I 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 i 
 
• < 
 
 I 
 
 
GREECE 
 
 IN THE TIMES OF HOMER. 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE 
 
 LIFE, CUSTOMS, AND HABITS OF THE GREEKS 
 DURING THE HOMERIC PERIOD. 
 
 BY 
 
 T. T. TIMAYENIS, ""J 
 
 * ' 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ORDER OF THE ROYAL CROSS OF GREECE, 
 
 AND AUTHOR OF 
 
 “a history of GREECE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT,” ETC. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
 I, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. 
 
 1885. 
 
 ''JSTON COL.'.LC-f 
 HIU 
 
 . . ; 
 
Copyright, 1885, 
 
 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
 V 
 
 ' / / 
 
 131707 
 
THIS WORK IS DEDICATED 
 
 TO 
 
 JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER, 
 
 IN RECOGNITION 
 OF THE 
 
 GENEROUS SYMPATHY AND ASSISTANCE EXTENDED BY HIM TO 
 THE CAUSE OF EDUCATION, 
 
 AND 
 
 AS A TOKEN OF ADMIRATION 
 
 FOR THE MANY NOBLE QUALITIES THAT ADORN HIS PRIVATE LIFE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 k- 
 
 Repeated requests from readers of my “ His¬ 
 tory of Greece ” for a book on the Homeric 
 times, which, as a matter of necessity, were 
 briefly treated in the history, have induced me 
 to undertake the present work. There is, per¬ 
 haps, no page in the whole history of the Hel¬ 
 lenic race so interesting and instructive as the 
 Homeric age. An irresistible charm has always 
 drawn me to that period. When we consider 
 that centuries before Christ, when the rest of the 
 world was steeped in barbarism, the Hellenic peo¬ 
 ple enjoyed a civilization in many respects un¬ 
 surpassed to this day, that they transported large 
 armies across the sea, that they first of all found¬ 
 ed institutions which have elevated mankind, 
 that they produced a poet who alone is sufficient 
 to glorify a nation, we may well feel an interest 
 in investigating more fully such an age. 
 
 In the preparation of the present volume, I 
 have conscientiously examined nearly every book 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 —Greek, French, German, or English—written 
 on Homer. But my great teacher and guide has 
 been Homer himself, and I have not hesitated to 
 base my judgment upon the poems, as consti¬ 
 tuting the highest authority. This work is, of 
 course, not intended for specialists. My aim has 
 been to reach that vast class of intelligent read¬ 
 ers who have neither time nor inclination to 
 search the voluminous books which thus far have 
 appeared on the Homeric age, and which, as a 
 general thing, are written in too heavy and diffuse 
 a style. I have taken care to tell the story as 
 simply as possible, and to avoid all terms which 
 would be unintelligible to the average reader. 
 The entire Homeric life, from the birth of the 
 hero to his death, is unfolded in a single volume 
 of less than three hundred pages. 
 
 Scholars are wont to place the Germans at 
 the head of all commentators or expositors of 
 Homer and the Homeric age. This idolatry of 
 everything that springs on German soil is so 
 blind that the most absurd statement that might 
 be made by one of the savants of Gottingen or 
 of Berlin becomes at once a sort of axiom, and 
 alas for him who shall dare to offer a contrary 
 opinion! I am far from wishing to belittle the 
 almost Herculean labors of the Germans in the 
 field of Grecian literature. Their patience, re¬ 
 search, and investigation are much to be admired. 
 But I protest most emphatically against those 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 • • 
 Vll 
 
 who seek to ridicule American scholarship, tram¬ 
 mel American investigation in the field of classi¬ 
 cal literature, and scoff at everything that may 
 be antagonistic to Teutonic ideas. 
 
 Of all the books that have yet appeared on 
 Homer, the best, in my opinion, has been written 
 by a modern Greek, Mr. Kleon R. Rangabd. His 
 work, “'O KA&' OMHPON OIEJAKOS BIOS;* 
 has already rendered the name of the author 
 immortal; and not only do I acknowledge my 
 obligations to the work of Mr. Rangabe, but I 
 frankly confess that during the preparation of the 
 present work the KAQ' OMHPON OIKJAKOS 
 BIOS ” has never left my side (see note at the 
 end of the book). 
 
 I have used Bryant’s translation—the prince 
 of the translators of Homer—in quoting pas¬ 
 sages from the poet. 
 
 T. T, Timayenis, 
 
 New York School of Languages, 
 
 December i, 1884, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 « 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 CHAPTER 1 . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The house and its architecture—The house in general—The 
 Homeric house—Architecture—Materials of construction 
 and the tools in use.i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 General divisions of the Homeric house—Terms and names 
 of the parts of the house in Homer—The court—The 
 wall around the court—The court-gate—Glistening inner 
 walls—The house of the watch-dog—Stoae—Prothyron, 
 or the space before the door—Orsothyre, or posterior 
 door—Laura, or a narrow passage—Doma, or men’s 
 room—Dourodoke, or stand for spears—The throne of 
 the singer—The eschara, or the hearth—Thalamos, or 
 women’s apartment—Apotheke, or the store-room—The 
 marriage-chamber—The tholos, or the vault—The keys. 25 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. ^ 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The furniture—The seats—Chests for storage—Lamps— 
 Vases, carpets, etc.63 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Gardens—The garden of Alkinoos, and of Kalypso . .75 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Man—woman.82 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Love.114 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Marriage—Courtship—The gifts—The nuptials—Second mar¬ 
 riage—Marital faithlessness—Blood-marriages—Concu¬ 
 bines .121 
 
 \ 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Children—Education—Amusements.158 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 XI 
 
 / CHAPTER V. 
 
 • PAGE 
 
 Parental love—Brotherly love—Illegitimate children—Slavery 
 —The value of slaves—The number of slaves—Hired do¬ 
 mestics .i86 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Clothing—Apparel of women—The hair—Sandals—Gloves 
 
 —Ornaments.226 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Baths—Anointing—Washing the feet—Banquets—Food and 
 drink—Table furniture.241 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Diseases—Wounds—Physicians and surgeons—Women as 
 physicians—Death—After death .... 263 
 

 
 > j 
 
 * I 
 
 1 
 
PART FIRST. 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The house and its architecture—The house in general—The Ho¬ 
 meric house—Architecture—Materials of construction and 
 the tools in use. 
 
 The House and its Architecture. —The ex¬ 
 humed city of Pompeii is one of the most interest¬ 
 ing relics of antiquity. Situated in the fertile plain 
 of Campania, it was reckoned among the finest and 
 richest cities of the ancient world. Its gardens and 
 villages, regardless of danger, stretched to the very 
 summit of its terrible neighbor, Vesuvius, which had 
 long been deemed dead. The traces of former de¬ 
 struction, visible on the fertile plains and on the coast 
 of the Bay of Naples, were attributed to the battles 
 between Zeus and the Titans. 
 
 Suddenly, on the i6th of February, a. d. 63, a 
 fearful earthquake destroyed a part of the city, thus 
 reminding the improvident inhabitants that the giant 
 had only slumbered. The warning was soon forgot- 
 
2 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 ten, and the city was rebuilt more beautiful than 
 before. The following year, another earthquake de¬ 
 stroyed the theatre of Naples, a few moments after a 
 noted public singer had finished a ribald and blasphe¬ 
 mous song. But this calamity was attributed to the 
 wrath of the gods against the blasphemer, and the for¬ 
 mer carelessness reigned again supreme. 
 
 On the 24th of August, in the year 79, a deaf¬ 
 ening detonation awoke the careless people from 
 their lethargy. The sky became dark, the mountains 
 roared and sent forth burning ashes, hot water, and 
 cataracts of lava, followed by a flaming wave which 
 completely enveloped the surrounding plains. Pliny 
 the Elder was at that time near by, on board a tri¬ 
 reme, and forthwith' hastened to render assistance to 
 the inhabitants, who from all sides were fleeing to the 
 coast; but on disembarking he met his death, and 
 the great physiologist thus fell a victim to his phil¬ 
 anthropic disposition. 
 
 In the mean time the detonations and explosions 
 continued, and the lava came in torrents thick and 
 fast. Pliny the Younger, who, with his mother, re¬ 
 mained at a village not far distant, ran from his 
 crumbling home, unable to rest anywhere from fear 
 of being buried under the burning ashes. 
 
 In the morning, when the evil abated and the 
 darkness began to be dispelled, the first streak of 
 
THE HOUSE AND ITS ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 3 
 
 light fell over a great desert, and in vain sought the 
 mirth-loving Pompeii. The entire city, in the fullness 
 of its life, wherein still throbbed, as it were, the en¬ 
 tire archaic mode of living, was covered, as if by a 
 supernatural hand, under a mass of thick lava, where¬ 
 in it remained for centuries hermetically sealed, to re¬ 
 appear anew in after-ages, untouched and unbroken, 
 before the eyes of the modern world. 
 
 A little more than fifty years ago, the plow of a 
 farmer struck against a hewn marble, which accident 
 gave rise to excavations, and the buried city, with all 
 its amphitheatres, temples, markets, ancient homes, 
 and almost with its inhabitants, was again revealed to 
 the light of the sun. 
 
 Pompeii is an unbroken whole—it is a century 
 of antiquity, the first one during and after Christ 
 that was preserved, and now appears before our eyes. 
 Under it lies the life of that epoch in all its splen¬ 
 dor and minuteness. If the archaeologist, or even the 
 simple traveler, on reaching the summit of the hill 
 overlooking the ancient city, should, after repressing 
 his first feelings of wonder, enter through the He- 
 rakleian gate and go over the Street of the Tombs, 
 he will gradually, after divorcing himself from the 
 present, see displayed before him, in all its splendor, 
 that magnificent picture. 
 
 His first visit will certainly be to the Forum Civile^ 
 
4 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 or the city market, where stood the magnificent Tem¬ 
 ple of Zeus. Following the same road straight on, 
 he will come to the Amphitheatre, and, farther on, to 
 the Odeon, where he will unconsciously recall to his 
 imagination, on the one hand, the turbulent meetings 
 of old, together with the famous games, and, on the 
 other, the sacrifices performed in honor of the gods. 
 As the evening advances, the stranger leaves those 
 magnificent edifices and, passing from the public to 
 the private life, comes to less pretentious but none the 
 less curious buildings. On entering this or that house, 
 he still sees the furniture in the same position as it 
 stood before it was engulfed. There are couches 
 around the symposium-table, waiting for the convivi- 
 alists ; here are seats, around the hearth, for even¬ 
 ing conversation; and, elsewhere, the marble bath 
 with a tripod lying by, on which are vials and 
 other cosmetic pieces, to which the fair bather may 
 reach out her white hand. If the sun by this time 
 is setting behind the hills, and the twilight suc¬ 
 ceeds, he may see, as in a dream, all that past life 
 reappearing and moving before him — the houses 
 filled, charming family scenes, archaic in type, like 
 a beautiful expressive statue, uncovered before his 
 sight. 
 
 Such an unbroken monument is Homer also, a 
 true Pompeii of the pan-archaic centuries of Hellas, 
 
THE HOUSE A HD ITS ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 5 
 
 a whole period, great and august, wonderfully pre¬ 
 served and developed before our eyes. The won¬ 
 derful society of the heroes and of the demigods is 
 reflected from the poems in all its magnificence and 
 simplicity. As in Pompeii one looks first for the 
 temples and theatres, so in Homer we will search 
 first of all for generalities, for the religion, the govern¬ 
 ment, the public and political relations. But when,' 
 afterward, we descend from the public into the pri¬ 
 vate life, when we penetrate into the family circle, 
 which existed thirty centuries ago, we shall be amply 
 rewarded for our trouble. We shall find a wonder¬ 
 ful grace and simplicity characterizing the so-called 
 mythical epoch, and behold the enchanting descrip¬ 
 tions of the Homeric scenes unfolded before our very 
 eyes. 
 
 On one hand, the impudent suitors behave in¬ 
 decorously, supping and drinking with the female 
 servants in the court of Odysseus; on the other, Al- 
 kinoos sits in his magnificent apartments, in the midst 
 of his nobles, listening to divine songs ; now the wise 
 Penelope languishes in her chamber, surrounded by 
 her female attendants, and converses about her ab¬ 
 sent lord, weaving those costly carpets and the fine 
 linen with which the Homeric storehouses abounded. 
 Then, again, the young and refreshing sight of Nau- 
 sikaa, the prototype of maidenly grace and purity, in 
 
6 
 
 • THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 her enchanting simplicity, illumes the darkness of 
 that long-past epoch. He who has occupied him¬ 
 self only with the battle-scenes of the “ Iliad,” which, 
 it is true, form some of the most magnificent descrip¬ 
 tions in Homer, wonders at the sweet picture of the 
 maiden, drawn by the same hand with a perfection 
 equaled only by that of Raphael. But, on examin¬ 
 ing still more closely the theme, we find it full of 
 unexpected charms, and are convinced that in that 
 great epopee wherein we see the gods acting with the 
 heroes, and under the clang of arms, the pomp and 
 military tactics, there appears an entire line of inimi¬ 
 table pictures from which may be deduced with the 
 utmost minuteness the family life of those years. 
 
 The House in general. —The exact knowledge 
 of the ancient house, and the positive arrangement 
 of its various parts, whose names only are usually 
 found among writers, have long been one of the most 
 difficult archaeological problems. 
 
 The scarcity of passages throwing light upon this 
 subject, the different use and application of the terms 
 mentioned by various writers, the great confusion of 
 testimony prevalent among scholiasts and lexicog¬ 
 raphers, and the complete non-existence of ruins— 
 excepting one found in Delos—have rendered well- 
 nigh impossible an accurate description; so that, al¬ 
 though the very last garment, as it were, of family 
 
THE HOUSE AND ITS ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 7 
 
 life has been ascertained, concerning the house, and 
 the family hearth, we have only confused facts. Fur¬ 
 ther investigation is needed to make our knowledge 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Investigators generally agree that the house was 
 composed of the doorway, the court, the men’s apart¬ 
 ments, and the women’s apartments; but where each 
 one of these was situated, and how they were all con¬ 
 nected, for the completion of the whole, are by no 
 means positively determined. 
 
 Many writers follow closely the account left by 
 Vitruvius, who, as it is well known, speaks quite ex¬ 
 tensively of the Greek houses of his epoch, and who 
 is, in fact, one of the chief sources from which our 
 knowledge on this subject is derived. He is not, 
 however, a safe guide, for many inaccuracies mar his 
 works, as, for instance, when he places — and most 
 strangely so — the women’s apartments in the front 
 part of the house, through which it would have been 
 necessary to pass in order to go into the inner rooms. 
 He is, besides, in direct antagonism with everything 
 mentioned in ancient writers concerning the women 
 and the women’s apartments ; yet the admirers of Vi¬ 
 truvius continually bring forth arguments to reconcile 
 his arrangement. 
 
 Others, again, basing their opinions upon the 
 anomalies and the munificence which characterize 
 
8 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 the house described by Vitruvius, maintain that the 
 Roman architect had in view some of the magnificent 
 edifices belonging to the Alexandrine epoch, rather 
 than to the Hellenic house of the classic times, when 
 the temples and the public edifices only, in which the 
 Hellene principally passed his day, were magnificent; 
 while the private houses, which served merely as an 
 asylum for the family, and where the master spent the 
 night only, were simple and, for the most part, cheap. 
 Hence,' rejecting the statements of Vitruvius, they 
 place the women’s apartments behind those of the 
 men. 
 
 Becker, the best of the writers on this subject, in 
 his work entitled “Charikles,” a wonderful store¬ 
 house of ancient knowledge, gave us a more thorough 
 description than any of his predecessors. But, al¬ 
 though there is still much incompleteness in his work, 
 and the peplum covering the house is not fully up¬ 
 lifted, the sketch drawn by Becker is considered, if 
 not perfect, at least the one nearest to the truth. 
 
 Hermann, who wrote after Becker, we pass over, 
 because he speaks little on the subject, and most of 
 his information is derived from his famous prede¬ 
 cessor. 
 
 The Homeric House. —The aspect, however, is 
 altogether different as respects the Homeric house. 
 The divine poet, while singing of lofty subjects, often 
 
THE HOMERIC HOUSE. 
 
 9 
 
 tells, in few words, much of other things. Besides 
 the descriptions of the palaces of Odysseus, Menelaos, 
 Priamos, and Alkinods ; besides the tent of Achilles, 
 which was pitched in the shape of a house, and the 
 caves of Kalypso and Kirke ; in many other passages 
 of the ** Iliad,” and especially of the “ Odyssey,” we 
 find, scattered here and there, much valuable infor¬ 
 mation respecting the house. By collecting and col¬ 
 lating these statements, we acquaint ourselves with 
 the principal and characteristic details of the homes 
 of that period. 
 
 It is claimed that Homer sings of an epoch older 
 than himself — in our opinion, not more than fifty 
 years older—and he especially mentions royal man¬ 
 sions. But, excepting the palaces of Alkinods, or 
 which he evidently seeks to arouse our admiration, 
 and which were worthy of the King of the Phaekeans 
 —a relative of the gods—and were certainly more 
 costly than any other existing edifice of the kind, 
 there is nothing unusual, and even the residences of 
 Odysseus and Priamos were clearly delineated after 
 prototypes which the poet himself had before him. 
 
 Respecting the minute details he offers, they were, 
 to a great extent, probably the offspring of his imagi¬ 
 nation, which not unfrequently adorned and lighted 
 up his pictures : but it can not, on the other hand, 
 be denied that, as respects the principal characteristics 
 
10 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE, 
 
 of a house, he speaks the exact truth, even as regards 
 the palaces of Alkinods, because his contemporaries 
 had ready means of ascertaining the truth of his de¬ 
 scriptions, and no radical changes in architecture 
 could have been effected in so short a time. 
 
 A clear proof of the foregoing is that, notwith¬ 
 standing the lack of testimony existing for many hun¬ 
 dred years, concerning the shape of the house, from 
 the Homeric poems down to the Peloponnesian War, 
 we find not fifty or a hundred years, but whole cent¬ 
 uries after the capture of the Troas, the houses simi¬ 
 lar in their main characteristics to those described by 
 Homer. 
 
 The manner, also, with which Homer expresses 
 himself seems an evident proof of our position, be¬ 
 cause he mentions everything as if it were well known 
 to all, never deeming any additional explanations in 
 the least necessary. 
 
 Now, if the subjects of the poems existed only in 
 the fancy of the poet, and were not familiar to the 
 hearers, in fact, not before their very eyes, the com¬ 
 prehension of the poems of Homer would have been 
 unintelligible even to his contemporaries, who heard 
 but the names of non-existing things. 
 
 Accordingly, if we delineate a house such as the 
 poet describes in several places in his poems, it re¬ 
 sults that we present not any imaginative invention 
 
THE HOMERIC HOUSE. 
 
 II 
 
 of the Homeric genius, but an actual building such 
 as was erected in those years. Nowhere is it clearly 
 mentioned by how much, or in what way, the private 
 house differed from the royal; but it is natural that, 
 as there were no architects devising new and original 
 plans for the more costly residences, the latter were 
 distinguished only by the greater cost and munifi¬ 
 cence as regards details, the general plan remaining 
 unchanged. 
 
 This statement is, of course, applicable only to a 
 certain extent, for we find no trace whatever of a 
 diagram of the house of Odysseus or Priamos, or the 
 hut of the swineherd Eumaeos. But, from the mo¬ 
 ment the house began to be distinguished from the 
 hut, the principal characteristics commenced also to 
 appear, such as the court, the chamber, the main- 
 room—all of which were developed in proportion to 
 the wealth and taste of the occupant. 
 
 Having said so much, we now return to our prin¬ 
 cipal theme, the Homeric house, concerning which 
 we have no other important source of information ex¬ 
 cepting the poet. The testimony of Homer himself 
 is, if not rare, at least incidental, just touching upon 
 the subject, so that it furnishes a slight assurance, and 
 gives rise to many difficulties. The different use, also 
 apparent in the poems, of the same terms and names, 
 engenders many other doubts, on account of which it 
 
12 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 was deemed a great achievement when Voss, about 
 the beginning of the present century, having fitted to¬ 
 gether the information scattered through the “Iliad” 
 and the “ Odyssey,” produced one whole, and added, 
 at the end of his classical translation of the* poems 
 of Homer, a diagram of a house. Unfortunately, he 
 left the matter too open for the imagination, when¬ 
 ever certainty lacked; but, having made the first 
 step, he is justly considered as having accomplished 
 more than half the work. 
 
 Hirt, who wrote twenty years later, copied Voss 
 almost verbatim. J. G. Schneider, in his second edi¬ 
 tion of the “ Memorabilia ” of Xenophon (Leipsic, 
 1801-1808), corrected many errors of his predeces¬ 
 sors. Since his time there have been issued upon this 
 theme many works of considerable importance, those 
 of Payne, Knight, Schreiber, Caumann, Gell, and, 
 best of all, those of Eggers. The large and brilliant 
 work of Rumpf, in three parts, issued at three differ¬ 
 ent epochs by the gymnasium of Giessen, according 
 to the German custom, justly obtained, as regards the 
 Homeric house, the place which that of Becker held 
 for the house of the classical epoch. But, unfortu¬ 
 nately, the work is limited to special topics, particu¬ 
 larly the orsothyra^ or the back-door, and the me- 
 sodmae^ or small spaces opening into the palace ; so 
 that the hope is left to us that, in framing a general 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 13 
 
 whole, we do not attempt an altogether useless under¬ 
 taking. Another work—that of Krause (1863)—has 
 since its issue obtained no inconsiderable celebrity. 
 Besides the Homeric poems, there remains a relic, 
 bearing the same testimony in regard to the house of 
 the heroic times which the ruins existing in Delos bear 
 to the classical period. The former relic is worthy of 
 especial notice, because, having been discovered in 
 Ithaka, it is reputed to have been the very house of 
 Odysseus. In truth, only the foundations are extant, 
 but the parts of the house are clearly distinguished, 
 and the divisions in nearly everything agree with 
 those given by Homer, while throughout its entire 
 periphery the peribolos of the court is clearly visible. 
 
 That these curious remains belong to some house, 
 similar to those described by the poet, and prob¬ 
 ably of the Homeric period, is an undisputed fact. 
 Whether that particular house is really that of Odys¬ 
 seus—which scholars like Zell and Schreiber main¬ 
 tain—setting forth that it lies in that very part of 
 the island in which, according to probable conject¬ 
 ures and the description of the poet, the residence 
 of the king was situated, seems to us a fruitless argu¬ 
 ment and of secondar}’- importance, since the very 
 existence of Odysseus is problematical. 
 
 Architecture. — Architecture during the Ho¬ 
 meric epoch was an important and most esteemed 
 2 
 
14 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 art. The erection of a shelter for the family proper, 
 was deemed one of the first duties of every citizen, 
 and it was considered no disgrace for nobles, heroes, 
 and kings, to work with their own hands in the erec¬ 
 tion of their houses : 
 
 “. . . Hector was hastening to the sumptuous home 
 Of Alexander, which that prince had built 
 With aid of the most cunning architects 
 In Troy the fruitful, by whose hands were made 
 The bedchamber and hall and ante-room.” 
 
 “. . . Well do I remember thee. 
 
 As thou wert in the day when thy good ship 
 Bore thee from Ithaca. Bestir thyself. 
 
 Dame Eurycleia, and make up with care 
 A bed without the chamber, which he framed 
 With his own hands; bear out the massive bed 
 And lay upon it seemly coverings. 
 
 Fleeces and mantles for his nightly rest.” 
 
 “ . . . What man goes ever forth 
 To bid a stranger to his house, unless 
 The stranger be of those whose office is 
 To serve the people, be he seer, or leech. 
 
 Or architect, or poet heaven-inspired. 
 
 Whose song is gladly heard ? . . .” 
 
 ' The architect is mentioned as one of the most 
 useful of artisans, the dearest and most honored of 
 friends, and was placed in the same rank as the 
 soothsayer, the physician, and the singer. This fact 
 in itself seems an evident proof of the development 
 
MATERIALS AND TOOLS IN USE. 
 
 15 
 
 which architecture had attained during the Homeric 
 epoch, because, if it were still in its swaddling-clothes, 
 as Stieglitz professes, the honors bestowed upon the 
 architects would appear difficult to be understood. 
 Wherefore, we believe that the above-mentioned writ¬ 
 er is in error in attributing to the poetic imagination 
 of Homer all that he relates concerning the houses 
 and the magnificence of the various places. 
 
 Materials of Construction and the Tools 
 IN Use. —The building-materials mentioned by Ho¬ 
 mer are wood, stone, tiles, and metals. Of wood we 
 have the ash, the cypress, the cedar : 
 
 “ . . . He sat him down 
 On the ashen threshold, just within the doors,” 
 
 “. . . He descended next 
 Into a fragrant chamber, cedar-lined. 
 
 High-roofed, and stored with many things of price,” 
 
 Much use was made of stone, and the mode of 
 fashioning and dressing it was well known to the 
 ancients. We read often of smoofh polished stones : 
 
 “ And then he came to Priam’s noble hall,— 
 
 A palace built with graceful porticoes. 
 
 And fifty chambers near each other, walled 
 With polished stone, the rooms of Priam’s sons 
 And of their wives. . . .” 
 
 “ The people clamored for both sides, for both 
 Had eager friends ; theffieralds held the crowd 
 
THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 i6 
 
 In check; the elders, upon polished stones 
 Sat in a sacred circle. . . 
 
 “ Soon as the daughter of the dawn appeared 
 The rosy-fingered Morning, Nestor left 
 His bed and went abroad, and took his seat 
 On smooth white stones, before his lofty doors 
 That glistened as with oil. . . .” 
 
 The potter’s art was well understood. In the 
 “ Iliad ” a round or “ circular ” dance is compared to 
 a potter’s wheel : 
 
 “ The maids wore wreaths of flowers ; the young men swords 
 Of gold in silver belts; they bounded now 
 In a swift circle—as a potter whirls 
 With both his hands a wheel to try its speed. . . 
 
 The word “ keramos,” tile^ is given in the Iliad ” 
 also to a kind of prison, either because, according to 
 Friedreich, it was constructed of tiles, or because the 
 prisoner was inclosed in it, as it is also related in 
 the Scriptures, in a sort of Eastern vessel: 
 
 "... First it was the fate 
 Of Mars to suffer, when Aloeus’ sons, 
 
 Otus and mighty Ephialtes, made 
 
 Their fetters fast upon his limbs. He lay 
 
 Chained thirteen months within a brazen cell.” 
 
 The first of these suppositions seems untenable, 
 from the following phrase found in Homer, “ metal¬ 
 lic tiles,” from which it is manifest that the walls of 
 the aforesaid prison were covered by metallic plates. 
 
MA TERIALS AND TOOLS IN USE. 
 
 17 
 
 The materials most often spoken of in Homer 
 are the metals, and the frequency with which they 
 are mentioned is somewhat strange. In fact, it ap¬ 
 pears that the metals in the Homeric epoch were 
 more used than to-day, when the perfected arts in 
 various ways find substitutes for them ; but it is prob¬ 
 able, on the other hand, that the poet, in order to 
 describe the houses of his kings and heroes as more 
 magnificent than they actually were, often surpassed 
 the limits of accurate truthfulness, at least as respects 
 the usual application of metals. 
 
 The justice of this remark may be seen from the 
 description of the palaces of Alkinods, which, on 
 account of their magnificence and the multitude of 
 the metals whereby they shone resplendent, certainly 
 approaches the boundaries of myth; 
 
 **. . . For, on every side, beneath 
 The lofty roof of that magnanimous king, 
 
 A glory shone as of the sun or moon. 
 
 There on the threshold, on each side, were walls 
 Of brass that led toward the inner rooms. 
 
 With blue steel cornices. The doors within 
 The massive building were of gold, and posts 
 Of silver on the brazen threshold stood; 
 
 And silver was the lintel; and above 
 Its architrave was gold, and on each side 
 Stood gold and silver mastiffs, the rare work 
 Of Vulcan’s practiced skill; placed there to guard 
 The house of great Alcinoiis, and endowed 
 With deathless life, that knows no touch of age.” 
 
18 the homes of the people. 
 
 However common the use of the metals may have 
 been, we can hardly believe that entire walls and 
 doors were constructed from them, so that the above 
 statements are, perhaps, poetical exaggerations, allow¬ 
 able in describing the residences intended for super¬ 
 human beings and descendants of'the gods, but not 
 necessarily similar to those of ordinary mortals. Or 
 it is possible the poet refers not to solid or cast metal, 
 but to metallic plates covering portions of the palaces. 
 The house of Hephaestos is described in a similar 
 way : 
 
 “ . . . Silver-footed Thetis came 
 Meanwhile to Vulcan’s halls, eternal, gemmed 
 With stars, a wonder to th’ immortals, wrought 
 Of brass by the lame god.” 
 
 That this, which reminds one of Phoenician art, 
 belonged really to the time or condition of that 
 epoch, is conjectured from the Chalkioikos Athene in 
 Sparta, as well as from the still extant subterranean 
 tomb in Mykenae. This tomb, known under the ap¬ 
 pellation of the “ Treasury of Atreus,” or 'more com¬ 
 monly the ^‘Tomb of Agamemnon,” bears everywhere 
 on the wall small holes, occasioned very probably by 
 the nails holding together the plates with which evi¬ 
 dently the wall was covered. 
 
 The working of metals was in an advanced state 
 during the heroic times. A curious picture of a black¬ 
 smith’s shop is found in the Iliad,” where Hepha- 
 
MATEJ^IALS AND TOOLS IN USE, 
 
 19 
 
 estos is represented fashioning the famous arms of 
 Achilles : 
 
 “ So speaking he withdrew, and went where lay 
 The bellows, turned them toward the fire, and bade 
 The work begin. From twenty bellows came 
 Their breath into the furnaces,—a blast 
 Varied in strength as need might be; for now 
 They blew with violence for a hasty task. 
 
 And then with gentler breath, as Vulcan pleased 
 And as the work required. Upon the fire 
 He laid impenetrable brass, and tin. 
 
 And precious gold and silver.” 
 
 The joining together of different metals, and their 
 combination into various useful alloys, were also well 
 understood at that early age : 
 
 *‘. . . I will give a cup 
 Wrought all of silver, save its brim of gold.” 
 
 “ . . . I present 
 
 A goblet all of silver, save the lips. 
 
 And they are bound with gold.” 
 
 “ . . . I give 
 
 The brazen corselet which my arm in war 
 Took from Asteropaeus, edged around 
 With shining tin.” 
 
 The manner, also, of rendering metals bright was 
 known : 
 
 “ Again Pelides placed before the host 
 A mass of iron, shapeless from the forge.” 
 
20 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 Gold was, of course, esteemed above all other met¬ 
 als. Telemachos admires its abundance in the house 
 of Menelaos : 
 
 “ See, son of Nestor, my beloved friend. 
 
 In all these echoing rooms the sheen of brass. 
 
 Of gold, of amber, and of ivory. 
 
 Such is the palace of Olympian Jove 
 Within its walls. How many things are here 
 Of priceless worth! I wonder as I gaze.” 
 
 Odysseus also adorns his bed with precious met¬ 
 
 als : 
 
 “ . . . I bored the wood 
 
 With wimbles, placed on it the frame, and carved 
 The work till it was done, inlaying it 
 With silver, gold, and ivory.” 
 
 It would appear, also, that gold was beaten out 
 into small threads, because we find mentioned a 
 golden crest of helmet: 
 
 “ It glittered like a star. 
 
 And all the shining tufts and golden thread. 
 
 With which the maker’s hand had thickly set 
 Its cone, were shaken. ” 
 
 The coloring of metals was very probably effected 
 by some mixture, because, in the description of the 
 shield of Achilles, there appears a golden vine, the 
 grapes of which were of a deeper hue : 
 
 “ A vineyard also on the shield he graved. 
 
 Beautiful, all of gold, and heavily 
 
MATERIALS AND TOOLS IN USE. 
 
 21 
 
 Laden with grapes. Black were the clusters all; 
 
 The vines w'ere stayed on rows of silver stakes.” 
 
 Silver was used especially in ornamenting furni¬ 
 ture : 
 
 “ One spread the thrones with gorgeous coverings; 
 Above was purple arras, and beneath 
 Were linen webs ; another, setting forth 
 The silver tables just before the thrones. 
 
 Placed on them canisters of gold.” 
 
 “ . . . Beside the hearth they placed for her 
 The throne where she was wont to sit, inlaid 
 With ivory and silver.” 
 
 Iron is seldom mentioned as a material for build¬ 
 ing. But this metal was polished, and hence it is 
 often accompanied by the adjective fire-colored, fiery : 
 
 “ He fell among the dust of earth, as falls 
 A poplar growing in the watery soil 
 Of some wide marsh,—a fair, smooth bole, with boughs 
 Only on high, which with his gleaming axe 
 Some artisan has felled, to bend its trunk 
 Into the circle of some chariot-wheel; 
 
 Withering it lies upon the river’s bank.” 
 
 The tempering of iron, by dipping it into cold 
 water, was well understood; as was, also, the making 
 of kyanoSy or blue steel: 
 
 “ As when a smith, in forging axe or adze. 
 
 Plunges, to temper it, the hissing blade 
 Into cold water, strengthening thus the steel.” 
 
22 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 Hence Bacon is in error when he says : “ The ex¬ 
 periment of rendering iron hard by cooling it is a 
 modern invention ; that is to say, the hardening of 
 metals by repeated heating and extinction of the heat 
 in cold.”* 
 
 The working of iron, however, presented much 
 difficulty, wherefore we often meet the phrase— 
 
 “ Brass, gold, and tempered steel.” 
 
 On the other hand, the art of working copper 
 seems to have been much more advanced than it is 
 to-day. Arms and various utensils were fashioned 
 from this metal, possessing a strength which modern 
 craftsmen seek in vain. Many suppose that some 
 method was then in vogue for its tempering, which 
 modern art has lost. Herodotos mentions the fact 
 that brass among the Messanatae entirely took the 
 place of iron. 
 
 Among the metals at that time in use tin, also, is 
 mentioned : 
 
 “ At last he forged him greaves of ductile tin.” 
 
 “ Ten were its bars of tawny bronze, and twelve 
 
 Were gold, and twenty tin; and on each side 
 
 Were three bronze serpents stretching toward the neck, 
 
 * “ Experimentum indurationis per frigus hodie inventum est; 
 metalla scillicet repetita ex calefactione, et extinctione in frigido 
 indurescire.” 
 
MATERIALS AND TOOLS IN USE. 
 
 23 
 
 Curved like the colored bow which Saturn’s son 
 Sets in the clouds, a sign to men.” 
 
 “ . . . All bright with tin 
 And gold, the car rolled after them.” 
 
 A conclusive proof of the skill and experience of 
 the ancients in metallurgy is presented to us in the 
 shield of Achilles, in which Herakleides of Pontos, 
 Philostratos the Younger, and Demon the philosopher, 
 claim to find the representation of the entire universe. 
 It is, of course, true that that wonderfully artistic 
 production, the work of a superhuman artificer, owes 
 much to the imagination of the poet, but there must 
 have existed some foundation of truth, as in the case 
 of the house, for Homer always bases his pictures on 
 fact, and then enlarges and beautifies them. 
 
 The orophos a sort of reed, was also a material 
 employed in construction, and it was especially used 
 for roofs. , 
 
 As the word orophe means in Greek “roof,” the 
 name given to it, from the material that covers 
 the same, shows that its use was exceedingly com¬ 
 mon. 
 
 Finally, working - tools of metal are mentioned : 
 among others, the axe (the great^ the bronze^ the double- 
 edged)f the adze (the well-polished^ the sharp - cutting)y 
 used for delicate work, and the rule^ for cutting 
 straight: 
 
24 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 ** Twenty in all [trees] he brought to earth and squared 
 Their trunks with the sharp steel, and carefully 
 He smoothed their sides and wrought them by a line. 
 
 “ And leaned against a shaft of cypress-wood 
 Which some artificer had skillfully 
 Wrought by a line and smoothed.” 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 General divisions of the Homeric house—Terms and names of 
 the parts of the house in Homer—The court—The wall 
 around the court—The court-gate—Glistening inner walls— 
 The house of the watch-dog—Stoae—Prothyron, or the space 
 before the door—Orsothyre, or posterior door—Laura, or a 
 narrow passage—Doma, or men’s room—Dourodoke, or stand 
 for spears—The throne of the singer—The eschara, or the 
 hearth—Thalamos, or women’s apartment—Apotheke, or the 
 store-room—The marriage-chamber—The tholos, or the vault 
 —The keys. 
 
 General Divisions of the Homeric House.— 
 That the Homeric house was composed of three prin¬ 
 cipal parts, the poet himself shows when he says that 
 Paris built a house in Troy, with the aid of the best 
 architects of the time, and had made 
 
 “ The bedchamber and hall and anteroom.” 
 
 The fact that this phrase is general for the entire 
 house we also ascertain from another passage, where 
 it is applied almost literally to the palace of Odysseus. 
 After the slaughter of the suitors, the death of the 
 
26 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 faithless servants, and the mutilation of Melanthios, 
 Odysseus seeks from Eurykleia sulphur, ^‘the cure of 
 noxious air,” and fire, that he may purge the house, 
 polluted by the murderous scenes therein enacted. 
 The old nurse obeyed, and Odysseus steeped in smoke 
 the palace— 
 
 “ Both court and hall.” 
 
 The phrase used on that occasion by Odysseus 
 was, “ that I may purge the palace ” (megaron)^ which 
 word evidently meant the entire house. 
 
 Terms and Names of the Parts of the House 
 IN Homer. —It has already been stated that one of 
 the greatest difficulties in the study of Homer is the 
 application he makes of the same names and terms 
 to various and often altogether diametrically opposite 
 objects. Even for the principal parts of the house 
 there is no fixedness whatever in Homer. Thus, in 
 the example above, in one verse he uses the word 
 thalamos — “ room,” “ bedchamber ” — and immedi¬ 
 ately after we have the word megaron^ house,” 
 evidently used in precisely the same signification as 
 thalamos. 
 
 The cause of this is easily understood, nor is 
 anything more usual than to give to the part the 
 title of the whole, and to the whole the title of the 
 part. 
 
 But modern interpreters, ignoring the true signifi- 
 
•'^STON roll Z'~r ir , , 
 
 '-i^TNUT i;. . 
 
 GENERAL EXPLANATION 27 
 
 cation of the words, have caused a confusion which 
 has resulted in not a few difficulties. 
 
 Accordingly, we deem it indispensable, before 
 proceeding further, to examine the meaning of the 
 three terms, as well as the customary application of 
 each. 
 
 In the former of the two verses above quoted, we 
 have, according to our opinion, the three principal 
 expressions, in their literal signification. First of all, 
 the word thalatnos means, we believe, that part of 
 the habitation which belonged exclusively to women— 
 i. e., the women’s part of the house—and, in brief, the 
 main part of the house : 
 
 “ As thus he pondered, Helen, like in form 
 
 To Dian of the golden distaff, left 
 
 Her high-roofed chamber, where the air was sweet 
 
 With perfumes.” 
 
 “ The chaste Penelope now left her bower ” [thalamos]. 
 
 Passing over the conflicting opinions of the scho¬ 
 liasts, let us briefly examine the varying use of terms, 
 and the disagreements found in the poet himself. The 
 following passage, for instance, seems opposed to the 
 position we have taken : 
 
 “ Go, nurse, and see the women all shut up 
 
 In their own place, while in our own inner room \thala- 
 mos] 
 
 I lay away my father’s beautiful arms.” 
 
28 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE, 
 
 All, not even Rumpf excepted, agree in maintain¬ 
 ing that, in this particular passage, by the term tha- 
 lamos, is meant some upper room belonging to Odys¬ 
 seus, because there we find the arms kept. But does 
 it not rather mean here the “ store-house,” which, as 
 we shall in due time see, was situated behind the 
 women’s apartments, and often under it ? Accept¬ 
 ing this view, the meaning of the word thalamos be¬ 
 comes here clear and proper. After the departure of 
 Odysseus, his arms—or rather those which belonged 
 to the family, since the hero carried with him to Troy 
 his own particular arms—remained scattered in the 
 large, open, main room. But, when Telemachos grew 
 up, and had become acquainted with the use of arms, 
 he noticed that these were injured by the smoke, and 
 had them placed elsewhere. 
 
 Now, Odysseus not having returned, and being 
 supposed to be dead, it is probable that Telemachos 
 had the disused arms carried to the store-house, where 
 the superfluous furniture was kept. 
 
 Notice, however, the following passage : 
 
 “ And fifty chambers near each other, walled 
 , With polished stone, the rooms of Priam’s sons 
 And of their wives ; and opposite to these 
 Twelve chambers for his daughters, also near 
 Each other; and with polished marble walls. 
 
 The sleeping-rooms of Priam’s sons-in-law 
 And their unblemished consorts.” 
 
GENERAL EXPLANATION. 
 
 29 
 
 The word thalamos seems to mean the entire habi¬ 
 tation of each of the sons-in-law and sons of Priam. 
 Such might have been the case, in fact, because in¬ 
 contestably we find the word used elsewhere in that 
 meaning, although, in our opinion, it is not its proper 
 signification, as, for instance, when it is said of the 
 quarters of Telemachos : 
 
 ** While to his lofty chamber [thalamos] in full view, 
 Built high in that magnificent palace home, 
 Telemachus went up.” 
 
 In this case, it must be confessed also that another 
 interpretation, incompatible with our own, is possible. 
 
 Of what parts, perchance, were the habitations of 
 the sons and sons-in-law of Priam composed ? Had 
 each habitation a particular room and a private main 
 room, where the men lived ? Certainly not, since fifty 
 such rooms were found in line within one and the 
 same court. It is far more probable that all the men 
 who belonged to the family used to assemble in the 
 common sitting-room, the doma^ the main room of the 
 great house, where they spent the day, supped, and 
 only in the evening came to the quarters in the court 
 where the women lived with the maid-servants. If 
 such was the case, it is not at all to be wondered at 
 that these quarters were called thalafnoiy having proba¬ 
 bly a bridal-room attached to them. Still, there exists 
 
30 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 no wrong use of the word here, even if the whole was 
 called by the most important part. 
 
 Now, as the word thalamos refers both to the 
 women’s apartments, and to the main room occupied 
 by them, in the same way the word doma means, we 
 think, the men’s quarters as well as the main room 
 therewith: 
 
 “ And go and bid Penelope come down. 
 
 With her attendant women, and command 
 That all the handmaids of the household come.” * 
 
 As to the word aule court ” there is no confusion 
 whatever, and there are many phrases with the same 
 interpretation, as the feeding-place of the court-yard; 
 the wall round the court-yard; and often only the wall 
 around. This latter name is due to the wall or hedge 
 inclosing the court. Rumpf, Eggers, and others, how¬ 
 ever, more distinctly attribute the name to the small 
 court lying behind the house. It is, indeed, true that 
 the verse— 
 
 ^‘. . . Within my court 
 
 There grew an olive-tree, with full-leaved boughs— 
 
 A tall and flourishing tree.” 
 
 indisputably bears out the opinion of the above-named 
 scholars ; but often the same term is found to desig¬ 
 nate the court proper, and, accordingly, this distinc¬ 
 tion seems to us unfounded ; and we regard the ex- 
 
 * Into the doma. 
 
GENERAL EXPLANATION. 
 
 31 
 
 pression hcrkos “ hedge ” as general, and indifferently 
 applied. But what does the word megaron mean, 
 which we noticed above, used instead of thalamos? 
 The question is a difficult one, because there is no 
 term in Homer employed in a more multifarious 
 sense. Thus, in— 
 
 “ He spake, and entering that fair dwelling-place, 
 
 Passed through to where the illustrious suitors sat ” — 
 
 we find the word megaron in the Greek text given to 
 the men’s quarters ; but, in— 
 
 “ Go, nurse, and see the women all shut up 
 In their own place ”— 
 
 the term is applied to the women’s apartments ; and 
 in— 
 
 “ She spake, the aged dame went forth to bear 
 The message, and to bring the women back ” ; 
 
 and in— 
 
 “ She spake, and from the royal bower w’ent down. 
 
 Yet not alone; two maidens went with her ”— 
 
 the term is also applied to the upper part of the house. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is our opinion that this is the most 
 general of the Homeric expressions, and properly 
 means the house itself—that is to say, the tout en¬ 
 semble of the Homeric habitation, with all its adjuncts. 
 It is certainly most frequently found with that sig¬ 
 nification ; 
 
THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 “ Yet, whether he return or not to take 
 Vengeance, in his own palace, on this crew 
 Of wassailers, rests only with the gods.” 
 
 “ Let her return to where her father dwells.” 
 
 “ What she shall deem the fairest of the robes. 
 
 And amplest, in her palace, and the one 
 She prizes most, and lay it on the knees 
 Of the bright-haired Minerva.” 
 
 “ Hippodameia, eldest-bom of all 
 His daughters, whom her parents, while she dwelt 
 With them, loved dearly.” 
 
 “ Thou goest down to Hades, and the depths 
 Of earth, and leavest me in thine abode 
 Widowed, and never to be comforted.” 
 
 Again, the poet usually employs the word, when 
 he speaks in a general way of the house, without dis¬ 
 tinction as to a definite part. Thus, concerning the 
 teiit of Achilles: 
 
 “ Forth went the train with torches in their hands. 
 And quickly spread two couches.” 
 
 Of the hut of Eumaeos: 
 
 “ Ulysses knew her meaning and came forth. 
 
 And passed the great wall of the court, and there 
 Stood near to Pallas, who bespake him thus.” 
 
 Of the house of Laertes : 
 
 “. . . These, when at the board 
 They saw Ulysses, and knew who he was. 
 
 Stopped in the hall astonished.” 
 
 \ 
 
GENERAL EXPLANATION. 
 
 33 
 
 Of the cavern of Kalypso : 
 
 “ . . . I saw him in an isle, 
 
 And in the same cavern-palace of the nymph.” 
 
 But, even the varying use of the word seems to us 
 to show its general signification, because names pass 
 readily from the whole to a part, but with much 
 greater difficulty from one part to another. 
 
 In fact, when the word is found in another sig¬ 
 nification, its application at the same time to the en¬ 
 tire house is possible. Thus, in the passage where it 
 would seem that “ the upper rooms" are referred to, 
 we still find that Penelope wove her web in the palace. 
 It is not to be doubted, of course, that the queen 
 worked in the upper part, but there exists no proof 
 whatever that the poet used in this instance any spe¬ 
 cial term, and not a general expression, simply mean¬ 
 ing that she was weaving in her palace. 
 
 Homer, in composing his immortal poems, in no 
 wise had in view the criticism of modern ages, which 
 searches after their accurate architectural information. 
 They for whom he was creating accurately grasped 
 his statements, and the beauty of his delineated pict¬ 
 ures was his special care ; so that mere chance repe¬ 
 titions, which offer to us so many difficulties to-day, 
 when closely examined, appear as the result of the 
 very nature of the things themselves. 
 
34 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 The Court.—T he court was an open place in 
 front of the building: 
 
 . Go thou forth 
 
 Out of the slaughter to the open court. 
 
 Thou and the illustrious bard, and sit there. 
 
 While here within I do what yet I must.” 
 
 “ . . . When his hands were washed, he took 
 The goblet from the queen, and then, in prayer. 
 Stood in the middle of the court, and poured 
 The wine, and, looking heavenward, spake aloud.” 
 
 Voss calls the court of Odysseus ‘‘paved,’’ forming 
 his opinion from the following passage : 
 
 “ ... In the space 
 Before the palace of Ulysses stood 
 The suitors, pleased with hurling quoits and spears 
 On the smooth pavement, where their inclosure 
 So oft was seen . . .” 
 
 In our opinion, however, Voss is in error, because, 
 if the court had been really paved, Homer would 
 have mentioned it by some distinctive adjective. The 
 phrase, however, smooth pavement^ we find only in one 
 or two passages, when the suitors amused themselves 
 by hurling quoits and spears. It appears to us more 
 probable that the epithet “ paved ” refers to some par¬ 
 ticular spot, situated, perhaps, in the court itself, and 
 especially intended as a place for throwing the quoit, 
 etc. 
 
THE WALL AROUND THE COURT 
 
 35 
 
 Besides the principal court, situated in front of the 
 house, there was another in the rear, which, according 
 to Rumpf, was the one really called herkos —“ hedge 
 inclosure ” ; and another on one side. Voss, Hirt, 
 Schreiber, Friedreich, and a few others, maintain that 
 there was only one general court, which surrounded 
 and inclosed the house on all its sides; on the other 
 hand, Eggers and Rumpf scout this opinion, and as¬ 
 sert the existence of various courts—i. e., one in front, 
 another in the rear, and still another on the side. It 
 is, perhaps, natural that Voss and his followers, hav¬ 
 ing noticed that the courts surrounded the house 
 nearly on all sides, united them into one ; but we re¬ 
 gard the opinion of Rumpf more nearly correct, for 
 we find no mention whatever in Homer of one gen¬ 
 eral court. 
 
 The Wall around the Court. — Around the 
 court was a stone wall, on which were pitched re¬ 
 doubts, as a defense against enemies and robbers; 
 This, however, was probably not always the case ; and 
 the poet, in calling the wall ‘‘an inclosure,” “an ex¬ 
 cellent inclosure,” had very probably reference to its 
 strength : 
 
 “ Rooms over rooms are here ; around its court 
 Are walls and battlements, and folding-doors 
 Shut fast the entrance; no man may contemn 
 Its strength.” 
 
36 the homes of THE PEOPLE. 
 
