$ r r APPENDIX TO Bennetts Latin Grammar FOR TEACHERS AND ADVANCED STUDENTS BY CHARLES E. BENNETT^ PROFESSOR QF LATIN IN' GORNELL UNIVERSITY ■ wV j Oks S A. - •* • f". ■ .A ' 4 V Cv»*v - -.A 1 "•* Li.iV* Boston ALLYN AND BACON 1895 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY 4 < / 0 131123 Copyright, 1895, By CHARLES E. BENNETT. Nortoooti 13rfS3 J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith Norwood Mass U.S.A. PREFACE. My purpose in the following pages has been to give such suggestions concerning the sounds, inflections, and syntax of the Latin language, as experience has shown are likely to prove of service to teachers and advanced students. In the former part of the work I have drawn freely upon the standard manuals of Seel- mann, Brugmann, Stolz, and Lindsay; in the syntax I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness not only to Delbruck’s recently published Vergleichende Syntax , but especially, for the moods, to the syntactical studies of Professor W. G. Hale, of the University of Chicago. In marking the quantities of hidden vowels, I have deviated from the principle followed in my Lathi Grammar , and have departed from Lewis’s Dictionaries in those cases where the evidence seemed to demand this. For the kind criticism of friends who have read my manuscript and have followed the book througji the press, I desire here to extend my thanks, especially to Professors H. C. Elmer and George P. Bristol of Cornell University, Professors George Hempl, Francis W. Kelsey, and John C. Rolfe, of the University of Michigan, and Professor Alfred Gudeman, of the University of Pennsylvania. The chapter on Relative Clauses is the work of Professor Elmer. C. E. B. Ithaca, July 18, 1895. in TABLE OF CONTENTS j CHAPTER I. THE ALPHABET. PAGE Origin of the Latin Alphabet . - . . . . . . . .1 Changes in the Form of the Letters.I Later Additions to the Alphabet.2 New Characters proposed by Claudius. . . . . . . .2 Sources of Information . CHAPTER II. PRONUNCIATION. 0 4 The Vowels Cl 6 a . . • 6 e <■ 6 i 0 a 7 1 for u 7 0 8 u 8 y 8 The Diphthongs 8 ae 8 oe 9 au 10 eu 10 ui 10 The Consonants. The Semivowels 11 1 11 V 12 The Liquids l 7 l 17 r 18 v vi Table of Contents. PAGE The Nasals . . . . . . . . . .18 m . . . . . . . . . . .18 n ........... 19 n-adulter mum . . . . . . . . 19 nf ns . . . . . . . . . -19 gn . . . . . . . . . .21 The Spirants . . . . . . . . . .21 /. 21 s .22 h . . . . . ' . . . . . .22 The Mutes .......... 23 The Voiceless Mutes ........ 23 t .23 ^.23 k > q .25 P . 2 5 The Voiced Mutes ........ 25 b . 2 5 d .25 g . 26 Distinction between Guttural and Palatal . . . .26 The Aspirates, ph, ch , th . . . . . .26 Development of ph to f . . . . . .28 The Double Consonants.29 x ........... 29 2.29 Doubled Consonants ......... 30 Division of Words into Syllables ........ 30 CHAPTER III. HIDDEN QUANTITY. Methods of Determining Hidden Quantity ...... 34 General Principles of Hidden Quantity ....... 38 Vowels before ns , nf ......... 38 Vowels before gn, gm ......... 38 Vowels before tit, nd ......... 40 Pontem, Fontem , Afontem, Frontem, Frondem . . . . . 41 Hidden Quantity in Declension ....... 44 Superlatives ........... 46 Numerals ............ 47 Pronouns ............ 47 Table of Contents. vii PAGE Conjugation ........... 47 Root Forms ........... 47 Verbal Endings .......... 50 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . 51 Inchoatives . . . . . . . . . . 51 .Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . 51 Word Formation .......... 52 List of Chief Words containing a Long Vowel before Two Consonants . 52 List of Disputed Words ......... 62 CHAPTER IV. ACCENT. Accent Defined ........... 69 Character of the Latin Accent ........ 69 Changes in the Latin Accent ........ 70 Special Peculiarities . . . . . . . . . . 71 CHAPTER V. ORTHOGRAPHY. Standard of Spelling .......... 73 Quom, volt, voInns, etc. . . . . . . . . -74 Assimilation of the Final Consonant of Prepositions in Compounds . 75 Compounds of jacio .......... 78 List of Words of Doubtful or Varied Spelling . . . . -79 CHAPTER VI. THE LATIN SOUNDS. The Vowels ............ 