IPliiiii Hni':--il m iimmm mm ^^^^ 'tHt^^P ' ^.•- ■■''; % P»%, .''te.^B M^M ■'■' • ^•■*..-- 1 1 ^P %.« \1 Ivv.. ll W m '^:^- f^v Ik ^ ' ' r 1 r W$'' ] 7 ■?■'. > y i ^■\ >» '*! ^v ^ -' fA| »^:>, V ^smL f. \ \ ^r^f. BOSTOM O'.^LLfcGE LIP^*'- GHfcSTNUT HILL. ^AA^ COPYRIGHT 1905 BY CHARLES JOHNSTON AND CARITA SPENCER All rights reserved Published March, rgoj 44471 PREFACE "Ireland's Story" has been written not as a record of the dead past, but as a beacon for the living future. It is inspired by a belief in the Irish race, now spread far beyond its island home, through many lands, beneath many skies. The Irish race has a great part to play in the history of the future ; and present and future can be understood only by a knowledge of the past. The story of Ireland may be viewed in many ways. First, as a part of universal history : its ancient tradi- tions are rich and full of clues to the races of the early world ; its archaic treasures are abundant ; its old stone monuments wonderfully preserved. In illumining the shadowy dawn of early Europe, and especially of those northern lands whose children now lead the world, no country can aid us so much as Ireland. Then we must reckon Ireland's early heroic poems and tales, ampler than those of any European land, save only Greece and Italy, and giving us the truest and richest picture of the archaic life of Europe, still un- touched by Greece and Rome. The great personages of the Irish epics stand out as clear as the heroic figures who fought around Troy, or the inspired leaders of Attica and Sparta and the City of the Seven Hills. Next comes Ireland's part in the Drama of Faith. Ireland may well be called the new Ark of the Cove- nant ; for in the little western isle was stored up the treasure of the Gospel, brought thither first by Patrick. IV PREFACE Preserved miraculously from the barbarian raids which ' swept away the Roman Empire and covered Europe with heathen conquerors, this treasure was presently brought forth and carried abroad, first to Great Britain, then to Belgium and France, Switzerland, Germany and Austria, Italy and Spain, and even to the twilight con- fines of Norway and Iceland. Beautiful illuminated manuscripts from Ireland rekindled the learning of Europe, after the barbarian conquest of the Goths and Vandals, Angles and Franks. From the following epochs of Ireland's story, there are many lessons to be learned, but the best of them is this : that in the life of nations there works a providen- tial destiny, not only in prosperity but in adversity, and perhaps most of all in adversity ; that in Ireland's life this Providence, working through conquest, oppression, and misery, has miraculously preserved the pure spirit of the race in its pristine unworldliness and faith, its belief in holiness and in the spiritual world ; and that this spirit so preserved, and now dispersed through many lands, is to-day one of the great treasures of humanity. Every reader of Irish race will find here a tale to make him proud of his parentage and his inheritance ; a tale of valor and endurance ; a tale of genius and in- spiration ; a tale of self-sacrifice and faith. Such a one, thus looking back proudly to a worthy and noble past, may look forward with hope for the future, and with a sense of consecration for the spiritual destiny of the Irish race. THE AUTHORS. New York, February i, 1905. CONTENTS I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. The Legendary Races, b. c. 2000? , . . The Milesians, b. c. i7oo?-b. c. iooo? . . Legendary Story of Emain of Maca. b ;o?-A. D. qo? 45< 27 34 41 47 5S 66 78 87 96 108 124 Political Growth, a. d. 50-A. d. 266 . . King Cormac and Ossin. a. d. 254-293 Introduction of Christianity, a. d. 432 Fulfilment of Patrick's Mission, a. d. 432-525 The Saints and Scholars, a. d. 500-795 . The Raids of the Norsemen. 795-1014 . The Missions to Foreign Lands. 500-1100 From Norsemen to Normans. 1015-1169 The Coming of the Normans. J169-1199 Consolidation of Norman Power. 1199-1318 Norman Raids to English Rule. 1318-1485 Rise and Fall of the Geraldines. 1485-1537 139 The Reformation, and Confiscation of Church Property, i 534-1 582 150 Close of the Tudor Period, i 583-1 603 . . .164 The Plantation of Ulster. 1603- i 641 . . .178 The Irish Rebellion. 1641-1649 189 Cromwell and the Restoration. 1649-1688 . 201 The Jacobite Wars. 1688-1691 213 Treaty of Limerick, i 690-1 693 225 The Penal Laws, i 693-1 782 ....... 239 Struggle between the English and Irish Par- liaments. 169S-1783 253 vi CONTENTS XXV. The Irish Rebellion. 1798 269 XXVI. Legislative Union with England. 1800-1801 283 XXVII. Catholic Emancipation. 1801-1829 .... 293 XXVIII. From Emancipation to the Famine. 1829- 1847 303 XXIX. The Fenians and Disestablishment. 1848- 1869 313 XXX. The Land Restored to the People. 1869- 1903 324 XXXI. The Irish on the Continent 339 XXXII. The Irish in America 348 XXXIII. The Irish in the British Empire 360 XXX IV. The Irish Literary Revival 370 APPENDIX Some Irish Surnames 380 Index, and Guide to the Maps 391 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ' PAGH Glendalough. From a photograph Frontispiece Pyramid at Newgrange. From Fergusson's Rude Stone Mo?tuments 4 Plan of the Chamber in the Newgrange Pyramid. From Fergusson's Rnde Stone Monuments 5 Cromlech at Carrowmore 6 Skeleton of the Great Irish Elk 12 Loosely Twisted Torque of Gold 15 Ancient Irish Bronze Cauldron. From Wilde's Cata- logue of Antiquities 16 Ancient Irish Sword and Spear- head. From Wilde's Catalogue 23 Plan of Tara, based on that in Wakeman's Handbook ' . 31 The Hill of Tara. From a drawing by Wakeman in Hall's Ireland 35 Spear-head. From Wilde's Catalogue 39 Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. From Stokes's Early Chris- tian Art in Ireland 48 Bell of St. Patrick. From Stokes's Early Christian Architexture in Irela7id 51 High Cross of Monasterboice. Yxom Stokes's Early Christian Art in Ireland 55 Ruins on Devenish Island. From a photograph ... 57 St. Kevin's House, Glendalough. From Petrie's Eccle- siastical Architecture in Ireland .59 Ancient Danish Boat. From Engelhardt's Denmark in the Early Iron Age 6"] The Chalice of Ardagh. From Stokes's Early Christian Art in Ireland 68 Castle at Waterford. From HalVs Ireland 71 Danish Weapons. From Meynck's A ntient A rwo7ir . . 73 Ancient Irish Harp, said to have belonged to Brian BoRU. From Hall's Ireland 75 Scribe at Work on the Book of Kildare. From Gil- bert's Facsimiles of the Natiotial Manuscripts of Ireland . 81 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page from the Book of Kells. From Gilbert's Facsimiles of the Natio7ial Mamcscripts 85 The Rock of Cashel. From a photograph 90 CoRMAc's Crosier. From Petrie's Ecclesiastical Archi- tecture 9^ Cross of Cong. From Stokes's Early Christia?i Art in Ireland 93 Norman Knight and Foot-Soldier. From Grose's Mili- tary Antiquities 99 DuNDRUM Castle. From the Royal Historical and Archce- ological Society Journal for 1883-84 1 04 Tower of London. From Bayley's Tower of Londojt . . 109 King John's Castle, Limerick. From Dolby's /r^/^«^ . 119 Holycross Abbey. From a photograph 121 Relief of Henry IPs Army. From Gilbert's Facsimiles of the National Manuscripts 131 Art MacMurrogh and the Duke of Gloucester. From GWheri's Facsimiles of the National Manuscripts . . . .133 Costume of the Native Irish of the Fifteenth Century. From the Kilke?tny Historical Society Transac- tions, 1860-61 1 36 Armorial Bearings of the Earls of Kildare. From Will's Irish Nation 143 Armorial Bearings of the Earls of Ormond. From Will's Irish Nation 144 Irish Knights and Attendants. From a drawing by Albrecht Diirer 147 Shane O'Neill's Autograph. From the Ulster Journal of Archceology, 18^4 155 Irish Soldier of 1582. From Gilbert's Facsi^niles of the National Manuscripts . 156 Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. From Will's Irish Nation 166 Capture of Blackwater Fort in 1597. From Gilbert's Facsijniles of the A^ational Manuscripts 167 Siege of Dunboy. From \\\e Pacata Hiberrtia 175 James I. From Paul Van Somer's painting in the National Portrait Gallery 178 Settlers' Houses in the Ulster Plantation. From GWhtri's Facsimiles of the National Manuscripts . . . .182 The Earl of Stafford going to Execution. From a painting owned by the Duke of Sutherland 187 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix Owen Roe O'Neill. From a portrait on wood reproduced in the Ulster Journal^ i8j6 190 Charlemont Fort. From Royal Historical and ArchcEo- logical Society Journal, 188^-84 191 Carrickfergus Castle. From the Ulster Jotcrnal, i8g^-g6 195 James Butler, Duke of Ormond. From Wright's His- tory of Ireland 198 Limerick in Charles IPs Time. From Kilkejmy Trans- actions, 1864-66 205 Cathedral at Londonderry. From Colby's Lo?idonderry 216 The Town House at Londonderry. From Colby's Lon- do?iderry 218 William at the Battle of the Boyne. From Wright's History of Irelatid 221 Patrick Sarsfield. From an old engraving in Gilbert's facobite Narrative 226 Richard Talbot, Earl AND Duke of Tyrconnell. From the Ulster foiirnal, 1837 229 Castle of Athlone. From Hall's Ireland 231 Limerick to-day. From a photograph 234 James Butler, Second Duke of Ormond. From Wright's History of Ireland, 242 Jonathan Swift 256 Henry Grattan. From a portrait reproduced in Roxby's Henry Grattan 258 Henry Flood. From a miniature portrait in Original Letters to Henry Flood 259 Edmund Burke. After Sir Joshua Reynolds's portrait in Lodge's Gallery of Portraits 261 Presbyterian Meeting-house at Dungannon. From an engraving in the Anthologia Hibernia 265 Badge of the Down Volunteers 267 Theobald Wolfe Tone. From the Autobiography of T. W. Tone 273 William Pitt, the Younger. Drawn by Copley. From Lord Stanhope's Life of Willia7n Pitt 283 Daniel O'Connell. From a portrait painted for the former Catholic Association in Wright's History of Ireland . . . 288 Irish Parliament House, Dublin, in 1800. From Mc- Gregor's Picture of Dublin 289 Richard Lalor Sheil. Yxova Sketches of the Irish Bar . 298 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Maynooth College in 1821. From Warburton's Dublin . 303 O'CoNNELL Monument at Glasnevin. From a photo- graph 309 Sir Robert Peel. From a painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence 313 St. Patrick's Cathedral in 181 7. From Warburton's Dublin 321 Charles Stewart Parnell. From a photograph . . . 325 William Ewart Gladstone. From a photograph (1884) by John Moffat 327 Arthur J. Balfour. From a photograph 331 Marshal MacMahon on Horseback. P>om a photo- graph 342 Anthony Wayne. From the National Portrait Gallery . . 350 John Boyle O'Reilly. From a photograph 357 Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington. From the painting by John Lucas in the National Gallery, Dublin . 361 Frederick, Lord Roberts. From a photograph .... 363 Oliver Goldsmith. From a painting in the National Por- trait Gallery 371 Thomas Moore. From a painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence 374 Note: — The illustrations from Gilbert's Facsimiles of the National Manuscripts and Margaret Stokes's Eat'ly Christian Art in Ireland are used by permission of the Controller of His Majesty's Stationery Offices, those from Fergusson's Rude Stone Mo7iuments bv permission of Mr. John Murray. The publishers also wish to acknow- ledge the kindness of Messrs. McCaw, Stevenson & Orr, Ltd., George Bell & Sons, T. C. and E. C. Black, and others who have granted permission for the use of material. MAPS PAGE The Path of Ireland's Early Invaders i Pagan Ireland 29 Places mentioned in Irish History, from the Intro- duction OF Christianity to iioo 53 Ireland, with some of the Ancient Earldoms and Dukedoms (full page) 113 Places mentioned in Irish History during the Wars AFTER 1582 169 Political Divisions of Ireland, 1600- 1900 (full page, colored) facing 180 Europe with Places mentioned in connection with Irish History (full page) 247 IRELAND'S STORY CHAPTER I THE LEGENDARY RACES Traditional Date : b. c. 2000 1. The coming of the De Dananns. In ancient times, along the shores of the Baltic Sea, there lived a race of tall and mighty warriors, called the De Danann j^^^^^^^ tribe. They had golden hair which hung down from the on their shoulders, blue eyes, and straight fea- tures like the Greeks. A band of these De Danann warriors, under Nuadat, their ruler, embarked in their long ships, to seek new lands. They sailed across the rough North Sea, around the capes and islands of Scotland, and then turned southward, till they came to the entrance of Lough Foyle. Be- fore them, to the south, were forests and mountains, and a river flowed to meet them, coming from among the hills. THE PATH OF IRELAND'S EARLY INVADERS 2 IRELAND'S STORY [b. c. 2000 ? Attracted by the pleasant appearance of this river, they sailed on, as far as their boats could carry them, and then, landing on the bank, they burned their ves- sels, determined to meet their destiny in this new home. Thus, when discovered by the inhabitants of the land, they were taken for magical beings who had dropped from the skies or risen out of the earth. 2. Their reception by the Firbolgs. At this time, there were already two races in Ireland, the Firbolgs and Fomorians. They were both dark-haired races. The Fomorians were tall, and were great seamen and fish- ermen, living on the islands and on the western coast. The Firbolgs were a short race, like the Laplanders, and dwelt more inland. Their high chief was Eocaid, remembered as the last king of the Firbolgs. Eocaid was the first to get tidings of the arrival of the strangers. He gathered the Firbolg chiefs in coun- Themeet- ^^^' ^^^ after a long debate it was decided that ingofsreng Srens:, the strongest amono- them, should go andBreas. ° ^ & ' & forth to learn what he could of the De Dananris. The De Dananns heard of his coming, and Breas, one of their mightiest warriors, was sent forth to meet him. Breas carried a long, slender spear, sharp-pointed, and made of golden bronze, while Sreng's spear was thick and heavy, of dull metal, with a broad end. Both war- riors had swords and shields. Breas, messenger of the De Dananns, spoke first, and said that, as the rivers were full of fish, and the forests full of deer, the two peoples might live peaceably together without a contest. The Firbolgs were unwilling to agree to this plan, and declared for war. The De Dananns retreated westward to the land which lies between the lakes of Corrib and Mask, where Mayo and Galway now join. Here they en- camped on a commanding hill. Nuadat, the De Danann B. c. 2000?] THE LEGENDARY RACES 3 king, once more tried to come to a peaceful agreement with the Firbolgs, but the latter refused all terms. So the two hosts, the golden-haired and black- „ , ° Battle of haired warriors, met at Mag Tured, " the plain southern of the rock pillars," and the fight lasted all ^^^ Tured. day long. The followers of Nuadat proved the stronger. The fighting continued beside the two lakes until there remained only three hundred Firbolg warriors, under Sreng as leader. Nuadat then offered terms to Sreng. The latter was to choose and rule one of the five divi- sions of Ireland, and the conquerors were to have the rest. Sreng chose the western province, which was later called Connaught. 3. Contest with the Pomorians. As King Nuadat was seriously wounded, Breas was chosen to rule in his stead. The new ruler was half De Danann and half Fomorian. He finally became so tyrannous and over- bearing that the people could endure him no longer, and he was driven from the kingdom. He fled to his Fomo- rian kinsman, Balor of the Evil Eye, and persuaded him to attack the De Dananns. Nuadat, healed of his wound, was again in power. He prepared his army to meet the foe, and a hot battle was fought at Northern Northern Mag Tured between the two forces, *^ which ended in the complete defeat of the Fomorians, and left the De Dananns undisputed masters of Ireland. In this battle the De Danann king, Nuadat, and many chieftains on both sides were slain. 4. The legend of the Dagda's harp. In the second battle of Mag Tured the Fomorians carried off the harp of the Dagda, spiritual chief of the De*Dananns. Some De Dananns pursued the Fomorians, seeking to recover it. The chiefs of the Fomorians, leaving the battlefield far behind, and thinking they had eluded their pursuers, IRELAND'S STORY [b. C. 2000? halted to refresh themselves and rest. They had gathered together for a banquet, hanging the captured harp on the wall, when the pursuing De Dananns burst in upon them. Before the Fomorians had even risen to their feet, the Dagda called to his harp to come to him. The harp re- cognized its master's voice, says the legend, and came to him, leaping from the wall, killing nine men on the way. The harp set itself in the hands of its master, who played on it three wonderful strains. The first was the music of tears. When they heard it the women of the Fomori- ans wept. The second was the music of mirth. As the Dagda played it, the young men burst into laughter. Then he played the third strain, the music of dreams, and the children and the women and the warriors of the Fo- morians sank into sleep. So the pursuers safely returned to the De Danann camp. This most ancient tradition credits the De Dananns PYRAMID AT NEWGRANGE Part of the outer row of stones is to be seen in the foreground with bringing to Ireland the knowledge of music, one of the genuine magical arts, with the harp so celebrated through all Irish history. Thousands of the early harp B. c. 2OO0?] THE LEGENDARY RACES 5 melodies of Ireland have come down to us, some of them of very great antiquity, some connected by tradition with definite historic episodes, and many of them of extreme beauty and musical value. 6. The civilization of the De Dananns. Numerous monuments have been accredited by tradition to the De Dananns, but the greatest and most worthy of notice are PLAN OF THE CHAMBER IN THE NEWGRANGE PYRAMID the three wonderful pyramids at Brugh on the Boyne, now called the mounds of Newgrange, Knowth, and Dowth. Here, in a fertile plain, once wooded, in a bend of the river Boyne, ten miles from the sea, stand three great stone pyramids a mile apart, the ancient j^^^^ shrines and sacred places of the De Dananns. pyramids. The middle pyramid is the largest of the three. It is a mass of two hundred thousand tons of stone, surrounded by a wall of large boulders, with an outer circle of huge stones guarding it like so many giant sentinels. In the heart of this monument is a chamber formed like a cross, with a high roof, and mysterious tracings on the walls. This is the innermost shrine. In these tombs and sanctuaries we still find traces of the civilization of the De Dananns, and relics Reucsof of their handicraft and skill, such as granite DeDanann art. basins, which have been called baptismal fonts, ornaments, beads, combs, and amber trinkets. The IRELAND'S STORY [b. C. 2000? shrines and what they contain enable us to identify the golden-haired invaders of ancient Ireland with the people of the Baltic lands. 6. The stone circles and cromlechs. Even more wonderful than the huge stone pyramids accredited by tradition to the De Dananns is another class of monu- ments found all over Ireland. This class of monuments includes the great stone circles wrongly called Druidical Circles — since they are far older than the Druids — and the cromlechs or dolmens, which often stand in the centre of the stone circles. A cromlech always consists of a huge stone supported by several others, almost equally STONE CIRCLE AND CROMLECH AT CARROVVMORE huge, which stand like the legs of a table, upholding the large upper block. These cromlechs are in a way the most awe-inspiring and mysterious monuments in the world. We find them all over the island, on the plains and in the mountains, huge silent relics, so old that even B.C. 2000?] THE LEGENDARY RACES 7 legends concerning them have vanished utterly. Thus at Carrowmore near Sligo there are more than sixty large stone circles, several of which have cromlechs Mystery within them ; and this is only one place among otthe _, n . T cromlechs. many. The stones are all very massive, and are often twice the height of an ordinary man. In Glen Druid in the Dublin mountains is a cromlech whose gran- ite crown weighs seventy tons. The upper stone of the cromlech at Howth measures nearly twenty feet square, is eight feet thick, and weighs a hundred tons. It origi- nally rested on twelve rugged pillars, seven feet high. How this enormous block was put in place is still a mys- tery. Sometimes the stone blocks of the great circles stand edge to edge, forming a giant temple open to the sky, with a similar smaller ring inside, and an avenue of tall pillars forming an approach. Such an arrangement as this may be seen on the shore of Lough Gur in Lim- erick. Then there are spaced circles, groups of circles, and irregular groups of huge boulders. 7. Who built the cromlechs? The growth of peat over certain of these stone circles shows that they were put in place several thousand years ago, long before the arrival of the De Dananns. They are, therefore, the work of some older race, such as the Firbolgs or Fomorians, whom the De Dananns found in Ireland on their arrival. The ancient Greeks and Romans describe a far-north- ern race, whom they called the Hyperboreans, who dwelt in caves, in the north of Europe, several thousand years ago. They were men of small stature, sallow complex- ion, and black hair, and everything goes to show that they are the same race which Irish tradition probawy calls the Firbolgs. While this race is old enough Jy\Je'" to have built the cromlechs, several considera- Firtoigs. tions keep us from believing that they did so. The 8 IRELAND'S STORY [b. c. 2000? chief of these is that of locality. The cromlechs are found over a large area, and in many regions where there were no Firbolgs or Hyperboreans to build them. There is, however, another race, which is probably that called Fomorian by Irish tradition, whose distribu- TheFomo- ^^^^ Coincides exactly with that of the crom- riansor lechs and stone circles. The tribes of this tall, dark race seem to have had their centre of dispersion near Gibraltar, and to have spread in two directions. To the south, they overran the African coast as far as Algiers and Tunis, spreading thence to the islands of Sardinia, Malta, and Minorca, and landing on the southeast coast of Spain. To the north, they spread over Portugal and northern Spain, the west coast of France, especially Brittany, Ireland, the west coast of Britain, and the Atlantic border of Norway. As they seem to have come from Mount Atlas, and always kept close to the Atlantic, the tribes of this race have been called Atlanteans. It is interesting to note that crom- lechs and great stone circles, such as have been described in Ireland, are found scattered over the entire country, from Africa to Norway, at one time ruled and inhabited by the tall, dark Fomorians or Atlanteans. The crom- lechs are not found elsewhere, and remnants of this race are not found in countries where there are no crom- lechs. So all the conditions seem to be fulfilled, and we can with very great probability identify the Fomorians with the cromlech-builders. This strong and athletic race, full of the spirit of adventure, must have ruled for long centuries in a land of peace and plenty, engaged amongst other things in building temples and tombs con- taining blocks of stone so large that a thousand men could hardly lift them. Its rulers must have held great power to command such work. B. c. 2000?] THE LEGENDARY RACES 9 SUMMARY The golden-haired De Dananns came down from the Baltic Sea, landed at Lough Foyle, and, after burning their ships, proceeded inland. They came into contact with two dark- haired races who already inhabited Ireland. Two battles followed, at Southern Mag Tured against the Firboigs, and at Northern Mag Tured against the Fomorians. In both bat- tles the De Dananns were victorious. To the De Dananns is attributed the building of the great pyramids along the Boyne. Relics of their art, which have been found in these pyramids, point to a high degree of civili- zation. Other ancient monuments in Ireland are the cromlechs and great stone circles, probably built by the Fomorians. CHAPTER II THE MILESIANS Traditional Dates: b. c 1700-B. c. 1000 8. Arrival of the Sons of Milid. The De Dananns established themselves in Ireland, and soon gained full sway over the island. For several centuries, they ruled in comparative quiet, and built their mighty pyramids. Then they were forced to yield, surrendering to later conquerors. The new invaders were the " Sons of Milid," who came, tradition tells us, from either Gaul or Spain, at a date probably more than three thousand years GaeUc ^go. At that period, the race which we know invasion, ^g ^j^^ Gauls held sway over the whole of Cen- tral Europe, from Austrian Galicia to Galicia on the west coast of Spain, both of which provinces still pre- serve the name of the Galli or Gauls. In Ireland, this race was called Gaedel, or Gael, and in all the vast area which it inhabited, whether on the continent or in -Ire- land, this race had always the same character and form : tall, stalwart, inclined to stoutness, with brown or red hair and gray or hazel eyes, and with a complexion easily tanned by sun and wind. The ships of the Sons of Milid, says the legend, landed, after great difficulty, due to the De Danann ma- gical arts, on the strand of Kenmare Bay in Kerry. They routed the De Dananns, and pursued them northward, overtaking them at Tailten on the Blackwater, in what is now Meath. Here another battle was fought, at a B.C. i7oo?-B.c. looo?] THE MILESIANS II place ten miles west of Tara, which assured the foothold of the Sons of Milid in the land of their adop- „^ ^ They over- tion, and gave the death-blow to the siiprem- come the De acy of the De Danann pyramid-builders. Thus *"*^^- the fourth of the ancient races came to Ireland. 9. The Ireland of the Milesians. One can easily form an idea of the land in which these successive invaders made their home by picturing an island, oblong in shape, three hundred miles long and a hundred and seventy-five miles wide. The north and the south are mountainous, while the centre is a plain, whose waters are carried off by the Shannon and the Boyne. In the northern and southern mountain regions alike, the hills run from northeast to southwest. The highest are about three thousand feet, and nearly all are of rounded „ •' Mountains, forms, with grass and heather to their summits, lakes, and In the days of the early races, these mountains, like the higher regions of the central plain, were covered with woods largely formed of oak-trees; the rest of the plain was open grass-land, or marsh and bog. As much of the land was thus covered with woods, leaving little space for tillage, it was considered an act worthy of high praise to clear away the forest, and open up new land, and the names of many early chiefs are remembered in the Annals for work of this kind. Later, much of the forest was cut down for fuel, or to be used in smelting iron ore, so that at present the country is comparatively bare of trees. In the beginning, however, it was a land of forests, mountains, and lakes, very wild and very beautiful. In the thickets of the forests and on the mountains, from times much more remote than those of the earlier traditional races, there were vast herds of wild cattle, deer of several kinds, and wild boars. 12 IRELAND'S STORY [b. c. ? Largest among the deer were the giant Irish elks which continued to Hve and thrive for many thousand years, but disappeared in the days of the earliest races. These vast herds of deer and cattle were preyed on in times extremely remote by tigers and grizzly bears, but in later years these became extinct, and their worst enemies were wolves and wild dogs. On the rocky crags of the mountains golden eagles made their nests ; and white fish-hawks, or ospreys, hovered over the lakes in the great central plain and among the hills. The glades of the forest resounded with the songs of innumerable blackbirds and thrushes, and above the open meadows skylarks trilled up under the clouds. Myriads of smaller birds filled the forests with life among the glades carpeted in spring with yellow primroses, wood anemones, and dark blue hyacinths. The rivers, with the lakes which fed them, were full of fish, big silver salmon, speckled trout, and a score of others. Gray herons with long plumes, standing silent in the margin of the rivers, watched for the young fish ; and otters pursued the salmon through the deep pools and under the waterfalls. In the age of the great oak forests, Ireland was warmer than now. Through the long summer days of sunshine, the woods teemed with stir- ring life. Then with autumn and the shortening days SKELETON OF THE GREAT IRISH ELK The height to the tip of the antler is about twelve feet Birds. Fish. Climate. B. c. looo?] THE MILESIANS 13 the leaves began to wither on the oaks, hanging there brown and dry till midwinter, then falling in a russet carpet on the grass, where the wild boars gathered, seek- ins: for the fallen acorns. The forests were bare then, but for the groves of holly and evergreen yew, and the pines and fir-trees upon the mountains. Little snow fell, and not twice in ten years did ice cover the drink- ing-pools of the deer among the hills. All around the coasts, with broad reaches of sand on the east and cliffs broken into long, rocky inlets on the west, the gulls clamored incessantly, close to the edge of the tide, a line of gray wings beside the white fringe of the waters. Over the sea vellow-wino^ed solan Sea-birds. geese hovered and plunged among the shoals offish ; black cormorants swam hither and thither among the waves, ever and anon diving under the blue water, or standing, with wings outspread and shivering, on the ledges of the seaweed covered rocks. When the storms came up from the ocean, bringing darkness and rain upon the sea, the white gulls were driven inland to the homes of the ravens and the rooks. 10. Life of the early races. Ireland thus richly en- dowed offered a hospitable refuge to all the races whose coming we have recorded. The deer and wild cattle of the forests, the salmon caught in the weirs, the trout in the mountain streams, the birds of the woods, the lakes, and the seashore gave ample food. The very ear- liest races lived in caves in the mountains ; later comers built round houses of pine or oak cut from the forests on the hills. When the inhabitants became more numerous, and feuds and quarrels arose among the different races and tribes, these houses were often surrounded with earthen ramparts, circular in form like the houses themselves. These ring-shaped earthworks, sur- 14 IRELAND'S STORY [b. c. looo? vivors of a remote past, are found everywhere in Ireland to-day, and are called forts, forraths, or raths. Even before the coming of the De Dananns, the Fo- morians and Firbolgs had made weapons and implements Early ^^ metal, using chiefly bronze, the material for weapons, which they obtained from the abundant copper clothes, . , . ^, 1 1 , r andorna- ores m the mountains. Ihey made clothes of ments. leather prepared from the skins of the deer they killed for food. They adorned themselves with necklaces of shells, of pebbles pierced like beads, and wore armlets or bracelets roughly made of copper, silver, or even gold. With the coming of the De Dananns came a new development of knowledge and skill, and a greater wealth of moral and mental life. They made The bronze- much more beautiful weapons, gracefully shaped De^Da- *^^ ^^^^ ^^^ weapons of the ancient Greeks, and of a finer material, a golden bronze that even to- day shines like gold. It is probable that their skill in metal work influenced the art of the Sons of Milid who came after them. 11. Early social life of the Milesians. But for all their skill and knowledge, the De Dananns seem to have been hunters only, ignorant of agriculture. It is only after the coming of the Sons of Milid, who brought their The agri- knowledge from Continental Europe, that we the^MUe"- ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ sowing of grain and the weaving sians. of flax. Acorns, dried and ground up, were used instead of grain for bread, not only in early times, but far later. With the Milesians came a riper social life, such as seems only to be developed when the fierce Social and Pursuit of wild game has given place to sowing artistic de- and reaping: and the tending of flocks. The velopment. i o o relics and treasures which have been found of recent years prove the truth of the stories which have B. C. 1000?] THE MILESIANS 15 come down to us, of the wonderful art and high develop- ment which characterized the life and people of that dis- tinctively Irish period, beginning with the coming of the Milesians some three thousand years ago. The art of working gold was carried to a still higher degree of per- fection. The gold mines of Wicklow, along ^j^^ ^^^^_ the greater and lesser Avons, were one of the low gold sources from which the Milesians and De Dananns drew their supply. These mines were so rich that much gold is still found there, many thousand ounces having been obtained during the last century. We have an abundance of beautiful gold-work from those times, of unparalleled fineness of design and execution, proving that the Milesian goldsmith was not only an excellent artist, but a skilful and indefatigable workman. Modern productions in this art are often commonplace beside the delicate, refined, minute work of the early Irish period. Torques , or twisted ribbons of gold, of varying size and shape, were worn as diadems, collars, or even belts ; crescent bands of finely embossed sheet gold were worn above the forehead ; brooches and pins, of the most delicate and imagi- native workmanship, were used to fasten the folds of the many-colored cloaks worn by the kings and chieftains and warriors. For the Milesians were skilled in the use of dyes. It is recorded that the first three colors used were blue, purple, and LOOSELY TWISTED TORQUE OF GOLD The original torque is 5^ inches in diameter i6 IRELAND'S STORY [b. c. iooo Rings and bracelets were green, and to these a rich red, a yellow, a pink, and cer- Richiy ^^^^ other colors were later added. The king dyed had the right to wear garments of seven colors, garments. , ^ ■ r . , . , the greater chiefs wore six, and so in a de- scending scale, where rank was shown by the number of hues in the dress. The tribal tartans of Scotland are a relic of this custom, worn. Everything, whether for ornament or use, was richly carved, and the forms of many of the domestic uten- sils, the earthen pots, the caul- drons of welded sheet bronze, the huge curved war-trum- pets, are graceful and artistic. 12. The Brehon Laws. The Sons of Milid, who are the Gaels of Irish history, brought with them from the continent a system of laws, called the Laws of the Bre- hons, from the Gaelic word brehon, *'a judge." Their central principle is the unity of the family, as even to- day the father of a family has a certain legal and social Unity of authority over his wife, children, and servants, the family, jj^-^ authority is exactly balanced by the duty of providing for them and liability for their debts. At present the father's responsibility for his sons and his legal authority over them end when they come of age. In primitive Irish society this was not so. Union is strength, and to secure this strength the family remained united even after the sons came of age. Let us imagine the head of such a united family liv- ing to a great age, with great-grandchildren growing up Their underlying principle. ANCIENT IRISH BRONZE CAUL- DRON Cauldrons are said to have been intro- duced into Ireland by the De Dananns B. c. looo?] THE MILESIANS 1/ around him. Taking his sons and grandsons with their wives, children, and servants, he might easily be the head of a family numbering a hundred, or a hundred and fifty persons. Such a family would be strong enough to hold its own against attack, and, in fact, would be a small state under the authority of a patriarchal head or chief. All his sons and grandsons and their wives had the same sur- name, derived from the name of their father. 13. The family grows into a tribe. On the death of the father of such an undivided family, it was necessary to choose a new head to exercise authority over the rest and be responsible for them. Where suitable, the eldest son was chosen, but if he was incompetent, or unable to make his authority felt, the general opinion of the family often passed him over in favor of a more worthy head. If we imagine the same family holding together * , . ^ , ^ . The tribe, for several generations, and at each generation choosing its most worthy member as head, we have ex- actly the ancient Irish tribe. In the Irish famihes, it became the custom to assign to the chief, or head of the tribe, a definite share of the property of the tribe, in order that he might maintain a certain dignity and state as befitted his authority and re- presentative position. This "chiefs portion" Division of passed entire to the chief's successor. On the property, other hand, the property of other members of the tribe was held in common, the right to enjoy it being divided equally among all their sons. Therefore, while the chief was as rich as his predecessor, or richer, the other mem- bers of the tribe tended to become continually poorer, through the perpetual subdivision of their property amongst all their sons. In this way a chasm gradually opened between the chief's family and the rest of the tribe, the chief growing in authority and wealth until the l8 IRELAND'S STORY [b. c. looo? distinction between the chief's family and the ordinary Origin of freemen of the tribe amounted to a difference of classes. class. As there were great numbers of these tribal families in Ireland, their heads gradually formed a class by themselves, a hereditary nobility, distinct from the rest of the people. The " Rig," or king, of Irish his- Tiie"Rig" tory is the head or chief of a powerful family or king. Qj. group of families, and if we keep in mind the structure of such a family and the rivalries between differ- ent families, we shall understand the causes of the inces- sant struggles to be narrated in the chapters which follow. 14. Wealth estimated in cattle. We have spoken of the property of the tribal family. This property consisted primarily of cattle. The herd of the chief naturally tended to increase, while the cattle of the other members of the tribe were perpetually subdivided amongst a num- ber of children, so that no member was likely to possess many head of cattle. Thus the nobles were always a wealthy class, and we find the Irish law tracts recognizing this when they say that " the head of every tribe should be the man of the tribe who is the most experienced, the most noble, the most wealthy, the most learned, the most truly popular, the most powerful to oppose, the most steadfast to sue for profits and be sued for losses." As in early days, when population was scanty, there was no scarcity of land, cattle were much more valuable than land ; and when the cattle of a tribe failed, through disease or bad seasons, the temptation to help themselves to the cattle of their neighbors was very strong. We find many of the early wars in all countries originating in cattle raids, and the finest epic in ancient Ireland is the story of a raid for a red bull. (See section 20.) 15. Criminal law. The criminal law of the Brehons dealt with injuries to property and person, and one of its B. c. looo?] THE MILESIANS 19 most characteristic provisions was that injuries to the person, including wounding and homicide, were pun- ished by exacting fines to be paid in cattle by the tribe to which the offender belonged. The rate of fines for people of various ranks was accurately fixed so that there was a certain "eric," or fine in cattle, for caus- Exlc. ing the death of a chief; a certain "eric" for causing the death of a chief's son, a freeman, and so on. SUMMARY The De Dananns were overthrown by a new race, the Mile- sians, who are supposed to have come from Gaul or Spain about 1000 B. c, and who were the fourth and last race to invade Ireland. They found a picturesque land of mountain and plain, thickly wooded, with some pastures, and great tracts of marsh. Numerous lakes and rivers provided a large supply of fish, while a great variety of animals and birds lived in the forests. The earliest inhabitants lived in caves, but later, houses were built of oak and surrounded by earthworks called "raths." Each of the early races carried the art of metal-work to a higher degree than the last. The Milesians introduced agriculture. The early Irish state was founded and governed under the Brehon Laws. The underlying principle was the unity of the family, of which the father was the patriarchal head. Out of the family, regarded thus as a small state, grew the tribe. The heads of the tribes, owing to their superior wealth, grad- ually came to form a class apart, a hereditary nobility. The " Rig " or king was simply the chief of a powerful family or group of families. All wealth was estimated in cattle. Under the rules of the Brehon criminal law, fines were paid in so many head of cattle, according to the rank of the injured party. Thus the Brehon Laws had to do with the regulation of the duties of the chief and other members of the tribe ; with the division of property ; and with the fixing of fines. CHAPTER III LEGENDARY STORY OF EMAIN OF MACA Traditional Dates, b. c. 450-A. d. 50 16. The building of Bmain. Twenty-three hundred years ago, Queen Maca built the great fort and palace of Emain, destined to be for six hundred years the dwelling- place of the Ulster kings. Emain is close to where Armagh was later built, at Ard Maca, the " hill of Maca," a name which preserves even to-day the memory of the queen-foundress of Emain. At this great centre of the northern tribes was enacted, some four centuries after the death of Maca, and therefore about the beginning of our era, a drama of passion which has lived ever since in the epic traditions of Ireland. It is the story of Concobar the king, of Cuculaind the champion and warrior, of the beautiful and hapless Deirdre, of the ill-fated sons of Usnac. 17. Concobar becomes chief of Emain. The begin- nings of the tragedy happened thus : Fergus and Factna were joint rulers at Emain. Factna, husband of the beau- tiful Nessa, died while their son Concobar was yet a child. Nessa, left desolate, was yet so beautiful that Fergus sued for her hand. He finally persuaded her to marry him, but on this condition : her son Concobar was to succeed to the throne, even though sons might be born Fergus to Fergus. Fergus agreed, and even allowed displaced. Concobar to share his power, with the result that Fergus presently found himself thrust aside, while A. D. 1-50?] LEGEND OF EMAIN OF MACA 21 his stepson became the real ruler of Emain and the men of Ulster. To Concobar were brought all the tributes of cattle and horses, scarlet cloaks and dyed fabrics, and in everything the word of Concobar was law. Fergus was lord only of the banqueting-hall, and of the merry- makings of the young chiefs. 18. The story of Deirdre. A maiden more beautiful than all others, Deirdre by name, with golden hair and blue eyes, had come into the power of Concobar, and was kept by him a close prisoner. Deirdre once saw a raven on the snow, sipping the blood of an animal that had been slain. She watched the raven, and told her waiting-wo- man that her heart desired a lover whose hair should be dark as the raven's wing, and his skin red and white, like the blood on the snow. Soon after this, seeing Naisi, one of the three sons of Usnac, Deirdre Escapes to fell in love with him, and persuaded him to take Scotland, her away from Emain, and from Concobar's power. Naisi at last consented, and with his two brothers and certain faithful followers he carried Deirdre away from the fort of Emain, and passing quickly through the lands of Concobar came to the seashore, and took boat across the narrow sea that divides Ulster from the long head- lands of Scotland. Once when they were playing chess within their shelter of branches, they heard a call sounding to them, up from the water-edge. Deirdre felt that it was a note of doom. But Naisi, recognizing the voice, went out to meet the newcomers, who were Fergus, the king's stepfather, and his two sons, with their companions. Fergus capturedby had been sent by Concobar, with a purpose of treachery, treachery, known only to the king himself ; for Concobar had pledged his word to Fergus that he would harm neither Deirdre nor Naisi, but that he needed the help 22 IRELAND'S STORY [a. D. 1-50? of the sons of Usnac in war, and therefore sought their return. Naisi and his brothers were wilHng to go back to Emain, but on their return the sons of Usnac were slain, and Deirdre fell once more into Concobar's power. 19. The revolt of Fergus. When Fergus heard how the king, who had already usurped his throne, had now broken faith with him, he was furious, and endeavored to arouse the people to revolt. The warriors of Ulster were immediately divided into two hostile camps, one under Fergus, the other under Concobar. With Con- cobar stood his cousin Cuculaind, the greatest warrior of Emain. Fergus soon understood that, with the Fergus ^ seeks small force at his command, he could not hope for victory, so he sought help from Medb, queen-consort of Ailill, king of Connaught, whither he went with his two thousand Ulster adherents. Medb was a warlike and domineering woman, who took part in all affairs of state, and even went so far as to lead her own armies to battle. She had long been the enemy of Con- cobar, therefore she gladly welcomed the exiled F'ergus, and honored him by making him her chief general. Dur- ing several years, many expeditions were led by Fergus against Concobar, with varying success, until the famous " War of the Bull." 20. The War of the Bull. It happened that one day Medb and Ailill fell to disputing as to whose wealth was greatest. They matched their possessions, begin- ning with lands, and going on through jewels, robes, and cattle. The riches of both were equal, until Its cause. Ailill spoke of the white bull in his herd, which had no peer in the herds of the queen. Medb sent to seek the red bull of Daire, in the territory of Ulster. A dispute arose over the sending of the bull, and Medb ordered it to be taken by armed force. In the van of her A. D. 1-50?] LEGEND OF EMAIN OF MACA Cuculalnd. army were Fergus and his followers. Concobar's army was not quite ready to meet the invaders, so Cuculaind was sent with a small force to detain the host of Con- naught at the frontier of Ulster, formed by the river Dee. Cuculaind, whose true name was Setanta, the son of Sualtam, and cousin of Concobar, was the greatest of the many heroes of that heroic age. For centuries after his death the bards sang his praises as the most skilful and valiant warrior, the most perfect and virtuous hero, the most cour- ageous and magnanimous figure of his time. With a handful of men, Cuculaind held Bin the ford on the river Dee against Medb's II advancing army. In the rules of war and chivalry of those days no army „ , . ^ . . •' . ■' ^ Cuculaind could advance so long as a cham- holds the pion of the opposite side offered " " single combat. He must be met by one antagonist at a time until he was over- thrown. Then the attacking host might pass. Thus Cuculaind held the ford for many days, waging valiant combat against Medb's champions, while the men of Ul- long and the spear stCr WCrC aSSCmblino:. head 15 in. long ^ 21. The fight between Cuculaind and Ferdiad. Finally, through repeated taunts, Queen Medb forced the mighty Ferdiad, the greatest hero of the southern provinces and an old friend of Cuculaind's, to go forth as her champion. For three days the two friends fought : " So fierce was the fight they fought that they cast the river out of its bed, so that not a drop of water lay there unless from the sweat of the champion heroes hewing each other in the midst of the ANCIENT IRISH SWORD AND SPEAR HEAD The rivet holes for the handle of the sword can be seen The swordis22 in 24 IRELAND'S STORY [a. d. 1-50? ford. So fierce was the fight they fought that the horses of the Gael fled away in fright, breaking their chains and their yokes, and the women and youths and camp- followers broke from the camp, flying forth southwards and westwards." They were fighting with the edges of their swords, Ferdiadis ^"^ Ferdiad, finding a break in the guard of kiued. Cuculaind, gave him a stroke of the straight- edged sword, burying it in his body until the blood fell into his girdle, and the ford was red with the blood of the hero's body. Afterwards Cuculaind thrust an unerring spear over the rim of the shield, and through the breast of Ferdiad's armor, so that the point of the spear pierced his heart and showed through his body. 22. Concobar arrives with his army. Thus did Cuculaind keep the ford, which is still known as the ford of Ferdiad, at Ardee, in the green plain of Louth. Meanwhile Concobar had assembled his army, and now arrived just in time to check the enemy. Medb's army fled southward and westward, pursued by the men of Battle of Ulster, until they came to Gairec. There a Gairec. battle was fought, which was hardly less fatal to the victors than to the vanquished. For though the hosts of Medb were routed, yet Concobar's men could not continue the pursuit. 23. Concobar plans an invasion. Concobar was now determined to invade the southern provinces, and punish their chiefs for the attack on his territories. He held a council of war at the fort of Cuculaind, and laid his plans. Meanwhile, Medb, Ailill, and Fergus were gathering their hosts at Cruacan, the capital of Connaught. It was de- cided to treat with Concobar, and terms were offered him whereby he should be duly repaid for all his losses during the past invasion, and the red bull should be A. D. 1-50?] LEGEND OF EMAIN OF MACA 25 returned. But Concobar refused to negotiate, and swore that he would accept no terms until his tent had been pitched in every province of Erin. At the Headland of the Kings, close to the ancient De Danann pyramids of Brugh on the Boyne, the battle was fought. The allies were greatly superior in number to the army of Concobar, but ow- ing to the mighty strength and wonderful deeds of Cucu- laind, the sons of Ulster prevailed. 24. Death of Cuculaind. But Emain of Maca was destined also to lose its mightiest warrior. In a later battle with the armies of Medb, Cuculaind received a mortal wound, a spear piercing him through the body. Cuculaind, drawing the spear from his wound, painfully and slowly struggled toward a little lake close to the battlefield for a drink of water. A stone stood there, a pillar set up in honor of some warrior of old, slain in battle wqth his face toward the foe. Cuculaind, seeing the pillar, and for a moment revived by the cool water of the lake, though looking death in the face, resolved to pass on undaunted into the darkness. Therefore he bound his belt around the pillar of stone, and passed it under his arms, and thus met death, standing firm upon his feet. It is said that a gray crow alighted on the top of the pillar, above the helmet of the hero, and that an otter lapped his blood, as it trickled from his wound, and that the armies of Medb, knowing of his mortal wound, yet seeing him standing there by the pillar, were terrified, believing him an immortal. Stricken with dread, they turned back from the battle, and thus, in his death, the hero defended the territory he had so well guarded in his life. 26 IRELAND'S STORY [a. D. 1-50? SUMMARY The early history of Ireland is largely legendary, but there is reason to believe that about the beginning of our era Con- cobar became chief of the nnen of Ulster, and ruled at Emain. For many years he waged wars against Medb, Queen of Con- naught, in which he was successful, owing to the valor of Cuculaind, the most heroic figure in early Irish history. The best known of these contests was " The War of the Bull," in which Cuculaind held the ford against Ferdiad. CHAPTER IV POLITICAL GROWTH A. D. 50-A. D. 266 25. Insurrection of the serfs. During the long tribal conflicts, many prisoners were taken in battle, and others were captured as the spoil of raids in the territory of the enemy. These prisoners were kept as serfs, who the and had to till the land, while the free warriors serfs were, and their chiefs spent their time in hunting or military games, when not actually fighting. Some of these serfs, who were warriors captured in battle, succeeded in escap- ing, either to Britain or to Gaul, where many of them entered the armies of the Romans. With the serfs, the poorer and less fortunate of the tribesmen gradually came to make common cause. The years after Concobar were marked by a series of uprisings of the serfs in different parts of Ireland ; and about the middle of the first century a success- q^ ^^ ^^ ful revolt was led by Cairpre, the " Cat -headed," "Cat- who invited many of the chiefs and nobles to a banquet, and slaughtered them. Cairpre even succeeded in gaining kingly power, and the servile class ^d_ held a dominant position for the greater part 50-i30. of the eighty years ending 130 a. d. ; in that year, after a series of fiercely fought battles, the old line of kings once more came into power, their authority being restored by Tuatal the Legitimate, of the direct line of the Sons of Milid. 28 IRELAND'S STORY [a. d. 130 26. The formation of Meath. Tuatal's reign marks an epoch in another way. Ireland had come to be divided into four kingdoms, later called Ulster, Leinster, Mun- ster, and Connaught, each of which had its provincial king. There was also the central fort at Tara, in which the most powerful chieftain in Ireland reigned as High King or Overlord of the whole country. Until the reign of Tuatal, the High Kings, reigning at Tara, had enjoyed the revenues of only a small neighbor- ing district. Tuatal greatly enlarged this district, cutting off a piece from each of the four kingdoms, and form- ing the pieces into the Mid-Kingdom, ** Mide " or Meath, which now became the domain of the High King. 27. The Boruma tribute. The name of Tuatal is con- nected with another famous incident in Ireland's early history : the imposing of the Boruma tribute on the kings of Leinster. Its origin was this : the king of Leinster sought and obtained in marriage the hand of Tuatal's daughter, but soon after his return home she ceased to please him, and he finally discarded her, keeping her captive in a lonely part of his moated fortress. Some time after this, the king of Leinster, coming to Tara, told Tuatal that his queen had been carried off by death, and sought in marriage the hand of another daughter of the High King. Tuatal gave his second daughter to the king of Leinster, who brought her home to his fortress. By an accident of fate the two sisters met, and both were so horror-struck at the treachery that had been practised towards them that they died of grief. To punish this perfidy, the High King imposed the Boruma tribute on Leinster, which was to be paid yearly in cattle, sheep, hogs, man- tles, bronze cauldrons, and silver. This tribute was levied for five hundred years, and the difficulty of collect- A. D. 212] POLITICAL GROWTH 29 PAGAN IRELAND ing it was the cause of many battles. After a period of strife following the death of Tuatal, his son Fedli- mid gained the throne. 28. Final restora- tion of the old line of kings. With the ac- cession of Fedlimid, the legislator, the race of Milid finally became the dominant power, and so remained for centuries. Conn, son of Fedlimid, was the most famous warrior of his day, being surnamed '' of the Hundred Battles," in honor of a hundred battles which he was believed to have fought. Conn's most formidable antagonist was Mog- ^^ Nuadat. These two warriors practically divided divides Ireland between them, Conn holding the north- with wiog- ern half of the island, while the south remained "uadat. in the power of Mog-Nuadat. The line of division ran from Dublin to Gal way, and was in part marked by a line of sand-hills. Conn was treacherously slain at Tara, in the year 212 A. D., while he was preparing to celebrate Death oi the Feis of Tara, the great festival that was ^°^- celebrated every third year. Conn is said to have been killed in his hundredth year. His grandson, Riada, began the conquest of the northern part of the neighboring island of Britain, which was then called Alba. It must be remembered that, though surrounded by 30 IRELAND'S STORY [a. d. 250 the sea, Ireland was by no means cut off from neigh- boring lands. Ships of considerable size con- stantly passed from Ireland to the Western Isles and coasts of Alba. There was also considerable commerce between Ireland and Gaul, whose inhabitants had, even two thousand years ago, ocean-going ships which filled Caesar and the Romans with admiration. 29. Foundation of the colonial Dalriada. Alba was at that time inhabited by a tribe akin to the Mile- sians, who had spent some time in Ireland on their way northward. They were called Picts by the Romans, from the Latin word //^///i", meaning "painted." Riada, grandson of Conn of the Hundred Battles, was chief- tain of a district in Antrim called from him Dalriada, or the *' portion of Riada." From the hilltops of his home, Riada could easily see the neighboring coast of Alba, across the narrow intervening sea. The prospect charmed him so much that he finally sailed across the shallow strait and founded a second Dalriada in Alba. One of the tribes of the Milesian-Irish had long borne the name of Scoti or Scots, from Scota, the wife of Milid, and from them Ireland was sometimes called Sco- TheScoti ^i^- When the Irish Scoti crossed the strait to or Soots. Alba, they carried the name Scotia with them. Alba being then called Scotia the Lesser, and, later, Scotland. The Scoti from Ireland brought with them to Alba their civilization and the Gaelic language. This Irish Gaelic is still spoken in the highlands of Scotland and in the Western Isles, and nearly all the names of families and places in Scotland are in this language. In comparatively recent times, in fact until two or three centuries ago, the Gaelic of Scotland was still called Irish. On the other hand, the tribesmen of Ireland were called Scots until the seventeenth century. All the 254] POLITICAL GROWTH 31 clan names of Scotland beginning with Mac, meaning "son of," as well as the word clan itself, belong to the language which Ireland gave to Scotland. 30. King Cormac, son of Art. The most cultured period of pagan Ireland is ushered in by Cormac, son of Art, son of Conn of the Hundred Battles. Cor- waniorand mac became king in 254 a. d., and is famous as a sage, warrior, and even more as a lawyer and a sage. Cormac is the ideal king, manly and handsome, mirthful and wise : " Beautiful was the appearance of Cormac in the assembly," says an ancient manuscript ; " flowing, slightly curling golden hair upon him ; a red buckler with stars and. animals of gold and fastening of silver upon him ; a crimson cloak in wide, descending folds upon him, fas- tened at his breast by a golden brooch set with precious stones ; a neck- torque of gold round his neck; a white shirt with a full collar, and intertwined with red gold thread upon him ; a girdle of gold inlaid with pre- cious stones around him ; two wonderful shoes of gold with embroidery of gold upon him ; two spears with PLAN OF TARA 32 IRELAND'S STORY [254 golden sockets in his hand." Hardly less celebrated is his son-in-law, Find, son of Cumal, and father of Ossin, the poet. Find was the leader of Cormac's standing army, called the '' Fians " or ''Fenians." 31. The court of Tara. We can trace the outlines of Cormac's court at Tara even now. The central part is the Rath-na-Riogh, '' the Fort of the King," a vast oval earth- work about three hundred yards in diameter, surrounded by a moat. Inside " the Fort of the King " are two great mounds, one, the Forradh, or place of meeting, where stands the Lia Fail, "the Stone of Destiny," on which for ages the kings of Ireland were crowned. Beside the Forradh is the Teach-Cormaic, "the House of Cor- mac," a circular earthwork about fifty yards across, where the great king dwelt. To the north of " the Fort of the King," and beyond the rath called "the King's Chair," is the Teach-Miodh-Chuarta, " the House of Mead," from the drink made of honey, or "mead," which was handed round in goblets to the chiefs. The position of the House of Mead is marked by the foundations of earth which are clearly visible, and on which the walls of oak were built. These foundations show that the hall was two hundred and fifty yards long and thirty yards wide, with six doors on each side, and in it hundreds of chiefs could easily have gathered to a banquet. There are many other earthworks, not far from " the Fort of the King," which still bear the names of kings, princes, and princesses of Ireland, whose dwellings of oak formerly stood within them. 32. Abdication of Cormac. At the court of Tara, in the House of Cormac and the House of Mead, the king listened to the stories of Find and the songs of Ossin ; there the harpers played and sang their traditional melo- dies; there the Brehon men-of-law gave judgments. Tra- 266] POLITICAL GROWTH 33 dition says that in the year 266 a. d. Cormac was wounded in the eye, and as it was the law that no one who had any personal defect could rule within the sacred inclosure of Tara, he was compelled to abdicate. He built cormacas for himself a dwelling on the Hill of Skreen, a lawgiver, where he delivered many legal judgments which are re- corded in the Book of Aicill so called, from Aicill, the old name of the Hill of Skreen. There also he carried on the dialogues with his son which record his wisdom. SUMMARY In the century after Concobar, there were several insur- rections of the serfs. They dominated the country from A. D. 50 to A. D. 130. The direct line of the Sons of Milid was restored by Tuatal. In his reign, the central kingdom of Meath was formed, and the Boruma tribute was imposed on Leinster. Tuatal was succeeded by his son, Fedlimid, and his grandson, Conn of the Hundred Battles. The colony of Dal- riada was founded in Alba, now Scotland, by Riada, grandson of Conn. The name of Scotland was given to this colony by the Irish tribe of Scoti, or Scots. King Cormac, another grandson of Conn, held his rich court at Tara. GENEALOGICAL TABLE Tuatal (the Legitimate) I Fedlimid (the Legislator) I Conn (of the Hundred Battles) I I Conary Art I I Riada (the Colonist) Cormac (the Philosopher) I Cumal I I 1 Cairbre Ailbe = Find I Ossin I Oscar CHAPTER V KING CORMAC AND OSSIN 254-293 33. Social life in the third century. The five king- doms, Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Munster, and Meath, were now clearly defined, with Meath in the centre, pre- dominant over all, and virtually ruling the others from the Hill of Tara. The code of honor was fixed ; justice was equally measured to all ; social life had ripened ; the warriors were gathered into something like a regular and disciplined army, and so were a check on the power of the king. Classes existed, from the great chief, or king, down through the lesser chiefs, or nobles, to the serf who was attached to the land. Tribute was paid in the pro- ducts of the land, or of the arts. Embroideries and tap- estries of great beauty were made by the ladies of the chiefs' families and their waiting-women. To women of all classes great freedom and respect were accorded dur- ing this period. 34. The warrior-poet Find, son of Cumal. Find, the warrior, father of Ossin, was himself a poet. In a few verses of his, handed down to our times, he has left us a picture of spring, which shows that, even in those remote days, the people of Ireland keenly felt the beauties of their native land : — "May-day! Delightful time! How beautiful the color! The blackbirds sing their full lay. Would that Laigay were here ! The 3D CENT.] KING CORMAC AND OSSIN 35 cuckoos call in constant strains. How welcome is ever the noble brightness of the season! On the margin of the leafy pools, the summer swallows skim the stream. Swift horses seek the pools. The heath spreads out its long hair. The white, gentle cotton- grass grows. The sea is lulled to rest. Flowers cover the earth." 35, A poem of Ossin. A wonderfully vivid picture of the outdoor life, the gatherings, the sports of this period. THE HILL OF TARA The mound called the Forradh is here shown according to the drawing by Wakeman is preserved in one of the few poems of Ossin which have been handed down to us from that remote time. The poem begins thus : — '■ Six thousand gallant men of war We sought the rath o'er Badamar; To the king's palace-home we bent Our way. His bidden guests we went. 'Twas Clocar fair. And Find was there, The Fians from the hills around Had gathered to the race-course ground. From valley deep and wooded glen Fair Munster sent its mighty men." After several races had been run, the king presented 36 'IRELAND'S STORY [3D cent. Find, chief of the army, and father of Ossin, the poet, with a coal-black steed, addressing him thus : — " Hero ! take the swift black steed, Of thy valor fitting meed ; And my car, in battle-raid Gazed on by the foe with fear ; And a seemly steed for thy charioteer. Chieftain, be this good sword thine. Purchased with a hundred kine, In thy hand be it our aid." Find tried his new horse, taking it first to the broad strand of Tralee. Later, accompanied by Ossin and Cailte, Find's adopted son, he rode south toward the lakes of Killarney, where, about nightfall, they saw a mysterious house that none of them could remember ever to have seen before. They entered, nevertheless, only to find, as Ossin tells us, an ogre and a witch, surrounded by horrors, when " From iron benches on the right Nine headless bodies rose to sight. And on the left, from grim repose. Nine heads that had no bodies rose." Ossin then tells how, overcome by all these terrors, he and Find, his father, and Cailte fell at last into a deathlike trance, and slept till the sunlight woke them lying on the heathery hillside, the house utterly van- ished away. 36. King Cormac's precepts. Another side of the life of pagan Ireland in this richest period is shown in the dialogue between Cormac, son of Art, son of Conn of the Hundred Battles, and Cairbre his son : — " O grandson of Conn, O Cormac," Cairbre asked him, "What is good for a king ? " "This is plain," answered Cormac. "It is good for 3D CENT.] KING CORMAC AND OSSIN 3/ him to have patience, and not to dispute, self-government without anger, affabiUty without haughtiness. Duties oi diligent attention to history, strict observance ai^iie- of covenants and agreements, justice tempered by mercy, in execution of the laws. It is good for him to make the land fertile, to invite ships, to import jewels of price from across the sea, to purchase and distribute raiment, to keep vigorous swordsmen who may protect his terri- tory, to make war beyond his territory, to attend to the sick, to maintain discipline among his soldiers. Let him enforce fear, let him perfect peace, let him give mead and wine, let him pronounce just judgments of light, let him speak all truth, for it is through the truth of a king that God gives favorable seasons." " O grandson of Conn, O Cormac," Cairbre again asked him, " what is good for the welfare of a coun- try .? " " This is plain," answered Cormac. " Frequent assem- blies of wise and good men, to investigate its affairs, to abolish every evil and retain every wholesome j^gg^g g, ^ institution, to attend to the precepts of the country, seniors ; let every assembly be convened according to the law, let the law be in the hands of the noblest, let the chieftains be upright and unwilling to oppress the poor." " O grandson of Conn, O Cormac," again asked Cair- bre, " what are the duties of a prince in the banqueting- hall .? " '' A prince, on the Day of Spirits, should light his lamps, and welcome his guests with clapping of hands, offering comfortable seats ; the cup-bearers duties of a should be active in distributing meat and drink, "y*^ ^°s*- Let there be moderation of music, short stories, a wel- coming countenance, a greeting for the learned, pleasant 38 IRELAND'S STORY [3D cent. conversation. These are the duties of a prince in the banqueting-house. " " O grandson of Conn, O Cormac, what is good for me ? " " If thou attend to my command, thou wilt not scorn the old, though thou art young ; nor the poor, though thou art well-clad ; nor the lame, though thou art swift ; nor the Advice to a blind, though thou seest ; nor the weak, though young man. t];iou art strong ; nor the ignorant, though thou art wise. Be not slothful, be not passionate, be not greedy, be not idle, be not jealous ; for he who is so is hateful to God and man." 37. Political development. The story of these first centuries illustrates the whole of early Irish history. There is a strong central family which holds the High Kingship for generation after generation. Its rule, how- ever, is not uninterrupted. The High King is attacked again and again by other chiefs almost as powerful as himself, and is not always successful in defending him- self. He is slain in battle, his followers are routed, and powder passes to another family. The son, or perhaps the grandson, of the late High King reorganizes his forces in some remote fortress ; the boys of his tribe grow up and become warriors, until with renewed strength he attacks his father's slayer and overthrows him. The family from which sprang Conn of the Hundred Battles in this way dominated the first three centuries in our era, though its rule was interrupted by two insurrections of serfs and by the reigns of several rival chieftains. Its influence was eclipsed by the military uprising which cul- minated at the battle of Gavra. 38. The battle of Gavra, A. D. 293. This battle was fought in the year 293 a. d. The power of the armed militia, which had been consolidated into something like 4TH CENT.] KING CORMAC AND OSSIN 39 a regular army by Find, and to which the name of Fians or Fenians was given, had gradually grown hostile to- ward the High King, and a final struggle to the death became inevitable. This was the battle of Gavra, fought close to the Hill of Skreen, near Tara. The „ , , . . End of conflict was long and fierce, and in it fell Cair- Cormac's bre, the High King, and also the chiefs of the ^^ ^' Fenians, thus closing one of the brightest epochs of Irish history by the death of its most famous men. 39. Rise of the family of Niall. Three chieftains of other tribes successively held the power after this battle, their rule covering several years. Then an- other great family began to come to the fore. Its first representative was Fiaca, who held the High Kingship for thirty years. He was succeeded after four years by his son, Muir- eadac, who reigned for a like period, and was followed not by his son, but by one of the Ulster chiefs. The latter had only a brief in- terval of power, beinsf overthrown by Eocaid, ,„^,„ „^,^ -*■ ^~^ ^ SPEAR HEAD the son of Muireadac, after a few months. 