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Plate I. 
 
Plate I.— THE CECROPIA MOTH. 
 
 (See page 195.) 
 
% 
 
 ,HTOM AT' 
 
EDITION IN COLORS 
 
 INSECT LIFE 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION 
 TO NATURE-STUDY 
 
 AND A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS, 
 STUDENTS, AND OTHERS INTER- 
 ESTED IN OUT-OF-DOOR LIFE 
 
 By JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK /{ 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY IN COR- 
 NELL UNIVERSITY AND IN LELAND 
 STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY : : : 
 
 WITH FULL-PAGE PLATES FROM LIFE 
 REPRODUCING INSECTS IN NATURAL 
 COLORS, AND WITH MANY ORIGINAL 
 ILLUSTRATIONS ENGRAVED BY ANNA 
 BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, MEMBER OF 
 THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN WOOD 
 
 ENGRAVERS :::::::::::::: 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE LliJKAKr 
 CHESTNUT H^LL, MASS. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 1901 
 
6til56 
 
 Copyright, 1897, 1901, 
 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
 CIS 
 
 May, 1901. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction . i 
 
 PART I. 
 LESSONS IN INSECT LIFE. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. — The parts of an insect 
 
 9 
 
 II. — The beginning of a collection and a study of the 
 
 METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS 22 
 
 III. — The CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA- 
 TIVES 51 
 
 IV. — Pond life . . 87 
 
 V. — Brook life 144 
 
 VI. — Orchard life . . 166 
 
 VII. — Forest life 186 
 
 VIII. — Roadside life 221 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 I. — The collection of specimens 284 
 
 II. — The preservation of specimens ..... 294 
 
 III. — On labeling specimens and taking notes . . . 315 
 
 IV. — The breeding of insects 326 
 
 V. — Miscellaneous lists . 336 
 
LIST OF PLATES 
 
 TO FACE 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 I. — The Cecropia Moth .... Frontispiece 
 
 II.— The Tomato-worm Moth ...... 40 
 
 III.— Some Sphinx Moths 80 
 
 IV.— Beetles 85 
 
 v.— A Pond 87 
 
 VI.— A Brook I44 
 
 VII. — Dandelions and a Locust ...... 166 
 
 VIII.— Forest and Orchard Moths 174 
 
 IX.— A Forest Aisle 188 
 
 X. — Some Forest Moths 197 
 
 XI. — Under-wing Moths 204 
 
 XII. — Long-horned Beetles 215 
 
 XIII.— Roadside Butterflies . . . . . . .221 
 
 XIV. — Tiger-moths 239 
 
 XV.— Swallow-tail Butterflies . . • . , . .243 
 
 XVI.— Butterflies 246 
 
 XVII.— Butterflies .* 252 
 
 XVIII.— Caterpillars . . . . . . . ■ .328 
 
INSECT LIFE 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This book was written to meet the demand for 
 a work which will be an aid to teachers of Nature 
 study in the public schools, students in the higher 
 schools, and others interested in outdoor life. 
 
 Amons: all the classes of animals none is more 
 available for study than insects. Their abundance 
 make it easy to obtain specimens ; they may be 
 found wherever man can live, and at all seasons. 
 Not only are insects numerous as individuals, but 
 the number of species is far greater than that of all 
 other animals taken together. 
 
 The ease with which living insects can be kept in 
 confinement, and the smallness of the expense in- 
 volved in preserving specimens, add greatly to the 
 availability of insects as subjects for Nature study. 
 No enterprising teacher need hesitate to undertake 
 this study on account of lack of specimens or of 
 apparatus ; with a little encouragement the pupils 
 will furnish these, and the teacher need not trouble 
 the school board with requests for an appropriation. 
 
 Although at present most adults have been taught 
 to shun insects, most children are easily interested in 
 them. The wonderful transformations of insects, their 
 
2 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 beauty, and the high development of their instinctive 
 powers render them attractive subjects of study. 
 Any one can find out something new regarding in- 
 sect architecture — the ways in which these creatures 
 build nests for themselves or for their young ; it is 
 easy to observe remarkable feats of engineering, 
 examples of foresight, wonderful industry, unremit- 
 ting care of young, tragedies, and even war and 
 slavery. 
 
 Insects are no longer thought to be unworthy of 
 serious consideration. We have learned that all life 
 is linked together in such a way that no part of the 
 chain is unimportant. Frequently upon the action 
 of some of these minute beings depends the material 
 success or failure of a large section of our country. 
 
 But insects are of interest to us for other reasons 
 than the influence they may have upon our material 
 welfare ; the study of them is a fruitful field for in- 
 tellectual growth. It is not a small matter to be able 
 to view intelligently the facts presented by the insect 
 world, to know something of what is going on around 
 us; and so rich is this field that no one gains more 
 than a mere smattering concerning it. 
 
 We know as yet comparatively little about the 
 minute structure of insects ; the transformations and 
 habits of the greater number of species have not 
 been studied ; and the blood relationship of the 
 various groups of insects is very imperfectly under- 
 stood. If, therefore, one would learn something of 
 the action of the laws that govern the life and de- 
 velopment of organized beings, and at the same time 
 experience the pleasure derived from original inves- 
 tigation, he can not find a better field than is offered 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 by the study of insects. But it is not necessary that 
 one should have the tastes and leisure required for 
 careful scientific investigation in order to profit by 
 this study. It can be made a recreation, a source of 
 entertainment when we are tired, and a pleasant 
 occupation for our thoughts when we walk. 
 
 The desire to know more of the creatures about 
 us is growing rapidly ; Nature study is being intro- 
 duced generally in schools of all grades, and every- 
 where lovers of out-of-door life are learning to ex- 
 perience the pleasure of a more intimate acquaintance 
 with their surroundings. It is hoped that this will be 
 made easier by this book. Its chief object is to serve 
 as a guide for those who wish to acquire a knowledge 
 of insects from a study of the insects themselves ; it 
 is intended to lie open before the observer while the 
 subject of study is examined. 
 
 The needs of the beginner in the study of insects, 
 be he old or young, have been kept constantly in 
 mind. The teacher of children who is preparing a 
 lesson, the youth who is studying by himself, and 
 the adult who adds to the pleasure of his outing by 
 learning something new to him — all need to approach 
 Nature by the same path. For this reason an elemen- 
 tary, didactic form of treatm.ent has been adopted, 
 although the book is intended for adults as well as 
 for younger pupils. 
 
 It is not expected that the teacher will take a 
 class through the book from beginning to end ; for 
 Nature study to be most successful must be varied : 
 each locality and each season will afford different 
 subjects for study. 
 
 With young pupils it is best to begin with obser- 
 
4 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 vations on living insects. When practicable, excur- 
 sions into the fields should be made for this purpose. 
 Suggestions as to what insects are most likely to be 
 found in different localities are given in the chapters 
 on Pond Life, Brook Life, Orchard Life, Forest Life, 
 and Roadside Life. 
 
 But in most cases it will be necessary to make the 
 observations in the schoolroom. For this a breed- 
 ing cage or an aquarium will be needed. Directions 
 for making these are given in Chapter IV, pages 
 
 326-335- 
 
 At first an aquarium will be found more useful 
 than a breeding cage, for the constant movement in 
 a well-stocked aquarium is sure to excite interest. 
 If the pupils are furnished with an insect net (see 
 page 285), they can keep the aquarium supplied with 
 living insects. In the chapters on Pond Life and on 
 Brook Life the more common aquatic insects are 
 described and directions are given for their study. 
 
 During the winter, cocoons of the giant silkworms 
 can be collected (see pages 188-197) and kept till the 
 adult moths emerge, affording good material for les- 
 sons on the transformations of insects. At the same 
 time, and in early spring, the eggs of the apple-tree 
 tent caterpillar can be found on apple trees and on 
 wild cherry, and later the growth and transforma- 
 tions of the insect observed (see pages 168-171). 
 
 At an early period in the course, a home-made 
 breeding cage (see page 327) should be provided ; 
 and during the summer months it will be easy to 
 keep it stocked with some of the insects described in 
 the chapters on Orchard Life, Forest Life, and Road- 
 side Life. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 While the pupils are becoming familiar with the 
 life of insects, they can be taught something of their 
 structure and of their classification ; but with young 
 pupils these subjects should be subordinated to the 
 study of the activities of insects. In the first eight 
 lessons (pages 9-21) the parts of an insect that can be 
 seen without dissection are described. A locust or 
 grasshopper is used as an example, and serves as a 
 type ; in later chapters considerable attention is given 
 to the more obvious modifications of structure corre- 
 lated with the peculiar habits of the insects described. 
 So much of structure as is desirable for the pupils 
 to learn can be taught incidentally while they are 
 observing the habits of the insects. 
 
 After the school has been supplied with an aqua- 
 rium and one or more breeding cages, provision 
 should be made for preserving a collection of insects. 
 Nothing will more surely maintain an interest in Na- 
 ture study than a growing collection of insects made 
 by the pupils themselves. Do not buy a collection ; 
 the specimens that a class can collect in a single sum- 
 mer day will be worth more as a stimulus to personal 
 observation than a purchased collection. In Chapter 
 II (pages 22-50) are given several lessons for begin- 
 ners on collecting and preserving specimens ; and 
 in Part II (pages 2^84-325) are suggestions for more 
 advanced work in this direction. 
 
 In a word, the Nature-study work should not be a 
 fixed, definite course ; the most available objects of 
 the locality and season should be selected for study, 
 and these observed from as many points of view as 
 possible. One day observe habits ; another, study 
 structure ; and later learn something of classification 
 
5 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 by putting the specimens in their proper place in a 
 collection. 
 
 The Nature study can be made an aid to work in 
 language and in drawing ; many suggestions for this 
 are given throughout the book. 
 
 With an aquarium, a breeding cage, and a few 
 boxes for preserving specimens, all of which can be 
 procured with little expense, both teacher and pupils 
 will find the Nature-study period the most enjoyable 
 part of the day. 
 
 Everything possible should be done to make this 
 study a recreation which the pupils will enjoy outside 
 of school hours. If each has a collection, this will be 
 an easy matter. Do not discourage the pupils by re- 
 quiring them to memorize abstract statements con- 
 cerning insects. Let their knowledge of the subject 
 be based on personal observations. The statements 
 in the book are merely to aid the pupils in their study 
 of the specimens ; personal observation should be the 
 real source of their information. The development 
 of the habit of ascertaining facts for themselves is 
 one of the greatest benefits the pupils will derive 
 from this study. 
 
 In preparing the lessons an effort has been made 
 to combine the verification method and the interro- 
 gation method of laboratory work in such a way as 
 to obtain the desirable results of both systems and 
 to give variety to the work. When the former 
 method is used, the teacher will be able in most cases 
 to determine if the pupil has correctly verified the 
 statements made in the text by examining the draw- 
 ings he is required to make or the account he is asked 
 to write. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 It is obvious that, in order properly to direct 
 work of this kind, the teacher should be thoroughly 
 acquainted with the subjects studied by the pupils. 
 The difficulties that have been in the way of the 
 teachers who have tried to obtain a systematic knowl- 
 edge of insects is doubtless the chief reason that in- 
 sect life has not been studied more in the public 
 schools. An appreciation of these difficulties led the 
 author and the illustrator of this book to prepare 
 first, for the use of teachers, a comprehensive text- 
 book, by means of which the teacher can easily pre- 
 pare himself to direct the study of his pupils. This 
 is entitled "A Manual for the Study of Insects."^ 
 
 In this study, perhaps more than in any other 
 taught in the secondary schools, the pleasure of con- 
 stantly learning something new can be shared by the 
 teacher with the pupils. The writer has had an un- 
 usually broad experience in teaching this subject, but 
 he has never yet taken a class into the field without 
 finding something new to him. 
 
 In this connection we wish to urge the importance 
 of perfect sincerity. The teacher should frankly say, 
 " I do not know," when asked a question that he can 
 not answer, and it will be well if he will add, " We 
 will try to find out." Teach the pupils early that 
 any one by intelligent endeavor can add to the sum 
 of knowledge. 
 
 While the chief end of this study is the training 
 of the powers of observation and the careful ascer- 
 taining of facts in a scientific manner, it seems to us to 
 be well to encourage somewhat an imaginative view 
 
 * Published by the Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
8 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 of the subject. For this purpose we have included 
 some poetical references to insects. We believe that 
 the reading of these by the pupils will both stimulate 
 their love of a poetical form of expression and bring 
 them in closer sympathy with the world of life 
 around us. 
 
PART I. 
 
 LESSONS IN INSECT LIFE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PARTS OF AN INSECT. 
 
 'OOK at an insect and you will find a creature 
 
 with parts which are very different from 
 
 those of the animals with which we are more 
 
 familiar. Although it can see, hear, eat, 
 
 and walk, its eyes, ears, mouth, and legs 
 
 are not like the corresponding organs of 
 
 the higher animals. 
 
 It is necessary, therefore, at the 
 beginning of our study of insect life, 
 to learn something of the structure of insects. We 
 will not attempt at first, however, to make a thor- 
 ough study of insect anatomy, but will merely select 
 one kind of insect,, and study the principal divisions 
 of the body as seen from the outside. 
 
 Having done this, we will be able to see in our 
 later studies in what ways the parts of other kinds of 
 insects have been modified in form to fit them for 
 their modes of life. Thus, for example, we will find 
 that an insect which catches its prey by running has 
 legs of a different shape than those of an insect that 
 
 9 
 
10 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 swims through the water ; and an insect that sucks 
 the blood from its victims has a different kind of 
 mouth than one that chews up the leaves of plants. 
 
 It is also important that w^e should know the 
 names of the principal parts of the body of an insect, 
 so that we may understand descriptions of insects, 
 and be able to write descriptions ourselves. 
 
 We have selected locusts, or grasshoppers as they 
 are more commonly called, for the subject of these 
 introductory lessonSo We have done this because 
 locusts are quite large, and are common in all parts 
 of our country ; and, too, the parts of the body in 
 these insects are comparatively simple. 
 
 In the course of these lessons the following things 
 will be needed : A supply of locusts,"^ blank paper 
 and pencils for making notes and drawings, one or 
 more cyanide bottles (see page 286) for killing the 
 specimens collected by the pupils, a lens, cardboard 
 and mucilage for mounting dissections, and scissors. 
 A compound microscope is very desirable, but not 
 absolutely necessary. 
 
 * It is best, when practicable, that the pupils should collect these for 
 themselves. But in the case of city schools, or when the work is begun 
 at a season of the year when these insects are not readily found, the 
 teacher should have on hand a supply of locusts preserved in alcohol. 
 These can be collected beforehand or obtained of some dealer in labora- 
 tory supplies. The best way to collect them is by sweeping (see page 291) 
 the grass in a dry meadow or pasture in late summer or early autumn. 
 In this way a pint or more of locusts can be collected in a short time. 
 These can be preserved in alcohol in an ordinary glass can, such as is 
 used for preserving fruit. There should be more than enough alcohol to 
 cover the insects, and after they have been in it for twenty-four hours it 
 should be poured off and fresh alcohol substituted. A list of dealers in 
 laboratory supplies is given at the close of this volume for the conven- 
 ience of those who wish to purchase specimens. 
 
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 
 
 II 
 
 Fig. I. — A locust. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 
 
 Collection of Specimens and a General View of the Body. 
 
 1. Collect several locusts or short-horned grass- 
 hoppers and bring them to the school. They can be 
 carried in a small box 
 or wide-mouthed bottle. 
 Fig. I represents one of 
 these insects. 
 
 2. If living locusts 
 are collected, kill them 
 by leaving them in a cyanide bottle for a half hour 
 or more. 
 
 Note. — If the pupils can not find living locusts at the time this 
 lesson is taken, preserved specimens will be furnished by the teacher. 
 
 3. Count the legs and the wings of the locusts, 
 and make a note of the number of each on a sheet of 
 paper headed Notes on the Parts of a Locust. 
 
 4. Study the body of the insect and observe that 
 it is composed of three portions: first, the head ; sec- 
 ond, a stout portion to which the 
 legs and wings are attached, the 
 
 Fig. 2. — Wasp, with head, tho- 
 rax, and abdomen separated. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Side view of locust with wings 
 removed. 
 
 thorax ; and, third, the hinder part of the body or 
 abdomen iab-do' men). 
 
 In a locust the division between the thorax and 
 2 
 
12 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 the abdomen is not well marked. Fig. 2 represents 
 a wasp with the three regions of the body separated, 
 and in Fig. 3 a locust is represented with its wings re- 
 moved so as to show the extent of each of these regions. 
 5. Make a copy on your sheet of notes of the 
 figure of a side view of a locust. 
 
 LliSSON II. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED). 
 
 The Head, except the Mouth-parts. 
 
 The head is the first of the three regions of the 
 body. It contains the brain of the insect and other 
 important organs ; but in these lessons we will study 
 only the outside parts of it. The head bears the 
 antennse, the eyes, and the mouth-parts. 
 
 1. The antenncE {cm-ten' nee) are the two long, slen- 
 der organs attached to the head in front of the large 
 eyes. Make a drawing of one of them. The singu- 
 lar form of the word antennse is antenna (an-ten'na). 
 
 2. Study the large eyes which are situated one on 
 each side of the head. Examine them with a lens, 
 
 .A^ .^>^ jbt^ also with a microscope if you have 
 the use of one. The surface of the 
 eye when much magnified resem- 
 bles honeycomb in appearance (Fig. 
 4). Each of the six-sided divisions 
 FiG.T-P^ ^com- o^ the large eye is a complete eye, 
 pound eye, greatly hcncc the larp^c cvcs are compound 
 
 enlarged. o ./ 
 
 i^^va^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 eyes. 
 3. In addition to the two large compound eyes a 
 locust has three simple eyes. There is one of these 
 
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 1 3 
 
 just in front of the upper part of each compound eye, 
 and the third is in a hollow near the middle of the 
 face of the locust ; find each of these. 
 
 Note. — The simple eyes are usually called the ocelli {o-cel'li). This 
 term is also applied frequently to the little eyes, or ommatidia, of which 
 the compound eyes are composed ; but if nothing is said to indicate that 
 the parts of a compound eye are meant, the term ocelli always refers to 
 the simple eyes. In the same way the term eyes usually refers to the 
 compound eyes alone. The singular form of ocelli is ocellus {p-cel lus). 
 
 4. Make a drawing of the front side of the head 
 showing the position of the antennas, the eyes, and 
 the ocelli. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED), 
 
 The Mouth-parts. 
 
 1. Attached to the lower edge of the front side of 
 the head of the locust is a movable flap ; this is the 
 upper lip or labrum {la' brinn). Carefully remove it 
 with a knife and save it. 
 
 2. By removing the upper lip there is exposed a 
 pair of horny jaws ; these are the mandibles {inan'di- 
 bles). The mandibles open sidewise instead of up and 
 down like the jaws of higher animals. Carefully re- 
 move the mandibles. This can be done by separating 
 them with a pin, and turning each one sidewise till it 
 breaks from the head. Save the mandibles. 
 
 3. By the removal of the mandibles there is ex- 
 posed a second pair of jaws, which, like the mandi- 
 bles, open sidewise. These are the maxillce {max- 
 il'lce). The singular form of maxillse is maxilla (max- 
 il'la). The maxillse, unlike the mandibles, are very 
 complicated organs, each maxilla consisting of sev- 
 
14 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 eral parts. Leave the maxillas attached to the head 
 till later. 
 
 4. Remove the head of the locust and pin it with 
 the hinder side uppermost to a piece of cork or block 
 of wood. 
 
 5. With the head in this position the flaplike 
 lower lip or labium {la'bi-uni) can be easily seen. 
 Like the maxillse, the labium consists of several 
 parts. 
 
 6. Lift the free end of the labium with a pin and 
 observe the tonguelike organ which arises from the 
 
 inner side of it, and pro- 
 jects between the maxillse ; 
 this is the hypopharynx (Jiy- 
 po-phar' ynx). 
 
 7. Remove the labium 
 and the hypopharynx and 
 save them. 
 
 8. After the removal of 
 the labium it will be easier 
 to remove the maxillas than 
 before. Remove them and 
 save them. 
 
 9. Arrange the mouth- 
 parts on a card as shown 
 in Fig. 5 and gum them in 
 place. 
 
 10. The five-jointed appendages of the maxillae are 
 the maxillary palpi. The singular of palpi is palpus. 
 
 11. The three-jointed appendages of the lower lip 
 or labium are the labial palpi. 
 
 Review. — The mouth-parts of a locust consist of 
 an upper lip, the labrum ; an under lip, the labium; 
 
 Fig, 
 
 5. — The mouth-parts of a lo- 
 cust : 8, labrum ; 10, mandibles ; 
 II, maxillse; ii ^, maxillary- 
 palpi ; 12, labium ; 12 d^ labial 
 palpi ; 13, hypopharynx. 
 
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 
 
 15 
 
 two pairs of jaws, the maitdibles and the maxillce ; and 
 a tonguelike organ, the hypopharynx. The jaws open 
 sidewise instead of up and down, as do the jaws of 
 the higher animals. The upper pair of jaws are called 
 the mandibles ; the lower pair of jaws the maxillce. 
 Each maxilla bears a palpus ; these are the maxillary 
 palpi. The labium bears a pair of palpi ; these are 
 the labial palpi. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED). 
 
 The Appendages of the Thorax, the Legs. 
 
 The thorax is the middle one of the three regions 
 of the body (see Lesson I and Fig. 3). The append- 
 ages of the thorax are three pairs of legs and two 
 pairs of wings. In this lesson we will study the 
 legs. 
 
 1. Study carefully one of the fore legs of the 
 locust and observe that it is composed of several 
 parts or segments. Each of these segments of the 
 leg has a distinct name. As these names are often 
 used in descriptions of insects, it is necessary to learn 
 them. 
 
 2. The first segment of the legs, the one that is 
 joined to the body, is nearly globular in outline ; this 
 is the coxa {cox' a). 
 
 3. The second segment of the leg is much smaller 
 than the coxa ; this is the trochanter (tro-chan'ter). 
 
 4. The third segment of the leg is the principal 
 one ; this is t\\Q femur {fe'mur). Its name is the same 
 as that of the principal bone in the human leg. 
 
 5. The fourth segment of the leg is nearly as long 
 
1 6 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 as the femur, but it is more slender; it is called the 
 tibia {tib'i-d). This name is the same as the name of 
 the principal bone between the knee and ankle of the 
 human leg. 
 
 6. All of the leg of the locust beyond the tibia is 
 the foot or tarsus {tar'sus). This part consists of 
 three segments in the locust, but the number of seg- 
 ments in the tarsus differs in different kinds of in- 
 sects. 
 
 7. The last segment of the tarsus bears a pair of 
 claws. These are called the tarsal claws. 
 
 8. Find each of the parts named above in each of 
 the legs of the locust. 
 
 9. Make a drawing of one of the fore legs and 
 name the parts. 
 
 10. The plurals of the terms are as follows : coxa, 
 coxge ; trochanter, trochanters ; femur, femora (fem'- 
 o-ra) ; tibia, tibise ; tarsus, tarsi. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED). 
 
 The Appendages of the Thorax^ the Wings. 
 
 1. Remove the two wings of one side, spread 
 them out on a card, and gum them in place. 
 
 2. Study the wings and observe that each is com- 
 posed of a membrane strengthened by a framework 
 of thicker lines. These thickened lines composing 
 the framework are called the veins of the wings. The 
 term vein used in this connection is not very appro- 
 priate, but as it is in general use it would not be well 
 to attempt to change it. 
 
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 
 
 17 
 
 3. Observe the strong, longitudinal veins, and the 
 numerous smaller cross-veins. 
 
 4. The portions of the membrane bounded by the 
 veins are called the cells. 
 
 5. Cut a piece about one fourth inch square from 
 one of the wings not removed from the body, mount 
 it on a card, and make a careful drawing of the veins 
 and cells. Label the drawing as follows : Fragment 
 of the zving of a locust showing the veins and the cells. 
 
 6. Write a description of the wings of a locust ; 
 describe first the general features of the wings, and 
 then state how the two wings of one side differ from 
 each other. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED). 
 
 The Thorax. 
 
 1. In this lesson we are to study the parts of the 
 thorax, but before beginning this study the pupil 
 should examine the abdomen and observe that the 
 body wall of that region is composed of several ring- 
 like segments. 
 
 2. Like the abdomen, the entire body of an insect 
 is made up of a series of segments, but it is not so 
 easy to distinguish "the separate segments in the head 
 and thorax as it is in the abdomen, 
 
 3. The segments of which the head is composed 
 are grown together so completely that the head ap- 
 pears to consist of a single segment. 
 
 4. The thorax consists of three segments, which 
 we will try to distinguish. Observe that the first 
 pair of legs are borne by a ringlike part which can 
 
l8 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 be separated from the remainder of the thorax. This 
 is the first of the segments of the thorax. 
 
 5. Separate the first segment of the thorax from 
 the remainder of this region. Observe that the belly 
 or ventral 's>\d.Q is small, while the upper or dorsal ^\diQ 
 is large, being composed of the large sunbonnet- 
 shaped piece which is just back of the head. 
 
 6. The first segment of the thorax is called the 
 prothorax {^pro-tho' rax). 
 
 7. Make a drawing of a side view of the prothorax 
 representing the left side. 
 
 8. The portion of the thorax remaining consists 
 of two segments closely grown together. These are 
 the second and third thoracic segments. The second 
 thoracic segment bears the second pair of legs and the 
 first pair of wings ; the third thoracic segment bears 
 the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings. 
 Study the specimen and try to make out the limits 
 of these segments. 
 
 9. The second or middle thoracic segment is called 
 the mesothorax (ines-o-tho'rax). The third or last tho- 
 racic segment is called the metathorax {inet-a-tho'rax). 
 
 10. Remove the wings and make a drawing of 
 the left side of these two segments. 
 
 11. Observe that the greater part of each side of 
 these two segments consists of four large, oblique 
 pieces. The first two of these pieces belong to the 
 mesothorax, the last two to the metathorax. 
 
 Review, — The body of an insect consists of a series 
 of segments ; of these the first three behind the head 
 form the thorax. The three segments of the thorax 
 are called the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the meta- 
 thorax respectively. 
 
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 
 
 19 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED). 
 
 The Abdomen. 
 
 The abdomen is that portion of the body which 
 is behind the thorax. In a locust the thorax and ab- 
 domen are so closely connected that it requires care- 
 ful study to determine where one ends and the other 
 begins. 
 
 1. Examine the ventral or belly side of the body 
 and determine which is the first abdominal segment. 
 The front edge of this segment is dovetailed into the 
 metathorax, so that at first sight it appears to be a 
 part of the thorax. 
 
 2. Examine the upper or dorsal part of the first 
 abdominal segment ; this is widely separated from 
 the ventral part by the cavities for the insertion of 
 the hind legs. 
 
 3. Observe the ears ; these are situated one on 
 each side of the first abdominal segment. Each is a 
 large opening in the body wall which is closed by a 
 very delicate membrane (see Fig. 3). Locusts differ 
 from other insects in having ears in this position. 
 
 4. Examine the seven abdominal segments follow- 
 ing the first ; each* of these is ringlike in form. 
 
 5. Find the breathing holes or spiracles. There 
 is a row of them on each side of the bod}^ The first 
 one on each side that is in the abdomen is just in 
 front of the ear. In the seven following abdominal 
 segments there is one on each side of each segment 
 near the lower front corner of the upper part of the 
 segment. 
 
20 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Note. — In addition to the abdominal spiracles, there are two pairs of 
 spiracles which belong to the thorax : one of these is situated in the 
 membrane between the prothorax and mesothorax ; the other just above 
 and a little back of the insertion of the middle pair of legs. The first 
 of these two pairs is covered by the free margin of the prothorax, which 
 can be cut away with scissors. 
 
 6. Examiae several specimens of locusts and ob- 
 serve that in some the hind or caudal end of the 
 body tapers to the end and bears four pointed and 
 curved, horny pieces, and that in others this end of 
 the body is terminated by a single, large, hood-shaped 
 plate. Those in which the body ends in four pieces 
 are females ; the others are males. 
 
 7. The four pieces at the caudal end of the body 
 of the female are for making holes in the ground or 
 in soft w^ood in which the eggs are laid, and are called 
 the ovipositor. 
 
 8. In using the ovipositor the insect pushes it into 
 the ground and then spreads the pieces apart ; by re- 
 peating this operation many times a deep hole is 
 made in which the eggs are laid. 
 
 9. Make a drawing of the left side of the abdo- 
 men ; represent carefully the position of the ear and 
 of the spiracles. Use either a male or female, but 
 state under the drawing which sex it represents. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED). 
 
 Review. 
 
 The following table illustrates the relations of the 
 parts of a locust that have been studied in the pre- 
 ceding lessons. The pupils should learn this table 
 
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST. 
 
 21 
 
 SO that they can write it without referring to the 
 book : 
 
 Antennae. 
 Compound eyes. 
 Simple eyes or ocelli. 
 
 f Labrum. 
 
 I Mandibles. 
 
 Head. 
 
 Mouth-parts, -i Maxilla and maxillary palpi. 
 
 Thorax. -{ 
 
 Labium and labial palpi 
 Prothorax and first pair of legs. 
 
 second pair of legs, 
 first pair of wings, 
 third pair of legs, 
 second pair of wings. 
 \ veins. 
 
 Mesothorax and 
 Metathorax and 
 
 Wing 
 
 Leg 
 
 Abdomen. 
 
 I cells. 
 
 Coxa. 
 
 Trochanter. 
 
 Femur. 
 
 Tibia. 
 (^ Tarsus and claws. 
 
 ( ears (in locusts only). 
 The abdomen bears •< spiracles. 
 ( ovipositor. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE BEGINNING OF A COLLECTION AND A STUDY OF THE 
 ^lETAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 
 
 HE mere reading of books 
 about natural objects will do 
 but little toward forming an 
 intimate acquaintance with 
 Nature. If one w^ould really 
 know about the creatures that 
 are near us wherever we go, 
 he must study them directly, and not depend on 
 what others have said about them. 
 
 It is for this reason that these first lessons in 
 Insect Life are based on the study of specimens that 
 the pupils have collected for themselves. It will be 
 far better for the pupils to learn a few things at first 
 hand than to memorize a great mass of information 
 from books. 
 
 In most places it is comparatively easy to find 
 insects. The pupils can collect them while going to 
 and from school or during recess ; or a class may be 
 excused for an hour or two occasionally to make 
 longer trips, under the direction of one of the older 
 pupils : but, when possible, the teacher should accom- 
 pany the pupils in their excursions. More insects 
 will be found on w^arm days when the sun is shining 
 than at other times. 
 
 22 
 
THE BEGINNING OF A COLLECTION. 
 
 23 
 
 In the case of city schools that are remote from 
 parks or other good collecting fields, excursions into 
 country places can be made on Saturdays, and the 
 specimens collected on such an excursion can be kept 
 for study till the following Monday. Much more 
 progress in attaining real knowledge will be made in 
 this way than by daily recitations based on a study 
 of a book about insects. 
 
 With a little effort living insects can be kept in 
 breeding cages or aquaria, so that the specimens col- 
 lected on a single excursion may serve for daily ob- 
 servations for a long time. 
 
 Each pupil should be encouraged to make a per- 
 manent collection for himself. With such a collec- 
 tion there is little danger of his losing his interest in 
 the subject ; and the facts that he has learned will be 
 remembered more easily. Moreover, the making of 
 additions to a collection and the frequent rearranging 
 of it will be a source of great pleasure and instruction. 
 
 If for any reason it is impracticable for the pupils 
 to make private collections, a collection should be 
 made for the school. If the specimens in such a col- 
 lection are labeled with the names of the collectors, 
 the pupils will be stimulated to make additions to it. 
 And if, as soon as the older pupils have learned to 
 handle specimens carefully, each is appointed curator 
 of some group of insects, a personal interest in the 
 collection will be stimulated, and each wall acquire a 
 more thorough knowledge of the group collected 
 than he would otherwise. 
 
 The group assigned to a student may be some 
 order or family of insects, or an artificial group based 
 on habits. Some experience with the local con- 
 
24 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 ditions in each school will be necessary for the 
 teacher to be able to select the more available groups. 
 
 Even when the pupils make private collections it 
 will be well to have each one, after he has become 
 familiar with the different orders, select some one of 
 them as his specialty, and study that one more thor- 
 oughly. In this way he will be forced to do more 
 careful collecting in order to add to his collection 
 constantly, and he will thus learn more about the 
 habits of the insects collected. 
 
 Before beginning the work the teacher should 
 decide what apparatus is to be used, and make pro- 
 vision for obtaining that part of it which the pupils 
 are not to make for themselves, so that the work 
 shall not be delayed by lack of material. 
 
 Although there are many things that are desira- 
 ble for carrying on this work, much can be accom- 
 plished with very little material and that which is 
 inexpensive. The following lists will aid the teacher 
 in deciding what to get : — 
 
 Necessary Supplies for Pupils. 
 
 Cyanide bottles. See page 286. 
 Pins. See page 295. 
 Empty cigar-boxes. See page 306. 
 Cork or pith. See page 309. 
 
 Additional Supplies desirable for Pupils. 
 
 Insect nets. See page 285. 
 Glass-topped cases. See page 306. 
 Coddington lenses. See below. 
 Vials. 
 Alcohol. 
 
THE BEGINNING OF A COLLECTION. 25 
 
 Desirable Supplies foi' the School. 
 
 Cabinet for insect cases. See page 294. 
 
 Pliers or pinning forceps. See page 299. 
 
 Cases, pins, vials, and alcohol. 
 
 Microscope. See below. 
 
 Supplies for mounting microscopic objects. See 
 page 300. 
 
 At least the teacher should possess a lens. 01 
 the cheaper lenses the form known as the Codding- 
 ton lenses I have found to be the best. These are 
 commonly kept by stationers or jewelers. They can 
 also be procured of any dealer in optical instruments. 
 See list of dealers at the end of this volume. 
 
 If a microscope be procured for the school, care 
 should be taken to get one provided with what is 
 known as the society screw, so that objectives of any 
 of the more prominent makers can be used on it. If 
 the funds at the disposal of the school will only admit 
 of the purchase of a microscope with a single objec- 
 tive, a three-fourths-inch objective will be found as 
 useful as any for entomological work, and perhaps 
 later a one-fifth-inch objective or others can be added. 
 Price lists of microscopes will be furnished by deal- 
 ers in optical instruments. Most dealers make 
 discounts from thtir list prices when furnishing 
 schools. 
 
 In preparing the above suggestions we have tried 
 to keep in mind the needs and the ability of supply- 
 ing these needs of both teachers in the smaller 
 schools, where there may be no funds to spend for 
 apparatus, and of teachers in the larger schools, where 
 even costly apparatus can be purchased. 
 
25 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 PREPARATION FOR A COLLECTING TRIP. 
 
 Havinof learned somethins: about the structure of 
 a locust, which was taken as a t3^pical insect, we are 
 ready to begin the study of other insects. In doing 
 this we will first learn how to collect and preserve 
 specimens ; after that we will study the classification 
 of insects and the life histories of some of them. 
 
 The forms of insects are numberless, and their 
 ways are as varied as are their forms. As we walk 
 over the fields they spring up before us or scurry 
 away through the grass. Some fly lazily here and 
 there ; others dart back and forth with the rapidity of 
 thought. We crush them under foot by a careless 
 step ; we find them on every shrub and tree ; and 
 the streams and ponds are peopled by them. 
 
 Let us approach their study with kindly feelings, 
 bent on learning what we can concerning them and 
 their ways, and putting aside the false notion that 
 many of us have been taught that these creatures are 
 to be despised. The great majority of them can be 
 regarded as our friends, for they are of service 
 to us ; others, while not actually beneficial, do us no 
 appreciable harm ; a few, and they are only a few 
 compared with the great number that make up the 
 insect world, interfere with our happiness. These 
 we are forced to fight ; but the combat is one of self- 
 defense and not a war against an enemy that harms 
 us maliciously. 
 
 In making a collection for study it will be neces- 
 sary for us to kill specimens ; but we will do this as 
 
PREPARATION FOR A COLLECTING TRIP. 27 
 
 humanely as possible, and will not destroy more than 
 we need for our work. 
 
 The objects of this lesson are two : first, the 
 suggesting of a proper spirit in which to take up 
 this work ; and, second, the getting ready for our first 
 field trip, so that when the time comes to start there 
 will be no delay. 
 
 The most important thing to carry with you into 
 the field is a good pair of eyes. Without these but 
 little will be accomplished. 
 
 Of the various kinds of collecting apparatus the 
 most important is a cyanide bottle. Each pupil, if 
 possible, should have one of these. On page 286 will 
 be found directions for making them. 
 
 In addition to a cyanide bottle it will be well if 
 each one has an insect net, although much can be 
 done without a net. See page 285 for a description 
 of an insect net. 
 
 No other apparatus is needed for the first field 
 trip, but it will be well if some provision be made at 
 once for preserving the insects that you are going to 
 collect. The following are the more important 
 things needed for this: 
 
 1. An insect case or empty cigar-boxes. Read 
 what is said on pages 306 to 310 regarding these, and 
 note especially what'is said on page 310 regarding 
 the use of corn pith for lining cigar-boxes. 
 
 2. A supply of insect pins or, if these can not be 
 obtained, a paper of ordinary pins. Read what is 
 said on this subject on pages 295 to 299. 
 
28 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 THE FIRST COLLECTING TRIP. 
 
 Material needed for the Excursion. — " A sharp pair 
 of eyes," a cyanide bottle, and an insect net if you 
 have one. 
 
 Where to look for Specimens. — On flowers and 
 leaves, on the surface of the ground, under stones 
 and pieces of w^ood lying on the ground, in rotten 
 stumps, and under the bark of decaying logs and 
 trees. 
 
 What to collect. — We plan to study all kinds of 
 insects and also some animals that are not true in- 
 sects, but are closely related to them. It will be best, 
 however, on this first excursion to collect only winged 
 insects. Other forms may be collected and studied 
 later in the course. 
 
 Suggestions. — Do not leave your cyanide bottle 
 open unnecessarily, for if you do it will lose its 
 strength in a short time. With proper care a cyanide 
 bottle will last several months. 
 
 Do not hold your face near the open cyanide 
 bottle so as to breathe the fumes that escape from it. 
 With ordinary care there is no danger in the use of 
 a cyanide bottle. 
 
 You can take bees and wasps from flowers with- 
 out danger of being stung by shutting them into the 
 bottle with the cork. Take the bottle in one hand 
 and the cork in the other, and bring the two together 
 quickly, one on each side of the insect. 
 
 The insects collected can be left in the cyanide 
 bottles or on damp sand in a jar or tight box till 
 
THE FIRST COLLECTING TRIP. 
 
 29 
 
 the following day. If the excursion is made on 
 Saturday the insects can be kept soft in this way till 
 Monday. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Poison ivy. (Note that the leaflets are in threes, and that each has 
 only a single midrib. ) 
 
 If a cyanide bottle is wet inside it should be 
 wiped out and a piece of blotting paper placed in it. 
 But if the dampness is due to the dissolving of the 
 cyanide it is better to put enough dry plaster of Paris 
 
 Fig. 7, — Virginia creeper. (Note that the leaflets are in fives.) 
 
 into the bottle to absorb the liquid ; sprinkle the 
 plaster of Paris carefully on top of the layer of 
 cement in the bottom of the bottle, so that the whole 
 shall form one solid layer. 
 
 To the Teacher. — If poison ivy or poison oak 
 abounds in the region where the pupils are to col- 
 
30 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 lect, the plant should be made known to them. 
 They should also be able to distinguish between 
 
 F.G. 8.— Clematii 
 
 (Note that the leaflets are in threes, like the poison ivy, 
 but each leaflet has several midribs.) 
 
 poison ivy and the harmless Virginia creeper and 
 clematis. See Figs. 6, 7, and 8.* 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 ON MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 
 
 1. Take the specimens that were collected on the 
 first collecting trip, and which have been kept moist 
 either by being left in the cyanide bottle or in a 
 closed vessel upon damp sand, and spread them out 
 before you. If the directions were followed, they 
 are all winged. 
 
 2. Select one of the larger specimens and observe 
 
 * The writer, who is extremely susceptible to the poison of poison 
 oak and poison ivy, has experienced great relief when poisoned by bath- 
 ing the affected parts frequently with a lotion made of one part tincture 
 of grindelia and four parts water. Prompt and frequent application of 
 this lotion will prevent the appearance of the pustules characteristic of 
 this disease ; if the application be not made soon enough for this, the 
 injury can be kept from spreading by a thorough oxidi persistent use of the 
 lotion. 
 
ON MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 
 
 31 
 
 that, as with the locust, the body consists of three 
 main parts — the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. 
 
 3. In pinning insects most specimens should be 
 pinned through the middle of the thorax. Read the 
 section on pinning insects on page 297. 
 
 4. Pin four or five of the larger specimens in this 
 way, leaving about one fourth of the length of the 
 pin above the back of the insect. If insect pins 
 be used, avoid using the smaller sizes, as they are 
 easily bent. Insects that are too small to be pinned 
 with No. 3 Klager pins should be mounted on cards 
 as described later. 
 
 5. Ascertain if you have any beetles in your col- 
 lection. Beetles have a pair of wing-covers in the 
 place of the front wings. 
 These wing - covers are 
 thick and horny, and 
 meet in a straight line 
 down the back of the in- 
 sect, forming a hard case, 
 beneath which the hind 
 wings are folded. Fig. 
 9 represents a beetle. 
 
 6. Separate the beetles 
 in your collection from 
 the other specimens. 
 
 7. In pinning beetles 
 the pin should be put 
 through the right wing-cover at a point about one 
 fourth the length of the wing-cover from its base 
 (see Fig. 10). 
 
 8. Pin all the beetles in your collection that are 
 large enough to be pinned. 
 
 Fig. g. — A beetle. 
 
22 * INSECT LIFE. 
 
 9. Pin any other winged insects you have that 
 are large enough to be pinned, remembering that 
 except in case of beetles the insects 
 should be pinned through the 
 middle of the thorax. 
 
 10. If there remain some in- 
 sects that are too small to be 
 pinned, they should be mounted 
 on cardboard points, as described 
 on page 298. 
 
 11. Count the legs on each 
 specimen in your collection. (It 
 
 is supposed that you have only winged specimens.) 
 How many legs do winged insects have? 
 
 The shrilling locust slowly sheathes 
 
 His dagger voice, and creeps away 
 Beneath the brooding leaves where breathes 
 
 The zephyr of the dying day : 
 One naked star has waded through 
 The purple shallows of the night. 
 And faltering as falls the dew 
 It drips its misty light. 
 O'er garden blooms, 
 On tides of musk. 
 The beetle booms adown the glooms 
 And bumps along the dusk. 
 
 The katydid is rasping at 
 
 The silence from the tangled broom : 
 On drunken wings the flitting bat 
 
 Goes staggering athwart the gloom : 
 The toadstool bulges through the weeds ; 
 
 And lavishly to left and right 
 The fireflies, like golden seeds, 
 
 Are sown about the night. 
 
THE SECOND COLLECTING TRIP. 
 
 33 
 
 O'er slumb'rous blooms. 
 On floods of musk, 
 The beetle booms adown the glooms 
 And bumps along the dusk. 
 
 Jiunes Whitcomb Riley. "^ 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 THE SECOND COLLECTING TRIP. 
 
 1. Review carefully the directions on page 28. 
 
 2. On this excursion the pupils should collect any 
 true insects — that is, those having only six feet — that 
 they may find ; but the especial object of the excur- 
 
 FlG. II. — Nymph of Melanoplus^ 
 first stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 Fig. 12. — Nymph of Melanoplus, 
 second stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 Fig. 13. — Nymph of Melanoplus, 
 third stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 Fig. 14. — Nymph of Melanoplus, 
 fourth stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 sion is to get a set of specimens illustrating the 
 growth of either crickets or locusts or bugs. Select 
 whichever of these is most common, and get as com- 
 
 * From Old-fashioned Roses, by permission of the Bowen-Merrill Co. 
 
34 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 plete a series as possible representing the changes 
 from the very young insect without any wings, 
 through the different stages of wing-growth up to 
 the adult insect. 
 
 The accompanying figures (Figs. 11-16) represent 
 the transformations of a common locust. Note that 
 
 Fig. 15. — Nymph of Mzlanoplus^ Fig. i6. — Melanoplus^ adult, 
 
 fifth stage. (After Emerton.) 
 
 the figures of the younger stages are enlarged. The 
 hair line represents in each case the length of the 
 insect. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. 
 
 Nearly all insects undergo great changes in form 
 while getting their growth. Thus, caterpillars in 
 time become butterflies or millers ; grubs when 
 fully developed are beetles; and maggots are the 
 young of two-winged flies. 
 
 In the case of butterflies, millers, beetles, and 
 two-winged flies, the fully developed insects bear 
 but little resemblance in form to the 3^oung. It 
 would be difficult to find two adult insects that differ 
 more in form than do a butterfly and the caterpiUar 
 from which it was developed. But in the case of 
 certain other insects, the changes undergone during 
 the life of the insect are not nearly so great as with 
 
INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. 
 
 35 
 
 these. Thus the young locust resembles the adult 
 in form to a great extent, except that it lacks wings ; 
 and the same thing is true of crickets, bugs, and 
 many other insects. 
 
 Those insects which, like butterflies, millers, bee- 
 tles, and flies, undergo a complete change of form 
 while getting their growth are said to undergo a 
 complete metamorphosis. 
 
 Insects which, like locusts, crickets, and bugs, do 
 not change greatly in form except by the gradual 
 growth of wings are said to undergo an incomplete 
 metaynor pilosis. 
 
 Let us study more carefully the changes of an 
 insect with an incomplete metamorphosis. 
 
 1. Pin the specimens that were collected on the 
 last excursion. If some are too small to pin, mount 
 them on cardboard points. 
 
 2. Select those that were collected to illustrate 
 the changes in form from the very young insect 
 without any wings through the different stages of 
 wing-growth up to the adult insect. 
 
 3. Determine how many stages of growth are 
 represented by these, and place together the speci- 
 mens illustrating each stage. The young of insects 
 that undergo an incomplete metamorphosis are 
 termed nymphs. 
 
 4. Make an outline drawing of the thorax and 
 wings, when they are present, of each stage. Draw 
 either the dorsal or a side view, whichever will show 
 best the development of the wings. 
 
36 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 MOLTING. 
 
 1. Take a locust that has been killed by being 
 placed in a cyanide bottle or in alcohol and cut the 
 abdomen in two, near the middle of it. 
 
 2. Observe that the hard parts of the body are on 
 the outside, and that there is no internal skeleton, as 
 in our own bodies. 
 
 This fact makes necessary a peculiar feature in 
 the growth of insects and of the other animals that 
 are closely related to them. The 
 body of an insect is inclosed in a 
 firm case, which, as it does not in- 
 crease in size, becomes too tight for 
 the insect as the insect grows. To 
 meet this difficulty the outer hard 
 layer of the skin is shed. The inner 
 soft layer of the skin then stretches 
 so as to accommodate the increased 
 size of the insect ; later this soft 
 skin, which is now on the outside, 
 becomes hard, so as to serve as a 
 protection to the insect. In time 
 this skin also becomes too tight, but 
 another soft skin has been formed 
 beneath it, and the hard skin can be 
 shed like the other, 
 of sheddinof the skin is termed 
 
 Fig. Ty. — The cast 
 skin of a nymph 
 of a dragon-fly. 
 
 This process 
 molting. 
 
 Insects differ greatly as to the number of times 
 that they molt ; some pass through only three or 
 
OBSERVATION OF INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. 
 
 37 
 
 four molts, while others shed their skin twenty times 
 or more. 
 
 It is at the time of molting that changes in the 
 form of the body take place. 
 
 Fig. 17 represents the cast skin of a nymph of a 
 dragon-fly. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 OBSERVATION OF INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. 
 
 1 . Collect a considerable number — fifteen or twenty 
 or more — of nymphs of locusts or crickets, and place 
 them in a breeding cage. See page 327 for directions 
 for making inexpensive breeding cages. 
 
 2. Put a sod of growing grass in the cage for the 
 insects to feed upon, and replace it with a fresh one 
 when necessary. 
 
 3. Endeavor to rear the nymphs, and make notes 
 on their changes. 
 
 4. Examine the cage daily, and when cast skins 
 are found, study them and preserve specimens for 
 your collection. 
 
 5. Preserve a specimen of each of the nymph 
 stages, and label it with the date on which it was 
 taken. 
 
 6. Observe that, although the changes between 
 the different nymph stages are slight, the change be- 
 tween the last nymph stage and the adult is a marked 
 one, there being a great increase in the size of the 
 wings at this time. 
 
38 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 THE GRASSHOPPER AND THE CRICKET. 
 
 Green little vaulter in the sunny grass, 
 
 Catching your heart up at the feel of June, . 
 
 Sole voice that's heard amid the lazy noon. 
 When even the bees lag at the summoning brass ; 
 And you, warm little housekeeper, who class 
 
 With those who think the candles come too soon, 
 
 Loving the fire, and with your tricksome tune 
 Nick the glad silent moments as they pass ; 
 Oh, sweet and tiny cousins, that belong 
 
 One to the fields, the other to the hearth. 
 Both have your sunshine ; both, though small, are strong 
 
 At your clear hearts ; and both were sent on earth 
 To sing in thoughtful ears this natural song : 
 
 Indoors and out, summer and winter — Mirth. 
 
 Leigh Hunt. 
 
 LESSON XVL 
 
 OBSERVATION OF COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS AND 
 DEFINITION OF TERMS. 
 
 And what's a butterfly ? At best, 
 
 He's but a caterpillar, drest. — John Gay. 
 
 1. Collect some caterpillars, and, keeping them 
 alive, put them in a breeding cage to rear. See 
 pages 327 to 330 for directions for making breeding 
 cages. 
 
 2. Keep the caterpillars supplied with food, giv- 
 ing them the same kind of plant as that on which 
 they were found, and keep only one kind of cater- 
 pillar in a single breeding cage. Most of the com- 
 mon hairy caterpillars found running over the surface 
 of the ground will feed on grass and many other 
 plants, but other caterpillars will starve if not fed on 
 their proper food plant. 
 
OBSERVATION OF COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. 
 
 39 
 
 !NOTE. — Among the more available kinds of caterpillars for use in 
 this lesson are the following : The common green cabbage-worms ; the 
 green worm, ringed with black and spotted with yellow, that eats the 
 leaves of caraway ; and the large yellow and black one found on milk- 
 weed. The transformations of each of these can be observed in a com- 
 paratively short time if the study begins early enough in the season. 
 The autumn broods of the first two pass the winter in the pupa state. 
 
 3. Begin a series of notes on each kind of cater- 
 pillar under observation, giving each a number and 
 numbering the notes to correspond. (See Part II, 
 Chapter III.) Begin each note with the date on 
 which it was made. Record everything that you 
 observe regarding the habits and transformations of 
 
 Fig, 18. — Larva and pupa of a butterfly. 
 
 the insects. Try to observe the molting of the in- 
 sects and each of the transformations. 
 
 4. All caterpillars hatch from eggs. If you suc- 
 ceed in rearing adult insects and will keep some of 
 them caged for a time you may be able to get eggs. 
 
40 
 
 INSECT LIFE, 
 
 But many insects will not lay in confinement. They 
 are more apt to lay in confinement if caged with a 
 growing food plant of the larva. 
 
 5. Caterpillars and the corresponding stage of 
 other insects with a complete metamorphosis are called 
 larvcE. The singular form of this word is larva. 
 
 6. When a larva is full grown it molts its skin 
 and appears in a very different form. This third 
 stage (the ^g^ being the first and the larva the sec- 
 ond) is called \h^ pupa. The plural of pupa is pupce. 
 In Fig. 18 there are represented two larvae on the 
 upper edge of a fragment of a leaf and a pupa sus- 
 pended from the lower edge. The pupse of butter- 
 flies are sometimes 
 called chrysalids.^ 
 
 7. Some larvae 
 before changing to 
 the pupa state spin 
 about the body a 
 silken case within 
 which the pupa 
 
 -A large cocoon within a rolled leaf. State is paSSCd. Such 
 
 a case is called a 
 cocoon. Sometimes a leaf is fastened about the cocoon 
 (Fig. 19) ; and some hairy caterpillars make their 
 cocoons largely of their own hair, fastening it to- 
 gether with a thin layer of silk. 
 
 8. Following the pupa state is the adult or imago 
 state. 
 
 Fig. ic 
 
 * There are two forms of this word : first, chrysalid, with the plural 
 chrysalids ; and, second, chrysalis, with the plural chrysalides. The 
 singular form of the second and the plural form of the first are in more 
 common use. 
 
HTOM M^O l/QT 3HT— .II staj^ 
 
Plate II.— THE TOMATO-WORM MOTH. 
 
 Phlegethontius celus. 
 
Plate II. 
 
BEETLES OR COLEOPTERA. 41 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 REVIEW OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING THE METAMOR- 
 PHOSES OF INSECTS. 
 
 Kinds of Metamorphosis. Names of Stages. 
 
 /. Development without metamorphosis. 
 
 This has not been described in these Egg. 
 
 lessons, and it occurs only in a single \ Immature insect. 
 
 order of insects, the Thysanura (see Adult. 
 
 page 63). 
 
 [Egg. 
 II. Incomplete 7netamorp hosts. < Nymph (several stages). 
 
 (^ Adult or ijnago. 
 
 Egg. 
 
 larva. 
 
 Pupa. (The pupa is 
 sometimes inclosed 
 in a cocoon^ 
 ^ Adult or imago. 
 
 III. Complete metamorphosis. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 BEETLES OR COLEOPTERA (Co-le-op'te-ra). 
 
 While the pupils are observing the development 
 of the insects in their breeding cages, which will 
 probably require a long time, the work of making a 
 collection can be continued. 
 
 1. Collect as many kinds of beetles as you can 
 and mount them as directed in Lesson XL Beetles 
 can be found under stones and pieces of wood lying 
 on the ground, under the loose bark of dead trees, 
 logs, and stumps, and on the foliage of plants. 
 
 2. The beetles, of which there are many thousand 
 kinds, constitute what is termed by naturalists an 
 Order. There are several orders of insects ; the one 
 composed of beetles is named the Coleoptera. This 
 
^2 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 name is from two Greek words : one, kolcos, meaning 
 a sheath, and the other, //^r^, meaning wings. It re- 
 fers to the fact that in this order in place of the front 
 wings there are two horny sheaths which cover the 
 hind wings. 
 
 3. Prepare a label like that given below. 
 
 4. Pin this label into the upper left-hand corner 
 of your case, and arrange your beetles below the 
 label in rows extending from left to right, putting 
 only one kind of beetle in a row. 
 
 5. As you collect more beetles place them with 
 these, putting each kind in its proper row. 
 
 6. Select one of the larger beetles in your collec- 
 tion and make a drawing representing the dorsal 
 view of it. 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 THE ORDER COLEOPTERA (CONTINUED). 
 
 1. Carry a small cyanide bottle in your pocket, 
 and, whenever you have an opportunity, collect any 
 beetles that you can find, and add them to your col- 
 lection. 
 
 2. Observe that in each kind of beetle the wings 
 are always of the same size. The wings of these in- 
 sects are not gradually developed as they are with 
 locusts, crickets, and bugs ; but the young of beetles 
 
THE ORDER COLEOPTERA. 43 
 
 are grubs which undergo a complete metamorphosis 
 in the course of their development. 
 
 3. Select one of the larger beetles, and examine its 
 wing-covers, or elytra, as they are called. Remove 
 them, and note their structure. How do the elytra 
 of beetles differ from the front wings of locusts? 
 
 4. Study the hind wings. How does the folding 
 of the hind wings of a beetle differ from that of the 
 hind wings of a locust ? 
 
 5. Mount the elytra and hind wings of the beetle 
 on a card. 
 
 6. Study the mouth-parts of the beetle, dissecting 
 them out, and mounting them on a card as was done 
 with the mouth -parts of a locust in Lesson III. 
 Label each of the mouth-parts. 
 
 7. Remove some of the upper rows of beetles in 
 your case so as to make room for the two cards just 
 prepared, and place the cards immediately below the 
 label for the order. Then rearrange the beetles be, 
 low the cards. 
 
 8. We have now observed the more important 
 characteristics of the order Coleoptera or beetles, 
 which are as follows : 
 
 Order Coleoptera. — The members of this order have a 
 pair of horny wing- covers, called elytra, zvhich meet iji a 
 straight line down the back, and beneath which there is a 
 siftgle pair of membranous wings. The mouth-parts are 
 formed for biting. The metamorphosis is complete. 
 
44 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF A BEETLE. 
 
 1. Find a potato field infested with the Colorado 
 potato-beetle. Fig. 20 represents the adult of this 
 insect. 
 
 2. If this species is not in your collection, collect 
 some of the adult beetles for it. 
 
 3. Search for the larva of this potato- 
 beetle. It is a thick, plump grub, strong- 
 ly arched above, and of a pale yellow 
 color, with two rows of black spots on 
 each side. 
 
 4. Search also for the eggs of this in- 
 sect. These are yellow in color and are laid in 
 clusters on the leaves of the potato. 
 
 5. Take the eggs and larva to the school alive and 
 put them in a breeding cage. Keep the larvae sup- 
 plied with fresh potato leaves and watch their de- 
 velopment, keeping notes on it. Put a few of the 
 eggs and larvae in alcohol and preserve them in your 
 collection. 
 
 6. When full grown, the larvse go into the ground 
 to transform ; there should on this account be a layer 
 of soil in the bottom of the cage. 
 
 7. After the larvae have gone into the ground to 
 transform, some of the cocoons should be dug up and 
 preserved in the collection. 
 
 8. When the beetles begin to emerge from the 
 ground, dig up some of the cocoons and remove 
 pupas from them for the collection. 
 
 9. Arrange the specimens of this species in your 
 
A COLLECTING TRIP. 45 
 
 collection in the following order, eggs, larv^, co- 
 coons, pupge, adults, and label each group. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 A COLLECTING TRIP. 
 
 1. Review carefully the directions and sugges- 
 tions given for the first collecting trip in Lesson X. 
 
 2. The special object of this trip is to learn to 
 collect insects by sweeping grass and beating the 
 foliage of herbs and shrubs with an insect net. See 
 page 290 for directions for the use of insect nets. 
 
 Great care should be taken to procure the speci- 
 mens in as good condition as possible. Empty your 
 net frequently, so that the specimens shall not be in- 
 jured by the sweeping or beating. 
 
 LESSON XXIL 
 
 MOUNTING OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 If the sweeping and beating of the last trip were 
 successful, there will be considerable work to be 
 done in mounting specimens. Before doing this read 
 pages 297 to 299, and then endeavor to mount your 
 specimens in as good condition as possible and pre- 
 serve them for future study. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 ON COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 Owing to the dustlike covering with which but- 
 terflies and moths, or millers, are clothed, and which 
 
46 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 is easily injured, it is necessary to make a special 
 study of the methods of collecting these insects ; for 
 if the specimens are not handled properly, they will 
 be of very little use for study. We will first study 
 the collecting of butterflies. 
 