 “. . . They led forth the maids 
 From the fair pile into the space between 
 The kitchen-vault and solid outer wall.” 
 
 Those accepting the idea of one great court nat¬ 
 urally believe that the wall, which on all sides sur¬ 
 rounded it, formed a regular parallelogram inclosing 
 the house. Those who believe that there existed three 
 separate courts, naturally maintain that there were 
 three walls also, each of which surrounded one of the 
 courts. That the inclosure was as strong in the rear, 
 and probably on the side of the house, as it was in 
 the front, is shown from the fact that the term 
 herkoSy inclosure,” is principally applied to the rear 
 court. 
 
 Having adopted the view of three courts, we nat¬ 
 urally are in favor of three walls. But, we confess 
 that, contrary to our opinion, in the relic found in 
 Ithaka,^the court appears really surrounding the en¬ 
 tire house, and the wall around it forms an irregular 
 parallelogram. 
 
 The Court-Gate. Glistening Inner Walls.— 
 In the midst of the lower side of the great outer 
 court there was a strong and double folding-door: 
 
 “ No man may contemn its strength.” 
 
 This was the first and principal entrance into the 
 house, and was shut from within : 
 

 THE BENCHES BELONGING TO THE COURT 37 
 
 “ While silently Philoetius hastened forth 
 And locked the portals of the high-walled court, 
 
 A cable of the bark of Byblos lay 
 
 Beneath the portico—it once had served 
 
 A galley—and with this the herdsman tied the portals.” 
 
 The side-walls of the gate, which were seen on 
 entering from without, appear to have been magnifi¬ 
 cently adorned ; these were the famous shining walls 
 so often mentioned in Homer, and so often the cause 
 of much dispute: 
 
 “ And close against the shining wall they placed 
 The car, and then they led the guests within 
 ■ The sumptuous palace.” 
 
 “ . . . The Hours 
 
 Unyoked them, bound them to the ambrosial stalls. 
 And leaned against the shining walls the car.” 
 
 The Benches belonging to the Court. —On 
 
 both sides of the gate belonging to the court, and 
 
 toward the outside, were usually placed stone seats 
 
 “ that glistened as with oil.” 
 
 Much has been written on this subject; but it is 
 
 not to this day determined whether these seats were 
 
 actually covered with oil,.or with some preparation 
 
 designed to make them shine, or whether a simple 
 
 comparison is intended by the poet. The scholiasts 
 
 accept the first view, and base their opinion on the 
 
 want of the particle (hg in Greek, meaning as t/y or 
 8 
 
THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 like. This view seems to us, also, the correct one, 
 since it is known that stones, when covered with oil, 
 obtain a particular luster, while they quickly dry. 
 
 Constant use was made of these seats, for we find 
 there the suitors conversing before the house of Odys¬ 
 seus ; we find there the Trojans sitting before the 
 gate of Priam; we find there Telemachos relating 
 before the gate of Menelaos his story to the king ; we 
 find there Nestor and Eumaeos, when Odysseus comes 
 to him : 
 
 " Then were the suitors vexed and sorrowful, 
 
 And going from the palace, and without 
 
 The great wall that enclosed the court, sat down 
 
 Before the gates, and there Eurymachus, 
 
 The son of Polybus, harangued the throng.” 
 
 “ . . . They all had met— 
 
 Men and youths—in council at the gates 
 Of Priam’s mansion.” 
 
 “ . . . He found him there. 
 
 Seated beneath the portico, before 
 
 His airy lodge, that might be seen from far. 
 
 Well built and spacious, standing by itself.” 
 
 This last example shows how common were these 
 seats, since they were found in the portico of the 
 herdsman himself. We can not agree with Rumpf as 
 to their position, for he says that they probably were 
 situated within the court itself, before the main edi¬ 
 fice. Homer clearly expresses himself on this point. 
 
THE HOUSE OF THE WATCH-DOG. 
 
 39 
 
 in saying that the suitors came out of the palace 
 beyond the great wall of the court, and there sat 
 before the gates,” and of Nestor “ he sat upon well- 
 wrought stones which were before the lofty gates,” 
 where the expression “ lofty gates ” evidently means 
 the great court-door. 
 
 The House of the Watch-Dog. —Near the gate, 
 on the inside, was usually placed a small house for the 
 watch-dogs. Notice that magnificent scene where the 
 old dog Argo is depicted : 
 
 “ . . . The young men oft had led him forth 
 In chase of wild goats, stags, and hares; 
 
 But now, his master far away, he lay 
 Neglected, just before the stable-doors,”— 
 
 and, after twenty years of absence, having first of all 
 recognized Odysseus on his return— 
 
 “ . . . and as he saw 
 Ulysses drawing near, he wagged his tail. 
 
 And dropped his ears, but found that he could come 
 No nearer to his master ”— 
 
 died, as if he awaited only’his master’s return. 
 
 On the space before the doors of the palace of 
 Alkinoos dogs stood, both of gold and of silver—the 
 works of Hephaestos— 
 
 “ . . . And on each side 
 Stood gold and silver mastiffs, the rare work 
 Of Vulcan’s practiced skill.” 
 
40 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 Such artificial dogs appear to have been common 
 among the ancients, and in after-times we find them 
 among the Romans as well as the Greeks of the classic 
 period. They took their origin, doubtless, from the 
 pre-existing custom of having live dogs kept by the 
 gate: 
 
 “ . . . And last. 
 
 Perchance the very dogs which I have fed 
 Here, in my palaces and at my board, 
 
 The guardians of my doors.” 
 
 The Stables and the Rooms of the Servants. 
 —In the lower part of the court, on both sides, were 
 probably placed rooms for the servants, and stables for 
 the oxen, the mules, and other household animals. 
 
 The existence of stables is conclusively proved 
 from the following passages : 
 
 “. . . They unyoked the sweaty steeds, 
 
 And bound them to the stables, and gave them oats. 
 With which they mingled the white barley-grains. 
 
 And close against the shining wall they placed 
 
 _ The car.” 
 
 “ I spake, and Circ^ took her wand and went 
 Forth from her halls, and opening the gate 
 That closed the sty, drove forth what seemed a herd 
 Of swine in their ninth year. ” 
 
 “ Sit there and scare away the dogs and swine.” 
 
 “ Within these courts are twenty geese that eat 
 Com from the water.” 
 
STABLES AND SERVANTS* ROOMS. 
 
 41 
 
 Some doubt exists whether the rooms of the serv¬ 
 ants were placed there, and especially whether the 
 maid-servants occupied them ; in other words, that the 
 women lived among the men. It would appear, how¬ 
 ever, that such was the case. The maid-servants not 
 only remained there working during the day, but 
 slept there also. Phoenix, when he relates, how dur¬ 
 ing the night he escaped from the palace of his father, 
 says: 
 
 “ But when upon me rose the tenth dark night, 
 
 I broke my aptly-jointed chamber-doors, 
 
 And issued forth, and easily o’erleaped 
 The wall around the palace, quite unseen 
 Of watching men and of the serving-maids.” 
 
 Eggers adduces another proof—the beginning of 
 the twenty-third book of the “Odyssey.” The hero, 
 Odysseus, having lain down on the portico before 
 the house, shortly afterward pass by him, laughing 
 and acting indecorously, the maid-servants who had 
 espoused the cause of the suitors. Eggers claims 
 that the maid-servants were just then going from 
 the palace to their own rooms in the court: 
 
 “. . . There he lay awake, 
 
 And meditated how he yet should smite 
 The suitors down. Meantime, with cries of mirth 
 And laughter, came the women forth to seek 
 The suitors’ arms.” 
 
 Notice, however, the following passage : 
 
42 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE, 
 
 “ Penelope, thus having spoken, went 
 Up to her royal bower, but not alone; 
 
 Her maids went with her.” 
 
 It is also said of Nausikaa : 
 
 “. . . Near her lay. 
 
 And by the portal, one on either side. 
 
 Fair as the Graces, two attendant maids.” 
 
 It must, however, be remembered that all such 
 passages have reference to chamber-maids or domes¬ 
 tics, like the aged nurse Eurykleia; in other words, 
 to privileged servants, or those of higher rank. It 
 would seem, in fact, that these, by exception, slept in 
 or near the apartments of their mistresses, while the 
 others, who resembled the fifty kept in the palace of 
 Odysseus, had their own rooms in the lower part of 
 the court. 
 
 Voss claims that there existed a separate court, in 
 which were placed the rooms of the servants. As he 
 has no evident proof of this, he certainly came to 
 this conclusion from a feeling of excessive refine¬ 
 ment, so to speak, and he accordingly shut off the 
 oxen and other animals from the court proper, where 
 the family often remained, and which Voss also sup¬ 
 poses to be paved. Considering, however, that we 
 have to deal with patriarchal times, and an epoch 
 when the very sons of kings were shepherds, we are 
 of opinion that the maintenance of animals under 
 
STOAE. 
 
 43 
 
 the immediate surveillance of their masters was in 
 no wise out of place. In fact, we deem this style of 
 life clearly Homeric, and common to every pan- 
 archaic epoch. We often read of the family seated 
 in the upper part of the court, and toward even-tide 
 looking down upon the flocks as they returned from 
 pasture and passed to their respective stalls. Such 
 a sight not only did not disturb the sentiments of 
 the paterfamilias of old, but, on the contrary, if his 
 flocks were abundant, it delighted him, as they con¬ 
 stituted his principal support and main joy. 
 
 Stoae. —In the lower part of the court, in front of 
 the servants’ rooms and stables, as well as in the upper 
 part, before the edifice proper, there existed covered 
 stoae {porticos), supported by pillars. In the stoae or 
 colonnade, before the stables, the carriages were kept : 
 
 “ And close against the shining walls they placed 
 The car, and then they led the guests within 
 The sumptuous palace.” 
 
 But in the stoae, before the edifice proper, the beds 
 of the guests were usually placed : 
 
 “. . . Meanwhile the son 
 Of Atreus lay within an inner room 
 Of that magnificent pile, and near to him 
 The glorious lady, long-robed Helen, slept.” 
 
 According to Friedreich, rooms opening upon the 
 colonnade are here referred to, because he deems it 
 
44 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE, 
 
 incredible that men should sleep there, in a place 
 open on all sides. He, however, forgets that we find 
 Elpinor sleeping on the roof itself: 
 
 “ He forgot to come 
 By the long staircase; headlong from the roof 
 He plunged." 
 
 • 
 
 That this custom of sleeping in the open air is not 
 only possible in the warm climate of the East, but was 
 very common among the ancients, is beyond ques¬ 
 tion. To the Greeks of to-day this practice appears 
 in accordance with the simplicity of the Homeric 
 epoch. Although much has been written concerning 
 the two colonnades, the whole question is still greatly 
 confused. The difficulty, however, arises from Homer 
 himself, for in the “ Odyssey ” he says that Helen 
 ordered the maid-servants 
 
 “To make up couches in the portico " 
 for the strangers, and immediately afterward he adds : 
 
 “There in the vestibule, Telemachus, 
 
 The hero, and with him the eminent son 
 Of Nestor, took their rest.” 
 
 Thus the words portico {aldovoa) and vestibule 
 (jTpodofiog) are attributed here to one and the same 
 stoa, the one before the house. The same confusion 
 is found in the “ Iliad ”— 
 
STOAE. 
 
 45 
 
 “ Achilles bade the attending men and maids 
 Place couches on the porch (aWova-av), 
 
 And then King Priam and the herald went 
 To sleep within the porch (7rpo5o/xos), but wary still ”— 
 
 where it refers to Achilles and his strangers. Else¬ 
 where, th*e appellation portico is given to the stoa be¬ 
 fore the stables : 
 
 . The women came lamenting loud, 
 
 With many tears, and carried forth the dead, 
 
 Leaning upon each other as they went. 
 
 And placed them underneath the portico 
 Of the walled court." 
 
 And, again, in the following verses the two appel¬ 
 lations are found in opposition : 
 
 “ . . . Nor even were the fires 
 Put out; one blazed beneath the portico 
 Of the fair hall, and near the chamber-door 
 Another glimmered in the vestibule." 
 
 Rumpf, noticing this passage, recognizes the con-^ 
 fusion existing in Homer, but considers it probable 
 that aWovoa (portico) means the place toward the 
 lower part of the court, and npoSofiog (vestibule) the 
 place before the house proper. 
 
 Among the ancient scholiasts we find much writ¬ 
 ten on this point, but of little value. 
 
 In our opinion, the term’ aMovoa is a generic 
 term, meaning simply stoa, and indifferently attributed 
 
46 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 to both colonnades, while npodofiog is a particular 
 term applied only to the one before the edifice proper 
 and distinguishing it from the other. 
 
 Prothyron, or the Space before a Door.— 
 Crossing the court, we proceed toward the house 
 proper. After the vestibule, we first of all meet the 
 prothyron, i. e., an empty space before the door of 
 the house. It was on this spot that the battle be¬ 
 tween Odysseus and Iros took place: 
 
 “ . . . While Ulysses seized his feet, 
 
 And drew him o’er the threshold to the court 
 And the porch-doors, and then, beside the wall. 
 
 Let him to lean against it.” 
 
 On one side of this prothyron was situated the 
 bath-house, and on the other the room especially in¬ 
 tended for the mill-house : 
 
 “. . . The attendant maids, who at the bath 
 Had ministered, anointing them with oil, 
 
 Arrayed the stranger guests in fleecy cloaks 
 And tunics.” 
 
 “. . . Eurynome, 
 
 The matron of the palace, meantime took 
 
 Magnanimous Ulysses to the bath 
 
 In his own dwelling, smoothed his limbs with oil. 
 
 And threw a gorgeous mantle over him.” 
 
 Now, that the “ mills ” were situated somewhere 
 near at hand, is evident from the fact that Odysseus, 
 who, as a stranger, was sleeping in the portico, heard 
 
LAURA, OR A NARROIV PASSAGE. 
 
 47 
 
 one of the mill-grinders foretelling the destruction 
 of the suitors from the thunder, which she sought as 
 a sign from Zeus. 
 
 Before this chamber where the mills were placed, 
 or perhaps facing directly the bath-house, there ex¬ 
 isted a passage-way leading to a small door, the fa¬ 
 mous orsothyre^ or postern-door, which opened upon 
 the equally famous laura^ or side small court: 
 
 “In the strong wall there was a postem-door, 
 
 And, near the outer threshold of the pile, 
 
 A passage from it to a narrow lane 
 Closed with well-fitting doors.” 
 
 Orsothyre, or Postern-Door. —Of no part of 
 the Homeric house has there been more written than 
 of the orsothyre —owing, perhaps, to the fact that 
 of nothing else does the poet speak so sparingly. 
 Rumpf, who devotes to this subject the greater part 
 of his book, after having corrected, revised, and 
 united the various opinions, proved that the orsothyre 
 was where we have placed it, and that it was simply 
 a door leading to the side-court. 
 
 Laura, or a Narrow Passage. —Many maintain 
 that the laura was a narrow passage-way which pro¬ 
 longed the side of the house, and was also independ¬ 
 ent of it. This opinion seems to us erroneous, and 
 we think it far more probable that by this appella¬ 
 tion was designated the side-court which was used to 
 
48 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 facilitate communication, and the work of the house¬ 
 hold. 
 
 Rumpf advocates this view, for he says, “The 
 laura was not a public way, but a narrow lane by 
 the very side of the house itself, surrounded by a 
 wall.” 
 
 Doma — Men’s Room. —On leaving the prothyron 
 One entered into “ the great chamber of the men,” 
 through a door which was always magnificently carved, 
 and which in the palace of Odysseus was made of 
 wrought cypress, and in that of Alkinods of gold and 
 silver. This room, where the men sat, and prominent 
 citizens assembled to greet the kings, and where the 
 banquets were spread, was the most important and 
 imposing part of the house. It was in this room 
 that we are shown the suitors feasting in the house 
 of Odysseus ; in this room we find Alkinods seated 
 on his throne, with the leading Phaekeans and Queen 
 Arete, at the knees of whom the hero threw himself. 
 
 The ceiling of the room was formed of wooden 
 beams, and columns extending in two lines support¬ 
 ed it. Sometimes small columns were placed around 
 the wall. If we consider now that this room occu¬ 
 pied the entire breadth of the house and more than 
 half its depth, we recreate it in our imagination, 
 and we are struck by the already advanced civiliza¬ 
 tion of that far-distant epoch. 
 
THE THRONE OF THE SINGER. 
 
 49 
 
 Dourodoke, or Stand for Spears. — Between 
 two of the smaller pillars mentioned just above there 
 •w'as a place intended for resting the spears. 
 
 The phrase in Homer, “ He rested the spear, 
 leaning it against the long column,” gave reason to 
 many to suppose that it was here said of one of the 
 pillars in the midst of the room, which, having about 
 it wrought places or grooves, was used as a dourodoke. 
 Eustathius says, “ They grooved the pillars, and there 
 placed the spears,” but we believe that the other 
 view is preferable. 
 
 The Throne of the Singer. — Near another 
 pillar in the midst of the room was placed a throne 
 for the singer, and on all diagrams we find specified 
 a place called “ the seat of the singer.” However, in 
 opposition to the above, we find— 
 
 “. . . Pantonoiis, 'mid the guests, 
 
 Placed for the bard a silver-studded throne.” 
 
 Now, if the seat was immovable, as it is claimed, 
 how does it happen that Pantonoiis placed a throne 
 for the bard ? It would seem, therefore, that the 
 fixing of a permanent position for the throne in the 
 diagrams is at any rate a presumption. Again, notice 
 that in the following passage no mention is made 
 either of the pillar or the throne: 
 
 “ . . . And then a herald brought 
 A shapely harp, and gave it to the hands 
 
50 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE, 
 
 Of Phemius, who had only by constraint 
 Sung to the suitors.” 
 
 The Eschara, or the Hearth. —In the men’s 
 main room there was also the hearth, for warming 
 the room, and, as we shall hereafter see, for cooking 
 the meals : 
 
 “ . . . The other maids 
 Of the fair palace of Ulysses woke, 
 
 And came together, and upon the hearth 
 Kindled a steady fire.” 
 
 It would seem that the hearth was also used as 
 the sacred fireside of the house. 
 
 According to all probability, the hearth was a hol¬ 
 low place dug in the wall, and communicating with 
 “ a smoke-escape.” Voss and a few others assert that 
 the smoke of the hearth escaped through an opening 
 in the roof. To be sure, Homer makes no mention 
 whatever of “ a smoke-escape,” but neither does he 
 speak of any such opening. Hirt rightly states that 
 no doubt there ought to have existed a smoke-escape, 
 in a century where we find architecture so much ad¬ 
 vanced. If Telemachos carries his arms into the 
 chamber in order to prevent them getting besmeared 
 with smoke— 
 
 “ I have put them where there comes no smoke ”— 
 
 he certainly meant the little smoke which usually 
 escapes even from the most finished hearths; neither 
 
THE SIDE^DOORS IN THE MEN'S ROOM. 51 
 0 
 
 is the supposition admissible that all the smoke aris¬ 
 ing from the wood and the cooking was freely let into 
 the magnificent Homeric rooms, which thereby were 
 liable to great damage, as most of the ornaments in 
 them were of metal. 
 
 Many doubts exist as to the position of the hearth. 
 A few claim that it was in the middle of the room, 
 and they further assert that it also served as ski al¬ 
 tar, and the smoke escaped through a hole in the 
 roof. But this is very improbable, and we believe 
 that the hearth was placed within one of the walls. 
 For a more definite determination of its plan, we ac¬ 
 cept the opinion of Rumpf, “ The hearth was near 
 that part of the house which is commonly called 
 fivxogy” the inner part. 
 
 On the right of the entrance into the men’s room 
 there was a place where the goblets were kept: 
 
 " Rise, one by one, my friends, from right to left, 
 
 Begin where he begins who pours the wine.” 
 
 “ ... He placed 
 
 His sweet harp on the floor, between the cup 
 And silver-studded seat, and went and clasped 
 The hero’s knees.” 
 
 The Side-Doors in the Men’s Room.—B esides 
 the entrance-door into the men’s apartments, and 
 through it into the thala ? nos —the women’s apartments 
 —two other doors existed on the side, which, by means 
 
52 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 of stairs, communicated with the rooms above the 
 men’s main room. In these rooms, which were used 
 as store-rooms, were kept furniture, arms, supplies, and 
 other such things : 
 
 “ Thus having said, the keeper of the goats, 
 
 Melanthius, climbed the palace stairs and gained 
 The chamber of Ulysses. Taking thence 
 .Twelve shields, as many spears, as many helmets 
 Of brass, with each its heavy horse-hair plume, 
 
 He came, and gave them to the suitors’ hands.” 
 
 According to Voss, in the houses where such rooms 
 did not exist, as, for instance, in those of Kirke, the 
 afore-mentioned stairs led to the roof, and Elpenor, 
 having there missed his footing, fell and was killed. 
 The roof of the Homeric house, as that of most of 
 the Eastern nations, was flat, wherefore Elpenor 
 passed the night there. In the houses without such 
 upper rooms, doubtless the said doors and stairs were 
 also wanting. 
 
 Thalamos, or Women’s Apartments. — Until 
 lately, before the poems of Homer were more thor¬ 
 oughly examined, it was believed that above the 
 doma^ the dwelling-place of the men, there was some 
 upper loft, called the thalamos^ in which the women 
 lived. 
 
 Feith, Terpstra, and many writers of old, assert 
 the above. It is strange, however, that Hermann, 
 
THALAMOS, OR WOMEN*S APARTMENTS. 
 
 53 
 
 who recently wrote a work justly admired, is satis¬ 
 fied with this erroneous idea, and brings in testimony 
 a passage from Eustathius which is far from accurate. 
 If we examine the subject carefully, we find Penelope 
 and other women often said to come down from “ the 
 upper loft,” but they also appear in “ the doma ” with¬ 
 out mention of any upper room, stairs, or descent. 
 Hence, it is evident that, besides “ the upper room,” 
 there existed on the very same floor with the doma 
 another chamber where the women usually dwelt. 
 Opposite the principal entrance leading into the doma 
 there was another door having a stone threshold. 
 This door led into a room similar in many respects 
 to the doma, though probably less luxuriously fur¬ 
 nished. This room we have elsewhere noticed was 
 generally called “ thalamos,” and was used as a sit¬ 
 ting-room for the women throughout the day. There 
 the mistress of the house worked in the midst of her 
 female attendants; there we meet Andromache, Penel¬ 
 ope, Helen. It was through this door that Nausikaa 
 came to Odysseus, and Penelope to the suitors, and 
 through it on every occasion the women came forth 
 to share in the pleasures and joys of the doma: 
 
 “ . . . She sat 
 
 In a recess of those magnificent halls, 
 
 And wove a twofold web of brilliant hues, 
 
 On which were scattered flowers of rare device.” 
 
54 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 “Ye maidens of a sovereign absent long, 
 
 Withdraw to where your high-born mistress sits.” 
 
 “ In his room he there 
 Found Paris, busied with his shining arms— 
 
 Corselet and shield; he tried his curved bow; 
 
 While Argive Helen with the attendant maids 
 Was sitting, and appointed each a task.” 
 
 “ Nausikaa, goddess-like in beauty, stood 
 Beside a pillar of that noble roof. 
 
 And looking on Ulysses as he passed. 
 
 Admired, and said to him in winged words.” 
 
 “ . . . When the glorious lady reached 
 The threshold of the strong-built hall, where sat 
 The suitors, holding up a delicate veil.” 
 
 The roof of the thalamos was, like that of the doma, 
 supported by pillars, and there was also a hearth in 
 it: 
 
 “ When thou art once within the court and hall. 
 
 Go quickly through the palace till thou find 
 My mother, where she sits beside the hearth, 
 
 Leaning against a column in its blaze.” 
 
 Of the upper rooms, those situated above the tha¬ 
 lamos, we have already spoken in detail. There the 
 mistress, in the absence of her lord, sought refuge; 
 there Penelope passed most of her time, from fear 
 that she might be disturbed in her mourning, and that 
 she might weave in peace the famous web ; there, 
 finally, the maidens had their-own private sleeping- 
 
 rooms : 
 
THALAMOSy OR WOMEN^S APARTMENTS. 
 
 55 
 
 “ Now to his palace, planning the return 
 Of the magnanimous Ulysses, came 
 The blue-eyed goddess, Pallas, entering 
 The gorgeous chamber where a damsel slept— 
 Nausicaa, daughter of the large-souled king, 
 
 Alcinoiis, beautiful in form and face 
 As one of the immortals.” 
 
 We can not accept the idea of Voss, who placed 
 the room of Nausikaa in the court where that of Tele¬ 
 machos was ; nor the position of Friedreich, who main¬ 
 tains that there were rooms for the servants in those 
 upper lofts, inasmuch as we have seen that only the 
 trusted chambermaids slept there ; and we are besides 
 informed, from the example of Nausikaa, that these 
 slept in the same room with their mistress. 
 
 We further surmise that stairs led to these upper 
 lofts, accessible through doors which opened on the 
 sides of the thalamos, as in the case of the doma. 
 These stairs are often mentioned, but nothing is said 
 as to their position : , 
 
 “ . . . From her chamber o'er the hall 
 The daughter of Icarius, the sage Queen 
 Penelope, had heard the heavenly strain. 
 
 And knew its theme. Down by the lofty stairs 
 She came, but not alone.” 
 
 “ This none but thou must know. Let all these things 
 Be brought together; then as night shuts in. 
 
 When to her upper chamber, seeking rest. 
 
 My mother shall withdraw, I come and take 
 What thou providest for me.” 
 
THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE, 
 
 56 
 
 Apotheke, or the Store-Room. —In the inner 
 part of the thalamos^ and under it, the apotheke was 
 situated, in which were kept all the valuables and the 
 furniture not required for daily use. This was a sort 
 of cellar, inasmuch as one had to descend into it, and 
 against the walls were placed boards containing pegs, 
 on which hung the various objects. Thus, in the 
 store-room of Odysseus, among other things, was his 
 bow, which Penelope, taking and bitterly weeping 
 over in remembrance of her husband, brings to the 
 suitors that they may endeavor to bend it: 
 
 "... Reaching forth her hand. 
 
 The queen took dowm the bow that hung within 
 Its shining case, and sat her down, and laid 
 The case upon her knees, and, drawing forth 
 The monarch’s bow, she wept aloud.” 
 
 The door of this store-house is praised by Homer, 
 and its threshold is called “ oaken,” and hence it 
 would appear that its door was thicker than that of 
 any other room: 
 
 “ Now when the glorious lady reached the room 
 And stood upon the threshold, wrought of oak, 
 
 And polished by the workman’s cunning hand. 
 
 Who stretched the line upon it, and set up 
 Its posts, and hung its shining doors, she loosed 
 With a quick touch the thong that held the ring. 
 
 Put in the key, and, with a careful aim, 
 
 Struck back the sounding bolts. As when a bull 
 
THE MARRIAGE-CHAMBER. 
 
 57 
 
 Roars in the field, such sound the beautiful doors 
 Struck with the key gave forth, and instantly 
 They opened to her.” 
 
 The key of the store-house the mistress herself 
 kept; but generally the one having the management 
 and care of the store-room was some faithful servant, 
 like the old nurse Eurykleia in the house of Odysseus. 
 Although we have in the “ Odyssey ” three detailed 
 descriptions of the store-house, and of the things kept 
 in it, we know nothing more concerning it than what 
 has been stated. 
 
 The Marriage-Chamber. —It has already been 
 noticed that, when the husband was absent, the wife 
 usually slept in the upper room; but when her lord 
 -v^was present, she dwelt with him in a particular room— 
 
 Those who maintain that the women lived exclu¬ 
 sively in the upper rooms, and that the Homeric 
 '^ouse was composed only of these and the doma, 
 naturally place the marriage-chamber also in the up¬ 
 per part. But the fallacy of this position is clearly 
 shown from the example of Odysseus, who had his 
 marriage-chamber built around a fig-tree found in the 
 herkos (inclosure) ; or, in other words, his rear court, 
 and had the fig-tree made into a bed. Indeed, we 
 surmise from this that this chamber was situated be¬ 
 hind the thalamos^ and communicated with it by a 
 
58 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 door, which, although nowhere mentioned, must have 
 been opposite to the one leading into the doma. 
 
 The principal passages in Homer agree with the 
 aforementioned arrangement. Thus : 
 
 “. . . Meantime Achilles slept 
 Within the tent’s recess, and by him lay 
 Phorbas’s daughter, whom he carried off 
 From Lesbos—Diomede, rosy-cheeked. 
 
 “ And now the twain withdrew to a recess 
 Deep in the vaulted cave, where, side by side. 
 
 They took their rest.” 
 
 “ While, in the inner room of that tall pile. 
 
 The monarch slumbered on a bed of state. 
 
 Decked for him by the labors of his queen.” 
 
 “. . . Meanwhile the son 
 Of Atreus lay within an inner room 
 Of that magnificent pile, and near to him 
 The glorious lady, long-robed Helen, slept.” 
 
 The Rooms in the Court. —The sons and rela¬ 
 tives of the family had a particular place assigned to 
 them in the house : 
 
 “ And then he came to Priam’s noble hall,— 
 
 A palace built with graceful porticos. 
 
 And fifty chambers near each other, walled 
 With polished stone, the rooms of Priam’s sons 
 And of their wives; and opposite to these 
 Twelve chambers for his daughters, also near 
 Each other; and, with polished marble walls. 
 
 The sleeping-rooms of Priam’s sons-in-law 
 And their unblemished consorts.” 
 
THE ROOMS IN THE COURT, 
 
 59 
 
 These rooms seem to have been placed on both 
 sides of the court; yet a few commentators express 
 doubts as to this. Eggers claims that the rooms were 
 placed in the hall or vestibule, some on the right and 
 others on the left of the entrance. But how can this 
 be ? Fifty rooms near one another on one side of the 
 house and twelve on the other ! This is antagonistic 
 to the laws of symmetry, inasmuch as thus the width 
 of the house becomes monstrous. Again, Homer 
 clearly says, within the court,” which was suffi¬ 
 ciently long to allow fifty rooms to be built on one 
 side of it, and twelve opposite to these; no unsymme¬ 
 try thus existed, inasmuch as the surrounding wall de¬ 
 fined the form of the court, and its regularity in no¬ 
 wise depended upon the greater or less number of the 
 rooms. 
 
 Our position is the more reasonable, when we 
 consider, as it will hereafter be shown, that these 
 rooms were built, not when the house was originally 
 erected, but by each member of the family, imme¬ 
 diately after his marriage. 
 
 In like manner we see the sons and sons-in-law 
 of Nestor setting out from the doma and proceeding 
 to their homes, i. e., each to his particular chamber. 
 Telemachos, also, had such a room : 
 
 “ While to his lofty chamber, in full view, 
 
 Built high in that magnificent palace home, 
 
6o 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 Telemachus went up, and sought his couch, 
 
 Intent on many thoughts.” 
 
 When he retires, we find him going forth from the 
 main building, and returning to it in the morning: 
 
 “. . . Telemachus 
 
 Rose from his bed, in presence like a god, 
 
 Put on his garments, hung his trenchant sword 
 Upon his shoulder, tied to his fair feet 
 The shapely sandals, took his massive spear 
 Tipped with sharp brass, and, stopping as he reached 
 The threshold, spake to Eurycleia thus.” 
 
 The Tholos, or the Vault. —To complete what 
 ' has be'en said concerning the house, the mention 
 of the vault seems imperative. The tholos^ like the 
 orsothyre, is only once mentioned, and consequently 
 affords ample opportunity for conjecture. In pre¬ 
 paring to hang the faithless maid-servants. Telema¬ 
 chos stretched a rope, one end of which he tied 
 upon the wall of the court, and the other, as Homer 
 says, “he wound about the vault.” We learn there¬ 
 by that the vault was placed in the court, inasmuch 
 as the hanging took place there, but we are still igno¬ 
 rant of its use. Payne, Knight, and Hirt, suppose that 
 the vault contained the bath-house, and this supposi¬ 
 tion is perhaps due to the shape of the vault. But 
 it has been noticed that, whenever any one is men¬ 
 tioned as bathing, he is said to do this in a room 
 near the entrance. Schreiber thinks that in the 
 
THE KEYS. 
 
 6l 
 
 vault was placed the kitchen. But this view is also 
 erroneous, inasmuch, as we shall hereafter notice, no 
 kitchen existed in the Homeric house, and the meals 
 were prepared upon the hearth. Others, again, main¬ 
 tain that the vault was, according to the expression 
 of one of them, “ a spot which is hard to be named," 
 and which must have existed somewhere in the house. 
 Against this comical opinion w^e have nothing to say, 
 though it seems improbable that such a spot was 
 adorned with pillars ; and, in fact, we prefer in this 
 case the explanation offered by the old scholiasts. 
 Hysichius says, The vault was really a room wherein 
 were placed the banquet-utensils." Eustathius says, 
 “The vault was a round building, in which were 
 placed the useful utensils, such as plates, goblets, and 
 drinking-cups. 
 
 The Keys. —We learn from many passages that 
 the doors during the Homeric epoch were locked with 
 keys, but of what sort they were to this day remains 
 doubtful, inasmuch as the poet everywhere uses the 
 following obscure expression : 
 
 “. . . She loosed 
 
 With a quick touch the thong that held the ring, 
 
 Put in the key, and with a careful aim 
 Struck back the sounding bolts." 
 
 The key which Penelope is said to have used was 
 
 made of brass, and had an ivory handle: 
 
 4 
 
62 
 
 THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 “So she climbed the lofty stair. 
 
 Up from the hall, and took in her plump hand 
 The fair carved key ; its wards were wrought of brass. 
 And ivory was the handle.” 
 
 The key, according to all probability, was a sort 
 of metallic hook, just fitting into the key-hole, and 
 fashioned exactly after its shape—wherefore its se¬ 
 curity. First of all, a leathern strap was loosened, 
 which covered the aforementioned key-hole, for what 
 reason is not known. When the key entered, there 
 seems to have been drawn by the hook itself some 
 inside bolt, and thus the door was opened, which 
 then creaked according to the expression of the poet: 
 
 ^‘... As when a bull 
 
 Roars in the field, such sound the beautiful doors. 
 Struck with the key, gave forth, and instantly 
 They opened to her.” 
 
 According to some scholiasts, by this simile is 
 meant that then, as in the classical times, the doors 
 were opened toward the outside, and were so con¬ 
 structed that they creaked in order to give informa¬ 
 tion to the passer-by. 
 
MAN, 
 
 83 
 
 thus expresses himself: “ There are three relations 
 essential to household authority—that of the master, 
 the husband, and the father. • A husband should rule 
 over his wife and children, without forgetting their 
 proper freedom. He should rule the former politi¬ 
 cally, the latter royally. . Different is the way that a 
 master governs his slaves, the husband his wife, and 
 the father his children. The slave does not have the 
 privilege of counseling, while the wife and the chil¬ 
 dren, to some degree, necessarily possess it.” 
 
 It is evident that the above relations are positively 
 different from those existing among the savage Ky- 
 klops, where the man was absolute ruler both of his 
 family and dependents. 
 
 The above description of Aristotle is closely appli¬ 
 cable to the Homeric epoch. The gentleness and no¬ 
 bleness of family ties in Hellas, in an epoch when the 
 rest of the world was steeped in barbarism, form one 
 of the most remarkable pages in the social history of 
 Greece. 
 
 The Homeric hero was the admitted head of the 
 house and of the family. He administered justice, 
 attended to outside matters, and looked after the 
 common interests of all. A strong feeling of love 
 bound him to his wife and children, and he was 
 equally loved by them in return. In time of war he 
 left with sorrow his beloved family, to obey the voice 
 
84 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 of his country, and in peace his household interests 
 were his principal care. Hunting, bodily exercise, and 
 political duties, occupied a secondary place. 
 
 Before his marriage, the Homeric hero filled also 
 an important position, and in the absence of his father 
 assumed the direction of the household. At times 
 he exercised himself in the art of war, and often spent 
 his leisure in hunting. Thus Telemachos, during the 
 long absence of his father Odysseus, though only just 
 entering manhood, was recognized as the chief of the 
 family, and his mother, the wise Penelope, first of all 
 respected his authority. 
 
 On the other hand, the liberal pursuits were in no 
 wise neglected. In a hero, not only bodily strength 
 and dexterity were honored, but eloquence and wis¬ 
 dom were pre-eminently esteemed. In order that one 
 might be called a perfect man,” he should be 
 
 “In words an orator, in warlike deeds 
 An actor.” 
 
 Nestor was called happy because he had brave 
 and intelligent sons. On the other hand, Elpenor was 
 blamed for being deprived of these necessary advan¬ 
 tages. Dancing, and the other refining amusements 
 by which grace and eloquence are gained, were much 
 cultivated: 
 
 “ Stranger, thou speakest not becomingly, 
 
 But like a man who recks not what he says. 
 
IVOMAN'. 
 
 85 
 
 The gods bestow not equally on all 
 
 The gifts that men desire,—the grace of form, 
 
 The mind, the eloquence.” 
 
 It must be understood that in the above re¬ 
 marks we have in view the higher classes of society. 
 The laborer was, as a matter of course, occupied with 
 his work, and the artificer with his craft. The family- 
 relations, however, remained unchanged, and the pa¬ 
 terfamilias exercised the same authority, whether he 
 lived in a palace or in a hut. King or herdsman, he 
 was the center about which turned all the family rela¬ 
 tions, and to which all looked, not with fear, but with 
 love and reverence. 
 
 Woman. —It has already been noticed that the con¬ 
 dition of woman during the Homeric times, and the 
 relation of the two sexes, reveal a refined and cultivated 
 people, and suffice to cause this nation to be pre-emi¬ 
 nently distinguished from any other of the same period. 
 
 To the keen eye of the philosophy of history, all 
 the future glories of Hellenism become clearly mani¬ 
 fest from the most pan-archaic times, through the un¬ 
 erring characteristics of a people possessing all the 
 seeds of the highest civilization. Nevertheless, phi¬ 
 lologists, instead of just praises, instead of unalloyed 
 admiration, severely attack the Homeric period, and 
 call the family relations of those years barbarous and 
 uncivilized. 
 
 5 
 
86 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 It is a wonder, in fact, how men of great scholar¬ 
 ship and of world-wide wisdom have so much de¬ 
 parted from truth, and how, having before them the 
 pictures of Andromache, Penelope, and Arete, they 
 have felt no scruple in saying that the women were 
 nothing more at that time than slaves, held for the 
 gratification of lust, that they looked with trembling 
 on their husbands, like the numerous concubines of 
 an Ottoman pasha, and that their existence was a 
 continued imprisonment and suffering in the wo¬ 
 men’s apartments, similar to the life in an Eastern 
 harem. 
 
 The statement seems incredible, yet it is a fact 
 that such an opinion has been expressed by De Paw, 
 Meiners, Tholuck, and R. Wood. TruthTlmw?^ 
 ' has had its deiendefi” also, and. Though few in num¬ 
 ber, they proved themselves not unworthy of their 
 task. Among these defenders we mention especially 
 Jacobs, who replied to Tholuck; and Lenz, who re¬ 
 futed the statements of Wood. 
 
 The authors who have written on the women of 
 the classical period lie beyond the circle of our 
 theme. Suffice to say that it is incontestable, though 
 extremely difficult to explain, that civilization not 
 only made no progress whatever in this direction, 
 from the eighth to the fourth century B. c., but ap¬ 
 pears even to have soniewhat retrograded. Becker, 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 87 
 
 in his addition to the Charikles " of Hermann, con¬ 
 ceals to the best of his ability this'truth, but his very 
 efforts are a proof that he recognizes it. 
 
 (^The principal censure attached to the Homeric 
 women is, that they were deemed “ lower beings,” liv¬ 
 ing in isolation, and wholly without the respect of 
 their husbands. Nevertheless, facts are opposed to 
 this position, and in many ways the consideration and 
 the honor rendered to women become manifest. The 
 entire Odyssey ” is nothing but a eulogistic hymn of 
 Penelope, while her husband, in the arms of the god¬ 
 dess, has his mind repeatedly directed to his lawful 
 
 consort, whom he justly honors and worships. And 
 what of Andromache ? Could there exist anything 
 more charming than her relations with Hektor, and 
 is there anywhere mentioned conjugal love purer, 
 more ardent, and more lasting ? Hektor and Astya- 
 nax, the husband and the child, these are the world 
 for the young wife. Yet this best of all motherly love, 
 in this particular case, is only of secondary impor¬ 
 tance, and Andromache cherishes her child rather as 
 the living pledge of her conjugal love. Now, while 
 thus loving, how is she loved in return ? The battle 
 was raging on the field before Ilion, and the Trojans 
 were about to be defeated, and if there was one bar¬ 
 rier to the mad onset of the victors—one powerful 
 barrier—it was Hektor. But where was that famous 
 
88 
 
 THE 'FAMILY. 
 
 hero ? Hektor, whom his endangered country called, 
 that unconquerable warrior, the only hope of the de¬ 
 feated, forgot at that moment his country and honor, 
 and only remembered that he was a husband and a 
 father. Andromache having rushed forth with the 
 infant Astyanax, as soon as the extreme danger be¬ 
 came evident, used every possible allurement to de¬ 
 tain the hero from the battle, of the result of which 
 she had ominous forebodings. He wavered and seemed 
 to see Troy captured, his child an orphan in the hands 
 of cruel conquerors, and his beloved consort, his 
 queen, carried off a slave to foreign climes, dishon¬ 
 ored, and paying by long years of suffering for her 
 brief happiness. He finally breaks away from her lov¬ 
 ing embraces, and rushes where the contest was most 
 hotly fought. The thought that his absence renders 
 still more terrible the danger, inasmuch as he is the 
 best defender of the women and children, urges him on. 
 Hereupon is unfolded by the Skaean gates that heart¬ 
 rending scene of departure that none can read with¬ 
 out being moved. It can not be possible that De Paw 
 and Wood could have had that picture before them 
 when they censured the epoch so harshly. Now, in 
 reminding them of, one expression only of the forsaken 
 wife, we ask whether in it is not found, not only the 
 evidences of a pure and constant affection, but a 
 whole world of love and devotion?— 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 89 
 
 “ Too brave! Thy valor yet will cause thy death. 
 Thou hast no pity on thy tender child. 
 
 Nor me, unhappy one, who soon must be 
 Thy widow ! . . . 
 
 ... A happier lot were mine. 
 
 If I must lose thee, to go down to earth. 
 
 For I shall have no hope when thou art gone,— 
 Nothing but sorrow. Father have I none. 
 
 And no dear mother. Great Achilles slew 
 My father when he sacked the populous town 
 
 Of the Cilicians,—Thebd with high gates. 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 Seven brothers had I in my father’s house. 
 
 And all went down to Hades in one day. 
 
 . . . Hector, thou 
 
 Art father and dear mother now to me. 
 
 And brother, and my youthful spouse besides. 
 In pity keep within the fortress here. 
 
 Nor make thy child an orphan nor thy wife 
 A widow.” 
 
 I 
 
 ‘ Besides this conjugal love, women obtained no 
 small share of esteem and reverence from the world 
 at large. Queen Arete, of the Phaekeans, is wor¬ 
 shiped by all the members of her household, and is 
 honored as a goddess by her subjects. When she ap¬ 
 peared on the street, long-continued shouts followed 
 her. Even in public discussions she took part, ap¬ 
 peasing the passions and offering valuable advice. It 
 was to her that Odysseus, by preference, applied when 
 he sought shelterjt 
 
90 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 “ . . . Then did Ulysses clasp 
 Arete’s knees.” 
 
 And he did this because, according to the words of 
 her daughter Nausikaa— 
 
 “. . . If her mood 
 
 Be kindly toward thee, thou mayst hope to greet 
 Thy friends once more, and enter yet again 
 Thy own fair palace in thy native land.” 
 
 »-Hekabe likewise was loved and honored by the 
 people. So great, also, was the trust reposed in the 
 virtue of woman, and such was the confidence she 
 ' enjoyed, that, even when she failed, the gods were 
 deemed rather the ones to have been guilty, or at 
 least the immediate cause of drawing her from the 
 path of virtue. Helen scorns her very self, because 
 she brought shame upon her sex : 
 
 . Hast thou seen, perhaps. 
 
 That Menelaus, having overpowered 
 The noble Alexander, seeks to bear 
 Me, hated as I must be, to his home ? ” 
 
 Common opinion, however, casts the blame on 
 Paris, who becomes an ^ect of aversion, deserving 
 of divine punishment: / 
 
 “ . . . I am* sad at heart to hear 
 The Trojans—they, who suffer for thy sake 
 A thousand hardships—speak so ill of thee.” 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 91 
 
 The aged Priam, out of love for his son, says that 
 the gods are deserving of blame, for they are the 
 cause of so many misfortunes : 
 
 “. . . I blame thee not; 
 
 The blame is with the immortals, who have sent 
 The pestilent Greeks against me." 
 
 Virtuous Penelope herself defends the guilty one : 
 
 “ The Argive Helen, child of Jupiter, 
 
 Would ne’er have listened to a stranger’s suit 
 And loved him, had she known that in the years 
 To come, the warlike Greeks would bring her back 
 To her own land. It was a deity 
 Who prompted her to that foul wrong.” 
 
 r. 
 
 How preposterous the idea of the imprisonment of 
 woman in the women’s apartments is, becomes evident 
 from the fact that no such thing is mentioned any¬ 
 where in the Homeric poems, while there are many 
 definite passages in which we see the women freely 
 mingling among the men. If the rich had private 
 rooms, wherein they busied themselves with their 
 maid-servants in household occupations, it does not 
 follow that they lived isolated. Indeed, their con¬ 
 tinuous presence in the doma would have been un¬ 
 becoming, where the king or the ruler received his 
 guests and occupied himself with the public affairs. 
 Exactly the same condition of things exists at this 
 day.' 
 
92 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 The women went back and forth from the palace 
 at pleasure. We find this expressly stated of Hekabe, 
 Arete, and Andromache. Indeed, at the Skaean gate 
 gathered a whole assemblage of women and maidens 
 to learn as quickly as possible news from the battle, 
 and the fate of their relatives and friends : 
 
 And now had Hector reached the Scaean gates 
 And beechen tree. Around him flocked the wives 
 And daughters of the Trojans eagerly; 
 
 Tidings of sons and daughters they required, 
 
 And friends, and husbands.” 
 
 In like manner, the women hasten to view the 
 body of Hektor, brought back by Priam : 
 
 “ ‘ O Trojan men and women, hasten forth 
 To look on Hector, if ye e’er rejoiced 
 To see him coming from the field alive. 
 
 The pride of Troy, and all who dwell in him !' 
 
 She spake, and suddenly was neither man 
 Nor woman left within the city bounds.” 
 
 / 
 
 'That the maidens frequented the streets is evident, 
 not only from the above passages, but also from the 
 /example of Nausikaa, who, accompanied by her maid* 
 Servants, carried to the shore the clothing of the fam¬ 
 ily. ) The daughters even of Keleos, King of Eleusis, 
 in the hymn to Demeter, go forth from the well, and 
 on their return meet with the goddess Demeter her¬ 
 self, whom the princesses find sitting by the road, un- 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 93 
 
 der the garb of an old beggar-woman. The wife, 
 accompanied by a friend or servant, went freely about 
 the streets. Thus Helen goes with Deiphobos to see 
 the wooden horse: 
 
 “ . . . Thou earnest to the place 
 Moved, as it seemed, by some divinity 
 Who thought to give the glory of the day 
 To Troy. Deiphobus, the godlike chief. 
 
 Was with thee." 
 
 It would appear, also, that the women exchanged 
 visits. Hektor finds Hekabe on her way to visit her 
 daughter Laodike: 
 
 “. . . There he met 
 His gentle mother on her way to seek 
 Her fairest child, Laodice.” 
 
 r 
 
 (To Penelope appears in a dream her sister Iph- 
 theme, who seldom visited her, as she was living at a 
 great distance ; but this fact shows, nevertheless, that 
 such visits were made^ 
 
 “ Why, sister, art thou here, who ne'er before 
 Hast come to me ? The home is far away 
 In which thou dwellest. Thou exhortest me 
 To cease from grieving, and to lay aside 
 The painful thoughts that crowd into my mind 
 And torture me who have already lost 
 A noble-minded, lion-hearted spouse. 
 
 One eminent among Achaia’s sons 
 
 For every virtue, and whose fame was spread 
 
 Through Hellas and through Argos." 
 
94 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 In like manner the daughter of Dymas, the friend 
 and playmate of Nausikaa, appears to her in sleep : 
 
 “. . . But Pallas came 
 As comes a breath of air, and stood beside 
 The damsel’s head and spake. In look she seemed 
 The daughter of the famous mariner, 
 
 Dymas, a maiden whom Nausicaa loved, 
 
 The playmate of her girlhood.” 
 
 The hospitality which the master and the mis¬ 
 tress lavished on their visitors we see in the visit of 
 Thetis to Charis, the wife of Hephaestos : 
 
 “. . . Charis, of the snowy veil, 
 
 The beautiful, whom the great god of fire, 
 
 Vulcan, had made his wife, beheld, and came 
 Forward to meet her, seized her hand and said: 
 
 * O Thetis of the flowing robe, beloved 
 
 And honored, what has brought thee to our home ? 
 