85 Ablaut ............ 85 Ablaut-Series .......... 86 2 -Series ........... 86 2 -Series ........... 87 ^-Series ........... 88 2 -Series ........... 88 ^-Series ........... 88 2 -Series ........... 88 Vowel Changes . ... . . . . . . .89 Shortening of Long Diphthongs ...... 92 Re-composition and De-composition ..... 93 Shortening of Long Vowels ....... 94 Compensatory Lengthening ....... 94 Vlll Table of Contents. PAGE Assimilation of Vowels ........ 95 Parasitic Vowels ......... 95 Syncope .......... 95 Apocope .......... 95 The Consonants ........... 96 The Mutes ........... 96 The Gutturals and Palatals ....... 96 The Dentals .......... 97 The Labials .......... 97 The Indo-European Aspirates in Latin ...... 98 bh ........... 98 dh ........... 98 gh . 99 The Spirants .......... 99 The Liquids .......... 100 As Consonants ......... 100 As Sonants .......... 101 The Nasals ........... 102 As Consonants ......... 102 As-Sonants .......... 102 The Semivowels, j, v . . . . . . . . . 102 Consonant Changes ......... 103 Initial Combinations ........ 103 In the Interior of Words ....... 104 Assimilation .......... 105 Partial Assimilation . . . . . . . 1 j6 Metathesis .......... 107 Other Changes ......... 107 At the End of Words ........ 108 Disappearance of Syllables by Dissimilation .... 109 CHAPTER VII. INFLECTIONS. Declension of Nouns and Adjectives . . . . . . .110 . 4 -Stems . . . . . . . . . . .110 0 -Stems . . . . . . . . . . .114 Consonant Stems . . . . . . . . . .117 Stem Formation of Consonant Stems . . . . . .119 /-Stems . . . . . . . . . . .120 Consonant Stems that have Partially adapted themselves to Lstems 122 £/-Stems . . . . . . . . . . .123 Table of Contents. IX # PAGE /- and ^ 7 -Stems . . . . . . . . . .124 ii-Stems . . . . . . . . . . -125 Stems ending in a Diphthong . . . . . . .126 Formation of the Comparative and Superlative . . . . .127 Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . .128 Cardinals . . . . . . . . . . .128 Ordinals . . . . . . . . . . *130 Distributives .......... 131 Multiplicatives . . . . . . . . . • I 3 I Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . .132 First Person . . . . . . . . . .132 Second Person . . . . . . . . . .132 The Reflexive . . . . . . . . . 133 Possessives . . . . . . . . . . 133 Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . 134 Hie . . . . . . . . . . *134 Is . 135 Iste, Ille, Ipse . . . . . . . . .136 The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns . 137 Pronominal Adjectives . . . . . . . -138 Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . .138 Introductory . . . . . . . . . -138 Formation of Present Stem . . . . . . . . 139 Unthematic Presents ........ 140 Thematic Presents ........ 141 Root-Class . . . . . . . ■ . . 141 Reduplicating Class . . . . . . .141 T-Class .......... 142 N-Class . . . . . . . . . . 142 NO-Class ......... 142 SCO-Class ......... 143 JO-Class ......... 143 Tense Formation in the Indicative ...... 144 The Imperfect ......... 144 The Future .......... 144 The Perfect .......... 145 Reduplication ........ 145 Stem Formation . . . . . . . .146 The Primitive Perfect . . . . . .146 Perfect in -si . . . . . . . . 146 Perfect in -7 n ........ 147 Perfect in -m ........ 147 X Table of Contents. PAGE Inflection of the Perfect ...... 147 The Pluperfect . . . . . . . . .149 The Future Perfect ........ 149 The Optative . . . . . . . . . .149 Present . . . . . . . . . .150 Aorist . . . . . . . . . . .150 The Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . • I 5 I yf-Subjunctives . . . . . . . . • I 5 I A - -Subjunctives . . . . . . . . 15 1 The Imperative . . . . . . . . . *152 Active . . . . . . . . . . .152 Passive . . . . . . . . . .152 The Personal Endings . . . . . . . . .153 Active . . . . . . . . . . 153 Passive . . . . . . . . . .154 The Infinitive . . . . . . . . . 1 55 Active . . . . . . . . . . 155 Passive . . . . . . . . . -156 The Participles . . . . . . . . . .157 Gerund and Supine ......... 157 CHAPTER VIII. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . .158 Accusatives . . . . . . . . . . .158 Ablatives . . . . . . . . . . .158 Locatives . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Instrumentals . . . . . . . . . 159 Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . 159 Origin of Prepositions . . . . . . . . *159 List of Prepositions . . . . . . . . .160 CHAPTER IX. SYNTAX. The Cases . . . . . . . . . . . .164 Names of the Cases . . . . . . . . .164 Review of Case Theories . . . . . . . .166 The Localistic Theory . . . . . . . .166 The Logical Theory . . . . . . . .167 The Grammatical Theory . . . . . . .167 Subsequent Views . . . . . . . .167 Table of Contents. xi PAGE The Accusative . . . . . . . . . .168 With Passives Used as Middles . . . . . .169 Of Result Produced . . . . . . . .169 Of Person Affected, and of Result Produced Dependent upon the Same Verb . . . . . . . . .170 Synecdochical or Greek Accusative . . . . .170 In Exclamations . . . . . . . . .171 As Subject of the Infinitive . . . . . . 1 71 Id genuSy muliebre secus, etc. . . . . . . .171 Original Force of the Accusative . . . . . .172 The Dative . . . . . . . . . . *174 Original Force . . . . . . . . > . 174 Dative of Indirect Object . . . . . . .174 With Verbs Signifying ‘ favor,’ ‘ help,’ etc. . . .174 With Compounds . . . . . . . 175 Dative of Reference . . . . . . . .175 Ethical Dative . . . . . . . . .176 Dative of Agency . . . . . . . .176 Dative of Purpose . . . . . . . .176 The Genitive . . . . . . . . . .176 Original Force . . . . . . . . .176 With Nouns . . . . . . . . . .177 Genitive of Quality . . . . . . . .177 Genitive with Adjectives . . . . . . .177 Genitive with Verbs . . . . . . . .178 The Ablative . . . . . . . . . .179 Syncretism in the Ablative . . . . . .179 Genuine Ablative Uses ........ 181 Separation , . . . . . . . .181 Source . . . . . . . . . .181 Comparison . . . . . . . . .181 Instrumental Uses . . . . . . . .182 Accompaniment . . . . . . . .182 Association . . . . . . . . .182 Attendant Circumstance . . . . . . .182 Manner ......... 183 Accordance . . . . . . . . -183 Means . . . . . . . . . .183 Way by Which.185 Cause ... ....... 185 Degree of Difference . . . . . . *185 Price . . . . . . . . . .185 ( xii Table of Contents. PAGE Quality ......... 186 Specification . . . . , , . . .187 Ablative Absolute . . . , . . . .187 Locative Uses .......... 188 Place Relations . . . . . . . .188 Refert and Interest . . . . . . . .189 Time Relations . . . . . . . .189 Locative of the Goal . . . . . . .190 Surviving Locative Forms . ...... 190 The Moods.190 The Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . .190 Original Force of the Subjunctive . . . . . .191 Original Force of the Optative . . . . . .192 Classification of Subjunctive Uses . . . . . 193 Subjunctive in Principal Clauses . . . . 193 Original Uses ........ 193 Volitive Subjunctive . . . . . 193 Optative Subjunctive ...... 195 Subjunctive of Contingent Futurity . . . 195 Derived Uses ........ 195 Extension of the Jussive . . . . 195 Extensions of the Deliberative . . . .196 Extension of the Concessive Volitive . . .196 Extension of the Optative . . . . .196 Extensions of the Subjunctive of Contingent Futurity ........ 197 Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses ..... 197 Parataxis and Hypotaxis ...... 197 Subjunctive of Purpose . . . . . .198 Clauses of Characteristic ...... 200 Clauses of Result.201 Causal Clauses ........ 202 Temporal Clauses ....... 203 Substantive Clauses ....... 203 Developed from the Volitive .... 203 Developed from the Optative .... 207 Of Result.208 Indirect Questions.208 Conditional Sentences ...... 209 Provisos . . . . , . . . .210 Relative Clauses . . . . . . . .210 Indicative Relative Clauses . . . . .211 Table of Contents. xiii PAGE Original Uses.211 The Determining Clause . . . .211 Clauses Adding Information . . .212 Causal and Adversative Clauses . . .212 Developed Uses.212 Determining Clauses.212 Clause Equivalent to si with the Indicative . 213 Restrictive Clauses.213 Subjunctive Relative Clauses . . . . .214 Original Uses . . . . . . >215 Representing an Independent Volitive . 