 1. For collecting butterflies an insect net and a 
 collecting box are necessary. The pupils doubtless 
 have insect nets before this lesson is reached ; the 
 collecting boxes can be made of empty cigar boxes, 
 as described on page 287. 
 
 2. In addition to the net and collecting box a 
 bottle of chloroform with a brush fitted into the cork 
 (Fig. 21) is very desirable, although not absolutely 
 necessary. 
 
 3. It is seldom best to attempt to run down a 
 butterfly and catch it on the wing. Fol- 
 low the insect quietly until it alights, and 
 catch it while at rest. 
 
 4. The removal of the insect from the 
 net should be done with very great care, 
 for here lies the greatest danger of injury 
 to the specimen. 
 Fig. 21. ^^ the butterfly is a small one, it can 
 
 be taken from the net by placing the mouth 
 of an open cyanide bottle over it ; in this way touch- 
 ing the specimen with the fingers is avoided. 
 
 If the specimen is too large for this, the net 
 should be held in such a way that the insect can not 
 flutter and thus injure its wings. Try to have it 
 come to rest with its wings folded over its back, for 
 the lower side of the wings are not so easily injured as 
 is the upper side. Then take the fold of the net con- 
 taining the butterfly between the thumb and finger 
 
ON SPREADING BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 47 
 
 of one hand and pinch the thorax of the insect. This 
 can be done in such a way as to kill the insect at 
 once without crushing the specimen. It can then be 
 removed from the net and pinned and placed into 
 the collecting box. 
 
 If the collector has a bottle of chloroform and 
 brush, as soon as the insect is at rest in a fold of the 
 net it can be killed by wetting its thorax with chloro- 
 form. This is done by putting the wet brush on the 
 net where it rests against the thorax of the insect. 
 The butterfly can then be removed and pinned into 
 the collecting box. 
 
 5. Read paragraph on folded papers for butter- 
 flies, page 287. 
 
 6. Go into the field and collect some butterflies. 
 Try to secure them in perfect condition rather than 
 to try to get a large number. 
 
 7. If you have time to spread the butterflies when 
 you return from the field, pass at once to the next 
 lesson; but if not, put the specimens on damp sand 
 in a tightly closed jar or box and leave them till the 
 following day. See paragraph on relaxing insects, 
 page 305. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 ON SPREADING BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 Read the directions for making spreading boards 
 and for spreading insects on pages 303 to 305, and 
 then spread the butterflies that you have collected. 
 
^8 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 1. Take a butterfly that has just been killed or 
 one that has been relaxed in a damping- jar, and pin 
 it so that it can be handled without rubbing the 
 colors from the wings. 
 
 2. Examine the compound eyes with a lens or 
 microscope, and make a drawing illustrating the 
 structure of the surface ; only a small portion of one 
 eye need be represented, but show this greatly en- 
 larged. 
 
 3. Observe on the lower side of the head two 
 forward-projecting organs. These are the feelers of 
 the lower lip or labial palpi. 
 
 4. Observe an organ that is coiled up between 
 the labial palpi. If the butterfly has been recently 
 killed or is thoroughly relaxed, this organ can be 
 straightened out by using a pin. It is the sucking- 
 tube by means of which the insect extracts nectar 
 from flowers. It is composed of two parallel parts 
 closely united, but with a channel between them 
 through which the nectar is sucked. These two 
 parts are the maxillae, which have become greatly 
 developed and modified to fit them for sucking. 
 The other mouth-parts, except the labial palpi, are 
 poorly developed. 
 
 5. Remove the head and gum it with the maxillas 
 uncoiled to a card which is large enough to receive 
 the two wings of one side also. 
 
 6. Remove the two wings of one side and gum 
 them to the card with the head. 
 
THE STRUCTURE OF BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 49 
 
 7. Study the clothing- of the wings. It is neces- 
 sary to use at least a lens for this ; if there is a micro- 
 scope in the school it should be used for this study. 
 It will be found that the dust covering the wings and 
 body is composed of scales, which are of regular 
 form ; and that in butter- 
 flies these scales are ar- 
 ranged in regular order 
 upon the wings. Fig. 22 
 represents part of a wing 
 
 of a butterfly greatly 
 magnified. In the upper 
 part of the figure the 
 membrane of the wing is 
 represented with the 
 scales removed. 
 
 8. The butterflies, to- 
 gether with the moths, or 
 
 Fig. 22.— Part of win^ of butterfly, 
 greatly magnified. 
 
 millers, and the skippers, which are insects that re- 
 semble butterflies, constitute an order w^hich is 
 named the Lepidoptera. This name is from two 
 Greek words : lepis, a scale, and pterojt, a wing. 
 It refers to the scaly covering of the wings and 
 body. 
 
 9. Make a copy of the following label, and fasten 
 it in your collection above the specimens of Lepi- 
 doptera : 
 
 
 
 1 
 
so 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 lo. Place the card bearing the head and wings 
 of a butterfl}' immediately below this label. 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 ON COLLECTING MOTHS. 
 
 1. The fact that moths, or millers as they are 
 often called, do not fold their wings above the body 
 like butterflies makes it impracticable to kill speci- 
 mens by pinching the thorax. Very large specimens 
 can be killed by chloroform, as described in Lesson 
 XXIII ; but most specimens should be taken from 
 the net by placing the mouth of an open cyanide 
 bottle over them. Never touch a specimen with the 
 fingers if it can be avoided. 
 
 2. Do not carry moths in a cyanide bottle with 
 other insects. It is best to have a separate bottle for 
 Lepidoptera, for they are liable to be injured by rub- 
 bing against other insects ; and the specimens of 
 other insects w^ill be soiled by the scales from the 
 butterflies or moths. 
 
 3. Many moths can be collected in the fields by 
 day, but much larger numbers can be taken at night 
 at lights or at sweetened baits. Read the sections 
 on sugaring and on collecting at lights on pages 292 
 to 293. 
 
 4. Collect as many kinds of moths as possible, 
 taking especial pains to get the specimens in good 
 condition. 
 
 5. Carefully spread one or more specimens of each 
 kind ; other specimens may be simply pinned and left 
 till winter, when they can be relaxed and spread. 
 
CHAPTER III, 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR 
 RELATIVES. 
 
 N the course of the lessons in the preced- 
 ing chapter, a beginning was made in 
 the classification of insects. The sub- 
 ject can now be taken up in a more 
 systematic manner. It is not, how- 
 ever, the purpose of this book to car- 
 ry the classification of insects further 
 than to the orders, although in the 
 chapters following this a few easily 
 recognized families will be studied. It is believed 
 that it is better for the pupils that are beginning this 
 study to devote the greater part of their time to 
 the study of the structure and habits of insects ; 
 later, the classification can be carried farther with 
 the aid of more advanced manuals written for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The collector of insects is sure to meet many 
 small animals that, although not true insects, are 
 closely allied to them. It is important, therefore, 
 that the characteristics of these near relatives of in- 
 sects should be pointed out, which we will briefly do, 
 before discussing the orders of insects. 
 
 51 
 
52 
 
 INSECT LIFE, 
 
 The Classes of the Branch Arthropoda. 
 
 In the study of the parts of a locust (see Lesson 
 VI) it was learned that the body of an insect is com- 
 posed of a series of more or less similar rings or seg- 
 ments joined together. This fact is also true of the 
 bodies of certain other animals that are not insects ; 
 thus, if the body of a scorpion, a centipede, or a lob- 
 ster be examined, it will be found to resemble that of 
 an insect in this respect. There is another charac- 
 teristic in which these animals resemble insects — 
 namely, some of the segments of the body bear 
 jointed legs. 
 
 All the animals possessing these two character- 
 istics are classed together as the branch Arthropoda 
 {Ar-throp' o-dd) of the animal kingdom, the term 
 branch being applied to each of the principal divi- 
 sions of the animal kingdom. 
 
 A similar segmented form of the body is char- 
 acteristic of worms, but these are distinguished from 
 the Arthropoda by the absence of legs. It should be 
 remembered that many animals commonly called 
 w^orms, as the tomato-worm, apple-worm, etc., are 
 not true worms, but are the larvse of insects. The 
 angle worm is the most familiar example of a true 
 worm. 
 
 The principal divisions of a branch of the animal 
 kingdom are called classes. The more common rep- 
 resentatives of the branch Arthropoda are distributed 
 among four classes. These are the Crustacea, the 
 Arachnida, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda. The 
 last of these comprises the insects, the first three the 
 near relatives of insects. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 53 
 
 The following table will enable the student to dis- 
 tinguish the classes of the Arthropoda."^ 
 
 TABLE OF CLASSES OF THE ARTHROPODA. 
 
 A. With two pairs of antennse and at least five pairs of legs. Aquatic 
 
 animals breathing by gills. Page 53 Crustacea. 
 
 AA. With one pair of antennae or with none. Air-breathing animals. 
 The number of legs varies from six to many. 
 
 B. Without antennae and with four pairs of legs, although the maxillary 
 palpi are often leglike in form, making the animal appear to have five 
 
 pairs of legs. Page 55 , Arachnida. 
 
 BB. With antenna. 
 C. With more than three pairs of legs ; and without wings. Page 
 
 57 M YRIAPODA. 
 
 CC. With only three pairs of legs, and usually with wings in the 
 adult state. Page 58 Hexapoda. 
 
 Class Crustacea (Crus-ta'ce-a). 
 The Crustaceans {Crus-ta' ce-ans^. 
 
 The most familiar illustrations of the Crustacea 
 are the crayfishes, the lobsters, the shrimps, and the 
 
 * The following is the method of using the analytical tables given in 
 this book : Read carefully the statement of characteristics given opposite 
 A and AA respectively, and by examining the animal to be classified de- 
 termine which is true of this animal. This will indicate in which division 
 of the table the name of the group to which the animal belongs is to be 
 looked for. If this division of the table is subdivided, pass to B and BB 
 (also to BBB if it occurs) in this division and determine in a like manner 
 under which the animal belongs. Continue in this way, passing to the 
 letters C, D, E, etc., in regular order till the name of the group is 
 reached. Then turn to the page indicated and read the description of 
 the group given there, comparing the specimens with the description. 
 It should be borne in mind that an analytical table is merely an aid to 
 the determination of groups. As the groups that we recognize are not 
 always sharply limited in nature, we can not expect to be able in every 
 case to find characters that will serve to distinctly separate them in a table. 
 Therefore when a student has determined by the aid of a key to what 
 
54 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 crabs. Crayfishes (Fig. 23) abound in our brooks, 
 and are often improperly called crabs. The lob- 
 sters, the shrimps, and 
 the true crabs live in- 
 salt water. 
 
 The Crustacea are 
 distinguished from 
 all other Arthro- 
 pods by having two 
 pairs of antennas 
 and by their mode 
 of respiration, being 
 the only ones that 
 breathe by true 
 gills. Many insects 
 live in water and are 
 furnished with gill- 
 like organs, but these 
 are tracheal gills. 
 True gills are for the purification of blood, while 
 tracheal gills are for the purification of the air con- 
 tained in the air ves- 
 sels or trachese of an 
 insect. The former 
 contains a large num- 
 ber of blood vessels, 
 the latter a large 
 number of air vessels. 
 There are minute Crustacea common in ponds 
 and streams. Three of the more abundant of these 
 
 Fig. 23. — A crayfish. 
 
 Fig. 24. — Crustacea : a, Cypris ; 
 b, Cyclops ; c, Daphnia. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 A sow-bug. 
 
 group a species seems to belong, he should verify this determination 
 by a study of the characters of that group given in the detailed discussion 
 of it. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 55 
 
 are shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 24 ; they fre- 
 quently occur in aquaria in which aquatic plants are 
 growing. The sow-bugs (Fig. 25) are also Crustacea. 
 They live about water-soaked wood ; with these only 
 one pair of antennae are well developed. 
 
 Class Arachnida (A-rach'ni-da). 
 The Arachnids {A-rach'nids). 
 
 To this class belong the spiders, scorpions, har- 
 vestmen, mites, and certain other less common forms. 
 These animals differ from the other classes of the 
 branch Arthropoda in having no antennse. They 
 have four pairs of legs fitted for walking, and many 
 of them have very large maxillary palpi, which re- 
 semble legs. The head and thorax are closely 
 united, forming a region which is called the ceph- 
 alothorax {ceph-a-lo-tho' rax). These characteristics are 
 easily seen in 
 spiders (Fig. 
 26). 
 
 The most 
 common rep- 
 resentatives of 
 the class Arach- 
 nida are the 
 spiders. These 
 are extremely 
 
 interesting ani- fig. 26.— a spider. 
 
 mals on ac- 
 count of the high development of their instinc- 
 tive powers. An account of the habits of some of 
 the common species is given in the chapter on Road- 
 side Life. 
 
56 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The harvestmen (Fig. 27) are also abundant in 
 most parts of our country. These leed on small in- 
 
 Fig. 27. — Aharvestman. 
 
 sects, especially aphids, and are perfectly harmless. 
 
 They are sometimes called ''grandfather graybeards." 
 Scorpions (Fig. 28) are common in the southern 
 portions of the United States, 
 but are not found in the North. 
 They feed upon spiders and 
 large insects, which they seize 
 with the large pincers of their 
 palpi, and sting to death with 
 a poison sting, w^hich is at the 
 hind end of the body. 
 
 The mites are mostly very 
 small. They differ from other 
 
 Fig. 28, — A scorpion. 
 
 Fig. 29. — An itch mite : a, from below ; b, 
 from above. 
 
 Arachnids in having the abdomen fused with the 
 
 cephalothorax (Fi< 
 
 Certain velvety red species 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 57 
 
 often attract attention on account of their red color, 
 and other species are often found para- 
 sitic on insects. The annoying para- 
 sites that are known as ticks (Fig. 30), 
 and which are common in the warmer 
 parts of our country, are mites. The 
 sheep-tick, however, is a wingless fly. 
 
 Fig. 30. — The 
 cattle-tick, female. 
 
 Class Myriapoda (Myr-i-ap'o-da). 
 
 The Myriapods [Myr'i-a-pods). 
 
 This class includes the centipedes and the milli- 
 pedes, both of which are commonly called thousand- 
 legged worms. The members of this class have a 
 distinct head which bears a single pair of antennas. 
 
 The body is long, and 
 consists of similar seg- 
 ments, which are not 
 grouped into regions, 
 and each segment of 
 the body bears one or 
 two pairs of legs. 
 The centipedes (Fig. 31) have only a single pair 
 of legs to each segment. Representatives of many 
 species of these are common. The poison glands 
 open through the 
 claws of the first 
 pair of legs, which 
 are bent forward 
 
 Fig. 31. — A centipede. 
 
 Fig. 32.— a millipede. 
 
 The centipedes 
 
 so as to act with the mouth-parts, 
 feed on insects. 
 
 The millipedes (Fig. 32) differ from the centipedes 
 in having two pairs of legs on each of the body seg- 
 ments except the first three. The millipedes, as a 
 
58 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 rule, live in damp places, and feed on decaying vege- 
 table matter. They are harmless, except that occa- 
 sionally they feed upon growing plants. 
 
 Class Hexapoda (Hex-ap'o-da). 
 The Insects. 
 
 Insects differ from the other classes of the Arthrop- 
 oda in having only three pairs of legs, and usually 
 in having wings in the adult state. The}^ have a sin- 
 gle pair of antennas, and the segments of the body 
 are grouped into three regions : head, thorax, and 
 abdomen. 
 
 The name Hexapoda is from two Greek words : 
 hex, six, and pous, foot. Numerous examples of in- 
 sects are figured in the following portions of this 
 chapter. 
 
 THE ORDERS OF THE CLASS HEXAPODA. 
 
 The class Hexapoda, or insects, is divided into 
 nineteen orders. In our Manual for the Study of In. 
 sects these orders and the families of which they are 
 composed are discussed in detail, but in these first 
 lessons we can only briefly refer to each order. The 
 following table is taken from the Manual. This 
 table of orders is merely intended to aid the pupil in 
 determining to which of the orders a specimen that 
 he is examining belongs. No effort has been made to 
 indicate in the table the relation of the orders to each 
 other. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 59 
 
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE ORDERS OF HEXAPODA.* 
 
 {^This table includes only adult insects.) 
 
 A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings. 
 
 B. Mandibles and maxillae retracted within the cavity of the head so 
 
 that only their apices are visible. Page 63 Thysanura. 
 
 BB. Mandibles and maxillae more or less prominent and fitted for 
 biting. (See BBB also.) 
 C. Head with long, trunklike beak. {Boreus.) Page 78, 
 
 Mecoptera. 
 CC. Head not prolonged into a trunk. 
 
 D. Louselike insects of small size ; body less than one sixth inch 
 in length. 
 E. Antennae with not more than five segments. (Bird-lice.) 
 
 Page 69 Mallophaga. 
 
 EE. Antennae with many segments. (Book-lice.) Page 68. 
 
 CORRODENTIA. 
 
 DD. Insects of various forms, but not louselike, and, except in 
 the case of some ants, with the body more than one sixth inch 
 in length. 
 
 E. Abdomen with short, conical, compressed, many-jointed 
 caudal appendages. {Cockroaches.) Page 70, . .Orthoptera. 
 EE. Abdomen without jointed caudal appendages. 
 
 F. Legs fitted for jumping. ( Wingtess locusts, grasshoppers, 
 
 and crickets.) Page 70 Orthoptera. 
 
 FF. Legs fitted for running. 
 
 G. Abdomen broadly joined to the thorax. 
 H. Body linear. {Walking-sticksl) Page 70. 
 
 Orthoptera. 
 HH. Body white and somewhat antlike in form. {Ter- 
 
 mes.) Page 67 Isopter A. 
 
 HHH. Body neither linear nor antlike in form. ( Wing- 
 less firefly et at) Page 85 Coleoptera. 
 
 GG. Base of abdomen strongly constricted. {A tits et at.). 
 
 Page 85 Hymenoptera. 
 
 BBB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. 
 
 C. Small abnormal insects in which the body is either scalelike or 
 gall-like in form, or grublike and clothed with wax. The waxy 
 
 * See note at bottom of page 53. 
 
6o INSECT LIFE. 
 
 covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts or plates, of 
 a continuous layer or of a thin scale, beneath which the insect 
 
 lives. {Coccidce.) Page 75 Hemiptera. 
 
 CC. Body more or less covered with minute scales, or with thick 
 long hairs. Prothorax not free (i. e., closely united with the meso- 
 thorax). Mouth-parts usually consisting of a long " tongue " 
 
 rolled beneath the head. Page 80 Lepidoptera. 
 
 CCC. Body naked, or with isolated or bristlelike hairs. 
 
 D, Prothorax not well developed, inconspicuous or invisible from 
 above. Tarsi five-jointed. Mouth-parts developed into an 
 
 unjointed trunk ; palpi present. Page 83 Diptera. 
 
 DD. Prothorax well developed. 
 
 E. Body strongly compressed ; tarsi five-jointed, {Fleas^ Page 
 
 84 Siphonaptera. 
 
 EE. Body not compressed ; tarsi one-, two-, or three-jointed. 
 F. Last joint of tarsi bladderlike or hooflike at the tip ; mouth 
 parts forming a triangular, unjointed beak ; palpi present. 
 
 Page 74 Physopoda. 
 
 FF. Last joint of tarsi not bladderlike, and furnished with 
 one or two claws ; mouth parts forming a slender, usually 
 jointed beak ; palpi apparently wanting. Page 75. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 AA. Winged, (The wing-covers, elytra, of beetles and of earwigs are 
 counted as wings in this table,) 
 B. With two wings. 
 
 C. Wings horny, leathery, or parchmentlike. 
 
 D, Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Wings leathery, shortened, 
 
 or membranous at the tip. Page 75 Hemiptera. 
 
 DD. Mouth-parts formed for biting. Jaws distinct. 
 
 E. Wings horny, without veins. Hind legs not fitted for 
 
 jumping. Page 85 Coleoptera. 
 
 EE, Wings parchmentlike, with a network of veins. Hind legs 
 
 fitted for jumping. Page 70 Orthoptera. 
 
 CC. Wings membranous. 
 
 D. Abdomen with caudal filaments. Mouth-parts rudimentary. 
 
 E. Halteres wanting. Page 64 Ephemerida. 
 
 EE. Halteres present (males of Coccidce). Page 75, 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 DD, Abdomen without caudal filaments, Halteres in place of 
 second wings. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Page 83. 
 
 Diptera. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 6l 
 
 BB. With four wings. . , 
 
 C. The two pairs of wings unlike in structure. 
 
 D. Front wings leathery at base, and membranous at tip, often 
 overlapping. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Page 75. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 DD. Front wings of same texture throughout. 
 
 E. Front wings horny or leathery, being veinless wing covers. 
 {Elytm.) 
 
 F. Abdomen with caudal appendages in form of movable for- 
 ceps. Page 69 EUPLEXOPTERA. 
 
 FF. Abdomen without forceplike appendages. Page 85. 
 
 COLEOPTERA, 
 
 EE. Front wings leathery or parchmentlike, with a network of 
 veins. 
 
 F. Under wings not folded. Mouth-parts formed for suck- 
 ing. Page 75 Hemiptera, 
 
 FF. Under wings folded lengthwise. Mouth-parts formed 
 
 for biting. Page 70 Orthoptera. 
 
 CC. The two pairs of wings similar, membranous. 
 
 D. Last joint of tarsi bladderlike or hooflike at the tip. Page 74. 
 
 Physopoda. 
 DD. Last joint of tarsi not bladderlike. 
 
 E. Wings entirely or for the greater part clothed with scales. 
 
 Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Page 80 Lepidoptera. 
 
 EE. Wings naked, transparent, or thinly clothed with hairs. 
 F. Mouth-parts arising from the hinder part of the lower 
 surface of the head, and consisting of bristlelike organs in- 
 closed in a jointed sheath. {Ho77ioptera.) Page 75. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 FF. Mouth-parts in normal position. Mandibles not bristle- 
 like. 
 
 G. Wings net-veined, with many veins and cross-veins. 
 H. Tarsi consisting of less than five segments. 
 
 I. Antennae inconspicuous, awl-shaped, short, and slen- 
 der. 
 
 J. First and second pairs of wings nearly the same 
 length ; tarsi three-jointed. Page 65 . . .Odonata. 
 
 JJ. Second pair of wings either small or wanting ; 
 tarsi four-jointed. Page 64 Ephemerida. 
 
 II. Antennae usually conspicuous, setiform, filiform 
 clavate, capitate, or pectinate. 
 
62 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 J. Tarsi two- or three-jointed, 
 
 K. Second pair of wings the smaller. Page 68. 
 
 CORRODENTIA. 
 
 KK. Second pair of wings broader, or at least of 
 the same size as the first pair. Page 66, 
 
 Plecoptera. 
 J J, Tarsi four-jointed ; wings equal. Page 67. 
 
 ISOPTERA. 
 HH. Tarsi consisting of five segments. 
 
 I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila- 
 ments. {Certain May-flies?) Page 64. .Ephemerida. 
 
 II, Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments, 
 
 J. Head prolonged into a trunklike beak. Page 78. 
 
 Mecoptera. 
 JJ. Head not prolonged into a beak. Page 77. 
 
 Neuroptera. 
 GG. Wings with branching veins and comparatively few 
 cross veins, or veinless. 
 H. Tarsi two- or three-jointed. 
 
 I. Posterior wings smaller than the anterior. Page 68. 
 
 CORRODENTIA. 
 
 II. Posterior wings as large as or larger than the ante- 
 rior ones. {Certain stone-flies.) Page 66. 
 
 Plecoptera. 
 HH. Tarsi four- or five-jointed. 
 
 I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila- 
 ments. {Certain May -flies?) Page 64. 
 
 Ephemerida. 
 
 II, Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments. 
 
 J. Prothorax horny. First wings larger than the 
 second, naked or imperceptibly hairy. Second 
 wings without, or with few, usually simple, veins. 
 Jaws (mandibles) well developed. Palpi small. 
 Page 85 Hymenoptera. 
 
 JJ. Prothorax membranous or, at the most, parch- 
 mentlike. Second wings as large as or larger than 
 the first, folded lengthwise, with many branching 
 veins. First wings naked or thinly clothed with 
 hair. Jaws (mandibles) inconspicuous. Palpi 
 long. Mothlike insects. Page 79. 
 
 Trichoptera, 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 63 
 
 List of Orders of the 
 
 Thysanura. 
 
 EpheMerida. 
 
 Odonata. 
 
 Plecoptera. 
 
 Isoptera. 
 
 corrodentia. 
 
 Mallophaga. 
 
 euplexoptera. 
 
 Orthoptera 
 
 Physopoda. 
 
 Hexapoda. 
 
 Hemiptera. 
 
 Neuroptera. 
 
 Mecoptera. 
 
 Trichoptera. 
 
 Lepidoptera. 
 
 Diptera. 
 
 SiPHONAPTERA. 
 
 Coleoptera. 
 Hymenoptera. 
 
 Order Thysanura (Thys-a-nu'ra). 
 Bristletails, Springtails^ Fish-moths^ and others. 
 
 The members of this order are wingless insects which 
 undergo no metamorphosis, the larval form being retained 
 hy the adult. The mandibles and max- 
 illcB are retracted within the cavity of 
 the head, so that only their tips are 
 visible ; they have, hozvever, some free- 
 dom of motion, and can be used for 
 biting and chewing soft substances. 
 True compound eyes are rarely present ; 
 but in some genera there is a group of 
 simple eyes on each side of the head. 
 The abdomen is sometimes fur7iished 
 with rudimentary legs. 
 
 A familiar example of this order 
 is the fish-moth (Fig-. 33), which 
 often does damage to starched cloth- 
 ing, bookbindings, and sometimes 
 loosens wall paper by eating- out 
 the paste. The hair line at the 
 left of the figure indicates the length of the insect. 
 
 The fish-moth is one of the bristletails, which are 
 
 l-IG. 
 
 33. — The fish- 
 moth. 
 
64 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Fig. 34. - A springtail. 
 
 SO called on account of the bristles at the hind end of 
 the body. Fig. 34 represents one of the springtails. 
 
 In these insects there is a 
 taillike organ, which is bent 
 under the insect when it is 
 at rest, and by which it can 
 leap several feet. Spring- 
 tails are abundant in damp 
 places, among decaying veg- 
 etation ; but they are com- 
 monly overlooked on account of their minute size. 
 
 The name Thysanura is from two Greek words : 
 thysanos, a tassel, and otira, the tail. 
 
 Order Ephemerida (Eph-e-mer'i-da). 
 The May-flies. 
 
 The members of this order have delicate membranous 
 wings with a fine network of 
 veins ; the fore wings are large 
 and the hi7id wings are much 
 smaller^ or zvanting. The mouth- 
 parts are rudimentary. The 
 7net morphosis is incomplete. 
 
 The name of this order is 
 from the Greek word epJieme- 
 ros, lasting but a day. It was 
 given to these insects on ac- 
 count of the shortness of their 
 lives after reaching the adult 
 state. Fig. 35 represents a 
 common species. Work on 
 May-flies is outlined in the 
 chapter on Pond Life. fig. 35.— a May-fly. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 65 
 
 Order Odonata (Od-o-na'ta). 
 The Dragon- files and Damsel-fiies. 
 
 The members of this order have four membranous 
 wings which are finely netted ivitJi veins ; the hind wings 
 
 Fig. 36. — A dragon-fly. 
 
 are as large or larger than the fore wings, and each 
 wing has 7iear the middle of its 
 front margin a joint like structure 
 — the nodus. The mouth-parts are 
 formed for biting. The metamor- 
 phosis is incomplete. 
 
 The name of this order is 
 evidently from the Greek word 
 odons, a tooth ; but the reason 
 for applying- it to these insects 
 is obscure. It may refer to the 
 tusklike form of the abdomen. 
 
 Fig. 36 represents a dragon- 
 fly, and Fig. 37 a damsel-fly 
 Work on these insects is out- 
 lined in the chapter on Pond 
 Life. 
 
 Fig. 37. — A damsel-fly, 
 
66 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Order Plecoptera (Ple-cop'te-ra). 
 T/ie Sto7ie-fiies. 
 
 The members of this order have four membranous 
 wings ^ ivith comparatively few or with many cross-veins ; 
 the hind zvings are much larger than the fore wings, and 
 are folded in plaits and lie upon the abdomen when at 
 rest. The mouth-parts are of tJie biting type of structure, 
 but are frequently poorly developed. The metamorphosis 
 is incomplete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words: 
 plecos, plaited, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the 
 
 way 
 
 in which the hind wing^s are 
 
 Fig. 38. — A stone-fly. 
 
 Fig. 39. — A nymph of a 
 stone-fly. 
 
 folded when at rest. Fig. 38 represents one of the 
 larger members of this order with the wings of one 
 side spread, and Fig. 39 represents a nymph. Work 
 on these insects is outlined in the chapter on Brook 
 Life. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 67 
 
 Order Isoptera (I-sop'te-ra). 
 The Termites or White-ants. 
 
 The members of this order are social insects. Each 
 species consists of several distinct castes, of which only the 
 "'kings'' and the '' qneeiis'' are winged. These have 
 four long, narrozv wings, zvhich are soviezvhat leathery in 
 structure, and zvhicJi are furnished with numerous but 
 more or less indistinct veins. The two pairs 
 of wings are similar in form and structure, 
 and are laid flat upon the back when not in 
 use. The mouthparts are formed for bit- 
 ing. The metamorphosis is incomplete. 
 
 The termites are commonly called 
 white-ants on account of their light color 
 and the fact that they live in large com- 
 munities like ants. They are, however, 
 not at all closely related to the true ants. 
 They can be distinguished from ants at 
 a glance by the absence of a slender waist 
 between the thorax and ab- 
 domen (Fig. 40). 
 
 The termites that occur 
 in the United States are 
 ^fe;£/ usually found in old logs 
 and stumps, or in the 
 ground under stones. Dur- 
 ing the greater part of the 
 year only the workers (Fig. 
 zjo) and the soldiers (Fig. 
 41) are found in the nest. 
 But during early summer the winged 
 forms, the newly developed kings and Aqueen. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 A worker. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 A soldier. 
 
6% 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 queens, also occur. A mature, egg-lajing- queen is 
 presumably present in each nest ; but this form of 
 our common species has not yet been found. Fig. 42 
 represents an egg-laying queen of an African species. 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : 
 isos, equal, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact 
 that the two pairs of wings are similar in form and 
 structure. 
 
 Order Corrodentia (Cor-ro-den'ti-a). 
 The Psocids (^Fsoc'ids) and the Book-lice. 
 
 The winged members of this order have four mem- 
 branous wings ^ with the veins prominent, but with com- 
 paratively few cross-veins ; the fore wings are larger 
 than tJie hind wings ; and both pairs when not in use are 
 placed rooflike over the body, being almost vertical, and 
 not folded in plaits. The mouth-parts are formed for 
 biting. The metamorphosis is incomplete. 
 
 The winged members of this order feed upon 
 lichens and are found on the trunks of trees and on 
 
 fences ; they 
 
 often occur in 
 
 swarms. Fig. 
 
 43 represents a 
 
 common form 
 
 with its wings 
 
 spread. 
 
 The most 
 
 familiar repre- 
 sentative of the wingless forms is the book-louse 
 (Fig. 44). This is a minute insect which occurs be- 
 tween the leaves of old books and on papered walls 
 of houses. 
 
 Fig. 43. — A psocid. 
 
 Fig. 44. — A book- 
 louse. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 69 
 
 The name of this order is from the Latin word 
 corrodere, to gnaw, and refers to the gnawing habits 
 of these insects. 
 
 Order Mallophaga (Mal-loph'a-ga). 
 The Bird- lice. 
 
 The members of this order are zuijigless parasitic in- 
 sects, zvith biting mouth-parts. The metamorphosis is 
 incomplete. 
 
 The bird-lice are common on poultry and other 
 birds. They differ from the true lice in having bit- 
 ing mouth-parts, and in feeding upon either 
 feathers, hair, or the skin, w^hile the true 
 lice have sucking mouth-parts and feed 
 upon blood. Fig. 45 represents a specie's 
 which infests poultry. 
 
 The name of the order is from two 
 Greek words : mallos, wool, and phagein, 
 to eat. Although some species infest sheep fig. 45. 
 and goats, feeding upon their w^ool, by far ^^ird-icuse. 
 the greater number live among the feathers of birds. 
 
 Order Euplexoptera (Eu-plex-op'te-ra). 
 The Earwigs. 
 
 The members of this order have apparently four 
 wings ; the first pair of which are leathery, very small, 
 zuithout veins, and whe?t at rest meet in a straight line on 
 the back ; the second pair are large, with radiati?tg veins, 
 and when at rest are folded both lengthwise and cross-wise. 
 The mouthparts are formed for biting. The caudal end 
 of the body is furnished zvith a pair of appendages zuhich 
 resemble forceps. The metamorphosis is incomplete. 
 
 These are long and narrow insects, resembling 
 
70 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 rove beetles in the form of the body and in the short- 
 ness of the wing covers, but easily distinguished by 
 having a pair of forceps, at the end 
 of the body (Fig. 46). The common 
 name, earwig, has reference to a 
 widely spread fancy that these in- 
 sects creep into the ears of sleeping 
 persons. 
 
 The earwigs are rare in the north- 
 eastern United States, but are more 
 often found in the South and on the 
 Pacific coast. In Europe they are 
 common, and are often troublesome 
 pests, feeding upon the corollas of 
 flowers, fruits, and other vegetable 
 substances. 
 
 Fig. 46.— An earwig. j • r 
 
 1 he name 01 the order is from 
 three Greek words : eu, \nq\\, pleko, to fold, ?ir\d pter 071, 
 wing. It refers to the unusual folding of the hind 
 
 Order Orthoptera (Or-thop'te-ra). 
 Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Others. 
 
 The members of this order have four luings : the first 
 pair are thickened, and overlap when at rest ; the second 
 pair are thinner, and are folded in plaits like a fan. 
 The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamor- 
 phosis is incomplete. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words : 
 ortJios, straight, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the 
 longitudinal folding of the hind wings. 
 
 This order includes only six families, and as they 
 are among our most common insects we will briefly 
 refer to each of them. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 71 
 
 Family Blattid^ (Blat'ti-dae). — The body is oval 
 when seen from above, and is very flat ; the three 
 pairs of legs are similar in form ; 
 the insects run rapidly. They 
 are commonly known as cock- 
 roaches. Some are winged (Fig. 
 47), others are wingless (Fig. 48). 
 Family Mantid^ (Man'ti-dse). 
 — The prothorax is very long and 
 slender; the first pair of legs are 
 very different from the others 
 and are fitted for grasping. These 
 insects feed on other insects, 
 which they seize with their fore legs. The suppliant 
 attitude w^hich they assume while lying in wait for 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 The Croton. 
 
 bug. 
 
 Fig. 
 A wingless 
 cockroach. 
 
 Fig. 49. — A praying-mantis. 
 
 their prey (Fig. 49) has given them the name of pray- 
 ing mantes, the name of the typical genus being 
 Mantis. 
 
 Family Phasmid.^ (Phas'mi-dse). — The body is 
 very long and slender; the three pairs of legs are 
 
72 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 similar in form, and are also very long and slender; 
 
 the insects walk slowly. This family includes the 
 
 well-known walking sticks (Fig. 50). 
 
 Family AcRiDiD^ (A-crid'- 
 i-d^e). — There are three fami- 
 lies of this order in which 
 the hind legs are very much 
 
 Fig. 51.— a locust. 
 
 stouter or very much longer, 
 or both stouter and longer, 
 than the other pairs, being 
 fitted for jumping. This is 
 the first ol these three fami- 
 lies. In this family the an- 
 tennas are shorter than the 
 
 Fig. 52, — A locust. 
 
 body. The ovipositor is 
 short and composed of four 
 separate plates. The tarsi 
 are three-jointed. The mem- 
 bers of the family are known 
 as locusts or short-horned grasshoppers (Figs. 51 and 
 
 . Family Locustid^e (Lo-cus^ti-dse). — This is the 
 second of the three families of jumping Orthoptera. 
 
 Fig. 50. — A walking-stick. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 73 
 
 In this family the antennae are very slender and 
 longer than the body. (This is also true of crickets.) 
 The ovipositor is sword- 
 shaped. The tarsi are four- 
 jointed. The family as a 
 whole are called the true 
 grasshoppers or the long- 
 horned grasshoppers. Some 
 of the smaller species (Fig. 53) are known as meadow- 
 grasshoppers, and a few of the larger species are 
 called katydids (Fig. 54). It should be observed 
 that, owing to an unfortunate application of names, 
 
 Fig. 53. —A meadow-grasshopper. 
 
 Fig, 54.— The angular-winged katydid and its eggs. 
 
74 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 the locusts do not belong to the Locustidge, but to 
 the Acrididce. 
 
 Family Gryllid.e (Gryrii-dse).— This is the last 
 of the three families of jumping Orthoptera. With 
 these insects the antennas, 
 like those of the long-horned 
 grasshoppers, are very slen- 
 der and longer than the 
 body, except in the mole- 
 
 FlG. 55. — A cricket. 
 
 Fig. 56.— a cricket. 
 
 crickets. The ovipositor is spear-shaped when ex- 
 erted. The tarsi are three-jointed. The members 
 of this family are known as crickets (Figs. 55 and 56). 
 
 Order Physopoda (Phy-sop'o-da). 
 Thf'ips. 
 
 The members of this order have four wings ; these 
 are similar in form, long, 7tarrow, menibranous^ not 
 folded, with but few or 710 veins, and only rarely with 
 cross-veins ; they are fringed with long hairs, and are 
 laid horizontally along the back when at rest. The meta- 
 morphosis is incomplete. The mouth-parts are probably 
 used chiefly for sucking ; they are intermediate i7t for 771 
 betwee7i those of the sucki7tg and those of the biting in- 
 sects. TJie tarsi are one- or twofointed a7id bladderlike 
 at tip. 
 
 The name Physopoda is from two Greek 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 75 
 
 words : physao, to blow up, and pons, a foot. It re- 
 fers to the curious bladderlike feet of these insects. 
 
 The species of thrips are very 
 minute insects. Fig. 57 represents 
 one of them greatly enlarged, with 
 the wings of one side spread. They 
 can be easily found by pulling to 
 pieces the blossoms of clover or 
 daisies. Some species are black, 
 others are light brown. The wing- 
 less nymphs of our common black 
 species are bright red. f^^- 57.-A thrips.. 
 
 Order Hemiptera (He-mip'te-ra). 
 
 Bugs^ Lice, Aphids, ajid others. 
 
 The winged members of this order have four wings ; 
 in one suborder the first pair of wings are thickened 
 at the base, with thinner extremities which overlap 
 on the back ; in another suborder the first pair of 
 wings are of the same thickness throughout, and usu- 
 ally slope at the sides of the body. The mouthparts 
 are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is incom- 
 plete. 
 
 The name Hemiptera is from two Greek words: 
 hemi, half, and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by 
 the form of the first pair of wings in the true bugs. 
 Here the basal half of these organs is thickened 
 somewhat like the wing covers of beetles, only the 
 terminal half being winglike. The second pair of 
 wings are membranous, and when at rest are folded 
 beneath the first pair. 
 
 Within this order are grouped insects that differ 
 greatly in form and appearance. These are dis- 
 
^6 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 tributed among three suborders, which can be sep- 
 arated by the following table : 
 
 A. Wingless Hemiptera, parasitic upon man and other mammals, with a 
 
 fleshy unjointed beak II. Parasitica. 
 
 A A. Hemiptera with or without wings, but with a jointed beak. 
 B. First pair of wings thickened at the base, with thinner extremities, 
 which overlap on the back ; beak arising from the front part of 
 
 the head (Fig. 58) , I. Heteroptera. 
 
 BB. Wings of the same thickness throughout, and usually sloping at 
 the sides of the body ; beak arising from the hinder part of the 
 lower side of the head (Fig. 59) III. Homoptera. 
 
 Suborder Heteroptera (Het-e-rop'te-ra). This 
 suborder includes the true bugs, of which the squash- 
 bug (Fig. 60) and the common 
 ^^'^1^ stink-bugs (Fig. 61) are well- 
 
 FiG, 58.— Head of an hete- 
 ropterous insect. 
 
 Fig. 59.— Head 
 
 of an homopte- 
 
 rous insect. 
 
 Fig. 60.— The Fig. 61.— A 
 squash-bug. stink-bug. 
 
 known examples. Several families of this suborder 
 are discussed in the chapters on Pond Life and on 
 Brook Life. 
 
 Suborder Parasita (Par-a-si'ta). — This suborder 
 is represented in the United States by only 
 one family, the Pediculidse (Ped-i-cu'li-dse). 
 This family comprises the true lice (Fig. 62), 
 which differ from the bird lice of the order 
 Mallophaga in having sucking mouth parts. 
 The true lice live on the skin of mammals 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 77 
 
 and suck their blood. There are several ^species that 
 infest man. 
 
 Suborder Homoptera (Ho-mop'te-ra).— The Ho- 
 moptera includes insects of widely diversified form, 
 but which agree, however, in 
 having- the wings when present 
 of the same thickness through- 
 out, and usually sloping roof-like 
 at the sides of the body when at 
 rest, and in having the beak arise 
 from the hinder part of the lower 
 side of the head (Fig. 59). 
 
 Among the more common 
 representatives of this suborder 
 are the cicadas (Fig. 63) and the 
 spittle-insects and the tree-hop- 
 pers, described in the chapter on 
 Roadside Life. The common ^^' ^'^ 
 
 plant-lice, or aphids, and the scale-bugs are also 
 members of this suborder. 
 
 Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra). 
 The Dobson, Aphis-lions^ Ant-lions, and Others. 
 
 . The members of this order have foiir zvings ; these 
 are membranous and furnished with numerous veins, and 
 usually zuith many cross-veins. The head is not pro- 
 longed into a beak. The mouth-parts are formed for 
 biting. The metamorphosis is complete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : 
 neuron, a nerve, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the 
 numerous nerves, or veins as they are more com- 
 monly called, with which the wings are furnished. 
 
 When the name Neuroptera was first used it was 
 
7^ 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 applied to a much larger group of insects than now, 
 a group which has since been divided into many 
 orders. So that now, while the name expresses a 
 character which is true of the order, it is also true of 
 many others.* 
 
 One of the more conspicuous members of the 
 order is Polystcechotes punctatus {Pol-ys-toech' o-tes punc- 
 
 ta'tiis), which is repre- 
 sented by Fig. 64. To this 
 order also belong Corydalis 
 (see page 153) and the 
 
 V\Q. 6^.— Polystcechotes punctatus. Aphis-lio7lS {?>QQ \)digQ I 78). 
 
 Order Mf.coptera (Me-cop'te-ra). 
 The Scorpion-flies and Others. 
 
 The 7neinbers of this order have four zvings ; these 
 are membranous and furnished with numerous veins. 
 The head is prolonged into a beak, at the end of which 
 biting mouthparts are situated. The metamorphosis is 
 complete. 
 
 This is a small order composed of very remark- 
 able insects. The most striking character common 
 to all is the shape of the head, which is 
 prolonged into a beak w^ith jaws at the 
 end (Fig. 65). The name Mecoptera is 
 from two Greek words : mecos, length, 
 and pteron, a wing. 
 
 The members of the genus Panorpa Fig. 65.— Head 
 {Pa-nor'pa) (Fig. 66) are called scorpion- o^^^^coipion- 
 
 * The Neuroptera of the older entomologists included the following 
 orders : Thysanura, Ephemerida, Odonata, Plecoptera, Isoptera, Corro- 
 dentia, Mallophaga, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 79 
 
 flies on account of the peculiar form of the caudal 
 part of the abdomen of the male (Fig. 6^). This at 
 first sight suggests the corresponding part 
 of a scorpion, but in reality the two are 
 very different. 
 
 Very closely allied to the scorpion-flies 
 are the insects of the genus Bittacus {Bit'- 
 
 ta-cus). 
 
 Fig. 66.— a 
 scorpion-fly. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 Tail of a 
 scorpion- 
 fly. 
 
 These insects have long narrow 
 wings, long legs, and a slender 
 abdomen. They resemble crane- 
 flies very closely when on the wing. In 
 this genus the caudal appendages of the 
 male are not enlarged as in Panorpa. 
 
 The species of the genus Boreus {Bo're- 
 iis) are remarkable for occurring on snow in 
 the winter in our Northern States. In this 
 genus the females are wingless, while the 
 males have rudimentary wings. 
 
 Order Trichoptera (Tri-chop'te-ra). 
 The Caddice-flies or Caddice-worms. 
 
 The members of this order have four wings ; these 
 are membrafiotcs, furnished with numerous longitudinal 
 veins, but with only few cross-veins, and are more or less 
 densely clothed with hairs. The mouth-parts are rudi- 
 TYientary. The metamorphosis is complete. 
 
 Fig. 68.— a caddice-fly. 
 
 Fig. 69. — A caddice-worm. 
 
 This order is composed of the caddice-flies and 
 caddice-worms (Figs. 6Z and 69), which are discussed 
 
8o 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 in the chapter on Brook Life. The name of the 
 order is from two Greek words: thrix, a \\?ivc, pteron, 
 a winof. It refers to the fact that the wino:s are 
 clothed with hair. 
 
 Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). 
 
 The Moths, or Millers, the Skippers, and the Butte)- flies. 
 
 The members of this order have four wings ; these 
 are membranous and covered with overlapping scales. 
 The mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The meta- 
 inorpJwsis is complete. 
 
 The name of this order is from two Greek words : 
 lepis, a scale, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the 
 fact that the wings of these insects are covered 
 
 with scales. Every lad 
 that lives in the country 
 knows that the wings of 
 moths and butterflies are 
 covered with dust, which 
 comes off upon one's lin- 
 ofers when these insects 
 are handled. This dust 
 when examined with a 
 microscope is found to be 
 composed of very minute 
 
 Fig. 70.— Part of a win? of a butter- i r v-pp-nlar form 
 
 fly, greatly magnified. The scales SCalCS 01 rCgUldr lOrm, 
 
 were removed froni a portion of ^^^^ when a wiuo^ is looked 
 the specimen figured. o 
 
 at in the same way the 
 scaks are seen arranged with more or less regularity 
 upon it (Fig. 70). The body, the legs, and other ap- 
 pendages are also covered with scales. 
 
 This order has been discussed in Lessons XXIII 
 to XXV, and several representatives of it are de- 
 
M^' 
 
 ..^W"... 
 
 .aqjBirg no e.i; . isqg joddA arlT .i 
 
 .?JnBlq it>; =:3qBi^ ,23lqq43 no 
 
 Bvizl sflT .V^Wfi--^^ TiWfi^'iW/l .^luiq^iioQ banisv-jiifiQ sriT .£ 
 
 .sq£i^ no abasj; 
 
 ■ YTiadv^ong arfj fans sliloijevanori risud ariJ no abaa^ 
 no sbasl B-ftBl 3riT twaiw w^n^-^wk ,xnijiq8 suaaaX arlT .g 
 
 .339DBfdiil boB SqBI-g 
 
Plate III.— SOME SPHINX MOTHS. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 1. The Abbot Sphinx, Thyreus abboti. The larva feeds on grape. 
 
 2. The White-lined Sphinx, Deilephila lineata. The larva feeds 
 
 on apples, grapes, and many other plants. 
 
 3. The Dark-veined Deilephila, Deilephila gallii. The larva 
 
 feeds on grape. 
 
 4. The Bumblebee Hawk-moth, Hemarps diffinis. The larva 
 
 feeds on the bush honeysuckle and the snowberry. 
 
 5. The Nessus Sphinx, Amphion nessMs. The larva feeds on 
 
 grape and rubiaceae. 
 
Plate III. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 8l 
 
 scribed in the chapters following this one. The 
 principal divisions of the Lepidoptera that are ap- 
 propriately discussed here are three : The moths, 
 the skippers, and the butterflies. 
 
 The Moths. — These are the insects commonly 
 called millers. Most of the species fly by night and 
 are frequently attracted to lights. When at rest the 
 
 Fig. 71. — A moth with threadlike antennas. 
 
 wings are either wrapped around the body, or are 
 spread horizontally, or are folded rooflike on the 
 abdomen ; they are not held in a vertical position 
 above the body. The antennas of moths are of vari- 
 
 FiG. 72. — A moth with featherlike antenn£e. 
 
 ous forms ; they are usually threadlike or featherlike ; 
 only in rare cases are they enlarged toward the tip 
 (Figs. 71, 72). 
 
 The Skippers. — The skippers are so called on ac- 
 
82 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 count of their peculiar mode of flight. They fly in 
 the daytime and dart suddenly from place to place. 
 When at rest they usually hold the wings erect in a 
 vertical position like butterflies; often the fore wings 
 are thus held while the hind wings are extended 
 horizontally. The antennae are threadlike, and en- 
 larged toward the tip ; but in most cases the extreme 
 tip is pointed and recurved, forming a hook. The 
 
 Fig. 73.— a skipper. 
 
 FiG. 74. — A skipper. 
 
 abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of a moth 
 rather than that of a butterfly (Figs. 73, 74). 
 
 Fig. 75. — The goat-weed butterfly. 
 
 The Butterflies. — The butterflies fly by day, and 
 when at rest they fold the wings together above the 
 back in a vertical position. The antennas are thread- 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 83 
 
 like with a club at the tip, which is never recurved so 
 as to form a hook. The abdomen is slender (Figs. 
 75, 76). 
 
 Fig. 76, — The banded-purple butterfly. 
 
 Order Diptera (Dip'te-ra). 
 The Flies. 
 
 The members of this order have only two wings ; 
 these are borne by the mesothorax. The metathorax is 
 furnished zvith a pair of knobbed threads — the halteres. 
 The month-parts are formed for sucking. The meta- 
 morphosis is complete. 
 
 To the order Diptera belong all insects that are 
 properly termed flies, and only these. The word 
 " fly " forms a part of many compound names of in- 
 sects of other orders, as butterfly, stone-fly, May-fl}^ 
 and Chalcis-fly ; but when used alone, it is correctly 
 applied only to dipterous insects. To some flies 
 other common names have been applied, as mosquito, 
 gnat, and midge. 
 
 The name Diptera is from two Greek words : dis^ 
 two, and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by the 
 fact that the flies are distinguished by the possession 
 
84 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 of a single pair of wings ; for no fly has more than 
 two wings, and only a few are wingless. 
 
 The common house-fly is the best-known repre- 
 sentative of this or- 
 der. Fig. "jj repre- 
 sents a crane-fly, so 
 called on account of 
 its long legs. In this 
 figure the halteres, 
 which represent the 
 hind wings in this or- 
 der, are well shown. 
 Several families of 
 flies are referred to 
 in the following chap- 
 
 FiG. 77.— A crane-fly. tcr. 
 
 Order Siphonaptera (Siph-o-nap'te-ra). 
 The Fleas. 
 
 The members of this order are practically wingless^ 
 the wings being represented only by minute scaly plates. 
 The mouthparts are formed for sucking. The meta- 
 morphosis is complete. 
 
 The name of the order is 
 from two Greek words : si- 
 phon, a tube, and pteros, 
 wingless. It refers to the 
 form of the mouth and to the 
 wingless condition of the in- 
 sects. Fig. 78 represents the 
 
 j^^ ri_„ J ' i. 1 Fig. 78. — The dog-flea and its 
 
 dog-flea and its larva. ' larva. 
 
Plate IV. 
 
Plate IV.— BEETLES. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 1. The Six-spotted Tiger-beetle, Cicindela sexguttata. See page 
 
 270. 
 
 2. The Searcher, Calosoma scrutator. A predaceous beetle. 
 
 3. Caloptero7t reticulatum, a diurnal member of the firefly family. 
 
 4. ChlcEtiius sericeus, a ground-beetle. 
 
 5. Brachynus fumaits, a bombardier beetle. 
 
 6. The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, Saperda Candida. 
 
 7. The Poplar Borer, Saperda calcarata. 
 
 8. The Cloaked Knotty-horn, Desmocerus palliatiis. The larva 
 
 bores in the pith of elder. 
 
 9. Buprestis fdsciata^ one of the metallic wood-borers. 
 
 TO. The Spotted Pelidnota, Pelidnota punctata. It feeds on the 
 leaves of grape. 
 
 11. Dicerca divartcata, one of the metallic wood-borers ; the larva 
 
 bores in peach, cherry, beech, and maple. 
 
 12. A burying beetle, N'ecrophorus. 
 
 13. PhancBus carnifex, male ; one of the tumble-bugs. 
 
 14. Fhancsus carnifex, female. 
 
HrTR- 
 
 3f{j no :.-—'■ .f 
 
 lori- 
 
 ; ■:1jSC 
 
 )1J -driT 
 
 ■SJ 
 
 
 
 t;;.T 
 
 .01 
 
 
 
 ^iSl 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 IJ 
 
 
 4U 
 
 iVjUCi i 
 
 
 
 .- '-'^ "^ 
 
 .Vi'SijS'.'SisV^'- 
 
 
 al^rnsj 
 
 .X'iViS^^^Si-) z 
 
 ■.';;'5i5'^X5S\^ 
 
 •■H 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 Order Coleoptera (Co-le-op'te-ra). 
 
 The Beetles. 
 
 85 
 
 The members of this order have a pair of horny wing- 
 covers, called elytra, which meet in a straight line down 
 the back, and beneath which there is a single pair of ineni- 
 branous wings. The mouthparts are formed for biting. 
 The metamorphosis is complete. 
 
 Beetles can be readily distinguished from all other 
 insects except earwigs by the 
 possession of horny, veinless 
 wing-covers, which meet in a 
 straight line down the back 
 (Fig. 79); and they differ from 
 earwigs in lacking the pincer- 
 like appendages at the tail end 
 of the body characteristic of 
 those insects (see page 70). Fia 79- a beetle. 
 
 Beetles also differ from ear- 
 wigs in having a complete metamorphosis. 
 
 The name of the order Coleoptera is from two 
 Greek words : coleos, a sheath, and pteron, a wing. 
 It refers to the sheathlike structure of the elytra 
 (el^y-tra) or wing-covers, which were formerly be- 
 lieved to be modified wings. 
 
 This order has been studied in Lessons XVIII to 
 XX, and several families are described in the foUow^- 
 ing chapters. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera (Hy-me-nop'te-ra). 
 Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Others. 
 
 The members of this order have four wings ; tiiese 
 are membraitous, and furnished with comparatively few or 
 
86 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 zvitJi no transverse veins. The hind wings are smaller 
 than the fore wings. The mouth- parts are formed for 
 biting and sucking. The abdomen in the female is 
 usually fur?iisJied zvith a sting, piercer, or saw. The 
 metamorphosis is complete. 
 
 The bees, wasps, and ants are among the better- 
 known insects, and will serve to give an idea of the 
 characteristic appearance of 
 the members of this order. 
 They are chiefly insects of 
 small or moderate size, and 
 many of them abound wher- 
 ever flowers bloom. From the 
 Fig. 8o.— An ichneumon-fly. earliest timcs they havc been 
 favorites with students of the 
 habits of animals, for among them we find the most 
 wonderful developments of instinctive powers. Many 
 volumes have been written regarding their ways, 
 and much remains to be discovered, even concerning 
 our most common species. 
 
 The name of the order is from two Greek words : 
 hymeit, membrane, 2ind pteron, a wing. It refers to the 
 fact that the wings are of a delicate membranous tex- 
 
 FlG, 8i. — An ensign-fly. 
 
 Fig. 82, — A digger-wasp. 
 
 ture ; but this characteristic is not distinctive, for it 
 is possessed by the wings of many other insects. 
 Figs. 80, 81, and 82 represent members of this order. 
 
Plate V. 
 
 A POND. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 POND LIFE. 
 
 F all delightful fields for Nature study 
 none can surpass in interest a well- 
 stocked pond, for there is a pecul- 
 iar fascination in the study of pond 
 life. Even to one who knows lit- 
 tle about Nature, a pretty pond, 
 partly shaded by trees and fringed 
 with water-plants, is a source of de- 
 light. What pleasure when one is 
 tired to lie on a grassy bank and watch 
 the ripples chase each other over the 
 water, or to thread one's way through a rank growth 
 of sedges and rushes to where the cat-tail flags rear 
 their tall spikes, and the sweet-scented water-lilies 
 lift themselves above their shield-shaped leaves, or to 
 fioat in a boat and watch the clouds above and their 
 doubles in the mirror below ! 
 
 Such experiences bring rest and a feeling of har- 
 mony with Nature. But a keener enjoyment comes 
 with a more intimate acquaintance with the forms of 
 life that abound in these places, when one can look 
 upon each kind of water-plant as an old friend, and 
 know something of the ways of the creatures that 
 glide over the surface or swim beneath. 
 
 87 
 
SS INSECT LIFE. 
 
 There is a pond that we love to visit when we are 
 tired with work at our desks. It is a long", narrow 
 one that winds beneath overhanging trees, and is 
 margined with a dense growth of water-plants. 
 Over this pond dragon-flies hawk at midges ; on a 
 dead tree near the bank a kingfisher has his perch, 
 from which on our approach he swoops down twirl- 
 ing his watchman's rattle ; sometimes in the swamp 
 near by we frighten up a bittern ; and in the shal- 
 lows near the shore the great blue heron loves to 
 fish, standing knee-deep in the water watching pa- 
 tiently for his victims. 
 
 Here, too, occur large colonies of whirligig-bee- 
 tles, which chase each other round and round as if 
 at play ; water-striders skim over the surface ; the 
 marsh-treader glides on its stiltlike legs among the 
 rushes and floating leaves ; and, beneath the surface, 
 water- boatmen, back -swimmers, water- scorpions, 
 diving -beetles, and many other strange creatures 
 abound. 
 
 We go to this pond and watch these creatures in 
 their homes and then we bring some of them to our 
 study, where we put them in aquaria, and try to 
 learn more about their ways. 
 
 Similar ponds can be found in most country 
 places, and the following pages of this chapter are 
 written to aid others in making similar studies. 
 
 In the studies of life histories the pupil should be 
 very careful in his observations ; it is easy to make 
 mistakes. Do not be satisfied with seeing a thing 
 once, but observe it over and over again. Make sure 
 you are right and then look again. This is the only 
 way in which good scientific work can be done, and 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 89 
 
 every pupil can be a scientific observer if he has eyes 
 and will use them properly. 
 
 INSECTS THAT FLY OVER PONDS. 
 
 The Dragon-flies, or Darning-needles, and 
 THE Damsel-flies {Field Work), — It is a field day, 
 and we find ourselves near our favorite pond, drawn 
 here by a charm we do not care to resist. We are 
 seated on a convenient log on the bank. Below us 
 lies the water without a ripple on its surface, and 
 whether we look up or look down we see the same 
 beautiful foliage of the graceful trees that line the 
 shores. Fringing the bank beyond is a bed of lilies, 
 whose shields float on the surface, and at our feet 
 great arrowlike leaves point upward. Not a breath 
 stirs a branch, and so still is it that it seems as if no 
 living thing were here except the invisible, silent 
 stream of life within twig and leaf. Suddenly there 
 shoots over the pond that swiftest of w^inged crea- 
 tures, a dragon-fly. So rapid is its flight that we 
 can hardly follow it with our sight. Back and forth 
 it goes, when, discovering strangers, it darts in front 
 of us and suddenly stops in midair. Here it hangs 
 for a moment motionless, except for its rapidly 
 vibrating wings, and then as suddenly darts away. 
 