7i inches long, Eocaid retained the High Kingship for eight shannon at years, when a chieftain of another family seized the supreme power and held it for fourteen years. Then the High Kingship reverted once more to the family of Muireadac and Eocaid, in the person of the latter's son, the famous warrior known as Niall of the Nine Hos- tages, because he received hostages from Ulster, Lein- ster, Munster, Connaught, Pictland, Dalriada, Britain, Saxonland, and the Morini of Gaul. Niall held the High Kingship for twenty-seven years, and in one of his raids against the Roman colonies in North Britain he is believed to have taken captive the future apostle of Ireland. After Niall, the direct line was again 40 IRELAND'S STORY [5TH cent. broken, and his nephew, Dati, held the chief power for twenty-three years. He was succeeded by Laegaire, the son of Niall, High King during thirty years. Then Dati's family once more came into power in the per- son of his son, Oilioll. After twenty years, the family of Niall once more became dominant, Lugaid, the son of Laegaire, holding the High Kingship for a quarter of a century. These events cover the first five hundred years of our era. SUMMARY The social life of pre-Christian Ireland was rich and highly developed. Women were highly esteemed. Poetry and music were cultivated, Ossin, or Ossian, being the most fa- mous of the ancient poets. The political ideals are illustrated by the dialogue between Cormac, the High King, and his son, Cairbre. The history of Ireland, at this time, and for centuries to come, is a struggle between various powerful famiUes for the High Kingship of Ireland. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE FAMILY OF NIALL Reigns of those who became High Kings are shown by dates Fiaca, 295-325 Muireadac, 329-359 Eocaid, 360-368 \ I I Niall (of the Nine Hostages), 382-408 Fiaca Laegaire Conall Gulban Eogan Cairbre Dati 430-460 (Ancestor of the O'Connells) I I 408-430 I I III Lugaid Feargus Muireadac Cormac Oilioll 480-505 I I I 460-480 Feidlimid Muirceartac Tuatal I 505-528 528-538 St. Columba CHAPTER VI INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 432 40. Saint Patrick. At the end of the fourth century, Ireland was still a pagan land ruled by restless chiefs, whose people had reached a point where a strong human- izing influence was needed. Without this influence, the very perfection of the time would have been a danger,- like the ripeness which comes before decay. The renovating power came in the lesson of loving-kindness and tender mercy that had been taught by the shores of Galilee. The messenger was Succat, son of Calpurn, surnamed the Patrician, or Patricius, a title given to Roman citizens of noble birth. This messenger is known to us as Saint Patrick. In all probability his birthplace was in Scotland, near the river Clyde, the northern limit of the Roman province of Britain. The territory north of the Clyde was held in part by the Caledonian Picts, and in part by the Scoti, colonists from Ireland, who brought with them their civilization and language. In one of the feuds among these rival tribes, a raid was made into the territory of the Roman province south of the Clyde, and the boy Succat was taken prisoner and carried away captive to Ireland. The language of the Roman province was Latin, and the Christian religion had been brought thither from Rome. In the church of the Roman colony both the father " ^' and grandfather of Succat had held official rank, but 42 IRELAND'S STORY [432 Succat himself, though familiar with the teaching of the Gospel, had not taken that teaching greatly to heart. It came back to him, however, in the days of his cap- tivity, when as a slave he tended cattle among the woods of Slieve Mish, a mountain in what is now Antrim, half- way between Lough Neagh and the sea. From the hillside of Sheve Mish, the exile could see the blue headlands of his native Scotland, and it is easy to believe that the teachins-s of his childhood came back Captivity. , . • , ^ 1 1 r 1 1 • . to him with double force, as he gazed wist- fully over the sea toward his early home. The story of Saint Patrick's mission can best be told by quoting his own words as written in the long letter called the " Con- fession," and preserved in the " Book of Armagh," the manuscript of which was written in 807 A. D. 41. The " Confession." *' I, Patricius, a sinner, and most unlearned of believers, looked down upon by many, had for my father the deacon Calpurn, son of the elder Potitus, of a place called Bannova in Tabernia, near to Patrick which was his country home. There I was cMtiveto taken captive, when not quite sixteen. I knew Ireland. not the Eternal. Being led into captivity with thousands of others, I was brought to Ireland — a fate well deserved. For we had turned from the Eternal, nor kept the laws of the Eternal. ... " But daily herding cattle here, and Hfting up my heart in aspiration many times a day, the fear of the Paternal His life in gi"ew daily in me. A divine awe and aspiration captivity, grew in me, so that I often prayed a hundred times a day, and as many times in the night. I often remained in the woods and on the hills, rising to pray while it was yet dark, in snow or frost or rain ; yet I took no harm. The breath of the Divine burned within me, so that nothing remained in me unenkindled. . . . ^432] INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 43 " One night, while I was sleeping, I heard a voice saying to me : ' You have fasted well, and soon you shall see your home and your native land.' Soon ms return after, I heard the voice again saying : ' The ship twenty^two is ready for you.' Yet the ship was not near, years old. but two hundred miles off, in a district I had never visited, and where I knew no one. Therefore I fled, leaving the master I had served for six years, and found the ship by divine guidance, going without fear. . . . " We reached land after three days' sail ; then, for twenty-eight days we wandered through a wilderness. . . . Once more, after years of exile, I was at home again with my kindred among the Britons. All welcomed me like a son, earnestly begging me that, after the great dangers I had passed through, I would never again leave my home. " While I was at home, in a vision of the night I saw one who seemed to come from Ireland, bringing innu- merable letters. He gave me one of the let- ters, in which I read : ' The voices of the Irish.' . . . and while I read, it seemed to me that I heard the cry of the dwellers by the forest of Foclut, by the Western ocean, calUng with one voice to me : ' Come and dwell with us ! ' My heart was so moved that I awoke, and I give thanks to my God who, after many years, has given to them according to their petition. . . . " It were long, in whole or even in part, to tell of my labors, or how the All-powerful One many times set me free from bondage, and from twelve perils, His wherein my life was in danger, and from name- "Mission, less pitfalls. It were ill to try my reader too far, when I have within me the Author himself, who knows all things even before they happen, as He knows me, his poor disciple. The voice that so often guides me is 44 IRELAND'S STORY [432^ divine ; and thence it is that wisdom has come to me, who had no wisdom, knowing not Him, nor the number of my days : thence come my knowledge, and heart's joy, in his great and healing gift, for the sake of which I willingly left my home and kindred, though they offered me many gifts, with tears and sorrow. *' The people of Ireland, who formerly had only their idols and pagan ritual, not knowing the Master, have gjg now become his children ; the sons of the Scoti converts. and their kings' daughter are now become sons of the Master and handmaidens of the Anointed. " Therefore I might even leave them, to go among the Britons — for willingly would I see my own kindred and my native land again, or even go so far as Gaul, to visit my brothers, and see the faces of my Master's holy men. But I am bound in the Spirit, and would be unfaithful if I went. Nor would I willingly risk the fruit of all my work. Yet it is not I who decide, but the Master, who bid me come hither, to spend my whole life in serving, as indeed I think I shall. . . . ''Thus simply, brothers and fellow-workers for the Master, who with me have believed, I have told you how it happened that I preached and still preach, to strengthen and confirm you in aspiration, hoping that we may all rise yet higher. Let that be my reward, as 'the wise son is the glory of his father.' You know, and the Mas- ter knows, how from my youth I have lived among you, in aspiration and truth, and with single heart ; that I have declared the faith to those among whom I dwell, and still declare it. The Master knows that I have de- ceived no man in anything, nor ever shall, for his sake, and his people's. Nor shall I ever arouse uncharity in them or in any, lest his name should be spoken evil of. . . . 432] INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 45 *' I have striven in my poor way to help my brothers, and the handmaidens of the Anointed, and the holy women, who often volunteered to give me presents, and to lay their jewels on the altar ; but these I always gave back to them, even though they were hurt by it. " If I have asked of any as much as the value of a shoe, tell me. I will repay it and more. I rather spent my own wealth on you and among you, wher- Patrick's ever I went, for your sakes, through many dan- generosity, gers, to regions where no believer had ever come to baptize, to ordain teachers, or to confirm the flock. With the divine help, I very willingly and lovingly paid all. Sometimes I gave presents to the kings, — in giving presents to their sons who convoyed us, to guard us against being taken captive. Once they sought to kill me, but my time was not yet come. But they took away all that we possessed, and kept me bound till the Master liberated me on the fourteenth day, and all our goods were given back, because of the Master and of those who convoyed us. You yourselves know what gifts I gave to those who administer the law, through the districts I visited oftenest. I think I spent not less than the fine of fifteen men among them, in order that I might come among you. " The sun of this world shall fade, with those that wor- ship it ; but we bow to the spiritual Sun, the Anointed, that shall never perish, nor they that do his will, that shall endure for ever, like the Anointed Himself, who reigns with the Father and the Divine Spirit, now and ever. . . . " This I beg, that no believer or servant of the Master, who reads or receives this writing, which I, Patricius, a sinner, and very unlearned, wrote in Ireland, — I beg that none may say that whatever is good in it was die- 46 IRELAND'S STORY [432 tated by my ignorance, but rather that it came from Him. This is my Confession before I die." SUMMARY By the end of the fourth century, pagan Ireland had reached a high stage of development, but the people needed the hu- manizing influence which Saint Patrick brought to them in his teaching of Christianity. Patrick was born in North Britain, of noble parentage. While a boy, he was brought as a captive to Ireland, where he remained as a herdsman for six years. When he returned to his native land, he learned in a vision that he was destined to convert Ireland. He began his missionary work about 432 a. d., and built churches and established schools in many parts of Ireland. CHAPTER VII FULFILMENT OF PATRICK'S MISSION 432-525 42. Difficulties of conversion. In the Apostle's own words the story of his coming is simply told. But while the conversion of the Irish people was, in one sense, a simple task, because of their spiritual freedom and open- ness to new influences, — in other words, their large- mindedness, — it was by no means altogether easy. It must never be forgotten that the rival chiefs, each in his own stronghold, were perpetually fighting among them- selves, so that a considerable escort was needed to insure safe conduct from one province to another. Patrick was conducted from district to district by the kings' sons, and in return gave presents for their protection. Patrick, with his strong personality and ever-present tact, had just the qualities to meet these obstacles. His manner was that of an ambassador. He ad- HowPat- dressed himself to the chiefs as an equal, !l°^„?Z!^l i ' came these talking to them frankly, and gradually giving difficulties, them an insight into his character and convictions, his idea of life, of the kinship of soul to soul, and of im- mortality. His great sincerity awakened a responsive hearing in the hearts of those who talked with him. He had a constant sense of his divine mission : " Was it without divine promise," he asks; "or in the body only, that I came to Ireland ? Who led me ? Who took captive my soul, that I should no more see friends and 48 IRELAND'S STORY [43^ kindred ? Whence came my inspiration of pity for the race that had enslaved me ? " Through the chiefs he reached and converted the peo- ple. He displayed wonderful knowledge of men and of Ireland the world, and showed an ever-ready urbanity wShout^a ^"^ broad-minded wisdom in all his dealings martyr. with them. To this attitude is doubtless due the fact that the history of the conversion of Ireland has no instance of martyrdom. 43. Patrick's first church and journey to Tara. He began his apostolic labors, and won his earliest victory, at Downpatrick — " The dwelling of Patrick," — in the district ruled over by a chief who dwelt close to the old royal fort of east- ern Ulster. This chief was soon convinced of the sincerity of the newcomer, offering him his barn for a first meeting-place, and later giving him the land where his first church was built in 432. From the word "sabal," "a barn," comes the name of Saul, now borne by this district. The next year, 433, Pat- rick determined to present himself at Tara, the seat of the High King, where Laegaire, son of Niall, reigned. It He goes to ^^^ Easter Eve when Patrick approached Tara ; Tara. toward nightfall he lighted the paschal fire on the Hill of Slane. It happened that King Laegaire and SHRINE OF SAINT PATRICK'S BELL The shrine was made about logi to hold the bell, which is 145 inches high 438] FULFILMENT OF PATRICK'S MISSION 49 his nobles were lighting the fire of the spring festival at the same hour. There was a law that, while this fire was burning, no other should be kindled, on pain of death. Therefore, when Patrick's fire blazed up on the Hill of Slane, there was great wonder at Tara, and Lae- gaire summoned the Druids and questioned them, receiv- ing this answer : '' If that fire which we now see be not extinguished to-night, it will never be extinguished, but will eclipse all our fires, and he that has kindled it will overturn thy kingdom." The king, in great rage, sent to summon the strangers before him. It is said that Patrick then composed this hymn, the oldest Christian verse in the Gaelic tongue : — " At Tara to-day in this fateful hour I place all heaven with its power, And the sun with its brightness, And the snow with its whiteness, And the fire with all the strength it hath, And the lightning with its rapid wrath, And the winds with their swiftness along their path, And the sea with its deepness, And the rocks with their steepness, And the earth with its starkness, All these I place By God's almighty help and grace Between myself and the power of darkness." Easter Sunday dawned. Patrick and his companions, all in white, and the Apostle wearing his mitre and carry- ing his crozier, entered the fort in a solemn procession, chanting a hymn. The saint, aflame with zeal, and un- daunted by his cold reception, told the story of the Resur- rection and the divine message brought thereby to hu- manity. At King Laegaire's command, the Druids tried to meet him in argument, but were defeated. The king, though not converted himself, gave Patrick and his com- 50 IRELAND'S STORY [444 panions permission to preach their doctrines throughout his dominions. 44. Revision of the Brehon Laws, 438. A strik- ing instance of Patrick's method, and an example of his foresight and wisdom, are found in his attitude toward the existing civil and religious law of the country, com- monly known as the Brehon Laws. In the words of the Preface to the Sencus Mor, the " Great Book of An- cient Law:" ''The judgments of true nature, which the Divine Spirit had spoken through the mouths of the Brehons and just poets of the men of Erin, from the first occupation of Ireland down to the reception of the faith, were all exhibited by Dubtac to Patrick. What did not conflict with the word of God in the written law and the New Testament and the consciences of believ- ers was confirmed in the laws of the Brehons by Patrick and by the ecclesiastics and chieftains of Ireland ; for the law of Nature had been quite right except concern- ing the faith and its obligations and the harmony of the Church and people. And this is the Sencus Mor." 45. The founding of Armagh. The work so prospered during the following years, that in 444 a. d. Patrick was able to build a large church on a hill two miles from the fortress of Emain of Maca. The land was a gift from a ruler who, like so many other chiefs, had felt and acknow- ledged the Apostle's power. Later, this hill came to be called Armagh. The churches thus founded by Patrick were built of stone, ^nd it is probable that he was the first to introduce the general use of stone for building into Ireland, houses having previously been made of wood, as was natural in a land rich in forests. From this time on, we have a constant succession of stone buildings, while there are none of older date, if we except the pyra- mid-chambers like those of Brugh on the Boyne. 444] FULFILMENT OF PATRICK'S MISSION 51 46. Patrick continues his work of conversion. Pat- rick continued his journey from province to province, often facing great dangers, but everywhere making con- verts, and founding churches, schools, and monasteries. One tradition tells us that he journeyed to the west coast. In some places his coming was foretold by the Druids, who still practised soothsaying. The great tragedy in Patrick's mission was due to the evil act of a prince of the neighboring island. Coroticus, a chieftain of Britain, and therefore a citizen . ^ ' A tragedy of Rome and nominally a Christian, had sent inMsapos- marauding bands to Ireland, to capture slaves. Some of the new converts were taken captive by these invaders, an outrage which drew forth an in- dignant protest from the great Messenger : " My neophytes in their white robes, the anointing of baptism still wet and glisten- ing on their fore- heads, were taken cap- tive with the sword by these murderers. Next day I sent let- ters, begging them to,^ liberate the baptized captives, but they an- !ELL OF SAINT PATRICK SWered my prayer with This rude little bell has an unbroken history of over 1400 years mockery and laugh- ter. I know not which I should mourn for more — those who were slain, those who were taken prisoner, or those who, in this, were Satan's instruments, since these must suffer everlasting punishment in perdition." 52 IRELAND'S STORY [453 He appealed indignantly to the fellow-Christians of Coroticus in Britain : " I pray you, all that are righteous and humble, to hold no converse with those who do these things, eat not, drink not with them, accept no gifts from them, until they have repented and made atonement, set- ting free these newly baptized handmaidens of Christ, for whom he died. . . . They seem to think that we are not children of one Father ! " The mission of the Messenger lasted for sixty years. He was at no time wiUing to desert his adopted children Patrick's ^^^ return to his native land, but faithfully death. carried on his task until it was completed. Ac- cording to his own wish, he was buried near his first church, at Saul. 47. Saint Bridget. Armagh stands for the work of Pat- rick the Apostle. The name of Kildare is linked with the fame of a personality hardly less remarkable. A learned writer says : " If Saint Patrick was the father, Saint Bridget is the mother of all the saintsof Erin, both monks and nuns." Bridget was born in 453 ; she was the daugh- ter of a famous Leinster chief. Her whole life is sur- rounded by stories of marvels. She was miraculously preserved, when a child, from a fire which burned down her father's house. The child had been left in her cot, and was found there uninjured, after the fire had burned itself out. In her, the quality of mercy greatly shone. It is said that once, with seven companions, Bridget heard a sermon on the eight Beatitudes. Each was asked to choose one of the virtues there declared blessed, and Bridget chose mercy : " Blessed are the merci- hermerci- ful, for they shall obtain mercy." One of her great works was a ministry of help to the lepers, then as now the most shunned and miserable of outcasts. Far more important, however, than any single 453] FULFILMENT OF PATRICK'S MISSION 53 side of her work, was the way in which the whole life of this woman of genius and inspiration raised the ideal of womanhood in Ireland. Her influence in that respect PLACES MENTIONED IN IRISH HISTORY FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY TO IIOO lasts to this day, for in no other country is the ideal of womanly purity held so high. Saint Bridget founded a religious establishment at Kildare, that is, Cil-dara, "the church of the oak," so named from a 2freat oak-tree which stood ^ ^ The found- close to the site of the church. As men and ingofKii- women studied together at the school of Kil- "®' dare, Saint Bridget selected Bishop Connall, one of her relatives, to share with her the cares of its government. Saint Bridget died in 525. 54 IRELAND'S STORY [432-525 SUMMARY Patrick met with many difficulties in his work of conversion, but the very greatness of the man himself helped him to over- come all obstacles, so that Ireland was won without a martyr. Patrick revised but retained the Brehon Laws. Patrick returned to Ireland as a missionary in a. d. 432. He built his first church at Saul. From Saul, he went to Tara, where he met the Druids in argument, winning his most nota- ble victory, and making many converts. He founded the church of Armagh, the seat of the primate of Ireland. He continued his journey from province to province, everywhere converting many, and founding churches and schools. Tradi- tion says that his mission lasted sixty years, and that he died in 493. The womanly side of Irish sainthood is typified in Saint Bridget, the foundress of the celebrated school and convent at Kildare. She was born in a. d. 453 and died in a. d. 525. CHAPTER VIII THE SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 500-795 48. Early churches and schools. Saint Patrick and his immediate followers founded many churches, monasteries, and schools. We can judge of the spread of his teaching, if we remember that these churches were generally sixty feet long, thus giving room for many wor- shippers. One of the Donagh- most ancient churches Patrick. in Ireland is in Meath, on the Blackwater, at Donaghpatrick, a name meaning "the church of Patrick." It was founded by the apostle on land given him by King Laegaire and was erected by the order of the king's bro- ther. In the century following, religious buildings were con- structed in many parts of Ire- HiGH CROSS OF MONASTER- laucl, cL uumbcr of whlch have ^°^^^ been more or less perfectly pre- This cross, called the smaller cross i . - 1 of Monasterboice, was erected in SCrVCQ tO tUC prCSCUt Monaster- memory of Abbot Muireadac, who , ,^ r - 1 11. v«:-.» died in the tenth century. It is one day. OnC Of thC OldCSt °'^^^^- of the finest crosses in Ireland, and , 1 1 r -i i -n /r is still standing. was the school founded at Mo- 56 IRELAND'S STORY [521 nasterboice in Louth, by Saint Biiite, who died, tradition says, on the day on which Columba was born, about 521. An early and very perfect group of religious buildings is to be seen on an island on lower Lough Erne, about two miles north of Enniskillen. The island is called Devenish, "the island of the oxen." The first religious settlement was made there under the guidance of Molaise about the year 530 a. d. Another ij^is. Molaise founded a similar settlement on Inis- murray. murray, "the island of Muireadac," some five miles from the Sligo shore. The house of Molaise, a small building only nine feet by eight, with very thick walls and a high stone roof, still stands exactly as it was in the saint's life. At Clonmacnoise, ''the meadow of the sons of Nos," is another very ancient foundation, begun in 548 by Saint cionmac- Kieran, on ground given by Diarmaid, who was noise. then High King. It is on the bank of the great river Shannon, nine miles below Athlone ; and the school which grew up there gained a reputation through- out the whole of western Europe. It became the chief seminary for the sons of the princes and nobles of Con- naught. At the north end of Strangford Lough were two famous schools. The first was founded at Moville, by Movllle. _ . ^. . . , 1 1 1 o • . Samt Fmnian, m the year 555, and had Samt Columba as its most famous pupil. Five miles to the north, close to the seashore, was the famous ^^°^' college of Bangor, founded by Saint Comgall in 555. About the same time Saint Kevin founded a church Gienda- ^^^ school at Glendalough, the "vale of the lough. two lakes," in Wicklow. During the centuries which followed, this was one of the best known and 550] THE SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 57 RUINS ON DEVENISH ISLAND, LOUGH ERNE The round tower is 84 feet 10 inches high, and varies from many other round towers in having a sculptured band below the cap most frequented centres of religious learning in Ireland. Saint Kevin's house is one of those high-roofed buildings which we learn to recognize as the oldest form of reli- gious architecture in Ireland. It is slightly larger than the house of Saint Molaise at Inismurray, but very sim- ilar. 49. The third patron saint of Ireland. Saint Co- lumba was born at Gartan in Donegal about 521. His father was one of the chiefs of Irish Dalriada, while his mother belonged to the royal family of Leinster. Co- lumba was, in fact, a great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages. He was educated first at the School of Clonard, founded by Saint Finnian about the year 520, in the southwest of Meath ; and later continued his studies under the same teacher po^nfled at Moville, in County Down, and under Saint monas- Kieran at Clonmacnoise. In 550, he founded a Durrow monastery at Kells in Meath, and his house, andKeiis. very similar to the dwellings of Saint Kevin at Glenda- 58 IRELAND'S STORY [553 lough and Saint Molaise at Inismurray, is still to be seen there. In 553, he founded the monastery of Durrow, in the north of what is now the King's County. These are only two among many churches which he built in the twenty years before his exile. 50. Saint Columba exiled. The cause of his exile was as follows : a dispute arose over a copy of the Book Dispute ^^ Psalms, which Columba made, from a manu- with script belongino: to Saint Finnian, his teacher at Clonard and Moville. Finnian claimed the copy. Columba refused to give it up. The dispute was referred to King Diarmaid. The king, following the prin- ciple laid down in the Brehon Laws : " to every cow be- longs its calf," decided that "to every book belongs its copy," the earliest decision on copyright recorded in our history. He therefore awarded the copy to Finnian. Columba refused to accept the decision, and appealed for aid to his tribe. A fierce dispute arose, culminating Battle of ^^ ^ great battle at Cooldrevin, near Drumcliff, Cooidrevin. a few miles north of Sliffo. This battle was A D B61 fought in 561, and the partisans of Columba were completely victorious. Traditioui says that three thousand of their opponents were slain. The evil which Columba thus brought about drew down on him the reprimand of the entire Irish church, and he was advised to seek voluntary exile, which he did shortly afterward. Saint Columba went forth from his native land in 563 with twelve companions. From this fact he is called " The Preceptor of the Twelve Apostles of Ire- goes to lan(J." He was then forty-two years old, and has the lasting honor of being the first of the Irish disciples to carry the gospel to other lands. Co- lumba and his followers went to the little island of lona, off the west coast of Scotland, which was then part of 575] THE SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 59 the Scottish Dalriada (see section 29). Here Columba founded his world-famed monastery, which be- . . / His work came a centre of missionary work among the among the wild Picts of the Scottish mainland. Columba ^ °^^" adopted the same methods which Patrick had used in Ireland, with results almost as wonderful. Soon churches HOUSE OF ST. KEVIN AT GLENDALOUGH There is no reason to question that this was once the habitation of St. Kevin. The large building is the oldest, the round belfry being a later addition and schools sprang up through the dominions of the Picts by hundreds. 51. The Synod of Druim-Ceatt. When this work of expiation, thus splendidly begun, had been carried forward to success, Columba deemed himself entitled to „ , ^ Columba return to his beloved native land. He visited revisits Ireland several times, going from one of his early schools to another, and took part in the famous synod of Druim-Ceatt, held in the year 575. Here he gained two noteworthy victories. The first was the securing of home rule for the Irish colonies in Scotland, the Scottish Dalriada. The second was the revocation 6o IRELAND'S STORY [575 of a decree against the ancient order of bards, whose poetry Columba himself ardently admired and diligently studied. In the same year, he founded the religious school of Drumcliff, close to the bat- tlefield of Cooldrevin, a work of expiation for the great wrong-doing of his early life. 62. Saint Columba's ability. Speaking of the won- derful powers possessed by Saint Columba, his biogra- pher Adamnan says : ** Among the miracles which this same man of the Lord, while dwelling in mortal flesh, per- formed by the gift of God, was his foretelling the future Prophetic ^Y ^^^ spirit of prophecy, with which he was spirit. highly favored from his early years, and mak- ing known to those who were present what was happen- ing in other places ; for, though absent in body, he was present in spirit, and could look on things that were widely apart, according to the words of Saint Paul, ' He that is joined unto the Lord is one spirit.' Hence this same man of the Lord, Saint Columba, when a few of the brethren would sometimes inquire into the matter, did not deny that by some divine intuition, and through a wonderful expansion of his inner soul, he beheld the whole universe drawn together and laid open to his sight as in one ray of the sun." Besides founding schools and churches in many parts of Ireland, and planting outposts of Christianity and learning amongst the pagans of Scotland, first at lona and then at many places on the mainland, Columba was an indefatigable literary worker. He wrote skill and both in Latin and in Gaelic. In the latter eamng. tongue he composed several Irish poems. He used his knowledge of the former chiefly in the prepara- tion of copies of the Latin Gospels. He is said to have transcribed three hundred copies of the Gospels. So 596] THE SAINTS AND SCHOLARS OI great was his renown for beautiful penmanship that tra- dition has ascribed to him the writing of the famous Book of Kells. It is true that this wonderful manuscript comes from one of the monasteries founded by Columba, but it was probably written in the century after his death, which took place in 596. 53. How the early schools were founded. Let us try to give a picture of the founding of one of these schools, and the life led by its inhabitants. At the heart of each one of these undertakings we find some man of fine character and strong personality, a born leader. The master and his disciples gained the sympathy of a tribal chief, who made them a grant of land, and probably added a gift of cattle. This grant consisted of forest, pasture, and arable land. It was generally chosen on the bank of a stream which supplied pure water and fish. The teacher and his pupils went with their axes to the woods to cut down trees to build their dwellings. Oth- ers herded the cattle, or yoked the oxen to plough up the new fields, and later quarried the stone to build their church. They themselves made all the furniture for the church and their houses. The pupils also work of the studied indefatigably with their master, learn- schools, ing to read and write both Irish and Latin. A very im- portant work was the preparation of parchment from the skins of goats and sheep, to be used in making finely written manuscripts of the Gospels and other works. The schools took the place of printing-houses, and, as the missionary work spread, not only in Ireland itself, but in Britain and among many nations on the continent, there was a great and increasing demand for these Irish- made books. Many of them are still found in places as remote from Ireland as Milan in Italy and Schaffhausen in Switzerland. 62 IRELAND'S STORY [634 These schools in time received many gifts in jewelry and gold from native chieftains and those who attended Riciiesof t^^ services in their churches. The gold and the schools, jewelry were used to make beautiful church vessels, chalices, crosses, and croziers, all decorated in the native style, with embossed tracery, in the same pat- terns that were used for the initials and headpieces of the illuminated manuscripts. The schools were also places of refuge and rest for weary travellers, who received hospitality, kindliness, and care until they were ready to continue on their way. It was the custom at these seats of learnino^ that Hospitality ° totrav- each student should build a hut for his own use ; ® "^' and as some of the early colleges had as many as three thousand pupils, they were more like towns than monasteries. The schools founded by Columba and his successors in many parts of Scotland followed the same model ; and Schools in in the seventh century the same system was anr^g- extended through the north of England. The land. pagan Saxons and Danes of Northumbria were the first to receive these Irish schools, which brought them a knowledge of reading and writing as well as the rudiments of the Christian faith. The monastery of Lin- disfarne, on an island off the coast of Northumberland, was founded by the Irish monk Aedan, in 634 ; Finan and Colman, the second and third heads of this monas- tery, were also Irishmen. 54. Fame of the Irish schools. Thirty years after the founding of Lindisfarne, the English historian Bede has an entry which sheds some light on the position of the Irish schools Speaking of an epidemic of sickness which ravaged England in 664, he says : " This pesti- lence did no less harm in the island of Ireland. Many 544] THE SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 6^ of the nobility and of the lower ranks of the English nation were there at that time, and some of them devoted themselves to the monastic life ; others chose to apply themselves to study. The Scots (Irish) willingly re- ceived them all, and took care to supply them with food, as also to furnish them with books to read, and their teaching, all free." At about the same time, Alfred, king of the North- umbrian 'Saxons, studied in Ireland, while a king of France, Dagobert II, passed a period of exile in Ireland and took the opportunity to study the language and lit- erature of the country. 55. Political development during this period. Dur- ing the epoch of the saints and scholars, the family of Niall (see section 39) continued to dominate Ireland. Niall had several sons, one of whom, Laegaire, was king at Tara when Saint Patrick came ; another, Eogan, gave his name to a principality in the north, Tir-Eogain or Tyrone, *'the land of Eogan;" a third son was Conall Gulban, who gave his name to the territory of Tir-Co- naill or Tyrconnell, "the land of Conall," now Donegal. Eogan* s grandson, Muirceartac, succeeded his cousin, Lugaid, in the High Kingship, holding it for twenty- four years. He had three brothers who gathered a fleet and made an expedition to the Irish colony in Scotland in 503. They gradually extended this colony into a kingdom. The kings of Scotland were of kingdom descended from this family, and the Stuarts °*^*'°^^*"^- brought the same race south to the throne of England eleven centuries later. Tuatal, the grandson of Cairbre, another of Niall's sons, was the next High King, holding the sovereignty for eleven years, and the three following High Kings, Diarmaid, Domnall, and Eocaid, were also descended 64 IRELAND'S STORY [564 from Niall. In 564, a rival family came into power. Ainmire, the son of Sedna, gained the supreme power and held it for three years! He was succeeded by his son, Aed, who held the sovereignty for twenty-seven years. The presence of a different family on the throne of Ire- land naturally caused trouble between that country and the colony of the descendants of Niall in Scotland. The ruler of the colony flatly refused to pay tribute to King Aed. Through the intervention of Saint Cokimba, al- ready recorded, this question was happily settled at the Synod of Druim-Ceatt (see section 51) in the year 574. 56. The battle of Moira. Domnall, the son of Aed, who won the High Kingship after a series of short and unimportant reigns, is chiefly remembered for the battle Invasion by ^^ Moira, fought in the year 637. Early in his congaii. reign, Congall, one of the Ulster princes, had been driven into exile. Congall fled to Britain and spent ten years gaining friends and collecting an army, which he brought against his native country, landing on the shore of Belfast Lough. He led his army some fifteen miles inland to Moira, where he was met by Domnall, the High King. A battle was fought, which lasted for six days, in which Congall was defeated and slain. A series of unimportant reigns followed, marked only by the attempt of the High King, Finnacta, to levy the Boruma tribute (see section 28) on Leinster. Boruma ^ ' . . tribute re- He was persuaded to relinquish it by Saint nau s e . jYjQijj^g^ ^^^ ^j^^g £qj. ^ ^-j^g ^ fruitful source of strife was removed. From the reign of this king until the coming of the Danes there is nothing to record in the political life of Ireland but a succession of battles in which the heads of various provincial kingdoms strug- gled for the mastery. 500-595] THE SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 65 SUMMARY Saint Patrick set the example of building churches and founding schools in different parts of Ireland. This practice was greatly extended in the sixth century. The first Irish school outside Ireland was founded by Saint Columba, at lona off the Scottish coast, in 563. From lona missionaries carried the same method and teaching through the Scottish Lowlands and the north of England. The family of Niall of the Nine Hostages reigned until the middle of the sixth century, and was followed by that of Ainmire, whose grandson, Domnall, won the battle of Moira. In the next generation, the Boruma tribute (see section 28) was remitted. CHAPTER IX THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 795-1014 57. Character of the Norse invasions. The tribal warfare rather expressed than detracted from the vigor of the nation's hfe, but it had one very grave defect. It so cherished and kindled the instinct of separateness that union in face of a common foe was almost impos- sible. This was shown during the early raids of the Norsemen, hardy pirates from the fiords of Norway and the isles of the Baltic. Modern historians generally write as if the onslaught of the Norsemen had had a unifying effect. Some write as though their coming had been a Not a great national calamity, overwhelming the coun- conquest. try for several centuries, and submerging its original life under a flood of conquest. But if we are to believe the Chronicles of the time, such was not the case. We find inroads of the Norsemen, it is true, but they are only interludes in the old life of storm and struggle, making no great difference to the masses of the people. The Norsemen, being pagans, did not spare the churches, schools, and religious settlements. The gold and sil- _ , ver reliquaries, the jewelled manuscript-cases, Destruc- n ' j tiveness the offerings of precious stones and rich orna- o??he"^^ ments laid on the altars, proved irresistible to Invaders. ^-^q greedy sea-kings. They burned or threw away the manuscripts, caring only for the cases, and in this way many gaps in the nation's literature have 8i9] THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 6/ become irremediable. Still, the loss was less than might be supposed, as many remote shrines were never reached, and in the periods between the raids copies of manuscripts could be, and, were, made. The entries in the Chronicles justify us in considering these raids of the Norsemen no more than episodes in the general fighting. 58. The Norsemen begin their raids. The first advent of the Norse raiders is recorded to Lambay have taken place in 795 a. d. Lambay, an islands, island of considerable extent off the Dublin coast, some six or seven miles north of Howth Head, was plun- dered and burned. There was a large and rich religious settlement there, with many books, which were stripped of their covers and burned. Three years later, the little island of Saint Patrick, six miles north of LambaVj met with This boat was found in a peat bog near Nydam, ■' South Jutland a similar fate. It was "burned by the Gentiles," as the Chronicles say, mean- ing that the pirate Norsemen were pagans, ignorant of Christianity. From that time forward we hear of their long ships asfain and as^ain hovering: hawk-like around the ° ^^ * lona raided, coasts of Ireland and Scotland. In 802, and again in 806, the settlement of lona was raided, and Inismurray was plundered in the following year. In 812, five years later, the pirates made their way farther round the coast, and a great slaughter of the people of Connemara took place. In 819, Howth was plundered, and a great many women taken captive. ANCIENT DANISH BOAT 68 IRELAND'S STORY [820 These captives were doubtless the first to bring the mes- sage of the 2:ospel to the wild srranite lands of Captives as ^ ^ , . . \ , . V, 1 • i mission- Scandmavia. A year later, in 820, the raiders *"®^" found their way to the southernmost extremity of Ireland, to Cape Clear Island, off the coast of Cork. This once more brings to our notice the position of so many of the early religious settlements, on rocky islands osed ^^ ^^^ coasts, placed there to be well outside position of the turmoil of tribal strife, which raged uninter- rupted on the mainland. Saint Patrick's island, and Lambay on the east, Cape Clear Island on the south, and Inismurray on the northwest, so well protected by the sea from disturbance at home, were, by that very isolation, terribly exposed to the foreign raiders, who made the sea their highway. The religious settlements and schools of Howth, Moville, and Bangor, all on penin- sulas, were open to a like danger. Therefore we are hot surprised to find that they in their turn were *' plundered by the Gentiles " two years later. 69. Native resist- ance to the invad- ers. At first, the Norsemen had con- fined their expedi- tions to islands, or to coast settlements, and they had been wholly successful, leaving death and de- struction in their wake. In 823, we find them attempt- ing a raid against Dun-da-leth-glas, "the dwelling of the two broken fetters," the great royal fort beside Down- patrick, close to the mouth of the Ouoyle River. This THE CHALICE OF ARDAGH This chalice is 7 inches high and 9J inches in diam- eter, and in form like those in use in the tenth century. The bowl is silver, with gold plates on the bands 830] THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 69 is a great circular earthwork, like those at Tara, with a high mound inside for the chief's dwelling, and a moat skirted by a lesser exterior earthwork, and filled by a channel from the tidal river. This "fort of the two broken fetters " was thus almost impregnable from the land, but an enemy coming by sea could easily enter the channel of the moat, and so come close up under the for- tress. The raiders were successful, but did not wholly escape. We find that they were overtaken by the sol- diers of Dun-da-leth-glas and defeated shortly afterward. This is the first repulse suffered by the pirates in their incursions against the coasts of Ireland. 60. The pirates penetrate inland. Three years later, they plundered Lusk on the mainland opposite Lambay, but in the same year, 826, they were twice j^^^^ j^^_ defeated in battle, once by Cairbre, and again ^e«d. by the Ulster armies. From this time on, the raids of the northerners become more determined and frequent. The first pirates seem to have spread tidino:s ^ I- & Fame ol among the northern fiords that Ireland was Ireland's inexhaustibly rich in jewels and gold, and all '*^ ®^" kinds of costly stuffs dyed in red, blue, and purple ; so that swarms of pirates followed in the tracks of the first adventurous raiders. We read that Armagh, the centre of Saint Patrick's work, and the chief home of learning, was plundered three times in 830, the raiders sailing up Car- lingford Lough, and then making a dash of against some fifteen miles across the undulating coun- ^^^^^ try separating them from the city of churches on the Hill of Maca. This is the first time they ven- andcion- tured out of sight of their boats. Two years daikin. later, they plundered Clondalkin, nine miles inland from the Dublin coast. JO IRELAND'S STORY [836 61. The Round Towers of Ireland. At Clondalkin stands a Round Tower, which still marks the site of the old church and school ; and round towers of the same form are found all over the country. They were at once bell-towers and places of refuge, and their building is to be attributed to the growing frequency of the raids of the Norsemen. The doors of these round towers are almost always eight or ten feet above the ground, and were reached by ladders, which could be drawn up by those inside. As the walls were of great thickness, and as very heavy oak doors were used, these towers were safe even from fire, and the refugees could wait patiently until they were relieved by some neighboring chieftain, or until the invaders withdrew. 62. The first permanent Norse settlements. In 836, a fleet of sixty Norse fighting galleys sailed up the river The capture Boyne, and the same number, or perhaps even of Dublin, ^j^g g^^g gj^-pg^ l^^gj. sailed up the Liffey. In the following year, the Norsemen captured '* the Ford of the Hurdles," At-Cliat, the old name for Dublin. Up to this time, the Norse raiders had come only in early summer, retiring with their plunder to their native fiords a few months later, before the North Sea was swept by the autumn storms. But once they had gained a foot- ing at the mouth of the Liffey, they changed their plans, and determined to remain in Ireland through the winter. Not until the year 846 was any definite and concerted Slaughter attempt made to oust the intruders. In that Norsemen y^'^^y the native powers made a concentrated at DubUn. attack, and gained a victory over the Norsemen at At-Cliat, slaying twelve hundred of the pirates. Four other successful attempts to beat back the raiders are recorded for the same year. About the same time, the Norsemen gained a second 1 853] THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 71 point of vantage by seizing and fortifying a strong posi- tion in a great network of inlets on the south coast, where the town of Cork now stands. Their seamanlike cork for- instincts led them to fix their first intrenched {Jfe^No«e- camps at Dublin, Cork, and Limerick — which men. remained during subsequent centuries the great ports of the country on the east, south, and west. The Norse language still lin- gers in the names of Strangford, Carling- ford, Wexford, and Waterford, the fiords o^ Strang, Cairlinn, Weis, and Vadre ; and in the names of a- few of their set- tlements, like Smer- wick in Kerry. 63. Beginning of national resistance. Four years after the capture of Cork, the contests between the raiders and the Irish chieftains grew more bitter, more centred, and more organized. In the words of the Annals, *'A complete muster of the North was made by King Aed, so that he plundered the fortresses of the foreigners. The victory was gained over the foreign- ers, and a slaughter was made of them. Their Norse defeat heads were collected in one place, in the pre- i^^ssa. sence of the king, and twelve-score heads were reckoned CIRCULAR CASTLE ON THE QUAY AT WATERFORD Said to have been erected by Reginald the Dane in 1003 72 IRELAND'S STORY [916 before him, which was the number slain in that battle, besides the numbers of those who were wounded and carried off by him in the agonies of death, and who died of their wounds some time afterwards." Far from uniting against the Norse invaders in a single national force, however, the Irish chieftains often made temporary alliances with the pagan pirates in their fights against each other. In this way we find an Irish chief allying himself with the foreigners to make an attack upon King Aed two years after the contest just de- scribed. Three kings of Ireland gained lasting renown during these contests with the Norsemen. The first was Niall, Niaii, Mai- SOU of Aed, High King from 916 to 919, who Great id Anally fell in a battle near Dublin, in which Brian Boru. the foreigners overcame the native tribesmen. The second was Malachi the Great, who became High King in 980. The third was Brian Boru, brother of Mahon, king of the province of North Muma, or Mun- ster. This region lay south of the lower Shannon, and was dominated by the strong settlement of the Norse- men at Limerick. Brian and his brother Mahon were in perpetual con- flict with the Norse raiders, alternately defeating them and being defeated, but were finally worsted and com- pelled to fly across the estuary of the Shannon to the lakes and forests of Clare. Brian finally determined to Brian de- make another vigorous effort against the in- Norsemen vaders, and, calling a general assembly of the atsuicoit tribesmen of North Munster, he asked them to make a decision for peace or war. The tribesmen unani- mously decided for war, and a battle was fought in 968, at Sulcoit, north of the Galtee Mountains, in what is now Tipperary, and the Norsemen were defeated and 998] THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 73 put to flight. The Munster tribesmen pursued them for twenty miles, till they took refuge in their strong fortress at Limerick. This was the first of a series of victories against the raiders, who, from this time forward, are generally spoken of as Danes, though they came from Norway as well as Denmark. While Brian directed his attacks against the Norse set- tlements of Limerick and the lower Shannon, the High Kins:, Malachi the Great, was making a like at- „ , ^. ^' ' ^ Malachi tack on the Norse settlements in Dublin, and on attacks the coast as far north as the Boyne. In 979, he defeated the invaders near Tara, and even captured their stronghold of Dubhn, setting free two thousand prisoners whom they had taken from the Irish tribes. Dublin was recovered by the Norsemen, but again taken by Malachi, in 996, when that king captured, among other spoils, the golden ring of a former Norse chieftain, To- mar, and the historic sword of Carlus, who had been slain in battle a century and a quarter earlier. The ring of Tomar, the first king of the Danes of Dublin, had been handed down as an heirloom. The sword of Carlus, son of a Danish king, changed hands four times, being carried off and retaken by both Danish and Irish armies. 64. Malachi and Brian divide Ireland between them, 998. Two such strong personalities as Malachi and Brian, rulers of provinces which had long been rivals, could hardly be expected to live in brotherly union and DANISH WEAPONS OF THE TENTH CENTURY 74 IRELAND'S STORY [998 concord. We find them constantly at strife, even while both were fighting against the common foe. They finally agreed to divide Ireland between them, Malachi taking the northern part, and handing over the southern to Brian. This arrangement was made in 998, and not un- naturally gave great offence to the king of Leinster, whose territory lay in the southeast of the island, and therefore in the region assigned by Malachi to Brian. The king of Leinster made an alliance with the Danes of Dublin, and determined to resist Brian's authority. Brian and Malachi immediately gathered an army, and met and defeated the united armies of the king of Leinster and the Danes in one of the valleys of the Wicklow hills. Four thousand of the Leinstermen and Danes were slain. 65. Brian becomes High King. Brian was too am- bitious willingly to acknowledge the overlordship of Malachi, the High King. He determined to win the Forms alii- chief sovereignty for himself, and decided to tte D^es ^^^^'^ ^^ alliance with the Danes of Dublin in ofDubUn. order to strengthen his party. He married Gormlait, sister of the king of Leinster, and widow of a former chieftain of the Danes, whose son Sitric was now their acknowledged leader. This alliance won over to Brian's side both the king of Leinster and the Danes of Dublin, and Brian presently felt strong enough to lead an army northward toward Tara, to try conclusions with Malachi for the High Kingship of Ireland. Malachi recognized that his opponent was too strong for him, and made his submission. This took place in the year 1002, and for the next twelve years, until he was slain at the battle of Clontarf, Brian was recognized as the High King. 66. The rule of Brian. As High King, Brian showed he was no less a statesman than a warrior. He ruled IOI4] THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 75 Ireland from the fort of Kincora, in Clare. All over Ire- land, schools and monasteries had suffered from the at- tacks of the Norsemen. Brian rebuilt them and restored them to their former prosperity. He further compelled general obe- dience to the law. To indicate the peace and security which prevailed during his High Kingship, it is said that a lady richly clad and wearing a gold ring could walk from one end of Ireland to the other without the slightest danger of molestation. Brian also made roads, built bridges, and opened up the country for internal traffic. A period of general well-being be- gan, which lasted for a century and three quarters, during which the genius of Ireland enjoyed a free and happy development almost equal to that of the great epoch ancient irish harp said after the coming of Saint Patrick. BRiA^lfloRu^''''''''^'' '''' 67. Quarrel between Brian and The harp is 32 inches high and . has 24 strings. The arms of the king of Lemster. 1 he kmg the CBrien family are chased . . . - , . on the front arm of Lemster visited his new ally and brother-in^aw Brian at .the latter's fortress of Kincora above the Shannon. Tradition says that he quarrelled with Brian's son at a game of chess, and that from this quarrel grew a lasting enmity which finally determined the king of Leinster to invoke the aid of the Danes against Brian and his ally Malachi. Long and deter- mined preparations were made for the struggle, the Norsemen summoning allies from their settlements in the Western Isles and Scotland, and from the coasts of 'j6 IRELAND'S STORY [1014 the North Sea. Brian, with his ally, the former High King, brought the armies of Ireland to the level coun- try on the north bank of the Liffey, close to Dublin, prepared for the final conflict. 68. The battle of Clontarf. The great battle of Clon- tarf was fought on Good Friday, in the year 10 14. The Site of the scene of this famous conflict was on the coast, battle. between Dublin and the Hill of Howth. A wide strand of boulders is here laid bare by the receding tide. At the very verge of the farthest tide, on either bank of the Liffey, are immense sandbanks, where the waves roar and rumble with a sound like the bellowing of bulls. Even to-day the sandbanks are called the North and South Bull. The name Clontarf comes from Cluain- tarb, the " Meadow of the Bulls," a name poetically de- rived from the roaring of the waves along the shore. Sitric, the Danish chief, had assembled his forces and his allies the Leinstermen within and around the walls of Dublin. Brian and Malachi then set fire to the outly- ing settlements, and the fighting became general. There was little order or strategy on either side, but rather a series of hand-to-hand conflicts. All day the battle raged, ''a spirited, fierce, violent, vengeful, and furious battle," as the Annals say. Toward evening, the Danes and their allies began to give way before a determined attack of Brian and Malachi. As the tide was out, the ships of the Danes were at a considerable distance, with a wide stretch of rough and slippery boulders between. Thus the Danes failed to reach their ships. The slaughter on both sides was great, the Danes and Leinstermen los- ing seven thousand warriors, while four thousand of the TMs battle Irish army were slain. Nearly all the leaders of ^*^' both armies were killed, Brian the High King falling, as well as the king of Leinster, who had provoked 795-1014] THE RAIDS OF THE NORSEMEN 7/ the conflict. The battle of Clontarf closed the struggle between paganism and Christianity. The news of the victory of Brian was rapidly carried across the sea to the distant Norsemen, who were so impressed with the story of their kinsmen's defeat that they made no more raids against Ireland. SUMMARY The Norsemen first came to Ireland from the coast of Nor- way in 795, and until 1014 their destructive raids were con- tinuous. They burned towns, plundered the churches and schools, and took innumerable captives, first attacking the islands and settlements on the coast, and then venturing inland. These captives became missionaries in their exile. By about 850, the Norsemen held possession of such impor- tant strongholds as Dublin, Cork, and Limerick, and the con- tests between them and the Irish chieftains grew more bitter, first one side and then the other gaining the advantage. Famous among the Irish High Kings who fought against the invaders were Niall, Malachi the Great, and Brian Boru. At the battle of Clontarf, in 1014, Brian Boru finally broke the power of the Norsemen, The struggle between paganism and Christianity was closed, and no more Norsemen came to Ireland. CHAPTER X THE MISSIONS TO FOREIGN LANDS 500-1100 69. The Danes did not attack Christianity. The Norse invasions, which harassed Ireland during more than two centuries, did no lasting or vital harm either to the national or spiritual development of the people. From a political standpoint, they caused disturbances which were scarcely more than added incidents to the general warfare of the times. From a religious standpoint, the harm they did was only material. When churches and monasteries were raided, the attack was made in search of booty, and not against Christianity ; and, if monks and nuns were carried off as prisoners, they only gained a new field for their moral energies. We find them exert- ing their Christian influence by preaching the gospel among the pirates who carried them away. 70. Ireland the bridge over the Dark Ages. Along with the teaching of the Gospels, which were read in Latin, the study of the ancient poets and historians of Rome, and even of Greece, was not neglected. Ireland had received the learning and traditions of Rome while Rome was still mighty. The Roman Empire fell, swal- lowed up by the tide of northern savages. Gaul was overrun by the Franks ; Spain and Italy by the Lom- bards, • Goths, and Vandals ; Britain by Angles, Saxons, and Danes ; while Picts and Norsemen devastated the Scottish lowlands, and destroyed whatever of Roman cul- 6th cent.] the missions TO FOREIGN LANDS 79 ture had penetrated there ; Austria was swept by Asiatic nomads, like the Huns and Magyars ; Russia and Ger- many, with the Scandinavian lands, were still pagan. Thus all Europe was submerged under a deluge of heathendom. Ireland was the one exception, the ark of safety for the old wisdom' and beauty of classical days. It was the bridge over the Dark Ages, and, as soon as the flood of heathen invasion ebbed, light and hope crossed the bridge, and were first carried by Irish teachers and preachers to all the new-formed nations of Europe, the great pagan tribes that were to be transformed into the peoples of the modern world. 71. Ireland's pagan history preserved almost com- plete. At this point, another view of Ireland's significance should be held in mind. We know practically nothing of the original life of the great pagan peoples who de- stroyed the Roman Empire. Franks, Vandals, Angles, Lombards, and the rest are shrouded in complete dark- ness, until they are illumined by the fires of devastation which they kindled through the provinces of Rome. Outside Greece and Italy, we have very few written re- cords for the study of early European life in any country but Ireland. There the bards and heralds had Records of woven a durable fabric of verse in every period *^® ^^'^s. of their ancient history, recording not only events, but also the whole substance and tenor of their lives, with their loves and hates, their hopes and fears, their ambi- tions and their longings. This web of verse still lived in the hearts and on the lips of the bards when Patrick went to Ireland and learned the Irish tongue. In this tongue he himself composed verses after the ancient Irish model. Writing was brought by Patrick, or introduction even earlier. When it came, the ancient verse o*"^iti^s. records were full of life, and so were written down and 8o IRELAND'S STORY [543 preserved. Many of them were translated into Latin at the same time, as the historical records and chronicles kept by the churches and schools were written in Latin. Thus the ancient traditional literature of Ireland has been transmitted to the modern world virtually intact, embody- ing the greater part of what we know of the ancient peo- ples of northern Europe. 72. Missionary work on the continent. The work of converting the pagans of northwestern Europe to Christianity was carried on chiefly by Irish missionaries, aided by men of continental birth, who had received their religious and literary training in Ireland. Columba and ijisii his associates brought Christianity, learning, and pioneers. ^^^ ^q Scotland, and later to the pagan Angles and Saxons of the north of England. We shall now briefly trace the work of Irish missionaries on the con- tinent of Europe, in the centuries following the time of Saint Columba. The best known of the continental missionaries was Coiumbanus Columbanus, a Leinsterman, born in 543. In France. From the school of Bangor, in the north of Ireland, Columbanus went to France, where he worked for about twenty years, and founded the two monasteries of Luxeuil and Fontaines. He was expelled from Bur- gundy for denouncing the vices of King Theodoric, and later he incurred the displeasure of the reigning queen of the Franks, who ordered him to be sent back to Ire- land. We next find him on the Rhine, visiting the ruined monasteries and schools which had been devastated by the Franks and Goths. He and his disciples ascended Gaiius ^^^ river toward Switzerland. When they founds his reached Lake Constance, Callus, one of the pu- monas ery. ^.^^ ^^ Columbanus, decided to remain there, and soon afterward, in 612, laid the foundation of the 8i3] THE MISSIONS TO FOREIGN LANDS 8l monastery of Saint Gall. From Gallus the Swiss canton of Saint Gall takes its name. Columbanus continued his pilgrimage southward across the Alps into Italy. There he received a grant of land in the territory between Milan and Genoa, on „ , ^ ■' Columbanus which he founded the monastery of Bobbio. founds Columbanus was a man of great learning, and found time to write many books, including a '' Monastic Rule " and many learned letters. He passed the closing days of his life as a hermit, in the mountains of Italy. Fursa, the apostle of Belgium ; Fridolin, who taught on the Rhine ; Cataldus of Lismore, who became bishop of Tarentum in the south of Italy, and Kilian, other Irish the teacher of Franconia, show how widely dis- teachers, persed and how influential were these Irish missions. Even more eminent was Virgil, the founder of the great religious settlement at Salz- burg in Austria. He was famed for his knowledge of mathematics and science, and was the first among moderns to teach that the earth was round and went round the sun. Virgil died in 785. Hard- ly less celebrated was Dem- cad of Cologne, who died in 813. It is interesting to note how these missionaries trav- elled. They went in compa- nies, taking with them their books, the beautiful manu- scripts for which Ireland was so justly famed. They carried no weapons more formidable than long staves, SCRIBE AT WORK ON THE BOOK OF KILUARE From a manuscript in the British Museum 82 IRELAND'S STORY [800 and had leathern wallets and drinking-bottles fastened How the to their girdles. For writing, they used the ers^Vav-^" ^^^^ writing-tablets of the Romans, as well as eiied. prepared skins or parchments. Excelling in religious and classical learning, they were also skilled in music, painting, and carving. They not only visited already existing monasteries, but often explored lands where Christianity had never been heard of, such as Po- land, Bulgaria, Russia, and Iceland. Where they found a region which pleased and attracted them, they made a settlement and worked among the people. 73. Johannes Scotus Erigena, 800-875. The fa- mous universities of Oxford, Paris, and Pavia counted among the great spirits which inspired their being and laid the foundations of their classical learning men who were worthy pupils of the Irish schools of Devenish, Durrow, Bangor, and Moville. The most celebrated of these was Johannes Scotus Erigena, that is, "John the Scot, born in Erin ; " the close friend of Charles the Bald, king of France. 74. Marianus Scotus. One of the most characteristic Irish religious settlements on the continent was at Rat- isbon, or Regensburg, in Bavaria. Its monastery was dedicated to Saint James, and from it teachers went forth to found many other *' Scotic," that is, Irish, monas- teries. The story of Marianus Scotus is closely connected with this school ; and although this famous scholar came somewhat later than the epoch we have been describ- ing, living at the end of the eleventh century, his life and work give us an insight into the character and methods of the earlier missionaries. *' This holy man wrote from beginning to end with his own hand the Old and New Testaments, with explana- tory comments on the same books, and that not once or 875] THE MISSIONS TO FOREIGN LANDS 83 twice, but over and over again, with a view to the eternal reward, all the while clad in sorry garb, living on slender diet, attended and aided by his brethren, both in the upper and lower monasteries, who prepared the parch- ments for his use ; besides, he also wrote many smaller books and manuals, psalters for distressed widows and poor clerics in the same city toward the health of his soul, without any prospect of earthly gain. Furthermore, through the grace of God, many congregations of the monastic order, which, in faith and charity and imitation of the blessed Marianus, are derived from the aforesaid Ireland, and inhabit Bavaria and Franconia, are sustained by the writings of the blessed Marianus." 75. Enthusiasm for Irish teaching. It is easy to understand that all this missionary zeal flowed from a sincere and abundant culture at home. Greek had early been added to Latin, and some of the ancient Irish schol- ars were even familiar with Hebrew. The fame of these schools had gone abroad, and students flocked to Ireland from all the neighboring countries, and espe- cially from England, coming thence in fleet bersof loads, as a Saxon writer at the beginning of the eighth century expressed it. From kings and nobles down to the poorest students, all were received, cared for, and taught, free of charge, in the Irish schools. Saint Finnian's school at Clonard in Meath had- three thou- sand pupils, and Bangor in Down had almost as many. Allowing one New Testament to three pupils, a thou- sand copies would be required for each of these schools, so that scribes had plenty of work. The tide of learning also flowed outward from Ireland. Thus a great divine of France, who died in 875 a. d., writes: "What need to speak of Ireland, setting at nought, as it does, the difficulties of the sea, and coming almost in a body to our 84 IRELAND'S STORY [823 shores, with its crowd of philosophers, the most intelHgent of whom are subjecting themselves to a voluntary exile." 76. Supply of books. In the beginning, it was almost impossible to get a sufficient supply of books for the new monasteries, as the copying of manuscripts was a slow matter. Such continental monasteries as those founded by Columbanus at Luxeuil, Fontaines, and Bobbio got their supply of books from the Irish schools, and by Irish up to the tenth century it was the custom of the Irish teachers to carry books from their island home to their schools on the continent. There are numerous instances of donations of manuscripts made by Irish scholars to foreign schools. Thus, in 823, a learned Irishman gave a number of books to the mon- astery of Bobbio. Two of these may still be seen in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. Not long after, in 841, Marcus, an Irish bishop, who was returning with his nephew from a pilgrimage to Rome, visited the monas- tery of Saint Gall in Switzerland. He was so charmed with the view that he remained there for the rest of his life, and, out of gratitude for the hospitality he received, willed his books to the monastery. As all books at this time were written by hand, pen- manship was one of the most cultivated arts, and was carried to a wonderful degree of perfection. The scribes, who were generally, but not invariably, monks, were held B ut of ^^ great respect by the people. The Irish books the early were not only finely written, but also orna- mented in a fashion which was early perfected in Ireland. First the initial letters were made larger, more elaborate, and more beautiful. Then they were surrounded with dots of color, and finally with delicately interlaced scroll-work, which was sometimes continued along the margin of the page. Decorated head-pieces 7TH CENT.] THE MISSIONS TO FOREIGN LANDS 85 and tail-pieces were added, in which leaves, the figures of animals and serpents, and sometimes even portraits FACSMILE OF A PAGE OF THE BOOK OF KELLS This is the most elegant initial page in the book, and represents Xpi (the abbreviation of Christi) autem generatio, translated to Now the ge7teration of Christ. Matt. i. i8 of saints were mingled with the interlaced scroll-work. Many colors were used. Red, green, pink, blue, and yel- low, for instance, are employed in the illumi- nation of the Book of Kells. these colors made that after twelve centuries they have lost none of their original brilliancy. The Book of Kells was finished before the end of the seventh century, and is, without doubt, the most The books So well were ofKeiis, Armagh, Durrow, and Mac- Durnan. 