 Thou dost not often visit us. Come in, 
 
 That I may pay the honors due a guest.’ ” 
 
 But although the Homeric women freely went out 
 from their homes, it was within them that they 
 found their peculiar sphere. As wife, mother, and 
 mistress, the consort of the Flomeric hero watched 
 and directed her household affairs, assigned to the 
 slaves their work, and paid attention to the faith¬ 
 ful discharge of their duties. During the hours of 
 toil, she occupied herself in weaving and embroider¬ 
 ing, instructing the ignorant among her maid-servants. 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 95 
 
 and directing the others. It was in these occupations 
 that the Homeric women particularly excelled ; and 
 their work in this respect is minutely described^ 
 Thus Helen made a peplum on which were repre¬ 
 sented the achievements of the Trojans and of the 
 Greeks: 
 
 “. . . Helen stood 
 
 Beside the coffers where the embroidered robes 
 Wrought by her hands were laid. The glorious dame 
 Took one and brought it forth, most beautiful 
 In needle-work, and amplest of them all: 
 
 The garment glittered like a star, and lay 
 Below the other robes. . . .” 
 
 “. . . Rosy Helen, holding up 
 The robe, drew near, and spake to him and said: 
 
 ‘ I also bring to thee, dear son, a gift. 
 
 The work of Helen’s hands, which thou shalt keep 
 In memory of her, until the day 
 Of thy desired espousals, when thy bride 
 Shall wear it.’ ” 
 
 A similar peplum^ though not so wonderful, An¬ 
 dromache wove: 
 
 “. . . She sat 
 
 In a recess of those magnificent halls. 
 
 And wove a twofold web of brilliant hues. 
 
 On which were scattered flowers of rare device.” 
 
 Also Athene : 
 
 “ Then Pallas, daughter of the god who bears 
 The aegis, on her father’s palace-floor 
 Let fall in dainty folds her flowing robe 
 Of many colors, wrought by her own hand.” 
 
96 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 In similar work Arete was also occupied: 
 
 “ . . . Her mother sat 
 Beside the hearth with her attendant maids, 
 
 And turned the distaff loaded with a fleece." 
 
 Athene herself is reported to have given the Phae- 
 kean women skill in handiwork and beautiful design: 
 
 “ . . . Some wove the web 
 Or twirled the spindle, sitting, with a quick 
 Light motion, like the aspen’s glancing leaves. 
 
 The well-wrought tissues glistened as with oil. 
 
 As far as the Phaeacian race excel 
 In guiding their swift galleys o’er the deep. 
 
 So far the women in their woven work 
 Surpass all others.’’ 
 
 According to Hesiod, there existed a superstition 
 that a certain day was the best for such works. In 
 fact, all the fine, soft linen, the garments of the men, 
 the carpets, the abundance of which has already been 
 mentioned, and all beautiful ornaments, the wife her¬ 
 self wrought, assisted by her maid-servants. The rich¬ 
 est pepla were partly dedicated to the gods and partly 
 given as presents by a daughter to her father, or by a 
 wife to her husband. Meiners justly remarks, “ The 
 dress which Andromache gave to him was especially 
 dear to Hektor, as it was a proof of her love for him." 
 Many a time, also, such dresses were kept from genera¬ 
 tion to generation, and were counted among the family 
 treasures. The following verses which Telemachos 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 97 
 
 addresses to Penelope, and Hektor to Andromache, 
 present a brief picture of the duties and labors of the 
 women: 
 
 “. . . ‘Now withdraw 
 Into thy chamber; ply thy household tasks, 
 
 The loom, the spindle ; bid thy maidens speed 
 Their work.’ ” 
 
 One of the chief occupations of women was the 
 education of their children, and above all of the 
 daughters, who learned everything from their mother. 
 They were, indeed, under her immediate care, that 
 they might themselves one day become good mothers 
 and housekeepers, and for this they needed no better 
 instructor. 
 
 The women also left the family circle in order to 
 take parts in certain feasts, either religious or social: 
 
 “ ... At once the daughters of the king, 
 
 And his sons’ wives, and Queen Eurydic6, 
 
 Nestor’s chaste wife, and daughter eldest bom 
 Of Clymenus, broke forth in shrilly cries.” 
 
 In like manner, Hekabe, with the other women of 
 Ilion, brings to the Akropolis a peplutn to Athene, and 
 sacrifices twelve bullocks in behalf of the city: 
 
 “ . . . ‘ But, Hector, thou depart 
 To Troy, and seek the mother of us both. 
 
 And bid her call the honored Trojan dames 
 To where the blue-eyed Pallas has her fane, 
 
98 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 In the high citadel, and with a key 
 Open the hallowed doors, and let her bring 
 What she shall deem the fairest of the robes, 
 And amplest, in her palace, and the one 
 She prizes most, and lay it on the knees 
 Of the bright-haired Minerva. Let her make 
 A vow to offer to the goddess there 
 Twelve yearling heifers that have never borne 
 The yoke, if she in mercy will regard 
 The city, and the wives and little ones 
 Of its defenders ; if she will protect 
 Our sacred Ilium from the ruthless son 
 Of Tydeus, from whose valor armies flee. 
 
 And whom I deem the bravest of the Greeks.’ ” 
 
 The women, of course, took part in the dances 
 which accompanied these feasts, and Hermes is said 
 on such an occasion to have fallen in love with Poly- 
 
 mele: 
 
 “. . . For once 
 
 The mighty Argus-queller saw the maid 
 Among the choir of those who danced and sang 
 At Dian’s festival, the huntress-queen, 
 
 Who bears the golden shafts ; he saw and loved 
 And, climbing to her chamber, met by stealth 
 The damsel, and she bore a gallant son, 
 Eudorus, swift of foot and brave in war." 
 
 Likewise Odysseus says to Nausikaa that thrice 
 happy will her parents and brothers be— 
 
 “ Beholding such a scion of their house 
 Enter the choral dance." 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 99 
 
 It was at such feasts especially that the two sexes 
 met and freely conversed, while both young men and 
 young maidens danced. An instance of such a dance 
 is furnished to us in the embellishment on the shield 
 of Achilles; young men and young maidens danced 
 with the arms joined together. Elsewhere, they ap¬ 
 pear turning round in a circle, and again dancing 
 one opposite the other. Two excellent choristers 
 sang, and a divine musician played on a lute, the old¬ 
 est stringed instrument of the Greeks. The maidens 
 wore transparent veils and wreaths of flowers, while 
 the young men carried golden, short swords: 
 
 "... Blooming youths 
 And lovely virgins, tripping to light airs, 
 
 Held fast each other’s wrists. The maidens wore 
 Fine linen robes ; the youths had tunics on 
 Lustrous as oil, and woven daintily. 
 
 The maids wore wreaths of flowers, the young men 
 swords 
 
 Of gold, in silver belts. They bounded now 
 In a swift circle. . . . 
 
 "... Then again they crossed 
 Each other, darting to their former place. 
 
 A multitude around that joyous dance 
 Gathered, and were amused, while from the crowd 
 Two tumblers raised their song, and flung themselves 
 About among the band that trod the dance." 
 
 Compared with the married women, the maidens 
 of course had much less liberty, but those who think 
 
lOO 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 that they were kept under lock and key in the upper 
 rooms, and were ignorant of what transpired about 
 them, are greatly in error. 
 
 Such an opinion is in every respect fallacious. 
 Not only did they form the very life of the household, 
 dearly loving their parents and brothers and being 
 
 I 
 
 dearly loved in return, but they had special work as¬ 
 signed to them, and a special round of amusements. 
 
 Nausikaa lived with two maid-servants in the upper 
 rooms, but was certainly not restricted to them. On 
 the contrary, she had hardly risen, when we find her 
 on her way to meet her father, addressing him in the 
 words of charming infancy, “Dear papa.” Athene, 
 having appeared to her in a dream, under the guise 
 of her friend the daughter of Dymas, advised her to 
 wash the garments of the family in the river, inas¬ 
 much as the happy hour of her marriage was at hand; 
 but the modest maiden, not mentioning the true cause, 
 assigns as her reason for going to the river the neces¬ 
 sity of cleansing the garments that her father might 
 “ appear at councils in vestments fresh and stainless.” 
 She adds: 
 
 “ . . . Thou hast also in these halls 
 Five sons, two wedded, three in boyhood's bloom. 
 
 And ever in the dance they need attire. 
 
 New from the wash.” 
 
 But Alkinoos understood his daughter’s true mo¬ 
 tive, and forthwith ordered the chariot to be made 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 lOI 
 
 ready according to her desire. In it was placed the 
 linen, and the mother of Nausikaa also put in a basket 
 “ full of many pleasant meats and flavored morsels for 
 the day’s repast.” Then we are told that Nausikaa 
 took— 
 
 “ The scourge and showy reins, and struck the mules 
 To urge them onward ”— 
 
 with a daring befitting man, and at the same time 
 with maidenly grace, drove the mules toward the 
 beach— 
 
 “ . . . Yet not alone, 
 
 For with her went the maidens of her train.” 
 
 Now let us follow her in this expedition, and let us 
 make a closer acquaintance with this charming Ho¬ 
 meric maiden, the ancestress of the pretty maidens of 
 Kerkyra of to-day. There is no description in either 
 poem that sheds fuller light upon the customs and 
 habits of the epoch. 
 
 Musing on these wonderful lines, one forgets the 
 present, and imagines that he sees before him Alkinoos 
 and Arete. Following the course of the chariot con¬ 
 taining the fair-haired princess and her blooming at¬ 
 tendants, one directs his steps toward that part of 
 the island where to-day stretches the broad square, 
 and, doubling the ancient harbor, approaches the 
 beach and enjoys the charming spectacle. 
 
 First the clothes are cleansed in the river and are 
 
102 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 spread upon the beach, in the hot rays of the sun. 
 After this the maidens bathe, and anoint themselves 
 with a fragrant oil which Nausikaa’s mother gave 
 her : 
 
 “ As her daughter climbed 
 The car, she gave into her hands a cruse 
 Of gold with smooth anointing oil for her 
 And her attendant maids.” 
 
 Afterward they sup upon the border of the river, 
 and, having finished, they cast the ball, while the 
 white-armed Nausikaa sings: 
 
 "... As when the archer-queen 
 Diana, going forth among the hills,— 
 
 The sides of high Taygetus or slopes 
 
 Of Eurymanthus,—chases joyously 
 
 Boars and fleet stags, and round her in a throng 
 
 Frolic the rural nymphs, Latona's heart 
 
 Is glad, for over all the rest are seen 
 
 Her daughter’s head and brow, and she at once 
 
 Is known among them, though they all are fair. 
 
 Such was this spotless virgin ’midst her maids.” 
 
 But, while these things were transpiring, there was 
 another looker-on, the blue-eyed Athene, and by her 
 will the ball thrown by Nausikaa to one of her maid- 
 attendants— 
 
 “ . . . missed and fell into the stream 
 Where a deep eddy whirled. All shrieked aloud.” 
 
 The noise awoke the wandering hero Odysseus, 
 who was sleeping near by upon the beach, ignorant 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 103 
 
 whether he had been cast by the waves upon a land 
 of savages or of hospitable men, who hold the gods 
 in reverence ? 
 
 “. . . There are voices in the air, 
 
 Womanly voices as of nymphs that haunt 
 The mountain-summits and the river-founts, 
 
 And the moist, grassy meadows." 
 
 He advances through the thick foliage: 
 
 “ Then like a mountain-lion he went forth. 
 
 That walks abroad, confiding in his strength. 
 
 In rain and wind ; his eyes shoot fire; he falls 
 On oxen, or on sheep, or forest-deer,— 
 
 For hunger prompts him even to attack 
 The flock within its closely guarded fold. 
 
 Such seemed Ulysses when about to meet 
 Those fair-haired maidens." 
 
 Odysseus, on noticing the young girls, stood amazed, 
 but they at his sudden apparition scattered in fear, 
 not because the sight of man was unusual to them, 
 but because the dress of the shipwrecked Odysseus 
 resembled in every respect that of our ancestor Adam : 
 
 “ Such seemed Ulysses when about to meet 
 Those fair-haired maidens, naked as he was. 
 
 But forced by strong necessity. To them 
 His look was frightful, for his limbs were foul 
 With sea-foam yet. To right and left they fled 
 Along the jutting river-banks." 
 
 Nausikaa alone remained— 
 
104 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 “ For Pallas gave her courage, and forbade 
 Her limbs to tremble.” 
 
 Inborn modesty urged her also at first to seek flight, 
 but, having noticed that the one standing before her « 
 was an unfortunate man in need of aid, she set aside 
 all other feelings, and remained, in obedience to the 
 voice of her philanthropic heart. What gentleness 
 and refinement of character ! To common maid-serv¬ 
 ants foolish flight is permitted, but not to the pru¬ 
 dent princess, whose stay not only does not wound the 
 sentiment of shame, but inspires reverence. Odysseus 
 remained silent before the charming maiden, ponder¬ 
 ing— 
 
 “ . . . whether to approach 
 The bright-eyed damsel and embrace her knees 
 And supplicate, or, keeping yet aloof. 
 
 Pray her with soothing words to show the way 
 Townward, and give him garments.” 
 
 Finally he decided— 
 
 “ ... to keep at distance still. 
 
 And use soft words, lest, should he clasp her knees, 
 
 The maid might be displeased.” 
 
 He addresses her with graceful flattery, to which 
 the maidens of to-day would hardly turn a deaf ear: 
 
 “ ‘ O queen, I am thy suppliant, whether thou 
 Be mortal or a goddess. If perchance 
 Thou art of that immortal race who dwell 
 In the broad heaven, thou art, I deem, most like 
 
WOAfAN'. 
 
 105 
 
 To Dian, daughter of imperial Jove, 
 
 In shape, in stature, and in noble air. 
 
 If mortal, a dweller of the earth. 
 
 Thrice happy are thy father and his queen. 
 
 Thrice happy are thy brothers; and their hearts 
 Must overflow with gladness for thy sake. 
 
 Beholding such a scion of their house 
 Enter the choral dance. But happiest he 
 Beyond them all, who, bringing princely gifts. 
 
 Shall bear thee to his home a bride.' ” 
 
 After relating the various incidents of his wander¬ 
 ings, he finally asks for pity, adding : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ And may the gods vouchsafe 
 To thee whatever blessing thou canst wish! ’ ” 
 
 This prayer found a ready response in the heart 
 of the maiden, and, quickly calling her attendants, she 
 says : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Stay! whither do ye flee. 
 
 My handmaids, when a man appears in sight ? ' "— 
 
 and blames them for their ill-timed fear, saying—ten 
 whole centuries before Christianity— 
 
 “ . . . ‘ This man comes to us 
 A wanderer and unhappy, and to him 
 Our cares are due. The stranger and the poor 
 Are sent by Jove, and slight regards to them 
 Are grateful.' " 
 
 She gives the necessary orders that the stranger 
 should receive whatever he might need; 
 
io6 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 “. . . ‘ Maidens, give the stranger food 
 And drink, and take him to the river-side 
 To bathe where there is shelter from the wind.’" 
 
 The handmaids execute this command, bearing to 
 Odysseus a cloak, a tunic, and a golden cruse of limpid 
 oil; but the modest hero asks them to retire : 
 
 “ ‘ Withdraw, ye maidens, hence, while I prepare 
 To cleanse my shoulders from the bitter brine. 
 
 And to anoint them; long have these my limbs 
 Been unrefreshed by oil. I will not bathe 
 Before you. I should be ashamed to stand 
 Unclothed in presence of these bright-haired maids.’ ” 
 
 After having 
 
 Washed the salt spray of ocean from his back 
 And his broad shoulders in the flowing stream, 
 
 And wiped away the sea-froth from his brows ”— 
 
 he anointed himself, and put on 
 
 “ The garments sent him by the spotless maid.” 
 
 He arranged his hair— 
 
 “ Curling like blossoms of the hyacinth,” 
 
 ■ and then appeared in all his manly beauty: 
 
 " And, glorious in his beauty and the pride 
 Of noble bearing, sat aloof.” 
 
 Nausikaa wondered at the sudden transformation, 
 and in her innocence wishes that Fate might give her 
 such a husband : 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 lOJ 
 
 “. . . When food was placed before him, 
 
 The patient chief Ulysses ate and drank 
 Full eagerly, for he had fasted long.” 
 
 After this they again yoked “ the firm-hoofed 
 mules ” which were guided under “ the shining 
 scourge ” of the princess, while the handmaids fol¬ 
 lowed on foot with Ulysses. 
 
 Thus far matters stood well “ in the fields ” ; but 
 the sight of the stranger, walking with the maids in 
 the streets of the city would have furnished scandal¬ 
 mongers food for talk, a thing which the modest prin¬ 
 cess justly feared: 
 
 “. . . I would not bring 
 Rude taunts upon myself, for in the crowd 
 Are brutal men. One of the baser sort 
 Perchance, might say, on meeting us : * What man. 
 Handsome and lusty-limbed, is he who thus 
 Follows Nausicaa? Where was it her luck 
 To find him ? Will he be her husband yet ? ’ ” 
 
 Again, others would say: 
 
 “ ‘ Perhaps she brings some wanderer from his ship, 
 
 A stranger from strange lands; for we have here 
 No neighbors; or, perhaps, it is a god 
 Called down, by fervent prayer, from heaven, to dwell 
 Henceforth with her ! 'Tis well if she have found 
 A husband elsewhere, since at home she meets 
 Her many noble wooers with disdain; 
 
 They are Phaeacians.’ ” 
 
I 
 
 I 08 the family. 
 
 \ 
 
 She adds, “ Thus the crowd would say, and it 
 would bring reproach upon my name.” This, how¬ 
 ever, in no wise frightens Nausikaa. Near the wall 
 of the city there was a beautiful grove of poplars, 
 where a crystal brook flowed through a green mead¬ 
 ow. There she leaves the stranger as far from the 
 town as one could hear a shout,” until she might 
 reach the palace and prepare for his reception. This 
 inimitable picture was used as a powerful weapon by 
 writers bent on attacking the Homeric period. How 
 is it, they say, that the simple appearance of Nausikaa 
 in the streets with a stranger could suffice to call 
 forth such scandal ? Here is evident proof that the 
 maidens lived isolated and under strict surveillance. 
 But is it customary for young ladies to go about the 
 streets accompanied by utter strangers ? At any rate, 
 Nausikaa says : 
 
 “ ‘ I, too, would blame another who should do 
 The like, and while her parents were alive. 
 
 Without their knowledge should consort with men 
 Before her marriage.’ ” 
 
 ' Therefore, she regards it unbecoming to associate 
 with strangers, in the absence of her parents or 
 friends ; no one, however, was disposed to object to 
 such a meeting in the presence of her relatives. 
 
 Such are the results of a superficial examination 
 of facts. Reading for the first time the above pas- 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 109 
 
 sage, one discovers, perhaps, a certain apparently un¬ 
 necessary strictness toward the women—a strictness, 
 however, but little greater than that even now ex¬ 
 isting in many highly civilized European communi¬ 
 ties. A closer study of the scene will, however, re¬ 
 move w'hat might otherwise prove an erroneous im¬ 
 pression. He who treats of the social condition and 
 civilization of a certain epoch, has no right to base 
 his opinions upon isolated passages even of the most 
 distinguished authors. Only the careful study of all 
 the relations existing at the period under considera¬ 
 tion will furnish a correct understanding, and facili¬ 
 tate the just estimation of definite events. 
 
 The occupations of the maidens were about the 
 same as those of their mothers, with the exception 
 that the mistress had the general oversight and direc¬ 
 tion. As it has been elsewhere noticed, the daughters 
 of King Keleos went themselves to draw water from 
 the spring. So also the daughter of the king of the 
 Laestrigonians : 
 
 “ . . . On their way they met, 
 
 Before the town, a damsel with an ewer,— 
 
 The stately daughter of Antiphates, 
 
 The Laestrigonian, who was coming down 
 To where Artacia’s smoothly flowing fount 
 Gave water for the city.” 
 
 Nausikaa and her maid-servants washed the clothes 
 
 of the family. The mistress of the house herself 
 6 
 
no 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 shared in this duty; and we are told that near Troy 
 there existed springs of cold and warm water : 
 
 “ . . . They passed the Mount of View, 
 
 And the wind-beaten fig-tree, and they ran 
 Along the public way by which the wall 
 Was skirted, till they came where from the ground 
 The two fair springs of eddying Xanthus rise,— 
 
 One pouring a warm stream, from which ascends 
 And spreads a vapor like a smoke from fire; 
 
 The other, even in summer, sending forth 
 A current cold as hail, or snow, or ice; 
 
 And there were broad stone basins, fairly wrought. 
 
 At which, in time of peace, before the Greeks 
 
 Had landed on the plain, the Trojan dames 
 
 And their fair daughters washed their sumptuous robes.” 
 
 It appears that the maidens supped in their own 
 sleeping-rooms, and there the old nurse spread supper 
 for Nausikaa : 
 
 “ . . . ’Twas she who reared 
 White-armed Nausicaa in the royal halls. 
 
 Tended her hearth, and dressed her evening meal.” 
 
 This goes to show that the mistress of the house 
 ate with her husband, inasmuch as, otherwise, the 
 daughters would have shared the meal. It has al¬ 
 ready been noticed that such was really the case with 
 Helen and Penelope; elsewhere we find all the mem¬ 
 bers of the family of Aeolos—male and female—din¬ 
 ing together: 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 Ill 
 
 “ . . . ‘ I took a herald and a friend, 
 
 And, hastening to the sumptuous palace-halls 
 Of Aeolus, I found him with his wife 
 And children banqueting.' ” 
 
 Alkinoos also says to Odysseus: 
 
 “. . . ‘ Heed my words. 
 
 And speak of them within thy palace-halls 
 To other heroes when thou banquetest 
 Beside thy wife and children.’ ” 
 
 Beauty was the general characteristic of the Ho¬ 
 meric women ; and the poet speaks of “ Hellas, full 
 of lovely maids ” ; and of Achaia, famed for lovely 
 dames ” ; and of Sparta, “ the abode of lovely women.” 
 Other terms of praise are, “ the bright-eyed maidens,” 
 “ rosy-cheeked,” long-haired,” “ silver-footed,” etc. 
 
 The fact that the women preserved their beauty to 
 an advanced age is a convincing proof of the purity 
 of their life during that epoch. Penelope, although 
 long passed her girlhood, is surrounded by suitors ; 
 and, while she complains that her beauty has withered, 
 not through time, but on account of her sorrows, she 
 is, nevertheless, compared to Aphrodite and Artemis. 
 Helen, also, after her return from Troy, is called the 
 most beautiful of women. Meiners blames the Greeks 
 for having waged the entire Trojan war to recover a 
 woman—old and worn out—for such was Helen, he 
 says, at that time. He simply copies Lucian in this 
 opinion. But jesting is one of the characteristics 
 
II 2 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 of that author, and we are astonished that Meiners 
 should take seriously the pleasantries of Lucian. The 
 cause of the Trojan expedition was not the desire of 
 recovering the love-beguiled Helen, but the thirst to 
 avenge insulted honor. Again, Meiners is seriously 
 in error in calling Helen a worn-out old woman ; for, 
 after the capture of Troy, she was only about thirty 
 years old. Notice, also, the inimitable scene at the 
 Skaean gates, where we find the city fathers assembled, 
 and so much moved by the divine beauty of the ap¬ 
 proaching Helen, that they say that both they and 
 Troy were justly exposed to the fated destruction on 
 account of such a woman : 
 
 “ Small blame is theirs, if both the Trojan knights 
 And brazen-mailed Achaians have endured 
 So long so many evils for the sake 
 Of that one woman. She is wholly like 
 In feature to the deathless goddesses.” 
 
 Intelligence, wit, and vivacity in the women were 
 also much praised. Thus it is said of Arete : 
 
 “ . . . Never does she fail 
 In wise discernment, but decides disputes 
 Kindly and justly between man and man.” 
 
 Penelope furnishes us with an example of surpass¬ 
 ing wit and of shrewdness in the invention of the 
 world-renowned web, which for four whole years kept 
 the suitors at bay. Antinoos says of her: 
 
WOMAN. 
 
 113 
 
 “ ‘ But if she still go on to treat the sons 
 Of Greece with such despite, too confident 
 In gifts which Pallas has bestowed on her 
 So richly, noble arts, and faculties 
 Of mind, and crafty shifts, beyond all those 
 Of whom we ever heard that lived of yore. 
 
 The bright-haired ladies of the Achaian race. 
 
 Tyro, Alcmena, and Mycen^, famed 
 For glossy tresses, none of them endowed 
 As is Penelope.’ ” 
 
 On the other hand, the weakness and cowardice of 
 the women are commonly recognized, and Homer usu¬ 
 ally calls them cowards : 
 
 “ ‘ Leave wars and battle, goddess. Is it not 
 Enough that thou delude weak womankind ? 
 
 • #••••• 
 
 Archer and railer! proud of thy smart bow. 
 
 And ogler of the women! . . . 
 
 Thou dost idly boast. . . . 
 
 It is as if a w^oman or a child 
 
 Had struck me. Lightly falls the w^eapon-stroke 
 
 Of an unwarlike weakling.’ ” 
 
 There are, however, many exceptions to this. Thus 
 on the shield of Achilles there was engraved a cap¬ 
 tured city, the walls of which were defended by men, 
 women, and children: 
 
 “ . . . Their beloved wives meanwhile. 
 
 And their young children, stood and watched the walls. 
 With aged men among them, while the youths 
 Marched on.” 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Love. —Wood and other authors, who find little to 
 praise in the Homeric epoch, maintain that love in 
 its higher and nobler relations did not then exist, but 
 the coarser instincts alone bound together the two 
 sexes. It will be shown that this censure is scarcely 
 justified. No doubt, in that healthy and heroic pe¬ 
 riod, what is now known as Platonic love was unusual. 
 The so-called “ divine passion,” the passion that ener¬ 
 vates the heart, is a product of more advanced civili¬ 
 zation, and befits rather the knightly centuries de¬ 
 scribed in novels. 
 
 But, granting this, the result at which Wood has 
 arrived does not follow. Was love unknown during 
 the Homeric or any other epoch ? If so, wherein 
 could have existed the strong ties of society ? Why 
 did Penelope remain firm for twenty years in the face 
 of a thousand dangers, that she might continue faith¬ 
 ful to her husband, and this with a number of suitors 
 « 
 
 at her feet ? Why did Odysseus himself after so many 
 
LOFE. 
 
 trials and wanderings, remember and yearn for his 
 lawful consort, even in the fond embraces of Kalypso 
 and Kirke ? The mere mention of the pure and un¬ 
 bounded love of Hektor and Andromache, and the 
 heart-rending lamentations of the wife over the body 
 of the fallen hero, suffice, we believe, to demonstrate 
 the fallacy of such a charge. 
 
 The love of Paris and Helen, the basis itself of the 
 ‘‘Iliad,” what else can it be, asks Wood, than the de¬ 
 sire for unlawful pleasure ? 
 
 The answer would seem easy, and it may be per¬ 
 mitted to doubt that Helen was actuated by such a 
 motive only. Most bitterly afterward did she repent 
 of her error, in abandoning her husband whom she 
 honored, her child that she adored, her home which 
 she pined for, to run away with a stranger, thus ex¬ 
 changing all the best gifts of life for shame ! Even 
 the many misfortunes which Paris drew upon himself, 
 upon his family and country, can not be otherwise ex¬ 
 plained, unless he was carried away by an all-consum¬ 
 ing love for the most beautiful of women—a love that 
 took root in his heart at the time of his sojourn with 
 her in the absence of her husband ? It is true that 
 the two fugitives during the first days of their flight 
 anchored at the island Kranae, lying off Lakonia, the 
 green and fresh groves of which were best suited for 
 the passionate love that possessed their souls. But 
 
ii6 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 why should one wonder at this, and what worshiper 
 of ethereal love could persuade us that, if he had 
 sailed with beautiful Helen along that enchanting 
 coast, there would have been no danger of loitering ? 
 Before thus severely attacking the Homeric period, 
 let the critic compare it with the civilization of to-day 
 which we so much admire. The fact that Paris and 
 Helen were bound together by a true, even if guilty, 
 love, is manifest from their long and faithful living 
 together in the midst of such direful misfortunes. 
 Helen had moments of repentance, and was con¬ 
 stantly troubled by the voice of conscience ; and she 
 thus chides Paris on his return from an unsuccessful 
 combat with Menelaos : 
 
 “ ‘ Com’st thou from battle ? Rather would that thou 
 Hadst perished by the mighty hand of him 
 Who was my husband ! ’ ” 
 
 But how does Paris, who sacrifices everything to 
 love, answer her ?— 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Woman, chide me not 
 Thus harshly. True it is, that, with the aid 
 Of Pallas, Menelaus hath obtained 
 The victory; but I may vanquish him . 
 
 In turn, for we have also gods with us. 
 
 Give we the hour to dalliance; never yet 
 Have I so strongly proved the power of love,— 
 
 Not even when I bore thee from thy home 
 . In pleasant Lacedaemon, traversing 
 
LOF£. 
 
 117 
 
 The deep in my good ships, and in the isle 
 Of Cranae made thee mine,—such glow of love 
 Possesses me, and sweetness of desire.’ ” 
 
 How many lovers of to-day have such persuasive 
 arguments at their command ! Who can deny that 
 the love of Kleopatra to Phoibos was most sincere ? 
 
 “. . . The honored pair 
 Within the palace used to call their child 
 Alcyone ; for when the archer-god 
 Apollo, from her husband bore away 
 The mother, Cleopatra sadly wailed. 
 
 As wails the halcyon ”— 
 
 or of Ariadne to Theseus ? or of Medea, who sacrificed 
 everything to follow Jason ? 
 
 Notice, also, the following beautiful lines : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Not with him 
 May I hold parley from a tree or rock. 
 
 As youths and maidens with each other hold 
 Light converse.’ ” 
 
 What else can Homer mean than clandestine meet¬ 
 ings, under the shade of oak-trees, amid the fresh 
 verdure of the open fields, where graze peacefully the 
 flocks of the two lovers ? The ardent whisper of pas¬ 
 sionate longing, thus beautifully expressed by the 
 words “ light converse,” in no wise softens the stern 
 accuser of the Homeric period. In the relations of 
 Achilles to Briseis, although not limited to Platonic 
 
ii8 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 expressions of eternal constancy, can there not be dis¬ 
 cerned a trace of true and suffering love ? His wrath 
 on account of an unjust act, and his dispute with 
 Agamemnon, have certainly contributed to the deadly 
 anger of the king of the Myrmidons. But can the 
 bitter tears which Achilles sheds when the maiden is 
 taken away be explained in this way, or his persist¬ 
 ence in the face of the results of his absence, unless 
 his heart was gnawed by a true and sleepless pas-, 
 sion? 
 
 There is no doubt that the Homeric period was 
 wanting in the elaborate sentimentality of modern 
 customs, and that, not recognizing the necessity of 
 concealing the meaning under words of different sig¬ 
 nification, it expressed the same in complete simplici¬ 
 ty. But are we, perchance, justified in calling it, for 
 this, immodest and semi-barbarous; and do we not, 
 on the contrary, owe a just tribute of admiration to 
 the complete purity of the sentiments of those times ? 
 
 Eve was covered with a fig-leaf only after having 
 tasted the fruit of knowledge, and we believe that 
 there was no lack of modesty in the lightly-clad 
 Aphrodite or some other contemporary beauty under 
 her transparent and rich silks. 
 
 A clear example of the inborn modesty of that 
 epoch Odysseus himself furnished, when he required 
 the maid-servants of Nausikaa to withdraw, although 
 
LOF£. 
 
 119 
 
 the innocent custom of the epoch permitted the con¬ 
 trary. Notice, also, what Hera says, when the love- 
 possessed Zeus carried her toward the peaks of Mount 
 Ida: 
 
 “ ‘ Importunate Satumius, what is this 
 That thou hast said ? If on the summit height 
 Of Ida we recline, where all around 
 Is open to the sight, how will it be 
 Should any of the ever-living gods 
 Behold us sleeping, and to all the rest 
 Declare it ? I could never, rising thence. 
 
 Enter again thy palace, save with shame. 
 
 Yet if thou truly speakest thy desire. 
 
 Thou hast a marriage-chamber of thine own.’ ” 
 
 She is finally persuaded to obey the will of Zeus, 
 when the latter promised to conceal the unusual couch 
 with a golden cloud : 
 
 “. . . ‘I shall throw 
 A golden cloud around us, which the sun 
 Himself can not look through, although his eye 
 Is piercing, far beyond all other eyes.’ ” 
 
 What inimitable gentleness in the expression of 
 love which the king of the gods addresses to his hesi¬ 
 tating wife : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Never yet 
 
 Did love of goddess or of mortal maid 
 Possess and overcome my heart as now.’ ” 
 
 On another occasion, when Ares and Aphrodite 
 are captured by crafty Hephaestos, and all the gods 
 
120 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 hasten to his brazen-covered “ doma ” to enjoy the 
 sufferings of the lovers, the goddesses, who were not 
 over-distinguished for modesty, nevertheless remain 
 from shame in their own habitations : 
 
 “. . . The goddesses, 
 
 Through womanly reserve, remained at home." 
 
 We conclude this chapter with the words of 
 Hayne: “ I admire the modesty of the Homeric 
 verses, which, for those times, were indeed extremely 
 pure." 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Marriage—Courtship—The gifts—The nuptials—Second marriage 
 —Marital faithlessness—Blood-marriages—Concubines, 
 
 Marriage. —When a people accepts lawful mar¬ 
 riage, the foundation of family, and consequently of 
 society, and is content with monogamy, it is justly 
 considered as having attained a high degree of civili¬ 
 zation. 
 
 We find the above in the Homeric epoch an invio¬ 
 lable custom handed down by tradition. The sacred¬ 
 ness of marriage is manifest throughout the epoch. 
 The gods themselves were deemed protectors of mar¬ 
 riage, and were said to bestow on mortals their wives, 
 and to bless the union of those they loved : 
 
 “. . . Saturnius has bestowed, 
 
 Both at the birth-hour and in wedded life. 
 
 His blessing.” 
 
 They also were supposed to decide upon the num¬ 
 ber of children to be born in each family, and, accord¬ 
 ing to the poet, they gave these as gifts to the mother: 
 
122 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 “ For not to Helen had the gods vouchsafed 
 Yet other offspring, after she had brought 
 A lovely daughter forth, Hermione, 
 
 Like golden Venus both in face and form.” 
 
 Marriage was generally considered a happiness, 
 and we find the greater part of the heroes married: 
 
 “ . . . Every good man loves 
 And cherishes his spouse.” 
 
 The marriage of a god was deemed a peculiarly 
 happy event, over which all Nature rejoiced. We 
 have an inimitable example of this in the conversation 
 on Mount Ida, between Zeus and Hera, when there 
 sprouted from the ground the most beautiful flowers, 
 in order to form the divine couch : 
 
 “ The son of Saturn spake, and took his wife 
 Into his arms, while underneath the pair 
 The sacred Earth threw up her freshest herbs,— 
 
 The dewy lotus and the crocus-flower. 
 
 And thick and soft the hyacinth. All these 
 Upbore them from the ground. Upon this couch 
 They lay, while o’er them a bright, golden cloud 
 
 . Gathered, and shed its drops of glistening dew.” 
 
 The following lines also, which Odysseus addressed 
 to Nausikaa when he certainly recalled to himself 
 Penelope, are justly considered as the most accurate 
 definition of happy marriage : 
 
MARRIAGE. 
 
 123 
 
 “ ‘ There is no better, no more blessed state. 
 
 Than when the wife and husband in accord 
 Order their household lovingly. Then those 
 Repine who hate them, those who wish them well 
 Rejoice, and they themselves the most of all.’ " 
 
 Even Hesiod himself, the inveterate woman-hater, 
 recognizes that there is no more precious treasure 
 than a virtuous wife. 
 
 The youths and the maidens were married at a 
 blooming age,” whence the expression “ a blooming 
 marriage.” Thus Laertes gives his daughter Ktimene 
 in marriage when still “ in the pleasant years of youth,” 
 and it has already been noticed that while Nausikaa 
 was still a young girl the noblest of the Phaekeans 
 sought her hand. The soundest and best advice which 
 Hesiod gives his brother is that concerning his mar¬ 
 riage—to take a wife as soon as he shall have ap¬ 
 proached his thirtieth year. He adds that, having 
 become enamored of a maiden of thirteen years, and 
 having conducted her to his home, he will do well to 
 marry her. There are mentioned in Homer, however, 
 couples of the same age, and the fact which especially 
 shows that the maiden wife ” was honored, is mani¬ 
 fest from the expression, so frequently met with, law¬ 
 ful or maiden wife.” Another evidence of the purity 
 of the customs of the time is found in the expression 
 ** maiden husband,” the meaning of which is obvious. 
 
124 
 
 . THE FAMIL Y, 
 
 A few have blamed the Homeric period on the ground 
 that the young girl was not at all consulted in the 
 choice of her husband. Jt is true that the latter was 
 chosen by the parents, but nowhere in the poems do 
 we find an instance of opposition from the girl. It is 
 asking too much to claim as a custom in Homer, what 
 to this day is the subject of much doubt, and is not as 
 yet definitely understood. The maidens, believing in 
 the love and enlightened experience of their parents, 
 joyfully accepted the husband chosen by them, and 
 had as their sole object the establishment of his hap¬ 
 piness. We have many examples of this absolute 
 authority of the parents. The King of Lykia gave his 
 daughter to Bellerophon : “ He kept him near him, giv¬ 
 ing him 'to wife his daughter.” Alkinoos proposed 
 Nausikaa to Odysseus, without first consulting her, 
 nor even advising with his wife Arete : 
 
 “. . . T could wish 
 
 That, being as thou art, and of like mind 
 With me, thou wouldst receive to be thy bride 
 My daughter, and be called my son-in-law, 
 
 And here abide.’ ” 
 
 Achilles also, saying that marriage with any one of 
 the noble-born from among the Achaean women was 
 easy for him, and the suitors maintaining that there 
 were many women in Hellas the possession of whom 
 could be'obtained without difficulty, furnish us ex- 
 
MARRIAGE. 
 
 125 
 
 amples that the consent of the parents only was neces¬ 
 sary for the accomplishment of marriage. 
 
 Often, however, the acquiescence of the brothers 
 and of the near male relatives was sought for. 
 
 There are instances, however, which show us that 
 not only for the maidens, but for the sons also, the 
 consent of the parents was required. Thus Menelaos, 
 on one and the same day, gives in marriage his son 
 and daughter. In like manner Achilles, in refusing 
 one of the daughters of Agamemnon, together with the 
 brilliant dowry offered him, says that the choice of a 
 bride rests with his aged father. 
 
 “ . . . ‘ I will wed 
 No child of Agamemnon. Even though 
 She vied with golden Venus in her charms. 
 
 And with the blue-eyed Pallas in her skill, 
 
 I would not wed her. Let him choose among 
 The Greeks a fitter husband,—one whose rule 
 Is wider than my own. For if the gods 
 Preserve me, and I reach my home again, 
 
 My father, Peleus, will bestow on me 
 A consort.’ ” 
 
 There is only one passage extant where it is shown 
 that, on exceptional occasions, the preference of the 
 women received due consideration; 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Send thy mother hence. 
 
 Requiring that she w'ed the suitor whom 
 Her father chooses or herself prefers.’ ” 
 
126 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 But, as Penelope is meant in the above passage, it 
 is evident that she possessed much more liberty than 
 was usually enjoyed by a single woman. 
 
 Courtship. —It has been noticed that the maiden 
 “ hardly out of her teens ” was surrounded by suitors. 
 Antiquity furnishes us with many examples. We men¬ 
 tion only that of Penelope, the beautiful Helen, whom 
 the leaders of all of Hellas wooed, and Nausikaa, whom 
 the noblest of the Phaekeans asked in marriage. It 
 is, of course, understood that the number and worth 
 of the suitors depended upon the nobility and beauty 
 of the maiden. We have here an important differ¬ 
 ence between our civilized age and the “ so-called ” 
 semi-civilized Homeric epoch ; and this difference is 
 in nowise flattering to us. Beauty and noble birth 
 are certainly much esteemed to-day—in theory; but, 
 in the eyes of modern folks, Medea, who took the 
 golden fleece from Kolchis, would have been more 
 eligible than the noble-born Nausikaa or the beauti¬ 
 ful Helen. 
 
 Matters were different ten centuries before Christ. 
 At that time the riches of the bride were of little 
 weight, and the contest among her suitors was waged 
 by means of valuable presents, which they offered 
 either to the maiden herself, or to her parents and 
 relatives, in order to win their good-will and consent. 
 These presents consisted of oxen, or of rich utensils 
 
COURTSHIP. 
 
 127 
 
 wrought of gold. Such were the presents which Penel¬ 
 ope herself claims from those seeking her hand. 
 Besides, it would seem that the suitors were often 
 obliged to win their lady-love by deeds of valor and 
 heroism, like the knights of the middle ages. 
 
 Thus, Neleus promised his beautiful daughter, 
 Pero, to the one who would drive off from Phylake 
 the oxen of Iphikles : 
 
 “ She brought forth Pero also, marvellous 
 In beauty, wooed by all the region round ; 
 
 But Neleus would bestow the maid on none 
 Save him who should drive off from Phylacd 
 The beeves, broad-fronted and with crooked horns, 
 
 Of valiant Iphicles—a difficult task.” 
 
 Orthryoneus promises that, if Kassandra should 
 be given him, the Achaians should be driven from 
 Troy; wherefore he is bitterly blamed by Diomedes, 
 after the defeat near the ships : 
 
 “ He slew Orthryoneus, who just before, 
 
 Drawn by the rumor of the war, had left 
 Cabesus, and now made a lover's suit 
 For Priam’s fairest daughter. Without dower 
 He sought to wed Cassandra, promising 
 A vast exploit,—to drive the Greeks from Troy, 
 
 In spite of all their valor.” 
 
 Penelope also consents to accept the suitor who 
 possessed sufficient strength to bend the bow of Odys¬ 
 
 seus : 
 
128 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 “ . . . ‘ I bring to you 
 The mighty bow that great Ulysses bore. 
 
 Whoe’er among you he may be whose hand 
 Shall bend this bow, and send through these twelve rings 
 An arrow, him I follow hence, and leave 
 The beautiful abode of my young years.’ ” 
 
 The similarity of this Homeric custom to that of 
 the middle ages in Europe both the German and 
 French writers notice, saying that, under this view, 
 Tasso and the other poets of the Latin race become 
 descendants of the Grecian bard. 
 
 The Gifts. — The responsibilities of the suitor 
 were by no means as yet completed. After the best 
 among the rivals was definitely chosen, he won, final¬ 
 ly, his bride by means of new gifts, much more pre¬ 
 cious than the first : 
 
 “ . . . ' But happiest he 
 Beyond them all, who, bringing princely gifts. 
 
 Shall bear thee to his home a bride.’ ” 
 
 How rich these gifts were is evident from the case 
 of Iphidamas, who offered to his wife one hundred 
 oxen and one thousand sheep and goats : 
 
 “ Unhappy youth ! he slept an iron sleep,— 
 
 Slain fighting for his country, far away 
 From the young virgin bride yet scarcely his. 
 
 For whom large marriage-gifts he made,—of beeves 
 A hundred—and had promised from the flocks 
 That thronged his fields a thousand sheep and goats.” 
 
THE GIFTS. 
 
 129 
 
 It would appear that the value of these marriage- 
 gifts was not of little weight, at least in the eyes of 
 the parents, often securing success to the one most 
 generously disposed, inasmuch as Athene says to Te¬ 
 lemachos that the choice of Eurymachos, as he was 
 the richest of the suitors, will be asked of Penelope 
 by her parents : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ For now 
 Her father and her brothers counsel her 
 To wed Eurymachus, whose gifts exceed 
 Those of the other suitors, and besides 
 He offers a yet richer bridal dower.’ ” 
 
 But, on the other hand, noble Penelope, despising 
 mere material advantages, prefers Amphinomos, who 
 was pre-eminent for wisdom and intelligence: 
 
 “ . . . Penelope 
 
 Liked best his words, for generous was his thought.” 
 
 Be it said, to the honor of that age, that virtue 
 alone was often deemed a sufficient advantage, for 
 Odysseus, among the many events which he relates 
 to Eumaeos, says to him that, though a poor man, he 
 married— 
 
 “ . . . ‘ My valor won 
 
 A bride, the daughter of a wealthy house,— 
 
 For I was not an idler, nor in war 
 A coward.’ ” 
 
 It would seem that parents sometimes furnished 
 dowry for their daughters. An example of such a 
 
130 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 dowry is given in the offers made to Achilles by 
 Agamemnon, who said: 
 
 " ‘ Nor need he to endow 
 
 The bride, for I will give an ampler dower 
 Than ever father to his daughter gave,— 
 
 Seven cities with thronged streets.’ ” 
 
 The King of the Lykians gives to Bellerophon his 
 daughter and one half of his kingdom : 
 
 “ He kept him near him, giving him to wife 
 His daughter, and dividing with him all 
 His kingly honors.” 
 
 Telemachos also says that, if he should dismiss his 
 mother, it would be hard, indeed, to return to her 
 father the dowry ; whereby it may be seen that, in 
 such a case, the dowry was returned to the parents : 
 
 “ ‘ And should I, on my own accord and will. 
 
 Dismiss my mother, I must make perforce 
 Icarius large amends, and that were hard.' ” 
 
 Hephaestos himself also bears witness to this, for, 
 when deceived by Aphrodite, he demands the restora¬ 
 tion of the marriage-gifts which he gave for the fair 
 but false Kytherean : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ The net and chains 
 Will hold them, still her father shall restore 
 All the large gifts which, on our marriage-day, 
 
 I gave him to possess the impudent minx. 
 
 His daughter, who is fair, indeed, but false.’ ” 
 
THE NUPTIALS. 
 
 131 
 
 The Nuptials. The customs which prevailed 
 during the joyful celebration of marriage were as 
 follows : A magnificent banquet was served in the 
 house of the bride’s father, for which, however, the 
 bridegroom furnished the necessary oxen and sheep. 
 Menelaos was busy preparing a banquet of this sort, 
 for the double marriage of his son and daughter, at 
 the time when Telemachos arrived in Sparta. The 
 bride, richly attired, was present at the banquet: 
 
 “ The glorious Menelaus, whom they found 
 Within, and at a wedding banquet, made 
 Both for his blameless daughter and his son, 
 
 And many guests.” 
 
 In like manner, Helen presents, in remembrance, 
 to Telemachos a magnificent peplum, requesting him 
 to adorn with it his future bride. The invited guests 
 came richly attired. Among them were distinguished 
 the particular friends of the bride, and her compan¬ 
 ions, who remained by her and filled the position of 
 bridesmaids. 
 
 Dancing, to the sound of the lyre and song, fol¬ 
 lowed the banquet. When Odysseus was preparing 
 to kill the suitors, in order that the affair might not 
 become “known throughout the land,” he contrived 
 a happy stratagem, and pretended that a wedding was 
 being celebrated in the palace. The orders which he 
 
132 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 gives to the co-workers of his revenge are especially 
 instructive: 
 
 “ Then will I tell thee what I deem most wise. 
 
 First take the bath, and then array yourselves 
 In tunics, bid the palace-maidens choose 
 Fresh garments ; let the godlike bard, who bears 
 The clear-toned harp, be leader, and strike up 
 A melody to prompt the festive dance. 
 
 That all may say who hear it from without,— 
 
 Whether the passers-by or dwellers near,— 
 
 ‘ It is a wedding.’ ” 
 
 Everything was carried out in accordance with the 
 above instructions : 
 
 “ The spacious pile resounded to the steps 
 Of men and shapely women in their mirth ”— 
 
 while those without, caught in the snare, blamed Pe¬ 
 nelope, and said : 
 
 “ ‘ Some one, no doubt, has made the long-wooed queen 
 His bride at last; a worthless woman she, 
 
 Who could not, for the husband of her youth. 
 
 Keep his fair palace till he came again.’ ” 
 
 In the evening, finally, the bride was conducted in 
 pomp, and covered with a peplum, to the house, or 
 private room, of the bridegroom. Beautiful women 
 carrying lighted torches headed the procession, and 
 crowds of dancers followed in the rear, while children 
 and maidens sang, to the accompaniment of the lyre, 
 lively airs suited for the occasion. 
 
THE NUPTIALS, 
 
 133 
 
 Concerning the apparel, Athene says to Nausikaa : 
 
 “ . . , ‘ Thy magnificent robes 
 Lie still neglected, though thy marriage-day 
 Is near, when thou art to array thyself 
 In seemly garments, and bestow the like 
 On those who lead thee to the bridal rite.’ ” 
 
 It may be surmised, from the above, that there 
 were a few who conducted the bride, and upon whom 
 she bestowed suitable garments. Perhaps they sup¬ 
 ported her on either side, as the custom is to this day 
 in Greece. Usually the newly-married couple remained 
 in the paternal mansion, and thus contributed to the 
 establishment of a great patriarchal family. In such 
 a case, as has been already noticed, the young hus¬ 
 band simply erected a private room in the great court. 
 Thus, the newly-wedded sons of Alkinods continued 
 to dwell in the common palace, as did also the sons 
 and sons-in-law of Priam and of Nestor. 
 
 There were exceptions to the above rule, as the 
 bridegroom often built his own residence. Hektor and 
 Paris each lived in his own private house, though sit¬ 
 uated near the palace of Priam. It would appear 
 that the building of an additional room in the house 
 by the groom was a general custom, which explains 
 the pathetic expression of Homer, in reference to re¬ 
 cently-married people who had fallen in battle, that 
 
 they had left their abode but half completed. 
 