 What a pity that children should be taught to 
 fear this beautiful, harmless creature by the silly 
 legend that it will sew up their eyes and ears ! 
 
 The habits of dragon-flies are such that they can 
 be studied only in the field ; the roomiest of breed- 
 ing cages would offer slight scope for the powers of 
 these insects. We must therefore watch them while 
 free if we would learn what they do. 
 
90 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Yonder flies a tiny insect, a midge or a mosquito ; 
 as we watch it, a dragon-fly darts at it and it is gone. 
 Now that we have learned what to watch for, we see 
 insect after insect destroyed by the rapacious crea- 
 ture ; no wonder that it is called a dragon. 
 
 Other dragon-flies have come to our pond. Some 
 of them are behaving quite differently from the one 
 that is hawking mosquitoes. They soar over the 
 pond, and at frequent intervals swoop down and 
 touch the water with the tip of the abdomen. Why 
 do they do this? Are they at play splashing the 
 water like a child? No, these are females laying 
 their eggs. The young of dragon-flies lead a very 
 different life from that of the adult. They live be- 
 neath the water upon the bottom of the pond or 
 stream as the case may be ; and the adult places 
 her eggs in such a position that when the young 
 hatch they will be in their proper element. 
 
 Not all dragon-flies lay their eggs as these are 
 doing. On one occasion the writer, in company with 
 his class, saw a dragon-fly poising herself in the air a 
 short distance above the point where a water-plant 
 emerged from the water. At frequent intervals the 
 insect descended with a swift curved movement, 
 pushing the end of her abdomen into the water. On 
 examination a large cluster of eggs was found at- 
 tached to the plant just below the surface. And 
 Prof. Uhler has observed a dragon-fly alight upon a 
 reed, and, pushing the end of her body below the 
 surface of the water, glue a bunch of eggs to the 
 submerged stem. 
 
 The dragon-flies that we have been observing 
 hold their wings spread out stifBy when at rest (Fig. 
 
PONU LIFE. 
 
 91 
 
 83). But there are certain insects, abundant about a 
 ditch near this pond, which resemble these dragon- 
 
 FlG. 83. 
 
 flies very closely in structure, but differ in that they 
 fold their wings parallel with the body when resting 
 (Fig. 84). They have not the great powers of flight 
 possessed by the dragon-flies that do not fold their 
 wings, but flit airily from plant 
 to plant. The more gentle hab- 
 its of these insects have led the 
 French to call them demoiselles 
 or damsels. 
 
 English writers heretofore 
 have classed both of these kinds 
 of insects under the name dra- 
 gon-flies, but in the following 
 pages we will restrict the name 
 dragon-flies to those that hold 
 their wings spread out and term 
 those that fold their wings dam- 
 sel-flies. 
 
 There is a great variety of 
 damsel-flies. Some have nearly fig. 84. 
 
Q2 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 colorless wings and comparatively dull-colored bod- 
 ies, while others have shiny-black wings and brilliant, 
 metallic-green or blue bodies. 
 
 The damsel-flies la}^ their eggs in a remarkable 
 manner. These insects have well-developed oviposi- 
 tors with which they can make incisions in the stems 
 or leaves of plants ; and some of the species at least, 
 when they wish to lay their eggs, crawl down the 
 stems of aquatic plants and lay their eggs in them be- 
 neath the water. 
 
 Can it be that the habit of folding their wangs 
 when they are not in use is correlated with the pecul- 
 iar egg-laying habits of these insects? Certainly it 
 would be difficult for them to creep beneath the water 
 were their wings expanded like those of dragon-flies. 
 
 Let those who have accompanied us on this field 
 trip try to learn something new about dragon-flies 
 and damsel-flies. This they can do by patiently 
 watching. They can learn upon what kinds of in- 
 sects these creatures feed ; they can observe differ- 
 ences in their modes of flight, and in the regions 
 which each prefers to haunt; and they can ascertain 
 more than we now know regarding the various ways 
 in w^hich they lay their eggs. As soon as an observa- 
 tion is made, it should be recorded in a notebook or 
 on slips of paper carried for this purpose. 
 
 After observations have been made on one of 
 these insects, that particular one should be captured 
 if possible, so that the record of the observation may 
 be completed by determining the particular species 
 observed. 
 
 Other specimens should be taken for study at 
 school and for preservation in your collection. 
 
POND LIFE, 
 
 93 
 
 It is exceedingly difficult to catch dragon-flies 
 while they are on the wing. Watch them till one 
 ahghts, and then approach it quietly till within reach 
 of it and capture it with a very quick sweep of the 
 net. Damsel-flies, however, are easily captured. 
 
 The Habits of Dragon-flies and Damsel- 
 flies {School Work). — Write an account of an excur- 
 sion that you have made yourself to a pond or 
 stream, and include in it the observations that you 
 made on dragon-flies and damsel-flies. State also in 
 this account whether you believe these insects to be 
 injurious or beneficial to man, and the reasons for this 
 belief. 
 
 Copy the following label and place it above the 
 dragon-flies and damsel-flies in your collection : "^ 
 Order Odonata (Od-o-na'ta). 
 The Dragon- flies and Dajnsel flies. 
 
 Blue draofon-flies knitting- 
 To and fro in the sun, 
 With sidelong jerk flitting 
 Sink down on the rushes, 
 And, motionless sitting. 
 
 With level wings swinging 
 
 On green tasseled rushes. 
 
 To dream in the sun. — Lowell. 
 
 The Structure of Dragon-flies {School Work). 
 — Select for study one of the large dragon-flies col- 
 lected on the last field day, one of those that hold 
 the wings spread out when at rest. If you failed to 
 
 * In writing these labels, underscore the word in capitals with two 
 lines, and the words in italics with a single line. See example, page 42. 
 
94 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 get any, borrow one of some more successful collec- 
 tor. Do not touch the specimen itself, lest 3^ou break 
 it, but handle it by means of the pin with which it is 
 pinned. 
 
 1. Observe the general appearance of the insect, 
 noting the large head, the slender neck, the stout 
 thorax, the broadly expanded wings, and the long, 
 slender abdomen. 
 
 2. Study the head, noting its shape, the puffed out 
 front portion, the concave hinder side, and the large 
 compound eyes. 
 
 3. Examine the compound eyes with a lens or 
 microscope, and make a drawing illustrating the struc- 
 ture of the surface ; only a small portion of one eye 
 need be represented, but show this greatly enlarged. 
 State the proportion of the surface of the head occu- 
 pied by the compound eyes. 
 
 4. Find the simple eyes, using a lens for this pur- 
 pose ; they are situated in the triangular space be- 
 tween the compound eyes and the puffed out front 
 portion of the head. How many of them are there? 
 
 5. Observe the antennae ; these are very small, 
 and are situated in the same triangular space as the 
 simple eyes. Each antenna consists of a stouter 
 basal part and a slender, bristlelike part composed of 
 several segments. Make a drawing of one antenna 
 greatly enlarged. 
 
 6. Make a drawing of the head seen from above, 
 representing each of the parts already mentioned. 
 Make the drawing large enough so that the simple 
 eyes and antenna can be well shown. 
 
 7. Study the lower side of the head and make a 
 drawing of the mouth-parts that can be seen without 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 95 
 
 dissection. These are the upper lip or labrum, the 
 tips of the mandibles, and the lower lip or labium. 
 The maxillge are usually concealed when the mouth 
 is closed. The labium is very large and ends in 
 three broad flaps, one below the mouth and one on 
 each side ; the one below the mouth is sometimes 
 more or less split on the middle line, and each of the 
 side flaps bears a slender appendage ; sometimes, 
 however, these appendages are very minute. 
 
 8. Study the parts of the head already examined 
 with a view to seeing how they are fitted to their 
 use. The most conspicuous parts are the very large 
 eyes ; evidently the sense of sight is exceedingly im- 
 portant to these insects; note also that the shape of 
 the eyes is such that the insect can see in all direc- 
 tions without making any movement of the head or 
 body. Regarding the simple eyes, we can only say 
 that three well-developed ones are present ; no one 
 has yet discovered the peculiar use of these eyes as 
 distinguished from that of the compound eyes, but 
 it seems as if they must have a function different 
 from that of the compound eyes, else why should an 
 insect with such highly developed compound eyes 
 possess simple eyes also. In many insects the sense 
 of smell is believed to have its seat in the antennas ; 
 if that is so in dragon-flies, it is evident that com- 
 paratively little use is made of this sense by these in- 
 sects, for the antennse are so slightly developed as to 
 be little more than rudimentary organs ; but it is not 
 strange that insects so well provided with organs of 
 sight should have little use for organs of smell in 
 hawking their prey or in seeking their mates. The 
 mouth -parts are admirably fitted for seizing and 
 
96 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 holding the small insects upon which the dragon-flies 
 feed. It is also probable that the freedom of move- 
 ment of the head resulting from the slenderness of the 
 neck is of great use to these insects in seizing their 
 prey. 
 
 9. Study the peculiar features of the thorax, not- 
 ing the following points : Its large size — this is neces- 
 sary to give room for the large and powerful mus- 
 cles that move the wings. The position of the legs — 
 these are situated much farther forward than is 
 usual with insects, all of the legs being nearer the 
 head than the wings. The legs are used but little for 
 walking, their chief use being for clinging to some 
 support and, perhaps, for seizing prey. With most 
 insects the middle and hind pairs of legs are attached 
 to the thorax farther back than are the correspond- 
 ing wings, and consequently the side pieces of the 
 thorax between the wangs, and these legs slope back- 
 ward and downward 
 from the wings. This 
 is shown in Fig. 85, 
 which represents a 
 side view of a locust 
 with its wings re- 
 moved. In a dragon-fly these side pieces of the tho- 
 rax slope forzvard and downward. Make a drawing 
 of a side view of a dragon-fly, illustrating this point ; 
 the wings need not be represented, and only the 
 bases of the legs need be shown, as is done in the 
 figure of a locust. 
 
 10. Examine the legs of the dragon-fly, noting 
 the spines borne by the femur and tibia. Consider 
 the possible use of these spines in catching and hold- 
 
 FiG. 85. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 97 
 
 ing prey. Make a drawing of one of these legs and 
 label the following parts: coxa, trochanter, femur, 
 tibia, tarsus, and claws. 
 
 11. Study the wings. These wings are of espe- 
 cial interest, for, judging by the powers of fiight of 
 these insects, they must be extremely well fitted for 
 their use. Although large they are very light ; yet 
 notwithstanding their lightness they are strong, be- 
 ing strengthened by a large number of veins and 
 veinlets, and the margin of the wing is strengthened 
 throughout by an ambient vein. Near the middle of 
 the length of the frontal (costal) margin of each 
 wing there is a jointlike structure : this is called the 
 nodus ; this structure is characteristic of the wings of 
 dragon-flies and damsel-fiies, but its use is not known. 
 The front part of each wing, which is the part where 
 the greatest strength is required, is folded in plaits 
 somewhat like a fan. This adds greatly to the 
 strength of the wing. Take a flat piece of writing 
 paper and observe how easily it can be bent. Now, 
 fold this piece of paper like a fan and see how much 
 stiffer it is. Study the cross-veins extending back 
 from vein I (i. e., the front margin of the wing) and 
 note that some of them extend straight across the 
 furrow to vein III (the second vein from the margin), 
 and are in the form of triangular braces that tend to 
 preserve the form of the furrow. 
 
 12. The abdomen is long, and usually quite slen- 
 der. The necessity for the great length of the abdo- 
 men is not quite clear ; it may be that the abdomen 
 serves to steady the flight like the shaft of an arrow ; 
 and, too, there may exist a relation between the form 
 of the wings and that of the abdomen. With most 
 
gS INSECT LIFE. 
 
 swiftly flying insects, as the bees, wasps, hawk-moths, 
 and others, the hind wings are reduced in size, and 
 thus there is a concentration of the powers of flight 
 to a region near the front end of the body, which 
 adds to its efficiency, for the opposite arrangement 
 would result like an effort to shoot an arrow with the 
 wrong end forward ; with dragon-flies the hind wings 
 are as large as or larger than the fore wings, but 
 the great length of the abdomen results in the flight 
 organs as a whole being comparatively near the front 
 end of the body. It should also be observed that 
 the form of the abdomen is well fitted for the pecul- 
 iar method of laying the eggs. In the males of 
 dragon-flies there is a slit in the lower side of the 
 second abdominal segment, which contains an organ 
 furnished with hooks. Dragon-flies and damsel-flies 
 differ from all other insects in the position of this 
 organ of the males. Determine the sex of each of 
 your specimens and label them male or female as the 
 case may be. 
 
 13. Make a sketch of the dragon-fly seen from 
 above. 
 
 The Structure of Damsel-flies {School Work)^ 
 — Compare the structure of a damsel-fly with that of 
 the dragon-fly already studied. Note especially the 
 form of the head with the eyes projecting like the 
 oarlocks of an outrigged skiff, the shape of the wings, 
 the position of the wings when at rest, and the form 
 of the ovipositor of the females. Make a sketch of 
 the head seen from above. Make a sketch showing 
 the outline of each of the wings of one side. Deter- 
 mine the sex of each of your specimens and label 
 them. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 99 
 
 The May-flies {Field Work). — Let us continue 
 our study of the insects that fly over ponds. In 
 many places, at certain periods of the year, the most 
 abundant of these are the May-flies. These are very 
 fragile insects with large, del- 
 icate fore wings, with the hind 
 wings much smaller or want- 
 ing, and with the abdomen 
 furnished at its caudal end 
 with either two or three many- 
 jointed, threadlike appendages 
 (Fig. 86). 
 
 Although a few May-flies 
 can be found at almost any 
 time during the warmer parts 
 of the year, in each locality 
 there are certain periods dur- 
 ing which they are much more 
 abundant than at other times ; 
 then they are apt to appear in 
 great swarms. This period is 
 as likely to be in June or July as in May, despite the 
 common name of these insects. It is at such times 
 that a study should be made of their habits. If you 
 find that May-flies are abundant at any time and you 
 have not already made a study of them, it will be 
 worth while to postpone the study of any other in- 
 sects and devote your attention to these, for no other 
 insects described in these lessons have so short a pe- 
 riod of flight as the May-flies. While in. the field 
 take notes on the following points : — 
 
 I. The flight of these insects — contrast it with 
 that of dragon-flies. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
100 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 2. The food of May-flies — can you find any that 
 are catching other insects or that are feeding on 
 plants? 
 
 3. The young of May-flies live in the water. Try 
 to observe the emergence of the insects from the 
 water. 
 
 4. If you succeed in observing the emergence of 
 the winged insect from the water, collect the empty 
 nymph skin and, if possible, the winged individual 
 that emerged from it. These should be preserved 
 together in your collection ; they will serve to con- 
 nect the adult with its early stages. 
 
 5. May-flies differ from all other insects in that 
 they shed the skin once after they are able to fly. 
 The winged May -fly when it emerges from the 
 water is not a fully developed adult, but is what is 
 termed a subimago. The subimago state is of short 
 duration ; sometimes it lasts only a few minutes, but 
 in other species it lasts twenty-four hours or more. 
 
 Watch the May-flies that are resting on plants or 
 other objects near the shore and try to observe the 
 molting of the subimago. If you succeed, collect 
 the adult or imago and the empty subimago skin, 
 and preserve them together in your collection. Even 
 if you fail to observe the molting, you ought to be 
 able to collect subimago skins if the May-flies are at 
 all abundant. 
 
 6. Endeavor to observe the laying of the eggs. 
 Some May-flies lay their eggs in masses; specimens 
 are often found in which there project from the cau- 
 dal end of the body two parallel, subcylindrical 
 masses of eggs, for in these insects the two oviducts 
 open separately. 
 
POND LIFE. lOi 
 
 7. In the evening, examine the street lamps or 
 other lights, and note the extent to which the May- 
 flies are attracted to them. 
 
 The Habits of May-flies {School Work). — Write 
 an account of what you have learned regarding May- 
 flies. Copy the following label and place it above 
 the May-flies in your collection (see footnote, page 
 
 93):- 
 
 Order Ephemerida (Eph-e-mer'i-da). 
 T/ie May -flies. 
 
 The Structure of May-flies {School Work).— 
 It is quite difficult to preserve specimens of May- 
 flies in good condition for study, as they shrivel 
 greatly on drying. We will call attention, therefore, 
 to only a few of the more important points in the 
 structure of these insects. 
 
 1. Study the head and observe the following: 
 The very large compound eyes — in dried specimens 
 these are apt to be more or less shriveled, and in 
 some kinds of May-flies each compound eye is di- 
 vided into two distinct parts ; the simple eyes or 
 ocelli — in some of our more common species these are 
 much larger than is usual with insects; the mouth- 
 parts — these are absent or represented by minute 
 rudiments. May-flies take no food during their very 
 short existence in the adult state. Make a sketch of 
 the head seen from above. 
 
 2. Study the wings and make a sketch showing 
 the outline of each of the two wings of one side. 
 
 3. Write out a statement of the points of resem- 
 blance and the points of difference between the wings 
 of May-flies and those of dragon-flies. 
 
102 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 4. Make a sketch of a May-fly seen from above. 
 The Stone-flies [Field Work). — Among the in- 
 sects that are common flying about ponds and streams 
 
 are the stone-flies. 
 Fig. 87 represents 
 one of our larger 
 species with the 
 wings of one side 
 spread out. When 
 at rest these in- 
 sects fold their 
 wings upon the 
 back, as shown on 
 the left side of the 
 figure. Most of 
 our species are 
 much smaller than 
 the one represented here, but they can be recognized 
 as stone-flies by their resemblance in form to this one. 
 The body is flattened, elongate, and with the sides 
 nearly parallel ; the prothorax is large ; the antennae 
 are long, tapering, and many jointed ; in most species 
 the caudal end of the abdomen is furnished with two 
 slender appendages. Stone-flies are so called because 
 they pass their early stages beneath stones in streams 
 and ponds. 
 
 1. Collect as many kinds of stone-flies as you can, 
 saving several specimens of each kind. 
 
 2. Make notes on their powers of flight. 
 
 3. Make notes on the localities in which they 
 occur. 
 
 4. Try to discover the method in which they lay 
 their eggs. 
 
pond life. 103 
 
 The Structure and Habits of Stone-flies 
 {School Work). — Write an account of what you have 
 learned regarding- stone-flies. Describe first the ap- 
 pearance of these insects ; illustrate this by two 
 sketches, one showing the appearance of the insect as 
 seen from above with the wings closed, the other an 
 enlarged view of the head and prothorax as seen from 
 above, and compare the eyes and antennas with those 
 of dragon-flies and May-flies. In the second part of 
 the account state what you have learned regarding 
 the habitat and habits of stone-flies. 
 
 Copy the following label and place it above the 
 stone-flies in your collection (see footnote, page 3) : 
 
 Order Plecoptera (Ple-cop'te-ra). 
 The Stone flies. 
 
 Other Insects that fly Over Ponds {Field 
 Work). — During the field days, when you are studying 
 pond life collect any insects that you find flying over 
 ponds or resting near them. These should be care- 
 fully pinned, labeled, and preserved in your collec- 
 tion for future study. 
 
 INSECTS THAT LIVE ON THE SURFACE OF WATER. 
 
 In the excursions that have been made for the 
 purpose of studying pond life, the pupils have proba- 
 bly observed certain insects running over the sur- 
 face of the water as if it were a firm pavement. 
 We purpose to study carefully some of these insects, 
 but before doing so it will be well to endeavor to 
 understand how it is that these creatures can per- 
 form the apparent miracle of walking upon water. 
 
I04 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The Surface-film of Water (School Work). — 
 One of the astonishing facts to be learned by the 
 study of pond life is that many insects are able to 
 walk upon water, and equally strange is the fact that 
 certain other insects that live within water can hang 
 from its upper surface without any effort to keep 
 themselves there, although their bodies are heavier 
 than water. 
 
 These things seem to contradict the well-known 
 law of Nature that an object can not float in a liquid 
 unless it is lighter than that liquid. And in truth 
 it is a fact that under certain conditions objects that 
 are much heavier than the liquid upon which they 
 are placed will float. 
 
 This phenomenon is due to the presence of what 
 has been termed the surface-film of liquids. It has 
 been shown by many experiments, some of which 
 are given below, that on the surface of water, and 
 other liquids also, there is a film of the liquid which 
 tends to contract as if it were a membrane stretched 
 equally in all directions. The explanation of the for- 
 mation of this film is a difficult matter, which can not 
 be undertaken here. It is discussed in the more ad- 
 vanced works on physics and in some of the larger 
 cyclopaedias under the head of capillary attraction. 
 The action of the surface-film can be seen by the 
 following experiments : 
 
 Experiment i. — Take a fine needle and carefully 
 lay it on the surface of a glass of water. To do this 
 hold the needle in a horizontal position and bring it 
 as near the water as you can without touching the 
 water and then drop the needle. If the experiment 
 be performed with sufficient care, the needle will 
 
POND LIFE. 105 
 
 float. Steel is seven times heavier than water ; never- 
 theless, in this experiment we see a piece of steel 
 floating on the surface of water. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Take a needle that you have caused 
 to float on the water and wet it thoroughly. Now 
 you will be unable to make it float so long as it is 
 wet. This experiment indicates that one of the con- 
 ditions of floating of a heavy object is that it shall 
 not be wet by the liquid. 
 
 Experiment J. — Take needles of different sizes or 
 short pieces of different sizes of wire, and, having 
 them perfectly dry, try to make them float. In this 
 experiment it is well to lay the piece of w4re across 
 the tines of a fork and lower it gently into the water. 
 It will be found that only the smaller needles or 
 pieces of wire will float. This experiment indicates 
 that a second condition of the floating of a heavy 
 object is that it shall be comparatively small. 
 
 Experime7it 4.. — Take a glass of water and place it 
 on a stand so that you can look through the side of 
 the glass at the surface of the water both from above 
 and below. Place a needle upon the water, the 
 larger the needle the better, provided it will float. 
 By studying the floating object carefully it will be 
 seen that it rests in a little hollow with sloping sides, 
 the surface of the water being indented as if it were 
 covered with a membrane stretched across it. 
 
 There are many other interesting phenomena that 
 are explained by a knowledge of the action of the 
 surface-film of liquids, but their study belongs to the 
 subject of physics ; only so much has been introduced 
 here as is necessary to understand what we will see 
 in our study of pond life. 
 
Io6 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The Water-striders (Field WorE):—'^o\\ that we 
 have studied the surface-fihn of water, let us visit 
 some pond or stream and observe those insects that 
 live upon it. Chief among these are the water- 
 striders, the long-legged creatures that skate over 
 the surface as if they had no weight. 
 
 There are a good many species of water-striders, 
 and several quite distinct types, differing in size, in 
 
 the form of the body, 
 and in the relative 
 length of the legs. One 
 of the more common 
 forms is represented by 
 Fig. 88. Try to find 
 some of these, for ow- 
 ing to their larger size 
 it will be easier to ob- 
 serve them than other kinds ; but if you are unable 
 to find these, study any water-striders that you can 
 find and make notes for an account of them. 
 
 1. Water-striders live upon both ponds and 
 streams ; if you are observing them upon a stream, 
 note what portions of the stream they prefer. 
 
 2. Do they occur singly or in colonies? 
 
 3. Are they shy or otherwise? 
 
 4. Are they disturbed by fish ? To determine 
 this watch them w^here there are fish, and throw 
 grasshoppers or other insects into the water and note 
 if the fish are more apt to jump at these than at the 
 water-striders. 
 
 5. Throw some insect into the water where there 
 are no fish, but near some water-striders, and note 
 the actions of the latter. What is likely to happen 
 
 A water- strider. 
 
POND LIFE. 107 
 
 to an insect that falls into the water where there are 
 water-striders? 
 
 6. Watch the water-striders and learn if they will 
 jump from the water to catch insects that fly near it. 
 
 7. Remain quiet at the shore of the pond or 
 stream till the water-striders approach near enough 
 to be observed closely and determine what portions 
 of the body rest upon the water. 
 
 8. Observe the dimples in the water where the 
 feet rest on the surface. 
 
 9. When the sun is shining- brightly, find some 
 water-striders where the water is shallow and ob- 
 serve on the bottom of the pool the shadows of the 
 dimples in the water made by the feet of the insects. 
 Note that each shadow is surrounded by a golden 
 ring of light. The more advanced pupils should be 
 able to explain the cause of this ring of light. Note 
 that there is no ring of light about the shadow cast 
 by the body ; why is this so ? 
 
 10. Make a sketch showing the outline of the 
 body and the position of each of the legs and the an- 
 tennae when the insect is at rest. 
 
 11. Discover which pair of legs are the chief 
 organs of locomotion in the striding of these insects. 
 
 12. Collect as many kinds of water-striders as 
 possible, saving several specimens of each species. 
 Kill them in your cyanide bottle and then pin them 
 on your return home. 
 
 Water-striders are dimorphic — that is, there are 
 two distinct forms of fully developed individuals in 
 each species. One form is winged, the other wing- 
 less. Try to procure both the winged and the wing- 
 less form of each species collected. The presence 
 
I08 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 of winged forms probably enables these insects to 
 spread overland from one pond or stream to another, 
 but the conditions under which winged forms occur 
 are not well understood. Sometimes a third form 
 occurs in which the adult has short wings. It should 
 be remembered that the nymphs of the winged forms 
 have short wing-pads, but these differ in appearance 
 from perfect wings. 
 
 The Families of Water-striders (School Work). 
 — There are two closely related families of bugs the 
 members of either of which could well be called 
 water-striders on account of their mode of life. In one 
 family the legs are much longer than in the other, and 
 better fitted for the gliding motion characteristic of 
 water-striders ; the members of this family are termed 
 *'the water-striders." In the other family the legs 
 are shorter and fitted for running rather than rowing ; 
 as the body is broadest across the prothorax in 
 these insects, they are termed " the broad-shoul- 
 dered water-striders." 
 
 Separate from the others those specimens of water- 
 striders in your collection in which the second and 
 third pairs of legs are extremely long and slender, 
 and in which the body is widest back of the pro- 
 thorax. If this family is well represented in your 
 locality, you should have some species in which the 
 body is long and slender, as in Fig. 88, and also some 
 smaller species in which the body is oval in outline. 
 
 Copy the following label and fasten it above the 
 place where the water-striders are to be put in your 
 collection : — 
 
 Order Hemiptera (He-mip'te-ra). 
 The Bugs. 
 
POND LIFE. lOQ 
 
 Place immediately below this label the following 
 one, and then arrange the water-striders just selected 
 beneath this second label ; put each species of water- 
 strider in a row by itself: — 
 
 Family Hydrobatid.^ (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae). 
 The Water-striders. 
 
 Fig. 89 represents a member of the second family 
 of water-striders, somewhat enlarged. These insects 
 can be distinguished from the true 
 water-striders by their comparatively 
 short legs and broad prothorax. If 
 you have any specimens of this fami- 
 ly arrange them just after the true 
 water-striders and below the follow- Fig. 89. — a broad- 
 
 1 , 1 shouldered water- 
 
 ing label :— strider. 
 
 Family Veliid^ (Ve-li'i-dae). 
 The Broad-shouldered Water-striders. 
 
 The Habits of Water-striders {School Work). 
 — Write an account of what you have learned regard- 
 ing water-striders. 
 
 The Structure of Water-striders {School 
 Work). — Select one of the true water-striders, prefer- 
 ably a large one like that represented by Fig 88, and 
 study the following parts. 
 
 I. The body is covered with microscopic hairs, 
 those on the lower side are longer and usually silvery 
 white in color. These doubtless form a waterproof 
 coating, and add much to the beauty of the insects, 
 causing them to appear like white-bottomed boats 
 when on the water. 
 
jIO INSECT LIFE. 
 
 2. The head is inserted in the prothorax up to 
 the base of the eyes. The eyes, though small com- 
 pared with those of the dragon-fly, are really quite 
 large and prominent ; their shape and position are 
 such that the insect can readily see in all directions. 
 The antennse are long and consist of four segments. 
 The beak arises from the forward end of the head ; 
 when not in use it usually extends backward between 
 the fore legs. It consists of four segments; the sec- 
 ond segment, however, is quite short and liable to 
 be overlooked. A bristlelike piercing organ can 
 usually be seen protruding from the tip of the beak. 
 Make a drawing of a side view of the head, show- 
 ing the form of the head, eyes, antennas, and 
 beak. 
 
 3. Study the position and form of the legs. The 
 fore legs are placed well forward, and are stouter 
 than the others ; they are used for seizing and hold- 
 ing the prey. The middle and hind legs are placed 
 far back, and are the chief organs of locomotion, the 
 middle legs being used as oars and the hind legs as 
 rudders. A striking peculiarity of the legs in the two 
 families of water-striders is that the last segment of 
 the tarsus is split at the end and the claws are in- 
 serted in this cleft ; this is most easily seen in the 
 stouter fore legs than in the threadlike middle and 
 hind legs of the true water-striders. In the broad- 
 shouldered water-striders it is easily seen on any of 
 the legs. Make a drawing of the tarsus of one of the 
 legs, showing this peculiarity. 
 
 4. Make a drawing of the lower side of the abdo- 
 men, noting carefully the form of the segments near 
 the caudal end. 
 
POND LIFE. Ill 
 
 5. Study all the specimens you have of water- 
 striders and see if you can separate the sexes. 
 
 The Whirligig-beetles {Field Work).~'^o lad 
 who has loitered much by ponds or wandered along 
 the margins of brooks with open eyes can have 
 failed to see the whirligig-beetles, those social fel- 
 lows that gather in large numbers and chase each 
 other round and round in graceful curves with 
 wonderful rapidity. These beetles are oval or ellip- 
 tical in form, more or less flattened, and usually of 
 a very brilliant, bluish-black color above, wath a 
 metallic luster ; one of our common forms is 
 represented by Fig. 90, but some of the smal- 
 ler species are proportionally longer and more 
 convex. 
 
 Seek for specimens of whirligig-beetles on 
 the surface of the ponds and streams in your 
 locality and, when found, watch them carefully, note- 
 book in hand, and record all that you can see of their 
 ways. 
 
 Take with you on this field trip some empty bot- 
 tles, in which to bring home living specimens, and an 
 insect net ; you will need the latter in catching these 
 wary creatures. 
 
 Note the peculiar odor emitted by the insects 
 when caught ; this is caused by the milky fluid which 
 the insects emit from various joints of the body, and 
 is probably a means of defense. 
 
 As these insects can be easily kept alive in aquaria, 
 we will make a more careful study of their habits in 
 confinement. 
 
 Comparatively few whirligig-beetles can be found 
 in the spring ; these are individuals that have sur- 
 
112 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 vived the winter. A new generation begins to 
 appear early in the summer, and they are most 
 abundant late in August or early in September. 
 As cold weather comes on they disappear, bury- 
 ing themselves in mud at the roots of water plants 
 for their winter sleep. But they can be kept 
 active in aquaria in warm rooms long after all 
 have disappeared from the surface of ponds and 
 streams. 
 
 On your return from the field trip prepare an 
 aquarium with sand or gravel in the bottom and a 
 few water plants anchored in this soil. Put the living 
 whirligig-beetles into this aquarium, and cover it so 
 that the insects can not escape. 
 
 Put in a killing bottle some specimens to be used 
 for a study of the structure of these insects. 
 
 The Structure of Whirligig-beetles {School 
 Work). — I. Pin the specimens in your killing bottle, 
 so that they may be easily handled without injury to 
 them, putting the pin through the right wing-cover 
 a short distance from its base. 
 
 2. Study the appearance of one of these insects 
 when seen from above. Note that the hinder part 
 of the body is covered by a pair of horny wing-cov- 
 ers or elytra, which meet in a straight line along 
 the middle of the back. This type of wing-covers 
 is the mark "by which beetles are most easily recog- 
 nized. 
 
 3. Study the head as seen from above and make a 
 drawing of this view, showing the following parts : 
 The upper lip — a horny fiap projecting from the ex- 
 treme front end of the head ; the clypeus — a narrow 
 piece extending crosswise between the upper lip and 
 
POND LIFE. 11^ 
 
 the chief part of the head ; the antennge — these are 
 unusually short and thick (Fig. 91 represents one of 
 the antennae of a whirligig-beetle greatly 
 enlarged) ; the compound eyes — these are 
 quite prominent, and are situated a consider- 
 able distance from the margin of the head. 
 
 4. Study the head as seen from below, 
 a very remarkable thing will be seen — namely, a 
 pair of large compound eyes in addition to the pair 
 already observed on the upper side of the head. It 
 should be said, however, that these insects really 
 have only two compound eyes, like other insects ; but 
 each eye is divided within the head, one part extend- 
 ing to the upper surface of the head and the other to 
 the lower surface. What peculiarity in the mode of 
 life of the whirligig-beetles renders this arrangement 
 of eyes desirable ? 
 
 5. Study the mouth-parts and observe that in- 
 stead of a beak for sucking, as with the water-strid- 
 ers, these insects have jaws fitted for biting. 
 
 6. Make a drawing of one of the front legs, and 
 label the following parts : coxa, trochanter, femur, 
 tibia, tarsus, claws. 
 
 7. The sexes of whirligig-beetles can be distin- 
 guished by the fact that in the males the segments of 
 the tarsus of the fore legs are flattened and furnished 
 with a spongy cushion of hairs beneath, while in 
 the females the segments are more nearly cylindrical 
 and do not bear cushions. Separate the sexes of 
 these insects in your collection. 
 
 8. Study the middle and hind legs and observe 
 their strangely modified form. While the fore legs 
 are oarlike in form, these are modified into short and 
 
114 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 very broad paddles. Fig. 92 represents the form of 
 one of these. 
 
 9. Remove with a pin one of the wing-covers and 
 observe the large membranous wing 
 compactly folded beneath it. Although 
 these insects are commonly seen only on 
 
 Fig. 92. ^ water, they have good powers of flight, 
 and migrate from pond to pond by 
 means of their wings. I have taken them at electric 
 lights far from any water. 
 
 10. The various kinds of beetles taken together 
 constitute the order Coleoptera, and the whirligig- 
 beetles form the family Gyrinidas of this order. 
 Write the two following labels and place them above 
 the whirligig-beetles in your collection : — 
 
 Order Coleoptera (Co-le-op'te-ra). 
 The Beetles. 
 
 Family Gyrinid^ (Gy-rin'i-dae). 
 The Whirligig-beetles. 
 
 The Habits of Whirligig- beetles {^School 
 Work). — Watch the living specimens that you have 
 in an aquarium and learn all you can of their habits. 
 The following are some of the points to be observed : 
 Compare their attitude when at rest with that of a 
 water-strider. Describe their method of locomotion. 
 Describe their actions when frightened. Can you 
 see any indications of their method of breathing 
 when under water? How do they remain beneath 
 the water? How do they rise to the surface? In 
 what way do the beetles endeavor to escape from 
 the water? Try to discover what they will eat — 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 115 
 
 there is some difference of opinion among scientific 
 writers on this point. 
 
 After observing these insects at intervals for sev- 
 eral days write an account of what you have learned 
 regarding them. 
 
 INSECTS THAT REST AT THE SURFACE BUT SWIM BENEATH. 
 
 In our studies of pond life up to this time we 
 have observed some of the insects that fi}^ over 
 ponds and some that live upon the surface of water, 
 but a far greater number of insects live within 
 the water. Some of these are fitted for a purely 
 aquatic life, but many find it necessary to come to 
 the surface from time to time to get a supply of air. 
 This latter class of insects, as a rule, rest at the sur- 
 face in such a position that they have access to the 
 air above the water, and only swim beneath when 
 alarmed or when in search of food. It is this class of 
 insects, those that rest at the surface but swim be- 
 neath, that we are to study now. 
 
 A Collecting Trip. — Provide yourselves with 
 insect nets and a supply of empty bottles for bring- 
 ing back living insects. Go to some pond or stream, 
 and, resting quietly on the shore, try to observe some 
 of the insects that live within the water but rest at 
 the surface. If there is no convenient pond and you 
 go to a stream for this purpose, choose the more 
 quiet portions of the stream, and preferably the 
 deeper pools and those in which plants are growing. 
 Approach the water very quietly so as not to frighten 
 the insects. Often when nothing is to be seen at 
 first the observer will be rewarded by a sight of 
 the desired objects if he will sit very still for a time. 
 
Il6 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 After learning what you can by watching, sweep 
 the vegetation beneath the surface of the water with 
 your net, and in this w^ay collect as many kinds of 
 insects as possible. Put the insects into clean bot- 
 tles so that they may be kept alive. 
 
 On your return prepare several aquaria with sand 
 or gravel on the bottom and aquatic plants anchored 
 in the sand ; if practicable prepare as many aquaria 
 as you have kinds of insects, so that one kind shall 
 not destroy another. But in order to observe pre- 
 daceous insects capture their prey it is necessary to 
 put other insects with them when you are ready to 
 make the observation. After the insects have been 
 placed in the aquaria you will soon be able to learn 
 which ones belong to the class that rest at the surface 
 but swim beneath. 
 
 The Predaceous Diving-beetles {School Work). 
 — If a collecting trip like that outlined above is a 
 successful one, there are almost sure to be several 
 kinds of beetles among the insects collected. These 
 can be recognized by the horny wing-covers, w^hich 
 meet in a straight line along the middle of the back. 
 If we omit certain small beetles which are not likely 
 to be studied by the beginner, the beetles collected 
 in this way will represent only two families ; one of 
 these families is the Dytiscidse, or predaceous diving- 
 beetles. The members of this family can be recog- 
 nized by the fact that when at rest they hang head 
 downward with the tip of the abdomen at the sur- 
 face of the water. Figs. 93 and 94 represent two of 
 the larger members of this family. There are, how- 
 ever, many small species, measuring less than one 
 fourth of an inch in length, which can be found in 
 
POND LIFE. 11^ 
 
 almost any pond. If you can obtain specimens of the 
 larger ones, they will be best for the purposes of study. 
 
 Some specimens should 
 be kept alive in aquaria for 
 a study of their habits, and 
 some should be killed and 
 pinned for a study of their 
 structure. 
 
 Place the pinned speci- 
 mens when not in use in 
 
 . Fig. 93. Fig. 94. 
 
 your collection under a 
 
 copy of the following label and immediately after the 
 
 whirligig-beetles : — ^ 
 
 Family Dytiscid^ (Dy-tis'ci-dae). 
 T/ie Predaceous Diving-beetles. 
 
 Whenever convenient to do so, watch the diving- 
 beetles and learn all you can regarding their habits. 
 Make a memorandum of whatever you learn ; the 
 hints given on page 1 14 for the study of the whirligig- 
 beetles will be useful here. As these diving-beetles 
 are predaceous, they may be fed with other insects 
 or bits of raw meat. If properly cared for, they can 
 be kept alive in aquaria for a long time, even several 
 years. 
 
 The Structure of the Predaceous Diving- 
 beetles {School Work). — Select for study specimens 
 of the largest species of predaceous diving-beetles in 
 your collection and observe the form of the following 
 parts : — 
 
 * No effort is made in these outlines to indicate a natural sequence 
 of the families studied. It will be sufficient for the purposes of begin- 
 ners to place each family under the order to which it belongs, placing 
 first those studied first. 
 
IlS INSECT LIFE. 
 
 1. The body as a whole. Observe its evenly 
 rounded outlines, and consider how well fitted it is 
 for gliding through the water. 
 
 2. The antenucG. These are inserted immediately 
 
 in front of the eyes, and are threadlike in 
 form, each consistino- of twelve similar ses:- 
 ments (Fig. 95). The form of the antennae is 
 an important characteristic of these insects, 
 for by it they can be distinguished from the 
 Fig q:; ^vater-scavenger beetles, which they closely 
 resemble in general appearance. 
 
 3. The hind legs. These are fitted especially for 
 swimming, being long and more or less oarlike ; the 
 tarsus is flattened and fringed with hairs, and the 
 segments of it taper evenly from its base to the 
 claws. ^lake a drawing of one of these legs. 
 
 4. The middle legs. These do not differ greatly 
 from the usual form of the legs of insects, except 
 that in the males of certain species the first three 
 segments of the tarsus are much wider than the 
 others and furnished with cushions beneath. 
 
 5. The fore legs. In the females these legs are 
 also of the usual form. But in the males of our com- 
 mon larger species the first three segments of the 
 tarsus are dilated and form a circular disk, upon the 
 under side of which are little cuplike suckers. These 
 suckers differ in size and arrans^ement in different 
 genera ; Fig. 96 represents a tarsus of Dytisais {Dy- 
 tis'oiis). 
 
 6. Examine the fore legs of all of your pinned 
 specimens of the larger diving-beetles and separate 
 the sexes of each species. 
 
 7. If your collection is sufficiently full, you will 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 119 
 
 be able to observe that in some species there are two 
 kinds of females, one havins: smooth wino^-covers, 
 and another in which the wing-cov- 
 ers are furnished with a number of 
 deep furrows (Fig. 94). 
 
 8. Study the eyes and compare 
 them with those of the whirligig- 
 beetles. 
 
 . Fig. 96. 
 
 9. Kemove one wmg-cover and 
 
 observe the large wing folded beneath it. These 
 beetles can fiy well, and thus migrate from pond to 
 pond. 
 
 10. Remove the wing and observe the spiracles 
 or breathing holes on the back near the side of the 
 body. 
 
 11. How do these insects breathe when under 
 water ? 
 
 The Habits and Structure of the Preda- 
 CEOUS Diving-beetles {School Work). — Write an ac- 
 count of what you have learned regarding these in- 
 sects. 
 
 The Water-tigers {Field and School Work). — 
 These rapacious creatures are the larv^ of the pre- 
 daceous diving-beetles, and are found in the ponds 
 frequented by these beetles. In sweeping submerged 
 plants for the pond insects already described one is 
 quite apt to obtain water -tigers also. They are 
 elongated, spindle-form grubs, with large sickle- 
 shaped mandibles. Fig. 97 represents one of our 
 larger species. Put the specimens that you collect 
 into an aquarium in which plants are growing, so 
 that the larvas can crawl to and from the surface 
 'easily. 
 
I20 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Learn what you can regarding the habits and 
 structure of these larvae. Observe their favorite 
 
 Fig. 97. — A water-tiger. 
 
 attitude when at rest. Learn how they obtain air. 
 Place other aquatic insects with them, and observe 
 their predaceous habits and their method of sucking 
 the blood of their victims. Note their methods of 
 locomotion. 
 
 In studying their structure, observe the peculiar 
 form of their mandibles ; these are large, sickle- 
 shaped, and hollow, with a slitlike opening near the 
 tip. They are admirably fitted for holding the prey 
 and at the same time sucking the blood from its 
 body, as the hollow of the mandibles communicates 
 with the mouth. Observe the spiracles along the 
 sides of the abdomen ; these are used but little if at 
 all during the larval stage. The last pair of spiracles 
 are just beneath the tip of the last abdominal seg- 
 ment ; it is throusfh these that the larva obtains its 
 supply of air. 
 
 Preserve one or more specimens in alcohol and 
 put them with the predaceous diving-beetles in 3^our 
 collection. 
 
 The Water-scavenger Beetles {School Work). — 
 The water-scavenger beetles are common in quiet 
 pools, where they may be found swimming through 
 the water or crawling among the plants growing on 
 the bottom. If the collecting trip outlined on page 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 121 
 
 Fig. 98. — A water- scaven- 
 ger beetle. 
 
 115, was a successful one, there are probably speci- 
 mens of these beetles in your aquaria ; but if you do 
 not already have specimens, go 
 into the field again and sweep 
 plants growing beneath water 
 with an insect net until you get 
 specimens. 
 
 Fig. 98 represents the largest ^ 
 of our water-scavenger beetles ; 
 but we have in this country many ^ 
 smaller species, and the majority 
 of them measure less than one 
 half inch in length. 
 
 The members of this family 
 differ in habits from other com- 
 mon aquatic beetles by the fact 
 that when they rest at the surface of the water they 
 keep the head end of the body uppermost. The 
 most easily observed difference in structure is in the 
 form of the antennae. These are club-shaped (Fig. 
 99) ; they are inserted immediately 
 ^^^^^^^ in front of the eyes, and are usually 
 ^ concealed beneath the eyes and pro- 
 
 N^ thorax. Care must be taken not to 
 
 iG- 99- mistake the very long maxillary palpi 
 
 for the antennae; these palpi arise from the side of 
 the mouth, and are only three- or four-jointed. 
 
 Select one of the larger species of water-scavenger 
 beetles and make a study of living specimens in an 
 aquarium, and of the structure of pinned specimens. 
 
 Study especially the method in which they obtain 
 air, and the manner in which they carry it when be- 
 neath the water. 
 9 
 
122 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Observe their food habits. These beetles are sup- 
 posed to live chiefly upon decaying vegetation in the 
 water, but some of them'have been known to feed 
 upon other insects and upon snails. 
 
 Arrange your pinned specimens under a copy of 
 the following label and immediately after the Dyti- 
 scidge : — 
 
 Family Hydrophilid^ (Hyd-ro-phiri-dae). 
 The Water-scavenger Beetles. 
 
 The members of this family form cases in which 
 the eggs are laid. Fig. lOO represents one of these 
 cases attached to a leaf. If you find 
 similar cases preserve them in your col- 
 lection with the beetles of this family, or 
 place them in an aquarium and try to 
 rear the young. 
 
 The Larvae of Water-scavenger 
 Beetles {Field and School Work). — The 
 larvae of the water -scavensrer beetles 
 
 tiG. lOO. ^ 
 
 live beneath the surface in ponds inhabi- 
 ted by the adults, and may be captured by a sweep- 
 ing net in the same way as the adults. As the}^ thrive 
 well in aquaria, their habits can be easily observed. 
 They bear some resemblance to water-tigers (Fig. 
 97), but they can be distinguished from them by 
 the following characters: the body is more plump; 
 the mandibles are not so slender, are not tubular, and 
 are usually furnished with one or more teeth ; and 
 the abdomen, in all the species that I have studied, is 
 furnished with backward-projecting spines or with 
 filaments, or with both. 
 
 Study the habits of these larvae. Observe the 
 
POND LIFE. 123 
 
 method of respiration, the ways of locomotion, and 
 the nature of their food. Offer them both livins: and 
 dead insects, snails, and meat. Preserve one or more 
 larvse in alcohol, and put them with the adults in your 
 collection. 
 
 The Back-swimmers (School J>F^r/^).— When the 
 different kinds of insects that you have collected by 
 sweeping submerged plants have been placed in 
 aquaria, you will be able to recognize the back-swim- 
 mers by the fact that they swim up- 
 side down. One of these insects is 
 represented back uppermost by Fig. 
 
 lOI. 
 
 The back-swimmers love to float 
 at the surface of the water. Here they hang motion- 
 less, back downward in a slanting position, with the 
 tip of the abdomen at the surface, and the head con- 
 siderably submerged. When in this position the 
 fore and middle legs are slightly bent, so that the 
 claws are at the surface, as if the insect were clinging 
 to the ceiling of its room ; while the longer, oar-like 
 hind legs are nearly straight, and project down into 
 the water somewhat ; here they are held in the posi- 
 tion of the beginning of a stroke, as if the creature 
 were waiting for the word go ; and they can go quick- 
 ly and rapidly like an expert sculler. Often they 
 will swim to the bottom of the pond, where, clinging 
 to a stone or plant, they will rest quietly, apparently 
 as much at home as when at the surface. 
 
 In their journeys from one part of the aquarium 
 to another, they are forced to keep their oars in con- 
 stant motion. For these topsy-turvy creatures carry 
 a load which is so light that the moment they stop 
 
124 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 rowing they fall upward. This load is a film of 
 air, which can be seen shining through their wings 
 like burnished silver. Knowing this, we can under- 
 stand how the back-swimmers can remain so long 
 at the bottom of the aquarium without strangling. 
 Occasionally these insects v/ill float on the surface of 
 the water with the back uppermost ; when in this 
 position they can leap into the air from the water 
 and take flight. It is necessary, therefore, to keep 
 aquaria containing them covered, in order to prevent 
 their escape. 
 
 Let us study these creatures more closely : 
 
 1. Kill two or three specimens by putting them 
 into a cyanide bottle. In handling back-swimmers 
 care must be taken or they will inflict painful stings 
 with their sharp and powerful beaks. 
 
 2. When those in the killing bottle are dead, pin 
 them so that they can be handled conveniently. Put 
 the pin through the three-cornered piece on the mid- 
 dle of the back (the scutellum), so as not to fasten 
 the wings down. 
 
 3. Hold the insect back downward and note the 
 boat-shaped form of the body, the middle of the back 
 representing the keel. 
 
 4. Study the head and observe the following 
 parts : The eyes — these are very large, and each has 
 two large scallops in the outer (lateral) side. The 
 antennae — these are often so concealed that it is diffi= 
 cult to see them ; each is situated just behind that 
 scallop of the eye of the same side which is nearest 
 the mouth. The beak — this projects backward be- 
 tween the legs. What insects already studied have 
 similar mouth-parts ? To w^hat order do they belong ? 
 
POND LIFE. 125 
 
 5. Study the legs and observe that the fore and 
 middle legs are furnished with claws, and are fitted 
 for clinging to plants and stones and for seizing prey, 
 while the hind legs are destitute of claws and are 
 fitted for swimming. Make a drawing of one of the 
 hind legs, also one of a fore or middle leg. 
 
 6. Study the wings. These are closely folded 
 over the back of the abdomen. The fore wings are 
 thick and heavy at the base, while the tips are thinner 
 and overlap. This type of wing is found only in the 
 order Hemiptera or bugs. Carefully spread the fore 
 wings apart with a pin and observe the hind wings, 
 which are beneath them ; these are very thin and 
 transparent ; they are stiffened by a few stout veins, 
 and are folded lengthwise on the back of the abdo- 
 men ; in a recently killed specimen they can be 
 spread with a pin. Like most other pond insects 
 that we have studied, the back-swimmers can leave 
 the water and fly to some other pond if they do not 
 like their surroundings. They do not have this free- 
 dom, however, until they are grown up. Early in 
 the summer back-swimmers are found that have no 
 wings ; these are the young ones, the nymphs, on 
 which the wings have not yet grown. If you have 
 wingless specimens in 3^our collection, label them 
 Nymphs. 
 
 7. Study the belly side of the abdomen. Along 
 the middle line there is a prominent ridge which is 
 thickly clothed with hairs, and, on each side between 
 this ridge and the edge of the body there is a deep 
 furrow. Along the upper edge of the outside of this 
 furrow, and a short distance from the side of the 
 body, there is a fringe of long hairs. Wet a pin and 
 
126 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 with it carefully brush these hairs toward the side of 
 the body so as to uncover the furrow. When this is 
 done there can be seen on the sloping outer side of 
 the furrow a small hole in each of the segments of the 
 abdomen ; these are the spiracles or breathing holes. 
 Note that the ridge on the middle of the belly ends 
 behind in a sharp, projecting point ; and that on each 
 side the edge of the body bearing the fringe of hairs 
 also ends behind in a similar point, between which 
 and the tip of the abdomen there is quite a space. 
 This space serves as an opening to an air-chamber 
 between the wings and the abdomen. 
 
 8. Take from the aquarium two or three living 
 specimens and put them into a tumbler which is 
 nearly filled with water. Be careful not to be stung 
 while doing this. 
 
 9. While a specimen is resting quietly at the sur- 
 face of the water, study it with a lens. Make a draw- 
 ing showing the arrangement of the hairs on the 
 abdomen of the living specimen while in the water; 
 this arrangement is very different from that seen on 
 the pinned specimens already studied. 
 
 10. Observe, on the living specimen in the water, 
 the hole near the tip of the body through which the 
 air passes into the chambers beneath the fringes of 
 hairs and into the air-chamber between the wings and 
 the abdomen. 
 
 11. Study the pinned specimens again, and make 
 sure that you understand how the air can pass to 
 the chambers referred to in the preceding para- 
 graph. 
 
 12. On the pinned specimens study the first ab- 
 dominal segment on the belly side, and observe the 
 
POND LIFE. 127 
 
 little furrow on each side ; these are air-passages 
 extending- between the chambers on the belly side 
 of the abdomen to that beneath the wings. (In 
 addition to the spiracles in the abdomen there are 
 spiracles in the thorax ; but as these are exceed- 
 ingly difficult to find, they will not be described 
 here.) 
 
 13. Observe living specimens in water and note 
 that they carry air among the hairs on the lower side 
 of the thorax, and in the spaces between the head 
 and prothorax and between the prothorax and the 
 mesothorax. In fact, a large part of the body is en- 
 veloped with air. But the most capacious air-cham- 
 bers are those inclosed by the fringes of hairs on the 
 belly side of the abdomen. It is to the buoyant ac- 
 tion of the air in these that the insect owes its pecul- 
 iar position in the water. 
 
 14. If you will watch with a lens living specimens 
 in a glass of water you will be able to see them force 
 the air out of the chambers beneath the fringes of hair, 
 using their hind legs for this purpose, and sometimes 
 an entire fringe will be lifted like a lid. 
 
 15. Watch living specimens as they rise to the 
 surface from the depths of the aquarium, and see 
 how they bump against the surface film. 
 
 16. Throw living flies into the water where the 
 back -swimmers are and see what the back -swim- 
 mers will do. If flies are abundant in the room, 
 observe the fate of those that come to drink from the 
 water. 
 
 17. Kill and pin several specimens of each species 
 of back-swimmers that you have collected, and ar- 
 range them in your collection under a copy of the 
 
128 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 following label, and immediately after the water- 
 striders, for these insects also belong to the order 
 Hemiptera : — 
 
 Family Notonectid^ (No-to-nec'ti-dse). 
 The Back-sivimmers. 
 
 An Essay on Back- swimmers {School Work). — 
 Write an account of what you have learned regard- 
 inof back-swimmers. 
 
 The Water-scorpions (Field and School Work). — 
 Among the strange insects that live in ponds, but 
 come to the surface to obtain air, are the water-scor- 
 pions. These are not so com- 
 mon as the back- swimmers, 
 but as they are found in simi- 
 lar situations, there may be 
 specimens among those insects 
 in your aquaria collected by 
 sweeping the stems of sub- 
 merged plants. If not, search 
 
 for them in the 
 
 places whereback- 
 
 swimmers are 
 
 found. 
 
 There are two 
 
 quite different 
 
 kinds of water- 
 scorpions in this 
 
 country. In one 
 
 of these, called 
 Nepa (Ne'pa), the body is flat and broad (Fig. 102) ; in 
 the other, called Ranatra (Ran' a-trci), the body is long 
 and very slender (Fig. 103). In both, the hind end 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 29 
 
 of the body is furnished with a pair of long, slender, 
 horny appendages. Each of these is grooved on the 
 inner side, so that when they are held together they 
 form a tube through which air can be drawn. They 
 are represented in this position in the figure of Ncpa 
 and separate in that of Ranatra. 
 
 Another interesting feature in the structure of 
 water-scorpions is the form of the fore legs. These 
 are fitted for grasping, and are of such form that 
 each is a complete organ by itself. The coxa is long 
 (in the case of Ranatra it is very long, so that it ap- 
 pears like a femur), and the femur is furnished with 
 a groove into which the tibia and tarsus fit like the 
 blade of a pocket-knife into the handle. 
 
 The resemblance in form to a scorpion is quite 
 striking in the case of Nepa (Fig. 102), but it is much 
 less so with Ranatra. 
 
 If you succeed in obtaining water-scorpions, keep 
 them in an aquarium and observe their habits. Study 
 their method of obtaining air, the way in which they 
 seize their prey, their modes of locomotion, and any 
 other features of their life history that you can observe. 
 
 The body of Nepa is very flat, enabling the insect 
 to hide beneath stones and rubbish on the bottom of 
 ponds. With Ranatra the slender form of the body 
 and the dirt with which it is usually covered causes 
 the insect to resemble a dirty stick. This resem- 
 blance doubtless aids the insect greatly in the cap- 
 ture of its prey. 
 
 Adult water-scorpions have well-developed wings 
 which reach nearly to the end of the abdomen ; if 
 you find wingless individuals, or some with short 
 wing-pads, label them as nymphs. 
 
I30 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The water-scorpions belong to the order Hemip- 
 tera. Place your pinned specimens under a copy of 
 the following label and immediately after the back- 
 swimmers : — • 
 
 Family Nepid^ (Nep'i-dae). 
 The Water-scoi'pions. 
 
 The Giant Water-bugs {Field and School Work). 
 — These are common insects in quiet ponds. Fig. 
 
 104 represents one of the 
 larger species, and Fig 105 
 a smaller one. All of them 
 can fly well in the adult 
 state, and some are frequent- 
 ly attracted to lights in great 
 numbers. These are known 
 in some parts 
 of the country 
 as " electric- 
 light bugs." 
 
 The mem- 
 bers of this 
 family are pre- 
 daceous. Their 
 fore legs are fig. 105.— Giant 
 fitted for seiz. -=""-b"s.^-''-- 
 ing prey and resemble somewhat those of the water- 
 scorpions. 
 
 These insects can be easily kept in aquaria and 
 are good subjects for study. The outlines already 
 given for the study of other pond insects will afford 
 suggestions for work on these. A striking feature 
 in the life history of many of the giant water-bugs is 
 
 Fig. 104. — Giant water-bug', 
 Belostoina. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 131 
 
 that the female fastens her eggs on 
 the top of her own back with a thin 
 layer of w^aterproof glue, which she 
 secretes for this purpose. Fig. 106 
 represents a species found in the far 
 West. 
 
 The pinned specimens in your 
 collection should be placed after the 
 water-scorpions under a copy of the 
 following label : — 
 
 Family Belostomid^ (Bel-os-tom'i-dae). 
 The Giant Water-bugs. 
 
 Fig. 106. — Female, 
 with eggs, Serphus, 
 
 
 The Wrigglers {Field Work).— The wrigglers, or 
 " wigglers," as they are more commonly called, are so 
 
 well known that 
 it is hardly neces- 
 sary to describe 
 their form that 
 they may be rec- 
 ognized. They 
 abound through- 
 out the warmer 
 part of the year in 
 ponds, in ditches 
 choked with fall- 
 en leaves, and in 
 pools in swampy 
 places. But usu- 
 ally they are most 
 
 Fig. 107. — A glass of water containing eggs, larvae, CaSlly lOUna lU CX- 
 and pup^ of mosquitoes. ^^^^^ rCCCptaclcS 
 
 of rain-water, in watering-troughs, and in other sim- 
 
32 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 ilar places. There are two forms of them : one are 
 the larvse of mosquitoes, the other the pupge of the 
 same insects ; both are represented in Fig. 107. 
 
 Collect some wrigglers and put them in a glass 
 of water where you can observe them. This aquarium 
 should be kept covered when jou are not studying 
 the insects in it. 
 