86 IRELAND'S STORY [500-1100 perfect and most beautiful manuscript in the world. It is a Latin manuscript of the Gospels. The Book of Ar- magh, finished in 807, contains the Confession of Saint Patrick, the Epistle to Coroticus, and a Life of the apostle of Ireland.. The Book of Durrow, written about the same time as the Book of Kells, and the Book of MacDurnan, written shortly after the Book of Armagh, show the same admirable workmanship. SUMMARY About the time when- Saint Patrick was working in Ireland, the Roman Empire was attacked and conquered by hordes of pagans from the north and east of Europe. These pagans destroyed the institutions of the Roman Empire, and over- threw the Christian churches and schools. A period of law- lessness and ignorance began, from which the modern nations of western Europe gradually emerged. Missionaries and teachers from Ireland were the strongest influence in reviv- ing Christianity and spreading classical learning over Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland ; and Irish teachers penetrated as far as Iceland, Russia, and the ex- treme south of Italy. For centuries they provided all northern Europe with books. CHAPTER XI FROM NORSEMEN TO NORMANS 1015-1169 77. Malachi again becomes High King. On the death of Brian, Malachi once more became High King, and filled this office worthily for eight years more, dying in 1022, at the age of seventy-three. During the closing years of his life, he stamped out the last sparks of Danish re- sistance, and once more defeated the late allies of the Danes, the men of Leinster. We shall find the same provincial kingdom playing a leading part in the events which brought the Normans to Ireland, more than a century and a half later. 78. The political divisions of Ireland in the elev- enth century. Ireland was at this time divided into five provinces or provincial kingdoms, with the kingdom of Meath in the centre. In Ulster, the descend- o'Neiiisof ants of Niall of the Nine Hostages still ruled, ^^^*®'^" their tribal name being '' Sons of Niall," Hy Neill, or O'Neill. A branch of the Hy Neill, the Hy Lochlain, or O'Loughlins, at this time held the dominant power among the Sons of Niall. In Connaught, the o'Conors of sons of Concobar, the Hy Concobar, or O'Con- °^^^s ors, were the ruling family. In Munster or Muma, with its two divisions of Tuaid-Muma, or North Munster, later called Thomond, and Deas-Muma, or South O'Briens of Munster, later called Desmond, the family of ^^^*"- Brian, victor of Clontarf, dominated, the Hy Brien, or 88 IRELAND'S STORY [1064 O'Briens. Leinster, the fourth provincial kingdom, was governed by the descendants of the king whom we found alUed to the Danes (see section 65), and perhaps because the Leinstermen had shared in the defeat of the Danes at Clontarf, we find their kingdom at this time under a temporary eclipse. Each of these provincial kingdoms was divided into districts, whose warlike chiefs were hardly less powerful than the pro- vincial kings themselves. 79. Struggle for the High Kingship. The O'Lough- lins of Ulster, the O' Conors of Connaught, and the O'Briens of Munster all equally desired the title of Ard- Rig, or High King, which carried with it the overlordship of Ireland and the possession of the central kingdom of Meath. The period after Malachi the Great, who died in 1022, is filled with the struggles of these fam.ilies to wrest the overlordship from each other. First one and then another gained an advantage, but none of the con- testants was entirely successful in asserting his authority over the rest. The first to gain a temporary ascendency was Donough, the son of Brian Boru, who won predominance for Mun- ster. He was deposed in 1064, and the overlordship passed to the king of Leinster. Eight years later, how- ever, in 1072, Munster again gained the upper hand under Turlogh O'Brien, grandson of Brian Boru. Meanwhile Ulster had remained practically independent of the High Kings. Turlogh O'Brien made a vigorous effort to assert his power over the northern kingdom, but was defeated by the men of Ulster at the old frontier ford of At-Ferdiad, or Ardee, where Cuculaind, the champion of Ulster, had long centuries before defeated Ferdiad, the champion of the armies of the south and west. The feud passed on to Turlogh's son, Murkertagh O'Brien, 1 134] FROM NORSEMEN TO NORMANS 89 who became king of Leinster in 1086. For a generation he fought with the chief of the family of Niall, Donall O'Loughhn, for the title of High King. 80. Tigearnac's History of Ireland. It must not be imagined, however, that this was merely a time of warfare amongst the provincial kings. On the contrary, science, art, and literature flourished greatly. One of the great Irish writers of this period, Tigearnac, the chronicler, " a paragon of learning and history," as the Annals call him, died two years after the accession of Murkertagh, leaving us his great Latin history of Ireland. This history is a monument at once of the classical learning of the Irish schools and of the historical spirit which had been handed down from the bards and annalists of pagan times. Ti- gearnac enriches his history with many quotations from Latin and Greek writers like Eusebius, Orosius, Julius Africanus, Josephus, and Jerome. 81. The rock of Cashel. This was also the golden age of Irish native architecture. Murkertagh O'Brien, king of Munster, like his ancestors before him, had his great central fortress on the rock of Cashel in Tipper- ary. The word Cashel means "3. stone fortress." Murk- ertagh made a grant of the rock of Cashel to the church, and the beautiful religious buildings which still stand there were shortly afterward begun. The rock itself on which these buildings stand rises sharply to a height of three hundred feet, and thus dominates the whole sur- rounding plain. The most interesting building on the rock is King Cormac's chapel, built by Cormac ^j MacCarthy, chief of South Munster, and conse- Comae's cliapel. crated in 11 34. It is the most perfect example of native architecture in Ireland. King Cormac's chapel has the high pitched stone roof of the early native churches like Saint Columba's house at Kells and Saint 90 IRELAND'S STORY [1134 Kevin's at Glendalough. These steep stone roofs were so well built and so strong that they have lasted for centu- ries, while the roofs of much later buildings, supported by wooden beams, have fallen to ruin. Square towers of about fifty feet high stand on each side of King Cormac's THE ROCK OF CASHEL Cormac's chapel with its peaked roof and square towers is seen in the middle of the group of buildings. The cap of the round tower is visible on the right chapel, one of them having a pyramid top. The arches in this chapel are semicircular, in the style later called Norman, but really handed down from the Romans. The cathedral beside Cormac's chapel was founded in 1 152. It is a cruciform or cross-shaped church, its The ground-plan being in the form of a cross. In cathedral. ^\^q cathedral the arches are pointed, or what is usually called Gothic, and the clusters of pillars are elaborately sculptured. Beside the cathedral rises a The cross round tower more than ninety feet high. The oicashei. cross of Cashel stands close to the cathedral. At its base the kings of Munster were formerly crowned. 1 148] FROM NORSEMEN TO NORMANS 91 82. Archbishop Malachias. The most prominent figure in the religious life of Ireland in the period follow- ing the battle of Clontarf was Mael- maedog, to whom the biblical name of Malachias was also given. The Chronicles tell us, under the year 1 148: ''A synod was con- The synod vened at Saint Patrick's isle o^n^s. by Maelmaedog, successor of Pat- rick, at which were present fifteen bishops and two hundred priests, to establish rules and morals for all. Maelmaedog, by the advice of the synod, went a second time to Rome, to confer with the successor of Pe- ter." A few months later, the An- nals record his death : " Malachias, that is, Maelmaedog, archbishop of the Chair of Patrick, chief head of the piety of the West of Europe, Legate of the successor of Peter, the only head whom the Irish and the Foreigners [Norse- men in Ireland] obeyed, chief paragon of wisdom and piety, a brilliant lamp which illumined territories and churches by preachino^ and s^ood works, faith- „ ^ , . . . •'^ o ^ ' Good deeds ful shepherd of the church in general, — after ofMaia- having ordained bishops and priests, and per- sons of every degree ; after having consecrated many churches and cemeteries ; after having performed every ecclesiastical work throughout Ireland ; after having be- stowed jewels and food upon the mighty and the needy; after having founded churches and monasteries, for by him was repaired in Ireland every church which had been consigned to decay and neglect, and they had been CORMAC'S CROSIER This crosier was found in Cormac's tomb, and is undoubtedly of contem- porary origin with the chapel. It is 12 inches long and made of cop- per. The staff is de- stroyed 92 IRELAND'S STORY [1148 neglected from times remote ; after leaving every rule and every good moral in the churches of Ireland in gen- eral; after having been the second time in the legateship ; after having been fourteen years in the primacy ; and after the fifty-fourth year of his age, resigned his spirit to Heaven on the second day of November and was buried in the monastery of Saint Bernard, at Clara Val- lis [Clairvaux] in France." 83. The four archbishoprics of Ireland. At this time there were four archbishoprics in Ireland : at Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, in the provincial kingdoms of Ulster, Munster, Leinster, and Connaught respectively. The primacy belonged to Armagh, as it had macyof been founded by Saint Patrick. A sentence ™*^ ■ in the Annals shows how the church revenues were raised at this time : " a horse from every chieftain, a sheep from every hearth." 84. Struggle for the High Kingship continued. (See section 79.) The kingdoms of Ulster and Munster, headed by Donall, O'Loughlin, and Murkertagh O'Brien, fought steadily for the overlordship of Ireland for more than thirty years. Wearied of strife, these two kings finally left their thrones and entered monasteries, the king of Ulster taking refuge in a religious house at Derry, while the king of Munster sought retirement at the ab- bey of Lismore, in Waterford, where he died in 11 19. The ex-king of Ulster passed away two years later. The strife between these two kingdoms weakened them beth, Turiogh and advantage was taken of this by Turlogh becomes O'Conor, king of Connaught, who claimed the High King, title of High King, and fought for it against Murkertagh O'Loughlin, king of Ulster, until his death in 1 1 56. This Turlogh O'Conor is celebrated in the ar- tistic history of Ireland as having ordered the making of ii62] FROM NORSEMEN TO NORMANS 93 the beautiful Cross of Cong, one of the finest examples of native metal and jewel work. 85. Reign of Roderick O'Conor. Turlogh O'Conor was succeeded by his son, Roderick O'Conor, who car- ried on the fight against Ulster. Several characteristic and important events and changes took place in his reign, which marks the close of this great and purely Irish epoch. Like all sovereigns of his time, he made many raids and incur- sions against the neighboring rulers, to bring back " a count- less number of cows." With this end in view he undertook a work which, for those times, was a wonderful piece of construction : a pile ^^.^^^ ^^ bridge at Athlone, 'bridge of ^1 ^ • AtMone. over the great river Shannon, in order to lead his army into Meath, a fertile field for his raids. This bridge was the first of its kind ever built in Ireland, and was in structure something like the famous bridge built by Julius Caesar across the Rhine, or like modern wooden bridges built on pile foundations. In 1 162, an army was assembled by the king of Ulster, Murkertagh O'Loughlin, to march against At-Cliat, that is, Dublin, and attack the Norsemen and Leinstermen there. Roderick O'Conor joined the expedi- Attacks the tion, bringing an army of his own Con naught- Danes, men and the men of Meath. The foray was suc- cessful, and "a peace was concluded between the For- eigners [Norsemen] and the Gaels ; and six score ounces CROSS OF CONG This cross was made in 1123 to en- shrine a portion of the true cross for Turlogh O'Conor. It is made of oak covered with copper plates set with jewels 94 IRELAND'S STORY [1166 of gold were given by the Foreigners to O'Loughlin, and Gold as five score ounces of gold were paid by Dermot StteJd O'Melaghlin to Roderick O'Conor, for West of cattle. Meath." Here we see the beginning of the modern method of war indemnities paid in money, as against the ancient system of cattle raiding. Murkertagh O'Loughlin died in 1166, and the claim of Roderick O'Conor to the overlordship was admitted Roderick's without dispute. In the following year he con- ship^admit- vened a general assembly from all parts of ted. Ireland. We have already described the great religious meeting, the church synod, called together by Archbishop Malachias in 1148. We now come to an The great equally representative civil assembly, the first sembfy oi which embraced the whole country. This is 1167. how the Annals describe it : '* A great meeting was called together by Roderick O'Conor and the chiefs of Leat-Cuin, both lay and ecclesiastic, and the chiefs of At-Boy [the ' Yellow Ford ' in Meath]. To it came the successor of Patrick, the archbishop of Connaught, the archbishop of Leinster, the lord of Brefny, the lord of Oriel, the king of Ulster, the king of Tara, and Ragnall, son of Ragnall, lord of the Foreigners [Norsemen]. The whole of their gathering and assemblage was nineteen thousand horsemen, of whom six thousand were Con- naughtmen, four thousand with the lord of Brefny, two thousand with the king of Tara, four thousand with the lord of Oriel and the king of Ulster, two thousand with the chief of Offaly, and one thousand with the For- eigners of At-Cliat [Dublin]. They passed many good resolutions at this meeting respecting veneration for churches and clerics, and control of tribes and territories, so that women used to traverse Ireland alone ; and a restoration of his prey was made by the chief of Offaly ii66] FROM NORSEMEN TO NORMANS 95 at the hands of the kings aforesaid. They afterwards separated in peace and amity, without battle or contro- versy, or without any one complaining of another at that meeting, in consequence of the prosperousness of the king, who had assembled these chiefs with their forces." In this year, a second assembly was called by Roderick O' Conor to settle a dispute as to the boundary line be- tween the territories of two neighboring chiefs, Roderick as both of the royal line of Ulster. The Annals anarbitra- say : " They arrived at Tir-Eogain [Tyrone], *"' and allotted the part of it north of Slieve Gullion [now the eastern part of Derry] to Neil O'Loughlin for two hostages, and allotted the part of the country of the clan to the south of the mountain to Aed O'Neill for two other hostages." This dispute, half a century earlier, would have been settled by bloodshed, 86. Growth of national feeling. As a result of the great assembly convened by Roderick O'Conor, national feeling began to assert itself, and with it a recognition of the method of conciliation and mutual understanding, rather than an appeal to armed force. Roderick also established a fund for the instruction of the youth of Ireland and Scotland in literature. SUMMARY Malachi succeeded Brian Boru and ruled till 1022. Then followed a long struggle for control till Roderick O'Conor became High King in 1156. He held, in 1 167, the first repre- sentative civil assembly of the whole country. Archbishop Malachias, who assembled the church synod of 1 148, was the chief religious figure of the period. Ireland was at this time divided into five provinces. There were four archbishoprics. Progress in the fine arts was shown in Cormac's chapel and other works of art still preserved. CHAPTER XII THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 1169-1199 English Sovereigns : Henry II, 11 54-11 89 Richard I, 1189-1199 87. The beginning of the Norman invasion. In the middle of the twelfth century, Dermot MacMurrogh was Treason of king of Leinster. We have found the kings of MacMur- Leinster in former years repeatedly in league rogh. with the Danes of Dublin, against the kings of Meath and Connaught, and we are therefore prepared to find Dermot going even farther. In the year 1166, Dermot, who had been guilty of a series of violent ac- tions, finally rendered himself so intolerable that Roder- ick O'Conor and other chiefs compelled him to surrender his kingdom and leave the country. Seeking vengeance, he fled to England and appealed to Henry II, duke of the e V 4-, Normans and king of the English, to help him, Soe&s aid of Norman promising allegiance in return. Henry's mind was preoccupied with the struggle for his domin- ions in France, more than half of which country at that time acknowledged his rule. He therefore dechned him- self to undertake the reinstatement of Dermot, but per- mitted any of his subjects who were willing to engage in the adventure. Dermot immediately secured the help of Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke, generally known as " Strongbow," who entered his service as a mercenary. To Strongbow Dermot promised the hand of his daugh- I170] THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 97 ter Eva in marriage, while two chiefs of the Welsh Ger- aldines, Maurice Fitzgerald and Robert Fitzstephen, were bought by promises of Irish land, to be won from Dermot's enemies. It was thus as mercenaries, and at the instigation of a renegade Irishman, that the Normans gained their first entrance into Ireland. Fitzstephen made his first landing in one of the lesser Wexford harbors, having with him a hundred knights and six hundred archers. He joined his forces ,„ , -• Attack on to those of Dermot MacMurrogh and they Wexford, marched together to attack the city of Wex- ^^^^' ford. The town was protected by a wall, which was bravely defended by the garrison, who threw large stones and heavy beams on the heads of their assailants. The Normans were compelled to withdraw on that day, and left many of their men dead behind them, but they made their way to the harbor, and burned all the Irish ships that they found there. On the following day, as they were about to renew their assault, the clergy of Wexford, wishing to avoid further bloodshed, counselled the townsmen to surrender, and Wexford was given over to Fitzstephen and his allies. Dermot thus regained a foothold in his former territory. He then fulfilled his promises to his mercenary allies by making them grants of land. 88. Arrival of Strongbow, 1170. Roderick O'Conor, king of Connaught, wished to oppose the return of Der- mot, but doubted his ability to meet him in the field. He therefore tried more pacific means, and, seeing the dan- ger to Ireland from Dermot's example, he consented to accept Dermot's return, on condition that the latter should promise to dismiss his foreign friends. Dermot consented, in order to avoid an attack, but without any thought of keeping his promise. gS IRELAND'S STORY [1170 Dermot's ambition had grown with his first success. He now determined to make himself king of the whole Lands at of Ireland, and proceeded to secure the help of waterford. Strongbow, who landed at Waterford in the summer of 1170, with about three thousand men. What followed is thus recorded in the Annals : '*' Robert Fitz- stephen and Earl Strongbow came from Saxonland into Erin with a numerous force, and many knights and archers, in the army of Dermot MacMurrogh, to contest Leinster for him, and to disturb the Gaels of Erin in general ; and MacMurrogh gave his daughter to Earl Strongbow for coming into the army. They took Wex- ford and Waterford by force . . . and they killed seven hundred persons there. An army was led by Roderick O'Conor with the lord of Brefny and the lord of Oriel against Leinster and the Foreigners aforesaid, and there was a challenge of battle between them for the space of three days." This contest was indecisive. The most noteworthy event of Strongbow's first invasion was the plundering and slaughter of the Danes of Dublin by the new invaders. The earlier Norsemen, as we saw, were pagans ; but before this time they had Slaughter all been converted to Christianity. Filled with DaSe^sat ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ approach of Dermot and his allies, Dublin. the Danes sent their archbishop, Laurence O'Toole, to negotiate terms of surrender for them. But while the terms were being discussed, the Normans at- tacked the Danes in their fortress, and slew great num- bers of them. 89. National resistance, 1170-1171. In the follow- ing year, Dermot of Leinster died of a lingering disease, regarded by his countrymen as a divine punishment for bringing the invaders. His allies, the Normans, with Strongbow as their leader, were hemmed in at Dublin. I 1 72] THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 99 Archbishop O'Toole traversed the length and breadth of Ire- land, calling on the provincial kings and chiefs to unite against the invad- ers ; and presently a strong army under Roderick O'Conor was advancing against the Nor- mans. After a two months' siege, dur- ing which Dublin suffered from fam- ine, the Normans de- termined on a sortie. It was so successful that Roderick's army was driven back, and the Normans plundered his camp, taking provi- sions enough to supply the city for another year's siege. 90. Expedition of King Henry the Second, 1171- 1172. While these events were going on, Henry II had reached a settlement of his affairs in the west of France, and found himself free to turn toward Ire- land. Gathering a large army of some ten thousand men, under renowned Norman warriors, he put them on board a numerous' fleet, and sailed to Dublin. The provincial kings and chiefs of Ireland believed ^^^^ that they were too weak to resist this formi- princes dable invasion, though, as we have already seen, Roderick O'Conor had a short time before gathered NORMAN KNIGHT AND FOOT-SOLDIER lOO IRELAND'S STORY [1172 nearly twenty thousand horsemen with their chiefs to a general assembly. The chiefs made their submission to Henry, and gave hostages, as they had so often done to each other in their tribal wars. Henry rewarded his Norman followers by grants of land. To Sir Hugh Grants to ^^ Lacy he granted Meath. Leinster was as- Norman signed to Strongbow, the city of Dublin ex- cepted. Sir John de Courcy received a large district in the north, with the title of " Earl of Ulster." Henry himself added the title '* King of the Irish " to that of " King of France and England," which he al- ready bore. Dublin was given to a colony from the west of England, especially from the town of Bristol, and De Lacy was appointed governor. Henry left Norman governors in all the chief cities, and, thinking that everything was secure, he sailed back to England. No sooner had he departed, than a Weakness series of Struggles began between the Irish Norman chicfs and the Norman intruders, and among position. the native chiefs themselves. Henry hoped to restore order by giving greater authority to Strongbow, and making him lord lieutenant, as he was the most powerful of the Norman invaders. By whatever name the king's representative in Ireland was called, his posi- tion was subject to a serious weakness. The king of England, fearing that his lord lieutenant might try to Difficulties make himself king over Ireland, and an inde- ii*euten-^^ pendent monarch, never gave him a sufficiently a»ts. large force to make his position really secure. Neither the Norman nobles nor the Irish princes greatly heeded the commands of the lord lieutenant any more than they did those of the king of England except when he was actually present, at the head of an army. Nor- man nobles and Irish princes lived and ruled like inde- 1 172] THE COMING OF THE NORMANS lOl pendent sovereigns in their respective districts, raiding and fighting among themselves, as in the preceding ages. 91. Who the Normans were. It should be clearly- held in mind that these invaders were not English. They were neither Angles nor Saxons. They were, on the contrary, Normans, speaking French, with French fam- ily-names. The French Normans were the descendants of a band of Norse raiders very like those who devas- tated Lambay and Howth, who had gained a _ J ^ Descendants footing in the north of France under a cele- of Norse brated chieftain, Rollo or Rolf, surnamed " the Ganger," that is, "the walker," because he was so tall that his feet touched the ground under his horse's sides. These Norse raiders of France settled in their new coun- try, called Normandy in remembrance of their northern home, married French wives, and adopted the French tongue and the laws and customs of France. Under their great duke, William of Normandy, they conquest of had invaded England over a century earlier, Britain, vanquishing the English king, Harold, at Hastings in 1066. The Angles and Saxons were reduced to servi- tude, and England had a Norman king and a Norman nobility, speaking the French language, which was for a long time the official language of Britain. They looked to France as their native land, in which their sovereign owned his largest territory ; and they regarded England as a recently conquered and vassal country. Three or four generations later, the De Clares, the De Lacys, and the De Courcys extended to Ireland the work of conquest which they had completed in England. Most of the invaders on these first expeditions were impoverished noblemen. The Norman king freely granted them lands belonging to the Irish tribes ; and these settlers thus became the founders of the chief 102 IRELAND'S STORY [1172 *' Anglo-Irish " families of later centuries. With their Irish lands these adventurers received Irish Quality of the Irish titles, adapted from those of the native chiefs. invaders. -pj^^g the Fitzgeralds .were, first, Barons of Offaly, later, Earls of Kildare, and finally Dukes of Lein- ster. Their kinsmen in the south were made Earls of Munster. 92. Strongbow's term of governraent. On his re- turn to England, Henry II appointed Richard de Clare, called Strongbow, lord lieutenant of Ireland. Most of the Irish princes had once more asserted their independ- ence, and Strongbow determined to take active measures against them. His soldiers, whose pay was long in ar- rears, were discontented, and refused to march under any leader but their favorite, Raymond Fitzgerald, a brilliant officer, who allowed them to plunder to their hearts' con- tent. Strongbow was forced to remove his own uncle from the command of the army, appointing Raymond Fitzgerald in his place. Then began the first Norman Raymond raid among the peaceful districts of Ireland. piS?s* Raymond Fitzgerald led his men southward. Leinster. On the southern Blackwater near Lismore, *'the great fort," he seized a number of boats, and loaded them with plunder, sending them down the river and along the coast to the city of Waterford. He and his men drove a great number of cattle before them, the most valuable part of their plunder. The boats were attacked on their way by a fleet, half Irish, half Danish, from Cork; and the party of Raymond's men who were proceeding by land at the same time had to meet an onslaught from Dermot MacCarthy, prince of Desmond. Both these attacks were repulsed, and Raymond and his plunderers escaped with their booty. After this raid, Raymond Fitzgerald returned to his II76] THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 103 home in Wales. During his absence, Strongbovv took the field against Donall O'Brien, king of Thomond, a descendant of Brian Boru, the victor of Clontarf. Don- all was intrenched at Limerick, and, hearing of Strong- bow's coming, he sent for aid to Roderick O'Conor, who came with his Connaughtmen to help him. They met the earl's army some thirty miles to the east strongbow of Limerick, near Thurles in Tipperary, and Jjf^ie^^^ Strongbow was completely defeated, losing 1174. seventeen hundred men. " Strongbow," says the An- nals, "proceeded in sorrow to his home at Waterford." Here he was besieged by the Irish armies, until Ray- mond Fitzgerald once more came to his aid. ntzgeraid Raymond drove Donall O'Brien back to Limer- L^erick. ick, and, by an impetuous attack, captured the ii76. city and put the defenders to the sword. A garrison was left there to uphold the Norman power. Raymond Fitzgerald had enemies aj: court, who sought to arouse the distrust of Henry H, and to make him jealous of the brilliant general's success. The king even sent an order for his recall, but Raymond soon found an occasion to vindicate himself. The Irish armies made a vigorous attack on the Norman garrison at Limerick. Strongbow once more found that his army would fol- low no leader but Raymond, and sent the king word that Raymond must remain. Raymond made a forced march to the southwest, defeated Donall O'Brien, and relieved the Limerick garrison. 93. De Burgo's government. The king was still distrustful, however ; and on Strongbow's death in the next year, 11 76, the office of lord lieutenant was given, not to Raymond Fitzgerald, but to William de Burgo, whose family name is modernized as Burke. To assist William de Burgo in the government, Henry appointed a I04 IRELAND'S STORY [1177 council of three Norman nobles : John de Courcy, Rob- ert Fitzstephen, and Miles de Cogan. The lord lieutenant was disposed to adopt more peaceful methods, and dis- couraged the semi-independent warfare of leaders like Raymond. He was, therefore, very unpopular among the crowd of fortune-hunters about him. Chief among these was De Courcy, to whom King Henry had made a nominal grant of Ulster, where, however, he had little DUNDRUM CASTLE This castle, built by John de Courcy, is one of the best examples of the Norman method of establishing themselves in the country The central tower is 46 feet in external diameter and the walls are 8 feet thick or no real authority. De Courcy determined to under- Theexpe- take the work of conquest on his own account, dition of . . ^ . De Courcy. and left Dublin with an army of knights and archers, in all about a thousand men. In the beginning Captured ^^ February, ii 77, he attacked Downpatrick, Down- the chief strong^hold of eastern Ulster. The Patrick. ^ 1177. town was taken by surprise, captured, and plundered. Before the end of the week, the prince of Ulster with a numerous army came against De Courcy, ii85] THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 105 and attempted to retake Downpatrick, but was defeated and slain, as were many other Ulster chieftains. De Courcy then built at Dundrum, seven miles south of Downpatrick, a strong Norman castle, with a lofty tower, as a centre of action against his opponents. In p^^ ^ this he set the example which we shall find fol- Noman lowed by the Norman chiefs, who thus gained an immense advantage over the Irish armies, with their less effective earthwork fortifications. De Courcy pro- ceeded in his attempt to assert his authority over Ulster, now winning, now losing battles against the native chiefs, at one time being left with only eleven companions. 94. Henry sends his son John to Ireland. By 1 185, such disquieting reports of the state of Leinster reached King Henry that he determined to send over an expedi- tion under his nineteen -year-old son. Prince John. This prince, bearing the title of Lord of Ireland, set out from England with a large company of adventurers. He landed at Waterfc4d, where certain of the Irish chiefs had come to welcome him. Far from conciliating the chieftains, John and his companions spent eight months adding fuel to the flames, by their insulting manner and lawless behavior toward the Irish chiefs and people. The indignation of the chiefs, who had come with the inten- tion of acknowledging Henry's overlordship, was now thoroughly aroused ; they determined once more to at- tack the Normans, and succeeded in capturing joj^ a number of the recently built castles, and in defeated, completely routing Prince John's army. The chief leader of this war was Donall O'Brien of Thomond. Kins: Henry was thoroughly disgusted with his son's failure, and ordered him to return, naming De Courcy as lord lieutenant of Ireland. In Prince John's train there had been a certain Welsh I06 IRELAND'S STORY [1198 priest, Gerald Barry, called in Latin Giraldus Cambren- sis, that is, Gerald of Cambria, or Wales. This man, on Giraldus ^is return to England, wrote a Latin history of Oambrensis. ^he Norman invasion of Ireland, together with a description of the country, which contains much truth, mixed with many inaccuracies and fancies. Prince John tried to cast all the blame for the failure of the expedition on Hugh de Lacy, one of the best and Death of wisest of the great Norman barons. This De Laxjy^the L^cy, whose SOU was the rival of De Courcy, elder. had brought upon himself the dangerous accu- sation of aiming to be king of Ireland, because he had married a daughter of Roderick O' Conor. He was as- sassinated one day by a young Irishman, to revenge his unlawful seizure of land belonging to the old monastery of Durrow, founded by Saint Columba. 95. De Courcy as lord lieutenant. During the whole time he was lord lieutenant, De Courcy was en- gaged in fighting. He began in 1 198 by making an expedition against Connaught, much in the style of the old Danish raids, but was defeated with p^reat First ex- .' ^ pedition to loss by Conor, king of Connaught, and Donall onnaug . Q'^^-jgj-^^ ^uig of Munster, and forced to re- treat. He marched north in the hope of escaping his pursuers, only to find himself caught between two hostile forces, as the prince of Tyrconnell, or Donegal, had also come out against him. He finally reached Leinster with the remnant of his army. De Courcy' s second expedition against the same pro- vince in T200, as an ally of one of the native claimants to the disputed throne of Connausfht, likewise Second ex- ^ & ' pedition to ended in defeat. Hugh de Lacy the younger onnaug . -^^^ joined him in this campaign, but the pre- sence of these two distinguished Norman leaders failed to 1204] THE COMING OF THE NORMANS lO/ secure success for their ally. Their army was caught in an ambuscade by the forces of the rival claimant, and al- most annihilated. During their retreat across the waters of Lough Ree, the Connaught chief again attacked, and De Courcy escaped with only a few men. De Lacy was lord justice, and therefore very jealous of De Courcy, and he did his utmost to bring the latter into disfavor with the king. In 1204, after The end o« much scheming, he succeeded in having De DeCourcy. Courcy proclaimed a traitor, and orders were given for his arrest. His subsequent history is uncertain. SUMMARY In 1 166, Dermot MacMurrogh, king of Leinster, was de- posed by Roderick O'Conor and others. He sought aid from Henry II, duke of the Normans, and his Norman barons. The latter fitted up several expeditions, landed in Ireland, and captured the towns of Wexford and Waterford in 1 169-70. Among these Norman barons were Fitzgerald, Fitzstephen, De Lacy, De Courcy, and the great Strongbow. Henry II came himself to Ireland in 1 171, at the head of a large army, received the submission of the chiefs, and returned, leaving De Lacy as governor of the city of Dublin. Strongbow was appointed lord lieutenant in 1173. These invaders were French-speaking Normans who, just a century before, had conquered England, and who were now eager to enrich them- selves from the spoils of Ireland. With no other aim than plunder, they made numerous successful raids through the country in spite of the opposition of Roderick and the Irish chiefs. Thus, by the year 1200, the Normans had gained a footing in Ireland, but had accomplished nothing that could properly be called a conquest. CHAPTER XIII CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER 1199-1318 English Sovereigns : John, 1199-1216 Edward I, 1 272-1 307 Henry III, 1216-1272 Edward II, 1307-1327 96. The genius of the Normans. When William the Norman gained possession of England, one of his first acts was to secure his position in the capital by building the Tower of London. This immense ^^g ^ower stronghold, which frowns upon London even 0* London, to-day, after the lapse of nearly nine centuries, is typical of the Norman genius. It illustrates the method by which the Normans secured their position in England, and later in Ireland. William himself built about fifty other great Norman castles throughout the length and breadth of the Saxon land which he had conquered, and in these castles placed his feudal nobles, who acknow- ledged him as their lord and master. When the Norman warriors came to Ireland, they were at first mercenaries of Irish princes like Dermot MacMurrogh ; but they were soon granted land, either by the Irish chiefs who sought their services, or by the king of England, after he had asserted his claim to be overlord of Ireland. The Norman warriors immediately put in practice the lesson taught by William the Con- queror. They built just such keeps and castles as the II99] CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER IO9 Tower of London, though not on so large a scale, and many of their strongholds are still standing. The plan of these castles included an outer wall, encir- j,oj^an cled by a deep moat or canal filled with water, casties in ^ ^ Ireland, which surrounded the whole castle, and could be crossed only by a drawbridge. This bridge could be THE TOWER OF LONDON From the earliest drawing drawn up from within the castle, and when it was drawn up, all access from without was cut off. The strong outer wall of the fortress was pierced by a single doorway, no IRELAND'S STORY [1199 high enough for a knight on horseback to ride through without dismounting. This doorway could be closed by an iron portcullis, a gate running in grooves in the wall, which was raised by chains from a windlass above. When let down, this strong iron gate could not be pushed open, as it was held in place by the heavy grooved stones on either side. Often the lower edge of this port- cullis was armed with a row of spikes, so that, should any of the enemy be underneath at the time it was lowered in haste, they would be transfixed and killed. Along the top of the outer wall of the fortress there were openings for the bowmen to shoot through, and these openings give the walls the toothed appearance, like the edge of a saw, which makes them so picturesque in modern landscapes. Inside the wall were dwelling-houses and storehouses, and the whole was dominated by a keep or central stronghold, a high tower with very thick walls, also pierced for archers, into which the garrison could retire, if the outer fortress was taken. De Courcy was one of the greatest builders of Norman castles in Ireland, and one great stronghold of his over Castle- Dundrum Bay in Down is to-day almost as per- buiiders. fg^.^ ^.s during his lifetime. The other great Nor- mans, De Lacy, De Clare, and the rest, were not behind De Courcy. They erected Norman keeps and castles at every point where they gained a footing ; and it was the presence of these fortresses of stone which made it almost impossible for the Irish chiefs to drive out the Normans, as they had earlier driven out the Norsemen. The use of armor in battle was another evidence of Noraan ^^^ Same instinct of self-defence. The coats armor and of mail of the Norman knights are even more discipline. . • 1 , 1 1 1 • , ■, -, imperishable than their castles, and they are to be found in every museum to-day. A third element of I2I0] CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER III strength was the sense of rigid discipline which the Nor- mans brought with them to England and Ireland, and which was an inheritance from the ancient Roman armies. In this they excelled the Irish tribal forces, just as they excelled the Saxons at the battle of Hastings, and many of their victories in Ireland were due rather to supe- •rior order than to superior valor. The Irish had never submitted to discipline, which ran counter to their tribal instincts. They fought in masses rather than in regular ranks, and had no system of tactics. They still adhered to the habits of warfare developed in an earlier age, re- lying on the wildness of the country, on the forests and bogs, for their defence, rather than on fortifications of stone. Later, when the sons of Ireland mastered the principle of ordered war, they became very formidable warriors, winning battles in every part of Europe, and leading the armies of many nations. The Norman in- vaders brought with them the French language „ which they had learned in Normandy, and ideas Frencli many French knightly traditions. It is worth remembering that the Conqueror's great grandson, Henry II, who was the first invading sovereign, had larger ter- ritorjes in France than in England, and that the part of Ireland over which he exercised real authority, a very small part, was one of the divisions of a realm which stretched from the south of Scotland to the north of Spain. 97. King John comes to Ireland. King John came to the throne of England in 1 199. He remembered the condition of confusion and turmoil which reigned in Ire- land. He therefore determined to go there „ o Cessation again, to attempt to bring order out of chaos, ofhostm- He did not carry out his intention until 1210, however ; in that year he assembled a formidable army 112 IRELAND'S STORY [1210 and sailed to Waterford, landing at Cape Crook. His arrival was the signal for a general cessation of hostili- ties. Even the most restless of the Norman chiefs left the native chieftains unmolested, and stopped quarrelling amongst themselves, during the visit of their king. John had thus no fighting to do, and devoted himself to es- tablishing the principles of civil law, and asserting his authority. He divided the part of Ireland in which his power was recoo^nized into twelve counties. Formation ^, ,. . 11 ^ ■ r of counties that IS to say, districts under the authority of in Ireland. ^ ^ount, a name and title brought by the Nor- mans, from France. The twelve counties formed by King John are Dublin, Kildare, Meath, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Tipperary. Five of the twelve, namely, Dublin, Wex- ford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, were old Norse or Danish districts, thus showing that the Normans were able to gain a footing first in the regions already weak- ened by Danish inroads. We shall speak later of the introduc- formation of other counties, as the central Norman authority was extended. John founded law law, courts, and appointed magistrates, who were ordered to administer Norman law. An element of strife was thus introduced, which produced much harm and misery for centuries, since the Norman law was founded on principles, largely borrowed from Rome, which were not in harmony with the traditional law of Ireland, as de- veloped by the Brehons. It is true that John intended to apply the Norman law only to Normans and English settled in Ireland, but this distinction was later lost sight of, and the imported legal system was gradually extended to English and Irish alike. For many years to come, the native Irish remained outside the jurisdiction of the newly established courts. John returned to England, 114 IRELAND'S STORY [1216 leaving Ireland fairly quiet, and this condition was main- tained until his death in 12 16. 98. Norman law. The chief principle of Norman law which came into opposition with Irish traditions concerned the possession of land. Generally speaking, the districts of Ireland were the possession of the tribe, that is, of the supposed or real descendants of a common ancestor, who held the land in common. Their elected Irish land chief had a separate portion of the land for his customs. Q^yj^ ygg^ ^j^(^ ^yg^g absolutc owner only of this separate portion. It descended, not necessarily to his eldest son, but to his elected successor. The Norman principle was quite different. William of Normandy as- Norman serted his direct ownership of all the land of system. England, and made grants of it to his followers and officers. They became complete owners of the soil, which passed to their eldest sons, according to the sys- tem called primogeniture. The Norman lord of the land was thus in a much stronger position than the Irish tribal chief. He was complete owner of the whole region under his authority, and he could be certain that it would pass undivided to his son. All disputes of succession were avoided, and the estate was preserved intact. It is evident, of course, that here was an element of strength, similar to the great Norman castles ; and these two things were joint causes of the physical and moral power of the Norman invaders. It is equally evident that this Effect of strength was gained by decreasing the rights tem?orthe '^^ ^^^ tribe, who, under the Norman system, people. became mere tenants of the lord, instead of free warriors owning their own land. In exactly the same way, the Norman system of inheritance often did great injustice to the younger sons, who were, perhaps, the most gifted, but who received little or nothing from 1224] CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER II5 their father, while the eldest son received everything. The Irish chief, on the contrary, was elected, so that the worthiest and strongest was put in power. The com- ing of King John marks the beginning of the conflict between these two legal principles. 99. Conditions in Leinster and Meath, 1216-1315. From the accession of John's son, as Henry III, in 12 16, to the invasion of Edward Bruce, in 13 15, that is, for ex- actly a century, fighting went on incessantly in Ireland. The great Norman lords carried on a series of savage struggles among themselves, each trying to seize the estates and wealth of the others ; they also joined in the traditional quarrels of the native princes, aiding one side or the other, and receiving a share of the plunder. Typi- cal of these struggles was " the war of Meath," „^ &c> The wars of which broke out in 1224 between two Nor- Meath and man families, the De Lacys and the Marechals "®" or Marshalls of Leinster, and which did* not end until Meath was completely devastated. The " war of Kil- dare " was a similar struggle. When William Marshall, who had taken a part in the "war of Meath," died, his estates passed to his brother Richard. Richard Mar- shall had a quarrel with the English king, and fled from England to Ireland, where he hoped to escape pursuit. Three powerful Norman lords, Geoffrey Marisco, Mau- rice Fitzgerald, and Hugh de Lacy entered into an agree- ment to attack Richard Marshall and divide his estates. They invited him to meet them in Kildare, and in a pretended quarrel attacked him and wounded him so severely that he died shortly after. When Henry III heard of this treacherous act, he banished Geoffrey Marisco and executed his son, who had also been impli- cated in the plot. 100. Affairs in Connaught. In Connaught, the na- Il6 IRELAND'S STORY [1249 tive chiefs were still dominant. Here a bitter struggle for the kingship of the western provinces was fought out amongst various members of the O'Conor family, the descendants and relatives of Roderick O'Conor. The Marshalls, De Burgos, and other Norman lords took part in this quarrel, because they saw in it oppor- o'Conorin tunities of plunder. In 1249, Phelim, one of onnaug . j^Qj^gj-i^^j^'g nephews, succeeded in seizing and holding the throne of Connaught against all opponents, Norman and Irish alike. He reigned over the western province for sixteen years, until his death in 1265, show- ing the continuity of Irish tradition and kingship, side by side with Norman rule. It must be remembered that the life and culture of the Irish tongue continued unabated. Poems were com- posed, and the poems of olden days were recited ; the harpers practised their art in the halls of the chiefs ; the Brehons settled questions of law ; and, for centuries to come, the intellectual and moral life of the purely native Ireland continued in an unbroken stream. 101. The state of Ulster. In Ulster, things were not less disturbed than in Leinster and Connaught. Maurice Fitzgerald aimed at the complete subjugation of the northern province, and, for this purpose, led an army north through Connaught. He had gone as far credran. as Credran, near Sligo, when he was met and de- feated by Godfrey O'Donnell, lord of Tyrcon- nell. Both leaders were wounded in the fight, the Nor- man so seriously that he died shortly after. O'Donnell was disabled by his wound, and his army was left without a leader for several months. Brian O'Neill, prince of Tyrone, O'Donnell's old rival, seized the opportunity and invaded Tyrconnell, but was defeated at the river Swilly. Godfrey O'Donnell was too weak to lead his army, but, 1314] CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER 11/ in order to give courage to his men, he had himself car- ried to battle with his army. As a result of this exer- tion and exposure, he died shortly after. In 1260, the Ulster chiefs made some efforts to unite against the Normans, under the leadership of Brian O'Neill. _ , ^ Battle of Their efforts were unsuccessful, however, for Down- they were defeated in a hard fought battle at ^^^^ ' Downpatrick, and Brian O'Neill and several other Irish leaders were slain. 102. Troubles in Munster. In Munster, the fiercest fighting took place between the Norman Geraldines and the old Irish family of the MacCarthys of Desmond, who were roused to opposition by the perpetual encroach- ments of the newcomers. In the year 1261, the Battle of MacCarthys won a battle at Callan, near Ken- CaUan. mare. They then proceeded to overthrow the Norman strongholds throughout the south of Munster ; but, as happened too often with the Irish chieftains, they soon lost through lack of unity what they had gained by valor and hard fighting. These rivalries and contests, which were politically inconclusive, were nevertheless the causes of limitless evil to the land. The masses of the people, whether of the old Irish race, or the English retainers of the Norman newcomers, asked for nothing better than to farm their lands in peace. These were the people who suffered most, not only from the direct evils of fighting, but even more from the famines which followed the wholesale destruction of their crops, and the carrying off of their herds ; and from the pestilences which came in the wake of famine, sickness finding easy victims among multitudes of half-starved and emaciated men and women. 103. The invasion of Edward Bruce. In 13 14, Rob- ert Bruce gained a victory over the English king, Edward Il8 IRELAND'S STORY [1315 II, at Bannockburn in Stirlingshire, and thus established the independence of Scotland. The news of this defeat of the English armies so roused the Irish of the north that they decided to make another effort to drive out the Normans, and invited Edward Bruce, brother of the Bruce lands Scottish king, to come over as their leader, at Larue. -phe proposal was accepted, and in the month of May, 131 5, Edward Bruce landed at Larne, in An- trim, with six thousand Scottish warriors, cousins of the Irish, and speaking the same tongue. He was met by an Irish army under Donall O'Neill, and the two lead- ers joined their forces. They at once proceeded against the Normans of Ulster, and won several battles. In order to deprive their opponents of food and shelter, they burned houses and devastated fields, thus causing great misery to the common people. Richard de Burgo, the ''red earl " of Ulster, with Sir Edmund Butler, the lord justice, led an army against the Scottish and Irish forces. A contest of great cruelty and severity was now be- gun. The path of the Scottish and Irish army, as well as that of the Normans, was surrounded by misery and suffering. Though there was a famine that year, and a general failure of the crops, orders were nevertheless given by the commanders of both armies to destroy all food except what was required for their own support, regardless of the starvation inevitably inflicted upon the people. Phelim O'Conor, the younger, king of Con- naught, at first joined De Burgo, but was soon compelled to return to Con naught, on account of an out- De Burgo break among his own people. The Norman force was thus greatly weakened, and De Burgo was completely defeated by Bruce at Connor, in Antrim, a short distance to the south of Slemish Mountain, where the apostle of Ireland once tended his master's flocks. I3I7] CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER II9 104. Bruce is crowned king. Soon after this battle, Bruce was crowned king of Ireland, and, marching into Meath, defeated a Norman force of fifteen thousand men at Kells, and again, in the early part of the year 1 3 16, routed the Normans in Kildare. By this time, Phelim O'Conor had restored order in Connaught, and now gave in his adherence to Bruce, and led his army to Athenry in Galway. Here he suffered the severest defeat that had been inflicted on any Irish "^ Battle of army since the first coming of the Normans. Athenry. In a battle against William de Burgo, eleven ^^^^' thousand of the Connaughtmen were killed, including Phelim himself and most of his nobles. In 1 3 17, Edward Bruce was joined by his brother, Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, but little was accom- plished through his help. The two brothers attempted to reduce Dublin and afterwards Limerick, Bruce re- two of the stronsrest fortresses in the hands E^^f.^^^^ <-' DuDiin ana of the Normans, but failed in both attacks. Limerick. Their army suffered greatly on its long marches through a country previously devastated. Many of the soldiers died of cold and famine, and this incessant hard- ship discouraged the hitherto indomitable Scottish king. Be- lieving that any more complete victory in Ireland was impossi- ble, he returned to his own country, leaving Edward to face his troubles alone. 105. End of Bruce's invasion. The closing: battle ^^^^^^^^^^^^1^ ^m KING John's castle, limerick This castle was built by order of King John, and was one of the most formidable castles in Ireland I20 IRELAND'S STORY [1318 of Edward Bruce' s invasion was fought at Faughart, north of Dundalk, in October, 1318. The Normans under De Bermingham had a stronger force, but they B tu would probably have lost the battle, had not Faughart. one of their leaders met and killed Edward 1318 Bruce in a hand-to-hand combat. Their leader gone, the Scottish troops wavered, and were defeated. This ended Edward Bruce's invasion. 106. Condition of the country after the invasion. Bruce's invasion left the country in a condition of misery from which it did not recover for generations. So many Weakness of the Normans in Ulster had been killed that Norman ^^^ native chiefs once more came into power, government. 'This was true to some extent also in other parts of Ireland. Famine and pestilence were widespread, and lawlessness was more prevalent than before. The Anglo- Irish government, weakened as it was by Bruce's inva- sion, daily lost ground. The Normans were no longer able to extend their influence to new districts. More- Biending of over, the Normans were daily growing closer the races. ^q ^he Irish in thought, feeling, and language, and frequent intermarriages hastened this blending. Many of the Norman lords, at this time and later, were distinguished by their knowledge of the language and literature of Ireland. Thus we find the Annals record- ing the death of " Garrett, Earl of Desmond, a cheerful and courteous man, who excelled all the Normans and many of the Irish in the knowledge of the Irish lan- guage, poetry, history, and other learning." 107. Monastic orders and abbeys. We must remem- ber that the possession of a common religion greatly helped this work of assimilation. All the combatants, Irish and Norman alike, were Catholics, and many of the foremost warriors of either party were fervent devotees I3i8] CONSOLIDATION OF NORiMAN POWER 121 of their religion. The Normans represented the culture of the continent, and were the means of introducing into Ireland a number of religious orders of continental origin. These religious orders were founded by a group q^^^^^^^ of great men like Saint Francis of Assisi, whose Francis, followers were named Franciscans in his honor ; and Ber- ' Saint Dominick, a Spaniard of an old Castilian ^^^^' family, who established the Dominicans ; and Saint Ber- ^^!H #-^^ ^im ^^1 \ ^ ■^ HOLYCROSS ABBEY This is situated at Thurles in Tipperary, and dates back to 1182 nard the younger, of Clairvaux in France, who gained great influence for the Cistercian order founded by Saint Robert at Citeaux in Burgundy, a town called in Latin Cistercium, whence the order took its name. All these orders seem to have built their monastic establishments on a common plan : a cruciform or cross-formed church symbolized the source of their inspiration. The choir was toward the east, The abteys. 122 IRELAND'S STORY [13TH cent. whence the Light had come. The nave, or main body of the church, was entered by the great western door, and the arms of the cross, or transepts, extended to the north and south. From one of the transepts, a side door generally led to the domestic buildings: the dormitory, where they slept ; the refectory, where they ate ; and the chapter-house, where the friars or brothers assembled, under the presidency of the abbot. There were also smaller buildings, storerooms, granaries, and workrooms. The church was the centre of all things, and under the stones of its floor the friars were at last laid to rest, while those who survived them carved their tombs and epitaphs. These abbeys were the homes of culture and art, as well as of devotion and learning, throughout the whole Centres of period of turmoil we have described, and for learning. the next two or three centuries. They are, indeed, among the great art monuments of Ireland, and there is a world of beauty in their graceful arches, slender pillars with rare and fanciful carving, and beauti- ful windows with many lights. Into these strong yet delicate fabrics of stone, their builders worked that art inspiration which an earlier age had embodied in the finely-wrought chalices and intricately interlaced illumi- nations of the sacred manuscripts. SUMMARY The Normans inherited the Roman power of conquest through discipline. As they gained a more extensive footing in Ireland they secured their position by building castles and keeps of stone against which the power of the Irish was unavailing. Fighting between the two races was incessant, and, in 12 10, King John headed an expedition to restore order and peace. He divided that part of the country I3TH CENT.] CONSOLIDATION OF NORMAN POWER 123 under English influence into twelve counties, and introduced Norman law, which was directly opposed to the Irish law of inheritance, and this difference later became the cause of much bloodshed. For a hundred years, from 12 16 to 13 15, Ireland was kept in a continuous state of turmoil by quarrels between the Irish chiefs and the Norman barons, and by fighting among the Irish themselves. Meath, Connaught, Ulster, and Mun- ster were successively devastated, and the country suffered years of famine and pestilence. In 13 15, Edward Bruce was invited by the northern Irish to be their king. He landed at Larne with a Scotch army and was joined by Don- all O'Neill and the native Irish. The combined forces won several battles against the Normans, and Bruce was crowned king. He was killed in the battle of Faughart, in 13 18. Bruce's invasion left the Norman government for the time being in a very weak condition. Ireland owes to the Normans the introduction of the reli- gious orders of Franciscans, Dominicans, and Cistercians, all of whom built many beautiful abbeys, the ruins of which are still standing in many places. CHAPTER XIV NORMAN RAIDS TO ENGLISH RULE 1318-1485 English Sovereigns : Edward II, 1307-1327 Henry V, 1413-1422 Edward III, [327-1377 Henry VI, 1422-1461 Richard II, 1377-1399 Edward IV, 1461-1483 Henry IV, 1 399-1 41 3 Richard III, 1483-1485 108. Old and new invaders. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the government of England had ceased to be exclusively Norman, and was gradually be- coming more truly English in institutions, law, and lan- guage. English literature was blending the older tongue of the Angles and Saxons with the French imported by the Normans from France, and a mixed speech, half Germanic, half Latin in origin, was being formed, of great flexibility, color, and strength. The conquered English were absorbing and assimilating their conquerors. This change naturally affected Ireland. The first comers from Britain had been Norman knights like De Lacy and De Courcy, with French names, and speak- ing French. They often married Irish wives, a daughter of Roderick O'Conor thus becoming the mother of one branch of the Fitzgeralds. The children of these mar- riages of course learned Irish as a mother-tongue, and it is safe to say that many of these Celto-Normans never knew a word of English, passing directly from Norman- French to Irish. The common religion drew them closer 1333] NORMAN RAIDS TO ENGLISH RULE 12$ to their adopted country, and we find Irish princes and Norman nobles vying with each other in founding the early Cistercian and Franciscan abbeys. Many of these first settlers became so completely acclimated, and felt themselves so much at home, that they took Irish names, as well as the Irish tongue, and of them it was said that they were "more Irish than the Irish themselves." 109. Feuds between the Norman and English set- tlers. As Britain became more English, a new race of invaders began to come to Ireland, no longer Norman, but distinctively English, in thought and speech. As they were much more in harmony with conditions then prevailing in England, they were constantly favored by the Dublin government at the expense of the older Nor- man families. A keen rivalry grew up between the two elements, and the English newcomers spoke ..^j contemptuously of the older Normans as the erate English." "degenerate English." A result of this hos- tility was the quarrel between the Gernons and Savages, from among the newer English on the one side, and the De Bermingham family on the other. Sir John de Ber- mingham, who had defeated Edward Bruce at the battle of Faughart, together with his brothers and nephews, and a number of his followers, a hundred and sixty in all, were treacherously murdered by his rivals at Braggans- town near Ardee in Louth, in the year 1329. Another similar affair happened one Sunday morning in 1333. Young De Burgo, called .the Dun Earl of Ulster, was on his way to church at Carrickfergus on the north shore of Belfast' Louo^h. He was „ .,. ^ Murder of attacked and murdered by Richard de Mande- De Burgo. 1333 ville, his uncle by marriage. As De Burgo was a great favorite with the Norman families, they avenged his death by killing all persons suspected of having a part 126 IRELAND'S STORY [1333 in the murder, so that nearly three hundred of De Mande- ville's followers were slain. De Burgo had vast estates in Ulster and Connaught, and at his death this territory fell to his daughter, then an infant. Two kinsmen of the Dun Earl, seeing that under Irish law, with its prin- ciple of election, the vast estates would probably fall to them, and not to the helpless girl, determined to seize the property. They announced that they had broken off their allegiance to England and English law, and in all things adopted the life and customs of the Irish. They founded two powerful lines of the Burke family. 110. *' The Pale" and the ** Black Rents." The Eng- lish settlement in the immediate neighborhood of Dublin, which later came to be known as the *' Pale " (meaning '' an inclosure," the same word as " paling," a fence, from an embankment which was built around it in the fifteenth century), was the only region which was really subject to England, and was now the one stronghold of English gov- ernment in Ireland. Wars, famine, and pestilence had so weakened the inhabitants of this small district that they were no longer able to defend themselves. The powerful Irish chieftains made the English of the Pale pay tribute for protection from attacks by bodies of Irish raiders ; and this tribute, which was called '' Black Rent," was sometimes paid even by the Dublin government. 111. Weakness of the English government. By 1330, the English government at Dublin was so weak that the lord lieutenant called in the help of Maurice Fitz- gerald, one of the powerful Norman lords, to ward off the attacks of the Irish chiefs, and gave him the title of first Earl of Desmond. Although Fitzgerald won a few battles for the English, his presence did more harm than good, for he quartered his immense army of ten thousand men on the poor settlers of the Pale. Furthermore, he 1333] NORMAN RAIDS TO ENGLISH RULE 12/ permitted his soldiers to pay themselves in money and food, wherever and whenever they could find them. The result was the dire impoverishment and almost complete extinction of the settlement. The colonists left the Pale in hundreds, and returned to England. The Irish chiefs daily regained something of their lost power. The poor people, both English settlers and native Irish, were equally miserable. The great Norman barons, careless of everything but their own interests, and for- „^ ^^ ^ ^ => strength of tified in their strongholds, were becoming more the great and more formidable. Edward III made three unsuccessful attempts to break the power of these barons between the years 1331 and 1344, but none of the gov- ernors sent by him to Dublin were able to accomplish anything. The strong castles were as effective against the Dublin armies as against the Irish chiefs, and the barons preserved their position of almost independent sovereignty for nearly two centuries more. 112. Legal injustice. The Normans and the Irish had begun to mingle, in many places living together in comparative peace. There was, however, one powerful influence always at work to make them enemies rather than friends : namely, the condition of the law. Ever since the first coming of the Normans, there two codes had been two codes of law, the English and the °* i^"^- Brehon. (See sections 97, 98.) The former was for the colonists only; no Irishman could seek its protection. The result was that an Irishman injured by an English- man could not seek redress under English law, and the Englishman was not compelled to submit to Brehon law. On the other hand, if the Irishman were the offender, he was at once tried by English law and punished. Thus all the native Irish were liable to licensed persecution. The Irish repeatedly asked that they might receive 128 IRELAND'S STORY [1367 equal protection under English law, and Edward I and Edward III had been willing to grant this demand. But the great barons, realizing that their own power would thereby be lessened, had persuaded the king to refuse the petition of the Irish. 113. Statute of Kilkenny, 1367. Not satisfied with these existing causes of separation between the Irish and the English, the third son of Edward III, Introduced ^ by the Duke Lionel, duke of Clarence, when lord lieutenant, arence. ij^|-^QjuQg(-| ^ ^g^y law in 1 367, called the Stat- ute of Kilkenny, which widened the gulf between the two races. Lionel had married the daughter of the Dun Earl of Ulster, whose murder has been recorded. He thus ac- quired the titles of Earl of Ulster and Lord of Connaught, through his wife. He was, however, full of bitter hatred to the Irish, and not without cause. He had been in Ireland three times before this, twice as lord lieutenant, in which office he had several times suffered defeat at the hands of the Irish, and thus became convinced that the natives could never be subdued and brought under English law. He therefore went to the opposite extreme, and tried to make laws which would cut off all inter- course between the settlers and the natives. The Statute of Kilkenny was intended forever to sep- arate the English settlers from their " Irish enemies," as the natives were called. Some of its principal clauses were : — Principal Marriages between the two races were for- provisions. bidden, as high treason, liable to punishment by death. An Englishman adopting any Irish custom or mode of dress was to be punished by imprisonment and loss of his lands. Where Irish and English were living in the same com- 1375] NORMAN RAIDS TO ENGLISH RULE 129 munity, the Irish were required to use the English lan- guage, while hitherto the settlers had much oftener adopted the speech of the country. Adherence to the Brehon law was considered treason. No Englishman should make war on the Irish unless with permission of the government, so that the Irish might be held responsible for all disturbances. No native priest could preach in an English church, or be admitted into an English monastery in Ireland. Irish bards were to be regarded as spies, and were not to be received. Other provisions were equally severe. It is easy to see that such a law could not be strictly enforced. Throughout the greater part of Ire- Law not land there was no way to compel obedience to e»*o"ed. it. The powerful barons ignored it altogether. The authority of the Dublin government did not extend a mile beyond the Pale. England was at this time too completely absorbed by the Hundred Years' War begun by Edward III, who claimed the throne of France, to pay much attention to Ireland. 