 7 
 
134 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 The following lines addressed by Euphorbos to 
 Menelaos, after the death of Patroklos, describe elo¬ 
 quently the picture of isolation and of mourning 
 which follows such a mishap : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Now is my time, 
 
 Jove-nurtured Menelaus, to avenge 
 My brother, slain by thee, and over whom 
 Thou utteredst such swelling words, whose wife. 
 
 In her new bridal-chamber thou hast made 
 A widow, and upon her parents brought 
 Mourning and endless sorrow.’ ” 
 
 There were times, also, when the bride followed 
 her husband to a foreign land. Thus Menelaos, 
 having given in marriage his daughter to the son of 
 Achilles, sends her to his son-in-law in the city of the 
 Myrmidons : 
 
 “ . . . Her he must send away, 
 
 Bride of the son of that invincible chief, 
 
 Achilles.” 
 
 “ . . . He was now 
 
 Sending her forth, with steeds and cars, to reach 
 The noble city of the Myrmidons, 
 
 Where ruled her consort.” 
 
 It will be perceived, from the above, that the 
 bridegroom was not necessarily present during the 
 ceremony, and that the celebration of the marriage- 
 rite was permitted under exceptional circumstances, 
 even when one of the contracting parties was absent. 
 
SECOND MARRIAGE. 
 
 135 
 
 ;vef- 
 
 Second Marriage. —There is no doubt whatev 
 that a second marriage was deemed lawful during th/ 
 Homeric times. This is sufficiently shown from the 
 example of Penelope, who, when Odysseus was believed 
 to have perished, was thought to have acquired there¬ 
 by the right to celebrate a second marriage. But 
 Odysseus himself, at the moment of his departure, 
 taking hold of her by the right hand, tells her: 
 
 “ . . . ‘ When thou shalt see 
 My son a bearded man, take to thyself 
 A husband, whom thou wilt, and leave thy house.’ ” 
 
 However, although lawful, the second marriage 
 was diametrically opposed to the sentiments of the- 
 Homeric epoch, on which account it was commonly 
 scorned. This sentiment is clearly shown from the 
 example of Helen, who, although she had legalized 
 her bonds with Paris, is pardoned neither by the gods 
 nor by men. At any rate, it was that union which 
 called forth all the subsequent misfortunes, although 
 her pre-existing faithlessness and flight were especially 
 criminal. She who was twice married was thought to 
 show a cruelty of heart, because she so easily forgot 
 the former friend and companion of her youth. 
 
 The affair was far more serious if children existed 
 by the first marriage. Whoever entered new bonds 
 was considered to commit an injustice toward these 
 
136 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 unfortunate beings, and to rob them of a part of their 
 just rights, by reason of “the new shoots” of the 
 second marriage. This was especially the case as re¬ 
 gards the mother, inasmuch as she, by marrying anew, 
 brought to her husband, and to the children born by 
 him, her entire dowry. 
 
 The above sentiments Eumaeus vividly describes : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ What a wife will do 
 Thou knowest. ’Tis her pleasure to increase 
 The riches of the man whom she has wed. 
 
 Care of her former children she has none, 
 
 Nor memory of the husband whom she took 
 While yet a maid, and who is in his grave ; 
 
 Of these she never speaks.’ ” 
 
 Penelope, also, though urged to a second marriage, 
 even by her own husband, under certain conditions, 
 refuses to accede to this : 
 
 “. , . keeping still 
 
 Her constant reverence for her husband’s bed.” 
 
 The woman contracting a second marriage appears 
 to have first returned to her father, to whom was sur¬ 
 rendered by the sons or other relatives the dowry 
 given to the dead husband. Her father gave her 
 away a second time, the same customs being repeated 
 exactly as in the first marriage. The bride received 
 anew the usual gifts as well as a dowry, and the father 
 prepared the banquet, for which the prospective hus- 
 
MARITAL FAITHLESSNESS. 
 
 137 
 
 band furnished all the necessaries. It is said of Pe¬ 
 nelope : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Command 
 
 The suitors all to separate for their homes ; 
 
 And if thy mother’s mind be bent to wed, 
 
 Let her return to where her father dwells, 
 
 A mighty prince, and there they will appoint 
 Magnificent nuptials, and an ample dower 
 Such as should honor a belovM child.' ” 
 
 The only difference apparent during this occasion 
 was the diminution of the authority of the parents as 
 to the choice of a husband. 
 
 No mention whatever is made of a third marriage, 
 while divorce seems to have been entirely unknown. 
 Hephaestos himself, on capturing the faithless Aphro¬ 
 dite, in the very act, demands, indeed, the return of 
 the rich presents which he paid for her, and finally 
 accepts the guarantee of Poseidon; but he does not 
 mention as possible his separation from the laughter- 
 loving Aphrodite. 
 
 Marital Faithlessness. —From all that has been 
 said concerning marriage, and the refined sentiments 
 which we have found developed to so high a degree 
 during the Homeric period, it may be readily under¬ 
 stood that any violation of its sanctity was considered 
 a revolting crime. Poets in subsequent years took 
 for their theme such crimes, which they developed 
 upon the stage, to the horror of passing generations. 
 
THE FAMILY. 
 
 138 
 
 We have only to recall the case of Klytaemnestra, 
 who withstood all temptations for a long time, but, 
 finally, abandoned by all, lost the protector of her 
 honor, the bard whom her husband Agamemnon had 
 left to watch over her. Being thus deprived of every 
 noble influence, she was left exposed to temptation, 
 and finally succumbed: 
 
 “ At first 
 
 The noble Clytaemnestra turned away 
 With horror from the crime, for yet her heart 
 Was right, and by her side there stood a bard 
 With whom Atrides, when he went to Troy, 
 
 Had left his wife, with many an earnest charge.” 
 
 But how fearful was the punishment that resulted, 
 how irreconcilable was divine justice, that appeared 
 under the personification of her own son ! The ter¬ 
 rible cry which she uttered when she felt the filial 
 sword plunged into her heart, transmitted by the 
 genius of Sophokles, appears still ringing through the 
 centuries, as the highest expression of tragical suffer¬ 
 ing. Her son Orestes is publicly praised, in the coun¬ 
 cil of the gods, by Zeus and Athene, for the murder 
 of his mother : 
 
 “ ‘ How strange it is that mortals blame the gods. 
 
 And say that we inflict the ills they bear. 
 
 When they, by their own folly, and against 
 The will of Fate, bring sorrow on themselves ! 
 
 As late Aegisthus, unconstrained by Fate, 
 
MARITAL FAITHLESSNESS, 
 
 139 
 
 Married the queen of Atreus’ son, and slew 
 The husband just returned from war. Yet well 
 He knew the bitter penalty, for we 
 Warned him, . . . 
 
 Bidding him neither slay the chief nor woo 
 His queen. . . . 
 
 ... So perish all 
 Guilty of deeds like his! ’ " 
 
 The act of Klytaemnestra is thus bitterly con¬ 
 demned : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ The gods 
 
 Themselves shall frame, for those who dwell on earth. 
 Sweet strains in praise of sage Penelope. 
 
 Not such was she who treacherously slew 
 The husband of her youth. . . . 
 
 . . . Her name among mankind 
 Shall be the hateful burden of a song; 
 
 And great is the dishonor it has brought 
 On women, even the faithful and the good.’ ” 
 
 Still more terrible is the punishment of Aegisthos, 
 the cause of these evils. His body is left unburied, 
 and is lacerated by dogs and birds of prey. This was 
 the highest expression of punishment among mankind, 
 involving the chastisement of the guilty both during 
 life and after death, for the soul was not permitted to 
 cross the river Achaeron as long as the body remained 
 unburied. Few, indeed, were the crimes upon which 
 such a punishment was inflicted, while the words of 
 Homer depict, in sombre colors, the shudder which 
 
140 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 the entire Hellenic world felt on account of this fear¬ 
 ful crime : 
 
 “ . . . He had never flung 
 The loose earth on his corpse, but dogs and birds 
 Had preyed upon it, lying in the fields 
 Far from the city, and no woman’s voice 
 Of all the Greeks had raised the wail for him. 
 
 Great was the crime he plotted." 
 
 • The punishment of Thyestes, who corrupted the 
 wife of Atreus, was of a different nature, though 
 equally horrible, inasmuch as he was compelled by the 
 wronged husband to eat his own children. Phoenix 
 also, who, at the suggestion of his jealous mother, 
 corrupted his father’s concubine, was persecuted by 
 the Furies : 
 
 “ ‘ My father knew it, and, with many a curse, 
 
 Invoked the hateful Furies to forbid 
 That any child, who owed his birth to me, 
 
 Should ever sit upon his knees.' ” 
 
 But what need is there to seek further instances, 
 when that of Helen herself stands forth so pre-emi¬ 
 nently? How great was her repentance, and how 
 great the punishment that followed her guilt! The 
 whole of Hellas rushed to arms, and, for many an 
 Olympiad, the noblest blood of two peoples was shed 
 lavishly, that the stain upon the nuptial couch of 
 Menelaos might be washed away. The wronged hus- 
 
MARITAL FAITHLESSNESS. 
 
 141 
 
 band invokes the wrath of the gods against Paris, and 
 even his brother Hektor severely blames the seducer: 
 
 “ . . . ‘ O luckless Paris, nobly formed, 
 
 Yet woman-follower and seducer! Thou 
 Shouldst never have been bom, or else at best. 
 
 Have died unwedded ; better were it far. 
 
 Than thus to be a scandal and a scorn 
 To all who look on thee. . . . 
 
 A mischief to thy father and to us. 
 
 And all the people, to our foes a joy. 
 
 And a disgrace to thee. . . . 
 
 Surely the sons of Troy are faint of heart, 
 
 Else hadst thou, for the evil thou hast wrought. 
 
 Been laid beneath a coverlet of stone.’ ” 
 
 The punishment of being stoned to death is still 
 inflicted among Eastern nations upon those who vio¬ 
 late the marriage-bond. In Hellas, however, where 
 the customs were far less barbarous, the one wronged 
 was often satisfied by the payment of money. It has 
 already been noticed that Hephaestos, on a similar 
 occasion, was content with the return to him of all 
 gifts given to the father of his faithless consort. 
 Meiners, who never lets an opportunity of fault-find¬ 
 ing escape, severely censures the lame god for his 
 mercenary act, which he deems a proof of the great 
 license in morals. First of all, however, we remind 
 him that the customs of the gods and those of men 
 are represented by the poet as altogether different. 
 
142 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 It suffices to notice only the contrast between the 
 guilt of Aphrodite and of Helen. Besides, the blame 
 attached to the Homeric period seems altogether un¬ 
 justifiable in regard to a custom which is still extant 
 in modern epochs and among civilized people. Pass¬ 
 ing over other instances, we mention only that of his 
 own country, Germany, and we direct him to the an¬ 
 cient code, “ Karolina,” wherein is stated the fine 
 which, on similar occasions, was paid by the guilty to 
 the wronged husband. 
 
 It is also curious that the idea that the honor of 
 the husband depends upon the conduct of the wife— 
 an idea which, though scarcely logical, has become so 
 general in society to-day—already existed during the 
 Homeric period. On hearing Hephaestos complain- 
 'ing— 
 
 “ ‘Jove’s daughter, Venus, thus dishonors me, 
 
 Lame as I am, and loves the butcher Mars; 
 
 For he is well to look at, and is sound 
 Of foot, while I am weakly ”— 
 
 we are transferred in imagination from Olympos to 
 the midst of Parisian society. 
 
 Blood-Marriages. —The regulations of modern 
 Christianity and of civilized nations, in regard to mar¬ 
 riage between near relatives, did not exist in the time 
 of Homer. An inborn feeling, however, of what was 
 right, and an abhorrence of everything unbecoming, 
 
BLOOD-MARRIA GES. 
 
 143 
 
 took the place of specific prohibitions, and nowhere in 
 the poems do we find mention of such marriages, ex¬ 
 cepting in the case of the six sons of Aeolos, who 
 married their sisters: 
 
 ‘ Twelve children in his halls 
 Were bom, six daughters and six blooming sons; 
 
 He gave his daughters to his sons for wives, 
 
 And they with their dear father and his queen 
 Banquet from day to day, with endless change 
 Of meats before them. . . . 
 
 At night the youths beside their modest wives 
 Sleep on fair couches spread with tapestry.’ ” 
 
 Let us observe, however, that the inhabitants of 
 the mythical floating island, over which ruled the god 
 of the winds, are represented as barbarians, and the 
 fact that such a custom is attributed to them alone 
 shows that it was deemed peculiar to barbarians. 
 
 As regards, indeed, the events that transpire in 
 Olympos, it is well known that the myths of the gods 
 are far more ancient than the Homeric period, and 
 are rather symbolical representations of physical phe¬ 
 nomena than a true delineation of existing customs. 
 The marriage of Zeus with his sister Hera, by which 
 is represented the absorption by the sun of the vapors 
 in the atmosphere, has simply a mythological meaning, 
 like, in fact, the marriage of the sons and daughters of 
 Adam, concerning which the Church does not offer 
 any explanation. 
 
144 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 The myth of Epikaste, who, in ignorance and by 
 the will of the Fates, married her own son Oedipos, is 
 well known, and the horror which this terrible crime 
 created through many centuries sufficiently testifies 
 the opinion of the epoch on this point. 
 
 After the departure of Odysseus from the Island 
 of Kirke, he arrived, by the advice of the latter, in 
 the plain where— 
 
 . Perimedes and Eurylochus 
 Held in their grasp the victims ”— 
 
 and, having poured libations to all the dead, their 
 souls came thronging round him. He relates how, 
 among others— 
 
 “ ‘ The mother, too, of CEdipus I saw. 
 
 Beautiful Epicast^, who in life 
 
 Had done unwittingly a heinous deed,— 
 
 Had married her own son! ’ " 
 
 Oedipos having slain his father— 
 
 “ In the pleasant town of Thebes bore sway 
 O’er the Cadmeians ; yet in miseiy’^ 
 
 He lived, for so the offended gods ordained ”— 
 
 while Epikaste ended her life with her own 
 hands” : 
 
 « 
 
 “ She slung a cord upon a lofty beam 
 And perished by it, leaving him to bear 
 Woes without measure, such as on a son 
 The Furies of a mother might inflict.” 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 145 
 
 On the other hand, the union of relatives of second 
 degree was extremely common, and was deemed, as it 
 appears, entirely lawful, as it is to-day, among most 
 Christian nations. Thus Arete, the wife of Alkinods, 
 was the daughter of his brother Rhexenoros. Kreses 
 gave in marriage his daughter Theano to his nephew 
 Iphidamas ; while Diomedes married Aigileia, daugh¬ 
 ter of Adrastos, and sister to his own mother. 
 
 Concubines. —No opinion, perhaps, has taken 
 deeper root than that the men of the Homeric epoch, 
 besides the lawful wife, kept several concubines, much 
 after the Asiatic fashion. Even those who admire 
 the devotion with which women held to their duty, 
 admit that the men were free from every bond, and 
 that, at least in this respect, may be distinguished the 
 semi - civilized character of the epoch. That there 
 are several passages sustaining the above view we 
 admit, but we purpose to examine more accurately 
 their meaning, and we believe that the gloomy pict¬ 
 ure drawn by certain authors can be materially en¬ 
 livened. “ What is the use,” they say, “ of other 
 examples of the complete freedom of men, when Odys¬ 
 seus himself, the hero of the poem, and consequently 
 drawn in vivid colors, who fervently and justly loved 
 his wife, inasmuch as she preserved unalloyed her 
 pledge to him, so easily surrendered himself to the 
 arms of Kirke and Kalypso ? ” 
 
146 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 First of 'all, it is incontestable that, in every 
 epoch and in every clime, man has considered himself 
 possessed of much greater freedom than woman, and, 
 consequently, we plead no exception to this rule as 
 regards the Homeric period. Indeed, if we compare 
 the age with that of to-day, we will easily admit that 
 progress in this respect has been ever since negative. 
 
 On the other hand, in every age, the good is ever 
 close to the evil; nor are bright colors alone suffi¬ 
 cient for the delineation of a picture. A society pure 
 and unalloyed belongs only to the regions of imagi¬ 
 nation, and such a description would have been un¬ 
 worthy of the pen of Homer, that accurate observer 
 and deep psychologist. Some would say, perchance, 
 that this may be so; but, since the character of the 
 hero was so easily stained, it results that the entire 
 community was in the same condition. This by no 
 means follows. The stories of Kirke and of Kalypso 
 were of poetic necessity for Homer; neither was the 
 constant invention of Laistrygoni and Kyklops pos¬ 
 sible for the development of the poem. The great 
 poet thoroughly understood that the graceful and the 
 pleasant, such as erotic scenes, furnish a necessary 
 relief to the stronger inventions of the imagination, 
 and consequently introduced such myths, like peace¬ 
 ful oases, amid the fervid glow of his wonderful poem. 
 
 In the case of a hero who had wandered for many 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 147 
 
 % 
 
 years far from his home, episodes of unfaithfulness 
 seem certainly less censurable ; and, indeed, no one 
 criticises Vergil for describing the amours of Aeneas, 
 or Tasso those of Armida. 
 
 Homer, however, had other views. While subject¬ 
 ing the hero to temptations, he neglects nothing tend¬ 
 ing to justify him, and, accordingly, represents the 
 failing as light as possible. The hero in the arms of 
 Kalypso, who madly loved him, and who offered him 
 immortality if he would consent to live with her— 
 
 “ And promised him a life that ne’er should know 
 Decay or death ”— 
 
 remembered, however, his lawful wife, and “wasted 
 his sweet life, and yearned for his home.” But stern 
 Fate obliged him to remain, and— 
 
 “ . . . Night after night 
 He slept constrained within the hollow cave. 
 
 The unwilling by the fond.” 
 
 When, upon the prayer of Athene, Hermes, sent 
 by the gods to free him from this slavery, arrived 
 before the cave of the goddess, he was at once recog¬ 
 nized by her : 
 
 “ The herald Argus-queller stood, and saw. 
 
 And marvelled; but, as soon as he had viewed 
 The wonders of the place, he turned his steps. 
 Entering the broad-roofed cave. Calypso there. 
 
148 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 The glorious goddess, saw him as he came, 
 
 And knew him, for the ever-living gods 
 
 Are to each other known, though one may dwell 
 
 Far from the rest.” 
 
 Later, when the goddess, heavy at heart, searches 
 for him to communicate the joyful tidings of the decis¬ 
 ion of the gods, she finds him seated upon the shore : 
 
 “. . . Him she found beside the deep. 
 
 Seated alone, with eyes from which the tears 
 Were never dried ; for now no more the nymph 
 Delighted him; he wasted his sweet life 
 In yearning for his home.” 
 
 » 
 
 When the boat was constructed, and everything 
 made ready for the departure, the lovers sat down to 
 their last meal, and again Kalypso tried to beguile 
 him. “ If you know your interests, stay with me,” she 
 said, “ and be immortal ” : 
 
 " ‘ But couldst thou know the sufferings Fate ordains 
 For thee ere yet thou landest on its shore. 
 
 Thou wouldst remain to keep this home with me 
 And be immortal, strong as is thy wish 
 To see thy wife,—a wish that day by day 
 Possesses thee. I can not deem myself 
 In face or form, less beautiful than she ; 
 
 For never with immortals can the race 
 Of mortal dames in form or face compare.’ ” 
 
 Odysseus recognizes the truth of her words, nor 
 does he compare his wife with the lovely Kalypso: 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 149 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Well I know 
 All thou couldst say. The sage Penelope 
 In feature and in stature comes not nigh 
 To thee, for she is mortal,—deathless thou, 
 
 And ever young; yet day by day I long 
 To be at home once more, and pine to see 
 The hour of my return.’ ” 
 
 "... The sun went down ; the night came on, 
 
 And now the twain withdrew to a recess 
 Deep in the vaulted cave, where, side by side, 
 
 They took their rest.” 
 
 If, again, he yields to the enticements of Kirke, he 
 is the less to be blamed, inasmuch as he does so by 
 advice of Hermes, and only in order to rescue his 
 companions from the terrible magic of that enchant¬ 
 ress : “ When she shall have touched you with her 
 magic wand, draw your sword, and rush against her ; 
 but, if she should craftily entice you to amorous pleas¬ 
 ures, that she may the easier destroy you, oppose her 
 wiles, until she shall have sworn to you, by the great 
 oath of the blessed gods, your safety and that of your 
 friends.” Everything happened as above stated, and 
 Odysseus simply relates : 
 
 “ And, after it was uttered and confirmed. 
 
 Up to her sumptuous couch I went.” 
 
 But even then, notwithstanding the hospitality of 
 the goddess, and the easy life spent in the magic 
 
THE FAMILY, 
 
 150 
 
 island throughout the winter, spring had hardly ar¬ 
 rived when he resolves to continue his journey; for, 
 indeed, he says : 
 
 “ I to Circe’s sumptuous couch went up, 
 
 A suppliant to her knees.” 
 
 The goddess was not ignorant of his true senti¬ 
 ments, for, while permitting his departure, she adds : 
 
 “ Ulysses! ye must not remain with me 
 Unwillingly.” 
 
 We are told, in the narrative from which the above 
 extracts are taken, more of the sorrows and repent¬ 
 ance of the hero than of his amours. All his con¬ 
 versations with both the goddesses have for their 
 theme his longing for home, and his unquenchable 
 thirst to return. The power holding him, contrary to 
 his desire and by the will of the gods, is most vividly 
 described. 
 
 These incidents vouch more for the morality than 
 for the licentiousness of the age. The art with which 
 the poet justifies the conduct of his hero is a con¬ 
 clusive evidence that he deems it reprehensible. In 
 order that the reader, from the very first, may be pre¬ 
 pared for what is to follow, the poet supposes Athene 
 to say, in the council of the gods, in the very com¬ 
 mencement of the Odyssey ” : 
 
CONCUBINES, 
 
 151 
 
 “ . . . ‘ But I am grieved 
 For sage Ulysses, that most wretched man, 
 
 So long detained, repining, and afar 
 From those he loves, upon a distant isle, 
 
 Girt by the waters of the central deep.’ 
 
 “ . . . ‘ The daughter there detains 
 The unhappy chieftain, and with flattering words. 
 Would win him to forget his Ithaca. 
 
 Meanwhile, impatient to behold the smokes 
 That rise from hearths in his own land, he pines. 
 
 And willingly would die. Is not thy heart, 
 
 Olympius, touched by this ? ' ” 
 
 A distinction seems necessary, though overlooked 
 by many, in regard to the classes of concubines. Of 
 these there are two distinct and separate classes no¬ 
 ticed in Homer. The one, such as appears in every¬ 
 day life ; the other, called into being by the vices en¬ 
 gendered by military expeditions. Thus, when Nestor 
 says : 
 
 “* Therefore let no Greek 
 Go home till he possess a Trojan wife ’ ”— 
 
 he gives utterence rather to a rhetorical expression, 
 than to an actual fact. In a city besieged for ten 
 years, and finally captured, many barbarous and in¬ 
 decorous acts occur, which have nothing in common 
 with the customs of the epoch. However, it can 
 not be denied that, even in the every-day home-life, 
 besides the lawful wife, there were often concubines ; 
 
. 152 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 but this custom is erroneously represented as gen¬ 
 eral. The most conspicuous example of such rela¬ 
 tions is that of Priam, who had fifty sons, all killed by 
 the Achaians, nineteen only of whom he had by his 
 lawful spouse, and the rest by other women: 
 
 “ ‘ Fifty were with me when the men of Greece 
 Arrived upon our coast; nineteen of these 
 Owned the same mother, and the rest were bom 
 Within my palaces.’ ” 
 
 In this connection, we must not forget Gladstone’s 
 remark that Priam was not a Greek, but a Trojan, and 
 that, as modern Homeric investigation has demon¬ 
 strated, the Trojans are described by the poet as 
 differing in many respects from the Greeks, and as 
 approaching nearer in their customs to the Asiatics. 
 Gladstone, among other examples, mentions the great 
 number of women in the palace of Priam. But, un¬ 
 fortunately, the chief of the Achaians is represented 
 saying : 
 
 “ ‘ This maiden I release not till old age 
 Shall overtake her in my Argive home, 
 
 Far from her native land, where her hand 
 
 Shall throw the shuttle and shall dress my couch.’ ” 
 
 Further on he says that he prefers her to Klytaem- 
 nestra, his lawful wife : 
 
 “. . . ‘ ’Twas my choice 
 To keep her with me, for I prize her more 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 153 
 
 Than Clytaemnestra, bride of my young years, 
 
 And deem her not less nobly graced than she, 
 
 In form and feature, mind, and pleasing arts.’ ” 
 
 Piscallas, however, observes that, in all the rela¬ 
 tions between Agamemnon and Klytaemnestra, there 
 is noticed a coldness and mistrust, as if foreboding 
 the coming destruction and the fearful crime of the 
 Queen of Mykenae. 
 
 Her conduct may somewhat excuse the hero, who, 
 as it has been noticed, on departing, manifests his 
 confidence in the virtue of his wife, by leaving with 
 her the bard to watch her. The seven Lesbians are 
 considered as concubines, who, together with Briseis 
 and the other booty, Agamemnon offers to Achilles to 
 appease him. But this, we think, is simply a supposi¬ 
 tion, not wholly justified by the text. It is, indeed, 
 true that, concerning Briseis alone, he says: 
 
 “. . . ' With them I will send 
 Her whom I took away,—Briseis, pure— 
 
 I swear it with a mighty oath—as pure 
 As when she left his tent.’ ” 
 
 But it does not on this account follow that matters 
 stood in a different light with regard to the Lesbians, 
 who, at the time of their capture, are merely charac¬ 
 terized as “ skilled in household arts,” and as “ dam¬ 
 sels in beauty who excel their sex.” Elsewhere, con¬ 
 cerning these same damsels, the poet says : 
 
154 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 “ And led away seven graceful women trained 
 In household arts,—the maid with rosy cheeks, 
 
 Briseis, was the eighth." 
 
 It is, accordingly, probable that these were simply 
 numbered among the crowd of maid - servants, with 
 whom the Homeric palace abounded. The oath as to 
 Briseis is explained, by reason of the altogether exces¬ 
 sive value which, on account of the circumstances, 
 she enjoyed in the estimation of Achilles. 
 
 Be it remarked that Briseis hoped for the legaliz¬ 
 ing of her relations with Achilles, inasmuch as, when 
 the hero carried her off, after killing her husband and 
 plundering the city, she says of Patroklos : 
 
 “ ‘ Yet thou, when swift Achilles struck to earth 
 My hapless husband, and laid waste the town 
 Of godlike Mynes, wouldst not suffer me 
 To weep despairingly; for thou didst give 
 Thy word to make me yet the wedded wife 
 Of great Achilles, bear me in the fleet 
 To Phthia, and prepare the wedding feast 
 Among the Myrmidons.’ ’’ 
 
 The noble-born and refined young woman was so 
 grateful for this favor, that when, restored by Aga¬ 
 memnon to Achilles, she saw the body of Patroklos 
 “ lying gashed with wounds ”— 
 
 “. . . she sprang 
 And threw herself upon the dead, and tore 
 Her bosom, her fair cheeks and delicate neck." 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 155 
 
 In like manner Odysseus, in the fantastic biog¬ 
 raphy which he relates to the swine-herd, Eumaeos, 
 
 says : 
 
 ‘ I am of the race 
 
 Who dwell in spacious Crete, a rich man's son, 
 Within whose palace many other sons 
 Were born and reared, the offspring of his wife ; 
 But me a purchased mother, whom he made 
 His concubine, brought forth to him. And yet 
 Castor Hylacides, from whom I sprang. 
 
 Held me in equal favor with the rest.’ ” 
 
 Menelaos had also a son Megapenthes, borne by a 
 hand-maiden, but it must be remarked that— 
 
 " . . . ‘ not to Helen had the gods vouchsafed 
 Yet other offspring.’ ” 
 
 Since Helen was already advanced in years, there 
 was no hope of a lawful succession. It would seem 
 that, on such occasions, the affair was permissible ; 
 nor are like examples wanting in the Scriptures. The 
 existence of such relations, and the issue of illegiti¬ 
 mate children, have nothing exceptionally peculiar in 
 themselves, but the fact of concubines living under the 
 same roof with the lawful wife is certainly diametri¬ 
 cally antagonistic to our modern notions of refinement. 
 That this custom not only was not prevalent in the 
 Homeric epoch, but was by many condemned, the re¬ 
 lation of Laertes to the hand-maiden Eurykleia con¬ 
 clusively shows : 
 
THE FAMILY. 
 
 156 . 
 
 “ . . . The chaste and sage 
 Dame Eurycleia by his side went up 
 With lighted torches. . . . 
 
 “ . . . Her, in her early bloom, 
 
 Laertes purchased for a hundred beeves. 
 
 And in his palace honored equally 
 
 With his chaste wife ; yet never sought her bed. 
 
 He would not wrong his queen.” 
 
 While the picture has its dark colors, there is no 
 doubt that there were families in which the lawful 
 wife had no rival, and, as a beautiful instance, may 
 be mentioned Homer’s delineation of the love of 
 Hektor and Andromache. 
 
 Nor is it true, as some have claimed, that sin¬ 
 gle men enjoyed more liberty than the married. 
 Achilles certainly fervently loved Briseis, and shed 
 tears when he saw her taken from him. Other writers 
 remark here that Achilles was a Myrmidon, and not 
 a Greek; and that it was wrath, and not love, which 
 called forth the tears on this occasion. But we deem 
 such distinctions altogether unnecessary, as, besides 
 the son of Peleus, Patroklos also, and many other 
 heroes, had certainly their female captives. But 
 what age, especially in time of war, has ever been 
 free from such vices ? On the other hand, the di¬ 
 vine bard, as if foreseeing the censure of aftertimes, 
 drew us the picture of the virtuous Telemachos, to 
 show the ideal prince, reared in the paternal palace. 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 157 
 
 before he had mingled in the turbulent life of the 
 camp. 
 
 From the passages concerning Chryseis and Briseis 
 we learn that most of the concubines were captives, 
 and were deemed the best part of booty. It is true 
 that some were simply bought, but, as it will be seen, 
 in the chapter On Hand-maids,” the number pur¬ 
 chased was small. 
 
 It results that the Homeric epoch differed little 
 in these respects from subsequent ones. The more 
 one studies the history of man, one finds that, ever 
 since his first appearance upon the earth, he has been 
 little changed, and appears the same through the cent¬ 
 uries. The women of Homer had their virtues as well 
 as their failings. Concerning the licentiousness of the 
 maid-servants and, in general, of the lower classes, 
 enough is said to enlighten us thoroughly on this sub¬ 
 ject. It suffices to recall the attendants of Penelope, 
 who lived openly with the suitors, and who, both by 
 their acts and words, are represented as wholly void 
 of shame, and well deserving the punishment inflicted 
 upon them. 
 
 8 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Children—Education—Amusements. 
 
 Children. —A happy marriage was considered as 
 blessed by the gods with the possession of children, 
 while sterility was deemed a misfortune. A large 
 family was the boast of parents, and the statements 
 on this subject often verged upon the mythical. The 
 story of Niobe is a point to the purpose : 
 
 “. . . Children twelve 
 Perished within her palace,—six young sons 
 And six fair daughters ”— 
 
 killed, the former by Apollo, and the latter by Ar¬ 
 temis, because Niobe, the mother, in her happiness— 
 
 “. . . dared 
 
 To make herself the peer of rosy-cheeked 
 Latona, who, she boastfully proclaimed. 
 
 Had borne two children only, while herself 
 Had brought forth many.” 
 
 Hekabe is said to have brought forth nineteen 
 
CHILDREN. 
 
 159 
 
 sons, while Priam is reputed to have been the father 
 of fifty. 
 
 This “ polyteknia,” or numerous issue of children, 
 is generally regarded as an evidence of the morality 
 of the age. It would seem, also, that the women, 
 even in an advanced age, were blessed in this respect, 
 wherefore the children born in old age were called 
 “late born,” and were more dear to the parents. 
 Agamemnon, on offering one of his three daughters 
 to Achilles, says : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ He may become to me 
 A son-in-law, and cherished equally 
 With my sole [late bom] son Orestes, who is reared 
 Most royally.’ ” 
 
 In like manner, Helen, bitterly repenting her mis¬ 
 take, is heart-broken because she followed Paris : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Would that cruel death 
 Had overtaken me before I left. 
 
 To wander with thy son, my marriage-bed. 
 
 And my dear daughter, and the company 
 Of friends I loved! ’ ” 
 
 Lucky, indeed, was considered the possession of a 
 son for newly-married couples, for thereby the family 
 was strengthened. On this account, it is said of 
 Rhexenor, who died after the birth of his daughter 
 Arete : 
 
 "‘... He who bears 
 The silver bow, Apollo, smote to death 
 
l5o the family. 
 
 Rhexenor, newly wedded, in his home; 
 
 He left no son, and but one daughter, named 
 Aret^.” 
 
 In fact, he who had not possessed himself of chil¬ 
 dren was called “ a bridegroom.” Children were com¬ 
 monly believed to be born by intercession of the god¬ 
 desses “ Eilythyoe,” who were said to facilitate child¬ 
 birth. 
 
 Agamemnon, being wounded by Koonos, is repre¬ 
 sented as suffering terrible pain, which inspires Homer 
 with the following comparison : 
 
 “ As when a woman feels the piercing pangs 
 Of travail brought her by the Ilythian maids. 
 Daughters of Juno, who preside at births. 
 
 And walk the ministers of bitter pains,— 
 
 Such anguish seized on Agamemnon's frame.” 
 
 Also Zeus, the king of gods, announced to all the 
 immortals, upon the birth of Herakles: 
 
 “ ‘ This day shall Ilithyia, who presides 
 At births, bring into light a prince whose rule 
 The neighboring tribes shall own; he shall be one 
 Who bears the blood of my illustrious race.’ ” 
 
 But crafty Hera, ^‘darting forth, shot from the 
 Olympian summit, and at once alighted at Achaian 
 
 I 
 
 Argos ” : 
 
 “. . . There 
 
 She found the noble wife of Sthenelus, 
 
 The son of Perseus, pregnant with a son 
 
CHILDREN. 
 
 i6i 
 
 In the seventh month. She caused him to be bom, 
 The number of his months yet incomplete, 
 
 And kept Alcmena’s hour of childbirth back. 
 
 And stayed her pangs.” 
 
 Thus Hera turned the friendship of the son of 
 Kronos from the Herakleidae, and deprived them of 
 their sway over the Argives. 
 
 Leto is represented in a hymn as fleeing from the 
 wrath of Hera, who envied her the approaching birth 
 of Apollo. Finally, in her wanderings, she reached 
 Delos. This little island offered her an asylum, upon 
 condition that a temple of Phoebos should be erect¬ 
 ed on its shores. This being granted, “ Leto, for nine 
 days and nine nights, was tossed in piercing pains.” 
 
 Around her were many goddesses, but ^‘the Ily- 
 thian goddess, the childbirth-facilitating,” was absent, 
 out of friendship to Hera, and was seated upon the 
 summit of Olympos, surrounded by golden clouds. 
 But, finally. Iris being sent to her with a magnificent 
 peplum as a present, she was persuaded to come to 
 Leto, and brought about the happy event. 
 
 The Ilythian goddess lived in a cave near Am- 
 nisos, in Krete, where Odysseus was carried by the 
 storm of the sea; 
 
 “ . . .A violent wind 
 Had driven him from Maleia, and the course 
 That led to Ilium, and had carried him 
 To Crete, and lodged him in the dangerous port 
 
i 62 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 Amnisus, close to Ilithyia’s cave, 
 
 Where scarce his fleet escaped the hurricane.” 
 
 As soon as the child was born, it was washed in 
 clear water, and wrapt in a thin white cloth, kept in 
 place by means of a girdle. Fears often arose lest the 
 new-born child should suffer from the evil-eye,” or 
 unskilled washing. But there existed certain secret 
 antidotes against these evil influences, usually known 
 to competent nurses. We are told, for instance, that 
 the turtle was considered as possessing the power to 
 ward off the evil-eye. 
 
 The birth of male children was considered a most 
 propitious event for the family, and their joy was 
 shared by all the relatives. Autolykos, the grand¬ 
 father of Odysseus, shortly after the birth of the latter, 
 took him upon his knees, and blessed him with many 
 prayers. The old man rejoiced, and promised that, 
 if ever he should be grown to man’s estate, and should 
 come to see him at Parnassos, where he had rich pos¬ 
 sessions, he would— 
 
 “ . . . bestow 
 
 A share on him, and send him home rejoiced.” 
 
 Later, when Odysseus went to receive the prom¬ 
 ised gifts, we are told— 
 
 “ . . . Autolycus 
 
 And all his sons received him with kind words, 
 
 And friendly grasp of hands ”— 
 
CHILDREN. 
 
 163 
 
 while his grandmother, Amphithea— 
 
 . took him in her arms, 
 
 And kissed his brow and both his beautiful eyes.” 
 
 The child usually received its first nourishment 
 from its mother. When Hektor goes forth from the 
 walls of Ilion to meet Achilles, and old Priam in vain 
 tears the hair of his head to restrain him, Hekabe 
 appears, and, showing him the maternal bosom, says: 
 
 “ ‘ Revere this bosom, Hector, and on me 
 Have pity. If when thou wert but a babe 
 I ever on this bosom stilled thy cries, 
 
 Think of it now, beloved child; avoid 
 
 That dreadful chief; withdraw within the walls. 
 
 Nor madly think to encounter him alone. 
 
 Son of my love and of my womb ! ’ ” 
 
 It is said of Penelope, during the departure of 
 Odysseus, she being but recently married : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ When we went 
 To war, we left her a young bride ; a babe 
 Was at her breast, a boy, who now must sit 
 Among grown men.’ ” 
 
 Nevertheless, we often find nurses mentioned in 
 Homer. Thus, Eurykleia nursed Odysseus : 
 
 “ ‘ I have an aged, prudent dame, whose care 
 Reared my unfortunate husband. She received 
 The nursling when his mother brought him forth.’ ” 
 
164 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 Odysseus himself, also, when his nurse recognized 
 him on his return, and hastened to announce the glad 
 tidings to Penelope, says to her : 
 
 “ ‘ Nurse, wouldst thou ruin me, who'drew long since 
 Milk from thy bosom, and who now return. 
 
 After much suffering, borne for twenty years. 
 
 To mine own land ? " 
 
 Little Astyanax, though fervently loved by Andro¬ 
 mache— 
 
 “ . . . slumbered, softly cushioned, on a couch 
 And in his nurse’s arms, his heart at ease 
 And satiate with delights. . . . 
 
 “ She came attended by a maid, who bore 
 A tender child—a babe too young to speak— 
 
 Upon her bosom—Hector’s only son. 
 
 Beautiful as a star.” 
 
 From the above, it is evident that the employment 
 of nurses was common during the Homeric age, and 
 it appears, from the tragic writers, that the custom pre¬ 
 vailed still more in the classical age. To some writers 
 this seems inconsistent with the manners of an archaic 
 period, during which, in their opinion, the observation 
 of the rules of nature would have been more probable, 
 and, on this account, they seek labored explanations 
 of a fact, the denial of which is extremely difficult. 
 
 Feithe claims that nurses were employed only in 
 
CHILDREN. 165 
 
 case of sickness or necessity, but that the practice is 
 erroneously considered to have been general. 
 
 Altogether inadmissible seems to us the opinion of 
 Lenz, that the employment of the nurses is explained 
 by reason of the importance attached to a numerous 
 progeny, and hence they were taken, that the mothers 
 might not early become barren. Such a minuteness 
 of suppositions appears altogether inconsistent with 
 the simplicity of the Homeric epoch; and, besides, we 
 are told that Hekabe, the most productive of the 
 Homeric women, nursed her first - born .son, Hektor, 
 and probably the rest also. 
 
 The truth is that, in Homeric times, as to-day, 
 nurses were taken for various reasons and under 
 various circumstances. We have noticed that, even 
 when the children were nursed by the mother, the 
 general oversight of them was intrusted to some of 
 the maid-servants. It was in this way that Eurykleia 
 reared Telemachos. But such nurses, besides the care 
 of the babe intrusted to them, had also other duties 
 to perform. Thus, Eurykleia was the overseer of the 
 handmaids, and kept the keys of the store-room. 
 The nurses were rewarded by large emoluments, and 
 in a manner which caused them to be envied by the 
 other domestics. This means nothing' more nor less 
 than that they were free, and received pay. But the 
 mere fact that they had brought up one of the chil- 
 
i66 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 dren of the family rendered them honored and re¬ 
 vered. We have, as a constant example of this fact, 
 the nurse Eurykleia, who, having reared Odysseus and 
 Telemachos, was especially honored in the house of 
 Laertes. 
 
 The presence of the nurse in no wise deprived the 
 babe of the personal care of the mother. Notice the 
 following beautiful lines in which Athene is represented 
 as protecting Menelaos from the missiles : 
 
 “ ‘ As when a mother, while her child is wrapped 
 In a sweet slumber, scares away the fly. 
 
 So Pallas turned the weapon from thy breast.’ ” 
 
 A mother’s heart never changes. Thirty centuries 
 ago, in Europe and in the tropic regions of Africa, the 
 mother, with the same tender care, bent over the slum¬ 
 bering babe, and, forgetting the realities of earthly 
 existence, formed golden dreams for the future. • 
 
 When Patroklos stood beside his friend, the mighty 
 Achilles— 
 
 “ And shed hot tears, as when a fountain sheds 
 Dark waters streaming down a precipice ”— 
 
 with how much grace the King of the Myrmidons 
 compares him to a maiden, running after her mother, 
 seizing her by the garment, and looking at her with 
 tearful eyes, until she shall have taken her to her 
 warm embrace !— 
 
CHILDREN. 
 
 167 
 
 “ ‘ Why weepest thou, Patroclus, like a g^rl,— 
 
 A little girl that, by her mother’s side 
 Runs, importuning to be taken up. 
 
 And plucks her by the robe, and stops her way. 
 
 And looks at her, and cries, until, at last 
 She rests within her arms ? ’ ’ 
 
 On the other hand, Dione, threatening Diomede, 
 and saying that— 
 
 “ . . . ‘ no child 
 
 Shall prattling call him father when he comes 
 Returning from the dreadful tasks of war ” 
 
 furnishes us with a valuable example that even then 
 the first word of the child was the name of father or 
 of mother. The Homeric babes, like our own, prattled 
 their first syllables on the knees of their parents. 
 
 In fact, it would seem that paternal love was not 
 less than motherly devotion. How enchanting the pict¬ 
 ure of small Astyanax !— 
 
 “ Then to his widowed mother shall return 
 Astyanax in tears, who, not long since 
 Was fed, while sitting on his father's lap. 
 
 On marrow and the delicate fat of lambs.” 
 
 Who recognizes under this form the great Hektor 
 of the glancing helmet, who, with the customary cru¬ 
 elty of the Homeric heroes, slew every enemy who 
 came in his path ? He whose sight alone put to flight 
 whole legions, holds in his powerful arms, instead of 
 
i68 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 a spear, his babe, and prepares its food, until, having 
 fallen asleep, the nurse comes to take it away. 
 
 The father generally gave the name to the infant. 
 However, we are told, in the case of Arnaeos— 
 
 “ Arnaeus was the name which, at his birth 
 His mother gave him.” 
 
 Friedreich deems this an exception, explained by the 
 death or absence of the father. But elsewhere we 
 are told that Autolykos gave to his grandchild, for 
 having wandered in various lands, the name of Odys¬ 
 seus, or the Wanderer. He also says to Laertes and 
 to his wife : 
 
 “ ‘ Daughter and son-in-law, be his the name ^ 
 
 That I shall give.’ ” 
 
 It thus appears that the right of the father was not, 
 as the learned German author thinks, exclusive. Very 
 rarely, indeed, had the given name any relation to that 
 of parents or relatives, but a patronymic was added 
 to it, thus distinguishing those bearing the same name. 
 Thus, Breseis means the daughter of Breseus ; Chry- 
 seis, the daughter of Chryseus; Peleides, the son of 
 Peleus, etc. Friedreich, having counted all the pas¬ 
 sages in which such names are mentioned, has found, 
 we think, sixty in all. But we believe v/e are not 
 mistaken in stating simply that this occurs with nearly 
 
EDUCATION. 169 
 
 all the heroes mentioned in the poems, as well as with 
 the two women named above. 
 
 Education. — Educational institutions were un¬ 
 known during the Homeric period. The children 
 were taught in the paternal home, and their education 
 continued from babyhood to the hour of their mar¬ 
 riage. Thus, Eumaeos was brought up by the mother 
 of Odysseus, with her youngest daughter, Ktimene, in 
 the house of Laertes, until he reached manhood, when 
 the maiden was dispatched to her intended husband at 
 Samos, while he, as a goatsherd, was sent to the fields : 
 
 “ ‘ While yet she lived, great as her sorrow was, 
 
 I loved to speak with her and hear her words; 
 
 For she had reared me with her youngest-born,— 
 
 Her daughter, long-robed Ctimena.' " 
 
 According to Hesiod, during the silver age, a son 
 was educated for one hundred years in his father’s 
 house. Although education lasted for a long time, 
 it little resembled the one inflicted upon the unfor¬ 
 tunate youth of recent years. The study of lan¬ 
 guages was then unknown, as well as the various sci¬ 
 ences and the other multifarious kinds of knowledge 
 with which we torment the young minds of to-day. 
 Education then consisted in an imitation of practical 
 examples, developing in an equal degree both mind 
 and body, and gradually changing the blooming shoots 
 into leafy and strong trees. 
 
170 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 The education of women seems to have been lim¬ 
 ited. For the maiden, the future matron and mistress, 
 there was no more competent instructor than her 
 mother. Living by her side, listening to her advice, 
 and relieving her in her household occupations, she 
 developed in these respects to a high degree. Never¬ 
 theless, no little time and attention was demanded for 
 all these works, and especially for the manufacture of 
 those wonderful embroideries of which we have al¬ 
 ready spoken. Besides this cultivated aptitude, there 
 was needed a considerable knowledge of drawing, for 
 the blending and weaving of the various patterns with 
 which the costly pepla were usually adorned. It has 
 already been noticed that the peplum given by Helen 
 to Telemachos “shone as a star," by reason of the 
 many-colored and various representations. 
 
 On the other hand, it is probable that the maid- 
 ens were rarely taught music, since we nowhere find 
 a woman praised as a singer. But great impor¬ 
 tance was attached to the teaching of dancing, be¬ 
 cause, at marriage-feasts and other important festivals, 
 the maidens danced either alone or with the men. 
 Often they developed such grace and art that they 
 called forth the general approbation of the lookers-on. 
 Many were the tender sentiments that thereby arose : 
 
 “ The mighty Argus-queller saw the maid 
 Among the choir of those who danced and sang 
 
EDUCATION’. 
 
 171 
 
 At Dian’s festival, the huntress-queen, 
 
 Who bears the golden shafts; he saw and loved.” 
 
 On the other hand, nowhere do we find maidens 
 exercising in athletic sports. The heroic period did 
 not know the laws of Lykurgos. Nevertheless, due 
 care was taken for the regular development of the 
 body. The young Nausikaa, conducting by her soft 
 hand the fleet mules, is an example ; and the beauty 
 generally attributed to woman furnishes a safe guar¬ 
 antee of the degree in which she was esteemed, and 
 the diligence with which was cultivated everything 
 tending to preserve and develop this beauty. 
 
 The education of the boys was far more important. 
 The young prince, during the Homeric age, was born 
 a soldier, and had for his sole ambition the possession 
 of a suitable place among the heroes. Courage and 
 devotion to arms in no wise precluded the cultivation 
 of the mind, and eloquence in the assembly; and the 
 tact properly to represent one's interests, was esteemed 
 as greatly as bravery on the field of battle. That 
 eloquence and facility of defending the highest in¬ 
 terests of the state are justly honored by writers as 
 most wonderful in men accustomed to the din of bat¬ 
 tles ; wherefore, the verse— 
 
 “ In words an orator, in warlike deeds 
 An actor ”— 
 
172 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 has ever been considered as setting forth the two 
 foundations upon which every noble education was 
 based. Courage, wisdom, justice, these were the in¬ 
 dispensable qualities for the young hero, and these 
 were especially praised in him. On this account 
 Nestor is deemed happy, for his sons were 
 
 “ . . . wise-minded, mighty with the spear.” 
 
 To achieve this double purpose, as the father alone 
 was unequal to the task, a trainer was taken to com¬ 
 plete the education of the child. Such was Phoenix 
 toward Achilles, who, having run away from his pater¬ 
 nal home, came to Peleus, a distant relative, and was 
 employed by the latter to properly educate young 
 Achilles. Among other things we notice, from this 
 example, that the boy-trainers, during the Homeric 
 period, differed from those constantly met with in 
 the classical epoch. These latter were usually paid 
 slaves, hired domestics, or friends of the family into 
 which they went to escape poverty, or were forced 
 by some other misfortune, and educated the chil¬ 
 dren in exchange for the protection bestowed upon 
 them. 
 
 It would appear that the boy-trainers or educators 
 were employed from the very infancy of the children, 
 inasmuch as Phoenix, in order to appease the heart of 
 the wrathful Achilles, reminded him how he fed him, 
 
EDUCATION, 
 
 173 
 
 as he sat on his knees, and what unpleasant scenes 
 resulted by reason of his petulant childhood : 
 
 “ ‘ I loved thee from my soul; thou wouldst not go 
 With any other to the feast, nor take 
 Thy food at home until upon my knees 
 I placed thee, carved thy meats, and gave them thee. 
 And poured thy wine. The tunic on my breast 
 Was often wetted by thee when the wine 
 Gushed, in thy petulant childhood, from thy lips.’ ’’ 
 
 Few certainly are the nurses who to-day perform 
 their duty with the same attachment and care de¬ 
 scribed in the verses above. Beautiful, indeed, is the 
 picture of the infant which knew no dearer refuge upon 
 earth than the embrace of the old man. 
 