 The Larv^ of Mosquitoes {School Work).— In 
 the study of wrigglers begin with 
 the larvae ; these are of the form 
 shown at a in Fig. 108. 
 
 1. Note that when a larva is 
 at rest it hangs from the surface 
 with its head down ; several are 
 shown in this position in Fig. 107. 
 
 2. Note that when a larva is 
 disturbed it swims away with a 
 
 wriggling motion or quietly sinks toward the bottom. 
 
 3. Note that a larva can sink without any appar- 
 ent effort, while in order to regain the surface it is 
 forced to exert itself violently. Evidently the body 
 of the insect is heavier than water. 
 
 4. Let us see if we can discover the means by 
 which the larva keeps itself at the surface without 
 any effort, although the body is heavier than water. 
 
 Note that the true hind end of the body, the 
 last abdominal segment, is not at the surface, but is 
 turned to one side, and that what really reaches the 
 surface is the end of a tube borne by the next-to-the- 
 last segment. This is the breathing-tube of the 
 larva. If the pupil has the use of a microscope, a 
 larva should be mounted on a glass slip and the 
 structure of this breathing-tube examined. It will 
 
 Fig. 108. — Mosquitoes. 
 a, larva ; b, pupa. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 133 
 
 be found to bear at its hinder-end a rosette of five 
 
 platelike lobes ; this is shown at a in Fig-. 109. This 
 
 rosette can be seen imperfectly with 
 
 a good lens. When a larva reaches 
 
 the surface it spreads out the rosette 
 
 upon the surface film, w^hich buoys it 
 
 up in the same way that we have seen 
 
 a needle supported by this film (see 
 
 experiment i, pag-e 104). The body fig. 109.— «, end of 
 
 f 1 , -1 ^'^ ^ i • breathing- tube of 
 
 01 the larva is only slightly heavier larva; ^ breath- 
 than the water, and the buoyant effect -g-t"be of pupa. 
 of the surface film on the rosette is sufficient to over- 
 come this difference. 
 
 5. Consider the adaptations in structure to the 
 mode of life of this insect : The form of the respira- 
 tory tube enables it to rest at the surface of the water, 
 where it can get a supply of air, w^hile the greater 
 weight of the fore end of the body causes it to hang 
 down into the water in a position suited to collect- 
 ing the minute particles of decaying vegetation scat- 
 tered through the water and upon which the insect 
 feeds. This position is also one that enables the in- 
 sect to start quickly on its wriggling journey when 
 alarmed. 
 
 6. If the student has the use of a microscope, it 
 will be well for him to make at this point a larger 
 r.nd more detailed figure of a larva than that given 
 above, which was introduced merely to show the 
 general form of these insects in this stage. 
 
 The Pup^ of Mosquitoes {School Work).— The 
 larvas of mosquitoes develop rapidly, and after a few 
 molts change into club-shaped pupas, the head and 
 thorax being greatly enlarged in this stage. The 
 
J 34 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 general form of the pupse is shown at b in Fig. io8. 
 Usually larvas and pupae are found at the same 
 time, but if you have only larvse you can obtain 
 pupse by keeping the larvae in water till they trans- 
 form. 
 
 1. Note and describe the differences between the 
 larvae and the pupse in the following respects : The 
 form of the body. The position of the insect when 
 at rest. The number and position of the breathing- 
 tubes. (The structure of a breathing-tube of a pupa, 
 as seen through a microscope, is shown at b in Fig. 
 109.) 
 
 2. Note that the pupae of mosquitoes are active, 
 swimming with a wriggling motion similar to that 
 of the larvae. It is a very unusual thing for insects 
 that have a complete metamorphosis (see page 35) to 
 be active in the pupa state. 
 
 3. Observe the wing-pads on the sides of the 
 thorax, also the leaflike appendages at the tail end of 
 the body, with which the insect swims. 
 
 4. If you have an opportunity to do so, study the 
 pupa with a microscope and make a large, detailed 
 drawing of it. 
 
 5. How does the pupa make use of the surface 
 film of water? 
 
 The Emergence of Mosquitoes. — The pupa 
 state of mosquitoes lasts only a few days, then the 
 skin splits down the back, and the winged mosquito 
 carefully works itself out and cautiously balances 
 itself on the cast skin, using it as a raft, until its 
 wings are hardened so that it can fly away. 
 
 Collect many wrigglers, and, keeping them in 
 water, try to observe the emergence of the adult. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 135 
 
 Adult MosQUixoES.—The form of mosquitoes is 
 very well known, but there are certain mosquitolike 
 insects that are liable to be mistaken for members of 
 this family. Mosquitoes differ from these, however, 
 in having a fringe of scalelike hairs on the margin of 
 the wing and also on each of the wing-veins. Fig. 
 
 '-•tlVlii'll'iltipi 
 
 Fig 1 10. — Wing of mosquito. 
 
 1 10 represents the wing of a mosquito as seen through 
 a microscope. 
 
 The sexes of mosquitoes can be distinguished by 
 the form of the antennae ; at m in Fig. in is repre- 
 sented the antenna of a male, and/ 
 the antenna of a female. 
 
 It is only the females that sing 
 and bite ; the males are mute and 
 live on the juices of plants. 
 
 The eggs are laid side by side in 
 a boat-shaped mass on the surface of 
 the water. One of these is repre- 
 sented floating in Fig. 107. By col- 
 lecting a mass of this kind and putting it in a vessel 
 of water, the complete life history of these insects 
 can be observed. 
 
 Mosquitoes belong to the order of two-winged 
 insects or flies. Collect some adults and, if you have 
 very slender pins, pin them ; if not, mount them on 
 
 Fig. Ill 
 
 of mosquitoes, m, 
 male ; /, female. 
 
136 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 cardboard points. Copy the following labels, and 
 arrange your specimens under them : — 
 
 Order Diptera (Dip'te-ra). 
 
 The Flies. 
 
 Family Culicid^ (Cu-lic'i-dae). 
 
 The Mosquitoes. 
 
 Write up the life history of a mosquito, and place 
 specimens of the eggs, larvae, and pupse in alcohol in 
 your collection with the adults. 
 
 INSECTS THAT REST AT THE BOTTOM. 
 
 As a rule, it is rather difficult to watch in the 
 field the habits of insects that live at the bottom of 
 ponds; but in most cases these insects can be kept 
 in aquaria, and there studied without difficulty. 
 By searching ponds or the quiet portions of streams, 
 some of these insects may be seen crawling over 
 the bottom, and can then be taken with the hand. 
 But a more rapid way of collecting them is by 
 sweeping the bottom of the pond and submerged 
 plants with an insect net. If the work outlined in 
 the preceding pages has been carried out, it is more 
 than probable that some of these insects are al- 
 ready in your aquaria. If not, seek for them in the 
 field. 
 
 The Habits of Water-boatmen {School Work). — 
 These are oval, gray and black, mottled bugs, usually 
 less than half an inch in length ; they occur in the 
 streams, ponds, and lakes of the whole United States. 
 The characteristic form and markings of these in- 
 sects are shown in Fig. 112. Very little difficulty 
 will be had in finding these insects in almost any lo- 
 
POND LIFE. 13^ 
 
 cality where there are ponds of water, and thej are 
 very easily kept in aquaria. 
 
 1. Remove a few specimens from the aquarium, 
 and place them in a glass of water in the bottom of 
 which there is a layer of gravel 
 
 or small pebbles. If several 
 specimens are placed in the 
 glass, some of them may come to 
 rest near enough the side of the 
 glass so that they may be studied 
 with a lens. 
 
 2. Note that the favorite at- ^_ 
 
 Fig. T12. 
 
 titude of a water-boatman is 
 
 clinging to a pebble at the bottom of the aquarium 
 by the tips of the middle legs, with the fore legs 
 bent up under the head and the hind legs stretched 
 out sidewise like oars. This is a very different at- 
 titude from that assumed by their near relatives, 
 the back-swimmers. 
 
 3. Note that there is a thick layer of air covering 
 the entire belly or ventral side of the body. Some- 
 times this layer of air extends down the legs nearly 
 or quite to the ends of the coxse, and often there is a 
 strip of air on the outside of the outer edge of each 
 upper wing. The spaces between the head and pro- 
 thorax, the prothorax and mesothorax, and between 
 the wings and abdomen are also filled with air. These 
 masses of air can be seen when the insect bends its 
 body. 
 
 4. By watching these insects carefully, you will 
 be able to see that sometimes one will lift its wings 
 slightly, thus drawing the air from the ventral side 
 of the body up under the wings ; and, on the other 
 
138 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 hand, they frequently rub their hind legs down their 
 backs, thus forcing the air from under the wings to 
 the ventral surface of the body. 
 
 5. Note that while a water-boatman is resting 
 near the bottom of the aquarium, it frequently moves 
 its oarlike hind legs backward with a quick sweeping 
 motion, causing a current of water to flow over the 
 layer of air on the ventral side of the body. 
 
 Although the water-boatmen breathe air, w^hich 
 they carry with them in a way very similar to that 
 of the back-swimmers, they are able to remain under 
 water without going to the surface to renew the sup- 
 ply of air for a very long period. This, I think, is 
 explained by the fact that the air on the lower side 
 of the body and along the outer edge of the wing- 
 covers is in direct contact with the water, so that it 
 can be purified by the air that is mixed with the 
 water. And probably it is to insure this purification 
 of the layer of air that the insect causes a current of 
 water to flow over it by the sweeping motion of its 
 hind legs. This also explains the reason for forcing 
 the air out from under the wings and drawing it 
 back again. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the insects dart to the sur- 
 face and return to the bottom as if going after a fresh 
 supply of air ; but the movement is so rapid and the 
 stay at the surface is so short that I have been unable 
 to determine the manner of taking the air. 
 
 6. Observe the mode of life of these insects as 
 completely as possible, and write an account of them. 
 
 The Structure of Water-boatmen {School 
 Work). — Kill and pin some specimens, and study 
 their structure. 
 
POND LIFE. 139 
 
 1. Note that the head overlaps the prothorax in- 
 stead of being inserted in it, as is usually the case 
 with insects. 
 
 2. Observe the very large, three-cornered eyes. 
 The antennas are very small, and are concealed under 
 the backward-projecting edge of the side of the head. 
 
 3. Observe the lower part of the front of the 
 head ; it tapers to a blunt point, but it is not pro- 
 longed into a slender beak, as is usual with bugs ; 
 near the tip of the head there is a small opening, 
 through which the sucking mouth-parts are pushed 
 when in use. 
 
 4. The prothorax is conspicuous above, and is 
 marked by transverse stripes ; on the sides it is very 
 short, and below it is almost completely covered by 
 the head ; this brings the fore legs very near to the 
 mouth. 
 
 5. Make a drawing of one of the fore legs ; note 
 that the tarsus consists of a single segment, is scoop- 
 like in form, and bears a comblike fringe of bristles. 
 
 6. Make a drawing of a middle leg, and note the 
 very long, slender tarsal claws. What is the use of 
 these claws? 
 
 7. Make a drawing of a hind leg. What are these 
 legs fitted for ? 
 
 8. Study the lower side of the abdomen of sev- 
 eral specimens. In the females the segments are of 
 the usual form, but in the males some of them, and 
 especially the last four, are very unsymmetrical, 
 being, upon one side, broken into irregular-shaped 
 frao;-ments. The cause of this is not known. 
 
 9. Indicate by labels the sexes of your pinned 
 specimens. 
 
I40 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 lo. Place the pinned specimens in your collection 
 with the Hemiptera under a copy of the following 
 
 label :— 
 
 Family Corisid^ (Co-ris'i-dae). 
 
 The Wate7'-boatmen. 
 
 The Nymphs of Damsel-flies {Field Work). — 
 The nymphs of damsel-flies are truly aquatic, having 
 gill-like organs which enable them to live in water 
 without coming to the surface from 
 time to time for a supply of air. 
 They may be found in those ponds 
 or streams about which the adults 
 fly, and are most abundant among 
 the stems of submerged plants. Fig. 
 113 will enable you to recognize 
 these insects when found. 
 
 CoUectspecimens of these nymphs 
 and place them in aquaria for study. 
 The Habits and Structure 
 OF THE Nymphs of Damsel-flies 
 {School Work). — The nymphs of dam- 
 sel-flies are easily reared in aquaria 
 in which the water is kept pure by 
 growing plants. Frequently tiny 
 ones will appear in such aquaria from eggs that were 
 in the stems of the plants when they were collected. 
 In such cases it is easy to watch the entire life 
 history of the insect after it leaves the Qgg. 
 
 We will not outline such a study, for the pupil 
 who has made the observations on pond life already 
 indicated will be able to direct his own studies ; and 
 independent original observations are much more 
 
 Fig. ii^. — N^'inph of 
 damssl-fly. 
 
POND LIFE. 
 
 141 
 
 enjoyable than prescribed work. We will, however, 
 explain two striking peculiarities in the structure of 
 these insects : 
 
 1. Remove the nymph from the water and exam- 
 ine its mouth-parts. The lower side of the head will 
 be seen to be covered by a broad flap ; this is the 
 greatly developed lower lip or labium, and is termed 
 in these insects the mask. With a pin lift the end of 
 the mask away from the head, and observe that it is 
 very long and is hinged in such a w^ay that it can be 
 pushed out a considerable distance in front of the 
 head. Note also that it is furnished with hooks at 
 the end. This is the organ by which the nymph 
 seizes its prey. Try to observe the nymphs in your 
 aquarium catch other insects. 
 
 A similar organ is possessed by the nymphs of 
 dragon-flies, and is represented in Fig. 115. 
 
 2. Observe the leaflike organs at the hind end 
 of the body. These are the tracheal gills, 
 the organs by means of which the insect 
 breathes during its life in the water. Fig. 
 114 represents a tracheal gill of a damsel-fly 
 greatly enlarged. These organs are called 
 tracheal gills because the tracheae or air- 
 vessels extend into them, and the air con- 
 tained in the tracheae is purified by the water 
 (or rather by the air in the water) that bathes 
 the gills. While with true gills, as those of ^^^- "4- 
 fishes and lobsters, etc., the gill contains vessels car- 
 rying blood to be purified. 
 
 3. Preserve specimens of nymphs of damsel-flies 
 in alcohol and put them in your collection with the 
 adults. 
 
1^2 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 4. Write an account of what you have learned 
 about these insects. 
 
 The Habits and Structure of the Nymphs 
 OF Dragon-flies {Field and School Work). — The 
 nymphs of dragon-fiies are found in the same situa- 
 tions as those of damsel-flies ; they are also found 
 crawling over the bottoms of ponds and streams 
 where there are no plants growing. They vary 
 greatly in form, some being slender while others are 
 very broad. They resemble the nymphs of damsel- 
 flies in having a mask and in their use of this organ ; 
 but they differ in lacking the external tracheal gills. 
 Fig. 115 represents one of these nymphs. 
 
 Collect specimens of these nymphs and place 
 them in aquaria for study. Also preserve some in 
 
 alcohol in your collec- 
 tion with the adult 
 dragon -flies. When 
 P^^ ^^ collectingthese, search 
 
 for cast skins along 
 the shores of the pond or stream. Preserve speci- 
 mens of the cast skins in your collection. 
 
 We will call attention to only one feature in the 
 structure and habits of these creatures, leaving the 
 pupil to discover other things for himself : 
 
 The nymphs of dragon-flies possess tracheal gills 
 of very unusual form. These are situated within the 
 body, and consist of a large number of tracheae rami- 
 fying in the walls of the hind part of the intestine 
 — the rectum. The nymph drawls water into this 
 part of the intestine through the opening at the 
 hind end of the body ; and this water, bathing the 
 walls of the rectum, purifies the air in the tracheas 
 
POND LIFE. 143 
 
 in the same way that the air in the trachese of an 
 ordinary tracheal gill is purified. By watching a 
 living specimen it can be seen to alternately draw in 
 the water and force it out again. 
 
 This arrangement serves as an organ of locomo- 
 tion as well as an organ of respiration. For the 
 insect, by suddenly forcing out the water from the 
 rectum, can cause itself to shoot forward. The jet 
 of water forced out from the rectum when the insect 
 jumps forward is most easily seen when the insect is 
 on the bottom of the aquarium ; in such a case the 
 fine dirt will be disturbed by it for a considerable 
 distance back of the insect. 
 
 If you can find a large number of nymphs of 
 dragon-flies, do so, and, keeping them in aquaria, try 
 to observe the emergence of the adult. Of this 
 Tennyson wrote : 
 
 To-day I saw the dragon-fly 
 Come from the wells where he did lie, 
 An inner impulse rent the veil 
 Of his old husk ; from head to tail 
 Came out clear plates of sapphire mail. 
 He dried his wings : like gauze they grew, 
 Through crofts and pastures wet with dew 
 A living flash of light he flew. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 BROOK LIFE. 
 
 N a deep ravine, where a hill stream 
 tumbles down a stairway of rocks, is 
 one of our favorite resorts on Satur- 
 days. A dense forest growth covers 
 the sides of the ravine, and shuts out 
 all the world besides ; but at midday, 
 when the sun shines brightly, the light 
 streams down through the narrow 
 opening above the creek. This is the 
 time to watch the ways of the crea- 
 tures clinging to the rocks in the 
 rapids, or living in the quiet pools below. Many a 
 holiday have we waded up this stream, bottles and 
 lens in hand, coaxing Nature to yield up some of her 
 secrets. ' 
 
 Here we have watched the caddice-worms drag 
 their log houses over the bottoms of the pools ; here 
 the brinks of the falls bear great patches of a living 
 carpet of wriggling black-fly larvse ; and here we 
 discovered how the net-winged midges leave the 
 water, unfold their wings, and take flight. It is a 
 rich collecting field ; the cool, pure water of the 
 brook and the rush of the torrents affording a home 
 
 144 
 
Plate VI. 
 
 A BROOK. 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 145 
 
 for many creatures that can not live in the warmer 
 and more quiet streams of the valley below. 
 
 In the following pages are mentioned some of 
 the insects that may be found in similar streams — 
 that is, in streams flowing rapidly over stones. Most 
 of these insects occur rarely or not at all in quiet, 
 sluggish streams, flowing over sandy bottoms, through 
 level stretches of country. In such streams are found 
 the insects described in the chapter on Pond Life. 
 
 In our hill stream, too, there occur many of the 
 pond insects, for during its course there are quiet 
 bays and broad, still waters, which seem perfectly 
 suited to their needs. 
 
 Little brook, sing to me : 
 
 Sing about a bumblebee 
 That tumbled from a lily- bell, and grumbled mumblingly 
 
 Because he wet the film 
 
 Of his wings, and had to swim, 
 While the water-bugs raced round and laughed at him ! 
 
 Little brook, sing a song 
 
 Of a leaf that sailed along 
 Down the golden-braided center of your current swift and strong, 
 
 And a dragon-fly that lit 
 
 On the tilting rim of it. 
 And rode away and wasn't scared a bit. 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley. ^ 
 
 INSECTS THAT LIVE BENEATH STONES IN RAPIDS. 
 
 There is no collecting field that is more certain to 
 yield returns than the bed of a rapidly flowing 
 stream of pure water. Lift the stones from such a 
 
 * From Old-fashioned Roses, by permission of the Bowen-Merrill Co. 
 
146 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Stream at any season of the year and you will find 
 nymphs and larvae of various kinds clinging to their 
 lower surface. If before lifting the stones you will 
 place a net in the stream just below^ them, other in- 
 sects that live beneath the stones will be swept into 
 it by the current. 
 
 A great variety of insects live in such places, the 
 kinds differing in different localities. But there are 
 certain families that are almost sure to be represented 
 in any rapidly flowing stream ; they are the stone- 
 flies, the May-flies, and the caddice-worms. These 
 and a few others are described below. 
 
 Most of these insects are not easily kept in aquaria 
 without running water. But if you can place an aqua- 
 rium under a faucet, and keep the water from over- 
 flowing by the use of a constant-level siphon (see 
 page 331), you may be able to preserve living speci- 
 mens for study. 
 
 If vou are unable to do this, study the insects as 
 well as you can in the field, and bring back speci- 
 mens for your collection and for a study of their 
 structure. 
 
 The Nymphs of Stoxe-flies [Field and School 
 Work). — In most localities the insects that occur in 
 greatest numbers on the lower side of stones in the 
 beds of streams are the nymphs of stone-flies, and it 
 was probably this fact that suggested their common 
 name. Usually the first stone lifted from a riff will 
 be found to bear several of these insects clinging to 
 it, or scurrying over its surface in their efforts to 
 escape. When at rest the very flat body is closely 
 applied to the stone, while the legs, antenuce, and 
 caudal setce radiate from it on the surface of the 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 147 
 
 stone. In our common forms there is a tuft of hair- 
 like tracheal gills just behind the base of each leg, 
 and the more mature individuals have conspicuous 
 wing-pads (Fig. 116). These general characteristics 
 will enable the pupil to recognize 
 these insects. Specimens should 
 be collected and taken to school 
 for a more careful study of their 
 structure. Look also for empty 
 nymph skins ; these will be found 
 clinging to stones and other ob- 
 jects on the shores of the stream, 
 where they were left when the 
 adults emerofcd. 
 
 Pin the empty nymph skins 
 and preserve the nymphs in al- 
 cohol. Put both in your collec- 
 tion with the adult stone-flies (see 
 page 103). 
 
 In the study of the structure 
 of these insects note the follow- 
 ing : The nymphs resemble the adults to a consid- 
 erable degree, except that they lack wings. The 
 order Plecoptera, or stone-flies, is a good example 
 of those orders, the members of which undergo an 
 incomplete metamorphosis. The body is greatly 
 flattened ; in this way the insect is well fitted for 
 creeping under stones. The legs are flattened and 
 fringed with hairs, fitting the insect for swimming as 
 well as for creeping. The tarsi are each furnished 
 with tzvo claws. The organs of special sense are well 
 developed, there being large compound eyes, three 
 simple eyes, and long antennge. The mouth is fur- 
 
 FlG. 116. — Nymph of 
 stone-fly. 
 
148 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 nished with strong, toothed mandibles (it is some- 
 times necessary to cut away the upper lip in order 
 to see them well), and the caudal end of the body is 
 furnished with two large setae. The number and 
 position of the tufts of tracheal gills differ in different 
 species. 
 
 The nymphs of stone-fiies are carnivorous. ^ 
 The Nymphs of May-flies {Field and School 
 Work). — These are also found beneath stones in the 
 beds of rapidly flowing streams, but they also oc- 
 cur in many other situations. Some live in the 
 banks of streams, where they excavate burrows for 
 shelter; others live in slowly moving waters and 
 conceal themselves by covering the body with mud ; 
 and still others swim among water plants. But in 
 regions where there are rapidly flowing streams, 
 those that live under stones will be most easily 
 found. 
 
 As a rule, the body is not flattened to so great an 
 extent as with the nymphs of stone-flies ; the tracheal 
 gills are usually more or less platelike in form, al- 
 though sometimes they are threadlike and 
 tufted ; and the tarsi end in a single claw. 
 Fig. 117 represents one of our most com- 
 mon species. 
 
 Study the structure of a nymph, and 
 compare it with that of the nymph of a 
 stone-fly. 
 
 Fig. 117.— Preserve specimens in alcohol, and put 
 ^Ai^y^fl?^ them in your collection with the adult May- 
 flies (see page loi). 
 The Caddice-WORMS {Field and School Work).— 
 When the writer was a lad, before he had heard of 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 149 
 
 Nature study — before the study of insects except as 
 a part of zoology was taught in any school in this 
 country — he began his study of caddice-worms. It 
 was not a thorough study — in fact, he w^ould have 
 been surprised to have heard it called study at all. 
 To him it w^as fun, after a long tussle with a hard 
 Latin lesson, to run over the long bridge across the 
 river and on to the swamp near the lake where the 
 Azaleas blossomed, and to lie face down on the bank 
 of a stream and watch the curious worms that had 
 tiny log houses about their bodies. 
 
 It was his first introduction to a field of study 
 that has since happily occupied the greater part of 
 his time for several decades. Probably for this rea- 
 son he always expe- 
 riences a thrill of 
 pleasure when he is 
 permitted to intro- fig. 118. 
 
 duce these little architects to other Nature-loving 
 youngsters. 
 
 This was a sluggish stream, and the caddice- 
 worms found there built cases of fragments of partly 
 decayed wood, like that shown in Fig. 118. Later, 
 in another quiet stream where grass was growing in 
 the water, there were found other cad- 
 dice-worms, which built cases having: a 
 still greater resemblance to log houses. 
 These cases were composed of tiny lengths 
 of grass laid crosswise (Fig. 119). They 
 iG. 119. ^j.g rough-appearing structures, but within 
 they are smooth and lined with silk — an excellent 
 protection to the soft-bodied larvae that occupy them. 
 Caddice-worms, like either of these described 
 
I50 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 above, can be kept in aquaria, and are excellent sub- 
 jects for study. 
 
 In swiftly flowing streams, and especially in those 
 in which the water is cool, there may be found many 
 other kinds. Several of these build cases of small 
 stones or grains of sand. Some of the cases are very 
 regular in form ; others consist of a central tube with 
 large stones fastened on two sides of it (Fig. 120); 
 
 Fig. 120. Fig. 121. Fig. 122. 
 
 and one kind, built of fine sand, is coiled so as to 
 resemble the shell of a snail (Fig. 121). 
 
 In all of these the material of which the case is 
 made is fastened together by silk, which the larvas 
 spin from the mouth in the same manner as caterpil- 
 lars. In some species the case is composed entirely 
 of silk. Fig. 122 represents the form of such a case 
 made by a larva that lives among eel-grass in a lake. 
 
 Before transforming to pupas, the caddice-worms 
 partly close their cases so as to keep out intruders, 
 but openings are left for the inflow of water for 
 breathinsf. 
 
 The adults are known as caddice-flies ; they are 
 mothlike insects, which are often attracted to lights 
 at night. Fig. 68, page 79, represents one of them. 
 
 Collect as many kinds of caddice-worms as possi- 
 ble. Keep alive some of those that will live in 
 aquaria, and study their habits. 
 
 Remove some from their cases, and study their 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 151 
 
 structure. Note especially the following : The great 
 length of the legs, which enables the larva to pull 
 itself along without exposing much of its body ; the 
 firmer covering of the fore part of the body which 
 is exposed while the insect is walking ; the softer 
 texture and paler color of the protected parts of the 
 body ; the number, form, and position of the tracheal 
 gills ; and the hooks at the hind end of the body by 
 which the larva holds itself within its case. 
 
 Preserve larvae with their cases in alcohol, and 
 mount empty cases on cards. Try to rear pup2e and 
 adults from larvas kept in aquaria. 
 
 Place specimens of larvas, cases, pupse, and adults 
 
 in your collection under a copy of the following 
 
 label :— 
 
 Order Trichoptera (Tri-chop'te-ra). 
 
 The Caddice-flies or Caddice-worins. 
 
 Write an account of your observations on these 
 insects, and illustrate it with sketches of their cases. 
 
 The Net-building Caddice-worms {Field a^id 
 School Work), — In lifting stones from a stream where 
 the current flows swiftly, the collector often finds 
 attached to the lower side of the stones little masses 
 of pebbles which are fastened to each other and to 
 the larger stone by threads of silk. These are the 
 homes of the net-building caddice-worms. 
 
 Pull these rude habitations apart and the owners 
 will be found in more or less perfect tubes of silk. 
 Very little respect for the architectural skill of these 
 builders is commanded by their dwellings. But if 
 one looks a little farther something will be found 
 that is sure to excite admiration. The dweller with- 
 
152 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 [23. — Net of a net-building 
 caddice-worm. 
 
 in this rude retreat is a fisherman, and stretched be- 
 tween two stones near-by can be seen his net. 
 
 This is made of silk. It is usually funnel-shaped, 
 opening up-stream, and in the center of it there is a 
 portion composed of threads of silk extending in two 
 directions at right angles to each other, so as to form 
 
 meshes of surprising regu- 
 larity. It is as if a spider 
 had stretched a small web 
 in the water where the cur- 
 rent is swiftest (Fig. 123). 
 
 These nets occur in rap- 
 ids between stones, but in 
 many places they are to be 
 found in greater numbers 
 along the brinks of falls. 
 Here they are built upon the surface of the rock, 
 in the form of semi-elliptical cups, which are kept 
 distended by the current. Much of the coating of 
 dirt with which these rocks are clothed in summer 
 is due to its being caught in these nets. 
 
 It is usually difficult to procure specimens of these 
 nets for preservation ; sometimes, however, one can 
 be found attached to the surface of a single small 
 stone or to a piece of wood in such a way that it can 
 be removed from the water without injury to it. 
 
 Find some net-building caddice-worms and learn 
 all you can regarding their ways ; collect specimens 
 for your collection and for study ; compare their 
 structure with that of other caddice-worms ; pre- 
 serve specimens of larvas in alcohol ; and dry, if pos- 
 sible, some of their nests and nets. 
 Write an account of these insects. 
 
BROOK LIFE.. 
 
 153 
 
 Fig. 124. — A wa- 
 ter-penny. 
 
 The Water-pennies {Field J^^^r^).— These are 
 strange larvae, which are rarely recognized as insects 
 by the young collector. They are very flat, circular 
 in outline, and about five sixteenths of 
 an inch in diameter. They are found 
 clinging to the lower surface of stones 
 in rapid streams. Fig. 124 represents 
 one greatly enlarged. They are larvag 
 of beetles of the genus Psephenus {Pse- 
 pJie'niis), and are 
 merely mentioned 
 here so that the stu- 
 dent of brook life may know what 
 they are. 
 
 The Dobson or Horned Co- 
 RYDALIS {Field Work). — If a net or 
 a wire screen be held with one 
 edge close to the bottom below 
 some stones lifted with a hoe or 
 garden rake, many of the insects 
 living under the stones will be 
 swept into the net or upon the 
 screen, and can thus be captured. 
 One of the insects that is often 
 caught in this way is the dobson, 
 the ugly creature represented by 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 This larva is well known in 
 many parts of the United States, 
 as it is used extensively by anglers 
 for bait, especially for bass, and in spite of its dis- 
 agreeable appearance it is in some respects very in- 
 teresting to students of Nature study. 
 
 Fig. 125. — The dobson. 
 
154 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 It will not thrive in an ordinary aquarium, but it 
 can be kept alive in one through which there is a 
 current of well-aerated water flowing. If such an 
 aquarium is lacking, specimens can be kept alive on 
 damp sand or in a box with freshly cut grass, for 
 this is a truly amphibious species. 
 
 As this insect lives nearly three years in the 
 larval state, larvse can be found at any season of the 
 
 year. In the latter part of 
 May or early in June the 
 full-grown larvse leave the 
 water, and each makes a 
 cell under a stone or some 
 other object on or near 
 the bank of the stream. 
 Here they soon change to 
 pupge. These are white 
 and have prominent wing- 
 pads. In about a month 
 after the larva leaves the 
 water the adult insect ap- 
 pears. Fig. 1 26 represents 
 the male, which has re- 
 markably long mandibles. 
 The female resembles the 
 male, except that the man- 
 dibles are comparatively 
 short. Soon after the 
 adults appear the eggs are 
 laid. These are attached to 
 stones or other objects overhanging the water; they 
 are laid in blotchlike masses which are chalky-white 
 in color, and measure from half an inch to nearly an 
 
 Fig. 126. — The adult dobson or 
 horned Corydalis, male. 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 155 
 
 inch in diameter. A single mass contains from two 
 thousand to three thousand eggs. When the larvse 
 hatch they at once find their way into the water, 
 where they remain until full grown. 
 
 The best time to study this insect is late in the 
 spring and early in the summer, for at this season all 
 stages of it can be found. Try to get larvae, pupse, 
 adults, and eggs, and preserve them in your collec- 
 tion under a copy of the following label : — 
 Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra). 
 Family Sialid^ (Si-al'i-dae), 
 
 The adult dobson is known as the horned Cory- 
 dalis, its scientific name being Corydalis cornuta. 
 
 The Structure of the Dobson {School Work).— 
 Put a larva in a cyanide bottle one or two hours be- 
 fore it is needed for study, as it requires considerable 
 time to kill these insects. 
 
 1. Lay the specimen on its back and make a draw- 
 ing of the ventral surface. 
 
 2. Name the parts and appendages of the body 
 shown in this view. The long, tapering appendages 
 on the sides of the abdomen may be termed the 
 lateral filaments ; the tufts of hairlike appendages 
 near the bases of the lateral filaments are tracheal 
 gills, and at the hind end of the body there is a pair 
 oi prole gs. Each proleg is furnished with a pair of 
 claws. 
 
 Note that in addition to the tracheal gills this 
 larva has well-developed spiracles. Make a drawing 
 of a spiracle as seen through a lens. Note especially 
 the lid by which the opening of the spiracle is closed. 
 State the number of spiracles and the position of 
 
156 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 each pair. Consider how well fitted this insect is 
 both for life in the water and on the land. 
 
 A more detailed account of the structure of this 
 larva is given in The Elements of Insect Anatom}^ 
 by Comstock and Kellogg. 
 
 The Near Relatives of the Dobson or Cory- 
 DALIS {Field Work). — In searching for the dobson the 
 pupil is apt to find certain other members of the 
 same family which live in similar situations. Some 
 of these resemble Corydalis very closely, except that 
 they are smaller when full grown and do not have 
 tufts of tracheal gills ; these belong to the genus 
 Chauliodes {Chau-li' o-des). A still smaller larva which 
 is similar in form and also lacks tracheal gills is Sialis 
 {Si' a lis) ; this differs from both of the preceding in 
 having at the hind end of the body a long, tapering 
 appendage instead of a pair of prolegs. Place any 
 specimens that you may get of either of these in your 
 collection under the family Sialidce (see page 155). 
 
 INSECTS THAT LIVE EXPOSED IN TORRENTS. 
 
 There are many insects that find in rapids places 
 best fitted for their existence, but most of these are 
 more or less protected from the rush of the water by 
 the fact that they live beneath stones. Some insects, 
 however, scorn any protection, but live exposed 
 where the water flows the swiftest ; two of these are 
 mentioned below. 
 
 The Black-flies {Field Work), — The larvse of the 
 black-flies should be sought in streams flowing down 
 steep descents. If present, they are easily found, for 
 they occur clustered together in large numbers, form- 
 ing a black coating over the rocks. They prefer the 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 157 
 
 Fig. 127.— Cocoon and 
 larva of a black-fly. 
 
 brinks of falls and places where the slanting bed-rock 
 is washed clean by a swift flow of water, but some- 
 times they cling to pieces of wood or small stones 
 that are firmly fixed in the rapids. 
 
 When the larvas are fully grown they spin boot- 
 shaped cocoons within which the pupa state is passed ; 
 these are firmly fastened to the 
 rock upon which the larvae lived. 
 In Fig. 127 there are represented 
 a larva and a cocoon. 
 
 1. Find a cluster of larvse and 
 take notes on the following: The 
 way in which they keep their place 
 in the swift current. (It is the tail 
 end by which they are usually 
 fastened to rock.) Their method 
 of locomotion, and the action of the fan-shaped or- 
 gans attached to the head. 
 
 2. Collect larvas and cocoons and try to keep them 
 alive in water. These insects can not be reared in 
 aquaria unless they are placed under a jet of water, 
 but they can be kept alive several hours, thus giving 
 some opportunity for watching their habits in con- 
 finement. 
 
 3. Look for the eggs of the black-flies. These 
 are yellowish or brownish and occur in patches in 
 situations similar to those inhabited by the larvse. 
 
 4. Look also for adults. These occur in swarms, 
 hovering over the brinks of falls and dashing back 
 and forth through the spray. Sometimes they may 
 be seen darting into the water and out again ; at such 
 times they are laying their eggs. 
 
 Fig. 128 represents one of these flies somewhat 
 
158 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 enlarged, and Fig. 129 represents an antenna much 
 more enlarged. The peculiar venation of the wings 
 is sufficient to distinguish black- 
 flies from all others. 
 
 The Black - flies {School 
 Work). — Prepare for your collec- 
 tion as complete a series as pos- 
 FiG. 128. ., , , „ ^ 
 
 sible 01 the dmerent stap:es of 
 
 , . . . , pi- 1 • Fig. 129. 
 
 these msects, pmnmg the rlies and preserving 
 the eggs, larvse, and cocoons with pupse in alcohol. 
 Place them with other Diptera under a copy of the 
 following label : — 
 
 Family Simuliid^ (Sim-u-li'i-d^). 
 The Black-flies. 
 
 Watch living larvae in a glass of water and ob- 
 serve the following : The disklike sucker, fringed 
 with hooks at the caudal end of the body. The 
 fleshy proleg situated just back of the head ; this ends 
 in a sucker fringed with hooks. The thread of silk 
 spun from the mouth. The fan-shaped organs borne 
 by the head. And the three delicate, much-branched 
 tracheal gills, which are pushed out from between 
 the last two abdominal segments. 
 
 Write an account of what you have learned re- 
 garding black-flies, including a description of the 
 methods of locomotion of the larvse and the prob- 
 able method by w^hich the larvas obtain their food. 
 It has been found by examining the stomachs of 
 these larvas that they feed on microscopic aquatic 
 plants and bits of tissue of larger plants. 
 
 The Net-winged Midges (Field and School Work). 
 — These insects occur in situations similar to those 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 159 
 
 Fig. 130. — Net-winged midges ; a, 
 larva, dorsal view ; (5, larva, ven- 
 tral view 
 
 inhabited by the black-flies, but as they are compara- 
 tively rare insects they are merely mentioned here. 
 
 In Fig. 130 a represents 
 a larva seen from above, b 
 a larva seen from below, 
 and c a side view of the 
 pupa. 
 
 As these are the strang- 
 est of all insect larvge they 
 should be carefully studied 
 if found. A full account of 
 their habits and transfor- 
 
 _^ „ - • ^ „ ■ ^ • • trai view ; c, puparium. 
 
 mations is given in our . - f f 
 
 Manual for the Study of Insects. The}^ belong to 
 the order Diptera and to the family Blepharocerid^ 
 (Bleph-a-ro-cer^i-das). 
 
 INSECTS OF BROOKSIDES. 
 
 In the study of brook life the pupil will hardly 
 fail to observe many insects about the shores of the 
 streams. The presence of the greater part of them 
 in such situations is not due to the proximity of 
 water, but is largely a matter of chance. Any forest, 
 orchard, or roadside insect may be found near a 
 brook if its proper food occurs there. Some of these 
 
 insects are described in subsequent chapters. 
 
 Here mention is made of a few of those that 
 
 prefer the vicinity of water and are rarely 
 
 found elsewhere. 
 
 The '^YiO'^Y.-^^5Q^ {Field and School Work). 
 — These abound in the vicinity of streams and lakes 
 and upon damp soils. They are small bugs, of dark 
 colors with white or yellow markings, and with long 
 
 Fig 
 
l5o INSECT LIFE. 
 
 antennas. Fig. 131 will aid in recognizing them. The 
 shore-bugs take flight quickly when disturbed, but 
 alight after flying a short distance ; some species dig 
 burrows and live for a part of the time beneath the 
 ground. Collect specimens and put them in your 
 collection under a copy of the following label: — 
 Family Saldid^ (Sal'di-dae). 
 The S hoi' e -bugs. 
 
 The Toad-shaped Bugs {Field and School Work), 
 — There is sometimes found on the margins of streams 
 or in marshes where the soil is moist a cu- 
 rious bug, which, on account of its short and 
 broad body and projecting eyes, reminds 
 one of a toad (Fig. 132). If you find speci- 
 mens of these, observe the color of the soil 
 
 Fig. 132. I'll r 1 1 
 
 upon which they are lound and compare it 
 with that of the insects, for this species exhibits con- 
 siderable variation in coloring, and its colors are usu- 
 ally protective. 
 
 The toad-shaped bugs belong to the order Hemip- 
 tera. Label your specimens as follows : — 
 Family Galgulid^ (Gal-gu'li-dae). 
 The Toad' shaped Bugs. 
 
 The Pine-cone Willow-gall {Field and School 
 Work). — The wanderer by the brookside often sees 
 a crop of cones borne by willows, and if he is care- 
 less he is apt to pass them by, thinking that they, like 
 the cones of pines and spruces, contain the seeds of 
 the plant. But the observant student knows that the 
 seeds of willows are borne in catkins, which differ 
 greatly in shape from these conelike growths. 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 l6l 
 
 These cone-shaped objects belong to that class of 
 vegetable growths termed galls. There are very 
 many kinds of these ; and upon some plants, as oaks, 
 for example, they are very abundant. 
 
 Galls are produced by insects in this way. The 
 female gall-producing insect stings the plant and lays 
 ain egg in the wound. It is believed that in some 
 cases there is deposited with the egg a drop of poison, 
 which causes the growth of the gall. But in other 
 cases the gall does not begin to develop until the 
 larva hatches from the egg and begins to feed upon 
 the tissue of the plant. Evidently if there is a poison 
 in such cases it must be secreted by the larva. The 
 explanation of why galls grow is not yet clear ; but 
 we know this much, that each species of gall-making 
 insect makes a par- 
 ticular kind of gall. 
 Hence one versed 
 in this subject can 
 tell by the form 
 and structure of a 
 gall what species 
 of insect produced 
 it. The gall serves 
 as a home and food 
 for the larva de- 
 veloped within it. 
 
 Let us return to 
 the pine-cone wil- 
 low-gall (Fig. 133). 
 
 This differs in Fig. 133.— The pine-cone willow-gall. 
 
 shape and in the manner of its growth from most 
 galls. (Other types of galls will be described in later 
 
l52 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 chapters.) It is produced by a small gall-gnat, which 
 lays an egg in the tip of a branch of willow. A mag- 
 got hatches from this egg and lives in the heart of 
 the bud, which ceases to grow in length ; but, strange- 
 ly enough, leaves continue to be developed, and they, 
 crowded together, form the cone-shaped gall. 
 
 Collect specimens of the pine-cone willow-gall 
 and, splitting them open in the middle, find the larv26 
 that produced them. 
 
 In early spring the adult gall-gnats can be reared 
 by keeping the galls in breeding cages. 
 
 There is a guest gall-gnat that lays its eggs be., 
 tween the scales of the pine-cone willow-gall, and the 
 larvae hatched from these develop in this place. 
 Seek for specimens of these larvse, and in early spring 
 try to breed the adults. Both of these gall-gnats 
 pass the winter in the larval state within the galls. 
 The larvas can be found within the galls at any time 
 during the summer, fall, or winter; but in order to 
 breed the adults, it is best to leave the galls on the 
 plants till early spring. 
 
 There are several kinds of insects, among them 
 certain long-horned grasshoppers, that deposit their 
 eggs between the leaves of the pine-cone willow-gall ; 
 the young, however, leave the galls as soon as they 
 are hatched. 
 
 Gall-making species are found in several of the 
 orders of insects. The two gall-gnats mentioned 
 here belong to the order Diptera. Place specimens 
 in your collection with other Diptera under a copy 
 of the following label : — 
 
 Family Cecidomyiid^ (Cec-i-do-my-i'i-dae). 
 T/ie Gall-gnats. 
 
BROOK LIFE. 
 
 163 
 
 The Alder-blight {Field and School Work). — One 
 often finds on the trunks and branches of alders 
 growing" on the margins of streams large patches of 
 snowy-white matter. These patches are composed of 
 many insects crowded together and covered with a 
 downy excretion. Such insects are known as woolly- 
 aphids. There are several kinds of common woolly- 
 aphids. That which lives on the alder is known as 
 the alder-blight, another kind living on beech trees is 
 called the beech-tree blight, and a third kind, infesting 
 apple trees, is the woolly-aphis-of-the-apple. All of 
 these secrete large quantities of honey-dew. 
 
 Each aphid has its beak inserted into the bark of 
 the infested tree. By cutting off a section of an in- 
 fested branch and putting it in a cyanide bottle, the 
 insects can be killed, and most of them will remain 
 clinging to the branch. It can then be pinned into 
 the collection. The aphids belong to the order 
 Hemiptera ; place specimens under the following 
 label :— 
 
 Family Aphidid^e (A-phid'i-dae). 
 
 T/ie Plajit-lice or Aphids {Aph'ids). 
 
 The Wanderer {Field aiid School Work).— The 
 name wanderer has been applied 
 to a butterfly (Fig. 134) that is 
 found only in limited localities, al- 
 though it occurs from Maine to 
 Florida and westward to Kansas. 
 It prefers the borders of streams pio. 134. -The wanderer. 
 and marshy places where alder 
 grows ; and now that its life history is known, this 
 fact is explained. The caterpillars of nearly all but- 
 
164 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 terflies feed on plants, but the larva of this species 
 is truly carnivorous, feeding on the wooUy-aphids 
 known as the alder-blight. 
 
 If the alder-blight is common in your locality, 
 search colonies of it for the larvag of this butterfly. 
 They will be found burrowing through the downy 
 mass, and their paths will be marked by the remains 
 of their victims. They resemble grubs more than 
 ordinary caterpillars, and are more or less covered 
 with the white excretion of the plant-lice. Their 
 legs and prolegs are short and small, allowing the 
 body to be closely pressed to the bark of the branch. 
 By collecting these caterpillars and feeding them with 
 the alder-blight, the transformations of the butterfly 
 can be easily observed. If you do this, save speci- 
 mens of larvae, pupse, pupa skins, and adults for your 
 collection. This species should be labeled as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te ra). 
 
 The Moths, the Skippers, and the Butterflies. 
 
 Family Lyc^nid^ (Ly-caen'i-dae). 
 
 The Gossamer-winged Butterflies. 
 
 The Grouse-locusts {Field and School Work).— 
 There is a group of small locusts the members of 
 which are remarkable for the shape of 
 the pronotum. This projects back- 
 ward like a little roof over the wings. 
 Fig. 135. and often extends beyond Ihe end of 
 
 A grouse-locust. -^ ttt- 1 1 
 
 the abdomen (rig. 135). Vvith these 
 insects the fore wings are in the shape of small, rough 
 scales, the hind wings being protected by the pro- 
 notum. 
 
BROOK LIFE. 165 
 
 The grouse-locusts are commonly found in low, 
 wet places and on the borders of streams. They 
 prefer the broad gravelly stretches where there is 
 little or no vegetation, the low banks that are swept 
 by the water when the streams are high. They vary 
 greatly in color, their color being usually similar to 
 that of the soil on which they live. They are very 
 active, and hence difficult to catch without the use 
 of a net. In studying these insects in the field note 
 especially the protective nature of their colors. Pre- 
 pare one or more specimens for your collection by 
 spreading the wings so as to show the relative size 
 of the fore and hind wings. 
 Label them as follows : — 
 
 Order Orthoptera (Or-thop'te-ra). 
 
 Cockroaches^ Crickets^ Grasshoppers, and Others. 
 
 Family Acridid^ (A-crid'i-dae). 
 
 The Locusts, or Short-horned Grasshoppers, 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 An orchard is an excellent place for 
 Nature study. Here live many kinds 
 of tiny creatures, each kind with its 
 own peculiar mode of life. Some have 
 comparatively simple life histories, 
 merely eating and growing- and final- 
 ly laying eggs for another generation ; 
 but others undergo wonderful transfor- 
 mations, and still others exhibit an in- 
 stinct that seems much like reason. And 
 even those that appear to live the most 
 humdrum existence are well worthy of 
 careful study, for their lives are never as 
 simple as they seem at first sight. 
 
 By a study of orchard life there may 
 be learned also much that is of immediate 
 practical importance ; some of the most 
 dreaded insect pests infest fruit trees. A 
 thorough knowledge of the ways of these 
 depredators enables us to plan successful- 
 ly methods of destroying them, and thus 
 to prevent their ravages. 
 Knotgrasiand To Carry ou this study it is not neces- 
 
 hSitie^Gaf^rf- ^^^3^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ large orchard. Except in 
 idea poiygoni. a city, almost every dwelling-house has 
 
 i66 
 
Plate VII. DANDELIONS AND A LOCUST. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 167 
 
 some fruit trees about it, and these are sure to be in- 
 fested by some of the insects described in this chap- 
 ter. And the boys and girls that live in cities can 
 find fruit trees with a little effort. 
 
 This chapter is restricted to insects infesting 
 fruit trees. Many other kinds of insects may be 
 found on grass and other herbage about orchards ; 
 some of these are described in the chapter on Road- 
 side Life. 
 
 Under the high-top sweeting-, 
 Many a playmate came to share 
 
 The sports of our merry meeting: 
 Zigzag butterflies, many a pair, 
 Doubled and danced in the sunny air ; 
 The yellov/ wasp was a visitor there ; 
 The cricket chirped from his grassy lair ; 
 Even the squirrel would sometimes dare 
 Look down upon us, with curious stare ; 
 The bees plied fearless their honeyed care 
 Almost beside us, nor seemed aware 
 Of human presence ; and when the glare 
 Of day was done, and the eve was fair. 
 The fireflies glimmered everywhere. 
 Like diamond-sparkles in beauty's hair. 
 
 In the boughs of the high-top sweeting. 
 The humming-bird, with his gem-bright eye. 
 
 Paused there to sip the clover. 
 Or whizzed like a rifle-bullet by ; 
 The katydid, with its rasping dry. 
 Made forever the same reply. 
 Which laughing voices would still deny ; 
 And the beautiful four-winged dragon-fly 
 Darted among us, now low, now high, 
 And we sprang aside with a startled cry, 
 Fearing the fancied savagery 
 
 Of the harmless and playful rover. 
 
l68 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The flying grasshopper clacked his wings. 
 
 Like castanets gayly beating ; 
 The toad hopped by us, with jolting springs ; 
 The yellow spider that spins and swings 
 Swayed on its ladder of silken strings ; 
 The shy cicada, whose noon-voice rings 
 So piercing shrill that it almost stings 
 The sense of hearing, and all the things 
 Which the fervid northern summer brings — 
 The world that buzzes and crawls and sings — 
 
 Were friends of the high-top sweeting. 
 
 Elizabeth Akers.'^ 
 
 INSECTS INFESTING FOLIAGE. 
 
 The Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar {Field and 
 School Work). — In early spring, as soon as the leaves 
 begin to expand, conspicuous webs may be found on 
 the branches of apple and other trees. The begin- 
 ning of such a web is represented in the upper part 
 of Fig. 137. These webs are the "tents" of the 
 apple-tree tent-caterpillar — an insect that is social 
 while in the caterpillar state. Each colony consists 
 of the larvae that have hatched from a cluster of eggs 
 deposited b}^ a moth on a twig near the place where 
 the web is afterward built. Such a cluster of eggs is 
 represented above the web in the figure. Usually, 
 however, the tent is built much farther from the ^gg^ 
 cluster than is shown here. 
 
 1. Search for egg-clusters on the twigs of apple 
 before the leaves af)pear ; they can be found at any 
 time during the winter or early spring. 
 
 2. If egg-clusters are found, examine them from 
 
 * From The High-top Sweeting, by permission of Messrs. Charles 
 Scribner's Sons. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 169 
 
 day to day and ascertain the date of hatching of the 
 larvae. 
 
 3. If the larvae hatch before the leaf-buds open, 
 ascertain upon what the larvae feed at this time. 
 
 Fig. 137. — The apple-tree tent-caterpillar, eggs, tent, larva, cocoons, and adult. 
 
 4. If. egg-clusters are not found, search for webs. 
 Upon what kinds of trees other than apple can these 
 be found ? 
 
 5. If possible, find a specimen in a convenient 
 place to study — where it can be examined daily. If 
 none is found near the school or the home of the 
 pupil, or near some street between the tw^o, cut off a 
 
I^O INSECT LIFE. 
 
 branch bearing a tent, and tie it to a branch of another 
 tree of the same kind in a convenient place. 
 
 6. Describe the position, form, and structure of 
 one of these tents. Of what is it made ? Where 
 does the substance of which it is made come from ? 
 How is the tent held in place ? How is it increased 
 in size ? Make a picture of a tent. 
 
 7. Describe one of the caterpillars that lives in 
 this tent (see page 325). 
 
 8. Upon what do the caterpillars feed ? At what 
 time of the day do they feed ? How far do they go 
 for their food ? 
 
 9. Are the paths over which the caterpillars go to 
 and from their food marked in any way ? If so, how ? 
 
 10. The way in which this pest is usually fought 
 is by destroying the caterpillars in their tents. Can 
 this be done better at one time of day than another? 
 If so, when ? 
 
 11. Search for the remains of the cluster of eggs 
 from which a colony of tent-caterpillars have hatched. 
 Carefully describe this cluster. Make a picture of it. 
 Preserve the specimen for your collection. 
 
 12. Put a branch of the kind of tree upon which 
 the caterpillars are feeding in water in a breeding 
 cage. Select a branch which bears many leaves. 
 Place fifteen or twenty caterpillars on this branch, in 
 order to keep them confined, and thus be able to 
 observe their transformations. Put fresh branches 
 in the cage when necessary to keep the larvse sup- 
 plied with food. 
 
 13. What do the caterpillars do when full grown? 
 Observe their actions in your breeding cage and in 
 the field. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 171 
 
 14. Preserve some caterpillars in alcohol, and 
 put them in your collection near the cluster of 
 eggs. 
 
 15. Observe and describe the making- of cocoons. 
 Note the date when the cocoons are made. 
 
 16. After you are familiar with the appearance of 
 the cocoons, look for them out of doors, and find out 
 where they are made. 
 
 17. Open a cocoon a few days after it is made, 
 and describe the pupa. 
 
 18. Preserve a pupa in alcohol, and put it next to 
 the larvse in your collection. 
 
 19. Watch for the appearance of the adult moths, 
 and thus determine the duration of the pupa state. 
 
 20. Preserve specimens of the cocoons and moths. 
 First kill the moths by putting them in the killing 
 bottle, then pin and spread them. When dry, take 
 them from the spreading board, and put them in the 
 collection with the other specimens illustrating the 
 transformations of the species. Try to get both sexes 
 of the moth ; the females are larger than the males, 
 and have narrower antennae. 
 
 21. Make a picture of the moth. 
 
 22. Write an account of the life history of this 
 insect. 
 
 23. Arrange the specimens of the apple-tree tent- 
 caterpillar in your collection under a copy of the 
 following labels : — 
 
 Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). 
 
 The Moths ^ the Skippers^ and the Butterflies. 
 
 Family LASiocAMPiDiE (Las-i-o-cam'pi-dae). 
 
 The Lasiocampids i^Las-i-o-cam'pids). 
 
J ^2 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Note. — There are several species of tent-caterpillars in the United 
 States. The most common one east of the Rocky Mountains is the one 
 figured above — the apple-tree tent-caterpillar, Clisiocampa americana 
 {Clis-i-o-cani pa a-nier-i-cd no). Another species that occurs in this region 
 is the tent-caterpillar-of-the-forest, Clisiocampa disstria {C. dis'stri-a). 
 The larva of this species differs in having a row of spots along the middle 
 of the back instead of a continuous, narrovi' line. This species will an- 
 swer just as well for the work outlined above as the apple-tree tent- 
 caterpillar. 
 
 The more common tent-caterpillars of the Pacific coast are Clisio- 
 campa calif arnica (C. cal-i-for ni-ca), whose webs may be found on oaks 
 in March and April, and Clisiocampa constricta (C. con-sl?icta), which in- 
 fests fruit trees later in the season. The caterpillars of the last-named 
 species do not make tents, although they live in colonies. 
 
 Other Leaf-eating Caterpillars (Fie/d and 
 School Work). — There are many kinds of caterpillars 
 that feed on the foliage of other fruit trees, any one 
 of which will serve as a good subject for study. It 
 would take too much space to describe many of these 
 and to outline the method of study of them, as has 
 been done above for the tent-caterpillars. The fol- 
 lowing brief outline will be all that is necessary for 
 the pupils that have carefully studied several of the 
 insects already described : — 
 
 1. Collect larvse found feeding on the foliage of 
 fruit trees. Try to get several specimens of each 
 kind, and note carefully upon what they were feed- 
 ing. 
 
 2. Put each kind of larva into a separate breeding 
 cage (see pages 327 to 330 for descriptions of breeding 
 cages), and feed each with leaves from the kind of 
 tree on which it was found. Keep the food fresh by 
 placing the stems in water, and renew it daily. 
 
 3. Make careful notes on the habits of the insects, 
 and describe each stage in their development. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 173 
 
 4. Save specimens for your collection of anything 
 illustrating- the habits of the species and specimens 
 of each of the stages in the development of the species. 
 Arrange these specimens in your collection, labeled 
 as fully as you can. 
 
 5. Write an account of what you have learned. 
 The following are some of the more common of 
 
 the orchard insects that feed on foliao^e : — 
 
 The yellow-necked apple-tree- worm, Datana minis- 
 tra {Da-ta'na mi-nis'trd). — This caterpillar has the 
 
 Fig. 138. — The yellow-necked apple-tree-worm. 
 
 curious habit of assuming the attitude shown in Fig. 
 138. It feeds on forest trees as well as fruit trees. 
 It remains throughout the 
 winter in the pupa state. 
 Fig. 139 represents the 
 adult. There are sev- 
 eral closely allied species 
 which feed on forest trees. 
 The red -humped ap- 
 ple-worm, Gidemasia con- fig. 139. 
 
174 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 cinna {CEd-e-ma' si-a con-cin'nd). — The larva of the spe- 
 cies has a coral-red head, and there is a hump of 
 the same color on the back of the first abdominal 
 
 Fig. 140.— The red-humped apple-worm 
 
 segment (Fig. 140). This species passes the winter 
 in the pupa state, and the adults appear in June and 
 
 July. 
 
 The measuring-worms. — There are many kinds of 
 
 _^ these. Fig. 141 represents 
 
 one of them. They are 
 
 called measuring-worms on 
 
 account of the curious way 
 
 in which they walk. The 
 
 most important species that 
 
 infest fruit trees are known 
 
 Fig. 141.— A measuring- worm. 
 
 as canker-worms. 1 here 
 are two species of canker-worms, which are very 
 similar in appearance and habits. In both 
 the adult female is wingless (Fig. 142), 
 while the male (Fig. 143) has well-devel- 
 oped wings. 
 
 The white-marked tussock-moth, No- 
 tolophus leucostigma {No-tol' o-phus leu-co- 
 stig' md).—l:\)S.'s^ caterpillar (Fig. 144) is 
 
 Fig. 142.— Fe- 
 male canker- 
 worm. 
 