114. Art MacMurrogh Kavanagh. One of the most heroic Irishmen and bravest defenders of his country in the fourteenth century, and a man who long boldly opposed Edward's successor, Richard II, was Art Mac- Murrogh Kavanagh, the native king of Leinster. He had married a daughter of Maurice Fitzgerald, fourth earl of Kildare. Under the Statute of Kilkenny, Fitz- gerald's daughter forfeited her titles and property by this marriage. In addition, the Black Rent hitherto paid to Art MacMurrogh was stopped by the Dublin council. Art was furious, and began to burn and plunder, until his Black Rent was restored as being the lesser of two evils. I30 IRELAND'S STORY [1394 115. First Expedition of Richard II, in 1394. Mean- while Richard II was preparing the largest expedition ever yet sent to Ireland. Shakespeare makes him an- nounce his intention thus : — " We will ourself in person to this war. And, for our coffers, with too great a court, And liberal largesse, are grown somewhat light, We are enforced to farm our royal realm ; The revenue whereof shall furnish us For our affairs in hand: if that come short. Our substitutes at home shall have blank charters ; Whereto, when they shall know what men are rich, They shall subscribe them for large sums of gold, And send them after, to supply our wants ; For we will make for Ireland presently." And again, speaking of his uncle, John of Gaunt, brother of Lionel, duke of Clarence : — " Now put it. Heaven, in his physician's mind To help him to his grave immediately! The lining of his coffers shall make coats To deck our soldiers for these Irish wars." Richard landed at Waterford in October, 1394, with a force of thirty-four thousand men, determined to punish Lands at Art MacMurrogh. The latter, undismayed, con- waterford. tinned to devastate the country about Dublin, putting all possible obstacles in the way of Richard's ad- vance. But the Irish chiefs soon learned that Richard had a vast army with him, and recognized that they could not successfully oppose him. Therefore seventy or more of them, including Art MacMurrogh, came to his camp, and made formal submission to him. There was great rejoi- cing in Dublin and throughout the Pale, and the secur- ity thus gained lasted during Richard's stay in Ireland. The king realized that the great barons were the source 1397] NORMAN RAIDS TO ENGLISH RULE 131 of the most widespread evils, but did nothing effective to curb their power. Richard knighted four Irish chiefs, O'Neill of Ulster, O' Conor of Connaught, Mac- ^ , , ^ ' ^ ' Four Irish Murrogh of Leinster, and O'Brien of Thomond, cMefs or North Munster. He then returned to Eng- ^ land, leaving his authority in the hands of his cousin, Roger Mortimer, earl of March, at that time the recog- M^ ^^fc^Bi. mwr Si ii^^ M\ ^ttji m Mm ^ ^W K ^m BBTijrH^ «H |f^KM.*K^ y which the new settlers agreed to give up one third of their lands to the dis- possessed Catholics. 191. Restriction of the cattle trade. In 1663, the English Parliament prepared to strike another blow at the well-being of Ireland. ^ We have seen how the wool trade was destroyed. (See section 162.) England now made it unlawful to import cattle from Ireland in the second half of each year. Two years later, 1665, a bill was introduced prohibiting the importation of cattle from Ireland at any time. This measure, however, failed to pass the House of Lords. 192. Division of land. To add to the general dis- tress and discontent, the king now began ?o give large grants of land to his relatives and favorites. The amount of reclaimed and fertile land in Ireland was limited, and there were at least three claimants to every acre. Before the Cromwellian confiscation and the Act of Settlement, the Catholics possessed two thirds of the arable and pas- ture land, while the remaining third was owned by the Protestants of the plantations made under Elizabeth and James I. Under the new conditions, the Catholics were reduced to one third, while two thirds was left in the hands 2IO IRELAND'S STORY [1665 of the Protestants. It was, of course, impossible to re- Favorabie i^^state all the dispossessed Catholics, as there to Protest- was not land enough for all. The claims of many were never even heard, and the older nobility was to a large degree reduced to penury. The newcomers, on the other hand, were gradually assimi- lated, as the Danes and the Normans had been before them. They learned the Irish language, gradually adopted Irish customs, and became saturated with the Irish spirit. 193. Rule of the Anglican Church restored. At this time, the population of Ireland was slightly more than a million ; there were about eight hundred thousand Catholics, both Irish and Norman-English ; a hundred thousand Anglican Protestants ; and two hundred thou- sand Nonconformists, Presbyterians, Puritans, and In- dependents, who accepted the Reformation of Luther, but did not follow the ritual of the Church of England. During Cromwell's time, the Nonconformists were the strongest element, and the other two parties were almost equally maltreated. Cromwell oppressed the Anglicans, because they had supported the king ; he oppressed the Catholics, because he held them to be children of evil. Charles II now reestablished the Anglican Church. The Act of Uniformity was enforced against the Uniformity Presbyterians, who, it should be remembered, agaiSS^ had helped the king toward the close of the Presbyteri- struggle. They suffered a short but severe per- secution, because their clergy refused to receive ordination from the Anglican bishops. Many sailed from Ireland to New England, to find new homes in the Puri- tan colonies. 194. Catholics again in disfavor. Meanwhile, the Catholics enjoyed a brief respite. Charles permitted his i687] CROMWELL AND THE RESTORATION 211 lords lieutenant to give them considerable freedom, in spite of the Act of Uniformity. This condition of things was not destined to last. It was at once suspected that the king intended to restore Catholicism throughout his dominions. The pronounced Catholic views of the king's brother and heir, James, duke of York, increased the partisan feeling in England. The plot of Titus Gates, who spread a rumor that the Enghsh Catholics had sought to murder King Charles, added fuel to the flames, and, though wholly false, brought the Irish Catholics into disfavor. One oppressive measure after another was passed, so that during the next few years the unjust corldition of the Catholics was pitiful in the ""s^^- extreme. Arrests were made, and many were thrown into prison, simply because they were Catholics. 195. James II restores Catholicism. James came to the throne in 1685, determined to restore Catholicism. He was, however, so arbitrary and oppressive that he aroused the whole Protestant population of England against him, and caused a veritable panic among the Protestants of Ireland. He chose, as his agent in Ire- land, Richard Talbot, an over-zealous Catholic, whom he made Earl of Tyrconnell, and intrusted with the com- mand of the army. Talbot dismissed the Protestant garrisons, and put Catholics in their place. Most of the dismissed Protestant officers went to Holland, where they enlisted in the service of William, prince of Orange, and, later, followed his standard to Tyrconneu England. An ineffective attempt was made to ^^^^^^^ repeal the Act of Settlement (see section 189), lieutenant, with a view to reinstating the banished Irish land-owners, and Protestants were everywhere driven from office, to make room for Catholics. Talbot succeeded in having himself appointed lord lieutenant in 1687. 212 IRELAND'S STORY [1688 196. The Revolution of 1688. The oppressive mea- sures to which James II resorted in England, and his encroachments on the hberty of his subjects, brought about the Revolution of 1688. William, Prince of Or- ange, the nephew and son-in-law of King James, was invited to take possession of the English throne, an offer which he promptly accepted, landing in Devonshire on November 5, 1688. Six weeks later, James II fled to France. SUMMARY The execution of Charles I was looked upon with extreme disfavor by all parties in Ireland except the Parliamentarians, and Charles II was immediately proclaimed king. Cromwell landed in Dublin with a large army on August 14, 1649, ^^" termined to subdue the country. He captured Drogheda and Wexford and devastated Munster, carrying terror among the natives wherever he went, on account of his extreme cruelty. By May, 165 1, Ireland was virtually subdued, and Cromwell returned to England, leaving Ireton in command. Ireton captured Limerick, 165 1, and Galway surrendered to Coote, 1652. Fleetwood's " High Court of Justice " was now instituted, and under its decrees Sir Phelim O'Neill and many others were tried and executed. Between 1652 and 1654, nearly the whole of Ireland was confiscated. It was a period of great suffering for the Catho- lics. Charles II was formally restored to the throne in 1660. The " Court of Claims " organized a new division of land in Ireland in favor of the Protestants, and the Anglican Church rule was restored. With the accession of James II, in 1685, the Catholics regained their privileges. But James's tyrannical measures brought him into great disfavor in England, and he was forced to flee to France, leaving his throne to William, Prince of Orange. CHAPTER XXI THE JACOBITE WARS 1688-1691 English Sovereigns : William and Mary, 1688-1702 197. Attitude of the Irish toward William. The appointment of Tyrconnell as lord lieutenant had filled the Protestants of Ireland with apprehensions, which were allayed by the news that William of Orange had reached England. His claim to the throne came through his descent from Charles I, and his marriage with Mary, daughter of James II. Protestant anxiety was again aroused by the tidings that James had fled to France. It was feared that he would return with a foreign army, and wild rumors of uprisings and impending massacres spread from one garrison to another. In Eng- very land, and among the Protestant settlers of Ire- ^°suie. land William was hailed as a deliverer ; but the Irish CathoHcs, in spite of all they had already suffered from the Stuarts, took the side of James. Consequently Wil- liam, received with open arms in England, had to fight for every inch of ground in Ireland, before his position was secure. 198. Ulster a Protestant centre. Tyrconnell headed the adherents of the Stuarts in Ireland, to whom the name of Jacobite was now given, from Jacobus, The the Latin form of James. Realizing the condi- Jacowtes. tion of affairs in England, Tyrconnell immediately did all 214 IRELAND'S STORY [1688 in his power to strengthen the position of King James in every part of Ireland. He met with no obstacles, except in Ulster, which, owing to the large numbers of Scottish and English settlers, was strongly Protestant, especially in the cities. Some of these, Derry and Enniskillen among them, refused to recognize the authority of Tyr- connell as lieutenant of James, holding that the latter had already forfeited his crown. Derry was a small town on the left bank of the Foyle, but it was a strong fortress, owing to the sturdy surrounding wall, which is intact to-day. From the right bank of the river, Derry could be reached only by boat. A forged letter, telling of a coming massacre by the Catholics, and the rumored Excitement approach of one of the Jacobite leaders, so In Derry. aroused the citizens of Derry, that, in spite of the governor, they shut the gates, and defied the author- ity of the lord lieutenant. A few days passed, with neither uprising nor attack. The inhabitants, somewhat reassured, consented to admit two companies of the Jacobite army as a garrison, provided that these sol- diers should all be Protestants. Colonel Lundy com- manded this new garrison, and was made governor of the city. Tyrconnell's actions again aroused the suspicions which were beginning to be allayed. He daily removed Protestants from his army, and filled their places with Catholics. Reports also began to come from England of William's growing power, and these encouraged the Protestants of Ireland to take sides openly against the Stuart king. The people of Derry, who, up to this time, Derry had kept the gates of the city closed in fear auegiancl ^^ massacre by the Catholics, now declared for to William. William and Mary, as sovereigns of Great Brit- ain and Ireland. Confusion reigned within the town. 1689] THE JACOBITE WARS 21 5 Lundy and others, who were inclined to recognize the authority of James, were forced to take the oath of alle- giance to William and Mary. 199. James comes to Ireland. James had waited in France, at the court of Louis XIV, trying to gather cour- age and money, until he was thoroughly assured of Cath- olic support in Ireland. Now with a small French force, and a number of Irish exiles, chief among whom was Sarsfield, he landed at Kinsale in Cork on March 12, 1689. Twelve days later. Lord and Lady Tyrconnell welcomed him to Dublin. In spite of the bitterness of the sea- son, he immediately led his army north toward Derry, where he expected to be received with open _ ^ ^ . ^ His hostile arms. He was astonished beyond measure reception when the citizens began to fire on him from * ^^^' the walls. Within the town everything possible was done to strengthen the fortifications. Protestant fugi- tives arrived daily from all sides seeking refuge. After his cold reception at Derry, James withdrew to Dublin, and assembled a parliament there, leaving the siege of Derry in the hands of two of his gen- james erals. The parliament spent months in empty pJrn^ment* talk, since the few acts it passed were never at Dublin. enforced. It attempted to secure religious toleration for all denominations, and to repeal the Act of Settlement (section 189), at the same time providing for the com- pensation of the Protestant land-holders, who would be dispossessed by the repeal of the act. On the other hand, the lands of William's adherents were confiscated, and debased coin was put into circulation, which, how- ever, was recalled two years later. 200. The siege of Derry. Meanwhile, on April 14, two ships sent by William had reached Derry with sup- plies and soldiers. Lundy was still anxious to bring 2l6 IRELAND'S STORY [1689 about a surrender. He had persuaded many of the Ltmdy's townspeople that the city could not stand a treachery, siege, with the result that some of the most capable defenders embarked aboard the two ships and sailed away to England. Lundy was suspected of treach- ery and had to flee. The garrison now numbered seven thousand fighting men, and the defences were strong, but the supply of provisions was very small and the number of refugees very great. On April 18, 1689, the real siege of Derry, one of the most famous in Irish or English history, began. Neither defenders nor besiegers were well prepared for in the two their work. The town was ill' supplied with food, its leaders inexperienced ; while the army of James, which lacked ammunition and military supplies, was scattered and undisciplined. The Jacobite leaders expected the town to surrender after the first real assault, but the courage and deter- mination of the be- sieged garrison grew daily. Breaches were repaired as fast as they were made. Women and men worked to- gether, full of religious enthusiasm. In a sally made on April 2r, one of the two Jacobite generals was killed, but the party which made the sortie was forced to retire after losing heavily. During the next two months, fighting went on with varying success and great bloodshed. There was a fort on Windmill Hill, near the south gate of the town, and THE CATHEDRAL OF LONDONDERRY This picture from a contemporary map shows the condition at the time of the siege 1689] THE JACOBITE WARS 21/ Hamilton, now the chief leader of the besiegers, tried to capture it. But the defenders kept up a steady mus- ket fire, killinoc every man who tried to reach „^ ' * ^ The assault the fort. The Jacobite soldiers were brave, and on wind- pushed on, in spite of the hail of bullets, but it was not within their power to take the fort or reach the town. The fight for Windmill Hill was the fiercest contest of the siege. The Irish attacking party lost four hundred men, and their leader, who was taken prisoner. Starvation was meanwhile doing its work within the town, and Hamilton resolved to depend on this ally. When the defenders were already feeling the pangs of hunger, thirty ships were seen sailing up Lough Foyle. They were the help promised by William. But their commander was intimidated by the line of Jacobite forts that separated him from the city, and anchored wiiuam's at some distance from the town, but within ships sau up the sight of the heroic defenders. The wonderful lough. courage displayed by the men of Derry in this terrible trial has been described by eye-witnesses as passing belief. In order to prevent the approach of the relief ships, Hamilton ordered a boom of cables and logs to be stretched across the river, two miles below the town. By the end of June, King James, losing patience, sent Marshal Rosen with orders to proceed to extremes. Rosen conceived a shameful plan, which was not ap- proved either by James or by the Irish Jacobites. He sent out soldiers, with orders to gather about a thousand of the poorer Protestant settlers, men, women, Rosen's and children, from the neighboring regions, "^®^^y- and ordered them to be driven into the open space be- tween the besieging army and the city walls. Then he sent a messenger to the people of Derry, announcing that the defenceless settlers would be kept there, to 2l8 IRELAND'S STORY [1689 sen, The Deny men's reply. THE TOWN-HOUSE AT LONDON- DERRY This building was erected in 1620 for military as well as civil purposes, and was destroyed during the siege. Starve beneath the walls, unless the city surrendered. This fiendish device failed. The victims exhorted the defenders to stand firm, and instant death was proclaimed for any one uttering the word ." surrender." In answer to Rosen's threat, a large scaf- fold was erected in sight of the Jacobite army, and the prisoners taken from that army were gathered beside it. Word wa€ then sent to Ro- that, unless the settlers were released, the Jacobite prisoners would all be hanged on the next morning. Among the prisoners were many officers, who wrote to Hamil- ton to use his influence with Rosen. The French com- mander was afraid to put his evil plan into execution, and released the settlers, a number of whom had already perished. Meanwhile starvation was doing its work. Horseflesh was sold at exorbitant prices within the walls, and the ships still failed to come to the relief of the city. Finally, when the defenders were at the end of their resources, the commander of the fleet made an attempt to reach the town, and, on July 28, three of his ships sailed up the Foyle, broke the boom, and reached the water-front of the city, in spite of the heavy fire of the land batteries. Hamilton, seeing that all danger of famine was over, and that the garrison was strength- ened, gave up the siege July 31, and withdrew his army. The town was saved after a memorable siege of a hun- dred and five days. ReUef. i689] THE JACOBITE WARS 219 201. Battle of Enniskillen. Enniskillen, on an island in Lough Erne, and protected by a strong castle, had, Hke Derry, refused to recognize the authority of Tyrcon- nell, and James had sent a small force against it. The colonists bravely defended themselves, and jacowtes the expedition ended in a shameful rout rather routed. than a battle, for the Jacobites seem hardly to have struck a blow. This contest took place July 30, the day before the relief of Derry. A second stronghold was thus in the hands of William's adherents, and with Derry formed a base of operations against the Jacobite forces. 202. Schomberg takes Carrickfergus. The siege of Derry was only the beginning of the struggle for Ireland between William and James. William's position in Eng- land was now quite secure, and a month after Hamilton retired from Derry, William sent the Duke of Schom- berg to Ireland with fifteen thousand men. This army landed near Bangor, on the south shore of Belfast Lough. Schomberg refused to negotiate with the Jaco- bite garrisons gathered at Carrickfergus, and at once laid siege to the town, which surrendered after a week, in August, 1689. The garrison was allowed to depart with arms and supplies. 203. Sickness in the English army. Schomberg now made a serious mistake. He followed the retreat- ing Jacobites as far as Dundalk. Here he encamped, in a very unfavorable position, to await reinforcements. These were a long time coming, as William was short of funds. Schomberg's camp was in the midst of marshy ground, and disease soon broke out among his soldiers. Meanwhile James was threatening an die by attack from the south, so that Schomberg was °^^^ *" forced to fortify his camp. Sickness spread, until eight thousand of William's men died in this way in winter 220 IRELAND'S STORY [1690 quarters. Schomberg, who was over eighty years of age, was untiring in his effort to reUeve his troops, but the mischief was already done. 204. Arrival of William. Schomberg opened the spring campaign by taking Fort Charlemont on the northern Blackwater, the only place that still held out for James in the north. On June 14, 1690, King Wil- ms foreign ^^^^ came to Ireland to lead his army in person, troops. His troops were largely made up of continental veterans, excellent soldiers from Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia, and in his train were Prince George of Denmark and the Duke of Ormond. One of his first acts was to pension the Nonconformist ministers in Ulster who had been foremost in upholding his cause. 205. Battle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690. The rival kinofs were now to meet in a decisive battle. James, at the head of twenty-six thousand men, poorly drilled and mis- erably armed, had taken a position at the village of Oldbridge, on the south bank of the Boyne, three miles above Drogheda. William advanced steadily southward toward James's army. The latter was such an incapable general that he did not even throw up trenches to defend the ford of the Boyne. William's army arrived on June 29, and encamped on the north bank of the river, and on the Artiuery ^^Y following an artillery duel was begun be- contest. tween the two armies. Considerable injury was inflicted on William's forces, although he was far better supplied with artillery than was James. During the night, James, already certain that he was going to be beaten, sent all but six of his guns back to Dublin. He also made preparations for his own escape, and then retired to a little church on the hill of Donore, where he could safely watch the battle. When the battle was resumed on the next day, July I, 1690] THE JACOBITE WARS 221 William's army numbered between forty-five and fifty thousand, with probably four or five thousand cavalry. James had from twenty to twenty-five thousand men, WILLIAM AT THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE with the same proportion of horse. By his own fault, he had only six guns against about fifty in William's batter- ies. William's line of battle was formed with Thear- the infantry in the centre and the cavalry on J^le^jJ^g- the wings. He gave Schomberg the elder nsh forces, command of the centre, while the younger Schomberg, son of the old general, was sent four or five miles up the river to Slane, in command of the right wing. He was to cross at Slane, and turn the left flank of James's army. William himself commanded the cavalry on the left wing. Later in the day he went down the river, and crossed at a lower ford. He was thus able to attack his 222 IRELAND'S STORY [1690 opponents on the right flank also. Meanwhile the in- fantry forming the centre of his army advanced under cover of a heavy artillery fire to ford the Boyne. The river at that point was shallow, and in the mid- dle of summer could be very easily forded. It was, William's therefore, only a slight protection for James. croSes the William's right, under the younger Schomberg, river. made several unsuccessful attempts to cross the river at Slane, but it was repeatedly driven back by Arthur O'Neill's horse. Finally the way was cleared by a vigorous cannonade to which O'Neill was unable to reply. William's right wing was thus able to cross the Boyne. The centre of the English army now advanced, and began to cross the Boyne, supported by the artillery. The Irish troops fought so well that Schomberg's body- guard was cut to pieces, and he himself was killed. The centre of William's army was undoubtedly being beaten back, when, crossing lower down, with eighteen squad- rons of cavalry, he fiercely attacked the right flank of the Irish army, and thus turned possible defeat into The Irish certain victory. That the Irish troops, although retreat. outnumbered two to one, and led by a coward, fought valiantly, is admitted by all. They charged ten times in succession, and only gave way at the last under pressure of greatly superior numbers. Their main body retreated in good order to Dublin, and later to Limerick, in spite of William's efforts to intercept them. James fled from the battlefield as soon as he saw that fortune was against his army. Arriving in Dublin, he called a council of the Catholic magistrates and Flight 01 ^ . . , , , ^ ^ ■ - • r King otticials, and declared his intention of ceasing James. j^-^ opposition to William. He then fled with all haste to Waterford, burning the bridges as he crossed 1690] THE JACOBITE WARS 223 them to prevent pursuit. There he embarked for France, and landed at Brest, bringing the first news of his own defeat. 206. Tyrconnell's duplicity. Within a week after the battle of the Boyne, the Irish army occupied Limerick, and made preparations to hold that strong position, relying on the untouched resources of Connaught, and the help which the runaway king might possibly send them by sea. Tyrconnell, who hoped to make his peace with King William, secure his Irish estates, and very possibly be appointed lord lieutenant, was steadily seek- ing to undermine the resolution of the Irish army. 207. Attempt to take Athlone. William marched on to Dublin, where he was welcomed by the large English colony. He issued a proclamation, granting , pardon to all the Irish soldiers who would lay prociama- down their arms. In this offer the Catholic gentry were not included, owing to the bigotry of William's counsellors, who hoped, as in former days, to gain possession of the confiscated estates. William now prepared to open his second campaign. Waterford and Kilkenny surrendered by Tyrconnell's orders. The chief strength of the Irish now lay along the river Shannon. Here it was determined to form a line of defence, and, from the two strongholds, Limerick and Athlone, to keep the English out of Con- naught. A section of William's army, number- retire before ^ 1 ^u J \ . . ■> Sarsfield. mg twelve thousand men, was sent to take Athlone, which was valiantly defended for seven days, when Sarsfield's approach compelled the English to with- draw, as he threatened their line of supplies. Athlone was none the worse for this attack. 224 IRELAND'S STORY [1690 SUMMARY With the exception of Ulster, all Ireland declared alle- giance to James, and looked upon William as a usurper. Derry and Enniskillen, two of the principal strongholds in Ulster, were active Protestant centres, and promptly pro- claimed their allegiance to William. James landed at Kin- sale on March 12, 1689, and immediately marched against Derry. The siege that followed is the most famous in Irish history. After a hundred and five days of heroic defence and extreme suffering, the city was relieved on July 30, 1689. The Protestants won the battle of Enniskillen and captured Carrickfergus. During the winter of 1689-90 the English, under Schomberg, suffered severe losses through sickness. In the spring William came himself to Ireland and defeated James in the decisive battle of the Boyne, July i, 1690. James fled to France. CHAPTER XXII TREATY OF LIMERICK 1690-1693 English Sovereigns : William and Mary, 1688-1702 208. First siege of Limerick. King William arrived before Limerick on August 9, 1690, and began to pre- pare for a long siege. The French general, Lauzun, and the Earl of Tyrconnell, who were in command of the gar- rison, at once proposed to surrender, but were opposed by Sarsfield, who did not share their view that Limerick was incapable of defence. Lauzun and Tyrcon- Departure nell retired to Galway with all the French troops Yxlnch. and a great deal of much-needed ammunition, troops, and Limerick was left with about twenty-five thousand Irish defenders, who determined, if need be, to emulate the heroism of Derry. They met William's summons to surrender with a refusal, and made vigorous prepara- tions for defence, while a party under Sarsfield cut off one of William's convoys from Dublin, destroy- garsfieid ing the siege guns, which were being brought captures ^ * ^ . & & William's for the attack on the city. Although the Eng- baggage lish had been short of guns and ammunition, they had begun operations when news of the loss of the siege guns reached them. Discouraged, they suspended the attack for a week, during which the defenders were able to strengthen the walls and add to the defences. Unfortunately, Sarsfield was not able to bring back the 226 IRELAND'S STORY [1690 cannons and powder he had captured, so he exploded the powder, and'* contented himself with taking the horses. Limerick was the second city in Ireland, Dublin alone being more important. As was the case with many Irish PATRICK SARSFIELD cities, it had an Irish and an English quarter. The Eng- lish part was built on an island in the Shannon, and con- tained the cathedral and castle, while the Irish quarter was on the south bank of the river, and was connected with the other quarter by a bridge. High walls sur- rounded the entire town, from which the defenders fired upon the assailants in the trenches. Frequent sorties were made, during which every foot of ground ment was fiercely contested. William's guns demol- ®^^" ished the high towers, and also covered the operations of the men in the trenches. He then concen- 1690] TREATY OF LIMERICK 22/ trated all his force on one point, hoping to make a breach. Combustibles were hurled on the roofs of the houses, so that the city caught fire in several directions. The town was connected by a bridge with the Clare side of the Shannon, and across this bridge the women and children were sent into safety. Finally a breach was made in the wall, and William determined to enter by assault. On the afternoon of August 27, he ordered a detachment of five hundred grenadiers, followed by ten thousand foot-soldiers and horse, to prepare for the attack. When the signal was given a rush was made from the trenches to- Assault ward the breach. The assailants were stunned ™^^®- by a hail of bullets and shot, but succeeded in reaching the opening in the wall, and forcing their way inside. Here they ran into a rude rampart of earth, from the top of which cannon-balls and bullets rained down on them. Retreat was out of the question, so the English pushed forward in spite of the cannon which mowed them down at every step, while the Irish steadily re- treated. The townspeople, seeing the defenders thus falling back, joined in the conflict with whatever weapons they could lay hands on. Chief among William's foreign troops were the Prus- sians, who distinguished themselves by conspicuous dar- ing. They had entered the city with the rest, ^ -' ■' ' Bravery and centred their attack on the Black Battery, of the which they took after a bloody fight. Owing ^^^^s^*^*- to carelessness the powder-vaults exploded, and men and battery were blown to pieces. Steady fighting had been going on for four hours, without any great headway being made, when the English lost courage, TheEng- and began to withdraw. Suddenly they rushed ush retreat. in a panic back through the breach, leaving two thou- 228 IRELAND'S STORY [1690 sand of their bravest dead inside the wall. The losses of the Irish were comparatively small. In this unsuccessful attack, King William had seen some of his best troops slaughtered. Besides, the wet William nionths were approaching, with their threat of returns to sickness. Thoroughly disgusted, he decided to "^ ^ " give up the siege, and withdrew to Waterford, whence he sailed for England, leaving the conduct of the Irish war in the hands of his generals. 209. Capture of Cork and Kinsale. When William embarked for England on September 5, 1690, he left Ginkel and Count Solmes, two of his most Severe losses for competent generals, in command, with orders to lead an expedition against Cork and Kinsale, two towns which afforded the Irish easy communication with France. Reinforcements arrived to aid Ginkel, and both towns surrendered after short but severe sieges, and their garrisons were taken prisoners. With the capture of Cork and Kinsale, the Irish lost much more than had been gained by the successful defence of Limerick. These two cities surrendered in the end of September, and nothing more was accomplished that year. Tyrconnell had meanwhile followed his runaway king to France, and was entangled in plots and counterplots, the one clear principle of which was the future advance- ment of Tyrconnell. Louis XIV, who had reasons of his own for wishing to keep William's army locked up in Ireland, was altogether willing to advise and help a continuance of hostilities in that country. James seems to have recognized his own incapacity too clearly to attempt anything definite, or, as is more probable, was too irresolute by nature even to decide to give up the fight. The Irish army was thoroughly determined to fight to the end. 1691] TREATY OF LIMERICK 229 210. Disorder in both armies. During the next few months, desultory fighting went on in various parts of Ireland. The armies were partly disbanded, and partly in winter quarters. Some of the disbanded Irish formed themselves into roving bands under the name "Rap- of '' Rapparees," and roamed about commit- P^^es." ting acts of plunder and outrage. They burned villages, and killed the inhabitants, especially English settlers RICHARD TALBOT, EARL AND DUKE OF TVRCONNELL From a contemporary portrait and Protestants. General Ginkel did what he could to check these depredations, but was not able to effect much. 211. Aid from France proves disappointing. In Janu- ary, 1 69 1, Tyrconnell, the deserter of Limerick, returned 230 IREfcAND'S STORY [1691 from France, '* but he brought with him no soldiers, very few arms, little provision, and no money," at least not enough to pay the Irish troops. Besides, he was daily becoming more unpopular with the soldiers, because he steadily advised submission to William. A month later, a message came direct to Sarsfield, then with the army Evidence at Galway, promising reinforcements under the comSi's renowned French soldier, General Saint Ruth, duplicity. This letter to a great extent revealed the double part Tyrconnell had been playing at the French court, and did much to undermine his credit with the Irish officers. The French fleet finally arrived at Limerick in May, 1691, under Saint Ruth, and brought a considerable Arrival of quantity of provisions for the Irish troops ; but Saint Ruth, [i [^ doubtful whether this arrival added any real strength to the Irish army. Saint Ruth, who was a conceited, overbearing man, was placed in command over Sarsfield, a bad arrangement, since the Irish gen- eral was as good a soldier, much more familiar with the country, and very popular with the soldiers. 212. Ginkel captures Athlone. Notwithstanding his inferior numbers, Ginkel now marched against Athlone, opening the way by the capture of Fort Ballymore, in West Meath. Athlone was almost as important as Lim- erick. The Irish army there was encamped on a strip of land two miles from the Shannon. On June 19, 1691, „ „ ^ Ginkel manasjed to take the English part of English ° . , quarter the town before Saint Ruth arrived with help, captured. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ j^^^^^ p^^ ^^j ^j^ efforts into the defence of the Irish quarter, and, with this intention, had earthworks thrown up along the river-banks. The English cannon soon made short work of these, as well as of the castle walls. Ginkel then attempted to cross 1691] TREATY OF LIMERICK 231 the bridge into Connaught, and for several days his pas- sage was fiercely contested. The Irish broke down one arch of the bridge, but, under the protection of his bat- teries, Ginkel succeeded in having planks thrown across the opening. This was no sooner accomplished Daring of than a sergeant, at the head of ten Irishmen, *^® I'^is^- rushed to the bridge, under a deadly fire, and dislodged CASTLE OF ATHLONE Representing the castle about 1830. This castle was built by the early Norman invaders the planks. This brave act was repeated several times, until the English commander saw that it would be im- possible to force the bridge. Cannonading had been going on for ten days, but the town was still as firm as ever. Ginkel was completely discouraged, and wished to discontinue his attack, but his council of war advised him to make one more at- tempt. A short distance below the bridge was a ford, just passable in dry weather, and only wide enough for twenty to cross abreast. The footing was insecure, and in some places the water reached the necks of the sol- 232 IRELAND'S STORY [1691 diers. Across this ford two thousand of Ginkel's men made their way in the face of the Irish batteries. Saint Ruth had been warned of this move by a deserter ; but he did nothing beyond sending two of his weakest regi- ments to guard the ford. He absolutely refused to con- saint ^^^^ ^^^ Irish chiefs, or to inform them of his Ruth's plans. The result was that, when Ginkel's culpable careless- men had crossed the ford, Athlone was taken °®^^" in half an hour, while the Irish army was rest- ing in camp (June 30, 1691). The garrison, which con- sisted of five hundred men, surrendered. Twelve hundred of the defenders had fallen during the siege. Ginkel for the third time proclaimed that the king would pardon all who laid down their arms, and, in spite Efforts ^^ ^^^ opposition of fortune-hunters, this pro- to end clamation was immediately indorsed by the civil the war government at Dublin. Saint Ruth did all he could to keep his soldiers from submitting. He was thoroughly alarmed at the result of his neglect at Ath-^ lone and fearful lest he might incur the displeasure of unsuc- his king, Louis XIV. He therefore determined cessfui. ^Q ^g^j^g i^Q l^j-gj- opportunity to win a battle. The taking of Athlone left the road to Galway open, and Ginkel prepared to advance on that place, as the chief stronghold of Connaught, the last unsubdued province. Saint Ruth prepared to resist Ginkel's approach, and re- tired to the village of Aughrim, " the hill of the horses," where he selected an excellent position. 213. Battle of Aughrim. Saint Ruth drew up his army along a hilly ridge, at the foot of which a wide marsh protected his front. There were only two nar- row paths across the marsh. The Irish army, composed of about ten thousand foot, two thousand men at arms, and two thousand horse, was drawn up in two lines, 1691] TREATY OF LIMERICK 233 with Sarsfield in command of the cavalry some distance away. Ginkel appeared on July 12, and ap- ,.j^. proached near enough to use his guns, hoping tteadvan- by that means to force Saint Ruth from his ad- *^®" vantageous position on the hill. But the Irish, encour- aged by the presence and generalship of Saint Ruth, kept their ground, and beat the English as often as they advanced. The fight lasted from noon till sunset, the Irish steadily gaining, and Saint Ruth was on the point of making the victory complete by a cavalry charge when an unlucky shot killed him. The loss of their saint Ruth leader caused a sudden panic among the Irish, ^'^®*" and Ginkel, observing the disorder, commanded his army to advance. The Irish cavalry, discouraged, fell back, while the infantry continued fighting till they ^jjgujgjj were surrounded by the whole of the English break and army, so that nearly all of them were cut off from escape. Had Saint Ruth not refused to confide his plans to Sarsfield, the latter might have filled his place and saved the day for the Irish. 214. Surrender of Galway and Sligo. Ginkel's sol- diers slept that night on the battlefield. A few days later, they reached Galway, which surrendered July 21, on very favorable terms. The garrison was permitted to withdraw, and the inhabitants left in enjoyment of all their rights. Sligo surrendered, and received the same treatment. The garrisons of these two towns, thus per- mitted to depart, went south to swell the defence of Limerick. 216. The second siege of Limerick. The war was now drawing to a close. Limerick was almost the only stronghold still in the hands of the Jacobites. Sarsfield was in command, as Tyrconnell had died during the autumn. Ginkel now turned his attention to this for- 234 IRELAND'S STORY [1691 tress and appeared before the city with his army on August 30, 1 69 1, just a year after the first siege. Ginkel took the precaution to post vessels at various points along the river, to prevent the coming of suppUes. He then placed his cannon and mortars in position, and began a bombardment which continued night and day without intermission, until the city was reduced almost to ashes. In order to reach the Clare side, Ginkel built a bridge of boats across the Shannon. Over this he sent a detachment, which repulsed the Irish and cut the cavalry off from the town. On Sep- tember 24, Limerick asked for a truce. 216. End of the war. The winter months were ap- proaching, Ginkel's forces were exhausted, and William's Bridge of 1)oats. LIMERICK TO-DAY Showing the Thomond bridge, castle, and cathedral tower. It is interesting to compare this with the picture in Charles Il's time on page 205 position in England was not as firm as might have been wished. It was clearly advisable to end the struggle, if possible, on reasonable terms. The Irish, on their side, 1691] TREATY OF LIMERICK 235 realizing that they could not hold out much longer with- out help from abroad, which they had small prospect of receiving, also wished to end the war. Accordingly, on October 3, 1691, a treaty of peace was signed which brought the war to a close. Ginkel and the English lords justices signed for the English, while Sarsfield, now earl of Lucan, and others, represented the Irish. This treaty, known as the treaty of Limerick, was shortly after ratified by King William, and it was no fault of his that its terms were violated. No The sooner had the Irish agreed to end the war, treaty oi than, contrary to all their expectations, a ^^™®^*'^* French fleet of twenty transports, with three thousand soldiers, two hundred officers, and ammunition for ten thousand men, sailed up the Shannon. Sarsfield hon- orably refused to receive them, and they returned to France. 217. Terms of the treaty of Limerick. The treaty was in two parts, one referring to civil affairs, one to the army. It contained in all forty-two articles. The most important of the civil regulations referred to the Catholics and the estates of those who had fought for King James. The first article read : — " The Roman Catholics of this kingdom shall enjoy such privileges in the exercise of their religion as are consistent with the laws of Ireland, or as they Religious did enjoy in the reign of King Charles II ; and "^e^ty. their Majesties King William and Queen Mary (as soon as their affairs will permit them to summon a parliament in this kingdom) will endeavor to procure the said Roman Catholics such further security in that particular as may preserve them from any disturbance upon the account of their said religion." Furthermore, in the ninth article, '' the oath to be ad- 236 IRELAND'S STORY [1691 ministered to such Roman Catholics as submit to their Majesties' government shall be the oath (of allegiance) aforesaid, and no other." It will be remembered that during the reign of Charles II the Catholics had enjoyed more freedom than at any- period since the Reformation. By the treaty of Limer- ick, those who had fought as Jacobites were permitted to keep the property they owned under Charles II, and to follow their professions and occupations unhindered. The most important of the military articles provided that the garrison should be allowed to leave Limerick, and that all officers and soldiers should be free What be- came of the either to leave Ireland for some other country, so lers. ^^ ships provided by the government, or to en- list in the armies of William and Mary. Only about a thousand soldiers joined the English army, while many thousands took service in foreign lands, distinguishing themselves and their country on foreign battlefields. (See section 332.) A great many, the famous Sarsfield among them, went to France, and died in the service of the French king. The war which was now ended had cost England immense sums, and had left Ireland devastated and poverty-stricken. King William was well disposed toward the people of Ireland, and was fully determined to keep the terms of More land ^^^ treaty, but, like many other sovereigns, he grants. was tempted to reward his followers with grants of land. He made Ginkel earl of Athlone and gave him 26,000 acres ; while to others he gave even larger es- tates. This revived the old contests, as he could not restore and bestow the land at the same time. 218. The Parliament of 1692. Notwithstanding the provisions of the treaty of Limerick for toleration of Catholic worship, the next parliament, which was sum- i693] TREATY OF LIMERICK 237 moned by Lord Sydney on October 5, 1692, and which, with the exception of the Dublin Parliament summoned by James II, was the first since 1665, destroyed the hopes of the Catholics. It was strongly Protestant, and in spite of Sydney's opposition immediately passed an act framing an oath to declare the doctrines of the Catholic Church false. This was a direct violation of the ninth article of the treaty of Limerick, which only required the Catholics to take the oath of allegiance, and raised no question of doctrine. The few Catholics present rose and left both houses. This parliament also passed an act which may be said to mark the beginning of the long parliamentary struggle which we are approaching. It declared itself independent of the English Parliament, and, on the strength of that position, rejected a finan- cial bill from England, on the ground that it had not originated with the Commons of Ireland. The parlia- ment was dissolved in the following year, 1693. 219. Third great confiscation. Now took place the third great confiscation of lands within the century. The first followed the Geraldine rebellion and the flight of the earls. (See section 152.) The second was in Crom- well's time. (See section 187.) The new distribution of territory left only one seventh of the whole island in the possession of the Catholics, though they were three times as numerous as their Protestant neighbors. SUMMARY King William opened the attack on Limerick -on August 9, 1690, but after a long siege was forced to give up the attempt to take the town, which was defended most valiantly by Sars- field and the Irish. The king in disgust returned to England, leaving Ginkel in command. Cork and Kinsale surrendered to Ginkel. 238 IRELAND'S STORY [1691 In January, 1691, Saint Ruth arrived from France. Gin- kel attacked Athlone and, after a siege, took it, owing to the carelessness of the French commander. At the battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691, Saint Ruth was killed and the Irish, although they fought bravely, were defeated. The surrender of Galway followed. On August 30, 1 69 1, Ginkel began the second siege of Limerick. The city was still undefeated when the war was brought to an end by the treaty of Limerick, October 3, 1691. The terms of this treaty provided for the security of the Cath- oUcs, requiring them to take only the oath of allegiance. Their estates were to remain intact. The Parliament of 1692 vio- lated the first of these conditions, and another great confisca- tion of land followed, making the fulfilment of the second impossible. CHAPTER XXIII THE PENAL LAWS 1693-1782 English Sovereigns : William and Mary, 1688-1702 George II, 1727-1760" Anne, 1 702-1 714 George III, 1 760-1 820 George I, 1 714-1727 220. Violation of the treaty of Limerick. The terms of the treaty of Limerick, had they been faithfully carried out, would have brought a measure of well-being to Ireland, and opened the way for steady improvement, toleration, and unity. Unfortunately, these fair prospects were not to be realized. On the contrary, Ireland now entered on a century of the worst oppression in her history. From 1691 to 1782 was a period of absolute dependence on the English Parliament. During this time, the settlers, or rather the Anglican minority, a party comprising barely one third of the Protestants in the kingdom, and not more than one eleventh of the whole population, were dominant in the country, and directed the course of the Irish Parliament, which be- came nothing: more than the instrument of _ ^ Dependence the Parliament of England. So long as the of the Irish wishes of the latter were carried out abso- " amen, lutely, the Irish body was permitted to retain its nomi- nal power. The Catholics were completely disheartened. Their strongest leaders were on the continent, fighting under foreign standards. At home, no Catholic could 240 IRELAND'S STORY [1693 sit in parliament, hold any office, or have any voice in the Absolute government. They were utterly crushed, and o?ti?*^°" sought only to escape further injury. Added CathoUcs. to all this came the violation of the treaty of Limerick by the adoption of the penal laws, which re- mained in force for about three quarters of a century. These laws were as much the work of the Irish Angli- can party as of the English Parliament, if not more. The laws, which were rapidly made, were slowly re- pealed, as we shall see, and not until 1829 did the Act of Emancipation finally secure unconditional freedom for the long-suffering Catholics. There is much to be told before we finally reach that act, however. We cannot here go into the details of each separate act as it was passed. We shall simply give an outline of the Penal Code at its worst, as it was dur- ing the reigns of the early Georges, when, at the close of each session of the Irish Parliament, a resolution was passed that '^ it was the indispensable duty of all magis- trates and officers to put the laws made to prevent the growth of popery in Ireland in due execution." In 1693, after Sydney had dissolved his parliament, he was summoned back to England, and a new lord Sydney lieutenant was appointed, who was willing to recalled. promise that the treaty of Limerick should be ignored. The Protestants hoped that he would permit no acts to be passed which might prevent their retain- ing the lands they had received through confiscation, 221. Penal laws of 1695-97. The first real mischief was done by the Parliament of 1695, which ignored the more important articles of the treaty of Limerick, and only confirmed the minor articles after modifying them in such a manner as to lessen the security of the Cath- olics. It then passed the following penal laws : — 1698] THE PENAL LAWS 241 Catholics were strictly forbidden to teach either in pri- vate or in public, and Catholic parents were not allowed to send their children out of Ireland to be educated. This meant absolute lack of education for Catholics. The Catholics whose lands had been restored to them by the treaty of Limerick were again deprived of them by parliament, which gave the estates to Protestants. No Catholic was permitted to own or carry firearms, and the government officials were authorized to break into any house where they suspected that arms were hidden. No Catholic could remain secure in the possession of a valuable horse ; any Protestant could become its owner, on paying the small sum of five pounds. Catholic priests in charge of parishes were not to be removed, provided they registered their names, and gave promises of good behavior. They were then allowed to celebrate mass, but might not have the assistance of a curate. About a thousand were allowed to enter their names. All the remaininsr servants of the ^ ^ Severity Catholic Church, whether bishops, regular toward the clergy, Jesuits, friars, monks, or members of ^' ^^ ^" one of the preaching orders, were ordered to leave the country before May i, 1698, under penalty of death if they returned. Thus it was proposed to wipe out the entire body of Catholic teachers, as, in the absence of bishops, no further priests could be ordained. Need- less to say, only a few obeyed the decree. The rest remained, as outlaws, it is true, but venerated and cher- ished by the people, whose faith and courage they pre- served, though in daily danger of discovery and death. Many other vexatious laws were passed, as, for exam- ple, one- which required Catholics to tear down the steeples and belfries of their churches ; and others, con- ceived in the same spirit. 242 IRELAND'S STORY [1698 222. English Parliament passes laws for Ireland. The English ParUament now proceeded to interfere in the making of laws for Ireland. It passed an act substi- tuting other oaths for the oath of supremacy, with the effect that Catholics were excluded from both houses of parliament. The acts of the parliament which James II had assembled at Dublin (see section 199) were annulled. Through the influence of the Irish Parliament, William was prevailed on to sanction a new destruction of the wool manufacture, and laws were passed to encourage the growth of hemp and flax in place of wool. In 1698, such high duties were placed on exported wool as to completely stop its exportation. Any one accused of evad- ing this law was sub- ject to trial in Eng- land, by a foreign jury, though this was absolutely contrary to the spirit of the English constitution. 223. Penal Codes of 1703 and 1704. The Catholics bowed their heads in submission to these outrages, for they were too weak and disheartened to resist. Still, the Anglican party was not satisfied, and in 1704, when Ormond, grandson of the Ormond of Confederation days JAMES BUTLER, SECOND DUKE OF ORMOND 1704] THE PENAL LAWS 243 (see section 170), came over as lord lieutenant, the House of Commons at Dublin immediately petitioned him to extend the Penal Code. A supply of ;£ 150,000 was voted to cover the expenses of that and the follow- ing year, and a list of grievances drawn up by the new parliament to present to Queen Anne, grievances who, in 1702, had succeeded her brother-in-law ^^^°"'^- William on the English throne. Among these griev- ances were the interference of the English legislature, restrictions on trade, the infrequent meetings of parlia- ment, and other similar complaints. The EngHsh government paid no attention to this appeal. Instead, the chief results of the session were the following new provisions against Catholics : — The eldest son of a Catholic land-owner, if he de- clared himself a Protestant, could straightway Family oust his father and take possession of his land. caSSkV* The father became a mere life tenant, with no stricuy . , ^ , . regulated, rights of ownership. If a Catholic child professed to be a Protestant, the law required the father to surrender the child to a Pro- testant guardian, who was to bring him up at the father's expense. If the wife of a Catholic became a Protestant, she could claim separate support, and a third of her hus- band's property. No Catholic could be legal guardian of a child, so that, when a Catholic died, he could only appoint a Protestant guardian for his children. No Catholic could buy land or lease it for a longer period than thirty-one years ; nor could he re- cathouc ceive an estate under a will. A Catholic farmer ^^^' owners was not permitted to make a profit on his farm oppressed, greater than one third of the rent. A Protestant who 244 IRELAND'S STORY [1704 proved that a greater profit was being made could seize the land in question. All this was done to put obsta- cles in the way of Catholics owning any land whatever. 224. The Test Act. Of course it has not been for- gotten that no Catholic could sit in parliament. As for the native Irish, they were considered so far outside and beneath the law that there was no need to oppress them legally. After 1704, no Catholic was permitted to vote at an election for a member of parliament, unless he took the oath declaring that the Catholic doctrines were false. He could hold no civil or military office without taking the same oath, and supplementing it by the "sacramental test," that is, receiving the Sacrament on Enforced Sunday in some Protestant place of worship, NMicon-^ according to the rites of the Anglican Church, lormists. f j^jg ^ct, which was known as the Test Act, was enforced not only in the case of Catholics, but also of all Nonconformists, that is, Protestants who did not conform to the Church of England. This bill was an utter violation of the terms of the treaty of Limerick. 225. The Schism Act. The Schism Act, which was passed in 17 14, the last year of Queen Anne's reign, provided that only those who had received a license from a bishop of the Church of England could teach a school. Nor could any one secure this license without submitting to the sacramental test. 226. A third instalment of penal laws. A third series of penal restrictions was imposed in the second year of George IPs reign, 1728. Under these, the Catholics Catholics were completely disfranchised, losing diSran-^^^ every right to vote. No Catholic might move cWsed. into the cities of Limerick and Galway, the two last strongholds of the old race. Any one discovering a bishop or a Jesuit unregistered, or a schoolmaster whose 1728] THE PENAL LAWS 245 name was not in the government books, could report such a person, and receive a reward, which the Catho- lics were forced to pay. The "sport of priest-hunting" became very popular with the dregs of the population, Portuguese Jews being employed as trackers. 227. Enforcement of the Penal Code. There were certainly sufficiently severe provisions in these penal laws to destroy Irish Catholics and Catholicism together, had they been rigidly carried out. This was, however, impossible, since the party which upheld them was a very small minority, though armed with the full powers of the civil law. It should be said, also, that j,q^ always the bulk of the Protestants protested against strict, these laws, and did much, in a quiet way, to lighten them for their oppressed Catholic fellow-countrymen, protecting their property arid children from the injustice of the officials. This was in part due to the fact that Protestant Nonconformists were also under the ban of the law, but in larger part to the inherent kindness of human nature. But there were periods of awful severity and oppres- sion, especially just after the passing of a new restrictive act, when for a time the Penal Code was car- „ , , Spread of ried out to the letter. The worst suffering was Cathou- endured during Queen Anne's reign, and again under George II, and yet, in spite of it all, we find the Irish Parliament complaining to England of the con- tinued growth of Irish Catholicism. Ulster _, , . 1 1 XT r • 1 Emigration. Presbyterians and other Nonconformists who also suffered under the Test and Schism Acts emigrated by thousands to America. In considering this legislation, it must be borne in mind that a similar state of affairs existed in other lands at the same time. Only in Ireland, however, did a small 246 IRELAND'S STORY [1728 minority try to suppress the religion of a whole nation, Conditions °^ whose confiscated lands they lived, and In Ireland whose revenues they enjoyed. What stamps compared . . with other the Irish penal laws as particularly infamous countries. -^^ ^j^^^ ^1^^^ represented not only religious bigotry, oppression, and cruelty, but also a broken pro- mise, a violation of the solemn pledges of the treaty of Limerick, under whose provisions the Irish leaders had consented to end the war, and had dismissed the army of relief which had already reached Limerick from Catholic France. 228. Manufactures and trade prosperous. The only occupations left open to the Catholics by the penal laws were commerce and trade. The large seaports and towns had been gradually filled with energetic mer- chants, mostly Protestants, who, in spite of the wars and other disturbances, were building up large factories Jealousy of ^^^^ Other business enterprises. The English England. began to fear successful rivalry, with the re- sult that repressive laws were directed against trade and commerce, injuring all Irishmen alike, of whatever race and creed, and ruining the only activity left to the Catholics. These laws were passed in the same period which saw the growth of the penal laws. They were particularly the work of the Parliament of England, and Severe . . , , r 1 11 trade laws are thus distinguished from the penal laws, passed. ^^^ chief responsibility for which must be borne by the Anglican Church in Ireland. The Irish Protest- ants suffered more than the Catholics under the trade laws, as they were more largely engaged in commerce. 229. Parliament prohibits exportation. Ireland had always exported a great variety of products, such as cattle^ sheep, pork, beef, mutton, cheese, and butter, her 248 IRELAND'S STORY [1663 chief markets being England and the English colonies in America. After 1663, the English Parliament began to pass a series of acts prohibiting trade relations between Ireland and all external ports, with the exception of a very few cities in England, so that this large trade, which Poverty ^^^ been the means of subsistence of masses results. of the people, was deliberately killed. It is easy to conceive the misery which was thus spread, first through the ports which sent forth these articles of trade, and then to all the farms of the land, which sent their produce to the ports. 230. Destruction of the wool trade. Ireland's best single commodity was wool, the trade in which was wholly in the hands of Protestant colonists. Irish wool was famed all over Europe, finding a large market, and bringing high prices. In the reign of Charles I, Went- worth had done his best to destroy this trade (see sec- tion 162), but it had again struggled to life and vigor. Now the English merchants demanded its complete de- struction, on the ground that it was ruining the wool trade of England. The result was that, in 169Q, the cowardly Irish Parliament obeyed orders from England to put an exorbitant export duty on wool, which was followed by an act prohibiting the export of wool or woollen goods from Ireland to any part of the world, outside a few English ports, where the English merchants could buy them cheap, and sell them dear, as English products. Forty thousand people were thus thrown out misery and of employment. There was nothing for them em gra on. ^^ ^^ ^^^^ starve or leave the country. Great numbers of them, especially Presbyterians and Noncon- formists, found their way to New England. 231. Growth of smuggling. Smuggling was natu- rally resorted to, as a means of evading the unjust re- 1728] THE PENAL LAWS 249 strictions on trade. All classes were involved in it, and the authorities were powerless to prevent it. The mer- chants carried their cloth to France, and returned with brandy, wine, silks, and other foreign commodities. These smuggled goods were landed in the sheltered coves and inlets of the southern coast, well out of sight of the customs officials. Many Catholic youths went with the outgoing ships, eager to seek their fortunes as soldiers or citizens in foreign lands. 232. Ruin of the minor trades. Not satisfied with the destruction of the wool trade, the English Parliament also passed laws to restrict the manufacture and sale of such products as beer, malt, gunpowder, hats, sail-cloth, and ironware. Money was debased till there was no longer silver enough in the country to meet the most pressing needs of trade ; and workmen were often com- pelled in consequence to take their wages in the goods which they were manufacturing, and could only sell at a great loss. The scandal of ** copper halfpence" we shall have occasion to speak of later on, in connection with Dean Swift. (See section 240.) The poverty and misery caused by the destruction of all these trades brought famine and pestilence in their wake, pamineand During the eighteenth century, the peasantry pestilence, of Ireland, the most wretched in all Europe, were re- duced to a state of misery from which they have not fully recovered to-day. The industries were so com- pletely ruined that, in many cases, they could not be revived. 233. Rent and tithe grievances. Another evil of the times was the treatment the peasantry received "Middie- at the hands of the '^ middlemen." These °^^^-" middlemen took tracts of land from the landlords who preferred to remain in Engand, and then sublet them to 250 IRELAND'S STORY [1750 farmers and small settlers, at very high prices, which "Rack- were called ''rack-rents," meaning rents which rents." rack or torture. Sometimes there were several middlemen, between the landlord and the cultivator, each seeking a profit from the miserable peasant. Besides this, tithes had to be paid to the Anglican clergy, who collected them rigorously. The richer class often managed to evade them, so that they fell "^^^ ^^' almost wholly on the peasants. The poor man always had a band of robbers around him, ready to snatch even the clothes off his back. Protestants and Catho- lics suffered equally. Toward the middle of the century, there was a gen- eral movement among the landlords to take up all the land which had formerly been cultivated, and turn it into cattle and sheep pastures, thus driving out the farmers and their families. They also began to inclose for their own private use the large tracts of land which had for- merly been common pasture ground. They further ex- acted excessive rents for waste tracts and bogs, on which the peasants who were too poor to rent fertile lands had taken refuge. 234. Peasant grievances enumerated, 1762. The special misfortunes of the Irish peasant in the middle of the eighteenth century have been graphically enumerated as follows : — He was rack-rented by the landlord ; He was persecuted by the tithe-farmer ; He was obliged to work on Catholic holidays, or pay a fine of two shillings ; He was forbidden sports on Sunday, on penalty of a shilling fine, or two hours in the stocks ; He was whipped and fined, if found with a switch cut from his own tree ; 1762] THE PENAL LAWS 25 1 He was liable to night visitation by the police in search of arms ; Public whippings were always inflicted on market- days, when the victim was tied to a cart-tail, and dragged through the streets, receiving blows of the lash as he went. 235. Secret societies. The peasants began to form secret societies, in hope of righting their wrongs. One of the most widespread, the "Whiteboys," was "white- organized in the south of Ireland, in 1762. It ^°^^-" received its name from the fact that the men wore white shirts over their coats, for mutual recognition, when they went out at night, just as did the French secret society called "Camisards." Their raids were most fre- quent in Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, and were di- rected against individuals ; among their number were men of all churches, as all had grievances in common. They began by pulling down the fences illegally built around commons, from which they got the name of " lev- ellers " ; and digging up arable lands which had been forcibly turned into pastures. But they soon began to commit further acts of violence, so that a large force of soldiers was sent out to suppress them. Similar Protestant societies sprang up in Ulster, nota- bly two, called "Hearts of Oak," from the oak "Hearts leaves which they wore in their hats, and ofOak." " Hearts of Steel," to indicate their unbending resolution. These societies began with the resolve to seek general reforms, without resorting to violence or plundering. But in almost every case they contained members of bad character, who indulged in such acts of lawlessness that soldiers were called out to suppress them. 252 IRELAND'S STORY [1762 SUMMARY During the years 1691-1782, Ireland suffered under an increasing number of tyrannous laws, which not only abso- lutely destroyed her religious freedom, but completely ruined her trade and commerce. Although the English Parliament was in the main responsible for this persecution, a great part of the blame may be laid on the Protestant Parliament of Ireland. There were three large instalments of the penal laws: those of 1695-97, those of 1703-04, which included the " Test Act," and those of 1728, when the Catholics were completely disfranchised. In 1698, the wool trade was com- pletely destroyed and all exportation of wool was prohibited. This was followed by the destruction of many minor trades. Middlemen and their " rack-rents " ruined the poor farmer. To oppose this unjust persecution, the peasants formed secret societies, such as the " Whiteboys," but nothing permanent was effected by them, owing to their lack of law and disci- pline. CHAPTER XXIV STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 1698-1783 English Sovereigns : William and Mary, 1688-1702 George II, 1 727-1760 Anne, 1 702-1 714 George III, 1760-1820 George I, 1714-1727 236. The Irish Parliament in the eighteenth cen- tury. In the last chapter we traced the development of the penal laws and trade laws during the eighteenth century. We shall now consider especially the pro- gress of legislative affairs, and the status of the Parlia- ment at Dublin during those same years. It must be borne in mind that with this side of Irish life only the Protestant minority was concerned, the penal laws ex- cluding the Catholics from political activity. Entirely It was the Protestant parliamentary party, seek- Protestant, ing liberty for Protestants only, which carried on the constitutional struggle against England. In the DubHn Parliament, opinion was divided. The majority, known as the Court party, was com- q^^^^ posed either entirely of Englishmen or of Irish- party, men who were strongly in sympathy with the English. From the highest government official down to the lowest, all favored an increase of English influence, and were prepared to employ corruption, bribery, unearned pen- sions, and similar means to secure a sufficient body of 254 IRELAND'S STORY [1698 faithful followers to carry out the wishes of the English Council. The other parliamentary party, known as the Patriotic Patriotic party, was composed of the small mi- party, nority of thoughtful Irish Protestants imbued with a feeling of patriotism, which grew stronger as time went on. They realized the injustices which their coun- try suffered at the hands of England, and especially those which, like the restrictions on trade, particularly affected themselves. They, therefore, had two main objects : first, to remove these restrictions, and, second, to make the Irish Parliament independent of the Eng- lish, in order that like restrictions might not be imposed in future. This party counted among its members such men as Molyneux and Grattan in parliament, and such champions as Swift and Lucas without. We shall now follow the course of the struggle between these two par- ties, the Court and the Patriotic party. 