 This close relation was kept up throughout the 
 much-troubled life of the hero. Phoenix, being al¬ 
 ready well-nigh upon the lips of the grave, recalls 
 those scenes of childhood with tearful eyes. 
 
 In like manner the sentiments of Achilles are 
 equally strong toward the guardian and guide of his 
 youthful years, for he gladly divides with him his 
 kingdom and the honors bestowed upon him : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Reign thou equally with me. 
 
 And share my honors.’ ” 
 
 The children intrusted to the trainer remained 
 continually under his care, and were taught by him, 
 both by example and advice, what was useful. 
 
174 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 On account of the want of writing, we know little 
 in regard to the mental training of the child. But the 
 matter stands differently with regard to exercise of 
 the body. 
 
 Athletic exercises were an indispensable charac¬ 
 teristic of the Hellenic race, and wherever a Hellenic 
 people is spoken of we find such exercises mentioned 
 by Homer, who, however, never refers to them in con¬ 
 nection with barbarians. 
 
 The description of the brilliant obsequies of Pa- 
 troklos, and of the contests which took place among 
 the Phaekeans, furnishes us with an accurate idea of 
 these athletic exercises. Many of them were so diffi¬ 
 cult, that there is no doubt whatever as to the great 
 development of the body during the Homeric times. 
 It was through wrestling, boxing, running, and other 
 exercises, that the body was strengthened, and the boy 
 inured from infancy to the various hardships which 
 were later in store for him. Hunting was followed, 
 also, with the same end in view, and was the favor¬ 
 ite amusement of the young. When Odysseus visit¬ 
 ed his grandfather, the latter went forth with his sons 
 to hunt: 
 
 “ . . . Forth issued the young men. 
 
 The children of Autolycus, with hounds. 
 
 To hunt.” 
 
 Odysseus, on that occasion, killed a huge wild- 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 175 
 
 boar, which was lying near by within a thicket, but 
 in return the boar gashed his foe above the knee.” 
 
 Strange to say, music appears to have been culti¬ 
 vated, during this epoch, more by the men than by 
 the women. Well-nigh all of the heroes are famous 
 for their ability and dexterity in playing upon some 
 musical instrument, an accomplishment not always 
 possessed by the women. The ambassadors, sent by 
 Agamemnon to appease Achilles, found him drawing 
 solace 
 
 “ . . . from the music of a harp 
 Sweet-toned and shapely, in a silver frame. 
 
 Part of the spoil he took when he o’erthrew 
 Eetion’s town. To soothe his mood, he sang 
 The deeds of heroes. By him sat alone 
 Patroclus, silent till the song should cease.” 
 
 The young men as well as the maidens were taught 
 to dance, and they often sang to the sound of the in¬ 
 struments that accompanied their movements. 
 
 However, these accomplishments were deemed of 
 secondary importance, and were more in vogue among 
 the peaceful people of the Phaekeans than with the 
 warlike Achaians. 
 
 To the young heroes, who were frequently exposed 
 to danger, both in hunting and in war, the acquisition 
 of some elementary knowledge of medicine and sur¬ 
 gery was deemed indispensable. Thus Cheiron, the 
 
176 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 most just of the Kentaurs, is said to have taught 
 Achilles how to treat wounds : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Give now thine aid, 
 
 And take me to my ship, and cut away 
 The arrow from my thigh, and from the part 
 Cleanse with warm water the dark blood, and shed 
 Soothing and healing balms upon the wound, 
 
 As taught thee by Achilles, who had learned 
 The art from Chiron, righteous in his day 
 Beyond all other Centaurs.’ ” 
 
 The sons of Autolykos healed the wound of Odys¬ 
 seus inflicted by the wild-boar : 
 
 “ . . . Then around their guest 
 The kindly children of Autolycus 
 Came and bound up with care the wound, and stanched 
 With spells the dark blood of the blameless youth. 
 And hastened with him to their father’s home. 
 
 And when Autolycus and they his sons 
 Had seen him wholly healed, they loaded him 
 With presents, and, rejoicing for his sake. 
 
 Sent him rejoicing back to Ithaca.” 
 
 Besides the instructor Phoenix, Achilles had also 
 another companion and guardian of his youth, Patro- 
 klos. Having become enraged against the son of 
 Amphidamas, with whom he was playing at dice, and 
 having killed him in a moment of wrath, he was sent 
 by his father Menoetius to Peleus. The latter took 
 him as an assistant for the education of his son, by 
 whom he was called a companion: 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 177 
 
 “ . . . ‘As we were reared 
 Under thy roof together, from the time 
 When first Menoetius brought thee, yet a boy. 
 
 From Opus, where I caused a sorrowful death ;— 
 
 For by my hand, when wrangling at the dice. 
 
 Another boy, son of Amphidamas, 
 
 Was slain without design,—and Peleus made 
 His halls my home, and reared me tenderly. 
 
 And made me thy companion ;—so at last. 
 
 May one receptacle, the golden vase 
 
 Given by thy gracious mother, hold our bones.’ ” 
 
 Being older than Achilles, and regarded as a friend 
 as well as an instructor, he followed him everywhere, 
 and, by good and noble examples, led him in the path 
 of virtue. Menoetius himself, giving his son the ne¬ 
 cessary instructions, clearly defines the circle of his 
 activity : 
 
 “ ‘ My son, Achilles is the nobler bom. 
 
 But thou art elder. He surpasses thee 
 By far in warlike might, but thou must prompt 
 His mind with prudent counsels; thou must warn 
 And guide him ; he will hearken to thy words 
 Meant for his good.’ ” 
 
 In fact, so strongly was the influence of Patroklos 
 preserved, that even later Nestor invokes it to appease 
 the wrath of Achilles : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Thou perchance mayst bend 
 His will—who knows ?—by thy persuasive words; 
 
 For wholesome are the warnings of a friend.’ ” 
 
178 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 How close the friendship was which, in the course 
 of time, sprang up between these two young com¬ 
 panions, all who have read the poems well know. 
 These contain no more pathetic passage than that 
 in which there appears to the mourning Achilles, in 
 his sleep, the spirit of his dead friend, recalling past 
 associations, and giving him the last embrace, before 
 finally descending into Hades: 
 
 “ ‘ Give me thy hand, I pray ; for never more 
 Shall I return to earth when once the fire 
 Shall have consumed me.’ ” 
 
 But, we are told that, as Achilles 
 
 “. . . stretched 
 
 His longing arms to clasp the shade—in vain ; 
 
 Away, like smoke it went, with gibbering cry, 
 
 Down to the earth.” 
 
 When a boy had passed his infancy, he sometimes 
 followed his father to the cultivation of his estates, 
 and was there taught the first elements of botany and 
 agriculture, which he turned into practice by caring 
 for the young trees and plants. The father often pre¬ 
 sented to him, as a recompense, some of those of 
 which the young man had especially taken care. 
 
 Odysseus, already an old man, reminds his father 
 Laertes, when he visits him, of those youthful occupa¬ 
 tions, and enumerates still the trees presented to him. 
 
 As the young man grew up, he was sent to visit 
 
AMUSEMENTS} 
 
 179 
 
 his relatives. We have already alluded to the visit 
 of Odysseus to his grandfather Autolykos. The re¬ 
 ception offered to him was hearty, and a magnificent 
 repast was placed before him in his honor, and to 
 refresh him after his long journey. When, after hav¬ 
 ing distinguished himself in hunting, and having re¬ 
 ceived the splendid gifts bestowed upon him, he re¬ 
 turned to Ithaka— 
 
 “ His father and his gracious mother there 
 Rejoiced in turn, and asked him of the scar, 
 
 And how it came, and he related all.” 
 
 There is no doubt that the children in Homer^s 
 time possessed all the “ playfulness ” and “ vivacity ” 
 of those of to-day. They collected in small groups, 
 and searched for the nests of hornets, and often 
 dearly paid for their daring, because those winged 
 insects suddenly caused them “a severe pain.” But 
 scenes far more lamentable often occurred during the 
 playing of the children, as the example of Patroklos 
 has taught us. 
 
 Amusements. —There are three games mentioned 
 in Homer, played not only by the children, but often 
 also by the men. The first of these was the “ astra- 
 galoe,” or the jack-stones. These were pieces of 
 bones from the ankles of animals. Authors generally 
 remark that, as Homer says nothing in explanation of 
 
i8o 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 this game, there is no way of arriving at a perfect 
 understanding of it. Annotators of Homer do not 
 seem to know that there is still extant, among the 
 Greeks of to-day, a widely-known game, which, if not 
 the very one mentioned in Homer, is at any rate its 
 genuine descendant, strangely preserved through cent¬ 
 uries among the lower classes, and we thus have posi¬ 
 tive information as to its pan-archaic ancestor. 
 
 The game is played as follows: Those about to 
 engage in it sit in a circle, and each throws up in turn 
 the bones ; in accordance with the position which the 
 pieces assume on* falling on the back of the hand 
 some honorary or disgraceful name is given to the 
 one throwing, and a stated number of blows is applied 
 to the losers, at the discretion of those who have 
 shared in the honors. It would appear that usually 
 the ankle of the ox was preferred, because otherwise 
 it would be hard to understand the murder of the son 
 of Amphidamas. 
 
 If this game is, as we unhesitatingly believe, simi¬ 
 lar to the one in use during the Homeric period, the 
 Germans give it a wrong title in the word “ Wiirfel- 
 spiel'^ We also consider that Becker is in error in 
 claiming that the Homeric game was exactly similar 
 to the dice-throwing of modern times. * 
 
 During the classical age there were two kinds of 
 “ankle-bone throwing”—the matching and the throw- 
 
AMUSEMENTS. 
 
 i8i 
 
 ing five pieces at once. The matching, which was also 
 called ‘‘ odd and even,” is fully described in the fol¬ 
 lowing passage: 
 
 “ ‘How many teeth have you?’ he said ; instead of 
 * How many walnuts ? ’ For this is the game : One, 
 taking nuts in his closed hand, and stretching it forth, 
 asks, ‘ How many ? ’ In case he succeeds in divining 
 the number, he wins as many nuts as there are in the 
 hand ; but, if he should be wrong in his answer, he 
 pays the same number.” 
 
 The game was called ankle-bone throwing,” be¬ 
 cause anciently small ankle-bones were used. In the 
 course of time nuts or other small objects were substi¬ 
 tuted for these. 
 
 In like manner, there has been preserved un¬ 
 changed to our day the well-known game of five peb¬ 
 bles. We find in Polydeukes a description which 
 corresponds exactly with the game played to-day in 
 Hellas. This description is as follows : 
 
 “ There were used five small stones, or even ankle- 
 bones, which, being placed in the palm of the hand, 
 were quickly thrown up so as to fall on the back 
 of it; in case all did not remain on the top of the 
 hand, it was necessary to catch up those which had 
 fallen, by opening the fingers, without, however, let¬ 
 ting go the pieces which already were on the hand.” 
 
 Of this game, which was also called “ ankle-bone 
 9 
 
i 82 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 throwing/' a diagram is preserved in the well-known 
 picture representing the visit of Niobe to I.eto. 
 
 The second and most important of the Homeric 
 games was known as the translated draughts 
 
 or checkers!' Learned treatises have been written on 
 this subject, but the game is so complex that its de¬ 
 tails are neither fully nor clearly understood, espe¬ 
 cially as the passages which refer to it are few in 
 number. Palamedes is said to have invented the 
 game, and, on this account, he is represented, in 
 Euripides, as playing it with Protesilaos. In like 
 manner, Ajax and Achilles are said to play it, so that 
 the game is generally admitted to have originated in 
 the mythical times. 
 
 But fortune again wonderfully assists us, inasmuch 
 as there is still to be found in Greece a game which 
 probably has at least a partial resemblance to the 
 pessoe. We refer to the well-known Greek game of 
 nine-pins.” The accurate preservation of match¬ 
 ing ” and five pebbles ” among the people of Hellas 
 justifies us in searching for the beginning of most of 
 our popular games in the ancient times. In fact, on 
 the steps of the Parthenon there was found inscribed 
 a representation of “the nine-pins.” Aphion, the Alex¬ 
 andrian, says, according to Athenaeos, that he has 
 learned from Ktesias, the Ithakesean, that the Ho¬ 
 meric pessoe, as played by the suitors, was a sort of 
 
AMUSEMENTS. 
 
 183 
 
 divining game, invented by them to conjecture the 
 success or non-success of their suit. This happened 
 as follows : 
 
 Each of the sixty-eight suitors placed a pesson^ or 
 pin, upon one of two opposite lines, each of which, 
 accordingly had thirty-four pins. In the midst, where 
 a vacant spot was left, there was another pin placed, 
 called Penelope, against which in turn was thrown the 
 pin of each player. In case of success, he placed in 
 that central spot his own piece, by which he deemed 
 himself as the one likely to win Penelope. In case 
 he succeeded a second time, he was declared a vic¬ 
 tor, and entertained sweet hopes as to the success of 
 his suit. 
 
 The above seems to be altogether mythical, inas¬ 
 much as the silence of Homer upon this subject ap¬ 
 pears difficult to explain. Granting that this game 
 was widely known during the Homeric age, it is im¬ 
 probable that it would have been mentioned without 
 some hint that its intention was to forecast the destiny 
 of Penelope. The aforementioned passage of Athe- 
 naeos doubtless refers to some more modern game, 
 which’perhaps took the Homeric name. 
 
 In like manner, certain authors claim that Ajax 
 and Achilles, and the other heroes, by means of this 
 game, sought not only diversity, but some favorable 
 omen concerning the capture of Troy. But all these 
 
184 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 assumptions, founded upon no extant passage of 
 Homer, must be considered as pure conjectures. 
 
 The third Homeric game is twice mentioned by 
 the poet: First, in the excursion of Nausikaa to the 
 shore, which has already been described. The court 
 of Alkinoos furnishes the second example. After the 
 song of the bard, the two best dancers of the Phae- 
 keans, Halios and Laodamas, whom “ none of all others 
 equaled,’' engaged in a dance, which consisted in the 
 artistic throwing of a ball by the one and the skillful 
 catching of it by the other. The passage is as fol¬ 
 lows : 
 
 “ Then taking a fair purple ball, the work 
 Of skillful Polybus, and, bending back. 
 
 One flung it toward the shadowy clouds on high ; 
 
 The other springing upward, easily 
 
 Grasped it before he touched the ground again." 
 
 Friedreich makes a distinction between the two 
 passages, and, basing his deductions upon the verse 
 in which it is said that Nausikaa, having thrown the 
 ball toward one of the attendants, and having missed 
 her aim, awoke Odysseus, who was sleeping near by— 
 maintains that the game of Halios and Laodamas was 
 the true one, while that of the young women consisted 
 simply in throwing the ball to each other. In other 
 words, it was the “ ball-practice " usual among the 
 school-boys of to-day. But this exercise is so violent 
 
AMUSEMENTS. 
 
 185 
 
 that it seems to us ill-suited for girls. Again, how can 
 the following verse bear out the above conjecture ?— 
 
 “ . . . Nausikaa, the white-armed, 
 
 Began a song.” 
 
 How could she sing in a game which renders even 
 breathing difficult ? The supposition is more probable 
 that, on this occasion also, the very same game or 
 dance is referred to as when Halios and Laodamas 
 danced ; and, if Nausikaa throws the ball to the at¬ 
 tendant, she probably does this after finishing the 
 dance, and 
 
 “ . . . when they were about to move for home, 
 With harnessed mules and with the shining robes.” 
 
 Thus, it seems likely that this Homeric game was 
 the same mentioned in the first instance, and fully 
 described in the second. It is in this game that 
 the source of modern ball-playing is found. Fried¬ 
 reich, to reconcile everything, says, *‘With both kinds 
 of this game of ball, the dance was also closely 
 linked " ; but this remark has no importance what¬ 
 
 ever. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Parental love—Brotherly love—Illegitimate children—Slavery— 
 The value of slaves—The number of slaves—Hired domes¬ 
 tics. 
 
 Parental .Love. —We have already noticed how 
 strong the feeling of parental love was during the 
 Pan-archaic years. As its eternal type stands Niobe, 
 who, according to tradition, sheds unceasing tears at 
 the loss of her children. 
 
 The love of the children toward their parents was 
 also exceptionally strong, so that both the parental 
 and filial relations have much that is noble and lofty 
 in the Homeric age. 
 
 When Priam, at the feet of Achilles, pleads for the 
 body of his son Hektor, instead of other prayers, he 
 reminds the hero of his own father : 
 
 “ ‘ Think of thy father, an old man like me. 
 
 Godlike Achilles ! On the dreary verge 
 Of closing life he stands, and even now 
 Haply is fiercely pressed by those who dwell- 
 Around him, and has none to shield his age 
 From war and its disasters. Yet his heart 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 187 
 
 Rejoices when he hears thou yet dost live, 
 
 And every day he hopes that his dear son 
 Will come again from Troy. My lot is hard, 
 
 For I was father of the bravest sons 
 
 In all wide Troy, and none are left me now ! ’ " 
 
 He knew well that this was the best way to move 
 Achilles. Indeed, the words of the old man caused 
 the hero to burst into tears, and he delivered to the 
 unhappy father the body of his son. Now, if else¬ 
 where Achilles says, lamenting the death of Patrcklos— 
 
 . ‘ No worse calamity 
 Could light on me, not even should I hear 
 New's of my father’s death ’ ”— 
 
 this not only is 'not contrary to what has been ex¬ 
 pressed before, but it shows, in fact, that the loss of 
 a father was deemed the most irreparable of all ca¬ 
 lamities. 
 
 Nestor, when he tries to rally the fleeing Achaians, 
 conjures them by the memory of their parents, as the 
 most sacred remembrance of all: 
 
 “. . . ‘ Think each one of his children and his wife. 
 His home, his parents, living yet or dead.’ ” 
 
 Elpenor, beseeching Odysseus, on his return from 
 Hades, not to leave him unwept and unburied, but to 
 erect a tomb for him by the shore of the sea, says : 
 
 “. . . ‘I conjure thee now, by those 
 Whom thou hast left behind and far away. 
 
i88 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 Thy consort and thy father,—him by whom 
 Thou when a boy wert reared,—and by thy son 
 Telemachus, who in thy palace halls 
 Is left alone— 
 
 . . . leave me not when thou departest thence 
 Unwept, unburied, lest I bring on thee 
 The anger of the gods. But bum me there 
 With all the armor that I wore, and pile, 
 
 Close to the hoary deep, a mound for me.'" 
 
 How sorrowful, indeed, are the expressions of 
 Achilles, weeping at the memory of his aged father 
 Peleus! How tearful the conversation between Odys¬ 
 seus and the shade of the hero in Hades, which in 
 that dark realm yearns for news of his aged father, 
 and grieves at the thought that he is perhaps deprived 
 of the honor and care due to him !— 
 
 “ ‘ And tell me also if thou aught hast heard 
 Of blameless Peleus,—w^hether he be yet 
 Honored among his many Myrmidons, 
 
 Or do they hold him now in small esteem 
 In Hellas and in Phthia, since old age 
 Unnerves his hands and feet, and I no more 
 Am there, beneath the sun, to give him aid. 
 
 “. . . Could I come again. 
 
 But for a moment, with my former strength. 
 
 Into my father s palace, I would make 
 That strength and these unconquerable hands 
 A terror to the men who do him wrong, 
 
 And rob him of the honor due a king.' ” 
 
 Heart-rending also was the mourning of old Laer¬ 
 tes on account of the absence of his beloved son ; and 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 189 
 
 when finally Odysseus returns, after an absence of 
 twenty years, and, secretly entering his palace, finds 
 his aged father alone— 
 
 “ Wasted with age and sorrow-worn," 
 the heart of the hero sinks at his appearance : 
 
 “. . .he stopped 
 
 Beside a lofty pear-tree’s stem and wept, 
 
 And pondered whether he should kiss and clasp 
 His father in his arms, and tell him all. 
 
 How he had reached his native land and home. 
 
 Or question first and prove him.” 
 
 But upon consideration, and in order, before mak¬ 
 ing himself known, to find out all that had occurred 
 in Ithaka during his absence, he fabricates a story, in 
 which he introduces certain of his own wanderings: 
 
 " He spake, and a dark cloud of sorrow came 
 Over Laertes. With both hands he grasped 
 The yellow dust, and over his white head 
 Shed it with piteous groans.” 
 
 Then finally, Odysseus, casting aside the mask— 
 
 "... sprang 
 
 And kissed and clasped him in his arms, and said:— 
 
 ‘ Nay, I am he, my father; I myself 
 Am he of whom thou askest. . . . 
 
 But calm thyself, refrain from tears, and grieve 
 No more.’ ” 
 
 But perhaps still more moving is the first meeting 
 between Odysseus and Telemachos. The latter, re- 
 
THE FAMILY. 
 
 190 
 
 turning from Pylos, after his vain search for his father, 
 comes to the old swine-herd, by whom also Odysseus 
 was found. As he, according to his habit, relates to 
 his son certain mythical stories concerning himself, he 
 is changed by the will of Athene, and appears to the 
 astonished eyes of the youth so brilliant and so young, 
 that at first Telemachos took him to be a god; but 
 finally, persuaded as to the truth— • 
 
 . Telemachus 
 
 Around his glorious father threw his arms, 
 
 And shed a shower of tears. Both felt at heart 
 A passionate desire to weep; they wept 
 Aloud,—and louder were their cries than those 
 Of eagles, or the sharp-clawed vulture tribe. 
 
 Whose young the hinds have stolen, yet unfledged. - 
 Still flowed their tears abundantly; the sun 
 Would have gone down and left them weeping still, 
 Had not Telemachus at length inquired ”... 
 
 But there is another love more sympathetic than 
 all others, ethereal as the mind and limitless as mat¬ 
 ter—the love of the mother; and the great poet does 
 not ignore this truth. While, from the beginning to 
 the end of the poems, many beauties evince the lof¬ 
 tiest genius, there are few passages more divine than 
 those in which such relations are described ; and it is 
 manifest, even to the indifferent reader, that the poet 
 himself had strongly experienced a feeling of this kind. 
 ..Those who have read the “ Odyssey,” even in a cur- 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 191 
 
 sory way, have undoubtedly discovered the connection 
 between it and Dante’s “ Divine Comedy.” In the 
 Odyssey,” it is true, there is one passage only, one 
 glorious page, which may be regarded as the source 
 from which Dante drew his inspiration and elaborated 
 his more complete poem, describing not only known 
 worlds, but creating others still more weird in the 
 lurid depths of his own imagination. Just as, in the 
 “ Divine Comedy,” the fate of Francesca and of Paolo 
 causes even the deepest recesses of the reader’s heart 
 to vibrate, thus in the world below, the conversation 
 of Odysseus with the spirit of his mother forms one 
 of the most wonderful pictures which ever human im¬ 
 agination conceived and described. 
 
 The wandering hero, on leaving the Island of 
 Kirke, came by the advice of the sorceress to the 
 farthest confines of the ocean, where the Kimmerians, 
 a northern people, dwelt : 
 
 “ There lies the land, and there the people dwell 
 Of the Cimmerians, in eternal cloud 
 And darkness. Never does the glorious sun 
 Look on them with his rays, when he goes up 
 Into the starry sky, nor when again 
 He sinks from heaven to earth. Unwholesome night 
 O erhangs the wretched race.” 
 
 We have quoted the above verses, because it is 
 evident from them that, during the Homeric age, there 
 already existed certain undeveloped ideas about the 
 
192 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 countries to the north, and the fact that a six months" 
 night enveloped those lands was well known. There 
 Odysseus dug a trench in the ground, and, filling it 
 first with milk and honey, then with rich wine and wa¬ 
 ter, and, having scattered white meal upon the sur¬ 
 face, kneeling, he began to pray “ to the troop of airy 
 forms ” that he might at last come to Ithaka. Having 
 thus worshiped with prayer, he cut the throats of the 
 sacred sheep, let the dark blood flow into the hollow 
 trench, and then— 
 
 “ . . . ‘ thronging round me came 
 Souls from the dead, from Erebus,—young wives 
 And maids unwedded, men worn out with years 
 And toil, and virgins of a tender age 
 In their new grief, and many a warrior slain 
 In battle, mangled by the spear, and clad 
 In bloody armor, who about the trench 
 Flitted on every side, now here, now there. 
 
 With gibbering cries, and I grew pale with fear.’ ” 
 
 But, recalling the instructions given him by Kirke, 
 he drew his sword, and kept the souls away from the 
 blood, that the spirit of the seer Teiresias might first 
 drink. While he was speaking with the shadowy form 
 of Elpenor, suddenly 
 
 “ . . . ‘ the soul of Anticleia came,— 
 
 My own dead mother. . . . 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Her I left 
 Alive, what time I sailed for Troy, and now 
 I wept to see her there, and pitied her. 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 193 
 
 And yet forbade her, though with grief, to come 
 Near to the blood,—till I should first accost 
 Tiresias.’ ” 
 
 Finally, when the soul of King Teiresias had spoken 
 to him, and passed to the abode of Pluto, the spirit of 
 Antikleia drank of the dark blood, and forthwith she 
 recognized her son: 
 
 “. . . ‘ She knew me suddenly, 
 
 And said, in piteous tones, these winged words :— 
 
 “ How didst thou come, my child, a living man, 
 
 Into this place of darkness ? Difficult 
 It is for those who breathe the breath of life 
 To visit these abodes, through which are rolled 
 Great rivers^ fearful floods ! . . . 
 
 Hast thou come hither on thy way from Troy, 
 
 A weary wanderer, with thy ship and friends ? 
 
 And hast thou not been yet at Ithaca, 
 
 Nor in thine island palace seen thy wife ? ” ’ ” 
 
 Odysseus explains the cause of his descent into 
 the dark abodes, but one idea above all possesses him, 
 the desire to hear of the loved ones left at home. He 
 immediately asks for news of his father and son, wheth¬ 
 er they still hold the authority intrusted to them, and 
 whether his wife keeps unbroken her pledge to the 
 absent one. The answers of the phantom pour bal¬ 
 sam on his wounds, inasmuch as Penelope has ever 
 remained faithful in the palace : 
 
 “. . . ‘ Weary days and nights 
 And tears are hers.’ ” 
 
194 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 She also informs him— 
 
 “ . . . ‘ No man has taken yet 
 Thy place as ruler, but Telemachus 
 Still has the charge of thy domain. . . . 
 
 “ . . . ‘ In the fields 
 
 Thy father dwells, and never in the town 
 Is seen; nor beds nor cloaks has he, nor mats 
 Of rich device, but, all the winter through. 
 
 He sleeps, where sleep the laborers, on the hearth. 
 Amid the dust, and wears a wretched garb ; 
 
 And when the summer comes, or autumn days 
 Ripen the fruit, his bed is on the ground. 
 
 And made of leaves that everywhere are shed 
 In the rich vineyards. There he lies and grieves, 
 
 And, cherishing his sorrow, mourns thy fate, 
 
 And keenly feels the misenes of age.’ ” 
 
 The phantom adds that, in like manner, was 
 also freed of my miserable existence. No cruel dis¬ 
 ease carried me away, nor did I endure any other 
 cruel suffering ”— 
 
 “ ‘ But constant longing for thee, anxious thoughts 
 Of thee, and memory of thy gentleness, 
 
 Ulysses, made an end of my sweet life.’ ” 
 
 -On hearing this, the hero became frantic with 
 sorrow : 
 
 “. . . ‘ I longed to take into my arms 
 The soul of my dead mother. Thrice I tried. 
 
 Moved by a strong desire, and thrice the form 
 Passed through them, like a shadow or a dream.’" 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 195 
 
 We have mentioned Dante, and now we come to a 
 more modern poet, Shakespeare. The wonderful in¬ 
 vocation of Hamlet to the phantom of his father is 
 wholly contained in the heart - moving expressions 
 that the hero Odysseus addressed to the spirit, which 
 vanishes despite his vain appeals : 
 
 “ ‘ Beloved mother, why wilt thou not keep 
 Thy place, that I may clasp thee, so that here, 
 
 In Pluto’s realm and in each other’s arms 
 We each might in the other soothe the sense 
 Of misery ? Hath mighty Proserpine 
 Sent but an empty shade to meet me here. 
 
 That I might only grieve and sigh the more } ’ ” 
 
 But the mother tells him— 
 
 ** ‘ Believe not that Jove’s daughter Proserpine 
 Deceives thee. 'Tis the lot of all our race 
 When they are dead. No more the sinews bind 
 The bones and flesh, when once from the white bones 
 The life departs. Then, like a dream the soul 
 Flies off, and flits about from place to place.’ ” 
 
 Dante passes from Hades to Paradise, and, in his 
 wonderful poem, darkness succeeds to paradisical 
 light. The transition is somewhat similar in Homer, 
 if, after the subterranean meeting we have described, 
 we recall Achilles invoking on the shore the appear¬ 
 ance of the white goddess to whom he owed his life. 
 On one side we have gloom and tears, bleached bones, 
 and vain clasping of phantoms; on the other, the 
 
196 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 golden rays of the morning sun dance upon the sum¬ 
 mit of the waves, and illume the bright hair of the 
 goddess, who emerges from the water at the call of 
 her son. 
 
 .How poetic and how tender this relation of the 
 beautiful Nereis and the unconquerable hero, her own 
 child ! When the embassy of Agamemnon had carried 
 away Briseis, Achilles, deeply wounded at heart, first 
 of all remembered his mother, and hastened to her, to 
 pour forth the suffering of his soul, and to obtain con¬ 
 solation : 
 
 “. . . gazed 
 
 On the black deep beyond, and stretched his hands. 
 And prayed to his dear mother, earnestly.” 
 
 Somewhere in the deep-blue depths his mother 
 dwelt. But broad was the bosom of the ocean, and 
 who could tell in what part she then lived ? Perchance 
 she was following the chariot of Poseidon in the black 
 Euxine, or the blue Propontis ; or playing with other 
 Nereids, by the light of the full moon, on some dis¬ 
 tant shore; or sitting in the palace of her father, re¬ 
 ceiving the compliments of admiring Tritons. In fact, 
 she was 
 
 “ Sitting within the ocean deeps, beside 
 Her aged father.” 
 
 But, on hearing the wailings of her son— 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 197 
 
 “ . . . swiftly from the waves 
 Of the gray deep emerging like a cloud, 
 
 She sat before him as he wept, and smoothed 
 His brow with her soft hand, and kindly said : 
 
 ‘ My child, why weepest thou ? What grief is this ? 
 Speak, and hide nothing, so that both may know.’ " 
 
 Though less poetic, the relations of Telemachos 
 and Penelope were most tender. With how much de¬ 
 votion he consoles her, and cares for everything in the 
 absence of his father ! When he finally resolves upon 
 setting out, how earnestly he enjoins silence upon the 
 aged nurse Eurykleia for at least twelve days, lest his 
 mother might grieve were she to know of his absence— 
 
 “ . . . and she weep. 
 
 And stain with tears the beauty of her face.” 
 
 But if all else were wanting, it would be sufficient 
 to recall that wonderful picture in which the joy of 
 Odysseus, at the calm which followed the storm, is 
 compared to the joy felt by children on the recovery 
 of their parents from a dangerous disease : 
 
 “ And as a father’s life preserved makes glad 
 His children’s hearts, when long time he has lain 
 Sick, wrung with pain, and wasting by the power 
 Of some malignant genius, till at length 
 The gracious gods bestow a welcome cure. 
 
 So welcome to Ulysses was the sight 
 Of woods and fields. ” 
 
198 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 Besides filial love, obligations of gratitude and of 
 duty imposed upon them by society, united the children 
 to their parents. To those who had taken care of them 
 during infancy, who had earnestly watched over them 
 and brought them up to the age of manhood, the chil¬ 
 dren owed the same unceasing care. Many examples 
 • 
 
 of this may be found in the Homeric poems. The 
 sons of Nestor, of Alkinoos, and of Priam, busied 
 themselves with household affairs, to the relief of 
 their aged parents. 
 
 These filial sentiments became still more tender 
 in the relations between mother and son, who, as it 
 has been noticed in the self-regulating Homeric so¬ 
 ciety, assumed authority in the absence of his father. 
 Thus, the sending away of Penelope from the paternal 
 mansion in no wise exceeded the right of Telema¬ 
 chos, but to the suitors recommending this measure 
 he responds : 
 
 “ ‘ Antinoiis, grievous wrong it were to send, 
 Unwilling from this palace, her who bore 
 And nursed me.’ ” 
 
 And further down he says : 
 
 “ ‘ For then my mother, going forth, would call 
 On the grim Furies, and the general curse 
 Of all men would be on me.’ ” 
 
 Justifying thus his unwillingness to dismiss his mother, 
 it becomes manifest that, not only the reverence due 
 
PARENTAL LOVE. 
 
 199 
 
 to the parents was considered a sacred duty, but its 
 neglect was a sin severely punished by the gods. 
 Such is the meaning of the verse— 
 
 “ The Furies wait upon the elder-bom." 
 
 The fact that the authority passed over to the 
 eldest-born in the absence of the father, reminds us, 
 in some respects, of feudal times, and the custom is 
 still found among the English. Other nations, at 
 least until the children become of age, recognize the 
 widowed mother as the mistress of the house, while, 
 during the Homeric years, the son, as soon as the 
 necessary wisdom was developed in him, assumed 
 the highest responsibility, exercising an authority so 
 absolute, that he even gave his mother away in a sec¬ 
 ond marriage! We find that Telemachos, previously 
 considered only a boy, suddenly assuming authority, 
 advises his mother to go about her own affairs : 
 
 “ ‘ Withdraw, O queen, into thy bower; direct 
 Thy household tasks, the distaff and the web. 
 
 And bid thy maidens speed the work. The bow 
 Belongs to men, and most to me ; for here. 
 
 Within these walls, the authority is mine.’ ” 
 
 Penelope not only instantly obeyed the above or¬ 
 der, but— 
 
 . astonished, heard him and withdrew, 
 
 But kept her son’s wise sayings in her heart. 
 
200 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 And then, ascending to her bower, among 
 Her maids, she wept her well-beloved lord.” 
 
 When the father was present, it appears that there 
 was no definite time at which the sons ‘^became of 
 age ” and assumed authority. The old Nestor and 
 Priam still held undisputed sway, and they only ruled 
 the family. But Laertes seems to have surrendered 
 his authority to Odysseus long before the Trojan war, 
 and to have withdrawn to his country-seat, wholly de¬ 
 voting himself to its cultivation. Peleus, with much 
 difficulty, retained his authority at an advanced age, 
 and only because, by the absence of Achilles, he was 
 deprived of a natural successor. On the other hand. 
 Telemachos, hardly yet a young man, gradually as¬ 
 sumed authority ; and, finally, by the advice of Ath¬ 
 ene, completely exercised it. 
 
 Brotherly Love. —Scarcely less tender than filial 
 love was the love between brothers. As a proof of 
 this may be cited the two sons of Atreus : 
 
 “ When Agamemnon, king of men, beheld 
 The dark blood flowing from his brother’s wound. 
 
 He shuddered. ...” 
 
 Sighing as he spoke, and taking the hand of his 
 dearly beloved brother, he expresses to him most ten¬ 
 derly his heart-felt sorrow. Even should . sacred 
 Troy,” he says, ^‘in accordance with the prophecy of 
 
ILLEGITIMA TE CHILDREN, 
 
 201 
 
 the gods, be some time captured, were I to lose you 
 before this event takes place— 
 
 “ ‘ May the earth open to receive my bones! ’ " 
 
 Again, when Hektor, advancing in the midst, 
 chides the Greeks for their cowardice, calling them 
 “ Grecian women, no longer Grecian men,” and Mene- 
 laos rushes forth to punish his insolence, with what 
 solicitude does Agamemnon hasten to prevent an en¬ 
 counter with the unconquerable hero ! 
 
 In like manner, Briseis deems the loss of her 
 mother and husband not greater than the calamity 
 which deprived her of 
 
 “ . . . ‘ the three brothers whom my mother bore.’ ” 
 
 Recalling, also, what has been said of the love 
 which bound together the blooming Nausikaa and her 
 brothers, we may easily notice the art with which the 
 poet sets it forth. The graceful and charming maid, 
 speaking to Odysseus concerning her mother, always 
 uses the plural, as if her brothers were ever present 
 in her memory. 
 
 Illegitimate Children. —Before finishing our re¬ 
 marks in regard to the domestic relations, it seems im¬ 
 perative to add a few words concerning the children 
 born by concubines. 
 
 The illegitimate children seem to have been edu- 
 
202 
 
 THE TAMIL y. 
 
 cated in the father’s house, and to have enjoyed the 
 same care as those lawfully born, with whom, indeed, 
 they often shared the paternal property. Thus we find 
 the son of Menelaos, born of a concubine, married, 
 finally, to a noble Spartan woman. 
 
 Meiners condemns this custom, but his opinion 
 seems to us open to objection. In the first place, the 
 strict Christian ordinances as to the sanctity of marriage 
 were then certainly lacking; but, in truth, the tender¬ 
 ness of the Homeric epoch appears more in accordance 
 with the true spirit of Christianity, than that strict 
 severity which punishes weak and innocent creatures 
 for the failings of their parents. On the other hand, it 
 should be considered that the case depended not on 
 right or privilege^ but on tenderness of heart, for the fate 
 of such children was determined by the disposition of 
 the wife, and the wisdom of those Homeric women must 
 not be unduly condemned, who, for the sake of har¬ 
 mony and family peace, pardoned the faithless acts of 
 their husbands. Thus in the case of Pedaeus, son of 
 Antenor: 
 
 “ And then, by Meges was Pedaeus slain, 
 
 Antenor’s base-born son, whose noble wife, 
 
 Theano, reared him with as fond a care 
 As her own children, for her husband's sake.” 
 
 Odysseus, in his false autobiography, relates that. 
 
SLA VER Y. 
 
 203 
 
 although in the paternal mansion there were many 
 other sons born “legitimately from a wedded wife,” 
 while “a bought concubine bore him,” nevertheless, 
 his father, Kastor, the son of Hylakides, “honored 
 him equally with his other children.” After his fa¬ 
 ther’s death, the sons distributed by lot his great riches, 
 
 “ ‘ Small was the portion they assigned to me.’ ” 
 
 Wherefore, it becomes manifest that really the ille¬ 
 gitimate son possessed no actual privilege. But that 
 often a truly brotherly love sprang up, we may see 
 from the example of Isos and Antiphos : 
 
 “ The monarch stripped the slain, and, leaving them 
 With their white bosoms bare, went on to slay 
 Isus and Antiphus, King Priam’s sons,— 
 
 One bom in wedlock, one of baser birth,— 
 
 Both in one chariot. Isus held the reins ’ 
 
 While Antiphus, the high-bom brother, fought.” 
 
 Nor was the fate of daughters born from such rela¬ 
 tions in any way worse. Thus Medesikaste, an ille¬ 
 gitimate daughter of Priam, was given in marriage to 
 Imbrios, son of Mentor, who, before the arrival of the 
 Achaians, lived at Pedaeum ; but, after that, escaped to 
 Priam— 
 
 "... and was honored as his son.” 
 
 Slavery. —The existence of slavery among the 
 Hellenes is certainly a fact much to be regretted. 
 
204 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 Among that people, who esteemed liberty as man’s 
 noblest possession, and who sacrificed everything in 
 its behalf, there lived millions of unfortunate beings, 
 deprived of this supreme right, and considered as mere 
 movable property. But is this, after all, so strange, 
 w'hen even in the Christian countries of Europe, slav¬ 
 ery received its death-wound only within recent years, 
 having survived through centuries of increasing civ¬ 
 ilization, and successfully resisted the endeavors of the 
 loftiest minds to effect its overthrow ? 
 
 The emancipation of the serfs in Russia and Rou- 
 mania is an event of yesterday, while to this day the 
 agricultural class of Ireland and other countries, re¬ 
 mains in a condition of abject slavery. Our own re¬ 
 public also was delivered from this devouring monster 
 only by a bloody strife, while the Latin races of South 
 America still suffer from its fatal presence. Little 
 wonder is it then that slavery, which flourished among 
 all ancient nations, is met with among the Greeks, both 
 of the Homeric and classical periods. Nevertheless, the 
 enchantment of ancient civilization is so great that one 
 who has been initiated into th_e pure philosophy of Aris¬ 
 totle and the divine teachings of Plato, concerning 
 soul and freedom, beholds with feelings of irrepressible 
 sorrow and astonishment that stain so repugnant to the 
 spirit of the picture. 
 
 Contemporary civilization is apt to appear to us 
 
SLA VER Y. 
 
 205 
 
 like the first light of day, while the six thousand years 
 which history has obscurely recorded assume their 
 true worth, that of a moment escaped from the ever¬ 
 lasting line of centuries. Our epoch, the wonders of 
 which we so much extol, and which we deem the virile 
 age of manhood, perchance is, after all, but one of its 
 hours of childhood, and we mistake for midday the 
 first light of early morn. 
 
 It is a curious fact, indeed, that the noblest char¬ 
 acteristics of the Greek urged him to slavery. Among 
 the barbarians the cause was the indolence and lazi¬ 
 ness of the people, while the Greek sanctioned the 
 practice from a feeling of his own superiority. Con¬ 
 sidering, as he did, all who did not belong to his race 
 as inferior beings, and avoiding every humble occupa¬ 
 tion, he prided himself in the belief that he was created 
 for the exercise of arms and liberal pursuits, while the 
 rest of mankind, whom he commonly called barbarians, 
 were intended to serve him. 
 
 Herodotus says that slavery did not exist among 
 
 the pan-archaic Greeks. But that pan-archaic epoch 
 
 seems to us to be mythical, for we know that, advancing 
 
 to the extreme limits of history, we find slavery in full 
 
 vogue, and during the Homeric epoch it was common 
 
 enough. This slavery was in every way complete. 
 
 The owner was the absolute master of the fortune and 
 
 life of the slaves, whose value depended upon their 
 10 
 
2o6 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 proficiency in the various pursuits. Thus Agamemnon 
 consents to restore Briseis, provided a prize equal to 
 her be given him. Antilochos, the son of Nestor, in 
 enumerating the property of Achilles, counts the maid¬ 
 servants among the gold, brass, sheep, and mules. 
 
 Nevertheless, even here the humane and provident 
 spirit of the Homeric epoch becomes manifest. 
 
 Although the slaves were the absolute property of 
 their masters, the kindness and consideration displayed 
 toward them rendered their bitter lot not only bear¬ 
 able, but often acceptable. In fact, when we observe 
 the servants of to-day, who are deemed the lowest 
 members of the household, we come to the conclusion 
 that the noble instinct of the Homeric times consid¬ 
 ered the household slave and the captive in war as, at 
 least, fellow-beings. 
 
 In truth, slavery was kept up rather as a social ne¬ 
 cessity, and, instead of its usual abhorrent form, it took 
 a milder type. The assertion that Christianity first of 
 all rendered to man his true worth, naturally seems to 
 us under this view exaggerated, and we fully accept 
 the opinion of Birnbaum, who says, “ As Christianity 
 is the revelation of the true and of the good, thus we 
 recognize among the Greeks and Romans likewise the 
 revelation of the lofty and of the beautiful.” 
 
 Hilie also finds great similarity between the princi¬ 
 ples of Homer and the Christian teaching, for he says 
 
SLA VER K 
 
 207 
 
 There is no doubt whatever that the condition of 
 the slaves in the Homeric epoch was incomparably 
 preferable to that in more recent years, even among 
 those nations whose habits have been recreated by the 
 gospel." 
 
 We often find the mistress of the household work¬ 
 ing in the midst of her maid-servants, and conversing 
 with them on various subjects as among equals. Thus 
 Odysseus sends the maid-servants to Penelope, say¬ 
 ing : 
 
 “ ‘ Ye maidens of a sovereign absent long. 
 
 Withdraw to where your high-born mistress sits; 
 There turn the spindle, seeking to amuse 
 Her lonely hours.’ ’’ 
 
 We have elsewhere noticed the Princess Nausikaa 
 working, eating, and playing together with her maid¬ 
 servants, whom she calls “ friends." This epithet Pe¬ 
 nelope herself uses, while the nurse Eurykleia and 
 Eurynome call her ‘‘ my child" and “ dear child." 
 Telemachos calls the old swine-herd Eumaeos “ fa¬ 
 ther," and when, on his return from Pylos, he goes to 
 his tent, the joy of the old man knows no bounds : 
 
 “... As when a father takes 
 Into his arms a son whom tenderly 
 He loves, returning from a distant land 
 In the tenth year,—his only son, the child 
 Of his old age, for whom he long has borne 
 
2o8 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 Hardships and grief,—so lo Telemachus 
 The swine-herd clung, and kissed him o’er and o’er, 
 As one escaped from death, and shedding still 
 Warm tears, bespake him thus with winged words.” 
 
 It becomes apparent, from the above, that the mas¬ 
 ters treated the slaves, and the latter the former, just 
 as if they really formed a part of the family. Fried¬ 
 reich thinks that there was a difference between the 
 embrace bestowed on a slave and that on a relation ; 
 but, in our opinion, valid proofs as to this are wanting. 
 According to the above writer, the difference is shown 
 in the passage describing the return of Telemachos 
 from Pylos to the paternal mansion, when Penelope, 
 having rushed out of her room— 
 
 “. . . weeping, threw her arms about her son. 
 
 And kissed him on his forehead and on both 
 His glorious eyes ”; 
 
 while Eurykleia and the other maids, on perceiving 
 him— 
 
 “. . . they gave 
 
 Fond welcome, kissing him upon the brow 
 And shoulders.” 
 
 , But there is no certainty that this difference, which 
 is but once mentioned, was the usual practice ; for, 
 indeed, we find the second verse quoted above at¬ 
 tributed also to the old swine-herd Eumaeos. That a 
 few of the maids were educated within the house, we 
 may infer from the instance of Melantho: 
 
SLA VER V. 
 
 209 
 
 “ . . . she was bom 
 To Dolius, but Penelope had reared 
 The damsel as a daughter of her own, 
 
 And given her, for her pleasure, many things.” 
 
 But, being naturally ungrateful and of wicked dispo¬ 
 sition— 
 
 “ Yet for the sorrows of Penelope 
 Melantho little cared. Euiy'machus 
 Had made the girl his paramour.” 
 
 Eumaeos says : 
 
 “' But from the queen I never have a word 
 Or deed of kindness, since that evil came 
 Upon her house,—that crew of lawless men.’ ” 
 
 There was no distinctive wearing-apparel in use 
 among the slaves. They wore the same clothes as the 
 free citizens, and these were often of value, having 
 been given them as presents by their masters. Thus 
 Eumaeos relates that, on the day he was to leave the 
 house of Laertes, his mistress gave him— 
 
 “ ' Garments of price, a tunic, and a cloak. 
 
 And sandals for my feet.’ ” 
 
 The maids not only dressed, bathed, and anointed 
 themselves as their more fortunate free sisters, but 
 even danced with the men. It has been already no¬ 
 ticed that Odysseus, in order that the killing of the 
 suitors might not at once become known in the city, 
 
210 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 prepared a feast in the palace, in which the maid¬ 
 servants appeared splendidly attired. 
 
 In case a female slave remained for a long time in 
 the house, or educated any of the children of her mas¬ 
 ter, she was deemed as belonging to the family, and 
 was raised above the other slaves, who owed her re¬ 
 spect and obedience. To such a faithful and tried 
 slave was intrusted the keeping of the store-house and 
 the oversight of the entire dwelling. It was to Eury- 
 kleia alone that Telemachos trusted the secret of his 
 intended journey, and she complains to Odysseus, on 
 his return, that the impudent “ women ” paid neither 
 to Penelope nor to herself the respect which was their 
 due. 
 
 Long service on the part of the men was also gen¬ 
 erously rewarded. Thus Eumaeos says that the death 
 of Odysseus deprived him of rewards which he cer¬ 
 tainly expected from him : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ The gods themselves 
 Prevent, no doubt, the safe return of him 
 Who loved me much, and would ere this have given 
 What a kind lord is wont to give his hind,— 
 
 A house, a croft, the wife whom he has wooed, 
 
 Rewarding faithful services which God 
 
 Hath prospered, as he here hath prospered mine.’ ” 
 
 Odysseus also promises to the rest of the swine¬ 
 herds, in case he should overcome the suitors, wives 
 
SLA VER Y, 
 
 211 
 
 and rewards and houses built purposely near his own 
 palace. He assures them that they would in future 
 be his “ friends,” and just as if they were related to 
 Telemachos. Monbel considers these promises tan¬ 
 tamount to liberty, but he is in error, inasmuch as 
 the slaves, though married, always served their mas¬ 
 ter, but their condition was materially improved. It 
 was for this reason that Odysseus promised to build 
 their houses near his own palace, whereas these dwell¬ 
 ings were usually scattered in various quarters. 
 Knight was accordingly wrong to omit these verses 
 in his edition of Homer, “ on the ground of being 
 antagonistic to the spirit of the Homeric epoch.” 
 The devotion of the slaves toward their masters was 
 very great. We have many examples of this, but it 
 will suffice to mention the following lines concerning 
 the joy experienced by the servants upon the return 
 of Odysseus. Having ascertained the unexpected 
 event from an old woman— 
 
 "... forth they issued, bearing in their hands 
 Torches, and, crowding round Ulysses, gave 
 Glad greeting, seized his hands, embraced him, kissed 
 His hands and brow and shoulders. The desire 
 To weep for joy o’ercame the chief ; his eyes 
 O’erflowed with tears; he sobbed; he knew them all.” 
 