,1 .-j^i^i "-loB. 3tJiJ-iioB9' 
 
 fiquq 714 ^ gil ; tjlams't ,. ^. : 
 
 ji moil gnrjoaioiq ni^Is 
 
 B7Tl4 aril -...<v\-sr, .,\cv,\t._ -tfts-^i-jr/i i,<:»Ttr,n >_trl:-. 'rl =, H 
 
 .BidiorfquH lo ^i^viiuLoiIj no 
 £V7£i J) 1 Ayn'\ ,gin3rniq3 9niv-=iq-f:iO sriT 
 
 iigiiV' btiB sqBi^ 'io e9VJ5t)I sr; 
 
 ■.rfj no r . _ 3f{T .v;u>v. .,-=A^-u^x-A\ ,rifo, 
 
Plate VIII.— FOREST AND ORCHARD MOTHS. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 I, 2, and 3. The Peach-tree Borer, Sannina exitiosa. Fig. i, 
 
 male ; Fig. 2, female ; Fig. 3, cocoon with empty pupa 
 
 skin projecting from it. 
 4. The Eight-spotted Forester, Alypia octomaculata. The larva 
 
 feeds on grape and Virginia creeper. 
 The Morning Forester, Alypia matuta. 
 The Pearl Wood-nymph, Euthisanotia tmio. The larva feeds 
 
 on the leaves of Euphorbia. 
 The Grape-vine Epimenis, Psychonwrpha epinienis. The larva 
 
 feeds on the leaves of grape and Virginia creeper. 
 The Maia-moth, Hemileuca maia. The larva feeds on the 
 
 leaves of oak. 
 The White-marked Tussock-moth, Notolophus leiicostigma. 
 
 See page 174; also Plate XVIII, Fig. 8. 
 The Well-marked Tussock-moth, Notolophus definita. See 
 
 Plate XVIII, Fig. 7, for the larva. 
 
Plate VIII. 
 
\ 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 175 
 
 common on both fruit and forest trees ; it is an ex- 
 ceedingly beautiful larva, being ornamented with 
 bright colors. The adult fe- 
 male is wingless, and lays her 
 eggs in a frothy mass on her 
 cocoon. The male (Fig. 145) 
 has well-developed wings. 
 
 The Plant - lice or 
 Aphids {Field and School 
 Work). — The plant-lice or 
 aphids are minute insects 
 which live by sucking the sap from the more tender 
 portions of plants. They usually occur clustered 
 
 Fig. 143. — Male canker-worm. 
 
 
 Fig. 144. — The white-marked tussock-moth, larva. 
 
 together in large numbers, and may be either winged 
 or wingless (Fig. 146). Many kinds of aphids can be 
 found in any orchard ; among the more common 
 
 Fig. 146. — A gjoup of aphids. 
 
176 
 
 INSECT LIFE, 
 
 species are the green ones that are very abundant 
 some years on the tips of branches of apple, and the 
 dark-colored ones that cause the leaves of peach and 
 cherry to curl, thus forming tubes within which they 
 live. 
 
 Find a colony of aphids in a convenient place 
 where they can be observed from day to day, take 
 notes on their habits and structure, and finally write 
 an account of what you have learned. The following 
 suggestions will aid you in this study: — 
 
 1. Observe the form of the body. Usually there 
 are two forms of individuals in a colony — one wing- 
 less, the other winged. Usually the greater num- 
 ber of individuals are w^ingless, and these never 
 develop wings. But as aphids increase in numbers 
 very rapidly, there is danger of the destruction of 
 the food-plant and a consequent destruction of the 
 colony. To avoid this danger, from time to time 
 individuals are born that develop wings. These fly 
 away, and start new colonies in fresh localities. The 
 nymphs of the winged form can be recognized by 
 their wing-pads. 
 
 2. Observe the reproduction of aphids. Both 
 the wingless and the winged forms referred to 
 in the preceding paragraph give birth to living 
 young. In some species the young aphid pro- 
 duced in this way is inclosed in a soft shell, but 
 usually not. The birth of the young aphids can be 
 easily seen with a hand lens at any time during 
 the warmer part of the year in almost any colony of 
 aphids. 
 
 3. The two forms of aphids that are being consid- 
 ered now consist each of a single sex, all of the indi- 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. I77 
 
 viduals being females. As these females reproduce 
 without pairing-, they are termed agamic ia-gani'ic). 
 (The word agamic is from two Greek words, mean- 
 ing without marriage.) The two forms are designated 
 as the wingless agamic form and the ivinged agamic 
 form respectively ; the latter is often called the mi- 
 grating form. 
 
 4. Collect specimens of the following forms of the 
 species that you are studying, and preserve them in 
 alcohol: — Full-grown wingless agamic females, 
 nymphs of the wingless agamic form, winged agamic 
 females, and nymphs of the winged agamic form. 
 
 5. Generally on the setting in of cold weather, or 
 in some cases on the failure of nourishment, the 
 weather being still warm, there is produced a gen- 
 eration including individuals of both sexes. These 
 are known as the sexual forms. The males may be 
 either winged or wingless, but these true females 
 are always wingless. The sexual forms pair, and 
 the female produces one or more eggs. It is in 
 the ^gg state that the species usually pass the win- 
 ter. 
 
 6. In the autumn watch for the appearance of the 
 sexual forms and for eggs. 
 
 7. Study the agamic forms, and note if there is a 
 pair of tubes on the back of the sixth abdominal seg- 
 ment. Sometimes these are represented by tubercles 
 and sometimes they are wanting. 
 
 8. It has been generally believed that through 
 these tubes or tubercles the sweet, transparent fluid, 
 which is known as honey-dew, is excreted. But it 
 has been recently discovered that the honey-dew 
 comes from the hind opening of the alimentary 
 
178 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 canal* Try to observe the excretion of honey- 
 dew. 
 
 9. Find a colony of aphids that is attended by 
 ants, and determine why the ants are there. 
 
 INSECTS THAT PREY UPON APHIDS. 
 
 The Aphis-lions {Field and School Work). — Look 
 among colonies of aphids for aphis-lions. These are 
 spindle-shaped larvae, with very long, slender, curved 
 jaws ; one of these larvae is represented on the lower 
 left leaf in Fig. 147. The aphis-hons are most easily 
 
 Fig. 147.— Eggs, larva, cocoon, and adult of Chrysopa. 
 
 found in those colonies of aphids that live within 
 curled leaves. 
 
 I. Remove a small branch bearing a colony of 
 
 * M. Biirgen. Der Honigtau. Jenaische Zeitschrift, Bd. xxv (1891), 
 s. 387-428. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 179 
 
 aphids and place it in water or wet sand in a breed- 
 ing- cage. Tie a wad of cotton about the branch so 
 that aphis-lions can not easily escape from it. 
 
 2. Collect several aphis-lions and place them 
 among the aphids, and observe their habits. If the 
 aphids are destroyed before the aphis-lions get their 
 growth and spin cocoons, transfer the aphis-lions to 
 a new colony of aphids. 
 
 3. When the aphis-lions have made cocoons, 
 transfer the cocoons to a wide-mouthed bottle cov- 
 ered with netting, and leave them there till the 
 adults emerge. The adult aphis-lion is called a lace- 
 w^inged-fiy. 
 
 4. Search for eggs of lace-winged-flies. They 
 can be found on the leaves of trees and bushes, 
 attached by long, slender stalks, as shown in the 
 figure. 
 
 5. Prepare a set of specimens illustrating the 
 transformations of lace-winged-flies or aphis-lions, 
 and label them as follows : — 
 
 Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra). 
 
 Family Chrysopid^e (Chry-sop'i-dae). 
 
 The Lace-winged- flies or Aphis-lions. 
 
 The Lady-bugs {Field and School Work). — The 
 insects that are commonly called lady-bugs are small 
 beetles which are more or less nearly hemi- 
 spherical in form, and generally red or yellow 
 with black spots, or black, with white, red, 
 or yellow spots. Fig. 148 represents a com- 
 mon species. Lady-bugs, both in the adult 
 and larval states, feed on aphids, other small in^ 
 sects, and the eggs of insects. The object of this 
 
i8o 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 lesson is to have the pupils observe the transforma- 
 tions of some common species of lady-bug-. 
 
 1. Collect larvse of lady-bugs and place them in a 
 
 breeding cage with a colony of aphids, put- 
 ting onl}^ one kind in a cage. These larvse 
 can be found in the same situations as the 
 aphis-lions (see preceding lesson), and resem- 
 ble them somewhat in form. They are not 
 
 Fig. 149. g^ slender as the aphis-lions, and their jaws 
 
 are shorter. Fig. 149 represents a common species. 
 
 The breeding cage should be arranged and cared for 
 
 the same as for aphis-lions. 
 
 2. Ascertain the method in which lady-bugs pass 
 the pupa state; it is an unusual one. Fig. 150 rep- 
 resents a pupa. 
 
 3. Prepare a set of specimens illustrating 
 the transformations of a species of lady-bug, 
 and place it with 3'Our Coleoptera, labeled as 
 follows : — 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 Family Coccinellid/e (Coc-ci-nel'li-dse). 
 The Lady-bugs. 
 
 INSECTS INFESTING FRUIT. 
 
 The CodliN-MOTH {Field and School Work). — The 
 most important pest of the apple is the '' worm " that 
 is frequently found feeding within the 
 fruit near its core. This " worm " of 
 wormy apples is the larva of a tiny 
 moth, which is known as the codlin- 
 moth (Fig. 151). 
 
 I. Carefully examine a number of wormy apples 
 by cutting them to pieces, and. write an account of 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. l8l 
 
 the injury to them. Where does the larva enter the 
 iruit? Where is the injury chiefly done? Where 
 does the larva emerge from the fruit? 
 
 2. In what place is it probable that the eggs of 
 this insect are laid, judging by the observations that 
 you have made on the habits of the larvas? 
 
 3. Collect a large number of the larvse by remov- 
 ing them from wormy apples, and place them in a 
 tightly closed jellj^-glass or other small cage. Put 
 some pieces of apple in the cage to serve as food. 
 Put also some small pieces of bark in the cage so 
 that the larvas may hide under them. 
 
 4. Describe the larva, and preserve some speci- 
 mens in alcohol. 
 
 5. Observe the larvae daily until they make their 
 cocoons, and then describe the cocoons. Note date 
 when the cocoons are made, so as to determine the 
 length of time spent by the insect in its cocoon. 
 
 6. Try to find similar cocoons under loose bark 
 on apple trees. 
 
 7. Empty cocoons of this insect are often found 
 under loose bark that has been pierced by a wood- 
 pecker in order to feed on the insects. Preserve 
 specimens of such pieces of bark and cocoons. 
 
 8. Scrape the loose bark from the trunk of an 
 
 apple tree, and then take a piece of wrapping paper 
 
 long enough to reach around the trunk and fold it so 
 
 as to make a band about three inches wide, and fasten 
 
 this band about the trunk. The band can be fastened 
 
 in place with a tack or with a cord. Look beneath 
 
 this band once a week, and collect the larvas and 
 
 pupas that you find there, keeping a record of the 
 
 number found each week. 
 13 
 
l82 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Note. — At one time fruit-growers fought the codlin-raoth by collect- 
 incr the larvae and pupoe in this way and destroying them. It has been 
 found, however, that a better way is to spray the apple trees just after 
 the blossoms fall with Paris-green-water. By this means the larvae are 
 poisoned before they eat their way into the young fruit. 
 
 9. Examine the cage containing cocoons daily in 
 order to determine the date of emergence of the 
 moths. 
 
 10. There is more than one generation of this in- 
 sect each year. Determine by breeding the number 
 of generations in your locality, and the method of 
 passing the winter. 
 
 11. Write an account of the life history of this 
 insect. 
 
 12. Prepare a set of specimens illustrating the 
 transformations of this species, place them with the 
 Lepidoptera in your collection, and label them as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Superfamily Tortricina (Tor-tri-ci'na). 
 
 The Tortricids [Tor'tri-cids). 
 
 Carpocapsa pomonella {Car-po-cap' sa pom-o-neVla). 
 
 The Codlin-moth. 
 
 The Plum-CURCULIO {Field and School Work). — 
 The plum-curculio is the insect that stings immature 
 plums, laying eggs in them, from which hatch grubs, 
 that cause the fruit to fall prematurely. 
 
 This insect also infests the peach, nectarine, apri- 
 cot, and cherry. In the case of the cherry the in- 
 fested fruit does not fall, but ripens with the larvas 
 in it, the larvas being the well-known '' worm " of 
 " wormy cherries." 
 
 The study of this insect should begin early in the 
 season, for the eggs are laid in the young fruit. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 1 83 
 
 I. Search for the eggs in any of the fruits named 
 above. Their presence can be easily determined by 
 a peculiar mark made by the female when laying her 
 eggs. A hole is made through the skin of the fruit, 
 and into this hole the egg is put. The insect then 
 makes a crescent-shaped incision partly surrounding 
 the one containing the egg. 
 
 2. If the dot and crescent mark is found on the 
 fruit, search should be made for the adult insects. 
 These are most easily found early in the season, and 
 can be readily obtained by spreading a cloth under 
 an infested tree and jarring the tree. The adults 
 will drop to the ground feigning death. Specimens 
 should be pinned for your collection. 
 
 The adult is a beetle. It is about one fifth of an 
 inch in length, and is dark brown spotted with black, 
 yellow, and white. The wing-covers are rough, and 
 the head is prolonged into a snout, which is bent 
 back under the prothorax when at rest. 
 
 3. Preserve in alcohol specimens of fruit showing 
 the dot and crescent mark. Cherries will be most 
 available for this on account of their small size. Pre- 
 serve also specimens of the larvas. 
 
 4. Describe the way in which the larvas injure the 
 fruit. 
 
 5. Place infested fruit in a breeding cage on a 
 layer of earth ; determine method of passing the 
 pupa state ; preserve specimens of pupas ; and breed 
 the adult insect, so as to determine whether the in- 
 sects that you collected by jarring are really the 
 adult of this species. 
 
 6. Write an account of the habits and appearance 
 of this insect. 
 
1 84 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 7. Label your specimens properly. The species 
 belongs to the order Coleoptera ; the family CuRCU- 
 LIONID^ (Cur-cu-li-on'i-dse), The Curculios {Cur-cu' li-os) 
 or Weevils ; and the specific name of this curculio is 
 Conotracheliis nenuphar {Con-o-tra-che' lus nen'u-phor). 
 
 The Pomace-flies {Field and School Work). — 
 There are several species of small flies, the larvse of 
 which live in decaying fruit ; and as these insects 
 are often abundant about pomace in cider-mills and 
 wineries, they have been termed pomace-flies. 
 
 Usually the larvse of these flies can be found in 
 decaying fruit in any orchard during the autumn. 
 And as they develop very rapidly, they are excellent 
 subjects for study. In the case of one species which 
 I studied, the complete life cycle occupied only from 
 eleven to seventeen days. 
 
 1. Place in a breeding cage some decaying apples 
 or other fruit in which there are maggots, There 
 should be a layer of earth in the breeding cage, as 
 some species of pomace-flies pass the pupa state in 
 the ground. 
 
 2. Study the larva carefully and write a description 
 of it. Note especially the form of the first pair of 
 spiracles, which project near the head of the body, 
 as these present the most obvious specific distinctions 
 of the larvse of the different species. The form of 
 the caudal end of the body should be carefully studied 
 also. The skin of these larvse is so transparent that 
 the larger tracheae, or breathing tubes, can be easily 
 seen through it with a low power of the microscope. 
 Make a drawing representing an entire larva, and 
 more detailed drawings representing each end of the 
 body. 
 
ORCHARD LIFE. 
 
 185 
 
 3. When the larvse are full grown, determine 
 where the pupa state is passed, and make a drawing- 
 of the puparium. The pupa state of most flies, in- 
 cluding the pomace-flies, is passed within the dried 
 skin of the larva. This dried skin, which serves the 
 purposes of a cocoon, is termed a puparium i^pu-pa'- 
 ri-um). 
 
 4. Put some puparia in a vial in order to deter- 
 mine the duration of the pupa state. 
 
 5. When the adult flies emerge in your breeding 
 cage, save some specimens for your collection, and 
 put some living ones in a cage with decaying fruit 
 which is not infested. If you have more than one 
 species of pomace-flies, put the different species in 
 different cages. Try to discover the eggs when they 
 are laid, and to determine the duration of each stage 
 of the insect. 
 
 6. Write an account of the pomace-flies that you 
 have studied. 
 
 7. Prepare a set of specimens for your collection. 
 The pomace-flies belong to the order Diptera, the 
 family MusciD^ (Mus'ci-dae), and to the genus Dro- 
 sophila {Dro-sopJi' i-lci). 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 i^^i 
 
 H 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FOREST LIFE. 
 
 DELIGHTFUL place for the study of in. 
 sect life, especially on a hot summer day, 
 is the margin of a forest. Here abound 
 innumerable species, exhibiting- the great- 
 est variety of habits. And the charm of 
 a holiday spent in the shade can be increased mani- 
 fold by watching and collecting them. 
 
 The best places for the study of forest insects are 
 the edges of woods, groves, isolated forest trees 
 growing in open fields or by roadsides, and fringes 
 of trees along the banks of streams. The depths of 
 dense forests are inhabited b}^ a much smaller number 
 of kinds of insects than the places just named. 
 
 In the chapters on Pond Life, Brook Life, and 
 Orchard Life detailed directions have been given for 
 the study of the insects mentioned. But by the time 
 the student has reached this chapter he should have 
 become sufficiently familiar with the methods of 
 study to be able to plan his own investigations ; 
 hence the chief object of this chapter is to point out 
 subjects for study. 
 
 'Tis a woodland enchanted ! 
 The great August noonlight, 
 i86 
 
FOREST LIFE. jg? 
 
 Through myriad rifts slanted, 
 
 Leaf and bole thickly sprinkles 
 
 With flickering gold ; 
 
 There, in warm August gloaming, 
 
 With quick, silent brightenings. 
 
 From meadow-lands roaming. 
 
 The firefly twinkles 
 
 His fitful heat-lightnings. — Lowell. 
 
 THE LARGER LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS. 
 
 The Giant Silkivorms. 
 
 The largest of the leaf-eating insects found on our 
 forest trees are the giant silkworms. There are 
 several species of these, and some of them can be 
 found in almost any of the inhabited portions of our 
 country. 
 
 These larvae frequently attract attention on ac- 
 count of their large size, and the adults are favorites 
 with young collectors, being the most showy of 
 moths. 
 
 It is easy to rear these insects, beginning with 
 either eggs, larvae, or pupae. The following general 
 directions for breeding will apply to any of the 
 species : — 
 
 E-ggs of the Giant Silkworms. — The eggs of the 
 giant silkworm moths, being of large size, are fre- 
 quently found attached to leaves of the trees upon 
 which the larvae feed, but they are more often ob- 
 tained from moths kept in confinement. When a 
 female moth is captured it is usually only necessary 
 to place her in a breeding cage, and keep her alive 
 for a few days, in order to obtain fertile eggs. The 
 females of this family of moths can be recognized by 
 
1 88 INSECT LIFE, 
 
 the fact that the antennas are not so large as are the 
 antennae of the males. In case a female moth is bred 
 from a cocoon, it is necessary that she should be al- 
 lowed to mate with a male in order that her eggs be 
 fertilized. It there be no males in the cage with her, 
 males can usually be obtained by leaving the cage 
 near an open window for a day or two. Frequently 
 under such conditions males will come to the cage 
 in large numbers. Having obtained eggs, it is neces- 
 sary to ascertain the food plant of the larva ; the 
 more common food plants of each of the species is 
 given below. 
 
 LarvcB of the Giant Silkzvorms. — These larvae can 
 be found throughout the summer months, but they 
 are more frequently observed in the latter part of the 
 season, when they are nearly or quite full grown. 
 The collection of them is greatly facilitated by 
 searching beneath the trees on which they live for 
 the pellets of excrement which drop to the ground 
 from where they are feeding. In collecting them, 
 note carefully their food plant. 
 
 Cocoons of the Giant Silkworms. — The pupa state 
 of the giant silk-worms is passed within dense silken 
 cocoons, which have suggested their popular name. 
 All of our species pass the winter in this state, and 
 several of them fasten their cocoons to the branches 
 of trees ; consequently it is during the winter months, 
 ■while the trees are bare, that the cocoons are most 
 often collected. Cocoons which are collected during 
 the winter should be stored in a cool place till spring, 
 so that the adults shall not emerge before it is possi- 
 ble to find food for the larvas that will hatch from 
 their eggs. Even when it is not desired to breed a 
 
Plate IX. 
 
 A FOREST AISLE. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 189 
 
 second generation, it is undesirable to keep the 
 cocoons during the winter months in a warm, dry 
 room, for there is apt to be insufficient moisture in 
 the air of such a room for the perfect development 
 of the insects. 
 
 Classification of the Giant Silkworms. — The giant 
 silkworms, being the larvse of moths, belong to the 
 order Lepidoptera. These moths constitute the family 
 Saturniid^ (Sat-ur-ni'i-dse). The scientific name of 
 each of the species mentioned below is given after 
 the popular name. The following are the more 
 common North American species : — 
 
 The Io-MOTH, Automeris io {Au-tom'e-ris i'o). — 
 This is the most common of the smaller species of 
 the family. The female is represented by Fig. 152. 
 In this sex the ground color of the fore wings is 
 
 Fig. 152. — The io-moth. 
 
 purplish red. The male differs greatly in appear- 
 ance, being somewhat smaller and of a deep yellow 
 color, but it can be easily recognized by its general 
 resemblance to the female in other respects. 
 
190 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Fig. 153. — Larva of the io-moth. 
 
 The larva (Fig. 153) is one that the student should 
 learn to recognize in order that he may avoid han- 
 dling it, for it is armed with spines the prick of 
 
 which is venom- 
 ous. It is green, 
 with a broad 
 brown or reddish 
 stripe, edged be- 
 low with white on 
 each side of the 
 abdomen ; the spines are tipped with black. It feeds 
 on the leaves of apple, cherr}^ willowy elm, currant, 
 and many other plants. The cocoon is thin ; it is 
 usually surrounded by leaves, and made near the 
 ground. The adults sometimes emerge in the au- 
 tumn, but usually not till spring. 
 
 The Polyphemus-moth, Telea polyphemus {Te'le-a 
 pol-y-phe' vius). — This is a 3'ellowish or brownish moth, 
 with a windowlike spot in each wing. There is a 
 gray band on the front margin of the fore wings, and 
 near the outer margin of both pairs of wings there is 
 a dusky band, edged without with pink: the fore 
 wings are crossed by a broken dusty or reddish line 
 near the base, edged within with white or pink. The 
 transparent spot on each wing is divided by a vein 
 and encircled by yellow and black rings. The wings 
 expand from five to six inches. 
 
 The larva (Fig. 154) feeds on oak, basswood, but- 
 ternut, elm, maple, apple, plum, and other trees. 
 When full grown, it measures three inches or more 
 in length. It is of a light green color, with an oblique 
 yellow line on each side of each abdominal segment 
 except the first and last ; the last segment is bordered 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 IQI 
 
 by a purplish brown V-shaped mark. The tubercles 
 on the body are small, of an orange color, with me- 
 
 FiG. 154.— Larva of the Polyphemus-moth. 
 
 tallic reflections. The cocoon (Fig. 155) is dense and 
 usually inclosed in 
 a leaf. Sometimes 
 it is fastened to a 
 twig, but ordinari- 
 ly it falls to the 
 ground with the ^^ 
 leaves in the au- 
 tumn. Observe and Fig. 155.— Cocoon of the Polyphemus-moth. 
 
192 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 describe the method of exit of the adult from the 
 cocoon. 
 
 The Luna-moth, Tropcea luna {Tro-pce'a lu'nd).— 
 This is the most beautiful of the giant silkworm 
 moths. Its wings are of a delicate light green color, 
 with a purple-brown band on the front edge of the 
 
 Fig. 156.— The luna-moth. 
 
 fore wings. It can be easily recognized by Fig. 156. 
 The larva feeds on the leaves of walnut, hickory, 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 193 
 
 and other forest trees. It measures when full grown 
 about three inches in length. It is pale bluish 
 green, with a pearl-colored head. It has a pale yel- 
 low stripe along each side of the body, and a trans- 
 verse yellow line on the back between each two 
 abdominal segments. The cocoon resembles that of 
 the preceding species in form, but is very thin, con- 
 taining but little silk. It is found on the surface of 
 the ground beneath the trees on which the larv^ 
 feed. 
 
 The Promethea-MOTH, Callosamia prometJiea {Cal- 
 lo-sa' mi-a pro-me' the-d). — The female moth of this spe- 
 cies can be recognized by Fig. 157. The male differs 
 
 Fig. 157. — The Promethea-moth, female. 
 
 so greatly from the female that it is liable to be mis- 
 taken for a distinct species. It is blackish, with the 
 transverse lines very faint, and with the spot near 
 the center of each wing wanting or very faintly indi- 
 
194 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 cated. The fore wings also differ markedly in shape 
 from those of the female, the apex of each being 
 much more distinctly sickle-shaped. We have ob- 
 tained forty males of this 
 species in a single after- 
 noon by placing a cage 
 containing living females 
 near an open window. 
 They fly most in the lat- 
 ter part of the afternoon. 
 The larva when full-grown measures 
 two inches or more in length. It is of 
 a clear and pale bluish green color ; 
 the legs and oval shield are yellowish, 
 and the body is armed with longitudi- 
 nal rows of tubercles. The tubercles 
 are black, polished, wartlike elevations, 
 excepting two each on the second and 
 third thoracic segments, which are 
 larger and rich coral-red, and one sim- 
 ilar in size to these, but of a yellow 
 color, on the eighth abdominal seg- 
 ment. This larva feeds on the leaves 
 of a large proportion of our common 
 fruit and forest trees, but we have 
 found it most frequently on wild cher- 
 ry and ash and on lilac. The cocoons 
 can be easily collected during the win- 
 ter from these trees. The cocoon is 
 Fig. is8.-Cocoon greatly elongated, and is inclosed in a 
 
 cfU|ePromethea- ^^^^^ ^^^ petiolc of which is SCCUrcly 
 
 fastened to the branch by a band of 
 silk extending from the cocoon (Fig. 158). At the 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 195 
 
 Upper end of the cocoon there is a conical, valve- 
 like arrangement, which allows the adult to emerge 
 without the necessity of making a hole through 
 the cocoon. Cut one of your cocoons in two cross- 
 wise so as to see this valve. 
 
 The Cecropia-MOTH, Samia cecropia {Sa'ini-a ce- 
 cro'pi-d). — This is the largest of our giant silkworm. 
 
 Fig. 159. — The Cecropia-moth. 
 
 moths, the wings expanding from five to six inches 
 and a half. It can be recognized by Fig. 159. The 
 larva is known to feed on at least fifty species of 
 14 
 
96 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 plants, including apple, plum, and the more common 
 forest trees. When full grown it measures from 
 three to four inches in length, and is dull bluish green 
 in color. The body is armed with six rows of tuber- 
 cles, extending nearly its entire length, and there is 
 an additional short row on each side of the ventral 
 aspect of the first five segments following the head. 
 The tubercles on the second and third thoracic seg- 
 ments are larger than the others, and are coral red. 
 The other dorsal tubercles are yellow, excepting 
 those of the first thoracic and last abdominal seg- 
 ments, which, with the lateral tubercles, are blue ; all 
 are armed with black bristles. The cocoon (Fig. 
 
 'Zri^.'zr 
 
 
 "-.r'^^'l 
 
 Fig. i6o. — Cocoon of the Cecropia-moth. 
 
 1 60) is securely fastened to a branch of the food 
 plant, where it is easily found during the winter 
 months. 
 
 The Ceanothus Silkworm, Samia califomica. — 
 The Cecropia-moth is not found on the Pacific coast, 
 but its place is taken by a closely allied species simi- 
 lar in size and markings, but differing in having the 
 ground color of the wings reddish or dusky brown. 
 The larva feeds on Ceanothus : the cocoon resembles 
 
■ "^'W^-'-s^r^^ 
 
 Plate X. 
 
Plate X.— SOME FOREST MOTHS. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 1. The Imperial-moth, Basilona ifuperialis. The larva feeds on 
 
 hickory, butternut, and other forest trees. See page 197. 
 
 2. The lo-moth, AvJomeris to. Male. See page 1S9 for figure 
 
 of the female. 
 
 3. The Rosy Dryocampa, Dryocampa rttbicunda. The larva is 
 
 the green-striped maple-worm. 
 
 4. The Crinkled Flannel-moth, Megalopyge crispata. The larva 
 
 feeds on oak, elm, apple, and raspberry. 
 
xaa^oi: mi 
 
 T'lnhD aril 4. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 197 
 
 that of the Cecropia-moth, except that the ends are 
 usually free from the branch to which the cocoon is 
 attached. 
 
 THE ROYAL-MOTHS. 
 
 The royal-moths constitute a family, the ClTHE- 
 RONIID.^ (Cith-e-ro-ni'i-dse), which is closely alHed to 
 the giant silkworms. The species are of medium or 
 large size, and some of them are among the more 
 common forest insects. The larvse are armed with 
 horns or spines, of which those on the second thorac- 
 ic segment, and sometimes also those on the third, 
 are long and curved. These caterpillars eat the 
 leaves of forest trees, and go into the ground to 
 transform, which they do without making cocoons. 
 The rings of the pupa bear little notched ridges, the 
 teeth of which, together with some strong prickles at 
 the hind end of the body, assist it in forcing its way 
 upward out of the earth. The following are the 
 more common species: — 
 
 Fig. 161,— Larva of the imperial-moth. 
 
 The I MPERI AL-MOTH, Basilona imperialis {Bas-Uo'na 
 im-pe-ri-a' lis). — The full-grown larva of this species 
 
iqS 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 
 k 
 
 .-- > 
 
 'K ' 
 
 ^/■<"} 
 
 
 
 
 ^\%i 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 199 
 
 (Fig. 161) measures from three to four inches in 
 length. It feeds on hickory, butternut, and other 
 forest trees. The moth expands from four to five 
 inches and a half. It is sulphur-yellow, banded and 
 speckled with purplish brown. 
 
 The Regal-moth, Cither onia regalis (CitJi-e-ro' ni-a 
 re-ga'lis). — This is the largest and most magnificent of 
 the royal-moths (Fig. 162). The fore wings are olive- 
 colored, spotted with yellow, and with a more or less 
 distinctly marked band outside the middle olive. 
 The wings expand from four to six inches. 
 
 The larva, when full grown, measures from four 
 to five inches in length, and can be recognized by the 
 very long, spiny horns with which it is armed. 
 Those of the mesothorax and metathorax are much 
 longer than the others ; of these, there are four on 
 each segment ; the intermediate ones measure about 
 three fifths of an inch in length. The larva feeds on 
 hickory, walnut, and various other trees. 
 
 The Anisota Oak-worms. — There are several 
 smaller royal-moths belonging to the genus Anisota 
 {Aii'i-so'td), the larvae 
 of which feed on oak. 
 
 Fig. i6-t,.—A}iisota, male. 
 
 Fig. 164. — A?tisota^ female. 
 
 These larvae are more or less striped and armed with 
 spines. In the adult state the sexes differ greatly in 
 
200 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 appearance. The male and female of a common spe- 
 cies are represented by Figs. 163 and 164. 
 
 THE LARGER NEST-BUILDING CATERPILLARS. 
 
 Many species of caterpillars make nests within 
 which they live. The greater number of these be- 
 long to the group described below as leaf-rollers — a 
 group composed chiefly of very small species. A 
 few of the larger caterpillars also make nests. The 
 more common species of these are the following : — 
 
 The Tent-caterpillars. — See page 172 for a 
 reference to these. 
 
 The Fall Web-worm, Hyphantria ainea {Hy^ 
 phan'tri-a cu'nc-d). — A very common sight in autumn 
 in all parts of our country is large, ugly webs inclos- 
 inof branches of fruit or forest trees. These webs are 
 especially common on apple and on ash. Each web 
 is the residence of a colony of larvae which have 
 hatched from a cluster of eggs laid on a leaf by a 
 snow-white moth. There is a variety of this moth in 
 which the fore wings are thickly studded with dark 
 brown specks. Every gradation exists between this 
 form and those that are spotless. The species win- 
 ters in the pupa state, and the moths emerge during 
 May or June. The webs made by this insect should 
 not be confounded with those made by the apple-tree 
 tent-caterpillar. The webs of the fall web-worm 
 are made in the autumn, and are much lighter in 
 texture, being extended over all of the leaves fed 
 upon by the colony. 
 
 The Scallop-SHELL Moth, Calocalpa undidata 
 [Cal-o-cal'pa ii7t-d2i-la'td). — This is a pretty moth, with 
 its yellow wings crossed by so many fine, zigzag, 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 20 1 
 
 dark brown lines that it is hard to tell which of the 
 two is the ground color (Fig. 165). It lays its eggs 
 in a cluster on a leaf near the tip of a twig of cher- 
 ry, usually wild cherry. 
 The larvae make a snug 
 nest by fastening together 
 the leaves at the end of 
 the twigi and within this 
 nest (Fig. 166) they live, 
 adding new leaves to the 
 outside as more food is 
 needed. The leaves die 
 and become brown, and 
 thus render the nest con- 
 spicuous. The larvae are 
 black above, with four 
 white stripes, and flesh- 
 colored below. When full 
 grown they descend to 
 the ground to transform, 
 and pass the winter in the 
 pupa state. 
 
 Fig. 165. —The scallop- 
 shell moth. 
 
 Fig. 166. — Nest of larvae of the scallop- 
 shell moth, and eggs of moth enlarged. 
 
 The Mocha-stone Moths, Ichthyiira [Ich-thy- 
 u'rd). — There often occur on poplar and willow nests 
 of the form shown in Fig. 167. Each of these nests 
 
202 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 contains a colony of larvae — the young of a moth of 
 the genus Ichthyura, of which there are several spe- 
 
 FiG. 167.— Eggs, larva, and nest of a mocha-stone moth. 
 
 cies in this country. The moths are brownish gray, 
 w^ith the fore wings crossed by irregular whitish 
 lines (Fig. 168). It was these peculiar markings, re- 
 sembling somewhat those of a moss-agate, that sug- 
 gested the popular name given above. In the case 
 of our most common species, the 
 nests are found in midsummer 
 or later. The larvse, when 
 young, feed within the nest, but 
 when they become large they 
 leave the nest at night to feed on 
 other leaves. The cocoons are 
 made under leaves or other rub- 
 bish on the ground, and the adults do not emerge 
 until the following summer. These insects can be 
 easily bred by placing a nest in a breeding cage and 
 putting fresh branches of the food plant next to the 
 nest as often as necessary. 
 
 The Silver-spotted Skipper, Epargyreus tityrus 
 {Ep-ar-gy' re-US tit'y-rus). — If one will lie on his back in 
 
 Fig. 168. — A mocha-stone 
 moth. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 203 
 
 late July or in September under the low hanging 
 branches of some locust tree, and look so that the 
 leaves are clearly outlined against the sky, he may 
 see that the fernlike regularity of some of the com- 
 pound leaves is interrupted, several of the leaflets 
 being fastened together with silk so as to make a little 
 tube, which serves as a home for the builder. These 
 tubes are made in various ways ; sometimes the tips 
 of several pairs of opposite leaflets are brought to- 
 gether below the leaf-stalk and fastened with silk, 
 and the overlapping edges of the leaflets on each side 
 fastened in the same way ; thus is formed a roomy 
 chamber, within which the architect lives. 
 
 The remains of such a nest is represented in Fig. 
 169. When this specimen was collected late one 
 
 Fig. 169.— Nest of a larva of the silver-spotted skipper. 
 
 afternoon, the leaflets were all present on the stem ; 
 but when I went to photograph it the next morning 
 I found that the caterpillar during the night, having 
 nothing else to feed upon, had eaten the leaflets at 
 both ends of the nest. 
 
 These nests are made by the larva of the silver- 
 spotted skipper, a butterflylike insect which flies from 
 
204 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Larva of the silver-spotted skipper. 
 
 flower to flower with a skipping motion (see page 8i 
 for the characteristics of the skippers). This skipper 
 is dark chocolate-brown, with a row of yellow spots 
 extending across the fore wing, and with a large, 
 
 silvery white spot 
 on the lower side of 
 the hind wing. The 
 larva is a curious 
 creature, with a 
 large head, a slen- 
 der neck, and a spindle-shaped body (Fig. 170), and 
 will serve as a type of the family Hesperiid^ (Hes- 
 pe-ri'i-dse), which includes our common skippers ; 
 for the larvas of this family can be recognized by 
 this peculiar form, and most of them live concealed 
 in a folded leaf or in a nest made of several leaves 
 fastened together. 
 
 The Bag-worms, family Psychid^ (Psy'chi-dse). 
 — The bag-worms are those caterpillars 
 that have the curious habit of building 
 each for itself a silken sac covered with 
 little twigs within which it lives (Figs. 
 171 and 172). When the caterpillar 
 washes to move from one place to an- 
 other, it pushes forth the front end of 
 its body and creeps along, carrying its 
 house with it. It is said that the spe- 
 cies that inhabit Ceylon are believed by 
 the natives to be composed of individ- 
 uals who, in a previous incarnation, 
 were human beings and stole kindling- 
 wood, and who now atone for the theft by repeating 
 the act as an insect. 
 
'fJ -AA:. 
 
 
 
 fi^sO .1 
 
 f 
 
 f . ^me^ 
 
 .\\'3-v ri\v>'i<j^'; 
 
Plate XL— UNDEPv-WING MOTHS. 
 
 The under-wing moths are found resting on the trunks of forest 
 trees ; when at rest, the bright-colored hind wings are covered by 
 the fore wings, and the insects are well-protected by their resem- 
 blance in color to the bark of the trees. 
 
 FIGUKE 
 
 1. Catocala concumbens . 
 
 2. Catocala gracilis. 
 
 3. Catocala arnica. 
 
 4. Catocala iilti'onia. 
 
 5. Catocala relicta. 
 
Plate XI. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 205 
 
 When a bag-worm is fully grown, it fastens its 
 sac to a twig and changes to a pupa within it. And 
 here the females remain until death, leaving their 
 eggs within their sacs. These females are grublike 
 creatures without wings. But the male pupa works 
 his way out from the lower end of his sac, and 
 changes to a winged moth. Fig. 172 represents the 
 
 
 Fig. 172. Fig. 173. Fig. 174. 
 
 sac of a male with the empty pupa skin projecting 
 from the lower end, and Fig. 173 the fully developed 
 male. These figures are of one of our smaller species. 
 Fig. 174 represents the male of one of the larger 
 species. 
 
 OTHER LARGER LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS. 
 
 In addition to the species mentioned above, there 
 are very many of the larger caterpillars that infest 
 the foliage of forest trees. Any one of these may be 
 taken as a subject for study, and the work carried on 
 in the manner outlined for the study of similar orchard 
 insects. See page 172. 
 
 THE SMALLER LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS. 
 
 There is an immense number of small caterpillars 
 that infest the foliage of forest trees. Of this number, 
 the majority of those that would attract the attention 
 
206 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 of the young student represent two groups — the leaf- 
 rollers and the leaf-miners. 
 
 THE LEAF-ROLLERS. 
 
 If the pupil will examine the leaves of almost any 
 forest tree during the summer or autumn 
 he will find that some of them are rolled 
 in such a way as to form a nest, within 
 which one or more larvse live or have 
 lived. These nests vary greatly in form ; 
 sometimes a single leaf, or even only a 
 part of a leaf, is rolled ; in other cases 
 the nest is formed by fastening together 
 several leaves. In most cases the build- 
 ing of the nest is the work of a single 
 larva, but in very many instances several 
 larvae work together to build "a common 
 nest. It should be said, however, that 
 each of the leaf-rolling species builds a 
 nest of a particular form, and each of 
 these species infests a certain kind or 
 kinds of trees. Hence, when a student 
 has carefully studied the life history of a 
 leaf-roller, he will be able, as a rule, to 
 recognize the work of this species by a 
 study of the nest alone. 
 
 In making its nest the leaf-roller fast- 
 ens the folds of its nest in the desired 
 position by means of little bands of silk. 
 Fig I7S Several of these bands are shown in Fig. 
 175, and in Fig. 176 are represented sev- 
 eral types of nests made of rolled leaves. 
 
 The breeding of leaf-rollers is somewhat more 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 207 
 
 difficult than the breeding of those leaf-eating species 
 that do not make nests ; the changing of the latter 
 from a wilted branch to a fresh one is accomplished 
 without difficulty, but a similar process in the case of 
 a leaf-roller implies the 
 building of a new nest 
 by the insect. For this 
 reason it is best to leave 
 the nests on the trees 
 till the larvae are nearly 
 full-grown, and then to 
 cut the branch bearing 
 the nest and place it in 
 water or damp sand in 
 a breeding cage. This 
 implies the keeping of a 
 close watch of the in- 
 sects while on the trees, 
 lest they mature and es- 
 cape. It is well, when 
 comparatively few spec- 
 imens are found, to in- 
 close the nest w^hile it 
 is left on the tree in a 
 
 bag of Swiss muslin. Some leaf-miners pass the pupa 
 state wdthin their nest ; but as others leave the nests 
 and enter the ground to transform, it is best to have 
 a layer of earth in the breeding cage. 
 
 The greater number of the leaf-rolling caterpillars 
 belong to the superfamily TORTRICINA (Tor-tri-ci'na), 
 or Tortricids {Tor'tri-cids)\ but there are members of 
 several other families of moths that have similar 
 habits. 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
2o8 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 THE LEAF-MINERS. 
 
 There are many leaf-eating caterpillars that are so 
 minute that they can live within the substance of a 
 leaf, the space between the two skins of the leaf being 
 sufficiently large to afford them room for a dwelling 
 and pasture. The larvae that live in this way are 
 called leaf-miners. 
 
 During the late summer and autumn there can be 
 found on almost any shrub or tree leaves that are 
 more or less discolored by white or grayish blotches 
 or by long twisted lines that reveal the abiding-places 
 of leaf-miners. Surely Mr. Lowell must have had 
 these in mind when he wrote : — 
 
 And there's never a blade nor a leaf too mean 
 To be some happy creature's palace. 
 
 Not only are very many kinds of plants infested 
 hy these larvse, but the mines in the leaves differ 
 greatly in form and in their position in the leaf. 
 These differences in food plant and in the shape and 
 position of the mines do not indicate that these larvas 
 are inconstant in their habits. In fact, the opposite 
 is the case. Each species of leaf-miner infests a par- 
 ticular species of plant, or, at the most, several closely 
 allied plants. And each species makes a mine of 
 definite shape, although some species exhibit different 
 habits in the different stages of their growth. So 
 constant are these creatures in their habits that in 
 most cases an expert can determine the species of 
 leaf-miner that made a mine by merely examining 
 the infested leaf. 
 
 The various kinds of mines can be classed under a 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 209 
 
 fV*\?" 
 
 few distinct types. The long, narrow, and more or 
 less winding- mines are described as linear mines. 
 Some of these are very narrow at their beginning 
 and gradually enlarge, resembling in outline a ser- 
 pent ; frequently the larger end is terminated by a 
 blotchlike enlargement, suggesting a head. Such 
 mines are termed serpentine mines. The leaves of the 
 wild columbine are often marked by serpentine mines 
 (Fig. 177). Other mines that start from a narrow be- 
 ginning enlarge more _ 
 rapidly and extend in 
 a more or less regu- 
 lar curve ; these are 
 trumpet mines. 
 
 The breeding of 
 leaf - miners is at- 
 tended by the same 
 difficulties as the 
 breeding of leaf-roll- 
 ers mentioned above. 
 But with a little care 
 mines can be selected 
 in which the larvas 
 are so nearly full grown that they will complete their 
 transformations if the branch bearing the mined 
 leaves be placed in water or damp sand in a breeding 
 cage. When the adult insects are reared, great care 
 will be necessary in mounting them on account of 
 their minute size. See page 298 for directions for 
 mounting small insects. 
 
 A very instructive collection can be made by 
 pressing mined leaves, and mounting them as botan- 
 ical specimens are mounted. Each specimen should 
 
 Fig. 177. — Leaf with serpentine mines. 
 
2IO 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 be carefully labeled with the name of the plant and 
 the date of collecting the specimen. 
 
 There are certain flies and beetles the larvse of 
 which are leaf-miners, but the great majority of the 
 insects that live in this way are larvse of minute 
 moths, which belong to the superfamily Tineina 
 (Tin-e-i'na) ; these are commonly called Tineids (Tin' - 
 e-ids). 
 
 GALLS AND GALL-INSECTS. 
 
 There occur on the leaves, stems, or roots of very 
 many species of plants abnormal growths caused by 
 insects; these are termed galls. Among the more 
 familiar examples of galls are the various kinds of 
 
 Fig, 178.— An oak leaf bearing oak-apples. The larger one is represented 
 
 cut open. 
 
 oak-apples, of which a common one is illustrated by 
 Fig. 178. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 211 
 
 In the center of an oak apple there is a little cell, 
 within which a larva lives till it gets its growth. 
 This larva is hatched from an egg laid in the tissue 
 of the leaf by a small, four-winged insect, called a 
 gall-fly. When the young larva began to feed on 
 the leaf, the leaf began to grow around it in a won- 
 derful way ; so that very soon the larva was sur- 
 rounded by a large ball of plant growth, which 
 served as a home and furnished food for the larva. 
 
 Why the plant grew in this way no one knows. As 
 a rule, when a leaf-eating larva feeds on the tissue of 
 a leaf there is no extra growth ; but when the larva 
 of a gall-fly begins to feed, an abnormal growth of 
 the plant commences. More than this, this growth 
 is of a definite form which is different for the differ- 
 ent species of gall-flies. Hence, when an entomolo- 
 gist who has studied these insects sees a familiar gall, 
 he knows at once what species of insect produced it. 
 It is natural to suppose that the larva excretes a 
 poison, which acts on the plant in such a way as to 
 produce this remarkable result. There are certain 
 other gall-producing insects which belong to a differ- 
 ent order than those that produce the oak-apples, 
 the galls of which begin to grow before the larvae 
 hatch. In these cases it is supposed that a drop of 
 poison is deposited with the egg by the parent insect. 
 
 Many species of gall-flies undergo their transfor- 
 mations within their galls, while in other species the 
 full-grown larva leaves the gall and enters the ground 
 to transform. 
 
 The gall represented by Fig. 178 is produced by 
 a single larva. But certain species of gall-flies lay 
 many eggs together, and there results the growth of 
 15 
 
212 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 a compound gall containing many cells, in each of 
 which a larva gets its growth. The moss3^-rose-gall, 
 which occurs on the stem of the sweetbrier (Fig. 
 179), is a familiar example of a many-celled gall. 
 
 Fig. 179. — The mossy-rose-gall. 
 
 In the two kinds of galls figured here the larva 
 lives in a closed cell which has no opening until one 
 is made by the full-grown larva for his escape. Most 
 galls of this kind are made by insects of the family 
 Cynipid^ (Cy-nip'i-das) of the order Hymenoptera. 
 To this family the name gall-flies is restricted, al- 
 though many other insects produce galls. Fig. 180 
 represents an adult gall-fly greatly enlarged. 
 
 The largest galls that occur on forest trees are 
 produced by gall-flies, but there are other kinds of 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 213 
 
 Fig. 180.— a gall-fly. 
 
 galls which are much more abundant than those of the 
 
 gall-flies ; these are the galls made by plant-lice and 
 
 by mites. The galls 
 
 produced by plant-lice, 
 
 and also those produced 
 
 by mites, differ from the 
 
 galls of the gall-flies in 
 
 that each gall has an 
 
 open mouth. 
 
 The conical galls 
 which are so common 
 on the leaves of witch- 
 hazel (Fig. 181) are good 
 illustrations of this type 
 
 of gall. These galls project from the upper side of 
 the leaf, but each has an opening on the lower side of 
 the leaf. The plant-louse that produces this gall is 
 an agamic female (see page 177); when this female 
 is mature, she gives birth to numerous young, which 
 
 escape from the mouth 
 of the gall, scatter over 
 the leaf, and each in 
 turn produces a gall. 
 
 In most localities 
 there are so many kinds 
 of galls that it would be 
 unwise for a student to 
 attempt to study them 
 all. A better plan is to 
 select some one species 
 or genus of trees and to study the galls made on 
 these trees by one family of insects. Thus, if oaks 
 occur in the locality, a good subject is the oak galls 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 
214 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 made by gall-flies (family Cynipidce). The student 
 should learn the different species of oaks that grow- 
 in the locality, and should always label the galls col- 
 lected with the name of the particular species of oak 
 on which they were found. The particular time of 
 the year in which the galls are developed should be 
 determined, and an effort should be made to breed 
 the adult gall-flies. Many species of gall-flies under- 
 go their transformations within their galls, while in 
 other species the full-growm larva leaves the gall and 
 enters the earth to transform. In the former case 
 the adults are most surely obtained by leaving the 
 galls on the trees and inclosing each in a little bag of 
 Swiss muslin. And in the latter case care must be 
 taken not to collect the galls before they are mature, 
 else they will whither and the contained larvse perish. 
 In breeding species that pass the winter in their galls, 
 the galls should be left out of doors till spring to pre- 
 vent the galls becoming too dry and hard.* 
 
 In the study of galls made by plant-lice, select 
 some common species of gall, so that specimens can 
 be cut open and examined at frequent intervals. 
 Note carefully by this method what goes on within 
 the galls, and observe the spreading of the young 
 from the galls and the formation of new galls. 
 
 * For a thorough study of this subject, see the following :— Alternating 
 Generations : A Biological Study of Oak Galls and Gall-flies. By Her- 
 mann Adler. Translated and edited by Charles R. Straton. Published 
 by Macmillan & Co. Price, $3.25. 
 
4 5 
 
 Plate XII. LONG-HORNED BEETLES. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 215 
 
 INSECTS INFESTING THE TRUNKS AND BRANCHES OF 
 TREES. 
 
 The insects that live within the trunks and 
 branches of trees are called borers. There are very 
 many species of these, and representatives of several 
 of the orders of insects, as well as of many different 
 families, are found among them. 
 
 In the study of these insects larvse should be col- 
 lected from the infested trees from time to time and 
 preserved in alcohol ; when the insects have trans- 
 formed to pupse, these can be transferred to breeding 
 cages and the adults reared. 
 
 If the infested wood is dead, a piece of it contain- 
 ing the borers can be placed in a breeding cage at 
 once, as soon as the larvse are found, and the insects 
 bred in this way. 
 
 Among the more common borers are the larvse of 
 the long-horned beetles, which constitute the 
 family Cerambycid^ (Cer-am-byc'i-dae). The 
 larvse are footless grubs of the form shown 
 in Fig. 182. The pupa state in some species 
 is passed within the burrows made by the 
 larvse ; in other species the larva makes a 
 little ring of chips around itself between the 
 bark and the wood, and changes to a pupa 
 within this rude cocoon. Several examples of ^^^" '^^" 
 beetles of this family are represented on Plate XII.^ 
 
 * Explanation to Plate XII.— i. The ribbed pine-borer, Rha- 
 ginju lineatttm ; 2. The two-spotted Oberea, Oberea bimactilata, a borer 
 in blackberry and raspberry ; 3. The sawyer, Monohannis confusor, 
 a borer in pine and fir ; 4. The broad-necked Prionus, Frionus lati- 
 collis, a borer in the roots of grape, apple, poplar, and other trees ; 
 5. The beautiful maple-borer, Plaginotus speciosus. 
 
2l6 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 If the bark be pulled from dead branches or trunks 
 of trees, the inner layer and the sap-wood will be 
 found to be ornamented in many cases with burrows 
 of more or less regular form. These smoothly cut 
 figures are the mines of the engraver-beetles. Many 
 kinds of these engravings can be found, each charac- 
 
 FiG. 183. 
 
 teristic of a particular kind of engraver-beetle. A 
 common pattern is shown in Fig. 183. The beetles 
 that do this work are mostly of cylindrical form and 
 
 of small size ; many spe- 
 cies are almost micro- 
 scopic, and the larger 
 ones rarely exceed a 
 quarter of an inch in 
 length. They are usu- 
 ally brown, sometimes 
 black, and with many 
 the hind end of the body 
 is very blunt, as if cut 
 Fig. 184.-A horn-tail. ^^^ j^^^^ beetles be- 
 
 long to the family ScOLYTiD^ (Sco-lyt'i-dce). 
 
 The insects known as horn-tails are often found 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 217 
 
 on the trunks of forest trees, in the wood of which the 
 larvae bore. Fig. 184 represents an adult horn-tail. 
 In this family the female has a long ovipositor, with 
 which she makes slender holes in the trunks of trees 
 for the reception of her eggs. The horn-tails belong 
 to the family Siricid.f: (Si-ric^i-dse) of the order Hy- 
 menoptera. 
 
 Among the more striking in appearance of the 
 insects found on forest trees are certain ichneumon- 
 flies that are parasitic on the larvse of the horn-tails. 
 These ichneumon- 
 flies bore holes into 
 the trees infested 
 by the horn-tails, 
 and lay their eggs 
 into the burrows 
 of the latter. The 
 larvse of the ichneu- 
 mon-flies fasten 
 themselves to the 
 horn-tail larvae, and 
 destroy them by 
 sucking their blood. 
 Fig. 185 represents 
 one of these ichneu- 
 mon-flies in the Fig. 185.— The hom-tail parasite laying an egg. 
 
 act of laying an egg. These insects belong to the 
 family Ichneumonid^ (Ich-neu-mon'i-d^) of the or- 
 der Hymenoptera. 
 
2l8 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FOREST INSECTS. 
 
 The Cicadas. 
 
 The shrill Cicadas, people of the pine 
 
 Making their summer lives one ceaseless song. — Byron. 
 
 Our more common species of cicadas are large 
 insects, but as the nymphs live in the ground, and 
 the adults spend most of their time high up among 
 the branches of trees, they would attract compara- 
 tively little attention were it not for their songs. The 
 student of forest insects, how- 
 ever, is soon made aware of the 
 presence of cicadas if he collects 
 at midday during the period of 
 flight of these insects. Their song 
 is a high, sharp trill, that far ex- 
 ceeds in volume the song of any 
 other insect that sings in the day- 
 time. 
 
 One of our most common spe- 
 cies is the dog-day-harvest-fly, 
 Cicada tibicen {Ci-ca' da ti-bi'ce^i). 
 This insect (Fig. i86) is black and 
 green in color and more or less 
 powdered beneath. It is found 
 every 3^ear in the localities in which it occurs, al- 
 though it requires two years for an individual to at- 
 tain its development. 
 
 The species of cicada that attracts most attention 
 is the periodical cicada. Cicada scptendeciin (C. scp- 
 ten' de-cint). This species is often called the seventeen- 
 year locust ; but as it is not a locust, this name should 
 
 Fig. i86. 
 
FOREST LIFE. 
 
 219 
 
 not be used. This species is not quite so large as 
 the dog-day-harvest-fly, and is black and brick-red in 
 color. It is remarkable on account of the slowness 
 of its growth, the nymphs requiring seventeen years 
 for their development in the North and thirteen years 
 in the South. As all of the members of one genera- 
 tion reach the adult state at about the same time, the 
 species appears in immense swarms which attract 
 general attention. In many localities several broods 
 coexist ; this explains the fact that in such places 
 these insects appear several times during a single 
 period of seventeen or thirteen years. The adult 
 female lays her egg in slits which she makes in the 
 twigs of trees. The eggs hatch in about six weeks. 
 The young nymphs drop to the ground and bury 
 themselves in the earth, where they live by sucking 
 the juices from the roots of trees. When full-grown, 
 seventeen or thirteen years later, they crawl up to 
 the surface of the ground and undergo their last 
 molt on the trunks of trees. The last nymph skin is 
 left clinging to the bark where the transformation 
 occurred, and soon afterward the songs of the insects 
 are heard. 
 
 The student should collect nymph skins, adults, 
 and twigs in which the eggs have been laid. 
 
 The cicadas constitute the family CiCADiD.^ (Ci- 
 cad'i-das) of the order Hemiptera. 
 
 THE TREE-HOPPERS, OR BROWNIE-BUGS. 
 
 The tree-hoppers are so called because they live 
 upon trees, bushes, and vines, and can jump with 
 great agility. Many of them are grotesque in ap- 
 pearance, having great humps on their backs; and in 
 
220 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Fig. i88. 
 
 all the prothorax is prolonged backward like a roof 
 over the bod}^ (Fig- iS?)- -^ common species bears a 
 pair of hornlike projections, which have giv- 
 en it the name of the buffalo 
 tree-hopper (Fig. i88); and an- 
 other common species (Fig. 
 189) excretes honey-dew, and 
 is attended by ants. If the 
 young entomologist wishes to laugh, let him look at 
 the faces of tree-hoppers through a lens. A front 
 view of several of these insect-Brownies is 
 given in Fig. 190. Their eyes have a keen, 
 droll look, and the line that separates the 
 head from the prothorax gives them the 
 appearance of wearing glasses. In some cases the 
 prothorax is elevated above the head, so that it looks 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 Fig. 190. — Tree-hoppers or Brownie-bugs. 
 
 like a peaked nightcap ; in others it is shaped like a 
 Tam-o'-shanter ; while others have prominent horns. 
 The tree-hoppers feed upon plants, but they sel- 
 dom appear in sufficient numbers to do much damage. 
 They constitute the family MembraciD/E (Mem-brac'- 
 i-dse) of the order Hemiptera. 
 
Plate XIII. ROADSIDE BUTTERFLIES. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 *0R the careful collector of insects, a 
 country roadside is always a fruitful 
 field. Here live all the insects de- 
 scribed in the preceding- chapters, for 
 there are roadside ponds, brooks, or- 
 chards, and forests, as well as meadows. 
 But this chapter is devoted to a few 
 of the more prominent insects that live in grassy 
 places, or on common roadside weeds and shrubs, or 
 that lurk under stones, or that mine in roadside 
 paths and cliffs. 
 
 As in the preceding chapter, the principal object 
 here is to point out subjects for study. The students 
 that have carefully carried out the work indicated in 
 
222 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 earlier chapters will not need, in most cases, detailed 
 directions for the study of these subjects ; in a few 
 cases special directions are given. 
 
 Balloons from the thistles 
 Tell summer's disasters, 
 The butterflies yellow, 
 ^ As caught in an eddy 
 
 Of air's silent ocean. 
 Sink, waver, and steady 
 O'er goat's-beard and asters, 
 Like souls of dead flowers. 
 With aimless emotion 
 Still lingering unready 
 To leave their old bowers. — Lowell. 
 
 SPIDERS. 
 
 Any one that loves the study of insect life is sure 
 to be interested in the habits of spiders, although 
 
 these creatures are not true 
 insects ; and there is no bet- 
 ter place for observing them 
 than by roadsides. There 
 are very many kinds of spiders, repre- 
 senting many different families, but only 
 a few of the more prominent ones can 
 be mentioned here. 
 
 THE FUNNEL-WEB WEAVERS. 
 
 Even the most careful observers 
 seldom realize what an immense num- 
 ber of spider-webs are spun upon the 
 Fig. 191.— Folded gi'ass by roadsidcs. But occasionally 
 leaf of ^ass thcsc wcbs are made visible in the ear- 
 
 with eg;g-sac 
 
 of spider. ly morning by the dew which has con- 
 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 223 
 
 densed upon them. At such times we may see the 
 grass covered by an almost continuous carpet of silk. 
 The greater number of the webs seen at such 
 times are of the form which we term funnel-webs. 
 They consist of a concave sheet of silk, with a fun- 
 nel-shaped tube at one side, and numerous lines ex- 
 tending in all directions to the supporting spears of 
 grass (Fig. 192). The tube serves as a hiding place 
 
 
 Fig. 192. — Web of the grass-spider. 
 
 for the owner of the web ; from this retreat the 
 spider runs out on the upper surface of the web to 
 seize any insect that alights upon it. The tube 
 opens below, near the roots of the grass, so that the 
 16 
 
224 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 spider can escape from it if a too formidable insect 
 comes upon the web. 
 