215 Representing a Potential . . . .216 Developed from a Subjunctive of Contingent Futurity.216 Developed Uses.216 Clause of Characteristic . . . .216 Causal Clauses . . . . . .217 Adversative Clauses.217- LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. ♦O- Archiv — Wolfflin’s Archiv fur Lateinische Lexikographie und Grammcitik. Vols. I.-IX. Leipzig, 1884-1895. CIA. = Corpus Inscriptionum Attic arum. Berlin, 1873 ff. CIG. = Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. Berlin, 1828 ff. CIL. = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin, 1863 ff. E. L. D. = Lewis, Elementary Latin Dictionary. New York, 1891. Gr. or Grammar = the author’s Lathi Grammar. Boston, 1895. Grober’s Grundriss — Grober’s Grundriss der Romanischen Philologie. Strassburg, 1888 ff. Keil = Grammatici Latini , ed. Keil. Leipzig, 1855 ff. Korting, Worterbuch — Korting, Lateinisch-Romanisches Worterbuch. Pader- born, 1891. Marx = Marx, Hiilfsbiichlein fur die Aussprache der Vokale in positionslangen Silben. Berlin, 1889. References by § are to the Appendix itself. Words marked with a star are hypothetical forms. Vowels printed without the macron (eg. a, e ) are short; for greater precision these are sometimes printed with a breve (eg. a , e). xiv CHAPTER I. THE ALPHABET. 1 . i. The Latin alphabet is a development of that type of the Greek alphabet known as the Chalcidian. In the widest sense the term ‘ Chalcidian ’ is applied to all the non-ionic Greek alpha¬ bets ; in a narrower sense it designates the special alphabet of the Chalcidian colonies of lower Italy and Sicily. These colonies, settled originally from Chalcis in Euboea, date from very early times. Cumae, in fact, is said to have been founded as far back as 1050 b.c. But most of the Chalcidian settlements do not antedate the eighth century b.c. It was probably from the Cam¬ panian colonies of Cumae and Neapolis that some time in the sixth century b.c. the Chalcidian alphabet was introduced into Latium. Special peculiarities of this alphabet are the following : 2. The character E was lacking, X was used as x, and Y ( V) as ch. Lambda , which in Ionic had the form A, took in Chal¬ cidian the form I/, while Gamma (Attic T) was C. Besides K, another character for the /£-sound existed, viz. ?, called Koppa. For Rho, R was employed as well as P, the ordinary Attic form of that letter. In conformity with its Chalcidian origin the earliest Latin alpha¬ bet consisted of the following twenty-one characters: A B C ( = g) DEF.Z HIKl/MNOP?R^TVX. 3. Of these characters, b subsequently became L. C in course of time came to be used for K, which then disappeared except in a few words : Kalendae , Kaeso, Karthago. For the ^-sound a new character, G, was invented, by appending a tag to the older C. But permanent traces of the original value of C as g, remained in 2 The Alphabet. the abbreviations C. for Gains and Cn. for Gnaeus. The new character G took the place hitherto occupied by Z, which now disappeared. These changes are ascribed, with some degree of probability, to Appius Claudius, Censor 312 b.c. P was at first open as in Greek, but subsequently became P. The Greek alphabet had no character to represent the sound of f, but the Greek Digamma (F) represented a closely related sound, v. This F, combined with H (apparently to indicate the voiceless character of the sound, as opposed to that of the Greek Digamma), was introduced into the early Italian alphabets to designate the sound of /. An example is FHEFHAKED (=fefaced , i.e. fecit), in the earliest extant Latin inscription, CIL. xiv. 4123. Later, the H was discarded and F used alone. 4. The Greek letters O (0)., 0 (<£), and Y Y (x), being aspirates, represented sounds which did not originally exist in the Latin language. These characters were accordingly introduced as numerals, O as 100, 0 as 1000, Y as 50. Subsequently O became G, and finally C. This last form resulted perhaps from associating the character with the initial letter of centum. 