237. Molyneux' book. As early as 1698, William Molyneux, member of parliament for Dublin University, published a book, " The Case of Ireland's Being Bound by Acts of Parliament in England Stated," in which he strongly condemned commercial injustice and the au- thority of the English Parliament in Ireland. This book was censured by the English House of Commons, burned by the common hangman, and followed by the most ruin- ous of all restrictions, that which destroyed the wool trade, as already described. (See section 230.) 238. The Annesley case. In 17 19, a dispute arose over the Annesley estate, which ended disastrously for the Irish Parliament. This notable lawsuit was decided in favor of Annesley by the Dublin Court of Exchequer. His opponent appealed to the Irish House of Lords, which reversed the decision. Annesley now appealed to the English House of Lords, which confirmed the first 1723] ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 255 decision, ordered the estate to be restored to Annesley, and fined the sheriff of Kildare because he had refused to put Annesley in possession of his rights. The sheriff stated his case, in a petition to the Irish House of Lords, which annulled the fine, on the ground that appeal to England was illegal, and even went so far as to arrest the three barons of the Court of Exchequer, who had given judgment in favor of Annesley. In reply, the English parliament passed an Act (known as the Sixth of George I) affirming the right of the English Parliament to pass laws for Ireland, and depriving the Irish House Complete of Lords of the right to hear appeals. Poyn- onrfshPar- ings' Law (see section 123) had gone far, but iiament. this last Act was final. The legislative independence of the Irish Parliament was gone, and its authority was a mere name. 239. Jonathan Swift. The party of the Patriots now had at its head Jonathan Swift, the famous writer and Dean of Saint Patrick's in Dublin, who has left Leader us full accounts of the distress of the times in patjfotic his writings. In one of his essays, published in party. 1720, he urged the people of Ireland to retaliate on England, with the result that he was accused of trying to bring the Pretender to Ireland to lead a new Jacobite rebellion. He exhorted the Irish to oppose the trade restrictions by refusing to buy furniture and clothes made in England. An attempt was made to arrest and punish him, but it failed. 240. ■Wood's halfpence. Swift won his greatest fame, however, by his action in the case of *' Wood's halfpence." Copper money was very scarce in Ireland, and there was need for small coin, to the amount of about ^15,000. Without consulting the Irish in any way, the king in 1723 granted to the Duchess of Kendal 256 IRELAND'S STORY [1723 a patent for coining ^108,000 in base metal half-pence and farthings. This patent was sold to an English iron- merchant named Wood, who looked forward to making a large profit from the transaction. Swift and others re- garded this as an extreme injustice, and the former wrote JONATHAN SWIFT very bitterly against it. Frequent appeals were made to the king to revoke the patent, but without success. Finally, Swift won the day by writing and publishing five letters, signed W. B. Drapier, explaining in simple "Drapier language, which could be understood even by Letters." the peasantry, all the harm which would result from such a system. The coins were of such base metal that twenty-four of them did not contain enough copper to make one good penny. These letters increased the 1745] ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 257 excitement, which was already great ; and a reward of three hundred pounds was offered to any one who be- trayed the name of the author. No information, how- ever, was forthcoming, and so great was the popular outcry that the patent was withdrawn. This may be reckoned the first victory for the Patriotic party, and Swift became the popular hero with Protestants and Catholics alike. 241. Famine and emigration. In 1727, George I was succeeded by his son. Sir Robert Walpole was prime minister in England, while Ireland, from 1724 to 1742 was governed principally under the direction of Boulter, the Anglican archbishop of Dublin, who increased the influence of England by restricting still further the ex- tremely slight influence of Catholics in elections. (See section 224.) During 1728-29, Ireland suffered from a failure of crops which amounted to a famine, and re- sulted in a great tide of emigration to America. During the next few years, larger numbers than ever left the country, owing to restrictions of trade and commerce, and the injustice of exorbitant rents. (See section 233.) 242. Chesterfield's administration. In 1745, the Earl of Chesterfield was appointed lord lieutenant. He was a man of high principle, and he accepted the posi- tion only on condition that he should be free from all restraint. He began by endeavoring to remove some of the worst grievances of the Catholics. He enrolled Irish soldiers to fight in the service of England, and encouraged the formation of bodies of volunteers, who were equipped and maintained at their own expense. He refused to buy votes. When he had a surplus, he used it in such useful works as the improvement of Cork harbor, instead of diverting it for personal pur- poses. But his useful administration was cut short by 258 IRELAND'S STORY [1745 his recall, and his successors soon undid most of the good he had accomplished, 243. Charles Lucas. Charles Lucas, a druggist, who had come to Dublin from Cork, was a member of the Dublin Common Council. He began a campaign to re- cover the lost rights of that body, and wrote vigorously on its behalf. He then passed to the lost rights of the L'ish Parliament, and at the same time became a parlia- mentary candidate for the city of Dublin. His writings caused intense popular excitement, but the Irish Parlia- ment, largely in the hands of partisans of England, had no desire to recover its lost rights, and attacked its own defender. Lucas was compelled to leave the country, but returned at a later date, and was elected to parlia- ment, where he continued to uphold the rights of Ireland. 244. Formation of the "Catholic Committee." Ever since the treaty of Limerick, 1691, the Catholics had been absolutely passive. Now they began to assert themselves, very timidly at first, under the leadership of Dr. Curry, a Dublin physician and historian of the Irish civil wars, Charles O'Connor, a distinguished an- tiquarian, and Mr. Wyse of Waterford. These men en- deavored to arouse the Catholic aristocracy and clergy, but both classes were too cowed to respond. Success attended their efforts, however, among the business communities of the larger cities, and they ended by forming the " Catholic Committee," HENRY GRATTAN 1^1^ ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 259 in 1757, to take charge of Catholic interests. Meetings of this body were held in Dublin, and it became the nucleus of the movement which later grew to such formidable proportions un- der Daniel O'Connell. 245. Flood and Grat- tan. Bribery and corrup- tion steadily increased within the circle of the Dublin government. The practice of illegal pen- sioning was courageously attacked by the patriot Henry Flood (1732-1791), who was seconded by the young, and later famous, Henry Grattan, one of the most eloquent orators and greatest patriots Ireland has ever known. Grattan was born in Dublin, 1746, entered parliament at the age of twenty-nine, and to the day of his death, in 1820, cham- pioned the Irish cause. 246. The Octennial BiU. In England, parliament could only sit for seven years, when a new election must be held. In Ireland, each parliament sat until dissolved by the king, which might be a period of thirty years, as happened during the reign of George II. In this way a party subservient to the English government could be kept in power indefinitely. Several bills to limit the duration of parliament to seven years had y^^^^^ been submitted by the Patriots to the English uament to Council with no result. In 1767, chiefly owing *^ ^*"^" to the efforts of Charles Lucas, the Patriots amid great HENRY FLOOD From a miniature painting 260 IRELAND'S STORY [1767 rejoicing succeeded in getting the Octennial Bill passed, which limited the Irish Parliament to eight years. 247. Townshend and the parliament. The new par- liament called in 1767 was as corrupt as the old, and as subservient to the lord lieutenant, Lord Townshend, in jjj ^ all but one particular. It refused to pass bills oyer money granting money, unless these bills originated in Ireland. In 1769, such a bill was returned from England, where it had been sent by the Dublin Council, and was rejected by the Irish Parliament. Townshend refrained from active opposition, until he had the usual money supplies voted by the parliament. He then summoned the Irish Commons before the bar of the House of Lords, and read them a lecture as if they had been a class of disobedient schoolboys. He followed this by proroguing parliament for fourteen months. The Commons showed their independence, however, by refus- ing to enter the reproof of the lord lieutenant on the records of their House, an act which gave new courage and resolution to the Patriotic party. Townshend was forced to resign, in 1772, unable to withstand the incessant attacks published against him Townshend i" Dublin. Although he was one of the most resigns. unscrupulous governors Ireland ever had, his administration did more to strengthen th.e Patriotic party than anything else. It was during his administration that the movement was begun in Ulster, which resulted in the formation of the secret societies " Hearts of Steel " and " Hearts of Oak " (see section 235) ; and an Act was finally passed by him which allowed a Catholic to obtain a long lease of fifty acres of bog, which must be at least four feet deep and a mile distant from any market town. The tenant was expected to reclaim this bog at his own expense, and, if it was too marshy to build on, he might 1775] ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 261 also lease half an acre of dry ground for his house. This represents the Umit of privilege granted to Catholics at this time. 248. England and her American colonies. But before long, some slight relief was to come from an unexpected quarter. In 1775, war broke out between England and her American colonies, which had an immediate The Em- effect on Irish trade. England passed the Em- ^argoAct. bargo Act, which forbade the exportation of salt meat and other provisions from Ireland, in order to prevent supplies from reaching the Ameri- cans, and to cheapen food for the English army. This measure deprived Ireland of one of her best markets. The Irish Protest- ants sympathized with the American colo- nists who were fight- ing for the very points at issue in Ireland : freedom of trade, and ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ "no taxation without representation." One of the greatest of Irishmen, Ed- mund Burke, came forward as the champion of Edmund the American colonists in the English Parlia- Burke, ment. His " Speech on Conciliation with America" is a lasting treasure of the literature of the world. Mean- while, the tide of fortune went against the English ar- mies in America. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga, and France declared for the independence of the United 262 IRELAND'S STORY [1775 States. England began to consider the necessity of con- ciliating Ireland, in order to strengthen herself against America. 249. Slight concession to Catholics. The first con- cession was made to the Irish Catholics. The penal Some of the ^^^^'^' although they had fallen into compara- penaiiaws tive disuse, could be, and were revived on occa- sion. In spite of considerable opposition, Luke Gardiner, afterwards Lord Mountjoy, presented a bill to the Irish Parliament in 1778, which repealed certain sec- tions of the penal laws : namely, those which prohibited the purchase of property by Irish Catholics ; which gave the entire estate of an Irish Catholic to his son, if the latter became a Protestant ; and which compelled a father to provide for the education of his son who became a Embargo Protestant. Catholics were to be allowed to repealed. lease land for 999 years, almost equivalent to purchase, and the Test Act was abolished. (See section 224.) The embargo on the export of provisions was also removed. 250. The Volunteers. George III had withdrawn so many Irish troops to fight for him in America that the island was almost defenceless, and liable to Ireland liable to invasion from France or Spain, or at least to invasion. scrious attack from privateers like Paul Jones, in the service of the United States. Toward the close of 1778, some of the people of Belfast, realizing the situa- tion, began a movement to enroll volunteers. The richer landlords armed and drilled their tenants at their own expense. This example was followed in Down and Antrim, so that by May, 1779, four thousand volunteers came forward to take the place of the departed garri- sons. The authorities looked askance at this citizen army which they had had no hand in raising, and regarded 1779] ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 263 it as a future menace, but they could do nothing to pre- vent it. Before the end of the year, the Volunteers numbered forty-two thousand, a formidable force under the leadership of such men as James Caulfield, earl of Charlemont, and Fitzgerald, duke of Leinster. Two things should be noticed : first, that the Volunteers were drawn from the class which suffered most under the trade laws, and who, while maintaining their allegiance to England, were Irish Patriots in sympathies ; and, secondly, that they included no Catholics at this time, though many joined later. 251. Parliament and the Volunteers. The parlia- ment convened in October, 1779, had to face the Pa- triotic party supported by this formidable army. The famous Henry Grattan came to the front as leader of this party. As usual, the session of parliament was opened by the reading of the king's speech. Parliament replied in an Address to the king. Grattan made a motion to..add to the Address the following words : '* We beg leave, however, humbly to represent to your Majesty that it is not by temporary expedients, but bv r II,,-.. , Grattan's tree trade alone, that this nation is to be saved amend- from impending ruin." Flood, Hutchinson, ^^^^' Ponsonby, and Gardiner, all holding government offices, supported him. Dublin was in a state of great excitement, and the Address to the throne, thus amended, was tri- umphantly carried through streets lined with Volunteers, from the House of Parliament to the Castle, to be signed by the lord lieutenant. 252. Removal of trade restrictions. The action of the Irish Parliament and the Volunteers caused Lord North, the prime minister of England, to introduce three proposals in the English House of Commons, which pro- vided for the restoration of free trade to Ireland, Novem- 264 IRELAND'S STORY " [1779 ber, 1779. The first was, to remit the export duty on Irish wool and woollen goods ; the second provided for the free export of Irish glassware ; the third permitted free trade between Ireland and the British colonies in America, the West Indies, and Africa^ subject to cer- tain restrictions to be imposed by the Irish Parliament. These three proposals became law without opposition. 253. Volunteers demand legislative independence. The American war had done much for Ireland, but there was much still to be done. The Patriotic party took a firmer stand, and determined to free their parliament from such laws as Poynings' (see section 123), resoiu- and the Sixth of George I. (See section 238.) On April 19, 1780, Grattan made a famous speech in parliament in which he moved the following resolutions : — That no power on earth, save the King, Lords, and Commons of Ireland, had the right to make laws for Ireland ; That Great Britain and Ireland are inseparably united under one sovereign. A very exciting debate followed, but a vote was not then taken, as Grattan did not consider the time favorable. In return for the removal of trade restrictions, the House of Commons voted supplies for eighteen months longer, allowing increased taxation to be raised in Ire- land to the amount of ^150,000 a year. 254. The Mutiny Bill. The next dispute arose the same year over the Mutiny Bill, which provided for the support of the army. This Bill was passed by the Irish parliament as a temporary measure, and so sent to Eng- land, where the English Parliament changed it to a per- petual provision, and returned it to Ireland. Such an arrangement put a great deal of power in the king's 782] ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 265 hands, by supplying him with a standing army, and it was hotly opposed by the Irish Patriots. Nevertheless, by a series of renewed bribes, such as peerages, pen- sions, and promotions, the authorities succeeded jyi^de in having the bill passed by the Irish Parlia- perpetual, ment as perpetual. The English failed to see that this only added to the growing discontent and excitement in Ireland, which were increased by the successful revolu- tion in America and the encouragement received from France. The Patriots were strongly in favor of com- plete legislative independence. The ranks of the Volun- teers daily increased, so that they now numbered a hun- dred thousand. Flood resigned from office to support the cause of the Patriots, and brilliant and influential men, like Hutchinson, Fitzgibbon, Burgh, and Yelverton, led the popular cause. It should be remembered that the Patriotic party expressed entire loyalty to the king. When the news of the defeat of Cornwallis reached Ireland, Yelverton withdrew a motion in favor of legisla- tive independence, in order to make way for a vote of loyalty to the king. 255. Volunteer convention at Dungannon. In spite of their grow- ing strength, the ranks of the Pa- triots were under- mined by perpet- ual bribery and the distribution of titles, which brought their weaker members over to the gov- ernment side, and PRESBYTERIAN MEETING-HOUSE AT DUNGANNON Where the Volunteers met in February, 1782 266 IRELAND'S STORY [1782 diminished their numbers in parliament. Grattan deter- mined to take a new step. On February 15, 1782, a convention of two hundred and forty-two delegates from the Ulster Volunteers met at Dungannon, the old home of Hugh O'Neill, to deliberate on political conditions. Grattan, Flood, and Lord Charlemont were in charge of the proceedings. They passed thirteen resolutions, of which the following were the most important : — That the King, Lords, and Commons of Ireland alone itsresoin- ^^^ ^^^ right to legislate for the country ; tions. That Poynings' Law was unconstitutional, and should be repealed ; That the ports of Ireland should be opened to all na- tions not at war with the king ; That the permanent Mutiny Bill was unconstitutional ; That "as men and Irishmen, as Christians and Pro- testants, we rejoice in the relaxation of the penal laws against our Roman Catholic fellow-subjects ; and we conceive the measure to be fraught with the happiest consequences to the union, and prosperity to the inhab- itants of Ireland." The last measure was ardently supported by Grattan and three Protestant clergymen who were delegates to the convention. No Catholic took part in the proceedings. 266. Further repeal of the penal laws. The same day, February 15, Luke Gardiner introduced further mea- sures in parliament for the relief of the Catholics. The laws against buying and selling land were modified. The acts forbidding the celebration of mass, ordering the regis- tration of priests, and regulating the residence of bishops were repealed, and Catholics were permitted to live in the two great Gaelic centres. Limerick and Galway. Catholic schoolmasters could teach, and Catholics could be guardians of children. They were no longer presumed BADGE OF THE VOLUN- TEERS 1783] ENGLISH AND IRISH PARLIAMENTS 267 to be guilty of all robberies commited in the country. The ridiculous and unjust law providing that no Catho- lic might own a horse worth more than five pounds was also repealed. 257. The Act of Repeal, May 27, 1782. At the next meeting of parliament, in April, 1782, Grattan moved and carried his amendment, which comprised the Dungannon resolutions, except the last referring to Catholics. He was extremely ill at the time, and so weak that he could hardly speak, yet his oration on this oc- "down casion won just fame. In May, the En lish Parliament passed the Act of Repeal, which meant independence for the Irish Parliament. Poynings' Law was repealed (see section 123) and also the Sixth irishPar- of George I. (See section 238.) The right of ^^nsTnde- the Irish House of Lords to hear appeals was pendence. restored. The joy created by this news in Dublin was in- describable. The Irish Parliament showed its gratitude by voting twenty thousand men and ;^ 100, 000 to the English navy. It was admitted that the repeal was a personal triumph for Grattan. He was voted a grant of ^100,000, only half of which he finally consented to accept. 258. The Act of Renunciation. On January 22, in the following year, 1783, the Act of Renunciation was passed, which may be regarded as the charter of Irish legislative independence. By it England formally gave up the right to make laws for Ireland, which was to be henceforth sub- ject in everything only to the king and the Irish Parlia- ment. Thus the parliamentary struggle which lasted from to 1783 ended in favor of Ireland, and decided that 268 IRELAND'S STORY [1783 Ireland should be a nation, and not an English settle- ment. Thanks to the timely revolt of the American col- onies against just such grievances as those of Ireland, and to the efforts of men like Grattan, Flood, and their colleagues, Ireland had found the spirit of responsibility, and had come to a realization of her rights and powers. This movement v^as, it should be remembered, almost wholly Protestant, but many measures were passed which were intended to lighten the lot of the Catholics, and make them more equal with their Protestant rulers before the law. SUMMARY There were two distinct parties in parliament during the century 1698-1783 : the "Court party," who did everything to increase despotic English influence, and the " Patriotic party," a small minority who struggled for the independence and welfare of their country. The Patriots had as leaders in parliament and outside such men as Lucas, Swift, Flood, and Grattan. The act called the " Sixth of George I," 17 19, gave the death-blow to the authority of the Irish Parliament. In 1757, a Catholic Committee was formed to protect the interests of oppressed Catholics. In 1767, the Octennial Bill was passed, which limited the term of parliament to eight years. The Irish Commons refused to pass money-bills not originated by themselves. On the outbreak of the war with America the English Parliament passed the Embargo Act, 1775, b"^ ^t was repealed three years later, together with some of the penal laws against Catholics. Fearing invasion, the Irish Protestants formed a volunteer society which raised a large army and demanded reform from England. The Volun- teers met in convention at Dungannon in 1782, and drew up resolutions. The result was the further repeal of penal laws followed by the Act of Repeal, 1782, and the Act of Renun- ciation, January 22, 1783, which gave legislative freedom to Ireland. Trade restrictions were also removed. CHAPTER XXV THE IRISH REBELLION 1798 English Sovereign: George III, 1 760-1820 259. Need of parliamentary reform. During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, Ireland had legis- lative freedom, subject only to the veto of the English king, but the houses of parliament themselves were far from ideal. Of three hundred members in the House of Commons, not more than seventy or eighty were elected by a free vote of the people. Rotten boroughs were numerous, and seats sold as high as ten thousand pounds. The absolute exclusion of Catholics, who num- bered four fifths of the population of the coun- try, further prevented the Irish Parliament representa- from being a truly representative body, genu- inely independent, and answering to the will of the na- tion instead of that of the representatives of England at Dublin. Reform was needed, and needed badly. Had it come at this time, the bloodshed of 1798 might have been averted. Let us see why reform was not achieved. 260. Plans for a convention. Besides the need of parliamentary reform, the further regulation of free trade and the necessity of Catholic emancipation were recognized by the Patriots. The Volunteers took up the question of the reform of parliament, and held several 270 IRELAND'S STORY [1783 meetings, appointed con^mittees, and chose delegates to represent them in a great convention to be held in Dub- lin on November 10, 1783. Meanwhile, in parliament, „ ^, the two great leaders, Grattan and Flood, were Grattan . and Flood in disagreement over a measure to reduce quarre . expenses. Grattan advocated reducing the expenses of the government, while Flood thought that economy should be secured by reducing the army. The dispute was so bitter that it destroyed the friendship between them, thus greatly weakening the cause of the Patriots. 261. The convention, November 10, 1783. A hun- dred and sixty delegates of the Irish Volunteers met in the Rotunda at Dublin, on November 10, with the Earl of Charlemont, who commanded the whole of the Volunteer force, in the chair. Resolutions were passed, which provided that the franchise should remain practically unchanged in the counties, but that the right to vote should be extended in the boroughs. Flood presented a bill embodying this proposal to the parliament, which Reform bill """^^ ^^^ November 28. After a hot debate the defeated. \y[\\ ^^g rejected, and with it ended, for the time, the efforts of the Patriotic party to accomplish par- liamentary reforms. 262. Result to the Volunteers. A death-blow was dealt to the Volunteer movement as a whole by this rejection, and the convention broke up, without any date being fixed for the next meeting. The numbers of the Volunteers continued to increase, but they became more revolutionary in spirit, and broke away from the restrain- _ , ing influence of men like Lord Charlemont, Revolu- ^ ' tionary Curran, and Wolf Tone, who condemned their tendency to form secret clubs, which soon be- came secret revolutionary societies. The Volunteers 1785] THE IRISH REBELLION 2/1 now began to enroll Catholics as well as Protestants, which frightened the government, and caused an increase in the numbers of the militia. The people grew resent- ful and violent, and mob outbreaks were frequent, espe- cially in Dublin. 263. Trade congress called. The second question at issue met with a similar check. There was still a high duty on Irish exports to England, while English goods entered Ireland practically duty free. During 1784 and 1785 this question was uppermost in all minds, and, in order to solve it, a public meeting was called in Dublin, which arranged for the election of delegates to meet in a congress on October 25, 1785. This congress passed a series of resolutions in favor of free election and the extension of the franchise to Catholics. An address to the people was prepared, and a petition was sent to the king. The question of votes for Catholics proved such a stumbling-block that little was accom- plished by the congress, which dissolved after several futile meetings. 264. Orde's Bill, 1785. In England, Pitt made an attempt to have a bill passed to remedy the trade evils, but the English manufacturers and merchants raised such an outcry at the idea of granting the Irish free ports that Pitt abandoned his plan. This bill, „ ^, , ^ ^ ' Motion for which would have placed England and Ireland free trade on an equal footing in commerce, was known as Orde's Bill, as it was prepared by Orde, the Chief Secretary. Pitt then introduced a bill of his own, con- taining twenty propositions much less favorable to Ire- land, and including several severe restrictions. These propositions offered little more to Ireland than equality of taxes. The measure passed the English Parliament, but aroused much indignation in Ireland, where it was 272 IRELAND'S STORY [1785 opposed by Grattan and Flood, and practically defeated in the Irish Parliament, August, 1785. 265. Other abuses. Besides parliamentary and trade reform, the country needed general reform. Terrible discontent and unrest were prevalent, especially among the peasantry, due chiefly to the extortion of the tithe- collectors, or " tithe-proctors." Every man who tilled ^jti^g. land was obliged to pay tithes to the Anglican proctors. church established in Ireland. The tithes were collected by men called proctors, whose methods were like those of the middlemen. (See section 233.) . They received a percentage on collections, so that it was to their interest to make the tithes as large as possible. Be- sides, there was a tax for repairs to churches. Grazing lands were not subject to tithes, so that instead of fall- ing on the rich cattlemen, they weighed most heavily on the poorest peasants. 266. Menacing signs of revolution. The peasants, driven to desperation by this state of affairs, began to geejg^ form new secret societies. The Whiteboys societies. were revived under the name of " Right Boys," whose purpose was to harass the clergy of the estab- lished church. In the north, the " Peep-o'-day Boys " and ''Wreckers" rose from the poorest class of the Protestants, and committed acts of violence on Catholics. The government was alarmed, and enrolled a number of constables to guard the city of Dublin. These were later incorporated as the DubHn police. A strin- Crlmes ^ . a ■, 1 Act gent Crimes Act was passed to counteract the passe . secret societies, but without avail. Outrages increased continually. The people began to realize that no help could be ex- pected from parliament. Under the contagious influence of the French Revolution the anniversary of the fall of 790 THE IRISH REBELLION 273 the Bastile was celebrated with great enthusiasm in Bel- fast in 1 79 1, and there was a general outcry for the "rights of man," parliamentary representation, and Cath- olic emancipation. The old Volunteer leaders, including Charlemont, Curran, the Duke of Leinster, and TheWMg Wolfe Tone, formed themselves into the ^^^^s. '' Whig Club "in Dublin, and the " Northern Whig Club " in Belfast. There was nothing illegal in their action, but their tendency was distinctly revolutionary. 267. The " United Irishmen." Theobald Wolfe Tone now becomes prominent, as the leader of a remarkable movement. Inspired by the highest ideals of national unity, toleration, and freedom, he was a won- derful organizer and a born leader. Already known through the Vol- unteer movement, he had great influence, and, though a Protest- ant, was appointed sec- retary to the Catholic Committee in ^o^g Dublin, thus Tone, bringing the two parties together in his person. In October, 1791, he founded a new and more radical party in Belfast, called the " United Irishmen." Its first members were Presbyterians, and its objects were "a union of Irishmen of every religious persuasion, in order to obtain a complete reform of the legislature, founded on principles of civil, political, and THEOBALD WOLFE TONE I 763- I 798 274 IRELAND'S STORY [1792 religious liberty." Furthermore, he aimed at the repeal of all remaining penal laws against the Catholics, in order that there might be absolute unity, as suggested by the name of his society. There was a branch of the United Irishmen in Dublin. 268. ** Back Lane Parliament," December 2, 1792. The Catholic Committee formed thirty years before (see section 244) had been steadily working to redress the CathoUcs' wrongs. There were two parties in the committee : the aristocratic, comprising the clergy and nobility, who were non-revolutionary and moderate ; and the democratic, which included the business men, led by John Keogh, who advocated bold and determined action. This latter party had the sympathy of the Catholic masses, and through its influence a meeting was held in December, 1792, in the Tailors' Hall in Back Lane, Dub- Cathoiio lin, whence it received the name of *' Back Lane sentto\he Parliament." Here a petition was drawn up, king. to be sent to the king without passing through the hands of the hostile Irish Parliament. This petition asked that constitutional rights be extended to Catholics. 269. Catholic franchise restored, 1793. The king received the petition graciously, and in April, 1793, owing to the influence of the English ministers and Grattan's party, a bill was passed through the Irish Parliament granting the franchise to all Catholics who held a lease of land for life. Catholics were permitted to serve on juries, hold the office of justice of the peace, and send their sons to Trinity College, Dublin, which other had hitherto been exclusively Protestant ; they privileges, might also open colleges in connection with Trinity College, provided that Protestants should not be excluded from these colleges. The oath of allegiance was enforced, but no other, and the higher classes were 1795] THE IRISH REBELLION 275 permitted to carry arms. These relief measures were really a great gain, but were to some extent counter- balanced by two acts passed at the same time, convention the Convention Act, directed against unlaw- •^°*" ful assemblies like the Back Lane Parliament, and the Gunpowder Act, forbidding the importation Gunpowder of powder and arms, and giving magistrates the ■^'^*" power to search for them at will. Further, England feared revolutionary tendencies, and by means of spies kept strict watch over every act of the Catholic Com- mittee and the United Irishmen alike. Arrests were made on slight pretexts, and heavy fines were imposed. 270. Attempt at Catholic emancipation. In Jan- uary, 1795, Earl Fitzwilliam, a very honest and liberal- minded statesman, came over as lord lieutenant, with plans inspired by Pitt for the complete emancipation of the Catholics. He was enthusiastically received, and immediately set to work to remove from office all who did not share his views. In acknowledgment, the Pa- triots, on the motion of Grattan, voted large sums of money and supplies to be used in the war with France. The whole country was full of excitement, and people of every denomination sent in petitions in favor of the oppressed Catholics. On the 12th of February, Grattan presented a bill for the admission of Catholics to parlia- ment, and all seemed to be going well, when a storm- cloud appeared on the horizon. Fitzgibbon and a small opposition party took determined measures to defeat the bill. They aroused the king's fears by suggesting that Protestantism was in danger, and declared that the propo- sals of Fitzwilliam, in the king's name, were a violation of the coronation oath. The bill was opposed by the king, and the cause of the Catholics was temporarily lost. Nev- ertheless they gained one point during that year. Their 276 IRELAND'S STORY [1795 priests could at last prepare for their high calling with- out going abroad, for the English government feared the Foundingof continental influence which they brought back Maynooth. ^^j^]^ them, especially from France, and founded the Catholic training college of Maynooth, endowed with eight thousand pounds a year. 271. Discontent leads to insurrection. Amid general regret, Fitzwilliam resigned his place to a new lord lieu- tenant, who arrived in March, 1795, to find disturbances already breaking out. The mob raged in the streets of Dublin, and marauding bands swarmed over the country. The leaders had determined on a revolution, and foreign aid was expected. The United Irishmen, whose ranks were daily increased by numbers of Catholics, bound themselves by a secret oath, but the government was all the time made aware of their plans through spies. Among the peasantry Catholics and Protestants were bitterly opposed to each other, and such societies as the " Wreck- ers " (Protestant) and the " Defenders " (Catholic) fought very fiercely. The Protestants formed a new society called " Orangemen," after William of Orange, which, like all the secret societies of the time, com- " Orange- mitted serious outrages, driving many Catholic ™®^'" peasants from Ulster. This underground war- fare, carried on between the lower classes of the opposed churches, was severely censured by the better elements of both, and troops were sent out to arrest the raiders, and put a stop to the disorders. But their proceedings were often as lawless as those of the marauders themselves, and little good came of this intended remedy. 272. Insurrection Act passed. In December, 1796, France sent a fleet of forty-three ships which was wrecked before it reached Ireland. In addition to this disappoint- ment, at the next session of parliament, in January, 1797, 1798] THE IRISH REBELLION 2^^ a severe Insurrection Act was passed, which was followed b}^ the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, so that magistrates were free to arrest all persons whom they thought dangerous. Two committees of United Irish- men were arrested in Belfast, with whom important pa- pers were found. Arms were sought everywhere, and the prisons were filled with men unjustly arrested, but no conflicts which could be called battles were fought in 1797, although many parts of the country were in rebel- lion. The leaders on both sides denounced the „ . . . . . Beginnings atrocities committed by the lawless soldiers, of the and repeated assurances were given by trust- worthy people that parliamentary reform, Catholic eman- cipation, and a just regulation of tithes would restore peace and order. The best of the United Irishmen, as well as Grattan and others, were working to this end, but they were outnumbered by extremists at Grattan re- every turn. Thoroughly disheartened, Grattan signs from and the leading members of his party resigned 1'*'^^^*°^®^*- from parliament. The defeat of a Dutch fleet sent to invade Ireland added further discouragement. 273. Leaders of the Rebellion betrayed. The society of United Irishmen by this time covered the whole country, and had half a million members, a consider- able proportion of whom were Catholics. The leaders believed that the only course left for them was open re- bellion. They were far from realizing that they were constantly watched by government spies, who reported all their decisions to the DubHn authorities. These spies knew that the uprising had been fixed for May 23, 1798. They now discovered that the Leinster delegates would hold a meeting on March 12, at the house of Oliver Bond, in Bridge Street, Dublin. Here they broke in upon the delegates in the act of planning measures 2/8 IRELAND'S STORY [1798 of rebellion, arrested them, seized their papers, and offered a reward of a thousand pounds for the capture of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the prime mover in the in- surrection. Information was received that he was con- cealed in Dublin, at the house of a feather-merchant, and here he was surprised and captured, after a fierce struggle. He died of his wounds before the day fixed for his execution. 274. Beginning of the Rebellion. The plan that the insurrection should break out in several places at once failed, owing to mismanagement, and to the work of the spies. On May 24, and the following days, Kildare, Wicklow, Wexford, Carlow, Queen's County, Meath, and Dublin set the example, but the city of Dublin, being under martial law and full of soldiers, did not take part in the outbreak. 275. The Rebellion in Wexford. On May 26, an army of four thousand insurgents was completely de- feated on Tara Hill. The three principal rebel encamp- ments were on Vinegar Hill, near Enniscorthy ; on Carrickbyrne Hill, between New Ross and the town of Wexford ; and on Carrigroe Hill, near Ferns. Most of the fighting was desultory, and accompanied by a great deal of burning and pillaging. The conspicuous bravery and determination displayed by the rebels were Lack of usually more than counterbalanced by their among\Te ^^^^ ^^ discipline and order. First one side insurgents, ^yas victorious, then the other, in a series of small encounters. The acts of cruelty which were committed on both sides were the work of their worst members, trained by a generation, of secret societies and outrages. Wexford, which was the scene of a very bitter sec- tarian struggle, had risen independently of the United 1798] THE IRISH REBELLION 279 Irishmen. Under the leadership of several priests, the Catholic masses, driven to desperation by the atrocities of the militia, retaliated in a horrible manner on the Pro- testant population. Father John Murphy, a Catholic curate, was the principal leader in the fighting, but sternly discountenanced all outrages. He overcame the small force of cavalry sent against him, and some of his men set fire to the town of Wexford and murdered two clerorymen. All the available militia were called „ ,^ °^ Father out, and severe fighting followed at Oulart, on John May 27, where Murphy and his men were vie- ^^ ^' torious. The rebels then took Enniscorthy, whose garri- son was forced to retreat to Wexford. On May 30, a body of insurgents sent out from Vine- gar Hill routed a small force of government troops at a place called Three Rocks, four miles from Wexford, and then proceeded against Wexford itself, which was garrisoned by the North Cork militia. This gar- Desertion rison, in a panic, deserted the town without re- °* Wexford, sistance. They then traversed the surrounding country, burning and killing as they went, while the insurgents entered the town, and indulged in all the excesses of mediaeval pillage. On June i, a large detachment from the Carrigroe en- campment attacked the town of Gorey and was severely defeated. But the insurgents avenged this defeat three days later, in a fight not far from Gorey, which left the town in their hands. From Vinegar Hill, on June 2, an attack was made on Newtownbarry, but the insurgents were repulsed. On June 5, three days later, Battle of they met with similar misfortune at New Ross. New Ross. So fierce was their first attack, that the militia, under Lord Mount] oy, formerly Luke Gardiner, was driven out of the town, but returned to win a decisive victory a few 28o IRELAND'S STORY [1798 hours later when the insurgents were dispersed through the streets, indulging in riotous drinking after their suc- cess. Between two and three thousand of the rebels were killed. 276. Attack on Arklow. The insurgents now pre- pared to march on Dublin, but, in order to do this, were forced to pass through the lines of sixteen hundred gov- ernment troops at Arklow, on the Wicklow coast. On June 9, they made a fierce attack on Arklow, which would have turned out badly for the soldiers, had not the insurgent leader, Father Michael Murphy, been killed in the fight. This event so discouraged his followers that they gave up the idea of proceeding to Dublin. 277. Battle of Vinegar Hill. General Lake, the government commander, now organized an attack for June 21, on Vinegar Hill, the chief rebel encampment. Twenty thousand men were to approach in several divi- insurgents sions, from different directions. As luck would defeated. have it, one of the divisions failed to arrive until the fighting was over. The insurgents were thus able to break through the uncompleted circle of their assailants, and retreat southward to Wexford, when the combined attack grew too strong to be resisted. This was the last stand of importance in the Wexford rebellion, for the insurgents were now forced to admit their inability to meet the trained troops of the govern- ment. They left Wexford, which was immediately occu- pied by General Lake, who court-martialed and leaders hanged every leader he could capture. Mat- executed. ^^^^^ Keogh and Father John Murphy were executed with the rest, though, like many other leaders, they had been active in preventing outrages. Acts of great cruelty were now committed by both sides. The soldiers made no distinction bet-ween guilty and inno- 1798] THE IRISH REBELLION 281 cent, but slew all alike, while bands of insurgents, roam- ing through the country, viciously retaliated. Within the short space of two years sixty-five Catholic chapels and one Protestant church were destroyed in Leinster alone, and countless dwellings met with a like fate. 278. End of the Rebellion. The fact that the upris- ing did not occur simultaneously in different parts of the country gave the government a decided advantage, and, in the north, the rebels were easily suppressed. General Lake was superseded by Lord Cornwallis, who did his best to stop the outrages daily committed by the soldiers, and it is probable that, had he been in command from the outset, there would have been less bloodshed. On. August 22, after the rebellion was ended, help was sent from France. General Humbert and a thousand men 'landed at Killala, in Mayo, but they soon surren- dered to Cornwallis, and were sent back to Keipfrom France. Two Irish leaders were taken at the arrives same time and hanged. These were Matthew too late. Tone, brother of Wolfe Tone, and Bartholomew Teel- ing. A second expedition, in which Theobald Wolfe Tone took part, arrived in September, and was defeated at sea. Wolfe Tone was taken prisoner and sentenced to be hanged. He begged for a more honorable death, and committed suicide when this was refused. SUMMARY Although Ireland had gained legislative independence, its parliament was so corrupt that little benefit resulted. A con- vention met in November, 1783, and drew up a bill of reform, which was defeated in parliament. This defeat demoralized the Volunteer movement, which now became revolutionary in spirit and was deserted by its more moderate members. An attempt to remedy trade conditions was embodied in Orde's 282 IRELAND'S STORY [1798 Bill, 1785, and likewise defeated. The abuses of the tithe- proctors increased, as did the number of lawless secret soci- eties among the peasants. In 1791, Wolfe Tone founded the society of " United Irishmen," whose members were men of all denominations. At the " Back Lane Parliament," in 1792, a petition was drawn up praying for the removal of a number of penal laws against the Catholics, but in 1795 a bill for Catholic emancipation was defeated. Discontent grew, the country was full of paid spies, secta- rian riots were frequent, and finally a rebellion was planned. On March 12, 1798, the leaders of this movement were de- feated and captured. The main action of the rebellion took place in Wexford, where the insurgents were led by John Murphy, a priest. Help from France arrived too late, and the rebellion was presently put down, with great cruelty and bloodshed. CHAPTER XXVI LEGISLATIVE UNION WITH ENGLAND 1800-1801 English Sovereign: George III, 1760-1820 279. William Pitt's scheme. In the summer of 1798, the English Cabinet, of which WilHam Pitt and the Duke of Portland were the most influential members, conceived „ ^ „ ^ To aboUsb a plan for thoiiisix IT,. Parliament, abolishing the Irish Parliament and uniting the legis- lative bodies of the two countries. This had long been a fa- vorite scheme of Pitt, ^ and events in Ireland during the past few years convinced him that the time was favorable for carry- ing it out. This statesman is justly credited by histori- ans with having had very benevolent in- tentions toward Ire- land, including a plan to emancipate the Catholics and WILLIAM PITT, THE YOUNGER 1759-1806 284 IRELAND'S STORY [1798 establish a uniform system of laws over the whole of Great Britain and Ireland. His methods, however, were more than questionable. Every one in England admitted that the Irish Parlia- ment could not be abolished without its own consent. It was also admitted that this body, corrupt though it was, was not corrupt enough readily to accept Pitt's plans for its extinction. In 1798, the Marquis of Corn- corn- wallis was lord lieutenant, and Lord Castle- Tstem^of ^eagh was Chief Secretary for Ireland, and to bribery. these two men Pitt intrusted the execution of his scheme. Though hating the part he was forced to play, Cornwallis lost no time. He sounded the Irish Cabinet and the Dublin barristers on the subject of Union, and dismissed those officials who opposed the idea. A grand system of corruption was organized, in order to insure a parliamentary majority, when the mat- ter came before the House. Bribes, pensions, and titles were openly given to those who promised to vote for the government's scheme. Cornwallis asked for and received from England thousands of pounds of ready money, which sums were later added to the national debt of Ire- land, so that the larger country did not suffer. These determined measures caused great alarm, for it was real- ized that if the Union became a fact, the three hundred members of parliament would be reduced to one third, and members were afraid of losing their seats and the opportunities of profit which these seats gave them. An outline of the scheme of Union was circulated among the people throughout the whole country, and the rebellion was allowed to smoulder on, in order to promote local and class differences, and thus to weaken possible opposition. The country was now thoroughly aroused, and riots 1799] LEGISLATIVE UNION WITH ENGLAND 285 broke out in several places. The people looked on the proposed loss of their parliament as an indignity attitude oi to the nation, and numerous petitions poured the people, in daily to parliament, condemning the contemplated Union in the strongest terms. It was feared by the au- thorities that the riots might once more extend, and become a rebellion, and English troops were landed to inspire fear. The men at the head of the Union move- ment were determined to carry their measure at all costs. 280. Union scheme presented to the Irish Parlia- ment. The eventful day, January 22, 1799, arrived, and Lord Cornwallis delivered the speech frorn the throne in the Irish House of Lords. He announced his hopes that both parliaments would unite, and consolidate as far as possible the resources of the realm. Excitement ran high, and Cornwallis was immediately answered by patriotic Irishmen, who condemned any such scheme in the strongest terms. During the debate in Excited the House of Commons, which lasted all night debate. long, Ponsonby delivered an address in which he ap- pealed for support to national pride and independence. He closed with the words, " maintaining, however, the undoubted birthright of the people of Ireland to have a resident and independent legislature, such as it was recognized by the British legislature in 1782, and was finally settled at the adjustment of all differences be- tween the two countries." (See section 257.) Plunket, with eloquence almost equal to that of Grattan, de- nounced the " system of black corruption " carried on to undermine the constitution and influence votes. The country gentlemen spoke warmly against the measure, and the result was that, on the evening of January 24, a motion was made to strike out the clause concerning 286 IRELAND'S STORY [1799 the Union from the speech from the throne. When a division was taken, the votes numbered 106 union measure for the government and 1 1 1 for the Irish con- stitution. The Speaker, John Foster, was car- ried home in triumph, and DubUnwas illuminated by the enthusiastic people. But Sir John Parnell, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Fitzgerald, the Prime Sergeant, who had opposed the Union, were summarily dismissed from office. 281. More bribery. On January 31, 1799, Pitt brought forward the scheme of Union in the English House of Commons. In his speech he strove to prove that the settlement of 1782 (see section 257), when the Pitt and ^ct of Repeal gave Ireland an independent Sheridan, parliament, was not final. Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the dramatist, and Foster, the Speaker of the Irish House, vehemently opposed him. Both parties now did their utmost to gain adherents for the struggle in the next Irish session. The govern- ment employed every possible means to corrupt the re- presentatives of the people, trying in all ways to bring round the most formidable leaders of the opposition, and spending freely the sum of ^1,260,000, placed at its dis- posal, for purposes of bribery and corruption. The lord lieutenant made tours through different parts of the country to obtain declarations in favor of the Union. Eighty-four boroughs were bought outright. To secure a majority in the Irish House of Lords, twenty-eight new peers were created, and thirty-two received higher titles. 282. Attitude of the Catholics. The position of the Catholics during the struggle was well defined. The great majority of them opposed the Union altogether. There was, however, a small Catholic party which fa- i8oo] LEGISLATIVE UNIOxN WITH ENGLAND 28/ vored the English connection, but they had no influence. The CathoHcs had nothing to gain from union with Eng- land, whose sovereign was opposed to them, and whose parliament excluded them. In Ireland, on the contrary, they had received the franchise, and the Irish Parliament had removed a good many of their burdens. In Hostile to the beginning, Cornwallis had counted on Cath- union, olic support, but as early as 1798 he was forced to change his opinion, as is shown by the following quotation from his letter to Major-General Ross: "The opposition to the Union increases daily, in and about Dublin, and I am afraid, from conversations which I have held with persons much connected with them, that I was too sanguine when I hoped for the good inclinations of the Catholics. Their disposition is so completely alienated from the British government that I believe they would be tempted to join with their bitterest enemies, the Protestants of Ireland, if they thought that measure would lead to a total separation of the two countries." This hostile atti- tude of the Catholics was confirmed at a great meeting held January 14, 1800, at which a new leader made his first speech. Daniel O'Connell said : " If emancipation be offered for our consent to the measure of Union — even if emancipation after the Union were a gain — we would reject it with prompt indignation." He went so far as to add that he would prefer a renewal of the penal laws, and ''would rather confide in the justice of my brethren the Protestants of Ireland, who have already liberated me, than lay my country at the feet of for- eigners." 283. Daniel O'Connell. Daniel O'Connell was a young patriot, who now began to come into prominence and popularity, and prepared to continue the work Grat- tan had begun. He was born in 1775, at Carhan, near 288 IRELAND'S STORY [1800 DANIEL O'CONNELL 1775-1847 From the portrait painted for the former Catholic Association of Ireland Cahersiveen, on one of the Kerry promontories that stretch far into the Atlantic. O'Connell came of one of the oldest Gaelic families, and represented the pure native stock. He had been educated partly in Ireland, partly in France, whither so many Irish Catholics went to seek opportunities of learning which they were denied in Ireland. He was called to the bar in the year of the Rebellion, and at once began to make a reputation as a i8oo] LEGISLATIVE UNION WITH ENGLAND 289 brilliant lawyer, and an eloquent advocate, and later as spokesman of the Catholic party. A devout Catholic himself, and thoroughly Irish in every instinct and feel- ing, he was determined that the ancient church of his nation should no longer lie under the ban of the law. In his personal dealings he had gained a reputation for entire uprightness, and his fine legal training gave him an additional advantage. During the whole of the agita- tion which he led, he not only shunned all excesses, but even avoided the smallest irregularity, and thus gave his English opponents no opportunity to thwart his work by prosecution. His incessant watchfulness and legal keen- ness were wonderful. 284. Act of Union passed, August 1, 1800. Mean- while, the government, ignoring every protest, was land- ing thousands of English soldiers, and increasing the IRISH PARLIAMENT HOUSE, DUBLIN, 180O practice of wholesale bribery and unfair dismissal from office. There was a call for more secret service money from England, early in 1800, and Cornwallis did not hesitate to tempt even the stanchest patriots. The Irish Parliament met for the last time on January 15, 1800, with the newly purchased members in their seats. The viceroy avoided mentioning the Union in the speech from the throne, but Parsons, Plunket, Pon- sonby, Moore, and Bushe stated and upheld the case against the Union in succession. In the midst of the 290 IRELAND'S STORY [1800 discussion, Grattan entered. He had risen from a bed Lastses- of sickness to appear once more on behalf of irish°Par-^ his country, and, clad in the uniform of the uament. Volunteers, he addressed the House. With a return to his old eloquence and fire, he exhorted parlia- ment to uphold the constitution, so that, when the vote was taken, the government had a majority of only thirty- eight. In spite of all the efforts of the Patriotic party, the bill was finally passed, first through the Commons, and then through the Lords, where the government's majority numbered three to one. On August i, 1800, King George signed the bill, and the Act of Union became law, coming into force on January i, 1801, the first day of the nineteenth century. Its main provisions were as follows : — 1. The two kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland to be one, under the title of " the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 2. The Irish representation in the united Parliament was to be one hundred members in the House of Com- mons, and thirty-two in the House of Lords ; four of these peers were to be Protestant bishops, while the remaining twenty-eight were to be elected from the whole body of Irish peers. 3. Regulations as to trade and commerce were to be the same for all subjects of the United Kingdom. 4. The Irish Established Church was to be contin- ued forever, and to be united with the Church of England. 5. Ireland was held responsible for two seventeenths of the expenditure of the United Kingdom for twenty years, at the end of which time a new arrangement would be considered. Each country was to retain its own national debt, but all future debts were to be in i8oi] LEGISLATIVE UNION WITH ENGLAND 291 common, and to be borne by Great Britain and Ireland, in the ratio of seventeen to two. 285. Results of the Union. So much for the Union, which was now an accomplished fact. Fox, in 1806, characterized it as '' atrocious in its principles and abom- inable in its means." Gladstone, at a later day, con- demned it no less violently. '' I know," he said, "no blacker or fouler transaction in the history of man than the making of the Union between England and Ire- land." Pitt, whatever his real views may have been, declared it in the House of Commons to be a Union *'by free consent, and on just and equal terms." The Union was intended by its promoters to remedy three evils : religious divisions, unfair balance of legislative power, and commercial inequalities. For two genera- tions after 1800 the Catholics and Protestants were no closer friends ; the national debt of Ireland has risen abnormally, and she is admittedly overtaxed in compari- son with England, as she has less than two seventeenths of the population of the United Kingdom and is the poorest section besides. The new arrangement, to be made after twenty years, was never carried out. Free trade is in force, but all Irishmen do not admit its ad- vantage. But after the Union was a fact, even the stanchest patriots did not advocate its repeal, which would have meant rebellion and chaos. The attitude of these men during the twenty-nine years between the Union and Catholic emancipation, the goal towards which most of them were working, is especially interesting. An echo of the Rebellion of 1798 was heard in Robert Emmet's insurrection in 1803, but this uprising came to nothing, and its leader was hanged. 292 IRELAND'S STORY [1801 SUMMARY William Pitt, the prime minister of England, had long had a plan to abolish the Irish Parliament and unite the two countries under one parliament in England. In 1798, he directed Cornwallis, the lord lieutenant, to carry out this scheme. The entire country was hostile to it, but by means of unlimited bribery, in spite of the strong opposition of Catholics and patriots, a parliament was finally assembled which voted to abolish itself, and the Act of Union was signed by George III on August i, 1800, and came into force on January i, 1801. CHAPTER XXVII CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 1801-1829 English Sovereigns : George III, 1 760-1820 George IV, 1820-1830 286. The combined parliament. On January 22, 1 80 1, the new combined parliament met at Westminster, counting among its members one hundred from Ireland, who were too few to form a strong opposition. There had been vague promises about Catholic emancipation after the Union, but England practically ignored Irish interests altogether. Such laws as the Irish Insurrec- tion Act, the Suspension of the Habeas Cor- More pus Act, the Martial Continuation Act, and oppressive a series of Coercion Acts, all of an unjustly ™®^^^®*- oppressive nature, were passed, and the misery and desolation of the country increased. England was ab- sorbed in the struggle against Napoleon, and had no time to undertake serious constructive measures in the new territory brought within the jurisdiction of her parliament by the Act of Union. Besides, the real con- dition of Ireland was unknown, and it was to no one's interest to find out the truth. It was generally granted that the emancipation of the Catholics from the various legal disabilities and penalties under which they had suffered since the days of Henry VIII was expedient, but the English ministry allowed itself to be overruled 294 IRELAND'S STORY [1808 by the ignorance, prejudice, and bigotry of George III, who was determined to treat Ireland as he had wished to treat America. 287. New plan for appointment of bishops. Shortly after the Union, a small section of the Catholics, includ- ing several of the bishops, decided that, in return for emancipation, it might be well to concede to the English crown the right of veto in the appointment of Catholic bishops ; that is, after a bishop had been selected by the ecclesiastical authorities, his name should be submitted to the king, who might refuse to confirm the appoint- ment, when another choice would be made. The major- ity of the Catholics were unaware of this plan, and would never have consented to it. It was first brought to their notice in 1808, by a petition drawn up by Grattan and others. The greatest indigna- tion was aroused at the thought of buying emancipation by such a surrender of religious principle ; for this would have been equivalent to admitting the claim of the sovereign of England to be head of the Church within his dominions, the very question contested since the days of Henry VIII. But the scheme was doomed to failure in any case, for the English government refused to consider the proposal. 288. Evils of the existing land system. Great as was the need for emancipation, it was as nothing com- pared to the distress and suffering caused by the de- plorable social and economic condition of the country. The relations between landlord and tenant were worse than at any past time, and every year brought new and heavier taxes, instead of lessening the burdens which the people already bore. Each man in the long series of middlemen, as well as the tenant and the landlord at the two ends of the series, had to gain a profit from the i8o8] CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 295 same acre of land, and no one was willing to spend money on improvino^ the qualitv of the land. Tr . 1 111 1 . . , ^ No attempt It It be asked why, the answer is smiple. The to improve tenant held his land from year to year, at the *^®^^'^- will of the landlord, and, if he made improvements, and so increased the value of the land, he would be called on to pay a greater rent, or leave his holding. The middle- men would not make improvements, because whoever stood next above them in the scale of extortion would immediately have demanded a greater payment. The landlord made no improvements, because he was accus- tomed to think of himself as a man with rights and privileges, and never as a man with duties and obliga- tions. The result was, that a piece of land was allowed to go from bad to worse, and was finally rented, for an excessive sum, to a peasant so poor that he could not improve it in any way, and could barely make a starva- tion wage for himself and his family. In England, the landlord was the agricultural partner of his tenant, investing large sums of money in improve- ments, such as drains, fences, out-houses, and „ ,, ' ' ' Conditions SO forth ; so that the value of the land steadily in England rose. But nothing of the kind existed in Ire- ^°^^"^ • land. Frequently whole towns were owned by one man, who thus had it in his power to exact what rents he pleased. At the time of the Union, the population of Ireland amounted to about four and a half mil- subdivision lions. It now began to increase rapidly. The °*^^^^- landlords permitted, and even encouraged, extreme sub- division of land, so that they might collect rents from as many tenants as possible. The peasants came to grow potatoes more and more exclusively, since this was the cheapest crop, and that which most easily sustained life without further outlay. 296 IRELAND'S STORY [1808 It is recorded that often during this time the poor pea- sant would plant his potatoes at the proper Potatoes the .\, i ^ 17 i j . 1 only food of season, and then go oft to England to work peasants. £^^ some English farmer, and so try to make a little money. Meanwhile, his family was left almost penniless, to beg or borrow. He would come back in time to dig his potato crop in the autumn, and in this way he could earn more than by growing corn and a variety of crops. Then we must not forget the innumer- able taxes he had to pay, and the repeated injustice he suffered at the hands of the middlemen and tax-gather- ers. It was nothing unusual for a peasant to be forced to pay rent twice over, to different middlemen, both claiming the same piece of ground, and to have his cattle sold before his eyes, if he resisted these demands. All this was known to parliament, or at least ought to have been known, since it had all been graphically described by Irish members. But no notice was taken of it. 289. Financial condition of the country. Fur- thermore, all through the period of strife which had just ended, prices had steadily gone up, and, with them, the rent of land had increased. The Act of 1778 (see sec- tion 249), granting to Catholics the right "to take, hold, and dispose of lands in the same manner as Protestants," had greatly stimulated agriculture. With the freedom of the Irish Parliament, commerce and manufactures had begun to thrive. The Rebellion had only slightly checked this growing prosperity, while the Union, on the other hand, dealt a severe blow to Irish Union destroys industries. A chief cause of this was the re- moval of the import duties which had pro- tected Irish manufactures. Commissions were appointed to investigate matters and suggest remedies, but they never did anything beyond holding formal and ineffect- i8i5] CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 297 ive meetings. The Poor Laws were not in existence at that time, and those places of refuge for the destitute and starving which are called poor-houses did not then exist. The battle of Waterloo in June, 181 5, put an end to the long war between England and France. Peace was established, and with it came a general fall in the price of food, which meant serious loss to the farm- Qj^at fan ers. The latter had been receiving high prices ^^vrioes. for their produce, which was bought by the contending governments for the armies in the field. With peace, and the disbanding of armies, the farmers lost their best customers, and had to sell at much lower prices, in order to find a buyer at all. Moreover, the returned soldiers greatly increased the number of applicants for work, and thus lowered the rate of wages which it was possible to obtain. These two causes directly affected Ireland. The farmers were unable to sell their produce for remunera- tive prices, and were compelled to pay the same rents as before. 290. O'Connell and emancipation. Let us now turn again to the question of emancipation, which was upper- most in every patriot's mind. Daniel O'Connell had been for years working so quietly that his existence was hardly suspected by the opponents of Catholic emancipation in England. His watchwords were ''Forward! " and "To- gether ! " and he strove to remove the jealousies between different sections and localities which have always been a cause of weakness to Ireland, and to counteract the hunger for government positions and promotion which demoralized so many weak-kneed patriots. The national life of Ireland was always foremost in his thoughts, and he saw clearly that that life could never find its true development while the Catholics, who formed the great 298 IRELAND'S STORY [1820 mass of the population, were kept down by legal disabil- ities, oppressed, and neglected. In this work he was ably seconded by Richard Lalor Sheil, almost as great an orator as himself. Grattan, now a very old man and worn out after his active life, died in London, 1820. In him Ireland lost the greatest and noblest Protestant upholder of Catholic rights. 291. The Catholic Association of Ireland. In 1823, under the leadership of O'Connell, with the help of Sheil and a few others, a meeting was called in an old inn in the main thoroughfare of Dublin, then called Sackville Street, but since named after O'Connell. Here a new society was formed called the '' Catholic As- sociation of Ire- land," which car- ried on the work of the old Catholic Committee. (See section 244.) In order to evade the Convention Act of 1796 (see section 269), it was decided not to make it a representative body to which delegates were sent, and not to limit its mem- bership to Catholics. The aim of the society was stated to be the adoption " of all such legal and constitutional RICHARD LALOR SHEIL 1791-18S1 i828] CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 299 measures as may be most useful to obtain Catholic emancipation." Before long the influence of ^^ the Catholic Association had spread all over Ire- iattuence. land. O'Connell and Shell worked indefatigably. Many Protestants, who, like Grattan, favored emancipation, joined the new society, and its membership increased so rapidly that the English government and parliament soon took notice of it, and viewed its activities with suspicion and dislike. An act was passed in 1825 aimed at its destruction, but O'Connell had been so careful to avoid anything that savored of illegality that no pre- text was found for instituting prosecutions. Meanwhile, in Waterford and certain other cities, the Association had so far influenced public opinion that Protestants favoring emancipation were elected to the English Parliament. This result was chiefly due to the votes of the class called forty-shilling freeholders, that is, tenants who had a freehold lease for many years, or for life, of a holding worth forty shillings a year above the amount of the rent. These long leases made them independent of the landlords, who would otherwise have threatened them with eviction for voting in favor of a measure so distaste- ful to the landlord class. 