 The most common species of funnel-web weaver 
 is the grass-spider, Agalena ncevia {Ag-a-le'na nce'vi-d)\ 
 this abounds in all parts of the United States. 
 
 THE ORB-WEAVERS. 
 
 Those spiders that build nets which consist of a 
 framework of radiating lines upon which is fastened 
 
 a thread in a spiral 
 manner (Fig. 193) 
 are called the orb- 
 weavers. There are 
 many species of 
 these, each differing 
 somewhat in habits, 
 but the more gen- 
 eral features of 
 their webs are quite 
 similar. 
 
 No more inter- 
 esting subject for 
 study can be found 
 than the methods of 
 work of these spi- 
 ders ; and we will 
 not deprive the stu- 
 dent of the pleasure of finding out for himself how 
 they build their webs by describing the process in 
 detail. We will, however, help him a little by call- 
 ing attention to a few points. 
 
 Find a completed web, and examine carefully the 
 silk of which it is composed. With a small stick 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 -Partially completed web of an orb- 
 weaver. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 225 
 
 touch one of the turns of the spiral line, and observe 
 the result when you attempt to take the stick away. 
 In a similar manner touch one of the radiating lines, 
 and also some of the 
 lines that form the irreg- 
 ular outer framework of 
 the web. You will dis- 
 cover that there are two 
 kinds of silk in the web 
 of an orb-weaver, which 
 differ in two important 
 characteristics ; note what 
 these are, and determine 
 to what extent each kind 
 is used. What advanta- 
 ges are gained by the use 
 of each of these kinds of 
 silk? 
 
 If you have the use of 
 a microscope, press a 
 glass slip against a web 
 so that a section of it shall 
 adhere to it, and examine 
 this section with a micro- 
 scope. Make a sketch 
 showing the difference in 
 appearance of the two 
 kinds of silk. 
 
 Find a partially com- 
 pleted web and observe 
 that a temporary, spiral 
 stay-line (Fig. 193, a, a) is 
 used in the construction of the web before the appli- 
 
 ■-„ fe .■. " 
 
 
 it : 
 
 
 
 
 /^ ''v'Siif I 
 
 / 
 
 
 c 
 
 / 
 
 ^'ii--^ ^;^ ^S:- 
 
 0^ 
 
 ■11:^^^. 
 
 ■%m!W'<m 
 
 
 
 Fig. 194. — A dewy morning. 
 
226 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 cation of the permanent spiral line (Fig. 193, b, b). 
 How do these two lines differ? What becomes of 
 the first line ? 
 
 Throw an insect into a completed web and make 
 notes on the way in which the spider captures and 
 destroys its prey. If the web be that of one of the 
 larger orb-weavers, a large insect, as a locust or 
 grasshopper, can be used. 
 
 Study different species of orb-weavers, and note 
 differences in the structure of their webs and in the 
 position of the spiders while waiting for their prey. 
 
 Write an account of the habits of an orb-weaver. 
 
 On dewy mornings the webs of the orb-weavers 
 are often heavily loaded with dew, so that adjacent 
 turns of the spiral thread adhere together. Fig. 194 
 represents such a web — one that the writer saw from 
 his window while at work on this book. 
 
 BALLOONING SPIDERS. 
 
 There are certain spiders that make long journeys 
 through the air like an aeronaut. These ballooning 
 spiders are frequently very abundant, especially in 
 warm autumn days. At such times innumerable 
 threads can be seen streaming from fences, from 
 bushes, and the tips of stalks of grass, or floating 
 through the air. The ballooning spider climbs to 
 some elevated point, which may be merely the tip of 
 a stalk of grass, and then, standing on the tips of its 
 feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out a 
 thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away 
 by a current of air. When the thread is long 
 enough, the force of the air current on it is sufficient 
 to buoy the spider up. It then lets go its hold with 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 22/ 
 
 its feet and sails away. That these spiders travel 
 long distances in this manner has been shown by the 
 fact that they have been seen floating through the air 
 at sea far from land. 
 
 A NOISELESS, PATIENT SPIDER. 
 
 A noiseless, patient spider, 
 
 I mark'd where, on a little promontory, it stood isolated ; 
 Mark'd how, to explore the vacant, vast surrounding, 
 It launch'd forth filament, filament, filament out of itself; 
 Ever unreeling them— ever tirelessly speeding them. 
 
 And you, O my soul, where you stand, 
 
 Surrounded, surrounded, in measureless oceans of space. 
 
 Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing — seeking the spheres, to 
 
 connect them ; 
 Till the bridge you will need be form'd— till the ductile anchor 
 
 hold; 
 Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul. 
 
 Walt Whitman. 
 
 THE COBWEB-WEAVERS. 
 
 Many are the kinds of webs spun by different 
 spiders. Some of them, as the orb-webs and the 
 funnel-webs, delight us with their wonderful regular- 
 ity of form, while others appear to be a mere shape- 
 less maze of threads. Such are the structures whose 
 presence in the corners of our rooms torment thrifty 
 housewives, and w^hich are disrespectfully termed 
 cobwebs. 
 
 Although the house spiders are the most familiar 
 members of this family, the greater number of spe- 
 cies spin their webs in the fields on bushes. These 
 webs usually consist of a flat or curved sheet, under 
 which the spider hangs back downward. This sheet 
 
228 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 is supported by threads running in all directions to 
 the neighboring objects. Frequently there is a large 
 number of these supporting threads above the web, 
 which serve the additional purpose of impeding the 
 flight of insects and causing them to fall. 
 
 Some of these spiders do not remain in their webs, 
 but have a nest in a neighboring crack 
 or corner, from which they rush to seize 
 their prey. And sometimes there is a .^m^. j 
 funnel-shaped tube leading to this nest, ^^f^y 1 
 But these spiders differ from the true 
 funnel - web weavers in running back ^^ 
 downward on the lower side of their web. 
 
 The cobweb-weavers are small spiders with unu- 
 sually slim legs. Fig. 195 represents a common spe- 
 cies. 
 
 IN A GARRET. 
 
 Here, in the summer, at a broken pane, 
 
 The yellow wasps come in, and buzz and build 
 
 Among the rafters ; wind and snow and rain 
 All enter, as the seasons are fulfilled. 
 
 Here where the gray incessant spiders spin, 
 Shrouding from view the sunny world outside, 
 
 A golden bumblebee has blundered in 
 And lost the way to liberty, and died. 
 
 Elizabeth Akers^ 
 
 THE RUNNING SPIDERS. 
 
 There are certain large, dark-colored, hairy 
 spiders that are common by roadsides, running over 
 the ground or lurking under stones and fences. 
 These spiders frequently attract attention by drag- 
 
 * By permission of Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 229 
 
 ging after them -a large gray ball (Fig. 196); this is 
 the egg-sac which the female carries about with her 
 
 Fig. 196. — Lycosa and egg-sac. 
 
 attached to her spinnerets. These spiders run swift- 
 ly, and as they depend on the use of their legs for the 
 capture of their prey they are called running spiders. 
 The larger members of our common species be- 
 long to the genus Lycosa {Ly-co'sa). These drag after 
 them their egg-sacs, as described above ; and when 
 the young hatch they climb on their mother's back 
 and are carried about for a time. The females of the 
 genus Dolomedes {Dol-o-me'des), which also belongs to 
 the family of running spiders, carry their egg-sac in 
 their mandibles until the young are ready to hatch. 
 At this time the mother fastens the egg-sac in a bush 
 and spins a web of irregular threads about 
 it, among which the young spiders re- 
 main for a time. 
 
 THE JUMPING SPIDERS. 
 
 The jumping spiders are of medium 
 size, with a short body, and short, stout ' j 
 legs (Fig. 197). They are common on fig. 197. 
 plants, logs, fences, and the sides of build- 
 ings. They are very apt to attract attention by their 
 peculiar appearance, their short, stout legs, bright 
 colors, conspicuous eyes, and quick, jumping move- 
 
230 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 ments being very different from those of ordinary 
 spiders. These self-possessed spiders are able to 
 stare an ordinary observer out of countenance. They 
 move sidewise or backward with great ease, and can 
 jump a long distance. They stalk their prey, and 
 make no webs except nests, in which they hide in 
 winter or when molting or laying eggs. 
 
 THE CRAB-SPIDERS. 
 
 There are certain spiders which are called crab- 
 spiders, on account of the short and broad form of 
 the body, and the curious fact that they can walk 
 more readily sidewise or backward than forward. 
 
 These spiders spin no w^ebs, but lie in wait for 
 their prey. They live chiefly on plants and fences, 
 and in the winter hide in cracks and under stones 
 and bark. Most of the species are marked with gray 
 and brown, like the bark upon which they live. Some 
 species conceal themselves in flowers, where they lie 
 in wait for their prey. These are brightly colored, 
 like the flowers which they inhabit, so 
 that insects visiting flowers may alight 
 within reach of a spider before seeing it. 
 One of the best-known members of 
 Fig. 198. this family is the female of Misumena 
 
 Misiimena vatia. . , -^ 
 
 vatia {Mi-sii-vie'na va'ti-d). This is milk- 
 white, with sometimes a light crimson mark on each 
 side of the abdomen, and is found within flowers 
 (Fig. 198). 
 
 THE TARANTULAS AND THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS. 
 
 Those who live in the warmer parts of our coun- 
 try know well the large spiders commonly called ta- 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 231 
 
 rantulas. These are the giants among spiders, some 
 of them being the largest known ; but some species 
 of this family are not very large. They are dark-col- 
 ored, hairy spiders, and can be distinguished from 
 the other families mentioned here by the fact that the 
 claw of the mandibles works up and down instead of 
 sidewise. 
 
 The members of this family do not construct true 
 webs, but they dig long tubes in the earth which 
 they line with silk, or line their hiding places in clefts 
 in trees or elsewhere with a layer of silk. They live 
 only in warm countries. 
 
 One of the best known of the tarantulas is Ettryp- 
 elma Jientzii {Eu-ryp' el-nia hejitz'i-i). This species oc- 
 curs in the South and in the Middle West, and is the 
 largest of our spiders (Fig. 199). Several closely 
 allied species are found in California. 
 
 But the members of this family that have at- 
 tracted most admiration on account of their habits* 
 
 Fig. 199. — A tarantula, Eurypelma Jientzii. 
 
 are the trap-door spiders. These dig a tube in the 
 ground, as do many other members of this family ; 
 
232 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 but this tube is lined with a denser layer of silk, and 
 is provided with a hinged lid, which fits the opening 
 of the tube with wonderful accuracy (Fig. 200). 
 There are two small holes in the edge of the lid 
 farthest from the hinge ; when the spider enters its 
 nest it runs over the door, and, catching the claws of 
 its hind legs into these holes, pulls the door shut after 
 it. The spider hides in this nest when not seeking 
 
 Fig. 2CO. — Entrance to nest of a trap-door spider. 
 
 its prey. Some species take the precaution to build 
 a branch to their nest, and to provide this branch 
 with a door. As this door forms a part of one side 
 of the main tube, it is not likely to be observed by 
 any creature which may find its way past the first 
 door of the nest. 
 
 Several species of trap-door spiders occur in the 
 Southern and Southwestern States. 
 
 THE HARVESTMEN OR GRANDFATHER-GRAYBEARDS. 
 
 Among the more common frequenters of road- 
 sides are the harvestmen, which are near relatives of 
 spiders. They differ from spiders, however, in hav- 
 ing the abdomen segmented. Most harvestmen can 
 be recognized by their very long and slender legs 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 233 
 
 (Fig. 201), although some species have comparatively 
 short ones. They feed on small insects, especially 
 aphids, and are perfectly harmless. 
 
 Fig. 2CI. 
 
 It is a common practice with children to catch 
 these creatures and say to them, " Grandfather-gray- 
 beard, tell me where the cows are or I'll kill you ! " 
 As the poor frightened animal points its legs in all 
 directions in its frantic efforts to escape, it usually 
 earns its freedom, but too often it is not without the 
 loss of one or more legs. 
 
 THE LOCUSTS, GRASSHOPPERS, AND CRICKETS. 
 
 The locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets are the 
 most universally common and conspicuous of the 
 roadside insects ; for at any time, from early spring 
 to late autumn, some of them can be found by any 
 grassy roadside. 
 
 These three groups of insects constitute three 
 closely related families of the order Orthoptera, 
 which are characterized on pages 72-74. They all 
 agree in having the hind legs fitted for jumping, but 
 differ in the form of the antennae and of the oviposi- 
 tor, and in the number of segments in the tarsi. 
 
 The crickets are generally known as such, but 
 confusion exists in the common names of the other 
 
234 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 two families, for most people that have not made a 
 special study of insects do not make any distinction 
 between the locusts and the true grasshoppers, but 
 call the members of both families grasshoppers. On 
 this account the locusts are sometimes called the 
 short-horned grasshoppers, and the true grasshoppers 
 are distinguished as the long-horned grasshoppers. 
 
 The pupil should collect specimens of each of the 
 three families, and, after studying the descriptions 
 on pages 72-74, label these 
 specimens properly and place 
 them in his collection. 
 
 Which of the two insects 
 represented in Fig. 202 is a 
 Fig. 202.-A locust and ^ true grasshopper? 
 
 grasshopper. If ^j^g p^pji ^as not already 
 
 done so, a series of specimens of either locusts, grass- 
 hoppers, or crickets which illustrates incomplete 
 metamorphosis should be collected. See Lessons 
 XII and XIII. 
 
 Frequently small red parasites are found clinging 
 to locusts ; these are mites. See page 56. 
 
 Many locusts and grasshoppers exhibit what is 
 known as protective coloring — that is, their colors 
 are such as to protect them from birds when at rest 
 in their usual haunts. Thus the true grasshoppers, 
 which live among the blades of grass or the foliage 
 of shrubs and trees, are usually green, while many 
 locusts that rest on the ground are of the same color 
 as the soil. 
 
 Collect specimens illustrating this. 
 
 Certain species of locusts are very liable to be 
 destro3^ed by a fungous disease. The victims before 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 235 
 
 dying climb up some weed, to which they cling so 
 firmly in their death grip that their bodies remain 
 clinging to the plant long after death. Find speci- 
 mens of locusts that have been killed in this way and 
 preserve them with the part of the plant to which 
 they are clinging. 
 
 THE GRASSHOPPER AND THE CRICKET. 
 
 The poetry of earth is never dead : 
 
 When all the birds are faint with the hot sun, 
 
 And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run 
 
 From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead : 
 
 That is the grasshopper's — he takes the lead 
 
 In summer luxury — he has never done 
 
 With his' delights ; for, when tired out with fun, 
 
 He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed. 
 
 The poetry of earth is ceasing never : 
 
 On a lone winter evening, when the frost 
 
 Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills 
 
 The cricket's song, in warmth increasing ever, 
 
 And seems to one in drowsiness half lost. 
 
 The grasshopper's among some grassy hills. 
 
 John Keats. 
 
 THE SONGS OF INSECTS. 
 
 Comparatively little is known regarding the songs 
 of insects, if under this head we include all the 
 sounds produced by these creatures. In a few in- 
 stances the way in which the sounds are produced 
 and the apparent object are understood ; but in the 
 great majority of cases this is not so. 
 
 Flies buzz when on the wing, but why? It may 
 be that the sound is merely incident to the rapid mo- 
 tion of their wings, and means no more than the hum 
 of rapidly moving machinery. But this can hardly 
 
236 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 be true of the sounds produced by bees. The care- 
 ful student of the honey-bee soon learns a language 
 which is as intelligible to him as spoken words. The 
 contented hum of the worker gathering pollen and 
 nectar is very different from the savage buzz of the 
 same individual when threatening an intruder who is 
 disturbing the hive. So also is the sound produced 
 by a queenless colony very different from that pro- 
 duced by one that has not this misfortune. The 
 sound produced by bees emerging from any number 
 of hives when merely the ordinary labor is going on 
 would not be mistaken for the tumult caused by a 
 sino^le swarm leavins^ its hive for a new home. 
 
 Still, perhaps the only meaning of these various 
 sounds is that the bees move in a different way when 
 influenced by different emotions, and that the produc- 
 tion of a peculiar sound is merely incidental and is 
 not the object of the peculiar motion. 
 
 There are insects, however, in which distinct 
 musical organs are developed, and that make move- 
 ments that have for their sole object the production 
 of sound. It is to these singers that we will turn our 
 attention. 
 
 Chief among them are the cicadas, locusts, grass- 
 hoppers, and crickets. In all of these it is only the 
 males that sing, these insects resembling the song- 
 birds in this respect. We will study here only the 
 musical organs of Orthoptera. 
 
 Locusts produce sounds in two wavs : — First, cer- 
 tain species rub the inner surface of the hind femora, 
 upon which there is a row of minute spines, against 
 the outer surface of the fore wings. In this case each 
 fore wing serves as a fiddle and each hind leg as a fid- 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 237 
 
 dle-bow. Second, other species rub together the up- 
 per surface of the front edge of the hind wings and 
 the under surface of the fore wings. This is done 
 while the locust is flying, and the result is a crack- 
 ling sound. Third, the males of the different kinds 
 of true grasshoppers, including the katydids, are pro- 
 vided with an elaborate musical apparatus, by means 
 of which they call their mates. This consists of a pe- 
 culiar arrangement of the veins and cells of a portion 
 of each fore wing near its base. This arrangement 
 differs in the different spe- 
 cies, but in each it is such 
 that by rubbing the fore 
 wings together they are 
 made to vibrate, and thus 
 produce the sound. Fig. 
 203 represents a fore wing 
 of the male of a common 
 meadow grasshopper, and 
 Fig. 204 that of a female of 
 the same species. 
 
 Of all the insect musi- 
 cians the crickets are most 
 easily observed ; we will 
 therefore select them for our special study : — 
 
 1. Collect some crickets with fully developed 
 wings and bring them alive to school. 
 
 2. Note that some of the crickets have a long, 
 spear-shaped organ at the hind end of the body : 
 these are the females and this organ is the oviposi- 
 tor. The males differ from the females, not only in 
 lacking the ovipositor, but also in the form of the 
 front wings. 
 
 Fig, 203. — Wing- 
 cover of male 
 meadow grass- 
 hopper. 
 
 Fig. 204. — ^Wing- 
 cover of female 
 meadow grass- 
 hopper. 
 
238 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 ^M^^ 
 
 3. Prepare a breeding- cage by placing a sod of 
 growing grass in it, put several living male crick- 
 ets in it, and set the cage where the insects can be 
 watched. After the insects have become used to the 
 cage they will chirp, and the pupils can determine 
 how it is done. 
 
 4. Kill a pair of crickets by placing them in a 
 cyanide bottle and then study their wings. How do 
 
 the front wings of 
 the male differ from 
 those of the female? 
 Make drawings 
 
 showing the differ- 
 ences. 
 
 5. If you have 
 the use of a micro- 
 scope observe that 
 the principal vein 
 which extends diag- 
 onally across the 
 
 Fig. 205. — Musical organs of a male cricket. DaSC Ol the lOrC 
 
 wing of the male 
 (Fig. 205, a) is furnished on the lower side of the wing 
 with ridges like those of a file (Fig. 205, b) ; and that 
 on the inner margin of this wing, a short distance 
 toward the base from the end of the principal vein, 
 there is a hardened portion, which may be called the 
 scraper (Fig. 205, c). 
 
 6. Watch a cricket while chirping and determine 
 how the files and scrapers of the two fore wings are 
 used. 
 
 7. Write an account of the way in which crickets 
 chirp. 
 

 t 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 *^f^ 
 
 Plate XIV. 
 
Plate XIV.— TIGER-MOTHS. 
 
 (See page 239.) 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 I. The Bella-moth, Utetheisa bella. 
 
 The Trigonal Tiger-moth, Zatrephes trigona. 
 
 The Great Leopard Moth, Ecpantheria ocularia. 
 
 The Arge Tiger-moth, Eyprepia arge. 
 
 The Nais Tiger-moth, Eyprepia nais. 
 
 The Hickory Tiger-moth, Halisidota cary(2. 
 
 The Clymene Tiger-moth, Haploa clymene. 
 
aHTOM-^^aOIT-^.VIX axAJ^ 
 
 ,,,.w ('Qi^ ^s^q 932) 
 
 .Sis^^-^xt^ z^^v<^rrs;^^ ,fijom-i9^rT iBnoghT ariX .£ 
 .^^<;t."!i:i »^QVm\i)'W ,riJom-i9giT •^{lOvioiH arlT ,d 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 239 
 
 KATYDID. 
 
 I love to hear thine earnest voice. 
 
 Wherever thou art hid. 
 Thou testy little dogmatist, 
 
 Thou pretty katydid ! 
 Thou mindest me of gentle folks — 
 
 Old gentle folks are they — 
 Thou say'st an undisputed thing 
 
 In such a solemn way. 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes. 
 
 CATERPILLARS, MOTHS, AND BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 The Tiger-moths. 
 
 Among the very many kinds of caterpillars that 
 may be found by roadsides, the most common and 
 most widely distributed are the larvse of certain 
 tiger-moths. These larvae are densely clothed with 
 hair, and are often found running over the surface of 
 the ground ; for many species seem to have but little 
 choice of food plant, but roam free like cattle in a 
 pasture. When full grown these larvae spin cocoons, 
 which are composed of the hair of the larvae fastened 
 together with a thin warp of silk. The adults are 
 called tiger-moths because many of the species are 
 conspicuously spotted. 
 
 The tiger-moths constitute the family ArctiiDtE 
 (Arc-ti'i-das). There is not space here to describe 
 other moths that occur by roadsides. 
 
 In collecting these larvae for breeding observe in 
 the case of each species whether it is restricted to 
 some particular kind of plant or not. In the former 
 case the breeding cage should be supplied with that 
 kind of plant, but in the latter case a sod of grass 
 will probably furnish the .larvae satisfactory food. 
 17 
 
240 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 The most commonly observed species of these insects 
 are the following : — 
 
 The Isabella tiger-moth, Pyrrharctia Isabella {Pyr- 
 rharc'ti-a is-a-bel'la). — The larva of this species is the 
 evenly clipped, furry caterpillar, reddish brown in 
 
 the middle and black 
 ^, ;fi.iit*iALrM'«asK^i%3t, ^|. Q2io\i end, which is 
 
 seen so commonly in 
 the autumn and early 
 spring (Fig. 206). The 
 adult is of a dull gray- 
 ish tawny yellow, with a few black dots on the wings. 
 The yellow-bear Spilosoma virginica iSpil-o-so' ma 
 vir-gin'i-ca). — The larva of this species is one of the 
 most common hairy cat- 
 erpillars found feeding 
 on herbaceous plants. It 
 is clothed with yellow 
 hairs, which are very un- 
 even in length, and which 
 vary greatly in color in 
 different individuals. The moth (Fig. 207) is snowy 
 white, with the wings marked by a few black dots; 
 these vary in number, but there are rarely more 
 than three on each wing. 
 
 The salt-marsh caterpillar, Estigmene acrcea {Es-tig- 
 
 me'ne a-crce'a). — This 
 species is not re- 
 stricted to salt- 
 marshes, as its name 
 might indicate, but 
 is widely distributed 
 
 Fig. 2oS.-Estigmene acrcza, throughout the Unl- 
 
 FiG. 207. — Spilosoma virginica. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 241 
 
 Fig. 209. — Eyprepia virgo. 
 
 ted States. The moth (Fig. 208) is white, marked 
 with yellow and black. The sexes differ greatly in 
 the ground col- 
 or of the wings ; 
 in the female 
 this is white 
 throughout ; in 
 the male only 
 the upper sur- 
 face of the fore 
 wings is white, 
 the lower sur- 
 face of the fore wings and the hind wings above and 
 below being yellow. 
 
 The most striking in appearance of our common 
 tiger-moths belong to the genus Eyprepia {Ey-pre'pi-d). 
 Of these there 
 are many spe- 
 cies. Fig. 209 
 represents one 
 of the larger 
 ones. In these 
 insects the fore 
 wings are vel- 
 vety black, 
 marked with 
 
 yellowish or pink bands ; in some species 
 the lighter color predominates, so that the 
 fore wings appear to be yellow or pink 
 spotted with black. 
 
 The harlequin milkweed-caterpillar, Cycnia egle 
 {Cyc'ni-a eg'le). — This larva is the most common cater- 
 pillar found on milkweed. It is clothed with tufts 
 
 Fig. 210, 
 
 -The harlequin milkweed- 
 caterpillar. 
 
242 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 of orange, black, and white (Fig. 210). The adult 
 has mouse-gray, unspotted wings. 
 
 MOTHS.* 
 
 Ghosts of departed winged things, 
 
 What memories are those 
 That tempt you with your damask wings 
 
 Here where my candle glows ? 
 
 Vainly you hover, circling oft 
 
 The tongue of yellow flame : 
 A tiger by caresses soft 
 
 You vainly seek to tame. 
 
 Here is no hope for you : nay, here 
 
 Death lurks within the light, 
 To leap upon you flying near 
 
 And sweep you from the night. 
 
 Moon-butterflies, back to your blooms 
 
 Born of the dew and stars ! 
 Hence, ghosts, and find again your glooms 
 
 Hidden by shadow-bars. 
 
 Quick — speed across the dusky blue, 
 
 Lest, in a sudden breath. 
 This tawny tiger wake, and you 
 
 Endure a second death ! 
 
 Frank Dempster Sherman. 
 
 THE SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 These magnificent butterflies are easily recog- 
 nized by their large size and the tail-like prolonga- 
 tions of the hind wings. The ground color of the 
 wings is black, which is usually marked with yellow, 
 
 * From Lyrics for a Lute, by permission of Messrs. Houghton, 
 Mifiain & Co. 
 
Plate XV. 
 
Plate XV.— SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 FIGL'RE 
 
 1. The Black Swallow-tail, Papilio polyxenes. See page 243. 
 
 2. The Tiger Swallow-tail, y«j(?«/aflVj- ^/az^iT^^j-. See page 243. 
 
f 
 
 .8aU^il3TTUa JIAT-¥/OJJ 
 
 7X axAjq 
 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 243 
 
 and often with metallic blue or green ; sometimes 
 the yellow markings are more conspicuous than the 
 
 black ground 
 color. The swal- 
 low-tails belonof 
 to the family Pa- 
 PILIONID^ (Pa- 
 pi l-i-on'i-dse). The 
 following well- 
 
 known species will 
 serve as illustra- 
 tions : — 
 
 The black swal- 
 low-tail, Papilio polyxenes {Pa-pW 
 i-o po-lyx' e-nes).-—\n the adult the 
 wings are black, crossed with 
 two rows of yellow spots, and 
 with marginal lunules of the 
 same color. The two rows of 
 spots are much more distinct in 
 the male than in the female. 
 The larva (Fig. 211) is the green 
 caterpillar, ringed with black 
 and spotted with yellow, that 
 eats the leaves of caraway. 
 
 The tiger swallow-tail, Jas- 
 oniades glau ciis ( Jas-o-n i'a-des 
 glaii' ciis).~T\i\s is the very com- 
 mon large swallow-tail with yel- 
 low wings. On the fore wings 
 there are four black bars extending back from the 
 costa ; the inner one of these crosses the hind wings 
 also. In the South there are two forms of the fe- 
 
 FiG. 211. — Larva of the 
 black swallow-tail. 
 
244 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 male ; in the second form the disk of the wings is 
 entirely black, but the black bands of the other form 
 are faintly indicated by a darker 
 shade. The larva of this species is 
 represented by Fig. 212. It has 
 the curious habit of weaving upon 
 a leaf a carpet of silk, upon which 
 
 I^IG. 212. — Larva of the 
 tiger swallow-tail on 
 its bed. 
 
 Fig. 213. — The zebra-swallow-tail. 
 
 it rests when not feeding ; when nearly full grown, 
 instead of spinning a simple carpet as before, it 
 stretches a web across the hollow of a leaf, and thus 
 makes a spring bed upon which it sleeps. 
 
 The zebra swallow-tail, Iphiclides ajax {Iph-i-cli'des 
 a'j'ax). — This butterfly (Fig. 213) has the wings 
 crossed by several bands of greenish white. Three 
 distinct forms of this species occur ; these differ in 
 size, in the length of the tails of the hind wings, and 
 in the time of appearance. The one figured here is 
 the early-spring form. * 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 245 
 
 THE WHITES AND THE YELLOWS. 
 
 These are the most abundant of all our butterflies, 
 being common everywhere in fields and roads. 
 They are usually of 
 medium size, but 
 some of them are 
 small. They belong 
 to the family PiER- 
 ID.E (Pi-er'i-dse). 
 
 The Whites. — 
 The more common 
 representatives of 
 this group are the ^ . ^.u ^. n 
 
 , ^ Fig. 214.— A cabbage-butterfly. 
 
 well-known cabbage- 
 butterflies. The most widely distributed species is 
 Picris rapce {Pi'e-ris ra'pce). Fig. 214 represents the 
 
 Fig. 215. — Larvae and pupa 
 of a cabbage-butterfly. 
 
 male ; in the female there are two spots on the outer 
 part of the fore wing, besides the black tip. In Fig. 
 
246 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Fig. 216.— a yellow. 
 
 215 two larvae and a chrysalis are represented on a 
 cabbage leaf. 
 
 The Yellows. — The yellows are easily recog- 
 nized by their bright yellow colors, although in some 
 
 species whitish forms 
 occur. They abound 
 almost everywhere in 
 open fields, and are com- 
 mon in wet places in 
 roads. Fig. 216 repre- 
 sents the male of a com- 
 mon species ; in the fe- 
 male the border on the 
 fore wings is broader, 
 and contains a submarginal row of yellow spots. 
 This species is dimorphic. The second form is rep- 
 resented only by the female sex, and differs in having 
 the ground color of the wings white instead of yel- 
 low. The larva feeds on clover and allied plants. 
 
 THE GOSSAMER-WINGED BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 There are certain butterflies, many of which are 
 common by roadsides, that are of small size and deli- 
 cate structure. These constitute the family Lyc^n- 
 ID^ (Ly-caen'i-dse), or gossamer-winged butterflies. 
 They resemble in size the smaller skippers (see page 
 81), but can be distinguished at a glance from the 
 skippers by their delicate wings and more slender 
 bodies. Our common species are grouped under 
 three heads — the coppers, the blues, and the hair- 
 streaks. 
 
 The Coppers. — The coppers are easily distin- 
 guished from other gossamer-winged butterflies by 
 
[TiKiTTua—.r/x 
 
 9riT .V 
 .isvoId n 
 
 'y 
 
 .s 
 
 ■ r 
 
 .F 
 
 IBS 
 
 
 \^dJ 
 
 ■i^ 
 
Plate XVI.— BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 1. ^\i^'^d\\\xnox^, Euphydryas phaeton. 
 
 2. An Orange-tip, Anthocharis stella. 
 
 3. The Green-clouded Swallow-tail, EuphcBades troilus. The 
 
 larva feeds on spice bush. 
 
 4. The Dog's-head, Zerene ccesonia. The larva feeds on clover. 
 
Plate XVI. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 247 
 
 their orange-red and brown colors, each with a cop- 
 pery tinge, and conspicuous black 
 markings. Fig. 217 represents a 
 common species. 
 
 The Blues. — The blues are so 
 called on account of the blue color 
 of the upper surface of the wings. ^^^- ^i?-— a copper. 
 The extent of this color, how- 
 ever, differs greatly in different 
 species, and also in the two 
 sexes of the same species. Fig. 
 218 represents the size and 
 form of a common species. 
 The Hair-streaks. — These 
 ' are usually dark brown, with 
 
 Fig. 218.-A blue. delicate striped markings on 
 
 the lower surface of the wings, 
 which suggested the common 
 name given above ; but some spe- 
 cies are brilliantly marked with 
 metallic blue or green. The 
 hind wings are also commonly 
 furnished with delicate tail-like 
 prolongations (Fig. 219). The 
 fore wings of the male often bear 
 a small dull oval spot near the fig. 219.-A hair-streak. 
 middle of the costal part of the wing — the discal stig- 
 ma — w^hich is filled with the peculiar scent-scales 
 known as andriconia. 
 
 THE rOUR-FOOTED BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 The family Nymphalid^ (Nym-phal'i-dge), which 
 includes a large proportion of our butterflies, differ 
 
248 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 from all others in our fauna in having the fore legs 
 very greatly reduced in size in both sexes. So great 
 is the reduction that these legs can not be used for 
 walking, but are folded on the breast like a tippet. 
 A slight reduction in the size of the fore legs oc- 
 curs in the Lycsenidse, but there it occurs only in 
 the males and to a much less degree than in this 
 family. 
 
 This is the largest of the families of butterflies. 
 It not only surpasses the other families in number of 
 species, but it contains a greater number and variety of 
 striking forms and also a larger proportion of the spe- 
 cies of butterflies familiar to every observer of insects. 
 There may be in any locality one or two species of 
 
 Fig. 220. — The monarch. 
 
 yellows or of whites more abundant, but the larger 
 number of species commonly observed are four- 
 footed butterflies. The following are some of the 
 more common forms: — 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 249 
 
 The Monarch. — The monarch, Anosia plexippus 
 {A-iio'si-a plex-ip'pus), can be recognized by Fig. 220. 
 The larva feeds upon different species of milk- 
 weed. When full grown it is yellow, broadly 
 banded with black, and bears a pair of long, fleshy 
 filaments on the second thoracic segment and a 
 similar pair on the seventh abdominal segment. 
 The chrysalis is bright green, dotted with golden 
 spots. 
 
 The Viceroy. — The viceroy, BasilarcJiia archip- 
 piis {Bas-i-lar'dii-a ar-chip'pus), resembles the monarch 
 in color and markings, but can be distinguished by 
 its smaller size and by the presence of a transverse 
 black band on the hind wings (Fig. 221). 
 
 Fig. 221. — The viceroy. 
 
 Notwithstanding the close resemblance in ap- 
 pearance of these two insects, they belong to dif- 
 ferent subfamilies ot butterflies, the viceroy exhib- 
 iting to a wonderful degree what is known as mim- 
 icry. 
 
 The Crescent-spots.— These are small butter- 
 
250 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 flies, of which many species occur in this country. 
 They are of a fulvous color, heavily marked with 
 black. Each species varies considerably in mark- 
 ings, and different species re- 
 semble each other quite close- 
 ly, making this a difficult 
 group for the beginning stu- 
 dent. Fig. 222 represents a 
 common species. 
 
 The Fritillaries.— The 
 fritillaries (frit'il-la-ries) is a 
 group of butterflies including species varying from 
 a little below to somewhat above medium size. The 
 color of the wings is fulvous, bordered and check- 
 ered with black ; the lower surface of the hind wings 
 is often marked with curving rows of silvery spots. 
 The larvas feed upon the leaves of violets. Fig. 223 
 represents a common species. 
 
 Fig. 222. — A crescent-spot. 
 
 Fig. 223. — A fritillary. 
 
 The Angle-wings. — To this group belong many 
 of our best-known butterflies. With these the outer 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 251 
 
 margin of the fore wings is usually decidedly angular 
 or notched, as if a part had been cut away. A large 
 proportion of the species hibernate in the adult state, 
 and some of them are the first butterflies to appear 
 in the spring. The following are some of our more 
 common species : — ■ 
 
 The red admiral, Vanessa atalanta (Va-nes'sa at-a- 
 lan'ta). — The larva of this species feeds chiefly on 
 nettle and on 
 hop. The adult 
 is represented 
 by Fig. 224. 
 
 The painted 
 beauty, Vanessa 
 himtera ( V. hun'- 
 te-rci). — The up- 
 per surface of 
 this butterfly is 
 represented by 
 Fig. 225; on the lower surface there are two eye- 
 like spots on each hind wing. The larva feeds on 
 
 everlasting {Gna- 
 phalinni) and allied 
 plants. 
 
 The cosmopoli- 
 tan butterfly, Va- 
 nessa car did ( V. car"^ 
 du-i). — This butter- 
 fly resembles the 
 preceding very 
 
 closely in color and 
 markings, but can be distinguished by the fact that 
 on the lower surface of each hind wing there is a 
 
 Fig. 224,— The red admiral. 
 
 Fig. 225.— The painted beauty. 
 
252 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 submarginal row of four or five e3'elike spots. The 
 
 larva feeds on thistles and allied plants. This but- 
 terfly is distributed 
 over the greater part 
 of the world. 
 
 The American 
 tortoise-shell, Aglais 
 milberti {Ag'lais uiil- 
 ber'tt). — The larvae of 
 this species feed up- 
 on nettle, and are 
 
 gregarious in their early stages. The adult can be 
 
 recognized by Fig. 226. 
 
 The mourning-cloak, Euvanessa antiopa {Eu-va- 
 
 nes'sa an-ti'o-pd). — This butterfly (Fig. 227) is one of 
 
 Fig. 226. — The American tortoise-shell. 
 
 Fig. 227. — The mourning-cloak, 
 
 the first to be seen in the spring, as it hibernates in 
 the adult state. The larvse live on willow, elm, pop- 
 lar, and redbud ; they are gregarious, and often 
 strip large branches of their leaves. 
 
^i.n.^ 
 
 (BiO ad' 
 
Plate XVII.— BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 1. The Blue-eyed Grayling, Cercyonis alope. This is one of the 
 
 Meadow-browns. See page 253. 
 
 2. The Violet-tip, Polygonia interrogationis. The larva feeds on 
 
 hop, elm, and nettle. 
 
 3. The Spring Azure, Cyaniris pseudargiolus. 
 
 4. The Tailed Blue, Everes coniyntas. 
 
 5. The American Copper, Heodes hypophla:as. 
 
 6. The Gray Hair-streak, Uranotes melinus. 
 
Plate XVII. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 253 
 
 Fig. 228. — The compton-tortoise. 
 
 The compton-tortoise, Eugonia j-album {Eu-go'ni-a 
 J-al'bum). — The upper surface of this species is repre- 
 sented by Fig-. 
 228 ; on the 
 lower surface 
 of the hind 
 wings there is 
 a small L- 
 shaped silvery 
 bar. 
 
 There are 
 several com- 
 mon angle- 
 wing- butter- 
 flies that resemble the preceding species in having a 
 metallic spot on the lower surface of the hind wings, 
 but differ in having the inner margin of the fore 
 
 wings roundly notched 
 beyond the middle. 
 These belong to the ge- 
 nus Polygonia {Pol-y-go'- 
 ni-ci). 
 
 The Meadow- 
 BROWNS. — There are sev- 
 eral common butterflies 
 that are brown in color 
 and whose markings con- 
 sist almost entirely of eyelike spots. As these are 
 usually confined to grassy places, they are called the 
 meadow-browns. One of them is represented by 
 Fig. 229. 
 
 Fig. 229. — A meadow brown. 
 
254 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 THE BUTTERFLY.'*' 
 
 Leafless, stemless, floating flower, - 
 
 From a rainbow's scattered bower. 
 
 Like a bubble of the air 
 
 Blown by fairies, tell me where 
 
 Seed or scion I may find 
 
 Bearing blossoms of thy kind. — JoJm B. Tabb. 
 
 THE BEES, WASPS, AND DIGGER-WASPS. 
 
 Throughout the summer and autumn the bees, 
 wasps, and digger-wasps abound on the blossoms of 
 roadside weeds. It requires some study and obser- 
 vation to distinguish these three groups of insects, 
 but the pupils should learn to do so. Specimens of 
 several species of each of these groups should be col- 
 lected, properly labeled, and placed in the collection. 
 All of these belong to the order Hymenoptera. 
 
 THE BEES. 
 
 The bees can be distinguished from all other H}^- 
 menoptera by the form of the basal segment of the 
 
 hind tarsi (Fig. 230, c). 
 This segment is more or 
 less dilated, flattened, 
 usually hairy, and bears 
 an apparatus for collect- 
 ing and carrying pollen. 
 In some bees, however 
 — those that do not make 
 
 Fig. 230.— Legs of insects: a, v^asp ; 3, nCStS for thcmSClveS, but 
 ichneumon-fly ; c, bee ; /, trochan- i i . . , 
 
 ter; ;«, metatarsus. lay their CggS m the 
 
 * From Poems by John B. Tabb, by permission of Messrs. Copeland 
 and Day. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 255 
 
 nests of other bees — this segment is narrower, and 
 is not furnished with organs for collecting and car- 
 rying pollen. 
 
 Some bees are solitary — that is, each female makes 
 a nest for her own young. Several kinds of these 
 will be described later. Here mention will be made 
 only of the social bees — those kinds in which a large 
 number of individuals work together to make a 
 common nest. Of these there exist in this country 
 the honey-bee and various species of bumblebees. 
 These belong to the family ApiD/E (A'pi-dae). 
 
 The Honey-bee. — The honey-bees are constant 
 visitors of roadside blossoms ; here they are intently 
 busy probing rapidly flower after flower as if they 
 had not a moment to lose. Some amass great loads 
 of yellow pollen on their hind legs, while others 
 think only of gathering nectar. Some of them are 
 plebeian black bees, while others bear the yellow 
 bands at the base of the abdomen, characteristic of 
 the more aristocratic Italian blood. The bees never 
 seem satisfied with the yield of nectar ; they drain a 
 few florets on a spray of blossoms, and then, as if 
 hoping to find a larger crop, they fly to another, only 
 to repeat the operation a moment later. 
 
 As there are many special books on the honey- 
 bee, we will not take the space to describe here the 
 habits of this wonderful species. The best way to 
 study it is to spend some time in an apiary with a 
 practical beekeeper, and then continue the study by 
 means of an observation hive, which can be obtained 
 of most dealers in beekeepers' supplies. Such a 
 hive can be placed in a schoolroom with its entrance 
 at a window, and so arranged that the bees can not 
 18 
 
256 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 enter the room, but admitting of free examination of 
 the operations of the bees through the glass sides of 
 the hive. 
 
 BEES.* 
 
 Bees don't care about the snow ; 
 I can tell you why that's so : 
 
 Once I caught a little bee 
 
 Who was much too warm for m.e ! 
 
 Frank Dempster Sherman. 
 
 The Bumblebees. — The chimsy, blundering 
 bumblebees are one of the most characteristic fea- 
 tures of roadside life. There are many kinds of them ; 
 more than fifty species have been described from 
 North America alone. 
 
 With the bumblebees as with the honey-bee and 
 with other social Hymenoptera, there are three 
 forms of individuals in each species — the males or 
 drones, the females or queens, and the workers. In 
 the spring and early summer only queens are found ; 
 these are larger than the other two forms. A little 
 later in the season the workers appear. There is a 
 great variation in size of the workers of some species, 
 but usually they can be easily distinguished from the 
 queens by their smaller size. The males or drones 
 are developed in the latter part of the summer. 
 They resemble the workers in size, but differ in that 
 the pollen baskets of the tibias of the hind legs are 
 imperfectly developed. The fringe of hairs is not so 
 long as in the workers, and there are scattered hairs 
 over the surface of the tibia within the fringes. 
 
 * From Little-Folk Lyrics, by permission of Messrs. Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 25/ 
 
 In the latter part of the summer the pupils should 
 collect the three forms of some of the more common 
 species of bumblebees. 
 
 The nests of bumblebees are made in deserted 
 mouse-nests. In early spring a queen finds a nest in 
 which a mouse has passed the winter, and places 
 within it a ball of pollen, upon which she lays some 
 eggs. As soon as the larvse hatch they eat into the 
 pollen mass in all directions and, when full-grown, 
 make for themselves silken cocoons and change to 
 pupae. These cocoons the old bees strengthen with 
 wax, and after the young bees vacate them they are 
 used as storing cells for honey. This explains the 
 irregularity of the bumblebee-comb. The first 
 broods of the season are workers, and relieve the 
 queen of all duties except laying the eggs. Later in 
 the summer males and young queens appear. In the 
 autumn the colony breaks up, and all of the bees ex- 
 cept the young queens perish. These crawl away in- 
 to some protected place and pass the winter. In the 
 spring each queen that has survived the winter founds 
 a new colony, performing, until a brood of workers 
 has been developed, both the duties of queen and of 
 worker. 
 
 Seraglio of the Sultan Bee ! 
 
 I listen at the waxen door, 
 And hear the zithern's melody 
 
 And sound of dancing on the floor. 
 
 Frank Dempster Shertnan. 
 
 * From Lyrics for a Lute, by permission of Messrs. Houghton 
 Mifiain & Co. 
 
258 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 THE WASPS. 
 
 Many kinds of wasps and wasplike insects can be 
 found on roadside flowers. The true wasps can be 
 distinguished from the wasplike insects by the fact 
 that when at rest they fold their wings lengthwise 
 like a fan. Collect specimens of true wasps. 
 
 As with the bees, some of the true wasps are soli- 
 tary, while other species are social. 
 
 The Solitary Wasps. — The different species of 
 solitary wasps vary greatly in habits. Some are min- 
 ers, digging tunnels in the earth ; some are carpenters, 
 cutting tubular nests in wood, and showing a mason's 
 skill by partitioning their tunnels off into cells with 
 mud ; while others are masons pure and simple, build- 
 ing oval or globular mud-nests, which they fasten to 
 twigs of trees, the sides of buildings, or to other ob- 
 jects. 
 
 Fig. 231. — Eumenes fraternus and its nest. 
 
 The solitary wasps constitute the family Eumeni- 
 D^ (Eu-men'i-dse). In this family the tibiae of the mid- 
 dle legs bear a single terminal spur, and the tarsal 
 claws are armed with a tooth. A common represen- 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 259 
 
 tative of the family is Eumejies f rat emus {En! me-nes f ra- 
 ter' mis), which makes a neat little nest, appearing like 
 a miniature water-jug-, attached to a twig (Fig. 231). 
 
 The Social Wasps. — The social wasps are the 
 builders of the well-known paper nests. There are 
 two types of these 
 nests. In one the 
 nest consists of a 
 single comb, sus- 
 pended by a pe- 
 duncle, and is not 
 inclosed by an en- 
 velope (Fig. 232). 
 The wasps that build nests of this form belong to the 
 genus Polistes (Po-lis'tes\ In this genus the abdomen 
 is long and spindle-shaped (Fig. 233). The species 
 are black, ringed with 
 yellow, or are brown- 
 ish. 
 
 In the other type 
 of nest there are sev- 
 eral combs when the 
 
 Fig. 232.— Nest of Polistes. 
 
 Fig. 22,2>-— Polistes. 
 
 Fig. 234.— Nest of Vespa. 
 
 nest is completed, and all are inclosed by a spherical 
 paper envelope (Fig. 234). These nests are made by 
 
26o 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 wasps of the genus Vespa, which are commonly known 
 as yellow-jackets, and as hornets. With these insects 
 the body is comparatively short and stout (Fig. 235), 
 and is black, spotted and banded with yellowish white. 
 Some species of Vespa attach their nests to build- 
 ino-s or to the branches of shrubs and trees. Such 
 nests are made of a gray paper com- 
 posed of fibers of weather-worn wood, 
 which the w^asps obtain from fences and 
 the sides of unpainted buildings. 
 
 Other species build their nests in 
 holes in the ground. These are usually 
 ,, ^ composed of brownish paper which is 
 quite fragile, being composed of more 
 or less decayed wood. Owing to the fragile nature 
 of this paper, the outer envelope of such nests con- 
 sists of many small, shell-like parts fastened together, 
 instead of large sheets. 
 
 The social wasps resemble the bumblebees in 
 that a colony exists only one season ; the males and 
 workers die in the autumn, the young queens hiber- 
 nate, and each starts a new colony in the spring, the 
 queen at first performing the duties of both queen 
 and worker. The social wasps belong to the family 
 Vespid^ (Ves'pi-dae). 
 
 THE DIGGER-WASPS. 
 
 There are several families of wasplike insects 
 which have been classed together as the digger- 
 wasps, because most of the species make nests for 
 their young by digging burrows in the ground or in 
 wood. These insects differ from the true wasps in 
 that their wings lie flat above the body when at rest, 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 261 
 
 and they differ from the bees in not having the hind 
 legs fitted for carrying pollen. 
 
 Although the digger-wasps do not provision their 
 nests with pollen or nectar, they feed on these sub- 
 stances themselves, and hence are often found on 
 flowers. Many of them are also frequently found in 
 damp places collecting mud for their nests, for some 
 species make their nests entirely of mud, and others 
 that make burrows in wood divide these burrows 
 into cells by partitions of mud. 
 
 Of those that build their nests of mud, the most 
 common are the thread-waisted wasps, so called on 
 account of the form of the first ab- 
 dominal segment (Fig. 236). They 
 make nests of mud attached to the 
 lower surface of flat stones or to fig. 236.— a thread- 
 the ceilings of buildings. These ^aistedwasp. 
 nests usually have the form of several tubes an inch 
 or so long placed side by side, and are provisioned 
 with spiders. The spiders are not killed, but stung 
 until paralyzed. The prey thus treated remains alive 
 a long time, but is helpless. An egg is laid in each 
 cell with this provision, and then the opening of the 
 tube is sealed up securely. When the larva hatches 
 it finds nicely preserved food right at hand sufficient 
 to nourish it during its growth. Nests of other dig- 
 ger-wasps are described below. 
 
 INSECTS OF SUMACH AND OTHER PITHY PLANTS. 
 
 Many bees, wasps, and digger-wasps build their 
 nests in dead branches of sumach and other pithy 
 plants. Where sumach grows it affords the best op- 
 portunity for the study of the nests of these insects. 
 
262 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 If the reader will go to the nearest clump of sumachs 
 and break off a dozen dead branches, and then split 
 them carefully, he is almost certain to 
 find one or more such nests. Fig. 237 
 represents a common type of nest found 
 in sumach. 
 
 These nests are made by solitary in- 
 sects — that is, a single female working 
 I'lWlillfl'i alone builds a nest in which to lay her 
 eggs. Representatives of several fam- 
 ilies utilize dead branches of pithy plants 
 for this purpose. In such places can be 
 found nests of solitary bees, of solitary 
 wasps, and of digger-wasps. 
 
 The parent insect finds an entrance 
 through a knothole at the side or at 
 the end of the branch w^hen the tip has 
 been broken off. She excavates the pith 
 for a considerable distance ; then she 
 collects a quantity of food and places it 
 in the lower part of this tunnel, after 
 which she lays an egg upon it, and 
 builds a partition across the tunnel just 
 above the egg and the supply of food. 
 She repeats this process until the tunnel 
 is divided into several cells, each con- 
 taining an egg and a quantity of food. 
 
 When the larvse hatch from these 
 eggs each finds in its cell sufficient food 
 to nourish it till it is full-grown. When 
 this stage is reached the larvas of some 
 species spin cocoons about their bodies, within which 
 the pupa state is passed ; in other species the larvae 
 
 Fig. 237. — Nest 
 of Trypoxylon 
 Jrigidum. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE, 
 
 263 
 
 change to pupse without making cocoons. After a 
 time the pupse change to adult insects, which dig their 
 way out from the nest, and in turn build similar nests 
 for their young. In leaving the nest the newly devel- 
 oped adults pass out through the opening at the up- 
 per end. It follows from this that the youngest of 
 the brood — the one in the cell last made — is able to 
 emerge first, each adult being obliged to wait till 
 those above it are out of the way before it can escape. 
 
 The nests of solitary bees can be recognized by 
 the fact that they are provisioned with a paste made 
 of pollen and nectar ; and, so far as I have observed, 
 the partitions in the nests of solitary bees are always 
 made of vegetable matter. Sometimes the partitions 
 are made of pith, sometimes of chewed-up leaves, 
 and in the case of certain large carpenter-bees the 
 partitions are built of small chips fastened together 
 in a spiral. 
 
 The nests of the solitary true wasps and those of 
 the digger-wasps are provisioned with animal matter, 
 each species using a particular kind of food. Some 
 use only spiders for this purpose, some plant-lice, 
 some caterpillars, and so on through the list. In 
 each case the creatures stored in the nest are not 
 killed, but are stung in such a way as to be paralyzed. 
 Here they lie helpless till needed as food by the 
 larva that hatches from the egg laid with them. 
 
 The solitary wasps and the digger-wasps that 
 build their nests in pithy plants also agree in usually 
 making the partitions in their nests of mud. In fact, 
 I know of no way of distinguishing between the nests 
 of these two groups of insects except by breeding the 
 adults. This, however, can be done easily. 
 
264 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 its 
 
 When a nest of any of these in- 
 sects is found containing either larvae 
 or pupse, the adults can be bred 
 by carefully closing the nest and 
 placing it in a breeding cage, or, if it 
 is too long, in a bag of Swiss muslin. 
 There are certain minute digger- 
 wasps that do not need to remove all 
 the pith from the section of the 
 branch in which they make their 
 nest. These make winding burrows 
 in the pith. Fig. 238 rep- 
 resents one of these nests. 
 Such nests are usually 
 l)rovisioned with plant- 
 lice. 
 
 Some of the wood-bur- 
 rowing bees and wasps 
 are not so saving of their 
 labor as those that bur- 
 row in pith, but make 
 their tunnels in solid 
 wood. Fig. 239 repre- 
 sents the nest of a solitary 
 wasp which was made in a 
 board in the side of a 
 barn. The contents of 
 the cells had been re- 
 moved by the collector 
 before the nest came into our posses- 
 sion, hence they are not shown in 
 the figure. The partitions in this 
 nest are made of mud. The archi- 
 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 
 Fig. 239. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 265 
 
 tect of it is pictured in Fig. 240. Its name is Monobia 
 quadridens (Mo-no' bia quad'ri-dens). 
 
 There are large carpenter-bees that make nests 
 similar to that of Monobia, except that the partitions 
 are formed of bits of wood 
 fastened together. These 
 bees resemble bumblebees 
 in size and appearance, but 
 differ in having a dense 
 brush on the hind legs in- 
 stead of a pollen basket. 
 
 T^i V c .\ Fig. 240. — Mo7iobia quadridens, 
 
 1 he bees of the genus 
 Megachile {Meg-a-chi'le) have the curious habit of mak- 
 ing cells for their young out of neatly cut pieces of 
 leaves, and on this account they are called leaf-cutter 
 bees. The cells of the leaf-cutter bees are packed 
 away in such secure places that one does not often 
 find them, but it is a very easy thing to find frag- 
 ments of leaves from which the pieces have been cut 
 by bees. The leaves of various plants are used for 
 this purpose, but rose-leaves are used more frequent- 
 ly than any other kind. In Fig. 241 there are repre- 
 sented one of these bees, its nest, and a spray of rose- 
 leaves from which pieces have been cut by the bee. 
 
 The species represented here, Megachile acuta (M. 
 a-cu'ta), is a carpenter as well as a leaf-cutter. It 
 first makes a tunnel in wood, often selecting that 
 which is partially decayed ; then it proceeds to build 
 a thimble-shaped tube at the bottom of this tunnel. 
 For this purpose it cuts from the leaves oblong 
 pieces, each of which forms a part of a side and the 
 bottom of the thimble-shaped tube. Two such 
 pieces had been cut from the lower leaf on the left 
 
266 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 side of the spray figured here. When the thimble- 
 shaped tube is completed, the bee partially fills it 
 with a paste of pollen and nectar, and then places an 
 egg upon the supply of food. She then cuts several 
 circular pieces of leaves, the diameter of which is a 
 
 Fig. 24T. — A leaf-cutter bee, nest, and rose-leaves cut by the bee. 
 
 little greater than the diameter of the tube, and forces 
 them into the open end of it, thus making a tightly 
 fitting plug ; three of these circular pieces had been 
 cut from the spray figured. Usually several cells of 
 this kind are placed end to end in a burrow, and 
 sometimes many bees will build their nests near to- 
 gether in the same piece of wood. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 267 
 
 The leaf-cutter bees do not always bore tunnels in 
 which to place their cells. We have found these 
 cells in a crack between shingles on a roof, in the 
 cavity of a large branch of sumach, beneath stones 
 lying on the ground, and, in Florida, in the tubular 
 leaves of the pitcher-plant. 
 
 Some species of bees make nests similar to those 
 of the leaf-cutter bees, except that the cells are 
 formed of pieces of petals of flowers. The petals of 
 Pelargonium are often used for this purpose. 
 
 THE CLIFF-DWELLERS. 
 
 There are many bees, wasps, and digger-wasps 
 that build their nests in the sides of cliffs, reminding 
 one of the habitations built 
 by certain communities of 
 Indians in the far West. 
 The insect cliff - dwellers 
 prefer sandy cliffs, and it 
 often happens that a sand- 
 bank becomes so thickly 
 studded with the burrows 
 of these insects that it looks 
 as if it had been used as a 
 target for practice with a 
 shotgun. 
 
 The most abundant of 
 these cliff-dwellers are the 
 minute bees belonging to the genus Halictus {Ha-lic'- 
 tus). These are the smallest of all our bees, measur- 
 ing only from one tenth to three tenths of an inch in 
 length. Great numbers of them can be seen during 
 the warmer parts of the day, flying back and forth, 
 
268 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 close to the face of the cliffs inhabited by them. 
 The openings to their burrows are just large enough 
 for a bee to enter, but a short distance from the open- 
 ing the burrow is enlarged so that a bee can turn 
 about in it easily. This feature and the small size of 
 the opening distinguish the burrows of Halictus from 
 those of other common cliff-dwellers. In the sides of 
 this comparatively large burrow there are many 
 small openings leading into cells, in each of which is 
 placed a supply of food and an ^^g. The walls of 
 these cells are glazed like the surface of pottery. It 
 is said that several females unite in making the larger 
 burrow, after which each female makes passages ex- 
 tending sidewise from this main burrow or public 
 corridor to her own cells. If this is true a cliff in- 
 habited by Halictus may be compared to a city com- 
 posed of apartment houses. 
 
 Certain cliff-dwelling bees, which are much larger 
 than Halictus, resembling the honey-bee in size, con- 
 ceal the entrance to their burrows by building over 
 each a tube which is bent downward. 
 
 Some solitary wasps and many species of digger- 
 wasps are cliff-dwellers. The nests of these can be 
 recognized by the fact that they are provisioned with 
 insects or spiders. 
 
 THE MINERS OF THE PLAINS. 
 
 Although the sides of sandy cliffs afford the min- 
 ing insects the best of conditions for building their 
 nests, both as regards the economy of labor and in 
 protection from drenching rains, there are many spe- 
 cies that prefer to mine in level ground. The fol- 
 lowing are among the more common of these : — 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 269 
 
 The ^Mining-bees. — The bees of the genus An- 
 drena {An-dre no) probably attract attention more 
 frequently than any other mining-bees. Some of the 
 species nearly or quite equal in size the workers of 
 the honey-bee. They build their nests in grassy 
 fields, sinking a perpendicular shaft with branches 
 leading sidewise to the cells. The main shaft some- 
 times extends to a depth of more than one foot. 
 These bees, though strictly solitary — each female 
 building her own nest — frequently build their nests 
 near together, forming large villages. Sometimes a 
 village, or we might say a city, of this kind, covering 
 only one square rod of ground, will include several 
 thousand nests. 
 