 The recognition by the hero of all these women, 
 after an absence of twenty years, is a clear proof of 
 
212 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 the close relations which joined the master to the 
 slaves. Dolios, also, the aged servant of Odysseus, 
 having learned of his return, hastened with his two 
 sons, but remained “astonished in the hall,” out of 
 respect for the king. Odysseus, however, recognized 
 them, and “ at once called them to him, with friendly 
 words, and invited them to supper ” : 
 
 He spake, and Dolius sprang with outstretched arms, 
 And seized Ulysses by the hand, and kissed 
 The wrist.” 
 
 Enough has been said concerning the sorrow of 
 Eumaeos, who says : _ 
 
 " ‘ Here, sorrowfully sitting, I lament 
 A godlike master.’ ” 
 
 Yet this faithful servant shows his devotion, not only 
 by his joy upon the return of Odysseus, but by the 
 efficacious assistance which he furnished him in killing 
 the suitors. On the other hand, excepting the swine¬ 
 herd Melanthios, who, ascending to the room of Odys¬ 
 seus, took away the arms to give them to the suitors, ' 
 and the faithless maid-servants, no other example is 
 found in the poems of the ingratitude of servants to 
 their masters, or of the punishment of a wicked slave. 
 
 There are writers who condemn the hanging of 
 the maid-servants as needlessly cruel. In fact, it is 
 a fearful thing to think of these women hanging, “ as 
 
SLA VER r. 
 
 213 
 
 broad-winged thrushes or wild pigeons,” from the rope 
 which Telemachos, for this purpose, ^‘made fast to a 
 high pole, and the other end he wound about the 
 kitchen-vault.” 
 
 Reading the following lines— 
 
 “ . . . as, when a flock 
 
 Of broad-winged thrushes or wild pigeons strike 
 
 A net within a thicket, as they seek 
 
 Their perch, and find unwelcome durance there. 
 
 So hung the women, with their heads a-row. 
 
 And cords about their necks, that they might die 
 A miserable death. A little while. 
 
 And but a little, quivered their loose feet 
 In air 
 
 one sees for a long time in his dreams those quiver¬ 
 ing forms, and is haunted by the lamentable picture 
 which follows the bloody murder of the suitors. Un¬ 
 der this view, the end of the “ Odyssey ” is certainly 
 one of the most tragic scenes which the human mind 
 could have invented ; but, whosoever considers the va¬ 
 rious crimes, both of the suitors and of the maids, finds 
 the punishment not in excess of the guilt. 
 
 The principal way by which the ancients procured 
 their slaves was by capture in war. When a city was 
 taken, the men -were put to the sword, while the wom¬ 
 en and children were made slaves. Odysseus, relat¬ 
 ing to Eumaeos his sail to Egypt, says that his com¬ 
 panions, contrary to his orders— 
 
214 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 “ . . . ‘ ravaged the fair fields 
 Of the Egyptians, slew them, and bore off 
 Their wives and little ones.’ " 
 
 Elsewhere he relates that the wind, having driven 
 his ships to Ismaros, a city in Thrace— 
 
 “ . . . ‘I laid the city waste, 
 
 And slew its dwellers, carried off their wives. 
 
 And all their wealth.’ ” 
 
 ' It is curious, however, to consider that, on both 
 these occasions, the natives afterward assemble in 
 great numbers, and inflict serious loss upon the invad¬ 
 ers. Is this, perchance, a simple coincidence, or does 
 the poet, condemning, in the depth of his noble soul, 
 the unjust act, although in harmony with the customs 
 of the century, manifest his real sentiments in record¬ 
 ing the punishment following the act ? 
 
 This feeling of the poet, if it existed, is, at any 
 rate, above the epoch, for we have many examples in 
 the poems of such enslaved persons considered as the 
 natural sequence of the capture. 
 
 Thus, it is said of Achilles, that he captured Briseis 
 from Lyrnessos with much toil. When this same hero 
 took Tenedos, the Achaians gave Hekamede, the daugh¬ 
 ter of the magnanimous Arsinoos, to Nestor, as the 
 wisest of their counselors.” 
 
 Such, too, was the fate of most of the Trojan 
 women, after the fall of their city. The fact that 
 
SLA VERY. 
 
 215 
 
 neither the wives of the noble-born, nor the queens 
 themselves, escaped this fearful lot, but were, on the 
 contrary, degraded by the conquerors into simple 
 slaves, in order to impress upon them more deeply 
 their utter defeat, the words of Hektor, who foresaw 
 the ominous future, teach us : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Thou in Argos, then 
 Shalt, at another’s bidding, ply the loom. 
 
 And from the fountain of Messeis draw 
 Water, or from the Hypereian spring. 
 
 Constrained unwilling, by thy cruel lot. 
 
 And then shalt some one say who sees thee weep, 
 
 “ This was the wife of Hector, most renowned 
 Of the horse-taming Trojans, when they fought 
 Around their city.” ’ ” 
 
 It appears that the booty was distributed by lot, 
 and that the chiefs took the largest and best portions. 
 Thus, Thersites, blaming Agamemnon, says to him : 
 
 “ ‘ Thy tents are full of chosen damsels, given 
 To thee before all others, by the Greeks, 
 
 Whene’er we take a city.’ ” 
 
 Achilles, also, rejecting the proposals of the em¬ 
 bassy sent to him by Agamemnon, enumerates among 
 the effects to be carried on board his vessels the wom¬ 
 en given to him: 
 
 “ ‘ And thither I shall carry with me gold 
 And ruddy brass, and women of fair forms. 
 
 And burnished steel.’ ” 
 
2i6 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 No mention, of course, is made of male captives 
 taken in war; for, during the heroic age, all soldiers 
 captured were killed. It would appear, therefore, that 
 by the term “ spear-captured ” is meant those enslaved 
 in early youth, and who had grown up to manhood in 
 the house of their master. Some think that Homer 
 makes a distinction between those ‘‘ captured by the 
 spear ”—i. e., captives made in war—and the slaves 
 born in slavery. Nitzsch and Terpstra, however, op¬ 
 pose this view, and we agree with their opinion ; for 
 it appears that, if there were any slaves at all born in 
 slavery, these at least were extremely rare, inasmuch 
 as child-bearing was not allowed to those unfortunate 
 beings, and permission for marriage was granted them 
 only as a reward of long service. 
 
 In fact, the ancients did not seek to increase the 
 number of their slaves through marriage, and, when 
 marriage was allowed, complete emancipation usually 
 followed. Hence, it is not at all probable that chil¬ 
 dren born under such auspices were characterized aft¬ 
 erward by the surname of ‘‘ slave.” Herodotos, also, 
 especially recommends single slaves. 
 
 Although most of the slaves were captured in war, 
 the slave-trade was also in full existence. In those 
 early times commerce differed little from piracy. The 
 pirates, secretly approaching unprotected shores, seized 
 as many of the inhabitants as they could, and then 
 
SLA VER y. 
 
 217 
 
 sold them far away from their native land. Horrible 
 as this may be, how does it differ from the slave-trade 
 in the early part of the present century, or the man¬ 
 ner in which the harems of the Ottomans are filled 
 to this very day ? 
 
 Eurykleia and Eumaeos were thus carried away, 
 when still young, by Phoenikian pirates, and were aft¬ 
 erward bought by Laertes. He bought Eurykleia “ in 
 her early bloom, for twenty beeves,” and, accord¬ 
 ing to the narration of Eumaeos to Odysseus, they 
 had, at the house of his father, a Phoenikian woman 
 as a nurse, who was seized once, as she was returning 
 from the fields, by Taphian pirates, and was bought 
 from them by his own father. Now, this same woman 
 made agreement with Phoenikian pirates, who had 
 landed on those distant shores— 
 
 “ Shrewd fellows they, and brought in their black ships 
 Large stores of trinkets,” 
 
 and ran away with them, carrying along with her the 
 child, hoping for rich reward : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ I am nurse to the young heir 
 Of the good man who dwells in yonder halls,— 
 
 A shrew boy for his years, who oft goes out 
 With me,—and I will lead him to the ship, 
 
 And he will bring, in any foreign land 
 To which ye carry him a liberal price.’ ” 
 
2i8 
 
 THE TAMIL V. 
 
 It appears not only that slaves brought from dis¬ 
 tant lands were sold in Hellas, but that slaves from 
 Greece were exported to be sold elsewhere. Thus we 
 see the suitors scoffing at Odysseus and Eumaeos, 
 who, even in disguise, propose to Telemachos their 
 exportation to Sicily, there to be sold: 
 
 “. . . ‘If thou take 
 
 My counsel, which I give thee for thy good, 
 
 Let them at once be put on board a bark 
 Of many oars, and we will send them hence 
 To the Sicilians; they will bring a price.’ ” 
 
 Hence, Timaeos is in error, or at least he exag¬ 
 gerates, when he says, “ Among the Greeks it was not 
 customary to be served by bought slaves.” The 
 above instances, doubtless, formed exceptions; nor 
 did the commerce in slaves exist at that time as a 
 recognized institution. This lamentable traffic was be¬ 
 gun much later, the Chians first having introduced it. 
 
 The Value of Slaves. —The value of slaves dif¬ 
 fered according to circumstances. Laertes is said to 
 have bought Eurykleia for twenty oxen—a great and 
 very unusual price : 
 
 “ And in his palace honored equally 
 With his chaste wife.” 
 
 In fact, Achilles, in the funeral games performed 
 in honor of Patroklos, among other prizes— 
 
THE DUTIES OF SERVANTS, 
 
 219 
 
 “. . . placed 
 
 In view a damsel for the vanquished, trained 
 
 In household arts ; four beeves were deemed her price,” 
 
 from which it becomes apparent that the value of a 
 good servant was somewhere between these two num¬ 
 bers. 
 
 Reitemeier accepts as a medium price ten oxen; 
 and Lenz, after expressing his doubts, finally agrees 
 with him. Nothing is known as to the value of the 
 male servants. Reitemeier thinks that they were 
 worth about as much as the women, and conjectures 
 that Odysseus, who had fifty female servants and 
 probably an equal number of male servants, had in 
 them property amounting to about one thousand oxen. 
 This estimate does not seem too high for an epoch 
 during which the cattle, with which the slaves were 
 always counted, formed the principal part of property. 
 It suffices to mention the example of Iphidamas, who 
 granted to his betrothed, as gifts before her marriage, 
 one hundred oxen and a thousand sheep and goats. 
 We also find mentioned female slaves from Lesbos, 
 Skyros, Epeiros, Sicily, Phoenike, and Sidon, who 
 were pre-eminently esteemed, probably on account of 
 their excellence in the works of art peculiar to women. 
 
 The Duties of Servants. —Many and various 
 were the duties of slaves, inasmuch as to them all 
 household and agricultural labors were intrusted. 
 
220 
 
 THE FAMILY, 
 
 The men were usually employed for the heavier 
 tasks, those remaining in the house taking care of the 
 stables and harnessing the animals : 
 
 “. . . The grooms obeyed, 
 
 And, making ready in the outer court 
 
 The strong-wheeled chariot, led the harnessed mules 
 
 Under the yoke, and made them fast.” 
 
 They also slaughtered the animals needed for the 
 table, and busied themselves with sundry similar mat¬ 
 ters. The greater number, however, were farmers, 
 gardeners, herdsmen, and, in a word, workmen of 
 every kind. They cultivated the lands of their mas¬ 
 ters, grazed their flocks, and took care of everything 
 relating to them. They were found in different con¬ 
 ditions, depending naturally upon their respective du¬ 
 ties and the length of their service. 
 
 Thus, a few performed the duties and possessed 
 the authority of overseers ; and the swine-herd Eu- 
 maeos, though never truly emancipated, had a servant 
 of his own, who helped him in all his work, and whom 
 he had bought with his own money. 
 
 The work of the women, as has been elsewhere 
 mentioned, was confined within the house. In the 
 morning they made the fire, and kept it burning 
 throughout the day ; carried water from the well ; ar¬ 
 ranged the rooms, swept the carpets, and spread the 
 coverings over the furniture. When the hour of sup- 
 
THE DUTIES OF SERVANTS. 
 
 22 1 
 
 per approached, they prepared the table, brought the 
 bread and the dishes, and mixed the wine in the gob¬ 
 lets. They brought water to their guests, as they re¬ 
 clined upon the couches, to wash their hands, and 
 poured it out of golden pitchers into silver basins. 
 When supper was over, they took the tables away, and 
 cleansed the dishes and cooking-utensils. 
 
 They also bathed and anointed their masters as 
 well as the guests, to whom, after the bath, they car¬ 
 ried clean garments : 
 
 “ And she had given her bright-haired maidens charge 
 To place an ample caldron on the fire. 
 
 That Hector, coming from the battle-field. 
 
 Might find the warm bath ready.” 
 
 In the evening they prepared the beds, within the 
 house for their masters, and for the strangers, if there 
 -were any, in the corridor, and conducted them as far 
 as the door, carrying torches. This was due to the 
 fact that lighting the various parts of the house by 
 oil, or some other such substance, was as yet unknown, 
 wherefore, when any went about the dwelling, torch- 
 bearers always led the way. Eurykleia, who reared 
 Telemachos, and was considered by him as a second 
 mother, follows him within his sleeping-room, awaits 
 until he has undressed himself, hangs up his clothes, 
 having carefully folded them, and then withdraws, 
 having shut the door behind him : 
 
222 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 “ . . . She loved 
 
 Her young lord more than all the other maids, 
 
 And she had nursed him in his tender years. 
 
 He opened now the chamber-door, and sat 
 Upon the couch, put his soft tunic off, 
 
 And placed it in the prudent matron’s hands. 
 
 She folded it and smoothed it, hung it near 
 To that fair bed, and, going quickly forth. 
 
 Pulled at the silver ring to close the door. 
 
 And drew the thong that moved the fastening bolt. 
 
 He lapped in the soft fleeces all night long 
 Thought of the voyage Pallas had ordained.” 
 
 Another occupation of the women was the grind¬ 
 ing of the barley, and probably the making of bread. 
 Twelve women were in the house of Odysseus, grind¬ 
 ing corn throughout the day ; one of them, who was 
 of a weak constitution, kept toiling on, and Odysseus 
 heard her working in the depth of the night. 
 
 When the mistress went into the doma^ her women 
 followed, prepared her seat, and brought the materials 
 for embroidery. They followed her, also, in case she 
 went out of the house : 
 
 “ As thus he pondered, Helen, like in form 
 To Dian of the golden distaff, left 
 Her high-roofed chamber, where the air was sweet 
 With perfumes, and approached. Adrasta placed 
 A seat for her of costly workmanship ; 
 
 Alcippe brought a mat of soft, light wool. 
 
 And Phylo, with a silver basket came. 
 
 Given by Alcandra, wife of Polybus, 
 
 Who dwelt at Thebes, in Egypt, and whose house 
 
THE NUMBER OF SLAVES. 
 
 223 
 
 Was rich in things of price. Two silver baths 
 He gave to Menelaus, tripods two, 
 
 And talents ten of gold.” 
 
 They also were sent out of the house to execute 
 various messages : 
 
 “ ‘ Telemachus dispatch to where I dwelt 
 Thy serving women ; I would send to thee 
 At once the gifts which Menelaus gave.’ ” 
 
 The Number of Slaves. —The number of slaves 
 mentioned is considered by many to be wholly incredi¬ 
 ble. Thus, Odysseus says that once he had “ten 
 thousand slaves ” ; but this evidently is an exaggerated 
 statement, although the royal house of Ithaka un¬ 
 doubtedly had many possessions, and the number of 
 its dependents was naturally great. It has been no¬ 
 ticed, on the other hand, that there were in the house 
 of Odysseus fifty handmaids, the same number as in 
 the palace of Alkinoos. 
 
 Many reasons justify us in believing in the great 
 number of slaves, without accepting the erroneous opin¬ 
 ion of Reitemeier, who claims that the Homeric house 
 was a sort of manufacturing establishment, and that 
 the articles made there by the numerous slaves were 
 sold. In the first place, we must not forget how 
 many were the inhabitants of each Homeric house, 
 when the sons, after their marriage, took up their 
 abode in it. Let us not forget, also, that the “ noble- 
 
224 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 born,” as well as their friends, passed the day and 
 feasted in the house of the king or ruler, which natu¬ 
 rally necessitated in such houses a large service. As 
 has been noticed, twelve women, probably not counted 
 among the fifty, ground corn, while twenty others were 
 permanently employed to carry water. Again, though 
 the handiwork of the women was not sold, a great 
 number of these were employed in making articles for 
 domestic use. The garments alone of a family, such 
 as that of Priam, composed of sixty-three various 
 dwellings, could readily keep fifty women busy in pre¬ 
 paring them. Besides, it has been noticed that trans¬ 
 parent veils, many-colored carpets, and net-coverings 
 formed a great part of the property of a well-regulated 
 family, and were especially esteemed. Hence, not only 
 the store-houses were kept full of such embroideries, 
 but these formed one of the principal gifts offered to 
 strangers. Nor were such gifts few or cheap, as the 
 example of Odysseus teaches us, when he relates to 
 Laertes that once he gave as a gift— 
 
 “ ‘ Seven talents of wrought gold, a silver cup, 
 
 All over rough with flowers, twelve single cloaks, 
 Twelve mats, twelve mantles passing beautiful. 
 
 And tunics twelve, and, chosen by himself. 
 
 Twelve graceful damsels, skilled in household arts." 
 
 Thus, in truth, when we consider that the women 
 themselves formed part of the gifts, their great num- 
 
HIRED DOMESTICS. 
 
 225 
 
 ber need no longer astonish us. Beauty was valued in 
 a slave in an equal degree as in a free woman, and 
 often the same honorary titles are attributed to both 
 by the poet. 
 
 Hired Domestics. —Besides the slaves, there ap¬ 
 pear to have been, during the Homeric epoch, hired 
 domestics also—i. e., free citizens who, on account of 
 poverty, or from other reasons, went into service to 
 gain a livelihood. Odysseus appears to have had such 
 hired shepherds, besides his own slaves, inasmuch as it 
 is said that— 
 
 “ Twelve herds of kine, that on the mainland graze, 
 
 Are his, as many flocks of sheep, of swine 
 As many droves; as many flocks of goats 
 Are tended there by strangers, and by hinds. 
 
 His servants ” . . . . 
 
 Such, indeed, was also the beloved old servant of 
 Helen in Lakedaemon, the form of whom Aphrodite 
 assumed: 
 
 “ . . . She took the form 
 And features of a spinner of the fleece. 
 
 An aged dame, who used to comb for her 
 The fair white wool in Lacedaemon’s halls. 
 
 And loved her much ”... 
 
 Finally, there were women also who went out daily 
 to work ^‘to earn sufficient food to nourish their 
 children." 
 
PART THIRD. 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Clothing — Apparel of Women — The Hair — Sandals—Gloves— 
 
 Ornaments. 
 
 Clothing. —The Hellenic dress in use throughout 
 antiquity, even during the richest period, as compared 
 with other contemporary styles, was extremely simple. 
 
 The mildness of the climate, the inborn love of the 
 beautiful, together with the absence of the notion that 
 modesty demands the concealment of the body by a 
 useless weight of clothing, limited the dress to what 
 was absolutely necessary. 
 
 In Hellas, where the yearning for the beautiful was 
 found both in public and private life, naturally that 
 noblest creation of nature, the human body, was wor¬ 
 shiped in art. It inspired poets and haunted the 
 dreams of sculptors, who afterward materialized their 
 visions in the peerless form of Aphrodite and that of 
 the virgin Athene. 
 
CLOTHING. 
 
 227 
 
 From earliest childhood, by means of exercises in 
 the open air, and gymnastic training, the greatest pos¬ 
 sible care was taken to develop in both sexes beauty 
 and symmetry of form ; and when the age of woman¬ 
 hood was reached, and this beauty bloomed in all its 
 wealth, its non-concealment by superfluous garments 
 was fully justified, and with well-merited pride the 
 maiden displayed either a well-formed foot or a breast 
 promising to rear heroes. 
 
 In time there arose certain minor changes in 
 regard to dress, which were introduced especially 
 after the wars with the Medes, and several objects of 
 rich adornment, before unknown, were brought into 
 use ; but in its main features the dress was little 
 altered. 
 
 During the Homeric age, therefore, we find the dress 
 nearly the same as that in vogue in later years, and 
 the beautiful Aspasia was not much more elaborately 
 attired than the wise Penelope. The principal article 
 of dress among the Greeks was an even, square, or long 
 garment, thrown picturesquely around the body, or 
 gracefully folded. To render the foldings of this gar¬ 
 ment as attractive as possible was the chief care of the 
 one wearing it, and the changes of style in the various 
 epochs were limited to the ornaments upon this gar¬ 
 ment or to other trivial improvements. Two classes of 
 wearing-apparel existed—the under-garment, worn next 
 
228 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 to the body, and the outer garment, worn in the form 
 of a mantle. 
 
 Apparel of the Men. —The men wore next to 
 the body the chitoriy a piece of cloth, usually woolen, 
 folded upon the chest, and reaching not quite to the 
 knee. This was adjusted on the shoulder by a buckle or 
 brooch where the two ends came together. Through¬ 
 out its entire length the side remained open and free, 
 except where it was held together by the brooch. On 
 the other side, there was an opening for the right arm. 
 The arms remained bare. Around the waist a belt 
 was worn, which drew in the chiton in thick folds, and 
 as this garment was drawn up by the belt at pleasure, 
 it was made much shorter, so as not to prove an im¬ 
 pediment in walking or running : 
 
 “... He rose, 
 
 And drew his tunic o’er his breast, and laced 
 The graceful sandals to his well-shaped feet.” 
 
 “. . . When Telemachus 
 Knew of the king’s approach, the hero threw 
 In haste his tunic o’er his noble form. 
 
 And over his broad shoulders flung a cloak 
 Of ample folds.” 
 
 The chlaina was worn over the chiton. This was 
 either square or circular in shape, and open under the 
 left armpit. It was carried over the right shoulder, 
 
APPAREL OF THE MEN. 
 
 229 
 
 and the end then thrown over the left. The chlaina 
 was usually woolen, and formed the best part of man’s 
 attire. It is called thick and greats purple^ wooly^ or red, 
 and was usually adorned with golden or other splendid 
 embroideries. It was worn as a protection against the 
 cold, and was also used as a covering during the night. 
 It is probable, however, that it was especially intended 
 for out-door use. 
 
 The expression double chlaina, in opposition to the 
 single, means not that it really was double, or formed 
 of two different materials, or that it had a double 
 weight, but rather that it was double in length, folded 
 and worn in the same way as the single chlaina. This 
 was probably due to a greater richness of attire, or 
 to the fact that it was worn during the cold season 
 of the year ; and perhaps the winter chlaina was thus 
 termed in distinction from that worn in summer. The 
 opinion of the renowned Winckelmann, that the double 
 chlaina was one with an inside lining, while the single 
 chlaina was made without it, seems to us unfounded. 
 There is nothing which justifies this view. 
 
 Another garment was the pharos, perhaps larger 
 than the chlaina, because it was also worn around the 
 head. The pharos was the mantle de facto, the warm¬ 
 est garment, and used probably only on extremely cold 
 days. The heroes, in time of war, instead of a pharos 
 
 or chlaina, appear to have worn the skins of animals. 
 
 11 
 
230 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Agamemnon is said to have worn a lion’s skin ; Mene- 
 laos and Paris, that of a panther. But these skins 
 form an exception, nor are they numbered among the 
 usual garments. 
 
 Apparel of Women. —The women wore a chi- 
 touy in every respect like that of the men, but much 
 longer, and reaching to the ground. This chiion was 
 looped around the waist, and the care and attention to 
 the symmetry of its folds were naturally still greater 
 among the women. The chiton worn by them, on ac¬ 
 count of its greater length, admitted of more embroid¬ 
 ery and adornment. Hence the adjectives attributed 
 by Homer, deep-girdled^ with deep folds^ gracefully 
 girdled^ with leautiful girdles. When freedom or quick¬ 
 ness of movement was required, this chiton^ which 
 reached to the feet, was lifted from the ground. Thus 
 the two daughters of Keleos, while hastening to bring 
 the good news to Demeter, that her prayer was accepted 
 by their mother, on going down the precipitous road 
 beyond Eleusis, lifted up the chiton. Both married 
 and single women, without exception, wore the belt, 
 which was broad, and richly adorned with gold and 
 silver. 
 
 Kpeplos was worn over the chiton. This peploSy so 
 often mentioned by Homer, was a large garment of 
 transparent linen, supported upon the breast by a clasp, 
 usually of gold. It fell in graceful folds and reached 
 
APPAREL OF WOMEN. 
 
 231 
 
 almost to the ground. Hence the adjective wearing 
 trailing robes. Besides the clasp upon the breast, it ap¬ 
 pears that there were, on various parts of the peplos^ 
 others holding it, and contributing to the greater beauty 
 of its folds. Thus we find a peplos held by twelve 
 clasps : 
 
 ** The herald of Antinous brought to him 
 A robe of many colors, beautiful 
 And ample, with twelve golden clasps, which each 
 Had its well-fitted eye.” 
 
 This peplos was adorned with gold and many-col¬ 
 ored embroideries, but was especially esteemed by rea¬ 
 son of its transparency. Hence the expression thin^ 
 delicate pieces of fine Imen refers to the peplos itself. 
 
 Bottiger is much in error when he says that this 
 was similar to the Roman palla. The adjective double, 
 which we have found attributed to the chlaina, is also 
 given to the peplos, probably for the same reason. It 
 is shown by this, as it has already been stated, that 
 this adjective had reference to the length, and not to 
 the weight, which for the peplos would have been a 
 special disadvantage, while, on the other hand, we find 
 that the double peplos was the most valued. According 
 to the conjecture of Kophar, the peplos was made of 
 webs of two different colors, the one of which formed 
 pictures upon the other. This opinion, however, seems 
 
232 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 little to be trusted, although it may be supported by the 
 fact that the double peplos was usually adorned with 
 pictures. 
 
 “ . . . She drew near 
 To Helen, in the palace, weaving there 
 An ample web, a shining double-robe. 
 Whereon were many conflicts fairly wrought. 
 Endured by the horse-taming sons of Troy, 
 And brazen-mailed Achaians, for her sake. 
 Upon the field of Mars.” 
 
 We do not, however, agree with Kophar, because 
 we know that the woven peplos was white, and on it 
 pictures were worked afterward. Nor can the suppo¬ 
 sition of Kophar be accepted that the weaving in of 
 the pictures was known during the Homeric age, be¬ 
 cause this art, being most difficult, has been brought 
 to perfection only in our own times, and by reason of 
 the most improved machinery. 
 
 It has already been stated that the maid-servants 
 were dressed like free women ; but it seems probable 
 that there was, at least, some difference as to the 
 peploSy inasmuch as it was worn by them much short¬ 
 er. On this account the adjective of the flowing peplos^ 
 used by Homer, was deemed specially praiseworthy. 
 
 Besides the peplos, which, as it is evident, supplied 
 the place of the chlaina in men, it appears that the 
 women sometimes wore a pharos, perhaps when they 
 
THE HAIR, 
 
 233 
 
 went out in the winter-time. ' Thus, it is said of 
 Kalypso and Kirke, that they wore a silver pharos. 
 But, on the other hand, it must be observed that this 
 is attributed only to those two goddesses, whence the 
 conjecture may be made that an exception is intended 
 here, and that in the open country and in remote 
 islands the women dressed more after the style of 
 men. At any rate, it appears that the female pharos 
 did not greatly differ from that used by men, although 
 little is definitely known on this point. 
 
 The Hair. —The greatest possible attention was 
 paid in Hellas, especially during the Homeric period, 
 to the beauty of the hair. Whenever mention is made 
 of the Achaians, they are nearly always called ‘‘ the 
 long-haired.” The gods themselves felt elated at the 
 possession of rich and abundant hair. Zeus, as an 
 evidence of exceptional worth and magnificence, is 
 described as having long and curling hair. Hera 
 braids her hair in fragrant and divine curls. Athene, 
 Kirke, Kalypso, and several nymphs, are always hon¬ 
 ored by the adjectives the beautiful-haired,” “ long¬ 
 haired,” etc. Apollo is called “ with locks unshorn.” 
 
 “. . . When thus her shapely form 
 Had been anointed, and her hands had combed 
 Her tresses, she arranged the lustrous curls, 
 
 Ambrosial, beautiful, that clustering hung 
 Round her immortal brow.” 
 
234 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Fair hair was especially esteemed by Homer, and 
 was attributed to most of the heroes. Thus Achilles, 
 Radamanthos, Menelaos, and Paris, were said to have 
 fair hair, which was often compared to the blossom of 
 the hyacinth. 
 
 It results from the above that baldness was deemed 
 an ugly and unsightly defect, on which account it was 
 attributed to Thersites. So general was the custom 
 among the Greeks to wear the hair long, that in this 
 respect they were distinguished from the barbarians. 
 The epithet, “with tufts of streaming hair,” was ap¬ 
 plied to the Thracians, because they shaved the head, 
 as at this day, and left only upon the top a growing 
 tuft. 
 
 The men usually wore their hair brushed back; 
 sometimes they fastened it in a knot on the top of the 
 head. This was accomplished by tying together a 
 few hairs in the middle, and then the two ends were 
 puffed in the shape of a wasp. In such an instance 
 gold and silver ornaments were placed upon the hair : 
 
 “ His locks, which were like those the Graces wear. 
 
 And ringlets, bound with gold and silver bands, 
 
 Were drenched with blood 1 . . . ’' 
 
 The heroes not only wore their hair long, but also 
 the mustache and whiskers. This practice was so 
 general, that in the pictures upon vessels describing 
 
HEAD-BANDS FOR WOMEN. 
 
 235 
 
 Agamemnon, Odysseus, or Ajax, together with barba¬ 
 rians, the former are distinguished by the length of 
 their whiskers. 
 
 Head-Bands for Women. —The women appear 
 to have twisted or plaited their hair ; but this is a 
 point by no means free from controversy. In the fol¬ 
 lowing lines— 
 
 “ . . . The ornaments 
 
 Dropped from her brow,—the wreath, the woven band. 
 
 The net, the veil, which golden Venus gave ”— 
 
 said of Andromache, upon her despair for the death 
 of Hektor, a certain head-dress is mentioned, and also 
 the words head-band^ net^ and veil are found. 
 
 The head-band was probably a sort of cord wound 
 round the front hair and bringing it together behind, 
 where it was fastened by ribbons. 
 
 The net was a sort of covering not unlike those 
 of to-day, reaching as far as the head-band. 
 
 The veil was a cloth, holding under the net the 
 hair which hung back. 
 
 The maidens often wore their hair entirely loose, 
 or falling over their shoulders. Sometimes, however, 
 it was arranged in curls, especially when it had a natu¬ 
 ral bent for this. 
 
 The men usually appear to have gone about with 
 the head bare. But in the description of the agricult¬ 
 ural clothing of Laertes, he is said to have worn “upon 
 
236 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 his head a cap of goat-skin.” This may be deemed, 
 however, as belonging to the farm-laborer only, just as, 
 in the same description, it is said, “ He wore patched 
 greaves of bullock’s hide upon his thighs,” as a pro¬ 
 tection against thistles. Nowhere else do we find 
 a hat mentioned. In time of war the head was, of 
 
 # V 
 
 course, covered with a helmet. 
 
 The women, on the other hand, covered their 
 heads, and two such head-coverings are mentioned— 
 the Jzrede7nnon and the kalyptra. Various opinions have 
 been expressed as to the meaning of these words. We 
 think, however, that the kredemnon was a cloth tied 
 around the head, and, in case of need, let loose over 
 the face, like the veils on the hats of the women of 
 to-day. The kalyptra was a similar covering, not 
 tied, but simply thrown loosely around the head. In 
 great feasts, and especially when there was drinking, 
 the maidens adorned their hair with wreaths and 
 flowers. 
 
 Sandals. —During the Homeric period no shoes 
 were used in the house. Sandals of hide were worn 
 in the streets , only : 
 
 “ . . . round his shapely feet 
 Laced the becoming sandals.” 
 
 The sandals were similar for both sexes, but those 
 of the immortals, called the golden and the imperish- 
 
GLOVES. 
 
 237 
 
 able, had a peculiar force, which carried them, swift 
 as the wind, over land and sea : 
 
 “ She spake, and fastened underneath her feet 
 The fair, ambrosial, golden sandals, worn 
 To bear her over ocean like the wind, 
 
 And o'er the boundless land.” 
 
 The nobles especially wore sandals, and, on this 
 account, Eumaeos deems it as a peculiar favor that 
 the wife of Laertes, who had reared him as her own 
 son, gave him, besides beautiful garments, sandals 
 also. When, later, Eumaeos succeeded in attaining a 
 place higher than that of a simple servant, he put on 
 sandals, in order to go from his own hut to the palace 
 of Odysseus. Telemachos, also, actuated by surpass¬ 
 ing nobility and sympathy toward Odysseus, whom he 
 considered as a simple beggar, gave him sandals in 
 addition to clothing. 
 
 Gloves. —Did the ancients of the Homeric epoch 
 wear gloves ? This has been a fertile theme for inves¬ 
 tigation. The word glove is found in the “ Odyssey,” 
 in the following description of the farming-dress of 
 Laertes : 
 
 “ . . . He wore 
 
 Patched greaves of bullock’s hide upon his thighs, 
 
 A fence against the thorns ; and on his hands 
 Gloves, to protect them from the prickly stems 
 Of bramble; and upon his head a cap 
 Of goat-skin.” 
 
238 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
 
 Bottiger, Pape, Crusies, and Winckelmann under¬ 
 stand the word according to its meaning of to-day. 
 Thus these learned men, who fully accept “ the hat,’* 
 believe that, during the Homeric times, gloves,—gen¬ 
 erally considered an invention of the knightly ages,— 
 were known. Hase, on the contrary, thinks that the 
 Greek word has the same meaning with the French 
 manche^ the German aerfnely or the English sleeve. He 
 conjectures, in other words, that the chiton had long 
 sleeves, reaching as far as the hands. But it has been 
 noticed that this explanation can not be accepted, in¬ 
 asmuch as the chito7i on the left remained open, and 
 had on the right a simple opening for the arm. 
 
 In our opinion, the matter is simple enough. Ho¬ 
 mer says he had “on his hands gloves, to protect 
 them from the prickly stems.” Apparently this re¬ 
 fers to gloves made of hide, like the hat and the 
 greaves worn by farmers to protect their hands during 
 their work. The belief that the use of these gloves 
 was general during a time when even shoes were rare¬ 
 ly employed is absurd in the extreme. 
 
 Finally, to man’s apparel must be added the sword, 
 which was carried even in time of peace. 
 
 Ornaments. —The desire to be admired is natural 
 in woman, and beauty is the most powerful means of 
 attracting this admiration. Nature has thus wisely de¬ 
 creed. By her beauty and grace woman draws man 
 
OI^NAMENTS, 
 
 239 
 
 to her, fetters him, and, if she is happy in her choice, 
 renders his existence almost divine. Her heart yearns 
 for a return of her love, and, whenever this longing is 
 fulfilled, her life becomes peaceful and happy. 
 
 This desire of woman to render her companion 
 happy we find even among the most barbarous nations, 
 and in the least civilized epochs. 
 
 During the Homeric epoch this feeling was strong¬ 
 ly developed, and woman, besides her ordinary gar¬ 
 ments, employed a multitude of objects known under 
 the generic appellation of ornaments. First of all, 
 there were in use ear-rings, commonly having the form 
 of an olive, and made of costly materials or precious 
 stones ; splendid necklaces, wrought of metal and am¬ 
 ber ; bracelets of exquisite workmanship ; and beauti¬ 
 ful pins for the hair, were all coquettishly used : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ There I dwelt 
 Nine years, and many ornaments I wrought 
 Of brass—clasps, buckles, bracelets, necklaces.” 
 
 A Phoenikian merchant, entering the house of Kte- 
 sias, offers to sell a necklace : 
 
 *‘. . . He, a cunning man. 
 
 Came to my father’s house and brought with him 
 A golden necklace set with amber beads. 
 
 The palace maidens and the gracious queen. 
 
 My mother, took it in their hands and gazed 
 Upon it, and debated of its price.” 
 
240 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Days of public feasts, marriages, or even a simple, 
 visit to the house of a friend, were happy events for 
 the women, for they justified exactly, as at this day, 
 the display of their ornaments. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Baths — Anointing — Washing the feet — Banquets — Food and 
 
 drink—Table furniture. 
 
 Baths. —Baths were a special institution of the 
 ancient Hellenic life. No religious superstition intro¬ 
 duced them among the Eastern nations, but the 
 warmth of the climate rendered them at once pleasing 
 and necessary. Their effect in reviving the body, of 
 which the ancients took far greater care than we of 
 to-day, doubtless originated and strongly established 
 them in the customs of the people. 
 
 We find them already much employed in the Ho¬ 
 meric epoch. As a proof of their constant use we may 
 notice the multitude of the tripods mentioned, the 
 number of which would be difficult to explain, other¬ 
 wise than that they were used as adjuncts for the 
 baths. 
 
 In every well-to-do family there was a bath-room, 
 
 I 
 
 immediately outside of the doma^ and this contained 
 one or more bath-tubs. It was probably the custom 
 to bathe every morning, although nothing is said of 
 
242 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 this by Homer. At all events, a very frequent use of 
 the bath was made. 
 
 It was customary for every guest, and also for the 
 master of the house, on his return from a journey, to 
 bathe. It ^would appear that not only on such occa¬ 
 sions, but after every kind of overwork, a bath was 
 taken to refresh the wearied body: 
 
 “. . . They with delighted eyes 
 Gazed, and descending to the polished baths 
 They bathed. The attendant maids who at the bath 
 Had ministered, anointing them with oil. 
 
 Arrayed the strange guests in fleecy cloaks 
 And tunics. . . . 
 
 “. . . ‘ And, last, the fourth 
 Brought water from the fountain, and beneath 
 A massive tripod kindled a great fire 
 And warmed the water. When it boiled within 
 The shining brass, she led me to the bath. 
 
 And washed me from the tripod. On my head 
 And shoulders pleasantly she shed the streams 
 That from my members took away the sense 
 Of weariness, unmanning body and mind.’ ” 
 
 The maid-servants, the relatives, and even the very 
 daughters of the house, bathed or assisted the guest in 
 bathing, and this was considered as the very first duty 
 of hospitality. Thus the young Polykaste, daughter 
 of Nestor, gave Telemachos his bath : 
 
 “ Meantime, fair Polycast^, youngest bom 
 Of Nestor’s daughters, gave Telemachus 
 
BA THS. 
 
 243 
 
 The bath ; and after he had bathed she shed 
 A rich oil over him, and in a cloak 
 Of noble texture and a tunic robed 
 The prince, who, like a god in presence, left 
 The bath, and took his place where Nestor sat." 
 
 Much has been written upon this subject, and it 
 has been the occasion of harsh censure. Learned 
 men, like Meiners, attacked fiercely this Homeric cus¬ 
 tom, accusing the women of the age of shamelessness 
 and effrontery—a charge which does not speak well 
 of their Homeric knowledge. Others, among whom 
 Nagelsback is pre-eminent, adopted a different course, 
 and avoided the true meaning of the words in the 
 text. Still others supposed that those bathing wore 
 in the bath a sort of garment, but this comical ex¬ 
 planation of the difficulty finds no justification in 
 Homer. Nitzsch, Ernesti, and a few others, explain 
 the meaning of the Greek word to bathe," accord¬ 
 ing to the Latin lavare fecit; that is to say, they sup¬ 
 pose that, when Homer states that Polykaste bathed 
 Telemachos, it means that she gave orders to this end, 
 and watched for the faithful performance of her com¬ 
 mands. But this explanation has no manifest proof. 
 It is sufficient to recall the example of Helen, who 
 alone recognized Odysseus, when he entered into Troy 
 under the guise of a beggar, and swore to him “ as she 
 was bathing him, ‘ to keep his entrance into the city a 
 secret until he should safely return to the ships of the 
 
244 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Achaians.’ Does the above leave any doubt as to the 
 real facts of the case ? ” Kbppen and Lenz confess the 
 contrary, and not finding any escape, say that the cus¬ 
 tom was in accordance with the simplicity of the epoch, 
 and differed but little from the ideas of the middle 
 ages, when the mistress bound up the wounds of the 
 knights on their return from battle. To us, however, 
 the difference between binding up a wound and giv¬ 
 ing a bath seems not a small one, and, however sim¬ 
 ple the Homeric habits may be considered, the exact 
 meaning of the Greek word ‘‘ to bathe,” as in the case 
 of Telemachos, by a maiden such as Polykaste, has 
 much that is strange. The supposition of Ernesti and 
 Nitzsch, even when it is applied to simple maid-ser¬ 
 vants, is wholly antagonistic to the natural modesty 
 of the female sex. 
 
 The solution of this riddle, Odysseus himself, in 
 our opinion, furnishes when he describes the manner 
 in which Kirke bathed him: 
 
 “ . . . ‘ When it boiled within 
 The shining brass, she led me to the bath, 
 
 And washed me from the tripod. On my head 
 And shoulders pleasantly she shed the streams 
 That from my members took away the sense 
 Of weariness, unmanning body and mind. 
 
 And when she thus had bathed me and with oil 
 Anointed me, she put a princely cloak 
 And tunic on me, led me in, and showed 
 My seat.’ ” 
 
ANOINTING. 
 
 245 
 
 The bath-tub, in this instance, was full of cold 
 water; the hero having entered it, was covered as 
 far as the shoulders by the water ; the goddess then, 
 having taken the warm water, placed near by in a 
 tripod, poured it upon the shoulders and the head, 
 and then withdrew. Such a task was not considered 
 as in the least out of place in an age like the Ho¬ 
 meric. Again, let us not forget that Odysseus, in 
 order to avoid dressing himself before the maid-serv¬ 
 ants of Nausikaa, took the garments from them and 
 waited until they had withdrawn. Whence this sud¬ 
 den modesty from him, whom the most beautiful of 
 women had bathed in Troy, if the above is not 
 deemed true ? Accordingly, it seems probable that 
 the bathing was performed as follows: 
 
 The bath-tub was filled with cold •water, while 
 upon a tripod near by water was warmed. After the 
 bather had entered the tub, the maid appeared, poured 
 upon the head warm water, gave him clean garments, 
 oil, and whatever else was necessary, and then depart¬ 
 ed. The bather afterward came out, anointed and 
 dressed himself. 
 
 Anointing. —Rubbing all the parts of the body 
 with oil was deemed an indispensable portion of the 
 bath. The skin was rendered soft and velvet-like 
 by this application of oil. It is not clearly known 
 what kind of oil was used for this purpose, and-Terp- 
 
246 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 stra says : There were no ointments during the Ho¬ 
 meric times similar to those employed in later years. 
 They used a fat and shining oil, perfumed with the 
 essence of roses, or some aromatic substance.” It is 
 very probable, however, that especially in Hellas, they 
 used olive-oil, and that the phrase “ rose-oil ” meant 
 the well-known attar of roses, which, however, owing 
 to its cost, was used only in exceptional cases. 
 
 Washing the Feet. —The washing of the feet 
 was likewise a common custom during the Homeric 
 antiquity: 
 
 “ . . . ‘ I do not like 
 This washing of the feet. No maiden here, 
 
 That ministers to thee may touch my foot.’ ” 
 
 The heroes, especially, expected it, and any neg¬ 
 lect in this direction was accounted a serious depriva¬ 
 tion. The maid-servants usually attended to this 
 task. The utensils employed for this purpose were 
 of brass, and contained a mixture of cold and warm 
 water. The men also bathed in the rivers and in the 
 sea; but frequently another warm bath at home fol¬ 
 lowed the above, as the former was considered to 
 clean, the latter to refresh, the body. Thus Odysseus 
 and Diomedes, on their return from the nightly ex¬ 
 pedition, during which they seized the horses from 
 Rhesos, first washed themselves in the sea, then bathed 
 and anointed themselves in the bath-house; 
 
BANQUETS. 
 
 247 
 
 “ Then, descending to the sea, 
 
 They washed from knees and neck and thighs the grime 
 Of sweat; and when in the salt wave their limbs 
 Were cleansed, and all the frame refreshed, they stepped 
 Into the polished basins of the bath 
 And, having bathed and rubbed with fragrant oil 
 Their limbs, they sat them down to a repast, 
 
 And from a brimming jar beside them drew, 
 
 And poured to Pallas first, the pleasant wine.” 
 
 Banquets. —The social instincts and warmth of 
 feeling with which the Hellenic race is endowed 
 from the earliest years, rendered banquets an almost 
 indispensable feature of their civilization. 
 
 These banquets occupy a prominent place in the 
 life of those ages, and appear under their true form, 
 which later became somewhat changed by the munifi¬ 
 cence of Asiatic luxury. 
 
 It has been deemed strange that the Hellenic peo¬ 
 ple, usually so much admired for their simplicity, were 
 so weak in this particular. The censure, however, is 
 undeserved. The Greek sought in the banquets, not 
 “ high living ” and indolence, but the charm of con¬ 
 versation, and intellectual stimulus. The fine Ho¬ 
 meric expression ‘‘ Nor did the mind of any stand in 
 want of an equal feast,” which became typical of every 
 discourse or banquet, suffices fully to demonstrate our 
 position. In fact, the Hellenic banquet nourished the 
 mind and heart more than the appetite, while the 
 
248 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
 
 music and the dance which followed were far more 
 enjoyed than the feast itself : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Nor can I deem 
 Aught more delightful than the general joy 
 Of a whole people when the assembled guests 
 Seated in order in the royal halls 
 Are listening to the minstrel, while the board 
 Is spread with bread and meats, and from the jars 
 The cupbearer draws wine, and fills the cups. 
 
 To me there is no more delightful sight.’ ” 
 
 The men of the Homeric times partook of food 
 three times a day, the dinner, taken at noon, being the 
 principal meal. Before eating, the hands of the guests 
 were washed in silver bowls, brought in for that pur¬ 
 pose by the maid-servants. The water was poured 
 by them out of a golden ewer : 
 
 “ . . . In a bowl 
 Of silver, from a shapely ewer of gold, 
 
 A maid poured water for the hands, and set 
 A polished table near them.” 
 
 Washing the feet appears to have been introduced 
 in later times. Afterward, tables were carried into the 
 room, and were cleansed within the room by a sponge, 
 although they had already been washed outside ; 
 
 “. . . Heralds were with them. 
 
 And busy menials : some who in the bowls 
 Tempered the wine with water, some who cleansed 
 The tables with light sponges, and who set 
 The banquet forth and carved the meats for all.” 
 
BANQUETS. 
 
 249 
 
 It would appear that each of the guests usually had 
 a small table for himself. There were, however, ex¬ 
 ceptions to this, because we find instances where two 
 were seated at the same table : 
 
 “ . . . Now a handmaid brought 
 A beautiful ewer of gold and laver wrought 
 Of silver, and poured water for their hands, 
 
 And spread a polished table near their seat.” 
 
 On exceptional occasions, it would appear that one 
 table was set for all. When the tables were placed, 
 the guests took their seats. The custom of reclining 
 on couches appears to have been introduced after the 
 Homeric period. The maid-servants took charge of 
 the service, but there was also a carver.” As the 
 utensils of to-day, such as knives, forks, etc., were 
 unknown, the meat for each guest was cut into small 
 pieces before it was placed before him : 
 
 “ And he who served the feast before them placed 
 Chargers with various meats, and cups of gold.” 
 
 The carver was seated at a private table where he 
 performed his work, the meats that were brought in 
 being at once placed before him. The guests them¬ 
 selves often watched the carving. The portions al¬ 
 lotted were usually equal, but, as a distinctive matter 
 of esteem, to each important personage was usually 
 given a larger or choicer piece. 
 
250 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 The wine-pouring was the duty of special servants 
 who gave the guests to drink ; but sometimes the sons 
 of the master performed this task, in order to show 
 greater honor to the guests. The wine was given in 
 equal portions, excepting in the case of the old men, 
 whose share was greater and was called gerusios wine, 
 or the wine for the old sires (wrongly translated by 
 some as old wine). The wine was mixed with water 
 in the mixing-bowls, and from them the cups were 
 afterward filled to the brim : 
 
 “ Boys filled the cups to the brim with wine.” 
 
 Virgilius takes this phrase to mean that they en¬ 
 twined flowers around the cups, but this is not so, 
 as this custom was as yet unknown. * The expression 
 means merely that they filled the cups to such a de¬ 
 gree that the wine formed a sort of crown. 
 
 The glass was first of all offered to the oldest man 
 in the assembly as a distinctive mark of honor, and on 
 this account Peisistratos is said to have offered it to 
 Athene, inasmuch as the latter, having assumed the 
 form of Nestor, appeared the eldest of the guests. Be 
 it also remarked that, on this occasion, Menelaos was 
 present, so that during the Homeric years the white 
 head was held in greater honor than the crowned. 
 The first who took the glass passed it to his neighbor 
 on the right, and so on. Eustathius conjectures that 
 
BANQUETS. 
 
 251 
 
 the glass passed all around full, as a sort of “ saluta¬ 
 tion ” given by one to the other, and that only after 
 this the drinking commenced. 
 
 The viands served in these banquets were extreme¬ 
 ly simple, and were composed of roast sheep, oxen, 
 and pigs. Wine tempered with water was the only 
 drink in use. Gluttonness and ostentatious luxurious¬ 
 ness were condemned on every occasion. 
 