0 be¬ came first (Tl, and later M, a change facilitated probably by asso¬ ciation with the initial letter of mille. The half of 0, viz. D, was used to designate 500. Y (50) became successively Y, _L, and L. 5. In Cicero’s day Y and Z were introduced for the translitera¬ tion of Greek words containing v or £. Previously Greek v had been transliterated by u, and £ by s (initial), ss (medial), as, Olumpio , sona (£0^77), atticisso (dmKt£a>). The Emperor Claudius proposed the introduction of three new characters, J to represent v {i.e. our w), D {Antisigma) for ps, and F to represent the middle sound between u and 1 , as seen in optumus, optimus , etc. These characters were employed in some inscriptions of Claudius’s reign, but gained no further recognition. The Alphabet. 3 On the alphabet in general, see Kirchhoff, Studien zur Geschichte des Grie- chischen Alphabets. 4th ed. Berlin, 1887. Lindsay, Latin Language. Clarendon Press. Oxford, 1894. p. 1 ff. Encyclopaedia Britannica , Article Alphabet. Johnson’s Encyclopaedia , Article Alphabet. 2. In writing j in the Grammar to represent the Latin i-con- sonans, reference has been had mainly ta practical considerations. Typographical distinction of the vowel and consonant sounds of i is absolutely essential to enable the pupil to tell them apart. Where i is written for both sounds there is nothing to show the student that aid is ajo; that aiunt is ajunt , or that Gains is Ga-i-us. Moreover, it is still usual to distinguish between the vowel and consonant u, by writing zt for the former, and v for the latter. The two cases are perfectly parallel. See Deecke, Erlauterungen zur lateinischen Schulgrammatik , p. 8, Zusatz 2. CHAPTER II. PRONUNCIATION. 3 . Sources of Information. — Our sources of knowledge con¬ cerning the ancient pronunciation of Latin are the following : a) Statements of Roman writers. — Much has been left by the Roman grammarians on the subject of pronunciation, — far more in fact than is commonly supposed. The remains of the gram¬ matical writers as collected and edited by Keil under the title Grammatici Latini (Leipzig, 1855-1880) fill eight large quarto volumes. These writers cover the entire field of grammar, and most of them devote more or less space to a systematic consider¬ ation of the sounds of the letters. As representative writers on this subject may be cited : Terentianus Maurus (fl. 185 a.d.), author of a work entitled de Litteris , Syllabis , Metris; Marius Victorinus (fl. 350 a.d.) ; Martianus Capella (fourth or fifth cen¬ tury a.d. ; not in Keil’s collection) ; Priscian (fl. 500 a.d.), author of the Institutionum G ra ?n m a tic a ru m Libri xviii. Even the classical writers have often contributed valuable bits of infor¬ mation, notably Varro in his de Lingua Latina , Cicero in his rhetorical works, Quintilian in his Lnstitutio Orato?ia , and Aulus Gellius in his Nodes Atticae. b) A second important source of evidence is found in inscrip¬ tions. The total body of these is very great. The Corpus Lnscriptionum Latinarum. in process of publication since 1863, consists already of fifteen large folio volumes, some of them in several parts, and is not yet completed. These inscriptions dis¬ close many peculiarities of orthography which are exceedingly instructive for the pronunciation. Thus such spellings as vrps, 4 Sources of Information. 5 pleps, by the side of vrbs, plebs, clearly indicate the assimilation of b to p before i 1 . Even the blunders of the stone-cutters often give us valuable clues, as, for example, the spelling acletarvm for athletarvm, which shows that the th was practically a t; other¬ wise we could not account for its confusion with c. See § 31. c) Greek transliterations of Latin words constitute a third source of knowledge. Not only Greek writers (especially the historians of Roman affairs), but also Greek inscriptions afford us abundant evidence of this kind. Thus the Greek KWpan/ ( Cicet'o ) furnishes support for the ^-sound of Latin c ; while Aiouta and OvaXevrta bear similarly upon the «'-sound of Latin v. The inscriptions are naturally much more trustworthy guides in this matter than our texts of the Greek authors, for we can never be certain that the Mss. have not undergone