 The Mining Digger-wasps. — Various digger- 
 wasps build their nests in level ground, especially in 
 sandy places. One family of these are known as the 
 spider-wasps, because they provision 
 their nests with spiders. The spider- 
 wasps belong to the family POMPILID^E 
 (Pom-pil'i-dse) ; they are slender in 
 form, with long legs (Fig. 242), and are 
 usually black with dusky reddish or ' ^^^' 
 
 black wings ; sometimes they are variegated with red 
 or orange. They are common everywhere through- 
 out our country, and are often seen on bright, hot 
 days running about with a jerky step and constantly 
 twinkling wings ; even when at rest the wings are 
 frequently twitched. It is a common thing also to 
 see these digger-wasps running backward, dragging 
 their prey after them. A very large species which 
 occurs in the Southwest is known as the tarantula- 
 hawk, because it stores its burrows with tarantulas. 
 
270 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Another very large digger-wasp which frequently 
 attracts attention is represented by Fig. 243. This 
 
 is the cicada- 
 killer, Spheci- 
 us speciosiis 
 {SpJie'ci-usspe- 
 ci-o siis). It is 
 black, some- 
 times of a 
 rusty color, 
 and has the 
 abdomen 
 
 Yxo.^^^.-Spheciusspeciosus. banded with 
 
 yellow. It digs burrows in the earth two feet or 
 more in depth, and provisions each with a cicada. 
 
 The Tiger-beetles. — The tiger-beetles are long- 
 legged, agile beetles, which abound on bright, hot 
 days in dusty roads, in beaten paths, and on the 
 shores of streams. Fig. 244 represents a common 
 species. Their popular name was suggested by their 
 predaceous habits and the stripes with which many 
 species are marked. They can run swiftly and fly 
 well. When approached by a passer-by, 
 they remain quiet but alert till nearly 
 reached ; then like a flash they fly up and 
 away, but alight after going a few rods. 
 Before alighting they always turn so as to 
 face the approaching person and be able 
 to watch his movements. 
 
 These beetles dig sloping burrows in 
 the earth into which they retreat in stormy or cold 
 weather. 
 
 The larvas of the tigfer-beetles live in vertical bur- 
 
 FiG. 244. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 271 
 
 rows, which can be easily recognized after one has 
 learned their characteristic appearance. These bur- 
 rows abound in sandy places, in beaten paths, and 
 in plowed fields that have become dry and hard. 
 The larger ones, those occupied by full-grown larvse, 
 measure about one sixth inch in diameter, and often 
 extend a foot or more in depth. The sides are 
 smooth ; the entrance to each is very regular in out- 
 line, and without any loose dirt on the surface of the 
 ground near it, as is usually the case with 
 somewhat similar burrows made by ants. 
 
 Fig. 245 represents a larva of a tiger- 
 beetle. When watching for its prey, the 
 larva rests perfectly still at the mouth of 
 its burrow. Its dirt-colored head is bent 
 at right angles to its lighter-colored body 
 and makes a neat plug to the opening of ^" ^'*^* 
 the hole. Its rapacious jaws extend upward, wide 
 open, ready to seize the first unwary insect that 
 walks over this living trap. On the fifth segment of 
 the abdomen there is a hump, and on this hump are 
 two hooks curved forward. This is an arrangement 
 by which the little rascal can hold back and keep 
 from being jerked out of its hole when it gets some 
 large insect by the leg, and by which it can drag its 
 struggling prey down into its lair, where it may eat 
 it at leisure. 
 
 The holes of the tiger-beetle larvse are always 
 
 open when found, the larvae being frightened away 
 
 by the approach of the observer. But sit down near 
 
 them, and watch quietly, and soon they will be 
 
 plugged by dirt-colored heads. Each passer-by will 
 
 cause the cautious larvae to retreat ; but they will re- 
 19 
 
272 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 turn in a few minutes to their position of patient 
 watchfulness, and here they wait like a still fisher- 
 man on a log. 
 
 The habits of these larvse can be observed in a 
 schoolroom in the following manner: — 
 
 1. Take a box about eight inches deep, and half 
 fill it with sand or fine earth, and pour some water 
 on the soil so that it shall become packed firmly. 
 
 2. Collect several tiger-beetle larvae. In doing 
 this put a stalk down the burrow so that it shall not 
 become filled with dirt, and thus lost while you are 
 digging the larva out. Put each larva collected in a 
 single vial, so that they can not injure each other. 
 
 3. With a slender stick or a slate pencil make 
 holes in the soil in your box, one or two inches deep 
 
 and about as wide as burrows of tiger- 
 beetle larvas, and put a larva in each. 
 
 4. Observe the way in which the lar- 
 vse deepen these holes, and fit them for 
 their use. 
 
 5. When the larvas have become well 
 established in their new burrows, scatter 
 sugar on the surface of the soil so as to 
 attract flies. 
 
 6. Make notes on the habits of tiger- 
 beetle larvas, and write an account of 
 them. 
 
 INSECTS OF GOLDENROD. 
 
 In late summer and in the autumn the 
 yellow blossoms of the goldenrod attract 
 swarms of insects of various kinds ; at 
 this season there is no better field for the collector than 
 the clumps of this plant growing in the fence corners. 
 
 Fig. 246. 
 Goldenrod, 
 Solidago. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 273 
 
 Fig. 247. 
 
 The Soldier-beetles. — The most abundant of 
 the goldenrod visitors are the soldier-beetles ; so- 
 called on account of the bright colors of 
 their yellow and black uniforms (Fig. 247). 
 Sometimes these beetles occur in such 
 great numbers on the goldenrod blossoms 
 as to bend the plant down by their 
 weight. Here they are in constant mo- 
 tion, crawling over the plant and over 
 each other. But they can i\y readily, and 
 do so often, passing from cluster to cluster. These 
 beetles belong to the genus Chauliognathiis [Chaid-i- 
 og'na-thus), of the firefly family, Lampyrid^ (Lam- 
 pyr'i-d^e). 
 
 The Locust -borer. — Associated 
 with the soldier beetles we often find 
 one with his back covered with yellow 
 stripes like the chevron on the sleeves of 
 a sergeant (Fig. 248). This is the locust- 
 borer, Cyllene robmicE{Cyl-le'ne ro-bin' i-cB). 
 It belongs to the family of long-horned 
 beetles. 
 
 The Blister-beetles. — Blister-beetles are also 
 frequently found on the flowers of goldenrod. With 
 these the body is comparatively soft ; the 
 head is broad, and abruptly narrowed into 
 a neck, and the prothorax is narrower than 
 the wing -covers (Fig. 249). There are 
 many kinds of blister-beetles ; they consti- 
 tute the family Meloid^ (Me-lo'i-dae). They 
 are called blister-beetles because the dried '*^' ^^^' 
 bodies of certain species are used for making blister 
 plasters. 
 
 Fig. 248. 
 
274 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The Ambush-bug. — There is a greenish bug, with 
 very strong fore legs and a broadly expanded abdo- 
 men (Fig. 250), which conceals itself in the flowers 
 of goldenrod and in other flowers. This is the am- 
 bush-bug ; it rests quietly among the flowers 
 until some nectar-loving insect comes with- 
 in its reach, when the visitor is seized and 
 .destroyed. The ambush-bus: can overcome 
 
 Fig. 250. . •' , , 1 . ir T 
 
 insects much larger than itseli. Its name is 
 Phymata zuolffii {PJiy-ma'ta wolf'fi-i), and it belongs 
 to the family Phymatid^f: (Phy-mat'i-dse). 
 
 The Goldenrod Galls. — One of the most 
 familiar of abnormal growths on plants is a ball-like 
 enlargement of the stem of goldenrod (Fig. 251). 
 This is caused by a maggot which lives within it, 
 and which develops into a pretty fly with banded 
 wings. The name of the fly is 
 Try pet a solidaginis ( Try-pe'ta sol- 
 i-dag'i-7tis), and its gall is desig- 
 nated as the round goldenrod 
 gall. 
 
 There is another gall on the 
 stem of goldenrod which is yig. zsT.— The rou^ gold- 
 more elongate and is hollow. enrodgaii. 
 This is known as the elliptical goldenrod gall ; it is 
 represented in the lower part of Fig. 246. This gall 
 is made by the larva of a Tineid moth, Gelechia gallcE- 
 solidagmis {Ge-le'-chi-a gallce-sol-i-dag' i-nis\ 
 
 Collect specimens of these galls, and, placing 
 them in breeding-cages, rear the adult insects. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 275 
 
 ANTS. 
 
 The most abundant of all roadside insects are the 
 ants. Of these there are many kinds, each differing- 
 more or less from the others in appearance and in 
 habits, but the following generalizations can be 
 made : — 
 
 All ants are social, many individuals working 
 together to make a common nest. As with the 
 social bees and with the social wasps, each colony of 
 ants consists of three classes of individuals : males, 
 females or queens, and workers. The males and fe- 
 males are winged ; the workers are wingless. The 
 worker class is the one most often observed, this class 
 constituting the greater number of individuals found 
 in any nest. In fact, it is only during a part of the 
 year that winged forms can be found in the nests, 
 although wingless queens are constantly present. 
 
 Often in warm summer afternoons the air will 
 seem to be filled with countless thousands of flying 
 ants. Their moving wings divide the sun's rays into 
 rainbow flashes as they rise or fall, a silent, onward- 
 moving host. This is the wedding journey of the 
 male and female ants, which have come from many 
 communities and have taken flight together. But 
 soon the journey is over and they drop to earth, 
 where the males soon die ; but the females tear off 
 their own wings, having no further use for them, and 
 set about to find places to lay their eggs. Some- 
 times a female starts a new colony ; in other cases 
 she is found by some workers of her own species and 
 adopted as their queen. 
 
 The term queen, as applied to the individual at 
 
2'je INSECT LIFE. 
 
 the head of a colony of ants, is a misnomer, for ^mong 
 social insects the queens do not rule ; they are 
 merely the mothers of their colonies. The queen 
 ant is not jealous, like the queen bee, but may live in 
 peace in the same dwelling with several other queens. 
 She is always an object of extreme devotion to her 
 attendants, who feed her and care for her eggs as 
 soon as she lays them. 
 
 The larvae of ants are white and legless; most 
 species spin cocoons when ready to pupate, but some 
 do not. The oblong, egg-shaped bodies which may 
 be seen in any ant's nest, and which are often mis- 
 taken by the careless observer for eggs, are these 
 cocoons. The eggs are so small that they escape 
 observation unless careful search is made for them. 
 The larvae are efficiently cared for by the workers, 
 who carry them about and put them in the warmer 
 parts of the nest and feed them. When the adults 
 issue from their cocoons their nurses help them out 
 carefully ; and they unfold the legs and smooth out 
 the wings of new-fiedged royalty with tenderest solici- 
 tude. The workers are by far the most interesting 
 portion of the ant colony, as they do all the work — 
 feed the colony, build and defend the nests, care for 
 the young and for the stock, and carry on the wars. 
 The workers are undeveloped females, which very 
 rarely lay eggs, and as the eggs of workers always 
 develop into males, the presence of a queen is neces- 
 sary for the perpetuation of the life of a colony. For 
 this reason, as the queens grow old the workers find 
 young queens at the swarming season, bring them 
 into their nests, and adopt them as successors to the 
 old queens. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 277 
 
 There are many forms of ants' nests, but each 
 species builds the same sort. Sometimes the nest is 
 a simple tunnel in the earth, sometimes a large mound 
 with tunnels and galleries extending many feet under 
 ground, and some species live in decayed trees. In 
 the tropics a greater variety of these structures occur 
 than in our country. Some colonies own several 
 mounds. One colony of one species has been known 
 to have two hundred mounds, covering several hun- 
 dred square yards. Ants are also very good road- 
 makers, sometimes making clean, beaten paths, and 
 sometimes working out covered ways under rubbish. 
 
 As to their food, ants are general feeders, eating 
 animal food and also sweet substances, like the juice 
 of fruit and sugar ; and they are also very fond of 
 the honey-dew given off by aphids, and the ants re- 
 gard these aphids as their milch-cows. An ant will 
 walk up to an aphid and stroke its back with its 
 antennse, and immediately the pleased aphid gives 
 forth a drop of sweet fluid, which the ant at once 
 drinks up. The ants take very good care of their 
 cattle, and will carry them to new pastures if the old 
 ones dry up. They also carry the aphid-eggs into 
 their nests, and keep them sheltered during the win- 
 ter, and then carry the young plant-lice out and put 
 them on plants in the spring. When ants are seen 
 going up and down the trunks of trees it is safe to 
 suppose they are attending aphids. They also care 
 similarly for some other honey-giving insects, as cer- 
 tain bark-lice {Coccidce) and tree-hoppers {MembracidcE). 
 
 The Habits of Ants {Field Work). — Make a col- 
 lection of ants representing as many species as practi- 
 cable. Give each species a number, and make notes 
 
278 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 on the kind of nest made by each. The smaller 
 specimens should be mounted on cardboard points. 
 
 Look for ant-nests under stones lying on the sur- 
 face of the ground, and when one is found containing 
 eggs, larvse, pupae, and adults, collect a set of speci- 
 mens illustrating the transformations of the species. 
 
 Find a shrub or tree upon the trunk of which ants 
 are passing up and down. Watch some of the ants 
 that are going up and determine the object of their 
 journey. Follow some of the ants that are passing 
 down till they reach their nest. It sometimes hap- 
 pens that ants have covered ways several rods in 
 length leading from their nest to the trees that they 
 frequent. If such a road be found, uncover it care- 
 fully till the nest is reached. 
 
 Write an account of what you have learned in the 
 field regarding the habits of ants. 
 
 The Habits of Ants {School Work). — The habits 
 of ants can be studied in a schoolroom by establish- 
 ing a colony in an artificial nest. Such a nest is 
 
 represented in Fig. 
 252. It is similar to 
 one devised by Sir 
 John Lubbock. 
 
 Fig. 252. — An artificial ant-nest. The Drincioal 
 
 materials needed for the construction of a nest of 
 this kind are two panes of window-glass ten inches 
 square, a sheet of tin eleven inches square, and a 
 piece of plank one and one fourth inches thick, 
 twenty inches long, and at least sixteen inches wide. 
 To make the nest, proceed as follows : Cut a tri- 
 angular piece about one inch long on its two short 
 sides from one corner of one of the panes of glass. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 279 
 
 From the sheet of tin make a tray three eighths of 
 an inch in depth. This tray will be a little wider 
 than the panes of glass and will contain them easily. 
 On the upper side of the plank a short distance from 
 the edge, cut a deep furrow. This plank is to form 
 the base of the nest, and the furrow is to serve as a 
 moat, which, is to be kept filled with water, in order 
 to prevent the escape of the ants. It is necessary to 
 paint the base with several coats of paint to protect it 
 from water and thus prevent its warping. 
 
 To prepare the nest for use, place the tin tray on 
 the base, put in the tray the square pane of glass, lay 
 on the edges of the glass four strips of wood about 
 one half inch wide and a little thicker than the height 
 of the ants which are to be kept in the nest, cover 
 the glass with a layer of fine earth of the same thick- 
 ness as the strips of wood, place upon this layer of 
 earth and the strips of wood the pane of glass from 
 which one corner has been cut, and cover the whole 
 with a cover of the same size and shape as the upper 
 pane of glass. In the nest figured the cover is made 
 of blackened tin, and one half of it is covered by a 
 board. This gives a variation in temperature in dif- 
 ferent parts of the nest when it stands in the sun- 
 light. 
 
 The ants when established in the nest are to mine 
 in the earth between the two plates of glass. The 
 removal of one corner from the upper pane provides 
 an opening to the nest. The thickness of the strips 
 of wood between the edges of the two panes of glass 
 determines the depth of the layer of earth in which 
 the ants live. This should not be much thicker than 
 the ants are high ; for if it is the ants will be able 
 
28o INSECT LIFE. 
 
 to conceal themselves so that they can not be ob- 
 served. 
 
 The nest being prepared, the next step is to trans- 
 fer a colony of ants to it. The things needed with 
 which to do this are a two-quart glass fruit-can or 
 some similar vessel that can be closed tightly, a 
 clean vial, and a garden trowel. With these in 
 hand, find a small colony of ants, such as are com- 
 mon under stones in most parts of the country. 
 Collect as many of the ants and of the eggs, larvae, 
 and pupge as possible, and put them in the fruit-can 
 together with the dirt that is scooped up in collect- 
 ing them with the trowel. Search carefully for the 
 queen ; sometimes she is found immediately beneath 
 the stone covering the nest, but often it is necessary 
 to dig a considerable distance in order to find her. 
 She can be recognized by her large size. If the 
 queen is not found, empty the contents of the can 
 back into the nest, and take up another colony ; 
 without a queen the experiment will be a failure. 
 When the queen is found place her in the vial so that 
 she shall not be injured while being carried to the 
 schoolroom. 
 
 Having obtained a queen and a large part of her 
 family old and young, return to the schoolroom and 
 empty the contents of the fruit-can on to the board 
 covering the upper pane of glass, and place the queen 
 there with her family. If much dirt and rubbish has 
 been collected with the ants, remove some of it so 
 that not more than a half pint of it remains. When 
 this is done leave the ants undisturbed for a day or 
 two. Of course the moat should be filled with water 
 so that they can not escape. 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 28 1 
 
 Usually within twenty-four hours the ants will 
 find the opening leading into the space between the 
 two panes of glass and will make a mine into the 
 layer of earth which is there, and will remove their 
 queen and young to this place. This process can be 
 hastened by gradually removing the dirt placed on 
 the cover of the nest with the ants. 
 
 After the ants have made a nest between the 
 panes of glass, they can be observed, when desired, 
 by merely lifting the board forming the cover of the 
 nest. 
 
 With proper care a colony can be kept in a nest 
 of this kind as long as the queen lives, which may 
 be several years. The food for the ants can be 
 placed on the base of the nest anywhere within the 
 moat, and may consist of sugar, minute bits of meat, 
 fruits, etc. With a little care the kinds of food 
 preferred by the colony can be easily determined. 
 The pupae of ants, which can be collected from 
 nests in the field during the summer months, will 
 be greedily devoured. The soil in the nest should 
 be kept from becoming too dry by putting a little 
 water into one side of the tin tray from time to 
 time. 
 
 Many suggestions as to the kinds of experiments 
 that can be tried with a colony of ants can be ob- 
 tained by reading the well-known work of Sir John 
 Lubbock entitled A7its, Bees, and Wasps. 
 
 O the South Wind and the Sun ! 
 How each loved the other one — 
 Full of fancy — full of folly — 
 Full of jollity and fun ! 
 
282 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 How they romped and ran about, 
 Like two boys when school is out. 
 With glowing face, and lisping lip, 
 Low laugh, and lifted shout ! 
 
 Over meadow-lands they tripped, 
 Where the dandelions dipped 
 
 In crimson foam of clover-bloom. 
 
 And dripped and dripped and dripped ; 
 And they clinched the bumble-stings, 
 Gauming honey on their wings. 
 
 And bundling them in lily-bells. 
 With maudlin murmurings. 
 
 And the humming-bird, that hung 
 
 Lii<e a jewel up among 
 The tilted honeysuckle-horns. 
 
 They mesmerized, and swung 
 
 In the palpitating air. 
 
 Drowsed with odors strange and rare, 
 And, with whispered laughter, slipped away 
 
 And left him hanging there. 
 
 And the golden-banded bees. 
 Droning o'er the flowery leas, 
 
 They bridled, reined, and rode away 
 Across the fragrant breeze. 
 Till in hollow oak and elm 
 They had groomed and stabled them 
 
 In waxen stalls that oozed with dews 
 Of rose and lily-stem. 
 
 Where the dusty highway leads. 
 High above the wayside weeds 
 
 They sowed the air with butterflies 
 Like blooming flower-seeds, 
 Till the dull grasshopper sprung 
 Half a man's height up, and hung 
 
 Tranced in the heat, with whirring wings, 
 And sung and sung and sung ! 
 
ROADSIDE LIFE. 
 
 283 
 
 And they loitered, hand in hand, 
 
 Where the snipe along the sand 
 Of the river ran to meet them 
 
 As the ripple meets the land. 
 
 Till the dragon-fly, in light 
 
 Gauzy armor, burnished bright, 
 Came tilting down the waters 
 
 In a wild, bewildered flight. 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley. ^ 
 From Afterwhiles, by permission of the Bowen-Merrill Co. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION 
 OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 In order to study insects thoroughly it is 
 necessary to collect specimens. Very 
 much can be learned by merely watching 
 insects in the field, but if we are to study 
 their structure and their classification, we 
 must make a collection. 
 
 In doing this we should be humane. 
 It is not probable that insects are as sen- 
 sitive to pain as we are, but there is no 
 ■ ^^^' doubt that they suffer when injured. We 
 should, therefore, handle our specimens carefully, kill 
 them without inflicting needless pain, and destroy no 
 more than is necessary for study. It is not merely 
 the insects that are to be considered in this matter, 
 for no one can be cruel to animals without its having 
 a bad effect on his character. 
 
 I. COLLECTING APPARATUS. 
 
 The first step in the collecting of insects is the 
 preparation of collecting apparatus. Many things 
 
 284 
 
THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS. 285 
 
 have been devised for this purpose, and are in use 
 by professional entomologists, but the beginner 
 needs only a few of them. Usually a collecting out- 
 fit will consist of merely a net, a killing bottle, and a 
 few vials or pill-boxes for bringing home living 
 specimens. If one desires to collect butterflies it is 
 well to add to this list a cork-lined collecting box 
 and perhaps a vial of chloroform with a small brush 
 fitted in the cork. 
 
 Insect Nets. — Many in3ects can be easily and 
 safely caught by hand, but it is desirable that some 
 members of the class, and the more the better, should 
 have insect-nets. The usual form of an insect net is 
 shown in Fig. 253. Such a net is made as follows : — 
 
 The ring is of No. 3 galvanized iron wire, and is 
 one foot in diameter. It is securely fitted into a light 
 vvooden handle, which is three feet and six inches in 
 length. The ring is covered with a piece of strong 
 cloth — ordinary sheeting — to which a bag of cheese- 
 cloth is sewed. The strong cloth over the ring is 
 necessary to prevent the net from wearing out 
 cjuickly. The bag of the net should be longer than 
 its diameter, so that when an insect is caught while 
 flying it can be imprisoned in the bottom of the bag 
 by simply rolling the handle of the net. The bottom 
 of the bag should be rounded, without corners or 
 points in which insects can lodge. 
 
 Killing Bottles. — The specimens collected 
 should be killed in some way that shall not mutilate 
 them. This can be done by putting a few drops of 
 chloroform, sulphuric ether, or benzene on cotton 
 and inclosing it with the insects to be killed in a 
 bottle or small box. But the most convenient way, 
 
286 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 and the one that is commonly employed, is by the 
 use of a cyanide bottle. Each pupil, except very 
 young ones, should have such a bottle. The bottles 
 can be prepared, either by the teacher or by a drug- 
 gist, in the following manner : — 
 
 Take a wide-mouthed bottle holding four or six 
 ounces. Put in this bottle a piece of cyanide of potas- 
 sium, about three fourths of an inch square, and 
 water enough to cover the cyanide ; and then im- 
 mediately, before there is time for the cyanide to 
 dissolve, put enough plaster of Paris in the bottle to 
 entirely soak up the water. In this way the cyanide 
 will be firmly cemented in place in the 
 bottom of the bottle. The bottle 
 should then be left open in a shady 
 place for an hour to dry, and then se- 
 curely corked with a long cork and 
 labeled Poison, after which it is ready 
 for use (Fig. 254). 
 
 In using a cyanide bottle care should 
 be taken not to leave it open unneces- 
 sarily, lest it lose its strength. With 
 proper care a bottle will retain its 
 strength for several months. 
 Specimens placed in the bottle to be killed should 
 be left there for at least a half hour. They may be left 
 in the bottle several hours, even over night, without 
 injury. Thus a collecting trip may be made one day 
 and the specimens left in the bottle till the following 
 day before they are pinned. If it is necessary to re- 
 turn an insect to the cyanide bottle on account of its 
 revival after it is pinned, the pin should be removed, 
 for the gas in the bottle will corrode it. 
 
 |j^>^| 
 
 Fig. 254. 
 
THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 287 
 
 Fig. 255. 
 
 A small cyanide bottle, about one fourth the size 
 of that described above, is very convenient for car- 
 rying in one's pocket constantly during the 
 collecting season. A very convenient pock- 
 et-bottle is represented half size by Fig. 
 
 255- 
 
 Collecting Boxes. — Collectors of but- 
 terflies usually have a shallow tin box, lined 
 with pith or cork, into which specimens 
 can be pinned, and fitted with a strap by 
 means of which it can be slung over the 
 shoulder (Fig. 256). A cheap substitute for such a 
 box can be made by using a shallow cigar-box, lined 
 with cork and fitted with a strong cord. Make a 
 small hole in each end of the box, and through each 
 
 hole put an end 
 of the cord and 
 tie a knot in it ; 
 tack a piece of 
 sheet-cork to the 
 bottom of the box on the inside, and the box is ready 
 for use. If sheet-cork can not be obtained, the box 
 can be lined with the pith of corn-stalks, or slices 
 can be cut from cork stopples and tacked to the bot- 
 tom of the box. 
 
 Folded Papers for Butterflies.— There is an- 
 other method of caring temporarily for specimens of 
 butterflies, which is used when it is not convenient to 
 pin them. The specimen is killed while it is yet in 
 the net by pinching the thorax, care being taken that 
 the wings are folded together above the back, so that 
 they shall not be rubbed. Then the specimen is 
 dropped into a triangular envelope made by folding 
 
 Fig, 256. — A collecting box. 
 
288 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 a piece of paper, as shown in Fig. 257, and a memo- 
 randum of the locality and date of capture is written 
 
 Fig. 257.— Folded paper for butterflies, 
 
 on the envelope. If one expects to use this method, 
 it is well to have a shallow, flat tin box in which the 
 envelopes can be carried without danger of breaking 
 the specimens. When it is desired to pin and spread 
 specimens that have been stored in this way they are 
 relaxed by putting them on damp sand, as described 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 Vials and Pill-boxes.— A supply of vials and 
 pill-boxes is desirable for almost every collecting trip ; 
 many delicate insects can be carried with safety in 
 these that would be rubbed in a killing bottle ; and, 
 too, it is often desirable to carry home living speci- 
 mens, especially of larvae and pupae. For collecting 
 spiders and soft-bodied insects one or more small 
 bottles or vials partly filled with alcohol are useful. 
 
 II. WHEN AND WHERE TO COLLECT INSECTS. 
 
 Although insects can be collected at all seasons of 
 the year and at all times of the day and night, there 
 are certain periods during which a very much greater 
 variety can be obtained than at others. 
 
 Obviously the best season of the year is during 
 the summer months ; the best periods of the day are 
 
THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 289 
 
 between 8 A. M. and 2 p. M., and in the evening twilight. 
 These are the times during which searching for insects 
 in the fields will yield the largest returns. If, how- 
 ever, the collecting be restricted to these periods 
 many species will escape notice. Many insects can 
 also be collected after dark by enticing them to lights 
 or sweetened baits. 
 
 While the careful collector will search for speci- 
 mens in all manner of places, there are certain locali- 
 ties in which insects occur much more abundantly 
 than in others. First in importance is upon herbage 
 and shrubbery, where many species of plants are 
 growing together, and especially upon the borders 
 of woods. Open fields, which are covered chiefly by 
 a single species of plant, and deep, dense forests fur- 
 nish many interesting forms, but a much more limited 
 variety. The banks and beds of ponds and streams 
 are also excellent collecting places. A great variety 
 of forms can be obtained from the lower surface of 
 stones taken from the beds of streams. Many species 
 may be found in the moss on the trunks of trees, be- 
 neath bark, and in rotten stumps and logs. Other 
 forms are obtained from flowers, from dead animals, 
 from fungi, in decaying fruits, in seeds and nuts, and 
 under stones, chips, and other rubbish. Frequentlv 
 many cocoons and chrysalids can be found attached 
 to fences and to the sides of buildings, and many in- 
 teresting nests occur attached beneath eaves and to 
 the lower surface of the roofs of barns and other 
 buildings. 
 
 III. HOW TO COLLECT INSECTS. 
 
 There are ways, to be described later, by which 
 large numbers of specimens are easily obtained. But 
 
290 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 in these wholesale modes of collecting comparatively 
 little is learned regarding the species collected. On 
 this account careful searching for specimens should 
 be placed first among the methods of collecting. The 
 eye should be trained to detect insects in their natu- 
 ral haunts without disturbing them ; then something 
 can be learned of the habits of the species before 
 taking specimens. 
 
 By carefully peering into herbage or among the 
 foliage of shrubs and trees many insects can be ob- 
 served and many lessons learned ; other localities in 
 which insects abound are indicated in the preceding 
 section of this chapter. 
 
 This looking among herbage, in trees and shrubs, 
 and under stones in the beds of streams, is the simpler 
 part of searching. The more difficult part is to train 
 the eyes to be quick in recognizing the indications of 
 the presence of concealed insects. A dead or dying 
 twig will suggest a search for a borer ; the premature 
 turning yellow of the foliage of a branch will suggest 
 a similar cause ; the sudden wilting or drooping of 
 isolated plants is generally caused by insects either at 
 the root or in the stalk. A rolled or spotted leaf 
 should be examined and the cause ascertained. In 
 a word, the eyes should be trained to be quick in 
 observing anything abnormal in the appearance of 
 plants ; and the mind, to be quick to seek the cause. 
 
 The Use of Nets. — Much of the success of the 
 collector will depend upon his skill in the use of his 
 net. The deliberate way in which one often sees a 
 net swung would indicate that the collector believes 
 that the insects are waiting to be caught. The small 
 returns, however, which result from this mode of 
 
THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 291 
 
 collecting serve to dispel such belief. The net should 
 be swung so quickly that the insects have not time 
 to escape. In collecting butterflies, dragon-flies, and 
 other swiftly flying insects, it is usually better to wait 
 till the insect alights before attempting to catch it. 
 
 For general collecting the most important mode 
 of using the net is that commonly known as sweep- 
 ing. Larger returns, both as regards the number of 
 species and of specimens, can be obtained in this way 
 than in any other. In order to sweep, the collector 
 grasps his net handle eighteen or twenty inches 
 above the ring, and with a quick motion back and 
 forth in front of him as he walks through the grass 
 or other herbage, sweeps the insects from it into his 
 net. Of course, the net must be turned at the end of 
 each stroke, and must be kept in rapid motion, so 
 that the insects can not escape from it. After sweep- 
 ing a greater or less distance, depending upon the 
 abundance of specimens, the net is examined, the de- 
 sirable specimens secured, and the others allowed to 
 escape. 
 
 Another method of using a net is to beat from 
 beneath the foliage of shrubs and trees ; in this way 
 many specimens can be jarred into the net. 
 
 In using a net in water it should be moved back 
 and forth as rapidly as possible, care being taken to 
 beat or sweep any plants growing on the bottom of 
 the pond or stream. Sometimes many specimens can 
 be obtained by sweeping into the net leaves and other 
 rubbish from the bottom of a pond, and bringing them 
 to the shore and looking them over carefully. 
 
 In swiftly flowing streams an excellent way to 
 collect is to stand where the water flows swiftest, 
 
2^2 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 holding the net in a vertical position between the 
 feet, and overturning the stones in the bed of the 
 stream in front of the net with a hoe or garden rake. 
 If the current is swift enough many of the insects 
 that live beneaih such stones will be swept into the 
 net. 
 
 Sugaring. — The method of collecting insects 
 known among entomologists as sugaring is one of 
 the most important to the collector of night-flying 
 moths. Other insects can be taken in this way, but 
 not in so great numbers as moths. A paste is made 
 of sugar and water. Unrefined sugar is the best for 
 this purpose, as it has a stronger odor than white 
 sugar. The paste should be thin enough to be used 
 with a brush, but not so thin that it will flow from 
 the objects to which it is applied. This paste is ap- 
 plied immediately after sunset to the trunks of trees, 
 to fences, and to other suitable objects. In each case 
 a patch about two inches wide and several inches 
 long is made. After dark these baits are visited by 
 the collector, who carries a lantern and several cyanide 
 bottles. One bottle is needed for storing the speci' 
 mens after they have become quiet, and several bot> 
 ties for collecting. Some collectors use a dark lan- 
 tern, but an ordinary lantern will serve the purpose. 
 This should be hung on the left arm, leaving both 
 hands free to manipulate the collecting bottle. 
 
 If a patch of sugar be approached cautiously, 
 usually the light can be directed upon it without dis- 
 turbing the moths that are there feeding. If a speci- 
 men is seen that is desired, the cork can be removed 
 from the collecting bottle with the left hand and the 
 bottle placed over the specimen. The insect will 
 
THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS. 293 
 
 usually fly into the bottom part of the bottle ; if it 
 does not, a slight lateral movement of the bottle will 
 cause it to do so. The bottle should then be brought 
 into a vertical position with the mouth directed up- 
 ward, and quickly carried to the cork which is held 
 in the left hand. 
 
 The specimens collected should be left in a cyanide 
 bottle until the following morning. Then there will 
 be no danger of the resuscitation of any of them. 
 Warm dark nights when there is but little or no wind 
 are the best for sugaring. 
 
 Collecting at Lights. — Very many insects are 
 attracted to lights, and at such times are easily caught. 
 When electric street lamps can be reached they afiord 
 the most prolific fields for the collector. A study 
 lamp placed at an open window on a summer even- 
 ing, although less prolific than the more conspicuous 
 street lamps, often yields good returns. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Fig. 258. 
 
 THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 There are two ways of pre- 
 serving entomological speci- 
 mens : they may be either pinned 
 and dried, or they may be placed 
 in a preservative fluid. The 
 method chosen will depend upon 
 the nature of the specimen and 
 the use to which it is to be put. As a rule, any 
 specimen that will preserve its form when dried is 
 pinned. Thus entomologists usually pin the adults 
 of nearly all insects, specimens of nests, infested 
 twigs, mined or rolled leaves, and other similar ob- 
 jects. On the other hand, the immature forms of all 
 insects, and such adults as have soft bodies that will 
 shrivel upon drying, are usually placed in alcohol. 
 Millipedes, centipedes, mites, spiders, and other 
 forms allied to these are also preserved in alcohol. 
 Some insects, on account of their minute size, are 
 mounted as microscopic objects in Canada balsam 
 upon glass slips, as described later. 
 
 In case specimens are desired for anatomical 
 study, they are preserved in alcohol or some other 
 fluid, whether the body be soft or not ; and certain 
 
 294 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 295 
 
 hard-bodied insects, as beetles, are often stored in 
 alcohol and pinned later. But many insects, as flies 
 and other hairy forms, are greatly injured by being 
 placed in a fluid, the hairs being matted so that when 
 the insect is pinned it presents an unnatural appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Insect Pins. — For pinning insects a special kind 
 of pin is ordinarily used — one made of slender wire — 
 so that the specimens are mutilated as little as possi- 
 ble. These can be procured of any dealer in ento- 
 mological supplies ; a list of such dealers is given on 
 page 340. 
 
 There are several styles of insect pins, but all 
 of those in general use can be classed under two 
 heads — the English and the German. The English 
 pins are short, so that an insect when pinned is close 
 to the bottom of the cabinet, while the German pins 
 are long, so that the pinned insect is held free from 
 the bottom of the cabinet. By the use of the latter 
 the danger of breaking off the legs from specimens, 
 when they are changed from one place in the cabinet 
 to another, is greatly lessened. Without entering 
 into any further discussion as to the relative merits 
 of the two kinds of pins, it can be said that it would 
 be unwise for an American collector to use any but 
 the German pins, for, as nearly all American ento- 
 mologists use this style, it would be difficult for a 
 collector using short pins to make exchanges in this 
 country. 
 
 Insect pins are made of different sizes of wire and 
 numbered accordingly, but the numbers used by the 
 different makers do not correspond with each other. 
 Below is given the names of the three kinds of Ger- 
 
296 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 1 3 
 
 Fig. 
 
 259- 
 
 man pins now advertised for sale in this country, 
 with a list of the sizes of each. Fig. 259 represents 
 
 Klager pins : — 
 
 Klager : 00, o, 7, 2, [j], 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
 
 Length, if inch. 
 
 (Karlsbad) Carlesbader : o, 1,2, 3, 4, [5], 
 
 6, 7, <?, 9, 10. Length, I -J- inch. 
 
 Schluter: 00, o, i, 2, [j], 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 Length, i-| inch. 
 
 The numbers printed in italics indicate 
 
 in each case the sizes that will be found 
 
 most generally useful. If only a single 
 
 size is purchased, select that in brackets. 
 A convenient way of storing insect pins 
 is in a block of the form shown in Fig. 260. The 
 holes in the block are about three fourths as deep as 
 the pins are long, so that the heads of the pins pro- 
 ject from them. Several holes are made in the block 
 in order that each size of pin can be kept separate. 
 
 If for any reason it is impracticable for the pupil 
 to procure insect pins, ordinary pins, or the smaller 
 sizes of the black pins, commonly called mourning 
 pins, can be used. As a rule, 
 the mourning pins have bet- 
 ter points than the common 
 brass pins, and are to be pre- 
 ferred on this account, espe- 
 cially when cork or pith is 
 not used in the insect cases. 
 If possible, how^ever, insect pins should be used. 
 Ordinary pins are made of too large wire for pinning 
 insects, and specimens pinned with such pins are 
 rarely suitable for a permanent collection, although 
 
 Fig, 260. — Block for pins. 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 297 
 
 Fig. 261. 
 
 Fig. 262. 
 
 they may serve very well the purposes of a tempora- 
 ry study. 
 
 The Pinning of Specimens. — The appearance of 
 a collection of insects depends greatly upon the care 
 taken in pinning the specimens. Nearly all insects 
 
 should be pinned 
 
 through the mid- 
 dle of the thorax. 
 
 Many bugs (He- 
 
 miptera) are best 
 
 pinned through the 
 
 scutellum (Fig- 
 
 261), and beetles 
 
 are pinned through 
 
 the right wing-cov- 
 er at about one fourth its length from the base (Fig. 
 262). About one fourth of the length of the pin 
 should be allowed to project above the specimen ; 
 uniformity in this respect will add greatly to the 
 neatness of the appearance of the collection. . 
 
 A convenient device for securing uniformity is 
 what may be termed a pinning block. This is made 
 from strips of wood w^hich are 
 one fourth as thick as the pins 
 are long, and which are fas- 
 tened together as shown in 
 Fig. 263. A hole just large 
 enough to allow the passage 
 of the head of an insect pin is bored through the 
 center of each of the steps of the block. In pinning 
 an insect the pin is pushed through the insect so that 
 less than one fourth of its length projects above it, 
 and then the insect is pushed back into place by in- 
 
 Fig. 263. — A pinning block. 
 
298 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 serting the head of the pin in the hole in the lower 
 step of the block. This step and the second are used 
 in spacing labels, and the third is used in fixing the 
 height of insects mounted on cardboard points. 
 
 Insects that are too small to be pinned, but not so 
 small that they need to be mounted as microscopic 
 objects, are gummed to the points of narrow 
 and pointed pieces of cardboard, which are 
 mounted on pins (Fig. 264). Another way 
 is to impale the insect on the point of a fine 
 pin, inserting the pin into the lower side of 
 [e^rtJociiJ the thorax, and then, after cutting away the 
 [s^^^^j head and the larger part of the pin, to 
 mount what is left in a narrow strip of firm 
 Fig. 264. blotting paper, w^hich in turn is mounted 
 on a large pin (Fig. 265). If suitable card- 
 board can be obtained for this purpose it is better 
 than blotting paper, but ordinary cardboard is split 
 by the pins. Still another way of mounting small 
 insects is to impale them on the 
 point of a bent pin which is fastened 
 
 ^,, to another pin, as shown in Fig. 266. 
 
 " ^ In preparing these pins the fine one 
 is wound about the coarser one a 
 short distance from the point of the 
 latter, where it is somewhat tapered, 
 the two being held together with 
 pliers ; then the head is cut off from 
 Fig. 265. ^^^ small pin, and it is shoved up 
 toward the head of the coarse one. If care has been 
 taken to wind the fine pin closely about the larger 
 one, it will fit the latter tightly when pushed into 
 the proper position. 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 299 
 
 In pinning- leaves a small piece of cardboard 
 should be placed on each side of the leaf and the pin 
 pushed through these. This will hold the specimen 
 firmly in place. 
 
 Pinning Forceps. — In handling pinned specimens 
 pinning forceps are desirable, as by their use there is 
 
 Fig, 267.— Pinning; forceps. 
 
 much less danger of bending the pins when pushing 
 them into cork. Several styles of pinning forceps are 
 for sale by dealers ; that used by the writer is shown 
 in Fig. 267. As these forceps are quite expensive, 
 comparatively few pupils will care to buy them. A 
 good substitute for them are the *' flat-nosed " pliers, 
 which can be obtained at any hardware store. By 
 means of these a 
 delicate pin can be 
 grasped firmly near 
 the point and pushed 
 into soft wood with- 
 
 ^ , J. •, Fig. 26S.— Pliers. 
 
 out bendmg it. 
 
 These pliers are somewhat more convenient to use if 
 
 one corner be ground off, as shown in Fig. 268. 
 
 In transferring specimens that are pinned with 
 slender pins take hold of the head of the pin with 
 the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and then 
 seize the pin near the point with the pliers. Do 
 all the pushing or pulling with the pliers, but keep 
 the pin from tipping; sidewise with the left hand. 
 
300 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 In this way there is but little danger of bending 
 the pin. 
 
 Preservative Fluids. — The most important of 
 the preservative fluids is alcohol, and, except for 
 special purposes, no other is needed. The alcohol 
 should be of the full strength of ordinary commercial 
 alcohol — i. e., ninety-five per cent. It should be 
 noted, however, that many soft-bodied insects, espe- 
 cially larvas, shrivel if put directly into strong alcohol ; 
 with these it is necessary to remove the water from 
 the body gradually. This can be done by placing 
 the specimens in alcohol of different strengths suc- 
 cessively, using at first fifty per cent alcohol. This 
 can be easily prepared by half filling the bottle with 
 strong alcohol, then nearly filling it with water, and 
 shaking it a few times. The specimens should not 
 be left more than five or six hours in this ; they 
 should then be transferred to seventy-five per cent 
 alcohol, prepared in a similar way. They may be 
 left in this for one day, and then transferred to 
 strong alcohol for permanent preservation. 
 
 Certain colorless or white grubs and maggots are 
 apt to turn black when preserved in alcohol. This 
 can be prevented by first dipping them in boiling 
 water for a few seconds, after which they should be 
 placed in alcohol as described above. 
 
 Mounting Microscopic Objects. — Insects that 
 are too minute to be pinned or satisfactorily mounted 
 on cardboard points are usually mounted in Canada 
 balsam on a glass slide, and covered with a very thin 
 sheet of glass. The slides, balsam, and cover-glasses 
 can be obtained of any dealer in optical apparatus. 
 
 In most cases it is necessary to remove the water 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 301 
 
 from the body of the insect before mounting it; this 
 is done by placing the specimen in alcohol. If the 
 insect is hard so that there is no danger of shriveling, 
 it may be placed in strong alcohol at once, and then 
 mounted after a few hours. Insects with soft bodies 
 should be hardened gradually by being placed suc- 
 cessively in fifty per cent, seventy-five per cent, and 
 ninety-five per cent alcohol, as described in the pre- 
 ceding section. 
 
 When the specimen is hardened by the alcohol, 
 place it in a watch glass containing a small quantity 
 of oil of cloves, and leave it for a few minutes ; this 
 is to remove the alcohol and render the object more 
 clear. Then put the object on the slide, cover it 
 with balsam, and place a cover-glass over the im- 
 bedded object. In the course of a few days the 
 balsam will become hard, so that there will be lit- 
 tle danger of injury to the specimen by handling the 
 slide. 
 
 Inflating Larv.f:. — The fact that the appearance 
 of many larvae is greatly altered by preserving them 
 in alcohol leads many entomologists to remove the 
 viscera from such larvae, especially caterpillars, and 
 inflate and dry the skins. The process is somewhat 
 difficult and disagreeable to perform, but if it is well 
 done very beautiful specimens are obtained, which 
 preserve the form and color of the larvae much better 
 than those prepared in any other way. 
 
 The method of preparation is as follows : — Kill 
 the larva by leaving it for a time in a cyanide bottle. 
 Insert the point of a pin into the posterior end of the 
 alimentary canal, and, by moving it about, break off 
 the hind end of the intestine from its attachment 
 
302 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 to the end of the body. Lay the specimen on a sheet 
 of blotting paper, and, placing a lead pencil across it 
 just back of its head, press out the viscera by rolling 
 the pencil toward the hind end of the larva. Dur- 
 ing this operation move the specimen about on the 
 blotting paper so that the skin will be kept dry. 
 When the contents of the body has been pressed out, 
 insert a straw or a glass tube drawn to a point at the 
 tip in the opening at the hind end, and inflate the 
 skin. If a straw is used, the skin can be fastened to 
 it by thrusting a fine insect pin through it and the 
 straw near the hind end of the specimen. When a 
 glass tube is used, first insert the tube, then remove 
 it carefully so as to leave the opening expanded ; 
 heat the point of the tube in the flame of a lamp, and 
 insert it in the opening again. If this is done prop- 
 erly the seared edges of the opening will adhere 
 firmly to the point of the tube. If the opening is not 
 perfectly closed it can be sealed with a drop of glue. 
 Inflate the skin, and hold it 
 while inflated in a hot place to 
 dry. The skin can be dried by 
 holding it near to the side of 
 the chimney of a lighted lamp. 
 A more convenient way is to 
 dry it in a little oven, made by 
 laying a large lamp chimney 
 across a tray of sand over a 
 lamp (Fig. 269). If the glass 
 tube be cut in two, and a sec- 
 tion of rubber tubing inserte(J 
 between the two pieces, it will 
 be much more convenient to use. In drying the 
 
 Fig. 269. — An oven. 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SrECIMENS. 303 
 
 skin great care should be taken not to heat it too 
 much so as to destroy the colors. 
 
 When the skin is dry, remove it from the tube 
 and mount it on a piece of covered copper wire, 
 which has been bent about a small 
 piece of cork through which an in- 
 sect pin is pushed, as shown in Fig. 
 270. The two ends of the wire are 
 inserted in the opening from which 
 the glass tube has been removed, a 
 drop of glue having been previously ^^^^.SgskS^onJZ 
 put on each of the ends (Fig. 271). 
 
 Spreading Insects. — With many insects it is de- 
 sirable to spread the wings at right angles to the 
 length of the body. Not only do the specimens ap- 
 pear better when prepared this way, but such prepa- 
 ration is necessary in order to see the markings and 
 structure of the wings. This is especially true in the 
 case of butterflies and moths, which are usually 
 
 spread before being 
 placed in a permanent 
 collection. 
 
 For spreading in- 
 sects a device known as 
 a spreading board is 
 used. This consists of 
 
 Fig. 271. — A mounted inflated skin. . 
 
 two strips of wood fas- 
 tened a short distance apart, so as to leave a groove 
 for the body of the insect, and upon which the wings 
 are fastened in position and left until the insect is 
 dry (Fig. 272). A narrow strip of cork is tacked to 
 the lower side of the two strips of wood ; this closes 
 the groove below, and serves as a support for the 
 
304 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 pin upon which the insect is pinned. Another strip 
 of wood is fastened to the lower side of the cleats to 
 which the two strips are nailed. 
 This serves as a bottom, and 
 protects the points of the pins 
 which project through the piece 
 of cork. 
 
 In spreading a specimen a 
 narrow piece of paper is used 
 on each side to hold the wings 
 in place till they are properly 
 arranged (Fig. 272, a). The 
 wings are moved into position 
 by slipping them forward or 
 backward under the slips of 
 paper, using for this purpose a 
 fine pin, which is inserted near 
 a strong vein of the wing. 
 When the wings are properly 
 arranged their entire surface is 
 covered with wider strips of 
 paper (Fig. 272, b). The speci- 
 mens are left on the boards till 
 they are dry. This usually 
 requires two or three days, 
 moths should be left on the 
 
 mm 
 
 Fig. 272. — A spreading board. 
 
 Large, stout-bodied 
 boards longer. 
 
 For pinning the sheets of paper over the wings 
 the sharp-pointed "mourning pins" are much better 
 than the ordinary brass pins, and thin sheets of mica 
 are often used instead of sheets of paper. 
 
 A device which may be known as a spreading 
 pin is more convenient than the narrow strip of paper 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 305 
 
 for holding the wings down while they are being ar- 
 ranged. This is made of a large, sharp-pointed pin 
 (usually a black pin) and a piece of wire 
 (Fig. 273). Fig. 272, c, illustrates the way 
 in which these spreading pins are used. 
 Only two of these are needed, as they are 
 removed after the broad strips of paper or 
 mica are pinned over the wrings. 
 
 No rule as to the position in which the 
 
 wmgs should be placed can be made that fig. 273.— a 
 
 • 11 1 . n • -o ^ 11 spreading pin. 
 
 Will apply to all specimens, out usually 
 in spreading moths the fore wings are brought so far 
 forward that the hind edges (the inner margins) of 
 the two wings form a straight line across the insect 
 at right angles to the direction of the body, and the 
 hind wings are brought forward so that their front 
 edges (the costal margins) are nearly covered by the 
 fore wings. Great care should be taken to have the 
 wings of the two sides in similar positions. 
 
 Relaxing Insects. — It is often desirable to 
 spread insects which have become dry ; this is espe- 
 cially the case where butterflies are put into envelopes 
 when collected, or where more moths are collected 
 and pinned than can be spread at once. Such speci- 
 mens can be spread at any time later by first relaxing 
 them. To do this partly fill a vessel with sand and 
 saturate the sand with water; lay the specimens to 
 be relaxed upon a piece of paper spread over this 
 sand, and tightly close the vessel. If a damp towel 
 be spread over the top of the vessel before the cover 
 is put on, the air in the vessel will be more surely 
 kept moist. After the specimens are left for a time — 
 from one to three days — in this moist atmosphere, 
 
3o6 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 they can be spread as easily as when fresh. Care 
 must be taken not to leave the specimens in the relax- 
 ing jar too long lest they become moldy. A few 
 drops of carbolic acid poured upon the sand will 
 tend to prevent the growth of mold. 
 
 Insect Cases. — Cases or boxes are needed in 
 which to store specimens when pinned. For tempo- 
 rary use, and especially when it is desirable to avoid 
 all unnecessary expense, empty cigar-boxes can be 
 procured for this purpose. The shallow boxes — 
 those made to hold fifty cigars — are best. 
 
 Unfortunately it is impracticable to keep collec- 
 tions of insects permanently in cigar-boxes, for there 
 is a small beetle — the museum pest — which is sure to 
 destroy the specimens if they are not kept in cases 
 with tightly fitting covers. Cigar-boxes will serve 
 the needs of a class while they are carrying on the 
 work ; but if the teacher or any of the pupils desire 
 to make a permanent collection, insect cases should 
 be procured. There are many styles of these in use ; 
 that described below will be found serviceable and 
 inexpensive, and can be made by any skillful carpen- 
 ter. It is made as follows : — 
 
 The lumber should be basswood or some other 
 nonresinous wood that will not split too easily. Pine 
 is not suitable for this purpose on account of the 
 resin that will exude and injure the specimens. Cut 
 from a board, half an inch in thickness, two strips. 
 One of these should be an inch and a quarter, the 
 other an inch and three quarters wide. Match these 
 together with a tongue and groove three sixteenths 
 of an inch deep, making the groove in the narrower 
 piece. On one side of the narrower piece near the 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 307 
 
 edge farthest from this groove make another groove 
 fitted to receive a piece of glass, which is to form the 
 top of the case ; and on the same side of the wider 
 piece at the edge farthest from the tongue cut a rab- 
 bet three eighths of an inch deep ; this is to receive 
 the board that is to form the bot- 
 tom of the case. Fig. 274 repre- 
 sents a cross section of the strips of 
 wood thus prepared, and will serve 
 as a working drawing for the car- 
 penter or cabinet maker. 
 
 From these strips the sides of 
 
 the case are to be made. The 
 
 pi tongue and groove should fit snug- 
 
 ■^ y ly, so that pests can not enter the 
 
 
 
 ■"3~L 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 Fig. 274. 
 
 Fig. 275. 
 
 Fig. 276. 
 
 case when it is closed, and the corners of the case 
 should be very carefully mitered (Fig. 275). 
 
 The corners should be both glued and nailed. As 
 soon as the case is put together, and before the glue 
 hardens, the top and bottom should be slightly sepa- 
 
308 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 rated so that they shall not be glued together (Fig. 
 
 276). If a number is put near one corner on both the 
 
 cover and the lower 
 part of the box (Fig. 
 277) it will be easy to 
 determine how the case 
 
 Fig. 277. — An insect case, , 1 i 1 , , ,1 
 
 should be put together 
 after being opened, and thus insure a fit of the two 
 parts. This will also obviate the danger of putting 
 the wrong cover on a case when several of them 
 have been opened at once. 
 
 The bottom should be made of well-seasoned, soft, 
 nonresinous wood. If the wood is not well seasoned 
 it will shrink and make a crack through which pests 
 will enter. It should be soft so that pins can be eas- 
 ily inserted in it if it is not lined with cork, and non- 
 resinous, as resinous wood will injuriously affect the 
 specimens, and is liable to become unsightly from the 
 exudation of resin. For this reason pine is unsuit- 
 able, but basswood is excellent. 
 
 It is important that the cases be made of uniform 
 size, so that they may be stored as drawers in a cabi- 
 net, or between two upright boards upon which 
 cleats have been nailed three inches apart (Fig. 278)- 
 A convenient size is twelve inches and a half by fif- 
 teen inches and a half. This admits of the use of glass 
 which measures twelve inches by fifteen inches, a 
 common size of window glass. This is a smaller size 
 than is ordinarily used by those having large collec- 
 tions of insects. But cases of this size will be more 
 convenient for young pupils to handle than larger 
 ones. A larger case is described below as the college 
 insect case. 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 309 
 
 Hooks are usually put on insect cases, as shown 
 in Fig. 277, but they are hardly necessary on small 
 cases if they are made so that the covers fit tightly. 
 
 Insect cases are usually left the natural color of 
 the wood on the outside and painted white on the in- 
 side. Ordinary oil paint is not suitable for this, as it 
 will turn yellow when kept in the dark. The best 
 paint for this purpose is made of zinc-white and glue. 
 Care should be taken to get the best quality of zinc- 
 white — that which is free from lumps — otherwise a 
 smooth paint can not be made. 
 
 In making this paint use an ordinary glue-pot. 
 Dissolve one part by weight of glue in five parts of 
 water. Then stir in zinc-white until the mixture is 
 of the consistency of ordinary paint ; about five parts 
 by weight of zinc-white will be required. The mix- 
 ture is heated while being prepared, and is used 
 warm. If any of the mixture is left unused it forms 
 a solid cake ; but this can be liquefied by heat and 
 used when desired. This paint dries in a few min- 
 utes after being applied, and will remain permanently 
 a beautiful, clear white. 
 
 It is very desirable, if practicable, to have the 
 cases lined with cork. Sheet-cork is kept by the 
 dealers in entomological supplies for this purpose, 
 and recently compressed cork, which, when well 
 made, is better than sheet-cork, has come into use. 
 Compressed cork is ground cork mixed with a small 
 amount of glue, compressed into sheets, and covered 
 with paper. As a single sheet of compressed cork 
 will cover the bottom of the case, it presents a 
 neater appearance than sheet-cork. Thick linoleum, 
 a substance made of cork and used for covering 
 
310 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 floors, is also a good substitute for sheet-cork. The 
 use of cork largely obviates the danger of injuring 
 the points of delicate pins. 
 
 In certain parts of our country, especially in the 
 warmer parts of California, an excellent substitute for 
 cork can be obtained by cutting into thin slices dead 
 flowering stalks of the century plant. The inner 
 part of such stalks is a very soft pith called pita-wood 
 (pronounced pe'tah-wood). 
 
 The pith of large cornstalks is even softer than 
 pita-wood, but it is not as convenient to use on ac- 
 count of its smaller size. But the pupils that are 
 unable to procure cases lined with cork or pita-wood 
 should provide themselves with at least one cigar- 
 box, into the bottom of which they have neatly glued 
 a layer of corn pith. The cork, pita-wood, or corn 
 pith can be covered with a sheet of white paper, giv- 
 ing the case a neat appearance. 
 
 If only a single box is thus lined w^ith pith, it 
 should be reserved for the specimens that are being 
 studied — that is, those that are taken out frequently. 
 
 The College Insect Case. — There is a great lack of uni- 
 formity in the size and details of form of the insect cases used in 
 the larger museums. The style used in the great museums at Ber- 
 lin, Germany, and at Cambridge in this country differs from the one 
 described above in size, the outside dimensions being sixteen inches 
 by nineteen inches by three inches, and in construction, the corners 
 being both dovetailed and mitered, otherwise the two cases are the 
 same. The case used by the writer differs from that used at Berlin 
 and Cambridge only in having the bottom made of glass as well as 
 the top. 
 
 The most essential feature of an insect case is that it shall be 
 tight so that museum pests can not enter. In the more common 
 insect cases the bottoms are of wood ; but it is extremely difficult 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 311 
 
 to keep such bottoms from swelling and shrinking with variations 
 in the moisture of the atmosphere. The result is that cases with 
 wooden bottoms are very liable to have cracks in them which will 
 give the museum pests a chance to enter. With the ordinary 
 method of lining insect cases with cork the wooden bottoms admit 
 of the cork being easily fastened in place with tacks ; but with the 
 method of arranging insects upon blocks described below there is 
 no occasion for fastening anything to the bottom of the case. 
 Hence glass can be used as well as wood, and with glass for both 
 top and bottom a case can be easily made which shall remain as 
 tight as when new. 
 
 The Block System of arranging Collections. — The 
 ordinary way of arranging entomological collections is to pin the 
 specimens into cork fastened to the bottoms of the cases, and this 
 method will probably be found most practicable for the greater num- 
 ber of teachers that use this book ; but where a large and rapidly 
 growing collection is to be cared for, the block system of arranging 
 collections, devised by the writer, will be found much more convenient. 
 
 Under the old system, a very large proportion of the time of a 
 curator of a rapidly growing collection is devoted to the rearrange- 
 ment of his collection, to simply removing pinned specimens from 
 one place in a cork-lined case and putting them into another. This 
 not only consumes much time, but results in the breaking of many 
 specimens. Where the block system is used this loss of time and 
 breakage of specimens is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 The fundamental idea of the block system is to fasten upon a 
 small block each series of specimens illustrating a single species. 
 A standard size of block is adopted for what may be termed the 
 unit block ; other blocks which are multiples or fractions of this 
 size are also used. When it is necessary to rearrange the collection 
 the relative positions of the blocks can be easily and rapidly changed 
 without danger of breaking the specimens. 
 