 Athene says that it is unbecoming to sit a long 
 time at table, and the suitors w'ere repeatedly blamed 
 for their gluttony : 
 
 “ Nor at a feast in honor of the gods 
 Should we long sit, but in good time withdraw. 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 He drew his party-colored seat, aloof 
 From where the suitors sat; that so his guest 
 Might not amid those haughty revellers 
 Be wearied with the tumult and enjoy 
 His meal the less.” 
 
 Drunkenness called forth the greatest contempt, 
 and wine was represented as bringing man to madness: 
 
 “ . . . They had called the Achaians all 
 To an assembly, not with due regard 
 To order, at the setting of the sun. 
 
 And thither came the warriors overpowered 
 With wine.” 
 
 The expression “ heavy with wine ” was an unpar¬ 
 donable insult, which Achilles, only in the very height 
 
252 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAAIENTS. 
 
 of his anger, hurled against Agamemnon. The myth 
 also of the Kyklops appears to h*ave been invented to 
 demonstrate the pernicious results of intemperance. 
 During the banquet, conversation was usually on seri¬ 
 ous topics ; while music, dance, and song were indis¬ 
 pensable accompaniments : 
 
 “ . . . When the calls of thirst 
 And hunger were appeased, the suitors thought 
 Of other things that well become a feast— 
 
 Song and the dance.” 
 
 The song was not ribald or turbulent, nor was it 
 given by the guests themselves. Tender hymns and 
 rhapsodies were sung by a trained singer, who was 
 seated at a special table, on a silver-mounted throne : 
 
 “. . . Then appeared 
 The herald, leading the sweet singer in. 
 
 Him whoni the Muse with an exceeding love 
 Had cherished, and had visited with good 
 And evil, quenched his eye-sight and bestowed 
 Sweetness of song. Pontonoiis mid the guests 
 Placed for the bard a silver-studded throne, 
 
 Against a lofty column hung his harp 
 Above his head, and taught him how to find 
 And take it down. Near him the herald set 
 A basket, and fair table, and a cup 
 Of wine, that he might drink when he desired. 
 
 Then all put forth their hands and shared the feast.” 
 
 At the banquet of Alkinoos, we find Demodokos 
 singing “ The Love of Ares and Aphrodite,” and the 
 
BANQUETS. 
 
 253 
 
 story of “ The Wooden Horse.” At the banquets of 
 the suitors, who were not remarkable for their gentle¬ 
 ness, Phemios sang, though much against his will. 
 The harp was the usual instrument employed during 
 the feasts. 
 
 The excellent reputation enjoyed by the singers 
 during the Homeric years is a manifest proof of the 
 noble sentiments and of the advanced civilization of 
 that pan-archaic world. The words which Odysseus 
 addressed to Demodokos furnish an accurate picture 
 of the epoch, in which the heroes who lived in camp 
 nourished the aesthetic feeling to its highest degree: 
 
 “ ‘ Bear this, O herald, to Demodocus 
 That he may eat. Him, even in my g^ef. 
 
 Will I embrace, for worthily the bards 
 
 Are honored and revered o’er all the earth 
 
 By every race of men. The Muse herself 
 
 Hath taught them song; she loves the minstrel tribe.' ” 
 
 Matters stood differently in regard to the dance. 
 
 Bands of professional dancers and of dancing girls 
 
 were first employed for the amusement of the guests 
 
 in the classical period. In the time of Homer, the 
 
 banquet was usually terminated by a dance, in which 
 
 the guests themselves took part. If any of the latter 
 
 withdrew before the close of the entertainment, they 
 
 formally excused themselves, as at the present day. 
 
 The evening meal was taken about sunset. Con- 
 12 
 
254 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 cerning its details, we know almost nothing. It was, 
 however, more extensive than the breakfast, for in the 
 “ Iliad ” we find the expression, “ I would at sunset 
 spread a liberal feast,” from which it would appear 
 that certain preparations were made for it. 
 
 Besides the above regular repasts, various occa¬ 
 sions gave rise to great banquets; these were given in 
 honor of some special guest, at religious festivals and 
 sacrifices, and also at marriages and funerals : 
 
 “ . . . There, upon the ocean-side, 
 
 They found the people offering coal-black steers 
 To dark-haired Neptune. On nine seats they sat. 
 
 Five hundred on each seat; nine steers were slain 
 For each five hundred there.” . . . 
 
 We distinguish two kinds of these extraordinary 
 banquets — “ the compotatio^* or drinking-bout, and 
 the so-called “ picnic.” The compotatio was the prin¬ 
 cipal banquet given to friends, and the picnic was a 
 sort of banquet in which each brought his own food. 
 
 Much has been written concerning the Homeric 
 picnics. A few have compared them to the picnics of 
 to-day, and supposed that many families, having gath¬ 
 ered together, went to some country-place to amuse 
 themselves, each person taking his own food. Others 
 have considered this opinion as untrustworthy. We 
 think that the following lines furnish the true explana¬ 
 tion of the affair: 
 
FOOD AND DRINK, 
 
 255 
 
 “. . . Meantime came 
 Those who prepared the banquet to the halls 
 Of the great monarch. Bringing sheep they came, 
 
 And strengthening wine. Their wives, who on their brows 
 Wore showy fillets, brought the bread, and thus 
 Within the house of Menelaus all 
 Was bustle, setting forth the evening meal.” 
 
 Thus the so-called picnic takes place in the house 
 of Menelaos, and not in the country. It has, in fact, 
 been noticed that the noblemen usually supped at the 
 house of the king. The supposition, therefore, is nat¬ 
 ural that they brought with them, if not all, at least 
 the principal things necessary for the table, that the 
 entire trouble and expense might not fall upon the 
 host, who could with difficulty have provided for so 
 great a throng of guests. Accordingly, banquets of 
 this sort, attended by prominent men, were called pic¬ 
 nics ; and the others, given by invitation, were known 
 as compotatio. 
 
 Food and Drink. —There were two kinds of flour, 
 one made from wheat and the other from barley. The 
 former was held in the greater esteem, and Homer 
 calls it “the strength of man.” Bread was prepared 
 from a mixture of both kinds of flour, and was com¬ 
 monly called “ wheaten bread,” while the word bread 
 alone usually included everything eatable. 
 
 Besides bread, meat formed an important article 
 of food, especially the flesh of the ox, sheep, and pig. 
 
256 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 The meat of the stag and a few other wild animals 
 was of secondary importance. The only way of pre¬ 
 paring these meats was by roasting them, and usually 
 this was done on spits. After the hair was singed olf, 
 the skin was removed, the animal was pierced through 
 by spits, and was turned round over a fire; while roast¬ 
 ing it was sprinkled with flour and salt: 
 
 “ He spake, and girt his tunic round his loins. 
 
 And hastened to the sties in which the herds 
 Of swine were lying. Thence he took out two. 
 
 And slaughtered them, and singed them, sliced the flesh, 
 And fixed it upon spits, and, when the whole 
 Was roasted, brought and placed it reeking hot. 
 
 Still on the spits, and sprinkled with white meal. 
 
 Before Ulysses.” 
 
 Poultry was eaten during the Homeric period. In 
 the ‘‘Odyssey,” geese, which were raised especially for 
 the table, are mentioned : 
 
 “ ' He spake; my slumbers left me, and I looked 
 And saw the geese that in the palace still 
 Were at their trough, and feeding as before.’ ” 
 
 Another dish was the paunch of a goat, filled with 
 fat and blood, and then roasted : 
 
 “. . . ‘at the fire. 
 
 Already lie the paunches of two goats. 
 
 Preparing for our evening meal, and both 
 Are filled with fat and blood.’ ” 
 
 The following lines well describe the manner in 
 which these paunches were prepared : 
 
FOOD AND DRINK. 
 
 257 
 
 “ As one turns and turns 
 The stomach of a bullock filled with fat 
 And blood before a fiercely blazing fire 
 And wishes it were done, so did the chief 
 Shift oft from side to side, with pondering how 
 To lay a strong hand on the multitude 
 Of shameless suitors,—he but one, and they 
 So many.” 
 
 Brains formed another article of food, and were 
 deemed most nourishing, wherefore bread was called 
 the nerve (brains) of man. Little Astyanax was fed 
 on the brains of lambs : 
 
 “ Then to his widowed mother shall return 
 Astyanax in tears, who, not long since 
 Was fed, while sitting in his father’s lap, 
 On marrow and the delicate fat of lambs.” 
 
 It is very probable that brains, on account of their 
 softness, were especially used as food for infants. 
 Achilles during his infancy is said to have been fed 
 upon them. 
 
 It is strange that, while fishing was well known in 
 the Homeric times, fish is never mentioned as the food 
 of heroes, excepting as, in the fourth book of the 
 “ Odyssey,” in a case of extreme necessity and hun¬ 
 ger : 
 
 “. . . They through the isle 
 Roamed everywhere from place to place,* and pinched 
 With hunger, threw the hook for fish.” 
 
I 
 
 258 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 It v/ould seem that, for some reason, fish were not 
 considered healthy food. On the other hand, oysters 
 were frequently eaten, as may be seen from the follow¬ 
 ing lines: 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Were this, now, the sea, 
 
 Where fish are bred, and he were searching it 
 For oysters, he might get an ample store 
 For many men, in leaping from a ship. 
 
 Though in a storm, so skillfully he dives 
 Even from the chariot to the plain.’ ” 
 
 Besides the above, mention is made of beans, 
 chick-peas, and cabbage. Cheese was also in use, 
 and was eaten mixed with honey and wine. The use 
 of salt for seasoning purposes was, of course, com¬ 
 
 mon : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ On thy return 
 
 Thou shalt avenge thee of their violent deeds; 
 And when thou shalt have slain them in thy halls. 
 Whether by stratagem or by the sword 
 In open fight, then take a shapely oar 
 And journey on, until thou meet with men 
 Who have not known the sea nor eaten food 
 Seasoned with salt, nor ever have beheld 
 Galleys with crimson prows, nor shapely oars, 
 Which are the wings of ships.” 
 
 It is strange that no mention is made of water 
 as a drink. Wine, however, was not used in its pure 
 state, but always mixed with water. What the relative 
 proportions of the mixture were is not known, but 
 it would seem that it followed, at any rate, the rules 
 
FOOD AND DRINK. 
 
 259 
 
 of wisdom, the water predominating. Hesiod ad¬ 
 vises one part of wine to three times as much water. 
 In exceptional cases, as, for instance, after a long 
 journey, and always for the old men, more wine was 
 taken. By reason of this weak admixture, it may be 
 explained why wine was given freely to children and 
 women. 
 
 The influence of wine was considered, according 
 to circumstances, as strengthening or enervating. He- 
 kabe says to Hektor, on his return from battle, that 
 he needs wine to recuperate his exhausted strength : 
 
 “ . . . * But stay thou here 
 Till I bring pleasant wine, that thou mayst pour 
 A part to Jove and to the other gods, 
 
 And drink and be refreshed ; for wine restores 
 Strength to the weary, and I know that thou 
 Art weary, fighting for thy countrymen.’ ” 
 
 Hektor, however, refuses the proffered drink be¬ 
 fore the battle, saying— 
 
 “ ‘ My honored mother, bring not pleasant wine. 
 
 Lest that unman me, and my wonted might 
 And valor leave me.’ ” 
 
 It would thus seem that wine was esteemed useful 
 after labor, but injurious before it. 
 
 Milk, however, was the most common drink dur¬ 
 ing the Homeric times, especially that of the cow, the 
 sheep, and the goat. 
 
26 o 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Table Furniture. —Modern civilization has in¬ 
 troduced a number of table-utensils which were un¬ 
 known during the Homeric period. There are men¬ 
 tioned, however, golden pitchers, silver wash-basins, 
 used for washing the hands before eating; baskets 
 made of reeds, or of copper, silver, or gold, into which 
 bread was put, and other similar baskets, much small¬ 
 er, in which onions were kept. 
 
 The utensils used for drinking-purposes were nu¬ 
 merous, and our information concerning them is tol¬ 
 erably full. First of all, the admixture of wine with 
 water was made in a goblet usually of silver, rarely of 
 gold; out of this goblet the wine was poured into 
 cups. Ancient Hellenism prided itself on the variety 
 and beauty of these cups, and invented many patterns 
 for them. Although in the Homeric period there 
 was still wanting the immense variety of the classic 
 years, yet the Homeric age was especially rich in 
 these respects. 
 
 The skyphos was a simple wooden cup, in use 
 among the poorer classes. 
 
 The kissybioriy made of the wood of the cypress-tree, 
 was used also among peasants. It would appear that 
 this cup was large, because Polyphemos, after empty¬ 
 ing it three times, became at once drunk. 
 
 The depas was the greatest and the most precious 
 of all cups. The one used by Nestor was made of 
 
TABLE FURNITURE. 
 
 261 
 
 wood, and was adorned with golden studs, while four 
 golden doves formed as many handles. Much has 
 been written concerning this vessel, and, above all, as 
 to the position occupied by the handles. Some claim 
 that two of these were on top, and the other two in 
 the middle, as in the utensils of Corinth. Others hold 
 that there w’ere only t\vo handles, extending from the 
 top to the base of the vessel, and forming two grooves 
 in the shape of handles. The exact position of the 
 handles is still a matter of dispute. 
 
 The kypellon closely resembled the depas^ and was 
 made of metal—usually of gold. 
 
 The amphikypellon was a double cup, formed by 
 two cups joined together at the base, the one being 
 used to sustain the other. It was a large vessel, hav¬ 
 ing two handles, and was usually carried by two men. 
 
 The phiale was small, and had more width than 
 depth. 
 
 The kotyle was a cup concerning which we have 
 little information. It was said of it: 
 
 “ . . . One who pities him shall give 
 A scanty draught, which only wets his lips, 
 
 But not his palate.” 
 
 It would thus appear that it was very small. The 
 wine was kept in bags of skin, and in these, also, it 
 was carried on a journey. 
 
 Tripods were very common during the Homeric 
 
262 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 period. A few of them were simple stools, upon 
 which a caldron was placed to warm water, while 
 others were themselves used as caldrons, and had 
 three feet. There were also tripods of exquisite work¬ 
 manship used as ornaments. The tripods fashioned 
 by Hephaestos are especially celebrated : 
 
 “ . . . He was fashioning 
 Tripods, a score, to stand beside the wall 
 Of his fair palace. All of these he placed 
 On wheels of gold, that, of their own accord, 
 
 They might roll in among the assembled gods. 
 
 And then roll back, a marvel to behold.” 
 
 Beckmann supposes that during the Homeric pe¬ 
 riod the production of automata^ or self-moving ob¬ 
 jects, propelled by inside mechanism, was well known. 
 But it seems highly improbable that art had thus early 
 reached so high a development. Hephaestos placed 
 wheels under the tripods to move them: as the arti¬ 
 san was superhuman, the poet invested his works with 
 the extraordinary power of moving of their own ac- 
 cord in the assembly of the gods. The caldrons 
 placed over the tripods were of metal, usually bronze, 
 and were used exclusively to warm water. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Diseases—Wounds—Physicians and surgeons—Women as physi¬ 
 cians—Death—After death. 
 
 Diseases. —Very little is said by Homer upon this 
 subject. Either during that pan-archaic epoch, owing 
 perhaps to the simplicity of life, the human constitu¬ 
 tion was stronger than it is to-day, or the theme of the 
 Homeric poems does not offer a sufficient ground for 
 the mention of diseases. The latter supposition is the 
 more commonly accepted, and, while it may be said 
 that the multitude of ills which now afflict human kind 
 had not yet all escaped from Pandora’s box, neverthe¬ 
 less, each epoch has had its own advantages and evils; 
 nor was the Homeric in this respect an exception. 
 
 Much has been written on this subject, but, unfor¬ 
 tunately, little of value. The old works of Valerius, 
 Oertel, Haynisch, and Baechne are much below the 
 present standard of investigation ; while the more re¬ 
 cent researches, as, for instance, those of Le Clerc, J. C. 
 Barchuxen, W. Black, C. G. Ackermann, K. Sprengel, 
 J. F. K. Hecker, Friedlander, Lessing, and Oekono- 
 
264 
 
 DRESS AND ORJ^AMENTS. 
 
 mos, are general in their scope, and treat very briefly 
 the subject of prehistoric diseases. 
 
 The principal diseases mentioned by Homer are 
 four in number — the terrible pestilence brought by 
 Apollo upon the Greeks, to avenge his priest Chryses ; 
 the madness of the followers of Odysseus ; the swell¬ 
 ing of Philoktetos, resulting from the bite of a serpent; 
 and the melancholy of Bellerophon. 
 
 The priest Chryses went to Agamemnon, in the 
 camp of the Achaians, where his daughter, the beauti¬ 
 ful Chryseis, or Astynome, was held a prisoner, bearing 
 to the chief, to whose lot she had fallen, “ uncounted 
 ransom.” But King Agamemnon dismissed him in 
 anger, and the old man, on his return to Troy, as he 
 was passing along the shore of the loud-roaring sea, 
 
 I 
 
 sought, with tears in his eyes, revenge for the proffered 
 insult : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ If I ever helped to deck 
 Thy glorious temple, if I ever burned 
 Upon thy altar the fat thighs of goats 
 And bullocks, grant my prayer, and let thy shafts 
 Avenge upon the Greeks the tears I shed ! ’ 
 
 Phoebus Apollo hearkened. Down he came, 
 Down from the summit of the Olympian mount. 
 Wrathful in heart; his shoulders bore the bow 
 And hollow quiver; there the arrows rang 
 Upon the shoulders of the angry god. 
 
 As on he moved. He came as comes the night. 
 And, seated from the ships aloof, sent forth 
 
DISEASES. 
 
 265 
 
 An arrow : terrible was heard the clang 
 Of that resplendent bow. At first he smote 
 The mules and the swift dogs, and then on man 
 He turned the deadly arrow. All around 
 Glared evermore the frequent funeral-piles.” 
 
 As it is evident the poet speaks here of the slaugh¬ 
 ter of the Greeks by the god—that is to say, of a 
 superhuman and mythical affair, and only in a met¬ 
 aphorical way—we may assume that, by this divine 
 picture, the facts of some great epidemic are de¬ 
 scribed. 
 
 First of all, we are told that the god attacked the 
 animals, the mules, and the fleet dogs of the Achaians. 
 If we were to take the passage in its literal sense, 
 there is much in it that is strange. It is by no means 
 natural that the angry god, instead of avenging him¬ 
 self upon those who were the cause of his wrath, set 
 deliberately to work to kill the animals. Such a pun¬ 
 ishment appears disproportionate to the insult, and 
 altogether useless, when the punishment of the guilty 
 could have been directly exacted. On the other hand, 
 it is well known that, in case of great epidemics, the 
 animals are always attacked before the men. Hence 
 this passage, even when allegorically taken, does not 
 appear antagonistic to facts ; on the contrary, it dem¬ 
 onstrates the accuracy with which the poet described 
 his lamentable and wonderful picture. 
 
266 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 It is also said that the arrows of the god were sent 
 for nine days ; 
 
 “ Nine days already have his shafts been showered.” 
 
 It is well known that, for so long a time precisely, 
 the virulent period of most epidemics continues, after 
 which they usually begin to abate. The selection, too, 
 of Apollo as the author of this disease is in accord¬ 
 ance with the events narrated, because the sun exer¬ 
 cises great influence on all severe epidemics. 
 
 Supposing, then, that a real epidemic was described 
 by the poet, let us inquire what was its nature. It is 
 generally supposed that a contagious disease is here 
 meant; but we have no proof whatever as to its simi¬ 
 larity with that which occurred in the time of Perikles, 
 or with those of more recent years. It is probable that 
 Homer himself had not in mind any definite disease. 
 No effort was made—at least none is mentioned—to 
 limit or eradicate the evil. The wrath of the god was 
 appeased when he was propitiated, and Chryseis was 
 restored. But it has been noticed that this occurred 
 on the tenth day, when diseases of this kind frequently 
 abate. 
 
 The. evil was allowed to run its course, because, 
 deemed as it was a divine punishment, it was consid¬ 
 ered incurable. Even without this supposition, there 
 was no hope to be expected from the science of medi- 
 
DISEASES. 
 
 267 
 
 cine, which was still in its infancy. Thus, the details 
 are wholly due to the inventive genius of the poet, 
 while the belief of the people that the god was the 
 cause of the evil was genuine and wide-spread. After 
 the cessation of the god's wrath, the Greeks sacrificed 
 to Apollo and bathed in the sea. In this bath alone 
 we find, perhaps, the only trace of any sanitary pre¬ 
 caution, but this step also was taken in a religious 
 spirit. 
 
 Concerning the transformation of the followers of 
 Odysseus, we are told : 
 
 “ Then mingling for them Pramnian wine with cheese, 
 Meal, and fresh honey, and infusing drugs 
 Into the mixture,—drugs which made them lose 
 The memory of their home,—she handed them 
 The beverage and they drank. Then instantly 
 She touched them with a wand, and shut them up 
 In sties, transformed to swine in head and voice. 
 Bristles and shape, though still the human mind 
 Remained to them. Thus sorrowing they were driven 
 Into their cells, where Circ^ flung to them 
 Acorns of oak and ilex, and the fruit 
 Of cornel, such as nourish wallowing swine.” 
 
 This ingenious myth which, in our opinion, is pure¬ 
 ly a product of the wonderful imagination of the poet, 
 has found many imitators in more recent years, and 
 has been interpreted in a thousand different ways. 
 The examination of the various attempts to solve the 
 myth is peculiarly interesting, inasmuch as thereby 
 
268 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 may be seen into how many absurdities the most re¬ 
 nowned philologists are drawn, in their eagerness to 
 interpret passages like the above, and their persistent 
 determination to find some metaphorical meaning, 
 when in reality none exists. 
 
 We must limit ourselves to a few of the most fa¬ 
 mous explanations, for there is material on this topic 
 alone sufficient to fill an entire book. 
 
 Hardin thinks that Kirke typifies nature, the mother 
 of eating and drinking, while the pigs are intemperate 
 men who, without regard to the laws of health, partake 
 too freely of the good things of the world, and thus 
 are ruined and lost. Such, in his opinion, is the mys¬ 
 tic meaning of the allegory. 
 
 Gerlach says that, by this myth, the idea is implied 
 that ignorant men are easily deceived by the shrewd¬ 
 ness of others, and are changed into animals, while the 
 learned, like Odysseus and Eurylochos, escape the 
 danger. 
 
 According to Altenburg, Odysseus is the sun, and 
 Kirke is his circuitous passage which causes the 
 changes of nature and of the seasons. Kirke trans¬ 
 forms creatures into other creatures, because, in reali¬ 
 ty, everything changes in nature ; she is surrounded 
 with lions and wolves, because these animals are sa¬ 
 cred to the sun, and, for the same reason, she trans¬ 
 forms her victims into pigs. 
 
DISEASES. 
 
 269 
 
 Friedreich advances two opinions. He first says 
 that the herbs which Kirke mixed in the drink were 
 narcotic, throwing all into a sleep, in which they for¬ 
 got their home and country, and then only the sor¬ 
 ceress, desiring to have the men removed from her 
 room—which must have presented a very comical ap¬ 
 pearance—and not having a more suitable place, she 
 had them carried into the pig-sty ! 
 
 His second explanation is as follows : He claims 
 that narcotics often lead to madness. But there is a 
 sort of madness in which the sufferer imagines himself 
 to have assumed a different form. Accordingly, he 
 says, it is but natural that the followers of Odysseus, 
 having drunk of these narcotics, imagined themselves 
 to have been changed into pigs. He calls this disease 
 iiisania zoanthropica. 
 
 Is it not more probable that the poet simply cre¬ 
 ated a beautiful myth, as in the case of the Laistry- 
 gonoe, or the Kyklops ? If so, it is surely a needless 
 task to try to interpret its mystic signification. 
 
 The transformation was the natural result of the 
 magic power of the goddess, who touched them with 
 her wand, and has nothing in common with pathology. 
 But in the forgetfulness arising from the drink, there 
 is certainly a change of the intellectual forces akin to 
 nosology, and worthy of research. 
 
 Kirke is said to have prepared a mixture, and in it 
 
270 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 to have infused drugs. These were evidently narcotic 
 herbs belonging to the family solanacarum or sfrych- 
 ninarum^ and hence the forgetfulness thereby arising 
 is the narcosis of the intellectual forces. 
 
 We think, however, that this refers rather to a 
 magic energy, and that the poet had no definite plant 
 in his mind. Odysseus, although he himself drank of 
 the mixture, escaped the danger, by reason of the an¬ 
 tidote given him by Hermes. Friedreich considers 
 this very event as strengthening his position. But 
 the avoiding of magic influence by means of an anti¬ 
 dote is a common idea in all the ages. The antidote 
 given to Odysseus by Argeiphontes, the poet says, was 
 called moly among the gods : 
 
 “ . . . the root is black, 
 
 The blossom white as milk. Among the gods 
 Its name is Moly; hard it is for men 
 To dig it up ; the gods find nothing hard.” 
 
 Much has been said concerning this plant, and entire 
 treatises have been written upon it. One, entitled 
 Siber de Moly Hermetis herba,” Schneeb, 1699, we 
 have in vain looked for among booksellers and libra¬ 
 ries. According to the old interpretation, the word 
 muly is said to be derived from a Greek verb meaning 
 to strengthen. Accordingly, Eustathios and Rieci, bas¬ 
 ing their views upon the above derivation, call allegory 
 once more to their aid, and say that by this plant is 
 
DISEASES. 
 
 271 
 
 represented the wisdom of God, or the advice given to 
 Odysseus, by means of which he escaped the danger. 
 We need only remark that advice nowhere grows with 
 white blossoms and black roots. 
 
 Evidently this moly, the antidote against the magic 
 influence, is another invention of Homer, and not a 
 known and definite plant. The very description of 
 the poet makes this manifest, while the black root and 
 the white blossom has much that seems peculiarly 
 imaginative— 
 
 “. . . Hard it is for men 
 To dig it up ; the gods find nothing hard.” 
 
 Thus, the poet says that this plant is not culti¬ 
 vated by men, but by the all-powerful gods. By 
 calling it by an imaginative name, Homer shows, we 
 think, with the greatest possible art, that the moiy is 
 a mythical plant, and that it is vain to seek upon the 
 earth what grows only in heaven, or rather, upon 
 the still more fertile ground of the poet’s imagina¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Those who have written entire volumes concerning 
 the moly^ and searched through the whole science of 
 botany to discover it among onions and cabbages, have 
 neglected only the careful study of the Homeric verse. 
 If we could believe that the moly was really a plant, 
 we would rather agree with Theophrastos, who takes it 
 to be the garlic, allium nigru 7 n^ because, in fact, by a 
 
272 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 strange coincidence there is to this day a garlic called 
 molyza. 
 
 Dioskoredes coincides with this idea, and Frass says 
 that a captain sent him from Asia Minor a plant with 
 a black root which certainly was the moly. Doubt re¬ 
 mained only as to whether the blossom was white, and, 
 having planted it, he waited the result with intense 
 anxiety. But we have not as yet ascertained the issue 
 of his investigation. 
 
 The story of Bellerophon has often been told. 
 Having killed his brother, Belleros, he left his ^native 
 Korinth and escaped to King Proitos. He was accused 
 by Anteia, the faithless wife of Proitos, of having made 
 attempts upon her honor, when he really had opposed 
 her advances. The king, disliking to put to death a 
 man whom he had entertained, sent him to his father- 
 in-law, lobates, with a letter, demanding the death of 
 the bearer. lobates, having also entertained him for 
 nine days ere he read the letter, was loath to perform 
 the order, and decided rather to subject him to many 
 dangerous enterprises, leaving his death to the will of 
 the immortals. He accordingly sent him first against the 
 Chimera, a fire-spouting monster, with a lion’s head, 
 serpent’s tail, and the body of a goat, which Bellero¬ 
 phon slew. Next he dispatched him against the Soly- 
 moe, inhabitants of Lykia, whom he readily defeated. 
 Finally, an ambush was laid against him, but Bellero- 
 
DISEASES. 
 
 273 
 
 phon routed the men employe'd in it ; and, finally, Iso- 
 bates recognized his innocence and rare bravery, and 
 gave him his daughter in marriage, together with one 
 half of his kingdom. Now proceeds the myth invented 
 by more recent writers: Bellerophon, elated by his 
 prosperity, considered himself equal to the gods, and 
 attempted to ascend to high heaven, to enjoy honors 
 similar to those of the immortals. To this end, he 
 mounted the winged horse Pegasos, given to him by the 
 gods to fight the Chimera, and commenced his flight. 
 The gods, incensed at his audacity, put spurs to the 
 horse, threw Bellerophon upon the ground, when, con¬ 
 scious of his mistake, he was seized by the' above-men¬ 
 tioned fearful melancholy. 
 
 Nothing is said by Homer concerning Pegasos, and 
 on this account all this part of the myth is considered 
 more modern. But, on the other hand, it is incontesta¬ 
 ble that there exists a chasm in the text, because, sud¬ 
 denly after the description of the achievements of the 
 fratricide, the following lines are recorded : 
 
 “ But when Bellerophon upon himself 
 Had drawn the anger of the gods, he roamed 
 The Aldan fields alone, a prey to thoughts 
 That wasted him, and shunning every haunt 
 Of humankind.” 
 
 What is important for us is the fact that the wrath 
 of the gods engendered the melancholy, and Bellero- 
 
274 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
 
 phon wandered alone in 'the Aleeon field, wasting away 
 by his suffering, and fleeing the presence of men. 
 There is no doubt whatever that reference is made 
 here to some keen mental disease, similar to madness, 
 and this is the only example of mental suffering to be 
 found in Homer. 
 
 The events concerning Philoktetes are as follows : 
 
 Having made an expedition against Troy with seven 
 ships, he discovered a small temple as he was sailing 
 by the island Chryses. While he was examining the 
 edifice, a fearful serpent, suddenly springing from a 
 rock, bit him in the foot. 
 
 The Achaians at first took him with them, but after¬ 
 ward, unable to bear his terrible cries and the stench 
 arising from the wound, they left him on the island 
 Lemnos, where he remained alone, suffering intense 
 agony, throughout the ten years of the Homeric expe¬ 
 dition : 
 
 “ . . . There the Greeks 
 Left him, in torture from a venomed wound 
 Made by a serpent’s fangs.” 
 
 It is not certain what kind of serpent inflicted the 
 wound. Homer calls it hydron. Voss and Crusies 
 translate the word viper^ while Liinemann and Pape 
 “water-serpent." The result of the bite appears to 
 have been most extraordinary, when we take into con¬ 
 sideration the wailings of the hero, and the fetid odor 
 
DISEASES. 
 
 275 
 
 and the long duration of the wound. These phenom¬ 
 ena are somewhat unnatural, because, while death, 
 which generally follows the bite of a poisonous ser¬ 
 pent, did not occur, a swelling or gangrene made its 
 appearance, which lasted in this acute state ten years. 
 No such instance is mentioned in positive records. 
 Sophokles, in his well-known drama, calls the wound 
 from which the hero suffered insatiate^ and according¬ 
 ly considered it as a destructive or eating sore. In 
 our opinion, the sore from which Philoktetes suffered 
 was something akin to cancer. 
 
 No mention is made of any attempt to heal the 
 wound, which is certainly strange, as the treatment of 
 such bites with herbs was well understood during the 
 Homeric period. The sufferings of Philoktetes have 
 ever been, like those of Prometheus, a much-admired 
 subject in the arts, and the statue of Philostratos the 
 younger is considered inimitable. 
 
 The ancients thought that leipothymia^ or fainting, 
 arose, as the word signifies, from an abseme of the soul 
 —i. e., the breath of life leaving its abode, the body. 
 A beautiful description of this ailment is found in the 
 following lines, said of Andromache, when the death 
 of Hektor was announced to her: 
 
 “. . . sudden darkness came 
 Over her eyes, and in a breathless swoon. 
 
 She sank away and fell.” 
 
276 
 
 BI^ESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Pure air and cold water were the means by which 
 one who had fainted was revived. Sarpedon, having 
 fainted on account of his wound, “ came to himself ” 
 as soon as he had breathed the north wind : 
 
 “ . . . Then did the noble band 
 Who bore the great Sarpedon lay him down 
 Beneath a shapely beech, a tree of Jove 
 The Aegis-bearer. There stout Pelagon, 
 
 His well-beloved comrade, from his thigh 
 Drew forth the sharp blade of the ashen spear. 
 
 Then the breath left him, and his eyes were closed 
 In darkness; but the light came back again 
 As, breathing over him, the fresh north wind 
 Revived the spirit in his laboring breast.” 
 
 The above, as already stated, are the only instances 
 in the Homeric poems where traces of disease appear, 
 and these are related in a mythical sort of way. The 
 ancients accepted disease as the will of the gods, a ne¬ 
 cessary evil, and accordingly little care was taken con¬ 
 cerning its causes, nature, and the means of curing it. 
 Consequently, no treatise is possible concerning Ho¬ 
 meric pathology—i. e., the diagnosis of symptoms, and 
 their scientific explanation and cure. 
 
 The evil sent from Olympus was silently accepted, 
 nor was the idea of a possible escape entertained, 
 except through prayers, sacrifices, and appeasing the 
 divine wrath. 
 
 Wounds. —But, if the occasions are extremely rare 
 
WOUNDS. 
 
 277 
 
 when the poet describes nosological symptoms, of ne¬ 
 cessity, and from the very nature of his subject, he 
 speaks frequently of wounds and their results. This 
 is so true, that not a few censure the poet, and call 
 him bloodthirsty, on the ground that he rejoices in 
 such descriptions. But deep thinkers, on the con¬ 
 trary, admire the unparalleled art with w^hich the 
 poet, on each occasion, invented a different wound, 
 and most minutely described it; thus proving that, 
 if pathology was still in its swaddling - clothes, 
 anatomy was, on the other hand, considerably de¬ 
 veloped. 
 
 There are mortal wounds mentioned by Homer, 
 and others not necessarily so. But the greater part 
 are mortal, even when the damage wrought does not 
 foretell the catastrophe. It would thus seem that 
 when Homer described the death of a hero, he paid 
 closer attention to the artistic drawing of the picture 
 than to the pathological nature of the wound. The 
 great variety of the wounds mentioned explains and 
 justifies these small incongruities. Some are difficult 
 to understand, because they are the result of the po¬ 
 lemic art of the epoch, and of weapons with w'hich we 
 are not perfectly acquainted. The following examples 
 will facilitate the understanding of the Homeric ex¬ 
 pressions as regards the anatomical knowledge of the 
 poet: 
 
 13 
 
278 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 *' Him Agamemnon with his trenchant spear 
 Smote in the forehead as he came. The helm 
 Of massive brass was vain to stay the blow: 
 
 The weapon pierced it and the bone, and stained 
 The brain with blood; it felled him rushing on.” 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 “ . . . Pisander hewed away, 
 
 Below the crest, the plumed helmet-cone 
 Of Atreus’ son, who smote, above the nose, 
 Pisander’s forehead, crashing through the bones. 
 Both bleeding eyes dropped to the ground amid 
 The dust; he fell; he writhed. . . 
 
 “ . . . Minerva kept 
 
 The weapon faithful to its aim. It struck 
 The nose, and near the eye ; then passing on 
 Betwixt the teeth, the unrelenting edge 
 Cleft at its root the tongue ; the point came out 
 Beneath the chin. The warrior from his car 
 Fell headlong; his bright armor, fairly wrought. 
 Clashed round him as he fell; his fiery steeds 
 Started aside with fright; his breath and strength 
 Were gone at once. . . 
 
 “ And him Peneleus smote beneath the brow 
 In the eye's socket, forcing out the ball; 
 
 The spear passed through, and reappeared behind. 
 Down sat the wounded man with arms outstretched. 
 While, drawing his sharp sword, Peneleus smote 
 The middle of his neck, and lopped away 
 The helmed head, which fell upon the ground. 
 
 The spear still in the eye. . . 
 
 “ He smote him on the helmet's cone, where streamed 
 The horse-hair plume. The brazen javelin stood 
 Fixed in his forehead, piercing through the bone. 
 And darkness gathered o'er his eyes. . , 
 
WOUNDS. 
 
 279 
 
 “ Then plunged Idomeneus the cruel spear 
 Into the mouth of Erymas. The blade 
 Passed on beneath the brain, and pierced the neck, 
 And there divided the white bones. It dashed 
 The teeth out; both the eyes were filled with blood, 
 Which gushed from mouth and nostrils, as he breathed. 
 
 And the black cloud of death came over him.” 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 “. . . And as the suppliant took his chin 
 In his large hand, and had begun a prayer. 
 
 He smote him with his sword at the mid-neck. 
 
 And cut the tendons both ; the severed head. 
 
 While yet he spake, fell, rolling in the dust.” 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 “ . . . One he pierced 
 High on the bosom with his brazen spear. 
 
 And smote the other on the collar-bone 
 
 With his good sword, and hewed from neck and spine 
 
 The shoulder. . . .” 
 
 “ ... In the breast, between 
 The paps, it smote him. . . .” 
 
 '‘In turn, Patroclus, hurling not in vain 
 His weapon, smote him where the midriff’s web 
 Holds the tough heart. . . .” 
 
 "... As he turned 
 
 To flee, the Achaian, smiting him between 
 
 The shoulders, drove the javelin through his breast. 
 
 Heavily clashed his armor as he fell.” 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 “ . . . But he who gave the wound, 
 
 Piroiis, came up and pierced him with his spear. 
 
 Forth gashed the entrails, and the eyes grew dark.” 
 
28 o 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Many passages similar to the above are to be found 
 in Homer, but those quoted are sufficient for our pur¬ 
 pose. The healing of wounds, of course, received 
 much attention, and the physicians of the Homeric 
 period were rather experienced surgeons. 
 
 After the examination of the wound, and the ex¬ 
 traction of any part of the missile that might have 
 been left in the body, the blood was washed away, 
 and “ pain-eating herbs ” were placed upon the sore. 
 Such herbs usually stopped the flow of blood and 
 aided the healing of the wound. ' Over the herbs soft 
 wool was bound, kept in place by a supporting belt. 
 Wine was usually given to the wounded to revive his 
 strength: 
 
 “ . . . Without delay he drew 
 The arrow from the fairly-fitted belt. 
 
 The barbs were bent in drawing. Then he loosed 
 The embroidered belt, the quilted vest beneath, 
 
 And plate,—the armorer's work,—and carefully 
 O’erlooked the wound where fell the bitter shaft. 
 Cleansed it from blood, and sprinkled over it 
 With skill the soothing balsams which of yore 
 The friendly Chiron to his father gave. 
 
 . . . The brazen spear 
 
 Passed through the hand and reached the bow, and there 
 Stood fixed, while Helenus, avoiding death. 
 
 Drew back among his comrades, with his hand 
 Held low, and trailing still the ashen stem, 
 Magnamimous Agenor from the wound 
 Drew forth the blade, and wrapped the hand in wool. 
 
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS, 
 
 281 
 
 Carefully twisted, taken from a sling 
 Carried by an attendant of the chief.” 
 
 Physicians and Surgeons. — The physicians, 
 though by no means men of scientific attainments, 
 were exceptionally honored, and were deemed most 
 useful members of society. Even the Olympians 
 themselves, immortal though they were, had their 
 physicians. 
 
 Three physicians are mentioned prominently in 
 Homer—Asklepios, Machaon, and Podaleirios. There 
 were others, however, in the Hellenic camp, inasmuch 
 as on many occasions the plural number is employed 
 when speaking of them, and in the “ Iliad ” they are 
 said to attend Agamemnon, Odysseus, Diomedes, and 
 Eurypylos at the same time : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ There Diomed, 
 
 The gallant son of Tydeus, lies, and there 
 Ulysses; the great spearman, wounded both ; 
 
 And Agamemnon ; and Eurj'pylus, 
 
 Driven from the field, an arrow in his thigh. 
 
 Round them the healers, skilled in remedies. 
 
 Attend, and dress their painful wounds, while thou, 
 Achilles, sittest here implacable.’ ” 
 
 Asklepios, son of Apollo and Koronis, was King of 
 Thessaly, and Homer calls him Faultless.” Now, 
 as this adjective is never attributed to the gods, a few 
 have supposed Asklepios to have been an historic per¬ 
 sonage and the myth relating to his apotheosis to 
 
282 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 have been a later invention. In the “ Iliad ” he is 
 on many occasions called “ an excellent physician,” 
 and it is said that Cheiron the Kentaur, so famous 
 for his medical knowledge, taught him his science. 
 Machaon and Podaleirios were sons of Asklepios, 
 and successors to the paternal glory. They led thirty 
 ships against Troy, and served both as physicians and 
 warriors. It was Machaon v/ho cured the wound of 
 Menelaos : 
 
 “ ‘ O son of .^sculapius, come in haste ! 
 
 King Agamemnon calls thee to the aid 
 Of warlike Menelaus, whom some hand 
 Of Trojan or of Lycian, skilled to bend 
 The bow, hath wounded with his shaft,—a deed 
 For him to exult in, but grief to us.' ” 
 
 That the physicians were also soldiers, a fact denied 
 by Diodoros, is evident from the following passage, in 
 which a herald is dispatched to summon Machaon to 
 the aid of the wounded Menelaos, and the Aesklepiad 
 is found at the head of his own phalanx : 
 
 “ He spake; nor failed the herald to obey. 
 
 But hastened at the word and passed among 
 The squadrons of Achaia, mailed in brass. 
 
 In search of great Machaon. Him he found. 
 
 As midst the valiant ranks of bucklered men 
 He stood,—the troops who followed him to war 
 From Triccae, nurse of steeds. ...” 
 
 Again, in the following passage, Machaon himself 
 is mentioned as wounded: 
 
WOMEN AS PHYSICIANS. 
 
 283 
 
 “ Yet the Greeks 
 Would not have yielded ground, if Paris, spouse 
 Of fair-haired Helen, had not forced the chief 
 Machaon, fighting gallantly, to pause; 
 
 For with an arrow triple-barbed he pierced 
 The chief’s right shoulder, and the valiant Greeks, 
 Feared lest the battle turn and he be slain.” 
 
 According to more recent writers, the two brothers, 
 Podaleirios and Machaon, took up distinct branches 
 of their profession—the former having devoted him¬ 
 self to medicine in its entirety, while the latter ex¬ 
 celled as a surgeon—and on this account it is claimed 
 that surgery by some of the Roman poets was called 
 ars Machaonea^ and the surgeons Machaones. 
 
 Women as Physicians. —During the times of Ho¬ 
 mer women were frequently instructed in medical sci¬ 
 ence, and several of them became famous in their 
 profession. Their knowledge, however, was limited to 
 the use of herbs, and they had but slight acquaintance 
 w'ith either anatomy or surgery. Instead of using 
 their knowledge for the common good, after the ex¬ 
 ample of the physicians, they usually sought to fur¬ 
 ther their own private ends in a manner akin to magic. 
 
 The following women are mentioned by Homer as 
 pre-eminently distinguished in this respect: Agamede, 
 Polydamne, Helen, and Kirke : 
 
 The fair-haired Agamedd, eldest bom 
 Of King Augeias’ daughters, was his spouse; 
 
284 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 And well to her each healing herb was know*; 
 
 That springs from the great earth." 
 
 Helen had a certain sorrow-soothing herb, given her 
 by the Egyptian Polydamne. Having steeped this in 
 wine, she gave it to Telemachos and his companions, 
 that they might forget their sorrows, and free them¬ 
 selves from the melancholy that possessed their souls 
 at the recollection of Odysseus. 
 
 Opinions concerning this medicine are conflicting, 
 and, as usual, a few enthusiastic scholars have written 
 voluminously in regard to it. 
 
 Among the ancient writers, Theophrastos repeats 
 the words of Homer, relating to this passage, but adds 
 nothing more, so that he either did not know the sor- 
 row-soothing herb^ or entertained doubts as to its exist¬ 
 ence. On the other hand, Diodoros asserts its exist¬ 
 ence, and says that women still used it in his time to 
 appease sorrow or wrath, but mentions nothing as to its 
 preparation. Plutarch explains the matter differently, 
 supposing that the sweet and consoling words of Helen 
 were referred to as the sorrow-soothing herb. As, how¬ 
 ever, the medicine is said to have been mixed in wine, 
 it must have been some vegetable or mineral substance, 
 rather than “ sweet words,” and it seems' strange that 
 both Athenaeos and Apollonios, the Tyanean, follow 
 the opinion of Plutarch. Among modern writers, a few 
 claim that the sorrow-soothing herb was the Daicra 
 
DEA TIE 
 
 285 
 
 stratnonium ; others that it was a mixture of different 
 narcotics ; while Micii, Wedel, and Friedreich take it 
 to be opium. Is it not more probable that, as in the 
 case of the 7noly^ the sorrow-soothing herb has reference 
 not to any certain medicine, but to some mythical plant 
 possessing magical properties ? When Homer states 
 that it “ drew away sorrow,” he means that the herb 
 contained some mysterious power of this sort, but he 
 has no positive reference to any known narcotic. 
 
 Polydamne was the wife of a rich Egyptian, who 
 entertained Menelaos during his wanderings, and she 
 is said to have given the medicine to Helen. 
 
 Kirke, of whom we have already spoken, was the 
 daughter of Helios and Perse. According to Diodoros, 
 having married the king of the Skythians, she poisoned 
 him and seized the sovereignty. She treated her sub¬ 
 jects so cruelly that she was driven away, and, escaping 
 to a remote island, applied herself to the study of the 
 occult properties of plants, in the knowledge of which, 
 in course of time, she greatly excelled. Her fame ex¬ 
 tended throughout the ancient world, and her magic 
 power for evil gave rise to many wild and improbable 
 rumors. On account of her relations with Odysseus, 
 she is one of the most important characters in Homer. 
 
 DEATH.T^-Although the Greekspossessed the belief 
 in immortality, he had the feeling that life was some¬ 
 thing to be thoroughly enjoyed, and on this account 
 
286 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 he earnestly longed for a happy and tranquil exist¬ 
 ence. 
 
 ^ Hence, death, which cuts off the thread of life, was 
 considered as a dread necessity, and man was called 
 short-lived, as subject to death. The bitter complaints 
 of Achilles, at being doomed to an early grave, furnish 
 a sufficient evidence of this feeling. Hades was always 
 mentioned with terror, and Achilles prefers the life of a 
 slave to that of a king in Hades : 
 
 “ . . . I would be 
 
 A laborer on earth, and serve for hire 
 Some man of mean estate, who makes scant cheer, 
 Rather than reign o'er all who have gone down 
 To death.” 
 
 From the following passage it may be seen that, for 
 the Olympians themselves, Hades was considered a very 
 joyless abode: 
 
 “ Then Pluto, ruler of the nether world. 
 
 Leaped from his throne in terror, lest the god 
 Who makes the earth to tremble, cleaving it 
 Above him, should lay bare to gods and men 
 His horrible abodes, the dismal haunts > 
 
 Which even the gods abhor.” 
 
 According to the ancients, the blessed gods, the 
 dispensers of happiness, sent also death, and, so long as 
 man was ready to accept the good things of this life, 
 there was no cause of complaint. The sudden death of 
 
DEA TH, 
 
 287 
 
 a healthy man was always attributed to Zeus or Apollo, 
 and that of a woman to Artemis. Accordingly, he who 
 wished for the death of another, always addressed him¬ 
 self to these divinities. The Harpies also were often 
 considered the cause of death. These loathsome god¬ 
 desses of the air were said to seize those about to die, 
 as if the north wind had carried them off. The follow¬ 
 ing magnificent comparison from Homer of the passing 
 generations of men to flowers withering and blooming, 
 has always been justly admired ; 
 
 “ . . . Like the race of leaves 
 Is that of humankind : Upon the ground 
 The winds strew one year’s leaves ; the sprouting grove 
 Puts forth another brood, that shoot and grow 
 In the spring season. So it is with man : 
 
 One generation grows while one decays.” 
 
 From the dark colors in which the poet painted 
 death, it follows that the relatives and friends of the 
 departed, feeling the eternal separation, notwithstand¬ 
 ing all the assurances of religion, gave themselves up to 
 bitter sorrow, and felt an inconsolable anguish at their 
 loss. This manifestation of feeling, indeed, was re¬ 
 garded as a solemn duty to the dead, and its non-ful¬ 
 fillment was not only a violation of a sacred debt due 
 to one’s friends, but an impiety to the gods : 
 
 “. . . ‘I conjure thee now, by those 
 Whom thou hast left behind and far away. 
 
288 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
 
 Thy consort and thy father,—him by whom 
 Thou when a boy wert reared,—and by thy son 
 Telemachus, who in thy palace-halls 
 Is left alone,—for well I know that thou. 
 
 In going hence from Pluto’s realm, wilt moor 
 Thy gallant vessel in the ^aean isle,— 
 
 That there, O King, thou wilt remember me. 
 
 And leave me not when thou departest thence 
 Unwept, unburied, lest I bring on thee 
 The anger of the gods.’ ” 
 
 The Olympians themselves rendered the last duty 
 to their beloved. Thus, Thetis takes care of the body 
 of Patroklos, and pours nectar and ambrosia over it. 
 Aphrodite prevents the decomposition of the aban¬ 
 doned body of Hektor, anointing it with an ambrosial 
 oil made of the essence of roses ; while Apollo ob¬ 
 scures the sun, that the heat of its rays might not 
 harm it: 
 
 “ . . . But Hector was not made 
 The prey of dogs, for Venus, bom to Jove, 
 
 Drave off by night and day, the ravenous tribe. 
 