alterations in the process of transmission to modern times. d) The Rottiance languages also, within limits, may be utilized in determining the sounds of Latin. See Grober’s Grundriss der Ro77ianischen Philologie, Vol. I., Strassburg, 1888 ; W. Meyer-Liibke, Gra77imatik der Roitianischen Spt'achen , Vol. I., Leipzig, 1890. e) The sound-changes of Lathi itself, as analyzed by etymologi¬ cal investigation. Modern scholars, particularly in the last forty years, have done much to promote the scientific study of Latin sounds and forms, and, while much remains to be done, the ultimate solution of many problems has already been reached. As representative works in this field may be cited : Corssen, W. Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache. 2 vols., 2d ed. Leipzig, 1868; 1870. This work has been largely superseded by more recent publications, but is still valuable for its collections of material. Brugmann, K. Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grnmmatik der Indogerma- nischen Sprachen. Vol. I. Strassburg, 1886. 1 1 English translation under the title: Elements of Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Germanic Languages. Strassburg, 1887. A second edition of Vol. I. of the Grundriss is in preparation. 6 Pronunciation. Stolz, F. Lateinische Grammcitik in Muller’s Handbuch der Klassischen Altertiwiswissenschaft. Vol. II. 2d ed. Nordlingen, 1889. Stolz, F. Lautlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig, 1894. Lindsay, W. M. The Latin Language. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894. An admirable summary of the latest researches. As special works on pronunciation alone may be cited : Seelmann, E. Die Aussprache des Latein. Heilbronn, 1885. The most important work on the subject yet published. Roby, H. J. Latin Grammar. Vol. I., 4th ed. pp. xxx-xc. London, 1881. Ellis, Alexander. The Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin. London, 1874. A discussion of special problems. See also -the chapter on ‘ Pronunciation ’ in the work of Lindsay above cited. SUMMARY OF THE EVIDENCE. THE VOWELS. 4. a. The consensus of the Romance languages indicates clearly that a was pronounced substantially as in English father. In the absence of any specific evidence to the contrary, we may safely believe that a had the same sound qualitatively; in quantity , of course, it was less prolonged. 5. e. Long e was probably close, i.e. spoken with the lips rela¬ tively closed. Cf. such inscriptional spellings as pleibes, leigibvs (Brugmann, Grundriss , i. § 73). Short e was open , i.e. spoken with the lips relatively open. These differences in the pronuncia¬ tion of 1 and e are confirmed by the testimony of the gramma¬ rians, e.g. Marius Victorinus (Keil, vi. 33. 3) ; Servius (Keil, iv. 421. 17) ; Pompeius (Keil, v. 102. 4). The Romance languages also, though they have lost the original quantitative distinctions of the Latin, have preserved with great fidelity the qualitative distinctions of the close and open e. See § 36. 5. It is to be The Vowels. 7 noted that the relation between Latin e and e stands in marked contrast with the relation existing between Greek rj and e. In Greek it was the long e- sound ( rj ) that was open; e was close. It should further be observed that in our normal English speech it is unusual and difficult to pronounce a pure e. We regularly add an z-sound, and pronounce a diphthong, ei, e.g. in fatal paper , etc. 6. i. i. Long i was prpbably somewhat more open than Eng¬ lish i in machine (Brugmann, Grundriss, i. § 41 ; Stolz, Lateinische Grammatik, § 32). The evidence for this is found in the occur¬ rence of ei in inscriptions as a graphical variation of i, e.g. avdeire, CIL. i. 196 ; veivos ; faxseis. Short i was also probably an open sound, as suggested by its occasional representation in inscriptions by e, eg. TEMPESTATEBVS ( = -ihus) . 2. Before the labials p , b,f, m, an earlier u changed to i in many words at about the close of the Republican period. Exam¬ ples are : stupendia lubido stipendia libido pontifex lacrima pontufex lacruma maximus, oplimus. Quintilian, i. 7. 