 The blocks are made of soft nonresinous wood and are painted 
 on the upper side with the zinc-white and glue mixture described 
 above. The pins are inserted and removed with pinning forceps or 
 pliers. It is desirable to have a few blocks made of compressed 
 cork or of wood with sheet-cork or linoleum tacked to them for the 
 specimens that are being studied or are not yet classified. When 
 
312 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 specimens are ready to be put in a permanent place they are trans- 
 ferred to the wooden blocks ; after this it is seldom necessary to 
 remove the pins from the wood. 
 
 Where the block system is used it is very important that the in- 
 sect cases be of uniform size, so that the blocks shall fit well. This 
 can be assured by having an iron frame over which each case is 
 fitted when made. The corners should be cut from this frame so 
 as to make room for the glue that is pressed 
 out from the corners of the case by the clamps 
 that are used in making the case (Fig. 278). 
 
 The blocks also should be of uniform sizes. 
 This is most easily attained where they are 
 cut by machinery, and, too, they are much 
 cheaper when made in this way. Those used 
 by the writer are made by a manufacturer 
 of bee-keepers' supplies, and cost unpainted 
 three dollars per thousand. 
 
 The blocks are all one third inch in thick- 
 ness and 4|^ inches in length. This admits 
 of there being four columns of blocks in each 
 case.* The variation in size is attained by having the blocks of 
 differing widths. There is given below a list of the widths ot blocks 
 used in the entomological collections under the charge of the writer. 
 
 BLOCKS FOR MOUNTING INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 278. — Iron frame 
 for mold for cases. 
 
 Name of 
 
 size. 
 
 Dimensions in 
 
 inches. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Double 
 
 iF- 
 
 M 
 
 3f 
 Ik 
 
 n 
 
 
 Used for series illustrating 
 the transformations or hab- 
 its of a species. 
 
 Used for large insects as 
 Lepidoptera and large Or- 
 thoptera. 
 
 For small insects. 
 
 One and one 
 Unit 
 
 half. . . 
 
 
 
 
 One half 
 
 One third 
 
 One fourth 
 
 One eighth 
 
 For generic and family labels. 
 
 For filling out columns ; only 
 
 a few of these are needed. 
 
 One sixth . 
 
 One twelfth 
 
 
 
 
 
 * The outside dimensions of the case are sixteen inches by nineteen 
 inches. As the wooden sides are half an inch thick, the case measures 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 313 
 
 The blocks should be made so that the grain of the wood ex- 
 tends along the longer dimension of the block, i. e., from top to 
 bottom in the first two sizes, and from left to right in all others. 
 
 Bent-necked Vials. — It is necessary to preserve many speci- 
 mens in alcohol, and it is very desirable that such specimens should 
 be mounted on blocks so as to be placed with other specimens illus- 
 trating the same species. The use of the ordinary vials or glass 
 tubes for this is attended with serious difficulties. It is almost im- 
 possible to prevent the leakage of the alcohol and the consequent 
 destruction of the cpecimens. In addition 
 to this the curved surface of a vial will make 
 the contained specimen appear very different 
 from what it is. A long slender larva will 
 appear much thicker than it is, while its 
 length will not be magnified. nedfedvial.^^ ' 
 
 To meet these difficulties the v/riter has 
 had vials made of the form represented in Fig. 279. The bend in 
 the neck prevents the rapid leakage of alcohol, and the plain sides 
 the magnification of one diameter of the contained specimens. Two 
 sizes of these vials are manufactured — one containing one half 
 ounce, the other two ounces. They can be obtained of Messrs. 
 Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York. 
 
 To fix one of these vials to a block a white card is fastened to 
 its lower side with liquid glue (the acetic acid and alcohol solution). 
 
 (Ci 
 
 Fig. 280.— Clips for slides on a block. Fig. 281. 
 
 The card is then trimmed close to the sides of the vial, but is al- 
 lowed to project a short distance beyond each end ; then the card is 
 fastened at each end to the block with ribbon pins. 
 
 on the inside fifteen inches by eighteen inches. This would admit of 
 four columns of blocks, each block being four inches and a half long ; 
 but in order that the blocks may be easily removed from the case they 
 are made a little shorter than this. 
 
314 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Clips for Slides. — The glass slides upon which microscopic 
 objects are mounted are fastened to blocks by means of clips which 
 are made from wire (Figs. 280 and 281). 
 
 Destruction of Museum Pests. — Even when specimens 
 are kept in tight cases, it often happens that the museum pest finds 
 its way into a case and attacks the specimens. The presence of 
 this tormentor is indicated by a fine dust that falls to the bottom 
 of the case from the infested specimen. All of the cases in a col- 
 lection should be searched once a month for this indication of the 
 presence of pests. If a case is found to be infested, the pests can 
 be destroyed by pouring a tablespoonful of carbon bisulphide in one 
 corner of the case and tightly closing the case. This substance 
 evaporates rapidly and will destroy the pests without injuring the 
 specimens. It can be obtained of any druggist. 
 
 If it is necessary to store away a collection for more than one 
 month, a naphtha cone should be put in each case and strips of 
 paper pasted over the crack between the top and bottom. Naphtha 
 cones can be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies. 
 
 Mold. — In certain regions where the climate is moist speci- 
 mens are very hable to become covered with mold. The best 
 method of preventing this is to keep a small quantity of carbolic 
 acid in the cases. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 
 
 In making a collection of insects, the specimens 
 should be carefully labeled so that it will be possible 
 at any time to tell when and where each one was col- 
 lected ; and if observations are made regarding the 
 insects, these should be recorded in such a way that 
 there can be no doubt regarding the specimens to 
 which they refer. The collector, therefore, should 
 adopt at the outset a definite system of labeling speci- 
 mens and of taking notes. 
 
 It is very important that the system adopted 
 should be a simple one, one that can be easily carried 
 out ; for if too much labor is involved there will be 
 great danger that it will not be done. 
 
 I. ON LABELING SPECIMENS. 
 
 Unnumbered Specimens. — The number of speci- 
 mens which a collector of insects must handle is so 
 great that it is impracticable to give each specimen a 
 number referring to a catalogue or a note-book, as is 
 customary in collecting larger animals. Entomolo- 
 gists, therefore, when they wish merely to record the 
 locality and date of capture make use of small labels 
 which are placed on the pins below the specimens. 
 
 315 
 
Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y, 
 
 Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96, 
 
 Ithaca, N, Y. Ithaca, N. Y, Ithaca, N. Y 
 
 Aug. '96, Aug. '96. Aug. '96, 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y 
 
 Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y 
 
 Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96, 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca. N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y 
 
 Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96. 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y, 
 
 Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96. 
 
 316 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 These labels may be either printed or written or 
 partly printed, and with blank spaces to be filled out 
 
 with a pen. Fig. 282 is 
 a copy of a sheet of la- 
 bels of the latter kind. 
 With a label of this kind 
 it is only necessary to 
 write a figure indicating 
 the day of the month on 
 which the specimen was 
 
 Fig. 282.— Locality and date labels. n . i t.l >l i . 
 
 collected. It costs but 
 little to have labels like these printed ; and they save 
 much labor, and add greatly to the neatness of the 
 collection. 
 
 In getting labels of this kind, tell the printer not 
 to space the labels, but to set them solid, so that it 
 will not be necessary to trim them after they are 
 cut apart. The smaller the labels are the better they 
 appear. 
 
 In writing labels it is best to use India ink, as the 
 ordinary writing inks fade in the course of a few 
 years if exposed to light. In writing dates use the 
 ordinary abbreviations for the months instead of 
 numerals, as is sometimes done. For when numerals 
 are used there is danger of ambiguity ; 6, 9, '96 may 
 mean either 6 Sept., '96, or June 9, '96. 
 
 In the case of bottles of alcoholic specimens pin 
 a label to the stopper, for convenience of reading, and 
 put a duplicate within the bottle to prevent the oc- 
 currence of mistakes from an exchange of stoppers. 
 
 Sometimes in addition to the label indicating the 
 locality and date of capture, it is desirable to add one 
 indicating the conditions of capture, as at sugar, at 
 
ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 
 
 317 
 
 electric light, or in the twilight. We have sheets of 
 labels printed for this purpose (Fig. 283). 
 When more than one label is used 
 
 Sugar. Light. Twilight. 
 
 they are spaced on the pin so that |;;|- Lghj- Twilight. 
 each can be read. I^f- £g;; IriigE;: 
 
 Numbered Species. — In the ^''^^'- ^'^^'- "^^^'^^ht. 
 study of life histories it is often nee- ^dicatm^ conditions 
 essary to record more information of capture. 
 than can be placed upon labels. In such cases the 
 specimens and notes should be given corresponding 
 numbers. Even in this case it is not best to give 
 each specimen a distinct number; a much simpler 
 way is to give all specimens of each species the same 
 number. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that the first species studied 
 is the apple-tree tent-caterpillar. In this case all the 
 specimens of this species should be labeled No. i, 
 and all notes on this species should have the same 
 number. The next species studied should be num- 
 bered No. 2, and so on. 
 
 The locality and date labels, already described, 
 can be used in connection with the numbered labels ; 
 there is no objection to putting two or three labels 
 on a specimen if each records additional informa- 
 tion. 
 
 Sometimes it is desirable to make notes regarding 
 a particular specimen, which shows some individual 
 peculiarity or was collected under peculiar conditions. 
 In such a case use is made of a subnumber, which is 
 written on the label below the number referring to 
 the species. 
 
 Fig. 284 represents a sheet of labels such as we 
 use for our numbered species. Cornell U. is printed 
 
3i8 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. 
 
 No. No. No. 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. 
 
 Fig. 284. — Labels for 
 bered species. 
 
 num- 
 
 on each label to avoid the danger of mistakes occur- 
 ring in case exchanges are made with collectors 
 using a similar system. Each of our students using 
 this system has his name printed 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. jn thc COrrCSpOuding plaCC OU 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. hig labels. The blank space 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. , , , , . . r^ , . 
 
 No. No. No. after the abbreviation bub. is 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. . , 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. USCd Ouly wllCU it IS UCCCSSary 
 
 No. No. No. , . 1 1 • 1 • 
 
 to give a subnumber, as indi- 
 cated above. A narrow blank 
 space is left below the place 
 for the subnumber in which a 
 date may be written. 
 
 Numbered Lots of Specimens. — The method of labeling 
 specimens described above will be sufficient for the needs of those 
 whose collections are small. The following suggestion is for those 
 having charge of large and rapidly growing collections : — 
 
 It often happens that a large number of specimens, not all of the 
 same species, are to be labeled, respecting each of which precisely 
 the same record is to be made. It is my practice to give each lot 
 of specimens of this kind a number, and to place on each specimen 
 a label indicating the lot to which it belongs. In a note-book, kept 
 especially for this purpose, and known 
 as the Lot Book, a full account of each 
 lot is written. By doing this the record 
 is as complete as it would be were each 
 specimen given a number, and a note 
 written for each. Fig. 285 represents 
 a sheet of the labels used for this pur- 
 pose. The following extracts from the 
 Lot Book of Cornell University will illus- 
 trate the application of this system : — 
 Lot 30. — Lepidoptera from Colorado. 
 
 These were collected and presented to the university by Mr 
 H. W. Nash. See Letter File I, page 43. 
 Lot 31. — Coleoptera from Arizona. These were collected by Mr 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. 
 
 Lot Lot Lot 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. 
 
 Lot Lot Lot 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. 
 
 Lot Lot Lot 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. 
 
 Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U. 
 
 Lot Lot Lot 
 
 Sub. Sub. Sub. 
 
 Fig. 285. — Labels for num- 
 bered lots of specimens. 
 
ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 
 
 319 
 
 H. K. Morrison. They were purchased in February, 1883. 
 See letters. 
 Lot 45. — A collection of Hemiptera determined by Professor P. R. 
 Uhler during the year 1883. See correspondence in Letter 
 Book I and Letter File I. The subnumbers refer to a list fur- 
 nished by Professor Uhler, which is in Letter File I, pp. 166- 
 172. 
 The last extract illustrates a very important use made of lot 
 numbers. In this way it is easy to label each specimen so that its 
 name and the authority for the determination can be easily ascer- 
 tained. And as the label is a small one placed upon the pin, there is 
 no danger of the specimen and 
 its label becoming separated. 
 These labels are used in addition 
 to the larger labels placed at the 
 head of each series of specimens 
 in a systematic collection. 
 
 Cohoptero, , 
 
 
 
 Cicindeiidae . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Omus . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Omus .. 
 
 ftornii 
 
 < K 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Omus 
 Jeeontii 
 
 X t 
 
 * 
 
 Omus 
 
 Jo-eu-is 
 
 Omu 
 
 Blank Forms for 
 Labels. — In arranging 
 specimens in a systematic 
 order in a collection, there 
 should be placed at the 
 head of each group of in- 
 sects a label bearing the 
 name of the group. These 
 labels are used in addition 
 to those already described, 
 which are always left on 
 the pins or in the bottles 
 as the case may be. The 
 group labels are of larger size than the preceding, 
 and are usually written on blank forms like those 
 shown in Fig. 286, except that it is customary to have 
 the forms printed in red ink ; and the forms are twice 
 
 as long and twice as wide as shown here. 
 
 22 
 
 1 Tetro-cha.^ 
 
 
 
 ntrccU 
 eck-rollna. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Tefraeha 
 virfiniea.. 
 
 X 
 
 Fig. 286.— Labels. 
 
320 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 The four sizes are used for the names of orders, 
 families, genera, and species respectively. The 
 method of arrangement of these labels is also shown 
 in Fig. 286, the x's representing the position of the 
 specimens thus labeled. 
 
 These figures represent the style of labels ordi- 
 narily used in collections. In the case of collections 
 made by young pupils who are beginning the study 
 of insects more extensive labels may be desirable. 
 These should be neatly written on plain paper and a 
 line drawn about each with a pen. See examples in 
 Lessons XVIII and XXV. 
 
 II. ON TAKING NOTES. 
 
 Note-books and Slips. — There are two distinct 
 systems of keeping notes : By one, the notes are writ- 
 ten in a blank book ; by the other, they are written 
 on slips of paper, which are afterward arranged ac- 
 cording to subjects. 
 
 An objection to the use of a note-book arises from 
 the fact that when one begins a series of observations 
 it is impossible to determine how much space is going 
 to be required for the notes on it ; and, consequently, 
 it is impracticable to keep together all notes on each 
 subject. By the slip system this is easily done ; for 
 this reason, most naturalists write their notes on slips 
 or sheets of paper, and keep them classified in envel- 
 opes or covers. 
 
 A combination of these two systems meets most 
 perfectly the needs of an entomologist. It is my 
 practice to write notes on general subjects on sheets 
 of paper, which are kept classified in folded sheets of 
 Manilla paper. But for the notes on species of in- 
 
ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 
 
 321 
 
 sects both a note-book and loose sheets of paper are 
 used. 
 
 The species on which observations are made are 
 numbered, as described on page 317. The note-book 
 is a paged blank book, which is made of ruled quarto 
 paper. There is a single red line about one inch 
 from the left margin of each page. An entire page 
 is devoted to each number ; this greatly facilitates the 
 finding of notes, for the number of the notes and that 
 of the page are the same. The space at the left of 
 the red line is reserved for dates and subnumbers. 
 The first line of the notes consist only of the name of 
 the species ; if this is not known at the time the notes 
 are begun, the line is left blank and a descriptive title 
 for temporary use is written on the second line. 
 
 As already stated, one page of the note-book is 
 reserved for notes on each species. In many cases 
 this page is sufficient ; when it is found insufficient, 
 the expression '' See notes " is written at the end of 
 the note in the book, and all further notes are written 
 on loose sheets. These are kept in folded sheets of 
 Manilla paper, which are stored in boxes in their 
 numerical sequence. 
 
 The use of a note-book in this system is a sure 
 protection against the danger of using the same 
 number twice; and it is the most convenient method 
 of keeping the notes on the large number of species 
 respecting which extended observations are not made ; 
 while the supplementary sheets afford all the advan- 
 tages of the slip system when extended observations 
 are made. 
 
 Indication of Sex. — In many insects there are 
 marked external sexual differences, either of size, 
 
322 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 form, color, or of shape of appendages. In others it 
 is difficult to determine the sex without dissection. 
 When the sex of a specimen is known it should be 
 indicated on the label. This is commonly done by 
 using the astronomical sign ,5 or $ , the former indi- 
 cating the male sex, the latter the female. It will aid 
 the student in distinguishing these signs to remember 
 that $ represents the shield and spear of Mars, and 
 $ the hand-glass or mirror of Venus. In the case of 
 social insects, as ants, bees, and wasps, the workers 
 are indicated by ^ . 
 
 On taking Notes.— After many years' experi- 
 ence I am sure that nothing more important can be 
 said to the young student regarding the taking of 
 notes than to urge him to take them at the time 
 the observation is made. If you make an observa- 
 tion in the field do not wait till you return to your 
 study to record it, but write an account of what you 
 have seen immediately, and do this, if possible, while 
 observing the fact. Almost invariably the writing 
 of an account of an observation will suggest queries, 
 many of which can be answered at the time the ob- 
 servation is made, but not after the observer has 
 returned to his study. 
 
 Even in those cases where it is intended to make 
 a long and serious study of a subject, every phenom- 
 enon observed should be noted as soon as seen. 
 Make your record while the occurrence is fresh in 
 your mind, before it loses the charm of novelty and 
 becomes a commonplace. Many an account is very 
 incomplete simply because the writer has become so 
 familiar with certain details that it does not seem to 
 him worth while to record them. The reader will 
 
ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 323 
 
 please bear in mind that I have reference merely to 
 the taking- of notes for the observer's personal use ; 
 the publication of conclusions based upon hasty, first 
 impressions is not advised. Fill your note-book with 
 descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out 
 for publication only those that exhaustive study and 
 repeated observations prove to be valuable. In 
 making observations be sure y on are right and then look 
 again. 
 
 Write your notes in as good style as you can 
 command. It does not pay to be slovenly here, giv- 
 ing no attention to literary form. Remember, how- 
 ever, that the more simple and direct an account is, 
 the better its style. 
 
 Descriptions of Insects. — One of the best 
 methods of training the powers of observation is by 
 writing descriptions of natural objects ; for the prep- 
 aration of a careful description will lead the describer 
 to see many features that otherwise would not be 
 observed. 
 
 The nature of the description will depend greatly 
 on the amount of experience the writer of it has had. 
 The young beginner of Nature study will be expected 
 to mention only the more general features of the 
 object described, while the more advanced student 
 should be able to point out its distinctive character- 
 istics. Thus in describing a butterfly the beginner 
 should note, among other things, that it has six legs, 
 four wings, a pair of horns (antennas), two large eyes, 
 a coiled tube for sucking, and that the wings are 
 clothed with a dustlike substance. But the more ad- 
 vanced student should not be expected to state any 
 of these facts, except by implication in the statement 
 
324 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 that the insect described is a butterfly, for the includ- 
 ing of characteristics that are true of all butterflies 
 would be unnecessary, and tend to obscure the im- 
 portance of the more distinctive features of the species 
 described. He should not attempt to say everything 
 possible about the insect, but should try to discover 
 and state in what respects the butterfly described 
 differs from other butterflies ; so that the reader of 
 his description can recognize with as little effort as 
 possible the particular species described. 
 
 No detailed rules for describing insects can be 
 easily given ; the peculiar characteristics will be 
 found in different organs in different cases. The 
 following are some of the features that should be 
 studied in search for distinguishing characteristics 
 when describing adult insects : — 
 
 1. The body as a whole. — The size of the insect; the general 
 color ; the color of the more prominent markings ; the relative pro- 
 portions of the head, thorax, and abdomen ; the clothing of the 
 body, as scales, hairs, and spines ; and any striking peculiarity of 
 the appendages of the body. 
 
 2. The head. — The relative size of the head ; the details of the 
 color markings of the head ; the size and shape of the compound 
 eyes ; variations in size of the ocelli in different parts of the com- 
 pound eyes ; the presence or absence of hairs either in or fringing 
 the compound eyes ; the number and position of the simple eyes ; 
 the insertion of the antennas ; the general form of the antennse ; the 
 clothing of the antennae ; the relative length of the different seg- 
 ments of the antennae ; the form of the labrum ; the shape of the 
 mandibles ; the structure of the maxillse and maxillary palpi ; and 
 the structure of the labium and labial palpi. 
 
 3. The thorax. — Peculiarities in the size and form of the thorax ; 
 the details of the markings of the thorax ; the structure and color- 
 ing of the wings ; the structure, clothing, and armature of the legs ; 
 and the position of the thoracic spiracles. 
 
ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 325 
 
 4. The abdomen. — The size and general form of the abdomen ; 
 the number of visible abdominal segments ; the details of the mark- 
 ings of the abdomen ; the number and structure of the caudal ap- 
 pendages ; and the number and position of the abdominal spiracles. 
 
 In preparing a description of a larva the follow- 
 ing features should be observed : — 
 
 The size and general form of the body ; the presence or absence 
 of legs and of prolegs ; the number and position of the prolegs when 
 present ; in footless larvae, the presence or absence of a distinct 
 head ; the general color of the skin, and the color and pattern of its 
 markings ; the nature of the clothing or armature of the body; the 
 colors of the clothing or armature ; in " naked " larvae, the arrange- 
 ment of the tubercles bearing minute hairs or more conspicuous 
 spines ; in hairy larvae, the arrangement of the hairs, whether scat- 
 tered evenly over the body or gathered in tufts ; if the hairs are 
 tufted, the arrangement of the tufts ; the number and position of 
 long pencils of hairs if present ; the number and position of the 
 spiracles. 
 
 In addition to the above, there are many features 
 characteristic of limited groups of insects which will 
 be learned by the student as he advances in the study 
 of such groups. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE BREEDING OF INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 287.- 
 
 -A home-made breeding 
 cage. 
 
 In the study of the life 
 histories of insects many 
 facts can be most easily and 
 surely determined by the 
 study of specimens in con- 
 finement. It is rarely prac- 
 ticable to watch the devel- 
 opment of an individual in- 
 sect in the field, but with 
 the aid of a breeding cage 
 this is easily done. The use 
 of breeding cages also ena- 
 bles the lover of Nature study to keep constantly at 
 hand where they can be seen daily, or even hourly, 
 examples of the life of the fields and ponds. 
 
 In collecting insects for study in confinement it 
 is necessary to note carefully the conditions under 
 which they naturally live, and then to imitate these 
 conditions as closely as possible. If the insects are 
 feeding on a plant, the kind of plant and the part in- 
 fested should be observed, so that the specimens 
 when confined may be given the proper food. If 
 they live in water, determine whether they will re- 
 
 326 
 
THE BREEDING OF INSECTS. 
 
 327 
 
 quire running water or can be kept in an ordinary 
 aquarium. And if they are predaceous, the nature 
 of their food should be ascertained, if possible, al- 
 though many predaceous insects can be fed on raw 
 meat. 
 
 Great care should be taken not to injure the 
 specimens when collecting them. Plant-eating spe- 
 cies can be carried in tight boxes, in which should be 
 placed a quantity of their food. Air holes in the 
 boxes are not necessary. It is more important that 
 the food be kept from wilting than that there should 
 be fresh air. If aquatic insects are to be collected, 
 large bottles with wide mouths or glass fruit-cans 
 will be convenient for transporting them. If the 
 bottles or cans be only partly filled with water they 
 may be closed tightly for the time occupied by an 
 ordinary field trip. 
 
 Breeding Cages. — Several styles of elaborate 
 and expensive breeding cages are in use by profes- 
 sional entomologists, but it seems hardly worth while 
 to describe them here, for equally good results can 
 be obtained with simple and inexpensive cages, which 
 can be made by any handy boy. 
 
 A good home-made cage can be built by fitting a 
 pane of glass into one side of an empty soap-box. A 
 board, three or four inches wide, should be fastened 
 below the glass so as to admit of a layer of soil being 
 placed in the lower part of the cage, and the glass 
 can be made to slide, so as to serve as a door (Fig. 
 287). The glass should fit closely when shut, to pre- 
 vent the escape of insects. 
 
 In rearing caterpillars and other leaf-eating larvae 
 branches of the food plant should be stuck into bot- 
 
328 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 ties or cans which are filled with sand saturated with 
 water. By keeping the sand wet the plants can be 
 kept fresh longer than in water alone, and the dan- 
 ger of the larvas being drowned is avoided by the 
 use of sand. 
 
 Many larvae when full-grown enter the ground to 
 pass the pupa state ; on this account a layer of loose 
 soil should be kept in the bottom of a breeding cage. 
 This soil should not be allowed to become dry, 
 neither should it be soaked with water. If the soil 
 is too dry the pupae will not mature, or if they do so 
 the wings will not expand fully ; if the soil is too 
 damp the pupae are liable to be drowned or to be 
 killed by mold. 
 
 It is often necessary to keep pupae over winter, 
 for a large proportion of insects pass the winter in 
 the pupa state. Hibernating pupse may be left in 
 the breeding cages or removed and packed in moss 
 in small boxes. Great care should be taken to keep 
 moist the soil in the breeding cages, or the moss if 
 that be used. The cages or boxes containing the 
 pupae should be stored in a cool cellar, or in an un- 
 heated room, or in a large box placed out of doors 
 where the sun can not strike it. Low temperature 
 is not so much to be feared as great and frequent 
 changes of temperature. 
 
 Hibernating pupae can be kept in a warm room if 
 care be taken to keep them moist, but under such 
 treatment the mature insects are apt to emerge in 
 midwinter. 
 
 An excellent breeding cage is represented by Fig. 
 288. It is made by combining a flower-pot and a 
 lantern-globe. When practicable, the food plant of 
 
,UJ /. .1 ' 
 • oiH baniJ-owT f?ri I 
 
 .- -- rAso \o 33 /r,^i sdj 
 
 i!93T^ A .s .^il aB ^ffiBg aril r 
 3§£dd£ /^"^' ,. :^;^..<- .» . .N -J ' ^_ 
 
 33C: ■ ■.\- '■:■:- J , l£.li!qT33£J-inr) i >-■''.] • _ J i ': 
 
 8dj asjsq 
 338 .j33io't-3dj-'lo--!BlIiq ■ 
 
 33^ 'iBiU-XivlJ -Jli i 
 
 ■ JIIV 3J£iq 
 
 L)3il tj.rn-3JijrlV/ -ddJ - 
 
Plate XVIII.— CATERPILLARS. 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 1. A cutworm, Nodtia clandestina. 
 
 2. The Two-lined Prominent, Seriodonta bilineata ; it feeds on 
 
 the leaves of oak, elm, and basswood. 
 
 3. The same as Fig. 2. A green variety. 
 
 4. The Zebra Caterpillar, Maniestra picta ; it feeds on cabbage 
 
 and other garden vegetables. 
 5; The Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar, Clisiocampa aniericana. See 
 page 168. 
 
 6. The Tent-caterpillar-of-the-forest, Clisiocampa dissb-ia. See 
 
 page 172. 
 
 7. The Well-marked Tussock-moth, A'otolophus definita. See 
 
 Plate VIII, Fig. 10, for the adult. 
 
 8. The White-marked Tussock-moth, Notolophus leticostig??ia. 
 
 See page 174 ; also Plate VIII, Fig. 9. 
 
Plate XVIII. 
 
THE BREEDING OF INSECTS. 
 
 the insects to be bred 
 is planted in the flow- 
 er-pot ; in other cases 
 a bottle or tin can 
 filled with wet sand is 
 sunk into the soil in 
 the flower - pot, and 
 the stems of the plant 
 are stuck into this wet 
 sand. The top of the 
 lantern-globe is cov- 
 ered with Swiss mus- 
 lin. These breeding 
 cages are inexpensive, and especially so when the 
 pots and globes are bought in considerable quanti- 
 ties. Fig. 290 represents a 
 modification of this style of 
 
 Fig. 288. 
 
 Fig. 285. 
 
 breeding 
 
 cage that is used 
 
 by the writer. It differs 
 only in that large glass cyl- 
 inders take the place of the 
 lantern-globes. These cylin- 
 ders were made especially 
 for us by a manufacturer of 
 glass, and cost from six dol- 
 lars to eight dollars per doz- 
 en, according to size, when 
 made in lots of fifty. 
 
 When the transforma- 
 tions of small insects or of a 
 small number of larger ones 
 are to be studied, a conven- 
 ient cage can be made by 
 
 Fig. 290. 
 
330 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 combining a large lamp-chimney with a small flower- 
 pot (Fig. 289). 
 
 Aquaria. — For the breeding of aquatic insects 
 aquaria are needed. As the ordinary rectangular 
 aquaria are expensive and are liable to leak, we use 
 glass vessels instead. 
 
 Small aquaria can be made of jelly-tumblers, glass 
 finger-bowls, and glass fruit-cans, and larger aquaria, 
 
 of the form shown in Fig. 
 291, can be obtained of some 
 dealers. A good substitute 
 for these is what is known 
 as a battery-jar. There are 
 several sizes of these, which 
 can be obtained of most deal- 
 ers in scientific apparatus. 
 
 To prepare an aquarium, 
 place in the jar a layer of 
 sand ; plant some water 
 plants in this sand, cover the 
 sand with a layer of gravel 
 or small stones, and then add 
 the required amount of wa- 
 ter carefully so as not to dis- 
 turb the plants or to roil the water unduly. The 
 growing plants will keep the water in good condi- 
 tion for aquatic animal life, and render changing of 
 the water unnecessary, if the animals in it live natu- 
 rally in quiet water. Among the more available 
 plants for use in aquaria are the following : — 
 Water weed, Elodea canadejisis, 
 Bladderwort, Utriailaria (several species). 
 Water-starwort, Callitriche (several species). 
 
 Fig. 291. 
 
THE BREEDING OF INSECTS. 
 
 331 
 
 Fig. 292. — Duckweed. 
 
 Watercress, Nasturtium officinale. 
 Stoneworts, Chara and Nitella (several species of 
 each). 
 
 Frog-spittle or water-silk, Spirogira. 
 A small quantity of duckweed, Lemna (Fig. 292), 
 placed on the surface of 
 the water adds to the 
 beauty of an aquarium. 
 When it is necessary 
 to add water to an aqua- 
 rium on account of loss 
 by evaporation, rain wa- 
 ter should be used to 
 prevent an undue ac- 
 cumulation of the mineral matter held in solution in 
 other water. 
 
 The Constant-level Siphon. — Certain insects 
 that live in rapidly flowing streams require a con- 
 stant change of water. Some of these are extremely 
 difficult to breed in confinement, but others can be 
 kept alive easily if placed in an aquarium 
 which is prepared as described above, 
 and through which there is a stream of 
 water constantly flowing. 
 
 The water can be admitted to the 
 aquarium from a faucet, and the surplus 
 water removed by a device which may 
 be called a constant-level siphon. This 
 
 Fig. 293.— Con- . . . t-. 
 
 stant- level IS represented in operation in rig. 291, 
 
 ^^^ *^"' and separate in Fig. 293. 
 
 The siphon can be made of small lead pipe. It 
 differs from an ordinary siphon in being bent up at 
 the outer end (the last bend shown in the figure is 
 
332 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 not essential ; it is the one preceding that which is 
 referred to here) and in having the inner arm (the 
 
 Fig. 294. — Section of a root cage. 
 
 one within the aquarium) longer than the outer arm. 
 These two peculiarities prevent the emptying of the 
 
THE BREEDING OF INSECTS. 
 
 333 
 
 siphon, as air can not enter at either end. If the 
 bore of the siphon is considerably larger than the 
 stream of water flowing into the aquarium, the water 
 in the aquarium will be kept at a constant level, 
 which will be that of the outer end of the siphon. 
 
 To prevent the escape of the insects through the 
 siphon, a cylinder of fine wire gauze, closed at each 
 end with a disk of cork, is fitted over the inner end 
 of the siphon (Fig. 293). 
 
 The Root Cage. — For the study of insects that 
 infest the roots of plants, the writer has devised a 
 special form of breeding cage known as the root 
 cage. In its simplest form this cage consists of a 
 
 Fig. 295. — A root cage. 
 
 frame holding two plates of glass in a vertical posi- 
 tion and only a short distance apart. The space be- 
 tween the plates of glass is filled with soil in which 
 
i34 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 seeds are planted or small plants set. The width of 
 the space between the plates of glass depends on the 
 width of two strips of wood placed between them, 
 
 one at each end, and should 
 be only wide enough to allow 
 the insects under observation 
 to move freely through the 
 soil. If it is too wide the in- 
 sects will be able to conceal 
 themselves. Immediately 
 
 outside of each glass there is 
 a piece of blackened zinc, 
 which slips into grooves in 
 the ends of the cage, and 
 which can be easily removed 
 when it is desired to observe 
 the insects in the soil. Fig. 
 294 represents a small section 
 of such a cage with the zinc 
 removed. 
 
 In a more expensive form 
 of the cage, which is used in 
 the Insectary of Cornell Uni- 
 versity (Fig. 295), there is 
 only one plate of glass next 
 to the soil, the place of the 
 other plate of glass being oc- 
 cupied by a porous tile, be- 
 tween which and an outer 
 plate of glass is packed a lay- 
 er of moss. By wetting the moss sufficient moisture 
 passes through the porous tile to keep the soil in 
 good condition for the growth of the plants in the 
 
 Fig. 296. 
 
 -A sectional view of a 
 root cage. 
 
THE BREEDING OF INSECTS. 
 
 335 
 
 soil without unduly wetting the soil. A cross sec- 
 tion of this cage is represented by Fig. 296 ; the parts 
 are as follows : — a, plate of glass forming the back 
 of the cage ; b, space filled with moss ; c, porous tile ; 
 d, thin space filled with soil in which seed is sown 
 and the insects to be watched are placed ; e, plate of 
 glass forming the front of the cage ; /, a sheet of 
 zinc for darkening the cage — this is removed when 
 observations are to be made ; g g, sections of the 
 wooden frame of the cage. 
 
 FIREFLIES.* 
 
 As o'er the face of Evening fair 
 
 A shade of twilight came, 
 Lost sunbeams, tangled in her hair. 
 
 Fell into drops of flame. 
 
 Charles Henry Liiders. 
 
 * From The Dead Nymph and other Poems, by permission of Charles 
 
 Scribner's Sons. 
 
 23 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LISTS. 
 
 I. BOOKS ON INSECTS. 
 
 The literature of entomology is very extensive. 
 Hundreds of books on insects have been printed, and 
 more than twent3^-five journals devoted exclusively 
 to this subject are now published. In addition to 
 this, most of the zoological journals contain articles 
 on insects. 
 
 Nevertheless there is still a lack of the kind of 
 books usually sought for by beginners in this study. 
 There are a few good general text-books on the sub- 
 ject, and a larger number of excellent popular works 
 on the habits of insects, but there does not exist to- 
 day a fairly complete treatise on the American spe- 
 cies of any order of insects. The fact is, the science 
 of entomology is still in its infancy, and a great field 
 is open for the earnest worker. 
 
 In the following list there are enumerated those 
 works that are most useful to beginning students. 
 More advanced students should consult The Zoolog- 
 ical Record in order to ascertain the titles and places 
 of publication of more special treatises. * 
 
 * The Zoological Record is published annually by the Zoological 
 Society of London. Each volume gives a complete list of the works and 
 
 336 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LISTS. 
 
 337 
 
 GENERAL TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 CoMSTOCK, J. H. and A. B.— A Manual for the 
 Study of Insects. Comstock Publishing Company, 
 Ithaca, N. Y., 1895. Price, $3.75 net; postage, 34 
 cents. 
 
 This work contains a series of analytical tables by means of 
 which the family to which any North American insect belongs can 
 be determined. Under the head of each family the characteristics 
 of the family, both as regards structure and habits, are given, and 
 the more common species are described. It is profusely illustrated. 
 
 Hyatt, Alpheus, and Arms, J. M.— Guides for 
 Science Teaching. No. III. Insecta. D. C. Heath 
 & Co., Boston, 1890. Price, $1.25. 
 
 A very useful work for teachers. 
 
 Packard, A. S.— Guide to the Study of Insects. 
 Henry Holt & Co., New York. Price, $5. (First 
 edition, Salem, 1869.) 
 
 Packard, A. S. — Entomology for Beginners. 
 Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888. Price, $1.40. 
 
 The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. V. — 
 Peripatus, by A. Sedgwick ; Myriapods, by F. G. 
 Sinclair ; Insects, Part I, by David Sharp. Mac- 
 millan & Co., London and New York, 1895. Price, 
 
 This, in many respects, is the best text-book on entomology yet 
 published. The beginning student who wishes to study North 
 American insects will find Comstock's Manual better suited to his 
 needs, but this volume of The Cambridge Natural History should 
 
 publications relating to zoology in all its branches that have appeared 
 during the year preceding the date of the volume. The first volunae was 
 for the year 1864. 
 
338 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 be in the library of every advanced student of entomology. Part II 
 of this work, which will treat of the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Dip- 
 tera, and Coleoptera, has not yet (1896) appeared. It is to consti- 
 tute Vol. VI of the series. 
 
 The Standard Natural History.— The title 
 of this work has been changed to The Riverside 
 Natural History. 
 
 The Riverside Natural History.-— Edited by 
 John Sterling Kingsley. Six volumes, royal 8vo. 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York. 
 Price, $30, $36, or $42, depending on the binding. 
 
 Vol. II of this work treats of the Crustacea and insects. Unfor- 
 tunately, it can not be purchased separately, and the entire work is 
 too expensive for most students. It is, however, an excellent work 
 of reference for a school library. 
 
 Harris, T. W. — Insects Injurious to Vegetation. 
 (Flint edition.) Orange Judd Company, Ne\y York. 
 Price, plain plates, $4; colored plates, $6.50. 
 
 Although this is an old work and consequently somewhat out of 
 date as regards classification, it is one of the best books on insects 
 ever written ; it doubtless has done more to stimulate an interest in 
 the study of insects than any other American work. It is magnifi- 
 cently illustrated. 
 
 Smith, John B. — Economic Entomology. J. B. 
 Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1896. Price, $2.50. 
 
 This is a very useful text-book intended especially for students 
 in agricultural colleges. 
 
 Saunders, William. — Insects Injurious to Fruits. 
 J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1883. Price, $2. 
 
 This is a very useful work. The insects discussed are classified 
 according to the plants they infest. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LISTS. 
 
 339 
 
 Weed, Clarence M.— Insects and Insectides. 
 Orange Judd Company, New York. Revised edi- 
 tion, 1895. Price, $1.50. 
 
 Riley, C. V. — Directions for Collecting and Pre- 
 serving Insects. Smithsonian Institution, Washing- 
 ton, D. C, 1892. Price, 25 cents. 
 
 This is a very complete treatise on the subject named. It also 
 contains a much larger list of writings on insects than that given 
 here. 
 
 MORE SPECIAL WORKS. 
 
 SCUDDER, S. H. — Brief Guide to the Commoner 
 Butterflies of the Northern United States and Can- 
 ada. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1893. Price, 
 $1.25. 
 
 French, G. H. — The Butterflies of the Eastern 
 United States. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 
 1886. Price, $2. 
 
 Le Conte and Horn. — Classification of the Cole- 
 optera of North America. Secretary of the Ameri- 
 can Entomological Society, Philadelphia. Price, $2.50. 
 
 Williston, S. W. — Manual of North American 
 JDiptera. Second edition, 1896. James T. Hatha- 
 way, New Haven, Conn. Price, $2.25. 
 
 Cresson, E. T. — Synopsis of the Families and 
 Genera of the Hymenoptera of America North of 
 Mexico. Secretary of the American Entomological 
 Society, Philadelphia. Price, $3. 
 
 MuRRY, Andrew. — Economic Entomology: Ap- 
 tera. Chapman & Hall, 193 Piccadilly, London. Out 
 of print. To be obtained of dealers in second-hand 
 books. 
 
 This work is especially valuable for its discussion of mites. 
 
340 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 MiALL, L. C. — The Natural History of Aquatic 
 Insects. Macmillan & Co., London and New York, 
 1895. Price, $1.75. 
 
 Banks, Nathan.— A Synopsis, Catalogue, and 
 Bibliography of the Neuropteroid Insects of Tem- 
 perate North America. (From the Transactions of 
 the American Entomological Society, Vol. XIX.) 
 Secretary of the American Entomological Society, 
 Philadelphia. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 Calvert, Philip P.— Catalogue of the Odonata 
 (Dragon-flies) of the Vicinity of Philadelphia, with 
 an introduction to the study of this group of insects. 
 (From the Transactions of the American Entomolog- 
 ical Society, Vol. XX.) Secretary of the American 
 Entomological Society, Philadelphia. Price, $1. 
 
 ON THE HABITS OF INSECTS. 
 
 KiRBY and Spence. — An Introduction to Ento- 
 mology. Seventh edition. One volume, which is a 
 reprint of Vols. I and II of earlier editions. London, 
 1856. 
 
 This work is out of print, and can be obtained only of dealers in 
 second-hand books. But it is to be found in most of the larger 
 public libraries. 
 
 There are many other excellent works on the 
 habits of insects, but they can not be enumerated here 
 for lack of space. 
 
 n. DEALERS IN ENTOMOLOGICAL SUPPLIES. 
 
 Charles C. Riedy, 432 Montgomery Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. 
 
DEALERS IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 341 
 
 A. Smith & Sons, 269 Pearl Street, New York, N. Y. 
 John Akhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 M. i\bbott Frazar, 93 Sudbury Street, Boston, Mass. 
 Entomological Society of Ontario, Victoria Hall, 
 
 London, Ontario. 
 Queen & Go., loio Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, 515-543 N. 
 
 St. Paul Street, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 III. DEALERS IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, New York 
 
 city and Rochester, N. Y. 
 Eimer & Amend, 205-211 Third Avenue, New York 
 
 city. 
 The Franklin Educational Company, Harcourt 
 
 Street, Boston, Mass. 
 J. Grunow, 70 W. Thirty-ninth Street, New York. 
 The Gundlach Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y. 
 William Krafft, 411 W. Fifty-ninth Street, New 
 
 York. 
 The Mcintosh Battery and Optical Company, 521-531 
 
 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, 111. 
 Queen & Co., loio Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Richards & Co., 30 E. Eighteenth Street, New York, 
 
 108 Lake Street, Chicago, 111. 
 Edward Pennock, 3609 Woodland Avenue, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa. 
 Spencer Lens Company, 546 Main Street, Buffalo, 
 
 N. Y. 
 Walmsley, Fuller & Co., 134-136 Wabash Avenue, 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
342 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Williams, Brown & Earle, Tenth and Chestnut 
 Streets, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 G. S. Woolman, ii6 Fulton Street, New York. 
 
 J. Zentmayer, 209 S. Eleventh Street, Philadelphia, 
 Pa. 
 
 Charles C. Riedj, 432 Montgomery Street, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. 
 
 
 \|':^^:. .■■:-. J 
 
 i- 
 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abdomen, 19. 
 Acrididas, 72. 
 Adult, 40. 
 
 Agalena nsevia, 224. 
 Agamic, 177. 
 Aglais milberti, 252. 
 Alder-blight, 163. 
 Ambush-bug, 274. 
 American tortoise-shell, 252. 
 Andrena, 269. 
 Andriconia, 247. 
 Angle-wings, 250. 
 Anisota oak- worms, 199. 
 Anosia plexippus, 249. 
 -Antennas, 12. 
 Ant-lions, 77. 
 Ant-nest, 27S. 
 Ants, 85, 178, 275. 
 Aphididae, 163. 
 Aphids, 75, 163, 175. 
 Aphis-lions, 77, 78, 178, 179. 
 Apple-tree tent-caterpillar, 168. 
 Aquaria, 330. 
 Arachnida, 53, 55. 
 Arctiidse, 239. 
 Arthropoda, 52. 
 Automeris io, 189. 
 
 Back-swimmers, 123, 128. 
 Bag-worm, 204. 
 Ballooning spiders, 226. 
 Basilarchia archippus, 249. 
 Basilona imperialis, 197. 
 Bees, 85, 254. 
 Beetles, 41, 85. 
 Belostoma, 130. 
 Bent-necked vials, 313. 
 Bird-lice, 69. 
 Bittacus, 79. 
 Black-flies, 156. 
 Black swallow-tail, 243. 
 Blank forms for labels, 319. 
 Blattidse, 71. 
 Blepharoceridae, 159. 
 Blister-beetles, 273. 
 Block system of arranging collec- 
 tions, 311. 
 Blues, 247. 
 Book-lice, 68. 
 Books on insects, 336. 
 Boreus, 79. 
 Breathing holes, 19. 
 Breeding cages, 327. 
 Breeding of insects, 326. 
 Bristletails, 63. 
 
 343 
 
344 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Broad-shouldered water-striders, 
 
 109. 
 Brownie-bugs, 219. 
 Bugs, 75. 
 Bumblebees, 256. 
 Butterflies, So, 82, 239. 
 
 Caddice-flies, 79, 151. 
 Caddice-worms, 79, 148, 151. 
 Callosamia promethea, 193. 
 Calocalpa undulata, 200. 
 Cases, 306. 
 Caterpillars, 239. 
 Cattle-tick, 57. 
 Ceanothus silkworm, 196. 
 Cecidomyiidae, 162. 
 Cecropia-moth, 195. 
 Cells of the wings, 17. 
 Centipede, 57. 
 Cephalothorax, 55. 
 Cerambycidge, 215. 
 Chauliodes, 156. 
 Chauliognathus, 273. 
 Chrysopidae, 179. 
 Cicada-killer, 270. 
 Cicadas, 218. 
 Cicada septendecim, 218. 
 Cicada tibicen, 21S. 
 Cigar-boxes, 306. 
 Citheroniidae, 197. 
 Citheronia regalis, 199. 
 Clematis, 30. 
 Clifif-dwellers, 267. 
 Clips for slides, 314. 
 Clisiocampa americana, 172. 
 Clisiocampa californica, 172. 
 Clisiocampa constricta, 172. 
 Clisiocampa disstria, 172. 
 Cobweb-weavers, 227. 
 Coccidse, 277. 
 Coccinellidae, 180. 
 
 Cockroaches, 70, 71. 
 Cocoon, 40. 
 Codlin-moth, 180. 
 Coleoptera, 41, 43, 85. 
 Collecting apparatus, 284. 
 Collecting boxes, 287. 
 Collecting butterflies, 45. 
 Collecting moths, 50. 
 College insect case, 310. 
 Colorado potato-beetle, 44. 
 Complete metamorphosis, 35, 38. 
 Compound eyes, 12. 
 Compton-tortoise, 253. 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar, 184. 
 Coppers, 246. 
 Corisidae, 140. 
 Corrodentia, 68. 
 Coiydalis, 78. 
 Corydalis cornuta, 155. 
 Cosmopolitan butterfly, 251. 
 Coxa, 15, 
 Crabs, 54. 
 Crab-spiders, 230. 
 Crayfishes, 53. 
 Crescent-spots, 249. 
 Crickets, 70, 74, 233, 237. 
 Crustacea, 53. 
 Culicidae, 136. 
 Curculionidas, 184. 
 Curculios, 184. 
 Cyanide bottle, 286. 
 Cyclops, 54. 
 Cycnia egle, 241. 
 Cyllene robinias, 273. 
 Cynipidae, 212, 214. 
 Cypris, 54. 
 
 Damsel-flies, 65, 89, 93, 
 Daphnia, 54. 
 Darning-needles, 89. 
 Datana ministra, 173. 
 
 140. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 Dealers in entomological supplies, 
 
 340. 
 Dealers in optical instruments, 341. 
 Descriptions of insects, 323. 
 Digger-wasp, 86, 260. 
 Diptera, 83. 
 Dobson, 77, 153. 
 Dog-day-harvest-fly, 218. 
 Dog-fleas, 84. 
 Dolomedes, 229. 
 Dragon-flies, 65, 89, 93. 
 Drosophila, 185, 
 Dytiscidse, 116. 
 
 Ears, 19. 
 Earwigs, 69. 
 Elytra, 43. 
 
 Engraver-beetles, 216. 
 Ensign-fly, 86. 
 Epargyreus tityrus, 202. 
 Ephemerida, 64. 
 Estigmene acraea, 240. 
 Eugonia j-album, 253. 
 Eumenes fraternus, 259. 
 Eumenidae, 258. 
 Euplexoptera, 69. 
 Eurypelma hentzii, 231. 
 Euvanessa antiopa, 252. 
 Eyes, 12. 
 Eyprepia, 241. 
 
 Fall web-worm, 200. 
 
 Femur, 15. 
 
 Fireflies, 335. 
 
 Fish-moths, 63. 
 
 Fleas, 84. 
 
 Flies, 83. 
 
 Folded papers for butterflies, 287, 
 
 Forceps, 299. 
 
 Forest life, 186. 
 
 Four-footed butterflies, 247. 
 
 Fritillaries, 250. 
 Funnel-web weavers, 222. 
 
 Galgulidge, 160. 
 
 Gall-gnats, 162. , 
 
 Gall-insects, 210. 
 
 Galls, 210. 
 
 Gelechia gallaesolidaginis, 274. 
 
 Giant silkworm, 187. 
 
 Giant water-bugs, 130. 
 
 Gills, 54. 
 
 Goldenrod, 272. 
 
 Goldenrod-galls, 274. 
 
 Gossamer-winged butterflies, 164, 
 
 246. 
 Grandfather graybeards, 56, 232. 
 Grasshoppers, 70, 233. 
 Grass-spider, 224. 
 Grouse-locusts, 164. 
 Gryllidse, 74. 
 Gyrinidse, 114. 
 
 Hair-streaks, 247. 
 
 Halictus, 267. 
 
 Harlequin milkweed-caterpillar, 
 
 241. 
 Harvestmen, 56, 232. 
 Head, 12. 
 Hemiptera, 75. 
 Heteroptera, 76. 
 Hexapoda, 53, 58. 
 Hollyhock, 257. 
 Homoptera, 77. 
 Honey-bee, 255. 
 Honey-dew, 177. 
 Horned corydalis, 153. 
 Hydrobatidai, 109. 
 Hymenopters, 85. 
 Hyphantria cunea, 200. 
 Hypopharynx, 14. 
 
34^ 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Ichneumon-fly, 86. 
 
 Ichneumonidse, 217. 
 
 Ichthyura, 201. 
 
 Imago, 40. 
 
 Imperial-moth, 197. 
 
 Incomplete metamorphosis, 35, 37. 
 
 Inflating larvoe, 301. 
 
 Insects, 58. 
 
 lo-moth, 189. 
 
 Iphiclides ajax, 244. 
 
 Iron frame for mold for cases, 312. 
 
 Isabella tiger-moth, 240. 
 
 Isoptera, 67. 
 
 Jasoniades glaucus, 243. 
 Jumping spiders, 22g. 
 
 Katydids, 73, 239. 
 Killing bottles, 285. 
 
 Labeling specimens, 315. 
 
 Labial palpi, 14. 
 
 Labium, 14. 
 
 Labrum, 13. 
 
 Lace-winged flies, 179. 
 
 Lady-bugs, 179, 180. 
 
 Lampyridae, 273. 
 
 Larva, 40, 
 
 Lasiocampidse, 171. 
 
 Leaf-eating caterpillars, 172, 187. 
 
 Leaf-cutter bees, 265. 
 
 Leaf-miners, 208. 
 
 Leaf-rollers, 206. 
 
 Lepidoptera, 80. 
 
 Lice, 75, 76. 
 
 Lights, 293. 
 
 Lobsters, 53. 
 
 Locust-borer, 273. 
 
 Locustidoe, 72. 
 
 Locusts, 72, 233, 236. 
 
 Long-horned beetles, 215. 
 
 Long-horned grasshoppers, 73. 
 Luna-moth, 192. 
 Lycaenidae, 164, 246. 
 Lycosa, 229. 
 
 Mallophaga,T69. 
 Mandibles, 13. 
 Mantidae, 71. 
 Maxillae, 13. 
 Maxillary palpi, 14. 
 May-flies, 64, 99, loi, 148. 
 Meadow-browns, 253. 
 Meadow grasshoppers, 73. 
 Measuring- worms, 174. 
 Mecoptera, 78. 
 Megachile, 265. 
 Megachile acuta, 265. 
 Meloidae, 273. 
 Membracidae, 220, 277. 
 Mesothorax, 18. 
 Metathorax, 18. 
 Microscopic objects, 300. 
 Millers, 80. 
 Millipede, 57. 
 Miners of the plains, 268. 
 Mining-bees, 269. 
 Mining digger-wasps, 269. 
 Misumena vatia, 230. 
 Mites, 56. 
 
 Mocha-stone moth, 201. 
 Mold, 314. 
 Molting, 36. 
 Monarch, 249. 
 Monobia quadridens, 265. 
 Monohamus confusor, 215. 
 Mossy-rose-gall, 212. 
 Mosquitoes, 132. 
 Moths, 80, 81, 239, 242. 
 Mourning-cloak, 252. 
 Mouth-parts, 13. 
 Muscidae, 185. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 Museum pests, 314. 
 Myriapoda, 53, 57. 
 
 Nepa, 128. 
 
 Nest-building caterpillars, 200. 
 
 Net-building caddice-worms, 151. 
 
 Net-winged midges, 158. 
 
 Nets, 285. 
 
 Neuroptera, 77. 
 
 Nodus, 97. 
 
 Note-books, 320. 
 
 Notolophus leucostigma, 174. 
 
 Notonectidae, 128. 
 
 Nymphalidas, 247. 
 
 Nymphs, 35. 
 
 Oak-apples, 210. 
 Oberea bimaculata, 215. 
 Ocelli, 13. 
 Odonata, 65, 
 
 GEdemasia concinna, 173. 
 Orb-weavers, 224. 
 Orchard life, 166. 
 Orthoptera, 70. 
 Oven, 302. 
 Ovipositor, 20. 
 
 Painted beauty, 251. 
 Palpus, 14. 
 Panorpa, 78. 
 Papilio polyxenes, 243. 
 Parasita, 76. 
 Periodical cicada, 218. 
 Phasmidae, 71. 
 Phymata wolffii, 274. 
 Phymatidae, 274. 
 Physopoda, 74. 
 Pieridse, 245. 
 Pieris rapae, 245. 
 Pine-cone willow-gall, 160. 
 Pinning forceps, 299. 
 
 Pins, 295. 
 Pita-wood, 310. 
 Plaginotus speciosus, 215. 
 Plant-lice, 163, 175. 
 Plecoptera, 66, 147. 
 Pliers, 299. 
 Plum-curculio, 182. 
 Poison ivy, 29. 
 Polistes, 259. 
 Polyphemus-moth, 190. 
 Polystoechotes punctatus, 78. 
 Pomace-flies, 184. 
 Praying mantes, 71. 
 Predaceous diving-beetles, 116. 
 Preservation of specimens, 294. 
 Preservative fluids, 300. 
 Prionus laticollis, 215. 
 Promethea-moth, 193. 
 Prothorax, 18. 
 Psephenus, 153. 
 Psocids, 68. 
 Psychidae, 204. 
 Pupa, 40. 
 Puparium, 185. 
 Pyrrharctia Isabella, 240. 
 
 Ranatra, 128. 
 Red admii-al, 251. 
 Red-humped apple-worm, 173. 
 Regal-moth, 199. 
 Relaxing insects, 305. 
 Rhagium lineatum, 215. 
 Roadside life, 221. 
 Root cage, 333. 
 Royal-moths, 197. 
 Running spiders, 228. 
 
 Saldidae, 160. 
 
 Salt-marsh caterpillar, 240. 
 Samia californica, 196. 
 Samia cecropla, 195. 
 
348 
 
 INSECT LIFE. 
 
 Saturniidae, i8g. 
 
 Scales, 4g. 
 
 Scallop-shell moth, 200. 
 
 Scolytidse, 216. 
 
 Scorpion-flies, 78. 
 
 Scorpions, 56. 
 
 Sex, indication of, 321. 
 
 Sheep-tick, 57. 
 
 Shore-bugs, 159. 
 
 Short-horned grasshoppers, 72. 
 
 Shrimps, 53. 
 
 Sialidae, 155. 
 
 Sialis, 156. 
 
 Silver-spotted skipper, 202. 
 
 Simple eyes, 12. 
 
 Simuliidse, 158. 
 
 Siphon, constant-level, 331. 
 
 Siphonaptera, 84. 
 
 Siricidae, 217. 
 
 Skippers, 80, 81. 
 
 Smaller leaf - eating caterpillars, 
 
 205. 
 
 Social wasps, 259. 
 
 Soldier-beetles, 273. 
 
 Solidago, 272. 
 
 Solitary wasps, 258. 
 
 Songs of insects, 235. 
 
 Sow-bug, 54. 
 
 Spiders, 222. 
 
 Spiracles, 19. 
 
 Spreading board, 304. 
 
 Spreading insects, 303. 
 
 Spreading pin, 304. 
 
 Springtails, 63. 
 
 Stone-flies, 66, 102, 103, 146. 
 
 Stink-bugs, 76. 
 
 Subimago, 100. 
 
 Sugaring, 292. 
 
 Sumach, 261, 
 
 Supplies for pupils, 24. 
 
 Supplies for the school, 25. 
 
 Surface film of water, 104. 
 Swallow-tail butterflies, 242. 
 
 Tarantulas, 230. 
 Tarsal claws, 16. 
 Tarsus, 16. 
 
 Telea polyphemus, 190. 
 Termites, 67. 
 Thorax, 17. 
 
 Thread-waisted wasps, 261. 
 Thrips, 74. 
 Thysanura, 63. 
 Tibia, 16. 
 Tiger-beetles, 270. 
 Tiger-moths, 239. 
 Tiger swallow-tail, 243. 
 Toad-shaped bugs, 160. 
 Tortricids, 182, 207. 
 Tortricina, 182, 207. 
 Tracheal gills, 54, 141. 
 Trap-door spiders, 230. 
 Tree-hoppers, 219. 
 Trichoptera, 79, 151. 
 Trochanter, 15. 
 Tropsea luna, 192. 
 True grasshoppers, 73. 
 Trypeta solidaginis, 274. 
 Trypoxylon frigidum, 262. 
 
 Vanessa atalanta, 251. 
 Vanessa cardui, 251. 
 Vanessa huntera, 251. 
 Veins of the wings, 16. 
 Veliidae, 109. 
 Vespa, 260. 
 Vespidae, 260. 
 Viceroy, 249. 
 Virginia creeper, 29. 
 
 Wanderer, 163. 
 Walking sticks, 72. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 Wasps, 85, 258. 
 Water-boatmen, 136. 
 Water-pennies, 153. 
 Water-scavenger beetles, 120. 
 Water-scorpions, 128. 
 Water-striders, 106, 109. 
 Water-tigers, 119. 
 Weevils, 184. 
 White-ants, 67. 
 
 White-marked tussock-moth, 174. 
 Whites, 245. 
 
 Whirligig-beetles, ill. 
 " Wiggiers," 131. 
 Wrigglers, 131. 
 
 Yellow-bear, 240. 
 
 Yellow -necked apple - tree - worm, 
 
 173- 
 Yellows, 245, 246. 
 
 Zaitha, 130. 
 
 Zebra swallow-tail, 244. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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