees, the, deepening the channel of, 209 ' Terrible,' the, 159 ' Teutonic,' the, 136 ' The Brothers ' rocks, wreck of the ' Prinz Hendrik ' on, 201 Thorneycroft, Messrs., 160 Timber trade : danger of deck loads, 11, 33 ; unseaworthy ships in, 12 ; need of precautions to prevent cargo shiiting, 12 ; em- ployment of old English-built vessels in trade of Norwegian southern ports, 34 ; Canadian law as to deck cargoes, 34 ; re- commendations of the Koyal Commissions of 1839 and 1843, 35 ; the Act of 1840, prohibiting deck loads between September 1 and May 1, 35 ; abolition of the differential duties on foreign timber, 35 ; evasions of the law, 30 ; repeal of the Act of 1840, 36 ; the Board of Trade and dock leading, 36, 37 Time policy of insurance, 63, 109 Torpedo-boat destroyers, 160 Torpedo boats, 159 ; dangerous to a blockading fleet, 215 ; propor- tion of, to each battleship, 216 Torquay Bay, wrecks in, on January 11, 1866, 9 Towson, Mr., 187 Toynbee, Capt., on the salaries of masters of merchant ships, 87 Training. See Nautical education Trinity House, efficiency of its lights and buoys, 194 Tryon, Sir George, 216 Tunis, paucity of lighthouses, 200 Twiss, Sir Travers, on inter- national lighthouses, 204. 205 Tyne, the, dredging operations at the mouth of, 209 Tynemouth breakwaters, 208 Unclassed ships, two kinds of, 79 Underwriters : excessive number of private, at Lloyd's, 43 ; interest of, in insurances for full value, 44 ; and the law of insurance, 45, 46, 60-64 ; and valued policies, 107 ; and over- insurance, 108 ; not liable to shippers of goods in case of voyage policies, 110 United States : shipping engaged in foreign trade in 1871, 2 ; proportion of steam tonnage, 2 ; value of British trade with the, in 1871, 3 ; the benefit fund and asylums for disabled seamen, 67 ; consular reports on cases of cruelty at sea, 115 ; the Naval College, Annapolis, 145 ; in- crease of the Navy during the war with the South, 147 ; per- centage of wrecks contrasted with other countries, 165, 166 ; supeiiority of the system of fog- signals, 195, 196, 197, 210 ; ad. ditions to the Navy, 213, 214 ; 232 I^DEX views of the Naval Department on the type of battleship, 'Al-k Unseaworthy ships : in the timber trade, 12 ; the Royal Commis- sion on, 13, 14, 2G, et seq. ; powers of the Board of Trade, 14, 23, 78, 79, 104 ; responsibihty of shipowners, masters, and sea- men, 27, 28, 40, 80 ; reluctance to refuse service in, 27 Unseaworthy Ships, Eoyal Com- mission (Duke of Somerset's) on, 13, 14, 26, et seq. ; opinion of adverse to Mr. Plimsoll's de- mand for periodical surveys, 30 ; report cited, 42-47, 50-55, 60, 62, 64, 70, 71, 77-79, 86, 103- 106, 111 ♦ Valktbie,' the, 167, 168 Valued policies : objections to, 44 ; an encouragement to the fraudu- lently disposed, 61 ; doctrine of the law on, 107 ' Victoria,' loss of the, 212 ' Victory,' the (Lord Nelson's ship), 100 ' Vigilant,' the, 168 Villano, Cape, lighthouse, 200 Voyage policy of insurance, 63, 108 Wages of seamen, 127-129 ; piece- work system possible in fish- eries and coasting voyages, 127 ; compared with artisans' and labourers', 128 Wales, the Prince of, caj^tain in the Eoyal Naval Eeserve, 95 ; his yacht 'Britannia,' 167, 168 Walton, Mr., 106 Ward, Mr. (Vice-Consul at Memel), on the officers of British mer- chant vessels, 86 Washington International Marine Conference, 126 Weyl, M., on the displacement of battleships, 213 White, Capt., on navigation in the Eed Sea, 202 White, John Samuel, builder of the ' turn-about ' type of boats for the Navy, 160 White, Mr., his paper on ' Naval Designs ' quoted, 215 Wigram, Mr., 80 Willes, Mr. Justice, on marine insurance, 61, 107, 111 Williamson, Mr., 55 Wilson, Mr., on advance notes, 58 Wodehouse, Mr. (Consul-General at Honolulu), 115 Wooden battleships (British) in 1796 and 1«13, 215 ' Worcester ' training ship : address to the cadets, 90 ; importance of the profession, 91 ; sijecial training required, 91 ; advan- tages of the ' Worcester ' course, 91 ; subjects taught, 92 ; value of the art of swimming, 92 ; the ' Worcester ' self-supporting, 93 ; employment of leisure time at sea, 93 ; influence of officers' example on crews, 93, 94 ; ap- pointment of cadets from, to the Royal Naval Reserve and the Hooghly Pi'ot Service, 95 ; popularity of the commander, 96 Wrecks, statistics of, 8, 126, 165 ; various causes of, 10 ; jsercentage of British and foreign contrasted, 165, 166, 184 Yachts and yachting, 167 ; the 'Meteor,' 167 ; matches between the ' Britannia,' the ' Va'kj'rie,' and the ' Satanita,' 167 ; the ' Vigilant,' 168 ; American and British designs, 168 ; the centre- board type, 168 Yarrow, Messrs., 160 Youncr, Mr. (Chairman of London Shipowners' Society), 73 S^'OttianoO' c S,' Co. 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