21, tells us that Julius Caesar was said to have been the first to introduce the new orthography. Inscriptions, however, show the occasional use of i for u before his time. In i. 4. 8 Quintilian further states that the sound was intermediate between i and u. The Emperor Claudius, it will be remembered, endeavored to secure recognition for a special character (h) to represent this intermediate sound, which probably was approxi¬ mately that of French u , German ii. This view gains support from the occasional employment of y for i in words of the cate¬ gory under discussion, e.g. contybernalis CIL. ix. 2608; illacry- mant. This y had the sound of ii. See below under y. 8 Pronunciation. 7 . o. Long o was close, i.e. nearer the w-sound; short o was relatively open, that is, nearer the tz-sound. This is clearly indi¬ cated by the descriptions of the sound as given by the Roman grammarians, e.g. Terentianus Maurus (Keil, vi. 329. 130-134) ; Marius Victorinus (Keil, vi. 33. 3-8) ; Servius (Keil, vi. 421. 17-19) ; it is further confirmed by the testimony of the Romance languages, which, as in case of e (see above), have faithfully pre¬ served the qualitative character of Latin 0 and 0, while they have lost the original quantitative distinction. See § 36. 5. ' Short 0 should never be pronounced like English o in hot, top, rock, not, etc. English o in these words really has a short #-sound. Latin o was a genuine aoo-ru/os (Faustinas). 13 . eu appears in Latin in only a few words, and in these is of secondary origin. Primitive Latin eu early became ou, whence u. The chief Latin words that have eu are : ceu , neu, seu, neuter , neutiquam , neutique , heu. The combination appears also in numerous proper names borrowed from the Greek, e.g. Europa , Teucer. In all these the sound was that of a genuine diphthong, i.e. an , which was regu¬ larly represented in Latin by ph, was always employed to trans¬ literate Latin /. But <£ was simply the nearest equivalent that the Greek alphabet possessed for representing/. Quintilian (i. 4. 14) shows that the two sounds were quite different, by his account of the Greek witness mentioned by Cicero who could not pronounce the Latin word Fundanius. This seems to show that the Greeks, not having the sound of Latin /(a bilabial spirant), chose cf> (a bilabial aspirate) as the nearest equivalent, very much as Slavs and Lithuanians to-day reproduce the f of modern languages by p. In the speech of the educated classes at Rome ph seems to have followed the history of cf> in Greek. The latter sound, according to Blass {Pronunciation of Greek , § 28), did not become the equivalent of f before the third century a.d., a view substantiated for Latin by the interchange of /and ph in inscrip¬ tions of this and the following centuries. The phonetics of the change are as follows: First, we have p + h, i.e. the labial mute 2 9 The Double Consonants, x, z. c -}- a guttural spirant; secondly, the h is assimilated from the guttural spirant to the labial, / (i.e. pf) ; finally, the /is assimi¬ lated to/, giving/', which is then simplified to/. Thus an origi¬ nal Philippus becomes successively Pfilippus , Ffilippus , Filippus. Cf. German Pfah (the name of the district about Heidelberg). The mediaeval Latin designation of this was Palantium , whence Phalantium , German Pfalz , but dialectically often pronounced Falz. The Double Consonants, a:, 0. 32 . X. X is always equivalent to cs, never to gz, as it some¬ times is in English. This conclusion follows from the voiceless character of Latin s, before which a guttural was necessarily assimilated. 33 . Z. The value of 2 is somewhat uncertain. The character is confined exclusively to foreign words, chiefly Greek. Though introduced in the first Latin alphabet, it was early dropped (see § i. 3), its place being taken by G. Long afterwards, — ap¬ parently about Cicero’s time, — it was again introduced for the more accurate transcription of £ in words borrowed from the Greek. Prior to this time the Latin had transliterated Greek £ when initial by s, and by ss in the interior of words, e.g. sona ( — £