292. Catholics contest elections. At this time it was not illegal to elect Catholics to parliament, but the elec- tion was practically null and void, owing to the oath which a member was compelled to take before he could claim his seat in parliament. This oath contained a declaration that the chief doctrines of the Catholic Church were false, and, as no Catholic could consci- entiously take the oath, it was as effectual a bar as any statute of penal days. One of the patriots, Keogh's John Keogh by name, formed a plan for p^^- drawing attention to the absurdity of this regulation. 300 IRELAND'S STORY [1828 He suggested that a Catholic member should be elected for an Irish constituency, should present himself at the bar of the House and refuse to take the oath. An opportunity occurred in 1828. Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, who represented Clare in parliament, accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. It is the rule of the English Constitution that when a member of parliament accepts office, he must resign his seat, return to his constituents and seek reelection, as a sign that they approve his appointment to office. When Fitzgerald came to Clare to seek reelection, it was decided that O'Conneii Daniel O'Connell himself should oppose him, elected. ^nd as Clare was in his native province and close to his birthplace he had little difficulty in gaining the support of the voters. The landlords strenuously opposed him, but the tenants took his part, and he was elected by an immense majority. His example was followed by prominent Catholics in other parts of the country, who, with the aid of the Catholic Association, prepared to contest a number of elections. 293. Emancipation Act passed March 30, 1829. When it became evident that a number of Irish Cath- olics would be returned to parliament, the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, then the dominant figures in English public life, were thoroughly alarmed. Wellington himself saw that the choice lay between emancipation and civil war, and expressed his view with his usual clearness and determination. Sir Robert Peel introduced a bill granting Catholic emancipation, which was carried on March 30, 1829, after a stormy discus- sion lasting for three days. A fortnight later King George IV affixed his signature to' the bill, and the Act of Catholic Emancipation, the first step in the resurrec- tion of Ireland, became law. 1S29] CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 301 294. O'Connell and the parliament. The Eman- cipation Act made provisions for the admission to the House of Commons of CathoHc members elected after April 13, the day on which the bill was signed by the king. O'Connell had been elected some time before this ; he was therefore not eligible under the new provision. Nevertheless, he presented himself at the bar of the House, and the oath in its old objectionable form was placed before him. He read it, declared that it contained statements which he knew to be false, and refused to take it. He was compelled in consequence to return to Clare and seek reelection, in order that he might be returned to parliament after the date of the signing of the act. O'Connell soon returned in triumph to Westminster, took the new oath provided by the Act of 1829, and, though a Catholic, became a lawful member of the English Parliament. 295. Further concessions to Catholics. It was fur- ther provided that Catholics should be admitted equally with Protestants to all civil and military offices in the realm, with three exceptions. A Catholic could not be appointed regent, lord lieutenant of Ireland, or lord chancellor. It was provided, of course, by the English Act of Settlement that the sovereign must be a Pro- testant, and the English coronation oath still contains clauses very objectionable to Catholics. In order to diminish as far as possible the strength of the Irish Catholics, the English government decided to take away the votes of the forty-shilling freeholders who constituted the main support of the Catholic party. The franchise was therefore raised from forty shillings, or two pounds, to ten pounds in Ireland, though the lower rate was retained in England. 302 IRELAND'S STORY [1829 SUMMARY As soon as England had accomplished the Union and destroyed the power of the Irish Parliament, she passed further oppressive measures. The social and economic conditions of Ireland were as bad as can be imagined, and the greatest suffering fell upon the peasantry on account of the evils of the land system. The Union had destroyed all industries, and now prices fell until the country was bankrupt. Grattan died in 1820 and was succeeded by Daniel O'Con- nell, a Catholic, as leader of the Patriotic Party. O'Connell bent all his energies towards securing emancipation, which was the first step toward remedying the evils of the time. He formed the "Catholic Association of Ireland" in 1823, whose influence grew until the English government became thoroughly alarmed. Catholics now took a bold stand and systematically contested elections, with the result that Eng- land was forced to grant the Act of Emancipation, March 30, 1829. O'Connell and other Catholics became members of parliament. Catholics were further admitted to all but the highest offices. The franchise was raised from forty shil- lings to ten pounds. CHAPTER XXVIII FROM EMANCIPATION TO THE FAMINE 1829-1847 English Sovereigns : George IV, 1820-1830 William IV, 1830-1837 Victoria, 1837-1901 296. The National School System. As soon as the fight for emancipation was gained, and the Irish Catholics were represented in parliament, the leading MAYNOOTH COLLEGE IN 1821 men of Ireland turned their attention to securing other much needed reforms, first of which was suitable school training for the masses. For centuries the children of 304 IRELAND'S STORY [1831 Ireland had been deprived of proper education. It is true that the English government had established element- ary schools all over Ireland, but these schools were for Protestants alone, or for such Catholics as were willing to take part in " religious instruction," the purpose of which was to instil enmity against the Catholic Church. At the very close of the eighteenth century, some provision was made for the education of those Catholic youths who were destined for the priesthood, by the establishment of Maynooth College. (See section 270.) But the vast masses of Catholic children were still utterly neglected. Two years after emancipation, in 183 1, the first step was taken to remedy this, by inaugurating the system of national schools, which is still in force. The two main provisions of this system were, that pupils of all religious denominations who attended the schools were to be taught together in the ordinary school course, and that there was to be no interference with the religious principles of any child, each denomination receiving sep- arate religious instruction from its own pastors. This new system was rapidly extended all over the country. 297. The Whately Commission, 1835. We saw in the last chapter how extreme poverty increased with the growing population of Ireland. To remedy this, a royal commission was appointed in 1835, under the presidency of Archbishop Whately, to investigate the conditions of the poor in Ireland. In his report Archbishop Whately writes : " We cannot estimate the number of persons in Ireland out of work and in distress during thirty weeks of the year at less than 585,000, nor the number of persons depending upon them at less than 1,800,000, making in the whole 2,385,000. A great portion of these are insufficiently provided at any time with commonest necessaries of life. Their habitations 1838] FROM EMANCIPATION TO THE FAMINE 305 are wretched hovels ; several of the family sleep together upon straw, or upon the bare sod, sometimes with a blanket, sometimes even without so much to cover them ; their food commonly consists of dried potatoes, and with these they are sometimes so scantily supplied as to be obliged to stint themselves to one bare meal in the day. There are even instances of persons being driven by hunger to seek sustenance in wild herbs." 298. The Poor Law Act, 1838. As a result of this report the Poor Law Act was passed in February, 1838., While this law did not go to the root of Irish poverty, nor remove any of its causes, it nevertheless provided, in the poor-houses which were built all over Ireland, a refuge and coarse food for the completely destitute. While the Irish peasantry have always been most unwilling to apply for help to the poor-houses, and have never done so without a feeling of shame, these institutions have none the less been the means of saving hundreds of thousands from absolute starvation. 299. The tithe struggle. The Catholics were still called upon to pay tithes, and the unjust manner in which these were levied, and the exactions of the tithe collectors, had always given rise to great discontent and frequent resistance and riot. The Protestant Episcopal Church was the church of the well-to-do minority, and its ministers and servants were supported very largely from tithes extorted from the already overburdened Catholics. Further, the tithes were collected Riches of from the peasants directly, and not from the {f^i^g^^*^" landlord. In contrast to the Protestants, who Church, had fine churches and well-to-do clergy, the Catholics, who were devoutly religious, were forced to worship in ruined and dilapidated buildings, and their hard-worked priests received a bare subsistence. 3o6 IRELAND'S STORY [1838 This state of things caused continual friction. Tithe collectors had to take the money for the Protestant Riots in Church at the point of the sword, and soldiers wexiord. ^nd police were perpetually called upon to aid in collecting the tithes. At Newtownbarry in Wex- ford, in 1 83 1, thirteen peasants were killed by the yeo- manry in a tithe riot, and again in the next year eleven policemen and several peasants were killed in a similar riot. While this tithe struggle was going on, Daniel O'Con- nell and Richard Lalor Shell made repeated efforts in parliament to have the tithe system abolished entirely, or at least to have the burden of this tax lifted from the shoulders of the poorest peasants. Parliament absolutely refused to take any measures for the relief of this griev- ance, and met all remonstrance and resistance by coer- cion acts, the very name of which proclaimed that the foundation of the system they supported was force, not Tithes justice. Finally, the uprisings against the tithe transferred system grew SO frequent and so fierce that par- tenant to liament was compelled to act. In 1838, the ^ °' ■ tithes were transferred from the tenants to the landlords, and were reduced to one fourth, to compensate for the great saving in collecting them in a single sum from one person. The result was, that the amount of the tithes was exacted in increased rent. But much of the irritation and injustice caused by the old method of collection was removed. 300. Father Mathew's Crusade. The year 1838 also saw the beginning of the great temperance crusade under Father Mathew, a zealous young Capuchin friar, who had joined a temperance society founded in Cork by some members of the Quaker body. Father Mathew signed the pledge of total abstinence, and then began to preach i843] FROM EMANCIPATION TO THE FAMINE 307 temperance to others, gathering immense crowds of all denominations, who listened eagerly to his wise words. He won converts everywhere, and thus one of the causes of misery and poverty in Ireland was partially checked. Drunkenness greatly diminished, and for a longtime the influence of Father Mathew was wide and deep. 301. Efforts toward repeal of the Act of Union. We now come to the two great events of this period : the agitation for the repeal of the Act of Union, and the famine. Ever since the day when the Act was passed, the desire for its repeal had been growing. Many had dreams of an independent Ireland, while many others confined their wishes to the reestablishment of a national parliament. During the first twenty-nine years of the nineteenth century, the patriots of Ireland had been too absorbed with the question of Catholic emancipation to give time or thought to the question of repeal. Now, however, O'Connell came forward as the champion of this cause. The condition of Ireland had grown steadily worse since the Act of Union. In 1840, O'Connell, supported by others, who believed that legislative independence would lessen the distress of Ireland, founded the Repeal Association in Dublin. The movement spread The Repeal with the greatest rapidity, for it appealed Association, strongly to men of different classes; and before long O'Connell found himself addressing vast gatherings, to which the people flocked to hear his eloquent words. At one of the "monster meetings," as they were called, which was held on the Hill of Tara, it is estimated that quarter of a million people were present, and thirty such meetings were held in 1843. Meanwhile, riots and out- breaks of lawlessness were constantly occurring, so that the government became alarmed. 308 IRELAND'S STORY [1843 302. Failure to secure repeal. O'Connell had a sober people to deal with, thanks to the zeal of Father Mathew. He had no desire to lead a revolution. On the contrary, he always opposed all extreme measures. This modera- tion, which made it so difficult to attack him, increased the government's alarm, and for a time it seemed certain that his agitation would be crowned with success, and that the Union would be dissolved. But the EngHsh government at last took action. The advocates of repeal arranged for a great meeting to be held on October 8, at Clontarf, on the seashore north of Dublin. This meeting was prohibited by the government. The gov- ernment further determined to use force, and brought Arrest oi soldicrs to the scene of the meeting, compell- O'conneu. ^^^ O'Conncll to withdraw. He and several of his associates were soon after arrested, tried, and convicted. For three months they were kept in prison, until released by a decision of the House of Lords, which declared that the sentence had been illegal. O'Connell's arrest virtually ended the repeal agitation. 303. The Young Ireland Party. O'Connell had always been leader of the *' Old Ireland Party " formed of the Catholic clergy and the great bulk of the people. During his imprisonment, a new party was formed by a number of young men, who, tired of the fruitless efforts for a pacific settlement between Ireland and England, decided to try more radical measures. This new party, called the "Young Ireland Party," largely consisted of highly educated and literary men, both Catholic and Protestant, and one of their aims was to unite the whole of the Irish people in one great organization. They used ''The Nation," a newspaper which had been founded in 1842 by two Catholics, Charles Gavan Duffy and John Blake Dillon, and a Protestant, Thomas Davis, i847] FROM EMANCIPATION TO THE FAMINE 309 Free press. as their organ, and their articles often had a revolu- tionary tendency. Other papers were founded about this time, which represent the beginning of a free press in Ireland. Among the advocates of open rebellion, John Mitchel, an Ulster Unitarian, stood first, advocating total sepa- ration from England. The formation of this new party was a great blow to O'Con- nell, as it was founded on principles which he could not possibly approve. He pre- dicted that Revival of this society learning, of rather wild and sanguine young men was certain in the end to bring trouble on its members and on the country. Nev- ertheless, the '' Young Ireland Party " accomplished much lasting benefit. They revived Irish national literature and gave it new life. They also spurred the people on to a study of Irish history, music, and tradition. But they saddened the last days of the great states- man and " Liberator," whose watchwords had always been moderation and legality. Worn out with anxiety and disappointment, full of anguish at the Death of thought of the suffering already threatened by O'Conneu. the famine, O'Connell, in obedience to the orders of his OXONNELL MONUMENT AT GLASNEVIN 3IO IRELAND'S STORY [1847 physician, set out on a journey to Rome to seek re- newed health. He died before reaching his destination, however, passing away at Genoa on May 15, 1847. I^ accordance with his express wish, his heart was taken to Rome, while his body was carried to Ireland, where it was buried in the great cemetery at Glasnevin, his mon- ument being modelled after one of the round towers of Ireland, surmounted by a cross. 304. The Great Famine, 1845-47. O'Connell thus es- caped the misery of beholding the awful tragedy through which Ireland was to pass in the next few years. Fail- ures of the potato crop had happened before on several occasions, and, as the masses of the poorest population lived chiefly on potatoes, they experienced periodical suffering. But in 1845 and 1846, the entire crop failed, and the misery of the country was complete. The worst famine and pestilence known to modern European history raged through Ireland during the next few years. One quarter of the population, which was at that time more than eight millions, died of starvation. No west- Porty- ern country has ever suffered a calamity equal ^®^®^'" to that of the '' Black Forty-Seven," as the year after the famine was called. England did something to relieve the suffering of the people by sending large sums of money and quantities of food ; but these contributions were quite inadequate when divided among the starving millions. 305. Emigration to America. Before the famine, the population of Ireland was nearly nine millions ; to-day, it is less than half that total, having diminished every Decrease of Y^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ century, something that population, i^as happened in no other European country, and probably in no other country in the world. Statis- tics show that Ireland has the fewest marriages and 1848] FROM EMANCIPATION TO THE FAMINE 311 the smallest families in Europe, a fact accounted for by the widespread misery of its inhabitants. But the small families alone were not the cause of the startling diminution of population. A more powerful cause lay in another direction. The people of Ireland, after a century and a half of suffering and oppression in their own land, had at last found a way of escape. Tens and hundreds of thousands fled across the ocean 'to America, where they could hope to escape starvatiori, find fair opportunities, and receive protection from the laws. The immigration returns of the United States show in a remarkable way the suddenness and extent of this new flood of life from Ireland. In 1824, only seven thousand people of foreio^n birth entered the „ ^ ^ ^ ° Great num- United States. The numbers then began to bers leave rise steadily, and in ten years reached about 60,000 or 70,000 yearly, a figure which was maintained until about 1844, on the eve of the Irish famine. By 1854, the number of immigrants to the United States had risen to more than 425,000 yearly. Almost all of these came from Ireland. Taking the same question from the other side, we find that in fifty years after the famine 4,000,000 emigrants left Ireland, the vast major- ity of them for the United States. Of this movement, T. W. Russell, M. P., who held ofiice in Lord Salisbury's last ministry, has written : *' These exiles became American citizens. They nursed the Fenian rebellion, which threw England into a panic ; they financed the Land League, and changed the very basis of that feudal land system which so long cursed the country ; they hatched dynamite conspiracies, and paid England back, at least in part, for the sufferings of their fathers and their friends. But they have done far more, — they prevented in the past, and they prevent 312 IRELAND'S STORY [1848 to-day (1903), any understanding between England and the United States — such an understanding as Mr. Chamberlain thinks would dominate and control the world. Yes, beyond all doubt, England has paid dearly for the luxury of Irish landlordism — for this is what it all means — and she will continue to pay until she rids herself of the incubus." SUMMARY The first step in the resurrection of Ireland after many centuries of increasing misery was Catholic emancipation in 1829. The introduction of the National School System followed in 183 1. The Whately Commission was appointed to investigate the conditions of extreme poverty caused by the enormous increase of population during the last half cen- tury, and by the legal destruction of trade and industry. As a result, the first Poor Law Act was passed in 1838. The same year, a struggle over the injustice of the tithe system brought about a transfer of the tithes from tenant to landlord. The movement for the repeal of the Act of Union, headed by O'Connell, ended in failure, in 1843. The " Young Ireland Party," revolutionary in character, was then formed. O'Con- nell died during the " Black Forty-Seven," the year of the famine. The famine was followed by a great and steady tide of emigration to America. Between 1850 and 1900, upwards of 4,000,000 emigrants left Ireland, mostly for America. chaptp:r XXIX THE FENIANS AND DISESTABLISHMENT 1848-1869 English Sovereign: Victoria, 1837-1901 306. Free trade. The lesson taught by the famine made a strong impression on the EngHsh government. Sir Robert Peel was at this time prime minister, and he immediately changed England's policy to- v^ard Ireland by open- ing the latter to free trade through the repeal of the Corn Laws, which removed the imj)ort duty on wheat. The result was that wheat could be imported corn Laws into Ireland "P«^^«^- free of duty from any country on the conti- nent, or from Amer- ica, thus lowering the price of bread for the poor inhabitants of Ireland. On the other hand, the repeal of the Corn Laws was a blow to the Irish farmer because he had formerly been able to send his wheat and SIR ROBERT PEEL 1788-1850 314 IRELAND'S STORY [1849 oats to England free of duty, while all other countries were compelled to pay a heavy import duty on wheat. As Ireland is so largely agricultural, it is probable that the permanent loss more than counterbalanced the tem- porary gain. 307. Condition of the Irish landlords. The evils of the famine fell very heavily on the landlord class. The farmers whose crops failed, and the laborers who could -find no employment, were able to seek new for- Reduced tunes in America, but no such opportunity was to poverty. Qpgn to the landlords, who were reduced to bankruptcy by the complete inability of their tenants to pay rent for several years in succession. They were unfitted by training and tradition for the hard work of an emigrant's life, which would have meant sickness and misery to their wives and daughters. They were, per- haps, more to be pitied than any other class in Ireland, although the system of things which they represented and supported was the cause of most of the suffering of the people, and of the famine itself. 308. Encumbered Estates Court Act, 1849. The British go^)•ernment saw that the poverty of the land- lords affected the whole country very unfavorably, be- cause, lacking money, they were unable to introduce Need of proper improvements on their estates, to re- capitai. claim new land, or to fertilize the old. Eng- lish statesmen devised a plan which they hoped would introduce capital. This plan was embodied in the En- cumbered Estates Court Act, a law passed July 28, 1849, which provided for the establishment of a court empowered to examine the affairs of heavily indebted Irish landlords whose estates were encumbered by mort- gages and loans, which consumed all the money that might have gone for improvements. The courts were i849] THE FENIANS AND DISESTABLISHMENT 315 empowered to order the sale of such estates to the value of ^20,000,000. It was hoped that the Irish estates thus sold would be bought by wealthy Englishmen, who would introduce into Ireland the scientific farming and system- atic improvements practised on English estates, and thus enrich the whole country, but these hopes were not realized. The estates sold under the Encumbered Estates Act were bought by Irishmen who had made money in trade. In general they paid prices too low to cover the debts and mortgages, and considered their new land merely as an investment, trying to extract the greatest possible profit from it. Thus the farmers were really worse off than before. 309. Increase of rents. The new owners gained the idea that rents might profitably be increased, and, in renewing the yearly leases, they in many cases demanded twice or three times as much rent as before. The new landlords further believed themselves entitled to claim the ownership of all improvements previously made by the tenants, and to exact a higher rent on account of these improvements. Tenants who were not willing to pay these exactions were mercilessly turned out of the homes which they themselves had made, to beg or starve. As in former days, this injustice was met by the for- mation of secret societies which soon drifted into crime. The new movement was called "Ribbonism," and its adherents were called " Ribbonmen." They ..Rnj^on- held secret meetings, where cases of extreme ^^m." injustice were discussed, and where summary punishment was decreed against the perpetrators. Landlords and their agents were murdered in solitary places, and a sys- tem of organized terrorism was created. The English Parliament, instead of going to the root of the evil, which 3l6 IRELAND'S STORY [1850 lay in the unjust land laws and the insecurity of the tenant, merely tried to destroy the symptoms by passing a new Coercion Act, which gave the magistrates special power to act against the secret societies. Parliament, in fact, took the side of the landlords, as was only to be expected when it is remembered that both houses of parliament were largely drawn from the landlord class. The English people as a whole knew nothing about Ire- land and her condition, and it was only after their atten- tion had been drawn to Ireland by years of agitation and crime, that they finally awakened to the truth and real-' ized that reparation must be made. The responsibility for the condition of Ireland during most of the nine- teenth century rests with the English landlords in par- liament, rather than with the English people. 310. The ''Tenants' League," 1850. In 1850, a more concerted movement to remedy the evils of the land system began with the formation of the Tenants' League, which spread from north to south and included Catholics Its and Prptestants ahke. Its object was to obtain demands. ^ redress of grievances for the tenants by law- ful means. This league drew up a very moderate pro- gramme of demands, which included the following points : — 1. A fair valuation of the rent to be paid by the tenant to the landlord. 2. Security from eviction so long as rent was regularly paid. 3. The right of a tenant to sell his interest in the land, representing the value of the improvements he had made, to the highest bidder. 4. An arrangement of the question of arrears of rent. The Tenants' League, however, was not destined to accomplish the reforms at which it aimed. Dissensions 1854] THE FENIANS AND DISESTABLISHMENT 317 between the followers of different churches was one of the main causes of weakness, and the league presently passed out of existence, leaving nothing tangible behind it. Thirty years more were to elapse before its aims were realized. 311. England's attitude towards Catholicism. It was still the general opinion in England that most of the evils of Ireland could be traced to the Catholic Church, and there was more proselytizing by the various Protest- ant bodies than at any former time. They declared that Catholicism was only a habit, the result of mental igno- rance and indolence, and that Ireland could soon be con- verted. It is easy to imagine the indignation aroused among sincere Catholics by this attitude, and the general resentment which was felt toward the new converts. The result was that Ireland became more truly and pro- foundly Catholic than before. 312. Demand for church reform. The question of the disestablishment of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ireland now began to be agitated. It will be remem- bered that, owing to the church policy of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Queen Elizabeth, a Protestant Church had been imposed on Ireland as a State Church, with the sovereign of England as its head, and supported by tithes drawn from the whole people, although hardly a fifth of the nation ever belonged to this church. Fail- ure to attend its services was for a long period punished by fines, and membership in it was indispensable to the holding of any state office. At first the popular demand in Ireland was limited to the repeal of the Ecclesiastical Titles Act, and the appropriation of the extensive re- venues of the State Church in Ireland to useful national purposes. But neither of these demands was obtained until after some years England was thoroughly awakened 3l8 IRELAND'S STORY [1858 to a realization of the state of affairs in Ireland by the Fenian Rebellion. 313. The Fenians. The first step toward the forma- tion of the Fenian movement was taken in 1858, when Societies Stephens and O'Mahony, its two principal lead- in^Amer^ ^^^' began organized agitation among the secret ica. societies of Ireland and America. It is inter- esting to remember that the name Fenian was adopted from the National Militia, or Fiana Eirean, of the days of Find, son of Cumal, father of Ossin. (See section 38.) The stronghold of the organization was in the United States among the tens of thousands of Irishmen who had keenly felt the injustice suffered by Ireland, and in whose memories the horrors of the ** Black Forty- Seven " still loomed large. Then came the Civil War in America, from 1861 to 1865, in which many Irishmen fought, and which strengthened in them the instinct of liberty. The Fenian body soon became formidable. Its treasury contained not less than $400,000. 314. Opposition of the Catholic Church. In Ire- land, the Catholic Church, adhering to its traditions of civil order, strongly opposed the Fenian movement, as it had, in times past, opposed so many of the secret socie- ties. In Dr. Cullen, leader of the Catholic party, Ste- phens met a determined opponent. The Fenian Society was condemned by the Church, and the Sacrament was Country refused to its members. For a time, what Ste- versus phens called **the struggle between Country Cullenism. , ^ ^ . „ ^* , .,, , .^, ^ and Cullenism was very bitter, and neither side gained the advantage. But in 1861, an event took place which turned the balance of popular feeling in the direction of Fenianism. McManus, one of the leaders of the Young Ireland Society of 1848, died at San Fran- cisco, and it was decided to bring his body to Ireland, 1865] THE FENIANS AND DISESTABLISHMENT 319 and bury it at Glasnevin. This was just what Stephens needed to arouse popular feeling — the body of a dead rebel receiving the honors of a national funeral. Great preparations had been made for the ceremony, when Cardinal Cullen brought matters to a climax by forbid- ding the religious offices for the dead man. Stephens retaliated by carrying out the funeral on a great scale without the sanction of the Church, and his cause gained many adherents and much popularity. 315. Tendency toward rebellion. The government was kept informed of what was going on by spies, who were numerous in the Fenian ranks, as in the days of Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen. (See section 267.) The gravity of the movement was not realized, however, and might have been misunderstood for some time longer, but for three incidents of special character, (i) During 1861 and 1862, there had been insignificant outbreaks in the south of Ireland, and many schemes had been discussed in America, though no conceijted military action had been taken; (2) O'Mahony held a large convention in Chicago, in 1863, to plan a more ex- tensive agitation in Ireland ; and (3) in the same month, Stephens started a newspaper in Dublin, called The "Irish the ''Irish People." It attacked the constitu- ^«°p^«-" tional methods of " The Nation " (see section 303), and openly counselled rebellion. 316. Arrest of Conspirators. The government did nothing, however, until 1865, when a letter from Ste- phens was discovered, which contained definite plans of rebellion, drawn up by the leaders. A descent was imme- diately made on the office of the " Irish People," and the leaders there arrested. For two months Stephens Stephens managed to elude the police, though escapes, all the time in a house near Dublin. He was finally 320 IRELAND'S STORY [1865 captured and imprisoned in Richmond jail, from which he escaped ten days later, through the help of some of the warders, who were Fenians. He went to France, and later to America. The other prisoners, of whom John O'Leary and O' Donovan were the ablest, were harshly treated, and most of them were convicted and condemned to penal servitude. 317. End of the Fenian movement. Great joy was manifested at the escape of Stephens, and universal indignation was felt over the severe treatment of his associates. The government, already alarmed by the tone of popular feeling, was further startled at the rescue of two Fenian prisoners, by an armed body of twenty men. This was followed by the attempt of other mem- bers of the Fenian body to blow up Clerkenwell jail, where one of the conspirators was imprisoned. The ex- plosion killed twelve, and injured a hundred and twenty. England England was stricken by a panic, and a cry for alarmed. vengeance against this dangerous spirit went forth. So far as war measures and armed uprisings were concerned, the Fenians altogether failed, owing to the lack of thorough organization and skilled leadership. But these wild outbursts of passion showed the depth of national feeling from which they sprung, and roused the English government to the realization of the fact that it was face to face with a serious danger. By 1868, the violent phase of Fenianism was over, but the hatred of oppression and injustice remained. 318. The awakening of England. A change had come over the parliament of England since the begin- ning of the century. Its English members had ceased to be representative only of the landlord class. The extension of the franchise to the artisans and farm laborers had made it far more truly a national body. i867] THE FENIANS AND DISESTABLISHMENT 321 William Ewart Gladstone was in the ascendant, and was infusing into English policy the principles of Gladstone humanity and justice. An added moral element ^^ Bright. was given to his ministry ]py the great Quaker, John Bright, who struck the key-note of a new policy toward Ireland, in a speech at Limerick, in 1867. " Come," he said, " let us to-night make a new treaty. On England's part let it stand for justice ; on the part of Ireland let there be forgiveness." Gladstone had not at this time turned his mind to the consideration of Irish problems, ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL IN 1817 Begun by John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin, in 1190. The square tower was built in 1370 and the spire in 1740 but he was forced to do this by the Clerkenwell explo- sion, which resounded in the ears of the English Parlia- ment. At last the genius of this great statesman was aroused, and he began the splendid policy of reparation and reconciliation, which has been emulated by successive English governments up to the present day. At no 322 IRELAND'S STORY [1869 time, however, did Gladstone or his successors fully sym- pathize with the character or understand the needs of Ireland, and their constructive policy was interrupted by Crimes Acts and Coercion ^cts. But the statesmen of England recognized the fact that Ireland had real griev- ances, and that they must be redressed. 319. Disestablishment of the Irish Church, 1869. Gladstone saw that the position of the Protestant Episco- pal Church in Ireland was one of extreme injustice toward the whole nation, and, on the eve of the general election of 1868, declared his intention to disestablish and disendow this church. He was returned to power at the head of a strong and united Liberal party, and introduced his bill dealing with the Irish Church. The fight over the bill was long and fierce, but Gladstone finally won, and the " Act for the Disestablishment of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ireland " was tri- umphantly passed in. 1869. It was provided by this Act that the disestablished church should retain all ecclesiastical buildings in its possession, including Saint Patrick's Cathedral and Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin. The financial inter- TheSusten- ^^ts of the clergy were protected, and a Susten- tationFund. tation Fund was established to provide the in- come which had hitherto been drawn from tithes. This fund was a sum equal to fourteen times the yearly income of the Church of Ireland. A representative body, called the Synod of the Church of Ireland, was established to govern the Protestant Episcopal Church. At the same time, the Regium Donum, a grant to the Presbyterians of Ireland, and the allowance to the Catholic Training College at Maynooth, were placed on a similar founda- tion to the Irish Church Sustentation Fund. THE FENIANS AND DISESTABLISHMENT 323 SUMMARY Free trade was granted to Ireland, in the year following the famine, by the gradual repeal of the Corn Laws. The Encumbered Estates Court Act, which was passed in 1849 to provide for the compulsory sale of the property of bankrupt landlords, and so bring capital into the country, failed in its aim. Rents increased and " Ribboriism " sprang up. The Tenants' League, formed in 1850, would doubtless have se- cured reform had its influence not been weakened by sec- tarian dissension. Discontent developed into the Fenian uprising of 1865-68, which was ended by the imprisonment of its leaders. The Fenian rebellion served to awaken Eng- land to an active consideration of Ireland's wrongs, and Mr. Gladstone took his first step towards redressing these wrongs by passing the " Act for the Disestablishment of the Protest- ant Episcopal Church in Ireland," in 1869. CHAPTER XXX THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 1869-1903 English Sovereigns: Victoria, 183 7-1 901 Edward VII, 1901 320. Principle of Land Purchase. We have now come to a consideration of the last two acts of reparation to Ireland : the restoration of the land to the people, as the result of the agrarian revolution, and the first steps toward legislative independence. It will be remembered that in the beginning, under the rule of the tribal chiefs, Land the land belonged to the people, and was owneoy safeguarded for them. When Norman infiu- the people, ence increased, this tribal system was slowly but completely changed, and by means of confiscations, the land gradually became the absolute property of the landlord, while the tribal rights of the people were destroyed. With the passage of the Church Disestablishment Act, 1869 (see section 319), a new principle was introduced, which was to prove the salvation of the peasantry of Ire- land. This was the principle of Land Purchase under which the estate of an unsuccessful or bankrupt landlord Peasants ^^^ ^*^^^' "^^ ^° ^ ^^^^ landlord, but to the ten- buy back ants of the estate. The Eno"lish orovernment their laad. advanced the full price to the landlord, and the tenants gradually repaid the English government by instalments spread over a number of years. Thus the i879] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 325 Irish people were given the first opportunity to buy back the land of which they had been deprived, by force or fraud in former centuries, though in most cases the instalments were spread out over so long a period that they could hope for entire freedom only for their grand- children. But more than six thousand tenants purchased their farms under the Act of 1869. 321. The Land League, 1879. It must not be sup- posed that the land question was voluntarily settled by the English government without any pressure from Ireland. Exactly the contrary is the truth. The people of Ire- land were encouraged by the Church Disestablishment Act, which righted one of their wrongs, to seek redress for another. The question of the land was now the gravest which remained to be solved. It involved the right to work, the right to earn food for one's family, the right to possess a home. A ferment of agitation gradually spread through the country which culminated in the formation of the Land League in 1879. The in- spirer of this movement was Michael Davitt, bat it owed much of its success to the commanding genius of Charles Stewart Parnell. The Land League Stewart meant the organizing of a nation in defence of its rights, and was far more effective than any armed rebellion. Its three immediate objects were Fair Rent, Fixed Hold, and Free Sale. CHARLES STEWART PARNELL 1846- I 89 I 326 IRELAND'S STORY [1879 By Fair Rent, it was meant that the rent to be paid by a tenant should not be fixed arbitrarily by a grasping landlord, but should be lustly decided by a Fair Rent. ' . . , , , , • 1 • court, after examining the land and judging of its extent and fertility. Fixed Hold meant that the tenant should be entitled to hold his farm in Fixed Hold. . . , ^ ^ . . security without fear of eviction or extortion, so long as he paid the fair rent decided on by the court. Free Sale meant that the tenant was entitled to sell his interest in his farm to a new tenant, that Free Sale. interest representing the capital he had invested in improving the farm, in fencing, draining, clearing, and building. The Land League represented the organized demand for these things ; and every detail of the question was made thoroughly clear to the peasants of every part of Ireland, at great public meetings, addressed by Parnell and his lieutenants. At first, Parnell had greatly doubted whether the Irish people would take up the land ques- tion in a serious way. " Do you think," he asked one of the older patriots, "that the Irish people will take part in an agitation for land reform .? " "I think," replied the patriot, " that to settle the land question, the Irish people would go to the gates of hell." From Ireland, the agitation spread to the United States. An extensive organization was there formed, which set itself the task of providing the "sinews of war." A parliamentary fund was collected, and Parnell was soon in a position to provide for his army Parliament- of parliamentary followers, who were thus able arypary. ^^ leave their other occupations and devote themselves wholly to the work of reform. Parnell com- manded a parliamentary party of eighty-six members, and never was a party so well led and so finely disciplined. i88i] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 327 Following the example set by Joseph Biggar, of making long speeches and raising technical obstacles, Parnell perfected the system of parliamentary obstruction. He made it impossible for the English Parliament to carry on its work before it had done justice to Ireland. 322. Gladstone's Land Bill, 1881. Meanwhile, the political situation was rapidly changing in England. The Conservative government fell, and Gladstone was returned to power, in 1880, as the head of a strong Lib- eral government. The Land League agitation had pene- trated to every part of Ireland, and had aroused such strong feelings against extortion and injustice that acts of violence and outrage were frequent. Glad- stone proclaimed the Land League an unlawful League] body, and its leaders, including Parnell, were arrested and thrown into prison. Gladstone determined, however, to settle the question of the land as he had settled the question of the church in 1869. He therefore drew up the famous Land Bill of 1 88 1, which secured to the Irish people the three ob- jects that had been agi- tated for thirty Land Court years: Fair Rent, established. Fixed Hold, and Free Sale. A Land Court was estab- lished, with power to hold sessions in every part of Ireland, to fix fair rents, which were thenceforth called judicial rents, and to decide on the value of improve- ments made by a tenant on his farm, in order to secure WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE 1809-1898 328 IRELAND'S STORY [1881 him in the enjoyment of these improvements. This was a splendid measure, and the good it has done is incalculable. But many evils had survived from the past, and were destined long to survive. A series of crops, almost as bad as in the famine years, had reduced the tenants to dire poverty, and often to starvation. Yet the landlords insisted on exacting the full arrears of rent, which they had arbitrarily imposed before the days of the Land Court. The consequence was that acts of violence in- creased, carried on chiefly by secret societies, such as the "Moon-Lighters" and the '' Invincibles." Gladstone grew disgusted with the attempt to rule Ireland by force and coercion, and came to an agreement with Parnell, then in Kilmainham jail, under which he was to receive Parnell's support in parliament, in return for measures beneficial to Ireland. 323. The Phoenix Park murders, 1882. Earl Spen- cer came to Ireland as lord lieutenant, bringing Lord Frederick Cavendish, son of the Duke of Devonshire, as his Chief Secretary. On May 6, 1882, the day of Lord Spencer's state entry into Dublin, Lord Frederick was walking in Phoenix Park with Thomas Burke, the per- manent Under Secretary for Irish affairs. Burke was intensely unpopular, as representing the worst elements of the tyrannous system which centred at Dublin Castle. He and Lord Frederick were surrounded by a band of the " Invincibles," attacked, and silently stabbed to death, and their assassins immediately disappeared. The United Kingdom was horror-struck at the news, and coercion took the place of conciliation. But Lord Spen- cer and Mr. Gladstone were soon converted to Home Rule for Ireland, that is, the reestablishment of an inde- pendent Irish Parliament. i886] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 329 324. The first Land Purchase Act, 1885. Glad- stone's ministry fell from power in 1885, and Lord Salis- bury and the Conservatives returned to office. Their policy was marked by two principles : first, steady oppo- sition to the ao^itation of the Land Leagfue and ^^ ...w.. v.^ ^..^ ^^..-^ ^^^^, Conserva- the lawlessness which followed in its wake; tiveprin- and second, an organized, methodical, and en- ^^^^^^- lightened attempt to remove the causes of Irish poverty and misery, one by one. They passed the first Land Purohase Act in 1885, a measure to enable the tenants to buy their farms from the landlords, and so to be rid of the exactions and the extortions of rent, once and forever. The English government placed a sum of ^25,000,000 in cash at the disposal of the Irish farmers, who could borrow as much as they required to buy their farms at once. They were to repay the government by instalments spread out over forty-nine years, at the end of which time they would be absolute owners of the soil. Several thousand more tenants became owners, and reduced the amount they had to pay yearly by about one third. This measure has worked admirably, as we shall presently see, and the sense of security gained by the farmers has already begun to call forth the qualities of thrift, industry, and providence, which the former con- ditions of land tenure in Ireland had done everything to destroy. The Conservative ministry at the same time seriously considered the advisability of giving Ireland Home Rule and restoring the National Parliament, and the question was discussed with Parnell. Lord Salisbury's govern- ment fell, however, and a new general election brought Gladstone back to power. 326. Failure of Gladstone's Home Rule Bill, 1886. When parliament reassembled, the Liberal party had 330 IRELAND'S STORY [1886 only a small majority over the Conservatives. Parnell had his strong party of eighty-six Irish Nationalists, and thus held the balance of power. By joining forces with the Conservatives and voting against Gladstone, he could bring about the fall of his ministry. Gladstone faced the situation and decided to bring in the Home Rule Bill, forming a parliamentary alliance, for the purpose, with ^. . . . Parnell. This brought about the famous split Division m ^ the Liberal in the Liberal party, and the formation of the ^" ^" independent party called the Liberal Unionists, who, though Liberals, opposed Gladstone's policy, and voted to maintain the Union between England and Ire- land. The division on the Home Rule Bill was taken in June, 1886, and Mr. Gladstone's measure was lost by thirty votes. The Liberal ministry fell, and Lord Salis- bury returned to power. 326. Balfour's Irish policy. Arthur James Balfour became Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1887. In this post he played two widely different roles : first, as the oppo- nent of the Irish party in the House of Commons, he was cool, polite, satirical, and very determined ; second, in Ireland itself, he sincerely and effectively studied the wants of the Irish people and set himself to devise reme- second dies to meet them. The second Land Purchase Pwchase ^'^^^ ^^^ passed in 1888, by which a second Bill, 1888. sum of ^25,000,000 was put at the disposal of Irish tenants who wished to purchase their farms. Mr. Balfour also turned his attention to what are called the Congested " congested districts " in the west of Ireland, distiicts. -pj^g condition in these districts has been well described by T. W. Russell, one of the most gifted of the Liberal Unionists : " A great part of the crowded popu- lation of the western seaboard live subject to the most shocking conditions. The land is in many places hardly i887] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 33 1 worth cultivating. The riches of the sea are not for these poor people ; they have no boats, no capital. The skill of the fisherman has ceased to be developed ; and even were the fish caught, the market does not exist, ARTHUR J. BALFOUR 1848- i. e. there are no means of transit thereto. StruggUng for a wretched existence upon these arid patches of soil, growing potatoes and little else, feeding a pig and rearing a scarecrow of a calf — this is the method by which thousands of human beings drag out a miserable existence." Balfour set himself to remedy this by extending a 332 IRELAND'S STORY [1891 system of railways through the " congested districts," obtaining a grant of seven million dollars from parliament for that purpose. In 1891, Balfour went very Third Land r r ^ j Purchase much further. He had been convinced by this Bill, 1891. ^jj^g^ ^^^ jjg^^ convinced his party, that in land purchase lay the solution of the Irish question. He obtained a new advance from parliament, this time for ;^ 1 70,000,000, to be applied to the purchase of farms by the farmers. He also formed the " Congested Districts Board," which was " charged with the duty of purchas- ing land under the Purchase Acts for the purpose of enlarging and consolidating farms, of improving the breed of horses, cattle, and poultry, aiding the fishing industry by erecting piers and boat-slips, by the supply of boats and fish-curing stations, and of developing agri- culture and other industry." Thus a constructive period gradually replaced the work of confiscation which England had carried on in Ireland during centuries. 327. Failure of the Second Home Rule Bill, 1893. The next few years saw the division of the Irish party, the death of Parnell, and the introduction of Gladstone's Second Home Rule Bill. In one respect it differed widely from the former bill. Gladstone had previously proposed to reestablish the National Parliament in Ire- land, and to withdraw the Irish members from the Eng- lish Parliament. He now proposed to retain eighty of the Irish members in the English Parliament, after founding a separate National Parliament in Dublin. It was objected that under this arrangement the people of Ireland would not only govern themselves, but would also have a right to interfere in the affairs of England and Scotland, and on these grounds the measure was rejected by the House of Lords. Gladstone retired from public life, and the Conservatives soon returned to power. 1898] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 333 328. Local government for Ireland, 1898. In the new Conservative government the work so well begun by Balfour was carried on by his brother, Gerald Balfour, the new Chief Secretary. A supplementary Land Pur- chase Act was passed, very important and valuable in itself, but completely overshadowed by the " Local Gov- ernment Act," which was the great achievement of Gerald Balfour's administration. The result of this act qq^^j was practically to establish a local parliament coi"i"is. for every county in Ireland, thirty-two in all, with the title of County Councils. These local parliaments had power to raise taxes for the building of roads and bridges, the support of schools and hospitals, and the protection of the poor under the Poor Laws. Of the thirty-two local parliaments, all but five were strongly Nationalist in constitution. This amounted practically to the reestablishment of tribal government, and was one step more in the restoration of ancient Ireland. This great measure was passed in 1898, practically closing the work of the nineteenth century, which will always be remembered as that in which the regeneration of Ireland was begun. The dawn of the twentieth century was marked by the reunion of the Irish Parliamentary Party after a decade of division. The cultivators of Ireland have for over a generation had an opportunity of buying back their lands by in- stalments. More than six thousand tenants purchased their farms under the Irish Church Act of 1869. The Land Acts of 1870 and 1881 each turned nearly a thou- sand tenants into proprietors. The Land Purchase Act of 1885 extended the same privilege to two thousand more. The Land Purchase Acts of 1891 and 1896 turned into owners of the soil no less than thirty-seven thou- sand former tenants. 334 IRELAND'S STORY [1903 329. Wyndham's Land Purchase Act, 1903. Ar- thur James Balfour became prime minister in 1902, wyndham with George Wyndham, a descendant of Lord becomes Edward Fitzgerald, as Chief Secretary for Secretary. Ireland. He decided to settle the Irish land question once for all, and as far as possible to sweep the Irish landlords out of existence. Parnell had said : " When the Irish landlords are as anxious to go as we are to get rid of them, the land question will be prac- tically solved." Wyndham saw that the time was rapidly approaching when this would be true. Through the operation of Gladstone's Land Courts the rents had Selling- heen twice lowered all over Ireland. A third value of settlement of these rents was approachinsr. It land de- . pendent has long been the custom in Ireland to make upon rent, ^j^^ selling-value of the land depend upon the rent. In general, land is sold for a sum of money equal to the rent for twenty years ; thus, if the rent of a farm were a hundred dollars a year, its selling- value would be two thousand dollars. In Ireland this is expressed by saying that the land is sold at " twenty years' purchase." If the Land Court reduced the rent to seventy-five dol- lars a year, the selling-value of the farm would fall to fifteen hundred dollars, so much sheer loss to the land- lord. The Irish landlords had now seen the value of their property shrink twice under the operation of the Land Courts. A third shrinkage was rapidly approaching. This gave Wyndham his opportunity. His new Land Purchase Bill included two propositions : first, to put at the disposal of the Irish tenants a sum of English money so large that practically every tenant in Ireland could take advantage of it ; and, second, to induce the land- lords to part with their farms by offering them a bonus 1903] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 335 equal to about one eighth of the selling-price of the land. Thus the tenant was able to buy cheap, while the land- lord sold dear, both parties being in an extremely satis- factory position. Wyndham made it possible for the whole nation to buy back the land, and for the first time in history a whole people undertook the work of national redemption on the instalment plan. Wyndham's Bill became law, and came into operation on November i, 1903. 330. The success of Land Purchase. A govern- ment report recently printed sheds a flood of light on the working of Land Purchase during the thirty-four years preceding Wyndham's Act. It is found that, though the land has always been the first care of the purchasing tenants, the houses, both dwelling and farm buildings, have been very materially improved since they became owners of the soil. In all the four provinces, this is the general testimony. New buildings have sprung up, old ones have been repaired. On some estates, where the condition of purchased and non-purchased holdings can be contrasted, it is found that, while the houses on the former have been much improved, on the latter they are in a very neglected state. The middleman has been done away with. Subletting and subdivision are prac- tically extinct. Tenants will no longer sell part of their farms. '* I could well perceive," says one of the English land inspectors, " the love that these people have for their little homes, and how desperate must be their position before parting with them ; and purchase seems to make them cling to them even more than before." Not less favorable is the verdict as to the credit and solvency of the new purchasers. It has increased all around, as is testified to by local bankers and shop-keepers, who are in a position to know best. A very good symptom is the 336 IRELAND'S STORY [1903 fact that these new land-owners are chary of getting into debt, and think twice before they borrow money, even when their credit is good. We can well see that a great moral change must accompany this steady material regeneration. A feeling of safety is everywhere springing up, in place of the " paralyzing insecurity and doubt that prevailed for gen- erations." A group of tenant-purchasers in Roscommon declare that ''since they have got a hold of the land," they have not spared themselves in making improve- ments, which will be their own for all time. A parish Beneiits of pi"iest in Cavan says that " purchase has brought purchase, peace. The people are more industrious, more sober, and more hopeful as to their future prospects." The police say that, before purchase, they found the people troublesome and unruly, but now all is changed, and quietness and order reign instead. The tenant-pur- chasers are full of supreme contentment at their altered situation. A priest in Fermanagh says the people in his parish are more industrious now, while the consump- tion of whiskey has diminished by a third. The evidence of these two ecclesiastics vividly recalls the words put in the mouth of the Irish by Sir R. Kane in 1844 : " We were reckless, ignorant, improvident, drunken, and idle ; we were idle, for we had nothing to do ; we were reckless, for we had no hope ; we were ignorant, for learning was denied us ; we were improvident, for we had no future ; we were drunken, for we sought to forget our misery." 331. The Department of Agriculture. The people, thus gradually restored to possession of their ancestral land, are helped at all points to make good use of their opportunities. Efificient aid is given by the Department of Agriculture, presided over by Sir Horace Plunket, who has been its inspiring genius from the outset. This 1903] THE LAND RESTORED TO THE PEOPLE 337 board seeks to make the best knowledge and experience available for the cultivators of land in every part of Ire- land. It works through a council, which is practically a parliament of agriculture, drawn from every county, by election of members from the County Councils. The board has a million dollars a year to spend on the work of amelioration, and is doing good work year after year. It is supplemented by a Board of Technical Instruction, which has a sum of nearly a million dollars a year at its disposal ; and the two boards are doing all that is possible to make the demoralizing influence of the old system of unjust land laws a thing of the past,' something to be pardoned and forgotten. SUMMARY In the beginning the land of Ireland was owned by the people. As the unjust landlord system grew out of confisca- tion and plantation, the peasantry were gradually reduced to misery and starvation. They were finally saved and enabled to regain their land by the principle of Land Purchase, which meant that the English government advanced money to the tenants to buy their farms, and the latter repaid the money to the government on the instalment plan. The Land League, formed in 1879, took up the land question, demanding Fair Rent, Fixed Hold, and Free Sale, but the agitation it pro- duced was so violent that the league was opposed as unlaw- ful by the government, and its leaders arrested. To Charles Stewart Parnell, at the head of his Irish Nationalist Party in parliament, is due much of the credit of solving the land ques- tion. Gladstone passed a bill in 188 1 granting the "Three F's" — Fair Rent, Fixed Hold, and Free Sale — to the Irish, and everything tended toward conciliation when the Phoenix Park murders in May, 1882, caused a reaction. The first Land Purchase Act was passed in 1885, while Lord Salisbury 333 IRELAND'S STORY [1903 was prime minister. Gladstone introduced a Home Rule Bill in 1886, which was defeated by the Lords. Arthur James Balfour became chief secretary for Ireland in 1887 and secured the second Land Purchase Act in 1888, and the third in 1891. He also passed measures to remedy the evils of the " Congested Districts." A bill granting a system of local government to Ireland through thirty-two County Councils was passed in 1898. Wyndham's Land Purchase Act of 1903 finally settled the land question by providing a sum of money, large enough to permit every peasant to buy his farm, so that the soil of Ireland is once more passing into the possession of the Irish people. CHAPTER XXXI THE IRISH ON THE CONTINENT 332. Irish troops in European armies. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, when the penal laws were instituted, many Irish Catholics left their country and sought a measure of freedom on the continent. Numbers of men of great energy and ability began to enter the service of foreign kings as officers and soldiers, winning distinction and fame. As years went on, and oppression increased in Ireland, the numbers of Irish soldiers on the continent grew larger, so that we can scarcely name a battle of any importance in which they did not figure in a conspicuous manner. And it is worthy of note that the Irish regiment was always found with its face to the foe in the thick of the fight. Macaulay, in writing of the effect of the penal laws, tells how Irish Catholics rose to important military and civil positions in France, Italy, and Spain, in the armies of Frederick the Great and of Maria Theresa ; Irish Cath- olics, who, if they had remained at home, would have been looked down upon by all '* the ignorant and worth- less squireens who had signed the declaration agamst transubstantiation. In his palace at Madrid he [Wall, minister of Ferdinand the Sixth] had the pleasure of being assiduously courted by the ambassador of George the Second, and of bidding defiance in high terms to the ambassador of George the Third. Scattered all over Europe were to be found Irish counts, Irish barons. 340 IRELAND'S STORY Irish Knights of Saint Louis and of Saint Leopold, of the White Eagle and of the Golden Fleece, who, if they had remained in the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of marching regiments or freemen of petty corporations." 333. The Irish in France. Greater numbers of Irish- men have fought in the armies of France, long England's bitterest enemy, than under the flag of any other nation on the continent. After the siege and sur- Alter sur- render of render of Limerick, in 1691, almost the entire Limerick. g^YTison embarked for France, on the advice of Sarsfield, and under the command of Lieutenant- General Sheldon, and there formed the famous Second Brigade. What was known as the First Brigade con- sisted of the three regiments sent the year before to Louis XIV, in exchange for help from France in the cause of James II. But in this exchange the French did not keep faith, for they sent over several very infe- rior regiments composed of young and inexperienced men, while the soldiers returned from Ireland were picked regiments of old and disciplined men under Mountcashel, Daniel O'Brien, eldest son of Lord Clare, and Arthur Dillon. This brigade served with Catinat in Italy, where they distinguished themselves in many fights on the old battle-fields of the world. The Second Brigade, under the command of Sarsfield, took part in the siege of Namur, which surrendered after seven days. Sarsfield, at its head, publicly Sarsfield. • n , , 1 r \ t- ^ r 1 received the thanks of the trench for the great service rendered them, and in the following March was made a field-marshal. But he was not destined to enjoy his honors long, for in July of the same year, 1693, he met his death at the battle of Landen, fi[ghting in the cause of a petty tyrant who refused to tolerate the THE IRISH ON THE CONTINENT 341 Huguenots. Sarsfield's death was made all the more sad and bitter by the realization that he had not sacrificed it in the service of his own country, nor even for a great ideal. As he lay mortally wounded on the battle-field, he is said to have raised his hand wet with his own blood, and to have cried, *' Oh, that this had been for Ireland." During the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1701, the Irish Brigade held an important position in all the great battles, and rendered in the war invaluable service to France. The successful gp^igh defence of Cremona when surprised by Prince succession. Eugene was due to the valiant stand of a small company of Irishmen who held the Po gate of the city against greatly superior numbers. The bravery of the Irish troops was conspicuous at the famous battles of Blen- heim (1704), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709), and Irishmen fought under Berwick at the battle of Almanza. Mahony won victories for the French in Sicily, while at the battle of Fontenoy, in 1745, the greatest victory of France over England since the battle of Hastings, in 1066, the Irish acquitted themselves in such a manner that the English king is said to have exclaimed, " Cursed be the laws which deprive me of such subjects ! " After the French Revolution, during the Consulate and the Empire, the war records of the Irish in France were no less remarkable. Napoleon found two j^^^^^ ^^^^^ generals and five colonels, to say nothing of Napoleon, numerous troops, among the exiles who poured into France after the Irish rebellion of 1798. After the Re- storation most of these men remained true to the fallen Napoleon, but a new line of French-Irish descendants of the men of the Brigade rose into prominence. An Irish count was the last to draw sword for the Bourbons in 342 IRELAND'S STORY 1 791, while an Irish general stood by them to the end in 1830. Among the most distinguished Irish famihes in France during the middle of the last century were the Mac- TheMac- Mahons. They were Irish Catholics who main- Mahons. tained their allegiance to the Stuarts, and thus came to settle in France. The most conspicuous mem- ber of this family, the famous Marshal MacMahon, was MARSHAL MACMAHON ON HORSEBACK 1808-1893 born at Sully (Saone et Loire) in 1808. His father had been made a peer by Charles X, whose personal friend he was. The boy was educated at St. Cyr, and then entered the army and went to Algeria, where he THE IRISH ON THE CONTINENT 343 saw hard service for several years. He had risen to the rank of brigadier-general when the revolution of 1848 broke out, and after that date he was promoted in swift succession : he became general of division in 1852, and was made Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor in the following year ; he was in command of infantry under Bosquet in the Crimea, was made Grand Cross of the Legion and senator for his part in the assault of the Malakoff, and finally commander-in-chief of the forces in Algeria. He won his greatest military honor, however, when in command of the second army corps of the Alps, in 1859, at the battle of Magenta. After the battle he was made Duke of Magenta and marshal of France, by the Emperor Napoleon HI. Two years later, in 1 861, he represented the emperor at the coronation of William HI of Prussia, and in 1864 he became governor-general of Algeria. In 1870, he commanded the army from Chalons to Sedan, and was wounded just in time to be free from the responsibility of the surrender. After the fall of M. Thiers in the spring of 1873, this great Irish- man was elected President of the P'rench, a position which he filled with dignity, force, and tact until June, 1879. The following extract from a lecture by Sir C. G. Duffy, in Melbourne, gives an idea of the position of the Irishmen in France during the presidency of Marshal MacMahon : " In the drawing room of the ^^^^ ^^ President of the French Republic, who is the the French natural head of the exiled families, I met de- scendants of Irish chiefs who took refuge on the conti- nent at the time of the Plantation of Ulster by the first Stuart ; descendants of Irish soldiers who sailed from Limerick with Sarsfield, or a little later with the ' Wild Geese ' [Jacobites] ; of Irish soldiers who shared the fortunes of Charles Edward [the * Young Pretender '] ; 344 IRELAND'S STORY of Irish peers and gentlemen to whom hfe in Ireland without a career became intolerable in the dark era between the fall of Limerick and the rise of Henry Grattan ; and kinsmen of soldiers of a later date, who began life as United Irishmen, and ended as staff offi- cers of Napoleon. Who can measure what was lost to Ireland and the [British] Empire by driving these men and their descendants into the armies and diplomacy of France? All of them except the men of '98 have become so French that they scarce speak any other lan- guage. There is a Saint Patrick's Day dinner in Paris every 17th of March, where the company consists chiefly of military and civil officers of Irish descent, who com- memorate the national apostle, but where the language of the speeches is French, because no other would be generally understood. I reproached a gallant young soldier of this class, whom I met in Paris, with having relinquished the link of a common language with the native soil of his race. 