 And with a rosy and ambrosial oil 
 Anointed him, that he might not be tom 
 When dragged along the earth. Above the spot 
 And all around it, where the body lay, 
 
 Phoebus Apollo drew a veil of clouds 
 Reaching from heaven, that on his limbs the flesh 
 And sinews might not stiffen in the sun.” 
 
 To such an extent was this last duty deemed in¬ 
 dispensable, that Orestes, having killed Aigisthos, the 
 murderer of his father and the violator of his mother, 
 
DEATH. 289 
 
 feels constrained to pay these last honors to his vic¬ 
 tim : 
 
 “ Seven years in rich Mycenae he bore rule, 
 And on the eighth, to his destruction, came 
 The nobly-bom Orestes, just returned 
 From Athens, and cut off that man of blood. 
 The crafty wretch Aegisthus, by whose hand 
 Fell his illustrious father. Then he bade 
 The Argives to the solemn burial-feast 
 Of his bad mother and the craven wretch 
 Aegisthus.” 
 
 It was believed that, unless these honors were paid 
 to the dead, his soul was forever excluded from Hades. 
 
 t 
 
 To this belief must be attributed the care exercised in 
 collecting and burying the bones of those who had 
 fallen in battle. It was this belief, also, that urged on 
 the aged Priam to expose himself to the greatest of 
 dangers, and to enter the Hellenic camp, in order to 
 recover the body of his son. To be buried with becom¬ 
 ing honors was the last wish and consolation of the 
 dying. As soon as death ensued, the mouth and the 
 eyes of the dead were closed, exactly as to this day : 
 
 “ . . . ‘ Death has overtaken thee. 
 
 And thou couldst not escape. Unhappy one ! 
 
 Now thou art dead thy father will not come 
 To close thy eyes ; nor she, the honored one 
 Who gave thee birth ; but birds of prey shall flap 
 Their heavy wings above thee, and shall tear 
 
290 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Thy flesh, while I in dying shall receive 
 Due funeral honors from the noble Greeks.’ ” 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 “. . . ‘ The shameless woman went 
 Her way, nor stayed to close my eyes, nor press 
 My mouth into its place, although my soul 
 Was on its way to Hades.’ ” 
 
 Next the body was washed and anointed. The 
 washing had an allegorical signification, as it was sup¬ 
 posed that thus all filth remained upon the earth, and 
 the soul entered pure into its last abode. After the 
 washing, the body was stretched upon a bed, with the 
 feet turned toward the door, as an indication of the 
 approaching departure, and was wrapped in cloaks and 
 fine tunics. 
 
 The wailings of the relatives, and especially of the 
 women, now began. The fact that men, and even the 
 heroes, did not entertain the opinion so prevalent to¬ 
 day, as to the impropriety of weeping, in view of a 
 long and bitter separation, is manifest from the warm 
 tears of Achilles over the body of Patroklos. There 
 were also professional singers seated around the death¬ 
 bed, who extolled the virtues of the departed in songs 
 called “ wailings,” a custom to this day preserved in 
 Greece. These songs were interrupted from time to 
 time by outbursts of sorrow on the part of some rela¬ 
 tive or friend present, who, in loud voice, broken with 
 
DBA TIL 
 
 291 
 
 frequent sobs, praised the hero. Thus, Andromache 
 over the body of Hektor : 
 
 “ ‘ Thou hast died young, my husband, leaving me 
 In this thy home, a widow, and one son. 
 
 An infant yet. To an unhappy pair 
 He owes his birth, and never will, I fear. 
 
 Bloom into youth ; for ere that day will Troy 
 Be overthrown, since thou, its chief defence. 
 
 Art dead, the guardian of its walls and all 
 Its noble matrons and its speechless babes. 
 
 Yet to be carried captive far away. 
 
 And I among them, in the hollow barks ; 
 
 And thou, my son, wilt either go with me. 
 
 Where thou shalt toil at menial tasks for some 
 Pitiless master ; or perhaps some Greek 
 Will seize thy little arm, and in his rage 
 Will hurl thee from a tower and dash thee dead. 
 Remembering how thy father Hector, slew 
 His brother, son, or father ; for the hand 
 Of Hector forced full many a Greek to bite 
 The dust of earth. . . . 
 
 Thou bringest an unutterable grief, 
 
 O Hector, on thy parents, and on me 
 
 The sharpest sorrows. Thou didst not stretch forth 
 
 Thy hands to me, in dying, from thy couch. 
 
 Nor speak a word to comfort me, which I 
 Might ever think of night and day with tears.’ " 
 
 Next Hekabe, the aged mother of the dead hero, 
 took up the passionate lamentation ” : 
 
 “ ‘ O Hector, thou who wert most fondly loved 
 Of all my sons! While yet thou wert alive. 
 
292 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Dear wert thou to the gods, who even now. 
 
 When death has overtaken thee, bestow 
 Such care upon thee. All my other sons 
 Whom swift Achilles took in war he sold 
 At Samos, Imbrus, by the barren sea. 
 
 And Lemnos harborless. But as for thee. 
 
 When he had taken with his cruel spear 
 Thy life, he dragged thee round and round the tomb 
 Of his young friend, Patroclus, whom thy hand 
 Had slain, yet raised he not by this the dead; 
 
 And now thou Rest in the palace here. 
 
 Fresh, and besprinkled as with early dew. 
 
 Like one just slain with silent arrows aimed 
 By Phoebus, bearer of the silver bow.’ ” 
 
 Mourning for the dead was shown by abstaining, 
 for the time being, from food and drink, by strewing 
 dust and ashes on the head, tearing the cheeks and 
 bosom with one’s nails, cutting off the hair and casting 
 it over the body. The modern custom of wearing 
 black clothes was already in vogue during the Flo- 
 meric period, at least among women, inasmuch as 
 Thetis, on learning of the death of Patroklos, put on 
 ‘^her blackest garment”: 
 
 “ So spake the goddess-queen, and, speaking, took 
 Her mantle,—darker web was never worn,— 
 
 And onward went. ...” 
 
 “ ‘ The time has been when thou too, hapless one. 
 Dearest of all my comrades, wouldst have spread 
 With diligent speed before me in my tent, 
 
 A genial banquet, while the Greeks prepared 
 
JDEA TIL 
 
 293 
 
 For desperate battle with the knights of Troy. 
 
 Thou liest, now, a mangled corse, and I, 
 
 Through grief for thee, refrain from food and drink. 
 Though they are near. ...” 
 
 “. . . The old king, 
 
 With many tears, and rolling in the dust 
 Before Achilles, mourned his gallant son: 
 
 • •••••• 
 
 * No ! by the greatest and the best of gods, 
 
 By Jupiter, I may not plunge my head 
 Into the bath before I lay my friend, 
 
 Patroclus on the fire, and heap his mound. 
 
 And till my hair is shorn; for never more 
 In life will be so great a sorrow mine.’ ” 
 
 Homer well understood, and depicted with in¬ 
 imitable color, the remorseless destiny which carries 
 away our dearest friends and condemns us often to a 
 lifeless life. What unspeakable sorrow dwells in the 
 following lines !— 
 
 “ For even Niobe, the golden-haired. 
 
 Refrained hot from her food, though children twelve 
 Perished within her palace,—six young sons 
 And six fair daughters.” 
 
 The body remained exposed for several days ; that 
 of Hektor was kept for nine days, and of Achilles 
 for seventeen. It is not known how it was preserved 
 so long a time ; but probably early decomposition 
 was prevented by the use of certain ointments. 
 
 Finally, the day of the funeral came. Burning the 
 
294 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
 
 body was then the usual practice—a custom common 
 among many Eastern nations, and to which the high¬ 
 est civilization tends, gradually, to return. A pile of 
 wood was prepared ; the body, anointed and splen¬ 
 didly attired, was placed on a bier, carried by the 
 most intimate friends of the dead. Others, perhaps 
 the nearest relatives, sustained the head of the corpse, 
 a torch was then applied, and the body surrendered to 
 the flames: 
 
 “ . . . In the midst was borne 
 Patroclus by his comrades. Cutting off 
 Their hair, they strewed it, covering the dead. 
 
 Behind the corpse, Achilles in his hands 
 Sustained the dead, and wept, for on that day 
 He gave to Hades his most cherished friend.” 
 
 While the body was being consumed, the most 
 valued possessions of the dead were cast into the fire 
 —arms, horses, etc.—for it was believed that he de¬ 
 sired them in Hades. Then a vessel full of fat and 
 honey was emptied upon the funeral-pile—the one to 
 feed the fire, the other to appease death : 
 
 “ . . . They who had the dead in charge 
 Remained, and heaped the wood, and built a pyre, 
 
 A hundred feet each way from side to side. 
 
 With sorrowful hearts they raised and laid the corse 
 Upon the summit. Then they flayed and dressed 
 Before it many fatlings of the flock. 
 
 And oxen with curved feet and crooked horns. 
 
 From these magnanimous Achilles took - 
 
DEA TIE 
 
 295 
 
 The fat, and covered with it carefully 
 
 The dead from head to foot. Beside the bier, 
 
 And leaning towards it, jars of honey and oil 
 He placed, and flung, with many a deep-drawn sigh. 
 Twelve high-necked steeds upon the pile. Nine hounds 
 There were, which from the table of the prince 
 Were daily fed. ..." 
 
 "... To the pile 
 He put the iron violence of the fire, 
 
 And, wailing, called by name the friend he loved." 
 
 While the body was still burning, a friend of the 
 deceased poured wine over the pyre, and called the 
 departed by name. The fire was at length extinguished 
 by wine poured “ into the flaming element" by all 
 present. 
 
 The bones were carefully collected, washed in 
 wine, covered with fat and inclosed in a box, placed 
 in a tomb, or covered with stones, over which a 
 mound was raised. Over this mound a pillar was 
 usually erected, on which a symbol was inscribed. 
 Around the tomb trees were planted : 
 
 “. . . ‘ But bum me there 
 With all the armor that I wore, and pile. 
 
 Close to the hoary deep, a mound for me,— 
 
 A hapless man of whom posterity 
 Shall hear. Do this for me, and plant upright 
 Upon my tomb the oar with which I rowed. 
 While yet a living man, among thy friends.’" 
 
296 
 
 DJ?ESS AND ORNAMENTS 
 
 _ Gymnastic exercises followed the funerals of kings 
 and princes. Those of Patroklos and Hektor furnish 
 a complete picture* of the prevailing customs. Usu¬ 
 ally, after the funeral, a banquet, which had a religious 
 meaning, was served by the relatives and friends of the 
 departed : 
 
 “ . . . When they all had come 
 Together, first they quenched the funeral-fires, 
 
 Wherever they had spread, with dark-red wine. 
 
 And then his brothers and companions searched 
 For the white bones. In sorrow and in tears. 
 
 That streaming stained their cheeks, they gathered them. 
 And placed them in a golden um. O’er this 
 They drew a covering of soft purple robes. 
 
 And laid it in a hollow gp’ave, and piled 
 Fragments of rock above it, many and huge. 
 
 In haste they reared the tomb, with sentries set 
 On every side, lest all too soon the Greeks 
 Should come in armor to renew the war. 
 
 When now the tomb was built, the multitude 
 Returned,'and in the halls where Priam dwelt. 
 
 Nursling of Jove, were feasted royally. 
 
 Such was the mighty Hector’s burial rite.” 
 
 Friedreich remarks that the banquet was indispen¬ 
 sable to revive their exhausted strength. 
 
 After Death. — The Homeric psychology is a 
 beautiful and most interesting theme. Three questions 
 arise, connected with this subject—the condition of the 
 body, of the soul, and of the mind. The mind was the 
 acting part of the soul, the will, and the understanding. 
 
AFTER DEATH. 
 
 297 
 
 the seat of which was the bosom. The mind vanished 
 with life, and then the truly abstract, unseen part re¬ 
 mained, the soul, which escaped through the mouth or 
 the wound, and wandered about the gates of Hades 
 until the body was buried, when the soul re-entered it. 
 The soul, once in Hades, was changed to a ghost. 
 The ghosts retained the form of the body in life, but 
 existed in a condition of narcosis, and lived as in a 
 dream. Nevertheless, they were conscious of their 
 position, remembered their former existence, and still 
 took a lively interest in the affairs of the world, asking 
 all new-comers for news of their relatives and friends. 
 They possessed a longing for the honor due them, and 
 the maintenance of their former station in life by their 
 successors was especially inquired after. They were 
 judged by Minos, the arbiter of Hades, and, if found 
 guilty, were condemned. They felt keenly the causes 
 that brought about their punishment, but even these 
 feelings, compared to the vivid realities of life, were 
 like the dreams of a shadow. Their abode in Hades 
 was eternal. 
 
 The reader must have noticed how much, in many 
 respects, civilization was advanced in an epoch gener¬ 
 ally deemed semi-barbarous, and belonging to mythol¬ 
 ogy. The Homeric heroes, the immediate descendants 
 of the Olympians, were more like their descendants of 
 
298 
 
 DUESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 to-day. They had the same sentiments, and felt the 
 
 same wants. The same love bound together relatives 
 
 « 
 
 and friends, the same hatred burned in the bosoms of 
 enemies, the same virtues adorned the good, and, in 
 fact, the same human nature appears essentially un¬ 
 changed. 
 
 Whosoever is familiar with the customs and habits 
 of the Hellenes will derive from every line of the 
 present work the conclusion that the Hellenic na¬ 
 tion was already brilliant in the very horizon of its his¬ 
 tory. For centuries it astounded the known world by 
 its glory and achievements, and even in its misery and 
 decline preserved by its determined character the seeds 
 of its divine existence. 
 
 Indeed, no nation has retained more unchanged 
 its national characteristics. From the very playthings 
 of childhood, through the course of life unto death, we 
 are taught one lesson, unless we are constitutionally 
 blind to actual facts, that the contemporary Athenian, 
 Argeian, or Lakedaemonian, is the genuine descend¬ 
 ant of the heroes who marched against Troy. 
 
 , Note. —It may not be amiss here to g^ve a brief account 
 of the Rangabe family, the most illustrious in Greece to-day. 
 The family descends from the Emperor Rangabe, who suc¬ 
 ceeded to the Byzantine throne in 811 and reigned until his 
 abdication in 813. In the first years of this century a great 
 part of the Greek aristocracy was established in the principali¬ 
 ties of Wallachia and Moldavia (now Roumania), and, as the 
 
NOTE. 
 
 299 
 
 yoke of the Ottoman tyranny was less felt there, a flourishing 
 civilization had sprung up. The grandfather of Mr. Kleon R. 
 Rangab^, Mr. James Rangabe, was the brother-in-law and 
 prime minister of the then reigning Prince of Wallachia, Alex¬ 
 ander Soutzo, and governed the state in this capacity for more 
 than ten years. At the same time both the prince and his prime 
 minister, sacrificing all personal advantages, were among the 
 most zealous promoters of the “ Society of Friends,” the secret 
 society which prepared the Greek war of independence. Al¬ 
 exander Rangabe, the father of Mr. Kleon R. Rangabe, was the 
 only son of James. According to the desire of King Louis I 
 of Bavaria, father of King Otho of Greece, Mr. Rangab6 stud¬ 
 ied in the military school of Munich, and returned to Athens 
 an officer. But he soon resigned from the army, and became 
 the first Professor of Archaeology in the newly established Uni¬ 
 versity of Athens, which position he held for many years. In 
 1856 he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, and re¬ 
 tained that position until the year i860, negotiating and sign¬ 
 ing during that time all the principal treaties between Greece 
 and the other European kingdoms. Mr. Alexander Rangabe 
 was appointed in 1867 the first Greek Minister to the United 
 States. He remained in Washington more than a year, and 
 the numerous resolutions of sympathy for Greece and the 
 Kretans voted by Congress at that time were the results of 
 his energy. He was subsequently transferred to Paris, Con¬ 
 stantinople, and Berlin, where he still resides as Greek envoy. 
 Mr. Alexander Rangab6 is a versatile writer, and the most 
 renowned author that modem Greece has produced. His 
 complete literary works have been published in twelve vol¬ 
 umes, containing many tragedies and comedies, novels, epic 
 and lyric poems, etc. Most of these works have been trans¬ 
 lated into the principal European languages, and several of 
 his plays have been represented with great success in Ger¬ 
 many. Among his works we find “ Les Antiquit^s Helle- 
 niques,” being a description of all the inscriptions and other 
 
300 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 antiquities found in Greece since the creation of the kingdom ; 
 “ A History of Greek Art,” with numerous engravings ; “ A 
 Political History of the Greek States ” ; “A History of Mod¬ 
 ern Greek Literature ”; a treatise on the pronunciation of 
 modern Greek, etc. He is a member of the French Academy, 
 as well as of forty-three other academies and institutions, and 
 has been awarded the principal decorations of the kingdoms 
 of Europe. His wife was a daughter of Sir James Skene, a 
 Scotch nobleman and intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott, who 
 dedicated to him the fourth canto of his " Marmion.” Twelve 
 children in all_^were bom to Alexander Rangab6—eight sons 
 and four daughters—of whom three of each are still living. 
 
 Kleon R. Rangabe, perhaps the most distingpiished scion of 
 that noble family, was born the 22d of October, 1842, being 
 the eldest of the sons of Alexander Rangab^. He studied in 
 Greece until i860, and then in Germany and in Paris. On 
 his return to Athens in 1864 he was attached for two years 
 to the Foreign Office, and then was named first secretary to 
 his father in his capacity of Minister to the United States. 
 When his father left Washington in 1868, Kleon R. Rangab6 
 remained as acting minister until 1872. Having heard that 
 many Greeks were residing in California, he availed himself 
 of the new Pacific road, and visited that magnificent State. 
 In San Francisco he discovered over three hundred of his fel¬ 
 low-countrymen, and established a consulate, which is still 
 flourishing. On this occasion he was honored with a sere¬ 
 nade, and the Greek language was for the first time officially 
 heard on the Pacific coast in the speech which he pronounced 
 from the balcony of the Continental Hotel. In the year 1871 
 Mr. Kleon R. Rangab6 was married to the daughter of Baron 
 Gerolt, for many years German Minister to the United States. 
 His marriage was the first Greek Orthodox ceremony ever cele¬ 
 brated in America. In 1872 he was transferred to St. Peters¬ 
 burg as first secretary of legation, and then to the Austrian 
 court, where he remained two years. In 1874 he was named 
 
NOTE. 
 
 301 
 
 consul-general to Bucharest, where he remained six years, and 
 signed the first commercial treaty with Roumania. He was 
 appointed in 1880 diplomatic agent in Egypt, where he re¬ 
 mained till after the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, taking an active 
 part in the contests of the last two years. On the day of the 
 massacres in Alexandria he hastened to the spot in an open 
 carriage. After vainly trying to save two English gentlemen, 
 Messrs. Dobson and Richardson, who were murdered on his 
 knees, he was himself attacked. His driver and horses were 
 killed, and he himself narrowly escaped death. Greece being 
 the nearest country to the scene of the massacres, Kleon R. 
 Rangab6 asked his government to send him all available 
 steamers, men-of-war and commercial. Eight steamers kept 
 constantly plying to and fro until the moment of the bom¬ 
 bardment, and through the efforts of Kleon R. Rangab6 alone 
 twenty-five thousand Greeks and other Europeans were saved. 
 These were transported to different parts of Greece, and pro¬ 
 vided for gratis during the whole summer, until they could 
 return to Egypt. Kleon R. Rangab6 witnessed the bombard¬ 
 ment on board the Greek frigate Hellas, and, the American 
 admiral having re-entered the port immediately after the great 
 event, he followed with the Hellas and the ironclad King 
 George. England, as is well known, after bombarding the 
 city, abandoned it to its fate. The American admiral and 
 Kleon R. Rangab^ disembarked one hundred and twenty men 
 as w’ell as two pumps each, and for a whole week they did all 
 that human power could to extinguish the fire and save life and 
 property. After the capture of Arabi Pasha, Kleon R. Ran- 
 gab6 was transferred as diplomatic agent to Bulgaria, where 
 he is still residing. Among his literary works we notice “ The 
 Labors of Hercules, or Mythology for the Young” ; “ Senti¬ 
 mental Travels in Germany ” ; “ Julian the Apostate,” a philo¬ 
 sophical drama in verse ; “ Theodora,” an historical drama in 
 verse ; “ Domestic Life in Homer's Age ” ; ” Heraclius,” an 
 historical drama in verse; “ Fire under the Cinders,” a com- 
 14 
 
302 
 
 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
 
 edy in prose; “Sorrows,” a collection of lyric poems, etc. 
 The works of Mr. Kleon R. Rangab6 bear the stamp of 
 originality and of genius. His style is vigorous and majestic, 
 not unlike that of the poet Bryant. 
 
 THE END. 
 
WORKS ON ANCIENT HISTORY 
 
 A HISTORY OF GREECE. From the Earliest Times to the Pres¬ 
 ent. By T. T. Timatenis. With Maps and Illustrations. 2 toIs. 12mo. 
 Cloth, $2.50. 
 
 “While I cheerfully acknowledge my obligations to Gibbon and Grote—the 
 most eminent of modem historians—acarelu! study of the Greek writers has led 
 rne to differ from them on many important matters. Tlie peculiar feature of the 
 
 f tresent work, therefore, is that it is founded on Hellenic sources. 1 have not 
 lesitaleil to follow the Father of History in portraying the heroism and the sac- 
 riflces of the Hellenes in their first war for independence, nor, in delineating the 
 character of that epoch, to form my judgment largely from the records he has left 
 Vii."—Extract from l^eface. 
 
 A GENERAL HISTORY OF GREECE, from the Earliest Period to 
 the Death of Alexander the Great. With a Sketch of the Subsequent History 
 to the Present Time. By G. W. Cox. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. 
 
 “ One of the best of the smaller histories of Greece. Perhaps th^most strik¬ 
 ing peculiarity of the work is the importance the author attaches £o mythology 
 as a key to the characteristics of early civilization. In these theories ho follows 
 Curtius and rejects Grote.”— Dr. (J. K. Adams's Manual of Historical Literature. 
 
 HISTORY OF HERODOTUS. An English Version, edited, with 
 Copious Notes and Appendices, by George Rawlixson, M. A. With Maps 
 and Illustrations. In four volumes, 8vo. Vellum cloth, $8.00; half calf, 
 $16.00. 
 
 “ This must be considered as by far the most valuable version of the works of 
 ‘The Father of History.’ The history of Herodotus was probably not written 
 until near the end of his life ; it is certain that he had been collecting materials 
 for it during many years. Thei-e was scarcely a city of importance in Greece, 
 Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Arabia, or Egypt, that he had not visited and studied ; 
 and almost every page of his work contains results of his personal inquiries and 
 observations. Many tilings, laughed at for centuries as impossible, are now found 
 to haye been described in strict accordance with truth.” 
 
 WILLARD'S GENERAL HISTORY, from b. c. 800 to a. d. 1876. 
 Outlined in Diagrams and Tables; with Index and Genealogies. For Gen¬ 
 eral Reference, and for Schools and Colleges. 8vo. Cloth, $2.00. 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. By Dr. Thomas Arnold. Large 8vo. Cloth, 
 $3.00. 
 
 Dr. Arnold’s colossal reputation is founded on this great work. Without go¬ 
 ing all lengths with Niebuhr, he rejects the fabulous portion of Roman history; 
 and, while giving the old legends in their original form, he points out their fal¬ 
 lacy, and subjects every part of his work to a rigid criticism, based on extensive 
 learning and sound judgment. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ROMANS UNDER THE EMPIRE. By 
 CHARI.E3 Mkrivale, B. D., Rcctor of Lawford; Chaplain to the House of 
 Commons. Beautifully printed. 7 vols. Small 8vo. Cloth, $14.C0. 
 
 The Same. New edition. 7 vols. in four. 12mo. Cloth, $7.00. 
 
 “ A work that has justly taken high rank in the historical literature of modem 
 England. Some of his chapters must long be regarded as admirable specimens 
 of elegant literary workmanship. The author be/^ns his history with the gradual 
 transfer of the old Republic to the imperialism of the Caesars, and ends it with 
 the ago of the Antonines. It therefore exactly fills the gap between Momin8s«o 
 and Gibbon.” 
 
 p t 
 
Works on Ancient History. — {Continued.) 
 
 MONTESQUIEU'S CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CAUSES 
 OF THE GRANDEUR AND DECADENCE OF THE ROMANS. A 
 New Translation, together with an Introduction, Critical and Illustrative 
 Notes, and an Analytical Index. By Jehtt Baker. Being incidentally a 
 Rational Discussion of the Phenomena and the Tendencies of History in gen¬ 
 eral. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00. 
 
 “ Mr. Jehu Baker has rendered a great service to English-speaking people by 
 producing anew and admirable translation of Montesquieu’s ‘ Considerations on 
 the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans.’ But Mr. Baker has by no means 
 confined himself to the simple work of translation. Many foot-notes have been 
 added throughout the volume, and each chapter is followed by an extended and 
 elaborate note. In this work Mr. Baker has in general been most judicious. 
 The additions are thoroughly in harmony with the spirit and the treatment of 
 the original. The central thought which the book seeks to enforce is that of a 
 progressive movement pervading the history of the world. Admirably as this 
 was shown by Montesquieu himself, the last hundred and fifty years have afibrded 
 many striking illustrations of its truth, and of these Mr. Baker has made good 
 use. A very few instances of inexactness of statement in his author are also ex¬ 
 plained or corrected in the notes, and a careful analytical index greatly increases 
 the value of the work for purposes of reference.”— Boston Courier. 
 
 DIGEST OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HI8T0R Y. By Teomas 
 Dew. 8vo. Cloth, $2.20. 
 
 “ So nearly what its title indicates that any considerable description is un¬ 
 necessary. In method, however, it is somewhat unusual. Each paragraph 
 begins with a question, which it is the purpose of the paragraph to answer.”— 
 Dr. C. K. Adams's Manual of Historical Literature. 
 
 MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. By W. 
 C. Tatlor, LL. D., M. R. a. S. Revised by C. S. Henrt, D. D. 8vo. Cloth, 
 $3.50; or, in separate volumes, $2.00 each. 
 
 Ancient Histort. —Containing the Political History, Geographical Position, 
 and Social State of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, carefully digested 
 from the Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the Discoveries of Modem 
 Scholars and Travelers. 
 
 Modern Histort.— Containin^the Rise and Progress of the Principal Euro¬ 
 pean Nations, their Political History, and the Changes in their Social Condi¬ 
 tion ; with a History of the Colonies founded by Europeans. 
 
 Dryness is generally characteristic of condensed historical outlines; in the 
 present case it is avoided by the vigorous style of the author, and the introduc¬ 
 tion of interesting anecdotes and episodes that serve to relieve the mind, and 
 bring out in clear light the peculiarities of individual or national character. 
 
 Tlie American edition has been revised throughout by Dr. Henry, and enlarged 
 by the introduction of an admirable chapter on American history. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, from the Earliest Records to the Fall 
 of the Western Empire. By Philip Smith, B. A. New edition. 3vols., 
 8vo. Vellum cloth, gilt top, $6.00. 
 
 ” These volumes embody the results of many years of arduous and conscien¬ 
 tious study. The work is fully entitled to be called the ablest and most satis¬ 
 factory book on the subject written in our language. The author’s methods are 
 dignified and judicious, and he has availed himself of all the recent light thrown 
 by philological research on the annals of the East.”— Dr. C. K. Adams's Manual 
 (f Historical Literature. _ 
 
 New York : B. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 6 Bond Street. 
 
COMPLETE IN SIX VOLUMES, OCTAVO. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT. 
 
 By GEORGE BANCROFT. 
 
 An entirely new edition, partly rewritten and thoroughly revised. 
 
 TTie author ha^ made expensive changes in the texi, condensing in places^ 
 enlarging in others., and carefully revising. It is practically a new work, 
 embodying the results of the latest researches and enjoying the advantage of 
 the authorh long and mature experience. 
 
 The original octavo edition was in twelve volumes. The present edition 
 is complete in six volumes, octavo, the price being correspondingly reduced. 
 
 With Portrait of the Author. 
 
 Handsomely printed from new type. Cloth, uncut, with, gilt 
 top, S2.50; sheep, S3.50; and half calf, S4.50 per volume. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM REVIEWS. 
 
 “ The merits of Bancroft’s ‘ History of the United States ’ are so well 
 known that little need be said of the new edition, the first volume of which, 
 reaching to 1688, has just been published in very handsome form, except to 
 point out the changes since the revision of 1876. One of the most prominent 
 is the introduction of a division into three parts, beginning respectively at 
 1492, 1660, and 1688. There has been less change in the accovmts of Ameri¬ 
 can than of European matters, but the most important addition, anywhere, 
 is that of two pages describing and praising Captain Smith’s government of 
 Virginia. Often, when there appears to be an addition or omission, there 
 is in reality only a transposition. The whole class of changes may bo at¬ 
 tributed to greater maturity of judgment, rather than to discovery of new 
 material. Other changes aim simply at improvement of style. The vol¬ 
 umes are printed in the stately octavo style of the first edition, which seems 
 more appropriate to such a standard work than the cheaper form of the other 
 revision.”— Boston Advertiser. 
 
 “ Apparently no new material of particular moment has been inserted, 
 although several sketches of famous characters have been rewritten either 
 entirely or in part. The work as a whole is in better shape, and is of course 
 
HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES.— 
 
 more authoritative than ever before. • This last revision will he without 
 doubt, both from its desirable form and accurate text, the standard one.”— 
 Boston Traveller. 
 
 “ Our examination of the fii-st volume leads us to believe that the thought 
 of the historian loses nothing by the abbreviation of the text. A closer and 
 later approximation to the best results of scholarship and criticism is reached. 
 The public gains by its more compact brevity and in amount of matter, and 
 in economy of time and money.”— The Independent (New York). 
 
 “ There is nothing to be said at this day of the value of ‘ Bancroft.’ Its 
 authority is no longer in dispute, and as a piece of vivid and realistic his¬ 
 torical writing it stands among the best works of its class. It may be taken 
 for granted that this new edition will greatly extend its usefulness.”— Phila¬ 
 delphia North American. 
 
 “ While it is not quite true that the marks of Mr. Bancroft’s revision of 
 his great history of the United States are visible on every page, a careful 
 comparison of the earlier editions and this shows that the claim to improve¬ 
 ment is by no means ill-founded. Sometimes whole paragraphs have been 
 cut out; still oftener the extravagances of a youthful style have been care¬ 
 fully pruned, and the gain has been manifest in sobriety and effect.”— 
 Philadelphia Press. 
 
 “ The work is much improved in its new dress and revised form, and 
 will be welcomed by all, for Bancroft’s history of our country is still 
 princeps among histories of our land.”— Chicago Tribune. 
 
 “ Thus far he has removed many of the objections which stood against 
 his history as a work of permanent value; and there is a certain solid, thor¬ 
 ough, substantial character to his great history which gives it a permanent 
 weight in the world of letters. The work now takes rank with the best 
 histories of the school of philosophical narrative to which the author be¬ 
 longs.”— Boston Herald. 
 
 “ The edition of 1876 exhibited no little pruning and correction; but the 
 author has again gone over the entire field, and, with a care and devotion 
 worthy of the theme and of his reputation, has wrought what he says must 
 be his last revision. This latest edition will be sought by many who have 
 for years been familiar with its predecessors.”— Utica (N. Y.) Herald. 
 
 For sale by aU booksellers; or sent by mail^ post-paid, on receipt of price. 
 
 New York; D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. 
 
HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF THE 
 UNITED STATES, 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 By JOHN BACH McMASTES. 
 
 To be completed in five volumes. Tolume I now ready. Svo, clothe 
 
 gilt top, $S.50. 
 
 Scope op the Work. 
 
 In the course of this narrative much is written of wars^ conspiracies., 
 and rebellions ; of Presidents^ of Congresses^ of embassies^ of treaties^ of 
 the ambition of political leaders^ and of the rise of great parties in the 
 nation. Yet the history of the people is the chief theme. At every stage of 
 the splendid progress which separates the Ameinca of Washington and 
 Adams from the America in which we live., it has been the author's purpose 
 to describe the dress, the occupations, the amusements, the literary canons of 
 the times ; to note the changes of manners and morals ; to trace the growth 
 of that humane spirit which abolished punishment for debt, and reformed 
 the discipline of prisons and of jails ; to recount the manifold improve¬ 
 ments which, in a thousand ways, have multiplied the conveniences of life 
 and ministered to the happiness of our race ; to descinbe the rise and prog¬ 
 ress of that long series of mechanical inventions and discoveines which is 
 now the admiration of the world, and our just pride and boast ; to tell how, 
 under the benign influence of liberty and peace, there sprang up, in the 
 course of a single century, a prosperity unparalleled in the annals of human 
 affairs. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM REVIEWS. 
 
 “ What the late Professor J. R. Green did for his countrymen by writing his 
 ‘ History of the English People,’ Mr. John Bach McMaster has essayed to do for 
 ns in a ‘ History of the People of the United States, from the Revolution to the 
 Civil War.’ The plan of the two works is essentially the same, but the American 
 narrative is even more faithful to the principles upon which both authors profess 
 to write. We hear less in it about wars, treaties, and politics, and more about 
 the manners, customs, ideas, and sentiments of the great mass of the people, 
 than in the English book. The pledge given by Mr. McMaster, that ‘ the history 
 of the people shall be the chief theme,’ is punctiliously and satisfactorily fuelled. 
 He carries out his promise in a complete, vivid, and delightful way. We should 
 add that the literary execution of the work is worthy of the indefatigable indus¬ 
 try and unceasing vigilanco with which the stores of historical material have 
 
History op the People op the United States.— {Continued.) 
 
 been accumulated, weighed, and sifted. The cardinal qualities of style, lucidity, 
 animation and energy, are everywhere present. Seldom, indeed, has a book, in 
 which matter of substantial value has been so happily united to attractiveness ol 
 form, been offered by an American author to his fellow-citizens.”—Aert? York Sun. 
 
 ‘‘To recount the marvelous progress of the American people; to describe 
 their life, their literature, their occupations, their amusements, is Mr. McMaster’s 
 object. His theme is an important one, and we congratulate him on his success. 
 His style is interesting and lively, and he gives such a graphic picture of our 
 forefathers that it is a pleasure to follow him. Page after page of easily-flowing 
 narrative fix the attention, and one wonders where the author found his material 
 for so elaborate and yet so entertaining a book. It has rarely been our province 
 to notice a book with so many excellences and so few defects.”— New York 
 Uerald. 
 
 “ Mr. McMaster at once shows his grasp of the various themes and his special 
 capacity as an historian of the people. His aim is high, but he hits the mark. His 
 treatment of the great subject is very able, and the sincere intentions of the au¬ 
 thor appear on every page. There will be no question that he has rescued from 
 oblivion a vast mass of those interesting data which, small in themselves, are of 
 the greatest value in reflecting the actual condition of a people at a given time.” 
 —New York Journal of Commerce. 
 
 ‘‘ It ranks with the ‘ Short History’ of Mr. Green in its brilliancy of style and 
 in its power of attracting and holding the attention of the reader. The remain¬ 
 ing volumes will be awaited with eager w.i&xQ&V—Cleveland Herald. 
 
 ‘‘I have had to read a good deal of history in my day, but I And so much 
 freshness in the way Professor McMaster has treated his subject that it is quite 
 like a new "—Philadelphia Press. 
 
 ‘‘Mr. McMaster’s success as a writer seems to us distinct and decisive. In 
 the first place he has written a remarkably readable history. His style is clear 
 and vigorous, if not always condensed. He has the faculty of felicitous compari¬ 
 son and contrast in a marked degree. Whatever may be said in criticism of it, 
 no one will impute to it dullness in any part. He has the power of enchaining 
 the attention. Few who begin this book will fail to read it to the end, and the 
 great mass of readers it will hold as by a spell. Mr. McMaster has produced one 
 of the most spirited of histories, a book which will be widely read, and the enter¬ 
 taining quality of which is conspicuous beyond that of any work of its kind. It 
 deserves a cordial recognition at the hands of those who are interested in the 
 development of American literature, and it will command its own passport with 
 the people.”— Boston Gazette. 
 
 ‘‘ In compact, crisp, concentrated statement, we have the events of the first 
 century of our national existence vividly portrayed. The procession of events is 
 marshaled with care, and it moves along smoothly, and even brilliantly, in the 
 easy flow and apt statement of the well-fortified vixWox."—Boston Commonwealth. 
 
 For sale by all booksellers; or sent by mail^ post-paid., on receipt qf price. 
 
 Kew York: D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. 
 
D. APPLETON & CO.’S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 A GEOGRAPHICAL READER. A Collection of Geographical 
 Descriptions and Narrations, fioiu the best Writers in English Lit¬ 
 erature. Classified and arranged to meet the wants of Geographical 
 Students, and the higher grades of reading classes. By James 
 J onoNNOT, author of “ Principles and Practice of Teaching.” 12mo, 
 cloth, $1.26. 
 
 “ Mr. Johonnot has made a good hook, which, if judiciously used, will stop 
 the immeuse waste of time now spent in most schools in the study of geography 
 to little purpose. The volume has a good number of appropriate illustrations, 
 and is printed and bound in almost faultless style and taste .”—NationaiJournaZ 
 qf EducatUnfi. 
 
 It is original and unique in conception and execution. It is varied in style, 
 and treats of every variety of geographical topic. It supplements the geograph¬ 
 ical text-books, and, by giving additional interest to the study, it leads the pupil 
 to more extensive geographical reading and research. It is not simply a collec¬ 
 tion of dry statistics and outline descriptions, but vivid narrations of great liter¬ 
 ary merit, that convey useful information and promote general culture. It con¬ 
 forms to the philosophic ideas upon which the new education is based. Its 
 selections are from the best standard authorities. It is embellished with numer¬ 
 ous and appropriate illustrations. 
 
 A NATURAL HISTORY READER, for Schools and Homes. 
 Beautifully illustrated. Compiled and edited by James Johonnot. 
 12mo, cloth, $1.25. 
 
 “ The natural turn that children have for the country, and for birds and beasts, 
 wild and tame, is taken advantage of very wisely by Mr. Johonnot, who has had 
 experience in teaching and in making school-books. His selections are generally 
 excellent. Articles by renowned naturalists, and interesting papers by men 
 who, if not renowned, can put things pointedly, alternate with serious and 
 humorous verse. ‘ The Popular Science Monthly ’ has furnished much material. 
 The ‘Atlantic’ and the works of John Burroughs are contributors also. There 
 are illustrations, and the compiler has some sensible advice to offer teachers in 
 regard to the way in which to interest young people in matters relating to na¬ 
 ture.”—Aeta York Times. 
 
 AN HISTORICAL READER, for Classes in Academies, nigh- 
 Schools, and Grammar-Schools. By Henry E. Suepherd, M. A. 
 12mo, cloth, $1.25. 
 
 “ This book is one of the most important text-books issued within our recol¬ 
 lection. The preface Is a powerful attack upon the common method of teaching 
 history by means of compJendiums and abridgments. Professor Shepherd has 
 * long advocated the beginning of history-teaching by the use of graphic and lively 
 sketches of those illustrious characters around whom the historic interest of each 
 age is concentrated.’ This volume is an attempt to embody this idea in a form 
 for practical use. Irving, Motley, Macaulay, Prescott, Greene, Froude, Momm¬ 
 sen, Guizot, and Gibbon are among the authors represented; and the subjects 
 treated cover nearly all the greatest events and greatest characters of time. The 
 book is one of indescribable interest. The boy or girl who is not fascinated by 
 it must be dull indeed. Blessed be the day when it shall be introduced into our 
 high-schools, in the place of the dry and wearisome ‘ facts and figures ’ of the 
 ‘ general history ’ 1 '"—Iowa Normal Monthly. 
 
 New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. 
 
D. APPLETON £ CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF ENGLISH. By the late William 
 B. Hodgson, LL. D., Professor of Political Economy in the University 
 of Edinburgh. Amei'ican revised edition. 12mo, cloth, $1.50. 
 
 “ This posthumous work of Dr. Hodgson desei-ves a hearty welcome, for it is 
 sure to do good service for the object it has in view—improved accuracy in the 
 use of the English language. . . . Perhaps its chief use will be in very distinctly 
 proving with what wonderful carelessness or incompetency the English language 
 IS generally written. For the examples of error here brought together are not 
 picked from obscure or inferior writings. Among the grammatical sinners whose 
 trespasses are here recorded appear many of our best-known authors and publi¬ 
 cations.”—T/ k? Academy. 
 
 THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR OF WILLIAM COBBETT. 
 
 Carefully revised and annotated by Alfred Ayres. With Index. 
 
 18mo, cloth, extra, $1.00. 
 
 “ I know it well, and have read it with great admiration.”— Richard Grant 
 White. 
 
 “Cobbett’s Grammar is probably the most readable grammar ever written. 
 For the purposes of self-education it is unrivaled. Persons that studied grammar 
 when at school and failed to comprehend its principles—and there are many such 
 —as well as those that never have studied grammar at all, will find the book 
 specially suited to their needs. Any one of average intelligence that will give it 
 a careful reading will be rewarded with at least a tolerable knowledge of the 
 subject, as nothing could be more simple or more lucid than its expositions.”— 
 From the Preface. 
 
 THE ORTHOEPIST : A Pronouncing Manual, containing about 
 Three Thousand Five Hundred Words, including a Considerable 
 Number of the Names of Foreign Authors, Artists, etc., that are 
 often mispronounced. By Alfred Ayres. 18mo, cloth, extra, $1.00. 
 
 “ It gives us pleasure to say that we think the author, in the treatrent of this 
 very difficult and intricate subject, English pronunciation, gives proof of not only 
 an unusual degree of orthoepical knowledge, but also, for the most part, of rare 
 judgment and taste.”— Joseph Thomas, LL. D., in Literary World. 
 
 THE VERBALIST : A Manual devoted to Brief Discussions of the 
 Right and the Wrong Use of Words, and to some other matters of 
 Interest to those who would Speak and Write with Propriety, includ¬ 
 ing a Treatise on Punctuation. By Alfred Ayres. 18mo, cloth, 
 extra, $1.00. 
 
 ” This is the best kind of an English grammar. It teaches the right use of 
 our mother-tongue by giving instances of the wrong use of it, and showing why 
 they are wrong.’’— Churchman. 
 
 “ Every one can learn something from this volume, and most of ns a great 
 ^cs.\.*‘—Sprincifield Jlepublican. 
 
 New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. 
 
D. APPLETON & CO.’S PUBLICATIONS 
 
 The Household Book of Poetry. Edited by Charles 
 
 A. Dana. Entirely new edition, from new type, with nearly two 
 hundred additional poems. Steel Engravings. Square 8vo. Cloth, 
 gilt, $5.00. 
 
 “When the first edition of ‘The Household Book of Poetry’ was published by 
 Mr. Dana in 1857, no other collection could so much as aspire to rival it. Since then 
 we have had Bryant's collection and Emerson's collection, both by poets of fame, and 
 both presumably eclipsing the effort of a writer who is not, so far as the world knows, 
 a poet. Nevertheless Mr. Dana’s collection remains the best of the three. The book 
 deservedly keeps the lead in popular favor which it took at the start .’’—Yoik 
 Times. 
 
 “Every intelligent reader and student of poetry has of course his own favorites, 
 but we are safe in saying that no popular anthology is so well calculated as this to 
 gratify and instruct the general public, or to provide for the genuine lover of verse so 
 much that is good and worthy of preservation .’’—Boston Traveller. 
 
 “Mr. Dana has added nearly two hundred poems to his well-arranged collection, 
 including many short r>oera8 by authors who have not published volumes. The col¬ 
 lection now includes eleven hundred and seventy-five selections from three hundred 
 and seventy-seven authors, eighty-five of whom are Americana, and fifty-two women. 
 This edition gives a list of authors, a list of the poems, and an index of first lines, and 
 is printed with new type.”—Aeif Ycnk World. 
 
 Fifty Perfect Poems. A Collection of Fifty Acknowl¬ 
 edged Masterpieces, by English and American Poets, selected and 
 edited by Charles A. Dana and Rossiter Johnson. With Seventy 
 Original Illustrations from Drawings by Alfred Fredericks, Frank 
 Millet, Will Low, T. W. Dewing, W. T. Smedley, F. 0. C. Darley, 
 Swain Gifford, Harry Fenn, Appleton Brown, William Sartain, Arthur 
 Quartley, J. D. Woodward, Walter Satterlee, S. G. McCutcheon, and 
 J. E. Kelley. The illustrations are printed on Japanese silk paper, 
 and mounted on the page. The volume is bound in silk. Large 8vo. 
 $ 10 . 00 . 
 
 “The title of this volume may perhaps appear a little audacious to those who recall 
 Pope’s familiar dictum as to the impossibility of a faultless piece. In the absolute 
 sense of the term, there is, of course, no perfect poem, because there is no perfect 
 thing of any kind. But, as every art has its limitations, in whatsoever work the im¬ 
 perfections are caused by these limitations alone, the artist may fairly be said to have 
 succeeded to perfection. On this principle the poems here collected have been chosen.” 
 —From Preface. 
 
 The Bryant Birthday-Book. With Portrait of Bry¬ 
 ant and Twelve Engravings illustrative of the Months. Printed with 
 red lines. 18mo. Cloth, red edges, $1.26. 
 
 “ The Bryant Birthday-Book ” is a little larger than the Longfellow, Whittier, and 
 other birthday-books, and a handsomer volume. It is print'd with red lines, and con¬ 
 tains a portrait of Bryant and twelve illustrations appropriate for the months. The 
 binding is elegant and unique. 
 
 New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, &; 6 Bond Street. 
 
THE LIFE AND WORKS OF 
 
 William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 Edited by PARKE GODWIN. 
 
 I. 
 
 A BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT, with Extracts from 
 his Priyato Correspondence. By Paeke Godwin. With Two Portraits on 
 Steel: one from a Painting by Morse, taken in 1825, and one from a Photograph 
 taken in 1873. In two vols., square 8vo. Cloth, $6.00. 
 
 Containing a full account, from authentic soprces, of the poet’s ancestry; of his boy¬ 
 hood among the Hampshire hills; of his early poems; of his ten years’ life as a country 
 lawyer; of his long editorial career in New York; of his intercourse with contempora¬ 
 ries ; of his travels abroad and at home; of the origin of many of hiS poems; of his 
 political opinions; of his speeches and addresses; and of the honors he received. 
 
 “ Perhaps the most entertaining and delightful memoir of the present generation, 
 combining, as it does, the charm of the poet and the force of a publicist; the freshness 
 and beauty of the country, with the wealth and refinement of the city; every variety 
 of intellectual life; social and public questions; brilliant conversation and rich corre¬ 
 spondence; travel in foreign lands; scenes in the eye of a poet and philosopher—all 
 these and a host of other subjects, admirably selected, arranged, and touched, make up 
 two charming volumes, w'hich we have read with ^eat interest.”— New York Ob¬ 
 server. 
 
 “Mr. Parke Godwin has done his work of love with remarkable completeness. 
 The biography is more than its name implies. Mr. Bryant’s life was so closely inter¬ 
 woven with the literature and politics of the country that Mr. Godwin’s work becomes, 
 in effect, a history of the development of thought in the United States for the last 
 sixty years. On this account Mr. Godwin’s latest labors are of extraordinary value, the 
 full measure of which can not now be estimated.”— New York Journal of Commerce. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE POETICAL WORKS OF WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. In 
 two vols., square 8vo, uniform with the “ Biography.” Cloth, gilt top, $6.C0; 
 half calf or half morocco, $12.00. 
 
 This edition of Mr. Bryant’s poems contains: 1. All Mr. Bryant’s poems that have 
 hitherto appeared, with his latest corrections. 2. Sixty or more never before collected, 
 including some thirty beautiful hymns, and a companion piece to “Sella” and “The 
 Little People of the Snow.” 8. Copious notes by Parke Godwin, giving various 
 changes in the more important poems, an account of their origin, and other interesting 
 information. 
 
 “No more fitting memorial of a poet could bo devised by ingenuity and affection 
 combined than an edition of his works in a form so beautiful as this. No finer speci¬ 
 mens of book-making have ever issued from the American press than these volumes. 
 The type is largo, the press-work simply perfect, the margins wide and uncut except 
 at the top, and the binding rich and tasteful. Many so-called editions de IVKe are 
 inferior to this in real excellence. The time has not yet come for a just estimate of 
 Bryant’s true place as a poet. But is it not something to have earned the distinction 
 of being the only American poet of a century who has written blank verso that will live 
 in literature alongside of that of Wordsworth and Milton?”— New Jork Examiner. 
 
 III. 
 
 PROSE WRITINGS OF WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. In two vols., 
 square 8vo, uniform with the “ Biography.” Cloth, gilt top, $6.00. 
 
 Literary Essays. 
 
 Narratives. 
 
 Commemorative Discourses. 
 
 CONTAINING : 
 
 Sketches of Travel. 
 
 Occasional Addresses. 
 
 Editorial Comments and Criticisms. 
 
 New York; D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 6 Bond Street. 
 
DOES NOT CIRCULATE 
 
 CHESTNUT HILL. MASS. 
 
 ... . i 
 
 Books may be kept for two weeks and /nay 
 
 
 be renewed for the same period, unless 
 served. 
 
 Two cents a di.y is charged for each book 
 kept overtime. \ 
 
 If you cannot find what you want, ask the 
 Librarian who wdll be glad to help you. 
 
 The borrower is responsible for books drawn 
 on his card and for all fines accruing on the 
 same. •