'Monsieur,' he replied proudly, ' when my ancestors left Ireland they would have scorned to accept the language any more than the laws of Eng- land ; they spoke the native Gaelic' " 334. Irish soldiers in Spain and Austria. In 1585, Queen Elizabeth raised a forced levy of 1 500 Irish troops to fight against the Spaniards in the Lowlands. As might be expected, these troops, which were led by Sir Edward Stanley, an English Catholic, took the first opportunity Stanley's to exchange the service of Queen Elizabeth for ^^^^- that of the Catholic king of Spain. Stanley's corps distinguished itself in many battles, and "though young troops, displayed the steadiness of veterans and a spirit of gallantry not surpassed even in that military age." In 1 598, the Irish were at the capture of Orsoy and THE IRISH ON THE CONTINENT 345 the siege of Rhinberg. In 1599, they fought under Cardinal Andrew of Austria, governor of the intheiyth Netherlands. They continued to serve in the '^^^t^y- Netherlands until the peace of 1609 between the States and the Archduke Albert, sharing in the capture of Ostend and Grave, and everywhere fighting with ex- treme bravery. When Charles II of England was an exile on the continent, there were several Irish regiments in the service of Spain and France. One of these was commanded by Richard Grace of Gracefield in Queen's County. Justin McCarthy, Lord Muskerry, afterwards Lord Mountcashel, commanded another regiment. Sir John Darcy led a third. Three times during the eighteenth century, men of Irish race were ambassadors of Spain at the English court. Alexander O'Reilly, afterwards Span- '■In the 18tli ish ambassador at the court of Louis XVI, was century and governor of Cadiz, "It is strange," said Napo- ^^*®'" leon, on his second entry into Vienna in 1809, ''that on each occasion on arriving in the Austrian capital I should find myself in treaty with Count O'Reilly." The dra- goon regiment led by the same Count O'Reilly saved the remnant of the Austrians at Austerlitz. The Blakes, O'Donnells, and Sarsfields were equally famous in Spain. O'Donnell, Duke of Tetuan, was a dominant figure in Spanish politics during the middle of the nineteenth century. 335. Irishmen in Portugal. The O'Neill, Count de Tyrone, recently writing of the Irish in Portugal, says : *' Here also the Irish blood is in great favor since more than two centuries. Among dukes and barons, minis- ters, judges, lawyers, high-reputed officers in the army and navy, everywhere, old Irish names are to be met with and the names of O'Donell, O'Neill, O'Daly, de la 34^ IRELAND'S STORY Poer, Kelly, FitzGerald, O'Meagher, Sarsfield, O'Farrell and many others are repeatedly met with in our history. An O'Neill, Count Santa Monica, was the tutor of the present king, Don Carlos, and the family enjoys a high position at court. The Duchess of Saldanha is a Fitz- Gerald, in fact this little country is a great example of the worth of Irish blood." 336. Other distinguished Irishmen on the conti- nent. A recent writer says : '' Within a century, the great Leinster house of Kavanagh counted in Europe an aulic councillor, a governor of Prague, a field-marshal at Vienna, a field-marshal in Poland, a grand chamber- lain in Saxony, a count of the Holy Roman Empire, a French Conventionist of 1793, Godefroy Cavaignac, co-editor with Armand Carrell and Eugene Cavaignac, sometime dictator in France, and Edward Kavanagh, minister of Portugal. Russia found among the exiles a governor-geaeral of Livonia. Count Thomond was com- mander at Languedoc. Lally was governor at Pondi- cherry. O'Dwyer was commander of Belgrade ; Lacy, of Riga ; Lawless, governor of Majorca." Count Taafe is another of the Irish rulers of nations. Descended from a distinguished Sligo family, he was for years a commanding figure in Austro-Hungarian politics. Count Taafe was also a Knight of the Golden Fleece, a Knight of Malta, and a Knight of St. John. Baron O'Carroll is a rising light of the Austrian diplomatic service. In the Austrian army there are also a Baron O'Brien, a Baron Brady, a Baron McGuire and a Count O'Kelly, as well as many other distinguished officers of Celtic descent. Many Irishmen are counts of the Holy Roman Em- pire. Among these are Count O'Gorman, Count Rus- sell, Count Moore, and Count Cecil-Kearney. In Russia, THE IRISH ON THE CONTINENT 347 the family of General Obrutscheff is descended from the Irish O'Bryans, just as the Odontscheffs are descended from the O'Donnells. It is an interesting subject of speculation, though a melancholy one, to consider what the history of Ireland might have been, had all these men of force and genius been free to use their great powers for the betterment of their native land, instead of spending their lives as exiles among foreign peoples. CHAPTER XXXII THE IRISH IN AMERICA 337. Colonists before the Revolution. About the time of the flight of the earls, 1607 (see section 151), North America began to receive colonists from Europe. It thus happened that at the time of the next great Irish exodus, after the Rebellion of 1641 and the Cromwellian invasion, a new field was opened for the Irish who were driven from their native land. They first came Brought as -^ slaves to as slaves. The merchants of Bristol made ar- rangements with the English government to send Irish men, women, and girls to the sugar plan- tations in the West Indies and to New England. The commissioners of Ireland under the Commonwealth gave these merchants orders directed to the governors of Irish garrisons, who were to deliver to them the prison- ers of war in their keeping. The destitute who were of an age to labor, or, if women, were of marriageable age, were also handed over to them, and further directions were given to all in authority to seize those who had no visible means and deliver them to the agents of the British merchants. On September 14, 1653, Captain John Vernon contracted to supply two hundred and fifty women of the Irish nation above twelve years and under forty-five, also three hundred men above twelve years and under fifty, from the south of Ireland, and to trans- port them into New England. This is only one instance out of many. It is calculated that in four years the English firms of slave-dealers shipped 6400 Irish men THE IRISH IN AMERICA 349 and women, boys and maidens, to the British colonies of North America. The stream of immigration from Ireland, thus begun in slavery, continued under more or less voluntary con- ditions in the years that followed. Largce num- Voluntary bers of Irish Catholics came to Maryland, immigra- where there was more religious liberty than in ^°^" England. We even find the Protestant inhabitants trying to check this immigration by passing an act in 1708 imposing a fine of twenty shillings per head on Irish servants, '' to prevent the importing of too great a num- ber of Irish Papists into the province." This tax was evidently insufficient, for Maryland passed another act in 1 71 7, with even more stringent provisions against ''Irish Papists." Details for the rest of the pre-Revolutionary period are incomplete, but we have certain significant facts which indicate the truth. In the years 1771 and 1772 the number of emigrants from Ireland to Amer- ofimmi- ica amounted to 17,350. Within the first fort- ^^^^^' night of August, 1773, no less than 3500 emigrants from Ireland arrived at Philadelphia. From the beginning of the century the proportion of Irish to all other immi- grants had been very great. In one year, of which we have the record, the numbers were as follows: Irish, 5655 ; English and Welsh, 267; German, 243 ; Scotch, 43. Numbers of Irish emigrants also went to the Caro- linas and Georgia, and it is probable that the proportions were about the same as in Pennsylvania. Very many of them were doubtless disguised by the fact that they had been compelled by law to drop their Celtic family names and to take names like Black and Brown, Smith and Butler, which gave them a Saxon air, though they were of Celtic race. 350 IRELAND'S STORY 338. The Irish in the Revolutionary War. It is in- teresting to remember that the first action in the War „ , of the Revolution was led by an Irishman. On Major ■' John December 14, 1774, four months before the Sullivan. ^^^^ ^^ Concord, a body of armed men, led by Major John Sullivan, stormed the English stronghold of Fort William and Mary at Newcastle, near Portsmouth, N. H. The garrison was captured, the munitions of war taken, and the British flag hauled down. Six months later, the powder captured at Newcastle was used at Bun- ker Hill. Major John Sullivan was the grandson of Major Philip O'Sullivan, one of the defenders of Limerick, who went to France with Sarsfield after the treaty. Three of Major Sullivan's brothers were likewise officers in the Con- tinental army, and later on two of them became governors of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. It is estimated that about one fourth of the American officers in the Revolutionary War were Irish by birth or descent. Among the most famous was Major-General Major- Anthony Wayne, known as Mad Anthony on Anthony account of his reckless valor. Born of Irish Wayne. parents, he entered the army at the age of twenty-nine, and fought in Canada, and at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He led the assault in the desperate attack on Stony Point. General Walter Stewart came to America from Londonderry. ANTHONY WAYNE 1745-1796 THE IRISH IN AMERICA 351 He entered the army when very young, and so great was his military ability that he was a colonel other at twenty-one, being promoted over the heads irishmen, of many native American officers several years his senior. General William Thompson was also a native of the north of Ireland. He accompanied Montgomery in his expedition to Quebec, and commanded the Amer- ican forces at the battle of Trois Rivieres in Canada, in June, 1776. Major-General Knox was of Irish parentage, and served with great distinction as an artillery officer during the whole of the Revolutionary War. He was Secretary of War and of the Navy under Washington until 1794. General William Irvine was born in the north of Ireland. He raised, commanded, and equipped a regiment of the Pennsylvania line, and was intrusted with the defence of the northwestern frontier. Later on he entered Congress. General Edward Hand, Wash- ington's adjutant-general, was also of Irish descent. Brigadier-General Stephen Moylan, a native of the south of Ireland and brother of the Catholic Bishop of Cork, was one of Washington's most distinguished cavalry officers. General Richard Montgomery, the first com- mander of the Continental army to fall in battle, was born in County Donegal at Conroy Castle near Raphoe. After Montgomery's death at Quebec, John Sullivan became general of the northern division of the Conti- nental army, and served with great distinction during the rest of the campaign. General John Stark, whose " Irish brogue " Daniel Webster loved to imitate, came from one of the older Irish families of New Hampshire. He fought at Bunker Hill, Trenton, Princeton, and Ben- nington, where he gained great renown. Colonel Richard Butler, who afterwards rose to the rank of major-general, was descended from the Leinster Ormonds. He and 352 IRELAND'S STORY two brothers greatly distinguished themselves at Stony Point and Saratoga. John Barry, the first commodore of the American navy, was born in County Wexford. Besides these distinguished men, there were many soldiers of Irish birth or descent in the forces of the Their infiu- French allies, as for example, Count Arthur Americ^^ Dillon, who had brought with him his own Irish Revolution, regiment which he had commanded in France. The Irish element in the rank and file of the American army was even stronger. In the English Parliamentary Commission which was appointed to investigate the numerous failures of the British generals in America, Edmund Burke raised the question of the nationality of the American troops. He was told that General Lee had declared that, " half the rebel Continental army were from Ireland." Luke Gardiner gave similar evidence in the Dublin Parliament. Speaking in April, 1784, on Irish commerce, he is reported to have said : " America was lost by Irish emigrants. I am assured, from the best authority, the major part of the American army was composed of Irish, and that the Irish language was as commonly spoken in the American ranks as English. I am also informed it was their valor that determined the contest, so that England had America detached from her by force of Irish emigrants." 339. The Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick. Some years before the outbreak of the war, the Irish settlers in America formed " The Society of the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick," in which all differences of religion and politics were forgotten. The society met at Philadel- phia, then the chief city of the Thirteen Colonies, and consisted of men distinguished in the social and political life of the times. This society naturally held very de- cided views on the struggle for American independence. THE IRISH IN AMERICA 353 Washington spoke of it as " distinguished for the firm adherence of its members to the glorious cause „^ , ° . Their work in which we are involved." Many of its mem- for inde- bers helped to form the first troop of Penn- p®^'^®^*'®- sylvania cavalry, to which Washington paid a warm tribute for its noble example of discipline and subordi- nation, its spirit and its bravery. To this society belonged most of the distinguished generals whose names have been enumerated. Brigadier-General Stephen Moylan was the first president of the '' Friendly Sons." When the Bank of Pennsylvania was founded to supply funds for the support of the American army, nearly one third of the subscribers, and more than one third of the capital, were supplied by the '' Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick," who contributed ;^5 17,500, out of a total of ;^ 1, 500,000. After the war was over, the society met on December 17, 1781, and ** His Excellency, General Washington, was unanimously adopted a member of the society." To this famous society many of the most distinguished Irish-Americans have since belonged, and belong to-day. 340. Emigration before the famine. The Napoleonic wars only checked emigration to America. After the battle of Waterloo, the tide began to flow again. It is hard to get correct figures at first, since great numbers of Irish men and women were recorded simply as having come from the British Isles, and their Irish origin was thus obscured. It is estimated that in the decade begin- ning with 1820, more than 27,000 Irish emigrants came to the United States ; in the following decade the num- bers were about 30,000. Between 1840 and 1850, the number rose to 162,000, the great increase being due to the migration caused by the famine. From 1847 to 1854 inclusive, the arrivals from Ireland averaged 150,000 354 IRELAND'S STORY a year, and up to 1872, the total of Irish emigrants to the United States exceeded 3,000,000. It is probable that there are from 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 people of Irish birth or descent in the United States to-day. 341. After the famine. The Irish men and women who escaped from their famine-stricken country after the " Black Forty-Seven" were, for the most part, at the end of their resources. So long as they had any money they had clung to their old homes, and they had finally reached the shores of America by a supreme effort which left them without means to obtain favorable conditions in their new home. As a consequence, they remained largely in the eastern cities, unable to penetrate into the west, or to obtain farms and form settlements in the country. The effect of city life, in crowded tenements, has been extremely disadvantageous, and is felt in a marked degree to the present day. 342. Irish in the Civil War. When the Civil War between the North and South broke out, in April, 1 86 1, the Irish in America, with the bitterness of their forced exile still in their hearts, were considering the possibility of a new armed insurrection against England. They saw in the war an opportunity for military train- ing, and numbers of them joined the armies of the North with this aim in view. It is computed that not less than 170,000 Irishmen were enrolled in the Northern army; and they fought in Virginia, in Georgia, and the Caro- linas with the same valor and fire that the Irish of the Revolutionary period had shown on the battle-fields of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. A single instance from an English historian must suffice to illus- trate this valor. The Hon. Francis Lawley writes : "To the Irish division commanded by General Meagher was principally committed the desperate task of bursting THE IRISH IN AMERICA 355 out of the town of Fredericksburg, and forming under the withering fire of the Confederate batteries, AtFreder- toattack Marye's Heights, lowering immediately icksturg. in their front. Never at Fontenoy, at Albuera, or at Waterloo, was more undoubted courage displayed by the sons of Erin than during those six frantic dashes which they directed against the almost impregnable position of their foe. . . . The bodies, which lie in dense masses within forty yards of the muzzles of Colonel Walton's guns are the best evidence of what manner of men they were who pressed on to death with the daunt- lessness of a race which has gained glory on a thousand battle-fields." General Thomas Francis Meagher, the organizer of the Irish Brigade, was born in Waterford, in 1823. He took part in Smith O'Brien's rising, and was arrested General and condemned to death. His sentence was Meagher, commuted to transportation to Van Dieman's Land, whence he escaped in 1852, and came to America. Gen- eral Meagher was only one among many of the distin- guished Irishmen in the ranks of the Federal army. 343. The Fenian movement and its aftermath. Im- mediately after the close of the War of the Rebellion came the Fenian rising in Ireland. Many of its agents were Americans, who had learned military science in the war. The movement failed as a political enterprise, but left very important literary results, not only in Ireland, but also in America. Several of the leaders who were arrested were sent as convicts to Australia, as the men of '48, like John Mitchel and Meagher, had been before them. The most noteworthy of these political exiles was John Boyle O'Reilly, who was only twenty-two at the time of the Fenian rising. He escaped from Australia in 356 IRELAND'S STORY February, 1869, and after many perilous and dramatic John Boyle adventures, came to America, where he won O'Reilly. ^ reputation as an orator and writer of great distinction. Among his verses is a poem on Western Australia, which records the impression made on him by the land of his exile : — " Nation of sun and sin, Thy flowers and crimes are red, And thy heart is sore within While the glory crowns thy head. Land of the songless birds, What was thine ancient crime, Burning through lapse of time Like a prophet's cursing words ? " For many years O'Reilly was connected with the " Bos- ton Pilot," which, with the "Irish World," represented the most influential and best written section of the Irish- American press. As many of the writers in these papers were recent political exiles, it is only natural that their tone was militant. His place on the " Boston Pilot " has been taken by another distinguished man of letters, James Jeffrey Roche, who has written an excellent life of O'Reilly. The spirit of O'Reilly's work in both prose and verse is well represented by the following lines addressed to his native land : — " Ah, we call thee Mother Erin ! Mother thou in right of years ; Mother in the large fruition ; mother in the joys and tears. All thy life has been a symbol ; we can only read a part : God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that drench thy heart. " Island of Destiny ! Innisfail ! for thy faith is the payment near; The mine of the future is opened, and the golden veins appear. Thy hands are white and thy page unstained. Reach out for the glorious years, And take them from God as his recompense for thy fortitude and tears." THE IRISH IN AMERICA 357 JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY 1844-1890 While O'Reilly's best verses related to Ireland, he also made considerable contri- bution to the literature of his adopted country on themes strictly American. When this gifted writer died in August, 1890, being then only forty-six years old, the general verdict on his character and work was eloquently expressed by Cardi- nal Gibbons, who bore witness in these words to the virtues of his fellow countryman : " The country of his adoption vies with the land of his birth in tes- tifying to the uprightness of his life, the usefulness of his career and his example, the gentleness of his character, the nobleness of his soul." The system of organization, which had failed to bring the Fenian movement to success, was revived in the days of the Land League, by men like Judge Morgan Morgan J. O'Brien, with the happiest results. J- O'Brien. To the 'funds subscribed in America was largely due the success of the land agitation in parliament, and conse- quently the passing of the successive Land Bills, which are giving back the land to the people. 344. Archbishop Ireland's settlements. A distin- guished Irishman of great genius and courage formed a plan for transferring the overcrowded Irish population of the cities to the open lands of the West. In 1876, Dr. Ireland planted his first colony in Swift County, Minnesota. He selected a tract of land several thousand acres in extent, which he obtained on very favorable terms from one of the great railroad companies. He 358 IRELAND'S STORY then formed a bureau, with a secretary, who supphed full details of the character, price, and condition of the land to Catholic families who desired to secure homes in the great West. A church, a post-office, and a large general store were established, but no public-houses were allowed to be opened. Total abstinence from intoxicants was inculcated as one of the conditions of success in life on the prairies. Town sites were laid out, and lumber for building was brought by the railroad. Intending set- tlers could have twenty acres of their farms ploughed up the summer before their arrival. The example set by Archbishop Ireland and the St. Paul Catholic Coloniza- tion Bureau has been largely imitated through the West, and the benefit to the Irish inhabitants of the Eastern cities and to newcomers from Ireland has been immense. 345. The Catholic Church in America. It is in- structive to consider the position of the Catholic Church in Ireland, persecuted and proscribed for centuries, and reduced at one time to a few hundred thousands, on the head of whose priests a price was set equal to that paid for the destruction of a wolf ; and to compare it with the situation of the same church in the United States, with ten million adherents, presided over by a hierarchy of seventeen archbishops and eighty-one bishops, all but a small percentage of whom are de- scended from the original Irish race. No more striking contrast could well be conceived. The Catholic Church in America seems destined to accomplish certain great ends. All through history the Irish race has held firmly to spiritual ideals. The political troubles which overtook Ireland .during three centuries were largely the result of the firm gpiritu- adherence of the Irish race to their church, »i^^- and the primal spirituality of Ireland was strengthened THE IRISH IN AMERICA 359 and purified in the fires of persecution. The same spir- ituality remains, though largely undeveloped and not yet fully conscious, in the Irish race in America. It is easy to see how great a part this spirituality may play in tempering the materialism of a hard and self-seeking age. This is one part of the church's mission in America. The Catholic Church stands for law and discipline as well as for spirituality. One of the great dangers in American civilization is a disregard of law, or lawana what is much worse, a misuse of the machinery discipune. of law for personal and selfish ends. The spirit of reverence for the law is obscured, and the whole state is thus brought into danger. Here again, the Catholic Church, with its spirit of discipline and obedience, has a great mission to fulfil. CHAPTER XXXIII THE IRISH IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 346. The Irish in India. One of the most distin- guished Irish families in the history of the British Em- pire, was that of Garrett Wellesley, Earl of Mornington The (i 720-1 781), whose birthplace was in County Weuesieys. Meath. He was equally famous as a states- man and a musician, and was especially interested in the traditional music of Ireland. He received the degree of Doctor of Music from Trinity College, Dublin, a degree which is very rarely given, and only in recognition of the highest merit. His fame, however, is eclipsed by that of his two distinguished sons. The eldest of these was Richard, afterwards Marquis of Wellesley, born in Dublin, in 1760. He sat in the Irish House of Lords some time before the Union. Later, he entered the English Parliament, and was nominated one of the Lords of the Treasury. In 1797, he was appointed governor- general of India, and proceeding to that wonderful coun- try, he displayed high administrative talent, promptness of action, and strength of will in the work of government. He defeated Tippu Sahib, annexed his territories, and also won victories over the Mahrattas at Assaye and Lassawari. The Marquis of Wellesley resigned the gov- ernor-generalship of India in 1805, and was appointed ambassador to the court of Madrid. He was later secre- tary of state for foreign affairs and lord lieutenant of Ireland. THE IRISH IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 361 Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, third son of the Earl of Mornington, and Dukeoi younger brother of the Marquis of Wellesley, Wellington, was born either at Dangan Castle, in Meath, or in Dub- lin, in 1769. He entered the army in 1787, and six years later represented Trim in the Dublin Parliament. In 1797, he went to India with the rank of colonel, arriv- ing a few months before his elder brother. In 1799, he was made governor of Mysore, recently annexed to the British domin- ions. Returning to Europe, he was appointed chief secretary for Ire- land in 1807, but events on the continent soon brought a change in his life, and his great opportunity for fame. In 1808, he was made lieu- tenant-general and commander- in - chief of the forces in the Peninsula. From that time until his final vic- tory over Napo- leon at Waterloo, in 181 5, his life is a part of European history. He was prime minister of England for the three years following 1827, and therefore at the time when Catholic emanci- pation was finally gained for Ireland. He died in 1852. ARTHUR WELLESLEY, DUKE OF WELLINGTON 1769-1852 362 IRELAND'S STORY Sir Francis Rawdon-Hastings, second Earl of Moira, in County Down, was born in 1754. Entering the army Earioi ii^ ^77 ^i he rose to the rank of brigadier-gen- Moira. g^g^i jn the American revolutionary war. In 1794, he was sent with ten thousand men to join the Duke of York's ill-fated expedition to Holland. In 18 13, he was appointed governor-general of India, where he carried on successful wars against the Nepalese and Pindaris. He was head of the government in India for ten years, and was then appointed governor of Malta. He was created Marquis of Hastings, and died shortly after on board the Revenge in Baia Bay, near Naples. Richard Southwell Bourke, Earl of Mayo, was born in 1822. He was descended from WilHam de Burgo, who succeeded Strongbow as lord lieutenant of Ireland in Earl of 1177- The Earl of Mayo, who had served for "*y*»- some time as chief secretary for Ireland, was appointed governor-general of India in 1868. After four years in this high office, he was assassinated while on a tour of inspection through the penal settlement in the Andaman Islands. He was buried at Johnstown in County Kildare. Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, afterwards Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, a title which links County „ ^ ^ Down with the kins^dom of Burma, was born in Marquis of ^ ' Dufferin 1 826. He first distinguished himself as Brit- "^ ■^^*' ish commissioner in Syria, in i860. Twelve years later he became governor-general of Canada, where he served for six years. He was ambassador at St. Petersburg and Constantinople, and in 1884 was ap- pointed governor-general of India, where he served until 1888, adding the kingdom of Burma to the British crown. In the century which followed the appointment of the Marquis of Wellesley, India was governed for more THE IRISH IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 363 than twenty-six years by four distinguished Irishmen. During the same period, the armies in India were under the supreme command of a number of remarkable Irish soldiers. The Earl of Moira was the first of these, holding the posi- tion of commander-in- chief, as well as that of governor-general. General Sir Hugh Gough, born at Limer- ick in 1 779, aided in the capture of the Cape of Good Hope, and fought under the Duke of Wellington in the Pe- ninsular war. Gen- eral Gough afterward served in India and China, and in 1842 was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the British forces in India. He commanded in the last Mahratta war. He defeated the Sikhs at Sobraon, and later at Gujarat. He was raised to the peerage as Vis- count Gough and made field-marshal. He died in 1869. Frederick, Lord Roberts, descended from an old Waterford family, was born in 183 1. He fought through the Indian Mutiny of 1857, and took part in Lord the relief of Lucknow. He served in the Abys- sinian campaign of 1868, and marched to Cabul in 1879, gaining the title of Lord Roberts of Kandahar for his services in the Afghan war. He was commander-in- FREDERICK, LORD ROBERTS Rolierts. 364 IRELAND'S STORY chief of the Indian army from 1885 to 1893, and after- wards commander-in-chief of the British army, and field- marshal. It may be questioned whether his services in South Africa added greatly to his fame, though they gained him an earldom. General Sir George White was born at Whitehall, County Antrim, in 1855. He served through the Indian Sir George Mutiny and the Afghan war, and also in the White. expeditions to the Soudan and Burma. He was commander-in-chief of the Indian army from 1893 to 1897, in succession to Lord Roberts. Later, Sir George White became widely known as the defender of Lady smith. Sir Garnet, afterwards Viscount Wolseley, was born in Dublin, in 1833. He entered the army in 1852, and Viscount served in Burma, in the Crimea, and in the wolseley. Indian Mutiny. He gained high distinction in the Ashantee war of 1873, and showed that he possessed the highest military qualities in the Egyptian campaign of 1882. He was appointed commander-in- chief of the British army in 1895, and held this posi- tion for five years. These are a few only of the distinguished Irishmen who helped to build up the British Empire. Number- less others filled posts less conspicuous than famous those of viceroy of India, or commander-in- irishmen. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ British army. Many more were and are eminent in the diplomatic service. Others, like Lord Russell of Killowen, lord chief justice of England, rose to the highest rank in the profession of law. Some, like Sir Arthur Sullivan, gained world-wide distinction for musical culture and inspiration. But to enumerate even the names of these would be impossible here. We have, however, brought forward names enough to show THE IRISH IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 365 that, while Ireland is, in size and population, one of the smallest of nations, her sons hold a position of eminence in every field of human endeavor, quite out of propor- tion to the size of their country and the numbers of its population. This is exceptionally evident in the great Indian Empire, to which province after province has been added by Irish valor, to be ruled by Irish genius. 347. The Irish in Canada. By no means all the Irish who emigrated to the New World found homes in the United States. Mexico, Central America, and South America received their share of the exiles as well. But a far greater number of Irishmen came to Canada, where we find them recorded among the earliest pioneers of the country. While most of the great northern region was in the hands of the French, the Irish were among the first to penetrate the wilderness, and clear the land for farming. But after the victory of Wolfe over Montcalm, in 1763, when the English became masters of the whole country, the Irish settlers did more towards laying the firm foundation of the present Canada, forming her constitution, and building up for her a state of prosper- ity, than did the settlers of all other nationalities com- bined. Were we to attempt to tell adequately the story of the Irishman in Canada, we should have to write a book as large, if not larger than the present volume. It must suffice if we mention several of the most famous names in each stage of the country's development. Colonel Guy Carleton may be regarded as the founder and savior of Canada. He was a native of County Tyrone, had served some time under the Ensf- „ , , ■' ' ^ Colonel lish flag on the continent, was with Wolfe at Guy the siege of Montreal, and in 1767 was re- "®°°- warded for distinguished services by being made lieuten- ant-governor of Quebec. Carleton's policy was one of 366 IRELAND'S STORY conciliation towards the French Canadians, who were far more numerous than the English settlers. He did all in his power to redress their grievances, not only because he loved right for right's sake, but because he was wise enough to secure their sympathy for England in view of the approaching troubles with the American colonies. Later, in 1787, Carleton, who had been made Lord Dorchester, became the first Irish governor-gen- eral of Canada. Colonel the Hon. Thomas Talbot, founder of the fa- mous Talbot Settlement, was born in County Dublin, in Colonel ^n^' After several years of military service Talbot. on both continents, this aristocratic pioneer determined to found a colony in Canada, and with that end in view landed on May 21, 1803, in the midst of the wilderness, at a place later called Port Talbot. He had made an arrangement with the government that for every settler placed on fifty acres of land, he was enti- tled to two hundred acres, until five thousand acres were reached. This colony grew rapidly. For over fifty years Colonel Talbot superintended its development himself. A census taken by him in 183 1 reports the population of his settlement to have been upwards of 40,000 people inhabiting 518,000 acres of land, compris- ing a district now covered by twenty-nine townships. In his group of rough log buildings known as the Castle of Malahide, at Port Talbot, the colonel used to enter- tain the most distinguished men, not only of Canada, but of the whole of Europe. The Irish were among the first to settle in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. In the war of 1 81 2, between England and the United States, we must mention for their bravery and great services. Colonel Brock and Lieutenant Fitzgibbon. During the Irish im- THE IRISH IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 367 migration from 181 5 to 1837, and in the years following we find the Blakes in London, Ontario, and in the vicinity of Toronto; in Montreal, "Tom" White, the owner of several newspapers and an upright politician, other Irish as was also Mr. Sidney Robert Bellingham. Canadians. In Victoria County, the McHughs head a long list of prominent Irish names ; in Kingston, the O'Reillys. Every county in Canada boasts several famous Irish families, too many to enumerate here. During the struggle for responsible representative government, which was gained in the first parliament of United Canada in 1841, we find the names of Gourlay, Macken- zie, the Baldwins, Robert Baldwin Sullivan, and Sir Francis Hincks, all prominent. The years from 1825 to 1854 are known in Canadian politics as the Irish period, for during that time there was scarcely a states- man of any prominence who was not of Irish birth or extraction. With the fall of Hincks this period came to a close, but the force and influence of the Irishmen continued, and still continue to be felt in religious and educational matters, and in every line of occupation. Although the Irish political period in Canada closed in 1854, all Irishmen did not retire from politics. Im- mediately after, in 1856, Mr. John A. MacDonald was real premier under the administration of M, Tache, and John Sheridan Hogan and Thomas D'Arcy McGee were pro- minent members of parliament. McGee died a martyr to Canada, for whose good he had striven ; he was shot by a fellow countryman. In a speech delivered in the House of Commons, Sir John A. MacDonald said of him : " He who last night, nay, this morning, was with us, whose voice is still ringing in our ears, who charmed us with his marvellous eloquence, elevated us by his large states- manship, and instructed us by his wisdom, his patriotism, ^68 IRELAND'S STORY is no more — is foully murdered. If ever a soldier who fell on the field of battle deserved well of his country, Thomas D'Arcy McGee deserved well of Canada and its people." ^ Lord Monck was governor from 1861 to 1868, and four years later, in 1872, Canada received its greatest governor since the time of Carleton, namely the Earl of Dufferin, later the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, a native of County Down. (See p. 362.) 348. The Irish in Australia. Among the Irishmen who emigrated to Australia, or were prominent in the government there, two names stand out above all the rest : Charles Gavan Duffy, who has since been knighted, and Sir Redmond Barry. Duffy was one of the leaders of the Irish revolutionary movement of 1848, which ended in failure, and afterwards accepted an appoint- ment from the crown in Australia, where he was for some years prime minister of Victoria. Sir Redmond Barry, famous as a lawyer and statesman, was solicitor- general for the colony of Victoria prior to 1851, when he became a judge of the Supreme Court. He was a native of County Cork, was educated at Trinity College, Dub- lin, and was looked upon as a man of great learning and broad-minded views. He is also well known for the interest he took in educational matters, and has left some famous inaugural addresses delivered when he was chancellor of the New University of Melbourne. The Earl of Belmore, formerly governor and commander-in- chief of New South Wales, belongs to a distinguished Fermanagh family. Names like O' Sullivan, O'Connor, O'Connell, Leahy, and Madden are conspicuous in the government of Australia to-day. 349. Other representative Irishmen of the British Empire. The Beresfords of Waterford are prominent in THE IRISH IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 369 the British navy. Sir Cornelius Moloney was recently governor and commander-in-chief of British Honduras. Sir Jacob Barry was judge-president in Cape Colony. Sir George O'Rorke of Galway was for a generation eminent in the government of New Zealand. John Tyndall, the great physicist, was born in Carlow. Lord Kelvin, formerly Sir William Thomson, the famous elec- trical specialist, belongs to the north of Ireland. Sir William McCormac, one of the greatest modern sur- geons, was born in Belfast. CHAPTER XXXIV THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL 350. Irish writers in the eighteenth century. We have already spoken of the part played in Irish poHtics by Jonathan Swift (1667-1745). Swift was born in Dublin, and it is very probable that we can trace the influences which surrounded him in child- hood in his most famous work, "Gulliver's Travels." Among the entertainments of the Irish bards, voyages to wonderful undiscovered countries, inhabited by strange people, have been popular since the days of Ossin, and even centuries before Ossin journeyed to the " Land of the Young." It is very probable that Swift may have heard some of these stories in his early years, and that the captivity of Gulliver among the Lilliputians may have been suggested by the capture of the son of Find and his detention in the cavern near Killarney. There is certainly a genuine Irish spirit in the mirth and wit and humor which have given " Gulliver's Travels " a place in universal literature. Laurence Sterne (17 13-1768) undoubtedly owed much of the color and a good deal of the whimsical humor of his works to his life in Ireland. Born at Clon- mel, the son of a soldier, the first years of his life were spent in wanderings from one garrison town to another, and in these wanderings he gathered the mate- rial for characters like Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim. Oliver Goldsmith (i 728-1774) was born in County THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL 371 Longford. One of his teachers was an old quartermaster, who, besides reading, writing, and arithmetic, gave the boy a complete course of instruction concerning ghosts, banshees, and fairies. This teacher spoke Irish, and even extemporized Irish verse. Gold- smith also devoted himself to the study of Irish music, and was a passionate admirer of Carolan, the harper, one OLIVER GOLDSMITH 1728-1774 of the last great bards. Hence it comes that there is far more real Irish tenderness and sentiment in his works than in those of the two writers just noticed. There is a genuinely Irish note of lament and feeling for nature in ^' The Deserted Village " : — " No more thy glassy brook reflects the day, But, chok'd with sedges, works its weedy way ; 372 IRELAND'S STORY Along thy glades, a solitary guest, The hollow-sounding bittern guards its nest ; Amidst thy desert-walks the lapwing flies, And tires their echoes with unvaried cries. Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all, And the long grass o'ertops the mouldering wall ; And, trembling, shrinking from the spoiler's hand, Far, far away thy children leave the land." There is a note of humor of which Goldsmith himself was hardly conscious, in his description of America, whither these exiled children were bound : — " Where at each step the stranger fears to wake The rattling terrors of the vengeful snake ; Where crouching tigers wait their hapless prey. And savage men more murderous still than they ; While oft in whirls the mad tornado flies, Mingling the ravag'd landscape with the skies." Edmund Burke (i 729-1 797) has a deeper and more universal value than any of these writers, and is one of the greatest names in modern literature. He is one of the few writers who invariably bring every subject back to universal principles, and this is nowhere more evident than in his " Speech on Concili- ation with the American Colonies," when he came for- ms plea for ward on March 22, 1775, to speak in the Eng- America. ]^g^ House of Commons on behalf of American liberty : " The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war ; not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations ; not peace to arise out of universal discord fomented, from principle, in all parts of the empire ; not peace to de- pend on the juridical determination of perplexing ques- tions, or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace, sought in its natural course, and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL 373 sought in the spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific." In contrast with Oliver Goldsmith's somewhat fan- ciful picture of America as haunted by tigers and wild men, is Burke's sound and accurate knowledge of the American colonies, their history, and constitutions, and his clear vision of their mighty future : " If you drive the people from one place, they will carry on their an- nual tillage and remove with their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the back settlements are already little attached to particular situations. Already they have topped the Appalachian Mountains. From thence they behold before them an immense plain — one vast rich level meadow, a square of five hundred miles. Over this they would wander without possibility of re- straint ; they would change their manners with the habits of their life ; would soon forget a government by which they were disowned ; would become hordes of English Tartars, and, pouring down upon your unforti- fied frontiers a fierce and irresistible cavalry, become masters of your governors and your counsellors, your collectors and your comptrollers, and all of the slaves that adhered to them." This great Irishman was the first man in Europe to foresee the marvellous future growth and power of the United States. Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816) was another Irishman who won a high place in English literature. His two greatest achievements were an elo- quent speech in favor of the impeachment of Warren Hastings for misgovernment in India, and a series of comedies of which "The Rivals" and "The School for Scandal " are the best known. It is worth remembering that the plays of two Irishmen, Goldsmith and Sheridan, were the only dramas of high literary 374 IRELAND'S STORY value written, during nearly a century and a half, for the English stage : not merely good acting plays, but fine pieces of literature. 351. Nineteenth century authors. Thomas Moore (1779- 1 85 2) was the first writer who consciously sought inspiration in the history, traditions, and romance of Ire- land. It may almost be said of him that he alone of all those who have been men- tioned was con- sciously an Irish- man. He is, there- fore, the morning star of the Irish lit- erary revival. Moore chose as the subject of his most famous " Irish Melodies " historical events like the battle of Clon- tarf, the life of Saint Senanus, the tradi- tions of Conn of the Hundred Battles, the achievements of the Red Branch Knights, the Hermitage of St. Kevin, and the Revenge for the Death of Deirdre. The quality of Moore's verse is well represented in the "Song of Fionnuala " : — " Silent, O Moyle, be the roar of thy water, Break not, ye breezes, your chain of repose, While, murmuring mournfully, Lir's lonely daughter Tells to the nio^ht star her tale of woes." THOMAS MOORE 1779-1852 THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL 375 Moore was not only a writer of musical verse, but also a musician whose memory was filled with the traditional melodies of the Irish harpers and bards. To these melodies he adapted his songs, and sang them himself with eloquence and power. He was a favorite figure in London society, and it may be said of him that he was the first to make the Irish spirit and the Irish tempera- ment in any way intelligible to the Enghsh mind. Sir Samuel Ferguson (18 10-1886) is the most con- siderable figure in the period which divides Moore from the living Irish poets. His knowledge was far more profound and universal than Moore's. He ®^^^^°°' was thoroughly famiUar with the Gaelic traditions from the Book of Leinster down to modern times. His verse is more full of vigor, and he has taken more substantial themes. Among the best of these is " The Tain Quest." He tells how — ■ " Great Cuchullin's name and glory filled the land from north to south, Deirdre's and Clan Usnach's story rife I found in every mouth ; Yea, and where the whitening surges spread below the Herds- man's Hill Echoes of the shout of Fergus haunted all Glen Etive still." The poet tells us how the most famous tradition of all, the Tain Quest, was lost, and how the antique bard finally recovered the story of the Tain by evoking the spirit of Fergus, who had taken part in the quest. An impressive stanza tells how the spirit of the great dead warrior entered the banquet hall : — *' Heard ye not the tramp of armies ? Hark ! amid the sudden gloom 'T was the stroke of Conall's war-mace sounded through the startled room; And, while still the hall grew darker, King and courtier chilled with dread, Heard the rattling of the war- car of Cuchullin overhead." 376 IRELAND'S STORY Just as the ancient bard evoked the spirit of Fergus, son of Roeg, so Sir Samuel Ferguson evoked the historic traditions of Ireland and made them live again in force- ful and virile verse. William Butler Yeats (1866) is the most widely known writer of the Irish literary revival, and the writer whose style has reached the highest level of excellence and distinction. If Sir Samuel Ferguson's work, in its heroic vigor and force, resembles the rugged traditions of the Red Branch of Concobar and Cuculaind, then we may say that the work of W. B. Yeats revives the fineness and distinction, the magic and music of Ossin, the son of Find ; and there was a certain fitness in his choice of the warrior poet as the theme of his first con- siderable work of Irish inspiration, the " Wanderings of Oisin." He makes the warrior poet speak thus : — " Caolte, and Conan, and Finn were there, When we followed a deer with our baying hounds, With Bran, Sgeolan, and Lomair, And passing the Firbolgs' burial mounds, Came to the cairn-heaped grassy hill Where passionate Maive is stony still ; And found on the dove-gray edge of the sea A pearl-pale, high-born lady, who rode On a horse with bridle of findrinny ; And like a sunset were her lips, A stormy sunset on doomed ships ; A citron colour gloomed in her hair, But down to her feet white vesture flowed. And with the glimmering crimson glowed Of many a figured embroidery ; And it was bound with a pearl-pale shell That wavered like the summer streams. As her soft bosom rose and fell." There is a finer and more subtle music here than in the verse of Sir Samuel Ferguson, or the melodies of THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL 377 Thomas Moore. There is, perhaps, less of ruggedness and heroic force than in the verses, " The Tain Quest." The distinctive quality of the work of Yeats seems to be this : he has carried on and perfected the modern sense of the music of words, which was first introduced into English poetry by Shelley, and after Shelley was developed by Rossetti and Swinburne. There is much that reminds us of all these poets in the work of Yeats, who is, in a sense, their heir. From them also he has inherited a certain unworldly, ghost-like, or mystical atmosphere, which, to be perfectly strict, is rather pre- Raphaelite than Ossianic. This ghost-like atmosphere is well exemplified in the following lines from " The Land of Heart's Desire." " The wind blows out of the gates of the day, The wind blows over the lonely of heart, And the lonely of heart is withered away, While the faeries dance in a place apart, Shaking their milk-white feet in a ring, Tossing their milk-white arms in the air ; For they hear the wind laugh and murmur and sing Of a land where even the old are fair, And even the wise are merry of tongue ; But I heard a reed of Coolaney say, When the wind has laughed and murmured and sung, ' The lonely of heart must wither away.' " George Russell (1867) reaches a higher and more spiritual inspiration than any other poet of the Irish lit- erary revival. He sees the world only as a manifestation of spirit, and everything he writes is full of this sense of revelation. He uses pure and transparent colors like the colors of gems, and never paints nature from mere delight in sensuous beauty. It was the same impersonal sense which led him to conceal the authorship of his '' Homeward, Songs by the Way," 378 IRELAND'S STORY under the initial ^, which is for him the symbol of an JEorif or creative breath. In all the poems in this book he regards life as a path, by which the soul finds its way homeward : — " Blind and dense with revelation every moment flies, And unto the Mighty Mother, gay, eternal, rise All the hopes we hold, the gladness, dreams of things to be. One of all thy generations, Mother, hails to thee ! Hail ! and hail ! and hail forever : though I turn again From thy joy unto the human vestiture of pain. I, thy child, who went forth radiant in the golden prime Find thee still the mother-hearted through my night in time ; Find in thee the old enchantment, there behind the veil Where the Gods my brothers linger. Hail ! forever, Hail ! " It is giving honor where honor is due, to record the fact that the two eloquent writers last mentioned owe John much of the Irish inspiration in their verse to O'Leary. ^Y\q influence of, John O'Leary, who was the central figure in the literary society of Dublin when they began to write. To the same circle belonged a number of other writers of sterling worth, like Katherine Tynan, Rosa Mulholland, Dora Sigerson, T. W. Rolleston, and George Sigerson, These writers taken together form a school of verse which is one of the chief glories of the Irish literary revival. 352. The revival of Gaelic. Perhaps even more sig- nificant than this rich harvest in contemporary verse is the study of Gaelic, which has resulted in the produc- tion of many admirable texts and translations, and in a considerable extension of Gaelic as a spoken tongue. The most remarkable single work so far produced is O'Donovan's splendid edition and translation of the "Annals of the Four Masters." Next come facsimiles of ancient texts like "The Book of Leinster," edited for the Royal Irish Academy by Dr. Atkinson. Due recog- THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL 379 nitioD should be given to the work of continental schol- ars like Zeuss, Zimmer, and D'Arbois de Jubainville. Among contemporary scholars special credit is due to Drs. Whitley Stokes, Joyce, and Douglas Hyde. Douglas Besides his more learned works, Douglas Hyde ^y^®- has written much musical verse. He is at his best in the translations from Saint Columba : — " Alas for the voyage, O high King of Heaven Enjoined upon me, For that I on the red plain of bloody Cooldrevin Was present to see. How happy the son is of Dima ; no sorrow For him is designed, He is having, this hour, round his own hill in Durrow, The wish of his mind. The sounds of the winds in the elms, like the strings of A harp being played, The note of the blackbird that claps with the wings of Delight in the glade." Side by side with this literary and linguistic revival has come an awakening interest in every department of Irish tradition, art, and archaeology, the details of which are far too numerous to be mentioned here. This is only the beginning of a complete revelation to the world of the spirit of the Irish race. APPENDIX SOME IRISH SURNAMES As explained in the note on Brehon Law (see section 12), all Irish surnames were originally patronymics ; that is, names formed from the name of the father or grand- father. These names have the prefixes Mac, "son," and Hiia, Ua, or O, as the word successively became, ** grand- irish patro- SOU," identical with the Greek word vtd?, Huios, nymics. ''son." During the purely Irish period, which ended about the time of Roderick O'Conor, nearly all Irish families traced their descent from the three sons of Milid, — Heber, Eremon, and Ir ; a few claimed descent from Ithe, the uncle of Milid. One may find an exact parallel in the English pedigrees, traced to-day from ancestors who " came over with William the Conqueror," or in Russian pedigrees of families " descended from Rurik," the Norse conqueror of Russia. We shall illus- trate the subject by giving a number of names traced by tradition from these founders of the Irish race, show- ing their early Gaelic form and spelling, and adding the derivations which are given for a number of them, in "O'Hart's Irish Pedigrees." Some of these derivations are conjectural, while others are undoubtedly correct. Where practicable, we shall add the first occurrence of each name in the " Annals of the Four Masters " ; but it must be remembered that the custom of using surnames does not seem to have become general before the time of the Danish raids, though all the pedigrees to which SOME IRISH SURNAMES 381 these surnames belong go back to the dawn of Irish tradition. Their preservation is undoubtedly due to the institution of heraldry, it being the duty of the herald to enumerate the ancestors of his chief, with a list of their exploits. We can only give a few out of many Irish surnames, selecting those which are most famous, and those whose origin is most completely obscured by the modern spelling. It should be understood that these names were written down by Englishmen who could neither pronounce nor spell Gaelic ; if an Englishman ignorant of French were to try to write down French surnames by ear, we should have a similar and equally unrecognizable result. Surnames of families descended from Heber. Casey (O'Cathasaigh, descendant of Cathasach); lords of Saithne, a subdivision of Magh Breagh, in Meath. " An- nals of the Four Masters " : "a. d. 1018 : Oissene O'Catha- saigh, lord of Mughdhorna, lord of Saithne, slain." Clancy (MacFlannchadha, son of Flannchadh, from flaiin^ blood, indicating red); "a. d. 1241 : Domnall MacFlann- chadha, chief of Dartry, died." CoGHLAN (MacCoghlain, son of Coghlan, from cochal, a cowl or hood) ; "a. d. 1134: Aedh MacCoghlain, lord of Dealbhna-Eathra (Delvin, now part of the King's County), died." CuLLEN (O'Cuillen, descendant of Coilean, from coiiean, a young warrior); "a. d. 1109: Maelisa O'Cuillen, noble bishop of the North of Ireland, died." HoGAN (O'h-Ogain, descendant of Ogan, from oga?i, youth) ; "a. d. 1091 : Ceannfaeladh O'h-Ogain, successor of Bre- nainn, died." Kearney (O'Cearnaigh, descendant of Cearnach, from cear- nach, victorious); "a. d. 1096 : Eoghan O'Cearnaigh, air- chineach of Doire, died." 382 IRELAND'S STORY Kennedy (O'Ceinneidigh, descendant of Ceinneidigh); "a. d. 1 180 : Domnall O'Ceinneidigh, lord of Ormond, died." MacCarthy (MacCarthaigh, son of Cartach, commander against the Danes in a. d. 1045). Lords of Desmond. MacEniry (Maclneirghe, son of Ingeirci, from eirg/ie, a rising); "a. d. 1029: Cinnaed Maclneirghe, lord of Conallo (in Limerick), slain in battle." MacMahon (MacMathghamhna, son of Mathghamhain, who was son of Turlogh Mor, king of Ireland, who died a. d. 1086); lords of Corco-Baiscinn, in Clare. MacNamara (MacConmara, son of Cumara, from cu, warrior, and mara, of the sea) ; "a. d. 1099: Domnall MacConmara, lord of Ui-Caisin, died." MoRiARTY (O'Muircheartaigh, son of Muirceartach, from 7717117', sea, and cea7i, just) ; " A. d. 1107 : O'Muircheartaigh, lord of Eoghanacht of Loch Leine (Killarney), was expelled from his lordship by MacCarthy, king of Desmond." O'Brien (O'Briain, descendant of Brian (Boru), who was descended from Cormac Cas, second son of Olioll Olum, king of Munster, by his wife Sabh, daughter of Conn of the Hundred Battles ; from bria7i, great strength). In modern times the O'Briens were marquises of Thomond, earls of Inchiquin, and barons of Burren ; many of them were distinguished commanders of the Irish Brigade in France, as earls of Clare and counts of Thomond. O'Carroll (O'Cearbhaill, descendant of Cearbhall, from cearbhall, slaughter); "a. d. 1043: O'Cearbhaill, lord of Fearnmhagh, slain." O'CoRCORAN (O'Corcrain, descendant of Corcran, from corcra, red); " a. d. iooi : Cahalan O'Corcrain, abbot of Devenish, died." O'Daly (O'Dalaigh, descendant of Dalach); " a. D., 1139: Cuchonnacht O'Dalaigh, chief ollav in poetry, died." O'DoNOGHUE (O'Donchadha, descendant of Donchadh) ; "a. d. igig: Flann, son of O'Donchadha, successor of St. Enda, of Ara (in Tipperary) died." Dunghal O'Don- chadha, king of Cashel, fought at Clontarf, 1014. SOME IRISH SURNAMES 383 O'DoNOVAN (O'Donnobhain, descendant of Donnobhan, who was defeated and slain by Brian Boru in 976). Lords of Clancahill. O'Gara (O'Gadhra, descendant of Gadhra); "a. d. 964: Tiachleach O'Gadhra was slain ; he was lord of South Luighne," or Leyney, in Sligo. O Grady (O'Gradhaighe, descendant of Gradach) ; " a. d. 1151 : Aneslis O'Gradhaighe slain " Lords of Cinel Dung- haile in Claire. O'Hara (O'h-Eadhradh or O'h-Eaghra, descendant of Eaghra) ; Eaghra was son of Poprigh, lord of Luighne, or Leyney, who died in a. d. 926. O'Keefe (O'Caoimhe, descendant of Caimh) ; "a. d. 1063: Ceallach O'Caoimhe, anchorite, died." Lords of Glean- namhnach. O'Leary (O'Laoghaire, descendant of Laoghaire ; from laer, sea, and righ, king, king of the sea). O'Lonergan (O'Longargain, descendant of Longargain, from longair, a ship's crew); "a. d. 1099: Annudh O'Longargain, successor of Colum, died." O'Mahony (O'Mathghamhna, descendant of Mathgham- hain ; perhaps from maghghabhuin, a bear, literally a calf of the plain); "a. D. 1113: Eochaidh O'Mathghamhna, king of Ulidia." O'SuLLiVAN (O'Suilleabhain, descendant of Suillebhan, irovn. suilebhan, one-eyed); descended from Aodh Dubh, king of Munster. "a. d. 1253: Ailinn O'Suilleabhain, bishop of Lismore, died." Lords of Beara, now Bere- haven, Cork. Plunkett (O'Pluingceid, descendant of Pluingcead, from plane, strike, and cead, first). Descended from Doncadh, son of Brian Boru. Lords of Fingal. Plunket (same origin), at present, lords of Louth, Fingal, and Dunsany. QuiNN (O'Cuinn, descendant of Conn, that is, Conn Mor, whose son Niall was slain at Clontarf, a. d. 1014; "a. d. 384 IRELAND'S STORY 1095 : Augustin O'Cuinn, chief brehon (judge) of Leinster, died." Some families descended from Ithe. Barry (O'Baire, descendant of Barrach) ; " a. d. 1240: In this monastery Barrach Mor was also interred." Coffey (O'Cobhthaigh, descendant of Cobthach Fionn, from cobthach., victorious): "a. d. 1203: Ainmire O'Cobhthaigh, abbot of the church of Derry-Columkille." Some families descended from Ir. Cahill (O'Cathail, descendant of Cathal, from cathal, valor); "a. d. 1033: Aenghus O'Cathail, lord of Eogh- anacht-Locha-Lein (in Kerry), killed." Guinness or MacGuinness (MacAenghusa, son of Aen- ghus); "a. d. 956: Domnall MacAenghusa, lord of Ui- Eathach (Iveagh, Down), died." Descended from Aengus, grandson of Tiobrad Tireach, king of Ulster, contemporary with Conn of the Hundred Battles. Healy (O'h-Ealighe, descendant of Eilighe); "a. d. 1342: Conor O'h-Eilighe, died." Lords of Baile-Ui-Eilighe, now Hollybrook, in Sligo. Lynch (O'Loingsigh, descendant of Longseach, father of one of the kings of Ulster, from lo?igseach, mariner); "a. D. 1030: Conchobhar O'Loingsigh." Lords of Dal- Araidhe. Moore (O'Mordha, descendant of Mordha, from 7nordha, proud); "a. d. 1017 : Cearnach O'Mordha, lord of Laeighis (Leix), killed." O'Farrell rO'Fearghail, descendant of Feargal, king of Conmacne, who was killed at Clontarf, 1014). Reynolds (MacRaghnall, son of Ragnal); "a. d. 1237: Cathal MacRaghnall, chief of Muintir-Eolais." Shanly (O'Seanlaoich, descendant of Seanlaoch, from scan, old, and laoch, hero). Ward (Mac an-Bhaird, son of the bard, that is, of Shane, son of Conor, bard of Ulster. 1356). SOME IRISH SURNAMES 385 Some farailies descended from Eremon. Agnew (MacGniomhaighe, son of Gniomhach, from gniomh^ active) ; descended from Eoin MacDonnell-Gniomhach. Boyle (O'Baoighill, descendant of Baoghal, from baoghal^ peril); ''a. d. 1099: Caenchomhrac O'Baoighail, bishop of Ard-Maca." Brady (O'Bruide, descendant of Bruid) ; "a. d. 1256: Tier- nan MacBrady, slain." Chiefs of Cuil-Brighdin, in East Brefny. Coleman (O'Columain, descendant of Colman Mor, son of Diarmaid, king of Ireland), ''a. d. 1081 : Cucatha O'Col- main, died." Conway (MacConmidhe, son of Cumidhe) ; "a. d. 1095: Amhlaeibh MacConmidhe^ chief of Silronain, slain." CoRRiGAN(0'Coraidhegain, descendant of Coraidhegan, from cor aid he, hero). CowELL (MacCathmhaoil, son of Cathmal) ; "a. d. 1185: Gillchreest MacCathmhaoil, chief of Kinel-Farry." Croly (O'Cruaidh-locha, from cruaidh^ hard, and laoch, hero, meaning hardy champion). Darcy (O'Dorchaidhe, descendant of Dorchadh, from dor- chadh, dark) ; " a. d. 1484 : Edmund, son of Darcy." Dempsey (O'Dimasaigh, " descendant of Dimasach ") ; " a. d. 1 162: Ceallach O'Dimasaigh, slain." Dillon (Dilmhain, from dile, flood) ; descended from Lochan Dilmhain, brother of Colman Mor, king of Meath. "a. d. 1352 : Dabuck Dilmhain, chief of the Dilmhains of Con- nacht, died." DoHERTY (O'Dochartaigh, descendant of Dochartach, from doc/iar, harm) ; "a. d. 1188 : Eachmarcach O'Dochartaigh," who afterwards became chief of Kinel-Connell. Also chiefs of Ardmire and Inishowen. Dowling (O'Dunlaing, descendant of Dunlaing); '*a. d. 1041 : Cuicche O'Dunlaing, lord of Laeighis (Leix), slain." Dunne (O'Duinn, descendant of Dunn, from d7i7i, fortress) ; 386 IRELAND'S STORY "a. D. 1023: Donnchadh O'Duinn, lord of Breagh, seized upon." DwYER (O'Duibhidhir, descendant of Duibhuidhir) ; a. d. 1369. Egan (O'h-Aedhagain, descendant of Aedhaghan, from aedh^ " eye," and aghain, " kindle ") ; " a. d. 945 : Scolaighe O'h-Aedhagain, lord of Dartraighe (Dartry), slain." Ferguson (MacFearghusa, son of Feargus, from fear^ man, and gus, " strength"). FiNNERTY (O'Finnachta, descendant of Fionnachtach, that is, " snow-white," one of the twelve lords of Cruachan) ; "a. d. 878 ; Suibhne O'Finnachta, bishop of Cilldara (Kildare), died." Flynn (O'Flainn, descendant of Flann) ; "a. d. 1036: Aenghus O'Flainn, successor of Brennain of Cluainfearta, died." Gaffney (MacGamhnaigh, son of Gamhnach ; descended from Gothfrith Gamhnach). Gallagher (O'Gallchobhair, descendant of Gallchobhar) ; "a. d. 1022: Maelcobha O'Gallchobhair, successor of Scrin-Adhamhnain, died." Griffin (O'Criomhthain, " descendant of Criomhthan," from criomthmi, "fox"); a. d. 1225. Hart (O'h-Airt, descendant of Art); "a. d. 1087: Maelru- anaidh O'h-Airt, lord of Teathba, died." Hennesy (MacAenghusa, son of Aengus, from aon, excellent, zxi^ gus, strength); "a. D. 956: Domnall MacAenghusa; lord of the Ui-Eathach, died." Higgins (O'h-Uigin, descendant of Uigin, from uige, strength) ; " A. D. 1349 : Gilla-na-naev O'h-Uigin, poet, died." Kavanagh (O'Caomhanaigh, descendant of (Domnall) Caomhanach); "a. d. 1175 : Domnall Caomhanach, son of Dermot, king of Leinster, slain." From this comes the French Cavaignac. Kelly (O'Ceallaigh, descendant of Ceallach) ; "a. d. SOME IRISH SURNAMES 387 1014: Aedh O'Ceallaigh, son of Tadhg, son of Murchadh, lord of Ui-Maine, slain." Keogh (MacEochaidh, son of Eochaidh, great-grandson of Eanna Ceannsalach, king of Leinster in the time of Saint Patrick. From eackach, horseman, Latin eqiies). KiLLBRiDE (MacGioUa-Brighid, son of the devotee of Bridget). Lawlor (O'Leathlobhair, descendant of Leathlobhar) ; "a. D. 912 : Loingseach O'Leathlobhair, king of Ulidia." Macaulay (MacAmhalghadha, son of Amhalghadha) ; "a. d. 1082 : Finnchadh MacAmhalghadha, chief of Clann Brea- sail, died." Macdermot (MacDairmuid, son of Diarmaid, from Diar- maid, god of arms); "a. d. 1176: Conor MacDiarmuid, lord of Moylurg." MacDowell (MacDubhghaill, son of the Dark Foreigner, Dubh Ghall, who was king of the Western Isles in 1144). MacSheehy (MacSithaigh, son of Sithach) ; "a. d. 1397: John MacSheehy, slain." MacSweeny (MacSuibhne, son of Suibhne); "a. d. 1356: Dowell MacSweeny, slain." Madden (O'Madadhain, descendant of Madadhan) ; "a. d. 1047 • Muircheartach, lord of Ui-Breasail, slain." Maguire (MacUidhir, son of Odhar, from odhar, pale- faced); "a. d. 1344: Brian Maguire, son of Rory, died." MoLLOY (O'Maoilmhuaidh, descendant of Maelmhuadh) ; "a. d. 1156: Aedh O'Maoilmhuaidh, lord of Feara-Ceall, slain." Morgan (O'Muiregain, descendant of Muiregan, from muiregan, mariner). Murray (O'Muireadhaigh, descendant of Muireadach); "a. d. 1086: O'Muireadhaigh, chief of Muintir-Tlamain, slain." O'Byrne, Byrne (O'Brain, descendant of Bran) ; a. d. 1 1 19: "Aedh O'Brain, lord of Leinster, died." Lords of Ranelagh (Wicklow). 388 IRELAND'S STORY O'Connor (O'Conchobhair, descendant of Conchobhar, the helping warrior); "a. d. 1036: Aedh-an-gha-bhear- naigh O'Conchobhair (Hugh of the Broken Spear), king of Connacht." O'Flaherty (O'Flaithbhearthaigh, descendant of Flaith- bheartach) ; " a. d. 968 : Murchadh O'Flaithbheartaigh, lord of Aileach." O'GoRMAN (O'Gormain, MacGormain, descendant of Gor- man, from gor??ian, illustrious); "a. d. 1123 : Aenghus O'Gormain, successor of Comhgall, died." O'Hagan (O'h-Ocain, descendant of Ocan); " a. d. 1103 : Raghnall O'h-Ocain, lawgiver of Telach-Og, slain." O'Hanlon (O'h-Anluain, descendant of Anluan) ; "a. d. mi : Donnchadh O'h-Anluain, lord of Ui-Niallain, slain." O'MuRPHY, Murphy (O'Murchadha, descendant of Mur- chadh); "a. d. 103 1 : Flaithbheartach O'Murchadha, chief of Cinel-Boghaine, slain." O'Neill (descendants of Niall of the Nine Hostages, who were taken from Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Connacht, Britain, Pictland, Dalriada, Saxonland, Morini (France); in Irish, Niall Naoi Ghiallach). Monarchs of Ireland, and kings of Ulster. O'Reilly (O'Ragheallaigh, descendant of Raghallach who was slain at Clontarf, 1014). O'RouRKE (O'Ruairc, descendant of Ruarc); "a. d. 990: Aedh O'Ruairc, heir of Connacht, slain." O'Shaughnessy (O'Seachnasaigh, descendant of Seachna- sach) ; "a. d. 1040 : Diarmaid O'Seachnasaigh, successor of Seachnall, died." O'Shea (O'Seaghdha, descendant of Seaghdha) ; " a. d. 1095 : Mathghamhain O'Seaghdha, lord of Corca-Duibhne, died." O'TooLE (O'Tuathail, descendant of Tuathal); Tuathal, the left-handed, died in a. d. 956. It should be remembered that these are only a few names, selected from a very large number which existed SOME IRISH SURNAMES 389 in Ireland before the coming of the Normans ; many of those omitted for lack of space are descended from equally distinguished warriors, judges, or poets. There are two more chief divisions of Irish family names be- sides the original Gaelic : Norman names like De Courcy and Fitzgerald, and English or Scotch names belonging to families brought over during the various plantations. INDEX The locations of places mentioned on the maps are also given. Adriatic Sea, 77iap, 247, H3. Aed,son of Ainmire, colony in Scot- land refuses to pay tribute to, 64. Agriculture, department of, 336, 337- Ailill, King of Connaught, 22. Ainmire, son of Sedna, 64. Alba, map, 29, Di. Algeria, map, 247, E4. Almanza, map, 247, D4. Anglican Church, 192 ; rule of, re- stored by Charles II, 210. Anglo-Irish Catholics, one of the four parties in Ireland at the be- ginning of the 17th century, 192. Angouleme, map, 247, E2. Annaly, county of Longford formed out of, 159. Anne, Queen, succeeds William on the English throne in 1702, 243. Annesley Case, 254, 255. Antrim, surrendered to Cromwell by George Munro, 203 ; location, map, 113, E2 ; map, iSo, B5. Antrim County, organized, 165. Ardagh, chalice of, pictiire, 68. Ardee, 88; map, 113, E3. Arklow, attacked by insurgents in Irish Rebellion, 280; location, map, 169, E4. Armagh, book of, 86. Armagh, church founded by St. Patrick at, 50; plundered by Norsemen, 69 ; seat of one of the four archbishops, 92 ; location, map, 53, A3. Armagh County, one of the seven counties into which Perrott di- vided Ulster, 165; location, wa/, 180, B5. Armorial bearings of the Butlers, Earls of Ormond, //W«r^, 144. Armorial bearings of the Fitz- geralds. Earls of Kildare, picture, 143; Assisi, map, 247, G3. At Boy (Yellow Ford), W2^/,1 13, E2. At-Cliat. See Dublin. Athenry, battle of, 119; location, map, 113, C 3. Athlone, castle oi, picture, 231. Athlone, bridge of, 93 ; taken by Sir Charles Coote, 205; captured by Ginkel, 230-232; location, map, 53, B2 ; map, 169, D3. Aughrim, battle of, 232, 233; map, 169, C3. Austerlitz, map, 247, H2. Austria, Irish in, 334, 335 ; loca- tion, map, 247, H2. " Back Lane Parliament," draws up petition for removal of some of the penal laws, 274. Badge of the Down Volunteers, picture, 267. Bagenal, Sir Henry, military com- mander of Ireland, 166; sent to reheve Portmore, 168 ; position of his army at Yellow Ford, 169 ; killed at batde of the Yellow Ford, 170. Balfour, Arthur James, becomes chief secretary for Ireland, 330; policy of, 330 ; picture, 331 ; turns his attention to the " congested districts," 330, 331 ; forms " Con- gested Districts Board," 332 ; be- comes prime minister, 334. Ballaghboy, batde of " The Yellow- Pass " fought at, 171; location, map,' 16^, C2. Ballymore, map, 169, C2. Ballyshannon, 168; map, 169, C2. 392 INDEX Balor of the Evil Eye, 3, Baltic Sea, map, i. Baltimore, 175; map, 169, B5, Baltinglass Mountains, map, 180, D5. Bangor, college of, 56 ; location, map, 53, A4; map, 169, F'2. Bannockburn, jnap, 247, D. Bann River, map, 180, B5. Bantry Bay, 176; map, 169, B5; map, 180, Ei. Barrow River, map, 53, B3. Barry, Sir Jacob, 369. Barry, John, 352. Barry, Sir Redmond, 368. Bavaria, map, 247, G2. Bear, 176; map, 180, E2. Belfast Lough, 7nap, 53, A4 ; map, 180, B6. Belfast, surrenders to Cromwell, 202 ; celebrates anniversary of the fall of the Bastile, 273 ; loca- tion, map, 53, A4 ; map, 180, B6. Belgrade, 7nap, 247, I3. Bellingham, Sidney Robert, 367. Bell of St. Patrick, //V/«;r, 51. Benburb, battle of, 196, 197 ; loca- tion, map, 169, E2 ; map, 180, B5. Bigar, Joseph, 327. Biscav, bay of, map, I. "Bla6k Rent," 126. Black Sea, 7nap, 247, K3. Blackwater River (northern), map, 180, B5 . Blackwater River (southern), 10; map, 180, D3. Blackwater, capture of the Fort of the, from O'Neill by Lord Bor- ough, 1597, picture, 167. Blackwood, Frederick Temple Ham- ilton, career of, 363. Blenheim, 341 ; map, 247, G2. Bobbio, 81 ; map, 247, F3. Bond, Oliver, United Irishmen hold meetings at house of, 277. Book of Kells, 85; facsimile of a page from, picture, 85. Borough, Lord, appointed Lord Lieutenant by Queen Elizabeth and arrives in Ireland, 167 ; killed at battle of Drumflugh, 168. Boru, Brian, defeated by Norsemen, 72; defeats Norsemen at Sulcoit, 72; defeats king of Leinster, 74; made High King, 74; his rule, 75; killed at battle of Clontarf, 76. Boruma Tribute, origin, 28 ; relin- quished, 64. Boulter, Anglican archbishop of Dublin, his influence in Ireland, 257- Bourke, Richard Southwell, career of, 362. Boyne River, 25; battle of the, 220- 222 ; 7nap, iSo, C5. Bragganstown, 125; map, 180, C5. Breas, messenger of the De Da- nanns, 2. Brehon Laws, in regard to family and tribe, 16, 17; criminal law, 18; revised by St. Patrick, 50; condition of, in the 14th century, 127 ; effect of the Statute of Kil- kenny on, 129; policy of Perrott in regard to, 164. Brest, 7uap, 247, D2. Bright, John, realizes that England must redress Irish grievances, 321. Brittany, map, 247, D2, Brock, Colonel, 366. Brown, George, appointed arch- bishop of Dublin by Henry VIII and opposed by Archbishop Cromer, 151. Bruce, Edward, lands at Larne with army, 118; defeats De Burgo at Connor, 118; crowned king, 119; defeated at Athenry by William de Burgo, 119 ; joined by Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, 119; at- tempts to reduce Dublin and Lim- erick, 119; killed in battle of Faughart, 120. Bruce, Robert, king of Scotland, joins his brother in Ireland, 119; returns to Scotland, 119. Brugh, 25; 77iap, 29, C2. Bulgaria, map, 247, J3. Bull, War of the, 22-25. Burgh, 265. }5urgundy, map, 247, E2. Burke, Yl^mwwA, picture , 261 ; cham- pion of the American colonies, 261 ; career of, 372, 373. Burke of Clanrickard, defeated by Kildare, 142. INDEX 393 Burke, Thomas, murdered in Phoe- nix Park, 328. Butler, Sir Edmund, 118. Butler, Colonel Richard, 351. Butler. See also Ormond, Dukes of. Cadiz, map, 247, C4. Cahersiveen, map, 169, A5. Cairbre, son of Cormac, 36, killed in battle of Gavra, 38. Cairpre, the " Catheaded," 27. Callan, battle of, 117 ; map^ 113, B5. "Camisards," 251. Cape Clear Island, 68 ; map, 53, C2. Carew, Sir George, president of Ulster, devastates Munster, 172; intercepts O'Donnell in his march to meet the Spaniards, 173; takes Dunboy Castle, 176; cruelty of, 176. Carleton, Colonel Guy, career of, 365. 366. Carlingford, derivation of name, 71 ; surrenders to Cromwell, 202 ; location, map, 53, A3. Carlingford Lough, 69 ; map, 53, A3; map, 169, E2. Carlow, one of the twelve counties which King John established, 112 ; outbreak in, during the Irish Rebellion, 278 ; location, map, 180, D5. Carrick, Book of, 135. Carrickbyrne Hill, rebel encamp- ment on, during the Irish Rebel- lion, 27S; location, tnap, 169, E4. Carrickfergus, 195, 203 ; taken by Schomborg, 219 ; map, 180, B6. Carrickfergus Cz&iX^, picture, 195. Carrigroe Hill, rebel encampment on, during the Irish Rebellion, 278; location, map, 169, E4. Carrowmore, circle and cromlech 2X, picture, 6; 7nap, 29, B54. Cashel, Rock of, 89; picture, 90; cross of, 90 ; seat of one of the four archbishops, 92 ; psalter of, 135; location, map, 113, D4. Castlehaven, 175; map, 169, B5. Castledermott, 133; map, 180, D5. Castlereagh, Lord, chief secretary of Ireland, 284. Catholic Association, formation of, 298 ; influence of, 299. *' Catholic Committee," formation of, 258, 259. Catholic Emancipation, need of, re- cognized by Patriots, 269; at- tempts at, 275; plan to obtain, by giving England right to veto ap- pointment of Catholic bishops, 294; O'Connell's work for, 297- 300 ; Act of, passed, 300. Catholics, effect of the Reformation upon, 150; assailed by Henry VIII, 151 ; priests forced out of their churches by Edward VI, 1 53 ; oppressed by Elizabeth, 1 54; efforts of Hugh O'Neill to secure religious liberty for, 165-177; worship of, restored in some places by James I, 181 ; effect of revival of acts of Supremacy and Uniformity in reign of James I, on, 182 ; drilled and armed by Wentworth, 187 ; cruelty of, in army of Phelim O'Neill, 192 ; ef- fect of Confederation of Kil- kenny on, 193 ; lack of union among, 194, 195; persecution of, in Cromwell's time, 206-208; under disfavor of Charles II, 208- 211; restored to favor by James II, 211; Treaty of Limerick re- stores religious liberty to, 235, 236; absolute subjection of, 240; effect of Penal Laws of 1695-1697 on, 240, 241 ; effect of Penal Codes of 1703-1704 on, 243, 244; effect of Test and Schism Acts on, 244; effect of third set of Penal I^aws on, 244, 245; petition submitted to George III by, 274; Irish Par- liament grants franchise to, 274; attempts to emancipate, 275, 276 ; their attitude toward Union scheme, 286, 287 ; admitted to House of Commons, 301 ; admit- ted to all military and civil offices, 301 ; England's attitude toward, 317; oppose Fenians, 318; in America, 358, 359. Cauldron, ancient Irish bronze, picttire, 16. Cavan, Hugh O'Neill attacks the English at, 166. Cavan County, one of the seven counties into which Perrott di- 394 INDEX vided Ulster, 165; location, map, 180, B4. Cavendish, Lord Frederick, mur- dered in Phoenix Park, 328. Chalons, map, 247, E2. Charlemont Yon,pictiire, 191 ; taken by Phelim O'Neill, 191 ; location, map, 169, E2. Charlemont, James Caulfield, Earl of, 263, 270; helps form the " Whig Club," 273. Charles I, accession of, 184; du- plicity of, 185 ; methods of obtain- ing money from Ireland, 185 ; attitude and false overtures of, 194 ; tried and beheaded, 200. Charles II, proclaimed king, 201 ; restoration of, 208; passes Acts of Settlement and Explanation, 208, 209; divides land, favoring Pro- testants, 209, 210; reestablishes Anglican Church, 210 ; enforces act of Uniformity against the Presbyterians, 210. Chesterfield, Earl of, appointed lord lieutenant, 257 ; administration of, 257-. Christianity, introduced into Ireland by St. Patrick, 41-52 ; progress under St. Columba, 55-61 ; effect of the Norse invasion on, 78 ; under Malachias, 91, 92. Church Disestablishment, question of, first agitated, 317 ; parliament passes act disestablishing Protes- tant Episcopal church, 322 ; pro- visions of the act, 322. Cistercians, religious order, 121. Citaux, 121 ; map, 247, F2. Claims, court of, 209. Clairvaux, 121 ; map, 247, E2. Clanrickard, viap, 113, C3. Clare, one of the counties into which Connaught was divided in 1565, 159 ; map, 180, D3. Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, intro- duces statute of Kilkenny, 12S. Clifford, Sir Conyers, defeated and killed by O'Donnell in the battle of "The Yellow Pass," 171. Clonard, 57 ; map, 53, B3. Clondalkin, raided by Norsemen, 69 ; round tower of, 70 ; location, map, 53, B3. Clonmacnoise, Saint Kieran founds religious school at, 56; location, map, 53, B3. Clonmel, defence of, 204; map, 169, D4. Clontarf, battle of, 7nap, 53, B3. Clyde River, map, 247, D. Coercion Act, 293. Coleraine, one of the seven counties into which Perrott divided Ulster, 165. Cologne, map, 247, Fi. Columbanus, missionary on the con- tinent, 80 ; founds Bobbio, 81. Concobar, becomes chief of Emain, 20; captures Deirdre, 21 ; defeats hosts of Medb at battle of Gairec, 24. Confession of St. Patrick, 42-46. Cong, Cross of, picture, 93 ; loca- tion, map, 113, B3. Conn, son of Fedlimid, 29. Connaught, one of the four early kingdoms, 28 ; condition of, in the 13th century, 116; divided into six counties in 1 565, 1 59; O'Neill's insurrection in, 170; confiscation by Wentworth in, 186; location, map, 29, B2; 7nap, 180, C2, C3. Connemara, Norsemen slaughter people of, 67. Connor, De Burgo defeated by Bruce at, 118; location, map, 113, E2. ' /-> J. Conor, king of Connaught, 106; defeats Normans, 106. Constance, lake of, map, 247, F2. Cooldrevin, battle of, 58 ; map, 53, A2. Coote, Sir Charles, betrays Cole- raine, 203; parliamentarian leader, 204; sent by Ireton to besiege Athlone, 204; takes Athlone, 205; takes Galway, 206. Cork, surrenders to Cromwell, 203; surrenders to WiUiam, 228 ; loca- tion, map, 180, P2 3. Cork County, one of the twelve counties which King John estab- lished, 112; location, map, 180, E3- Cormac, king, personal appearance, 31 ; his reign and abdication, 32; his views on the duties of a king, INDEX 395 and of a royal host ; needs of the country, 36-38. Cormac's Chapel, 89. Cormac's Cxos\tx, picture, 91. Cornwallis, Marquis of, made lord lieutenant, 281; suppresses rebel- lion in Mayo in 1798, 281 ; his sys- tem of bribery, 284; presents Union scheme to Irish parliament, 285; efforts of, to secure adherents to the Union, 286; quotation from letter of, 287 ; further efforts to bribe patriots, 289. Corrib, Lake, 2 ; map, 180, C2. Costume of the native Irish of the fifteenth c^wtwry, picture, 136. Court Party, 253.' Credran, battle of, 116; map, 113, C2. Cremona, map, 247, G2. Crimes Act, 272. Croft, Sir James, lord lieutenant, attacks Shane's allies, the Mac- Donnells, 155. Cromer, Archbishop, opposes George Brown, Archbishop of Dublin, 151. Cromlechs, 6 ; history of, 7, 8. Cromwell, Oliver, England under the power of, 200; lands at Dub- lin, 202 ; issues two proclama- tions, 202 ; captures Drogheda, 202; takes Wexford, 203; marches southwest to Youghal, 203; takes Clonmel, 204; devastates Mun- ster, 203; leaves Ireland in care of Ireton and returns to England, 204; death of, 208. Cromwell, Richard, 208. Crook, Cape, map, 113, E4. Cruacan, capital of Connaught, 24; map, 53, B2. Cuculaind, warrior of Emain, 22 ; defeats Ferdiad, 24 ; defeats hosts of Medb at battle of Gairec, 24; death of, 25. Cullen, Dr., leader of Catholic party, opposes Fenians, 318. Culmore, Fort, 172; map, 169, Di. Curran, 270; joins others to form " Whig Club," 273. Curry, Dr., 258. Dagda's Harp, legend of, 3, 4. Dalriada, foundation of, 30; loca- tion, map, 29, Di, Ci ; map, 113, Ei. Danes, conflict over Dublin, 73 ; form an alliance with Brian Boru, 74; defeated at Clontarf, 76; plundered and slaughtered by Strongbow, 98. See also Norse- men. Danish ho^it, picture, 67. Danish weapons of tenth century, picture, yT,. Darcy, John, 345. Dati, nephew of Niall, king for twenty-three years, 40. Davitt, Michael, organizes the Land League, 325. De Bermingham, defeats Bruce at battle of Faughart, 120; mur- dered at Bragganstown, 125. De Burgo, appointed lord lieuten- ant, 103; his government, 103, 104. De Burgo, Dun Earl of Ulster, murder of, 125 ; quarrels over es- tate of, 126. De Burgo, Richard, the " red earl," 118; defeated by Bruce at Con- nor, 118, De Burgo, William, defeats Bruce at Athenry, 119. De Clare, Richard, " Strongbow," 96 ; lands at Waterford, 98 ; takes Wexford, 98 ; slaughters the Danes at Dublin, 98 ; besieged at Dublin, 99 ; made lord lieuten- ant of Ireland by Henry II, 100- 102; defeated at Thurles, 103; death of, 103. De Cogan, Miles, Norman noble appointed to assist De Burgo, 104. De Courcy, John, 100; Norman noble appointed to assist De Burgo, 104; expedition of, 104; captures and plunders Downpat- rick, 104 ; made lord lieutenant, 105; defeated twice in Con- naught, 106; proclaimed a traitor, 107. De Dananns, their coming to Ire- land, I ; conquer the Firbolgs at Southern Mag Tured, 3 ; defeat the Fomorians at Northern Mag 396 INDEX Tured, 3 ; introduce music into Ireland, 4 ; civilization of, 5 ; pur- sued north by the Milesians and defeated at Tailten, 10. Dee River, 23. " Defenders," Catholic secret so- ciety, 276. Deirdre, escapes to Scotland, 21 ; captured by Concobar, 21. De I.acy, Hugh, receives a grant of Meath, 100; his character, assas- sinated, 106. De Lacy, Hugh (the younger), his jealousy of De Courcy, 106, 107 ; in the war of Kildare, 1 1 5. Del Aguila, General Don Juan, lands at Kinsale with Spanish army to help O'Neill, 173; be- sieged in Kinsale by Mountjoy, 174; surrenders Kinsale, returns to Spain, and is put to death, 174. De Mandeville, Richard, murders De Burgo, Dun Earl of Ulster, 125. Denmark, map, 247, F. Derg, Lough, map, 180, D3. Derry, fort built at, 172; proclaims allegiance to William and Mary, 214; reception of James II at, 215; siege of, 215-218 ; location, map, 169, Di. Desmond, 67 ; map, 113, B2, C2. Desmond, Earl of, in the time of Henry VIII, enters into corre- spondence with Francis I of France, 145. Desmond, great Earl of, in time of Queen Elizabeth, 160 ; taken to London and kept in the Tower for six years, 160 ; liberated, 160 ; joins Geraldine rebellion, 161 ; killed, 162, Desmond, Maurice Fitzgerald, first Earl of, called by the lord lieu- tenant to aid the English against the Irish chiefs, 126. Desmond, Thomas Fitzgerald, eighth Earl of, appointed lord lieutenant, 135; founds college of Youghal, 135; execution of, 136. Devenish Island, religious settle- ment under Molaise at, 56 ; ruins of, picture, 57 ; location, map, 53, A3- Diarmaid, high king, 63. Dillon, Arthur, 340. Dillon, John Blake, founds " The Nation," 308. Dingle Bay, map, 180, Di. " Discoverers," 184. Disestablishment. See Church Dis- establishment. Dominicans, religious order founded by St. Dominick, 121. Domnall, high king, 63. Domnall, son of Aed, defeats Con- gall at battle of Moira, 64. Donaghpatrick, ancient church at, 55 ; location, niap, 53, B3. Donegal, map, 53, A2; map, 180, B3- Donegal Bay, map, 180, B3. Donegal County, one of the seven counties into which Perrott di- vided Ulster, 165 ; location, map, 113, C2 ; map, 180, B4. Donough, son of Brian Boru, 88. Down, one of the counties in Ul- ster, 165 ; surrendered by George Munro to Cromwell, 203 ; loca- tion, map, 180, B6. Downpatrick, first church estab- lished at, 48 ; description of fort at, 68 ; attacked by Norsemen, 68 ; battle of, 117 ; location, map, 53, A4; map, 113, F2. " Drapier Letters." 256. Drogheda, parliament of, 140; cap- tured by Cromwell, 202 ; battle of the Boyne near, 220 ; location, map, 169, E3; map, 180, C5. Druim-Ceatt, synod of, 59; 64. Druim-Ceatt, map, 53, A3. Drumcliff, St. Columba founds re- ligious school at, 60 ; map, 53, A2. Drumflugh, battle of, 168; map, 169, E2. Dublin Bay, map, 180, C5. Dublin, captured by Norsemen, 70; Norsemen defeated at, 70 ; Norse- men defeated by Malachi, the Great, at, 73 ; seat of one of the four archbishops, 92 ; captured by Strongbow, 98; Henry IPs army lands at, 99; becomes seat of the English government, 126; besieged by " Silken Thomas," INDEX 397 146; surrendered into the hands of the EngHsh parliamentarians, 198 ; location, 7nap, 53, B3 ; map, 113, E3 ; map, 169, E3. Dublin County, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112 ; outbreak of, in the Irish Rebellion, 278 ; loca- tion, map, I So, C5. Dublin Council, nominates Garrett Fitzgerald as lord lieutenant, 143 ; sends Bagenal to relieve Port- more, 16S; blame of O'Neill Rebellion laid on, by Elizabeth, 170. Dublin Government, favors English people in Ireland, 125; Ulster and Connaught rebel against, 126; condition of, in first part of the 14th centurv, 126; provisions of Statute of Kilkenny, 128, 129; condition of, under Henry II, 136; arbitrary character of, under Queen Elizabeth, 155. Dufferin and Ava, Marquis of, 368. Duffy, Charles Gavan, founds " The Nation," 308 ; 368. Dunanore, Fort, map, 180, Di. Dunboy, siege oi, pichire, 175; lo- cation, map, 169, B5. Dunboy Castle, 175; taken by Carew, 176. Dundalk, 120; surrenders to Crom- well, 203 ; location, ?Nap, 113, E2. Dundrum Bay, map, F2. Dundrum Castle, picture, 104; building of, 105. Dungannon, fort, taken by Phelim O'Neill, 191 ; Volunteer Con- vention at, 265, 266 ; location, map, 169, E2; map, 180, B5. Dunnalong, fort, 172 ; niap, 169, D2. Durrow, book of, 86. Durrow, St. Columba founds mon- astery at, 58 ; location, map, 53, B3. Edward VI, inaugurates system of planting English Protestant col- onies in Ireland, 153. Elizabeth, queen, enforces acts of Uniformity and Supremacy, 154; calls Shane O'Neill to England, and receives him at court, 157; recognizes Shane as head of the O'Neills, 158; enforcement of Protestant creed results in second Geraldine League and Geraldine Rebellion, 159-162; appoints Sir John Perrott lord lieutenant, 164 ; sends Essex with a large army to Ireland to march against O'Neill, 171 ; sends reinforcements to Essex, 171 ; death of, 177. Emain, building of, 20; map, 29, C54. Embargo Act, 261. Emmet, ];vobert, 291. Emly, map, 169, C4. Encumbered Estates Court Act, 314. English Parliament, decides Ire- land must be conquered, and appoints Cromwell lord lieu- tenant, 202 ; appoints Fleetwood lord lieutenant, 206; passes act dislodging Irish land owners in Ulster, Leinster, and Munster, 206 ; passes laws for Ireland, 242 ; passes Penal Codes of 1703 -1704, and Test and Schism Acts, 244; passes severe trade laws, 246; prohibits exportation, 247 ; passes laws ruining manufactures, 249 ; attacked in Molyneux book, 254; passes Octennial Act, 259, 260; passes Embargo Act, 261 ; repeals some of the Penal Laws and Test and Embargo Acts, 262; removes trade restrictions, 263, 264; passes the Sixth of George I, 255; passes Act of Repeal, which repealed Poynings' Law and the Sixth of George I, 267 ; passes Act of Renunciation, 267 ; rejects Orde's bill, 271 ; passes Pitt's trade bill, 271 ; Pitt's Union scheme brought before, and op- posed by Sheridan and Foster, 286; English soldiers sent to Ire- land by, 289 ; passes Act of Union, uniting English and Irish parlia- ments, the Irish Insurrection Act, Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, Martial Continuation Act, and Coercion Acts, 293 ; raises fran- chise in Ireland, 301 ; passes Poor Law Act, 305 ; repeals 398 INDEX Corn Laws and opens Ireland to free trade, 313; passes new Co- ercion Act, 316; realizes Irish grievances must be redressed, 321, 322 ; passes act for the Dis- establishment of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ireland, 322 ; passes Land Bill and estab- lishes Land Court in Ireland, 327 ; passes first Land Purchase Act, 329 ; passes Second Land Purchase Bill, 330 ; passes Third Land Purchase Bill, 332 ; passes Local Government J^ct, 233 > passes Wyndham's Land Pur- , chase Act, 334, 335. Enniscorthy, 279; map, 169, E4. Enniskillen, battle of, 219; ma/>, 53, A3 ; map, 169, U2. Eocaid, son of Muireadac, 39. Eocaid, last king of the Firbolgs, 2. Erne, Lough, 219; map, 53, A3; map, 180, B4. Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of, sent to Ireland with a large army to march against O'Neill, 171 ; attacks Munster Geraldines, but is unsuccessful, 171 ; obliged to ask Queen for new army, 171 ; re- turns to England, and is exe- cuted, 171. Europe with places mentioned in connection with Irish History, map, 247. Eustace, James, Viscount Baltin- glass, 161 ; defeats Lord Grey, 162. Explanation, Act of, 209. Famine, the great, 1845-47, 310. Faughart, battle of, 120; map, 113, E2. Fenians, organizations of, 318; op- posed by Catholic Church, 318 ; effect of death of McManus on, 318, 319; tendency toward re- bellion of, 319 ; arrest of leaders, 319, 320; end of the rebellion, 320. Ferdiad, killed by Cuculaind, 24. Fergus, displaced by Concobar, 20 ; sent to capture Deirdre, 21 ; re- volt of, 22. Ferguson, Sir Samuel, 375. Fermanagh, one of the seven coun- ties into which Perrott divided Ulster, 165; map, 180, B4. Ferns, 278 ; map, 169, E4. Fiaca, king for thirty years, 39. " Fifty-one Graces," 185; rendered ineffective by Wentworth, 186. Find, leader of Cormac's Army, 32 ; as a poet, 34. Finnacta, tries to levy Boruma tri- bute, 64. Firbolgs, defeated by the De Da- nanns at Southern Mag Tured, 3. Fitzgerald, Duke of Leinster, 263. Fitzgerald, Lord Edward, prime mover in Irish Rebellion, 278. Fitzgerald, Garrett. See Kildare, eighth and ninth Earls of. Fitzgerald, James, brother of the Earl of Desmond, joins FitzMau- rice against the English, 161 ; exe- cuted, 161. Fitzgerald, James FitzMaurice, the leader of the Geraldine rebellion against English authorities, [60; forced to give up struggle, 160; flees to France and Spain, 160: re- turns six years later with Spanish soldiers, i6r ; killed, 161. Fizgerald, John, brother of the Earl of Desmond, imprisoned in the Tower six years, 160; liberated, 160; joins FitzMaurice and de- feats English, 161 ; killed, 161. Fitzgerald, Maurice. See Desmond, first Earl of. Fitzgerald, Maurice, of Wales, 97. Fitzgerald, Maurice, in the " War of Kildare," 115 ; invades Ulster, 116. Fitzgerald, Prime Sergeant, 286. Fitzgerald, Raymond, commander of Strongbow's army, 102 ; raids Ireland, plundering Leinster, 102 ; returns to Wales, 103 ; comes again and takes Limerick, 103. Fitzgerald, Thomas. See Desmond, eighth Earl of. Fitzgerald, Thomas. See Kildare, tenth Earl of. Fitzgerald, Vesey, accepts office of President of the Board of Trade, 300 ; his reelection to Parliament opposed by O'Connell, 300. INDEX 399 Fitzgibbon, 265 ; opposes admission of Catholics to parliament, 275. Fitzgibbon, Lieutenant, 366. Fitzstephen, Robert, 97 ; attacks Wexford, 97 ; appointed to assist De Burgo, [04. Fitzwilliam, Earl, comes to Ireland as lord lieutenant, 275; resigns, 276. Fleetwood, Charles, made lord lieu- tenant, 206; organizes high court of justice, 206. Flood, Henry, picticrey 259; helps in the struggle for free trade, 263 ; quarrel with Grattan, 270 ; pre- sents reform bill to parliament and is defeated, 270 ; opposes Pitt's bill to regulate trade, 272. Fomorians, defeated by the De Dananns at Northern Mag Tu- red, 3. Fontaines, 80 ; map, 247, F2. Fontenoy, 341 ; map, 247, Ei. " Forty-Seven, The Black," 310. Foster, John, speaker of the Irish House, 286 ; opposes Pitt in Eng- lish House of Commons, 286. Fox, his feeling about the Union, 291. Foyle, Lough, landing of the De Dananns at, i ; English fort at, 171; location, map, i; map, 180, A4. Foyle River, 218; map, 180, B4. France, Irish in, 340-344. Franciscans, religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi, 121. Franconia, 77iap, 247, Fi. " Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, The," society in America, 352, 353- Gaelic, revival of, 378, 379. Gaelic Invasion, 10. Gairec, battle of, 24. Galicia, 9 ; map, 247, I2. Gallowglasses, 157, note. Gallus, lays foundation of the mon- astery of St. Gall, 80. Galtee Mts., 72; 7nap, 53, B2. Galway, besieged and captured by Sir Charles Coote, 206; surrend- ers to Ginkel, 233 ; location, map, 113, C3 ; map, 169, B3. Galway Bay, map, 180, C2. Galway County, one of the coun- ties into which Connaught was divided in 1565, 159; map, 180, C2. Gardiner, Luke (afterwards Lord Mountjoy), presents bill to Irish parliament for repeal of penal laws against Catholics, 262; sup- ports Grattan in his efforts to secure free trade, 263 ; introduces measures in parliament for further repeal of the penal laws, 266. Gartan, 57 ; map, 53 A3. Gavra, battle of, 38; map, 29, C2. Genealogical Tables, 33, 40. Genoa, 81 ; map, 247, F3. George I, Act of the Sixth of, 255; grants patent for coining money to Duchess of Kendal, 255, 256. George II, 244. George HI, 262 ; " Back Lane Par- liament " submits petition for re- peal of the penal laws to, 274. George IV, signs Catholic Emanci- pation bill, 300. Geraldine League, first, 148 ; at- tacked by Lord Grey, 152. Geraldine League, second, cause, 159, 160; rebellion resulting from, 160-162. Gibraltar, 8 ; 7nap, 247, C4. Ginkel, General, left in command of army by William, 228 ; Kinsale and Cork surrender to, 228 ; tries to check plundering of the " Rap- parees," 229 ; takes Athlone, 230- 232 ; efforts of, to end the war, 232; prepares to advance on Gal- way, 232 ; defeats the Irish at Aughrim, 232, 233 ; Galway and Sligo surrender to, 233 ; besieges Limerick, 234 ; made Earl of Athlone by William, 236. Giraldus Cambrensis, his history, 106. Gladstone, William Ewart, his feel- ing about the Union, 291 ; realizes that England must redress Irish grievances, 321, 322 ; his efforts cause parliament to pass Act for the Disestablishment of the Prot- estant Episcopal Church in Ire- land, 322 ; picture, 327 ; his Land 400 INDEX Bill, 327, 328 ; his agreement with Parnell, 328 ; tries to get Home Rule 13111 passed, 330 ; efforts to get second Home Rule Bill passed 332 ; retires from public life, 332. Glendalough, St. Kevin establishes church and school at, 56 ; loca- tion, map, 53, B3. Glen Druid, 7 ; 7nap, 29, C2, Gloucester, Earl of, conference of, with Art MacMurrogh, 132; //V- ture, 133. Goldsmith, Oliver, life and works of, 370-372 ; fictiire, 371. Gorey, Ijattle fought at, 279; map, 169, E4. Gough, General Sir Hugh, career of, 363. Grace, Richard, 345. Grattan, Henry, picture, 258 ; cham- pion of the Irish cause, 259 ; his amendment to the Address to the king, 263; his resolu- tions favoring legislative inde- pendence, 264 ; his quarrel with Flood, 270; opposes Pitt's bill to regulate trade, 272; presents bill for admission of Catholics to parliament, 275 ; resigns from parliament, 277 ; death of, 298. Grave, 345 ; map, 247, Fi. Great Civil Assembly of 1167, 94. Greece, 345; inap, 247, I4. Grey, Lord, marches against " Silk- en Thomas," 148 ; lord lieuten- ant, 152. Grey, Lord, of Wilton, defeated by James Eustace, 162; bombards Fort Dunanore and massacres garrison, 162; recalled to Eng- land, 162. Gullian, Slieve, map, 113, E2. Habeas Corpus Act, 293. Hamilton, tries to capture fort on Windmill Hill, 216, 217 ; besieges Derry, 217-218. Hand, General Edward, 351. Hasting, Sir Francis Rawdon, ca- reer of, 362. "Hearts of Oak," 251. " Hearts of Steel," 251. Henry II, lands at Dublin with large army of Normans, 99 ; divides Ireland up among the Normans, 100 ; appoints Strongbow lord lieutenant, 102 ; sends Prince John to Ireland, 105. Henry III, 115. Henry V, condition of Ireland under, 134. Henry VI, condition of Ireland under, 134. Henry VIII, accession of, 142; writes book attacking Martin Lu- ther's views, 150 ; excommunica- tion of, 151 ; declares himself supreme head of the church in Ireland, 151 ; becomes "King of Ireland " instead of ** Lord of Ireland," 152 ; divides Meath into two coun"' 3, 152. Hogan, John Sheridan, 367. Holycross hh\i&y, picture, 121. Home Rule, Lord Spencer and Gladstone convinced of necessity of, 328 ; discussed by Lord Salis- bury, 329; Gladstone attempts to secure, 330; failure of second bill for, 332 ; effect of Local Govern- ment Act on, 333. Howth, plundered by Norsemen, 67 ; location, map, 53, B3 ; map^ 113, E3. Humbert, General, lands at Killala with French army, 281. Hutchinson, 263, 265. Hyde, Douglas, 379. Inishowen, map, 113, Di. Innismurray island, religious settle- ment on, 56; map, 53, A2. Insurrection, Act of, 293. "Invincibles," secret society, 328. lona, raided by Norsemen, 67. lona Island, 58 ; viap, 247 C. Ireland, in prehistoric times, ii- 13 ; life of early races in, 13 ; political growth of, 27-33 5 social life in third century, 34-39; Chris- tianity introduced by St. Patrick into, 41-46 ; early schools and churches in, 55-63; political growth during period of saints and scholars, 63-65 ; raids of the Norsemen in, 66-77 ; condition INDEX 401 of, at end of Norse Invasion, 78- 80 ; students in, 83 ; political di- visions in the nth century, 87; struggle for the High Kingship, 88, 92 ; the first synod in, 91 ; arch- bishoprics of, in the 12th century, 92 ; first great national assembly in, 94; coming of the Normans, 96-107 ; introduction of Norman law, 112-115; condition of, in the 13th century, 11 5-1 17; Bruce's invasion of, 1 18-120; beginning of English rule in, 124-138; rise and fall of the Geraldinesin, 139- 147; reformation, 150-162; re- bellion of, under Elizabeth, 164- 177 ; plantation system in, 178- 188 ; Irish rebellion, 189-200 ; ef- fect of Cromwell's government and the restoration on, 201-212; Jacobite wars in, 213-237 ; effect of Penal Laws on, 237-250 ; the struggle for legislative independ- ence, 253-268; rebellion in, ended, 269-281 ; effect of Act of Union on, 290, 291 ; financial condition of, early in the 19th century, 296, 297 ; beginning of a free press in, 309; decrease in population due to emigration, 310, 311 ; dis- establishment of Protestant Epis- copal Church in. effect of efforts to secure Home Rule for, 3-S-333. Ireland, Archbishop, his admirable plan of settlements, 357, 358. Ireland, maps of, pagan, 29 ; with places mentioned from the intro- duction of Christianity to iioo, 53 ; with some of the ancient earldoms and dukedoms, 113; places mentioned during the wars after 1582, 169; political divisions of, 1 600-1 900; map, 180. Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law, left in charge of Ireland, 204 ; takes Limerick, 204, 205 ; death of, 205. Irish Books, 85. Irish Elk, skeleton oi, picture, 12. Irish Harp, //r/«r^, 75. Irish in America, before the Revo- lution, 348; in the Revolutionary War, 350-352 ; " The Society of Friendly Sons of St. Patrick," 352, 353 ; emigration before and after tlie famine, 353, 354 ; in the Civil War, 354, 355 ; Fenian movement, 355, 357 ; Archbishop Ireland's settlements, 357, 358; Catholic church, 358. Irish in the British Empire, in India, 360-365 ; in Canada, 365-368 ; in Australia, 368, 369. Irish knights and their attendants in iz^2\, picttire, 147. Irish Literary Revival, 370-379. Irish on the Continent, troops in European armies, 339 ; in France, 340-344 ; in Spain and Austria, 334,. 335 ; in Portugal, 345 ; other distinguished Irishmen, 346, 347. Irish Parliament, foundation of, laid by Henry II, 136; effect of Poynings' Law on, 139-141 ; passes Act of Supremacy in Ire- land, 151 ; changes Plenry VIII's title to "King of Ireland," 152; native chiefs first invited to, 152; renews Act of Supremacy in 1558, 154; revives Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity in reign of James I, 183; extends uniform protection to English and Irish alike, 183, 184 ; passes Acts of Settlement and Explanation, and restricts cattle trade, 208, 209; assembled at Dublin by James II, 215; de- clares Catholic doctrine false and itself independent of the English parliament, 237 ; passes Penal Laws, 240, 241 ; petitions Ormond to extend Penal Code, 243; passes third set of Penal I>aws, 244, 245; destroys wool trade, 248 ; its condition in the i8th century, 253, 254; eftect of Annesley Case on, 254-255 ; passes Mutiny Bill, 264; repeals some of the Penal Laws, 266, 267 ; effect of Act of Re- peal on, 267 ; rejects Flood's re- form bill, 270 ; practically defeats Pitt's bill, 272 ; grants franchise to Catholic land-owners, 274; passes Convention and Gunpow- der Acts, 275 ; passes Insurrection Act and suspends Habeas Corpus 402 INDEX Act, 276, 277 ; Pitt's sclieme to abolish, 283 ; Cornwallis presents Union scheme to, 285; defeats Union scheme,286 ; meets for the last time and passes the Union Bill, 289, 290. Irish Parliament House, Dublin, picture, 289. " Irish People," newspaper pub- lished in Dublin, 319. Irish Sea, Jtiap, i ; map, 180, C6. Irish Soldier of \ ^2, picture, 156. Irish teachers, 81, 82. Irvine, General William, commands regiment in Pennsylvania and later enters Congress, 351. Italy, niap, 247, G3. Jacobites, who they were, 213; at- tack Derry, 216. James I, ascends English throne, 178; pictui-e of, 17S ; Acts of Su- premacy and Uniformity revived in reign of, 181, 182 ; confiscates and divides greater part of Ulster up among " undertakers " " servi- tors " and " old natives," 182 ; extends English law to Ireland, 183; confiscates land through the law courts, 184; death of, 184. James II, restores Catholicism, 211; appoints Talbot lord lieutenant, 211 ; attempts to repeal Act of Settlement, 211 ; flees to France, 212 ; lands at Kinsale with French force, 215; hostile reception of, at Derry, 215 ; withdraws to Dub- lin and assembles a parliament, . 215; confiscates lands of Wil- liam's adherents, 215; sends a force against Enniskillen, 219; defeated by William in the battle of the Boyne, 220-222 ; embarks for France, 223. Johannes Scotus Erigena, 82. John, Prince, later King, Lord of Ireland, lands with army at Waterford, 105; defeated, 105; becomes King of England, in; lands with army at Cape Crook, 112; divides Ireland into twelve counties, 112; establishes Nor- man law, 112. Jones, Colonel, governor of Dublin, defeats Preston, 199 ; defeats Ormond at Dublin, 201. Joyce, Dr., 379. Kavanagh, Art MacMurrogh, rebels against Statute of Kilkenny, 129 ; submits to Richard II, 130 ; de- feats the English at Kells, 131 ; pursues Richard IPs army through Wicklow Mts., 132; close of career, 132-134; his meeting with Gloucester, picture, 133. Kavanagh, Edward, minister of Portugal, 346. Kells, Book of, 85 ; facsimile of a page oi, picture, 85. Kells, St. Columba founds monas- tery at, 57 ; map, 53, B3. Kelvin, Lord, 369. Kenmare, 117; map, 113, B5. Kenmare Bay, landing of sons of Milid on strand of, 10; location, map, I, map, 29, A3. Keogh, John, his plan for the elec- tion of Catholics to parliament, 299, 300. Keogh, Matthew, executed, 280. Kerns, 157, note. Kerry, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112; map, 180, D2. Kildare, Garrett Fitzgerald, eighth (Great) Earl of, lord lieutenant, 136, 139 ; trial of, 141 ; again made lord lieutenant, 142 ; defeats Burke at battle of Knockdoe, 142 ; invades Munster, and is badly de- feated, 142; death of, 143. Kildare, Garrett Fitzgerald, ninth Earl of, nominated lord lieuten- ant, r43 ; called to England and tried, 144; returns to Ireland, and is reappointed lord lieutenant, 144; again called to England and tried, 145; reappointed lord lieu- tenant, 145 ; imprisonment and death, 146. Kildare, Thomas Fitzgerald, tenth Earl of, son of Garrett Fitzgerald, called "Silken Thomas," 146; lays siege to Dublin, 146; sur- renders to Lord Grey, 148. Kildare, church founded by St. Bridget at, 53 ; map, 53, B3. INDEX 403 Kildare County, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112; outbreak in, durin'g the Irish Rebellion, 278 ; location, map^ 113, E3 ; map, 180, C5. Kilkenny, confederation of, 193 ; parliament of, 194. Kilkenny County, one of the twelve counties into which King John di- vided Ireland, 112 ; map, 180, D4. Killala, Humbert, with French army, lands at, 281 ; map, iSo, B2. Killarney, lake of, map, 29, B3. Kincora, 75 ; map, 53, B2. King John's Q2iSX\Q, picture, 119. King's County organized, 154; map, 180, C4. Kinsale, Spaniards under Aguila land at, 173; battle of, 174; James II lands at, with French force, 215; surrenders to Wil- liam, 228. Knockdoe, battle of, 142 ; map, 180, Knocknacloy, hill of, 196. Knox, Major-General, 351- Laegaire, son of Niall, king for thirty years, 40 ; visited by St. Patrick, 49. Lagan River, 171 ; map, 180, B5. Lake, General, government com- mander, takes Wexford, 280, Lally, governor at Pondicherry, 346. Lambay Island, plundered and burned by the Norsemen, 67 ; lo- cation, map, I ; map, 29, C2, Land Bill, Gladstone's, its provi- sions and benefits, 327, 328. Land Court, 327, Land League, formation and ob- jects, 325, 326. Landen, Sarsfield killed at, 340 ; map, 247, Fi. Landlords, condition of, 314 ; effect of Encumbered Estates Court Act on, 314, 315; " Ribbonmen " and " Tenants' League " formed against, 315, 316; effect of Land Purchase Acts on, 324, 336. Land Purchase, principle of, 324, 325 ; first Land Purchase Act, 329 ; second Land Purchase Act, 330; third Land Purchase Act, 332 ; Wyndham's Land Purchase Act, 334, 335 ; success of, 335. Land system, evils of, 294, 296. Languedoc, map, 247, E3. Larne, Edward Bruce with army lands at, 118; map, 113, F2. Lauzun, French general, 225 ; re- tires to Galway with troops, 225. Lee River, map, 180, E3. Leinster, one of the four early kingdoms, 28 ; plundered by Nor- mans, 102 ; condition of, between 1216-1315, 115; Geraldine rebel- lion in, 161 ; O'Neill's rebellion in, 170 ; devastated by Mountjoy, 172, 173; confiscation in, 184; churches destroyed in, 281 ; lo- cation, map, 29, C2 ; map, 180, C4, Ds. Leitrim, one of the counties into which Connaught was divided in 1565, 159; viap, 180, B3. Leix, 189; map, 113, D4. Liffey River, 70 ; map, 53, B3 ; map, 180, C5. Limerick, captured by Ireton, 204, 205 ; retreat of the Irish troops to, from the Boyne, 222 ; first siege of, 225-228 ; condition of, 226 ; second siege of, 223-235 ; treaty of, 235, 236; its violation, 239, 240; location, map, 113, C4; map, 180, D3. Limerick, in Charles II's time, pic- ture, 205 ; to-day, picture, 234. Limerick County, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112; location, map, 53, B2 ; map, 180, D3. Lindisfarne, monastery of, founded, 62 ; map, 247, D. Lisburn surrenders to Cromwell, 202; map, 169, E2. Lismore, 81; map, 113, D4; map, 247, Cr. Livonia, map, 247, I. Local Government Act, 333. Londonderry, cathedral of, picture, 216; town-house 2X, picture, 218. Londonderry, map, 180, B5. Longford County, formed out of Annaly in 1565, 159; map, 180, C4. 404 INDEX Louth County, one of the twelve counties into which King John di- vided Ireland, 112; map, 180, C5. Lucas, Charley, attempts to recover lost rights of Parliament, 258 ; efforts toget Octennial Bill passed, 260. Ludlow, General Edmund, succeeds Ireton, 205. Lundy, Colonel, made governor of Derry, 214; forced to take oath of allegiance to William and Mary, 215 ; suspected of treachery and leaves Ireland, 216. Lusk, plundered, 69 ; map^ 53, B3. Lugaid, son of Laegaire, 40. Luther, Martin, 150. Luxeuil, 80 ; map, 247, F2. Maca, Queen, 20; hill of, 20. McCarthy, Justin, Lord Mount- cashel, 340, 345. McCormac, Sir William, 369. MacDonald, John A., 367. MacUonnells, of Rathlin Island, attacked by Croft, 155; attacked by Shane O'Neill, 158. MacDurnan, Book of, 86. McGee, Thomas D'Arcy, 367, 368. MacMahon, Marshal, on horseback, picture, 342 ; early history of, 342 ; his services to the French, 343 ; Irishmen in the French Republic during the presidency of, 343, 344. McManus, death of, 318. MacMurroghjDermot, king of Lein- ster, banished, 96; brings the Normans to Ireland, 96, 97; at- tacks Wexford, 97 ; takes Water- ford, 98 ; death of, 98. Magenta, 343; 77iap, 247, F2. Maguire, ally of Hugh O'Neil, 166, 168. Mahon, brother of Brian Boru, de- feated by Norsemen, 72. Mahony, wins victories for the French in Sicily, 341. Malachi, the Great, 72 ; captures Norsemen at Dublin, 73; defeats king of Leinster, 74; overpowered by Brian Boru, 74 ; aids Brian Boru in battle with the king of Leinster, 76; again High King, 87. Malachias, Archbishop, his good qualities, 91, 92. Malplaquet, 341 ; tnap, 247, Ei . Maps, Path of Ireland's Early In- vaders, I ; Pagan Ireland, 29; Plan of Tara, 31 ; Places men- tioned in Irish History from In- troduction of Christianity to 1 100, 53; Ireland with some of the ancient Earldoms and Dukedoms, 113; Places mentioned in Irish History dufing the wars after 1582, 169; Political Divisions of Ireland, 1600-1900, 180; Europe with places mentioned in connec- tion with Irish History, 247. Marianus Scotus, 82. Marisco, Geoffrey, his part in the " War of Kild'are," 115. Marshall, Richard, murdered, 115. Martial Continuation Act, 293. Mary, Queen, effect of her reign on Ireland, 153, 154. Mask, Lake, 2 ; map, 29 B 2 ; mapy 180, C 2. Matthew, Father, crusade of, 306. Maynooth, college of, founded by English government, 276; in 1821, picture, 303. Maynooth, siege of, 147; ynap, 180, C5. Mayo, one of the counties into which Connaught was divided in 1565, 159; map, 180, C2. Meagher, General, what the Hon. Francis Lawley says of, 354, 355. Meath County, one of the twelve countiesestabUshed by King John, 112; condition of between 1216 and 131 5, 1 1 5 ; divided into Meath and West Meath by Henrv VIII, 152 ; outbreak in, during the Irish Rebellion, 278; location, w^/, 180, C5. Meath, kingdom of, formation of, 28 ; map, 29, C2. Medb, Queen, 22 ; defeated by Cu- culaind, 23 ; defeated by Conco- bar at Battle of Gairec, 24. Meeting of Art MacMurrogh Ka- vanagh and Gloucester, picture, 133- Milan, 81 ; map, 247, F2. Milesians, invade Ireland, 10; de- INDEX 405 feat De Dananns at Tailten, 10; early life of, 14-16; laws of, 16; growth into a tribe, 17. Minorca Island, map, 247, E3. Missions, of Columba, ^9; of Col- umbanus, 80, 81 ; of Ciallus, 80; of Marianus Scotus, 82. Mitchel, John, advocates total sep- aration from England, 309. Mog Nuadat, 29. Moira, battle of, 64; map, 53, A3. Molaise, founds religious settlement on Devenish Island, 56. Moloney, Sir Cornelius, 369. ' Molyneux, William, book of, de- stroyed, 254. Monaghan, one of the seven coun- ties into which Perrott divided Ulster, 165 ; besieged by Hugh O'Neill, 167; map, 180, B5. Monasterboice, High Cross of, pie- hire, 55; school founded at, 55; fnap, 53, B3. Monastic orders and abbeys, 120- 122; dispersed and destroyed, Monck, Lord, 368. Montgomery, General Richard, 351. " Moon Lighters," secret societv, 328. Moore, Thomas, first nineteenth century Irish writer, 374-375 ; piehire, 374. Mornington, Garrett Wellesley, Earl of, his career, 360. Mortimer, Roger, Earl of March, left in authority over Ireland, 131 ; killed at Kells, 132. Mountcashel, Justin McCarthy, Lord, 340, 345. Mountjoy, Lord, lord lieutenant of Ireland, 172; devastates Leinster, [72, 17: larches north and de- vastates Ulster, 173; besieges Spaniards at Kinsale and is hemmed in by O'Neill and O'Don- nell, 174 ; defeats O'Neill and O'Donnell, 174. Mountjoy, Lord. See Gardiner, Luke. Moville, St. Finnian establishes school at, 56; map, 53, A4. Moylan, Stephen, briga'dier-general, 351. Muireadac, King, 39. Mulholland, Rosa, 378. Munro, Robert, 192; prepares to be- gin campaign against Irish under O'Neill, 195; intercepted, 196; attacks O'Neill at Eenburb, 196 ; defeaied and forced back into the river, 197 ; flees to Carrickfergus. 198. Munster, one of the four early king- doms, 28; troubles in, during the 13th century, 117; Geraldine re- bellion in, 161 ; O'Neill's rebel- lion in, 170; devastated by Carew, 172 ; failure of the plantation in, 181 ; confiscation of, by Went- worth, 1S6 ; devastated by Crom- well, 204; location, juap, 29, Bi ; map, 180, D2. Murphy, Father John, one of the leaders in the Irish Rebellion in Wexford, 279; executed, 280. Murphy, Father Michael, 280. Names, Irish, derivation of, 380-389. Namur, siege of, 340; map, 247, Fr. Neagh, Lough, map, 53, A3; map, 180, B5. Netherlands, map, 247, Fi. Newgrange, pyramid at, picture, 4; plan of chambers in pyramid, picture, 5. New Ross, battle fought at, 279 ; map, 169, E4. Newry, fort, taken by Phelim O'Neill, 191 ; surrenders to Crom- well, 202 ; location, wrt'/, 169, E2. Newtonbarry, attacked by insur- gents in the Irish Rebellion, 279. Niall, of the Nine Hostages, son of Eocaid, 39. Niall, son of Aed, 72. Norman Castles, 108-110. Norman knight and foot-soldier, picture, 99. Norman Law, 112; condition in 14th century, 127-129. Normandy, iii; map, 247,02. Normans, invade Ireland under Strongbow, 96-98 ; under Llenry II, 99, 100 ; who they were, loi ; their conquest of Britain !oi ; their government in Irelana, 102- 406 INDEX 105 ; under Strongbow, 102, 103 ; under De Burgo, 104, 105; under De Courcy, 106; their genius for fortification, 108 ; defend their position in Ireland with castles, 108-1 10 ; their armor and disci- pline, no. III ; their system of law introduced, 1 1 2- 1 1 5 ; defeated by Bruce, 118-120; condition of, after Bruce's invasion, 120; their feuds with the English, 125. Norris, Sir John, lands in Ireland with army, t66; plans campaign against d'Neill and his followers, and takes Portmore, 168; killed at battle of Drumflugh, 168. Norsemen, character of invasions of, 66, 67 ; Lambay plundered and burned by, 67 ; attacks on lona, Innismurray, Connemara, and Howth, 67 ; Downpatrick at- tacked by, 68 ; defeated by Cair- bre, 69 ; raid on Armagh, 69 ; raid on Clondalkin, 70 ; defeated at Dublin, 70; fortify Cork, 71 ; defeated by King Aed in S53, 71 ; defeat Brian Boru and Mahon, 72 ; defeated by Brian Boru at Sulcoit, 72; driven from Dublin by Malachi the Great, 73. See also Danes. North, Lord, recommends the resto- ration of free trade, 263. North Channel, wa/, 180, A5. North Sea, map, 247, Ei. Northern Mag Tured, battle of, 3. " Northern Whig Club," 273. Nuadat, leader of the De Da- Oates, Titus, 211. O'Brien, Daniel, 340. O'Brien, Donall, king of Thomond, defeats Strongbow at Thurles, 103; defeats Prince John's army, 105. O'Brien, Judge Morgan J., 357. O'Brien, Murketagh, son of Tur- logh, 88 ; leaves throne and en- ters a monastery, 92, O'Brien, Turlogh, grandson of Brian Boru, 88. O'Connell, Daniel, speech of, about Union scheme, 287 ; picture, 288; early history of, 288, 289 ; ef- forts of, toward emancipation, 297; forms "Catholic Associa- tion," 298 ; opposes Vesey Fitzger- ald's election to parliament, 300; becomes lawful member of the English parliament, 301 ; efforts of, to have parliament abolish tithe system, 306; efforts toward repeal of Union Act, 307 ; arrest of, 308 ; attitude toward the " Young Ire- land Party," 309; death of, 309, 310 ; his monument at Glasnevin, picture, 309. O'Connor, Charles, distinguished antiquarian, 258. O'Conor, Phelim, seizes throne of Connaught, 116. O'Conor, Phelim, the younger, 118; joins Bruce ; defeated and killed at Athenry, 119. O'Conor, Roderick, son of Turlogh O'Conor, 93 ; attacks Norsemen in Dublin, 93 ; first great civil assembly called by, 94 ; calls as- semblyto settle boundary dispute, 95 ; besieges Dublin, 99. O'Conor, Turlogh, becomes High King, 92. Octennial Bill, 259. O'Donnell, Duke of Tetuan, 345. O'Donnell, Godfrey, defeats Fitz- gerald at Credran and O'Neill at the Swilly, 116. O'Donnell, Hugh. See Tyrconnell, Earl of. O'Donnell, Hugh Roe. See Tyrcon- nell, Earl of. O'Donnell, Rory. See Tyrconnell, Earl of. O'Dwyer, commander of Belgrade, 346. Offaly, map, 113, D3. Oilioll, son of Dati, 40. Oirgialla (Oriel), map, 113, E2. Oldbridge, 220; map, 169, E3. " (Jld Ireland Party," 308. Old Irish, one of the four parties in Ireland in the early part of 17th century, 192 ; Owen Roe O'Neill becomes leader of, 193. " Old natives," receive a portion of Ulster from James I, 1S2. O'Leary, John, yj^. INDEX 407 O'Loughlin, chief of the family of Niall, 89 ; leaves throne and en- ters a monastery, 92. O'Loughlin, Murketagh, king of Ulster, marches against Dublin and is successful, 93 ; death of, 94. O'Mahony, Fenian leader, 318 ; holds convention in Chicago, 319. O'Moore, of Leix, one of the leaders in the Irish Rebellion, 189. O'Neill, Conn. See Tyrone, Earl of. O'Neill, Count de Tyrone, his ac- count of the Irish in Portugal, 345- O'Neill, Count Santa Monica, tutor of King Don Carlos, 346. O'Neill, Donall, 118. O'Neill, Hugh. See Tyrone, Earl of. O'Neill, Hugh, nephew of Owen Roe O'Neill, defeat by Cromwell at Clonmel, 204. O'Neill, Matthew, son of Conn O'Neill, made baron of Dungan- non, with right to succeed to fa- ther's titles, 152; struggles with his brother Shane for father's ti- tles, 155, 156; murdered by allies of Shane O'Neill, 156. O'Neill, Owen Roe, chosen leader of the Irish Rebellion, 190; abil- ity of, 190; picture, 190; takes command of the Old Irish, 193 ; intercepts Munro, 196; position of his army at the battle of Ben- burb, 196; defeats Munro at bat- tle of Benburb, 197 ; extent of his victory, 198 ; success of, 198, 199 ; death of, 203. O'Neill, Sir Phelim, one of the leaders in the Irish Rebellion, 189; execution of, 206. O'Neill, Shane. See Tyrone, Earl of. Oona Water, 196. " Orangemen," Protestant society, 276. Orde, Chief Secretary, prepares commerce bill, 271. O'Reilly, Count Alexander, his ser- vices to Austria and Spain, 345. O'Reilly, John Boyle, life of, 356; quotation from his writings, 356 ; picture, 357. Ormond, mcip, 113, D4. Ormond, Earl of, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, 160; takes sides with the English against the Ger- aldine rebellion, i6r. Ormond, James Butler, Duke of, appointed lord lieutenant in 1644, 194 ; hands Dublin over to par- liamentarian army and flees to France, 19S ; returns to Ireland, 199; proclaims Charles liking, 201 ; defeated by Colonel Jones at Dublin, 201. Ormond, James Butler, second Duke of, appointed lord lieuten- ant in 1704, 242 ; picture, 242. Ormond, Pierre Roe Butler, Earl of, 143; made lord lieutenant, 144 ; territory of, invaded by Gar- rett Fitzgerald, 145; directed to enforce the Act of Supremacy in Ireland, 151. O'Rorke, Sir George, 369. Orsay, map, 247, E2. Ossin, the poet, son of Find, 35, 36- Ossory, map, 113, D4. Ostend, 345 ; viap, 247, Ei. O'SuUivan, Donall, chief of Bear and Bantry, defeated by Carew at Dunboy Castle, 176 ; his rharch north, 176. O'Toole, Archbishop, 98, 99. Oudenarde, 341 ; map, 247, Ei. Oulart, 279. Oxford, map, 247, Di. Pagan Ireland, map, 29. "Pale, The," 126; colonists leave, 127; condition within, 136; loca- tion, map, 180, C5. Paris, map, 247, E2. Parliament of 1541, 152. Parliamentarians, Dublin in the hands of, 198 ; England com- pletely in power of, 2Co; defeat Ormond, 201 ; Ireland virtually in power of, 204. Parnell, Charles Stewart, picture, 325; his interest in Land League, 325,326; parliamentary party of, 326 ; arrest of, 327 ; Gladstone's agreement with, 328 ; death of, 332- Parnell, Sir John, chancellor of the exchequer, 286. 4o8 INDEX Path of Ireland's early invaders, map, I. Patriotic Party, 254; secures the withdrawal of the patent for coin- ing money, 256, 257 ; Octennial Bill passed through efforts of, 259, 260; greatly strengthen their power under Townshend, 260 ; their determination to free their parliament from Poynings' Law, etc., 264. Pavia, map, 247, F2. Peel, Sir Robert, introduces Catho- hc Emancipation bill, 300; picUire of, 313 ; repeals Corn Laws and opens Ireland to free trade, 313. " Peep-o'-day Boys," secret society, 272. Penal Laws, 240, 241, 242-245 ; en- forcement of, 245. Perrott, Sir John, appointed lord lieutenant by Queen Elizabeth, 164; policy of, 164; arouses ha- tred of the O'Donnells by im- prisoning Hugh Roe, 165 ; di- vides Ulster into seven counties, 165. Pilltown, map, 180, D4. Pitt, William, the younger, his efforts to get Orde's Bill passed ; his attempts to remedy trade evils, 271; picture, 283; his scheme to unite the English and Irish parliaments, 2S3 ; entrusts his scheme to the secretary and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 284; brings forward Union scheme in English parliament, and is op- posed by Sherman and Foster, 286. Places mentioned in Irish history from the introduction of Chris- tianity to HOC, map, 53. Places mentioned in Irish history during the wars after 1582, map, 169. Plantations, system of, begun under Edward VI, 179; evils of, 180; first attempt at plantation in 1 547, 180 ; second attempt at planta- tion in reign of Queen Mary, iSo; failure to plant Munster, i8i ; plantation of Ulster by James I, 182, 183. Plunket, Sir Horace, head of De- partment of Agriculture, 336, Plunket, W. C, denounces " system of black corruption," 285. Poland, map, 247, Hi. Ponsonby, 263 ; speaks to the Irish parliament against the Union, 285. Poor Law Act, 305. Portmore, Hugh Roe O'Donnell seizes, 166 ; retaken by Lord Borough, 1 68 ; location, map, 169, E2. Poynings, Sir Edward, lord lieuten- ant, 139, 140. Poynings' Law, 139; its provisions, 140; results of, 140, 141. Prague, map, 247, Gi. Presbyterian meeting-house at Dun- gannon, pictjtre, 265. Presbyterians, one of the four par- ties in Ireland in 1642, 192 ; de- feated at Benburb, 196 ; side with Charles II, in 1649, -Oi ; Act of Uniformity enforced against, 210. Preston, one of the leaders in the Irish rebellion, 194; jealousy of, 198; defeated by parliamenta- rian army, 199. Protestants, their beginning under Luther, 150; established in Ire- land by Edward VI, 153; fa- vored by Charles II, 208-211; take sides against James II, 214. Protestantism, its origin, 150; im- posed on England and Ireland by Henry VIII, 151 ; enforced in Ireland by Elizabeth, 154. Puritans, one of the four parties in Ireland in the early part of the 17th century, 192. Pyramids, Irish, 5. Queen's County, organized, 154 ; outbreak in, during the Irish Re- bellion, 278; map, 180, C4. Quoyle River, 68 ; map, 53, A3. Rachlin Island, 156; map, 180, A 5. " Rackrents," 250. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 18 r. " Rapparees," 207 ; plunder Eng- lish settlers, 229. Rathmines, 201. INDEX 409 Rebellion, Hugh O'Neill's, Port- more taken, 166, 167; battle of Drumflugh, 16S ; battle of Yellow Ford, 168; height of, 170; at- tempts of Mountjoy to defeat O'Neill, 172. Rebellion, Irish, 1641-1649 ; causes, 179; plans for, 189; Owen Roe O'Neill chosen leader of, 190; outbreak of, 190; battle of Ben- burb, 196-198; end of, 198, 199. Rebellion, Irish, 1798; causes of, 269-278 ; outbreak of, 278 ; pro- gress of, in Wexford, 278-280 ; end of, 281, Ree, Lough, 107; map, 113, D3 ; map, 180, C3. Reformation, inaugurated by Mar- tin Luther, 150; Henry VIII's interest in, 150, 151 ; forced upon Ireland, 151 ; Edward VI's method of promoting, 153 ; en- forced by Queen Elizabeth, 154. Regensburg, 7nap, 247, G2. Renunciation, Act of, 267. Repeal, Act of, 267. Repeal Association, founded by O'Connell, 307. Revolution of 1688, 212. Rhine River, i7iap, 247, Fi. Riada, his conquest in Britain, 29. " Ribbonmen," 315. Richard II, lands at Waterford, 130 ; his second expedition to Ireland, 132 ; marches through Wicklow Alountains pursued by Art MacMurrogh, 132 ; returns to England, 132. Riga, map, 247, I. Roberts, \ ord Frederick, picture, 363 ; career of, 363, 364. Roche, James Jeffrey, his life of O'Reilly, 356. Rolleston, T. W., 378. Rome, tnap, 247, G3. Roscommon, one of the counties into which Connaught was di- vided in 1565, 159 ; jTiap, 180, C3. Rosen, Marshal, at Derry, 217. Ross, Major General, quotation from Cornwallis' letter to, 287. Round towers, their purpose and use,^ 70. Royalists, one of the four parties in Ireland in the early part of the 17th century, 192 ; one of the two great parties in the time of Crom- well, 201. Russell, Lord, chief justice of Eng- land, 364. Russell, George, Irish poet, 377, Russell, T. W., M. P., quotation from writing of, in regard to Irish emigration, 311, 312. St. Bernard, 121. St. Bernard Pass, tnap, 247, F2. St. Bridget, early life, 52, 53 ; founds church at Kildare, 53. St. Buite, founds school at Monas- terboice, 56. St. Columba, his birth and early education, 57 ; founds monasteries of Durrow and Kells, 57 ; dis- pute of, with St. Finnian end- ing in battle of Cooldrevin, 58 ; seeks exile in lona, 58 ; his work among the Picts, 59 ; returns to Ireland, 59 ; founds school at Drumcliff, 60; character of, 60, 61. St. Comgall, founded College of Bangor, 56. St. Dominick, 121. St. Finnian, founds school at Mo- ville, 56 ; his dispute with St. Columba, 58 ; his school at Clo- nard, 57, ^i. St. P>ancis of Assisi, 121. St. Gall Monastery, 81 ; map, 247, F2. St. Kevin, founds church and school at Glendalough, 56; house of, picture, 59. St. Kieran founds religious school at Clonmacnoise, 56. St. Patrick, his birth and training, 41 ; taken captive to Ireland and life there, 42 ; his " Confession," 42 ; returns home, 43 ; his con- verts, 44; generosity of, 45; first church, 48,- his journey to Tara, 48-50; establishes church at Ar- magh, revises the Brehon Laws, 50; death of, 52. St. Patrick's Cathedral in 1807, picttire, 321. 410 INDEX St. Patrick Island, burned by Norse- men, 67. St. Ruth, General, arrives at Limer- ick with French fleet, 230 ; placed in command over Sarsfield, 230 ; efforts of, to continue the war, 232 ; retires to Aughrim and pre- pares to resist Ginkel at Galway, 232 ; killed in battle of Aughrim, ^33' Saldanha, Duchess of, a Fitzgerald, 346. Salisbury, Lord, policy of, 329. Salzburg, map, 247, G2. Sardinia, island of, map, 247, F3. Sarsfield, Patrick, 215, 223; captures William's siege-guns, 225, 226; picture, 226; commands cavalry at battle of Aughrim, 233 ; Limerick under command of, 233 ; returns to France, 235 ; made a field- marshal, 340; killed at battle of Landen, 340. Saxony, map, 247, Gi. Schism Act, 244. Schomberg, Duke of, lands at Ban- gor with army, 219; takes Car- rickfergus, 219; follows Jacobites to Dundalk and encamps, 219; suffering in his camp, 219; takes Fort Charlemont, 220; killed at the battle of the Boyne, 222. Schomberg, the younger, 221, 222. Schools, in Ireland, 55-63 ; in Scot- land, 62; many destroyed by Norsemen, 68; condition of, 81- 86; system of national schools inaugurated, 303, 304. Scotland, foundation of, 63; map, 247. D. Scroope, Sir Stephen, 133. Secret Societies, " Whiteboys," " Camisards," " Hearts of Oak," "Hearts of Steel," 251; "Dis- coverers," 184 ; " Wreckers," "Peep-o'-Day Boys," 272; "De- fenders," "Orangemen," 276; " Ribbonmen," 315; "Moon Lighters," " Invincibles," 328. Sedan, 343 ; map, 247, E2. " Servitors," receive a portion of Ulster from James I, 182. Settlement, Act of, 208; James II attempts to repeal, 211. Settlers' houses in the Ulster Plan- tation, picture, 182. Shannon River, 235 ; map, 53, B2 ; map, 180, C3. Sheil, Richard Lalor, picture, 298 ; aids O'Connell in forming Cath- olic Association, 298 ; efforts of, to have parliament abolish tithe system, 306. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 373, 374- Sherman, opposes Pitt in English House of Commons, 286. Ships relieving Richard II's army on the Wicklow coast, picture, 131- Shrine of St. Patrick's ^t\\,ptcture, 48. Sicily, map, 247, G4. Sigerson, Dora, 378. Sigerson, George, 378. " Silken Thomas." See Kildare, tenth Earl of. Sixth of George I, 255. Skiffington, Sir William, 145 ; re- appointed lord lieutenant, 147 ; takes Maynooth, 147 ; appointed to represent Henry VIII as su- preme head of the church in Ire- land, 151. Skreen, hill of, 33 ; map, 53, B3, Slane, hill of, 49; map, 53, B3; map, 169, E3. Slaney River, map, 180, D5. Slemi'sh Mts., 118; map, 113 E2. Slieve Felim Mts., 7nap, 169, C4. Slieve Mish, St. Patrick a captive in the woods of, 42 ; 7nap, 53, A3. Sligo, surrenders to Ginkel, 233 ; lo- cation, map, 53, A2; map, 169, C2. Sligo Bay, map, t8o, B3. Sligo County, one of the counties into which Connaught was di- vided in 1565, 159; location, map, 113, C2 ; map, 180, B3. Smerwick Harbor, 71 ; map, 53, Bi. Solmes, Count, left in command of army by William, 228 ; Kinsale and Cork surrendered to, 22S. Southern Mag Tured, battle of, 3 ; 7nap, 29, B54. Spain, Irish in, 334, 335. Spear H.ea.d, picture, 39. INDEX 411 vSpencer, Earl, goes to Ireland as lord lieutenant, 328. Spenser, Edmund, 181. Stark, General John, 351. Statute of Kilkenny, 128, 129. Stephens, Fenian leader, 318 ; starts newspaper, 319 ; captured but escapes to France, 320. Sterne, Laurence, 370. Stirling, map, 247, D. Stokes, Whitley, 379. Strafford, Earl of, going to execu- tion, /zV/7/7Y, 187. aS>^ Wentvvorth, Thomas. Strangford Lough, map, 53, A4. " Strongbow." See De Clare, Rich- ard. Suir River, map, 180, D4. Sulcoit, Norsemen defeated by Brian Boru at, 72 ; map, 53, B2. Sullivan, Sir Arthur, 364. Sullivan, Major John, storms Fort William and Mary, 350. Sully, map, 247, E2, Summerhill, map, 169, E3. Supremacy, act of, in England and Ireland, 151 ; renewed under Queen Elizabeth, 154; revival of, in reign of James I, iSi. Surnames, Irish, 3S0-389. Surrey, Earl of, made lord lieuten- ant, 144; resigns, 144. Sustentation Fund, provided for the Protestant Episcopal Church when disestablished, 322. Sweden, map, 247, G. Swift, Jonathan, leader of the Patri- otic party, 255; picture, 256; works of, 370. Swilly, Lough, map, 180, A4. Swilly River, 116; map, 113, D2 ; map, 180, B4. Switzerland, map, 247, F2. Sword and spear head, //V/z/r^, 23. Sydney, Lord, calls parliament of 1692, 237 ; summoned to Eng- land, 240. Sydney, Sir Henry, lord lieutenant, his expedition through Munster, 160. Taafe, Count, 346. Tailten, De Dananns defeated by Milesians at, 10; map, 29, C2. Talbot, Sir John, 134. Talbot, Richard. See Tyrconnell, Earl of. Talbot, Honorable Thomas, career of, 366. Tara, 28 ; plan of, map, 31 ; court of, 32; hill oi, picture, 35'; St. Patrick preaches at, 48, 49 ; loca- tion, 17lClp, 29, C2. Tarentum, map^ 247, H3. Teeling, Bartholomew, 281. "Tenants' League," formation and demands of, 316. Test Act, 244. " The Nation," newspaper founded in 1S42, 308. Thomond, Count, commander at Languedoc, 346. Thomond, 87 ; map, 113, C4. Thompson, General William, 351, Three Rocks, 279; map, 169, E4. Thurles, Strongbow defeated at, 103; map, 113, D4. Tigearnac, his Latin history of Ire- land, 89. Tipperary, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112; location, map, 113, C4 ; map, 180, D4. Tireogain (Tyrone or Tirowen), viap, 1 13, D2. Tithes, system of, 153 ; enforced in 1750, 250; collectors of, 272; struggle over, 305, 306; trans- ferred from tenant to landlord, in 1838, 306. Tone, Theobald Wolfe, condemns revolutionary societies, 270 ; pic- ture, 273 ; founds society of " United Irishmen," 273 ; com- mits suicide, 281. Tone, Matthew, 281. " Tories," 207. Torque of gold, picture, 15. Tower of London, id^ \ picture , 109. Townshend, lord lieutenant, 260, forced to resign, 260. Tralee, 36 ; map, 29, B2. Trim, surrenders to Cromwell, 203 ; map, 169, E3, Trinity College, receives grant of land, 183. Tuam, seat of one of the four arch- bishops, 92; map, 113, C3. 412 INDEX Tuatal, grandson of Cairbre, high king for eleven years, 63. Tuatal the Legitimate, 27 ; imposes Boruma tribute on kings of Lein- ster, 28. Turin, map, 247, F2. Tynan, Katherine, 378. Tyndall, John, 369. Tyrconnell, Hugh O'Donnell, Chief of, defeats Shane O'Neill, 159. Tyrconnell, Hugh Roe O'Donnell, Earl of, imprisoned by Perrott, but escapes, 165; seizes Port- more, 166; defeats Sir Conyers Clifford in the battle of " The Yellow Pass," 171 ; sets out to meet the Spaniards and is inter- cepted by Carew, 173; besieges Mountjoy at Kinsale but is put to flight, 174; goes to Spain for aid and dies there, 175. Tyrconnell, Richard Talbot, Earl of, made earl by James II, 211 ; appointed lord lieutenant, 211; tries to strengthen James II's position in Ireland, 213, 214; welcomes James II to Ireland, 215; duplicity of, 223; retires to Galway with troops, 225 ; follows James II to France, 228; picture, 229 ; returns to Ireland, 230, evi- dence of his duplicity, 230 ; death of, 233. Tyrconnell, Rory O'Donnell, Earl of, son of Hugh Roe, comes to terms with Elizabeth, 177 ; re- ceives title of earl, 178; flees to continent, 179 ; death of, 179. Tyrell's Pass, 168 ; fnap, 169, D3. Tyrone, one of the seven counties into which Perrott divided Ulster, 165 ; map, 180, B4. Tyrone, Conn O'Neill, Earl of, head of first Geraldine League, 148; made earl by Henry VIH, 152; enticed to Dublin and im- prisoned, 155 ; dies in captivity, 156. Tyrone, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of, son of Matthew, early career and du- plicity of, 165, 166; picture, 166; attacks English at Cavan, 166; besieges Monaghan, 167; defeats Borough at battle of Drnmflngh, 168 ; attempts to take Portmore, 168 ; position of his army at Yel- low P'ord, 168, 169; English army routed by, 170; Earl of Essex sent against, 171; plan formed to de- feat, 172 ; sets out to meet Span- ish army, 173; besieges Mountjoy at Kinsale, but is obliged to retreat, 174 ; decides to close the struggle, 176, 177; receives Eng- lish title of earl, 178 ; flees to continent, 179 • death, 179. Tyrone, Shane O'Neill, Earl of, son of Conn O'Neill, struggles with his brother Matthew for fa- ther's titles, 155, 156; his auto- graph, 155; elected on the death of his father and Matthew, 156, struggles for title with allies of Matthew's son, and gains control of all Ulster, 156, 157 ; called to England and cordially received by Queen Elizabeth, 157; forced to sign severe conditions, returns to Ireland and again takes up arms, 158; his right to bear his title admitted by Queen Eliza- beth, 1 58 ; makes war on the Mac- Donnells, and is at first success- ful, 1 58 ; defeat and death of, 1 59 ; reputation of, 159. Ulster, one of the four early king- doms, 28 ; condition of, in the I2th century, 116; divided into seven counties by Perrott, 165 ; devastated by Mountjoy and Carew, 176; plantation of, by James I, 182, 183 ; devastated by Cromwell, 203, 204 ; a Protestant centre in 1688, 213; location, w«/, 29, Ci ; map, 180, B4, B5. " Undertakers," 179 ; lands of O'Moore and O'Conor confis- cated and given to, 180 ; procla- mation made by Elizabeth con- cerning, iSi ; portion of Ulster given to, by James I, 182. Uniformity, Act of, its requirements, 1 54 ; revival of, in reign of James I, 181. Union, Act of, conceived by William Pitt, 283 ; presented to Irish Par- liament by Cornwallis, 285 ; de- INDEX 413 feated by Irish parliament, 285, 286 ; presented to English parlia- ment by Pitt, 286; passed by the Irish parliament, 289 ; provisions of, 290 ; results of, 291 ; efforts to repeal, 307. " United Irishmen," objects of, 273 ; insurrections of, 276 ; two com- mittees of, arrested in Belfast, 277 ; leaders of, betrayed and arrested, 277, 278. Venables, Colonel, Parliamentarian leader, 204. Venice, map, 247, G2. Vinegar Hill, one of the camps of the Irish rebels in 1798, 278; bat- tle of, 280 ; location, map, 169, Ei. Volunteers, armed to protect Ire- land against invasion, 262, 263 ; attempt to secure f --ee trade, 263 ; growth of, 265; pass thirteen re- solutions at the convention at Dungannon, 266 ; convention of, in Rotunda at Dublin, 270 ; effect of the rejection of Flood's reform bill on, 270, 271. Wales, map, 247, Di. Wars of Meath and Kildare, 115. Wars of the Roses, effect of, on Ireland, 135. Waterford, landing of Richard II at, 130; location, map, 53, B3 ; map, 169, D4 ; map, 180, D4. Waterford County, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112; map, 180, D4. Wayne, Anthony, //r/«r(?, 350; life of, 350, 351. Wellesley. See Mornington, Earl of, and Wellington, Duke of. Wellesley, Richard, Marquis of, life of, 360. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, favors Catholic emancipation, 300; career of, 361 ; picture, 361. Wentworth, Thomas, lord lieuten- ant, 185 ; calls a parliament to ratify the "Graces," 186; confis- cates Connaught and Munster, 186 ; drills and arms Irish Cath- olics, 187 ; destroys wool trade and introduces linen manufacture, 187 ; recalled to London and be- headed, 1S8. West Meath, one of the counties into which Henry VIII divided Meath, 152; location, map, 180, C4. Wexford, attacked by Dermot Mac- Murrogh, 97 ; taken by Crom- well, 203; desertion of, 279; lo- cation, map, 53, B3 ; map, 180, D5. Wexford County, one of the twelve counties into which King John divided Ireland, 112; outbreak in, during the Irish Rebellion, 278; location, map, 180, D5. Whately, Archbishop, his report on the poverty of the Irish people, 304- " Whig club," 273. " Whiteboys," 251, 272. White, General Sir George, 364. Wicklow County, outbreak during the Irish rebellion, 278 ; map, 180, Wicklow Mountains, map, 180, C5. Wicklow gold mines, 15 ; map, 29, C2. William, Prince of Orange, lands in Devonshire to take possession of the English throne, 212; claim to the throne, 213; attitude of Irish toward, 213; Derry pro- claims allegiance to, 214 ; sends supplies and soldiers to Derry, 215; sends the Duke of Schoni- berg to Ireland with an army, 219; goes to Ireland, 220 ; pensions Nonconformist ministers, 220 ; defeats James II in the battle of the Boyne, 220-222 ; proclama- tion of, 223 ; attacks Athlone, 223 ; besieges Limerick, and is obliged to retreat, 225-228 ; re- turns to England, 228 ; leaves Ginkel and Count Solmes in com- mand, 228 ; ratifies treaty of Lim- erick, 235 ; makes Ginkel earl of Athlone, 236; rewards followers with grants of land, 236, 237. William at the battle of the Boyne, picture, 221. 414 INDEX Williams, Captain, commander of English soldiers at Portmore, 1 68; capitulates and withdraws to Dundalk, 170. 'Windsor, map, 247, Di. Wolseley, Sir Garnet, afterwards Viscount, career of, 364. Wolsey, Cardinal, enemy of the ninth Earl' of Kildare, 143; suggests Surrey for lord lieutenant, 145; secures the overthrow of Kildare, 145- " Wreckers," Protestant secret so- ciety, 272 ; insurrections of, 276. Wyndham, George, chief secretary for Ireland, 334 ; parliament passes Land Purchase Act of, 334; 335- Wyse, Mr., helps in the formation of the Catholic committee in 1757, 258. Yeats, William Butler, 376, 377. Yellow Ford, The (At Boy), battle of, 168; 7Ha/>, 169, E2. " Yellow Pass, The," battle of, 171. Yelverton, 265. York, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of, lord lieutenant of Ireland, 134. Youghal, College of, 135; map, 169, D5; map, 180, E4. "Young Ireland Party," 308, 309. Electrotyped and printed by H. O. Houghton ^r' Co. Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A. Date Due ^A'-|5'3b ^ 1 i ^ tSUilUIN t/UL 3 9031 01213167 8 44471 i)/3 9Vj,J-'75 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. 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